UNIVERSE
that is made of an infinite amount of
space, matter and time.
[1] note
Hubble_ultra_deep_field_high_rez_edit1
is much larger [2] Hubble ultra deep
field high rez
edit1_small.jpg Deutsch: Das Hubble
Ultra Deep Field ist ein Bild einer
kleinen Himmelsregion aufgenommen vom
Hubble-Weltraumteleskop über einen
Zeitraum vom 3. September 2003 bis 16.
Januar 2004. Dabei wurde eine
Himmelsregion ausgewählt, die kaum
störende helle Sterne im Vordergrund
enthält. Man entschied sich für ein
Zielgebiet südwestlich von Orion im
Sternbild Chemischer Ofen. English:
The Hubble Ultra Deep Field, is an
image of a small region of space in the
constellation Fornax, composited from
Hubble Space Telescope data accumulated
over a period from September 3, 2003
through January 16, 2004. The patch of
sky in which the galaxies reside was
chosen because it had a low density of
bright stars in the
near-field. Español: El Campo Ultra
Profundo del Hubble, es una imagen de
una pequeña región del espacio en la
constelación Fornax, compuesta de
datos obtenidos por el telescopio
espacial Hubble durante el período
entre el 3 de Septiembre de 2003 y el
16 de Enero de 2004. Esta parte del
cielo fue escogida por su baja densidad
de estrellas brillantes en sus
proximidades. Français : Le champ
ultra profond de Hubble, une image
d'une petite portion du ciel dans la
constellation du Fourneau, prise par le
télescope spatial Hubble du 3
septembre 2003 au 16 juillet 2004. La
portion de ciel a été choisie car
elle possède peu d'étoiles brillantes
proches. Date 2003-09-03 -
2004-01-16 Source
http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/ar
chive/releases/2004/07/image/a/warn/ Au
thor NASA and the European Space
Agency. Edited by Noodle snacks PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0d/Hubble_ultra_deep_fie
ld_high_rez_edit1.jpg
[1] note
Hubble_ultra_deep_field_high_rez_edit1
is much larger [2] Hubble ultra deep
field high rez
edit1_small.jpg Deutsch: Das Hubble
Ultra Deep Field ist ein Bild einer
kleinen Himmelsregion aufgenommen vom
Hubble-Weltraumteleskop über einen
Zeitraum vom 3. September 2003 bis 16.
Januar 2004. Dabei wurde eine
Himmelsregion ausgewählt, die kaum
störende helle Sterne im Vordergrund
enthält. Man entschied sich für ein
Zielgebiet südwestlich von Orion im
Sternbild Chemischer Ofen. English:
The Hubble Ultra Deep Field, is an
image of a small region of space in the
constellation Fornax, composited from
Hubble Space Telescope data accumulated
over a period from September 3, 2003
through January 16, 2004. The patch of
sky in which the galaxies reside was
chosen because it had a low density of
bright stars in the
near-field. Español: El Campo Ultra
Profundo del Hubble, es una imagen de
una pequeña región del espacio en la
constelación Fornax, compuesta de
datos obtenidos por el telescopio
espacial Hubble durante el período
entre el 3 de Septiembre de 2003 y el
16 de Enero de 2004. Esta parte del
cielo fue escogida por su baja densidad
de estrellas brillantes en sus
proximidades. Français : Le champ
ultra profond de Hubble, une image
d'une petite portion du ciel dans la
constellation du Fourneau, prise par le
télescope spatial Hubble du 3
septembre 2003 au 16 juillet 2004. La
portion de ciel a été choisie car
elle possède peu d'étoiles brillantes
proches. Date 2003-09-03 -
2004-01-16 Source
http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/ar
chive/releases/2004/07/image/a/warn/ Au
thor NASA and the European Space
Agency. Edited by Noodle snacks PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0d/Hubble_ultra_deep_fie
ld_high_rez_edit1.jpg
light. Light particles are the base
unit of all matter from the tiniest
particles to the largest galaxies. In
this sense light particles are the most
basic atoms.
The basic order of matter from smaller
to larger is light particles, electrons
and positrons, muons, protons and
antiprotons, atoms, molecules, living
objects, planets, stars, globular
clusters, galaxies, and then galactic
clusters.
[1] note
Hubble_ultra_deep_field_high_rez_edit1
is much larger [2] Hubble ultra deep
field high rez
edit1_small.jpg Deutsch: Das Hubble
Ultra Deep Field ist ein Bild einer
kleinen Himmelsregion aufgenommen vom
Hubble-Weltraumteleskop über einen
Zeitraum vom 3. September 2003 bis 16.
Januar 2004. Dabei wurde eine
Himmelsregion ausgewählt, die kaum
störende helle Sterne im Vordergrund
enthält. Man entschied sich für ein
Zielgebiet südwestlich von Orion im
Sternbild Chemischer Ofen. English:
The Hubble Ultra Deep Field, is an
image of a small region of space in the
constellation Fornax, composited from
Hubble Space Telescope data accumulated
over a period from September 3, 2003
through January 16, 2004. The patch of
sky in which the galaxies reside was
chosen because it had a low density of
bright stars in the
near-field. Español: El Campo Ultra
Profundo del Hubble, es una imagen de
una pequeña región del espacio en la
constelación Fornax, compuesta de
datos obtenidos por el telescopio
espacial Hubble durante el período
entre el 3 de Septiembre de 2003 y el
16 de Enero de 2004. Esta parte del
cielo fue escogida por su baja densidad
de estrellas brillantes en sus
proximidades. Français : Le champ
ultra profond de Hubble, une image
d'une petite portion du ciel dans la
constellation du Fourneau, prise par le
télescope spatial Hubble du 3
septembre 2003 au 16 juillet 2004. La
portion de ciel a été choisie car
elle possède peu d'étoiles brillantes
proches. Date 2003-09-03 -
2004-01-16 Source
http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/ar
chive/releases/2004/07/image/a/warn/ Au
thor NASA and the European Space
Agency. Edited by Noodle snacks PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0d/Hubble_ultra_deep_fie
ld_high_rez_edit1.jpg
The same light particles that have
always been, continue to move in the
space that has always been.
[1] note
Hubble_ultra_deep_field_high_rez_edit1
is much larger [2] Hubble ultra deep
field high rez
edit1_small.jpg Deutsch: Das Hubble
Ultra Deep Field ist ein Bild einer
kleinen Himmelsregion aufgenommen vom
Hubble-Weltraumteleskop über einen
Zeitraum vom 3. September 2003 bis 16.
Januar 2004. Dabei wurde eine
Himmelsregion ausgewählt, die kaum
störende helle Sterne im Vordergrund
enthält. Man entschied sich für ein
Zielgebiet südwestlich von Orion im
Sternbild Chemischer Ofen. English:
The Hubble Ultra Deep Field, is an
image of a small region of space in the
constellation Fornax, composited from
Hubble Space Telescope data accumulated
over a period from September 3, 2003
through January 16, 2004. The patch of
sky in which the galaxies reside was
chosen because it had a low density of
bright stars in the
near-field. Español: El Campo Ultra
Profundo del Hubble, es una imagen de
una pequeña región del espacio en la
constelación Fornax, compuesta de
datos obtenidos por el telescopio
espacial Hubble durante el período
entre el 3 de Septiembre de 2003 y el
16 de Enero de 2004. Esta parte del
cielo fue escogida por su baja densidad
de estrellas brillantes en sus
proximidades. Français : Le champ
ultra profond de Hubble, une image
d'une petite portion du ciel dans la
constellation du Fourneau, prise par le
télescope spatial Hubble du 3
septembre 2003 au 16 juillet 2004. La
portion de ciel a été choisie car
elle possède peu d'étoiles brillantes
proches. Date 2003-09-03 -
2004-01-16 Source
http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/ar
chive/releases/2004/07/image/a/warn/ Au
thor NASA and the European Space
Agency. Edited by Noodle snacks PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0d/Hubble_ultra_deep_fie
ld_high_rez_edit1.jpg
created or destroyed. Matter can never
be converted into motion, and motion
can never be converted into matter.
[1] note
Hubble_ultra_deep_field_high_rez_edit1
is much larger [2] Hubble ultra deep
field high rez
edit1_small.jpg Deutsch: Das Hubble
Ultra Deep Field ist ein Bild einer
kleinen Himmelsregion aufgenommen vom
Hubble-Weltraumteleskop über einen
Zeitraum vom 3. September 2003 bis 16.
Januar 2004. Dabei wurde eine
Himmelsregion ausgewählt, die kaum
störende helle Sterne im Vordergrund
enthält. Man entschied sich für ein
Zielgebiet südwestlich von Orion im
Sternbild Chemischer Ofen. English:
The Hubble Ultra Deep Field, is an
image of a small region of space in the
constellation Fornax, composited from
Hubble Space Telescope data accumulated
over a period from September 3, 2003
through January 16, 2004. The patch of
sky in which the galaxies reside was
chosen because it had a low density of
bright stars in the
near-field. Español: El Campo Ultra
Profundo del Hubble, es una imagen de
una pequeña región del espacio en la
constelación Fornax, compuesta de
datos obtenidos por el telescopio
espacial Hubble durante el período
entre el 3 de Septiembre de 2003 y el
16 de Enero de 2004. Esta parte del
cielo fue escogida por su baja densidad
de estrellas brillantes en sus
proximidades. Français : Le champ
ultra profond de Hubble, une image
d'une petite portion du ciel dans la
constellation du Fourneau, prise par le
télescope spatial Hubble du 3
septembre 2003 au 16 juillet 2004. La
portion de ciel a été choisie car
elle possède peu d'étoiles brillantes
proches. Date 2003-09-03 -
2004-01-16 Source
http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/ar
chive/releases/2004/07/image/a/warn/ Au
thor NASA and the European Space
Agency. Edited by Noodle snacks PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0d/Hubble_ultra_deep_fie
ld_high_rez_edit1.jpg
each other and so form structures such
as protons, atoms, molecules, planets,
stars, galaxies, and clusters of
galaxies.
This accumulation of light particles
into atoms may be the result of
particle collision, gravitation, or a
combination of both.
[1] note
Hubble_ultra_deep_field_high_rez_edit1
is much larger [2] Hubble ultra deep
field high rez
edit1_small.jpg Deutsch: Das Hubble
Ultra Deep Field ist ein Bild einer
kleinen Himmelsregion aufgenommen vom
Hubble-Weltraumteleskop über einen
Zeitraum vom 3. September 2003 bis 16.
Januar 2004. Dabei wurde eine
Himmelsregion ausgewählt, die kaum
störende helle Sterne im Vordergrund
enthält. Man entschied sich für ein
Zielgebiet südwestlich von Orion im
Sternbild Chemischer Ofen. English:
The Hubble Ultra Deep Field, is an
image of a small region of space in the
constellation Fornax, composited from
Hubble Space Telescope data accumulated
over a period from September 3, 2003
through January 16, 2004. The patch of
sky in which the galaxies reside was
chosen because it had a low density of
bright stars in the
near-field. Español: El Campo Ultra
Profundo del Hubble, es una imagen de
una pequeña región del espacio en la
constelación Fornax, compuesta de
datos obtenidos por el telescopio
espacial Hubble durante el período
entre el 3 de Septiembre de 2003 y el
16 de Enero de 2004. Esta parte del
cielo fue escogida por su baja densidad
de estrellas brillantes en sus
proximidades. Français : Le champ
ultra profond de Hubble, une image
d'une petite portion du ciel dans la
constellation du Fourneau, prise par le
télescope spatial Hubble du 3
septembre 2003 au 16 juillet 2004. La
portion de ciel a été choisie car
elle possède peu d'étoiles brillantes
proches. Date 2003-09-03 -
2004-01-16 Source
http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/ar
chive/releases/2004/07/image/a/warn/ Au
thor NASA and the European Space
Agency. Edited by Noodle snacks PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0d/Hubble_ultra_deep_fie
ld_high_rez_edit1.jpg
see are only a tiny part of the
universe. We will never see most of the
universe because no light particles
from there can ever reach us.
Most galaxies are too far away for even
one particle of light they emit to be
going in the exact direction of our
tiny location, and all the light
particles they emit are captured by
atoms in between there and here.
As telescopes grow larger, the number
of galaxies and the distance we can see
will increase.
[1] note
Hubble_ultra_deep_field_high_rez_edit1
is much larger [2] Hubble ultra deep
field high rez
edit1_small.jpg Deutsch: Das Hubble
Ultra Deep Field ist ein Bild einer
kleinen Himmelsregion aufgenommen vom
Hubble-Weltraumteleskop über einen
Zeitraum vom 3. September 2003 bis 16.
Januar 2004. Dabei wurde eine
Himmelsregion ausgewählt, die kaum
störende helle Sterne im Vordergrund
enthält. Man entschied sich für ein
Zielgebiet südwestlich von Orion im
Sternbild Chemischer Ofen. English:
The Hubble Ultra Deep Field, is an
image of a small region of space in the
constellation Fornax, composited from
Hubble Space Telescope data accumulated
over a period from September 3, 2003
through January 16, 2004. The patch of
sky in which the galaxies reside was
chosen because it had a low density of
bright stars in the
near-field. Español: El Campo Ultra
Profundo del Hubble, es una imagen de
una pequeña región del espacio en la
constelación Fornax, compuesta de
datos obtenidos por el telescopio
espacial Hubble durante el período
entre el 3 de Septiembre de 2003 y el
16 de Enero de 2004. Esta parte del
cielo fue escogida por su baja densidad
de estrellas brillantes en sus
proximidades. Français : Le champ
ultra profond de Hubble, une image
d'une petite portion du ciel dans la
constellation du Fourneau, prise par le
télescope spatial Hubble du 3
septembre 2003 au 16 juillet 2004. La
portion de ciel a été choisie car
elle possède peu d'étoiles brillantes
proches. Date 2003-09-03 -
2004-01-16 Source
http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/ar
chive/releases/2004/07/image/a/warn/ Au
thor NASA and the European Space
Agency. Edited by Noodle snacks PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0d/Hubble_ultra_deep_fie
ld_high_rez_edit1.jpg
Light particles move from highly dense
volumes of space to volumes of less
density. In low density volumes, light
particles slowly accumulate to form
atoms of Hydrogen and Helium which
exist as gas clouds (like the
Magellanic Clouds or Orion nebula).
These gas clouds, called nebulae
continue to accumulate trapped light
particles. At points of high density
planets and stars form and the cloud is
eventually dense enough to become a
galaxy of stars. The stars emit light
particles back out to the rest of the
universe, where the light again becomes
trapped and forms new clouds. Around
each star are many planets and pieces
of matter. On many of the planets
rotating around stars, living objects
evolve that can copy themselves by
converting matter around them into more
of them. Living objects need matter to
replace matter lost from the constant
emitting of light particles (decay).
Like bacteria, these living objects
grow in number, with the most
successful organisms occupying and
moving around many stars. These
advanced organisms then move the groups
of stars they control, as a globular
cluster, away from the plane of the
spiral galaxy. As time continues, all
of the stars of a galaxy are occupied
by living objects who have organized
their stars into globular clusters.
These globular clusters together form
an elliptical galaxy, and then finally
a globular galaxy. The globular galaxy
may then exist for a long time living
off the matter in stars, in addition to
matter from external sources.
So free light particles are trapped
into volumes of space that grow in
density first forming atoms, then gas
clouds, then stars, a spiral galaxy, an
elliptical galaxy, and finally a
globular galaxy.
Globular galaxies at our scale may be
light particles at a much larger scale,
just as light particles at our scale
may be globular galaxies at a much
smaller scale. This system may go on
infinitely in both larger and smaller
scale.
[1] note
Hubble_ultra_deep_field_high_rez_edit1
is much larger Hubble ultra deep
field high rez
edit1_small.jpg Deutsch: Das Hubble
Ultra Deep Field ist ein Bild einer
kleinen Himmelsregion aufgenommen vom
Hubble-Weltraumteleskop über einen
Zeitraum vom 3. September 2003 bis 16.
Januar 2004. Dabei wurde eine
Himmelsregion ausgewählt, die kaum
störende helle Sterne im Vordergrund
enthält. Man entschied sich für ein
Zielgebiet südwestlich von Orion im
Sternbild Chemischer Ofen. English:
The Hubble Ultra Deep Field, is an
image of a small region of space in the
constellation Fornax, composited from
Hubble Space Telescope data accumulated
over a period from September 3, 2003
through January 16, 2004. The patch of
sky in which the galaxies reside was
chosen because it had a low density of
bright stars in the
near-field. Español: El Campo Ultra
Profundo del Hubble, es una imagen de
una pequeña región del espacio en la
constelación Fornax, compuesta de
datos obtenidos por el telescopio
espacial Hubble durante el período
entre el 3 de Septiembre de 2003 y el
16 de Enero de 2004. Esta parte del
cielo fue escogida por su baja densidad
de estrellas brillantes en sus
proximidades. Français : Le champ
ultra profond de Hubble, une image
d'une petite portion du ciel dans la
constellation du Fourneau, prise par le
télescope spatial Hubble du 3
septembre 2003 au 16 juillet 2004. La
portion de ciel a été choisie car
elle possède peu d'étoiles brillantes
proches. Date 2003-09-03 -
2004-01-16 Source
http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/ar
chive/releases/2004/07/image/a/warn/ Au
thor NASA and the European Space
Agency. Edited by Noodle snacks PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0d/Hubble_ultra_deep_fie
ld_high_rez_edit1.jpg
[2] LDN 1622: Dark Nebula in
Orion Data: Digitized Sky Survey
(POSS-II), Color Composite: Noel
Carboni Explanation: The silhouette
of an intriguing dark nebula inhabits
this cosmic scene, based on images from
the Palomar Observatory Sky Survey.
Lynds' Dark Nebula (LDN) 1622 appears
against a faint background of glowing
hydrogen gas only easily seen in long
telescopic exposures of the region. LDN
1622 lies near the plane of our Milky
Way Galaxy, close on the sky to
Barnard's Loop - a large cloud
surrounding the rich complex of
emission nebulae found in the Belt and
Sword of Orion. But the obscuring dust
of LDN 1622 is thought to be much
closer than Orion's more famous
nebulae, perhaps only 500 light-years
away. At that distance, this 1 degree
wide field of view would span less than
10 light-years. PD
source: http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/image/
0705/ldn1622_carboni.jpg
to me. The supposed red-shifted calcium
absorption lines may be a mistaken
observation, for one reason because
spectrum size changes the position of
spectral lines (as clearly shown in the
1936 Humason photo), and because the
distance of a light source changes the
position, but not the frequency of
spectral lines.
[1] Image of a spectral line shift from
a close and distant fluorescent
lamp. GNU
source: Ted Huntington
[2] The simple trigonometry that shows
that two light sources at different
distances cannot achieve the same angle
at the same location on a horizontal
diffraction grating. GNU
source: Ted Huntington
LIFE
form.
Galaxies may form from accumulation of
light particles and from the collision
of two or more galaxies.
If a galaxy is viewed as an exponential
accumulation of light particles
starting from a single light particle
up until 500 billion stars, only in the
last 16% of that time would a galaxy
have enough matter for even a single
star.
[1] Description This image is
mosaic of multiple shots on
large-format film. It comprises all 360
degrees of the galaxy from our vantage.
Photography was done in Ft. Davis,
Texas for the Northern hemisphere shots
and from Broken Hill, New South Wales,
Australia, for the southern portions.
Note the dust lanes, which obscure our
view of some features beyond them.
Infrared imaging reaches into these
regions, and radio astronomy can look
all the way through with less detail.
The very center, however, shows a
window to the farther side. In the
center, stars are mostly very old and
this causes the more yellow color. The
final file is 1.5GB, and resolves
details of less than one arcminute.
Faintest stars are magnitude 11. There
are 21 pixels of horizontal overlap at
the ends, with the right end slightly
brighter than the corresponding pixels
on the left. Date Source
http://www.digitalskyllc.com (The
image was uploaded to en.wiki at 17:16,
21 September 2006 by Twtunes. Author
Digital Sky LLC CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0a/Milkyway_pan1.jpg
[2] note
Hubble_ultra_deep_field_high_rez_edit1
is much larger [2] Hubble ultra deep
field high rez
edit1_small.jpg Deutsch: Das Hubble
Ultra Deep Field ist ein Bild einer
kleinen Himmelsregion aufgenommen vom
Hubble-Weltraumteleskop über einen
Zeitraum vom 3. September 2003 bis 16.
Januar 2004. Dabei wurde eine
Himmelsregion ausgewählt, die kaum
störende helle Sterne im Vordergrund
enthält. Man entschied sich für ein
Zielgebiet südwestlich von Orion im
Sternbild Chemischer Ofen. English:
The Hubble Ultra Deep Field, is an
image of a small region of space in the
constellation Fornax, composited from
Hubble Space Telescope data accumulated
over a period from September 3, 2003
through January 16, 2004. The patch of
sky in which the galaxies reside was
chosen because it had a low density of
bright stars in the
near-field. Español: El Campo Ultra
Profundo del Hubble, es una imagen de
una pequeña región del espacio en la
constelación Fornax, compuesta de
datos obtenidos por el telescopio
espacial Hubble durante el período
entre el 3 de Septiembre de 2003 y el
16 de Enero de 2004. Esta parte del
cielo fue escogida por su baja densidad
de estrellas brillantes en sus
proximidades. Français : Le champ
ultra profond de Hubble, une image
d'une petite portion du ciel dans la
constellation du Fourneau, prise par le
télescope spatial Hubble du 3
septembre 2003 au 16 juillet 2004. La
portion de ciel a été choisie car
elle possède peu d'étoiles brillantes
proches. Date 2003-09-03 -
2004-01-16 Source
http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/ar
chive/releases/2004/07/image/a/warn/ Au
thor NASA and the European Space
Agency. Edited by Noodle snacks PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0d/Hubble_ultra_deep_fie
ld_high_rez_edit1.jpg
Galaxy forms.
Stars may form from the accumulation of
matter or from collisions of two or
more large bodies. As time goes by,
less collisions occur around a star,
because most smaller objects are
absorbed by the star and planets.
Stars and planets may have centers of
densely packed unmoving light
particles. The less dense and colder
area near the surface of planets and
stars may allow atoms and molecules to
form and stay together. Many light
particles must move through the
internal maze of matter inside planets
and stars to eventually reach the
surface and escape into empty space.
[1] Description English: M8 Lagoon
Nebula in Sagittarius Date 26 June
2009 Source Own
work Author Hewholooks CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2f/M8HunterWilson.jpg
[2] NGC 7023: The Iris Nebula Credit
& Copyright: Daniel López,
IAC Explanation: Like delicate cosmic
petals, these clouds of interstellar
dust and gas have blossomed 1,300
light-years away in the fertile star
fields of the constellation Cepheus.
Sometimes called the Iris Nebula and
dutifully cataloged as NGC 7023, this
is not the only nebula in the sky to
evoke the imagery of flowers. Still,
this beautiful digital image shows off
the Iris Nebula's range of colors and
symmetries in impressive detail. Within
the Iris, dusty nebular material
surrounds a hot, young star. The
dominant color of the brighter
reflection nebula is blue,
characteristic of dust grains
reflecting starlight. Central filaments
of the dusty clouds glow with a faint
reddish photoluminesence as some dust
grains effectively convert the star's
invisible ultraviolet radiation to
visible red light. Infrared
observations indicate that this nebula
may contain complex carbon molecules
known as PAHs. As shown here, the
bright blue portion of the Iris Nebula
is about six light-years across. PD
source: http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/image/
1011/IRIS_IAC80_DLopez900c.jpg
Galaxy reach another star using a ship,
perhaps 5 billion years after the first
stars formed.
[1] close up
of: Description English: M8 Lagoon
Nebula in Sagittarius Date 26 June
2009 Source Own
work Author Hewholooks CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2f/M8HunterWilson.jpg
[2] Description The photograph,
taken by NASA's Hubble Space Telescope,
captures a small region within M17, a
hotbed of star formation. M17, also
known as the Omega or Swan Nebula, is
located about 5500 light-years away in
the constellation Sagittarius. The
wave-like patterns of gas have been
sculpted and illuminated by a torrent
of ultraviolet radiation from young,
massive stars, which lie outside the
picture to the upper left. The glow of
these patterns accentuates the
three-dimensional structure of the
gases. The ultraviolet radiation is
carving and heating the surfaces of
cold hydrogen gas clouds. The warmed
surfaces glow orange and red in this
photograph. The intense heat and
pressure cause some material to stream
away from those surfaces, creating the
glowing veil of even hotter greenish
gas that masks background structures.
The pressure on the tips of the waves
may trigger new star formation within
them. The image, roughly 3
light-years across, was taken May
29-30, 1999, with the Wide Field
Planetary Camera 2. The colors in the
image represent various gases. Red
represents sulfur; green, hydrogen; and
blue, oxygen. Date 24 April
2003 Source
http://spacetelescope.org/images/html/he
ic0305a.html (direct link)
http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/archive
/releases/2003/13/image/a/ Author
NASA, ESA and J. Hester (ASU) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/72/Omega_Nebula.jpg
100,000 stars forms in the Milky Way
Galaxy.
[1] Description The globular
cluster Omega Centauri — with as many
as ten million stars — is seen in all
its splendour in this image captured
with the WFI camera from ESO's La Silla
Observatory. The image shows only the
central part of the cluster — about
the size of the full moon on the sky
(half a degree). North is up, East is
to the left. This colour image is a
composite of B, V and I filtered
images. Note that because WFI is
equipped with a mosaic detector, there
are two small gaps in the image which
were filled with lower quality data
from the Digitized Sky Survey. Date
2008 Source
http://www.eso.org/public/outreach/
press-rel/pr-2008/phot-44-08.html Autho
r ESO CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Omega_Centauri_
by_ESO.jpg/638px-Omega_Centauri_by_ESO.j
pg
[2] Description This image is
mosaic of multiple shots on
large-format film. It comprises all 360
degrees of the galaxy from our vantage.
Photography was done in Ft. Davis,
Texas for the Northern hemisphere shots
and from Broken Hill, New South Wales,
Australia, for the southern portions.
Note the dust lanes, which obscure our
view of some features beyond them.
Infrared imaging reaches into these
regions, and radio astronomy can look
all the way through with less detail.
The very center, however, shows a
window to the farther side. In the
center, stars are mostly very old and
this causes the more yellow color. The
final file is 1.5GB, and resolves
details of less than one arcminute.
Faintest stars are magnitude 11. There
are 21 pixels of horizontal overlap at
the ends, with the right end slightly
brighter than the corresponding pixels
on the left. Date Source
http://www.digitalskyllc.com (The
image was uploaded to en.wiki at 17:16,
21 September 2006 by Twtunes. Author
Digital Sky LLC CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0a/Milkyway_pan1.jpg
[1] Description English: The Sun
photographed by the Atmospheric Imaging
Assembly (AIA 304) of NASA's Solar
Dynamics Observatory (SDO). This is
a false color image of the sun observed
in the extreme ultraviolet region of
the spectrum. For example,similar
image Français : Le soleil,
photographié depuis le Solar Dynamics
Observatory de la NASA. Date
2010-08-19T00:32:21Z (ISO
8601) Source NASA/SDO
(AIA). Author NASA/SDO (AIA). PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/The_Sun_by_the_
Atmospheric_Imaging_Assembly_of_NASAs_So
lar_Dynamics_Observatory_-_20100819.jpg/
628px-The_Sun_by_the_Atmospheric_Imaging
_Assembly_of_NASAs_Solar_Dynamics_Observ
atory_-_20100819.jpg
[2] Summary Description The star
formation region N11B in the LMC taken
by WFPC2 on the NASA/ESA Hubble Space
Telescope. Date Source
http://www.spacetelescope.org/image
s/html/heic0411a.html Author
NASA/ESA and the Hubble Heritage
Team
(AURA/STScI)/HEIC Permission (Reusing
this file) ESA Public Domain, as
per
http://www.spacetelescope.org/copyright.
html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6c/Heic0411a.jpg
many collisions. Like the star, they
are red hot with liquid rock and metals
on the surface. Lighter atoms move to
the surface of the planets. Larger
planets are surrounded by gas.
As the number of collisions decreases,
and smaller objects are absorbed by the
star and planets, the average
temperature of the star system is
lowered. As the temperature of the
planets and moons decreases, their
surfaces solidify, and water and other
molecules condense at the surface.
Perhaps most outer planets are larger,
because their orbit covers a larger
space which includes more matter.
[1] an 19, 2005 � For the past five
days, forecasters at the NOAA Space
Environment Center in Boulder, Colo.,
have observed all types of space
weather: radio blackouts, solar
radiation storms and geomagnetic
storms. Currently, space weather
forecasters are observing a moderate
geomagnetic storm (G-2 on the NOAA
Space Weather Scales) and a minor (S-1)
solar radiation storm. Earlier
Wednesday an X-class flare produced a
strong (R-3) radio blackout. (Click
image for larger view of the sun taken
on Jan. 19, 2005, at 2:19 p.m. EST.
Click here for high resolution version,
which is a large file. Please credit
European Space Agency-NASA.) PD
source: http://www.noaanews.noaa.gov/sto
ries2005/images/sun-soho011905-1919z.jpg
[2] This artist’s impression shows
the disk of gas and cosmic dust around
the young star HD 142527. Astronomers
using the Atacama Large
Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA)
telescope have seen vast streams of gas
flowing across the gap in the disc
UNKNOWN
source: http://l2.yimg.com/bt/api/res/1.
2/kB0xEBWbOe3fUGcRF7Y3RA--/YXBwaWQ9eW5ld
3M7Zmk9aW5zZXQ7aD00MDg7cT03OTt3PTU3NQ--/
http://media.zenfs.com/en_US/News/SPACE.
com/Never-Before-Seen_Stage_of_Planet_Bi
rth-893372caafae611ec5e71458c2f79fb8
The moon of Earth may form as a planet
that is captured by the Earth, or a
planet that collides with the Earth and
then reforms from the remaining matter
of the collision, or forms in orbit of
the Earth at the same time the Earth
forms.
[1] Image of moon superimposed on
Venus PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/dd/Full_Moon_Luc_Viatour
.jpg
[2] an 19, 2005 � For the past five
days, forecasters at the NOAA Space
Environment Center in Boulder, Colo.,
have observed all types of space
weather: radio blackouts, solar
radiation storms and geomagnetic
storms. Currently, space weather
forecasters are observing a moderate
geomagnetic storm (G-2 on the NOAA
Space Weather Scales) and a minor (S-1)
solar radiation storm. Earlier
Wednesday an X-class flare produced a
strong (R-3) radio blackout. (Click
image for larger view of the sun taken
on Jan. 19, 2005, at 2:19 p.m. EST.
Click here for high resolution version,
which is a large file. Please credit
European Space Agency-NASA.) PD
source: http://www.noaanews.noaa.gov/sto
ries2005/images/sun-soho011905-1919z.jpg
rock turns into a solid thin crust.
Water condenses and falls to the
surface, filling the lowest parts of
the land to make the first Earth
oceans, lakes, and rivers.
[1] USGS Photo by Tim Orr Pahoehoe
lava breaks out of the crust along a
flow margin PD
source: http://www.nps.gov/havo/parkmgmt
/upload/havo_manage_usgs_20080304_tro381
7_x800.jpg
[2] English: Ultraviolet image of
Venus' clouds as seen by the Pioneer
Venus Orbiter (February 26, 1979). The
immense C- or Y-shaped features which
are visible only in these wavelengths
are individually short lived, but
reform often enough to be considered a
permanent feature of Venus' clouds. The
mechanism by which Venus' clouds absorb
ultraviolet is not well understood. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Venuspioneeruv.
jpg/953px-Venuspioneeruv.jpg
the Hadean {HA DEen} Eon.
[1] Geologic Time Scale 2009 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.geosociety.org/scienc
e/timescale/timescl.pdf
Earth: 4.57 billion years old.
[1] The ''Zag'' meteorite fell to Earth
in 1988 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/t
ech/783048.stm
the Moon (4.53 billions old).
[1]
http://www.nasm.si.edu/exhibitions/attm/
atmimages/S73-15446.f.jpg
http://www.nasm.si.edu/exhibitions/attm/
nojs/wl.br.1.html
source:
evidence that the crust and liquid
water are on the surface of Earth. A
terrestrial zircon is not from a
meteorite.
[1]
http://www.geology.wisc.edu/zircon/Earli
est%20Piece/Images/8.jpg
source:
like amino acids, phosphates, and
sugars, the components of living
objects.
These molecules are made in the oceans,
fresh water, and atmosphere of Earth
(and other planets) by lightning, light
particles with high frequency from the
Sun, and from ocean floor volcanoes.
The initial building blocks of living
objects are easily formed, but
assembling them into longer-chain
molecules, or polymers, is more
difficult. Amino acids link up to form
polymers called proteins, simple fatty
acids plus alcohols link up to form
lipids (oils and fats), simple sugars
like glucose and sucrose link together
to form complex carbohydrates and
starches, and finally, the nucleotide
bases (plus phosphates and sugars) link
up to form nucleic acids, the genetic
code of organisms, known as RNA and
DNA.
Perhaps all proteins, carbohydrates,
lipids and DNA are strictly the
products of living objects, while RNA
can assemble without the help of any
living objects.
[1] The two optical isomers of alanine,
D-Alanine and
L-Alanine D-glucose BOTH PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/65/D%2BL-Alanine.gif
and http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiped
ia/commons/thumb/5/5a/D-glucose-chain-3D
-balls.png/640px-D-glucose-chain-3D-ball
s.png
Ribonucleic acid (RNA) may be the first
nucleic acid to form. One of these RNA
molecules may be the ancestor of all of
life on Earth.
[1] Ribonucleic acid (English
pronunciation:
/raɪbɵ.njuːˌkleɪ.ɨk ˈæsɪd/),
or RNA, is one of the three major
macromolecules (along with DNA and
proteins) that are essential for all
known forms of life. UNKNOWN
source: http://dna-rna.net/wp-content/up
loads/2011/07/rna.jpg
Transfer RNA molecules evolve (tRNA),
and link amimo acids into proteins
using other RNA molecules ("messenger"
or mRNA molecules), as a template.
This protein assembly system is the
main system responsible for all the
proteins on Earth.
Part of each tRNA molecule bonds with a
specific amino acid, while another part
has a 3 nucleotide sequence that bonds
with an opposite matching 3 nucleotide
sequence on an mRNA molecule.
Perhaps this system, where tRNA
molecules build proteins directly from
free floating RNA strands, evolves
before the first ribosome and the first
cell.
[1] Description English:
Illustration of tRNA building peptide
chain Date 1 March 2009 Source
Own work Author
Boumphreyfr CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0f/Peptide_syn.png
[2] Source : ''Role of the
Ribosome'' University of Texas Medical
Branch UNKNOWN
source: http://ead.univ-angers.fr/~jaspa
rd/Page2/COURS/7RelStructFonction/2Bioch
imie/1SyntheseProteines/3Figures/4Organi
tes/2Ribosomes/6Polysome.gif
protein is called an RNA polymerase
{PoL-u-mu-rAS}.
For the first time, a nucleic acid
functions both as a template for
building proteins (with the help of
tRNA molecules) and also as a template
for building other nucleic acid
molecules.
An RNA polymerase must be one of the
first useful proteins to be assembled
by the early (presumably) precellular
protein production system. Eventually
an RNA strand that codes for the RNA
polymerase and the tRNA needed to make
the polymerase may be copied many
times.
[1] RNA is a versatile molecule. In its
most familiar role, RNA acts as an
intermediary, carrying genetic
information from the DNA to the
machinery of protein synthesis. RNA
also plays more active roles,
performing many of the catalytic and
recognition functions normally reserved
for proteins. In fact, most of the RNA
in cells is found in ribosomes--our
protein-synthesizing machines--and the
transfer RNA molecules used to add each
new amino acid to growing proteins. In
addition, countless small RNA molecules
are involved in regulating, processing
and disposing of the constant traffic
of messenger RNA. The enzyme RNA
polymerase carries the weighty
responsibility of creating all of these
different RNA molecules. The RNA
Factory RNA polymerase is a huge
factory with many moving parts. The one
shown here, from PDB entry 1i6h, is
from yeast cells. It is composed of a
dozen different proteins. Together,
they form a machine that surrounds DNA
strands, unwinds them, and builds an
RNA strand based on the information
held inside the DNA. Once the enzyme
gets started, RNA polymerase marches
confidently along the DNA copying RNA
strands thousands of nucleotides
long. Accuracy As you might expect,
RNA polymerase needs to be accurate in
its copying of genetic information. To
improve its accuracy, it performs a
simple proofreading step as it builds
an RNA strand. The active site is
designed to be able to remove
nucleotides as well as add them to the
growing strand. The enzyme tends to
hover around mismatched nucleotides
longer than properly added ones, giving
the enzyme time to remove them. This
process is somewhat wasteful, since
proper nucleotides are also
occasionally removed, but this is a
small price to pay for creating better
RNA transcripts. Overall, RNA
polymerase makes an error about once in
10,000 nucleotides added, or about once
per RNA strand created. Poisoning
Polymerase Since RNA polymerase is
absolutely essential for the life of
the cell, it is a sensitive target for
poisons and toxins. The most powerful
of these poisons is alpha-amanitin, a
small circular peptide created by the
death cap mushroom. Eating even one of
these mushrooms will lead to coma and
death in a manner of days, as the
poison attacks RNA polymerase
throughout the body. Surprisingly, it
binds on the back side of RNA
polymerase, away from the active site
and away from the binding site for the
DNA and RNA. It does not physically
block the active site, like most
inhibitors, but instead jams the
mechanism of the enzyme. RNA polymerase
is a highly mobile enzyme, that flexes
and changes shape as it performs the
sequential steps of binding to DNA,
unwinding it, and then building the RNA
strand. As seen in PDB entry 1k83, the
poison binds between two subunits of
the protein, gluing them together and
blocking these essential motions. PD
source: http://www.pdb.org/pdb/education
_discussion/molecule_of_the_month/images
/1i6h-composite.gif
[2] [t Notice that many RNA molecules
are being produced all in sequence,
with each RNA molecule getting longer
as each protein reaches the end of the
DNA molecule.] Micrograph of gene
transcription of ribosomal RNA
illustrating the growing primary
transcripts. ''Begin'' indicates the 5'
end of the coding strand of DNA, where
new RNA synthesis begins; ''end''
indicates the 3' end, where the primary
transcripts are almost
complete. This is an alternate
version of
Image:RibosomaleTranskriptionsEinheit.jp
g, original author identified as Dr.
Hans-Heinrich Trepte, labeled in
German. This version with English
labels is from en:Image:Transcription
label fromcommons.jpg, by
en:UserOpabinia regalis, licensed under
GFDL. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/43/Transcription_label_e
n.jpg
Ribosomal RNA (rRNA).
The ribosome may function as a
protocell, providing a platform for
more efficient protein production. A
single RNA may contain all the
instructions needed to make more
polymerase, tRNA, and ribosomes.
Alternatively the first ribosome may
not evolve until after the first cell.
All cells contain ribosomes. Ribosomes
are the cellular organelles that carry
out protein synthesis, through a
process called translation. These
molecular machines are responsible for
accurately translating the linear
genetic code on the messenger RNA
(mRNA), into a linear sequence of amino
acids to produce a protein.
[1] Description English:
Illustration of tRNA building peptide
chain Date 1 March 2009 Source
Own work Author
Boumphreyfr CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0f/Peptide_syn.png
[2] Source : ''Role of the
Ribosome'' University of Texas Medical
Branch UNKNOWN
source: http://ead.univ-angers.fr/~jaspa
rd/Page2/COURS/7RelStructFonction/2Bioch
imie/1SyntheseProteines/3Figures/4Organi
tes/2Ribosomes/6Polysome.gif
(DNA) molecule. A protein evolves that
allows the assembly of DNA from RNA; a
ribonucleotide reductase.
This protein changes ribonucleotides
into deoxyribonucleotides, which can
then be assembled into the first DNA
molecules on Earth.
DNA has the advantage of being more
stable than RNA and can hold together
in longer strands. Longer strands allow
for a more complex organism.
[1] Description Crystallographic
structure of the ribonucleotide
reductase protein R1E from Salmonella
typhimurium. The protein is rainbow
colored (N-terminus = blue, C-terminus
= red) while deoxyadenosine
triphosphate is show as sticks and a
complexed magnesium ion as a grey
sphere.[1] ↑ PDB 1PEU; Uppsten M,
Färnegårdh M, Jordan A, Eliasson R,
Eklund H, Uhlin U (June 2003).
''Structure of the large subunit of
class Ib ribonucleotide reductase from
Salmonella typhimurium and its
complexes with allosteric effectors''.
J. Mol. Biol. 330 (1): 87–97. PMID
12818204. Date 28 February
2008 Source Own
work Author Boghog2 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/1PEU_R1E.png/10
24px-1PEU_R1E.png
[2] Description English: The
reaction mechanism of ribonucleotide
reductase Date 14 January 2006
(original upload
date) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia; transferred to Commons by
User:Michał Sobkowski using
CommonsHelper. Author Original
uploader was BorisTM at
en.wikipedia PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2c/RNR_reaction.png
a DNA polymerase {PoL-u-mu-rAS}.
[1] A look at DNA replication, with the
inset showing a larger and general
view. ''Pol'' stands for polymerase, a
key enzyme. Note how each enzyme works
in a 'biochemical team' to complete the
process efficiently COPYRIGHTED
source: http://genmed.yolasite.com/resou
rces/DNA20replication.jpg
[2] Description Diagram of DNA
polymerase extending a DNA strand and
proof-reading. Date Source Own
work Author Madprime GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6f/DNA_polymerase.svg
(an RNA polymerase) assembles RNA from
DNA.
[1] Transcription: DNA-> RNA In E. coli
it is possible to see the strands of
RNA transcripts under the electron
microscope. Relate the image seen under
an electron microscope with the drawing
in your book in Figure 13-3. Why do you
not see any protein strands coming from
the mRNA in the electron microscope
image? UNKNOWN
source: http://www.utexas.edu/courses/zo
o325/13-4.gif
[2] RNA is a versatile molecule. In
its most familiar role, RNA acts as an
intermediary, carrying genetic
information from the DNA to the
machinery of protein synthesis. RNA
also plays more active roles,
performing many of the catalytic and
recognition functions normally reserved
for proteins. In fact, most of the RNA
in cells is found in ribosomes--our
protein-synthesizing machines--and the
transfer RNA molecules used to add each
new amino acid to growing proteins. In
addition, countless small RNA molecules
are involved in regulating, processing
and disposing of the constant traffic
of messenger RNA. The enzyme RNA
polymerase carries the weighty
responsibility of creating all of these
different RNA molecules. The RNA
Factory RNA polymerase is a huge
factory with many moving parts. The one
shown here, from PDB entry 1i6h, is
from yeast cells. It is composed of a
dozen different proteins. Together,
they form a machine that surrounds DNA
strands, unwinds them, and builds an
RNA strand based on the information
held inside the DNA. Once the enzyme
gets started, RNA polymerase marches
confidently along the DNA copying RNA
strands thousands of nucleotides
long. Accuracy As you might expect,
RNA polymerase needs to be accurate in
its copying of genetic information. To
improve its accuracy, it performs a
simple proofreading step as it builds
an RNA strand. The active site is
designed to be able to remove
nucleotides as well as add them to the
growing strand. The enzyme tends to
hover around mismatched nucleotides
longer than properly added ones, giving
the enzyme time to remove them. This
process is somewhat wasteful, since
proper nucleotides are also
occasionally removed, but this is a
small price to pay for creating better
RNA transcripts. Overall, RNA
polymerase makes an error about once in
10,000 nucleotides added, or about once
per RNA strand created. Poisoning
Polymerase Since RNA polymerase is
absolutely essential for the life of
the cell, it is a sensitive target for
poisons and toxins. The most powerful
of these poisons is alpha-amanitin, a
small circular peptide created by the
death cap mushroom. Eating even one of
these mushrooms will lead to coma and
death in a manner of days, as the
poison attacks RNA polymerase
throughout the body. Surprisingly, it
binds on the back side of RNA
polymerase, away from the active site
and away from the binding site for the
DNA and RNA. It does not physically
block the active site, like most
inhibitors, but instead jams the
mechanism of the enzyme. RNA polymerase
is a highly mobile enzyme, that flexes
and changes shape as it performs the
sequential steps of binding to DNA,
unwinding it, and then building the RNA
strand. As seen in PDB entry 1k83, the
poison binds between two subunits of
the protein, gluing them together and
blocking these essential motions. PD
source: http://www.pdb.org/pdb/education
_discussion/molecule_of_the_month/images
/1i6h-composite.gif
This is the first prokaryotic cell and
first bacterium. DNA is surrounded by a
membrane of proteins made by ribosomes;
the first cytoplasm.
This cell may form in either fresh or
salt water, near the sunlit water
surface or near underwater volcanoes on
the ocean floor.
The DNA of this cell is a template
containing the code for a copying
molecule (DNA polymerase
{PoL-u-mu-rAS}), and the necessary
mRNA, tRNA, and rRNA molecules needed
to build the cytoplasm. For the first
time, ribosomes and DNA build cell
structure. DNA protected by cytoplasm
is more likely to survive and be
copied.
This is the start of binary cell
division. DNA polymerase duplicates DNA
within the cell and then the cell
divides into two parts. A system of
division may evolve in which the
original and the newly synthesized copy
of DNA are each attached to the
cytoplasm, so that as the cell grows,
the two copies of DNA can be separated,
and the growing mass can eventually
divide into two cells.
This is also the start of passive
transport. Amino acids, nucleotides,
water, and other molecules enter and
exit the cytoplasm only because of a
difference in concentration from inside
and outside the cell. This represents
the beginnings of the first digestive
system.
This cell structure forms the basis of
all future cells of every living object
on Earth. These first cells are
probably anaerobic (or anoxygenic- do
not require free oxygen) and are
heterotrophic, meaning that they do not
make their own food (amino acids,
nucleotides, phosphates, and sugars)
but instead depend on obtaining these
molecules from external sources.
[1] Deutsch: Bild über den Reitenden
Urzwerg English: Image of Nanoarchaeum
equitans Date 2005-09-10 (original
upload date) Source Originally
from de.wikipedia; description page
is/was here. Author Original
uploader was Eber-Jimmy at
de.wikipedia Permission (Reusing
this file) This image is in the
public domain due to its
age. Licensing According to this
article, ''Es wurde von dem
Mikrobiologen Karl O. Stetter entdeckt.
Bildrechte: Public domain.'' PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/dc/Urzwerg.jpg
[2] Hydrogenobacter thermophilus
(strain TK-6) is an obligately
chemolithoautotrophic, extremely (and
strictly) thermophilic
hydrogen-oxidizing bacterium whose
optimal growth temperature is around 70
to 75°C and was isolated from hot
springs. UNKNOWN
source: http://standardsingenomics.org/i
ndex.php/sigen/article/viewFile/146/534/
4368
Earth; (fats, oils, and waxes) by
making proteins that can assemble
lipids.
[1] Figure1: Lipid accumulation in
differentiating 3T3-L1 pre-adipocyte
cell line (days in culture) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.emsdiasum.com/microsc
opy/products/sem/wet/images/lipid_accumu
lation.jpg
[2] Lipid Structures under the
microscope. Image by Alison North, The
Rockefeller University. UNKNOWN
source: http://selections.rockefeller.ed
u/cms/images/stories/2010/may/lipid.gif
around the cell, providing added
protection from the external
environment. All extant cells have this
phospholipid bilayer.
When phospholipids are added to water,
they self-assemble into double-layered
aggregates, or bilayers, with the
phosphate part of the molecule on the
outside and the fatty acid tail part on
the inside.
[1] Campbell, N.A., and J.B. Reece.
Biology. Pearson Benjamin Cummings,
2008. Alternative eText Formats Series,
p77. COPYRIGHTED
source: Campbell, N.A., and J.B. Reece.
Biology. Pearson Benjamin Cummings,
2008. Alternative eText Formats Series,
p77.
[2] Gram negative cell
wall http://www.arches.uga.edu/~kristen
c/cellwall.html COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.arches.uga.edu/~krist
enc/cellwall.html
circle allows the DNA polymerase to
make continuous copies of the cell,
which may increase the speed of cell
growth, duplication, and division.
As far as is known bacteria do not die
of old age, but if a mutation stops
them from dividing, then they die.
Bacteria can also die from physical
destruction in addition to lack of food
and water.
[1] PLATE IV. Autoradiographs showing
examples of the replicated portion of
both symmetrically aud asymmetrically
reinitiated chromosomes. Spores of B.
subtilis 168 thy-trp- were
germinated in t,he absence of thymine
and allowed to incorporate
[methyZ-3H]thymine as follows: (a) and
(b), 160 to 190 min; (d), (e) and (f),
160 to 200 min; (c) and (g), 150 to 200
min. Autoradiographs were prepared in
the usual manner. The scale shows 100
pm. See Materials and Methods for
other details. Wake, R.G.
“Visualization of Reinitiated
Chromosomes in Bacillus Subtilis.”
Journal of Molecular Biology 68.3
(1972):
501–509. http://www.sciencedirect.com
/science/article/pii/0022283672901027 C
OPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence/article/pii/0022283672901027
[2] Electron Micrograph of RecA
protein-coated DNA trefoil knot
generated by E.coli DNA topoisomerase 1
acting on nicked circular DNA.
Micrograph courtesy of A. Stasiak,
University of Lausanne. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.cabinetmagazine.org/i
ssues/20/assets/images/wertheim1.jpg
sequence of DNA which a protein binds
with in order to block RNA polymerase
from building an mRNA molecule, from
part of the sequence, which would be
translated into a protein. Operons
allow a bacterium to produce certain
proteins only when necessary. Bacteria
before now can only build a constant
stream of all proteins encoded in their
DNA.
[1] Figure 6 from: Jacob, F. & Monod,
J. Genetic regulatory mechanisms in the
synthesis of proteins. J. Mol. Biol. 3,
318–356 (1961)
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_
ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6WK7-4Y39HH7-B&_user
=4422&_coverDate=06%2F30%2F1961&_alid=17
23143833&_rdoc=1&_fmt=high&_orig=search&
_origin=search&_zone=rslt_list_item&_cdi
=6899&_sort=r&_st=13&_docanchor=&view=c&
_ct=5&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlVe
rsion=0&_userid=4422&md5=c2699b72c7c5bee
4e2c31224c6261556&searchtype=a {Jacob_F
rancois_19601228.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6WK7-4Y39HH7-B
&_user=4422&_coverDate=06%2F30%2F1961&_a
lid=1723143833&_rdoc=1&_fmt=high&_orig=s
earch&_origin=search&_zone=rslt_list_ite
m&_cdi=6899&_sort=r&_st=13&_docanchor=&v
iew=c&_ct=5&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&
_urlVersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=c2699b72c
7c5bee4e2c31224c6261556&searchtype=a
[2] Figure 3 from: Jacob, F. & Monod,
J. Genetic regulatory mechanisms in the
synthesis of proteins. J. Mol. Biol. 3,
318–356 (1961)
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_
ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6WK7-4Y39HH7-B&_user
=4422&_coverDate=06%2F30%2F1961&_alid=17
23143833&_rdoc=1&_fmt=high&_orig=search&
_origin=search&_zone=rslt_list_item&_cdi
=6899&_sort=r&_st=13&_docanchor=&view=c&
_ct=5&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlVe
rsion=0&_userid=4422&md5=c2699b72c7c5bee
4e2c31224c6261556&searchtype=a {Jacob_F
rancois_19601228.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6WK7-4Y39HH7-B
&_user=4422&_coverDate=06%2F30%2F1961&_a
lid=1723143833&_rdoc=1&_fmt=high&_orig=s
earch&_origin=search&_zone=rslt_list_ite
m&_cdi=6899&_sort=r&_st=13&_docanchor=&v
iew=c&_ct=5&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&
_urlVersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=c2699b72c
7c5bee4e2c31224c6261556&searchtype=a
Proteins in the cell membrane allow
only certain molecules to enter the
cell.
"Facilitated diffusion" is passive
transport aided by proteins.
[1] Figure 7.15 from: Campbell, Reece,
et al., ''Biology'', 8th Edition, 2008,
P135. COPYRIGHTED
source: Campbell, Reece, et al.,
"Biology", 8th Edition, 2008, P135.
[2] Figure 7.18 from: Campbell,
Reece, et al., ''Biology'', 8th
Edition, 2008, P137. COPYRIGHTED
source: Campbell, Reece, et al.,
"Biology", 8th Edition, 2008, P137.
evolves in the cytoplasm. Cells can now
make ATP (adenosine {oDeNoSEN}
triphosphate) by converting glucose
into pyruvate {PIrUVAT}. This is the
beginning of cellular respiration, how
cells convert food into ATP and waste
products.
ATP is the molecule that drives most
cellular work.
That glycolysis is the most widespread
metabolic pathway, that it occurs in
the cytoplasm, not in an organelle, and
that it is the first stage in
fermentation all imply an ancient
origin.
[1] Description English: Glycolysis
pathway overview. Date 3
September 2009 Source Own
work Author
WYassineMrabetTalk✉ Inkscape
Logo.svg This vector image was
created with
Inkscape. Permission (Reusing this
file) GFDL license (see below). GFDL
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Glycolysis.svg/
1024px-Glycolysis.svg.png
[2] Figure 9.6 from: Campbell, Reece,
et al, ''Biology'', 8th edition, 2008,
p166. COPYRIGHTED
source: Campbell, Reece, et al,
"Biology", 8th edition, 2008, p166.
cytoplasm. Cells can make lactic acid.
These
cells, which are anaerobic, can now
convert pyruvate, the final product of
glycolysis, into lactate (an ionized
form of lactic acid), and in the
process refuel glycolysis and the
production of ATP molecules.
[1] Campbell, Reece, et al,
''Biology'', 8th edition, 2008,
p178. COPYRIGHTED
source: Campbell, Reece, et al,
"Biology", 8th edition, 2008, p178.
[2] IUPAC
name[hide] 2-Hydroxypropanoic
acid Other names[hide] Milk
acid Description de: Struktur
von Milchsäure; en: Structure of
lactic acid Date 12 February
2007 Source Own work Author
NEUROtiker Permission (Reusing
this file) Own work, all rights
released (Public domain) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/59/Lactic-acid-3D-balls.
pnghttp://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia
/commons/thumb/d/d3/Lactic-acid-skeletal
.svg/1000px-Lactic-acid-skeletal.svg.png
evolves in the cytoplasm. Cells (all
anaerobic) can now convert pyruvate
(the final product of glycolysis) into
ethanol.
[1] Campbell, Reece, et al,
''Biology'', 8th edition, 2008,
p178. COPYRIGHTED
source: Campbell, Reece, et al,
"Biology", 8th edition, 2008, p178.
[2] Ethanol Full structural
formula, Ball and Stick Model, and
Space-Filling Model of Ethanol PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/37/Ethanol-2D-flat.pnght
tp://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/comm
ons/b/b0/Ethanol-3D-balls.pnghttp://uplo
ad.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/00/
Ethanol-3D-vdW.png
and ATP are used to transport molecules
into and out of the cytoplasm.
Active transport enables a cell to
maintain internal concentrations of
small molecules that differ from the
cell's surroundings.
[1] Figure 7.18 from: Campbell, Reece,
et al., ''Biology'', 8th Edition, 2008,
P137. COPYRIGHTED
source: Campbell, Reece, et al.,
"Biology", 8th Edition, 2008, P137.
[2] Figure 7.15 from: Campbell,
Reece, et al., ''Biology'', 8th
Edition, 2008, P135. COPYRIGHTED
source: Campbell, Reece, et al.,
"Biology", 8th Edition, 2008, P135.
Prokaryotic cells now have more
mobility, and can make more choices
about their location.
[1] Aquifex pyrophilus (platinum
shadowed). © K.O. Stetter & Reinhard
Rachel, University of Regensburg.
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://biology.kenyon.edu/Microb
ial_Biorealm/bacteria/aquifex/aquifex.ht
m
[2] Description English: A
Gram-negative bacterial flagellum. A
flagellum (plural: flagella) is a long,
slender projection from the cell body,
whose function is to propel a
unicellular or small multicellular
organism. The depicted type of
flagellum is found in bacteria such as
E. coli and Salmonella, and rotates
like a propeller when the bacterium
swims. The bacterial movement can be
divided in 2 kinds: run, resulting from
a counterclockwise rotation of the
flagellum, and tumbling, from a
clockwise rotation of the
flagellum. Français : Flagelle de
bactérie Gram-négative. Le flagelle
est une projection longue et fine hors
du corps cellulaire, dont la fonction
est de propulser l'organisme. Ce type
de flagelle est présent dans des
bactéries comme Escherichia coli et
Salmonella, et tourne comme une hélice
quand la bactérie se déplace. Le
flagelle peut provoquer deux types de
déplacement selon son sens de
rotation. Date November 2007 Source
self-made References: [1],[2], [3]
(main 3), [4], [5] (propeller
rotation), PMID 17142059
(bend). Author LadyofHats PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Flagellum_base_
diagram_en.svg/1000px-Flagellum_base_dia
gram_en.svg.png
archaebacteria) evolve according to
genetic comparison. The Phylum
Nanoarcheota.
Eubacteria and Archaea are the two
major lines of Prokaryotes.
Archaea have a variety of shapes,
including spherical, rodlike, and
spiral forms.
[1] Deutsch: Bild über den Reitenden
Urzwerg English: Image of Nanoarchaeum
equitans Date 2005-09-10 (original
upload date) Source Originally
from de.wikipedia; description page
is/was here. Author Original
uploader was Eber-Jimmy at
de.wikipedia Permission (Reusing
this file) This image is in the
public domain due to its
age. Licensing According to this
article, ''Es wurde von dem
Mikrobiologen Karl O. Stetter entdeckt.
Bildrechte: Public domain.'' PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/dc/Urzwerg.jpg
[2] Figure 1) Changing views of the
tree and timescale of life. a) An
early-1990s view, with the tree
determined mostly from ribosomal RNA
(rRNA) sequence analysis. This tree
emphasizes vertical (as opposed to
horizontal) evolution and the close
relationship between eukaryotes and the
Archaebacteria. The deep branching
(>3.5 Giga (109) years ago, Gya) of
CYANOBACTERIA (Cy) and other Eubacteria
(purple), the shallow branching
(approx1 Gya) of plants (Pl), animals
(An) and fungi (Fu), and the early
origin of mitochondria (Mi), were based
on interpretations of the geochemical
and fossil record7, 8. Some deeply
branching amitochondriate (Am) species
were believed to have arisen before the
origin of mitochondria44. Major
symbiotic events (black dots) were
introduced to explain the origin of
eukaryotic organelles42, but were not
assumed to be associated with large
transfers of genes to the host nucleus.
They were: Eu, joining of an
archaebacterium host with a eubacterium
(presumably a SPIROCHAETE) to produce
an amitochondriate eukaryote; Mi,
joining of a eukaryote host with an
alpha-proteobacterium (Ap) symbiont,
leading to the origin of mitochondria,
and plastids (Ps), joining of a
eukaryote host with a cyanobacterium
symbiont, forming the origin of
plastids on the plant lineage and
possibly on other lineages. b) The
present view, based on extensive
genomic analysis. Eukaryotes are no
longer considered to be close relatives
of Archaebacteria, but are genomic
hybrids of Archaebacteria and
Eubacteria, owing to the transfer of
large numbers of genes from the
symbiont genome to the nucleus of the
host (indicated by coloured arrows).
Other new features, largely derived
from molecular-clock studies16, 39 (Box
1), include a relatively recent origin
of Cyanobacteria (approx2.6 Gya) and
mitochondria (approx1.8 Gya), an early
origin (approx1.5 Gya) of plants,
animals and fungi, and a close
relationship between animals and fungi.
Coloured dashed lines indicate
controversial aspects of the present
view: the existence of a
premitochondrial symbiotic event and of
living amitochondriate eukaryotes,
ancestors of which never had
mitochondria. c) The times of
divergence of selected model organisms
from humans, based on molecular clocks.
For the prokaryotes (red), because of
different possible origins through
symbiotic events, divergence times
depend on the gene of interest.
source: http://www.nature.com/nrg/journa
l/v3/n11/full/nrg929_fs.html
evolve (the ancestor of Aquifex and
Thermotoga).
Aquifex and Thermotoga are the only two
major genera {JeN-R-u} of eubacteria
that are hyperthermophiles. They grow
best in a environment that is around 80
degrees Celsius (176 degrees
Fahrenheit).
[1] A timescale of prokaryote
evolution. Letters indicate nodes
discussed in the text. The last common
ancestor was arbitrarily placed at 4.25
Ga in the tree, although this placement
was not part of the analyses. The grey
rectangle shows the time prior to the
initial rise in oxygen (presumably
anaerobic conditions). Mtb:
Methanothermobacter, Tab:
Thermoanaerobacter, Tsc:
Thermosynechococcus. Battistuzzi et
al. BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004 4:44
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-44 Table
1 Time estimates for selected nodes
in the tree of eubacteria (A-K) and
archaebacteria (L-P). Letters refer to
Fig. 3. Time (Ma)a CIb Node
A 102 57–176 Node
B 2508 2154–2928 Node
C 2800 2452–3223 Node
D 1039 702–1408 Node
E 2558 2310–2969 Node
F 2784 2490–3203 Node
G 2923 2587–3352 Node
H 3054 2697–3490 Node
I 3186 2801–3634 Node
J 3644 3172–4130 Node
K 3977 3434–4464 Node
L 233 118–386 Node
M 3085 2469–3514 Node
N 3566 2876–3948 Node
O 3781 3047–4163 Node
P 4112 3314–4486 a Averages of
the divergence times estimated using
the 2.3 Ga minimum constraint and the
five ingroup root constraints (nodes
A-K) and using the 1.198 ± 0.022 Ga
constraint and the five ingroup root
constraints (nodes L-P). b
Credibility interval (minimum and
maximum averages of the analyses under
the five ingroup root
constraints) Battistuzzi et al. BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004 4:44
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-44 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.biomedcentral.com/con
tent/figures/1471-2148-4-44-3-l.jpg
[2] Aquifex pyrophilus (platinum
shadowed). © K.O. Stetter & Reinhard
Rachel, University of Regensburg.
source: http://biology.kenyon.edu/Microb
ial_Biorealm/bacteria/aquifex/aquifex.ht
m
evolves (the ancestor of Sulfolobus).
The Crenarchaea include many organisms
that are extremely thermophilic
{tR-mu-FiL-iK} (heat-loving) and
cryophilic {KrI-e-FiL-iK}
(cold-loving).
[1] A timescale of prokaryote
evolution. Letters indicate nodes
discussed in the text. The last common
ancestor was arbitrarily placed at 4.25
Ga in the tree, although this placement
was not part of the analyses. The grey
rectangle shows the time prior to the
initial rise in oxygen (presumably
anaerobic conditions). Mtb:
Methanothermobacter, Tab:
Thermoanaerobacter, Tsc:
Thermosynechococcus. Battistuzzi et
al. BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004 4:44
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-44 Table
1 Time estimates for selected nodes
in the tree of eubacteria (A-K) and
archaebacteria (L-P). Letters refer to
Fig. 3. Time (Ma)a CIb Node
A 102 57–176 Node
B 2508 2154–2928 Node
C 2800 2452–3223 Node
D 1039 702–1408 Node
E 2558 2310–2969 Node
F 2784 2490–3203 Node
G 2923 2587–3352 Node
H 3054 2697–3490 Node
I 3186 2801–3634 Node
J 3644 3172–4130 Node
K 3977 3434–4464 Node
L 233 118–386 Node
M 3085 2469–3514 Node
N 3566 2876–3948 Node
O 3781 3047–4163 Node
P 4112 3314–4486 a Averages of
the divergence times estimated using
the 2.3 Ga minimum constraint and the
five ingroup root constraints (nodes
A-K) and using the 1.198 ± 0.022 Ga
constraint and the five ingroup root
constraints (nodes L-P). b
Credibility interval (minimum and
maximum averages of the analyses under
the five ingroup root
constraints) Battistuzzi et al. BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004 4:44
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-44 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.biomedcentral.com/con
tent/figures/1471-2148-4-44-3-l.jpg
[2] tree of archaea ?
source: http://www.uni-giessen.de/~gf126
5/GROUPS/KLUG/Stammbaum.html
{YRE-oR-KE-O-Tu} evolves (the ancestor
of methanogens and halobacteria
{HaL-O-BaK-TER-E-u}).
The earliest cell response to light.
The Euryarchaeota {YRE-oR-KE-O-Tu} are
composed of two classes: methanogens,
which produce methane and are often
found in intestines and sewage, and the
halobacteria, which survive in high
concentrations of salt.
Some halobacteria use sensory rhodopsin
{rO-DoP-SiN} (a pigment sensitive to
red light) for phototaxis (positive or
negative movement along a light
gradient or vector).
[1] A timescale of prokaryote
evolution. Letters indicate nodes
discussed in the text. The last common
ancestor was arbitrarily placed at 4.25
Ga in the tree, although this placement
was not part of the analyses. The grey
rectangle shows the time prior to the
initial rise in oxygen (presumably
anaerobic conditions). Mtb:
Methanothermobacter, Tab:
Thermoanaerobacter, Tsc:
Thermosynechococcus. Battistuzzi et
al. BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004 4:44
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-44 Table
1 Time estimates for selected nodes
in the tree of eubacteria (A-K) and
archaebacteria (L-P). Letters refer to
Fig. 3. Time (Ma)a CIb Node
A 102 57–176 Node
B 2508 2154–2928 Node
C 2800 2452–3223 Node
D 1039 702–1408 Node
E 2558 2310–2969 Node
F 2784 2490–3203 Node
G 2923 2587–3352 Node
H 3054 2697–3490 Node
I 3186 2801–3634 Node
J 3644 3172–4130 Node
K 3977 3434–4464 Node
L 233 118–386 Node
M 3085 2469–3514 Node
N 3566 2876–3948 Node
O 3781 3047–4163 Node
P 4112 3314–4486 a Averages of
the divergence times estimated using
the 2.3 Ga minimum constraint and the
five ingroup root constraints (nodes
A-K) and using the 1.198 ± 0.022 Ga
constraint and the five ingroup root
constraints (nodes L-P). b
Credibility interval (minimum and
maximum averages of the analyses under
the five ingroup root
constraints) Battistuzzi et al. BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004 4:44
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-44 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.biomedcentral.com/con
tent/figures/1471-2148-4-44-3-l.jpg
[2] tree of archaebacteria (archaea)
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.uni-giessen.de/~gf126
5/GROUPS/KLUG/Stammbaum.html
that can produce some of their own
food.
Autotrophs produce their own sugars,
lipids, and amino acids.
There are only two kinds of autotrophs:
chemoautotrophs and photoautotrophs.
Chemoautotrophs use chemical nutrients
to synthesize carbohydrates, while
photoautotrophs use light to synthesize
carbohydrates.
This is a chemoautotrophic cell: genes
and metabolic sequences suggest that
chemoautotrophs evolve before
photoautotrophs.
[1] Description Methanopyrus
kandleri Date July
2006 Source ms:Imej:Arkea.jpg Auth
or ms:User:PM Poon GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/aa/Arkea.jpg
Anaerobic bacteria use light particles
to convert carbon dioxide gas and an
electron donor (also called a
reductant) like Hydrogen sulfide into
glucose, water, and sulfur. This
process of moving carbon from carbon
dioxide gas to the hydrocarbon molecule
glucose is called carbon fixation.
This is the ancestor of Photosystem I.
This system of photosynthesis does not
liberate oxygen.
[1] Chemiosmosis as it operates in
photophosphorylation within a
chloroplast. Images from Purves et al.,
Life: The Science of Biology, 4th
Edition, by Sinauer Associates
(www.sinauer.com) and WH Freeman
(www.whfreeman.com) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/facu
lty/farabee/biobk/0817_1.gif
[2] Chemiosmosis as it operates in
photophosphorylation within a
chloroplast. Images from Purves et al.,
Life: The Science of Biology, 4th
Edition, by Sinauer Associates
(www.sinauer.com) and WH Freeman
(www.whfreeman.com) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/facu
lty/farabee/biobk/0817_2.gif
evolves. Cells with this system emit
free Oxygen.
Anaerobic bacteria use light particles
to convert carbon dioxide gas and water
into glucose, releasing oxygen gas in
the process.
This is the main system
responsible for producing the Oxygen
now in the air of Earth.
[1] Chemiosmosis as it operates in
photophosphorylation within a
chloroplast. Images from Purves et al.,
Life: The Science of Biology, 4th
Edition, by Sinauer Associates
(www.sinauer.com) and WH Freeman
(www.whfreeman.com) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/facu
lty/farabee/biobk/0817_1.gif
[2] Chemiosmosis as it operates in
photophosphorylation within a
chloroplast. Images from Purves et al.,
Life: The Science of Biology, 4th
Edition, by Sinauer Associates
(www.sinauer.com) and WH Freeman
(www.whfreeman.com) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/facu
lty/farabee/biobk/0817_2.gif
start of the Archean {oRKEiN} Eon.
[1] Geologic Time Scale 2009 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.geosociety.org/scienc
e/timescale/timescl.pdf
evolves in prokaryotes. Photosynthetic
bacteria grow in filaments. Cells stay
fastened together after cell division.
Multicellularity appears to have
evolved independently multiple times in
the history of life on Earth.
With multicellularity comes the
evolution of differentiation, cells
with different functions.
[1] Microgram of filamentous bacteria
from flexible setae. (Courtesy
Zoosystema © 2005) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://bioweb.uwlax.edu/bio203/s
2009/decker_rour/images/yeti-crab-filame
ntous-bacteria.JPG
[2] Filamentous Bacteria Microthrix
Parvicella UNKNOWN
source: http://ebsbiowizard.com/wp-conte
nt/gallery/filamentous-bacteria-microthr
ix-parvicella/filamentous-bacteria-micro
thrix-parvicella.jpg
filamentous prokaryotes, creating
organisms with different kinds of
cells.
One early cell differentiation is that
only the cell at the tip of the
filament can divide while the older
cells below the tip do not divide.
Multicellular organisms can die from
aging, a series of cell
differentiations that ultimately result
in the inability for the multicellular
body to continue functioning and to
decay.
[1] Adapted from: Anabaena smitthi
COPYRIGHTED FRANCE
source: http://www.ac-rennes.fr/pedagogi
e/svt/photo/microalg/anabaena.jpg
[2] Anabaena COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://home.manhattan.edu/~franc
es.cardillo/plants/monera/anabaena.gif
can make nitrogen compounds like
ammonia from Nitrogen gas in the air.
[1] Fig. 2. Modern cyanobacterial
akinetes and Archaeoellipsoides
fossils. (A) Three-month-old culture of
living A. cylindrica grown in a medium
without combined nitrogen. A, akinete;
H, heterocyst; V, vegetative cells.
(B–D) Shown are Archaeoellipsoides
fossils from 1,500-Ma Billyakh Group,
northern Siberia (B); 1,650-Ma McArthur
Group, northern Australia (C); and
2,100-Ma Franceville Group, Gabon (D).
(Scale bars, 10 μm.) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.pnas.org/content/103/
14/5442/F2.large.jpg
[2] Fig. 2. Modern cyanobacterial
akinetes and Archaeoellipsoides
fossils. (A) Three-month-old culture of
living A. cylindrica grown in a medium
without combined nitrogen. A, akinete;
H, heterocyst; V, vegetative cells.
(B–D) Shown are Archaeoellipsoides
fossils from 1,500-Ma Billyakh Group,
northern Siberia (B); 1,650-Ma McArthur
Group, northern Australia (C); and
2,100-Ma Franceville Group, Gabon (D).
(Scale bars, 10 μm.) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.pnas.org/content/103/
14/5442/F2.large.jpg
evolves. The first aerobic (or
"oxygenic") cell. These cells use
oxygen to convert glucose into carbon
dioxide, water, and ATP.
Aerobic cellular respiration evolves as
an alternative to fermentation by using
oxygen to break down the product of
glycolysis, pyruvate, into carbon
dioxide and water, producing up to 38
ATP molecules in the process.
[1] purple aerobic bacteria UNKNOWN
source: http://endosymbiotichypothesis.f
iles.wordpress.com/2010/09/rain-bacteria
.jpg
[2] Organisms of Rickettsia conorii
(r), a close relative of R. rickettsii,
in a cultured human endothelial cell
are located free in the cytosol. One
rickettsia is dividing by binary
fission (arrowhead). (B) These
rickettsiae can move inside the
cytoplasm of the host cell because of
the propulsive force created by the
''tail'' of host cell actin filaments
(arrow). Bars = 0.5 µm. Photo and
text courtesy of David H. Walker -
http://gsbs.utmb.edu/microbook/ch038.htm
UNKNOWN AND Rickettsia prowazekii
(image with Rickettsia outside of
cell) COPYRIGHTED [1] Rickettsia
prowazekii COPYRIGHTED FAIR USE
source: http://www.bio.davidson.edu/peop
le/sosarafova/Assets/Bio307/liwoeste/Pic
tures/Walker%203%5B1%5D.jpghttp://web.ms
t.edu/~microbio/bio221_2001/Image9.jpg
life: the ratio of carbon-13 to
carbon-12 in grains of ancient apetite
{aPeTIT} (which are calcium phosphate
minerals).
Life uses the lighter Carbon-12 isotope
and so the ratio of carbon-12 to
carbon-13 is different from a nonliving
source (such as calcium carbonate or
limestone).
[1] Figure 1 from: Mojzsis, S. J. et
al. ''Evidence for Life on Earth Before
3,800 Million Years Ago.'' Nature
384.6604 (1996):
55–59. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v384/n6604/abs/384055a0.html COP
YRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v384/n6604/pdf/384055a0.pdf
[2] Figure 1 from: Mojzsis, S. J. et
al. ''Evidence for Life on Earth Before
3,800 Million Years Ago.'' Nature
384.6604 (1996):
55–59. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v384/n6604/abs/384055a0.html COP
YRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v384/n6604/pdf/384055a0.pdf
Iron Formation begins.
Banded Iron
Formation is sedimentary rock that
spans from 3.8 to 1.8 billion years
ago, made of iron-rich silicates (like
silicon dioxide SiO2) with alternating
layers of black colored ferrous
(reduced) iron and red colored ferric
(oxidized) iron. These alternating
layers represent a seasonal cycle
where the quantity of free oxygen in
the ocean rises and falls, possibly
linked to photosynthetic organisms.
The atmosphere of Earth still has only
small amounts of oxygen at this time.
[1] image of BIF from Akilia from
Nature COPYRIGHTED
source: nature 11/7/96
[2] portion taken
from: Description English: This
image shows a 2.1 billion years old
rock containing black-banded ironstone,
which has a weight of about 8.5 tons.
The approximately two meter high, three
meter wide, and one meter thick block
of stone was found in North America and
belongs to the National Museum of
Mineralogy and Geology in Dresden,
Germany. The rock is located at
+51°2'34.84''
+13°45'26.67''. Deutsch: Dieses Bild
zeigt einen etwa 8,5 Tonnen schweren
und 2,1 Milliarden Jahre alten Block
mit Bändereisenerzen. Der etwa zwei
Meter hohe, drei Meter breite und einen
Meter tiefe Gesteinsblock wurde in
Nordamerika gefunden und gehört dem
Staatlichen Museum für Mineralogie und
Geologie Dresden. Der Block befindet
sich bei den Koordinaten +51°2'34.84''
+13°45'26.67''. Camera
data Camera Nikon D70 Lens Tamron
SP AF 90mm/2.8 Di Macro 1:1 Focal
length 90 mm Aperture f/2.8 Exposure
time 1/250 s Sensivity ISO 200 Please
help translating the description into
more languages. Thanks a lot! If
you want a license with the conditions
of your choice, please email me to
negotiate terms. best new
image Date 26 August
2005 Source Own
work Author André Karwath aka
Aka CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Black-band_iron
stone_%28aka%29.jpg/1280px-Black-band_ir
onstone_%28aka%29.jpg
stromatolites. Stromatolites made by
photosynthetic bacteria are found in
both Western Australia, and South
Africa.
Tree Group, South Africa
[1] image on left is from swaziland
source: nature feb 6
[2]
source: 1986
and the oldest prokaryote and bacteria
fossils. The organism is similar to
cyanobacteria {SIe-NO-BaK-TERE-u}, and
is found in the 3,500 million year old
chert (sedimentary rock made of silica)
in Australia and South Africa.
2.8 billion years will pass before the
first animal evolves.
Australia and Onverwacht Group,
Barberton Mountain Land, South
Africa
[1] Figure 1 Optical photomicrographs
showing carbonaceous (kerogenous)
filamentous microbial fossils in
petrographic thin sections of
Precambrian cherts. Scale in a
represents images in a and c-i; scale
in b represents image in b. All parts
show photomontages, which is
necessitated by the three-dimensional
preservation of the cylindrical sinuous
permineralized microbes. Squares in
each part indicate the areas for which
chemical data are presented in Figs 2
and 3. a, An unnamed cylindrical
prokaryotic filament, probably the
degraded cellular trichome or tubular
sheath of an oscillatoriacean
cyanobacterium, from the 770-Myr
Skillogalee Dolomite of South
Australia12. b, Gunflintia grandis, a
cellular probably oscillatoriacean
trichome, from the 2,100-Myr Gunflint
Formation of Ontario, Canada13. c, d,
Unnamed highly carbonized filamentous
prokaryotes from the 3,375-Myr Kromberg
Formation of South Africa14: the poorly
preserved cylindrical trichome of a
noncyanobacterial or oscillatoriacean
prokaryote (c); the disrupted,
originally cellular trichomic remnants
possibly of an Oscillatoria- or
Lyngbya-like cyanobacterium (d). e-i,
Cellular microbial filaments from the
3,465-Myr Apex chert of northwestern
Western Australia: Primaevifilum
amoenum4,5, from the collections of The
Natural History Museum (TNHM), London,
specimen V.63164[6] (e); P. amoenum4
(f); the holotype of P.
delicatulum4,5,15, TNHM V.63165[2] (g);
P. conicoterminatum5, TNHM V63164[9]
(h); the holotype of Eoleptonema apex5,
TNHM V.63729[1] (i).
source: Nature416
[2] Fig. 3 Filamentous microfossils:
a, cylindrical microfossil from
Hooggenoeg sample; b, threadlike and
tubular filaments extending between
laminae, Kromberg sample; c,d,e,
tubular filamnets oriented subparallel
to bedding, Kromberg sample; f,
threadlike filament flattened parallel
to bedding, Kromberg sample.
source: 73 - 76 (07 Mar 2002) Letters
to Nature
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v41
6/n6876/fig_tab/416073a_F1.html
{KoKOED} (spherical) bacteria.
South Africa
[1] Fig. 3. from: Hans D. Pflug,
Earliest organic evolution. Essay to
the memory of Bartholomew Nagy,
Precambrian Research, Volume 106,
Issues 1–2, 1 February 2001, Pages
79-91, ISSN 0301-9268,
10.1016/S0301-9268(00)00126-1. (http://
www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pi
i/S0301926800001261 (a,b) Organic
microstructures from Kromberg
Formation, Swaziland System, South
Africa (ca 3.4 Ga). TEM-micrographs of
demineralized specimens. (c) Portion of
organic microstructure from Bulawaya
stromatolite (see Fig. 2). (d) Portion
of the mucilagenous sheath of recent
Anabaena sp., cyanobacteria (Fig. d
after Leak, 1967). For magnification of
Fig. c see scale of Fig.
a. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence/article/pii/S0301926800001261
[2] Fig. 3. from: Hans D. Pflug,
Earliest organic evolution. Essay to
the memory of Bartholomew Nagy,
Precambrian Research, Volume 106,
Issues 1–2, 1 February 2001, Pages
79-91, ISSN 0301-9268,
10.1016/S0301-9268(00)00126-1. (http://
www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pi
i/S0301926800001261 (a,b) Organic
microstructures from Kromberg
Formation, Swaziland System, South
Africa (ca 3.4 Ga). TEM-micrographs of
demineralized specimens. (c) Portion of
organic microstructure from Bulawaya
stromatolite (see Fig. 2). (d) Portion
of the mucilagenous sheath of recent
Anabaena sp., cyanobacteria (Fig. d
after Leak, 1967). For magnification of
Fig. c see scale of Fig.
a. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=MiamiCaptionURL&_method=retriev
e&_udi=B6VBP-42G6M5T-7&_image=fig9&_ba=9
&_user=4422&_coverDate=02%2F01%2F2001&_f
mt=full&_orig=browse&_cdi=5932&view=c&_a
cct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&
_userid=4422&md5=27a45a0804747bb4b74eaac
305df2905
prokaryote reproduction by budding.
Like binary division, budding is a form
of asexual reproduction. However, with
budding a new individual develops from
a certain point of the parent organism.
The new individual may separate to
exist independently, or the buds may
remain attached, forming colonies.
[1] Evolutionary relationships of model
organisms and bacteria that show
unusual reproductive strategies. This
phylogenetic tree (a) illustrates the
diversity of organisms that use the
alternative reproductive strategies
shown in (b). Bold type indicates
complete or ongoing genome projects.
Intracellular offspring are produced by
several low-GC Gram-positive bacteria
such as Metabacterium polyspora,
Epulopiscium spp. and the segmented
filamentous bacteria (SFB). Budding and
multiple fission are found in the
proteobacterial genera Hyphomonas and
Bdellovibrio, respectively. In the case
of the Cyanobacteria, Stanieria
produces baeocytes and Chamaesiphon
produces offspring by budding.
Actinoplanes produce dispersible
offspring by multiple fission of
filaments within the sporangium.
source: http://www.nature.com/nrmicro/jo
urnal/v3/n3/full/nrmicro1096_fs.html
(Nature Reviews Microbiology 3
[2] Electron micrograph of a Pirellula
bacterium from giant tiger prawn tissue
(Penaeus monodon). Notice the large
crateriform structures (C) on the cell
surface and flagella. From Fuerst et
al.
source: 214-224 (2005);
doi:10.1038/nrmicro1096)
Craton of Australia
[1] Photomicrographs of filaments from
the Sulphur Springs VMS deposit. Scale
bar, 10 µm. a-f, Straight, sinuous and
curved morphologies, some densely
intertwined. g, Filaments parallel to
the concentric layering. h, Filaments
oriented sub-perpendicular to
banding. Figure 3 from: Rasmussen,
Birger. ''Filamentous Microfossils in a
3,235-million-year-old Volcanogenic
Massive Sulphide Deposit.'' Nature
405.6787 (2000):
676–679. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v405/n6787/abs/405676a0.html C
OPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v405/n6787/abs/405676a0.html
[2] Photomicrographs of filaments from
the Sulphur Springs VMS deposit. Scale
bar, 10 µm. a-f, Straight, sinuous and
curved morphologies, some densely
intertwined. g, Filaments parallel to
the concentric layering. h, Filaments
oriented sub-perpendicular to
banding. Figure 3 from: Rasmussen,
Birger. ''Filamentous Microfossils in a
3,235-million-year-old Volcanogenic
Massive Sulphide Deposit.'' Nature
405.6787 (2000):
676–679. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v405/n6787/abs/405676a0.html C
OPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v405/n6787/abs/405676a0.html
(unicellular microfossils with
uncertain affinity). These acritarchs
are also the earliest possible
eukaryote fossils.
Acritarchs appear to be phytoplankton
{FITO-PlaNK-TeN} (freely floating
microscopic algae) that grow thick
coverings during a resting stage in
their life cycle. Some resemble the
resting stage of modern marine algae
known as dinoflagellates.
[1] Figure from: Javaux, Emmanuelle
J., Craig P. Marshall, and Andrey
Bekker. “Organic-walled microfossils
in 3.2-billion-year-old shallow-marine
siliciclastic deposits.” Nature
463.7283 (2010):
934-938. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v463/n7283/full/nature08793.html
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v463/n7283/full/nature08793.html
[2] Figure from: Javaux, Emmanuelle
J., Andrew H. Knoll, and Malcolm R.
Walter. “Morphological and ecological
complexity in early eukaryotic
ecosystems.” Nature 412.6842 (2001):
66-69. http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v412/n6842/abs/412066a0.html Figur
e 1 Protistan microfossils from the
Roper Group. a, c, Tappania plana,
showing asymmetrically distributed
processes and bulbous protrusions
(arrow in a). b, detail of a, showing
dichotomously branching process. d,
Valeria lophostriata. e, Dictyosphaera
sp. f, Satka favosa. The scale bar in a
is 35 µm for a and c; 10 µm for b;
100 µm for d; 15 µm for e; and 40 µm
for f.
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v412/n6842/abs/412066a0.html
(FiRmiKYUTEZ) evolves (Gram positive
bacteria: the cause of botulism,
tetanus, and anthrax).
Firmicutes is a phylum of
nonphotosynthetic, mainly gram-positive
bacteria. Firmicutes and Bacteriodetes
are the two main groups of bacteria
found in the intestine.
Firmicutes includes rods and cocci
{KoKSE} forms, and some form
endospores.
An endospore is a tough reduced dry
form of a bacterium, triggered by a
lack of nutrients, that protects the
bacterium, and allows it to be revived
after long periods of time.
[1] Listeria monocytogenes is a
Gram-positive bacterium, in the
division Firmicutes, named for Joseph
Lister. It is motile by means of
flagella. Some studies suggest that 1
to 10% of humans may carry L.
monocytogenes in their
intestines. Researchers have found L.
monocytogenes in at least 37 mammalian
species, both domesticated and feral,
as well as in at least 17 species of
birds and possibly in some species of
fish and shellfish. Laboratories can
isolate L. monocytogenes from soil,
silage, and other environmental
sources. L. monocytogenes is quite
hardy and resists the deleterious
effects of freezing, drying, and heat
remarkably well for a bacterium that
does not form spores. Most L.
monocytogenes are pathogenic to some
degree.
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Listeria.jpg
[2] These are bacteria (about 0.3 µm
in diameter) that do not have outer
walls, only cytoplasmic membranes.
However, they do have cytoskeletal
elements that give them a distinct
non-spherical shape. They look like
schmoos that are pulled along by their
heads. How they are able to glide is a
mystery.
source: http://webmac.rowland.org/labs/b
acteria/projects_glide.html
Proteobacteria evolves (includes
Rickettsia {the ancestor of all
mitochondria}, gonorrhea, Salmonella,
and Escherichia coli {esRriKEo KOlI} or
E coli {E KOlI}).
The proteobacteria are the largest
group of bacteria by far in terms of
number of described species.
[1] Figure 1. Transmission electron
micrograph of the ELB agent in XTC-2
cells. The rickettsia are free in the
cytoplasm and surrounded by an electron
transparent halo. Original
magnification X 30,000. CDC PD
source: www.cdc.gov/ncidod/
eid/vol7no1/raoultG1.htm
[2] Caulobacter crescentus. From
http://sunflower.bio.indiana.edu/~ybrun/
L305.html COPYRIGHTED EDU was in wiki
but appears to be removed
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/4/42/Caulobacter.jpg
evolve in Escherichia Coli {esRriKEo
KOlI} bacteria. Conjugation is the
exchange of DNA (plasmids) by a donor
{male} bacterium through a pilus to a
recipient {female} bacterium. This may
be the process that evolves into
eukaryote sexual reproduction.
In addition to pili and conjugation,
proteins that can cut DNA and other
proteins that can connect two strands
of DNA evolve.
[1] the fertility factor or F factor is
a very large (94,500 bp) circular dsDNA
plasmid; it is generally independent of
the host chromosome. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.mun.ca/biochem/course
s/3107/images/Fplasmidmap.gif
[2] conjugation (via pilus)
COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://www.bio.miami.edu/dana/16
0/conjugation.jpg
These cells depend on the DNA
duplicating and protein producing
systems of other cells to reproduce
themselves. The first viruses may be
made from bacteria, or may be bacteria
initially.
[1] Description Electron
micrograph of Bacteriophages Date
Source
en:Image:Phage.jpg Author
en:User:GrahamColm PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/52/Phage.jpg
Planctomycetes {PlaNK-TO-mI-SETS}
evolves (also known as
Planctobacteria).
Planctomycetes are a widely distributed
group of eubacteria that reproduce by
budding, have cell walls that do not
contain peptidoglycan like most
bacteria, and some have a
membrane-bound nucleoid, similar to the
eukaryotic nucleus.
[1] Electron micrographs of cells of
new Gemmata-like and Isosphaera-like
isolates. (A) Negatively stained cell
of the Gemmata-like strain JW11-2f5
showing crateriform structures
(arrowhead) and coccoid cell
morphology. Bar marker, 200 nm. (B)
Negatively stained budding cell of
Isosphaera-like strain CJuql1 showing
uniform crateriform structures
(arrowhead) on the mother cell and
coccoid cell morphology. Bar marker,
200 nm. (C) Thin section of
Gemmata-like cryosubstituted cell of
strain JW3-8s0 showing the
double-membrane-bounded nuclear body
(NB) and nucleoid (N) enclosed within
it. Bar marker, 200 nm. (D) Thin
section of Isosphaera-like strain C2-3
possessing a fibrillar nucleoid (N)
within a cytoplasmic compartment
bounded by a single membrane (M) only.
Bar marker, 200 nm. Appl Environ
Microbiol. 2002 January; 68(1):
417-422. doi:
10.1128/AEM.68.1.417-422.2002.
source: http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/art
iclerender.fcgi?tool=pubmed&pubmedid=117
72655
[2] Evolutionary distance tree derived
from comparative analysis of 16S rDNAs
from freshwater and soil isolates and
reference strains of the order
Planctomycetales. Database accession
numbers are shown in parentheses after
species, strain, or clone names.
Bootstrap values of greater than 70%
from 100 bootstrap resamplings from the
distance analysis are presented at
nodes. Thermotoga maritima was used as
an outgroup. Isolates from this study
and representative named species of the
planctomycetes are indicated in bold.
The scale bar represents 0.1 nucleotide
substitution per nucleotide
position. Appl Environ Microbiol.
2002 January; 68(1): 417-422. doi:
10.1128/AEM.68.1.417-422.2002.
source: http://florey.biosci.uq.edu.au/m
ypa/images/fuerst2.gif
Actinobacteria {aKTinO-BaK-TER-Eu}
evolves (the source of streptomycin and
the cause of tuberculosis and
leprosy).
The Actinobacteria are a group of
Gram-positive bacteria, that are
rod-shaped or form branching filaments,
and include many soil bacteria.
[1] Aerial mycelium and spore of
Streptomyces coelicolor. The mycelium
and the oval spores are about 1µm
wide, typical for bacteria and much
smaller than fungal hyphae and spores.
(Scanning electron micrograph, Mark
Buttner, Kim Findlay, John Innes
Centre). COPYRIGHT UK
source: http://www.sanger.ac.uk/Projects
/S_coelicolor/micro_image4.shtml
[2] Frankia is a genus of
nitrogen-fixing soil bacteria, which
possesses a set of features that are
unique amongst symbiotic
nitrogen-fixing microorganisms,
including rhizobia, making it an
attractive taxon to study. These
heterotrophic Gram-positive bacteria
which are able to induce symbiotic
nitrogen-fixing root nodules
(actinorhizas) in a wide range of
dicotyledonous species (actinorhizal
plants), have also the capacity to fix
atmospheric nitrogen in culture and
under aerobic conditions.
source: http://www.ibmc.up.pt/webpagesgr
upos/cam/Frankia.htm
Spirochaetes (SPIrOKETEZ) evolves (the
cause of Syphilis, and Lyme disease).
Spirochetes {SPIrOKETS} are helical
heterotrophs that spiral through their
environment by rotating, internal,
flagellum-like filaments.
[1] Syphilis is a complex, sexually
transmitted disease (STD) with a highly
variable clinical course. The disease
is caused by the bacterium, Treponema
pallidum. In the United States, 32,871
cases of syphilis, including 432 cases
of congenital syphilis, were detected
by public health officials in 2002.
Eight of the ten states with the
highest rates of syphilis are located
in the southern region of the United
States.
source: http://www.cdc.gov/nchstp/od/tus
kegee/syphilis.htm
[2] unknown
source: http://uhavax.hartford.edu/bugl/
images/Treponema%20pallidum.jpg
Bacteroidetes {BaKTRrOEDiTEZ} evolves.
Bacteroidetes is composed of
Gram-stain-negative, rod-shaped, mostly
anaerobic, nonsporeforming bacteria
that are widely distributed in the
environment, including in soil, sea
water, and in the guts and on the skin
of animals.
[1] Description Bacteroides
biacutis—one of many en:commensal
anaerobic en:Bacteroides spp. in the
en:gastrointestinal tract—cultured in
blood agar medium for 48
hours. Obtained from the CDC Public
Health Image Library. Image credit:
CDC/Dr. V.R. Dowell, Jr. (PHIL #3087),
1972. Date 2006-03-11 (original
upload date) Source Originally from
en.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. Author Original uploader was
MarcoTolo at
en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) PD-USGOV-HHS-CDC. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Bacteroides_bia
cutis_01.jpg/1280px-Bacteroides_biacutis
_01.jpg
[2] Bacteroides fragilis . From the
Zdravotni University
source: http://biology.kenyon.edu/Microb
ial_Biorealm/bacteria/bacteroidete_chlor
ob_group/bacteroides/bacteroides.htm
{Klo-mi-DE-I or Klo-mi-DE-E} evolves.
Chlamydiae are parasites that can
survive only within animal cells. One
species Chlamydia trachomatis
(TreKOmuTis} is the most common cause
of blindness on Earth, and also causes
a common sexually transmitted disease.
[1] cell infected with Chlamydia The
Bavoil laboratory studies the
pathogenesis of the obligate
intracellular pathogen, Chlamydia, and
its bacteriophages. Specific research
areas include the role of Chlamydia
type III secretion in pathogenesis and
development, the impact of Chlamydia
phage infection on disease, the role of
the polymorphic membrane protein family
of C. trachomatis in infection and
disease and comparative genomics within
the Chlamydiaceae. [1] Chlamydia
trachomatis wiki, is copyrighted
source: http://www.dental.umaryland.edu/
sebin/p/o/chlamydia_infected_cell2.jpg
[2] wiki, public domain
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chl
amydia_trachomatis
{KlOROBE} evolves (green sulphur
bacteria).
Chlorobi are obligately anoxygenic
(cannot survive in the presence of
oxygen), photosythesizing bacteria,
that fix carbon from carbon dioxide
into carbon compounds for cell growth,
by using sulfur compounds, hydrogen, or
ferrous iron as electron donors
(oxidizing them).
[1] Description Deutsch: Grüne
Schwefelbakterien (Chlorobiaceae) im
unteren Bereich einer
Winogradsky-Säule Date
20.03.2007 (20 March 2007
(original upload date)) Source
Transferred from de.wikipedia;
transfer was stated to be made by
User:Jacopo Werther. (Original text :
Mikrobiologie Praktikum Universität
Kassel März 2007) Author
kOchstudiO. Original uploader was
KOchstudiO at
de.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) Released into the public
domain (by the author). (Original text
: uneingeschränkte Nutzung) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e7/Green_d_winogradsky.j
pg
[2] Campbell, N.A., and J.B. Reece.
Biology. Pearson Benjamin Cummings,
2008. Alternative eText Formats Series,
p194. COPYRIGHTED
source: Campbell, N.A., and J.B. Reece.
Biology. Pearson Benjamin Cummings,
2008. Alternative eText Formats Series,
p194.
Verrucomicrobia (VeR-rUKO-mI-KrO-BEo)
evolves.
Verrucomicrobia are found in soil,
fresh and marine waters, and hot
springs. Like Planctomycetes, some
members of Verrucomicrobia also have
intracellular membrane enclosed
compartments, including a membrane that
encloses the DNA.
[1] Figure 1 Transmission electron
micrographs of high-pressure frozen and
cryosubstituted Verrucomicrobium
spinosum. A. Cell prepared by
high-pressure freezing and
cryosubstitution showing prostheca
(PT), paryphoplasm (P), and an
intracytoplasmic membrane (ICM)
enclosing a pirellulosome region
containing a condensed fibrillar
nucleoid (N). Inset: enlarged view of
area of cell outlined in the white box
showing cytoplasmic membrane (CM),
paryphoplasm and ICM. B.
freeze-fracture replica of cell showing
cross-fractured paryphoplasm (P) and
fracture faces of ICM and CM. Bar –
500 nm Lee et al. BMC Microbiology
2009 9:5
doi:10.1186/1471-2180-9-5 CC
source: http://www.biomedcentral.com/con
tent/figures/1471-2180-9-5-1-l.jpg
[2] Figure 2 Transmission electron
micrograph of high-pressure frozen and
cryosubstituted Verrucomicrobium
spinosum. Cell prepared by
high-pressure freezing and
cryosubstitution showing prostheca
(PT), ribosome-free paryphoplasm (P),
and an intracytoplasmic membrane (ICM)
enclosing a pirellulosome region
containing a condensed fibrillar
nucleoid (N). Membrane-bounded
vesicle-like compartments within some
prosthecae extensions are also present
(see arrowheads). Bar – 1 μm Lee
et al. BMC Microbiology 2009 9:5
doi:10.1186/1471-2180-9-5 CC
source: http://www.biomedcentral.com/con
tent/figures/1471-2180-9-5-2-l.jpg
can now eat other cells.
In endocytosis the plasma membrane
folds inward to bring substances into
the cell.
In Exocytosis substances contained in
vesicles are released from the cell.
[1] Endocytosis and Exocytosis: For
example, this electron micrograph is
showing the process of exocytosis . The
process begins by fusion of the
membranes at the peripheral pole of the
granule. Then an opening is created
which widens to look like an omicron
figure. This opening allows the
granular material to be released. The
membrane is now part of the plasma
membrane and any proteins carried with
it can be incorporated into the plasma
membrane. Note that there is no coating
on the membrane. This figure was taken
from Alberts et al, Molecular Biology
of the Cell, Garland Publishing Third
Edition, 1994 In contrast, this
micrograph shows a figure which looks
something like an omicron, however,
this view is showing receptor mediated
endocytosis of virus particles. In both
cases, the membrane is coated with
clathrin and these represent classical
receptor mediated endocytosis profiles.
Most ligands cannot be visualized by
themselves, like a virus particle.
Therefore, the cytochemist must attach
label to the ligand. Alternatively, the
cytochemist could immunocytochemically
detect the receptor with antibodies
that recognize the extracellular
domain. This figure was taken from
Endocytosis, Edited by Ira Pastan and
Mark C. Willingham, Plenum Press, N.Y.,
1985 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.cytochemistry.net/cel
l-biology/end7.jpg
[2] Pinocytosis In the process of
pinocytosis the plasma membrane froms
an invagination. What ever substance
is found within the area of
invagination is brought into the
cell. In general this material will
be dissolved in water and thus this
process is also refered to as
''cellular drinking'' to indicate that
liquids and material dissolved in
liquids are ingested by the
cell. This is opposed to the
ingestion of large particulate material
like bacteria or other cells or cell
debris. UNKNOWN
source: http://academic.brooklyn.cuny.ed
u/biology/bio4fv/page/endocytb.htm
first cell with a nucleus. The first
protist. The nucleus may develop from
the infolding of plasma membrane.
There are some differences between
prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells:
In
prokaryotic cells the DNA is
concentrated in a region that is not
membrane enclosed called the "nucleoid"
while in eukaryotic cells most of the
DNA is contained in a nucleus that is
bounded by a double membrane.
Eukaryotic cells are generally much
larger than prokaryotic cells. Typical
bacteria are between 1-5 um in
diameter, while eukaryotic cells are
typically 10-100 um in diameter. Unlike
prokaryotic cells, eukaryotic cells
have a cytoskeleton. The cytoskeleton
enables eukaryotic cells to change
their shape and to surround and engulf
other cells. Eukaryotic cells also have
internal structures that prokaryotic
cells lack such as mitochondria and
plastids. DNA in prokaryotic cells is
usually in the form of a single
circular chromosome, while DNA in the
nucleus of eukaryotes contains linear
chromosomes. Some organelles in
eukaryotes also contain DNA; most
mitochondrial and chloroplast DNA is
also circular reflecting their
prokaryote origin.
Like prokaryotes, this cell is probably
haploid (has a single unique DNA), most
eukaryotes are diploid (having two sets
of DNA).
All protist, fungi, animal and plant
cells descend from this common
eukaryotic cell.
[1] Campbell, Reece, et al,
''Biology'', 2008, p517. COPYRIGHTED
source: Campbell, Reece, et al,
"Biology", 2008, p517.
[2]
http://www.regx.de/m_organisms.php#planc
to
source: http://www.regx.de/m_organisms.p
hp#plancto
evidence of eukaryotes (sterane {STiR
AN molecules). Steranes are formed from
sterols {STeRoLZ}, molecules made by
mitochondria.
[1] Jochen J. Brocks, Graham A. Logan,
Roger Buick, Roger E. Summons,
''Archean Molecular Fossils and the
Early Rise of Eukaryotes'', Science,
Vol 285, Issue 5430, 13 August 1999,
p1033-1036.
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/285/
5430/1033.short
and http://www.jstor.org/stable/2898534
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/285/5430/1033.short
and http://www.jstor.org/stable/2898534
in a eukaryote cell. The endoplasmic
reticulum (or ER) is a membrane system
that extends from the nucleus,
important in the synthesis of proteins
and lipids.
[1] Figure 1 : Image of n, endoplasmic
reticulum and Golgi apparatus. (1)
Nucleus. (2) Nuclear pore. (3) Rough
endoplasmic reticulum (RER). (4) Smooth
endoplasmic reticulum (SER). (5)
Ribosome on the rough ER. (6) Proteins
that are transported. (7) Transport
vesicle. (8) Golgi apparatus. (9) Cis
face of the Golgi apparatus. (10) Trans
face of the Golgi apparatus. (11)
Cisternae of the Golgi apparatus. I
am the copyright holder of that image
(I might even have the CorelDraw file
around somewhere:-), and I hereby place
the image and all partial images
created from it in the public domain.
So, you are free to use it any way you
like. In fact, I am delighted that one
of my drawings makes it into
print! I can mail you the .cdr file,
if you like (and if I can find it), if
you need a better resolution for
printing. Yours, Magnus
Manske Source: See also User:Magnus
Manske
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Nucleus_ER_golgi.jpg
[2] Description English: The
elongation and membrane targeting
stages of eukaryotic translation. The
ribosome is green and yellow, the tRNAs
are dark blue, and the other proteins
involved are light blue. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3c/Translation.gif
forms in the eukaryote cytoplasm.
[1] English: Endothelial cells under
the microscope. Nuclei are stained blue
with DAPI, microtubles are marked green
by an antibody bound to FITC and actin
filaments are labelled red with
phalloidin bound to TRITC. Bovine
pulmonary artery endothelial
cells http://rsb.info.nih.gov/ij/images
/ PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/09/FluorescentCells.jpg
[2] FIG. 7. In vitro polymerization
of cytoskeletal proteins of the
MinD/ParA superfamily. (A) Formation of
MinD filament bundles in the presence
of MinE, ATP, and phospholipid
vesicles. One end of the bundle is
markedly frayed because of the presence
of MinE. (Reprinted from reference 198
with permission of the publisher.
Copyright 2003 National Academy of
Sciences, U.S.A.) (B) Formation of a
ParApTP228(ParF) filament bundle in the
presence of ParBpTP228(ParG) and ATP.
ParBpTP228(ParG) stimulates formation
of the frayed end(s) of the
ParApTP228(ParF) bundle. (Reprinted
from reference 11 by permission from
Macmillan Publishers Ltd.) (C)
Formation of Soj filaments in the
presence of DNA and ATP. (Reprinted
from reference 116 by permission from
Macmillan Publishers Ltd.) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/
articles/PMC1594594/bin/zmr0030621350007
.jpg
evolve.
The eukaryote flagellum and cilia are
structurally the same but are very
different from the prokaryote
flagellum. The eukaryote flagellum is
composed of a characteristic "9+2"
arrangement of microtubules
{mIKrO-TUB-YU-LZ} surrounded by a
sheath which is an extension of the
plasma membrane. Unlike the prokaryote
flagella that rotate, the flagella and
cilia of eukaryotic cells undulate in a
wave-like motion to propel the cell.
Some cilia are nonmotile and serve as
signal-receiving "antennae" for the
cell.
The sperm cells of algae, animals, and
some plants have flagella.
[1] Cilia and flagella are projections
from the cell. They are made up of
microtubules , as shown in this cartoon
and are covered by an extension of the
plasma membrane. They are motile and
designed either to move the cell itself
or to move substances over or around
the cell. The primary purpose of cilia
in mammalian cells is to move fluid,
mucous, or cells over their surface.
Cilia and flagella have the same
internal structure. The major
difference is in their length. This
figure shows a cross section of a
cilium next to a longitudinal section.
Below, we will see how the microtubules
are organized in the core (shown in the
cartoon in this figure). Also shown is
the centriole or basal body that
organizes the formation and direction
of the cilia. COPYRIGHTED
source: Description Transmission
electron microscope image, showing an
example of green algae
(Chlorophyta). Chlamydomanas
reinhardtii is a unicellular flagellate
used as a model system in molecular
genetics work and flagellar motility
studies. This image is a
longitudinal section through the
flagella area. In the cell apex is the
basal body that is the anchoring site
for a flagella. Basal bodies originate
from and have a substructure similar to
that of centrioles, with nine
peripheral microtubule triplets(see
structure at bottom center of image).
The two inner microtubules of each
triplet in a basal body become the two
outer doublets in the flagella. This
image also shows the transition region,
with its fibers of the stellate
structure. The top of the image shows
the flagella passing through the cell
wall. Date 20 September
2007 Source Source and public domain
notice at
http://remf.dartmouth.edu/imagesindex.ht
ml Author Dartmouth Electron
Microscope Facility, Dartmouth
College PD
[2] This figure shows an electron
micrograph of a cross section of a
cilium. Note that you can see the
dynein arms and the nexin links. The
dynein arms have ATPase activity. In
the presence of ATP, they can move from
one tubulin to another. They enable the
tubules to slide along one another so
the cilium can bend. The dynein
bridges are regulated so that sliding
leads to synchronized bending. Because
of the nexin and radial spokes, the
doublets are held in place so sliding
is limited lengthwise. If nexin and the
radial spokes are subjected to enzyme
digestion, and exposed to ATP, the
doublets will continue to slide and
telescope up to 9X their length.
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Chlamydomonas_T
EM_09.jpg/1280px-Chlamydomonas_TEM_09.jp
g
eukaryote nucleus changes into linear
chromosomes.
Alternatively, the eukaryotic cell may
descend from a prokaryote that already
has linear DNA.
Some extant prokaryotes have a linear
chromosome.
[1] A DNA molecule is very long (a few
meters) but extremely thin (narrow;
measured in nanometers). Here is an
electron microscope photo of a DNA
strand: PD
source: http://rst.gsfc.nasa.gov/Sect20/
dna1.jpg
[2] [t Is this an accurate image? - Is
a chromosome made of a single wound
strand of DNA? update- no see image
8] Every cell in the human body
(except red blood cells) contains 23
pairs of chromosomes. (a) Each
chromosome is made up of a tightly
coiled strand of DNA. (b) DNA’s
uncoiled state reveals its familiar
double helix shape. If DNA is pictured
as a twisted ladder, its sides, made of
sugar and phosphate molecules, are
connected by (c) rungs made of
chemicals called bases. DNA has four
bases—adenine, thymine, guanine, and
cytosine—that form interlocking
pairs. The order of the bases along the
length of the ladder is the DNA
sequence. PD
source: https://www.llnl.gov/str/June03/
gifs/Stubbs1.gif
proteins found in all eukaryotic cell
nuclei that package and order a single
continuous DNA molecule into structural
units called nucleosomes {nUKlEuSOMZ}.
The nucleosomes are coiled into a 30
nanometer fiber called a chromatin, and
then looped again around a chromosome
scaffold into a larger 300 nanometer
fiber which forms one of the two
chromatids in a chromosome.
[1] Campbell, N.A., and J.B. Reece.
Biology. Pearson Benjamin Cummings,
2008. Alternative eText Formats
Series. COPYRIGHTED
source: Campbell, N.A., and J.B. Reece.
Biology. Pearson Benjamin Cummings,
2008. Alternative eText Formats Series.
[2] Description Schematic
representation of the assembly of the
core histones into the nucleosome Date
15 November 2005 Source English
Wikipedia Author Richard Wheeler
(Zephyris) GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8a/Nucleosome_structure.
png
intermediate stages between cell
division and DNA synthesis.
In prokaryotes, DNA synthesis can take
place uninterrupted between cell
divisions, but eukaryotes duplicate
their DNA exactly once during a
discrete period between cell divisions.
[1] Figure 14.1Phases of the cell
cycle The division cycle of most
eukaryotic cells is divided into four
discrete phases: M, G1, S, and G2. M
phase (mitosis) is usually followed by
cytokinesis. S phase is the period
during which DNA replication occurs.
The cell grows throughout interphase,
which includes G1, S, and G2. The
relative lengths of the cell cycle
phases shown here are typical of
rapidly replicating mammalian
cells. From: The Eukaryotic Cell
Cycle The Cell: A Molecular
Approach. 2nd edition. Cooper
GM. Sunderland (MA): Sinauer
Associates; 2000. Copyright © 2000,
Geoffrey M Cooper. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/book
s/NBK9876/bin/ch14f1.jpg
[2] The cell cycle. Image from Purves
et al., Life: The Science of Biology,
4th Edition, by Sinauer Associates
(www.sinauer.com) and WH Freeman
(www.whfreeman.com) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/facu
lty/farabee/biobk/cellcycle.gif
evolves. The Golgi apparatus packages
proteins and lipids into vesicles for
delivery to targeted destinations.
[1] Figure 1: Image of nucleus,
endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi
apparatus: (1) Nucleus, (2) Nuclear
pore, (3) Rough endoplasmic reticulum
(RER), (4) Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
(SER), (5) Ribosome on the rough ER,
(6) Proteins that are transported, (7)
Transport vesicle, (8) Golgi apparatus,
(9) Cis face of the Golgi apparatus,
(10) Trans face of the Golgi apparatus,
(11) Cisternae of the Golgi apparatus,
(12) Secretory vesicle, (13) Plasma
membrane, (14) Exocytosis, (15)
Cytoplasm, (16) Extracellular space.
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Nucleus_ER_golgi_ex.jpg
[2] no description UNKNOWN
source: http://sun.menloschool.org/~cwea
ver/cells/e/lysosomes/
nucleolus is a sphere in the nucleus
that makes ribosomal RNA.
[1] Nucleolus, COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.eccentrix.com/members
/chempics/Slike/cell/Nucleolus.jpg
[2] With the combination of x-rays
from the Advanced Light Source and a
new protein-labeling technique,
scientists can see the distribution of
the nucleoli within the nucleus of a
mammary epithelial cell. USG PD
source: http://www.lbl.gov/Science-Artic
les/Archive/xray-inside-cells.html
Mitosis is the process in eukaryotic
cell division in which the duplicated
chromosomes are separated and the
nucleus divides resulting in two new
nuclei, each of which contains an
identical copy of the parental
chromosomes. Mitosis is usually
immediately followed by cytokinesis,
the division of the cytoplasm.
Mitosis is thought to have evolved from
prokaryote binary fission and possible
intermediate stages can be seen in some
protists.
[1] Mitosis divides genetic information
during cell division Source:
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/About/primer
/genetics_cell.html This image is
from the Science Primer, a work of the
National Center for Biotechnology
Information, part of the National
Institutes of Health. As a work of the
U.S. federal government, the image is
in the public domain.
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mit
osis
[2] Prophase: The two round objects
above the nucleus are the centrosomes.
Note the condensed chromatin. from
Gray's Anatomy. Unless stated
otherwise, it is from the online
edition of the 20th U.S. edition of
Gray's Anatomy of the Human Body,
originally published in 1918. Online
editions can be found on Bartleby and
also on Yahoo!
source: UNKNOWN
first diploid cell and the first
zygote.
Because of sex, two cells with
different DNA can mix providing more
genetic variety. Having two chromosome
sets also provides a backup copy of
important genes.
Eukaryotic sexual reproduction, which
is initially the fusion of two cells
and their nuclei, may first occur in a
single cell protist that usually
reproduces asexually by mitosis. Two
haploid eukaryote cells (gametes, cells
with one set of chromosomes each) merge
and then their nuclei merge to form the
first diploid cell, a cell with two
sets of chromosomes, the first zygote.
"Syngamy" {SiNG-Gu-mE} refers to gamete
fusion and "karyogamy" {KaR-E-oG-e-mE}
to nucleus fusion. In most cases
syngamy is immediately followed by
karyogamy.
This fusion of two haploid cells
results in the first diploid
single-celled organism, which may then
immediately divide back to two haploid
cells.
Conjugation, the second major kind of
sexual phenomenon, which occurs in the
ciliates, involves the fusion of
gametic nuclei instead of independent
gamete cells.
Initially sex may be the fusion of two
indistinguishable cells (isogamy) with
gender (anisogamy) only evolving later.
Although possibly eukaryote cell fusion
and gender is directly descended from
prokaryote conjugation.
All sexual species alternate between
haploid and diploid. There are three
main different types of sexual life
cycles; haplontic, haplodiplontic, and
diplontic.
This begins the haplontic life cycle:
in the entire life cycle the only
diploid cell is the zygote and mitosis
only occurs in the haploid phase.
Most fungi and some protists including
some algae are "haplontic"; they have a
multicellular haploid stage and no
multicellular diploid stage. Plants and
some algae are "haplodiplontic"; they
make both a multicellular haploid and
multicellular diploid organism. Animals
are "diplontic"; they make a diploid
multicellular organism and no
multicellular haploid organism.
[1] Theoretical first eukaryote
sex adapted from image of gametic
meiosis GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Zygotic_meiosis.jpg
[2] Theoretical first eukaryote
sex adapted from image of gametic
meiosis GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Zygotic_meiosis.jpg
a single cell division of a diploid
cell into two haploid cells).
Meiosis, which looks similar to
mitosis, is the process of cell
division in sexually reproducing
organisms that reduces the number of
chromosomes in reproductive cells from
diploid to haploid, leading to the
production of gametes in animals and
spores in plants.
Without the reduction back to haploid,
genomes would double in size with every
generation.
[1] Theoretical first eukaryote
sex adapted from image of gametic
meiosis GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Zygotic_meiosis.jpg
[2] Theoretical first eukaryote
sex adapted from image of gametic
meiosis GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Zygotic_meiosis.jpg
Anisogamy {aNISoGomE}, sex (cell and
nucleus fusion) between two cells that
are different in size or shape.
[1] Combination of images: Description
English: Different types of
isogamy: A) Isogamy of motile
cells B) Isogamy of non-motile
cells C) Conjugation of
gametangia Date 30 July
2008 Source Vectorised SVG version of
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Isoga
my.png Author Original bitmap version
by Tameeria, SVG version by Qef Other
versions
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:
Isogamy.png PD AND Description
Different types of en:anisogamy:
A) Anisogamy of motile gametes B)
Oogamy (non-motile egg cell, motile
sperm cell) C) Anisogamy of
non-motile gametes Date 2008-06-30
02:07 (UTC) Source
Anisogamy.png Author This
SVG version by Qef (talk)
Anisogamy.png: Original uploader was
Tameeria at en.wikipedia Later
versions were uploaded by Helix84 at
en.wikipedia. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d5/Isogamy.svghttp://upl
oad.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a7
/Anisogamy.svg
[2] Description Different types of
en:anisogamy: A) Anisogamy of motile
gametes B) Oogamy (non-motile egg
cell, motile sperm cell) C) Anisogamy
of non-motile
gametes Date 2008-06-30 02:07
(UTC) Source Anisogamy.png Author
This SVG version by Qef
(talk) Anisogamy.png: Original
uploader was Tameeria at
en.wikipedia Later versions were
uploaded by Helix84 at
en.wikipedia. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Anisogamy.svg/1
000px-Anisogamy.svg.png
anisogamy, evolves in protists: sex
between a flagellated gamete and an
unflagellated gamete.
[1] Combination of images: Description
English: Different types of
isogamy: A) Isogamy of motile
cells B) Isogamy of non-motile
cells C) Conjugation of
gametangia Date 30 July
2008 Source Vectorised SVG version of
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Isoga
my.png Author Original bitmap version
by Tameeria, SVG version by Qef Other
versions
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:
Isogamy.png PD AND Description
Different types of en:anisogamy:
A) Anisogamy of motile gametes B)
Oogamy (non-motile egg cell, motile
sperm cell) C) Anisogamy of
non-motile gametes Date 2008-06-30
02:07 (UTC) Source
Anisogamy.png Author This
SVG version by Qef (talk)
Anisogamy.png: Original uploader was
Tameeria at en.wikipedia Later
versions were uploaded by Helix84 at
en.wikipedia. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d5/Isogamy.svghttp://upl
oad.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a7
/Anisogamy.svg
[2] Description English: A sperm
cell fertilizing an egg cell Date
Source
http://www.pdimages.com/web9.htm Autho
r Unknown Permission (Reusing this
file)
http://www.pdimages.com/web9.htm P
D
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/86/Sperm-egg.jpg
(Gamontogamy).
[1] The Oxymonad, Notila (diploid
Pacific form) life cycle. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.zoology.ubc.ca/~redfi
eld/clevelan/notila.GIF
[2] The Oxymonad, Notila (diploid
Pacific form) life cycle.
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.zoology.ubc.ca/~redfi
eld/clevelan/notila.GIF
DNA copies and then the cell divides
twice into four haploid cells).
Most protists divide by two-step
meiosis, and one-step meiosis is rare.
Many of the steps of meiosis closely
resemble corresponding steps in
mitosis. Meiosis, like mitosis, is
preceded by the replication of
chromosomes, but this single
replication is followed not by one but
two consecutive cell divisions which
results in four child cells instead of
the two child cells of mitosis.
Mitosis produces child cells that are
genetically identical to their parent
cells and each other, while meiosis
produces cells that differ genetically
from their parent cell and from each
other.
[1] GametoGenesis. COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://www.bio.miami.edu/dana/10
4/gametogenesis.jpg
[2] Sexual cycle oxymonas, identical
to saccinobaculus, one step meiosis.
haploid. COPYRIGHTED CANADA
source: http://www.zoology.ubc.ca/~redfi
eld/clevelan/oxymonas.GIF
"Deinococcus-Thermus" evolves (includes
Thermus Aquaticus {used in PCR}, and
Deinococcus radiodurans {which can
survive long exposure to radiation}).
[1] D. radiodurans growing on a
nutrient agar plate. The red color is
due to carotenoid pigment. Links to
816x711-pixel, 351KB JPG. Credit: M.
Daly, Uniformed Services University of
the Health Sciences NASA
source: http://science.nasa.gov/newhome/
headlines/images/conan/D_rad_dish.jpg
[2] Photomicrograph of Deinococcus
radiodurans, from
www.ornl.gov/ORNLReview/ v34 The Oak
Ridge National Laboratory United
States Federal Government This work
is in the public domain because it is a
work of the United States Federal
Government. This applies worldwide. See
Copyright.
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Deinococcus.jpg
Cyanobacteria {SIe-NO-BaK-TERE-u}
evolves.
Cyanobacteria are the only prokaryotes
with oxygen-producing photosynthesis,
and are the ancestor of all eukaryote
plastids (for example chloroplasts).
Fossil evidence suggests that
cyanobacteria existed as early as 3.8
billion years before now, but the
genetic evidence places the origin of
cyanobacteria here at 2.5 billion years
before now.
[1] Oscillatoria COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://www.stcsc.edu/ecology/alg
ae/oscillatoria.jpg
[2] Lyngbya COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://www.stanford.edu/~bohanna
n/Media/LYNGB5.jpg
evolves; (Green Non-Sulphur bacteria).
The Chloroflexi are filamentous
bacteria that perform anoxygenic
photosynthesis.
[1] Chloroflexus photomicrograph from
Doe Joint Genome Institute of US Dept
Energy PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Chlorofl.jpg
the Proterozoic {PrOTReZOiK or
ProTReZOiK} Eon.
The Proterozoic spans from 2,500 to 542
million years ago, and represents 42%
of Earth's history.
[1] Geologic Time Scale 2009 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.geosociety.org/scienc
e/timescale/timescl.pdf
appear in many places.
[1] portion taken
from: Description English: This
image shows a 2.1 billion years old
rock containing black-banded ironstone,
which has a weight of about 8.5 tons.
The approximately two meter high, three
meter wide, and one meter thick block
of stone was found in North America and
belongs to the National Museum of
Mineralogy and Geology in Dresden,
Germany. The rock is located at
+51°2'34.84''
+13°45'26.67''. Deutsch: Dieses Bild
zeigt einen etwa 8,5 Tonnen schweren
und 2,1 Milliarden Jahre alten Block
mit Bändereisenerzen. Der etwa zwei
Meter hohe, drei Meter breite und einen
Meter tiefe Gesteinsblock wurde in
Nordamerika gefunden und gehört dem
Staatlichen Museum für Mineralogie und
Geologie Dresden. Der Block befindet
sich bei den Koordinaten +51°2'34.84''
+13°45'26.67''. Camera
data Camera Nikon D70 Lens Tamron
SP AF 90mm/2.8 Di Macro 1:1 Focal
length 90 mm Aperture f/2.8 Exposure
time 1/250 s Sensivity ISO 200 Please
help translating the description into
more languages. Thanks a lot! If
you want a license with the conditions
of your choice, please email me to
negotiate terms. best new
image Date 26 August
2005 Source Own
work Author André Karwath aka
Aka CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Black-band_iron
stone_%28aka%29.jpg/1280px-Black-band_ir
onstone_%28aka%29.jpg
[2] This rock resulted from
accumulations of ferrous Iron (Fe+2) in
oceans and lakes (which were more green
in color than today; ferrous iron can
produce that color as, for example, in
a Coca-Cola glass bottle). The Iron
readily combined with any available
oxygen, so that the latter was always
destined to be caught up in the iron
precipitates (Fe2O3) and thus didn't
remain in the atmosphere. While BIF is
a hallmark of sedimentary rock
formations during this extended period,
other rocks also formed (shales;
sandstones) but carbonates (limestones)
were much less commmon. Starting about
2.3 billion years ago, oxygen levels
and other factors led to common
production of ferric oxides (Hematite)
that made prominent red beds
periodically to the present. One
variety includes alternating chert
layers, some rich in iron PD
source: http://rst.gsfc.nasa.gov/Sect19/
2929573315_7bb69aeebb.jpg
Chemoauthotrophs oxidize sulfur or
nitrogen to form sulfate or nitrate,
and therefore sulfuric or nitric acid,
which then dissolves rocks.
[1] Acidic waste water from a modern
mining site supports the same oxygen
using bacterial life that appeared on
Earth 2.48 billion years ago. UNKNOWN
source: http://media.news.ualberta.ca/~/
media/University%20of%20Alberta/Administ
ration/External%20Relations/ExpressNews/
Images/2011/10/111020-RocksBanner-cw.jpg
[2] Bacillus specie soil
bacteria. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.scharfphoto.com/fine_
art_prints/archives/199812-054-Soil-Bact
eria.jpg
age.
[1] snowball Earth UNKNOWN
source: http://www.cosmosmagazine.com/fi
les/imagecache/feature/files/features/pr
int/20090528_snowball_earth.jpg
[2] Snowball Earth Snowball Earth
describes a theory that for millions of
years the Earth was entirely smothered
in ice, stretching from the poles to
the tropics. This freezing happened
over 650 million years ago in the
Pre-Cambrian, though it's now thought
that there may have been more than one
of these global glaciations. They
varied in duration and extent but
during a full-on snowball event, life
could only cling on in ice-free
refuges, or where sunlight managed to
penetrate through the ice to allow
photosynthesis. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/imag
es/ic/credit/640x395/s/sn/snowball_earth
/snowball_earth_1.jpg
formed on land, begin here, and are
also evidence of more free oxygen in
the air of Earth.
[1]
http://www.kgs.ukans.edu/Extension/redhi
lls/redhills.html
source: http://www.kgs.ukans.edu/Extensi
on/redhills/redhills.html
[2] In Archean rocks, metals tend to
occur in low oxidation states (for
example, Fe2+ instead of Fe3+)
indicating a high metal:oxygen ratio in
the oceans and atmosphere. The
sediments are essentially rust-free.
After the late Proterozoic,
sedimentary deposits often have reddish
colors and are called red beds due to
the presence of iron-oxide coatings
between sand grains. From the later
Proterozoic onward, enough free oxygen
has been available to oxidize iron in
sediments. A sandstone butte outside
of Sedona, Arizona. Public domain
image by Jon Sullivan. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/38/Butte_pdphoto_roadtri
p_24_bg_021604.jpg
related to Rickettsia prowazekii, an
aerobic proteobacteria, is engulfed by
an early eukaryote cell and over time a
symbiotic relationship evolves within
the eukaryote cell (an endosymbiosis)
where the Rickettsia becomes the
mitochondria.
Mitochondria are membrane-bound
organelles found in the cytoplasm of
almost all eukaryotic cells, and are
where cellular respiration occurs
producing most of the ATP in a
eukaryotic cell.
In eukaryotes the mitochondria perform
the Citric Acid Cycle and Oxidative
phosphorylation using oxygen to
breakdown pyruvate from glycolysis into
carbon dioxide and water, and provide
up to 36 ATP molecules.
[1] Figure from: Michael W. Gray, et
al, ''Genome structure and gene content
in protist mitochondrial DNAs'',
Nucl. Acids Res. (1998) 26(4):
865-878 doi:10.1093/nar/26.4.865
http://nar.oxfordjournals.org/content/
26/4/865.full Phylogenetic hypothesis
of the eukaryotic lineage based on
ultrastructural and molecular data.
Organisms are divided into three main
groups distinguished by mitochondrial
cristal shape (either discoidal,
flattened or tubular). Unbroken lines
indicate phylogenetic relationships
that are firmly supported by available
data; broken lines indicate
uncertainties in phylogenetic
placement, resolution of which will
require additional data. Color coding
of organismal genus names indicates
mitochondrial genomes that have been
completely (Table 1), almost completely
(Jakoba, Naegleria and
Thraustochytrium) or partially (*)
sequenced by the OGMP (red), the FMGP
(black) or other groups (green). Names
in blue indicate those species whose
mtDNAs are currently being sequenced by
the OGMP or are future candidates for
complete sequencing. Amitochondriate
retortamonads are positioned at the
base of the tree, with broken arrows
denoting the endosymbiotic origin(s) of
mitochondria from a Rickettsia-like
eubacterium. Macrophar.,
Macropharyngomonas.
source: http://nar.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/vol26/issue4/images/gkb18201.gif
[2] Figure 1 Phylogenetic tree of
eukaryotes based on ultrastructural and
molecular data. Organisms are
sub-divided into main groups as
discussed in the text. Only a few
representative species for which
complete (or almost complete) mtDNA
sequences are known are shown in each
lineage. In some cases, line drawings
or actual pictures of the organisms are
provided (Acanthamoeba, M. Nagata; URL:
http://protist.i.hosei.ac.jp/PDB/PCD3379
/htmls/21.html; Allomyces, Tom Volk;
URL:
http://botit.botany.wisc.edu/images/332/
Chytridiomycota/Allomyces_r_So_pa/A._arb
uscula_pit._sporangia_tjv.html;
Amoebidium, URL:
http://cgdc3.igmors.upsud.fr/microbiolog
ie/mesomycetozoaires.htm; Marchantia,
URL:
http://www.science.siu.edu/landplants/He
patophyta/images/March.female.JPEG
Scenedesmus, Entwisle et al.,
http://www.rbgsyd.gov.au/_data/page/1824
/Scenedesmus.gif). The color-coding of
the main groups (alternating between
dark and light blue) on the outer
circle corresponds to the color-coding
of the species names. Unbroken lines
indicate phylogenetic relationships
that are firmly supported by available
molecular data; broken lines indicate
uncertainties in phylogenetic
placement, resolution of which will
require additional sequence data. [t:
why not color code or add which type of
mito?]
source: http://arjournals.annualreviews.
org/doi/full/10.1146/annurev.genet.37.11
0801.142526
fossil (Grypania). Grypania spiralis is
about 10 cm long, and is thought to be
either a green alga or a large
cyanobacterium. If eukaryote, Grypania
would be the earliest non-acritarch
eukaryote fossil.
Grypania may be like Acetabularia
{aS-i-TaB-YU-lAR-Eu}, a large
single-celled green algae.
The Grypania
fossils have no blade (analogous to a
leaf) or holdfast structures, but
stretching implies that Grypania was a
sessile organism connected to a
surface.
USA
[1]
file:/root/web/Grypania_spiralis_wmel000
0.htm
source: file:/root/web/Grypania_spiralis
_wmel0000.htm
[2]
http://www.peripatus.gen.nz/paleontology
/lrgGrypaniaspiralis.jpg
source: http://www.peripatus.gen.nz/pale
ontology/lrgGrypaniaspiralis.jpg
Formation.
[1] Ted Huntington PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/62/MichiganBIF.jpg
[2] Ted Huntington PD
source: Ted Huntington
These genes regulate the building of
major body parts in algae, plants,
fungi and animals.
For example, when a homeobox gene
responsible for growing a mouse eye is
added to the cell of a fruit-fly embryo
that is destined to be a leg, an extra
fruit fly eye is built on the leg.
[1] {ULSF: Homeobox genes} Desajustes
en el modelo UNKNOWN
source: http://cnho.files.wordpress.com/
2010/07/hox_genes_illus.png
[2] {ULSF: Homeobox genes} UNKNOWN
source: http://cnho.files.wordpress.com/
2010/07/homeobox1.jpg
eukaryotes divides into bikont and
unikont descendants. Bikonts lead to
all Chromalveolates, Excavates,
Rhizaria, and Plants. Unikonts lead to
all Amoebozoa, Animals and Fungi.
[1] Figure 1: Figure 1. Eukaryote
phylogeny integrating ultrastructure,
sequence trees, gene fusions and
molecular cladistic markers. The
unikont topology is established, but
the branching order of the six bikont
groups remains uncertain. The single
enslavement [12] of a red alga (R) to
create chromalveolates is supported by
a plastid glyceraldehyde phosphate
dehydrogenase (GAPDH) replacement [13].
Whether there was a single enslavement
of a green alga (G) to form cabozoa or
two separate enslavements (asterisks)
to form Cercozoa and Excavata is
uncertain [12], as is the position of
Heliozoa [14]. Polyubiquitin [15] and
EF-1α[16] insertions strongly support
the clades core Rhizaria and
opisthokonts. The inset shows the BamHI
restriction fragment from H.
cantabrigiensis that was sequenced and
analysed in this study, spanning the
DHFR and the amino terminus of the TS
gene (red, introns are green). The
length of the noncoding regions
upstream and downstream of the DHFR
gene from one of the clones is
indicated. Figure 1 from: Stechmann
A, Cavalier-Smith T, ''The root of the
eukaryote tree pinpointed.'', 2003,
Curr. Biol. 13, R665–R666.
doi:10.1016/S0960-9822(03)00602-X. http
://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article
/pii/S096098220300602X COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=MiamiCaptionURL&_method=retriev
e&_eid=1-s2.0-S096098220300602X&_image=1
-s2.0-S096098220300602X-gr1_lrg.jpg&_ba=
&_fmt=full&_orig=na&_issn=09609822&_pii=
S096098220300602X&_isHiQual=Y&_acct=C000
059600&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=
4422&md5=cec46b2161caca87740f4ff34545ab6
9
[2] cavalier-smith diagram COPYRIGHTED
source: cavalier_jmolevol_2003_56_540-56
3.pdf
evolves (amoebas and slime molds); the
first feeding using pseudopods (a
temporary projection of the
cytoplasm).
The Amoebozoa include amoebas, both
naked and testate (partially enclosed
by a "test" or shell), and slime molds
and are characterized by pseudopods.
Slime molds will diverge into two main
branches, plasmodial slime molds and
cellular slime molds.
[1] SUBPHYLUM Lobosa CLASS Amoebaea
Chaos diffluens, an amoeba. Photo
released by Dr. Ralf Wagner.
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Chaos_diffluens.jpg
[2] CLASS Amoebaea Mayorella (may-or
-ell-a) a medium sized free-living
naked amoeba with conical pseudopodia.
Central body is the nucleus. Phase
contrast. This picture was taken by
David Patterson of material from
Limulus-ridden sediments at Plum Island
(Massachusetts USA) in spring and
summer, 2001. NONCOMMERCIAL USE
source: http://microscope.mbl.edu/script
s/microscope.php?func=imgDetail&imageID=
515
colony) evolves for the first time in
Eukaryotes.
Many cells that form colonies are
apparently identical but because each
cell is exposed to a different
environment, they transcribe different
genes.
[1] [t Note that this Chrysophytes
{golden algae} do not evolve
genetically until much later - but I
can't find colonial euglinas or
kinetoplasts- dinobryon look very
similar to euglenas however, even with
a red eyespot- which implies a close
relation.] [1] Dinobryon, a colony of
Chrysophytes showing flagella and red
eyespots UNKNOWN
source: http://www.microscopy-uk.org.uk/
mag//imagsmall/Dinobryonb.jpg
[2] [t Note that this CHrysophytes
{golden algae} do not evolve
genetically until much later - but I
can't find colonial euglinas or
kinetoplasts] [2] golden algae colony
(synura) Scanning EM showing the
colony of cells covered with scales By
Joel Mancuso UNKNOWN
source: http://farm1.staticflickr.com/38
/110623789_7d189c795b_b.jpg
Cyanobacteria form plastids through
endosymbiosis within a eukaryotic cell.
Like mitochondria, these organelles
copy themselves and are not made by the
cell DNA.
Plastids provide the eukaryotic cell
with food from photosynthesis and gain
protection by living within the cell.
This is a primary plastid endosymbiosis
and so these plastids are surrounded by
a double membrane. The inner wall of
the plastid being that of the
bacterium, the outer wall being that of
the eukoaryote.
[1] Description Plagiomnium
affine, Laminazellen, Rostock Date
created 01.11.2006 Source
photographed by myself Author
Kristian Peters --
Fabelfroh Permission (Reusing this
file) GFDL
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/49/Plagiomnium_affine_la
minazellen.jpeg
green and red algae and land plants).
This begins the plant kingdom. The
first plant is probably unicellular,
similar to the glaucophytes
{GlxKoFITS}.
[1] ? COPYRIGHTED
source: http://protist.i.hosei.ac.jp/PDB
3/PCD3711/htmls/86.html
[2] (See Image) COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). (c1500)
(the ancestor of all Fungi,
Choanoflagellates and Animals).
[1] Parasite spore, SEM Z115/0073
Rights Managed Credit: EYE OF
SCIENCE/SCIENCE PHOTO
LIBRARY Caption: Parasite spore.
Coloured scanning electron micrograph
(SEM) of a microsporidian (Tubulinosema
ratisbonensis) spore cultured on human
lung fibroblast cells (brown).
Microsporidia are single-celled
parasites. T. ratisbonenesis is a
parasite of the fruit fly (Drosophila
melanogaster), but may also be able to
infect humans with weakened immune
systems. The spore is the infective
phase of the life cycle. It is excreted
by the old host and enters the gut of a
new host. The contents of the spore,
the sporoplasm, is injected into the
host's cell via the polar tubule. Once
in the cell the organism divides many
times with the resultant organisms
producing more spores. Magnification:
x10,000 at 10 centimetres
wide. Release details: Model and
property releases are not available
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.sciencephoto.com/imag
e/365473/large/Z1150073-Parasite_spore,_
SEM-SPL.jpg
[2] Parasite spore, SEM Z115/0073
Rights Managed Credit: EYE OF
SCIENCE/SCIENCE PHOTO
LIBRARY Caption: Parasite spore.
Coloured scanning electron micrograph
(SEM) of a microsporidian (Tubulinosema
ratisbonensis) spore cultured on human
lung fibroblast cells (brown).
Microsporidia are single-celled
parasites. T. ratisbonenesis is a
parasite of the fruit fly (Drosophila
melanogaster), but may also be able to
infect humans with weakened immune
systems. The spore is the infective
phase of the life cycle. It is excreted
by the old host and enters the gut of a
new host. The contents of the spore,
the sporoplasm, is injected into the
host's cell via the polar tubule. Once
in the cell the organism divides many
times with the resultant organisms
producing more spores. Magnification:
x10,000 at 10 centimetres
wide. Release details: Model and
property releases are not available
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.sciencephoto.com/imag
e/365473/large/Z1150073-Parasite_spore,_
SEM-SPL.jpg
Glaucophyta {GlxKoFITu}.
Glaucophytes are unicellular algae
found in freshwater.
Glaucophyta probably branched off the
evolutionary tree before the divergence
of red and green algae from one
another.
[1] ? COPYRIGHTED
source: http://protist.i.hosei.ac.jp/PDB
3/PCD3711/htmls/86.html
[2] ? COPYRIGHTED
source: http://protist.i.hosei.ac.jp/PDB
/Images/Others/Glaucocystis/
{KlORoFiTu} evolves, Green Algae:
(ancestor of Volvox, Sea lettuce,
Spirogyra, and Stoneworts).
The green algae are the most diverse
group of algae on Earth today in terms
of number of species (having at least
7000 species).
The first land plants most likely
evolve from green algae.
[1] Description Flagellar pit of
Pyramimonas sp. / from Nigaku-Ike of
University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Ibaraki
Pref., Japan / SEM:JEOL JSM-6330F /
scale bar = 1.0μm Date 2009-05-04
18:30 (UTC) Source
Pyramimonas_sp.jpg Author
Pyramimonas_sp.jpg: ja:User:NEON /
User:NEON_ja derivative work:
Addicted04 (talk) CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/cb/Pyramimonas_sp_color.
jpg
[2] Micrograph of Volvox aureus.
Copyright held by Dr. Ralf Wagner,
uploaded to German Wikipedia under
GFDL. Permission is granted to copy,
distribute and/or modify this document
under the terms of the GNU Free
Documentation License, Version 1.2 or
any later version published by the Free
Software Foundation; with no Invariant
Sections, no Front-Cover Texts, and no
Back-Cover Texts. Subject to
disclaimers.
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vol
vox
{rODOFITu} evolves (Red Algae).
Rhodophyta are common and widespread,
unicellular and multicellular algae
(reaching up to 1 m {or 3 feet} in
length), and are mostly free-living but
some are parasitic or symbiotic.
[1] Close-up of a red alga (Genus?
Laurencia), Class Florideophyceae,
Order=? a marine seaweed from Hawaii.
GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Laurencia.jpg
[2] Bangia atropurpurea Profile:
unbranched filaments in tufts. Often
forming dense fringes in the spalsh
zone. Uniseriate at base, multiseriate
above with protoplasts separate in a
firm gelatinous sheath. Stellate
chloroplasts. US NOAA PD
source: http://www.glerl.noaa.gov/seagra
nt/GLWL/Algae/Rhodophyta/Cards/Bangia.ht
ml
ancestor of the Parabasalids
{PaRu-BAS-a-liDS}, and the Diplomonads
{DiP-lO-mO-naDZ} {which includes
Giardia {JE-oR-DE-u}).
Most of these species have an excavated
ventral feeding groove, and all lack
mitochondria which are thought to be
lost secondarily.
[1] A timescale of eukaryote evolution.
The times for each node are taken from
the summary times in Table 1, except
for nodes 1 (310 Ma), 2 (360 Ma), 3
(450 Ma), and 4 (520 Ma), which are
from the fossil record [25]; nodes 8
(1450 Ma) and 16 (1587 Ma) are
phylogenetically constrained and are
the midpoints between adjacent nodes.
Nodes 12–14 were similar in time and
therefore shown as a multifurcation at
1000 Ma; likewise, nodes 21–22 are
shown as a multifurcation at 1967 Ma.
The star indicates the occurrence of
red algae in the fossil record at 1200
Ma, the oldest taxonomically
identifiable eukaryote [12]. Hedges
et al. BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004
4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.biomedcentral.com/con
tent/figures/1471-2148-4-2-2.jpg
[2] Giardia lamblia, a parasitic
flagellate that causes giardiasis.
Image from public domain source at
http://www.nigms.nih.gov/news/releases/i
mages/para.jpg
source: http://www.nigms.nih.gov/news/re
leases/images/para.jpg
Eukaryotes evolves.
In this organism, unlike single cell
eukaryotes, cells stay fastened
together after cell division.
Multicellularity seems to have arisen
multiple times independently in
eukaryotes: in fungi, animals, slime
molds, and algae.
Formation) Somerset Island, arctic
Canada
[1] Bodanella (bow-dan-ell-a)
lauterbornii, a branching filamentous
brown alga. Nearly all brown algae are
marine organisms, but this species is
found in the bottoms of freshwater
lakes. Bright field. data on this
strain. This image is of material
from Provasoli-Guillard National Center
for Culture of Marine Phytoplankton,
images taken by David Patterson and Bob
Andersen. Image copyright: Bob Andersen
and D. J. Patterson, image used under
license to MBL
(micro*scope). NONCOMMERCIAL USE ONLY
source: http://starcentral.mbl.edu/msr/r
awdata/files/bodonella_bgz.zip
[2] Bodanella (bow-dan-ell-a)
lauterbornii, a branching filamentous
brown alga. Nearly all brown algae are
marine organisms, but this species is
found in the bottoms of freshwater
lakes. Bright field. data on this
strain. This image is of material
from Provasoli-Guillard National Center
for Culture of Marine Phytoplankton,
images taken by David Patterson and Bob
Andersen. Image copyright: Bob Andersen
and D. J. Patterson, image used under
license to MBL
(micro*scope). NONCOMMERCIAL USE ONLY
source: http://starcentral.mbl.edu/msr/r
awdata/viewable/bodonella_bgw.jpg
eukaryote evolves. In addition to
gamete (or spore) cells, there are
somatic cells. Unlike gamete cells,
somatic cells are asexual
(non-fusing).
All cells of an organism are somatic
cells, except the sperm and egg cells,
the cells from which they arise
(gametocytes), and undifferentiated
stem cells.
Cell differentiation is how cells in a
multicellular organism become
specialized to perform specific
functions in a variety of tissues and
organs.
[1] Volvoxcell differentiation. The
pathways leading to germ cells or
somatic cells are controlled by genes
that cause cells to follow one or the
other fate. Mutations can prevent the
formation of one of these lineages.
http://www.devbio.com/chap02/link0204.sh
tml Although all the volvocaceans,
like their unicellular relative
Chlamydomonas, reproduce predominantly
by asexual means, they are also capable
of sexual reproduction, which involves
the production and fusion of haploid
gametes. In many species of
Chlamydomonas, including the one
illustrated in Figure 2.10, sexual
reproduction is isogamous (“the same
gametes”), since the haploid gametes
that meet are similar in size,
structure, and motility. However, in
other species of Chlamydomonas—as
well as many species of colonial
volvocaceans—swimming gametes of very
different sizes are produced by the
different mating types. This pattern is
called heterogamy (“different
gametes”). But the larger
volvocaceans have evolved a specialized
form of heterogamy, called oogamy,
which involves the production of large,
relatively immotile eggs by one mating
type and small, motile sperm by the
other (see Sidelights and
Speculations) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/book
s/NBK10031/bin/ch2f12.jpg
[2] Description English: Four
Different Species of Volvocales Algae.
(A) Gonium pectorale, (B) Eudorina
elegans, (C) Pleodorina californica,
and (D) Volvox carteri. These are
unicellular organisms that live in
colonies and have both large and small
gametes. Date Published: June 15,
2004 Source Whitfield J:
Everything You Always Wanted to Know
about Sexes. PLoS Biol 2/6/2004: e183.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.0
020183 Author Photo courtesy of
Aurora M. Nedelcu, from the Volvocales
Information Project
(http://www.unbf.ca/vip/index.htm). Per
mission (Reusing this file) See
below. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c5/Volvocales.png
[1] Mitosis divides genetic information
during cell division Source:
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/About/primer
/genetics_cell.html This image is
from the Science Primer, a work of the
National Center for Biotechnology
Information, part of the National
Institutes of Health. As a work of the
U.S. federal government, the image is
in the public domain.
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mit
osis
[2] Prophase: The two round objects
above the nucleus are the centrosomes.
Note the condensed chromatin. from
Gray's Anatomy. Unless stated
otherwise, it is from the online
edition of the 20th U.S. edition of
Gray's Anatomy of the Human Body,
originally published in 1918. Online
editions can be found on Bartleby and
also on Yahoo!
source: UNKNOWN
evolves in algae (mitosis occurs in
both haploid and diploid life stages).
This is also known as the "alternation
of generations".
Some algae and plants have a
haplodiplontic life cycle; a life cycle
where both diploid and haploid stages
are multicellular. The multicellular
haploid stage is called the gametophyte
and the multicellular diploid stage is
called the sporophyte.
[1] Drawn by self for Biological life
cycle Based on Freeman & Worth's
Biology of Plants (p. 171). GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Sporic_meiosis.png
[2] Drawn by self for Biological life
cycle Based on Freeman & Worth's
Biology of Plants (p. 171). GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Sporic_meiosis.png
endosymbiosis, becomes a plastid in the
ancestor of all chromalveolates.
This is a secondary plastid
endosymbiosis, where an algae cell is
captured instead of a cyanobacterium
which results in a plastid with more
than two membranes.
[1] Fig. 2. The tree of life based
on molecular, ultrastructural and
palaeontological evidence. Contrary to
widespread assumptions, the root is
among the eubacteria, probably within
the double-enveloped Negibacteria, not
between eubacteria and archaebacteria
(Cavalier-Smith, 2002b); it may lie
between Eobacteria and other
Negibacteria (Cavalier-Smith, 2002b).
The position of the eukaryotic root has
been nearly as controversial, but is
less hard to establish: it probably
lies between unikonts and bikonts (Lang
et al., 2002; Stechmann and
Cavalier-Smith, 2002, 2003). For
clarity the basal eukaryotic kingdom
Protozoa is not labelled; it comprises
four major groups (alveolates, cabozoa,
Amoebozoa and Choanozoa) plus the small
bikont phylum Apusozoa of unclear
precise position; whether Heliozoa are
protozoa as shown or chromists is
uncertain (Cavalier-Smith, 2003b).
Symbiogenetic cell enslavement occurred
four or five times: in the origin of
mitochondria and chloroplasts from
different negibacteria, of
chromalveolates by the enslaving of a
red alga (Cavalier-Smith, 1999, 2003;
Harper and Keeling, 2003) and in the
origin of the green plastids of
euglenoid (excavate) and chlorarachnean
(cercozoan) algae—a green algal cell
was enslaved either by the ancestral
cabozoan (arrow) or (less likely) twice
independently within excavates and
Cercozoa (asterisks) (Cavalier-Smith,
2003a). The upper thumbnail sketch
shows membrane topology in the
chimaeric cryptophytes (class
Cryptophyceae of the phylum Cryptista);
in the ancestral chromist the former
food vacuole membrane fused with the
rough endoplasmic reticulum placing the
enslaved cell within its lumen (red) to
yield the complex membrane topology
shown. The large host nucleus and the
tiny nucleomorph are shown in blue,
chloroplast green and mitochondrion
purple. In chlorarachneans (class
Chlorarachnea of phylum Cercozoa) the
former food vacuole membrane remained
topologically distinct from the ER to
become an epiplastid membrane and so
did not acquire ribosomes on its
surface, but their membrane topology is
otherwise similar to the cryptophytes.
The other sketches portray the four
major kinds of cell in the living world
and their membrane topology. The upper
ones show the contrasting ancestral
microtubular cytoskeleton (ciliary
roots, in red) of unikonts (a cone of
single microtubules attaching the
single centriole to the nucleus, blue)
and bikonts (two bands of microtubules
attached to the posterior centriole and
an anterior fan of microtubules
attached to the anterior centriole).
The lower ones show the single plasma
membrane of unibacteria (posibacteria
plus archaebacteria), which were
ancestral to eukaryotes and the double
envelope of negibacteria, which were
ancestral to mitochondria and
chloroplasts (which retained the outer
membrane, red). COPYRIGHTED
source: http://aob.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/95/1/147/F2.large.jpg
[2] Figure 3: Fig. 3. Schematic
representation of the evolutionary
relationships and divergence times for
the red, green, glaucophyte, and
chromist algae. These photosynthetic
groups are outgroup-rooted with the
Opisthokonta which putatively
ancestrally lacked a plastid. The
branches on which the cyanobacterial
(CB) primary and red algal chromist
secondary endosymbioses occurred are
shown Figure 3 from: Yoon, Hwan Su
et al. “A Molecular Timeline for the
Origin of Photosynthetic Eukaryotes.”
Molecular Biology and Evolution 21.5
(2004): 809 -818.
Print. http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/21/5/809.abstract COPYRIGHTED
source: http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/21/5/809/F3.large.jpg
{KrOM-aL-VEO-leTS} evolve (the ancestor
of the Chromista {Cryptophytes,
Haptophytes, and Stramenopiles
{STro-meN-o-Pi-lEZ}} and Alveolates
{aL-VEO-leTS}).
[1] S. Blair Hedges and Sudhir Kumar,
''The TimeTree of Life'', 2009,
p117-118. http://www.timetree.org/book.
php COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.timetree.org/book.php
[2] Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield
NJ, Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D,
''Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources and
timing of the major events.'', in:
Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors.
''Evolution of primary producers in the
sea.'', Elsevier; 2007, p120.
COPYRIGHTED
source: Hackett JD, Yoon HS,
Butterfield NJ, Sanderson MJ,
Bhattacharya D, "Plastid endosymbiosis:
Sources and timing of the major
events.", in: Falkowski P, Knoll A,
editors. "Evolution of primary
producers in the sea.", Elsevier; 2007,
p120.
fossils and earliest certain fossils of
eukaryote filamentous multicellularity:
a bangiophyte {BoNJEuFIT} red alga
fossil.
These are also the earliest fossils of
a eukaryote that can reproduce sexually
and that have differentiated cells (a
basal holdfast).
arctic Canada
[1] Figure 4 from: Science 1990 vol
250 Butterfield N. J. A. H. Knoll K.
Swett 1990 A bangiophyte red alga from
the Proterozoic of Arctic Canada.
Science 250: 104-107
http://www.jstor.org/stable/2877905
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2877
905
[2] Figure 2 from: Science 1990 vol
250 Butterfield N. J. A. H. Knoll K.
Swett 1990 A bangiophyte red alga from
the Proterozoic of Arctic Canada.
Science 250: 104-107
http://www.jstor.org/stable/2877905
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2877
905
Fungi Kingdom.
Like animals, fungi are heterotrophic
(unable to build structural materials
by photosynthesis) and so must feed on
other living things.
Fungi live on organic material and are
therefore generally parasitic (live or
feed on another organism to the
detriment of the host organism) or are
saprophytic (live on dead or decaying
organic matter). Some types of fungi,
however, form symbioses with plants.
Fungi may reproduce sexually or
asexually and like plants show
alternations in their life cycle.
[1] Microsporidia. Image from Sterling
Parasitology Microsporidia
Research. UNKNOWN
source: http://microbewiki.kenyon.edu/im
ages/3/37/Micro2.jpg
[2] Penicillium [t Note: Penecillium
is a multicellular fungi.] UNKNOWN
source: http://www.mold-help.org/pages/i
mages/Penicillium.jpg
{aL-VEO-leTS} (the ancestor of all
Ciliates, Apicomplexans, and
Dinoflagellates {DInOFlaJeleTS}).
These three protist phyla all have an
alveolar {aL-VE-e-lR} membrane system,
made of flattened membrane-bound sacs
called "alveoli" {aL-VE-e-lI}.
[1]
Unknown http://www.genome.gov/Images/pr
ess_photos/highres/85-300.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Oxytricha_trifa
llax.jpg/1024px-Oxytricha_trifallax.jpg
[2] Description English: Unknown
species of cilliate in the last stages
of mitosis (cytokinesis), with cleavage
furrow visible. Date Source
Own work Author
TheAlphaWolf CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/55/Unk.cilliate.jpg
"Microsporidia" evolves.
Microsporidia are obligate (survive
only as) intracellular parasites of
eukaryotes; commonly infecting insects,
crustaceans, and fishes.
[1] Sporoblast of the Microsporidium
Fibrillanosema crangonycis. Electron
micrograph taken by Leon White. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Fibrillanosema_spore.jpg
[2] Spironema
multiciliatum Spironema:
Octosporoblastic sporogony producing
horseshoe-shaped monokaryotic spores in
sporophorous vesicles; monomorphic,
diplokaryotic and monokaryotic;
merogony - last generation merozoites
are diplokaryotic; sporogony - initial
division of the sporont nuclei is
meiotic as indicated by the occurrence
of synaptonemal complexes; spores are
horse-shoe-shaped, with swollen ends in
T. variabilis and have one elongate
nucleus; exospore with three layers,
endospore is of medium thickness;
polaroplast composed of two lamellar
parts, an anterior part of closely
packed lamellae and a posterior part of
wider compartments; polar tube is
isofilar and forms, in the posterior
quarter of the spore, 3-4 coils in a
single rank (T. variabilis) or 8-10
coils in a single rank (T. chironomi);
type species Toxoglugea vibrio in
adipose tissue of larvae of Ceratopogon
sp. (Diptera, Ceratopogonidae).
Spironema (spire-oh-knee-ma)
multiciliatum Klebs, 1893. Cells are
lanceolate, relatively flattened and
flexible. The cells have a spiral
groove, long kinetics and a tail, which
tapers posteriorly, and are about 15 -
21 microns without the tail. The
nucleus is located anteriorly or near
the centre of the cell. When the cells
are squashed, the cells are more
flexible. Food materials are seen under
the cell surface. Rarely observed.
This picture was taken by Won Je Lee
using conventional photographic film
using a Zeiss Axiophot microscope of
material collected in marine sediments
of Botany Bay (Sydney, Australia). The
image description refers to material
from Botany Bay. NONCOMMERCIAL USE
source: http://microscope.mbl.edu/script
s/microscope.php?func=imgDetail&imageID=
3928
"Dinoflagellata" evolves.
Dinoflagellates {DI-nO-Fla-Je-leTS} are
single-celled, aquatic organisms that
have two dissimilar flagella. Most are
microscopic and marine. An important
link in the food chain, Dinoflagellates
also "bloom" which can produce
luminescence seen in the sea.
[1] Dinoflagellate Ceratium
sp. Phylum Dinoflagellata Upper
Newport Bay, Orange County, CA.
9/22/12. © Peter J.
Bryant COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nathistoc.bio.uci.edu/Din
oflagellates/DSC_6886b.jpg
[2] Model of Pyrodinium bahamense, a
dinoflagellate species, in the American
Museum of Natural History Credit:
Life’s Little Mysteries Fire
water Have you ever seen glowing ocean
water, like the bright blue surf
pictured in the intro slide? The neon
water is brimming with dinoflagellates,
single-celled plankton with tails that
slosh around together in vast numbers.
These creatures have been highlighting
Earth’s coastlines for 1.2 billion
years, and for the past few millennia,
they’ve puzzled humans, who used to
attribute the glow of some ocean water
to magic or the gods.Dinoflagellates
still puzzle us; we know how they glow,
but not why. They might have evolved
bioluminescence as a way of frightening
predators, or to reveal those
predators’ locations by flashing when
touched. Alternatively, their
bioluminescence may just be a fancy way
of ridding themselves of oxygen
radicals (because the chemical reaction
requires oxygen). Whatever the answer,
they certainly make for a nice holiday
in the Bahamas. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.lifeslittlemysteries.
com/images/i/1651/original/dinoflagellat
e.jpg
{DiSKIKriSTATS}; the ancestor of
protists which have mitochondria with
discoidal (shaped like a disk) cristae
(the folded inner membrane of a
mitochondrion) (the ancestor of
euglenids, leishmanias {lEsmaNEuZ},
trypanosomes {TriPaNiSOMZ}, and acrasid
{oKrASiD} slime molds).
[1] euglena
source: http://www.fcps.k12.va.us/Stratf
ordLandingES/Ecology/mpages/euglena.htm
[2] euglena
source: http://protist.i.hosei.ac.jp/PDB
/Images/Mastigophora/Euglena/genus1L.jpg
three-dimensional response to light.
The earliest eye is a light sensitive
area in a unicellular eukaryote that
probably evolved from a plastid.
Eukaryotes are the first organisms to
evolve the ability to follow light
direction in three dimensions in open
water.
[1] Adapted from: Euglena is a
photosynthetic euglenoid with at least
150 described species. The cells are
cylindrical with a rounded anterior and
tapered posterior. The chloroplasts are
well-developed, bright green, and
sometimes have pyrenoids. ... Euglena
is a photosynthetic euglenoid with at
least 150 described species. The cells
are cylindrical with a rounded anterior
and tapered posterior. The chloroplasts
are well-developed, bright green, and
sometimes have pyrenoids. They are
often discoidal in shape but can also
be ovate, lobate, elongate, U-shaped,
or ribbon-shaped. Some researchers use
the structure and position of the
chloroplasts to divide the group into
three subgenera. Even though they are
able to photosynthesize, Euglena cells
also have a phagotrophic ingestion
apparatus. Euglena has one long,
protruding flagellum and a shorter
flagellum that is not usually
visible. The euglenoids can glide
and swim using their flagella, or can
ooze along a substrate with an
undulating, shape-changing, contraction
motion called metaboly. The cytoplasm
of Euglena and other euglenoids
contains many paramylon starch storage
granules. The euglenoid cells are
covered by a pellicle composed of
ribbonlike, woven strips of
proteinaceous material that cover the
cell in a helical arrangement from apex
to posterior. Freshwater euglenoids
have a contractile vacuole. Euglenoids
sense light using a red pigmented
eyespot or stigma and the paraflagellar
body located at the base of the
emergent flagella. The cytoplasm of
Euglena and other euglenoids contains
many paramylon starch storage granules.
The euglenoid cells are covered by a
pellicle composed of ribbonlike, woven
strips of proteinaceous material that
cover the cell in a helical arrangement
from apex to posterior. Freshwater
euglenoids have a contractile vacuole.
Euglenoids sense light using a red
pigmented eyespot or stigma and the
paraflagellar body located at the base
of the emergent flagella. UNKNOWN
source: http://silicasecchidisk.conncoll
.edu/Pics/Other%20Algae/Other_jpegs/Eugl
ena_Key225.jpg
[2] Figure 1. The distribution of
three-dimensional phototaxis in the
tree of eukaryotes. Red arrows indicate
the likely point of origin of
phototaxis in a given group. Question
marks indicate uncertainties regarding
independent or common origin. Figure
1 from: Jékely, Gáspár. ''Evolution
of phototaxis.'' Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society B:
Biological Sciences 364 (October
2009):
2795–2808. http://rstb.royalsocietypu
blishing.org/content/364/1531/2795.short
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://rstb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/364/1531/2795/F1.large.jp
g
{STro-meN-o-Pi-lEZ} (also called
Heterokonts) evolve (ancestor of all
brown algae, golden algae, diatoms, and
oomycota {Ou-mI-KO-Tu)).
Almost all Stramenopiles have unique
three-part hairs on the flagella at
some stage in the life cycle.
[1] Phylum Stramenopiles COPYRIGHTED
source: Brusca and Brusca,
"Invertebrates", Second Edition, 2003,
p153-155.
[2] S. Blair Hedges and Sudhir Kumar,
''The TimeTree of Life'', 2009,
p117-118. http://www.timetree.org/book.
php COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.timetree.org/book.php
{me-ZO-mI-SE-TO-ZO-u} evolve (also
called DRIPS).
Mesomycetozoea are in the protist
Phylum Choanozoa (which includes the
Choanoflagellates
{KO-e-nO-FlaJ-e-lATS}, thought to be
the ancestor of sponges).
[1] Ichthyophonus, a fungus-like
protistan that occurs in high
prevalence in Pacific Ocean perch
(Sebastes aultus) and yellowtail
rockfish (Sebastes flavedus). Note the
parasite forms branching hyphae-like
structures. Ichthyophonus hoferi has
caused massive mortalities in herring
in the Atlantic ocean, and has recently
been reported to cause disease in wild
Pacific herring from Washington through
Alaska. COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://oregonstate.edu/dept/salm
on/projects/images/16Ichthyophonus.jpg
[2] Microscopic appearence of the
organism is dependent on its stage of
development. The stages include (1)
spore at ''resting'' stage, (2)
germinating spore, (3) hyphal
stage. It is believed that there are
two forms of Ichthyophonus, both
belonging to one genus. One of them is
known as the ''salmon'' form, occuring
in freshwater and cold-preferring sea
fishes: this form is characterized by
its ability to produce long tubulose
germ hyphae. The other is called the
''aquarium fish'' form, typical of the
tropical freshwater fishes. This form
is completely devoid of hyphae.
Developmental cycle of Ichthyophonus
hoferi: 1-5 - development of
''daughter'' spores, 7-11 - development
of resting spore from the ''daughter''
spore, 12-19 - development of resting
spore by fragmentation. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.fao.org/docrep/field/
003/AC160E/AC160E02.htm
{Ou-mI-KO-Tu} evolves (ancestor of the
Oomycetes; water molds).
[1] Figure 2 from: Sandra L. Baldauf,
A. J. Roger, I. Wenk-Siefert, W. F.
Doolittle, ''A Kingdom-Level Phylogeny
of Eukaryotes Based on Combined Protein
Data'', Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p
972, (2000).
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/290/
5493/972.full Figure 2 Single-gene
phylogenies support subsets of the
combined protein tree. (A) A summary of
the tree in Fig. 1is shown with
supergroups indicated beside brackets
to the right. Multi-taxon represented
clusters are given as triangles, with
height proportional to number of taxa
and width proportional to averaged
overall branch length (1) compensated
for missing data (47). (B) Published
support for the numbered nodes in (A)
is shown for commonly used molecular
phylogenetic markers grouped as (a)
ribosomal RNAs, (b) proteins not used
in the current analysis, (c) proteins
used in the current analysis, and (d)
the combined data (Fig. 1). These
markers are, from left to right, SSU
[SSU rRNA (1–4)], LSU [LSU rRNA
(19)], LSU+SSU [combined LSU and SSU
rRNA (48)], EF-2 (10), V/A-ATPases
[vacuolar ATPases (49)], HSP70-cy
[cytosolic 70-kD heat shock protein
(50)], mito [combined mitochondrial
proteins (51)], RPB1 (52), actin (8,
16, 53), α-tubulin (8, 54), β-tubulin
(8, 54), EF-1α (15, 20), and combined
(Fig. 1). Rejected nodes are indicated
in pink and accepted nodes in green,
with checked circles indicating BP < 70% and solid circles indicating BP >
70%. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/290/5493/972/F2.large.jpg
[2] Fig. 1. A consensus phylogeny of
eukaryotes. The vast majority of
characterized eukaryotes, with the
notable exception of major subgroups of
amoebae, can now be assigned to one of
eight major groups. Opisthokonts (basal
flagellum) have a single basal
flagellum on reproductive cells and
flat mitochondrial cristae (most
eukaryotes have tubular ones).
Eukaryotic photosynthesis originated in
Plants; theirs are the only plastids
with just two outer membranes.
Heterokonts (different flagellae) have
a unique flagellum decorated with
hollow tripartite hairs (stramenopiles)
and, usually, a second plain one.
Cercozoans are amoebae with filose
pseudopodia, often living with in tests
(hard outer shells), some very
elaborate (foraminiferans). Amoebozoa
are mostly naked amoebae (lacking
tests), often with lobose pseudopodia
for at least part of their life cycle.
Alveolates have systems of cortical
alveoli directly beneath their plasma
membranes. Discicristates have discoid
mitochondrial cristae and, in some
cases, a deep (excavated) ventral
feeding groove. Amitochondrial
excavates lack substantial molecular
phylogenetic support, but most have an
excavated ventral feeding groove, and
all lack mitochondria. The tree shown
is based on a consensus of molecular
(1-4) and ultrastructural (16, 17) data
and includes a rough indication of new
ciPCR ''taxa'' (broken black lines)
(7-11). An asterisk preceding the taxon
name indicates probable paraphyletic
group COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/co
ntent/full/300/5626/1703
{rI-ZaR-E-u} evolve (ancestor of all
Radiolaria, Foraminifera and Cercozoa).
[1] Figure : Maximum likelihood
phylogeny of Rhizaria inferred from SSU
rRNA gene sequences using the GTR+G+I
model of evolution. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.unige.ch/sciences/bio
logie/biani/msg/Amoeboids/Rhizaria_large
.jpg
[2] Figure 1 from: Keeling, Patrick
J. et al. “The tree of eukaryotes.”
Trends in Ecology & Evolution 20.12
(2005):
670-676. http://www.sciencedirect.com/s
cience/article/pii/S0169534705003046
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/cac
he/MiamiImageURL/1-s2.0-S016953470500304
6-gr1.jpg/0?wchp=dGLbVBA-zSkWz
(ancestor of bread molds, and pin
molds).
[1] Figure 2. Zygomycota A: sporangia
of Mucor sp. B: whorl of sporangia of
Absidia sp. C: zygospore of
Zygorhynchus sp. D: sporangiophore and
sporangiola of Cunninghamella sp.
source: http://www.botany.utoronto.ca/Re
searchLabs/MallochLab/Malloch/Moulds/Cla
ssification.html
[2] Figure 3. Syncephalis, a member of
the Zygomycota parasitic on other
Zygomycota
source: http://www.botany.utoronto.ca/Re
searchLabs/MallochLab/Malloch/Moulds/Cla
ssification.html
{SiL-E-oF-R-u} evolves (the "Ciliates")
(ancestor of the paramecium).
The Ciliophora are characterized by
having numerous cilia which they use to
move themselves. Most ciliates are
unicellular.
[1] Paramecium protozoan,
SEM C001/0068 Rights Managed Credit:
STEVE GSCHMEISSNER/SCIENCE PHOTO
LIBRARY Caption: Paramecium protozoan,
coloured scanning electron micrograph
(SEM). Paramecia are a group of
unicellular ciliate protozoa. They
inhabit fresh water, and feed mainly on
bacteria and smaller protozoa.
Paramecia range from about 50 to 350
micrometres in length, depending on
species. Simple cilia, which cover the
body, are moved in a synchronous motion
to allow the cell to move.
Magnification: x825 when printed at 10
centimetres wide. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nonlocal.com/hbar/par
amecium.gif
[2] Summary Description English:
Scanning electron microscope view of
Oxytricha trifallax Español: Imagen
de microscopía electrónica de barrido
de Oxytricha trifallax Date Unknown
date Source http://www.genome.gov/I
mages/press_photos/highres/85-300.jpg
Author Unknown Permission (Reusin
g this file) See below. PD [1] Fig.
1. A consensus phylogeny of eukaryotes.
The vast majority of characterized
eukaryotes, with the notable exception
of major subgroups of amoebae, can now
be assigned to one of eight major
groups. Opisthokonts (basal flagellum)
have a single basal flagellum on
reproductive cells and flat
mitochondrial cristae (most eukaryotes
have tubular ones). Eukaryotic
photosynthesis originated in Plants;
theirs are the only plastids with just
two outer membranes. Heterokonts
(different flagellae) have a unique
flagellum decorated with hollow
tripartite hairs (stramenopiles) and,
usually, a second plain one. Cercozoans
are amoebae with filose pseudopodia,
often living with in tests (hard outer
shells), some very elaborate
(foraminiferans). Amoebozoa are mostly
naked amoebae (lacking tests), often
with lobose pseudopodia for at least
part of their life cycle. Alveolates
have systems of cortical alveoli
directly beneath their plasma
membranes. Discicristates have discoid
mitochondrial cristae and, in some
cases, a deep (excavated) ventral
feeding groove. Amitochondrial
excavates lack substantial molecular
phylogenetic support, but most have an
excavated ventral feeding groove, and
all lack mitochondria. The tree shown
is based on a consensus of molecular
(1-4) and ultrastructural (16, 17) data
and includes a rough indication of new
ciPCR ''taxa'' (broken black lines)
(7-11). An asterisk preceding the taxon
name indicates probable paraphyletic
group COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Oxytricha_trifa
llax.jpg/1024px-Oxytricha_trifallax.jpg
{a-PE-KoM-PleK-Su} evolves (includes
Malaria and Toxoplasmosis).
Apicomplexans have a special cell
organelle called the apical complex
which helps to invade the host cell.
[1] Description A thin-film Giemsa
stained micrograph of ring-forms, and
gametocytes of Plasmodium falciparum.
From
http://phil.cdc.gov/phil/home.asp Date
2006-11-16 (original upload
date) Source Originally from
en.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. Author Original uploader was
TimVickers at
en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3c/Plasmodium.jpg
[2] Fig. 1. A consensus phylogeny of
eukaryotes. The vast majority of
characterized eukaryotes, with the
notable exception of major subgroups of
amoebae, can now be assigned to one of
eight major groups. Opisthokonts (basal
flagellum) have a single basal
flagellum on reproductive cells and
flat mitochondrial cristae (most
eukaryotes have tubular ones).
Eukaryotic photosynthesis originated in
Plants; theirs are the only plastids
with just two outer membranes.
Heterokonts (different flagellae) have
a unique flagellum decorated with
hollow tripartite hairs (stramenopiles)
and, usually, a second plain one.
Cercozoans are amoebae with filose
pseudopodia, often living with in tests
(hard outer shells), some very
elaborate (foraminiferans). Amoebozoa
are mostly naked amoebae (lacking
tests), often with lobose pseudopodia
for at least part of their life cycle.
Alveolates have systems of cortical
alveoli directly beneath their plasma
membranes. Discicristates have discoid
mitochondrial cristae and, in some
cases, a deep (excavated) ventral
feeding groove. Amitochondrial
excavates lack substantial molecular
phylogenetic support, but most have an
excavated ventral feeding groove, and
all lack mitochondria. The tree shown
is based on a consensus of molecular
(1-4) and ultrastructural (16, 17) data
and includes a rough indication of new
ciPCR ''taxa'' (broken black lines)
(7-11). An asterisk preceding the taxon
name indicates probable paraphyletic
group COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/co
ntent/full/300/5626/1703
{KO-e-nO-FlaJ-e-lATS} evolve.
Choanoflag
ellates are the closest relatives to
the animals and may be direct ancestors
of sponges.
There are about 140 species of
choanoflagellates. Some are
free-swimming, propelling themselves
with a flagellum. Others are attached
by a stalk, sometimes with several
together in a colony. Choanoflagellates
use their flagellum to drive water into
the funnel where food particles like
bacteria are trapped and engulfed.
[1] Choanoflagellate single cell
(thecate) UNKNOWN
source: http://behance.vo.llnwd.net/prof
iles22/483113/projects/1558429/6ea555ab5
457e21432def0f2e6b83fe3.jpg
[2] Salpingoeca: Cells solitary or
colonial with a distinct and firm
sheath or theca usually as a cup either
sessile or with a pedicel; theca
colourless or amber; contractile
vacuoles posterior in freshwater
specie; in freshwater, brackish, and
marine habitats. Record information:
Salpingoeca (sal-ping-go-eek-a), a
collar flagellate (choanoflagellate) -
all of which have a single anterior
flagellum surrounded by a collar of
very fine pseudopodia (in cross-section
the collar seems like two arms, one on
either side of the flagellum). The
flagellum beats drawing water through
the collar and bacteria and other small
particles are trapped and then
ingested. Believed to be the source
group of the sponges and the metazoa.
Salpingoeca has an organic lorica.
Phase contrast. This picture was
taken by David Patterson, Linda Amaral
Zettler and Virginia Edgcomb of
material from the salt marsh at Little
Sippewissett (Massachusetts, USA) in
Autumn, 2000 and in Spring and summer,
2001. NONCOMMERCIAL USE
source: http://microscope.mbl.edu/script
s/microscope.php?func=imgDetail&imageID=
746
moving Protist. This allows larger free
moving organisms to evolve.
This multicellularity is thought to be
independently evolved, and not related
to the earlier filamentous
multicellularity of prokaryotes like
cyanobacteria, and eukaryotes like
algae.
[1] Sponge showing several choanocyte
chambers UNKNOWN
source: http://behance.vo.llnwd.net/prof
iles22/483113/projects/1558429/43a2a4c7e
127f66b7090ed679a8da30a.jpg
[2] Combination of: Saepicula and
Sphaeroeca NONCOMMERCIAL USE
source: http://microscope.mbl.edu/script
s/microscope.php?func=imgDetail&imageID=
3229
this organism is predominantly diploid,
mitosis in the haploid phase does not
occur.
All animals are diplontic, and descend
from this multicellular organism.
[1] Gametic Meiosis. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gametic_meiosis.png
[2] Gametic Meiosis. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gametic_meiosis.png
metazoan, the sponge evolves. This
begins the Animal Kingdom, and the
Phylum Porifera; the sponges. There are
only three major kinds of metazoans:
sponges, cnidarians, and bilaterians.
The word "porifera" means "pore
bearing" in Latin, and water
continuously flows through the pores in
sponges.
Metazoans are multicellular and have
differentiation (their cells perform
different functions). Sponges have
cells that form a body wall, cells that
secrete the skeleton, contractile
{KunTraKTL} cells, cells that digest
food, and other kinds of cell types.
All sponge cells are totipotent and so
are capable of regrowing a new sponge.
In sponges there is no distinction
between germ line and soma. Some
sponges can live for over 1000 years.
Sponges have two layers, each a single
cell thick. The outer surface is called
the pinacoderm {PiN-o-KO-DRM} and is
made of cells called pinacocytes
{PiN-o-KO-SITS}. On the inner surface
is the choanoderm {KOenO-DRM or
KO-aNo-DRM} which is made of
flagellated cells called choanocytes
{KOenO-SITS or KO-aNo-SITS}. Between
these two thin cellular sheets is the
jellylike mesohyl {mASuHIL}, which may
vary in thickness and plays vital roles
in digestion, gamete production,
secretion of skeleton, and transport of
nutrients and waste products by special
amoeboid cells.
[1] Summary Description English:
Marine sponge. Color adjusted (but not
color accurate) underwater photograph
taken by Dlloyd using a digital camera
at a depth of approximately 100 feet in
Cayman. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/62/SpongeColorCorrect.jp
g
[2]
source: http://www.museums.org.za/bio/me
tazoa.htm
testicle) evolves in a sponge. In
sponges sperm are contained in
spermatic cysts, which are choanocyte
chambers transformed by the formation
of sperm (spermatogenesis), but ova are
distributed throughout the mesohyl
{mASuHIL} (or middle layer).
[1] Oocyte (female egg) release from
sponge, sperm release from sponge,
FIgure from: D. T. Anderson,
''Invertebrate Zoology'', Oxford
University Press, Second Edition,
2001. COPYRIGHTED
source: D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001.
[2] Combination of image from: Brusca
and Brusca, ''Invertebrates'', Second
Edition, 2003,
http://www.oceanicresearch.org/sponges
.html and D. T. Anderson,
''Invertebrate Zoology'', Oxford
University Press, Second Edition,
2001. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.museums.org.za/bio/me
tazoa.htm
(Varanger) Ice Age (650-590 mybn).
[1] Snowball Earth 600 to 750 million
years ago Earth was incased in ice for
prolong periods of time and each global
glacial event ended under severe
greenhouse conditions. This late
Precambrian planet-wide glaciation is
known as “Snowball Earth” and is an
extension on Sturtian- Varangian
glaciation. UNKNOWN
source: http://geology.fullerton.edu/whe
nderson/Fal201L2005/snowballearth/images
/snoballearth.jpg
[2] Snowball Earth Begins UNKNOWN
source: http://www.gambassa.com/gambassa
files/images/images/1310/20090528_snowba
ll_earth_v1.jpg
are arranged in layers evolve in
metazoans.
Unlike the Porifera, in the Placozoa
and all later metazoans, cells group as
tissues.
[1] Description This is an example
of a ctenophore, Bathocyroe fosteri,
which is a mesopelagic species. Date
Source Description This is
an example of a ctenophore, Bathocyroe
fosteri, which is a mesopelagic
species. Date Source
[1] Author Photo courtesy of
Marsh Youngbluth Author Photo
courtesy of Marsh Youngbluth PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/21/Bathocyroe_fosteri.jp
g
[2] Light diffracting along the comb
rows of a Mertensia ovum. The right
lower portion of the body is
regenerating from previous damage.
Source: NOAA Photo Gallery/ Photo by
Kevin Raskoff PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/42/LightRefractsOf_comb-
rows_of_ctenophore_Mertensia_ovum.jpg
evolves.
Placozoans look like amoebas but are
multicellular. The only known species
is Trichoplax adhaerens {TriKOPlaKS
aDHEReNZ}. Trichoplax lives in the sea
and feeds on single celled organisms,
mostly algae. There are only 4 cell
types in Trichoplax compared to the
more than 200 cell types in humans.
Trichoplax has two main cell layers,
like a cnidarian or ctenophore. Between
these two layers are a few contractile
cells that are similar to muscle cells,
however placozoans have no muscle or
nerve cells.
Trichoplax has the lowest content of
DNA of any metazoan, about two-thirds
that in sponges, and only 10 times that
of bacteria.
[1] Description Trichoplax sp.
from Australia in light
microscopy Date February
2006 Source Oliver Voigt Author
Oliver Voigt CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c3/Trichoplax_mic.jpg
[2] from ediacara of australia
source: http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/ven
dian/dickinsonia.html
{KI-TriDEO-mI-KO-Tu) evolves (includes
all Chytridiomycetes
{KI-TriDEO-mI-SE-TEZ})).
The chytrids are primitive fungi and
are mostly saprobic (feed on dead
species, decomposing chitin and
keratin). Many chytrids are aquatic
(mostly found in freshwater) and some
species are unicellular.
[1] Chytrids (Chytridiomycota): The
Primitive Fungi These fungi are
mostly aquatic, are notable for having
a flagella on the cells (a flagella is
a tail, somewhat like a tail on a sperm
or a pollywog), and are thought to be
the most primitive type of
fungi. actual photo comes
from: http://www.csupomona.edu/~jcclark
/classes/bot125/resource/graphics/chy_al
l_sph.html
source: http://www.davidlnelson.md/Cazad
ero/Fungi.htm
[2] Chytridiomycota - Blastocladiales
- zoospore of Allomyces (phase contrast
illumination) X 2000
source: http://www.mycolog.com/chapter2b
.htm
nervous system evolves in the ancestor
of the Ctenophores and Cnidarians. This
leads to the first ganglion and brain.
This is the earliest touch and sound
detection, and memory.
As time continues in the evolution of
the metazoans, the number of neurons
increases while the size of neurons
decreases, showing that more neurons
and smaller neurons, similar to
transistors in a computer, give an
organism more memory and as a result a
selective advantage in survival.
[1] English: Drawing of Purkinje cells
(A) and granule cells (B) from pigeon
cerebellum by Santiago Ramón y Cajal,
1899; Instituto Santiago Ramón y
Cajal, Madrid, Spain. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/15/PurkinjeCell.jpg
[2] figure from: D. T. Anderson,
''Invertebrate Zoology'', Oxford
University Press, Second Edition, 2001,
p39. COPYRIGHTED
source: D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p39.
of the Ctenophores and Cnidarians. Both
the earliest known muscle and nerve
cells are found in Ctenophores and
Cnidarians.
[1] Figure from: D. T. Anderson,
''Invertebrate Zoology'', Oxford
University Press, Second Edition, 2001,
p39. COPYRIGHTED
source: D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p39.
[2] Derek E. G. Briggs and Richard A.
Fortey, ''Wonderful Strife:
Systematics, Stem Groups, and the
Phylogenetic Signal of the Cambrian
Radiation'', Paleobiology , Vol. 31,
No. 2, Supplement. Macroevolution:
Diversity, Disparity, Contingency:
Essays in Honor of Stephen Jay Gould
(Spring, 2005), pp.
94-112 http://www.jstor.org/stable/2548
2671 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2548
2671
first time, in the ancestor of all
ctenophores and cnidarians.
[1] Description This is an example
of a ctenophore, Bathocyroe fosteri,
which is a mesopelagic species. Date
Source Description This is
an example of a ctenophore, Bathocyroe
fosteri, which is a mesopelagic
species. Date Source
[1] Author Photo courtesy of
Marsh Youngbluth Author Photo
courtesy of Marsh Youngbluth PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/21/Bathocyroe_fosteri.jp
g
[2] Light diffracting along the comb
rows of a Mertensia ovum. The right
lower portion of the body is
regenerating from previous damage.
Source: NOAA Photo Gallery/ Photo by
Kevin Raskoff PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/42/LightRefractsOf_comb-
rows_of_ctenophore_Mertensia_ovum.jpg
evolves in the ancestor of Ctenophores
and Cnidarians.
[1] From: Brusca and Brusca,
''Invertebrates'', Second Edition,
2003. COPYRIGHTED
source: Brusca and Brusca,
"Invertebrates", Second Edition, 2003
[2] Figure 3.8 Anthozoa. (a) Anemone
(Actiniaria), showing the pharynx,
mesenteries, mesenterial filamnets and
acontia. (b) Structure of a mesenterial
filament in transverse section. (c)
Scleractinian coral, showing calcareous
skeleton and coenenchyme. (d)
Gorgonian, showing skeleton made up of
a horny axial rod and spicules in the
mesogloea (after Pearse et al 1987).
(e) Alcyonarian soft coral, showing
spicular skeleton in the
mesogloea. From: D. T. Anderson,
''Invertebrate Zoology'', Oxford
University Press, Second Edition,
2001. COPYRIGHTED
source: D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001.
{Ti-noF-R-u} evolves (comb jellies).
Like the Cnidarians, the Ctenophores
are diploblastic; they have two
embryonic germ layers- the ectoderm
{EKTeDRM} and the endoderm {eNDeDRM}
which become the adult epidermis and
gastrodermis, respectively. The middle
mesenchyme {meSeNKIM}, a watery
gelatinous fluid, never produces the
complex organs seen in triploblastic
Metazoa.
The main body cavity of the ctenophores
is also the digestive chamber, and they
have a simple nerve net.
Unlike cnidarians, ctenophores lack
stinging cells, there is no alternation
of generations in the life cycle, and
ctenophores are never colonial.
On the surface of the body are eight
equally spaced comb plates, called
ctenes {TENZ}. Each ctene is composed
of a band of cilia. The ctenes provide
most of the movement for the
ctenophores.
Ctenophores are hermaphroditic. Ovaries
and testies differentiate from the
endoderm. The gametes are released
through temporary gonopores
{GoN-o-PORZ}, and fertilization is
external.
[1] Description This is an example
of a ctenophore, Bathocyroe fosteri,
which is a mesopelagic species. Date
Source Description This is
an example of a ctenophore, Bathocyroe
fosteri, which is a mesopelagic
species. Date Source
[1] Author Photo courtesy of
Marsh Youngbluth Author Photo
courtesy of Marsh Youngbluth PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/21/Bathocyroe_fosteri.jp
g
[2] Light diffracting along the comb
rows of a Mertensia ovum. The right
lower portion of the body is
regenerating from previous damage.
Source: NOAA Photo Gallery/ Photo by
Kevin Raskoff PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/42/LightRefractsOf_comb-
rows_of_ctenophore_Mertensia_ovum.jpg
Period.
A large increase in the evolutionary
turnover rate of acritarchs is thought
to be the result of the evolution of
the nervous system and gut in the
eumetazoa (all ctenophora, cnidaria,
and bilateria).
[1] Description English: The 'golden
spike' marking the Global Boundary
Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP) at
the base of the Ediacaran Period Date
16 August 2008 Source Own work
Original filename =
DSC07914.JPG Author Bahudhara CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Ediacaran_GSSP_
-_closeup.JPG/1280px-Ediacaran_GSSP_-_cl
oseup.JPG
[2] Geologic Time Scale 2009 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.geosociety.org/scienc
e/timescale/timescl.pdf
{NIDAREeo} evolves (the ancestor of sea
anemones, sea pens, corals, and
jellyfish). Cnidaria also evolve the
earliest animal eye.
Cnidaria are primarily radially
symmetrical animals with tentacles,
have a single body cavity with only one
opening to take in food and to release
wastes, and have specialized stinging
cells.
Cnidarians have two alternate body
plans, the polyp and the medusa
{miDUSe}. A sea anemone or Hydra is a
typical polyp: fixed to the ground with
mouth on top. Corals are colonial
marine polyps that secrete calcareous
{KaL-KAR-E-uS} (calcium carbonate)
skeletons which they live inside of.
The medusa form is upside down compared
to the polyp form, and is free
swimming. A jellyfish has a typical
medusa form, swimming through the open
sea. Many cnidarians have both polyp
and medusa forms in a single life
cycle.
Polyps often reproduce by budding; a
new baby polyp clone grows on the side
of the parent. When cnidaria reproduce
sexually, sperm are released into the
water and fertilization is usually
external.
Digestion in Cnidarians starts in the
gastrovascular cavity, but once the
food is reduced to particles small
enough to enter the digestive cells of
the gastrodermis, digestion is
completed inside the cell
(intracellularly).
Cnidarians have a nervous system which
is a network without a centralized
structure. They also have muscles which
are contracted to propel them.
Cnidarians see in black or white,
because their eyes have only one
pigment; for color vision the eye must
have more than one pigment.
[1] Octocorals Stylatula elongata –
White Sea Pen UNKNOWN
source: http://pt-lobos.com/cnidarianimg
/white_sea_pens.jpg
[2] Sea nettles, Chrysaora
quinquecirrha CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/36/Sea_nettles.jpg
{EDEoKRiN} soft-bodied invertebrate
fossils.
The sudden appearance of Ediacaran
fossils may relate to the accumulation
of free oxygen in the atmosphere and
sea, which may permit an oxidative
metabolism.
Because the Ediacaran animals are
soft-bodied, they are infrequently
preserved.
Lesser Karatau Microcontinent,
Kazakhsta
[1] A general view of the life in the
time frame from about 605 to 542
million years ago (the Vendian), is
found at this New Zealand site which
concentrates on the Ediacaran epoch; it
mentions Australian and other
geographic localities where the
assemblages have been found. The fossil
life is represented entirely by
creatures with soft parts only. It is
suggested that these may be ancestral
to later phylla observed at the
beginning of the Paleozoic. Below is a
chart presenting typical Ediacaran
fauna, followed by an artist's
depiction of life on the sea floor at
that time, and beneath that is a layout
of some actual fossils: PD
source: http://rst.gsfc.nasa.gov/Sect20/
800pxlife_in_the_ediacaran_sea.jpg
[2] A more general view of the life in
the time frame from about 600+ to 542
million years ago (end of Proterozoic
and Precambrian into the oldest
Cambrian), known as the Ediacaran or
Vendian, is found at this New Zealand
site; it mentions Australian and other
geographic localities where the
assemblages have been found. The fossil
life represents entirely creatures with
soft parts only and suggestions that
these may be ancestral to later phylla
observed at the beginning of the
Paleozoic. Below is an artist's sketch
of some of these creatures: UNKNOWN
source: http://www.fas.org/irp/imint/doc
s/rst/Sect20/vendintro.jpg
(metazoans with two sided symmetry).
Thi
s is the first triploblastic animal; an
animal with a third embryonic layer,
the mesoderm {meZuDRM}. This is also
the earliest animal brain.
In most bilaterians food enters in one
end (the mouth) and waste exits at the
opposite end (the anus). There is an
advantage for sense organs like light,
sound, touch, smell, and taste
detection to be located on the head
near the mouth to help with getting
food.
Unlike the diploblastic Cnidaria and
Ctenophora, bilaterians are
triploblastic. A third embryonic layer,
the mesoderm, lies between the ectoderm
and endoderm. This layer increases the
options for the development of organs
with specific functions.
This begins the Animal Subkingdom
"Bilateria".
[1] Convoluta pulchra Smith and Bush
1991, a typical mud-inhabiting acoel
that feeds on diatoms
source: ?
[2] Figure from: Giribet, G. (2008).
Assembling the lophotrochozoan
(=spiralian) tree of life.
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society B: Biological Sciences , 363
(1496), 1513-1522. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2007.2241
http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/363/1496/1513 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://rstb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/363/1496/1513
Acoelomorpha (the ancestor of acoela
flat worms and nemertodermatida).
The Acoelomorpha lack a digestive
track, anus and coelom.
Flatworms have no lungs or gills and
breathe through their skin. Flatworms
also have no circulating blood and so
their branched gut presumably
transports nutrients to all parts of
the body.
[1] Convoluta pulchra Smith and Bush
1991, a typical mud-inhabiting acoel
that feeds on diatoms
source: ?
[2] Figure from: Giribet, G. (2008).
Assembling the lophotrochozoan
(=spiralian) tree of life.
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society B: Biological Sciences , 363
(1496), 1513-1522. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2007.2241
http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/363/1496/1513 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://rstb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/363/1496/1513
bilaterian. Since the gut of this
organism has no anus, undigested food
must be regurgitated through the mouth.
The intestine is lined with a single
layer of endodermal cells that perform
some or all of the processes of
digestion and absorption.
[1] From: D. T. Anderson,
''Invertebrate Zoology'', Oxford
University Press, Second Edition,
2001. COPYRIGHTED
source: D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001.
[2] Convoluta pulchra Smith and Bush
1991, a typical mud-inhabiting acoel
that feeds on diatoms
source: ?
through-put of food evolves in a
bilaterian.
All bilaterally symmetrical metazoans
except the Phyla Acoelomorpha and
Platyhelminthes, have a tubular gut
with an anus, mouth, and through-put of
food. The Phyla Nemertea and Entoprocta
are the earliest bilaterians with an
anus.
[1] From: D. T. Anderson,
''Invertebrate Zoology'', Oxford
University Press, Second Edition,
2001. COPYRIGHTED
source: D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001.
[2] Convoluta pulchra Smith and Bush
1991, a typical mud-inhabiting acoel
that feeds on diatoms
source: ?
uterus evolve in a bilaterian.
[1] From: D. T. Anderson,
''Invertebrate Zoology'', Oxford
University Press, Second Edition,
2001. COPYRIGHTED
source: D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001.
[2] Convoluta pulchra Smith and Bush
1991, a typical mud-inhabiting acoel
that feeds on diatoms
source: ?
[1] From: Brusca and Brusca,
''Invertebrates'', Second Edition,
2003 COPYRIGHTED
source: Brusca and Brusca,
"Invertebrates", Second Edition, 2003
[2] From: Ruppert, Fox, Barnes,
''Invertebrate Zoology'',
2004. COPYRIGHTED
source: Ruppert, Fox, Barnes,
"Invertebrate Zoology", 2004.
(650-590 mybn).
[1] Precambrian Earth from the South
Pole 600MYBN UNKNOWN
source: http://cpgeosystems.com/gallery.
html
bilaterian.
The coelem is a fluid filled cavity
that forms within the mesoderm and
exists between the gut and body wall in
most triploblastic animals.
The advantage of a coelem is that it
allows the body wall and gut wall to
act independently, and also that other
organ systems can be developed in the
fluid-filled space. In addition, the
fluid in the cavity can act as a
deformable skeleton.
[1] Example of the coleom's from 3
organisms UNKNOWN
source: http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_5DLPaU
qdg2g/TBBz3rcLDOI/AAAAAAAAAGA/Z34_-_usSc
w/s1600/3927715.jpg
[2] From NATURAL HISTORY
COLLECTIONS OF THE UNIVERSITY OF
EDINBURGH Formation of the coelom or
body cavity Acoelomates lack a
body cavity. In pseudocoelomates,
the coelom is formed from a persistent
embryonic cavity. In schizocoelous
coelomates, the coelom is formed by
splits in the embryonic mesoderm, the
middle layer of the body. In
enterocoelous coelomates, the coelom
forms within pouches of the gut
wall. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.nhc.ed.ac.uk/images/c
ollections/invertebrates/intros/LgCoelom
.jpg
evolves; blood vessels, and blood
evolve in a bilaterian. The first blood
cells. Cnidarians and flatworms are at
most two sheets of tissue thick and so
allow gas exchange and nutrient
distribution by diffusion, but larger
animals with thicker tissues require a
circulatory system to distribute
materials.
The circulatory system transports
molecules like gases, food, and waste
to and from individual cells.
In bilaterians with circulatory systems
blood may be distributed by contractile
vessels in the blood vessel walls,
and/or by hearts.
[1] D. T. Anderson, ''Invertebrate
Zoology'', Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001 AND Fig 11.1G
from: Brusca and Brusca,
''Invertebrates'', 2003,
p320. COPYRIGHTED
source: D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001Brusca and Brusca,
"Invertebrates", 2003, p320.
[2] From: D. T. Anderson,
''Invertebrate Zoology'', Oxford
University Press, Second Edition,
2001 COPYRIGHTED
source: D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001
Protostomes are divided into two major
groups: the Ecdysozoa {eK-DiS-u-ZOu}
and the Lophotrochozoa {LuFoTroKoZOu}.
The difference between protostomes and
deutrostomes arises during embryonic
development. In protostomes, the first
indentation of the gastrula (an early
stage of the embryo) develops into the
mouth and the second indentation
develops into the anus. The reverse is
true for the deuterostomes.
[1] English: This diagram is showing
the difference of the two major types
of coelomates: the protostomes
(molluscs, annelids, arthropods, ...)
and deuterostomes (echinoderms,
vertebrates, ...). These groups differ
in several characteristics of early
development; In deuterostomes blastula
devisions is called ''radial cleavage''
because it occurs parallel or
perpendicular to the major polar axis.
In protostomes the cleavage is called
''spirale'' because division planes are
oriented obliquely to the polar major
axis. During gastrulation, protostomes
embryos' mouth was given first by the
blastopore while the anus was formed
later and vis versa for the
deuterostomes. As examples :
Squids are protostomes. Sea
urchins are deuterostomes. Date
14 October 2009 Source Own
work Author WYassineMrabetTalk✉ CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Protovsdeuteros
tomes.svg/1000px-Protovsdeuterostomes.sv
g.png
[2] English: This diagram is showing
the difference of the two major types
of coelomates: the protostomes
(molluscs, annelids, arthropods, ...)
and deuterostomes (echinoderms,
vertebrates, ...). These groups differ
in several characteristics of early
development; In deuterostomes blastula
devisions is called ''radial cleavage''
because it occurs parallel or
perpendicular to the major polar axis.
In protostomes the cleavage is called
''spirale'' because division planes are
oriented obliquely to the polar major
axis. During gastrulation, protostomes
embryos' mouth was given first by the
blastopore while the anus was formed
later and vis versa for the
deuterostomes. As examples :
Squids are protostomes. Sea
urchins are deuterostomes. Date
14 October 2009 Source Own
work Author WYassineMrabetTalk✉ CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Protovsdeuteros
tomes.svg/1000px-Protovsdeuterostomes.sv
g.png
evolve; the ancestor of all Echinoderms
(iKIniDRMS }, Hemichordates, and
Chordates.
[1] English: This diagram is showing
the difference of the two major types
of coelomates: the protostomes
(molluscs, annelids, arthropods, ...)
and deuterostomes (echinoderms,
vertebrates, ...). These groups differ
in several characteristics of early
development; In deuterostomes blastula
devisions is called ''radial cleavage''
because it occurs parallel or
perpendicular to the major polar axis.
In protostomes the cleavage is called
''spirale'' because division planes are
oriented obliquely to the polar major
axis. During gastrulation, protostomes
embryos' mouth was given first by the
blastopore while the anus was formed
later and vis versa for the
deuterostomes. As examples :
Squids are protostomes. Sea
urchins are deuterostomes. Date
14 October 2009 Source Own
work Author WYassineMrabetTalk✉ CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Protovsdeuteros
tomes.svg/1000px-Protovsdeuterostomes.sv
g.png
[2] English: This diagram is showing
the difference of the two major types
of coelomates: the protostomes
(molluscs, annelids, arthropods, ...)
and deuterostomes (echinoderms,
vertebrates, ...). These groups differ
in several characteristics of early
development; In deuterostomes blastula
devisions is called ''radial cleavage''
because it occurs parallel or
perpendicular to the major polar axis.
In protostomes the cleavage is called
''spirale'' because division planes are
oriented obliquely to the polar major
axis. During gastrulation, protostomes
embryos' mouth was given first by the
blastopore while the anus was formed
later and vis versa for the
deuterostomes. As examples :
Squids are protostomes. Sea
urchins are deuterostomes. Date
14 October 2009 Source Own
work Author WYassineMrabetTalk✉ CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Protovsdeuteros
tomes.svg/1000px-Protovsdeuterostomes.sv
g.png
evolves. The first known shell belongs
to a group of ciliates called
tintinnids. Skeletons evolve
independently in different groups of
organisms.
Guizhou Province, South China
[1] Figure 1 from: Li, C.-W.; et al.
(2007). ''Ciliated protozoans from the
Precambrian Doushantuo Formation,
Wengan, South China''. Geological
Society, London, Special Publications
286: 151–156.
doi:10.1144/SP286.11. http://dx.doi.org
/10.1144/SP286.11
{Ciliates_Fossils_Precambrian_Li_580my
bn.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://dx.doi.org/10.1144/SP286.
11
[2] Figure 1 from: Li, C.-W.; et al.
(2007). ''Ciliated protozoans from the
Precambrian Doushantuo Formation,
Wengan, South China''. Geological
Society, London, Special Publications
286: 151–156.
doi:10.1144/SP286.11. http://dx.doi.org
/10.1144/SP286.11
{Ciliates_Fossils_Precambrian_Li_580my
bn.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://dx.doi.org/10.1144/SP286.
11
{KE-ToG-nutu} evolve (Arrow Worms).
The earliest teeth evolve. Animals
start to eat other animals.
The evolution of teeth and animal
predation starts an "arms race" that
rapidly transforms ecosystems around
the Earth. Teeth and shells evolve as
advantages to survival.
[1] Chaetognatha UNKNOWN
source: http://content5.eol.org/content/
2010/08/09/03/74200_large.jpg
[2] Description Chatognath
Spadella cephaloptera Date
Unkown Source Own
work Author
Zatelmar Permission (Reusing
this file) See below. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8e/Chaetoblack.png
Hemichordata evolves; The
"Hemichordates", the ancestor of
pterobranchs {TARuBrANKS} and acorn
worms).
Adult Pterobrachs are sessile,
fastening to solid structures, but the
younger (or larval) form is free
swimming, and is thought to have
retained this form before evolving into
tunicates and then the first fish.
[1] Description Eichelwurm, Exemplar
aus der Sammlung des Institutes für
Zoologie, FU Berlin. GNU
FDL Date Source Foto:
de:Benutzer:Necrophorus Author User
Necrophorus on
de.wikipedia Permission (Reusing
this file) Released under the GNU Free
Documentation License. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Eichelwurm.jpg/
1024px-Eichelwurm.jpg
[2] Pterobranchs Resembling slugs
with hairy, branching tentacles,
Pterobranchs filter food from the water
and form colonies of “clones,” much
like coral polyps, often secreting a
network of hard tubing. Individual
zooids can crawl about freely within
the colony, but are connected to one
another by thin “cables,” quickly
retracting if disturbed. What makes the
Pterobranchs even stranger than corals
is that these slimy, slithering weirdos
are “hemichordates,” closer to us
vertebrates than to invertebrates like
worms and jellyfish. Read more:
http://www.toptenz.net/top-10-colonial-o
rganisms.php#ixzz1lJRtH61S COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.toptenz.net/wp-conten
t/uploads/2011/10/Pterobranch-colonial-o
rganisms.jpg
evolves. Chordates are a very large
group that include all tunicates
{TUNiKiTS}, fishes, amphibians,
reptiles, mammals, and birds. Chordates
get their name from the notochord
{nOTe-KORD}, the cartilage rod that
runs along the back of the animal, in
the embryo if not in the adult.
The ancestor of all chordates evolves
"upside-down": unlike earlier
invertebrates who have a ventral nerve
cord (near the belly) and a dorsal
heart (near the back), this ancestor
and all later vertebrates have a dorsal
nerve cord and a ventral heart.
Chordates have four key characters: a
notochord; a dorsal, hollow nerve
chord; gill slits (also called
pharyngeal {Fu-riN-JE-uL} slits); and a
muscular, post-anal tail. The notochord
provides skeletal support throughout
most of the length of the chordate and
provides a firm but flexible structure
from which attached muscles can
contract.
In the higher fishes the notochord is
surrounded and gradually replaced by
segmental vertebrae.
[1] from adelaide, australia UNKNOWN
source: http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/t
ech/3208583.stm
[2] [t Note that this is a vertebrate
- not a pre-vertebrate
chordate] Portion of figure
from: D.-G. Shu, S. Conway Morris, J.
Han, Z.-F. Zhang, K. Yasui, P. Janvier,
L. Chen, X.-L. Zhang, J.-N. Liu, Y. Li
and H.-Q. Liu, ''Head and backbone of
the Early Cambrian vertebrate
Haikouichthys'', Nature 421,
526-529(30 January
2003) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v421/n6922/full/nature01264.html CO
PYRIGHTED
source: https://nature.com/journal/v421/
n6922/images/nature01264-f1.2.jpg
Tunicates {TUNiKiTS} evolve (also
called sea squirts).
[1] Description Clavelina
moluccensis, the bluebell
tunicate English: Tunicate colony.
(Clavelina moluccensis) Date
04/17/05 Source Own
work Author Nhobgood CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/98/Bluebell_tunicates_Ni
ck_Hobgood.jpg
[2] Timeline of phylogeny of animals,
figure 6 from: S. Blair Hedges, ''The
origin and evolution of model
organisms'', Nature Reviews Genetics 3,
838-849 (November
2002) http://www.nature.com/nrg/journal
/v3/n11/full/nrg929.html {Hedges_2002.p
df} a) The relationships and
divergence times (millions of years ago
(Mya) plusminus one standard error) of
selected model animals are shown, based
on recent multigene and multiprotein
studies51, 61, 84. The fossil
divergence time of birds and mammals
(310 Mya) was used to calibrate the
molecular clock. Branch lengths are not
proportional to time. b ) The
relationships and numbers of living
species, from a diversity of sources in
most of the main groups. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nrg/journa
l/v3/n11/images/nrg929-f6.jpg
skeleton) evolves.
This is the earliest evidence
of animals eating other animals
(predation).
This begins the appearance of small
shelly fossils and deep burrows
correlated with a decline in
stromatolites, possibly from feeding.
The earliest animal shells are made by
tiny organisms with simple tubelike
skeletons, such as Cloudina and
Sinotubulites in addition to sponge
skeleton fossils.
The shell of Cloudina is made of
Calcium carbonate (CaCO3), and is
possibly made by some kind of worm.
Predatory bore holes have been found in
Cloudina shells. This is the oldest
evidence of predation known.
When animals begin to develop hard
parts, their probability of
preservation greatly improves.
Ningqiang County, Shaanxi
Province
[1] Cloudina COPYRIGHTED
source: http://palaeos.com/proterozoic/n
eoproterozoic/ediacaran/images/Cloudina.
jpg
[2] Cloudina from: HONG HUA, BRIAN R.
PRATT, and LU-YI ZHANG, ''Borings in
Cloudina Shells: Complex Predator-Prey
Dynamics in the Terminal
Neoproterozoic'', PALAIOS, October
2003, v. 18, p. 454-459,
doi:10.1669/0883-1351(2003)018<0454:BICSCP>2.0.CO;2
http://palaios.geoscienceworld.org/citmg
r?gca=palaios;18/4-5/454 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://palaios.geoscienceworld.o
rg/content/vol18/issue4-5/images/large/i
0883-1351-018-04-0454-f03.jpeg
{eK-DiS-u-ZOu} evolve. Ecdysozoa are
animals that molt (lose their outer
skin) as they grow. This is the
ancestor of round worms, and arthropods
(which includes insects and crustaceans
{also known as "shell-fish"}).
[1] Description English: Life
restoration of Ottoia in natural
environment with nearby
Haplophrentis. Date 11-29-08 Source
Own work Author Smokeybjb GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/10/Ottoia_burrowing.jpg
[2] Description
en:category:Caenorhabditis
elegans Date 2006-09-06 (original
upload date) (Original text :
09/05/2006) Source Originally from
en.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. (Original text : Donated by
Zeynep F. Altun) Author Original
uploader was Kbradnam at
en.wikipedia (Original text : Zeynep
F. Altun, Editor of
www.wormatlas.org) Permission (Reusing
this file) CC-BY-SA-2.5. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Adult_Caenorhab
ditis_elegans.jpg/1280px-Adult_Caenorhab
ditis_elegans.jpg
{Lu-Fo-Tro-Ku-ZO-u} evolve, the
ancestor of all rotifers, phoronids,
brachiopods {BrA-KE-O-PoDZ}, entoprocts
{eNTuProKS}, bryozoans {BrI-u-ZO-iNZ},
platyhelminthes, gastrotrichs,
nemertea, molluscs and annelids.
[1] A rotifer. The cilia around
this rotifer's mouth are unusually
long; they reach as far as the strand
of spirogyra to the right. 10×
objective, 15× eyepiece. The numbered
ticks on the scale are 122 µM apart.
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencephoto.com/imag
e/121893/530wm/C0058380-Rotifer_SEM-SPL.
jpg
[2] Description Clams Date
Source Own work Author
Marlith CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8f/Clams.JPG
[1] Lancelet (Branchiostoma
lanceolatum) Description
Branchiostoma lanceolatum (Pallas,
1774) English: Amphioxus from course
sandy sediments (600µm) on the Belgian
continental shelf. Length: ~22
mm. Geo-location not applicable as the
picture was taken in the
lab. Français : Branchiostoma
lanceolatum, un céphalochordé,
récolté dans des sédiments de sable
grossier (600µm) sur le Plateau
continental belge. Longueur totale: 22
mm environ. Date 1997 Source
Own work Author (Hans
Hillewaert) CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/47/Branchiostoma_lanceol
atum.jpg
Chordates Lancelets {laNSleTS} (also
called amphioxus {aMFEoKSiS}). This is
also the first liver and kidney.
The Lancelet is different from a worm
in not being cylindrical, and swims
like a fish using its muscles with
side-to-side undulations.
Lancelets are not vertebrates. They
have only a nerve tube on the notochord
and no brain other than a small
swelling at the front end of the nerve
tube. They also have an eye-spot.
The gill slits of Lancelets are
primarily for filter feeding. Gas
exchange (the absorption of oxygen and
emission of carbon dioxide), mostly
occurs across the external body
surface.
Lancelets have no heart and blood is
pumped around the body by contractions
of the blood vessels.
[1] Lancelet (Branchiostoma
lanceolatum) Description
Branchiostoma lanceolatum (Pallas,
1774) English: Amphioxus from course
sandy sediments (600µm) on the Belgian
continental shelf. Length: ~22
mm. Geo-location not applicable as the
picture was taken in the
lab. Français : Branchiostoma
lanceolatum, un céphalochordé,
récolté dans des sédiments de sable
grossier (600µm) sur le Plateau
continental belge. Longueur totale: 22
mm environ. Date 1997 Source
Own work Author (Hans
Hillewaert) CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/47/Branchiostoma_lanceol
atum.jpg
[2] Lancelet COPYRIGHTED
source: http://kentsimmons.uwinnipeg.ca/
16cm05/1116/34-04b-Lancelet.jpg
{aSKHeLmiNtEZ} evolves; the ancestor of
the worms nematodes and priapulids.
[1] Description English: Priapulid
worm Priapulus caudatus in a Petry
dish. The specimen was found in the
intertidal of the Russian coast of the
Barents Sea. Русский:
Приапулида Priapulus caudatus
в чашке Петри. Особь
найдена в
приливно-отливной
зоне на российском
побережье Баренцева
моря. Date between 2005 and
2007 Source kindly granted by the
author Author Dmitry
Aristov Permission (Reusing this
file) See below. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/62/Priapulus_caudatus.jp
g
[2] Giribet, G. (2008). Assembling the
lophotrochozoan (=spiralian) tree of
life. Philosophical Transactions of the
Royal Society B: Biological Sciences ,
363 (1496), 1513-1522. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2007.2241
http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/363/1496/1513 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://rstb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/363/1496/1513
Brachiopoda {BrAKEoPiDu} evolves (the
brachiopods {BrAKEOPoDZ}).
The Brachiopods are marine
invertebrates that have bivalve dorsal
and ventral shells enclosing a pair of
tentacled, armlike structures that are
used to sweep minute food particles
into their mouth.
[1] Brachiopod UNKNOWN
source: http://paleo.cortland.edu/tutori
al/Brachiopods/Brachiopod%20Images/lingu
la.GIF
[2] Brachiopods (Glottidia
Albida) Photographic Print by Richard
Herrmann item #: 357011759A UNKNOWN
source: http://cache2.artprintimages.com
/lrg/38/3813/HHRIF00Z.jpg
are repeated serially, for example
vertebrae).
Some think that segmentation evolved
independently in annelid worms,
arthropods, and vertebrates. But the
universality of Homeobox genes, evolved
over a billion years earlier, implies
that all segmented species may share a
common segmented ancestor.
[1] Dikinsonia grew to a length of as
much as two feet (60 cm), which made it
one of the larger complex organisms of
the Vendian. It's body is segmented
with midline symmetry dividing it's
body. Its body may have been denser
than modern jellyfish or worms. [Atlas
of Prehistoric World, Discovery
Books Reconstruction of Dickinsonia,
based on images from Atlas of the
Prehistoric World, Discovery Channel
Books and Kingfisher Illustrated
Dinosaur Encyclopedia UNKNOWN
source: http://paleontology.edwardtbabin
ski.us/vendian/dickinsonia.jpg
[2] Spriggina Spriggina was
definitely a predator of the seas of
that time. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.museum.toulouse.fr/IM
G/jpg/spriginna_72dpi_680.jpg
end of the Proterozoic and start of the
Phanerozoic {FaNReZOiK} Eon. The end
of the Neoproterozoic and start of the
Paleozoic {PAlEuZOiK} Era, and the end
of the Ediacaran and start of the
Cambrian Period.
[1] Geologic Time Scale 2009 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.geosociety.org/scienc
e/timescale/timescl.pdf
[2] Description English: Global
pareconstruction of the Earth in the
early Cambrian period 540 million years
ago. Deutsch: Globale
paläogeografische Rekonstruktion der
Erde während des frühen Kambriums vor
540 Millionen Jahren. русский:
Глобальная
палеогеографическая
реконструкция Земли
в начале
Кембрийского периода
540 миллионов лет тому
назад. українська:
Глобальная
палеогеографічна
реконструкція Землі
на початку
Кембрійського
періоду 540 мільйонів
років тому назад. Date
23 April 2008 Source
http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~rcb7/mollglobe.
html Author Dr. Ron Blakey -
http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~rcb7/ CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d6/EarlyCambrianGlobal.j
pg
"Cambrian explosion"), the rapid
diversification of multicellular
animals between 542 and 530 million
years ago that results in the
appearance of many (between 20 and 35)
of the major phyla of animals. An
increase of animals with shells.
The Cambrian metazoan radiation may be
the result of a major increase in
atmospheric oxygen, and animal
predation.
[1] Artist drawing of the bottom of the
Cambrian shallow sea floor, showing
trilobites (imagine these crawling
around on the Cambrian sea floor at
Devil's Lake state park 550 m.y. ago!)
(above). UNKNOWN
source: http://www.geology.wisc.edu/home
pages/g100s2/public_html/Geologic_Time/L
3_Cambrian_Life_More.jpg
[2] Description English: Fossil
specimen of Opabinia regalis from the
Burgess shale on display at the
Smithsonian in Washington, DC. This
appears to be the exact specimen
pictured in Fig. 42 of 'The Crucible of
Creation: The Burgess Shale and the
Rise of Animals', by Simon Conway
Morris, Oxford University Press,
1998. Date 12 April 2009 (original
upload date) Source Transferred
from en.wikipedia; transferred to
Commons by User:FunkMonk using
CommonsHelper. Author Original
uploader was Jstuby at en.wikipedia PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/50/Opabinia_smithsonian.
JPG
{Lu-Fo-Tro-Ku-ZO-u} Phylum
Platyhelminthes {PlaTEheLmiNtEZ}
evolves (flatworms).
Platyhelminthes, which is Greek for
flat worms, include free-living and
parasitic acoelomate worms (worms with
no coelum). They can reproduce
sexually, and also asexually by
transverse fission (splitting in half).
[1] Description English: The
flatworm Pseudoceros dimidiatus. North
Horn, Osprey Reef, Coral Sea. Date
August 9, 2005 Source
Flickr Author Richard
Ling CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1e/Pseudoceros_dimidiatu
s.jpg
[2] Two turbellarians mating by penis
fencing. Each has two penises, the
white spikes on the undersides of their
heads. Description English: Two
Individuals of Pseudobiceros bedfordi
about to have a Sperm Battle. –
Species of the flatworm genus
Pseudobiceros are hermaphroditic and
have two penises that are used to
inject sperm into the partner. P.
bedfordi is exceptional in that it
applies sperm onto the partner's skin
rather than injecting it. Deutsch:
Zwei Plattwürmer (Pseudobiceros
bedfordi) vor der Begattung. Der
doppelte Penis ist bei beiden
Individuen gut sichtbar. Date
Published: 2004-06-15 Source
Whitfield J: Everything You Always
Wanted to Know about Sexes. PLoS Biol
2/6/2004: e183.
doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0020183.g001,
photo page Author Photo courtesy
of Nico Michiels. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/38/Flatworm_sex.png
{rADEOlaREo} evolves.
Radiolarians are protists found in the
upper layers of all oceans, are mostly
spherically symmetrical, and known for
their complex and beautiful tiny
skeletons, called "tests" which are
usually made of silica (SiO2).
Radiolarian skeletons are used to
analyze the layers of the sedimentary
record.
[1] FIG. 2. The tree of life based on
molecular, ultrastructural and
palaeontological evidence. Contrary to
widespread assumptions, the root is
among the eubacteria, probably within
the double-enveloped Negibacteria, not
between eubacteria and archaebacteria
(Cavalier-Smith, 2002b); it may lie
between Eobacteria and other
Negibacteria (Cavalier-Smith, 2002b).
The position of the eukaryotic root has
been nearly as controversial, but is
less hard to establish: it probably
lies between unikonts and bikonts (Lang
et al., 2002; Stechmann and
Cavalier-Smith, 2002, 2003). For
clarity the basal eukaryotic kingdom
Protozoa is not labelled; it comprises
four major groups (alveolates, cabozoa,
Amoebozoa and Choanozoa) plus the small
bikont phylum Apusozoa of unclear
precise position; whether Heliozoa are
protozoa as shown or chromists is
uncertain (Cavalier-Smith, 2003b).
Symbiogenetic cell enslavement occurred
four or five times: in the origin of
mitochondria and chloroplasts from
different negibacteria, of
chromalveolates by the enslaving of a
red alga (Cavalier-Smith, 1999, 2003;
Harper and Keeling, 2003) and in the
origin of the green plastids of
euglenoid (excavate) and chlorarachnean
(cercozoan) algae-a green algal cell
was enslaved either by the ancestral
cabozoan (arrow) or (less likely) twice
independently within excavates and
Cercozoa (asterisks) (Cavalier-Smith,
2003a). The upper thumbnail sketch
shows membrane topology in the
chimaeric cryptophytes (class
Cryptophyceae of the phylum Cryptista);
in the ancestral chromist the former
food vacuole membrane fused with the
rough endoplasmic reticulum placing the
enslaved cell within its lumen (red) to
yield the complex membrane topology
shown. The large host nucleus and the
tiny nucleomorph are shown in blue,
chloroplast green and mitochondrion
purple. In chlorarachneans (class
Chlorarachnea of phylum Cercozoa) the
former food vacuole membrane remained
topologically distinct from the ER to
become an epiplastid membrane and so
did not acquire ribosomes on its
surface, but their membrane topology is
otherwise similar to the cryptophytes.
The other sketches portray the four
major kinds of cell in the living world
and their membrane topology. The upper
ones show the contrasting ancestral
microtubular cytoskeleton (ciliary
roots, in red) of unikonts (a cone of
single microtubules attaching the
single centriole to the nucleus, blue)
and bikonts (two bands of microtubules
attached to the posterior centriole and
an anterior fan of microtubules
attached to the anterior centriole).
The lower ones show the single plasma
membrane of unibacteria (posibacteria
plus archaebacteria), which were
ancestral to eukaryotes and the double
envelope of negibacteria, which were
ancestral to mitochondria and
chloroplasts (which retained the outer
membrane, red).
source: http://aob.oxfordjournals.org/cg
i/content/full/95/1/147/FIG2
[2] Fig. 1. A consensus phylogeny of
eukaryotes. The vast majority of
characterized eukaryotes, with the
notable exception of major subgroups of
amoebae, can now be assigned to one of
eight major groups. Opisthokonts (basal
flagellum) have a single basal
flagellum on reproductive cells and
flat mitochondrial cristae (most
eukaryotes have tubular ones).
Eukaryotic photosynthesis originated in
Plants; theirs are the only plastids
with just two outer membranes.
Heterokonts (different flagellae) have
a unique flagellum decorated with
hollow tripartite hairs (stramenopiles)
and, usually, a second plain one.
Cercozoans are amoebae with filose
pseudopodia, often living with in tests
(hard outer shells), some very
elaborate (foraminiferans). Amoebozoa
are mostly naked amoebae (lacking
tests), often with lobose pseudopodia
for at least part of their life cycle.
Alveolates have systems of cortical
alveoli directly beneath their plasma
membranes. Discicristates have discoid
mitochondrial cristae and, in some
cases, a deep (excavated) ventral
feeding groove. Amitochondrial
excavates lack substantial molecular
phylogenetic support, but most have an
excavated ventral feeding groove, and
all lack mitochondria. The tree shown
is based on a consensus of molecular
(1-4) and ultrastructural (16, 17) data
and includes a rough indication of new
ciPCR ''taxa'' (broken black lines)
(7-11). An asterisk preceding the taxon
name indicates probable paraphyletic
group.
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/co
ntent/full/300/5626/1703
{FOraMiniFRu} evolves.
Foraminifera are unicellular protists
characterized by long, fine pseudopods
that extend from a cytoplasmic body
encased within a test, or shell.
[1] FIG. 2. The tree of life based on
molecular, ultrastructural and
palaeontological evidence. Contrary to
widespread assumptions, the root is
among the eubacteria, probably within
the double-enveloped Negibacteria, not
between eubacteria and archaebacteria
(Cavalier-Smith, 2002b); it may lie
between Eobacteria and other
Negibacteria (Cavalier-Smith, 2002b).
The position of the eukaryotic root has
been nearly as controversial, but is
less hard to establish: it probably
lies between unikonts and bikonts (Lang
et al., 2002; Stechmann and
Cavalier-Smith, 2002, 2003). For
clarity the basal eukaryotic kingdom
Protozoa is not labelled; it comprises
four major groups (alveolates, cabozoa,
Amoebozoa and Choanozoa) plus the small
bikont phylum Apusozoa of unclear
precise position; whether Heliozoa are
protozoa as shown or chromists is
uncertain (Cavalier-Smith, 2003b).
Symbiogenetic cell enslavement occurred
four or five times: in the origin of
mitochondria and chloroplasts from
different negibacteria, of
chromalveolates by the enslaving of a
red alga (Cavalier-Smith, 1999, 2003;
Harper and Keeling, 2003) and in the
origin of the green plastids of
euglenoid (excavate) and chlorarachnean
(cercozoan) algae-a green algal cell
was enslaved either by the ancestral
cabozoan (arrow) or (less likely) twice
independently within excavates and
Cercozoa (asterisks) (Cavalier-Smith,
2003a). The upper thumbnail sketch
shows membrane topology in the
chimaeric cryptophytes (class
Cryptophyceae of the phylum Cryptista);
in the ancestral chromist the former
food vacuole membrane fused with the
rough endoplasmic reticulum placing the
enslaved cell within its lumen (red) to
yield the complex membrane topology
shown. The large host nucleus and the
tiny nucleomorph are shown in blue,
chloroplast green and mitochondrion
purple. In chlorarachneans (class
Chlorarachnea of phylum Cercozoa) the
former food vacuole membrane remained
topologically distinct from the ER to
become an epiplastid membrane and so
did not acquire ribosomes on its
surface, but their membrane topology is
otherwise similar to the cryptophytes.
The other sketches portray the four
major kinds of cell in the living world
and their membrane topology. The upper
ones show the contrasting ancestral
microtubular cytoskeleton (ciliary
roots, in red) of unikonts (a cone of
single microtubules attaching the
single centriole to the nucleus, blue)
and bikonts (two bands of microtubules
attached to the posterior centriole and
an anterior fan of microtubules
attached to the anterior centriole).
The lower ones show the single plasma
membrane of unibacteria (posibacteria
plus archaebacteria), which were
ancestral to eukaryotes and the double
envelope of negibacteria, which were
ancestral to mitochondria and
chloroplasts (which retained the outer
membrane, red).
source: http://aob.oxfordjournals.org/cg
i/content/full/95/1/147/FIG2
[2] Fig. 1. A consensus phylogeny of
eukaryotes. The vast majority of
characterized eukaryotes, with the
notable exception of major subgroups of
amoebae, can now be assigned to one of
eight major groups. Opisthokonts (basal
flagellum) have a single basal
flagellum on reproductive cells and
flat mitochondrial cristae (most
eukaryotes have tubular ones).
Eukaryotic photosynthesis originated in
Plants; theirs are the only plastids
with just two outer membranes.
Heterokonts (different flagellae) have
a unique flagellum decorated with
hollow tripartite hairs (stramenopiles)
and, usually, a second plain one.
Cercozoans are amoebae with filose
pseudopodia, often living with in tests
(hard outer shells), some very
elaborate (foraminiferans). Amoebozoa
are mostly naked amoebae (lacking
tests), often with lobose pseudopodia
for at least part of their life cycle.
Alveolates have systems of cortical
alveoli directly beneath their plasma
membranes. Discicristates have discoid
mitochondrial cristae and, in some
cases, a deep (excavated) ventral
feeding groove. Amitochondrial
excavates lack substantial molecular
phylogenetic support, but most have an
excavated ventral feeding groove, and
all lack mitochondria. The tree shown
is based on a consensus of molecular
(1-4) and ultrastructural (16, 17) data
and includes a rough indication of new
ciPCR ''taxa'' (broken black lines)
(7-11). An asterisk preceding the taxon
name indicates probable paraphyletic
group.
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/co
ntent/full/300/5626/1703
{ne-mR-TEu} evolves (ribbon worms).
Nemertea are unsegmented worms with a
coelem that live in marine, freshwater
and terrestrial environments.
[1] Description English: Basiodiscus
mexicanus was photographed at Los
Arcos, near Puerto Vallarta,
Mexico Date Source University
of California Museum of Paleology:
Introduction to the Nemertini Author
Chris Meyer and Allen
Collins Permission (Reusing this
file) See below. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/49/Nemertea_Basiodiscus_
mexicanus.png
[2] Timeline of phylogeny of animals,
figure 6 from: S. Blair Hedges, ''The
origin and evolution of model
organisms'', Nature Reviews Genetics 3,
838-849 (November
2002) http://www.nature.com/nrg/journal
/v3/n11/full/nrg929.html {Hedges_2002.p
df} a) The relationships and
divergence times (millions of years ago
(Mya) plusminus one standard error) of
selected model animals are shown, based
on recent multigene and multiprotein
studies51, 61, 84. The fossil
divergence time of birds and mammals
(310 Mya) was used to calibrate the
molecular clock. Branch lengths are not
proportional to time. b ) The
relationships and numbers of living
species, from a diversity of sources in
most of the main groups. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://rstb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/363/1496/1513
{ToRDiGRiDe} evolves (tardigrades).
Tardigrades are slow-moving,
microscopic invertebrates that live in
water or damp moss, with four body
segments and eight legs.
[1] Description Willow Gabriel and
Bob Goldstein,
http://tardigrades.bio.unc.edu/ Date
2007-05-20 (original upload
date) CC
source: http://28.media.tumblr.com/tumbl
r_limfh2NXtC1qc6j5yo1_400.jpg
[2] from Giribet 2007
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/65/Hypsibiusdujardini.jp
g
evolves. Onychophorans are a transition
between worms and arthropods: they have
segmented worm-like bodies but they
also have jointed appendages, antennae,
and shed their cuticle like arthropods
do.
[1] Euperipatoides kanangrensis on a
eucalyptus log, in which it normally
resides. Description English:
Cropped version of File:Euperipatoides
kanangrensis.jpg Date 13 October
2009 CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/67/Euperipatoides_kanang
rensis_crop.jpg
[2] Figure from: Giribet, G. (2008).
Assembling the lophotrochozoan
(=spiralian) tree of life.
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society B: Biological Sciences , 363
(1496), 1513-1522. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2007.2241
http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/363/1496/1513 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://rstb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/363/1496/1513
bilaterians.
Muscles for pumping blood and for
maintaining adequate blood pressure can
be divided into three groups:
contractile blood vessels (found in
nemerteans and annelids), ostiate
{oSTEAT} hearts (found in arthropods),
and chambered hearts (found in molluscs
and vertebrates).
[1] From: Ruppert, Fox, Barnes,
''Invertebrate Zoology'',
2004. COPYRIGHTED
source: Ruppert, Fox, Barnes,
"Invertebrate Zoology", 2004.
[2] From: Ruppert, Fox, Barnes,
''Invertebrate Zoology'',
2004. COPYRIGHTED
source: Ruppert, Fox, Barnes,
"Invertebrate Zoology", 2004.
evolves; Mollusks.
The phylum Mollusca is the second
largest animal phylum after the
arthropods, and is divided into seven
classes, three of which (Gastropoda
{GaSTroPeDu} (snails), Bivalvia (clams
and muscles), and Cephalopoda
{SeFeloPeDu} (squids and octupuses) are
of major importance.
Early Cambrian mollusk fossils show the
segmentation of the mollusk worm-like
ancestor, and have individual plates
which imply that the mollusk shell
fused together over the course of
millions of years.
[1] From: Ruppert, E.E., Fox, R.S.,
and Barnes, R.D. (2004). Invertebrate
Zoology (7 ed.). Brooks / Cole. pp.
284–291. ISBN 0030259827. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mol
lusca
[2] Description Clams Date
Source Own work Author
Marlith CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8f/Clams.JPG
(segmented worms) evolves.
Annelids are various worms or wormlike
animals, characterized by an elongated,
cylindrical, segmented body and
includes the earthworm and leech.
[1] An earthworm's clitellum they have
a unique reproductive organ, the
ring-shaped clitellum (''pack saddle'')
round their bodies, which produces a
cocoon that stores and nourishes
fertilized eggs until they
hatch Description Regenwurm mit
Clitellum - (sattelförmige Verdickung
im vorderen Drittel).Das Sekret der
Clitellum-Drüsen dient u. a. zur
Bildung dieses Ei-Kokons. Français :
Ver de terre (Oligochaeta,
Lumbricina) Svenska: Daggmask
(Lumbricus spec.) Русский:
Дождевой червь (род
Лумбрикус) Date Source
first upload in de wikipedia on
09:58, 16. Feb 2005 by Michael
Linnenbach Author Michael
Linnenbach GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/30/Regenwurm1.jpg
[2] Figure from: Giribet, G. (2008).
Assembling the lophotrochozoan
(=spiralian) tree of life.
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society B: Biological Sciences , 363
(1496), 1513-1522. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2007.2241
http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/363/1496/1513 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://rstb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/363/1496/1513
evolves; the "Arthropods".
Arthropods can be compared to a
segmented worm encased in a rigid
exoskeleton.
The phylum Arthropoda is the largest
phylum in the animal kingdom.
Arthropods include the trilobites, the
crustaceans (shrimps, crabs, and
lobsters), the Myriapoda (centipedes
and millipedes), the Chelicerata
(arachnids and horseshoe crabs) and the
insects. All arthropods have a
segmented body covered by an
exoskeleton containing chitin, which
serves as both armor and as a surface
for muscle attachment.
[1] Extinct and modern
arthropods English: Arthropoda
collage. From left to right and from
top to bottom: Kolihapeltis,
Stylonurus, Scorpion, Crab, Centipede,
Butterfly CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/80/Arthropoda.jpg
[2] Figure from: Giribet, G. (2008).
Assembling the lophotrochozoan
(=spiralian) tree of life.
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society B: Biological Sciences , 363
(1496), 1513-1522. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2007.2241
http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/363/1496/1513 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://rstb.royalsociorg/content
/363/1496/1513
This Subphylum, Vertebrata, contains
most fishes, and all amphibians,
reptiles, mammals, and birds.
The characteristic features of the
Vertebrata are a vertebral column, or
backbone, and a cranium, which protects
the central nervous system (brain and
spinal cord) and major sense organs.
This earliest vertebrate skeleton is
made completely of cartilage.
[1] Description Lampetra
fluviatilis from the german
northsea Date 2004 Source
Germany Author
M.Buschmann Permission (Reusing
this file) Author is owner CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3f/Lampetra_fluviatilis.
jpg
[2] Description Clockwise,
starting from top left: 1. Fire
Salamander (Salamandra salamandra) 2.
Saltwater Crocodile (Crocodylus
porosus) 3. Southern Cassowary
(Casusarius casuarius) 4.
Black-and-rufus Giant Elephant Shrew
(Rhynchocyon petersi) 5. Ocean Sunfish
(Mola mola) Date CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/ec/Vertebrates.png
Conodonts {KO-nu-DoNTS} evolve.
Conodonts have no lower jaw, but have
calcified teeth positioned under
well-developed eyes.
[1] Kardong, ''Vertebrates'', 2002,
p86. COPYRIGHTED
source: Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002,
p86.
[2] From the Englich
Wikipedia Mateus Zica draw it with
macromedia flash 28 oct
2005 mateus zica 18:25, 28
October 2005
(UTC) PD AND Description English:
The inclusion of euconodonts in the
vertebrates, or even craniates, is
still controversial. Admittedly, the
tissue structure of the ''conodonts''
(i.e; the denticles situated in their
mouth; left) is at odds with
conventional vertebrate hard tissues.
Nevertheless, the eyes, body shape, and
tail stucture of the euconodonta are
strikingly vertebrate-like. After
Purnell et al. 1995 Date 30 November
2012, 03:32:10 Source Tree of Life
Web Project Author Philippe Janvier,
1997 CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2d/ConodontZICA.pnghttp:
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons
/3/33/Euconodonta.gif
evolve (agnatha).
The earliest extant jawless fishes, the
hagfishes evolve now. Hagfishes are
eel-like scavengers.
[1] Description English: Pacific
hagfish (Eptatretus stoutii) in a hole
at 150 meters depth. Latitude 37 58 N.,
Longitude 123 27 W. Location:
California, Cordell Bank National
Marine Sanctuary. Date Last Updated:
September 30, 2009. Source
http://www.photolib.noaa.gov/htmls/sanc
1692.htm
http://www.photolib.noaa.gov/bigs/sanc16
92.jpg Author Linda Snook, National
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
(NOAA) / Cordell Bank National Marine
Sanctuary (CBNMS) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Eptatretus_stou
tii.jpg/1280px-Eptatretus_stoutii.jpg
[2] Description Lampetra
fluviatilis from the german
northsea Date 2004 Source
Germany Author
M.Buschmann Permission (Reusing
this file) Author is owner CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3f/Lampetra_fluviatilis.
jpg
Chelicerata (KeliSuroTo) evolves (eight
legs, ancestor of the horseshoe crabs,
sea spiders, and the Arachnids: mites,
spiders, and scorpions).
Sweden
[1] Description English: Horseshoe
crab dorsal and ventral Italiano:
Limulus polyphemus dorsale e
ventrale Date 10 April 2009 Source
Own work Author Ricce PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Limulo_dorsale_
e_ventrale.jpg/1280px-Limulo_dorsale_e_v
entrale.jpg
[2] taken from en:Image:Horseshoe crab
female.jpg Dead female horseshoe crab
from NOAA Photo Library: Image ID:
line2632, America's Coastlines
Collection Location: Patuxent River,
Maryland Photo Date: 2002 August
17 Photographer: Mary Hollinger,
NESDIS/NODC biologist, NOAA PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1b/Horseshoe_crab_female
.jpg
in arthropods.
Vertebrates with color vision include:
some fishes and amphibians, many
reptiles and all birds, but only a few
mammals, humans and some other higher
primates, can see in color.
[1] Microphotograph of the multiple eye
of the trilobite Phacops, showing the
calcite lenses in the eye. PD
source: http://disc.sci.gsfc.nasa.gov/ed
ucation-and-outreach/additional/science-
focus/images/phacops_eye.jpg
[2] Description English: A
schizochroal [eye] of the trilobite
Phacops rana, eye dimensions 8mm across
by 5.5mm high, found near Sylvania,
Ohio, USA, from the Devonian Date 15
October 2011 Source Own work Author
Dwergenpaartje CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0f/Phacops_rana_crassitu
berculata_eye_3.jpg
Echinodermata evolves; the
"Echinoderms" (iKIniDRMS }, the
ancestor of the sea cucumbers, sea
urchins, sand dollars, and star fishes.
[1] Kachemak Bay National Estuarine
Research Reserve. A beautiful array of
starfish , sea urchins and mussel
shells in the rocky intertidal zone of
Kachemak Bay. Image ID: nerr0878,
NOAA National Estuarine Research
Reserve Collection from NOAA:
http://www.photolib.noaa.gov/nerr/nerr08
78.htm PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Nerr0878.jpg/10
24px-Nerr0878.jpg
[2] Description English: The first
in a sequence of three photos that show
a brittle star flipping itself
rightside-up. Date 1 May
2011 Source Own work Author
Alexcooper1 CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/A_brittle_star_
flipping_itself_rightside-up.jpg/1024px-
A_brittle_star_flipping_itself_rightside
-up.jpg
evolve.
Trilobites have a segmented body that
is divided by into three vertical
lobes.
There is a transition from soft-bodied
organisms, to the clam-like shell
organisms, to the segmented calcite and
chitin shells of the trilobites.
Horseshoe crabs may be descended from
trilobites.
[1] example of earliest trilobites
(e.g., Fallotaspis longa) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.trilobites.info/biost
ratfallon.jpg
[2] Niles Eldredge, ''Trilobites and
Evolutionary Patterns'', p305-332 in
Anthony Hallam, ''Patterns of evolution
as illustrated by the fossil record,
Volume 5'', 1977,
p322. http://books.google.com/books?id=
q7GjDIyyWegC COPYRIGHTED
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=q7GjDIyyWegC
(the ancestor of all shrimps, crabs,
lobsters, and barnicles).
England
[1] Canadaspis perfecta (ROM 61119) –
Part and counterpart. Complete specimen
showing phosphatized gut diverticulae
and posterior dark stain (probably
representing decay fluids), lateral
view. Left images, complete slab (part)
showing associated species; Yohoia
tenuis (bottom right), Waptia
fieldensis (left, partially covered by
a disarticulated carapace of
Canadaspis), Burgessia bella (far
left). Right images, details of the
counterpart. Specimen length = 72 mm.
Specimen dry – direct light (top
row), dry – polarized light (bottom
left), wet – polarized light (bottom
right). Walcott Quarry. © Royal
Ontario Museum. Photos: Jean-Bernard
Caron COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.burgess-shale.rom.on.
ca/images/zoomify/canadaspis-rom-61119.j
pg
[2] 3D model of Canadaspis
perfecta. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://burgess-shale.rom.on.ca/v
ideo/fossil-gallery/0b1-canadaspis-turnt
able.jpg
{mEREaPeDu} evolve; the ancestor of all
centipedes and millipedes.
deposits)(Wheeler Formation) Utah, USA
and (Ust-Majan formation) East
Siberia|(earliest fossils) Shropshire,
England
[1] Description Lithobius
forficatus Deutsch: Steinläufer Date
9 August 2005 Source Own
work Author Darkone CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/79/Steinl%C3%A4ufer_%28L
ithobius_forficatus%29_3.jpg
[2] Description Tachypodoiulus
niger Date 2007-06-28 Source Own
work Author Stemonitis CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Tachypodoiulus_
niger_1.jpg/1280px-Tachypodoiulus_niger_
1.jpg
mybn), and start of the Ordovician
{ORDiVisiN} (488.3-443.7 mybn) Period.
[1] Geologic Time Scale 2009 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.geosociety.org/scienc
e/timescale/timescl.pdf
[2] 500 Ma - Late Cambrian UNKNOWN
source: http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~rcb7/500
_Camb_2globes.jpg
radiation. During the Ordovician the
number of genera {JeN-R-u} will
quadruple.
[1] Recreation of life during the
Ordovician UNKNOWN
source: http://ferrebeekeeper.files.word
press.com/2010/11/ordovician.jpg
[2] A second peak time in the
abundance of shell-surviving life forms
was in the Upper Ordovician (by this
time also, the first larger
vertebrates, fossil fish, had
appeared). Below are two illustrations:
the first, an artist' conception of
marine invertebrate life in the late
Ordovician; the second, a typical slab
of Ordovician limestone (from Indiana)
containing the fossil types listed in
its caption: PD
source: http://rst.gsfc.nasa.gov/Sect20/
ordovicsea.jpg
Ostracoderms {oS-Tru-KO-DRM} evolve.
The Ostracoderms are the first
vertebrates to have paired appendages,
an inner ear with two semicircular
canals, and bone, although almost
exclusively in the outer exoskeleton.
[1] Kardong, ''Vertebrates'', 2002,
p86. COPYRIGHTED
source: Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002,
p86.
[2] Description English:
Arandaspis Date 10 October
2010 Source Own work Author Nobu
Tamura
(http://spinops.blogspot.com) CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/58/Arandaspis_NT.jpg
Bryophyta {BrIoFiTo}, (the ancestor of
the Liverworts, Hornworts, and
Mosses).
The Bryophytes are the simplest land
plants, and reproduce with spores.
Most are 2-5 cm (or 1-2 in.) tall and
extremely tolerant of dry and freezing
conditions.
[1] Phaeoceros laevis (L.) Prosk. gnu
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Anthoceros_levis.jpg
[2] English: A closeup shot of moss on
a rock in Beacon Hill Park, Victoria,
Canada. Sony Alpha A100 Date 25
March 2007 Source Own
work Author KirinX at
en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) CC-BY-SA-2.5. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1c/Moss_closeup.jpg
fossil spores belonging to land
plants.
Plants conquer land before animals do,
and like animals may move to land not
by sea but by freshwater.
[1] Gray, J., Massa, D., & Boucot, A.
J. Caradocian land plant microfossils
from libya. Geology , April 1982, 10
(4), 197-201. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1130/0091-7613(1982
)10<197:CLPMFL>2.0.CO;2 http://geology.gsapubs.org/
content/10/4/197.abstract?sid=dadb8801-c
fd4-4eb4-b70e-95cb217113e4 {Gray_Jane_1
98204xx.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://geology.gsapubs.org/conte
nt/10/4/197.abstract?sid=dadb8801-cfd4-4
eb4-b70e-95cb217113e4
[2] Phaeoceros laevis (L.) Prosk. gnu
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Anthoceros_levis.jpg
the arthropods Myriapoda (centipedes
and millipedes).
Ontario, Canada
[1] Figure 4. Field photographs of
representative trackways. Scale bars
represent 5 cm. A: Trackway with
central drag and well-defined appendage
marks. Bottom surface. B: Trackway with
central drag and poorly defined
appendage marks. Top surface. Surface
dips to top of photograph; note downdip
offset of central drag. C: Robust
trackway with well-developed appendage
marks and no central drag. Note
push-ups of sand (arrows) associated
with appendage impressions. Figure 4
from: MacNaughton, Robert B., Jennifer
M. Cole, Robert W. Dalrymple, Simon J.
Braddy, Derek E.G. Briggs, and Terrence
D. Lukie. “First Steps on Land:
Arthropod Trackways in
Cambrian-Ordovician Eolian Sandstone,
Southeastern Ontario, Canada.”
Geology 30, no. 5 (May 2002): 391
–394. http://geology.geoscienceworld.
org/citmgr?gca=geology;30/5/391 COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://geology.geoscienceworld.o
rg/citmgr?gca=geology;30/5/391
[2] Figure 2 from: Heather M. Wilson
and Lyall I. Anderson, ''Morphology and
Taxonomy of Paleozoic Millipedes
(Diplopoda: Chilognatha: Archipolypoda)
from Scotland'', Journal of
Paleontology, Vol. 78, No. 1 (Jan.,
2004), pp.
169-184 http://www.jstor.org/stable/409
4847 {Anderson_Lyall_200401xx.pdf} COP
YRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/4094
847?&Search=yes&searchText=MILLIPEDES&se
archText=TAXONOMY&searchText=MORPHOLOGY&
searchText=PALEOZOIC&list=hide&searchUri
=%2Faction%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuery%3DMOR
PHOLOGY%2BAND%2BTAXONOMY%2BOF%2BPALEOZOI
C%2BMILLIPEDES%26acc%3Don%26wc%3Don&prev
Search=&item=2&ttl=43&returnArticleServi
ce=showFullText
evolve.
[1] Phaeoceros laevis (L.) Prosk. gnu
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Anthoceros_levis.jpg
[2] Image of Phaeoceros (hornwort)
spores taken by J. Ziffer. public
domain
source: wiki
evolve.
[1] Description Lampetra
fluviatilis from the german
northsea Date 2004 Source
Germany Author
M.Buschmann Permission (Reusing
this file) Author is owner CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3f/Lampetra_fluviatilis.
jpg
[2] Fossil Ostracoderms.
Representatives of three extinct
groups. The head armor is especially
well developed in Hemicyclaspis, an
ostracoderm of the ''Cephalapsis''
type, in which the head is flattened
and expanded into a large
filter-feeding basket. Ostracoderms
lacked the paired (pectoral and pelvic)
fins of more advanced fish. In some
cases, small spines were present at the
points where paired fins develop in
higher fishes. In Hemicyclaspis, one
sees a pair of anterior, flipper-like
structures in lieu of pectoral fins.
From Romer, A. S. 1964. The Vertebrate
Body. W. B. Saunders.
Philadelphia. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.blc.arizona.edu/cours
es/schaffer/182/Vertebrates/Ostracoderms
.jpg
evolve.
[1] A moss covered log. Photo by sannse
at Mistley, England. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mos
s
[2] life cycle of
moss ladyofhats public domain
source: same
Gnathostomata {no toST omoTo}. This
large group includes all jawed fishes,
amphibians, reptiles, mammals, and
birds.
Jawed fishes have a skeleton made
completely of cartilage. Only the teeth
become ossified when mineral crystals,
mostly calcium phosphate, become
integrated into them.
The jaw evolves from parts of the gill
skeleton.
[1] Image from: Palmer, D. The
Marshall Illustrated Encyclopedia of
Dinosaurs & Prehistoric Animals: A
Comprehensive Color Guide to Over 500
Species. New Line Books,
2002. COPYRIGHTED
source: Palmer, D. The Marshall
Illustrated Encyclopedia of Dinosaurs &
Prehistoric Animals: A Comprehensive
Color Guide to Over 500 Species. New
Line Books, 2002.
[2] Kardong, ''Vertebrates'', Third
Edition, 2002. COPYRIGHTED
source: Kardong, "Vertebrates", Third
Edition, 2002.
Chondrichthyes {KoN-DriK-tE-EZ} evolves
(Cartilaginous fishes: ancestor of all
sharks, rays, skates, and sawfishes).
[1] Richard Dawkins, ''The Ancestor's
Tale'', (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p360-363. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p360-363.
[2] Miller, Randall F., Richard
Cloutier, and Susan Turner. “The
Oldest Articulated Chondrichthyan from
the Early Devonian Period.” Nature
425.6957 (2003): 501–504. Web. 23 May
2012. http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v425/n6957/full/nature02001.html {M
iller_Chondrichthyans_2003.pdf} COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v425/n6957/full/nature02001.html
ancestor of all terrestrial fungi (the
Glomeromycota, Ascomycota, and
Basidiomycota).
[1] Earliest Glomerales fossil fig 1
from: Redecker D, Kodner R, Graham LE.
(2000). ''Glomalean fungi from the
Ordovician''. Science 289 (5486):
1920–21. Bibcode 2000Sci...289.1920R.
doi:10.1126/science.289.5486.1920. PMID
10988069. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3
077684 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3077
684
[2] Phylogenetic tree from: Richard
Dawkins, ''The Ancestor's Tale'',
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004), p511. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p511.
{GlO-mi-rO-mI-KO-Tu} evolves
(arbuscular {oRBuSKYUlR} mycorrhizal
{MIKerIZL} fungi).
The Glomeromycota are mutualistic
symbionts that form a close association
intracellularly between the fungus and
the roots of plants.
[1] Gigaspora margarita in association
with Lotus corniculatus Description
Lotus corniculatus var. japonicus
kolonisiert durch Gigaspora
margarita Date 18 September
2007 Source Own work Author
Mike Guether GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Gigaspora_marga
rita.JPG/1024px-Gigaspora_margarita.JPG
[2] germinating Gigaspora decipiens
source: http://pages.unibas.ch/bothebel/
people/redecker/ff/glomero.htm
This is caused by an ice age. 60% of
all genera are observed extinct.
This is the first of five mass
extinctions in the Phanerozoic.
[1] NOAA Photo Library Image -
corp1440 Flying over a huge glacier
on the way to McMurdo Station
Image ID: corp1440, NOAA At The Ends of
the Earth Collection Location:
Antarctica Photographer: Mr. Fred
Walton, NOAA Category:
Antarctica/McMurdo/Glacier/ PD
source: http://www.photolib.noaa.gov/big
s/corp1440.jpg
[2] Image of object impact with
Earth UNKNOWN
source: http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-u1aaDd
JP2M0/Tj0QtfwPQQI/AAAAAAAAAbk/3SpkL8NCec
w/s1600/asteroid-impact.jpg
(488.3-443.7 mybn), and the start of
the Silurian (443.7-416) Period.
[1] Geologic Time Scale 2009 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.geosociety.org/scienc
e/timescale/timescl.pdf
[2] 450 Ma - Late Ordovician UNKNOWN
source: http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~rcb7/450
_Ord_3globes.jpg
Phylum Tracheophyta {TrAKEoFiTu}.
Vascular plants have a specialized
conducting system consisting mostly of
phloem (food-conducting tissue) and
xylem (water-conducting tissue),
collectively called vascular tissue.
The phloem transports sugar and the
xylem transports water and salts.
Ferns, gymnosperms, and flowering
plants are all vascular plants. In
contrast to the nonvascular bryophytes,
where the gametophyte is the dominant
phase, the dominant phase among
vascular plants is the sporophyte.
Because they have vascular tissues,
these plants have true stems, leaves,
and roots.
[1] Description Equisetum telmateia
(Equisetopsida) at Cambridge Botanic
Garden Date 18 May 2008 Source Own
work Author Rror Other versions
Derivative works of this file:
species on earth.jpg GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/7c/Equisetopsida.jpg
[2] Fig. 2. Chronogram showing
estimates of phylogenetic relationships
and divergence times among the major
groups of extant land plants. The
estimate of relationships is
synthesized from the following papers
in this issue: Burleigh and Mathews
(2004) , Pryer et al. (2004) , Shaw and
Renzaglia (2004) , and Soltis and
Soltis (2004) . Divergence time
estimates are mostly based on analyses
of molecular data with fossil
constraints (Wikström et al., 2001 ;
Pryer et al., 2004 ) and are augmented
by fossil evidence (Kenrick and Crane,
1997 ; Wellman et al., 2003 ).
Estimates of the number of species in
each group are from Judd et al. (2002)
and W. S. Judd (personal
communication). Groups covered by a
particular article in this special
issue are circled and connected to the
names of the article's authors. ''Other
conifers'' refers to the clade
consisting of all conifers except for
Pinaceae (see Burleigh and Mathews,
2004 ). ''Lepto. ferns'' refers to
leptosporangiate ferns fig 2
from: Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, ''The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view'', American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
http://www.amjbot.org/content/91/10/14
37.full {Chase_Mark_2004.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.amjbot.org/content/91
/10/1437/F2.large.jpg
Osteichthyes {oS TE iK tE EZ}) evolves;
Bony fishes, the ancestor of the
ray-finned, lobe-fin, and lung fishes.
Bony-fishes have a skeleton that is at
least partly ossified or made of bone.
The bony fishes are the ancestors of
the tetrapods who will ultimately move
onto land.
The earliest bony fishes are the
ray-finned fishes. The name ray is
because their fins have a skeleton
similar to a handheld fan.
Most of the ray-finned fishes are known
as teleosts, a very successful
evolutionary line that exist in both
salt and freshwater.
[1] Adapted from: Richard Dawkins,
''The Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p339. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p339.
[2] A sturgeon
(pt:esturjāo). esturgeon noir
d'Amérique (Acipenser oxyrinchus
oxyrinchus) http://images.fws.gov/ PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c2/Sturgeon2.jpg
swim bladder in ray-finned fishes. Some
teleosts still use their swim bladder
for breathing out of water. Fishes that
breathe with a lung evolve breathing
through a completely different route
than fishes that breathe air through
their gill chamber.
[1] Image from: Palmer, D. The
Marshall Illustrated Encyclopedia of
Dinosaurs & Prehistoric Animals: A
Comprehensive Color Guide to Over 500
Species. New Line Books,
2002. COPYRIGHTED
source: Palmer, D. The Marshall
Illustrated Encyclopedia of Dinosaurs &
Prehistoric Animals: A Comprehensive
Color Guide to Over 500 Species. New
Line Books, 2002.
[2] Earliest fish with lung in
existance?[t] Nile Bichir (Polypterus
bichir bichir) from Günther, A.C.L.G.,
1880. An introduction to the study of
fishes. Today & Tomorrow's Book Agency,
New Delhi. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e8/Nile_bichir.png
evolve. Lobe-fin fishes have a fleshy
lobe at the base of each fin. The
earliest extant Lobe-fin fishes, the
coelacanths evolve now.
[1] Description Preserved
specimen of chalumnae (Also known as
Coelacanth [1]) in the Natural History
Museum, Vienna, Austria. Believed
to have been extinct for 70 million
years, this specimen was caught the 18
October of 1974, next to
Salimani/Selimani (Grande Comore,
Comoros Islands) 11°48′40.7″S
43°16′3.3″E Length: 170 cm -
Weight: 60 kg Obtained by stiching
3 HiRes images and removing the
background with image
post-processing. Date August
2007 Source Own work Author
Alberto Fernandez Fernandez GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/fa/Latimeria_Chalumnae_-
_Coelacanth_-_NHMW.jpg
{HeKSu-PODu or HeKSoPuDu} evolves
(arthropods with six legs {3 pairs},
the ancestor of all insects).
The closest relative of the Hexapods is
most likely the Branchiopoda; the brine
shrimps.
Scotland
[1] Description Protura specimen,
taken under stereo microscope (40x).
Acerentomon sp. Date 7 December 2008,
03:13 Source Protura Uploaded
by Richard001 Author Gregor
?nidar CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
_micrograph.jpg){kind=link}
pedia/commons/b/bc/Protura_specimen_(Ace
rentomon_species)_micrograph.jpg
[2] Description English: Campodea
staphylinus, a dipluran. Photo by
Michel Vuijlsteke. Taken on May 9, 2006
at 4.09pm CEST in Gent, Belgium. Date
2007-07-08 (original upload
date) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia Author Original uploader
was Mvuijlst at
en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2e/Diplura.jpg
{araK-niDe} evolves (the Arachnids: the
ancestor of all scorpions, spiders,
mites and ticks).
of) NY, USA
[1] Description Proscorpius osborni
fossil. The Eurypterida of New York.
Volume 2. New York State Museum Memoir
14, plate 88 Date 1912 Source
California/Google Books Author John
Mason Clarke (1857-1925) and Rudolf
Ruedemann (1864-1956) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/15/The_Eurypterida_of_Ne
w_York_plate_88.jpg
[2] Description The Eurypterida of
New York. Volume 1. New York State
Museum Memoir 14, figure 81-83 Date
1912 Source Google Books Author
John Mason Clarke (1857-1925) and
Rudolf Ruedemann (1864-1956) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/ef/The_Eurypterida_of_Ne
w_York_figure_81-83.jpg
evolve.
[1] Description English: Australian
lungfish (Neoceratodus forsteri) Date
Source Picure taken by Tannin
(from English wikipedia) Author
User:Tannin GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/61/Australian-Lungfish.j
pg
[2] Description English: Lateral
view of lungs of a dissected
Protopterus dolloi Date
2007ish (15 February 2009
(original upload date)) Source
Transferred from
en.wikipedia (Original text : Photo
from lab dissection at U. of
Cincinnati) Author Mokele (talk).
Original uploader was Mokele at
en.wikipedia GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/ae/Lungs_of_Protopterus_
dolloi.JPG
mybn), and start of the Devonian
{DiVONEiN} (416-359.2 mybn) Period.
[1] Geologic Time Scale 2009 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.geosociety.org/scienc
e/timescale/timescl.pdf
[2] 430 Ma - Early Silurian UNKNOWN
source: http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~rcb7/430
_Silurian_2globes.jpg
evolves: the insects.
The insects are the most diverse
organisms known, having nearly one
million named species, which is over
half of all named species on Earth.
The most primitive living insect Order
Archaeognatha, the Bristletails evolves
now.
[1] Description Français : Groupe
de Petrobius maritimus sur falaise
supralittorale, Toull ar C'Hrabanoù,
Goulien, Finistère, Bretagne,
France Date 2 June 2010 Source Own
work Author Jymm PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a4/Petrobius_maritimus_2
010-06-02.jpg
[2] Description Archaeognatha:
Machilidae, collected from Anglesey,
UK Date 2006-12-28 Source Own work
(own photo) Author
User:Stemonitis Permission (Reusing
this file) CC Attribution
ShareAlike 2.5 CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/42/Archaeognatha.jpg
{ZIGeNTOmu} evolves: Silverfish.
[1] Thysanura is an order of insects,
encompassing silverfish and
firebrats, Description
Silberfischchen, Lepisma
saccharina Date Source from the
http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bild:Silber
fischchen.jpg German wiki; taken with
Canon EOS 300D Author Sebastian
Stabinger GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/54/Silberfischchen.jpg
[2] Image from: David A. Grimaldi,
Michael S. Engel, ''Evolution of the
Insects'', 2005, p144. COPYRIGHTED
source: David A. Grimaldi, Michael S.
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p146
"Ascomycota" {aS-KO-mI-KO-Tu} evolves
(the ancestor of yeasts, truffles,
Penicillium, and morels {mu-reLZ}).
The Ascomycota account for
approximately 75% of all described
fungi.
Aberdeenshire, Scotland
[1] white truffle
cutted photographed by
myself GNU head Permission is
granted to copy, distribute and/or
modify this document under the terms of
the GNU Free Documentation License,
Version 1.2 or any later version
published by the Free Software
Foundation; with no Invariant Sections,
no Front-Cover Texts, and no Back-Cover
Texts. A copy of the license is
included in the section entitled ''Text
of the GNU Free Documentation
License.''
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/fd/Truffle_washed_and_cu
tted.jpg
[2] EColi-Scerevisiae.jpg (50KB, MIME
type: image/jpeg) Wikimedia Commons
logo This is a file from the Wikimedia
Commons. The description on its
description page there is shown
below. Escherichia coli (little
forms) & Saccharomyces cerevisiae (big
forms) by MEB Public domain This file
has been released into the public
domain by the copyright holder, its
copyright has expired, or it is
ineligible for copyright. This applies
worldwide. brewer's yeast/baker's
yeast
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:EColi-Scerevisiae.jpg
(the ancestor of club mosses, ferns and
horsetails).
Ferns are flowerless, seedless vascular
plants that have roots, stems, and
fronds (the leaf-like part of a fern),
and reproduce by spores.
[1] Fig. 2. Chronogram showing
estimates of phylogenetic relationships
and divergence times among the major
groups of extant land plants. The
estimate of relationships is
synthesized from the following papers
in this issue: Burleigh and Mathews
(2004) , Pryer et al. (2004) , Shaw and
Renzaglia (2004) , and Soltis and
Soltis (2004) . Divergence time
estimates are mostly based on analyses
of molecular data with fossil
constraints (Wikström et al., 2001 ;
Pryer et al., 2004 ) and are augmented
by fossil evidence (Kenrick and Crane,
1997 ; Wellman et al., 2003 ).
Estimates of the number of species in
each group are from Judd et al. (2002)
and W. S. Judd (personal
communication). Groups covered by a
particular article in this special
issue are circled and connected to the
names of the article's authors. ''Other
conifers'' refers to the clade
consisting of all conifers except for
Pinaceae (see Burleigh and Mathews,
2004 ). ''Lepto. ferns'' refers to
leptosporangiate ferns fig 2
from: Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, ''The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view'', American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
http://www.amjbot.org/content/91/10/14
37.full {Chase_Mark_2004.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.amjbot.org/content/91
/10/1437/F2.large.jpg
[2] Fig. 2. Chronogram showing
estimates of phylogenetic relationships
and divergence times among the major
groups of extant land plants. The
estimate of relationships is
synthesized from the following papers
in this issue: Burleigh and Mathews
(2004) , Pryer et al. (2004) , Shaw and
Renzaglia (2004) , and Soltis and
Soltis (2004) . Divergence time
estimates are mostly based on analyses
of molecular data with fossil
constraints (Wikström et al., 2001 ;
Pryer et al., 2004 ) and are augmented
by fossil evidence (Kenrick and Crane,
1997 ; Wellman et al., 2003 ).
Estimates of the number of species in
each group are from Judd et al. (2002)
and W. S. Judd (personal
communication). Groups covered by a
particular article in this special
issue are circled and connected to the
names of the article's authors. ''Other
conifers'' refers to the clade
consisting of all conifers except for
Pinaceae (see Burleigh and Mathews,
2004 ). ''Lepto. ferns'' refers to
leptosporangiate ferns fig 2
from: Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, ''The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view'', American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
http://www.amjbot.org/content/91/10/14
37.full {Chase_Mark_2004.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.amjbot.org/content/91
/10/1437/F2.large.jpg
"Elasmobranchii" {elaZmOBrANKEE or I}
evolve, (the ancestor of sharks,
dogfishes, skates and rays).
[1] Richard Dawkins, ''The Ancestor's
Tale'', (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p361. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p361.
[2] Grey reef shark (Carcharhinus
amblyrhynchos) Description Un
gran tiburón surcando aguas
oceánicas. Date 14 March
2004 Source Original image:
Carcharhinus-amblyrynchos.jpg by
Fbattail at fr.wikipedia, March 14,
2004 cropped image:
Greyreefsharksmall.jpg by Chris huh at
en.wikipedia, August 29. 2006
Transfered to Commons by Harryemi,
September 21, 2008 Author
original author is Fbattail , the
image is cropped by Chris huh GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/bb/Tibur%C3%B3n.jpg
evolve (Stoneworts).
[1] Description English: The
stoneworts alga Chara globularis (Syn.:
Chara fragilis; Characeae). Deutsch:
Habitus der Zerbrechlichen
Armleuchteralge (Chara globularis;
Syn.: Chara fragilis). Bild mit
Flachbettscanner angefertigt. Date
October 2005 Source Own work.
Location: North-eastern Lower Saxony,
Germany. Author Christian Fischer CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/cf/CharaFragilis.jpg
[2] Description English: The
stoneworts alga Chara globularis (Syn.:
Chara fragilis; Characeae). Deutsch:
Habitus der Zerbrechlichen
Armleuchteralge (Chara globularis;
Syn.: Chara fragilis); drapiert in
einem mit Wasser gefüllten Teller und
senkrecht von oben fotografiert. Diese
Art ist die wohl häufigste
Armleuchteralge in Deutschland (bei
regionalen Unterschieden) – die
meisten anderen Arten stehen auf der
Roten Liste, einige sind extrem
selten. Date 2 July 2011 Source Own
work. Location: North-eastern Lower
Saxony, Germany. Author Christian
Fischer CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/CharaGlobularis
.jpg/833px-CharaGlobularis.jpg
{lIKiN}.
A lichen is a fungus, usually of the
class Ascomycetes {aSKOmISETS}, that
grows symbiotically with algae and
cyanobacteria, resulting in a composite
organism that characteristically forms
a crustlike or branching growth on
rocks or tree trunks.
Lichens have a planet-wide distribution
and thrive in some of the Earth's
harshest environments, such as polar
regions, deserts, and high mountains.
[1] Xanthoparmelia cf. lavicola, a
foliose lichen, on basalt.
Photograph of lichen on basalt taken at
Ulupo, Kailua, O'ahu, Hawai'i by Eric
Guinther (Marshman at en.wikipedia) and
released under the GNU Free
Documentation License. first
upload en.wikipedia 23:52, 23 September
2003 . . Marshman (185124 bytes)
(Lichen photograph) GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2c/Lichen_squamulose.jpg
[2] Fig 1 from: Taylor, T. N. et al.
“The Oldest Fossil Lichen.” Nature
378.6554 (1995):
244–244. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v378/n6554/abs/378244a0.html C
OPYRIGHTED
source: Taylor, T. N. et al. “The
Oldest Fossil Lichen.” Nature
378.6554 (1995):
244–244. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v378/n6554/abs/378244a0.html
Infraclass: "Selachii" {SelAKEE or I}
evolves, (the ancestor of all sharks:
includes great white, hammerhead, mako,
tiger and nurse sharks).
[1] Richard Dawkins, ''The Ancestor's
Tale'', (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p361. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p361.
[2] Grey reef shark (Carcharhinus
amblyrhynchos) Description Un
gran tiburón surcando aguas
oceánicas. Date 14 March
2004 Source Original image:
Carcharhinus-amblyrynchos.jpg by
Fbattail at fr.wikipedia, March 14,
2004 cropped image:
Greyreefsharksmall.jpg by Chris huh at
en.wikipedia, August 29. 2006
Transfered to Commons by Harryemi,
September 21, 2008 Author
original author is Fbattail , the
image is cropped by Chris huh GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/bb/Tibur%C3%B3n.jpg
"Holocephali" {HoloSeFolE or I}
evolves, (the ancestor of the chimaeras
{KiMERoZ} also called rabbit-fishes or
ratfishes).
[1] Description Spotted ratfish
(Hydrolagus colliei) observed off Pt
Pinos during a sanctuary seafloor
monitoring survey using the Delta
submersible. Date 13 August
2004 Source
http://www.mbnms-simon.org/other/photos
/photo_info.php?photoID=1307 Author
Linda Snook /
MBNMS Permission (Reusing this file)
All SIMoN photos and video are in
the public domain and CANNOT be
copyrighted. Although at present, no
fee is charged for using the media.
Credit MUST be given to the
photographer or other source as stated
with the photo metadata. [1] PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f9/Hydrolagus_colliei.jp
g
[2] Richard Dawkins, ''The Ancestor's
Tale'', (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p361. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p361.
New York, USA
[1] Fig. 1. Attercopus fimbriunguis,
Devonian of New York (localities: G,
Gilboa; SM, South Mountain), macerated
from matrix with HF and slide-mounted.
(A) First-described “spinneret,” G
334.1b.34; darkness of cuticle reflects
number of layers, so this fragment is
folded over twice. (B) Palpal femur, SM
1.11.12; arrow indicates patch of
distinctive spinules. (C) Piece of
cuticle from corner of opisthosomal
ventral plate showing setae, spigots,
and possible silk strand, SM 1.11.4.
(D) Close-up of E showing possible silk
strand emerging from spigot shaft, SM
1.11.4. (E) Flagellar structure with 12
segments (including possible
distalmost) from original Gilboa
locality; segments show distal collars
and setae, G 334.1a.4. (F) Close-up of
cheliceral fang showing a number of
holes (arrowed), the most distal of
which had been interpreted as a
venom-gland opening, G 329.22.9. (Scale
bars: 0.5 mm, except F, 0.25 mm.)
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.pnas.org/content/105/
52/20781/F1.large.jpg
[2] Permarachne novokshonovi, Permian
of Russia, from the Kungurian
c276mybn UNKNOWN
source: http://media.tumblr.com/tumblr_l
y6ahnZoxc1qgxyxw.jpg
large tree fossils.
The first progymnosperms (treelike
plants), like Archaeopteris.
USA
[1] a, General view of the crown
portion, showing longitudinal ranks of
branch bases on the trunk proximally,
and attached branches with digitate
ramification and speckled surface
pattern distally. Scale bar, 20 cm. b,
Line drawing of the specimen as
recovered including trunk and crown;
the box shows the portion in a, and the
arrow indicates the branch in c. Scale
bar, 10 cm. c, Close-up of a distal
branch showing speckled texture and
lateral appendages. Scale bar, 20
mm. figure 1 from: William E. Stein1,
Frank Mannolini2, Linda VanAller
Hernick2, Ed Landing2 & Christopher M.
Berry3, ''Giant cladoxylopsid trees
resolve the enigma of the Earth's
earliest forest stumps at Gilboa'',
Nature 446, 904-907 (19 April
2007) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v446/n7138/full/nature05705.html CO
PYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v446/n7138/images/nature05705-f1.2.
jpg
[2] a, Composite image of large trunk
specimen, a cast with upper and lower
counterparts, NYSM 17040. Arrows at the
distal end (top) correspond to the
region in Fig. 3a; arrows at the
proximal end (bottom) correspond to the
region in Fig. 3b. b, Line drawing
showing the architecture of Wattieza
attached to Eospermatopteris. The
length of the trunk is not firmly
established, so the minimum tree height
is shown. Light branches right, also in
Fig. 1a right, appear in life position
but are not definitively attached.
Scale bar, 1 m for both panels. figure
2 from: William E. Stein1, Frank
Mannolini2, Linda VanAller Hernick2, Ed
Landing2 & Christopher M. Berry3,
''Giant cladoxylopsid trees resolve the
enigma of the Earth's earliest forest
stumps at Gilboa'', Nature 446, 904-907
(19 April
2007) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v446/n7138/full/nature05705.html CO
PYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v446/n7138/images/nature05705-f2.2.
jpg
arthropod insect, the ancestor of all
winged insects (Pterygota {TARiGOTu}).
The earliest extant winged insects are
the Orders Ephemeroptera {eFeMeroPTRo}:
Mayflies, and the Odonata {ODenoDo}:
Dragonflies and Damselflies.
Insect wings evolve only once, and all
winged insects descend from the first
winged insect.
The development of wings may have
helped early insects to escape
predators and to move over larger
distances to find new habitats.
southeastern Massachusetts and Upper
Silesian Basin, Czech Republic
[1] English: A female subimago of March
Brown (Rhithrogena germanica) of family
Heptageniidae. Mayflies are insects
which belong to the Order Ephemeroptera
(from the Greek ephemeros, short-lived
and pteron, wing, referring to the
short life span of adults). They have
been placed into an ancient group of
insects termed the Paleoptera, which
also contains the dragonflies and
damselflies. They are aquatic insects
whose immature stage (called naiad or,
colloquially, nymph) usually lasts one
year in fresh water. The rests on Rough
Horsetail or Scouringrush Horsetail
(Equisetum hyemale) Date 8 January
2008 Source Own work Author Richard
Bartz, Munich aka Makro Freak
Image:MFB.jpg CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/49/Rhithrogena_germanica
_subimago_on_Equisetum_hyemale.jpg
[2] FIGURE 2—Preliminary hypothesis
of phylogenetic relationships among
major and interesting groups of living
and extinct hexapods and
basal pterygote Insecta. Numbers refer
to synapomorphies (see Table 1); empty
boxes are homoplasious synapomorphies.
Some significant fossils
are-CSCO-3h--F3.large denoted by
circled letters (see Table 2), but many
fossils are not listed for most groups.
Thick lines indicate the approximate
chronology of lineages. The number of
lineages depicted for paraphyletic
lineages
(‘‘Protodonata,’’‘‘Protortho
ptera,’’ Blattaria [Blattoptera])
are arbitrary, and simply indicate
multiple, unresolved lineages. The
names of orders with freshwater aquatic
larvae are shaded (a presumed ancestral
habit). Relationships are based on
Kristensen (1975, 1991, 1999), Willmann
(1997, 1999), Grimaldi (1997, for
Dictyoptera), Engel and Grimaldi (2000,
Zoraptera and related orders), and
others. Figure 2 from: Grimaldi, D.
2001. Insect evolutionary history from
Handlirsch to Hennig, and beyond.
Journal of Paleontology
75:1152-1160. http://jpaleontol.geoscie
nceworld.org/content/75/6/1152
AND www.online-keys.net/sciaroidea/2000
_/Grimaldi_2001_insect_evolution_history
.pdf COPYRIGHTED
source: www.online-keys.net/sciaroidea/2
000_/Grimaldi_2001_insect_evolution_hist
ory.pdf
Tetrapoda {TeTC-ru-PoDu} evolves. The
first tetrapods (vertebrates with four
feet) evolve in fresh water. These are
the first vertebrate limbs (arms and
legs) and fingers. This is also the
first amphibian, the ancestor of
caecillians, frogs, toads, and
salamanders.
equator)
[1] Timeline of phylogeny of animals,
figure 6 from: S. Blair Hedges, ''The
origin and evolution of model
organisms'', Nature Reviews Genetics 3,
838-849 (November
2002) http://www.nature.com/nrg/journal
/v3/n11/full/nrg929.html {Hedges_2002.p
df} a) The relationships and
divergence times (millions of years ago
(Mya) plusminus one standard error) of
selected model animals are shown, based
on recent multigene and multiprotein
studies51, 61, 84. The fossil
divergence time of birds and mammals
(310 Mya) was used to calibrate the
molecular clock. Branch lengths are not
proportional to time. b ) The
relationships and numbers of living
species, from a diversity of sources in
most of the main groups. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nrg/journa
l/v3/n11/images/nrg929-f6.jpg
[2] Reconstructions of (a)
Acanthostega and (b) Ichthyostega, from
Benton, 1997. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://palaeo.gly.bris.ac.uk/Pal
aeofiles/Fossilgroups/Amphibia/amphibpic
s/ichthyostega.jpg
caused by an ice age.
70% of all species go extinct. This
includes 3 of 5 trilobite orders, 90%
of brachiopod genera, and major loss of
reefs.
[1] Description English: Antarctica:
The blue ice covering Lake Fryxell, in
the Transantarctic Mountains, comes
from glacial meltwater from the Canada
Glacier and other smaller glaciers. The
freshwater stays on top of the lake and
freezes, sealing in briny water
below. http://photolibrary.usap.gov/Por
tscripts/PortWeb.dll?query&field1=Filena
me&op1=matches&value=LakeFryxell.jpg&cat
alog=Antarctica&template=ShowMidThumbs
Français : Antarctique: La glace bleue
couvrant le Lac Fryxell, dans la
Chaîne Transantarctique, vient des
eaux de fonte du Glacier Canada et
d'autres glaciers plus petits. L'eau
fraîche se trouve au sommet du lac et
gèle, scellant une eau saumâtre
située en-dessous. Date 10 December
2002 Source From Antarctic Photo
Library: LAKEFRYXELL.JPG Author Joe
Mastroianni, National Science
Foundation PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Fryxellsee_Opt.
jpg/1280px-Fryxellsee_Opt.jpg
[2] Description Deutsch: Der Vulkan
Mount Erebus, Antarktika. English:
Mount Erebus, Ross Island,
Antarctica. Español: Monte Erebus,
Isla Ross,Antártida Français : Le
mont Erebus, île de Ross,
Antarctique. Türkçe: Erebus Dağı,
Antarktika Русский:
Вулкан Эребус,
Антарктида Date
1972 Source U.S. Geological Survey
(USGS) Author Richard Waitt, U.S.
Geological Survey Permission (Reusing
this file) PD-US Other versions
Image:Mt Erebus (original).jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/4e/Mt_erebus.jpg
(an amphibian).
equator)
[1] Yes, it's time for the Palaeozoic
scenes of Life before Man. Or some of
them, anyway - if you really want to
see a load of trilobites, you're
probably Richard Fortey, and I will
ignore any comments that claim
otherwise. (Also, I can't include
everything - otherwise we'd have to
rename this blog Love in the Time of
Burian, which sounds a bit rubbish.) My
bias is most definitely towards
vertebrates and, in particular,
tetrapods, and the below scene -
featuring Ichthyostega - marks their
first appearance in the book. This
painting is perhaps unique in this book
as it combines the elements of the
animal-free landscapes with, well, some
animals. Burian's skill is in making
this scene, filled as it is with flora
so utterly different to what we are
accustomed to seeing today, look as if
he just took a casual stroll out into
the country to paint it. UNKNOWN
source: http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-Zdvegv
1Fny4/UCk-Z929irI/AAAAAAAABM8/_7c21BO7T1
s/s1600/Ichthyostega.jpg
[2] Timeline of phylogeny of animals,
figure 6 from: S. Blair Hedges, ''The
origin and evolution of model
organisms'', Nature Reviews Genetics 3,
838-849 (November
2002) http://www.nature.com/nrg/journal
/v3/n11/full/nrg929.html {Hedges_2002.p
df} a) The relationships and
divergence times (millions of years ago
(Mya) plusminus one standard error) of
selected model animals are shown, based
on recent multigene and multiprotein
studies51, 61, 84. The fossil
divergence time of birds and mammals
(310 Mya) was used to calibrate the
molecular clock. Branch lengths are not
proportional to time. b ) The
relationships and numbers of living
species, from a diversity of sources in
most of the main groups. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nrg/journa
l/v3/n11/images/nrg929-f6.jpg
"Basidiomycota" {Bo-SiDEO-mI-KO-Tu}
evolves (the ancestor of many
mushrooms: button, chanterelle
{saNTRreL}, cremini {KremENE}, enoki
{inoKE}, fly agaric {uGaRiK}, oyster,
porcino {PORCEnO }, portabella,
psilocybe, puffball, shiitake {sEToKE},
woodear, rusts, and club fungi).
The Basidiomycota phylum contains 37%
of the described species of Fungi and
all produce basidia, which are the
cells on which sexual spores are
produced.
[1] Amanita muscaria
(Homobasidiomycetes)
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Agaricales.jpg
[2] Basidiomycete Life Cycle tjv
source: http://botit.botany.wisc.edu/ima
ges/332/Basidiomycota/General_basidio/Ba
sidiomycete_Life_Cycle_tjv.php?highres=t
rue
insects evolve.
A mechanism to fold the wings against
the body after landing has a selective
advantage by making the wings less
conspicuous, awkward, and susceptible
to breakage.
The Neoptera are a very successful
lineage and are the ancestors of all
"higher" orders of insects.
eggintoni, Coseley Lagerstätte)
Staffordshire, UK
[1] Stonefly in the genus Dinotoperla.
Taken in Swifts Creek, Victoria in
November 2007 GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e6/Stonefly_-_dinotoperl
a.jpg
[2] Nymph of unidentified
stonefly Description Deutsch:
Steinfliegenlarve Date 16 June
2006 Source Own work Author
böhringer friedrich CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/SteinfliegenLar
ve2.JPG/1280px-SteinfliegenLarve2.JPG
mybn), and start of the Carboniferous
(359.2-299 mybn) Period.
[1] Geologic Time Scale 2009 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.geosociety.org/scienc
e/timescale/timescl.pdf
[2] 370 Ma Middle Devonian UNKNOWN
source: http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~rcb7/370
_Devonian_2globes.jpg
ancestor of all seed plants.
The earliest fossil seed is from a seed
fern (Pteridosperm {TARiDOSPRM}).
Pteridosperms are a group of extinct
seed plants with fernlike leaves and
naked seeds.
Fossils indicate that the first seed
evolves from an enclosing ring of
vegetative lobes that fuse together.
A seed can be described as an
"integumented megasporangium". In the
most primitive vascular plants, the
spores are all the same size, but
eventually gender evolves, producing
small male "microspores" and larger
female "megaspores". Then individual
female megaspores are enclosed by a
ring of vegetative lobes which form an
integument or cover.
[1] Henry N. Andrews, ''Early Seed
Plants'', Science, New Series, Vol.
142, No. 3594 (Nov. 15, 1963), pp.
925-931. http://www.jstor.org/stable/17
11577 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1711
577
[2] Fig. 2. Chronogram showing
estimates of phylogenetic relationships
and divergence times among the major
groups of extant land plants. The
estimate of relationships is
synthesized from the following papers
in this issue: Burleigh and Mathews
(2004) , Pryer et al. (2004) , Shaw and
Renzaglia (2004) , and Soltis and
Soltis (2004) . Divergence time
estimates are mostly based on analyses
of molecular data with fossil
constraints (Wikström et al., 2001 ;
Pryer et al., 2004 ) and are augmented
by fossil evidence (Kenrick and Crane,
1997 ; Wellman et al., 2003 ).
Estimates of the number of species in
each group are from Judd et al. (2002)
and W. S. Judd (personal
communication). Groups covered by a
particular article in this special
issue are circled and connected to the
names of the article's authors. ''Other
conifers'' refers to the clade
consisting of all conifers except for
Pinaceae (see Burleigh and Mathews,
2004 ). ''Lepto. ferns'' refers to
leptosporangiate ferns fig 2
from: Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, ''The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view'', American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
http://www.amjbot.org/content/91/10/14
37.full {Chase_Mark_2004.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.amjbot.org/content/91
/10/1437/F2.large.jpg
sounds transmitted through the air.
This is the beginning of vertebrates
making vocal sounds.
[1] Figure 6.2 from: Peter M. Narins,
Albert S. Feng, Richard R. Fay and
Arthur N. Popper, ''Hearing and Sound
Communication in Amphibians'', Springer
Handbook of Auditory Research, Volume
28, 2006, DOI:
10.1007/978-0-387-47796-1 http://www.sp
ringerlink.com/content/l637813537l70704/
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.springerlink.com/cont
ent/l637813537l70704/
[2] Description Eocaecilia
micropodia, an early caecilian from the
Lower Jurassic of Arizona, pencil
drawing Date 22 August
2007 Source Own work Author
Nobu Tamura
email:nobu.tamura@yahoo.com
www.palaeocritti.com Permission (Reusi
ng this file) See below. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/27/Eocaecilia_BW.jpg
and Paddlefish evolve.
[1] Adapted from: Richard Dawkins,
''The Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p339. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p339.
[2] Adapted from: Richard Dawkins,
''The Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p339. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p339.
{DiKTEoPTRu} evolve (the ancestor of
Cockroaches, Termites, and Mantises).
[1] Description English: Juvenile,
Madagascar hissing cockroach at the
Atlanta Botanical Garden. Taken
9/23/2007. Date 25 September 2007
(original upload date) Source
Transferred from en.wikipedia;
transferred to Commons by
User:Sreejithk2000 using
CommonsHelper. Author Original
uploader was Almabes at
en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) Released into the public
domain (by the author). Other versions
Derivative works of this file:
Female Madagascar hissing
cockroach2.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/46/Female_Madagascar_his
sing_cockroach.JPG
[2] Figure 4.11. German Cockroaches,
Various Stages and Ages PD
source: http://www.cdc.gov/nceh/publicat
ions/books/housing/Graphics/chapter_04/F
igure4.11.jpg
Tetrapods Amniota {aMnEOtu} evolve; the
ancestor of all reptiles, mammals and
birds and the first hard-shell egg.
The hard-shell egg is waterproof. This
is the start of vertebrate internal
fertilization, because on land the egg
cannot be fertilized as most fishes and
amphibians do, by a male swimming near
the eggs and spraying them with sperm.
Amniote males and females must copulate
{KoPYelAT} so that the sperm can reach
the eggs inside the female.
Amniotes (reptiles, mammals, and birds)
are distinguished from non-amniote
tetrapods (amphibians) by the presence
of complex embryonic membranes. One of
these, the amnion, gives its name to
the group.
All living amniotes lay hard-shelled
eggs, except most mammals and some
snakes and lizards, where egg laying
has been replaced by live birth.
The egg shell of amniotes may be
flexible (like the eggs of many turtles
and lizards) or mineralized and hard
(like the eggs of birds, crocodiles and
many tortoises).
Lothian, Scotland
[1] Figure 2 from: [t Note that this
egg is only of Permian age: 299-251
mybn] Karl F. Hirsch, ''The Oldest
Vertebrate Egg?'', Journal of
Paleontology, Vol. 53, No. 5 (Sep.,
1979), pp.
1068-1084. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
1304086 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1304
086
[2] Prothero, ''Bringing Fossils To
Life'', 2004. COPYRIGHTED
source: Prothero, "Bringing Fossils To
Life", 2004. COPYRIGHTED
Sauropsida {SOR-roP-SiDu} and the
Synapsida {Si-naP-Si-Du}.
The Sauropsida have two major lineages:
the Parareptilia (turtles) and the
Eureptilia (dinosaurs, crocodiles and
birds). The Synapsids also have two
major lineages: the pelycosaurs (which
are sail-backed amniotes) and the
therapsids (which are mammal-like
amniotes).
(Cumberland group, Joggins formation)
Joggins, Nova Scotia, Canada
[1] Prothero, ''Evolution What the
Fossils Say and Why It Matters'', 2007,
p232. COPYRIGHTED
source: Prothero, "Evolution What the
Fossils Say and Why It Matters", 2007,
p232.
[2] Prothero, ''Bringing Fossils To
Life'', 2004. COPYRIGHTED
source: Prothero, "Bringing Fossils To
Life", 2004. COPYRIGHTED
{PeLiKuSOREu} evolve (the ancestor of
Edaphosaurus {eDaFoSORuS} and
Dimetrodon).
The most notable feature in some
species of Pelycosaur is a broad "sail"
along the back.
[1] Description This just might be
a depiction of Edaphosaurus pogonias,
to make a guess from the title. If you
know more about this image, please
place a good description here. Date
2007-04-30 (original upload
date) Source Originally from
ru.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. Author Original uploader
was ДиБгд at
ru.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) This image is in the public
domain; PD-ART. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/7d/Edaphosaurus_pogonias
.jpg
[2] Kardong, ''Vertebrates'',
2002. COPYRIGHTED
source: Kardong, "Vertebrates",
2002. COPYRIGHTED
Caecilians evolve.
[1] Description Eocaecilia
micropodia, an early caecilian from the
Lower Jurassic of Arizona, pencil
drawing Date 22 August
2007 Source Own work Author
Nobu Tamura
email:nobu.tamura@yahoo.com
www.palaeocritti.com Permission (Reusi
ng this file) See below. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/27/Eocaecilia_BW.jpg
[2] Figure 1 from: Roelants, K.,
Gower, D. J., Wilkinson, M., Loader, S.
P., Biju, S. D., Guillaume, K., Moriau,
L., & Bossuyt, F. (2007). Global
patterns of diversification in the
history of modern amphibians.
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences , 104 (3), 887-892. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.060837810
4 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0
608378104
evolve. Gymnosperms are the earliest
surviving seed plants, and ancestor of
all Cycads, Ginkgos and the Conifers).
The most primitive extant Gymnosperms,
the Cycads evolve now.
Gymnosperm is Greek for "Naked Seed". A
gymnosperm reproduces by a seed that is
in direct contact with the environment,
as opposed to an angiosperm (a
flowering plant) whose seeds are
enclosed by mature ovaries, or fruits.
[1] Fig. 2. Chronogram showing
estimates of phylogenetic relationships
and divergence times among the major
groups of extant land plants. The
estimate of relationships is
synthesized from the following papers
in this issue: Burleigh and Mathews
(2004) , Pryer et al. (2004) , Shaw and
Renzaglia (2004) , and Soltis and
Soltis (2004) . Divergence time
estimates are mostly based on analyses
of molecular data with fossil
constraints (Wikström et al., 2001 ;
Pryer et al., 2004 ) and are augmented
by fossil evidence (Kenrick and Crane,
1997 ; Wellman et al., 2003 ).
Estimates of the number of species in
each group are from Judd et al. (2002)
and W. S. Judd (personal
communication). Groups covered by a
particular article in this special
issue are circled and connected to the
names of the article's authors. ''Other
conifers'' refers to the clade
consisting of all conifers except for
Pinaceae (see Burleigh and Mathews,
2004 ). ''Lepto. ferns'' refers to
leptosporangiate ferns fig 2
from: Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, ''The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view'', American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
http://www.amjbot.org/content/91/10/14
37.full {Chase_Mark_2004.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.amjbot.org/content/91
/10/1437/F2.large.jpg
[2] Fig. 2. Chronogram showing
estimates of phylogenetic relationships
and divergence times among the major
groups of extant land plants. The
estimate of relationships is
synthesized from the following papers
in this issue: Burleigh and Mathews
(2004) , Pryer et al. (2004) , Shaw and
Renzaglia (2004) , and Soltis and
Soltis (2004) . Divergence time
estimates are mostly based on analyses
of molecular data with fossil
constraints (Wikström et al., 2001 ;
Pryer et al., 2004 ) and are augmented
by fossil evidence (Kenrick and Crane,
1997 ; Wellman et al., 2003 ).
Estimates of the number of species in
each group are from Judd et al. (2002)
and W. S. Judd (personal
communication). Groups covered by a
particular article in this special
issue are circled and connected to the
names of the article's authors. ''Other
conifers'' refers to the clade
consisting of all conifers except for
Pinaceae (see Burleigh and Mathews,
2004 ). ''Lepto. ferns'' refers to
leptosporangiate ferns fig 2
from: Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, ''The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view'', American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
http://www.amjbot.org/content/91/10/14
37.full {Chase_Mark_2004.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.amjbot.org/content/91
/10/1437/F2.large.jpg
evolves (the ancestor of crickets,
grasshoppers, locusts, and walking
sticks).
[1] African Field cricket Gryllus
bimaculatus at Bristol Zoo, Bristol,
England. Photographed by Adrian
Pingstone in February 2005 and released
to the public domain. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/2/27/African.field.c
ricket.arp.jpg/1200px-African.field.cric
ket.arp.jpg
[2] Description
grasshopper Source self
made Date unknown Author
Stephen Friedt PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/thumb/3/3c/Grasshopper_%2827%29
.JPG/1280px-Grasshopper_%2827%29.JPG
{reP-TiL-E-u} evolves, the Reptiles;
the ancestor of all turtles,
crocodiles, pterosaurs, dinosaurs and
birds.
The class Reptilia is a group of
air-breathing vertebrates that have
internal fertilization, and scales
covering part or all of their body. All
reptiles are cold-blooded, except for
birds, and possibly some or all
pterosaurs and dinosaurs.
Nova Scotia, Canada
[1] from: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004), p262.
COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p262.
[2] Description English: Reptilia
(reptiles), based on:
File:Buberel cayman 3.jpg
File:Crotalus adamanteus (5).jpg
File:Karettschildkroete 01.jpg
File:Henry at Invercargill.jpg All
of them are either under a free licence
already in Wikicommons or in the public
domain Date 3/2/09 Source
Compilation made by myself Author
see respective profiles of
photos PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/67/Reptiles.jpg
{PInoFiTu} evolve (the ancestor of the
Conifers: includes Pine, Fir, Spruce,
Redwood, Cedar, Juniper, Hemlock,
Larch, Yew, and Cypress.).
The oldest known living plants are
found among the conifers, some
estimated to be around 5000 years old.
England
[1] Closeup shot of a stem of needles
(perhaps Norway spruce?) by USFWS and
obtained from the GIMP photo
library. United States Federal
Government This work is in the
public domain because it is a work of
the United States Federal Government.
This applies worldwide. See
Copyright Close-up of pinophyte leaves
(needles): Norway Spruce (Picea abies)
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pin
ophyta
[2] Native Pinus sylvestris forest,
Scotland: Deeside, Mar Lodge, April
2005 GNU 1.2
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pin
aceae
(the ancestor of bark lice, true lice,
thrips, and the Hemiptera {HemiPTRu}.
The Hemiptera have mouthparts adapted
for piercing and sucking and include:
Cicadas, Aphids, and "true bugs": such
as Bed bugs, and Stink bugs).
[1] Description Tibicen
linnei English: Annual cicada. Date
22 June 2003 Source Own work
http://www.cirrusimage.com/homoptera_cic
ada_T_linnei.htm Author Bruce
Marlin CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Tibicen_linnei.
jpg/1142px-Tibicen_linnei.jpg
[2] Description English: Pea aphids
extracting sap from the stem and leaves
of garden peas. Date February
2010 Source PLoS Biology, February
2010 direct link to the image
description Author Shipher Wu
(photograph) and Gee-way Lin (aphid
provision), National Taiwan
University CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/20/Acyrthosiphon_pisum_%
28pea_aphid%29-PLoS.jpg
{HoLomeTaBolu or HOlOmeTABolu} evolve:
Holometabolous insects: (insects that
undergo complete metamorphosis, the
ancestor of beetles, bees, true flies,
and butterflies).
The holometabolous insects account for
nearly 85% of all insects.
The Holometabola are insects that have
complete metamorphosis (or
holometabolous development). Unlike
hemimetabolous insects in which the
immature structures (legs, eyes,
antennae, etc.) must also serve the
adults, holometabolous insects have a
morphologically reduced larval stage
and acquire a completely new body
during the pupal stage.
[1] Description wespenpoppen in
verschillende ontwikkelstadia Eigen
foto's Date 2005-06-13 (original
upload date) Source Originally from
nl.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. Author Original uploader was
Asaf at
nl.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) SELF2 GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/79/Ontwikkelstadia_wespe
npoppen.jpg
[2] Miomoptera- viewed by many as
stem-group Holometabola. UNKNOWN
source: http://wdict.net/img/miomoptera,
2.jpg
evolve (the ancestor of all Frogs and
Toads).
[1] Richard Dawkins, ''The Ancestor's
Tale'', (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), 303. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), 303.
[2] Description English: A green
frog on a palm frond. Date 18
October 2003 Source Burning
Well Author Leon Brooks PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8d/Frog_on_palm_frond.jp
g
{KriSoFiTu} evolve (Golden algae).
[1] Description Dinobryon sp. / from
Shishitsuka Pond, Tsuchiura, Ibaraki
Pref., Japan / Microscope:Leica DMRD
(DIC) Date 20 May 2007 Source Own
work Author ja:User:NEON /
commons:User:NEON_ja CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/68/Dinobryon_sp.jpg
[2] Dinobryon, a colony of
Chrysophytes showing flagella and red
eyespots UNKNOWN
source: http://www.microscopy-uk.org.uk/
mag//imagsmall/Dinobryonb.jpg
(359.2-299 mybn), and start of the
Permian (299-251 mybn) Period.
[1] Geologic Time Scale 2009 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.geosociety.org/scienc
e/timescale/timescl.pdf
[2] 300 Ma Late
Pennsylvanian UNKNOWN
source: http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~rcb7/300
_Penn_2globes.jpg
Coleoptera {KOlEoPTRu} evolves (the
ancestor of the Beetles).
Coleoptera is the largest order of all
organisms known containing 350,000
named species; 40% of all the insects.
Well known beetles include: Ladybugs,
Fireflies, Dung beetles, Japanese
beetles, weevils, and scarabs.
deposit) Mazon Creek, Illinois,
USA
[1] Figure 1. 1–7, Adiphlebia lacoana
Scudder, 1885. 1, 2, holotype specimen
(USNM 38143), reconstruction of the
wing venation (1), and photograph
(negative imprint, light-mirrored,
composite; 2); 3, specimen USNM 38140,
photograph (negative imprint,
light-mirrored, composite); 4,5,
specimen FMNH PE 3416, reconstruction
of the wing venation (forewings
separated; 4) and photograph (negative
imprint, composite; 5); 6, 7, specimen
FMNH PE 60291, reconstruction of the
wing venation (6) and photograph
(positive imprint; 7); 8, 9, details of
forewing main and intercalary veins
(black and white arrows, respectively)
in Adiphlabia lacoana (specimen FMNH PE
3416, right forewing; 8) and
Tetraphalerus bruchi Heller, 1913 (♀,
ventral view; 9). Abbreviations: LFW,
left forewing; RFW, right forewing;
ScP, posterior Subcosta; R, Radius; RA,
anterior Radius; RP, posterior Radius;
M, Media; CuA, anterior Cubitus; CuP,
posterior Cubitus; AA: anterior anal
vein. Color-coding: Subcosta, yellow;
Radius, blue; Media, red; Cubitus,
green; Analis, yellow. from Béthoux,
Olivier. “The Earliest Beetle
Identified.” Journal of Paleontology
83.6 (2009):
931–937. http://www.bioone.org/doi/ab
s/10.1666/08-158.1 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://jpaleontol.geoscienceworl
d.org/content/vol83/issue6/images/large/
i0022-3360-83-6-931-f01.jpeg
[2] {ULSF: Early Permian fossil
beetles see {Kukalová (1969), in
particular pl. 1; Ponomarenko (1969),
in particular figs. 16, 31, 32, 36, 40
41, 43, 44} and representatives of the
beetle sub-order Archostemata,
represented nowadays, exhibit
intercalary veins (Fig. 1.9) similar to
those exhibited by A.
lacoana} Archostemata is the smallest
suborder of beetles, consisting of
fewer than fifty known species
organized into five families.
Archostemata is an ancient lineage with
a number of primitive characteristics.
They are similar in morphology to the
first beetles, which appear in the
fossil record approximately 250 million
years ag Description
Tenomerga mucida (Chevrolat, 1829)
(Coleoptera: Cupedidae) - female.
Loc: Yokohama, kanagawa, japan.
ja: ナガヒラタムシ（鞘翅目:
ナガヒラタムシ科）のメス。
浜市内。産卵管をさかんに
し入れし、朽木の割れ目に挿
し込もうとしていたことから
産卵に来ていたものと思わ
る。 Date 13 July 2005 Source
my own file Author me PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/68/Tenomerga_mucida01.jp
g
evolve (Ginkgos).
[1] * Description: Leaves of Ginkgo
biloba. * Source: picure taken by
Reinhard Kraasch in his own garden in
August 2003 (from German wikipedia)
* Licence: released per the GNU Free
Documentation License by the
photographer
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gin
kgo
[2] Name Ginkgo biloba Family
Ginkgoaceae Image no. 1 Permission
granted to use under GFDL by Kurt
Stueber GNU Ginkgo fruit and leaves
source: same
Hymenoptera evolves (the ancestor of
all bees, ants, and wasps).
[1] {ULSF: Xyelidae saw flies are the
most primitive of the
hymenoptera} Hymenoptera, Xyelidae,
dorsal - Macroxyela ferruginea -
Female Ames - Tullamore, Story County,
Iowa, USA April 30, 2008 Size: 11
mm It's a big one. (11 mm includes the
ovipositor) Oak hickory maple basswood
woodland malaise, April 23-30,
2008. Photo - still floating in
alcohol. Copyright © 2008 MJ
Hatfield COPYRIGHTED Fig. 2
Placement of fossil evidence for the
earliest Holometabola within a
phylogenetic context. Geologic time
line at left is after Ogg, et al.
(2008); note that the Mississippian is
equivalent to the Early Carboniferous
and Pennsylvanian equivalent to the
Late Carboniferous. Earliest reliable
occurrences of taxa (solid dots,
followed by a thick black line) are
after various sources mentioned in the
text; major localities for the initial
diversification of the Holometabola
are: Elmo, Kansas, the “insect bed”
of the Wellington Formation from the
Artinskian Stage of the Early Permian;
Calhoun, the Calhoun Coal Member of the
Mattoon Formation, from the Kasimovian
Stage of the Late Pennsylvanian; Mazon
Creek of the Francis Creek Shale Member
of the Carbondale Formation, from the
Moscovian Stage of the Middle
Pennsylvanian; and the Terril Shale at
Pas-de-Calais, Bruay-la-Bussière,
France, from the Bashkirian Stage of
the Early Pennsylvanian. The horizontal
stippled bar at bottom represents the
initial diversification and the
earliest fossil occurrences of
holometabolan insects in the fossil
record. Labandeira, Conrad C.
“Evidence for an Earliest Late
Carboniferous Divergence Time and the
Early Larval Ecology and
Diversification of Major Holometabola
Lineages.” Entomologica Americana
117.1 & 2 (2011):
9–21. http://www.bioone.org/doi/abs/1
0.1664/10-RA-011.1 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://bugguide.net/images/raw/S
H8RHHPR0H7RDZHZULYLULRZ2LLZTLSZBLQZKH4RH
H7ZVL4RVL0ZALSZBLXZKH8RVLXZHHPRLHQRLH.jp
g
[2] Macroxyela ferruginea
Trusted Creative Commons Attribution
Non Commercial Share Alike 3.0 (CC
BY-NC-SA 3.0) ©
SusanneSchulmeister Source:
Morphbank Image Repository
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.bioone.org/na101/home
/literatum/publisher/bioone/journals/con
tent/nynt.1/2011/19475144-117.1/10-ra-01
1.1/production/images/large/i1947-5144-1
17-1-9-f02.jpeg
(Cynodonts).
The Therapsids evolve from Pelycosaurs
and largely replace them for a time as
the dominant terrestrial vertebrates.
The legs of Therapsids are more
directly positioned under the weight of
their body, which results in a more
efficient mode of movement.
[1] Kardong, ''Vertebrates'',
2002. COPYRIGHTED
source: Description English:
Moschops capensis - Middle Permian of
South Africa. Based on skeleton from
AMNH. Русский: Moschops
capensis - средняя пермь
Южной Африки.
Основано на скелете
из Американского
музея Естественной
истории. Date 2008 Source
dmitrchel@mail.ru Author
Creator:Dmitry Bogdanov GNU
[2] Kardong, ''Vertebrates'',
2002. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Moschops11DB.jp
g/1024px-Moschops11DB.jpg
{FEoFiTu} evolve (the ancestor of all
Brown Algae, includes many seaweeds
like the giant kelps).
Note that brown algae are not plants
but are protists.
[1] Fig. 1. A consensus phylogeny of
eukaryotes. The vast majority of
characterized eukaryotes, with the
notable exception of major subgroups of
amoebae, can now be assigned to one of
eight major groups. Opisthokonts (basal
flagellum) have a single basal
flagellum on reproductive cells and
flat mitochondrial cristae (most
eukaryotes have tubular ones).
Eukaryotic photosynthesis originated in
Plants; theirs are the only plastids
with just two outer membranes.
Heterokonts (different flagellae) have
a unique flagellum decorated with
hollow tripartite hairs (stramenopiles)
and, usually, a second plain one.
Cercozoans are amoebae with filose
pseudopodia, often living with in tests
(hard outer shells), some very
elaborate (foraminiferans). Amoebozoa
are mostly naked amoebae (lacking
tests), often with lobose pseudopodia
for at least part of their life cycle.
Alveolates have systems of cortical
alveoli directly beneath their plasma
membranes. Discicristates have discoid
mitochondrial cristae and, in some
cases, a deep (excavated) ventral
feeding groove. Amitochondrial
excavates lack substantial molecular
phylogenetic support, but most have an
excavated ventral feeding groove, and
all lack mitochondria. The tree shown
is based on a consensus of molecular
(1-4) and ultrastructural (16, 17) data
and includes a rough indication of new
ciPCR ''taxa'' (broken black lines)
(7-11). An asterisk preceding the taxon
name indicates probable paraphyletic
group COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/co
ntent/full/300/5626/1703
[2] Pacific Rockweed (Fucus distichus)
in Olympic National Park Cropped from
PhotoCD image, from Kodak ISO 800 film,
taken by k.lee June 2004, hereby
released under GFDL.
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Pacific_rockweed%2C_Olympic_National_
Park%2C_USA.jpg
evolve.
Diatoms are microscopic unicellular or
colonial algae, having cell walls of
silica consisting of two interlocking
symmetrical valves.
[1] Fig. 1. A consensus phylogeny of
eukaryotes. The vast majority of
characterized eukaryotes, with the
notable exception of major subgroups of
amoebae, can now be assigned to one of
eight major groups. Opisthokonts (basal
flagellum) have a single basal
flagellum on reproductive cells and
flat mitochondrial cristae (most
eukaryotes have tubular ones).
Eukaryotic photosynthesis originated in
Plants; theirs are the only plastids
with just two outer membranes.
Heterokonts (different flagellae) have
a unique flagellum decorated with
hollow tripartite hairs (stramenopiles)
and, usually, a second plain one.
Cercozoans are amoebae with filose
pseudopodia, often living with in tests
(hard outer shells), some very
elaborate (foraminiferans). Amoebozoa
are mostly naked amoebae (lacking
tests), often with lobose pseudopodia
for at least part of their life cycle.
Alveolates have systems of cortical
alveoli directly beneath their plasma
membranes. Discicristates have discoid
mitochondrial cristae and, in some
cases, a deep (excavated) ventral
feeding groove. Amitochondrial
excavates lack substantial molecular
phylogenetic support, but most have an
excavated ventral feeding groove, and
all lack mitochondria. The tree shown
is based on a consensus of molecular
(1-4) and ultrastructural (16, 17) data
and includes a rough indication of new
ciPCR ''taxa'' (broken black lines)
(7-11). An asterisk preceding the taxon
name indicates probable paraphyletic
group COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/co
ntent/full/300/5626/1703
[2] Figure 1. Phylogenetic hypothesis
of the eukaryotic lineage based on
ultrastructural and molecular data.
Organisms are divided into three main
groups distinguished by mitochondrial
cristal shape (either discoidal,
flattened or tubular). Unbroken lines
indicate phylogenetic relationships
that are firmly supported by available
data; broken lines indicate
uncertainties in phylogenetic
placement, resolution of which will
require additional data. Color coding
of organismal genus names indicates
mitochondrial genomes that have been
completely (Table 1), almost completely
(Jakoba, Naegleria and
Thraustochytrium) or partially (*)
sequenced by the OGMP (red), the FMGP
(black) or other groups (green). Names
in blue indicate those species whose
mtDNAs are currently being sequenced by
the OGMP or are future candidates for
complete sequencing. Amitochondriate
retortamonads are positioned at the
base of the tree, with broken arrows
denoting the endosymbiotic origin(s) of
mitochondria from a Rickettsia-like
eubacterium. Macrophar.,
Macropharyngomonas. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nar.oxfordjournals.org/cg
i/content/full/26/4/865
"warm-blooded") and hair growing
animal, a therapsid.
Endothermy is the physiological
maintenance, by a body, of a constant
temperature independent of the external
environmental temperature. Hair for
insulation is correlated to endothermy.
Both birds and mammals are endothermic
(also called "warm blooded") as opposed
to other vertebrates (like amphibians
and crocodiles) which are ectothermic
(or "cold blooded) and cannot
internally generate heat.
Endothermy allows birds and mammals to
maintain a high and relatively constant
body temperature, even at rest, during
a wide range of external environmental
conditions.
[1] Description English: Life
restoration of Purlovia maxima. Based
on figures 8-10 of ''Permian and
Triassic therocephals (Eutherapsida) of
Eastern Europe'' by M. F. Ivakhnenko
(Paleontological Journal 45 (9):
981-1144). Date 8 January
2012 Source Own
work Author Smokeybjb CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a5/Purlovia_maxima.jpg
[2] Description Bauria , a
therocephalian therapsid from the early
Middle Triassic of South Africa, pencil
drawing Date 20 February
2007 Source Own work Author
Nobu Tamura
email:nobu.tamura@yahoo.com
www.palaeocritti.com GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c0/Bauria_BW.jpg
{DiPTRe} evolves, true flies, having a
single pair of wings: the ancestor of
the mosquito, gnat, deer fly, horse
fly, fruit fly, drosophila
{DrO-SoF-u_lu}, and house fly).
[1] Nymphomyia alba adult UNKNOWN
source: http://whyevolutionistrue.files.
wordpress.com/2011/03/nymphomyia-alba.jp
g
[2] Nymphomyia alba larva UNKNOWN
source: http://whyevolutionistrue.files.
wordpress.com/2011/03/nymphomyia.jpg
history, the End-Permian mass
extinction. 82% of all genera are
observed extinct.
The Permian–Triassic extinction event
is the Earth's most severe extinction
event, with up to 96% of all marine
species and 70% of terrestrial
vertebrate species becoming extinct. It
is the only known mass extinction of
insects.
[1] Description English:
Description: Illustration of an
en:impact event. Source Made by
Fredrik. Cloud texture from public
domain NASA image. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/cb/Impact_event.jpg
[2] Timeline of mass extinctions.
COPYRIGHTED Benjamin
Cummings. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://io.uwinnipeg.ca/~simmons/
16cm05/1116/16macro.htm
of the Mesozoic Era, and the end of the
Permian (299-251 mybn) and start of the
Triassic (251-201.6 mybn) period.
[1] Geologic Time Scale 2009 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.geosociety.org/scienc
e/timescale/timescl.pdf
[2] 260 Ma Late Permian UNKNOWN
source: http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~rcb7/260
_Permian_2globes.jpg
forms.
[1] 260 Ma Late Permian UNKNOWN
source: http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~rcb7/260
_Permian_2globes.jpg
[2] In geologic terms, a plate is a
large, rigid slab of solid rock. The
word tectonics comes from the Greek
root ''to build.'' Putting these two
words together, we get the term plate
tectonics, which refers to how the
Earth's surface is built of plates. The
theory of plate tectonics states that
the Earth's outermost layer is
fragmented into a dozen or more large
and small plates that are moving
relative to one another as they ride
atop hotter, more mobile material.
Before the advent of plate tectonics,
however, some people already believed
that the present-day continents were
the fragmented pieces of preexisting
larger landmasses
(''supercontinents''). The diagrams
below show the break-up of the
supercontinent Pangaea (meaning ''all
lands'' in Greek), which figured
prominently in the theory of
continental drift -- the forerunner to
the theory of plate tectonics. PD
source: http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/dynamic
/graphics/Fig2-5globes.gif
{ne-TA-lEZ} evolve; thought to be the
closest living gymnosperm relatives of
the angiosperms.
[1] Description English: Ephedra
fragilis growing at Cap de Formentor,
peninsula of Formentor, Pollença,
Mallorca Date created 18. Dec.
2009 Source Own work Author Frank
Vincentz Permission (Reusing this
file) GFDL (self made) GFDL
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Pollen%C3%A7a_-
_Ma-2210_-_Cap_de_Formentor_-_Ephedra_fr
agilis_05_ies.jpg/1280px-Pollen%C3%A7a_-
_Ma-2210_-_Cap_de_Formentor_-_Ephedra_fr
agilis_05_ies.jpg
[2] Ephedra viridis in western
Nevada Ephedra_viridis_1.jpg (59KB,
MIME type:
image/jpeg) GFDL Permission is
granted to copy, distribute and/or
modify this document under the terms of
the GNU Ephedra viridis ('Green
Mormon Tea'), photo taken near Reno,
Nevada GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eph
edra
{HaPTuFITu} evolves, the
Coccolithophores {KoK-o-lit-u-FORZ}.
Most haptophytes are coccolithophores,
unicellular (flagellated) marine
protists with calcified plates (or
coccoliths) embedded in their cell
walls.
Some haptophytes turn parts of the
ocean bright turquoise during their
blooms.
[1] Fig. 1. A consensus phylogeny of
eukaryotes. The vast majority of
characterized eukaryotes, with the
notable exception of major subgroups of
amoebae, can now be assigned to one of
eight major groups. Opisthokonts (basal
flagellum) have a single basal
flagellum on reproductive cells and
flat mitochondrial cristae (most
eukaryotes have tubular ones).
Eukaryotic photosynthesis originated in
Plants; theirs are the only plastids
with just two outer membranes.
Heterokonts (different flagellae) have
a unique flagellum decorated with
hollow tripartite hairs (stramenopiles)
and, usually, a second plain one.
Cercozoans are amoebae with filose
pseudopodia, often living with in tests
(hard outer shells), some very
elaborate (foraminiferans). Amoebozoa
are mostly naked amoebae (lacking
tests), often with lobose pseudopodia
for at least part of their life cycle.
Alveolates have systems of cortical
alveoli directly beneath their plasma
membranes. Discicristates have discoid
mitochondrial cristae and, in some
cases, a deep (excavated) ventral
feeding groove. Amitochondrial
excavates lack substantial molecular
phylogenetic support, but most have an
excavated ventral feeding groove, and
all lack mitochondria. The tree shown
is based on a consensus of molecular
(1-4) and ultrastructural (16, 17) data
and includes a rough indication of new
ciPCR ''taxa'' (broken black lines)
(7-11). An asterisk preceding the taxon
name indicates probable paraphyletic
group
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/co
ntent/full/300/5626/1703
[2] Emiliania huxleyi, a
coccolithophore. Photo courtesy Dr.
Markus Geisen - photographer, and The
Natural History Museum. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Emiliania_huxleyi_3.jpg
Formation) Valley of the Moon,
Ischigualasto Provinvial Park,
northwestern Argestina
[1] Figure 2 from: Sereno, Paul C. et
al. “Primitive dinosaur skeleton from
Argentina and the early evolution of
Dinosauria.” Nature 361.6407 (1993) :
64-66. http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v361/n6407/abs/361064a0.html COPYR
IGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v361/n6407/abs/361064a0.html
[2] Eoraptor was a genus of small,
slender theropod native to northwest
Argentina. It was quite possibly the
earliest theropod genus and has not
been classified in any family.
UNKNOWN
source: http://images.wikia.com/deadtime
s/images/a/a2/Eoraptor.jpg
lines: the Ornithischians
{ORnitiSKEiNZ} (Bird-hipped dinosaurs)
and the Saurischians {SoriSKEiNZ}
(Lizard-hipped dinosaurs).
[1] Harold Levine, ''The Earth Through
Time'', 2006, p417. COPYRIGHTED
source: Harold Levine, "The Earth
Through Time", 2006, p417.
[2] Harold Levine, ''The Earth Through
Time'', 2006, p418. COPYRIGHTED
source: Harold Levine, "The Earth
Through Time", 2006, p418.
Dinosaurs split into two major lines:
The Sauropodomorpha (SoroPiDimORFu} and
the Therapoda {tiRoPiDu}.
The Sauropodomorphs are divided into
prosauropods and sauropods, are mostly
plant-eating, and include the large,
long-necked dinosaurs like
Apatosaurus.
The Theropod {tERePoD} dinosaurs are
bipedal and carnivorous and include
Allosaurus, Tyrannosaurus, and
Velociraptor. All birds descend from a
Therapod ancestor.
Formation) Valley of the Moon,
Ischigualasto Provinvial Park,
northwestern Argestina
[1] Fig 3.38 from Kardong,
''Vertebrates'', p116,
2002. COPYRIGHTED
source: Kardong, "Vertebrates", p116,
2002.
[2] Figure 2 from: Sereno, Paul C. et
al. “Primitive dinosaur skeleton from
Argentina and the early evolution of
Dinosauria.” Nature 361.6407 (1993) :
64-66. http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v361/n6407/abs/361064a0.html COPYR
IGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v361/n6407/abs/361064a0.html
first mammary gland.
Mammals are warm-blooded vertebrates
that have four limbs (except for some
aquatic species).
The female has mammary glands,
which secrete milk for the nourishment
of the young after birth. In the
majority of mammals the body is
partially or entirely covered with
hair.
Kalgary, Crosby County, Texas,
USA
[1] Figure 6 from: Spencer G. Lucas
and Zhexi Luo, ''Adelobasileus from the
Upper Triassic of West Texas: The
Oldest Mammal'', Journal of Vertebrate
Paleontology, Vol. 13, No. 3 (Sep. 23,
1993), pp. 309-334 Published by:
Taylor & Francis, Ltd. on behalf of The
Society of Vertebrate
Paleontology Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/4523514 COP
YRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/4523
514
[2] [t Note that this image is not
clearly from a scholarly
source] Description English:
Adelobasileus cromptoni, a mammaliaform
from the Late Triassic of Texas.
Digital. Date 9 September
2008 Source Own work Author
Nobu Tamura
email:nobu.tamura@yahoo.com
www.palaeocritti.com Permission (Reusi
ng this file) See below. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2f/Adelobasileus_BW.jpg
(TeLEoST) fishes evolve.
Teleosts are a large group of fishes
with bony skeletons, including most
common fishes.
[1] Fig. 2. The single
most-parsimonious (MP) tree derived
from unweighted analysis of mitogenomic
data comprising concatenated nucleotide
sequences from 12 protein-coding
(excluding the ND6 gene and third codon
positions) and 22 transfer RNA (tRNA)
genes (stem regions only) from all 28
species examined. Tree length, 12,709
steps; consistency index, 0.355;
retention index, 0.471; and rescaled
consistency index, 0.167. Numbers above
and below internal branches indicate
jackknife values obtained for 500
replicates using the heuristic search
option in PAUP*4.0b10 (Swofford, 2002)
with 20 random-addition sequences being
performed in each replication and decay
indices, respectively. The scale
indicates 100 changes. from: Inoue,
JG, Miya, M, Tsukamoto, K, Nishida, M
(2003) ''Basal actinopterygian
relationships: A mitogenomic
perspective on the phylogeny of the
ldquoancient fish.rdquo'' Mol
Phylogenet Evol 26:
110-120 http://www.sciencedirect.com/sc
ience/article/pii/S1055790302003317 COP
YRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/cac
he/MiamiImageURL/B6WNH-475B9D7-6-1K/0?wc
hp=dGLbVlz-zSkzk
[2] Arapaima gigas at the Smithsonian
Zoo. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b1/Arapaima_gigas.jpg
reptiles, the Testudines {TeSTUDinEZ}
evolve: the ancestor of all Turtles,
Tortoises and Terrapins.
The turtle shell evolves from broadened
ribs.
[1] Richard Dawkins, ''The Ancestor's
Tale'', (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), 262. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), 262.
[2] English: Odontochelys
semitestacea, from the Late Triassic of
China, the oldest known turtle.
Digital. 中文(简体):
半甲齿龟，已知最为古老的乌
，于2007年在中国贵州境内发
。(三维模拟图) Date 4
December 2008 Source Own
work Author Nobu Tamura
email:nobu.tamura@yahoo.com
www.palaeocritti.com GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/39/Odontochelys_BW.jpg
evolve.
[1] Richard Dawkins, ''The Ancestor's
Tale'', (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p262. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p262.
[2] A male tuatara named Henry, living
at the Southland Museum and Art
Gallery, is still reproductively active
at 111 years of age. 111-Year-Old
Reptile Becomes a Dad After Tumor
Surgery Discover Magazine, 26 January
2009. Retrieved 20 March
2009. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disc
over_Magazine Description English:
Henry, the world's oldest Tuatara in
captivity at Invercargill, New
Zealand Date 22 November
2007 Source Own work Author
KeresH CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/96/Henry_at_Invercargill
.jpg
Reptiles Pterosaurs evolve.
Flight in pterosaurs, birds, and bats
evolves independently.
Pterosaurs actively fly (contracting
their wing muscles to flap), as opposed
to only glide.
That some pterosaurs had hair is
evidence that they may have been
warm-blooded.
[1] Eudimorphon and Peteinosaurus
from: Wellnhofer, ''Pterosaurs'',
1991, p60-61. COPYRIGHTED
source: Wellnhofer, "Pterosaurs", 1991,
p60-61.
[2] Eudimorphon and Peteinosaurus
from: Wellnhofer, ''Pterosaurs'',
1991, p60-61. COPYRIGHTED
source: Wellnhofer, "Pterosaurs", 1991,
p60-61.
ancestor of iguanas, chameleons, and
spiny lizards).
[1] Richard Dawkins, ''The Ancestor's
Tale'', (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), 262. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), 262.
[2] Description Iguana sp. Foto
tomada en el Zoo de Madrid. Date
Summer 2007 Source Own
work Author Manuel de Corselas
ARS SUMMUM, Centro para el Estudio y
Difusión Libres de la Historia del
Arte PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/57/AA_Iguana_Fot_Ars_Sum
mum.JPG
(the ancestor of snakes, skinks, and
geckos).
[1] Richard Dawkins, ''The Ancestor's
Tale'', (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), 262. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), 262.
[2] Description Deutsch:
Versteinerung eines Archaeophis proavus
Massalongo - aus Monte Bolca. Museum
für Naturkunde (Berlin). English:
Fossil of a Archaeophis proavus
Massalongo, Monte Bolca. Museum für
Naturkunde (Berlin). Date 22 July
2007 Source Own work Author
Raymond - Raimond
Spekking Permission (Reusing this
file) See
below. Attribution (required by the
license) © Raimond Spekking /
CC-BY-SA-3.0 CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f1/Naturkundemuseum_Berl
in_-_Archaeophis_proavus_Massalongo_-_Mo
nte_Bolca.jpg
Bonytongues evolve.
[1] Fig. 2. The single
most-parsimonious (MP) tree derived
from unweighted analysis of mitogenomic
data comprising concatenated nucleotide
sequences from 12 protein-coding
(excluding the ND6 gene and third codon
positions) and 22 transfer RNA (tRNA)
genes (stem regions only) from all 28
species examined. Tree length, 12,709
steps; consistency index, 0.355;
retention index, 0.471; and rescaled
consistency index, 0.167. Numbers above
and below internal branches indicate
jackknife values obtained for 500
replicates using the heuristic search
option in PAUP*4.0b10 (Swofford, 2002)
with 20 random-addition sequences being
performed in each replication and decay
indices, respectively. The scale
indicates 100 changes. from: Inoue,
JG, Miya, M, Tsukamoto, K, Nishida, M
(2003) ''Basal actinopterygian
relationships: A mitogenomic
perspective on the phylogeny of the
ldquoancient fish.rdquo'' Mol
Phylogenet Evol 26:
110-120 http://www.sciencedirect.com/sc
ience/article/pii/S1055790302003317 COP
YRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/cac
he/MiamiImageURL/B6WNH-475B9D7-6-1K/0?wc
hp=dGLbVlz-zSkzk
[2] Arapaima gigas at the Smithsonian
Zoo. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b1/Arapaima_gigas.jpg
53% of all genera are observed
extinct.
Many terrestrial vertebrates and large
amphibians go extinct.
[1] A modified version of
Image:Extinction
Intensity.svg. Changes: Time
runs from left to right Periods
are coloured as per the Paris system -
see w:Template:Period color for full
explanation Text removed so
wikilinks can be floated over. See
w:Template:Annotated image/Extinction
for implementation. Cubic
polynomial removed as this doesn't
convey any useful information and is
mainly an artefact. The caption on
the original file is: Marine Genus
Biodiversity: Extinction
Intensity GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/06/Extinction_intensity.
svg
[2] Hawaii Volcanoes National Park.
May 1954 eruption of Kilauea Volcano.
Halemaumau fountains. Photo by J.P.
Eaton, May 31, 1954. Image file:
/htmllib/batch37/batch37j/batch37z/batch
37/hvo00014.jpg PD
source: http://libraryphoto.cr.usgs.gov/
htmllib/batch37/batch37j/batch37z/batch3
7/hvo00014.jpg
mybn), and start of the Jurassic
(201.6-145.5 mybn) Period.
[1] Description English: Global
paleogeographic reconstruction of the
Earth in the late Jurassic period 150
million years ago. Deutsch: Globale
paläogeografische Rekonstruktion der
Erde während des späten Jura vor 150
Millionen Jahren. Русский:
Глобальная
палеогеографическая
реконструкция Земли
в конце Юрского
периода, 150 миллионов
лет назад. Date 23 April
2008 Source
http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~rcb7/mollgl
obe.html Author Dr. Ron Blakey -
http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~rcb7/ CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/76/LateJurassicGlobal.jp
g
[2] Geologic Time Scale 2009 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.geosociety.org/scienc
e/timescale/timescl.pdf
{tIrEoFeru} evolve; the ancestor of the
armored ankylosaurs {ANKilOSORZ} and
the plated stegosaurs {STeGeSORZ}.
[1] Description Scutellosaurus
lawleri, an ornithischian from the
Early Jurassic of North America, pencil
drawing, digital coloring Date
November 30, 2006, modified October
11, 2007 Source Own work Author
Nobu Tamura
(http://spinops.blogspot.com) GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/12/Scutellosaurus.jpg
[2] Description Scutellosaurus Date
Source Own Work by Pavel Riha (see
also the paleo-gallery by Pavel
Riha) Author Pavel Riha = user
Pavel.Riha.CB GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b0/Scutellosaurus1.jpg
[1] David A. Grimaldi, Michael S.
Engel, ''Evolution of the Insects'',
2005, p411. COPYRIGHTED
source: David A. Grimaldi, Michael S.
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p411.
[2] Description English: Xiphydria
prolongata (Symphyta) Date Source
British Phytophagous
Hymenoptera Author Peter Cameron
(died 1912) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f6/Xiphydria_prolongata.
jpg
evolve.
[1] Adapted from: Richard Dawkins,
''The Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p339. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p339.
[2] Adapted from: Richard Dawkins,
''The Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p339. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p339.
{KroKoDiLEu} evolve (the ancestor of
Crocodiles, allegators, and caimans
{KAmeNS}).
[1] Richard Dawkins, ''The Ancestor's
Tale'', (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p262. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p262.
[2] Nile crocodile, taken at the Le
Bonheur Crocodile Farm near
Stellenbosch, South Africa. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/81/NileCrocodile.jpg
Sauropods {SoRuPoDZ} evolve; the
ancestor of the large, long-necked
dinosaurs like Apatosaurus
{uPaTuSORuS}, Brachiosaurus
{BrAKEuSORuS}, and Diplodocus
{DiPloDiKuS}.
[1] [t may not be
scholarly] Description
Brachiosaurus altithorax Date
2007 Source Own work Author
Богданов
dmitrchel@mail.ru PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d9/Brachiosaurus_DB.jpg
[2] Description English: Bronze
Brachiosaurus mount outside of the
Field Museum of Natural History,
Chicago, IL. Date
10/12/2009 Source Own
work Author
AStrangerintheAlps CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/4b/FMNH_Brachiosaurus.JP
G
{ORnitoPiDu} evolve; the duck-billed
dinosaurs, ancestor of the Hadrosaurs.
[1] Heterodontosaurus UNKNOWN
source: http://www.wikidino.com/wp-conte
nt/uploads/Heterodontosaurus-Jan-Sovak.j
pg
[2] Harold Levine, ''The Earth Through
Time'', 2006, p417. COPYRIGHTED
source: Harold Levine, "The Earth
Through Time", 2006, p417.
anchovies evolve.
[1] Adapted from: Richard Dawkins,
''The Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p339. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p339.
[2] Description Northern
anchovies are important prey for marine
mammals and game fish Image ID:
nur00009, National Undersearch Research
Program (NURP) Collection Location:
Pacific Ocean. Credit: OAR/National
Undersea Research Program
(NURP) Downloaded from:
http://www.photolib.noaa.gov/htmls/nur00
009.htm Note: Another image from this
collection had fish described as
northern anchovies, with the scientific
name Engraulis mordax, or Californian
anchovy. The species may be
misidentified. Date 2006-12-08
(original upload date) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0f/Anchovy_closeup.jpg
into Laurasia and Gondwana. The
northern part, Laurasia will form North
America and Europe. The southern part,
Gondwana will form South America and
Africa.
[1] 200 Ma Early Jurassic UNKNOWN
source: http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~rcb7/200
_Jurassic_2globes.jpg
[2] In geologic terms, a plate is a
large, rigid slab of solid rock. The
word tectonics comes from the Greek
root ''to build.'' Putting these two
words together, we get the term plate
tectonics, which refers to how the
Earth's surface is built of plates. The
theory of plate tectonics states that
the Earth's outermost layer is
fragmented into a dozen or more large
and small plates that are moving
relative to one another as they ride
atop hotter, more mobile material.
Before the advent of plate tectonics,
however, some people already believed
that the present-day continents were
the fragmented pieces of preexisting
larger landmasses
(''supercontinents''). The diagrams
below show the break-up of the
supercontinent Pangaea (meaning ''all
lands'' in Greek), which figured
prominently in the theory of
continental drift -- the forerunner to
the theory of plate tectonics. PD
source: http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/dynamic
/graphics/Fig2-5globes.gif
Lepidoptera {lePiDoPTRu} evolves (the
ancestor of moths, butterflies, and
caterpillars).
[1] Description Photograph of a male
Monarch butterfly (Danaus plexippus en
). This butterfly was stationary on a
leaf with his wings outstretched in an
attempt to show off and attract a mate.
The picture was taken in the butterfly
house at the Tyler Arboretum. Camera
and Exposure Details: Camera: Nikon
D50 Lens: Nikon Nikkor ED AF-S DX
18-55mm f/3.5-5.6G Exposure: 55mm
(82.5mm in 35mm equivalent) f/9 @ 1/125
s. Date 9 September 2006 Source Own
work (Own Picture) Author Photo
(c)2006 Derek Ramsey
(Ram-Man) Permission (Reusing this
file) You may NOT use this image
on your own web site or anywhere else
unless you release this image and any
derivative works (which may include the
web page or other medium where this
image is used, if it is not considered
a ''collective work'') by following the
terms of the following license. Any
other use will be considered a breach
of copyright law. Please do not copy
this image illegally by ignoring the
terms of the license, as it is not in
the public domain. If you would like
special permission to use, license, or
purchase the image or prints of the
image, or for use in any other fashion
or would simply like a copy of the
original file, please contact me or
email me first to ask. Please see the
non-legalese usage guide for more
information. Note: While you are not
required to do so by the license,
please consider letting me know when
you reuse one of my photograph images,
as a courtesy. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Monarch_Butterf
ly_Showy_Male_3000px.jpg/1280px-Monarch_
Butterfly_Showy_Male_3000px.jpg
[2] Description Photograph of a
female Monarch Butterflyen (Danaus
plexippus en ) laying an egg on a
Mexican Milkweeden (Asclepias
curassavica en 'Silky Gold'). The
picture was taken in Aston Township,
Pennsylvania. Camera and Exposure
Details: Camera: Nikon D50 Lens:
Sigma 70mm f/2.8 EX DG Macro Exposure:
70mm (105mm in 35mm equivalent) f/8 @
1/160 s. (200 ISO) Date Friday,
August 8, 2008 Source Own
Picture. Author Photo by and (c)2009
Derek Ramsey
(Ram-Man) Permission (Reusing this
file) You may NOT use this image
on your own web site or anywhere else
unless you release this image and any
derivative works (which may include the
web page or other medium where this
image is used, if it is not considered
a ''collective work'') by following the
terms of the following license. Any
other use will be considered a breach
of copyright law. Please do not copy
this image illegally by ignoring the
terms of the license, as it is not in
the public domain. If you would like
special permission to use, license, or
purchase the image or prints of the
image, or for use in any other fashion
or would simply like a copy of the
original file, please contact me or
email me first to ask. Please see the
non-legalese usage guide for more
information. Note: While you are not
required to do so by the license,
please consider letting me know when
you reuse one of my photograph images,
as a courtesy. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Monarch_Butterf
ly_Danaus_plexippus_Laying_Eggs.jpg/1096
px-Monarch_Butterfly_Danaus_plexippus_La
ying_Eggs.jpg
Mammal Order Monotremata
{moN-O-Tre-moD-e} evolves: the
Monotremes {moNeTrEMZ}.
Monotremes are an order of primitive
egg-laying mammals restricted to
Australia, Tasmania and New Guinea. The
Monotremes consist of only the platypus
and two species of echidna.
Monotreme means "single hole" in Greek.
Like birds and reptiles, monotremes
have a single opening, the cloaca
{KlO-A-Ko}, for the passage of liquid
and solid wastes, the transfer of
sperm, and, in the female, the laying
of eggs.
After hatching, young cling to the
belly of the mother. Monotremes have no
nipples, but milk is secreted for the
young by mammary glands on the belly of
the mother through openings in the
mother's skin.
Monotremes are also the most primitive
extant warm blooded and hair growing
species.
Guinea
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
239. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), 239.
[2] Description Photo: model of
Steropodon galmani at the Australian
Museum, Sydney. Date 20 April
2008 Source Own work Author
Matt Martyniuk
(Dinoguy2) Permission (Reusing this
file) See below. Other versions
Derivative works of this file:
Prototheria collage.png GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f8/Steropodon_model_aus.
jpg
piranhas evolve.
[1] Adapted from: Richard Dawkins,
''The Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p339. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p339.
[2] Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Commo
n_carp.jpg Common carp (Cyprinus
carpio). Public domain image from USFWS
National Image Library. Created by
Duane Raver. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a8/Common_carp.jpg
pike evolve.
[1] Adapted from: Richard Dawkins,
''The Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p339. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p339.
[2] Fig. 2. The single
most-parsimonious (MP) tree derived
from unweighted analysis of mitogenomic
data comprising concatenated nucleotide
sequences from 12 protein-coding
(excluding the ND6 gene and third codon
positions) and 22 transfer RNA (tRNA)
genes (stem regions only) from all 28
species examined. Tree length, 12,709
steps; consistency index, 0.355;
retention index, 0.471; and rescaled
consistency index, 0.167. Numbers above
and below internal branches indicate
jackknife values obtained for 500
replicates using the heuristic search
option in PAUP*4.0b10 (Swofford, 2002)
with 20 random-addition sequences being
performed in each replication and decay
indices, respectively. The scale
indicates 100 changes. from: Inoue,
JG, Miya, M, Tsukamoto, K, Nishida, M
(2003) ''Basal actinopterygian
relationships: A mitogenomic
perspective on the phylogeny of the
ldquoancient fish.rdquo'' Mol
Phylogenet Evol 26:
110-120 http://www.sciencedirect.com/sc
ience/article/pii/S1055790302003317 COP
YRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/cac
he/MiamiImageURL/B6WNH-475B9D7-6-1K/0?wc
hp=dGLbVlz-zSkzk
evolve.
Salamanders are able to regenerate a
lost limb or tail, by cells in the
damaged area changing back to slightly
less mature versions.
[1] Richard Dawkins, ''The Ancestor's
Tale'', (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), 303. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), 303.
[2] Description central
Pennsylvania Spotted Salamander
(Ambystoma maculatum) Source
self-made Date 25 March
2008 Author Camazine (talk) Scott
Camazine web.mac.com/camazine CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/b/b2/SpottedSalamander.jpg
{BuTOEDEu} evolve, the ancestor of all
rays, skates, and sawfishes.
[1] Richard Dawkins, ''The Ancestor's
Tale'', (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p361. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p361.
[2] Description Manta Ray (Manta
birostris) at Hin Daeng,
Thailand. Date 30 November
2005 Source Flickr Author
jon hanson from london, UK CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/df/Manta_birostris-Thail
and4.jpg
plant-eating Thyreophoran {tIRrEoFereN}
dinosaur lives around this time.
[1] [t may not be
scholarly] Description
Stegosaurus stenops, a stegosaur
from the Late Jurassic of North
America, pencil drawing Date 6
May 2007 Source Own work Author
Nobu Tamura
email:nobu.tamura@yahoo.com
www.palaeocritti.com Permission (Reusi
ng this file) See below. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/70/Stegosaurus_BW.jpg
[2] Description Deutsch:
Rekonstruktion eines
Stegosaurus-Skeletts im Naturmuseum
Senckenberg in Frankfurt am
Main English: Reconstruction of a
Stegosaurus skeleton in the Senckenberg
Museum in Frankfurt am Main Date
2 September 2007 Source
EvaK Author EvaK GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6a/Stegosaurus_Senckenbe
rg.jpg
Dragonfish evolve.
Lightfish are characterized by
luminescent organs on the undersides of
their bodies.
[1] Adapted from: Richard Dawkins,
''The Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p339. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p339.
[2] Description English: This
deep-sea fish, Photostomias guernei,
has a built-in bioluminescent
''flashlight'' it uses to help it see
in the dark. Date 1999 Source
Photostomias.jpg Author
derivative work: Una Smith
Photostomias.jpg: Edith
Widder/HBOI PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/63/Photostomias2.jpg
evolve. The first feather.
Fossils of therapod dinosaurs from
China indicate that feathers may have
originally evolved on non-flying
reptiles for insulation (or courting)
and not for flight.
At least one known feathered dinosaur
can probably glide, which suggests that
flapping flight evolves as an extension
of gliding from trees.
Birds have highly developed color
vision.
[1] Richard Dawkins, ''The Ancestor's
Tale'', (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p262. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p262.
[2] Description English:
Archaeopteryx lithographica, specimen
displayed at the Museum für Naturkunde
in Berlin. (This image shows the
original fossil - not a
cast.) Deutsch: Archaeopteryx
lithographica, Exemplar im Museum für
Naturkunde in Berlin. (Dieses Bild
zeigt das Original-Fossil, keinen
Abguss.) Date 5 July 2009 Source
Own work Author H. Raab
(User:Vesta) CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/9d/Archaeopteryx_lithogr
aphica_%28Berlin_specimen%29.jpg
evolve. The first flowering plant.
Almost all grains, beans, nuts, fruits,
vegetables, herbs and spices come from
plants with flowers. Much of our
clothing comes from flowering plants
too, for example: cotton and linen are
made from "fibers" of flowering plants,
as are rope and burlap. Many commercial
dyes and drugs also come from flowering
plants.
Angiosperms represent approximately 80
percent of all the known green plants
now living. The angiosperms are
vascular seed plants in which the ovule
(or egg) is fertilized and develops
into a seed in an enclosed hollow
ovary. The ovary is usually enclosed in
a flower, the part of the angiosperm
that contains the male or female
reproductive organs or both. The fruit
is the ovary of a plant which encloses
seeds.
China
[1] Description
辽宁古果（Archaefructus
liaoningensis），为迄今发现的最
早的花（早白垩纪），于北京
然博物馆 Date 17:15, 18 October
2006 (UTC) Source Own work Author
Shizhao CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Archaefructus_l
iaoningensis.jpg/1280px-Archaefructus_li
aoningensis.jpg
[2] Figure 2 from: Sun, G. , Dilcher,
D. L. , Zheng, S.-L. & Zhou, Z.-K. In
search of the first flower: A Jurassic
angiosperm, Archaefructus, from
northeast China. Science 282,
1692–1695
(1998). http://www.sciencemag.org/conte
nt/282/5394/1692
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/2896858
COPYRIGHTED
source: Sun, G. , Dilcher, D. L. ,
Zheng, S.-L. & Zhou, Z.-K. In search of
the first flower: A Jurassic
angiosperm, Archaefructus, from
northeast China. Science 282,
1692–1695
(1998). http://www.sciencemag.org/conte
nt/282/5394/1692http://www.jstor.org/sta
ble/2896858
(201.6-145.5 mybn), and start of the
Cretaceous (145.5-65.5 mybn) Period.
[1] Geologic Time Scale 2009 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.geosociety.org/scienc
e/timescale/timescl.pdf
[2] 150 Ma Late Jurassic UNKNOWN
source: http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~rcb7/150
_Jurassic_2globes.jpg
"Amborella".
[1] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
''Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree'', Proc
Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/268/1482/2211.abstract COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://rspb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/268/1482/2211.abstract
[2] Photo of Amborella trichopoda
(Amborellaceae; photo © Sangtae Kim).
source: http://tolweb.org/tree?group=ang
iosperms
{niM-FE-A-lEZ} evolve, the Water
Lilies.
[1] Nymphaea alba Nymphaea alba -
image taken on 29 August 2004 in the
outdoor botanical garden of Technion -
Haifa, Israel public domain
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nym
phaeaceae
[2] Nymphaea colorata from
Africa presume is gnu or pd
source: same
dinosaurs evolve (the ancestor of
Triceratops).
Ceratopsian dinosaurs are plant-eating
dinosaurs. Later ceratopsians have
massive heads armed with a sharp beak,
long horns and a large sheet of bone
that grows from the back of the skull.
[1] Psittacosaurus Palmer, ''The
Marshall Illustrated Encyclopedia of
Dinosaurs & Prehistoric Animals'',
1999, p162-163. COPYRIGHTED
source: Palmer, "The Marshall
Illustrated Encyclopedia of Dinosaurs &
Prehistoric Animals", 1999, p162-163.
[2] Description Protoceratops
andrewsi skeleton at Carnegie Museum of
Natural History. Date 28 November
2009, 14:07 Source
http://www.flickr.com/photos/139061
48@N00/4168549790/ Uploaded by
FunkMonk Author Tadek Kurpaski
from London, Poland CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/7c/Andrewsi.jpg
first nipple and breast.
Marsupium means pouch in Latin.
Marsupials are born as tiny embryos and
crawl through their mother's fur into
the pouch where they clamp their mouths
to a nipple. The other main group of
mammals are called placentals because
they feed their embryos using a
placenta which allows the baby to be
born much later. The pouch is like an
external womb.
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p231. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p231.
[2] Description English: Virginia
Opossum (Didelphis virginiana) in a
juniper tree in northeastern
Ohio. Date 27 December
2008 Source Own work Author
Wilson44691 Permission (Reusing
this file) See below. Other versions
PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6a/Possum122708.JPG
{iNaNTEORNitEZ} evolve.
[1] Protopteryx fengningensis Name:
Protopteryx fengningensis Phylum:
Chordata; Subphylum Vertebrata; Class
Aves; Subclass
Enantiornithes Geological Time:
Early Cretaceous Size: 120 mm long
(tip of skull to tip of toes); Matrix:
85 mm by 141 mm Fossil Site: Yixian
Formation, Fengning County, Hebei
Province of China UNKNOWN
source: http://www.fossilmuseum.net/Foss
il-Pictures/Birds/Protopteryx/CF017A.jpg
[2] Sinornis santensis Artist: James
Reece COPYRIGHTED AUSTRALIA
source: http://www.amonline.net.au/chine
se_dinosaurs/feathered_dinosaurs/photo07
.htm
{maGnOlEiDZ} evolve (the ancestor of
nutmeg, avocado, sassafras, cinnamon,
black and white pepper, camphor, bay
(or laurel) tree, and magnolia.).
[1] Magnolia This photo is a part of
the Wikipedia:Plant photo collection
I. Downloaded URL:
http://tencent.homestead.com/files/magno
lia.jpg Warning sign This image has
no source information. Source
information must be provided so that
the copyright status can be verified by
others. Unless the copyright status is
provided and a source is given, the
image will be deleted seven days after
this template was added (see page
history). If you just added this
template, please use {{no source
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mag
noliales
[2] ~~~~~}} (to include the date
here). Please consider using
source: same
{YUDIKoTS} evolve (the largest lineage
of flowers).
The two main groups of the Eudicots are
the "rosids" and the "asterids".
Eudicots are also called "tricolpates"
which refers to the structure of the
pollen.
[1] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
''Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree'', Proc
Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/268/1482/2211.abstract COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://rspb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/268/1482/2211.abstract
[2] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, ''Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree'', Proc
Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/268/1482/2211.abstract COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://rspb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/268/1482/2211.abstract
{HeS-Pe-rOR-nit-e-FOR-mEZ} evolve.
[1] Hesperornis. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.savageancientseas.com
/images/labels/hesperornis.jpg
[2] Detail of a painting by Ely Kish,
Copyright © Ely Kish; used with
permission of Ely Kish (EMAIL)
Hesperornis regalis Hesperornis
(pronounced HES-per-OR-nis) means
''western bird''. Toothed marine birds
of the Late Cretaceous
seas COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.oceansofkansas.com/He
sperornis/kish-01.jpg
flying fish, pufferfish, and barracuda
evolve.
[1] Adapted from: Richard Dawkins,
''The Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p339. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p339.
[2] Seahorse - Hippocampus
sp. Image ID reef2027, The
Coral Kingdom Collection Location
Gulf of Aqaba, Red Sea Photographer
Mr. Mohammed Al Momany, Aqaba,
Jordan Source
http://www.photolib.noaa.gov/htmls/reef2
027.htm PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/4b/Hippocampus.jpg
evolve.
[1] Adapted from: Richard Dawkins,
''The Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p339. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p339.
[2] Fig. 2. The single
most-parsimonious (MP) tree derived
from unweighted analysis of mitogenomic
data comprising concatenated nucleotide
sequences from 12 protein-coding
(excluding the ND6 gene and third codon
positions) and 22 transfer RNA (tRNA)
genes (stem regions only) from all 28
species examined. Tree length, 12,709
steps; consistency index, 0.355;
retention index, 0.471; and rescaled
consistency index, 0.167. Numbers above
and below internal branches indicate
jackknife values obtained for 500
replicates using the heuristic search
option in PAUP*4.0b10 (Swofford, 2002)
with 20 random-addition sequences being
performed in each replication and decay
indices, respectively. The scale
indicates 100 changes. from: Inoue,
JG, Miya, M, Tsukamoto, K, Nishida, M
(2003) ''Basal actinopterygian
relationships: A mitogenomic
perspective on the phylogeny of the
ldquoancient fish.rdquo'' Mol
Phylogenet Evol 26:
110-120 http://www.sciencedirect.com/sc
ience/article/pii/S1055790302003317 COP
YRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/cf/Gadus_morhua-Cod-2-At
lanterhavsparken-Norway.JPG
Placental mammals.
The Eutheria are mammals that have a
placenta. The placenta is an organ that
forms in the uterus to aid in the
exchange of food and wastes between the
blood of the mother and fetus through
an umbilical cord.
Placental mammals include all living
mammals except marsupials and
monotremes. The placenta allows for a
longer developmental period within the
protection of the womb which may give
the placentals a selective advantage.
County, Liaoning Province, China
[1] Description English:
Juramaia Date 30 April 2012 Source
Own work Author Nobu Tamura
http://paleoexhibit.blogspot.com/
http://spinops.blogspot.com/
http://www.palaeocritti.com CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/15/Juramaia_NT.jpg
[2] Figure 1 from: Luo Z, Yuan C,
Meng Q & Ji Q (2011), ''A Jurassic
eutherian mammal and divergence of
marsupials and placentals'', Nature
476(7361): p.
42–45. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v476/n7361/full/nature10291.html
{nature10291.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nature.com/nature/journal
/v476/n7361/carousel/nature10291-f1.2.jp
g
Liaoning Province, northeastern
China
[1] Confuciusornis
source: http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/dia
psids/birds/confuciusornislg.jpg
[2] Description Confuciusornis
sanctus skeleton displayed in Hong Kong
Science Museum Date 30 June
2007 CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/78/Confuchisornis_sanctu
s.JPG
evolve (modern birds: the most recent
common ancestor of all extant birds).
[1] aepyornis The same image appears
in: Palmer, The Marshall Illustrated
Encyclopedia of Dinosaurs and
Prehistoric Animals, 1999,
p176. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://photo.starnet.ru/Thematic
_Wallpapers/Zhizn/Dikie_zhivotnye/dinosa
urs_fossils/images/aepyornis.jpg
[2] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p262. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p262.
[1] Fig. 1. Melittosphex burmensis.
(A) Ventral view of fossil with key
features labeled. (B) Photograph of
fossil as seen in ventral view. (C)
Reconstruction of head based on details
visible in fossil and information from
modern bees. (D) Morphology of branched
hairs on the hind femur. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/314/5799/614/F1.large.jpg
[1] Description Atta cephalotes. Left
most 7 are workers of various castes,
right 2 are queens (rightmost: winged
form). Date 2008-06-08 10:32
(UTC) Source
Atta.cephalotes.gamut.jpg Author
derivative work: GameKeeper
Atta.cephalotes.gamut.jpg:
Sarefo CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Atta.cephalotes
.gamut.selection.jpg/1280px-Atta.cephalo
tes.gamut.selection.jpg
[2] David A. Grimaldi, Michael S.
Engel, ''Evolution of the Insects'',
2005, p431. COPYRIGHTED
source: David A. Grimaldi, Michael S.
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p431.
"Monocots") evolve: Flowering plants
that have a single cotyledon (or seed
leaf) in the embryo.
Monocots are the second largest lineage
of flowers after the Eudicots, and
include lilies, palms, orchids, and
grasses.
The two main orders of Monocots are
"Base Monocots" and "Commelinids".
[1] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
''Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree'', Proc
Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/268/1482/2211.abstract COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://rspb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/268/1482/2211.abstract
[2] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, ''Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree'', Proc
Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/268/1482/2211.abstract COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://rspb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/268/1482/2211.abstract
ancestor of the buttercup, clematis,
poppy, macadamia, lotus, and sycamore).
[1] Creeping butercup (Ranunculus
repens). GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Creeping_butercup_close_800.jpg
[2] Clematis hybrid from
http://www.ars.usda.gov/is/graphics/phot
os/ public domain
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cle
matis
ancestor of the cactus, caper,
buckwheat, rhubarb, venus flytrap, old
world pitcher plants, beet, quinoa,
spinach, and grape plants).
[1] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
''Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree'', Proc
Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/268/1482/2211.abstract COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://rspb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/268/1482/2211.abstract
[2] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, ''Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree'', Proc
Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/268/1482/2211.abstract COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://rspb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/268/1482/2211.abstract
evolves (the ancestor of all elephants,
manatees, and aardvarks).
Afrotheres originate in Africa and are
the earliest extant placental mammals.
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p225. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p225.
[2] Description Afrotheria Date
18 December 2007 Source
self-made, based on:
Image:Orycteropus afer.jpg
Image:Dugong.jpg Image:Elephant
Shrew.jpg Image:Manatee Looking at
the Camera.jpg Image:Taupe
doree.jpg Image:Klippschliefer
Suedafrika Hermanus.jpg
Image:Elefante Lake Manyara Park.jpg
Image:Tanrek.jpg Author
Esculapio GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f0/Afrotheria.jpg
ancestor of the ostrich, rhea {rEe},
emu, cassowary {KaSOwaRE}, and kiwi).
[1] Richard Dawkins, ''The Ancestor's
Tale'', (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p262. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p262.
[2] Description Various Ratite
birds (clockwise from top left): Brown
kiwi Apteryx mantelli, Greater rhea,
double-wattled cassowary Casuarius
casuarius, Haast's eagle attacking New
Zealand moa, Masai ostrich
(photographed in Nairobi National Park,
Kenya). Date 19 June 2007 Source
self-made from
Image:Brown_kiwi.jpg,
Image:Nandu-Portrait 2.jpg,
Image:Casuarius_casuarius_-_double-wattl
ed_cassowary.jpg,
Image:Giant_Haasts_eagle_attacking_New_Z
ealand_moa.jpg, Image:Masai ostrich.jpg
(see original images for copyright
information). Author
Richard001 GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/31/Ratites.PNG
"Xenarthra" {ZeN-oR-tro} evolves in
South America, the Xenarthrans
{ZeNoRtreNZ} (the ancestor of Sloths,
Anteaters, and Armadillos).
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p220. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p220.
[2] Description Hoffmann's Two-toed
Sloth (Choloepus hoffmanni) in
Milwaukee County Zoological
Gardens Date 8 January
2006 Source Flickr Author
Woodsm CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b5/Choloepus_hoffmanni.j
pg
(Basal Rosids include: the pomegranate,
clove, guava, allspice, and
eucalyptus).
[1] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
''Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree'', Proc
Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/268/1482/2211.abstract COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://rspb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/268/1482/2211.abstract
[2] A photo of the tree Staphylea
colchica taken by me in Århus, Denmark
GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cro
ssosomatales
{FoBAlEZ} evolves (the ancestor of
beans, pea, peanut, soy, and lentil).
[1] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
''Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree'', Proc
Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/268/1482/2211.abstract COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://rspb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/268/1482/2211.abstract
[2] Abrus precatorius (Black-eyed
Susan) USGS public domain
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abr
us
evolve (the ancestor of vanilla,
orchid, asparagus, onion, garlic,
agave, aloe, and lily).
[1] Sweet Flag (Acorus calamus) -
spadix Spadix of Sweet Flag. usgs
public domain
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aco
rus
[2] Ivy Duckweed (Lemna
trisulca) Name Lemna
trisulca Family Lemnaceae
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ali
smatales
{KomelIniDZ} evolve (the ancestor of
palms, coconut, corn, rice, barley,
oat, wheat, rye, sugarcane, bamboo,
grass, pineapple, papyrus, turmeric
{TRmRiK}, banana, and ginger).
[1] Manila dwarf coconut palm from
http://www.ars.usda.gov/is/graphics/phot
os/ Manila dwarf coconut palm
thumbnail A Manila dwarf coconut palm
on the grounds of the Tropical
Agriculture Research Station in
Mayaguez, Puerto Rico. dept of
ag public domain
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Are
cales
[2] coconut GOV public domain
source: http://www.nps.gov/kaho/KAHOckLs
/KAHOplnt/images/IMG_03957.jpg
"Ericales" {AReKAlEZ} evolves (the
ancestor of the kiwifruit, ebony,
persimmon, blueberry, cranberry, brazil
nut, new world pitcher plant, and tea).
[1] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
''Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree'', Proc
Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/268/1482/2211.abstract COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://rspb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/268/1482/2211.abstract
[2] Actinidia fruit. kiwifruit. public
domain
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Aethionema_grandiflora0.jpg
{APEAlEZ} evolves (the ancestor of
dill, celery, cilantro, carrot,
parsnip, fennel, parsley, and ivy).
[1] Variegated Ground-elder (Aegopodium
podagraria L.) in flower. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ground-elder_bloom.jpg
[2] An established spread of
variegated Ground-elder (Aegopodium
podagraria L.). GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ground-elder.jpg
{aSTRAlEZ} evolves (the ancestor of
tarragon, daisy, artichoke, sunflower,
lettuce, and dandelion).
[1] Ray floret, typical for flowers of
the family Asteraceae. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ray.floret01.jpg
[2] disc floret, typical part of a
flower of the family Asteraceae. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Disc_floret01.jpg
{maLPiGEAlEZ} evolves (the ancestor of
coca, rubber tree, cassava, poinsettia,
willow, poplar, and aspen).
[1] mangosteen public domain
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gar
cinia
[2] Mangosteen fruit public domain
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Man
gosteen
{BraSiKAlEZ} evolves (the ancestor of
horseradish, mustard, cabbage,
broccoli, radish, and papaya).
[1] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
''Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree'', Proc
Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/268/1482/2211.abstract COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://rspb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/268/1482/2211.abstract
[2] Aethionema grandiflora, GFDL by
Kurt Stueber
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Aethionema_grandiflora0.jpg
{ROZAlEZ} evolves (the ancestor of
hemp, hop, jackfruit, fig, strawberry,
rose, raspberry, apple, pear, plum,
cherry, peach, and almond).
[1] Filipendula ulmaria, GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fil
ipendula
[2] A display of different apples,
We've even worked on bashless
bagging-packaging systems that are used
by wholesalers to bring you apples
without bruises. US ARS public domain
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/App
le
{JeNsinAlEZ} evolves (the ancestor of
oleander, and coffee).
[1] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
''Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree'', Proc
Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/268/1482/2211.abstract COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://rspb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/268/1482/2211.abstract
[2] Anthocleista grandiflora. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Anthocleista_grandiflora.jpg
{SOlanAlEZ} evolves (the ancestor of
bell pepper, tomato, tobacco, potato,
and eggplant).
[1] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
''Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree'', Proc
Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/268/1482/2211.abstract COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://rspb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/268/1482/2211.abstract
[2] Atropa belladonna. Deadly
nightshade. GFDL by Kurt Stueber
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Atropa_bella-donna1.jpg
(KYUKRBiTAlEZ} evolves (the ancestor of
melon, cucumber, pumpkin, squash, and
zucchini).
[1] White bryony (Bryonia dioica). GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:White_bryony_male_800.jpg
[2] watermelon public domain
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Vampire_watermelon.jpg
{FaGAlEZ} evolves (the ancestor of many
flowers that produce edible nuts: for
example Birch, Hazel {nut}, Chestnut,
Beech {nut}, Oak, Walnut, Pecan
{PEKoN}, and Hickory).
[1] Alnus serrulata (Tag Alder) Male
catkins on right, mature female catkins
left Johnsonville, South Carolina GFDL
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Tagalder8139.jpg
[2] Speckled Alder (Alnus incana
subsp. rugosa) - leaves GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Alnus_incana_rugosa_leaves.jpg
{GaLliFORmEZ} evolves (the ancestor of
the Chicken, Turkey, Pheasant, Peacock,
and Quail).
[1] Richard Dawkins, ''The Ancestor's
Tale'', (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p262. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p262.
[2] Description English: Meleagris
gallopavo (Wild Turkey) Date 30
July 2006 Source Own work Author
MONGO PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/69/Meleagris_gallopavo_W
ild_Turkey.jpg
{aNSRiFORmEZ} evolves (the ancestor of
ducks, geese, and swans).
[1] Richard Dawkins, ''The Ancestor's
Tale'', (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p262. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p262.
[2] Description English: Pair of
Wood Ducks Date 18 April
2007 Source
http://flickr.com/photos/sherseydc/
1623995158/ Author
http://www.flickr.com/people/sherse
ydc/ CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/08/Pair_of_Wood_Ducks.jp
g
"Laurasiatheres" evolves. The
Laurasiatheres are a major line of
placental mammals that originate in the
northern continent Laurasia.
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p200. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p200.
[2] Description Mamíferos
(mammals), based on:
Image:Giraffa camelopardalis angolensis
(head).jpg Image:Golden crowned
fruit bat.jpg
Image:Hedgehog-en.jpg Image:Lion
waiting in Nambia.jpg All of them
under a free licence already in
Wikicommons Date
11-01-2008 Source
Compilation made by myself,
Authors of the photos see
below. Author Hans Hillewaert
(Giraffe); (Bat) Original uploader was
Latorilla at en.wikipedia;
(Hedgehog-en) John Mittler at
777Life.com Free Image Archive; (Lion)
yaaaay CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a5/Mam%C3%ADferos.jpg
Euarchontoglires {YU-oR-KoNT-u-GlI-rEZ}
evolves (the ancestor of all Rabbits,
rodents, tree shrews, colugos, and the
primates).
[1] Description English: American
pika (Ochotona princeps) ''haying'' in
rocks (carrying back a mouthful of
grass it has dried for winter food). At
2,340 m (7,700 ft) in streamside
campsite below Black Rock Pass, Sequoia
National Park, California. Date 6
August 2006 Source Own work Author
Dcrjsr CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Ochotona_prince
ps_pika_haying_in_rocks.jpg/1280px-Ochot
ona_princeps_pika_haying_in_rocks.jpg
[2] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p187. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p187.
[1] 90 Ma Late Cretaceous UNKNOWN
source: http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~rcb7/090
_Cretaceous_3globes.jpg
[2] A satellite image of Canada taken
in Summer. Snow cover is still
prominent in the Artic and on the Rocky
Mountains. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.virtualamericas.net/c
anada/maps/canada-satellite.jpg
{moLVAlEZ} evolves (the ancestor of
okra, marsh mallow {malO}, durian
{DUREiN}, cotton, balsa, and cacao
{KoKoU}.
[1] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
''Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree'', Proc
Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/268/1482/2211.abstract COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://rspb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/268/1482/2211.abstract
[2] Bixa orellana L., floro en Lavras,
Minas Gerais, Brazilo, GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Aethionema_grandiflora0.jpg
{SaPiNDAlEZ} evolves (the ancestor of
the maple, lychee, mahogany, cashew,
mango, pistachio, and the citrus trees:
orange, lemon, and grapefruit).
[1] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
''Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree'', Proc
Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/268/1482/2211.abstract COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Aethionema_grandiflora0.jpg
[2] Field Maple foliage and flowers,
Acer campestre. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Acer-campestre.JPG
Hadrosaurs evolve; the duck-billed
dinosaurs.
[1] Description Parasaurolophus
cyrtocristatus skeleton, Field
Museum. Date 1 October 2006,
00:00 Source Field Museum
Dinosaur Author Lisa Andres from
Riverside, USA Permission (Reusing
this file) See below. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/14/Parasaurolophus_cyrto
cristatus.jpg
[2] Description English: A
clickable image of the
en:Hadrosauroidea. Illustration by
en:User:Debivort. The
en:Hadrosaurids comprise the dinosaurs
commonly known as ''duck-billed''
dinosaurs. They were common herbivores
during the en:Cretaceous period, and
prey to en:therapods such as
en:Tyrannosaurus. Spectacular fossils
of hadrosaurs have been found,
including mummified specimens in which
soft tissue was preserved, skin
impressions, tracks of footprints, and
nest sites that demonstrate the animals
had parental care of offspring. Animals
are shown to scale. A crisp diagram
showing the evolutionary relationships
between the tribes of the
Hadrosauroidea, with representative
individuals shown to scale. Conveys the
diversity of the group. Every dinosaur
shown has passed review for scientific
accuracy at en:Wikipedia:WikiProject
Dinosaurs/Image review. The
individual drawings are genera, and the
branches of the tree go down to tribe.
All these groups were alive in the late
Cretaceous, and are generally known
only from a single fossil
site en:Category:Approved
dinosaur images en:Category:Approved
dinosaur scale diagrams Date
2007-06-21 (first version);
2007-10-14 (last version) Source
Originally from en.wikipedia;
description page is/was here. Author
Original uploader was Debivort at
en.wikipedia GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/14/Hadrosaur-tree-v4.jpg
Insectivora evolves (the ancestor of
shrews, moles, and hedgehogs).
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p200. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p200.
[2] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p200. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p200.
Dromaeosaurs {DrOmEoSORZ} evolve:
Raptors.
[1] Buitreraptor (foreground) and
Deinonychus (background) skeletons on
display at the Field Museum of Natural
History in Chicago, Illinois. Taken
August 2006 by my girlfriend, C.
Horwitz, and uploaded with permission
under the GFDL. —Steven G.
Johnson GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/29/Buitreraptor-Deinonyc
hus.jpg
[2] Description Digital +
graphite drawing of Velociraptor
mongoliensis Date 4 August
2006 Source image from
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Veloc
iraptor_dinoguy2.jpg Author Matt
Martyniuk GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/cd/Velociraptor_dinoguy2
.jpg
the Order "Didelphimorphia" evolve (New
World opossums).
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p231. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p231.
[2] Description English: North
American Opossum with winter
coat. Français : Opossum de Virginie
en livrée d'hiver. Deutsch: Ein
Nordopossum (Didelphis virginiana) im
Winterfell Date 21 February
2007 Source
Wikipedia:User:Cody.pope Author
Cody Pope CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/27/Opossum_2.jpg
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p225. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p225.
[2] Description An aardvark at
Detroit Zoo Date 15 April
2008 Source Cropped from
File:Porcs formiguers (Orycteropus
afer).jpg Author MontageMan is
the author of the original image, I did
the crop Permission (Reusing this
file) See below. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8a/Porc_formiguer.JPG
{lAmEAlEZ} evolves (the ancestor of
many spices: mint, basil, marjoram
{moRJ uruM}, oregano, rosemary, sage,
savory, thyme, teak, sesame, olive,
ash, lilac and jasmine).
[1] Common Bugle (Ajuga reptans) GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ajuga-reptans01.jpg
[2] Calamintha grandiflora. GFDL by
Kurt Stueber
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Calamintha_grandiflora2.jpg
Bilbies {BiLBEZ} evolve; in Australia.
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p231. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p231.
[2] Description Eastern Barred
Bandicoot (Perameles gunnii), Poimena
Reserve, Austin's Ferry, Tasmania,
Australia. The photo taken at night
with off camera flashes. Date 31
July 2010 Source Own work Author
Noodle snacks
(http://www.noodlesnacks.com/) CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8b/Perameles_gunni.jpg
dinosaurs known are common (both
Therapods {tERePoDZ}): Tyrannosaurus
rex {TiraNiSORuS reKS} is the top
predator in North America and
Giganotosaurus {JiGuNOTuSORuS} is the
top predator in South America.
[1] Description English: View of the
fossil/cast Tyranausaurus Rex at the
Royal Tyrell Museum in Alberta, Canada.
The image has been modified to remove
background persons and
objects. Français : Le fossile du
Tyranausaurus Rex dans le Royal Tyrell
Museum en Alberta au Canada. L'image a
été modifié pour enlever les
personnes et objets en arrière
plan. Date 27 June 2010 Source
Own work Author Pierre
Camateros CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a8/Fossil_Tyranausaurus_
Rex_at_the_Royal_Tyrell_Museum%2C_Albert
a%2C_Canada.jpg
[2] Description English: The
Wonderful Paleo Art of Heinrich Harder
- Illustrations for Die Wunder der
Urwelt 1912 Date 1912 Source
http://www.copyrightexpired.com/Hei
nrich_Harder/gigantosaurus_dwdu_1912.htm
l Author Heinrich Harder
(1858-1935) Permission (Reusing this
file) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/92/500_gigantosaurus_dwd
u1912cropped.jpg
Ankylosaurs {ANKilOSORZ} evolve (the
shield back and/or clubbed tail
dinosaurs); the most heavily armored
land-animals known.
[1] Description the image shows an
edmontonia. a sort of dinosaur Date
5 July 2006 Source the image
i did myself based on the images found
here: [1], [2],[3] and [4] Author
Mariana Ruiz (aka:LadyofHats) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/92/Edmontonia_dinosaur.p
ng
[2] Description the image shows
an edmontonia. a sort of dinosaur Date
5 July 2006 Source the image
i did myself based on the images found
here: [1], [2],[3] and [4] Author
Mariana Ruiz (aka:LadyofHats) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/92/Edmontonia_dinosaur.p
ng
{mOSeSORZ} evolve.
[1] Description English: Mosasaurus
skeleton; Maastricht Natural History
Museum, The Netherlands. Date 9
August 2010 Source Own
work Author
Wilson44691 Permission (Reusing
this file) See
below. Photograph taken by Mark A.
Wilson (Department of Geology, The
College of Wooster). PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/06/MosasaurMaastricht080
910.JPG
[2] Restoration of Aigialosaurus
bucchichi, a basal
mosasaur Description Aigialosaurus
bucchichi Date 2009 Source Own
work Author FunkMonk (Michael B.
H.) CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Aigialosaurus_b
ucchichi.jpg/1280px-Aigialosaurus_bucchi
chi.jpg
{PoDiSiPeDeFORmEZ} evolves (grebes
{GreBS}).
[1] Fig. 4. Our phylogeny differs from
and agrees with previous
classifications. We merged
well-supported (>70% bootstrap values)
monophyletic clades at the tips with
the same ordinal designation across all
three classifications (e.g., 24 species
called Passerines). Only higher
relationships supported by bootstrap
values >50% are shown. Colors are as in
Fig. 2. Color bars to the right of the
tree show membership in three different
classifications: Peters' (25) (left),
Sibley and Monroe's (30) (middle), and
Livezey and Zusi's (13) (right). Black
text within the bars indicates
monophyletic orders in our phylogeny,
whereas white text within the bars
indicates nonmonophyletic orders.
Ordinal name codes: ANS (Anseriformes),
APO (Apodiformes), APT
(Apterygiformes), ARD (Ardeiformes),
BAL (Balaenicipitiformes), BUC
(Bucerotiformes), CAP
(Caprimulgiformes), CAS
(Casuariiformes), CHA
(Charadriiformes), CIC (Ciconiiformes),
CLM (Columbiformes), COL (Coliiformes),
COR (Coraciiformes), CRA (Craciformes),
CUC (Cuculiformes), FAL
(Falconiformes), GAL (Galliformes), GAV
(Gaviiformes), GLB (Galbuliformes), GRU
(Gruiformes), MUS (Musophagiformes),
OPI (Opisthocomiformes), PAS
(Passeriformes), PEL (Pelecaniformes),
PIC (Piciformes), POD
(Podicipediformes), PRO
(Procellariiformes), PSI
(Psittaciformes), RAL (Ralliformes),
RHE (Rheiformes), SPH
(Sphenisciformes), STH
(Struthioniformes), STR (Strigiformes),
TIN (Tinamiformes), TRC
(Trochiliformes), TRO (Trogoniformes),
TUR (Turniciformes), and UPU
(Upupiformes). Figure 4
from: Hackett, Shannon J. et al. “A
Phylogenomic Study of Birds Reveals
Their Evolutionary History.” Science
320.5884 (2008) : 1763 -1768.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763/F4.large.jpg
[2] Description Podiceps
nigricollis English: Black-necked
Grebe, Jan. 2007, Ibaraki
JAPAN 日本語:
ハジロカイツブリ 2007年1月
茨城県神栖市波崎
(投稿者自身による撮影) Date
5 January 2007 Source photo
taken by Maga-chan Author
Maga-chan CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/66/Podiceps_nigricollis_
001.jpg
{YU-oR-KoNT-u-GlI-rEZ} Order
"Lagomorpha" {loGomORFo} evolves: the
ancestor of Rabbits, Hares, and Pikas
{PIKuZ}.
Rabbits, like Rodents also have very
prominent gnawing teeth at the front.
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p187. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p187.
[2] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p187. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p187.
{YU-oR-KoNT-u-GlI-rEZ} Tree Shrews and
Colugos {KolUGOZ} evolve.
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p182. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p182.
[2] Description English: Indian
Tree-shrew (Anathana ellioti) in
Yercaud, India. Date Taken on
film in the 1990s - scanned on
2005-09-26 (according to EXIF
data) Source Photographed by S.
Karthikeyan ( palmfly at gmail . com )
Please contact author for usage of any
higher resolution images. Author
S. Karthikeyan CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/78/Anathana_ellioti.jpg
flying animal ever known,
Quetzalcoatlus {KeTZLKWoTLuS} evolves.
Quetzalcoa
tlus has a wing span of 12 meters (or
40 feet).
[1] Description English: fossil of
Quetzalcoatlus, an extinct
pterosaur Date June 2009 Source
Own work Author
Ghedoghedo GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/ab/Quetzalcoatlus_1.JPG
[2] Description Size comparison
of the azhdarchid pterosaurs
Quetzalcoatlus northropi and
Quetzalcoatlus unnamed species, with a
human. Modified from a diagram featured
in Witton and Naish (2008). Date
29 May 2008 Source Own
work Author Matt Martyniuk
(Dinoguy2), Mark Witton and Darren
Naish CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e5/Quetzscale1.png
extinction. 47% of all genera are
observed extinct.
Made extinct are: 60% of plant species,
and all dinosaurs, mosasaurs,
pterosaurs, plesiosaurs {PlESEoSORZ}
and pliosaurs {PlIoSORZ}.
A comet or meteor collides with the
Earth in what is now the Yucatan
{YUKoTaN} Peninsula of Mexico and huge
amounts of lava erupt from India. No
large animals survive on land, in the
air, or in the sea.
[1] Cretaceous meteor impact. Benjamin
Cummings. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://io.uwinnipeg.ca/~simmons/
16cm05/1116/16macro.htm
[2] Cretaceous meteor impact. Benjamin
Cummings. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://io.uwinnipeg.ca/~simmons/
16cm05/1116/16macro.htm
of the Cenozoic Era, and the end of the
Cretaceous (145.5-65.5 mybn), and start
of the Tertiary (65.5-1.8 mybn) Period.
[1] Geologic Time Scale 2009 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.geosociety.org/scienc
e/timescale/timescl.pdf
[2] 65 Ma K-T Boundary -
Tertiary/Cretaceous UNKNOWN
source: http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~rcb7/065
_K_Tboundary_3globes.jpg
diversification of mammals.
[1] UNKNOWN
source: http://bp0.blogger.com/_AejGb2Gc
r_o/SIlTsz-2RrI/AAAAAAAAAAY/8b_-LPsmDbc/
s1600/mammal3.jpg
[2] Fig 3.46 from: Kardong,
''Vertebrates'', 2002,
p123. COPYRIGHTED
source: from: Kardong, "Vertebrates",
2002, p123.
{GrUiFORmEZ} evolves (the ancestor of
cranes, rails, and bustards {BuSTRDZ}).
[1] Fig. 4. Our phylogeny differs from
and agrees with previous
classifications. We merged
well-supported (>70% bootstrap values)
monophyletic clades at the tips with
the same ordinal designation across all
three classifications (e.g., 24 species
called Passerines). Only higher
relationships supported by bootstrap
values >50% are shown. Colors are as in
Fig. 2. Color bars to the right of the
tree show membership in three different
classifications: Peters' (25) (left),
Sibley and Monroe's (30) (middle), and
Livezey and Zusi's (13) (right). Black
text within the bars indicates
monophyletic orders in our phylogeny,
whereas white text within the bars
indicates nonmonophyletic orders.
Ordinal name codes: ANS (Anseriformes),
APO (Apodiformes), APT
(Apterygiformes), ARD (Ardeiformes),
BAL (Balaenicipitiformes), BUC
(Bucerotiformes), CAP
(Caprimulgiformes), CAS
(Casuariiformes), CHA
(Charadriiformes), CIC (Ciconiiformes),
CLM (Columbiformes), COL (Coliiformes),
COR (Coraciiformes), CRA (Craciformes),
CUC (Cuculiformes), FAL
(Falconiformes), GAL (Galliformes), GAV
(Gaviiformes), GLB (Galbuliformes), GRU
(Gruiformes), MUS (Musophagiformes),
OPI (Opisthocomiformes), PAS
(Passeriformes), PEL (Pelecaniformes),
PIC (Piciformes), POD
(Podicipediformes), PRO
(Procellariiformes), PSI
(Psittaciformes), RAL (Ralliformes),
RHE (Rheiformes), SPH
(Sphenisciformes), STH
(Struthioniformes), STR (Strigiformes),
TIN (Tinamiformes), TRC
(Trochiliformes), TRO (Trogoniformes),
TUR (Turniciformes), and UPU
(Upupiformes). Figure 4
from: Hackett, Shannon J. et al. “A
Phylogenomic Study of Birds Reveals
Their Evolutionary History.” Science
320.5884 (2008) : 1763 -1768.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763/F4.large.jpg
[2] By Aaron Logan, from
http://www.lightmatter.net/gallery/album
s.php w:en:Creative
Commons attribution CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8d/Grey_Crowned_Crane.jp
g
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p231. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p231.
[2] English: The southern marsupial
mole (Notoryctes typhlops). Date
Originally uploaded to
pl.wikipedia on 10 May 2006. Source
Own work; originally from
pl.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. Author Bartus.malec at
pl.wikipedia. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/4b/Notoryctes_typhlops.j
pg
Numbat {nuMBaT} evolve.
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p231. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p231.
[2] Description English: Quoll
imaged at a rescue park, Tasmania,
Austrailia, probably Tiger Quoll
(Dasyurus maculatus), indicated by
spots on tail Photographer's note.
This is a lucky through-the-fence shot
using an old Sony camera as the animal
was quite active. The small size of the
lens is a distinct advantage in this
case (my Canon xTi would not have been
able to get the
shot). Category:Dasyurus
maculatus Date Taken November 18,
2008, uploaded December 28, 2008 (28
December 2008 (original upload
date)) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia; transferred to Commons by
User:Berichard using CommonsHelper. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f6/Dasyurus_maculatus.jp
g
"Diprotodontia" {DIPrOTODoNsEu} evolves
(the ancestor of Wombats, Kangeroos,
Possums, and Koalas).
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p231. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p231.
[2] Eastern Grey Kangaroo with
joey PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0d/Kangaroo_and_joey03.j
pg
{YU-oR-KoNT-u-GlI-rEZ} Order "Rodentia"
evolves; rodents.
The Rodents: "Myomorpha"
{MIemORFu} evolve (the ancestor of
rats, mice, gerbils, voles {VOLZ},
lemmings, and hamsters).
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p187. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p187.
[2] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p187. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p187.
{YU-oR-KoNT-u-GlI-rEZ} Order Primates
evolve, most likely in Africa or the
Indian subcontinent. The first
opposable thumb.
The primates contain more than 300
species, including monkeys, apes, and
humans.
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p168. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p168.
[2] Description English: Gray
slender loris (Loris lydekkerianus)
photographed at Dindigal in Tamil
Nadu. Date 27 June 2008 Source
Own work Author Kalyan Varma
(Kalyanvarma) GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8f/Slender_Loris.jpg
{STriJiFORmEZ} evolve (owls).
[1] Fig. 4. Our phylogeny differs from
and agrees with previous
classifications. We merged
well-supported (>70% bootstrap values)
monophyletic clades at the tips with
the same ordinal designation across all
three classifications (e.g., 24 species
called Passerines). Only higher
relationships supported by bootstrap
values >50% are shown. Colors are as in
Fig. 2. Color bars to the right of the
tree show membership in three different
classifications: Peters' (25) (left),
Sibley and Monroe's (30) (middle), and
Livezey and Zusi's (13) (right). Black
text within the bars indicates
monophyletic orders in our phylogeny,
whereas white text within the bars
indicates nonmonophyletic orders.
Ordinal name codes: ANS (Anseriformes),
APO (Apodiformes), APT
(Apterygiformes), ARD (Ardeiformes),
BAL (Balaenicipitiformes), BUC
(Bucerotiformes), CAP
(Caprimulgiformes), CAS
(Casuariiformes), CHA
(Charadriiformes), CIC (Ciconiiformes),
CLM (Columbiformes), COL (Coliiformes),
COR (Coraciiformes), CRA (Craciformes),
CUC (Cuculiformes), FAL
(Falconiformes), GAL (Galliformes), GAV
(Gaviiformes), GLB (Galbuliformes), GRU
(Gruiformes), MUS (Musophagiformes),
OPI (Opisthocomiformes), PAS
(Passeriformes), PEL (Pelecaniformes),
PIC (Piciformes), POD
(Podicipediformes), PRO
(Procellariiformes), PSI
(Psittaciformes), RAL (Ralliformes),
RHE (Rheiformes), SPH
(Sphenisciformes), STH
(Struthioniformes), STR (Strigiformes),
TIN (Tinamiformes), TRC
(Trochiliformes), TRO (Trogoniformes),
TUR (Turniciformes), and UPU
(Upupiformes). Figure 4
from: Hackett, Shannon J. et al. “A
Phylogenomic Study of Birds Reveals
Their Evolutionary History.” Science
320.5884 (2008) : 1763 -1768.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763/F4.large.jpg
[2] Description Athene
noctua English: Little owl Español:
Mochuelo Date 2011-02-27 07:27
(UTC) Source
Athene_noctua_(portrait).jpg Author
Athene_noctua_(portrait).jpg:
Trebol-a derivative work:
Stemonitis (talk) CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/39/Athene_noctua_%28crop
ped%29.jpg
"Carnivora" evolves (the ancestor of
Cats, Dogs, Bears, Weasels, Hyenas,
Seals, and Walruses).
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p200. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p200.
[2] Description English:
Two-spotted palm civet Nandinia
binotata mounted specimen in Manchester
Museum Date 2008-07-28 (original
upload date) (Original text : July
2008) GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5a/14-nandinia_binotata.
JPG
evolve.
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p164. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p164.
[2] Description Tarsius syrichta
(Philippine Tarsier) Date
- Source
http://www.sxc.hu/photo/490924 Aut
hor Jasper Greek Golangco PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1d/Tarsius_Syrichta-GG.j
pg
{oPoD-i-FORmEZ} evolves (the ancestor
of hummingbirds, and swifts).
[1] Fig. 4. Our phylogeny differs from
and agrees with previous
classifications. We merged
well-supported (>70% bootstrap values)
monophyletic clades at the tips with
the same ordinal designation across all
three classifications (e.g., 24 species
called Passerines). Only higher
relationships supported by bootstrap
values >50% are shown. Colors are as in
Fig. 2. Color bars to the right of the
tree show membership in three different
classifications: Peters' (25) (left),
Sibley and Monroe's (30) (middle), and
Livezey and Zusi's (13) (right). Black
text within the bars indicates
monophyletic orders in our phylogeny,
whereas white text within the bars
indicates nonmonophyletic orders.
Ordinal name codes: ANS (Anseriformes),
APO (Apodiformes), APT
(Apterygiformes), ARD (Ardeiformes),
BAL (Balaenicipitiformes), BUC
(Bucerotiformes), CAP
(Caprimulgiformes), CAS
(Casuariiformes), CHA
(Charadriiformes), CIC (Ciconiiformes),
CLM (Columbiformes), COL (Coliiformes),
COR (Coraciiformes), CRA (Craciformes),
CUC (Cuculiformes), FAL
(Falconiformes), GAL (Galliformes), GAV
(Gaviiformes), GLB (Galbuliformes), GRU
(Gruiformes), MUS (Musophagiformes),
OPI (Opisthocomiformes), PAS
(Passeriformes), PEL (Pelecaniformes),
PIC (Piciformes), POD
(Podicipediformes), PRO
(Procellariiformes), PSI
(Psittaciformes), RAL (Ralliformes),
RHE (Rheiformes), SPH
(Sphenisciformes), STH
(Struthioniformes), STR (Strigiformes),
TIN (Tinamiformes), TRC
(Trochiliformes), TRO (Trogoniformes),
TUR (Turniciformes), and UPU
(Upupiformes). Figure 4
from: Hackett, Shannon J. et al. “A
Phylogenomic Study of Birds Reveals
Their Evolutionary History.” Science
320.5884 (2008) : 1763 -1768.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763/F4.large.jpg
[2] Description Ruby-throated
hummingbird public domain USFWA Date
11 February 2003 Source
Cropped from U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service Digital Library
System Author Steve Maslowski PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/87/Rubythroathummer65.jp
g
{PESiFORmEZ} evolves (the ancestor of
woodpeckers, and toucans).
[1] Fig. 4. Our phylogeny differs from
and agrees with previous
classifications. We merged
well-supported (>70% bootstrap values)
monophyletic clades at the tips with
the same ordinal designation across all
three classifications (e.g., 24 species
called Passerines). Only higher
relationships supported by bootstrap
values >50% are shown. Colors are as in
Fig. 2. Color bars to the right of the
tree show membership in three different
classifications: Peters' (25) (left),
Sibley and Monroe's (30) (middle), and
Livezey and Zusi's (13) (right). Black
text within the bars indicates
monophyletic orders in our phylogeny,
whereas white text within the bars
indicates nonmonophyletic orders.
Ordinal name codes: ANS (Anseriformes),
APO (Apodiformes), APT
(Apterygiformes), ARD (Ardeiformes),
BAL (Balaenicipitiformes), BUC
(Bucerotiformes), CAP
(Caprimulgiformes), CAS
(Casuariiformes), CHA
(Charadriiformes), CIC (Ciconiiformes),
CLM (Columbiformes), COL (Coliiformes),
COR (Coraciiformes), CRA (Craciformes),
CUC (Cuculiformes), FAL
(Falconiformes), GAL (Galliformes), GAV
(Gaviiformes), GLB (Galbuliformes), GRU
(Gruiformes), MUS (Musophagiformes),
OPI (Opisthocomiformes), PAS
(Passeriformes), PEL (Pelecaniformes),
PIC (Piciformes), POD
(Podicipediformes), PRO
(Procellariiformes), PSI
(Psittaciformes), RAL (Ralliformes),
RHE (Rheiformes), SPH
(Sphenisciformes), STH
(Struthioniformes), STR (Strigiformes),
TIN (Tinamiformes), TRC
(Trochiliformes), TRO (Trogoniformes),
TUR (Turniciformes), and UPU
(Upupiformes). Figure 4
from: Hackett, Shannon J. et al. “A
Phylogenomic Study of Birds Reveals
Their Evolutionary History.” Science
320.5884 (2008) : 1763 -1768.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763/F4.large.jpg
[2] Description Hispaniolan
Woodpecker / Melanerpes striatus Date
20 January 2004 Source
http://www.pbase.com/wwcsig/image/4
1280575 Author Wolfgang
Wander GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1b/Melanerpes_striatus00
1.jpg
{PaSRiFORmEZ} evolves (perching
songbirds). This order includes many
common birds: for example crows, jays,
sparrows, warblers, mockingbirds,
wrens, robins, orioles, bluebirds,
vireos {VEREOZ}, larks, swallows, and
finches.
More than half of all species of birds
are passerines.
Australia|Gondwana
[1] Fig. 4. Our phylogeny differs from
and agrees with previous
classifications. We merged
well-supported (>70% bootstrap values)
monophyletic clades at the tips with
the same ordinal designation across all
three classifications (e.g., 24 species
called Passerines). Only higher
relationships supported by bootstrap
values >50% are shown. Colors are as in
Fig. 2. Color bars to the right of the
tree show membership in three different
classifications: Peters' (25) (left),
Sibley and Monroe's (30) (middle), and
Livezey and Zusi's (13) (right). Black
text within the bars indicates
monophyletic orders in our phylogeny,
whereas white text within the bars
indicates nonmonophyletic orders.
Ordinal name codes: ANS (Anseriformes),
APO (Apodiformes), APT
(Apterygiformes), ARD (Ardeiformes),
BAL (Balaenicipitiformes), BUC
(Bucerotiformes), CAP
(Caprimulgiformes), CAS
(Casuariiformes), CHA
(Charadriiformes), CIC (Ciconiiformes),
CLM (Columbiformes), COL (Coliiformes),
COR (Coraciiformes), CRA (Craciformes),
CUC (Cuculiformes), FAL
(Falconiformes), GAL (Galliformes), GAV
(Gaviiformes), GLB (Galbuliformes), GRU
(Gruiformes), MUS (Musophagiformes),
OPI (Opisthocomiformes), PAS
(Passeriformes), PEL (Pelecaniformes),
PIC (Piciformes), POD
(Podicipediformes), PRO
(Procellariiformes), PSI
(Psittaciformes), RAL (Ralliformes),
RHE (Rheiformes), SPH
(Sphenisciformes), STH
(Struthioniformes), STR (Strigiformes),
TIN (Tinamiformes), TRC
(Trochiliformes), TRO (Trogoniformes),
TUR (Turniciformes), and UPU
(Upupiformes). Figure 4
from: Hackett, Shannon J. et al. “A
Phylogenomic Study of Birds Reveals
Their Evolutionary History.” Science
320.5884 (2008) : 1763 -1768.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763/F4.large.jpg
[2] Western Bluebirds (female on
left) Irvine, CA PD
source: http://tedhuntington.com/bluebir
ds.jpg
{PrO-Be-SiD-E-e} evolves (the ancestor
of Mammoths, Mastodons, and Elephants).
[1] Description Moeritherium Date
1920 (probably) Source The Wonderful
Paleo Art of Heinrich Harder Author
Heinrich Harder (1858-1935) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/97/Moeritherium.jpg
[2] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p225. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p225.
evolve.
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p225. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p225.
[2] Description Trichechus
manatus English: This group of three
West Indian manatees (Trichechus
manatus) was photographed while feeding
on seagrass. Date Source from
http://www.csc.noaa.gov/benthic/resource
s/gallery/life/manatee.htm Author
PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/81/Manatee.jpg
"Cetartiodactyla" {SiToRTEODaKTilu}
evolve (the ancestor of all
Artiodactyla {oRTEODaKTiLu}: camels,
pigs, ruminants, hippos, and all
Cetacea {SiTASEu or SiTAsEu}: Whales,
and Dolphins).
Hippos are the closest living land
relative of the whales and dolphins.
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p200. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p200.
[2] [t may or may not be
accurate] Description Pakicetus
inachus, a whale ancestor from the
Early Eocene of Pakistan, after
Nummelai et al., (2006), pencil
drawing, digital coloring Date 29
November 2007 Source Own
work Author Nobu Tamura
email:nobu.tamura@yahoo.com
www.palaeocritti.com GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/34/Pakicetus_BW.jpg
"Perissodactyla" {PeriSODaKTilu} evolve
(also called "odd-toed ungulates")
{uNGYUlATS or uNGYUliTS} (the ancestor
of all Horses, Tapirs {TAPRZ }, and
Rhinos).
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p200. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p200.
[2] Description Two young Nokota
mares Date 2010-02-11 22:34
(UTC) Source
Nokota_Horses.jpg Author
Nokota_Horses.jpg: François Marchal
derivative work: Dana boomer
(talk) CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/de/Nokota_Horses_cropped
.jpg
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p187. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p187.
[2] Description he was happily
sitting back and munching on something.
and munching, and munching... Date
4 July 2007, 12:55 Source
American Beaver Author Steve
from washington, dc,
usa Permission (Reusing this file)
See below. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6b/American_Beaver.jpg
Beaver, Squirrel and Marmot {moRmuT}
evolve.
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p187. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p187.
[2] Description Membres de la
famille des Suridés Date Source
Own work Author Chicoutimi
(montage) Montage 9 pictures.jpg
Karakal AndiW National Park
Service en:User:Markus Krötzsch
The Lilac Breasted Roller Nico
Conradie from Centurion, South Africa
Hans Hillewaert Sylvouille
National Park Service GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/68/Sciuridae.jpg
{SiTaS-iFORmEZ} evolves (Parrots).
[1] Brown, Joseph, Joshua Rest, Jaime
G. Moreno, Michael Sorenson, and David
Mindell. ''Strong mitochondrial DNA
support for a Cretaceous origin of
modern avian lineages.'' BMC Biology 6
(January 2008):
6:6. http://www.biomedcentral.com/1741-
7007/6/6 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.biomedcentral.com/174
1-7007/6/6
[2] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p262. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p262.
[1] Description English: This
reproduction of a painting of an
undetermined species of Hyracotherium
was made to illustrate one card of a
set of 30 collector cards from ''Tiere
der Urwelt'' (Animals of the
Prehistoric World). From the Series
III. Deutsch: Diese Reproduktion eines
Gemäldes einer nicht näher
bezeichneten Art von Hyracotherium
wurde zur Illustration einer Karte aus
einem Set von 30 Sammelkarten mit dem
Titel „Tiere der Urwelt“
angefertigt. Aus der Serie III. Date
1920 (probably) Source The Wonderful
Paleo Art of Heinrich Harder Author
Heinrich Harder (1858-1935) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6e/Hyracotherium_Eohippu
s_hharder.jpg
[2] The artwork depicting horse
evolution is from Professor Donald
Levin's course in BioEvolution at the
University of Texas in Austin. This is
a brief, highly illustrated course with
many examples given of macroevolution.
Notice that the generalized branching
diagram in this illustration is less
twiggy than the more bushy branching
depicted at other resources mentioned
here. UNKNOWN
source: http://darwiniana.org/equid2t.gi
f
[1] Description Adult male Reticulated
giraffe feeding high up on an acacia,
in central Kenya Date 8 July 2010,
10:25 Source High-rise living Author
Steve Garvie from Dunfermline, Fife,
Scotland CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f4/Flickr_-_Rainbirder_-
_High-rise_living.jpg
[2] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p200. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p200.
hippos with dolphins and whales.
[1] Fig. 2. Molecular time scale for
the orders of placental mammals based
on the 16,397-bp data set and maximum
likelihood tree of ref. 14 with an
opossum outgroup (data not shown), 13
fossil constraints (Materials and
Methods), and a mean prior of 105 mya
for the placental root. Ordinal
designations are listed above the
branches. Orange and green lines denote
orders with basal diversification
before or after the K/T boundary,
respectively. Black lines depict orders
for which only one taxon was available.
Asterisks denote placental taxa
included in the ''K/T body size'' taxon
set. The composition of chimeric taxa,
including caniform, caviomorph,
strepsirrhine, and sirenian, is
indicated elsewhere (14). Numbers for
internal nodes are cross-referenced in
the supporting information.
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.pnas.org/content/vol1
00/issue3/images/large/pq0334222002.jpeg
[2] Description Deutsch: Eine
Gruppe Flußpferde im Luangwa-Tal,
Sambia. English: Pod of Hippos
(Hippopotamus amphibius) in Luangwa
Valley, Zambia Français : Groupe
d'hippopotames (Hippopotamus amphibius)
dans la vallée du Luangua, en
Zambie Date 2005 Source Own
work Author Paul Maritz GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a3/Hippo_pod_edit.jpg
earliest whale) "Himalayacetus".
Northern India
[1] The evolution of whales The
first thing to notice on this evogram
is that hippos are the closest living
relatives of whales, but they are not
the ancestors of whales. In fact, none
of the individual animals on the
evogram is the direct ancestor of any
other, as far as we know. That's why
each of them gets its own branch on the
family tree. UNKNOWN
source: http://evolution.berkeley.edu/ev
olibrary/images/evograms/whale_evo.jpg
[2] Description Pakicetus inachus, a
whale ancestor from the Early Eocene of
Pakistan, after Nummelai et al.,
(2006), pencil drawing, digital
coloring Date 29 November
2007 Source Own work Author Nobu
Tamura
(http://spinops.blogspot.com) GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/34/Pakicetus_BW.jpg
"Chiroptera" {KIroPTRu} evolves (the
ancestor of fruit bats, and
echolocating bats).
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p200. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p200.
[2] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p200. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p200.
evolve.
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p187. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p187.
[2] Photograph of a brush-tailed
porcupine in Berlin Zoologischer
Garten. Taken by Eloquence in July 2005
and released into the public
domain. Public domain PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/21/Brush_tailed_porcupin
e_Berlin_Zoo.jpg
mountains start to form.
[1] 50 Ma Eocene NONCOMMERCIAL
source: http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~rcb7/050
_Eocene_3globes.jpg
[2] Himalayas as pictured by NASA
Landsat 7 Satellite. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/2/25/Himalayas_landsat_7.png
evolves.
[1] Ambulocetus natans in action. A
reconstruction of an early close cousin
of whales. by artist Carl
Buell. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.indiana.edu/~ensiweb/
images/whal.amb.jpeg
[2] Ambulocetus The name Ambulocetus
gives away its early ancestry. It means
'walking whale'. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.abc.net.au/beasts/evi
dence/prog1/images/evi_amulocetus_large.
jpg
[1] Description English: Dromedary
camel in outback Australia, near
Silverton, NSW. Date 7 July
2007 Source Own work Author
Jjron Taken by John
O'Neill This image has been
released for use worldwide under the
licensing specified below. If you
require different licensing (e.g., for
commercial publishing), or a larger or
higher quality version of this image,
it may be available from the author.
You can contact the author by clicking
here and leaving a message, or by
sending me an email. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/43/07._Camel_Profile%2C_
near_Silverton%2C_NSW%2C_07.07.2007.jpg
[2] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p200. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p200.
[1] English: Male Diceros bicornis
(Black rhinoceros or Hook-lipped
rhinoceros) at the Saint Louis
Zoological Park in Missouri Date
4 March 2011 Source Own
work Author Jonathunder GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/63/Diceros_bicornis.jpg
[2] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p200. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p200.
{FaLKoNiFORmEZ} evolves (the ancestor
of falcons, hawks, eagles, and Old
World vultures).
[1] Fig. 4. Our phylogeny differs from
and agrees with previous
classifications. We merged
well-supported (>70% bootstrap values)
monophyletic clades at the tips with
the same ordinal designation across all
three classifications (e.g., 24 species
called Passerines). Only higher
relationships supported by bootstrap
values >50% are shown. Colors are as in
Fig. 2. Color bars to the right of the
tree show membership in three different
classifications: Peters' (25) (left),
Sibley and Monroe's (30) (middle), and
Livezey and Zusi's (13) (right). Black
text within the bars indicates
monophyletic orders in our phylogeny,
whereas white text within the bars
indicates nonmonophyletic orders.
Ordinal name codes: ANS (Anseriformes),
APO (Apodiformes), APT
(Apterygiformes), ARD (Ardeiformes),
BAL (Balaenicipitiformes), BUC
(Bucerotiformes), CAP
(Caprimulgiformes), CAS
(Casuariiformes), CHA
(Charadriiformes), CIC (Ciconiiformes),
CLM (Columbiformes), COL (Coliiformes),
COR (Coraciiformes), CRA (Craciformes),
CUC (Cuculiformes), FAL
(Falconiformes), GAL (Galliformes), GAV
(Gaviiformes), GLB (Galbuliformes), GRU
(Gruiformes), MUS (Musophagiformes),
OPI (Opisthocomiformes), PAS
(Passeriformes), PEL (Pelecaniformes),
PIC (Piciformes), POD
(Podicipediformes), PRO
(Procellariiformes), PSI
(Psittaciformes), RAL (Ralliformes),
RHE (Rheiformes), SPH
(Sphenisciformes), STH
(Struthioniformes), STR (Strigiformes),
TIN (Tinamiformes), TRC
(Trochiliformes), TRO (Trogoniformes),
TUR (Turniciformes), and UPU
(Upupiformes). Figure 4
from: Hackett, Shannon J. et al. “A
Phylogenomic Study of Birds Reveals
Their Evolutionary History.” Science
320.5884 (2008) : 1763 -1768.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763/F4.large.jpg
[2] Description English: Bald Eagle
(Haliaeetus leucocephalus) in
Tree Date July 2005 Source
U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service Author Hillebrand,
Steve PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/69/Haliaeetus_leucocepha
lus-tree-USFWS.jpg
guinea pigs, agoutis {uGUTEZ}, and
capybaras {KaPuBoRoZ} evolve.
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p187. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p187.
[2] Description English: A North
American porcupine (Erethizon dorsatum)
rests in a tree in Montreal's
BioDome. Date 20 July
2004 Source self-made with a
Nikon D70 Author J. Glover CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/83/Porcupine-BioDome.jpg
evolve (the ancestor of the Sakis,
Spider, Howler and Squirrel monkeys,
Capuchins {KaP YU CiNZ}, and
Tamarins).
The ancestor of all New World monkeys
probably originates in Africa, but all
surviving descendants now live in the
Americas, which suggests that a small
group of New World monkeys got across
the early Atlantic Ocean to South
America, perhaps by rafting on fallen
trees over a chain of islands.
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p149. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p149.
[2] Description English: A
critically endangered Brown Spider
Monkey, Ateles hybridus, with uncommon
blue eyes. Shot in captivity in
Barquisimeto,
Venezuela Русский:
Паукообразная
обезьяна Ateles hybridus с
редко встречающимися
голубыми глазами.
Сфотографирована в
неволе в
Венесуэле. Date
September 2008 Source
Image:BrownSpiderMonkey.jpg Author
http://www.birdphotos.com edit by
Fir0002 Permission (Reusing this
file) See below. Attribution must
appear on same page as photo. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/dc/BrownSpiderMonkey_%28
edit2%29.jpg
[1] Cynodictus from: A history of land
mammals in the western hemisphere By
William Berryman Scott PD
source: https://play.google.com/books/re
ader?id=HbAlAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover
&output=reader&authuser=0&hl=en&pg=GBS.P
A529
[2] Description Hesperocyon
gregarius 32 - 30 million years ago;
Early Oligocene; Oldest recognized
member of the dog family. Date 10
October 2008, 10:42 Source
Hesperocyon gregarius (Dog)
Uploaded by FunkMonk Author
Claire H. from New York City,
USA Permission (Reusing this file)
CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5f/Hesperocyon_Gregarius
.jpg
{KUKUliFORmEZ} evolves (the ancestor of
cuckoos, and roadrunners).
[1] Fig. 4. Our phylogeny differs from
and agrees with previous
classifications. We merged
well-supported (>70% bootstrap values)
monophyletic clades at the tips with
the same ordinal designation across all
three classifications (e.g., 24 species
called Passerines). Only higher
relationships supported by bootstrap
values >50% are shown. Colors are as in
Fig. 2. Color bars to the right of the
tree show membership in three different
classifications: Peters' (25) (left),
Sibley and Monroe's (30) (middle), and
Livezey and Zusi's (13) (right). Black
text within the bars indicates
monophyletic orders in our phylogeny,
whereas white text within the bars
indicates nonmonophyletic orders.
Ordinal name codes: ANS (Anseriformes),
APO (Apodiformes), APT
(Apterygiformes), ARD (Ardeiformes),
BAL (Balaenicipitiformes), BUC
(Bucerotiformes), CAP
(Caprimulgiformes), CAS
(Casuariiformes), CHA
(Charadriiformes), CIC (Ciconiiformes),
CLM (Columbiformes), COL (Coliiformes),
COR (Coraciiformes), CRA (Craciformes),
CUC (Cuculiformes), FAL
(Falconiformes), GAL (Galliformes), GAV
(Gaviiformes), GLB (Galbuliformes), GRU
(Gruiformes), MUS (Musophagiformes),
OPI (Opisthocomiformes), PAS
(Passeriformes), PEL (Pelecaniformes),
PIC (Piciformes), POD
(Podicipediformes), PRO
(Procellariiformes), PSI
(Psittaciformes), RAL (Ralliformes),
RHE (Rheiformes), SPH
(Sphenisciformes), STH
(Struthioniformes), STR (Strigiformes),
TIN (Tinamiformes), TRC
(Trochiliformes), TRO (Trogoniformes),
TUR (Turniciformes), and UPU
(Upupiformes). Figure 4
from: Hackett, Shannon J. et al. “A
Phylogenomic Study of Birds Reveals
Their Evolutionary History.” Science
320.5884 (2008) : 1763 -1768.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763/F4.large.jpg
[2] Description English: Common
cuckoo Deutsch: Kuckuck Date
Source Own work Author
Vogelartinfo GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b0/Cuculus_canorus_vogel
artinfo_chris_romeiks_CHR0791.jpg
evolve.
[1] Description English: (Rusty, the
giant ground sloth, at the Iowa Museum
of Natural History, University of Iowa.
Based on Megalonyx jeffersonii.) Date
16 October 2008 (original upload
date) Source Uploader - Billwhittaker
(talk) Author Billwhittaker (talk) at
en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) Released into the public
domain (by the author). PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Giant_ground_sl
oth_Iowa.JPG/768px-Giant_ground_sloth_Io
wa.JPG
split.
Toothed whales include dolphins, sperm,
and killer whales. Baleen whales
include blue, humpback, and gray
whales.
[1] Dorudon apparently from Walking
With Beasts UNKNOWN
source: http://www.makradafish.newmail.r
u/WalkingWithBeast/dorudon.jpg
[2] Fig. 2. Molecular time scale
for the orders of placental mammals
based on the 16,397-bp data set and
maximum likelihood tree of ref. 14 with
an opossum outgroup (data not shown),
13 fossil constraints (Materials and
Methods), and a mean prior of 105 mya
for the placental root. Ordinal
designations are listed above the
branches. Orange and green lines denote
orders with basal diversification
before or after the K/T boundary,
respectively. Black lines depict orders
for which only one taxon was available.
Asterisks denote placental taxa
included in the ''K/T body size'' taxon
set. The composition of chimeric taxa,
including caniform, caviomorph,
strepsirrhine, and sirenian, is
indicated elsewhere (14). Numbers for
internal nodes are cross-referenced in
the supporting information.
. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.pnas.org/content/vol1
00/issue3/images/large/pq0334222002.jpeg
[1] Proailurus Wikimedia
Commons Proailurus may or may not have
been a true feline; some experts place
it in the Feloidea family, which
includes not only cats, but also hyenas
and mongooses. Whatever the case,
Proailurus was a relatively small
carnivore, only a little bit bigger
than a modern tabby. GNU
source: http://0.tqn.com/d/dinosaurs/1/0
/e/6/-/-/proailurus.jpg
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p168. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p168.
[2] Description English:
Ring-tailed Lemur (Lemur catta) at
Berenty Private Reserve in
Madagascar Date 4 October
2009 Source Own work Author
Alex Dunkel
(Visionholder) Permission (Reusing
this file) See below. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f5/Lemur_catta_001.jpg
[1] Description Wild pig (Sus scrofa)
stop near the Kennedy Space Center
Press Site in the Launch Complex 39
Area on their daily foraging
rounds. Not a native in the
environment, the pigs are believed to
be descendants from those brought to
Florida by the early Spanish explorers.
Without many predators other than
human, the pigs have flourished in the
surrounding environs. Date May
2002 Source
http://mediaarchive.ksc.nasa.gov/detail
.cfm?mediaid=9807 Author NASA or
National Aeronautics and Space
Administration PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/9b/Wild_Pig_KSC02pd0873.
jpg
[2] en:Pig: sow with
piglet de:Hausschwein: Sau mit
Ferkel Photo by Scott Bauer. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/59/Sow_with_piglet.jpg
evolve (the ancestor of the Macaques,
Baboons, Mandrills, Proboscis and
Colobus {KoLiBeS} monkeys).
This is also the last common ancestor
of the Old World monkeys and the
hominoids, which includes apes and
humans.
Africa
[1] From: Stewart, Caro-Beth, and Todd
R Disotell. “Primate evolution - in
and out of Africa.” Current Biology
8.16 (1998) :
R582-R588. http://www.sciencedirect.com
/science/article/pii/S0960982207003673
Figure 2. A synthetic hypothesis of
catarrhine primate evolution. The
branching order shown for the living
species is well-supported by numerous
molecular phylogenetic studies (for
example [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 18, 24
and 25]). We present the dates of
divergence calculated by Goodman and
colleagues [11], on the understanding
that these are still rough estimates
and more precise measurements are
needed, especially for the Old World
monkeys. The fossil species (genus
names in italics) were placed on this
tree by parsimony analyses of
relatively large morphological datasets
[4, 11, 14 and 15]. Known dates for
fossils [1, 2 and 21] are indicated by
the thicker lines; these lines are
attached to the tree as determined by
the parsimony analyses, although the
dates of the attachment points are our
best guesses. Species found in Africa
are in red and species found in Eurasia
are in black. The continental locations
of the ancestral lineages were inferred
by parsimony using the computer program
MacClade [30]. The intercontinental
dispersal events required, at a
minimum, to explain the distribution of
the living and fossil species are
indicated by the arrows. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4C4DVM4-D
&_user=4422&_handle=V-WA-A-W-WC-MsSAYVW-
UUW-U-AAVECYCCBC-AAVDAZZBBC-YCACYAZCV-WC
-U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=07%2F30%2F1998&_
rdoc=12&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236243
%231998%23999919983%23494082!&_cdi=6243&
view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlV
ersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=5558415c4ccd34
6c64e2e6be03c3865e
[2] Description Colobus
angolensis monkey Date 13 June
2007, 13:13 Source Angola Colobus
Monkey #6 Author Ryan E.
Poplin CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5a/Colobus_angolensis.jp
g
[1] White-tailed deer in Toronto,
Canada PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/c/c2/White-tail_deer.jpg
[2] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p200. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p200.
(Gibbons and Hominids) loses its tail.
[1] From: Stewart, Caro-Beth, and Todd
R Disotell. “Primate evolution - in
and out of Africa.” Current Biology
8.16 (1998) :
R582-R588. http://www.sciencedirect.com
/science/article/pii/S0960982207003673
Figure 2. A synthetic hypothesis of
catarrhine primate evolution. The
branching order shown for the living
species is well-supported by numerous
molecular phylogenetic studies (for
example [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 18, 24
and 25]). We present the dates of
divergence calculated by Goodman and
colleagues [11], on the understanding
that these are still rough estimates
and more precise measurements are
needed, especially for the Old World
monkeys. The fossil species (genus
names in italics) were placed on this
tree by parsimony analyses of
relatively large morphological datasets
[4, 11, 14 and 15]. Known dates for
fossils [1, 2 and 21] are indicated by
the thicker lines; these lines are
attached to the tree as determined by
the parsimony analyses, although the
dates of the attachment points are our
best guesses. Species found in Africa
are in red and species found in Eurasia
are in black. The continental locations
of the ancestral lineages were inferred
by parsimony using the computer program
MacClade [30]. The intercontinental
dispersal events required, at a
minimum, to explain the distribution of
the living and fossil species are
indicated by the arrows. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4C4DVM4-D
&_user=4422&_handle=V-WA-A-W-WC-MsSAYVW-
UUW-U-AAVECYCCBC-AAVDAZZBBC-YCACYAZCV-WC
-U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=07%2F30%2F1998&_
rdoc=12&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236243
%231998%23999919983%23494082!&_cdi=6243&
view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlV
ersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=5558415c4ccd34
6c64e2e6be03c3865e
[2] Gregoire: 62-year-old
chimpanzee Description English:
Chimpanzee named ''Gregoire'' born in
1944 (Jane Goodall sanctuary of
Tchimpounga in Congo Brazzaville) -
Picture taken the 9th of December
2006 Français : Chimpanzé nommé
''Grégoire'' né en 1944 (sanctuaire
Jane Goodall de Tchimpounga au Congo
Brazzaville) - Photo prise le 9
décembre 2006 Date 9 December
2006 Source Own work Author
Delphine
Bruyère Permission (Reusing this
file) Attribution : Delphine
Bruyere GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/ba/2006-12-09_Chimpanzee
_Gregoire_D_Bruyere.JPG
Guinea
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
239. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), 239.
[2] The echidna is one of a handful of
mammals to give birth to its offspring
by laying eggs. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3b/Long-beakedEchidna.jp
g
Platypus evolves.
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
239. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), 239.
[2] Description Description
Swiming Platypus * Photographer Peter
Scheunis * Source self-made Date
September 2004 Location Broken
River-Queensland-Australia Date
2010-01-18 03:46 (UTC) Source
Platypus_BrokenRiver_QLD_Australia.jpg
Author
Platypus_BrokenRiver_QLD_Australia.jpg:
Peterdvv derivative work: Bobisbob
(talk) CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/12/Platypus_BrokenRiver_
QLD_Australia2.png
East Africa.
[1] Figure 2. A synthetic hypothesis of
catarrhine primate evolution. The
branching order shown for the living
species is well-supported by numerous
molecular phylogenetic studies (for
example [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 18, 24
and 25]). We present the dates of
divergence calculated by Goodman and
colleagues [11], on the understanding
that these are still rough estimates
and more precise measurements are
needed, especially for the Old World
monkeys. The fossil species (genus
names in italics) were placed on this
tree by parsimony analyses of
relatively large morphological datasets
[4, 11, 14 and 15]. Known dates for
fossils [1, 2 and 21] are indicated by
the thicker lines; these lines are
attached to the tree as determined by
the parsimony analyses, although the
dates of the attachment points are our
best guesses. Species found in Africa
are in red and species found in Eurasia
are in black. The continental locations
of the ancestral lineages were inferred
by parsimony using the computer program
MacClade [30]. The intercontinental
dispersal events required, at a
minimum, to explain the distribution of
the living and fossil species are
indicated by the arrows. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4C4DVM4-D
&_user=4422&_handle=V-WA-A-W-WC-MsSAYVW-
UUW-U-AAVECYCCBC-AAVDAZZBBC-YCACYAZCV-WC
-U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=07%2F30%2F1998&_
rdoc=12&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236243
%231998%23999919983%23494082!&_cdi=6243&
view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlV
ersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=5558415c4ccd34
6c64e2e6be03c3865e
[2] Proconsul COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://www.andromeda.rutgers.edu
/~biosci/RutgersHumanEcology/Proconsul.j
pg
move (over land) from Africa into
Eurasia.
[1] Figure 2. A synthetic hypothesis of
catarrhine primate evolution. The
branching order shown for the living
species is well-supported by numerous
molecular phylogenetic studies (for
example [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 18, 24
and 25]). We present the dates of
divergence calculated by Goodman and
colleagues [11], on the understanding
that these are still rough estimates
and more precise measurements are
needed, especially for the Old World
monkeys. The fossil species (genus
names in italics) were placed on this
tree by parsimony analyses of
relatively large morphological datasets
[4, 11, 14 and 15]. Known dates for
fossils [1, 2 and 21] are indicated by
the thicker lines; these lines are
attached to the tree as determined by
the parsimony analyses, although the
dates of the attachment points are our
best guesses. Species found in Africa
are in red and species found in Eurasia
are in black. The continental locations
of the ancestral lineages were inferred
by parsimony using the computer program
MacClade [30]. The intercontinental
dispersal events required, at a
minimum, to explain the distribution of
the living and fossil species are
indicated by the arrows. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4C4DVM4-D
&_user=4422&_handle=V-WA-A-W-WC-MsSAYVW-
UUW-U-AAVECYCCBC-AAVDAZZBBC-YCACYAZCV-WC
-U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=07%2F30%2F1998&_
rdoc=12&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236243
%231998%23999919983%23494082!&_cdi=6243&
view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlV
ersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=5558415c4ccd34
6c64e2e6be03c3865e
[2] Figure 1. Potential contacts
between Africa and Eurasia during the
past 40 million years, based upon
geological and faunal evidence (after
[28 and 29]). (a) Late Eocene,
approximately 40 million years ago. The
Tethys seaway prevents migration
between Africa and Eurasia. Uplifting
in the western region of the Arabian
peninsula coincides with the rifting of
the future Red Sea. (b) Early Miocene,
approximately 20 million years ago. The
Red Sea begins to form, while potential
land bridges exist between Africa and
Eurasia. (c) Late Miocene,
approximately 10 million years ago. The
Red Sea continues to grow, and
potential connections between Africa
and Eurasia exist along the Indian
Ocean margin. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4C4DVM4-D
&_user=4422&_handle=V-WA-A-W-WC-MsSAYVW-
UUW-U-AAVECYCCBC-AAVDAZZBBC-YCACYAZCV-WC
-U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=07%2F30%2F1998&_
rdoc=12&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236243
%231998%23999919983%23494082!&_cdi=6243&
view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlV
ersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=5558415c4ccd34
6c64e2e6be03c3865e
South-east Asia.
[1] Figure 2. A synthetic hypothesis of
catarrhine primate evolution. The
branching order shown for the living
species is well-supported by numerous
molecular phylogenetic studies (for
example [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 18, 24
and 25]). We present the dates of
divergence calculated by Goodman and
colleagues [11], on the understanding
that these are still rough estimates
and more precise measurements are
needed, especially for the Old World
monkeys. The fossil species (genus
names in italics) were placed on this
tree by parsimony analyses of
relatively large morphological datasets
[4, 11, 14 and 15]. Known dates for
fossils [1, 2 and 21] are indicated by
the thicker lines; these lines are
attached to the tree as determined by
the parsimony analyses, although the
dates of the attachment points are our
best guesses. Species found in Africa
are in red and species found in Eurasia
are in black. The continental locations
of the ancestral lineages were inferred
by parsimony using the computer program
MacClade [30]. The intercontinental
dispersal events required, at a
minimum, to explain the distribution of
the living and fossil species are
indicated by the arrows. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4C4DVM4-D
&_user=4422&_handle=V-WA-A-W-WC-MsSAYVW-
UUW-U-AAVECYCCBC-AAVDAZZBBC-YCACYAZCV-WC
-U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=07%2F30%2F1998&_
rdoc=12&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236243
%231998%23999919983%23494082!&_cdi=6243&
view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlV
ersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=5558415c4ccd34
6c64e2e6be03c3865e
[2] Description Deutsch:
Weißhandgibbons Date 25 May
2006 Source Own work Author
User:MatthiasKabel GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/38/Hylobates_lar_pair_of
_white_and_black_01.jpg
[1] Description English: Agile
Wallaby Latina: Macropus
agilis Nederlands:
Zandwallabie Deutsch:
Flinkwallaby Date November
2004 Source Own work Author
User:Nino Barbieri GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/26/Macropus_agilis_-_02.
jpg
[2] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p231. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p231.
(hollow-horned ruminants: oxen,
antelopes, sheep, cattle, and goats).
[1] Description Slender-horned
gazelle, at the Cincinnati Zoo Date
10 November 2007 Source Own
work Author FisherQueen GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Slender-horned_
gazelle_%28Cincinnati_Zoo%29.jpg/1280px-
Slender-horned_gazelle_%28Cincinnati_Zoo
%29.jpg
[2] Español: Antílope sable Sable
Antelope (Bull), photo taken and
submitted by Paul Maritz (paulmaz).
Photo taken near Kafue River in Zambia,
2004 GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Sable_bull.jpg/
1186px-Sable_bull.jpg
Orangutans evolve in South-East Asia.
[1] From: Stewart, Caro-Beth, and Todd
R Disotell. “Primate evolution - in
and out of Africa.” Current Biology
8.16 (1998) :
R582-R588. http://www.sciencedirect.com
/science/article/pii/S0960982207003673
Figure 2. A synthetic hypothesis of
catarrhine primate evolution. The
branching order shown for the living
species is well-supported by numerous
molecular phylogenetic studies (for
example [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 18, 24
and 25]). We present the dates of
divergence calculated by Goodman and
colleagues [11], on the understanding
that these are still rough estimates
and more precise measurements are
needed, especially for the Old World
monkeys. The fossil species (genus
names in italics) were placed on this
tree by parsimony analyses of
relatively large morphological datasets
[4, 11, 14 and 15]. Known dates for
fossils [1, 2 and 21] are indicated by
the thicker lines; these lines are
attached to the tree as determined by
the parsimony analyses, although the
dates of the attachment points are our
best guesses. Species found in Africa
are in red and species found in Eurasia
are in black. The continental locations
of the ancestral lineages were inferred
by parsimony using the computer program
MacClade [30]. The intercontinental
dispersal events required, at a
minimum, to explain the distribution of
the living and fossil species are
indicated by the arrows. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4C4DVM4-D
&_user=4422&_handle=V-WA-A-W-WC-MsSAYVW-
UUW-U-AAVECYCCBC-AAVDAZZBBC-YCACYAZCV-WC
-U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=07%2F30%2F1998&_
rdoc=12&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236243
%231998%23999919983%23494082!&_cdi=6243&
view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlV
ersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=5558415c4ccd34
6c64e2e6be03c3865e
[2] Taken from Wikipedia. Same
name. ''Orangutan image taken by Tom
Low at Camp Leakey, Tanjung Puting,
Kalimantan, Indonesia (2003).'' PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0b/Orangutan.jpg
Chimpanzees, and archaic humans may
move over land from Eurasia back into
Africa.
[1] Figure 2. A synthetic hypothesis of
catarrhine primate evolution. The
branching order shown for the living
species is well-supported by numerous
molecular phylogenetic studies (for
example [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 18, 24
and 25]). We present the dates of
divergence calculated by Goodman and
colleagues [11], on the understanding
that these are still rough estimates
and more precise measurements are
needed, especially for the Old World
monkeys. The fossil species (genus
names in italics) were placed on this
tree by parsimony analyses of
relatively large morphological datasets
[4, 11, 14 and 15]. Known dates for
fossils [1, 2 and 21] are indicated by
the thicker lines; these lines are
attached to the tree as determined by
the parsimony analyses, although the
dates of the attachment points are our
best guesses. Species found in Africa
are in red and species found in Eurasia
are in black. The continental locations
of the ancestral lineages were inferred
by parsimony using the computer program
MacClade [30]. The intercontinental
dispersal events required, at a
minimum, to explain the distribution of
the living and fossil species are
indicated by the arrows. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4C4DVM4-D
&_user=4422&_handle=V-WA-A-W-WC-MsSAYVW-
UUW-U-AAVECYCCBC-AAVDAZZBBC-YCACYAZCV-WC
-U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=07%2F30%2F1998&_
rdoc=12&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236243
%231998%23999919983%23494082!&_cdi=6243&
view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlV
ersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=5558415c4ccd34
6c64e2e6be03c3865e
[2] Figure 1. Potential contacts
between Africa and Eurasia during the
past 40 million years, based upon
geological and faunal evidence (after
[28 and 29]). (a) Late Eocene,
approximately 40 million years ago. The
Tethys seaway prevents migration
between Africa and Eurasia. Uplifting
in the western region of the Arabian
peninsula coincides with the rifting of
the future Red Sea. (b) Early Miocene,
approximately 20 million years ago. The
Red Sea begins to form, while potential
land bridges exist between Africa and
Eurasia. (c) Late Miocene,
approximately 10 million years ago. The
Red Sea continues to grow, and
potential connections between Africa
and Eurasia exist along the Indian
Ocean margin. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4C4DVM4-D
&_user=4422&_handle=V-WA-A-W-WC-MsSAYVW-
UUW-U-AAVECYCCBC-AAVDAZZBBC-YCACYAZCV-WC
-U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=07%2F30%2F1998&_
rdoc=12&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236243
%231998%23999919983%23494082!&_cdi=6243&
view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlV
ersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=5558415c4ccd34
6c64e2e6be03c3865e
Africa.
[1] From: Stewart, Caro-Beth, and Todd
R Disotell. “Primate evolution - in
and out of Africa.” Current Biology
8.16 (1998) :
R582-R588. http://www.sciencedirect.com
/science/article/pii/S0960982207003673
Figure 2. A synthetic hypothesis of
catarrhine primate evolution. The
branching order shown for the living
species is well-supported by numerous
molecular phylogenetic studies (for
example [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 18, 24
and 25]). We present the dates of
divergence calculated by Goodman and
colleagues [11], on the understanding
that these are still rough estimates
and more precise measurements are
needed, especially for the Old World
monkeys. The fossil species (genus
names in italics) were placed on this
tree by parsimony analyses of
relatively large morphological datasets
[4, 11, 14 and 15]. Known dates for
fossils [1, 2 and 21] are indicated by
the thicker lines; these lines are
attached to the tree as determined by
the parsimony analyses, although the
dates of the attachment points are our
best guesses. Species found in Africa
are in red and species found in Eurasia
are in black. The continental locations
of the ancestral lineages were inferred
by parsimony using the computer program
MacClade [30]. The intercontinental
dispersal events required, at a
minimum, to explain the distribution of
the living and fossil species are
indicated by the arrows. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4C4DVM4-D
&_user=4422&_handle=V-WA-A-W-WC-MsSAYVW-
UUW-U-AAVECYCCBC-AAVDAZZBBC-YCACYAZCV-WC
-U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=07%2F30%2F1998&_
rdoc=12&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236243
%231998%23999919983%23494082!&_cdi=6243&
view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlV
ersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=5558415c4ccd34
6c64e2e6be03c3865e
[2] Description English: Male
silverback w:Gorilla, Gorilla gorilla
in SF zoo Date Source Own
work Author Mila
Zinkova Permission (Reusing this
file) See below. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/50/Male_gorilla_in_SF_zo
o.jpg
in Africa. This is the last common
ancestor of chimpanzees and humans.
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p106. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p106.
[2] Gregoire: 62-year-old
chimpanzee Description English:
Chimpanzee named ''Gregoire'' born in
1944 (Jane Goodall sanctuary of
Tchimpounga in Congo Brazzaville) -
Picture taken the 9th of December
2006 Français : Chimpanzé nommé
''Grégoire'' né en 1944 (sanctuaire
Jane Goodall de Tchimpounga au Congo
Brazzaville) - Photo prise le 9
décembre 2006 Date 9 December
2006 Source Own work Author
Delphine
Bruyère Permission (Reusing this
file) Attribution : Delphine
Bruyere GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/ba/2006-12-09_Chimpanzee
_Gregoire_D_Bruyere.JPG
The earliest bipedal primate.
Bipedalism may evolve so that hands are
free to carry food for later use, and
to use weapons.
Hominids walking upright on two legs,
away from a life in the trees, may
signal that they have become the top of
the food chain on land as the result of
using weapons.
Africa
[1] Fig. 1. Orrorin tugenensis nov.
gen. nov. sp. A: BAR 1002′00, left
femur, posterior view; B: BAR
1002′00, left femur, anterior view;
C: BAR 1000′00, right mandibular
fragment with M3, buccal view; D: BAR
1000′00, left mandibular fragment
with M2–3, lingual view; E: BAR
1000′00, left mandibular fragment
with M2–3, occlusal view; F: BAR
1900′00, right M3, occlusal view; G:
BAR 1390′00, right P4, distal view;
H: BAR 1001′00, upper I1, labial
view; I: BAR 1425′00, right
Image , lingual view; J: BAR
1004′00, right distal humerus,
posterior view; K: BAR 1003′00,
proximal left femur, anterior view; L:
BAR 349′00, manual proximal phalanx,
superior view; M: BAR 1426′00, left
M3, distal view; N: BAR 1215′00,
fragmentary right proximal femur,
posterior view. Scale bars = 1
cm.Orrorin tugenensis nov. gen. nov.
sp. A : BAR 1002′00, fémur gauche,
vue postérieure ; B : BAR 1002′00,
fémur gauche, vue antérieure ; C :
BAR 1000′00, fragment mandibulaire
droit avec M3, vue buccale ; D : BAR
1000′00, fragment mandibulaire gauche
avec M2–3, vue linguale ; E : BAR
1000′00, fragment mandibulaire gauche
avec M2–3, vue occlusale ; F : BAR
1900′00, M3 droite, vue occlusale ; G
: BAR 1390′00, P4 droite, vue distale
; H : BAR 1001′00, I1, vue labiale ;
I : BAR 1425′00, Image droite, vue
linguale ; J : BAR 1004′00, humérus
distal droit, vue postérieure ; K :
BAR 1003′00, fémur proximal gauche,
vue antérieure ; L : BAR 349′00,
phalange proximale de la main, vue
supérieure ; M : BAR 1426′00, M3
gauche, vue distale ; N : BAR
1215′00, fémur proximal
fragmentaire, vue postérieure. Chaque
barre équivaut à 1 cm. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/cac
he/MiamiImageURL/B6VJ3-42FS9XV-9-1/0?wch
p=dGLzVlz-zSkzS
[2] Description Ardipithecus
ramidus specimen, nicknamed
?Ardi?. After Gen Suwa, Berhane
Asfaw, Reiko T. Kono, Daisuke Kubo, C.
Owen Lovejoy, Tim D. White (2009):
''The Ardipithecus ramidus Skull and
Its Implications for Hominid Origins.''
Science, 2 October 2009: Vol. 326. no.
5949, pp. 68e1-68e7, Fig. 2 Date
14 November 2009, 16:50 Source
Zanclean skull Uploaded by
FunkMonk Author T. Michael
Keesey Permission (Reusing this file)
CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e1/Ardi.jpg
(x-STrA-lO-PitiKuS} evolves.
[1] Australopithecus squinted at the
blue African sky. He had never seen a
star in broad daylight before, but he
could see one today. White. Piercing.
Not as bright as the Sun, yet much more
than a full moon. Was it dangerous? He
stared for a long time, puzzled, but
nothing happened, and after a while he
strode across the savanna
unconcerned. Millions of years
later, we know better. ''That star
was a supernova, one of many that
exploded in our part of the galaxy
during the past 10 million years,''
says astronomer Mark Hurwitz of the
University of
California-Berkeley. Right: Human
ancestors, unconcerned by odd lights in
the daytime sky. This image is based on
a painting featured in The
Economist. PD
source: http://science.nasa.gov/headline
s/y2003/06jan_bubble.htm?list847478
[2] Image Source *
http://www.familie-rebmann.de/photo11.ht
m COPYRIGHTED CLAIMED FAIR USE
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Laetoliafar.jpg.jpg
SCIENCE
Some may view the use of stones as
tools by hominids as the start of
science on Earth.
[1] a, The exterior surface of
DIK-55-2, and the location of each of
the surface marks. The rib is oriented
such that the rib head (broken off)
would be to the left. Dashed rule,
4 cm. b, Marks A1 and A2
(high-confidence stone-tool cut marks)
under low-power optical magnification;
the yellow rectangle demarcates c.
Scale bar, 5 mm. c, ESEM image
showing microstriations indicative of
cutting with a stone tool. Scale bar,
100 μm. d, Mark B (high-confidence
stone-tool-inflicted mark) under
low-power optical magnification,
indicative of a cutting and scraping
action or percussion; the yellow
rectangle demarcates e. Scale bar,
5 mm. e, ESEM image showing
microstriations indicative of stone
tool action. Scale bar, 500 μm.
b–e, The direction of the rib head is
indicated by the black arrows. See
Supplementary Information for the
details of mark C. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v466/n7308/images/nature09248-f2.2.
jpg
[1] Present Day NONCOMMERCIAL
source: http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~rcb7/000
_present_3globes.jpg
tru PuS} evolves; a line of extinct
early bipedal hominids.
[1] Description Deutsch: plastische
wissenschaftliche Rekonstruktion eines
Paranthropus boisei English:
scientiffic reconstruction of a
Paranthropus boisei Date 25 March
2007 Source Photographed at
Westfälisches Museum für
Archäologie, Herne Author
Photographed by
User:Lillyundfreya Permission (Reusing
this file) own work GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6c/Paranthropus_boisei.J
PG
[2] Skull of Paranthropus
boisei. From Smithsonian Institute
website. COPYRIGHTED CLAIMED FAIR USE
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Zinj3.jpg
start of the Paleolithic or "Old Stone
Age".
[1] Figure 3 from: Semaw, S. et al.
2.5-million-year-old stone tools from
Gona, Ethiopia. Nature 385, 333–336
(1997)
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
385/n6614/abs/385333a0.html COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v385/n6614/abs/385333a0.html
[2] Early man lived on elephant meat,
so much they died out in the Middle
East 400,000 years ago Submitted by
Anonymous on Wed Dec 14 2011 17:23:00
GMT-0800 (Pacific Standard Time) -
Source: dailymail.co.uk Docile,
lumbering elephants were so perfect for
Homo erectus, that they provided up to
60 per cent of their diet - until
constant hunting wiped out elephants in
the Middle East. The disappearance
of elephants helped kill off Homo
erectus, and paved the way for Homo
sapiens - modern humans - to take
over. Findings from the University
of Tel Aviv reveal how important the
huge animals were to the diet of early
humans - researchers that elephants
provided 60 per cent of the meat eaten
by Homo erectus. UNKNOWN
source: http://i4.asntown.net/Mastodon-t
vfm.jpg
Homo habilis evolves (the earliest
member of the genus "Homo").
This is when the human brain begins to
get bigger.
[1] KNM ER 1813 Homo habilis This
image is from the website of the
Smithsonian Institution [1] and may be
copyrighted. The Smithsonian
Institution explicitly considers the
use of its content for non-commercial
educational purposes to qualify as fair
use under United States copyright law,
if: 1. The author and source of the
content is clearly cited. 2. Any
additional copyright information about
the photograph from the Smithsonian
Institution website is included. 3.
None of the content is modified or
altered.
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:KNM_ER_1813.jpg
[2] red= Homo rudolfensis black=Homo
habilis COPYRIGHTED
source: http://sesha.net/eden/Eerste_men
sen.asp
evolve.
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p106. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p106.
[2] Gregoire: 62-year-old
chimpanzee Description English:
Chimpanzee named ''Gregoire'' born in
1944 (Jane Goodall sanctuary of
Tchimpounga in Congo Brazzaville) -
Picture taken the 9th of December
2006 Français : Chimpanzé nommé
''Grégoire'' né en 1944 (sanctuaire
Jane Goodall de Tchimpounga au Congo
Brazzaville) - Photo prise le 9
décembre 2006 Date 9 December
2006 Source Own work Author
Delphine
Bruyère Permission (Reusing this
file) Attribution : Delphine
Bruyere GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/ba/2006-12-09_Chimpanzee
_Gregoire_D_Bruyere.JPG
(65-1.8 mybn), and start of the
Quaternary {KWoTRnARE or KWoTRNRE} (1.8
mybn-now) Period.
[1] Geologic Time Scale 2009 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.geosociety.org/scienc
e/timescale/timescl.pdf
[2] 000 Ma - Present Time UNKNOWN
source: http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~rcb7/000
_present_3globes.jpg
evolves in Africa.
[1] Homo ergaster. Capacité
crânienne de 800 à 950
cm3 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://ma.prehistoire.free.fr/er
gaster.htm
[2] Turkana Boy COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.anthropology.at/virta
nth/evo_links/turkana%20boy.jpg
from Africa.
[1] G. Philip Rightmire, ''The
Dispersal of Homo erectus from Africa
and the Emergence of More Modern
Humans'', Journal of Anthropological
Research, Vol. 47, No. 2, A Quarter
Century of Paleoanthropology: Views
from the U.S.A. (Summer, 1991), pp.
177-191 Published by: University of
New Mexico Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/3630324
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3630
324
[2] All statistically significant
inferences in Tables 1 and 2 are
incorporated into this single model.
Major expansions of human populations
are indicated by red arrows. Genetic
descent is indicated by vertical lines,
and gene flow by diagonal lines. The
timing of inferences lacking resolution
at the 5% level and/or not validated by
more than one locus are indicated by
question marks. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v416/n6876/images/416045a-f1.2.jpg
Hominids.
Controlled fires may be made first by
Australopithecus or Homo erectus.
Africa
[1] Description English: A fire lit
using twigs and pine cones. Date
2008-03-27 (original upload
date) (Original text : 10:58, 27 March
2008 (UTC)) Source Transferred
from en.wikipedia (Original text :
http://waxingnonsensical.blogspot.com)
Author Original uploader was
Emeldil at en.wikipedia (Original text
: Pavan Srinath) Permission (Reusing
this file) CC-BY-SA-3.0. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Campfire_Pineco
ne.png/450px-Campfire_Pinecone.png
[2] Swartkrans Caves For any
picture requests, please email:
marketing@maropeng.co.za All photos
should be credited (© Maropeng),
unless otherwise stated in the caption.
UNKNOWN
source: http://maropeng.flowcommunicatio
.netdna-cdn.com/images/sized/images/medi
agallery/IMG_7223-600x450.JPG
hair, except on the head, face, airpit,
chest, and groin.
[1] escription English: A diorama in
National Museum of Indonesia, Jakarta,
depicting the life size model of stone
equipped hunter, a Homo erectus family
living in Sangiran about 900,000 years
ago. Bahasa Indonesia: Sebuah diorama
di Museum Nasional Indonesia di Jakarta
menampilkan adegan pemburu dengan
alat-alat batu, sebuah keluarga Homo
erectus yang hidup di Sangiran sekitar
900.000 tahun yang lalu. Date 24
August 2010 Source Own
work Author Gunkarta Gunawan
Kartapranata CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Sangiran_Homo_e
rectus_Diorama.jpg/1280px-Sangiran_Homo_
erectus_Diorama.jpg
Province, China
[1] Chang, P.K.C. et al. The Formation
of Chinese Civilization: An
Archaeological Perspective. Yale
University Press, 2005. The Culture and
Civilization of China Series.
p206. http://books.google.com/books?id=
sP-PN2StH2cC COPYRIGHTED
source: Chang, P.K.C. et al. The
Formation of Chinese Civilization: An
Archaeological Perspective. Yale
University Press, 2005. The Culture and
Civilization of China Series.
p206. http://books.google.com/books?id=
sP-PN2StH2cC
[2] Chang, P.K.C. et al. The Formation
of Chinese Civilization: An
Archaeological Perspective. Yale
University Press, 2005. The Culture and
Civilization of China Series.
p206. http://books.google.com/books?id=
sP-PN2StH2cC COPYRIGHTED
source: Chang, P.K.C. et al. The
Formation of Chinese Civilization: An
Archaeological Perspective. Yale
University Press, 2005. The Culture and
Civilization of China Series.
p206. http://books.google.com/books?id=
sP-PN2StH2cC
[1] Homo erectus, artwork C010/4389
Rights Managed Credit: JOSE ANTONIO
PEÑAS/SCIENCE PHOTO
LIBRARY Caption: Homo erectus.
Computer artwork of a Homo erectus man
standing in a prehistoric landscape.
Homo erectus is the most widespread and
longest-surviving of all the fossil
hominids. Its geographical spread
included north and east Africa, Europe,
Indonesia and China, where it lived
between 1 and 2 million years
ago. Release details: Model and
property releases are not available
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.sciencephoto.com/imag
e/417426/large/C0104389-Homo_erectus,_ar
twork-SPL.jpg
[2] Flint artefacts include
hard-hammer flakes, notches, retouched
flakes and cores (a–c, hard-hammer
flake; d, e, multiple notch; f,
hard-hammer flake; g, h, hard-hammer
flake, showing pronounced point of
percussion on plain butt).
Supplementary Information includes
micro-CT volume rendering of artefacts
(still example shown as a) with
three-dimensional animations (see
Supplementary Movies 1–10). i, Cone
of Pinus cf. sylvestris. j, Upper
second molar of Mammuthus cf.
meridionalis. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nature.com/nature/journal
/v466/n7303/images/nature09117-f2.2.jpg
Germany.)
[1] (Photo : Jayne Wilkins) Replicas of
the 500,000-year-old stone points from
Kathu Pan 1 were hafted onto wooden
dowels with acacia resin and sinew, and
plunged into antelope carcasses Read
more at
http://www.latinospost.com/articles/6938
/20121115/oldest-stone-spear-tips-found-
came-200.htm#irhScS4kokLTYQJp.99 UNKNOW
N
source: http://images.latinospost.com/da
ta/images/full/8174/early-hafted-spears.
jpg?w=600
[2] Fig. 2 (A and B) Distal
step-terminating bending fractures on
ventral surfaces of complete
nonretouched convergent blades, banded
ironstone. (C) Distal impact burination
on ventral surface of a complete
nonretouched convergent flake, banded
ironstone. (D) Distal impact burination
on ventral surface of complete
nonretouched convergent blade, banded
ironstone. (E) Comparison of DIF
frequencies (95% confidence intervals)
at Holocene kill and habitation sites
with well-established weapon tips (11,
27, 28, 36), experimental weapon tip
studies (10, 27, 37–40), trampling
experiments (32, 41), and KP1.
Wilkins, Jayne et al. “Evidence for
Early Hafted Hunting Technology.”
Science 338.6109 (2012):
942–946. http://www.sciencemag.org/co
ntent/338/6109/942 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/338/6109/942
Earth, all hunter-gathering people.
[1] Parker, G. Compact History of the
World. Barnes & Noble, 2001,
p17. COPYRIGHTED
source: Parker, G. Compact History of
the World. Barnes & Noble, 2001, p17.
The oldest Homo sapiens fossils are
from Ethiopia.
[1] Figure from: Day, M. H. ''Omo
human skeletal remains.'' Nature 222,
1135–1138 (1969)
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
222/n5199/pdf/2221135a0.pdf COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v222/n5199/pdf/2221135a0.pdf
[2] Figure 1 from: Tim D. White,
Berhane Asfaw, David DeGusta, Henry
Gilbert, Gary D. Richards, Gen Suwa &
F. Clark Howell, ''Pleistocene Homo
sapiens from Middle Awash, Ethiopia'',
Nature 423, 742-747 (12 June
2003) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v423/n6941/full/nature01669.html CO
PYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v423/n6941/images/nature01669-f1.2.
jpg
sounds begins to develop. All words are
single syllable.
This is the beginning of the transition
from the verbal language of chimpanzees
and monkeys, to the language humans use
now, which has shorter sound duration
and a larger number of sounds.
The majority of the 40 or so basic
sounds in human language (A, B, K, D,
E, etc.) are probably learned before
humans leave Africa, because although
words vary, all humans use the same
base sounds.
Humans start to name objects and
actions.
[1] EARLY HUMANS SETTLED IN BRITAIN
800,000 YEARS AGO July 7, 2010 --
During the harsh winters, early humans
almost certainly relied on hunting
animals, as edible plants would have
been in very short supply, the study
says. UNKNOWN
source: http://news.discovery.com/archae
ology/2010/07/07/early-humans-zoom.jpg
[2] Phonetic Alphabet Symbols used by
Ted Huntington PD
source: http://tedhuntington.com/fonikal
f.jpg
Europe and Western Asia.
[1] Description Deutsch:
Rekonstruierter Neandertaler im
Neanderthal-Museum Date 2007 Source
Own
work Author Ökologix Permission
(Reusing this file) See below. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Neandertaler-im
-Museum.jpg/1024px-Neandertaler-im-Museu
m.jpg
[2] Description English: Homo
neanderthalensis. Skull discovered in
1908 at La Chapelle-aux-Saints
(France). Date October
2005 Source Own
work Author Luna04 GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e0/Homo_sapiens_neandert
halensis.jpg
which connects a land bridge between
Asia and America.
[1] Description English: Ice age
Earth at glacial maximum. Based on:
''Ice age terrestrial carbon changes
revisited'' by Thomas J. Crowley
(Global Biogeochemical Cycles, Vol. 9,
1995, pp. 377-389 Date 30 January
2010 Source Own work Author
Ittiz CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/IceAgeEarth.jpg
/1024px-IceAgeEarth.jpg
[99000 BC]
into Eurasia. This is the beginning of
differences in race within the human
species.
[1] The northern route (along the
Danube) is represented by the 'classic'
Aurignacian technologies, while the
southern (Mediterranean) route is
represented by the 'proto-Aurignacian'
bladelet technologies (Fig. 3)-with
their inferred origins in the preceding
early Upper Palaeolithic technologies
in the Near East and southeastern
Europe. Dates (in thousands of years
bp) indicate the earliest radiocarbon
dates for these technologies in
different areas, expressed in thousands
of radiocarbon years before present
(bp). (These are likely to
underestimate the true (calendar) ages
of the sites by between 2,000 and 4,000
yr; see ref. 32). Dashed lines indicate
uncertain routes. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v432/n7016/fig_tab/nature03103_F1.h
tml
[2] The figure shows the geographical
and temporal distribution of hominid
populations, based on fossil finds,
using different taxonomic schemes. The
new finds from Herto4, 5 (H) represent
early Homo sapiens. a, This reflects
the view that both Neanderthals and
modern humans derived from a widespread
ancestral species called H.
heidelbergensis2. b, However, evidence
is growing that Neanderthal features
have deep roots in Europe2, 8, so H.
neanderthalensis might extend back over
400,000 years. The roots of H. sapiens
might be similarly deep in Africa, but
this figure represents the alternative
view that the ancestor was a separate
African species called H. rhodesiensis.
Different views of early human
evolution are also shown. Some workers
prefer to lump the earlier records
together and recognize only one
widespread species, H. erectus2 (shown
in a). Others recognize several
species, with H. ergaster and H.
antecessor (or H. mauritanicus) in the
West, and H. erectus only in the Far
East8 (shown in b). Adapted with
permission from refs 8, 11. 8.
Hublin, J.-J in Human Roots: Africa
and Asia in the Middle Pleistocene (eds
Barham, L. & Robson-Brown, K.) 99-121
(Western Academic & Specialist Press,
Bristol, 2001). 11. Rightmire, G. P.
in Human Roots: Africa and Asia in the
Middle Pleistocene (eds Barham, L. &
Robson-Brown, K.) 123-133 (Western
Academic & Specialist Press, Bristol,
2001). COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v423/n6941/fig_tab/423692a_F1.html
[98000 BC]
outside of Africa; in Israel.
[1] Индекс: Кафзех 9
(Qafzeh IX) Место
находки: Qafzeh Cave,
Israel Найден: B. Vandermeersch,
1969 Предполагаемый
возраст находки: 90–115
тыс. лет
Разновидность: Homo
sapiens Объем мозга: 1500
см3 Примечания:
Женщина была
захоронена вместе с
маленьким
ребенком. Автор: Sasha
на 15:13 UNKNOWN
source: http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-atwty2
hbM9Y/TxIL8eshIkI/AAAAAAAAGG4/KNd7DfaWco
s/s1600/qafzeh_9_big.jpg
[2] Figure 2: Three-quarter view of
the Mousterian cranium Qafzeh 9 from
Jebel Qafzeh in Israel, about 92,000
years old. Photo: Tsila
Sagiv/IDAM. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.metmuseum.org/special
/Genesis/tattersall_lecture.asp?printFla
g=1&refPage=1
[98000 BC]
{SKuL?} cave in Israel.
Israel
[1] {ULSF: Skhul IV from Mugharet
Es-Skhul, corresponds to images in
pages between p112 and p113 Garrod,
''The Stone Age of Mount Carmel
excavations at the
Wady-el-Mughara'',1937} Reconstructio
n of the burial of Skhul 4 , a
strongly-built, ''early modern''
human. (photograph from Stringer C.S.
et al., 1994) UNKNOWN
source: http://indiaeng.com/Tsunami-2004
--Andaman%20fault/Toba%20Volcano,%20ch_5
%20-%20Human%20evolution_files/mht1055(1
).TMP
[2] [t Note that this may not be the
actual 100,000 year burial.] This is a
burial site of a Homo sapiens
neaderthalensis young adult male who
lived about 50,000 years ago. The
burial site was found in the Kebara
cave in Israel. UKNOWN
source: http://www.mitchellteachers.net/
WorldHistory/MrMEarlyHumansProject/Trans
parencies/NeanderthalensisTrans.jpg
[98000 BC]
controlled by Gods.
The explanation that many phenomena in
the universe are controlled by objects
with human and animal bodies that have
supernatural powers is one of the
earliest theories that tries to explain
how the universe works.
[1] {ULSF: Skhul IV from Mugharet
Es-Skhul, corresponds to images in
pages between p112 and p113 Garrod,
''The Stone Age of Mount Carmel
excavations at the
Wady-el-Mughara'',1937} Reconstructio
n of the burial of Skhul 4 , a
strongly-built, ''early modern''
human. (photograph from Stringer C.S.
et al., 1994) UNKNOWN
source: http://indiaeng.com/Tsunami-2004
--Andaman%20fault/Toba%20Volcano,%20ch_5
%20-%20Human%20evolution_files/mht1055(1
).TMP
[2] The following is taken from James
Shreeve's book The Neandertal Enigma:
solving the mystery of modern human
origins (William Morrow and Company,
New York, 1995.) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.mesacc.edu/dept/d10/a
sb/origins/hominid_journey/pictures/buri
al.jpeg
[59000 BC]
poison arrow heads.
[1] Lucinda Backwella, Francesco
d'Erricob and Lyn Wadley (june 2008).
''Middle Stone Age bone tools from the
Howiesons Poort layers, Sibudu Cave,
South Africa''. ScienceDirect.
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/a
rticle/pii/S0305440307002142
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence/article/pii/S0305440307002142
[2] Objects found in the
archaeological site called Border Cave
include a) a wooden digging stick; b) a
wooden poison applicator; c) a bone
arrow point decorated with a spiral
incision filled with red pigment; d) a
bone object with four sets of notches;
e) a lump of beeswax; and f) ostrich
eggshell beads and marine shell beads
used as personal ornaments. (Francesco
d'Errico and Lucinda Backwell / July
30, 2012) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.trbimg.com/img-5016e6
83/turbine/la-sci-sn-modern-culture-afri
ca-20120730-001/600
[51300 BC]
[1] homo erectus cranium COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/a/ad/Ng6f.jpg
[2] [t Note that this skull is from
Junniushan and is 280,000 years
old] Chang, P.K.C. et al. The
Formation of Chinese Civilization: An
Archaeological Perspective. Yale
University Press, 2005. The Culture and
Civilization of China Series.
p206. http://books.google.com/books?id=
sP-PN2StH2cC COPYRIGHTED
source: Chang, P.K.C. et al. The
Formation of Chinese Civilization: An
Archaeological Perspective. Yale
University Press, 2005. The Culture and
Civilization of China Series.
p206. http://books.google.com/books?id=
sP-PN2StH2cC
[48000 BC]
of large mammals due in part to human
impact.
[1] Description Glyptodon Date 1920
(probably) Source The Wonderful Paleo
Art of Heinrich Harder Author
Heinrich Harder (1858-1935) PD
AND Smilodon, Sabertooth
Tiger Source: Painting; Smilodon from
the American Museum of Natural
History. By: Charles R.
Knight Status: Public Domain in the
USA* PD AND Description Wooly
mammoths near the Somme River, AMNH
mural. Date 1916 Source
http://io9.com/5891441/celebrating-char
les-r-knight-the-artist-who-first-brough
t-dinosaurs-and-megafauna-to-life Autho
r Charles R. Knight PD
AND Description English: (Rusty,
the giant ground sloth, at the Iowa
Museum of Natural History, University
of Iowa. Based on Megalonyx
jeffersonii.) Date 16 October 2008
(original upload date) Source
Uploader - Billwhittaker
(talk) Author Billwhittaker (talk) at
en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) Released into the public
domain (by the author). PD AND Artist
[show]Roelant Savery (1576–1639)
Link back to Creator infobox
template Description One of the most
famous and often copied paintings of a
Dodo specimen, as painted by Roelant
Savery in 1626. The image came into the
posession of the ornithologist George
Edwards, who later gave it to the
British Museum, hence the name.[1][2]
The bird swallowing a frog in the lower
right may be the likewise extinct Red
Rail. Date 1626 Current location
[show]British MuseumLink back to
Institution infobox
template Source/Photographer
http://julianhume.co.uk/wp-content/uplo
ads/2010/07/History-of-the-dodo-Hume.pdf
PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a1/Glyptodon_old_drawing
.jpghttp://www.fantasy-workshop.com/faw/
image-files/smilodon-1.jpghttp://upload.
wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/93/Woo
ly_Mammoths.jpghttp://upload.wikimedia.o
rg/wikipedia/commons/6/6a/Giant_ground_s
loth_Iowa.JPGhttp://upload.wikimedia.org
/wikipedia/commons/b/b9/Edward%27s_Dodo.
jpg
[2] Koch, Paul L. and Anthony D.
Barnosky. ''Late Quaternary Extinctions
: State of the Debate.'' (2006):
215-252. http://ib.berkeley.edu/labs/ba
rnosky/Koch%20%20and%20Barnosky%202006.p
df COPYRIGHTED
source: http://ib.berkeley.edu/labs/barn
osky/Koch%20%20and%20Barnosky%202006.pdf
[44000 BC]
from Southeast Asia reach Australia by
water ship.
[1] Palmer, et al, ''Prehistoric
Life'', 2009, p470-471. COPYRIGHTED
source: Palmer, et al, "Prehistoric
Life", 2009, p470-471.
[2] World map of human migrations,
with the North Pole at center. Africa,
harboring the start of the migration,
is at the top left and South America at
the far right. Migration patterns are
based on studies of mitochondrial
(matrilinear) DNA. Numbers represent
thousand years before present. The
blue line represents area covered in
ice or tundra during the last great ice
age. The letters are the mitochondrial
DNA haplogroups (pure motherly
lineages); Haplogroups can be used to
define genetic populations and are
often geographically oriented. For
example, the following are common
divisions for mtDNA
haplogroups: African: L, L1, L2,
L3 Near Eastern: J, N Southern
European: J, K General European: H,
V Northern European: T, U, X Asian:
A, B, C, D, E, F, G (note: M is
composed of C, D, E, and G) Native
American: A, B, C, D, and sometimes
X [edit]Data
derivation Image:Northern icesheet
hg.png shows the region that was
covered by ice or tundra in the last
ice age All migration data based on
mitomap Geographic data from
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Last_
glacial_vegetation_map.png and adding
the following data
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Ice_A
ge_Temperature.png we get this
interesting result
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Human
-migration-temperature.jpg GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/37/Map-of-human-migratio
ns.jpg
[41000 BC]
Cave" in Swaziland, Africa; mined for
the iron mineral hematite which is
ground to produce the red pigment
ochre.
[1] Oldest Mine in the World -
Swaziland The Lion Cavern at Ngwenya
Mountain, just north of the Swaziland
Capital Mbabane, is thought to be the
oldest evidence of human mining in the
world. Carbon-dating has shown mining
activity for red ocre (haematite)
within this cavity dating back to a
period between 41000 and 43000BC. The
site is preserved as an open-air museum
of visitors and is a popular tourism
attraction. (By Darron
Raw) www.swazi.travel CC
source: http://farm3.staticflickr.com/27
23/4303217549_a15d58e869_b.jpg
[2] Ngwenya Mountain Lion Cave in
Swaziland UNKNOWN
source: http://www.ancienttrenches.com/_
/rsrc/1328277651042/ancient-mines/bb92d5
f7-639a-42d2-aee1-daaaa87267b8.jpg?heigh
t=300&width=400
[38000 BC]
Europe (Romania).
tooth: Grotta del Cavallo, Italy, jaw:
Kent's Cavern, UK)
[1] Oblique view of the Oase 1
mandible. Figure 1 from: Trinkaus,
Erik et al. “An Early Modern Human
from the Peştera Cu Oase, Romania.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences 100.20 (2003):
11231–11236. http://www.pnas.org/cont
ent/100/20/11231 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.pnas.org/content/100/
20/11231/F1.large.jpg
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en
/3/36/Cromagf.jpg
[2] Front view of Cro-magnon 1
fossil COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.antikitera.net/images
/imgNews/4253-european-head_169813t.jpg
[38000 BC]
[1] Figure from: Sophie A. de Beaune
and Randall White, ''Ice Age Lamps'',
Scientific American, March
1993. http://halshs.archives-ouvertes.f
r/docs/00/42/17/69/PDF/Sc.Amer.1993.pdf
source: http://halshs.archives-ouvertes.
fr/docs/00/42/17/69/PDF/Sc.Amer.1993.pdf
[38000 BC]
painting.; a cave painting made by
using a blowing technique in Spain.
Cave, Spain|Southern France
[1] Drawings of horses from Chauvet
Cave GNU
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/336/6087/F5.large.jpg
[2] Fig 3 from: Pike, A. W. G. et al.
“U-Series Dating of Paleolithic Art
in 11 Caves in Spain.” Science
336.6087 (2012): 1409 –1413.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/336/6087/1409.abstract A time line
of the cave art dated. A single arrow
represents a minimum age, but, where
two dates are indicated, both maximum
and minimum ages have been obtained.
The error bars for O-21 reflect the
variation resulting from the two
different methods of detrital
correction (11). Larger versions of
these images showing sample locations
are available in the supplementary
materials, figs. S2 to
S12. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Chauvethorses.jpg
[38000 BC]
a flute, made from the wing bone of a
vulture.
[1] Prehistorian historian Nicholas
Conard presents the bone flute from
Hohle Fels to journalists COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.google.com/hostednews
/afp/media/ALeqM5hlF6Vh9FxCmW4OYCeiBOJqR
J3VgA?size=l
[2] Conard et al.1 have discovered the
oldest known flute, at Hohle Fels Cave
in Germany. The flute is made from bird
bone, and dates from the early
Aurignacian, 40,000 years ago. H.
JENSEN/UNIV. TÜBINGEN COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v460/n7256/images/460695a-f1.2.jpg
[38000 BC]
[1] This is the lower mandible of the
40,000-year-old human skeleton, found
in the Tianyuan Cave near Beijing.
Analyses of collagen extracted from
this bone prove that this individual
was a regular consumer of fish. Credit:
Image: Hong Shang / Chinese Academy of
Sciences, Beijing Read more at:
http://phys.org/news166120605.html#jCp
UNKNOWN
source: http://cdn.physorg.com/newman/gf
x/news/hires/2009/fishonthemen.jpg
[2] Translated from Italian with
translate.google.com Revealed the face
of the first
European PHOTOGALLERY reading time
provided for 4 min. about This is
the face of the first anatomically
modern man lived in Europe. Belonged to
a man - or woman - who inhabited the
ancient forests of the Carpathian
Mountains in Romania, about 35,000
years ago. The reconstruction of the
artist - a face that can be of a male
or of a female - is based on the parts
of the skull and jaw found in a cave in
which it was known that bears
hibernate. The facial features indicate
the close affinity of these first
Europeans with their immediate
ancestors Africans, even if it was not
yet possible to determine the sex of
the person. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.antikitera.net/images
/imgNews/4253-european-head_169813t.jpg
[37000 BC]
(Tongtianyan Cave, Liujiang County,
Guangxi Zhuang)
[1] Fig. 1. Anterolateral oblique
view of the Tianyuan 1 mandible (lower
left), medial view of the right corpus
and ramus (upper left), and occlusal
view of the dentition and alveoli
(upper right). Views are not to the
same scale. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.pnas.org/content/104/
16/6573/F1.large.jpg
[2] Fossilized skull of the Liujiang
hominid, H. sapiens sapiens, found in a
cave in Liujiang County, Guangxi Zhuang
Autonomous Region Chang, P.K.C. et al.
The Formation of Chinese Civilization:
An Archaeological Perspective. Yale
University Press, 2005. The Culture and
Civilization of China Series.
p23. http://books.google.com/books?id=s
P-PN2StH2cC COPYRIGHTED
source: Chang, P.K.C. et al. The
Formation of Chinese Civilization: An
Archaeological Perspective. Yale
University Press, 2005. The Culture and
Civilization of China Series.
p23. http://books.google.com/books?id=s
P-PN2StH2cC
[33000 BC]
human form, a statue made from
mammoth-ivory.
[1] Photos by H. Jensen; copyright,
University of Tübingen.
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v459/n7244/images/nature07995-f1.2.
jpg
[30000 BC]
and use coloring dyes.
[1] Fig. 1 (1 to 7) Fibers from
Dzudzuana, Georgia, unit D. 1, twisted
flax fibers; 2 to 4, flax fibers; and 5
to 7, unraveled flax fibers. (8 to 12)
Fibers from Dzudzuana, unit C. 8 and 9,
twisted flax fibers; 10 and 12, flax
fibers; and 11, dyed flax fibers.
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/325/5946/-CSCO-3h--1359/-CSCO-3h--F1.l
arge.jpg
[2] On a lump of fired clay from the
Dolní Věstonice / Pavlov area were
found the impressions of substances
from plant fibres. The whole process of
picking nettles, crushing the dried
stem, preparation of tow, spinning the
thread and then weaving was tested and
shown to be possible using tools of the
time by M. Bunatova. Urbanová (ca
1999) http://www.donsmaps.com/dolnivpot
tery.html Dexterity of the First
Weavers A decade ago, experts did
not dare to think about people living
in the last ice age making
fabric. However, on a lump of fired
clay from the Dolní Věstonice /
Pavlov area were found the impressions
of substances from plant fibres. The
whole process of picking nettles,
crushing the dried stem, preparation of
tow, spinning the thread and then
weaving was tested and shown to be
possible using tools of the time by M.
Bunatova. Urbanová (ca
1999) Source: Display, Dolní
Věstonice Museum From Buňatová
(1999) and Sosna (2000): Buňatová,
M., 1999: Textilní produkce v mladém
paleolitu, experiment pro
dokumentární film ''Úsvit géniů'',
in: AR LI, Praha, 104 - 111. Sosna,
D., 2000: Počátky textilnictví. PhD.
Dissertation, Department of
Anthropology, Masaryk University, Brno.
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.ancient-wisdom.co.uk/
Images/countries/Czech%20pics/dolnifabri
c.jpg
[29700 BC]
[1] Description Deutsch:
Europäischer Grauwolf (Canis
lupus) English: grey wolf Date
February 2009 Source Own
work (own photo) Author Gunnar
Ries Amphibol Permission (Reusing
this file) You must give the
original author credit. If you use my
pictures outside the wiki projects,
please let me know. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Grauwolf_P11302
75.jpg/1024px-Grauwolf_P1130275.jpg
[2] Description Español: Lobo en
el zoo de Kolmården (Suecia). Date
2010-12-23 18:10 (UTC) Source
Wolf_Kolmården.jpg Author
Wolf_Kolmården.jpg: Daniel
Mott from Stockholm, Sweden
derivative work:
Mariomassone Permission (Reusing
this file) See below. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5f/Kolm%C3%A5rden_Wolf.j
pg
[27000 BC]
Venus figurines.
[1] Description Věstonická
venuše na výstavě Lovci mamutů v
Národním muzeu v Praze Date 2.
9. 2007 Source che Author
che (Please credit as ''Petr
Novák, Wikipedia'' in case you use
this outside WMF projects.) guidance:
Danny B. Permission (Reusing this
file) As they reached the Summit,
he said: “Thou shall take this
Snapshot and use it according to the
Code of License, and let your people
flourish all around the world.” They
brought the Snapshot to their homes and
there was much rejoicing. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b8/Vestonicka_venuse_edi
t.jpg
[2] Description Deutsch: Venus von
Willendorf Date 1 January
2007 Source Own work Author
User:MatthiasKabel Own work,
attribution required (Multi-license
with GFDL and Creative Commons CC-BY
2.5) GNU Figure 2 from: O. Soffer,
J. M. Adovasio, D. C. Hyland, ''The
“Venus” Figurines: Textiles,
Basketry, Gender, and Status in the
Upper Paleolithic'', Current
Anthropology, Vol. 41, No. 4
(August/October 2000), pp.
511-537 URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/3173
81 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/50/Venus_von_Willendorf_
01.jpg
[26000 BC]
[1] Description English: View of
Gorham's Cave, a sea cave in the east
face of the Rock of Gibraltar,
Gibraltar. Date {ULSF: with top
part showing house removed} 3 July
2007 Source Own work Author
Gibmetal77 CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Gorham%27s_Cave
.jpg/800px-Gorham%27s_Cave.jpg
[2] Description English: View of
Gorham's Cave, a sea cave in the east
face of the Rock of Gibraltar,
Gibraltar. Date 3 July
2007 Source Own work Author
Gibmetal77 CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Gorham%27s_Cave
.jpg/800px-Gorham%27s_Cave.jpg
[24000 BC]
dried and hardened by fire).
Republic
[1] On a lump of fired clay from the
Dolní Věstonice / Pavlov area were
found the impressions of substances
from plant fibres. The whole process of
picking nettles, crushing the dried
stem, preparation of tow, spinning the
thread and then weaving was tested and
shown to be possible using tools of the
time by M. Bunatova. Urbanová (ca
1999) http://www.donsmaps.com/dolnivpot
tery.html Dexterity of the First
Weavers A decade ago, experts did
not dare to think about people living
in the last ice age making
fabric. However, on a lump of fired
clay from the Dolní Věstonice /
Pavlov area were found the impressions
of substances from plant fibres. The
whole process of picking nettles,
crushing the dried stem, preparation of
tow, spinning the thread and then
weaving was tested and shown to be
possible using tools of the time by M.
Bunatova. Urbanová (ca
1999) Source: Display, Dolní
Věstonice Museum From Buňatová
(1999) and Sosna (2000): Buňatová,
M., 1999: Textilní produkce v mladém
paleolitu, experiment pro
dokumentární film ''Úsvit géniů'',
in: AR LI, Praha, 104 - 111. Sosna,
D., 2000: Počátky textilnictví. PhD.
Dissertation, Department of
Anthropology, Masaryk University, Brno.
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.ancient-wisdom.co.uk/
Images/countries/Czech%20pics/dolnifabri
c.jpg
[23000 BC]
[1] Figures 3 and 4 from: ADOVASIO J.
M., SOFFER O., KLÃMA B., 1996: Upper
Paleolithic fibre technology:
Interlaced woven finds from Pavlov I,
Czech Republic, c. 26,000 years ago.
Antiquity 70: 526-534.
{Adovasio_Fibre_technology_1996.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source:
[2] On a lump of fired clay from the
Dolní Věstonice / Pavlov area were
found the impressions of substances
from plant fibres. The whole process of
picking nettles, crushing the dried
stem, preparation of tow, spinning the
thread and then weaving was tested and
shown to be possible using tools of the
time by M. Bunatova. Urbanová (ca
1999) http://www.donsmaps.com/dolnivpot
tery.html Dexterity of the First
Weavers A decade ago, experts did
not dare to think about people living
in the last ice age making
fabric. However, on a lump of fired
clay from the Dolní Věstonice /
Pavlov area were found the impressions
of substances from plant fibres. The
whole process of picking nettles,
crushing the dried stem, preparation of
tow, spinning the thread and then
weaving was tested and shown to be
possible using tools of the time by M.
Bunatova. Urbanová (ca
1999) Source: Display, Dolní
Věstonice Museum From Buňatová
(1999) and Sosna (2000): Buňatová,
M., 1999: Textilní produkce v mladém
paleolitu, experiment pro
dokumentární film ''Úsvit géniů'',
in: AR LI, Praha, 104 - 111. Sosna,
D., 2000: Počátky textilnictví. PhD.
Dissertation, Department of
Anthropology, Masaryk University, Brno.
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.ancient-wisdom.co.uk/
Images/countries/Czech%20pics/dolnifabri
c.jpg
[21000 BC]
structure. A stone wall.
Greece
[1] Picture: Remains of the stone wall.
From the Greek Ministry of Culture.
UNKNOWN
source: http://blogs.discovery.com/files
/wall.jpg
[21000 BC]
Timor, an island off northwestern
Australia)
[1] Fishing hook Source: Susan
O'Connor UNKNOWN
source: http://www.archaeology.org/1203/
trenches/images/fish-hooks.jpg
[17000 BC]
Lebanon, Israel, Iraq, Jordan, Saudi
Arabia)
[1] escription Русский:
Дикая пшеница
Эребунийского
заповедника -
Однозернянка
араратская (Triticum
araraticum) English: The Wild Wheat of
Erebuni Reserve (Triticum
araraticum) Date 5 June 2007 Source
for-wikimedia.wowarmenia.ru Author
uncredited Permission (Reusing this
file) Released by WOWARMENIA for
Wikimedia under Creative Commons
Attribution-Share Alike license
(Multi-license with GFDL and Creative
Commons CC-BY-SA-3.0 and older versions
(2.5, 2.0 and 1.0)). If you wish to
reuse the photos elsewhere, please read
the instructions at COM:REUSE. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/WildWheat_Erebu
ni_Reserve.jpg/1280px-WildWheat_Erebuni_
Reserve.jpg
[2] Description Česky:
Pšenice. Deutsch: Weizen. English:
Wheat. Español: Trigo. Français :
Blé. Magyar: Búza. Tiếng Việt:
Lúa mì. Date August
2005 Source Own work Author
User:Bluemoose GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Wheat_close-up.
JPG/800px-Wheat_close-up.JPG
[16000 BC]
Province, China
[1] Pottery Fu (Cooking Vessel)-Shaped
Vessel Paleolithic Age to Neolithic
Age 12000 years ago Diameter at mouth
32.5cm height 29.8cm Restored on the
basis of unearthed pottery pieces at
Yuchanyan, Dao County in 1995 It is by
far the earliest pottery discovered, a
cooking vessel. [t Note that there
are apparently fragments of 2 or more
pottery vessels, and they are redated
in the article to 18000ybn: Elisabetta
Boaretto, Xiaohong Wu, Jiarong Yuan,
Ofer Bar-Yosef, Vikki Chu, Yan Pan,
Kexin Liu, David Cohen, Tianlong Jiao,
Shuicheng Li, Haibin Gu, Paul Goldberg,
and Steve Weiner, ''Radiocarbon dating
of charcoal and bone collagen
associated with early pottery at
Yuchanyan Cave, Hunan Province, China
PNAS 2009 106 (24) 9595-9600;''
published ahead of print June 1, 2009,
doi:10.1073/pnas.0900539106
http://www.pnas.org/content/106/24/959
5.full?sid=4a6f1743-94c2-4be8-b046-575b4
f27ab46]
source: http://www.hnmuseum.com/hnmuseum
/eng/whatson/exhibition/images/kg/2.jpg
[15000 BC]
[1] Remains of the rope. Fragments of
the first piece of clay (at left the
remains of the rope, at right, its
mark). Images from: LEROI-GOURHAN,
A., Lascaux Inconnu (A. LEROIGOURHAN &
J. ALLAIN, eds.), Xlle Suppl. à Gallia
Préhistoire, CNRS: Paris, 1979,
p183. COPYRIGHTED
source: LEROI-GOURHAN, A., Lascaux
Inconnu (A. LEROIGOURHAN & J. ALLAIN,
eds.), Xlle Suppl. à Gallia
Préhistoire, CNRS: Paris, 1979, p183.
[2] Figure 142. - Fragments of the
second piece of clay. The remains of
the cord appear on both sides. Images
from: LEROI-GOURHAN, A., Lascaux
Inconnu (A. LEROIGOURHAN & J. ALLAIN,
eds.), Xlle Suppl. à Gallia
Préhistoire, CNRS: Paris, 1979,
p183. COPYRIGHTED
source: LEROI-GOURHAN, A., Lascaux
Inconnu (A. LEROIGOURHAN & J. ALLAIN,
eds.), Xlle Suppl. à Gallia
Préhistoire, CNRS: Paris, 1979, p183.
[15000 BC]
Earth, all hunter-gathering people.
[1] Parker, G. Compact History of the
World. Barnes & Noble, 2001,
p17. COPYRIGHTED
source: Parker, G. Compact History of
the World. Barnes & Noble, 2001, p17.
[12000 BC]
[1] The oldest known map in the world,
discovered by archeologists, is from
12,000 B.C. and was found in Mezhirich,
Ukraine.
source: http://www.infoukes.com/history/
images/inventions/figure02.gif
[12000 BC]
adhesive on small stone tools
(microliths) from Northern Sinai.
VIII, Gebel Maghara, Northern Sinai,
Egypt
[1] Figure 6 from: Kingery, W D,
Pamela B. Vandiver, and Martha
Prickett. ''The Beginnings of
Pyrotechnology, Part Ii: Production and
Use of Lime and Gypsum Plaster in the
Pre-Pottery Neolithic Near East.''
Journal of Field Archaeology. 15.2
(1988): 219-244.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/530304 CO
PYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/5303
04
[2] See text ''In the north corner of
the room was an interesting structure
of unbaked plano-convex bricks (Fig.
44). It had a rectangular base
measuring approximately 1.00 x 1.60 m.,
the north-east side of which was only
15 cm. from the outer inclosure wall.
... The tops of these two walls were
rounded off toward the outside
throughout their length, on the higher
as well as on the lower parts (Fig. 45;
cf. also Fig. 65), and trhe whole
structure was originally coated with a
thick layer of white lime plaster- a
circumstance which greatly facilitated
its excavation and the tracing of its
peculiar shape. ... Fig 44
from: Delougaz, Pinhas, ''The temple
oval at Khafājah'', University of
Chicago Press/Chicago Ill., 1940.
http://oi.uchicago.edu/pdf/oip53.pdf
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://oi.uchicago.edu/pdf/oip53
[11000 BC]
human bones in America.
Santa Rosa Island, California,
USA
[1] A member of Arturo González's
underwater archaeological team studies
a skull in an underwater cave on the
coast of the Yucatán Peninsula near
Tulum, Mexico. Skeletons found in
similar caves may be among the oldest
human remains ever found in North or
South America. Photograph courtesy
Arturo Gonzáles COPYRIGHTED
source: http://news.nationalgeographic.c
om/news/bigphotos/images/080903-oldest-s
keletons_big.jpg
[2] Tulum, Mexico UNKNOWN
source: maps.google.com
[10000 BC]
gathering to agriculture, from a
migratory to a sedentary life, building
the first cities.
[1] Parker, G. Compact History of the
World. Barnes & Noble, 2001,
p16-17. COPYRIGHTED
source: Parker, G. Compact History of
the World. Barnes & Noble, 2001,
p16-17.
[9700 BC]
(PlISTeSEN), and start of the Holocene
{HoLoSEN or HOLoSEN} epoch. This is the
end of the last Ice Age.
[1] Geologic Time Scale 2009 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.geosociety.org/scienc
e/timescale/timescl.pdf
[9700 BC]
Stone Age" in the Fertile Crescent, a
region of the Middle East arching from
the Nile Valley to the Tigris and
Euphrates rivers.
[1] Lake dwellers lived in central
Europe and were ancestral to the Celts
and northern Italians, and built their
houses very near water so that their
kind of wheat, that grew in marshy
areas, could grow in fields nearby.
They built their houses on stilts to
keep them dry. They were genetically
characterized by a very large clade of
R2b1b2. UNKNOWN
source: http://freepages.genealogy.roots
web.ancestry.com/~villandra/McKinstry/I2
b1/lakedwellingNeolithic.jpg
[2] Catal Hoyuk
Reconstruction UNKNOWN
source: http://www.veeb.net/wp-content/u
ploads/2011/01/Catal_Hoyuk_Reconstructio
n.jpg
[9500 BC]
Copper is the first metal shaped by
humans.
Iraq|(Çayönü) Anatolia (modern
Turkey)|Northern Iraq|Eastern
Anatolia
[1] from ''Metallurgy as a human
experience'': fgi2: Copper pendant from
Shanidar Cave, Northeast Iraq, about
9500 B.C. Length 2.3cm; thickness
0.3cm. Shaped by hammering a piece of
native metal and finishing with
abrasives. (It is completely
mineralized and there is a slight
possibility that it was originally
simply carved from a lump of
malachite.) Courtesy Professor Ralph S.
Solecki. --- Malachite is a green
mineral, basic copper carbonate, Cu 2
CO 3 (OH) 2 , an ore of copper, used
for making ornamental articles.
''Malachite.'' Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 04 Jul.
2012.
''Metallurgy as a human experience'',
Metallurgical and Materials
Transactions A Volume 6, Number 4
(1975), 603-623, DOI:
10.1007/BF02672281 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/4r60p045832k01l6/ COPYR
IGHTED
source: http://www.springerlink.com/cont
ent/4r60p045832k01l6/
[2] Description View of the exterior
of Shanidar Cave, taken during the
summer of 2005. Note for scale the two
crouching men in front of the cave. At
the time this photo was taken, the
interior of the cave was being used as
a pen by a local
shepherd. Licensing Date 2006-08-03
(original upload date) Source
Originally from en.wikipedia;
description page is/was here. Author
Original uploader was JosephV at
en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) Licensed under the GFDL by
the author; Released under the GNU Free
Documentation License. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a8/Erbil_governorate_sha
nidar_cave.jpg
[9000 BC]
Palestine
[1] An aerial view of Jericho showing
the ruins of Tell
es-Sultan Description Italiano:
veduta aerea dell'area archeologica di
Gerico Date 2008-03-05 (original
upload date) Source Transferred
from it.wikipedia Author Original
uploader was Fullo88 at
it.wikipedia PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f4/Tell_es-sultan.jpg
[2] Plastered skulls figures
from: Kathleen Kenyon, ''Excavations
at Jericho'', 1981,
vol5. {Kenyon_Excavations_At_Jericho_19
81.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: Kenyon_Excavations_At_Jericho_19
81.pdf
[9000 BC]
flat stone and rounded stone used to
grind grain into flour).
[1] (presumably the:) Quern stone used
for making flour 9,500–9,000
BC Abu Hureyra, Syria NONCOMMERCIAL
USE
source: http://www.britishmuseum.org/ima
ges/quern_l.jpg
[2] Setting where Quern stone was used
for making flour 9,500–9,000
BC Abu Hureyra, Syria NONCOMMERCIAL
USE
source: http://www.britishmuseum.org/ima
ges/quern_setting_l.jpg
[9000 BC]
killed for food.
Turkey| (11,000 bp), and the Zagros
Mountains of Iran at Ganj Dareh
(10,000).
[1] Description Bezoar Ibex (Capra
aegagrus aegagrus) Deutsch:
Bezoarziege, fotografiert im Tierpark
Berlin Date January
2006 Source Uploaded first to de
wikipedia on 13:25, 19. Feb 2006 by Der
Irbis Author F. Spangenberg (Der
Irbis, own photo) GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f6/Bezoarziege.jpg
[2] Domestic goat kid, in field of
capeweed. Swifts Creek, Victoria,
September 2007 GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Domestic_goat_k
id_in_capeweed.jpg/1024px-Domestic_goat_
kid_in_capeweed.jpg
[9000 BC]
temple; in Turkey.
Southeastern Turkey
[1] Description English: Göbekli
Tepe, Şanlıurfa Date 6 September
2011 Source Own work Author
Teomancimit CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/G%C3%B6bekli_Te
pe%2C_Urfa.jpg/1280px-G%C3%B6bekli_Tepe%
2C_Urfa.jpg
[2] Göbekli Tepe may hold first human
writings Prehistory specialist of
the German Archeological Institute in
Berlin announced the findings of a
South Eastern Turkish Excavation site
near Sanliurfa called Göbekli Tepe
(''Nabelberg'') . Klaus Schmidt claims
the 11 600 old stone markings of this
temple are the worlds earliest known
form of writing. ''The geometrical
forms and small animal reliefs are
surely more than just ornamentations.
Humans somewhat wanted to communicate
with future humans here '' he says in a
February 14, 2006 Berliner Morgenpost
article. Excavator Schmidt interprets
Goebekli Tepe as a center for a
complicated dead cult and adds, ''This
was monumental architecture, 6000 years
before the pyramids.'' The monoliths
were lower than the surrounding walls
indicating that the intention was not
architectural in erecting
them. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.lahana.org/blog/Gobek
litepe.htm
[9000 BC]
Province, China
[1] Chi, Zang. ''The discovery of early
pottery in China.'' Documenta
Prehistorica 29 (2002):
34. http://arheologija.ff.uni-lj.si/doc
umenta/pdf29/29chi UNKNOWN
source: http://arheologija.ff.uni-lj.si/
documenta/pdf29/29chi
[9000 BC]
The domestication of plants is thought
to have originated in the Fertile
Crescent.
[1] Description an ear of rye Date
11 June 2007 Source Own work Author
LSDSL Permission (Reusing this file)
Please quote me as LSDSL Bitte
nennen Sie mich als LSDSL GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/79/Ear_of_rye.jpg
[2] Tell Abu Hureyra, Syria in Google
Maps UNKNOWN
source: https://maps.google.com/maps?ll=
35.866,38.4&spn=0.01,0.01&t=m&q=35.866,3
8.4
[8870 BC]
Mesopotamia.
Iraq
[1] Solecki, R.L. An Early Village Site
at Zawi Chemi Shanidar. Undena
Publications, 1981. Bibliotheca
Mesopotamica. COPYRIGHTED
source: Solecki, R.L. An Early Village
Site at Zawi Chemi Shanidar. Undena
Publications, 1981. Bibliotheca
Mesopotamica.
[2] Solecki, R.L. An Early Village
Site at Zawi Chemi Shanidar. Undena
Publications, 1981. Bibliotheca
Mesopotamica. COPYRIGHTED
source: Solecki, R.L. An Early Village
Site at Zawi Chemi Shanidar. Undena
Publications, 1981. Bibliotheca
Mesopotamica.
[8500 BC]
Flax is an oil and fiber crop.
[1] Lewis Blue Flax seeding along
I-86. PD
source: http://itd.idaho.gov/highways/op
s/maintenance/Roadside/ImageGalleries/Na
tive-Management/LewisBlueFlax4.jpg
[2] from:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Flax_
seeds.jpg I took this picture of flax
seed in July of 2005 and grant its use
under the Creative Commons
Attribution-Sharealike 2.5 CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/15/Flax_seeds.jpg
[8500 BC]
meat and dung (which is used for fuel).
Anatolia|(Middle East) Eastern
Mediterranean
[1] Ovis canadensis Information from
en: Subject: Rocky Mountain Bighorn
Sheep Camera: Canon D60 Lens: Canon
100--400mm IS Originally uploaded to
en: by
Sunborn Source http://pdphoto.org/Pict
ureDetail.php?mat=pdef&pg=8208 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3a/Ovis_canadensis_2.jpg
[2] Description Fotografía tomada
en Brunete, Madrid,
España. Date 30 March 2008,
10:24 Source Black sheep . Do u
also feel different? // la Oveja negra.
Tambien te sientes
diferente? Uploaded by
Petronas Author Jesus Solana from
Madrid, Spain CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Black_sheep-1.j
pg/1024px-Black_sheep-1.jpg
[8000 BC]
food.
Island South East Asia|southeastern
Anatolia
[1] Description English: A baby Wild
Boar (Sus scrofa) in a wildlife park in
the Netherlands Français : Marcassin
(Sus scrofa) dans une réserve faunique
au Pays-Bas Date 12 May 2010,
15:10 Source Frisling Author S
ander van der Wel CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Sus_scrofa_pigl
et.jpg/1024px-Sus_scrofa_piglet.jpg
[2] Edited version of Image:Wild Boar
Habbitat 2.jpg slightly cropped with
artifacts
removed. [edit]Summary Description
Deutsch: Das Wildschwein (Sus scrofa)
gehört zur Familie der altweltlichen
oder echten Schweine (Suidae) aus der
Ordnung der Paarhufer. Hier zu sehen in
seinem natürlichen Umfeld: Eine
Suhle English: The Wild Boar (Sus
scrofa) is the wild ancestor of the
domestic pig. As shown in his natural
habitat. Español: El jabalí salvaje
(Sus scrofa), ancestro del cerdo
doméstico, en su hábitat
natural. Français : Sanglier (Sus
scrofa) dans son habitat naturel. Le
sanglier est l'ancêtre sauvage du
porc. Grünvalder forst, Bavière
(Allemagne). Cymraeg: Baedd gwyllt
(Sus scrofa), hynafiad y mochyn
dof. Italiano: Il cinghiale (Sus
scrofa), è la forma ancestrale del
maiale domestico, ritratto nel suo
habitat naturale. Nederlands: Wild
zwijn (Sus scrofa) neemt een
modderbad Norsk (bokmål):
Villsvin (Sus scrofa) i sitt naturlige
miljø Português: Um javali da
espécie Sus scrofa, ancestral selvagem
do porco doméstico. Русский:
Кабан (Sus scrofa),
валяющийся в грязи;
предок домашней
свиньи. Svenska: Ett vildsvin
(Sus scrofa) i sin naturliga
miljö. Date 2007-05-22 Source O
wn work Author Richard Bartz,
Munich Makro Freak CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Wild_Boar_Habbi
tat_3.jpg/1024px-Wild_Boar_Habbitat_3.jp
g
[8000 BC]
geometrical shapes that represent
products are used in Mesopotamia.
Sumer (modern Iraq)|Babylonia|Syria,
Sumer and Highland Iran
[1] Pre-literate counting and
accounting MS 5067/1-8 NEOLITHIC
PLAIN COUNTING TOKENS POSSIBLY
REPRESENTING 1 MEASURE OF GRAIN, 1
ANIMAL AND 1 MAN OR 1 DAY'S LABOUR,
RESPECTIVELY ms5067/1-8Counting tokens
in clay, Syria/Sumer/Highland Iran, ca.
8000-3500 BC, 3 spheres: diam. 1,6, 1,7
and 1,9 cm , (D.S.-B 2:1); 3 discs:
diam. 1,0x0,4 cm, 1,1x0,4 cm and
1,0x0,5 cm (D.S.-B 3:1); 2
tetrahedrons: sides 1,4 cm and 1,7 cm
(D.S.-B 5:1). Exhibited: The
Norwegian Intitute of Palaeography and
Historical Philology (PHI), Oslo,
13.10.2003- COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.earth-history.com/_im
ages/ms5067.jpg
[2] MS 4631 BULLA-ENVELOPE WITH 11
PLAIN AND COMPLEX TOKENS INSIDE,
REPRESENTING AN ACCOUNT OR AGREEMENT,
TENTATIVELY OF WAGES FOR 4 DAYS' WORK,
4 MEASURES OF METAL, 1 LARGE MEASURE OF
BARLEY AND 2 SMALL MEASURES OF SOME
OTHER COMMODITY ms4631Bulla in clay,
Syria/Sumer/Highland Iran, ca.
3700-3200 BC, 1 spherical
bulla-envelope (complete), diam. ca.
6,5 cm, cylinder seal impressions of a
row of men walking left; and of a
predator attacking a deer, inside a
complete set of plain and complex
tokens: 4 tetrahedrons 0,9x1,0 cm
(D.S.-B.5:1), 4 triangles with 2
incised lines 2,0x0,9 (D.S.-B.(:14), 1
sphere diam. 1,7 cm (D.S.-B.2:2), 1
cylinder with 1 grove 2,0x0,3 cm
(D.S.-B.4:13), 1 bent paraboloid
1,3xdiam. 0,5 cm
(D.S.-B.8:14). Context: MSS 4631-4646
and 5114-5127are from the same archive.
Total number of bulla-envelopes
worldwide is ca. 165 intact and 70
fragmentary. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.earth-history.com/_im
ages/ms4631.jpg
[8000 BC]
meat and eventually for plowing.
[1] Description Deutsch: Heckrinder
in den Niederlanden. English: An Heck
cattle group, in Oostvaardersplassen, a
nature reserve in the province of
Flevoland in the
Netherlands. Français : Aurochs de
Heck Nederlands: Heckrunderen in de
Oostvaardersplassen, een natuurgebied
in de provincie Flevoland,
Nederland. Date 16 septembre
2004 Source Travail personnel Auteur
GerardM GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Heckrund1.JPG/1
280px-Heckrund1.JPG
[2] Wild Cattle in Britain The
Chillingham Herd Chillingham
cattle (picture from
Whitepark.org.uk) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.vegaresearch.org/imag
es/Chillingham1.jpg
[7800 BC]
A sickle has a semicircular blade and
is used for cutting grain or tall
grass.
Syria)|Palestine
[1] [t NOTE not- earliest sickle] [1]
Faucille néolithique danoise en silex
1/Danish Neolithic flint
sickle flint 105 UNKNOWN
source: http://idata.over-blog.com/4/25/
41/68/danois/flint-130.jpg
[2] [t NOTE not- earliest sickle]
Ancient Stone Age Neolithic Flint
Sickle Denmark UNKNOWN
source: http://www.artancient.com/ebay/2
50310/020412JSA010.jpg
[7500 BC]
Turkey and northern Syria (Nevali Cori,
Turkey)
[1] Description Česky:
Pšenice. Deutsch: Weizen. English:
Wheat. Español: Trigo. Français :
Blé. Magyar: Búza. Tiếng Việt:
Lúa mì. Date August
2005 Source Own work Author
User:Bluemoose GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Wheat_close-up.
JPG/800px-Wheat_close-up.JPG
[2] Nevali Cori, Turkey from Google
Maps UNKNOWN
source: https://maps.google.com/maps?ll=
37.518333,38.605556&spn=0.01,0.01&t=m&q=
37.518333,38.605556 http://localhost/ul
sf/images/Nevali_Cori_Turkey.jpg
[7500 BC]
[1] Description English: Panicum
miliaceum Date 2008-5-4 Source Own
work Author Dalgial CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Panicum_miliace
um_2.JPG/768px-Panicum_miliaceum_2.JPG
[2] Name Panicum
miliaceum Family Poaceae
Bildbeschreibung: noch grüne
Rispenhirse Quelle: selbst
erstellt Fotograf:
User:MarkusHagenlocher Datum: 21.
Juli GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/51/Rispenhirse_gr%C3%BCn
.jpg
[7500 BC]
[1] Hordeum-barley -
http://www.ars.usda.gov/is/graphics/ph
otos/k5141-4.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/55/Hordeum-barley.jpg
[2] Tell Abu Hureyra, Syria in Google
Maps UNKNOWN
source: https://maps.google.com/maps?ll=
35.866,38.4&spn=0.01,0.01&t=m&q=35.866,3
8.4
[7500 BC]
plaster).
[1] Andrew M. T. Moore, ''The
Prehistory of Syria'', Bulletin of the
American Schools of Oriental Research ,
No. 270, Ancient Syria (May, 1988), pp.
3-12. http://www.jstor.org/stable/13570
02 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1357
002
[2] Kingery, W D, Pamela B. Vandiver,
and Martha Prickett. ''The Beginnings
of Pyrotechnology, Part Ii: Production
and Use of Lime and Gypsum Plaster in
the Pre-Pottery Neolithic Near East.''
Journal of Field Archaeology. 15.2
(1988): 219-244.
http://faculty.ksu.edu.sa/archaeology/
Publications/General/Lime%20and%20Gypsum
%20Plaster%20in%20the%20Pre-Pottery%20Ne
olithic%20near%20East.pdf AND
http://www.jstor.org/stable/530304 CO
PYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/5303
04
[7240 BC]
in America. Squash is grown in Peru.
[1] Fig. 3. Close-up of two dark
brown squash seed (C. moschata)
fragments recovered from a buried house
floor at CA-09-27. from: Tom D.
Dillehay, Jack Rossen, Thomas C.
Andres, and David E. Williams,
''Preceramic Adoption of Peanut,
Squash, and Cotton in Northern Peru'',
Science 29 June 2007: 316 (5833),
1890-1893. http://www.sciencemag.org/co
ntent/316/5833/1890.abstract COPYRIGHTE
D
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/316/5833/1890/F3.large.jpg
[7000 BC]
Valley city is founded.
Pakistan
[1] Early farming village in Mehrgarh,
c. 7000 BCE, with houses built with mud
bricks. (Musée Guimet, Paris). The
image was downloaded from the website
of the Indus and Mehrgarh
archaeological mission, Musée Guimet,
by Fowler&fowler«Talk» 22:56, 6 March
2007 (UTC) COPYRIGHTED FAIRUSE
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Neolithic_mehrgarh.jpg
[2] A relief map of Pakistan showing
Mehrgarh This is an annotated version
of a relief map of Pakistan in the
public domain([1]). The map was
annotated by Fowler&fowler«Talk»
08:07, 7 March 2007 (UTC) and
rereleased to the public domain. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Mehrgarh_pakistan_rel96.JPG
[7000 BC]
(Antrea, Finland, now:Kamennogorsk,
Russia)
[1] Description English: Some of the
remains of the Paleolithic Antrea
net. Suomi: Osa kivikautisen Antrean
verkon jäännöksistä. Date
1920 Source Suomen
Muinaismuistoyhdistyksen Aikakauskirja
XXVIII Author Sakari Pälsi PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c1/AntreaNet.jpg
[6800 BC]
[1] Name Lens
culinaris Family
Fabaceae Original book source: Prof.
Dr. Otto Wilhelm Thomé Flora von
Deutschland, Österreich und der
Schweiz 1885, Gera,
Germany Permission granted to use
under GFDL by Kurt Stueber Source:
www.biolib.de PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/da/Illustration_Lens_cul
inaris0.jpg
[2] Description English: Lentil
plants 75 days after emergence,
Castelltallat, Catalonia Català:
Plantes de llentilla 75 dies després
de l'emergència Date
14/05/2011 Source Own work Author
Victor M. Vicente Selvas PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Llenties_maig.J
PG/1280px-Llenties_maig.JPG
[6500 BC]
[1] Pea plant: Pisum sativum Picture
taken by myself: (nl:Doperwt rijserwt
peulen)Pisum sativum pods; GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/bc/Doperwt_rijserwt_peul
en_Pisum_sativum.jpg
[2] Description English: Studio
photo of peas in their pods. Date 7
July 2011 Source Own work Author
Bill Ebbesen CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Peas_in_pods_-_
Studio.jpg/1186px-Peas_in_pods_-_Studio.
jpg
[6000 BC]
boat.
[1] De boot van Pesse (Drenthe).
C14-dateringen geven aan dat dit object
uit het mesolithicum dateert (ca. 8600
voor Chr.). De lengte bedraagt iets
minder dan 3 meter. foto: Drents
Museum grotere afbeelding UNKNOWN
source: http://www.archeoforum.nl/images
/webboot.jpg
[2] Afb. 1 Mark Jan Dielemans
probeert een kopie van de kano van
Pesse uit in een ven bij
recreatiecentrum Witterzomer in
Assen foto: GPD grotere
afbeeldin UNKNOWN
source: http://www.archeoforum.nl/images
/Pesse10afb1.jpg
[6000 BC]
[1] Curt Sachs, ''The History of
Musical Instruments'', 1940, p81. PD
source: Curt Sachs, "The History of
Musical Instruments", 1940, p81.
[5700 BC]
river in China.
Province|Yangtze (in Hubei and Hunan
provinces), China
[1] Description English: Paddy in
West Bengal, India Date 18 October
2009 Source Own
work Author Amartyabag CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Paddy_West_Beng
al.jpg/1280px-Paddy_West_Bengal.jpg
[2] Description: Cambodia, Kratie: A
worker is removing the rice
seedlings. Capture date: August
2002 Photographer: Oliver Spalt
Published under CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/07/Rice_02.jpg
[5100 BC]
Mexico)
[1] Description Deutsch:
Maispflanzen (Zea mays) English: Maize
(Zea mays) plant with ears, the baby
corn growing level தமிழ்:
இளங்கதிர்கள்,
நன்கு
வளர்நிலையில்
இருக்கிறது. Date
2004 Source Own work Author
burgkirsch CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/32/Maispflanze.jpg
[5000 BC]
casted (copper). Smelting is separating
a metal from its ore by using heat and
a reducing or oxidizing material.
Casting involves pouring liquid metal
into a shaped mold of baked clay,
stone, metal, or sand.
[1] Copper slag from Belovode (sample
No. 21). Figure 3 from: Miljana
Radivojević, Thilo Rehren, Ernst
Pernicka, Dušan Šljivar, Michael
Brauns, Dušan Borić, On the origins
of extractive metallurgy: new evidence
from Europe, Journal of Archaeological
Science, Volume 37, Issue 11, November
2010, Pages 2775-2787, ISSN 0305-4403,
10.1016/j.jas.2010.06.012. (http://www.
sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0
305440310001986) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence/article/pii/S0305440310001986
[2] Byzantine Roman
Collection tanged arrowhead Inventory
#: 308-316 Type:
Arrowhead Material: Iron Period:
Byzantine (Eastern Roman) 6th - 14th
Cent. A.D. Provenance: Balkan
Region Measurements: (lengths in cm,
left to right): 14.5, 17 cm UNKNOWN
source: http://www.worldmuseumofman.org/
img1000/308316b.jpg
[5000 BC]
[1] Bitumin remains from older Kuwaiti
boat show rope impressions. Lawler,
Andrew (June 7, 2002). ''Report of
Oldest Boat Hints at Early Trade
Routes''. Science (AAAS) 296 (5574):
1791–1792.
doi:10.1126/science.296.5574.1791. PMID
12052936.
http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/
summary/296/5574/1791
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/3076918
COPYRIGHTED
source: Lawler, Andrew (June 7, 2002).
"Report of Oldest Boat Hints at Early
Trade Routes". Science (AAAS) 296
(5574): 1791–1792.
doi:10.1126/science.296.5574.1791. PMID
12052936.
http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/
summary/296/5574/1791http://www.jstor.or
g/stable/3076918
[2] Description Totora reed fishing
boats on the beach at Huanchaco,
Peru Date 13 October 2006,
15:26 Source Totora reed fishing
boats on the beach at Huanchaco,
Peru Author Roy & Danielle CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Peruvian_fishin
g_boats.jpg/768px-Peruvian_fishing_boats
.jpg
[4900 BC]
[1] Scale 1/20 model of a Bronze Age
reed boat, as proposed by Tom Vosmer,
Model of a Third Millennium BC Reed
Boat Image from: Connan, Jacques et
al. “A comparative geochemical study
of bituminous boat remains from H3,
As-Sabiyah (Kuwait), and RJ-2, Ra’s
al-Jinz (Oman).” Arabian Archaeology
and Epigraphy 16.1 (2005):
21-66. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/d
oi/10.1111/j.1600-0471.2005.00041.x/abst
ract {Connan_Norman_200505xx.pdf} COPY
RIGHTED
source: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/d
oi/10.1111/j.1600-0471.2005.00041.x/abst
ract
[4800 BC]
grown in Israel and Jordan.
of the Dead Sea)
[1] Description English: Olive trees
on Thasos Deutsch: Alte Olivenbäume
auf Thasos Date 9.7.2006 Source Own
work Author Petr Pakandl CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Olive_trees_on_
Thassos.JPG/1280px-Olive_trees_on_Thasso
s.JPG
[2] Description English: Unique
Ancient Olive Tree Date 30 January
2011 Source Own work Author Dennis
koutou CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Ancient_Olive_T
ree_in_Pelion%2C_Greece.jpg/768px-Ancien
t_Olive_Tree_in_Pelion%2C_Greece.jpg
[4500 BC]
Europe, Provadia-Solnitsata {PrOVoDEYo
SOLnETSoTo?}, in Bulgaria is founded.
[1] The remains of the settlement made
of two-story houses near the town of
Provadia The prehistoric town at
Provadia features two-storey houses and
a defensive
wall (AFP/Getty) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://i.telegraph.co.uk/multime
dia/archive/02384/b2_2384873c.jpg
[2] The remains of a man with a
ceramic bowl Photo:
AFP/GETTY COPYRIGHTED
source: http://i.telegraph.co.uk/multime
dia/archive/02384/b1_2384879b.jpg
[4000 BC]
Armenia|Egypt
[1] Wine press The wine press (center)
is clearly evident in this photograph
of the excavation. Behind the press is
an archaeological identification kit.
The vat (to the right of the press),
which was apparently used for
accumulating grape juice and the
consequent wine fermentation, emerges
clearly here as a result of the
excavation. (Photo credit: Gregory
Areshian) UNKNOWN
source: http://newsroom.ucla.edu/portal/
ucla/artwork/8/8/6/8/3/188683/wine_press
.jpg
[2] Grape stems and seeds A range of
6,100-year-old desiccated grape stems
and dried, pressed grapes was found on
and around the wine press in the
Armenian cave. The chemical studies
were led by UCLA scientists and
supported by the National Geographic
Society, which also funded the
archaeological work. (Photo credit:
Gregory Areshian) UNKNOWN
source: http://newsroom.ucla.edu/portal/
ucla/artwork/8/8/6/8/3/188683/stems_seed
s_grapes.jpg
[4000 BC]
and mud-brick house; in Mesopotamia.
Mud brick, dried by the Sun, is one of
the first building materials.
[1] The Royal Tombs (Cemetery) of Ur.
Courtesy Nathanm, Creative Commons. CC
source: http://popular-archaeology.com/u
pload/2697/urroyaltombs.jpg
[2] Pre-Historic Tell Uqair UNKNOWN
source: http://ancientneareast.tripod.co
m/IMAGES/Uqair.jpg
[3800 BC]
trees are grown in the eastern part of
the Mediterranean basin.
Basin
[1] Description English: Amond
blossom, Plants of Israel עברית:
פרי השקד, Original Image
Name:שקדיה,
Location:מודיעין Date circa
2010 Source Wild Flowers of Israel
via the PikiWiki - Israel free image
collection project Author שרה
גולד Permission (Reusing this
file) w:en:Creative
Commons attribution CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/84/PikiWiki_Israel_7025_
Amond_blossom.jpg
[2] Description English: Green
Almonds. Date 4 April 2009 Source
Own work Author 6th Happiness My
own work. Green Almonds, originally
posted here:
http://fithfath.com/images/2009/04/04/yo
ung-green-almonds/ PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a2/Green_almonds.jpg
[3500 BC]
objects in Mesopotamia). The first
numbers. The first stamp (or seal).
The first writing begins as symbols for
numbers on clay bulla (hollow clay
containers that hold clay tokens).
These symbols represent the quantity
and kind of tokens inside the bulla.
Markings on clay tokens which represent
products like sheep, oil, or metal, may
lead to the first symbols of the
alphabet. Hollow bullae and clay tokens
are eventually replaced by solid clay
tablets with the same impressions.
Sumer, Highland Iran)
[1] Fig 109 from: Nissen, Archaic
Bookkeeping, 1993, p127. COPYRIGHTED
source: Archaic Bookkeeping, Nissen,
1993, p127.
[2] Fig 110 from: Nissen, Archaic
Bookkeeping, 1993, p128. COPYRIGHTED
source: Archaic Bookkeeping, Nissen,
1993, p128.
[3500 BC]
timekeeping device. The length of the
shadow indicates the time of day.
[1] Stick in sand with shadow UNKNOWN
source: http://farm1.static.flickr.com/1
77/484077420_e01337d101.jpg
[2] Description English: Ancient
sundial from Marcianopolis, Museum of
Mosaicas, Devnya,
Bulgaria Български:
Слънчев часовник от
Марцианополис, Музей
на мозайките,
Девня Date 21 September
2010 Source Own work Author
Edal Anton Lefterov CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/ff/Sundial-from-Marciano
polis.jpg
[3500 BC]
to break up soil.
[1] [t determine source of
drawing] Apparently mesopotamian
drawing of animal pulled plow. UNKNOWN
source: http://ed101.bu.edu/StudentDoc/A
rchives/ED101fa06/jtobz87/pic-3-2plow-lg
.png
[2] Akkadian plough with seeder c2200
BCE Peter Roger Stuart Moorey,
''Ancient Mesopotamian Materials and
Industries: The Archaeological
Evidence'', 1999,
p2. http://books.google.com/books?id=P_
Ixuott4doC&pg=PA3 UNKNOWN
source: Peter Roger Stuart Moorey,
"Ancient Mesopotamian Materials and
Industries: The Archaeological
Evidence", 1999,
p2. http://books.google.com/books?id=P_
Ixuott4doC&pg=PA3
[3500 BC]
artificial supply of water to land for
food crops).
Mediterranean)
[1] Illustration 1. A shaduf was used
to raise water above the level of the
Nile. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.waterhistory.org/hist
ories/nile/shaduf.jpg
[2] This is a picture of how egyptians
could have used the Nile to plant their
crops. They are using an irrigation
method. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.amersol.edu.pe/class1
5/_15eescob/6th/humanities/images/nile_i
rrigation.jpg
[3500 BC]
transport.
[1] Artist Maler der Grabkammer
des Panehsi Title Deutsch:
Grabkammer des Panehsi, Priester,
Szene: Esel mit Bauern Date
Deutsch: um 1298-1235 v.
Chr. English: c. 1298-1235 BCE Medium
Deutsch: Wandbild Dimensions
Deutsch: 30 × 61 cm Current
location Deutsch: Grab des
Panehsi Deutsch:
Theben Source/Photographer The
Yorck Project: 10.000 Meisterwerke der
Malerei. DVD-ROM, 2002. ISBN
3936122202. Distributed by DIRECTMEDIA
Publishing
GmbH. http://mail.wikipedia.org/piperma
il/wikide-l/2005-April/012195.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Maler_der_Grabk
ammer_des_Panehsi_001.jpg/1024px-Maler_d
er_Grabkammer_des_Panehsi_001.jpg
[3500 BC]
of 30 days, plus 5 extra days).
[1] Egyptian Calendar UNKNOWN
source: http://analyzer.depaul.edu/paper
plate/2002%20vernal%20equinox/Egyptian_c
alendar_dark.jpg
[3500 BC]
pottery wheel, in Mesopotamia.
wheel from Choga Mish, Iran)
[1] These pots, found at al`Ubaid type
site itself are typical of last phase
of Ubaid pottery found throughout much
of Mesopotamia, including Uruk. London:
British Museum. [t Note that the
first and tihrd match figures in
Woolley's 1982 book.] PD
source: http://www.hartford-hwp.com/imag
e_archive/ue/pottery03.jpg
[2] 14. Pottery jar of Jemdat Nasr
type. It was found in the al`Ain region
of the United Arab Emirates, which
attests to contacts between Mesopotamia
and Oman peninsula—an important
source of copper. Ca. 3000 BC. London:
British Museum. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.hartford-hwp.com/imag
e_archive/ue/pottery02.jpg
[3490 BC]
[1] English: cotton plant, Texas, 1996,
after chemical haulm (topkilling
Chemical ; usually by the Monosodium
methyl arsenate used to quickly kill
the leaves that would interfere with
harvesting machines). This chemical is
a growing source of residual
contamination of soils by arsenic,
which is not degradable; Photo courtesy
of USDA Natural Resources Conservation
Service. http://photogallery.nrcs.usda.
gov/Index.asp This came from the
website PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/6/68/CottonPlant.JPG
/1024px-CottonPlant.JPG
[3350 BC]
Symbols that represent a product (such
as cows, sheep, and cereals), drawn
with a stylus on clay tablets, are the
earliest record of what will become the
modern alphabet. Many of the symbols
look like the marked clay tokens that
represent actual products, and that are
replaced by the drawn symbols on clay
tablets.
This is the first training and industry
of scribes, which will ultimately
evolve into the modern school system.
Writing will be continuously taught
eventually in all major civilizations
(even through the Dark Ages) until
now.
These tablets are all economic records,
used to keep a record of objects owned
or traded, and contain no stories.
[1] MS 4551 Account of grain products,
bread, beer, butter oil. Sumer 32nd
century COPYRIGHTED?
source: http://www.earth-history.com/_im
ages/ms4551.jpg
[2] MS2963 Account of male and female
slaves Sumer
c3300-3200BCE COPYRIGHTED?
source: http://www.earth-history.com/_im
ages/ms2963.jpg
[3310 BC]
ox pulled wheeled vehicles; in Poland.
Bronocice, Krakow, Poland
[1] Stuart and Piggott, ''The Earliest
Wheeled Transport'', 1983,
p40,62-63. COPYRIGHTED
source: Stuart and Piggott, "The
Earliest Wheeled Transport", 1983,
p40,62-63.
[2] According
to: http://www.britishmuseum.org/explor
e/highlights/highlight_objects/me/t/the_
standard_of_ur.aspx 2600-2400
BC According to:
http://sumerianshakespeare.com/687045.ht
ml this image is 4500 years old -
putting it at 2500bce - get more
evidence of age [1] Description
English: detail of the ''Standard of
Ur'', ca. 2500 BC. Date 2500
BC Source
http://www.alexandriaarchive.org/op
encontext/iraq_ghf/ur_standard/ur_standa
rd_8.jpg Author
Anonymous Permission (Reusing
this file) See below. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/7d/Ur_chariot.jpg
[3200 BC]
lower Vistula river (including Brześć
Kujawski 3 and 4, Miechowice 4, Smólsk
4, Wolica Nowa 1, Stare Nakonowo 2, and
Ludwinowo 6 and 7)
[1] Figure 1: Drawings of
representative reconstructed sieve
vessels and photographs of specific
sieve fragments from the region of
Kuyavia submitted to lipid residue
analyses. a, b, KUY0750, from Brześć
Kujawski site 3. c, d, KUY0757 from
Smólsk site 4. The typology of the
sieve vessels is comparable to those
used by modern-day cheese producers
(Supplementary Fig. 1). Drawings used
with permission from ref. 20. Figure
1ab from: Salque, Melanie et al.
“Earliest Evidence for Cheese Making
in the Sixth Millennium Bc in Northern
Europe.” Nature advance online
publication (2012): n.
pag. http://www.nature.com/nature/journ
al/vaop/ncurrent/full/nature11698.html
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/vaop/ncurrent/images/nature11698-f1
.2.jpg
[3100 BC]
Gods and Goddesses.
[1] Archaic
Bookkeeping,Nissen,1993,p20-21.
COPYRIGHTED
source: Archaic
Bookkeeping,Nissen,1993,p20-21.
[3000 BC]
instrument (the lyre and the harp); in
Mesopotamia.
[1] Bearded Harpists, detail from
Sumerian tablet in the Temple of Sin in
Khafage, Mesopotamia (presently Iraq) c
3000 BC. Reprinted by permission
from The Harp by Rajka
Dobronic-Mazzoni. Published by Graficki
Zavrod Hrvatske, OOUR, Izdavcka
djelatnost, Preobrazenska 4, Zagreb,
Croatia, 1989 PD
source: http://www.harpspectrum.org/time
line/images/mesopotamia_1.jpg
[2] Harp-player of Sumer, from a
plaque of Khafaje (After Heras, 1953,
p. 182). PD
source: http://www.hindunet.org/hindu_hi
story/sarasvati/html/HARPPL-1.jpg
[3000 BC]
form words; there is a transition from
word-writing to sound-writing in
Sumarian.
The vast majority of Sumerian language
is made of one-syllable words. This
suggests that all earlier spoken
languages contained only
single-syllable words.
[1] Fischer, S.R. A History of Writing.
Reaktion, 2001. Globalities Series.
p47-48. COPYRIGHTED
source: Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p47-48.
[2] Source:
http://pandora.cii.wwu.edu/vajda/ling201
/writingsystems/sumeriancuneiform.htm U
NKNOWN
source: http://www.omniglot.com/images/w
riting/sumerian_glyphs.jpg
[3000 BC]
smelted and casted; in modern Turkey.
The start of the Bronze Age; which
varies on different parts of Earth.
Bronze is made by smelting together two
separate ores, one bearing copper, and
the other tin. Bronze tools will
replace copper tools.
[1] Tell Judaidah bronze
figurines These figurines of men and
women from Tell Judaidah, Turkey, are
the oldest examples of true bronze
(combination of copper and tin) known.
They date to about 3000 B.C. The male
figures were originally equipped as
warriors, and the women were dressed
with accessories of precious metal.
They are the forerunners of later
figurines of gods who were ''dressed''
in gold and silver. Recently, the ore
content of the figurines was tested at
the Advanced Photon Source at Argonne
National Laboratory. UNKNOWN
source: http://www-news.uchicago.edu/rel
eases/05/050112.oi-3.jpg
[2] Female Figurine Amuq Valley Tell
Judaidah Turkey Amuq G Early Bronze Age
I (3400-2750 BCE)
Bronze Photographed at the Oriental
Institute of the University of Chicago,
Chicago, Illinois. UNKNOWN
source: http://farm3.staticflickr.com/26
18/3859375883_ccc6b90ec4_b.jpg
[3000 BC]
not drawn with pointed reed, but drawn
with a cut reed-stem pressed into the
wet clay to make wedges.
[1] Archaic
Bookkeeping,Nissen,1993,p118.
COPYRIGHTED
source: Archaic
Bookkeeping,Nissen,1993,p118.
[2] Description Cuneiform script
tablet from the Kirkor Minassian
collection in the Library of Congress.
From Year 6 in the reign from
Amar-Suena/Amar-Sin between 2041 and
2040 BC.
http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.amed/amcune.cf001
3 Date 2012-02-28 16:01 (UTC) Source
This file was derived from:
Cuneiform_script2.jpg Cuneiform
script2.jpg Author
Cuneiform_script2.jpg: derivative
work: Yjenith (talk) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/19/Cuneiform_script2.png
[3000 BC]
[1] Im-Dugud El-Ubaid Mesopotamia the
earliest soft solder 3000BC, presumably
with tin UNKNOWN
source: http://farm4.static.flickr.com/3
116/2778973410_6db0e4ab03_o.jpg}
http://www.britishmuseum.org/images/ps16
5397_l.jpg
[2] {ULSF: Note that this may not be
the earliest known soldered
(soft-soldered joint) material
presumably with tin- update- this is
the correct panel- it's shown by the
Singer source in the Footnotes} Copper
frieze From the temple of Ninhursag,
Tell al-'Ubaid, southern Iraq About
2600-2400 BC COPYRIGHTED
source: http://link.springer.com/article
/10.1007%2FBF03216523?LI=true#
[3000 BC]
[1] Making and Hanging Skeins of
Silk Photo: Image ID: 1564083 +
1564090 NYPL Digital Gallery. From
Twelve pictures showing various stages
in the manufacture of silk. UNKNOWN
source: http://0.tqn.com/d/ancienthistor
y/1/0/d/E/3/Silk.png
[2] Putting Silkworms on Bamboo
Screens NYPL Digital Gallery UNKNOWN
source: http://0.tqn.com/d/ancienthistor
y/1/0/a/E/3/Silk.jpg
[3000 BC]
to provide a water reservoir.
[1] M. Kassas and M. Imam, ''Habitat
and Plant Communities in the Egyptian
Desert: III. The Wadi Bed Ecosystem'',
Journal of Ecology, Vol. 42, No. 2
(Jul., 1954), pp.
424-441 http://www.jstor.org/stable/225
6869 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2256
869
[3000 BC]
[1] Queen Shub-ad harp with
silver Woolley, C. Leonard, and L.
Legrain. Ur excavations. Oxford
University Press,
1934. http://www.clintgoss.com/flutoped
ia.com/refs/Woolley_1934_UrExcavations_V
ol02_excerpt_FP.pdf COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.clintgoss.com/flutope
dia.com/refs/Woolley_1934_UrExcavations_
Vol02_excerpt_FP.pdf
[3000 BC]
in a clay mold.
[1] Trevor I. Williams, ''A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips '', (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000), p79.
source: Trevor I. Williams, "A history
of invention : from stone axes to
silicon chips ", (New York: Checkmark
Books, 2000), p79.
[2] Description English: Liquid
bronze at 1200°C is poured into the
dried and empty casting mold. Date
Source Own work Author Takkk CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/de/Born_bronze_-_Bronze_
casts.jpg
[3000 BC]
assembly.
[1] Kramer, Samuel Noah, and Thorkild
Jacobsen. “Gilgamesh and Agga.”
American Journal of Archaeology 53.1
(1949):
1–18. http://www.jstor.org/stable/501
208 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/5012
08
[2] Kramer, Samuel Noah, and Thorkild
Jacobsen. “Gilgamesh and Agga.”
American Journal of Archaeology 53.1
(1949):
1–18. http://www.jstor.org/stable/501
208 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/5012
08
[3000 BC]
[1] Description A free body
diagram of a mass on an inclined
plane Date 27 May 2007 Source
Own work Author Mets501 CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Free_body.svg/1
000px-Free_body.svg.png
[3000 BC]
calculating device.
[1] Suanpan (the number represented in
the picture is 6,302,715,408). [t Note
that each place represents a decimal
place, and a bead on top at the bar
indicates +5, a bead on bottom at the
bar +1.] English: Abacus Scanned and
uploaded by Malcolm Farmer (englische
Wikipedia) Source: Article for
''abacus'', 9th edition Encyclopedia
Britannica, volume 1 (1875) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/af/Abacus_6.png
[3000 BC]
drill can drill holes and start a fire
from friction.
[1] Description Bow Drill Date
14:27, 7 April 2008 (UTC) Source Own
work Author
Reddi Permission (Reusing this file)
GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6f/Bow_Drill.png
[2980 BC]
step pyramid of Djoser, designed by
Imhotep, the earliest known scientist
of history.
[1] Description English: The Pyramid
of Djoser in Saqqara, Egypt. Date
6 February 2010 Source Own
work Author Wknight94 talk GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Pyramid_of_Djos
er_2010.jpg/1280px-Pyramid_of_Djoser_201
0.jpg
[2800 BC]
[1] Description figurines of a flutist
(playing a flute of the en:aulos type)
and a harpplayer, bronze age, 2600
B.C., from the Greek island en:Keros in
the island group of the Cyclades. On
display at the en:National
Archaeological Museum of Athens. Date
see metadata Source Own work (my
camera) Author sailko GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/85/Cycladic_idol_03_2_re
touched.jpg
[2] Artist English: Euaion
Painter Français : Peintre
d'Euaion Description English: Youth
playing the aulos, detail of a banquet
scene. Tondo of an Attic red-figure
cup, ca. 460 BC–450 BC. Français :
Jeune garçon jouant de l'aulos,
détail d'une scène de banquet. Tondo
d'une coupe attique à figures rouges,
v. 460–450 av. J.-C. Dimensions D.
31.1 cm (12 in.) Current location
(Inventory)Louvre MuseumLink back to
Institution infobox
template Department of Greek, Etruscan
and Roman Antiquities, Sully, first
floor, room 43, case 24 Accession
number G 467 Credit line Campana
Collection, 1861 References ARV²
792,47; Add² 290 Source/Photographer
Jastrow (2008) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/33/Banquet_Euaion_Louvre
_G467_n2.jpg
[2750 BC]
[1] [t Note that these are not the
oldest known saws, but more recent saws
from Minoa.] Figures from: Wells, H.
Bartlett, ''The Position of the Large
Bronze Saws of Minoan Crete in the
History of Tool Making'', Expedition,
16.4, 1974,
p2-8. http://www.penn.museum/expedition
-back-issues/114-volumes-11-20/560-exped
ition-volume-16-number-4-summer-1974.htm
l
source: http://www.penn.museum/expeditio
n-back-issues/114-volumes-11-20/560-expe
dition-volume-16-number-4-summer-1974.ht
ml
[2] Saws from: [1] Deshayes, Jean,
''Les outils de bronze, de l'Indus au
Danube (IVe au IIe millénaire)'',
Librairie orientaliste P.
Geuthner/Paris,
1960 {Deshayes_Les_Outils_1960.pdf} CO
PYRIGHTED
source: Deshayes, Jean, "Les outils de
bronze, de l'Indus au Danube (IVe au
IIe millénaire)", Librairie
orientaliste P. Geuthner/Paris, 1960
[2700 BC]
[1] One of the most ancient arches as
yet discovered is that which was brough
to light during the course of the
excavations carried on ... at the
ancient city of Nuippur (cf. Fig. 15).
It was found at a great depth below the
surface of the mound, being more than
22 1/2 feet below the pavement of
Ur-Engur (c2400BC), and 14 feet below
that of Naram-Sin (c2700 BC) Handcock,
P.S.P. Mesopotamian Archaeology: An
Introduction to the Archaeology of
Babylonia and Assyria. Putnam,
1912. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ErcoAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA170 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=ErcoAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA170
[2500 BC]
The start of the Iron Age in Turkey.
(modern Turkey)|Palestine|Tell Hammeh
(az-Zarqa), Jordan|Central Europe and
north Assyria
[1] Description Dagger with iron blade
and golden hilt from Alaca Höyük.
Early evidence for the use of iron in
Anatolia. Date 2005 Source Own
work Author Stipich Béla GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b9/Alaca_H%C3%BCy%C3%BCk
_dagger.jpg
[2] Xander Veldhuijzen and Eveline van
der Steen, ''Iron Production Center
Found in the Jordan Valley'', Near
Eastern Archaeology, Vol. 62, No. 3
(Sep., 1999), pp. 195-199 Published
by: The American Schools of Oriental
Research Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/3210714 COP
YRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3210
714
[2500 BC]
to left in columns to writing left to
right in rows.
[1] Fischer, S.R. A History of Writing.
Reaktion, 2001. Globalities Series.
p47-48. COPYRIGHTED
source: Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p47-48.
[2] Nissen, Archaic Bookkeeping, 1993,
p22. COPYRIGHTED AND List of gods in
order of seniority: Enlil, Ninlil,
Enki, Nergal, Hendursanga,
Inanna-Zabalam, Ninebgal, Inanna, Utu,
Nanna. Sumerian cuneiform script
clay tablet, Sumer, 2400-2200 BC, 1
tablet, 4,7x4,4x1,7 cm, single column,
5+5 lines. Binding: Barking, Essex,
1998, blue cloth gilt folding case by
Aquarius. PD
source: Nissen, Archaic Bookkeeping,
1993,
p22.http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedi
a/commons/e/e1/Sumerian_MS2272_2400BC.jp
g
[2500 BC]
[1] Norway has a long tradition of
skiing. Skis have been used as a means
of transportation in Norway for several
thousand years. The Stone Age rock
carving, presently called'' the Rødøy
man'' found at Alstahaug in Nordland,
shows the use of skis about 4000 years
ago. The word ''ski'' originates from
the old Norwegian word ski which means
a split and flat piece of
wood. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.vest-telemark.museum.
no/vest-telemark/bilder/Altamannen.JPG
[2] Skiing is actually much older than
Viking. There are ancient images carved
in stone by the people of skiing and
archery. Red Eye Man from Nordland is
over 4,000 years old. In Alta there are
a whole bunch skiers who hunt wild
animals. They are over 3,000 years old.
You might see them in here if you look
closely. The world's second oldest ski,
Drevja from Skien Norway is more than
5000 years old. But in Russia it
certainly found a ski that is about
8,000 years old! UNKNOWN
source: http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_ofAN_C
hFQts/TM2M6_X9y7I/AAAAAAAACMg/Qu9tZMLJNJ
A/s1600/ski+pikt+ol+94.jpg
[2500 BC]
[1] The Royal Game of Ur From Ur,
southern Iraq, about 2600-2400
BC One of the most popular games of
the ancient world This game board is
one of several with a similar layout
found by Leonard Woolley in the Royal
Cemetery at Ur. The wood had decayed
but the inlay of shell, red limestone
and lapis lazuli survived in position
so that the original shape could be
restored. The board has twenty squares
made of shell: Five squares each have
flower rosettes, 'eyes', and circled
dots. The remaining five squares have
various designs of five dots. According
to references in ancient documents, two
players competed to race their pieces
from one end of the board to another.
Pieces were allowed on to the board at
the beginning only with specific throws
of the dice. We also know that rosette
spaces were lucky. The gaming pieces
for this particular board do not
survive. However, some sets of gaming
pieces of inlaid shale and shell were
excavated at Ur with their boards. The
boards appear to have been hollow with
the pieces stored inside. Dice, either
stick dice or tetrahedral in shape,
were also found. Examples of this
'Game of Twenty Squares' date from
about 3000 BC to the first millennium
AD and are found widely from the
eastern Mediterranean and Egypt to
India. A version of the Mesopotamian
game survived within the Jewish
community at Cochin, South India until
modern times. PD
source: http://www.britishmuseum.org/ima
ges/ps121289_l.jpg
[2] he oldest backgammon in the world
along with 60 pieces has been unearthed
beneath the rubbles of the legendary
Burnt City in Sistan-Baluchistan
province, southeastern Iran, Iranian
Cultural Heritage News Agency
reported. Iranian archeologists
working on the relics of the
5,000-year-old civilization argue this
backgammon is much older than the one
already discovered in Mesopotamia and
their evidence is strong enough to
claim the board game was first played
in the Burnt City and then transferred
to other civilizations. ''The
backgammon reveals intriguing clues to
the lifestyle of those people,'' said
Mansour Sajjadi, head of the research
team. ''The board is rectangular and
made of ebony, which did not grow in
Sistan and merchants used to import it
from India.'' He added the board
features an engraved serpent coiling
around itself for 20 times, thus
producing 20 slots for the game, more
affectionately known in Persian as
Nard. The engraving, artistically done,
indicates artisans in the Burnt City
were masters of the craft. ''The 60
pieces were also unearthed inside a
terracotta vessel beside the board.
They were made of common stones
quarried in the city, including agate
and turquoise,'' Sajjadi
added. Experts still wonder why they
played the game with 60 pieces and are
trying to discern its rules, but it at
least shows it is 100-200 years older
than the one discovered in Mesopotamia.
... PD
source: http://www.payvand.com/news/04/d
ec/dice-ancient.jpg
[2500 BC]
constellations.
[1] Rogers, J. H., ''Origins of the
ancient constellations: I. The
Mesopotamian traditions'', Journal of
the British Astronomical Association,
vol.108, no.1,
p.9-28. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1
998JBAA..108....9R UNKNOWN
source: http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/19
98JBAA..108....9R
[2] Seal of Adda From about 5,000
BC, stamp seals, cut with simple
designs, were used to mark ownership on
clay sealings on storeroom doors. They
were also found on the bags, baskets
etc in which goods were traded up and
down the Tigris and Euphrates. Around
3,500 BC, the cylinder seal was
invented; it provided room for
elaborately carved designs, and could
be rolled over clay. The Akkadian
greenstone seal (height 3.9cm) shown
here, dating to about 2,300 BC, is
shown alongside its modern impression.
Gods and goddesses are depicted,
identified by their horned head-dresses
and attributes as a hunting god, the
goddess Ishtar, the sun god Shamash and
the water god Enki followed by his
vizier. 'Adda, scribe' is written in
cuneiform above a lion, identifying the
owner as a high official, who could
also have sealed letters and
administrative documents on
clay. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/anc
ient/cultures/images/mesopotamia_seal.jp
g
[2450 BC]
writing (the earliest parchment).
[1] Image: A detail of the Ten
Commandments scroll. Credit:
DCI UNKNOWN
source: http://blogs.discovery.com/.a/6a
00d8341bf67c53ef0154384d333c970c-pi
[2400 BC]
history.
[1] Nies, James Buchanan, Clarence
Elwood Keiser, and Albert Tobias Clay.
''Historical, religious and economic
texts and antiquities.''
(1920). http://digital.library.stonybro
ok.edu/cdm/singleitem/collection/iraqiar
cheology/id/25/rec/12 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://digital.library.stonybroo
k.edu/cdm/singleitem/collection/iraqiarc
heology/id/25/rec/12
[2345 BC]
are made from the fibrous layers within
the stem of the papyrus plant.
[1] Papyrus Prisse. Egyptien 189.
Enseignement de Ptahhotep(217-298)
UNKNOWN
source: http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148
/btv1b8304612b/f1.highres
[2300 BC]
earliest known semitic language. The
earliest verb tense, and noun gender.
The first dictionary.
[1] Nissen, H.J. et al. Archaic
Bookkeeping: Early Writing and
Techniques of Economic Administration
in the Ancient Near East. University of
Chicago Press, 1994, p124. COPYRIGHTED
source: Nissen, H.J. et al. Archaic
Bookkeeping: Early Writing and
Techniques of Economic Administration
in the Ancient Near East. University of
Chicago Press, 1994, p124.
[2] Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p50. COPYRIGHTED
source: Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p50.
[2300 BC]
making, glass beads; in Mesopotamia.
[1] Figures 2b and 2a from: J.
Henderson, J. Evans and K. Nikita,
''ISOTOPIC EVIDENCE FOR THE PRIMARY
PRODUCTION, PROVENANCE AND TRADE OF
LATE BRONZE AGE GLASS IN THE
MEDITERRANEAN'', Mediterranean
Archaeology and Archaeometry, Vol. 10,
No. 1, pp. 1‐24.
2010. http://www.rhodes.aegean.gr/maa_j
ournal/Henderson%2010_1.pdf COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.rhodes.aegean.gr/maa_
journal/Henderson%2010_1.pdf
[2] Glass ingots (inset) from a Bronze
Age shipwreck near Turkey fit Egyptian
molds. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.toutankharton.com/IMG
/jpg/a6260_1449.jpg
[2300 BC]
These consist of epics and myths, hymns
and laments, proverbs and wisdom.
These writings record a belief in Gods,
Goddesses, a Heaven, and an Under
World.
There are clear similarities between
the Sumerian and the later Greek
stories, for example stories about the
creation of the universe, good and bad
deeds of the gods, and of a flood.
The Sumerians believe in a variety of
Gods and Goddesses. People of other
regions have similar Gods and
Goddesses, but with different names,
for example, the Sumerian Goddess of
love and war, Inanna is analogous to
the Babylonian Ishtar, the Greek
Aphrodite, and the Roman Venus.
Similarly the Sumerian sky-god An {oN},
is analogous to the Babylonian "Anu"
{o-nU}, the Greek "Zeus", and Roman
"Jupiter".
[1] Photo of Creation and deluge tablet
- I did verify that this is the
earliest tablet of the earliest written
story with Kramer's Sumerian
Mythology[t] Arno Poebel, ''Historical
and grammatical texts'', vols 1-5,
1914. vol 1:
http://books.google.com/books?id=tg0TAAA
AYAAJ vol 4:
http://books.google.com/books?id=mxwYAAA
AYAAJ vol 5:
http://books.google.com/books?id=_A0TAAA
AYAAJ PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=_A0TAAAAYAAJ
[2] Photo of Creation and deluge
tablet - I did verify that this is the
earliest tablet of the earliest written
story with Kramer's Sumerian
Mythology[t] Arno Poebel, ''Historical
and grammatical texts'', vols 1-5,
1914. vol 1:
http://books.google.com/books?id=tg0TAAA
AYAAJ vol 4:
http://books.google.com/books?id=mxwYAAA
AYAAJ vol 5:
http://books.google.com/books?id=_A0TAAA
AYAAJ PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=_A0TAAAAYAAJ
[2200 BC]
completely phonetic. The first
alphabet.
Egyptian scribes reduce Egyptian
writing to only 26 signs with no
vowels.
[1] Fischer, S.R. A History of Writing.
Reaktion, 2001. Globalities Series.
p48. COPYRIGHTED
source: Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p48.
[2200 BC]
[1] Closeup of mandarin tree Photo
taken December 16, 2004 by Allen
Timothy Chang in the Berkeley Botanical
Garden GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/58/Mandarin_tree_closeup
.JPG
[2] Description English: Ambersweet
oranges, a new cold-resistant orange
variety. Français : Oranges de la
variété Ambersweet, une variété
tolérante au froid. Date 22 March
2005 This image was released by the
Agricultural Research Service, the
research agency of the United States
Department of Agriculture, with the ID
k3644-12 (next). PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Ambersweet_oran
ges.jpg/908px-Ambersweet_oranges.jpg
[2130 BC]
[1] [t Note that this is not evidence
of the earliest horn, but is from
around 1250BC or 700 BCE] Hittites:
Musical scene, Carchemish Height:
100 cm, 700 BC. Museum of Anatolian
Civilizations, Ankara Three men are
playing a drum, while on the left a man
is holding a horn-shaped instrument to
his mouth with both hands. PD
source: http://farm1.staticflickr.com/6/
10156251_017f473153_b.jpg
[2100 BC]
medical) text; which lists 10 remedies.
[1] Cuneiform medical
recipes Picture from a reproduction
of the original clay tablet dug in
Nippur, Sumer, dated from the III
millennium before Christ, and kept in
the Museum of the University of
Philadelphia (USA). This is
considered to be the earliest medical
recipes manual known. Thew original
picture at 7 Mpixel resolution is
available from the author. CC
source: http://farm4.staticflickr.com/33
27/3524713203_7d0a64d7aa_b.jpg
[2] Figure 2:The oldest medical text
“handbook” Clay Tablet with
pharmacological inscription from Nuppur
late 3rd Millennium B.C. University
museum, University of Pennsylvania,
Philadelphia USA . UNKNOWN
source: http://www.ispub.com/journal/the
-internet-journal-of-health/volume-5-num
ber-1/surgical-medical-and-anesthesia-in
-the-middle-east-notes-on-ancient-and-me
dieval-practice-with-reference-to-islami
c-arabic-medicine.article-g05.fs.jpg
[2100 BC]
system, a sexagesimal (base 60) number
system. Fractional values such as 1/60
and 1/3600 are also in use. This base
60 number system is still in use to
measure time and angles.
[1] Archaic Bookkeeping, Nissen, 1993,
pp145. COPYRIGHTED
source: Archaic Bookkeeping, Nissen,
1993, pp145.
[2] Archaic Bookkeeping, Nissen, 1993,
pp145. COPYRIGHTED
source: Archaic Bookkeeping, Nissen,
1993, pp145.
[2050 BC]
[1] Tablet 3191 20 x 10 cm sun-baked
tablet. Kramer, ''History Begins At
Sumer'', 1956, p53.
source: Kramer, "History Begins At
Sumer", 1956, p53.
[2] [t Note - this doesn't look like
JKramer's image''] The Code of
Ur-Namma, the world's first known
codified list of laws. See the laws of
Ur-Namma.
source: http://sumerianshakespeare.com/m
ediac/450_0/media/fa2c170b2842c984ffff80
05ffffe415.jpg
[2000 BC]
[1] Tell-tale signs of 'bit damage'
found by researchers in Kazakhstan are
evidence that horses were harnessed and
may have been ridden as early as 5,500
years ago. Researchers found traces of
the use of thong bridles, which are
simply leather thongs draped over the
gap between the teeth of a horse's
lower jaw and knotted under the chin,
with the trailing ends acting as the
reins. This is a depiction of the use
of a rawhide thong bridle on a
primitive domesticated horse. The thong
loops over the bar, or diastema,
between the anterior and cheek teeth,
and is knotted below the
chin. Credit: Illustration by Sandra
Olsen, Carnegie Museum of Natural
History Evidence of thong bridle use
suggests horses may have been ridden as
early as 5,500 years ago. Illustration
by Sandra Olsen, Carnegie Museum of
Natural History PD
source: http://www.nsf.gov/news/mmg/medi
a/images/horse1_f.jpg
[2] Outram, Alan K. et al. “The
Earliest Horse Harnessing and
Milking.” Science 323.5919 (2009):
1332 –1335.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/323/5919/1332.short
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/2547163
9
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/323/5919/1332.short
[2000 BC]
make the wheel lighter in weight.
[1] Fig. 4. Rakhigarhi: Terracotta
wheel. The painted lines radiating from
the central hub and reaching the
circumference clearly represent the
spokes of the wheel. Mature
Harappan. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.sksuman.110mb.com/ind
ex_files/image542.jpg
[2] Fig. 5. Banawali: Terracotta
wheels showing the spokes in low
relief. The specimen on the left
is worn out but the spokes may still
be seen. The specimen on the right,
though broken, shows the spokes very
clearly. Mature Harappan. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.sksuman.110mb.com/ind
ex_files/image620.jpg
[2000 BC]
River
[1] Ancient wooden lock and key from
Khorsabad (Much reduced) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.usgennet.org/usa/topi
c/preservation/science/inventions/chpt8.
htm
[2000 BC]
the Euphrates River southeast of
Babylon
[1] PLATE II OLDEST LITERARY
CATALOGUE This plate illustrates a
literary catalogue compiled in
approximately 2000 B. C. (clay tablet
29.15.155 in the Nippur collection of
the University Museum). The upper part
represents the tablet itself; the lower
part, the author's hand copy of the
tablet. The titles of those
compositions whose actual contents we
can now reconstruct in large part are
as follows: 1. Hymn of King Shulgi
(approximately 2100 B. C.). 2. Hymn of
King Lipit-Ishtar (approximately 1950
B. C.). 3. Myth, ''The Creation of the
Pickax'' (see p. 51). 4. Hymn to
Inanna, queen of heaven. 5. Hymn to
Enlil, the air-god. 6. Hymn to the
temple of the mother-goddess Ninhursag
in the city of Kesh. 7. Epic tale,
''Gilgamesh, Enkidu, and the Nether
World'' (see p. 30). 8. Epic tale,
''Inanna and Ebih'' (see p. 82). 9.
Epic tale, ''Gilgamesh and
Huwawa.'' 10. Epic tale, ''Gilgamesh
and Agga.'' 11. Myth, ''Cattle and
Grain'' (see p. 53). 12. Lamentation
over the fall of Agade in the time of
Naram-Sin (approximately 2400 B.
C.). 13. Lamentation over the
destruction of Ur. This composition,
consisting of 436 lines, has been
almost completely reconstructed and
published by the author as
Assyriological Study No. 12 of the
Oriental Institute of the University of
Chicago. 14. Lamentation over the
destruction of Nippur. 15. Lamentation
over the destruction of Sumer. 16.
Epic tale, ''Lugalbanda and
Enmerkar.'' 17. Myth, ''Inanna's
Descent to the Nether World'' (see p.
83). 18. Perhaps a hymn to
Inanna. 19. Collection of short hymns
to all the important temples of
Sumer. 20. Wisdom compositions
describing the activities of a boy
training to be a scribe. 21. Wisdom
composition, ''Instructions of a
Peasant to His Son.'' 16 PD
source: http://www.sacred-texts.com/ane/
sum/img/pl02.jpg
[2000 BC]
Babylonia.
[1] Copper ingot from Zakros,
Crete Photo by Chris 73 GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/02/Copper_Ingot_Crete.jp
g
[2000 BC]
onion are grown around the fertile
crescent.
[1] Description English: Leek field
in Italy Date 19 January 2008,
10:07 Source Flickr: Porri, Lauch,
Leek Author Peter Forster CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Leek_field_in_I
taly_3.jpg/640px-Leek_field_in_Italy_3.j
pg
[1700 BC]
zinc alloy).
Minor
[1] Thornton, Christopher P. et al.
“On Pins and Needles: Tracing the
Evolution of Copper-base Alloying at
Tepe Yahya, Iran, via ICP-MS Analysis
of Common-place Items.” Journal of
Archaeological Science 29.12 (2002):
1451–1460. http://www.sciencedirect.c
om/science/article/pii/S0305440302908095
{Thornton_Brass_2002CE.pdf} PD
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence/article/pii/S0305440302908095
[1700 BC]
text.
[1] Samual Kramer, ''History Begins at
Sumer'', (Garden City, NY: Doubleday
Anchor Books, 1959), 3rd edition, 1981,
p66. copyrighted
source: Samual Kramer, "History Begins
at Sumer", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday
Anchor Books, 1959), 3rd edition, 1981,
p66.
[1650 BC]
[1] Description Rhind Mathematical
Papyrus Thebes, End of the Second
Intermediate Period (c.1550
BC) Acquired by the Scottish lawyer
A.H. Rhind during his sojourn in Thebes
in the 1850s. Overall length 319 cm,
width: 34.3 cm Frame length: 216 cm,
width: 43 cm British Museum EA
10057 Department of Ancient Egypt and
Sudan Date 21 May 2006 Source
http://www.archaeowiki.org/Image:Rhind_
Mathematical_Papyrus.jpg Author Paul
James Cowie (Pjamescowie)
source: http://kak.ru/vimg/article/f304a
d8044c45bfa5b9a21fd400ae5b2.gif
[2] Rhind Mathematical Papyrus
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.bbc.co.uk/ahistoryoft
heworld/images/emp/00017_02.jpg
[1600 BC]
known in Babylonia: that the sum of the
squares of the two legs of a right
triangle is equal to the square of the
hypotenuse.
[1] YBC 7289 (obverse). Image by West
Semitic Research. All rights reserved.
AND YBC 7289 (reverse). Image by
West Semitic Research. All rights
reserved. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://isaw.nyu.edu/exhibitions/
before-pythagoras/items/ybc-7289/images/
YBC7289obv.pnghttp://isaw.nyu.edu/exhibi
tions/before-pythagoras/items/ybc-7289/i
mages/YBC7289rev.png
[2] Summary A black and white
rendition of my own photograph of the
Yale Babylonian Collection's Tablet YBC
7289 (c. 1800–1600 BCE), showing a
Babylonian approximation to the square
root of 2 in the context of Pythagoras'
Theorem for an isosceles
triangle. All use should attribute
both me (mentioning
http://www.math.ubc.ca/~cass/Euclid/ybc/
ybc.html) and the Yale Babylonian
Collection as the original holder of
the tablet. Author: Bill Casselman
(mailto:cass@math.ubc.ca) GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0b/Ybc7289-bw.jpg
[1531 BC]
recognized in Babylon.
[1] Description English: Venus Tablet
of Ammisaduqa. Neo-Assyrian
period. Date 15 July 2010 Current
location [show]British
Museum Source/Photographer Fæ (Own
work) Permission (Reusing this
file) See below. British Museum
reference K.160 Detailed
description Upper part of a clay
tablet, 3 pieces, beginning of obverse
and the end of reverse are wanting,
astrological forecasts, a copy of the
so-called Venus Tablet of Ammisaduqa,
Neo-Assyrian. ~ Description extract
from BM record. Size Length: 17.14 cm
(6.75 in) Width: 9.2 cm (3.6 in)
Thickness: 2.22 cm (0.87
in) Location Room 55 CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/bb/Venus_Tablet_of_Ammis
aduqa.jpg
[1500 BC]
(also called "burned brick").
[1] [t Note that this is not the oldest
baked brick as far as I
know] Description العربية:
أنقاض مدينة أور
الأثرية في محافظة ذي
قار جنوب العراق English:
Ruins in the Town of Ur, Southern
Iraq Español: Ruinas de la ciuad de
Ur con el Zigurat de Ur-Nammu al fondo
a las afueras de Nasiriyah. Date 20
June 2006 Source Flickr Author
M.Lubinski from Iraq,USA. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Ur-Nassiriyah.j
pg/1280px-Ur-Nassiriyah.jpg
[1500 BC]
[1] Part of a Bas-relief showing a
Pulley, and a Warrior originally in
the most ancient palace of Nimroud. PD
source: http://www.ctesiphon.com/auction
s/Nineve-Remains-NY-1854-s-g.jpg
[2] Description Ilustración de una
polea simple fija. Date 7 agugust
2004 Source Own work Author César
Rincón GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a3/Polea-simple-fija.jpg
[1500 BC]
collections of poems or hymns,
originate as an oral tradition before
being written down 1200 years later.
[1] Geographic horizon of the Rigveda,
with river names. Also indicated are
the extent of the contemporary Swat and
Cemetary H cultures, and the location
of Harappa. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d5/Rigvedic_geography.jp
g
[1500 BC]
{KlePSi-Dru}).
[1] clepsydra Egyptian clepsydra An
Egyptian clepsydra Also known as a
water clock, an instrument in which the
discharge of water from a storage tank
is monitored in order to measure the
passing of time. Clepsydras were used
from ancient times until the
Renaissance. ''Clepsydra'' is Greek for
''water thief.'' UNKNOWN
source: http://www.daviddarling.info/ima
ges/Egyptian_clepsydra.jpg
[2] The Karnak clepsydra In 1904,
archaeological excavations within the
ancient temple complex of Karnak in
Egypt led to the recovery of fragments
of a large conical vessel. The presence
of an outlet near the base, plus
calibration scales on the interior
walls, showed the object to be a
classic example of an outflow
clepsydra. Figure 6: A full-size
reconstruction of the Karnak clepsydraA
full-size reconstruction (Fig. 6) may
be seen in the New Walk Museum, and
illustrates how it could act as a
timekeeper independent of the Sun. The
vessel is filled with water to a mark
near the rim, and then allowed to empty
via a narrow jet near the base. With a
cylindrical container the rate of flow
diminishes as the head of water within
the pot decreases, so the water surface
drops more slowly with time. The
ancient Egyptian designer (Amenhemhet,
about 1550 B.C.) has cleverly
compensated for this by employing a
conical vessel, and trials conducted
during the construction of this exhibit
have shown that the chosen angle gives
rise to an excellent approximation to a
linear descent of the water
surface. The hieroglyphics covering
the outside of the vessel (delineated
by Dr. Sarah Symons) do not explain how
the water clock was to be used: they
are simply traditional decorations in
praise of the gods. More information is
given alongside the exhibit. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.sundials.co.uk/leices
ter/fig06.jpg
[1500 BC]
Olmec city in Veracruz, Mexico.
Lorenzo, Veracruz, Mexico
[1] Edited CabezaColosal1
MuseoXalapa.jpg file already in Commons
by adding a white line to visually
separate the two photos/views. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/20/CabezaColosal1_MuseoX
alapa_v1.1.jpg
[1450 BC]
vowel sounds.
north coast)
[1] 14th century
BC provenance Ugarit area Syria per
iod 2000-1000 BC size 1.3 cm x 5.1
cm materials Clay
. themes Commerce. Communication.
Daily Life. and alphabet UNKNOWN
source: http://www.unesco.org/culture/mu
seum-for-dialogue/images/items/650/021.j
pghttp://www.websters-online-dictionary.
org/images/wiki/wikipedia/commons/c/c5/U
garitic_alphabet.png
[2] Ugarit tablet datation 14th
century
BC provenance Ugarit area Syria per
iod 2000-1000 BC size 1.3 cm x 5.1
cm materials Clay
. themes Commerce. Communication.
Daily Life. and alphabet UNKNOWN
source: http://www.unesco.org/culture/mu
seum-for-dialogue/images/items/650/021.j
pghttp://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/thumb/d/dd/Ugaritic-alphabet-cha
rt.svg/1000px-Ugaritic-alphabet-chart.sv
g.png http://www.oocities.org/encyclope
dia_damascena/ancientsyria/images/mus013
.jpg
[1400 BC]
[1] Fischer, S.R. A History of Writing.
Reaktion, 2001. Globalities Series.
p171. COPYRIGHTED
source: Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p171.
[2] Description English: Ox scapula
with a divination inscription from the
Shang Dynasty, dating to the reign of
King Wu Ding. Unearthed at Anyang,
Henan Province. Held at the National
Museum of China in Beijing. Date 2
August 2011 Source Own work Author
BabelStone CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Shang_dynasty_i
nscribed_scapula.jpg/684px-Shang_dynasty
_inscribed_scapula.jpg
[1350 BC]
kissing.
[1] Descripció A ''house altar''
depicting Akhenaten, Nefertiti and
three of their Daughters. New Kingdom,
Amarna period, 18th dynasty. Image
taken at the Altes Museum,
Berlin. Data 8 novembre 2006 Origen
Own Work (photo) Autor Keith
Schengili-Roberts Permís (Com
reutilitzar aquest fitxer) I, the
author of this photo, hereby release it
under copyleft/GFDL/CC Altres versions
another photograph of this object:
Image:House_Altar_Akhenaten_Nefertiti_Be
rlin.jpg GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/b/be/HouseAltar-Akhe
natenNefertitiAndThreeOfTheirDaughters.p
ng/1280px-HouseAltar-AkhenatenNefertitiA
ndThreeOfTheirDaughters.png
[1350 BC]
hammering.
[1] Items from inside King
Tutankhamen's tomb UNKNOWN
source: http://castle.pri.ee/wp-content/
uploads/2010/08/210403_3.jpg
[1348 BC]
one God exists; by Amenhotep IV,
Pharaoh of Egypt. All monotheistic
religions may originate from the
influence of this earliest recorded
monotheism.
[1] Antiquit� �gyptienne,
Akh�naton, Mus�e
�gyptien du Caire, (�gypte).
Statue of Akhenaten depicted in a
style typical of the Amarna period, on
display at the Museum of Egyptian
Antiquities, Cairo Reign 1353 BC
� 1336 BC[2] or 1352 BC �
1336 BC[3] or 1351�1334 BC[4] CC
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:GD-EG-Caire-Mus%C3%A9e061.JPG
[2] English: Amun and Mut Nederlands:
Amon en
Mut Source http://runeberg.org/nfba/04
95.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Amon_och_Mut%2C_Nordisk_familjebok.pn
g
[1300 BC]
[1] Half of a two-piece limestone mould
for casting a flat-bladed tool,
1650-1050 BC
(1899,1229.91). COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.britishmuseum.org/col
lectionimages/AN00854/AN00854035_001_l.j
pg
[1300 BC]
notation and musical composition.
[1] Tablet U.3011 (handcopy of O. R.
Gurney, 1974) Volume 32 of the Old
Babylonian Encyclopaedia Nabnitu
(Creature) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.kingmixers.com/images
/tablet.jpg
[1200 BC]
South of France)
[1] Blond shellac sample PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e5/Schellak.jpg
[2] English: Picture of Kerria lacca
from book Indian Insect Life: a Manual
of the Insects of the Plains by Harold
Maxwell-Lefroy. 1. Healthy
insects on stick 2. Unhealthy
insects on stick 3. First instar,
active stage. 40x 4. Female, 4
weeks after inoculation. 35x. 5.
Female, 13 weeks after inoculation.
15x. 6. Dead female cell, with
young emerging. 4x. 7. Male cell,
13 weeks after inoculation. 15x.
8. Wingless male. 12x. 9. Wingled
male. 40x. Date 1909 Source
http://www.flickr.com/photos/biodivlibr
ary/6280048728/in/set-72157627975114672
Author Harold Maxwell-Lefroy CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/4/47/02-Indian-Insec
t-Life_-_Harold_Maxwell-Lefroy_-_Kerria-
Lacca.jpg/611px-02-Indian-Insect-Life_-_
Harold_Maxwell-Lefroy_-_Kerria-Lacca.jpg
[1200 BC]
is an alloy of iron and carbon with
carbon content up to 2 percent.
Greece|Cypress and Israel
[1] {ULSF: Note that these may not be
the knives from the Nature article with
carburized iron (steel): Carpenter, H.
C H., and J. M. Robinson. 1930. ''The
metallography of some ancient Egyptian
implements.'', Iron and Steel Inst.
121:430
32. http://www.nature.com/nature/journa
l/v125/n3162/abs/125859a0.html } sourc
e: Flinders Petrie, ''The Metals in
Egypt'', Ancient Egypt, 1915,
p21-22. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=WJwYAQAAMAAJ&pg=RA1-PA22 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=WJwYAQAAMAAJ&pg=RA1-PA22
[2] {ULSF: Note that these may not be
the knives from the Nature article with
carburized iron (steel): Carpenter, H.
C H., and J. M. Robinson. 1930. ''The
metallography of some ancient Egyptian
implements.'', Iron and Steel Inst.
121:430
32. http://www.nature.com/nature/journa
l/v125/n3162/abs/125859a0.html } sourc
e: Flinders Petrie, ''The Metals in
Egypt'', Ancient Egypt, 1915,
p21-22. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=WJwYAQAAMAAJ&pg=RA1-PA22 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=WJwYAQAAMAAJ&pg=RA1-PA22
[1150 BC]
ancestor of the Greek alphabet.
Beurut, and Ashkelon
[1] Fischer, S.R. A History of Writing.
Reaktion, 2001. Globalities Series.
p48. COPYRIGHTED
source: Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p48.
[2] Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p54. COPYRIGHTED
source: Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p54.
[1000 BC]
of a pulley is multiplied by the number
of ropes pulling the load.
[1] Diagram 3a: A simple compound
pulley system—a movable pulley and a
fixed pulley lifting weight W, with an
additional pulley redirecting the
lifting force downward. The tension in
each line is W/3, yielding an advantage
of 3. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Pulley2a.svg/10
00px-Pulley2a.svg.png
[2] Publishing, DK. Science: The
Definitive Visual Guide. DK Publishing,
2009, p41. COPYRIGHTED
source: Publishing, DK. Science: The
Definitive Visual Guide. DK Publishing,
2009, p41.
[1000 BC]
[1] Description English: Photo of
the Nimrud lens in the british
museum Date feb 2011 Source
Photo by user:geni Author
Geni CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/65/Nimrud_lens_British_M
useum.jpg
[1000 BC]
ancestor of Hebrew, Arabic, and
probably the alphabets of India.
Consonant letters are used to mark
vowel sounds.
[1] Summary Pergamonmuseum,
Eck-Orthostat des Fürsten Kilamuwa,
Samal (heute Zincirli, Türkei), selbst
fotografiert. Memorial stone of
Kilamuwa King of Sam'al (Zincirli), c.
850 B.C., written in aramean. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Pergamonmuseum_
-_Vorderasiatisches_Museum_046.JPG/768px
-Pergamonmuseum_-_Vorderasiatisches_Muse
um_046.JPG
[2] Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p54. COPYRIGHTED
source: Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p54.
[1000 BC]
Israel
[1] Fischer, S.R. A History of Writing.
Reaktion, 2001. Globalities Series.
p96. COPYRIGHTED
source: Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p96.
[2] The deciphered text: Hebrew
transliteration: English
translation: {.......................
.....................................}
1′ you shall not do {it}, but worship
the {Lord}. 2′ Judge the sla{ve} and
the wid{ow} / Judge the orph{an} 3′
{and} the stranger. {Pl}ead for the
infant / plead for the po{or and} 4′
the widow. Rehabilitate {the poor} at
the hands of the king. 5′ Protect
the po{or and} the slave / {supp}ort
the stranger. UNKNOWN
source: http://wordpress.haifa.ac.il/wp-
content/uploads/2010/01/d797d7a8d7a1-2.j
pg
[922 BC]
is founded. The story of Moses.
[1] Oldest Hebrew Writing Found in the
Elah Fortress 18 miles west of
Jerusalem,, Deciphered January 7,
2010 Image source: University of
Haifa UNKNOWN
source: http://www.redorbit.com/media/up
loads/2010/01/b67acf4eda9e77d153ebac3bf1
99744b1.jpg
[2] Oldest Hebrew Writing Found in the
Elah Fortress 18 miles west of
Jerusalem, Deciphered January 7,
2010 Image source: University of
Haifa UNKNOWN
source: http://www.redorbit.com/media/up
loads/2010/01/1b8fb494e2a99c79e89b2e72e5
41f7e61.jpg
[850 BC]
given its own sign.
[1] National Archaeological Museum of
Greece Discovered in 1871 near
Athens’s Dipylon Gate, this jug,
dating to around 740 B.C., bears one of
the earliest Greek alphabetic
inscriptions: “Whoever of all the
dancers now dances most friskily.”
The vase was probably awarded to the
winner of a dance competition, like the
one described by Homer in Book VIII of
the Odyssey. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.basarchive.org/bswb_g
raphics/BSAO/01/01/BSAO010104800L.jpg
[2] Description English: One of the
four oldest known samples of the use of
the Greek alphabet. It has been dated
to ca. 740 BCE. ...(h)ος νῦν
ὀρχεστôν πάντον
ἀταλό(τατα)... Date 20
March 2010 Source Durutomo Author
Durutomo The text of the
inscription runs:
ΗΟΣΝΥΝΟΡΧΕΣΤΟΝΠΑΝΤΟΝ
ΑΤΑΛΟΤΑΤΑΠΑΙΖΕΙΤΟΤΟΔ
ΕΚΛΜΙΝ In modern scholarly
editions this is transcribed as:
hος νῦν ὀρχεστôν
πάντον ἀταλότατα
παίζει, τô τόδε
κλ[.]μιν[...] This corresponds
to the following in the later classical
orthography in Greek (using the Ionian
form of the Greek alphabet), with the
metric feet of the hexameter
indicated: ὃς νῦν
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Dipylon_Inscrip
tion.JPG/1280px-Dipylon_Inscription.JPG
[800 BC]
South-East Asia.
[1] Fischer, S.R. A History of Writing.
Reaktion, 2001. Globalities Series.
p107. COPYRIGHTED
source: Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p107.
[2] Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p109. COPYRIGHTED
source: Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p109.
[785 BC]
Babylonian astronomers.
[1] by Ted Huntington PD
source: my own based on info from
http://www.britannica.com/eb/art-3466?ar
ticleTypeId=1 and
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/fac
tsheet/sunfact.html
[753 BC]
[1] Reconstruction of the Iron Age huts
on the Palatine, dating back to the 8th
century B.C. Rome, Palatine
Museum. Description: During the
excavations in 1948 the remains of
three huts, forum and orifices for
roof-supporting poles were found; the
walls apparently were made of clay and
straw mixture. The tombs dating from
10th—8th centuries B.C. were found
near the huts. Credits: © Photo,
text: GIOVANNI D’ANNA “LEGGENDE E
TRADIZIONI DELL’ANTICA ROMA”,
ARCHEO, N. 31, p. 58. Photo: Archivio
IGDA © Istituto Geografico De
Agostini S.p.A. — Novara COPYRIGHTED
source: http://ancientrome.ru/art/artwor
k/arch/rom/rome/palatinus/pal004.jpg
[2] Artist's impression of an early
settlement on the Palatine
Hill UNKNOWN
source: http://www.daviddarling.info/ima
ges/Palatine_Hill_settlement.jpg
[690 BC]
to move water from one place to another
near Nineveh.
[1] Thorkild Jacobsen and Seton Lloyd,
Sennacherib's Aqueduct at Jerwan,
Oriental Institute Publication 24,
University of Chicago Press,
1935 http://oi.uchicago.edu/pdf/oip24.p
df UNKNOWN
source: http://oi.uchicago.edu/pdf/oip24
[2] Ruined corbelled arch of an
aqueduct, Jerwan, Iraq, 1977. Credit:
Spectrum Colour Library /
Heritage-Images Additional
information Ruined corbelled arch of
an aqueduct, Jerwan, Iraq, 1977. Built
in around 700 BC by the Assyrian King
Sennacherib to supply water to his
capital city, Nineveh, this is thought
to be the oldest aqueduct in the
world. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://watermarked.heritage-imag
es.com/2332294.jpg
[690 BC]
cement mixed with limestone); used in
an aqueduct.
[1] Plate 14 image B from: Thorkild
Jacobsen and Seton Lloyd, Sennacherib's
Aqueduct at Jerwan, Oriental Institute
Publication 24, University of Chicago
Press,
1935 http://oi.uchicago.edu/pdf/oip24.p
df UNKNOWN
source: http://oi.uchicago.edu/pdf/oip24
[2] Thorkild Jacobsen and Seton Lloyd,
Sennacherib's Aqueduct at Jerwan,
Oriental Institute Publication 24,
University of Chicago Press,
1935 http://oi.uchicago.edu/pdf/oip24.p
df UNKNOWN
source: http://oi.uchicago.edu/pdf/oip24
[651 BC]
eye (Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and
Saturn) are clearly distinguished from
stars in Babylonia.
[1] A. Sachs, ''Babylonian
Observational Astronomy'',
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London. Series A,
Mathematical and Physical Sciences ,
Vol. 276, No. 1257, The Place of
Astronomy in the Ancient World (May 2,
1974), pp.
43-50 http://www.jstor.org/stable/74273
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/7427
3
[650 BC]
Letter names are changed to /A/, /BA/,
/KA/, etc.
[1] Fischer, S.R. A History of Writing.
Reaktion, 2001. Globalities Series.
p104. COPYRIGHTED
source: Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p104.
[2] The Marsiliana Tablet (Ivory, 650
B.C.) and Etruscan alphabets (click
image to enlarge): UNKNOWN
source: http://www.ou.edu/class/ahi4163/
slides3/alphabet.gif
[622 BC]
Hebrew Bible, The Ten Commandments, and
The Story of Genesis).
[1]
http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/scrolls/imag
es/torah-b.jpg Miqsat Ma`ase
ha-Torah 4Q396(MMT[superscript]c) Parc
hment Copied late first century
B.C.E.-early first century C.E. The
Torah Precepts Scroll Translation of
the Torah Precepts Scroll Miqsat
Ma`ase
ha-Torah 4Q396(MMT[superscript]c) Parc
hment Copied late first century
B.C.E.-early first century
C.E. Fragment A: height 8 cm (3 1/8
in.), length 12.9 cm (5 in.) Fragment
B: height 4.3 cm (1 11/16 in.), length
7 cm (2 3/4 in.) Fragment C: height
9.1 cm (3 9/16 in.), length 17.4 cm (6
7/8 in.) Courtesy of the Israel
Antiquities Authority (8) The Torah
Precepts Scroll This scroll,
apparently in the form of a letter, is
unique in language, style, and content.
Using linguistic and theological
analysis, the original text has been
dated as one of the earliest works of
the Qumran sect. This sectarian
polemical document, of which six
incomplete manuscripts have been
discovered, is commonly referred to as
MMT, an abbreviation of its Hebrew
name, Miqsat Ma`ase ha-Torah. Together
the six fragments provide a composite
text of about 130 lines, which probably
cover about two-thirds of the original.
The initial part of the text is
completely missing. Apparently it
consisted of four sections: (1) the
opening formula, now lost; (2) a
calendar of 364 days; (3) a list of
more than twenty rulings in religious
law (Halakhot), most of which are
peculiar to the sect; and (4) an
epilogue that deals with the separation
of the sect from the multitude of the
people and attempts to persuade the
addressee to adopt the sect's legal
views. The ''halakhot,'' or religious
laws, form the core of the letter; the
remainder of the text is merely the
framework. The calendar, although a
separate section, was probably also
related to the sphere of ''halakhah.''
These ''halakhot'' deal chiefly with
the Temple and its ritual. The author
states that disagreement on these
matters caused the sect to secede from
Israel. References: Strugnell,
J., and E. Qimron. Discoveries in the
Judaean Desert, X. Oxford,
forthcoming. Sussman, Y. ''The
History of `Halakha' and the Dead Sea
Scrolls -- Preliminary Observations on
Miqsat Ma`ase Ha-Torah (4QMMT)'' (in
Hebrew), Tarbiz 59 (1990):11-76. PD
source: http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/scro
lls/images/torah-b.jpg
[600 BC]
[1] King Kroisos period. Circa 561-546
BC. Kings of Lydia. Time of Kroisos.
Circa 561-546 BC. AV Stater (8.06
gm). Sardes mint. Light series.
Confronted foreparts of lion and
bull Two square incuse
punches of unequal size. Traité
pl. X, 2; BMC Lydia pg. 6, 31; SNG
Copenhagen Suppl. 362; Boston MFA 2073;
SNG von Aulock 2875. Choice
EF. From the Ronald Cohen
Collection. Ex Tkalec (18 February
2002), lot 81. Date Source
http://www.wildwinds.com/coins/gree
ce/lydia/kings/kroisos/BMC_31.jpg GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5c/Kroisos_BMC_31.jpg
[2] Description English: Political
map of Asia Minor in 500 BC Date
2009-04-22 17:00 (UTC) Source
Asia_Minor_Political_500BC.svg Author
Asia_Minor_Political_500BC.svg:
*Mysia.svg: Emok derivative
work:
Mysia_map_ancient_community.jpg:
User:Roke derivative work:
MinisterForBadTimes (talk)
derivative work: MinisterForBadTimes
(talk) Other versions
Derivative works of this file:
Lycia locator map.svg Political
map of Asia Minor in 500 BC in
Masry.PNG GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Anatolia_Ancien
t_Regions_base.svg/1000px-Anatolia_Ancie
nt_Regions_base.svg.png
[600 BC]
using the theory of Gods by Thales of
Miletus.
Thales claims the universe originated
as water, that moon light is reflected
sun light, and measures a pyramid by
comparing the pyramid shadow with the
shadow from a stick.
[1] Ueberweg, F. et al. A History of
Philosophy: From Thales to the Present
Time. C. Scribner’s sons, 1891. A
History of Philosophy: From Thales to
the Present Time,
p32. http://books.google.com/books?id=A
h_7Od24BXsC&pg=PA32 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=Ah_7Od24BXsC&pg=PA32
[2] Thales, one of the Seven Sages of
Greece From French Wikipedia:
fr:Image:Thales.jpg Original source:
http://www.phil-fak.uni-duesseldorf.de/p
hilo/galerie/antike/thales.html PD
source: http://ujszo.com/sites/default/f
iles/old/ujszo_1221803126_14.jpg
[600 BC]
and is first recorded in the book of
Job, written around this time.
[1] Book of
Job http://bibref.hebtools.com/?book=%2
0Job&verse=1:11&src=! Hebrew-English -
paraellel MT and JPS 1917 (Mechon
Mamre) http://www.mechon-mamre.org/p/pt
/pt2701.htm#11 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.mechon-mamre.org/p/pt
/pt2701.htm#11
[2] Description Illustration of
the Devil in the Codex Gigas, folio 270
recto Date Early 13th century Source
http://www.kb.se/codex-gigas/eng/Browse
-the-Manuscript/Djavulen/?=&mode=1&page=
577# Author Herman the Recluse of the
Benedictine monastery of Podlažice PD
source: Codex_Gigas_devil.jpg
[600 BC]
writing.
[1] Stelae 12 and 13 from Monte Alban,
provisionally dated to 500-400 BCE,
showing what is thought to be one of
the earliest calendric representations
in Mesoamerica Stelae 12 and 13 from
Monte Alban. These two stelae contain
what is thought to be one of the oldest
calendar signs (calendrics) from
Mesoamerica. Taken from the Japanese
Wikipedia: Thanks to
Siyajkak! GNU AND AND The oldest
writing in all of Meso-America. These
Zapotec hieroglyphs, carved on stone
stelae found in the Palacio de
Danzantes, are among the oldest
examples Zapotec writing. The Zapotecs
possessed the oldest fully-developed
writing system of ancient Meso-America.
The building is named for the relief
carvings of danzantes, or dancers,
which were found by Guillaume Dupaix, a
Belgian traveler who visited in 1806.
The carvings were found on the sides of
a palace which had been covered over by
a building constructed in a later
period, a common practice throughout
Meso-America. The glyphs on the stelae
above appear to be dates of great
events in the city's early history. On
both stones you can see horizontal rows
of dots, sometimes accompanied by a
solid bar underneath. These symbols
represent numbers. Zapotec writing is
made up of both phonetic symbols and
symbols representing ideas. It is still
mostly undeciphered because even the
Zapotec language the Spanish recorded
in the 1520s had undergone more than
1000 years of evolution since the above
texts were written somewhere between
400 - 200 BC. UNKNOWN
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3d/Monte_Alban_Stela_12_
%26_13.jpghttp://4.bp.blogspot.com/_uXDM
PKN0Bjo/TIBLPDXtTeI/AAAAAAAAFcw/5sMjcYds
gQg/s1600/MA+Danzante+hieroglyphs.jpg
[2] The oldest writing in all of
Meso-America. These Zapotec
hieroglyphs, carved on stone stelae
found in the Palacio de Danzantes, are
among the oldest examples Zapotec
writing. The Zapotecs possessed the
oldest fully-developed writing system
of ancient Meso-America. The building
is named for the relief carvings of
danzantes, or dancers, which were found
by Guillaume Dupaix, a Belgian traveler
who visited in 1806. The carvings were
found on the sides of a palace which
had been covered over by a building
constructed in a later period, a common
practice throughout Meso-America. The
glyphs on the stelae above appear to be
dates of great events in the city's
early history. On both stones you can
see horizontal rows of dots, sometimes
accompanied by a solid bar underneath.
These symbols represent numbers.
Zapotec writing is made up of both
phonetic symbols and symbols
representing ideas. It is still mostly
undeciphered because even the Zapotec
language the Spanish recorded in the
1520s had undergone more than 1000
years of evolution since the above
texts were written somewhere between
400 - 200 BC. UNKNOWN
source: http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_uXDMPK
N0Bjo/TIBLPDXtTeI/AAAAAAAAFcw/5sMjcYdsgQ
g/s1600/MA+Danzante+hieroglyphs.jpg
[588 BC]
Zoroasterism is founded.
modern Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan)
Central Asia and/or (born in Rhages,
now Rayy, a suburb of Tehrān, a town
in Media)Tehrān, Iran
[1] Portrait of Zarathustra as depicted
in a Mithraic Temple in Dura Europus
(in modern Syria) in the 3rd Century
AD. PD
source: http://www.kavehfarrokh.com/wp-c
ontent/uploads/2008/10/Pic2-Zoroaster.jp
g
[2] Ptolemy viewed from the back
holding an earth sphere. He is facing
Zoroaster who holds a celestial sphere.
Western Astrology is based on Ptolemy's
Tetrabiblos. It is significant that the
two are part of a conversation and that
Zoroaster holds the celestial
sphere. PD
source: http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-pZn4a1
CwgVI/TcNDKrEPBwI/AAAAAAAAAUY/wN7Lp4wDVB
0/s1600/The+School+of+Athens+by+Raphael+
1509-+Zoroaster+left%252C+with+star-stud
ded+globe.jpg
[580 BC]
theory, and the theory that humans
evolved from fish.
The Earth-centered theory will dominate
until the 1500s.
[1] A map of Anaximander's
Earth-centered theory UNKNOWN
source: http://www.utm.edu/research/iep-
wp/wp-content/media/anaxfig1.gif
[2] Detail of Raphael's painting The
School of Athens, 1510–1511. This
could be a representation of
Anaximander leaning towards Pythagoras
on his left.[1] Born c. 610 BCE c.
546 BCE (aged around 64) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/38/Anaximander.jpg
[550 BC]
[1] The Lapis Niger Archaic
Latin When Giacomo Boni was
excavating the Forum in 1899 he found a
spot paved with black stone among the
Imperial era travertine – the Lapis
Niger. Further excavation revealed an
ancient shrine complex that had been
filled in and later constructed over.
The location was thought by the ancient
Romans to be where Romulus was killed
by the Senate, or perhaps the grave of
Hostilius. A second excavation in 1955
found no evidence of a grave but the
site was clearly considered a sacred
place by the Romans. The shrine
consists of the remnants of a U-shaped
alter, a monolithic column (a tufa
cone) and an inscribed stone
cippus. The black stone cippus,
ca.550–500 BC, carved out of Grotta
Oscura tufa from Veii, contains an
early boustrophon inscription on all
four sides (actually five, as one
corner is truncated). About a third to
a half of each line is missing so a
complete translation is not possible,
but it appears to be a warning against
those who would defile the site. It is
one of only a handful of sixth century
BC Latin inscriptions. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.codex99.com/typograph
y/images/ancient/niger_1_lg.gif
[2] Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p138. COPYRIGHTED
source: Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p138.
[533 BC]
[1] Summary Scene of the Buddha's
Great Departure from palatial life.
Gandahara 1-2nd century. Guimet Museum.
Personal photograph 2005. This scene
depicts the ''Great Departure''
predestined being, he appears here
surrounded by a halo, and accompanied
by numerous guards, mithuna loving
couples, and devata, come to pay
homage. source:
http://www.guimet.fr/The-Great-Departure
GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Great_Departure
.JPG/1024px-Great_Departure.JPG
[2] Description Prince Siddharta
Gautama shaves the hair off his head as
the sign to decline his status as
ksatriya (warrior class) and become sn
ascetic hermit, his servants holds his
sword, crown, and princely jewelry
while his horse Kanthaka stood on
right. Bas-relief panel at Borobudur,
Java, Indonesia. Date Februaty
2007 Source Own work Author
Gunkarta GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Siddharta_Gauta
ma_Borobudur.jpg/1024px-Siddharta_Gautam
a_Borobudur.jpg
[529 BC]
by Pythagoras.
[1] Description: Phytagoras, coin made
under emperor Decius Source:
Baumeister, Denkmäler des klassischen
Altertums. 1888. Band III., Seite
1429 s Roman Emperor from 249 to
251. PD
source: http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.
uk/~history/BigPictures/Pythagoras_4.jpe
g
[2] Bust of Pythagoras UNKNOWN
source: http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.
uk/~history/BigPictures/Pythagoras.jpeg
[521 BC]
lives around this time.
state of Lu, China
[1] English: The teaching Confucius.
Portrait by Wu Daozi, 685-758, Tang
Dynasty. 中文:
孔夫子（畫者：唐朝吳道子）
Bân-lâm-gú: Khóng-hu-tsú
(uē-tsiá:Tông-tiâu
Ngôo-tō-tsú). PD
source: http://www.theepochtimes.com/n2/
images/stories/large/2011/03/16/Confuciu
s_Tang_Dynasty.jpg
[500 BC]
[1] Wagner, D.B. Iron and Steel in
Ancient China. Brill Academic Pub,
1993. 4. Handbuch der Orientalistik
Part 9 of Handbook of Oriental Studies
Volume 9 of Handbook of Oriental
Studies. Section 4 China Series,
p153,157-158. http://books.google.com/b
ooks?id=mxZsguBzwZMC&pg=PR3 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=mxZsguBzwZMC&pg=PR3
[2] Late medieval crossbowman from ca.
1480 English: Crossbowman executing
Saint Sebastian. Detail of a figure
from the Upper Rhine, around 1480;
linden wood, Bayerisches
Nationalmuseum, München, inventory
number 79/355 Date 05.07.2009 Source
Own work Author Gun Powder Ma CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/9f/Martyrium_of_Saint_Se
bastian._Pic_03.jpg
[500 BC]
Earth.
[1] Parker, G. Compact History of the
World. Barnes & Noble, 2001,
p17. COPYRIGHTED
source: Parker, G. Compact History of
the World. Barnes & Noble, 2001, p17.
[475 BC]
sky into 12 parts which correspond to
constellations (also called the
zodiac).
[1] Further Information: WA 86378 [BM
86378] Mul.Apin tablet 1 [pictured] is
in the British Museum, London. [The
tablet is 8.4 centimetres high incised
with miniature cuneiform writing.] This
principal copy of Tablet 1 probably
dates circa 500 BC and is a late
Babylonian copy. The earliest copies
were recovered from the royal library
of the Assyrian King Assurbanipal
(667-629 BC) in Nineveh (and also from
Assur). The text of Tablet 1 was able
to be restored with the aid of five
copies - one dated to the
Neo-Babylonian Period, two from
Assurbanipal's library [hence written
before 612 BC when Nineveh was sacked],
and two from Assur. [The first part of
Mul.Apin to be published was this
almost complete copy of tablet 1 by
Leonard King in CT 33, Plates 1-8
(1912)].* The principal copy of the
second tablet is VAT 9412 from Assur,
dated 687 BC. (This is the oldest of
the texts.) Multiple copies of tablet 2
are known: principally three from
Assur, three from Assurbanipal's
library, and one dated to the
Neo-Babylonian period. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.reocities.com/astrolo
gysources/images/mulapin.jpg
[2] WA 86378 [now BM 86378]. Mul.Apin
tablet 1 (obverse side and reverse
side) in the British Museum, London.
(The tablet, the most complete
surviving copy, is 8.4 cms high and is
considered to be a masterpiece of
miniature cuneiform writing.) The broad
astronomical content and significance
of the (two-tablet) Mul.Apin series had
been identified by the English
assyriologists Archibald Sayce and
Robert Bosanquet in a journal article
published in 1880. The first part of
the Mul.Apin series to be published
(transcribed but not translated) was BM
86378 in Cuneiform Texts from
Babylonian Tablets in the British
Museum: Part XXXIII (Plates 1-8) by
Leonard King (1912). This tablet is
almost complete copy of tablet 1. (No
complete text of Mul.Apin has
survived.) See also ''A Neo-Babylonian
Astronomical Treatise in the British
Museum and its Bearing on the Age of
Babylonian Astronomy.'' by Leonard King
(Proceedings of the Society for
Biblical Archaeology, Volume 35, 1913).
This article by the English
assyriologist Leonard King drew
attention to the importance of this
text for identifying the Babylonian
constellations. In the next two years
numerous articles and books appeared
that utilised its star list information
in the attempt to identify the
Babylonian constellations and the stars
that comprised such. This
principal copy of tablet 1 (WA 86378
[now BM 86378]) probably dates to circa
500 BCE and is a late Babylonian copy
of tablet 1 of the astronomical
compendium Mul.Apin. The earliest
copies were recovered from the royal
archives of the Assyrian King
Assurbanipal (667-626 BCE) in Nineveh
(and also from Assur). The Mul.Apin
series contains the most comprehensive
surviving star/constellation catalogue.
It is largely devoted to describing the
risings and settings of
constellations/stars in relation to the
schematic calendar of twelve 30-day
months. The text of tablet 1 was
able to be completely restored with the
aid of five copies - one dated to the
Neo-Babylonian Period, two from
Assurbanipal's library (hence written
before 612 BCE), and two from
Assur. The principal copy of the
second tablet is VAT 9412 from Assur,
dated 687 BCE. (This is the oldest of
the texts.) Multiple copies of tablet 2
are known: principally three from
Assur, three from Assurbanipal's
library, and one dated to the
Neo-Babylonian period. In its
standard form Mul.Apin is written on 2
clay tablets and is comprised of almost
400 lines of cuneiform text. Each
tablet contains 4 columns with about 50
lines of text per column. The text of
Mul.Apin is divided into a number of
sections and subsections, usually
marked by horizontal dividing lines by
the scribes. There are also texts of
Mul.Apin in which the two tablets are
combined in one large tablet. The
connection of a third tablet to the
Mul.Apin series, by some modern
commentators, was probably only an
occasionally added appendix to
Mul.Apin. Many copies of Mul.Apin
texts exist from across the entire
Neo-Assyrian Period, and it was still
being recopied as late as the Seleucid
Era. The Mul.Apin series (the name
being derived from its opening words)
is obviously a compilation of nearly
all astronomical knowledge of the
period before 700 BCE. Some statements
in the Mul.Apin text (i.e., stars in
the paths of Anu, Enlil, and Ea appear
in other, much earlier, cuneiform
texts; the Astrolabes and in the omens
of Enuma, Anu, Enlil. Mul.Apin is the
first reasonably full exposition of the
knowledge developed within the almost
millennium-old written tradition of
cuneiform astronomical and astral omen
texts. Rita Watson and Wayne Horowitz
(Writing Science before the Greeks: A
Naturalistic Analysis of the Babylonian
Treatise MUL.APIN (2011)) state (Pages
?-175): ''The consolidation of the
MUL.APIN text marks the emergence of a
formal written astronomical science.
... MUL.APIN may not represent fully
developed science, but it does offer a
unique, even vital, window onto its
beginnings, and the dynamic, reflective
processes involved in the emergence of
a formal written science.'' Also (Page
174): ''The observational science of
MUL.APIN appears to occupy a pivotal
role in the development of the late,
more sophisticated
mathematical-astronomy of the ACT
[Astronomical Cuneiform Texts]
tradition.'' ... COPYRIGHTED
source: http://members.westnet.com.au/ga
ry-david-thompson/mul_apin_tablet1.JPG
[470 BC]
is understood, and the first human
dissection. The optic nerve and
Eustachian {YU-STA-siN} tubes are
identified.
southern Italy
[1] Erich Lessing / Art Resource,
NY UNKOWN
source: http://members.bib-arch.org/bswb
_graphics/BSAO/08/04/BSAO080402410L.jpg
[2] Alcmaeon UNKNOWN
source: http://clendening.kumc.edu/dc/pc
/Alcmaeon.jpg
[467 BC]
of red-hot metal is recognized and the
theory that people live on the Moon,
and that the Universe is made of tiny
bodies by Anaxagoras.
Miletus)|Athens|Did not move to Athens
until around 462 bce
[1] Description English: Detail of
the right-hand facade fresco, showing
Anaxagoras. National and Kapodistrian
University of Athens. Date c.
1888 Source http://nibiryukov.narod.r
u/nb_pinacoteca/nbe_pinacoteca_artists_l
.htm Author Eduard Lebiedzki,
after a design by Carl Rahl PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2c/Anaxagoras_Lebiedzki_
Rahl.jpg
[467 BC]
wireless) communication. The optical
telegraph; using fire signals.
[1] This image was moved from
Image:Image62.gif Description A
drawing of the lighthouse by German
archaeologist Prof. H. Thiersch
(1909). Date 2007-01-16 (original
upload date) Source Originally from
en.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. Author Original uploader
was Ragemanchoo at
en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2e/Lighthouse_-_Thiersch
.gif
[2] English: Mosaic Lighthouse of
Alexandria: was found in the Qasr Libya
in Libya, which was known by several
names including history and Olbia
Theodorias, This is a painting that was
left over to show the form of
lighthouse after the quake, which
destroyed the lighthouse. Qasr Libya
Museum PD
source: http://freespace.virgin.net/ric.
martin/vectis/hookeweb/roberthooke.htm
[460 BC]
of atoms.
[1] Coin with the head of Leukippos on
it from around 330-320
BC.[t] Greece,Metapont
330-320BC,Leukkipos,1/3stater. Hammer
price 2002: CHF 12.000. UNKNOWN
source: http://numisbooks.dk/info/fotos/
romanphotos/leukippos330-320.jpg
[460 BC]
made of only four elements: water, air,
fire and earth.
[1] The temple of Hera at Agrigentum,
built when Empedocles was a young man,
c. 470 BC. Tempio di Hera ad
Agrigento, Sicilia. From:
Giambattista Scivoletto -
http://www.studioscivoletto.it/ COPYRIG
HTED ANY USE AND Empedocles in the
Nuremberg Chronicle. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1d/Agrigento_Tempio_di_H
era.jpghttp://upload.wikimedia.org/wikip
edia/commons/thumb/9/95/Empedocles-2-siz
ed.jpg/1030px-Empedocles-2-sized.jpg
[2] Description English:
Empedocles, ancient Greek Presocratic
philosopher. From Thomas Stanley,
(1655), The history of philosophy:
containing the lives, opinions, actions
and Discourses of the Philosophers of
every Sect, illustrated with effigies
of divers of them. Date circa
1655 Source Thomas Stanley, 1655, The
history of philosophy Author
Unknown PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2b/Empedocles_in_Thomas_
Stanley_History_of_Philosophy.jpg
[451 BC]
doubting the existence of Gods.
[1] [t Get better image- perhaps of
text.] Picture of Protagoras UNKNOWN
source: http://i2.listal.com/image/59712
8/600full-protagoras.jpg
[450 BC]
person for atheism; Anaxagoras.
[1] Description English: Detail of
the right-hand facade fresco, showing
Anaxagoras. National and Kapodistrian
University of Athens. Date c.
1888 Source http://nibiryukov.narod.r
u/nb_pinacoteca/nbe_pinacoteca_artists_l
.htm Author Eduard Lebiedzki,
after a design by Carl Rahl PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2c/Anaxagoras_Lebiedzki_
Rahl.jpg
[450 BC]
through space.
[1] Description Pythagoras and
Philolaus experimenting with musical
pipes. From Theorica musicae by
Franchino Gaffurio, 1492 (1480?) Date
2010-04-28 16:51 (UTC) Source
Gaffurio_Pythagoras.png Author
Gaffurio_Pythagoras.png:
Franchino Gaffurio (publisher)
derivative work: Singinglemon
(talk) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e8/Pythagoras_and_Philol
aus.png
[432 BC]
years of 12 months and 7 years of 13
months.
[1] Description The relation of the
phases of the Moon with its revolution
around Earth. The sizes of Earth and
Moon, and their distance you see here
are far from real. On this image the
following are also depicted: the
synchronous rotation of the Moon, the
motion of the Earth around the common
center of mass, the difference between
the sidereal and synodical month (green
mark), the Earth's axial tilt. (NOTE:
the precise moment of a New Moon take
place in daylight when you can see only
the bright Sun.) Date
2010-08-19ddd Source Own
work Author Orion 8 Other versions
CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Moon_phases_en.
jpg/1024px-Moon_phases_en.jpg
[2] The Antikythera
mechanism UNKNOWN
source: http://www.bibliotecapleyades.ne
t/imagenes_ciencia/antikythera06_02.jpg
[430 BC]
infinite in size, filled with many
other worlds, and the Milky Way as a
large group of stars. The motions of
atoms are described based on natural
laws, not on the wants of gods or
demons.
[1] DEMOCRITO DE ABDERA UNKNOWN
source: http://tareaescolar.co/tareaesco
lar/filo/images/democrito.jpg
[430 BC]
founded by Hippocrates. Disease is
viewed as a physical phenomenon, not
the product of gods or demons.
[1] Hippocrates, engraving by Peter
Paul Rubens, 1638. Courtesy of the
National Library of
Medicine[1]. http://wwwihm.nlm.nih.gov/
ihm/images/B/14/555.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/32/Hippocrates_rubens.jp
g
[424 BC]
(The Lyceum) Athens, Greece
[1] Description a good example of
a whip graft that has ''taken'' Source
I (Chris Hibbard, acct:
chrishibbard7) created this work
entirely by myself. Date
4/27/2009 Author Chris
Hibbard Permission (Reusing this
file) See below. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/c/c8/Good_graft.JPG
[2] Description English: Example of
a successful cleft graft after 4 years
of growth. Uploading specifically for
use in the Grafting article, where the
same graft is displayed after 2 years
of growth, for comparison. Date
3/23/2012 Source With a camera, of
course. Adjusted light levels with
Gimp Previously published:
http://pinterest.com/pin/527766268533219
03/ Author Chrishibbard7 GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/5/51/CleftGraft4thYr
.JPG/1194px-CleftGraft4thYr.JPG
[399 BC]
part for disrespecting the Gods.
[1] From
http://hypernews.ngdc.noaa.gov This
image is in the public domain because
its copyright has expired in the United
States and those countries with a
copyright term of life of the author
plus 100 years or less. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Socrates.png
[2] The Death of Socrates, by
Jacques-Louis David (1787) The
two-dimensional work of art depicted in
this image is in the public domain in
the United States and in those
countries with a copyright term of life
of the author plus 100 years. This
photograph of the work is also in the
public domain in the United States (see
Bridgeman Art Library v. Corel Corp.).
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Socratesdeath.jpg
[387 BC]
founded by Plato in Athens. The word
"academy" will eventually be applied to
all schools.
[1] Plato's Academy, Mosaic from Villa
of T. Siminius Stephanus, Pompeii
(photo courtesy of Branislav
Slantchev) PD
source: http://www.electrummagazine.com/
wp-content/uploads/2011/11/Platos_Academ
y_mosaic_T_Siminius_Stephanus_Pompeii.jp
g
[2] Description Academy of Athens
(modern) Source I (Dimboukas (talk))
created this work entirely by
myself. Date 19:53, 1 December 2009
(UTC) Author Dimboukas (talk) CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/thumb/8/82/Athens_academy.jpg/1
024px-Athens_academy.jpg
[378 BC]
latitude and longitude (a system that
is eventually applied to the Earth).
[1] A pupil of Plato, Eudoxus
elaborated a geocentric model composed
of crystalline spheres, incorporating
the Platonic ideal of uniform circular
motion. System of 27 Spheres:
* 1 for the fixed stars * 3 each
for the Sun and Moon * 4 each for
the 5 planets Spheres within
spheres in perfect circular motion
combine to give retrograde
motions. Spheres within
Spheres (Click on the image to
view at full scale [Size: 20Kb]) 4
Spheres for each planet: * One
was aligned with the celestial poles,
turning once a day to give rising &
setting. * Second was tilted
23.5º, rotated slowly in the opposite
direction to give the usual
west-to-east drift of the planets
relative to the fixed stars. *
Third & Fourth were introduced to
produce the periodic retrograde motions
of the planets. All were in uniform
circular motion about their axes.
COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://www-astronomy.mps.ohio-st
ate.edu/~pogge/Ast161/Unit3/greek.html
[358 BC]
around its own axis, and that some
planets rotate around the Sun.
(presumably)
[1] Ηράκλειτος (~544 - 483
π.Χ.) COPYRIGHTED GREECE
source: http://sfr.ee.teiath.gr/historia
/historia/important/html/images/Heraklit
.jpg
[335 BC]
SEuM} is opened by Aristotle in Athens.
Aristotle also adds a fifth element
"aether", which the "heavens" are made
of, and puts forward the first theory
of gravity.
[1] Date 1511 Source Stitched
together from vatican.va Author
Raphael (1483–1520) Link back to
Creator infobox template
wikidata:Q5597 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Sanzio_01.jpg/1
280px-Sanzio_01.jpg
[2] English: The School of Athens -
fresco by Raffaello Sanzio
(w) Artist Copy of
Lysippus English: Bust of Aristotle.
Marble, Roman copy after a Greek bronze
original by Lysippos from 330 BC; the
alabaster mantle is a modern
addition. Current location
[show]National Museum_of Rome -
Palazzo AltempsLink back to Institution
infobox template Ground
floor Accession number Inv.
8575 Credit line Ludovisi
Collection Source/Photographer
Jastrow (2006) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Aristotle_Altem
ps_Inv8575.jpg/765px-Aristotle_Altemps_I
nv8575.jpg
[06/28/330 BC]
of 940 months, which is more accurate
than that of Meton.
NW Asia Minor, in Mysia, on a peninsula
in the Sea of Marmara)
[1] Description The relation of the
phases of the Moon with its revolution
around Earth. The sizes of Earth and
Moon, and their distance you see here
are far from real. On this image the
following are also depicted: the
synchronous rotation of the Moon, the
motion of the Earth around the common
center of mass, the difference between
the sidereal and synodical month (green
mark), the Earth's axial tilt. (NOTE:
the precise moment of a New Moon take
place in daylight when you can see only
the bright Sun.) Date
2010-08-19ddd Source Own
work Author Orion 8 Other versions
CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Moon_phases_en.
jpg/1024px-Moon_phases_en.jpg
[325 BC]
influences the tides.
[1] Description Statue de Pythéas
sur la façade du palais de la Bourse
à Marseille. Date 6 February
2008 Source Own
work Author Rvalette Permission
(Reusing this file) See below. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Pyth%C3%A9as.jp
g/639px-Pyth%C3%A9as.jpg
[311 BC]
and pain is bad.
[1] Description English: Hermes-type
bust (pillar with the top as a sculpted
head) of Epicurus leaned with his back
against his disciple Metrodorus of
Lampsacus (the younger) (note : the
legend at the bottom of the hermes is
mixed with the Metrodorus side).
Pentelic marble, Roman artwork,
Imperial Era (2nd-half of the 2nd
century ?). Found in Rome,
Italy. Français : Pilier hermaïque
représentant Épicure adossé à son
disciple Métrodore de Lampsaque (le
jeune). Marbre du Pentélique, œuvre
romaine d'époque impériale (deuxième
moitié du IIe siècle ?). Découvert
à Rome, Italie. Dimensions H. 62 cm
(24 ¼ in.) Current location
[show](Inventory)Louvre MuseumLink
back to Institution infobox template
wikidata:Q19675 Department of Greek,
Etruscan and Roman Antiquities, Sully
wing, ground floor, room 17 Accession
number Ma 88 (MR 478) Credit line
Collections of the Duke of
Penthièvre; seized during the French
Revolution: in the Louvre collections
since 1800 References notice sur le
site du Louvre Source/Photographer
Eric Gaba (User:Sting), July 2005 CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a6/Epicurus_Louvre.jpg
[2] Description English: File
already in use by Wikipedia. Generally
enhanced viewability. English:
Marble bust of Epicurus. Roman copy of
Greek original, 3rd century BC/2nd
century BC. On display in the British
Museum, London. Source
Self-created Date 18 June
2006 Author ChrisO Permission I,
the copyright holder of this work,
hereby release it into the public
domain. This applies worldwide. In
case this is not legally possible: I
grant anyone the right to use this work
for any purpose, without any
conditions, unless such conditions are
required by law. Date 19 August 2007
(original upload date) Source
Transferred from en.wikipedia;
transferred to Commons by
User:Jayantanth using
CommonsHelper. Author Original
uploader was Interstate295revisited at
en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) Released into the public
domain (by the author). PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/14/Epicurus_bust2.jpg
[305 BC]
blood vessels. The liver, ovaries,
Fallopian tubes, and retina are
identified.
[1] Herophilus of Chalcedon (c. 330-260
BCE) Detail of a 1532 woodcut showing
Herophilus (left) and
Erasistratus. Credits:Wellcome
Library, London UNKNOWN
source: http://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/
hommedia.ashx?id=91862&size=Small
[2] Description English: Scheme of
digestive tract, with duodenum
marked. Polski: Schemat przewodu
pokarmowego, z zaznaczoną dwunastnicą
. Inkscape Logo.svg This vector
image was created with Inkscape. Date
18:05, 21 August 2007 (UTC) (upload on
commons) Source Own work Author
Olek Remesz (wiki-pl: Orem, commons:
Orem) Permission (Reusing this file)
CC-BY-SA ver. 2.5, 2.0, 1.0 CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Tractus_intesti
nalis_duodenum.svg/1000px-Tractus_intest
inalis_duodenum.svg.png
[300 BC]
recognized.
(presumably)
[1] Description English: Detail of
the right-hand facade fresco, showing
Aristotle, Theophrastus, and Strato of
Lampsacus. National and Kapodistrian
University of Athens. Date c.
1888 Source
Aristotle_and_his_disciples_Lebiedzki_Ra
hl.jpg Author
Aristotle_and_his_disciples_Lebiedzki_Ra
hl.jpg: Eduard Lebiedzki, after a
design by Karl Rahl derivative
work: Singinglemon (talk) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6a/Aristotle_Theophrastu
s_Strato_Lebiedzki_Rahl.jpg
[2] Description English: Ancient
Greek philosopher Strato of Lampsacus,
depicted in the Nuremberg
Chronicle Date 2009-04-26 20:14
(UTC) Source
Nuremberg_chronicles_f_082v_4.png Aut
hor
Nuremberg_chronicles_f_082v_4.png:
Hartmann Schedel derivative work:
Singinglemon (talk) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/56/Strato_Nuremberg_Chro
nicle.jpg
[300 BC]
workpiece is rotated against a cutting
tool.
[1] Two man Egyptian Lathe The
earliest picture of a lathe is one on
the wall of an Egyptian grave of the
third century B.C., shown here in a
line drawing. The man at left is
holding the cutting tool. The man at
the right is making the workpiece
rotate back and forth by pulling on a
cord or thong. UNKNOWN
source: http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-wdvm-N
qT5UA/T2hJOxBSe7I/AAAAAAAAAQw/FowRtQg4yS
U/s1600/Petosiris_lathe.jpghttp://homepa
ges.tig.com.au/~dispater/turning.htm
[2] A carved stone pictograph from the
tomb of an Egyptian Priest. 300
B.C UNKNOWN [1] find book this is
from The earliest picture of a lathe
is one on the wall of an Egyptian grave
of the third century B.C., shown here
in a line drawing. The man at left is
holding the cutting tool. The man at
the right is making the workpiece
rotate back and forth by pulling on a
cord or thong. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://homepages.tig.com.au/~dis
pater/turning.htm
[300 BC]
chain-drive; used in an automatic
repeating crossbow.
[1] Figure from: Werner Soedel,
Vernard Foley: ''Ancient Catapults'',
Scientific American, Vol. 240, No. 3
(March 1979), p. 124-125.
{Ancient_Catapults_Scientific_American
_197903xx.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: Werner Soedel, Vernard Foley:
"Ancient Catapults", Scientific
American, Vol. 240, No. 3 (March 1979),
p. 124-125. COPYRIGHTED
[2] English: Arsenal of ancient
mechanical artillery in the Saalburg
Museum, Hesse, Germany Left:
Polybolos, a 3rd century BC repeating
catapult (reconstruction by the German
engineer Erwin Schramm (1856–1935))
Right: Catapult on Trajan's Column,
early 2nd century AD (reconstruction by
Schramm) Bottom center:
Chain-drive mechanism of the
Polybolos Bottom right: ?
Background, on wall: Gastraphetes, a
Greek crossbow Date 7 August 2007,
12:34:51 Source originally posted to
Flickr as Artilleria experimental
romana a Saalburg / Roman experimental
artillery in Saalburg Author
SBA73 CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Ancient_Mechani
cal_Artillery._Pic_01.jpg/1280px-Ancient
_Mechanical_Artillery._Pic_01.jpg
[297 BC]
Alexandria is founded.
[1] A reconstruction of the main hall
of the Museum of Alexandria used in the
series Cosmos by Carl Sagan. The wall
portraits show Alexander the Great
(left) and Serapis
(right). COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.thelivingmoon.com/43a
ncients/04images/Alexandria/Alexandria-C
osmosReconstruction1.jpg
[2] Credit:
s_davies@mail.utexas.edu The Library
of Alexandria was one of the best-known
of the libraries of the ancient world.
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.thelivingmoon.com/43a
ncients/04images/Alexandria/alexlibext.j
pg
[295 BC]
known mathematics.
[1] Description አማርኛ:
የዩክሊድን ኢለመንት
የተባለ መጽሐፍ
የሚያሳይ ከልጥ (ፓፒሪ)
የተጻፈ የጥንት
መዝገብ English: Oxyrhynchus
papyrus (P.Oxy. I 29) showing fragment
of Euclid's Elements Русский:
Папирус из Oxyrhynchus (P.Oxy.
I 29) с франментами
Начал Евклида Date 7
October 1994 Source
http://www.math.ubc.ca/~cass/Euclid/pap
yrus/tha.jpg Author Euclid PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/P._Oxy._I_29.jp
g/1280px-P._Oxy._I_29.jpg
[2] Euclid elements UNKNOWN
source: http://zaccus.com/wp-content/upl
oads/2010/08/Euclid_large.jpg
[285 BC]
catapult and for the earliest musical
keyboard instrument, an organ, by
Ctesibius in Alexandria.
[1] Musicians playing tuba (l.) ,
hydraulis (top) and cornua to accompany
gladiatorial combat (Roman mosaic of
1st-2nd century, from Libya)
Musicians playing during the games.
Instruments: cornua, tuba and water
organ, Mosaic of the Gladiators,
Jamahiriya Museum, Tripoli, Libya. From
Dar Buc Ammera villa (Zliten). Mozaic
from: Libya / Tsarrbuus / Tripoli /
Bāb al ‘Azīzīyah Música antiga
- Ancient music • Jamahiriya
Museum - Museu de Trípoli UNKNOWN
source: http://www.uned.es/geo-1-histori
a-antigua-universal/NOTICIAS/Zliten%20Mo
saic.jpg
[2] Musicians playing during the
games. Instruments: cornua, tuba and
water organ, Mosaic of the Gladiators,
Jamahiriya Museum, Tripoli, Libya. From
Dar Buc Ammera villa (Zliten). Mozaic
from: Libya / Tsarrbuus / Tripoli /
Bāb al ‘Azīzīyah Música antiga
- Ancient music • Jamahiriya
Museum - Museu de Trípoli UNKNOWN
source: http://www.uned.es/geo-1-histori
a-antigua-universal/NOTICIAS/Zliten%20Mo
saic.jpg
[274 BC]
brain are identified.
[1] Detail of a 1532 woodcut showing
Herophilus (left) and
Erasistratus. Credits:Wellcome
Library, London PD
source: http://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/
hommedia.ashx?id=91862&size=Small
[2] Artist Jacques-Louis David Title
Antiochus et Stratonice, Ecole
nationale supérieure des beaux-arts,
Paris, France. Date 1774 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/73/David-Antiochus_et_St
ratonice.jpg
[265 BC]
propels a Roman water ship.
source:
[260 BC]
pivoted on a support point that can be
used to exert a force on an object.
[1] Description Español: Esta
imagen ilustra la ventaja mecánica de
la palanca. Deutsch: Illustration des
Hebelgesetzes. Copyright © 2004
César Rincón. Imagen creada para la
Wikipedia en Español. Date
2004-08-05 (first version);
2004-08-07 (last version) Source
Originally from es.wikipedia;
description page is/was here. Author
Original uploader was CR at
es.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) Released under the GNU Free
Documentation License. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f2/Palanca-ejemplo.jpg
[2] Publishing, DK. Science: The
Definitive Visual Guide. DK Publishing,
2009, p40. COPYRIGHTED
source: Publishing, DK. Science: The
Definitive Visual Guide. DK Publishing,
2009, p40.
[260 BC]
screw, a device for raising water.
The concept of density (mass divided by
volume) is understood.
[1] Description Archimedes' screw.
Public domain, from Chambers's
Encyclopedia (Philadelphia: J. B.
Lippincott Company, 1875). Added to
illustrate article en:Archimedes. Date
2007-06-18 (original upload
date) Source Originally from
en.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. Author Original uploader
was Ianmacm at en.wikipedia PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/82/Archimedes_screw.JPG
[2] Description Deutsch: animierte
Prinzip einer Foerderschnecke oder auch
Archimedesche Spirale genannt, mit
einer Kugel zur Demonstration der
Foerderbewegung. Date published
06.Mai 2007 Source
File:Archimedes-screw_one-screw-thr
eads_with-ball_3D-view_animated.gif
created by Silberwolf Author
Silberwolf (size changed by:
Jahobr) Permission (Reusing this
file) Own work, share alike,
attribution required (Creative Commons
CC-BY-SA-2.5) CC
source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wik
ipedia/commons/a/a1/Archimedes-screw_one
-screw-threads_with-ball_3D-view_animate
d.gif
[260 BC]
its own axis once a day and around the
Sun once a year is understood by
Aristarchus.
Egpyt
[1] Aristarchus's 3rd century BC
calculations on the relative sizes of
from left the Sun, Earth and Moon, from
a 10th century CE Greek copy PD
source: http://www.thelivingmoon.com/43a
ncients/04images/Artifacts/Aristarchus_w
orking.jpg
[2] Statue of Aristarchus at Aristotle
University in Thessalonica,
Greece UNKNOWN
source: http://www.thelivingmoon.com/43a
ncients/04images/People/Aristarchos_Samo
s.png
[250 BC]
device that controls the rotation of a
toothed gear to provide periodic
impulses.
[1] Description English:
Reconstruction of a washstand with
escapement mechanism, the earliest
known, as described by the Greek
engineer Philo of Byzantium (3rd
century BC) Date 1903 Source Carra
de Vaux, B. (1903): ''Le livre des
appareils pneumatiques et des machines
hydrauliques de Philon de Byzance
d'après les versions arabes d'Oxford
et de Constantinople'', Academie des
inscriptions et des belles lettres:
Notices et extraits des mss. de la
Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris 38,
27–235 (163), depicted in: Lewis,
Michael (2000), ''Theoretical
Hydraulics, Automata, and Water
Clocks'', in Wikander, Örjan, Handbook
of Ancient Water Technology, Technology
and Change in History, 2, Leiden, pp.
343–369 (356, fig. 5), ISBN
90-04-11123-9 Author Carra de Vaux,
B. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/46/Washstand_by_Philo_of
_Byzantium.png
[250 BC]
hyperbola are described in Alexandria.
[1] Conic sections of
Apollonius AND Apollonius of Perga,
262 BC–ca. 190 BC UNKNOWN
source: http://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/a/
apollonius_of_perga/portrait.jpghttp://w
ww.storyofmathematics.com/images2/apollo
nius_conics.gif
[2] Apollonius of Perga, 262 BC–ca.
190 BC UNKNOWN
source: http://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/a/
apollonius_of_perga/portrait.jpg
[246 BC]
calculated by using the angle of the
Sun's shadow and the distance between
two cities.
[1] Eratosthenes experiment UNKNOWN
source: http://www.iucaa.ernet.in/~scipo
p/Obsetion/eratos/image008.jpg
[2] Eratosthenes (portrait) Copied
from w:es
Imagen:Eratostenes-retrato.png
(originally from Enciclopedia
Libre) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a2/Portrait_of_Eratosthe
nes.png
[240 BC]
comet.
[1] Description Comet P/Halley as
taken March 8, 1986 by W. Liller,
Easter Island, part of the
International Halley Watch (IHW) Large
Scale Phenomena Network. Date image
taken on 8. Mar. 1986 Source NSSDC's
Photo Gallery (NASA):
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/photo_gallery
/photogallery-comets.html
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image/planeta
ry/comet/lspn_comet_halley1.jpg Autho
r NASA/W. Liller Permission (Reusing
this file) Copyright information
from
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/photo_gallery
/photogallery-faq.html - All of the
images presented on NSSDC's Photo
Gallery are in the public domain. As
such, they may be used for any purpose.
[...] PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2a/Lspn_comet_halley.jpg
[231 BC]
the spur and worm gears.
A gear is a toothed machine part, such
as a wheel or cylinder, that meshes
with another toothed part to transmit
motion or to change speed or direction.
[1] Description Archimedes' screw.
Public domain, from Chambers's
Encyclopedia (Philadelphia: J. B.
Lippincott Company, 1875). Added to
illustrate article en:Archimedes. Date
2007-06-18 (original upload
date) Source Originally from
en.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. Author Original uploader
was Ianmacm at en.wikipedia PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/82/Archimedes_screw.JPG
[2] Description Deutsch: animierte
Prinzip einer Foerderschnecke oder auch
Archimedesche Spirale genannt, mit
einer Kugel zur Demonstration der
Foerderbewegung. Date published
06.Mai 2007 Source
File:Archimedes-screw_one-screw-thr
eads_with-ball_3D-view_animated.gif
created by Silberwolf Author
Silberwolf (size changed by:
Jahobr) Permission (Reusing this
file) Own work, share alike,
attribution required (Creative Commons
CC-BY-SA-2.5) CC
source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wik
ipedia/commons/a/a1/Archimedes-screw_one
-screw-threads_with-ball_3D-view_animate
d.gif
[160 BC]
measured using parallax; by measuring
how much an object appears to move
compared to a more distant object when
the observer changes positions.
Nicaea)|(observatory on) Island of
Rhodes, Greece
[1] Hipparchus (196 BC – 120 BC) was
born in Nicaea (now Iznik, Turkey), and
probably died on the island of Rhodes.
He is known to have been a working
astronomer at least from 147 BC to 127
BC. UNKNOWN
source: http://web.jccc.edu/gallery/astr
otext/Bills%20Files/Astronomy%20Textbook
/Chapter%203_files/img12qwe.jpg
[2] Hipparchus compared observations
of a solar eclipse in Syene and in
Alexandria to determine the distance
from the Earth to the
Moon. Hipparchus measured the
distance from the Earth to the Moon
during a solar eclipse that was a total
eclipse at Syene and a partial eclipse
at Alexandria. At the same time that an
observer at Syene saw the entire Sun
blocked by the Moon, one at Alexandria
saw 1/5th of the Sun's disk, that is
1/5th of 30 arcminutes of the Sun's
disk was visible (The Sun's angular
diameter is 30 arcminutes or 1/2
degree). The angular size of the
visible Sun seen at Alexandria
therefore is 1/10th of a degree (0.1
degree) and this angle, expressed in
radians and applying the small angle
approximation gives the ratio of the
Syene-Alexandria distance to the
Earth-Moon distance. UNKNOWN
source: http://astrosun2.astro.cornell.e
du/academics/courses//astro201/hipparchu
s.htm
[160 BC]
preserves its motion) is understood.
Nicaea)|(observatory on) Island of
Rhodes, Greece
[1] Hipparchus (196 BC – 120 BC) was
born in Nicaea (now Iznik, Turkey), and
probably died on the island of Rhodes.
He is known to have been a working
astronomer at least from 147 BC to 127
BC. UNKNOWN
source: http://web.jccc.edu/gallery/astr
otext/Bills%20Files/Astronomy%20Textbook
/Chapter%203_files/img12qwe.jpg
[2] image of Hipparchos from coin?
http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/hist
ory/Mathematicians/Hipparchus.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Hipparchos_1.jpeg
[140 BC]
Paper is made by putting a mixture of
fibers and water on a fine screen; when
the water drains away the remaining mat
of fibers is removed and dried.
province of China|Xian, China
[1] Description Early Chinese hemp
fiber paper, used for wrapping not
writing, on display at the Shaanxi
history museum in Xi'An, China.
Excavated from the Han Tomb of Wu Di
(140-87 BC) at Baqiao, Xi'An. Photo by
Yannick Trottier, 2007 Date 22
June 2007 Source Own work Author
Ytrottier GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/7f/Chinese_hemp_paper_we
stern_han.jpg
[2] It's the earliest Paper in the
world : Western Han (140-87
BC) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.amateras.com/trip/chi
na/12Sha-Paper360x240.jpg
[134 BC]
star catalog that uses celestial
coordinates of latitude and longitude,
and that divides stars by brightness.
The "precession of the equinoxes" is
recognized; that the position of the
stars at equinox changes slightly each
year.
Greece
[1] Hipparchus (196 BC – 120 BC) was
born in Nicaea (now Iznik, Turkey), and
probably died on the island of Rhodes.
He is known to have been a working
astronomer at least from 147 BC to 127
BC. UNKNOWN
source: http://web.jccc.edu/gallery/astr
otext/Bills%20Files/Astronomy%20Textbook
/Chapter%203_files/img12qwe.jpg
[2] image of Hipparchos from coin?
http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/hist
ory/Mathematicians/Hipparchus.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Hipparchos_1.jpeg
[100 BC]
and mechanical computer.
Mediterranean Sea
[1] English: Main w:en:Antikythera
mechanism fragment (fragment A). The
mechanism consists of a complex system
of 30 wheels and plates with
inscriptions relating to signs of the
zodiac, months, eclipses and
pan-Hellenic games. The study of the
fragments suggests that this was a kind
of astrolabe. The interpretation now
generally accepted dates back to
studies by Professor w:en:Derek de
Solla Price, who was the first to
suggest that the mechanism is a machine
to calculate the solar and lunar
calendar, that is to say, an ingenious
machine to determine the time based on
the movements of the sun and moon,
their relationship (eclipses) and the
movements of other stars and planets
known at that time. Later research by
the Antikythera Mechanism Research
Project and scholar Michael Wright has
added to and improved upon Price's
work. The mechanism was probably built
by an mechanic engineer of the school
of Posidonius in Rhodes. Cicero, who
visited the island in 79/78 B.C.
reported that such devices were indeed
designed by the Stoic philosopher
Posidonius of Apamea. The design of the
Antikythera mechanism appears to follow
the tradition of Archimedes'
planetarium, and may be related to
sundials. His modus operandi is based
on the use of gears. The machine is
dated around 89 B.C. and comes from the
wreck found off the island of
Antikythera. National Archaeological
Museum, Athens, No. 15987. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/66/NAMA_Machine_d%27Anti
cyth%C3%A8re_1.jpg
[2] English: Fragment A (rear) of the
Antikythera mechanism. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a4/NAMA_Machine_d%27Anti
cyth%C3%A8re_4.jpg
[75 BC]
China.
[1] [t Image of how Chinese counting
rods are used to represent positive and
negative numbers] GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cou
nting_rods
[2] Digital text of the Nine Chapters
on the Mathematical Art. PD
source: http://science.math.ntnu.edu.tw/
ELME/GEO/files/001.jpg
[56 BC]
atoms that move very fast.
[1] Text copied from: Titus Carus
Lucretius, ''T. Lucreti Cari De rerum
natura libri sex, Volume 1'', 1866,
lines 176-229,
p530 http://books.google.com/books?id=o
iUTAAAAQAAJ PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=oiUTAAAAQAAJ
[2] Text copied from: Titus Carus
Lucretius, ''T. Lucreti Cari De rerum
natura libri sex, Volume 1'', 1866,
lines 176-229,
p530 http://books.google.com/books?id=o
iUTAAAAQAAJ PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=oiUTAAAAQAAJ
[50 BC]
Jerusalem.
the Syro-Palestine area, but earliest
artifact is from) Jerusalem
[1] AVIGAD, N. “Excavations in the
Jewish Quarter of the Old City of
Jerusalem, 1971 (Third Preliminary
Report).” Israel Exploration Journal
22.4 (1972):
193–200. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
27925355 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2792
5355
[2] AVIGAD, N. “Excavations in the
Jewish Quarter of the Old City of
Jerusalem, 1971 (Third Preliminary
Report).” Israel Exploration Journal
22.4 (1972):
193–200. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
27925355 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2792
5355
[01/01/45 BC]
with an extra day every 4 years.
[1] Description: Büste des Gaius
Iulius Caesar PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Giulio-cesare-enhanced_1-800x1450.jpg
[2] Julius Caesar PD
source: http://www4.vjc.edu/ENG36002Sp02
/discuss/msgReader$35
[40 BC]
earliest elevator (or vertical lift).
[1] Description Nederlands:
Repronegatief. Kintjir of
waterschepwiel in Djambi, Sumatra Date
1914-1921 Source
Tropenmuseum Author
Unknown Permission (Reusing this
file) See below. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c6/COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEU
M_Kintjir_of_waterschepwiel_in_Djambi_Su
matra_TMnr_10007886.jpg
[2] [t Notice that the oxen walk in
circles and there must be some 90
degree gear below deck - an animal
powered boat.] XVth century miniature
of an ox-powered paddle wheel boat from
the 4th century Roman military treatise
De Rebus Bellicis by Anonymous PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c0/De_Rebus_Bellicis%2C_
XVth_Century_Miniature.JPG
[37 BC]
disease can be caused by tiny living
organisms.
[1] Varro, M.T., and H. Keil. Rerum
Rusticarum Libri Tres. In aedibus B.G.
Teubneri, 1889. Bibliotheca Scriptorum
Graecorum Et Romanorum Teubneriana,
p28. http://books.google.com/books?id=C
OffAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA28 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=COffAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA28
[2] Marcus Varro PD
source: http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcr
op/history/lecture19/fig_19-03.jpg
[8 BC]
west as Rome.
[1] Fresco depicting the reading of the
rituals of the bridal mysteries
English: Roman Painting - Villa dei
Misteri - Pompeii - Italia.
Italiano: Rituale di iniziazione ai
Misteri. Dettaglio dell'affresco della
Villa dei Misteri a Pompei, dipinto nel
''secondo stile'' pompeiano, del 60
a.C. circa. Date 60/50 BC Source
fresco Author Unknown PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/49/Roman_Painting_1.jpg
[20 AD]
Christianity is founded, branching from
Judaism.
[1] Mural painting from the catacomb of
Commodilla. Bust of Christ. This is one
of first bearded images of Christ,
during the 4th century Jesus was
beginning to be depicted as older and
bearded, in contrast to earlier
Christian art, which usually showed a
young and clean-shaven Jesus. *
Date: Late 4th century *
Commodilla catacombs Christ from
http://drwagnernet.com/40a/lecture-view.
cfm?lecture=5&image=10 Cristo barbato
(dettaglio), affresco 60x72, fine
IV-inizio V secolo, Catacombe di
Commodilla, Roma PD
source: http://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki
/Image:Christ_with_beard.jpg
[2] This image of what Jesus may have
looked like is on the cover of Popular
Mechanics this month. Israeli and
British forensic anthropologists and
computer programmers got together to
create the face featured in the
1.2-million circulation magazine [t
knowing the dishonesty of Popular
Mechanics' 9/11 ''debunking'', I have
serious doubts about anything they
funded, but I don't see a head like
this as being unlikely. Roman
depictions have no beard until later,
would beard not be
longer?] COPYRIGHTED
source: http://archives.cnn.com/2002/TEC
H/science/12/25/face.jesus/
[50 AD]
Alexandria. A hollow metal sphere
rotates from the power of steam jets
that escape through open tubes on each
side of the sphere.
The steam engine
will not be used for practical purposes
until the 1600s.
The earliest syphon, syringe, and
chariot odometer.
[1] Name of Image: Hero's Engine MIX
#: 9513982 NIX #: MSFC-9513982 Date
of Image: 2004-04-15 Category: Early
Rockets Full Description:
Legendary characters used the power of
mythology to fly through the heavens.
About 200 BC, a Greek inventor known as
Hero of Alexandria came up with a new
invention that depended on the
mechanical interaction of heat and
water. He invented a rocket-like device
called an aeolipile. It used steam for
propulsion. Hero mounted a sphere on
top of a water kettle. A fire below the
kettle turned the water into steam, and
the gas traveled through the pipes to
the sphere. Two L-shaped tubes on
opposite sides of the sphere allowed
the gas to escape, and in doing so gave
a thrust to the sphere that caused it
to rotate. (MRPO) MRD/SPD
Discipline(s): n/a (MRPO) Subject
Type: n/a Keywords: Hero's Engine,
Aeolipile MSFC Negative Number:
9513982 Reference Number:
MSFC-75-SA-4105-2C n/a
n/a from: http://mix.msfc.nasa.gov/ab
stracts.php?p=1867 PD
source: http://mix.msfc.nasa.gov/IMAGES/
HIGH/9513982.jpg
[2] Hero's aeolipile From Knight's
American Mechanical Dictionary, 1876.
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Aeolipile_illustration.JPG
[50 AD]
[1] Description Deutsch:
Neuzeitliche Rekonstruktion von
Windorgel und Windrad des Heron von
Alexandria (1. Jh. n. Chr.) nach W.
Schmidt: Herons von Alexandria
Druckwerke und Automatentheater,
griechisch und deutsch hg., 1899
(Heronis Alexandrini opera I, Neudruck
1971), S. 205, Abb. 44; vgl. ebenda
Einleitung S. XXXIX English: Modern
reconstruction of wind organ and wind
wheel of Heron of Alexandria (1st
century AD) according to W. Schmidt:
Herons von Alexandria Druckwerke und
Automatentheater, Greek and German,
1899 (Heronis Alexandrini opera I,
Reprint 1971), p. 205, fig. 44; cf.
introduction p. XXXIX Date
1899 Source W. Schmidt: Herons von
Alexandria Druckwerke und
Automatentheater, gr-dt, 1899 Author
W. Schmidt PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Heron%27s_Windw
heel.jpg/1026px-Heron%27s_Windwheel.jpg
[2] Hero's aeolipile From Knight's
American Mechanical Dictionary, 1876.
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Aeolipile_illustration.JPG
[65 AD]
[1] Description Seneca, part of
double-herm in Antikensammlung
Berlin Date 21 May 2004 Source Own
work Author Calidius GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/9b/Seneca-berlinantikens
ammlung-1.jpg
[75 AD]
ends 3000 years of cuneiform writing.
[1] Sachs, Abraham. ''The latest
datable cuneiform tablets.'' Kramer
Anniversary Volume. Alter Orient und
Altes Testament 25 (1976): 379-98. ALSO
IN Kramer, Samuel Noah, et al., eds.
Kramer Anniversary Volume. Vol. 25.
Butzon & Bercker, 1976, Plate
19. COPYRIGHTED
source: Sachs, Abraham. "The latest
datable cuneiform tablets." Kramer
Anniversary Volume. Alter Orient und
Altes Testament 25 (1976): 379-98. ALSO
IN Kramer, Samuel Noah, et al., eds.
Kramer Anniversary Volume. Vol. 25.
Butzon & Bercker, 1976, Plate 19.
[2] Sachs, Abraham. ''The latest
datable cuneiform tablets.'' Kramer
Anniversary Volume. Alter Orient und
Altes Testament 25 (1976): 379-98. ALSO
IN Kramer, Samuel Noah, et al., eds.
Kramer Anniversary Volume. Vol. 25.
Butzon & Bercker, 1976,
p398. COPYRIGHTED
source: Sachs, Abraham. "The latest
datable cuneiform tablets." Kramer
Anniversary Volume. Alter Orient und
Altes Testament 25 (1976): 379-98. ALSO
IN Kramer, Samuel Noah, et al., eds.
Kramer Anniversary Volume. Vol. 25.
Butzon & Bercker, 1976, p398.
[77 AD]
[1] Contemporary laced limp parchment
wrapper made from a bifolium of a 14th
century [?] Italian missal, rubricated,
red and blue initials. Binding for:
Francesco Massari, … In nonum Plinii
de naturali historia librum
castigationes & annotationes. Basel:
Froben, 1537. (ExRockey) 2008-0021N •
Massari (fl. 1530), a Venetian
physician, comments on the ninth book
of the Natural History of Pliny (1st
cent. AD), covering fish and marine
life. The work’s editor, Beatus
Rhenanus (1485-1547), stated that
Massari’s comments were based on his
extensive voyages and observations in
the Mediterranean and Adriatic. PD
source: http://blogs.princeton.edu/rareb
ooks/Massari-wrapper.JPG
[2] MS1000 The Pliny of Saint James in
the March: Historia Naturalis Italy
c1400 PD
source: http://www.schoyencollection.com
/lexical_files/ms1000.jpg
[83 AD]
China.
[1] Figure from: Joseph Needham,
''Science and Civilization in China'',
vol 4, part 1, 1962,
p230-268. {Needham_China_compass_1962.p
df} COPYRIGHTED
source: Joseph Needham, "Science and
Civilization in China", vol 4, part 1,
1962, p230-268.
[2] ''The south-pointing fish'' was
recorded in the documents of the
Northern Song Dynasty. Such
direction-pointing device is a thin
steel plate cut into the shape of a
fish magnetized in the geomagnetic
field. The tail of the fish is
magnetized in the geological direction
of the North Pole, thus the tail has
the south magnetic pole and the head of
the fish has the north magnetic pole.
When put into the water, the floating
fish has its head pointing to the
south. UNKNOWN
source: http://kaleidoscope.cultural-chi
na.com/chinaWH/images/exbig_images/3ee20
b9ad9430ca4fcd43b3165a315c5.jpg
[100 AD]
musical composition, including musical
notation.
[1] Seikilos søjlen Seikilos Epitaph
(200 f.Kr.) οσον ζης,
φαίνου (oson zis,
fainou) μηδέν ‘ολως
συλυπού (miden olos
silittou) προς ολίγον
εσtί to ζην, (pros oligon esti to
zin,) το τέλος ο χρόνος
απαιτεί (to telos o chronos
apeti) Skjul ikke dit lys så længe
du lever, Sørg aldrig helt til
bunds, Livet løber kun en kort
stund, Tiden sætter en fast
fermin (Oversættelse, Carsten
Høeg) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.natmus.dk/graphics/Pr
essefoto/antik/seikilos.jpg
[2] Seiklos inscription UNKNOWN
source: http://www.geoffknorr.com/image/
images/Seikilos_Inscription.svg.png
[100 AD]
Alexandria.
Distillation is the process of
evaporating or boiling a liquid and
condensing its vapor.
[1] Forbes, Robert James. A short
history of the art of distillation:
from the beginnings up to the death of
Cellier Blumenthal. BRILL. 1948,
p21. COPYRIGHTED
source: Forbes, Robert James. A short
history of the art of distillation:
from the beginnings up to the death of
Cellier Blumenthal. BRILL. 1948, p21.
[2] Forbes, Robert James. A short
history of the art of distillation:
from the beginnings up to the death of
Cellier Blumenthal. BRILL. 1948,
p20. COPYRIGHTED
source: Forbes, Robert James. A short
history of the art of distillation:
from the beginnings up to the death of
Cellier Blumenthal. BRILL. 1948, p21.
[150 AD]
Earth-centered model of the universe,
with the Earth a stationary sphere in
the center, surrounded by 7 larger
planetary spheres for the Moon, Sun,
planets, and fixed stars.
[1] Peter Apian, Cosmographia, Antwerp,
1524 PD
source: http://heliophysics.files.wordpr
ess.com/2012/05/ptolemaic_system.jpg
[2] An early Baroque artist's
rendition of Claudius Ptolemaeus
(Greek: Κλαύδιος
Πτολεμαῖος Klaúdios
Ptolemaîos; c. AD 90 – c. 168),
known in English as Ptolemy , was a
Roman citizen of Egypt who wrote in
Greek. He was a mathematician,
astronomer, geographer, astrologer and
a poet of a single epigram in the Greek
Anthology. He lived in Egypt under
Roman rule, and is believed to have
been born in the town of Ptolemais
Hermiou in the Thebaid. He died in
Alexandria around AD 168. Ptolemy
was the author of several scientific
treatises, at least three of which were
of continuing importance to later
Islamic and European science. The first
is the astronomical treatise now known
as the Almagest (in Greek, Ἡ
Μεγάλη Σύνταξις, ''The
Great Treatise'', originally
Μαθηματικὴ Σύνταξις,
''Mathematical Treatise''). The second
is the Geography, which is a thorough
discussion of the geographic knowledge
of the Greco-Roman world. The third is
the astrological treatise known
sometimes in Greek as the
Apotelesmatika
(Ἀποτελεσματικά), more
commonly in Greek as the Tetrabiblos
(Τετράβιβλος ''Four
books''), and in Latin as the
Quadripartitum (or four books) in which
he attempted to adapt horoscopic
astrology to the Aristotelian natural
philosophy of his day. Uploaded on
en:wiki by
en:User:Tuckerresearch. It is under
public domain because it comes from an
old manuscript. PD
source: http://i296.photobucket.com/albu
ms/mm192/dog2010/Ptolemaeus.jpg
[150 AD]
[1] South Kensington Museum. A
Descriptive Catalogue of the Musical
Instruments in the South Kensington
Museum. Printed by G. E. Eyre and W.
Spottiswoode, 1874,
p31-32. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=vNk5AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA32 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=vNk5AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA32
[2] Fig. 59 exhibits this most simple
piece of mechanism, and very possibly
shows what the ugab might have been at
some period of its existence. A pipe at
the side of the wind chest points out
the fact that the commonest bellows of
the period was considered capable of
supplying the required current of
air. The whole construction is in a
more advanced state in the instrument
depicted in Fig. 60. Not only are its
pipes more numerous, but it has bellows
specially adapted to its requirements.
While one bellows is being
replenished, the other is still able to
support the sounds, so there is no
awkward pause while the instrument is
taking breath. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.katapi.org.uk/images/
Music/MB/Fig60.jpg
[162 AD]
described, and that the brain controls
the voice is shown.
[1] Galen of Pergamon. Vasiliadis et
al. Scoliosis 2009 4:6
doi:10.1186/1748-7161-4-6 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.scoliosisjournal.com/
content/figures/1748-7161-4-6-11-l.jpg
[2] Description English: Claude
Galien. Lithograph by Pierre Roche
Vigneron. (Paris: Lith de Gregoire et
Deneux, ca.
1865). Date Source http://www.nlm.nih
.gov/hmd/greek/popup/images/galen_detail
.jpg Author NLM PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f5/Galen_detail.jpg
[175 AD]
[1] Needham, J., and L. Wang. Science
and Civilisation in China: Physics and
Physical Technology. Mechanical
Engineering. University Press, 1965.
Science and Civilisation in China,
p114. http://books.google.com/books?id=
SeGyrCfYs2AC&pg=PA114 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=SeGyrCfYs2AC&pg=PA114
[2] Needham, J., and L. Wang. Science
and Civilisation in China: Physics and
Physical Technology. Mechanical
Engineering. University Press, 1965.
Science and Civilisation in China,
p83. http://books.google.com/books?id=S
eGyrCfYs2AC&pg=PA83 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=SeGyrCfYs2AC&pg=PA83
[200 AD]
in China.
[1] Rubbing of the top panel of the
Nestorial Tablet Dated 781 CE, Tang
dynasty Ink rubbing on paper 52.23 x
31.91 cm Acquisition numbers:
#92.78.1 Gift of James K.
Penfield Image from Seattle Art
Museum PD
source: http://depts.washington.edu/silk
road/exhibit/religion/nestorians/images/
92_78_1.jpg
[290 AD]
[1] Distillation apparatus of Zosimos,
from Marcelin Berthelot, Collection des
anciens alchimistes grecs (3 vol.,
Paris, 1887-1888). Read more:
http://www.answers.com/topic/zosimos-of-
panopolis#ixzz2NTz2SaHo Berthelot,
M., and C.E. Ruelle. Collection Des
Anciens Alchimistes Grecs. G.
Steinheil, 1888. Collection Des Anciens
Alchimistes Grecs,
p163. http://books.google.com/books?id=
lrRXAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA163 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=lrRXAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA163
[05/??/325 AD]
condemns the claim of Arius {u-rI-uS or
AR-E-uS}, that Jesus was not divine, as
a heresy.
Turkey)
[1] Description English: Emperor
Constantine and the Council of Nicaea.
The burning of Arian books is
illustrated below. Drawing on vellum.
From MS CLXV, Biblioteca Capitolare,
Vercelli, a compendium of canon law
produced in northern Italy ca.
825. Text: ''Sinodus Niceni u[bi?]
[f?]ui[t?] numerus / s[an]c[t]o[rum]
patr[um] . CCCXVIII . et omnes /
subscrip/seru/n/t.'' ''Constantinus
imp(erator)''. ''Heretici / Arriani /
damnati'' Translation: ''[of?] the
synod of Nicaea [where the] number / of
holy fathers [was] 318 [.] and all /
subscribed.'' ''Constantine the
emperor.'' ''Arian heretics
condemned.'' Date circa 825 Source
Jean Hubert et al., Europe in the Dark
Ages (London: Thames & Hudson, 1969),
p. 143 Author file: James Steakley;
artwork: unknown PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Constantine_bur
ning_Arian_books.jpg/744px-Constantine_b
urning_Arian_books.jpg
[2] Description Eastern Orthodox icon
depicting the First Council of Nicea
(325).PD
source: http://santosapostolesmiami.org/
wp-content/uploads/2013/03/nicaeacouncil
.jpg
[328 AD]
[1] Fischer, S.R. A History of Writing.
Reaktion, 2001. Globalities Series.
p101. COPYRIGHTED
source: Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p101.
[2] Artist Unknown Description
Arabic epitaph of “Imru-l-Qays, son
of 'Amr, king of all the Arabs”,
inscribed in Nabataean script. Basalt,
dated in 7 Kislul, 223, viz. December,
7 328 AD. Found at Nemara in the Hauran
(Southern Syria). Dimensions H. 45 cm
(17 ½ in.), W. 1.73 m (5 ft. 8 in.),
D. 15 cm (5 ¾ in.) Current location
(Inventory)Louvre MuseumLink back to
Institution infobox
template Department of Oriental
Antiquities, Sully wing, ground floor,
room 19 Accession number AO
4083 Credit line Purchase,
1903 Source/Photographer Jastrow
(2007) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Epitaph_Imru-l-
Qays_Louvre_AO4083.jpg/1280px-Epitaph_Im
ru-l-Qays_Louvre_AO4083.jpghttp://upload
.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/04/Du
ssad_Namara.jpg
[331 AD]
abolishes all pagan (polytheistic)
hospitals.
[1] Description
Rome-Capitole-StatueConstantin.jpg S
tatue de Constantin Ier, Musée du
Capitole, Rome Date 3 August
2007(2007-08-03) Source Oeuvre
personnelle Author
Jean-Christophe BENOIST GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/ce/Rome-Capitole-StatueC
onstantin.jpg
[02/24/391 AD]
prohibits the visiting of non-Christian
temples.
[1] Theodosius I UNKNOWN
source: http://finds.org.uk/images/ruler
s/Theodosius%20I.jpg
[2] Description Français :
Théodose Ier Date 2005-03-07
(original upload date) Source
Transfered from fr.wikipedia Transfer
was stated to be made by User:Alter
Mandarine. Author Original uploader
was Erine at
fr.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) Released under the GNU Free
Documentation License. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0b/Theodosius-1-.jpg
[391 AD]
Serapis (the Serapeum) in Alexandria is
violently destroyed by Christian people
and the temple is converted to a
Christian church.
[1] Description Theophilus and the
Serapeum. Bishop Theophilus of
Alexandria, en:Gospel book in hand,
stands triumphantly atop the
en:Serapeum in en:391. The cult image
of en:Serapis, crowned with the
en:modius, is visible within the temple
at the bottom. Marginal illustration
from a chronicle written in Alexandria
in the early fifth century, thus
providing a nearly contemporary
portrait of Theophilus. P. Goleniscev 6
verso. (From A. Bauer and J.
Strygowski, ''Eine alexandrinische
Weltchronik,'' Denkschriften der
Kaiserlichen Akademie der
Wissenschaften: Wien 51.2 [en:1906]:
1-204, fig. 6 verso) Date 2002-11-10
(first version); 2004-05-14 (last
version) Source Originally from
en.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. Author Original uploader was
Eloquence at en.wikipedia Later
versions were uploaded by Hephaestos at
en.wikipedia. Permission (Reusing
this file) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/34/Theophil.jpg
[2] Serapeum Temple which housed the
''daughter library'' of the Library of
Alexandria. Source
www.alexandrinelibrarian.blogspot.com U
NKNOWN
source: http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_KQyC59
HU4I0/SrRlFDYM2iI/AAAAAAAAAC4/fmxC6-MP49
U/s320/Serapis_Temple02.jpg
[08/24/394 AD]
inscription in Egypt.
[1] The Graffito of Esmet-Akhom, ca.
396 CE. The successive encroachment on
Egyptian culture and writing by the
Greeks, Romans, and Christians slowly
eliminated scribes capable of producing
hieroglyphic texts. An inscription
containing mention of the “Birthday
of Osiris, year 110'' is believed to
refer to the reign of Diocletion and
calculated as August 24, 396 CE
(Griffith 1937). [Fig. 22] This last
known example of Egyptian hieroglyphic
writing was found at the temple complex
of Philae, a sacred island near the
First Cataract of the river Nile. The
Emperor Justinian conducted a zealous
program against paganism and Philae was
captured and Christianized in 535 CE
(passim Harl 1990). Pagan priests were
killed, idols were broken and Egyptian
religious texts were burned. This was,
of course, not the first time that one
religion had destroyed the writings of
another religion, nor would it be the
last. It does, however, encapsulate the
problems encountered when literature
and knowledge are preserved in a
perishable medium. The Library of
Alexandria and its various destructions
would be a straightforward example of
such. also
from: http://www.memphis.edu/egypt/phil
ae2.php Aswan - Last Hieroglyphic
Text Relief of a Ptolemaic or Roman
period pharaoh from the temple of Isis
at Philae. The last known hieroglyphic
inscription in Egypt dates from 394
C.E. (late Roman period) and is seen
here in this image from Philae Temple.
Vertical lines border and divide the
two columns of hieroglyphs which relate
a royal decree. The hieroglyphs are
crude in execution but are clear enough
to read. On the left is a badly damaged
figure of a king wearing an elaborate
crown. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.flavinscorner.com/Las
tPhilae.JPG
[03/??/415 AD]
Hypatia by Christian people.
) Alexandria, Egypt
[1] Hypatia of Alexandria, aka the
''Pagan Scholar'' Cheered for
inventing the plane astrolabe, 1
Hypatia was slaughtered by Christian
monks in AD 415. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.dctc.edu/assets/pics/
spring-2010/hypatia.jpg
[2] Hypatia was a mathematician,
astronomer, teacher, editor, inventor,
musician, and author. In March, 415
A.D. she was murdered by a mob of
fanatics on the steps of a church
called The Caesarium in Alexandria,
Egypt. She has become a symbol of
martryed Reason, feminism, and
Classical paganism. UNKNOWN
source: http://cosmographica.com/alexand
ria/images/hypatia_portrait_large.jpg
[448 AD]
II orders all non-Christian books
burned.
[1] Description English: Bust of
Byzantine Empreror Theodosius II
(reigned 408–450 AD). Marble, 5th
century AD. Français : Buste de
l'empereur byzantin Théodose II
(règne 408-450 ap. J.-C.). Marbre, Ve
siècle ap.
J.-C. Date Dimensions H. 29 cm (11
¼ in.) Current
location [show](Inventory)Louvre
Museum Département des Antiquités
grecques, étrusques et romaines,
Denon, ground floor, room 29 Accession
number Ma 1036 (OA 9056) Credit
line In the royal collections since
the 16th
century Source/Photographer Marie-Lan
Nguyen (User:Jastrow),
2009 Permission (Reusing this
file) See below. Other
versions P1080088 Louvre tête
empereur Téodose II Ma1036 rwk.JPG CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Theodosius_II_L
ouvre_Ma1036.jpg/768px-Theodosius_II_Lou
vre_Ma1036.jpg
[2] THEODOSIUS II, 402-450, (son of
Arcadius) 10616. THEODOSIUS II.
AD 402-450. AV Solidus (20mm, 4.42 g,
12h). Ravenna mint. Struck AD 423-425.
Pearl-diademed, draped, and cuirassed
bust right / Emperor standing right,
holding labarum and Victory on globe,
placing foot on captive on the ground
below; R-V//COMOB. RIC X 1801; Depeyrot
7/3. Good VF. Ex Peus 369 (31 October
2001), lot 899. UNKNOWN
source: http://edgarlowen.com/theodosius
-10616.jpg
[499 AD]
axis is described by Indian astronomer
Aryabhata.
[1] Español: Estatua de Aryabhata en
India This image of a public statue in
IUCAA Pune was photographed in May 2006
by myself, and I release all
rights. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:2064_aryabhata-crp.jpg
[528 AD]
impediment to a projectile's motion is
recognized.
[1] The Iconoclast theologian John the
Grammarian and an Iconoclast bishop
whitewash an image of Christ, from a
9th century Psalter PD
source: http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_CijcaA
9yq58/SrTp9neBmfI/AAAAAAAADiI/YW-8LcUktW
4/s1600/Iconoclasm+scan.jpg
[2] [t Note that this is not
contemporary with
Grammarian] Description English:
The embassy of John the Grammarian in
829, between the Byzantine emperor
Theophilos (right) and the Abbasid
caliph Al-Ma'mun, from the Madrid
Skylitzes, fol. 47r, detail. Date
12th/13th century Source Chronicle
of John Skylitzes, cod. Vitr. 26-2,
Madrid National Library Author
Unknown, 12th/13th century author PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/22/John_the_Grammarian_a
s_ambassador_before_Theophilos_and_Mamun
.jpg
[529 AD]
Justinian closes the schools of
Alexandria and Athens (including
Plato's Academy).
Alexandria,Egypt)
[1] Artist Meister von San Vitale in
Ravenna Title Justinian I , San
Vitale (Ravenna) Deutsch: Chormosaiken
in San Vitale in Ravenna, Szene: Kaiser
Justinian und Bischof Maximilianus und
sein Hof, Detail: Büste des
Justinian Italiano: Basilica di San
Vitale a Ravenna, L'imperatore
Giustiniano I e il suo seguito.
Dettaglio della decorazione a mosaico
bizantina, compiuta entro il 547.
Dettaglio: Giustiniano
I. Date Deutsch: vor 547 English:
before 547 Medium Deutsch:
Mosaik Current location San Vitale
in Ravenna. Ravenna. Notes Deutsch:
Ravennatische Schule,
italo-byzantinische Werkstatt,
Auftraggeber: Bischof Maximilian und
Bankier Julianus, Mosaik im
Chor Source/Photographer The Yorck
Project: 10.000 Meisterwerke der
Malerei. DVD-ROM, 2002. ISBN
3936122202. Distributed by DIRECTMEDIA
Publishing GmbH. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Meister_von_San
_Vitale_in_Ravenna.jpg/778px-Meister_von
_San_Vitale_in_Ravenna.jpg
[2] Description English: Basilica of
Sant'Apollinare Nuovo (mosaic of
Justinian I) Date 2008 Source Own
work Author Testus CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a2/Sant%27Apollinare_Nuo
vo_%28Justinian_I%29.jpg
[542 AD]
is founded: the earliest hospital in
France.
[1] Hospital Hôtel-Dieu : patio
interior
source: http://www.lyon.fr/vdl/sections/
es/tourisme/histoire/?aIndex=2
[589 AD]
[1] The Explanatory Notes to the Five
Classics (五经正义) was an official
book issued in the Tang Dynasty. The
five classics refer to the five
Confucius books, namely, the Classic of
Poetry, the Classic of History, the
Classic of Rites, the Classic of
Changes and Spring and Autumn Annals.
In the reign of Emperor Wu of the Han
Dynasty, the five books were reputed as
classics, thus having their name as
Five Classics. UNKNOWN
source: http://history.cultural-china.co
m/chinaWH/upload/upfiles/2008-12/24/expl
anatory_notes_to_the_five_classics502e1c
5858304ebb3671.jpg
[600 AD]
This windmill uses a vertical shaft and
horizontal sails to grind grain.
[1] (Images via: Ullesthorpe,
BluePlanet, DeutschesMuseum and
WorldofEnergy) UNKNOWN
source: http://cdn.webecoist.com/wp-cont
ent/uploads/2009/01/ancient-persian-wind
mills.jpg
[613 AD]
is founded.
Arabia)
[1] Muhammd solves a dispute over
lifting the black stone into position
at al-Ka'ba. Note from pp. 100-101 of
''The illustrations to the World
history of Rashid al-Din / David Talbot
Rice ; edited by Basil Gray. Edinburgh
: Edinburgh University Press, c1976.''
- In the center, Muhammad, with two
long hair plaits, places the stone on a
carpet held at the four corners by
representatives of the four tribes, so
that all have the honor of lifting it.
The carpet is a kelim from Central
Asia. Behind, two other men lift the
black curtain which conceals the doors
of the sancuary. This work may be
assigned to the Master of the Scenes
from the Life of the Prophet. Source
Jami' al-Tavarikh (''The Compendium of
Chronicles'' or ''The Universal
Histroy'') This illustration is in a
folio in the Oriental Manuscript
Section of the Edinburgh University
Library, Special Collections and
Archives Date 1315 Author Rashid
Al-Din The earliest surviving image
of Muhammad from Rashid al-Din's Jami'
al-Tawarikh, approximately 1315,
depicting the episode of the Black
Stone. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Mohammed_kaaba_1315.jpg
[640 AD]
"Greek fire".
[1] Depiction of Greek fire in the
Madrid Skylitzes manuscript. Image
from an illuminated manuscript showing
greek fire in use. From the Skylitzes
manuscript in Madrid PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Greekfire-madridskylitzes1.jpg
[700 AD]
decimal notation are used in Pakistan.
Pakistan)
[1] Combination of image 2 and
3 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.thecultureconcept.com
/circle/wp-content/uploads/2011/09/Bakhs
hali-Manuscript.jpghttp://upload.wikimed
ia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/64/Bakhshali_
numerals_1.jpg
[2] 3rd or 4th century The Bakhshali
Manuscript – is an early mathematical
manuscript discovered in 1881 near the
village Bakhshali (or Bakhshalai) in
the modern Peshawar district of
Pakistan. It is the only known document
on mathematics from this early period
of its culture and was written on birch
bark. 70 leaves, a few of which were
only scraps, survived to the time of
its discovery. It is a handbook of
rules and illustrative examples
together with their solutions. It is
devoted mainly to arithmetic and
algebra, with just a few problems on
geometry and mensuration. Only parts
have been restored, so we cannot be
certain about the balance between
different topics UNKNOWN
source: http://www.thecultureconcept.com
/circle/wp-content/uploads/2011/09/Bakhs
hali-Manuscript.jpg
[751 AD]
acids.
[1] Portrait of Jabir ibn Hayyan
http://histoirechimie.free.fr/Lien/Geber
.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Geber.jpg
[2] alchemist Jabir ibn Hayyan, from a
15th c. European portrait of ''Geber'',
Codici Ashburnhamiani 1166, Biblioteca
Medicea Laurenziana, Florence, public
domain PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jabir_ibn_Hayyan.jpg
[770 AD]
paper with text is attached with rice
paste to a block of wood, the uninked
parts are cut away, the block is inked,
and a paper pressed on it.
[1]
http://specialcollections.wichita.edu/ex
hibits/aitchison/images/aitch05.jpg UNK
NOWN
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jingangjing.gif
[2] Printed sutra enclosed in a wood
pagoda Commissioned by the Empress
Shotoku-tenno in 764 AD (r.
765-769) Japan, Hyakumanto 19 cm x
10.3 cm pagoda and 7 x 45 cm scroll;
wood and paper UNKNOWN
source: http://specialcollections.wichit
a.edu/exhibits/aitchison/images/aitch05.
jpg
[781 AD]
England
[1] Raban Maur (left), supported by
Alcuin (middle), dedicates his work to
Archbishop Otgar of Mainz
(Right) Hrabanus Maurus, von Alcuin
empfohlen, übergibt sein Werk dem
Erzbischof von Mainz,
Otgar Carolingian
Manuscript manuscriptum Fuldense ca.
831/40, Österreichische
Nationalbibliothek Wien PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Raban-Maur_Alcuin_Otgar.jpg
[2] Page of text (folio 160v) from a
Carolingian Gospel Book (British
Library, MS Add. 11848), written in
Carolingian minuscule. Taken from
http://www.bl.uk/catalogues/illuminatedm
anuscripts/record.asp?MSID=8614&CollID=2
7&NStart=11848 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:BritLibAddMS11848Fol160rText.jpg
[789 AD]
establishes schools where math and
grammar are taught.
[1] No description from Charlemagne's
lifetime exists.[2] Charlemagne and
Pippin the Hunchback (Karl der Große
und Pippin der Bucklige) 10th
century copy of a lost original, which
was made back between 829 and 836 in
Fulda for Eberhard von Friaul PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Karl_der_Grosse_-_Pippin_der_Bucklige
.jpg
[2] A portrait of Charlemagne by
Albrecht Dürer that was painted
several centuries after Charlemagne's
death. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Charlemagne-by-Durer.jpg
[800 AD]
with a bow.
(Central Asia)
[1] Fig 1: Byzantine, ivory casket
c.1000 (from Museo Nazionale, Florence,
Coll. Carrand, No.26) - earliest
depiction of a rebec like instrument.
Has pear shaped body blending into long
narrow neck. There is a definite
anchorpoint at the base, with a kind of
fleur tailpiece, though the pegs appear
to be missing from the depiction (no
other anchorpoint is clearly
indicated). There are only two strings,
and the bow is very long and narrow
(though it may simply be the artist
trying the show that the bow is
perpendicular to the surface of the
strings, thus appearing flat when
viewed edge on). No sound holes are
shown, the soundboard seems to be a
distinct, attached piece (possibly a
skin covering much like in rababs).
This is the instrument in
transition. PD
source: http://crab.rutgers.edu/~pbutler
/ob09.jpg
[2] Fig 2: Spanish, Catalan Psalter,
c.1050. (''King David and musicians
tuning their instruments'' in
Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris, MS Lat.
11550, fol. 7v)- Shows a normal pear
body shape. Three distinct strings,
attached to a triangular tailpiece at
the base, and to vertically mounted
pegs at the other end. The pegbox is a
round disk that appears to be made of
the same piece as the neck/body,
suggesting that this is a unibody
construction. Again a little endpiece
or endpeg is indicated. There are two
round sound holes set far back on the
instrument. The bow is a simple curved
bow with end pressure grip (see below).
This image is also somewhat suspect
from the distortion of the left hand,
which has the fingers curling backwards
rather than forward as they actually
must. PD
source: http://crab.rutgers.edu/~pbutler
/ob25.jpg
[815 AD]
Wisdom) school is founded, where many
scientific works are translated into
Arabic.
[1] Harun al-Rashid: (ca: 763-809) was
the fifth and most famous Abbasid
Caliph. Ruling from 786 until 809, his
reign and the fabulous court over which
he held sway are immortalized in The
Book of One Thousand and One Nights PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Harun_Al-Rashid_and_the_World_of_the_
Thousand_and_One_Nights.jpg
[2] Julius Köckert's painting of
Harun al-Rashid receiving the
delegation of Charlemagne demonstrates
the latter's recognition of Hārūn
ar-Rashīd as the most powerful man of
his culture. The painting by Julius
Köckert (Koeckert) (1827-1918), dated
1864, is located at Maximilianeum
Foundation in Munich. It is Oil on
Canvas. This Image of the painting was
created and provided by Zereshk. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Harun-Charlemagne.jpg
[850 AD]
The earliest gunpowder, black powder,
is a mixture of saltpeter (potassium
nitrate), sulfur, and charcoal.
[1] Description The earliest known
written description of the formula for
gunpowder, from the Chinese Wujing
Zongyao military manuscript that was
compiled by 1044 during the Song
Dynasty of China. It was written and
compiled by the 11th century Song
scholars Zeng Gongliang (曾公亮),
Ding Du (丁度), and Yang Weide
(楊惟德). The entry for this
specific page is headed with the title
''method for making the fire-chemical''
(''huo yao fa''). This picture can
also be found on page 119 of Joseph
Needham's book Science and Civilization
in China: Volume 5, Part 7. Date
11 August 2007 Source Own
work (My book) Author
PericlesofAthens Permission (Reus
ing this file) See below. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c2/Chinese_Gunpowder_For
mula.JPG
[900 AD]
founded in Salerno, Italy.
[1] A miniature depicting the Schola
Medica Salernitana from a copy of
Avicenna's Canons PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:ScuolaMedicaMiniatura.jpg
[2] Hand colored wood cut illustration
depicting the medical school at
Salerno. De conservanda bona
valetudine opusculum scholae
Salernitanae, 1554. Galter Medical
Rare Books 613 R26 1554 PD
source: http://www.galter.northwestern.e
du/library_notes/40/woodcut_full.jpg
[900 AD]
(many-voiced) music (Organum), and
distinct pitches.
empire|Possibly written in what is now
Eastern France
[1] Skildring Deutsch: Früheste
Darstellung eines Organums in einer
theoretischen Schrift, der ''Musica
enchiriades'' aus dem späten 9.
Jahrhundert Dato late 9th
century Kjelda Musica
enchiriadis, Bamberg, Staatsbibliothek,
Var. 1, fol 57r Opphavsperson
Unknown writer Løyve (Gjenbruk
av denne fila) Sjå under. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/9e/Musica_enchiriadis_Re
x_celi.png
[2] Skildring Deutsch: Früheste
Darstellung eines Organums in einer
theoretischen Schrift, der ''Musica
enchiriades'' aus dem späten 9.
Jahrhundert Dato late 9th
century Kjelda Musica
enchiriadis, Bamberg, Staatsbibliothek,
Var. 1, fol 57r Opphavsperson
Unknown writer Løyve (Gjenbruk
av denne fila) Sjå under. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/9e/Musica_enchiriadis_Re
x_celi.png
[905 AD]
broken bones in place by Al-Razi
{oL-rAZE}, who also openly rejects
Islam and other religions.
[1] Description English: Muhammad ibn
Zakariya ar-Razi Date before
1970 Source Iranian 2nd year of
Rahnamai textbook Author Unknown PD
source: http://www.hmc.org.qa/hmc/qmj/ju
ne2002/biography/BIO3.HTM
[2] Al-Razi from a book cover
COPYRIGHTED FAIR USE
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Rhazes.jpg
[920 AD]
America.
[1] Figure from: Helge Ingstad, ''The
Viking Discovery of America: The
Excavation of a Norse Settlement in
L'Anse aux Meadows, Newfoundland'',
2001. COPYRIGHTED
source: Helge Ingstad, "The Viking
Discovery of America: The Excavation of
a Norse Settlement in L'Anse aux
Meadows, Newfoundland", 2001.
[2] Figure 24 from: Helge Ingstad,
''The Viking Discovery of America: The
Excavation of a Norse Settlement in
L'Anse aux Meadows, Newfoundland'',
2001. COPYRIGHTED
source: Helge Ingstad, "The Viking
Discovery of America: The Excavation of
a Norse Settlement in L'Anse aux
Meadows, Newfoundland", 2001.
[960 AD]
gun-powder rockets probably in hollow
bamboo tubes.
[1] Description Drawing of an
early Chinese soldier lighting a
rocket Date 2007 Source
http://history.msfc.nasa.gov/rocket
ry/03.html Author
NASA Permission (Reusing this
file) NASA still images, audio
files and video generally are not
copyrighted. You may use NASA imagery,
video and audio material for
educational or informational purposes,
including photo collections, textbooks,
public exhibits and Internet Web
pages. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/63/Chinese_rocket.gif
[2] Widely reputed as the world's
first ''astronaut'', Wan Hu was a minor
Chinese official of the Ming Dynasty
(1368-1644). Early in the 16th century,
Wan Hu decided to take advantage of
China's advanced power and fireworks
technology to launch himself into outer
space. He had a chair built with 47
''rockets'' attached. On the day of
lift-off, Wan climbed into his rocket
chair and held one enormous kite in
each hand. The ignition of the 47 fuses
caused a huge explosion and sent him
into the sky. But unfortunately, he
failed to go into orbit and his body
smashed into pieces on the ground.
UNKNOWN
source: http://images.china.cn/images1/2
00710/410673.jpg
[964 AD]
Arabic star names which, in corrupted
form, are still in use today.
Isfahan, Persia (modern Iran)
[1] [t Note that Sahabi means friends
of Muhammad- possibly to imply life
around other stars?] Jones, ''The
Search For The Nebulae'', 1975,
p7. {Jones_The_Search_For_The_Nebulae_1
975.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: Jones, "The Search For The
Nebulae", 1975, p7.
[2] [t Note that this is the reverse
orientation (horizontally) of the
Andromeda constellation, and that
Bullialdus writes that the author is
anonymous, but is similar to the one
from the earlier St. Petersburg
manuscruot if Al-Sufi's Book of the
Fixed Stars.] Jones, ''The Search For
The Nebulae'', 1975,
p15. {Jones_The_Search_For_The_Nebulae_
1975.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: Jones, "The Search For The
Nebulae", 1975, p15.
[976 AD]
Europe.
[1] The first Arabic numerals in a
Western manuscript, AD 976. From Codex
Vigilanus PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:1st_Arabic_numerals_in_West.jpg
[1000 AD]
[1] English First page (AA-AB) from an
early printed edition of the Suda. The
column headings read ''Beginning of
letter A/A standing alone'' and ''A
with B''. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e2/Suda.jpg
[1000 AD]
[1] English: Early paper money, China,
Song Dynasty scan from
《社会历史博物馆》 ISBN
7-5347-1397-8 北宋交子 jiaozi,
w:Northern Song Dynasty The text
reads:
除四川外許於諸路州縣公私從
主管並同見錢七百七十陌流
行使, which essentially means that
except in w:Sichuan, the bill may be
used in the stead of 77,000 wen of
metal coinage. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d9/Jiao_zi.jpg
[2] scan from
《社会历史博物馆》 ISBN
7-5347-1397-8 会子 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6a/Hui_zi.jpg
[1025 AD]
[1] The 11th century Benedictine monk
Guido d’Arezzo invented a mnemonic
system using parts of the hand to
indicate pitches for singers. The note
names ut, re, mi, fa, sol and la were
also placed on horizontal lines to
notate pitch. These inventions evolved
into solfeggio (do re mi fa sol la ti
do) and staff notation as used today.
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.designwritingresearch
.org/music/images/3.jpg
[2] Statue of Guido of Arezzo, Arezzo,
Italy (photo taken by Wilson Delgado,
March 30, 2003) Author:
en:User:Wilson Delgado Source:
en:Image:Guido of arezzo.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2b/Statue_of_Guido_of_Ar
ezzo.jpg
[1038 AD]
[1] Figure 2. The concept of the
camera obscura as perceived a thousand
years ago by Alhazen (Ibn al-Haytham),
who coined the term (see text). Note
the formation of the inverted image
through a ray diagram. Adapted from
Al-Hassani et al. (2006). from: Ahmed
H. Zewail, Micrographia of the
twenty-first century: from camera
obscura to 4D microscopy Phil. Trans.
R. Soc. A March 13, 2010 368 (1914)
1191-1204;
doi:10.1098/rsta.2009.0265 http://rsta.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/368/1
914/1191.abstract COPYRIGHTED
source: http://rsta.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/368/1914/1191/F2.large.jp
g
[2] [t Portrait of al-Hazen on paper
money] UNKNOWN
source: http://robbani.net78.net/wp/wp-c
ontent/uploads/2012/01/haisam5.jpg
[1041 AD]
individual blocks can be put together
to form a text, is invented in China.
Baked clay types are placed side by
side on an iron plate coated with a
mixture of resin, wax, and paper ash.
Gently heating this plate and then
letting the plate cool solidifies the
type.
[1] Figure 1138. Earliest extant
edition of the ''Meng Chhi Pi Than'',
printed in the + 14th century. The
passage rearranged into one double-leaf
above records the first use of the
earthenware movable type printing by Pi
Sheng in the middle of the + 11th
century. Copy preserved at the National
Library of China. Joseph Needham,
''Science and Civilisation in China'',
Tsien, v5,part 1, Paper and Printing.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
1985.
{Needham_printing_China_1985.pdf} PD
source: Joseph Needham, "Science and
Civilisation in China", Tsien, v5,part
1, Paper and Printing. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1985.
[2] Fig 1141. Earthenware types of
Chai Chin-Sheng, c +1844, discovered in
1962 in Hui-chou, Anhui province. Above
are four different sizes of the type
and below are the printed characters
from the large size of the
type. Courtesy of the Institute of
History of Science, Academia Sinica,
Peking. Joseph Needham, ''Science and
Civilisation in China'', Tsien, v5,part
1, Paper and Printing. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1985.
{Needham_printing_China_1985.pdf} PD
source: Joseph Needham, "Science and
Civilisation in China", Tsien, v5,part
1, Paper and Printing. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1985.
[1088 AD]
founded.
[1] Description Il Palazzo dei notai
(a sin.) e Palazzo d'Accursio, in
Piazza Maggiore a Bologna,
Italia. Date 2006-27-03 Source
Flickr Author Gaspa Reviewer
Mac9 CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/11/Bologna-vista02.jpg
[2] English: The Collegio di Spagna, a
historic university college, originally
founded to support Spanish students in
Bologna, Italy. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Collegio-spagna
3.jpg/1280px-Collegio-spagna3.jpg
[1100 AD]
evolves in France.
France)
[1] [t Image of troubador] PD
source: http://heathergoodman.us/files/i
mages/F_002_13thcTroubadour.jpg
[2] [t Image of troubador] PD
source: http://heathergoodman.us/files/i
mages/F_002_13thcTroubadour.jpg
[1106 AD]
"The Incoherence of the Philosophers"
slows the influence of ancient Greek
philosophy in Arab and Persian nations.
Iran
[1] Hardcover: 267 pages Publisher:
Pakistan Philosophical Congress; 2nd
pr. edition (1963) Language:
English ASIN:
B0007IW3EG UNKNOWN AND Portrait of
Ghazali in his late years by an Iraqi
artist Name: Al-Ghazali
(Algazel) Birth: 1058 CE (450
AH) Death: 1111 CE (505
AH) School/tradition: Sufism, Sunnite
(Shafi'ite), Asharite Main interests:
Sufism, Theology (Kalam), Philosophy,
Logic, Islamic
Jurisprudence Influenced: Fakhruddin
Razi, Maimonides[1], Thomas Aquinas,
Raymund Martin, Nicholas of Autrecourt,
Shah Waliullah, Abdul-Qader Bedil PD
source: http://ecx.images-amazon.com/ima
ges/I/81kKsAI3QAL._SL1500_.jpghttp://www
.amazon.com/Tahafut-al-Falasifah-Incoher
ence-philosophers-Philosophical/dp/B0007
IW3EGhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:
Ghazali.gif
[2] Portrait of Ghazali in his late
years by an Iraqi artist Name:
Al-Ghazali (Algazel) Birth: 1058 CE
(450 AH) Death: 1111 CE (505
AH) School/tradition: Sufism, Sunnite
(Shafi'ite), Asharite Main interests:
Sufism, Theology (Kalam), Philosophy,
Logic, Islamic
Jurisprudence Influenced: Fakhruddin
Razi, Maimonides[1], Thomas Aquinas,
Raymund Martin, Nicholas of Autrecourt,
Shah Waliullah, Abdul-Qader Bedil PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ghazali.gif
[1132 AD]
China.
[1] Figure 2 from: Gwei-Djen, Lu,
Joseph Needham, and Phan Chi-Hsing.
“The Oldest Representation of a
Bombard.” Technology and Culture 29.3
(1988): 594–605.
Print. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3105
275 {Gwei-Djen_1988.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: Gwei-Djen, Lu, Joseph Needham,
and Phan Chi-Hsing. “The Oldest
Representation of a Bombard.”
Technology and Culture 29.3 (1988):
594–605.
Print. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3105
275
[2] Figure 3 from: Gwei-Djen, Lu,
Joseph Needham, and Phan Chi-Hsing.
“The Oldest Representation of a
Bombard.” Technology and Culture 29.3
(1988): 594–605.
Print. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3105
275 {Gwei-Djen_1988.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: Gwei-Djen, Lu, Joseph Needham,
and Phan Chi-Hsing. “The Oldest
Representation of a Bombard.”
Technology and Culture 29.3 (1988):
594–605.
Print. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3105
275
[1150 AD]
use a keyboard.
[1] Two Elders of the Apocolypse plying
an organistrum in the Portico de la
Gloria, completed in 1188, of Santiago
de Compostela Cathedral. Santiago de
Compostela, Spain GFDL
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6b/Organistrumsantiago20
060414.jpg
[1167 AD]
founded.
Kingdom)
[1] All Souls College quad COPYRIGHTED
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Oxford_University_Colleges-All_Souls_
quad.jpg
[2] Oxford's 'Dreaming Spires' at
sunset View of All Souls College and
the Radcliffe Camera, Oxford,
England COPYRIGHTED
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Oxfordskylinedawn.jpg
[1170 AD]
founded.
[1] The Sorbonne, Paris, in a 17th
century engraving PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Sorbonne_17thc.jpg
[11/??/1184 AD]
Pope Lucius III makes burning the
official punishment for heresy
{HAReSE}.
The Inquisition will last until the
1800s.
[1] St Dominic (1170-1221[3]) presiding
over an auto de fe, Spanish,
1475 Representation of an Auto de fe,
(1475). [t I think this is a dubious
claim, that people didn't stay
around...they quickly leave when time
for the burning...I doubt it:] Many
artistic representations depict torture
and the burning at the stake as
occurring during the auto da fe.
Actually, burning at the stake usually
occurred after, not during the
ceremonies. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Inquisition2.jpg
[2] English: The burning of the knight
of Hohenberg with his servant before
the walls of Zürich, for sodomy,
1482. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5c/Burning_of_Sodomites.
jpg
[1228 AD]
made of light.
[1] Record Number: 19885 Shelfmark:
Royal 6 E. V Page Folio Number:
f.6 Description: [Miniature only]
Initial 'A', portrait of Robert
Grosseteste, Bishop of Lincoln. The
beginning of one of the bishop's
sermons Title of Work: Works of
Robert Grosseteste, Bishop of
Lincoln Author: Grosseteste,
Robert Illustrator: - Production:
England; 15th
century Language/Script: Latin /
- PD
source: http://www.imagesonline.bl.uk/br
itishlibrary/controller/textsearch?text=
grosseteste&y=0&x=0&startid=31330&width=
4&height=2&idx=2
[2] Robert Grosseteste (1168-1253).
Scientist, Philosopher, Bishop of
Lincoln. PD
source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wik
i/Image:Grosseteste-color.png
[1234 AD]
press is invented; in Korea.
[1] English: Jikji or ''Selected
Teachings of Buddhist Sages and Seon
Masters'', published in 1377, Korea
during the Goryeo Dynasty. It is the
earliest known book printed with
movable metal type. 한국어:
백운화상초록불조직지심체요
(白雲和尙抄錄佛祖直指心體
節, 간단히
불조직지심체요절,
직지심체요절, 직지)은
백운화상 경한이 선(禪)의
요체를 깨닫는 데에 필요한
내용을 뽑아 1372년에 펴낸
불교 서적으로, 상·하권으로
이루어져 있다. 원나라에서
받아온 불조직지심체요절의
내용을 대폭 늘려 상·하
2권으로 엮은 것이다. 전
세계에 남아 있는 금속
활자로 인쇄된 책 중에서
가장 오래된 것으로, 2001년
9월 4일 《승정원일기》와
함께 유네스코
세계기록유산에 등재되었다.
현존하는 것은 하권 1책
뿐인데, 1900년대 말 콜랭 드
프랑시 주한 프랑스 공사가
프랑스로 가지고 갔으며 현재
프랑스 국립도서관에
소장되어 있다. 이는 독일
구텐베르크의 활자보다 78년
이상 앞서 편찬되었다. Date
1377 Source Bibliotheque
Nationale de France. Source Author
English: Authored by Baegun Hwaseng
(1289-1374), a master of Seon Buddhism
in Korea, and published by his
students, Seokchan and Daljam in
1377. 한국어: 선종의 대가인
백운화상 (1289년-1374)이 지은
책을 그의 제자인 석찬과
달잠이 1377년에
출판하였다. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/9f/Korean_book-Jikji-Sel
ected_Teachings_of_Buddhist_Sages_and_Se
on_Masters-1377.jpg
[1242 AD]
are introduced to Europe.
[1] English philosopher and Franciscan
friar. Possible ancestor of Sir Francis
Bacon, who authored The New
Atlantis. UNKNOWN
source: http://i393.photobucket.com/albu
ms/pp14/Inverted_Heptagram_Star/RogerBac
on1214-1294.jpg
[2] Roger Bacon Library of
Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/roger%20b
acon
[1267 AD]
carriages, and that the Earth can be
circumnavigated are proposed by Roger
Bacon.
[1] Statue of Roger Bacon in the Oxford
University Museum of Natural History.
2004 GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Roger-bacon-statue.jpg
[2] English Franciscan philosopher and
educational reformer Roger Bacon shown
in his observatory at the Franciscan
monastery, Oxford, England (engraving
c. 1867). Credit: ©
Photos.com/Thinkstock COPYRIGHTED
source: http://media-1.web.britannica.co
m/eb-media/06/147406-004-CEEDC2D2.jpg
[1277 AD]
works are ordered suppressed.
[1] Roger Bacon Library of
Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/roger%20b
acon
[2] Statue of Roger Bacon in the
Oxford University Museum of Natural
History. 2004 GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Roger-bacon-statue.jpg
[1280 AD]
terms of time ("long", "breve" {BrEV}
and "semibreve" {SeME-BrEV}).
[1] 1.1.6. Deutschland 12. u. 13./14.
Jh. – Antiphonar, benediktinisch,
Herkunft unsicher
source: http://www.musicademy.de/uploads
/pics/27.3_01.jpg
[2] 1.1.4. Frankreich 12. Jh.:
Kantatorium aus der Benediktinerabtei
Saint-Evroult de'Ouche PD
source: http://www.musicademy.de/uploads
/pics/27.1_01.jpg
[1280 AD]
[1] Detail of a portrait of Hugh de
Provence, painted by Tomaso da Modena
in 1352 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Hugh_specs.jpg
[1300 AD]
Europe; driven by a falling weight that
that turns a clock hour hand.
[1] By Jason Hopwood CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/01/Salisbury_02.jpg
[2] The striking train of the
Salisbury cathedral clock CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/8/8a/Salisbury_striking_train.j
pg
[1310 AD]
are described. Before this vinegar was
the strongest acid known.
[1] alchemist Jabir ibn Hayyan, from a
15th c. European portrait of ''Geber'',
Codici Ashburnhamiani 1166, Biblioteca
Medicea Laurenziana, Florence, public
domain PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jabir_ibn_Hayyan.jpg
[2] Portrait of Jabir ibn Hayyan
http://histoirechimie.free.fr/Lien/Geber
.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Geber.jpg
[1316 AD]
to anatomy.
[1] An Early Renaissance Anatomy
Scene This illustration of a medical
school dissection scene is from the
Fasciculo di medicina (1493), a
compendium of medieval anatomical works
edited by Johannes Ketham. Included in
this edition was a new translation of
Mondino de' Luzzi's Anathomia, a work
that is generally considered to be the
best medieval work on anatomy. This
scene has often been read as supporting
Vesalius's description of the anatomy
professors who read from their
classical texts ''like jackdaws aloft
in their high chairs, with egregious
arrogance croaking things they have
never investigated,'' while ignorant
dissectors cut up the cadaver without
any knowledge of the anatomy of the
body. Yet in this scene the dissector
works under the watchful eye of the
physician, who stand behind him with
his hand on the dissector's
shoulder. Mondino de' Luzzi, a
professor of anatomy at Bologna, was
considered by contemporaries to be the
leading authority on anatomy until
Vesalius. His work was the standard
text on anatomy, one that Vesalius
himself used. PD
source: http://honors.nmsu.edu/weamon/ke
tham2.jpg
[2] Mondino da Luzzi supervising an
autopsy Johannes de Ketham
Fasciculo di Medicina, Venice, 1493,
engraving National Library of
Medicine, USA PD
source: http://www.afip.org/Departments/
HepGastr_dept/sobin/chap2.htm
[1335 AD]
[1] The Index Librorum Prohibitorum
(''List of Prohibited Books'') is a
list of publications which the Catholic
Church censored for being a danger to
itself and its members. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Index_Librorum_Prohibitorum_1.jpg
[2] Jean Buridan (1300-1358) âO
dinheiro, portanto, é um bem do
mercado, e o valor desse dinheiro, como
nos outros casos de bens do mercado,
deve ser mensurado pela necessidade
humana. Os valores dos bens de troca
são proporcionados pela necessidade
humanaâ. PD
source: http://www.cieep.org.br/images/b
uridanbio.jpg
[04/07/1348 AD]
is founded, the first university in
central Europe.
[1] Charles University UNKNOWN
source: http://2010fall.blog.ntu.edu.tw/
files/2010/10/Charles-University.jpg
[2] Charles University UNKNOWN
source: https://studyabroad.asu.edu/_cus
tomtags/ct_Image.cfm?Image_ID=92902
[1360 AD]
described, and rectangular coordinates
(latitude and longitude) are used to
draw geometric figures.
[1] Oresme, N., and M. Clagett. Nicole
Oresme and the Medieval Geometry of
Qualities and Motions: a Treatise on
the Uniformity and Difformity of
Intensities Known as Tractatus De
Configurationibus Qualitatum Et Motuum.
University of Wisconsin Press, 1968.
University of Wisconsin Publications in
Medieval Science. COPYRIGHTED
source: Oresme, N., and M. Clagett.
Nicole Oresme and the Medieval Geometry
of Qualities and Motions: a Treatise on
the Uniformity and Difformity of
Intensities Known as Tractatus De
Configurationibus Qualitatum Et Motuum.
University of Wisconsin Press, 1968.
University of Wisconsin Publications in
Medieval Science.
[2] Figures copied from: Nicolaus
Oresmius: Nicole Oresme and the
medieval geometry of qualities and
motions: a treatise on the uniformity
and difformity of intensities known as
Tr actatus de
configurationibus qualitatum et
motuum/ edited with an introduction,
English translation, and commentary by
Marshall Clagett. - Madison, Wis.:
Univ. of Wisconsin Pr., 1968 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.uni-due.de/imperia/md
/content/didmath/ag_jahnke/oresme.pdf
[03/12/1365 AD]
founded; the oldest university in the
German speaking world.
[1] The University of Vienna main
building at the Ringstraße in
Vienna CC
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Universit%C3%A4t_Vienna_June_2006_164
.jpg
[2] Interior view of the main library
reading hall (Hauptlesesaal) of the
University of Vienna PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Uni_Wien_Bibliothek%2C_Vienna_2.jpg
[1377 AD]
daily is revived in France.
[1] Nicole Oresme Miniature of Nicole
Oresmes Traité de l''espere,
Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris, France,
fonds français 565, fol. 1r. from:
http://www.math.uqam.ca/_charbonneau/GRM
S04/RepresentBasMA.htm Portrait of
Nicole Oresme: Miniature of Nicole
Oresme's Traité de l''espere,
Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris, France,
fonds français 565, fol. 1r. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Oresme-Nicole.jpg
[2] Nicole Oresme Miniature of Nicole
Oresmes Traité de l''espere,
Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris, France,
fonds français 565, fol. 1r. PD
source: http://www.nicole-oresme.com/sei
ten/chronology.html
[1397 AD]
[1] Description English: Harpsichord
in the Flemish style with the
inscription SINE SCIENTIA ARS NIHIL EST
(Latin ''without knowledge, skill is
nothing'') and DUM VIXI TACUI MORTUA
DULCE CANO (Latin ''while I lived, I
was mute, dead, I sweetly
sing''). Deutsch: Cembalo im
flämischen Stil, mit der Inschrift
SINE SCIENTIA ARS NIHIL EST (''Kunst
ist nichts ohne Wissen'') und DUM VIXI
TACUI MORTUA DULCE CANO (''Während ich
lebte, schwieg ich, tot, singe ich
süß''). Français : Clavecin de
style flamand Italiano: Clavicembalo
di stile fiammingo recante le
iscrizioni: SINE SCIENTIA ARS NIHIL EST
(''Senza la conoscenza, l'arte è
nulla'') e DUM VIXI TACUI MORTUA DULCE
CANO (''Ho vissuto tacendo, nella morte
canto dolcemente'') Íslenska :
Semball í flæmskum stíl. Á því
stendur SINE SCIENTIA ARS NIHIL EST
(latína „engin er færni án
þekkingar“) og DUM VIXI TACUI MORTUA
DULCE CANO (latína „er ég lifði
orðvana var, en liðinn sing ég
blítt“). Date 1 June
2004 Source Own work Author
Ratigan (instrument et
photo) Permission (Reusing this file)
GFDL
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c5/Clavecin_flamand.png
[2] Description English:
Harpsichord in the Flemish style with
the inscription SINE SCIENTIA ARS NIHIL
EST (Latin ''without knowledge, skill
is nothing'') and DUM VIXI TACUI MORTUA
DULCE CANO (Latin ''while I lived, I
was mute, dead, I sweetly
sing''). Deutsch: Cembalo im
flämischen Stil, mit der Inschrift
SINE SCIENTIA ARS NIHIL EST (''Kunst
ist nichts ohne Wissen'') und DUM VIXI
TACUI MORTUA DULCE CANO (''Während ich
lebte, schwieg ich, tot, singe ich
süß''). Français : Clavecin de
style flamand Italiano: Clavicembalo
di stile fiammingo recante le
iscrizioni: SINE SCIENTIA ARS NIHIL EST
(''Senza la conoscenza, l'arte è
nulla'') e DUM VIXI TACUI MORTUA DULCE
CANO (''Ho vissuto tacendo, nella morte
canto dolcemente'') Íslenska :
Semball í flæmskum stíl. Á því
stendur SINE SCIENTIA ARS NIHIL EST
(latína „engin er færni án
þekkingar“) og DUM VIXI TACUI MORTUA
DULCE CANO (latína „er ég lifði
orðvana var, en liðinn sing ég
blítt“). Date 1 June
2004 Source Own work Author
Ratigan (instrument et
photo) Permission (Reusing this file)
GFDL
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c5/Clavecin_flamand.png
[1398 AD]
is founded.
[1] Sign for the 600th Anniversary Hall
on Sungkyunkwan University's Seoul
campus. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Sungkyunkwan_600.jpg
[2] Official logo of Sungkyunkwan
University, South Korea. Retrieved Oct
12, 2005 from university website.
Background transparent
version. COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Skku_logo.png
[1430 AD]
projector.
[1] Giovanni de Fontana, ''Bellicorum
instrumentorum liber cum figuris'', BSB
Cod.icon. 242 Venedig 1420 -
1430. http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:d
e:bvb:12-bsb00013084-8 {Fontana_Bellico
rum_c1430.pdf} NON COMMERCIAL
source: http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:
de:bvb:12-bsb00013084-8
[1435 AD]
is introduced into Europe.
Printing in Europe will spread quickly,
and results in low cost books. This
increase in books leads to more
educated and literate people and faster
communication.
France)
[1] An artist's visualization of
Johannes Gutenberg in his workshop,
showing his first proof
sheet. Bettmann/Corbis PD
source: http://www.jaars.org/museum/alph
abet/galleries/gutenberg.htm
[2] Johannes Gutenberg, engraving,
1584. Science Source/Photo
Researchers, Inc. PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-15524?articleTypeId=1
[1435 AD]
draw a three-dimensional scene on a
two-dimensional plane).
[1] Leon Battista Alberti, De pictura
and Elementa picture 1518 Paper
codex; ff. 62 (4n.n. + 54 + 4n.n.),
ill.; 21,5x15,5 cm Lucca, Biblioteca
Governativa, Ms. 1448, ff.
23r-v Facsimile The codex contains
the principles of linear perspective
conceived by Alberti in Florence in
1435. The figure illustrates the ''best
way'' devised by the author for drawing
in correct perspective by means of the
intersection of the visual
pyramid. PD
source: http://vitruvio.imss.fi.it/foto/
mediciscienze/70019_450.jpg
[2] Late statue of Leon Battista
Alberti. Courtyard of the Uffizi
Gallery, Florence GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Leon_Battista_Alberti.jpg
[02/12/1440 AD]
size, and stars are described as other
suns with inhabited planets.
[1] Picture of Nicholas of
Cusa English: Nicholas of Cusa Source
from a painting by Meister des
Marienlebens, located in the hospital
at Kues (Germany) Date ca. 1480 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Nicholas_of_Cusa.jpg
[2] Nicholas of Cusa (Nicholas
Krebs) Library of Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/topic/nic
holas-of-cusa?cat=technology
[1450 AD]
and spring driven clocks. Replacing a
falling weight with a spring to drive
the wheel-train allows smaller
time-keeping devices to be made.
Italy
[1] Britten, F.J. Former Clock &
Watchmakers and Their Work, Including
an Account of the Development of
Horological Instruments from the
Earliest Mechanism, with Portraits of
Masters of the Art: a Directory of over
Five Thousand Names and Some Examples
of Modern Construction. E. & F.N. Spon,
1894,
p35. http://books.google.com/books?id=S
_U9AQAAIAAJ&pg=PA35 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=S_U9AQAAIAAJ&pg=PA35
[2] The earliest dated watch known,
from 1530 Artist Anonymous
(German artist) [show]Philipp
Melanchthon (1497–1560) Link back to
Creator infobox template Title
Spherical Table Watch (Melanchthon's
Watch) Description English: This is
the earliest dated watch known. It is
engraved on the bottom: ''PHIL{IP}.
MELA{NCHTHON}. GOTT. ALEIN. DIE.
EHR{E}. 1530'' (Philip Melanchthon, to
God alone the glory, 1530). There are
very few watches existing today that
predate 1550; only two dated examples
are known--this one from 1530 and
another from 1548. There is no
watchmaker's mark, although Nuremberg
is considered the birthplace of
spherical watches (called ''Nuremberg
Eggs''). A single winding kept it
running for 12 to 16 hours, and it told
time to within the nearest half hour.
The perforations in the case permitted
one to see the time without opening the
watch. This watch was commissioned by
the great German reformer and humanist
Philip Melanchthon (1497-1560). Date
1530 (Renaissance) Medium gilt on
brass case, gilt on brass dial, iron
movement Dimensions Height: 4.8 cm
(1.9 in). Width: 4.8 cm (1.9
in). Current location Walters Art
MuseumLink back to Institution infobox
template Accession number
58.17 Exhibition history Philip
Melanchthon's Watch. The Walters Art
Gallery, Baltimore. 2000-2001. Credit
line Acquired by Henry Walters,
1910 Inscriptions {Transcription}
Engraved on the bottom: PHIL{IP}.
MELA{NCHTHON}. GOTT. ALEIN. DIE.
EHR{E}. 1530; {Translation} Engraved on
bottom: Philip Melanchthon, to God
alone the glory, 1530 Ownership
history Jacques Seligmann,
Paris, by purchase 1910: purchased
by Henry Walters, Baltimore 1931:
bequeathed to Walters Art Museum by
Henry Walters Place of origin
Augsburg, Germany
(?) Source/Photographer Walters Art
Museum: Nuvola filesystems folder
home.svg Home page Information icon.svg
Info about artwork PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/5/52/German_-_Spheri
cal_Table_Watch_%28Melanchthon%27s_Watch
%29_-_Walters_5817_-_View_C.jpg/1280px-G
erman_-_Spherical_Table_Watch_%28Melanch
thon%27s_Watch%29_-_Walters_5817_-_View_
C.jpg
[1454 AD]
(copies of the Bible).
[1] Gutenberg Bible, Library of
Congress, Washington D.C. Picture of a
copy of the en:Gutenberg Bible owned by
the US Library of Congress GFDL
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:915h_Johannes_Gutenberg_%28Gensfleisc
h%29_statue%2C_Mainz%2C_1_Ma.jpg
[2] Johannes Gutenberg, engraving,
1584. Science Source/Photo
Researchers, Inc. PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-15524?articleTypeId=1
[1467 AD]
messages.
[1] [t Figure from Alberti's treatise
on ciphers] De Leeuw, K.M.M., and J.
Bergstra. The History of Information
Security: A Comprehensive Handbook.
Elsevier Science, 2007,
p280-281. http://books.google.com/books
?id=pQBrsonDp6cC&pg=PA280 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=pQBrsonDp6cC&pg=PA322
[2] Late statue of Leon Battista
Alberti. Courtyard of the Uffizi
Gallery, Florence GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Leon_Battista_Alberti.jpg
[1483 AD]
[1] Design for a parachute by Leonardo
da Vinci, from the Codex Atlanticus, c.
1478–1518; in the Biblioteca
Ambrosiana, Milan, Italy. Credit:
Baldwin H. Ward and Kathryn C.
Ward/Corbis COPYRIGHTED
source: http://media-2.web.britannica.co
m/eb-media/81/96681-004-4FCB9F08.jpg
[2] [t Da Vinci Tank or armored
vehicle - 1484] UNKNOWN
source: http://www.leonardodavincisecret
s.com/inventions/warmachines.jpg
[1486 AD]
a flying machine with flapping wings
are designed.
[1] Design for a Flying Machine is a
1488 drawing by Leonardo da Vinci. PD
source: http://inventors.about.com/od/ds
tartinventors/ig/Inventions-of-Leonardo-
DaVinci/Design-for-a-Flying-Machine-2.ht
m
[2] Design for a Flying Machine (c.
1488) is a drawing by Leonardo da
Vinci. Source:
http://www.visi.com/~reuteler/leonardo.h
tml PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Design_for_a_Flying_Machine.jpg
[10/12/1492 AD]
by crossing the Atlantic Ocean in three
small ships.
[1] Artist [show]Sebastiano del
Piombo (1485–1547) Link back to
Creator infobox template
wikidata:Q285423 Description
Christopher Columbus Date
1519 Medium painting Current
location [show]Metropolitan Museum
of ArtLink back to Institution infobox
template wikidata:Q160236 Inscriptions
Text top center Source/Photographer
http://www.metmuseum.org/works_of_art/c
ollection_database/european_paintings/po
rtrait_of_a_man_said_to_be_christopher_c
olumbus_sebastiano_del_piombo_sebastiano
_luciani/objectview.aspx?page=1&sort=6&s
ortdir=asc&keyword=Piombo&fp=1&dd1=11&dd
2=0&vw=0&collID=11&OID=110002098&vT=1&hi
=0&ov=0 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5d/Christopher_Columbus.
PNG
[2] Portrait of Christopher Columbus
from the painting Virgen de los
Navegantes (in the Sala de los
Almirantes, Royal Alcazar, Seville). A
painting by Alejo Fernández between
1505 and 1536. It is the only state
sponsored portrait of the First Admiral
of the Indias. Photo by a Columbus
historian, Manuel Rosa. More info
http://www.UnmaskingColumbus.com PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Christopher_Columbus_Face.jpg
[1500 AD]
designed.
[1] # Self-portrait of Leonardo da
Vinci, circa 1512-1515 # Location:
Royal Library, Turin # Technique: Red
chalk # Dimensions: 13 x 8.5'' (33 x
21.6 cm) Source:
http://www.vivoscuola.it/us/ic-villalaga
rina/Ipertesti/caritro/images/Leonardo_a
utorutratto.jpg PD
source: Screw-cutting machine by
Leonardo da Vinci, c. 1500; in the
Bibliothèque de l’Institut de
France, Paris (MS B, folio 70
verso). Credit: Courtesy of the
Bibliothèque de l’Institut de
France, Paris; photograph, The Science
Museum, London PD
[2] Verrocchio, Florence, 15thC,
''David'' bronze statue. The model is
thought to have been Leonardo da
Vinci Source WGA Date
1467 Author Verrocchio PD
source: http://media-3.web.britannica.co
m/eb-media/39/60539-004-FFD00218.jpg
[1504 AD]
new continent separated from Asia by a
second ocean is recognized.
[1] Amerigo Vespucci From Amerigo
Vespucci by Frederick A. Ober - Project
Gutenberg eText
19997 http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/19
997 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Amerigo_Vespucci_-_Project_Gutenberg_
etext_19997.jpg
[2] Statue at the Uffizi,
Florence. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Amerigo_Vespucci01.jpg
[09/25/1513 AD]
Ocean.
[1] Vasco Núñez de Balboa PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Vascon%C3%BA%C3%B1ezdebalboa.jpeg
[2] Vasco Núñez de Balboa executing
Native Americans for same-sex
love. New York Public Library, Rare
Book Room, De Bry Collection, New
York http://www.androphile.org/preview/
Museum/New_World/Panama_Two-SpiritA.html
Théodore De
Bry (1528-1598) Balboa setting his
dogs upon Indian practitioners of male
love (1594) The Spanish invader Vasco
Núñez de Balboa (1475-1519) shown in
Central America with his troops,
presiding over the execution of
Indians, whom he ordered eaten alive by
the war dogs for having practiced male
love. New York Public Library, Rare
Book Room, De Bry Collection, New
York. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Balboamurder.jpg
[10/31/1517 AD]
Reformation.
[1] Luther in 1529 by Lucas
Cranach Painting by Lucas Cranach the
Elder. Uffizi gallery. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Luther46c.jpg
[09/08/1522 AD]
This proves that a single ocean covers
the Earth.
[1] An anonymous portrait of Ferdinand
Magellan, 16th or 17th century (The
Mariner's Museum Collection, Newport
News, VA) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ferdinand_Magellan.jpg
[2] Juan Sebastián
Elcano Litografía de J. Donon en
Historia de la Marina Real Española.
Madrid,
1854 http://marenostrum.org/bibliotecad
elmar/historia/pacifico/ PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Elcano.jpg
[1530 AD]
described and named.
villa at Incaffi)
[1] Girolamo Fracastoro. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a1/Fracastoro.jpg
[1531 AD]
Servetus publishes a book that
describes Jesus as only human.
[1] Miguel Servet, (Villanueva de
Sigena 1511- Genevra 1553) Spanish
scientist and theologist of the
Renaissance. Artist : Christian
Fritzsch (author) born in about 1660,
Mittweida, Bautzen, Sachsen,
Germany. Source:
http://mcgovern.library.tmc.edu/data/www
/html/people/osler/MS/P000d.htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Michael_Servetus.jpg
[2] Servetus, detail from an engraving
by Carl Sichem Courtesy of the
National Library of Medicine, Bethesda,
Md. PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-14212/Servetus-detail-from-an-engraving
-by-Carl-Sichem?articleTypeId=1
[1533 AD]
measure distance: a base line of known
length is chosen, and from its
endpoints the angles of sight to a
remote object are measured. The
distance to the object from either
endpoint can then be calculated using
simple trigonometry.
(presumably)
[1] English: Measuring the width of a
river by triangulation, Hulsius, 16th
century. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/CD006-Triangula
tion_16th_century.png/1280px-CD006-Trian
gulation_16th_century.png
[2] English: Gemma Frisius, 1508-1555,
cartographer and mathematician Source
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollection
s/hst/scientific-identity/fullsize/SIL14
-G002-05a.jpg Date 17th
century Author Esme de Boulonois PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gemma_frisius_dockumensis.jpg
[10/28/1538 AD]
is founded, the first university in the
Western Hemisphere.
Republic
[1] La Universidad de Santo Domingo fue
creada mediante la Bula In Apostolatus
Culmine, expedida el 28 de octubre de
1538, por el Papa Paulo III, la cual
elevó a esa categoría el Estudio
General que los dominicos regenteaban
desde el 1518, en Santo Domingo, sede
virreinal de la colonización y el más
viejo establecimiento colonial del
Nuevo Mundo. COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://www.uasd.edu.do/principal
es/general.html
[1538 AD]
planets rotate around a central fixed
point.
Italy|Verona, Italy (and possibly
mountain villa at Incaffi)
[1] Fracastoro, G. Hieronymi
Fracastorii ... Opera Omnia Quorum
Nomina Sequens Pagina Plenius Indicat
... apud Iuntas, 1584,
p. http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&
lr=&id=rG98CDUIsWoC PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?hl
=en&lr=&id=rG98CDUIsWoC
[2] Girolamo Fracastoro. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a1/Fracastoro.jpg
[1542 AD]
the appendix) is described.
[1] Description العربية:
مخطط للمعدة والقولون
والمستقيم، الجهاز
الهضمي. English: Stomach colon
rectum diagram. Date 19 December
2006 Source US PD picture. Author
Indolences created it on the English
Wikipedia. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Stomach_colon_r
ectum_diagram.svg/1000px-Stomach_colon_r
ectum_diagram.svg.png
[2] Description English: Tracts of
the spinal cord. Date 17 July
2010 Source File:Medulla spinalis -
tracts - English.svg by Polarlys
(translation by Selket). Author
Polarlys and Mikael Häggström CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b2/Spinal_cord_tracts_-_
English.svg
[1543 AD]
revived by Copernicus.
East Prussia now:)Frombork, Poland;
(printed in)Nuremberg, Germany
[1] Nicolaus Copernicus (portrait from
Toruń - beginning of the 16th
century), from
http://www.frombork.art.pl/Ang10.htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Nikolaus_Kopernikus.jpg
[2] Nicolaus Copernicus PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Copernicus.jpg
[1545 AD]
square root of a negative number.
(presumably)
[1] Girolamo Cardano, coloured woodcut
on the cover of his Practica
arithmetica (1539). The Granger
Collection, New York PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-15447/Girolamo-Cardano-coloured-woodcut
-on-the-cover-of-his-Practica?articleTyp
eId=1
[2] wikipedia contributor typed: I
found this picture at the library the
other day and haven't ever seen it
online before and thought it would make
a great addition to the Cardano page.
The author was marked as unknown. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:CardanoPortrait.jpg
[1545 AD]
bleeding and artificial limbs are
created.
[1] Ambroise Paré (ca. 1510-1590),
famous French surgeon Posthumous
(fantasy) portrait by William Holl
(1807-1871) Source:
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollections
/hst/scientific-identity/CF/by_name_disp
lay_results.cfm?scientist=Par%C3%A9,%20A
mbroise PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ambroise_Par%C3%A9.jpg
[2] Paré, detail of an engraving,
1582 PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-13373/Pare-detail-of-an-engraving-1582?
articleTypeId=1
[1546 AD]
minerals.
published: Basel, Switzerland
[1] The ''Father of Mineralogy'',
Georgius Agricola. URL:
http://kanitz.onlinehome.de/agricolagymn
asium/agrigale.htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Georgius_Agricola.jpg
[2] Georgius Agricola, portrait from
Icones veterum aliquot ac recentium
medicorum philosophorumque (1574) by
Joannes Sambucus, printed in
Antwerp. Courtesy of the Museum
National d'Histoire Naturelle,
Paris[2] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Georg_Agricola.jpg
[1546 AD]
understood by Michael Servetus
(SRVETuS): that blood goes from the
right side of the heart to the lung
where it is mixed with air becoming
red, and then to the left side of the
heart where it is sent through the rest
of the body.
[1] Miguel Servet, (Villanueva de
Sigena 1511- Genevra 1553) Spanish
scientist and theologist of the
Renaissance. Artist : Christian
Fritzsch (author) born in about 1660,
Mittweida, Bautzen, Sachsen,
Germany. Source:
http://mcgovern.library.tmc.edu/data/www
/html/people/osler/MS/P000d.htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Michael_Servetus.jpg
[2] Servetus, detail from an engraving
by Carl Sichem Courtesy of the
National Library of Medicine, Bethesda,
Md. PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-14212/Servetus-detail-from-an-engraving
-by-Carl-Sichem?articleTypeId=1
[1546 AD]
revived.
[1] Fracastoro, G., and L.A. Giunta.
Hieronymi Fracastorii ... De Sympathia
Et Antipathia Rerum Liber Vnus: De
Contagione Et Contagiosis Morbis Et
Curatione Libri III. apud heredes
Lucantonii Iuntae,
1546. http://books.google.com/books?id=
B580FxRJwQUC PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=B580FxRJwQUC
[2] Girolamo Fracastoro. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a1/Fracastoro.jpg
[1551 AD]
on the Sun-centered theory.
[1] Reinhold, Prutenic Tables (1585),
title page. [t must be later
edition] PD
source: http://hsci.cas.ou.edu/images/jp
g-100dpi-5in/16thCentury/Reinhold/1585/R
einhold-1585-000tp.jpg
[2] Reinhold, Prutenic Tables (1585),
133v. PD
source: http://hsci.cas.ou.edu/exhibits/
exhibit.php?exbgrp=9&exbid=52&exbpg=25
[10/27/1553 AD]
for heresy {HAReSE} in Switzerland.
[1] Miguel Servet, (Villanueva de
Sigena 1511- Genevra 1553) Spanish
scientist and theologist of the
Renaissance. Artist : Christian
Fritzsch (author) born in about 1660,
Mittweida, Bautzen, Sachsen,
Germany. Source:
http://mcgovern.library.tmc.edu/data/www
/html/people/osler/MS/P000d.htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Michael_Servetus.jpg
[2] Servetus, detail from an engraving
by Carl Sichem Courtesy of the
National Library of Medicine, Bethesda,
Md. PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-14212/Servetus-detail-from-an-engraving
-by-Carl-Sichem?articleTypeId=1
[1560 AD]
of probabilities (for example the
chance of a certain combination in the
fall of 3 dice).
[1] Girolamo Cardano, coloured woodcut
on the cover of his Practica
arithmetica (1539). The Granger
Collection, New York PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-15447/Girolamo-Cardano-coloured-woodcut
-on-the-cover-of-his-Practica?articleTyp
eId=1
[2] wikipedia contributor typed: I
found this picture at the library the
other day and haven't ever seen it
online before and thought it would make
a great addition to the Cardano page.
The author was marked as unknown. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:CardanoPortrait.jpg
[1560 AD]
group for the communication of
scientific research), the precursor of
the Academy of the Lynx.
[1] Giambattista della Porta PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Dellaporta.jpg
[1561 AD]
canals are identified, and the vagina,
placenta, clitoris and cochlea are
named.
Italy
[1] 16th century portrait by unknown
artist Retrieved from
http://www.peoples.ru/science/professor/
gabriello/ PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gabriele_Falloppio.jpg
[2] Gabriel Fallopius, coloured copper
engraving, 17th century. The Granger
Collection, New York PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-15449/Gabriel-Fallopius-coloured-copper
-engraving-17th-century?articleTypeId=1
[1565 AD]
fossils.
[1] Gesner, K. et al. De Omni Rerum
Fossilium Genere, Gemmis, Lapidibus,
Metallis, Et Huiusmodi, Libri Aliquot,
Plerique Nunc Primum Editi. excudebat
Iacobus Gesnerus, 1565. De Omni Rerum
Fossilium Genere, Gemmis, Lapidibus,
Metallis, Et Huiusmodi, Libri Aliquot,
Plerique Nunc Primum
Editi. http://books.google.com/books?id
=JP0qBLnRY58C PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=JP0qBLnRY58C
[2] Gesner, K. et al. De Omni Rerum
Fossilium Genere, Gemmis, Lapidibus,
Metallis, Et Huiusmodi, Libri Aliquot,
Plerique Nunc Primum Editi. excudebat
Iacobus Gesnerus, 1565. De Omni Rerum
Fossilium Genere, Gemmis, Lapidibus,
Metallis, Et Huiusmodi, Libri Aliquot,
Plerique Nunc Primum
Editi. http://books.google.com/books?id
=JP0qBLnRY58C PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=JP0qBLnRY58C
[1569 AD]
to make a map so that lines of latitude
and longitude are straight.
(presumably)
[1] esta es un Carta do Mundo de
Mercator (1569) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b2/Mercator_1569.png
[2] Portrait of en:Gerardus
Mercator Source Originally from
en.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. (Original text :
http://www.nmm.ac.uk/collections/prints/
viewRepro.cfm?reproID=PU2381) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Mercator.jpg
[1573 AD]
away than the moon and to have an orbit
that is not circular which disproves
the ancient theory of crystal planetary
spheres.
[1] The comet of 1577 From the comet
of 1577, Tycho learned that comets are
above the atmosphere. Seen above is a
page from his notebook. The comet is
placed near the orbit of the planet
Venus. The inner solar system is in
accordance with his own system, with
the Earth in the center and the Sun
moving around, all the other planets
are moving around the Sun. He could not
accept the Copernican system because he
could not measure the parallax of the
stars. He also observed that the tail
of the comet pointed away from the
Sun. Retrieved from
http://www.rundetaarn.dk/engelsk/observa
torium/komet.htm. PD AND The
astronomer Tycho Brahe Source
http://measure.igpp.ucla.edu/solar-terr
estrial-luminaries/brahe.JPG PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/da/Brahe_notebook.jpghtt
p://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Tycho_Br
ahe.JPG
[2] The comet of 1577 From the comet
of 1577, Tycho learned that comets are
above the atmosphere. Seen above is a
page from his notebook. The comet is
placed near the orbit of the planet
Venus. The inner solar system is in
accordance with his own system, with
the Earth in the center and the Sun
moving around, all the other planets
are moving around the Sun. He could not
accept the Copernican system because he
could not measure the parallax of the
stars. He also observed that the tail
of the comet pointed away from the
Sun. Retrieved from
http://www.rundetaarn.dk/engelsk/observa
torium/komet.htm. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/da/Brahe_notebook.jpg
[1582 AD]
29th is omitted in century years which
are not divisible by 400.
[1] Christopher Clavius (1538-1612),
German mathematician and
astronomer. Immediate source:
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollections
/hst/scientific-identity/fullsize/SIL14-
C4-02a.jpg Ultimate source: A 16th
century engraving after a painting by
Francisco Villamena. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Christopher_Clavius.jpg
[1585 AD]
introduced into Europe.
[1] Simon Stevin, ''De Thiende'', 1585,
p12.
http://www.dbnl.org/tekst/stev001thie0
1_01/downloads.php {Stevin_De_Thiende_1
585.pdf} English ''The Tenth'' PD
source: http://www.dbnl.org/tekst/saveas
.php?filename=stev001thie01_01_scans.pdf
&dir=stev001thie01_01&type=pdf
[2] Simon Stevin, ''De Thiende'',
1585, p16.
http://www.dbnl.org/tekst/stev001thie0
1_01/downloads.php {Stevin_De_Thiende_1
585.pdf} English ''The Tenth'' PD
source: http://www.dbnl.org/tekst/saveas
.php?filename=stev001thie01_01_scans.pdf
&dir=stev001thie01_01&type=pdf
[1586 AD]
shown to fall the same distance in the
same amount of time.
[1] Simon Stevin, from English
wikipedia. Older than 100 years, so
it's Public Domain for countries with a
copyright term of life of the author
plus 100 years from en: Portrait by an
unknown artist, library of University
of Leiden. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Simon-stevin.jpeg
[1591 AD]
Surrey, England
[1] Picture A Drawing of Sir John
Harrington's Flush Toilet as Described
in ''A New Discourse of a Stale
Subject, Called The Metamorphosis of
Ajax'' (1596) 1888-1889 Source
Popular Science Monthly Volume 34,
p310 http://www.archive.org/details/pop
ularsciencemo34newy PD
source: http://ultimatehistoryproject.co
m/uploads/3/0/6/7/3067335/1340909250.jpg
[2] Artist Attributed to Hieronimo
Custodis (fl. 1589–1598) Link back to
Creator infobox template
wikidata:Q2725000 Title Sir John
Harington Description English:
Portrait of Sir John Harington
(1561-1612). Date c.
1590-95[1] Medium oil on
panel Dimensions 91.5 x 71 cm Object
history Ampleforth Abbey, offered at
Sotheby's, London, sale L11034, Lot
145 Notes A cut-down version of this
portrait is in the National Portrait
Gallery, London. References
↑ Roy Strong, The English Icon:
Elizabethan and Jacobean Portraiture,
1969, Routledge & Kegan Paul,
London Source/Photographer
Sotheby's PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/09/Sir_John_Harington%2C
_attributed_to_Hieronimo_Custodis.png
[1591 AD]
constant and unknown numbers (the first
"variables").
[1] Viète, F. Algèbre.
1636. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ATs1AAAAcAAJ&pg=PA7 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=ATs1AAAAcAAJ&pg=PA7
[2] François Viète. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Francois_Viete.jpg
[1592 AD]
gender is recognized.
[1] Prospero Alpini PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Prospero_Alpini.jpg
[2] Alpini, engraving Courtesy of the
Ashmolean Museum, Oxford PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-8320/Alpini-engraving?articleTypeId=1
[1592 AD]
by Galileo. A glass tube is turned
upside down in a container of water. A
change in temperature changes the level
of the water within it.
[1] Fig. 1. Galileo’s
thermoscope. from: David Sherry,
Thermoscopes, thermometers, and the
foundations of measurement, Studies In
History and Philosophy of Science Part
A, Volume 42, Issue 4, December 2011,
Pages 509-524, ISSN 0039-3681,
10.1016/j.shpsa.2011.07.001. (http://ww
w.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/
S0039368111000616) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/cac
he/MiamiImageURL/1-s2.0-S003936811100061
6-gr1.jpg/0?wchp=dGLzVBA-zSkzS
[2] Thermoscope Instrument to
measure heat and cold invented by
Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) during his
stay in Padua. Santorio Santorio
(1561-1636) made a similar instrument
in Venice in 1612. A precursor of the
modern thermometer, the thermoscope
consists of a glass vessel with a long
neck. The vessel was heated with the
hands and partially immersed, in an
upright position, in a container full
of water. When the heat of the hands
was taken away, the water was observed
to rise in the thermoscope neck. The
experiment showed the changes in air
density produced by variations in
temperature. UNKNOWN
source: http://catalogue.museogalileo.it
/images/cat/approfondimenti_944/AF0020-5
1000_944.jpg
[08/03/1596 AD]
star that shows periodic changes in
brightness.
(now northwest Germany and northeast
Netherlands) (presumably)
[1] Kepler, J., and E. Rosen.
Kepler’s Somnium: The Dream, Or
Posthumous Work on Lunar Astronomy.
Dover Publ., 1967,
p.226. http://books.google.com/books?id
=OdCJAS0eQ64C&pg=PA226 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=OdCJAS0eQ64C&pg=PA226
[2] David Fabricius
(1564-1617) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.tayabeixo.org/biograf
ias/mar_1q.htm
[1597 AD]
acid, and other chemical compounds are
described.
[1] Table 2 from: Libavius, A.
Alchemia. Kopffius,
1597. http://books.google.com/books?id=
u49SAAAAcAAJ PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=u49SAAAAcAAJ
[2] Description Deutsch: Andreas
Libavius English: Andreas Libavius
(1555 – July 25, 1616) was a German
doctor and chemist. Date 7 April 2007
(original upload date) Source
Transferred from de.wikipedia;
transferred to Commons by
User:Septembermorgen using
CommonsHelper. (Original text :
unbekannt) Author unbekannt. Original
uploader was Michael Sander at
de.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) This image is in the public
domain due to its age. (Original text
: Urheberrecht abgelaufen) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/46/Andreas_Libavius.jpg
[02/17/1600 AD]
Bruno is burned alive at the stake for
heresy in Rome.
Italy
[1] Giordano Bruno PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Giordano_Bruno.jpg
[2] Statue of Giordano Bruno in Campo
de Fiori, Rome, Italy. This monument
was erected in 1889, by Italian Masonic
circles, in the site where he was
burned alive for opposing the Catholic
church authority. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Brunostatue.jpg
[1600 AD]
magnet on which a compass points to the
magnetic poles is recognized, and the
first electroscope, which measures
static electricity.
[1] Gilbert, W., and P. Short. Gulielmi
Gilberti ... De Magnete, Magneticisque
Corporibus, Et De Magno Magnete
Tellure: Physiologia Noua Plurimis Et
Argumentis, Et Experimentis
Demonstrata. excudebet Petrus Short,
1600. Biblioteca Digital Dioscórides,
p222. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Mbo2oDsnrAAC&pg=PA222 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=Mbo2oDsnrAAC&pg=PA222
[2] Paiting of William Gilbert (1544 -
1603) Source
http://physics.ship.edu/~mrc/pfs/110/in
side_out/vu1/Galileo/Images/Port/gilbert
.gif Date Author Unknown, after
title page of De Magnete (1600) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:William_Gilbert.jpg
[1603 AD]
the entire celestial sphere, and the
Bayer {BIR} star naming system where
each star is named after the
constellation associated with it in
order of brightness, for example
Betelgeuse, the brightest star in Orion
is named Alpha Orionis, and Rigel is
Beta Orionis.
[1] The constellation of Hydrus was
first published in Johann Bayer's
Uranometria atlas. Bayer's Uranometria
opened a new age in the history of
celestial cartography, and was praised
for the careful placement of star
positions and brightnesses and for its
attractive plates. Click on the above
image for an enlarged view. Image
credit: U.S. Naval Observatory
Library PD
source: http://www.aavso.org/images/baye
r.jpg
[2] A print of the copperplate
engraving for Johann Bayer's
Uranometria showing the constellation
Orion. This image is courtesy of the
United States Naval Observatory
Library, who gives explicit permission
to use it so long as the attribution is
attached. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Uranometria_orion.jpg
[1603 AD]
material; barium sulfide.
Luminescence is light emission that
cannot be attributed to the temperature
of the emitting body.
[1] Barium sulfate GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bar
ium_sulfate
[1604 AD]
that the intensity of light is
inversely related to the square of the
distance.
(presumably)
[1] A plate from Johannes Kepler's Ad
Vitellionem Paralipomena, quibus
Astronomiae Pars Optica (1604),
illustrating the structure of
eyes. Source:
http://www.hps.cam.ac.uk/starry/keplerbo
oks.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Kepler_Optica.jpg
[2] Johannes Kepler, oil painting by
an unknown artist, 1627; in the
cathedral, Strasbourg, France. Erich
Lessing/Art Resource, New York PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-2965/Johannes-Kepler-oil-painting-by-an
-unknown-artist-1627-in?articleTypeId=1
[1606 AD]
Australia.
[1] Description Chart of the Malay
Archipelago and the Dutch discoveries
in Australia Date 1618-1638 Source
National Library of Australia Author
Hessel Gerritsz Link back to Creator
infobox template Permission (Reusing
this file) PD because of age PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Hessel_Gerritsz
_-_Malay_Archipelago_and_Australia.jpg/6
91px-Hessel_Gerritsz_-_Malay_Archipelago
_and_Australia.jpg
[1608 AD]
refracting telescope); a double convex
lens (the "object glass") is placed at
the farther end of a tube, and a double
concave lens (the "eyepiece") at the
nearer end.
Netherlands)
[1] Hans Lippershey (1570-September
1619), Dutch lensmaker. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Hans_Lippershey.jpg
[2] Description English: Early
depiction of a ‘Dutch telescope’
from the “Emblemata of zinne-werck”
(Middelburg, 1624) of the poet and
statesman Johan de Brune (1588-1658).
The print was engraved by Adriaen van
de Venne, who, together with his
brother Jan Pieters van de Venne,
printed books not far from the original
optical workshop of Hans
Lipperhey. Date 1624 Source
http://www.phys.uu.nl/~vgent/telesc
ope/telescopenl.htm Author Adriaen
Pietersz. van de Venne (1589–1662)
Link back to Creator infobox
template PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/51/Emblemata_1624.jpg
[1609 AD]
the distance covered by a falling body
is proportional to the square of the
elapsed time is understood, and that
the path of a projectile is a parabola
(that two forces can work on an object
at the same time) is understood.
Italy
[1] Galileo Galilei. Portrait in crayon
by Leoni Source: French WP
(Utilisateur:Kelson via
http://iafosun.ifsi.rm.cnr.it/~iafolla/h
ome/homegrsp.html) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Galilee.jpg
[2] Original portrait of Galileo
Galilei by Justus Sustermans painted in
1636. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Galileo.arp.300pix.jpg
[1609 AD]
orbits with the Sun at one focus of the
ellipse, and that a line connecting a
planet and the Sun will sweep over
equal areas in equal times is shown by
Johannes Kepler; (Kepler's first two
laws of planetary motion).
Stuttgart Region in the German state of
Baden-Württemberg, 30 km west of
Stuttgart's center)
[1] Johannes Kepler, ''Astronomia
nova'', 1609,
p267. http://www.e-rara.ch/zut/content/
titleinfo/162514 {Astronomia_nova_seu_p
hysica_coelestis_tradita_commentariis_de
_motibus_stellae_m.pdf} PD
AND Description English: Portrait
of Johannes Kepler. Date 8 March 2006
(original upload date) Source
Transferred from en.wikipedia Author
Original uploader was Brandmeister at
en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) PD-US; PD-ART. PD
source: http://www.e-rara.ch/zut/content
/titleinfo/162514http://upload.wikimedia
.org/wikipedia/commons/7/74/JKepler.jpg
[2] Johannes Kepler, ''Astronomia
nova'', 1609,
p267. http://www.e-rara.ch/zut/content/
titleinfo/162514 {Astronomia_nova_seu_p
hysica_coelestis_tradita_commentariis_de
_motibus_stellae_m.pdf} PD
source: http://www.e-rara.ch/zut/content
/titleinfo/162514
[01/??/1610 AD]
first seen and their period determined
by Galileo.
Italy
[1] Galileo's Letter to Prince of
Venice PD
source: http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/galileo
/ganymede/manuscript1.jpg
[2] Galileo's illustrations of the
Moon, from his Sidereus Nuncius (1610;
The Sidereal Messenger). Courtesy of
the Joseph Regenstein Library, The
University of Chicago PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-2914/Galileos-illustrations-of-the-Moon
-from-his-Sidereus-Nuncius?articleTypeId
=1
[12/11/1610 AD]
seen by Galileo.
[1] [t Note that this drawing is from
13 years later in 1623.] Galileo
Galilei, Il Saggiatore {The Assayer}
Rome, 1623. Drawing showing the phases
of Venus. PD
source: http://brunelleschi.imss.fi.it/e
splora/cannocchiale/dswmedia/storia/imma
gini/02/15.jpg
[2] Galileo's Letter to Prince of
Venice PD
source: http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/galileo
/ganymede/manuscript1.jpg
[1610 AD]
compound light microscope.
Netherlands)
[1] The microscope was first built in
1595 by Hans and Zacharias Jansen
(1588-1631) in Holland (see figure).
source: http://www.cerebromente.org.br/n
17/history/jansen-micro.JPG
[2] Description Portrait of Zacharias
Jansen Date 1655 Source Pierre
Borel, De vero telescopii
inventore Author Pierre Borel
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3b/Zacharias.jpg
[06/13/1611 AD]
rotates around its own axis is shown.
Germany and northeast
Netherlands)
[1] Fabricius, J. De Maculis in Sole
Observatis Narratio.
1611. http://books.google.com/books?id=
aGFRAAAAcAAJ PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=aGFRAAAAcAAJ
[2] Johannes Fabricius PD
source: http://www.daviddarling.info/enc
yclopedia/F/Fabricius.html
[1611 AD]
to the moon by Kepler.
[1] ''SOMNIUM'' 1634 PD
source: http://www.um.zagan.pl/kepler/im
age/somnium.jpg
[2] Johannes Kepler, oil painting by
an unknown artist, 1627; in the
cathedral, Strasbourg, France. Erich
Lessing/Art Resource, New York PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-2965/Johannes-Kepler-oil-painting-by-an
-unknown-artist-1627-in?articleTypeId=1
[1612 AD]
that light can be absorbed in materials
and re-emitted later.
[1] Ted Huntington PD
source: Ted Huntington
[1614 AD]
logarithms.
[1] Napier, J., and H. Briggs. Mirifici
Logarithmorum Canonis Constructio: Et
Eorum Ad Naturales Ipsorum Numeros
Habitudines; Una Cum Appendice ... Una
Cum Annotationibus ... A. Hermann,
1620. http://books.google.com/books?id=
VukHAQAAIAAJ PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=VukHAQAAIAAJ
[2] Painting of John Napier PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:John_Napier_%28Painting%29.jpeg
[1616 AD]
heresy by Pope "Paul V" (Camillo
Borghese).
[1] Portrait of Pope ''Paul V'' (aka
Camillo Borghese) by Michelangelo
Merisi da Caravaggio. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Pope_Paul_V.jpg
[2] Galileo Galilei. Portrait in
crayon by Leoni Source: French WP
(Utilisateur:Kelson via
http://iafosun.ifsi.rm.cnr.it/~iafolla/h
ome/homegrsp.html) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Galilee.jpg
[1616 AD]
described; that the heart is a muscle
that contracts to push blood out, that
blood can only move in one direction,
in a circle from the heart to the
arteries, from the arteries to the
veins, and through the veins back to
the heart.
[1] William Harvey Library of
Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/William+H
arvey?cat=health
[2] William Harvey Source University
of Texas Libraries, The University of
Texas at Austin PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:William_Harvey.jpg
[1616 AD]
A reflecting telescope focuses light
reflected off a parabolic shaped
(concave) mirror instead of through a
lens.
[1] Description English: Niccolò
Zucchi (December 6, 1586 – May 21,
1670) an Italian Jesuit, astronomer,
and physicist. He may have been the
first to see the belts on the planet
Jupiter (on May 17, 1630) and reported
spots on Mars in 1640. In his book
''Optica philosophia experimentalis et
ratione a fundamentis constituta'' in
1652–56 he described his attempt in
1616 to construct a reflecting
telescope, which may be the first time
anyone ever tried to construct
one. Date Source Lithuanian
Science Council of Lithuania on Science
''Science Lithuania - Lithuanian
scientists newspaper. - Andrius
Rudamina: tarp legendos ir
tikrovės Author Unknown PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/76/Niccol%C3%B2_Zucchi.p
ng
[2] 03-08-04/42 BAROQUE TELESCOPE
18TH Newton's first reflecting
telescope. 18th century. The Royal
Society, London, Great Britain UNKNOWN
source: http://www.lessing-photo.com/p3/
030804/03080442.jpg
[01/15/1617 AD]
system is observed.
Italy
[1] [t Note that this is apparently
public domain because of the age.]
''The middle star of the Tail of Elix
[Great Bear] falls, by [ecliptical]
longitude, on the 9th degree of Virgo,
and its latitude is 56. Earth is now in
Cancer 25, out of which position the
star is 44 degrees distant. Between the
middle star of the Tail of Elix and the
star closest to it [Mizar B], I now put
0.0.15''. The semidiameter [radius] of
the large star, 0.0.3''; of the
smaller, 2''; the interval, 10''. The
semidiameter of the great orb [Earth's
orbit] contains 226 solar
semidiameters. The solar semidiameter
contains 300 semidiameters of the large
star. So the distance of the star
contains 300 solar distances, if the
star is posited to be as big as the
Sun, that is, 67800 solar
semidiameters.'' The amazingly
detailed record of the observation of
Mizar in Galileo's handwriting and its
translation by Thomas Winter
(University of Nebraska). No date is
given, but there are good reasons to
believe it was made on January 15,
1617. Ms. Gal. 70 c. 10r, Biblioteca
Nazionale Centrale Firenze. Reproduced
with authorization from the Ministry of
Cultural Activities. Any further
reproduction or publication of this
image is forbidden. PD
source: http://www.leosondra.cz/obrazky/
mizar/msgal.jpg
[2] Le Opere di Galileo Galilei.
Edizione Nazionale Sotto Gli Auspicii
Di Sua Maestà Il Re D'Italia, Edited
by Antonio Favaro, 20 vols., G.
Barbèra, Florence, 1890–1909 Vol.
III, Part II (1892), p. 877. Mss. Gal.
P.IV, T.VI, car 10r, BNCF.
http://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/t
ext-idx?cc=genpub;view=toc;idno=AGH6462.
0003.002 PD
source: http://quod.lib.umich.edu/g/genp
ub/agh6462.0003.002/481?page=root;rgn=fu
ll+text;size=100;view=image
[1619 AD]
orbit of a planet is proportional to
the cube of its distance from the Sun
is shown by Kepler; (Kepler's third law
of planetary motion).
[1] A hand-annotated illustration plate
from Johannes Kepler's Harmonices mundi
(1619), showing the perfect
solids. source:
http://hsci.cas.ou.edu/digitized/16thCen
tury/Kepler/1619/Kepler-1619-pl-3-image/
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Kepler-1619-pl-3.jpg
[2] Johannes Kepler, oil painting by
an unknown artist, 1627; in the
cathedral, Strasbourg, France. Erich
Lessing/Art Resource, New York PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-2965/Johannes-Kepler-oil-painting-by-an
-unknown-artist-1627-in?articleTypeId=1
[1619 AD]
the human eye changes as the eye
focuses to different distances is
recognized.
[1] Scheiner, C. Oculus, Hoc Est,
Fundamentum Opticum. 1619,
p125. http://books.google.com/books?id=
gGY_AAAAcAAJ PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=gGY_AAAAcAAJ
[2] Christoph Scheiner No source
specified. Please edit this image
description and provide a source. Date
1725 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Scheiner_christoph.gif
[1621 AD]
describes how a light ray bends when
passing between two mediums of
different density.
[1] adapted from Description
Illustration of Snell's law Date
00:46, 25 December 2007 (UTC) Source
Rotated and tweaked version of
en:Image:Snells law.svg, same
license Author Oleg Alexandrov — I
just tweaked the original Other
versions Derivative works of this
file: Snells law el.svg
Snells law2-cs.svgImage:Snells
law.svg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Snells_law2.svg
/1000px-Snells_law2.svg.png
[2] Willibrord
Snellius http://images.google.com/imgre
s?imgurl=http://tau.fesg.tu-muenchen.de/
~iapg/web/fame/images/geo/snellius.jpg&i
mgrefurl=http://tau.fesg.tu-muenchen.de/
~iapg/web/fame/seiten/snellius.php&h=584
&w=407&sz=81&hl=en&sig2=5XbrrVTx-PVInTZc
fU_5ng&start=1&tbnid=QsmS80Z3DsqbhM:&tbn
h=135&tbnw=94&ei=psvoRKCJLLP2wQGCnPDfDg&
prev=/images%3Fq%3D%2522Snellius%2522%26
svnum%3D100%26hl%3Den%26lr%3D%26safe%3Do
ff%26client%3Dfirefox-a%26rls%3Dorg.mozi
lla:en-US:official%26sa%3DN http://tau.
fesg.tu-muenchen.de/~iapg/web/fame/image
s/geo/snellius.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Willebrord_Snellius.jpg
[1624 AD]
[1] Description Drebbel's first
submarine Date 17th
century Source
http://www.rnsubmus.co.uk/images/ph
otodp/sm001%20-%20Van%20Drebbel.jpg Aut
hor Unknown Permission (Reusing
this file) See
below. Lithographie aus dem Jahre
1626 von G. W. Tweedale. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/fe/Van_Drebbel.jpg
[2] Description English: Cornelis
Drebbel Alcmariensis.Son of Jacob Jansz
Dremmel en Hilgont Jans. Born in 1572,
died in Londen in 1631. Nederlands:
Cornelis Drebbel Alcmariensis. Zoon van
Jacob Jansz Dremmel en Hilgont Jans.
Geboren in 1572, overleden in Londen in
1631. Date 1631 Source
http://www.archiefalkmaar.nl/ Auth
or Sichem, C. van PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a0/Drebbel_Van_Sichem_ca
_1631_groot.jpg
[1626 AD]
measures temperature independently of
air pressure).
Netherlands, and Luxembourg|was:
Tuscany, Italy (presumably)
[1] Leurechon, J. Récréation
Mathématique: Composée De Plusieurs
Problèmes Plaisants Et Facétieux :
En Feict d’Arithméticque,
Géométrie, Méchanicque, Opticque, Et
Autres Parties De Ces Belles Sciences.
Hanzelet, 1626, facing
p90. http://books.google.com/books?id=Q
sY5AAAAcAAJ&pg=PA68 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=QsY5AAAAcAAJ&pg=PA68
[2] Double Portrait of the Grand Duke
Ferdinand II of Tuscany and his Wife
Vittoria della Rovere probably
1660s SUSTERMANS, Justus 1597 -
1681 NG89. Bought with the J.J.
Angerstein collection, 1824. Ferdinand
II de' Medici (1610 - 1670), who wears
a commander's sash and the military
order of San Stefano, and carries a
commander's baton, succeeded his father
as Grand Duke of Tuscany in 1621,
assuming power in 1627. In 1634 he
married Vittoria della Rovere (1621 -
1694). The poses of the two figures
correspond with two single portraits of
them by Sustermans (Florence, Uffizi).
It is possible that earlier drawings
were used forthis double portrait and
that it was not painted directly from
life. Oil on canvas 161 x 147
cm. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nationalgallery.org.u
k/cgi-bin/WebObjects.dll/CollectionPubli
sher.woa/wa/work?workNumber=NG89
[1630 AD]
rotation every 25 days is recognized,
and the inclination of the Sun's axis
to the Earth's orbit is determined to
be 7 degrees.
[1] Sunspot plate from Scheiner's
``Tres Epistolae'' (650 x 505;
250K) http://www.math.yorku.ca/SCS/Gall
ery/milestone/sec3.html PD/Corel
source: http://cnx.rice.edu/content/m119
70/latest/tres_epistolae.gif
[2] Sunspot plate from Scheiner's
``Tres Epistolae'' (650 x 505;
250K) http://www.math.yorku.ca/SCS/Gall
ery/milestone/sec3.html PD/Corel
source: http://cnx.rice.edu/content/m119
70/latest/tres_epistolae.gif
[11/07/1631 AD]
Sun is observed.
[1] Gassendi, ''Mercurius in sole visus
et Venus invisa Parislis anno 1611'',
1632 in Gassendi, 1658, vol3,
p441. (''Mercury Seen in the Sun, and
Venus Unseen at paris in the Year
1631'') http://books.google.com/books?i
d=VA1TAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA441 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=VA1TAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA441
[2] Gassendi, ''Mercurius in sole
visus et Venus invisa Parislis anno
1611'', 1632 in Gassendi, 1658, vol3,
p441. (''Mercury Seen in the Sun, and
Venus Unseen at paris in the Year
1631'') http://books.google.com/books?i
d=VA1TAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA441 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=VA1TAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA441
[1631 AD]
scale", a device capable of precise
measurement is invented.
death location)
[1] using the vernier caliper to
measure a nut Source own image Date
October 2006 Author Joaquim Alves
Gaspar GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Using_the_caliper_new_en.gif
[2] using the vernier caliper to
measure a nut Source own image Date
October 2006 Author Joaquim Alves
Gaspar GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Using_the_caliper_new_en.gif
[1631 AD]
(as around 500 meters or 1500 feet per
second) and shown to be independent of
pitch, by measuring the time difference
between seeing the flash of a gun and
hearing the sound over a long distance
on a still day.
[1] Pierre Gassendi
(1592-1655). Peinture de Louis
Édouard Rioult. (Base Joconde du
Ministère de la Culture) PD
source: http://www.voltaire-integral.com
/Html/14/04CATALO_1_2.html
[2] Scientist: Gassendi, Pierre
(1592 - 1655) Discipline(s): Physics
; Astronomy Print Artist: Jacques
Lubin, 1637-1695 Medium: Engraving
Original Dimensions: Graphic: 17.6 x
14.1 cm / Sheet: 27.9 x 21.7 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/by_n
ame_display_results.cfm?scientist=Gassen
di
[06/22/1633 AD]
imprisonment by the Inquisition.
[1] Galileo before the Holy Office, a
19th century painting by Joseph-Nicolas
Robert-Fleury. Source:
http://library.thinkquest.org/C005358/im
ages/galilei_image01.jpeg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Galileo_before_the_Holy_Office.jpg
[2] Galileo's Letter to Prince of
Venice PD
source: http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/galileo
/ganymede/manuscript1.jpg
[1635 AD]
precursor to the French Academy of
Sciences).
[1] Marin Mersenne PD
source: http://www.nndb.com/people/576/0
00107255/
[2] Mersenne, Marin (1588-1648) PD
source: http://www.cartage.org.lb/en/the
mes/biographies/MainBiographies/M/Mersen
ne/1.html
[1635 AD]
measured.
[1] Table of string
vibrations from: Marin Marsenne, tr:
R. E. Chapman, ''Harmonie
Universelle'', 1635, 1957,
p194. UNKNOWN
source: Marin Marsenne, tr: R. E.
Chapman, "Harmonie Universelle", 1635,
1957, p194.
[2] Ted Huntington adapted
from: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikip
edia/en/math/6/c/8/6c88fce3e57d1eac8408b
abe264e1795.png GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/math/6/c/8/6c88fce3e57d1eac8408
babe264e1795.png
[1635 AD]
magnetic field changes over time is
recognized.
[1] Gellibrand, H. A Discourse
Mathematical on the Variation of the
Magneticall Needle: Together with Its
Admirable Diminution Lately Discovered.
By Henry Gellibrand Professor of
Astronomie in Gresham College. William
Iones, dwelling in Red-crosse-street,
1635. Early English Books,
1475-1640. http://luna.folger.edu/luna/
servlet/detail/FOLGERCM1~6~6~354589~1298
48:A-discourse-mathematical-on-the-var
AND http://books.google.com/books?id=H6
qvmAEACAAJ PD
source: http://luna.folger.edu/luna/serv
let/detail/FOLGERCM1~6~6~354589~129848:A
-discourse-mathematical-on-the-var
[2] Henry Gellibrand Discovered
the secular (change over years)
variation of magnetic declination.
(Gellibrand, H., Epitome of Navigation,
London, Printed by Andr. Clark for
William Fisher, 1674 - published many
decades after his death). PD
source: http://www.geophys.tu-bs.de/gesc
hichte/gellibrand.htm
[1636 AD]
[1] Lt Gov William Stoughton
(1631-1701) overlooking one of the
buildings of Harvard College, quite
probably Stoughton Hall for which he
was its main benefactor. The painting
dates to circa 1700. This picture,
which was taken from: Albert Bushnell
Hart, Commonwealth History of
Massachusetts (1927, vol. 1) opposite
p. 562; was originally taken from an
original portrait presumably still in
the possession of Harvard
University. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:HarvardStaughton.jpg
[1637 AD]
{lI-BrA-suN}) of the moon as it rotates
is recognized.
[1] Galileo Galilei. Portrait in crayon
by Leoni Source: French WP
(Utilisateur:Kelson via
http://iafosun.ifsi.rm.cnr.it/~iafolla/h
ome/homegrsp.html) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Galilee.jpg
[2] Original portrait of Galileo
Galilei by Justus Sustermans painted in
1636. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Galileo.arp.300pix.jpg
[1637 AD]
where points are plotted on a two
dimensional graph.
[1] De Beaune, F. et al. Geometria a
Renato Descartes: Anno 1637 Gallicè
Edita Postea Autem Una Cum Notis
Florimondi De Beaune ... apud Ludovicum
& Danielem Elzevirios, 1659.
Diapositivas (Biblioteca Histórica
UCM).2nd
edition http://books.google.com/books?i
d=lGFxGEEK52oC PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=lGFxGEEK52oC
[2] De Beaune, F. et al. Geometria a
Renato Descartes: Anno 1637 Gallicè
Edita Postea Autem Una Cum Notis
Florimondi De Beaune ... apud Ludovicum
& Danielem Elzevirios, 1659.
Diapositivas (Biblioteca Histórica
UCM).2nd
edition http://books.google.com/books?i
d=lGFxGEEK52oC PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=lGFxGEEK52oC
[11/24/1639 AD]
(presumably)
[1] This illustration, recreated from
Horrocks's notes by the prominent
Polish astronomer Hevelius, shows three
positions of the planet Venus as it
crosses the face of the Sun. Notice the
two black and one white dot (the
progression of Venus) in the lower left
portion of the central circle (the
Sun). PD
source: http://www.adlerplanetarium.org/
research/collections/transit-of-venus/jh
evelius1662b.jpg
[2] Jeremiah Horrocks observand
tranzitul lui Venus PD
source: http://aira.astro.ro/2004/Venus2
/Importanta_fisa%20scurta.htm
[11/24/1639 AD]
the Earth is approximately elliptical
(with the Earth at one focus) and that
the Sun has a perturbing effect on the
Moon’s orbit is shown.
(presumably)
[1] Opera Posthuma of Jeremiah
Horrocks, ed. John Wallis, London,
1672, p.
471. http://books.google.com/books?id=x
VQ_AAAAcAAJ PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=xVQ_AAAAcAAJ
[2] Opera Posthuma of Jeremiah
Horrocks, ed. John Wallis, London,
1672, p.
106. http://books.google.com/books?id=x
VQ_AAAAcAAJ PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=xVQ_AAAAcAAJ
[1640 AD]
precision measurement) is invented and
applied to the telescope.
England
[1] ''Gascoigne''s micrometer'' - via
Richard Towneley - as drawn by Robert
Hooke for the Royal Society,1667. PD
source: http://www.narrowbandimaging.com
/Northern%20Astronomical%20Review.htm
[2] [t Modern micrometer] Outside
micrometer, inside micrometer, and
depth micrometer. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Micrometers.jpg
[1640 AD]
gravity is measured.
[1] Description English: Giovanni
Battista Riccioli Date 20 September
2011 Source Old Book from 17th
century -- scan partially cleaned up by
me Author Wiccioli PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6a/Giovanni_Battista_Ric
cioli.jpg
[1641 AD]
ammunition is fed from a magazine.
[1] Kalthoff 1641 translated with
Google from:
http://www.earmi.it/A-Enciclopedia/ripet
izione.html The first attempt at a
mechanical repetition of the shot goes
back to the German Peter Kalthoff,
which operates in Denmark, who in 1641
invented and built in 1646. It was a
rifle with a wheel in the dust
reservoir a reservoir for calcium and
balls under the barrel, breech block
has three rooms that can move
sideways. PD
source: http://www.earmi.it/A-Encicloped
ia/img/Kalthoff.png
[2] translated with Google from:
http://www.earmi.it/A-Enciclopedia/ripet
izione.html In Italy as early as
1572 the Milan Marcantonio Valgrana
proposes a rifle capable of firing 4
shots below, but of questionable
functionality. This was followed in 600
different mechanical repeating rifles,
probably inspired by Kalthoff, but with
original solutions. It certainly
reminds weapon Berselli James (1660)
and other Fresh Water Sebastiano
(1619-1692) and the Florentine Michele
Lorenzoni (died 1735). These have gone
down in history as ''system Lorenzoni''
and are innovative compared to
Kalthoff. Tanks for powder and ball
(well 25) both are in football, behind
a circular rotor driven by an external
lever, the gun with the barrel is
turned down so that powder and ball
fall under gravity, the first movement
of lever drops a ball in the barrel
where it is retained by a ring of
forcing, the second movement takes a
dose of dust. There followed many
other weapons, but none went beyond the
experimental models. The technology of
the time did not allow the creation of
mechanisms are too delicate and until
the invention of the metal cartridge
case was difficult to keep the power is
communicated by a charge al'altra. The
first weapon is the repetition really
functioning Paterson Colt revolver of
1936 followed by rifle-revolver .44
Rifle Dragon namely the
Whitneyville-Hartford Dragon Colt
Revolver of 1847. To solve the problem
remained that the number of hits
greater than 6-8. The first weapon
taken from a manual repeater army
Spencer (March 1860) that has a
reservoir of calcium and seven
cartridges in a loading lever with
shutter lock shooting. The cartridge
was rimfire cartridge case with copper,
was calculated. 13.3 mm which
represented an improvement over the
previous much larger calibers.
Contemporary Henry and the system
immediately after the Winchester. PD
source: http://www.earmi.it/A-Encicloped
ia/img/lorenzoni.png
[1642 AD]
that can add and subtract.
[1] A Pascaline, an early
calculator. (Machine à calculer de
Blaise Pascal sans sous ni deniers,
signed by Pascal 1652) English: This
item is on display at the Musée des
Arts et Métiers, Paris Inv 823-1 GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Arts_et_Metiers_Pascaline_dsc03869.jp
g
[2] Scientist: Pascal, Blaise (1623
- 1662) Discipline(s): Mathematics ;
Physics Print Artist: T. Dale
Medium: Engraving Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 14.4 x 8.1 cm /
Sheet: 27.8 x 21.3 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/cf/by_n
ame_display_results.cfm?scientist=Pascal
[1643 AD]
empty of matter), and barometer (which
measures atmospheric pressure) are
invented. When a tube filled with
mercury is turned upside down into a
dish, the space above the mercury in
the tube is found to be a vacuum.
[1] Frontispiece to ''Lezioni
accademiche d'Evangelista
Torricelli....'', published in 1715.
Library Call Number Q155 .T69
1715. Image ID: libr0367, Treasures of
the NOAA Library Collection
Photographer: Archival Photograph by
Mr. Steve Nicklas, NOS, NGS Secondary
source: NOAA Central Library National
Oceanic & Atmospheric Adminstration
(NOAA), USA
http://www.photolib.noaa.gov/library/lib
r0367.htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Libr0367.jpg
[2] Frontispiece and title page to
''Lezioni accademiche d'Evangelista
Torricelli ....'', published in 1715.
Library Call Number Q155 .T69
1715. Image ID: libr0366, Treasures of
the NOAA Library Collection
Photographer: Archival Photograph by
Mr. Steve Nicklas, NOS, NGS Secondary
source: NOAA Central Library National
Oceanic & Atmospheric Adminstration
(NOAA),
USA http://www.photolib.noaa.gov/librar
y/libr0366.htm PD
source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wik
i/Image:Libr0366.jpg
[11/22/1644 AD]
observed.
Danzig (now Gdansk in Poland)
[1] Hevelius, J. Johannis Hevelii
Selenographia: Sive, Lunae Descriptio;
Atque Accurata, Tam Macularum Ejus,
Quam Motuum Diversorum, Aliarumque
Omnium Vicissitudinum, Phasiumque,
Telescopii Ope Deprehensarum,
Delineatio. In Quâ Simul Caeterorum
Omnium Planetarum Nativa Facies,
Variaeque Observationes, Praesertim
Autem Macularum Solarium ... Addita
Est, Lentes Expoliendi Nova Ratio; Ut
Et Telescopia Diversa Construendi ...
autoris sumtibus, typis Hünefeldianis,
1647. http://books.google.com/books?id=
i1lDAAAAcAAJ PD
source: Hevelius, J. Johannis Hevelii
Selenographia: Sive, Lunae Descriptio;
Atque Accurata, Tam Macularum Ejus,
Quam Motuum Diversorum, Aliarumque
Omnium Vicissitudinum, Phasiumque,
Telescopii Ope Deprehensarum,
Delineatio. In Quâ Simul Caeterorum
Omnium Planetarum Nativa Facies,
Variaeque Observationes, Praesertim
Autem Macularum Solarium ... Addita
Est, Lentes Expoliendi Nova Ratio; Ut
Et Telescopia Diversa Construendi ...
autoris sumtibus, typis Hünefeldianis,
1647. http://books.google.com/books?id=
i1lDAAAAcAAJ
[2] [t Note that Mercury has the
symbol for Mercury and Venus has the
symbol for Venus.] Hevelius, J.
Johannis Hevelii Selenographia: Sive,
Lunae Descriptio; Atque Accurata, Tam
Macularum Ejus, Quam Motuum Diversorum,
Aliarumque Omnium Vicissitudinum,
Phasiumque, Telescopii Ope
Deprehensarum, Delineatio. In Quâ
Simul Caeterorum Omnium Planetarum
Nativa Facies, Variaeque Observationes,
Praesertim Autem Macularum Solarium ...
Addita Est, Lentes Expoliendi Nova
Ratio; Ut Et Telescopia Diversa
Construendi ... autoris sumtibus, typis
Hünefeldianis,
1647. http://books.google.com/books?id=
i1lDAAAAcAAJ PD
source: Hevelius, J. Johannis Hevelii
Selenographia: Sive, Lunae Descriptio;
Atque Accurata, Tam Macularum Ejus,
Quam Motuum Diversorum, Aliarumque
Omnium Vicissitudinum, Phasiumque,
Telescopii Ope Deprehensarum,
Delineatio. In Quâ Simul Caeterorum
Omnium Planetarum Nativa Facies,
Variaeque Observationes, Praesertim
Autem Macularum Solarium ... Addita
Est, Lentes Expoliendi Nova Ratio; Ut
Et Telescopia Diversa Construendi ...
autoris sumtibus, typis Hünefeldianis,
1647. http://books.google.com/books?id=
i1lDAAAAcAAJ
[1644 AD]
of motion is described by René
Descartes.
[1] Descartes, R. Principia
Philosophiae. apud Ludovicum
Elzevirium, 1644, Part II, art
37-40. http://books.google.com/books?id
=lHpbAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA60 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=lHpbAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA60
[2] Descartes, R. Principia
Philosophiae. apud Ludovicum
Elzevirium, 1644, Part II, art
37-40. http://books.google.com/books?id
=lHpbAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA56 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=lHpbAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA56
[1645 AD]
the planets with decreases by the
inverse distance squared is recognized.
[1] Ismaël Bullialdus PD
AND Ismaelis Bvllialdi, Astronomia
Philolaica, Sumptibus Simeonis Piget,
Parisiis, 1645,p13 Latin text from
''Astronomia Philolaica'' PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Boulliau.jpegIsmaelis Bvllialdi,
Astronomia Philolaica, Sumptibus
Simeonis Piget, Parisiis, 1645, p13.
[2] Ismaël Bullialdus PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Boulliau.jpeg
[09/19/1648 AD]
change at different elevations. This
implies that empty space (a vacuum)
exists above the atmosphere.
[1] Scientist: Pascal, Blaise (1623 -
1662) Discipline(s): Mathematics ;
Physics Print Artist: T. Dale
Medium: Engraving Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 14.4 x 8.1 cm /
Sheet: 27.8 x 21.3 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/cf/by_n
ame_display_results.cfm?scientist=Pascal
[2] Blaise Pascal source :
http://www.thocp.net/biographies/pascal_
blaise.html PD
source: %20Blaise
[1648 AD]
a substance. Carbon dioxide (CO2) gas
is recognized.
[1] Van Helmont, J.B. Joannis Baptistae
Van Helmont ... Opera Omnia. Additis
His De Novo Tractatibus Aliquot
Posthumis Ejusdem Authoris, Maximè
Curiosis Pariter Ac Perutilissimis,
Antehac Non in Lucem Editis; Una Cum
Indicibus Rerum Ac Verborum Ut
Locupletissimis, Ita Et Accuratissimis.
sumptibus Johannis Justi Erythropili,
typis Johannis Philippi Andreae,
1682. http://books.google.com/books?id=
qzFFAAAAcAAJ English: John Baptista
Van Helmont; John Chandler (translator)
(1662). ''Oriatrike or Physick
Refined'' http://www.nightenlight.com/h
igher-worlds-visited/rsc/john-baptista-v
an-helmont/oriatrike-or-physick-refined-
001-030 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=qzFFAAAAcAAJhttp://www.nightenlight.com
/higher-worlds-visited/rsc/john-baptista
-van-helmont/oriatrike-or-physick-refine
d-001-030
[2] Portrait of Helmont, mistakenly
thought to be Robert Hooke see
http://www.libraries.uc.edu/source/volfo
ur/oesper2.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:HOOKE_Robert.jpg
[1650 AD]
cannot be produced in the absence of
air is proven.
This air pump is like a waterpump but
airtight, and is powered by hand
pumping.
[1] Apparatus of Otto von Guerricke
with water receptacle at base
removed. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=f2dMAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA239&dq=%22geissler+pu
mp%22#PPA238,M1
[2] Apparatus of Otto von Guerricke
with water receptacle at base
removed. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=f2dMAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA239&dq=%22geissler+pu
mp%22#PPA238,M1
[1650 AD]
pressure applied to a confined liquid
is transmitted equally through the
liquid in all directions is recognized.
[1] Description English: Hydraulic
Force ratio principle; Language
Neutral Ελληνικά:
υδραυλικό πιεστήριο
αρχή λειτουργίας Date
2008-01-21 (original upload
date) (Original text :
1/20/2008) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia; transferred to Commons by
User:Sk using CommonsHelper. (Original
text : self-made) Author Original
uploader was Darbyshmr at
en.wikipedia PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/7d/Hydraulic_Force%2C_la
nguage_neutral.png
[2] Scientist: Pascal, Blaise (1623
- 1662) Discipline(s): Mathematics ;
Physics Print Artist: T. Dale
Medium: Engraving Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 14.4 x 8.1 cm /
Sheet: 27.8 x 21.3 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/cf/by_n
ame_display_results.cfm?scientist=Pascal
[1652 AD]
which have thinner walls than blood
vessels, and carry the clear, watery
fluid portion of the blood (lymph) into
the spaces around cells and back into
the blood vessels.
.jpg)
[1] Portrait of the Swedish physician
and polyhistor Olaus Rudbeck (also
known as Olof Rudbeck, Olaus
Rudbeckius) the Elder (1630-1702).
Rudbeck was an anatomist, and one of
the discoverers of the lymphic vessels
in 1651-52 (discovered independently by
the Dane Thomas Bartholin at about the
same time), and was long professor of
Medicine at Uppsala University. He also
founded the earliest botanical garden
in Uppsala (later named after Carolus
Linnaeus) and initiated a major
botanical work with detailed
copperplate engravings, some of which
were printed but many of which were
destroyed in the Uppsala fire in 1702
before publication. He is also known as
an engineer and architect, who, among
other things, designed the anatomical
theatre in the Gustavianum building in
Uppsala, and as a speculative
historical writer who tried to prove
that Sweden was in fact the lost
Atlantis. Source First version:
This photograph was first uploaded as
Bild:Olof Rudbeck dä målad av Martin
Mijtens dä 1696.jpg to the Swedish
Wikipedia on 8 October 2003, 21.50 by
sv:Användare:Den fjättrade ankan and
then had the size 340x360 (11 386
bytes). Second version: less
cropped, fetched from [1] Date
1696 Author Martin Mijtens the
Elder (1548-1736), Dutch-Swedish
painter. A detail of this painting in
black and white is used to illustrate
the article on Rudbeck in Svenskt
biografiskt lexikon, vol. 30, p. 643.
It is discussed in the article on
Mijtens in SBL 25, p. 501. PD
source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wik
i/Image:Olaus_Rudbeck_Sr_%28portrait_by_
Martin_Mijtens_Sr%2C_1696%29.jpg
[2] The archaeologist Olof Rudbeck
(1630 - 1702) reveals his
Predecessors'' Hesiod, Platon,
Aristoteles, Apollodor, Tacitus,
Odysseus, Ptolemäus, Plutarch and
Orpheus the Truth'' about Atlantis.
From Atland eller Manheim'', 1679-89.
PD
source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wik
i/Image:Rudbeck_Atlantis.jpg
[03/25/1655 AD]
Titan is identified.
(presumably)
[1] Huygens' aerial telescope, 1655
from Development of the Telescope from
1561 to 1896 DEVELOPMENT OF THE
ASTRONOMICAL TELESCOPE IN FIFTY
YEARS. source: July 25, 1896
Scientific
American http://www.machine-history.com
/Development%20of%20the%20Telescope PD
source: http://www.machine-history.com/
[2] This natural color composite was
taken during the Cassini spacecraft's
April 16, 2005, flyby of Titan. It is a
combination of images taken through
three filters that are sensitive to
red, green and violet light. It
shows approximately what Titan would
look like to the human eye: a hazy
orange globe surrounded by a tenuous,
bluish haze. The orange color is due to
the hydrocarbon particles which make up
Titan's atmospheric haze. This
obscuring haze was particularly
frustrating for planetary scientists
following the NASA Voyager mission
encounters in 1980-81. Fortunately,
Cassini is able to pierce Titan's veil
at infrared wavelengths (see
PIA06228). North on Titan is up and
tilted 30 degrees to the right. The
images to create this composite were
taken with the Cassini spacecraft wide
angle camera on April 16, 2005, at
distances ranging from approximately
173,000 to 168,200 kilometers (107,500
to 104,500 miles) from Titan and from a
Sun-Titan-spacecraft, or phase, angle
of 56 degrees. Resolution in the images
is approximately 10 kilometers per
pixel. The Cassini-Huygens mission
is a cooperative project of NASA, the
European Space Agency and the Italian
Space Agency. The Jet Propulsion
Laboratory, a division of the
California Institute of Technology in
Pasadena, manages the mission for
NASA's Science Mission Directorate,
Washington, D.C. The Cassini orbiter
and its two onboard cameras were
designed, developed and assembled at
JPL. The imaging team is based at the
Space Science Institute, Boulder,
Colo. For more information about the
Cassini-Huygens mission, visit
http://saturn.jpl.nasa.gov and the
Cassini imaging team home page,
http://ciclops.org. Source *
http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog
/PIA06230 (cropped and rotated from the
original) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Titan_in_natural_color_Cassini.jpg
[1655 AD]
negative numbers and fractions.
England
[1]
from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John
_wallis GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joh
n_wallis
[2] Wallis, J. Arithmetica
Infinitorum.
1656. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Z5w_AAAAcAAJ PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=Z5w_AAAAcAAJ
[1658 AD]
described.
(presumably)
[1] Swammerdam, J., H. Boerhaave, and
H.D. Gaubius. Bybel Der Natuure. by
Isaak Severinus, Boudewyn van der Aa,
Pieter van der Aa, 1738. Bybel Der
Natuure, Door Jan Swammerdam,
Amsteldammer. Of Historie Der Insecten,
Tot Zeekere Zoorten Gebracht: Door
Voorbeelden, Ontleedkundige
Onderzoekingen Van Veelerhande Kleine
Gediertens, Als Ook Door Kunstige
Kopere Plaaten Opgeheldert: Verrykt Met
Ontelbaare Waarnemingen Van Nooit
Ontdekte Zeldzaamhedenin De
Natuur. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=1SxMAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA819 PD
source: Swammerdam, J., H. Boerhaave,
and H.D. Gaubius. Bybel Der Natuure. by
Isaak Severinus, Boudewyn van der Aa,
Pieter van der Aa, 1738. Bybel Der
Natuure, Door Jan Swammerdam,
Amsteldammer. Of Historie Der Insecten,
Tot Zeekere Zoorten Gebracht: Door
Voorbeelden, Ontleedkundige
Onderzoekingen Van Veelerhande Kleine
Gediertens, Als Ook Door Kunstige
Kopere Plaaten Opgeheldert: Verrykt Met
Ontelbaare Waarnemingen Van Nooit
Ontdekte Zeldzaamhedenin De
Natuur. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=1SxMAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA819
[2] Image from Swammerdam letter of
1678 showing lens and blood cells
from: Gerrit A. Lindeboom, ''Jan
Swammerdam als microscopist.''
Tijdschift voor de Geschiedenis der
Genees- , Natuurwetenschappen, Wiskunde
en Techniek 4 (1981):
87-110. http://gewina-tggnwt.library.uu
.nl/index.php/gewina-tggnwt/article/view
/140 UNKNOWN
source: http://gewina-tggnwt.library.uu.
nl/index.php/gewina-tggnwt/article/view/
140
[1659 AD]
the apparent sizes of the planets are
measured in seconds of arc.
(presumably)
[1] Images from Christiaan Huygens'
Systema Saturnium, drawn from
1610-1650. PD
source: http://www.californiasciencecent
er.org/Exhibits/AirAndSpace/MissionToThe
Planets/Cassini/CassiniUpdates/Archive/C
history.php
[2] Author: Huygens, Christiaan,
1629-1695. Title: Christiani Hvgenii
... Systema Satvrnivm; sive, De causis
mirandorum Satvrni phænomenôn, et
comite ejus planeta nova Imprint:
Hagæ-Comitis, ex typographia A.
Vlacq, 1659. Description: 6 p.l., 84
p. illus., fold. plate. 20 cm. [See
''Introduction'' for full
collation] Added Title: Systema
Satvrnivm. De causis mirandorum
Saturni phaenomenon. Systema
Saturnium. Christiani Hugenii ...
Systema Saturnium. Notes: Gift of the
Burndy Library (founded by Bern
Dibner) Signatures: Collation: ( )4
piB2 A-K4 L2. Call Number: QB671 .H98
Dibner Library of the History of
Science and Technology PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/DigitalCol
lections/HST/Huygens/huygens-toc.htm
[11/28/1660 AD]
[1] The Fame of the Royal Society. From
Thomas Sprat's History of the Royal
Society In the Center is a bust of the
Society's Founder - Charles II Left is
William Brouncker- The first
President On the Right is Francis
Bacon the Inspiration of the Royal
Society PD
source: http://www.sirbacon.org/esquire.
html
[2] Frontispiece to Sprat 's History
of the Royal Society (1667). Engraving
by Wenceslaus Hollar, design probably
hy John Evelyn for John Beale in about
1666-1667, and transferred to Sprat's
book later. Boyle's revised version of
the air-pump is in the centre-left
background (see also figure 17). The
three figures in the foreground are the
president of the Royal Society, Lord
Brouncker (left); the King (bust,
centre, being crowned by Fame.); and
Francis Bacon (right). (From the
British Library.) PD
source: http://www4.ncsu.edu/~kimler/hi3
22001/sprat.jpg
[1660 AD]
time and that electrical attraction is
transmitted through a vacuum is proven.
[1] Scientist: Boyle, Robert (1627 -
1691) Discipline(s): Chemistry ;
Physics Original Dimensions: Graphic:
13.1 x 8.2 cm / PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/cf/by_n
ame_display_results.cfm?scientist=Boyle
[2] Scientist: Boyle, Robert (1627 -
1691) Discipline(s): Chemistry ;
Physics Print Artist: George Vertue,
1684-1756 Medium: Engraving
Original Artist: Johann Kerseboom,
d.1708 Original Dimensions: Graphic:
39.5 x 24.3 cm / PD
source: %20Robert
[1660 AD]
measured using a mercury filled tube to
measure the pressure produced in a bell
jar by a piston pump.
[1] Fig. 2. The first measurement of a
sub-atmospheric pressure by
Robert Boyle c.1660. A beaker of
mercury with a manometer tube more
than 32 in long was sealed in a bell
jar and evacuated by the pump in Fig.
1. PD/Corel
source: Vacuum_1999_sdarticle.pdf
[2] Fig. 1. Piston pump constructed by
Robert Hook and used by Robert Boyle in
the Þrst measurement of a vacuum in
about 1660. PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/cf/by_n
ame_display_results.cfm?scientist=Boyle
[1661 AD]
are recognized using acid-base
indicators, and an element is defined
as any substance that cannot be broken
down farther into another substance.
[1] The Skeptical Chymist title
page PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:000a.jpg
[2] Scientist: Boyle, Robert (1627 -
1691) Discipline(s): Chemistry ;
Physics Original Dimensions: Graphic:
13.1 x 8.2 cm / PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/cf/by_n
ame_display_results.cfm?scientist=Boyle
[1661 AD]
veins, and microscopic blood vessels
(eventually named "capillaries") are
observed.
[1] Description Marcello
Malphigi Source L C Miall. The
History of Biology. Watts and Co. Date
1911 Author L C Miall PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:MarcelloMalphigiMiall.jpg
[2] from http://wwwihm.nlm.nih.gov/
* 11:57, 27 August 2002 Magnus Manske
432x575 (78,604 bytes) (from
meta) Source Originally from
en.wikipedia; description page is (was)
here Date Commons upload by Magnus
Manske 10:03, 10 May 2006 (UTC) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Marcello_Malpighi_large.jpg
[1662 AD]
are inversely related is proven. A long
J-shaped tube traps air at the end
using mercury. Adding twice the
mercury, adds twice the pressure,
reducing the volume of air at the end
by half. Removing half the mercury
doubles the volume of air.
[1] Boyle, R. New Experiments
Physico-mechanical, Touching the Spring
of the Air, and Its Effects: (made, for
the Most Part, in a New Pneumatical
Engine). H. Hall, 1662,
p156. books.google.com/books?id=LqYrAQA
AMAAJ&pg=PA156 PD AND Description
Portrait of Robert Boyle Source
http://www.bbk.ac.uk/boyle/Issue4.html
Date c. 1689 Author Johann
Kerseboom Permission Author has been
dead more than 70 years Other versions
Robert boyle.jpg PD AND {ULSF:
Note that this drawing of the J-tube
does not come from Boyle's
text} Artist's impression of Boyle's
Experiment, with precautions against
tube breaking. UNKNOWN
source: books.google.com/books?id=LqYrAQ
AAMAAJ&pg=PA162http://www.sil.si.edu/dig
italcollections/hst/scientific-identity/
cf/by_name_display_results.cfm?scientist
=Boyle%20Roberthttp://iweb.tntech.edu/ch
em281-tf/Boyle_files/image002.gif
[2] Boyle, R. New Experiments
Physico-mechanical, Touching the Spring
of the Air, and Its Effects: (made, for
the Most Part, in a New Pneumatical
Engine). H. Hall, 1662,
p156. books.google.com/books?id=LqYrAQA
AMAAJ&pg=PA156 PD AND Description
Portrait of Robert Boyle Source
http://www.bbk.ac.uk/boyle/Issue4.html
Date c. 1689 Author Johann
Kerseboom Permission Author has been
dead more than 70 years Other versions
Robert boyle.jpg PD
source: books.google.com/books?id=LqYrAQ
AAMAAJ&pg=PA162http://www.sil.si.edu/dig
italcollections/hst/scientific-identity/
cf/by_name_display_results.cfm?scientist
=Boyle%20Robert PD
[1663 AD]
generator is built: a sulfur globe is
rotated against a cloth which can
produce sizable electric sparks.
[1] Guericke's experiments with the
sulfur globe published 1672 PD
source: http://img.readtiger.com/wkp/en/
Guericke_Sulfur_globe.jpg
[2] Guericke's experiments with the
sulfur globe published 1672 PD
source: http://img.readtiger.com/wkp/en/
Guericke_Sulfur_globe.jpg
[1664 AD]
particles is revived by Rene Descartes
(DAKoRT), who compares light to a ball,
and is the first to describe the two
major theories of light: that light may
be transmitted by particle collision
(the "wave" or "constant collision"
theory) or by particles that move
mostly without collision through space
(the "corpuscular" or "rare collision"
theory).
(presumably)
[1] Descartes, R. Le Monde ... Ou Le
Traité De La Lumière Et Des Autres
Objets Principaux Des Sens, Avec Un
Discours De L’action Des Corps Et Un
Autre Des Fièvres, Composez Selon Les
Principes Du Même Auteur. Michel Bobin
et Nic. le Gras, 1664,
p221. http://books.google.com/books?id=
DHEPAAAAQAAJ PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=DHEPAAAAQAAJ
[2] The balls of the ''second
element'' which I think is a theory of
particles similar to an aether that
fill empty space, but its not
clear[t] PD/Corel
source: http://www.princeton.edu/~hos/mi
ke/texts/descartes/world/Image9.gif
[1665 AD]
elliptical orbits.
[1] Portrait of Giovanni Borelli from
this web site:
http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/optics/timel
ine/people/borelli.html The portrait
is made in 17th century. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:GBorelli.jpg
[2] Giovanni Alfonso Borelli. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Giovanni_Alfonso_Borelli.jpg
[1665 AD]
"diffraction". Light passed through two
narrow holes, one behind the other,
causes some light to appear outside of
the cone of light made by the holes.
This is thought to be a new property of
light named "diffraction" in which
light bends around the side of a hole.
But this outer light can also be
explained as light reflected off the
inside surface of the hole.
[1] Physico-mathesis de lvmine,
coloribvs, et iride, aliisqve adnexis;
libri dvo ... Avctore Francisco Maria
Grimaldo. Bononiae, Ex Typographia
Haeredis V. Benatij; impensis H.
Berniae, 1665, [London, Dawsons, 1966]
Latin Light through two holes between
diffracts in the transmission, we see a
large widening that shows its stretched
out direction. (my own translation, and
needs correction) PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: Physico-mathesis de lvmine,
coloribvs, et iride, aliisqve adnexis;
libri dvo ... Avctore Francisco Maria
Grimaldo. Bononiae, Ex Typographia
Haeredis V. Benatij; impensis H.
Berniae, 1665, [London, Dawsons, 1966
Latin 9
[2] Francesco Maria Grimaldi (Bologna,
2 aprile 1618 - Bologna 28 dicembre
1663), astronomo e fisico italiano, in
un'incisione seicentesca. PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Franc
escomaria_Grimaldi.jpg
[1665 AD]
measured as 24 hours and 40 minutes.
[1] Scientist: Cassini, Giovanni
Domenico (1625 - 1712) Discipline(s):
Astronomy ; Geodesy Print Artist: N.
Dupuis Medium: Engraving Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 14.3 x 10.2 cm /
Sheet: 24.6 x 16.2 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=c
[2] Scientist: Cassini, Giovanni
Domenico (1625 - 1712) Discipline(s):
Astronomy ; Geodesy Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 25.2 x 18.5 cm /
Sheet: 27.4 x 19.5 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=c
[1665 AD]
performed.
[1] Richard Lower (1631-1691) PD
source: http://images.fineartamerica.com
/images-medium-large/richard-lower-1631-
1691-granger.jpg
[2] Richard Lower PD
source: http://clendening.kumc.edu/dc/pc
/lower.jpg
[1665 AD]
firmly established by Robert Hooke,
with the medium being a fluid between
the stars associated with the ancient
concept of aether. In this view light
is analogous to sound: a motion that
results from the collisions of many
transparent material particles of a
medium.
Hooke also uses the word "cells" to
describe tiny rectangular holes in a
thin sliver of cork viewed under a
microscope, and publishes the first
images of a microorganism (and
protist).
[1] Hooke, R. Micrographia: Or, Some
Physiological Descriptions of Minute
Bodies Made by Magnifying Glasses. With
Observations and Inquiries Thereupon.
printed for James Allestry, 1667,
p56-57,96-97. http://books.google.com/b
ooks?id=SgFMAAAAcAAJ PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=SgFMAAAAcAAJ
[2] Hooke, R. Micrographia: Or, Some
Physiological Descriptions of Minute
Bodies Made by Magnifying Glasses. With
Observations and Inquiries Thereupon.
printed for James Allestry, 1667,
p56-57,96-97. http://books.google.com/b
ooks?id=SgFMAAAAcAAJ PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=SgFMAAAAcAAJ
[10/??/1666 AD]
to find the rate of change (or slope)
of an equation and integration is used
to calculate the area or volume
described by an equation.
[1] Drawing from: Isaac Newton, ''The
October 1666 Tract on Fluxions'', MS
Add. 3958.3, ff. 48r-63v, Cambridge
University Library, Cambridge,
UK http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.u
k/catalogue/record/NATP00100
AND http://cudl.lib.cam.ac.uk/view/MS-A
DD-03958/92 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.newtonproject.sussex.
ac.uk/view/texts/normalized/NATP00100
[2] Description Isaac Newton Date
1689 Author Godfrey Kneller PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg
[11/26/1668 AD]
multiplied by Time is identified. In
addition the concept and equation of
momentum (mass times velocity), and the
theory of the conservation of momentum
is established. Note that conservation
of momentum may result from the
separate conservation of mass and of
motion.
[1] Dr. John Wallis, and Dr.
Christopher Wren, ''A Summary Account
of the General Laws of Motion'',
Philosophical Transactions,
(1665-1678), Volume 3,1668,
pp864-868. books.google.com/books?id=SF
5FAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA864 http://journals.roy
alsociety.org/content/3t6172g2t153q212/?
p=712eb21bc6624d76b0bd5d68f591a77a&pi=0
{Wallis_John_Wren_Christopher_Laws_of_M
otion_1668.pdf} PD
source: books.google.com/books?id=SF5FAA
AAcAAJ&pg=PA864 http://journals.royalso
ciety.org/content/3t6172g2t153q212/?p=71
2eb21bc6624d76b0bd5d68f591a77a&pi=0
[2] John Wallis, English mathematician
with important contributions to
analysis. Source:
en:Image:John_Wallis.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:John_Wallis.jpg
[1668 AD]
rotation of nine hours fifty-six
minutes is determined by observing the
movement of spots in Jupiter's clouds.
Bologna), Italy
[1] Description: Gemälde Giovanni
Domenico Cassini Source::
http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/hist
ory/PictDisplay/Cassini.html
Painter: Durangel 1879, nach einer
alten Radierung, welche wiederum nach
einem alten Bild von Madame Milon de
a PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d6/Giovanni_Cassini.jpg
[2] Scientist: Cassini, Giovanni
Domenico (1625 - 1712) Discipline(s):
Astronomy ; Geodesy Print Artist: N.
Dupuis Medium: Engraving Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 14.3 x 10.2 cm /
Sheet: 24.6 x 16.2 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=c
[1668 AD]
regeneration" of flies from meat is
disproven, by proving that maggots only
appear in meat placed in open vessels
which flies can land on, and not in
closed vessels.
[1] Scientist: Redi, Francesco (1626 -
1698) Discipline(s): Medicine Print
Artist: Lodovico Pelli, 1814-1876
Medium: Engraving Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 11 x 11 cm /
Sheet: 19.2 x 14.3 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/by_d
iscipline_display_results.cfm?Research_D
iscipline_1=Medicine
[2] Francesco Redi Esperienze intorno
alla generazione degl'insetti fatte da
Francesco Redi ... e da lvi scritte in
vna lettera all'illvstrissimo Signor
Carlo Dati.. Firenze, All'insegna
della Stella, 1668. 3 p. l., 228 p.
illus., plates (part fold.) 24
cm. Call no.: QL496.R35 1668 PD
source: http://www.library.umass.edu/spc
oll/exhibits/herbal/redi.htm
[03/18/1669 AD]
multiplied by velocity squared), and
the theory of conservation of energy is
defined.
(presumably)
[1] Huygens, C., J.A. Vollgraff, and
Hollandsche Maatschappij der
Wetenschappen. Oeuvres Complètes:
Correspondance. M. Nijhoff, 1895.
Oeuvres Complètes,
p385. books.google.com/books?id=sH3tV6o
gFtcC&pg=PA385 PD AND Christiaan
Huygens, the astronomer. source:
http://ressources2.techno.free.fr/inform
atique/sites/inventions/inventions.html
PD
source: books.google.com/books?id=sH3tV6
ogFtcC&pg=PA385http://en.wikipedia.org/w
iki/Image:Christiaan_Huygens-painting.jp
eg
[2] Huygens, C., J.A. Vollgraff, and
Hollandsche Maatschappij der
Wetenschappen. Oeuvres Complètes:
Correspondance. M. Nijhoff, 1895.
Oeuvres Complètes,
p385. books.google.com/books?id=sH3tV6o
gFtcC&pg=PA385 PD
source: books.google.com/books?id=sH3tV6
ogFtcC&pg=PA385
[1669 AD]
refraction" is observed. Objects viewed
through calcite are seen double which
is explained as light being refracted
at two different angles. This may be
the result of light particles
reflecting off of atoms in the two
perpendicular planes within the
crystal.
[1] Taken from: Brahe, T. Tychonis
Brahe Dani Opera Omnia: Tomus XIII.
Gyldendal, 1926 PD
source: Brahe, T. Tychonis Brahe Dani
Opera Omnia: Tomus XIII. Gyldendal,
1926
[2] Taken from: Brahe, T. Tychonis
Brahe Dani Opera Omnia: Tomus XIII.
Gyldendal, 1926 PD
source: Brahe, T. Tychonis Brahe Dani
Opera Omnia: Tomus XIII. Gyldendal,
1926
[1669 AD]
invertebrate anatomy.
[1] From: Malpighi, M. Dissertatio
Epistolica De Bombyce. apud Jo. Martyn
& Jac. Atlestry, 1669. Malpighi, The
silkworm, 1669. Malpighi, Marcello.
Dissertatio epistolica de bombyce.
Londini: Apud Joannem Martyn & Jacobum
Allestry, 1699. [9], 100 pp.
plates. The image (right) is a plate
from Marcello Malpighi's Dissertatio
epistolica de bombyce, of 1669. This
detailed study of the silkworm was the
first monograph on an invertebrate.
Malpighi was the founder of histology
and the greatest of the microscopists.
He dissected and observed silkworms,
publishing his findings in this
treatise. It had been believed
previously that silkworms had no
internal organs. PD AND Malpighi,
M. Dissertatio Epistolica De Bombyce.
apud Jo. Martyn & Jac. Atlestry,
1669. http://books.google.com/books?id=
-yIOAAAAQAAJ PD
source: http://www.ucl.ac.uk/library/spe
cial-coll/malpighi01.gifhttp://en.wikipe
dia.org/wiki/Image:MarcelloMalphigiMiall
.jpg
[2] Malpighi, The silkworm,
1669. Malpighi, Marcello.
Dissertatio epistolica de bombyce.
Londini: Apud Joannem Martyn & Jacobum
Allestry, 1699. [9], 100 pp.
plates. The image (right) is a plate
from Marcello Malpighi's Dissertatio
epistolica de bombyce, of 1669. This
detailed study of the silkworm was the
first monograph on an invertebrate.
Malpighi was the founder of histology
and the greatest of the microscopists.
He dissected and observed silkworms,
publishing his findings in this
treatise. It had been believed
previously that silkworms had no
internal organs. PD
source: http://www.ucl.ac.uk/library/spe
cial-coll/malpighi01.gif
[1669 AD]
identified as a heavy glowing liquid
obtained by distilling a red oil
distilled from urine with carbon.
[1] Den tyske alkymist Hennig Brand
opdagede i 1669 et hvidt stof, som
lyste i mørke. Uden at vide det havde
han fundet grundstoffet fosfor, mens
han opvarmede urin i en glaskolbe. PD
source: http://historienet.dk/files/bonn
ier-his/imagecache/630x420/pictures/Imag
e20.jpg
[2] The Alchemist in Search of the
Philosophers Stone (1771) by Joseph
Wright depicting Hennig Brand
discovering phosphorus (the glow shown
is exaggerated) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Henning_brand.jpg
[1671 AD]
add, subtract, multiply and divide is
constructed.
[1] Description Deutsch: Gottfried
Wilhelm Leibniz (Gemälde von Bernhard
Christoph Francke, Braunschweig,
Herzog-Anton-Ulrich-Museum, um
1700) Source
http://www.hfac.uh.edu/gbrown/philosoph
ers/leibniz/BritannicaPages/Leibniz/Leib
nizGif.html Date ca. 1700 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gottfried_Wilhelm_von_Leibniz.jpg
[2] Source:
http://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedi
a/L/Leibniz.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Leibniz_231.jpg
[1671 AD]
identified when released by mixing iron
filings with acids, and is found to be
flammable.
[1] Title page from: Boyle, Robert.
Tracts Written by the Honourable Robert
Boyle: Containing New Experiments
Touching the Relation Betwixt Flame and
Air : and About Explosions : an
Hydrostatical Discourse Occasion'd by
Some Objections of Dr. Henry More
against Some Explications of New
Experiments Made by the Author of These
Tracts : to Which Is Annex't, an
Hydrostatical Letter, Dilucidating an
Experiment About a Way of Weighing
Water in Water. London: Printed for
Richard Davis, 1673. Internet resource.
http://uci.worldcat.org/title/tracts-w
ritten-by-the-honourable-robert-boyle-co
ntaining-new-experiments-touching-the-re
lation-betwixt-flame-and-air-and-about-e
xplosions-an-hydrostatical-discourse-occ
asiond-by-some-objections-of-dr-henry-mo
re-against-some-explications-of-new-expe
riments-made-by-the-author-of-these-trac
ts-to-which-is-annext-an-hydrostatical-l
etter-dilucidating-an-experiment-about-a
-way-of-weighing-water-in-water/oclc/606
570832?referer=di&ht=edition PD
source: Boyle, Robert. Tracts Written
by the Honourable Robert Boyle:
Containing New Experiments Touching the
Relation Betwixt Flame and Air : and
About Explosions : an Hydrostatical
Discourse Occasion'd by Some Objections
of Dr. Henry More against Some
Explications of New Experiments Made by
the Author of These Tracts : to Which
Is Annex't, an Hydrostatical Letter,
Dilucidating an Experiment About a Way
of Weighing Water in Water. London:
Printed for Richard Davis, 1673.
Internet resource.
http://uci.worldcat.org/title/tracts-w
ritten-by-the-honourable-robert-boyle-co
ntaining-new-experiments-touching-the-re
lation-betwixt-flame-and-air-and-about-e
xplosions-an-hydrostatical-discourse-occ
asiond-by-some-objections-of-dr-henry-mo
re-against-some-explications-of-new-expe
riments-made-by-the-author-of-these-trac
ts-to-which-is-annext-an-hydrostatical-l
etter-dilucidating-an-experiment-about-a
-way-of-weighing-water-in-water/oclc/606
570832?referer=di&ht=edition
[2] Scientist: Boyle, Robert (1627 -
1691) Discipline(s): Chemistry ;
Physics Original Dimensions: Graphic:
13.1 x 8.2 cm / PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/cf/by_n
ame_display_results.cfm?scientist=Boyle
[02/19/1672 AD]
is firmly established by Isaac Newton.
In this view light is thought to be
made of material particles that move
through any medium. Newton shows that
color is a property of light, not of
objects. Newton also separates white
light into primary colors and
recombines primary colors to form white
light. Newton also shows that light of
different colors refract at different
angles.
[1] Isaac Newton, ''A Letter of Mr.
Isaac Newton … containing his New
Theory about Light and Colors'', Feb
19, 1671/2, in English, c. 5,263 words,
13pp. Published in: Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society, No.
80 (19 Feb. 1671/2), pp.
3075-3087. http://www.newtonproject.sus
sex.ac.uk/view/texts/normalized/NATP0000
6 AND
http://books.google.com/books?id=L1Ito
Q2GjMAC&pg=PA3075 PD AND Description
Isaac Newton Date 1689 Author
Godfrey Kneller PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=L1ItoQ2GjMAC&pg=PA3075http://en.wikiped
ia.org/wiki/Image:GodfreyKneller-IsaacNe
wton-1689.jpg
[2] Isaac Newton, ''Draft of 'A Theory
Concerning Light and Colors''', Feb 6,
1671/2, in English, c. 5,137 words,
14pp. Shelfmark: MS Add. 3970.3,
ff.460-466 Location: Cambridge
University Library, Cambridge,
UK http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.u
k/view/texts/normalized/NATP00003 PD
source: http://www.newtonproject.sussex.
ac.uk/view/texts/normalized/NATP00003
[1672 AD]
measured using the parallax of Mars to
measure the distance from Earth to Mars
which provides a scale to calculate the
distance to the other planets.
America
[1] Scientist: Cassini, Giovanni
Domenico (1625 - 1712) Discipline(s):
Astronomy ; Geodesy Print Artist: N.
Dupuis Medium: Engraving Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 14.3 x 10.2 cm /
Sheet: 24.6 x 16.2 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=c
[2] Scientist: Cassini, Giovanni
Domenico (1625 - 1712) Discipline(s):
Astronomy ; Geodesy Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 25.2 x 18.5 cm /
Sheet: 27.4 x 19.5 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=c
[1673 AD]
used to create a vacuum.
[1] Powder machine, Chr. Huygens 1673,
drawing by Huygens Powder machine,
Christian Huygens, 1673 Huygens´
powder machine produced mechanical
energy in a cylinder by means of
combustion. PD/Corel
source: http://www.deutsches-museum.de/t
ypo3temp/pics/d2f04f7a88.jpg
[2] Christiaan Huygens, the
astronomer. source:
http://ressources2.techno.free.fr/inform
atique/sites/inventions/inventions.html
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Christiaan_Huygens-painting.jpeg
[1674 AD]
[1] John Mayow PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:John_Mayow.jpg
[2] John Mayow, 1641-1679. Tractatus
quinque medico-physici. [Five
medico-physical tracts] Oxford: E
Theatro Sheldoniano, 1674. Gift of
John F. Fulton. PD
source: http://www.med.yale.edu/library/
historical/founders/images/tractatus.jpg
[1675 AD]
Saturn is seen.
[1] What's That Speck? Cassini's climb
to progressively higher elevations
reveals the ''negative'' side of
Saturn's rings. As the Sun shines
through the rings, they take on the
appearance of a photonegative: the
dense B ring (at the center) blocks
much of the incoming light, while the
less dense regions scatter and transmit
light. Close inspection reveals not
one, but two moons in this scene. Mimas
(397 kilometers, or 247 miles across)
is easily visible near the upper right,
but the shepherd moon Prometheus (102
kilometers, or 63 miles across) can
also be seen. Prometheus is a dark spot
against the far side of the thin,
bright F ring. Most of Prometheus'
sunlit side is turned away from Cassini
in this view. The image was taken in
visible light with the Cassini
spacecraft wide-angle camera on April
15, 2005, at a distance of
approximately 570,000 kilometers
(350,000 miles) from Saturn. The image
scale is 30 kilometers (19 miles) per
pixel. The Cassini-Huygens mission
is a cooperative project of NASA, the
European Space Agency and the Italian
Space Agency. The Jet Propulsion
Laboratory, a division of the
California Institute of Technology in
Pasadena, manages the mission for
NASA's Science Mission Directorate,
Washington, D.C. The Cassini orbiter
and its two onboard cameras were
designed, developed and assembled at
JPL. The imaging team is based at the
Space Science Institute, Boulder,
Colo. For more information about the
Cassini-Huygens mission visit
http://saturn.jpl.nasa.gov . For
additional images visit the Cassini
imaging team homepage
http://ciclops.org . Image Credit:
NASA/JPL/Space Science Institute PD
source: http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/mult
imedia/display.cfm?IM_ID=3943
[2] Scientist: Cassini, Giovanni
Domenico (1625 - 1712) Discipline(s):
Astronomy ; Geodesy Print Artist: N.
Dupuis Medium: Engraving Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 14.3 x 10.2 cm /
Sheet: 24.6 x 16.2 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=c
[06/13/1676 AD]
described: for any positive integer n,
the nth power of the sum of two numbers
a and b may be expressed as the sum of
n + 1 terms.
[1] Series infinitas: el binomio de
Newton PD AND Binomial theorem
examples GNU
source: http://platea.pntic.mec.es/apere
z4/html/newton/newton2.htmlhttp://en.wik
ipedia.org/wiki/Binomial_theorem http:/
/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:GodfreyKnel
ler-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg
[2] Series infinitas: el binomio de
Newton PD
source: http://platea.pntic.mec.es/apere
z4/html/newton/newton2.html
[1676 AD]
finite and is measured by subtracting
the time it takes for the moon of
Jupiter, Io to enter and exit the
shadow of Jupiter when the Earth is
moving toward Jupiter, from the time it
takes when the Earth is moving away
from Jupiter.
[1] ''Demonstration touchant le
mouvement de la lumiere trouvé par M.
Römer de l' Academie Royale des
Sciences'', Journal des sçavans,
December 7,
1676 http://books.google.com/books?id=5
scUAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA484 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=5scUAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA484
[2] Ole Rømer PD
source: http://www.rundetaarn.dk/dansk/o
bservatorium/grafik/roemer1.jpg
[1676 AD]
southern hemisphere.
[1] Portrait of Edmond Halley painted
around 1687 by Thomas Murray (Royal
Society, London) uploaded from
http://www.phys.uu.nl/~vgent/astrology/n
ewton.htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Edmund_Halley.gif
[2] Portrait of Edmond Halley PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Edmond_Halley_5.jpg
[1677 AD]
[1] Figure 2. from Clarke, Gary N.
“A.R.T. and History, 1678–1978.”
Human Reproduction 21.7 (2006):
1645–1650. Van Leeuwenhoek’s
drawings of spermatozoa. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://humrep.oxfordjournals.org
/content/21/7/1645/F2.large.jpg
[2] Spermatozoa (Dutch =
''zaaddiertjes'') after an image
published in Phil.Trans. XII,nov. 1678)
: 1-4 Human, 5-8 Dog. PD
source: http://www.euronet.nl/users/warn
ar/leeuwenhoek.html
[06/25/1678 AD]
university after the collapse of
science of the 400s CE.
Italy
[1] Description Italiano: Ritratto
di Elena Lucrezia Cornaro Piscopia,
Ignoto (sec. XVIII?), Biblioteca
Ambrosiana, Milano. (book : F. L.
Maschietto, Elena Lucrezia Cornaro
Piscopia (1646-1684). Prima donna
laureata al mondo, Padova, Antenore,
1978.). Français : Portrait de Elena
Lucrezia Cornaro Piscopia Date 18th
century Source
http://scienzaa2voci.unibo.it/gallery_v
iew?id=199-cornaro-piscopia-elena Autho
r Unknown Other versions
File:Elena Cornaro
Piscopia.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5e/Elena_Piscopia_portra
it.jpg
[2] Description Italiano: Ritratto
di Elena Lucrezia Cornaro Piscopia,
Ignoto (sec. XVIII?), Biblioteca
Ambrosiana, Milano. (book : F. L.
Maschietto, Elena Lucrezia Cornaro
Piscopia (1646-1684). Prima donna
laureata al mondo, Padova, Antenore,
1978.). Français : Portrait de Elena
Lucrezia Cornaro Piscopia Date 18th
century Source
http://scienzaa2voci.unibo.it/gallery_v
iew?id=199-cornaro-piscopia-elena Autho
r Unknown Other versions
File:Elena Cornaro
Piscopia.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5e/Elena_Piscopia_portra
it.jpg
[1678 AD]
Oxford, England (presumably)
[1] Plate to Hooke's Lecture of Spring
1678 PD
source: http://www1.umn.edu/ships/module
s/phys/hooke/images/Hooke1678.jpg
[2] Hooke memorial window, St Helen's
Bishopsgate (now
destroyed) http://www.roberthooke.org.u
k/
on http://freespace.virgin.net/ric.mart
in/vectis/hookeweb/roberthooke.htm PD
source: http://freespace.virgin.net/ric.
martin/vectis/hookeweb/roberthooke.htm
[1678 AD]
telescopically located southern
hemisphere stars.
[1] Title page of: Halley, E.
Catalogus Stellarum Australium: Sive,
Supplementum Catalogi Tychenici,
Exhibens Longitudines Et Latitudines
Stellarum Fixarum, Quae, Prope Polum
Antarcticum Sitae, in Horizonte
Uraniburgico Tychoni Inconspicuae
Fuere, Accurato Calculo Ex Distantiis
Supputatas, & Ad Annum 1677 Completum
correctas...Accedit Appendicula De
Rebus Quibusdam Astronomicis... Typis
T. James,
1679. http://books.google.com/books?id=
QVg4AAAAMAAJ PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Edmund_Halley.gif
[2] Portrait of Edmond Halley painted
around 1687 by Thomas Murray (Royal
Society, London) uploaded from
http://www.phys.uu.nl/~vgent/astrology/n
ewton.htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Edmond_Halley_5.jpg
[1678 AD]
direct neuron writing). Jan Swammerdam
(Yon SVoMRDoM) contracts a muscle by
making neurons fire using electricity.
A frog leg hanging from a silver wire
twitches when a brass ring contacts
it.
This electrical muscle movement will
eventually lead to very precise remote
neuron stimulation.
(presumably)
[1] One of Galvani’s decisive
experiments was to show that movement
could be induced by stroking an iron
plate against a brass hook inserted
into the frog’s spinal column, which
generated a small electric current. In
one version of Swammerdam’s nerve
muscle experiment, the nerve was
suspended in a brass hook, which was
then stroked with a silver
wire: PD/Corel
source: http://www.janswammerdam.net/Ima
ges/Fig4.jpg
[03/15/1679 AD]
the basis of all modern computers.
[1] Figure 14. G. W. Leibniz's
manuscript of the binary number theory,
written on March 15, 1679. Latin text
explains the principle to use the two
signs 1 and 0 for all
numbers. (Source: Upper part of page
shows his scheme of dual number
systems, which he called “Progressio
dyadica,” as written in title at top.
Sequence of upper lines 1–32 is
continued in left vertical column to
reach number 100 in lowest part(not
reproduced). Leibniz submitted this
dual system to the Paris Academy in
1703, where it was published in 1705
244. Practical application of this
principle had to wait for electronic
computers, which had less difficulty in
using the long number sequences than a
hand-writing mathematician. Source: the
Leibniz-Archiv, Niedersächsiche
Landesbibliothek,
Hannover.) from: Richard Jung.
Sensory Research in Historical
Perspective: Some Philosophical
Foundations of Perception. Compr
Physiol 2011, Supplement 3: Handbook of
Physiology, The Nervous System, Sensory
Processes: 1-74. First published in
print 1984. doi: 10.1002/cphy.cp010301
http://www.comprehensivephysiology.com
/WileyCDA/CompPhysArticle/refId-cp010301
.html UNKNOWN
source: http://media.wiley.com/mrw_image
s/compphys/articles/cp010301/image_n/ncp
01030114.jpg
[2] Description Deutsch: Gottfried
Wilhelm Leibniz (Gemälde von Bernhard
Christoph Francke, Braunschweig,
Herzog-Anton-Ulrich-Museum, um
1700) Source
http://www.hfac.uh.edu/gbrown/philosoph
ers/leibniz/BritannicaPages/Leibniz/Leib
nizGif.html Date ca. 1700 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gottfried_Wilhelm_von_Leibniz.jpg
[1679 AD]
boiled in an air-tight container raises
the pressure in the container, which
raises the boiling point of water
allowing food to cook faster. A safety
value prevents explosions.
[1] subject: Denis Papin, unknown
artist, 1689. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Denis_Papin.jpg
[2]
http://www.chemistryexplained.com/Bo-Ce/
Boyle-Robert.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Boyle-Papin-Digester.jpg
[03/03/1682 AD]
[1] Leeuwenhoek, A. van: Opera Omnia,
seu Arcana Naturae ope exactissimorum
Microscopiorum detecta, experimentis
variis comprobata, Epistolis ad varios
illustres viros. J. Arnold et Delphis,
A. Beman, Lugdinum Batavorum
1719–1730, p51.
http://books.google.com/books?id=0Zs_A
AAAcAAJ {Leeuwenhoek_Opera_Omnia_Seu_Ar
cana_Naturae_1722.pdf} PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=0Zs_AAAAcAAJ
[2] Description English: Red Blood
cells from Salmon, with ''Lumen'' (cell
nuclei). Deutsch: Rote Blutkörperchen
vom Lachs, mit ''Lumen''
(Zellkernen). Date Leeuwenhoek lived
from 1632 - 1723.. Source
Dieter Gerlach, Geschichte der
Mikroskopie. Verlag Harry Deutsch,
Frankfurt am Main, Germany, 2009. ISBN
978-3-8171-1781-9.(Accompanying
CD-ROM). Source given in there:
Leeuwenhoek, A. van: Opera Omnia, seu
Arcana Naturae ope exactissimorum
Microscopiorum detecta, experimentis
variis comprobata, Epistolis ad varios
illustres viros. J. Arnold et Delphis,
A. Beman, Lugdinum Batavorum
1719–1730. – Reprint: Georg Olms
Verlag, Hildesheim, New York
1971–1972 Author Antoni van
Leeuwenhoek PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/39/Leeuwenhoek1719RedBlo
odCells.jpg
[09/12/1683 AD]
[1] Fig. 7. Bacteria from a human
mouth, letter of 17 September 1683. A
is a motile Bacillus, B is Selenomonas
sputigena, with C…D its path, E is
Micrococci, F is Leptothrix buccalis,
and G is a spirochaete, probably
Spirochaeta buccalis (Dobell 1932:Plate
24 or Leeuwenhoek 1939–1999, IV:Plate
8). PD
source: http://www.madrimasd.org/blogs/m
icrobiologia/wp-content/blogs.dir/110/fi
les/1431/o_Leeuwenhoek.jpg
[2] Fig. 7. Bacteria from a human
mouth, letter of 17 September 1683. A
is a motile Bacillus, B is Selenomonas
sputigena, with C D its path, E is
Micrococci, F is Leptothrix buccalis,
and G is a spirochaete, probably
Spirochaeta buccalis (Dobell 1932:Plate
24 or Leeuwenhoek 1939-1999, IV:Plate
8). COPYRIGHTED?
source: http://esapubs.org/bulletin/back
issues/087-1/bulletin_jan2006.htm
[1685 AD]
monastery) Würzburg, Germany
[1] Johann Zahn, camera obscura
portabilis (reflex box camera obscura),
1685. Courtesy of the Gernsheim
Collection, Harry Ransom Humanities
Research Center, University of Texas
at Austin. PD/Corel
source: http://content.cdlib.org/xtf/dat
a/13030/6b/ft296nb16b/figures/ft296nb16b
_00000.gif
[2] Johann Zahn, camera obscura
portabilis (reflex box camera obscura),
1685. Courtesy of the Gernsheim
Collection, Harry Ransom Humanities
Research Center, University of Texas
at Austin. PD/Corel
source: http://content.cdlib.org/xtf/dat
a/13030/6b/ft296nb16b/figures/ft296nb16b
_00000.gif
[1687 AD]
Newton; that all matter attracts other
matter with a force that is the product
of their masses, and the inverse of
their distance squared.
Newton clearly distinguishes between
mass and weight, viewing mass as the
quantity of matter contained in a body,
and defines a force as the product of
mass and acceleration (F=ma).
Newton shows that the acceleration on
any mass from a second mass due to
gravity can be calculated as the mass
of the second object divided by the
distance between the two objects
squared and theorizes that even light
particles are affected by gravity.
[1] Sir Isaac Newton's own first
edition copy of his Philosophiae
Naturalis Principia Mathematica with
his handwritten corrections for the
second edition. The first edition was
published under the imprint of Samuel
Pepys who was president of the Royal
Society. By the time of the second
edition, Newton himself had become
president of the Royal Society, as
noted in his corrections. The book can
be seen in the Wren Library of Trinity
College, Cambridge. CC
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:NewtonsPrincipia.jpg
[2] Description Isaac Newton Date
1689 Author Godfrey Kneller PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg
[1687 AD]
skin inflammation, is proven, and the
mite first seen with a microscope.
[1] Bonomo's drawings of the agent of
scabies PD/Corel AND source:
de.wikipedia Deutsch: Räudemilbe,
weiblich author: Kalumet
date: 06.11.2004 GNU
source: http://www3.interscience.wiley.c
om/cgi-bin/fulltext/119104681/nf1http://
upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c
/c0/Sarcoptes_scabei_2.jpg
[2] Bonomo's drawings of the agent of
scabies PD/Corel
source: http://www3.interscience.wiley.c
om/cgi-bin/fulltext/119104681/nf1
[1690 AD]
for cutting gears out of cylinders of
metal).
[1] Christopher Polhem in 1741. PD
AND On Sunday, December 18
inaugurated the exhibition of
Christopher Polhem On Technical ...
Class 5 pilot from Klastorp School had
the honor to visit it before,
photographed, snabbguidas and also
showcase their inventions. There are
many parts of the mechanical alphabet,
mine lifts, computer games, one point
for creative children and adolescents
mm. UNKNOWN
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Christopher_Polhem_painted_by_Johan_H
enrik_Scheffel_1741.jpghttp://kungsholms
uppfinnare.se/wp-content/uploads/2011/12
/IMG_1050.jpg
[2] Christopher Polhem in 1741. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Christopher_Polhem_painted_by_Johan_H
enrik_Scheffel_1741.jpg
[1690 AD]
pump with a piston is raised by steam.
[1] First Piston Steam Engine, by
Papin. 19th century encyclopedia. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Papinengine.jpg
[2] subject: Denis Papin, unknown
artist, 1689. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Denis_Papin.jpg
[1694 AD]
from a mine.
[1] Svenska teknologf�reningen.
Christopher Polhem, the Father of
Swedish Technology. Trustees of Trinity
College, 1963,
p167. {Polhem_1963.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: Svenska teknologf�reningen.
Christopher Polhem, the Father of
Swedish Technology. Trustees of Trinity
College, 1963, p167.
[2] Svenska teknologf�reningen.
Christopher Polhem, the Father of
Swedish Technology. Trustees of Trinity
College, 1963,
p25. {Polhem_1963.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: Svenska teknologf�reningen.
Christopher Polhem, the Father of
Swedish Technology. Trustees of Trinity
College, 1963, p25.
[1695 AD]
squared is named "vis-visa" ("the
living force"), and the theory that
vis-visa, not momentum is the quantity
always conserved.
[1] Gottfried Leibniz, ''Specimen
Dynamicum''
(1695). books.google.com/books?id=0je_D
N18UkoC&pg=PA315 PD English
translation: L. E. Loemker,
''Philosophical Papers and Letters'',
(1976),
pp.435-452. http://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=vm_7-mtXj0YC {Leibniz_specimen_16
95.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: books.google.com/books?id=0je_DN
18UkoC&pg=PA315http://books.google.com/b
ooks?id=vm_7-mtXj0YC
[2] [t Diagram from Leibniz's Specimen
Dynamicum] PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=vm_7-mtXj0YC&printsec=frontcover&dq=phi
losophical+papers+and+letters+leibniz&si
g=8UL3CfCXAuOCpgMc-1WCFh7hHvg#PPA435,M1
[1697 AD]
theory" of combustion. Phlogiston is
thought to be the combustible element
in substances.
[1] English: Georg Ernst Stahl
(1660-1734), German chemist, physician
and metallurgist Source
http://www.scs.uiuc.edu/~mainzv/exhibit
/large/01_19.gif Date 18th
century PD AND ''Zymotechnia
fundamentalis) in: Stahl, G.E. Georgii
Ernesti Stahlii Opusculum
Chymico-physico-medicum, Seu
Schediasmatum a Pluribus Annis Variis
Occasionibus in Publicum Emissorum Nunc
... in Unum Volumen Jam Collectorum ...
typis et impensis Orphanotrophei, 1715,
p67. http://books.google.com/books?id=Z
Kx7vYJ-ujsC&pg=PA67 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Georg_Ernst_Stahl.pnghttp://books.goo
gle.com/books?id=ZKx7vYJ-ujsC&pg=PA67
[2] English: Georg Ernst Stahl
(1660-1734), German chemist, physician
and metallurgist Source
http://www.scs.uiuc.edu/~mainzv/exhibit
/large/01_19.gif Date 18th
century PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Georg_Ernst_Stahl.png
[1698 AD]
stars is measured by comparing the
apparent size of Sirius to a fractional
portion of the Sun.
(presumably)
[1] Cosmotheoros (1698) PD
source: http://www.phys.uu.nl/~huygens/c
osmotheoros_en.htm
[2] The Proportion of the Magnitude of
the Planets, in respect of one another,
and the Sun PD
source: http://www.phys.uu.nl/~huygens/c
osmotheoros_nl.htm
[1699 AD]
determined by the frequency of light.
[1] Engraving by N. Edelinck after I.
B. Santerre - Nicolas Malebranche PD
source: http://www.archiv.cas.cz/english
/foto/malebra.htm
[07/11/1700 AD]
(Academy of Sciences) is established in
Berlin.
[1] Description Deutsch: Gottfried
Wilhelm Leibniz (Gemälde von Bernhard
Christoph Francke, Braunschweig,
Herzog-Anton-Ulrich-Museum, um
1700) Source
http://www.hfac.uh.edu/gbrown/philosoph
ers/leibniz/BritannicaPages/Leibniz/Leib
nizGif.html Date ca. 1700 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gottfried_Wilhelm_von_Leibniz.jpg
[2] Source:
http://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedi
a/L/Leibniz.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Leibniz_231.jpg
[1700 AD]
by rubbing a cut nerve with a scalpel.
[1] AND Histoire de l'Academie des
Sciences,'' 1700, p. 40, and 1742, vol.
I. p.
187. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/b
pt6k3502d/f46.image {Historie_de_l_Acad
emie_1700.pdf} AND Joseph Guichard
(Joseph Guichard) Du Verney (Duverney,
1648-1730) donnant une lecon d'anatomie
au duc de Bourgogne Louis de France
(1682-1712). 18eme siecle. 1878.
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.artelista.com/prints/
scala/big/4/6/WH19289m.jpghttp://gallica
.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k3502d/f46.image
[2] Joseph Guichard (Joseph Guichard)
Du Verney (Duverney, 1648-1730) donnant
une lecon d'anatomie au duc de
Bourgogne Louis de France (1682-1712).
18eme siecle. 1878. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.artelista.com/prints/
scala/big/4/6/WH19289m.jpg
[1700 AD]
invented.
[1] [t Note Remnant describes
apparently the same piao as ''The
oldest surviving piano, by Bartolomeo
Cristofori, Florence, 1720. New York
Metropolitan Museum of Art, Crosby
Brown Collection''] Description
English: Piano forte by Bartolomeo
Cristofori manufactured in 1722, Museo
Nazionale degli Strumenti Musicali di
Roma Date 28 January 2010 Source
Own work CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/32/Piano_forte_Cristofor
i_1722.JPG
[06/28/1702 AD]
boil at the same temperature is
determined.
[1] Amontons, G. ''Discours sur
quelques propriétés de l’air, et le
moyen d’en connaître la
température dans tous les climats de
la Terre.'' Mémoires de l’Académie
Royale des Sciences (1702):
155- http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/b
pt6k3505b/f314.image.r=Histoire%20et%20M
%C3%A9moires%20de%20l%27Acad%C3%A9mie%20
royale%20des%20sciences.langEN
AND http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bp
t6k3505b.image.langEN.r=Histoire%20et%20
M%C3%A9moires%20de%20l%27Acad%C3%A9mie%2
0royale%20des%20sciences PD
source: http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148
/bpt6k3505b/f314.image.r=Histoire%20et%2
0M%C3%A9moires%20de%20l%27Acad%C3%A9mie%
20royale%20des%20sciences.langEN
[2] Amontons, G. ''Discours sur
quelques propriétés de l’air, et le
moyen d’en connaître la
température dans tous les climats de
la Terre.'' Mémoires de l’Académie
Royale des Sciences (1702):
155- http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/b
pt6k3505b/f314.image.r=Histoire%20et%20M
%C3%A9moires%20de%20l%27Acad%C3%A9mie%20
royale%20des%20sciences.langEN
AND http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bp
t6k3505b.image.langEN.r=Histoire%20et%20
M%C3%A9moires%20de%20l%27Acad%C3%A9mie%2
0royale%20des%20sciences PD
source: http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148
/bpt6k3505b/f314.image.r=Histoire%20et%2
0M%C3%A9moires%20de%20l%27Acad%C3%A9mie%
20royale%20des%20sciences.langEN
[1705 AD]
calculated.
[1] Halley's comet on the Bayeux
tapesry {ULSF: determine date} PD
source: http://classconnection.s3.amazon
aws.com/510/flashcards/1411510/jpg/pictu
re1061336605287772.jpg
[2] Halley's comet on the Bayeux
tapesry {ULSF: determine date} PD
source: http://rubens.anu.edu.au/htdocs/
laserdisk/0214/21434.JPG
[1708 AD]
low-mass objects.
[1] Histoire de l'Académie royale
des sciences, 1708,
p21. http://books.google.com/books?id=t
N0EAAAAQAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=g
bs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=fals
e
source: Histoire de l'Académie
royale des sciences, 1708,
p21. http://books.google.com/books?id=t
N0EAAAAQAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=g
bs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=fals
e
[1710 AD]
that a motion requires at least two
bodies, as opposed to the theory of
absolute space, time, and motion.
[1] George Berkeley PD/Corel
source: http://www.nndb.com/people/584/0
00087323/berkeley-3.jpg
[03/28/1713 AD]
planets are determined and the theory
that the Universe is made of mostly
empty space by Newton.
Newton calculates the mass of Jupiter
to be around 1/1000th the mass of the
Sun, Saturn around 1/2000th, and the
Earth to be 1/200000th.
Newton estimates the density of Earth
to be about 4 times the density of the
Sun, Jupiter 3/4 the density, and
Saturn only 1/2 the density.
Newton allows that gravitational
attraction may arise as a result of
emissions from the bodies themselves,
or by the action of a material medium.
Newton also recognizes that the Sun is
moved by the gravity of the other
planets.
[1] Newton, Isaac, Sir. Philosophiæ
naturalis principia mathematica.
Auctore Isaaco Newtono, Equite Aurato.
Editio secunda auctior et emendatior.
Cantabrigiæ, MDCCXIII. [1713].
Eighteenth Century Collections Online.
Gale. UC Irvine. 27 Mar. 2013,
p370-371.
{Newton_Principia_Second_Edition_17130
328.pdf} PD
source:
[2] Sir Isaac Newton's own first
edition copy of his Philosophiae
Naturalis Principia Mathematica with
his handwritten corrections for the
second edition. The first edition was
published under the imprint of Samuel
Pepys who was president of the Royal
Society. By the time of the second
edition, Newton himself had become
president of the Royal Society, as
noted in his corrections. The book can
be seen in the Wren Library of Trinity
College, Cambridge. CC
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:NewtonsPrincipia.jpg
[1714 AD]
and the Fahrenheit temperature scale.
That boiling point changes with change
in pressure is recognized.
(presumably)
[1] An original thermometer invented by
Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit to fetch
$157,000 at London auction UNKNOWN
source: http://www.instablogsimages.com/
1/2012/08/31/an_original_thermometer_inv
ented_by_daniel_gabriel_fahrenheit_to_fe
tch_100000_at_auction_gxlbd.jpg
[2] Fahrenheit nació en Gdansk en
1686 y murió en La Haya en 1736 PD
source: http://static.tvazteca.com/image
nes/2012/48/Crean-retrato-virtual-Daniel
-Gabriel-1741871.jpg
[1718 AD]
long periods of time is proven. This
adds proof against the ancient claim
that the stars are fixed on a celestial
sphere.
[1] Description Comet P/Halley as
taken March 8, 1986 by W. Liller,
Easter Island, part of the
International Halley Watch (IHW) Large
Scale Phenomena Network. Source
NSSDC's Photo Gallery (NASA): *
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/photo_gallery
/photogallery-comets.html *
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image/planeta
ry/comet/lspn_comet_halley1.jpg Date
image taken on 8. Mar. 1986 Author
NASA/W. Liller Permission (Reusing
this image) Copyright information
from
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/photo_gallery
/photogallery-faq.html - All of the
images presented on NSSDC's Photo
Gallery are in the public domain. As
such, they may be used for any purpose.
[...] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Lspn_comet_halley.jpg
[2] Portrait of Edmond Halley painted
around 1687 by Thomas Murray (Royal
Society, London) uploaded from
http://www.phys.uu.nl/~vgent/astrology/n
ewton.htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Edmund_Halley.gif
[1720 AD]
dark because other stars are too far
away for light emitting from them to be
going in our direction.
[1] Portrait of Edmond Halley PD
AND Halley, Edmund. ''Of the
Infinity of the Sphere of Fix'd Stars.
By Edmund Halley, LLDRSS.''
Philosophical Transactions (1683-1775)
31 (1720):
22-24. http://books.google.com/books?id
=O19FAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA22 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Edmond_Halley_5.jpghttp://books.googl
e.com/books?id=O19FAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA22
[2] Portrait of Edmond Halley painted
around 1687 by Thomas Murray (Royal
Society, London) uploaded from
http://www.phys.uu.nl/~vgent/astrology/n
ewton.htm PD AND Halley, Edmund.
''Of the Infinity of the Sphere of
Fix'd Stars. By Edmund Halley,
LLDRSS.'' Philosophical Transactions
(1683-1775) 31 (1720):
22-24. http://books.google.com/books?id
=O19FAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA22 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Edmund_Halley.gifhttp://books.google.
com/books?id=O19FAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA22
[1725 AD]
of paper to form patterns in textiles.
Perforated paper is the basis for early
mechanical computers, and perforated
film.
[1] Basile Bouchon's loom,
1725 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://cs-exhibitions.uni-klu.ac
.at/uploads/pics/Basile_Bouchons_loom_01
.jpg
[1726 AD]
mostly of hydrogen, methane and carbon
monoxide is produced by distillation of
coal.
[1] Description Scan of old picture of
Stephen Hales Source The Gases of the
Atmosphere (old book) Date
1896 Author William Ramsay PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Hales_Stephen.jpg
[2] Stephen Hales measuring the blood
pressure of a mare by means of a tube
placed in the carotid artery. The
Granger Collection, New York
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-15460/Stephen-Hales-measuring-the-blood
-pressure-of-a-mare-by?articleTypeId=1
[1729 AD]
and metal is discovered.
[1] Picture of the month - Flying
boy Stephen Gray FRS Flying boy The
above image depicts the famous ''flying
boy'' experiment carried out by Stephen
Gray in the early 18th century. The
experiment was used to demonstrate
electrical polarity in suspended
objects. The boy was suspended on silk
cords and charged with electricity,
which attracted paper and other light
objects to his hands. Gray's work was
very important in the understanding of
the role played by conductors and
insulators in electricity for which he
was awarded the Society's first Copley
Medal in 1731. PD
source: http://www.royalsoc.ac.uk/page.a
sp?id=6276
[2] Stephen Gray découvre la
conduction (Les Merveilles de la
Science, Louis Figuier) PD
source: http://www.ampere.cnrs.fr/parcou
rspedagogique/agora/spip.php?article18
[12/27/1733 AD]
made of two different fluids;
"vitreous" and "resinous".
[1] Du Fay, ''V. A Letter from Mons. Du
Fay'', Philosophical Transactions.
N432, Jan-Mar 1734, p258-266,p263.
(p797 in
link) http://books.google.com/books?id=
sfMyAQAAMAAJ&pg=RA1-PA263 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=sfMyAQAAMAAJ&pg=RA1-PA263
[2] 1733 AD: Charles Francois de
Cisternay Du FayThe French chemist
Charles Francois de Cisternay Du Fay
(1698-1739) discovered that when
objects are rubbed together they either
repel or attract each other and
therefore that electricity came in two
forms, which he called ''resinous'' (-)
and ''vitreous'' (+). PD
source: http://www.worldofenergy.com.au/
07_timeline_world_1675_1780.html
[1735 AD]
human species, is systematically
categorized by Carolus Linnaeus (lin
Aus).
[1] Table of the Animal Kingdom (Regnum
Animale) from Carolus Linnaeus's first
edition (1735) of Systema Naturae. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Linnaeus_-_Regnum_Animale_%281735%29.
png
[2] Artist Alexander Roslin Title
Carl von Linné 1707-1778 Year
1775 Technique Oil on
canvas Dimensions 56 x 46 cm Current
location Royal Science Academy of
Sweden (Kungliga vetenskapsakademin)
Stockholm Permission Public
domain Carl von Linné painted by
Alexander Roslin in 1775. The original
painting can be viewed at the Royal
Science Academy of Sweden (Kungliga
vetenskapsakademin). PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Carl_von_Linn%C3%A9.jpg
[1736 AD]
flow of electricity are called
"conductors" and those that cannot are
called "insulators".
[1] Scientist: Desaguliers, John
Theophilus (1683 -
1744) Discipline(s):
Physics Original Artist: Hans
Hysing, 1678-1752 Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 15.6 x 10 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-D3-02a.jpg
[2] Scientist: Desaguliers, John
Theophilus (1683 -
1744) Discipline(s): Physics Print
Artist: James Tookey, 19th C.
Medium: Engraving Original Artist:
Hans Hysing, 1678-1752 Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 12 x 9.6 cm /
Sheet: 17.5 x 11.5 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-D3-01a.jpg
[1736 AD]
spheroid (a sphere flattened at the
poles) is verified.
[1] Scientist: Maupertuis,
Pierre-Louis Moreau de (1698 -
1759) Discipline(s): Mathematics ;
Biology ; Physics Print Artist:
Johann Jakob Haid, 1704-1767 Medium:
Engraving Original Artist: R.
Tourmere Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 31 x 19 cm / PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/by_d
iscipline_display_results.cfm?Research_D
iscipline_1=Biology
[2] Scientist: Maupertuis,
Pierre-Louis Moreau de (1698 -
1759) Discipline(s): Mathematics ;
Biology ; Physics Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 13.9 x 11 cm / Sheet: 30.7 x
21.5 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/by_d
iscipline_display_results.cfm?Research_D
iscipline_1=Biology
[1738 AD]
heat. Pressure is explained as the
impact of molecules on a surface.
Pressure and motion are shown to
increase with temperature.
(published in ) Strasbourg
[1] Bernoulli's Picture [t From 1738
book] PD/Corel
source: http://galileo.phys.virginia.edu
/classes/252/kinetic_theory_files/image0
02.jpg
[2] Daniel Bernoulli
(1700-1782) [Portrait by anonymous
painter, in Historisches Museum
Basel; from the frontispiece of Die
Werke von Daniel Bernoulli, Band 1,
Birkhaeuser Verlag] PD
source: http://www.bun.kyoto-u.ac.jp/phi
sci/Gallery/D.bernoulli.html
[1740 AD]
burned (now known as oxidation) is
found. This conflicts with the
phlogiston theory.
[1] Marggraf,
engraving Bavaria-Verlag To cite this
page: * MLA style:
''Marggraf, Andreas Sigismund.'' Online
Photograph. Britannica Student
Encyclopædia. 4 Nov. 2007
source: http://student.britannica.com/eb
/art-28657/Marggraf-engraving
[1740 AD]
without fertilization) is conclusively
proven; in female aphids.
[1] engraving of Charles Bonnet Source
http://www.ville-ge.ch/musinfo/mhng/pag
e1/ins-ill-04.htm Date paint in
1777 Author Paint by I. Iuel et
engraved by IF. Clemens PD
source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wik
i/Image:Charles_Bonnet_engraved.jpg
[2] Charles Bonnet
(1720-1793). Source:
http://www.univie.ac.at/science-archives
/wissenschaftstheorie_2/bonnet.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:CharlesBonnet.jpg
[1742 AD]
temperature scale is invented; the
freezing and boiling point of water are
divided into 100 degrees.
[1] Painting by Olof Arenius (1701 -
1766) Uppsala University -
Astronomical Observatory PD
source: http://www.astro.uu.se/history/i
mages/celsius2.jpg
[2] Anders Celsius, detail from a
drawing by an unknown artist, 18th
century. Archiv fur Kunst und
Geschichte, Berlin PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
/print?id=9261&articleTypeId=0
[1743 AD]
in America, "the American Philosophical
Society" is formed.
Colonies) USA
[1] Credit: ''White House Historical
Association (White House Collection)''
(981) Painted in 1759 by British
artist and scientist Benjamin Wilson
-who disagreed with Franklin's findings
about electrical polarity-this portrait
hung in Franklin's dining room in
Philadelphia until Captain Andre' stole
it during the British occupation of
Philadelphia. Returned to the U.S. in
1906, it is now in the White House, in
Washington, D. C. PD
source: http://www.explorepahistory.com/
displayimage.php?imgId=668
[2] Multimedia Gallery -
Image Portrait of Benjamin Franklin by
artist David Martin
(1737-1797) Portrait of Benjamin
Franklin by artist David Martin
(1737-1797) Credit: Library of
Congress, LC-USZC4-3576 PD
source: http://www.nsf.gov/news/mmg/medi
a/images/benfranklin2_h3.jpg
[1744 AD]
ignite a flammable liquid; ether.
[1] Royal Society (Great Britain).
Philosophical Transactions, Giving Some
Account of the Present Undertakings,
Studies, and Labours of the Ingenious
in Many Considerable Parts of the
World. Royal Society, Volume 43, N744,
1746,
p167. books.google.com/books?id=6j9WAAA
AYAAJ&pg=PA167 PD
source: books.google.com/books?id=6j9WAA
AAYAAJ&pg=PA167
[03/27/1745 AD]
powder.
[1] William Watson (1715-1787) *
Print Artist: J. Thornwaite *
Medium/Year: Line engraving, 1784
* Original Artist: after an oilpainting
by Lemuel Francis Abbott *
Original Dimensions: Graphic: 9.8 x 7.7
cm / Sheet: 14.5 x 10.2 cm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:William_Watson.jpg
[11/04/1745 AD]
first electric memory and capacitor
(commonly called the Leyden jar).
A Leyden jar is a glass bottle holding
water that can store electricity and
give the holder of the bottle a large
electric shock.
Germany(was for von Kleist: Pomerania?,
Prussia) (coast of Baltic Sea between
Germany and Poland)
[1]
http://books.google.com/books?id=ko9BAAA
AIAAJ&pg=PA71&dq=jar+%22von+Kleist%22&lr
=&as_brr=1&ei=aniTR_uCJ5HwsgOQ5bU4#PPA71
,M1 page with text and figure about
von Kleist's invention of the Leyden
jar Source Electricity in Every-day
Life Date 1905 Author Edwin J.
Houston PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Von_Kleist_Leyden_jar_1905.png
[2] Pieter van Musschenbroek aus:
http://20eeuwennederland.nl/actueel/1113
.htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Pieter_van_Musschenbroek.jpeg
[1745 AD]
A clapper swings back and forth between
two bells of oppositely charged
glasses, causing a ring on contact with
each, until the charge is gone.
Germany
[1] Elementary Lessons in Electricity
and Magnetism By Silvanus Phillips
Thompson http://books.google.com/books?
id=hLk3AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA45&lpg=PA45&dq=winc
kler+leipzig+electricity&source=web&ots=
Op8vIkfDDE&sig=qHZAdRw3VdIi8ePfK7kcsGP6H
zA&hl=en PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=hLk3AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA45&lpg=PA45&dq=winckl
er+leipzig+electricity&source=web&ots=Op
8vIkfDDE&sig=qHZAdRw3VdIi8ePfK7kcsGP6HzA
&hl=en
[2] Elementary Lessons in Electricity
and Magnetism By Silvanus Phillips
Thompson http://books.google.com/books?
id=hLk3AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA45&lpg=PA45&dq=winc
kler+leipzig+electricity&source=web&ots=
Op8vIkfDDE&sig=qHZAdRw3VdIi8ePfK7kcsGP6H
zA&hl=en PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=hLk3AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA45&lpg=PA45&dq=winckl
er+leipzig+electricity&source=web&ots=Op
8vIkfDDE&sig=qHZAdRw3VdIi8ePfK7kcsGP6HzA
&hl=en
http://books.google.com/books?id=TFLkGa4
bDCIC
[1746 AD]
made of two streams of electrical fluid
that move in opposite directions.
[1] Jean-Antoine Nollet PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Abben
ollet.jpg
[2] Scientist: Nollet, Jean-Antoine,
abbé (1700 - 1770) Discipline(s):
Physics Print Artist: Pasqual Pere
Moles I Corones, 1741-1797 Medium:
Engraving Original Artist: Georges
de a Tour, 1593-1652 Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 13.8 x 11.8 cm /
Sheet: 27.4 x 19.5 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=n
[1746 AD]
electrostatic generator comes from the
ground and not the sphere is proven.
[1] William Watson (1715â''1787)
* Print Artist: J. Thornwaite *
Medium/Year: Line engraving, 1784
* Original Artist: after an oilpainting
by Lemuel Francis Abbott *
Original Dimensions: Graphic: 9.8 x 7.7
cm / Sheet: 14.5 x 10.2 cm PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Willi
am_Watson.jpg
[2] Figure from a Watson 1746
paper PD/Corel
source: A Sequel to the Experiments and
Observations Tending to Illustrate the
Nature and Properties of Electricity;
In a Letter to the Royal Society from
the Same Journal Philosophical
Transactions (1683-1775) Issue Volume
44 - 1746/1747 Author William
Watson DOI 10.1098/rstl.1746.0119 Wats
on_William_1746_Sequel.pdf
[07/11/1747 AD]
single fluid, and that lightning is
electricity.
(letter to London, England)
[1] Credit: ''White House Historical
Association (White House Collection)''
(981) Painted in 1759 by British
artist and scientist Benjamin Wilson
-who disagreed with Franklin's findings
about electrical polarity -this
portrait hung in Franklin's dining room
in Philadelphia until Captain Andre'
stole it during the British occupation
of Philadelphia. Returned to the U.S.
in 1906, it is now in the White House,
in Washington, D. C. PD
source: http://www.explorepahistory.com/
displayimage.php?imgId=668
[2] Multimedia Gallery -
Image Portrait of Benjamin Franklin by
artist David Martin
(1737-1797) Portrait of Benjamin
Franklin by artist David Martin
(1737-1797) Credit: Library of
Congress, LC-USZC4-3576 PD
source: http://www.nsf.gov/news/mmg/medi
a/images/benfranklin2_h3.jpg
[1747 AD]
scurvy in one of the earliest clinical
experiments.
[1] James Lind painting: PD image:
COPYRIGHTED?
source: http://dodd.cmcvellore.ac.in/hom
/17%20-%20James%20Lind.html
[2] Painted by Sir George Chalmers, c
1720-1791. painting: PD image:
COPYRIGHTED?
source: http://www.jameslindlibrary.org/
trial_records/17th_18th_Century/lind/lin
d_portrait.html
[1747 AD]
understood. That evaporating liquids
produces cold is recognized.
Russia
[1] William Cullen, ''Of the Cold
produced by evaporating Fluids and of
some other Means of producing Cold'',
Philosophical Society of Edinburgh.
Essays and observations, physical and
literary. Read before a Society in
Edinburgh, and published by them.
Volume 2. Edinburgh, 1754. 464pp. 2
vols,
p145-156. {Cullen_evaporation.pdf} PD
source: Cullen_evaporation.pdf
[2] St. Petersburg, 6 August 1783.
Prof. Richman and his assistant being
struck by lightning while charging
capacitors. The assistant escaped
almost unharmed, whereas Richman was
dead immediately. The pathologic
analysis revealed that ''he only had a
small hole in his forehead, a burnt
left shoe and a blue spot at his foot.
[...] the brain being ok, the front
part of the lung sane, but the rear
being brown and black of blood.'' The
conclusion was that the electric
discharge had taken its way through
Richmann's body. The scientific
community was shocked. [t notice
difference in dates] PD/Corel
source: http://www.hp-gramatke.net/histo
ry/english/page4000.htm
[02/14/1748 AD]
that the apparent declination of some
stars changes annually because of the
movement of the nodes of the Moon's
orbit around the Earth.
[1] James Bradley (1693-1762), English
astronomer. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:James_Bradley.jpg
[2] Description English: Movement
of a planet's (e.g. Earth's) axis
R - Rotation of a planet P -
Precession N - Nutation Date Bad
Muskau, May 2004 Source This file
is lacking source
information. Please edit this file's
description and provide a
source. Author User Herbye (German
Wikipedia). Designed by Dr. H.
Sulzer GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Praezession.svg
/1000px-Praezession.svg.png
[1748 AD]
spontaneous passage or diffusion of
water or some other solvent through a
semipermeable membrane).
[1] Jean-Antoine Nollet PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Abbenollet.jpg
[2] Scientist: Nollet, Jean-Antoine,
abbé (1700 - 1770) Discipline(s):
Physics Print Artist: Pasqual Pere
Moles I Corones, 1741-1797 Medium:
Engraving Original Artist: Georges
de a Tour, 1593-1652 Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 13.8 x 11.8 cm /
Sheet: 27.4 x 19.5 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=n
[1748 AD]
motions of satellites occur because the
bodies they orbit are not perfectly
spherical is recognized.
[1] portrait by Johann Georg
Brucker From English Wikipedia:
Leonhard Euler Source:
http://www.mathematik.de/mde/information
/kalenderblatt/differentialrechnung/eule
r-1000.png PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Leonhard_Euler_2.jpg
[2] From:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Leonh
ard_Euler.jpg Leonhard_Euler.jpg (219
× 283 pixel, file size: 13 KB, MIME
type: image/jpeg) Picture of Leonhard
Euler by Emanuel Handmann. Retrieved
from: http://www.kunstkopie.de/static/m
otive/Bildnis-des-Mathematikers-Leonhard
-Euler-Emanuel-Handmann-1010890.html PD
source: http://www.croeos.net/Mambo/inde
x.php?Itemid=67&id=527&option=com_conten
t&task=view
[04/29/1749 AD]
stored in the glass of a Leyden jar is
proven.
Colonies) USA
[1] Benjamin Franklin, ''The Writings
of Benjamin Franklin'', Macmillan &
co., ltd., 1905, p402.
http://books.google.com/books?id=BITTQfM
LcpEC&pg=PA402 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=BITTQfMLcpEC&pg=PA402
[2] Franklin, B., W.T. Franklin, and
W. Duane. Memoirs of Benjamin Franklin.
McCarty & Davis, 1840. Memoirs of
Benjamin Franklin,
p251. http://books.google.com/books?id=
HptPAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA251 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=HptPAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA251
[1750 AD]
the center of the universe, and that
the Milky Way is flattened.
[1] AN ORIGINAL THEORY OR NEW
HYPOTHESIS OF THE UNIVERSE ~ Thomas
Wright, 1750 :: The confinement of
the Milky Way to a narrow plane in the
sky gave rise to speculation in the
18th century about the structure f the
universe. Thomas Wright of Durham,
England, hypothesized that the Earth
was at the center of a vast spherical
shell of stars :: PD
source: http://25.media.tumblr.com/tumbl
r_mdg7jlYfnG1qb07b5o1_1280.jpg
.jpg)
[2] Thomas Wright PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Thomas_Wright_%28astronomer%29.jpg
[1751 AD]
volume encyclopedia.
[1] Info: Cover of the Encyclopédie.
Resized to 600px width Credit: See
List of contributors to the
Encyclopédie Source:
http://ets.lib.uchicago.edu/ARTFL/OLDENC
YC/images PD AND [3] Portrait of
Denis Diderot 1767 Oil on canvas, 81
x 65 cm Musée du Louvre, Paris PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:ENC_1-NA5_600px.jpeghttp://www.wga.hu
/art/l/loo/louis/diderot.jpg
[2] Info: Cover of the Encyclopédie.
Resized to 600px width Credit: See
List of contributors to the
Encyclopédie Source:
http://ets.lib.uchicago.edu/ARTFL/OLDENC
YC/images PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:ENC_1-NA5_600px.jpeg
[01/03/1752 AD]
alcohol flame colored by various salts
is described.
[1] Melvill, Thomas, ''Observations on
Light and Colours'', Journal of the
Royal Astronomical Society of Canada,
Vol. 8, p.231,
08/1914 http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1
914JRASC...8..231M {melville_thomas.pdf
} PD
source: http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/19
14JRASC...8..231M
[02/20/1752 AD]
vacuum tube.
[1] William Watson (1715â''1787)
* Print Artist: J. Thornwaite *
Medium/Year: Line engraving, 1784
* Original Artist: after an oilpainting
by Lemuel Francis Abbott *
Original Dimensions: Graphic: 9.8 x 7.7
cm / Sheet: 14.5 x 10.2 cm PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Willi
am_Watson.jpg
[2] Figure from a Watson 1746
paper PD/Corel
source: A Sequel to the Experiments and
Observations Tending to Illustrate the
Nature and Properties of Electricity;
In a Letter to the Royal Society from
the Same Journal Philosophical
Transactions (1683-1775) Issue Volume
44 - 1746/1747 Author William
Watson DOI 10.1098/rstl.1746.0119 Wats
on_William_1746_Sequel.pdf
[1752 AD]
chemical and not mechanical; small
metal cylinders with food inside are
regurgitated by birds with partially
digested food.
[1] René-Antoine Ferchault de
Réaumur Source Galerie des
naturalistes de J. Pizzetta, Ed.
Hennuyer, 1893 (tombé dans le domaine
public) Date Author J.
Pizzetta PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Reaumur_1683-1757.jpg
[1752 AD]
electricity by charging a Leyden jar
with electricity from the sky using a
kite.
(presumably)
[1] A drawing of Franklin's kite
experiment CREDIT: Currier & Ives.
''Franklin's experiment, June 1752:
Demonstrating the identity of lightning
and electricty, from which he invented
the lightning rod.'' Prints and
Photographs Division of the Library of
Congress. PD
source: http://www.americaslibrary.gov/a
a/franklinb/aa_franklinb_electric_2_e.ht
ml
[2] Franklin with kite PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.wilsonsalmanac.com/bo
ok/apr17.html
[12/??/1753 AD]
identified: that an electrified object
can induce an opposite charge in a
second object just by being close.
[1] ABOUT THIS PAINTING John
Canton by unknown artist National
Portrait Gallery, London Date
painted: 1740s Oil on canvas, 48.9
x 39.4 cm Collection: National
Portrait Gallery, London Where to
see this painting? National Portrait
Gallery, London PD
source: http://ichef.bbci.co.uk/arts/you
rpaintings/images/paintings/npg/large/np
g_npg_809_large.jpg
[2] 1762 John CANTON
(1718-1772). PD/Corel
source: http://11magazine.free.fr/SWL_BC
L/2004/04/swl_bcl04_fichiers/image008.jp
g
[1753 AD]
discovered.
[1] ABOUT THIS PAINTING John
Canton by unknown artist National
Portrait Gallery, London Date
painted: 1740s Oil on canvas, 48.9
x 39.4 cm Collection: National
Portrait Gallery, London Where to
see this painting? National Portrait
Gallery, London PD
source: http://ichef.bbci.co.uk/arts/you
rpaintings/images/paintings/npg/large/np
g_npg_809_large.jpg
[2] 1762 John CANTON
(1718-1772). PD/Corel
source: http://11magazine.free.fr/SWL_BC
L/2004/04/swl_bcl04_fichiers/image008.jp
g
[01/25/1755 AD]
founded.
[1] Lomonosov University in Moscow,
Russia GNU AND from
http://www.peoples.ru/science/founder/lo
monosov/ PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Moskau_Uni.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org
/wiki/Image:Lomonosov.jpg
[2] Lomonosov University in Moscow,
Russia GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Moskau_Uni.jpg
[06/05/1755 AD]
released by mixing magnesium oxide with
an acid.
[1] Joseph Black, ''Experiments upon
Magnesia Alba, Quicklime, and Some
Other Alcaline Substances'',
Philosophical Society of Edinburgh.
Essays and Observations, Physical and
Literary. G. Hamilton and J. Balfour,
1756. Essays and Observations, Physical
and Literary,
p157. http://books.google.com/books?id=
7IUDAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA157 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=7IUDAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA157
[2] Scan of an old picture of Joseph
Black Source The Gases of the
Atmosphere (old book) Date
1896 Author William Ramsay PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Black_Joseph.jpg
[1755 AD]
star system formed as a result of the
gravitational interaction of atoms,
that the Milky Way is a lens shaped
collection of stars, and that other
such "island universes" exist.
.jpg)
[1] Steel engraving by J. L. Raab, 1791
after a painting by Döbler Source:
[1]
http://www.jhu.edu/~phil/kant-hegelconfe
rence/main.htm PD
source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wik
.jpg){kind=link}
i/Image:Immanuel_Kant_(portrait).jpg
[2] Kant PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Kant_2.jpg
[1758 AD]
based on the painters' three primary
colors (red, yellow, and blue).
Göttingen, Germany
[1] tobias mayer's trichromatic mixing
triangle (1758) PD/Corel
source: http://www.handprint.com/HP/WCL/
IMG/mayer.jpg
[1759 AD]
organs arise out of unspecialized
tissue in the embryo is introduced and
will replace the theory that a body is
preformed in the egg or sperm.
[1] {ULSF: Note that this is from a
later edition} One of the founding
works of modern embryology, Caspar
Wolff’s Theoria generationis (1774)
proposes a ‘theory of generation’
for plants and animals. This plate
shows chick embryos and their parts.
CCD.46.87, table 2 PD
source: http://www.lib.cam.ac.uk/exhibit
ions/Babies/pictures/big/CCD.46.87.jpg
[2] C. F. Wolff, attribution of the
portrait dubious.
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cas
par_Friedrich_Wolff
[1759 AD]
squared law. The theory that electrical
attraction and repulsion between
charged bodies decreases by the inverse
of the distance between them squared.
[1] Franz Maria Ulrich Theodosius
Aepinus PD/Corel
source: http://www.eoearth.org/article/A
epinus
[2] Charge device by Ulrich Theodor
Aepinus
source: http://www.fisicamente.net/aepin
us1.jpg
[1760 AD]
earthquake by recording the time when
the earthquake is felt in different
places is described.
[1] Conjectures Concerning the Cause
and Observations upon the Phaenomena of
Earthquakes (1760),
p10-11. http://archive.org/details/Mich
ell1760sc82C PD
source: http://archive.org/details/Miche
ll1760sc82C
[1760 AD]
using electricity. Water is separated
into hydrogen and oxygen gases by
passing electricity through water.
[1] Anonimo, Giambattista Beccaria,
fine secolo XVIII PD?
source: http://www.torinoscienza.it/img/
orig/it/s00/00/000c/00000c89.jpg
[2] Beccaria, Giovanni Battista
(1716-1781) PD?
source: http://bms.beniculturali.it/ritr
atti/ritratti.php?chiave=ritr0079
[1763 AD]
streams that run through them is
understood, and that all rocks are not
sedimentary is proven because basalt is
shown to be formed by volcanoes (has an
igneous origin).
[1] Desmarest, Nicolas (1725-1815).
''Mémoire Sur l'origine & la nature du
Basalte à grandes colonnes polygones,
determinées par l'Histoire Naturelle
de cette pierre, observée en
Auvergne''. Histoire de l'Académie
royale des Sciences, Année M. DCCLXXI,
Avec les Mémoires de Mathématique &
de Physique. Paris, De l'Imprimerie
Royale, 1774, pp. 705-775 PD?
source: http://members.chello.nl/~a.heks
tra2/VII%2019%20In%201771%20werd%20de%20
vulkanische%20oorsprong...htm
[2] Puy De Dome COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.wired.cz/cyklo/images
/Provence/puy_de_dome.jpg
[05/08/1764 AD]
as a group of stars.
[1] Description Charles Messier,
French astronomer, at the age of
40 Date circa 1770 Source Stoyan R.
et al. Atlas of the Messier Objects:
Highlights of the Deep Sky. —
Cambridge: Cambridge Univercity Press,
2008. — P. 15. Author Ansiaume
(1729—1786) PD AND Charles
Messier, 1774. Catalogue des
Nébuleuses & des amas d'Étoiles, que
l'on découvre parmi les Étoiles fixes
sur l'horizon de Paris; observées à
l'Observatoire de la Marine, avec
differens instruments. Mémoires de
l'Académie Royale des Sciences for
1771, Paris (dated February 16, 1771,
published 1774), pp. 435-461 + Pl.
VIII.
http://books.google.com/books?id=z0FRA
AAAYAAJ&pg=PA435 PD AND English: htt
p://messier.seds.org/xtra/history/m-cat7
1.html UNKNOWN
source: http://www.messier.com.ar/messie
r/fotos_messier/m4.jpghttp://books.googl
e.com/books?id=z0FRAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA435http
://messier.seds.org/xtra/history/m-cat71
.html
[2] Listado Completo - M4 - NGC
6121 Cúmulo Globular en
Scorpius Datos del objeto Messier
Mapa Celeste centrado en el
objeto Nombre: Número Messier:
M4 Número NGC:
NGC6121 Constelación a la que
pertenece: Scorpio Ascensión recta:
16h
23,6m Declinación: -26,32° Magni
tud aparente: 5.0 Tamaño aparente:
26,3 (min/arco) Distancia en años
luz: 7200 años luz Estación del
año que es visible: (Depende de la
latitud del lugar de observación)
Invierno Invierno (Hemisferio
Sur) Verano Verano (Hemisferio
Norte) Mejor fecha para la
observación: 2008-06-07 CC
source: http://www.messier.com.ar/messie
r/fotos_messier/m4.jpg
[05/29/1766 AD]
dissolving metals in acids and
collecting the gas released in bottles
inverted over water or mercury.
[1] Figures 1-6 from: Henry Cavendish,
''Three Papers, Containing Experiments
on Factitious Air, by the Hon. Henry
Cavendish, F. R. S.'', Philosophical
Transactions (1683-1775) , Vol. 56,
(1766), pp.
141-184 http://www.jstor.org/stable/105
491 PD
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1054
91
[2] By Henry Cavendish Published
1921 The University Press PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=ygqYnSR3oe0C&printsec=frontcover&dq=the
+scientific+papers+cavendish#PPA78-IA
[1768 AD]
Britannica.
[1] First edition of the Encyclopædia
Britannica. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-97337/First-edition-of-the-Encyclopaedi
a-Britannica?articleTypeId=1
[2] Scanned titlepage of my facsimile
copy of the first edition of the
Encyclopædia Britannica, published in
1771. Slightly rotated and saved using
the GIMP. Scanned and modified by me on
3 April 2007 and released into the
public domain, owing to its age. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:EB1_titlepage.gif
[1768 AD]
appear to interfere or collide with
each other is recognized.
[1] ABOUT THIS PAINTING John
Canton by unknown artist National
Portrait Gallery, London Date
painted: 1740s Oil on canvas, 48.9
x 39.4 cm Collection: National
Portrait Gallery, London Where to
see this painting? National Portrait
Gallery, London PD
source: http://ichef.bbci.co.uk/arts/you
rpaintings/images/paintings/npg/large/np
g_npg_809_large.jpg
[2] 1762 John CANTON
(1718-1772). ORIGINAL:
PD COPYRIGHTED?
source: http://11magazine.free.fr/SWL_BC
L/2004/04/swl_bcl04_fichiers/image008.jp
g
[1769 AD]
A steam-engine powered automobile.
[1] Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot's steam auto,
from 7 August, 1869 issue of Appleton's
Journal of Popular Literature, Science,
and Art. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:CugnotAppleton.jpg
[2] Fardier de Cugnot, modèle de
1771. Musée des Arts et Métiers,
Paris. 11 janvier 2005. (Note that
this is the second fardier, the
full-size one. It is not a 'model' (as
has been mis-translated
elsewhere)) Source : Photo et
photographisme © Roby 19:13, 12 Jan
2005 (UTC). Avec l'aimable permission
du Musée des Arts et Métiers, Paris.
GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/56/FardierdeCugnot200501
11.jpg
[1769 AD]
resemble no living creature may have
been animals that went extinct.
[1] engraving of Charles Bonnet Source
http://www.ville-ge.ch/musinfo/mhng/pag
e1/ins-ill-04.htm Date paint in
1777 Author Paint by I. Iuel et
engraved by IF. Clemens PD
source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wik
i/Image:Charles_Bonnet_engraved.jpg
[2] Charles Bonnet
(1720-1793). Source:
http://www.univie.ac.at/science-archives
/wissenschaftstheorie_2/bonnet.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:CharlesBonnet.jpg
[1771 AD]
electric potential times capacity is
understood.
[1] Henry Cavendish Henry
CavendishBorn: 10-Oct-1731 Birthplace:
Nice, France Died:
24-Feb-1810 Location of death:
Clapham, England PD?
source: http://www.nndb.com/people/030/0
00083778/
[2] Old picture from F. Moore's
History of Chemistry, published in
1901 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Cavendish_Henry.jpg
[06/04/1772 AD]
in water which is the beginning of the
soda-water industry.
[1] Priestley, J. Directions for
Impregnating Water with Fixed Air: In
Order to Communicate to It the Peculiar
Spirit and Virtues of Pyrmont Water,
and Other Mineral Waters of a Similar
Nature. By Joseph Priestley, LL.D.
F.R.S. printed for J. Johnson,
1772. http://books.google.com/books?id=
huNbAAAAQAAJ PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=huNbAAAAQAAJ
[2] Portrait of Joseph
Priestley Source
http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=h
ttp://www.chemistry.msu.edu/Portraits/im
ages/priestlyc.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.
chemistry.msu.edu/Portraits/PortraitsHH_
Detail.asp%3FHH_LName%3DPriestley&h=640&
w=462&sz=57&hl=en&start=9&tbnid=ipHldQCy
TukivM:&tbnh=137&tbnw=99&prev=/images%3F
q%3Djoseph%2Bpriestley%26gbv%3D2%26svnum
%3D10%26hl%3Den%26sa%3DG Date
1794 Author Ellen Sharples PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Priestley.jpg
[06/04/1772 AD]
isolated (including nitrous oxide and
carbon monoxide). That some gases
cannot be collected over water because
they are soluble in water, but can be
collected over mercury is realized.
until 1773)
[1] Portrait of Joseph
Priestley Source
http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=h
ttp://www.chemistry.msu.edu/Portraits/im
ages/priestlyc.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.
chemistry.msu.edu/Portraits/PortraitsHH_
Detail.asp%3FHH_LName%3DPriestley&h=640&
w=462&sz=57&hl=en&start=9&tbnid=ipHldQCy
TukivM:&tbnh=137&tbnw=99&prev=/images%3F
q%3Djoseph%2Bpriestley%26gbv%3D2%26svnum
%3D10%26hl%3Den%26sa%3DG Date
1794 Author Ellen Sharples PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Priestley.jpg
[2] Description Portrait of Joseph
Priestley Source
http://www.search.revolutionaryplayers.
org.uk/engine/resource/default.asp?theme
=47&originator=%2Fengine%2Ftheme%2Fdefau
lt%2Easp&page=3&records=58&direction=1&p
ointer=2784&text=0&resource=4501 Date
c.1763 Author Artist is unknown. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:PriestleyLeeds.jpg
[1772 AD]
change the speed of light particles,
that a mass may be so large that light
particles cannot escape it, and that
the force that causes light to be
emitted from luminous bodies is much
higher than the force of gravity at the
surface of the Sun.
[1] Text from p789 in: Joseph
Priestley, ''The history and present
state of discoveries relating to
vision, light, and colours.'', Leeds:
n.p., 1771, p786-791,787. Vol 1:
http://books.google.com/books?id=MLxz5yy
mkNcC Vol 2:
http://books.google.com/books?id=pmF8xgh
257sC&pg=PA787 PD
source: books.google.com/books?id=pmF8xg
h257sC&pg=PA789
[2] Portrait of Joseph
Priestley Source
http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=h
ttp://www.chemistry.msu.edu/Portraits/im
ages/priestlyc.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.
chemistry.msu.edu/Portraits/PortraitsHH_
Detail.asp%3FHH_LName%3DPriestley&h=640&
w=462&sz=57&hl=en&start=9&tbnid=ipHldQCy
TukivM:&tbnh=137&tbnw=99&prev=/images%3F
q%3Djoseph%2Bpriestley%26gbv%3D2%26svnum
%3D10%26hl%3Den%26sa%3DG Date
1794 Author Ellen Sharples PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Priestley.jpg
[1772 AD]
measured to be around 10 nanograms.
[1] Joseph Priestley, ''The history and
present state of discoveries relating
to vision, light, and colours.'',
Leeds: n.p., 1771, p390. Vol 1:
http://books.google.com/books?id=MLxz5yy
mkNcC&pg=PA390 Vol 2:
http://books.google.com/books?id=pmF8xgh
257sC PD
source: Vol 1:
http://books.google.com/books?id=MLxz5yy
mkNcC&pg=PA390
[2] Portrait of Joseph
Priestley Source
http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=h
ttp://www.chemistry.msu.edu/Portraits/im
ages/priestlyc.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.
chemistry.msu.edu/Portraits/PortraitsHH_
Detail.asp%3FHH_LName%3DPriestley&h=640&
w=462&sz=57&hl=en&start=9&tbnid=ipHldQCy
TukivM:&tbnh=137&tbnw=99&prev=/images%3F
q%3Djoseph%2Bpriestley%26gbv%3D2%26svnum
%3D10%26hl%3Den%26sa%3DG Date
1794 Author Ellen Sharples PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Priestley.jpg
[1772 AD]
gravitation is applied to chemical
forces of attraction.
[1] Louis-Bernard Guyton de Morveau,
also known as Louis-Bernard
Guyton-Morveau. This is a cropped and
contrast-enhanced version of an image
from the Library of Congress online
collection. It is in the public domain;
see catalog information below. TITLE:
Louis Bernard Guyton-Morveau, né Ã
Dijon le 4 janvier 1737 / Dess. et
gravé au physionotrace par Quenedey,
rue Croix des Petits Champs, no. 10,Ã
Paris. CALL NUMBER: LOT 13400, no. 56
[P&P] Check for an online group
record (may link to related
items) REPRODUCTION NUMBER:
LC-DIG-ppmsca-02240 (digital file from
original print) No known restrictions
on publication. SUMMARY:
Head-and-shoulders profile portrait of
French scientist Louis Bernard
Guyton-Morveau. MEDIUM: 1 print :
stipple engraving. CREATED/PUBLISHED:
[Paris : s.n., between 1790 and
1820] CREATOR: Quenedey, Edme PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Louis-Bernard_Guyton_de_Morveau.jpg
[1772 AD]
[1] Description Scan of an old
picture of Daniel Rutherford Source
The Gases of the Atmosphere (old
book) Date 1896 Author William
Ramsay PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Rutherford_Daniel.jpg
[08/01/1774 AD]
collecting the gas emitted by heating
mercury oxide.
[1] Portrait of Joseph
Priestley Source
http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=h
ttp://www.chemistry.msu.edu/Portraits/im
ages/priestlyc.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.
chemistry.msu.edu/Portraits/PortraitsHH_
Detail.asp%3FHH_LName%3DPriestley&h=640&
w=462&sz=57&hl=en&start=9&tbnid=ipHldQCy
TukivM:&tbnh=137&tbnw=99&prev=/images%3F
q%3Djoseph%2Bpriestley%26gbv%3D2%26svnum
%3D10%26hl%3Den%26sa%3DG Date
1794 Author Ellen Sharples PD
AND [5] Joseph Priestley Library of
Congress PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Priestley.jpghttp://www.answers.com/K
arl+Wilhelm+Scheele+?cat=technology
[2] Portrait of Joseph
Priestley Source
http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=h
ttp://www.chemistry.msu.edu/Portraits/im
ages/priestlyc.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.
chemistry.msu.edu/Portraits/PortraitsHH_
Detail.asp%3FHH_LName%3DPriestley&h=640&
w=462&sz=57&hl=en&start=9&tbnid=ipHldQCy
TukivM:&tbnh=137&tbnw=99&prev=/images%3F
q%3Djoseph%2Bpriestley%26gbv%3D2%26svnum
%3D10%26hl%3Den%26sa%3DG Date
1794 Author Ellen Sharples PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Priestley.jpg
[1774 AD]
objects, celestial objects which
include nebulae and star clusters.
[1] Charles Messier 1730 - 1817 [t
Notice how the curtain appears to be
made to look like a spiral galaxy with
the earth as part of it. I doubt this
is coincidence. Interesting that the
artist felt that this needed to be
hidden. it seems unlikely to be
coincidence, because the curtain is so
important as to cover part of the
globe.] PD
source: http://www.wwu.edu/depts/skywise
/a101_historicalfigures.html
[2] Messier, Charles Joseph
(1730-1817) PD
source: http://www.daviddarling.info/enc
yclopedia/M/Messier.html
[1774 AD]
as a gas, using hydrochloric acid on
manganese dioxide.
[1] Karl Wilhelm Scheele Library of
Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/Karl+Wilh
elm+Scheele+?cat=technology
[2] Chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele from
Svenska Familj-Journalen 1874. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Carl_Wilhelm_Scheele_from_Familj-Jour
nalen1874.png
[1774 AD]
reaction with a gas in the air (later
named oxygen). Material in the air is
shown to combine with metals when
heated, which will end the phlogiston
theory of combustion, and demonstrates
the conservation of mass.
[1] Creator/Artist Name English:
Jacques-Louis David Alternative names
English: David Date of birth/death
1748-08-30 1825-12-29 Location of
birth/death English: Paris Work
location Title English: Portrait
of Monsieur de Lavoisier and his
Wife Year 1788 Technique English:
Oil on canvas Dimensions 259.7 x 196
cm Current location Metropolitan
Museum of Art New York PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:David_-_Portrait_of_Monsieur_Lavoisie
r_and_His_Wife.jpg
[2] Scientist: Lavoisier, Antoine
Laurent (1743 - 1794) Discipline(s):
Chemistry Print Artist: William G.
Jackman, fl. 1841-1860 Medium:
Engraving Original Artist: Jacques
Louis David, 1744-1825 Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 15.2 x 10.8 cm /
Sheet: 24.7 x 13.9 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=L
[1774 AD]
[1] Le Sage: Telegraph, 1774 PD
source: http://images.fineartamerica.com
/images-medium-large/le-sage-telegraph-1
774-granger.jpg
[2] Description Georges-Louis Le
Sage Source Bibliotheque
Geneve Date 2007-08-27 Author
Created around 1780 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Lesage.jpg
[1777 AD]
(including citric and lactic), in
addition to the identification of
casein, aldehyde, and glycerol. The
effect of light on silver compounds is
also described, which 50 years later
will be used in the development of
photography.
Uppsala, Sweden
[1] PD
source: http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/s
cheele77.html
[2] Karl Wilhelm Scheele Library of
Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/Karl+Wilh
elm+Scheele+?cat=technology
[1778 AD]
machine that separates seeds from
plants.
Lothian, Scotland
[1] Threshing machine from
1881 Source: cropped from
http://www.unige.ch/lareh/Archives/Archi
ves-images/Images/Dictionnaire-arts-indu
striels/Page%20585%20-%20batteuse.jpg 1
881 Dictionnaire d'arts industriels. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Batteuse_1881.jpg
[2] Flail PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Dreschflegel.jpg
[1778 AD]
isolated.
[1] Description Alessandro Giuseppe
Antonio Anastasio Volta Source
http://www.anthroposophie.net/bibliot
hek/nawi/physik/volta/bib_volta.htm Dat
e 2006-03-02 (original upload
date) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Alessandro_Volta.jpeg
[2] Scientist: Volta, Alessandro
(1745 - 1827) Discipline(s):
Physics Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 11.9 x 9.7 cm / Sheet: 18.2 x
12.3 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=V
[03/13/1781 AD]
This is the first new planet to be
discovered since prehistoric times.
[1] Wilhelm Herschel, German-British
astronomer. from fr. PD
source: http://cunosc.ro/curiozitati/ima
gini/backup/Astronomie/William_Herschel-
high.jpg
[2] Wilhelm Herschel, German-British
astronomer. from fr. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:William_Herschel01.jpg
[1781 AD]
implies their chemical composition is
understood.
[1] René Just Haüy (1743-1822),
French mineralogist. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ren%C3%A9_Just_Ha%C3%BCy.jpg
[2] Scientist: Haüy, René Just
(1743 - 1822) Discipline(s):
Geology Print Artist: Riedel
Medium: Engraving Original Artist:
Felix Massard, 1773- Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 9 x 7.2 cm /
Sheet: 20.5 x 15.9 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=H
[11/??/1782 AD]
intensity of the light from variable
stars is explained as the star being
eclipsed by a darker companion body.
[1] John Goodricke (1764-1786),
Astronomer PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.surveyor.in-berlin.de
/himmel/Bios/Goodricke-e.html
[2] John Goodricke (1764-1786),
Astronomer PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.surveyor.in-berlin.de
/himmel/Bios/Goodricke-e.html
[1782 AD]
combustion process that accounts for
animal heat.
[1] Creator/Artist Name English:
Jacques-Louis David Alternative names
English: David Date of birth/death
1748-08-30 1825-12-29 Location of
birth/death English: Paris Work
location Title English: Portrait
of Monsieur de Lavoisier and his
Wife Year 1788 Technique English:
Oil on canvas Dimensions 259.7 x 196
cm Current location Metropolitan
Museum of Art New York PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:David_-_Portrait_of_Monsieur_Lavoisie
r_and_His_Wife.jpg
[2] Scientist: Lavoisier, Antoine
Laurent (1743 - 1794) Discipline(s):
Chemistry Print Artist: William G.
Jackman, fl. 1841-1860 Medium:
Engraving Original Artist: Jacques
Louis David, 1744-1825 Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 15.2 x 10.8 cm /
Sheet: 24.7 x 13.9 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=L
[1782 AD]
carry away surface water or sewage) to
be installed under the streets.
[1] the cover of Scientific American
showing the construction of a 19th
century NYC
sewer books.google.com/books?id=7qA0AQA
AMAAJ&pg=PA367 PD
source: books.google.com/books?id=7qA0AQ
AAMAAJ&pg=PA367http://1.bp.blogspot.com/
_evsx5sAIVrc/TKtVVskEdqI/AAAAAAAAAjs/VZM
qj_ncFQY/s1600/sewer1.gif
[2] the cover of Scientific American
showing the construction of a 19th
century NYC
sewer books.google.com/books?id=7qA0AQA
AMAAJ&pg=PA367 PD
source: books.google.com/books?id=7qA0AQ
AAMAAJ&pg=PA367http://1.bp.blogspot.com/
_evsx5sAIVrc/TKtVVskEdqI/AAAAAAAAAjs/VZM
qj_ncFQY/s1600/sewer1.gif
[02/01/1783 AD]
the other stars is recognized; the Sun
is found to be moving towards the
constellation Hercules.
England)
[1] Figure 3 from: Herschel, William.
''On the Proper Motion of the Sun and
Solar System; With an Account of
Several Changes That Have Happened
among the Fixed Stars since the Time of
Mr. Flamstead. By William Herschel,
Esq. FRS.'' Philosophical Transactions
of the Royal Society of London 73
(1783):
247-283. http://archive.org/details/phi
ltrans06614922
AND http://books.google.com/books?id=AE
9FAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA247 PD
source: http://archive.org/details/philt
rans06614922
[2] Wilhelm Herschel, German-British
astronomer. from fr. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:William_Herschel01.jpg
[06/04/1783 AD]
.jpg)
[1] First public demonstration in
Annonay, 1783-06-04. Library of
Congress PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Early_flight_02562u_%282%29.jpg
[2] Jacques Étienne Montgolfier
(1745-1799), inventor of the hot air
balloon. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jacques_%C3%89tienne_Montgolfier.jpg
[07/15/1783 AD]
[1] Model of a steamship, built by
d'Abbans in 1784. Musee de la Marine.
GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:D%27AbbansSteamshipModel.jpg
[11/21/1783 AD]
.jpg)
[1] This image is available from the
United States Library of Congress
Prints and Pictures division under the
digital ID ppmsca.02562 The first
untethered balloon flight, by Rosier
and the Marquis d'Arlandes on 21
November 1783. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Early_flight_02562u_%284%29.jpg
[2] REPRODUCTION NUMBER:
LC-DIG-ppmsca-02227 (digital file from
original print) LC-USZ62-15586 (b&w
film copy neg.) No known restrictions
on publication. SUMMARY: Oval
head-and-shoulders portrait of French
balloonist Jean-François Pilâtre de
Rozier, who took the first balloon
flight in 1783. MEDIUM: 1 print :
etching with
engraving. CREATED/PUBLISHED: [S.l.]
: Chez Mr. Pujos, peintre, [between
1783 and 1800] RELATED
NAMES: Pujos, André, 1738-1788,
artist. NOTES: ''Et se trouve
chez Mr. Pujos Peintre, Quai Pelletier
prés la Greve''-- at bottom of
print. Title from
item. Tissandier
collection. SUBJECTS: Pilâtre de
Rozier, Jean-François, 1754-1785.
Balloonists--French--1780-1800. FORMA
T: Portrait prints 1780-1800.
Etchings 1780-1800. REPOSITORY:
Library of Congress Prints and
Photographs Division Washington, D.C.
20540 USA DIGITAL ID: (digital file
from original print) ppmsca 02227
http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/ppmsca.02227
(b&w film copy neg.) cph 3a17830
http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/cph.3a17830
CARD #: 2002724820 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Pilatre_de_Rozier.jpg
[1783 AD]
by measuring the weight of particular
volumes of gas.
[1] Henry Cavendish Henry
CavendishBorn: 10-Oct-1731 Birthplace:
Nice, France Died:
24-Feb-1810 Location of death:
Clapham, England PD?
source: http://www.nndb.com/people/030/0
00083778/
[2] Old picture from F. Moore's
History of Chemistry, published in
1901 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Cavendish_Henry.jpg
[01/15/1784 AD]
not an element. The fusion of molecules
using electricity.
Water is produced by burning hydrogen
gas in oxygen gas with an electric
spark. This shows that water is a
combination of two gases, hydrogen and
oxygen, and not an element as was
thought for centuries.
[1] Text from: Henry Cavendish,
''Experiments On Air'', Philosophical
Transactions, Vol 74, 1784, pp119-153,
text from
p129. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Dk9FAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA119 AND
http://books.google.com/books?id=-uEKA
AAAIAAJ PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=Dk9FAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false
[2] Scan of a drawing of Cavendish's
apparatus for making hydrogen
gas Source Philosophical
Transactions (periodical) Date
1766 Author Henry Cavendish PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Cavendish_hydrogen.jpg
[1784 AD]
is observed, and nebulae are thought to
be very large and distant collections
of stars.
[1] Wilhelm Herschel, German-British
astronomer. from fr. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:William_Herschel01.jpg
[2] William Herschel AKA Frederick
William Herschel Born:
15-Nov-1738 Birthplace: Hannover,
Hanover, Germany Died:
25-Aug-1822 Location of death: Slough,
Buckinghamshire, England Cause of
death: unspecified Gender: Male Race
or Ethnicity: White Occupation:
Astronomer Nationality:
England Executive summary: Mapped
heavens, discovered
Uranus PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nndb.com/people/661/0
00096373/
[1784 AD]
sulfur dioxide.
[1] Scientist: Monge, Gaspard (1746 -
1818) Discipline(s): Mathematics ;
Chemistry ; Physics Print Artist:
François-Seraphin Delpech, 1778-1825
Medium: Lithograph Original
Artist: Henri-Joseph Hesse, 1781-1849
Original Dimensions: Graphic: 9.2 x
8.5 cm / Sheet: 21.3 x 12.4
cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=M
[2] GASPARD MONGE Photo : Patrice
Maurin-Berthier (C) Photo
Collections Ecole
polytechnique PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sabix.org/bulletin/b2
3/monge.html
[02/17/1785 AD]
grating; constructed using hair.
[1] David Rittenhouse from an original
Picture in the possession of Mrs.
Sergeant. PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=_J8RAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=dav
id+rittenhouse#PPP6,M1
[06/02/1785 AD]
gases, and not a single element by
showing that nitric acid is produced by
sparking air. Air is found to be made
of around 4 parts nitrogen to 1 part
oxygen.
[1] Figures 1-3 from: Henry
Cavendish, ''Experiments on Air.'',
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1776-1886), Volume
75 - 1785, 372-384 Henry Cavendish,
''Experiments On Air'', Philosophical
Transactions, Vol 74, 1784,
pp119-153. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=-uEKAAAAIAAJ PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=-uEKAAAAIAAJ
[2] Figure from Experiments on Air.
By Henry Cavendish, Esq. F.R.S. and
A.S. Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 75 -
1785 Pages 372-384 DOI 10.1098/rstl.17
85.0023 PD?
source: http://www.journals.royalsoc.ac.
uk/content/002m322p050qv423/?p=d80161c90
5fe4831aa63484ba66ccb98&pi=6
[1785 AD]
(impregnating an organism by injecting
semen into the vagina).
[1] Lazzaro Spallanzani, Italian
biologist,
1729-99 Source:http://home.tiscalinet.c
h/biografien/biografien/spallanzani.htm
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Spallanzani.jpg
[2] Spallanzani, detail of an oil
painting by an unknown artist; in the
collection of the Universita degli
Studi di Pavia, Italy Courtesy of the
Universita degli Studi di Pavia,
Italy Related Articles: Spallanzani,
Lazzaro (Encyclopædia
Britannica) Italian physiologist who
made important contributions to the
experimental study of bodily functions
and animal reproduction. His
investigations into the development of
microscopic life in nutrient culture
solutions paved the way for the
research of Louis Pasteur. To cite
this page: * MLA style:
''Spallanzani, Lazzaro.'' Online
Photograph. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. 12 Nov. 2007
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-31518/Spallanzani-detail-of-an-oil-pain
ting-by-an-unknown-artist?articleTypeId=
1
[1785 AD]
and repulsion are proven to be both
proportional to amount of charge and
inversely proportional to distance
squared.
[1] Portrait by Hippolyte Lecomte PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Coulomb.jpg
[2] Charles-Augustin de Coulomb,
detail of a bronze bust. H.
Roger-Viollet COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-9659/Charles-Augustin-de-Coulomb-detail
-of-a-bronze-bust?articleTypeId=1
[07/28/1787 AD]
[1] Grantham, J. Iron Ship-building:
With Practical Illustrations. Virtue &
Company, 1868. Weale’s Rudimentary
Series,
p6. http://books.google.com/books?id=3z
cEAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA6 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=3zcEAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA6
[08/27/1787 AD]
gas are inversely related is known. In
addition, for each degree Centigrade
rise in temperature, the volume of a
gas is found to expand by 1/273 parts
of its volume at 0˚ Celsius, which
implies that at a temperature of -273˚
Celsius the volume of a gas would reach
0, and that there can be no lower
temperature.
[1] Jacques Alexandre César Charles,
1820 Jacques Alexandre César Charles,
French scientist, mathematician, and
balloonist. This image is from the
Library of Congress online collection,
and is in the public domain. It has
been cropped for concision. See catalog
information below. TITLE: Charles,
(Jacques Alexandre César.) né
Beaugency-sur-Loire, le 11 novembre
1746, élu en 1793 / Jul. Bailly,
1820. CALL NUMBER: LOT 13400, no. 22
[P&P] Check for an online group
record (may link to related
items) REPRODUCTION NUMBER:
LC-DIG-ppmsca-02185 (digital file from
original print) LC-USZ62-70373 (b&w
film copy neg.) No known restrictions
on publication. SUMMARY:
Head-and-shoulders portrait of French
balloonist Jacques Alexandre César
Charles, who made the first flight in a
hydrogen balloon, Dec. 1,
1783. MEDIUM: 1 print :
lithograph. CREATED/PUBLISHED: [S.l.
: s.n., 1820] NOTES: ''Institut
royal de France, Académie des sciences
(physique génle.)''--printed above
title. Title from
item. Tissandier
collection. SUBJECTS: Charles,
Jacques Alexandre César, 1746-1823.
Balloonists--French--1820. FORMAT:
Portrait prints 1820. Lithographs
1820. REPOSITORY: Library of
Congress Prints and Photographs
Division Washington, D.C. 20540
USA DIGITAL ID: (digital file from
original print) ppmsca 02185
http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/ppmsca.02185
(b&w film copy neg.) cph 3b17771
http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/cph.3b17771
CARD #: 2002716398 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jacques_Alexandre_C%C3%A9sar_Charles.
jpg
[2] First flight by Prof. Jacques
Charles with Ainé Roberts, December 1,
1783. Illustration from the late 19th
Century. N°. 5 - Premier voyage
aérien par Charles et Robert
(1783) First aerial voyage by Charles
and Robert · Erste Flugreise mit
Charles und Robert Library of
Congress PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Early_flight_02562u_%285%29.jpg
[1789 AD]
simple element on the first list of the
known elements.
[1] LAVOISIER, ANTOINE LAURENT (1743 -
1794). Traité élémentaire de chimie,
présenté dans un ordre nouveau et
d'après les découvertes modernes. 2
vols. Paris, 1789. PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.scs.uiuc.edu/~mainzv/
exhibit/lavoisier.htm
[2] LAVOISIER, ANTOINE LAURENT (1743 -
1794). Traité élémentaire de chimie,
présenté dans un ordre nouveau et
d'après les découvertes modernes. 2
vols. Paris, 1789. PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.scs.uiuc.edu/~mainzv/
exhibit/lavoisier.htm
[1790 AD]
[1] Thomas Saint Sewing
Machine Replica sewing machine created
for Brother International for their
Sewing Machine museum in Nagoya,
Japan. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.gluefactory.co.uk/mod
elmaker/thomas-saint-1.jpg
[04/??/1791 AD]
that heat always moves from a hot body
to a cold body is known.
[1] Pierre Prévost Ref. Journal
Officiel Illustré De L'Exposition
Nationale Suisse Genève 1896 - No 21 -
12 Juin 1896 -- page 241 (page de
titre) PD AND Prevost, Pierre.
''Mémoire sur l’équilibre du feu.''
Journal de physique 38 (1791):
314-322. books.google.com/books?id=IeQP
AAAAQAAJ&pg=PA314 PD
source: http://bern-1914.org/pictures/ge
neve1896/pictet/21_1_pierre_prevost_72.j
pghttp://bern-1914.org/pictures/geneve18
96/pictet/21_1_pierre_prevost_72.jpgbook
s.google.com/books?id=IeQPAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA
314
[2] Pierre Prévost Ref. Journal
Officiel Illustré De L'Exposition
Nationale Suisse Genève 1896 - No 21 -
12 Juin 1896 -- page 241 (page de
titre) PD
source: http://bern-1914.org/pictures/ge
neve1896/pictet/21_1_pierre_prevost_72.j
pghttp://bern-1914.org/pictures/geneve18
96/pictet/21_1_pierre_prevost_72.jpg
[1791 AD]
remote neuron writing) by Luigi
Galvani. A muscle is contracted
remotely by using a remote electric
spark while metal is connected to the
nerve.
[1] Italian physicists Luigi
Galvani Source
http://www.museopalazzopoggi.unibo.it
//poggi_eng/palazzo/foto/prot Date
18-19 th century Author
Unknown PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Luigi_Galvani%2C_oil-painting.jpg
[2] The electrochemical behavior of
two dissimilar metals [(zinc (Z) and
copper (C)] in a bimetallic arch, in
contact with the electrolytes of
tissue, produces an electric
stimulating current that elicits
muscular contraction. [Malmivuo, J., &
Plonsey, R. (1995).
Bioelectromagnatism: Principles and
applications of bioelectric and
biomagnetic fields. New York: Oxford
University Press., Ch.1] URL:
http://butler.cc.tut.fi/~malmivuo/bem/be
mbook/01/01.htm Diagram of Luigi
Galvani's frog legs (~1770s) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Galvani%27s_legs.gif
[1792 AD]
house.
[1] William Murdoch, reproduction of a
portrait by John Graham Gilbert in the
City Museum and Art Gallery,
Birmingham. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:William_Murdoch_%281754-1839%29.jpg
[2] Scientist: Murdock, William (1754
- 1834) Discipline(s):
Engineering Original Artist: Grahma
Gilbert Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 10.4 x 8.1 cm / Sheet: 14 x
8.7 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=M
[1792 AD]
each other in fixed proportions is
shown.
Lower Silesia, Prussia
(presumably)
[1] Richter, J. B. Anfangsgründe der
Stöchyometrie oder Meßkunst
chymischer Elemente. Vol. 1. Korn,
1792. http://books.google.com/books?hl=
en&lr=&id=NhFQAAAAcAAJ AND Description
Deutsch: Jeremias Benjamin
Richter Date 29 June 2006 (original
upload date) Source Transferred from
de.wikipedia; transferred to Commons by
User:Leyo using
CommonsHelper. http://histoirechimie.fr
ee.fr/Lien/RICHTER.htm Author
Original uploader was Dr. Manuel at
de.wikipedia PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?hl
=en&lr=&id=NhFQAAAAcAAJhttp://upload.wik
imedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fc/Jeremi
as_Benjamin_Richter.jpeg
[2] Richter, J. B. Anfangsgründe der
Stöchyometrie oder Meßkunst
chymischer Elemente. Vol. 1. Korn,
1792. http://books.google.com/books?hl=
en&lr=&id=NhFQAAAAcAAJ AND Description
Deutsch: Jeremias Benjamin
Richter Date 29 June 2006 (original
upload date) Source Transferred from
de.wikipedia; transferred to Commons by
User:Leyo using
CommonsHelper. http://histoirechimie.fr
ee.fr/Lien/RICHTER.htm Author
Original uploader was Dr. Manuel at
de.wikipedia PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?hl
=en&lr=&id=NhFQAAAAcAAJhttp://upload.wik
imedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fc/Jeremi
as_Benjamin_Richter.jpeg
[1793 AD]
the air can hold rises with temperature
is shown.
[1] Engraving of a painting of John
Dalton Source Frontispiece of John
Dalton and the Rise of Modern Chemistry
by Henry Roscoe Date 1895 Author
Henry Roscoe (author), William Henry
Worthington (engraver), and Joseph
Allen (painter) [t right one finger =
?] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Dalton_John_desk.jpg
[2] John Dalton John Dalton,
1766-1844, English chemist and Fellow
of the Royal Society. [t this pose,
hand in coat=?, famous Napoleon
pose] PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.english.upenn.edu/Pro
jects/knarf/People/dalton.html
[1794 AD]
that species less adapted are more
likely to die while those better
adapted will continue and multiply.
[1] Hutton, J. An Investigation of the
Principles of Knowledge and of the
Progress of Reason, from Sense to
Science and Philosophy... by James
Hutton,... A. Strahan, 1794, Volume 2,
p500. http://books.google.com/books?id=
b_MkAQAAIAAJ
{Hutton_Investigation_of_the_Principle
_of_Knowledge_1794.pdf} PD
source: Hutton, J. An Investigation of
the Principles of Knowledge and of the
Progress of Reason, from Sense to
Science and Philosophy... by James
Hutton,... A. Strahan, 1794, Volume 2,
p500. http://books.google.com/books?id=
b_MkAQAAIAAJ
[2] JAMES HUTTON (1726-1797) PD
source: http://www.uwmc.uwc.edu/geograph
y/hutton/hutton.htm
[07/01/1796 AD]
proven: that having cow pox disease
provides immunity from the more severe
small pox disease is confirmed.
[1] Source:
http://www.edward-jenner.com/family-life
.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Edward_Jenner2.jpg
[2] Figure 1: Portrait of Edward
Jenner painted in about 1800 by William
Pearce. Note the cows in the
background, the source of the cowpox
virus he used to vaccinate people
against smallpox. PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://openlearn.open.ac.uk/file
.php/2642/formats/S320_1_rss.xml
[1796 AD]
control different parts of the body is
understood.
[1] English: Franz Joseph Gall
(1758-1828), German physician and
anatomist Source
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollecti
ons/hst/scientific-identity/explore.htmh
ere. Date early 19th century PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Franz_Joseph_Gall.jpg
[2] Franz Joseph Gall, engraving by
Friedrich Wilhelm Bollinger after a
portrait by Karl Heinrich Rahl, c.
1812 Archiv fur Kunst und Geschichte,
Berlin PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-10919/Franz-Joseph-Gall-engraving-by-Fr
iedrich-Wilhelm-Bollinger-after-a?articl
eTypeId=1
[1797 AD]
quickly cooling limestone (which is
calcium carbonate).
[1] Description A limestone formation
in the Waitomo District of New
Zealand. Date 2007-12-?? Source
Self-photographed Author
Uploader. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Limestone_Forma
tion_In_Waitomo.jpg/1280px-Limestone_For
mation_In_Waitomo.jpg
[2] Description English: Weathered
marble anticline at General Carrera
Lake, Chile Date 17 November
2008 Source Glaciers Transferred
from en.wikipedia to Commons by
User:Common Good using
CommonsHelper. Author Dentren at
en.wikipedia CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Catedraldemarmo
l.JPG/1280px-Catedraldemarmol.JPG
[1798 AD]
mass, and the density of the Earth are
measured.
[1] Henry Cavendish Henry
CavendishBorn: 10-Oct-1731 Birthplace:
Nice, France Died:
24-Feb-1810 Location of death:
Clapham, England PD?
source: http://www.nndb.com/people/030/0
00083778/
[2] Old picture from F. Moore's
History of Chemistry, published in
1901 PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Caven
dish_Henry.jpg
[1799 AD]
[1] Scientist: Delambre, Jean Baptiste
Joseph (1749 - 1822) Discipline(s):
Astronomy ; Geodesy Print Artist:
Attributed to Julien Leopold Boilly,
1796-1874 and Benjamin Holl, 1808-1884
Medium: Lithograph Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 12.7 x 10.2 cm /
Sheet: 25.8 x 17.5 cm Jean-Baptiste
Joseph Delambre - French mathematician
and astronomer. Source
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollection
s/hst/scientific-identity/fullsize/SIL14
-D2-17a.jpg Date 1820 Author Julien
Leopold Boilly (1796-1874) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jean_Baptiste_Joseph_Delambre.jpg
[2] Jean-Baptiste-Joseph
Delambre Jean-Baptiste-Joseph
DelambreBorn: 19-Sep-1749 Birthplace:
Amiens, France Died:
19-Aug-1822 Location of death: Paris,
France Cause of death:
unspecified PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nndb.com/people/404/0
00097113/
[1799 AD]
definite proportions.
[1] Joseph Proust French
chemist Source Originally from
en.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. Date 2005-10-15 (original
upload date) Author Original
uploader was HappyApple at
en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
image) PD-AUTHOR; Released into the
public domain (by the author). PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Proust_joseph.jpg
[2] Joseph-Louis Proust, medallion by
Pierre-Jean David H. Roger-Viollet To
cite this page: * MLA style:
''Proust, Joseph-Louis: portrait
coin.'' Online Photograph.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 13
Dec. 2007
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-30847/Joseph-Louis-Proust-medallion-by-
Pierre-Jean-David?articleTypeId=1
[03/20/1800 AD]
pile) is invented: stacks of
alternating silver and zinc plates,
each separated by a moist pad produce a
large electric force when the opposite
ends are connected with a conductor.
This battery provides a continuous
source of electrical current.
[1] Volta, ''On the Electricity excited
by the mere Contact of conducting
Substances of different Kinds.'',
Philosophical Magazine, September 1800,
p415. http://archive.org/download/lepid
opterarepor07winc/lepidopterarepor07winc
.pdf PD
source: http://archive.org/download/lepi
dopterarepor07winc/lepidopterarepor07win
c.pdf
[2] Description Alessandro Giuseppe
Antonio Anastasio Volta Source
http://www.anthroposophie.net/bibliot
hek/nawi/physik/volta/bib_volta.htm Dat
e 2006-03-02 (original upload
date) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Alessandro_Volta.jpeg
[03/27/1800 AD]
invisible portion of the spectrum of
light beyond the color red (later named
infrared) is found to heat up a
thermometer more than any other color.
[1] William Herschel, ''Investigation
of the Powers of the Prismatic Colours
to Heat and Illuminate Objects; With
Remarks, That Prove the Different
Refrangibility of Radiant Heat. To
Which is Added, an Inquiry into the
Method of Viewing the Sun
Advantageously, with Telescopes of
Large Apertures and High Magnifying
Powers.'', Philosophical Transactions
of the Royal Society of London , Vol.
90, (1800), pp. 255-283.
books.google.com/books?id=dlFFAAAAcAAJ
&pg=PA255 PD
source: books.google.com/books?id=dlFFAA
AAcAAJ&pg=PA255
[2] Description Wilhelm Herschel,
German-British
astronomer. Date 1785 Source Nat
ional Portrait Gallery, London: NPG
98 Author Lemuel Francis Abbott PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/36/William_Herschel01.jp
g
[06/27/1800 AD]
by compressing and expanding air is
measured.
[1] Engraving of a painting of John
Dalton Source Frontispiece of John
Dalton and the Rise of Modern Chemistry
by Henry Roscoe Date 1895 Author
Henry Roscoe (author), William Henry
Worthington (engraver), and Joseph
Allen (painter) [t right one finger =
?] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Dalton_John_desk.jpg
[2] John Dalton John Dalton,
1766-1844, English chemist and Fellow
of the Royal Society. [t this pose,
hand in coat=?, famous Napoleon
pose] PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.english.upenn.edu/Pro
jects/knarf/People/dalton.html
[06/??/1800 AD]
with litmus is colored blue around the
silver electrode and red around the
zinc electrode is found. Litmus is a
material obtained from certain lichens
that turns blue in in alkaline solution
and red in acid solution.
Woolwich, England
[1] William Cruickshank, ''Some
Experiments and Observations on
Galvanic Electricity.'', ''Journal of
Natural Philosophy, Chemistry and the
Arts By William Nicholson'', G. G. and
J. Robinson, 1801, v.4 (Apr. 1800-
March
1801),p187-191. books.google.com/books?
id=TggAAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA187 PD
AND Description Deutsch: de:William
Cumberland Cruikshank (* 1745 in
Edinburg; â 27. Juni 1800) Date
Published in London.: J. Sewell.,
1787 Source
http://imagesvr.library.upenn.edu/cgi
/i/image/image-idx?type=detail&cc=smith&
entryid=X-smit0130&viewid=1&sstrt=1&hits
=1& http://ihm.nlm.nih.gov/images/B0565
1 Author Engraved by J.
Corner Permission (Reusing this file)
This image is in the public domain
due to its age. PD
source: books.google.com/books?id=TggAAA
AAMAAJ&pg=PA187https://upload.wikimedia.
org/wikipedia/commons/3/34/William_Cumbe
rland_Cruikshank.jpg
[2] Description Deutsch: de:William
Cumberland Cruikshank (* 1745 in
Edinburg; â 27. Juni 1800) Date
Published in London.: J. Sewell.,
1787 Source
http://imagesvr.library.upenn.edu/cgi
/i/image/image-idx?type=detail&cc=smith&
entryid=X-smit0130&viewid=1&sstrt=1&hits
=1& http://ihm.nlm.nih.gov/images/B0565
1 Author Engraved by J.
Corner Permission (Reusing this file)
This image is in the public domain
due to its age. PD
source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wik
ipedia/commons/3/34/William_Cumberland_C
ruikshank.jpg
[09/17/1800 AD]
collected separately from the
electrolysis of water.
[1] Undatiertes Portrait von J. W.
Ritter PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www2.uni-jena.de/biologie
/ehh/forum/ausstellungen/Physik_als_Kuns
t/Physik_als_Kunst.htm
[2] Johann Wilhelm Ritter. Undated
woodcut, courtesy Deutsches Museum,
Munich. Reproduced in Ritter
1986. PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/silpublica
tions/dibner-library-lectures/scientific
-discoveries/text-lecture.htm
[11/??/1800 AD]
passing electric current through a
solution of copper sulfate, metallic
copper can be made to cover (or plate)
a conductive object that is used as an
electrode.
[1] Undatiertes Portrait von J. W.
Ritter PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www2.uni-jena.de/biologie
/ehh/forum/ausstellungen/Physik_als_Kuns
t/Physik_als_Kunst.htm
[2] Johann Wilhelm Ritter. Undated
woodcut, courtesy Deutsches Museum,
Munich. Reproduced in Ritter
1986. PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/silpublica
tions/dibner-library-lectures/scientific
-discoveries/text-lecture.htm
[01/01/1801 AD]
minor planet), Ceres {SErEZ}, is
recognized.
[1] NASA's Hubble Space Telescope color
image of Ceres, the largest Main Belt
asteroid. Astronomers optimized spatial
resolution to about 18 km per pixel,
enhancing the contrast in these images
to bring out features on Ceres'
surface, that are both brighter and
darker than the average which absorbs
91% of sunlight falling on it.
(Original discription by NASA) Source
http://dawn.jpl.nasa.gov/images/ceres
.jpg (Slightly cropped from
original) Date Taken: December 2003
- January 2004. Released 7 September
2005 Author NASA, ESA, J. Parker
(Southwest Research Institute), P.
Thomas (Cornell University), and L.
McFadden (University of Maryland,
College Park) Permission Unless
otherwise specifically stated, no claim
to copyright is being asserted by STScI
and it may be freely used as in the
public domain in accordance with NASA's
contract. [...] [1] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ceres_optimized.jpg
[2] Scientist: Piazzi, Giuseppe (1746
- 1846) Discipline(s):
Astronomy Print Artist: F. Bordiga
Medium: Engraving Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 11.9 x 9.4 cm /
Sheet: 20.7 x 15.9 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=P
[02/22/1801 AD]
light is discovered: an invisible part
of the spectrum of light beyond the
violet part causes a silver chloride
chemical reaction more strongly than
any other part of the spectrum.
[1] Ritter, J. W. ''Auffindung
nicht-sichtbarer Sonnenstrahlen an der
Seite des Violett.'' Annalen der Physik
7 (1801):
527. http://books.google.com/books?id=q
wU4AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA527 English:
''Discovery of non-visible solar
radiation to the side of violet.'' PD
AND [1] Undatiertes Portrait von J. W.
Ritter PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=qwU4AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA527http://www2.uni-je
na.de/biologie/ehh/forum/ausstellungen/P
hysik_als_Kunst/Physik_als_Kunst.htm
[2] Undatiertes Portrait von J. W.
Ritter PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www2.uni-jena.de/biologie
/ehh/forum/ausstellungen/Physik_als_Kuns
t/Physik_als_Kunst.htm
[11/12/1801 AD]
(or particle intervals) of light are
determined and the theory of light
interference: that two light waves can
add to each other or cancel each other
out, similar to two sound waves. The
first glass diffraction gratings are in
use.
[1] {ULSF: Table of light wavelengths
and frequencies calculated by Young
from Theory of Light and Colours
11/12/1801} The inch used in the table
is the French (Paris) inch of
27.07mm. PD/Corel AND Portrait of
Thomas Young in color PD
source: Young_Thomas_1802_on_the_theory_
of_light_and_colours.pdfhttp://ugadayki.
ru/images/sv/133163204157_full.jpg
[2] {ULSF: Table of light wavelengths
and frequencies calculated by Young
from Theory of Light and Colours
11/12/1801} The inch used in the table
is the French (Paris) inch of
27.07mm. PD/Corel
source: Young_Thomas_1802_on_the_theory_
of_light_and_colours.pdf
[12/10/1801 AD]
and gas torch welding.
[1] {ULSF: Note that this image is
different slightly from the
original} Smith, E.F. Chemistry in
America: Chapters from the History of
the Science in the United States. D.
Appleton and company, 1914,
p157-179. http://books.google.com/books
?id=SiJDAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA157 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=SiJDAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA157
[2] Smith, E.F. Chemistry in America:
Chapters from the History of the
Science in the United States. D.
Appleton and company, 1914,
p157-179. http://books.google.com/books
?id=SiJDAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA157 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=SiJDAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA157
[1801 AD]
that each component of a mixture of
gases exerts the same pressure that it
would exert if it alone occupied the
whole volume of the mixture, at the
same temperature.
[1] Engraving of a painting of John
Dalton Source Frontispiece of John
Dalton and the Rise of Modern Chemistry
by Henry Roscoe Date 1895 Author
Henry Roscoe (author), William Henry
Worthington (engraver), and Joseph
Allen (painter) [t right one finger =
?] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Dalton_John_desk.jpg
[2] John Dalton John Dalton,
1766-1844, English chemist and Fellow
of the Royal Society. [t this pose,
hand in coat=?, famous Napoleon
pose] PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.english.upenn.edu/Pro
jects/knarf/People/dalton.html
[1802 AD]
dark lines in the spectrum of a ray of
light from the Sun.
[1] William Wollaston Fiure 3 from
1802 Philosophical
Transactions PD/Corel
source: Wollaston_William_1802_PT.pdf
[2] Scientist: Wollaston, William
Hyde (1766 - 1878) Discipline(s):
Chemistry ; Physics ; Medicine Print
Artist: James Thomson, 1789-1850
Medium: Lithograph Original
Artist: J. Jackson Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 11.5 x 8.7 cm /
Sheet: 24.5 x 16 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=W
[1802 AD]
[1] Replikation der trockenen
Ladungssäule Ritters, dem ersten
Akkumulator PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www2.uni-jena.de/biologie
/ehh/forum/ausstellungen/Physik_als_Kuns
t/Physik_als_Kunst.htm
[2] Undatiertes Portrait von J. W.
Ritter PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www2.uni-jena.de/biologie
/ehh/forum/ausstellungen/Physik_als_Kuns
t/Physik_als_Kunst.htm
[1802 AD]
by equal amounts with rise in
temperature is discovered.
[1] Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gaylussac.jpg
[2] Scientist: Gay-Lussac, Joseph
Louis (1778 - 1850) Discipline(s):
Chemistry ; Physics Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 10 x 6.4 cm /
Sheet: 25 x 19.3 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=g
[1802 AD]
system of a city; Philadelphia.
[1] Plan and Profile of
Philadelphia's First Water Supply
System (Plan drawn 1904-1905) PD
source: http://www.phillyh2o.org/backpag
es/MSB_Water/MSBW_1801Plan.jpg
[2] ''New Plan Of The City And Its
Environs'', 1802 map by Charles P.
Varle Courtesy of The Atwater Kent
Museum of Philadelphia. In 1802, a
geographer and engineer, Charles P.
Varle, published a map of the city and
county of Philadelphia which he titled,
''New Plan of the City and its
Environs.'' It included an idealized
view of the future expansion of the
city into West Philadelphia, with West
Philadelphia streets following the
city’s grid pattern as well as its
practice of city squares dedicated to
public use. Varle’s map called for
three public spaces along High (now
Market) Street – a Market Square,
Washington Square, and an unnamed oval
– and also located the country houses
of the Penn, Bingham, Powel, and
Hamilton families. West
Philadelphia’s development eventually
followed the city’s grid pattern, but
it did not include Varle’s proposed
city squares. PD
source: http://www.archives.upenn.edu/hi
sty/features/wphila/img/map1802varles_al
l_full.jpg
[10/21/1803 AD]
vary in size and mass is shown, and the
first table of elements by atomic mass
with Hydrogen assigned a value of 1.
[1] Two figures from: John Dalton,
''On the Absorption of Gases by Water
and Other Liquids.'' Memoirs of the
Literary and Philosophical Society of
Manchester , Second Series, 1, 271-87
(1805). http://books.google.com/books?i
d=LJNIAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA287 PD
AND Engraving of a painting of John
Dalton Source Frontispiece of John
Dalton and the Rise of Modern Chemistry
by Henry Roscoe Date 1895 Author
Henry Roscoe (author), William Henry
Worthington (engraver), and Joseph
Allen (painter) [t right one finger =
?] PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=LJNIAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA259http://en.wikipedi
a.org/wiki/Image:Dalton_John_desk.jpg
[2] Figure from: John Dalton, ''On
the Absorption of Gases by Water and
Other Liquids.'' Memoirs of the
Literary and Philosophical Society of
Manchester , Second Series, 1, 271-87
(1805). http://books.google.com/books?i
d=LJNIAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA287 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=LJNIAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA259
[1803 AD]
[1] On the plaques is the following
text: ''This model was refurbished by
the combined efforts of: THE FRIENDS OF
TREVITHICK CENTRAL TRAINS EASTERN
GENERATION ABB-PCL ENGINEERING KUE
ENGINEERING Presented to Central Trains
by Frank Trevithick-Okuno on 17th April
1998. 1803 LOCOMOTIVE RICHARD
TREVITHICK This is a full scale
replica of the first steam railway
locomotive in the world, which preceded
Stephenson's 'Rocket' by 26 years. It
was designed by Richard Trevithick
(1771-1833), and built near Ironbridge
in Shropshire by the Coalbrookdale
Company in the winter of 1802/3. A near
identical engine ran the following year
at Pen-y-Darren. The replica was
built by Task Undertakings, a Manpower
Services Commission project in
Birmingham, under the guidance of Allen
Gulliver, to drawings made for the
Ironbridge Gorge Museum by Stewart
Johnson.'' This replica is located in
Telford Central Station, Telford,
Shropshire, UK. The photo was taken on
14 June 2005 by Mark Barker. CC
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Trevithick1803Locomotive.jpg
[2] London Steam Carriage, eigener
Scan Road locomotive by Trevithick and
Vivian, demonstrated in London in
1803. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Trevithicks_Dampfwagen.jpg
[12/20/1804 AD]
to be around a nanometer.
[1] Scientist: Young, Thomas (1773 -
1829) Discipline(s): Physics Print
Artist: G. Adcock, 19th C. Medium:
Engraving Original Artist: Thomas
Lawrence, 1769-1830 Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 11.1 x 8.7 cm /
Sheet: 19.6 x 12.5 cm PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Thoma
s_Young_%28scientist%29.jpg
[2] Scientist: Young, Thomas (1773 -
1829) Discipline(s): Physics Print
Artist: Henry Adlard, 19th C.
Medium: Engraving Original Artist:
Thomas Lawrence, 1769-1830 Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 11.2 x 9 cm /
Sheet: 24.8 x 16.6 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=Y
[1804 AD]
Earth.
[1] Parker, G. Compact History of the
World. Barnes & Noble, 2001,
p17. COPYRIGHTED
source: Parker, G. Compact History of
the World. Barnes & Noble, 2001, p17.
[1805 AD]
gun.
(presumably)
[1] Forsyth gun with special
lock UNKNOWN
source: http://www.wikitree.com/photo.ph
p/2/23/Forsyth_guns.jpg
[1805 AD]
ether is expanded into a vacuum to
lower the temperature inside a
refrigerator, then compressed to raise
the temperature outside the
refrigerator, and this process is then
repeated.
[1] [t Note, I don't know if this is
the water cooler and ice making
machine.] Plate 1 from: Oliver
Evans, John Stevens, ''The abortion of
the young steam engineer's guide'',
1805 http://books.google.com/books?id=z
lpGAAAAYAA
AND http://infoweb.newsbank.com/iw-sear
ch/we/Evans
AND http://www.himedo.net/TheHopkinThom
asProject/TimeLine/Wales/Steam/URocheste
rCollection/Evans/Evans%20Combined.htm#A
RTICLE9 PD
source: http://www.himedo.net/TheHopkinT
homasProject/TimeLine/Wales/Steam/URoche
sterCollection/Evans/Evans%20Combined.ht
m#ARTICLE9
[2] Colin Hempstead, William E.
Worthington, ''Encyclopedia of
20th-century technology, Volume 2'',
2005. http://books.google.com/books?id=
0wkIlnNjDWcC&pg=PA672&dq=Oliver+Evans+an
d+refrigeration#v=onepage&q&f=false COP
YRIGHTED
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=0wkIlnNjDWcC&pg=PA672&dq=Oliver+Evans+a
nd+refrigeration#v=onepage&q&f=false
[11/20/1806 AD]
combination occurs between substances
of opposite charge.
[1]
http://www.nndb.com/people/028/000083776
/humphry-davy-2-sized.jpg [left finger
1: ''left'' viewed as educated
intellectuals in 1800s England? just
coincidence?] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Sir_Humphry_Davy2.jpg
[2] Taken from The Life of Sir Humphry
Davy by John A. Paris, London: Colburn
and Bentley, 1831. Engraving from about
1830, based on a portrait by Sir Thomas
Lawrence (1769 - 1830) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Humphry_Davy_Engraving_1830.jpg
[1806 AD]
first amino acid, is isolated.
[1] Louis Nicolas Vauquelin from
en:Wikipedia PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Louis_Nicolas_Vauquelin.jpg
[2] Portrait de Vauquelin situé dans
la Salle des actes de la Faculté de
pharmacie, 4 avenue de l'Observatoire
à Paris PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://euromin.w3sites.net/Nouve
au_site/mineralogiste/biographies/Vauque
linf.htm
[1807 AD]
lighting; in London.
[1] Scientist: Murdock, William (1754
- 1834) Discipline(s):
Engineering Original Artist: Grahma
Gilbert Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 10.4 x 8.1 cm / Sheet: 14 x
8.7 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=M
[2] William Murdock, bust by an
unknown artist; in the Science Museum,
London Courtesy of the Science Museum,
London COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-33699/William-Murdock-bust-by-an-unknow
n-artist-in-the-Science?articleTypeId=1
[1808 AD]
"polarization" is observed: an image of
sun light reflected from a window that
passes through calcite is found to
produce only one image instead of the
usual two images from double
refraction.
[1] Etienne-Louis Malus (1775-1812),
French officer, engineer, physicist,
and mathematician. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Etienne-Louis_Malus.jpg
[2] Scientist: Malus, Etienne Louis
(1775 - 1812) Discipline(s):
Physics Print Artist: Ambroise
Tardieu, 1788-1841 Medium: Engraving
Original Artist: Arago Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 10.3 x 7.7 cm /
Sheet: 23.8 x 15 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=M
[11/15/1809 AD]
electric arc furnace: a metal
(aluminum) is melted using electricity.
[1] Fig l The apparatus for electrizing
potassium in gasses A the glass tube B
the wire negatively electrified C and D
the cup and wire positively electrified
Fig 2 The apparatus for decomposing
water out of the contact of air page 4
1 AA the cones containing the water BBB
the tubes for conveying the gas C and D
the pneumatic apparatus Fig 3 The
apparatus for decomposing and
recomposing water under oil CC the
wires for communicating the Voltaic
electricity DD the wires for producing
the explosion B the tube A the vessel
containing it a.d.c. the level of the
different fluids Humphry Davy,
''The Bakerian Lecture for 1809 On some
new Electrochemical Researches on
various Objects particularly the
metallic Bodies the Alkalies and Earths
and on some Combinations of
Hydrogene'', Philosophical Transactions
of London, Volume 100, 1810,
p16-74. books.google.com/books?id=nVBFA
AAAcAAJ&pg=PA16 PD
source: books.google.com/books?id=nVBFAA
AAcAAJ&pg=PA75
[2] Plate 2 Fig 4 The apparatus for
exposing water to the action of ignited
potash and charcoal out of the contact
of air A the tube for water B the iron
tube C the receiver for the ammonia D
the pneumatic apparatus Fig 5 The
apparatus for the decomposition of
ammonia Fig 6 A Voltaic apparatus
being one of the 200 which compose the
new Voltaic battery of the Royal
Institution For the construction of
this battery and of other instruments
applicable to new researches a fund of
upwards 1000 has been raised by
subscription from members of the Royal
Institution As yet the whole
combination has not been put into
action but reasoning from the effects
of that part of it which have been used
some important phaenomena may be
expected from so great an accumulation
of electrical power Humphry Davy,
''The Bakerian Lecture for 1809 On some
new Electrochemical Researches on
various Objects particularly the
metallic Bodies the Alkalies and Earths
and on some Combinations of
Hydrogene'', Philosophical Transactions
of London, Volume 100, 1810,
p16-74. books.google.com/books?id=nVBFA
AAAcAAJ&pg=PA16 PD
source: books.google.com/books?id=nVBFAA
AAcAAJ&pg=PA75
[1809 AD]
small whole number ratios by volume and
not by mass (as long as temperature and
pressure are constant). For example,
two parts of hydrogen unite with one
part nitrogen to form ammonia.
[1] Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gaylussac.jpg
[2] Scientist: Gay-Lussac, Joseph
Louis (1778 - 1850) Discipline(s):
Chemistry ; Physics Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 10 x 6.4 cm /
Sheet: 25 x 19.3 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=g
[1809 AD]
lamp.
[1] Humphry Davy demonstrates his new
electric light for the members of the
Royal Institution of London. Power is
drawn from the banks of batteries in
the basement and rapidly used up by the
intense light. Electric light was then
only a scientific curiosity, practical
only when expense was no
object. Humphry Davy Demonstrating the
Arc Light, 1809 PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://people.clarkson.edu/%7Eek
atz/scientists/davy.htm
[2]
http://www.nndb.com/people/028/000083776
/humphry-davy-2-sized.jpg [left finger
1: ''left'' viewed as educated
intellectuals in 1800s England? just
coincidence?] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Sir_Humphry_Davy2.jpg
[1810 AD]
combustion like oxygen does, and
Hydrogen is shown to be characteristic
of acids.
[1]
http://www.nndb.com/people/028/000083776
/humphry-davy-2-sized.jpg [left finger
1: ''left'' viewed as educated
intellectuals in 1800s England? just
coincidence?] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Sir_Humphry_Davy2.jpg
[2] Taken from The Life of Sir Humphry
Davy by John A. Paris, London: Colburn
and Bentley, 1831. Engraving from about
1830, based on a portrait by Sir Thomas
Lawrence (1769 - 1830) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Humphry_Davy_Engraving_1830.jpg
[1811 AD]
periodic oscillation can be reduced to
a sum of simple sinusoidal waves.
[1]
http://br.geocities.com/saladefisica3/fo
tos/fourier.jpg PD/CC AND Fourier
Series general form and example from
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourier_ser
ies GNU AND Théorie du mouvement
de la chaleur dans les corps solides
(suite) p.1-94 Mémoires de
l'Académie royale des sciences de
l'Institut de France, années 1821 et
1822, t. V, p. 153 à 246; 1826.
Imprimerie
royale http://books.google.com/books?id
=EpfgAAAAMAAJ
AND http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bp
t6k33707/f6
AND http://math-doc.ujf-grenoble.fr/cgi
-bin/oetoc?id=OE_FOURIER__2 {Fourier_18
21.pdf} English translation: Fourier,
J.B.J., and A. Freeman. The Analytical
Theory of Heat. At the University
Press,
1878. http://books.google.com/books?id=
-N8EAAAAYAAJ PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Fourier2.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w
iki/Fourier_serieshttp://books.google.co
m/books?id=-N8EAAAAYAAJhttp://books.goog
le.com/books?id=EpfgAAAAMAAJ
[2]
http://br.geocities.com/saladefisica3/fo
tos/fourier.jpg PD/CC
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Fourier2.jpg
[1811 AD]
method to determine correct atomic mass
and molecular formula. By presuming
that the distance between molecules
does not vary, equal volumes of all
gases at the same temperature and
pressure must contain the same number
of molecules.
[1] Amedeo Avogadro, lithograph,
1856. The Granger Collection, New York
PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-15471/Amedeo-Avogadro-lithograph-1856?a
rticleTypeId=1
[2] [t [3 wiki] describes as
''Caricature of Amedeo Avogadro'', is
this not an accurate portrait? and no
photo by 1856?] Amedeo Avogadro -
chemist PD
source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wik
i/Image:Amedeo_Avogadro.gif
[1811 AD]
glycerol and fatty acids is recognized.
[1] Michel Eugène Chevreul
(1786-1889), French chemist. Source
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollecti
ons/hst/scientific-identity/fullsize/SIL
14-C3-10a.jpg Scientist: Chevreul,
Michel Eugène (1786 -
1889) Discipline(s): Chemistry ;
Medicine Print Artist: C. Cook
Medium: Engraving Original Artist:
Maurir Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 15.4 x 12 cm / Sheet: 23.5 x
16.5 cm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Michel_Eug%C3%A8ne_Chevreul.jpg
[2] Michel Eugène Chevreul
(1786-08-31-1889-04-09). Tagged as
retouched by source. Cropped by
uploader. Source Ministère de la
culture - La Médiathèque de
l'Architecture et du Patrimoine - Base
Mémoire >
http://www.mediatheque-patrimoine.cultur
e.gouv.fr/fr/archives_photo/fonds_photo/
nadar.html > [1] >
http://www.culture.gouv.fr/Wave/image/me
moire/0071/sap01_v1-17878_t.jpg Date
1886 Author Félix Nadar PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Chevreul_by_Nadar_1886.jpg
[1814 AD]
emit specific spectral lines is known.
The spectrum of planet Venus is found
to have the same absorption lines as
the Sun, and the spectrum of other
stars are found to have absorption
lines that are different from those of
the Sun.
Germany
[1] Figure 3 from: Joseph,
Fraunhofer, ''Bestimmung des Brechungs-
und Farbenzerstreuungs-Vermögens
verschiedener Glasarten, in Bezug auf
die Vervollkommnung achromatischer
Fernrohre.'', Akademie Der
Wissenschaften zu München, (1814), 15
Band v, pp 193-226.
http://books.google.com/books?id=2-AAA
AAAYAAJ&pg=PA203 PD AND Figure 1
from: Joseph, Fraunhofer,
''Bestimmung des Brechungs- und
Farbenzerstreuungs-Vermögens
verschiedener Glasarten, in Bezug auf
die Vervollkommnung achromatischer
Fernrohre.'', Akademie Der
Wissenschaften zu München, (1814), 15
Band v, pp 193-226.
http://books.google.com/books?id=2-AAA
AAAYAAJ&pg=PA203 PD AND circa 1820
- 01 Jan 1820 Email this image Rate
this image Joseph von
Fraunhofer (Photo by Hulton
Archive/Getty Images) PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=2-AAAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA203http://www.viewima
ges.com/Search.aspx?mid=3270856&epmid=1&
partner=Google
[2] Figure 3 from: Joseph,
Fraunhofer, ''Bestimmung des Brechungs-
und Farbenzerstreuungs-Vermögens
verschiedener Glasarten, in Bezug auf
die Vervollkommnung achromatischer
Fernrohre.'', Akademie Der
Wissenschaften zu München, (1814), 15
Band v, pp 193-226.
http://books.google.com/books?id=2-AAA
AAAYAAJ&pg=PA203 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=2-AAAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA203
[11/??/1815 AD]
are multiples of the atomic mass of
hydrogen.
[1] William Prout (published
anonymously), On the Relation between
the Specific Gravities of Bodies in
their Gaseous State and the Weights of
their Atoms. Annals of Philosophy 6,
p321-330
(1815). books.google.com/books?id=tDowA
AAAYAAJ PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=tDowAAAAYAA
[2] William Prout
(1785-1850) PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.uam.es/departamentos/
ciencias/qorg/docencia_red/qo/l0/1830.ht
ml
[1815 AD]
chemically identical molecules that
rotate polarized light in different
directions because of differences in
their shape.
[1] Jean-Baptiste Biot PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://mek.oszk.hu/03500/03574/h
tml/cz5.htm
[2] Jean Baptiste Biot PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jbiot.jpg
[1815 AD]
a group of atoms that take part in most
chemical reactions as a single unit,
usually passing from one compound to
another but incapable of existing
freely for a long time.
[1] Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gaylussac.jpg
[2] Scientist: Gay-Lussac, Joseph
Louis (1778 - 1850) Discipline(s):
Chemistry ; Physics Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 10 x 6.4 cm /
Sheet: 25 x 19.3 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=g
[1816 AD]
recognized by the kinds of fossils in
them is understood.
[1] William Smith, from
http://web4.si.edu/sil/scientific-identi
ty/display_results.cfm?alpha_sort=W Sci
entist: Smith, William (1769 -
1839) Discipline(s):
Geology Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 13.2 x 10.3 cm / [t looks
like early photo in history of
photography - first photo in 1816 and
not permanent until 1822 and 1826
(oldest existing photo. Smith dies in
1839, it shows that photography spread
fast within 13 years.] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:William_Smith.g.jpg
[01/12/1817 AD]
transverse wave (oscillates at a right
angle to the direction of travel) in an
aether medium. This theory is used to
explain light polarization as the
alignment of light waves oscillating in
the same plane.
But polarization can also be
explained as "planarization", in which
light is filtered into parallel planes
when reflected.
[1] ''Letter from Dr. Young to M.
Arago'', Jan. 12, 1817, found in:
Young, T., G. Peacock, and J. Leitch.
Miscellaneous Works: Scientific
Memoirs. Murray,
1855. http://books.google.com/books?id=
-XAXAQAAMAAJ&pg=380 PD AND Portrait
of Thomas Young in color PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=-XAXAQAAMAAJ&pg=380http://ugadayki.ru/i
mages/sv/133163204157_full.jpg
[2] ''Letter from Dr. Young to M.
Arago'', Jan. 12, 1817, found in:
Young, T., G. Peacock, and J. Leitch.
Miscellaneous Works: Scientific
Memoirs. Murray,
1855. http://books.google.com/books?id=
-XAXAQAAMAAJ&pg=380 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=-XAXAQAAMAAJ&pg=380
[1817 AD]
light.
[1] Gmelin, L. Handbuch Der
Theoretischen Chemie. Springer-Verlag,
1817. Handbuch Der Theoretischen
Chemie. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=ohUoAQAAIAAJ PD AND Scientist:
Gmelin, Leopold (1788 -
1853) Discipline(s): Chemistry Print
Artist: George Cook, 1793-1849
Medium: Engraving Original Artist:
J. Woelfyle Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 15.2 x 12 cm / Sheet: 26.9 x
18.4 cm PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=ohUoAQAAIAAJhttp://www.sil.si.edu/digit
alcollections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/
CF/display_results.cfm?alpha_sort=G
[2] Scientist: Gmelin, Leopold (1788
- 1853) Discipline(s):
Chemistry Print Artist: George Cook,
1793-1849 Medium: Engraving
Original Artist: J. Woelfyle
Original Dimensions: Graphic: 15.2 x
12 cm / Sheet: 26.9 x 18.4 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=G
[1818 AD]
is proven.
[1] Portrait of Christian Gottfried
Ehrenberg (1795-1876) PD/Corel
source: http://www.springerlink.com/cont
ent/y0w6w64010355260/ Gone with the
wind â" a second blow against
spontaneous generation In memoriam,
Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg
(1795â"1876) Journal Aerobiologia P
ublisher Springer
Netherlands ISSN 0393-5965 (Print)
1573-3025 (Online) Issue Volume 11,
Number 3 / September,
1995 Category Historial
Biography DOI 10.1007/BF02450041 Pages
205-211 Subject Collection Earth and
Environmental Science SpringerLink
Date Tuesday, August 01,
2006 Ehrenberg.pdf
[2] Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg
(1795-1876) German naturalist,
zoologist, comparative anatomist,
geologist, and microscopist PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Ehren
berg_Christian_Gottfried_1795-1876.png
[04/21/1820 AD]
cause magnetism, and the first
electromagnet; electric current running
through a wire causes a magnetic
compass needle to move.
[1] A younger Hans Christian Ørsted,
painted in the 19th century. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:%C3%98rsted.jpg
[2] Picture number :317 CD number
:9 Picture size :757x859[pixels],
66x75[mm] Date taken :0000-00-00
Date added
:2000-04-13 Fotographer/Owner :Engrave
d Location
:Denmark Description H.C. Oersted
(1777-1851). Danish physicist. Here as
a youngster. The picture was donated to
the Danish Polytech Institute,
Copenhagen, by his daughter Miss
Mathilde Oersted, April 19,
1905. PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.polytechphotos.dk/ind
ex.php?CHGLAN=2&CatID=286
[09/18/1820 AD]
in a wire is related to magnetic
force.
If the right hand holds a wire with the
thumb pointing from positive to
negative, the fingers indicate the
direction the north pole of a magnet
will be deflected.
[1] Ampere and Arago, French
physicists UNKNOWN
source: http://static.greatbigcanvas.com
/images/print_rolled_photoluster/science
-photo-library/1153189.jpg?max=540
[2] André-Marie Ampère
(1775-1836) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ampere1.jpg
[09/25/1820 AD]
electricity; that electric current runs
through a permanent magnet. In addition
two parallel wires are found to attract
each other when carrying current in the
same direction, and repel each other
when carrying current in opposite
directions.
[1] [t Figure 1 and 2 from 10/02/1820
paper] PD/Corel
source: http://www.ampere.cnrs.fr/i-corp
uspic/tab/Oeuvres/annales_chimie_15/077.
jpg
[2] André-Marie Ampère
(1775-1836) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ampere1.jpg
[1820 AD]
needle is deflected to measure a
current; wrapping a wire several turns
around the needle is found to increase
the effect.
[1] Diagram of Schweigger's
multiplier. From Journal für Chemie
und Physik 31 (Neue Reihe, Bd.
I, 1821), Plate I (after p. 114), Fig.
10. Smithsonian neg. no. 46,825. PD
source: http://siarchives.si.edu/history
/jhp/joseph21.htm
[2] Multiplier (Multiplicator) In
1820, Schweigger built a rectangular
wooden frame on which he wound an
insulated wire. This was called the
Schweigger multiplier. A magnetic
needle was suspended from a thin thread
inside the coil. In the absence of
electrical current the needle is
oriented according to the magnetic
meridian. When an electrical current is
passed through the coil on the frame,
the needle changes direction; the
stronger the current, the more marked
the deflection. PD?/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/histor
y/schweigger.html
[1820 AD]
discovered.
[1] Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen
. Source Can be downloaded from
e.g.
http://www.70south.com/resources/antarct
ic-history/explorers/bellingshausen The
portrait was also on a British postal
stamp (see
http://www.ivki.ru/kapustin/expedition/a
ntarctida/antarctida.htm) Date 19th
century portrait PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Fabian_Gottlieb_von_Bellingshausen.jp
g
[1820 AD]
This engine uses hydrogen gas
combustion to create a vacuum.
England
[1] W. Cecil's hydrogen combustion
vacuum engine PD/Corel
source: http://www.eng.cam.ac.uk/DesignO
ffice/projects/cecil/images/isometricalv
iew.jpg
[2] Cecil's figures PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=hgYFAAAAQAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edi
tions:0iE3HbhCd9wmSagF2t&as_brr=1#PPA230
,M1
[07/05/1821 AD]
a vacuum is moved by a magnet.
[1] A. The tube, of the usual
diameter. B. The wire for
communicating electricity. E. A small
cylinder of metallic foil, to place as
a cap on tubes not having the wire B,
to make a coated surface. C. The
surface of the quicksilver, or fused
tin. D. The part of the tube to be
exhausted by the stop-cock F, after
being filled by means of the same
stop-cock, when necessary, with
hydrogene. G. The moveable[err] tube
connected with the air-pump. It is
evident, that by introducing more
mercury, the leg D may be filled with
mercury, and the stop-cock closed upon
it, so as to leave only a torricellian
vacuum in the tube, in which the
mercury may be boiled. I have found
that the experiment tried in this way,
offers no difference of result. PD
source: http://journals.royalsociety.org
/content/cu3223052t214156/?p=a822388f3bd
34c1f976f9a6152c9ebcbπ=55 Farther
Researches on the Magnetic Phaenomena
Produced by Electricity; With Some New
Experiments on the Properties of
Electrified Bodies in Their Relations
to Conducting Powers and
Temperature Davy_magnetic_full.pdf p74
[2]
http://www.nndb.com/people/028/000083776
/humphry-davy-2-sized.jpg [left finger
1: ''left'' viewed as educated
intellectuals in 1800s England? just
coincidence?] PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Sir_H
umphry_Davy2.jpg
[09/11/1821 AD]
electric motor creates sustained
mechanical motion from electricity, and
is based on the principle that like
poles of a magnet repel one another.
England
[1] The first electric motors - Michael
Faraday, 1821 From the Quarterly
Journal of Science, Vol XII, 1821 PD
source: http://www.sparkmuseum.com/MOTOR
S.HTM
[2] Description Michael Faraday,
oil, by Thomas Phillips Source
Thomas Phillips,1842 Date
1842 Author Thomas Phillips[3
wiki] The portrait shown here was
painted by Thomas Phillips (1770-1845),
oil on canvas, The National Portrait
Gallery, London.[7] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:M_Faraday_Th_Phillips_oil_1842.jpg
[1821 AD]
(ZABeK) effect) is discovered: that an
electric current flows between
different conductive materials that are
kept at different temperatures.
This is the basis of
the thermocouple {tr-mO-KuPL} and
thermopile {tR-mu-PIL}.
[1] the experimental use of Seebeck's
instrument COPYRIGHTED
source: http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/histor
y/seebeck.html
[2] Thomas Seebeck Source
Originally from de.wikipedia; Hans
Wahl, Anton Kippenberg: Goethe und
seine Welt, Insel-Verlag, Leipzig 1932
S.204 Date early 19th century PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:ThomasSeebeck.jpg
[06/14/1823 AD]
is established. This equation equates
wavelength (or particle interval) of
light to the grating groove spacing and
the angle between the spectral line and
the perpendicular to the grating. This
equation is then used to calculate
wavelengths of light from a diffraction
grating for the first time.
(presumably)
[1] T is the angle made with the plane
of the grating by a colored beam after
diffraction. E is grating spacing, v
is order of spectrum, w is
wavelength Adapter equation 5
from: Kurzer Bericht von den
Resultaten neurer Versuche über die
Gesetze des Lichtes, und die Theorie
derselben, ''Annalen der Physik'',
LXXIV, 1823, pp. 337-378. Excerpts
in English translation ''SHORT ACCOUNT
OF THE RESULTS OF NEW EXPERIMENTS ON
THE LAWS OF LIGHT AND THEIR THEORY'' :
J. S. Ames (ed.), Prismatic and
Diffraction Spectra: Memoirs by
Joseph von Fraunhofer, New York 1898,
pp.
39-61. http://books.google.com/books?hl
=en&id=5GE3AAAAMAAJ&dq=Prismatic+and+Dif
fraction+Spectra:++Memoirs+by+Joseph+von
+Fraunhofer&printsec=frontcover&source=w
eb&ots=K2VGb4IsNb&sig=HcoZYrNDKoTfjsUErI
WZX5pLtn0&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&c
t=result#PPP11,M1 {Fraunhofer_Joseph_vo
n_Prismatic_and_diffraction_spectra_1823
0714.pdf} others: Gilbert's Annalen
der Physlk, Band 74, p. 337-378.
Edinburgh Journal of Science, VII,
VIII, 1827, 1828. PD AND English:
Joseph von Fraunhofer was a German
physicist. Quelle: Engraving in the
Small Portraits collection, History of
Science Collections, University of
Oklahoma
Libraries. http://hsci.cas.ou.edu/exhib
its/exhibit.php?exbid=34&exbpg=1 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?hl
=en&id=5GE3AAAAMAAJ&dq=Prismatic+and+Dif
fraction+Spectra:++Memoirs+by+Joseph+von
+Fraunhofer&printsec=frontcover&source=w
eb&ots=K2VGb4IsNb&sig=HcoZYrNDKoTfjsUErI
WZX5pLtn0&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&c
t=result#PPP11,M1http://en.wikipedia.org
/wiki/Image:Fraunhofer_2.jpg
[2] T is the angle made with the plane
of the grating by a colored beam after
diffraction. E is grating spacing, v
is order of spectrum, w is
wavelength Adapter equation 5
from: Kurzer Bericht von den
Resultaten neurer Versuche über die
Gesetze des Lichtes, und die Theorie
derselben, ''Annalen der Physik'',
LXXIV, 1823, pp. 337-378. Excerpts
in English translation ''SHORT ACCOUNT
OF THE RESULTS OF NEW EXPERIMENTS ON
THE LAWS OF LIGHT AND THEIR THEORY'' :
J. S. Ames (ed.), Prismatic and
Diffraction Spectra: Memoirs by
Joseph von Fraunhofer, New York 1898,
pp.
39-61. http://books.google.com/books?hl
=en&id=5GE3AAAAMAAJ&dq=Prismatic+and+Dif
fraction+Spectra:++Memoirs+by+Joseph+von
+Fraunhofer&printsec=frontcover&source=w
eb&ots=K2VGb4IsNb&sig=HcoZYrNDKoTfjsUErI
WZX5pLtn0&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&c
t=result#PPP11,M1 {Fraunhofer_Joseph_vo
n_Prismatic_and_diffraction_spectra_1823
0714.pdf} others: Gilbert's Annalen
der Physlk, Band 74, p. 337-378.
Edinburgh Journal of Science, VII,
VIII, 1827, 1828. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?hl
=en&id=5GE3AAAAMAAJ&dq=Prismatic+and+Dif
fraction+Spectra:++Memoirs+by+Joseph+von
+Fraunhofer&printsec=frontcover&source=w
eb&ots=K2VGb4IsNb&sig=HcoZYrNDKoTfjsUErI
WZX5pLtn0&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&c
t=result#PPP11,M1
[1825 AD]
(also known as an inductor). This
electromagnet can support more than
it's own weight.
[1] Sturgeon's electromagnet.
From Transactions of the Society
for the Encouragement of the Arts 43
(1824), Plate 3, Fig. 13. Smithsonian
neg. no. 46,761-D. PD/Corel
source: http://siarchives.si.edu/history
/jhp/sturgeon.jpg
[2] Sturgeon's electro- magnet of
1824 PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/histor
y/sturgeon.html
[03/??/1826 AD]
be used to detect the presence of
chemical compounds is understood.
[1] W. H. F. Talbot, ''Some Experiments
on Coloured Flames,'' Edinburgh Journal
of Science, 1826,
5:77-81. http://books.google.com/books?
id=FCEAAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=e
ditions:09ag5pOefph1Cw5vrXy#PPA77,M1 PD
AND Description William Henry Fox
Talbot, by John Moffat, 1864. Date
1864 Source Fox Talbot, Lifelines
38, Shire publications Ltd, Princes
Risborough, 3rd Edition 1997. Author
MichaelMaggs PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=FCEAAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edi
tions:09ag5pOefph1Cw5vrXy#PPA77,M1http:/
/upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/
thumb/3/39/William_Henry_Fox_Talbot%2C_b
y_John_Moffat%2C_1864.jpg/810px-William_
Henry_Fox_Talbot%2C_by_John_Moffat%2C_18
64.jpg
[2] The AMICO Library from RLG -
William Henry Fox Talbot. Leaves of
Orchidea (negative). 1839. J. Paul
Getty Museum. [JPGM86.XM.621] PD/Corel
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:William_Fox_Talbot.jpg
[07/31/1826 AD]
oscillation is discovered (the basis of
alternating current and radio
communication).
(presumably)
source: Félix Savary, "Mémoire sur
l'alimentation", Annales de Chimie et
de Physique, 1827, 34.
:54-56. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=QaQwAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA30
[1826 AD]
and photograph reproduction process. A
pewter plate is coated with asphalt
which hardens on exposure to light, the
unhardened areas are removed with oil
of lavender mixed with petroleum jelly.
Prints of the image can then be made on
a press.
[1] English: By Nicéphore Niépce in
1826, entitled ''View from the Window
at Le Gras,'' captured on 20 × 25 cm
oil-treated bitumen. Due to the 8-hour
exposure, the buildings are illuminated
by the sun from both right and left.
This photo is generally considered the
first successful permanent
photograph. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:View_from_the_Window_at_Le_Gras%2C_Jo
seph_Nic%C3%A9phore_Ni%C3%A9pce.jpg
[2] Joseph-Nicéphore Niépce. ©
Bettmann/Corbis PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://concise.britannica.com/eb
c/art-59378/Joseph-Nicephore-Niepce
[1826 AD]
car and boat.
[1] [t Samuel Brown's engine used to
raise water] PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=8e9MAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA103&lpg=PA103&dq=%22r
obert+street%22+patent+engine&source=web
&ots=zXhunpMWQn&sig=OK3zL_tlF9en_5S83tLJ
0kuNyVI&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum
=1&ct=result#PPA105,M1
[05/01/1827 AD]
resistance, and "Ohm's law": that
current is equal to voltage divided by
resistance.
Cologne?)
[1] [t Figures from 1827 work of
Ohm] PD
source: Ohm_Georg_1827.pdf
[2] Georg Simon Ohm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ohm3.gif
[1827 AD]
discovered.
Russia
[1] Subject : Karl von Baer
(1792-1876) German biologist, father
of embryology. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Baer_Karl_von_1792-1876.jpg
[2] Karl Ernst von
Baer http://www.zbi.ee/baer/vonbaer.jpg
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Vonbaer.jpg
[1827 AD]
interval) of light of a given spectral
line can be used as a standard of
length is realized.
[1] Description French physicist
Jacques Babinet (1794-1872) Source
[1]http://www.molecularexpressions.com/
optics/timeline/people/babinet.html Dat
e 19th century Author Unknown PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jacques_Babinet.jpg
[1827 AD]
spark is passed through a rotating
strip of litmus paper which, by the
formation of nitric acid, leaves a red
dot.
[1] Text from: ''Old Time Telegraphic
History'', Electrical World and
Engineer, 01/17/1903,
p113. http://books.google.com/books?id=
hbZQAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA115 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=hbZQAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA115
[1827 AD]
France|France|(A bridge in) Paris,
France
[1] Gwilt, J. An Encyclop�dia of
Architecture: Historical, Theoretical,
and Practical. Longman, Brown, Green,
and Longmans, 1842,
p511. http://books.google.com/books?id=
6-1LAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA511 PD AND LYON -
LE PONT MORAUD - LE QUAI DE RETZ ET LE
COTEAU DE FOURVIERE (Circulada en
1919) Postal de los primeros años
del siglo XX Inscrita con el número:
41 LYON - LE PONT MORAUD - LE QUAI DE
RETZ ET LE COTEAU DE FOURVIERE
Circulada sin sello (ha sido despegado)
con fecha del 22-9-1919 y en perfecto
estado. Ahorre gastos de envio
adquiriendo varios lotes. Adquiere
lotes hasta un valor de 30 euros y los
gastos de envio correrán de mi cuenta
por correo certificado. No acumulable a
varias subastas. Acepto pago por
transferencia bancaria o giro postal.
Envio por correo ordinario a España
1,00 euros, para Europa 1,50 euros,
sean las postales que sean. Si el envio
se prefiere certificado el coste es de
3,00 euros a España, y para envios a
Europa 3,50 euros UNKNOWN
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=6-1LAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA511http://pictures2.t
odocoleccion.net/tc/2009/12/30/16664597.
jpg
[02/??/1828 AD]
(urea) is produced from inorganic
sources.
Berlin, Germany
[1] * Title: Friedrich Wöhler *
Year: unknown * Source:
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollections
/hst/scientific-identity/explore.htm
* Licence: Public Domain PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Friedrich_W%C3%B6hler_Stich.jpg
[2] Friedrich Wöhler, German
chemist Source:
http://wwwihm.nlm.nih.gov/ PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Friedrich_woehler.jpg
[06/??/1828 AD]
[1] Henry's Albany magnet. Image
copied from old photograph, N.M.A.H.
Cat. No. 181,451c. Smithsonian neg.
no. 39,040. PD AND In 1846, the
Smithsonian Board of Regents chose
Joseph Henry as the Institution's first
secretary. PD/Corel
source: http://siarchives.si.edu/history
/jhp/39040.gifhttp://www.150.si.edu/chap
2/2man.htm
[2] Henry's Albany magnet. Image
copied from old photograph, N.M.A.H.
Cat. No. 181,451c. Smithsonian neg.
no. 39,040. PD
source: http://siarchives.si.edu/history
/jhp/39040.gif
[03/27/1829 AD]
moving a wire near a magnet; the
phenomenon of dynamic electrical
induction.
[1] Francesco Zantedeschi PD/Corel
source: http://www.liceofoscarini.it/sto
ria/bio/zantedeschi.html
[2] Image of Francesco Zantedeschi
1797 to 1873 to illustrate that
article. Uploaded from
http://www.jergym.hiedu.cz/~canovm/objev
ite/objev4/zan.htm and
http://www.jergym.hiedu.cz/~canovm/objev
ite/objev4/zan2.htm (English
translation) This portrait of
Francesco Zantedeschi was published by
Stefano de Stefani, president of the
Academy of Agriculture, Arts and
Commerce of Verona, on March 21, 1875
to accompany his eulogy to Zantedeschi
on the occasion of the transport of his
ashes to the cemetery at Verona. Black
and white version PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Franc
esco_Zantedeschi_bw.jpg
[1829 AD]
E=½mv²) and "work" (as W=Fd) are
introduced.
[1] Gustave Coriolis [Coriolis, detail
of a portrait by Zéphirin Belliard,
19th century, after a painting by Jean
Roller; in the Académie des Sciences,
Paris Courtesy of the Archives de
l'Academie des Sciences de Paris;
photograph, J. Colomb-Gerard, Paris
[2]] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gustave_coriolis.jpg
[1829 AD]
universe might be curved while only
appearing to be straight. The start of
"Non-Euclidean" geometry; a geometry
where one or more of Euclid's
postulates is supposed to be false.
That angles in a triangle made of
curved lines may not add to pi as one
of Euclid's postulates requires is
demonstrated.
[1] Figure 8, p19. From German
translation of: NI Lobachevsky,
(translated from Russian) ''On the
foundations of geometry'', Kazan
Messenger, 1829. reprinted in: Kagan
V.F.(ed.): N.I.Lobachevsky - Complete
Collected Works, Vols I-IV (Russian),
Moscow-Leningrad (GITTL)
1946-51 German translation: N I
Lobachevskii; Friedrich Engel, ''Zwei
geometrische Abhandlungen''
,Leipzig,1898-99, 1972. PD
source: N I Lobachevskii; Friedrich
Engel, "Zwei geometrische Abhandlungen"
,Leipzig,1898-99, 1972.
[2] Description Pic of a 19th
century painting. Public domain, from
en wiki image Source
en:Image:Nikolay_Ivanovich_Lobachevsk
y.jpeg Date 19th century PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Nikol
ay_Ivanovich_Lobachevsky.jpeg
[1830 AD]
denounced.
[1] Marshall Hall ([2]:Marshall Hall,
detail of an engraving by J. Holl,
1839, after a portrait by J.Z.
Bell Reproduced by courtesy of the
trustees of the British Museum;
photograph, J.R. Freeman & Co.
Ltd.) PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nndb.com/people/940/0
00101637/
[1830 AD]
vibrations are recorded by a tuning
fork moving an attached whisker onto a
sooted glass plate.
Germany
[1] Wilhelm Eduard Weber
(1804-1891) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Wilhelm_Eduard_Weber_II.jpg
[02/17/1831 AD]
device used to transfer electricity
from one circuit to another, in
particular a pair of wire coils that
can be used to transfer electricity
with a change in voltage, current, or
phase.
A primary coil is found to cause
current in an unconnected secondary
coil, but only when the primary current
is switched on or off, and not during a
constant current.
England
[1] Michael Faraday, ''Experimental
Researches in Electricity'',
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1776-1886), Volume
122, 1832. DOI 10.1098/rstl.1832.0006
{Faraday_1832_Experimental_Researches_
in_Electricity_1.pdf} PD
source: Faraday_1832_Experimental_Resear
ches_in_Electricity_1.pdf
[2] Description Michael Faraday,
oil, by Thomas Phillips Source
Thomas Phillips,1842 Date
1842 Author Thomas Phillips[3
wiki] The portrait shown here was
painted by Thomas Phillips (1770-1845),
oil on canvas, The National Portrait
Gallery, London.[7] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:M_Faraday_Th_Phillips_oil_1842.jpg
[09/??/1831 AD]
(or "dynamo"). By mechanically moving a
conductor near a magnet, a constant
electric current is produced.
Now a steam engine or water power can
be used to produce electricity. The
generator creates a large and low cost
supply of electric current.
England
[1] Description Michael Faraday,
oil, by Thomas Phillips Source
Thomas Phillips,1842 Date
1842 Author Thomas Phillips[3
wiki] The portrait shown here was
painted by Thomas Phillips (1770-1845),
oil on canvas, The National Portrait
Gallery, London.[7] PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:M_Far
aday_Th_Phillips_oil_1842.jpg
[2] Michael Faraday - Project
Gutenberg eText 13103 From The Project
Gutenberg eBook, Great Britain and Her
Queen, by Anne E.
Keeling http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/
13103 PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Micha
el_Faraday_-_Project_Gutenberg_eText_131
03.jpg
[10/??/1831 AD]
heat from a person 7 meters (or 25
feet) away.
[1] Nobili, Leopoldo. ''Description
d'un thermo-multiplicateur ou
thermoscope electrique.'' Bibliothèque
Universelle. Science et Arts 30 (1830):
225-230. books.google.com/books?id=yIZC
AAAAcAAJ&pg=PA225 PD
source: books.google.com/books?id=yIZCAA
AAcAAJ&pg=PA225
[2] Setting: Room XVI
Inventor: Leopoldo Nobili,
Macedonio Melloni Maker:
Giuseppe Caldini Place:
Florence Date:
ca. 1880 Materials:
brass, cast iron, bismuth, antimony
Dimensions: total height
430 mm, base diameter 131 mm
Inventory: 3758
Nobili-Melloni radiant-heat thermopile
(Inv. 3758) Nobili-Melloni
radiant-heat thermopile (Inv.
3758) Radiant-heat thermopile,
Nobili - Melloni pattern. Comprises a
brass box with 120 elements and a large
brass cone hinged to an adjustable
support with cast-iron base. The back
cover is missing. Made by Giuseppe
Caldini, about whom we have no
information. UNKNOWN
source: http://catalogue.museogalileo.it
/images/cat/oggetti_944/0554_3253_2145-0
16_944.jpg
[1831 AD]
compounds with the same chemical
composition is named "isomerism"
{I-SoM-e-riZM}.
[1]
http://www.chemistry.msu.edu/Portraits/i
mages/Berzelius3c.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:J%C3%B6ns_Jacob_Berzelius.jpg
[2] Scientist: Berzelius, Jons Jakob
(1779 - 1848) Discipline(s):
Chemistry Print Artist: Charles W.
Sharpe, d. 1875(76) Medium:
Engraving Original Artist: Johan
Olaf Sodermark, 1790-1848 Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 26.8 x 18.2 cm /
Sheet: 31.6 x 23 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=B
[1832 AD]
of nitrocellulose, are created by
treating starch, sawdust, and cotton
with nitric acid.
[1] Henri Braconnot, French
chemist H402/0577 Rights
Managed Credit: CCI ARCHIVES/SCIENCE
PHOTO LIBRARY Caption: Henri
Braconnot (1780-1855), French chemist
and pharmacist. At 13 Braconnot
undertook a two year apprenticeship in
a pharmacy in Nancy. As well as
pharmacology he also studied chemistry
and botany. He continued his education
in Strasbourg and Paris, before
returning to Nancy in 1802 to become
the chairman of the botanical garden.
His research lead to the discovery of
numerous plant compounds, including
acids and sugars, as well as
discovering chitin, the earliest known
polysaccharide, in mushrooms. Braconnot
was also the first chemist to create a
polymer when he added nitric acid to
wood or cotton to obtain
xyloidine. Release details: Model
and property releases are not available
PD
source: http://www.sciencephoto.com/imag
e/223788/large/H4020577-Henri_Braconnot,
_French_chemist-SPL.jpg
[2] Henri Braconnot, French
chemist H402/0577 Rights
Managed Credit: CCI ARCHIVES/SCIENCE
PHOTO LIBRARY Caption: Henri
Braconnot (1780-1855), French chemist
and pharmacist. At 13 Braconnot
undertook a two year apprenticeship in
a pharmacy in Nancy. As well as
pharmacology he also studied chemistry
and botany. He continued his education
in Strasbourg and Paris, before
returning to Nancy in 1802 to become
the chairman of the botanical garden.
His research lead to the discovery of
numerous plant compounds, including
acids and sugars, as well as
discovering chitin, the earliest known
polysaccharide, in mushrooms. Braconnot
was also the first chemist to create a
polymer when he added nitric acid to
wood or cotton to obtain
xyloidine. Release details: Model
and property releases are not available
PD
source:
[1832 AD]
(or AC) generator.
[1] The machine contained a permanent
magnet which was rotated by a hand
crank. The spinning magnet was
positioned so that its north and south
poles passed by a piece of iron wrapped
with wire. Pixii found that the
spinning magnet produced a pulse of
current in the wire each time a pole
passed the coil. Furthermore, the north
and south poles of the magnet induced
currents in opposite directions. PD
source: http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/histor
y/pixii.html
[2] Description: Erste bekannt
gewordene magneto-elektrische
Wechselstrommaschine, gebaut 1832 von
Pixii auf Anregung von Ampere; Source:
Niethammer, F.; Ein- und
Mehrphasen-Wechselstrom-Erzeuger;
Verlag S. Hirzel; Leipzig 1906 Date:
created 1906 Author: - Permission:
Hermann A. Wiese put it under public
domain An early form of an alternating
current electrical generator built by
Pixii PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Wechselstromerzeuger.jpg
[01/01/1834 AD]
that cuts grain.
[1] Early reaping machine for
harvesting grain. V900/0023 Rights
Managed Credit: SCIENCE PHOTO
LIBRARY Caption: Reaping machine.
Engraving of the first reaping machine
for harvesting grain, invented by Cyrus
Hall McCormick (1809-1884) in 1831. As
the wheel (at centre) spun, the paddles
on it pushed the crop onto a moving
cutter bar and knife. This design
feature has been retained in modern
combine harvesters although McCormick's
machine was pulled by horses rather
than being pushed. McCormick patented
his invention in 1834, made his first
sale in 1840 and moved to Chicago in
1847 to begin large-scale production.
The six million harvesters he
manufactured opened the prairie lands
to intensive agriculture, a major
factor in America's
prosperity. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.sciencephoto.com/imag
e/364617/large/V9000023-Early_reaping_ma
chine_for_harvesting_grain.-SPL.jpg
[2] New Reaper, Getreidemäher New
Reaper, Stein der Weisen 1889 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Agriculture_2.jpg
[01/09/1834 AD]
mass of a substance deposited on an
electrode is in proportion to the
quantity of electricity, and to the
atomic mass of the element liberated.
England
[1] Description Michael Faraday,
oil, by Thomas Phillips Source
Thomas Phillips,1842 Date
1842 Author Thomas Phillips The
portrait shown here was painted by
Thomas Phillips (1770-1845), oil on
canvas, The National Portrait Gallery,
London. PD AND Faraday, Michael.
''Experimental Researches in
Electricity.--Seventh Series.''
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London 124 (1834):
77-122. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=ZG5KAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA127
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/108055
PD
source: Faraday, Michael. "Experimental
Researches in Electricity.--Seventh
Series." Philosophical Transactions of
the Royal Society of London 124 (1834):
77-122. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=ZG5KAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA127http://en.wikiped
ia.org/wiki/Image:M_Faraday_Th_Phillips_
oil_1842.jpg
[2] Faraday, Michael. ''Experimental
Researches in Electricity.--Seventh
Series.'' Philosophical Transactions of
the Royal Society of London 124 (1834):
77-122. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=ZG5KAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA127
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/108055
PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=ZG5KAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA127
[06/19/1834 AD]
is measured using a rotating mirror.
[1] Figure from [7 591] PD
source: An Account of Some Experiments
to Measure the Velocity of Electricity
and the Duration of Electric
Light Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 124 -
1834 Author Charles
Wheatstone DOI 10.1098/rstl.1834.0031
Wheatstone_velocity.pdf 591
[2] Figure from [7 592] PD
source: An Account of Some Experiments
to Measure the Velocity of Electricity
and the Duration of Electric
Light Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 124 -
1834 Author Charles
Wheatstone DOI 10.1098/rstl.1834.0031
Wheatstone_velocity.pdf 592
[1834 AD]
calculating machine that uses punch
card programs, with looping, iteration,
and conditional branching is designed.
[1] Charles Babbage, circa
1843 PD/COREL
source: http://robroy.dyndns.info/Babbag
e/Images/babbage-1843.jpg
[2] Scientist: Babbage, Charles (1791
- 1871) Discipline(s):
Mathematics Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 10.8 x 8.8 cm / Sheet: 32.8 x
22.8 cm PD/COREL
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=b
[1834 AD]
[1] Español: Ada King, Condesa de
Lovelace (1838) From The Ada Picture
Gallery. Evelyn Silva scanned this
from a picture she found ''in the
trash'' in Lousianna, USA, and
submitted it to the Ada Picture Gallery
in October 2000. She wrote: On the
bottom of the picture it says ''LONDON
PUBLISHED NOV 1 1838 FOR THE
PROPRIETORS, No 18 & 19 SOUTHAMPTON
PLACE, EUSTON SQUARE, NEW ROAD''. In
the lower left corner it says
''Printered by Mc Queen''. On the lower
right of the picture its ''Engraved By
W. H. Mote''. On the left ''Drawn by
A.E. Chaton R.A.''. There was also a
page with a bio on it. This was not in
a book when I found it, it was loose
along with some other Ladies of the
Queens court. So I don't have any other
info on it. It is an orginal print from
its time, not a reproduction. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ada_Lovelace_1838.jpg
[2] Español: Ada Augusta Byron
King Ada Lovelace, 19th century
British mathematician. Source:
National Physical Gallery,
Teddington. Copied from
en:Image:Ada_Lovelace.jpg. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ada_Lovelace.jpg
[1834 AD]
discovered by distilling wood.
(presumably)
[1] Methanol PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Met
hanol
[2] French chemist Jean Baptiste
André Dumas (1800-1884) from English
wikipedia original text: - Magnus
Manske (164993 bytes) from
http://web4.si.edu/sil/scientific-identi
ty/display_results.cfm?alpha_sort=d PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jean_Baptiste_Andr%C3%A9_Dumas.jpg
[01/19/1835 AD]
rays") can be reflected and polarized
is proven.
Scotland
[1] Forbes, James D. ''XXII. On the
refraction and polarization of heat.''
The London and Edinburgh Philosophical
Magazine and Journal of Science 6.32
(1835):
134-142. books.google.com/books?id=c2vk
AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA134
AND books.google.com/books?id=c2vkAAAAM
AAJ&pg=PA205
AND books.google.com/books?id=c2vkAAAAM
AAJ&pg=PA284 AND
books.google.com/books?id=c2vkAAAAMAAJ
&pg=PA366 PD AND Description
English: James David Forbes Date
2011-06-27 00:22 (UTC) Source
James_David_Forbes.jpg Author
James_David_Forbes.jpg: Unknown
derivative work: Quibik (talk) PD
source: books.google.com/books?id=c2vkAA
AAMAAJ&pg=PA134books.google.com/books?id
=c2vkAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA205books.google.com/b
ooks?id=c2vkAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA284books.googl
e.com/books?id=c2vkAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA366http
://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/common
s/2/2b/James_David_Forbes.png
[2] Description English: James
David Forbes Date 2011-06-27 00:22
(UTC) Source
James_David_Forbes.jpg Author
James_David_Forbes.jpg: Unknown
derivative work: Quibik (talk) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2b/James_David_Forbes.pn
g
[02/06/1835 AD]
that allows the electric current of
telegraph signals to be carried over
long distances.
[1] In 1846, the Smithsonian Board of
Regents chose Joseph Henry as the
Institution's first
secretary. PD/Corel
source: http://www.150.si.edu/chap2/2man
.htm
.jpg)
[2] Description Portrait of Joseph
Henry Source
http://www.photolib.noaa.gov/bigs/per
s0124.jpg Date 1879 Author
Henry Ulke
(1821-1910) Permission (Reusing this
image) Public domain. PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Jospe
h_Henry_%281879%29.jpg
[1835 AD]
(like mirrors) by chemical reduction of
a silver nitrate solution with an
aldehyde.
Germany
[1] Source:
http://www.uh.edu/engines/jliebig.jpg A
rtist & subject dies >70yrs ago. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:JustusLiebig.jpg
[2] Deutsch: Justus Liebig 1821 als
junger Student mit Burschenschaftsband,
Zeichnung von 1843 Source
http://www.liebig-museum.de/Tafeln/se
ite_02.pdf Date 1843 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Young-Justus-Liebig.jpg
[02/09/1836 AD]
first identified.
(presumably)
[1] Valentin, G. G. ''Über den Verlauf
und die letzten Enden der Nerven.'',
Nova Acta Phys. Med. Acad. Nat. Curios
18.51,541
(1836). books.google.com/books?id=--IxA
QAAMAAJ&pg=PA241 PD AND Description
English: Gabriel G.
Valentin Polski: Gabriel G.
Valentin Date before 1880 Source
IHM Author
Unknown Permission (Reusing this
file) The National Library of
Medicine believes this item to be in
the public domain. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=--IxAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA241http://upload.wiki
media.org/wikipedia/commons/7/75/Gabriel
_G._Valentin.jpg
[2] Description English: Gabriel G.
Valentin Polski: Gabriel G.
Valentin Date before 1880 Source
IHM Author
Unknown Permission (Reusing this
file) The National Library of
Medicine believes this item to be in
the public domain. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/75/Gabriel_G._Valentin.j
pg
[1836 AD]
that can reach 600,000 volts, far above
any voltage that can be generated with
a voltaic pile.
[1] Nicholas Joseph Callan, Professor
of Natural Philosophy PD/Corel
source: http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekat
z/scientists/callan.html
[2] The ''Great Coil'' of Nicholas
Callan, 1837 COPYRIGHTED
source: same
[1836 AD]
the paddle wheel.
[1] John Ericsson (1803 - 1889),
Swedish-born inventor. Original print
in possession of National Archives. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:John_Ericsson_2.jpg
[2] Library of Congress PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
/print?id=97184&articleTypeId=0
[07/??/1837 AD]
speaker; that an iron bar emits sounds
that correspond to the number of
currents that rapidly magnetize and
demagnetize it.
[1] ''The Production of Galvanic
Music'', The American journal of
science and arts, Volume 32, Number 2,
July, 1837, p396-397.
http://books.google.com/books?id=gT0PA
AAAYAAJ&pg=PA396 PD AND [1]
Description English: Charles Grafton
Page Date c. 1860 Source
Smithsonian file Transferred from
en.wikipedia to Commons by
User:Wdwd.. Author Charles Grafton
Page. Anemonella at
en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) This image is in the public
domain due to its age;
PD-OLD-100. (Original text :
Smithsonian negative 73-5100) PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=gT0PAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA396http://upload.wiki
media.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f6/CGPagep
ortrait.jpg
[2] Description English: Charles
Grafton Page Date c. 1860 Source
Smithsonian file Transferred from
en.wikipedia to Commons by
User:Wdwd.. Author Charles Grafton
Page. Anemonella at
en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) This image is in the public
domain due to its age;
PD-OLD-100. (Original text :
Smithsonian negative 73-5100) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f6/CGPageportrait.jpg
[12/??/1838 AD]
battery: the chemical union of hydrogen
and oxygen gas in acidified water
caused by platinum that generates
electricity.
Switzerland
[1] C. F. Shoenbein, ''On the Voltaic
Properties of certain Solid and Fluid
Substances'', ''Philosophical
Magazine'', ser3, vol14, (1839).
books.google.com/books?id=dF1KiX7MbSMC
&pg=PA43 {schoenbein004.pdf} PD
AND 19th century photograph. public
domain. PD
source: books.google.com/books?id=dF1KiX
7MbSMC&pg=PA43http://en.wikipedia.org/wi
ki/Image:Sch%C3%B6nbein.jpg
[2] 19th century photograph. public
domain. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Sch%C3%B6nbein.jpg
[1838 AD]
of the same element is named
"allotropy" {u-lo-Tro-PE}.
[1]
http://www.chemistry.msu.edu/Portraits/i
mages/Berzelius3c.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:J%C3%B6ns_Jacob_Berzelius.jpg
[2] Scientist: Berzelius, Jons Jakob
(1779 - 1848) Discipline(s):
Chemistry Print Artist: Charles W.
Sharpe, d. 1875(76) Medium:
Engraving Original Artist: Johan
Olaf Sodermark, 1790-1848 Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 26.8 x 18.2 cm /
Sheet: 31.6 x 23 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=B
[1838 AD]
is measured, by comparing the position
of 61 Cygni {SiG-nI}, to two other more
distant stars during the course of a
year. After correcting for the proper
motion, the star appears to move in an
ellipse every year which is due to
parallax.
Germany
[1] Stellar parallax motion PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Stellarparallax2.svg
[2] Example of lunar parallax:
Occultation of Pleiades by the
Moon Example of lunar parallax from 4
points on earth This is a simulated
image, combining of 4 views of the sky
and the moon's location relative to the
background stars at a single point in
time. The bright stars visible are the
star cluster Pleiades. The date March
22, 1988 was chosen because the moon
occulted stars within the pleides as
visible from North America. NOTE: This
diagram is geometrically accurate,
although not physically possible to see
since the moon was not actually above
the horizon in half the views.
Specifically you can never see the
Pleiades from the south pole! They were
just picked as extreme views from the
earth, the limit of what might be seen
from a set of four locations in a
square on a great circle and a moon
just above the horizon in all four
locations. Credit: Tom Ruen, Full Sky
Observatory * This image was
generated by my own solar system
viewing software. * Source bitmap
for projection from Nasa's Clementine
Spacecraft: o USGS: Global
simple cylindrical projection at 10
km/pixel.
(http://astrogeology.usgs.gov/Projects/C
lementine/images/albedo.simp750.jpeg) P
D
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Lunarparallax_22_3_1988.png
[1838 AD]
plants are made of cells.
Germany
[1] Matthias Jakob Schleiden Library
of Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/Matthias+
Jakob+Schleiden+?cat=technology
[2] 01 Jan 1870 Matthias
Schleiden (Photo by Kean
Collection/Getty Images ) [t again
large side burns looks to be mid to
late 1800s] PD
source: http://www.viewimages.com/Search
.aspx?mid=50898741&epmid=1&partner=Googl
e
[1838 AD]
engine; a cylinder is directly moved by
the explosion.
[1] Donkin, B. A Text-book on Gas, Oil
and Air Engines: Or, Internal
Combustion Motors Without Boiler. C.
Griffin and company, limited,
1896. http://books.google.com/books?id=
8d03AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA22 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=8d03AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA22
[2] Barnett's ignition cock PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=8e9MAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA103&lpg=PA103&dq=%22r
obert+street%22+patent+engine&source=web
&ots=zXhunpMWQn&sig=OK3zL_tlF9en_5S83tLJ
0kuNyVI&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum
=1&ct=result#PPA219,M1
[07/29/1839 AD]
electricity (the photoelectric or
photovoltaic effect). This is the first
photovoltaic (or "solar") cell.
Sunlight contacting metal electrodes
that are immersed in a liquid
electrolyte (such as ferric chloride
mixed with ether) produces a very small
electric current.
France
[1] Becquerel, Alexandre-Edmond.
''Recherches sur les effets de la
radiation chimique de la lumière
solaire, au moyen des courants
électriques.'' CR Acad. Sci 9 (1839):
145-149. English: ''Studies of the
effect of actinitic radiation of
sunlight by means of electric
currents'' books.google.com/books?id=zm
ZFAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA145 PD AND [2]
Scientist: Becquerel, Alexandre Edmond
(1820 - 1891) Discipline(s):
Physics Print Artist: Charles
Jeremie Fuhr, b.1832 Medium:
Lithograph Original Artist: Pierre
Petit, 1832-1885 Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 25.5 x 19 cm / Sheet: 30.6 x
20.1 cm PD/Corel
source: books.google.com/books?id=zmZFAA
AAcAAJ&pg=PA145http://www.sil.si.edu/dig
italcollections/hst/scientific-identity/
fullsize/SIL14-B2-07a.jpg
[2] Becquerel, Alexandre-Edmond.
''Recherches sur les effets de la
radiation chimique de la lumière
solaire, au moyen des courants
électriques.'' CR Acad. Sci 9 (1839):
145-149. English: ''Studies of the
effect of actinitic radiation of
sunlight by means of electric
currents'' books.google.com/books?id=zm
ZFAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA145 PD
source: books.google.com/books?id=zmZFAA
AAcAAJ&pg=PA145
[1839 AD]
animals and plants.
Belgium
[1] Theodor Schwann Library of
Congress PD
source: http://content.answers.com/main/
content/img/scitech/HStheodo.jpg
[2] Autore: Pasquale Baroni Fonte:
foto Gonella Copyright © Museo di
Anatomia Umana ''Luigi Rolando'',
Torino olio su tela PD? COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.torinoscienza.it/img/
orig/it/s00/00/0011/000011a0.jpg
[1839 AD]
{Po-lE-STI-rEN} is discovered; the
first recorded polymerization
{Pu-liMR-u-ZA-suN}.
[1] Description Polystyrene
packaging material Date Source Own
work Author User:Acdx GNU AND
Simon, E. ''Ueber den flussingen Storax
(Styrax liquidus).'' Annalen der
Pharmacie, Volume 31, 1839,
p265-277. http://books.google.com/books
?id=7Bc-AAAAYAAJ&pg=PA265 PD AND CD
case made from general purpose
polystyrene (GPPS) and high impact
polystyrene (HIPS) Description
Español: Caja de CD hecha de
poliestireno cristal y poliestireno
choque English: CD box made of GPPS
and HIPS Français : Boîte de CD
faite en polystyrène crystal et
choc Date 2007 Source Own
work Author Hispalois GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Expanded_polyst
yrene_foam_dunnage.jpg/1135px-Expanded_p
olystyrene_foam_dunnage.jpghttp://books.
google.com/books?id=7Bc-AAAAYAAJ&pg=PA26
5http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/c
ommons/9/90/Caja_de_CD.jpg
[2] Description Polystyrene
packaging material Date Source Own
work Author User:Acdx GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Expanded_polyst
yrene_foam_dunnage.jpg/1135px-Expanded_p
olystyrene_foam_dunnage.jpg
[03/12/1840 AD]
identified.
[1] Thermographs from 1840 John
Herschel paper. PD
source: http://journals.royalsociety.org
/content/j3401r3x2g4r02h8/?p=684dc9788b8
f4fdba45c07657d6560dfπ=11
[2] John Herschel PD
source: "Herschel, John Frederick
William", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p417.
[12/17/1840 AD]
current is found to equal the square of
the current multiplied by the
resistance.
England
[1] Description Picture of James
Joule Source The Life & Experiences
of Sir Henry Enfield Roscoe (Macmillan:
London and New York), p. 120 Date
1906 Author Henry Roscoe PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0f/Joule_James_sitting.j
pg
[2] Description Engraving of James
Joule Source Nature, volume 26,
facing page 616 (October, 1882) Date
1882 Author C. H. Jeens PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/41/Joule_James_Jeens_eng
raving.jpg
[1840 AD]
That loss of soil fertility is caused
by the consumption by plants of the
minerals necessary for life such as
sodium, potassium, calcium, and
phosphorus is recognized.
Germany
[1] Source:
http://www.uh.edu/engines/jliebig.jpg A
rtist & subject dies >70yrs ago. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:JustusLiebig.jpg
[2] Deutsch: Justus Liebig 1821 als
junger Student mit Burschenschaftsband,
Zeichnung von 1843 Source
http://www.liebig-museum.de/Tafeln/se
ite_02.pdf Date 1843 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Young-Justus-Liebig.jpg
[01/11/1841 AD]
[1] Bain's clock PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=JkcoAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PA376&dq=Alexander+
Bain+telegraph&as_brr=1&ei=OFTYSM_PEajit
QOKwOGrAQ#PRA2-PA126-IA1,M1
[2] [t Bain's clock - not clear what
year] PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=-PQDAAAAQAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Ale
xander+Bain+telegraph&as_brr=1&ei=OFTYSM
_PEajitQOKwOGrAQ#PPA36,M1
[1841 AD]
(presumably)
[1] Robert Remak PD/Corel
source: http://www.cerebromente.org.br/n
17/history/remak2.JPG
[2] Robert Remak PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b2/Robert_Remak.gif
[1841 AD]
transmits inherited characteristics.
Switzerland
[1] Kölliker, Albert von PD/Corel
source: http://clendening.kumc.edu/dc/pc
/kolliker.jpg
[2] Rudolph Albert von Kölliker
(1857–1905) from portrait Left:
Photograph showing Brown-Séquard.
Right: Portrait of Von
Kölliker. PD/Corel
source: http://www.medscape.com/content/
2004/00/46/84/468471/art-nf468471.fig7.j
pg
[03/30/1842 AD]
for surgery; a person is made to lose
consciousness by inhaling ether before
surgery in which a neck tumor is
removed.
[1] 1870 photograph of Crawford Long,
anesthesia pioneer PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8c/CrawfordLong.jpg
[07/04/1842 AD]
of fiber optic communication.
[1] Daniel Colladon first described
this ''light fountain'' or ''light
pipe'' in an 1842 article titled On the
reflections of a ray of light inside a
parabolic liquid stream. This
particular illustration comes from a
later article by Colladon, in
1884. Author: Jean-Daniel Colladon
(1802-1893). Source: This illustration
appears in ''La Nature'' magazine in
1884 and it is reproduced in modern-day
accounts of the history of fiber optics
including Jeff Hecht's book Story of
Fiber Optics and i-fiberoptics.com.
Collodon first described the system in
an article in ''Comptes Rendus'' 1842,
and described it again in 1884 in ''La
Nature''. In the above illustration,
water comes out of a short spout on the
watertank and then falls through open
air, as in a fountain. The device on
the illustration's lefthand side
produces light and directs a beam of
light into the watertank. The
demonstration of this ''light
fountain'' needs to be done in a
darkened room to see the effect. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/ec/DanielColladon%27s_Li
ghtfountain_or_Lightpipe%2CLaNature%28ma
gazine%29%2C1884.JPG
[2] Jean Daniel COLLADON (1802-1893)
PD
source: http://www.pionnair-ge.com/spip1
/IMG/jpg/Colladon-Jean-Daniel-prtrt.jpg
[1842 AD]
frequency of light and sound is
affected by the relative motion of the
source and observer.
Technical University)Prague, Czech
Republic
[1] Description English:
Photographic portrait of Christian
Doppler (1803-1853) Date unknown, but
subject died in 1853 Source
http://www.scientific-web.com/en/Physic
s/Biographies/images/CDoppler2.jpg Auth
or unknown PD AND Doppler, ''Ueber
das farbige Licht der Doppelsterne und
einiger anderer Gestirne des Himmels,''
Böhm. Gesell. Abbandlungen ii. 1841-42
s.
465. http://books.google.com/books?id=z
l5RAAAAcAAJ PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/86/Christian_Doppler.jpg
http://books.google.com/books?id=zl5RAAA
AcAAJ
[2] Description English:
Photographic portrait of Christian
Doppler (1803-1853) Date unknown, but
subject died in 1853 Source
http://www.scientific-web.com/en/Physic
s/Biographies/images/CDoppler2.jpg Auth
or unknown PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/86/Christian_Doppler.jpg
[1843 AD]
explosive.
(presumably)
[1] Description Samuel Colt (1814
– 1862) English: Samuel Colt,
founder of the firearms manufacturer
Colt Deutsch: Samuel Colt, Begründer
des Waffenherstellers Colt Date
Source 19th century
engraving PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3f/SamuelColt.jpg
[1844 AD]
microscope.
New York, USA
[1] Photomicrograph of Frog Blood John
William
Draper Daguerreotype 1844 National
Museum of American History, Behring
Center, Division of Information
Technology and
Communications Photographic History
Collection Image ID: AFS 201 How to
locate or purchase this image A
multitalented scientist and inventor,
John William Draper worked as a
chemistry professor at the University
of New York, where he conducted
research in numerous fields, ranging
from medicine and philosophy to
spectrum analysis and photography. This
photograph displaying the physiological
characteristics of frog blood was taken
after Draper developed a method for
attaching a camera to his microscope.
His photomicrography enabled him to see
and photograph the previously unseen.
PD/Corel
source: http://photography.si.edu/upload
/Images/778_Image_201.jpg
[2] [t note that date in
1840] Spectrograph John William
Draper Daguerreotype 1840 National
Museum of American History, Behring
Center, Division of Information
Technology and
Communications Photographic History
Collection Image ID: AFS 138 PD/Corel
source: http://photography.si.edu/upload
/Images/691_Image_138.jpg
[01/04/1845 AD]
than the rest of the Sun.
[1] Proc. Am. Phil. Soc., 4, pp.
173-176 Stated Meeting, June 20, pp.
170-181 http://www.jstor.org/view/00030
49x/ap030007/03a00020/0?frame=frame&user
ID=a9eaf18d@uci.edu/01c0a848750050a13c3&
dpi=3&config=jstor AND
books.google.com/books?id=X8AAAAAAYAAJ
&pg=PA174 {Henry_sunspot.pdf} PD AND
[1] In 1846, the Smithsonian Board of
Regents chose Joseph Henry as the
Institution's first
secretary. PD/Corel
source: http://www.jstor.org/view/000304
9x/ap030007/03a00020/0?frame=frame&userI
D=a9eaf18d@uci.edu/01c0a848750050a13c3&d
pi=3&config=jstorbooks.google.com/books?
id=X8AAAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA174 http://www.150
.si.edu/chap2/2man.htm
[2] In 1846, the Smithsonian Board of
Regents chose Joseph Henry as the
Institution's first
secretary. PD/Corel
source: http://www.150.si.edu/chap2/2man
.htm
[04/??/1845 AD]
galaxies is recognized.
Ireland
[1] The Earl of Rosse. ''Observations
on the Nebulae.'' Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1850):
499-514. http://www.jstor.org/stable/10
.2307/108449 PD
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2
307/108449
[2] Abb. 2 - Lord Rosse's drwaing of M
51 showing its spiral structure. [t
Notice that Parsons numbers stars which
appear to be part of the
galaxy] PD/Corel
source: http://www.klima-luft.de/steinic
ke/Artikel/birr/birr_e.htm
[09/18/1845 AD]
rotate when passing through glass
subjected to an electromagnetic field.
England
[1] Figure 1 from [16
4] PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: Faraday_e19_polarization.pdf ht
tp://journals.royalsociety.org/content/?
k=michael+faraday+ninetenth+series
Experimental Researches in Electricity.
Nineteenth
Series Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 136 -
1846 Author Michael
Faraday DOI 10.1098/rstl.1846.0001 4
[2] Description Michael Faraday,
oil, by Thomas Phillips Source
Thomas Phillips,1842 Date
1842 Author Thomas Phillips[3
wiki] The portrait shown here was
painted by Thomas Phillips (1770-1845),
oil on canvas, The National Portrait
Gallery, London.[7] PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:M_Far
aday_Th_Phillips_oil_1842.jpg
[1845 AD]
[1] US Patent 5104 PD/Corel
source: http://v3.espacenet.com/origdoc?
DB=EPODOC&IDX=US5104&F=0&QPN=US5104
[2] Obituary of Robert William
Thomson, Scottish engineer and inventor
of the locomotive traction steam
engine. The text above his obituary is
the end of Lord Ossington (John Evelyn
Denison)'s obituary. Source
Illustrated London News Date
March 29, 1873 Author Engraving
by R & E Taylor, after a photograph by
a Mr. Peterson of Copenhagen. Author of
the obituary unknown. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/77/Robert_William_Thomso
n_-_Illustrated_London_News_March_29_187
3.png
[09/23/1846 AD]
France)
[1] Galle, J. G., ''Account of the
discovery of Le Verrier's planet
Neptune, at Berlin, Sept. 23, 1846'',
Monthly Notices of the Royal
Astronomical Society, Vol. 7,
p.153. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?1846MNRAS.
..7..153G&data_type=PDF_HIGH&whole_paper
=YES&type=PRINTER&filetype=.pdf PD
AND [1] Scientist: Le Verrier,
Urbain Jean Joseph (1811 -
1877) Discipline(s): Astronomy Print
Artist: Auguste Bry, 19th C. Medium:
Lithograph Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 12.5 x 10 cm / Sheet: 26.1 x
17 cm PD/Corel AND Galle, Johann
Gottfried (1812-1910) PD/Corel
source: http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?1846MNRAS.
..7..153G&data_type=PDF_HIGH&whole_paper
=YES&type=PRINTER&filetype=.pdfhttp://up
load.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8
9/Urbain_Le_Verrier.jpghttp://www.davidd
arling.info/images/Galle.jpg
[2] Scientist: Le Verrier, Urbain
Jean Joseph (1811 -
1877) Discipline(s): Astronomy Print
Artist: Auguste Bry, 19th C. Medium:
Lithograph Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 12.5 x 10 cm / Sheet: 26.1 x
17 cm PD/Corel
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/89/Urbain_Le_Verrier.jpg
[10/??/1846 AD]
to represent logical statements.
England
[1] Augustus De Morgan PD/Corel
source: http://www.nndb.com/people/437/0
00097146/augustus-de-morgan-2-sized.jpg
[2] Beschreibung: Augustus De
Morgan Quelle: Fotografie aus dem 19.
Jahrhundert PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0e/AugustusDeMorgan.png
[1846 AD]
propagates with a finite velocity.
England
[1] Description Michael Faraday,
oil, by Thomas Phillips Source
Thomas Phillips,1842 Date
1842 Author Thomas Phillips[3
wiki] The portrait shown here was
painted by Thomas Phillips (1770-1845),
oil on canvas, The National Portrait
Gallery, London.[7] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:M_Faraday_Th_Phillips_oil_1842.jpg
[2] Michael Faraday - Project
Gutenberg eText 13103 From The Project
Gutenberg eBook, Great Britain and Her
Queen, by Anne E.
Keeling http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/
13103 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Michael_Faraday_-_Project_Gutenberg_e
Text_13103.jpg
[1846 AD]
nitroglycerine is created by slowly
adding glycerine to a mixture of nitric
and sulfuric acids.
[1] [t notice there is a lot of oxygen
trapped/stuck in the molecule, perhaps
the more oxygen in the molecule the
more
explosive] Nitroglycerin 1,2,3-trinitr
oxypropane 1,3-dinitrooxypropan-2-yl
nitrate propane-1,2,3-triyl
trinitrate IUPAC name Chemical
formula C3H5(NO3)3 Molar mass
227.0872 g/mol Shock sensitivity
high Friction sensitivity
high Density 1.6 g/cm³ at 15
°C Explosive velocity 7700 m/s RE
factor 1.50 Melting point 13.2 °C
(55.76 °F) Autoignition temperature
Decomposes at 50 to 60 °C (122 to 140
°F) Appearance Clear
yellow/colorless oily liquid PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/40/Nitroglycerin-2D-skel
etal.png
[2] Ascanio Sobrero PD/Corel
source: http://www.liberliber.it/bibliot
eca/s/sobrero/immagini/ritratto.jpg
[1847 AD]
incandescent (start to glow red) at the
same temperature (around 525ºC or
977ºF) is recognized.
New York, USA
[1] [t note that this photo appears to
be an 1845 photo] Daguerreotype of the
Moon taken by John William Draper in
1845. In 1840, the American doctor and
chemist John William Draper produced a
daguerreotype of the Moon: the first
astronomical photograph ever created in
North America. New York University
Archives PD/Corel
source: http://astro-canada.ca/_photos/a
4306_lune1845_g.jpg
[2] Dorothy Catherine Draper, taken by
John W. Draper The earliest American
attempts in duplicating the
photographic experiments of the
Frenchman Louis Daguerre occurred at
NYU in 1839. John W. Draper, professor
of chemistry, built his own camera and
made what may be the first human
portrait taken in the United States,
after a 65-second exposure. The sitter,
his sister Dorothy Catherine Draper,
had her face powdered with flour in an
early attempt to accentuate contrasts.
PD/Corel
source: http://www.nyu.edu/library/bobst
/research/arch/175/images/drapL.jpg
[1847 AD]
(washing hands in strong chemicals) is
introduced into the health practice.
(Austria now:) Germany
[1] Semmelweis, Ignaz PD/Corel
source: http://clendening.kumc.edu/dc/pc
/semmelweis01.jpg
[2] Semmelweis, Ignaz PD/Corel
source: http://clendening.kumc.edu/dc/pc
/semmelweis02.jpg
[1847 AD]
casing containing an explosive charge
and a bullet or shot.
[1] A modern cartridge consists of the
following: 1. the bullet itself, which
serves as the projectile; 2. the case,
which holds all parts together; 3. the
propellant, for example gunpowder or
cordite; 4. the rim, part of the
casing used for loading; 5. the
primer, which ignites the
propellant. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bul
let
[2] Rifle cartridges - L to R: .50
BMG, 300 Win Mag, .308 Winchester, 7.62
Russian Short, 5.56 NATO, .22
LR Source
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Ri
fle_cartridge_comparison.jpg Date
25 February 2006 Author Richard
C. Wysong II GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/ab/Rifle_cartridge_compa
rison.jpg
[06/05/1848 AD]
created, with -273°C as absolute 0,
where all molecules stop moving.
Scotland
[1] Thomson, William. ''On an absolute
thermometric scale founded on Carnot's
theory of the motive power of heat and
calculated from Regnaut's
observations.'', Cambridge
Philosophical Society Proceedings for
June 5, 1848. also in: THOMSON, W.
MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL PAPERS. 1882,
p100. http://www.google.com/books?id=NG
GOnRx4aakC&pg=PA100 PD AND [1] Baron
Kelvin, William Thomson Library of
Congress PD
source: http://www.google.com/books?id=N
GGOnRx4aakC&pg=PA100http://content.answe
rs.com/main/content/img/scitech/HSbaronk
.jpg
[2] Baron Kelvin, William
Thomson Library of Congress PD
source: http://content.answers.com/main/
content/img/scitech/HSbaronk.jpg
[08/10/1848 AD]
induction coil is applied through
evacuated tubes filled with various
gases.
[1] Figures 1 to 10 show the spots and
rings in the order referred to: it
should be observed that printed figures
give but a very imperfect notion of the
actual effects. Fig 11 is the coil
apparatus, the contact breaker being in
front. Fig. 12. The air-pump, of a
construction which I proposed many
years ago, and have found most useful
for electrical or chemical experiments
on gases. P. An imperforate piston,
with a conical end, which, when pressed
down, fits accurately the end of the
tube, the apex touching the valve V,
which opens outwards. A. Aperture for
the air to rush from the receiver when
the piston has been drawn beyond
it. B. Bladder containing the gas to
be experimented on. The piston-rod
works air-tight in a collar of
leathers, and the operation of the pump
will be easily understood without
further description. If it be
required to examine the gas after
experiment, a bladder, or tube leading
to a pneumatic trough, can be attached
at the extrmeity over the valve V. [5
p101] PD
source: http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekat
z/scientists/grove.htm Issue Volume
139 -
1849 Pages 49-59 DOI 10.1098/rstl.1849
.0005 Grove_W_R_1849.pdf p101
[2] Sir William Robert Grove
(1811-1896), British scientist. PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Willi
am_Robert_Grove.jpg
[01/20/1849 AD]
the spectrum of sunlight are emitted
from and also absorbed by an electric
arc between coal electrodes is
observed.
[1] L'Institut Feb 7 1849. Léon
Foucault, Charles Marie Gariel, Jules
Antoine Lissajous, ''Recueil des
travaux scientifiques'',
Gauthier-Villars, 1878,
pp170-171. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=Kc0EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA170 Translated
by Professor Stokes in Phil Mag vol xix
(1860) p194.
{stokes_foucault_kirchhoff.pdf} PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=Kc0EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA170
[2] Reproduction of the first
daguerrotype of the Sun. The original
image was a little over 12 centimeters
in diameter. Reproduced from G. De
Vaucouleurs, Astronomical Photography,
MacMillan, 1961 (plate 1). PD/Corel
source: http://ams.astro.univie.ac.at/~n
endwich/Science/SoFi/firstsunphoto.jpg
[07/23/1849 AD]
using a terrestrial method. Light
passes between the teeth of a rapidly
turning toothed disc on one hilltop,
and reflects off a mirror on another, 8
km (or 5 miles) away. If the disc turns
fast enough the reflected light passes
through the next gap.
[1] Fizeau's apparatus from Arago's
''Astronomie Populaire'' PD/Corel
source: William Tobin, "The life and
science of Léon Foucault: the man who
proved the earth rotates", Cambridge
University Press, 2003
[2] Eyepiece views for Fizeau's 1849
speed of light experiment COPYRIGHTED?
source: William Tobin, "The life and
science of Léon Foucault: the man who
proved the earth rotates", Cambridge
University Press, 2003
[11/05/1849 AD]
hydrocarbon-metallic) compounds. This
is the first time a metal atom is added
to a hydrocarbon molecule: the new
compound zincmethyl is created when
zinc and methyl are joined.
England
[1] Frankland, E. ''XXIX.—On a new
series of organic bodies containing
metals and phosphorus.'' Quarterly
Journal of the Chemical Society of
London 2.4 (1850):
297-299. books.google.com/books?id=oKAw
AAAAYAAJ&pg=PA297 PD AND Scanned
from the frontispiece of Sketches from
the life of Edward Frankland, published
in 1902 PD
source: books.google.com/books?id=oKAwAA
AAYAAJ&pg=PA297http://upload.wikimedia.o
rg/wikipedia/en/0/09/Frankland_Edward_26
.jpg
[2] Scanned from the frontispiece of
Sketches from the life of Edward
Frankland, published in 1902 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/0/09/Frankland_Edward_26.jpg
[05/06/1850 AD]
slowly in water than in air, and the
speed of light is shown to be inversely
proportional to the index of refraction
of the medium.
[1] Plan view of the optical layout of
Foucault's 1850 rotating mirror
experiment. COPYRIGHTED
source: William Tobin, "The life and
science of Léon Foucault: the man who
proved the earth rotates", Cambridge
University Press, 2003
[2] Eyepiece view of air and water
Foucault 1850 experiment PD/Corel
source: William Tobin, "The life and
science of Léon Foucault: the man who
proved the earth rotates", Cambridge
University Press, 2003, p126.
[1850 AD]
Atlantic ridge is discovered.
[1] Matthew_F_Maury_sup23d.jpgâ
(259 � 366 pixels, file size: 21
KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) Credit:
U.S. Naval Observatory Library Matthew
Fontaine Maury, founder of the United
States Naval Observatory Source *
http://www.usno.navy.mil/library/
*
http://www.usno.navy.mil/library/photo/s
up23d.html Source incorrectly shows as
''Matthew W. F. Maury'' whereas it
should be Commander ''Matthew Fontaine
Maury''
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/a/a8/Matthew_F_Maury_sup23d.jpg
[2] PD [2] Commander Matthew Fontaine
MAURY (NOT ''MURRAY'')
http://www.civil-war.net/searchphotos.as
p?searchphotos=Confederate%20States%20Na
vy%20Officers PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0a/CMFMurray.jpg
[1850 AD]
nerves is measured as 27 meters (or 90
feet) per second.
Königsberg, Germany
[1] Figure from 1850 paper PD/Corel
source: Helmholtz_Hermann_1850_lit1862_L
o.pdf
[2] Young Helmholtz German
physiologist and physicist Hermann
Ludwig Ferdinand Von Helmholtz (1821 -
1894). Original Publication: People
Disc - HE0174 Original Artwork: From a
daguerreotype . (Photo by Hulton
Archive/Getty Images) * by Hulton
Archive * * reference:
2641935 PD/Corel
source: http://www.jamd.com/search?asset
type=g&assetid=2641935&text=Helmholtz
[02/03/1851 AD]
its own axis is proven experimentally
with a pendulum.
[1] Faucault's pendulum demonstration
re-visited in 1902 PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=UbMRmyxCZmYC&pg=PA55&lpg=PA55&dq=foucau
lt+sun+daguerreotype+features&source=web
&ots=sqQtMMzhko&sig=L_EL2qJEgsbAuU5PsDuO
Dxa-NPA&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum
=2&ct=result#PPP1,M1
[2] [t rotateable table-top pendulum
illustrates principle of
inertia] PD/Corel
source: William Tobin, "The life and
science of Léon Foucault: the man who
proved the earth rotates", Cambridge
University Press, 2003
[09/29/1851 AD]
shown to change depending on the motion
of the water.
[1] scheme of Fizo experiment GNU
AND [t Rareand early photo of
portrait not looking at camera. To me
it may possibly be a clue that hidden
cameras were in use, but also may
reflect a view that the camera is
unimportant, that cameras are
everywhere, and it is better to go on
with life...not to smile for the
camera, but to go about your life and
let the many cameras document
everything...its like ...the thrill is
over for the novelty of photography.
It's perhaps a person for the
transition to the more practical daily
business of the cameras, in particular
when robots walk and document
everything. ] Hippolyte
Fizeau PD AND [4] H. Fizeau, ''Sur
les hypothèses relatives à l'éther
lumineux et sur une expérience qui
parait démontrer que le mouvement des
corps change la vitesse avec laquelle
la lumière se propage dans leur
intérieur'', Comptes Rendus
hebdomadaires des séances de
l'Académie, vol 33, 1851, p349-355.
Ann. de Chim. et de Phys. 57 385-404
(1859). http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/1214
8/bpt6k347981/f381.table (09/29/1851)
{Fizeau_Comptes_Rendus_1851.pdf} Engl
ish: M. H. Fizeau, ''On the Hypotheses
Relating to the Luminous Aether, and an
Experiment which Appears to Demonstrate
that the Motion of Bodies Alters the
Velocity with which Light Propagates
Itself in their Interior.'',
Philosophical Magazine, Series 4,
number 14, Supplement Volume 2,
p568-573. http://books.google.com/books
?id=JbwdWbbM1KgC&pg=RA1-PA568 {fizeau_a
ether001.pdf} PD [1] scheme of Fizo
experiment GNU
source: http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148
/bpt6k347981/f381.table http://upload.w
ikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/55/Fizo
_experiment_scheme_ru.PNGhttp://upload.w
ikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5d/Hipp
olyte_Fizeau.jpg
[2] [t Rareand early photo of portrait
not looking at camera. To me it may
possibly be a clue that hidden cameras
were in use, but also may reflect a
view that the camera is unimportant,
that cameras are everywhere, and it is
better to go on with life...not to
smile for the camera, but to go about
your life and let the many cameras
document everything...its like ...the
thrill is over for the novelty of
photography. It's perhaps a person for
the transition to the more practical
daily business of the cameras, in
particular when robots walk and
document everything. ] Hippolyte
Fizeau PD
source:
[01/07/1852 AD]
gases.
[1] Figures 1 to 10 show the spots and
rings in the order referred to: it
should be observed that printed figures
give but a very imperfect notion of the
actual effects. Fig 11 is the coil
apparatus, the contact breaker being in
front. Fig. 12. The air-pump, of a
construction which I proposed many
years ago, and have found most useful
for electrical or chemical experiments
on gases. P. An imperforate piston,
with a conical end, which, when pressed
down, fits accurately the end of the
tube, the apex touching the valve V,
which opens outwards. A. Aperture for
the air to rush from the receiver when
the piston has been drawn beyond
it. B. Bladder containing the gas to
be experimented on. The piston-rod
works air-tight in a collar of
leathers, and the operation of the pump
will be easily understood without
further description. If it be
required to examine the gas after
experiment, a bladder, or tube leading
to a pneumatic trough, can be attached
at the extrmeity over the valve V. [5
p101] PD
source: http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekat
z/scientists/grove.htm Issue Volume
139 -
1849 Pages 49-59 DOI 10.1098/rstl.1849
.0005 Grove_W_R_1849.pdf p101
[2] Sir William Robert Grove
(1811-1896), British scientist. PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Willi
am_Robert_Grove.jpg
[05/10/1852 AD]
each type of atom has a fixed capacity
for combining with other atoms is
created.
England
[1] [t table from Frankland 1852
paper] PD/Corel
source: Frankland_Edward_1852.pdf
[2] [t table from Frankland 1852
paper] PD/Corel
source: Frankland_Edward_1852.pdf
[1852 AD]
with a safety device is invented.
[1] Elisha Otis Avaliable at
http://www.otis.com/otis150/images/displ
ay/1,2343,2039,00.gif PD
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
3274&rendTypeId=4
[2] Elisha Graves Otis (1811-1861)
invented a safety device in 1852 that
made PD
source: http://arkadien.org/scientists/E
lisha%20Graves2.jpg
[02/16/1853 AD]
emits light of the same frequencies.
Sweden
[1] Anders Jonas Ångström (1814-1874)
is remembered as one of the fathers of
modern spectroscopy. His unit of
wavelength is still used worldwide; the
Ångström (1 Å = 0.1 nm). PD/Corel
source: http://www.angstrom.uu.se/bilder
/anders.jpg
[2] Anders Jonas Ångström, c.
1865 Courtesy of the Kungl.
Biblioteket, Stockholm PD/Corel
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
13450&rendTypeId=4
[1853 AD]
distinguished into "actual" and
"potential" energy.
Scotland, UK
[1] (William John) Macquorn Rankine
(1820-1872) was Regius Professor of
Civil and Engineering and Mechanics
from 1855 to 1872. U of
Glasglow PD/Corel
source: http://www.universitystory.gla.a
c.uk/images/UGSP00025_m.jpg
[2] William John Macquorn
Rankine PD/Corel
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/18/W_J_M_Rankine.JPG
[1854 AD]
mass will not be influenced by the
electrical force if moving with a
velocity at least the speed of light.
Germany
[1] [t Equation from Annalen paper:
apparently first use of letter ''c'' to
designate a constant, which will later
be identified with the speed of
light.] PD/Corel AND [t Another
form of the Weber equation with 1/cc
removed from parenthesis
expression] PD/Corel AND Wilhelm
Eduard Weber (1804-1891) PD
source: http://www3.interscience.wiley.c
om/cgi-bin/fulltext/112497888/PDFSTARTht
tp://books.google.com/books?id=l9AEAAAAY
AAJ&pg=PA25&vq=Maassbestimmungen&dq=Uebe
r+die+Elektricit%C3%A4tsmenge,+welche+be
i+galvanische+Str%C3%B6men+durch+den+Que
rschnitt+der+Kette+fliesst&as_brr=1&sour
ce=gbs_search_s#PPA628,M1http://en.wikip
edia.org/wiki/Image:Wilhelm_Eduard_Weber
_II.jpg
[2] [t Equation from Annalen paper:
apparently first use of letter ''c'' to
designate a constant, which will later
be identified with the speed of
light.] PD/Corel
source:
[1854 AD]
due to a transmittable agent in
drinking water is understood.
[1] During his career, Dr. John Snow
(1813-1858) anesthetized 77 obstetric
patients with chloroform. In addition
to pioneering anesthesia, Dr. Snow is
considered the father of epidemiology:
well before germ theory was formulated,
he studied an epidemic of cholera in S.
London in 1845, and reported (1849)
that the disease was transmitted
through a contaminated
water-supply. PD/Corel
source: http://www.joyceimages.com/image
s/John%20Snow.jpg
[2] Original map by Dr. John Snow
showing the clusters of cholera cases
in the London epidemic of
1854 Original map made by John Snow in
1854, copied from
http://matrix.msu.edu/~johnsnow/images/o
nline_companion/chapter_images/fig12-5.j
pg Author died in 1858, material is
public domain. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/27/Snow-cholera-map-1.jp
g
[1854 AD]
artificial fats are synthesized by
combining glycerol and fatty acids.
France
[1] Marcellin Berthelot PD/Corel
source: http://content.answers.com/main/
content/wp/en/thumb/1/1d/250px-Marcellin
_Berthelot.jpg
[2] Marcellin Berthelot PD/Corel
source: http://hdelboy.club.fr/berthelot
_6.jpg
[04/21/1856 AD]
flames of hydrocarbons are shown to be
attributed to sodium, and the
widespread occurrence of the D lines
due to the contamination of small
amounts of sodium.
[1] part of p421 from: William Swan
(1857). XXIX.—On the Prismatic
Spectra of the Flames of Compounds of
Carbon and Hydrogen. Transactions of
the Royal Society of Edinburgh, 21, pp
411-429. doi:10.1017/S0080456800032233.
http://books.google.com/books?id=QyxFA
AAAcAAJ&pg=PA411
AND http://journals.cambridge.org/actio
n/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=84
19263 German: Swan, William. ''Ueber
die prismatischen Spectra der Flammen
von Kohlenwasserstoffverbindungen.''
Annalen der Physik 176.2 (1857):
306-335. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com
/doi/10.1002/andp.18571760212/abstract
PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=QyxFAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA421
[1856 AD]
produced.
England
[1] Aniline Other names
Phenylamine Aminobenzene Benzenamine
GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ani
line
[2] William Henry Perkin (1838-1907),
in 1860. (Credit: Edelstein
Collection.) PD/Corel
source: http://64.202.120.86/upload/imag
e/personal-column/tony-travis/19th-centu
ary-high-tech/william-henry-perkin.jpg
[03/24/1857 AD]
recording.
[1] Figure from Leon Scott's 03/24/1857
patent of the phonautograph CC
source: http://www.firstsounds.org/publi
c/First-Sounds-Working-Paper-02.pdf
[2] Description Edouard-Léon Scott
de Martinville.jpg Portrait of
French typographer Édouard-Léon Scott
de Martinville (1817-1879), inventor of
the phonautograph. Date 19th
century Source
http://www.evolutionofsound.org/con
tent/biog/leonscott.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/33/Edouard-L%C3%A9on_Sco
tt_de_Martinville.jpg
[12/27/1857 AD]
in vacuum tubes under a high voltage is
observed, determined to be from the
gases (not the electrodes), and the
spectrum of the light found to be
specific to each gas.
Germany
[1] Plücker, J. ''Ueber die Einwirkung
des Magneten auf die elektrischen
Entladungen in verdünnten Gasen.''
Poggendorffs Annalen der Physik und
Chemie 103 (1858):
88-106. books.google.com/books?id=ihM4A
AAAMAAJ&pg=PA88 English translation:
''On the Action of the Magnet upon
the Electrical Discharge in Rarefied
Gases.'', Philosophical Magazine,
Series 4, Volume 16, num 105, August
1858, p119
http://books.google.com/books?id=aVEwA
AAAIAAJ&pg=PA119
AND http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/
item/53789#page/133/mode/1up {plucker_1
858_english.pdf} AND followed
by: Plücker, M. ''XLVI. Observations
on the electrical discharge through
rarefied gases.'' The London,
Edinburgh, and Dublin Philosophical
Magazine and Journal of Science 16.109
(1858):
408-418. http://books.google.com/books?
id=vFAEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA408 AND from
here Source
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollecti
ons/hst/scientific-identity/CF/display_r
esults.cfm?alpha_sort=p Scientist:
Plucker, Julius (1801 -
1868) Discipline(s): Mathematics ;
Physics Print Artist: Rudolf
Hoffmann, fl. ca. 1840 Medium:
Lithograph Original Artist:
Schafgans Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 19 x 15 cm / Sheet: 33.1 x 23
cm PD
source: http://www.biodiversitylibrary.o
rg/item/53789#page/133/mode/1uphttp://en
.pedia.org//Image:Julius_Pl%C3%BCcker.jp
g
[2] Plücker, J. ''Ueber die
Einwirkung des Magneten auf die
elektrischen Entladungen in verdünnten
Gasen.'' Poggendorffs Annalen der
Physik und Chemie 103 (1858):
88-106. books.google.com/books?id=ihM4A
AAAMAAJ&pg=PA88 English translation:
''On the Action of the Magnet upon
the Electrical Discharge in Rarefied
Gases.'', Philosophical Magazine,
Series 4, Volume 16, num 105, August
1858, p119
http://books.google.com/books?id=aVEwA
AAAIAAJ&pg=PA119
AND http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/
item/53789#page/133/mode/1up {plucker_1
858_english.pdf} AND followed
by: Plücker, M. ''XLVI. Observations
on the electrical discharge through
rarefied gases.'' The London,
Edinburgh, and Dublin Philosophical
Magazine and Journal of Science 16.109
(1858):
408-418. http://books.google.com/books?
id=vFAEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA408 PD
source: http://www.biodiversitylibrary.o
rg/item/53789#page/133/mode/1up
[1857 AD]
by horizontal movements of the Earth's
crust is realized.
(now Germany)
[1] English: Eduard Suess (1831 –
1914), Austrian geologist Source
http://www.jamd.com/image/g/2638599
Date c1890 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/47/Eduard_Suess00.jpg
[07/01/1858 AD]
popularized: the theory that life
descends from a single common ancestor,
that many more organisms than can
survive are born, each with individual
differences, and through a process of
natural selection, only the best
adapted can survive to reproduce and
pass on their successful traits, while
the less adapted die out.
Many religious people are shocked that
humans and apes might have a common
ancestor.
England
[1] ''Charles Darwin, aged 51.''
Scanned from Karl Pearson, The Life,
Letters, and Labours of Francis Galton.
Photo originally from the 1859 or
1860. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/42/Charles_Darwin_aged_5
1.jpg
[2] Charles Darwin as a 7-year old boy
in 1816 The seven-year-old Charles
Darwin in 1816, one year before his
mother's death. [t A rare smile, there
are not many photos of Darwin
smiling.] PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/6/6c/Charles_Darwin_1816.jpg
[08/16/1858 AD]
Ocean
[1] Field, Cyrus West (1819 -
1892) Discipline(s): Science
Patron Original Dimensions: Graphic:
31 x 21.4 cm / Sheet: 32.8 x 25.9
cm PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-F002-06a.jpg
[2] Cyrus West Field. Imperial
salted-paper print by the Mathew Brady
Studio 1858, National Portrait Gallery,
Smithsonian Institution, Washington,
D.C. secondary source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Cyrus
Field.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/01/CyrusField.jpg
[08/27/1859 AD]
USA
[1] Edwin Drake [r] and Peter Wilson
[l] in front of the engine house and
derrick for the well which began the
oil industry, 1866. John Mather,
photographer. Image from PHMC, Drake
Well Museum, Titusville PD/Corel
source: http://www.cbsd.org/pennsylvania
people/level2_biographies/images/Drake's
%20well%201.jpg
[2] Edwin Drake Image from PHMC,
Drake Well Museum,
Titusville PD/Corel
source: http://www.cbsd.org/pennsylvania
people/level2_biographies/images/Edwin%2
0Drake.jpg
[10/20/1859 AD]
substance is burned are used to
determine the atomic composition of the
substance. That each element emits and
absorbs light at the same specific
frequencies is recognized.
The first element in the atmosphere of
the Sun, sodium, is identified from the
two dark "D" lines in the Sun's
spectrum, and the finding that a
spectral emission line can only be
reversed to an absorption line when the
absorber is colder than the emitter.
Germany
[1] Bunsen-Kirchhoff spectroscope with
the Bunsen burner (labeled D), from
Annalen der Physik (1860). Chemical
Heritage Foundation
Collections. PD/Corel AND Kirchhoff
(left) and Bunsen (right) PD
source: http://www.chemheritage.org/clas
sroom/chemach/images/lgfotos/04periodic/
bunsen-kirchhoff2.jpghttp://2.bp.blogspo
t.com/-DmiBHx0pAXc/TZGos9g4_yI/AAAAAAAAA
Wk/eFxlDSws9zI/s1600/kirchoff_bunsen.jpg
[2] Bunsen-Kirchhoff spectroscope with
the Bunsen burner (labeled D), from
Annalen der Physik (1860). Chemical
Heritage Foundation
Collections. PD/Corel
source: http://www.chemheritage.org/clas
sroom/chemach/images/lgfotos/04periodic/
bunsen-kirchhoff2.jpg
[1859 AD]
which is based on lead plates immersed
in sulfuric acid.
Paris, France
[1] Plante battery COPYRIGHTED
source: http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekat
z/scientists/plante_battery1.jpg
[2] Plante cell COPYRIGHTED
source: http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekat
z/scientists/plante_cel.gif
[04/16/1860 AD]
the first element to be discovered
spectroscopically.
Germany
[1] 1860 Bunsen Kirchhoff
figures ''Chemische Analyse durch
Spectralbeobachtungen'', Annalen der
Physik, Volume 189, Issue 7, (1861),
pp337-381. PD/Corel
source: Bunsen_Kirchhoff_Cesium_Rubidium
USGOV.jpg)
[2] Pollucite (Caesium
mineral) Source:
http://resourcescommittee.house.gov/subc
ommittees/emr/usgsweb/photogallery/
; PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f8/Pollucite%28CesiumMin
eral%29USGOV.jpg
[04/??/1860 AD]
emission lines are found to be the same
for a variety of metals, independent of
the molecular compound the metal is in,
and the heat source used.
Germany
[1] 1860 Bunsen Kirchhoff
figures PD/Corel
source: Bunsen_Kirchhuff_1860.pdf
[2] 1860 Bunsen Kirchhoff
figures PD/Corel
source: Bunsen_Kirchhuff_1860.pdf
[1860 AD]
elements are found to be far from
integral values, which casts doubt on
the theory that all elements are made
of multiples of hydrogen.
(presumably)
[1] Scan of a picture of Belgian
scientist Jean Servais Stas (who died
in 1891) Source Journal of Chemical
Education, pages 353 – 357 Date
1938 Author Timmermans, Jean PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/de/Stas_Jean_Servais.jpg
[2] Stas, Jean Servais 19th
Century Born: Leuven (Belgium),
1813 Died Brussels (Belgium),
1891 PD/Corel
source: http://www.euchems.org/binaries/
Stas_tcm23-29677.gif
[06/??/1861 AD]
the bright lines emitted by elements,
various metals are found to be in the
atmosphere of the Sun, and others are
ruled out.
Germany
[1] [t First page of solar
spectrum] PD/Corel
source: Kirchhoff_Researches_on_the_sola
r_spectrum_1861.pdf
[2] The great spectroscope of
kirchhoff for the study of the solar
spectrum (Abh. Berliner Akad. 1861, p.
63) PD/Corel
source: http://www.iop.org/EJ/article/00
38-5670/2/6/R08/PHU_2_6_R08.pdf?request-
id=8f1884a6-fd47-447b-a653-fe3cb7086b72
[10/26/1861 AD]
and telephone is invented. Sound is
converted to electricity and back to
sound again.
A microphone converts variations in
sound (air pressure) into variations in
electric current, which can be carried
over long distances in metal wire, and
then converted back into the air
vibrations of sound using a speaker.
Sound can be sent farther as electric
current in a wire than mechanically in
air and travels silently.
and cabinet in Garnier's Institute,
Friedrichsdorf, demonstrated before
Physical Society) Frankfort,
Germany
[1] Drawing of Philip Reiss telephone
used for 10/26/1861 demonstration
before Physical Society in Frankfort,
Germany. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=Fdpuup7RSrUC&pg=PA110&lpg=PA110&dq=%22g
alvanic+music%22&source=bl&ots=XSKEE-YQX
1&sig=LnqVekN9DrlsZbrt8uQvjga8znk&hl=en&
ei=ze-eSqviJYOgswPdgpSCDg&sa=X&oi=book_r
esult&ct=result&resnum=5#v=onepage&q=%22
galvanic%20music%22&f=false
[2] portrait of Philip Reiss From
Silvanus Thompson: ''Reis is here
represented as holding in his hand the
telephone with which he had a few days
preceding (May 11, 1862) achieved such
success at his lecture before the
Freies Deutsches Hochstift (Free German
Institute) in Frankfort. '' PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=YkHu_MiyFSkC&printsec=frontcover&dq=phi
lip+reis+inventor+of+the+telephone#v=one
page&q=&f=false
[11/07/1861 AD]
may change with change in temperature
is proven by showing that at high
temperatures a blue line appears for
lithium.
England
[1] Scanned from the frontispiece of
Sketches from the life of Edward
Frankland, published in 1902 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/0/09/Frankland_Edward_26.jpg
[2] Sir Edward Frankland
(1825–1899), English chemist. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e9/Edward_Frankland.jpg
[1861 AD]
telegraph line, connecting San
Francisco to the East Coast of the USA.
[1] Description The overland pony
express — Photographed by Savage,
Salt Lake City; from a painting by
George M. Ottinger. Date 2 November
1867 Source Illustration in Harper's
weekly, v. 11, no. 566 (1867 Nov. 2),
p. 693. Scan provided by The Library of
Congress: Wood engraving after George
M. Ottinger (d. 1919) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/The_Overland_Po
ny_Express.jpg/1280px-The_Overland_Pony_
Express.jpg
[2] Logo of The Western Union
Company COPYRIGHTED
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Western_Union_money_transfer.png
[1861 AD]
separate different substances is
invented.
[1] Scientist: Graham, Thomas (1805 -
1869) Discipline(s): Chemistry ;
Physics Print Artist: Attributed to
C. Cook Medium: Photograph
Original Artist: Cloudet Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 15.7 x 12.1 cm /
Sheet: 24.7 x 17 cm PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-G003-03a.jpg
[2] Thomas Graham PD/Corel
source: http://www.frca.co.uk/images/gra
ham.jpg
[1861 AD]
anaerobic (do not need oxygen) and
others are aerobic (need oxygen) is
established.
France
[1] Aerobically different bacteria
behave differently when grown in liquid
culture: 1: Obligate aerobic bacteria
gather at the top of the test tube in
order to absorb maximal amount of
oxygen. 2: Obligate anaerobic bacteria
gather at the bottom to avoid oxygen.
3: Facultative bacteria gather mostly
at the top, since aerobic respiration
is the most beneficial one; but as lack
of oxygen does not hurt them, they can
be found all along the test tube. 4:
Microaerophiles gather at the upper
part of the test tube but not at the
top. They require oxygen but at a low
concentration. 5: Aerotolerant
bacteria are not affected at all by
oxygen, and they are evenly spread
along the test tube. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/90/Anaerobic.png
[2] * Félix Nadar (1820-1910), French
biologist Louis Pasteur (1822-1895),
1878 (detail). Source:
http://history.amedd.army.mil/booksdocs/
misc/evprev Creator/Artist Name
Gaspar-Félix
Tournachon Alternative names Félix
Nadar Date of birth/death 1820-04-05
1910-03-21 Location of birth/death
Paris Paris Work period 1854 -
1910 Work location Paris PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/42/Louis_Pasteur.jpg
[1861 AD]
merely the chemistry of carbon
compounds with no mention of living
organisms.
Belgium
[1] Friedrich August von Stradonitz
Kekulé Library of Congress PD
source: http://content.answers.com/main/
content/img/scitech/HSfrieda.jpg
[2] English: Friedrich August Kekulé
von Stradonitz, german chemist PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/fa/Frkekul%C3%A9.jpg
[1861 AD]
projected.
Institution) London, England
[1] [t Note: This cannot be a
photograph from 1861 - Maxwell
apparently never created a color
photograph in the sense of a single
plate or paper with a multi-color
image, but made 3 glass plates. So this
is a digitized color photo of the
projection of those three plates. The
first color [photograph being created,
at least publicly by: introduced in
1907 by A. Lumiere (eb1911
photography)] wikipedia: English:
Tartan Ribbon, photograph taken by
James Clerk Maxwell in 1861. Considered
the first colour photograph. Maxwell
had the photographer Thomas Sutton
photograph a tartan ribbon three times,
each time with a different colour
filter over the lens. The three images
were developed and then projected onto
a screen with three different
projectors, each equipped with the same
colour filter used to take its image.
When brought into focus, the three
images formed a full colour image. The
three photographic plates now reside in
a small museum at 14 India Street,
Edinburgh, the house where Maxwell was
born. Source Scanned from The
Illustrated History of Colour
Photography, Jack H. Coote, 1993. ISBN
0-86343-380-4. Date 1861 Author
James Clerk Maxwell (original
picture) ; scan by User:Janke. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/7f/Tartan_Ribbon.jpg
[2] James Clerk Maxwell. The Library
of Congress. PD/GOV
source: "Henri Victor Regnault",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p586.
[02/??/1862 AD]
are found to be different than the
spectra of the metals themselves.
Germany
[1] {ULSF: Note these spectra are from
1864 not 1862} Mitscherlich, A.
''Über die Spektren der Verbindungen
und der einfachen Körper. Pogg.'' Ann
121 (1864): 1864,
p459. http://books.google.com/books?id=
iik4AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA459
AND http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/
10.1002/andp.18641970308/abstract {Mits
cherlich_186402xx.pdf} English: Mitsch
erlich, Alexander. ''XX. On the spectra
of compounds and of simple
substances.'' The London, Edinburgh,
and Dublin Philosophical Magazine and
Journal of Science 28.188 (1864):
169-189. http://books.google.com/books?
id=eZEOAAAAIAAJ&pg=RA1-PA169
AND http://booksnow2.scholarsportal.inf
o/ebooks/oca3/42/s4philosophicalm28lond/
s4philosophicalm28lond.pdf UNKNOWN AND
Description Deutsch: Alexander
Mitscherlich als Student in Göttingen,
Aufnahme von 1858. Quelle: Archiv der
Burschenschaft Hannovera Date 4 March
2012 Source Own work Author
RRichter CC
source: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/d
oi/10.1002/andp.18641970308/abstracthttp
://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/common
s/0/08/Mitscherlich_Alexander_Chemiker.j
pg
[2] {ULSF: Note these spectra are from
1864 not 1862} Mitscherlich, A.
''Über die Spektren der Verbindungen
und der einfachen Körper. Pogg.'' Ann
121 (1864): 1864,
p459. http://books.google.com/books?id=
iik4AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA459
AND http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/
10.1002/andp.18641970308/abstract {Mits
cherlich_186402xx.pdf} English: Mitsch
erlich, Alexander. ''XX. On the spectra
of compounds and of simple
substances.'' The London, Edinburgh,
and Dublin Philosophical Magazine and
Journal of Science 28.188 (1864):
169-189. http://books.google.com/books?
id=eZEOAAAAIAAJ&pg=RA1-PA169
AND http://booksnow2.scholarsportal.inf
o/ebooks/oca3/42/s4philosophicalm28lond/
s4philosophicalm28lond.pdf PD AND Des
cription Deutsch: Alexander
Mitscherlich als Student in Göttingen,
Aufnahme von 1858. Quelle: Archiv der
Burschenschaft Hannovera Date 4 March
2012 Source Own work Author
RRichter CC
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=eZEOAAAAIAAJ&pg=RA1-PA169AND http://up
load.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0
8/Mitscherlich_Alexander_Chemiker.jpg
[11/04/1862 AD]
is invented and can fire 200 bullets
per minute (around 3 bullets a second).
(presumably)
[1] Patent for first Gatlin
gun PD/Corel AND Dr. Gatling with
Model 1893 Bulldog [t Is 1893 year of
photo? This is kind of a funny picture,
like a civilized ''g'day'' chap, then
casually holding a machine
gun] PD/Corel
source: http://patimg1.uspto.gov/.piw?Do
cid=00036836&homeurl=http%3A%2F%2Fpatft.
uspto.gov%2Fnetacgi%2Fnph-Parser%3FSect1
%3DPTO1%2526Sect2%3DHITOFF%2526d%3DPALL%
2526p%3D1%2526u%3D%25252Fnetahtml%25252F
PTO%25252Fsrchnum.htm%2526r%3D1%2526f%3D
G%2526l%3D50%2526s1%3D0036,836.PN.%2526O
S%3DPN%2F0036,836%2526RS%3DPN%2F0036,836
&PageNum=&Rtype=&SectionNum=&idkey=NONE&
Input=View+first+pagePaul F. Wahl and
Donald R. Toppel, "The Gatling
Gun",Arco Publishing Company, New York,
NY, 1965. UNKNOWN
[2] Patent for first Gatlin
gun PD/Corel
source: http://patimg1.uspto.gov/.piw?Do
cid=00036836&homeurl=http%3A%2F%2Fpatft.
uspto.gov%2Fnetacgi%2Fnph-Parser%3FSect1
%3DPTO1%2526Sect2%3DHITOFF%2526d%3DPALL%
2526p%3D1%2526u%3D%25252Fnetahtml%25252F
PTO%25252Fsrchnum.htm%2526r%3D1%2526f%3D
G%2526l%3D50%2526s1%3D0036,836.PN.%2526O
S%3DPN%2F0036,836%2526RS%3DPN%2F0036,836
&PageNum=&Rtype=&SectionNum=&idkey=NONE&
Input=View+first+page
[1862 AD]
de Paris) Paris, France
[1] Vis tellurique method of organizing
the Periodic table in 1862. PD
AND [2] Alexandre-Emile Béguyer de
Chancourtois PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/0/05/Vis_tellurique_de_Chancour
tois.gifhttp://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e8/Alexandre-Emile_B%C3%
A9guyer_de_Chancourtois.jpg
[2] Vis tellurique method of
organizing the Periodic table in
1862. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/0/05/Vis_tellurique_de_Chancour
tois.gif
[1862 AD]
combustion gas engine car.
[1] Description English: The
hippomobile, a car invented by Étienne
Lenoir in 1863 Date Dont know Source
http://www1.eere.energy.gov/vehiclesand
fuels/pdfs/deer_2004/session1/2004_deer_
fairbanks.pdf Author EERE PD
source: http://www1.eere.energy.gov/vehi
clesandfuels/pdfs/deer_2004/session1/200
4_deer_fairbanks.pdf
[2] Voiture de JEAN JOSEPH ETIENNE
LENOIR - 1860: PD/Corel
source: http://www.forum-auto.com/upload
s/200510/gv_creations_1129490448_voiture
_jean_joseph_etienne_lenoir___1860.jpg
[1862 AD]
protein is described.
Germany
[1] Hoppe-Seyler, Felix PD/Corel
source: http://clendening.kumc.edu/dc/pc
/hoppe-seyler.jpg
[02/19/1863 AD]
matched to spectral lines from other
stars.
[1] ''The accompanying drawing shows
with considerable accuracy the
principal lines which the authors have
seen in Sirius, Betelgeux, and
Aldebaran, and their position
relatively to the chief solar
lines.'' ''The position in the stellar
spectra corresponding to that of
Fraunhofer's line D, from which the
others are measured, has been obtained
by coincidence with a sodium line, the
position of which in the apparatus was
compared directly with the line D in
the solar spectrum. The lines in the
drawings against which a mark is placed
have been measured.'' PD/Corel
source: http://journals.royalsociety.org
/content/025553r323116j26/fulltext.pdf
[2] William Huggins PD/Corel
source: https://eee.uci.edu/clients/bjbe
cker/ExploringtheCosmos/hugginsport.jpg
[1863 AD]
heating to kill microscopic organisms
is shown to stop fermented substances
like wine and beer from going sour.
France
[1] * Félix Nadar (1820-1910), French
biologist Louis Pasteur (1822-1895),
1878 (detail). Source:
http://history.amedd.army.mil/booksdocs/
misc/evprev Creator/Artist Name
Gaspar-Félix
Tournachon Alternative names Félix
Nadar Date of birth/death 1820-04-05
1910-03-21 Location of birth/death
Paris Paris Work period 1854 -
1910 Work location Paris PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/42/Louis_Pasteur.jpg
[2] Scientist: Pasteur, Louis (1822 -
1895) Discipline(s):
Chemistry Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 21 x 15.2 cm / Sheet: 33 x
23.3 cm PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-P002-04a.jpg
[02/23/1864 AD]
different spectra, depending on how
they are excited; by flame or
electricity.
Münster), Germany
[1] Nitrogen first order spectrum PD
source: Plucker_Hittorf_1865.pdf
[2] Nitrogen second order spectrum PD
source: Plucker_Hittorf_1865.pdf
[08/05/1864 AD]
described.
[1] [t Donati's stellar spectra. These
are difficult to read because Donati
give accompanying references for alpha,
beta, etc for example Sirius alpha is
the Sun's F line - 15'' of arc, where
Vega's alpha is the Sun's F line + 40''
of arc.] PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=1AsAAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA100&lpg=PA100&dq=Dona
ti+Florence+1860+spectra&source=web&ots=
P-e2QhLbo9&sig=bK8ckOIpAkXlBWVp2j-mcNFoc
n0&hl=en#PPA103,M1
[2] Giovan Battista Donati PD/Corel
source: http://www.astropa.unipa.it/Libr
ary/Astronomi/cover/donati.jpg
[09/08/1864 AD]
galaxies are seen. Unlike stars,
nebulae are shown to have no spectrum
except for a few emission lines, and
therefore to be composed of gas by
using spectral comparison.
The spectrum of the Andromeda galaxy
and a globular cluster are both found
to have a continuous spectrum with
absorption lines, similar to that of a
star.
[1] The Cat's Eye Nebula from
Hubble Credit: NASA, ESA, HEIC, and
The Hubble Heritage Team (STScI/AURA)
PD/Corel
source: http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/image/
0705/catseye2_hst.jpg
[2] Draco's spectrum ...The riddle of
the nebulae was solved. The answer,
which had come to us in the light
itself, read: Not an aggregation of
stars, but a luminous gas.
--Huggins (1897) PD/Corel
source: https://eee.uci.edu/clients/bjbe
cker/ExploringtheCosmos/neblinesdraco.jp
g
[10/27/1864 AD]
electromagnetic transverse wave in a
surrounding aether medium is created.
[1] Fig. 66 from Maxwell's ''A Treatise
on Electricity and Magnetism'' which
shows the view that light is made of
two sine waves in an aether, one wihch
is an electric displacement and another
which is a magnetic force, both which
are 90 degrees to each other. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=gmQSAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edi
tions:0w8AGC9HxP35YR6Uk9&lr=&as_brr=1#PP
A390,M1
[2] James Clerk Maxwell, ''A Dynamical
Theory of the Electromagnetic Field'',
Royal Society Transactions, Vol. 155,
1865, p. 459-512;
p497. http://books.google.com/books?id=
xVNFAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA497
AND http://journals.royalsociety.org/co
ntent/yw7lx230g0h64637/?p=0677f1423d9744
10b4e2e6e25d052266π=8 {Maxwell_James_C
lerk_dynamical_theory_of_em_field_1864.p
df} also in James Clerk Maxwell, Ed.
by W.D. Niven., ''The Scientific Papers
of James Clerk Maxwell'', C.J. Clay,
1890, vol1, p526-597. and with
selectable
text: http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/A_D
ynamical_Theory_of_the_Electromagnetic_F
ield/Part_I PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=xVNFAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA497 PD
[04/24/1865 AD]
quantity of a body's energy that is
unavailable for work.
Germany
[1] Rudolf Clausius Source
http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.
uk/history/Posters2/Clausius.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/40/Clausius.jpg
[2] Rudolf J. E. Clausius Library of
Congress PD
source: http://content.answers.com/main/
content/img/scitech/HSrudolj.jpg
[1865 AD]
of genetic inheritance (the 1:2:1 ratio
of inheritance of a trait) is
described.
The first time specific characteristics
are followed through generations, and
that characteristics are inherited in
an all or none fashion is shown.
Austria (now: Brno, the Czech
Republic)
[1] Gregor Mendel Source
http://www.malaspina.com/jpg/mendel.j
pg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/87/Gregor_Mendel_portrai
t.jpg
[2] [t Gregor Mendel] PD/Corel
source: http://joefelso.files.wordpress.
com/2007/04/mendel2.jpg
[05/17/1866 AD]
found to be surrounded by hydrogen gas;
from its spectrum.
[1] Spectrum of absorption and spectrum
of bright lines forming the Compound
Spectrum of a New Star near epsilon
Coronae Borealis. PD/Corel
source: http://journals.royalsociety.org
/content/j722186535000l64/fulltext.pdf
[2] Hubble Captures the Orion
Nebula PD
source: https://eee.uci.edu/clients/bjbe
cker/ExploringtheCosmos/hugginsport.jpg
[1866 AD]
comet-like orbit.
England
[1] John Couch Adams PD
source: http://starchild.gsfc.nasa.gov/I
mages/StarChild/scientists/adams_l1.jpg
[2] John Couch Adams. Hulton
Archive/Getty Images PD/Corel
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
68871&rendTypeId=4
[1866 AD]
and recognized as a phosphor (a
substance that exhibits
phosphorescence, a luminescence that
persists after removal of the exciting
source).
France
[1] The white material collected in the
bottom of these test tubes is zinc
sulfide that has settled out of pore
water from push cores taken during this
cruise. Photo courtesy of A.
Eisen. PD
source: http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/ex
plorations/03windows/logs/jul30/media/zi
ncsulfideprecipitate_600.jpg
[1866 AD]
[1] [t get better image of
dynamite] English: Diagram of
dynamite. A. Sawdust (or any
other type of absorbent material)
soaked in nitroglycerin. B.
Protective coating surrounding the
explosive material. C. Blasting
cap. D. Wire connected to the
blasting cap. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/65/Dynamite-5.svg
[2] Alfred Bernhard Nobel. ©
Bettmann/Corbis PD/Corel
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
20999&rendTypeId=4
[04/23/1868 AD]
estimate the relative radial (or line
of sight) velocity of celestial objects
by comparing the position of spectral
lines from the celestial object to
those of a terrestrial light source.
Sirius is estimated to be moving away
from the Earth.
[1] [t Note that the lines are
absorption lines.] Figure 4
from: Huggins, William. ''Further
Observations on the Spectra of Some of
the Stars and Nebulae, with an Attempt
to Determine Therefrom Whether These
Bodies are Moving towards or from the
Earth, Also Observations on the Spectra
of the Sun and of Comet II., 1868.''
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London 158 (1868):
529-564. http://www.jstor.org/stable/10
.2307/108925 PD [1] William
Huggins PD/Corel
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2
307/108925
[2] William Huggins' star-spectroscope
PD/Corel
source: https://eee.uci.edu/clients/bjbe
cker/ExploringtheCosmos/hugginsport.jpg
[06/23/1868 AD]
[1] Description Drawing for a
Typewriter, 06/23/1868. This is the
printed patent drawing for a typewriter
invented by Christopher L. Sholes,
Carlos Glidden, and J. W. Soule. From
the National Archives Date 23
June 1868 Source Patented Case
Files, 1836 - 1956; Records of the
Patent and Trademark Office; Record
Group 241; National Archives. (ARC
Identifier: 595503) Originally
uploaded by Brian0918 Author
Illustrator: Unknown Patent
assignees: Christopher L. Sholes,
Carlos Glidden, and J. W.
Soule Permission (Reusing this file)
Public domain - published in USA
before 1923 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/39/TypewriterPatent1868.
jpg
[2] Image from: Sholes, Glidden &
Soule, ''Type Writing Machine'', Patent
79265 http://www.google.com/patents?id=
t7YAAAAAEBAJ PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=t7YAAAAAEBAJ
[11/23/1868 AD]
photograph is created by superimposing
(and fastening together) three
different colored transparent images.
[1] English: Early color photo of Agen,
France, by Louis Ducos du Hauron, 1877.
The cathedral in the scene is the
Cathédrale Saint-Caprais d'Agen.
[1] Source ? Date 1877 Author
Louis Ducos du Hauron (1837 –
1920) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/08/Duhauron1877.jpg
[2] Louis Ducos du Hauron paved way
for modern three-color photography.
''Cinémathèque Française'' PD/Corel
source: http://www.marillier.nom.fr/coll
odions/PGH/pics/photowasborn06.jpg
[1868 AD]
distinct diseases.
France
[1] * Félix Nadar (1820-1910), French
biologist Louis Pasteur (1822-1895),
1878 (detail). Source:
http://history.amedd.army.mil/booksdocs/
misc/evprev Creator/Artist Name
Gaspar-Félix
Tournachon Alternative names Félix
Nadar Date of birth/death 1820-04-05
1910-03-21 Location of birth/death
Paris Paris Work period 1854 -
1910 Work location Paris PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/42/Louis_Pasteur.jpg
[2] Scientist: Pasteur, Louis (1822 -
1895) Discipline(s):
Chemistry Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 21 x 15.2 cm / Sheet: 33 x
23.3 cm PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-P002-04a.jpg
[1868 AD]
from an unrecognized yellow spectral
line in the light of the Sun's
atmosphere.
[1] Description Pierre Jules Janssen
(1824-1907) Source Bulletin de la
société astronomique de France,
1913 Date Prior to 1907 PD AND
Joseph Lockyer BBC Hulton Picture
Library PD/Corel
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6e/Pierre_Janssen.jpghtt
p://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=10214&rendT
ypeId=4
[2] Description Pierre Jules
Janssen (1824-1907) Source Bulletin
de la société astronomique de France,
1913 Date Prior to 1907 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6e/Pierre_Janssen.jpg
[01/30/1869 AD]
from the electricity in the brain might
allow images of thought to be captured
on a photograph.
[1] Text from: J.T.K., ''Brain Waves:
A theory'', The Spectator, 01/30/1869.
http://books.google.com/books?id=Yr0-A
QAAIAAJ&pg=135 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=Yr0-AQAAIAAJ&pg=135
[03/17/1869 AD]
becomes thicker because of increased
pressure is observed.
[1] Scanned from the frontispiece of
Sketches from the life of Edward
Frankland, published in 1902 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/0/09/Frankland_Edward_26.jpg
[2] Sir Edward Frankland
(1825–1899), English chemist. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e9/Edward_Frankland.jpg
[05/??/1869 AD]
Borealis is examined and found to have
mainly one bright line not belonging to
any known simple or compound gases.
Sweden
[1] Anders Jonas Ångström (1814-1874)
is remembered as one of the fathers of
modern spectroscopy. His unit of
wavelength is still used worldwide; the
Ångström (1 Å = 0.1 nm). PD/Corel
source: http://www.angstrom.uu.se/bilder
/anders.jpg
[2] Anders Jonas Ångström, c.
1865 Courtesy of the Kungl.
Biblioteket, Stockholm PD/Corel
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
13450&rendTypeId=4
[1869 AD]
plastic, Celluloid: a transparent
plastic created by heating a mixture of
nitrocellulose, camphor, and alcohol
under pressure until the mold.
[1] Description English: celluloid
pen Date 5 April 2008 (original
upload date) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia (Original text :
self-made) Author Helian (talk).
Original uploader was Helian at
en.wikipedia CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Arco_pen.jpg/88
2px-Arco_pen.jpg
[2] John Wesley Hyatt Celluloid
Corporation Records PD
source: http://americanhistory.si.edu/ar
chives/images/d8009-1.jpg
[04/21/1870 AD]
are described.
[1] Butlerov, A.M. Sur La Structure
Chimique De Quelques Hydrocarbures
Non-saturés. Eggers, 1870. Mémoires
De l’Académie Impériale Des
Sciences De St.-Pétersbourg /
7. http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&
lr=&id=iZZFAAAAcAAJ PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?hl
=en&lr=&id=iZZFAAAAcAAJ
[2] Butlerov, Alexander
Michailovich 19th Century Born:
Tschistopol near Kazan (Russia), 1828
Died: Biarritz (France), 1886 PD
source: http://www.euchems.org/binaries/
Butlerov_tcm23-29647.gif
[04/28/1870 AD]
cerebrum can contract certain muscles
is shown by direct electrical
stimulation of the cerebrum of dogs,
and the first map of the brain that
connects brain location to function.
Germany
[1] Figure from English translation of
Fritsch and Hitzig 1870 paper [t
Appears to be different, with symbols
in somewhat different locations] PD
source: Fritsch, G. and Hitzig, E.,
"Ueber die elektrische Erregbarkeit des
Grosshirns", Archiv für Anatomie,
Physiologie und wissenschaftliche
Medicin, 1870, p300-332.
http://books.google.com/books?id=_qkEA
AAAQAAJ&pg=PR5&dq=Archiv+f%C3%BCr+Anatom
ie+Physiologie+und+wissenschaftliche&as_
brr=1&ei=05ZnSYqzC4TMlQSk9PjLCg#PPA300,M
1 English translation: Fritsch, G.
and Hitzig, E., "On the Electrical
Excitability of the Cerebrum", 1870.
in: G. von Bonin, "Some Papers on the
Cerebral Cortex", Springfield, Charles
C. Thomas, 1960.
[2] Figure from original Fritsch and
Hitzig 1870 paper PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=_qkEAAAAQAAJ&pg=PR5&dq=Archiv+f%C3%BCr+
Anatomie+Physiologie+und+wissenschaftlic
he&as_brr=1&ei=05ZnSYqzC4TMlQSk9PjLCg#PP
A313,M1
[1870 AD]
Asia and Australia.
[1] Description English: Map Showing
the Telegraph Lines In Operation, Under
Contract, and Contemplated to Complete
the Circuit of the Globe, 1869 Date
1869 Source
https://qed.princeton.edu/getfile.php?f
=Map_Showing_the_Telegraph_Lines_In_Oper
ation,_Under_Contract,_and_Contemplated_
to_Complete_the_Circuit_of_the_Globe,_18
69.jpg Author HH Lloyd & Co
Publishers PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/4e/Map_Showing_the_Teleg
raph_Lines_In_Operation%2C_Under_Contrac
t%2C_and_Contemplated_to_Complete_the_Ci
rcuit_of_the_Globe%2C_1869.jpg
[2] Description Deutsch: Errichtung
des ersten Mastes der Telgraphenleitung
nach Carpentaria (Holzstich) English:
Planting the first pole on the Overland
Telegraph line to Carpentaria, Calvert,
Samuel, 1828-1913 Wood Engraving ~1870,
Held in the collection of the National
Library of Australia Date 12 December
2005 (original upload date) Source
Transferred from en.wikipedia;
transferred to Commons by User:Bidgee
using CommonsHelper. Original source
is National Libraray of
Australia Author Samuel Calvert
(1828-1913) Original uploader was PDH
at en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing
this file) PD-AUSTRALIA. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8c/Overland_Telegraph.jp
g
[1870 AD]
England (presumably)
[1] Coumarin GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cou
marinv
[2] William Henry Perkin (1838-1907),
in 1860. (Credit: Edelstein
Collection.) PD/Corel
source: http://64.202.120.86/upload/imag
e/personal-column/tony-travis/19th-centu
ary-high-tech/william-henry-perkin.jpg
[01/07/1871 AD]
represent elements not found yet.
Petersburg, Russia
[1] {ULSF: Appears to be a larger copy
of:} The 1871 Table COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.meta-synthesis.com/we
bbook/35_pt/Mendeleev_1871b.png
[2] Fig 2 The 1871 Table UNKNOWN
source: http://www.rsc.org/images/featur
es%20laing%20fig2_mar07_tcm18-79039.jpg
[09/11/1871 AD]
found to include spectral emission
lines found in air.
Germany
[1] H. Vogel, ''Ueber die Spectra der
Blitze'', Annalen der Physik, vol. 219,
Issue 8, 1871,
pp.653-654. http://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=6QU4AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA653
AND http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/
cgi-bin/fulltext/112494935/PDFSTART
English translation H. Vogel, ''On
the Spectra of Lightning'' PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=6QU4AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA653
[2] Hermann C. Vogel, ''Resultate
spectralanalytischer Beobachtungen,
angestellt auf der Sternwarte zu
Bothkamp.'', Astronomische Nachrichten,
78, 16, 1872,
p241–252;p249-250; http://books.googl
e.com/books?id=jgZTAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA1871-IA
49
AND http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/
cgi-bin/fulltext/112526975/PDFSTART
AND http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/
journal/112579623/issue {Vogel_Hermann_
Doppler_Sun_Rotation_1871.pdf} PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=jgZTAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA1871-IA49
[1871 AD]
communication: communication using only
a series of on or off values; the
Baudot {BxDO} code.
[1] Crotch, A. The Hughes and Baudot
Telegraphs. Rentell, 1908,
p49. http://books.google.com/books?id=n
9pAAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA78 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=n9pAAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA49
[2] Émile Baudot PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ita2.png
[06/07/1872 AD]
produced; a synthetic resin, second
only to polyethylene in production,
made from the polymerization
{Pu-liMR-u-ZA-suN} of vinyl chloride.
Tübingen) Tübingen, Germany
[1]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyvinyl_c
hloride GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pol
yvinyl_chloride
[2] Beschreibung Eugen Baumann
(1846 - 1896), deutscher
Chemiker Quelle
Bioanalytical.com Urheber
bzw. Nutzungsrechtinhaber
Unbekannter Fotograf Datum
vor 1896 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/de/e/e5/Eugen_Baumann.jpg
[1872 AD]
that automatically binds grain with
wire, into bundles.
[1] The Withington Binder Built by the
McCormicks in 1876 This machine binds
the grain with wire.. Read more:
http://chestofbooks.com/reference/Wonder
-Book-Of-Knowledge/Development-Of-The-Re
aper-Continued.html#.UWShTncrzg8#ixzz2Q0
kr3zQv UNKNOWN
source: http://chestofbooks.com/referenc
e/Wonder-Book-Of-Knowledge/images/The-Wi
thington-Binder-Built-by-the-McCormicks-
in-1876-This-m.jpg
[2] McCormick Harvester and Binder of
1876 at work in the field -the first
practical self-binder ever
built Source McCormick Reaper
Centennial Source Material
(International Harvester Company:
Chicago) 1931 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:McCormick_Harvester_and_Binder.gif
[1872 AD]
contain microorganisms.
England
[1] Scientist: Tyndall, John (1820 -
1893) Discipline(s): Physics Print
Artist: Rudolf Hoffmann, fl. ca. 1840
Medium: Engraving Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 17 x 12 cm /
Sheet: 33 x 22.9 cm PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-T003-11a.jpg
[2] Scientist: Tyndall, John (1820 -
1893) Discipline(s):
Physics Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 11.5 x 9 cm / Sheet: 27 x
21.3 cm PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-T003-08a.jpg
[1872 AD]
outside of the body.
Silesia (now Wroclaw, Poland)
[1] Schroeter, Julius. ''Ueber einige
durch Bacterien gebildete Pigmente.''
Beiträge zur Biologie der Pflanzen.
Ern's Verlag, Breslau (1872):
109-126. http://www.biodiversitylibrary
.org/item/27353#page/269/mode/1up
{beitrgezurbiolog01berl.pdf} PD
source: http://www.biodiversitylibrary.o
rg/item/27353#page/269/mode/1up
[02/12/1873 AD]
light into electricity.
[1] Willoughby Smith was an electrical
engineer working for telegraph
companies, but his the most important
contribution to science was discovery
of photo-conductivity of selenium in
1873. PD/Corel
source: http://www.geocities.com/neveyaa
kov/electro_science/smith1.jpg
[2] Closed lid - high
resistance, open lid - low
resistance PD/Corel
source: http://www.geocities.com/neveyaa
kov/electro_science/smith_experiment.jpg
[11/23/1874 AD]
is invented. Metal sulfide crystals are
found to transmit electricity more
easily in one direction than in the
other, and this will later be used to
convert an alternating current into a
direct current.
Germany
[1] Ferdinand Braun (1850-1918), Nobel
laureate 1909. (in
Physics) http://www.cathodique.net/FB
raun.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/55/Ferdinand_Braun.jpg
[2] Karl Ferdinand Braun when
older PD
source: http://phys.bspu.unibel.by/hist/
physport/gif/phys/braun.jpg
[12/12/1874 AD]
putting dye in a photographic emulsion
allows specific colors of light
(including infrared) to be
photographed, because the dyes allow
only those specific colors to reach the
light sensitive silver compound.
Germany
[1] Description Photograph of
Hermann Carl Vogel, the
astronomer Source Opposite page
129 of Astronomers of Today Date
1905 Author Hector
Macpherson PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d2/Vogel_Hermann_Carl.jp
g
[2] Hermann Carl Vogel 1906 Bruce
Medalist PD
source: http://www.phys-astro.sonoma.edu
/brucemedalists/Vogel/vogel.jpg
[04/27/1875 AD]
physical destruction of various
portions of the brain of living monkeys
is shown to cause blindness, deafness,
the loss of sense of touch, smell, and
taste, and the need to scratch.
School) London, England
[1] Figures from Ferrier's 1875
work PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=TasOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA409&dq=david+ferrier&
lr=&ei=qP-ASdq9CKWQkAT8l8XHCg#PPA410,M1
[2] David Ferrier PD
source: http://www.lecturelist.org/asset
s/images/199.jpg
[08/28/1875 AD]
changes in electric currents on the
brains of rabbits and monkeys are
measured during chewing, and in
response to light shown in the eyes.
[1] Text of: Richard Caton, ''The
Electric Currents of the Brain'',
British Medical Journal, 1875, V2,
p278. http://www.bmj.com/content/2/765/
257.full.pdf+html {Caton_Richard_187508
28.pdf} PD
source: http://www.bmj.com/content/2/765
/257.full.pdf+html
[2]
http://books.google.com/books?id=_GMeW9E
1IB4C&pg=PA41 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=_GMeW9E1IB4C&pg=PA41
[02/15/1876 AD]
electricity is shown to act like an
electric current; producing a magnetic
field.
Baltimore) (University of Berlin)
Berlin, Germany
[1] Description Rowland
Henry.jpg English: Photograph of Henry
Rowland, the American physicist,
published in 1902 Date
1902(1902) Source
Frontispiece of The Physical
Papers of Henry Augustus
Rowland Author Henry Rowland PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c2/Rowland_Henry.jpg
[05/01/1876 AD]
conduction in water is not due to
conduction by the water, but by
dissolved particles, such as sodium
ions, and that the high conductivity of
acids is because hydrogen is one of
their migrating components.
Germany
[1] Friedrich Wilhelm Georg Kohlrausch
PD/Corel
source: http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/histor
y/kohlrausch2.JPG
[2] Friedrich Kohlrausch PD/Corel
source: http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/histor
y/kohlrausch1.JPG
[1876 AD]
is built using liquid ammonia as a
coolant.
Germany
[1] The first Linde refrigeration
machine ever sold, an improvement on
the original model from 1871 started up
in 1877 at the Creher Brewery in
Trieste (now Italy) PD/Corel
(presumably)
source: http://www.linde.com/internation
al/web/linde/like35lindecom.nsf/reposito
rybyalias/pdf_ch_chronicle/$file/chronic
le_e%5B1%5D.pdf
[2] * by Frederick Muller *
Reference: 3278404 circa 1890:
German scientist Karl Paul Gottfried
Linde. (Photo by Frederick
Muller/Hulton Archive/Getty
Images) PD/Corel
source: http://www.jamd.com/image/g/3278
404
[1876 AD]
cathode in an evacuated tube (under
high electric potential) is named
"Cathode-rays", shown to be emitted
perpendicularly to the cathode surface,
and to cast sharp shadows.
Germany
[1] Eugen Goldstein PD
source: http://www.pkc.ac.th/kobori/Asse
ts/ChemistryMahidol1/www.il.mahidol.ac.t
h/course/ap_chemistry/atomic_structure/p
icture/bild_goldstein.jpg
[2] Eugen Goldstein 1850 -
1931 PD
source: http://members.chello.nl/~h.dijk
stra19/image/goldstein.jpg
[03/05/1877 AD]
the retina is shown to turn a yellowish
color when exposed to light. Using this
effect, a rabbit retina is removed, the
changed dyes fixed with chemicals, and
a permanent picture (an "optogram") is
made showing the last image the rabbit
saw (in this case, a barred window).
Germany
[1] One of Kühne's rabbit optograms
from 1878 UNKNOWN AND Kühne,
Wilhelm Friedrich PD
source: http://www.college-optometrists.
org/filemanager/root/site_assets/museum/
eyes/Untitled789.jpghttp://vlp.mpiwg-ber
lin.mpg.de/vlpimages/images/img3930.jpg
[2] One of Kühne's rabbit optograms
from 1878 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.college-optometrists.
org/filemanager/root/site_assets/museum/
eyes/Untitled789.jpg
[12/24/1877 AD]
out loud.
USA
[1] Original Edison Tin Foil
Phonograph. Photo courtesy of U.S.
Department of the Interior, National
Park Service, Edison National Historic
Site. source:
http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/edhtml/edcyl
dr.html PD
source: http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/edht
ml/tinfoil.jpg
[2] Edison's 12/24/1877 patent for
improvements to the phonograph. PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=SWg_AAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4#v
=onepage&q=&f=false
[1877 AD]
transmitted by insects is proven (a
mosquito is shown to transmit a
parasite that causes elephantiasis).
[1] Subject : Sir Patrick Manson
(1844-1922) British physician,
specialist about parasitology PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/54/Mason_Patrick_1844-19
22.jpg
[1877 AD]
individual homes.
[1] Alexander Graham Bell speaking into
a prototype telephone PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/85/1876_Bell_Speaking_in
to_Telephone.jpg
[2] Figures 6 and 7 from Bell's
02/14/1876 patent PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=crhRAAAAEBAJ&pg=PA2&source=gbs_selected
_pages&cad=1#v=onepage&q=&f=false
[10/10/1878 AD]
various substances are photographed.
Chemistry) London, England
[1] Plate 21 from Hartley Huntington
1879 paper PD
source: W. N. Hartley, A. K.
Huntington, "Researches on the Action
of Organic Substances on the
Ultra-Violet Rays of the Spectrum",
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1776-1886), Volume
170, 1879,
p257-274. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/m5x231r091n48288/?p=17c6ba33
3abb4267ac77d5f672a6e695π=3
[2] Plate 25 from Hartley Huntington
1879 paper PD
source: same
[1878 AD]
[1] {ULSF: Note that this is not the
1860 lamp but is a later 1878-1879
lamp} The lamp on the left is an early
carbon and rod filament incandescent
electric lamp made by the English
chemist, Joseph Swan (1827-1914) in
1878-1879. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/
images/object_images/535x535/10276216.jp
g
[2] Joseph Wilson Swan 1828 -
1914 PD/Corel
source: http://www.hevac-heritage.org/ha
ll_of_fame/lighting_&_electrical/joseph_
wilson_swan_s1.jpg
[1878 AD]
synthetic silk (rayon).
Fibers are produced by forcing
(extruding) solutions of cellulose
nitrate through very tiny holes in
glass, and allowing the solvent to
evaporate.
[1] n particolare ingrandito di una
gonna in rayon. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/00/Rayon_closeup_1.jpg
[2] Hilaire Bernigaud PD/Corel
source: http://www.scienceandsociety.co.
uk/Pix/PER/07/10284307_T.JPG
[04/05/1879 AD]
are shown to be diatomic; breaking into
single atoms on heating as shown by the
density of their vapors being reduced
by two-thirds of their normal values.
Germany (presumably)
[1] Description Viktor
Meyer.jpg Deutsch: Portrait Date
1901(1901) Source ''History
of Chemistry'' by F. Moore PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/75/Viktor_Meyer.jpg
[2] Viktor
Meyer Historia-Photo ''Meyer,
Viktor.'' Online Photograph.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 24
Sept. 2009
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
36829&rendTypeId=4
[05/15/1879 AD]
absorbed inside the atmosphere of Earth
is understood.
[1] Title: Marie Alfred
Cornu Artist: Nadar Type: Giclee
Print Size: 18 x 24 in PD
source: https://www.allposters.co.uk/-sp
/Marie-Alfred-Cornu-Posters_i1590814_.ht
m
[2] French physicist Alfred Cornu
(1849-1902) Source
http://www.nndb.com/people/962/00010066
2/ Date 19th century PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/ba/Alfred_Cornu.jpg
[1879 AD]
nucleus of cells using dyes.
Germany
[1] Image provided by the Science Photo
Library PD/Corel
source: http://www.nature.com/nrm/journa
l/v2/n1/images/nrm0101_072a_f1.gif
[2] Image provided by the Science
Photo Library PD/Corel
source: http://www.nature.com/nrm/journa
l/v2/n1/images/nrm0101_072a_f1.gif
[1879 AD]
available artificial sweetener.
Maryland, USA
[1] Ira Remsen PD
source: http://hopkins.typepad.com/.a/6a
00d83451db8d69e2011278fa024c28a4-pi
[2] statues of Remsen and
Fahlberg from Smithsonian may be
PD COPYRIGHTED/FAIR USE
source: http://pus.sagepub.com/cgi/repri
nt/4/3/305.pdf?ck=nck
[1879 AD]
Germany
[1] Albrecht Kossel
(1853–1927) George Grantham Bain
Collection (Library of Congress) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0f/Kossel%2C_Albrecht_%2
81853-1927%29.jpg
[02/09/1880 AD]
by growing the agent of disease on an
artificial media to create a milder
form.
France
[1] * Félix Nadar (1820-1910), French
biologist Louis Pasteur (1822-1895),
1878 (detail). Source:
http://history.amedd.army.mil/booksdocs/
misc/evprev Creator/Artist Name
Gaspar-Félix
Tournachon Alternative names Félix
Nadar Date of birth/death 1820-04-05
1910-03-21 Location of birth/death
Paris Paris Work period 1854 -
1910 Work location Paris PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/42/Louis_Pasteur.jpg
[2] Scientist: Pasteur, Louis (1822 -
1895) Discipline(s):
Chemistry Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 21 x 15.2 cm / Sheet: 33 x
23.3 cm PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-P002-04a.jpg
[06/03/1880 AD]
light particles: a mirror vibrating
from sound sends reflected sunlight to
a receiver to be transformed back into
sound.
C., USA
[1] Alexander Bell's Photophone Patent
of 08/28/1880 figures 1 and 2 PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=VpdyAAAAEBAJ&printsec=drawing&zoom=4#v=
onepage&q=&f=false
[2] Alexander Bell's
Photophone Patent of 08/28/1880
figures 1 and 2 PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=VpdyAAAAEBAJ&printsec=drawing&zoom=4#v=
onepage&q=&f=false
[11/23/1880 AD]
be a protist, which shows that disease
can be caused by a protist and not only
by a bacterium.
France
[1] Charles-Louis-Alphonse Laveran.
Library of Congress PD
source: "Metchnikoff, Elie", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p524.
[2] BBC Hulton Picture
Library,''Laveran, Alphonse.'' Online
Photograph. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. 6 Aug. 2009
source: http://www.search.eb.com/eb/art-
12547/Laveran?&articleTypeId=50
[1880 AD]
magnetic fields is shown.
Germany
[1] Eugen Goldstein PD
source: http://www.pkc.ac.th/kobori/Asse
ts/ChemistryMahidol1/www.il.mahidol.ac.t
h/course/ap_chemistry/atomic_structure/p
icture/bild_goldstein.jpg
[2] Eugen Goldstein 1850 -
1931 PD
source: http://members.chello.nl/~h.dijk
stra19/image/goldstein.jpg
[1880 AD]
{PIEZOeleKTriSiTE or PEZO- or PEAZO-}
is discovered: when pressure is applied
to certain crystals, an electric
potential is created.
[1] Beschreibung Jacques Curie
(1856-1941, links) mit seinem Bruder
Pierre Curie (1859-1906) und seinen
Eltern Eugène Curie (1827-1910) und
Sophie-Claire Depouilly
(1832-1897) Quelle Françoise
Giroud: Marie Curie. A Life. Holmes &
Meier, New York London 1986, ISBN
0-8419-0977-6, nach Seite 138 Urheber
bzw. Nutzungsrechtinhaber
unbekannt Datum
1878 Genehmigung
Bild-PD-alt-100 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/de/3/3a/Curie%2C_Jacques_und_Pierr
e_mit_Eltern.jpg
[2] Pierre Curie UNKNOWN
source: http://www.espci.fr/esp/MUSE/ima
ge002.gif
[1880 AD]
physical contraction of rubber under
electric potential is measured.
Practical artificial muscles will not
be used in consumer products for over
130 years.
Germany
[1] Figures 1 and 2 from: W. C.
Röntgen, ''Ueber die durch
Electricität bewirkten Form- und
Volumenänderungen von dielectrischen
Körpern'', Annalen der Physik, Volume
247, Issue 13, pages 771–786,
1880. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/do
i/10.1002/andp.18802471304/abstract {Ro
ntgen_Wilhelm_Conrad_188009xx.pdf}
English: ''About the changes in
shape and volume of dielectrics caused
by electricity'' PD
source: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/d
oi/10.1002/andp.18802471304/abstract
[2] English: Photo of Wilhelm Conrad
Röntgen. Cleaned up version of
http://images.google.com/hosted/life/l?i
mgurl=6b3da250c6b5560f Source
unknown source Date 1900 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/71/Roentgen2.jpg
[1880 AD]
nations.
[1] Two Full pages from the Illustrated
London News dated 1861, an illustrated
weekly newspaper weeks date as shown on
top of page, the size of each page is
approx ( including margins as shown
)imately 11 x 16 inches (280x410). All
are genuine antique prints and not
modern copies, the Illustrated London
News is an illustrated magazine which
was first printed in 1842 and is the
finest pictorial example of a historic
social record of British and world
events up to the present day PD
source: http://www.old-print.com/mas_ass
ets/full2/P1380861/P1380861139.jpg
[2] {ULSF: Slave auction} PD
source: http://striking-women.org/sites/
striking-women.org/files/slave%20market%
20in%20virginia.jpg
[01/05/1881 AD]
electronic image. An image is captured
and sent electronically.
[1] Image of gas flame focused on
transmitter figure 3 PD/Corel
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v23/n589/pdf/023344a0.pdf
[2] Image as reproduced by receiver
figure 4 PD/Corel
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v23/n589/pdf/023344a0.pdf
[02/??/1881 AD]
is created by gently heating the
anthrax causing bacteria.
France
[1] * Félix Nadar (1820-1910), French
biologist Louis Pasteur (1822-1895),
1878 (detail). Source:
http://history.amedd.army.mil/booksdocs/
misc/evprev Creator/Artist Name
Gaspar-Félix
Tournachon Alternative names Félix
Nadar Date of birth/death 1820-04-05
1910-03-21 Location of birth/death
Paris Paris Work period 1854 -
1910 Work location Paris PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/42/Louis_Pasteur.jpg
[2] Scientist: Pasteur, Louis (1822 -
1895) Discipline(s):
Chemistry Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 21 x 15.2 cm / Sheet: 33 x
23.3 cm PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-P002-04a.jpg
[12/15/1881 AD]
to become broader when an element is
heated.
Kensington, England
[1] Joseph Lockyer BBC Hulton Picture
Library PD/Corel
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
10214&rendTypeId=4
[2] Norman Lockyer - photo published
in the US in 1909 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/8/8b/Lockyer-Norman.jpg
[1881 AD]
Columbia, USA
[1] The drawing for Alexander Graham
Bell's metal detector CREDIT: Bell,
Alexander Graham. ''Drawing.'' June 25,
1881. Alexander Graham Bell Papers,
1862-1939, Library of Congress. PD
source: http://www.americaslibrary.gov/a
ssets/jb/gilded/jb_gilded_garshot_2_e.jp
g
[2] Alexander Graham Bell speaking
into a prototype telephone PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/85/1876_Bell_Speaking_in
to_Telephone.jpg
[1881 AD]
is found to have the same speed in any
direction horizontal to the Earth; this
causes doubt about the existence of an
aether medium and about the wave theory
for light.
An interferometer splits a beam of
monochromatic light with a glass plate
into two directions at a right angle to
each other, and reflects them back
together to detect interference. If the
Earth moves through an aether, one ray
will take more time and cause
interference, but no interference is
observed.
Germany
[1] Figure from Michelson's 1881
paper PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=S_kQAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edi
tions:0ocaawEfuqDVXP3-kAaE4N&lr=#v=onepa
ge&q=michelson&f=false
[2] Description Albert Abraham
Michelson2.jpg Photograph of Nobel
Laureate Albert Abraham
Michelson. Date 2006-09-27
(original upload date) Source
Photograph is a higher quality
version of the public domain image
available from
AstroLab http://astro-canada.ca/_en/pho
to690.php?a4313_michelson1 PD
source: Michelson_Albert_Abraham_Michels
on2.jpg
[1881 AD]
proven: when an electric potential is
applied to certain crystals, the
crystal vibrates at a regular rate.
[1] Beschreibung Jacques Curie
(1856-1941, links) mit seinem Bruder
Pierre Curie (1859-1906) und seinen
Eltern Eugène Curie (1827-1910) und
Sophie-Claire Depouilly
(1832-1897) Quelle Françoise
Giroud: Marie Curie. A Life. Holmes &
Meier, New York London 1986, ISBN
0-8419-0977-6, nach Seite 138 Urheber
bzw. Nutzungsrechtinhaber
unbekannt Datum
1878 Genehmigung
Bild-PD-alt-100 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/de/3/3a/Curie%2C_Jacques_und_Pierr
e_mit_Eltern.jpg
[2] Pierre Curie UNKNOWN
source: http://www.espci.fr/esp/MUSE/ima
ge002.gif
[1881 AD]
[1] {ULSF: Note that this is a later
electric car than Raffard's for which I
can't find any image for} Aus diesen
Motoren gehen 1882 das erste
nennenswerte5elektrisch betriebene
Straßenfahrzeug von William Ayrton und
John Perry, das Ayrton/Perry tricycle
(vgl. Abbildung 1), sowie 1895 das
erste Fahrzeug mit Verbrennungsmotor
von Carl Benz, der Benz
Patent-Motorwagen 1 (vgl. Abbildung
2) hervor. Beide sind bezüglich ihrer
Leistung etwa vergleichbar: Benz
schafft mit 0,9 PS 16 km/h,
Ayrton/Perry bringen es mit 0,5 PS auf
14 km/h. UNKNOWN
source: http://cdn.grin.com/images/previ
ew-object/document.90396/307ed9bf6ef810b
9cbd6d6c074f94be7_LARGE.png
[2] Lavergne, G. The Automobile: Its
Construction and Management. Cassell
and Company, limited, 1902,
p601. http://books.google.com/books?id=
rDAaAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA601 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=rDAaAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA601
[01/12/1882 AD]
station and distribution of electricity
to houses (for electric lighting); in
London.
[1] first Central Station for
Incandescent lighting on earth. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=uxdHAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA44&dq=edison%27s+elec
trical++station+london+1880&as_brr=1#v=o
nepage&q=holborn&f=false
[2] Edison's 1881 steam electric
generator PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=uxdHAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA44&dq=edison%27s+elec
trical++station+london+1880&as_brr=1#v=o
nepage&q=&f=false
[03/24/1882 AD]
light particle communication. The first
radio communication. The sending and
receiving of a message using light
particles by electrical induction (also
known as "electric waves", "electric
radiation", and simply "radio", but
which may just be the photoelectric
effect).
Sommerville, Massachusetts, USA
[1] A. E. Dolbear, ''Mode of Electric
Communication'', Patent number: 350299,
Issue date: Oct 5,
1886. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
Pc9cAAAAEBAJ PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=Pc9cAAAAEBAJ
[2] From Scientific American
Supplement, December 11, 1886 PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?hl
=en&id=WE41AAAAMAAJ&dq=A+History+of+Wire
less+Telegraphy&printsec=frontcover&sour
ce=web&ots=08aQE8FQHe&sig=0AB8rC1DTmKfhh
sRE55cYSIq2PM&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum
=2&ct=result#PPA98,M1
[1882 AD]
and their role of destroying foreign
objects in the immune system of animals
is recognized.
Messina, Italy
[1] Ilya Ilyich Mechnikov, by
Nadar. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/4f/Ilja_Iljitsch_Metschn
ikow_Nadar.jpg
[2] This is a file from the Wikimedia
Commons Ilya Ilyich Mechnikov, Nobel
Prize in Physiology and Medicine,
1908. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/10/Ilya_Mechnikov_%28Nob
el_1908%29.png
[03/05/1883 AD]
by the atmosphere of Earth, and that
some of this absorption is due to water
is recognized.
Kensington, England
[1] Diagram from Abney Festing 1883
paper. In this image wavelengths
increase to the right, the infrared
being on the right beyond A. Absorption
is black while light is white.[t] PD
source: Captain Abney and
Lieut.-Colonel Festing, "Atmospheric
Absorption in the Infra-Red of the
Solar Spectrum.", Phil. Trans., 1883,
p80-83. http://journals.royalsociety.or
g/content/767j2732gwtj7864/?p=6dd90979e2
ab457f9f3af40cbfb58d9dπ=6
[2] ''Abney, Sir William de
Wiveleslie.'' Online Photograph.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 5 Feb.
2009
is:] PD/Corel
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
13667&rendTypeId=4
[06/06/1883 AD]
how molecules that are electrolytes
separate in a liquid to form two or
more charged "ions".
Sciences) Stockholm, Sweden
[1] table from: Recherches sur la
conductibilité galvanique des
électrolytes By Svante
Arrhenius 06/06/1883 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=oao6AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Rec
herches+sur+la+conductibilit%C3%A9+galva
nique+des+electrolytes&hl=en&ei=qU30S_Di
LMK88gaXrOyrDg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=re
sult&resnum=1&ved=0CCoQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&
q&f=false
[2] Svante August
Arrhenius 1859-1927 Portrait:
3 Location - Floor: First - Zone: Room
138 - Wall: South - Sequence:
6 Source: Chemical Heritage
Foundation Sponsor: Kris A.
Berglund UNKNOWN
source: http://www2.chemistry.msu.edu/Po
rtraits/images/arrhenc.jpg
[04/23/1884 AD]
{TR-BiN or TR-BIN}, a steam engine that
uses steam to turn a wheel with blades
around the rim directly.
Gateshead, England
[1] Drawing from 1884 patent - from US
patent PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=d_5sAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&
f=false
[2] Charles Algernon Parsons
(1854–1931), British engineer,
inventor of the steam turbine. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/ec/Charles_Algernon_Pars
ons.jpg
[1884 AD]
threshold of human hearing to be 18 khz
(or 18 thousand cycles per second).
A system of
fingerprinting is established.
[1] Galton published two major works
about fingerprints. The cover of the
first, Finger Prints, contained a full
set of his own prints He also
published an important booklet on
decipherment of blurred
fingerprints: Facsimile 1892 Finger
Prints. Macmillan , London Facsimile
1893 Decipherment of Blurred Finger
Prints. Macmillan , London 1894
Physical Index to 100 Persons Based on
their Measures and Finger Prints
Privately printed Facsimile 1895
Finger Print Directories. Macmillan ,
London Galton also published a great
number of scholarly papers, popular
articles, letters and interviews on
the subject of fingerprints. This was
important groundwork, and prepared the
way for the positive findings of the
Parliamentary committee of 1894, which
soon led to the acceptance of
fingerprint testimony in the courts, to
identify recidivists, and later to
their forensic use. Facsimile
1888 'Personal identification and
description.' Nature 38 : 173-7, 201-2
UNKNOWN AND Galton
Whistle COPYRIGHTED AND {ULSF: Photo
of Galton probably in his 50s} PD
source: http://www.sonochemistry.info/Fi
g%203-1.JPGhttp://galton.org/images/fing
er-prints.jpghttp://i63.photobucket.com/
albums/h149/demotivator/FrancisGalton.jp
g
[2] Description English: Portrait
of Francis Galton (1822-1911),
Victorian polymath Date c1860 Source
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Fran
cis_Galton-by_Octavius_Oakley.jpg Autho
r Octavius Oakley
(1800-1867) Permission (Reusing this
file) Public domain PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d9/Francis_Galton00.jpg
[1884 AD]
anesthetic: (a drug that stops the
conduction of impulses in sensory
nerves in the region where it is
applied); cocaine.
Austria
[1] Carl Coller.jpg Deutsch: Carl
Koller (1857-1944) Date “Foto,
um 1910.” Source
http://aeiou.iicm.tugraz.at/aeiou.e
ncyclop.k/k561735.htm Author
unknown PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/7e/Carl_Coller.jpg
[01/30/1885 AD]
a simple mathematical formula that
gives the wavelengths of the spectral
lines of hydrogen.
Switzerland
[1] [t one of Balmer's
tables] PD/Corel
source: Balmer_Johann_1885.pdf
[2] [t English translation of Blamer
table from 1885 work.] COPYRIGHTED
source: http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/b
almer.html
[1885 AD]
engine and motor boat.
[1] Diagram of the earliest Daimler
gasoline motor PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=PsoNAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA297&dq=daimler&as_brr
=1&ei=9HRVSeuvIJSokATWrLnzBA#PPA298,M1
[2] Gottlieb Daimler PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/ee/Gottliebdaimler1.jpg
[1885 AD]
[1] First motorcycle by Gottlieb
Daimler and Wilhelm Maybach (1885) (see
de:Deutsches Zweirad- und NSU-Museum),
2006, by J. Köhler Description
First motorcycle called
''Reitwagen'' by Gottlieb Daimler and
Wilhelm Maybach (1885) (264 cm³,
Einzylinder-Viertakt-Motor, 0,5 PS,
Glührohrzündung,
Luftkühlung) Source Photo taken by
myself Date 28. December
2006 Author Joachim
Köhler Permission (Reusing this
image) By courtesy of ''Deutsches
Zweirad- und NSU-Museum'' (e-Mail
17.08.2006 13:14) - With many thanks to
Ms. Dumas & Ms. Grams GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b3/ZweiRadMuseumNSU_Reit
wagen.JPG
[2] Diagram of the earliest Daimler
gasoline motor PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=PsoNAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA297&dq=daimler&as_brr
=1&ei=9HRVSeuvIJSokATWrLnzBA#PPA298,M1
[1885 AD]
observed to widen when subjected to an
electromagnetic field.
Bruselles, Belgium
[1] Image from: Thomas Preston,
''Radiation Phenomena in the Magnetic
Field.'', Philosophical Magazine, S5,
V45, N275, April 1898, p325. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=kpQOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA325&lpg=PA325&dq=Thom
as+Preston+zeeman&source=bl&ots=34SE5113
uy&sig=A-JeUa9Iwa6iuCWj9K6e4KGSwf8&hl=en
&ei=gcMjTKGmDYOinQfW_Ogm&sa=X&oi=book_re
sult&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CB4Q6AEwAg#
v=onepage&q=Thomas%20Preston%20zeeman&f=
false
[2] Description Pieter
Zeeman.jpg Pieter Zeeman Date
ca. 1920(1920) Source
http://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:
Zeeman.jpg Author This file is
lacking author
information. Permission (Reusing this
file) PD by age Other versions
Digital Library, Proceedings of the
Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and
Sciences (KNAW) Emilio Segrè Visual
Archives http://www.knaw.nl/cfdata/digi
tal_library/output/proceedings/biography
.cfm?RecordId=39 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a2/Pieter_Zeeman.jpg
[1885 AD]
and skyscraper.
[1] The first skyscraper, the Home
Insurance Building. UNKNOWN
source: http://chicagopubliclibrary.tumb
lr.com/image/197902876
[2] Description English: Exterior
of the Home Insurance Building by
architect William Le Baron Jenney in
Chicago, Illinois. Date 1884 Source
US-LibraryOfCongress-BookLogo.svg
This image is available from the
United States Library of Congress's
National Digital Library Program under
the digital ID mhsalad.250058. This
tag does not indicate the copyright
status of the attached work. A normal
copyright tag is still required. See
Commons:Licensing for more
information. العربية
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/38/Home_Insurance_Buildi
ng.JPG
[02/23/1886 AD]
pure aluminum metal from aluminum oxide
is discovered.
Ohio, USA
[1] Image from US patent 400766,
Charles Martin Hall, ''Process of
Reducing Aluminium from its Fluoride
Salts by Electrolysis'', filing date:
Jul 9, 1886 Issue date: Apr 2,
1889 Filing date: Jul 9, 1886 Issue
date: Apr 2,
1889 http://www.google.com/patents?id=k
X9OAAAAEBAJ PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=LE1OAAAAEBAJ&pg=PA2&dq=PROCESS+OF+REDUC
ING+ALUMINIUM+FROM+ITS+FLUORIDE+SALTS+BY
+ELECTROLYSIS&hl=en&sa=X&ei=yQtLT7TzK4qp
iAKm9YHbDQ&ved=0CDYQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f
=false
[2] Description
CharlesMartinHall.jpg English:
Charles Martin
Hall Български: Чарли
Мартин Хол -
портрет Date Source
Originally uploded on
en:File:CharlesMartinHall.jpg Author
Originally uploaded by
en:User:Sillybilly PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c8/CharlesMartinHall.jpg
[07/27/1886 AD]
discovered (and called "Kanalstrahlen"
or "channel rays").
Using a perforated cathode,
rays going through the holes in the
direction opposite to that of the
cathode rays are found.
Germany
[1] Goldstein, ''Über eine noch nicht
untersuchte Strahlungsform an der
Kathode inducirter Entladungeń'', in
Sitzungsberichie der Königlichen
Akademie der Wissenschaften zu
Berlin,39 (1886),
691. http://books.google.com/books?id=v
UsVAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA457 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=vUsVAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA457
[2] Figure 2 from Goldstein's 1886
paper PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=vUsVAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA457&dq=%C3%9Cber+eine
+noch+nicht+untersuchte+Strahlungsform+a
n+der+Kathode+inducirter+Entladunge%C5%8
4#v=onepage&q=&f=false
[03/04/1887 AD]
engine car.
[1] Gottlieb Daimler’s First
Automobile (March 8, 1886) ©
Bildarchiv Preußischer
Kulturbesitz COPYRIGHTED
source: http://germanhistorydocs.ghi-dc.
org/images/20007006-r.jpg
[2] First motorcycle by Gottlieb
Daimler and Wilhelm Maybach (1885) (see
de:Deutsches Zweirad- und NSU-Museum),
2006, by J. Köhler Description
First motorcycle called
''Reitwagen'' by Gottlieb Daimler and
Wilhelm Maybach (1885) (264 cm³,
Einzylinder-Viertakt-Motor, 0,5 PS,
Glührohrzündung,
Luftkühlung) Source Photo taken by
myself Date 28. December
2006 Author Joachim
Köhler Permission (Reusing this
image) By courtesy of ''Deutsches
Zweirad- und NSU-Museum'' (e-Mail
17.08.2006 13:14) - With many thanks to
Ms. Dumas & Ms. Grams GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b3/ZweiRadMuseumNSU_Reit
wagen.JPG
[03/??/1887 AD]
resonance is discovered (this allows
specific frequencies of light to be
singled out which improves radio
communication).
Electrical oscillations in one circuit
can excite the same electrical
oscillations to flow (causing a spark)
in a second unconnected distant
circuit.
Germany
[1] Figure 6 from Hertz's March 1893
paper ''On Very Rapid
Oscillations'' PD
source: Heinrich Hertz, tr: D. E.
Jones, "Electric Waves", 1893, 1962.
[2] Figure 7 from Hertz's March 1893
paper ''On Very Rapid
Oscillations'' PD
source: Heinrich Hertz, tr: D. E.
Jones, "Electric Waves", 1893, 1962.
[05/02/1887 AD]
[1] Goodwin's Patent
#610,861 PHOTOGRAPHIC PELLICLE AND
PROCESS OF PRODUCING SAME HANNIBAL
GOODWIN PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=bbZkAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&
f=false
[2] Reverend Hannibal Goodwin PD
source: http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/eas
tman/timeline/images/1887.jpg
[05/??/1887 AD]
more current to flow on a metal
electrode than lower frequencies of
light is found.
In addition, electrical induction is
shown to be like light in being
propagated in straight lines (casting a
shadow), reflected, refracted (with a
refrangibility much greater than that
of violet rays of light), and to be
non-electrical.
Germany
[1] Figure 18 from Hertz's Feb 1888
paper H. Hertz. ''Ueber einen
Einfluss des ultravioletten Lichtes auf
die electrische Entladung'', (''An
effect of ultraviolet light on
electrical discharge''), Annalen der
Physik und Chemie, Volume 267 (Vol 33),
Issue 8, Date: 1887, Pages: 983-1000.
source: Heinrich Hertz, tr: D. E.
Jones, "Electric Waves", 1893, 1962.
[2] Figure 18 from Hertz's Feb 1888
paper H. Hertz. ''Ueber einen
Einfluss des ultravioletten Lichtes auf
die electrische Entladung'', (''An
effect of ultraviolet light on
electrical discharge''), Annalen der
Physik und Chemie, Volume 267 (Vol 33),
Issue 8, Date: 1887, Pages: 983-1000.
source: Heinrich Hertz, tr: D. E.
Jones, "Electric Waves", 1893, 1962.
[10/12/1887 AD]
motor.
NY, USA|(earlier claim of)Strasbourg,
France
[1] Image from Tesla patent 391,968
submitted: 10/12/1887 ELECTRO-MAGNETIC
MOTOR http://www.google.com/patents?id=
z5FhAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&f
=false PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=z5FhAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&
f=false
[2] Description Tesla
young.jpg English: The image of
en:Nikola Tesla (1856-1943) at age
23. Date image dated: circa
1878 original upload date:
2005-12-02 transfer date: 17:03, 29
July 2008 (UTC) Source Original
downloaded from
http://www.tesla-symp06.org/nikola_tesla
.htm Author Original uploader was
Antidote at en.wikipedia Transferred
from en.wikipedia by
User:emerson7. Permission (Reusing
this file) This image is in the public
domain PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/60/Tesla_young.jpg
[11/07/1887 AD]
device.
[1] Figure 1 from Berliner's 11/07/1887
patent - presumably the first publicly
known flat disk sound recorder PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=hOpjAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&
f=false
[2] Figure 2 from Berliner's
11/07/1887 patent - presumably the
first publicly known flat disk sound
recorder PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=hOpjAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&
f=false
[1887 AD]
particles produce spectra.
Kensington, England (presumably)
[1] Fluted spectra PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?hl
=en&id=tr8KAAAAIAAJ&dq=chemistry+of+the+
sun&printsec=frontcover&source=web&ots=-
3OHO-18fp&sig=kNsnqgBVPljadCXXtbFG1GaEPu
M#PPA180,M1
[2] spectra of Stellar types PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?hl
=en&id=tr8KAAAAIAAJ&dq=chemistry+of+the+
sun&printsec=frontcover&source=web&ots=-
3OHO-18fp&sig=kNsnqgBVPljadCXXtbFG1GaEPu
M#PPA189,M1
[1887 AD]
cells is constant, and that each
species has a characteristic number of
chromosomes in their cells is
recognized.
Belgium
[1] Edouard Van Beneden PD
source: http://webapps.fundp.ac.be/umdb/
wiki-bioscope/images/9/9b/Vanbeneden.jpg
[2] Beneden and his daughter in 1891,
outside his home in Liege. PD
source: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/site
s/entrez
[1887 AD]
is measured and recorded and found to
coincide with each heart muscle
contraction. The first
electrocardiograph images.
England
[1] Figure 1 from Waller 1887 paper PD
source: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/
articles/PMC1485094/pdf/jphysiol02445-00
01.pdf
[2] Image of Augustus Waller part of
same image
at: http://www.hrsonline.org/news/ep-hi
story/notable-figures/augustuswaller.cfm
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.nyteknik.se/multimedi
a/archive/00033/Jimmie-och-Augustus-_330
47a.jpg
[02/02/1888 AD]
radio sources is demonstrated and
electrical induction is confirmed to
have the speed of light.
The wavelength (or particle interval)
of a radio emitter is measured to be
2.8 meters; much larger than visible
light.
Germany
[1] figure from: H. Hertz, ''Ueber die
Ausbreitungsgeschwindigkeit der
electrodynamischen Wirkungen'', Annalen
der Physik, Volume 270 Issue 7,
p551-569. http://www3.interscience.wile
y.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/112488021/PDFSTAR
T English translation: Heinrich
Hertz, tr: D. E. Jones, ''On the Finite
Velocity of Electromagnetic Actions'',
''Electric Waves'', 1893, 1962,
p107. http://books.google.com/books?id=
EJdAAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=inti
tle:electric+intitle:waves&lr=&as_drrb_i
s=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1893&as_maxm
_is=0&as_maxy_is=1893&as_brr=0&cd=1#v=on
epage&q&f=false PD
source: Heinrich Hertz, tr: D. E.
Jones, "On the Finite Velocity of
Electromagnetic Actions", "Electric
Waves", 1893, 1962.
[2] table from: H. Hertz, ''Ueber die
Ausbreitungsgeschwindigkeit der
electrodynamischen Wirkungen'', Annalen
der Physik, Volume 270 Issue 7,
p551-569. http://www3.interscience.wile
y.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/112488021/PDFSTAR
T English translation: Heinrich
Hertz, tr: D. E. Jones, ''On the Finite
Velocity of Electromagnetic Actions'',
''Electric Waves'', 1893, 1962,
p107. http://books.google.com/books?id=
EJdAAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=inti
tle:electric+intitle:waves&lr=&as_drrb_i
s=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1893&as_maxm
_is=0&as_maxy_is=1893&as_brr=0&cd=1#v=on
epage&q&f=false PD
source: Heinrich Hertz, tr: D. E.
Jones, "On the Finite Velocity of
Electromagnetic Actions", "Electric
Waves", 1893, 1962.
[12/13/1888 AD]
polarized is proven.
Germany
[1] H. Hertz, ''Ueber Strahlen
electrischer Kraft'', Sitzungsber. d.
Berlin Akad. d. Wiss., 12/13/1888 and
Annalen der Physik Volume 272 (V36),
Issue 4, Pages 769 -
783. http://www3.interscience.wiley.com
/journal/112506747/abstract English
translation: Heinrich Hertz, tr: D. E.
Jones, ''On Electric Radiation'',
''Electric Waves'', 1893, 1962,
p172. http://books.google.com/books?id=
EJdAAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=inti
tle:electric+intitle:waves&lr=&as_drrb_i
s=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1893&as_maxm
_is=0&as_maxy_is=1893&as_brr=0&cd=1#v=on
epage&q&f=false PD
source: Heinrich Hertz, tr: D. E.
Jones, "On Electric Radiation",
"Electric Waves", 1893, 1962.
[2] H. Hertz, ''Ueber Strahlen
electrischer Kraft'', Sitzungsber. d.
Berlin Akad. d. Wiss., 12/13/1888 and
Annalen der Physik Volume 272 (V36),
Issue 4, Pages 769 -
783. http://www3.interscience.wiley.com
/journal/112506747/abstract English
translation: Heinrich Hertz, tr: D. E.
Jones, ''On Electric Radiation'',
''Electric Waves'', 1893, 1962,
p172. http://books.google.com/books?id=
EJdAAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=inti
tle:electric+intitle:waves&lr=&as_drrb_i
s=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1893&as_maxm
_is=0&as_maxy_is=1893&as_brr=0&cd=1#v=on
epage&q&f=false PD
source: Heinrich Hertz, tr: D. E.
Jones, "On Electric Radiation",
"Electric Waves", 1893, 1962.
[1888 AD]
is obtained.
Lyons, France
[1] Disposition for apparatus for very
high pressure PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=pwwWTqLaT48C&pg=PA107&dq=Emile+Hilaire+
Amagat&as_brr=1&ei=U7JeSfjXN4qakQSNxungD
Q#PPA68,M1
[2] Figure 2: Pressure apparatus with
electric contacts. fig 3: piezometer
for Gases. fig 4: piezometer for
Liquids. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=pwwWTqLaT48C&pg=PA107&dq=Emile+Hilaire+
Amagat&as_brr=1&ei=U7JeSfjXN4qakQSNxungD
Q#PPA63,M1
[1888 AD]
stored onto rolls of sensitized paper.
(presumably)
[1] Marey's photographic gun This item
is on display at the Musée des Arts et
Métiers, Paris Copyright © 2006
David Monniaux GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/7f/Fusil_de_Marey_p10403
53.jpg
[2] The Illustration to the left is
entitled ''Flight of the birds
according to the instantaneous
photographs of Mr. Marey'', From 1882
PD/Corel
source: http://www.precinemahistory.net/
images/marey_fusil_card.jpg
[1888 AD]
be produced from electrical
oscillation.
England
[1] English: Picture of Sir Oliver
Joseph Lodge, the British
scientist Date 1917(1917) Source
Page 19 of British Universities
and the War: A Record and Its
Meaning Author Herbert Albert
Laurens
Fisher http://books.google.com/books?id
=ZWcoNGuoaGQC&pg=PA20&dq=physics+oliver+
lodge&lr=&as_brr=1#PPA18-IA1,M2 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/cf/Lodge_Oliver_Joseph_b
w.jpg
[2] Caricature of physicist and writer
Oliver Joseph Lodge, printed in
''Vanity Fair'' in 1904 Date
1904(1904) Source Cartoon
by Via
http://web4.si.edu/sil/scientific-iden
tity/display_results.cfm?alpha_sort=N P
D
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/58/Oliver_Joseph_Lodge.j
pg
[1888 AD]
brings the ability to capture photos to
average people.
NY, USA (presumably)
[1] Eastman's patent #388,850 for a
camera of 09/04/1888. PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=rAlvAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&
f=false
[2] An early ad featuring a slogan
coined by Eastman. PD
source: http://www.kodak.com/US/images/e
n/corp/kodakHistory/WeddingGiftAd.gif
[02/16/1889 AD]
heart beating.
Scotland
[1] Figure 2 from: McWilliam JA
(1899). ''Electrical stimulation of the
heart in man''. Br Med J 1 (1468):
348–50.
doi:10.1136/bmj.1.1468.348. http://www.
bmj.com/content/1/1468/348 PD
source: http://www.bmj.com/content/1/146
8/348
[03/12/1889 AD]
that allows people to connect their own
phone calls is invented.
[1] U.S. Patent 447,918 Strowger switch
''Automatic Telephone Exchange'' March
10,
1891 http://www.google.com/patents?id=P
ShCAAAAEBAJ PD
source: Figure from:
http://www.google.com/patents?id=PShCA
AAAEBAJ
[2] U.S. Patent 447,918 Strowger
switch ''Automatic Telephone Exchange''
March 10,
1891 http://www.google.com/patents?id=P
ShCAAAAEBAJ PD
source: Figure
from: http://www.google.com/patents?id=
PShCAAAAEBAJ
[05/02/1889 AD]
depending on its velocity relative to
the speed of light is used to explain
the Michelson experiment while
preserving the theory of an aether
medium for light.
[1] George Francis FitzGerald
(1851-1901). Date Unknown, but
1901 or earlier. Source Scanned
from Oliver Heaviside: Sage in Solitude
(ISBN 0-87942-238-6), p. 48. It was
scanned on an Epson Perfection 1250 at
400dpi, reduced to grayscale in
Photoshop, and saved as JPG using the
'Save for Web' optimizer. Originally
uploaded to en.wikipedia on 20:51, 27
July 2004 by Grendelkhan. Author
Unknown. Permission (Reusing
this image) The photograph is
reprinted courtesy of the IEEE in
London (as stated in the credits in the
back of the book, p. 318), but its age
implies that it's public domain. (It
must have been taken in 1901 or
earlier.) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/fa/George_Francis_FitzGe
rald.jpg
[06/03/1889 AD]
telegraph message.
Scotland
[1] Scan of original plain paper
manuscript from Marconi Calling, see
link for more information. Also see a
copy of the telegraph instructions.
PD AND Marconi, Guglielmo,
Marchese (1874-1937), Italian
electrical engineer and Nobel laureate,
known as the inventor of the first
practical radio-signalling system. PD
source: http://zapatopi.net/kelvin/paper
s/radiotelegraphmessage.pnghttp://www.gr
eatitalians.com/Images/Marconi.jpg
[2] Scan of original plain paper
manuscript from Marconi Calling, see
link for more information. Also see a
copy of the telegraph instructions.
PD
source: http://zapatopi.net/kelvin/paper
s/radiotelegraphmessage.png
[06/21/1889 AD]
projector. Moving images are captured,
stored on plastic film, and projected
onto a screen.
[1] The first (publicly known[t]) Films
Made on Celluloid (1889-1890) PD
source: Ray Allister, pseudonym for
Muriel Forth, "Friese-Greene: Close-up
of an Inventor", Marsland Publications,
1948.
[2] Description
Williamfriesegreen.jpg English:
William Friese-Greene photographed in
c.1890 Date c1890 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2d/Williamfriesegreen.jp
g
[06/21/1889 AD]
the eye can be captured from
phosphorescence.
Association) London, England
[1] Description
Williamfriesegreen.jpg English:
William Friese-Greene photographed in
c.1890 Date c1890 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2d/Williamfriesegreen.jp
g
[2] William Friese-Green PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=CQfOAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA291&dq=Friese-Greene&
as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=Friese-Greene&f=fal
se
[11/12/1889 AD]
star is identified; two stars that
appear as one, but over time a spectral
line appears to double because of a
change in relative velocity of each
star.
Massachusetts, USA
[1] Spectrum of Mizar, showing double
lines above and single lines below
(period 20.5) days from Frost, Yerkes
Observatory. (presumably the two lines
on the far left are the hydrogen lines
- but why do the other lines
align?[t]) PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=mg48AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA512&dq=vogel+pickerin
g+spectroscopic+binary#v=onepage&q=vogel
%20pickering%20spectroscopic%20binary&f=
false
[2] Mizar and Alcor stars The image
was produced by WikiSky's image cutout
tool out of DSS2 data. See Copyright
notice. Source url:
http://server1.wikisky.org/imgcut.jsp?su
rvey=DSS2&img_id=all&angle=2&ra=13.39875
&de=54.92528&width=1800&height=1800&proj
ection=tan&jpeg_quality=0.9&interpolatio
n=bicubic CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/f/f4/Mizar_and_Alcor.jpg
[11/28/1889 AD]
is detected by the oscillation of a
spectral line; the star Algol
{aL-GoL}.
Unlike spectroscopic binary stars,
these spectra only show one oscillating
spectral line, because the light from
the companion is too dim to see.
Potsdam, Germany
[1] Vogel, H.C., Scheiner, ''Der
Vorsitzende berichtete über die
Resultate spectrographischer
Beobachtungen des Sterns Algol durch
die'', Sitzungsberichte der
Preussischen Akademie der
Wissenschaften, 1789,
p1045-1046. books.google.com/books?id=_
k8VAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA1045 English
translation: ''The Chairman reported
on the results of spectrographic
observations of the star Algol by prof.
H. C. Vogel and Dr. Scheiner''
(Transactions of the Prussian Academy
of Sciences) PD
source: books.google.com/books?id=_k8VAA
AAYAAJ&pg=PA1045
[2] Description Photograph of
Hermann Carl Vogel, the
astronomer Source Opposite page
129 of Astronomers of Today Date
1905 Author Hector
Macpherson PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d2/Vogel_Hermann_Carl.jp
g
[1889 AD]
explosive powder, cordite is invented.
[1] Photograph of sectioned British 18
pounder field gun shrapnel round, World
War I. Exhibit is on display at the
Canadian War Museum, Ottowa. Catalogue
information : Artifact Number
20020045-592 Museum CWM Place of Use
Country - United Kingdom, Municipality
- no entry Place of Origin Country -
no entry, Municipality - no
entry Inscription 18 PR II
48 Measurements Height 8.5 cm, Length
12.5 cm, Width 57.0 cm Events
1914-1919 First World War Service
Component British Expeditionary
Force Category 05: tools and equipment
for science and
technology Sub-category E140:
armament, ammunition Caption Artillery
Shell, 18-pounder Additional
Information (corrected) : This cutaway
of an 18-pounder shell reveals the
shrapnel balls which were embedded in
resin to hold them in a stable
position. The fuze in the nose was time
set to ignite the powder charge in the
cavity in the base of the shell as it
approached the target. At this point
the shell was usually angling towards
the ground. This small explosion
propelled the balls forward out of the
case and they spread apart in a cone at
increased velocity forward and towards
the ground. The effect was of a large
shotgun blast fired from in front of
and above the target. The usual target
was barbed wire defences and
troops. In the cartridge below the
shell is a simulated bundle of cordite,
the propellant charge which fired the
shell. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c5/Brisanzgranate_1_db.j
pg
[2] Frederick Augustus Abel,
engraving. Photos.com/Jupiterimages PD
/Corel
source: http://media-2.web.britannica.co
m/eb-media/73/101973-004-F0247DE2.jpg
[09/04/1890 AD]
those of Orion are measured and shown
to be similar to those of the stars
which implies that these nebulae are
part of the Milky Way Galaxy.
USA
[1] This is a file from the Wikimedia
Commons Description Keeler
James.jpg American astronomer James
Keeler Date 1903(1903) Source
Biographical Memoirs of the
National Academy of Sciences Author
Charles S. Hastings PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/18/Keeler_James.jpg
[03/26/1891 AD]
electric charge should be called an
"electron".
Ireland
[1] George Johnstone Stoney PD/Corel
source: http://understandingscience.ucc.
ie/img/sc_George_Johnstone_Stoney.jpg
[2] Photo courtesy the Royal Dublin
Society George Johnston Stoney
1826-1911 PD/Corel
source: http://www.iscan.ie/directory/sc
ience/dundrum/images/previews/preview27.
jpg
[12/10/1891 AD]
are shown to be attracted to both poles
of a magnet.
(presumably)
[1] Picture taken from page 230 of T.
O’Connor Sloane's Liquid Air and the
Liquefaction of Gases, second edition,
published by Norman W. Henley and Co.,
New York, 1900. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/8/89/Dewar_James.jpg
[2] English: Picture of Sir James
Dewar, the scientist Source Page 98
of History of Chemistry (book) Date
1910 Author Thomas Thorpe PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2c/Dewar_James_flask.jpg
[1891 AD]
telescope which compensates for the
motion of the Earth relative to distant
celestial objects is used for long
exposure photographs. 500 asteroids
will be identified with this method, a
third of all known to exist.
Germany
[1] Description Max
Wolf.jpg Maximilian Franz Joseph
Cornelius Wolf (June 21, 1863–October
3, 1932), German astronomer Date
Source Archiv fur Kunst und
Geschichte,
Berlin http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
icle-9077333/Max-Wolf PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e0/Max_Wolf.jpg
[1892 AD]
heredity; that all inherited traits
come only from the chromosomes.
Germany
[1] Weismann, August Friedrich
Leopold The Bettmann Archive PD/Corel
source: http://media-2.web.britannica.co
m/eb-media/23/39723-004-C1872D1B.jpg
[2] Source: Edwin G. Conklin, ''August
Weismann'' Proceedings of the American
Philosophical Society, Vol. 54, No.
220. (Oct. - Dec., 1915), pp.
iii-xii. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/15/August_Weismann.jpg
[1892 AD]
(presumably)
[1] Picture taken from page 230 of T.
O’Connor Sloane's Liquid Air and the
Liquefaction of Gases, second edition,
published by Norman W. Henley and Co.,
New York, 1900. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/8/89/Dewar_James.jpg
[2] English: Picture of Sir James
Dewar, the scientist Source Page 98
of History of Chemistry (book) Date
1910 Author Thomas Thorpe PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2c/Dewar_James_flask.jpg
[1892 AD]
spark, the heat from compressing the
fuel-air mixture raises the temperature
of the mixture to the point where
ignition happens.
Germany
[1] figure from U.S. Patent
0,542,846 PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=oV5wAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f
=false
[2] This is a file from the Wikimedia
Commons Description Diesel
1883.jpg English: Rudolf Diesel,
inventor of the diesel engine Deutsch:
Rudolf Diesel, Erfinder des
Dieselmotors PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/90/Diesel_1883.jpg
[1893 AD]
reduced by 70 per cent among 45
thousand people inoculated by a highly
virulent strain of heat-killed cholera.
[1] Waldemar Haffkine
(1860-1930) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.pasteur.fr/infosci/ar
chives/im/haf.jpg
[09/??/1894 AD]
variable star with a short and regular
period of luminosity) is found to have
a period of radial velocity that
matches its period of luminosity. This
suggests that a dark companion causes
the variation of Cepheid stars.
[1] Belopolsky, A. ''The spectrum of
delta Cephei.'' The Astrophysical
Journal 1 (1895):
160-161. http://articles.adsabs.harvard
.edu//full/1895ApJ.....1..160B/0000160.0
00.html PD
source: http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du//full/1895ApJ.....1..160B/0000160.000
.html
[2] Albrecht, Sebastian. ''A
spectrographic study of the
fourth-class variable stars Y Ophuichi
and T Vulpeculae.'' The Astrophysical
Journal 25 (1907):
330-348. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full
/1907ApJ....25..330A PD
source: http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
907ApJ....25..330A
[10/??/1894 AD]
shown to be about a thousand times
slower than the speed of light.
England
[1] Figure From On the Rate of
Propagation of the Luminous Discharge
of Electricity through a Rarefied
Gas.'' By J. J. THOMSON, M.A., F.R.S.,
Cavendish Professor of Experimental
Physics, Cambridge. Received January 2,
1891. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=jAUWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA84&dq=%22the+velocity
+of+propagation%22+of+electric+discharge
+through+gases+thomson&as_brr=1&cd=1#v=o
nepage&q=%22the%20velocity%20of%20propag
ation%22%20of%20electric%20discharge%20t
hrough%20gases%20thomson&f=false
[2] English: J. J. Thomson published
in 1896. Deutsch: Joseph John Thomson
(1856–1940). Ein ursprünglich 1896
veröffentlichter Stahlstich. [edit]
Source From Oliver Heaviside: Sage
in Solitude (ISBN 0-87942-238-6), p.
120. This is a reproduction of a steel
engraving originally published in The
Electrician, 1896. It was scanned on an
Epson Perfection 1250 at 400dpi,
cleaned up (some text was showing
through the back) in Photoshop, reduced
to grayscale, and saved as JPG using
the 'Save for Web' optimizer.. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5e/JJ_Thomson.jpg
[1894 AD]
a single wire to transmit multiple
messages by only sending one character
at a time while alternating between a
group of messages.
[1] Crotch, A. The Hughes and Baudot
Telegraphs. Rentell, 1908,
p78. http://books.google.com/books?id=n
9pAAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA78 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=n9pAAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA78
[2] Crotch, A. The Hughes and Baudot
Telegraphs. Rentell, 1908,
p81. http://books.google.com/books?id=n
9pAAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA81 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=n9pAAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA81
[01/31/1895 AD]
of inert gases is identified.
Argon is isolated from air and
identified from its unique spectrum.
Since Argon combines with no element,
Argon is recognized to be part of an
eighth group of elements that have a
valence of zero.
[1] Figure 1 from Rayleigh 1893 PD
source: self-made Author: Atanamir PD
[2] William Ramsay (CE 1852-1916) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0b/Ar-TableImage.svg
[03/26/1895 AD]
helium is found on Earth, when
liberated from Uraninite dissolved in
sulfuric acid and identified by
spectrum.
England
[1] Figure 1 from Rayleigh 1893 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d2/William_Ramsay_workin
g.jpg
[2] William Ramsay PD
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/chemistry/laureates/1904/ramsay.jpg
[11/05/1895 AD]
Radiation from a cathode ray tube is
found to pass through very thick paper
and even thin layers of metal, to cause
luminescence in a paper covered with
barium platinocyanide. These rays
cannot be bent by even a strong
magnetic field like cathode rays, but
yet apparently do not refract, polarize
or interfere like visible light does.
The rays are also found to be absorbed
by air less than cathode rays are.
These rays are called "X-rays" and the
first X-ray photographs are captured;
of the interiors of metal objects and
of the bones in a human hand.
X rays are extremely useful as a new
tool in health sciences to see and
penetrate into bodies.
Germany
[1] English: Photo of Wilhelm Conrad
Röntgen. Cleaned up version of
http://images.google.com/hosted/life/l?i
mgurl=6b3da250c6b5560f Source
unknown source Date 1900 PD
AND Anna Berthe Roentgen.gif Print
of Wilhelm Röntgen's (1845-1923) first
x-ray, the hand of his wife Anna taken
on 1895-12-22, presented to Professor
Ludwig Zehnder of the Physik Institut,
University of Freiburg, on 1 January
1896. Source
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:An
na_Berthe_Roentgen.gif Date 22
December 1895 (1895-12-22) Author
Wilhelm Röntgen PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/71/Roentgen2.jpghttp://u
pload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/
6e/Anna_Berthe_Roentgen.gif
[2] English: Photo of Wilhelm Conrad
Röntgen. Cleaned up version of
http://images.google.com/hosted/life/l?i
mgurl=6b3da250c6b5560f Source
unknown source Date 1900 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/71/Roentgen2.jpg
[1895 AD]
metal cylinder give the cylinder a
negative charge, and when the current
is reversed positive rays give the
cylinder a positive charge.
[1] Figure from J. Perrin, ''Nouvelles
proprietes des rayons
cathodiques.'',Comptes Rendus, V121,
1895, p1130. PD
source: http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148
/bpt6k3077p.image.f1130.langEN
[2] Jean Baptiste Perrin UNKNOWN
source: http://www.scientific-web.com/en
/Physics/Biographies/images/Jean_Baptist
e_Perrin.jpg
[1895 AD]
received over 2 km (or 1 mile).
Italy
[1] Marconi, Guglielmo, Marchese
(1874-1937), Italian electrical
engineer and Nobel laureate, known as
the inventor of the first practical
radio-signalling system. PD
source: http://www.greatitalians.com/Ima
ges/Marconi.jpg
[2] Guglielmo Marconi.jpg Guglielmo
Marconi, portrait, head and shoulders,
facing left. Date Copyright
1908 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0d/Guglielmo_Marconi.jpg
[02/22/1896 AD]
(presumably)
[1] Charles Dolley, ''Rontgen Rays
Present in Sunlight'', Science,
p357-358.
http://books.google.com/books?id=4Z8SA
AAAYAAJ&pg=PA357 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=4Z8SAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA357
[03/02/1896 AD]
invisible rays are detected from a
uranium salt.
The fluorescent chemical, potassium
uranyl {YR-i-nL} sulfate, is found to
emit x-rays (which appear on a
photographic plate wrapped in black
paper placed underneath it) even
without being made fluorescent by
sunlight.
This emission of X-rays from potassium
uranyl sulfate without any external
source, implies that atoms are composed
of smaller particles.
France
[1] Photographic plate made by Henri
Becquerel showing effects of exposure
to radioactivity. Image of
Becquerel's photographic plate which
has been fogged by exposure to
radiation from a uranium salt. The
shadow of a metal Maltese Cross placed
between the plate and the uranium salt
is clearly visible. Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Becqu
erel_plate.jpg PD AND Antoine-Henri
Becquerel (1852-1908) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1e/Becquerel_plate.jpght
tp://nautilus.fis.uc.pt/wwwqui/figuras/q
uimicos/img/becquerel.jpg
[2] Photographic plate made by Henri
Becquerel showing effects of exposure
to radioactivity. Image of
Becquerel's photographic plate which
has been fogged by exposure to
radiation from a uranium salt. The
shadow of a metal Maltese Cross placed
between the plate and the uranium salt
is clearly visible. Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Becqu
erel_plate.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1e/Becquerel_plate.jpg
[03/18/1896 AD]
of material particles.
(presumably)
[1] Image from Tesla's 1897 patent
#65576 System of Transmission of
Electric Energy PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=8DFBAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&
f=false
[2] Description Tesla
young.jpg English: The image of
en:Nikola Tesla (1856-1943) at age
23. Date image dated: circa
1878 original upload date:
2005-12-02 transfer date: 17:03, 29
July 2008 (UTC) Source Original
downloaded from
http://www.tesla-symp06.org/nikola_tesla
.htm Author Original uploader was
Antidote at en.wikipedia Transferred
from en.wikipedia by
User:emerson7. Permission (Reusing
this file) This image is in the public
domain PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/60/Tesla_young.jpg
[03/25/1896 AD]
uranium salts is found to be deeply
penetrating and to discharge a charged
electroscope.
France
[1] Photographic plate made by Henri
Becquerel showing effects of exposure
to radioactivity. Image of
Becquerel's photographic plate which
has been fogged by exposure to
radiation from a uranium salt. The
shadow of a metal Maltese Cross placed
between the plate and the uranium salt
is clearly visible. Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Becqu
erel_plate.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1e/Becquerel_plate.jpg
[2] Antoine-Henri Becquerel
(1852-1908) PD
source: http://nautilus.fis.uc.pt/wwwqui
/figuras/quimicos/img/becquerel.jpg
[04/06/1896 AD]
X-rays emit secondary X-ray radiation
is discovered.
NY, USA
[1] Image of Pupin on Serbian
dollar COPYRIGHTED - FAIR USE
source: http://www.tedhuntington.com/pup
in_money2.jpg
[2] Michael Idvorsky
Pupin.jpg Photo of Mihajlo Idvorski
Pupin, a Serbian born American
physicist PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/4d/Michael_Idvorsky_Pupi
n.jpg
[05/12/1896 AD]
screen that is illuminated in real-time
by x-ray beams.
(presumably)
[1] Normal (left) versus cancerous
(right) mammography image. Courtesy
of the National Cancer Institute.
http://history.nih.gov/exhibits/genetics
/sect2.htm PD AND Uso do
fluoroscópio para diagnóstico na
clínica Rome Wagner (1897) PD AND A
fluoroscopia: O grande inventor e
cientista americano Thomas Alva Edison
(1847-1931) interessou-se pelos raios X
logo após a sua descoberta, e aplicou
seu extraordinário gênio inventivo ao
seu aperfeiçoamento e popularização.
Entre outras coisas, ele desenvolveu um
fluoroscópio portátil em 1896, que
consistia de uma tela fluorescente
sensível aos raios X, que podia
mostrar a imagem sem necessidade de
radiografar fotograficamente. Edison
pesquisou 8.000 compostos até
determinar que o tungstato de cálcio
era o melhor agente fluorescente, e
passou a comercializar o Vitascope
Fluoroscopy Unit, que se tornou
grandemente popular, com
demonstrações públicas. O
fluoroscópio logo mostrou sua
utilidade na medicina, ao permitir a
observação de imagens internas do
corpo em movimento, como o coração, o
aparelho fonador, etc. No mesmo ano de
1895, Michael Pupin desenvolveu um
método de obter radiografias usando
filmes fotográficos impressionados
diretamente pelo fluoroscópio de
Edison, reduzindo assim dramaticamente
o tempo de exposição necessários,
para alguns segundos. O fotógrafo
inglês Eadweard Muybridge também foi
o primeiro a fazer filmes de uma perna
de râ em movimento. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f6/Mammo_breast_cancer.j
pghttp://www.cerebromente.org.br/n20/his
tory/xray-wagner2.jpghttp://www.cerebrom
ente.org.br/n20/history/xray-fluoroscope
.JPG
[2] Description Normaler Schluckakt
in der Barium-Breischluck-Untersuchung.
Eine mit der Maus interaktiv
blätterbare Version gibt es
hier. Date 2011-05-28 20:03
(UTC) Source 34 files:
Normaler_Schluck-00.jpg […]
Normaler_Schluck-33.jpg Author
Normaler_Schluck-00.jpg (and
others): Hellerhoff derivative
work: Anka Friedrich (talk) CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/80/Normal_barium_swallow
_animation.gif
[05/19/1896 AD]
[1] Figure from US patent #865,367,
''Fluorescent Electric Lamp''. PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=rqFOAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f
=false
[2] Original Edison Tin Foil
Phonograph. Photo courtesy of U.S.
Department of the Interior, National
Park Service, Edison National Historic
Site. source:
http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/edhtml/edcyl
dr.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/b/bb/Thomas_Edison%2C_1878.jpg
[11/??/1896 AD]
gases to become electrical conductors)
is found, and is an easy method to
produce gas ions.
England
[1] Figure From On the Passage of
Electricity through Gases exposed to
Rontgen Rays. By J. J. THOMSON, M.A.,
F.R.S., Cavendish Professor of
Experimental Physics, Cambridge. with
Ernest Rutherford 11/1896 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=cbRw3OxLhUcC&printsec=frontcover&dq=edi
tions:UOM39015024088687&lr=#v=onepage&q=
thomson&f=false
[2] English: J. J. Thomson published
in 1896. Deutsch: Joseph John Thomson
(1856–1940). Ein ursprünglich 1896
veröffentlichter Stahlstich. [edit]
Source From Oliver Heaviside: Sage
in Solitude (ISBN 0-87942-238-6), p.
120. This is a reproduction of a steel
engraving originally published in The
Electrician, 1896. It was scanned on an
Epson Perfection 1250 at 400dpi,
cleaned up (some text was showing
through the back) in Photoshop, reduced
to grayscale, and saved as JPG using
the 'Save for Web' optimizer.. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5e/JJ_Thomson.jpg
[12/29/1896 AD]
gastrointestinal movements using a
drink made with bismuth which is opaque
to x-rays.
Massachusetts, USA
[1] Description Normaler Schluckakt in
der Barium-Breischluck-Untersuchung.
Eine mit der Maus interaktiv
blätterbare Version gibt es
hier. Date 2011-05-28 20:03
(UTC) Source 34 files:
Normaler_Schluck-00.jpg […]
Normaler_Schluck-33.jpg Author
Normaler_Schluck-00.jpg (and
others): Hellerhoff derivative
work: Anka Friedrich (talk) CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/80/Normal_barium_swallow
_animation.gif
[2] Walter Bradford Cannon, MA, MD
(1871– 1945), circa 1908. Photo by J.
E. Purdue & Co, Boston, Mass. Source.
Prints and Photographs Collection,
History of Medicine Division, National
Library of Medicine. PD
source: http://ajph.aphapublications.org
/content/vol92/issue10/images/large/B418
3-02-0580-joe.jpeg
[1896 AD]
{BAR-E-BAR-E} is shown to be caused by
poor diet. This leads to the discovery
of vitamins and "beriberi" will be the
first known "dietary-deficiency
disease".
Jakarta) (presumably)
[1] English: Christiaan Eijkman
(1858-1930) Date Unknown Source
http://www.kb.nl/hkc/nobel/eijkman/
eijkman.html Author
Unknown Permission (Reusing this
file) Copyright is by Museum
Boerhaave,
http://www.museumboerhaave.nl/contact/pe
rs2a.html, their website states '(vrij
beschikbaar voor publicatie)' ='(freely
available for publication)' PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/ac/Christiaan_Eijkman.jp
g
[04/30/1897 AD]
of particles (later called electrons).
This is the first particle (besides
light) known to be smaller than an
atom.
By deflecting cathode-rays with an
electromagnetic field, the ratio of
mass to electric charge of cathode ray
particles is measured to be 10-7 grams
per coulomb, 1000 times smaller than an
ion of hydrogen from electrolysis. In
addition, the theory that cathode rays
are made of small negatively charged
particles which are a part of all
atoms.
England
[1] Figure 1 From Thomson, J.J.,
''Cathode-rays.'', Phil. Mag. 44,
08/07/1897,
269. http://books.google.com/books?id=Z
l0wAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editi
ons:UCALB3728216&lr=#v=onepage&q=thomson
&f=false PD AND J.J. Thomson was
Cavendish Professor and head of the
Cavendish Laboratory from 1894 to 1919.
J.J. is best known for his work on the
electron. Credit: Cambridge
University, Cavendish Laboratory. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=Zl0wAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edi
tions:UCALB3728216&lr=#v=onepage&q=thoms
on&f=falsehttp://www.aip.org/history/exh
ibits/rutherford/images/sectionpics/slid
e1_thomson_big.jpg
[2] Figure 1 From Thomson, J.J.,
''Cathode-rays.'', Phil. Mag. 44,
08/07/1897,
269. http://books.google.com/books?id=Z
l0wAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editi
ons:UCALB3728216&lr=#v=onepage&q=thomson
&f=false PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=Zl0wAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edi
tions:UCALB3728216&lr=#v=onepage&q=thoms
on&f=false
[08/07/1897 AD]
deflected by an electrostatic field. In
addition the velocity of cathode ray
particles is found to increase with
electric potential and with tube
exhaustion.
England
[1] obel Falconer, ''J J Thomson and
the discovery of the electron'', 1997
Phys. Educ. 32
226 (http://iopscience.iop.org/0031-912
0/32/4/015)
{Falconer_1997.pdf} COPYRIGHTED AND
J.J. Thomson was Cavendish Professor
and head of the Cavendish Laboratory
from 1894 to 1919. J.J. is best known
for his work on the electron. Credit:
Cambridge University, Cavendish
Laboratory. PD
source: http://iopscience.iop.org/0031-9
120/32/4/015http://www.aip.org/history/e
xhibits/rutherford/images/sectionpics/sl
ide1_thomson_big.jpg
[2] Figure 1 From Thomson, J.J.,
''Cathode-rays.'', Phil. Mag. 44,
08/07/1897,
269. http://books.google.com/books?id=Z
l0wAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editi
ons:UCALB3728216&lr=#v=onepage&q=thomson
&f=false PD AND J.J. Thomson was
Cavendish Professor and head of the
Cavendish Laboratory from 1894 to 1919.
J.J. is best known for his work on the
electron. Credit: Cambridge
University, Cavendish Laboratory. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=Zl0wAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edi
tions:UCALB3728216&lr=#v=onepage&q=thoms
on&f=falsehttp://www.aip.org/history/exh
ibits/rutherford/images/sectionpics/slid
e1_thomson_big.jpg
[1897 AD]
oscilloscope).
A cathode ray tube is made with a mica
screen inside which is coated with
fluorescent material. This allows an
electron beam inside the tube to be
deflected by varying currents in
electromagnets, which moves a luminous
spot of light on the screen. This leads
to the television and computer display.
France
[1] Figure 1 from Braun's 1897
paper. PD AND Ferdinand Braun PD
source: Ferdinand Braun, "Ueber ein
Verfahren zur Demonstration und zum
Studium des zeitlichen Verlaufes
variabler Ströme", Annalen der Physik
und Chemie, vol. lx., 1897, p.
552-559. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/121
48/bpt6k15301j.image.f558.langFR Engl
ish translation: Ferdinand Braun, "A
Method of Demonstrating and Studying
the Time-relations of Variable
Currents.", Minutes of proceedings of
the Institution of Civil Engineers,
Volume 129, 1897,
p464. http://books.google.com/books?id=
rXgMAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA464&lpg=PA464&dq=A+Met
hod+of+Demonstrating+and+Studying+the+Ti
me-relations+of+Variable+Currents.+Ferdi
nand+Braun.&source=bl&ots=CY1GqwE3Ku&sig
=7-zDHHHs-PeoCHn_veDdZXebryM&hl=en&ei=O0
bOSoKvC5L0sgPulqm2Dg&sa=X&oi=book_result
&ct=result&resnum=1#v=onepage&q=A%20Meth
od%20of%20Demonstrating%20and%20Studying
%20the%20Time-relations%20of%20Variable%
20Currents.%20Ferdinand%20Braun.&f=false
PDhttp://www.lecad.fs.uni-lj.si/tmce20
06/2012/pics/venue_html_68645264.jpg
[2] Figure 1 from Braun's 1897
paper. PD
source: Ferdinand Braun, "Ueber ein
Verfahren zur Demonstration und zum
Studium des zeitlichen Verlaufes
variabler Ströme", Annalen der Physik
und Chemie, vol. lx., 1897, p.
552-559. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/121
48/bpt6k15301j.image.f558.langFR Engl
ish translation: Ferdinand Braun, "A
Method of Demonstrating and Studying
the Time-relations of Variable
Currents.", Minutes of proceedings of
the Institution of Civil Engineers,
Volume 129, 1897,
p464. http://books.google.com/books?id=
rXgMAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA464&lpg=PA464&dq=A+Met
hod+of+Demonstrating+and+Studying+the+Ti
me-relations+of+Variable+Currents.+Ferdi
nand+Braun.&source=bl&ots=CY1GqwE3Ku&sig
=7-zDHHHs-PeoCHn_veDdZXebryM&hl=en&ei=O0
bOSoKvC5L0sgPulqm2Dg&sa=X&oi=book_result
&ct=result&resnum=1#v=onepage&q=A%20Meth
od%20of%20Demonstrating%20and%20Studying
%20the%20Time-relations%20of%20Variable%
20Currents.%20Ferdinand%20Braun.&f=false
PD
[1897 AD]
used for telepathy.
England(presumably)
[1] Description: Scan of a picture of
William Crookes Source: A History of
Science (vol. 5, facing page
106) Date: 1904 Author: Henry Smith
Williams PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1e/Crookes_William.jpg
[2] Sir William Crookes Library of
Congress PD
source: http://content.answers.com/main/
content/img/scitech/HSsirwil.jpg
[01/21/1898 AD]
made of positively charged particles
with a mass to charge ratio similar to
a hydrogen ion. These positive
particles will later be called protons.
The speed of these particles is
determined to be around 1000 times
slower than the speed of light.
Germany
[1] * Author: anonymous or
pseudonymous, per EU Copyright
Directive (1993), Article 1, §§1-4
* This image was published not later
than 1911 in conjunction with the Nobel
Prize in Physics. * Source:
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1911/wien-bio.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/1/10/WilhelmWien1911.jpg
[05/02/1898 AD]
of a metal oxide and aluminum powder is
discovered.
Essen-on-the-Ruhr, Germany
[1] Goldschmidt, Hans; Ruhr, Essen a.
d. (1898). ''Ãœber ein neues
Verfahren zur Darstellung von Metallen
und Legirungen mittelst Aluminiums
(''On a new method for the preparation
of metals and alloys by means of
aluminum''). Justus Liebigs Annalen der
Chemie 301 (1): 19–28.
doi:10.1002/jlac.18983010103.
books.google.com/books?id=Df0tAAAAIAAJ
&pg=PA19
AND http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/
journal/112324980/abstract?CRETRY=1&SRET
RY=0 PD AND A thermite reaction
using iron(III) oxide English: A
thermite reaction using Ferric
Oxide. Date 2007-05-12 (original
upload date) Source Transferred
from en.wikipedia; transferred to
Commons by User:Choij using
CommonsHelper. Author Original
uploader was CaesiumFluoride at
en.wikipedia GNU AND Hans
Goldschmidt UNKNOWN
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6f/ThermiteFe2O3.JPGhttp
://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/common
s/0/0a/Thermite_mix.jpg
[2] A thermite reaction using
iron(III) oxide English: A thermite
reaction using Ferric Oxide. Date
2007-05-12 (original upload
date) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia; transferred to Commons by
User:Choij using CommonsHelper. Author
Original uploader was
CaesiumFluoride at en.wikipedia GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6f/ThermiteFe2O3.JPG
[05/10/1898 AD]
The boiling point of hydrogen is
measured as -238° C.
(presumably)
[1] Picture taken from page 230 of T.
O’Connor Sloane's Liquid Air and the
Liquefaction of Gases, second edition,
published by Norman W. Henley and Co.,
New York, 1900. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/8/89/Dewar_James.jpg
[2] English: Picture of Sir James
Dewar, the scientist Source Page 98
of History of Chemistry (book) Date
1910 Author Thomas Thorpe PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2c/Dewar_James_flask.jpg
[07/01/1898 AD]
vehicle; a remotely controlled boat.
NY, USA
[1] Interior of Tesla's
remote-controlled boat. PD
source: http://www.pbs.org/tesla/ins/ima
ges/rcimg02.jpg
[2] Image from Tesla's 07/01/1898
patent PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=T1VrAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&
f=false
[09/01/1898 AD]
two kinds of radiation, one which is
quickly absorbed that is named "alpha"
radiation, and a second which has more
penetrative power that is named "beta"
radiation.
England
[1] Fig 1 from Rutherford, ''Uranium
Radiation and the Electrical Conduction
Produced by It'', Phil Mag ser 5 xlvii
109-163 1899. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=ipMOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA110&dq=Uranium+Radiat
ion+and+the+Electrical+Conduction+Produc
ed+by+It&hl=en&ei=TctpTKKkOZO8sAObsu2mBw
&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&
ved=0CDgQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=Uranium
Radiation and the Electrical Conduction
Produced by It&f=false
[2] Fig 2 from Rutherford, ''Uranium
Radiation and the Electrical Conduction
Produced by It'', Phil Mag ser 5 xlvii
109-163 1899. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=ipMOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA110&dq=Uranium+Radiat
ion+and+the+Electrical+Conduction+Produc
ed+by+It&hl=en&ei=TctpTKKkOZO8sAObsu2mBw
&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&
ved=0CDgQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=Uranium
Radiation and the Electrical Conduction
Produced by It&f=false
[1898 AD]
mosaic disease is recognized as a
completely new type of infectious
agent, smaller and different than
bacteria, which is named a "virus".
Netherlands
[1] Table 2 from Beijerinck's 1898
paper PD
source: http://www.google.com/url?sa=t&s
ource=web&ct=res&cd=1&ved=0CAcQFjAA&url=
http%3A%2F%2Fwww.apsnet.org%2Fonline%2Ff
eature%2FTobacco%2FBeijerinck1898.pdf&ei
=pbPTSrS1I4j2sQPZ7anWCg&rct=j&q=Beijerin
ck+1898&usg=AFQjCNGDnguGRlFxH0cXq_iEhbVs
YxIE8Q
[2] Martinus Beijerinck in his
laboratory. Date 12 May
1921(1921-05-12) Source Delft
School of Microbiology Archives PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d2/Mwb_in_lab.JPG
[1898 AD]
reading of data. Sound is recorded by
varying the magnetization of tiny parts
of a single wound wire sequentially in
direct proportion to the electric
current produced by the sound. When
each part is moved past an
electromagnet the sound is played out
loud again in a telephone receiver.
This will lead to video tapes and hard
disks.
Copenhagen, Denmark
[1] Description Telegrafon
8154.jpg Magyar: Valdemar Poulsen
mágneses hangrögzítő készüléke
1898-ból. A Brede Værk ipari
múzeumban látható a dániai
Lingbyben. Saját felvétel. Dansk:
Valdemar Poulsen opfandt i i 1898 af en
magnetisk optageenhed der kaldes en
Telegrafon English: Magnetic wire
recorder, invented by Valdemar Poulsen,
1898. It is exhibited at Brede works
Industrial Museum, Lingby,
Danmark. Date 25 October
2009(2009-10-25) (original upload
date) Source Transferred from
hu.wikipedia; transferred to Commons by
User:Nico-dk using
CommonsHelper. Author Original
uploader was Bitman at
hu.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) CC-BY-SA-2.5; Released under
the GNU Free Documentation
License. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f9/Telegrafon_8154.jpg
[2] 1 Valdemar Poulsen (1869-1942),
der Erfinder der magnetischen
Schallaufzeichnung UNKNOWN
source: http://www.theimann.com/Analog/H
istory/100_Jahre/Bild1.jpg
[03/03/1899 AD]
wireless communication from a stranded
steamship.
(verify)
[1] St. John's Newfoundland kite which
received the famous signal 1901 PD
source: B. L. Jacot de Boinod and D. M.
B. Collier, "Marconi: Master of Space"
(1935)
[2] Marconi Station at Poldhu,
Cornwall, from which first
transatlantic signals were transmitted.
Contrasted with top picture, the
Bridgewater Beam transmitting
station. PD
source: B. L. Jacot de Boinod and D. M.
B. Collier, "Marconi: Master of Space"
(1935)
[03/17/1899 AD]
motion is observed; Phoebe {FE-BE}, a
moon of Saturn.
Cambridge, Massachussetts, USA
[1] English: Phoebe, as imaged by the
Cassini probe. Français : Mosaïque
de deux images de Phoebé prises par la
sonde Cassini. Date 11 June
2004(2004-06-11) Source
jpl.nasa.gov, image reference:
PIA06064.jpg Author Image Credit:
NASA/JPL/Space Science Institute PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/32/Phoebe_cassini.jpg
[2] Edited image of American
Astronomer William Henry Pickering
(1858-1938) TITLE: Prof. W.H.
Pickering, portr. bust CALL NUMBER:
LC-B2- 550-7[P&P] REPRODUCTION NUMBER:
LC-DIG-ggbain-02598 (digital file from
original neg.) No known restrictions on
publication. MEDIUM: 1 negative :
glass ; 5 x 7 in. or
smaller. CREATED/PUBLISHED:
10/16/09. NOTES: Forms part of:
George Grantham Bain Collection
(Library of Congress). Title from
unverified data provided by the Bain
News Service on the negatives or
caption cards. Temp. note: Batch one
loaded. FORMAT: Glass
negatives. REPOSITORY: Library of
Congress Prints and Photographs
Division Washington, D.C. 20540
USA DIGITAL ID: (digital file from
original neg.) ggbain 02598 original
found at
http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/h?
pp/PPALL:@field(NUMBER+@1(ggbain+02598))
PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/4/46/William_Henry_Pickering_02
598r.jpg
[09/13/1899 AD]
Thorium which will later be shown to be
Radon. All substances touched by the
positive ions created by this gas are
shown to exhibit radioactivity that
lasts for several days.
[1] Figure from Rutherford, ''A
Radioactive Substance emitted from
Thorium Compound'', Phil Mag ser 5 xlix
1-14 1900. PD
source: Rutherford, "A Radioactive
Substance emitted from Thorium
Compound", Phil Mag ser 5 xlix 1-14
1900.
[2] Figure from Rutherford, ''A
Radioactive Substance emitted from
Thorium Compound'', Phil Mag ser 5 xlix
1-14 1900. PD
source: Rutherford, "A Radioactive
Substance emitted from Thorium
Compound", Phil Mag ser 5 xlix 1-14
1900.
[09/??/1899 AD]
radioactivity in all objects placed
near them is discovered.
Paris, France
[1] Polonium foil [t verify] UNKNOWN
source: http://periodictable.com/Samples
/084.8/s12s.JPG
[2] Description
Mariecurie.jpg Portrait of Marie
Skłodowska-Curie (November 7, 1867 –
July 4, 1934), sometime prior to 1907.
Curie and her husband Pierre shared a
Nobel Prize in Physics in 1903. Working
together, she and her husband isolated
Polonium. Pierre died in 1907, but
Marie continued her work, namely with
Radium, and received a Nobel Prize in
Chemistry in 1911. Her death is mainly
attributed to excess exposure to
radiation. Date ca. 1898 Source
http://www.mlahanas.de/Physics/Bios
/MarieCurie.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d9/Mariecurie.jpg
[12/11/1899 AD]
magnetic field. These rays will be
identified as Beta rays and shown to be
electrons.
France
[1] Antoine-Henri Becquerel
(1852-1908) PD
source: http://nautilus.fis.uc.pt/wwwqui
/figuras/quimicos/img/becquerel.jpg
[2] Description Becquerel Henri
photograph.jpg English: Picture of
Henri Becquerel, the French
physicist Date 1918(1918) Source
Opposite page 229 of Moore's A
History of Chemistry Author F. J.
Moore Permission (Reusing this image)
See below. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/70/Becquerel_Henri_photo
graph.jpg
[12/??/1899 AD]
the same mass and charge for all gases.
England
[1] English: J. J. Thomson published in
1896. Deutsch: Joseph John Thomson
(1856–1940). Ein ursprünglich 1896
veröffentlichter Stahlstich. [edit]
Source From Oliver Heaviside: Sage
in Solitude (ISBN 0-87942-238-6), p.
120. This is a reproduction of a steel
engraving originally published in The
Electrician, 1896. It was scanned on an
Epson Perfection 1250 at 400dpi,
cleaned up (some text was showing
through the back) in Photoshop, reduced
to grayscale, and saved as JPG using
the 'Save for Web' optimizer.. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5e/JJ_Thomson.jpg
[2] J. J. Thomson in earlier days. PD
source: http://www.chemheritage.org/clas
sroom/chemach/images/lgfotos/05atomic/th
omson1.jpg
[1899 AD]
(presumably)
[1] Figures from Chemical News article
by James Dewar ''Solid Hydrogen'' PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=958EAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PT49&dq=chemical+ne
ws+dewar+solidification+date:1899-1899&e
i=ZcdnSaXOJYrUkwSazf0m#PRA1-PT129,M1
[2] Picture taken from page 230 of T.
O’Connor Sloane's Liquid Air and the
Liquefaction of Gases, second edition,
published by Norman W. Henley and Co.,
New York, 1900. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/8/89/Dewar_James.jpg
[1899 AD]
change for a body depending on its
motion relative to the speed of light,
and that no matter can travel faster
than the speed of light.
Netherlands
[1] UNKNOWN
source: UNKNOWN
[2] UNKNOWN
source: UNKNOWN
[1899 AD]
measured using very light mirrors in a
vacuum.
Russia
[1] Description Lebedev petr
nikolaevich.jpg English: Pyotr Lebedev
(1866—1912) Русский:
Лебедев, Пётр
Николаевич
(1866—1912) Date Before
1912 Source
http://slovari.yandex.ru/dict/bse/a
rticle/00041/42200.htm?text=%D0%9F%D0%B5
%D1%82%D1%80%20%D0%9D%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BE%
D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%87%20%D
0%9B%D0%B5%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%B2
&stpar1=1.1.3 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a0/Lebedev_petr_nikolaev
ich.jpg
[1899 AD]
exerts on gas molecules is measured.
Russia
[1] Description Lebedev petr
nikolaevich.jpg English: Pyotr Lebedev
(1866—1912) Русский:
Лебедев, Пётр
Николаевич
(1866—1912) Date Before
1912 Source
http://slovari.yandex.ru/dict/bse/a
rticle/00041/42200.htm?text=%D0%9F%D0%B5
%D1%82%D1%80%20%D0%9D%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BE%
D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%87%20%D
0%9B%D0%B5%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%B2
&stpar1=1.1.3 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a0/Lebedev_petr_nikolaev
ich.jpg
[01/29/1900 AD]
identified as electrons by showing that
their charge to mass ratio is the same
as the electron.
France
[1] Photographic plate made by Henri
Becquerel showing effects of exposure
to radioactivity. Image of
Becquerel's photographic plate which
has been fogged by exposure to
radiation from a uranium salt. The
shadow of a metal Maltese Cross placed
between the plate and the uranium salt
is clearly visible. Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Becqu
erel_plate.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1e/Becquerel_plate.jpg
[2] Antoine-Henri Becquerel
(1852-1908) PD
source: http://nautilus.fis.uc.pt/wwwqui
/figuras/quimicos/img/becquerel.jpg
[03/26/1900 AD]
beta rays is found to be more than half
the speed of light, much higher than
the electrons in cathode rays.
France
[1] Antoine-Henri Becquerel
(1852-1908) PD
source: http://nautilus.fis.uc.pt/wwwqui
/figuras/quimicos/img/becquerel.jpg
[2] Description Becquerel Henri
photograph.jpg English: Picture of
Henri Becquerel, the French
physicist Date 1918(1918) Source
Opposite page 229 of Moore's A
History of Chemistry Author F. J.
Moore Permission (Reusing this image)
See below. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/70/Becquerel_Henri_photo
graph.jpg
[05/18/1900 AD]
penetrative than x-rays is identified
from radium which will later be named
"gamma" rays.
Normale) Paris, France
[1] Villard, Paul. ''rayonnement du
radium'' Séances de la Société
française de physique (1900):
45. http://books.google.com/books?id=xm
cEAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA2-PA45 PD AND Paul,
Ulrich Villard, UNKNOWN
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=xmcEAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA2-PA45http://www.hill
iontchernobyl.com/Images/Villard1.jpg
[2] Paul, Ulrich Villard, UNKNOWN
source: http://www.hilliontchernobyl.com
/Images/Villard1.jpg
[07/02/1900 AD]
motor-driven gas-filled airship, an
aluminum blimp.
[1] Count Ferdinand von Zeppelin begins
the construction of his 1st airship. He
flies for the 1st time during the
summer, above the lake Constance in
Friedrichshafen, in 1900. He was
getting ready to enter the contest for
the Deutsch Prize Picture Source:
U.S. Centennial of Flight
Commission PD
source: http://aboutfacts.net/History/Hi
story13/Zeppelin1900.jpg
[2] Ferdinand Adolf August Heinrich
Graf von Zeppelin
(1838-1917). PD/Corel
source: http://www.centennialofflight.go
v/essay/Dictionary/Zeppelin/DI48G1_hi.jp
g
[10/19/1900 AD]
all energy exists in discrete units,
and the famous equation E=hv.
Germany
[1] M. Planck, ''Zur Theorie des
Gesetzes der Energieverteilung in
Normalspektrum,'' Verhandlungen der
Deutsches Physikalisches Gesellschaft 2
(1900), pp.
237-245. books.google.com/books?id=zYYM
AAAAYAAJ&pg=PA237 and ''Uber das
Gesetz der Energieverteilung im
Normalspectrum'', Annalen Der Physik, 4
(1901),
p553-563. books.google.com/books?id=j6A
qAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA553
AND http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/
journal/112485869/abstract
and http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bp
t6k15314w.image.f635.langEN {Planck_Max
_Annalen_der_Physik_1900.pdf} English
translation: Max Planck, Alexander
Ogg, ''On the Law of Distribution of
Energy in the Normal Spectrum'',
1903. http://theochem.kuchem.kyoto-u.ac
.jp/Ando/planck1901.pdf PD AND [1]
Max Planck PD (presumably
source: books.google.com/books?id=zYYMAA
AAYAAJ&pg=PA237From Henry Crew, "The
Rise of Modern Physics", Williams and
Wilkens, 1928, edition 1, p372.
[2] Max Planck PD (presumably
source: From Henry Crew, "The Rise of
Modern Physics", Williams and Wilkens,
1928, edition 1, p372.
[1900 AD]
time called nebulae) are identified and
photographed. Spiral galaxies are found
to out number all other celestial
objects.
USA
[1] Image of photograph of galaxy from
James Edward Keeler , ''Photographs
of nebulae and clusters made with the
Crossley reflector'',
1908. http://openlibrary.org/b/OL724344
3M/Photographs_of_nebulae_and_clusters_m
ade_with_the_Crossley_reflector PD
source: http://www.archive.org/stream/ph
otographsofneb00keelrich#page/n53/mode/2
up
[2] This is a file from the Wikimedia
Commons Description Keeler
James.jpg American astronomer James
Keeler Date 1903(1903) Source
Biographical Memoirs of the
National Academy of Sciences Author
Charles S. Hastings PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/18/Keeler_James.jpg
[02/14/1901 AD]
pigs.
[1] William Rollins, ''X-Light Kills'',
Boston Medical and Surgical Journal,
February 14, 1901,
p173. http://books.google.com/books?id=
0sUEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA173 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=0sUEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA173
[2] William Herbert Rollins PD
source: http://harvardmedicine.hms.harva
rd.edu/bulletin/spring2008/images/rollin
s.2.jpg
[10/10/1901 AD]
created when two amino acid molecules
are condensed into dipeptides.
Germany
[1] Fischer, Emil, and Ernest Fourneau.
''Ueber einige Derivate des
Glykocolls.'' Berichte der deutschen
chemischen Gesellschaft 34.2 (1901):
2868-2877. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.c
om/doi/10.1002/cber.190103402249/abstrac
t {Fischer_19011010.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/d
oi/10.1002/cber.190103402249/abstract
[2] Fischer, Emil, and Ernest
Fourneau. ''Ueber einige Derivate des
Glykocolls.'' Berichte der deutschen
chemischen Gesellschaft 34.2 (1901):
2868-2877. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.c
om/doi/10.1002/cber.190103402249/abstrac
t {Fischer_19011010.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/d
oi/10.1002/cber.190103402249/abstract
[12/12/1901 AD]
over the Atlantic Ocean.
John’s, Newfoundland
[1] St. John's Newfoundland kite which
received the famous signal 1901 PD
source: B. L. Jacot de Boinod and D. M.
B. Collier, "Marconi: Master of Space"
(1935)
[2] Marconi Station at Poldhu,
Cornwall, from which first
transatlantic signals were transmitted.
Contrasted with top picture, the
Bridgewater Beam transmitting
station. PD
source: B. L. Jacot de Boinod and D. M.
B. Collier, "Marconi: Master of Space"
(1935)
[12/31/1901 AD]
caused by a virus; the first disease
found in humans to be attributed to a
virus.
Chicago, Illinois, USA
[1] Walter Reed (1851-1902) American
physician Source :
en:Image:WalterReed.jpeg Walter Reed
at rank of major (19th century
photograph) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/4e/WalterReed.jpeg
[1901 AD]
arise as a result of mutation.
Netherlands
[1] Image from English translation of
1991 work , p218 Die Mutationstheorie:
bd. Die Entstehung der Arten durch
Mutation PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=cdOhB5p3HkIC&printsec=frontcover&source
=gbs_v2_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=larm
arkiana&f=false
[2] Image from English translation of
1991 work PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=cdOhB5p3HkIC&printsec=frontcover&source
=gbs_v2_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&f=f
alse
[1901 AD]
as the radioactive portion of uranium
compounds.
France
[1] Photographic plate made by Henri
Becquerel showing effects of exposure
to radioactivity. Image of
Becquerel's photographic plate which
has been fogged by exposure to
radiation from a uranium salt. The
shadow of a metal Maltese Cross placed
between the plate and the uranium salt
is clearly visible. Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Becqu
erel_plate.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1e/Becquerel_plate.jpg
[2] Antoine-Henri Becquerel
(1852-1908) PD
source: http://nautilus.fis.uc.pt/wwwqui
/figuras/quimicos/img/becquerel.jpg
[1901 AD]
types is recognized and the ABO blood
group system is created.
Vienna
[1] Image extracted from Biographical
Memoirs of the National Academy of
Sciences, vol. 40. Associated: Karl
Landsteiner Date: 1920s Genre:
illustrations ID:
portrait-landsteiner UNKNOWN
source: http://osulibrary.oregonstate.ed
u/specialcollections/coll/nonspcoll/cata
logue/portrait-landsteiner-600w.jpg
[1901 AD]
electron increases with velocity.
Germany
[1] Figure 34-2 from: Kaufmann, ''Die
magnetische und elektrische
Ablenkbarkeit der Becquerelstrahlen und
die scheinbare Masse der Elektronen''
(Göttingen Nachrichten 8, S.
143—155. 1901). (Nachrichten der
Akademie der Wissenschaften in
Göttingen: Mathematisch-Physikalische
Klasse ) English: Translated as
''Magnetic and Electric Deflectiability
of the Becquerel Rays and the Apparent
Mass of the Electron'' in: Boorse and
Motz, ''The World of the Atom'', 1966,
v1,
p506. {Kaufmann_Walther_1901xxxx.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source:
[2] Description Walter
kaufmann.png English: Walter Kaufmann
(1871-1947) Date ca.
1905(1905) Source
Niedersächsische Staats- und
Universitätsbibliothek,
Göttingen Author Walter
Kaufmann PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1d/Walter_kaufmann.png
[1901 AD]
cleaner.
[1] On August 30th 1901 Hubert Cecil
Booth, a British engineer, received a
British patent for a vacuum cleaner. It
took the form of a large, horse-drawn,
petrol-driven unit which was parked
outside the building to be cleaned with
long hoses being fed through the
windows. Until then vacuum cleaners
blew the dust away, but Booth came up
with the idea of sucking away dust,
instead of blowing. Furthermore Booth
equipped his cleaner with a filter,
which kept the dust in the machine. All
modern vacuum cleaners are based on
Booth's principle. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.morclean.co.uk/catego
ries/images/first-vacuum-cleaner.jpg
[2] Description Hubert Cecil
Booth Source
http://www.scienceandsociety.co.uk/
results.asp?image=10300549 Article
Hubert Cecil Booth COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/c/c9/Hubert_Cecil_Booth.jpg
[03/17/1902 AD]
electric potential) created by the
photoelectric effect is shown to depend
only on the frequency of light.
Germany
[1] Figure from March 1902 Lenard paper
- presumably the important paper on the
photoelectric effect PD
source: http://www3.interscience.wiley.c
om/cgi-bin/fulltext/112485664/PDFSTART
[2] Description Phillipp Lenard in
1900.jpg German physicist Phillipp
Lenard Date According this
source, picture is taked in
1900 Source Encyclopaedia
Britannica. Original source AIP Emilio
Segrè Visual Archives, American
Institute of Physics. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1d/Phillipp_Lenard_in_19
00.jpg
[03/28/1902 AD]
which explains the cycle of 8 elements
on the periodic table, and the
stability of inert gases when all 8
vertices are occupied.
Massachussets, USA
[1] Figure 2 from: GN Lewis, ''THE
ATOM AND THE MOLECULE.'', Journal of
the American Chemical Society, 1916 -
ACS
Publications http://pubs.acs.org/doi/ab
s/10.1021/ja02261a002 {Lewis_Gilbert_19
160126.pdf} PD
source: http://pubs.acs.org/doi/pdf/10.1
021/ja02261a002
[2] [t Notice the similarity to
Rutherford] Gilbert Newton
Lewis 1875-1946 UNKNOWN
source: http://www2.chemistry.msu.edu/Po
rtraits/images/lewisc.jpg
[03/??/1902 AD]
atomic decay in which one atom decays
into another kind (also known as
transmutation).
[1] Description Ernest
Rutherford2.jpg English: Cropped
Image:Ernest_Rutherford.jpg Date
2007-01-26 (original upload
date) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia Author Original
uploader was Sadi Carnot at
en.wikipedia GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/57/Ernest_Rutherford2.jp
g
[2] Ernest Rutherford (young) Image
courtesy of www.odt.co.nz UNKNOWN
source: https://thescienceclassroom.wiki
spaces.com/file/view/ernest_rutherford_1
122022732.jpg/103032081
[10/17/1902 AD]
chromosomes are pairs, and are the
physical basis of the Mendelian
{meN-DElE-eN} laws of heredity is
shown.
NY, USA
[1] From Sutton 1902 paper see
captions PD
source: http://www.esp.org/foundations/g
enetics/classical/wss-02.pdf
[2] Description Walter
sutton.jpg English: A portrait of
Walter S. Sutton taken prior to
1916. Date prior to
1916 Source
http://www.genomenewsnetwork.org/re
sources/timeline/1902_Boveri_Sutton.jpg
Author
Unknown Permission (Reusing this
file) See below. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/43/Walter_sutton.jpg
[10/27/1902 AD]
be the same as the speed of light.
(presumably)
[1] Figure 1, Blondlot's apparatus for
comparing the speed of x-rays to those
of visible light. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=iV0DAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=int
itle:COMPTES+intitle:RENDUS+date:1902-19
02#v=onepage&q=blondlot&f=false
[2] René Blondlot (1849-1930)
source: http://nsa02.casimages.com/img/2
008/06/02/0806020221453517545.jpg
[11/10/1902 AD]
deflectable by strong magnetic and
electric fields in the opposite
direction of cathode rays and so are
positively charged bodies.
[1] Figure 4 from Ernest Rutherford,
''The Magnetic and Electric Deviation
of the Easily Absorbed Rays from
Radium'', Phil. Mag., S6, V 4, Feb
1903, pp177-187. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=EFQwAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA177&lpg=PA177&dq=The+
Magnetic+and+Electric+Deviation+of+the+E
asily+Absorbed+Rays+from+Radium&source=b
l&ots=hd6YYVJA6n&sig=jXFrc1rH_POEoKypoND
mYkoHIHw&hl=en&ei=4b9tTJmFI5OisQPYo7H5Cg
&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&
ved=0CBIQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=The%20Magnet
ic%20and%20Electric%20Deviation%20of%20t
he%20Easily%20Absorbed%20Rays%20from%20R
adium&f=false
[2] Description Ernest
Rutherford2.jpg English: Cropped
Image:Ernest_Rutherford.jpg Date
2007-01-26 (original upload
date) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia Author Original
uploader was Sadi Carnot at
en.wikipedia GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/57/Ernest_Rutherford2.jp
g
[1902 AD]
(suturing) the ends of blood vessels is
developed.
France
[1] Description Alexis Carrel
02.jpg French surgeon and biologist
Alexis Carrel (1873-1944) Date
Unknown Source
US-LibraryOfCongress-BookLogo.svg
This image is available from the
United States Library of Congress's
Prints and Photographs division under
the digital ID ggbain.34418. This tag
does not indicate the copyright status
of the attached work. A normal
copyright tag is still required. See
Commons:Licensing for more
information. العربية
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/9e/Alexis_Carrel_02.jpg
[03/23/1903 AD]
sustained, and controlled airplane
flight.
USA
[1] Description First
flight2.jpg English: First successful
flight of the Wright Flyer, by the
Wright brothers. The machine traveled
120 ft (36.6 m) in 12 seconds at 10:35
a.m. at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina.
Orville Wright was at the controls of
the machine, lying prone on the lower
wing with his hips in the cradle which
operated the wing-warping mechanism.
Wilbur Wright ran alongside to balance
the machine, and just released his hold
on the forward upright of the right
wing in the photo. The starting rail,
the wing-rest, a coil box, and other
items needed for flight preparation are
visible behind the machine. This was
considered ''the first sustained and
controlled heavier-than-air, powered
flight'' by the Fédération
Aéronautique
Internationale. Français : L’un des
premier vols habités de l’histoire
dans un aéronef plus lourd que l’air
(36.6 mètres en 12 secondes), par les
frères Wright le 17 décembre 1903 à
10h35 sur la plage de Kitty Hawk en
Caroline du Nord. Orville est aux
commandes, allongé sur le ventre sur
l’aile basse et les hanches dans la
nacelle qui servait à contrôler le
mouvement des ailes ; Wilbur court le
long de l’appareil et vient de lacher
l’aile droite. Le rail de lancement,
des étais et d’autres équipements
nécessaires pour la préparation du
vol sont visibles. 日本語:
1903年12月17日、ライト兄弟が
類初の動力飛行機での有人飛
行に成功した時の写真。 Date
17 December 1903 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/86/First_flight2.jpg
[2] * Description: Wilbur
Wright Background notes: Wright
brothers English: Early Wright
brother’s airplanes explored basic
principles of flight. The Wright
brothers are widely credited with
engineering the first aircraft capable
of sustained powered
flight. Commons-emblem-notice.svg
Wright brothers Wikipedia:
Asturianu Bosanski Català
Čeština Dansk Deutsch English
Esperanto Español Euskara Suomi
Français עברית Magyar Bahasa
Indonesia Italiano 日本語
한국어 Latina Lietuvių
Nederlands Norsk (Bokmål) Polski
Português Русский Slovenčina
Slovenščina Српски / Srpski
Svenska ไทย Türkçe Tiếng
Việt 中文 Other links: US
inventors *** Smithsonian Stories of
the Wright flights *** National Park
Service, Wright Brothers' Memorial ***
PBS Nova: The Wright Brothers' Flying
Machines * Source:
http://lcweb2.loc.gov/pp/wrihtml/wribac.
html * Photographer: unknwon PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/77/Wilbur_Wright.jpg
[05/28/1903 AD]
shown to be less when colder.
England(presumably)
[1]
source:
[2] 1856 at the age of 24 PD
source: http://home.frognet.net/~ejcov/w
c1850.jpg
[06/??/1903 AD]
is shown to depend on the molecular
weight of the gas.
England
[1] Figure 3 from Charles G. Barkla,
''Secondary radiation from gases
subject to X-rays'', Phil. Mag.,S6, V5,
N30, June 1903, p685 – 698. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=otXPAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA685&dq=Secondary+radi
ation+from+gases+subject+to+X-Rays&hl=en
&ei=urb-TLaEO4ausAOu6YywCw&sa=X&oi=book_
result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CDIQ6AEwA
A#v=onepage&q=Secondary%20radiation%20fr
om%20gases%20subject%20to%20X-Rays&f=fal
se
[2] Description Charles Glover
Barkla.jpg English: Charles Glover
Barkla Date 1917(1917) Source
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/
physics/laureates/1917/barkla-bio.html
Author Nobel
Foundation Permission (Reusing this
file) Public domainPublic
domainfalsefalse Public domain This
Swedish photograph is free to use
either of these cases: * For
photographic works (fotografiska verk),
the image is public domain:
a) if the photographer died before
January 1, 1944, or b) if the
photographer is not known, and cannot
be traced, and the image was created
before January 1, 1944. * For
photographic pictures (fotografiska
bilder), such as images of the press,
the image is public domain if created
before January 1, 1969 (transitional
regulations 1994). PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/81/Charles_Glover_Barkla
.jpg
[07/28/1903 AD]
radium is shown spectroscopically.
England
[1] Xenon on the Periodic table GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xen
on
[2] Figure 1 from Rayleigh 1893 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d2/William_Ramsay_workin
g.jpg
[12/05/1903 AD]
of the atom (negatively charged
electrons rotate around a large mass
positively charged particle).
[1] Hantaro Nagaoka PD AND
Proceedings of the Tokyo
Mathematico-Physieal Society, 2nd ser.,
2 (1904), 92–107; and H. Nagaoka,
''Kinetics of a System of Particles
illustrating the Line and the Band
Spectrum and the Phenomena of
Radioactivity.'', Philosophical
Magazine, 6th ser., 7 (1904),
445–455.
http://books.google.com/books?id=mNbPA
AAAMAAJ&pg=PA445#v=onepage&q&f=false PD
source: http://www.riken.go.jp/r-world/i
nfo/release/riken88/text/image/06/hantar
o.jpghttp://books.google.com/books?id=mN
bPAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA445
[2] Hantaro Nagaoka PD
source: http://www.riken.go.jp/r-world/i
nfo/release/riken88/text/image/06/hantar
o.jpg
[1903 AD]
substances in a liquid pigment mixture
move through a column of absorptive
material at different rates separating
into colored bands.
Poland
[1] Description Tswett
01.jpg English: Mikhail Semyonovich
Tsvet in 1901 Deutsch: Michail
Semjonowitsch Tswett,
1901 Русский: Михаил
Семенович Цвет Date
1901(1901) Source ISBN
3-9801965-0-X PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/bc/Tswett_01.jpg
[06/29/1904 AD]
by radium is found to be directly
proportional to the amount of uranium
in any given sample, which is evidence
that uranium decays into radium.
company) New Haven, Conneticut, USA
[1] Title Bertram Borden Boltwood,
Sheffield Scientific School Class of
1892. Image
Number 1047 Creator Unknown Date of
Creation 1917 Original
Material Photographic print Copyright
Holder Copyright status for this item
is unknown. Description Yale professor
of physics and radiochemistry.
Published in Ybc 892, v. 2
(1917). Record Unit Name Photographs
of Yale affiliated individuals
maintained by the Office of Public
Affairs, Yale University, 1879-1989
(inclusive). Collection
ID mssa.ru.0686 Box Number 8 Folder
Number 302 File
Name 001047.jpg Credit
Line Photographs of Yale affiliated
individuals maintained by the Office of
Public Affairs, Yale University,
1879-1989 (inclusive). Manuscripts &
Archives, Yale University PD
source: http://images.library.yale.edu/m
adid_size3/22593/001047.jpg
[1904 AD]
[1] This Color Photograph was made in
1907 in France. Today some of the most
beautiful color photographs are the
oldest: produced by the the Autochrome
Process. The emulsion was made with
dried potato dust. PD/Corel
source: http://www.worldisround.com/phot
os/0/11/18_o.jpg
[2] Auguste and Louis Lumière,
inventors of the movie camera,
three-color screen photography, and
first movie producers. Photo Blanc &
Demilly PD/Corel
source: http://www.marillier.nom.fr/coll
odions/PGH/pics/photowasborn08.jpg
[1904 AD]
"rectifier", which can "rectify"
alternating current into direct
current).
England
[1] Fleming's US Patent filed
04/19/1905 PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=WRFjAAAAEBAJ&printsec=drawing&zoom=4#v=
onepage&q=&f=false
[2] Description Sir John Ambrose
Fleming PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/1/16/Sir_John_Ambrose_Fleming.j
pg
[1904 AD]
substances released from the endocrine
{eN-De-KriN} gland, then carried by the
blood, that profoundly influence the
function of another part of the body.
England
[1] Starling, Ernest Henry. Photograph.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Web.
25 May 2010
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
40331&rendTypeId=4
[2] Source: Physiology Society [1]
(pdf) Description: Professor William
Bayliss of University College, London
(died 1924) In the event that the
image was taken after 1923, fair use is
claimed, because there is no
free-licence equivalent, and its use by
Wikipedia will not affect its monetary
value, assuming it has any. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/7/74/WilliamBayliss1.jpg
[1904 AD]
not share in the spectral line movement
of binary stars is evidence of calcium
in between the stars that absorbs the
light.
Getmany
[1] [t Note I don't see the calcium
lines for the star that are
shifted] Photo from: Hartmann,
Johannes, ''Untersuchungen uber das 80
cm-Objektiv des Potsdamer Refraktors'',
Publikationen des Astrophysikalischen
Observatoriums zu Potsdam ; 15. Bd., 2.
Stuck = Nr. 46; Publicationen des
Astrophysikalischen Observatoriums zu
Potsdam ; 15. Bd., 2. Stuck., Potsdam :
Astrophysikalisches Observatorium zu
Potsdam : In, 106 p., 6 leaves of
plates : ill. ; 29 cm. PD
source: Hartmann, Johannes,
"Untersuchungen uber das 80 cm-Objektiv
des Potsdamer Refraktors",
Publikationen des Astrophysikalischen
Observatoriums zu Potsdam ; 15. Bd., 2.
Stuck = Nr. 46; Publicationen des
Astrophysikalischen Observatoriums zu
Potsdam ; 15. Bd., 2. Stuck., Potsdam :
Astrophysikalisches Observatorium zu
Potsdam : In, 106 p., 6 leaves of
plates : ill. ; 29 cm.
[2] Description
Hartmann.jpg English: Johannes Franz
Hartmann (1865 – 1936) Date ca
1915 Source
http://www.aip.de/image_archive/Insti
tute.Portraits.html Author PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8b/Hartmann.jpg
[1904 AD]
determine the location of distant
objects.
[1] Figure 1: Hülsmeyer’s German
165,546 (1904) telemobileoscope PD
source: http://www.q-track.com/Files/fil
es/Schantz-RF%20since%20WWII.pdf
[2] Christian Huelsmeyer UNKNOWN
source: http://www.radarworld.org/images
/scans/Hulsmeyer.jpg
[05/01/1905 AD]
estimated to emit over a billion Alpha
and a billion Beta particles each
second.
[1] Description Ernest
Rutherford2.jpg English: Cropped
Image:Ernest_Rutherford.jpg Date
2007-01-26 (original upload
date) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia Author Original
uploader was Sadi Carnot at
en.wikipedia GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/57/Ernest_Rutherford2.jp
g
[2] Ernest Rutherford (young) Image
courtesy of www.odt.co.nz UNKNOWN
source: https://thescienceclassroom.wiki
spaces.com/file/view/ernest_rutherford_1
122022732.jpg/103032081
[06/30/1905 AD]
relativity.
The theory that the speed of light is
constant independently of the motion of
all other objects. The theory that
motion changes mass and time is
adopted, but that an aether medium for
light is unnecessary.
[1] Description German-born
theoretical physicist Albert
Einstein. Source Cropped from
original at the Historical Museum of
Berne. Date 1904[1] Author
Lucien Chavan [1] (1868 - 1942), a
friend of Einstein's when he was living
in Berne. Permission (Reusing this
file) An uncropped version
available at NASA's ''Astronomy Picture
of the Day''. According to the NASA
site: PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/a/a0/Einstein_patentoffice.jpg
[2] Albert Einstein, Nobel Prize in
Physics 1921 photograph. Description
Albert Einstein (Nobel).png English:
Albert Einstein, official 1921 Nobel
Prize in Physics photograph. Français
: Albert Einstein, photographie
officielle du Prix Nobel de Physique
1921. Date 1921(1921) Source
Official 1921 Nobel Prize in
Physics photograph Author PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/50/Albert_Einstein_%28No
bel%29.png
[09/27/1905 AD]
energy of all matter is dependent on
the speed of light, and the famous
equation E=mc2 (originally m=L/c2).
[1] Description German-born
theoretical physicist Albert
Einstein. Source Cropped from
original at the Historical Museum of
Berne. Date 1904[1] Author
Lucien Chavan [1] (1868 - 1942), a
friend of Einstein's when he was living
in Berne. Permission (Reusing this
file) An uncropped version
available at NASA's ''Astronomy Picture
of the Day''. According to the NASA
site: PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/a/a0/Einstein_patentoffice.jpg
[2] Albert Einstein, Nobel Prize in
Physics 1921 photograph. Description
Albert Einstein (Nobel).png English:
Albert Einstein, official 1921 Nobel
Prize in Physics photograph. Français
: Albert Einstein, photographie
officielle du Prix Nobel de Physique
1921. Date 1921(1921) Source
Official 1921 Nobel Prize in
Physics photograph Author PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/50/Albert_Einstein_%28No
bel%29.png
[12/22/1905 AD]
related to its size is recognized, the
relative brightness of a star is
determined by scaling its apparent
brightness by its distance, and the
theory of stellar evolution: that stars
lose brightness over time changing
color in the direction of blue to red.
In addition, red and yellow stars are
thought to be divided into two groups,
one with high brightness and the other
with low brightness.
Urania Observatory in Frederiksberg)
Copenhagen, Denmark (verify)
[1] Hertzsprung, ''Zur Strahlung der
Sterne'', Zeitschrift für
wissenschaftliche Photographie, 3
(1905),
p429-422. http://books.google.com/books
?id=J8zNAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA429 partial
translation in: Harlow Shapley,
''Source book in astronomy'',
1900-1950 http://books.google.com/books
?id=S9pt_DRjngUC&pg=PA248 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=J8zNAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA431
[2] Hertzsprung, ''Zur Strahlung der
Sterne'', Zeitschrift für
wissenschaftliche Photographie, 3
(1905),
p429-422. http://books.google.com/books
?id=J8zNAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA429 partial
translation in: Harlow Shapley,
''Source book in astronomy'',
1900-1950 http://books.google.com/books
?id=S9pt_DRjngUC&pg=PA248 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=J8zNAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA431
[1905 AD]
projector.
(presumably)
[1] Picture taken on a single film.
Each half og which was taken through a
separate color filter. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=Dp4EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA296&dq=friese-greene+
color&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=friese-greene
%20color&f=false
[2] Diagram showing how the color
scheme of Friese-Greene's color camera
works. {ULSF: There are two images
side by side on the film, each
capturing light of a different
color} PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=Dp4EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA296&dq=friese-greene+
color&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=friese-greene
%20color&f=false
[07/20/1906 AD]
a charge to mass ratio near 1/2 that of
Hydrogen, and are identified as helium.
[1] Description Ernest
Rutherford2.jpg English: Cropped
Image:Ernest_Rutherford.jpg Date
2007-01-26 (original upload
date) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia Author Original
uploader was Sadi Carnot at
en.wikipedia GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/57/Ernest_Rutherford2.jp
g
[2] Ernest Rutherford (young) Image
courtesy of www.odt.co.nz UNKNOWN
source: https://thescienceclassroom.wiki
spaces.com/file/view/ernest_rutherford_1
122022732.jpg/103032081
[12/21/1906 AD]
tube amplifier.
A third electrode is inserted into a
diode (called "the grid"). A varying
very weak voltage on the grid can be
converted into a similarly varying but
much stronger electron flow from the
filament to the plate.
York City, New York, USA
[1] From De Forest 1907 Patent: Lee De
Forest, ''Space Telegraphy'', Patent
number: 879532, Filing date: Jan 29,
1907, Issue date: Feb 18,
1908 http://www.google.com/patents?id=6
i1vAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&sou
rce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=f
alse PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=6i1vAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f
=false
[2] Description Lee De
Forest.jpg en:Lee De Forest,
published in the February 1904 issue of
The Electrical Age. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/65/Lee_De_Forest.jpg
[12/24/1906 AD]
radio communication.
and General Electric?) Brant Rock,
Massachusetts, USA
[1] Reginald Fessenden PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/01/Fessenden.JPG
[2] Reginald Aubrey Fessenden UNKNOWN
source: http://www.modestoradiomuseum.or
g/images/fessenden.jpg
[12/27/1906 AD]
determine the age of rocks. From the
quantity of lead in uranium ores and
the known rate of uranium
disintegration, some rocks are found to
be at least 2.2 billion years old.
Connecticut, USA
[1] Title Bertram Borden Boltwood,
Sheffield Scientific School Class of
1892. Image
Number 1047 Creator Unknown Date of
Creation 1917 Original
Material Photographic print Copyright
Holder Copyright status for this item
is unknown. Description Yale professor
of physics and radiochemistry.
Published in Ybc 892, v. 2
(1917). Record Unit Name Photographs
of Yale affiliated individuals
maintained by the Office of Public
Affairs, Yale University, 1879-1989
(inclusive). Collection
ID mssa.ru.0686 Box Number 8 Folder
Number 302 File
Name 001047.jpg Credit
Line Photographs of Yale affiliated
individuals maintained by the Office of
Public Affairs, Yale University,
1879-1989 (inclusive). Manuscripts &
Archives, Yale University PD
source: http://images.library.yale.edu/m
adid_size3/22593/001047.jpg
[1906 AD]
created.
Diseases) Berlin, Germany
[1] Treponema pallidum.jpg English:
Electron micrograph of Treponema
pallidum on cultures of cotton-tail
rabbit epithelium cells (Sf1Ep).
Treponema pallidum is the causative
agent of syphilis. In the United
States, over 35,600 cases of syphilis
were reported by health officials in
1999. Français : Le tréponème
pâle, agent de la syphilis. Polski:
Krętki blade. Magyar: A
kórokozó. עברית: חיידקים
גורמי עגבת. חיידקים
גורמי עגבת. Hrvatski:
Spiroheta Treponema pallidum koja
izaziva sifilis. Bosanski: Treponema
pallidum, uzročnik sifilisa. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/29/Treponema_pallidum.jp
g
[2] Description August
Wassermann.jpg English: August
Wassermann Polski: August
Wassermann Date before
1925 Source IHM Author
anonymous/unknown Permission (Reu
sing this file) The National
Library of Medicine believes this item
to be in the public domain. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/fa/August_Wassermann.jpg
[05/??/1907 AD]
that can separate atoms with an
electric charge (ions) by their mass is
invented.
Positive rays are deflected by magnetic
and electric fields so that ions of
different ratios of charge to mass
strike different parts of a
phosphorescent screen.
England
[1] fig 2 from: Thomson, J. J., ''On
Rays of Positive Electricity'', Phil.
Mag., S6, V13, N77, May 1907, p561. PD
AND figs 10-12 from: Thomson, J.
J., ''On Rays of Positive
Electricity'', Phil. Mag., S6, V13,
N77, May 1907, p561. PD AND [10]
figures 2-15 from: # Bakerian Lecture:
Rays of Positive Electricity # J. J.
Thomson # Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London. Series A, Containing
Papers of a Mathematical and Physical
Character, Vol. 89, No. 607 (Aug. 1,
1913), pp. 1-20 PD AND English
physicist J J Thomson Date GWS -
The Great War: The Standard History of
the All Europe Conflict (volume four)
edited by H. W. Wilson and J. A.
Hammerton (Amalgamated Press, London
1915) (So, it is taken before
1915) Source
http://www.firstworldwar.com/photos/g
raphics/gws_thomson_01.jpg First World
War.com PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=vVjKOdktZhsC&printsec=frontcover&dq=edi
tions:UOM39015024088414#v=onepage&q=&f=f
alsehttp://www.jstor.org/stable/93452?&S
earch=yes&term=electricity&term=positive
&term=rays&list=hide&searchUri=%2Faction
%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuery%3Drays%2Bof%2Bp
ositive%2Belectricity%26jc%3Dj100836%26w
c%3Don%26Search.x%3D0%26Search.y%3D0%26S
earch%3DSearch&item=1&ttl=262&returnArti
cleService=showArticlehttp://upload.wiki
media.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c1/J.J_Tho
mson.jpg
[2] fig 2 from: Thomson, J. J., ''On
Rays of Positive Electricity'', Phil.
Mag., S6, V13, N77, May 1907, p561. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=vVjKOdktZhsC&printsec=frontcover&dq=edi
tions:UOM39015024088414#v=onepage&q=&f=f
alse
[11/13/1907 AD]
achieves free flight while carrying a
passenger.
[1] Paul Cornu's helicopter was the
first to achieve free flight while
carrying a passenger (1907). Credits
-National Air and Space
Museum, Smithsonian Institution (SI
Neg. No. 93-640) The French bicycle
maker and engineer Paul Cornu, born in
1881 in Lisieux, France, was the first
person to design and build a helicopter
that achieved free flight while
carrying a passenger. His twin-rotor
craft flew for about 20 seconds on
November 13, 1907, rising about one
foot (0.3 meter) off the ground. A
24-horsepower (18-kilowatt) engine
powered the helicopter, which had
counter-rotating rotors. The helicopter
had no effective means of control and
was abandoned after a few
flights. Cornu died in 1944. PD
source: http://www.centennialofflight.go
v/essay/Dictionary/Cornu/DI18G1.jpg
[2] Paul Cornu in his first helicopter
in 1907. Note that he is sitting
between the two rotors, which rotated
in opposite directions to cancel
torque. This helicopter was the first
flying machine to have risen from the
ground using rotor blades instead of
wings. Credits - © 2001 Smithsonian
Institution, National Air and Space
Museum, Videodisc. 2B 5847 PD
source: http://www.centennialofflight.go
v/essay/Rotary/early_20th_century/HE2G13
.jpg
[11/26/1907 AD]
Cathode-Ray Tube.
[1] Figure from: Boris Rosing, ''Art
of Electric Telescopy'', Patent number:
1161734, Filing date: Apr 5, 1911,
Issue date: Nov 23,
1915 http://www.google.com/patents?id=I
KRQAAAAEBAJ PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=IKRQAAAAEBAJ&pg=PA12
[2] Description Boris
Rozing Date 2010-07-03
10:15:57(UTC) (Original uploaded at
2008-07-28 23:55:26) Source
Original uploaded on
ru.wikipedia Author Original
uploaded by Vlas (Transfered by
Ravit) Description Русский:
Борис Розинг (,
советский физик Date
до 1920-х Source
http://www.tvcom.kherson.ua/cikavo.
files/istoriya_tv/istoriya_tv.files/rozi
ng.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/4b/Boris_Rozing.jpg
[1907 AD]
four dimensional structure called
"space-time".
Germany
[1] Description De Raum Zeit Minkowski
012.jpg Deutsch: Dies ist ein Scan des
historischen Buches: English: This is
a scan of the historical
document: Title: Raum und Zeit
(Jahresberichte der Deutschen
Mathematiker- Vereinigung, Leipzig,
1909.) Date 1909 Source
Deutsch: Der Scan wurde anhand einer
orginal Buchvorlage
vorgenommen English: scan from
original book Author Hermann
Minkowski Permission (Reusing this
file) Out of copyright as author
died more than 70 years ago PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/97/De_Raum_Zeit_Minkowsk
i_012.jpg
[2] Description De Raum zeit
Minkowski Bild.jpg Deutsch: Dies ist
ein Auszug der Seite 5 des
Buches: English: This is a detail of
page 5 of the historical
document: Title: Raum und Zeit
(Jahresberichte der Deutschen
Mathematiker- Vereinigung, Leipzig,
1909.) Date 1909 Source
Deutsch: Der Scan wurde anhand einer
orginal Buchvorlage
vorgenommen English: scan from
original book Author Hermann
Minkowski PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c5/De_Raum_zeit_Minkowsk
i_Bild.jpg
[03/26/1908 AD]
chemical element.
(presumably)
[1] Figure 1 from Rayleigh 1893 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d2/William_Ramsay_workin
g.jpg
[2] William Ramsay PD
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/chemistry/laureates/1904/ramsay.jpg
[05/30/1908 AD]
from objects bombarded with x-rays, is
found to have a constant absorption
with no regard to the intensity of the
primary x-ray beam.
England
[1] C. G. Barkla and C. A. Sadler,
''Homogeneous secondary Röntgen
Radiations''. Philosophical Magazine
Series 6 16.94 (1908):
550–584;557. books.google.com/books?i
d=NLBJAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA557 PD
source: books.google.com/books?id=NLBJAA
AAYAAJ&pg=PA557
[2] Description Charles Glover
Barkla.jpg English: Charles Glover
Barkla Date 1917(1917) Source
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/
physics/laureates/1917/barkla-bio.html
Author Nobel
Foundation Permission (Reusing this
file) Public domainPublic
domainfalsefalse Public domain This
Swedish photograph is free to use
either of these cases: * For
photographic works (fotografiska verk),
the image is public domain:
a) if the photographer died before
January 1, 1944, or b) if the
photographer is not known, and cannot
be traced, and the image was created
before January 1, 1944. * For
photographic pictures (fotografiska
bilder), such as images of the press,
the image is public domain if created
before January 1, 1969 (transitional
regulations 1994). PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/81/Charles_Glover_Barkla
.jpg
[06/06/1908 AD]
received by radio.
[1] From top to bottom, left to
right Top: Plan View of Receiver
Showing Negative Received. Middle:
Plan View of Transmitter Showing
Traveling Carriage Carrying
Picture. Bottom Left: The Transmitting
Apparatus Bottom Middle: Photograph of
Edward VII. Transmitted by Wireless
Telegraphy. Bottom Right: The Receiver
Showing Relay to Which Recording Needle
is Connected. PD/Corel
source: KNUDSEN'S PROCESS OF
TRANSMITTING PICTURES BY WIRELESS
TELEGRAPHY. BY THE ENGLISH
CORREESPONDENT OF THE SCIENTIFIC
AMERICAN.. Scientific American
(1845-1908). New York: Jun 6, 1908.
Vol. Vol. XCVIII., Iss. No. 23.; p. 412
(1 page)
[06/27/1908 AD]
requires the lowest temperature for
liquefaction at 4 degrees above
absolute zero.
Netherlands
[1] Plate 2 from Kamerlingh Onnes 1908
paper PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=bYfNAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edi
tions:0TAagV5ZkvksJU62wD#v=onepage&q=hel
ium&f=false
[2] * Author: anonymous or
pseudonymous, per EU Copyright
Directive (1993), Article 1, §§1-4
* This image was published not later
than 1913 in conjunction with the Nobel
Prize in Physics. * Sources:
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1913/onnes-bio.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/94/Kamerlingh_portret.jp
g
[1908 AD]
film made from cellulose).
[1] Dr. J. E. Brandenberger PD
source: http://www.stiftungbrandenberger
.ch/images/drbrand.JPG
[02/08/1909 AD]
a plastic that does not soften when
heated; "Bakelite".
Society lecture) New York City, NY, USA
(presumably)
[1] Description English: Picture of
Bakelite radio. Taken in September 2007
by Robert Neild (Robneild) at the
Bakelite Museum, Orchard Mill,
Williton, Somerset, UK.Ŗ Date
2007-09-12 (original upload
date) Source Transfered from
en.wikipedia Transfer was stated to be
made by User:Storkk. Author Original
uploader was Robneild at
en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) CC-BY-SA-3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0;
Released under the GNU Free
Documentation License. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Bakelite_radio.
jpg/768px-Bakelite_radio.jpg
[2] Leo Baekeland UNKNOWN
source: http://juliensart.be/bakeliet/Le
o%20Hendrik%20Baekeland.jpg
[04/06/1909 AD]
Earth.
[1] Matthew Henson (centre) and other
members of Robert E. Peary's North Pole
expedition, April 1909. Robert
Peary—Hulton Archive/Getty Images
Henson, Matthew Alexander.
Photograph. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Web. 18 Feb. 2010
source: http://cache.eb.com/new-multimed
ia/bigimages/polexp002.jpg
[2] Description Robert Edwin
Peary.jpg English: Robert Edwin Peary
(1856 - 1920), polar explorer, on the
main deck of steamship Roosevelt Date
c 1909; first upload: Nov 16, 2004
- de:Wikipedia Source Library of
Congress, Prints and Photographs
Division: LC-USZ62-8234;
LC-USZC4-7507 http://www.loc.gov/rr/pri
nt/list/235_pop.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/21/Robert_Edwin_Peary.jp
g
[09/??/1909 AD]
are determined; A mass of 10-27 grams
and size of 30 pm.
Paris, France
[1] Jean Baptiste Perrin UNKNOWN
source: http://www.scientific-web.com/en
/Physics/Biographies/images/Jean_Baptist
e_Perrin.jpg
[2] Description Jean Baptiste
Perrin.jpg * Author: anonymous
or pseudonymous, per EU Copyright
Directive (1993), Article 1, §§1-4
* This image was published not later
than 1925 in conjunction with the Nobel
Prize in Physics. If anyone has
information that the author's name was
publicly disclosed in connection with
this photograph, please make a note on
this page and indicate where the
author's name was seen to be publicly
disclosed in connection with this
image. * A search of the US
Copyright renewals throughout the 1950s
shows no record of copyright renewal,
as would be required to extend
copyright protection beyond the year
1953. If anyone has information that
would document a copyright renewal in
the U.S., please cite it on this page
by clicking on ''Edit this page''.
* Source:
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1926/perrin-bio.html Dat
e 1926(1926) Source
Originally from en.wikipedia;
description page is/was
here. http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prize
s/physics/laureates/1926/perrin-bio.html
PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5f/Jean_Baptiste_Perrin.
jpg
[1909 AD]
publicly demonstrated.
(verify)
[1] St. John's Newfoundland kite which
received the famous signal 1901 PD
source: B. L. Jacot de Boinod and D. M.
B. Collier, "Marconi: Master of Space"
(1935)
[2] Marconi Station at Poldhu,
Cornwall, from which first
transatlantic signals were transmitted.
Contrasted with top picture, the
Bridgewater Beam transmitting
station. PD
source: B. L. Jacot de Boinod and D. M.
B. Collier, "Marconi: Master of Space"
(1935)
[1910 AD]
located on a specific chromosome is
recognized.
NY, USA
[1] Description Thomas Hunt
Morgan.jpg English: This image is one
of several created for the 1891 Johns
Hopkins yearbook of 1891, see Shine and
Hobel. 1976. Thomas Hunt Morgan. The
University Press of Kentucky ISBN
081319995X for other examples of photos
from the same sitting. Date
1891(1891) Source
http://wwwihm.nlm.nih.gov/ Author
Unknown PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8f/Thomas_Hunt_Morgan.jp
g
[2] Thomas Hunt Morgan Library of
Congress PD
source: http://content.answcdn.com/main/
content/img/scitech/HSthomah.jpg
[1910 AD]
is obtained.
Massachussets, USA
[1] Figure 1 from: P. W. Bridgman,
''The Measurement of High Hydrostatic
Pressure. I. A Simple Primary Gauge'',
Proceedings of the American Academy of
Arts and Sciences, Vol. 44, No. 8
(Feb., 1909), pp.
201-217. http://www.jstor.org/stable/20
022420 {Bridgman_Percy_19081209.pdf}
PD
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2002
2420?&Search=yes&searchText=j50000063&se
archText=j50000062&searchText=bridgman&l
ist=hide&searchUri=%2Faction%2FdoBasicRe
sults%3Fhp%3D25%26la%3D%26so%3Dold%26wc%
3Don%26acc%3Don%26gw%3Djtx%26jcpsi%3D1%2
6artsi%3D1%26Query%3D%2528bridgman%2529%
2BAND%2Bjid%253A%2528j50000063%2BOR%2Bj5
0000062%2529%26sbq%3D%2528bridgman%2529%
2BAND%2Bjid%253A%2528j50000063%2BOR%2Bj5
0000062%2529%26prq%3D%2528p.w.%2Bbridgma
n%2529%2BAND%2Bjid%253A%2528j50000063%2B
OR%2Bj50000062%2529%26si%3D26%26jtxsi%3D
26&prevSearch=&item=43&ttl=927&returnArt
icleService=showFullText
[2] Description The image of
American physicist and Nobel laureate
Percy Williams Bridgman
(1882–1961) Source This image
has been downloaded
http://www.nndb.com/people/740/000099443
/ Date uploaded: 03:02, 26
December 2008 (UTC) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/4/43/Percy_Williams_Bridgman.jp
g
[01/??/1911 AD]
thinking is of images.
(presumably)
[1] Ames, C. H., ''Are Space and Time
Infinite? The Affirmative Answer'',
Popular Astronomy, vol. 19, 01/1911,
pp.31-35. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs
/1911PA.....19...31A PD
source: http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/19
11PA.....19...31A
[2] Edited image of American
Astronomer William Henry Pickering
(1858-1938) TITLE: Prof. W.H.
Pickering, portr. bust CALL NUMBER:
LC-B2- 550-7[P&P] REPRODUCTION NUMBER:
LC-DIG-ggbain-02598 (digital file from
original neg.) No known restrictions on
publication. MEDIUM: 1 negative :
glass ; 5 x 7 in. or
smaller. CREATED/PUBLISHED:
10/16/09. NOTES: Forms part of:
George Grantham Bain Collection
(Library of Congress). Title from
unverified data provided by the Bain
News Service on the negatives or
caption cards. Temp. note: Batch one
loaded. FORMAT: Glass
negatives. REPOSITORY: Library of
Congress Prints and Photographs
Division Washington, D.C. 20540
USA DIGITAL ID: (digital file from
original neg.) ggbain 02598 original
found at
http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/h?
pp/PPALL:@field(NUMBER+@1(ggbain+02598))
PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/4/46/William_Henry_Pickering_02
598r.jpg
[04/19/1911 AD]
example by α and β particles) are
captured photographically using a cloud
chamber (a device that expands gas).
University) Cambridge, England
[1] Figure 1 from Wilson's 1911
paper: C. T. R. Wilson, ''On a Method
of Making Visible the Paths of Ionising
Particles through a Gas', Proceedings
of the Royal Society of London. Series
A, Containing Papers of a Mathematical
and Physical Character, Vol. 85, No.
578 (Jun. 9, 1911), pp. 285-288 PD
source: http://rspa.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/85/578/285
[2] Figure 2 from Wilson's 1911
paper: C. T. R. Wilson, ''On a Method
of Making Visible the Paths of Ionising
Particles through a Gas', Proceedings
of the Royal Society of London. Series
A, Containing Papers of a Mathematical
and Physical Character, Vol. 85, No.
578 (Jun. 9, 1911), pp. 285-288 PD
source: http://rspa.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/85/578/285
[04/28/1911 AD]
low temperatures is recognized.
Netherlands
[1] Plate 2 from Kamerlingh Onnes 1908
paper PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=bYfNAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edi
tions:0TAagV5ZkvksJU62wD#v=onepage&q=hel
ium&f=false
[2] * Author: anonymous or
pseudonymous, per EU Copyright
Directive (1993), Article 1, §§1-4
* This image was published not later
than 1913 in conjunction with the Nobel
Prize in Physics. * Sources:
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1913/onnes-bio.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/94/Kamerlingh_portret.jp
g
[04/??/1911 AD]
all atoms have a very small positively
charged sphere (or "nucleus") in their
center. The size of an atom is
estimated to be around 100 pm.
England
[1] Figure 1 from Rutherford, ''''The
Scattering of the α and β Rays and
the Structure of the Atom'',
Proceedings of the Manchester Literary
and Philosophical Society, 4, 55, May
1911, pp669-88. PD AND Description
Ernest Rutherford2.jpg English:
Cropped
Image:Ernest_Rutherford.jpg Date
2007-01-26 (original upload
date) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia Author Original
uploader was Sadi Carnot at
en.wikipedia GNU
source: http://www.chemteam.info/Chem-Hi
story/Rutherford-1911/Rutherford-1911-fi
g1.GIFhttp://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipe
dia/commons/5/57/Ernest_Rutherford2.jpg
[2] Figure 1 from Rutherford,
''''The Scattering of the α and β
Rays and the Structure of the Atom'',
Proceedings of the Manchester Literary
and Philosophical Society, 4, 55, May
1911, pp669-88. PD
source: http://www.chemteam.info/Chem-Hi
story/Rutherford-1911/Rutherford-1911-fi
g1.GIF
[06/??/1911 AD]
record the sounds of thought, and could
also write sounds back to the brain
which are heard in thought.
[1] Image from: Hugo Gernsback,
''Ralph 124C 41 +'', ''Modern
Electrics'', Modern Electrics
Publication, New York, Vol. 4, No. 3,
June 1911. Taken from ''Modern
Electrics'', Volume 3-4, Jan-Dec 1911,
p164-165. {inoldentimes001.pdf} PD
source: Hugo Gernsback, "Ralph 124C 41
+", "Modern Electrics", Modern
Electrics Publication, New York, Vol.
4, No. 3, June 1911. Taken from "Modern
Electrics", Volume 3-4, Jan-Dec 1911,
p164-165.
[2] Image from: Hugo Gernsback,
''Ralph 124C 41 +'', ''Modern
Electrics'', Modern Electrics
Publication, New York, Vol. 4, No. 3,
June 1911. Taken from ''Modern
Electrics'', Volume 3-4, Jan-Dec 1911,
p164-165.
{Gernsback_Modern_Electrics_1911.pdf}
PD
source: Hugo Gernsback, "Ralph 124C 41
+", "Modern Electrics", Modern
Electrics Publication, New York, Vol.
4, No. 3, June 1911. Taken from "Modern
Electrics", Volume 3-4, Jan-Dec 1911,
p164-165.
[11/13/1911 AD]
reactions are detected using an mass
spectrometer.
England
[1] Thomson, J. J., ''Applications of
positive rays to the study of chemical
reactions.'',Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc. 16,
1911,
p455. {Thomson_Joseph_John_1911xxxx.pdf
} PD AND English physicist J J
Thomson Date GWS - The Great War:
The Standard History of the All Europe
Conflict (volume four) edited by H. W.
Wilson and J. A. Hammerton (Amalgamated
Press, London 1915) (So, it is taken
before 1915) Source
http://www.firstworldwar.com/photos/g
raphics/gws_thomson_01.jpg First World
War.com PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c1/J.J_Thomson.jpg
[2] Thomson, J. J., ''Applications of
positive rays to the study of chemical
reactions.'',Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc. 16,
1911,
p455. {Thomson_Joseph_John_1911xxxx.pdf
} PD AND {ULSF: Note from a later
paper} figure 12 from: # Bakerian
Lecture: Rays of Positive
Electricity # J. J. Thomson #
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London. Series A, Containing Papers of
a Mathematical and Physical Character,
Vol. 89, No. 607 (Aug. 1, 1913), pp.
1-20 PD AND English physicist J J
Thomson Date GWS - The Great War:
The Standard History of the All Europe
Conflict (volume four) edited by H. W.
Wilson and J. A. Hammerton (Amalgamated
Press, London 1915) (So, it is taken
before 1915) Source
http://www.firstworldwar.com/photos/g
raphics/gws_thomson_01.jpg First World
War.com PD
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/9345
2?&Search=yes&term=electricity&term=posi
tive&term=rays&list=hide&searchUri=%2Fac
tion%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuery%3Drays%2Bof
%2Bpositive%2Belectricity%26jc%3Dj100836
%26wc%3Don%26Search.x%3D0%26Search.y%3D0
%26Search%3DSearch&item=1&ttl=262&return
ArticleService=showArticlehttp://upload.
wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c1/J.J
_Thomson.jpg
[12/14/1911 AD]
Earth.
[1] Description Nlc
amundsen.jpg English: Roald
Amundsen Date Source Roald
Amundsen's The North West Passage:
Being a Record of a Voyage of
Exploration of the ship Gjøa,
1903-1907; Roald Amundsen. New York:
Dutton, 1908. National Library of
Canada Author [show]Ludwik
Szacinski (1844–1894) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/7d/Nlc_amundsen.jpg
[1911 AD]
produce useful products: bacteria are
grown to produce large quantities of
acetone and butyl alcohol.
Manchester) Manchester, England
[1] Chaim Weizmann UNKNOWN
source: http://cojs.org/cojswiki/images/
2/2f/Chaim_Weizmann.jpg
[2] Description
ChaimWeizmann1948.jpg English: Chaim
Weizmann. Date 2006-09-24
(original upload date) Source
Crop of Image:Weizmann Truman
1948.jpg Author Original uploader
was SlimVirgin at
en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) PD-USGOV. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/91/ChaimWeizmann1948.jpg
[1911 AD]
isotope is an element that is
chemically identical to another
element, and occupies the same position
on the periodic table, but has a
different atomic mass.
Also that the emission of a helium
nucleus (an alpha particle) reduces the
initial element to a different element
two less in number on the Periodic
Table is recognized.
Scotland
[1] Figure from: Frederick Soddy,
''The chemistry of mesothorium'', J.
Chem. Soc., Trans., 1911, 99,
72-83. http://pubs.rsc.org/en/Content/A
rticleLanding/1911/CT/ct9119900072
and http://pubs.rsc.org/en/Content/Arti
clePDF/1911/CT/CT9119900072?page=Search
{Soddy_Frederick_mesothorium_1911.pdf}
PD
source: Soddy_Frederick_mesothorium_1911
[2] Frederick Soddy UNKNOWN
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1921/soddy
_postcard.jpg
[1911 AD]
discovered.
Rockefeller University) New York City,
New York, USA
[1] Francis Peyton Rous
(1879-1970) PD
source: http://www.historiadelamedicina.
org/imagenes/ro.jpg
[1911 AD]
is created by heating a metal inside an
evacuated container; molecules in the
vapor then diffuse through a small hole
in an internal wall.
France
[1] Figure 1 from: L. Dunoyer, ''Sur
la réalisation d’un rayonnement
matériel d’origine purement
thermique. Cinétique
expérimentale'' ''On realization of a
material radiation of purely thermal
origin. Experimental kinetics'', Le
Radium,
1911. http://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/d
ocs/00/24/24/64/PDF/ajp-radium_1911_8_4_
142_1.pdf PD
source: http://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/
docs/00/24/24/64/PDF/ajp-radium_1911_8_4
_142_1.pdf
[01/05/1912 AD]
used to separate particles in liquids).
[1] Figure 1 from; Botho Schwerin,
''Patent number: 1229203, Filing date:
Jan 5, 1912, Issue date: Jun
1917 http://www.google.com/patents?id=C
pBAAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&sou
rce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=f
alse PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=CpBAAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f
=false
[03/03/1912 AD]
variable stars is shown to decrease
linearly with the logarithm of their
period of variation; so the brighter
the star, the longer the period. By
comparing the intrinsic brightness from
the period of variation to the apparent
brightness, the distance to the
variable star can be calculated.
Cambridge, Massachussetts, USA
[1] Table 1 from: Leavitt, H. S. &
Pickering, E. C., ''Periods of 25
Variable Stars in the Small Magellanic
Cloud.'', Harvard College Observatory
Circular, vol. 173,
pp.1-3. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/
1912HarCi.173....1L
and http://books.google.com/books?id=z7
4RAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA173&dq=%22The+following+
statement+regarding+the+periods+of+25+va
riable+stars%22&hl=en&ei=0VM_TMG8BYXGsAO
CzK32CA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&re
snum=1&ved=0CCsQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22Th
e%20following%20statement%20regarding%20
the%20periods%20of%2025%20variable%20sta
rs%22&f=false PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=z74RAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA173&dq=%22The+followi
ng+statement+regarding+the+periods+of+25
+variable+stars%22&hl=en&ei=0VM_TMG8BYXG
sAOCzK32CA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result
&resnum=1&ved=0CCsQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%2
2The%20following%20statement%20regarding
%20the%20periods%20of%2025%20variable%20
stars%22&f=false
[2] Henrietta Swan Leavitt in other
words what she basically made her so
important was because she made a kind
of mesurment used to show that there is
a relationship between the variable
stars and their period. COPYRIGHT BUT
FREE TO USE FOR ANY PURPOSE
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/3/3b/Leavitt_aavso.jpg
[04/20/1912 AD]
introduced to describe two kinds of
stars with the same spectrum but
different luminosity, and the first
"white dwarf" star is described.
Jersey, USA.
[1] Figure 1 from Henry Norris
Russell, ''Relations Between the
Spectra and Other Characteristics of
the Stars.'', Popular Astronomy, V22,
May 1914, V22, N5, WN215,
p275. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/19
14PA.....22..275R http://books.google.c
om/books?id=4QryAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA286&dq=%22
the+single+apparent+exception+is+the+fai
nt%22&hl=en&ei=iSDnTP63MoWglAe-96SkCQ&sa
=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&sqi
=2&ved=0CC4Q6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=%22the%20
single%20apparent%20exception%20is%20the
%20faint%22&f=false continued
at: http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1914
PA.....22..331R PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=4QryAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA286&dq=%22the+single+
apparent+exception+is+the+faint%22&hl=en
&ei=iSDnTP63MoWglAe-96SkCQ&sa=X&oi=book_
result&ct=result&resnum=3&sqi=2&ved=0CC4
Q6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=%22the%20single%20ap
parent%20exception%20is%20the%20faint%22
&f=false
[2] Henry Norris Russell UNKNOWN
source: http://www.optcorp.com/images2/a
rticles/full-russell.jpg
[05/04/1912 AD]
atomic planes in a crystal of zinc
sulfide is discovered. The wavelength
(or particle interval) of x-rays is
determined to be around 10 picometers
which is smaller than ultraviolet
light, and this suggests that x-rays
are very high frequency light.
Germany
[1] From W. Friedrich, P. Knipping,
M. Laue, ''Interferenzerscheinungen bei
Röntgenstrahlen'', Annalen der Physik,
Volume 346, Issue 10, pages 971–988,
1913. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/do
i/10.1002/andp.19133461004/abstract {La
ue_Max_19130315.pdf} PD
source: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/d
oi/10.1002/andp.19133461004/pdf
[2] X-ray photograph of Zinc
blende PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0e/Max_von_Laue.jpg
[07/16/1912 AD]
disintegrate molecules and atoms.
England
[1] Xenon on the Periodic table GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xen
on
[2] Figure 1 from Rayleigh 1893 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d2/William_Ramsay_workin
g.jpg
[08/??/1912 AD]
different electric charges is shown.
England
[1] Thomson, J. J. ''LXV.
Multiply-charged atoms.'' The London,
Edinburgh, and Dublin Philosophical
Magazine and Journal of Science 24.142
(1912):
668-672. http://www.mathunion.org/ICM/I
CM1912.2/Main/icm1912.2.0275.0278.ocr.pd
f {Thompson_p668_1912.pdf} PD AND En
glish physicist J J Thomson Date
GWS - The Great War: The Standard
History of the All Europe Conflict
(volume four) edited by H. W. Wilson
and J. A. Hammerton (Amalgamated Press,
London 1915) (So, it is taken before
1915) Source
http://www.firstworldwar.com/photos/g
raphics/gws_thomson_01.jpg First World
War.com PD
source: http://www.mathunion.org/ICM/ICM
1912.2/Main/icm1912.2.0275.0278.ocr.pdfh
ttp://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/com
mons/c/c1/J.J_Thomson.jpg
[2] figure 1 from: # Bakerian
Lecture: Rays of Positive
Electricity # J. J. Thomson #
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London. Series A, Containing Papers of
a Mathematical and Physical Character,
Vol. 89, No. 607 (Aug. 1, 1913), pp.
1-20 PD
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/9345
2?&Search=yes&term=electricity&term=posi
tive&term=rays&list=hide&searchUri=%2Fac
tion%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuery%3Drays%2Bof
%2Bpositive%2Belectricity%26jc%3Dj100836
%26wc%3Don%26Search.x%3D0%26Search.y%3D0
%26Search%3DSearch&item=1&ttl=262&return
ArticleService=showArticle
[10/??/1912 AD]
a high-speed electron) results in an
atom moving up one place on the
periodic table is recognized.
Scotland (verify)
[1] Table from: Alexander Russell,
''The Periodic System and the
Radio-Elements.'', The Chemical News,
V107, N2775, 01/31/1913,
p49-52. {Russell_Alexander_19130131.pdf
} PD
source: Russell_Alexander_19130131.pdf
[11/11/1912 AD]
particle reflection. The dispersion of
light by a crystal (grating, or prism)
into a spectrum of increasing
frequencies is given a corpuscular
explanation: that particles of the same
spacing as planes of atoms in a crystal
(or grating grooves in a grating), at a
specific angle of incidence, all
reflect in the same direction.
The grating equation is applied to the
phenomenon of X-ray diffraction by
crystals and this is used to make
accurate determinations of the
wavelengths (or particle intervals) of
X-rays.
University) Cambridge, England
[1] Bragg, W.L. The Diffraction of
Short Electromagnetic Waves by a
Crystal. Proceedings of the Cambridge
Philosophical Society, 1913: 17, pp.
43-57. http://tedhuntington.com/ulsf/do
cs_pd/Bragg_William_Lawrence_19121111.pd
f PD
source: Bragg, W.L. The Diffraction of
Short Electromagnetic Waves by a
Crystal. Proceedings of the Cambridge
Philosophical Society, 1913: 17, pp.
43-57. http://tedhuntington.com/ulsf/do
cs_pd/Bragg_William_Lawrence_19121111.pd
f
[2] Figure 2 from: Bragg, W.L. The
Diffraction of Short Electromagnetic
Waves by a Crystal. Proceedings of the
Cambridge Philosophical Society, 1913:
17, pp.
43-57. {Bragg_William_Lawrence_19121111
.pdf} PD
source: Bragg_William_Lawrence_19121111.
[1912 AD]
the Metropolitan Opera House in New
York City.
City, New York, USA
[1] Description Lee De
Forest.jpg en:Lee De Forest,
published in the February 1904 issue of
The Electrical Age. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/65/Lee_De_Forest.jpg
[2] Lee de Forest 1873 -
1961 UNKNOWN
source: http://washington.uwc.edu/about/
mech.johnson/mech4gen/images/deForest.JP
G
[01/27/1913 AD]
experimentally confirmed. Different
isotopes of neon are deflected onto
different parts of a photograph using a
mass spectrometer.
England
[1] Thomson, J. J., ''Further
applications of positive rays to the
study of chemical problems.'', Proc.
Camb. Phil. Soc. 17, 01/27/1913,
p201. {Thomson_Joseph_John_1911xxxx.pdf
} PD AND English physicist J J
Thomson Date GWS - The Great War:
The Standard History of the All Europe
Conflict (volume four) edited by H. W.
Wilson and J. A. Hammerton (Amalgamated
Press, London 1915) (So, it is taken
before 1915) Source
http://www.firstworldwar.com/photos/g
raphics/gws_thomson_01.jpg First World
War.com PD
source: http://www.firstworldwar.com/pho
tos/graphics/gws_thomson_01.jpg
[2] figure 1 from: # Bakerian
Lecture: Rays of Positive
Electricity # J. J. Thomson #
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London. Series A, Containing Papers of
a Mathematical and Physical Character,
Vol. 89, No. 607 (Aug. 1, 1913), pp.
1-20 PD
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/9345
2?&Search=yes&term=electricity&term=posi
tive&term=rays&list=hide&searchUri=%2Fac
tion%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuery%3Drays%2Bof
%2Bpositive%2Belectricity%26jc%3Dj100836
%26wc%3Don%26Search.x%3D0%26Search.y%3D0
%26Search%3DSearch&item=1&ttl=262&return
ArticleService=showArticle
[04/05/1913 AD]
electrons move in fixed circular orbits
around a stationary positive nucleus
with momentum=h/2pi (h is Planck's
constant). The electrons give off or
absorb fixed amounts of energy (quanta)
by moving from one orbit to another.
England
[1] Immediate source:
http://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Billede:Nie
ls_Bohr.jpg Ultimate source: Niels
Bohr's Nobel Prize biography, from
1922. Status: Public domain in US at
least because of age, probably
elsewhere. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6d/Niels_Bohr.jpg
[05/28/1913 AD]
space and time are restricted to a
curved surface geometry.
Zurich, Switzerland
[1] Description German-born
theoretical physicist Albert
Einstein. Source Cropped from
original at the Historical Museum of
Berne. Date 1904[1] Author
Lucien Chavan [1] (1868 - 1942), a
friend of Einstein's when he was living
in Berne. Permission (Reusing this
file) An uncropped version
available at NASA's ''Astronomy Picture
of the Day''. According to the NASA
site: PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/a/a0/Einstein_patentoffice.jpg
[2] Albert Einstein, Nobel Prize in
Physics 1921 photograph. Description
Albert Einstein (Nobel).png English:
Albert Einstein, official 1921 Nobel
Prize in Physics photograph. Français
: Albert Einstein, photographie
officielle du Prix Nobel de Physique
1921. Date 1921(1921) Source
Official 1921 Nobel Prize in
Physics photograph Author PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/50/Albert_Einstein_%28No
bel%29.png
[07/30/1913 AD]
known wavelength is used to determine
the distance between parallel atomic
planes in crystals that reflect the
particles in the beam. This is the
beginning of using x-ray "diffraction"
to determine the shape and the position
of each atom in a molecule.
England
[1] Description William Henry Bragg
2.jpg William H. Bragg Date
Source
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiped
ia/commons/archive/9/95/20081225183229!W
illiam_Henry_Bragg.jpg Author
uploaded by User:Emerson7 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/83/William_Henry_Bragg_2
.jpg
[2] Description
Wl-bragg.jpg English: Lawrence
Bragg Date 1915(1915) Source
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/
physics/laureates/1915/wl-bragg-bio.html
Author Nobel foundation PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1d/Wl-bragg.jpg
[10/20/1913 AD]
to have a very high velocity relative
to the Earth.
From Doppler shift Andromeda is
estimated to be moving towards the
Earth with an average radial velocity
of 300 km/s, 1/100th the speed of
light, the highest velocity ever
observed.
Flagstaff, Arizona, USA
[1] Slipher, V. M., ''The radial
velocity of the Andromeda Nebula'',
Lowell Observatory Bulletin, vol. 1,
pp.56-57. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/ful
l/1913LowOB...2...56S
{Slipher_19131020.pdf} PD AND [1]
Vesto Melvin Slipher (11/11/1875 -
08/11/1969) UNKNOWN
source: http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
913LowOB...2...56Shttp://www.phys-astro.
sonoma.edu/BruceMedalists/Slipher/sliphe
r.jpg
[2] Vesto Melvin Slipher (11/11/1875 -
08/11/1969) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.phys-astro.sonoma.edu
/BruceMedalists/Slipher/slipher.jpg
[12/04/1913 AD]
originate from the nucleus and not the
outer ring is given as evidence that
there is negative charge in the
nucleus.
Scotland
[1] Frederick Soddy UNKNOWN
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1921/soddy
_postcard.jpg
[2] Frederick Soddy COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.rsc.org/images/Soddy%
20HiRes_180h_tcm18-136506.jpg
[12/??/1913 AD]
emitted from atoms is shown to increase
with atomic mass.
England
[1] Plate from: H Moseley, ''The
high-frequency spectra of the
elements'', Phil. Mag, V26, p1024-1034,
1913 http://www.chemistry.co.nz/henry_m
oseley_article.htm {Moseley_Henry_19131
2xx.pdf} PD
source: Moseley_Henry_191312xx.pdf
[2] Henry Moseley, British physicist.
from en. Died in 1915. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/dd/Henry_Moseley.jpg
[1913 AD]
importance in the growth process are
discovered.
USA
[1] Description Elmer
McCollum.jpg English: Elmer
McCollum Date 2008-03-03
(original upload date) (Original text
: 1896) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia; transferred to Commons by
User:Magnus Manske using
CommonsHelper. (Original text : Elmer
McCollum.com) Author Journal of
Nutrition Original uploader was
Sparrowman980 at en.wikipedia PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/ee/Elmer_McCollum.jpg
[1913 AD]
detects high velocity subatomic
particles.
Berlin, Germany
[1] Figure 1: Rutherford-Geiger alpha
particle counter design Figure 2:
Geiger 1912 design UNKNOWN
source: http://go.galegroup.com/ps/retri
eve.do?sgHitCountType=None&sort=RELEVANC
E&inPS=true&prodId=GVRL&userGroupName=un
ivca20&tabID=T003&searchId=R1&resultList
Type=RESULT_LIST&contentSegment=&searchT
ype=AdvancedSearchForm¤tPosition=1&cont
entSet=GALE
[2] Description Geiger,Hans
1928.jpg English: Physicist Hans
Geiger, 1928 Deutsch: Physiker Hans
Geiger, 1928 Date 1928 Source
Own work Author GFHund GNU
source: CX2830901600&&docId=GALE
[1913 AD]
mass of 200 pounds can achieve a
velocity high enough for a 1-pound mass
to escape the Earth is determined.
Massachusetts, USA (presumably)
[1] Goddard, ''A Method of Reaching
Extreme Altitudes'', Smithsonian
Miscellaneous Collections, 71, no. 2
(1919)
http://www.clarku.edu/research/archive
s/pdf/ext_altitudes.pdf {Goddard_Robert
_1946.pdf}
AND {Goddard_Method_of_Reaching_Extreme
_Altitude_1919.pdf} PD AND [3]
Robert Goddard Teaching at
Blackboard Physicist Robert Goddard
draws a diagram of the Earth and Moon
on a blackboard at Clark
College. DATE PHOTOGRAPHED January
10, 1924 LOCATION Worcester,
Massachusetts,
USA COLLECTION Bettmann COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.clarku.edu/research/a
rchives/pdf/ext_altitudes.pdf http://ww
w.corbisimages.com/images/BE063673.jpg?s
ize=67&uid=597e78d9-169f-4405-9ef2-7f7e1
e0b36dc&uniqID=459fdfbe-41d0-42cc-a473-c
b3a2430c019
[2] Robert Goddard Teaching at
Blackboard Physicist Robert Goddard
draws a diagram of the Earth and Moon
on a blackboard at Clark
College. DATE PHOTOGRAPHED January
10, 1924 LOCATION Worcester,
Massachusetts,
USA COLLECTION Bettmann COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.corbisimages.com/imag
es/BE063673.jpg?size=67&uid=597e78d9-169
f-4405-9ef2-7f7e1e0b36dc&uniqID=459fdfbe
-41d0-42cc-a473-cb3a2430c019
[05/??/1914 AD]
found to have wavelengths in the X-ray
region.
England
[1] Figures from: [1] E. Rutherford,
''The Wavelength of the Soft Gamma Rays
from Radium B.'', Philosophical
Magazine 27, 1914, 854–868;
{Rutherford_Ernest_191405xx.pdf} PD
source: Rutherford_Ernest_191405xx.pdf
[2] Description Ernest
Rutherford2.jpg English: Cropped
Image:Ernest_Rutherford.jpg Date
2007-01-26 (original upload
date) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia Author Original
uploader was Sadi Carnot at
en.wikipedia GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/57/Ernest_Rutherford2.jp
g
[07/28/1914 AD]
with motion pictures on plastic film.
[1] Eric Tigerstedts ljudfilmspatent
nummer 309.536 från 28/7 1914 PD
source: http://www.filmsoundsweden.se/vo
xbilder/filmhist/tigerstedt.jpg
[2] Sound in Movies (Eric
Tigerstedt) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/fi/thumb/f/f3/Eric_Tigerstedt_1915
.jpg/250px-Eric_Tigerstedt_1915.jpg
[07/??/1914 AD]
parallax": the distance to a star can
be determined by comparing the
intensity of spectral lines of the star
with another star with the same
spectrum at a known distance.
California, USA
[1] Adams, W. S. and Kohlschutter, A.,
''Some spectral criteria for the
determination of absolute stellar
magnitudes.'', Contrib. Mt. Wilson
Solar Obs., No. 89; Astrophys. J., 40,
385-398
(1914). http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/
1914ApJ....40..385A PD
source: http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?db_key=AST
&bibcode=1914ApJ....40..385A&letter=.&cl
assic=YES&defaultprint=YES&whole_paper=Y
ES&page=385&epage=385&send=Send+PDF&file
type=.pdf
[2] Adams, W. S. and Kohlschutter, A.,
''Some spectral criteria for the
determination of absolute stellar
magnitudes.'', Contrib. Mt. Wilson
Solar Obs., No. 89; Astrophys. J., 40,
385-398
(1914). http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/
1914ApJ....40..385A PD
source: http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?db_key=AST
&bibcode=1914ApJ....40..385A&letter=.&cl
assic=YES&defaultprint=YES&whole_paper=Y
ES&page=385&epage=385&send=Send+PDF&file
type=.pdf
[07/??/1914 AD]
design.
Jersey, USA (verify)
[1] Fig. 8 from: Goddard, “A Method
of Reaching Extreme Altitudes”,
Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections,
71, no. 2 (1919). Reprinted
in: Goddard, ''Rockets'' (New York,
1946). {Goddard_Robert_1946.pdf} PD
source: Goddard_Robert_1946.pdf
[2] English: Dr. Robert Hutchings
Goddard (1882-1945). Dr. Goddard has
been recognized as the father of
American rocketry and as one of the
pioneers in the theoretical exploration
of space. Robert Hutchings Goddard,
born in Worcester, Massachusetts, on
October 5, 1882, was theoretical
scientist as well as a practical
engineer. His dream was the conquest of
the upper atmosphere and ultimately
space through the use of rocket
propulsion. Dr. Goddard, died in 1945,
but was probably as responsible for the
dawning of the Space Age as the Wrights
were for the beginning of the Air Age.
Yet his work attracted little serious
attention during his lifetime. However,
when the United States began to prepare
for the conquest of space in the
1950's, American rocket scientists
began to recognize the debt owed to the
New England professor. They discovered
that it was virtually impossible to
construct a rocket or launch a
satellite without acknowledging the
work of Dr. Goddard. More than 200
patents, many of which were issued
after his death, covered this great
legacy. Date 0 Unknown date
0000(0000-00-00) Source Great
Images in NASA
Description http://dayton.hq.nasa.gov/I
MAGES/LARGE/GPN-2002-000131.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3f/Dr._Robert_H._Goddard
_-_GPN-2002-000131.jpg
[1914 AD]
confirmed experimentally using an
interferometer to measure the
difference in position of the sets of
rings produced by light from the two
ends of a rotating white disk.
France
[1] Author: User:Stigmatella
aurantiaca Source: Own drawing,
created with Inkscape and exported to
PNG. Low and high-finesse images were
created using online webMathematica
software ''Multiple beam interference
fringes'' available at
http://wyant.optics.arizona.edu/webMathe
matica/myprograms/MultipleBeamInterferen
ce/multBeamInt.jsp using mirror
reflectivities of 0.04 (corresponding
to unsilvered plates) and
0.95. Description: The heart of the
Fabry–Pérot interferometer are a
pair of partially silvered glass
optical flats spaced several
millimeters to centimeters apart with
the silvered surfaces facing each
other. (Alternatively, a Fabry–Pérot
etalon uses a transparent plate with
two reflecting surfaces.) The flats are
often made in a wedge shape to prevent
the rear surfaces from producing
interference fringes; alternatively,
the rear surfaces will be given an
anti-reflective coating. Illumination
is via a diffuse source set at the
focal plane of a collimating lens. A
focusing lens produces what would be an
inverted image of the source if the
paired flats were not present; i.e. in
the absence of the paired flats, all
light emitted from point A passing
through the optical system would be
focused at point A'. In the
accompanying illustration, only one ray
emitted from point A on the source is
traced. As the ray passes through the
paired flats, it is multiply reflected
to produce multiple transmitted rays
which are collected by the focusing
lens and brought to point A' on the
screen. The complete interference
pattern takes the appearance of a set
of concentric rings. The sharpness of
the rings depends on the reflectivity
of the flats. If the reflectivity is
high, resulting in a high Q factor
(i.e. high finesse), monochromatic
light produces a set of narrow bright
rings against a dark background. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/5/56/Fabry_Perot_Interferometer
_-_diagram.png
[2] English: French physicist Charles
Fabry (1867-1945) Date
Unrecorded Source
US-LibraryOfCongress-BookLogo.svg
This image is available from the
United States Library of Congress's
Prints and Photographs Division under
the digital ID ggbain.37539 This tag
does not indicate the copyright status
of the attached work. A normal
copyright tag is still required. See
Commons:Licensing for more
information. العربية
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/75/Charles_Fabry.jpg
[1914 AD]
are other galaxies.
England
[1] Description Arthur Stanley
Eddington.jpg English: English
astrophysicist Sir Arthur Stanley
Eddington (1882–1944) Date
Unrecorded Source
US-LibraryOfCongress-BookLogo.svg
This image is available from the
United States Library of Congress's
Prints and Photographs division under
the digital ID ggbain.38064. This tag
does not indicate the copyright status
of the attached work. A normal
copyright tag is still required. See
Commons:Licensing for more
information. العربية
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/24/Arthur_Stanley_Edding
ton.jpg
[1914 AD]
Switzerland
[1] Heinrich Greinacher (1880–1974)
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.electrosuisse.ch/imag
es/database/Portrait/all/Greinacher.jpg
[2] Sir John Douglas
Cockcroft COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/physics/laureates/1951/cockcro
ft_postcard.jpg
[01/??/1915 AD]
galaxies are all measured to be moving
away from the Earth with an average
velocity of 400 km/s. In addition, a
spiral galaxy is found to rotate at 100
km/s, about 8 times the edge of
Jupiter.
Flagstaff, Arizona, USA
[1] Table from [1] Vesto Melvin
Slipher (11/11/1875 -
08/11/1969) UNKNOWN
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=XgryAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA21&dq=%22During+the+l
ast+two+years,+the+spectrographic+work%2
2&hl=en&ei=iSDTTKiCNYL0tgPoopy7Dg&sa=X&o
i=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CD
YQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=%22During%20the%20l
ast%20two%20years%2C%20the%20spectrograp
hic%20work%22&f=false
[2] Slipher, V. M., ''Spectrographic
Observations of Nebulae'', Popular
Astronomy, vol. 23,
pp.21-24. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/ful
l/1915PA.....23Q..21S http://books.goog
le.com/books?id=XgryAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA21&dq=
%22During+the+last+two+years,+the+spectr
ographic+work%22&hl=en&ei=iSDTTKiCNYL0tg
Poopy7Dg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&r
esnum=3&ved=0CDYQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=%22D
uring%20the%20last%20two%20years%2C%20th
e%20spectrographic%20work%22&f=false PD
source: http://www.phys-astro.sonoma.edu
/BruceMedalists/Slipher/slipher.jpg
[04/13/1915 AD]
nucleus is made of combinations of
Hydrogen and Helium atoms.
of Chicago) Chicago, Illinois,
USA
[1] Harkins, William D., and Ernest D.
Wilson. ''The Structure of Complex
Atoms and the Changes of Mass and
Weight Involved in Their Formation.''
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences of the United States of
America 1.5 (1915):
276. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/ar
ticles/PMC1090802/ PD
source: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/
articles/PMC1090802/
[2] Harkins, William D., and Ernest D.
Wilson. ''The Structure of Complex
Atoms and the Changes of Mass and
Weight Involved in Their Formation.''
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences of the United States of
America 1.5 (1915):
276. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/ar
ticles/PMC1090802/ PD
source: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/
articles/PMC1090802/
[12/04/1915 AD]
{BaK-TER-E-u-FAJiZ} are identified;
viruses that can infect and kill
bacteria.
England
[1] Description Twort.jpg Frederick
Twort ca 1900 Date Source
Obituary Notices of Fellows of the
Royal Society, Vol. 7, No. 20. (Nov.,
1951), pp. 504-517. Found on
http://en.citizendium.org/wiki/Image:Two
rt.JPG PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/90/Twort.jpg
[2] Félix d'Herelle. Scanned from
the book ''Gesund durch Viren'' by
Thomas Häusler. The book states it was
taken around 1910, putting it into the
en:public domain. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/df/Felix_d%27Herelle.png
[1915 AD]
take place in a vacuum, needing no air
to push against, is proven.
Massachusetts, USA
[1] Goddard, Robert (September 1924).
''How my speed rocket can propel itself
in vacuum''. Popular Science. p.
38. http://www.popsci.com/archive-viewe
r?id=DikDAAAAMBAJ&pg=38
AND http://books.google.com/books?id=Di
kDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA38 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=DikDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA38
[2] Goddard with Vacuum Tube DeviceBy
NASA Goddard Space Flight Center☆0
0 Goddard with Vacuum Tube
Device Robert H. Goddard with vacuum
tube apparatus he built in 1916 to
research rocket efficiency. Dr. Robert
Hutchings Goddard is commonly referred
to as the father of American rocketry.
The same year he built the apparatus,
Goddard wrote a study requesting
funding from the Smithsonian
Institution so that he could continue
his rocket research, which he had begun
in 1907 while still a student at
Worcester Polytechnic Institute. A
brilliant physicist, with a unique
genius for invention, Goddard may not
have succeeded had it not been for the
Smithsonian Institution and later the
Daniel Guggenheim Foundation and his
employer the Worcester Polytechnic
Institute of Clark University. The
former gave him research monies while
the Institute provided leaves of
absence so that he could continue his
life's work. He was the first scientist
who not only realized the potential of
missiles and space flight, but also
contributed directly to making them a
reality. NASA Goddard Space Flight
Center enables NASA’s mission through
four scientific endeavors: Earth
Science, Heliophysics, Solar System
Exploration, and Astrophysics. Goddard
plays a leading role in NASA’s
accomplishments by contributing
compelling scientific knowledge to
advance the Agency’s mission. PD
source: http://farm3.staticflickr.com/26
11/5808135657_44ddbc23d2_b.jpg
[01/26/1916 AD]
in which the chemical combination
between two atoms is the result of the
sharing of a pair of electrons, with
one electron contributed by each atom.
Berkeley, California, USA
[1] Figure 2 from: GN Lewis, ''THE
ATOM AND THE MOLECULE.'', Journal of
the American Chemical Society, 1916 -
ACS
Publications http://pubs.acs.org/doi/ab
s/10.1021/ja02261a002 {Lewis_Gilbert_19
160126.pdf} PD
source: http://pubs.acs.org/doi/pdf/10.1
021/ja02261a002
[2] [t Notice the similarity to
Rutherford] Gilbert Newton
Lewis 1875-1946 UNKNOWN
source: http://www2.chemistry.msu.edu/Po
rtraits/images/lewisc.jpg
[1916 AD]
electrons in the outermost shell of an
atom determines the chemical properties
of the atom.
[1] Description English: Bunsen
congress 1928: Hund, v. Miller, Kossel,
Fajans, Mittasch, Simon, Vohlsen,
Debye, London (siehe Fußnote unter
Bild). Deutsch: Bunsentagung 1928:
Hund, v. Miller, Kossel, Fajans,
Mittasch, Simon, Vohlsen, Debye, London
(see footnote under photo). Date
1928 Source Own work Author
GFHund GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/ae/Bunsen-Tagung_1928_Au
sschnitt.jpg
[2] Description English: Bunsen
congress 1928: Hund, v. Miller, Kossel,
Fajans, Mittasch, Simon, Vohlsen,
Debye, London (siehe Fußnote unter
Bild). Deutsch: Bunsentagung 1928:
Hund, v. Miller, Kossel, Fajans,
Mittasch, Simon, Vohlsen, Debye, London
(see footnote under photo). Date
1928 Source Own work Author
GFHund GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/ae/Bunsen-Tagung_1928_Au
sschnitt.jpg
[10/04/1917 AD]
(presumably)
[1] Goddard, R. H., ''Method and Means
for Producing Electrified Jets of
Gas'', U.S. Patent No. 1,363,037,
application filed Oct. 1917, granted
Dec. 1920. http://www.google.com/paten
ts/US1363037 PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents/US
1363037
[2] English: Dr. Robert Hutchings
Goddard (1882-1945). Dr. Goddard has
been recognized as the father of
American rocketry and as one of the
pioneers in the theoretical exploration
of space. Robert Hutchings Goddard,
born in Worcester, Massachusetts, on
October 5, 1882, was theoretical
scientist as well as a practical
engineer. His dream was the conquest of
the upper atmosphere and ultimately
space through the use of rocket
propulsion. Dr. Goddard, died in 1945,
but was probably as responsible for the
dawning of the Space Age as the Wrights
were for the beginning of the Air Age.
Yet his work attracted little serious
attention during his lifetime. However,
when the United States began to prepare
for the conquest of space in the
1950's, American rocket scientists
began to recognize the debt owed to the
New England professor. They discovered
that it was virtually impossible to
construct a rocket or launch a
satellite without acknowledging the
work of Dr. Goddard. More than 200
patents, many of which were issued
after his death, covered this great
legacy. Date 0 Unknown date
0000(0000-00-00) Source Great
Images in NASA
Description http://dayton.hq.nasa.gov/I
MAGES/LARGE/GPN-2002-000131.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3f/Dr._Robert_H._Goddard
_-_GPN-2002-000131.jpg
[1917 AD]
frequency too high to be heard by the
human ear) is produced by
piezoelectricity and used to determine
the location of objects by reflection
(sonar).
Sonar can detect objects in air, and in
water (for example a fetus inside the
womb, and objects in the ocean).
(presumably)
[1] Description Paul
Langevin.jpg Paul Langevin Date
2007-02-13 (original upload
date) Unknown - before 1946 (original
picture) Source Originally from
en.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. Original source:
http://www.nndb.com/people/085/000099785
/paul-langevin-1-sized.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/65/Paul_Langevin.jpg
[1917 AD]
expanding.
Netherlands
[1] De Sitter, W., ''Einstein's theory
of gravitation and its astronomical
consequences. Third paper'', Monthly
Notices of the Royal Astronomical
Society, Vol. 78,
p.3-28. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/
1917MNRAS..78....3D {De_Sitter_Willem_p
art3_191706xx.pdf} PD AND SITTER,
Willem de (1872-1934) UNKNOWN
source: http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
917MNRAS..78....3Dhttp://www.inghist.nl/
Onderzoek/Projecten/BWN/lemmata/bwn2/ima
ges/SITTER.jpg
[2] SITTER, Willem de
(1872-1934) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.inghist.nl/Onderzoek/
Projecten/BWN/lemmata/bwn2/images/SITTER
.jpg
[04/??/1918 AD]
the outer part of our galaxy.
The Cepheid variable-star method is
used to determine that globular
clusters are distributed roughly in the
shape of a sphere around a center in
Sagittarius, calculated to be 50,000
light years away.
Wilson, California, USA
[1] Figure 1 from: Shapley, ''Remarks
on the Arrangement of the Sidereal
Universe'', Astrophysical Journal, 49
(1919), 311–336.
http://books.google.com/books?id=wX4OA
AAAIAAJ&pg=PA311&lpg=PA311&dq=Remarks+on
+the+Arrangement+of+the+Sidereal+Univers
e&source=bl&ots=Akurl3Ntg9&sig=CIY6NgmTy
xBZqKK3RXWo3MWIr2U&hl=en&ei=hmMcTaKJK5So
sAPG2ZDSAg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result
&resnum=2&ved=0CBoQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=Re
marks%20on%20the%20Arrangement%20of%20th
e%20Sidereal%20Universe&f=false PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=wX4OAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA311&lpg=PA311&dq=Rema
rks+on+the+Arrangement+of+the+Sidereal+U
niverse&source=bl&ots=Akurl3Ntg9&sig=CIY
6NgmTyxBZqKK3RXWo3MWIr2U&hl=en&ei=hmMcTa
KJK5SosAPG2ZDSAg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=
result&resnum=2&ved=0CBoQ6AEwAQ#v=onepag
e&q=Remarks%20on%20the%20Arrangement%20o
f%20the%20Sidereal%20Universe&f=false
[2] * Harlow Shapley's observations
placed the Sun about 25,000 light years
from the center of our home Galaxy.
* Photo credit: National
Academies UNKNOWN
source: http://www.cosmotography.com/ima
ges/dark_matter_gallery/HarlowShapley.jp
g
[06/21/1918 AD]
write memory.
Unlike other forms of information
storage, with electronic memory the
only moving parts are electric current.
London, UK
[1] Image from: William Henry Eccles
and Frank Wilfred Jordan,
''Improvements in ionic relays''
British patent number: GB 148582
(filed: 21 June 1918; published: 5
August 1920).
http://worldwide.espacenet.com/publica
tionDetails/originalDocument?CC=GB&NR=14
8582&KC=&FT=E {Eccles_William_Henry_ele
ctronic_memory_GB148582A_19180621.pdf}
PD
source: http://worldwide.espacenet.com/p
ublicationDetails/originalDocument?CC=GB
&NR=148582&KC=&FT=E
[2] A simple yet powerful animation of
how an R-S flip-flop works. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f4/R-S.gif
[10/??/1918 AD]
with the same atomic mass but different
positions on the periodic table.
Scotland
[1] Figure 1 from: Alfred W. Stewart,
''Atomic Structure from the
Physico-Chemical Standpoint.'', Phil
Mag, 36, 326, 1918
{Stewart_Alfred_W_191810xx.pdf} PD
source: Stewart_Alfred_W_191810xx.pdf
[2] Image from: ''Alfred Walter
Stewart'', Journal of Chemical
Education 1941 18 (10),
492 http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021
/ed018p492 {Stewart_Alfred_Walter.jpg}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1
021/ed018p492
[1918 AD]
radioactive isotope of lead is used to
determine the solubility of lead salts.
Hungary
[1] This is a file from the Wikimedia
Commons Description George de
Hevesy.jpg English: Source:
http://www.oeaw.ac.at/smi/bilder/photo/H
evesy.JPG Public domain: photographer
died >70yrs ago. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b4/George_de_Hevesy.jpg
[04/??/1919 AD]
fusion.
When a high speed Alpha particle from
Radium collides with an atom of
nitrogen gas, a proton is knocked lose
from the nitrogen atom which causes a
point of light to appear on a zinc
sulfate screen. In losing a proton, the
nitrogen atom is converted into an
oxygen atom. This is the first time one
element is changed into another, which
was a dream of the alchemists. This is
also the first "nuclear" reaction and
the first atomic fusion; a larger atom
being made from smaller atoms.
England
[1] Rutherford, Collision of α
Particles with Light Atoms, Phil. Mag.
June 1919, s6, 37, pp537-61. from:
Ernest Rutherford, ''The Collected
Papers of Lord Rutherford of Nelson'',
Vol 2, 1963,
p551. http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/ru
therford.html {Rutherford_191904xx.pdf}
PD
source: Rutherford, Collision of α
Particles with Light Atoms, Phil. Mag.
June 1919, s6, 37, pp537-61. from:
Ernest Rutherford, "The Collected
Papers of Lord Rutherford of Nelson",
Vol 2, 1963, p551.
[2] Figure 1 from: Rutherford,
Collision of α Particles with Light
Atoms, Phil. Mag. June 1919, s6, 37,
pp537-61.
http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/rutherf
ord.html {Rutherford_191904xx.pdf}
PD
source: Rutherford_191306xx003.pdf
[1919 AD]
weights are due to mixing of isotopes.
University) Cambridge, England
[1] Francis Aston PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c6/Francis_William_Aston
.jpg
[1919 AD]
to increase the number of genetic
mutations in fruit flies.
[1] Hermann Joseph Muller The Nobel
Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1946
was awarded to Hermann J. Muller ''for
the discovery of the production of
mutations by means of X-ray
irradiation''. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/medicine/laureates/1946/muller
.jpg
[06/03/1920 AD]
a neutron: that an electron can bind
more closely with a single Hydrogen
nucleus to form a neutral atom of mass
1 with different properties than a
neutral hydrogen atom.
England
[1] Ernest Rutherford, ''Nuclear
Constitution of Atoms Bakerian
Lecture'', The Proceedings of the Royal
Society, A, 97, 1920, pp374-400. from
The Collected Papers of Lord Rutherford
of Nelson, Vol 3, 1965,
p14. COPYRIGHTED
source: Ernest Rutherford, "Nuclear
Constitution of Atoms Bakerian
Lecture", The Proceedings of the Royal
Society, A, 97, 1920, pp374-400. from
The Collected Papers of Lord Rutherford
of Nelson, Vol 3, 1965, p14.
[2] Ernest Rutherford, ''Nuclear
Constitution of Atoms Bakerian
Lecture'', The Proceedings of the Royal
Society, A, 97, 1920, pp374-400. from
The Collected Papers of Lord Rutherford
of Nelson, Vol 3, 1965,
p14. COPYRIGHTED
source: Ernest Rutherford, "Nuclear
Constitution of Atoms Bakerian
Lecture", The Proceedings of the Royal
Society, A, 97, 1920, pp374-400. from
The Collected Papers of Lord Rutherford
of Nelson, Vol 3, 1965, p14.
[08/??/1920 AD]
radii is published.
England
[1] W. L Bragg, ''The Arrangement of
Atoms in Crystals'', Philosophical
Magazine. 6th ser., 40 (1920).
169-189. http://www.informaworld.com/sm
pp/570391933-20948816/content~db=all~con
tent=a910337868
{Bragg_192008xx.pdf} PD
source:
[2] W. L Bragg, ''The Arrangement of
Atoms in Crystals'', Philosophical
Magazine. 6th ser., 40 (1920).
169-189. http://www.informaworld.com/sm
pp/570391933-20948816/content~db=all~con
tent=a910337868
{Bragg_192008xx.pdf} PD
source:
[1920 AD]
Hydrogen and Helium are "diffracted"
using a Lithium Fluoride crystal.
Germany
[1] Figures 1,2 and 3 from: I.
Estermann and O. Stern, ''Beugung von
Molekularstrahlen'', Zeitschrift für
Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei, 1930,
Volume 61, Numbers 1-2,
95-125. http://www.springerlink.com/con
tent/u60q0jn868011015/ {Stern_Otto_1929
1214.pdf} ''Diffraction of molecular
beams'' UNKNOWN
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/0/0a/OttoStern.jpg
[2] The image of German physicist and
Nobel laureate Otto Stern
(1888–1969) Source This image
has been downloaded
http://www.nndb.com/people/740/000099443
/ Date uploaded: 02:21, 26
December 2008 (UTC) Author not
known UNKNOWN
source: http://www.springerlink.com/cont
ent/u60q0jn868011015/
[01/21/1921 AD]
atoms that have identical nuclei but
have different half-lives.
Berlin, Germany
[1] Figure from paper: Otto Hahn,
''Über ein neues radioaktives
Zerfallsprodukt im Uran'',
Naturwissenschaften, Volume 9, Number
5, 84, DOI:
10.1007/BF01491321 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/uhukv60t536j7486/ {Hahn
_Otto_19210121.pdf}
source: http://www.springerlink.com/cont
ent/uhukv60t536j7486/fulltext.pdf
[2] Otto Hahn and Lise
Meitner UNKNOWN
source: http://www.aip.org/history/newsl
etter/spring2003/images/17306_hahn_meitn
er-lg.jpg
[04/26/1921 AD]
expanding from photographs spanning 8
years.
California, USA
[1] John C. Duncan, ''Changes Observed
in the Crab Nebula in Taurus'',
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences of the United States of
America, Vol. 7, No. 6 (Jun. 15, 1921),
pp.
179-180. http://intl.pnas.org/content/7
/6/179.full.pdf+html
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/84292
PD
source: http://intl.pnas.org/content/7/6
/179.full.pdf+html
[07/??/1921 AD]
to have no oxygen or water vapor
because those absorption lines are not
found in the spectrum of Venus.
Flagstaff, Arizona, USA
[1] Vesto Melvin Slipher (11/11/1875 -
08/11/1969) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.phys-astro.sonoma.edu
/BruceMedalists/Slipher/slipher.jpg
[09/??/1921 AD]
chemicals that transmit nerve impulses
across a synapse. A fluid released when
a frog's vagus nerve is stimulated can
stimulate another heart directly.
Austria
[1] Otto Loewi COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1936/loewi.jpg
[1921 AD]
antibodies is recognized. An antigen is
a substance that when introduced into
the body stimulates the production of
an antibody. Antigens include toxins,
bacteria, and the cells of transplanted
organs.
[1] Image extracted from Biographical
Memoirs of the National Academy of
Sciences, vol. 40. Associated: Karl
Landsteiner Date: 1920s Genre:
illustrations ID:
portrait-landsteiner UNKNOWN
source: http://osulibrary.oregonstate.ed
u/specialcollections/coll/nonspcoll/cata
logue/portrait-landsteiner-600w.jpg
[01/26/1922 AD]
of "atoms of light" all having the same
"very low mass", and the equations E=hv
(by Planck) and E=mc2 (by Einstein) are
equated to solve for the mass of the
atom of light.
(verify)
[1] Description Broglie
Big.jpg Louis de Broglie Date
1929(1929) Source
http://www.physics.umd.edu/courses/
Phys420/Spring2002/Parra_Spring2002/HTMP
ages/whoswho.htm Author
Unknown Permission (Reusing this
file) the MacTutor website states the
following: ''We believe that most of
the images are in the public domain and
that provided you use them on a website
you are unlikely to encounter any
difficulty.'' Other versions
Derivative works of this file:
* 10 Quantum Mechanics Masters.jpg
http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/
history/PictDisplay/Broglie.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d2/Broglie_Big.jpg
[03/01/1922 AD]
evaporative centrifuging is suggested,
where a material is heated into a
vapour and separated by atomic mass in
a rapidly rotating tube.
Illinois, USA
[1] Description Mulliken,Robert 1929
Chicago.jpg English: Robert Mulliken,
1929 at Chicago Deutsch: Robert
Mulliken, 1929 in Chicago Date
1929(1929) Source Own
work Author GFHund GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6a/Mulliken%2CRobert_192
9_Chicago.jpg
[03/03/1922 AD]
universe where gravity is explained as
a result of particle collision.
[1] Edited image of American Astronomer
William Henry Pickering
(1858-1938) TITLE: Prof. W.H.
Pickering, portr. bust CALL NUMBER:
LC-B2- 550-7[P&P] REPRODUCTION NUMBER:
LC-DIG-ggbain-02598 (digital file from
original neg.) No known restrictions on
publication. MEDIUM: 1 negative :
glass ; 5 x 7 in. or
smaller. CREATED/PUBLISHED:
10/16/09. NOTES: Forms part of:
George Grantham Bain Collection
(Library of Congress). Title from
unverified data provided by the Bain
News Service on the negatives or
caption cards. Temp. note: Batch one
loaded. FORMAT: Glass
negatives. REPOSITORY: Library of
Congress Prints and Photographs
Division Washington, D.C. 20540
USA DIGITAL ID: (digital file from
original neg.) ggbain 02598 original
found at
http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/h?
pp/PPALL:@field(NUMBER+@1(ggbain+02598))
PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/4/46/William_Henry_Pickering_02
598r.jpg
[2] Pickering, William Henry.
Photograph. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Web. 12 May 2010
DOMAIN (PRESUMABLY)
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
39096&rendTypeId=4
[05/27/1922 AD]
that the atmosphere of Earth is made of
air masses that are either warm
tropical air or cold polar air, and the
sharp boundaries between them are
called "fronts" (similar to battle
lines in war).
Norway
[1] Figure 1 from: [2] J. Bjerknes,
''Life cycle of cyclones and the polar
front theory of atmospheric
circulation'',
1922. http://meteora.ucsd.edu/~jnorris/
sio217B/bjerknes.pdf {Bjerknes_Jacob_19
220527.pdf} PD
source: http://meteora.ucsd.edu/~jnorris
/sio217B/bjerknes.pdf
[2] American Geophysical Union, from
AIP Emilio Segrè Visual
Archives COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.aip.org/history/acap/
images/bios/bjerknesj.jpg
[12/13/1922 AD]
found to have a lower frequency after
being reflected by graphite, which
implies that a light quantum has
momentum that is lost to an electron
from the collision.
Missouri, USA
[1] Figure 3 from: A. Compton, ''A
Quantum Theory of the Scattering of
X-rays by Light Elements'', Phys. Rev.
21, 483–502 (1923)
http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v21/i
5/p483_1 {Compton_Arthur_19221213.pdf}
PD
source: http://prola.aps.org/pdf/PR/v21/
i5/p483_1
[2] Arthur Holly Compton COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/physics/laureates/1927/compton.jpg
[05/04/1923 AD]
water allows the absorption and
distribution of the lead in plants to
be followed.
Denmark
[1] This is a file from the Wikimedia
Commons Description George de
Hevesy.jpg English: Source:
http://www.oeaw.ac.at/smi/bilder/photo/H
evesy.JPG Public domain: photographer
died >70yrs ago. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b4/George_de_Hevesy.jpg
[06/14/1923 AD]
transmitted and received using radio.
[1] Motion Pictures by Ether Waves -
August 1925 ''Popular Radio''
Article (Courtesy John
Hauser) PD/Corel
source: http://www.tvhistory.tv/1925-Aug
-Popular-Radio-P107a.JPG
[2] From ''Animated Pictures'' By
Charles Francis Jenkins Charles
Francis Jenkins PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=uJYFAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA138&dq=C+Francis+Jenk
ins&as_brr=1&ei=tjLdSLjvOJfStQPK2rGRCg#P
PP6,M1
[09/03/1923 AD]
that lose a hydrogen ion in solution
and bases as substances that accept a
hydrogen ion in solution.
Denmark
[1] Johannes Nicolaus Brønsted,
''Einige Bemerkungen über den Begriff
der Säuren und Basen.'', Recueil des
travaux chimiques des Pays-Bas et de la
Belgique, 42 (1923), p718–728.
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.
1002/recl.19230420815/abstract COPYRIGH
TED
source: Johannes Nicolaus Brønsted,
"Einige Bemerkungen über den Begriff
der Säuren und Basen.", Recueil des
travaux chimiques des Pays-Bas et de la
Belgique, 42 (1923), p718–728.
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.
1002/recl.19230420815/abstract
[2] Brønsted, Johannes
Nicolaus Courtesy of the Royal Danish
Embassy; photograph, Elfelt,
Copenhagen UNKNOWN
source: http://media-2.web.britannica.co
m/eb-media/07/6907-004-FB988F4E.jpg
[09/10/1923 AD]
"atom of light") is calculated to be
less than 10-50 grams.
(verify)
[1] Description Broglie
Big.jpg Louis de Broglie Date
1929(1929) Source
http://www.physics.umd.edu/courses/
Phys420/Spring2002/Parra_Spring2002/HTMP
ages/whoswho.htm Author
Unknown Permission (Reusing this
file) the MacTutor website states the
following: ''We believe that most of
the images are in the public domain and
that provided you use them on a website
you are unlikely to encounter any
difficulty.'' Other versions
Derivative works of this file:
* 10 Quantum Mechanics Masters.jpg
http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/
history/PictDisplay/Broglie.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d2/Broglie_Big.jpg
[1923 AD]
[1] George Eastman PD
source: http://www.born-today.com/btpix/
eastman_george.jpg
[2] * Photo of en:George Eastman from
the en:United States Library of
Congress * Digital ID:
http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/ggbain.29290
*
http://memory.loc.gov/service/pnp/ggbain
/29200/29290v.jpg Licensing:
* From Loc: ''No known copyright
restrictions''. Part of Bain News
Service collection. * Given
subjects death in 1932 it seems likely
that it's pre-1923. Or if not then it
seems extremely unlikely its copyright
was renewed. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/ec/GeorgeEastman2.jpg
[1923 AD]
bases: an acid is defined as an
electron-pair acceptor and a base as an
electron-pair donor.
Berkeley, California, USA
[1] Lewis, ''Valence and the structure
of atoms and molecules'', 1923,
p142. http://books.google.com/books?id=
36zQAAAAMAAJ
AND http://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?
id=uc1.b35072;view=1up;seq=5 {Lewis_Val
ence_1923.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: Lewis, "Valence and the
structure of atoms and molecules",
1923,
p142. http://books.google.com/books?id=
36zQAAAAMAAJhttp://babel.hathitrust.org/
cgi/pt?id=uc1.b35072;view=1up;seq=5
[2] [t Notice the similarity to
Rutherford] Gilbert Newton
Lewis 1875-1946 UNKNOWN
source: http://www2.chemistry.msu.edu/Po
rtraits/images/lewisc.jpg
[1923 AD]
{SeN-Tre-FUJ} can force colloidal
{Ku-lOED-L} particles to settle out of
a liquid, and can be used to determine
molecule size and mass.
Sweden
[1] Theodor Svedberg Older than 70
years PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/92/The-svedberg-1.jpg
[08/??/1924 AD]
disable vehicles and burn people.
[1] Barwell, Ernest H. G. The Death Ray
Man: The Biography of Grindell
Matthews, Inventor and Pioneer. London:
Hutchinson, 1943. Print. COPYRIGHTED
source: Barwell, Ernest H. G. The Death
Ray Man: The Biography of Grindell
Matthews, Inventor and Pioneer. London:
Hutchinson, 1943. Print.
[2] Image from '' ''Death Ray'' is
Carried by Shafts of Light'', Popular
Mechanics, Aug 1924, p189. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=4toDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA189&lpg=PA189&dq=popu
lar+mechanics+death+ray&source=bl&ots=_k
8o3ZPfp0&sig=FBRNsl5KMsn40BSmKmNKNqmLLWU
&hl=en&ei=2DEBTZO9DoK-sQOjz-25Ag&sa=X&oi
=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&sqi=2&ve
d=0CCYQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q&f=false
[1924 AD]
phone wire.
[1] ''Photos sent over telephone wires
are accurately reproduced.'', Popular
Mechanics, Volume 42, August 1924,
p187. books.google.com/books?id=4toDAAA
AMBAJ&pg=PA187 UNKNOWN
source: books.google.com/books?id=4toDAA
AAMBAJ&pg=PA187
[2] ''Photos sent over telephone wires
are accurately reproduced.'', Popular
Mechanics, Volume 42, August 1924,
p187. books.google.com/books?id=4toDAAA
AMBAJ&pg=PA187 UNKNOWN
source: books.google.com/books?id=4toDAA
AAMBAJ&pg=PA187
[1924 AD]
embryo and grafted onto another is
shown to assume the character of the
host, losing its original nature.
Germany
[1] Hans Spemann [t verify] UNKNOWN
source: http://www.nndb.com/people/309/0
00127925/hans-spemann.jpg
[2] Hans Spemann UNKNOWN
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1935/spemann.jpg
[01/01/1925 AD]
other galaxies containing stars, and to
be very far away, by determining the
distance of Cepheid variable stars.
California, USA
[1] The first image of H335H shows the
glass side of the photographic plate,
on which Hubble marked novae and,
eventually, the first Cepheid in ink.
The next two images show the emulsion
side of the plate at two contrasts,
with Hubble's writing of plate
information at the top (Plate ID, M31,
45 min exposure on plate of type Seed
30, seeing of 3+ on Mt Wilson scale,
date, and hour angle of 2 hr 8 min East
at the end of the
exposure). NONCOMMERCIAL USE
source: http://obs.carnegiescience.edu/s
ites/obs.carnegiescience.edu/files/pictu
res/H335H_glass_0670_27_wm.jpg
[2] Hubble's Famous M31 VAR!
plate On the night of October 5-6,
1923, Carnegie astronomer Edwin P.
Hubble took a plate of the Andromeda
Galaxy (Messier 31) with the Hooker
100-inch telescope of the Mount Wilson
Observatory. This plate, with
identification number H335H (''Hooker
plate 335 by Hubble''), is famous for
having led to his discovery of the
first Cepheid variable star in M31,
which established beyond any doubt that
M31 was a separate galaxy from our
own. Shown here are three images of
Plate H335H as well as three images of
a similar plate, H331H, which Hubble
took the night before. The letters N
on Plate H335H mark Novae, stars marked
by Hubble as new when compared with
earlier plates. The first Cepheid
variable discovered has its letter N
crossed out and is marked ''VAR!'',
showing that Hubble originally thought
it was a nova, but eventually
discovered that it varied in brightness
like a Cepheid. The first image of
H335H shows the glass side of the
photographic plate, on which Hubble
marked novae and, eventually, the first
Cepheid in ink. The next two images
show the emulsion side of the plate at
two contrasts, with Hubble's writing of
plate information at the top (Plate ID,
M31, 45 min exposure on plate of type
Seed 30, seeing of 3+ on Mt Wilson
scale, date, and hour angle of 2 hr 8
min East at the end of the
exposure). The first image of H335H
shows the glass side of the
photographic plate, on which Hubble
marked novae and, eventually, the first
Cepheid in ink. The next two images
show the emulsion side of the plate at
two contrasts, with Hubble's writing of
plate information at the top (Plate ID,
M31, 45 min exposure on plate of type
Seed 30, seeing of 3+ on Mt Wilson
scale, date, and hour angle of 2 hr 8
min East at the end of the
exposure). COPYRIGHT: The above
images are all copyright protected.
Downloads for inspection, scientific
and historical work are free. However,
any reproduction in commercial products
(including books) must be licensed by
Carnegie Observatories and will be
assessed a permission fee. For
permission to use any of these images
in a commercial product, please contact
John Grula NONCOMMERICAL USE
source: http://obs.carnegiescience.edu/s
ites/obs.carnegiescience.edu/files/pictu
res/H335H_emuls_0681_38_wm.jpg
[04/04/1925 AD]
"protons".
England
[1] Description Ernest
Rutherford2.jpg English: Cropped
Image:Ernest_Rutherford.jpg Date
2007-01-26 (original upload
date) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia Author Original
uploader was Sadi Carnot at
en.wikipedia GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/57/Ernest_Rutherford2.jp
g
[2] Ernest Rutherford (young) Image
courtesy of www.odt.co.nz UNKNOWN
source: https://thescienceclassroom.wiki
spaces.com/file/view/ernest_rutherford_1
122022732.jpg/103032081
[06/06/1925 AD]
is proven visually.
Sweden
[1] Figures 2 and 3: M Siegbahn, ''La
réflexion et la réfraction des rayons
X'', Journal de Physique et le Radium,
1925. http://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/j
pa-00205211/en/ {Siegbahn_Manne_ajp-jph
ysrad_1925_6_7_228_0_19250606.pdf} http
://jphysrad.journaldephysique.org/index.
php?option=com_article&access=standard&I
temid=129&url=/articles/jphysrad/abs/192
5/07/jphysrad_1925__6_7_228_0/jphysrad_1
925__6_7_228_0.html
source: http://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/
docs/00/20/52/11/PDF/ajp-jphysrad_1925_6
_7_228_0.pdf
[2] The image of Swedish physicist,
and Nobel laureate Manne Siegbahn
(1886-1978) Source This image has
been downloaded
http://www.nndb.com/people/559/000099262
/ Date circa 1924. uploaded:
19:27, 25 December 2008
(UTC) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/e/ec/Manne_Siegbahn.jpg
[07/13/1925 AD]
camera.
[1] Figure from Zworykin 1925
patent PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=mZ9KAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f
=false
[2] Screenshot of Vladimir K. Zworykin
from the documentary film the Story of
Television Date 1956 and
later Source Screenshot from the
Story of Television from the Prelinger
Archives in the Internet
Archive Author Produced by Ganz
(William J.) Co. and Radio Corporation
of America (RCA) Film is in the Public
Domain PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/30/Zworykin_docgrab.jpg
[10/22/1925 AD]
electronic switch and amplifier.
This is the first non-vacuum tube
(solid state) electronic switch and
amplifier, also known as a
"field-effect transistor" and the first
millimeter size electronic switch.
USA
[1] Figure 1 from: Julius Lilienfeld,
Patent number: 1745175, ''METHOD AND
APPARATUS FOR CONTROLLING ELECTRIC
CURRENTS'', US Filing date: Oct 8,
1926, Canada filing date: October 22,
1925, Issue date: Jan 28,
1930. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
uBFMAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=
false PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=uBFMAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f
=false
[2] Source: scanned passport
photo Rationale: Photographer died
>70yrs ago. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/5/59/Julius_Edgar_Lilienfeld_%2
81881-1963%29.jpg
[01/26/1926 AD]
demonstrated publicly.
England
[1] Description John Logie Baird
working on his transmitting station in
his laboratory. Source Hulton
Getty. Copy from Eye of the World Date
c 1926 Author
Unknown COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/c/c6/John_Logie_Baird%2C_Appara
tus.jpg
[2] John Logie Baird UNKNOWN
source: http://www.helensburghheroes.com
/files/baird.jpg
[03/06/1926 AD]
orbitals. Atomic orbitals are thought
to become molecular orbitals, extending
over two or more atoms in the molecule.
Germany
[1] Description Hund,Friedrich 1920er
Göttingen.jpg English: Friedrich
Hund, Göttingen in the
twenties Deutsch: Friedrich Hund,
Göttingen in den 20er Jahren Date
1920er Jahre Source Own
work Author GFHund GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b7/Hund%2CFriedrich_1920
er_G%C3%B6ttingen.jpg
[2] Description Mulliken Hund 1929
Chicago.jpg English: Robert Mulliken
and Friedrich Hund, 1929 at
Chicago Deutsch: Robert Mulliken und
Friedrich Hund, 1929 in Chicago Date
1929(1929) Source Own
work Author GFHund GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/9e/Mulliken_Hund_1929_Ch
icago.jpg
[03/16/1926 AD]
rocket engine.
Massachusetts, USA
[1] Plate from: Goddard,
“Liquid-Propellant Rocket
Development,” Smithsonian
Miscellaneous Collections, 95, no. 3
(1936) Reprinted in: Goddard,
''Rockets'' (New York, 1946).
{Goddard_Robert_1946.pdf} UNKNOWN
source: Goddard_Robert_1946.pdf
[2] English: Dr. Robert Hutchings
Goddard (1882-1945). Dr. Goddard has
been recognized as the father of
American rocketry and as one of the
pioneers in the theoretical exploration
of space. Robert Hutchings Goddard,
born in Worcester, Massachusetts, on
October 5, 1882, was theoretical
scientist as well as a practical
engineer. His dream was the conquest of
the upper atmosphere and ultimately
space through the use of rocket
propulsion. Dr. Goddard, died in 1945,
but was probably as responsible for the
dawning of the Space Age as the Wrights
were for the beginning of the Air Age.
Yet his work attracted little serious
attention during his lifetime. However,
when the United States began to prepare
for the conquest of space in the
1950's, American rocket scientists
began to recognize the debt owed to the
New England professor. They discovered
that it was virtually impossible to
construct a rocket or launch a
satellite without acknowledging the
work of Dr. Goddard. More than 200
patents, many of which were issued
after his death, covered this great
legacy. Date 0 Unknown date
0000(0000-00-00) Source Great
Images in NASA
Description http://dayton.hq.nasa.gov/I
MAGES/LARGE/GPN-2002-000131.jpg PD
source: Goddard_Robert_1946.pdf
[09/16/1926 AD]
and x-ray spectral lines is bridged
(around 10 nm).
Paris, France|(University of Chicago)
Chicago, Illinois, USA
[1] Dauvillier, A. ''La spectrographie
des rayons X de grande longueur d'onde.
Séries N et O, et jonction avec
l'ultraviolet extrême.'' J. phys.
radium 8.1 (1927):
1-12. http://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/d
ocs/00/20/52/77/PDF/ajp-jphysrad_1927_8_
1_1_0.pdf {Dauvillier_A_19261023.pdf}
UNKNOWN
source: http://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/
docs/00/20/52/77/PDF/ajp-jphysrad_1927_8
_1_1_0.pdf
[2] T. H. OSGOOD, ''Soft X-ray
Spectra'', Nature 119, 817-817 (04 June
1927) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v119/n3005/abs/119817b0.html
{Osgood_TH_19270411.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
AND Thomas H. Osgood former
Professor and Chair of the Michigan
State University Physics
Department. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v119/n3005/abs/119817b0.htmlhttp://
www.pa.msu.edu/alumni/awards/Osgood-1.jp
g
[1926 AD]
space stations.
[1] From Konstantin Tsiolkovsky’s
1933 paper “Album of Space Travel”,
drawings of cosmonauts on a spacewalk.
It looks like they’re attached with
phone cords. UNKNOWN
source: http://enigmaland.tumblr.com/ima
ge/5771967930
[2] {ULSF: Note that this is from a
later work of 1933} Konstantin
Tsiolkovsky’s drawing of an astronaut
in a space suit using an airlock. From
his 1933 paper “Album of Space
Travel” UNKNOWN
source: http://fyeahcosmonauts.tumblr.co
m/image/5181057859
[1926 AD]
Netherlands
[1] Willem Hendrik Keesom
(1876-1956) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.knaw.nl/waals/images/
Keesom_portret.jpg
[1926 AD]
increase the rate of genetic mutation.
USA
[1] Hermann Joseph Muller The Nobel
Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1946
was awarded to Hermann J. Muller ''for
the discovery of the production of
mutations by means of X-ray
irradiation''. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/medicine/laureates/1946/muller
.jpg
[03/03/1927 AD]
using a single crystal of nickel.
Electron beam particle intervals are
found to be equivalent to x-rays (100
pm).
City, New York, USA
[1] Image of page 1 of article: C.
DAVISSON & L. H. GERMER, ''The
Scattering of Electrons by a Single
Crystal of Nickel'', Nature 119,
558-560 (16 April 1927)
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
119/n2998/abs/119558a0.html {Davisson_C
linton_19270416.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
AND Image of page 2 of article: C.
DAVISSON & L. H. GERMER, ''The
Scattering of Electrons by a Single
Crystal of Nickel'', Nature 119,
558-560 (16 April 1927)
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
119/n2998/abs/119558a0.html {Davisson_C
linton_19270416.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
AND Clinton Joseph Davisson (left;
1881-1958) and Lester Halbert Germer
(right; 1896-1971) in 1927. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v119/n2998/pdf/119558a0.pdfhttp://w
ww.scientific-web.com/en/Physics/Biograp
hies/images/DavissonGermer1.jpg
[2] Clinton Davisson.jpg English:
Clinton Davisson Date
1937(1937) Source
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/
physics/laureates/1937/davisson-bio.html
Author Nobel
foundation Permission (Reusing this
file) Public domainPublic
domainfalsefalse Public domain PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/00/Clinton_Davisson.jpg
[05/21/1927 AD]
Ocean by plane (in 33 1/2 hours).
[1] Description
LindberghStLouis.jpg Charles
Lindbergh, with Spirit of St. Louis in
background Date 31 May
1927(1927-05-31) Source
US-LibraryOfCongress-BookLogo.svg
This image is available from the
United States Library of Congress's
Prints and Photographs division under
the digital ID cph.3a23920. This tag
does not indicate the copyright status
of the attached work. A normal
copyright tag is still required. See
Commons:Licensing for more
information. العربية
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/38/LindberghStLouis.jpg
[12/12/1927 AD]
for the light quantum.
Illinois, USA
[1] A. Compton, ''X-rays as a branch of
optics'',
12/12/1927. http://nobelprize.org/nobel
_prizes/physics/laureates/1927/compton-l
ecture.pdf
{Compton_Arthur_19271212.pdf} COPYRIG
HTED AND [2] Arthur Holly
Compton COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/physics/laureates/1927/compton-lectur
e.pdfhttp://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/
physics/laureates/1927/compton.jpg
[2] Figure 3 from: A. Compton, ''A
Quantum Theory of the Scattering of
X-rays by Light Elements'', Phys. Rev.
21, 483–502 (1923)
http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v21/i
5/p483_1 {Compton_Arthur_19221213.pdf}
PD
source: http://prola.aps.org/pdf/PR/v21/
i5/p483_1
[1927 AD]
electrodes directly connected to the
brain.
Switzerland
[1] Walter Rudolf Hess (March 17, 1881
– August 12, 1973), Swiss
physiologist who won the Nobel Prize in
Physiology or Medicine in 1949 for
mapping the areas of the brain involved
in the control of internal
organs Source
http://www.nndb.com/people/271/0001
28884/walter-hess.jpg Article
Walter Rudolf Hess Portion used
Entire Low resolution?
Yes Purpose of use It is
only being used to illustrate the
article in question UNKNOWN
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/2/27/Walter_Rudolf_Hess.jpg
[02/16/1928 AD]
with visible frequencies reflected (or
scattered) off of some substances can
change frequency.
India
[1] C. V. RAMAN & K. S. KRISHNAN,
''The optical analogue of the Compton
effect'', Nature 121, p711 (05 May
1928) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v121/n3053/abs/121711a0.html {Raman
_Chandrasekhara_19280322.pdf} COPYRIGHT
ED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v121/n3053/pdf/121711a0.pdf
[2] Figure 1 from: [1]
Description The image of Indian
physicist C. V. Raman
(1888-1970). Source This image
has been downloaded from
http://www.nndb.com/people/724/000099427
/. Date uploaded: 15:58, 7 August
2007 (UTC) Author
prabhnoor COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/c/c1/CVRaman.jpg
[06/11/1928 AD]
mountains), Germany
[1] Description RRG Raketen-Ente
Deutsches Segelflugmuseum 02
2009-05-31.jpg Deutsch: RRG
Raketen-Ente: Frontansicht Date
Source Own work Author
Martin.bergner Permission (Reusin
g this file) See below. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/04/RRG_Raketen-Ente_Deut
sches_Segelflugmuseum_02_2009-05-31.jpg
[2] Alexander Lippisch in
''Life'' COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.rexresearch.com/lippi
sch/50505022.jpg
[07/22/1928 AD]
test.
Charite zu Berlin) Berlin,
Germany
[1] S. Aschheim and Bernhard Zondek,
''Die Schwangerschaftsdiagnose aus dem
Harn Durch Nachweis des
Hypophysenvorderlappenhormons'',
Journal of Molecular Medicine, Volume
7, Number 30, 1404-1411, DOI:
10.1007/BF01749963 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/k44141013t594541/ Engli
sh: ''The solubility of lead sulfide
and lead chromate, the diagnosis of
pregnancy from the urine detectable by
the anterior
pituitary'' {Zondek_Bernhard_19280722.p
df} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.springerlink.com/cont
ent/k44141013t594541/
[1928 AD]
camera; which can see through fog and
make visible images of heat.
[1] Sheldon and Grisewood, ''Television
To-Day and To-Morrow'',
1930. {Television_To-Day_And_To-Morrow_
1930.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: Sheldon and Grisewood,
"Television To-Day and To-Morrow",
1930.
[2] Description John Logie Baird
working on his transmitting station in
his laboratory. Source Hulton
Getty. Copy from Eye of the World Date
c 1926 Author
Unknown COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/c/c6/John_Logie_Baird%2C_Appara
tus.jpg
[1928 AD]
broadcasts.
New York, USA
[1] Television 1927 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.ge.com/innovation/tim
eline/index.html
[01/17/1929 AD]
galaxies are found to be linearly
related to distance; the more distant
the galaxy, the higher the radial
velocity.
California, USA
[1] [t Notice how the ''hump'' or
''bell'' of the spectrum, the region of
most intensity, of the galacitc
spectra, appears to stay centered for
each galaxy- it doesn't shift in either
direction - in my mind, the phenomenon
appears to be more of a scaling or
magnifying back of emission lines not a
shifting right or left.] From Edwin
Hubble, ''The Realm of the Nebulae'',
1936. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du/full/1931ApJ....74...43H
[2] Figure 1 from: E Hubble, ''A
relation between distance and radial
velocity among extra-galactic
nebulae'', Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A.
1929 March 15; 15(3): 168–173.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC522427/ {Hubble_Edwin_19290117.pd
f} COPYRIGHTED
source: Edwin Hubble, "The Realm of the
Nebulae", 1936.
[04/22/1929 AD]
EEG). Oscillations of the electric
potential on the surface of the head
are recognized and displayed
graphically. Changes in potential due
to muscle movements are also detected.
Germany
[1] Figure 4 from: Berger, ''Über das
Elektroenkephalogramm des Menschen.'',
Archiv für Psychiatrie und
Nervenkrankheiten, 1929, 87:
527-570. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.springerlink.com/cont
ent/u1r1122ww6x285w6/fulltext.pdf
[2] Hans Berger UNKNOWN
source: http://www.psychiatrie.uniklinik
um-jena.de/img/Psychiatrie_/Startseite/G
eschichte/Personen/640/UKJ_Psy_Hist_Pers
_Berger-Hans_07.jpg
[08/23/1929 AD]
screen; a point on the occipital region
of the human brain is electrically
stimulated and the human sees a small
spot of light.
[1] (translated from German) Location
and extent of sclerotic scar in case 2
on the Konvexitiit. •. • 19 points
of the field, from the en eye movement
to the right and Flammenskotome were
achieved. · - · - · - · - ·
Exzisionslinie. [1] FOERSTER,
0tfrid. (1929). Beiträge zur
Pathophysiologie der Sehbahn und der
Sehsphare. J. Journal für
Psychologie und Neurologie, Leipzig.
39, 463-485.
http://books.google.com/books?id=PSXlA
AAAMAAJ {Foerster_19290823.pdf} COPYRI
GHTED AND (translated from
German) Shrapnel injury of the left
occipital lobe FOERSTER, 0tfrid.
(1929). Beiträge zur
Pathophysiologie der Sehbahn und der
Sehsphare. J. Journal für
Psychologie und Neurologie, Leipzig.
39, 463-485.
http://books.google.com/books?id=PSXlA
AAAMAAJ {Foerster_19290823.pdf} COPYRI
GHTED AND Otfrid Foerster UNKNOWN
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=PSXlAAAAMAAJ http://books.google.com/b
ooks?id=PSXlAAAAMAAJ http://ars.els-cdn
.com/content/image/1-s2.0-S0361923098001
245-gr2.jpg
[2] (translated from German) Location
and extent of sclerotic scar in case 2
on the Konvexitiit. •. • 19 points
of the field, from the en eye movement
to the right and Flammenskotome were
achieved. · - · - · - · - ·
Exzisionslinie. [1] FOERSTER,
0tfrid. (1929). Beiträge zur
Pathophysiologie der Sehbahn und der
Sehsphare. J. Journal für
Psychologie und Neurologie, Leipzig.
39, 463-485.
http://books.google.com/books?id=PSXlA
AAAMAAJ {Foerster_19290823.pdf} COPYRI
GHTED
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=PSXlAAAAMAAJ
[02/??/1930 AD]
renamed "galaxies".
Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
[1] * Harlow Shapley's observations
placed the Sun about 25,000 light years
from the center of our home Galaxy.
* Photo credit: National
Academies UNKNOWN
source: http://www.cosmotography.com/ima
ges/dark_matter_gallery/HarlowShapley.jp
g
[08/19/1930 AD]
by accelerating protons and molecules
into lead and beryllium using a voltage
of 280 kV.
England
[1] Sir John Douglas
Cockcroft COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/physics/laureates/1951/cockcro
ft_postcard.jpg
[2] Ernest Thomas Sinton
Walton COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/physics/laureates/1951/walton_
postcard.jpg
[10/10/1930 AD]
(the cyclotron) in which an
electromagnetic field accelerates and
deflects the path of ions into circles.
California, USA
[1] Figures 1-4 from: Ernest O.
Lawrence, METHOD AND APPARATUS FOR THE
ACCELERATION OF IONS, Patent 1948384,
Filed:
01/26/1932. http://www.google.com/paten
ts?hl=en&lr=&vid=USPAT1948384&id=egdOAAA
AEBAJ&oi=fnd&dq=EO+Lawrence&printsec=abs
tract#v=onepage&q&f=false
{Lawrence_Ernest_19320126.pdf} UNKNOW
N
source: http://www.google.com/patents?hl
=en&lr=&vid=USPAT1948384&id=egdOAAAAEBAJ
&oi=fnd&dq=EO+Lawrence&printsec=abstract
#v=onepage&q&f=false
[2] Ernest Orlando Lawrence UNKNOWN
source: http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_Uhse4P
aiRAY/TF7dj-zaM1I/AAAAAAAAAGw/6lxKVLTfhs
M/s320/Ernest_Orlando_Lawrence.jpg
[10/23/1930 AD]
found to be emitted from beryllium
bombarded with alpha particles, which
will be shown later to be neutrons.
Germany
[1] W. Bothe,H. Becker, “Kunstliche
Erregung von Kern-γ-Strahlen”,
Zertschrift für Physik, 66 (1930),
289–306 ''Artificial excitation of
nuclear
γ-rays'' http://www.springerlink.com/i
ndex/r3g8x8558826u77j.pdf {Bothe_Walthe
r_19301023.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.springerlink.com/cont
ent/r3g8x8558826u77j/fulltext.pdf
[2] Figures 4 and 5 from: The Nobel
Prize in Physics 1954 was divided
equally between Max Born ''for his
fundamental research in quantum
mechanics, especially for his
statistical interpretation of the
wavefunction'' and Walther Bothe ''for
the coincidence method and his
discoveries made
therewith''. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/physics/laureates/1954/bothe.jpg
[1930 AD]
most major nations.
[1] Description English: Rose
Sanderson Women's suffragists
demonstrate in February 1913. The
triangular pennants read ''VOTES FOR
WOMEN''. The negative is labeled ''ROSE
SANDERSON'', the woman holding the
trumpet. An adjacent photograph in the
series (LC-DIG-ggbain-12482) contains a
flyer labeled ''COME AND WATCH SUFFRAGE
SPREAD'' that identifies the event as
one sponsored by the National Suffrage
Association. MEDIUM: 1 negative :
glass ; 5 × 7 in. or
smaller. Русский: Роуз
Сандерсон
Демонстрация
суфражисток в
феврале 1913 г. На
треугольном вымпеле
читается надпись
«ГОЛОСОВАНИЕ -
ЖЕНЩИНАМ». Негатив
снимка помечен
словами «Роуз
Сандерсон», это имя
женщины, держащей
трубу. Date 10 February
1913 Source Library of Congress,
Prints & Photographs Division,
LC-DIG-ggbain-12483 (digital file from
original negative), archival TIFF
version (23 MiB), color level (pick
white point), cropped, and converted to
JPEG with the GIMP 2.6.1, image quality
88. Author Bain News Service.
Photographer unknown. Permission No
known restrictions on publication. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Rose-Sanderson-
Votes-for-Women.jpeg/1280px-Rose-Sanders
on-Votes-for-Women.jpeg
[2] {ULSF: Women protesting} PD
source: http://politic365.com/wp-content
/blogs.dir/1/files/2010/08/bellinghamsuf
fragists-1024x738.jpg
[05/29/1931 AD]
and anti-proton may exist with the same
mass, but opposite charge as an
electron and proton, and the theory
that a light particle is a sphere that
can collide with other light particles.
Cambridge) Cambridge, England
[1] P. A. M. Dirac, ''Quantised
Singularities in the Electromagnetic
Field'', Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London. Series A, Containing
Papers of a Mathematical and Physical
Character, Vol. 133, No. 821 (Sep. 1,
1931), pp.
60-72. http://www.jstor.org/stable/9563
9 {Dirac_Paul_19310529.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED AND © Peter Lofts
Photography/ National Portrait Gallery,
London Paul
Dirac,1902-1984 Founder (with
others) of the disciplines of quantum
mechanics and quantum
electrodynamics. Bristol-born
theoretical physicist who received the
Nobel Prize for Physics (with Erwin
Shrodinger) for 'the discovery of new
productive forms of atomic theory' in
1933. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/9563
_201302041118.jpg){kind=link}
9 http://mshed.org/media/10756785/38148
_fullimage-n_p363(8)_201302041118.jpg
[2] P. A. M. Dirac, ''Quantised
Singularities in the Electromagnetic
Field'', Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London. Series A, Containing
Papers of a Mathematical and Physical
Character, Vol. 133, No. 821 (Sep. 1,
1931), pp.
60-72. http://www.jstor.org/stable/9563
9 {Dirac_Paul_19310529.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED AND © Peter Lofts
Photography/ National Portrait Gallery,
London Paul
Dirac,1902-1984 Founder (with
others) of the disciplines of quantum
mechanics and quantum
electrodynamics. Bristol-born
theoretical physicist who received the
Nobel Prize for Physics (with Erwin
Shrodinger) for 'the discovery of new
productive forms of atomic theory' in
1933. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/9563
9 http://mshed.org/media/10756785/38148
_fullimage-n_p363(8)_201302041118.jpg
[09/10/1931 AD]
uses magnetic fields to focus electron
beams similar to how a lens focuses
light beams.
This microscope is a "transmission
electron microscope" (or TEM) which
transmits electrons through the
specimen.
University) Berlin, Germany
[1] Figure 2 from: M. Knoll und E.
Ruska, ''Beitrag zur geometrischen
Elektronenoptik.'', Ann. Physik 12
(1932) 607-661, eingegangen am
10.9.1931. http://ernstruska.digilibrar
y.de/bibliographie/q004/q004.html {Rusk
a_Ernst_q004_19310910.pdf} UNKNOWN
source: http://ernstruska.digilibrary.de
/bibliographie/q004/q004.html
[2] Ernst Ruska, 1939 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.siemens.com/history/p
ool/perseunlichkeiten/wissenschaftler/ru
ska_1939.jpg
[10/03/1931 AD]
neoprene.
Wilmington, Delaware, USA
[1] Wallace Carothers. Carothers
demonstrating a piece of his new
synthetic rubber in laboratory. AP
IMAGES. Wallace
Carothers COPYRIGHTED
source: http://listverse.files.wordpress
.com/2007/10/carothers.jpg
[1931 AD]
Switzerland
[1] Description Paul Karrer (21
April 1889 – 18 June 1971), Swiss
organic chemist. Photograph taken
August 7, 1933. Source
Bettmann/CORBIS Article Paul
Karrer Portion used Entire Low
resolution? Yes COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/4/43/Paul_Karrer.jpg
[02/17/1932 AD]
distinguished from a hydrogen atom as
having slightly less mass.
Cambridge, England
[1] Figure 1 from: J. Chadwick, ''The
Existence of a Neutron'', Proceedings
of the Royal Society of London. Series
A, Containing Papers of a Mathematical
and Physical Character, Vol. 136, No.
830 (Jun. 1, 1932), pp.
692-708. http://www.jstor.org/stable/95
816 {Chadwick_James_19320510.pdf}
{full report: 05/10/1932} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/pdfp
lus/95816.pdf?acceptTC=true
[2] Description
Chadwick.jpg en:James
Chadwick Date ~1935 (original
photograph), 2007-08-11 (original
upload date) Source Transfered
from en.wikipedia. Original source:
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1935/chadwick-bio.html COP
YRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c2/Chadwick.jpg
[03/01/1932 AD]
a single neuron in the eye of a
horse-shoe crab when light contacts the
retina is measured; around 0.5
millivolts.
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
[1] Figure 1 from: H. KEFFER HARTLINE
AND C. H. GRAHAM, ''NERVE IMPULSES FROM
SINGLE RECEPTORS IN THE EYE'', JOURNAL
OF CELLULAR AND COMPARATIVE PHYSIOLOGY,
V1, Num 2, 1932. Reprinted
in: American Journal of Physiology,
January 1938 vol. 121 no. 2
400-415. http://ajplegacy.physiology.or
g/content/121/2/400.full.pdf+html {Hart
line_Haldan_19320301.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://ajplegacy.physiology.org/
content/121/2/400.full.pdf+html
[2] Haldan Keffer Hartline Nobel
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1967/hartline.jpg
[04/16/1932 AD]
nuclear transformation by protons:
Lithium atoms are split by protons
under 125 kilovolts into two Helium
atoms.
University) Cambridge, England
[1] J. D. COCKCROFT & E. T. S. WALTON
, ''Disintegration of Lithium by Swift
Protons'', Nature 129, 649-649 (30
April
1932). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v129/n3261/abs/129649a0.html {Cock
croft_John_19320416.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED AND Enest S Walton,
Lord Rutherford and John Cockcroft:
1932 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v129/n3261/abs/129649a0.htmlhttp://
www.aip.org/history/exhibits/lawrence/im
ages/epa-12.jpg
[2] Enest S Walton, Lord Rutherford
and John Cockcroft: 1932 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.aip.org/history/exhib
its/lawrence/images/epa-12.jpg
[05/08/1932 AD]
solar system is found to emit radio
frequencies of light.
City, New York, USA
[1] figure 1 from: Jansky, KG,
''Electrical phenomena that apparently
are of interstellar origin.'', Popular
Astronomy, 41, 548-55. (1935)
http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi
-bin/nph-journal_query?volume=41&plate_s
elect=NO&page=548&plate=&cover=&journal=
PA... {Jansky_Karl_19330914.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du/cgi-bin/nph-journal_query?volume=41&p
late_select=NO&page=548&plate=&cover=&jo
urnal=PA...
[2] He built an antenna, pictured
here, designed to receive radio waves
at a frequency of 20.5 MHz (wavelength
about 14.5 meters). It was mounted on
a turntable that allowed it to rotate
in any direction, earning it the name
''Jansky's merry-go-round''. By
rotating the antenna, one could find
what the direction was to any radio
signal. After recording signals
from all directions for several months,
Jansky identified three types of
static: 1. nearby thunderstorms, 2.
distant thunderstorms, and 3. a faint
steady hiss of unknown origin. Jansky
spent over a year investigating the
third type of static. It rose and fell
once a day, leading Jansky to think at
first that he was seeing radiation from
the Sun. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.nrao.edu/whatisra/ima
ges/jansky1.gif
[06/15/1932 AD]
disintegrated using high-speed protons,
for example Fluorine into Oxygen and
Sodium into Neon.
University) Cambridge, England
[1] Figure 1 from: [2] J. D. Cockcroft
and E. T. S. Walton, ''Experiments with
High Velocity Positive Ions. II. The
Disintegration of Elements by High
Velocity Protons'', Proc. R. Soc. Lond.
A July 1, 1932 137:229-242;
doi:10.1098/rspa.1932.0133 http://rspa.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/137/8
31/229.full.pdf+html?sid=e2be827d-e445-4
270-a941-c4c2aaa2a385
{Cockcroft_John_19320615.pdf}
source: http://rspa.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/137/831/229.full.pdf+html
?sid=e2be827d-e445-4270-a941-c4c2aaa2a38
5
[2] Sir John Douglas
Cockcroft COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/physics/laureates/1951/cockcro
ft_postcard.jpg
[08/02/1932 AD]
positron) is identified using a cloud
chamber.
Pasadena, California
[1] Figure 1: Carl D. Anderson, ''The
Positive Electron'', Phys. Rev. 43, 491
(1933). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v43/i6/p491_1 {Anderson_Carl_19330228
.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v43/i6/p491_1
[2] Carl David Anderson searching for
mesons. From LBNL archives, dated 1937.
from en:Image:Carl anderson.1937.jpeg
2005-10-28 04:46:20 . . Salsb PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/9e/Carl_anderson.1937.jp
g
[1932 AD]
[1] Sensation at the 1935 Berlin Radio
Fair: The magnetophone developed by AEG
with the new magnetic tape from
Ludwigshafen. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.basf.com/group/corpor
ate/en/function/conversions:/publish/con
tent/about-basf/history/1925-1944/images
/Magnetophon.jpg
[2] English: German Radio Station
TORN.FU.G. Approx. 1939. Together
with tape recorder Ton Sb, it formed a
basic radio station of the regimental
control link. Transmitter power was 2
watts, wavelength range 85 - 120 meters
(2.5 to 3.5 MHz). As Red Army radio
stations (RAF, RB, RCB etc.) operated
in this frequency band also, in
combination with multifunction tape
unit it was used for radio intelligence
and spreading of false
information. Military History Museum
of Artillery, Engineers and Signal
Corps, Saint Petersburg. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/%D0%93%D0%95%D0
%A0%D0%9C%D0%90%D0%9D%D0%A1%D0%9A%D0%90%
D0%AF_%D0%A0%D0%90%D0%94%D0%98%D0%9E%D0%
A1%D0%A2%D0%90%D0%9D%D0%A6%D0%98%D0%AF_T
ORN.FU.G._%28%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%85%29
.jpg/1252px-%D0%93%D0%95%D0%A0%D0%9C%D0%
90%D0%9D%D0%A1%D0%9A%D0%90%D0%AF_%D0%A0%
D0%90%D0%94%D0%98%D0%9E%D0%A1%D0%A2%D0%9
0%D0%9D%D0%A6%D0%98%D0%AF_TORN.FU.G._%28
%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%85%29.jpg
[03/??/1933 AD]
measured.
[1] Figure from 1935 paper in
Astrophysical Journal COPYRIGHTED
AND [2] from 1933 Popular
Science COPYRIGHTED AND [4] Albert
Michelson (verify) Photo made in 1887
PD
source: http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du/cache/seri/ApJ../0082/600/0000029.000
.gifhttp://books.google.com/books?id=GSg
DAAAAMBAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs
_navlinks_s#v=onepage&q=&f=falsehttp://b
ooks.google.com/books?id=OxYLAAAAYAAJ&pg
=PA474&dq=michelson+date:1920-1920#v=sni
ppet&q=betelgeuse&f=false
[2] Figure from 1935 paper in
Astrophysical Journal COPYRIGHTED
source: http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du/cache/seri/ApJ../0082/600/0000029.000
.gif
[07/30/1933 AD]
radio communication.
[1] Figure 1 from: Armstrong, E. H.,
U.S. Patent 1,941,066,
1933 http://www.google.com/patents/abou
t?id=uyFoAAAAEBAJ&dq=1941066 PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents/ab
out?id=uyFoAAAAEBAJ&output=text
[2] Edwin Howard Armstrong, Radio
Engineer COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.todaysengineer.org/20
08/Dec/images/history-pic.jpg
[01/29/1934 AD]
atomic transmutation and atomic fusion.
[1] Figure from: I. Curie, F. Joliot,
''Un nouveau type de radioactivé'',
Comptes rendus, V198 (1934),
p254. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/
bpt6k31506/f254.image {Curie_Irene_Joli
ot_Frederic_19340115.pdf}
source: http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148
/bpt6k31506/f254.image
[2] Chemical equation from; I.
Curie, F. Joliot, ''Un nouveau type de
radioactivé'', Comptes rendus, V198
(1934),
p254. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/
bpt6k31506/f254.image {Curie_Irene_Joli
ot_Frederic_19340115.pdf}
source: http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148
/bpt6k31506/f254.image
[03/09/1934 AD]
atoms into a Helium atom.
England
[1] Figures 4, 5 and 6 from Oliphant,
Harteck, Rutherford, ''Transmutation
Effects observed with Heavy Hydrogen'',
Proceedings of the Royal Society, A,
144, 1934, pp692-703. COPYRIGHTED
source: Oliphant, Harteck, Rutherford,
"Transmutation Effects observed with
Heavy Hydrogen", Proceedings of the
Royal Society, A, 144, 1934, pp692-703.
[2] Description Ernest
Rutherford2.jpg English: Cropped
Image:Ernest_Rutherford.jpg Date
2007-01-26 (original upload
date) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia Author Original
uploader was Sadi Carnot at
en.wikipedia GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/57/Ernest_Rutherford2.jp
g
[03/19/1934 AD]
ordinary novas.
Wilson, California, USA
[1] W. Baade and F. Zwicky, ''On
Super-Novae'', Proc Natl Acad Sci U S
A. 1934 May; 20(5):
254–259. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
pmc/articles/PMC1076395/pdf/pnas01745-00
06.pdf {Zwicky_Fritz_19340319.pdf} COP
YRIGHTED AND Zwicky and
Baade UNKNOWN
source: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/
articles/PMC1076395/pdf/pnas01745-0006.p
dfhttp://admin.sathyasaibaba.hu/spaw/upl
oads/images/_quest_of_infinity/part_04/z
wicky_baade_.png
[2] Zwicky and Baade UNKNOWN
source: http://admin.sathyasaibaba.hu/sp
aw/uploads/images/_quest_of_infinity/par
t_04/zwicky_baade_.png
[05/??/1934 AD]
neutrons.
[1] Enrico Fermi Nobel
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://publishing.cdlib.org/ucpr
essebooks/data/13030/rb/ft700007rb/figur
es/ft700007rb_00009.jpg
[2] Enrico Fermi from Argonne
National Laboratory PD
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/physics/laureates/1938/fermi.jpg
[07/11/1934 AD]
weapons that can destroy planes and
kill millions of people without a trace
in an instant.
USA
[1] ''Tesla, at 78, Bares New
'Death-Beam''', New York Times, July
11, 1934, p. 18, c.
1 http://www.tesla-coil-builder.com/Art
icles/jul_11_1934a.htm {Tesla_articles.
pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://static.neatorama.com/imag
es/2010-03/tesla-death-beam.jpg
[2] Image from Tesla's 1891 patent
#454622 System of Electric Lighting PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=wmBOAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&
f=false
[08/18/1934 AD]
by light particles: Gamma rays
disintegrate a deuterium atom (an
isotope of hydrogen containing one
proton and one neutron). From this the
mass of a neutron is estimated to be
more than a hydrogen atom.
Cambridge, England
[1] Description
Chadwick.jpg en:James
Chadwick Date ~1935 (original
photograph), 2007-08-11 (original
upload date) Source Transfered
from en.wikipedia. Original source:
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1935/chadwick-bio.html COP
YRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c2/Chadwick.jpg
[2] Description Goldhaber,Maurice
1937.jpg English: Maurice Goldhaber,
probable 1937 on the occasion of an
colloquy with Nobel Price
winners. Deutsch: Maurice Goldhaber,
vermutlich 1937 anläßlich eines
Kolloquims mit
Nobelpreisträgern. Date
1937(1937) Source Own
work Author GFHund GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/48/Goldhaber%2CMaurice_1
937.jpg
[12/04/1934 AD]
react more slowly than a lighter
isotope is used to build up quantities
of rare isotopes.
New York, USA
[1] Harold Clayton Urey The Nobel
Prize in Chemistry 1934 was awarded to
Harold C. Urey ''for his discovery of
heavy hydrogen''. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1934/urey.
jpg
[1934 AD]
blue light is found emitted by various
liquids bombarded by gamma rays.
(Soviet Union now) Russia
[1] English: Pavel A.
Cherenkov Русский: Павел
Алексеевич
Черенков Date
1958(1958) Source
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/
physics/laureates/1958/cerenkov-bio.html
Author Nobel foundation PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Cerenkov.jpg/22
0px-Cerenkov.jpg
[02/??/1935 AD]
Wilmington, Delaware, USA
[1] Wallace Carothers. Carothers
demonstrating a piece of his new
synthetic rubber in laboratory. AP
IMAGES. Wallace
Carothers COPYRIGHTED
source: http://listverse.files.wordpress
.com/2007/10/carothers.jpg
[10/22/1935 AD]
(SEM), a device that moves a focused
electron beam in rows and columns over
the surface of an object, and receives
both the electrons scattered by the
object and the secondary electrons
produced by it.
University) Berlin, Germany
(presumably)
[1] Knoll, Max, ''Aufladepotentiel und
Sekundäremission elektronenbestrahlter
Körper''. Zeitschrift für technische
Physik 1935, 16: 467–475.
{Knoll_Max_19351022.pdf} English: ''
Charging potential and secondary
emission of bodies under electron
irradiation'' COPYRIGHTED
source:
[2] Max Knoll (1897-1969) UNKNOWN
source: http://ernst.ruska.de/daten_d/pe
rsonen/personen_archiv/knoll_max/_grafik
en/img.knoll1967.gif
[11/19/1935 AD]
current is passed into a nerve, an
electric potential increases until a
threshold voltage is reached, and
"excitation" occurs.
England
[1] Figure 1 from: A. V. Hill,
''Excitation and Accommodation in
Nerve'', Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London. Series B, Biological
Sciences, Vol. 119, No. 814 (Feb. 1,
1936), pp.
305-355. http://www.jstor.org/stable/81
869 {Hill_Archibald_Vivian_19351119.pdf
} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/8186
9
[2] Figure 2 from: A. V. Hill,
''Excitation and Accommodation in
Nerve'', Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London. Series B, Biological
Sciences, Vol. 119, No. 814 (Feb. 1,
1936), pp.
305-355. http://www.jstor.org/stable/81
869 {Hill_Archibald_Vivian_19351119.pdf
} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/8186
9
[1935 AD]
Research) New York City, New York,
USA
[1] Description Alexis Carrel
02.jpg French surgeon and biologist
Alexis Carrel (1873-1944) Date
Unknown Source
US-LibraryOfCongress-BookLogo.svg
This image is available from the
United States Library of Congress's
Prints and Photographs division under
the digital ID ggbain.34418. This tag
does not indicate the copyright status
of the attached work. A normal
copyright tag is still required. See
Commons:Licensing for more
information. العربية
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/9e/Alexis_Carrel_02.jpg
[1935 AD]
most widely used plastic on Earth.
[1]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethylene A
ND http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyeth
ylene GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eth
ylenehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyet
hylene
[2] Description English: Photo of a
pillbox made from the first pound of
polythene made and then presented to
Frank Bebbington in 1936 Date June
2011 Source Photo by
user:geni Author
Geni Permission (Reusing this file)
GFDL CC-BY-SA GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/fb/First_polythene_pillb
ox.JPG
[03/11/1936 AD]
be varied in strength by changing the
frequency of electrical current pulses
on the nerve connected to the muscle.
England
[1] Bernard Katz Nobel Prize
photograph COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1970/katz.jpg
[08/17/1936 AD]
crystals of Magnesium oxide. A neutron
beam is shown to have a wavelength of
160 pm, similar to x-rays.
New York, USA
[1] Dana P. Mitchell and Philip N.
Powers, ''Bragg Reflection of Slow
Neutrons'', Phys. Rev. 50, 486-487
(1936). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v50/i5/p486_2 {Mitchell_Dana_19360817
.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v50/i5/p486_2
[2]
http://www.atomicheritage.org/mediawiki/
images/3/34/Fermi_Dunning_Mitchell_Colum
bia_Cyclotron_%28AIP%29.jpg UNKNOWN
source: http://www.atomicheritage.org/me
diawiki/images/3/34/Fermi_Dunning_Mitche
ll_Columbia_Cyclotron_%28AIP%29.jpg
[1936 AD]
human embryonic nervous tissue.
Research) New York City, New York,
USA
[1] Albert Bruce Sabin UNKNOWN
source: http://www.sciencephoto.com/imag
es/showFullWatermarked.html/H419079-Albe
rt_Bruce_Sabin-SPL.jpg?id=724190079
[03/17/1937 AD]
detected in a virus.
Harpenden, Hertfordshire, England
[1] * Buy a print of this image *
License this image Sir Frederick
Charles Bawden by Walter
Bird bromide print, 1967 8 1/8 in. x
6 1/8 in. (205 mm x 156 mm) NPG
x163955 UNKNOWN
source: http://images.npg.org.uk/790_500
/6/8/mw109368.jpg
[04/??/1937 AD]
combustion engine that propels air
vehicles by hot exhaust gases from fuel
burned with drawn in air.
England
[1] Whittle W2/700 Engine. Frank
Whittle developed the first turbojet
engine with enough operating thrust to
power an aircraft in 1939. The W2
was the second, more powerful, version
of a flight-ready turbojet engine
developed by Whittle. The W2/700
engine flew in the Gloster E.28/39, the
first British aircraft to fly with a
turbojet engine, and the Gloster
Meteor. Photographed Farnborough,
22-Jan-06. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/fc/Whittle_Jet_Engine_W2
-700.JPG
[2] Description Frank Whittle
adjusts a slide rule while seated at
his desk at the Ministry of Aircraft
Production. Date 30 December
1943 Source IWMLondonThumbnail.jpg
This is photograph No. CH 11867 from
the Imperial War Museum Collections.
Flag of the United Kingdom.svg Author
British Government PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/df/Frank_Whittle_CH_0118
67.jpg
[05/14/1937 AD]
Elements 93 through 96 are identified
from the collision of neutrons with
uranium.
Berlin-Dahlem) Berlin, Germany
[1] Lise Meitner UNKNOWN
source: http://www3.findagrave.com/photo
s/2007/278/15166236_119171400954.jpg
[2] Otto Hahn UNKNOWN
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/chemistry/laureates/1944/hahn.jpg
[05/22/1937 AD]
atoms. Atoms are visually confirmed to
be about 100 pm in size.
The field-emission
electron microscope magnifies the tip
of a tungsten needle 200,000 times.
Germany
[1] Figures 2-4 from: ''Fig 2.
Tungsten cathode (filament) [011] -
Direction in the middle. Fig 3.
Tungsten cathode [211] - Direction,
almost in the middle. Fig 4. Sphere
model with the lattice directions of a
cube-based emission tungsten cathode,
field of view as Fig 3.'' [2] Erwin W.
Müller, ''Elektronenmikroskopische
Beobachtungen von Feldkathoden'',
Zeitschrift für Physik A Hadrons and
Nuclei, Volume 106, Numbers 9-10,
541-550, DOI:
10.1007/BF01339895 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/h425u71vqh66w886/ {Mull
er_Erwin_W_19370522.pdf}
English: ''Electron microscopic
observations of field cathode''
source: http://www.springerlink.com/cont
ent/h425u71vqh66w886/
[2] COPYRIGHTED
source: http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/opti
cs/timeline/people/antiqueimages/mueller
.jpg
[06/30/1937 AD]
artificial element, the radioactive
metal technetium {TeKnEsEuM} is created
by particle collision.
Technetium has no stable isotopes.
[1] Description
Tc,43.jpg Technetium Date
Uploaded 2005-06-01 on af: Source
Lapp, Ralph E. and the Editors of
Life (1965). Matter: Life Science
Library. New York: TIME
Incorporated. Author Attributed
as a U.S. government image in scanning
source PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/40/Tc%2C43.jpg
[2] This is a file from the Wikimedia
Commons Los Alamos wartime badge
photo: Emilio Segrè Source: Los
Alamos National Laboratory,
http://www.lanl.gov/history/wartime/staf
f.shtml PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/71/Emilio_Segre_ID_badge
.png
[09/??/1937 AD]
has a reflector or radio dish.
[1] Figure 3: The first ''dish'' radio
telescope. Source: Estate of G
Reber UNKNOWN
source: http://www.atnf.csiro.au/news/ne
wsletter/jun05/Reber_ORIGDISHa.jpg
[2] Figure 2: Grote Reber as a young
man. This picture is copied from ''A
Play Entitled the Beginning of Radio
Astronomy'', by Grote Reber, in The
Journal of the Royal Astronomical
Society of Canada, Vol.82, No.3, June
1988, page 93. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.atnf.csiro.au/news/ne
wsletter/jun05/Reber_YOUNGMAN.jpg
[1937 AD]
{Zi-roG-ru-FE} (or electrophotography),
which uses electrostatic charges and
heat to copy documents; the basis of
photocopiers and laser printers.
[1] Astoria 10-22-38 (The first
xerographic image) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.xerox.com/images/usa/
en/p/pa_firstimage.jpg
[2] Schematic drawing of the
xeroxgraphic photocopying process.
Vectorization of the image. Original
image made by 'Wschneider' on the
German wikipedia. 1. Charging:
The surface of a cylindrical drum is
given an electrostatic charge by either
a high voltage wire called a corona
wire or a charge roller. The drum is
coated with a photoconductive material.
A is a semiconductor that becomes
conductive when exposed to light.
2. Exposure: A bright lamp illuminates
the original document, and the white
areas of the original document reflect
the light onto the surface of the
photoconductive drum. The areas of the
drum that are exposed to light (those
areas that correspond to white areas of
the original document) become
conductive and therefore discharge to
ground. The area of the drum not
exposed to light (those areas that
correspond to black portions of the
original document) remain negatively
charged. The result is a latent
electrical image on the surface of the
drum. 3. Developing: The toner is
positively charged. When it is applied
to the drum to develop the image, it is
attracted and sticks to the areas that
are negatively charged (black areas),
just as paper sticks to a toy balloon
with a static charge. 4. Transfer:
The resulting toner image on the
surface of the drum is transferred from
the drum onto a piece of paper with a
higher negative charge than the
drum. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Xerographic_pho
tocopy_process_en.svg/309px-Xerographic_
photocopy_process_en.svg.png
[04/??/1938 AD]
Wilmington, Delaware, USA
[1] US 2230654, Plunkett, Roy J,
''Tetrafluoroethylene polymers'',
issued 4 February
1941. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
S1JQAAAAEBAJ PD AND ProBake Teflon
Platinum Nonstick 12-Cup Muffin Pan
from Amazon UNKNOWN AND [2]
Polytetrafluoroethylene GNU AND Reena
ctment of the 1938 discovery of Teflon.
Left to right: Jack Rebok, Robert
McHarness, and Roy Plunkett. Courtesy
Hagley Museum and Library. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=S1JQAAAAEBAJhttp://ecx.images-amazon.co
m/images/I/41dpo4IJ3GL._SX450_.jpghttp:/
/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teflonhttp://www.
chemheritage.org/Images/Main-Images-250x
290/Discover/Themes/Petrochemistry-and-S
ynthetic-Polymers/plunkett1.jpg
[2] Freshly cooked frozen w:blintzes
in a frying pan. Photo taken by me, in
the kitchen of my house. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/9/90/100_0783.JPG/12
80px-100_0783.JPG
[06/16/1938 AD]
charged particles with a mass in
between that of an electron and proton,
are identified (from cosmic rays) and
given the name "mesotron", which will
later be changed to "meson" {meZoN}.
Pasadena, California
[1] Figure 1 from: Seth H. Neddermeyer
and Carl D. Anderson, ''Cosmic-Ray
Particles of Intermediate Mass'', Phys.
Rev. 54, 88
(1938). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v54/i1/p88_2 {Anderson_Carl_D_1938061
6.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v54/i1/p88_2
[2] Carl David Anderson searching for
mesons. From LBNL archives, dated 1937.
from en:Image:Carl anderson.1937.jpeg
2005-10-28 04:46:20 . . Salsb PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/9e/Carl_anderson.1937.jp
g
[06/22/1938 AD]
captured.
Viruses are confirmed to be about 150
nm in size.
Gesellschaft/Berlin Medical Society)
Berlin, Germany
[1] (ubermikroskop) Ultramicroscope
image of the virus of ectromelia in the
point mouse. Infectious material from
the lymph of an infected paw. magnified
20,000x. Figure 1 from: B. v.
Borries, E. Ruska und H. Ruska,
''Bakterien und Virus in
übermikroskopischer
Aufnahme.'', Klin. Wochenschrift 17
(1938)
921-925. http://ernstruska.digilibrary.
de/bibliographie/q021/q021.html {Ruska_
Ernst_19380622.pdf} UNKNOWN
source: http://ernstruska.digilibrary.de
/bibliographie/q021/q021.html
[2] Ernst Ruska, 1939 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.siemens.com/history/p
ool/perseunlichkeiten/wissenschaftler/ru
ska_1939.jpg
[04/30/1939 AD]
robot.
Mansfield, Ohio, USA
[1] Elektro at the 1939 World's
Fair UNKNOWN
source: http://img.youtube.com/vi/T35A3g
_GvSg/0.jpg
[2] Inside working of Westinghouse
Elektro walking robot UNKNOWN
source: http://davidszondy.com/future/ro
bot/elektro-interior.jpg
[03/03/1940 AD]
more fissions per minute than
uranium-238 is demonstrated.
New York, USA
[1] Alfred O. Nier, E. T. Booth, J. R.
Dunning, and A. V. Grosse, ''Nuclear
Fission of Separated Uranium
Isotopes'', .Phys. Rev. 57, 546–546
(1940). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v57/i6/p546_1 {Dunning_John_Ray_19400
303.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v57/i6/p546_1
[2] Description: middle age, three
quarter view, suit Date:
Unknown Credit: AIP Emilio Segre
Visual Archives Names: Dunning, John
Ray UNKNOWN
source: http://photos.aip.org/history/Th
umbnails/dunning_john_a2.jpg
[05/28/1940 AD]
by γ-rays.
This is the first fissioning of large
atoms with light particles.
East Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania,
USA
[1] R. O. Haxby, W. E. Shoupp, W. E.
Stephens, and W. H. Wells,
''Photo-Fission of Uranium and Thorium,
Phys. Rev. 58, 92–92
(1940). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v58/i1/p92_1 {Wells_W_H_19400528.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v58/i1/p92_1
[2] R. O. Haxby, W. E. Shoupp, W. E.
Stephens, and W. H. Wells,
''Photo-Fission of Uranium and Thorium,
Phys. Rev. 58, 92–92
(1940). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v58/i1/p92_1 {Wells_W_H_19400528.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v58/i1/p92_1
[06/14/1940 AD]
uranium is observed.
Institute) Leningrad, (U.S.S.R. now)
Russia
[1] Georgy Nikolaevich FLEROV
source: http://159.93.28.88/flnr/history
/flerov.jpg
[08/24/1940 AD]
fungus Penicillin is found to be
effective against at least three kinds
of bacteria in mice.
England
[1] Table from: E Chain, HW Florey,
AD Gardner, NG Heatley, ''Penicillin as
a Chemotherapeutic agent'', Lancet,
1940
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_
ob=MImg&_imagekey=B6T1B-49N2V2F-MY-1&_cd
i=4886&_user=4422&_pii=S0140673601087281
&_origin=search&_zone=rslt_list_item&_co
verDate=08%2F24%2F1940&_sk=997633895&wch
p=dGLzVtb-zSkzS&md5=77efee12aba47b15f2f4
b87566fdacd3&ie=/sdarticle.pdf {Florey_
Howard_19400824.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=MImg&_imagekey=B6T1B-49N2V2F-MY
-1&_cdi=4886&_user=4422&_pii=S0140673601
087281&_origin=search&_zone=rslt_list_it
em&_coverDate=08%2F24%2F1940&_sk=9976338
95&wchp=dGLzVtb-zSkzS&md5=77efee12aba47b
15f2f4b87566fdacd3&ie=/sdarticle.pdf
[2] Description Howard Florey,
Baron Florey Source
http://nobelprize.org/medicine/laur
eates/1945/florey-bio.html Article
Howard Florey, Baron
Florey Portion used Entire
photo Low resolution?
Yes Purpose of use To
identify and illustrate Howard Florey
in the article Howard Florey, Baron
Florey Replaceable? No; Howard
Florey died in 1968. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/a/a7/Howard_Florey.png
[11/13/1940 AD]
is built which creates artificial gamma
rays.
York, USA
[1] Figure 4 from: D. W. Kerst, ''The
Acceleration of Electrons by Magnetic
Induction'', Phys. Rev. 60, 47–53
(1941). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v60/i1/p47_1 {Kerst_Donald_William_19
410418.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v60/i1/p47_1
[2] Donald W. Kerst (on left) UNKNOWN
source: http://sprott.physics.wisc.edu/p
hotos/kerst2.jpg
[12/02/1940 AD]
are broadcast.
New York City, New York, USA
[1] From Popular Science, Jul 1941,
p65 http://books.google.com/books?id=vy
YDAAAAMBAJ&lpg=PP1&pg=PA65 UNKNOWN AND
Peter Carl Goldmark 2004 Upper Deck
The History of the United States
Inventors and Inventions No.
II46 UNKNOWN
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=vyYDAAAAMBAJ&lpg=PP1&pg=PA65http://www.
popsci.com/files/imagecache/photogallery
_image/articles/3-Color-TV_0.jpg
[2] From Popular Science, Jul 1941,
p65 http://books.google.com/books?id=vy
YDAAAAMBAJ&lpg=PP1&pg=PA65 UNKNOWN
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=vyYDAAAAMBAJ&lpg=PP1&pg=PA65
[01/23/1941 AD]
photosynthesis comes from the water
molecule and not from carbon dioxide is
proven by using oxygen-18, a stable but
rare oxygen isotope.
California, USA
[1] Dr. Martin Kamen - Scientist who
discovered radioactive carbon-14 which
revolutionized archeology (carbon-14
dating) and laid a foundation for
deciphering the chemical processes in
plants and animals, but who spent many
years ostracized on suspicion that he
was a Russian spy (later exonerated),
died at age 89. UNKNOWN
source: http://lifeinlegacy.com/2002/090
7/KamenMartin.jpg
[02/24/1941 AD]
Alpha-Particles under an electric
potential of 32-Mev.
California, USA
[1] E. Fermi and E. Segrè , ''Fission
of Uranium by Alpha-Particles'', Phys.
Rev. 59, 680–681
(1941). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v59/i8/p680_2 {Fermi_Enrico_19410224.
pdf} COPYRIGHTED AND Enrico Fermi
Nobel photo COPYRIGHTED AND This
is a file from the Wikimedia
Commons Los Alamos wartime badge
photo: Emilio Segrè Source: Los
Alamos National Laboratory,
http://www.lanl.gov/history/wartime/staf
f.shtml PD
source: http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v59/i8/p680_2http://nobelprize.org/nobe
l_prizes/physics/laureates/1938/fermi.jp
ghttp://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/c
ommons/7/71/Emilio_Segre_ID_badge.png
[2] Enrico Fermi from Argonne
National Laboratory PD
source: http://www.osti.gov/accomplishme
nts/images/08.gif
[10/08/1941 AD]
controls the production of a particular
protein, is proven when X-rays cause a
genetic mutation in a bread mold which
results in the mold failing to make
vitamin B6. This mutation is also shown
to be inherited.
California, USA
[1] George Beadle Nobel
photo COPYRIGHTED AND Edward Lawrie
Tatum Nobel Prize photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1958/beadle.jpghtt
p://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine
/laureates/1958/tatum.jpg
[2] George Beadle Nobel
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1958/beadle.jpg
[1941 AD]
England
[1] Description English: A close-up
of a 100% Polyester shirt. I took this
picture myself just moments ago. Date
30 August 2004 (original upload
date) Source Transferred from
ronhjones to Commons by
ronhjones. Author Damieng at
en.wikipedia GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/92/Polyester_Shirt%2C_cl
ose-up.jpg
[2] Description English:
Resin-identification-code-1-PETE Date
23 April 2007 (original upload
date) Source Own work (Original text:
“TotoBaggins (talk) (Uploads)”) -
Self made from PNG. Author
TotoBaggins at en.wikipedia PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Resin-identific
ation-code-1-PETE.svg/1000px-Resin-ident
ification-code-1-PETE.svg.png
[03/12/1942 AD]
virus is captured.
New Jersey, USA
[1] Plate 1 from: S. E. Luria and
Thomas F. Anderson, ''The
Identification and Characterization of
Bacteriophages with the Electron
Microscope'', Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the
United States of America, Vol. 28, No.
4 (Apr. 15, 1942), pp.
127-130. http://www.jstor.org/stable/87
648 {Luria_Salvador_Edward_19420312.pdf
} EXPLANATION OF PLATE PLATE I 1.
Electron micrograph of particles from a
high titer suspension of
bacteriophage anti-coli PC. X
38,000. 2. Particles from a high titer
suspension of bacteriophage anti-coli
PC. X 84,000. 3. Escherichia coli from
suspension in distilled water. X
17,000. 4. Escherichia coli in
suspension of bacteriophage anti-coli
PC for ten minutes. X
17,500. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/8764
8
[2] Salvador Edward Luria Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1969/luria.jpg
[11/04/1942 AD]
planet of a different star; recognized
from the movement in photos of the
nearby star 61 Cygni.
University), Swarthmore, Pennsylvania,
USA
[1] Figure 1 from: Strand, K. A., ''61
Cygni as a Triple System'',
Publications of the Astronomical
Society of the Pacific, Vol. 55, No.
322,
p.29-32. http://articles.adsabs.harvard
.edu/full/seri/PASP./0055//0000030.000.h
tml {Strand_K_A_19421104.pdf}
UNKNOWN
source: http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du/full/seri/PASP./0055//0000030.000.htm
l
[2] Description
KajStrand.jpg English: Kaj Aage
Gunnar Strand (27 February 1907 - 31
October 2000) was director of the U.S.
Naval Observatory from 1963 to 1977. He
specialized in astrometry, especially
work on double stars and stellar
distances. Date
2000(2000) Source
http://ad.usno.navy.mil/wds/history
/strand.html Author
U.S.Navy Permission (Reusing
this file) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/59/KajStrand.jpg
[12/02/1942 AD]
reaction.
Cadmium rods are slowly withdrawn from
a pile of graphite blocks with uranium
inside, and the first uranium fission
chain reaction becomes self-sustaining,
driven only by neutrons spontaneously
emitted by uranium.
Illinois, USA
[1] Figure 5 from: ''Experimental
production of a Divergent Chain
Reaction'', American Journal of
Physics, 20, 1952,
536-558. http://ajp.aapt.org/resource/1
/ajpias/v20/i9/p536_s1 {Fermi_Enrico_19
520627.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://ajp.aapt.org/resource/1/a
jpias/v20/i9/p536_s1
[2] Enrico Fermi from Argonne
National Laboratory PD
source: http://www.osti.gov/accomplishme
nts/images/08.gif
[05/25/1943 AD]
spectral lines are used to determine
that molecular changes have occurred.
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
[1] Figure 1 from: Britton Chance,
''The kinetics of the enzyme-substrate
compound of peroxidase'', Journal of
biological chemistry, (1943) volume:
151 issue: 2 page: 553.
http://www.jbc.org/content/151/2/553.f
ull.pdf+html?sid=d94bc504-c1d4-4a2e-b594
-e33b2c903bf6 {Chance_Britton_19430526.
pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jbc.org/content/151/2
/553.full.pdf+html?sid=d94bc504-c1d4-4a2
e-b594-e33b2c903bf6
[2] Britton Chance
(1913-2010) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.archives.upenn.edu/im
g/20060628001bchance200.jpg
[11/01/1943 AD]
being responsible for the creation and
inheritance of structural changes in a
body, when a DNA molecule is found to
change a rough appearing bacteria into
a smooth one, which is then passed onto
later generations.
Rockefeller University) New York City,
New York, USA
[1] EXPLANATION OF PLATE The
photograph was made by Mr. Joseph B.
Haulenbeek. FIG. 1. Colonies of the R
variant (R36A) derived from
Pneumococcus Type n. Plated on blood
agar from a culture grown in serum
broth in the absence of
the transforming substance. X
3.5. FIO. 2. Colonies on blood agar of
the same cells after induction of
transformation during growth in the
same medium with the addition of active
transforming principle isolated from
Type nI pneumococci. The smooth,
glistening, mucoid colonies shown are
characteristic of Pneumococcus Type In
and readily distinguishable from the
small, rough colonies of the parent R
strain illustrated in Fig. 1.
X3.5. Downloaded from jem.rupress.org
on December 24, 2010 Published
February 1, 1944 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://jem.rupress.org/content/7
9/2/137.full.pdf
[2] Description Oswald T. Avery
portrait 1937.jpg Portrait of Oswald
T. Avery, cropped from a Rockefeller
Institute for Medical Research staff
photograph. Date
1937(1937) Source
http://profiles.nlm.nih.gov/CC/A/A/
L/P/_/ccaalp_.jpg Author
Unknown Permission (Reusing this
file) Reproduced with permission
of the Rockefeller Archive Center. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/eb/Oswald_T._Avery_portr
ait_1937.jpg
[1943 AD]
stimulation to the brain can cause cats
to become enraged or scared is shown.
Switzerland
[1] From Hess, 1943 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://docserver.ingentaconnect.
com/deliver/connect/tandf/0964704x/v8n3/
s4.pdf?expires=1293515670&id=60427856&ti
tleid=10598&accname=University+of+Califo
rnia&checksum=AD47147550DF109FC08950558A
18A9D3
[2] Walter Rudolf Hess (March 17, 1881
– August 12, 1973), Swiss
physiologist who won the Nobel Prize in
Physiology or Medicine in 1949 for
mapping the areas of the brain involved
in the control of internal
organs Source
http://www.nndb.com/people/271/0001
28884/walter-hess.jpg Article
Walter Rudolf Hess Portion used
Entire Low resolution?
Yes Purpose of use It is
only being used to illustrate the
article in question UNKNOWN
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/2/27/Walter_Rudolf_Hess.jpg
[07/16/1945 AD]
exploded; a plutonium bomb that
compares to about 21,000 tons of TNT.
Muerto (Journey of Death) desert, New
Mexico, USA
[1] The fully assembled Gadget. PD
source: http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/
Usa/Tests/GadgetB1024c10.jpg
[2] First uranium-fission explosion
''trinity'' 16 ms after detonation. PD
source: http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/
Usa/Tests/Trin2.jpg
[10/08/1945 AD]
Microwave light frequencies are
strongly absorbed by water molecules,
and so heat materials containing water.
Newton, Massachusetts, USA
[1] Figure from: [1] US patent
2495429, Spencer, Percy L., ''Method of
treating foodstuffs'', issued
1950-January-24 www.google.com/patents?
id=x_tuAAAAEBAJ
and http://worldwide.espacenet.com/text
doc?DB=EPODOC&IDX=US2495429 PD
source: www.google.com/patents?id=x_tuAA
AAEBAJ
[2] Spencer, Percy with
Magnetron UNKNOWN
source: http://www.raytheon.com/newsroom
/photogal/photos/percywithmagnetron_l.jp
g
[01/10/1946 AD]
moon and received back on Earth.
[1] Figure 13 from: Dewitt, J.H., Jr.;
Stodola, E.K.;, ''Detection of Radio
Signals Reflected from the Moon'',
Proceedings of the IRE, March 1949,
Volume: 37 Issue:3, p229 -
242. http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpls/ab
s_all.jsp?arnumber=1697973&tag=1 {Dewit
t_John_H_19480311.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpls/
abs_all.jsp?arnumber=1697973&tag=1
[2] Figure 6 from: Dewitt, J.H., Jr.;
Stodola, E.K.;, ''Detection of Radio
Signals Reflected from the Moon'',
Proceedings of the IRE, March 1949,
Volume: 37 Issue:3, p229 -
242. http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpls/ab
s_all.jsp?arnumber=1697973&tag=1 {Dewit
t_John_H_19480311.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpls/
abs_all.jsp?arnumber=1697973&tag=1
[02/??/1946 AD]
general-purpose electronic digital
computer.
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
[1] Description Eniac.jpg en:ENIAC
in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Glen
Beck (background) and Betty Snyder
(foreground) program the ENIAC in BRL
building 328 Date c. 1947 to
1955 Source U.S. Army
Photo http://ftp.arl.mil/ftp/historic-c
omputers PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/4e/Eniac.jpg
[2]
http://www.fcet.staffs.ac.uk/jdw1/sucfm/
19071980mauchlyjohnwilliam.jpg UNKNOWN
source: http://www.fcet.staffs.ac.uk/jdw
1/sucfm/19071980mauchlyjohnwilliam.jpg
[06/01/1946 AD]
produced by cosmic-ray neutrons, can be
used to determine the age of the
Earth's atmosphere, surface, and living
matter is recognized.
Illinois, USA
[1] Description Willard Frank
Libby (December 17, 1908 – September
8, 1980), American physical
chemist Source
http://www.nndb.com/people/470/000100
170/willard-libby-1-sized.jpg Article
Willard Libby Nobel
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/6/66/Willard_Libby.jpg
[08/22/1946 AD]
parallel to observe a larger area.
England
[1] Figures 1 and 2 from: M. RYLE &
D. D. VONBERG, ''Solar Radiation on 175
Mc./s'', Nature 158, 339-340 (07
September 1946),
doi:10.1038/158339b0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v158/n4010/abs/158339
b0.html {Ryle_Martin_19460822.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v158/n4010/abs/158339b0.html
[2] Sir Martin Ryle. Harry Todd—Fox
Photos/Archive Photos/Getty
Images COPYRIGHTED
source: http://media-1.web.britannica.co
m/eb-media/56/20956-004-D0293979.jpg
[09/17/1946 AD]
is found in bacteria (E. Coli).
Connecticut, USA
[1] Joshua Lederberg UNKNOWN
source: http://t3.gstatic.com/images?q=t
bn:ANd9GcTip9U51ETe5PA23tMz7X9VOE3pFURQn
PV-AHXSb4--tMcozbbL&t=1
[2] Edward Lawrie Tatum Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1958/tatum.jpg
[10/10/1946 AD]
captured from the upper atmosphere by a
rocket which confirms that the
atmosphere of Earth absorbs light with
ultraviolet frequency.
USA
[1] Solar spectra from the V-2 rocket
flight of October 10, 1946. PD?
source: http://www.opticsinfobase.org/Di
rectPDFAccess/1F0674EE-BDB9-137E-C7FE1A8
E4EC33A4E_77185.pdf?da=1&id=77185&seq=0&
CFID=25437192&CFTOKEN=60659010
[2] Tenatively assumed
temperature-height curves. The short
curve was derived from the V-2 pressure
data of October 10, 1946. PD?
source: http://www.opticsinfobase.org/Di
rectPDFAccess/1F0674EE-BDB9-137E-C7FE1A8
E4EC33A4E_77185.pdf?da=1&id=77185&seq=0&
CFID=25437192&CFTOKEN=60659010
[01/10/1947 AD]
showers, even during daylight.
Bank) Cheshire, England
[1] Figure 3 from: Prentice, J. P. M.,
Lovell, A. C. B., & Banwell, C. J.,
''Radio echo observations of meteors'',
Monthly Notices of the Royal
Astronomical Society, Vol. 107,
p.155. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
947MNRAS.107..155P {Lovell_Bernard_1947
0110.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
947MNRAS.107..155P
[2] Description
BernardLovell.jpg English: Sir
Bernard Lovell Date
Unknown Source
http://www.jb.man.ac.uk/gallery/Berna
rdLovell.jpg [1] Author
Unknown Permission (Reusing this
file) ''They are copyright free
although we would like credit to be
assigned to Jodrell Bank, University of
Manchester, if possible
somewhere!'' PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b1/BernardLovell.jpg
[06/26/1947 AD]
(bismuth) are fissioned with deuterons,
helium ions, or neutrons using up to
400 Mev.
California, USA
[1] I. Perlman, R. H. Goeckermann, D.
H. Templeton, and J. J. Howland,
''Fission of Bismuth, Lead, Thallium,
Platinum, and Tantalum with High Energy
Particles'', Phys. Rev. 72,
352–352
(1947). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v72/i4/p352_1 {Howland_J_J_19470626.p
df} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v72/i4/p352_1
[08/31/1947 AD]
an Aurora Borealis.
Bank) Cheshire, England
[1] {ULSF: todo: was this telescope, or
even a radio dish used to make this
measurement?} A. C. B. LOVELL , J. A.
CLEGG & C. D. ELLYETT, ''Radio Echoes
from the Aurora Borealis'', nature 160,
372-372 (13 September 1947),
doi:10.1038/160372a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v160/n4063/abs/160372
a0.html {Lovell_Bernard_19470831.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED AND Description
BernardLovell.jpg English: Sir
Bernard Lovell Date
Unknown Source
http://www.jb.man.ac.uk/gallery/Berna
rdLovell.jpg Author
Unknown Permission (Reusing this
file) ''They are copyright free
although we would like credit to be
assigned to Jodrell Bank, University of
Manchester, if possible
somewhere!'' PD AND The Lovell
Telescope. Credit: Anthony Holloway,
Jodrell Bank COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v160/n4063/abs/160372a0.html http:
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons
/b/b1/BernardLovell.jpghttp://www.jodrel
lbank.manchester.ac.uk//multimedia/image
s/library/Lovell9_1024x768.jpg
[2] Figure 3 from: Prentice, J. P.
M., Lovell, A. C. B., & Banwell, C. J.,
''Radio echo observations of meteors'',
Monthly Notices of the Royal
Astronomical Society, Vol. 107,
p.155. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
947MNRAS.107..155P {Lovell_Bernard_1947
0110.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
947MNRAS.107..155P
[10/14/1947 AD]
speed of sound in air.
California, USA
[1] Description X-1.jpg English:
Under the X1. Date 17:34, 13 July
2010 (UTC) (21 August 2006(2006-08-21)
(first version); 13 July
2010(2010-07-13) (last
version)) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia; transferred to Commons by
User:Logan using
CommonsHelper. (Original text : I
(350z33 (talk)) created this work
entirely by myself.) Author
350z33 (talk). Original uploader
was LWF at en.wikipedia. Later
version(s) were uploaded by 350z33 at
en.wikipedia. Permission (Reusing
this file) CC-BY-SA-3.0; Released
under the GNU Free Documentation
License. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5f/X-1.jpg
[2] Description Chuck
Yeager.jpg en:Chuck Yeager with
en:Bell X-1. Date 2004-02-09
(first version); 2005-04-18 (last
version) Source Originally from
en.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. Author Original uploader
was Hephaestos at en.wikipedia Later
versions were uploaded by Triddle at
en.wikipedia. Permission (Reusing
this file) PD-USGOV-MILITARY. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/7a/Chuck_Yeager.jpg
[04/16/1948 AD]
nucleus consists of protons and
neutrons arranged in shells.
Illinois
[1] Figure 1 from Maria G. Mayer, ''On
Closed Shells in Nuclei.'', Physical
Review, 2nd ser., 74 (1948),
p235–239. http://prola.aps.org/abstra
ct/PR/v74/i3/p235_1 {Goeppert-Mayer_Mar
ia_19480801.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v74/i3/p235_1
[2] Description Maria
Goeppert-Mayer.gif English: Maria
Goeppert-Mayer, Nobel laureates in
Physics Date Source
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:
Maria_Goeppert-Mayer.gif Author
This file is lacking author
information. Permission (Reusing this
file) PD-old PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/43/Maria_Goeppert-Mayer.
gif
[06/17/1948 AD]
solid-state electric switch and
amplifier).
Hill, New Jersey, USA
[1] Figures from: John Bardeen, Walter
H. Brattain, ''Three-Electrode Circuit
Element Utilizing Semiconductive
Materials'', Patent number: 2524035,
Filing date: Jun 17, 1948, Issue date:
Oct
1950. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
FDhnAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=
false PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=FDhnAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f
=false
[2] Description
Brattain.jpg English: Walter H.
Brattain Date 1956(1956) Source
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/
physics/laureates/1956/brattain-bio.html
Author Nobel
foundation Permission (Reusing this
file) Public domainPublic
domainfalsefalse Public domain This
Swedish photograph is free to use
either of these cases: * For
photographic works (fotografiska verk),
the image is public domain:
a) if the photographer died before
January 1, 1944, or b) if the
photographer is not known, and cannot
be traced, and the image was created
before January 1, 1944. * For
photographic pictures (fotografiska
bilder), such as images of the press,
the image is public domain if created
before January 1, 1969 (transitional
regulations 1994). The
photographer, if known, should always
be attributed.
Always provide source information. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c4/Brattain.jpg
[06/21/1948 AD]
stored program.
the University of Manchester)
Manchester, England
source:
[1948 AD]
(Velcro).
[1] Figure from: De Mestral,
''Separable Fastening Device'', Patent
number: 3009235, Filing date: May 9,
1958, Issue date: Nov 21,
1961 http://www.google.com/patents?id=m
vJkAAAAEBAJ PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=mvJkAAAAEBAJ
[2] Description English: Velcro
hooks. Deutsch: Klettband
(Haken). Date 7 March
2010 Source Own work Author
Alexander Klink CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Velcro_Hooks.jp
g/1280px-Velcro_Hooks.jpg
[07/27/1949 AD]
airplane (or jetliner) flies.
[1] Description en:De Havilland
Comet, ATP 18376C. Source
Imperial War Museum online
collection Source by Bzuk 26 November
2010. Date 4 October 1949 Author
Photographer: De Havilland
photographer for Ministry of Aircraft
Production Permission (Reusing this
file) British Government Copyright
expired (50 years) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/7/77/Comet_Prototype_at_Hatfiel
d.jpg
[2] Whittle W2/700 Engine. Frank
Whittle developed the first turbojet
engine with enough operating thrust to
power an aircraft in 1939. The W2
was the second, more powerful, version
of a flight-ready turbojet engine
developed by Whittle. The W2/700
engine flew in the Gloster E.28/39, the
first British aircraft to fly with a
turbojet engine, and the Gloster
Meteor. Photographed Farnborough,
22-Jan-06. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/fc/Whittle_Jet_Engine_W2
-700.JPG
[10/10/1949 AD]
New York, USA
[1] M. F. Kaplon, B. Peters, and H. L.
Bradt, ''Evidence for Multiple Meson
and γ-Ray Production in Cosmic-Ray
Stars'', Phys. Rev. 76,
1735–1736
(1949). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v76/i11/p1735_1 {Kaplon_M_F_19491010.
pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v76/i11/p1735_1
[11/24/1949 AD]
after birth is demonstrated.
Medical Research) Melbourne,
Australia
[1] Description Burnet 2jpg.jpg Sir
Frank Macfarlance Burnet, cropped Date
1945(1945) Source Own work
by uploader, cropped from
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Imag
e:Burnet_in_1945.jpg Author
Machocarioca Permission (Reusing
this file) See below. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/13/Burnet_2jpg.jpg
[01/13/1950 AD]
of about 100 billion comets that
surrounds our Sun about halfway to the
nearest stars.
Netherlands
[1] Oort, J. H., ''The structure of the
cloud of comets surrounding the Solar
System and a hypothesis concerning its
origin'', Bull. Astron. Inst. Neth.,
vol. 11, p. 91-110
(1950). http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/
1950BAN....11...91O COPYRIGHTED
source: http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
950BAN....11...91O
[2] Jan Hendrik Oort UNKNOWN
source: http://www.biografiasyvidas.com/
biografia/o/fotos/oort.jpg
[03/07/1950 AD]
isotope in calcium carbonate varies
with the temperature at which it is
deposited from water and so can be used
to create a temperature history of the
past, is recognized.
Illinois, USA
[1] Plate 1 from: H. C UREY, H. A
LOWENSTAM, S EPSTEIN and C. R McKINNEY,
''MEASUREMENT OF PALEOTEMPERATURES AND
TEMPERATURES OF THE UPPER CRETACEOUS OF
ENGLAND, DENMARK, AND THE SOUTHEASTERN
UNITED STATES'', BULLETIN OF THE
GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA, VOL. 62.
PP. 399-416, 1 FIG- 1 PL. APRIL
1951. http://gsabulletin.gsapubs.org/co
ntent/62/4/399.full.pdf+html {Urey_Haro
ld_19500307.pdf} UNKNOWN
source: http://gsabulletin.gsapubs.org/c
ontent/62/4/399.full.pdf
[2] Harold Clayton Urey The Nobel
Prize in Chemistry 1934 was awarded to
Harold C. Urey ''for his discovery of
heavy hydrogen''. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1934/urey.
jpg
[03/15/1950 AD]
elements (copper, bromine, silver, and
tin) by protons using 70 million
electron volts.
California, USA
[1] Description Berkeley 60-inch
cyclotron.gif English: Photograph
shows the 60-inch cyclotron at the
University of California Lawrence
Radiation Laboratory, Berkeley, in
August, 1939. The machine was the most
powerful atom-smasher in the world at
the time. It had started operating
early in the year. During the period of
the photograph Dr. Edwin M. McMillan
was doing the work which led to the
discovery of neptunium (element 93) a
year later. The instrument was used
later by Dr. Glenn T. Seaborg and his
colleagues for the discovery of element
94 (plutonium) early in 1941.
Subsequently, other transuranium
elements were discovered with the
machine, as well as many radioisotopes,
including carbon-14. For their work,
Drs. Seaborg and McMillan shared the
Nobel Prize in 1951. The machine was
used for the ''long bombardments''
which produced the first weighable and
visible quantities of plutonium, which
was used at Chicago by Seaborg and his
colleagues to work out the method for
separating plutonium on an industrial
scale at the Hanford, Washington,
plutonium pro... Русский:
Фотография
показывает
60-дюймовый циклотрон
в университете
Лаборатории California
Lawrence Radiation, Беркли, в
августе 1939. Машина
была самым сильным
ускорителем частиц в
мире в то время. Date
1939(1939) Source National
Archives logo.svg This image is
available from the Archival Research
Catalog of the National Archives and
Records Administration under the ARC
Identifier 558594. This tag does not
indicate the copyright status of the
attached work. A normal copyright tag
is still required. See
Commons:Licensing for more information.
US-NARA-ARC-Logo.svg Author
Department of Energy. Office of
Public Affairs PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/72/Berkeley_60-inch_cycl
otron.gif
[2] Description Berkeley 60-inch
cyclotron.gif English: Photograph
shows the 60-inch cyclotron at the
University of California Lawrence
Radiation Laboratory, Berkeley, in
August, 1939. The machine was the most
powerful atom-smasher in the world at
the time. It had started operating
early in the year. During the period of
the photograph Dr. Edwin M. McMillan
was doing the work which led to the
discovery of neptunium (element 93) a
year later. The instrument was used
later by Dr. Glenn T. Seaborg and his
colleagues for the discovery of element
94 (plutonium) early in 1941.
Subsequently, other transuranium
elements were discovered with the
machine, as well as many radioisotopes,
including carbon-14. For their work,
Drs. Seaborg and McMillan shared the
Nobel Prize in 1951. The machine was
used for the ''long bombardments''
which produced the first weighable and
visible quantities of plutonium, which
was used at Chicago by Seaborg and his
colleagues to work out the method for
separating plutonium on an industrial
scale at the Hanford, Washington,
plutonium pro... Русский:
Фотография
показывает
60-дюймовый циклотрон
в университете
Лаборатории California
Lawrence Radiation, Беркли, в
августе 1939. Машина
была самым сильным
ускорителем частиц в
мире в то время. Date
1939(1939) Source National
Archives logo.svg This image is
available from the Archival Research
Catalog of the National Archives and
Records Administration under the ARC
Identifier 558594. This tag does not
indicate the copyright status of the
attached work. A normal copyright tag
is still required. See
Commons:Licensing for more information.
US-NARA-ARC-Logo.svg Author
Department of Energy. Office of
Public Affairs PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/72/Berkeley_60-inch_cycl
otron.gif
[04/26/1950 AD]
shown to disintegrate atoms.
England
[1] Menon, Muirhead, Rochat, ''Nuclear
Reactions produced by Slow Negative
Ï€ Mesons.'', Philosophical
Magazine, S7, V41, N317, June 1950,
p583. {Rochat_O_19500426.pdf} COPYRIGH
TED
source: Menon, Muirhead, Rochat,
"Nuclear Reactions produced by Slow
Negative π Mesons.", Philosophical
Magazine, S7, V41, N317, June 1950,
p583.
[09/11/1950 AD]
atoms.
Accelerated carbon-12 ions collide and
fuse with Aluminum-27 to produce
Chlorine-34, and with Gold-197 to
produce Astatine-205 {aSTe-TEN}.
California, USA
[1] J. F. Miller, J. G. Hamilton, T. M.
Putnam, H. R. Haymond, and G. B. Rossi,
''Acceleration of Stripped C12 and C13
Nuclei in the Cyclotron'', Phys. Rev.
80, 486–486
(1950). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v80/i3/p486_1 {Rossi_G_B_19500911.pdf
} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v80/i3/p486_1
[2] Description LWA Picture
Final.jpg English: Head Photo of Luis
W Alvarez Date 1968(1968) Source
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/
physics/laureates/1968/alvarez.html Aut
hor Nobel Foundation PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6e/LWA_Picture_Final.jpg
[1950 AD]
bacteria DNA is shown.
[1] André Michel Lwoff Nobel photo
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1965/lwoff.jpg
[11/11/1951 AD]
magnetic tape (videotape).
[1] Nmungwun, Aaron F. Video Recording
Technology: Its Impact on Media and
Home Entertainment. Hillsdale, N.J: L.
Erlbaum Associates, 1989. Print. p119.
{Nmungwun_Video_1989.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: Nmungwun, Aaron F. Video
Recording Technology: Its Impact on
Media and Home Entertainment.
Hillsdale, N.J: L. Erlbaum Associates,
1989. Print. p119.
[2] English: A reel of 2'' Quadruplex
(aka 2'' Quad) videotape dating from
the mid-1970s, compared with a
modern-day miniDV digital videocassette
for size comparison. From w:en
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:2-inc
h_Quad_Tape_Reel_with_miniDV_cassette.jp
g Author:
w:en:User:Misternuvistor GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b9/2-inch_Quad_Tape_Reel
_with_miniDV_cassette.jpg
[12/20/1951 AD]
to produce electricity.
The heat from uranium
fission heats water to make steam which
drives an electrical generator.
Idaho (verify)
[1] The first production of usable
nuclear electricity in Idaho National
Laboratory occured in December 20,
1951, when four light bulbs were lit
with electricity generated from the
EBR-1 reactor. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/ac/First_four_nuclear_li
t_bulbs.jpeg
[2] Description
Ebr-1.zdv.jpg Photo of Experimental
Breeder Reactor Number One
(EBR-1). Date Source
http://www.inel.gov/featurestories/
images/ebr-1.jpg Author PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/43/Ebr-1.zdv.jpg
[1951 AD]
off another gene, and can control the
rate at which a gene is switched on and
off is discovered.
Spring Harbor, New York, USA
[1] McClintock,
Barbara Portrait Born: 1902 AD Died:
1992 AD, at 90 years of age. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.s9.com/images/portrai
ts/19876_McClintock-Barbara.jpg
[11/01/1952 AD]
exploded.
of the) Marshall Islands, Pacific
Ocean
[1] The MIKE test PD
source: http://www.atomicarchive.com/His
tory/hbomb/images/mike_test_s.jpg
[2] Edward Teller UNKNOWN
source: http://www.atomicarchive.com/His
tory/coldwar/images/teller_edward_s.jpg
[1952 AD]
estimated to be 5 to 6 billion light
years away.
Wilson, California, USA
[1] From Huntington Library, San
Marino, California. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.astrosociety.org/pubs
/mercury/31_04/images/baade.jpg
[02/26/1953 AD]
Sagittarius arms of the Milky Way
Galaxy are identified.
Chicago) Williams Bay, Wisconsin,
USA
[1] William Wilson Morgan January 3,
1906 — June 21, 1994 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.nap.edu/html/biomems/
photo/wmorgan.JPG
[04/02/1953 AD]
is understood.
The DNA molecule is a double helix made
of a sugar-phosphate backbone, with the
connected nitrogenous bases (adenine
{aDN-EN}, thymine {tI-mEN}, cytosine
{SITe-SEN} or guanine {GWo-nEN})
extending toward the center of the
helix from each of the two backbones.
The double helix form requires that an
adenine can only pair with a thymine,
and a cytosine can only pair with a
guanine. The process of copying
(replication) can now be explained as
the two strands of the double helix
being unwound, and each single helix
then serves as a model for its
complement.
Cambridge) Cambridge, England
[1] Figure 1 from: J. D. WATSON & F.
H. C. CRICK, ''Molecular structure of
nucleic acids; a structure for
deoxyribose nucleic acid'', Nature,
(1953) volume: 171 issue: 4356 page:
737. http://www.nature.com/nature/journ
al/v171/n4356/abs/171737a0.html {Crick_
Francis_Harry_Compton_19530402.pdf} COP
YRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v171/n4356/abs/171737a0.html
[2] Francis Harry Compton Crick
UNKNOWN
source: http://scientistshowtell.wikispa
ces.com/file/view/FrancisHarryComptonCri
ck2.jpg/39149552/FrancisHarryComptonCric
k2.jpg
[05/29/1953 AD]
Everest, the highest point of Earth
(9000 meters or 29,000 feet- 5 miles
up).
the Tibet Autonomous Region of
China.
[1] Title: Tenzing Norgay on the
summit Date: May 29,
1953 Origin: Edmund
Hillary
Information: Tenzing Norgay
on the summit of Mount Everest at 11.30
am. Tenzing waves his ice-axe on which
are strung the flags of the United
Nations, Britain, India and
Nepal. TenzingonSummit.jpg (300 ×
443 pixels, file size: 116 KB, MIME
type: image/jpeg) Tenzing Norgay
achieves the summit of Mt. Everest, May
29, 1953. Photograph taken by Edmund
Hillary. Copyright Royal Geographic
Society and taken from
http://www.unlockingthearchives.rgs.org/
themes/everest/gallery/resource/?id=216
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.unlockingthearchives.
rgs.org/resources/images/ten-on-summit-e
nlarged.jpg
[2] Sir Edmund Hillary was a famous
mountain climber from Auckland. After
climbing Mount Everest he helped build
schools in Nepal. UNKNOWN
source: http://ourkiwirolemodels.wikispa
ces.com/file/view/3797.jpg/163780247/379
7.jpg
[01/21/1954 AD]
submarine is launched.
The fuel supply
of uranium lasts for months without the
need to surface to recharge batteries.
[1] Nautilus in NYC UNKNOWN
source: http://www.subguru.com/nautilus/
Nautilus_in_NYC.jpg
[2] Cross section of USS
Nautilus UNKNOWN
source: http://www.subguru.com/nautilus/
nautilus_cross-section.gif
[05/05/1954 AD]
"microwave amplification by stimulated
emission of radiation").
A beam of ammonia molecules emerges
through a hole, passes through an
electrostatic field into a cavity with
an oscillating electric potential at
the molecular transition frequency.
This causes microwave light to be
emitted by the molecules in the cavity
which then induces the transition to
light emission in the molecules
entering the cavity causing
self-sustained oscillations with a very
stable frequency. So the MASER can be
used as a very stable oscillator (or
atomic clock), as an amplifier of
microwaves near a molecular resonance,
and as a microwave spectrometer.
New York, USA
[1] Figures 1 and 2 from: J. P.
Gordon, H. J. Zeiger, and C. H. Townes,
''Molecular Microwave Oscillator and
New Hyperfine Structure in the
Microwave Spectrum of NH3'', Phys. Rev.
95, 282–284
(1954). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v95/i1/p282_1 {Townes_Charles_Hard_19
540505.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v95/i1/p282_1
[2] Charles Hard Townes Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/physics/laureates/1964/townes.jpg
[10/21/1954 AD]
by electrical stimulation (direct
neuron writing).
[1] Figure 1 from: ARAKI, T. & OTANI,
T. (1955). ''Response of single
motoneurons to direct stimulation
in toad's spinal cord.'' J.
Neurophysiol. 18,
472-485. http://jn.physiology.org/conte
nt/18/5/472.full.pdf+html?sid=0ddda869-c
8ac-4438-b023-aabdae748ef4 {Araki_Tatsu
nosuke_19541021.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://jn.physiology.org/content
/18/5/472.full.pdf+html?sid=0ddda869-c8a
c-4438-b023-aabdae748ef4
[2] Figure 2 from: ARAKI, T. & OTANI,
T. (1955). ''Response of single
motoneurons to direct stimulation
in toad's spinal cord.'' J.
Neurophysiol. 18,
472-485. http://jn.physiology.org/conte
nt/18/5/472.full.pdf+html?sid=0ddda869-c
8ac-4438-b023-aabdae748ef4 {Araki_Tatsu
nosuke_19541021.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://jn.physiology.org/content
/18/5/472.full.pdf+html?sid=0ddda869-c8a
c-4438-b023-aabdae748ef4
[1954 AD]
female hormone, is found to prevent
ovulation (discharge of an ovum or
ovule from the ovary) in humans. This
leads to the first birth control pill
for humans.
Biology) Shrewsbury, Massachusetts,
USA
[1] Gregory Pincus (1903-1967)
performed studies in animals to confirm
the contraceptive effects of
norethinodrel. His data were used to
justify human research using the same
chemical. He collaborated closely with
the obstetrician John Rock, and was
supported financially and politically
by Katherine Dexter McCormick, Margaret
Sanger and other birth control
activists. [t 1967 seems a very early
death - probably galvanized by violent
antipleasurists.] UNKNOWN
source: http://www.br-online.de/bildung/
databrd/ms26.htm/ms26b11.jpg
[08/22/1955 AD]
{rADE-O-iMye-nO-aSA}: a method to
measure tiny amounts of substances by
comparing the quantity of binding of a
radiolabeled substance to an antibody.
Bronx, New York, USA
[1] Figure 4 from: ''Rosalyn Yalow -
Nobel Lecture''. Nobelprize.org. 24 Apr
2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1977/yalow-lecture.html {
Yalow_Rosalyn_19771208.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED AND Rosalyn Yalow
preparing the ''atomic cocktail,'' a
radio-iodine mixture used in thyroid
diagnostic procedures, 1948, source:
Radioisotope Unit, Veterans
Administration Hospital, Bronx, New
York. UNKNOWN
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1977/yalow-lecture
.htmlhttp://timeline.aps.org/images/post
ers/55_2a.jpg
[2] Figure 4 from: ''Rosalyn Yalow -
Nobel Lecture''. Nobelprize.org. 24 Apr
2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1977/yalow-lecture.html {
Yalow_Rosalyn_19771208.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1977/yalow-lecture
.html
[10/24/1955 AD]
the impact of very high speed protons
on copper atoms.
California, USA
[1] Figure 1 from: Owen Chamberlain,
Emilio Segrè, Clyde Wiegand, and
Thomas Ypsilantis, ''Observation of
Antiprotons'', Phys. Rev. 100,
947–950
(1955). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v100/i3/p947_1 {Segre_Emilio_19551024
.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v100/i3/p947_1
[2] Description Segre.jpg English:
Emilio Segrè Date
1959(1959) Source
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/
physics/laureates/1959/segre-bio.html A
uthor Nobel foundation PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/41/Segre.jpg
[03/??/1956 AD]
synthesize DNA molecules using
nucleotides and ATP. This enzyme will
be isolated and named "polymerase".
Missouri, USA
[1] Arthur Kornberg Nobel Prize
photograph COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1959/kornberg.jpg
[12/03/1956 AD]
first multi-level and continuous
maser).
Hill, New Jersey, USA
[1] Figure 1 from: H. E. D. Scovil, G.
Feher, and H. Seidel, ''Operation of a
Solid State Maser'', Phys. Rev. 105,
762–763
(1957). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v105/i2/p762_1 {Seidel_Harold_1956120
3.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v105/i2/p762_1
[2] Figure 2 from: H. E. D. Scovil,
G. Feher, and H. Seidel, ''Operation of
a Solid State Maser'', Phys. Rev. 105,
762–763
(1957). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v105/i2/p762_1 {Seidel_Harold_1956120
3.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v105/i2/p762_1
[1956 AD]
that the mid-Atlantic ridge is a
mountain range extending throughout the
oceans of the world and is some
64,000 km (or 40,000 miles) long.
New York, USA
[1] William Maurice Ewing UNKNOWN
source: http://lh4.ggpht.com/_gNIHS1PHL1
Q/SO941XFj4CI/AAAAAAAAATk/tMf7NRc0kIU/50
0.jpg
[01/16/1957 AD]
identified.
General Hospital) Boston,
Massachusetts, USA
[1] Mahlon B. Hoagland, Mary Louise
Stephenson, Jesse F. Scott, Liselotte
I. Hecht, and Paul C. Zamecnikm ''A
SOLUBLE RIBONUCLEIC ACID INTERMEDIATE
IN PROTEIN SYNTHESIS'', J. Biol. Chem.
1958 231: 241-257.
http://intl.jbc.org/content/231/1 {Ho
agland_Mahlon_Bush_19570927.pdf} COPYRI
GHTED
source: http://intl.jbc.org/content/231/
1
[2] Description Peptide
syn.png English: illustration of tRNA
building peptide chain Date 1
March 2009(2009-03-01) Source Own
work Author
Boumphreyfr Permission (Reusing
this file) See below. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0f/Peptide_syn.png
[10/04/1957 AD]
An 83-kg (or 184-pound) aluminum sphere
that carries four antennas, reaches an
Earth orbit with an apogee (farthest
point from Earth) of 940 km (or 584
miles), and circles Earth every 96
minutes.
Kazakhstan, U.S.S.R.
[1] Description Sputnik
asm.jpg English: A replica of Sputnik
1, the first artificial satellite in
the world to be put into outer space:
the replica is stored in the National
Air and Space Museum. فارسی:
مدل ماهواره
اسپوتنیک-۱، نخستین
ماهواره فضایی
جهان Suomi: Sputnik 1:n, maailman
ensimmäinen ihmisen laukaiseman Maata
kiertävän keinotekoisen satelliittin,
jäljennös. Date
2004(2004) Source
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/database
/MasterCatalog?sc=1957-001B Author
NSSDC, NASA PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/be/Sputnik_asm.jpg
[11/03/1957 AD]
a dog.
Kazakhstan, U.S.S.R.
[1] Sputnik 2 PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image
/spacecraft/sputnik2_vsm.jpg
[2] Description Sputnik
asm.jpg English: A replica of Sputnik
1, the first artificial satellite in
the world to be put into outer space:
the replica is stored in the National
Air and Space Museum. فارسی:
مدل ماهواره
اسپوتنیک-۱، نخستین
ماهواره فضایی
جهان Suomi: Sputnik 1:n, maailman
ensimmäinen ihmisen laukaiseman Maata
kiertävän keinotekoisen satelliittin,
jäljennös. Date
2004(2004) Source
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/database
/MasterCatalog?sc=1957-001B Author
NSSDC, NASA PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/be/Sputnik_asm.jpg
[1957 AD]
using an implanted electric device; the
first cochlear implants.
[1] Figure 1. Intraorbital X-ray of
bilateral cochlear implants in a
child. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence/article/pii/S0957583906000789#gr1
[2] Illustration of cochlear implant
from the National Institute on Deafness
and Other Communication Disorders at
the National Institutes of Health. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/cb/Cochlear_implant.jpg
[01/09/1958 AD]
effect": when atoms are in a
crystalline lattice, the lattice
prevents them from recoiling, and so
the atoms can emit and absorb gamma
radiation of the same exact frequency
(resonantly). This phenomenon allows
highly precise measurements of
frequency.
Max-Planck-Institut fur medizinische
Forschung {Institute of Physics at the
Max Planck Institute for Medical
Research}) Heidelberg, Germany
[1] Description
Mossbauer.jpg English: Rudolf
Mössbauer Date
1961(1961) Source
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/
physics/laureates/1961/mossbauer-bio.htm
l Author Nobel
foundation COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e2/Mossbauer.jpg
[05/01/1958 AD]
radiation temporarily trapped in the
Earth's magnetic field is discovered.
These layers will come to be called the
magnetosphere {maG-nE-Tu-SFER} or the
"Van Allen" radiation belts.
American Physical Society joint
meeting) Washington, D. C., USA
[1] Figure 5 from: JAMES A. VAN ALLEN,
LOUIS A. FRANK, ''Radiation Around the
Earth to a Radial Distance of 107,400
km.'', Nature 183, 430-434 (14 February
1959)
doi:10.1038/183430a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v183/n4659/pdf/183430
a0.pdf
{Van_Allen_James_Alfred_19590214.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v183/n4659/pdf/183430a0.pdf
[2] Figure 4 from: J. A. Van Allen
and H. E. Tatel, ''The Cosmic-Ray
Counting Rate of a Single Geiger
Counter from Ground Level to 161
Kilometers Altitude'', Phys. Rev. 73,
245
(1948). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v73/i3/p245_1 {Van_Allen_James_Alfred
_19471016.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v78/i6/p819_1
[08/01/1958 AD]
empty space and first rocket launched
atomic explosion.
[1] Hardtack Teak test PD
source: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=P
BxpHNCDfZQ
[1958 AD]
Semiconductor)
[1] First Integrated Circuit - Jack
Kilby invented the integrated circuit
at Texas Instruments in 1958. Comprised
of only a transistor and other
components on a slice of germanium,
Kilby's invention, 7/16-by-1/16-inches
in size, revolutionized the electronics
industry. The roots of almost every
electronic device we take for granted
today can be traced back to Dallas more
than 40 years ago.
source: http://www.ti.com/corp/graphics/
press/image/print/co1034.tif
[01/03/1959 AD]
Kazakhstan, U.S.S.R.
[1] Luna 1 PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image
/spacecraft/luna1_vsm.jpg
[2] Luna 1 Spacecraft PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/plane
tary/image/luna-1.jpg
[01/27/1959 AD]
pear shaped from the motion of a 1 kg
(or 3 pound) satellite.
[1] Vanguard 1 satellite PD
source: http://ecoble.com/wp-content/upl
oads/2008/04/vanguard1_nasm_lg.jpg
[2] O'Keefe John Aloysius UNKNOWN
source: http://www.spacefacts.de/bios/po
rtraits/candidates/okeefe_john.jpg
[04/??/1959 AD]
are searched for.
Green Bank, West Virginia, USA
[1] Frank Drake UNKNOWN
source: http://www.bigear.org/CSMO/Image
s/CS09/cs09p09s.jpg
[09/14/1959 AD]
Earth.
The moon is shown to have no
significant magnetic field or radiation
belts.
Kazakhstan, U.S.S.R.
[1] Luna 2 PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/plane
tary/image/luna_2.jpg
[2] Luna 1 PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image
/spacecraft/luna1_vsm.jpg
[10/18/1959 AD]
far-side of the moon of Earth.
Kazakhstan (U.S.S.R.)
[1] First image of the far side of the
Moon Earth's Moon The Luna 3
spacecraft returned the first views
ever of the far side of the Moon. The
first image was taken at 03:30 UT on 7
October at a distance of 63,500 km
after Luna 3 had passed the Moon and
looked back at the sunlit far side. The
last image was taken 40 minutes later
from 66,700 km. A total of 29
photographs were taken, covering 70% of
the far side. The photographs were very
noisy and of low resolution, but many
features could be recognized. This is
the first image returned by Luna 3,
taken by the wide-angle lens, it showed
the far side of the Moon was very
different from the near side, most
noticeably in its lack of lunar maria
(the dark areas). The right
three-quarters of the disk are the far
side. The dark spot at upper right is
Mare Moscoviense, the dark area at
lower left is Mare Smythii. The small
dark circle at lower right with the
white dot in the center is the crater
Tsiolkovskiy and its central peak. The
Moon is 3475 km in diameter and north
is up in this image. (Luna 3-1) PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/imgca
t/hires/lu3_1.gif
[2] Luna 3 PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image
/spacecraft/luna_3.jpg
[11/05/1959 AD]
controlled remotely; a radio controlled
artificial heart pacemaker.
New Haven, New Jersey, USA
[1] Figure 3 from: Glenn WWL, Mauro A,
Longo E, Lavietes PH, MacKay FJ The
Radiofrequency Cardiac Pacemaker.
Remote stimulation of the heart by
radiofrequency transmission. Clinical
application to a patient with
Stoke-Adams Syndrome. New Engl J Med
1959:262;948-951 http://www.nejm.org/do
i/pdf/10.1056/NEJM195911052611905 COPYR
IGHTED
source: http://www.nejm.org/doi/pdf/10.1
056/NEJM195911052611905
[2] Figure 1 from: Glenn WWL, Mauro
A, Longo E, Lavietes PH, MacKay FJ The
Radiofrequency Cardiac Pacemaker.
Remote stimulation of the heart by
radiofrequency transmission. Clinical
application to a patient with
Stoke-Adams Syndrome. New Engl J Med
1959:262;948-951 http://www.nejm.org/do
i/pdf/10.1056/NEJM195911052611905 COPYR
IGHTED
source: http://www.nejm.org/doi/pdf/10.1
056/NEJM195911052611905
[12/07/1959 AD]
Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
[1] Figure 1 from: RICCARDO GIACCONI
and BRUNO ROSSI, ''A 'Telescope' for
Soft X-Ray Astronomy'', Journal of
Geophysical Research, V65, N2, Feb
1960,
http://www.agu.org/pubs/crossref/1960/
JZ065i002p00773.shtml {Rossi_Bruno_1959
1207.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.agu.org/pubs/crossref
/1960/JZ065i002p00773.shtml
[2] Bruno Benedetto Rossi April 13,
1905 — November 21, 1993 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.nap.edu/html/biomems/
photo/brossi.JPG
[01/23/1960 AD]
miles) below sea level.
Ocean
[1] Español: Batiscafo
Trieste. from en wikipedia. The
Bathyscaphe Trieste is hoisted out of
the water in a tropical port, circa
1958-59, soon after her purchase by
the Navy. Photography was released by
the U.S. Navy Electronics Laboratory,
San Diego, California. (U.S. Naval
Historical Center Photograph.) Photo
#NH 96801: U.S. Navy Bathyscaphe
Trieste (1958-1963). Source : U.S.
Naval Historical Center PD
AND Description
AugustePiccardandPaulKipfer.jpg Englis
h: Paul Kipfer and August Piccard
prepare to enter the stratosphere in a
pressurized gondola lifted by a
hydrogen filled balloon on May 27th,
1931. Date May 27th, 1931.
2007-10-24 (original upload
date) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia; transferred to Commons by
User:Storkk using CommonsHelper. CC
AND Title: Auguste Piccard
People in the image: *
Piccard, Auguste Prof.: Physiker,
Ballonfahrer, Stratosphären- und
Tiefseeforscher, Schweiz August
1932(1932-08) Source Deutsches
Bundesarchiv (German Federal Archive),
Bild 102-13738 Author Unknown CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/36/Bathyscaphe_Trieste.j
pghttp://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/1/17/AugustePiccardandPaulKipfer
.jpghttp://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedi
a/commons/a/a0/Bundesarchiv_Bild_102-137
38%2C_Auguste_Piccard.jpg
[2] Español: Batiscafo
Trieste. from en wikipedia. The
Bathyscaphe Trieste is hoisted out of
the water in a tropical port, circa
1958-59, soon after her purchase by
the Navy. Photography was released by
the U.S. Navy Electronics Laboratory,
San Diego, California. (U.S. Naval
Historical Center Photograph.) Photo
#NH 96801: U.S. Navy Bathyscaphe
Trieste (1958-1963). Source : U.S.
Naval Historical Center PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/36/Bathyscaphe_Trieste.j
pg
[03/09/1960 AD]
Gravity is shown to change the
frequency of light proving that the
speed of light is not constant.
The Mössbauer effect is used (with
radioactive Iron-57) to show that the
wavelength of a beam of light with
gamma wavelength is increased (or
red-shifted) as the beam is sent from
the top floor of a tower to the
basement. This is because of the
stronger gravity field at the basement
which is closer to the center of Earth.
Massachusetts, USA
[1] [t Note that this is from Hay, et
al, and not from Pound and
Rebka] Figure 1 from: H. J. Hay, J.
P. Schiffer*, T. E. Cranshaw, and P. A.
Egelstaff, ''Measurement of the Red
Shift in an Accelerated System Using
the Mössbauer Effect in Fe57'', Phys.
Rev. Lett. 4, 165–166 (1960)
http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v4/i4/
p165_1 {Whitehead_A_B_2_19600127.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/
v4/i4/p165_1
[2] Catalog #: Rebka Glen C1 Rebka,
Glen A. Jr.; Pound, Robert
Vivian Date: circa 1965 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://photos.aip.org/history/Th
umbnails/rebka_glen_c1.jpg
[04/19/1960 AD]
Washington, D. C., USA
[1] Figure 4 from: Blake, R. L.,
Chubb, T. A., Friedman, H., & Unzicker,
A. E., ''Interpretation of X-Ray
Photograph of the Sun.'', Astrophysical
Journal, vol. 137,
p.3. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu
//full/1963ApJ...137....3B/0000003.000.h
tml
{Friedman_Herbert_19620829.pdf} COPYR
IGHTED
source: http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du//full/1963ApJ...137....3B/0000003.000
.html
[2] FRIEDMAN (Herbert)(1916-2000)
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.aip.org/history/newsl
etter/spring2001/images/friedman_lg.jpg
[04/22/1960 AD]
"light amplification by stimulated
emission of radiation"). Light is fed
into a ruby cylinder from a flash lamp,
and the ruby emits light that is
monochromatic (single frequency) and
coherent (all the beams are in a single
direction). These coherent beams of
light can travel thousands of
kilometers without spreading very far
apart.
California
[1] Figure 1 from: Theodore H.
Mainman, ''Ruby Laser Systems'', Patent
number: 3353115, Filing date: Apr 13,
1961, Issue date: Nov 14,
1967 http://www.google.com/patents?id=b
-lUAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&sou
rce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=f
alse
{Maimon_Theodore_Harold_19610413.pdf}
PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=b-lUAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f
=false
[2] Description Ted Maiman Holding
First Laser.jpg English: Theodore
Maiman holding his invention of the
world's first laser (invented May 16,
1960) Date 16 May
1983(1983-05-16) Source
Template:TRW Author
Kathleenfmaiman Permission (Reusi
ng this file) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/df/Ted_Maiman_Holding_Fi
rst_Laser.jpg
[04/??/1960 AD]
theory of space and time dilation is
identified in that time appears
different depending on which of two
clocks is viewed as stationary, and the
first recognition that spectral line
position changes as a result of a
change in light source distance.
England
[1] H. Dingle, ''Relativity and
Electromagnetism: An Epistemological
Appraisal'', Philosophy of Science, 27,
p233-253 (1960).
http://www.jstor.org/stable/185967 [D
ingle_Herbert_196004xx.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1859
67 [Dingle_Herbert_196004xx.pdf}
[2] H. Dingle, ''Relativity and
Electromagnetism: An Epistemological
Appraisal'', Philosophy of Science, 27,
p233-253 (1960).
http://www.jstor.org/stable/185967 [D
ingle_Herbert_196004xx.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1859
67 [Dingle_Herbert_196004xx.pdf}
[08/12/1960 AD]
satellite. Stations on the surface of
Earth send and receive data from the
satellite, a mylar polyester balloon.
USA
[1] The Echo I satellite. PD
source: http://www.centennialofflight.go
v/essay/Dictionary/Echo/DI55G1.jpg
[2] Description John Robinson
Pierce.jpg English: John Robinson
Pierce, the former director of research
at AT&T Bell Telephone Laboratories.
Born in Des Moines, Iowa in 1910,
Pierce was the first to evaluate the
various technical options in satellite
communications and assess the financial
prospects. In 1952, he published an
article in Astounding Science Fiction
in which he discussed the potential
benefits of satellite communications.
Coined the term ''transistor'',
instrumental in the development of
Telstar 1, and wrote science fiction
under the nom de plume J.J. Coupling. A
few years later, Pierce greatly
assisted in the creation of the first
artificial communication satellite,
ECHO. Pierce died from pneumonia
complications on April 2, 2002 at the
age of 92. Date Unknown Source
Great Images in NASA
Description Author
NASA Permission (Reusing this
file) See below. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/ed/John_Robinson_Pierce.
jpg
[08/30/1960 AD]
axial tomography" (CAT) is described: a
thin line of x-rays is used to
determine the density of the inside of
objects by measuring the difference in
x-ray absorption from many angles
around an object.
Center) Los Angeles, California,
USA
[1] Figure 2 from: Oldendorf, W. H.,
''Isolated Flying Spot Detection of
Radiodensity
Dis-Continuities-Displaying the
Internal Structural Pattern of a
Complex Object'', Bio-Medical
Electronics, IRE Transactions on,
vol.8, no.1, pp.68-72, Jan. 1961 doi:
10.1109/TBMEL.1961.4322854 URL:
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.j
sp?tp=&arnumber=4322854&isnumber=4322838
{Oldendorf_William_H_19600830.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: URL:
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.j
sp?tp=&arnumber=4322854&isnumber=4322838
[2] William Henry Oldendorf, MD., 1925
- 1992 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.catscanman.net/blog/w
p-content/uploads/oldendorf.jpg
[12/28/1960 AD]
regulates protein synthesis in the cell
(regulatory genes called "operons") are
identified.
[1] François Jacob, b. 1920 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.pasteurfoundation.org
/images/Jacob.jpg
[2] Jacques Monod, b. 1910 d.
1976 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.pasteurfoundation.org
/images/Monod.jpg
[12/30/1960 AD]
mixture of helium and neon).
Hill, New Jersey, USA
[1] Figure 1 from: William R. Bennett
jr, Ali Javan, ''GAS OPTICAL MASER'',
Patent number: 3149290, Filing date:
Dec 28, 1960, Issue date: Sep 15,
1964 http://www.google.com/patents?id=r
2pmAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&sou
rce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=f
alse PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=r2pmAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f
=false
[2] William R. Bennett jr
(verify) UNKNOWN
source: http://1.bp.blogspot.com/_IoU3bE
FUwWc/SHH6tjvzGpI/AAAAAAAACWs/MjwSujRgKG
w/s400/William%2BR.%2BBennett.jpeg
[12/??/1960 AD]
hypothesis": that continents are
carried passively on top of the
spreading seafloor.
Jersey, USA
[1] Princeton University
Archives Harry Hammond Hess
*32 UNKNOWN
source: http://paw.princeton.edu/issues/
2010/02/03/pages/6388/Hess.jpg
[04/12/1961 AD]
Earth.
[1] The Vostok 1 capsule as recovered
after landing. Currently on display at
the RKK Energiya museum in Korolyov CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/7/70/Vostok_1_after_landing.jpg
[2] Description Yuri Gagarin in
Vostok 1 Source Mission
photography Portion used
Sufficient to show the face of
Gagarin in his spacesuit within the
capsule Low resolution?
yes COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/b/b1/Vostok1.jpg
[08/03/1961 AD]
is found to code for a specific amino
acid; a synthetic RNA molecule made of
a single repeating nucleotide (uridylic
acid) {YR-e-Dil-iK} makes a protein
containing only one amino acid
(phenylalanine) {FeNL-aL-u-nEN}.
Bethesda, Maryland, USA
[1] Marshall W. Nirenberg and J.
Heinrich Matthaei, ''The Dependence of
Cell-Free Protein Synthesis in E. Coli
upon Naturally Occurring or Synthetic
Polyribonucleotides'', Proc Natl Acad
Sci U S A. 1961 October; 47(10):
1588–1602.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC223178/ {Nirenberg_Marshall_W_196
10803.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/
articles/PMC223178/
[2] Marshall Warren Nirenberg Nobel
Prize photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1968/nirenberg.jpg
[12/30/1961 AD]
for one amino acid in a protein is
understood.
Cambridge, England
[1] Figure 1 from: F. H. C. CRICK,
LESLIE BARNETT, S. BRENNER & R. J.
WATTS-TOBIN, ''General Nature of the
Genetic Code for Proteins'', Nature
192, 1227 - 1232 (30 December 1961);
doi:10.1038/1921227a0 http://www.nature
.com/nature/journal/v192/n4809/abs/19212
27a0.html
{Crick_Francis_Harry_Compton_19611230.
pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v192/n4809/abs/1921227a0.html
[2] Francis Harry Compton Crick
UNKNOWN
source: http://scientistshowtell.wikispa
ces.com/file/view/FrancisHarryComptonCri
ck2.jpg/39149552/FrancisHarryComptonCric
k2.jpg
[1961 AD]
shown to have a single chromosome,
which is in the shape of a circle.
[1] Figure 1 from: François Jacob,
Nadine Peyrieras, Michel Morange,
''Travaux scientifiques de François
Jacob'', Odile Jacob, 2002,
p573. http://books.google.com/books?id=
0bTvkp5QvwsC&pg=PA537#v=onepage&q&f=fals
e COPYRIGHTED
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=0bTvkp5QvwsC&pg=PA537#v=onepage&q&f=fal
se
[2] François Jacob, b. 1920 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.pasteurfoundation.org
/images/Jacob.jpg
[06/16/1962 AD]
is recognized. RNA is usually
single-stranded but can fold back on
itself to form a double helix as is the
case for tRNA and rRNA.
[1] figure 7 from: M. SPENCER, W.
FULLER, M. H. F. WILKINS & G. L. BROWN,
''Determination of the Helical
Configuration of Ribonucleic Acid
Molecules by X-Ray Diffraction Study of
Crystalline Amino-Acid–transfer
Ribonucleic Acid'', Nature 194, 1014 -
1020 (16 June 1962);
doi:10.1038/1941014a0 http://www.nature
.com/nature/journal/v194/n4833/abs/19410
14a0.html
{Wilkins_Maurice_Hugh_Frederick_196206
16.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v194/n4833/abs/1941014a0.html
[2] Maurice Hugh Frederick Wilkins
Nobel Prize photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/medicine/laureates/1962/wilkin
s_postcard.jpg
[09/24/1962 AD]
{SeME-KeN-DuK-TR} LASER. A forward
biased Gallium-Arsenide p-n junction
emits a monochromatic microwave light.
Schenectady, New York, USA
[1] Figure 2 from: Hall, Fenner,
Kingsley, Soltys and Carlson,
''Coherent Light Emission From GaAs
Junctions'', Phys. Rev. Letters, 9
(1962) 366.
http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v9/i9/
p366_1 {Carlson_R_O_19620924.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/
v9/i9/p366_1
[2] Note that this image is from the
Nobel prize lecture of Charles Hard
Townes and is not in the original paper
of Hall, et al.[t] Figure 5
from: ''Charles H. Townes - Nobel
Lecture''. Nobelprize.org. 4 Apr 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1964/townes-lecture.html {
Townes_Charles_Hard_19641211.pdf}
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/physics/laureates/1964/townes-lecture
.html
[10/12/1962 AD]
solar system are observed.
Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
[1] Figure 1 from: RICCARDO GIACCONI
and BRUNO ROSSI, ''A 'Telescope' for
Soft X-Ray Astronomy'', Journal of
Geophysical Research, V65, N2, Feb
1960,
http://www.agu.org/pubs/crossref/1960/
JZ065i002p00773.shtml {Rossi_Bruno_1959
1207.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.agu.org/pubs/crossref
/1960/JZ065i002p00773.shtml
[2] Bruno Benedetto Rossi April 13,
1905 — November 21, 1993 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.nap.edu/html/biomems/
photo/brossi.JPG
[10/26/1962 AD]
data. Data is written to and read from
plastic film.
Angeles, California, USA
[1] From: Wayne R. Johnson, ''High
Speed, High Density, Optical Recording
System'', Patent number:
3154370 Filing date: Oct 26, 1962,
Issue date: Oct 27,
1964 http://www.google.com/patents?id=H
9x0AAAAEBAJ
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=H9x0AAAAEBAJ
[1962 AD]
live for prolonged periods of time.
[1] ConShelf 2 UNKNOWN
source: http://blog.sellsiusrealestate.c
om/wp-content/conshelf2.jpg
[2] ConShelf 2 UNKNOWN
source: http://farm4.static.flickr.com/3
556/3470838604_a4cfb0e0eb.jpg
[1962 AD]
emitted by the Sun in all directions
following the lines of force of the
Sun's magnetic field is confirmed.
[1] Description English: Mariner 2
was the world's first successful
interplanetary spacecraft. Launched
August 27, 1962, on an Atlas-Agena
rocket, Mariner 2 passed within about
34,000 kilometers (21,000 miles) of
Venus, sending back valuable new
information about interplanetary space
and the Venusian atmosphere. Mariner 2
recorded the temperature at Venus for
the first time, revealing the planet's
very hot atmosphere of about 500
degrees Celsius (900 degrees
Fahrenheit). The spacecraft's solar
wind experiment measured for the first
time the density, velocity, composition
and variation over time of the solar
wind. Date - Source
http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalo
g/PIA04594 Author NASA Jet Propulsion
Laboratory (NASA-JPL) Image ID :
PIA04594 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Mariner_2_in_sp
ace.jpg/1274px-Mariner_2_in_space.jpg
[03/04/1963 AD]
sources) are identified; extragalactic
objects, starlike in appearance and
having spectra with characteristically
large redshifts, that are thought to be
the most distant and most luminous
objects in the universe.
Carnegie institute of Washington and
California Institute of Technology)
Pasadena, California, USA
[1] Figure 2 from: Matthews, T. A. &
Sandage, A. R., ''Optical
Identification of 3c 48, 3c 196, and 3c
286 with Stellar Objects.'',
Astrophysical Journal, vol. 138, p.30,
1963ApJ...138...30M http://adsabs.harva
rd.edu/full/1963ApJ...138...30M {Sandag
e_Allan_Rex_19630304.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
963ApJ...138...30M
[2] Allan Rex Sandage UNKNOWN
source: http://www.phys-astro.sonoma.edu
/brucemedalists/sandage/sandage.jpg
[06/16/1963 AD]
Earth.
Kazakhstan (U.S.S.R.)
[1] English: 1963 Soviet Union 10
kopeks stamp. Valentina
Tereshkova. Русский:
Марка, Советский
Союз, 10 копеек, 1963.
Валентина
Терешкова. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/7f/Soviet_Union-1963-Sta
mp-0.10._Valentina_Tereshkova.jpg
[07/15/1964 AD]
invented; the most powerful commercial
gas laser.
Hill, New Jersey, USA
[1] Fig 1 from: W. L. Faust, R. A.
McFarlane, C. K. N. Patel, and C. G. B.
Garrett, ''Noble Gas Optical Maser
Lines at Wavelengths between 2 and 35
μ'', Phys. Rev. 133, A1476
(1964) http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v133/i6A/pA1476_1 {Patel_C_Kumar_N_196
30820.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v133/i6A/pA1476_1
[2] C Kumar N Patel UNKNOWN
source: http://www.research.ucla.edu/web
icons/patel.gif
[12/17/1964 AD]
the DNA of the host cell which makes
the cell a cancer cell that produces
more cancer cells is shown.
Studies) San Diego, California,
USA
[1] Renato Dulbecco Nobel prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1975/dulbecco.jpg
[1964 AD]
which uses less electricity, weighs
less, and is thinner than a Cathode Ray
Tube display.
USA
[1] George Heilmeier with
LCD 1967 COPYRIGHTED FAIR USE
source: http://www.wired.com/images_blog
![http://www.wired.com/images_blogs/gadgetlab/2009/05/heilmeier_with-lcd1.jpg and H Kawamoto, "The history of liquid-crystal displays", Proceedings of the IEEE [0018-9219] Kawamoto (2002) volume: 90 issue: 4 page: 460. and George H. Heilmeier, "Liquid crystal displays: Anexperiment in interdisciplinary research that worked", vol 23, Num 7, July 1976. http://ucelinks.cdlib.org:8888/sfx_local?sid=google&auinit=GH&aulast=Heilmeier&atitle=Liquid+crystal+displays:+An+experiment+in+interdisciplinary+research+that+worked&title=IEEE+transactions+on+electron+devices&volume=23&issue=7&date=1976&spage=780&issn=0018-9383](http://www.wired.com/images_blogs/gadgetlab/2009/05/heilmeier_with-lcd1.jpg
and
H Kawamoto, ){kind=link}
s/gadgetlab/2009/05/heilmeier_with-lcd1.
jpg and H Kawamoto, "The history
of liquid-crystal displays",
Proceedings of the IEEE [0018-9219]
Kawamoto (2002) volume: 90 issue: 4
page: 460. and George H.
Heilmeier, "Liquid crystal displays: An
experiment in interdisciplinary
research that worked", vol 23, Num 7,
July
1976. http://ucelinks.cdlib.org:8888/sf
x_local?sid=google&auinit=GH&aulast=Heil
meier&atitle=Liquid+crystal+displays:+An
+experiment+in+interdisciplinary+researc
h+that+worked&title=IEEE+transactions+on
+electron+devices&volume=23&issue=7&date
=1976&spage=780&issn=0018-9383
[2] George Heilmeier COPYRIGHTED ON
INTERNET
source: http://www.invent.org/2009induct
ion/images/George_Heilmeier.jpg
[01/08/1965 AD]
in a nucleic acid are determined.
USA
[1] Figure 2 from: Robert W. Holley,
Jean Apgar, George A. Everett, James T.
Madison, Mark Marquisee, Susan H.
Merrill, John Robert Penswick and Ada
Zamir, ''Structure of a Ribonucleic
Acid'', Science, New Series, Vol. 147,
No. 3664 (Mar. 19, 1965), pp.
1462-1465. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
1715055
{Holley_Robert_William_19650108.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1715
055
[2] ARS scientist Robert Holley won
the Nobel Prize in 1968 for leading the
team that determined the molecular
structure of transfer RNA from
concentrated yeast cells. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.ars.usda.gov/is/pr/20
08/holley080512.jpg
[05/13/1965 AD]
radiation" and the claim that this
supports the "Big Bang" expanding
universe theory.
Crawford Hill, Holmdel, New Jersey,
USA
[1] [t Note that this is from the
Dicke, et al, paper and not from the
Penzias and Wilson paper which contains
no figures.] Figure 1 from: Dicke, R.
H., Peebles, P. J. E., Roll, P. G., &
Wilkinson, D. T., ''Cosmic Black-Body
Radiation.'', Astrophysical Journal,
vol. 142,
p.414-419. http://articles.adsabs.harva
rd.edu/full/1965ApJ...142..414D {Dicke_
Robert_H_19650507.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.newgenevacenter.org/0
9_Biography/penzias-wilson.jpg
[2] Arno Penzias 1933- /Robert Wilson
1936- UNKNOWN
source: http://www.nap.edu/html/biomems/
photo/rdicke.JPG
[06/05/1965 AD]
(nucleotide triplets) (UAG and UAA) are
identified as signals in messenger RNA
for terminating a polypeptide chain.
England
[1] S. BRENNER, A. O. W. STRETTON & S.
KAPLAN, ''Genetic Code: The 'Nonsense'
Triplets for Chain Termination and
their Suppression'', Nature, 5 June
1965 Vol 206 No 4988
p994. http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v206/n4988/index.html {Kaplan_Samue
l_19650605.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v206/n4988/index.html
[07/14/1965 AD]
to return images of the surface; the
first images of another planet ever
returned from deep space.
[1] Mariner 4 image 8E
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/plane
tary/image/mariner4_8e.gif
[1965 AD]
(for virtual reality).
[1] Sutherland's head-mounted display
earned the nickname the sword of
Damocles due to the mass of hardware
that was supported from the ceiling
above the user's head. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.zakros.com/ucb/histS9
9/Notes/Class6/SutherlandHMD2.jpeg
[2] Description Ivan Sutherland,
at the celebration of his 70th birthday
at the Computer History Museum Date
22 May 2008 Source personal
camera Author Dick
Lyon Permission (Reusing this file)
sa-by-sa-3.0 GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5c/Ivan_Sutherland_at_CH
M.jpg
[02/03/1966 AD]
a soft landing on another world (the
Moon), and the first ship to return
images from the surface of another
world.
[1] Apparently panorama from Luna 9 PD
source: http://www.zarya.info/images/Lun
a9pan.jpg
[2] Luna 9 PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image
/spacecraft/luna-9.jpg
[03/01/1966 AD]
different planet; planet Venus.
[1] Venera 3 PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/plane
tary/image/venera_3.jpg
[04/04/1966 AD]
beyond the Earth; the Moon. The ship
turns around 8000 km (or 5000 miles)
from the Moon, fires its rockets to
slow down, and enters lunar orbit.
Kazakhstan, U.S.S.R.
[1] Luna 10 PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image
/spacecraft/luna10.jpg
[2] First image of the far side of the
Moon Earth's Moon The Luna 3
spacecraft returned the first views
ever of the far side of the Moon. The
first image was taken at 03:30 UT on 7
October at a distance of 63,500 km
after Luna 3 had passed the Moon and
looked back at the sunlit far side. The
last image was taken 40 minutes later
from 66,700 km. A total of 29
photographs were taken, covering 70% of
the far side. The photographs were very
noisy and of low resolution, but many
features could be recognized. This is
the first image returned by Luna 3,
taken by the wide-angle lens, it showed
the far side of the Moon was very
different from the near side, most
noticeably in its lack of lunar maria
(the dark areas). The right
three-quarters of the disk are the far
side. The dark spot at upper right is
Mare Moscoviense, the dark area at
lower left is Mare Smythii. The small
dark circle at lower right with the
white dot in the center is the crater
Tsiolkovskiy and its central peak. The
Moon is 3475 km in diameter and north
is up in this image. (Luna 3-1) PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/imgca
t/hires/lu3_1.gif
[04/03/1967 AD]
Monica, California, USA
[1] Figure from: David Paul Gregg,
''TRANSPARENT RECORDING DISC'', Patent
number: 3430966, Filing date: Apr 3,
1967, Issue date: Mar 4,
1969. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
H6JnAAAAEBAJ PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=H6JnAAAAEBAJ
[12/03/1967 AD]
transplant.
Schuur Hospital) Cape Town, South
Africa
[1] Description: Image of
Christiaan Barnard . Source:
http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=295
13&rendTypeId=4 Rationale for use on
wikipedia: 1.No free equivalent
exists that would effectively identify
the article's subject - no free images
have been allocated for this
person. 2.The image does not in any
way limit the ability of the copyright
owners to market or sell their
product. 3.The image is only used once
and is rendered in low resolution to
avoid piracy. 4.The image has been
published outside Wikipedia; see source
above. 5.The image meets general
Wikipedia content requirements and is
encyclopedic. 6.The image meets
Wikipedia's media-specific
policy. 7.The image is used in the
article wiki-linked in the section
title. 8.No free images have been
allocated for this person 9.The image
is needed to identify the person for
educational purposes in an encyclopedia
entry and significantly improves the
quality of the article. 10.The image
has a brief description that identifies
the image, notes the source, and
provides attribution to the copyright
holder. 11.A replaceable free image
for this person is impossible as he/she
is deceased COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/1/1d/Christiaan_Barnard.jpg
[1967 AD]
be determined by specific genes.
Ridge, Tennessee, USA
[1] George Davis Snell COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1980/snell.jpg
[1967 AD]
USA
[1] TI-2500 ''Datamath'', 1st.
version. The first version of the
Datamath can be distinguished by the
combined CE/D key, which is used to
Clear the last Entry and to refresh the
Display, which extinguishes, except for
the first digit, after the calculator
has not been used for about 15
seconds. This version is also the
only one which has 6 AA rechargeable
cells, see photograph below. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.vintagecalculators.co
m/assets/images/TI25001_1.JPG
[1967 AD]
body could enable radio communication
of sound to and from thought.
[1] ''The Cerebrum Communicator''
from:
source: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u
Ua3np4CKC4&feature=player_embedded#!
[01/29/1968 AD]
screen using an implanted electronic
device.
of Cambridge and the Department of
Neurological Surgery and
Neurology, United Cambridge Hospitals)
Cambridge, England
[1] G. Brindley, W. Lewin (1968). ''The
sensation produced by electrical
stimulation of the visual cortex''.
Journal of Physiology 196:
479–93. http://jp.physoc.org/content/
196/2/479.full.pdf UNKNOWN
source: G. Brindley, W. Lewin (1968).
"The sensation produced by electrical
stimulation of the visual cortex".
Journal of Physiology 196:
479–93. http://jp.physoc.org/content/
196/2/479.full.pdf
[02/09/1968 AD]
regularly timed bursts of radio light
with a small interval, are identified.
Cambridge) Cambridge, England
[1] Figure 1 from: A. HEWISH, S. J.
BELL, J. D. H. PILKINGTON, P. F. SCOTT,
R. A. COLLINS, ''Observation of a
Rapidly Pulsating Radio Source'',
Nature 217, 709-713 (24 February 1968)
doi:10.1038/217709a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v217/n5130/abs/217709
a0.html {Hewish_Antony_19680209.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v217/n5130/abs/217709a0.html
[2] Antony Hewish Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/physics/laureates/1974/hewish.jpg
[02/27/1968 AD]
detector increases the speed of
particle detection.
[1] Georges Charpak Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/physics/laureates/1992/charpak
_postcard.jpg
[12/24/1968 AD]
moon.
[1] Description English: The S-IC
first stage of the Apollo 8 Saturn V
being erected in the Vertical Assembly
Building on February 1, 1968. Date 1
February 1968 Source
http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/Histo
ry/alsj/a410/ap8-68-HC-70HR.jpg Author
NASA PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Apollo_8_first_
stage_in_the_Vehicle_Assembly_Building.j
pg/798px-Apollo_8_first_stage_in_the_Veh
icle_Assembly_Building.jpg
[2] Description Rollout to the
launch pad of the Apollo 8 Saturn V on
October 9,
1968. Source http://www.hq.nasa.gov/
office/pao/History/alsj/a410/ap8-KSC-68P
C-147.jpg http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office
/pao/History/alsj/a410/ap8-KSC-68PC-147H
R.jpg (higher resolution 477 KB) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Ap8-KSC-68PC-14
7.jpg/1280px-Ap8-KSC-68PC-147.jpg
[03/21/1969 AD]
antibody is determined; a protein
molecule containing 1330 amino acids.
City, New York, USA
[1] Figure 1 from: [4] Gerald M.
Edelman, Bruce A. Cunningham, W. Einar
Gall, Paul D. Gottlieb, Urs
Rutishauser, and Myron J. Waxdal, ''THE
COVALENT STRUCTURE OF AN ENTIRE γG
IMMUNOGLOBULIN MOLECULE'', PNAS May 1,
1969 vol. 63 no. 1 78-85
http://www.pnas.org/content/63/1/78.sh
ort {Edelman_Gerald
Maurice_19690321.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.pnas.org/content/63/1
/78.short
[2] Gerald Maurice Edelman Nobel
Prize photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1972/edelman.jpg
[07/21/1969 AD]
surface of the moon of Earth.
The first crewed
vehicle to land on the Moon. Two humans
spend about 21 hours on the moon and
return 8 days after lift off.
[1] ''That's one small step for man,
one giant leap for mankind.'' At 10:56
p.m. EDT on July 20, 1969, Neil
Armstrong became the first human to set
foot on the Moon. This image was taken
from the telecast of the event, watched
by over half a billion people around
the world. Armstrong composed the quote
after landing on the Moon, he had meant
to say, ''That's one small step for
aman ...''. The pictures were taken by
the Apollo lunar surface camera,
mounted on one of the LM legs. The
black bar running through the center of
the picture is an anomaly in the
Goldstone ground data system. (NASA
photo ID S69-42583) PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/plane
tary/lunar/images/a11tvarm.jpg
[2] Here Aldrin is unloading the
passive seismometer of the Early Apollo
Scientific Experiments Package (EASEP)
from the lunar module equipment bay.
The white apparatus in the foreground
is the 35 mm stereo close-up camera.
Beyond the right leg is the solar wind
experiment, and beyond that the lunar
surface TV camera. The LM legs are
wrapped in foil to provide thermal
insulation. There is a split rock in
the lower right of the frame which is
presumably ejecta from a nearby impact
crater. (NASA photo ID
AS11-40-5931) PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/plane
tary/lunar/images/as11_40_5931.jpg
[09/15/1969 AD]
enzyme; ("restriction enzymes").
Medicine) Baltimore, Maryland,
USA
[1] Hamilton O. Smith, K. W. Welcox, A
Restriction enzyme from Hemophilus
influenzae : I. Purification and
general properties, Journal of
Molecular Biology, Volume 51, Issue 2,
28 July 1970, Pages 379-391, ISSN
0022-2836, DOI:
10.1016/0022-2836(70)90149-X. (http://w
ww.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6W
K7-4DM0XG8-4B/2/8311e74ce9394a10f0307ba6
aac6f0d1) {Smith_Hamilton_O_19690915.pd
f} COPYRIGHTED
source: (http://www.sciencedirect.com/sc
ience/article/B6WK7-4DM0XG8-4B/2/8311e74
ce9394a10f0307ba6aac6f0d1)
[2] Hamilton O. Smith Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/medicine/laureates/1978/smith_
postcard.jpg
[1969 AD]
pneumatic (air-filled) rubber
artificial muscles.
[1] Introduction of Artificial Muscle
Made of Rubber: WAP-1 (1969) The
anthropomorphic pneumatically-activated
pedipulator WAP-1 was developed. In it,
artificial muscles made of rubber were
attached as actuators. Planar biped
locomotion was realized by
teaching-playback control of its
artificial muscles. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.humanoid.waseda.ac.jp
/booklet/photo/WAP-1-1969.jpg
[1969 AD]
computers to communicate over the
telephone wire network).
Angeles) Los Angeles, California,
USA|(Stanford Research Institute)
Stanford, California, USA|(University
of California Santa Barbara) Santa
Barbara, California, USA|(University of
Utah) Salt Lake City, Utah, USA
[1] Map of ARPANET nodes (1970).
UNKNOWN
source: http://cla.calpoly.edu/~lcall/20
4/8-10/ARPANET-map.jpg
[2] Diagram of the first 2 nodes on
the ARPANET
source: http://www.computerhistory.org/i
nternet_history/full_size_images/1969_2-
node_map.gif
[01/29/1970 AD]
The Charged Coupled Device (or CCD); an
electronic memory that can be charged
by light.
Hill, New Jersey, USA
[1] Figure 7 from: ''George E. Smith -
Nobel Lecture''. Nobelprize.org. 29 May
2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/2009/smith-lecture.html {S
mith_George_E_20091208.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/physics/laureates/2009/smith-lecture.
html
[2] Willard Boyle (Property of AT&T
Archives) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.casca.ca/ecass/issues
/2006-me/features/boyle/boyle_files/imag
e001.jpg
[06/16/1970 AD]
using an enzyme (ligase {lI-GAS}).
Using this enzyme, the first artificial
gene is synthesized from DNA segments;
the gene for a tRNA molecule.
Wisconsin, USA
[1] Figure 1 from: K. L. AGARWAL, H.
BÜCHI, M. H. CARUTHERS, N. GUPTA, H.
G. KHORANA, K. KLEPPE, A. KUMAR, E.
OHTSUKA, U. L. RAJBHANDARY, J. H. VAN
DE SANDE, V. SGARAMELLA, H. WEBER & T.
YAMADA , ''Total synthesis of the gene
for an alanine transfer ribonucleic
acid from yeast'', Nature 227, 27 - 34
(04 July 1970);
doi:10.1038/227027a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v227/n5253/abs/227027
a0.html {Khorana_Har_Gobind_19700616.pd
f} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v227/n5253/abs/227027a0.html
[2] Har Gobind Khorana Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1968/khorana.jpg
[09/08/1970 AD]
acid sequence as the human growth
hormone is synthesized and displays
growth-promoting activity.
Francisco, California, USA
[1] Choh Hao Li This image is now in
the public domain because its term of
copyright has expired in China.
According to copyright laws of the
People's Republic of China (with legal
jurisdiction in the mainland only,
excluding Hong Kong and Macao) and the
Republic of China (currently with
jurisdiction in Taiwan, the Pescadores,
Quemoy, Matsu, etc.), all photographs
enter the public domain 50 years after
they were first published, or if
unpublished 50 years from creation, and
all non-photographic works enter the
public domain fifty years after the
death of the creator. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/b/b0/Choh.jpg
[09/24/1970 AD]
samples from another body (the moon of
Earth).
[1] Luna 10 PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image
/spacecraft/luna10.jpg
[2] First image of the far side of the
Moon Earth's Moon The Luna 3
spacecraft returned the first views
ever of the far side of the Moon. The
first image was taken at 03:30 UT on 7
October at a distance of 63,500 km
after Luna 3 had passed the Moon and
looked back at the sunlit far side. The
last image was taken 40 minutes later
from 66,700 km. A total of 29
photographs were taken, covering 70% of
the far side. The photographs were very
noisy and of low resolution, but many
features could be recognized. This is
the first image returned by Luna 3,
taken by the wide-angle lens, it showed
the far side of the Moon was very
different from the near side, most
noticeably in its lack of lunar maria
(the dark areas). The right
three-quarters of the disk are the far
side. The dark spot at upper right is
Mare Moscoviense, the dark area at
lower left is Mare Smythii. The small
dark circle at lower right with the
white dot in the center is the crater
Tsiolkovskiy and its central peak. The
Moon is 3475 km in diameter and north
is up in this image. (Luna 3-1) PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/imgca
t/hires/lu3_1.gif
[12/15/1970 AD]
another planet (Venus) and the first to
transmit data after landing.
[1] Venera 7, Interplanetary Explorer,
December 1970 Vladimir I U L via Flickr
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.popsci.com/files/imag
ecache/article_image_large/articles/Vene
ra.jpeg
[2] Venera 7, Interplanetary Explorer,
December 1970 Vladimir I U L via Flickr
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.popsci.com/files/imag
ecache/article_image_large/articles/Vene
ra.jpeg
[04/19/1971 AD]
station.
Kazakhstan, U.S.S.R. (verify)
[1] Description An extremely rare
view of the world's first space
station, the Soviet Salyut 1, as seen
from the departing Soyuz 11. Source
http://www.astronautix.com/graphics
/s/sal1foto.jpg Date 30 June
1971 Author Viktor
Patsayev COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/c/cc/Salyut_1.jpg
[2] Description A view of the
Soviet space station Salyut 1, shown
with a docked Soyuz 7KT-OK
spacecraft. Source
http://rst.gsfc.nasa.gov/Intro/saly
ut1.jpg (http://rst.gsfc.nasa.gov/Intro
/Part2_26g.html) Date 19 April
1971 Author TsKBEM PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/d/d5/Salyut1_with_docked_Soyuz_
spacecraft.jpg
[11/14/1971 AD]
planet (Mars). The first global mapping
of the surface of Mars and detailed
views of the Mars moons.
[1] Mariner 9 PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image
/spacecraft/mariner09.jpg
[2] Mariner 9 imagery of Olympus Mons
volcano on Mars compared to the eight
principal Hawaiian islands at the same
scale. (Mariner 9 image mosaic,
NASA/JPL) PD
source: http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/volc/fi
g38.gif
[11/27/1971 AD]
[1] Mars 3 Lander PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image
/spacecraft/mars3_lander_vsm.jpg
[2] Description Mars3
iki.jpg English: The Mars 3
spacecraft Date Source
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image/sp
acecraft/mars3_iki.jpg Author
NASA PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/13/Mars3_iki.jpg
[11/??/1971 AD]
central processing unit (CPU); an
integrated circuit which contains 2,300
transistors with a clock rate of 740
kHz, has 46 instructions, and uses
external RAM and ROM.
California, USA
[1] Description Intel
4004.jpg Italiano: Primo
microprocessore Intel, l'it:Intel
4004. Date 2005-12-07 (original
upload date) Source Transfered
from it.wikipedia Author Original
uploader was LucaDetomi at
it.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) Released under the GNU Free
Documentation License. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/52/Intel_4004.jpg
[2] Description
C4004.JPG.jpg Intel 4004 Date
11/06/2006 (upload
commons) Source
en.wikipedia.org Author
Photo by John Pilge. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/27/C4004.JPG.jpg
[12/02/1971 AD]
planet Mars and return data.
[1] Signal from mars-3 Lander UNKNOWN
source: http://www.mentallandscape.com/C
_Mars03_lander.jpg
[2] Mars 3 Lander PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image
/spacecraft/mars3_lander_vsm.jpg
[12/03/1971 AD]
using liquid filled glass fiber (fiber
optic communication).
New Jersey, USA
[1] J. Stone, ''Optical transmission in
liquid-core quartz fibers'', Appl.
Phys. Lett. 20, 239-240 (1972).
http://link.aip.org/link/?APPLAB/20/23
9/1 {Stone_J_19711213.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://link.aip.org/link/?APPLAB
/20/239/1
[1971 AD]
mail) program.
Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
[1] Description English: Vector
version of 100px Español: Vectorial
versión de 100px Simple English:
Version of 100px made with vector
graphics Date 2007-05-21 (original
upload date) Source Originally from
en.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. Transfer was stated to be made by
User:EdmundEzekielMahmudIsa. Author
Original uploader was Yzmo at
en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) Licensed under the GFDL by
the author; GFDL-SELF-NO-DISCLAIMERS;
Released under the GNU Free
Documentation License. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Email.svg/1000p
x-Email.svg.png
[2] Fue creado por Ray Tomlinson en
1971, aunque no lo consideró un
invento importante. Su gran difusión
promueve servicios para chequear una
cuenta POP desde cualquier
navegador. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.icesi.edu.co/blogs_es
tudiantes/jazminmercadeo/files/2012/01/D
ibujo1.png
[07/15/1972 AD]
between Mars and Jupiter.
[1] Pioneer 10 PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image
/spacecraft/pioneer10-11.jpg
[07/31/1972 AD]
a virus to add DNA into bacteria.
This is the beginning of genetic
engineering.
One result of this "recombinant"
technology are bacteria that contain
the gene for producing the mammalian
hormone insulin.
Stanford, California, USA
[1] Figure 1 from: David A. Jackson,
Robert H. Symons, and Paul Berg,
''Biochemical Method for Inserting New
Genetic Information into DNA of Simian
Virus 40: Circular SV40 DNA Molecules
Containing Lambda Phage Genes and the
Galactose Operon of Escherichia coli'',
PNAS October 1, 1972 vol. 69 no. 10
2904-2909
http://www.pnas.org/content/69/10/2904
.short {Berg_Paul_19720731.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.pnas.org/content/69/1
0/2904.short
[2] Description Paul Berg in
1980.jpg Paul Berg - 1980 Albert
Lasker Basic Medical Research Award
Winner Date 1980(1980) Source
http://profiles.nlm.nih.gov/CD/B/B/
L/L/ Author
Unknown Permission (Reusing this
file) Courtesy of the National
Library of Medicine. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/88/Paul_Berg_in_1980.jpg
[1972 AD]
electrons are collided head on, and
electrons are collided with positrons.
Accelerator Center {SLAC}) Stanford,
California, USA
[1] SLAC National Accelerator
Laboratory is home to a two-mile linear
accelerator—the longest in the world.
Originally a particle physics research
center, SLAC is now a multipurpose
laboratory for astrophysics, photon
science, accelerator and particle
physics research. Six scientists have
been awarded the Nobel Prize for work
carried out at SLAC and the future of
the laboratory promises to be just as
extraordinary. UNKNOWN
source: http://www6.slac.stanford.edu/we
bimages/slac-aerial.jpg
[2] Burton Richter Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/physics/laureates/1976/richter
_postcard.jpg
[12/03/1973 AD]
the first close-up images.
The giant planet's
radiation belts and magnetic field are
also mapped.
[1] Description
http://history.nasa.gov/SP-349/p142.jpg
English: Pioneer 10 Jupiter
encounter. Date Source
http://history.nasa.gov/SP-349/ch8.
htm Author
NASA Permission (Reusing this
file) PD
source: http://history.nasa.gov/SP-349/p
142.jpg
[2] Pioneer 10 PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image
/spacecraft/pioneer10-11.jpg
[03/29/1974 AD]
to return closeup images, and to use
the gravitational pull of one planet
(Venus) to reach another planet
(Mercury).
[1] This mosaic of Mercury was taken by
the Mariner 10 spacecraft during its
approach on 29 March 1974. The mosaic
consists of 18 images taken at 42 s
intervals during a 13 minute period
when the spacecraft was 200,000 km
(about 6 hours prior to closest
approach) from the planet. source
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/photo_gallery
/photogallery-mercury.html,
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image/planeta
ry/mercury/mercuryglobe1.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/22/Mercuryglobe1.jpg
[2] Artist impression of the Mariner
10 mission. Gravitational slingshot -
Mariner 10 was the first spacecraft to
make use of a ''gravitational
slingshot'' maneuver, using Venus to
bend its flight path and bring its
perihelion down to the level of
Mercury's orbit. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/1/16/Mariner_10_gravitational_s
lingshot.jpg
[1974 AD]
Systems) Albuquerque, New Mexico, USA
(verify)
[1] Description Altair 8800
Computer.jpg Altair 8800 Computer
with 8 inch floppy disk
system. Circuit boards - left to
right 1. Seals 8K Static RAM
board 2. MITS floppy disk
controller (2 board set) 3. MITS
floppy disk controller 4. MITS 16K
Dynamic RAM board 5. MITS 16K
Dynamic RAM board 6. MITS SIO-2
Dual serial port board 7. Solid
State Music PROM board 8. MITS 8080
CPU board Photo taken at the Vintage
Computer Festival 7.0 held at the
Computer History Museum, Mountain View
California. November 6-7, 2004
[1] This was one of Altair systems
exhibited by Erik Klein [2] Photo by
Michael Holley, November 2004 Nikon
E3200 with on camera flash. Touched up
in Adobe Photoshop Elements 3.0. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/01/Altair_8800_Computer.
jpg
[1974 AD]
with moveable windows.
Alto, California, USA
[1] SmallTalk software UNKNOWN
source: http://media.arstechnica.com/ima
ges/gui/7-AltoST.jpg
[10/20/1975 AD]
on Venus, and to transmit the first
image from the surface of another
planet.
The temperature at the surface is
460°C (or 860°F); atmospheric
pressure is 90 times that at the
surface of Earth.
[1] Image of the surface of Venus from
Venera 9 PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/imgca
t/hires/v09_lander.gif
[2] Venera 9 Descent Craft PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/plane
tary/image/venera_9_lander.jpg
[1975 AD]
thought (electricity in the brain).
[1] todo: change to video from National
Geographic ''The Incredible Human
Machine'' video Adapted from picture
of EEG electrodes and toy train View
of EEG electrodes on a model phrenology
head M400/0123 Rights
Managed Credit: JAMES
KING-HOLMES/SCIENCE PHOTO
LIBRARY COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencephoto.com/imag
e/271056/large/M4000123-View_of_EEG_elec
trodes_on_a_model_phrenology_head-SPL.jp
ghttp://howtobuildamodeltrain.com/wp-con
tent/uploads/2011/12/howtobuildamodeltra
in1.jpg
[2] ''The Incredible Human Machine'',
National Geographic
(1975) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://ecx.images-amazon.com/ima
ges/I/51PVRJGKR8L._SL500_AA300_.jpg
[07/20/1976 AD]
from the surface of Mars.
[1] First Mars Surface Photo Viking 1
first image Collection: NASA Great
Images in Nasa
Collection Title: First Mars Surface
Photo Full Description: The image
above is the first photograph ever
taken from the surface of Mars. It was
taken by the Viking 1 lander shortly
after it touched down on Mars on July
20, 1976. Part of footpad #2 can be
seen in the lower right corner, with
sand and dust in the center of it,
probably deposited during landing. The
next day, color photographs were also
taken on the Martian surface. The
primary objectives of the Viking
missions, which was composed of two
spacecraft, were to obtain
high-resolution images of the Martian
surface, characterize the structure and
composition of the atmosphere and
surface, and search for evidence of
life on Mars. Date: 07/20/1976 NASA
Center: Jet Propulsion
Laboratory Subject
Category: Planet-Mars Subject
Category: Viking-Pathfinder-So
journer Keywords: Laboratory Keywords
: Jet Keywords: Propulsion Keywords:
Viking Keywords: Mars Keywords: P-
17053 Audience: General
Public facet_what: Mars facet_what:
Viking facet_what: Viking 1
Lander facet_where: Jet Propulsion
Laboratory facet_where: Mars facet_wh
ere: Jet Propulsion Laboratory
(JPL) facet_when: July 20,
1976 facet_when: 07-20-1976 facet_whe
n_year: 1976 Image
#: MarsSurface original_url: http://g
rin.hq.nasa… UID: SPD-GRIN-GPN-2003-
00 061 Center: JPL Center
Number: MarsSurface GRIN DataBase
Number: GPN-2003-00061 Creator-Photogr
apher: NASA Original
Source: NASA Image
ID: 127274 Resolution
Size: 5 Format: JP2 Media
Type: Image File
Name: GPN-2003-00061.jp2 Width: 2973
Height: 1228 PD
source: http://www.nasaimages.org/downlo
ad.php?mid=nasaNAS~5~5~23140~127274&file
=GPN-2003-00061.jpg&src=http%3A%2F%2Fmm0
4.nasaimages.org%2FMediaManager%2Fsrvr%3
Fmediafile%3D%2FSize3%2FnasaNAS-5-NA%2F2
5256%2FGPN-2003-00061.jpg
[2] Description Mars Viking
11d128.png Original Caption Released
with NASA image: The Viking 1 Lander
sampling arm created a number of deep
trenches as part of the surface
composition and biology experiments on
Mars. The digging tool on the sampling
arm (at lower center) could scoop up
samples of material and deposit them
into the appropriate experiment. Some
holes were dug deeper to study soil
which was not affected by solar
radiation and weathering. The trenches
in this ESE looking image are in the
''Sandy Flats'' area of the landing
site at Chryse Planitia. The boom
holding the meteorology sensors is at
left. More information can be found at
Viking Lander Image 11D128.BLU, Viking
Lander Image 11D128.GRN and Viking
Lander Image 11D128.RED. Date
2009-01-26; original photos were
taken 1977-05-26. Source Own work
based on images in the NASA Viking
image archive Author ''Roel van
der Hoorn (Van der
Hoorn)'' Permission (Reusing this
file) I used the original 11d128.blu,
11d128.grn and 11d128.red images from
the NASA Viking image archive,
converted them to .png, manually
removed the noise and finally merged
them into one image (almost matching
true color; see here for the channel
mixing process). Except for the
conversion, this was all done in Adobe
Photoshop CS2. The original files by
NASA are in the public domain, and so
is this new one. Other versions I
created this image as a replacement for
the image Viking1mars.jpg (see also:
here) It was created by NASA, but the
quality is not very high. Using the
original pictures from the lander
archive resulted in a higher quality
image. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1b/Mars_Viking_11d128.pn
g
[11/30/1976 AD]
virus is determined; a small virus with
5,375 nucleotide pairs which codes for
nine different proteins.
England
[1] Figure 1 from: Sanger, F., Air,
G.M., Barrell, B.G., Brown, N.L.,
Coulson, A.R., Fiddes, J.C., Hutchison
III, C.A., Slocombe, P.M. and Smith,
M., 1977. Nature (London) 265, pp.
687–695. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v265/n5596/abs/265687a0.html {
Sanger_Frederick_19761130.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v265/n5596/abs/265687a0.html
[2] Frederick Sanger Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/chemistry/laureates/1958/sanger.jpg
[05/19/1977 AD]
Academy of Sciences) Moscow,
U.S.S.R.
[1] Figure 4 from: Ilyukhin, A. A.,
Peregudov, G. V., Ragozin, E. N.,
Sobslman, 1.1, and Chirkov, V. A.,
''Concerning the problem of lasers for
the far ultraviolet λ ~500-700 A'',
1977, Journal of Experimental and
Theoretical Physics Letters, 95,
536. http://www.jetpletters.ac.ru/ps/14
16/article_21489.shtml {Ilyukhin_A_A_19
770519.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jetpletters.ac.ru/ps/
1416/article_21489.shtml
[1977 AD]
Japan
[1] Fig. 2. The vision-based automated
vehicle during 1970’s (left) and the
image processing: a road scene (right
top) and the guard rail detected in
the field of view (right
bottom). Figure 2 from: Sadayuki
Tsugawa, ''A History of Automated
Highway Systems in Japan and Future
Issues'', Proceedings of the 2008 IEEE
International Conference on Vehicular
Electronics and Safety Columbus, OH,
USA. September 22-24,
2008 http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/s
tamp.jsp?arnumber=04640914 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp
/stamp.jsp?arnumber=04640914
[07/25/1978 AD]
baby after in vitro fertilization.
[1] P. C. Steptoe and R. G. Edwards,
''BIRTH AFTER THE REIMPLANTATION OF A
HUMAN EMBRYO'', The Lancet Volume 312,
Issue 8085, 12 August 1978, Page 366
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/a
rticle/pii/S0140673678929574 {Edwards_R
obert_G_19780812.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence/article/pii/S0140673678929574
[2] P. C. Steptoe and R. G. Edwards,
''BIRTH AFTER THE REIMPLANTATION OF A
HUMAN EMBRYO'', The Lancet Volume 312,
Issue 8085, 12 August 1978, Page 366
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/a
rticle/pii/S0140673678929574 {Edwards_R
obert_G_19780812.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source:
[03/05/1979 AD]
moons of Jupiter.
[1] Original Caption Released with
Image: VOLCANIC EXPLOSION ON IO:
Voyager 1 acquired this image of Io on
March 4 at 5:30 p.m. (PST) about 11
hours before closest approach to the
Jupiter moon. The distance to Io was
about 490,000 kilometers (304,000
miles). An enormous volcanic explosion
can be seen silhouetted against dark
space over Io's bright limb. The
brightness of the plume has been
increased by the computer as it is
normally extremely faint, whereas the
relative color of the plume (greenish
white) has been preserved. At this time
solid material had been thrown up to an
altitude of about 100 miles. This
requires an ejection velocity from the
volcanic vent of about 1200 miles per
hour, material reaching the crest of
the fountain in several minutes. The
vent area is a complex circular
structure consisting of a bright ring
about 300 kilometers in diameter and a
central region of irregular dark and
light patterns. Volcanic explosions
similar to this occur on the Earth when
magmatic gases expand explosively as
material is vented. On Earth water is
the major gas driving the explosion.
Because Io is thought to be extremely
dry, scientists are searching for other
gases to explain the explosion. JPL
manages and controls the Voyager
Project for NASA's Office of Space
Science. source:http://photojournal.j
pl.nasa.gov/catalog/?IDNumber=PIA01971
TIFF
verion:http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/
tiff/PIA01971.tif PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e3/Vulcanic_Explosion_on
_Io.jpg
[2] Description
Voyager.jpg Voyager 1 / Voyager
2 English: NASA photograph of one of
the two identical Voyager space probes
Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 launched in
1977. The 3.7 metre diameter
high-gain antenna (HGA) is attached to
the hollow ten-sided polygonal body
housing the electronics, here seen in
profile. The Voyager Golden Record is
attached to one of the bus
sides. The angled square panel below
is the optical calibration target and
excess heat radiator. The three
radioisotope thermoelectric generators
(RTGs) are mounted end-to-end on the
left-extending boom. One of the two
planetary radio and plasma wave antenna
extends diagonally left and down, the
other extends to the rear, mostly
hidden here. The compact structure
between the RTGs and the HGA are the
high-field and low-field magnetometers
(MAG) in their stowed state; after
launch an Astromast boom extended to 13
metres to distance the low-field
magnetometers. The instrument boom
extending to the right holds, from left
to right: the cosmic ray subsystem
(CRS) above and Low-Energy Charged
Particle (LECP) detector below; the
Plasma Spectrometer (PLS) above; and
the scan platform that rotates about a
vertical axis. The scan platform
comprises: the Infrared Interferometer
Spectrometer (IRIS) (largest camera at
right); the Ultraviolet Spectrometer
(UVS) to the right of the UVS; the two
Imaging Science Subsystem (ISS) vidicon
cameras to the left of the UVS; and the
Photopolarimeter System (PPS) barely
visible under the ISS. Suggested for
English Wikipedia:alternative text for
images: A space probe with squat
cylindrical body topped by a large
parabolic radio antenna dish pointing
upwards, a three-element radioisotope
thermoelectric generator on a boom
extending left, and scientific
instruments on a boom extending right.
A golden disk is fixed to the
body. Date Source NASA
website http://voyager.jpl.nasa.gov/ima
ge/images/spacecraft/Voyager.jpg Author
NASA Permission (Reusing this
file) PD-NASA PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d2/Voyager.jpg
[09/01/1979 AD]
the first close-up images.
[1] Pioneer 11 Image of Saturn and Its
Moon Titan {ULSF: Titan is at the upper
left} The Pioneer 11 spacecraft
launched from Cape Canaveral forty
years ago, on April 5, 1973. Pioneer
11's path through Saturn's outer rings
took it within 21,000 km of the planet,
where it discovered two new moons
(almost smacking into one of them in
September 1979) and a new ''F'' ring.
The spacecraft also discovered and
charted the magnetosphere, magnetic
field and mapped the general structure
of Saturn's interior. The spacecraft's
instruments measured the heat radiation
from Saturn's interior and found that
its planet-sized moon, Titan, was too
cold to support life. This image
from Pioneer 11 shows Saturn and its
moon Titan. The irregularities in ring
silhouette and shadow are due to
technical anomalies in the preliminary
data later corrected. At the time this
image was taken, Pioneer was 2,846,000
km (1,768,422 miles) from
Saturn. › NASA Celebrates Four
Decades of Plucky Pioneer 11 Image
credit: NASA Ames PD
source: http://www.nasa.gov/images/conte
nt/739507main_739460main_AC79-9107.3_160
0-1200.jpg
[2] Pioneer 10 PD
source: http://quest.nasa.gov/sso/cool/p
ioneer10/graphics/lasher/slide4.jpg
[09/12/1980 AD]
(or STM). Individual atoms and
molecules of many kinds can be seen.
Ruschlikon, Zurich, Switzerland
(presumably)
[1] G. Binnig, H. Rohrer, ''Scanning
tunneling microscope'', Patent number:
4343993, Filing date: Sep 12, 1980,
Issue date: Aug 10,
1982. http://www.google.com/patents?hl=
en&lr=&vid=USPAT4343993 PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=GzgwAAAAEBAJ
[2] Figures 2 and 3 from: G. Binnig,
H. Rohrer, Ch. Gerber, and E. Weibel,
''Surface Studies by Scanning Tunneling
Microscopy'', Phys. Rev. Lett. 49,
57–61
(1982). http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL
/v49/i1/p57_1 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/
v49/i1/p57_1
[11/12/1980 AD]
moons of Saturn.
[1] English: Original Caption Released
with Image: Titan's thick haze layer is
shown in this enhanced Voyager 1 image
taken Nov. 12, 1980 at a distance of
435,000 kilometers (270,000 miles).
Voyager images of Saturn's largest moon
show Titan completely enveloped by haze
that merges with a darker ''hood'' or
cloud layer over the north pole. Such a
mantle is not present at the south
pole. At Voyager's closest approach to
Titan on Nov. 11, 1980, spacecraft
instruments found that the moon has a
substantial atmosphere, far denser than
that of Mars and possibly denser than
Earth's. The Voyager Project is managed
for NASA by the Jet Propulsion
Laboratory, Pasadena, Calif. Deutsch:
Titans Atmosphäre. Fotografiert aus
einer Entfernung von 435.000 Kilometern
durch Voyager 1, 1980. source:
http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/jpeg/PI
A02238.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c7/Titan%27s_thick_haze_
layer-picture_from_voyager1.jpg
[2] Description Voyager 1 - view of
Saturn's moon Mimas.jpg English:
Original Caption Released with Image:
The cratered surface Saturn's moon
Mimas is seen in this image taken by
Voyager 1 on Nov. 12, 1980 from a range
of 425,000 kilometers (264,000 miles).
Impact craters made by the infall of
cosmic debris are shown; the largest is
more than 100 kilometers (62 miles) in
diameter and displays a prominent
central peak. The smaller craters are
abundant and indicate an ancient age
for Mimas's surface. The Voyager
Project is managed for NASA by the Jet
Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena,
Calif. Date 12 November
1980(1980-11-12) Source
http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/ca
talog/PIA01968 Author
NASA/JPL PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/ea/Voyager_1_-_view_of_S
aturn%27s_moon_Mimas.jpg
[04/??/1981 AD]
are collided head on.
Recherche Nucléaire), Geneva,
Switzerland
[1] Christine Sutton, ''CERN pushes
open the door to a new physics'', New
Scientist,
04/16/1981. http://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=41GAXuhHkK8C&pg=PA139 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=41GAXuhHkK8C&pg=PA139
[11/12/1981 AD]
Florida, USA
[1] NASA Photo ID: S81-39548
File Name: 10060481.jpg Film Type:
70mm Date Taken:
11/15/81 Title: Space Shuttle Columbia
OV (101) launching from pad 39A
begining STS-2 Description: View of
the Space Shuttle Orbiter Columbia from
across the water lifting off from
Launch Pad 39A to begin STS-2 (39548);
Framed by Florida vegtation, the
Columbia lifts off from its launch pad
(39549). PD
source: http://www.ksc.nasa.gov/mirrors/
images/images/pao/STS2/10060481.jpg
[2] Description English: Deepcold
dyna final 240, author: Dan Roam,
source: http://www.deepcold.com Date
12 August 2006 (original upload
date) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia; transferred to Commons by
User:Sreejithk2000 using
CommonsHelper. Author Original
uploader was Djroam at
en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) Released into the public
domain (by the author). PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/76/Deepcold_dyna_final_2
40.jpg
[03/01/1982 AD]
sound recording of another planet.
[1] Venera 13 Lander image of the
surface of Venus at 7.5 S, 303. E, east
of Phoebe Regio. Venera 13 survived on
the surface for 2 hours, 7 minutes,
long enough to obtain 14 images on 1
March, 1982. This color 170 degree
panorama was produced using dark blue,
green and red filters and has a
resolution of 4 to 5 min. Part of the
spacecraft is at the bottom of the
image. Flat rock slabs and soil are
visible. The true color is difficult to
judge because the Venerian atmosphere
filters out blue light. The surface
composition is similar to terrestrial
basalt. On the ground in foreground is
a camera lens cover. (Venera 13 Lander,
VG00261,262) PD AND * Venera 13 /
14 lander * image source:
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/database/Mast
erCatalog?sc=1981-106D PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/imgca
t/hires/v13_vg261_262.gifhttp://upload.w
ikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c7/Vene
ra_13_lander.gif
[2] Venera 13 Lander image of the
surface of Venus at 7.5 S, 303. E, east
of Phoebe Regio. Venera 13 survived on
the surface for 2 hours, 7 minutes,
long enough to obtain 14 images on 1
March, 1982. This color 170 degree
panorama was produced using dark blue,
green and red filters and has a
resolution of 4 to 5 min. Part of the
spacecraft is at the bottom of the
image. Flat rock slabs and soil are
visible. The true color is difficult to
judge because the Venerian atmosphere
filters out blue light. The surface
composition is similar to terrestrial
basalt. On the ground in foreground is
a camera lens cover. (Venera 13 Lander,
VG00261,262) PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/imgca
t/hires/v13_vg261_262.gif
[06/13/1983 AD]
farther than all known planets of this
star system.
[1] Pioneer 10 PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image
/spacecraft/pioneer10-11.jpg
[10/25/1983 AD]
genetically closer to chimpanzees than
other primates.
Connecticut, USA
[1] Figure 6 from: [1] Charles G.
Sibley and Jon E. Ahlquist, '' The
phylogeny of the hominoid primates, as
indicated by DNA-DNA hybridization'',
Journal of Molecular Evolution, Volume
20, Number 1, 2-15, DOI:
10.1007/BF02101980 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/g3020651ml536640/ {Ahlq
uist_Jon_E_19831025.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.springerlink.com/cont
ent/g3020651ml536640/
[03/10/1984 AD]
"cloned" (genetically identical copies
are made).
The nucleus in an ovum is replaced with
the nucleus from an embryo cell and
reimplanted to produce genetically
identical animals (sheep).
Cambridge, UK
[1] Figure 3 from: SM Willadsen and RA
Godke, ''A simple procedure for the
production of identical sheep twins'',
Veterinary Record 1984;114:240-243
doi:10.1136/vr.114.10.240
http://veterinaryrecord.bmj.com/conten
t/114/10/240.abstract
{Willadsen_Steen_M_19840310.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source:
[06/25/1984 AD]
from an extinct species.
California, USA
[1] Description Quagga (Equus quagga
quagga) is an extinct sub-species of
zebra. Mare, London, Regent's Park
ZOO. Date
1870 http://books.google.dk/books?id=1
5AsyQ8O2qoC&pg=PA148&dq=london+sondaica+
tigris&hl=da&ei=SlmxTsyqMMHa4QSasv3OAQ&s
a=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=5&ve
d=0CE0Q6AEwBA#v=onepage&q=london%20sonda
ica%20tigris&f=false Source
Scan Author F. York
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d2/Quagga_photo.jpg
[08/31/1984 AD]
atomic scale.
Switzerland, presented in) Prague,
Czechoslovakia
[1] Figure 7 from: G. Binnig and H.
Rohrer, ''Scanning Tunnelling
Microscopy'' in Janta, J. Trends In
Physics, 1984 :: Proceedings of the 6th
General Conference of the European
Physical Society : 27-31 August 1984,
Prague, Czechoslovakia. Prague: Union
of Czechoslovak Mathematicians and
Physicists, 1984, p38.
http://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/0
08933716/Home
{Binnig_Rohrer_19840831001.pdf} COPYR
IGHTED
source:
[2] Note these images are from
1990[t] Driscoll, Robert J., Michael
G. Youngquist, and John D.
Baldeschwieler. “Atomic-scale imaging
of DNA using scanning tunnelling
microscopy.” Nature 346.6281 (1990) :
294-296. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v346/n6281/abs/346294a0.html COP
YRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v346/n6281/abs/346294a0.html
[11/16/1984 AD]
sequences of DNA unique to each
organism can be used to identify
individual organisms and also to
determine family relationships.
UK
[1] Figure 5 from: Alec J. Jeffreys,
Victoria Wilson & Swee Lay Thein,
''Hypervariable 'minisatellite' regions
in human DNA'', Nature 314, 67 - 73 (07
March 1985);
doi:10.1038/314067a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v314/n6006/abs/314067
a0.html {Jeffreys_Alec_J_19841116.pdf}
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v314/n6006/abs/314067a0.html
[2] Professor Sir Alec Jeffreys at the
University of Leicester. UNKNOWN
source: http://www2.le.ac.uk/departments
/emfpu/genetics/explained/images/AlecJef
frey.jpg
[09/20/1985 AD]
reaction (PCR), a simple technique that
allows a specific segment of DNA to be
copied billions of times in a few
hours.
California, USA
[1] Figure 2 from: K. B. Mullis and F.
A. Faloona, ''Specific synthesis of DNA
in vitro via a polymerase-catalyzed
chain reaction'', Methods Enzymol. 155,
335 (1987).
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/a
rticle/pii/0076687987550236 {Mullis_Kar
y_Banks_1987xxxx.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence/article/pii/0076687987550236
[2] Kary Banks Mullis Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1993/mulli
s_postcard.jpg
[01/24/1986 AD]
the first close-up images of the
planet, its moons, and its rings.
[1] Description Uranus.jpg English:
NASA photo of Uranus taken by Voyager
2. Caption: This pictures of Uranus was
compiled from images recorded by
Voyager 2 on January 10, 1986, when the
NASA spacecraft was 18 million
kilometers (11 million miles) from the
planet. The images were obtained by
Voyager's narrow-angle camera; the view
is toward the planet's pole of
rotation, which lies just left of
center. The picture has been processed
to show Uranus as human eyes would see
it from the vantage point of the
spacecraft. The dark shading of the
upper right edge of the disk is the
terminator, or day-night boundary. The
blue-green appearance of Uranus results
from methane in the atmosphere; this
gas absorbs red wavelengths from the
incoming sunlight, leaving the
predominant bluish color seen here.
Images shuttered through different
color filters were added and
manipulated by computer, greatly
enhancing the low-contrast details in
the original images. The planet reveals
a dark polar hood surrounded by a
series of progressively lighter
convective bands. The banded structure
is real, though exaggerated here. The
Voyager project is managed for NASA by
the Jet Propulsion Laboratory. Date
January 1986(1986-01) Source
http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/ca
talog/PIA01360 Author NASA PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/bb/Uranus.jpg
[2] Description
Voyager.jpg Voyager 1 / Voyager
2 English: NASA photograph of one of
the two identical Voyager space probes
Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 launched in
1977. The 3.7 metre diameter
high-gain antenna (HGA) is attached to
the hollow ten-sided polygonal body
housing the electronics, here seen in
profile. The Voyager Golden Record is
attached to one of the bus
sides. The angled square panel below
is the optical calibration target and
excess heat radiator. The three
radioisotope thermoelectric generators
(RTGs) are mounted end-to-end on the
left-extending boom. One of the two
planetary radio and plasma wave antenna
extends diagonally left and down, the
other extends to the rear, mostly
hidden here. The compact structure
between the RTGs and the HGA are the
high-field and low-field magnetometers
(MAG) in their stowed state; after
launch an Astromast boom extended to 13
metres to distance the low-field
magnetometers. The instrument boom
extending to the right holds, from left
to right: the cosmic ray subsystem
(CRS) above and Low-Energy Charged
Particle (LECP) detector below; the
Plasma Spectrometer (PLS) above; and
the scan platform that rotates about a
vertical axis. The scan platform
comprises: the Infrared Interferometer
Spectrometer (IRIS) (largest camera at
right); the Ultraviolet Spectrometer
(UVS) to the right of the UVS; the two
Imaging Science Subsystem (ISS) vidicon
cameras to the left of the UVS; and the
Photopolarimeter System (PPS) barely
visible under the ISS. Suggested for
English Wikipedia:alternative text for
images: A space probe with squat
cylindrical body topped by a large
parabolic radio antenna dish pointing
upwards, a three-element radioisotope
thermoelectric generator on a boom
extending left, and scientific
instruments on a boom extending right.
A golden disk is fixed to the
body. Date Source NASA
website http://voyager.jpl.nasa.gov/ima
ge/images/spacecraft/Voyager.jpg Author
NASA Permission (Reusing this
file) PD-NASA PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d2/Voyager.jpg
[12/14/1988 AD]
Berkeley, California, USA
[1] Figures 1 from: Long-Sheng Fan;
Yu-Chong Tai; R.S. Muller; ,
''IC-processed electrostatic
micro-motors,'' Electron Devices
Meeting, 1988. IEDM '88. Technical
Digest., International , vol., no.,
pp.666-669, 1988 doi:
10.1109/IEDM.1988.32901 URL:
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.j
sp?tp=&arnumber=32901&isnumber=1415 COP
YRIGHTED
source: URL:
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.j
sp?tp=&arnumber=32901&isnumber=1415
[2] Figures 2 from: Long-Sheng Fan;
Yu-Chong Tai; R.S. Muller; ,
''IC-processed electrostatic
micro-motors,'' Electron Devices
Meeting, 1988. IEDM '88. Technical
Digest., International , vol., no.,
pp.666-669, 1988 doi:
10.1109/IEDM.1988.32901 URL:
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.j
sp?tp=&arnumber=32901&isnumber=1415 COP
YRIGHTED
source: URL:
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.j
sp?tp=&arnumber=32901&isnumber=1415
[08/25/1989 AD]
the first close-up images of the
planet, its moons and rings.
[1] A picture of Neptune taken by
Voyager 2, showing off the Great Dark
Spot which has since disappeared from
the planet's surface. Original
Caption Released with Image: During
August 16 and 17, 1989, the Voyager 2
narrow-angle camera was used to
photograph Neptune almost continuously,
recording approximately two and
one-half rotations of the planet. These
images represent the most complete set
of full disk Neptune images that the
spacecraft will acquire. This picture
from the sequence shows two of the four
cloud features which have been tracked
by the Voyager cameras during the past
two months. The large dark oval near
the western limb (the left edge) is at
a latitude of 22 degrees south and
circuits Neptune every 18.3 hours. The
bright clouds immediately to the south
and east of this oval are seen to
substantially change their appearances
in periods as short as four hours. The
second dark spot, at 54 degrees south
latitude near the terminator (lower
right edge), circuits Neptune every
16.1 hours. This image has been
processed to enhance the visibility of
small features, at some sacrifice of
color fidelity. The Voyager Mission is
conducted by JPL for NASA's Office of
Space Science and
Applications. Source:
http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog
/PIA00046 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/06/Neptune.jpg
[2] Description
Voyager.jpg Voyager 1 / Voyager
2 English: NASA photograph of one of
the two identical Voyager space probes
Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 launched in
1977. The 3.7 metre diameter
high-gain antenna (HGA) is attached to
the hollow ten-sided polygonal body
housing the electronics, here seen in
profile. The Voyager Golden Record is
attached to one of the bus
sides. The angled square panel below
is the optical calibration target and
excess heat radiator. The three
radioisotope thermoelectric generators
(RTGs) are mounted end-to-end on the
left-extending boom. One of the two
planetary radio and plasma wave antenna
extends diagonally left and down, the
other extends to the rear, mostly
hidden here. The compact structure
between the RTGs and the HGA are the
high-field and low-field magnetometers
(MAG) in their stowed state; after
launch an Astromast boom extended to 13
metres to distance the low-field
magnetometers. The instrument boom
extending to the right holds, from left
to right: the cosmic ray subsystem
(CRS) above and Low-Energy Charged
Particle (LECP) detector below; the
Plasma Spectrometer (PLS) above; and
the scan platform that rotates about a
vertical axis. The scan platform
comprises: the Infrared Interferometer
Spectrometer (IRIS) (largest camera at
right); the Ultraviolet Spectrometer
(UVS) to the right of the UVS; the two
Imaging Science Subsystem (ISS) vidicon
cameras to the left of the UVS; and the
Photopolarimeter System (PPS) barely
visible under the ISS. Suggested for
English Wikipedia:alternative text for
images: A space probe with squat
cylindrical body topped by a large
parabolic radio antenna dish pointing
upwards, a three-element radioisotope
thermoelectric generator on a boom
extending left, and scientific
instruments on a boom extending right.
A golden disk is fixed to the
body. Date Source NASA
website http://voyager.jpl.nasa.gov/ima
ge/images/spacecraft/Voyager.jpg Author
NASA Permission (Reusing this
file) PD-NASA PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d2/Voyager.jpg
[01/17/1990 AD]
STM is used at low temperatures to form
the letters "IBM" in xenon atoms.
Research Center) San Jose, California,
USA
[1] Figures 1 and 2 from: D. M. Eigler
& E. K. Schweizer, ''Positioning single
atoms with a scanning tunnelling
microscope'', Nature 344, 524 - 526 (05
April 1990);
doi:10.1038/344524a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v344/n6266/abs/344524
a0.html COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v344/n6266/abs/344524a0.html
[2] Figure 3 from: D. M. Eigler & E.
K. Schweizer, ''Positioning single
atoms with a scanning tunnelling
microscope'', Nature 344, 524 - 526 (05
April 1990);
doi:10.1038/344524a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v344/n6266/abs/344524
a0.html COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v344/n6266/abs/344524a0.html
[01/29/1990 AD]
computer processor.
United States
[1] Figure 3. An array of surface
emitting microlasers. From: Ames,
Karyn R., and Alan Brenner, editors
Frontiers of Supercomputing II: A
National Reassessment. Berkeley:
University of California Press, c1994
1994.
http://ark.cdlib.org/ark:/13030/ft0f59n7
3z/
AND http://publishing.cdlib.org/ucpress
ebooks/view?docId=ft0f59n73z;chunk.id=d0
e2589;doc.view=print UNKNOWN
source: http://publishing.cdlib.org/ucpr
essebooks/data/13030/3z/ft0f59n73z/figur
es/ft0f59n73z_00014.jpg
[2] Figure 1. One thousand
twenty-four optical connections
contained within the same area as one
electronic connection. From: Ames,
Karyn R., and Alan Brenner, editors
Frontiers of Supercomputing II: A
National Reassessment. Berkeley:
University of California Press, c1994
1994.
http://ark.cdlib.org/ark:/13030/ft0f59n7
3z/
AND http://publishing.cdlib.org/ucpress
ebooks/view?docId=ft0f59n73z;chunk.id=d0
e2589;doc.view=print UNKNOWN
source: http://publishing.cdlib.org/ucpr
essebooks/data/13030/3z/ft0f59n73z/figur
es/ft0f59n73z_00012.jpg
[02/14/1990 AD]
image of the entire star system (Sun
and all planets) in one picture.
[1] Description Family portrait
(Voyager 1).png English: The ''family
portrait'' of the Solar System taken by
Voyager 1. This picture consists of 60
frames taken through the Wide Angle and
Narrow Angle cameras using the Methane,
Violet, Blue, Green, and Clear
Filters. Suggested for English
Wikipedia:alternative text for images:
a set of grey squares trace roughly
left to right. A few are labeled with
single letters associated with a nearby
coloured square. J is near to a square
labeled Jupiter; E to Earth; V to
Venus; S to Saturn; U to Uranus; N to
Neptune. A small spot appears at the
centre of each coloured
square English: Original Caption
Released with Image: The cameras of
Voyager 1 on Feb. 14, 1990, pointed
back toward the sun and took a series
of pictures of the sun and the planets,
making the first ever ''portrait'' of
our solar system as seen from the
outside. In the course of taking this
mosaic consisting of a total of 60
frames, Voyager 1 made several images
of the inner solar system from a
distance of approximately 4 billion
miles and about 32 degrees above the
ecliptic plane. Thirty-nine wide angle
frames link together six of the planets
of our solar system in this mosaic.
Outermost Neptune is 30 times further
from the sun than Earth. Our sun is
seen as the bright object in the center
of the circle of frames. The wide-angle
image of the sun was taken with the
camera's darkest filter (a methane
absorption band) and the shortest
possible exposure (1/125 second) to
avoid saturating the camera's vidicon
tube with scattered sunlight. The sun
is not large as seen from Voyager, only
about one-fortieth of the diameter as
seen from Earth, but is still almost 8
million times brighter than the
brightest star in Earth's sky, Sirius.
The result of this great brightness is
an image with multiple reflections from
the optics in the camera. Wide-angle
images surrounding the sun also show
many artifacts attributable to
scattered light in the optics. These
were taken through the clear filter
with one second exposures. The insets
show the planets magnified many times.
Narrow-angle images of Earth, Venus,
Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune
were acquired as the spacecraft built
the wide-angle mosaic. Jupiter is
larger than a narrow-angle pixel and is
clearly resolved, as is Saturn with its
rings. Uranus and Neptune appear larger
than they really are because of image
smear due to spacecraft motion during
the long (15 second) exposures. From
Voyager's great distance Earth and
Venus are mere points of light, less
than the size of a picture element even
in the narrow-angle camera. Earth was a
crescent only 0.12 pixel in size.
Coincidentally, Earth lies right in the
center of one of the scattered light
rays resulting from taking the image so
close to the sun. Date 14
February 1990(1990-02-14) Source
Visible Earth * source:
http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog
/PIA00451 o TIFF version:
http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/tiff/PI
A00451.tif Author NASA, Voyager
1 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3f/Family_portrait_%28Vo
yager_1%29.png
[2] Description Family portrait
(Voyager 1).png English: The ''family
portrait'' of the Solar System taken by
Voyager 1. This picture consists of 60
frames taken through the Wide Angle and
Narrow Angle cameras using the Methane,
Violet, Blue, Green, and Clear
Filters. Suggested for English
Wikipedia:alternative text for images:
a set of grey squares trace roughly
left to right. A few are labeled with
single letters associated with a nearby
coloured square. J is near to a square
labeled Jupiter; E to Earth; V to
Venus; S to Saturn; U to Uranus; N to
Neptune. A small spot appears at the
centre of each coloured
square English: Original Caption
Released with Image: The cameras of
Voyager 1 on Feb. 14, 1990, pointed
back toward the sun and took a series
of pictures of the sun and the planets,
making the first ever ''portrait'' of
our solar system as seen from the
outside. In the course of taking this
mosaic consisting of a total of 60
frames, Voyager 1 made several images
of the inner solar system from a
distance of approximately 4 billion
miles and about 32 degrees above the
ecliptic plane. Thirty-nine wide angle
frames link together six of the planets
of our solar system in this mosaic.
Outermost Neptune is 30 times further
from the sun than Earth. Our sun is
seen as the bright object in the center
of the circle of frames. The wide-angle
image of the sun was taken with the
camera's darkest filter (a methane
absorption band) and the shortest
possible exposure (1/125 second) to
avoid saturating the camera's vidicon
tube with scattered sunlight. The sun
is not large as seen from Voyager, only
about one-fortieth of the diameter as
seen from Earth, but is still almost 8
million times brighter than the
brightest star in Earth's sky, Sirius.
The result of this great brightness is
an image with multiple reflections from
the optics in the camera. Wide-angle
images surrounding the sun also show
many artifacts attributable to
scattered light in the optics. These
were taken through the clear filter
with one second exposures. The insets
show the planets magnified many times.
Narrow-angle images of Earth, Venus,
Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune
were acquired as the spacecraft built
the wide-angle mosaic. Jupiter is
larger than a narrow-angle pixel and is
clearly resolved, as is Saturn with its
rings. Uranus and Neptune appear larger
than they really are because of image
smear due to spacecraft motion during
the long (15 second) exposures. From
Voyager's great distance Earth and
Venus are mere points of light, less
than the size of a picture element even
in the narrow-angle camera. Earth was a
crescent only 0.12 pixel in size.
Coincidentally, Earth lies right in the
center of one of the scattered light
rays resulting from taking the image so
close to the sun. Date 14
February 1990(1990-02-14) Source
Visible Earth * source:
http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog
/PIA00451 o TIFF version:
http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/tiff/PI
A00451.tif Author NASA, Voyager
1 PD
source:
[04/25/1990 AD]
orbit.
39B) Merritt Island, Florida, USA
[1] Description HST-SM4.jpeg English:
The Hubble Space Telescope as seen from
the departing Space Shuttle Atlantis,
flying STS-125, HST Servicing Mission
4. Date 19 May
2009(2009-05-19) Source
http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/gallery
/images/shuttle/sts-119/hires/s125e01184
8.jpg Author Ruffnax (Crew of
STS-125) Permission (Reusing this
file) See below. Other versions
Derivative works of this file:
* HST-SM4.png PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3f/HST-SM4.jpeg
[2] note
Hubble_ultra_deep_field_high_rez_edit1
is much larger [2] Hubble ultra deep
field high rez
edit1_small.jpg Deutsch: Das Hubble
Ultra Deep Field ist ein Bild einer
kleinen Himmelsregion aufgenommen vom
Hubble-Weltraumteleskop über einen
Zeitraum vom 3. September 2003 bis 16.
Januar 2004. Dabei wurde eine
Himmelsregion ausgewählt, die kaum
störende helle Sterne im Vordergrund
enthält. Man entschied sich für ein
Zielgebiet südwestlich von Orion im
Sternbild Chemischer Ofen. English:
The Hubble Ultra Deep Field, is an
image of a small region of space in the
constellation Fornax, composited from
Hubble Space Telescope data accumulated
over a period from September 3, 2003
through January 16, 2004. The patch of
sky in which the galaxies reside was
chosen because it had a low density of
bright stars in the
near-field. Español: El Campo Ultra
Profundo del Hubble, es una imagen de
una pequeña región del espacio en la
constelación Fornax, compuesta de
datos obtenidos por el telescopio
espacial Hubble durante el período
entre el 3 de Septiembre de 2003 y el
16 de Enero de 2004. Esta parte del
cielo fue escogida por su baja densidad
de estrellas brillantes en sus
proximidades. Français : Le champ
ultra profond de Hubble, une image
d'une petite portion du ciel dans la
constellation du Fourneau, prise par le
télescope spatial Hubble du 3
septembre 2003 au 16 juillet 2004. La
portion de ciel a été choisie car
elle possède peu d'étoiles brillantes
proches. Date 2003-09-03 -
2004-01-16 Source
http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/ar
chive/releases/2004/07/image/a/warn/ Au
thor NASA and the European Space
Agency. Edited by Noodle snacks PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0d/Hubble_ultra_deep_fie
ld_high_rez_edit1.jpg
[10/29/1991 AD]
close-up images of an asteroid.
occur later)
[1] Description English: Asteroid
en:951 Gaspra. Calvin J. Hamilton's
website View of the Solar System
describes this image as follows:
''This picture Gaspra is a combination
of the highest-resolution images and
color information obtained by the
Galileo spacecraft. The Sun is shining
from the right. The subtle color
variations on Gaspra's surface have
been exaggerated. en:Albedo and color
variations are associated with surface
en:topography. The bluish areas are
regions of slightly higher albedo and
tend to be associated with some of the
crisper craters and with ridges. The
slightly reddish areas, apparently
concentrated in low areas, represent
regions of somewhat lower albedo. In
general, such patterns can be explained
in terms of greater exposure of fresher
rock in the brighter bluish areas and
the accumulation of some en:regolith
materials in the darker reddish areas.
(Courtesy USGS/NASA/JPL)''
[1] Ελληνικά: Ο 951 Gaspra,
ο πρώτος αστεροειδής
που φωτογραφήθηκε
από κοντά. Date 8 June
1992 Source English: Cropped from
TIFF image from
[http://www.solarviews.com/cap/ast/gaspr
a3.htm Solarviews.com Author
English: NASA PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/81/951_Gaspra.jpg
[2] The Asteroid 243 Ida and Its Moon
Dactyl This color picture is made
from images taken from the Galileo
spacecraft about 14 minutes before its
closest approach to asteroid 243 Ida on
August 28, 1993. The range from the
spacecraft was about 10,500 kilometers
(6,500 miles). The images used are from
the sequence in which Ida's moon was
originally discovered; the tiny moon is
visible to the right of the asteroid.
The color is ''enhanced'' in the sense
that the CCD camera is sensitive to
near infrared wavelengths of light
beyond human vision; a ''natural''
color picture of this asteroid would
appear mostly gray. PD
source: http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/gali
leo/gallery/images/top10-03.jpg
[1991 AD]
the public by way of FTP.
[1] A geographic map of USENET sites
and routes from December 1986. The
map was one of the first produced by
Brian Reid as part of a decade long
USENET monitoring project. For details
see the Map of the Month article
''Flowing from site to site'',
Mappa.Mundi Magazine, May 2001.
UNKNOWN
source: http://personalpages.manchester.
ac.uk/staff/m.dodge/cybergeography//atla
s/world_usenet_1986_large.gif
[2] The NSFNET infrastructure and
topology in 1991. (Source : NSFNET
postscript maps from
ftp://ftp.uu.net/inet/maps/nsfnet/.) ft
p://ftp.uu.net/inet/maps/nsfnet/ UNKNOW
N
source: http://personalpages.manchester.
ac.uk/staff/m.dodge/cybergeography//atla
s/nsfnet_t3topo.gif
[1992 AD]
program.
[1] Screen capture showing Global
Schoolhouse classrooms collaborating
via CU-SeeMe (taken by Yvonne Marie
Andres) CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/c/cf/CU-Schools.GIF
[2] Original screen capture of Global
Schoolhouse students collaborating via
CU-SeeMe taken by Yvonne Marie
Andres. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/e/e8/CUcollaboration.gif
[08/28/1993 AD]
moon of an asteroid.
[1] The Asteroid 243 Ida and Its Moon
Dactyl This color picture is made
from images taken from the Galileo
spacecraft about 14 minutes before its
closest approach to asteroid 243 Ida on
August 28, 1993. The range from the
spacecraft was about 10,500 kilometers
(6,500 miles). The images used are from
the sequence in which Ida's moon was
originally discovered; the tiny moon is
visible to the right of the asteroid.
The color is ''enhanced'' in the sense
that the CCD camera is sensitive to
near infrared wavelengths of light
beyond human vision; a ''natural''
color picture of this asteroid would
appear mostly gray. PD
source: http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/gali
leo/gallery/images/top10-03.jpg
[2] Description English: Asteroid
en:951 Gaspra. Calvin J. Hamilton's
website View of the Solar System
describes this image as follows:
''This picture Gaspra is a combination
of the highest-resolution images and
color information obtained by the
Galileo spacecraft. The Sun is shining
from the right. The subtle color
variations on Gaspra's surface have
been exaggerated. en:Albedo and color
variations are associated with surface
en:topography. The bluish areas are
regions of slightly higher albedo and
tend to be associated with some of the
crisper craters and with ridges. The
slightly reddish areas, apparently
concentrated in low areas, represent
regions of somewhat lower albedo. In
general, such patterns can be explained
in terms of greater exposure of fresher
rock in the brighter bluish areas and
the accumulation of some en:regolith
materials in the darker reddish areas.
(Courtesy USGS/NASA/JPL)''
[1] Ελληνικά: Ο 951 Gaspra,
ο πρώτος αστεροειδής
που φωτογραφήθηκε
από κοντά. Date 8 June
1992 Source English: Cropped from
TIFF image from
[http://www.solarviews.com/cap/ast/gaspr
a3.htm Solarviews.com Author
English: NASA PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/81/951_Gaspra.jpg
[1993 AD]
[1] NCSA Mosaic™ 0.6 beta
screenshot source:
http://www.ncsa.illinois.edu/Projects/mo
saic.html Screenshot of NCSA Mosaic
1.0 web browser running on System
7.1 Source UNKNOWN
source: http://gladiator.ncsa.illinois.e
du/Images/press-images/mosaic.6beta.tif
[2] Screenshot taken by
User:Ozguy89 Article Mosaic (web
browser) Portion used Low
resolution? no Purpose of use
To identify and illustrate the
Mosaic web browser COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/a/a5/NCSAMosaic1.0Mac.png
[12/07/1995 AD]
[1] Drifting Galileo Date: 18 Oct
1989 Galileo spacecraft atop the
inertial upper stage drifts into the
blackness of space after deployment
from the Space Shuttle Atlantis payload
bay during mission STS-34 in October
1989. Image Credit: NASA Credit:
NASA PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/ea/Galileo_encounter_wit
h_Io.gif
[2] The Asteroid 243 Ida and Its Moon
Dactyl This color picture is made
from images taken from the Galileo
spacecraft about 14 minutes before its
closest approach to asteroid 243 Ida on
August 28, 1993. The range from the
spacecraft was about 10,500 kilometers
(6,500 miles). The images used are from
the sequence in which Ida's moon was
originally discovered; the tiny moon is
visible to the right of the asteroid.
The color is ''enhanced'' in the sense
that the CCD camera is sensitive to
near infrared wavelengths of light
beyond human vision; a ''natural''
color picture of this asteroid would
appear mostly gray. PD
source: http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/mult
imedia/gallery/STS34_10063774-browse.jpg
[11/25/1996 AD]
the nucleus of an ovum with the nucleus
from a somatic cell, and then
stimulating the ovum with electrical
pulses to start dividing. This proves
that the DNA of the differentiated
somatic cell does not involve an
irreversible modification for the
embryo to develop.
Institute), Roslin Midlothian, UK
[1] Figre 2 from: I. Wilmut, A. E.
Schnieke*, J. McWhir, A. J. Kind* & K.
H. S. Campbell, ''Viable offspring
derived from fetal and adult mammalian
cells'', Nature 385, 810 - 813 (27
February 1997);
doi:10.1038/385810a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v385/n6619/abs/385810
a0.html {Wilmut_Ian_19961125.pdf}
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v385/n6619/abs/385810a0.html
[2] Description English: Modified
version of Commons
image en:Category:Animal
testing Date 2008-02-22 (original
upload date) (Original text : 22 Feb
08) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia (Original text :
Image:Dollyscotland.JPG) Author Origina
l uploader was TimVickers at
en.wikipedia (Original text :
User:Llull on English
Wikipedia) Permission (Reusing this
file) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Dollyscotland_%
28crop%29.jpg/1280px-Dollyscotland_%28cr
op%29.jpg
[09/15/1999 AD]
from neurons.
Berkeley, CA, USA
[1] Figure 2. Reconstruction of
natural scenes from the responses of a
population of neurons. a, Receptive
fields of 177 cells used in the
reconstruction. Each receptive field
was fitted with a two-dimensional
Gaussian function. Each ellipse
represents the contour at one SD from
the center of the Gaussian fit. Note
that the actual receptive fields
(including surround) are considerably
larger than these ellipses. Red, On
center. Blue, Off center. An area of 32
× 32 pixels (0.2°/pixel) where movie
signals were reconstructed is outlined
in white. The grid inside the white
square delineates the pixels. b,
Comparison between the actual and the
reconstructed images in an area of 6.4
× 6.4° (a, white square). Each panel
shows four consecutive frames
(interframe interval, 31.1 msec) of the
actual (top) and the reconstructed
(bottom) movies. Top panel, Scenes in
the woods, with two trunks of trees as
the most prominent objects. Middle
panel, Scenes in the woods, with
smaller tree branches. Bottom panel, A
face at slightly different
displacements on the screen. c,
Quantitative comparison between the
reconstructed and the actual movie
signals. Top, Histogram of temporal
correlation coefficients between the
actual and the reconstructed signals
(both as functions of time) at each
pixel. The histogram was generated from
1024 (32 × 32) pixels in the white
square. Bottom, Histogram of spatial
correlation coefficients between the
actual and the reconstructed signals
(both as functions of spatial position)
at each frame. The histogram was
generated from 4096 frames (512 frames
per movie; 8 movies). COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jneurosci.org/content
/vol19/issue18/images/large/ns1893409002
.jpeg
[2] Video from Yang Dan UNKNOWN
source: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=t
FdZ9eGTG5A
[09/20/1999 AD]
onto spinal cord tissue, are shown to
differentiate, integrate with, and
promote recovery in the spinal cord of
injured rats.
Medicine) St. Louis, Missouri,
USA
[1] JOHN W. MCDONALD, XIAO-ZHONG LIU,
YUN QU, SU LIU, SHANNON K.
MICKEY, DOROTHY TURETSKY, DAVID I.
GOTTLIEB, & DENNIS W. CHOI,
''Transplanted embryonic stem cells
survive, differentiate and promote
recovery in injured rat spinal cord'',
Nature medicine, (1999) volume: 5
issue: 12 page:
1410 http://www.nature.com/nm/journal/v
5/n12/full/nm1299_1410.html {Choi_Denni
s_W_19990920.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nm/journal
/v5/n12/full/nm1299_1410.html
[02/14/2000 AD]
[1] Description
WholeEros.jpg English: False color
view of
http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog
/PIA02923 Original caption from
NASA's Astronomy picture of the
day...: Asteroid Eros
Reconstructed Credit: NEAR
Project, NLR, JHUAPL, Goddard SVS,
NASA Explanation: Orbiting the Sun
between Mars and Earth, asteroid 433
Eros was visited by the robot
spacecraft NEAR-Shoemaker in 2000
February. High-resolution surface
images and measurements made by NEAR's
Laser Rangefinder (NLR) have been
combined into the above visualization
based on the derived 3D model of the
tumbling space rock. NEAR allowed
scientists to discover that Eros is a
single solid body, that its composition
is nearly uniform, and that it formed
during the early years of our Solar
System. Mysteries remain, however,
including why some rocks on the surface
have disintegrated. On 2001 February
12, the NEAR mission drew to a dramatic
close as it was crash landed onto the
asteroid's surface, surviving well
enough to return an analysis of the
composition of the surface regolith. In
December of 2002, NASA made an
unsuccessful attempt to communicate
with the spacecraft after it spent 22
months resting on the asteroid's
surface. NEAR will likely remain on the
asteroid for billions of years as a
monument to human ingenuity at the turn
of the third millennium. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/25/WholeEros.jpg
[2] Description Near
Shoemaker.jpg Artist's conception of
the NEAR Shoenmaker spacecraft.
Originally from the NSSDC website:
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/tmp/1996-
008A.html Date 2007-07-12
(original upload date) Source
Originally from en.wikipedia;
description page is/was here. Author
Original uploader was Andy120290
at en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing
this file) PD-LAYOUT;
PD-USGOV-NASA. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/27/Near_Shoemaker.jpg
[12/05/2000 AD]
USA (and 13 other locations)
[1] Figure 1 from: J. Craig Venter, et
al, ''The Sequence of the Human
Genome'', Science, New Series, Vol.
291, No. 5507 (Feb. 16, 2001), pp.
1304-1351 http://www.jstor.org/stable/3
083494 {Venter_J_Craig_20001205.pdf} C
OPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8f/Craigventer2.jpg
[2] Description
Craigventer2.jpg J. Craig
Venter Date published September
4, 2007 Source A New Human Genome
Sequence Paves the Way for
Individualized Genomics Gross L PLoS
Biology Vol. 5, No. 10, e266
doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0050266 http
://biology.plosjournals.org/perlserv/?re
quest=slideshow&type=figure&doi=10.1371/
journal.pbio.0050266&id=85043 Author
Article by Liza Gross, but no
photo credit given CC
source:
[02/12/2001 AD]
asteroid.
[1] Description
Erosregolith.jpg One of the last
photos taken by the NEAR Shoemaker
spacecraft as it landed on the asteroid
433Eros Date 2003(2003) Source
NASA Author
NASA Permission (Reusing this
file) public domain PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a6/Erosregolith.jpg
[2] Description
WholeEros.jpg English: False color
view of
http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog
/PIA02923 Original caption from
NASA's Astronomy picture of the
day...: Asteroid Eros
Reconstructed Credit: NEAR
Project, NLR, JHUAPL, Goddard SVS,
NASA Explanation: Orbiting the Sun
between Mars and Earth, asteroid 433
Eros was visited by the robot
spacecraft NEAR-Shoemaker in 2000
February. High-resolution surface
images and measurements made by NEAR's
Laser Rangefinder (NLR) have been
combined into the above visualization
based on the derived 3D model of the
tumbling space rock. NEAR allowed
scientists to discover that Eros is a
single solid body, that its composition
is nearly uniform, and that it formed
during the early years of our Solar
System. Mysteries remain, however,
including why some rocks on the surface
have disintegrated. On 2001 February
12, the NEAR mission drew to a dramatic
close as it was crash landed onto the
asteroid's surface, surviving well
enough to return an analysis of the
composition of the surface regolith. In
December of 2002, NASA made an
unsuccessful attempt to communicate
with the spacecraft after it spent 22
months resting on the asteroid's
surface. NEAR will likely remain on the
asteroid for billions of years as a
monument to human ingenuity at the turn
of the third millennium. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/25/WholeEros.jpg
[06/28/2001 AD]
chip).
[1] Hitachi Develops a New RFID with
Embedded Antenna µ-Chip --Makes
Possible Wireless Links that Work Using
Nothing More Than a 0.4mm X 0.4mm Chip,
One of the World's Smallest ICs-- A
New RFID with Embedded Antenna
MU-Chip Tokyo, September 2,
2003-Hitachi, Ltd. (TSE: 6501) today
announced that it has developed a new
version of its RFID µ-Chip embedding
an antenna. When using Hitachi's
original µ-Chip, one of the world's
smallest RFID ICs measuring only 0.4mm
X 0.4mm, an external antenna must be
attached to the chip to allow external
devices to read the 128-bit ID number
stored in its ROM (Read-Only-Memory).
This newly developed version, however,
features an internal antenna, enabling
chips to employ the energy of incoming
electrical waves to wirelessly transmit
its ID number to a reader. The 0.4mm X
0.4mm chip can thus operate entirely on
its own, making it possible to use
µ-Chip as RFID IC tags without the
need to attach external devices. This
breakthrough opens the door to using
µ-Chips as RFID IC tags in extremely
minute and precise applications that
had been impractical until now. For
example, the new µ-Chip can be easily
embedded in bank notes, gift
certificates, documents and whole paper
media etc. The µ-Chip, announced by
Hitachi in July 2001, is one of the
world's smallest IC chips at 0.4mm X
0.4mm. The chip data is recorded in
read-only memory during the
semiconductor production process, and
therefore cannot be rewritten, thus
guaranteeing its authenticity.
Applications of the µ-Chip include a
system for managing the SCM materials
on sites, and entrance tickets for Expo
2005 Aichi Japan which opens on March
25, 2005. The primary features of
this revolutionary µ-Chip are as
follows. (1) A RFID IC chip measuring
only 0.4mm X 0.4mm with built-in
antenna Despite its extremely small
size, this µ-Chip has a built-in
antenna to permit contactless
communications (at very close
proximity) with other devices without
using an external antenna. (2) No need
for special manufacturing
equipment The antenna is formed using
bump-metalization technology (used to
create the electrical contacts of an
IC), a process already widely used by
semiconductor manufacturers, thus
eliminating any need for specialized
equipment. (3) Complete compatibility
with conventional µ-Chip With ID
numbers and support systems that are
fully compatible with those of existing
µ-Chip, the new chip is fully
compatible with all systems that use
current µ-Chip technology. Hitachi
plans to develop numerous markets for
this chip that take full advantage of
its outstanding features. Embedding the
chip in securities, identification and
other valuable documents such as
vouchers offers a highly sophisticated
means of preventing counterfeiting.
Another high-potential application is
agricultural products, where the chips
can help ensure the safety of food by
providing traceability of ingredients.
Additionally, the chips can be embedded
in business forms to automate logistics
systems and many other business
processes. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.hitachi.com/New/cnews
/030902_030902.jpg
[2] The world's smallest radio
frequency identification tags have been
unveiled by Japanese electronics firm
Hitachi. The minute devices measure
just 0.05mm by 0.05mm (0.002x0.002in)
and to the naked eye look like spots of
powder. Here the tiny tags can be
seen next to a human hair UNKNOWN
source: http://newsimg.bbc.co.uk/media/i
mages/42606000/jpg/_42606003_tag_203.jpg
[02/16/2002 AD]
drugs inside a human body.
[1] Plate 1 figures A-C Farra, Robert
et al. “First-in-Human Testing of a
Wirelessly Controlled Drug Delivery
Microchip.” Science Translational
Medicine (2012): n.
pag. http://stm.sciencemag.org/content/
early/2012/02/15/scitranslmed.3003276 C
OPYRIGHTED
source: Farra, Robert et al.
“First-in-Human Testing of a
Wirelessly Controlled Drug Delivery
Microchip.” Science Translational
Medicine (2012): n.
pag. http://stm.sciencemag.org/content/
early/2012/02/15/scitranslmed.3003276
[2] Plate 4 figures A-H Farra, Robert
et al. “First-in-Human Testing of a
Wirelessly Controlled Drug Delivery
Microchip.” Science Translational
Medicine (2012): n.
pag. http://stm.sciencemag.org/content/
early/2012/02/15/scitranslmed.3003276 C
OPYRIGHTED
source:
[04/04/2003 AD]
Berkeley, California, USA
[1] Credit: Zettl Research Group LBNL,
University of California,
Berkley Electric Drives - Special
Purpose Motors (Description and
Applications) Motor
Construction Special purpose designs
have been developed to solve a wide
range of drive problems. Some common
examples are included here.
Integrated Starter Generator
(ISG) The electronically controlled
integrated starter generator used in
mild hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs)
combines the automotive starter and
alternator into a single machine. The
conventional starter is a low speed,
high current DC machine, while the
alternator is a variable speed 3 phase
AC machine. The ISG has four
important functions in a hybrid vehicle
application It enables the
''start-stop'' function, turning off
the engine when the vehicle is
stationary saving fuel. It
generates the electrical energy to
power all the electrical ancillaries.
It provides a power boost to assist
the engine when required, permitting
smaller engines for similar
performance. In some
configurations it recuperates energy
from regenerative braking. In a
typical implementation (below), the ISG
is a short axis, large diameter
''pancake'' shaped switched reluctance
machine mounted directly on the end of
the engine crankshaft between the
engine and the clutch in the gearbox
bell housing. Image source Long,
Schofield, Howe, Piron &
McClelland ''Design of a Switched
Reluctance Machine for Extended Speed
Operation'' IMEDC June 2003 The ISG
is a bi-directional energy converter
acting as a motor when powered by the
battery or a generator when driven by
the engine. The system voltage in a
mild HEV is 42 Volts which means that,
for the same cranking power as a 12
Volt machine, the starter current can
be reduced. Typical power throughput is
between 5kW and 15 kW with a possible
peak power of 70 kW for cold
cranking.. The brushless ISG design
eliminates one rotating machine
completely as well as the associated
commutator and brushes from the DC
machine and the sliprings and brushes
from the AC machine. The starter
solenoid, the Bendix ring (starter
gear) and the pulley or gear drive to
the alternator are also no longer
needed and because of the higher system
voltage, the diameter and weight of the
copper cabling is also reduced
substantially. The savings however
come at a cost. The system must be
integrated with several subsystems as
follows An AC/DC converter to
rectify the generator output voltage.
A DC/DC converter to supply the
vehicle's electrical power system
voltages. Power electronics and
software to control the ISG current,
voltage, speed, torque and temperature
as appropriate. An overall energy
management system integrated with the
vehicle's engine, battery and
brakes. Larger versions of this
construction are also used in full
hybrid electric vehicles. The
switched reluctance machine with its
simple rotor of inert iron is very
robust, able to operate at high speed
and to withstand the harsh operating
conditions in the engine
compartment. History
Outer Rotor Motors There are many
designs using this construction, mostly
for small sizes. Two examples of low
power motors are shown below. High
power versions are used for ''in
wheel'' automotive applications.
Inside Out Motor These are
permanent magnet motors with the moving
magnets arranged around the periphery
of a multi pole fixed stator carrying
the field windings.
Used for automotive drive
systems including in-wheel motors. Low
power versions used in small cooling
fans and direct drive record player
turntables. Toroidal Coil
Motor This is an ''inside out''
brushless permanent magnet motor with a
toroidal wound stator covered by a cup
shaped permanent magnet outer
rotor. Because
of the low inertia and friction free
rotor, the toroidal motor is capable of
speeds up to 25,000 RPM. Suitable for
low power applications it is used for
example to drive the polygonal rotating
mirrors which are mounted directly on
the rotor in laser printers.
Linear Motors In most cases the
linear motor can be considered as a
conventional rotary motor with both the
stator and the rotor split and rolled
out flat. The same electromagnetic
forces apply and these have been
employed in similar classes of AC and
DC machines. Except for traction motors
the travel of the motor armature is
usually quite short. Linear
Stepping Motors The most common
application is the stepping motor.
Stator poles are laid out along the
track and excited by windings fed from
a pulsed DC source. Permanent magnets
forming the armature are held in the
carriage. The carriage moves along the
track in response to pulses sent to the
the stator windings in much the same
way as the rotor turns in a brushless
DC motor. Closed loop control is
possible by mounting a position sensor
on the carriage. Despite the
elegance of the linear motor, linear
motion is more often provided by the
less expensive and more mundane method
of using a rotary stepping motor
driving a lead screw. Maglev
Traction Motors The principle of
the linear induction motor is used to
propel high speed Maglev (Magnetic
Levitation) trains which float on a
magnetic field created by
electromagnets in the trackbed under
the train . A separate set of trackside
guidance magnets is used to control the
lateral position of the train relative
to the track. Thus the maglev train
uses electromagnetic forces for three
different tasks, to suspend, to guide
and to propel the train. Maglev
trains have been developed in several
countries of the world using a variety
of configurations. Examples of the
essential features are described
below. Propulsion
The train has no onboard motor.
Electromagnets in the trackbed are
excited in sequence creating a linear
rather than a rotating field. By
transformer action, the trackbed coils
induce currents in coils on board the
train which are used to energise
powerful electromagnets. The Lorentz
force between the trackbed currents and
the the onboard electromagnets causes
the magnets to be propelled along by
the moving field. The
principles involved are very similar to
those of the induction motor but with
the static and moving parts
interchanged. See diagram below.
For illustrative
purposes the track can be likened to a
ladder formed by the unrolled squirrel
cage rotor of the induction motor. In
this case however it is fixed and it
supplies the moving field. Currents are
induced in the train's electromagnets
which are equivalent to the stator
poles of the induction motor but in
this case the magnets are free to move.
In practical designs the trackbed
currents are actually provided in a
series of individual coils laid along
the track. Levitation
Various levitation schemes are used.
The force holding the train aloft can
be created by the magnetic repulsion
between the same electromagnets on the
track and the onboard electromagnets in
the train which are used for
propulsion. The train's levitating
magnets are powered by direct current
supplied by a battery which is kept
charged by an induction generator
taking its power from the currents
induced by the trackbed coils in the
onboard generator coils. In
the diagram above, when the magnet is
directly above the current carrying
conductor as shown, the magnetic forces
(north and south poles) from the two
adjacent current loops cancel out and
there is no lift. If however the magnet
is moving very quickly over the coils,
it will reach a position over like,
repulsive, poles (north poles in the
diagram) which are displaced from the
attractive south poles so that the net
effect is a force repelling the magnet
away from the track. This is only
possible because the current in the
trackbed magnets lags the voltage due
to the inductance of the windings,
creating a delay in the build up of the
balanced field by which time the magnet
has moved into the adjacent region
where there is a net repulsive force.
This effect only happens when the
magnet on the train is moving at high
speed across the trackbed magnets. Thus
the train needs to be in motion for
this system to work and the train needs
wheels for support as it accelerates
from rest and when it is slowing to a
halt. Alternatively
levitation can be provided by separate
windings. The train's levitation
magnets protrude from the side of the
train and run between pairs of
vertically separated electromagnets in
guideways at each side of the train,
rather than in the trackbed. This
arrangement creates an attractive force
above the train's magnets combined with
a repulsive force beneath the train's
magnets to provide the levitating
force. Guidance For
guidance the train uses magnetic fields
provided by a separate set of weaker
magnets along each side of the train.
Similar in principle to the levitation
magnets they are used to control the
lateral position of the train relative
to the track.
Excitation of the trackside magnets is
arranged such that only the section
under the train is active. As the train
moves along the track between sections
the current to the previous section is
switched off and the current to the
next section is switched on pulling the
train along. This serves the dual
purpose of avoiding losses by
energising only the section of track
directly under the train and at the
same time, since the power to the rest
of the track is switched off, it
provides security against electric
shock to anybody near to the track and
avoids the possibility of accidentally
short circuiting the system by dropping
rubbish onto live conductors.
Very high armature currents of
thousands of amps or more are involved
and some designs use high temperature
superconductors ( HTS ) in the onboard
magnets, cooled with liquid nitrogen or
helium to minimise the resistive
losses. As might be expected some
sophisticated control systems are
needed to keep everything on track.
History Axial Field
Motors Axial field motors have been
developed for applications which
require short, flat, ''pancake''
construction. Printed Circuit
(PCB) or ''Pancake'' Motor The
printed circuit motor is an example of
an ironless or coreless motor with
several unique features. The pancake
construction uses an axial magnetic
field to achieve the short flat
construction. Radial field PCB motors
are also possible.
Construction The rotor windings
are printed, stamped or welded onto a
thin, disc shaped glass fibre circuit
board which rotates in the air gap
between pairs of permanent magnets
arranged around the periphery of the
disk. The windings fan out in a series
of radial loops around the surface of
the disk. The magnets are arranged
alternatively north and south so that
the magnetic fields in the air gaps of
adjacent magnet pairs are in opposite
directions. The magnets are held in
place by two iron end caps in a compact
''pancake'' shaped block to complete
the magnetic circuit. Current is fed to
the rotor windings via brushes through
precious metal commutator segments
printed on the disc. Operating
Principle Traditional electric
motors have a radial magnetic field or
flux with the rotor current flowing
axially along the length of the rotor.
In typical printed circuit motors the
construction is reversed. The magnetic
field is axial (oriented along the axis
of the machine) and the current flows
radially from the axis to the edge of
the disc and back again. A tangential
force on the disk is created by the
current passing through the magnetic
fields in the air gaps between the pole
pairs of the permanent magnets. So that
the return current does not cancel out
the effect of the outgoing current, the
return wire is physically separated or
displaced to one side from the outgoing
wire by the width of the magnet. In
this way it interacts with the magnetic
field of the adjacent magnet which is
in the opposite direction and thus
reinforces the tangential force on the
disk. In many ways it is similar
to Faraday's 1831disk or homopolar
motor which used a single magnet and
was driven by a unidirectional current
fed by brushes at the centre and on the
periphery of the disk.
Applications The printed circuit
motor is a very compact and light
weight design making it useful in
confined spaces. Since the rotor does
not have drag a lump of iron around, it
has very low inertia and can run up to
speed very quickly. Because of the many
commutator segments and the low current
capability of the windings, the PCB
motor is only suitable for low power
applications and is not suitable for
continuous operation. It is however
ideal for servo systems and industrial
controls and automotive applications
such as electric window winders.
Micro-motors
(Micro-ElectroMechanical Systems -
MEMS) Electrostatic Motor
The motor shown below is an example of
semiconductor manufacturing technology
used to fabricate very small mechanical
components. It measures 100 microns
across, or about the width of a human
hair. Similar in principle to a
reluctance motor, it depends on
electrostatic attraction, rather than
magnetic attraction, between the stator
and rotor poles. Because the dimensions
are so tiny, very high electric fields
can be built up with only a few volts
between the motor poles.
Fan Long-Shen, Tai Yu-Chong
and Richard S. Muller 1989
IC-processed electrostatic
micromotors Sensors Actuators 20
41-7 Fan L-S, Tai Y-C and R S
Muller 1988 Integrated moveable
micromechanical structures for sensors
and actuators IEEE Trans. Electron
Devices The motor is
not assembled from individual
components. Instead the components are
built up on a semiconductor substrate
by masking and etching and a mask-less
post-processing release step is
performed to etch away sacrificial
layers, allowing the structural layers
to move and rotate.
Micromachined micromotors can be
monolithically integrated together with
the necessary CMOS drive circuits,
containing oscillators, frequency
dividers and counters, and transistors
for the drive circuit all on one
silicon chip. Common uses
include defense/munitions applications,
computer hard drives, optics, sensors
and actuators.
History Nano-motors
(Nano-ElectroMechanical Systems -
NEMS) Electrostatic Motor
Even smaller motors have been made
using nanotechnology. An example is
shown below. It consists of a tiny gold
slab rotor, about 100 nm square,
mounted on concentric carbon nanotubes.
The outer tube carries the rotor,
driven by electrostatic electrodes,
rotating around an inner tube which
acts as a supporting shaft. By applying
voltage pulses of up to 5 Volts between
the rotor plate and stators, the
position, speed and direction of
rotation of the rotor can be
controlled. It measures about 500
nanometers across, 300 times smaller
than the diameter of a human hair.
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.mpoweruk.com/images/n
ems.gif
[2] Credit: Zettl Research
Group LBNL, University of California,
Berkley Electric Drives - Special
Purpose Motors (Description and
Applications) Motor
Construction Special purpose designs
have been developed to solve a wide
range of drive problems. Some common
examples are included here.
Integrated Starter Generator
(ISG) The electronically controlled
integrated starter generator used in
mild hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs)
combines the automotive starter and
alternator into a single machine. The
conventional starter is a low speed,
high current DC machine, while the
alternator is a variable speed 3 phase
AC machine. The ISG has four
important functions in a hybrid vehicle
application It enables the
''start-stop'' function, turning off
the engine when the vehicle is
stationary saving fuel. It
generates the electrical energy to
power all the electrical ancillaries.
It provides a power boost to assist
the engine when required, permitting
smaller engines for similar
performance. In some
configurations it recuperates energy
from regenerative braking. In a
typical implementation (below), the ISG
is a short axis, large diameter
''pancake'' shaped switched reluctance
machine mounted directly on the end of
the engine crankshaft between the
engine and the clutch in the gearbox
bell housing. Image source Long,
Schofield, Howe, Piron &
McClelland ''Design of a Switched
Reluctance Machine for Extended Speed
Operation'' IMEDC June 2003 The ISG
is a bi-directional energy converter
acting as a motor when powered by the
battery or a generator when driven by
the engine. The system voltage in a
mild HEV is 42 Volts which means that,
for the same cranking power as a 12
Volt machine, the starter current can
be reduced. Typical power throughput is
between 5kW and 15 kW with a possible
peak power of 70 kW for cold
cranking.. The brushless ISG design
eliminates one rotating machine
completely as well as the associated
commutator and brushes from the DC
machine and the sliprings and brushes
from the AC machine. The starter
solenoid, the Bendix ring (starter
gear) and the pulley or gear drive to
the alternator are also no longer
needed and because of the higher system
voltage, the diameter and weight of the
copper cabling is also reduced
substantially. The savings however
come at a cost. The system must be
integrated with several subsystems as
follows An AC/DC converter to
rectify the generator output voltage.
A DC/DC converter to supply the
vehicle's electrical power system
voltages. Power electronics and
software to control the ISG current,
voltage, speed, torque and temperature
as appropriate. An overall energy
management system integrated with the
vehicle's engine, battery and
brakes. Larger versions of this
construction are also used in full
hybrid electric vehicles. The
switched reluctance machine with its
simple rotor of inert iron is very
robust, able to operate at high speed
and to withstand the harsh operating
conditions in the engine
compartment. History
Outer Rotor Motors There are many
designs using this construction, mostly
for small sizes. Two examples of low
power motors are shown below. High
power versions are used for ''in
wheel'' automotive applications.
Inside Out Motor These are
permanent magnet motors with the moving
magnets arranged around the periphery
of a multi pole fixed stator carrying
the field windings.
Used for automotive drive
systems including in-wheel motors. Low
power versions used in small cooling
fans and direct drive record player
turntables. Toroidal Coil
Motor This is an ''inside out''
brushless permanent magnet motor with a
toroidal wound stator covered by a cup
shaped permanent magnet outer
rotor. Because
of the low inertia and friction free
rotor, the toroidal motor is capable of
speeds up to 25,000 RPM. Suitable for
low power applications it is used for
example to drive the polygonal rotating
mirrors which are mounted directly on
the rotor in laser printers.
Linear Motors In most cases the
linear motor can be considered as a
conventional rotary motor with both the
stator and the rotor split and rolled
out flat. The same electromagnetic
forces apply and these have been
employed in similar classes of AC and
DC machines. Except for traction motors
the travel of the motor armature is
usually quite short. Linear
Stepping Motors The most common
application is the stepping motor.
Stator poles are laid out along the
track and excited by windings fed from
a pulsed DC source. Permanent magnets
forming the armature are held in the
carriage. The carriage moves along the
track in response to pulses sent to the
the stator windings in much the same
way as the rotor turns in a brushless
DC motor. Closed loop control is
possible by mounting a position sensor
on the carriage. Despite the
elegance of the linear motor, linear
motion is more often provided by the
less expensive and more mundane method
of using a rotary stepping motor
driving a lead screw. Maglev
Traction Motors The principle of
the linear induction motor is used to
propel high speed Maglev (Magnetic
Levitation) trains which float on a
magnetic field created by
electromagnets in the trackbed under
the train . A separate set of trackside
guidance magnets is used to control the
lateral position of the train relative
to the track. Thus the maglev train
uses electromagnetic forces for three
different tasks, to suspend, to guide
and to propel the train. Maglev
trains have been developed in several
countries of the world using a variety
of configurations. Examples of the
essential features are described
below. Propulsion
The train has no onboard motor.
Electromagnets in the trackbed are
excited in sequence creating a linear
rather than a rotating field. By
transformer action, the trackbed coils
induce currents in coils on board the
train which are used to energise
powerful electromagnets. The Lorentz
force between the trackbed currents and
the the onboard electromagnets causes
the magnets to be propelled along by
the moving field. The
principles involved are very similar to
those of the induction motor but with
the static and moving parts
interchanged. See diagram below.
For illustrative
purposes the track can be likened to a
ladder formed by the unrolled squirrel
cage rotor of the induction motor. In
this case however it is fixed and it
supplies the moving field. Currents are
induced in the train's electromagnets
which are equivalent to the stator
poles of the induction motor but in
this case the magnets are free to move.
In practical designs the trackbed
currents are actually provided in a
series of individual coils laid along
the track. Levitation
Various levitation schemes are used.
The force holding the train aloft can
be created by the magnetic repulsion
between the same electromagnets on the
track and the onboard electromagnets in
the train which are used for
propulsion. The train's levitating
magnets are powered by direct current
supplied by a battery which is kept
charged by an induction generator
taking its power from the currents
induced by the trackbed coils in the
onboard generator coils. In
the diagram above, when the magnet is
directly above the current carrying
conductor as shown, the magnetic forces
(north and south poles) from the two
adjacent current loops cancel out and
there is no lift. If however the magnet
is moving very quickly over the coils,
it will reach a position over like,
repulsive, poles (north poles in the
diagram) which are displaced from the
attractive south poles so that the net
effect is a force repelling the magnet
away from the track. This is only
possible because the current in the
trackbed magnets lags the voltage due
to the inductance of the windings,
creating a delay in the build up of the
balanced field by which time the magnet
has moved into the adjacent region
where there is a net repulsive force.
This effect only happens when the
magnet on the train is moving at high
speed across the trackbed magnets. Thus
the train needs to be in motion for
this system to work and the train needs
wheels for support as it accelerates
from rest and when it is slowing to a
halt. Alternatively
levitation can be provided by separate
windings. The train's levitation
magnets protrude from the side of the
train and run between pairs of
vertically separated electromagnets in
guideways at each side of the train,
rather than in the trackbed. This
arrangement creates an attractive force
above the train's magnets combined with
a repulsive force beneath the train's
magnets to provide the levitating
force. Guidance For
guidance the train uses magnetic fields
provided by a separate set of weaker
magnets along each side of the train.
Similar in principle to the levitation
magnets they are used to control the
lateral position of the train relative
to the track.
Excitation of the trackside magnets is
arranged such that only the section
under the train is active. As the train
moves along the track between sections
the current to the previous section is
switched off and the current to the
next section is switched on pulling the
train along. This serves the dual
purpose of avoiding losses by
energising only the section of track
directly under the train and at the
same time, since the power to the rest
of the track is switched off, it
provides security against electric
shock to anybody near to the track and
avoids the possibility of accidentally
short circuiting the system by dropping
rubbish onto live conductors.
Very high armature currents of
thousands of amps or more are involved
and some designs use high temperature
superconductors ( HTS ) in the onboard
magnets, cooled with liquid nitrogen or
helium to minimise the resistive
losses. As might be expected some
sophisticated control systems are
needed to keep everything on track.
History Axial Field
Motors Axial field motors have been
developed for applications which
require short, flat, ''pancake''
construction. Printed Circuit
(PCB) or ''Pancake'' Motor The
printed circuit motor is an example of
an ironless or coreless motor with
several unique features. The pancake
construction uses an axial magnetic
field to achieve the short flat
construction. Radial field PCB motors
are also possible.
Construction The rotor windings
are printed, stamped or welded onto a
thin, disc shaped glass fibre circuit
board which rotates in the air gap
between pairs of permanent magnets
arranged around the periphery of the
disk. The windings fan out in a series
of radial loops around the surface of
the disk. The magnets are arranged
alternatively north and south so that
the magnetic fields in the air gaps of
adjacent magnet pairs are in opposite
directions. The magnets are held in
place by two iron end caps in a compact
''pancake'' shaped block to complete
the magnetic circuit. Current is fed to
the rotor windings via brushes through
precious metal commutator segments
printed on the disc. Operating
Principle Traditional electric
motors have a radial magnetic field or
flux with the rotor current flowing
axially along the length of the rotor.
In typical printed circuit motors the
construction is reversed. The magnetic
field is axial (oriented along the axis
of the machine) and the current flows
radially from the axis to the edge of
the disc and back again. A tangential
force on the disk is created by the
current passing through the magnetic
fields in the air gaps between the pole
pairs of the permanent magnets. So that
the return current does not cancel out
the effect of the outgoing current, the
return wire is physically separated or
displaced to one side from the outgoing
wire by the width of the magnet. In
this way it interacts with the magnetic
field of the adjacent magnet which is
in the opposite direction and thus
reinforces the tangential force on the
disk. In many ways it is similar
to Faraday's 1831disk or homopolar
motor which used a single magnet and
was driven by a unidirectional current
fed by brushes at the centre and on the
periphery of the disk.
Applications The printed circuit
motor is a very compact and light
weight design making it useful in
confined spaces. Since the rotor does
not have drag a lump of iron around, it
has very low inertia and can run up to
speed very quickly. Because of the many
commutator segments and the low current
capability of the windings, the PCB
motor is only suitable for low power
applications and is not suitable for
continuous operation. It is however
ideal for servo systems and industrial
controls and automotive applications
such as electric window winders.
Micro-motors
(Micro-ElectroMechanical Systems -
MEMS) Electrostatic Motor
The motor shown below is an example of
semiconductor manufacturing technology
used to fabricate very small mechanical
components. It measures 100 microns
across, or about the width of a human
hair. Similar in principle to a
reluctance motor, it depends on
electrostatic attraction, rather than
magnetic attraction, between the stator
and rotor poles. Because the dimensions
are so tiny, very high electric fields
can be built up with only a few volts
between the motor poles.
Fan Long-Shen, Tai Yu-Chong
and Richard S. Muller 1989
IC-processed electrostatic
micromotors Sensors Actuators 20
41-7 Fan L-S, Tai Y-C and R S
Muller 1988 Integrated moveable
micromechanical structures for sensors
and actuators IEEE Trans. Electron
Devices The motor is
not assembled from individual
components. Instead the components are
built up on a semiconductor substrate
by masking and etching and a mask-less
post-processing release step is
performed to etch away sacrificial
layers, allowing the structural layers
to move and rotate.
Micromachined micromotors can be
monolithically integrated together with
the necessary CMOS drive circuits,
containing oscillators, frequency
dividers and counters, and transistors
for the drive circuit all on one
silicon chip. Common uses
include defense/munitions applications,
computer hard drives, optics, sensors
and actuators.
History Nano-motors
(Nano-ElectroMechanical Systems -
NEMS) Electrostatic Motor
Even smaller motors have been made
using nanotechnology. An example is
shown below. It consists of a tiny gold
slab rotor, about 100 nm square,
mounted on concentric carbon nanotubes.
The outer tube carries the rotor,
driven by electrostatic electrodes,
rotating around an inner tube which
acts as a supporting shaft. By applying
voltage pulses of up to 5 Volts between
the rotor plate and stators, the
position, speed and direction of
rotation of the rotor can be
controlled. It measures about 500
nanometers across, 300 times smaller
than the diameter of a human hair.
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.mpoweruk.com/images/n
ems.gif
[07/01/2004 AD]
[1] * original caption: Jet Propulsion
Laboratory (JPL) workers use a
borescope to verify pressure relief
device bellows integrity on a
radioisotope thermoelectric generator
(RTG) which has been installed on the
Cassini spacecraft in the Payload
Hazardous Servicing Facility. The
activity is part of the mechanical and
electrical verification testing of RTGs
during prelaunch processing. RTGs use
heat from the natural decay of
plutonium to generate electric power.
The three RTGs on Cassini will enable
the spacecraft to operate far from the
Sun where solar power systems are not
feasible. They will provide electrical
power to Cassini on its 6.7-year trip
to the Saturnian system and during its
four-year mission at Saturn. The
Cassini mission is scheduled for an
Oct. 6 launch aboard a Titan
IVB/Centaur expendable launch vehicle.
Cassini is built and managed for NASA
by JPL. * date: 18. Dec 1997
* image ID: KSC-97PC-1070 *
source:
http://nix.ksc.nasa.gov/info;jsessionid=
1tplxxjif20rp?id=KSC-97PC-1070&orgid=5
PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/61/Cassini_assembly.jpg
[2] Original Caption Released with
Image: This is an artists concept of
Cassini during the Saturn Orbit
Insertion (SOI) maneuver, just after
the main engine has begun firing. The
spacecraft is moving out of the plane
of the page and to the right (firing to
reduce its spacecraft velocity with
respect to Saturn) and has just crossed
the ring plane. The SOI maneuver,
which is approximately 90 minutes long,
will allow Cassini to be captured by
Saturn's gravity into a five-month
orbit. Cassini's close proximity to the
planet after the maneuver offers a
unique opportunity to observe Saturn
and its rings at extremely high
resolution. Source:
http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog
/PIA03883 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b2/Cassini_Saturn_Orbit_
Insertion.jpg
[07/22/2004 AD]
different star.
Santiago, Chili
[1] Figure 1: Composite image of brown
dwarf 2M1207 and its GPCC in H (blue),
$K_{rm s}$ (green) and $L~!'$ (red).
The companion appears clearly
distinguishable in comparison to the
color of the brown dwarf
2M1207. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.aanda.org/articles/aa
/full/2004/38/aagg222/img11.gif
[2] Description Foto subida en
remplazo de
Imagen:First_Exoplanet_picture.jpg,
subida en fecha 9 oct, 2004,
accidentalmente borrada. Licencia de
uso libre con atribución al European
Southern Observatory: ESO Press
Photos may be reproduced, if credit is
given to the European Southern
Observatory. Fuente:
http://www.eso.org/outreach/press-rel/pr
-2004/pr-23-04.html es:Categoría:Imág
enes con condiciones de uso Date
2005-05-01 (original upload
date) Source Originally from
es.wikipedia; description page is/was
here (original source). Author
Original uploader was Ascánder at
es.wikipedia CC
source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wik
ipedia/commons/1/12/Primera_foto_planeta
_extrasolar_ESO.jpg
[11/29/2004 AD]
damaged nerves, allowing a paralyzed
human to walk.
Korea
[1] Figure 2 The atrophied spinal
cord is expanded after stem cell
administration with total laminectomy
on pre-contrast axial CT films (b). The
lowermost portion of the atrophied
spinal cord is enlarged, along with
thinning and interruption of the
calcified pia mater at the T12–L1
level on pre-contrast axial CT films
(d). Sagittal T2 weighted SE MRI reveal
regenerating spinal cord at the injured
level (arrow, f) and some of the cauda
equina below it (arrow heads, f). CT
images before cell transplantation (a,
c) and MRI image before cell
transplantation (e). Fig 2
from: Kang KS, Kim SW, Oh YH, et al.
(2005). ''A 37-year-old spinal
cord-injured female patient,
transplanted of multipotent stem cells
from human UC blood, with improved
sensory perception and mobility, both
functionally and morphologically: a
case study''. Cytotherapy 7 (4):
368–73.
DOI:10.1080/14653240500238160. PMID
16162459. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://informahealthcare.com/na1
01/home/literatum/publisher/ashley/journ
als/content/cyt/2005/cyt.2005.7.issue-4/
14653240500238160/production/images/larg
e/14653240500238160fig002.jpeg
[01/14/2005 AD]
(Titan).
[1] Description Huygens on
Titan.jpg English: This artist's
impression is based on images from
Huygens landing on Titan. In the
foreground, sits the car-sized lander
that sent back images for more than 90
minutes before running out of battery
power. The parachute that slowed
Huygen's re-entry is seen in the
background, still attached to the
lander. Smooth stones, possibly
containing water-ice, are strewn about
the landscape. Analyses of Huygen's
images and data show that Titan's
surface today has intriguing
similarities to the surface of the
early Earth. Date 8 March
2010(2010-03-08) Source NASA
Image of the Day Author ESA PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/bc/Huygens_on_Titan.jpg
[2] English: Image of Titan's surface
taken by the Huygens probe on 14
January 2005. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/bc/Huygens_surface_color
.jpg
[06/10/2008 AD]
converted into each other is
recognized.
[1]
http://www.tedhuntington.com/paper_mass_
velocity.htm
source: Ted Huntington, "Mass is
Conserved, and Velocity is Conserved,
but can Mass and Velocity be
Exchanged?",
06/10/2008. http://www.tedhuntington.co
m/paper_mass_velocity.htm
[12/10/2008 AD]
An image of what the eyes are seeing is
captured remotely using Magnetic
Resonance Imaging (MRI).
Different syllables of thought-audio
are also distinguished remotely.
two Japanese Universities, two research
Institutes, and ATR Computational
Neuroscience Laboratories) Kyoto,
Japan
[1] Image from 12/10/2008 ''Neuron''
paper COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.cell.com/neuron/image
/S0896-6273(08)00958-6?imageId=gr2&image
Type=large
[2] Image from 12/10/2008 ''Neuron''
paper COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.cell.com/neuron/image
/S0896-6273(08)00958-6?imageId=gr1&image
Type=large
[01/31/2012 AD]
directly from the brain.
Berkeley, CA, USA
[1] Figure 1. Experiment
paradigm. Participants listened to
words (acoustic waveform, top left),
while neural signals were recorded from
cortical surface electrode arrays (top
right, red circles) implanted over
superior and middle temporal gyrus
(STG, MTG). Speech-induced cortical
field potentials (bottom right, gray
curves) recorded at multiple electrode
sites were used to fit multi-input,
multi-output models for offline
decoding. The models take as input
time-varying neural signals at multiple
electrodes and output a spectrogram
consisting of time-varying spectral
power across a range of acoustic
frequencies (180–7,000 Hz, bottom
left). To assess decoding accuracy, the
reconstructed spectrogram is compared
to the spectrogram of the original
acoustic
waveform. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.1001
251.g001 CC
source: http://www.plosbiology.org/artic
le/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pbio.1001251
.g001/largerimage
[2] Figure 2. Spectrogram
reconstruction. (A) Top: spectrogram
of six isolated words (deep, jazz,
cause) and pseudowords (fook, ors, nim)
presented aurally to an individual
participant. Bottom: spectrogram-based
reconstruction of the same speech
segment, linearly decoded from a set of
electrodes. Purple and green bars
denote vowels and fricative consonants,
respectively, and the spectrogram is
normalized within each frequency
channel for display. (B) Single trial
high gamma band power (70–150 Hz,
gray curves) induced by the speech
segment in (A). Recordings are from
four different STG sites used in the
reconstruction. The high gamma response
at each site is z-scored and plotted in
standard deviation (SD) units. Right
panel: frequency tuning curves (dark
black) for each of the four electrode
sites, sorted by peak frequency and
normalized by maximum amplitude. Red
bars overlay each peak frequency and
indicate SEM of the parameter estimate.
Frequency tuning was computed from
spectro-temporal receptive fields
(STRFs) measured at each individual
electrode site. Tuning curves exhibit a
range of functional forms including
multiple frequency peaks (Figures S1B
and S2B). (C) The anatomical
distribution of fitted weights in the
reconstruction model. Dashed box
denotes the extent of the electrode
grid (shown in Figure 1). Weight
magnitudes are averaged over all time
lags and spectrogram frequencies and
spatially smoothed for display. Nonzero
weights are largely focal to STG
electrode sites. Scale bar is 10
mm. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.1001251.g0
02 CC
source: http://www.plosbiology.org/artic
le/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pbio.1001251
.g002/largerimage
[03/23/2013 AD]
are the inevitable result of highly
adapted living objects.
California, USA
[1] Description This Hubble Space
Telescope (HST) image of a dense swarm
of stars shows the central region of
the globular cluster NGC 2808 and its 3
generations of stars. Date 2 May
2007 Source
http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/archiv
e/releases/2007/2007/18/image/a/
(direct link) Author NASA, ESA, A.
Sarajedini (University of Florida) and
G. Piotto (University of Padua
(Padova)) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/3/38/NGC_2808_HST.jp
g/1022px-NGC_2808_HST.jpg
[05/15/2013 AD]
replacing the nucleus of an ovum with
the nucleus of a skin cell. This method
allows people to be their own stem cell
donor.
Oregon, USA
[1] Cytoplasm of human oocytes
reprograms transplanted somatic cell
nuclei to pluripotency NT-ESCs can be
efficiently derived from high-quality
human oocytes Human NT-ESCs are
similar to ESCs derived from fertilized
embryos COPYRIGHTED
source: http://download.cell.com/images/
journalimages/0092-8674/PIIS009286741300
5710.fx1.lrg.jpg
[2] Oregon Health & Science
University Researchers at Oregon
Health & Science University have
successfully developed a method for
converting human skin cells into
embryonic stem cells. UNKNOWN
source: http://msnbcmedia.msn.com/j/MSNB
C/Components/Photo/_new/130515-stem-cell
-graphic-vmed-915a.photoblog500.jpg
[2015 AD]
remotely and played out loud.
[1] Image by Ted Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
[2015 AD]
transmitter and receiver).
[1] The Scale of Things - Nanometers
and More the scale of things
graphic Chart also available in
Powerpoint file at:
http://science.energy.gov/bes/news-and-r
esources/scale-of-things-chart/. PD
source: http://science.energy.gov/~/medi
a/bes/images/scale-of-things-26may06.jpg
[2018 AD]
cell. The first human-made cell
organelle. A device like a microscopic
RFID chip exists inside an individual
cell and can send and receive
information with a remote external
device.
[1] Adapted from: Description
English: Drawing illustrating the
process of synaptic transmission in
neurons, cropped from original in an
NIA brochure. Date 2009-12-30,
first publication of original
unknown Source
http://www.nia.nih.gov/Alzheimers/P
ublications/UnravelingtheMystery/ Autho
r user:Looie496 created file, US
National Institutes of Health, National
Institute on Aging created
original Permission (Reusing this
file)
http://www.nia.nih.gov/Policies.htm Ot
her versions
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Chemi
cal_synapse_schema.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/30/Chemical_synapse_sche
ma_cropped.jpg
[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington PD
source: Ted Huntington
[2020 AD]
mass quantity, and are available for
the public to buy.
This is the start of the "robot
revolution"; how robots replace humans
in most manual labor tasks, greatly
increasing the quantity of food
produced and the population of humans.
[2020 AD]
and cheese.
[1] Diary products PD
source: http://health.mo.gov/living/fami
lies/wic/wicfamilies/education/img/milka
ndcheese.jpg
[2020 AD]
microscopic flying device.
[1] Drive Gear Side View Side view
of a microengine drive gear meshed with
another gear. PD
source: http://mems.sandia.gov/gallery/i
mages/rs1563_9.jpg
[2] Imaginary microscopic flying
camera on top of salt crystals Ted
Huntington PD
source: http://tedhuntington.com/saltcry
stal_127um.jpg
[2020 AD]
capturing the asteroid inside a
container.
[1] Image of proposed plan to capture
an asteroid in 2025 From NASA PD
source: http://images.nationalgeographic
.com/wpf/media-live/photos/000/661/cache
/asteroid-recovery-mission-details_66158
_600x450.jpg
[2] Adapted from: The Missing Craters
of Asteroid Itokawa Credit &
Copyright: ISAS, JAXA Explanation:
Where are the craters on asteroid
Itokawa? No one knows. The Japanese
robot probe Hayabusa recently
approached the Earth-crossing asteroid
and is returning pictures showing a
surface unlike any other Solar System
body yet photographed -- a surface
possibly devoid of craters. One
possibility for the lack of common
circular indentations is that asteroid
Itokawa is a rubble pile -- a bunch of
rocks and ice chunks only loosely held
together by a small amount of gravity.
If so, craters might be filled in
whenever the asteroid gets jiggled by a
passing planet -- Earth in this case.
Alternatively, surface particles may
become electrically charged by the Sun,
levitate in the microgravity field, and
move to fill in craters. Over the
weekend, Hayabusa lowered itself to the
surface of the strange asteroid in an
effort to study the unusual body and
collect surface samples that could be
returned to Earth in 2007. PD
source: http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/image/
0511/itokawa05_hayabusa.jpg
[2023 AD]
microphone. The "micro-mic".
[1] SEM (scanning electron micrograph)
of the device, with scale bar at bottom
representing 10 microns. The top
grating layer is suspended by 4 springs
and actuated by two side comb drives.
The second, fixed grating layer is
hidden below the first. The area of the
grating itself is 10 microns x 10
microns. PD
source: http://www.sandia.gov/news-cente
r/news-releases/2004/images/jpg/grating.
jpg
[2] Torsional Ratcheting Actuator A
high torque rotary electrostatic
actuator PD
source: http://www.mems.sandia.gov/image
s/mems5.jpg
[2025 AD]
microscopic devices in neurons.
Microscopic devices enter the human
body by the lung, enter the blood
circulation which connects directly to
all cells, and position themselves as
organelles inside each neuron. External
devices communicate with the
intracellular devices to read the
voltage and to remotely make the neuron
cell fire.
Sounds, images, smells, touches,
emotions, and muscle contractions can
now be remotely activated in a brain by
sending light particles to
intracellular devices.
[1] Image of Remote neuron writing by
Ted Huntington PD
source: Ted Huntington
[2] Image of Remote neuron writing by
Ted Huntington PD
source: Ted Huntington
[2025 AD]
camera. The "micro-cam".
[1] Torsional Ratcheting Actuator A
high torque rotary electrostatic
actuator PD
source: http://www.mems.sandia.gov/image
s/mems5.jpg
[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington PD
source: Ted Huntington
[2025 AD]
microscopic flying camera.
[1] Imaginary microscopic flying camera
on top of salt crystals Ted
Huntington PD
source: http://tedhuntington.com/saltcry
stal_127um.jpg
[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington PD
source: Ted Huntington
[2025 AD]
[1] Silicon Mirror Assembly
Close-up Close-up view of previous
device; detail of rails and hinges is
visible. PD
source: http://mems.sandia.gov/gallery/i
mages/m26.jpg
[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington PD
source: Ted Huntington
[2025 AD]
radio transmitter and receiver (the
nano-radio).
[1] The Scale of Things - Nanometers
and More the scale of things
graphic Chart also available in
Powerpoint file at:
http://science.energy.gov/bes/news-and-r
esources/scale-of-things-chart/. PD
source: http://science.energy.gov/~/medi
a/bes/images/scale-of-things-26may06.jpg
[2030 AD]
recorded. Thought-audio is recorded
using remote neuron reading and played
out loud publicly. The first recorded
thought audio may sound like this: "1 2
3". Humans start to communicate by
thought-image and thought-sound only.
[1] Hearing Thought by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
[2] Image of Direct-to-brain windows
by Ted Huntington GNU
source: http://www.tedhuntington.com/Mic
key_Mouse_eyes_thought_screens.jpg
[2030 AD]
bipedal robots. These robots are
lighter and more electrically
efficient, than motor robots.
[1] Muscular system P150/0098 Rights
Managed Credit: PASIEKA/SCIENCE
PHOTO LIBRARY Caption: Muscular
system. Computer artwork of a male
runner demonstrating the human muscular
system. These muscles, making up one of
the outer layers of the body, are
skeletal muscles, which are under the
conscious control of the brain. They
account for around 45% of the weight of
the body. Muscles are mainly composed
of proteins; in particular, the
proteins actin and myosin are involved
in making muscles contract. The muscles
then pull on tendons that are attached
to the bones of the skeleton, producing
movements such as running. Skin and fat
cover the muscles, while the internal
organs and bones lie
underneath. Release details: Model
and property releases are not available
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.sciencephoto.com/imag
e/302911/large/P1500098-Muscular_system-
SPL.jpg
[2] Muscular system P150/0098
Rights Managed Credit:
PASIEKA/SCIENCE PHOTO
LIBRARY Caption: Muscular system.
Computer artwork of a male runner
demonstrating the human muscular
system. These muscles, making up one of
the outer layers of the body, are
skeletal muscles, which are under the
conscious control of the brain. They
account for around 45% of the weight of
the body. Muscles are mainly composed
of proteins; in particular, the
proteins actin and myosin are involved
in making muscles contract. The muscles
then pull on tendons that are attached
to the bones of the skeleton, producing
movements such as running. Skin and fat
cover the muscles, while the internal
organs and bones lie
underneath. Release details: Model
and property releases are not available
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.sciencephoto.com/imag
e/302911/large/P1500098-Muscular_system-
SPL.jpg
[2030 AD]
seen. Thought-images are recorded
remotely using remote neuron reading
and shown publicly.
The first thought-image may be the
image of a triangle.
[1] Image of seeing thought by Ted
Huntington. PD
source: Ted Huntington
[2] Image of seeing thought by Ted
Huntington. Image of person
from: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikip
edia/commons/3/30/Cassatt_Mary_Portrait_
of_a_Elderly_Lady_1883.jpg Title:
Portrait of a Elderly Lady Date:
1883 Mary Cassatt (1845–1926) Link
back to Creator infobox
template PD [1] Image of
Direct-to-brain windows by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted
Huntingtonhttp://upload.wikimedia.org/wi
kipedia/commons/3/30/Cassatt_Mary_Portra
it_of_a_Elderly_Lady_1883.jpg
[2030 AD]
humans in most low-skill jobs (for
example as walking security cameras, in
fast-food, and fruit picking).
[1] Description English: TOPIO
(''TOSY Ping Pong Playing Robot'') is a
bipedal humanoid robot designed to play
table tennis against a human being.
TOPIO version 3.0 at Tokyo
International Robot Exhibition, Nov
2009 Date 27 November 2009 Source
Own work Author Humanrobo CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/9/92/TOPIO_3.jpg/128
0px-TOPIO_3.jpg
[2] Humanoid robot UNKNOWN
source: http://embeddedfortheevil.files.
wordpress.com/2010/06/humanoid-robot-pic
-getty-image-1-449939772.jpg
[2030 AD]
scale camera. The "nano-cam".
[1] The Scale of Things - Nanometers
and More the scale of things
graphic Chart also available in
Powerpoint file at:
http://science.energy.gov/bes/news-and-r
esources/scale-of-things-chart/. PD
source: http://science.energy.gov/~/medi
a/bes/images/scale-of-things-26may06.jpg
[2] The space between two carbon atoms
within a molecule is about one-tenth of
a nanometer. The DNA double helix has a
diameter of about two nanometers. The
smallest bacteria, on the other hand,
are much bigger: a few hundred
nanometers in length. PD
source: http://publications.nigms.nih.go
v/chemhealth/images/ch4_size.jpg
[2040 AD]
wash clothing, and do most other simple
household tasks.
[1] Your New Kitchen Helper : This
humanoid robot vacuums, sweeps and
washes the dishes. Jouhou System
Kougaku Laboratory, University of
Tokyo UNKNOWN
source: http://www.popsci.com/files/imag
ecache/article_image_large/articles/dish
bot-tiles-1.jpg
[2040 AD]
to motor neurons to stop an act of
violence.
[2045 AD]
devices.
[1] Nanomedicine Art Gallery Image
120 Nanorobotic Artery Cleaner Image
120 Title: Nanorobotic
Artery Cleaner Date: 1998
Artist(s): Tom Herzberg Image
Size: 268,660 bytes [CLICK to
download] Image Dimensions: 820 X
595 pixels Image Palette:
Color Image Description:
In an artist's conception, a
microscopic robot cleans deposits from
a blood vessel. Researchers predict the
creation of microscopic robotic devices
that will patrol the human body and
fight disease. Such devices, and many
consumer products, may someday be made
with nanotechnology. Copyright Info:
© Copyright World Book, Inc., 233 N.
Michigan Avenue, Suite 2000, Chicago,
IL 60601, Tel. 312-729-5800, URL:
http://www.worldbook.com. For reprint
permission, please contact Janet
Peterson, Permissions Editor. Print
Source(s): ''Microscopic Machines''
from 1992 SCIENCE YEAR, The World Book
Annual Science Supplement (pp. 177-189)
© 1991 World Book, Inc; Special Report
- People in Science: ''Mr.
Nanotechnology'' -- An interview with
K. Eric Drexler'' from SCIENCE YEAR
1999, The World Book Annual Science
Supplement (pp.102-115) © 1998 World
Book, Inc. Online Source(s):
None. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.foresight.org/Nanomed
icine/Gallery/Images/ArtCleanTHerz.jpg
[2050 AD]
servants. These robots perform tasks
like carrying objects and protection.
[1] Ted Huntington image of two humans
walking with robot servants. GNU
source: Ted Huntington
[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
[2050 AD]
fly by flapping wings.
[1] Flying Robot by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
[2050 AD]
autopiloted flying cars, is
established.
The flying cars are extremely safe with
emergency parachutes, airbags,
emergency landing thrusters, and have
complete auto-navigation.
[1] Description English: Zoom in of
the highway 401/402 interchange looking
west from the Wellington Road overpass
in London, Ontario. Date 17 June
2010 Source Own work Author
Haljackey Camera location 42°
55′ 20.60″ N, 81° 12′ 45.89″
W mixed with rendered helicopters by
Ted Huntington PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Highway_401_at_
Highway_402.jpg/1280px-Highway_401_at_Hi
ghway_402.jpg and Ted Huntington
[2050 AD]
flapping passenger plane.
[1] Drawing of Artificial Muscle
Flapping Plane ''Aves Planus'' by Ted
Huntington Other possible
names: Ptero-planus Muscle
Plane Ptero-soar GNU
source: Ted Huntington
[2] Drawing of Artificial Muscle
Flapping Plane ''Aves Planus'' by Ted
Huntington Other possible
names: Ptero-planus Muscle
Plane Ptero-soar GNU
source: Ted Huntington
[2050 AD]
destroyed by microscopic devices inside
an animal body.
[1] Adapted from: Electron microscopy
image of several E. coli cells,
including two pairs of dividing
cells PD
source: http://www.bnl.gov/bnlweb/pubaf/
pr/photos/2009/10/eColi-350px.jpg
[2] Figure 2. Phagocytosis Coloured
scanning electron micrograph of a white
blood cell (orange) caught in the act
of engulfing bacteria (blue rods). As
Ilya Metchikov observed, wandering
cells called phagocytes migrate to
areas of tissue damage or infection to
engulf and digest any harmful foreign
particles, bacteria, and dead/dying
cells. Credit: Dr Kari Lounatmaa /
Science Photo Library. The photo was
kindly provided by Dr Kari Lounatmaa /
Science Photo Library. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nobelprize.org/educat
ional/medicine/immuneresponses/overview/
images/fig_02.jpg
[2051 AD]
Earth.
[1] Parker, G. Compact History of the
World. Barnes & Noble, 2001,
p17. COPYRIGHTED
source: Parker, G. Compact History of
the World. Barnes & Noble, 2001, p17.
[2055 AD]
microscopic devices.
[1] Adapted from: Pictured is a breast
cancer cell, photographed by a scanning
electron microscope. This picture shows
the overall shape of the cell's surface
at a very high magnification. Cancer
cells are best identified by internal
details, but research with a scanning
electron microscope can show how cells
respond in changing environments and
can show mapping distribution of
binding sites of hormones and other
biological molecules. (National Cancer
Institute) UNKNOWN
source: http://cache.boston.com/universa
l/site_graphics/blogs/bigpicture/micro_1
1_14/m31_3b.jpg
[2] Lung Cancer Cells This image of
warped lung cancer cells is in stark
contrast to the healthy lung. UNKNOWN
source: http://1.bp.blogspot.com/_kGhJLc
78v60/TCytjueY3wI/AAAAAAAAA00/F8-TCWOsNq
4/s1600/Lung+cancer+cellsl.jpg
[2060 AD]
destroyed by microscopic devices.
[1] Image taken from cover of CalIT
Interface Winter 2011 magazine UNKNOWN
source: http://www.calit2.uci.edu/calit2
-newsroom/itemdetail.aspx?cguid=a01325cf
-2548-43fc-a2c4-0b9161f6cf84
[2] Artificial Nano “T4
Bacteriophage” Description: “T4
Bacteriophage” is a virus like the
robot in the living body. Artificial
nano “T4 Bacteriophage” was
fabricated by FIB-CVD on Si surface.
Size of the artificial nano “T4
Bacteriophage” is about ten times as
large as the real virus. It is made of
Diamond-like Carbon. It is likely to
begin to walk in the nano space!!
Magnification: 25,000X Instrument: SII
NanoTechnology Inc. / SMI2050MS2
Submitted by: Reo Kometani & Shinji
Matsui (University of Hyogo) UNKNOWN
source: http://cache.gizmodo.com/assets/
images/4/2009/11/t4bacteriophage.jpg
[2075 AD]
example tornadoes and hurricanes), by
changing air temperature using millions
of distributed remote control nanometer
sized devices.
[1] Adapted by Ted Huntington
from: Description English: Category
F5 tornado (upgraded from initial
estimate of F4) viewed from the
southeast as it approached Elie,
Manitoba on Friday, June 22nd,
2007. Date 22 June 2007 Source
Transferred from en.wikipedia;
transferred to Commons by User:Gump
Stump using CommonsHelper. Author
Justin Hobson (Justin1569 at
en.wikipedia) GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/9/98/F5_tornado_Elie
_Manitoba_2007.jpg/1280px-F5_tornado_Eli
e_Manitoba_2007.jpg
[2080 AD]
reach another planet and return closeup
images.
[1] Adapted by Ted Huntington
from: This Viking 1 orbiter image
shows the thin atmosphere of Mars. The
2001 Mars Odyssey spacecraft will
repeatedly brush the top of the
atmosphere to lower and circularize its
orbit around Mars. PD
source: http://marsmobile.jpl.nasa.gov/i
mages/risks02_lg-full.jpg
[2] Adapted by Ted Huntington
from: Sunset over Western South
America April 25, 2011 PD
source: http://eoimages.gsfc.nasa.gov/im
ages/imagerecords/50000/50205/ISS027-E-0
12224_lrg.jpg
[2100 AD]
images and sounds of thought.
[1] Image of Direct-to-brain windows by
Ted Huntington GNU
source: http://www.tedhuntington.com/Mic
key_Mouse_eyes_thought_screens.jpg
[2] Image of Direct-to-brain windows
by Ted Huntington GNU
source: http://www.tedhuntington.com/dir
ect-to-brain_windows_002.jpg
[2100 AD]
of traffic above the streets.
[1] Image of single helicopter highway
by Ted Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
[2] Image of double helicopter highway
by Ted Huntington Note that
helicopters are moving in wrong
way. GNU
source: Ted Huntington
[2100 AD]
Eventually, Earth orbit will be filled
with single family houses and stores.
[1] Three TDRS satellites, the
International Space Station (ISS) and
Hubble Space Telescope orbit a
blue-green Earth in this artist's
concept. The TDRS network facilitates
around the clock communication access
between ground stations and other
satellites and the ISS. Credit:
NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center ›
Larger image PD
source: http://www.nasa.gov/images/conte
nt/605410main_tdrsPlus.jpg
[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
[2100 AD]
controlled. Humans only determine the
destination.
[1] Title: Society Hill Towers is a
three-building condominium development
located in the Society Hill
neighborhood of Philadelphia,
Pennsylvania Creator(s): Highsmith,
Carol M., 1946-, photographer Date
Created/Published: [between 1980 and
2006] Medium: 1 transparency : color ;
4 x 5 in. or smaller. Reproduction
Number: LC-DIG-highsm-13394 (digital
file from original) LC-HS503-2139
(color film transparency) Rights
Advisory: No known restrictions on
publication. Call Number: LC-HS503-
2139 (ONLINE) [P&P] Repository:
Library of Congress Prints and
Photographs Division Washington, D.C.
20540 USA
http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/pp.print Not
es: The complex contains three
31-story skyscraper buildings on a
5-acre site. The towers, originally
apartment buildings, were designed by
I.M. Pei and Associates and were
completed in 1963. Title, date,
and keywords provided by the
photographer. Credit line:
Photographs in the Carol M. Highsmith
Archive, Library of Congress, Prints
and Photographs Division. Gift and
purchase; Carol M. Highsmith; 2011;
(DLC/PP-2011:124). Forms part of
the Carol M. Highsmith Archive. PD
source: http://lcweb2.loc.gov/service/pn
p/highsm/13300/13394v.jpg
[2100 AD]
and build buildings.
[1] From ''Moon Zero Two'',
1969 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.youtube.com/watch?fea
ture=player_embedded&v=hM1lsDhSjD8
[2] Pole Colony PD
source: http://artcontest.larc.nasa.gov/
images/2008_win/Pole_Colony.jpg
[2100 AD]
viruses. Nanoscale devices can identify
and destroy all known bacteria and
viruses anywhere inside or outside of
the body.
[1] Conference on nanotechnology in
animal health UNKNOWN
source: http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-mFYS8z
kMHXg/T4wFLpl8biI/AAAAAAAAILw/CJQi432-3Y
E/s1600/nanotechnology.jpg
[2] Image taken from cover of CalIT
Interface Winter 2011 magazine UNKNOWN
source: http://www.calit2.uci.edu/calit2
-newsroom/itemdetail.aspx?cguid=a01325cf
-2548-43fc-a2c4-0b9161f6cf84
[2120 AD]
asteroid.
[1] Image right: This is an artist's
concept of a small lunar outpost.
Someday, larger lunar outposts may
serve as a backup for civilization in
case of a global catastrophe, like an
asteroid impact or a pandemic. Credit:
NASA Print-resolution copy PD
source: http://www.nasa.gov/centers/godd
ard/images/content/208291main_lunar_outp
ost.jpg
[2] Ship landing on asteroid UNKNOWN
source: http://www.popsci.com/files/imag
ecache/article_image_large/articles/2009
0204_hayabusa.jpg
[2120 AD]
on Mars.
[1] Once built and populated, a colony
with excellent recycling will need only
a few materials to replace leaks and
losses. However, a great deal of
materials will be needed to build a
space colony, particularly shielding.
If a colony expands, builds new
colonies, or builds solar power
satellites or other export products, a
lot of material will be necessary.
There are several sources of materials
to consider: Earth, the Moon,
asteroids, other planets, and other
moons. All the materials necessary for
space colonies are available on Earth.
In addition, manufacturing facilities
to provide finished products are
readily available. PD
source: http://settlement.arc.nasa.gov/d
esigner/mars.gif
[2] Future Mars Base 2030 STANDARD
YOUTUBE LICENSE
source: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F
fVny-TnxZo
[2140 AD]
Humans can convert most common atoms
(like Silicon, Aluminum, Iron, and
Calcium) into much more useful atoms
(like Hydrogen, Oxygen, and Nitrogen).
This allows many humans to live
independently of Earth, in ships, and
on planets and moons without air or
water, because they can produce all the
air, fuel, water and food they need
from the common atoms of planets and
moons.
Because of large scale transmutation
large self-sufficient cities of humans
can be created on airless and waterless
planets and moons.
[1] Image of Large Scale Atomic
Transmutation by Ted Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
[2] Image of Large Scale Atomic
Transmutation by Ted Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
[2140 AD]
asteroid.
[1] Asteroid Colony (Close View) by
Hannu Parviainen Category: Asteroid
Settlements Description: The
asteroid in the picture is very similar
to 433 Eros, a close cousin one might
say, with major axis of 30 kilometers
and minor axes of 10 kilometers. The
asteroid has been moved to the cislunar
system, and the Moon is shown in the
background. A colony is build inside a
great crater, born from a huge impact
in the early stages of the solar
system. While most of the
infrastructure of the colony is
hollowed inside the asteroid, the low
gravity combined with advanced
materials allow for the construction of
a main dome with radius of half a
kilometer. Medium/Tools Used: The
asteroid, colony and Moon were modeled
and textured using Blender.
Modifications were made to include the
Lommel-Seeliger diffuse scattering
model to the Blender-renderer. This was
necessary to allow for more realistic
rendering of dusty asteroid surfaces.
Different aspects of the picture
(shadows, ambient occlusion, etc.) were
rendered on separate layers and put
together with Celestia-made starry
background using Gimp. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nss.org/settlement/ca
lendar/asteroid_colony_2-650.jpg
[2150 AD]
be fully and constantly democratic,
where the people vote directly on the
laws.
[1] Description English: A map of
the world colored in to reflect the
latest Democracy Index report from The
Economist. Date 22 December
2011 Source Own work Author
48Lugur CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/87/Democracy_Index_2011_
red_and_green.png
[2150 AD]
[1] Artist's concept of possible
colonies on future mars missions. PD
source: http://www.nasa.gov/centers/ames
/images/content/135855main_marsconcept-1
.jpg
[2] Future Mars Base 2030 STANDARD
YOUTUBE LICENSE
source: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F
fVny-TnxZo
[2150 AD]
permanently live on the Moon of Earth.
[1] Description This artist's concept
of a lunar base and extra-base activity
was created during a 1984 NASA Summer
Study at the California Space Institute
(CalSpace), Scripps Institute of
Oceanography, University of California,
San Diego. A lunar rover vehicle
similar to the one used on three Apollo
missions is depicted in the
foreground. Date May 1984 Source
http://spaceflight1.nasa.gov/gallery/im
ages/exploration/lunarexploration/html/s
86_27256.html Author NASA/Dennis M.
Davidson PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Moon_colony_wit
h_rover.jpeg/1024px-Moon_colony_with_rov
er.jpeg
[2150 AD]
remote control nanoscale devices. This
will lead to making physical changes to
the shape of a body that originate at
the cellular level.
[1] nanocaduceus Nanomedicine Art
Gallery Image 108 DNA Repair
Machines Image 108 Title:
DNA Repair Machines Date:
1989 Artist(s): Bryan Leister
Image Size: 45,592 bytes
[CLICK to download] Image Dimensions:
800 X 1,061 pixels Image
Palette: Color Image Size:
408,316 bytes [CLICK to
download] Image Dimensions: 1,170
X 1,552 pixels Image Palette:
Color Image Description:
Floating inside the nucleus of a human
cell, an assembler-built repair vessel
performs some genetic maintenance.
Stretching a supercoil of DNA between
its lower pair of robot arms, the
nanomachine gently pulls the unwound
strand through an opening in its prow
for analysis. Upper arms, meanwhile,
detach regulatory proteins from the
chain and place them in an intake port.
The molecular structures of both DNA
and proteins are compared to
information stored in the database of a
larger nanocomputer positioned outside
the nucleus and connected to the
cell-repair ship by a communications
link. Irregularities found in either
structure are corrected and the
proteins reattached to the DNA chain,
which re-coils into its original
form. With a diameter of only 50
nanometers, the repair vessel would be
smaller than most bacteria and viruses,
yet capable of therapies and cures well
beyond the reach of present-day
physicians. With trillions of these
machines coursing through a patient's
bloodstream, ''internal medicine''
would take on new significance. Disease
would be attacked at the molecular
level, and such maladies as cancer,
viral infections and arteriosclerosis
could be wiped out. Copyright Info:
© Copyright 1989 by Time-Life Books
Inc. For reprint permission, please
contact Time-Life Books Inc. at P.O.
Box C-32068, Richmond, VA 23261-2068,
Tel. 1-800-621-7026, URL:
http://www.timelife.com/. Print
Source(s): Time-Life Editors,
Alternative Computers, Time-Life Books,
Richmond VA, 1989, pp. 112-113. Online
Source(s): None COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.foresight.org/Nanomed
icine/Gallery/Images/TimeLifeNM.jpeg
[2] Microscopic laser-machined
particle communication devices identify
and change nucleotides in a DNA
molecule as seen with an scanning
tunneling microscope.[t] Adapted
from: F/col STM image of
DNA G110/0150 Rights Managed Credit:
LAWRENCE LIVERMORE LABORATORY/SCIENCE
PHOTO LIBRARY Caption: False-colour
scanning tunnelling micrograph (STM) of
DNA. A sample of uncoated,
double-stranded DNA was dissolved in a
salt solution & deposited on graphite
prior to being imaged in air by the
STM. An STM image is formed by scanning
a fine point just above the specimen
surface & electronically recording the
height of the point as it moves. The
main feature of this image is a
right-handed, double-stranded DNA
molecule (a DNA duplex), which appears
as the row of orange/yellow peaks at
centre-left. These peaks correspond to
the ridges of the DNA double helix.
Magnification: x1,600,000 at 6x7cm
size. Release details: Model and
property releases are not
available UNKNOWN
source: http://www.sciencephoto.com/imag
e/209654/large/G1100150-F_col_STM_image_
of_DNA-SPL.jpg
[2160 AD]
Mercury.
[2160 AD]
Jupiter.
[2160 AD]
[1] Adapted by Ted Huntington
from: http://www.giss.nasa.gov/research
/features/200711_temptracker/venus_cloud
s_mariner10_lrg.jpg The dense carbon
dioxide atmosphere of Venus shrouds the
planet in a thick layer of clouds—and
heats the surface to a scorching 460°
C (860° F). Jim Hansen's research on
Venus' greenhouse effect eventually led
him to the study of carbon dioxide and
the greenhouse effect on Earth. (Image
© 2005 Mattias Malmer.) PD
source: http://www.giss.nasa.gov/researc
h/features/200711_temptracker/venus_clou
ds_mariner10_lrg.jpgTed Huntington
[2] Adapted by Ted Huntington
from: http://www.giss.nasa.gov/research
/features/200711_temptracker/venus_cloud
s_mariner10_lrg.jpg The dense carbon
dioxide atmosphere of Venus shrouds the
planet in a thick layer of clouds—and
heats the surface to a scorching 460°
C (860° F). Jim Hansen's research on
Venus' greenhouse effect eventually led
him to the study of carbon dioxide and
the greenhouse effect on Earth. (Image
© 2005 Mattias Malmer.) PD
source: http://www.giss.nasa.gov/researc
h/features/200711_temptracker/venus_clou
ds_mariner10_lrg.jpgTed Huntington
[2180 AD]
surface of Saturn and its moons.
[1] Adapted by Ted (only text was
changed) from: This image rendered as
PNG in other widths: 200px, 500px,
1000px, 2000px. Description
English: Interior of Saturn Date
2011-04-24 17:35 (UTC) Source
Interior_of_Saturn.jpg
Saturn_01.svg Author
Interior_of_Saturn.jpg: Mungany
Saturn_01.svg: Dan Gerhards
derivative work: Urutseg (talk) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Interior_of_Sat
urn.svg/1000px-Interior_of_Saturn.svg.pn
g
[2180 AD]
The first Mars colony. The first city
of another planet.
[1] Adapted from: Spirit's
Destination This image, cropped from
a larger panoramic image mosaic taken
by the Mars Exploration Rover Spirit
panoramic camera, shows the rover's
destination toward the hills nicknamed
the ''Columbia Hills.'' The rover is
currently positioned outside the view
of this image, on the right. This image
was taken on sols 68 and 69 of Spirit's
mission (March 12 and 13, 2004) from
the location the rover first reached on
the western rim of the crater. The
image is in approximate true color,
based on a scaling of data from the
red, green and blue (750 nanometers,
530 nanometers, and 480 nanometers)
filters. Image credit:
NASA/JPL/Cornell PD
source: http://marsrover.nasa.gov/galler
y/press/spirit/20040318a/10-JG-04-hills-
A074R1.jpg
[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
[2190 AD]
[1] AS17-147-22526 (11 Dec. 1972) ---
Astronaut Eugene A. Cernan, commander,
makes a short checkout of the Lunar
Roving Vehicle (LRV) during the early
part of the first Apollo 17
extravehicular activity (EVA) at the
Taurus-Littrow landing site. This view
of the ''stripped down'' LRV is prior
to loading up. Equipment later loaded
onto the LRV included the
ground-controlled television assembly,
the lunar communications relay unit,
hi-gain antenna, low-gain antenna, aft
tool pallet, lunar tools and scientific
gear. This photograph was taken by
scientist-astronaut Harrison H.
Schmitt, lunar module pilot. The
mountain in the right background is the
east end of South Massif. While
astronauts Cernan and Schmitt descended
in the Lunar Module (LM) ''Challenger''
to explore the moon, astronaut Ronald
E. Evans, command module pilot,
remained with the Command and Service
Modules (CSM) ''America'' in lunar
orbit. PD
source: http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/gall
ery/images/apollo/apollo17/hires/as17-14
7-22526.jpg
[2] Adapted
from: http://www.nasa.gov/images/conten
t/208698main_merc_horizon.jpg PD
source: http://www.nasa.gov/images/conte
nt/208698main_merc_horizon.jpg
[2200 AD]
replaced humans in most manual labor
tasks (driving, cleaning, and food
planting, harvesting, preparing and
serving). Robots also do the most
dangerous parts of military, police,
and fire fighting.
[1] Robots pick
oranges Viroids orange
trees Development of HRP-4, a Research
and Development Platform for Working
Humanoid Robots - Supply to external
research organizations from January
2011 - UNKNOWN and Orange
trees: Viroid diseases are
responsible for significant losses of
food and fiber. Our research goals are
to obtain fundamental knowledge about
the molecular interactions between
viroids and their host, to apply this
knowledge to the control of viroid
diseases, and to develop and test
viroid-induced dwarfing strategies to
increase citrus production efficiency.
Robert A. Owens PD UNKNOWN
source: http://www.aist.go.jp/aist_e/lat
est_research/2010/20101108/fig1.jpghttp:
//www.ars.usda.gov/sp2UserFiles/Place/12
752500/research/images/citrus.jpg
[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
[2200 AD]
Earth.
[1] Image adapted from from
http://www.nasa.gov/externalflash/gemini
_gallery/hi-resjpgs/10.jpg Cape
Canaveral, site of NASA's Kennedy Space
Center, from the Gemini V ... PD
source: http://www.nasa.gov/externalflas
h/gemini_gallery/hi-resjpgs/10.jpgTed
Huntington
[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
[2200 AD]
together, and other non-sexual forms of
pleasure for money are decriminalized
for adults in most developed nations.
[2200 AD]
live permanently under and on the
surface of Mercury.
[1] Adapted from image from NASA
Messenger ship PD
source: http://1.bp.blogspot.com/_qcuftp
B9Hx8/TJOQmeFucWI/AAAAAAAACwg/Bl0M9a2_M1
0/s1600/Planet-Mercury.jpg
[2200 AD]
regrow, and reshape damaged cells.
[1] Skin cells, SEM C001/7939 Rights
Managed Credit: SCIENCE PHOTO
LIBRARY Caption: Skin cells.
Coloured scanning electron micrograph
(SEM) of squamous cells from the
surface of the skin. These are flat,
keratinised, dead cells that are
continuously sloughed off and replaced
with new cells from
below. AND Researchers are
developing a new class of tiny
mechanical devices containing
vibrating, hair-thin structures that
could be used to filter electronic
signals in cell phones and for other
more exotic applications. The work is
done inside a vacuum chamber sitting on
top of a special vibration-absorbing
platform critical to making the precise
measurements. A tiny prototype, roughly
comparable in size to a grain of sand,
is pictured on the monitor at right.
The device is an example of a
microelectromechanical system, or a
MEMS, which contains tiny moving parts.
(Birck Nanotechnology Center, Purdue
University) A publication-quality
photo is available at
http://news.uns.purdue.edu/images/+2009/
rhoads-mems2.jpg [1] A scanning
electron microscope (SEM) image of
nanowire-alginate composite scaffolds.
Star-shaped clusters of nanowires can
be seen in these images. Image
courtesy of the Disease Biophysics
Group, Harvard University UNKNOWN
source: http://www.sciencephoto.com/imag
e/82340/large/C0017939-Skin_cells,_SEM-S
PL.jpghttp://news.uns.purdue.edu/images/
+2009/rhoads-mems2.jpg
[2] Skin cells, SEM C001/7939
Rights Managed Credit: SCIENCE PHOTO
LIBRARY Caption: Skin cells.
Coloured scanning electron micrograph
(SEM) of squamous cells from the
surface of the skin. These are flat,
keratinised, dead cells that are
continuously sloughed off and replaced
with new cells from
below. AND Researchers are
developing a new class of tiny
mechanical devices containing
vibrating, hair-thin structures that
could be used to filter electronic
signals in cell phones and for other
more exotic applications. The work is
done inside a vacuum chamber sitting on
top of a special vibration-absorbing
platform critical to making the precise
measurements. A tiny prototype, roughly
comparable in size to a grain of sand,
is pictured on the monitor at right.
The device is an example of a
microelectromechanical system, or a
MEMS, which contains tiny moving parts.
(Birck Nanotechnology Center, Purdue
University) A publication-quality
photo is available at
http://news.uns.purdue.edu/images/+2009/
rhoads-mems2.jpg [1] A scanning
electron microscope (SEM) image of
nanowire-alginate composite scaffolds.
Star-shaped clusters of nanowires can
be seen in these images. Image
courtesy of the Disease Biophysics
Group, Harvard University UNKNOWN
source: http://www.sciencephoto.com/imag
e/82340/large/C0017939-Skin_cells,_SEM-S
PL.jpghttp://news.uns.purdue.edu/images/
+2009/rhoads-mems2.jpg
[2210 AD]
asteroid.
[1] Humans on Asteroid UNKNOWN
source: http://blogs.discovery.com/.a/6a
00d8341bf67c53ef0133f505f772970b-800wi
[2220 AD]
and its moons.
[1] Description Uranus interior
with English legend. The original image
of Uranus was cut from Commons (from
Frederik Beuk Opengewerkte
ijsreuzen.jpg). Date 2011-03-13 11:11
(UTC) Source
Uranus-intern-de.png Author
Uranus-intern-de.png: FrancescoA
derivative work: WolfmanSF
(talk) Other versions
Derivative works of this file:
Uranus-intern-ar.png PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/fe/Uranus-intern-en.png
[2250 AD]
information-sharing crimes, although
many secrets still remain.
[2250 AD]
asteroid.
[1] Asteroid Colony (Close View) by
Hannu Parviainen Category: Asteroid
Settlements Description: The
asteroid in the picture is very similar
to 433 Eros, a close cousin one might
say, with major axis of 30 kilometers
and minor axes of 10 kilometers. The
asteroid has been moved to the cislunar
system, and the Moon is shown in the
background. A colony is build inside a
great crater, born from a huge impact
in the early stages of the solar
system. While most of the
infrastructure of the colony is
hollowed inside the asteroid, the low
gravity combined with advanced
materials allow for the construction of
a main dome with radius of half a
kilometer. Medium/Tools Used: The
asteroid, colony and Moon were modeled
and textured using Blender.
Modifications were made to include the
Lommel-Seeliger diffuse scattering
model to the Blender-renderer. This was
necessary to allow for more realistic
rendering of dusty asteroid surfaces.
Different aspects of the picture
(shadows, ambient occlusion, etc.) were
rendered on separate layers and put
together with Celestia-made starry
background using Gimp. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nss.org/settlement/ca
lendar/asteroid_colony_2-650.jpg
[2] Gaspra Mining Settlement by
Bill
Wright http://ourworld.compuserve.com/h
omepages/billwright5/ Category:
Asteroid Settlements Description:
The Gaspra mining settlement on a close
approach to the planet
Mars. Medium/Tools Used:
Photoshop. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nss.org/settlement/ca
lendar/2009/BillWright-AsteroidColonyA-6
50.jpg
[2250 AD]
recreational drugs in most major
nations.
[2250 AD]
a moon.
[1] The image show the Lander Falcon
skimming over one of the many ice
cravas of Jupiter’s moon Europa
looking for a suitable landing
place. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://api.ning.com/files/s7oIN4
97UMEE6dpA1xd*IhqzsZkYEn1zbiUE5*qsj*mBXD
EV7F1lGV*Qngn1qBdiZSdmNBsHbXquTTpGfoIHib
xxEsocyNr-/BB131FalconoverEuropaNR.jpg?w
idth=737&height=400
[2] Ganymede: Global Color View PD
source: http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/mult
imedia/gallery/gg1.jpg
[2260 AD]
and its moons.
[1] Adapted by Ted Huntington (added
text) from: English: Diagram of the
planet Neptune. Upper
atmosphere, top clouds. Atmosphere
consisting of hydrogen, helium, and
methane gas. Mantle consisting of
water, ammonia, and methane ices.
Core consisting of rock (silicates and
nickel-iron). 06:17, 8 October 2008
(UTC) Source
http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/multimedia/
gallery/Neptune_Int-browse.jpg, which
is in the public domain Author NASA;
Pbroks13 (redraw) CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Neptune_diagram
.svg/1000px-Neptune_diagram.svg.png
[2275 AD]
[1] UNKNOWN
source: UNKNOWN
[2280 AD]
[2280 AD]
that orbits the Sun.
[1] The Solar Probe Plus spacecraft
with solar panels folded into the
shadows of its protective shield,
gathers data on its approach to the
Sun. Credit: JHU/APL PD
source: http://www.nasa.gov/images/conte
nt/479540main_SPPObservingSun.jpg
[2280 AD]
moons.
[1] Saturn from the surface of
Dione. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://spaceart1.ning.com/photo/
saturn-from-dione/next?context=userhttp:
//microgravity.grc.nasa.gov/Advanced/Cap
abilities/ETDP/images/lunarlander.jpg
[2] Artist concept of Cassini at
Saturn. Image credit: NASA/JPL ›
Larger image PD
source: http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/images/c
assini/20090202/pia03883-full.jpg
[2283 AD]
[1] Parker, G. Compact History of the
World. Barnes & Noble, 2001,
p17. COPYRIGHTED
source: Parker, G. Compact History of
the World. Barnes & Noble, 2001, p17.
[2290 AD]
transport humans from Earth to the moon
of Earth.
[2300 AD]
public.
[2300 AD]
moons.
[1] Adapted from: Uranus seen from
Oberon UNKNOWN
source: http://api.ning.com/files/DzXL-l
W6TdpjPVXja-k32xq4*PiPHvNiITlxVu5JoQ*XRl
Z72k*OlXD710b-zT2jIomp7im9tEUk0AzJ4HNiph
MGf2J-UCLg/Oberon.jpg?width=737&height=5
69http://microgravity.grc.nasa.gov/Advan
ced/Capabilities/ETDP/images/lunarlander
.jpg
[2350 AD]
system for all places in the universe.
[1] world time zone map. PD
source: http://www.time.gov/images/world
zones.gif
[2350 AD]
and its moons.
[1] Intrepid-over-Proteus Neptune's
Moon Proteus The Lander Intrepid skims
the heavily cratered moon Proteus in
search for a landing area. Proteus is a
relatively large moon, similar in size
to Saturn’s moon Mimas, but was not
discovered until Voyager 2 flew by
because it is very dark and orbits very
close to Neptune. Like Mimas, it is
irregular in shape, heavily cratered,
and has no sign of internally generated
geologic activity in its
past. UNKNOWN
source: http://api.ning.com/files/n*cJoC
Qsunpuu6EpNQKC3KHkTJPnAZoABx8opILfQ7o_/I
ntrepidoverProteus.jpg?width=737&height=
469
[2350 AD]
star (Alpha Centauri) and to return the
first closeup images of the planets
around another star. These nanocamera
ships are very small, and are
accelerated to very high speeds,
perhaps even half the speed of light,
allowing them to reach another star in
under 10 years. There need to be many
ships in order to relay images over the
long distances.
Possibly nanometer ships may work
together to assemble larger structures
from the atoms around other stars.
[1] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted
Huntingtonhttp://upload.wikimedia.org/wi
kipedia/commons/0/08/Planet-alphacen1.pn
g
[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted
Huntingtonhttp://upload.wikimedia.org/wi
kipedia/commons/0/08/Planet-alphacen1.pn
g
[2370 AD]
different star are identified (bacteria
made of DNA on planets around
Centauri).
[1] Descripción English:
Filamentous cyanobacterium of a genus
Lyngbya, as collected in Baja
California, Mexico Česky: Vláknitá
sinice rodu Lyngbya; Baja California,
Mexico Fecha Fuente
http://microbes.arc.nasa.gov/images/con
tent/gallery/lightms/publication/lyngbya
.jpg Autor NASA PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Lyngbya.jpg/128
0px-Lyngbya.jpg
[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
[2400 AD]
the stars of Alpha Centauri.
These
large scale ships may only go 1% the
speed of light and take 400 years to
get to Centauri.
[2420 AD]
reject the theory of gods.
[1] Artist [show]Raphael
(1483–1520) Link back to Creator
infobox template wikidata:Q5597 Title
English: The Council of Gods Date
between 1517 and 1518 Medium
fresco Current location Villa
FarnesinaLink back to Institution
infobox template PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/08/Raffaello%2C_concilio
_degli_dei_02.jpg
[2] Artist [show]Giovanni Lanfranco
(1582–1647) Link back to Creator
infobox template
wikidata:Q447730 Title The Council of
Gods Date between 1624 and
1625 Medium fresco Dimensions
Unknown Current location Galleria
BorgheseLink back to Institution
infobox template Rome Notes
http://www.wga.hu/html/l/lanfranc/counc
il.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0a/Lanfranco%2C_Giovanni
_-The_Council_of_Gods_-_1624-25.jpg
[2500 AD]
Venus atmosphere is started.
This is the first major "conversion of
a gas atmosphere" engineering work of
humans.
[1] Description Image of Venus in
real color processed from the clear and
blue filters (colors are probably
enhanced). Date 2006-09-16
(original upload
date) Source http://astrosurf.com/n
unes/explor/explor_m10.htm Author N
ASA/Ricardo Nunes PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/51/Venus-real.jpg
[2] Adapted from: A rover that could
survive the intense heat of Venus, seen
here in an artist's impression, could
revolutionise our understanding of the
planet. Cooled by a Stirling Cooler
with electronics at 200 °C and
external radiator at 500 °C. Since the
Venusian atmosphere is 'only' 450 °C
the radiator will lose
energy. Geoffrey Landis and Kenneth
Mellott from NASA's Glenn Research
Center in Ohio. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/15/Venus_Rover.jpg
[2500 AD]
Using genetic
editing, humans can reach any
developmental stage, and then hold that
body shape indefinitely, dying only
from physical destruction. Humans now
live for thousands of years. This
causes the human population to grow at
an extremely fast rate.
[1] Adapted by Ted Huntington
from: Solution structure of a
trans-opened (10S)-dA adduct of
+)-(7S,8R,9S,10R)-7,8-dihydroxy-9,10-epo
xy-7,8,9,10-tetrahydrobenzo[a]pyrene in
a DNA duplex. GNU AND Multiple Gear
Speed Reduction Unit Top view of
gear reduction unit. PD PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d8/Benzopyrene_DNA_adduc
t_1JDG.pnghttp://mems.sandia.gov/gallery
/images/tg8.jpgTed Huntington
[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
[2500 AD]
of trading money for consensual
physical pleasure.
[2500 AD]
star, the second closest star, 6 light
years away, and send back the first
images of the planets there.
[1] Adapted
from: Description English: Artist's
conception of a the red dwarf star CHRX
73 A and its companion object CHRX 73
B. The companion object is around 12
Jupiter masses, and may either be a
planet, a failed star or a brown
dwarf Date 2006-09-02 Source Sel
f-made JPEG version of original TIFF
image at Hubble
website Author NASA, ESA and G.
Bacon (STScI) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/6/68/RedDwarfPlanet.
jpg/800px-RedDwarfPlanet.jpg
[2] Adapted
from: Description English: Artist's
conception of a the red dwarf star CHRX
73 A and its companion object CHRX 73
B. The companion object is around 12
Jupiter masses, and may either be a
planet, a failed star or a brown
dwarf Date 2006-09-02 Source Sel
f-made JPEG version of original TIFF
image at Hubble
website Author NASA, ESA and G.
Bacon (STScI) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/6/68/RedDwarfPlanet.
jpg/800px-RedDwarfPlanet.jpghttp://aetd.
gsfc.nasa.gov/code540/540/new_images/MLA
S.jpg
[2500 AD]
neuron writing.
[2600 AD]
propulsion, either by cables or by
embedded engines.
[2600 AD]
light years away, and send back the
first images of the planets there.
[1] {ULSF: adapted by Ted Huntington
from below:} Description This
picture is an artist's impression
showing how the binary star system of
Sirius A and its diminutive blue
companion, Sirius B, might appear to an
interstellar visitor. The large,
bluish-white star Sirius A dominates
the scene, while Sirius B is the small
but very hot and blue white-dwarf star
on the right. The two stars revolve
around each other every 50 years. White
dwarfs are the leftover remnants of
stars similar to our Sun. The Sirius
system, only 8.6 light-years from
Earth, is the fifth closest stellar
system known. Sirius B is faint because
of its tiny size. Its diameter is only
7,500 miles (about 12 thousand
kilometres), slightly smaller than the
size of our Earth. The Sirius system is
so close to Earth that most of the
familiar constellations would have
nearly the same appearance as in our
own sky. In this rendition, we see in
the background the three bright stars
that make up the Summer Triangle:
Altair, Deneb, and Vega. Altair is the
white dot above Sirius A; Deneb is the
dot to the upper right; and Vega lies
below Sirius B. But there is one
unfamiliar addition to the
constellations: our own Sun is the
second-magnitude star, shown as a small
dot just below and to the right of
Sirius
A. Date Source http://www.spacete
lescope.org/images/html/heic0516b.html
Author NASA, ESA Credit: G. Bacon
(STScI) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c9/Sirius_A_and_B_artwor
k.jpg
[2] Adapted from: Description This
picture is an artist's impression
showing how the binary star system of
Sirius A and its diminutive blue
companion, Sirius B, might appear to an
interstellar visitor. The large,
bluish-white star Sirius A dominates
the scene, while Sirius B is the small
but very hot and blue white-dwarf star
on the right. The two stars revolve
around each other every 50 years. White
dwarfs are the leftover remnants of
stars similar to our Sun. The Sirius
system, only 8.6 light-years from
Earth, is the fifth closest stellar
system known. Sirius B is faint because
of its tiny size. Its diameter is only
7,500 miles (about 12 thousand
kilometres), slightly smaller than the
size of our Earth. The Sirius system is
so close to Earth that most of the
familiar constellations would have
nearly the same appearance as in our
own sky. In this rendition, we see in
the background the three bright stars
that make up the Summer Triangle:
Altair, Deneb, and Vega. Altair is the
white dot above Sirius A; Deneb is the
dot to the upper right; and Vega lies
below Sirius B. But there is one
unfamiliar addition to the
constellations: our own Sun is the
second-magnitude star, shown as a small
dot just below and to the right of
Sirius
A. Date Source http://www.spacete
lescope.org/images/html/heic0516b.html
Author NASA, ESA Credit: G. Bacon
(STScI) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c9/Sirius_A_and_B_artwor
k.jpghttp://aetd.gsfc.nasa.gov/code540/5
40/new_images/MLAS.jpg
[2650 AD]
particles. Photon fusion: the reverse
of separating atoms into light
particles.
[1] Humans create atoms from light
particles Ted Huntington PD
source: Ted Huntington
[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
[2650 AD]
objects on a planet of another star are
seen.
[1] English: Hydra vulgaris, a
hydrozoan cnidarian. Light microscope,
40x 날짜 2008년 6월 6일 출처
자작 만든이 Corvana GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2f/Hydravulgaris.jpg
[2] Descripción English:
Filamentous cyanobacterium of a genus
Lyngbya, as collected in Baja
California, Mexico Česky: Vláknitá
sinice rodu Lyngbya; Baja California,
Mexico Fecha Fuente
http://microbes.arc.nasa.gov/images/con
tent/gallery/lightms/publication/lyngbya
.jpg Autor NASA PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Lyngbya.jpg/128
0px-Lyngbya.jpg
[2700 AD]
[2750 AD]
different star (Alpha Centauri).
Smaller robot ships then land on all
the planets and moons of Centauri.
Robots start mining and building to
prepare for the many millions of humans
that will eventually arrive.
[1] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
[2800 AD]
[1] Adapted from: The Missing Craters
of Asteroid Itokawa Credit &
Copyright: ISAS, JAXA Explanation:
Where are the craters on asteroid
Itokawa? No one knows. The Japanese
robot probe Hayabusa recently
approached the Earth-crossing asteroid
and is returning pictures showing a
surface unlike any other Solar System
body yet photographed -- a surface
possibly devoid of craters. One
possibility for the lack of common
circular indentations is that asteroid
Itokawa is a rubble pile -- a bunch of
rocks and ice chunks only loosely held
together by a small amount of gravity.
If so, craters might be filled in
whenever the asteroid gets jiggled by a
passing planet -- Earth in this case.
Alternatively, surface particles may
become electrically charged by the Sun,
levitate in the microgravity field, and
move to fill in craters. Over the
weekend, Hayabusa lowered itself to the
surface of the strange asteroid in an
effort to study the unusual body and
collect surface samples that could be
returned to Earth in 2007. PD
source: http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/image/
0511/itokawa05_hayabusa.jpg
[2800 AD]
Venus colony.
Humans live on and under the
surface of Venus in cooled buildings.
[1] Summary A rover that could
survive the intense heat of Venus, seen
here in an artist's impression, could
revolutionise our understanding of the
planet. Cooled by a Stirling Cooler
with electronics at 200 °C and
external radiator at 500 °C. Since the
Venusian atmosphere is 'only' 450 °C
the radiator will lose
energy. Geoffrey Landis and Kenneth
Mellott from NASA's Glenn Research
Center in Ohio. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/15/Venus_Rover.jpg
[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
[2800 AD]
the stars of Alpha Centauri and will
arrive successfully perhaps 400 years
later. This begins the colonization of
other stars.
[2800 AD]
moon; perhaps a moon of Jupiter or
Mars.
[1] A map of Io This map of Io was
created by taking three relatively low
resolution Voyager 2 maps of Io and
composing them into a color map. These
maps were taken from this FTP site.
Each of the three original maps was
created from images taken through
differently colored filters. I then
replaced the luminosity channel of the
color map with a very high resolution
grayscale map from the above site. That
map was created from Voyager 1 photos.
The result was impressive despite the
fact that Io changed somewhat between
the two Voyager flybys (it is after all
the most volcanically active body in
the solar system !). I then removed the
most prominent seams and color
discontinuities. Some seams still
remain (I was more lazy when creating
this map than e.g. the Europa map ;)
but remarkably they are usually not
visible in 3D renderings except for
renderings showing Io from a close
range. I may remove these defects some
day. Finally I replaced small, black
areas near the poles (where no imagery
is available) with fictional data
created by cloning adjacent
areas. This map is aesthetically
better than the ones at David Seal's
site and also of higher resolution but
the color is probably less realistic
than in his ''yellowish'' map. His maps
are also more realistic in the sense
that there is no fictional data at the
poles, they are simply blank. Click
the map below to view the 2880x1440
pixel (442 KB JPG) full size map.
Actually my original map is 5760x2880
pixels but I do not have space for such
a monster here. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.mmedia.is/~bjj/data/i
o/io.jpg
[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
[2850 AD]
planet (planet Earth). The large
quantity of ships in orbit causes the
motion of Earth to be carefully
monitored and periodically changed
using organized ship movements. By this
time the Earth and Moon are visibly
surrounded by millions of orbiting
ships.
[1] Image of ships surrounding Earth in
the future by Ted Huntington Source of
Texture map for Earth unknown GNU
source: Ted Huntington
[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
[2900 AD]
Jupiter. The first image of the surface
of Jupiter is captured. The solid and
liquid body of Jupiter is confirmed to
be 6 times the diameter of Earth.
The
surface of Jupiter may appear to be
molten liquid like the surface of the
Sun and the interior of the other
planets.
[1] Ted Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
[2] This close-up of the northwestern
region of the Sun shows a filament
erupting. Credit: NASA/SDO PD
source: http://www.nasa.gov/images/conte
nt/480276main_20100904-fulldisk.jpg
[2900 AD]
Earth carrying matter from Centauri.
This is part of a long term project of
bringing back matter from around
Centauri to be used around the star
Earth orbits where consumable atoms are
in great demand.
[2900 AD]
become apparent as a result of living
many generations in low gravity. Humans
may start to look like ocean organisms
which do not walk but instead move by
pushing the surrounding medium using
their appendages. Humans may also
develop more and larger sex-related
organs of both genders.
[1] Ted Huntington AND Description A
meteor and galactic center of Milky Way
galaxy. The image was taken in Hawaii
Volcanoes National Park. Date
9/21/08 Source Own work Author
Brocken Inaglory GNU
source: Ted Huntington and
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/e/e5/Milky_Way_Galaxy_and_a_mete
or.jpg
[2] Ted Huntington AND Description A
meteor and galactic center of Milky Way
galaxy. The image was taken in Hawaii
Volcanoes National Park. Date
9/21/08 Source Own work Author
Brocken Inaglory GNU
source: Ted Huntington and
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/e/e5/Milky_Way_Galaxy_and_a_mete
or.jpg
[3000 AD]
Jupiter atmosphere. Many humans may
fear Jupiter exploding. The removal of
the atmosphere is a natural result of
ships "feeding" on the matter of
Jupiter; the lost mass is replaced by
added ships and people.
[1] PIA01369: Jupiter from Voyager
2 PD
source: http://ppj-web-1.jpl.nasa.gov/jp
eg/PIA01369.jpg
[3150 AD]
second closest star, Barnard's star 6
light years away. Robots land on the
planets and start building more ships.
[1] Adapted
from: Description English: Artist's
conception of a the red dwarf star CHRX
73 A and its companion object CHRX 73
B. The companion object is around 12
Jupiter masses, and may either be a
planet, a failed star or a brown
dwarf Date 2006-09-02 Source Sel
f-made JPEG version of original TIFF
image at Hubble
website Author NASA, ESA and G.
Bacon (STScI) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/6/68/RedDwarfPlanet.
jpg/800px-RedDwarfPlanet.jpghttp://aetd.
gsfc.nasa.gov/code540/540/new_images/MLA
S.jpg
[3200 AD]
Earth and returns the first objects
from a different star. Robots around
Centauri build ships to go to other
stars and pull them closer.
[1] Ship from Centauri reaches
Earth PD
source: Ted Huntington
[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
[3200 AD]
(Alpha Centauri). Humans now live
around two star systems and so the
chance of extinction is greatly
decreased. Humans will start to
reproduce at an exponential rate around
the three stars of Centauri.
[1] Humans reach Alpha
Centauri adapted by Ted Huntington
from: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikip
edia/commons/0/08/Planet-alphacen1.png
CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/08/Planet-alphacen1.png
[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
[3200 AD]
motion of planet Mercury.
[3300 AD]
humans belong to no major religion.
[1] Images representing 5 major
religions UNKNOWN
source: UNKNOWN
[3350 AD]
[1] Adapted from: Description This
picture is an artist's impression
showing how the binary star system of
Sirius A and its diminutive blue
companion, Sirius B, might appear to an
interstellar visitor. The large,
bluish-white star Sirius A dominates
the scene, while Sirius B is the small
but very hot and blue white-dwarf star
on the right. The two stars revolve
around each other every 50 years. White
dwarfs are the leftover remnants of
stars similar to our Sun. The Sirius
system, only 8.6 light-years from
Earth, is the fifth closest stellar
system known. Sirius B is faint because
of its tiny size. Its diameter is only
7,500 miles (about 12 thousand
kilometres), slightly smaller than the
size of our Earth. The Sirius system is
so close to Earth that most of the
familiar constellations would have
nearly the same appearance as in our
own sky. In this rendition, we see in
the background the three bright stars
that make up the Summer Triangle:
Altair, Deneb, and Vega. Altair is the
white dot above Sirius A; Deneb is the
dot to the upper right; and Vega lies
below Sirius B. But there is one
unfamiliar addition to the
constellations: our own Sun is the
second-magnitude star, shown as a small
dot just below and to the right of
Sirius
A. Date Source http://www.spacete
lescope.org/images/html/heic0516b.html
Author NASA, ESA Credit: G. Bacon
(STScI) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c9/Sirius_A_and_B_artwor
k.jpghttp://aetd.gsfc.nasa.gov/code540/5
40/new_images/MLAS.jpg
[3400 AD]
Mars.
[1] Ship surround planet Mars in the
far future. Maps map source: Currently
unknown Ted Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
[2] Nighttime city lights of Europe
from the ISS: London is on the lower
left and Paris is in the
middle UNKNOWN
source: http://www.tamaratemple.com/wp-c
ontent/uploads/2011/08/ISS028-E-024360_l
rg.jpg
[3400 AD]
[1] Adapted
from: Description English: Artist's
conception of a the red dwarf star CHRX
73 A and its companion object CHRX 73
B. The companion object is around 12
Jupiter masses, and may either be a
planet, a failed star or a brown
dwarf Date 2006-09-02 Source Sel
f-made JPEG version of original TIFF
image at Hubble
website Author NASA, ESA and G.
Bacon (STScI) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/6/68/RedDwarfPlanet.
jpg/800px-RedDwarfPlanet.jpghttp://aetd.
gsfc.nasa.gov/code540/540/new_images/MLA
S.jpg
[3500 AD]
has been removed and the surface has
cooled down. Nitrogen and Oxygen gases
are now released into the atmosphere.
[1] Atmosphere of Venus completely
removed adapted by Ted Huntington
from: Summary A rover that could
survive the intense heat of Venus, seen
here in an artist's impression, could
revolutionise our understanding of the
planet. Cooled by a Stirling Cooler
with electronics at 200 °C and
external radiator at 500 °C. Since the
Venusian atmosphere is 'only' 450 °C
the radiator will lose
energy. Geoffrey Landis and Kenneth
Mellott from NASA's Glenn Research
Center in Ohio. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/15/Venus_Rover.jpg
[2] Venus with no atmosphere adapted
from Mars texture map UNKNOWN
source:
[3600 AD]
[1] Adapted from: Description This
picture is an artist's impression
showing how the binary star system of
Sirius A and its diminutive blue
companion, Sirius B, might appear to an
interstellar visitor. The large,
bluish-white star Sirius A dominates
the scene, while Sirius B is the small
but very hot and blue white-dwarf star
on the right. The two stars revolve
around each other every 50 years. White
dwarfs are the leftover remnants of
stars similar to our Sun. The Sirius
system, only 8.6 light-years from
Earth, is the fifth closest stellar
system known. Sirius B is faint because
of its tiny size. Its diameter is only
7,500 miles (about 12 thousand
kilometres), slightly smaller than the
size of our Earth. The Sirius system is
so close to Earth that most of the
familiar constellations would have
nearly the same appearance as in our
own sky. In this rendition, we see in
the background the three bright stars
that make up the Summer Triangle:
Altair, Deneb, and Vega. Altair is the
white dot above Sirius A; Deneb is the
dot to the upper right; and Vega lies
below Sirius B. But there is one
unfamiliar addition to the
constellations: our own Sun is the
second-magnitude star, shown as a small
dot just below and to the right of
Sirius
A. Date Source http://www.spacete
lescope.org/images/html/heic0516b.html
Author NASA, ESA Credit: G. Bacon
(STScI) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c9/Sirius_A_and_B_artwor
k.jpghttp://aetd.gsfc.nasa.gov/code540/5
40/new_images/MLAS.jpg
[3800 AD]
controlled by orbiting ships.
[1] Ships surround Jupiter inj the far
future. by Ted Huntington, Jupiter map
from unknown source. GNU
source: Ted Huntington
[4000 AD]
completely removed, which causes the
surface to solidify and be more easily
mined. Humans may add a nitrogen and
oxygen atmosphere or may simply mine
Jupiter for matter, most of which is
exported to humans orbiting Jupiter or
the Sun.
[1] Jupiter after atmosphere is
consumed. By Ted Huntington, adapted
from: http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/Imgs/Jp
g/Photoglossary/aa_large.jpg GNU
source: http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/Imgs/J
pg/Photoglossary/aa_large.jpg
[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
[4000 AD]
different stars.
[1] Description English: Praesepe:
the open cluster Messier 44 Date
Source 2MASS Atlas Image Gallery:
The Messier Catalog Author Two Micron
All Sky Survey (2MASS), a joint project
of the University of Massachusetts and
the Infrared Processing and Analysis
Center/California Institute of
Technology, funded by the National
Aeronautics and Space Administration
and the National Science
Foundation. Licensing Public domain
This image is from the Two Micron All
Sky Survey (2MASS) project. The images
from this project have been released
into the public domain. 2MASS kindly
requests acknowledgement in one of the
following forms, the longer of which is
preferred. Atlas Image [or Atlas
Image mosaic] obtained as part of the
Two Micron All Sky Survey (2MASS), a
joint project of the University of
Massachusetts and the Infrared
Processing and Analysis
Center/California Institute of
Technology, funded by the National
Aeronautics and Space Administration
and the National Science Foundation.
Atlas Image [or Atlas Image mosaic]
courtesy of
2MASS/UMass/IPAC-Caltech/NASA/NSF. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3a/Messier_044_2MASS.jpg
[2] Description English: Praesepe:
the open cluster Messier 44 Date
Source 2MASS Atlas Image Gallery:
The Messier Catalog Author Two Micron
All Sky Survey (2MASS), a joint project
of the University of Massachusetts and
the Infrared Processing and Analysis
Center/California Institute of
Technology, funded by the National
Aeronautics and Space Administration
and the National Science
Foundation. Licensing Public domain
This image is from the Two Micron All
Sky Survey (2MASS) project. The images
from this project have been released
into the public domain. 2MASS kindly
requests acknowledgement in one of the
following forms, the longer of which is
preferred. Atlas Image [or Atlas
Image mosaic] obtained as part of the
Two Micron All Sky Survey (2MASS), a
joint project of the University of
Massachusetts and the Infrared
Processing and Analysis
Center/California Institute of
Technology, funded by the National
Aeronautics and Space Administration
and the National Science Foundation.
Atlas Image [or Atlas Image mosaic]
courtesy of
2MASS/UMass/IPAC-Caltech/NASA/NSF. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3a/Messier_044_2MASS.jpg
[4200 AD]
by humans living there.
[1] Saturn surrounded by ships in the
far future. by Ted Huntington using
texture map of Saturn from:
http://www.mmedia.is/~bjj/data/saturn/sa
turn.jpg UNKNOWN
source: http://www.mmedia.is/~bjj/data/s
aturn/saturn.jpgTed Huntington
[4300 AD]
Jupiter.
[1] by Ted Huntington adapted
from: http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/Imgs/Jp
g/Photoglossary/aa_large.jpg PD
source: http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/Imgs/J
pg/Photoglossary/aa_large.jpg
[2] by Ted Huntington adapted
from: http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/Imgs/Jp
g/Photoglossary/aa_large.jpg PD
source: http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/Imgs/J
pg/Photoglossary/aa_large.jpg
[4500 AD]
atmosphere of Earth. Venus becomes a
second Earth (although without oceans
and much more efficiently organized).
[1] International Space Station crew
members are trained to observe and
document dynamic events on the
Earth’s surface, such as hurricanes,
forest fires, and volcanic eruptions.
Their observations provide scientists
and the general public a different
perspective on these events. Earlier
this week, astronauts in the crew of
the ISS-5 mission were able to observe
Mt. Etna’s spectacular eruption, and
photograph the details of the eruption
plume as well as smoke from fires
triggered by the lava as it flowed down
the 11,000-foot mountain. This image is
looking obliquely to the southeast over
the island of Sicily. A wider view
(ISS005-E-19016) shows the ash plume
curving out toward the horizon, caught
first by low-level winds blowing to the
southeast, and to the south toward
Africa at higher altitudes. Ashfall was
reported in Libya, more than 350 miles
away. The lighter-colored plumes
downslope and north of the summit (see
detailed view, ISS005-E-19024) are
produced by gas emissions from a line
of vents on the mountain’s north
flank. The detailed image provides a
three-dimensional profile of the
eruption plume. This was one of
Etna’s most vigorous eruptions in
years. The eruption was triggered by a
series of earthquakes on October 27.
These images were taken on October 30,
2002. Sicilans have learned to live
with Etna’s eruptions. Although
schools were closed and air traffic was
diverted because of the ash, no towns
or villages were threatened by the lava
flow. Astronaut photographs
ISS005-E-19016 and ISS005-E-19024 were
taken on October 30, 2002, at about
11:30 GMT and are provided by the Earth
Sciences and Image Analysis Laboratory
at Johnson Space Center. Additional
images taken by astronauts and
cosmonauts can be viewed at the
NASA-JSC Gateway to Astronaut
Photography of Earth. Instrument:
ISS - Digital Camera PD
source: http://eoimages.gsfc.nasa.gov/im
ages/imagerecords/2000/2923/etna2_ISS200
2303_lrg.jpg
[4500 AD]
above or below the planetary plane.
Ships can get closer to the Sun by
occupying an orbit above or below the
planetary plane. These ships may hold a
horizontal orbit by thrusting against
the y component of the Sun's gravity.
Alternatively they may maintain a
thrustless orbit that crosses the
planetary plane.
[1] Star with many ships around
it. Adapted from: English: The Sun
photographed by the Atmospheric Imaging
Assembly (AIA 304) of NASA's Solar
Dynamics Observatory (SDO). This is a
false color image of the sun observed
in the extreme ultraviolet region of
the spectrum. For example, similar
image. Date 2010-08-19T00:32:21Z
(ISO 8601) Source NASA/SDO
(AIA). Author NASA/SDO (AIA). PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/The_Sun_by_the_
Atmospheric_Imaging_Assembly_of_NASA%27s
_Solar_Dynamics_Observatory_-_20100819.j
pg/628px-The_Sun_by_the_Atmospheric_Imag
ing_Assembly_of_NASA%27s_Solar_Dynamics_
Observatory_-_20100819.jpg
[2] Star with many ships around
it. Adapted from: English: The Sun
photographed by the Atmospheric Imaging
Assembly (AIA 304) of NASA's Solar
Dynamics Observatory (SDO). This is a
false color image of the sun observed
in the extreme ultraviolet region of
the spectrum. For example, similar
image. Date 2010-08-19T00:32:21Z
(ISO 8601) Source NASA/SDO
(AIA). Author NASA/SDO (AIA). PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/The_Sun_by_the_
Atmospheric_Imaging_Assembly_of_NASA%27s
_Solar_Dynamics_Observatory_-_20100819.j
pg/628px-The_Sun_by_the_Atmospheric_Imag
ing_Assembly_of_NASA%27s_Solar_Dynamics_
Observatory_-_20100819.jpg
[4500 AD]
Jupiter.
[1] Lava flows on Krafla in
Iceland Licensing: This image
was created by Chris 73. The image is
licensed under a dual license; please
choose either of the two licenses below
as desired. Attribution to Wikipedia or
another project of the Wikimedia
foundation is required for both
licenses if the image is used outside
of projects of the Wikimedia
foundation. Attribution to me is not
required. GNU head Es ist erlaubt,
die Datei unter den Bedingungen der
GNU-Lizenz für freie Dokumentation,
Version 1.3 oder einer späteren
Version, veröffentlicht von der Free
Software Foundation, zu kopieren, zu
verbreiten und/oder zu modifizieren; es
gibt keine unveränderlichen
Abschnitte, keinen vorderen und keinen
hinteren Umschlagtext. Der
vollständige Text der Lizenz ist im
Kapitel GNU-Lizenz für freie
Dokumentation verfügbar. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d6/Lava_at_Vulkan_Krafla
_Iceland_1.JPG
[2] Volle resolusie (3 888 × 2 592
pixels, lêergrootte: 5,96 MG, MIME
type: image/jpeg) Hierdie lêer kom
vanaf Wikimedia Commons en kan ook in
ander projekte gebruik word. Die
beskrywing op die lêer se
inligtingsblad word hieronder
weergegee. Beskrywing English: Lava
flow at The Big Island of Hawaii. The
lava flow is due to July 21 fissure
eruption. The picture was taken from a
helicopter. Datum 09/10/07 Bron
Created and originally uploaded to the
English Wikipedia by Brocken
Inaglory. Outeur Brocken
Inaglory Toestemming (Hergebruik van
die lêer)
CC-BY-SA-3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0; Released
under the GNU Free Documentation
License. Kameraligging 19°
23' 11.0'' N, 155° 6' 18.0''
W Hierdie en ander beelde in: Google
Maps - Google Earth - OpenStreetMa CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/62/Hawaiian_lava_flow.jp
g
[4500 AD]
are under human control.
[1] Various planetary texture maps and
public domain lava texture map mapped
onto 3D sphere and rendered two spheres
of ships added by Ted Huntington PD
source: Various planetary texture maps
and public domain lava texture map
mapped onto 3D sphere and rendered two
spheres of ships added by Ted
Huntington
[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
[4800 AD]
planet, overtaking the Earth in number
of humans living in, on, and in orbit
of it.
[5000 AD]
Nitrogen and Oxygen, and heated to stay
gaseous.
[5000 AD]
live in and on the surface of all the
planets, moons and asteroids.
[5000 AD]
different stars.
[1] Description English: A spatial
representation of every star within 14
light-years of Sol. There are 32 known
stars in this region, including Sol.
The stars are coloured according to the
spectral type, which may not reflect
the actual colour. Please see this
Wikipedia article for the listing of
stars. If a star is double or triple
the stars are shown stacked vertically:
the actual position is the star closest
to the centre plane. The stars on this
map may not all be visible to the naked
eye, as many are dwarf stars. Some of
this information may be preliminary and
not entirely accurate as a result. The
coordinate system is right ascension
and declination. Hours of RA are
marked, as well as distance in
multiples of 5 light-years. Date
06/04/2008 Source self-made,
Mathematica, Inkscape. See also:
http://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedi
a/S/starsnearest.html Author
Inductiveload PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/ff/Nearby_Stars_%2814ly_
Radius%29.svg
[5100 AD]
living objects that evolved around a
different star. Their scientific
technologies, constructions, and highly
adapted anatomies are of great
interest. Obtaining this image is part
of a process that all advanced life
must participate in; sending probe
ships to other stars and capturing
images of any life that has evolved
there.
[1] Life of another star by Ted
Huntington with background
image: 说明 English: Open Star
Cluster NGC663 in Cassiopeia 日期
2010年11月9日 来源
自己的作品 作者
Hewholooks CC
source: Ted
Huntingtonhttp://upload.wikimedia.org/wi
kipedia/commons/1/12/NGC663HunterWilson.
jpg
[2] Living object from other star by
Ted Huntington with image in
background: Description English:
This impressive image of the open
cluster known as Trumpler 14 was
obtained with the Multi-conjugate
Adaptive optics Demonstrator (MAD)
mounted on ESO’s Very Large
Telescope. The cluster, which is found
to be only 500 000 years old — a
blink of an eye in the Universe’s
history — resides at the outskirts of
the central region of the Carina
Nebula, located some 8000 light-years
away towards the constellation of
Carina (the Keel). Trumpler 14 is not
only the youngest, but also one of the
most populous clusters within the
nebula. Astronomers counted about 2000
stars in the very central parts of this
cluster. The MAD instrument allows
astronomers to obtain very sharp images
over a wide area and this image is the
adaptive optics image that so far
covers the widest area on the sky. The
field of view is about 2 arcminutes
across and the image is based on data
obtained through two different filters
(K and H). Date 03-12-2009 Source
http://www.eso.org/public/images/eso094
7a/ Author ESO/H. Sana CC
source: Ted
Huntingtonhttp://upload.wikimedia.org/wi
kipedia/commons/5/57/ESO-Trumpler14-clus
ter.jpg
[5200 AD]
robot ships around 100 stars.
[1] Description English: A spatial
representation of every star within 14
light-years of Sol. There are 32 known
stars in this region, including Sol.
The stars are coloured according to the
spectral type, which may not reflect
the actual colour. Please see this
Wikipedia article for the listing of
stars. If a star is double or triple
the stars are shown stacked vertically:
the actual position is the star closest
to the centre plane. The stars on this
map may not all be visible to the naked
eye, as many are dwarf stars. Some of
this information may be preliminary and
not entirely accurate as a result. The
coordinate system is right ascension
and declination. Hours of RA are
marked, as well as distance in
multiples of 5 light-years. Date
06/04/2008 Source self-made,
Mathematica, Inkscape. See also:
http://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedi
a/S/starsnearest.html Author
Inductiveload PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/ff/Nearby_Stars_%2814ly_
Radius%29.svg
[5500 AD]
human control and is moved in the
direction of Centauri.
[1] Humans move star by Ted
Huntington PD
source: Ted Huntington
[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
[6000 AD]
towards the Sun. This will make travel,
communication, and trading of matter
between the two stars faster.
[1] Ships move Alpha Centauri A by Ted
Huntington PD
source: Ted Huntington
[2] Ships move Alpha Centauri A by
Ted Huntington PD
source: Ted Huntington
[6000 AD]
objects that evolved around a different
star. This will cause a large amount of
excitement for the many billions of
organisms of both star systems.
[1] Humans touch advanced life of
another star by Ted Huntington with
background image of: Double Cluster
in Perseus Credit & Copyright: Roth
Ritter (Dark
Atmospheres) Explanation: Some 7,000
light-years away, this pair of open or
galactic star clusters is an easy
binocular target, a lovely starfield in
the northern constellation Perseus.
Also visible to the unaided eye from
dark sky areas, it was cataloged in 130
BC by Greek astronomer Hipparchus. Now
known as h and chi Persei, or NGC
869(above right) and NGC 884, the
clusters themselves are separated by
only a few hundred light-years and
contain stars much younger and hotter
than the Sun. In addition to being
physically close together, the
clusters' ages based on their
individual stars are similar - evidence
that both clusters were likely a
product of the same star-forming
region. PD
source: Ted
Huntingtonhttp://apod.nasa.gov/apod/imag
e/0901/clusters_2_ritter.jpg
[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
[6500 AD]
(the Sun and the three stars of
Centauri) and start to look like an
"open cluster".
Each star is within 1 light year from
each other.
[1] Open Star Cluster M38 Credit &
Copyright: NOAO, AURA,
NSF Explanation: Open cluster M38
can be seen with binoculars toward the
constellation of Auriga. M38 is
considered an intermediately rich open
cluster of stars, each of which is
about 200 million years old. Located in
the disk of our Milky Way galaxy, M38
is still young enough to house many
bright blue stars, although it's
brightest star is a yellow giant
shining 900 times brighter than our
Sun. The cluster spans roughly 25
light-years and lies about 4000
light-years away. M38, pictured above,
is found only about 2.5 degrees
northwest of open cluster M36. Loosely
bound by gravity, open clusters spread
out over time as they orbit the
galactic center and their member stars
slowly escape. PD
source: http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/image/
0301/m38_noao.jpg
[7000 AD]
[1] Image summarizing population of
humans around planets and stars by Ted
Huntington PD
source: Ted Huntington
[2] Image summarizing population of
humans around planets and stars by Ted
Huntington PD
source: Ted Huntington
[11000 AD]
humans that use photosynthesis, only
needing water, oxygen, and light.
[1] Stomata UNKNOWN
source: http://25.media.tumblr.com/tumbl
r_lw2kg9XyIi1qg1up7o1_1280.jpg
[2] Magnified 1000 X UNKNOWN
source: http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-e92BaY
WkdLQ/TZRgIdtDT-I/AAAAAAAAANA/YCjudgxn9n
I/s1600/1000%2BX%2BElodea.JPG
[12000 AD]
requirement to urinate, defecate,
sleep, and reproduce sexually.
[1] Chromsomes UNKNOWN
source: http://www.ocf.berkeley.edu/~edy
/genome/chromosomes.jpg
[2] Ted Huntington AND Description A
meteor and galactic center of Milky Way
galaxy. The image was taken in Hawaii
Volcanoes National Park. Date
9/21/08 Source Own work Author
Brocken Inaglory GNU
source: Ted Huntington and
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/e/e5/Milky_Way_Galaxy_and_a_mete
or.jpg
[13000 AD]
need for a constant supply of oxygen or
water.
[1] Image of possible future
photosynthetic human2 by Ted
Huntington with background image of
The Milky Way at 5000 Meters Credit &
Copyright: Serge
Brunier Explanation: Climb up to
5000 meters (16,500 feet) above sea
level, near Cerro Chajnantor in the
northern Chilean Andes, and your night
sky could encompass this cosmic vista.
Recorded from that high and dry locale,
the spectacular fish-eye image features
the myriad stars and sprawling dust
clouds of our Milky Way Galaxy. The
direction toward the center of the
Galaxy is near the zenith and center of
the picture, but the Galactic Center
itself is hidden from view, located far
behind the obscuring dust. Brilliant
Jupiter rules this scene just above the
Milky Way's central bulge with the
noticeably fainter, yellowish, giant
star Antares to its right. Small and
faint, near the right edge of the
picture is one of the Milky Way's many
satellite galaxies, the Small
Magellanic Cloud. PD
source: Ted
Huntingtonhttp://apod.nasa.gov/apod/imag
e/0801/16500feetmilkywaykc2_brunier.jpg
[2] Image of possible future
photosynthetic human by Ted
Huntington PD
source: Ted Huntington
[14000 AD]
[1] Image summarizing population of
humans around planets and stars by Ted
Huntington PD
source: Ted Huntington
[2] Image summarizing population of
humans around planets and stars by Ted
Huntington PD
source: Ted Huntington
[14000 AD]
look very different from humans now,
adapted for efficiency and to low
gravity space.
[1] Ted Huntington AND Description A
meteor and galactic center of Milky Way
galaxy. The image was taken in Hawaii
Volcanoes National Park. Date
9/21/08 Source Own work Author
Brocken Inaglory GNU
source: Ted Huntington and
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/e/e5/Milky_Way_Galaxy_and_a_mete
or.jpg
[2] Ted Huntington AND Description A
meteor and galactic center of Milky Way
galaxy. The image was taken in Hawaii
Volcanoes National Park. Date
9/21/08 Source Own work Author
Brocken Inaglory GNU
source: Ted Huntington and
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/e/e5/Milky_Way_Galaxy_and_a_mete
or.jpg
[17000 AD]
stars than live around the Sun.
[1] Open Star Cluster M38 Credit &
Copyright: NOAO, AURA,
NSF Explanation: Open cluster M38
can be seen with binoculars toward the
constellation of Auriga. M38 is
considered an intermediately rich open
cluster of stars, each of which is
about 200 million years old. Located in
the disk of our Milky Way galaxy, M38
is still young enough to house many
bright blue stars, although it's
brightest star is a yellow giant
shining 900 times brighter than our
Sun. The cluster spans roughly 25
light-years and lies about 4000
light-years away. M38, pictured above,
is found only about 2.5 degrees
northwest of open cluster M36. Loosely
bound by gravity, open clusters spread
out over time as they orbit the
galactic center and their member stars
slowly escape. PD
source: http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/image/
0301/m38_noao.jpg
[2] Image summarizing population of
humans around planets and stars by Ted
Huntington PD
source: Ted Huntington
[21000 AD]
[1] Image summarizing population of
humans around planets and stars by Ted
Huntington PD
source: Ted Huntington
[2] Image adapted from from
http://www.nasa.gov/externalflash/gemini
_gallery/hi-resjpgs/10.jpg Cape
Canaveral, site of NASA's Kennedy Space
Center, from the Gemini V ... PD
source: http://www.nasa.gov/externalflas
h/gemini_gallery/hi-resjpgs/10.jpgTed
Huntington Ted Huntington
[27000 AD]
1000 stars, inhabit 100 stars, and form
an open cluster of 10 stars.
[1] Hyades for the Holidays Image
Credit & Copyright: Jerry Lodriguss
(Catching the Light) Explanation:
Recognized since antiquity and depicted
on the shield of Achilles according to
Homer, stars of the Hyades cluster form
the head of the constellation Taurus
the Bull. Their general V-shape is
anchored by Aldebaran, the eye of the
Bull and by far the constellation's
brightest star. Yellowish in
appearance, red giant Aldebaran is not
a Hyades cluster member, though. Modern
astronomy puts the Hyades cluster 151
light-years away making it the nearest
established open star cluster, while
Aldebaran lies at less than half that
distance, along the same line-of-sight.
Along with colorful Hyades stars, this
stellar holiday portrait locates
Aldebaran just below center, as well as
another open star cluster in Taurus,
NGC 1647 at the left, some 2,000
light-years or more in the background.
Just slide your cursor over the image
to identify the stars. The central
Hyades stars are spread out over about
15 light-years. Formed some 800 million
years ago, the Hyades star cluster may
share a common origin with M44
(Praesepe), a naked-eye open star
cluster in Cancer, based on M44's
motion through space and remarkably
similar age. UNKNOWN
source: http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/image/
1212/HyadesLodriguss.jpg
[2] Hyades for the Holidays Image
Credit & Copyright: Jerry Lodriguss
(Catching the Light) Explanation:
Recognized since antiquity and depicted
on the shield of Achilles according to
Homer, stars of the Hyades cluster form
the head of the constellation Taurus
the Bull. Their general V-shape is
anchored by Aldebaran, the eye of the
Bull and by far the constellation's
brightest star. Yellowish in
appearance, red giant Aldebaran is not
a Hyades cluster member, though. Modern
astronomy puts the Hyades cluster 151
light-years away making it the nearest
established open star cluster, while
Aldebaran lies at less than half that
distance, along the same line-of-sight.
Along with colorful Hyades stars, this
stellar holiday portrait locates
Aldebaran just below center, as well as
another open star cluster in Taurus,
NGC 1647 at the left, some 2,000
light-years or more in the background.
Just slide your cursor over the image
to identify the stars. The central
Hyades stars are spread out over about
15 light-years. Formed some 800 million
years ago, the Hyades star cluster may
share a common origin with M44
(Praesepe), a naked-eye open star
cluster in Cancer, based on M44's
motion through space and remarkably
similar age. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.cfht.hawaii.edu/Scien
ce/Astros/Imageofweek/ciw-image/050600-2
.jpg
[47000 AD]
10,000 stars, inhabit 1000 stars and
form a cluster of 100 stars.
[1] The CFHT Open Cluster Survey : NGC
2099 Credit: Image courtesy of
Harvey Richer1, Patrick Durrell1,
Gregory Fahlman2, J. Kalirai1, F.
D'Antona3 & G. Marconi3 1 University
of British Columbia, Vancouver,
Canada 2 Canada-France-Hawaii
Telescope Corporation, Hawaii, USA 3
Osservatorio Astronomico di Roma, Italy
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.cfht.hawaii.edu/Scien
ce/Astros/Imageofweek/ciw-image/050600-2
.jpg
[2] Hyades for the Holidays Image
Credit & Copyright: Jerry Lodriguss
(Catching the Light) Explanation:
Recognized since antiquity and depicted
on the shield of Achilles according to
Homer, stars of the Hyades cluster form
the head of the constellation Taurus
the Bull. Their general V-shape is
anchored by Aldebaran, the eye of the
Bull and by far the constellation's
brightest star. Yellowish in
appearance, red giant Aldebaran is not
a Hyades cluster member, though. Modern
astronomy puts the Hyades cluster 151
light-years away making it the nearest
established open star cluster, while
Aldebaran lies at less than half that
distance, along the same line-of-sight.
Along with colorful Hyades stars, this
stellar holiday portrait locates
Aldebaran just below center, as well as
another open star cluster in Taurus,
NGC 1647 at the left, some 2,000
light-years or more in the background.
Just slide your cursor over the image
to identify the stars. The central
Hyades stars are spread out over about
15 light-years. Formed some 800 million
years ago, the Hyades star cluster may
share a common origin with M44
(Praesepe), a naked-eye open star
cluster in Cancer, based on M44's
motion through space and remarkably
similar age. UNKNOWN
source: http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/image/
1212/HyadesLodriguss.jpg
[52000 AD]
[1] Adapted from: The Missing Craters
of Asteroid Itokawa Credit &
Copyright: ISAS, JAXA Explanation:
Where are the craters on asteroid
Itokawa? No one knows. The Japanese
robot probe Hayabusa recently
approached the Earth-crossing asteroid
and is returning pictures showing a
surface unlike any other Solar System
body yet photographed -- a surface
possibly devoid of craters. One
possibility for the lack of common
circular indentations is that asteroid
Itokawa is a rubble pile -- a bunch of
rocks and ice chunks only loosely held
together by a small amount of gravity.
If so, craters might be filled in
whenever the asteroid gets jiggled by a
passing planet -- Earth in this case.
Alternatively, surface particles may
become electrically charged by the Sun,
levitate in the microgravity field, and
move to fill in craters. Over the
weekend, Hayabusa lowered itself to the
surface of the strange asteroid in an
effort to study the unusual body and
collect surface samples that could be
returned to Earth in 2007. PD
source: http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/image/
0511/itokawa05_hayabusa.jpg
[65000 AD]
Earth.
[1] by Ted Huntington PD
source: Ted Huntington
[2] Adapted from: The Death Star is
the size of a small moon. See more Star
Wars pictures. Photo courtesy ©
Lucasfilm Ltd. & TM. All Rights
Reserved. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://static.ddmcdn.com/gif/dea
th-star-1.jpg
[67000 AD]
living objects, and has a population of
10 quintillion {KWiNTiLYeN} (1019)
humans.
There is no more molten material inside
the Earth. All the molten compressed
matter was extracted, cooled and
consumed, mostly as building materials,
fuel, and food. Earth is completely
filled with tunnels, rooms, and living
objects.
[1] Earth is completely filled by Ted
Huntington PD
source: Ted Huntington
[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
[72000 AD]
100,000 stars, inhabit 10,000 stars,
and form a cluster of 1,000 stars.
Alternatively, the cluster of stars our
descendents make, may be consumed by or
integrated with a larger star cluster,
for example the Hyades or M13.
[1] M15 Second attempt for a star
cluster. L 12x2min, RGB each 5x2min,
Dark no Flat. 1 click on the picture
(1024x690, 115 KB) Distance: 35000
Ly UNKNOWN
source: http://www.luluobservatorium.de/
Big%20Pictures/M15.jpg
[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
[92000 AD]
10,000 stars. This cluster starts to
leave the plane of the Milky Way
Galaxy.
The human population is now around 50
sextillion (50 x 1021).
[1] M31 with some globular clusters
marked [t Note that each globular
cluster can be imagined to be formed by
some intelligent living
objects.] Image by Peter
Kennett UNKNOWN
source: http://www.petesastrophotography
.com/m31globs.jpg
[2] M31, Southwest Arm, NGC
206 copyright Robert Gendler
2005 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.robgendlerastropics.c
om/M31NMmosaicSW.jpg
the surface of the Sun. By this time
the Sun is colder and much of the
surface is solid. Matter of the Sun
continues to be removed for food, fuel
and building materials.
[1] Adapted by Ted Huntington
from: Closeup of Sun from NASA PD
source: http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/mult
imedia/gallery/sun2_trace.jpg
[2] Corona loop on Sun from NASA PD
source: http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/mult
imedia/gallery/coronaloop_trace_big.jpg
reaches the maximum possible (200
quadrillion, 200 x 1015 ).
[1] Ships surround Moon of Earth in the
future. Source of Moon Texture Map:
unknown Ted Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
filled with living objects, and
functions like a large ship, perhaps
even dividing into smaller separate
ships.
[1] Mercury at maximum population
adapted by Ted Huntington
from: http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/
Features/CitiesAtNight/images/ISS007-E-1
6525_night.jpg GNU
source: http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov
/Features/CitiesAtNight/images/ISS007-E-
16525_night.jpg
Mars reaches a physical maximum of 1
quintillion (1 x 1018) humans.
[1] Ship surround planet Mars in the
far future. Maps map source: Currently
unknown Ted Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
consumed.
All that remains are ships that orbit
the Sun; most matter must now be taken
from the Sun and other stars.
[1] Star with many ships around
it. Adapted from: English: The Sun
photographed by the Atmospheric Imaging
Assembly (AIA 304) of NASA's Solar
Dynamics Observatory (SDO). This is a
false color image of the sun observed
in the extreme ultraviolet region of
the spectrum. For example, similar
image. Date 2010-08-19T00:32:21Z
(ISO 8601) Source NASA/SDO
(AIA). Author NASA/SDO (AIA). PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/The_Sun_by_the_
Atmospheric_Imaging_Assembly_of_NASA%27s
_Solar_Dynamics_Observatory_-_20100819.j
pg/628px-The_Sun_by_the_Atmospheric_Imag
ing_Assembly_of_NASA%27s_Solar_Dynamics_
Observatory_-_20100819.jpg
[2] Globular Star Cluster 47
Tuc Image Credit & Copyright: Dieter
Willasch
(Astro-Cabinet) Explanation:
Globular star cluster 47 Tucanae is a
jewel of the southern sky. Also known
as NGC 104, it roams the halo of our
Milky Way Galaxy along with some 200
other globular star clusters. The
second brightest globular cluster
(after Omega Centauri) as seen from
planet Earth, it lies about 13,000
light-years away and can be spotted
naked-eye near the Small Magellanic
Cloud in the constellation of the
Toucan. The dense cluster is made up of
several million stars in a volume only
about 120 light-years across. Red giant
stars on the outskirts of the cluster
are easy to pick out as yellowish stars
in this sharp telescopic portrait.
Globular cluster 47 Tuc is also home to
exotic x-ray binary star systems. PD
source: http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/image/
1101/47Tuc_DW.jpg
That the planets and Sun will probably
be consumed is evidence that a globular
cluster is made by an advanced organism
that goes out and brings back other
stars to consume, the matter being
converted into more of their species,
ships, food, and fuel.
[1] Star with many ships around
it. Adapted from: English: The Sun
photographed by the Atmospheric Imaging
Assembly (AIA 304) of NASA's Solar
Dynamics Observatory (SDO). This is a
false color image of the sun observed
in the extreme ultraviolet region of
the spectrum. For example, similar
image. Date 2010-08-19T00:32:21Z
(ISO 8601) Source NASA/SDO
(AIA). Author NASA/SDO (AIA). PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/The_Sun_by_the_
Atmospheric_Imaging_Assembly_of_NASA%27s
_Solar_Dynamics_Observatory_-_20100819.j
pg/628px-The_Sun_by_the_Atmospheric_Imag
ing_Assembly_of_NASA%27s_Solar_Dynamics_
Observatory_-_20100819.jpg
[2] Globular Star Cluster 47
Tuc Image Credit & Copyright: Dieter
Willasch
(Astro-Cabinet) Explanation:
Globular star cluster 47 Tucanae is a
jewel of the southern sky. Also known
as NGC 104, it roams the halo of our
Milky Way Galaxy along with some 200
other globular star clusters. The
second brightest globular cluster
(after Omega Centauri) as seen from
planet Earth, it lies about 13,000
light-years away and can be spotted
naked-eye near the Small Magellanic
Cloud in the constellation of the
Toucan. The dense cluster is made up of
several million stars in a volume only
about 120 light-years across. Red giant
stars on the outskirts of the cluster
are easy to pick out as yellowish stars
in this sharp telescopic portrait.
Globular cluster 47 Tuc is also home to
exotic x-ray binary star systems. PD
source: http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/image/
1101/47Tuc_DW.jpg
[1] Adapted from: Description This
picture is an artist's impression
showing how the binary star system of
Sirius A and its diminutive blue
companion, Sirius B, might appear to an
interstellar visitor. The large,
bluish-white star Sirius A dominates
the scene, while Sirius B is the small
but very hot and blue white-dwarf star
on the right. The two stars revolve
around each other every 50 years. White
dwarfs are the leftover remnants of
stars similar to our Sun. The Sirius
system, only 8.6 light-years from
Earth, is the fifth closest stellar
system known. Sirius B is faint because
of its tiny size. Its diameter is only
7,500 miles (about 12 thousand
kilometres), slightly smaller than the
size of our Earth. The Sirius system is
so close to Earth that most of the
familiar constellations would have
nearly the same appearance as in our
own sky. In this rendition, we see in
the background the three bright stars
that make up the Summer Triangle:
Altair, Deneb, and Vega. Altair is the
white dot above Sirius A; Deneb is the
dot to the upper right; and Vega lies
below Sirius B. But there is one
unfamiliar addition to the
constellations: our own Sun is the
second-magnitude star, shown as a small
dot just below and to the right of
Sirius
A. Date Source http://www.spacete
lescope.org/images/html/heic0516b.html
Author NASA, ESA Credit: G. Bacon
(STScI) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Sirius_A_and_B_
artwork.jpg/800px-Sirius_A_and_B_artwork
.jpg
[2] Adapted from: Description This
picture is an artist's impression
showing how the binary star system of
Sirius A and its diminutive blue
companion, Sirius B, might appear to an
interstellar visitor. The large,
bluish-white star Sirius A dominates
the scene, while Sirius B is the small
but very hot and blue white-dwarf star
on the right. The two stars revolve
around each other every 50 years. White
dwarfs are the leftover remnants of
stars similar to our Sun. The Sirius
system, only 8.6 light-years from
Earth, is the fifth closest stellar
system known. Sirius B is faint because
of its tiny size. Its diameter is only
7,500 miles (about 12 thousand
kilometres), slightly smaller than the
size of our Earth. The Sirius system is
so close to Earth that most of the
familiar constellations would have
nearly the same appearance as in our
own sky. In this rendition, we see in
the background the three bright stars
that make up the Summer Triangle:
Altair, Deneb, and Vega. Altair is the
white dot above Sirius A; Deneb is the
dot to the upper right; and Vega lies
below Sirius B. But there is one
unfamiliar addition to the
constellations: our own Sun is the
second-magnitude star, shown as a small
dot just below and to the right of
Sirius
A. Date Source http://www.spacete
lescope.org/images/html/heic0516b.html
Author NASA, ESA Credit: G. Bacon
(STScI) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Sirius_A_and_B_
artwork.jpg/800px-Sirius_A_and_B_artwork
.jpg
[1] Globular Star Cluster 47 Tuc Image
Credit & Copyright: Dieter Willasch
(Astro-Cabinet) Explanation:
Globular star cluster 47 Tucanae is a
jewel of the southern sky. Also known
as NGC 104, it roams the halo of our
Milky Way Galaxy along with some 200
other globular star clusters. The
second brightest globular cluster
(after Omega Centauri) as seen from
planet Earth, it lies about 13,000
light-years away and can be spotted
naked-eye near the Small Magellanic
Cloud in the constellation of the
Toucan. The dense cluster is made up of
several million stars in a volume only
about 120 light-years across. Red giant
stars on the outskirts of the cluster
are easy to pick out as yellowish stars
in this sharp telescopic portrait.
Globular cluster 47 Tuc is also home to
exotic x-ray binary star systems. PD
source: http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/image/
1101/47Tuc_DW.jpg
[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
Galaxy belong to a globular cluster.
The Milky Way is now an elliptical
galaxy.
[1] Designation NGC 3115, Bennett 42,
Caldwell 53, the Spindle
Galaxy Object type Type S(0)
lenticular galaxy Coordinates 10 h 05
min - 07° 43' Sextans
(Sex) Description NGC 3115 is also
known as the ''Spindle Galaxy.'' It is
a lenticular, a ''spiral galaxy without
spiral structure'', i.e. a smooth disk
galaxy, where stellar formation has
stopped because the interstellar matter
was used up. From their appearance and
stellar contents, they can often hardly
be distinguished from ellipticals
observationally. Dreyer calls this
lenticular galaxy very bright (mag
9.7), large (8.3'x3.2'), very much
elongated (P.A. 46°), and brightening
sharply to a brightened, elongated
nucleus. It lies 4.8° north of Lambda
Hydrae. North is to the right in the
15 x 10 arcmin field of view.
Exposure LRGB 60:20:20:20 min @
-15°C, all exposures unbinned Camera
SBIG ST-10XE selfguided + CFW8 with
Astrodon LRGB filterset Optics RCOS
14.5'' Ritchey-Chrétien @ f/9 (prime
focus) Mount Astro-Physics
AP1200GTO Software MaxIm DL/CCD,
Adobe Photoshop CS Location - Date -
Time San Esteban (Chile) - 10Apr05 @
00:30 UTC Conditions Transparency 7,
Seeing 5, Temperature +10°C UNKNOWN
source: http://astrosurf.com/antilhue/NG
C3115-LRGB.jpg
[2] All stars in the Milky Way belong
to a globular cluster. Adapted
from: http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/image/0
506/m22_cfht_big.jpg Globular Cluster
M22 from CFHT Credit & Copyright:
Jean-Charles Cuillandre (CFHT),
Hawaiian Starlight,
CFHT Explanation: The globular
cluster M22, pictured above, contains
over 100,000 stars. These stars formed
together and are gravitationally bound.
Stars orbit the center of the cluster,
and the cluster orbits the center of
our Galaxy. So far, about 140 globular
clusters are known to exist in a
roughly spherical halo around the
Galactic center. Globular clusters do
not appear spherically distributed as
viewed from the Earth, and this fact
was a key point in the determination
that our Sun is not at the center of
our Galaxy. Globular clusters are very
old. There is a straightforward method
of determining their age, and this
nearly matches the 13.7 billion-year
age of our entire universe. PD
source: http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/image/
0506/m22_cfht_big.jpg
areas are pulled closer to the center
making the galaxy more spherical, and
the galaxy develops a massive
propulsion system in order to go get
more matter to consume. The Milky Way
is now a spherical globular galaxy.
The galaxy may try to position itself
behind another galaxy to consume its
emitted exhaust.
[1] Description English: Messier
object 87 by Hubble space
telescope Date 18 August
2009 Source
http://wikisky.org/snapshot?img_siz
e=&img_res=&ra=12.5138&de=12.3896&angle=
0.0293&projection=tan&rotation=0.0&surve
y=astrophoto&img_id=905632&width=2160&he
ight=2160&img_borders=&interpolation=bic
ubic&jpeg_quality=0.8 Author
en:NASA, en:STScI,
en:WikiSky Permission (Reusing this
file) PD-HUBBLE PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/07/Messier_87_Hubble_Wik
iSky.jpg
[2] Description Hubble
Illuminates Cluster of Diverse Galaxies
(Abell S740), cropped to ESO
325-G004. Date January
2007 Source
http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/ar
chive/releases/galaxy/elliptical/2007/08
/image/a/warn/ Author J.
Blakeslee (Washington State
University) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d3/Abell_S740%2C_cropped
_to_ESO_325-G004.jpg
integrates the matter of the two
Magellanic Cloud galaxies.
[1] Elliptical Galaxy Centaurus A from
CFHT Credit & Copyright: Jean-Charles
Cuillandre (CFHT) & Giovanni Anselmi
(Coelum Astronomia), Hawaiian
Starlight Explanation: Why is
peculiar galaxy Centaurus A so dusty?
Dramatic dust lanes that run across the
galaxy's center mark Cen A. These dust
lanes are so thick they almost
completely obscure the galaxy's center
in visible light. This is particularly
unusual as Cen A's red stars and round
shape are characteristic of a giant
elliptical galaxy, a galaxy type
usually low in dark dust. Cen A, also
known as NGC 5128, is also unusual
compared to an average elliptical
galaxy because it contains a higher
proportion of young blue stars and is a
very strong source of radio emission.
Evidence indicates that Cen A is likely
the result of the collision of two
normal galaxies. During the collision,
many young stars were formed, but
details of the creation of Cen A's
unusual dust belts are still being
researched. Cen A lies only 13 million
light years away, making it the closest
active galaxy. Cen A, pictured above,
spans 60,000 light years and can be
seen with binoculars toward the
constellation of Centaurus. PD
source: http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/image/
0607/cenA_cfht.jpg
[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
globular galaxies may merge into a
single larger galaxy, which then
resumes the search for a smaller galaxy
to consume. Natural selection must also
create a large scale "eat or be eaten",
"predator-prey" existence for galaxies
similar to that on Earth. The Milky Way
may seek to consume galaxies that are
smaller, while trying to move away from
galaxies that are larger.
Galaxy
[1] See Explanation. Clicking on the
picture will download the highest
resolution version available. In the
Center of the Virgo Cluster Credit &
Copyright: Jean-Charles Cuillandre
(CFHT), Hawaiian Starlight,
CFHT Explanation: The Virgo Cluster
of Galaxies is the closest cluster of
galaxies to our Milky Way Galaxy. The
Virgo Cluster is so close that it spans
more than 5 degrees on the sky - about
10 times the angle made by a full Moon.
It contains over 100 galaxies of many
types - including spiral, elliptical,
and irregular galaxies. The Virgo
Cluster is so massive that it is
noticeably pulling our Galaxy toward
it. The cluster contains not only
galaxies filled with stars but also gas
so hot it glows in X-rays. Motions of
galaxies in and around clusters
indicate that they contain more dark
matter than any visible matter we can
see. Pictured above, the center of the
Virgo cluster might appear to some as a
human face, and includes bright Messier
galaxies M86 at the top, M84 on the far
right, NGC 4388 at the bottom, and NGC
4387 in the middle. PD
source: http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/image/
0308/virgocenter_cfht.jpg
[2] See Explanation. Clicking on the
picture will download the highest
resolution version available. In the
Center of the Virgo Cluster Credit &
Copyright: Jean-Charles Cuillandre
(CFHT), Hawaiian Starlight,
CFHT Explanation: The Virgo Cluster
of Galaxies is the closest cluster of
galaxies to our Milky Way Galaxy. The
Virgo Cluster is so close that it spans
more than 5 degrees on the sky - about
10 times the angle made by a full Moon.
It contains over 100 galaxies of many
types - including spiral, elliptical,
and irregular galaxies. The Virgo
Cluster is so massive that it is
noticeably pulling our Galaxy toward
it. The cluster contains not only
galaxies filled with stars but also gas
so hot it glows in X-rays. Motions of
galaxies in and around clusters
indicate that they contain more dark
matter than any visible matter we can
see. Pictured above, the center of the
Virgo cluster might appear to some as a
human face, and includes bright Messier
galaxies M86 at the top, M84 on the far
right, NGC 4388 at the bottom, and NGC
4387 in the middle. PD
source: http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/image/
0308/virgocenter_cfht.jpg