UNIVERSE
that is made of an infinite amount of
space, matter and time.
[1] note
Hubble_ultra_deep_field_high_rez_edit1
is much larger [2] Hubble ultra deep
field high rez
edit1_small.jpg Deutsch: Das Hubble
Ultra Deep Field ist ein Bild einer
kleinen Himmelsregion aufgenommen vom
Hubble-Weltraumteleskop über einen
Zeitraum vom 3. September 2003 bis 16.
Januar 2004. Dabei wurde eine
Himmelsregion ausgewählt, die kaum
störende helle Sterne im Vordergrund
enthält. Man entschied sich für ein
Zielgebiet südwestlich von Orion im
Sternbild Chemischer Ofen. English:
The Hubble Ultra Deep Field, is an
image of a small region of space in the
constellation Fornax, composited from
Hubble Space Telescope data accumulated
over a period from September 3, 2003
through January 16, 2004. The patch of
sky in which the galaxies reside was
chosen because it had a low density of
bright stars in the
near-field. Español: El Campo Ultra
Profundo del Hubble, es una imagen de
una pequeña región del espacio en la
constelación Fornax, compuesta de
datos obtenidos por el telescopio
espacial Hubble durante el período
entre el 3 de Septiembre de 2003 y el
16 de Enero de 2004. Esta parte del
cielo fue escogida por su baja densidad
de estrellas brillantes en sus
proximidades. Français : Le champ
ultra profond de Hubble, une image
d'une petite portion du ciel dans la
constellation du Fourneau, prise par le
télescope spatial Hubble du 3
septembre 2003 au 16 juillet 2004. La
portion de ciel a été choisie car
elle possède peu d'étoiles brillantes
proches. Date 2003-09-03 -
2004-01-16 Source
http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/ar
chive/releases/2004/07/image/a/warn/ Au
thor NASA and the European Space
Agency. Edited by Noodle snacks PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0d/Hubble_ultra_deep_fie
ld_high_rez_edit1.jpg
MORE INFO
[1]
[1] note
Hubble_ultra_deep_field_high_rez_edit1
is much larger [2] Hubble ultra deep
field high rez
edit1_small.jpg Deutsch: Das Hubble
Ultra Deep Field ist ein Bild einer
kleinen Himmelsregion aufgenommen vom
Hubble-Weltraumteleskop über einen
Zeitraum vom 3. September 2003 bis 16.
Januar 2004. Dabei wurde eine
Himmelsregion ausgewählt, die kaum
störende helle Sterne im Vordergrund
enthält. Man entschied sich für ein
Zielgebiet südwestlich von Orion im
Sternbild Chemischer Ofen. English:
The Hubble Ultra Deep Field, is an
image of a small region of space in the
constellation Fornax, composited from
Hubble Space Telescope data accumulated
over a period from September 3, 2003
through January 16, 2004. The patch of
sky in which the galaxies reside was
chosen because it had a low density of
bright stars in the
near-field. Español: El Campo Ultra
Profundo del Hubble, es una imagen de
una pequeña región del espacio en la
constelación Fornax, compuesta de
datos obtenidos por el telescopio
espacial Hubble durante el período
entre el 3 de Septiembre de 2003 y el
16 de Enero de 2004. Esta parte del
cielo fue escogida por su baja densidad
de estrellas brillantes en sus
proximidades. Français : Le champ
ultra profond de Hubble, une image
d'une petite portion du ciel dans la
constellation du Fourneau, prise par le
télescope spatial Hubble du 3
septembre 2003 au 16 juillet 2004. La
portion de ciel a été choisie car
elle possède peu d'étoiles brillantes
proches. Date 2003-09-03 -
2004-01-16 Source
http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/ar
chive/releases/2004/07/image/a/warn/ Au
thor NASA and the European Space
Agency. Edited by Noodle snacks PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0d/Hubble_ultra_deep_fie
ld_high_rez_edit1.jpg
light.3 Light particles are the base
unit of all matter from the tiniest
particles to the largest galaxies.4 In
this sense light particles are the most
basic atoms.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
[1] note
Hubble_ultra_deep_field_high_rez_edit1
is much larger [2] Hubble ultra deep
field high rez
edit1_small.jpg Deutsch: Das Hubble
Ultra Deep Field ist ein Bild einer
kleinen Himmelsregion aufgenommen vom
Hubble-Weltraumteleskop über einen
Zeitraum vom 3. September 2003 bis 16.
Januar 2004. Dabei wurde eine
Himmelsregion ausgewählt, die kaum
störende helle Sterne im Vordergrund
enthält. Man entschied sich für ein
Zielgebiet südwestlich von Orion im
Sternbild Chemischer Ofen. English:
The Hubble Ultra Deep Field, is an
image of a small region of space in the
constellation Fornax, composited from
Hubble Space Telescope data accumulated
over a period from September 3, 2003
through January 16, 2004. The patch of
sky in which the galaxies reside was
chosen because it had a low density of
bright stars in the
near-field. Español: El Campo Ultra
Profundo del Hubble, es una imagen de
una pequeña región del espacio en la
constelación Fornax, compuesta de
datos obtenidos por el telescopio
espacial Hubble durante el período
entre el 3 de Septiembre de 2003 y el
16 de Enero de 2004. Esta parte del
cielo fue escogida por su baja densidad
de estrellas brillantes en sus
proximidades. Français : Le champ
ultra profond de Hubble, une image
d'une petite portion du ciel dans la
constellation du Fourneau, prise par le
télescope spatial Hubble du 3
septembre 2003 au 16 juillet 2004. La
portion de ciel a été choisie car
elle possède peu d'étoiles brillantes
proches. Date 2003-09-03 -
2004-01-16 Source
http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/ar
chive/releases/2004/07/image/a/warn/ Au
thor NASA and the European Space
Agency. Edited by Noodle snacks PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0d/Hubble_ultra_deep_fie
ld_high_rez_edit1.jpg
The same light particles that have
always been, continue to move in the
space that has always been.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
[1] note
Hubble_ultra_deep_field_high_rez_edit1
is much larger [2] Hubble ultra deep
field high rez
edit1_small.jpg Deutsch: Das Hubble
Ultra Deep Field ist ein Bild einer
kleinen Himmelsregion aufgenommen vom
Hubble-Weltraumteleskop über einen
Zeitraum vom 3. September 2003 bis 16.
Januar 2004. Dabei wurde eine
Himmelsregion ausgewählt, die kaum
störende helle Sterne im Vordergrund
enthält. Man entschied sich für ein
Zielgebiet südwestlich von Orion im
Sternbild Chemischer Ofen. English:
The Hubble Ultra Deep Field, is an
image of a small region of space in the
constellation Fornax, composited from
Hubble Space Telescope data accumulated
over a period from September 3, 2003
through January 16, 2004. The patch of
sky in which the galaxies reside was
chosen because it had a low density of
bright stars in the
near-field. Español: El Campo Ultra
Profundo del Hubble, es una imagen de
una pequeña región del espacio en la
constelación Fornax, compuesta de
datos obtenidos por el telescopio
espacial Hubble durante el período
entre el 3 de Septiembre de 2003 y el
16 de Enero de 2004. Esta parte del
cielo fue escogida por su baja densidad
de estrellas brillantes en sus
proximidades. Français : Le champ
ultra profond de Hubble, une image
d'une petite portion du ciel dans la
constellation du Fourneau, prise par le
télescope spatial Hubble du 3
septembre 2003 au 16 juillet 2004. La
portion de ciel a été choisie car
elle possède peu d'étoiles brillantes
proches. Date 2003-09-03 -
2004-01-16 Source
http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/ar
chive/releases/2004/07/image/a/warn/ Au
thor NASA and the European Space
Agency. Edited by Noodle snacks PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0d/Hubble_ultra_deep_fie
ld_high_rez_edit1.jpg
created or destroyed. Matter can never
be converted into motion, and motion
can never be converted into matter.3
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
[1] note
Hubble_ultra_deep_field_high_rez_edit1
is much larger [2] Hubble ultra deep
field high rez
edit1_small.jpg Deutsch: Das Hubble
Ultra Deep Field ist ein Bild einer
kleinen Himmelsregion aufgenommen vom
Hubble-Weltraumteleskop über einen
Zeitraum vom 3. September 2003 bis 16.
Januar 2004. Dabei wurde eine
Himmelsregion ausgewählt, die kaum
störende helle Sterne im Vordergrund
enthält. Man entschied sich für ein
Zielgebiet südwestlich von Orion im
Sternbild Chemischer Ofen. English:
The Hubble Ultra Deep Field, is an
image of a small region of space in the
constellation Fornax, composited from
Hubble Space Telescope data accumulated
over a period from September 3, 2003
through January 16, 2004. The patch of
sky in which the galaxies reside was
chosen because it had a low density of
bright stars in the
near-field. Español: El Campo Ultra
Profundo del Hubble, es una imagen de
una pequeña región del espacio en la
constelación Fornax, compuesta de
datos obtenidos por el telescopio
espacial Hubble durante el período
entre el 3 de Septiembre de 2003 y el
16 de Enero de 2004. Esta parte del
cielo fue escogida por su baja densidad
de estrellas brillantes en sus
proximidades. Français : Le champ
ultra profond de Hubble, une image
d'une petite portion du ciel dans la
constellation du Fourneau, prise par le
télescope spatial Hubble du 3
septembre 2003 au 16 juillet 2004. La
portion de ciel a été choisie car
elle possède peu d'étoiles brillantes
proches. Date 2003-09-03 -
2004-01-16 Source
http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/ar
chive/releases/2004/07/image/a/warn/ Au
thor NASA and the European Space
Agency. Edited by Noodle snacks PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0d/Hubble_ultra_deep_fie
ld_high_rez_edit1.jpg
each other and so form structures such
as protons, atoms, molecules, planets,
stars, galaxies, and clusters of
galaxies.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
[1] note
Hubble_ultra_deep_field_high_rez_edit1
is much larger [2] Hubble ultra deep
field high rez
edit1_small.jpg Deutsch: Das Hubble
Ultra Deep Field ist ein Bild einer
kleinen Himmelsregion aufgenommen vom
Hubble-Weltraumteleskop über einen
Zeitraum vom 3. September 2003 bis 16.
Januar 2004. Dabei wurde eine
Himmelsregion ausgewählt, die kaum
störende helle Sterne im Vordergrund
enthält. Man entschied sich für ein
Zielgebiet südwestlich von Orion im
Sternbild Chemischer Ofen. English:
The Hubble Ultra Deep Field, is an
image of a small region of space in the
constellation Fornax, composited from
Hubble Space Telescope data accumulated
over a period from September 3, 2003
through January 16, 2004. The patch of
sky in which the galaxies reside was
chosen because it had a low density of
bright stars in the
near-field. Español: El Campo Ultra
Profundo del Hubble, es una imagen de
una pequeña región del espacio en la
constelación Fornax, compuesta de
datos obtenidos por el telescopio
espacial Hubble durante el período
entre el 3 de Septiembre de 2003 y el
16 de Enero de 2004. Esta parte del
cielo fue escogida por su baja densidad
de estrellas brillantes en sus
proximidades. Français : Le champ
ultra profond de Hubble, une image
d'une petite portion du ciel dans la
constellation du Fourneau, prise par le
télescope spatial Hubble du 3
septembre 2003 au 16 juillet 2004. La
portion de ciel a été choisie car
elle possède peu d'étoiles brillantes
proches. Date 2003-09-03 -
2004-01-16 Source
http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/ar
chive/releases/2004/07/image/a/warn/ Au
thor NASA and the European Space
Agency. Edited by Noodle snacks PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0d/Hubble_ultra_deep_fie
ld_high_rez_edit1.jpg
see are only a tiny part of the
universe. We will never see most of the
universe because no light particles
from there can ever reach us.3
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^ Ted Huntington
2. ^ Ted Huntington
3. ^ Ted Huntington
MORE INFO
[1] Carl Sagan, "Cosmos", Carl
Sagan Productions, KCET Los Angeles,
(1980). (estimate of how many galaxies)
[1] note
Hubble_ultra_deep_field_high_rez_edit1
is much larger [2] Hubble ultra deep
field high rez
edit1_small.jpg Deutsch: Das Hubble
Ultra Deep Field ist ein Bild einer
kleinen Himmelsregion aufgenommen vom
Hubble-Weltraumteleskop über einen
Zeitraum vom 3. September 2003 bis 16.
Januar 2004. Dabei wurde eine
Himmelsregion ausgewählt, die kaum
störende helle Sterne im Vordergrund
enthält. Man entschied sich für ein
Zielgebiet südwestlich von Orion im
Sternbild Chemischer Ofen. English:
The Hubble Ultra Deep Field, is an
image of a small region of space in the
constellation Fornax, composited from
Hubble Space Telescope data accumulated
over a period from September 3, 2003
through January 16, 2004. The patch of
sky in which the galaxies reside was
chosen because it had a low density of
bright stars in the
near-field. Español: El Campo Ultra
Profundo del Hubble, es una imagen de
una pequeña región del espacio en la
constelación Fornax, compuesta de
datos obtenidos por el telescopio
espacial Hubble durante el período
entre el 3 de Septiembre de 2003 y el
16 de Enero de 2004. Esta parte del
cielo fue escogida por su baja densidad
de estrellas brillantes en sus
proximidades. Français : Le champ
ultra profond de Hubble, une image
d'une petite portion du ciel dans la
constellation du Fourneau, prise par le
télescope spatial Hubble du 3
septembre 2003 au 16 juillet 2004. La
portion de ciel a été choisie car
elle possède peu d'étoiles brillantes
proches. Date 2003-09-03 -
2004-01-16 Source
http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/ar
chive/releases/2004/07/image/a/warn/ Au
thor NASA and the European Space
Agency. Edited by Noodle snacks PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0d/Hubble_ultra_deep_fie
ld_high_rez_edit1.jpg
Light particles move from highly dense
volumes of space to volumes of less
density. In low density volumes, light
particles slowly accumulate to form
atoms of Hydrogen and Helium which
exist as gas clouds (like the
Magellanic Clouds or Orion nebula).
These gas clouds, called nebulae
continue to accumulate trapped light
particles. At points of high density
planets and stars form and the cloud is
eventually dense enough to become a
galaxy of stars. The stars emit light
particles back out to the rest of the
universe, where the light again becomes
trapped and forms new clouds. Around
each star are many planets and pieces
of matter. On many of the planets
rotating around stars, living objects
evolve that can copy themselves by
converting matter around them into more
of them. Living objects need matter to
replace matter lost from the constant
emitting of light particles (decay).
Like bacteria, these living objects
grow in number, with the most
successful organisms occupying and
moving around many stars. These
advanced organisms then move the groups
of stars they control, as a globular
cluster, away from the plane of the
spiral galaxy. As time continues, all
of the stars of a galaxy are occupied
by living objects who have organized
their stars into globular clusters, and
these globular clusters together, form
a globular galaxy. The globular galaxy
may then exist for a long time living
off the matter in stars, in addition to
matter from external sources.
So free light particles are trapped
into volumes of space that grow in
density first forming atoms, then gas
clouds, then stars, a spiral galaxy,
and finally a globular galaxy.3
Stars at our scale may be light
particles at a much larger scale, just
as light particles at our scale may be
stars at a much smaller scale. This
system may go on infinitely in both
larger and smaller scale.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
[1] note
Hubble_ultra_deep_field_high_rez_edit1
is much larger Hubble ultra deep
field high rez
edit1_small.jpg Deutsch: Das Hubble
Ultra Deep Field ist ein Bild einer
kleinen Himmelsregion aufgenommen vom
Hubble-Weltraumteleskop über einen
Zeitraum vom 3. September 2003 bis 16.
Januar 2004. Dabei wurde eine
Himmelsregion ausgewählt, die kaum
störende helle Sterne im Vordergrund
enthält. Man entschied sich für ein
Zielgebiet südwestlich von Orion im
Sternbild Chemischer Ofen. English:
The Hubble Ultra Deep Field, is an
image of a small region of space in the
constellation Fornax, composited from
Hubble Space Telescope data accumulated
over a period from September 3, 2003
through January 16, 2004. The patch of
sky in which the galaxies reside was
chosen because it had a low density of
bright stars in the
near-field. Español: El Campo Ultra
Profundo del Hubble, es una imagen de
una pequeña región del espacio en la
constelación Fornax, compuesta de
datos obtenidos por el telescopio
espacial Hubble durante el período
entre el 3 de Septiembre de 2003 y el
16 de Enero de 2004. Esta parte del
cielo fue escogida por su baja densidad
de estrellas brillantes en sus
proximidades. Français : Le champ
ultra profond de Hubble, une image
d'une petite portion du ciel dans la
constellation du Fourneau, prise par le
télescope spatial Hubble du 3
septembre 2003 au 16 juillet 2004. La
portion de ciel a été choisie car
elle possède peu d'étoiles brillantes
proches. Date 2003-09-03 -
2004-01-16 Source
http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/ar
chive/releases/2004/07/image/a/warn/ Au
thor NASA and the European Space
Agency. Edited by Noodle snacks PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0d/Hubble_ultra_deep_fie
ld_high_rez_edit1.jpg
[2] LDN 1622: Dark Nebula in
Orion Data: Digitized Sky Survey
(POSS-II), Color Composite: Noel
Carboni Explanation: The silhouette
of an intriguing dark nebula inhabits
this cosmic scene, based on images from
the Palomar Observatory Sky Survey.
Lynds' Dark Nebula (LDN) 1622 appears
against a faint background of glowing
hydrogen gas only easily seen in long
telescopic exposures of the region. LDN
1622 lies near the plane of our Milky
Way Galaxy, close on the sky to
Barnard's Loop - a large cloud
surrounding the rich complex of
emission nebulae found in the Belt and
Sword of Orion. But the obscuring dust
of LDN 1622 is thought to be much
closer than Orion's more famous
nebulae, perhaps only 500 light-years
away. At that distance, this 1 degree
wide field of view would span less than
10 light-years. PD
source: http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/image/
0705/ldn1622_carboni.jpg
to me. The supposed red-shifted calcium
absorption lines may be a mistaken
observation, for one reason because
spectrum size changes the position of
spectral lines1 , and because the
distance of a light source changes the
position, but not the frequency of
spectral lines2 .
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Humason, M. L., "The Apparent
Radial Velocities of 100 Extra-Galactic
Nebulae", Astrophysical Journal, vol.
83, p.10, Jan
1936. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.ed
u//full/1936ApJ....83...10H/0000010.000.
html
2. ^ Ted Huntington, "Spectral line
position depends on distance of light
source - Bragg Equation Effect",
04/03/2012. http://tedhuntington.com/pa
per_Bragg.htm
[1] Image of a spectral line shift from
a close and distant fluorescent
lamp. GNU
source: Ted Huntington
[2] The simple trigonometry that shows
that two light sources at different
distances cannot achieve the same angle
at the same location on a horizontal
diffraction grating. GNU
source: Ted Huntington
LIFE
form.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
[1] Description This image is
mosaic of multiple shots on
large-format film. It comprises all 360
degrees of the galaxy from our vantage.
Photography was done in Ft. Davis,
Texas for the Northern hemisphere shots
and from Broken Hill, New South Wales,
Australia, for the southern portions.
Note the dust lanes, which obscure our
view of some features beyond them.
Infrared imaging reaches into these
regions, and radio astronomy can look
all the way through with less detail.
The very center, however, shows a
window to the farther side. In the
center, stars are mostly very old and
this causes the more yellow color. The
final file is 1.5GB, and resolves
details of less than one arcminute.
Faintest stars are magnitude 11. There
are 21 pixels of horizontal overlap at
the ends, with the right end slightly
brighter than the corresponding pixels
on the left. Date Source
http://www.digitalskyllc.com (The
image was uploaded to en.wiki at 17:16,
21 September 2006 by Twtunes. Author
Digital Sky LLC CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0a/Milkyway_pan1.jpg
[2] note
Hubble_ultra_deep_field_high_rez_edit1
is much larger [2] Hubble ultra deep
field high rez
edit1_small.jpg Deutsch: Das Hubble
Ultra Deep Field ist ein Bild einer
kleinen Himmelsregion aufgenommen vom
Hubble-Weltraumteleskop über einen
Zeitraum vom 3. September 2003 bis 16.
Januar 2004. Dabei wurde eine
Himmelsregion ausgewählt, die kaum
störende helle Sterne im Vordergrund
enthält. Man entschied sich für ein
Zielgebiet südwestlich von Orion im
Sternbild Chemischer Ofen. English:
The Hubble Ultra Deep Field, is an
image of a small region of space in the
constellation Fornax, composited from
Hubble Space Telescope data accumulated
over a period from September 3, 2003
through January 16, 2004. The patch of
sky in which the galaxies reside was
chosen because it had a low density of
bright stars in the
near-field. Español: El Campo Ultra
Profundo del Hubble, es una imagen de
una pequeña región del espacio en la
constelación Fornax, compuesta de
datos obtenidos por el telescopio
espacial Hubble durante el período
entre el 3 de Septiembre de 2003 y el
16 de Enero de 2004. Esta parte del
cielo fue escogida por su baja densidad
de estrellas brillantes en sus
proximidades. Français : Le champ
ultra profond de Hubble, une image
d'une petite portion du ciel dans la
constellation du Fourneau, prise par le
télescope spatial Hubble du 3
septembre 2003 au 16 juillet 2004. La
portion de ciel a été choisie car
elle possède peu d'étoiles brillantes
proches. Date 2003-09-03 -
2004-01-16 Source
http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/ar
chive/releases/2004/07/image/a/warn/ Au
thor NASA and the European Space
Agency. Edited by Noodle snacks PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0d/Hubble_ultra_deep_fie
ld_high_rez_edit1.jpg
Galaxy forms.3
Atoms may form near the surface of
planets and stars.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
[1] Description English: M8 Lagoon
Nebula in Sagittarius Date 26 June
2009 Source Own
work Author Hewholooks CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2f/M8HunterWilson.jpg
[2] NGC 7023: The Iris Nebula Credit
& Copyright: Daniel López,
IAC Explanation: Like delicate cosmic
petals, these clouds of interstellar
dust and gas have blossomed 1,300
light-years away in the fertile star
fields of the constellation Cepheus.
Sometimes called the Iris Nebula and
dutifully cataloged as NGC 7023, this
is not the only nebula in the sky to
evoke the imagery of flowers. Still,
this beautiful digital image shows off
the Iris Nebula's range of colors and
symmetries in impressive detail. Within
the Iris, dusty nebular material
surrounds a hot, young star. The
dominant color of the brighter
reflection nebula is blue,
characteristic of dust grains
reflecting starlight. Central filaments
of the dusty clouds glow with a faint
reddish photoluminesence as some dust
grains effectively convert the star's
invisible ultraviolet radiation to
visible red light. Infrared
observations indicate that this nebula
may contain complex carbon molecules
known as PAHs. As shown here, the
bright blue portion of the Iris Nebula
is about six light-years across. PD
source: http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/image/
1011/IRIS_IAC80_DLopez900c.jpg
Galaxy reach another star using a
ship.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
[1] close up
of: Description English: M8 Lagoon
Nebula in Sagittarius Date 26 June
2009 Source Own
work Author Hewholooks CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2f/M8HunterWilson.jpg
[2] Description The photograph,
taken by NASA's Hubble Space Telescope,
captures a small region within M17, a
hotbed of star formation. M17, also
known as the Omega or Swan Nebula, is
located about 5500 light-years away in
the constellation Sagittarius. The
wave-like patterns of gas have been
sculpted and illuminated by a torrent
of ultraviolet radiation from young,
massive stars, which lie outside the
picture to the upper left. The glow of
these patterns accentuates the
three-dimensional structure of the
gases. The ultraviolet radiation is
carving and heating the surfaces of
cold hydrogen gas clouds. The warmed
surfaces glow orange and red in this
photograph. The intense heat and
pressure cause some material to stream
away from those surfaces, creating the
glowing veil of even hotter greenish
gas that masks background structures.
The pressure on the tips of the waves
may trigger new star formation within
them. The image, roughly 3
light-years across, was taken May
29-30, 1999, with the Wide Field
Planetary Camera 2. The colors in the
image represent various gases. Red
represents sulfur; green, hydrogen; and
blue, oxygen. Date 24 April
2003 Source
http://spacetelescope.org/images/html/he
ic0305a.html (direct link)
http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/archive
/releases/2003/13/image/a/ Author
NASA, ESA and J. Hester (ASU) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/72/Omega_Nebula.jpg
100,000 stars in the Milky Way Galaxy.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
[1] Description The globular
cluster Omega Centauri — with as many
as ten million stars — is seen in all
its splendour in this image captured
with the WFI camera from ESO's La Silla
Observatory. The image shows only the
central part of the cluster — about
the size of the full moon on the sky
(half a degree). North is up, East is
to the left. This colour image is a
composite of B, V and I filtered
images. Note that because WFI is
equipped with a mosaic detector, there
are two small gaps in the image which
were filled with lower quality data
from the Digitized Sky Survey. Date
2008 Source
http://www.eso.org/public/outreach/
press-rel/pr-2008/phot-44-08.html Autho
r ESO CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Omega_Centauri_
by_ESO.jpg/638px-Omega_Centauri_by_ESO.j
pg
[2] Description This image is
mosaic of multiple shots on
large-format film. It comprises all 360
degrees of the galaxy from our vantage.
Photography was done in Ft. Davis,
Texas for the Northern hemisphere shots
and from Broken Hill, New South Wales,
Australia, for the southern portions.
Note the dust lanes, which obscure our
view of some features beyond them.
Infrared imaging reaches into these
regions, and radio astronomy can look
all the way through with less detail.
The very center, however, shows a
window to the farther side. In the
center, stars are mostly very old and
this causes the more yellow color. The
final file is 1.5GB, and resolves
details of less than one arcminute.
Faintest stars are magnitude 11. There
are 21 pixels of horizontal overlap at
the ends, with the right end slightly
brighter than the corresponding pixels
on the left. Date Source
http://www.digitalskyllc.com (The
image was uploaded to en.wiki at 17:16,
21 September 2006 by Twtunes. Author
Digital Sky LLC CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0a/Milkyway_pan1.jpg
4
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington
2. ^ Ted Huntington
3. ^ Ted Huntington
4. ^ Ted
Huntington, guess
MORE INFO
[1]
http://zebu.uoregon.edu/~imamura/208/mar
1/nucleo.html (with image of onion
skin layers)
[2] another person declares star
inside to be similar to planets: iron,
oxygen, nickel, etc. do not support
standard solar
model. star_inside_iron.pdf
[1] Description English: The Sun
photographed by the Atmospheric Imaging
Assembly (AIA 304) of NASA's Solar
Dynamics Observatory (SDO). This is
a false color image of the sun observed
in the extreme ultraviolet region of
the spectrum. For example,similar
image Français : Le soleil,
photographié depuis le Solar Dynamics
Observatory de la NASA. Date
2010-08-19T00:32:21Z (ISO
8601) Source NASA/SDO
(AIA). Author NASA/SDO (AIA). PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/The_Sun_by_the_
Atmospheric_Imaging_Assembly_of_NASAs_So
lar_Dynamics_Observatory_-_20100819.jpg/
628px-The_Sun_by_the_Atmospheric_Imaging
_Assembly_of_NASAs_Solar_Dynamics_Observ
atory_-_20100819.jpg
[2] Summary Description The star
formation region N11B in the LMC taken
by WFPC2 on the NASA/ESA Hubble Space
Telescope. Date Source
http://www.spacetelescope.org/image
s/html/heic0411a.html Author
NASA/ESA and the Hubble Heritage
Team
(AURA/STScI)/HEIC Permission (Reusing
this file) ESA Public Domain, as
per
http://www.spacetelescope.org/copyright.
html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6c/Heic0411a.jpg
4
the star, they are red hot with liquid
rock and metals on the surface. Lighter
atoms move to the surface of the
planets. Larger planets are surrounded
by gas.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
[1] an 19, 2005 � For the past five
days, forecasters at the NOAA Space
Environment Center in Boulder, Colo.,
have observed all types of space
weather: radio blackouts, solar
radiation storms and geomagnetic
storms. Currently, space weather
forecasters are observing a moderate
geomagnetic storm (G-2 on the NOAA
Space Weather Scales) and a minor (S-1)
solar radiation storm. Earlier
Wednesday an X-class flare produced a
strong (R-3) radio blackout. (Click
image for larger view of the sun taken
on Jan. 19, 2005, at 2:19 p.m. EST.
Click here for high resolution version,
which is a large file. Please credit
European Space Agency-NASA.) PD
source: http://www.noaanews.noaa.gov/sto
ries2005/images/sun-soho011905-1919z.jpg
[2] This artist’s impression shows
the disk of gas and cosmic dust around
the young star HD 142527. Astronomers
using the Atacama Large
Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA)
telescope have seen vast streams of gas
flowing across the gap in the disc
UNKNOWN
source: http://l2.yimg.com/bt/api/res/1.
2/kB0xEBWbOe3fUGcRF7Y3RA--/YXBwaWQ9eW5ld
3M7Zmk9aW5zZXQ7aD00MDg7cT03OTt3PTU3NQ--/
http://media.zenfs.com/en_US/News/SPACE.
com/Never-Before-Seen_Stage_of_Planet_Bi
rth-893372caafae611ec5e71458c2f79fb8
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
[1] Image of moon superimposed on
Venus PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/dd/Full_Moon_Luc_Viatour
.jpg
[2] an 19, 2005 � For the past five
days, forecasters at the NOAA Space
Environment Center in Boulder, Colo.,
have observed all types of space
weather: radio blackouts, solar
radiation storms and geomagnetic
storms. Currently, space weather
forecasters are observing a moderate
geomagnetic storm (G-2 on the NOAA
Space Weather Scales) and a minor (S-1)
solar radiation storm. Earlier
Wednesday an X-class flare produced a
strong (R-3) radio blackout. (Click
image for larger view of the sun taken
on Jan. 19, 2005, at 2:19 p.m. EST.
Click here for high resolution version,
which is a large file. Please credit
European Space Agency-NASA.) PD
source: http://www.noaanews.noaa.gov/sto
ries2005/images/sun-soho011905-1919z.jpg
4 5
rock turns into a solid thin crust.
Water condenses and falls to the
surface, filling the lowest parts of
the land to make the first Earth
oceans, lakes, and rivers.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ part about rain and streams going
to bottom of land:
http://www.ersdac.or.jp/Others/geoessay_
htm/geoessay_e/geo_text_09_e.htm
2. ^ part about rain and streams going
to bottom of land:
http://www.ersdac.or.jp/Others/geoessay_
htm/geoessay_e/geo_text_09_e.htm
3. ^ part about rain and streams going
to bottom of land:
http://www.ersdac.or.jp/Others/geoessay_
htm/geoessay_e/geo_text_09_e.htm
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
[1] USGS Photo by Tim Orr Pahoehoe
lava breaks out of the crust along a
flow margin PD
source: http://www.nps.gov/havo/parkmgmt
/upload/havo_manage_usgs_20080304_tro381
7_x800.jpg
[2] English: Ultraviolet image of
Venus' clouds as seen by the Pioneer
Venus Orbiter (February 26, 1979). The
immense C- or Y-shaped features which
are visible only in these wavelengths
are individually short lived, but
reform often enough to be considered a
permanent feature of Venus' clouds. The
mechanism by which Venus' clouds absorb
ultraviolet is not well understood. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Venuspioneeruv.
jpg/953px-Venuspioneeruv.jpg
3
Hadean {HA DEen1 } Eon.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Hadean Time." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 03
Mar. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hadean-time
2. ^
http://www.geosociety.org/science/timesc
ale/
3. ^ "Divisions of Geologic Time",
2010,
USGS http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2010/3059/
pdf/FS10-3059.pdf
[1] Geologic Time Scale 2009 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.geosociety.org/scienc
e/timescale/timescl.pdf
3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/fu
ll/288/5472/1819?maxtoshow=&HITS=10&hits
=10&RESULTFORMAT=&fulltext=zag+morocco&s
earchid=1129920472874_9236&stored_search
=&FIRSTINDEX=0#RF2
2. ^
http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/7830
48.stm
3. ^
http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/fu
ll/288/5472/1819?maxtoshow=&HITS=10&hits
=10&RESULTFORMAT=&fulltext=zag+morocco&s
earchid=1129920472874_9236&stored_search
=&FIRSTINDEX=0#RF2 (4.7 +- .2 billion
years)
4. ^ sci has 4.7 +- .2 by where did
4.571 come from?
[1] The ''Zag'' meteorite fell to Earth
in 1988 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/t
ech/783048.stm
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.nasm.si.edu/exhibitions/attm/
atmimages/S73-15446.f.jpg
http://www.nasm.si.edu/exhibitions/attm/
nojs/wl.br.1.html
[1]
http://www.nasm.si.edu/exhibitions/attm/
atmimages/S73-15446.f.jpg
http://www.nasm.si.edu/exhibitions/attm/
nojs/wl.br.1.html
source:
evidence that the crust and liquid
water are on the surface of Earth.1
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^
http://www.nature.com/nature/links/01011
1/010111-1.html
[1]
http://www.geology.wisc.edu/zircon/Earli
est%20Piece/Images/8.jpg
source:
like amino acids, phosphates, and
sugars, the components of living
objects.3
The initial building blocks of living
objects are easily formed, but
assembling them into longer-chain
molecules, or polymers, is more
difficult.4
Possibly all proteins, carbohydrates
and lipids are strictly the products of
living objects.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Donald
Prothero, "Evolution What the Fossils
Say and Why It Matters", 2007, p150.
5. ^ Ted
Huntington.
[1] The two optical isomers of alanine,
D-Alanine and
L-Alanine D-glucose BOTH PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/65/D%2BL-Alanine.gif
and http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiped
ia/commons/thumb/5/5a/D-glucose-chain-3D
-balls.png/640px-D-glucose-chain-3D-ball
s.png
Ribonucleic acid (RNA) may be the first
nucleic acid to form. One of these RNA
molecules may be the ancestor of all of
life on Earth.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
[1] Ribonucleic acid (English
pronunciation:
/raɪbɵ.njuːˌkleɪ.ɨk ˈæsɪd/),
or RNA, is one of the three major
macromolecules (along with DNA and
proteins) that are essential for all
known forms of life. UNKNOWN
source: http://dna-rna.net/wp-content/up
loads/2011/07/rna.jpg
Transfer RNA molecules evolve (tRNA),
and link amino acids into proteins
using other RNA molecules ("messenger"
or mRNA), as a template.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
[1] Description English:
Illustration of tRNA building peptide
chain Date 1 March 2009 Source
Own work Author
Boumphreyfr CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0f/Peptide_syn.png
[2] Source : ''Role of the
Ribosome'' University of Texas Medical
Branch UNKNOWN
source: http://ead.univ-angers.fr/~jaspa
rd/Page2/COURS/7RelStructFonction/2Bioch
imie/1SyntheseProteines/3Figures/4Organi
tes/2Ribosomes/6Polysome.gif
protein is called an RNA polymerase
{PoL-u-mu-rAS1 }.
For the first time, a nucleic acid
functions both as a template for
building proteins (with the help of
tRNA molecules) and also as a template
for building other nucleic acid
molecules.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Polymerase." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 26 Jan.
2013.
olymerase>.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
MORE INFO
[1] Schuppli, Daniel et al.
“Altered 3′-terminal RNA Structure
in Phage Qβ Adapted to Host
Factor-less Escherichia Coli.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences 94.19 (1997): 10239 –10242.
Print. http://www.pnas.org/content/94/1
9/10239.abstract
[1] RNA is a versatile molecule. In its
most familiar role, RNA acts as an
intermediary, carrying genetic
information from the DNA to the
machinery of protein synthesis. RNA
also plays more active roles,
performing many of the catalytic and
recognition functions normally reserved
for proteins. In fact, most of the RNA
in cells is found in ribosomes--our
protein-synthesizing machines--and the
transfer RNA molecules used to add each
new amino acid to growing proteins. In
addition, countless small RNA molecules
are involved in regulating, processing
and disposing of the constant traffic
of messenger RNA. The enzyme RNA
polymerase carries the weighty
responsibility of creating all of these
different RNA molecules. The RNA
Factory RNA polymerase is a huge
factory with many moving parts. The one
shown here, from PDB entry 1i6h, is
from yeast cells. It is composed of a
dozen different proteins. Together,
they form a machine that surrounds DNA
strands, unwinds them, and builds an
RNA strand based on the information
held inside the DNA. Once the enzyme
gets started, RNA polymerase marches
confidently along the DNA copying RNA
strands thousands of nucleotides
long. Accuracy As you might expect,
RNA polymerase needs to be accurate in
its copying of genetic information. To
improve its accuracy, it performs a
simple proofreading step as it builds
an RNA strand. The active site is
designed to be able to remove
nucleotides as well as add them to the
growing strand. The enzyme tends to
hover around mismatched nucleotides
longer than properly added ones, giving
the enzyme time to remove them. This
process is somewhat wasteful, since
proper nucleotides are also
occasionally removed, but this is a
small price to pay for creating better
RNA transcripts. Overall, RNA
polymerase makes an error about once in
10,000 nucleotides added, or about once
per RNA strand created. Poisoning
Polymerase Since RNA polymerase is
absolutely essential for the life of
the cell, it is a sensitive target for
poisons and toxins. The most powerful
of these poisons is alpha-amanitin, a
small circular peptide created by the
death cap mushroom. Eating even one of
these mushrooms will lead to coma and
death in a manner of days, as the
poison attacks RNA polymerase
throughout the body. Surprisingly, it
binds on the back side of RNA
polymerase, away from the active site
and away from the binding site for the
DNA and RNA. It does not physically
block the active site, like most
inhibitors, but instead jams the
mechanism of the enzyme. RNA polymerase
is a highly mobile enzyme, that flexes
and changes shape as it performs the
sequential steps of binding to DNA,
unwinding it, and then building the RNA
strand. As seen in PDB entry 1k83, the
poison binds between two subunits of
the protein, gluing them together and
blocking these essential motions. PD
source: http://www.pdb.org/pdb/education
_discussion/molecule_of_the_month/images
/1i6h-composite.gif
[2] [t Notice that many RNA molecules
are being produced all in sequence,
with each RNA molecule getting longer
as each protein reaches the end of the
DNA molecule.] Micrograph of gene
transcription of ribosomal RNA
illustrating the growing primary
transcripts. ''Begin'' indicates the 5'
end of the coding strand of DNA, where
new RNA synthesis begins; ''end''
indicates the 3' end, where the primary
transcripts are almost
complete. This is an alternate
version of
Image:RibosomaleTranskriptionsEinheit.jp
g, original author identified as Dr.
Hans-Heinrich Trepte, labeled in
German. This version with English
labels is from en:Image:Transcription
label fromcommons.jpg, by
en:UserOpabinia regalis, licensed under
GFDL. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/43/Transcription_label_e
n.jpg
Ribosomal RNA (rRNA).
The ribosome may function as a
protocell, providing a platform for
more efficient protein production. A
single RNA may contain all the
instructions needed to make more
ribosomes.
Ribosomes are the cellular organelles
that carry out protein synthesis,
through a process called translation.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "ribosome." Genetics. The Gale
Group, Inc, 2003. Answers.com 28 Nov.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ribosome
[1] Description English:
Illustration of tRNA building peptide
chain Date 1 March 2009 Source
Own work Author
Boumphreyfr CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0f/Peptide_syn.png
[2] Source : ''Role of the
Ribosome'' University of Texas Medical
Branch UNKNOWN
source: http://ead.univ-angers.fr/~jaspa
rd/Page2/COURS/7RelStructFonction/2Bioch
imie/1SyntheseProteines/3Figures/4Organi
tes/2Ribosomes/6Polysome.gif
(DNA) molecule. A protein evolves that
allows DNA to be assembled from RNA.2
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^ Elledge SJ, Zhou Z, Allen JB
(March 1992). "Ribonucleotide
reductase: regulation, regulation,
regulation". Trends Biochem. Sci. 17
(3): 119–23.
DOI:10.1016/0968-0004(92)90249-9. PMID
1412696.
2. ^ Elledge SJ, Zhou Z, Allen JB
(March 1992). "Ribonucleotide
reductase: regulation, regulation,
regulation". Trends Biochem. Sci. 17
(3): 119–23.
DOI:10.1016/0968-0004(92)90249-9. PMID
1412696.
[1] Description Crystallographic
structure of the ribonucleotide
reductase protein R1E from Salmonella
typhimurium. The protein is rainbow
colored (N-terminus = blue, C-terminus
= red) while deoxyadenosine
triphosphate is show as sticks and a
complexed magnesium ion as a grey
sphere.[1] ↑ PDB 1PEU; Uppsten M,
Färnegårdh M, Jordan A, Eliasson R,
Eklund H, Uhlin U (June 2003).
''Structure of the large subunit of
class Ib ribonucleotide reductase from
Salmonella typhimurium and its
complexes with allosteric effectors''.
J. Mol. Biol. 330 (1): 87–97. PMID
12818204. Date 28 February
2008 Source Own
work Author Boghog2 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/1PEU_R1E.png/10
24px-1PEU_R1E.png
[2] Description English: The
reaction mechanism of ribonucleotide
reductase Date 14 January 2006
(original upload
date) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia; transferred to Commons by
User:Michał Sobkowski using
CommonsHelper. Author Original
uploader was BorisTM at
en.wikipedia PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2c/RNR_reaction.png
a DNA polymerase {PoL-u-mu-rAS2 }.3
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ "DNA polymerase." Genetics. The
Gale Group, Inc, 2003. Answers.com 04
Aug. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/dna-polymer
ase
2. ^ "Polymerase." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 26 Jan.
2013.
olymerase>.
3. ^ "DNA polymerase." Genetics. The
Gale Group, Inc, 2003. Answers.com 04
Aug. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/dna-polymer
ase
[1] A look at DNA replication, with the
inset showing a larger and general
view. ''Pol'' stands for polymerase, a
key enzyme. Note how each enzyme works
in a 'biochemical team' to complete the
process efficiently COPYRIGHTED
source: http://genmed.yolasite.com/resou
rces/DNA20replication.jpg
[2] Description Diagram of DNA
polymerase extending a DNA strand and
proof-reading. Date Source Own
work Author Madprime GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6f/DNA_polymerase.svg
assembles RNA from DNA.
[1] Transcription: DNA-> RNA In E. coli
it is possible to see the strands of
RNA transcripts under the electron
microscope. Relate the image seen under
an electron microscope with the drawing
in your book in Figure 13-3. Why do you
not see any protein strands coming from
the mRNA in the electron microscope
image? UNKNOWN
source: http://www.utexas.edu/courses/zo
o325/13-4.gif
[2] RNA is a versatile molecule. In
its most familiar role, RNA acts as an
intermediary, carrying genetic
information from the DNA to the
machinery of protein synthesis. RNA
also plays more active roles,
performing many of the catalytic and
recognition functions normally reserved
for proteins. In fact, most of the RNA
in cells is found in ribosomes--our
protein-synthesizing machines--and the
transfer RNA molecules used to add each
new amino acid to growing proteins. In
addition, countless small RNA molecules
are involved in regulating, processing
and disposing of the constant traffic
of messenger RNA. The enzyme RNA
polymerase carries the weighty
responsibility of creating all of these
different RNA molecules. The RNA
Factory RNA polymerase is a huge
factory with many moving parts. The one
shown here, from PDB entry 1i6h, is
from yeast cells. It is composed of a
dozen different proteins. Together,
they form a machine that surrounds DNA
strands, unwinds them, and builds an
RNA strand based on the information
held inside the DNA. Once the enzyme
gets started, RNA polymerase marches
confidently along the DNA copying RNA
strands thousands of nucleotides
long. Accuracy As you might expect,
RNA polymerase needs to be accurate in
its copying of genetic information. To
improve its accuracy, it performs a
simple proofreading step as it builds
an RNA strand. The active site is
designed to be able to remove
nucleotides as well as add them to the
growing strand. The enzyme tends to
hover around mismatched nucleotides
longer than properly added ones, giving
the enzyme time to remove them. This
process is somewhat wasteful, since
proper nucleotides are also
occasionally removed, but this is a
small price to pay for creating better
RNA transcripts. Overall, RNA
polymerase makes an error about once in
10,000 nucleotides added, or about once
per RNA strand created. Poisoning
Polymerase Since RNA polymerase is
absolutely essential for the life of
the cell, it is a sensitive target for
poisons and toxins. The most powerful
of these poisons is alpha-amanitin, a
small circular peptide created by the
death cap mushroom. Eating even one of
these mushrooms will lead to coma and
death in a manner of days, as the
poison attacks RNA polymerase
throughout the body. Surprisingly, it
binds on the back side of RNA
polymerase, away from the active site
and away from the binding site for the
DNA and RNA. It does not physically
block the active site, like most
inhibitors, but instead jams the
mechanism of the enzyme. RNA polymerase
is a highly mobile enzyme, that flexes
and changes shape as it performs the
sequential steps of binding to DNA,
unwinding it, and then building the RNA
strand. As seen in PDB entry 1k83, the
poison binds between two subunits of
the protein, gluing them together and
blocking these essential motions. PD
source: http://www.pdb.org/pdb/education
_discussion/molecule_of_the_month/images
/1i6h-composite.gif
bacterium). DNA is surrounded by a
membrane made of proteins. The first
cytoplasm.4
This cell may form in either fresh or
salt water, near the sunlit water
surface or near underwater volcanoes on
the ocean floor.5
DNA protected by cytoplasm is more
likely to survive and be copied.6
Start of binary cell division.7
This cell structure forms the basis of
all future cells of every living object
on Earth.8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Prothero,
"Evolution: What the Fossils Say and
Why It Matters", 2007, p145-154.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
5. ^ Prothero, "Evolution: What the
Fossils Say and Why It Matters", 2007,
p145-154.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
[1] Deutsch: Bild über den Reitenden
Urzwerg English: Image of Nanoarchaeum
equitans Date 2005-09-10 (original
upload date) Source Originally
from de.wikipedia; description page
is/was here. Author Original
uploader was Eber-Jimmy at
de.wikipedia Permission (Reusing
this file) This image is in the
public domain due to its
age. Licensing According to this
article, ''Es wurde von dem
Mikrobiologen Karl O. Stetter entdeckt.
Bildrechte: Public domain.'' PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/dc/Urzwerg.jpg
[2] Hydrogenobacter thermophilus
(strain TK-6) is an obligately
chemolithoautotrophic, extremely (and
strictly) thermophilic
hydrogen-oxidizing bacterium whose
optimal growth temperature is around 70
to 75°C and was isolated from hot
springs. UNKNOWN
source: http://standardsingenomics.org/i
ndex.php/sigen/article/viewFile/146/534/
4368
6
Earth; (fats, oils, waxes4 ).5
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^ find biomarker evidence
2. ^ "lipid." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 28 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/lipid
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "lipid." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 28
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/lipid
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
[1] Figure1: Lipid accumulation in
differentiating 3T3-L1 pre-adipocyte
cell line (days in culture) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.emsdiasum.com/microsc
opy/products/sem/wet/images/lipid_accumu
lation.jpg
[2] Lipid Structures under the
microscope. Image by Alison North, The
Rockefeller University. UNKNOWN
source: http://selections.rockefeller.ed
u/cms/images/stories/2010/may/lipid.gif
around the cell.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
[1] Campbell, N.A., and J.B. Reece.
Biology. Pearson Benjamin Cummings,
2008. Alternative eText Formats Series,
p77. COPYRIGHTED
source: Campbell, N.A., and J.B. Reece.
Biology. Pearson Benjamin Cummings,
2008. Alternative eText Formats Series,
p77.
[2] Gram negative cell
wall http://www.arches.uga.edu/~kristen
c/cellwall.html COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.arches.uga.edu/~krist
enc/cellwall.html
assembly.3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://info.bio.cmu.edu/Courses/03441/Te
rmPapers/99TermPapers/GenEvo/operon.html
2. ^
http://web.indstate.edu/thcme/mwking/gen
e-regulation.html#table
3. ^
http://info.bio.cmu.edu/Courses/03441/Te
rmPapers/99TermPapers/GenEvo/operon.html
4. ^
http://web.indstate.edu/thcme/mwking/gen
e-regulation.html#table
[1] Figure 6 from: Jacob, F. & Monod,
J. Genetic regulatory mechanisms in the
synthesis of proteins. J. Mol. Biol. 3,
318–356 (1961)
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_
ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6WK7-4Y39HH7-B&_user
=4422&_coverDate=06%2F30%2F1961&_alid=17
23143833&_rdoc=1&_fmt=high&_orig=search&
_origin=search&_zone=rslt_list_item&_cdi
=6899&_sort=r&_st=13&_docanchor=&view=c&
_ct=5&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlVe
rsion=0&_userid=4422&md5=c2699b72c7c5bee
4e2c31224c6261556&searchtype=a {Jacob_F
rancois_19601228.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6WK7-4Y39HH7-B
&_user=4422&_coverDate=06%2F30%2F1961&_a
lid=1723143833&_rdoc=1&_fmt=high&_orig=s
earch&_origin=search&_zone=rslt_list_ite
m&_cdi=6899&_sort=r&_st=13&_docanchor=&v
iew=c&_ct=5&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&
_urlVersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=c2699b72c
7c5bee4e2c31224c6261556&searchtype=a
[2] Figure 3 from: Jacob, F. & Monod,
J. Genetic regulatory mechanisms in the
synthesis of proteins. J. Mol. Biol. 3,
318–356 (1961)
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_
ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6WK7-4Y39HH7-B&_user
=4422&_coverDate=06%2F30%2F1961&_alid=17
23143833&_rdoc=1&_fmt=high&_orig=search&
_origin=search&_zone=rslt_list_item&_cdi
=6899&_sort=r&_st=13&_docanchor=&view=c&
_ct=5&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlVe
rsion=0&_userid=4422&md5=c2699b72c7c5bee
4e2c31224c6261556&searchtype=a {Jacob_F
rancois_19601228.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6WK7-4Y39HH7-B
&_user=4422&_coverDate=06%2F30%2F1961&_a
lid=1723143833&_rdoc=1&_fmt=high&_orig=s
earch&_origin=search&_zone=rslt_list_ite
m&_cdi=6899&_sort=r&_st=13&_docanchor=&v
iew=c&_ct=5&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&
_urlVersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=c2699b72c
7c5bee4e2c31224c6261556&searchtype=a
in the cell membrane allow only certain
molecules to enter the cell.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Daniel V. Lim, "Microbiology",
2002,
p101. http://books.google.com/books?id=
CKEgLmqfbRQC&pg=PA101
[1] Figure 7.15 from: Campbell, Reece,
et al., ''Biology'', 8th Edition, 2008,
P135. COPYRIGHTED
source: Campbell, Reece, et al.,
"Biology", 8th Edition, 2008, P135.
[2] Figure 7.18 from: Campbell,
Reece, et al., ''Biology'', 8th
Edition, 2008, P137. COPYRIGHTED
source: Campbell, Reece, et al.,
"Biology", 8th Edition, 2008, P137.
evolves in the cytoplasm. Cells can
make ATP from glucose.2
ATP is the molecule that drives most
cellular work.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Campbell, Reece, et al,
"Biology", 8th edition, 2008, p162.
2. ^
Campbell, Reece, et al, "Biology", 8th
edition, 2008, p162.
3. ^ Campbell, Reece, et
al, "Biology", 8th edition, 2008, p162.
[1] Description English: Glycolysis
pathway overview. Date 3
September 2009 Source Own
work Author
WYassineMrabetTalk✉ Inkscape
Logo.svg This vector image was
created with
Inkscape. Permission (Reusing this
file) GFDL license (see below). GFDL
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Glycolysis.svg/
1024px-Glycolysis.svg.png
[2] Figure 9.6 from: Campbell, Reece,
et al, ''Biology'', 8th edition, 2008,
p166. COPYRIGHTED
source: Campbell, Reece, et al,
"Biology", 8th edition, 2008, p166.
make lactic acid.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://216.239.63.104/search?q=cache:3s2
stckAJoMJ:www.nmc.edu/~ftank/115f04/Ch%2
5209%2520Notes.pdf+cellular+respiration+
oldest&hl=en
2. ^
http://216.239.63.104/search?q=cache:3s2
stckAJoMJ:www.nmc.edu/~ftank/115f04/Ch%2
5209%2520Notes.pdf+cellular+respiration+
oldest&hl=en
[1] Campbell, Reece, et al,
''Biology'', 8th edition, 2008,
p178. COPYRIGHTED
source: Campbell, Reece, et al,
"Biology", 8th edition, 2008, p178.
[2] IUPAC
name[hide] 2-Hydroxypropanoic
acid Other names[hide] Milk
acid Description de: Struktur
von Milchsäure; en: Structure of
lactic acid Date 12 February
2007 Source Own work Author
NEUROtiker Permission (Reusing
this file) Own work, all rights
released (Public domain) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/59/Lactic-acid-3D-balls.
pnghttp://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia
/commons/thumb/d/d3/Lactic-acid-skeletal
.svg/1000px-Lactic-acid-skeletal.svg.png
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Campbell, Reece, et al,
"Biology", 8th edition, 2008, p162-184.
2. ^
Campbell, Reece, et al, "Biology", 8th
edition, 2008, p162-184.
[1] Campbell, Reece, et al,
''Biology'', 8th edition, 2008,
p178. COPYRIGHTED
source: Campbell, Reece, et al,
"Biology", 8th edition, 2008, p178.
[2] Ethanol Full structural
formula, Ball and Stick Model, and
Space-Filling Model of Ethanol PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/37/Ethanol-2D-flat.pnght
tp://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/comm
ons/b/b0/Ethanol-3D-balls.pnghttp://uplo
ad.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/00/
Ethanol-3D-vdW.png
transport molecules into and out of the
cytoplasm.1 2 3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.cat.cc.md.us/~gkaiser/biotuto
rials/eustruct/cmeu.html
2. ^ "active transport." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 10
Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/active-tran
sport
3. ^ "active transport." The Oxford
Dictionary of Sports Science . Oxford
University Press, 1998, 2006, 2007.
Answers.com 10 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/active-tran
sport
[1] Figure 7.18 from: Campbell, Reece,
et al., ''Biology'', 8th Edition, 2008,
P137. COPYRIGHTED
source: Campbell, Reece, et al.,
"Biology", 8th Edition, 2008, P137.
[2] Figure 7.15 from: Campbell,
Reece, et al., ''Biology'', 8th
Edition, 2008, P135. COPYRIGHTED
source: Campbell, Reece, et al.,
"Biology", 8th Edition, 2008, P135.
3 4
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ conjugation in protists, flagella
in eukaryotes: Michael Sleigh,
"Protozoa and Other Protists", (London;
New York: Edward Arnold, 1989).
2. ^
conjugation in protists, flagella in
eukaryotes: Michael Sleigh, "Protozoa
and Other Protists", (London; New York:
Edward Arnold, 1989).
3. ^ S. Blair Hedges and
Sudhir Kumar, "The Timetree of Life",
2009,
p107-110. http://www.timetree.org/book.
php
4. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004). {2800000000 YBN}
MORE INFO
[1] Pallen MJ, Matzke NJ (October
2006). "From The Origin of Species to
the origin of bacterial flagella".
Nature Reviews. Microbiology 4 (10):
784–90. doi:10.1038/nrmicro1493. PMID
16953248. http://www.nature.com/nrmicro
/journal/v4/n10/full/nrmicro1493.html
[2] Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004)
[3] Tree of life,
http://tolweb.org/tree/
[4] David moreira, Purificacion
Lopez-Garcia, "Symbiosis Between
methanogenic Archaea and
delta-Proteobacteria as the Origin of
Eukaryotes: The Synthreophic
Hypothesis", J Mol Evol (1998)
47:517-530. eukorig6_jmol.pdf
[5] JOSHUA LEDERBERG, E. L.
TATUM, "Gene Recombination in
Escherichia Coli", Nature 158, 558-558
(19 October 1946) doi:10.1038/158558a0
Letter
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
158/n4016/abs/158558a0.html
[6] "conjugation." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 01 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/132820/conjugation>
[1] Aquifex pyrophilus (platinum
shadowed). © K.O. Stetter & Reinhard
Rachel, University of Regensburg.
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://biology.kenyon.edu/Microb
ial_Biorealm/bacteria/aquifex/aquifex.ht
m
[2] Description English: A
Gram-negative bacterial flagellum. A
flagellum (plural: flagella) is a long,
slender projection from the cell body,
whose function is to propel a
unicellular or small multicellular
organism. The depicted type of
flagellum is found in bacteria such as
E. coli and Salmonella, and rotates
like a propeller when the bacterium
swims. The bacterial movement can be
divided in 2 kinds: run, resulting from
a counterclockwise rotation of the
flagellum, and tumbling, from a
clockwise rotation of the
flagellum. Français : Flagelle de
bactérie Gram-négative. Le flagelle
est une projection longue et fine hors
du corps cellulaire, dont la fonction
est de propulser l'organisme. Ce type
de flagelle est présent dans des
bactéries comme Escherichia coli et
Salmonella, et tourne comme une hélice
quand la bactérie se déplace. Le
flagelle peut provoquer deux types de
déplacement selon son sens de
rotation. Date November 2007 Source
self-made References: [1],[2], [3]
(main 3), [4], [5] (propeller
rotation), PMID 17142059
(bend). Author LadyofHats PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Flagellum_base_
diagram_en.svg/1000px-Flagellum_base_dia
gram_en.svg.png
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
archaebacteria) evolve.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The Origin and
Evolution of Model Organisms", Nature
Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
http://www.nature.com/nrg/journal/v3/n
11/full/nrg929.html
2. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The Origin and
Evolution of Model Organisms", Nature
Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
http://www.nature.com/nrg/journal/v3/n
11/full/nrg929.html
3. ^ S. Blair Hedges and Sudhir Kumar,
"The Timetree of Life", 2009,
p102-103. http://www.timetree.org/book.
php
4. ^ S. Blair Hedges and Sudhir Kumar,
"TimeTree of Life",
p102-103. http://www.timetree.org/pdf/H
edges2009Chap05.pdf
5. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The Origin and
Evolution of Model Organisms", Nature
Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
http://www.nature.com/nrg/journal/v3/n
11/full/nrg929.html
6. ^ Russell F. Doolittle, Da-Fei Feng,
Simon Tsang, Glen Cho, Elizabeth
Little, "Determining Divergence Times
of the Major Kingdoms of Living
Organisms with a Protein Clock",
Science, (1996). 2142-1873my
(2142-1873my)
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). 2300my (2300my)
8. ^
Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A Genomic
timescale of prokaryote evolution:
insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004). 4100my (has arche b4
eu) (4100my)
9. ^ Osawa, S., Honjo,
"Archaebacteria vs Metabacteria :
Phylogenetic tree of organisms
indicated by comparison of 5S ribosomal
RNA sequences.", (Tokyo: Springer,
Tokyo/ Berlin eds.:"Evolution of Life",
pp. 325-336,, 1991). 1800my (1800my)
10. ^ S.
Blair Hedges, "The Origin and Evolution
of Model Organisms", Nature Reviews
Genetics 3, 838-849 (2002);
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002). 4000my
(4000my)
11. ^ S. Blair Hedges and Sudhir Kumar,
"Genomic clocks and evolutionary
timescales", Trends in Genetics
Volume 19, Issue 4 , April 2003, Pages
200-206, (2003). 3970my (3970my)
[1] Deutsch: Bild über den Reitenden
Urzwerg English: Image of Nanoarchaeum
equitans Date 2005-09-10 (original
upload date) Source Originally
from de.wikipedia; description page
is/was here. Author Original
uploader was Eber-Jimmy at
de.wikipedia Permission (Reusing
this file) This image is in the
public domain due to its
age. Licensing According to this
article, ''Es wurde von dem
Mikrobiologen Karl O. Stetter entdeckt.
Bildrechte: Public domain.'' PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/dc/Urzwerg.jpg
[2] Figure 1) Changing views of the
tree and timescale of life. a) An
early-1990s view, with the tree
determined mostly from ribosomal RNA
(rRNA) sequence analysis. This tree
emphasizes vertical (as opposed to
horizontal) evolution and the close
relationship between eukaryotes and the
Archaebacteria. The deep branching
(>3.5 Giga (109) years ago, Gya) of
CYANOBACTERIA (Cy) and other Eubacteria
(purple), the shallow branching
(approx1 Gya) of plants (Pl), animals
(An) and fungi (Fu), and the early
origin of mitochondria (Mi), were based
on interpretations of the geochemical
and fossil record7, 8. Some deeply
branching amitochondriate (Am) species
were believed to have arisen before the
origin of mitochondria44. Major
symbiotic events (black dots) were
introduced to explain the origin of
eukaryotic organelles42, but were not
assumed to be associated with large
transfers of genes to the host nucleus.
They were: Eu, joining of an
archaebacterium host with a eubacterium
(presumably a SPIROCHAETE) to produce
an amitochondriate eukaryote; Mi,
joining of a eukaryote host with an
alpha-proteobacterium (Ap) symbiont,
leading to the origin of mitochondria,
and plastids (Ps), joining of a
eukaryote host with a cyanobacterium
symbiont, forming the origin of
plastids on the plant lineage and
possibly on other lineages. b) The
present view, based on extensive
genomic analysis. Eukaryotes are no
longer considered to be close relatives
of Archaebacteria, but are genomic
hybrids of Archaebacteria and
Eubacteria, owing to the transfer of
large numbers of genes from the
symbiont genome to the nucleus of the
host (indicated by coloured arrows).
Other new features, largely derived
from molecular-clock studies16, 39 (Box
1), include a relatively recent origin
of Cyanobacteria (approx2.6 Gya) and
mitochondria (approx1.8 Gya), an early
origin (approx1.5 Gya) of plants,
animals and fungi, and a close
relationship between animals and fungi.
Coloured dashed lines indicate
controversial aspects of the present
view: the existence of a
premitochondrial symbiotic event and of
living amitochondriate eukaryotes,
ancestors of which never had
mitochondria. c) The times of
divergence of selected model organisms
from humans, based on molecular clocks.
For the prokaryotes (red), because of
different possible origins through
symbiotic events, divergence times
depend on the gene of interest.
source: http://www.nature.com/nrg/journa
l/v3/n11/full/nrg929_fs.html
5 6
evolve (Aquifex, Thermotoga).3 4
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
2. ^ Brocks, Buick, "A
reconstruction of Archean biological
diversity based on", Geochimica et
cosmochimica acta, (2003).
3. ^ Battistuzzi,
Feijao, Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of
prokaryote evolution: insights into
the origin of methanogenesis,
phototrophy, and the colonization of
land", BMC Evolutionary Biology,
(2004).
4. ^ Brocks, Buick, "A reconstruction
of Archean biological diversity based
on", Geochimica et cosmochimica acta,
(2003).
5. ^ S. Blair Hedges and Sudhir Kumar,
"The Timetree of Life", 2009,
p107-110. http://www.timetree.org/book.
php
6. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
[1] A timescale of prokaryote
evolution. Letters indicate nodes
discussed in the text. The last common
ancestor was arbitrarily placed at 4.25
Ga in the tree, although this placement
was not part of the analyses. The grey
rectangle shows the time prior to the
initial rise in oxygen (presumably
anaerobic conditions). Mtb:
Methanothermobacter, Tab:
Thermoanaerobacter, Tsc:
Thermosynechococcus. Battistuzzi et
al. BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004 4:44
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-44 Table
1 Time estimates for selected nodes
in the tree of eubacteria (A-K) and
archaebacteria (L-P). Letters refer to
Fig. 3. Time (Ma)a CIb Node
A 102 57–176 Node
B 2508 2154–2928 Node
C 2800 2452–3223 Node
D 1039 702–1408 Node
E 2558 2310–2969 Node
F 2784 2490–3203 Node
G 2923 2587–3352 Node
H 3054 2697–3490 Node
I 3186 2801–3634 Node
J 3644 3172–4130 Node
K 3977 3434–4464 Node
L 233 118–386 Node
M 3085 2469–3514 Node
N 3566 2876–3948 Node
O 3781 3047–4163 Node
P 4112 3314–4486 a Averages of
the divergence times estimated using
the 2.3 Ga minimum constraint and the
five ingroup root constraints (nodes
A-K) and using the 1.198 ± 0.022 Ga
constraint and the five ingroup root
constraints (nodes L-P). b
Credibility interval (minimum and
maximum averages of the analyses under
the five ingroup root
constraints) Battistuzzi et al. BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004 4:44
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-44 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.biomedcentral.com/con
tent/figures/1471-2148-4-44-3-l.jpg
[2] Aquifex pyrophilus (platinum
shadowed). © K.O. Stetter & Reinhard
Rachel, University of Regensburg.
source: http://biology.kenyon.edu/Microb
ial_Biorealm/bacteria/aquifex/aquifex.ht
m
5 6
(Sulfolobus).3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao,
Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of
prokaryote evolution: insights into
the origin of methanogenesis,
phototrophy, and the colonization of
land", BMC Evolutionary Biology,
(2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
4. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao,
Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of
prokaryote evolution: insights into
the origin of methanogenesis,
phototrophy, and the colonization of
land", BMC Evolutionary Biology,
(2004).
5. ^ S. Blair Hedges and Sudhir Kumar,
"The Timetree of Life", 2009,
p102-103. http://www.timetree.org/book.
php
6. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
[1] A timescale of prokaryote
evolution. Letters indicate nodes
discussed in the text. The last common
ancestor was arbitrarily placed at 4.25
Ga in the tree, although this placement
was not part of the analyses. The grey
rectangle shows the time prior to the
initial rise in oxygen (presumably
anaerobic conditions). Mtb:
Methanothermobacter, Tab:
Thermoanaerobacter, Tsc:
Thermosynechococcus. Battistuzzi et
al. BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004 4:44
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-44 Table
1 Time estimates for selected nodes
in the tree of eubacteria (A-K) and
archaebacteria (L-P). Letters refer to
Fig. 3. Time (Ma)a CIb Node
A 102 57–176 Node
B 2508 2154–2928 Node
C 2800 2452–3223 Node
D 1039 702–1408 Node
E 2558 2310–2969 Node
F 2784 2490–3203 Node
G 2923 2587–3352 Node
H 3054 2697–3490 Node
I 3186 2801–3634 Node
J 3644 3172–4130 Node
K 3977 3434–4464 Node
L 233 118–386 Node
M 3085 2469–3514 Node
N 3566 2876–3948 Node
O 3781 3047–4163 Node
P 4112 3314–4486 a Averages of
the divergence times estimated using
the 2.3 Ga minimum constraint and the
five ingroup root constraints (nodes
A-K) and using the 1.198 ± 0.022 Ga
constraint and the five ingroup root
constraints (nodes L-P). b
Credibility interval (minimum and
maximum averages of the analyses under
the five ingroup root
constraints) Battistuzzi et al. BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004 4:44
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-44 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.biomedcentral.com/con
tent/figures/1471-2148-4-44-3-l.jpg
[2] tree of archaea ?
source: http://www.uni-giessen.de/~gf126
5/GROUPS/KLUG/Stammbaum.html
10 11
{YRE-oR-KE-O-Tu6 } (methanogens,
halobacteria).7 8
Earliest cell response to light.9
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^ Jékely, Gáspár. "Evolution of
phototaxis." Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society B:
Biological Sciences 364 (October
2009):
2795–2808. http://rstb.royalsocietypu
blishing.org/content/364/1531/2795.short
2. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=euryar
chaeota&submit=Submit
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
4. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao,
Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of
prokaryote evolution: insights into
the origin of methanogenesis,
phototrophy, and the colonization of
land", BMC Evolutionary Biology,
(2004).
http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148
/4/44
5. ^ Jékely, Gáspár. "Evolution of
phototaxis." Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society B:
Biological Sciences 364 (October
2009):
2795–2808. http://rstb.royalsocietypu
blishing.org/content/364/1531/2795.short
6. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=euryar
chaeota&submit=Submit
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
8. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao,
Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of
prokaryote evolution: insights into
the origin of methanogenesis,
phototrophy, and the colonization of
land", BMC Evolutionary Biology,
(2004).
http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148
/4/44
9. ^ Jékely, Gáspár. "Evolution of
phototaxis." Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society B:
Biological Sciences 364 (October
2009):
2795–2808. http://rstb.royalsocietypu
blishing.org/content/364/1531/2795.short
10. ^ S. Blair Hedges and Sudhir Kumar,
"The Timetree of Life", 2009,
p102-103. http://www.timetree.org/book.
php
11. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology,
(2004). http://www.biomedcentral.com/14
71-2148/4/44
MORE INFO
[1] S. Blair Hedges, "The origin
and evolution of model organisms",
Nature Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849
(November 2002),
doi:10.1038/nrg929 http://www.nature.co
m/nrg/journal/v3/n11/full/nrg929.html#to
p
[1] A timescale of prokaryote
evolution. Letters indicate nodes
discussed in the text. The last common
ancestor was arbitrarily placed at 4.25
Ga in the tree, although this placement
was not part of the analyses. The grey
rectangle shows the time prior to the
initial rise in oxygen (presumably
anaerobic conditions). Mtb:
Methanothermobacter, Tab:
Thermoanaerobacter, Tsc:
Thermosynechococcus. Battistuzzi et
al. BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004 4:44
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-44 Table
1 Time estimates for selected nodes
in the tree of eubacteria (A-K) and
archaebacteria (L-P). Letters refer to
Fig. 3. Time (Ma)a CIb Node
A 102 57–176 Node
B 2508 2154–2928 Node
C 2800 2452–3223 Node
D 1039 702–1408 Node
E 2558 2310–2969 Node
F 2784 2490–3203 Node
G 2923 2587–3352 Node
H 3054 2697–3490 Node
I 3186 2801–3634 Node
J 3644 3172–4130 Node
K 3977 3434–4464 Node
L 233 118–386 Node
M 3085 2469–3514 Node
N 3566 2876–3948 Node
O 3781 3047–4163 Node
P 4112 3314–4486 a Averages of
the divergence times estimated using
the 2.3 Ga minimum constraint and the
five ingroup root constraints (nodes
A-K) and using the 1.198 ± 0.022 Ga
constraint and the five ingroup root
constraints (nodes L-P). b
Credibility interval (minimum and
maximum averages of the analyses under
the five ingroup root
constraints) Battistuzzi et al. BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004 4:44
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-44 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.biomedcentral.com/con
tent/figures/1471-2148-4-44-3-l.jpg
[2] tree of archaebacteria (archaea)
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.uni-giessen.de/~gf126
5/GROUPS/KLUG/Stammbaum.html
3
that can produce some of their own
food.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
2. ^ Richard
Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA:
Blackwell, 2005).
3. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao,
Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of
prokaryote evolution: insights into
the origin of methanogenesis,
phototrophy, and the colonization of
land", BMC Evolutionary Biology,
(2004). http://www.biomedcentral.com/14
71-2148/4/44
[1] Description Methanopyrus
kandleri Date July
2006 Source ms:Imej:Arkea.jpg Auth
or ms:User:PM Poon GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/aa/Arkea.jpg
6
Bacteria use light particles to convert
carbon dioxide gas and a an electron
donor2 like Hydrogen sulfide into
glucose, water, and sulfur.3 Also
called "Carbon fixation".4
This is the ancestor of Photosystem I.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
2. ^ "reductant."Answers.com
14 Jul. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/reductant
3. ^ Frank H. Shu, "The Physical
Universe: An Introduction to
Astronomy", 1982,
p537. http://books.google.com/books?id=
v_6PbAfapSAC&pg=PA537
4. ^ "carbon fixation>.".
Dictionary.com Unabridged (v 1.1).
Random House, Inc. "carbon
fixation." The American Heritage®
Science Dictionary. Houghton Mifflin
Company. 14 Jul. 2012.
arbon fixation>.
5. ^ Lockau, Wolfgang, Wolfgang
Nitschke (1993). "Photosystem I and its
Bacterial Counterparts". Physiologia
Plantarum 88 (2): 372–381.
DOI:10.1111/j.1399-3054.1993.tb05512.x.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1399-3054
.1993.tb05512.x
6. ^ Olson JM (May 2006).
"Photosynthesis in the Archean era".
Photosyn. Res. 88 (2): 109–17.
doi:10.1007/s11120-006-9040-5. PMID
16453059. http://www.springerlink.com/c
ontent/g6n805154602432w/?MUD=MP {Olson_
2006.pdf}
MORE INFO
[1] Campbell, Reece, "Biology",
2009, 190-198
[1] Chemiosmosis as it operates in
photophosphorylation within a
chloroplast. Images from Purves et al.,
Life: The Science of Biology, 4th
Edition, by Sinauer Associates
(www.sinauer.com) and WH Freeman
(www.whfreeman.com) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/facu
lty/farabee/biobk/0817_1.gif
[2] Chemiosmosis as it operates in
photophosphorylation within a
chloroplast. Images from Purves et al.,
Life: The Science of Biology, 4th
Edition, by Sinauer Associates
(www.sinauer.com) and WH Freeman
(www.whfreeman.com) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/facu
lty/farabee/biobk/0817_2.gif
8
evolves. Cells emit free Oxygen.4
Bacteria use light particles to convert
carbon dioxide gas and water into
glucose, releasing oxygen gas in the
process.5 6
This is the main system responsible for
producing the Oxygen now in the air of
Earth.7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/fara
bee/BIOBK/BioBookPS.html http://www.ebi
.ac.uk/interpro/potm/2004_11/Page1.htm3
2. ^
http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/fara
bee/BIOBK/BioBookPS.html http://www.ebi
.ac.uk/interpro/potm/2004_11/Page1.htm3
3. ^ "photosynthesis". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 14 Jul.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/458172/photosynthesis>.
4. ^
http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/fara
bee/BIOBK/BioBookPS.html http://www.ebi
.ac.uk/interpro/potm/2004_11/Page1.htm3
5. ^ "photosynthesis". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 14 Jul.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/458172/photosynthesis>.
6. ^ Frank H. Shu, "The Physical
Universe: An Introduction to
Astronomy", 1982,
p537. http://books.google.com/books?id=
v_6PbAfapSAC&pg=PA537
7. ^ "photosynthesis". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 14 Jul.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/458172/photosynthesis>.
8. ^ Olson JM (May 2006).
"Photosynthesis in the Archean era".
Photosyn. Res. 88 (2): 109–17.
doi:10.1007/s11120-006-9040-5. PMID
16453059.
MORE INFO
[1] Campbell, Reece, "Biology",
2009, 190-198
[1] Chemiosmosis as it operates in
photophosphorylation within a
chloroplast. Images from Purves et al.,
Life: The Science of Biology, 4th
Edition, by Sinauer Associates
(www.sinauer.com) and WH Freeman
(www.whfreeman.com) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/facu
lty/farabee/biobk/0817_1.gif
[2] Chemiosmosis as it operates in
photophosphorylation within a
chloroplast. Images from Purves et al.,
Life: The Science of Biology, 4th
Edition, by Sinauer Associates
(www.sinauer.com) and WH Freeman
(www.whfreeman.com) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/facu
lty/farabee/biobk/0817_2.gif
4
Archean {oRKEiN2 } Eon.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Hadean Time." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 30
Dec. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hadean-time
2. ^ "Archean." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 30 Dec.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/archaean
3. ^
http://www.geosociety.org/science/timesc
ale/
4. ^ "Divisions of Geologic Time",
2010,
USGS http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2010/3059/
pdf/FS10-3059.pdf
[1] Geologic Time Scale 2009 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.geosociety.org/scienc
e/timescale/timescl.pdf
4 5 6
evolves in prokaryotes. Photosynthetic
bacteria grow in filaments. Cells stay
fastened together after cell division.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Bonner J. T. 1998 The origins of
multicellularity. Integr. Biol. 1,
27–36.
(doi:10.1002/(SICI)1520-6602(1998)1:1<27::AID-INBI4>3.0
.CO;2-6)
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.
1002/(SICI)1520-6602(1998)1:1%3C27::AID-
INBI4%3E3.0.CO;2-6/abstract;jsessionid=D
EEFA3C8E4647CC2CECE51E3692EAF4B.d01t03
2. ^ Bonner J. T. 1998 The origins of
multicellularity. Integr. Biol. 1,
27–36.
(doi:10.1002/(SICI)1520-6602(1998)1:1<27::AID-INBI4>3.0
.CO;2-6)
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.
1002/(SICI)1520-6602(1998)1:1%3C27::AID-
INBI4%3E3.0.CO;2-6/abstract;jsessionid=D
EEFA3C8E4647CC2CECE51E3692EAF4B.d01t03
3. ^ Bonner J. T. 1998 The origins of
multicellularity. Integr. Biol. 1,
27–36.
(doi:10.1002/(SICI)1520-6602(1998)1:1<27::AID-INBI4>3.0
.CO;2-6)
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.
1002/(SICI)1520-6602(1998)1:1%3C27::AID-
INBI4%3E3.0.CO;2-6/abstract;jsessionid=D
EEFA3C8E4647CC2CECE51E3692EAF4B.d01t03
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Bonner J. T. 1998 The
origins of multicellularity. Integr.
Biol. 1, 27–36.
(doi:10.1002/(SICI)1520-6602(1998)1:1<27::AID-INBI4>3.0
.CO;2-6)
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.
1002/(SICI)1520-6602(1998)1:1%3C27::AID-
INBI4%3E3.0.CO;2-6/abstract;jsessionid=D
EEFA3C8E4647CC2CECE51E3692EAF4B.d01t03
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
MORE INFO
[1] Grosberg R. K., Strathmann R.
R. 2007 The evolution of
multicellularity: a minor major
transition? Ann. Rev. Ecol. Evol. Syst.
38, 621–654.
(doi:10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.36.102403.1
14735)
http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/1
0.1146/annurev.ecolsys.36.102403.114735
[2] Rokas A. 2008 The origins of
multicellularity and the early history
of the genetic toolkit for animal
development. Ann. Rev. Genet. 42,
235–251.
(doi:10.1146/annurev.genet.42.110807.091
513) http://apps.webofknowledge.com/Inb
oundService.do?UT=000261767000011&IsProd
uctCode=Yes&mode=FullRecord&product=WOS&
SID=1EHDdbNiNf4NO8nC299&smartRedirect=ye
s&SrcApp=CR&DestFail=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.we
bofknowledge.com%3FDestApp%3DCEL%26DestP
arams%3D%253Faction%253Dretrieve%2526mod
e%253DFullRecord%2526product%253DCEL%252
6UT%253D000261767000011%2526customersID%
253DHighwire%26e%3DQZIAIzGgKoYbxc_i_WNam
laqQ0.s968BNEwQvqhM9p.770dFYju0AbJCFAAcj
orA%26SrcApp%3DHighwire%26SrcAuth%3DHigh
wire&action=retrieve&Init=Yes&SrcAuth=Hi
ghwire&customersID=Highwire&Func=Frame
[1] Microgram of filamentous bacteria
from flexible setae. (Courtesy
Zoosystema © 2005) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://bioweb.uwlax.edu/bio203/s
2009/decker_rour/images/yeti-crab-filame
ntous-bacteria.JPG
[2] Filamentous Bacteria Microthrix
Parvicella UNKNOWN
source: http://ebsbiowizard.com/wp-conte
nt/gallery/filamentous-bacteria-microthr
ix-parvicella/filamentous-bacteria-micro
thrix-parvicella.jpg
3 4 5
filamentous prokaryotes, creating
organisms with different kinds of
cells.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Tomitani, Akiko et al. “The
Evolutionary Diversification of
Cyanobacteria: Molecular–phylogenetic
and Paleontological Perspectives.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences 103.14 (2006): 5442
–5447. http://www.pnas.org/content/10
3/14/5442.full
2. ^ Tomitani, Akiko et al. “The
Evolutionary Diversification of
Cyanobacteria: Molecular–phylogenetic
and Paleontological Perspectives.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences 103.14 (2006): 5442
–5447. http://www.pnas.org/content/10
3/14/5442.full
3. ^ Tomitani, Akiko et al. “The
Evolutionary Diversification of
Cyanobacteria: Molecular–phylogenetic
and Paleontological Perspectives.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences 103.14 (2006): 5442
–5447. http://www.pnas.org/content/10
3/14/5442.full
4. ^ N. G. Carr, B. A. Whitton, "The
biology of blue-green algae", p238.
http://books.google.com/books?id=fSRPg-D
0Jk0C&pg=PA238&lpg=PA238
5. ^ GOLUBIC, STJEPKO, VLADIMIR N.
SERGEEV, and ANDREW H. KNOLL.
“Mesoproterozoic Archaeoellipsoidès:
Akinetes of Heterocystous
Cyanobacteria.” Lethaia 28.4 (1995):
285–298. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.c
om/doi/10.1111/j.1502-3931.1995.tb01817.
x/abstract
MORE INFO
[1] Bonner J. T. 1998 The origins
of multicellularity. Integr. Biol. 1,
27–36.
(doi:10.1002/(SICI)1520-6602(1998)1:1<27::AID-INBI4>3.0
.CO;2-6)
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.
1002/(SICI)1520-6602(1998)1:1%3C27::AID-
INBI4%3E3.0.CO;2-6/abstract;jsessionid=D
EEFA3C8E4647CC2CECE51E3692EAF4B.d01t03
[1] Adapted from: Anabaena smitthi
COPYRIGHTED FRANCE
source: http://www.ac-rennes.fr/pedagogi
e/svt/photo/microalg/anabaena.jpg
[2] Anabaena COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://home.manhattan.edu/~franc
es.cardillo/plants/monera/anabaena.gif
6 7 8
nitrogen compounds like ammonia from
Nitrogen gas in the air.3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Nitrogen fixation". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrogen_fi
xation
2. ^ Tomitani, Akiko et al. “The
Evolutionary Diversification of
Cyanobacteria: Molecular–phylogenetic
and Paleontological Perspectives.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences 103.14 (2006): 5442
–5447. http://www.pnas.org/content/10
3/14/5442.full
3. ^ "Nitrogen fixation". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrogen_fi
xation
4. ^ Tomitani, Akiko et al. “The
Evolutionary Diversification of
Cyanobacteria: Molecular–phylogenetic
and Paleontological Perspectives.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences 103.14 (2006): 5442
–5447. http://www.pnas.org/content/10
3/14/5442.full
5. ^ Tomitani, Akiko et al. “The
Evolutionary Diversification of
Cyanobacteria: Molecular–phylogenetic
and Paleontological Perspectives.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences 103.14 (2006): 5442
–5447. http://www.pnas.org/content/10
3/14/5442.full
6. ^ Tomitani, Akiko et al. “The
Evolutionary Diversification of
Cyanobacteria: Molecular–phylogenetic
and Paleontological Perspectives.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences 103.14 (2006): 5442
–5447. http://www.pnas.org/content/10
3/14/5442.full
7. ^ N. G. Carr, B. A. Whitton, "The
biology of blue-green algae", p238.
http://books.google.com/books?id=fSRPg-D
0Jk0C&pg=PA238&lpg=PA238
8. ^ GOLUBIC, STJEPKO, VLADIMIR N.
SERGEEV, and ANDREW H. KNOLL.
“Mesoproterozoic Archaeoellipsoidès:
Akinetes of Heterocystous
Cyanobacteria.” Lethaia 28.4 (1995):
285–298. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.c
om/doi/10.1111/j.1502-3931.1995.tb01817.
x/abstract
[1] Fig. 2. Modern cyanobacterial
akinetes and Archaeoellipsoides
fossils. (A) Three-month-old culture of
living A. cylindrica grown in a medium
without combined nitrogen. A, akinete;
H, heterocyst; V, vegetative cells.
(B–D) Shown are Archaeoellipsoides
fossils from 1,500-Ma Billyakh Group,
northern Siberia (B); 1,650-Ma McArthur
Group, northern Australia (C); and
2,100-Ma Franceville Group, Gabon (D).
(Scale bars, 10 μm.) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.pnas.org/content/103/
14/5442/F2.large.jpg
[2] Fig. 2. Modern cyanobacterial
akinetes and Archaeoellipsoides
fossils. (A) Three-month-old culture of
living A. cylindrica grown in a medium
without combined nitrogen. A, akinete;
H, heterocyst; V, vegetative cells.
(B–D) Shown are Archaeoellipsoides
fossils from 1,500-Ma Billyakh Group,
northern Siberia (B); 1,650-Ma McArthur
Group, northern Australia (C); and
2,100-Ma Franceville Group, Gabon (D).
(Scale bars, 10 μm.) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.pnas.org/content/103/
14/5442/F2.large.jpg
aerobic (or "oxygenic") cell. These
cells use oxygen to convert glucose
into carbon dioxide, water, and ATP.3
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^ Campbell, Reece, et al,
"Biology", 8th edition, 2008, p162-184.
2. ^
Campbell, Reece, et al, "Biology", 8th
edition, 2008, p162-184.
3. ^ Campbell, Reece, et
al, "Biology", 8th edition, 2008,
p162-184.
[1] purple aerobic bacteria UNKNOWN
source: http://endosymbiotichypothesis.f
iles.wordpress.com/2010/09/rain-bacteria
.jpg
[2] Organisms of Rickettsia conorii
(r), a close relative of R. rickettsii,
in a cultured human endothelial cell
are located free in the cytosol. One
rickettsia is dividing by binary
fission (arrowhead). (B) These
rickettsiae can move inside the
cytoplasm of the host cell because of
the propulsive force created by the
''tail'' of host cell actin filaments
(arrow). Bars = 0.5 µm. Photo and
text courtesy of David H. Walker -
http://gsbs.utmb.edu/microbook/ch038.htm
UNKNOWN AND Rickettsia prowazekii
(image with Rickettsia outside of
cell) COPYRIGHTED [1] Rickettsia
prowazekii COPYRIGHTED FAIR USE
source: http://www.bio.davidson.edu/peop
le/sosarafova/Assets/Bio307/liwoeste/Pic
tures/Walker%203%5B1%5D.jpghttp://web.ms
t.edu/~microbio/bio221_2001/Image9.jpg
12
ratio of carbon-13 to carbon-12 in
grains of ancient minerals.5 6 7
Life uses the lighter Carbon-12
isotope.8 9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Mojzsis, S. J. et al. "Evidence
for Life on Earth Before 3,800 Million
Years Ago." Nature 384.6604 (1996):
55–59. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v384/n6604/abs/384055a0.html AND
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
384/n6604/pdf/384055a0.pdf
2. ^
http://jersey.uoregon.edu/~mstrick/Rogue
ComCollege/RCC_Lectures/Banded_Iron.html
3. ^ Mojzsis, S. J. et al. "Evidence
for Life on Earth Before 3,800 Million
Years Ago." Nature 384.6604 (1996):
55–59. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v384/n6604/abs/384055a0.html
4. ^
http://jersey.uoregon.edu/~mstrick/Rogue
ComCollege/RCC_Lectures/Banded_Iron.html
5. ^ Mojzsis, S. J. et al. "Evidence
for Life on Earth Before 3,800 Million
Years Ago." Nature 384.6604 (1996):
55–59. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v384/n6604/abs/384055a0.html
6. ^
http://jersey.uoregon.edu/~mstrick/Rogue
ComCollege/RCC_Lectures/Banded_Iron.html
7. ^ "apatite." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 04 Mar.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/apatite
8. ^ Mojzsis, S. J. et al. "Evidence
for Life on Earth Before 3,800 Million
Years Ago." Nature 384.6604 (1996):
55–59. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v384/n6604/abs/384055a0.html
9. ^
http://jersey.uoregon.edu/~mstrick/Rogue
ComCollege/RCC_Lectures/Banded_Iron.html
10. ^ Mojzsis, S. J. et al. "Evidence
for Life on Earth Before 3,800 Million
Years Ago." Nature 384.6604 (1996):
55–59. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v384/n6604/abs/384055a0.html
11. ^
http://jersey.uoregon.edu/~mstrick/Rogue
ComCollege/RCC_Lectures/Banded_Iron.html
12. ^ Mojzsis, S. J. et al. "Evidence
for Life on Earth Before 3,800 Million
Years Ago." Nature 384.6604 (1996):
55–59. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v384/n6604/abs/384055a0.html AND
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
384/n6604/pdf/384055a0.pdf
MORE INFO
[1] "Banded iron formation."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 11
Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/banded-iron
-formation
[2] Mojzsis, S. J. et al. "Evidence for
Life on Earth Before 3,800 Million
Years Ago." Nature 384.6604 (1996):
55–59. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v384/n6604/abs/384055a0.html
AND http://www.nature.com/nature/journa
l/v384/n6604/pdf/384055a0.pdf
[1] Figure 1 from: Mojzsis, S. J. et
al. ''Evidence for Life on Earth Before
3,800 Million Years Ago.'' Nature
384.6604 (1996):
55–59. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v384/n6604/abs/384055a0.html COP
YRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v384/n6604/pdf/384055a0.pdf
[2] Figure 1 from: Mojzsis, S. J. et
al. ''Evidence for Life on Earth Before
3,800 Million Years Ago.'' Nature
384.6604 (1996):
55–59. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v384/n6604/abs/384055a0.html COP
YRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v384/n6604/pdf/384055a0.pdf
13
Formation begins.7
Banded Iron
Formation is sedimentary rock that
spans from 3.8 to 1.8 billion years
ago, made of iron-rich silicates with
alternating layers of black colored
reduced iron and red colored oxidized
iron8 9 and represents a seasonal rise
and fall of free oxygen in the ocean,
possibly linked to photosynthetic
organisms.10 11
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Mojzsis, et al. nature nov 7,
1996
http://www.nature.com/cgi-taf/DynaPage.t
af?file=/nature/journal/v384/n6604/index
.html, 2:102,
2. ^ Mojzsis, et al. nature nov
7, 1996
http://www.nature.com/cgi-taf/DynaPage.t
af?file=/nature/journal/v384/n6604/index
.html, 2:102,
3. ^ Cesare Emiliani, Plant
Earth 1992:407f, and Tjeerd van Andel,
New Views on an Old Planet 2nd ed.
1994:303-05. http://books.google.com/bo
oks?id=R6b3skeNXrgC
4. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
5. ^ Konhauser,
Kurt O. et al. “Could Bacteria Have
Formed the Precambrian Banded Iron
Formations?” Geology 30.12 (2002):
1079 -1082.
Print. http://geology.geoscienceworld.o
rg/content/30/12/1079.abstract
6. ^ Kappler, Andreas et al.
“Deposition of Banded Iron Formations
by Anoxygenic Phototrophic
Fe(II)-oxidizing Bacteria.” Geology
33.11 (2005): 865 -868.
Print. http://geology.geoscienceworld.o
rg/content/33/11/865.abstract
7. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
8. ^ Cesare
Emiliani, Plant Earth 1992:407f, and
Tjeerd van Andel, New Views on an Old
Planet 2nd ed.
1994:303-05. http://books.google.com/bo
oks?id=R6b3skeNXrgC
9. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
10. ^
Konhauser, Kurt O. et al. “Could
Bacteria Have Formed the Precambrian
Banded Iron Formations?” Geology
30.12 (2002): 1079 -1082.
Print. http://geology.geoscienceworld.o
rg/content/30/12/1079.abstract
11. ^ Kappler, Andreas et al.
“Deposition of Banded Iron Formations
by Anoxygenic Phototrophic
Fe(II)-oxidizing Bacteria.” Geology
33.11 (2005): 865 -868.
Print. http://geology.geoscienceworld.o
rg/content/33/11/865.abstract
12. ^ Mojzsis, et al. nature nov 7,
1996
http://www.nature.com/cgi-taf/DynaPage.t
af?file=/nature/journal/v384/n6604/index
.html, 2:102,
13. ^ Mojzsis, et al. nature nov
7, 1996
http://www.nature.com/cgi-taf/DynaPage.t
af?file=/nature/journal/v384/n6604/index
.html, 2:102, {3850 MYBN}
MORE INFO
[1] Roger Lewin, "Thread of
Life", (New York: Smithsonian Books,
1982). p102
[2]
http://jersey.uoregon.edu/~mstrick/Rogue
ComCollege/RCC_Lectures/Banded_Iron.html
[3] "Banded iron formation". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Banded_iron
_formation
[1] image of BIF from Akilia from
Nature COPYRIGHTED
source: nature 11/7/96
[2] portion taken
from: Description English: This
image shows a 2.1 billion years old
rock containing black-banded ironstone,
which has a weight of about 8.5 tons.
The approximately two meter high, three
meter wide, and one meter thick block
of stone was found in North America and
belongs to the National Museum of
Mineralogy and Geology in Dresden,
Germany. The rock is located at
+51°2'34.84''
+13°45'26.67''. Deutsch: Dieses Bild
zeigt einen etwa 8,5 Tonnen schweren
und 2,1 Milliarden Jahre alten Block
mit Bändereisenerzen. Der etwa zwei
Meter hohe, drei Meter breite und einen
Meter tiefe Gesteinsblock wurde in
Nordamerika gefunden und gehört dem
Staatlichen Museum für Mineralogie und
Geologie Dresden. Der Block befindet
sich bei den Koordinaten +51°2'34.84''
+13°45'26.67''. Camera
data Camera Nikon D70 Lens Tamron
SP AF 90mm/2.8 Di Macro 1:1 Focal
length 90 mm Aperture f/2.8 Exposure
time 1/250 s Sensivity ISO 200 Please
help translating the description into
more languages. Thanks a lot! If
you want a license with the conditions
of your choice, please email me to
negotiate terms. best new
image Date 26 August
2005 Source Own
work Author André Karwath aka
Aka CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Black-band_iron
stone_%28aka%29.jpg/1280px-Black-band_ir
onstone_%28aka%29.jpg
9 10
stromatolites.5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Byerly, Gary R., Donald R. Lower,
and Maud M. Walsh. "Stromatolites from
the 3,300-3,500-Myr Swaziland
Supergroup, Barberton Mountain Land,
South Africa." Nature 319.6053 (1986):
489–491. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v319/n6053/abs/319489a0.html
2. ^ Walter, M. R., R. Buick, and J. S.
R. Dunlop. "Stromatolites 3,400-3,500
Myr Old from the North Pole Area,
Western Australia." Nature 284.5755
(1980):
443–445. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v284/n5755/abs/284441a0.html
3. ^ Byerly, Gary R., Donald R. Lower,
and Maud M. Walsh. "Stromatolites from
the 3,300-3,500-Myr Swaziland
Supergroup, Barberton Mountain Land,
South Africa." Nature 319.6053 (1986):
489–491. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v319/n6053/abs/319489a0.html
4. ^ Walter, M. R., R. Buick, and J. S.
R. Dunlop. "Stromatolites 3,400-3,500
Myr Old from the North Pole Area,
Western Australia." Nature 284.5755
(1980):
443–445. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v284/n5755/abs/284441a0.html
5. ^ Byerly, Gary R., Donald R. Lower,
and Maud M. Walsh. "Stromatolites from
the 3,300-3,500-Myr Swaziland
Supergroup, Barberton Mountain Land,
South Africa." Nature 319.6053 (1986):
489–491. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v319/n6053/abs/319489a0.html
6. ^ Walter, M. R., R. Buick, and J. S.
R. Dunlop. "Stromatolites 3,400-3,500
Myr Old from the North Pole Area,
Western Australia." Nature 284.5755
(1980):
443–445. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v284/n5755/abs/284441a0.html
7. ^ Byerly, Gary R., Donald R. Lower,
and Maud M. Walsh. "Stromatolites from
the 3,300-3,500-Myr Swaziland
Supergroup, Barberton Mountain Land,
South Africa." Nature 319.6053 (1986):
489–491. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v319/n6053/abs/319489a0.html
8. ^ Walter, M. R., R. Buick, and J. S.
R. Dunlop. "Stromatolites 3,400-3,500
Myr Old from the North Pole Area,
Western Australia." Nature 284.5755
(1980):
443–445. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v284/n5755/abs/284441a0.html
9. ^ Walter, M. R., R. Buick, and J. S.
R. Dunlop. "Stromatolites 3,400-3,500
Myr Old from the North Pole Area,
Western Australia." Nature 284.5755
(1980):
443–445. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v284/n5755/abs/284441a0.html
10. ^ Byerly, Gary R., Donald R. Lower,
and Maud M. Walsh. "Stromatolites from
the 3,300-3,500-Myr Swaziland
Supergroup, Barberton Mountain Land,
South Africa." Nature 319.6053 (1986):
489–491. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v319/n6053/abs/319489a0.html
Tree Group, South Africa7 8
[1] image on left is from swaziland
source: nature feb 6
[2]
source: 1986
14 15 16 17
similar to cyanobacteria
{SIe-NO-BaK-TERE-u7 }.8 9
2.8 billion years will pass before the
first animal evolves.10 11
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Schopf, J. W. Microfossils of the
Early Archean Apex chert: new evidence
of the antiquity of life. Science 260,
640−646
(1993). http://www.sciencemag.org/conte
nt/260/5108/640
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/2881249
2. ^ Schopf, J. William et al.
"Laser-Raman Imagery of Earth’s
Earliest Fossils." Nature 416.6876
(2002):
73–76. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v416/n6876/abs/416073a.html
3. ^ Schopf, J. W. Microfossils of the
Early Archean Apex chert: new evidence
of the antiquity of life. Science 260,
640−646
(1993). http://www.sciencemag.org/conte
nt/260/5108/640
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/2881249
4. ^ Schopf, J. William et al.
"Laser-Raman Imagery of Earth’s
Earliest Fossils." Nature 416.6876
(2002):
73–76. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v416/n6876/abs/416073a.html
5. ^ Peterson, Kevin J., and Nicholas
J. Butterfield. “Origin of the
Eumetazoa: Testing Ecological
Predictions of Molecular Clocks Against
the Proterozoic Fossil Record.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences of the United States of
America 102.27 (2005):
9547–9552. http://www.pnas.org/conten
t/102/27/9547.full.pdf+html
6. ^ Record ID81. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
7. ^
"cyanobacterium." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 28
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cyanobacter
ia
8. ^ Schopf, J. W. Microfossils of the
Early Archean Apex chert: new evidence
of the antiquity of life. Science 260,
640−646
(1993). http://www.sciencemag.org/conte
nt/260/5108/640
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/2881249
9. ^ Schopf, J. William et al.
"Laser-Raman Imagery of Earth’s
Earliest Fossils." Nature 416.6876
(2002):
73–76. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v416/n6876/abs/416073a.html
10. ^ Peterson, Kevin J., and Nicholas
J. Butterfield. “Origin of the
Eumetazoa: Testing Ecological
Predictions of Molecular Clocks Against
the Proterozoic Fossil Record.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences of the United States of
America 102.27 (2005):
9547–9552. http://www.pnas.org/conten
t/102/27/9547.full.pdf+html
11. ^ Record ID81. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Schopf, J.
William et al. "Laser-Raman Imagery of
Earth’s Earliest Fossils." Nature
416.6876 (2002):
73–76. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v416/n6876/abs/416073a.html
13. ^ Walsh, Maud M., and Donald R.
Lowe. "Filamentous Microfossils from
the 3,500-Myr-old Onverwacht Group,
Barberton Mountain Land, South Africa."
Nature 314.6011 (1985):
530–532. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v314/n6011/abs/314530a0.html
14. ^ Walsh, Maud M., and Donald R.
Lowe. "Filamentous Microfossils from
the 3,500-Myr-old Onverwacht Group,
Barberton Mountain Land, South Africa."
Nature 314.6011 (1985):
530–532. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v314/n6011/abs/314530a0.html
15. ^ Schopf, J. W. Microfossils of the
Early Archean Apex chert: new evidence
of the antiquity of life. Science 260,
640−646
(1993). http://www.sciencemag.org/conte
nt/260/5108/640
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/2881249
16. ^ Schopf, J. W. Microfossils of the
Early Archean Apex chert: new evidence
of the antiquity of life. Science 260,
640−646
(1993). http://www.sciencemag.org/conte
nt/260/5108/640
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/2881249
17. ^ Schopf, J. William et al.
"Laser-Raman Imagery of Earth’s
Earliest Fossils." Nature 416.6876
(2002):
73–76. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v416/n6876/abs/416073a.html
MORE INFO
[1] BIO415 (Author? University?)
Multicelluarity.pdf (t3:
multicellularity of cyanobacteria)
[2] t3:
http://www.mansfield.ohio-state.edu/~sab
edon/biol3018.htm multicellularity.
"Some cyanobacteria species exist in a
truly, though primitive, multicellular
form in which cellular differentiation
occurs."
Australia12 and Onverwacht Group,
Barberton Mountain Land, South Africa13
[1] Figure 1 Optical photomicrographs
showing carbonaceous (kerogenous)
filamentous microbial fossils in
petrographic thin sections of
Precambrian cherts. Scale in a
represents images in a and c-i; scale
in b represents image in b. All parts
show photomontages, which is
necessitated by the three-dimensional
preservation of the cylindrical sinuous
permineralized microbes. Squares in
each part indicate the areas for which
chemical data are presented in Figs 2
and 3. a, An unnamed cylindrical
prokaryotic filament, probably the
degraded cellular trichome or tubular
sheath of an oscillatoriacean
cyanobacterium, from the 770-Myr
Skillogalee Dolomite of South
Australia12. b, Gunflintia grandis, a
cellular probably oscillatoriacean
trichome, from the 2,100-Myr Gunflint
Formation of Ontario, Canada13. c, d,
Unnamed highly carbonized filamentous
prokaryotes from the 3,375-Myr Kromberg
Formation of South Africa14: the poorly
preserved cylindrical trichome of a
noncyanobacterial or oscillatoriacean
prokaryote (c); the disrupted,
originally cellular trichomic remnants
possibly of an Oscillatoria- or
Lyngbya-like cyanobacterium (d). e-i,
Cellular microbial filaments from the
3,465-Myr Apex chert of northwestern
Western Australia: Primaevifilum
amoenum4,5, from the collections of The
Natural History Museum (TNHM), London,
specimen V.63164[6] (e); P. amoenum4
(f); the holotype of P.
delicatulum4,5,15, TNHM V.63165[2] (g);
P. conicoterminatum5, TNHM V63164[9]
(h); the holotype of Eoleptonema apex5,
TNHM V.63729[1] (i).
source: Nature416
[2] Fig. 3 Filamentous microfossils:
a, cylindrical microfossil from
Hooggenoeg sample; b, threadlike and
tubular filaments extending between
laminae, Kromberg sample; c,d,e,
tubular filamnets oriented subparallel
to bedding, Kromberg sample; f,
threadlike filament flattened parallel
to bedding, Kromberg sample.
source: 73 - 76 (07 Mar 2002) Letters
to Nature
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v41
6/n6876/fig_tab/416073a_F1.html
4
{KoKOED1 } (spherical) bacteria.2
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^ "coccoid." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 04
Mar. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/coccoid
2. ^ Hans D. Pflug, Earliest organic
evolution. Essay to the memory of
Bartholomew Nagy, Precambrian Research,
Volume 106, Issues 1–2, 1 February
2001, Pages 79-91, ISSN 0301-9268,
10.1016/S0301-9268(00)00126-1. (http://
www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pi
i/S0301926800001261)
3. ^ Hans D. Pflug, Earliest organic
evolution. Essay to the memory of
Bartholomew Nagy, Precambrian Research,
Volume 106, Issues 1–2, 1 February
2001, Pages 79-91, ISSN 0301-9268,
10.1016/S0301-9268(00)00126-1. (http://
www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pi
i/S0301926800001261)
4. ^ Hans D. Pflug, Earliest organic
evolution. Essay to the memory of
Bartholomew Nagy, Precambrian Research,
Volume 106, Issues 1–2, 1 February
2001, Pages 79-91, ISSN 0301-9268,
10.1016/S0301-9268(00)00126-1. (http://
www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pi
i/S0301926800001261)
MORE INFO
[1] maybe evidence: Nagy, B. and
Nagy, L.A., 1969. Early Precambrian
microstructures: possibly the oldest
fossils on Earth?. Nature 223, pp.
1226-1229.?
South Africa3
[1] Fig. 3. from: Hans D. Pflug,
Earliest organic evolution. Essay to
the memory of Bartholomew Nagy,
Precambrian Research, Volume 106,
Issues 1–2, 1 February 2001, Pages
79-91, ISSN 0301-9268,
10.1016/S0301-9268(00)00126-1. (http://
www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pi
i/S0301926800001261 (a,b) Organic
microstructures from Kromberg
Formation, Swaziland System, South
Africa (ca 3.4 Ga). TEM-micrographs of
demineralized specimens. (c) Portion of
organic microstructure from Bulawaya
stromatolite (see Fig. 2). (d) Portion
of the mucilagenous sheath of recent
Anabaena sp., cyanobacteria (Fig. d
after Leak, 1967). For magnification of
Fig. c see scale of Fig.
a. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence/article/pii/S0301926800001261
[2] Fig. 3. from: Hans D. Pflug,
Earliest organic evolution. Essay to
the memory of Bartholomew Nagy,
Precambrian Research, Volume 106,
Issues 1–2, 1 February 2001, Pages
79-91, ISSN 0301-9268,
10.1016/S0301-9268(00)00126-1. (http://
www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pi
i/S0301926800001261 (a,b) Organic
microstructures from Kromberg
Formation, Swaziland System, South
Africa (ca 3.4 Ga). TEM-micrographs of
demineralized specimens. (c) Portion of
organic microstructure from Bulawaya
stromatolite (see Fig. 2). (d) Portion
of the mucilagenous sheath of recent
Anabaena sp., cyanobacteria (Fig. d
after Leak, 1967). For magnification of
Fig. c see scale of Fig.
a. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=MiamiCaptionURL&_method=retriev
e&_udi=B6VBP-42G6M5T-7&_image=fig9&_ba=9
&_user=4422&_coverDate=02%2F01%2F2001&_f
mt=full&_orig=browse&_cdi=5932&view=c&_a
cct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&
_userid=4422&md5=27a45a0804747bb4b74eaac
305df2905
4
budding.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Hans D. Pflug, Earliest organic
evolution. Essay to the memory of
Bartholomew Nagy, Precambrian Research,
Volume 106, Issues 1–2, 1 February
2001, Pages 79-91, ISSN 0301-9268,
10.1016/S0301-9268(00)00126-1. (http://
www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pi
i/S0301926800001261)
2. ^ Hans D. Pflug, Earliest organic
evolution. Essay to the memory of
Bartholomew Nagy, Precambrian Research,
Volume 106, Issues 1–2, 1 February
2001, Pages 79-91, ISSN 0301-9268,
10.1016/S0301-9268(00)00126-1. (http://
www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pi
i/S0301926800001261)
3. ^ Hans D. Pflug, Earliest organic
evolution. Essay to the memory of
Bartholomew Nagy, Precambrian Research,
Volume 106, Issues 1–2, 1 February
2001, Pages 79-91, ISSN 0301-9268,
10.1016/S0301-9268(00)00126-1. (http://
www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pi
i/S0301926800001261)
4. ^ Hans D. Pflug, Earliest organic
evolution. Essay to the memory of
Bartholomew Nagy, Precambrian Research,
Volume 106, Issues 1–2, 1 February
2001, Pages 79-91, ISSN 0301-9268,
10.1016/S0301-9268(00)00126-1. (http://
www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pi
i/S0301926800001261)
[1] Evolutionary relationships of model
organisms and bacteria that show
unusual reproductive strategies. This
phylogenetic tree (a) illustrates the
diversity of organisms that use the
alternative reproductive strategies
shown in (b). Bold type indicates
complete or ongoing genome projects.
Intracellular offspring are produced by
several low-GC Gram-positive bacteria
such as Metabacterium polyspora,
Epulopiscium spp. and the segmented
filamentous bacteria (SFB). Budding and
multiple fission are found in the
proteobacterial genera Hyphomonas and
Bdellovibrio, respectively. In the case
of the Cyanobacteria, Stanieria
produces baeocytes and Chamaesiphon
produces offspring by budding.
Actinoplanes produce dispersible
offspring by multiple fission of
filaments within the sporangium.
source: http://www.nature.com/nrmicro/jo
urnal/v3/n3/full/nrmicro1096_fs.html
(Nature Reviews Microbiology 3
[2] Electron micrograph of a Pirellula
bacterium from giant tiger prawn tissue
(Penaeus monodon). Notice the large
crateriform structures (C) on the cell
surface and flagella. From Fuerst et
al.
source: 214-224 (2005);
doi:10.1038/nrmicro1096)
10 11 12 13 14
(unicellular microfossils with
uncertain affinity5 6 ). These
acritarchs are also the earliest
possible eukaryote fossils.7 8
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^ "Acritarch." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 24 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/acritarch
2. ^ Delwiche, Charles F., "The Origin
and Evolution of Dinoflagellates", in:
Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors.
"Evolution of primary producers in the
sea.", Elsevier; 2007, p194.
3. ^
http://www.ucl.ac.uk/GeolSci/micropal/ac
ritarch.html
4. ^ Knoll AH (1992) The early
evolution of eukaryotes: a
geological perspective. Science 256:
622-627
5. ^ "Acritarch." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 24 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/acritarch
6. ^ Delwiche, Charles F., "The Origin
and Evolution of Dinoflagellates", in:
Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors.
"Evolution of primary producers in the
sea.", Elsevier; 2007, p194.
7. ^
http://www.ucl.ac.uk/GeolSci/micropal/ac
ritarch.html
8. ^ Knoll AH (1992) The early
evolution of eukaryotes: a
geological perspective. Science 256:
622-627
9. ^ Javaux, Emmanuelle J., Craig P.
Marshall, and Andrey Bekker.
“Organic-walled microfossils in
3.2-billion-year-old shallow-marine
siliciclastic deposits.” Nature
463.7283 (2010):
934-938. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v463/n7283/full/nature08793.html
10. ^ Javaux, Emmanuelle J., Craig P.
Marshall, and Andrey Bekker.
“Organic-walled microfossils in
3.2-billion-year-old shallow-marine
siliciclastic deposits.” Nature
463.7283 (2010):
934-938. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v463/n7283/full/nature08793.html
{3.2 bybn}
11. ^ A. H. Knoll, E. J. Javaux,
D. Hewitt and P. Cohen, "Eukaryotic
Organisms in Proterozoic Oceans",
Philosophical Transactions: Biological
Sciences , Vol. 361, No. 1470, Major
Steps in Cell Evolution:
Palaeontological, Molecular and
Cellular Evidence of Their Timing and
Global Effects (Jun. 29, 2006), pp.
1023-1038 http://www.jstor.org/stable/2
0209698 {1.8 bybn}
12. ^
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/protista/di
noflagfr.html {1.8 bybn}
13. ^
http://www.ucl.ac.uk/GeolSci/micropal/ac
ritarch.html {1900-1600 mybn}
14. ^ Harold
Levin, "The Earth Through Time", 8th
ed., 2006, p257. {1.6 bybn}
MORE INFO
[1] Javaux, Emmanuelle J., Knoll,
Andrew H., Walter, Malcolm,
"Recognizing and Interpreting the
Fossils of Early Eukaryotes", Origins
of Life and Evolution of Biospheres,
2003-02-01, Springer Netherlands,
Vol33, Iss1,
p75-94. http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:102
3992712071
[2] Jochen J. Brocks, Graham A. Logan,
Roger Buick, Roger E. Summons, "Archean
Molecular Fossils and the Early Rise of
Eukaryotes", Science, Vol 285, Issue
5430, 13 August 1999, p1033-1036.
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/285/
5430/1033.short
and http://www.jstor.org/stable/2898534
[3] Cédric Berney and Jan Pawlowski,
"A Molecular Time-Scale for Eukaryote
Evolution Recalibrated with the
Continuous Microfossil Record",
Proceedings: Biological Sciences , Vol.
273, No. 1596 (Aug. 7, 2006), pp.
1867-1872 http://www.jstor.org/stable/2
5223537
[4] Javaux, Emmanuelle J., Andrew H.
Knoll, and Malcolm R. Walter.
“Morphological and ecological
complexity in early eukaryotic
ecosystems.” Nature 412.6842 (2001):
66-69. http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v412/n6842/abs/412066a0.html
[1] Figure from: Javaux, Emmanuelle
J., Craig P. Marshall, and Andrey
Bekker. “Organic-walled microfossils
in 3.2-billion-year-old shallow-marine
siliciclastic deposits.” Nature
463.7283 (2010):
934-938. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v463/n7283/full/nature08793.html
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v463/n7283/full/nature08793.html
[2] Figure from: Javaux, Emmanuelle
J., Andrew H. Knoll, and Malcolm R.
Walter. “Morphological and ecological
complexity in early eukaryotic
ecosystems.” Nature 412.6842 (2001):
66-69. http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v412/n6842/abs/412066a0.html Figur
e 1 Protistan microfossils from the
Roper Group. a, c, Tappania plana,
showing asymmetrically distributed
processes and bulbous protrusions
(arrow in a). b, detail of a, showing
dichotomously branching process. d,
Valeria lophostriata. e, Dictyosphaera
sp. f, Satka favosa. The scale bar in a
is 35 µm for a and c; 10 µm for b;
100 µm for d; 15 µm for e; and 40 µm
for f.
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v412/n6842/abs/412066a0.html
10
(FiRmiKYUTEZ6 ) evolve (Gram positive
bacteria: the cause of botulism,
tetanus, anthrax).7 8 9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=fi
rmicutes&submit=Submit
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^ Nature v417 n6886 (not
TOL)
4. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
5. ^ C.Michael Hogan. 2010.
Bacteria. Encyclopedia of Earth. eds.
Sidney Draggan and C.J.Cleveland,
National Council for Science and the
Environment, Washington
DC http://www.eoearth.org/article/Bacte
ria?topic=49480
6. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=fi
rmicutes&submit=Submit
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
8. ^ Nature v417 n6886 (not
TOL)
9. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
10. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao,
Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of
prokaryote evolution: insights into
the origin of methanogenesis,
phototrophy, and the colonization of
land", BMC Evolutionary Biology,
(2004).
MORE INFO
[1]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peptidoglyc
an
[2] firmicutes only bacteria to make
endospores
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endospore
[3]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Firmicutes
[4]
http://www.earthlife.net/prokaryotes/fir
micutes.html
[1] Listeria monocytogenes is a
Gram-positive bacterium, in the
division Firmicutes, named for Joseph
Lister. It is motile by means of
flagella. Some studies suggest that 1
to 10% of humans may carry L.
monocytogenes in their
intestines. Researchers have found L.
monocytogenes in at least 37 mammalian
species, both domesticated and feral,
as well as in at least 17 species of
birds and possibly in some species of
fish and shellfish. Laboratories can
isolate L. monocytogenes from soil,
silage, and other environmental
sources. L. monocytogenes is quite
hardy and resists the deleterious
effects of freezing, drying, and heat
remarkably well for a bacterium that
does not form spores. Most L.
monocytogenes are pathogenic to some
degree.
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Listeria.jpg
[2] These are bacteria (about 0.3 µm
in diameter) that do not have outer
walls, only cytoplasmic membranes.
However, they do have cytoskeletal
elements that give them a distinct
non-spherical shape. They look like
schmoos that are pulled along by their
heads. How they are able to glide is a
mystery.
source: http://webmac.rowland.org/labs/b
acteria/projects_glide.html
2
form endospores evolves in firmicutes.
An endospore is a tough reduced dry
form of a bacterium that can be revived
after long periods of time.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ C.Michael Hogan. 2010. Bacteria.
Encyclopedia of Earth. eds. Sidney
Draggan and C.J. Cleveland, National
Council for Science and the
Environment, Washington DC
http://www.eoearth.org/article/Bacteri
a?topic=49480
2. ^ Ted Huntington, a total guess my
friends
MORE INFO
[1] "Endospore". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endospore
[1] Spore forming inside a bacterium.
Stahly, MicrobeLibrary COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.microbe.org/microbes/
spores.asp
[2] Listeria monocytogenes is a
Gram-positive bacterium, in the
division Firmicutes, named for Joseph
Lister. It is motile by means of
flagella. Some studies suggest that 1
to 10% of humans may carry L.
monocytogenes in their
intestines. Researchers have found L.
monocytogenes in at least 37 mammalian
species, both domesticated and feral,
as well as in at least 17 species of
birds and possibly in some species of
fish and shellfish. Laboratories can
isolate L. monocytogenes from soil,
silage, and other environmental
sources. L. monocytogenes is quite
hardy and resists the deleterious
effects of freezing, drying, and heat
remarkably well for a bacterium that
does not form spores. Most L.
monocytogenes are pathogenic to some
degree.
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Listeria.jpg
9
(Rickettsia {ancestor of all
mitochondria}, gonorrhea, Salmonella, E
coli).5 6 7 8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Tree of life,
http://tolweb.org/tree/
4. ^ David moreira, Purificacion
Lopez-Garcia, "Symbiosis Between
methanogenic Archaea and
delta-Proteobacteria as the Origin of
Eukaryotes: The Synthreophic
Hypothesis", J Mol Evol (1998)
47:517-530. eukorig6_jmol.pdf
5. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao,
Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of
prokaryote evolution: insights into
the origin of methanogenesis,
phototrophy, and the colonization of
land", BMC Evolutionary Biology,
(2004).
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
7. ^ Tree of life,
http://tolweb.org/tree/
8. ^ David moreira, Purificacion
Lopez-Garcia, "Symbiosis Between
methanogenic Archaea and
delta-Proteobacteria as the Origin of
Eukaryotes: The Synthreophic
Hypothesis", J Mol Evol (1998)
47:517-530. eukorig6_jmol.pdf
9. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao,
Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of
prokaryote evolution: insights into
the origin of methanogenesis,
phototrophy, and the colonization of
land", BMC Evolutionary Biology,
(2004). {2800000000 YBN}
MORE INFO
[1] multicellularity.
http://www.mansfield.ohio-state.edu/~sab
edon/biol3018.htm multicellularity.
Multicellularity.pdf
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Escherichia
_coli
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proteobacte
ria
[2] JOSHUA LEDERBERG, E. L. TATUM,
"Gene Recombination in Escherichia
Coli", Nature 158, 558-558 (19 October
1946) doi:10.1038/158558a0 Letter
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
158/n4016/abs/158558a0.html
[3] "conjugation." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 01 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/132820/conjugation>
[4] conjugation in protists, flagella
in eukaryotes: Michael Sleigh,
"Protozoa and Other Protists", (London;
New York: Edward Arnold, 1989)
[5] prokaryote
pili and archaea flagella related:
http://www.queens-pfd.ca/people/index.cf
m?meds=profile&profile=12
[6] Stackebrandt et al. Proteobacteria
classis nov., a name for the
phylogenetic taxon that includes the
"purple bacteria and their relatives".
Int. J. Syst. Bacteriol., 1988, 38,
321–325. http://ijs.sgmjournals.org/c
ontent/38/3/321.full.pdf
[1] Figure 1. Transmission electron
micrograph of the ELB agent in XTC-2
cells. The rickettsia are free in the
cytoplasm and surrounded by an electron
transparent halo. Original
magnification X 30,000. CDC PD
source: www.cdc.gov/ncidod/
eid/vol7no1/raoultG1.htm
[2] Caulobacter crescentus. From
http://sunflower.bio.indiana.edu/~ybrun/
L305.html COPYRIGHTED EDU was in wiki
but appears to be removed
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/4/42/Caulobacter.jpg
21
evolve in Escherichia Coli {esRriKEo
KOlI13 } bacteria. Conjugation is the
exchange of DNA (plasmids) by a donor
{male} bacterium through a pilus to a
recipient {female} bacterium.14 15 16
17 18 19
Proteins that can cut or connect
strands of DNA evolve.20
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ JOSHUA LEDERBERG, E. L. TATUM,
"Gene Recombination in Escherichia
Coli", Nature 158, 558-558 (19 October
1946) doi:10.1038/158558a0 Letter
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
158/n4016/abs/158558a0.html {Lederberg_
Joshua_19460917.pdf}
2. ^ "conjugation." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 01 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/132820/conjugation>.
3. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
5. ^ Tree of life,
http://tolweb.org/tree/
6. ^ David moreira, Purificacion
Lopez-Garcia, "Symbiosis Between
methanogenic Archaea and
delta-Proteobacteria as the Origin of
Eukaryotes: The Synthreophic
Hypothesis", J Mol Evol (1998)
47:517-530. eukorig6_jmol.pdf
7. ^ JOSHUA LEDERBERG, E.
L. TATUM, "Gene Recombination in
Escherichia Coli", Nature 158, 558-558
(19 October 1946) doi:10.1038/158558a0
Letter
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
158/n4016/abs/158558a0.html {Lederberg_
Joshua_19460917.pdf}
8. ^ "conjugation." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 01 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/132820/conjugation>.
9. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
10. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
11. ^ Tree of life,
http://tolweb.org/tree/
12. ^ David moreira, Purificacion
Lopez-Garcia, "Symbiosis Between
methanogenic Archaea and
delta-Proteobacteria as the Origin of
Eukaryotes: The Synthreophic
Hypothesis", J Mol Evol (1998)
47:517-530. eukorig6_jmol.pdf
13. ^ "Escherichia coli."
Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random
House, Inc. 30 Dec. 2012.
scherichia coli>.
14. ^ JOSHUA LEDERBERG, E.
L. TATUM, "Gene Recombination in
Escherichia Coli", Nature 158, 558-558
(19 October 1946) doi:10.1038/158558a0
Letter
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
158/n4016/abs/158558a0.html {Lederberg_
Joshua_19460917.pdf}
15. ^ "conjugation." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 01 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/132820/conjugation>.
16. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
17. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
18. ^ Tree of life,
http://tolweb.org/tree/
19. ^ David moreira, Purificacion
Lopez-Garcia, "Symbiosis Between
methanogenic Archaea and
delta-Proteobacteria as the Origin of
Eukaryotes: The Synthreophic
Hypothesis", J Mol Evol (1998)
47:517-530. eukorig6_jmol.pdf
20. ^ prokaryote pili and
archaea flagella related:
http://www.queens-pfd.ca/people/index.cf
m?meds=profile&profile=12
21. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004). {2800000000 YBN}
[1] the fertility factor or F factor is
a very large (94,500 bp) circular dsDNA
plasmid; it is generally independent of
the host chromosome. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.mun.ca/biochem/course
s/3107/images/Fplasmidmap.gif
[2] conjugation (via pilus)
COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://www.bio.miami.edu/dana/16
0/conjugation.jpg
These cells depend on the DNA
duplicating and protein producing
systems of other cells to copy
themselves.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://cellbio.utmb.edu/cellbio/rer2.htm
2. ^
http://cellbio.utmb.edu/cellbio/rer2.htm
3. ^
http://cellbio.utmb.edu/cellbio/rer2.htm
4. ^
http://cellbio.utmb.edu/cellbio/rer2.htm
[1] Description Electron
micrograph of Bacteriophages Date
Source
en:Image:Phage.jpg Author
en:User:GrahamColm PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/52/Phage.jpg
5
{PlaNK-TO-mI-SETS3 } (or
Planctobacteria).4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=planct
omycetes&submit=Submit
2. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
3. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=planct
omycetes&submit=Submit
4. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
5. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao,
Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of
prokaryote evolution: insights into
the origin of methanogenesis,
phototrophy, and the colonization of
land", BMC Evolutionary Biology,
(2004).
MORE INFO
[1] s10
http://ijs.sgmjournals.org/cgi/reprint/5
0/6/1965
[2]
http://genomebiology.com/2002/3/6/resear
ch/0031
[3]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planctomyce
tes
[4] Lee, Kuo-Chang, Rick Webb, and John
Fuerst. “The Cell Cycle of the
Planctomycete Gemmata Obscuriglobus
with Respect to Cell
Compartmentalization.” BMC Cell
Biology 10.1 (2009):
4. http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-21
21/10/4/
[1] Electron micrographs of cells of
new Gemmata-like and Isosphaera-like
isolates. (A) Negatively stained cell
of the Gemmata-like strain JW11-2f5
showing crateriform structures
(arrowhead) and coccoid cell
morphology. Bar marker, 200 nm. (B)
Negatively stained budding cell of
Isosphaera-like strain CJuql1 showing
uniform crateriform structures
(arrowhead) on the mother cell and
coccoid cell morphology. Bar marker,
200 nm. (C) Thin section of
Gemmata-like cryosubstituted cell of
strain JW3-8s0 showing the
double-membrane-bounded nuclear body
(NB) and nucleoid (N) enclosed within
it. Bar marker, 200 nm. (D) Thin
section of Isosphaera-like strain C2-3
possessing a fibrillar nucleoid (N)
within a cytoplasmic compartment
bounded by a single membrane (M) only.
Bar marker, 200 nm. Appl Environ
Microbiol. 2002 January; 68(1):
417-422. doi:
10.1128/AEM.68.1.417-422.2002.
source: http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/art
iclerender.fcgi?tool=pubmed&pubmedid=117
72655
[2] Evolutionary distance tree derived
from comparative analysis of 16S rDNAs
from freshwater and soil isolates and
reference strains of the order
Planctomycetales. Database accession
numbers are shown in parentheses after
species, strain, or clone names.
Bootstrap values of greater than 70%
from 100 bootstrap resamplings from the
distance analysis are presented at
nodes. Thermotoga maritima was used as
an outgroup. Isolates from this study
and representative named species of the
planctomycetes are indicated in bold.
The scale bar represents 0.1 nucleotide
substitution per nucleotide
position. Appl Environ Microbiol.
2002 January; 68(1): 417-422. doi:
10.1128/AEM.68.1.417-422.2002.
source: http://florey.biosci.uq.edu.au/m
ypa/images/fuerst2.gif
13
{aKTinO-BaK-TER-Eu7 } (Gram positive,
source of streptomycin).8 9 10 11 12
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=ac
tinobacteria&submit=Submit
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^ Nature v417 n6886, not
TOL
4. ^ "Actinobacteria". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actinobacte
ria
5. ^
http://asylumeclectica.com/malady/archiv
es/leprosy.htm
6. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
7. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=ac
tinobacteria&submit=Submit
8. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
9. ^ Nature v417 n6886, not
TOL
10. ^ "Actinobacteria". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actinobacte
ria
11. ^
http://asylumeclectica.com/malady/archiv
es/leprosy.htm
12. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
13. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao,
Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of
prokaryote evolution: insights into
the origin of methanogenesis,
phototrophy, and the colonization of
land", BMC Evolutionary Biology,
(2004).
MORE INFO
[1] "streptomyces." Britannica
Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia
Britannica, Inc., 1994-2010.
Answers.com 04 Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/streptomyce
s
[1] Aerial mycelium and spore of
Streptomyces coelicolor. The mycelium
and the oval spores are about 1µm
wide, typical for bacteria and much
smaller than fungal hyphae and spores.
(Scanning electron micrograph, Mark
Buttner, Kim Findlay, John Innes
Centre). COPYRIGHT UK
source: http://www.sanger.ac.uk/Projects
/S_coelicolor/micro_image4.shtml
[2] Frankia is a genus of
nitrogen-fixing soil bacteria, which
possesses a set of features that are
unique amongst symbiotic
nitrogen-fixing microorganisms,
including rhizobia, making it an
attractive taxon to study. These
heterotrophic Gram-positive bacteria
which are able to induce symbiotic
nitrogen-fixing root nodules
(actinorhizas) in a wide range of
dicotyledonous species (actinorhizal
plants), have also the capacity to fix
atmospheric nitrogen in culture and
under aerobic conditions.
source: http://www.ibmc.up.pt/webpagesgr
upos/cam/Frankia.htm
5
(SPIrOKETEZ3 ) (Syphilis, Lyme
disease).4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
www.d.umn.edu/~rhicks1/diversity/Pronunc
iation%20Guide.pdf
2. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
3. ^
www.d.umn.edu/~rhicks1/diversity/Pronunc
iation%20Guide.pdf
4. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
5. ^ estimated from
Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A Genomic
timescale of prokaryote evolution:
insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
MORE INFO
[1] Tree of Life.
http://tolweb.org/tree/
[2] Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004)
[3] "spirochete." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 30
Dec. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/spirochete
[1] Syphilis is a complex, sexually
transmitted disease (STD) with a highly
variable clinical course. The disease
is caused by the bacterium, Treponema
pallidum. In the United States, 32,871
cases of syphilis, including 432 cases
of congenital syphilis, were detected
by public health officials in 2002.
Eight of the ten states with the
highest rates of syphilis are located
in the southern region of the United
States.
source: http://www.cdc.gov/nchstp/od/tus
kegee/syphilis.htm
[2] unknown
source: http://uhavax.hartford.edu/bugl/
images/Treponema%20pallidum.jpg
7 8
{BaKTRrOEDiTEZ4 }.5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=ba
cteroidetes+&submit=Submit
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao,
Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of
prokaryote evolution: insights into
the origin of methanogenesis,
phototrophy, and the colonization of
land", BMC Evolutionary Biology,
(2004).. ^
4. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=ba
cteroidetes+&submit=Submit
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
6. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao,
Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of
prokaryote evolution: insights into
the origin of methanogenesis,
phototrophy, and the colonization of
land", BMC Evolutionary Biology,
(2004).. ^
7. ^ estimate from Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
8. ^ estimate from Battistuzzi, Feijao,
Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of
prokaryote evolution: insights into
the origin of methanogenesis,
phototrophy, and the colonization of
land", BMC Evolutionary Biology,
(2004).
MORE INFO
[1] Tree of Life
[2]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteroidet
es
[3]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chlorobi
[1] Description Bacteroides
biacutis—one of many en:commensal
anaerobic en:Bacteroides spp. in the
en:gastrointestinal tract—cultured in
blood agar medium for 48
hours. Obtained from the CDC Public
Health Image Library. Image credit:
CDC/Dr. V.R. Dowell, Jr. (PHIL #3087),
1972. Date 2006-03-11 (original
upload date) Source Originally from
en.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. Author Original uploader was
MarcoTolo at
en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) PD-USGOV-HHS-CDC. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Bacteroides_bia
cutis_01.jpg/1280px-Bacteroides_biacutis
_01.jpg
[2] Bacteroides fragilis . From the
Zdravotni University
source: http://biology.kenyon.edu/Microb
ial_Biorealm/bacteria/bacteroidete_chlor
ob_group/bacteroides/bacteroides.htm
5
or Klo-mi-DE-E3 } evolve.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=ch
lamydiae&submit=Submit
2. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
3. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=ch
lamydiae&submit=Submit
4. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
5. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao,
Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of
prokaryote evolution: insights into
the origin of methanogenesis,
phototrophy, and the colonization of
land", BMC Evolutionary Biology,
(2004).
MORE INFO
[1] Tree of Life.
http://tolweb.org/tree/
[2] Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004)
[3]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chlamydiae
[4]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verrucomicr
obia
[1] cell infected with Chlamydia The
Bavoil laboratory studies the
pathogenesis of the obligate
intracellular pathogen, Chlamydia, and
its bacteriophages. Specific research
areas include the role of Chlamydia
type III secretion in pathogenesis and
development, the impact of Chlamydia
phage infection on disease, the role of
the polymorphic membrane protein family
of C. trachomatis in infection and
disease and comparative genomics within
the Chlamydiaceae. [1] Chlamydia
trachomatis wiki, is copyrighted
source: http://www.dental.umaryland.edu/
sebin/p/o/chlamydia_infected_cell2.jpg
[2] wiki, public domain
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chl
amydia_trachomatis
5 6
sulphur bacteria).3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao,
Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of
prokaryote evolution: insights into
the origin of methanogenesis,
phototrophy, and the colonization of
land", BMC Evolutionary Biology,
(2004).. ^
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^ Battistuzzi,
Feijao, Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of
prokaryote evolution: insights into
the origin of methanogenesis,
phototrophy, and the colonization of
land", BMC Evolutionary Biology,
(2004).. ^
5. ^ estimate from Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
6. ^ estimate from Battistuzzi, Feijao,
Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of
prokaryote evolution: insights into
the origin of methanogenesis,
phototrophy, and the colonization of
land", BMC Evolutionary Biology,
(2004).
MORE INFO
[1] Tree of Life
[2]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteroidet
es
[3]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chlorobi
[1] Description Deutsch: Grüne
Schwefelbakterien (Chlorobiaceae) im
unteren Bereich einer
Winogradsky-Säule Date
20.03.2007 (20 March 2007
(original upload date)) Source
Transferred from de.wikipedia;
transfer was stated to be made by
User:Jacopo Werther. (Original text :
Mikrobiologie Praktikum Universität
Kassel März 2007) Author
kOchstudiO. Original uploader was
KOchstudiO at
de.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) Released into the public
domain (by the author). (Original text
: uneingeschränkte Nutzung) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e7/Green_d_winogradsky.j
pg
[2] Campbell, N.A., and J.B. Reece.
Biology. Pearson Benjamin Cummings,
2008. Alternative eText Formats Series,
p194. COPYRIGHTED
source: Campbell, N.A., and J.B. Reece.
Biology. Pearson Benjamin Cummings,
2008. Alternative eText Formats Series,
p194.
5
(VeR-rUKO-mI-KrO-BEo3 ).4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=ve
rrucomicrobia&submit=Submit
2. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
3. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=ve
rrucomicrobia&submit=Submit
4. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
5. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao,
Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of
prokaryote evolution: insights into
the origin of methanogenesis,
phototrophy, and the colonization of
land", BMC Evolutionary Biology,
(2004).
MORE INFO
[1] Tree of Life.
http://tolweb.org/tree/
[2] Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004)
[3]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chlamydiae
[4]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verrucomicr
obia
[1] Figure 1 Transmission electron
micrographs of high-pressure frozen and
cryosubstituted Verrucomicrobium
spinosum. A. Cell prepared by
high-pressure freezing and
cryosubstitution showing prostheca
(PT), paryphoplasm (P), and an
intracytoplasmic membrane (ICM)
enclosing a pirellulosome region
containing a condensed fibrillar
nucleoid (N). Inset: enlarged view of
area of cell outlined in the white box
showing cytoplasmic membrane (CM),
paryphoplasm and ICM. B.
freeze-fracture replica of cell showing
cross-fractured paryphoplasm (P) and
fracture faces of ICM and CM. Bar –
500 nm Lee et al. BMC Microbiology
2009 9:5
doi:10.1186/1471-2180-9-5 CC
source: http://www.biomedcentral.com/con
tent/figures/1471-2180-9-5-1-l.jpg
[2] Figure 2 Transmission electron
micrograph of high-pressure frozen and
cryosubstituted Verrucomicrobium
spinosum. Cell prepared by
high-pressure freezing and
cryosubstitution showing prostheca
(PT), ribosome-free paryphoplasm (P),
and an intracytoplasmic membrane (ICM)
enclosing a pirellulosome region
containing a condensed fibrillar
nucleoid (N). Membrane-bounded
vesicle-like compartments within some
prosthecae extensions are also present
(see arrowheads). Bar – 1 μm Lee
et al. BMC Microbiology 2009 9:5
doi:10.1186/1471-2180-9-5 CC
source: http://www.biomedcentral.com/con
tent/figures/1471-2180-9-5-2-l.jpg
3 4
can now eat other cells.
In endocytosis the plasma membrane
folds inward to bring substances into
the cell.1
In Exocytosis substances contained in
vesicles are released from the cell.2
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^ "endocytosis." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 07
Mar. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/endocytosis
2. ^ "exocytosis." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 07
Mar. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/exocytosis
3. ^ S Blair Hedges, Hsiong Chen,
Sudhir Kumar, Daniel YC Wang, Amanda S
Thompson and Hidemi Wa, "A genomic
timescale for the origin of
eukaryotes", BMC Evolutionary Biology
2001, 1:4
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-1-4,
(2001). http://www.biomedcentral.com/14
71-2148/1/4 {Nucleus 2700 +30mybn guess
and }
4. ^ guess based on Cavalier-Smith
stating that endocytosis occurs before
a cytoskeleton {Nucleus 2700 +30mybn
guess and}
[1] Endocytosis and Exocytosis: For
example, this electron micrograph is
showing the process of exocytosis . The
process begins by fusion of the
membranes at the peripheral pole of the
granule. Then an opening is created
which widens to look like an omicron
figure. This opening allows the
granular material to be released. The
membrane is now part of the plasma
membrane and any proteins carried with
it can be incorporated into the plasma
membrane. Note that there is no coating
on the membrane. This figure was taken
from Alberts et al, Molecular Biology
of the Cell, Garland Publishing Third
Edition, 1994 In contrast, this
micrograph shows a figure which looks
something like an omicron, however,
this view is showing receptor mediated
endocytosis of virus particles. In both
cases, the membrane is coated with
clathrin and these represent classical
receptor mediated endocytosis profiles.
Most ligands cannot be visualized by
themselves, like a virus particle.
Therefore, the cytochemist must attach
label to the ligand. Alternatively, the
cytochemist could immunocytochemically
detect the receptor with antibodies
that recognize the extracellular
domain. This figure was taken from
Endocytosis, Edited by Ira Pastan and
Mark C. Willingham, Plenum Press, N.Y.,
1985 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.cytochemistry.net/cel
l-biology/end7.jpg
[2] Pinocytosis In the process of
pinocytosis the plasma membrane froms
an invagination. What ever substance
is found within the area of
invagination is brought into the
cell. In general this material will
be dissolved in water and thus this
process is also refered to as
''cellular drinking'' to indicate that
liquids and material dissolved in
liquids are ingested by the
cell. This is opposed to the
ingestion of large particulate material
like bacteria or other cells or cell
debris. UNKNOWN
source: http://academic.brooklyn.cuny.ed
u/biology/bio4fv/page/endocytb.htm
12
with a nucleus. The first protist. The
nucleus may develop from the infolding
of plasma membrane.3
In prokaryotic cells the DNA is not
membrane enclosed while in eukaryotic
cells most of the DNA is contained in a
nucleus. Eukaryotic cells are generally
much larger than prokaryotic cells.4
Unlike prokaryotic cells, eukaryotic
cells have a cytoskeleton. Eukaryotic
cells may have mitochondria and
plastids, which prokaryotic cells
lack.5 DNA in prokaryotic cells is
usually a single circular chromosome,
while DNA in the nucleus of eukaryotes
contains linear chromosomes.6
Like prokaryotes, this cell is probably
haploid (a single unique DNA), most
eukaryotes are diploid (having two sets
of DNA).7 8 9 10
All protists, fungi, animals and plant
cells descend from this common
eukaryotic cell.11
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Campbell, Reece, et al,
"Biology", 2008, p516-517.
2. ^ Campbell, Reece,
et al, "Biology", 2008, p516-517.
3. ^ Campbell,
Reece, et al, "Biology", 2008,
p516-517.
4. ^ Campbell, Reece, et al, "Biology",
2008, p98.
5. ^ Campbell, Reece, et al,
"Biology", 2008, p516-517.
6. ^ Jill Saffrey,
"Biology: uniformity & diversity. Core
of life, Book 3, Volume 2", 2001,
p353. http://books.google.com/books?id=
43yiLI1DvwAC&pg=PA353
7. ^ Montgomery Slatkin, "Exploring
evolutionary biology: readings from
American scientist", 1995,
p161. http://books.google.com/books?ei=
AAVdT77TFMiiiQKB8a24Cw
8. ^ Andrew Wallace Hayes, "Principles
and methods of toxicology", 2007,
p1181. http://books.google.com/books?id
=vgHXTId8rnYC&pg=PA1181
9. ^ N. A. Kolchanov, Hwa A. Lim,
"Computer analysis of genetic
macromolecules: structure, function,
and evolution", 1994,
p2. http://books.google.com/books?id=cr
ip5tRcF0YC&pg=PA2
10. ^ "diploid", Oxford Dictionary of
Biochemistry http://www.answers.com/top
ic/diploid
11. ^ Campbell, Reece, et al,
"Biology", 2008, p98.
12. ^ S Blair Hedges,
Hsiong Chen, Sudhir Kumar, Daniel YC
Wang, Amanda S Thompson and Hidemi Wa,
"A genomic timescale for the origin of
eukaryotes", BMC Evolutionary Biology
2001, 1:4
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-1-4,
(2001). http://www.biomedcentral.com/14
71-2148/1/4 {split of archae and
eukaryote at c4.0 bybn, but eukaryote
{with nucleus?} at) 2.7 bybn}
MORE INFO
[1] Harold Levin, "The Earth
Through Time", 8th ed., 2006, p256
[2]
Jochen J. Brocks, Graham A. Logan,
Roger Buick, Roger E. Summons, "Archean
Molecular Fossils and the Early Rise of
Eukaryotes", Science, Vol 285, Issue
5430, 13 August 1999, p1033-1036.
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/285/
5430/1033.short
and http://www.jstor.org/stable/2898534
[3] Alexey S. Kondrashov, "EVOLUTIONARY
GENETICS OF LIFE CYCLES", Annual Review
of Ecology and Systematics Vol. 28:
391-435 (Volume publication date
November 1997)
http://arjournals.annualreviews.org/do
i/full/10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.28.1.391;
jsessionid=npo4ogeI2anbnHbeKO
[1] Campbell, Reece, et al,
''Biology'', 2008, p517. COPYRIGHTED
source: Campbell, Reece, et al,
"Biology", 2008, p517.
[2]
http://www.regx.de/m_organisms.php#planc
to
source: http://www.regx.de/m_organisms.p
hp#plancto
of eukaryotes (sterane {STiRAN4 }
molecules).5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "sterane." McGraw-Hill Dictionary
of Scientific and Technical Terms.
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003.
Answers.com 30 Dec. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sterane
2. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
3. ^ Jochen J.
Brocks, Graham A. Logan, Roger Buick,
Roger E. Summons, "Archean Molecular
Fossils and the Early Rise of
Eukaryotes", Science, Vol 285, Issue
5430, 13 August 1999, p1033-1036.
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/285/
5430/1033.short
and http://www.jstor.org/stable/2898534
4. ^ "sterane." McGraw-Hill Dictionary
of Scientific and Technical Terms.
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003.
Answers.com 30 Dec. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sterane
5. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
6. ^ Jochen J.
Brocks, Graham A. Logan, Roger Buick,
Roger E. Summons, "Archean Molecular
Fossils and the Early Rise of
Eukaryotes", Science, Vol 285, Issue
5430, 13 August 1999, p1033-1036.
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/285/
5430/1033.short
and http://www.jstor.org/stable/2898534
7. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
8. ^ Science,
Vol 285, Issue 5430, 1033-1036 , 13
August 1999 Archean Molecular Fossils
and the Early Rise of
Eukaryotes Jochen J. Brocks, 1,2*
Graham A. Logan, 2 Roger Buick, 1 Roger
E. Summons 2
[1] Jochen J. Brocks, Graham A. Logan,
Roger Buick, Roger E. Summons,
''Archean Molecular Fossils and the
Early Rise of Eukaryotes'', Science,
Vol 285, Issue 5430, 13 August 1999,
p1033-1036.
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/285/
5430/1033.short
and http://www.jstor.org/stable/2898534
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/285/5430/1033.short
and http://www.jstor.org/stable/2898534
a membrane system that extends from the
nucleus, important in the synthesis of
proteins and lipids.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "endoplasmic reticulum."
Britannica Concise Encyclopedia.
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.,
1994-2010. Answers.com 28 Nov. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/endoplasmic
-reticulum
2. ^ "endoplasmic reticulum."
Britannica Concise Encyclopedia.
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.,
1994-2010. Answers.com 28 Nov. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/endoplasmic
-reticulum
[1] Figure 1 : Image of n, endoplasmic
reticulum and Golgi apparatus. (1)
Nucleus. (2) Nuclear pore. (3) Rough
endoplasmic reticulum (RER). (4) Smooth
endoplasmic reticulum (SER). (5)
Ribosome on the rough ER. (6) Proteins
that are transported. (7) Transport
vesicle. (8) Golgi apparatus. (9) Cis
face of the Golgi apparatus. (10) Trans
face of the Golgi apparatus. (11)
Cisternae of the Golgi apparatus. I
am the copyright holder of that image
(I might even have the CorelDraw file
around somewhere:-), and I hereby place
the image and all partial images
created from it in the public domain.
So, you are free to use it any way you
like. In fact, I am delighted that one
of my drawings makes it into
print! I can mail you the .cdr file,
if you like (and if I can find it), if
you need a better resolution for
printing. Yours, Magnus
Manske Source: See also User:Magnus
Manske
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Nucleus_ER_golgi.jpg
[2] Description English: The
elongation and membrane targeting
stages of eukaryotic translation. The
ribosome is green and yellow, the tRNAs
are dark blue, and the other proteins
involved are light blue. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3c/Translation.gif
9 10
forms in eukaryote cytoplasm.6 7 8
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ "cytoskeleton." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 12
Feb. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cytoskeleto
n
2. ^ Cavalier-Smith, annals of Botony
2005 vol95 issue 1
3. ^ Margulis, L.
1998. Symbiotic Planet: A New Look at
Evolution. Science Masters: Brockman
Inc, New York. Margulis, L., Dolan,
M., Guerrero, R. 2000. The Chimaeric
eukaryote: Origin of the nucleus from
the karyomastigont in amitochondriate
protists. Colloquium. 97: 6954-6959.
4. ^
Symbiosis in cell evolution : microbial
communities in the Archean and
Proterozoic eons / Lynn Margulis. 1993
second edition
5. ^ "cytoskeleton." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 12 Feb. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cytoskeleto
n
6. ^ Cavalier-Smith, annals of Botony
2005 vol95 issue 1
7. ^ Margulis, L.
1998. Symbiotic Planet: A New Look at
Evolution. Science Masters: Brockman
Inc, New York. Margulis, L., Dolan,
M., Guerrero, R. 2000. The Chimaeric
eukaryote: Origin of the nucleus from
the karyomastigont in amitochondriate
protists. Colloquium. 97: 6954-6959.
8. ^
Symbiosis in cell evolution : microbial
communities in the Archean and
Proterozoic eons / Lynn Margulis. 1993
second edition
9. ^ S Blair Hedges, Hsiong
Chen, Sudhir Kumar, Daniel YC Wang,
Amanda S Thompson and Hidemi Wa, "A
genomic timescale for the origin of
eukaryotes", BMC Evolutionary Biology
2001, 1:4
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-1-4,
(2001). http://www.biomedcentral.com/14
71-2148/1/4 {Nucleus 2700 +10mybn guess
and }
10. ^ guess based on ER and golgi
made of same material as cytoskeleton,
and after first eukaryote cell {Nucleus
2700 +10mybn guess and}
[1] English: Endothelial cells under
the microscope. Nuclei are stained blue
with DAPI, microtubles are marked green
by an antibody bound to FITC and actin
filaments are labelled red with
phalloidin bound to TRITC. Bovine
pulmonary artery endothelial
cells http://rsb.info.nih.gov/ij/images
/ PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/09/FluorescentCells.jpg
[2] FIG. 7. In vitro polymerization
of cytoskeletal proteins of the
MinD/ParA superfamily. (A) Formation of
MinD filament bundles in the presence
of MinE, ATP, and phospholipid
vesicles. One end of the bundle is
markedly frayed because of the presence
of MinE. (Reprinted from reference 198
with permission of the publisher.
Copyright 2003 National Academy of
Sciences, U.S.A.) (B) Formation of a
ParApTP228(ParF) filament bundle in the
presence of ParBpTP228(ParG) and ATP.
ParBpTP228(ParG) stimulates formation
of the frayed end(s) of the
ParApTP228(ParF) bundle. (Reprinted
from reference 11 by permission from
Macmillan Publishers Ltd.) (C)
Formation of Soj filaments in the
presence of DNA and ATP. (Reprinted
from reference 116 by permission from
Macmillan Publishers Ltd.) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/
articles/PMC1594594/bin/zmr0030621350007
.jpg
1
evolve.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Campbell, Reece, et al.,
"Biology", Eighth Edition, 2008, p114.
[1] Cilia and flagella are projections
from the cell. They are made up of
microtubules , as shown in this cartoon
and are covered by an extension of the
plasma membrane. They are motile and
designed either to move the cell itself
or to move substances over or around
the cell. The primary purpose of cilia
in mammalian cells is to move fluid,
mucous, or cells over their surface.
Cilia and flagella have the same
internal structure. The major
difference is in their length. This
figure shows a cross section of a
cilium next to a longitudinal section.
Below, we will see how the microtubules
are organized in the core (shown in the
cartoon in this figure). Also shown is
the centriole or basal body that
organizes the formation and direction
of the cilia. COPYRIGHTED
source: Description Transmission
electron microscope image, showing an
example of green algae
(Chlorophyta). Chlamydomanas
reinhardtii is a unicellular flagellate
used as a model system in molecular
genetics work and flagellar motility
studies. This image is a
longitudinal section through the
flagella area. In the cell apex is the
basal body that is the anchoring site
for a flagella. Basal bodies originate
from and have a substructure similar to
that of centrioles, with nine
peripheral microtubule triplets(see
structure at bottom center of image).
The two inner microtubules of each
triplet in a basal body become the two
outer doublets in the flagella. This
image also shows the transition region,
with its fibers of the stellate
structure. The top of the image shows
the flagella passing through the cell
wall. Date 20 September
2007 Source Source and public domain
notice at
http://remf.dartmouth.edu/imagesindex.ht
ml Author Dartmouth Electron
Microscope Facility, Dartmouth
College PD
[2] This figure shows an electron
micrograph of a cross section of a
cilium. Note that you can see the
dynein arms and the nexin links. The
dynein arms have ATPase activity. In
the presence of ATP, they can move from
one tubulin to another. They enable the
tubules to slide along one another so
the cilium can bend. The dynein
bridges are regulated so that sliding
leads to synchronized bending. Because
of the nexin and radial spokes, the
doublets are held in place so sliding
is limited lengthwise. If nexin and the
radial spokes are subjected to enzyme
digestion, and exposed to ATP, the
doublets will continue to slide and
telescope up to 9X their length.
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Chlamydomonas_T
EM_09.jpg/1280px-Chlamydomonas_TEM_09.jp
g
3
eukaryote nucleus changes into linear
chromosomes.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ S Blair Hedges,
Hsiong Chen, Sudhir Kumar, Daniel YC
Wang, Amanda S Thompson and Hidemi Wa,
"A genomic timescale for the origin of
eukaryotes", BMC Evolutionary Biology
2001, 1:4
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-1-4,
(2001). http://www.biomedcentral.com/14
71-2148/1/4 {Nucleus 2700 +20mybn
guess}
MORE INFO
[1] not all prokaryotes have
circle of
DNA: http://arjournals.annualreviews.or
g/doi/full/10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.28.1.
391;jsessionid=npo4ogeI2anbnHbeKO
[2] Jumas-Bilak E, Maugard C,
Michaux-Charachon S, Allardet-Servent
A, Perrin A, et al. 1995. Study of the
organization of the genomes of
Escherichia coli, Brucella melitensis
and Agrobacterium tumefaciens by
insertion of a unique restriction site.
Microbiology 141:2425-32 (Medline)
[3] Lezhava A,
Kameoka D, Sugino H, Goshi K, Shinkawa
H, et al. 1997. Chromosomal deletions
in Streptomyces griseus that remove the
afsA locus. Mol. Gen. Genet. 253:478-83
[4]
Marconi RT, Casjens S, Munderloh UG,
Samuels DS. 1996. Analysis of linear
plasmid dimers in Borrelia burgdorferi
sensu lato isolates: implications
concerning the potential mechanisms of
linear plasmid replication. J. Bact.
178:3357-61
[1] A DNA molecule is very long (a few
meters) but extremely thin (narrow;
measured in nanometers). Here is an
electron microscope photo of a DNA
strand: PD
source: http://rst.gsfc.nasa.gov/Sect20/
dna1.jpg
[2] [t Is this an accurate image? - Is
a chromosome made of a single wound
strand of DNA? update- no see image
8] Every cell in the human body
(except red blood cells) contains 23
pairs of chromosomes. (a) Each
chromosome is made up of a tightly
coiled strand of DNA. (b) DNA’s
uncoiled state reveals its familiar
double helix shape. If DNA is pictured
as a twisted ladder, its sides, made of
sugar and phosphate molecules, are
connected by (c) rungs made of
chemicals called bases. DNA has four
bases—adenine, thymine, guanine, and
cytosine—that form interlocking
pairs. The order of the bases along the
length of the ladder is the DNA
sequence. PD
source: https://www.llnl.gov/str/June03/
gifs/Stubbs1.gif
(packages proteins and lipids into
vesicles for delivery to targeted
destinations).2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Golgi apparatus." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2011. Web. 28 Dec. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/238044/Golgi-apparatus>.
2. ^ "Golgi apparatus." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2011. Web. 28 Dec. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/238044/Golgi-apparatus>.
MORE INFO
[1] "Endosome." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 28 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/endosome
[1] Figure 1: Image of nucleus,
endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi
apparatus: (1) Nucleus, (2) Nuclear
pore, (3) Rough endoplasmic reticulum
(RER), (4) Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
(SER), (5) Ribosome on the rough ER,
(6) Proteins that are transported, (7)
Transport vesicle, (8) Golgi apparatus,
(9) Cis face of the Golgi apparatus,
(10) Trans face of the Golgi apparatus,
(11) Cisternae of the Golgi apparatus,
(12) Secretory vesicle, (13) Plasma
membrane, (14) Exocytosis, (15)
Cytoplasm, (16) Extracellular space.
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Nucleus_ER_golgi_ex.jpg
[2] no description UNKNOWN
source: http://sun.menloschool.org/~cwea
ver/cells/e/lysosomes/
3
nucleolus is a sphere in the nucleus
that makes ribosomal RNA.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Michael Sleigh, "Protozoa and
Other Protists", (London; New York:
Edward Arnold, 1989).: p48 nucleolus
divides
2. ^ Michael Sleigh, "Protozoa and
Other Protists", (London; New York:
Edward Arnold, 1989).: p48 nucleolus
divides
3. ^ Ted Huntington guess
MORE INFO
[1] Oxford Dictionary of
Biochemistry Oxford University Press.
Oxford Dictionary of Biochemistry and
Molecular Biology © 1997, 2000, 2006
All rights
reserved. http://www.answers.com/topic/
nucleolus#ixzz2VAspF99U
[1] Nucleolus, COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.eccentrix.com/members
/chempics/Slike/cell/Nucleolus.jpg
[2] With the combination of x-rays
from the Advanced Light Source and a
new protein-labeling technique,
scientists can see the distribution of
the nucleoli within the nucleus of a
mammary epithelial cell. USG PD
source: http://www.lbl.gov/Science-Artic
les/Archive/xray-inside-cells.html
7
cells.3 4
Mitosis is the process in eukaryotic
cell division in which the duplicated
chromosomes are separated and the
nucleus divides resulting in two new
nuclei, each of which contains an
identical copy of the parental
chromosomes. Mitosis is usually
immediately followed by division of the
cytoplasm.5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Michael Sleigh, "Protozoa and
Other Protists", (London; New York:
Edward Arnold, 1989).: types of
mitosis, evolution of mitosis.
2. ^ Brusca and
Brusca, "Invertebrates", 2003,
p128-129. {BruscaCh05.pdf}
3. ^ Michael Sleigh, "Protozoa and
Other Protists", (London; New York:
Edward Arnold, 1989).: types of
mitosis, evolution of mitosis.
4. ^ Brusca and
Brusca, "Invertebrates", 2003,
p128-129. {BruscaCh05.pdf}
5. ^ "mitosis." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 12 Mar.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/mitosis
6. ^ Campbell, Reece, et al, "Biology",
8th Edition, 2008, p230-233.
7. ^ S Blair Hedges,
Hsiong Chen, Sudhir Kumar, Daniel YC
Wang, Amanda S Thompson and Hidemi Wa,
"A genomic timescale for the origin of
eukaryotes", BMC Evolutionary Biology
2001, 1:4
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-1-4,
(2001). http://www.biomedcentral.com/14
71-2148/1/4 {Nucleus 2700 -40mybn
guess}
[1] Mitosis divides genetic information
during cell division Source:
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/About/primer
/genetics_cell.html This image is
from the Science Primer, a work of the
National Center for Biotechnology
Information, part of the National
Institutes of Health. As a work of the
U.S. federal government, the image is
in the public domain.
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mit
osis
[2] Prophase: The two round objects
above the nucleus are the centrosomes.
Note the condensed chromatin. from
Gray's Anatomy. Unless stated
otherwise, it is from the online
edition of the 20th U.S. edition of
Gray's Anatomy of the Human Body,
originally published in 1918. Online
editions can be found on Bartleby and
also on Yahoo!
source: UNKNOWN
18
identical cells fuse (isogamy)7 . First
diploid cell. First zygote.8 9
Increase in genetic variety.10
Because of sex, two cells with
different DNA can mix providing more
genetic variety. Having two chromosome
sets also provides a backup copy of
important genes.11 12
All sexual species alternate between
haploid and diploid.13 14
This begins the haplontic life cycle:
mitosis only occurs in the haploid
phase; the only diploid cell is the
zygote15 .16 17
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Sir Gavin De Beer, "Atlas of
Evolution", (London: Nelson, 1964).
2. ^
Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
3. ^ Campbell,
Reece, et al, "Biology", Eigth Edition,
2008, p258.
4. ^ Sir Gavin De Beer, "Atlas of
Evolution", (London: Nelson, 1964).
5. ^
Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
6. ^ Campbell,
Reece, et al, "Biology", Eigth Edition,
2008, p258.
7. ^ Karen Arms, Pamela S. Camp,
"Biology", Third Edition, 1987,
p398. http://books.google.com/books?ei=
fjtmT96tDqPQiAKP2qyiDw&id=ga_uAAAAMAAJ
8. ^ Sir Gavin De Beer, "Atlas of
Evolution", (London: Nelson, 1964).
9. ^
Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
10. ^ Campbell,
Reece, et al, "Biology", Eigth Edition,
2008, p258.
11. ^ Glenn E. Croston, "Kaplan
AP biology", 2000,
p98. http://books.google.com/books?id=P
WsKAQAAMAAJ
12. ^ Janette B. Benson, Marshall M.
Haith, "Diseases and Disorders in
Infancy and Early Childhood", 2009,
p203.
13. ^ Campbell, Reece, et al,
"Biology", Eigth Edition, 2008, p252.
14. ^
John Ringo, "Fundamental Genetics",
2004, p201.
15. ^ Rowoand, M.D. Bath Advanced
Science - Biology. Thomas Nelson &
Sons, Limited, 1992. Bath Science 16-19
Series,
p503. http://books.google.com/books?id=
j9cEEouPBogC&pg=PA503
16. ^ John Ringo, "Fundamental
Genetics", 2004, p201.
17. ^ Mark
Kirkpatrick, "The evolution of
haploid-diploid life cycles", 1994,
p10. http://books.google.com/books?id=X
sgoLnXLIswC&pg=PA10
18. ^ estimate based on diplomonads
having sex repro, and origin of euk
being (is now) {Nucleus 2700 -60mybn
guess)(was 2710mybn}
MORE INFO
[1] J. William Schopf, "Major
Events in the History of Life",
(Boston, MA: Jones and Bartlett
Publishers, 1992).p57 (was)
[1] Theoretical first eukaryote
sex adapted from image of gametic
meiosis GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Zygotic_meiosis.jpg
[2] Theoretical first eukaryote
sex adapted from image of gametic
meiosis GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Zygotic_meiosis.jpg
7
a single cell division of a diploid
cell into two haploid cells).3 4
Meiosis, is similar to mitosis5 , but
reduces the number of chromosomes from
diploid to haploid making gametes in
animals and spores in plants.6
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^
http://www.zoology.ubc.ca/~redfield/rese
arch/clevelan.html
2. ^ Michael Sleigh, "Protozoa and
Other Protists", (London; New York:
Edward Arnold, 1989)., no cross over in
one-division
3. ^
http://www.zoology.ubc.ca/~redfield/rese
arch/clevelan.html
4. ^ Michael Sleigh, "Protozoa and
Other Protists", (London; New York:
Edward Arnold, 1989)., no cross over in
one-division
5. ^ Campbell, Reece, et al, "Biology",
Eigth Edition, 2008, p253.
6. ^ "meiosis."
The American Heritage® Dictionary of
the English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 12 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/meiosis
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
MORE INFO
[1] S Blair Hedges, Hsiong Chen,
Sudhir Kumar, Daniel YC Wang, Amanda S
Thompson and Hidemi Wa, "A genomic
timescale for the origin of
eukaryotes", BMC Evolutionary Biology
2001, 1:4
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-1-4,
(2001). http://www.biomedcentral.com/14
71-2148/1/4
[1] Theoretical first eukaryote
sex adapted from image of gametic
meiosis GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Zygotic_meiosis.jpg
[2] Theoretical first eukaryote
sex adapted from image of gametic
meiosis GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Zygotic_meiosis.jpg
12
Anisogamy {aNISoGomE8 9 }, sex (cell
and nucleus fusion) between two cells
that are different in size or shape.10
11
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Michael Sleigh, "Protozoa and
Other Protists", (London; New York:
Edward Arnold, 1989).
2. ^ Michael Sleigh,
"Protozoa and Other Protists", (London;
New York: Edward Arnold, 1989).
3. ^
"anisogamy." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 29 May.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/anisogamy
4. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=anisog
amy&submit=Submit
5. ^ Michael Sleigh, "Protozoa and
Other Protists", (London; New York:
Edward Arnold, 1989).
6. ^ "anisogamy." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 18 Mar. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/anisogamy
7. ^ Michael Sleigh, "Protozoa and
Other Protists", (London; New York:
Edward Arnold, 1989).
8. ^ "anisogamy." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 29 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/anisogamy
9. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=anisog
amy&submit=Submit
10. ^ Michael Sleigh, "Protozoa and
Other Protists", (London; New York:
Edward Arnold, 1989).
11. ^ "anisogamy." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 18 Mar. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/anisogamy
12. ^ S Blair Hedges, Hsiong Chen,
Sudhir Kumar, Daniel YC Wang, Amanda S
Thompson and Hidemi Wa, "A genomic
timescale for the origin of
eukaryotes", BMC Evolutionary Biology
2001, 1:4
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-1-4,
(2001). http://www.biomedcentral.com/14
71-2148/1/4 {Nucleus 2700 -90mybn
guess}
[1] Combination of images: Description
English: Different types of
isogamy: A) Isogamy of motile
cells B) Isogamy of non-motile
cells C) Conjugation of
gametangia Date 30 July
2008 Source Vectorised SVG version of
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Isoga
my.png Author Original bitmap version
by Tameeria, SVG version by Qef Other
versions
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:
Isogamy.png PD AND Description
Different types of en:anisogamy:
A) Anisogamy of motile gametes B)
Oogamy (non-motile egg cell, motile
sperm cell) C) Anisogamy of
non-motile gametes Date 2008-06-30
02:07 (UTC) Source
Anisogamy.png Author This
SVG version by Qef (talk)
Anisogamy.png: Original uploader was
Tameeria at en.wikipedia Later
versions were uploaded by Helix84 at
en.wikipedia. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d5/Isogamy.svghttp://upl
oad.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a7
/Anisogamy.svg
[2] Description Different types of
en:anisogamy: A) Anisogamy of motile
gametes B) Oogamy (non-motile egg
cell, motile sperm cell) C) Anisogamy
of non-motile
gametes Date 2008-06-30 02:07
(UTC) Source Anisogamy.png Author
This SVG version by Qef
(talk) Anisogamy.png: Original
uploader was Tameeria at
en.wikipedia Later versions were
uploaded by Helix84 at
en.wikipedia. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Anisogamy.svg/1
000px-Anisogamy.svg.png
3
anisogamy, evolves in protists: sex
between a flagellated gamete and an
unflagellated gamete.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=oogamy
&submit=Submit
2. ^ Michael Sleigh, "Protozoa and
Other Protists", (London; New York:
Edward Arnold, 1989).
3. ^ S Blair Hedges,
Hsiong Chen, Sudhir Kumar, Daniel YC
Wang, Amanda S Thompson and Hidemi Wa,
"A genomic timescale for the origin of
eukaryotes", BMC Evolutionary Biology
2001, 1:4
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-1-4,
(2001). http://www.biomedcentral.com/14
71-2148/1/4 {Nucleus 2700 -110mybn
guess}
[1] Combination of images: Description
English: Different types of
isogamy: A) Isogamy of motile
cells B) Isogamy of non-motile
cells C) Conjugation of
gametangia Date 30 July
2008 Source Vectorised SVG version of
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Isoga
my.png Author Original bitmap version
by Tameeria, SVG version by Qef Other
versions
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:
Isogamy.png PD AND Description
Different types of en:anisogamy:
A) Anisogamy of motile gametes B)
Oogamy (non-motile egg cell, motile
sperm cell) C) Anisogamy of
non-motile gametes Date 2008-06-30
02:07 (UTC) Source
Anisogamy.png Author This
SVG version by Qef (talk)
Anisogamy.png: Original uploader was
Tameeria at en.wikipedia Later
versions were uploaded by Helix84 at
en.wikipedia. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d5/Isogamy.svghttp://upl
oad.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a7
/Anisogamy.svg
[2] Description English: A sperm
cell fertilizing an egg cell Date
Source
http://www.pdimages.com/web9.htm Autho
r Unknown Permission (Reusing this
file)
http://www.pdimages.com/web9.htm P
D
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/86/Sperm-egg.jpg
3
copies and then the cell divides twice
into four haploid cells).2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.zoology.ubc.ca/~redfield/rese
arch/clevelan.html
2. ^
http://www.zoology.ubc.ca/~redfield/rese
arch/clevelan.html
3. ^ S Blair Hedges, Hsiong Chen,
Sudhir Kumar, Daniel YC Wang, Amanda S
Thompson and Hidemi Wa, "A genomic
timescale for the origin of
eukaryotes", BMC Evolutionary Biology
2001, 1:4
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-1-4,
(2001). http://www.biomedcentral.com/14
71-2148/1/4 {Nucleus 2700 -130mybn
guess}
[1] GametoGenesis. COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://www.bio.miami.edu/dana/10
4/gametogenesis.jpg
[2] Sexual cycle oxymonas, identical
to saccinobaculus, one step meiosis.
haploid. COPYRIGHTED CANADA
source: http://www.zoology.ubc.ca/~redfi
eld/clevelan/oxymonas.GIF
3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
2. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao,
Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of
prokaryote evolution: insights into
the origin of methanogenesis,
phototrophy, and the colonization of
land", BMC Evolutionary Biology,
(2004).
3. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
MORE INFO
[1] Tree of Life.
http://tolweb.org/tree/
[2] Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004)
[1] D. radiodurans growing on a
nutrient agar plate. The red color is
due to carotenoid pigment. Links to
816x711-pixel, 351KB JPG. Credit: M.
Daly, Uniformed Services University of
the Health Sciences NASA
source: http://science.nasa.gov/newhome/
headlines/images/conan/D_rad_dish.jpg
[2] Photomicrograph of Deinococcus
radiodurans, from
www.ornl.gov/ORNLReview/ v34 The Oak
Ridge National Laboratory United
States Federal Government This work
is in the public domain because it is a
work of the United States Federal
Government. This applies worldwide. See
Copyright.
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Deinococcus.jpg
7 8
{SIe-NO-BaK-TERE-u4 } (ancestor of all
plastids).5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "cyanobacterium." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 28
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cyanobacter
ia
2. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
3. ^ S. Blair Hedges and
Sudhir Kumar, "Genomic clocks and
evolutionary timescales", Trends in
Genetics Volume 19, Issue 4 , April
2003, Pages 200-206, (2003).
4. ^
"cyanobacterium." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 28
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cyanobacter
ia
5. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
6. ^ S. Blair Hedges and
Sudhir Kumar, "Genomic clocks and
evolutionary timescales", Trends in
Genetics Volume 19, Issue 4 , April
2003, Pages 200-206, (2003).
7. ^ Battistuzzi,
Feijao, Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of
prokaryote evolution: insights into
the origin of methanogenesis,
phototrophy, and the colonization of
land", BMC Evolutionary Biology,
(2004).
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC533871/ {2558 mybn}
8. ^ S. Blair
Hedges and Sudhir Kumar, "Genomic
clocks and evolutionary timescales",
Trends in Genetics Volume 19, Issue 4 ,
April 2003, Pages 200-206, (2003).
{2558 mybn}
MORE INFO
[1] Tree of Life.
http://tolweb.org/tree/
[2] Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004)
[3] Journal of Molecular
Evolution Publisher: Springer-Verlag
New York ISSN: 0022-2844 (Paper)
1432-1432 (Online) Issue: Volume 42,
Number 2 Date: February 1996 Pages:
194 - 200
[4] Phylogenetic Relationships of
Nonaxenic Filamentous Cyanobacterial
Strains Based on 16S rRNA Sequence
Analysis jme_42_2_1996.pdf
[5]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyanobacter
ia
[6] S Blair Hedges, Hsiong Chen, Sudhir
Kumar, Daniel YC Wang, Amanda S
Thompson and Hidemi Wa, "A genomic
timescale for the origin of
eukaryotes", BMC Evolutionary Biology
2001, 1:4
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-1-4,
(2001). http://www.biomedcentral.com/14
71-2148/1/4
[1] Oscillatoria COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://www.stcsc.edu/ecology/alg
ae/oscillatoria.jpg
[2] Lyngbya COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://www.stanford.edu/~bohanna
n/Media/LYNGB5.jpg
3
Non-Sulphur bacteria).2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
2. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao,
Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of
prokaryote evolution: insights into
the origin of methanogenesis,
phototrophy, and the colonization of
land", BMC Evolutionary Biology,
(2004).
3. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
MORE INFO
[1] Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004)
[2] Tree of Life
http://tolweb.org/tree/
[1] Chloroflexus photomicrograph from
Doe Joint Genome Institute of US Dept
Energy PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Chlorofl.jpg
Proterozoic {PrOTReZOiK or ProTReZOiK1
2 } Eon.3
The Proterozoic spans from 2,500 to 542
million years ago, and represents 42%
of Earth's history.4 5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Proterozoic." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 05
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/proterozoic
2. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=proter
ozoic&submit=Submit
3. ^
http://www.geosociety.org/science/timesc
ale/
4. ^
http://www.geosociety.org/science/timesc
ale/
5. ^ Harold Levin, "The Earth Through
Time", 8th Edition, 2006, p243.
[1] Geologic Time Scale 2009 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.geosociety.org/scienc
e/timescale/timescl.pdf
10 11 12 13 14 15
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ Kurt O. Konhauser, Stefan V.
Lalonde, Noah J. Planavsky, Ernesto
Pecoits, Timothy W. Lyons, Stephen J.
Mojzsis, Olivier J. Rouxel, Mark E.
Barley, Carlos Rosìere, Phillip W.
Fralick, Lee R. Kump, Andrey Bekker.
Aerobic bacterial pyrite oxidation and
acid rock drainage during the Great
Oxidation Event. Nature, 2011; 478
(7369): 369 DOI:
10.1038/nature10511 http://dx.doi.org/1
0.1038/nature10511
2. ^ University of Alberta. "New
evidence for the oldest
oxygen-breathing life on land."
ScienceDaily, 19 Oct. 2011. Web. 14
Jul. 2012.
3. ^ Brian Murphy, "Let there be
life", October 20,
2011. http://www.news.ualberta.ca/artic
le.aspx?id=3F6A39F722E14A6BA792EBCA6F989
604
4. ^ Kurt O. Konhauser, Stefan V.
Lalonde, Noah J. Planavsky, Ernesto
Pecoits, Timothy W. Lyons, Stephen J.
Mojzsis, Olivier J. Rouxel, Mark E.
Barley, Carlos Rosìere, Phillip W.
Fralick, Lee R. Kump, Andrey Bekker.
Aerobic bacterial pyrite oxidation and
acid rock drainage during the Great
Oxidation Event. Nature, 2011; 478
(7369): 369 DOI:
10.1038/nature10511 http://dx.doi.org/1
0.1038/nature10511
5. ^ University of Alberta. "New
evidence for the oldest
oxygen-breathing life on land."
ScienceDaily, 19 Oct. 2011. Web. 14
Jul. 2012.
6. ^ Brian Murphy, "Let there be
life", October 20,
2011. http://www.news.ualberta.ca/artic
le.aspx?id=3F6A39F722E14A6BA792EBCA6F989
604
7. ^ Kurt O. Konhauser, Stefan V.
Lalonde, Noah J. Planavsky, Ernesto
Pecoits, Timothy W. Lyons, Stephen J.
Mojzsis, Olivier J. Rouxel, Mark E.
Barley, Carlos Rosìere, Phillip W.
Fralick, Lee R. Kump, Andrey Bekker.
Aerobic bacterial pyrite oxidation and
acid rock drainage during the Great
Oxidation Event. Nature, 2011; 478
(7369): 369 DOI:
10.1038/nature10511 http://dx.doi.org/1
0.1038/nature10511
8. ^ University of Alberta. "New
evidence for the oldest
oxygen-breathing life on land."
ScienceDaily, 19 Oct. 2011. Web. 14
Jul. 2012.
9. ^ Brian Murphy, "Let there be
life", October 20,
2011. http://www.news.ualberta.ca/artic
le.aspx?id=3F6A39F722E14A6BA792EBCA6F989
604
10. ^ Kurt O. Konhauser, Stefan V.
Lalonde, Noah J. Planavsky, Ernesto
Pecoits, Timothy W. Lyons, Stephen J.
Mojzsis, Olivier J. Rouxel, Mark E.
Barley, Carlos Rosìere, Phillip W.
Fralick, Lee R. Kump, Andrey Bekker.
Aerobic bacterial pyrite oxidation and
acid rock drainage during the Great
Oxidation Event. Nature, 2011; 478
(7369): 369 DOI:
10.1038/nature10511 http://dx.doi.org/1
0.1038/nature10511
11. ^ University of Alberta. "New
evidence for the oldest
oxygen-breathing life on land."
ScienceDaily, 19 Oct. 2011. Web. 14
Jul. 2012.
12. ^ Brian Murphy, "Let there be
life", October 20,
2011. http://www.news.ualberta.ca/artic
le.aspx?id=3F6A39F722E14A6BA792EBCA6F989
604
13. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004). (2600-2700my)
14. ^ University of
Tennessee at Knoxville. "Bacteria's
move from sea to land may have occurred
much later than thought." ScienceDaily,
22 Dec. 2011. Web. 14 Jul.
2012. http://www.sciencedaily.com/relea
ses/2011/12/111222195017.htm
15. ^ Florence Wisniewski-Dyé, Kirill
Borziak, Gurusahai Khalsa-Moyers,
Gladys Alexandre, Leonid O.
Sukharnikov, Kristin Wuichet, Gregory
B. Hurst, W. Hayes McDonald, Jon S.
Robertson, Valérie Barbe, Alexandra
Calteau, Zoé Rouy, Sophie Mangenot,
Claire Prigent-Combaret, Philippe
Normand, Mickaël Boyer, Patricia
Siguier, Yves Dessaux, Claudine
Elmerich, Guy Condemine, Ganisan
Krishnen, Ivan Kennedy, Andrew H.
Paterson, Victor González, Patrick
Mavingui, Igor B. Zhulin. Azospirillum
Genomes Reveal Transition of Bacteria
from Aquatic to Terrestrial
Environments. PLoS Genetics, 2011; 7
(12): e1002430 DOI:
10.1371/journal.pgen.1002430
MORE INFO
[1] "pyrite." The American
Heritage� Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 02
May. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pyrite
[1] Acidic waste water from a modern
mining site supports the same oxygen
using bacterial life that appeared on
Earth 2.48 billion years ago. UNKNOWN
source: http://media.news.ualberta.ca/~/
media/University%20of%20Alberta/Administ
ration/External%20Relations/ExpressNews/
Images/2011/10/111020-RocksBanner-cw.jpg
[2] Bacillus specie soil
bacteria. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.scharfphoto.com/fine_
art_prints/archives/199812-054-Soil-Bact
eria.jpg
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
2. ^ Richard
Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA:
Blackwell, 2005).
[1] snowball Earth UNKNOWN
source: http://www.cosmosmagazine.com/fi
les/imagecache/feature/files/features/pr
int/20090528_snowball_earth.jpg
[2] Snowball Earth Snowball Earth
describes a theory that for millions of
years the Earth was entirely smothered
in ice, stretching from the poles to
the tropics. This freezing happened
over 650 million years ago in the
Pre-Cambrian, though it's now thought
that there may have been more than one
of these global glaciations. They
varied in duration and extent but
during a full-on snowball event, life
could only cling on in ice-free
refuges, or where sunlight managed to
penetrate through the ice to allow
photosynthesis. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/imag
es/ic/credit/640x395/s/sn/snowball_earth
/snowball_earth_1.jpg
formed on land, begin here, and are
also evidence of more free oxygen in
the air of Earth.5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
2. ^
http://www.es.ucsc.edu/~pkoch/lectures/l
ecture5.html
3. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
4. ^
http://www.es.ucsc.edu/~pkoch/lectures/l
ecture5.html
5. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
6. ^
http://www.es.ucsc.edu/~pkoch/lectures/l
ecture5.html
[1]
http://www.kgs.ukans.edu/Extension/redhi
lls/redhills.html
source: http://www.kgs.ukans.edu/Extensi
on/redhills/redhills.html
[2] In Archean rocks, metals tend to
occur in low oxidation states (for
example, Fe2+ instead of Fe3+)
indicating a high metal:oxygen ratio in
the oceans and atmosphere. The
sediments are essentially rust-free.
After the late Proterozoic,
sedimentary deposits often have reddish
colors and are called red beds due to
the presence of iron-oxide coatings
between sand grains. From the later
Proterozoic onward, enough free oxygen
has been available to oxidize iron in
sediments. A sandstone butte outside
of Sedona, Arizona. Public domain
image by Jon Sullivan. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/38/Butte_pdphoto_roadtri
p_24_bg_021604.jpg
6 7 8
related to Rickettsia (an aerobic
proteobacteria) is captured by a
eukaryote and through endosymbiosis,
becomes the mitochondria.3
Mitochondria are organelles in most
eukaryotic cells4 , and are where
cellular respiration occurs and most of
the ATP is produced5 .
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ S Blair Hedges, Hsiong Chen,
Sudhir Kumar, Daniel YC Wang, Amanda S
Thompson and Hidemi Wa, "A genomic
timescale for the origin of
eukaryotes", BMC Evolutionary Biology
2001, 1:4
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-1-4,
(2001). http://www.biomedcentral.com/14
71-2148/1/4
2. ^ S Blair Hedges, Hsiong Chen,
Sudhir Kumar, Daniel YC Wang, Amanda S
Thompson and Hidemi Wa, "A genomic
timescale for the origin of
eukaryotes", BMC Evolutionary Biology
2001, 1:4
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-1-4,
(2001). http://www.biomedcentral.com/14
71-2148/1/4
3. ^ S Blair Hedges, Hsiong Chen,
Sudhir Kumar, Daniel YC Wang, Amanda S
Thompson and Hidemi Wa, "A genomic
timescale for the origin of
eukaryotes", BMC Evolutionary Biology
2001, 1:4
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-1-4,
(2001). http://www.biomedcentral.com/14
71-2148/1/4
4. ^ "mitochondrion." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2011. Web. 23 Dec. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/386130/mitochondrion>.
5. ^ Campbell, Reece, et al, "Biology",
Eigth Edition, 2008, p100.
6. ^ B. Franz
Lang, Michael W. Gray, and Gertraud
Burger, "Mitochondrial Genome Evolution
and the Origin of Eukaryotes", Annu.
Rev. Genet., V33, p351-397, p385.
1999. {2 BYBN}
7. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The
Origin and Evolution of Model
Organisms", Nature Reviews Genetics 3,
838-849; doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
http://www.nature.com/nrg/journal/v3/n
11/full/nrg929.html {average of)
2230-1840 bybn} {earliest of) 2350-1640
bybn} {average of 1995my) 2350-1640
mybn}
8. ^ S Blair Hedges, Hsiong Chen,
Sudhir Kumar, Daniel YC Wang, Amanda S
Thompson and Hidemi Wa, "A genomic
timescale for the origin of
eukaryotes", BMC Evolutionary Biology
2001, 1:4
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-1-4,
(2001). http://www.biomedcentral.com/14
71-2148/1/4 {1.8 bybn}
MORE INFO
[1] Michael W. Gray, et al,
"Genome structure and gene content in
protist mitochondrial DNAs", Nucl.
Acids Res. (1998) 26(4): 865-878
doi:10.1093/nar/26.4.865
http://nar.oxfordjournals.org/content/
26/4/865.full
[1] Figure from: Michael W. Gray, et
al, ''Genome structure and gene content
in protist mitochondrial DNAs'',
Nucl. Acids Res. (1998) 26(4):
865-878 doi:10.1093/nar/26.4.865
http://nar.oxfordjournals.org/content/
26/4/865.full Phylogenetic hypothesis
of the eukaryotic lineage based on
ultrastructural and molecular data.
Organisms are divided into three main
groups distinguished by mitochondrial
cristal shape (either discoidal,
flattened or tubular). Unbroken lines
indicate phylogenetic relationships
that are firmly supported by available
data; broken lines indicate
uncertainties in phylogenetic
placement, resolution of which will
require additional data. Color coding
of organismal genus names indicates
mitochondrial genomes that have been
completely (Table 1), almost completely
(Jakoba, Naegleria and
Thraustochytrium) or partially (*)
sequenced by the OGMP (red), the FMGP
(black) or other groups (green). Names
in blue indicate those species whose
mtDNAs are currently being sequenced by
the OGMP or are future candidates for
complete sequencing. Amitochondriate
retortamonads are positioned at the
base of the tree, with broken arrows
denoting the endosymbiotic origin(s) of
mitochondria from a Rickettsia-like
eubacterium. Macrophar.,
Macropharyngomonas.
source: http://nar.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/vol26/issue4/images/gkb18201.gif
[2] Figure 1 Phylogenetic tree of
eukaryotes based on ultrastructural and
molecular data. Organisms are
sub-divided into main groups as
discussed in the text. Only a few
representative species for which
complete (or almost complete) mtDNA
sequences are known are shown in each
lineage. In some cases, line drawings
or actual pictures of the organisms are
provided (Acanthamoeba, M. Nagata; URL:
http://protist.i.hosei.ac.jp/PDB/PCD3379
/htmls/21.html; Allomyces, Tom Volk;
URL:
http://botit.botany.wisc.edu/images/332/
Chytridiomycota/Allomyces_r_So_pa/A._arb
uscula_pit._sporangia_tjv.html;
Amoebidium, URL:
http://cgdc3.igmors.upsud.fr/microbiolog
ie/mesomycetozoaires.htm; Marchantia,
URL:
http://www.science.siu.edu/landplants/He
patophyta/images/March.female.JPEG
Scenedesmus, Entwisle et al.,
http://www.rbgsyd.gov.au/_data/page/1824
/Scenedesmus.gif). The color-coding of
the main groups (alternating between
dark and light blue) on the outer
circle corresponds to the color-coding
of the species names. Unbroken lines
indicate phylogenetic relationships
that are firmly supported by available
molecular data; broken lines indicate
uncertainties in phylogenetic
placement, resolution of which will
require additional sequence data. [t:
why not color code or add which type of
mito?]
source: http://arjournals.annualreviews.
org/doi/full/10.1146/annurev.genet.37.11
0801.142526
10
(Grypania).3 4 Grypania spiralis is
about 10 cm long, and is thought to be
either a green alga or a large
cyanobacterium.5 6 If eukaryote,
Grypania would be the earliest
eukaryote fossil.7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Han and Runnegar 1992. T.-M. Han
and B. Runnegar, Megascopic eukaryotic
algae from the 2.1-billion-year-old
Negaunee Iron-Formation, Michigan.
Science 257 (1992), pp.
232-235 http://www.sciencemag.org/conte
nt/257/5067/232
AND www.jstor.org/discover/10.2307/2877
532 {Han_Runnegar_Grypania_19920710.pdf
}
2. ^ Schneider et al 2002. D.A.
Schneider, M.E. Bickford, W.F. Cannon,
K.J. Schulz and M.A. Hamilton, Age of
volcanic rocks and syndepositional iron
formations, Marquette Range Supergroup;
implications for the tectonic setting
of Paleoproterozoic iron formations of
the Lake Superior region. Can. J. Earth
Sci. 39 6 (2002), pp. 999-1012.
3. ^ Han and
Runnegar 1992. T.-M. Han and B.
Runnegar, Megascopic eukaryotic algae
from the 2.1-billion-year-old Negaunee
Iron-Formation, Michigan. Science 257
(1992), pp.
232-235 http://www.sciencemag.org/conte
nt/257/5067/232
AND www.jstor.org/discover/10.2307/2877
532 {Han_Runnegar_Grypania_19920710.pdf
}
4. ^ Schneider et al 2002. D.A.
Schneider, M.E. Bickford, W.F. Cannon,
K.J. Schulz and M.A. Hamilton, Age of
volcanic rocks and syndepositional iron
formations, Marquette Range Supergroup;
implications for the tectonic setting
of Paleoproterozoic iron formations of
the Lake Superior region. Can. J. Earth
Sci. 39 6 (2002), pp. 999-1012.
5. ^ Han and
Runnegar 1992. T.-M. Han and B.
Runnegar, Megascopic eukaryotic algae
from the 2.1-billion-year-old Negaunee
Iron-Formation, Michigan. Science 257
(1992), pp.
232-235 http://www.sciencemag.org/conte
nt/257/5067/232
AND www.jstor.org/discover/10.2307/2877
532 {Han_Runnegar_Grypania_19920710.pdf
}
6. ^ Schneider et al 2002. D.A.
Schneider, M.E. Bickford, W.F. Cannon,
K.J. Schulz and M.A. Hamilton, Age of
volcanic rocks and syndepositional iron
formations, Marquette Range Supergroup;
implications for the tectonic setting
of Paleoproterozoic iron formations of
the Lake Superior region. Can. J. Earth
Sci. 39 6 (2002), pp. 999-1012.
7. ^ Zhu Shixing
and Chen Huineng, "Megascopic
Multicellular Organisms from the
1700-Million-Year-Old Tuanshanzi
Formation in the Jixian Area, North
China", Science , New Series, Vol. 270,
No. 5236 (Oct. 27, 1995), pp.
620-622. http://www.jstor.org/stable/28
88330 {Shixing_Huineng_19950331.pdf}
8. ^ Han and Runnegar 1992. T.-M. Han
and B. Runnegar, Megascopic eukaryotic
algae from the 2.1-billion-year-old
Negaunee Iron-Formation, Michigan.
Science 257 (1992), pp.
232-235 http://www.sciencemag.org/conte
nt/257/5067/232
AND www.jstor.org/discover/10.2307/2877
532 {Han_Runnegar_Grypania_19920710.pdf
}
9. ^ Schneider et al 2002. D.A.
Schneider, M.E. Bickford, W.F. Cannon,
K.J. Schulz and M.A. Hamilton, Age of
volcanic rocks and syndepositional iron
formations, Marquette Range Supergroup;
implications for the tectonic setting
of Paleoproterozoic iron formations of
the Lake Superior region. Can. J. Earth
Sci. 39 6 (2002), pp. 999-1012.
10. ^ Schneider
et al 2002. D.A. Schneider, M.E.
Bickford, W.F. Cannon, K.J. Schulz and
M.A. Hamilton, Age of volcanic rocks
and syndepositional iron formations,
Marquette Range Supergroup;
implications for the tectonic setting
of Paleoproterozoic iron formations of
the Lake Superior region. Can. J. Earth
Sci. 39 6 (2002), pp. 999-1012. {1874
mybn}
MORE INFO
[1] Samuelsson, Joakim, Peter R
Dawes, and Gonzalo Vidal.
“Organic-walled Microfossils from the
Proterozoic Thule Supergroup, Northwest
Greenland.” Precambrian Research
96.1–2 (1999):
1–23. http://www.sciencedirect.com/sc
ience/article/pii/S0301926898001235
[2] Jacques Dumais, Kyle Serikawa and
Dina F Mandoli, "Acetabularia: A
Unicellular Model for Understanding
Subcellular Localization and
Morphogenesis during Development",
Journal of Plant Growth
Regulation Volume 19, Number 3 (2000),
253-264, DOI:
10.1007/s003440000035 http://www.oeb.ha
rvard.edu/faculty/dumais/Publications/JP
GR2000.2.pdf
9
[1]
file:/root/web/Grypania_spiralis_wmel000
0.htm
source: file:/root/web/Grypania_spiralis
_wmel0000.htm
[2]
http://www.peripatus.gen.nz/paleontology
/lrgGrypaniaspiralis.jpg
source: http://www.peripatus.gen.nz/pale
ontology/lrgGrypaniaspiralis.jpg
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
2. ^ Richard
Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA:
Blackwell, 2005).
3. ^ Richard Cowen, "History
of Life", (Malden, MA: Blackwell,
2005).
[1] Ted Huntington PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/62/MichiganBIF.jpg
[2] Ted Huntington PD
source: Ted Huntington
7 8 9
genes regulate the building of major
body parts in algae, plants, fungi and
animals.5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p425,434.
2. ^ Richard Cowen,
"History of Life", (Malden, MA:
Blackwell, 2005).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p425,434.
4. ^ Richard
Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA:
Blackwell, 2005).
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p425,434.
6. ^ Richard
Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA:
Blackwell, 2005).
7. ^ Mukherjee K, Bürglin
TR, "MEKHLA, a novel domain with
similarity to PAS domains, is fused to
plant homeodomain-leucine zipper III
proteins.", Plant Physiol
2006;140:1142-1150. http://www.plantphy
siol.org/content/140/4/1142.full
8. ^ Mukherjee, Krishanu, Luciano
Brocchieri, and Thomas R. Bürglin.
“A Comprehensive Classification and
Evolutionary Analysis of Plant Homeobox
Genes.” Molecular Biology and
Evolution 26.12 (2009): 2775
-2794. http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/26/12/2775.short {1982 mybn (at
acrasid slime molds, before brown
algae}
9. ^ Jongmin Nam, Claude W.
dePamphilis, Hong Ma, and Masatoshi
Nei, "Antiquity and Evolution of the
MADS-Box Gene Family Controlling Flower
Development in Plants", Mol Biol Evol
(2003) 20(9): 1435-1447 first published
online May 30, 2003
doi:10.1093/molbev/msg152
http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/content/
20/9/1435.abstract {1982 mybn (at
acrasid slime molds, before brown
algae}
[1] {ULSF: Homeobox genes} Desajustes
en el modelo UNKNOWN
source: http://cnho.files.wordpress.com/
2010/07/hox_genes_illus.png
[2] {ULSF: Homeobox genes} UNKNOWN
source: http://cnho.files.wordpress.com/
2010/07/homeobox1.jpg
7 8
eukaryotes divides into bikont and
unikont descendants. Bikonts lead to
all Chromalveolates, Excavates,
Rhizaria, and Plants. Unikonts lead to
all Amoebozoa, Animals and Fungi.4 5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Stechmann A, Cavalier-Smith T,
"The root of the eukaryote tree
pinpointed.", 2003, Curr. Biol. 13,
R665–R666.
doi:10.1016/S0960-9822(03)00602-X. http
://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article
/pii/S096098220300602X
2. ^ Cédric Berney and Jan Pawlowski,
"A molecular time-scale for eukaryote
evolution recalibrated with the
continuous microfossil record", Proc.
R. Soc. B August 7, 2006 273:1867-1872;
doi:10.1098/rspb.2006.3537 http://rspb.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/273/1
596/1867.short
{Berney_Eukaryote_phylogeny_2006.pdf}
3. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield
NJ, Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D,
"Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources and
timing of the major events.", in:
Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors.
"Evolution of primary producers in the
sea.", Elsevier; 2007, p119.
4. ^ Stechmann
A, Cavalier-Smith T, "The root of the
eukaryote tree pinpointed.", 2003,
Curr. Biol. 13, R665–R666.
doi:10.1016/S0960-9822(03)00602-X. http
://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article
/pii/S096098220300602X
5. ^ Cédric Berney and Jan Pawlowski,
"A molecular time-scale for eukaryote
evolution recalibrated with the
continuous microfossil record", Proc.
R. Soc. B August 7, 2006 273:1867-1872;
doi:10.1098/rspb.2006.3537 http://rspb.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/273/1
596/1867.short
{Berney_Eukaryote_phylogeny_2006.pdf}
6. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield
NJ, Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D,
"Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources and
timing of the major events.", in:
Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors.
"Evolution of primary producers in the
sea.", Elsevier; 2007, p119.
7. ^ Cédric
Berney and Jan Pawlowski, "A molecular
time-scale for eukaryote evolution
recalibrated with the continuous
microfossil record", Proc. R. Soc. B
August 7, 2006 273:1867-1872;
doi:10.1098/rspb.2006.3537 http://rspb.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/273/1
596/1867.short
{Berney_Eukaryote_phylogeny_2006.pdf}
{problem with 1250 my bangia red algae
fossils)1126 mybn}
8. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS,
Butterfield NJ, Sanderson MJ,
Bhattacharya D, "Plastid endosymbiosis:
Sources and timing of the major
events.", in: Falkowski P, Knoll A,
editors. "Evolution of primary
producers in the sea.", Elsevier; 2007,
p119. {1570 mybn}
MORE INFO
[1] Thomas Cavalier-Smith, Ema
E.-Y. Chao, "Phylogeny of Choanozoa,
Apusozoa, and Other Protozoa and Early
Eukaryote Megaevolution", J Mol Evol
(2003) 56:540 563
[2] J Mol Evol (2003)
56:540 563 Phylogeny of Choanozoa,
Apusozoa, and Other Protozoa and Early
Eukaryote Megaevolution Thomas
Cavalier-Smith, Ema E.-Y. Chao
[1] Figure 1: Figure 1. Eukaryote
phylogeny integrating ultrastructure,
sequence trees, gene fusions and
molecular cladistic markers. The
unikont topology is established, but
the branching order of the six bikont
groups remains uncertain. The single
enslavement [12] of a red alga (R) to
create chromalveolates is supported by
a plastid glyceraldehyde phosphate
dehydrogenase (GAPDH) replacement [13].
Whether there was a single enslavement
of a green alga (G) to form cabozoa or
two separate enslavements (asterisks)
to form Cercozoa and Excavata is
uncertain [12], as is the position of
Heliozoa [14]. Polyubiquitin [15] and
EF-1α[16] insertions strongly support
the clades core Rhizaria and
opisthokonts. The inset shows the BamHI
restriction fragment from H.
cantabrigiensis that was sequenced and
analysed in this study, spanning the
DHFR and the amino terminus of the TS
gene (red, introns are green). The
length of the noncoding regions
upstream and downstream of the DHFR
gene from one of the clones is
indicated. Figure 1 from: Stechmann
A, Cavalier-Smith T, ''The root of the
eukaryote tree pinpointed.'', 2003,
Curr. Biol. 13, R665–R666.
doi:10.1016/S0960-9822(03)00602-X. http
://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article
/pii/S096098220300602X COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=MiamiCaptionURL&_method=retriev
e&_eid=1-s2.0-S096098220300602X&_image=1
-s2.0-S096098220300602X-gr1_lrg.jpg&_ba=
&_fmt=full&_orig=na&_issn=09609822&_pii=
S096098220300602X&_isHiQual=Y&_acct=C000
059600&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=
4422&md5=cec46b2161caca87740f4ff34545ab6
9
[2] cavalier-smith diagram COPYRIGHTED
source: cavalier_jmolevol_2003_56_540-56
3.pdf
7 8 9 10 11
slime molds).4 5 Feeding using
pseudopods.6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
2. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p515.
4. ^ S Blair Hedges,
Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi and
Jason L Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
5. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p515.
7. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon
HS, Butterfield NJ, Sanderson MJ,
Bhattacharya D, "Plastid endosymbiosis:
Sources and timing of the major
events.", in: Falkowski P, Knoll A,
editors. "Evolution of primary
producers in the sea.", Elsevier; 2007,
p119. {1520 mybn}
8. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS,
Butterfield NJ, Sanderson MJ,
Bhattacharya D, "Plastid endosymbiosis:
Sources and timing of the major
events.", in: Falkowski P, Knoll A,
editors. "Evolution of primary
producers in the sea.", Elsevier; 2007,
p120. {1400 my}
9. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime
E Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L
Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
(1587mybn)
10. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (c1400) {c1220}
11. ^ Cédric
Berney and Jan Pawlowski, "A molecular
time-scale for eukaryote evolution
recalibrated with the continuous
microfossil record", Proc. R. Soc. B
August 7, 2006 273:1867-1872;
doi:10.1098/rspb.2006.3537 http://rspb.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/273/1
596/1867.short {c1090}
MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.unige.ch/sciences/biologie/bi
ani/msg/Amoeboids/Amoebozoa/Conosea.html
[1] SUBPHYLUM Lobosa CLASS Amoebaea
Chaos diffluens, an amoeba. Photo
released by Dr. Ralf Wagner.
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Chaos_diffluens.jpg
[2] CLASS Amoebaea Mayorella (may-or
-ell-a) a medium sized free-living
naked amoeba with conical pseudopodia.
Central body is the nucleus. Phase
contrast. This picture was taken by
David Patterson of material from
Limulus-ridden sediments at Plum Island
(Massachusetts USA) in spring and
summer, 2001. NONCOMMERCIAL USE
source: http://microscope.mbl.edu/script
s/microscope.php?func=imgDetail&imageID=
515
2 3 4 5 6 7
colony1 ) evolves for the first time in
Eukaryotes.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "colonial." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 02
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/colonial
2. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield
NJ, Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D,
"Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources and
timing of the major events.", in:
Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors.
"Evolution of primary producers in the
sea.", Elsevier; 2007, p119. {1080
mybn}
3. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield
NJ, Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D,
"Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources and
timing of the major events.", in:
Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors.
"Evolution of primary producers in the
sea.", Elsevier; 2007, p119. {1080
mybn}
4. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
{1956 mybn}
5. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS,
Butterfield NJ, Sanderson MJ,
Bhattacharya D, "Plastid endosymbiosis:
Sources and timing of the major
events.", in: Falkowski P, Knoll A,
editors. "Evolution of primary
producers in the sea.", Elsevier; 2007,
p120. {1999 mybn}
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). (1600mybn)
7. ^ Russell F.
Doolittle, Da-Fei Feng, Simon Tsang,
Glen Cho, Elizabeth Little,
"Determining Divergence Times of the
Major Kingdoms of Living Organisms with
a Protein Clock", Science, (1996).
(1800-1900 for eukaryote/prokaryote
separation)
MORE INFO
[1]
http://biology.kenyon.edu/Microbial_Bior
ealm/eukaryotes/euglenozoa/euglenozoa.ht
m
[2]
http://www.sirinet.net/~jgjohnso/apbio30
.html
[1] [t Note that this Chrysophytes
{golden algae} do not evolve
genetically until much later - but I
can't find colonial euglinas or
kinetoplasts- dinobryon look very
similar to euglenas however, even with
a red eyespot- which implies a close
relation.] [1] Dinobryon, a colony of
Chrysophytes showing flagella and red
eyespots UNKNOWN
source: http://www.microscopy-uk.org.uk/
mag//imagsmall/Dinobryonb.jpg
[2] [t Note that this CHrysophytes
{golden algae} do not evolve
genetically until much later - but I
can't find colonial euglinas or
kinetoplasts] [2] golden algae colony
(synura) Scanning EM showing the
colony of cells covered with scales By
Joel Mancuso UNKNOWN
source: http://farm1.staticflickr.com/38
/110623789_7d189c795b_b.jpg
4 5 6 7 8 9 10
form plastids (chloroplasts) through
symbiosis, within a eukaryote cell
(endosymbiosis). Like mitochondria,
these organelles copy themselves and
are not made by the cell DNA.3
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The Origin and
Evolution of Model Organisms", Nature
Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
2. ^ S. Blair
Hedges, "The Origin and Evolution of
Model Organisms", Nature Reviews
Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
3. ^ S. Blair
Hedges, "The Origin and Evolution of
Model Organisms", Nature Reviews
Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
4. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS,
Butterfield NJ, Sanderson MJ,
Bhattacharya D, "Plastid endosymbiosis:
Sources and timing of the major
events.", in: Falkowski P, Knoll A,
editors. "Evolution of primary
producers in the sea.", Elsevier; 2007,
p119. {1300 mybn}
7. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS,
Butterfield NJ, Sanderson MJ,
Bhattacharya D, "Plastid endosymbiosis:
Sources and timing of the major
events.", in: Falkowski P, Knoll A,
editors. "Evolution of primary
producers in the sea.", Elsevier; 2007,
p120. {c1600 my}
8. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The
Origin and Evolution of Model
Organisms", Nature Reviews Genetics 3,
838-849; doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).,
see comments {1576 MYBN}
9. ^ Knoll A,
Summons R, Waldbauer J, Zumberge J,
"The Geological Succession of Primary
Producers in the Oceans", in: Falkowski
P, Knoll A, editors. "Evolution of
primary producers in the sea.",
Elsevier; 2007, p152. {no later than)
1200 my}
10. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The Origin
and Evolution of Model Organisms",
Nature Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002)., see
comments {1576 MYBN} {needs to be at
least as old as Euglenozoa since many
have plastids)1956} {Euglenozoa)1956}
MORE INFO
[1] "Plastid". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastid
[2] Butterfield N. J. A. H. Knoll K.
Swett, "A bangiophyte red alga from the
Proterozoic of Arctic Canada.", Science
1990 vol 250 1990,
p104-107. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2
877905
[1] Description Plagiomnium
affine, Laminazellen, Rostock Date
created 01.11.2006 Source
photographed by myself Author
Kristian Peters --
Fabelfroh Permission (Reusing this
file) GFDL
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/49/Plagiomnium_affine_la
minazellen.jpeg
21 22 23 24 25 26 27
and red algae and land plants).11 12 13
14 15
This begins the plant kingdom. This
first plant is unicellular.16 17 18 19
20
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148
/4/2
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^ Seung Yeo Moon-van der
Staay, Rupert De Wachter, Daniel
Vaulot, "Oceanic 18S rDNA sequences
from picoplankton reveal unsuspected
eukaryotic diversity", Nature, (2001).
4. ^
Elizabeth Pennisi, "Drafting a Tree",
Science, (2003).
5. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The
Origin and Evolution of Model
Organisms", Nature Reviews Genetics 3,
838-849; doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
http://www.nature.com/nrg/journal/v3/n
11/abs/nrg929.html
6. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148
/4/2
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
8. ^ Seung Yeo Moon-van der
Staay, Rupert De Wachter, Daniel
Vaulot, "Oceanic 18S rDNA sequences
from picoplankton reveal unsuspected
eukaryotic diversity", Nature, (2001).
9. ^
Elizabeth Pennisi, "Drafting a Tree",
Science, (2003).
10. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The
Origin and Evolution of Model
Organisms", Nature Reviews Genetics 3,
838-849; doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
http://www.nature.com/nrg/journal/v3/n
11/abs/nrg929.html
11. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148
/4/2
12. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
13. ^ Seung Yeo Moon-van der
Staay, Rupert De Wachter, Daniel
Vaulot, "Oceanic 18S rDNA sequences
from picoplankton reveal unsuspected
eukaryotic diversity", Nature, (2001).
14. ^
Elizabeth Pennisi, "Drafting a Tree",
Science, (2003).
15. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The
Origin and Evolution of Model
Organisms", Nature Reviews Genetics 3,
838-849; doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
http://www.nature.com/nrg/journal/v3/n
11/abs/nrg929.html
16. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148
/4/2
17. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
18. ^ Seung Yeo Moon-van der
Staay, Rupert De Wachter, Daniel
Vaulot, "Oceanic 18S rDNA sequences
from picoplankton reveal unsuspected
eukaryotic diversity", Nature, (2001).
19. ^
Elizabeth Pennisi, "Drafting a Tree",
Science, (2003).
20. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The
Origin and Evolution of Model
Organisms", Nature Reviews Genetics 3,
838-849; doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
http://www.nature.com/nrg/journal/v3/n
11/abs/nrg929.html
21. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (c1500)
22. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon
HS, Butterfield NJ, Sanderson MJ,
Bhattacharya D, "Plastid endosymbiosis:
Sources and timing of the major
events.", in: Falkowski P, Knoll A,
editors. "Evolution of primary
producers in the sea.", Elsevier; 2007,
p119. {first plastid) 1300mybn}
23. ^ Hackett JD,
Yoon HS, Butterfield NJ, Sanderson MJ,
Bhattacharya D, "Plastid endosymbiosis:
Sources and timing of the major
events.", in: Falkowski P, Knoll A,
editors. "Evolution of primary
producers in the sea.", Elsevier; 2007.
{first plastid) c1600}
24. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon
HS, Butterfield NJ, Sanderson MJ,
Bhattacharya D, "Plastid endosymbiosis:
Sources and timing of the major
events.", in: Falkowski P, Knoll A,
editors. "Evolution of primary
producers in the sea.", Elsevier; 2007,
p120. {1550 mybn}
25. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime
E Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L
Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148
/4/2 (1609 mybn)
26. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The
Origin and Evolution of Model
Organisms", Nature Reviews Genetics 3,
838-849; doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
{1580} http://www.nature.com/nrg/journa
l/v3/n11/abs/nrg929.html
27. ^ Han and Runnegar 1992. T.-M. Han
and B. Runnegar, Megascopic eukaryotic
algae from the 2.1-billion-year-old
Negaunee Iron-Formation, Michigan.
Science 257 (1992), pp.
232-235 science_2100_han_runnegar_algal
_cysts.pdf {fossil Grypania) 1874my}
MORE INFO
[1] Thomas Cavalier-Smith and Ema
E. -Y. Chao, "Phylogeny of Choanozoa,
Apusozoa, and Other Protozoa and Early
Eukaryote Megaevolution", Springer New
York,
(2003). file:///home/ted/ulsf/docs/cav-
smith_apusozoa_fulltext.html
[1] ? COPYRIGHTED
source: http://protist.i.hosei.ac.jp/PDB
3/PCD3711/htmls/86.html
[2] (See Image) COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). (c1500)
5 6 7 8 9
Fungi, Choanoflagellates and Animals).3
4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield
NJ, Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D,
"Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources and
timing of the major events.", in:
Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors.
"Evolution of primary producers in the
sea.", Elsevier; 2007.
2. ^ S. Blair Hedges
and Sudhir Kumar, "The TimeTree of
Life", 2009,
p117-118. http://www.timetree.org/book.
php
3. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield
NJ, Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D,
"Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources and
timing of the major events.", in:
Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors.
"Evolution of primary producers in the
sea.", Elsevier; 2007.
4. ^ S. Blair Hedges
and Sudhir Kumar, "The TimeTree of
Life", 2009,
p117-118. http://www.timetree.org/book.
php
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS,
Butterfield NJ, Sanderson MJ,
Bhattacharya D, "Plastid endosymbiosis:
Sources and timing of the major
events.", in: Falkowski P, Knoll A,
editors. "Evolution of primary
producers in the sea.", Elsevier; 2007,
p119. {1380 mybn}
7. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS,
Butterfield NJ, Sanderson MJ,
Bhattacharya D, "Plastid endosymbiosis:
Sources and timing of the major
events.", in: Falkowski P, Knoll A,
editors. "Evolution of primary
producers in the sea.", Elsevier; 2007,
p120. {1400mybn}
8. ^ S. Blair Hedges and Sudhir
Kumar, "The TimeTree of Life", 2009,
p117-118. http://www.timetree.org/book.
php {1600 mybn}
9. ^ Cédric Berney and Jan
Pawlowski, "A molecular time-scale for
eukaryote evolution recalibrated with
the continuous microfossil record",
Proc. R. Soc. B August 7, 2006
273:1867-1872;
doi:10.1098/rspb.2006.3537 http://rspb.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/273/1
596/1867.short {960 mybn}
[1] Parasite spore, SEM Z115/0073
Rights Managed Credit: EYE OF
SCIENCE/SCIENCE PHOTO
LIBRARY Caption: Parasite spore.
Coloured scanning electron micrograph
(SEM) of a microsporidian (Tubulinosema
ratisbonensis) spore cultured on human
lung fibroblast cells (brown).
Microsporidia are single-celled
parasites. T. ratisbonenesis is a
parasite of the fruit fly (Drosophila
melanogaster), but may also be able to
infect humans with weakened immune
systems. The spore is the infective
phase of the life cycle. It is excreted
by the old host and enters the gut of a
new host. The contents of the spore,
the sporoplasm, is injected into the
host's cell via the polar tubule. Once
in the cell the organism divides many
times with the resultant organisms
producing more spores. Magnification:
x10,000 at 10 centimetres
wide. Release details: Model and
property releases are not available
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.sciencephoto.com/imag
e/365473/large/Z1150073-Parasite_spore,_
SEM-SPL.jpg
[2] Parasite spore, SEM Z115/0073
Rights Managed Credit: EYE OF
SCIENCE/SCIENCE PHOTO
LIBRARY Caption: Parasite spore.
Coloured scanning electron micrograph
(SEM) of a microsporidian (Tubulinosema
ratisbonensis) spore cultured on human
lung fibroblast cells (brown).
Microsporidia are single-celled
parasites. T. ratisbonenesis is a
parasite of the fruit fly (Drosophila
melanogaster), but may also be able to
infect humans with weakened immune
systems. The spore is the infective
phase of the life cycle. It is excreted
by the old host and enters the gut of a
new host. The contents of the spore,
the sporoplasm, is injected into the
host's cell via the polar tubule. Once
in the cell the organism divides many
times with the resultant organisms
producing more spores. Magnification:
x10,000 at 10 centimetres
wide. Release details: Model and
property releases are not available
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.sciencephoto.com/imag
e/365473/large/Z1150073-Parasite_spore,_
SEM-SPL.jpg
9 10 11 12 13 14 15
7 8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=glauco
phytes&submit=Submit
2. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The Origin and
Evolution of Model Organisms", Nature
Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
3. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
4. ^ Hwan Su Yoon, Jeremiah D. Hackett,
Claudia Ciniglia, Gabriele Pinto and
Debashish, "A Molecular Timeline for
the Origin of Photosynthetic
Eukaryotes", Molecular Biology and
Evolution, (2004).
5. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=glauco
phytes&submit=Submit
6. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The Origin and
Evolution of Model Organisms", Nature
Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
7. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
8. ^ Hwan Su Yoon, Jeremiah D. Hackett,
Claudia Ciniglia, Gabriele Pinto and
Debashish, "A Molecular Timeline for
the Origin of Photosynthetic
Eukaryotes", Molecular Biology and
Evolution, (2004).
9. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). (c1400)
10. ^ Hackett
JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield NJ, Sanderson
MJ, Bhattacharya D, "Plastid
endosymbiosis: Sources and timing of
the major events.", in: Falkowski P,
Knoll A, editors. "Evolution of primary
producers in the sea.", Elsevier; 2007,
p119.
11. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield
NJ, Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D,
"Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources and
timing of the major events.", in:
Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors.
"Evolution of primary producers in the
sea.", Elsevier; 2007, p119. {1150
mybn}
12. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield
NJ, Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D,
"Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources and
timing of the major events.", in:
Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors.
"Evolution of primary producers in the
sea.", Elsevier; 2007. {c1290 mybn}
13. ^ S.
Blair Hedges and Sudhir Kumar, "The
TimeTree of Life", 2009,
p117-118. http://www.timetree.org/book.
php {1225 mybn}
14. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The
Origin and Evolution of Model
Organisms", Nature Reviews Genetics 3,
838-849 (2002); doi:10.1038/nrg929,
(2002). (c1500my)
15. ^ Hwan Su Yoon, Jeremiah D.
Hackett, Claudia Ciniglia, Gabriele
Pinto and Debashish, "A Molecular
Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution, (2004). (1558my)
MORE INFO
[1]
http://microscope.mbl.edu/scripts/protis
t.php?func=integrate&myID=P6064
[1] ? COPYRIGHTED
source: http://protist.i.hosei.ac.jp/PDB
3/PCD3711/htmls/86.html
[2] ? COPYRIGHTED
source: http://protist.i.hosei.ac.jp/PDB
/Images/Others/Glaucocystis/
12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21
evolve, Green Algae: (ancestor of
Volvox, Sea lettuce, Spirogyra, and
Stoneworts).7 8 9 10 11
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E
Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L
Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
3. ^ Daniel
S. Heckman,1 David M. Geiser,2 Brooke
R. Eidell,1 Rebecca L. Stauffer,1
Natalie L. Kardos, "Molecular Evidence
for the Early Colonization of Land by
Fungi and Plants", Science 10 August
2001: Vol. 293. no. 5532, pp. 1129 -
1133 DOI: 10.1126/science.1061457,
(2001).
4. ^ M. J. Benton, "The Fossil Record
2", (London; New York: Chapman & Hall,
1993). fr2b
5. ^
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/greenalgae/
greenalgae.html
6. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=chloro
phyta&submit=Submit
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
8. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E
Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L
Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
9. ^ Daniel
S. Heckman,1 David M. Geiser,2 Brooke
R. Eidell,1 Rebecca L. Stauffer,1
Natalie L. Kardos, "Molecular Evidence
for the Early Colonization of Land by
Fungi and Plants", Science 10 August
2001: Vol. 293. no. 5532, pp. 1129 -
1133 DOI: 10.1126/science.1061457,
(2001).
10. ^ M. J. Benton, "The Fossil Record
2", (London; New York: Chapman & Hall,
1993). fr2b
11. ^
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/greenalgae/
greenalgae.html
12. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (1300mybn)
13. ^ "algae."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 18 Dec.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/14828/algae>.
14. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield
NJ, Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D,
"Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources and
timing of the major events.", in:
Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors.
"Evolution of primary producers in the
sea.", Elsevier; 2007, p119. {1150
mybn}
15. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield
NJ, Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D,
"Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources and
timing of the major events.", in:
Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors.
"Evolution of primary producers in the
sea.", Elsevier; 2007, p120. {1450mybn}
16. ^ S
Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L
Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A molecular
timescale of eukaryote evolution and
the rise of complex multicellular
life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004,
4:2 doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2,
(2004). (968mybn)
17. ^ Daniel S. Heckman,1
David M. Geiser,2 Brooke R. Eidell,1
Rebecca L. Stauffer,1 Natalie L.
Kardos, "Molecular Evidence for the
Early Colonization of Land by Fungi and
Plants", Science 10 August 2001: Vol.
293. no. 5532, pp. 1129 - 1133 DOI:
10.1126/science.1061457, (2001).
(1061?)
18. ^ M. J. Benton, "The Fossil Record
2", (London; New York: Chapman & Hall,
1993). fr2b (1650-800mybn)
19. ^
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/greenalgae/
greenalgae.html (1000my)
20. ^ Herman N,
"Organic World One Billion Years Ago",
Nauka, Leningrad, 1990.
21. ^ Knoll A,
Summons R, Waldbauer J, Zumberge J,
"The Geological Succession of Primary
Producers in the Oceans", in: Falkowski
P, Knoll A, editors. "Evolution of
primary producers in the sea.",
Elsevier; 2007, p150.
[1] Description Flagellar pit of
Pyramimonas sp. / from Nigaku-Ike of
University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Ibaraki
Pref., Japan / SEM:JEOL JSM-6330F /
scale bar = 1.0μm Date 2009-05-04
18:30 (UTC) Source
Pyramimonas_sp.jpg Author
Pyramimonas_sp.jpg: ja:User:NEON /
User:NEON_ja derivative work:
Addicted04 (talk) CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/cb/Pyramimonas_sp_color.
jpg
[2] Micrograph of Volvox aureus.
Copyright held by Dr. Ralf Wagner,
uploaded to German Wikipedia under
GFDL. Permission is granted to copy,
distribute and/or modify this document
under the terms of the GNU Free
Documentation License, Version 1.2 or
any later version published by the Free
Software Foundation; with no Invariant
Sections, no Front-Cover Texts, and no
Back-Cover Texts. Subject to
disclaimers.
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vol
vox
7 8 9 10
(Rhodophyta {rODOFITu4 }).5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=rhodop
hyta&submit=Submit
2. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
3. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
4. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=rhodop
hyta&submit=Submit
5. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
6. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (1300mybn)
8. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon
HS, Butterfield NJ, Sanderson MJ,
Bhattacharya D, "Plastid endosymbiosis:
Sources and timing of the major
events.", in: Falkowski P, Knoll A,
editors. "Evolution of primary
producers in the sea.", Elsevier; 2007,
p120. {1450 mybn}
9. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime
E Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L
Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
(1428mybn)
10. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield
NJ, Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D,
"Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources and
timing of the major events.", in:
Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors.
"Evolution of primary producers in the
sea.", Elsevier; 2007, p119.
MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.sirinet.net/~jgjohnso/apbio30
.html
[1] Close-up of a red alga (Genus?
Laurencia), Class Florideophyceae,
Order=? a marine seaweed from Hawaii.
GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Laurencia.jpg
[2] Bangia atropurpurea Profile:
unbranched filaments in tufts. Often
forming dense fringes in the spalsh
zone. Uniseriate at base, multiseriate
above with protoplasts separate in a
firm gelatinous sheath. Stellate
chloroplasts. US NOAA PD
source: http://www.glerl.noaa.gov/seagra
nt/GLWL/Algae/Rhodophyta/Cards/Bangia.ht
ml
11 12 13 14 15 16 17
Parabasalids {PaRu-BAS-a-liDS5 }, and
Diplomonads {DiP-lO-mO-naDZ6 } {like
Giardia {JE-oR-DE-u7 }).8 9 10
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=giardi
a&submit=Submit
2. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148
/4/2
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
4. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The
Origin and Evolution of Model
Organisms", Nature Reviews Genetics 3,
838-849; doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
5. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=paraba
salid&submit=Submit
6. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=diplom
onads&submit=Submit
7. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=giardi
a&submit=Submit
8. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148
/4/2
9. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
10. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The
Origin and Evolution of Model
Organisms", Nature Reviews Genetics 3,
838-849; doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
11. ^
Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield NJ,
Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D, "Plastid
endosymbiosis: Sources and timing of
the major events.", in: Falkowski P,
Knoll A, editors. "Evolution of primary
producers in the sea.", Elsevier; 2007,
p119. {1300 mybn}
12. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS,
Butterfield NJ, Sanderson MJ,
Bhattacharya D, "Plastid endosymbiosis:
Sources and timing of the major
events.", in: Falkowski P, Knoll A,
editors. "Evolution of primary
producers in the sea.", Elsevier; 2007,
p120. {2000 my}
13. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime
E Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L
Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
{2291} {2291 my}
14. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). {1600}
{1600 my}
15. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The
Origin and Evolution of Model
Organisms", Nature Reviews Genetics 3,
838-849; doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
{2230} {2230 my}
16. ^ S. Blair Hedges and
Sudhir Kumar, "The TimeTree of Life",
2009,
p117-118. http://www.timetree.org/book.
php {1594 my}
17. ^ Cédric Berney and Jan
Pawlowski, "A molecular time-scale for
eukaryote evolution recalibrated with
the continuous microfossil record",
Proc. R. Soc. B August 7, 2006
273:1867-1872;
doi:10.1098/rspb.2006.3537 http://rspb.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/273/1
596/1867.short {1030 mybn}
MORE INFO
[1] "Heterokonts". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heterokonts
[2] http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/
[1] A timescale of eukaryote evolution.
The times for each node are taken from
the summary times in Table 1, except
for nodes 1 (310 Ma), 2 (360 Ma), 3
(450 Ma), and 4 (520 Ma), which are
from the fossil record [25]; nodes 8
(1450 Ma) and 16 (1587 Ma) are
phylogenetically constrained and are
the midpoints between adjacent nodes.
Nodes 12–14 were similar in time and
therefore shown as a multifurcation at
1000 Ma; likewise, nodes 21–22 are
shown as a multifurcation at 1967 Ma.
The star indicates the occurrence of
red algae in the fossil record at 1200
Ma, the oldest taxonomically
identifiable eukaryote [12]. Hedges
et al. BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004
4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.biomedcentral.com/con
tent/figures/1471-2148-4-2-2.jpg
[2] Giardia lamblia, a parasitic
flagellate that causes giardiasis.
Image from public domain source at
http://www.nigms.nih.gov/news/releases/i
mages/para.jpg
source: http://www.nigms.nih.gov/news/re
leases/images/para.jpg
8 9 10 11 12 13
Eukaryotes evolves.5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Schneider et al 2002. D.A.
Schneider, M.E. Bickford, W.F. Cannon,
K.J. Schulz and M.A. Hamilton, Age of
volcanic rocks and syndepositional iron
formations, Marquette Range Supergroup;
implications for the tectonic setting
of Paleoproterozoic iron formations of
the Lake Superior region. Can. J. Earth
Sci. 39 6 (2002), pp. 999-1012.
2. ^ Han and
Runnegar 1992. T.-M. Han and B.
Runnegar, Megascopic eukaryotic algae
from the 2.1-billion-year-old Negaunee
Iron-Formation, Michigan. Science 257
(1992), pp.
232-235 science_2100_han_runnegar_algal
_cysts.pdf
3. ^ Schneider et al 2002. D.A.
Schneider, M.E. Bickford, W.F. Cannon,
K.J. Schulz and M.A. Hamilton, Age of
volcanic rocks and syndepositional iron
formations, Marquette Range Supergroup;
implications for the tectonic setting
of Paleoproterozoic iron formations of
the Lake Superior region. Can. J. Earth
Sci. 39 6 (2002), pp. 999-1012.
4. ^ Han and
Runnegar 1992. T.-M. Han and B.
Runnegar, Megascopic eukaryotic algae
from the 2.1-billion-year-old Negaunee
Iron-Formation, Michigan. Science 257
(1992), pp.
232-235 science_2100_han_runnegar_algal
_cysts.pdf
5. ^ Schneider et al 2002. D.A.
Schneider, M.E. Bickford, W.F. Cannon,
K.J. Schulz and M.A. Hamilton, Age of
volcanic rocks and syndepositional iron
formations, Marquette Range Supergroup;
implications for the tectonic setting
of Paleoproterozoic iron formations of
the Lake Superior region. Can. J. Earth
Sci. 39 6 (2002), pp. 999-1012.
6. ^ Han and
Runnegar 1992. T.-M. Han and B.
Runnegar, Megascopic eukaryotic algae
from the 2.1-billion-year-old Negaunee
Iron-Formation, Michigan. Science 257
(1992), pp.
232-235 science_2100_han_runnegar_algal
_cysts.pdf
7. ^ Butterfield N. J. A. H. Knoll K.
Swett, "A bangiophyte red alga from the
Proterozoic of Arctic Canada.", Science
1990 vol 250 1990,
p104-107. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2
877905
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Butterfield N. J. A. H.
Knoll K. Swett, "A bangiophyte red alga
from the Proterozoic of Arctic
Canada.", Science 1990 vol 250 1990,
p104-107. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2
877905 {Bangia) 1250 mybn}
10. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
11. ^ Schneider et al 2002. D.A.
Schneider, M.E. Bickford, W.F. Cannon,
K.J. Schulz and M.A. Hamilton, Age of
volcanic rocks and syndepositional iron
formations, Marquette Range Supergroup;
implications for the tectonic setting
of Paleoproterozoic iron formations of
the Lake Superior region. Can. J. Earth
Sci. 39 6 (2002), pp. 999-1012. {1874
mybn} {Grypania)1874 mybn}
12. ^ Han and
Runnegar 1992. T.-M. Han and B.
Runnegar, Megascopic eukaryotic algae
from the 2.1-billion-year-old Negaunee
Iron-Formation, Michigan. Science 257
(1992), pp.
232-235 science_2100_han_runnegar_algal
_cysts.pdf {1874 mybn} {Grypania)1874
mybn}
13. ^ Campbell, Reece, et al,
"Biology", Eigth Edition, 2009, p517.
MORE INFO
[1] Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p497-506.
(c850my)
[2] S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
(1351my)
[3] Ted huntington, Estimate based on
origin of brown algae around
1,973,000,000
Formation) Somerset Island, arctic
Canada7
[1] Bodanella (bow-dan-ell-a)
lauterbornii, a branching filamentous
brown alga. Nearly all brown algae are
marine organisms, but this species is
found in the bottoms of freshwater
lakes. Bright field. data on this
strain. This image is of material
from Provasoli-Guillard National Center
for Culture of Marine Phytoplankton,
images taken by David Patterson and Bob
Andersen. Image copyright: Bob Andersen
and D. J. Patterson, image used under
license to MBL
(micro*scope). NONCOMMERCIAL USE ONLY
source: http://starcentral.mbl.edu/msr/r
awdata/files/bodonella_bgz.zip
[2] Bodanella (bow-dan-ell-a)
lauterbornii, a branching filamentous
brown alga. Nearly all brown algae are
marine organisms, but this species is
found in the bottoms of freshwater
lakes. Bright field. data on this
strain. This image is of material
from Provasoli-Guillard National Center
for Culture of Marine Phytoplankton,
images taken by David Patterson and Bob
Andersen. Image copyright: Bob Andersen
and D. J. Patterson, image used under
license to MBL
(micro*scope). NONCOMMERCIAL USE ONLY
source: http://starcentral.mbl.edu/msr/r
awdata/viewable/bodonella_bgw.jpg
1 2 3
eukaryote. Gamete (or spore) cells and
somatic cells. Unlike gamete cells,
somatic cells are asexual (non-fusing).
Start of death by aging.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "cell differentiation."
McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Science and
Technology. The McGraw-Hill Companies,
Inc., 2005. Answers.com 25 Mar. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cell-differ
entiation
2. ^ Butterfield N. J. A. H. Knoll K.
Swett, "A bangiophyte red alga from the
Proterozoic of Arctic Canada.", Science
1990 vol 250 1990,
p104-107. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2
877905 {Bangia) 1250 mybn}
3. ^ Butterfield
N. J. A. H. Knoll K. Swett, "A
bangiophyte red alga from the
Proterozoic of Arctic Canada.", Science
1990 vol 250 1990,
p104-107. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2
877905 {Bangia) 1250 mybn}
[1] Volvoxcell differentiation. The
pathways leading to germ cells or
somatic cells are controlled by genes
that cause cells to follow one or the
other fate. Mutations can prevent the
formation of one of these lineages.
http://www.devbio.com/chap02/link0204.sh
tml Although all the volvocaceans,
like their unicellular relative
Chlamydomonas, reproduce predominantly
by asexual means, they are also capable
of sexual reproduction, which involves
the production and fusion of haploid
gametes. In many species of
Chlamydomonas, including the one
illustrated in Figure 2.10, sexual
reproduction is isogamous (“the same
gametes”), since the haploid gametes
that meet are similar in size,
structure, and motility. However, in
other species of Chlamydomonas—as
well as many species of colonial
volvocaceans—swimming gametes of very
different sizes are produced by the
different mating types. This pattern is
called heterogamy (“different
gametes”). But the larger
volvocaceans have evolved a specialized
form of heterogamy, called oogamy,
which involves the production of large,
relatively immotile eggs by one mating
type and small, motile sperm by the
other (see Sidelights and
Speculations) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/book
s/NBK10031/bin/ch2f12.jpg
[2] Description English: Four
Different Species of Volvocales Algae.
(A) Gonium pectorale, (B) Eudorina
elegans, (C) Pleodorina californica,
and (D) Volvox carteri. These are
unicellular organisms that live in
colonies and have both large and small
gametes. Date Published: June 15,
2004 Source Whitfield J:
Everything You Always Wanted to Know
about Sexes. PLoS Biol 2/6/2004: e183.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.0
020183 Author Photo courtesy of
Aurora M. Nedelcu, from the Volvocales
Information Project
(http://www.unbf.ca/vip/index.htm). Per
mission (Reusing this file) See
below. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c5/Volvocales.png
1 2 3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Butterfield N. J. A. H.
Knoll K. Swett, "A bangiophyte red alga
from the Proterozoic of Arctic
Canada.", Science 1990 vol 250 1990,
p104-107. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2
877905
3. ^ S Blair Hedges, Hsiong Chen,
Sudhir Kumar, Daniel YC Wang, Amanda S
Thompson and Hidemi Wa, "A genomic
timescale for the origin of
eukaryotes", BMC Evolutionary Biology
2001, 1:4
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-1-4,
(2001). http://www.biomedcentral.com/14
71-2148/1/4 {Nucleus 2700 -80mybn
guess}
[1] Mitosis divides genetic information
during cell division Source:
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/About/primer
/genetics_cell.html This image is
from the Science Primer, a work of the
National Center for Biotechnology
Information, part of the National
Institutes of Health. As a work of the
U.S. federal government, the image is
in the public domain.
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mit
osis
[2] Prophase: The two round objects
above the nucleus are the centrosomes.
Note the condensed chromatin. from
Gray's Anatomy. Unless stated
otherwise, it is from the online
edition of the 20th U.S. edition of
Gray's Anatomy of the Human Body,
originally published in 1918. Online
editions can be found on Bartleby and
also on Yahoo!
source: UNKNOWN
3 4 5
occurs in both haploid and diploid life
stages).2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ John Ringo, "Fundamental
Genetics", 2004, p201.
2. ^ John Ringo,
"Fundamental Genetics", 2004, p201.
3. ^ Ted
Huntington.
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
5. ^ Butterfield N. J. A. H.
Knoll K. Swett, "A bangiophyte red alga
from the Proterozoic of Arctic
Canada.", Science 1990 vol 250 1990,
p104-107. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2
877905
MORE INFO
[1] Mark Kirkpatrick, "The
evolution of haploid-diploid life
cycles", 1994,
p10. http://books.google.com/books?id=X
sgoLnXLIswC&pg=PA10
[1] Drawn by self for Biological life
cycle Based on Freeman & Worth's
Biology of Plants (p. 171). GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Sporic_meiosis.png
[2] Drawn by self for Biological life
cycle Based on Freeman & Worth's
Biology of Plants (p. 171). GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Sporic_meiosis.png
7 8
endosymbiosis, becomes a plastid in the
ancestor of all chromalveolates.3 4 5
This is a secondary plastid
endosymbiosis, where an algae cell is
captured instead of a cyanobacterium.6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ CAVALIER-SMITH, THOMAS.
“Economy, Speed and Size Matter:
Evolutionary Forces Driving Nuclear
Genome Miniaturization and
Expansion.” Annals of Botany 95.1
(2005) : 147 -175.
Print. http://aob.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/95/1/147.short
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
4. ^ CAVALIER-SMITH, THOMAS.
“Economy, Speed and Size Matter:
Evolutionary Forces Driving Nuclear
Genome Miniaturization and
Expansion.” Annals of Botany 95.1
(2005) : 147 -175.
Print. http://aob.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/95/1/147.short
5. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield
NJ, Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D,
"Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources and
timing of the major events.", in:
Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors.
"Evolution of primary producers in the
sea.", Elsevier; 2007.
6. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon
HS, Butterfield NJ, Sanderson MJ,
Bhattacharya D, "Plastid endosymbiosis:
Sources and timing of the major
events.", in: Falkowski P, Knoll A,
editors. "Evolution of primary
producers in the sea.", Elsevier; 2007.
7. ^
Yoon, Hwan Su et al. “A Molecular
Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes.” Molecular
Biology and Evolution 21.5 (2004): 809
-818.
Print. http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/21/5/809.abstract {1274 mybn}
8. ^
Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004). {1280mybn}
[1] Fig. 2. The tree of life based
on molecular, ultrastructural and
palaeontological evidence. Contrary to
widespread assumptions, the root is
among the eubacteria, probably within
the double-enveloped Negibacteria, not
between eubacteria and archaebacteria
(Cavalier-Smith, 2002b); it may lie
between Eobacteria and other
Negibacteria (Cavalier-Smith, 2002b).
The position of the eukaryotic root has
been nearly as controversial, but is
less hard to establish: it probably
lies between unikonts and bikonts (Lang
et al., 2002; Stechmann and
Cavalier-Smith, 2002, 2003). For
clarity the basal eukaryotic kingdom
Protozoa is not labelled; it comprises
four major groups (alveolates, cabozoa,
Amoebozoa and Choanozoa) plus the small
bikont phylum Apusozoa of unclear
precise position; whether Heliozoa are
protozoa as shown or chromists is
uncertain (Cavalier-Smith, 2003b).
Symbiogenetic cell enslavement occurred
four or five times: in the origin of
mitochondria and chloroplasts from
different negibacteria, of
chromalveolates by the enslaving of a
red alga (Cavalier-Smith, 1999, 2003;
Harper and Keeling, 2003) and in the
origin of the green plastids of
euglenoid (excavate) and chlorarachnean
(cercozoan) algae—a green algal cell
was enslaved either by the ancestral
cabozoan (arrow) or (less likely) twice
independently within excavates and
Cercozoa (asterisks) (Cavalier-Smith,
2003a). The upper thumbnail sketch
shows membrane topology in the
chimaeric cryptophytes (class
Cryptophyceae of the phylum Cryptista);
in the ancestral chromist the former
food vacuole membrane fused with the
rough endoplasmic reticulum placing the
enslaved cell within its lumen (red) to
yield the complex membrane topology
shown. The large host nucleus and the
tiny nucleomorph are shown in blue,
chloroplast green and mitochondrion
purple. In chlorarachneans (class
Chlorarachnea of phylum Cercozoa) the
former food vacuole membrane remained
topologically distinct from the ER to
become an epiplastid membrane and so
did not acquire ribosomes on its
surface, but their membrane topology is
otherwise similar to the cryptophytes.
The other sketches portray the four
major kinds of cell in the living world
and their membrane topology. The upper
ones show the contrasting ancestral
microtubular cytoskeleton (ciliary
roots, in red) of unikonts (a cone of
single microtubules attaching the
single centriole to the nucleus, blue)
and bikonts (two bands of microtubules
attached to the posterior centriole and
an anterior fan of microtubules
attached to the anterior centriole).
The lower ones show the single plasma
membrane of unibacteria (posibacteria
plus archaebacteria), which were
ancestral to eukaryotes and the double
envelope of negibacteria, which were
ancestral to mitochondria and
chloroplasts (which retained the outer
membrane, red). COPYRIGHTED
source: http://aob.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/95/1/147/F2.large.jpg
[2] Figure 3: Fig. 3. Schematic
representation of the evolutionary
relationships and divergence times for
the red, green, glaucophyte, and
chromist algae. These photosynthetic
groups are outgroup-rooted with the
Opisthokonta which putatively
ancestrally lacked a plastid. The
branches on which the cyanobacterial
(CB) primary and red algal chromist
secondary endosymbioses occurred are
shown Figure 3 from: Yoon, Hwan Su
et al. “A Molecular Timeline for the
Origin of Photosynthetic Eukaryotes.”
Molecular Biology and Evolution 21.5
(2004): 809 -818.
Print. http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/21/5/809.abstract COPYRIGHTED
source: http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/21/5/809/F3.large.jpg
15 16 17 18 19 20
{KrOM-aL-VEO-leTS8 } (ancestor of
Chromista {Cryptophytes, Haptophytes
and Stramenopiles {STro-meN-o-Pi-lEZ9
}} and Alveolates {aL-VEO-leTS10 }).11
12 13 14
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=chroma
lveolates&submit=Submit
2. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=st
ramenopiles
3. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=al
veolates&submit=Submit
4. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2,
(2004). http://www.biomedcentral.com/14
71-2148/4/2
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004),p540.
6. ^ Sandra L. Baldauf, A. J.
Roger, I. Wenk-Siefert, W. F.
Doolittle, "A Kingdom-Level Phylogeny
of Eukaryotes Based on Combined Protein
Data", Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p
972, (2000).
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/290/
5493/972.full
7. ^ Baldauf, S. L. “The Deep Roots
of Eukaryotes.” Science 300.5626
(2003) : 1703
-1706. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/300/5626/1703.short
8. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=chroma
lveolates&submit=Submit
9. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=st
ramenopiles
10. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=al
veolates&submit=Submit
11. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2,
(2004). http://www.biomedcentral.com/14
71-2148/4/2
12. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004),p540.
13. ^ Sandra L. Baldauf, A. J.
Roger, I. Wenk-Siefert, W. F.
Doolittle, "A Kingdom-Level Phylogeny
of Eukaryotes Based on Combined Protein
Data", Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p
972, (2000).
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/290/
5493/972.full
14. ^ Baldauf, S. L. “The Deep Roots
of Eukaryotes.” Science 300.5626
(2003) : 1703
-1706. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/300/5626/1703.short
15. ^ Yoon, Hwan Su et al. “A
Molecular Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes.” Molecular
Biology and Evolution 21.5 (2004): 809
-818.
Print. http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/21/5/809.abstract {c1250 mybn}
16. ^
Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield NJ,
Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D, "Plastid
endosymbiosis: Sources and timing of
the major events.", in: Falkowski P,
Knoll A, editors. "Evolution of primary
producers in the sea.", Elsevier; 2007,
p119. {1300 mybn}
17. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS,
Butterfield NJ, Sanderson MJ,
Bhattacharya D, "Plastid endosymbiosis:
Sources and timing of the major
events.", in: Falkowski P, Knoll A,
editors. "Evolution of primary
producers in the sea.", Elsevier; 2007,
p120. {1665 mybn}
18. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime
E Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L
Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148
/4/2 (1973mybn)
19. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (1600mybn)
20. ^ S. Blair Hedges
and Sudhir Kumar, "The TimeTree of
Life", 2009,
p117-118. http://www.timetree.org/book.
php {1600mybn}
MORE INFO
[1] "Brown alga". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brown_alga
[2] Sandra L. Baldauf, A. J. Roger, I.
Wenk-Siefert, W. F. Doolittle, "A
Kingdom-Level Phylogeny of Eukaryotes
Based on Combined Protein Data",
Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p 972,
(2000). http://www.sciencemag.org/conte
nt/290/5493/972.full has heterkonts
before ciliophora and apicomplexa
branch
[1] S. Blair Hedges and Sudhir Kumar,
''The TimeTree of Life'', 2009,
p117-118. http://www.timetree.org/book.
php COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.timetree.org/book.php
[2] Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield
NJ, Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D,
''Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources and
timing of the major events.'', in:
Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors.
''Evolution of primary producers in the
sea.'', Elsevier; 2007, p120.
COPYRIGHTED
source: Hackett JD, Yoon HS,
Butterfield NJ, Sanderson MJ,
Bhattacharya D, "Plastid endosymbiosis:
Sources and timing of the major
events.", in: Falkowski P, Knoll A,
editors. "Evolution of primary
producers in the sea.", Elsevier; 2007,
p120.
9
and eukaryote filamentous
multicellularity: Rhodophyta (red
algae) fossils.4 5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Butterfield N. J. A. H. Knoll K.
Swett, "A bangiophyte red alga from the
Proterozoic of Arctic Canada.", Science
1990 vol 250 1990,
p104-107. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2
877905
2. ^ Paleobiology Volume 26, Issue 3
(September
2000) http://www.bioone.org/perlserv/?r
equest=get-document&doi=10.1666%2F0094-8
373%282000%29026%3C0386%3ABPNGNS%3E2.0.C
O%3B2
3. ^ Knoll, Summons, Waldbauer,
Zumberge, "The Geological Succession of
Primary Producers in the Oceans", in:
Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors.
"Evolution of primary producers in the
sea.", Elsevier; 2007, p149-150.
4. ^ Butterfield
N. J. A. H. Knoll K. Swett, "A
bangiophyte red alga from the
Proterozoic of Arctic Canada.", Science
1990 vol 250 1990,
p104-107. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2
877905
5. ^ Paleobiology Volume 26, Issue 3
(September
2000) http://www.bioone.org/perlserv/?r
equest=get-document&doi=10.1666%2F0094-8
373%282000%29026%3C0386%3ABPNGNS%3E2.0.C
O%3B2
6. ^ Knoll, Summons, Waldbauer,
Zumberge, "The Geological Succession of
Primary Producers in the Oceans", in:
Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors.
"Evolution of primary producers in the
sea.", Elsevier; 2007, p149-150.
7. ^ Science
1990 vol 250 Butterfield N. J. A. H.
Knoll K. Swett 1990 A bangiophyte red
alga from the Proterozoic of Arctic
Canada. Science 250: 104-107
http://www.jstor.org/stable/2877905
8. ^ Paleobiology Volume 26, Issue 3
(September
2000) http://www.bioone.org/perlserv/?r
equest=get-document&doi=10.1666%2F0094-8
373%282000%29026%3C0386%3ABPNGNS%3E2.0.C
O%3B2
9. ^ Science 1990 vol 250 Butterfield
N. J. A. H. Knoll K. Swett 1990 A
bangiophyte red alga from the
Proterozoic of Arctic Canada. Science
250: 104-107
http://www.jstor.org/stable/2877905
{1250 mybn}
arctic Canada7 8
[1] Figure 4 from: Science 1990 vol
250 Butterfield N. J. A. H. Knoll K.
Swett 1990 A bangiophyte red alga from
the Proterozoic of Arctic Canada.
Science 250: 104-107
http://www.jstor.org/stable/2877905
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2877
905
[2] Figure 2 from: Science 1990 vol
250 Butterfield N. J. A. H. Knoll K.
Swett 1990 A bangiophyte red alga from
the Proterozoic of Arctic Canada.
Science 250: 104-107
http://www.jstor.org/stable/2877905
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2877
905
8 9 10 11
Kingdom.5 6
Like animals, fungi are heterotrophic
(cannot photosynthesize) and so must
feed on other living things.7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148
/4/2
{Hedges_Venturi_Shoe_20031110.pdf}
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E
Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L
Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148
/4/2
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
5. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E
Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L
Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148
/4/2
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
7. ^
http://www.abdn.ac.uk/rhynie/fungi.htm
8. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield
NJ, Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D,
"Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources and
timing of the major events.", in:
Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors.
"Evolution of primary producers in the
sea.", Elsevier; 2007. {c1200 mybn}
9. ^ S.
Blair Hedges and Sudhir Kumar, "The
TimeTree of Life", 2009,
p117-118. http://www.timetree.org/book.
php {1368 mybn}
10. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E
Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L
Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148
/4/2 (1513mybn) {1513 mybn}
11. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004). (c1200) {c1100} {c1100 mybn}
[1] Microsporidia. Image from Sterling
Parasitology Microsporidia
Research. UNKNOWN
source: http://microbewiki.kenyon.edu/im
ages/3/37/Micro2.jpg
[2] Penicillium [t Note: Penecillium
is a multicellular fungi.] UNKNOWN
source: http://www.mold-help.org/pages/i
mages/Penicillium.jpg
11 12 13 14 15 16 17
} (ancestor of all Ciliates,
Apicomplexans, and Dinoflagellates
{DInOFlaJeleTS7 }).8 9 10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=al
veolates&submit=Submit
2. ^ "dinoflagellate." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 28
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/dinoflagell
ate
3. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2,
(2004).http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471
-2148/4/2 {Hedges_Venturi_Shoe_20031110
.pdf}
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p538.
5. ^ Brusca and Brusca,
"Invertebrates", Second Edition, 2003,
p135.
6. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=al
veolates&submit=Submit
7. ^ "dinoflagellate." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 28
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/dinoflagell
ate
8. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2,
(2004). http://www.biomedcentral.com/14
71-2148/4/2 {Hedges_Venturi_Shoe_200311
10.pdf}
9. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p538.
10. ^ Brusca and
Brusca, "Invertebrates", Second
Edition, 2003, p135.
11. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon
HS, Butterfield NJ, Sanderson MJ,
Bhattacharya D, "Plastid endosymbiosis:
Sources and timing of the major
events.", in: Falkowski P, Knoll A,
editors. "Evolution of primary
producers in the sea.", Elsevier; 2007,
p119. {1180 mybn}
12. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS,
Butterfield NJ, Sanderson MJ,
Bhattacharya D, "Plastid endosymbiosis:
Sources and timing of the major
events.", in: Falkowski P, Knoll A,
editors. "Evolution of primary
producers in the sea.", Elsevier; 2007,
p120. {1480 my}
13. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime
E Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L
Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2,
(2004). http://www.biomedcentral.com/14
71-2148/4/2 {Hedges_Venturi_Shoe_200311
10.pdf} {1956 my}
14. ^ S. Blair Hedges and
Sudhir Kumar, "The TimeTree of Life",
2009,
p117-118. http://www.timetree.org/book.
php {1345 my}
15. ^ Emmanuelle J. Javaux,
Andrew H. Knoll and Malcolm Walter,
"Recognizing and Interpreting the
Fossils of Early Eukaryotes", Origins
of Life and Evolution of Biospheres,
Volume 33, Number 1, 75-94, DOI:
10.1023/A:1023992712071 http://www.spri
ngerlink.com/content/j1nn04342607n57m/ex
port-citation/ {1000 my}
16. ^ Cédric
Berney and Jan Pawlowski, "A molecular
time-scale for eukaryote evolution
recalibrated with the continuous
microfossil record", Proc. R. Soc. B
August 7, 2006 273:1867-1872;
doi:10.1098/rspb.2006.3537 http://rspb.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/273/1
596/1867.short {c820 my}
17. ^ S. Blair
Hedges and Sudhir Kumar, "The TimeTree
of Life", 2009,
p117-118. http://www.timetree.org/book.
php {1628}
[1]
Unknown http://www.genome.gov/Images/pr
ess_photos/highres/85-300.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Oxytricha_trifa
llax.jpg/1024px-Oxytricha_trifallax.jpg
[2] Description English: Unknown
species of cilliate in the last stages
of mitosis (cytokinesis), with cleavage
furrow visible. Date Source
Own work Author
TheAlphaWolf CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/55/Unk.cilliate.jpg
5 6
"Microsporidia".3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The Origin and
Evolution of Model Organisms", Nature
Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
2. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
3. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The Origin and
Evolution of Model Organisms", Nature
Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
4. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
5. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The Origin and
Evolution of Model Organisms", Nature
Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849 (2002);
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002). (>1460mybn)
6. ^
Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004). (c1100mybn)
MORE INFO
[1]
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=93911
[2] Sandra L. Baldauf, A. J. Roger, I.
Wenk-Siefert, W. F. Doolittle, "A
Kingdom-Level Phylogeny of Eukaryotes
Based on Combined Protein Data",
Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p 972,
(2000). http://www.sciencemag.org/conte
nt/290/5493/972.full
[1] Sporoblast of the Microsporidium
Fibrillanosema crangonycis. Electron
micrograph taken by Leon White. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Fibrillanosema_spore.jpg
[2] Spironema
multiciliatum Spironema:
Octosporoblastic sporogony producing
horseshoe-shaped monokaryotic spores in
sporophorous vesicles; monomorphic,
diplokaryotic and monokaryotic;
merogony - last generation merozoites
are diplokaryotic; sporogony - initial
division of the sporont nuclei is
meiotic as indicated by the occurrence
of synaptonemal complexes; spores are
horse-shoe-shaped, with swollen ends in
T. variabilis and have one elongate
nucleus; exospore with three layers,
endospore is of medium thickness;
polaroplast composed of two lamellar
parts, an anterior part of closely
packed lamellae and a posterior part of
wider compartments; polar tube is
isofilar and forms, in the posterior
quarter of the spore, 3-4 coils in a
single rank (T. variabilis) or 8-10
coils in a single rank (T. chironomi);
type species Toxoglugea vibrio in
adipose tissue of larvae of Ceratopogon
sp. (Diptera, Ceratopogonidae).
Spironema (spire-oh-knee-ma)
multiciliatum Klebs, 1893. Cells are
lanceolate, relatively flattened and
flexible. The cells have a spiral
groove, long kinetics and a tail, which
tapers posteriorly, and are about 15 -
21 microns without the tail. The
nucleus is located anteriorly or near
the centre of the cell. When the cells
are squashed, the cells are more
flexible. Food materials are seen under
the cell surface. Rarely observed.
This picture was taken by Won Je Lee
using conventional photographic film
using a Zeiss Axiophot microscope of
material collected in marine sediments
of Botany Bay (Sydney, Australia). The
image description refers to material
from Botany Bay. NONCOMMERCIAL USE
source: http://microscope.mbl.edu/script
s/microscope.php?func=imgDetail&imageID=
3928
9 10 11 12 13
(Dinoflagellates {DI-nO-Fla-Je-leTS5
}).6 7 8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=dinofl
agellates&submit=Submit
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^ Sandra L. Baldauf, A. J.
Roger, I. Wenk-Siefert, W. F.
Doolittle, "A Kingdom-Level Phylogeny
of Eukaryotes Based on Combined Protein
Data", Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p
972, (2000). has heterkonts before
ciliophora and apicomplexa branch
4. ^ S Blair
Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi
and Jason L Shoe, "A molecular
timescale of eukaryote evolution and
the rise of complex multicellular
life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004,
4:2 doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2,
(2004). http://www.biomedcentral.com/14
71-2148/4/2 {Hedges_Venturi_Shoe_200311
10.pdf}
5. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=dinofl
agellates&submit=Submit
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
7. ^ Sandra L. Baldauf, A. J.
Roger, I. Wenk-Siefert, W. F.
Doolittle, "A Kingdom-Level Phylogeny
of Eukaryotes Based on Combined Protein
Data", Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p
972, (2000). has heterkonts before
ciliophora and apicomplexa branch
8. ^ S Blair
Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi
and Jason L Shoe, "A molecular
timescale of eukaryote evolution and
the rise of complex multicellular
life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004,
4:2 doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2,
(2004). http://www.biomedcentral.com/14
71-2148/4/2 {Hedges_Venturi_Shoe_200311
10.pdf}
9. ^ Emmanuelle J. Javaux, Andrew H.
Knoll and Malcolm Walter, "Recognizing
and Interpreting the Fossils of Early
Eukaryotes", Origins of Life and
Evolution of Biospheres, Volume 33,
Number 1, 75-94, DOI:
10.1023/A:1023992712071 http://www.spri
ngerlink.com/content/j1nn04342607n57m/ex
port-citation/ {Dinosterane molecular
fossils)1100 my}
10. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS,
Butterfield NJ, Sanderson MJ,
Bhattacharya D, "Plastid endosymbiosis:
Sources and timing of the major
events.", in: Falkowski P, Knoll A,
editors. "Evolution of primary
producers in the sea.", Elsevier; 2007.
{DNA)1040 mybn}
11. ^ A. H. Knoll, E. J.
Javaux, D. Hewitt and P. Cohen,
"Eukaryotic Organisms in Proterozoic
Oceans", Philosophical Transactions:
Biological Sciences , Vol. 361, No.
1470, Major Steps in Cell Evolution:
Palaeontological, Molecular and
Cellular Evidence of Their Timing and
Global Effects (Jun. 29, 2006), pp.
1023-1038 http://www.jstor.org/stable/2
0209698 {1.8 bybn} {Dinosterane
molecular fossils)1100 my}
12. ^ S. Blair
Hedges and Sudhir Kumar, "The TimeTree
of Life", 2009,
p117-118. http://www.timetree.org/book.
php {940 mybn}
13. ^ Cédric Berney and Jan
Pawlowski, "A molecular time-scale for
eukaryote evolution recalibrated with
the continuous microfossil record",
Proc. R. Soc. B August 7, 2006
273:1867-1872;
doi:10.1098/rspb.2006.3537 http://rspb.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/273/1
596/1867.short {430 my}
MORE INFO
[1] Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). (1973mybn)
[2] Sandra L.
Baldauf, A. J. Roger, I. Wenk-Siefert,
W. F. Doolittle, "A Kingdom-Level
Phylogeny of Eukaryotes Based on
Combined Protein Data", Science, Vol
290, num 5493, p 972, (2000). has
heterkonts before ciliophora and
apicomplexa branch (1600mybn)
[3] Pratt, L. M.,
Summons, R. E. and Hieshima, G. B.:
1991, Sterane and Triterpane Biomarkers
in the Precambrian Nonesuch Formation,
North American Midcontinent Rift,
Geochem. Cosmochim. Acta 55, 911–916
[4] J.J.
Brocks, R.E. Summons, 8.03 -
Sedimentary Hydrocarbons, Biomarkers
for Early Life, In: Editors-in-Chief:
Heinrich D. Holland and Karl K.
Turekian, Editor(s)-in-Chief, Treatise
on Geochemistry, Pergamon, Oxford,
2003, Pages 63-115, ISBN 9780080437514,
10.1016/B0-08-043751-6/08127-5. (http:/
/www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/p
ii/B0080437516081275)
[5] Moldowan, J. Michael et al.
“Chemostratigraphic reconstruction of
biofacies: Molecular evidence linking
cyst-forming dinoflagellates with
pre-Triassic ancestors.” Geology 24.2
(1996): 159 -162.
http://geology.geoscienceworld.org/con
tent/24/2/159.abstract
AND http://geology.gsapubs.org/content/
24/2/159.full.pdf
[6] Raven, Evert, Eichhorn, "Biology of
Plants", (New York: Worth Publishers,
1992). p98-99
[7] "coenocyte." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 23
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/coenocyte
[1] Dinoflagellate Ceratium
sp. Phylum Dinoflagellata Upper
Newport Bay, Orange County, CA.
9/22/12. © Peter J.
Bryant COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nathistoc.bio.uci.edu/Din
oflagellates/DSC_6886b.jpg
[2] Model of Pyrodinium bahamense, a
dinoflagellate species, in the American
Museum of Natural History Credit:
Life’s Little Mysteries Fire
water Have you ever seen glowing ocean
water, like the bright blue surf
pictured in the intro slide? The neon
water is brimming with dinoflagellates,
single-celled plankton with tails that
slosh around together in vast numbers.
These creatures have been highlighting
Earth’s coastlines for 1.2 billion
years, and for the past few millennia,
they’ve puzzled humans, who used to
attribute the glow of some ocean water
to magic or the gods.Dinoflagellates
still puzzle us; we know how they glow,
but not why. They might have evolved
bioluminescence as a way of frightening
predators, or to reveal those
predators’ locations by flashing when
touched. Alternatively, their
bioluminescence may just be a fancy way
of ridding themselves of oxygen
radicals (because the chemical reaction
requires oxygen). Whatever the answer,
they certainly make for a nice holiday
in the Bahamas. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.lifeslittlemysteries.
com/images/i/1651/original/dinoflagellat
e.jpg
11 12 13 14 15
{DiSKIKriSTATS}, ancestor of protists
which have mitochondria with discoidal
shaped cristae (includes euglenids,
leishmanias {lEsmaNEuZ4 }, trypanosomes
{TriPaNiSOMZ5 }, and acrasid {oKrASiD6
} slime molds).7 8 9 10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
2. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
3. ^ Russell F. Doolittle, Da-Fei Feng,
Simon Tsang, Glen Cho, Elizabeth
Little, "Determining Divergence Times
of the Major Kingdoms of Living
Organisms with a Protein Clock",
Science, (1996).
4. ^ "leishmanias."
Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random
House, Inc. 08 Jun. 2012.
eishmanias>.
5. ^ "trypanosome." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 08 Jun.
2012.
rypanosome>.
6. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=ac
rasiomycetes&submit=Submit
7. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
8. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
9. ^ Russell F. Doolittle, Da-Fei Feng,
Simon Tsang, Glen Cho, Elizabeth
Little, "Determining Divergence Times
of the Major Kingdoms of Living
Organisms with a Protein Clock",
Science, (1996).
10. ^ Baldauf, "An overview of
the phylogeny and diversity of
eukaryotes", Journal of Systematics and
Evolution 46 (3): 263–273
(2008). http://www.plantsystematics.com
/qikan/manage/wenzhang/jse08060.pdf
11. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield
NJ, Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D,
"Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources and
timing of the major events.", in:
Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors.
"Evolution of primary producers in the
sea.", Elsevier; 2007, p119. {1080
mybn}
12. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
{1956 mybn}
13. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS,
Butterfield NJ, Sanderson MJ,
Bhattacharya D, "Plastid endosymbiosis:
Sources and timing of the major
events.", in: Falkowski P, Knoll A,
editors. "Evolution of primary
producers in the sea.", Elsevier; 2007,
p120. {1999 mybn}
14. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). (1600mybn)
15. ^ Russell
F. Doolittle, Da-Fei Feng, Simon Tsang,
Glen Cho, Elizabeth Little,
"Determining Divergence Times of the
Major Kingdoms of Living Organisms with
a Protein Clock", Science, (1996).
(1800-1900 for eukaryote/prokaryote
separation)
MORE INFO
[1]
http://biology.kenyon.edu/Microbial_Bior
ealm/eukaryotes/euglenozoa/euglenozoa.ht
m
[2]
http://www.sirinet.net/~jgjohnso/apbio30
.html
[1] euglena
source: http://www.fcps.k12.va.us/Stratf
ordLandingES/Ecology/mpages/euglena.htm
[2] euglena
source: http://protist.i.hosei.ac.jp/PDB
/Images/Mastigophora/Euglena/genus1L.jpg
12 13 14 15
three-dimensional response to light.7 8
9
The earliest eye probably evolves from
a plastid in a unicellular eukaryote.10
11
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Jékely, Gáspár. "Evolution of
phototaxis." Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society B:
Biological Sciences 364 (October
2009):
2795–2808. http://rstb.royalsocietypu
blishing.org/content/364/1531/2795.short
2. ^
http://www.sidwell.edu/us/science/vlb5/L
abs/Classification_Lab/Eukarya/Protista/
Euglenozoa/
3. ^ THOMAS CAVALIER-SMITH, "Economy,
Speed and Size Matter: Evolutionary
Forces Driving Nuclear Genome
Miniaturization and Expansion", *
Oxford Journals * Life Sciences
* Annals of Botany * Volume 95,
Number 1 *, (2005).
http://aob.oxfordjournals.org/content/
95/1/147.abstract
4. ^ Jékely, Gáspár. "Evolution of
phototaxis." Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society B:
Biological Sciences 364 (October
2009):
2795–2808. http://rstb.royalsocietypu
blishing.org/content/364/1531/2795.short
5. ^
http://www.sidwell.edu/us/science/vlb5/L
abs/Classification_Lab/Eukarya/Protista/
Euglenozoa/
6. ^ THOMAS CAVALIER-SMITH, "Economy,
Speed and Size Matter: Evolutionary
Forces Driving Nuclear Genome
Miniaturization and Expansion", *
Oxford Journals * Life Sciences
* Annals of Botany * Volume 95,
Number 1 *, (2005).
http://aob.oxfordjournals.org/content/
95/1/147.abstract
7. ^ Jékely, Gáspár. "Evolution of
phototaxis." Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society B:
Biological Sciences 364 (October
2009):
2795–2808. http://rstb.royalsocietypu
blishing.org/content/364/1531/2795.short
8. ^
http://www.sidwell.edu/us/science/vlb5/L
abs/Classification_Lab/Eukarya/Protista/
Euglenozoa/
9. ^ THOMAS CAVALIER-SMITH, "Economy,
Speed and Size Matter: Evolutionary
Forces Driving Nuclear Genome
Miniaturization and Expansion", *
Oxford Journals * Life Sciences
* Annals of Botany * Volume 95,
Number 1 *, (2005).
http://aob.oxfordjournals.org/content/
95/1/147.abstract
10. ^
http://www.sidwell.edu/us/science/vlb5/L
abs/Classification_Lab/Eukarya/Protista/
Euglenozoa/
11. ^ THOMAS CAVALIER-SMITH, "Economy,
Speed and Size Matter: Evolutionary
Forces Driving Nuclear Genome
Miniaturization and Expansion", *
Oxford Journals * Life Sciences
* Annals of Botany * Volume 95,
Number 1 *, (2005).
http://aob.oxfordjournals.org/content/
95/1/147.abstract
12. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield
NJ, Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D,
"Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources and
timing of the major events.", in:
Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors.
"Evolution of primary producers in the
sea.", Elsevier; 2007, p119.
13. ^ Yoon, Hwan
Su et al. “A Molecular Timeline for
the Origin of Photosynthetic
Eukaryotes.” Molecular Biology and
Evolution 21.5 (2004): 809 -818.
Print. http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/21/5/809.abstract {guess based on
earliest secondary plastid 1274 my and
euglena at 1410 mybn}
14. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon
HS, Butterfield NJ, Sanderson MJ,
Bhattacharya D, "Plastid endosymbiosis:
Sources and timing of the major
events.", in: Falkowski P, Knoll A,
editors. "Evolution of primary
producers in the sea.", Elsevier; 2007.
{guess based on earliest secondary
plastid 1274 my and euglena at 1410
mybn}
15. ^ my own estimate based on where
euglenozoa genetically appear to evolve
{guess based on earliest secondary
plastid 1274 my and euglena at 1410
mybn}
MORE INFO
[1] Peter Hegemann, "Algal
Sensory Photoreceptors", Annual Review
of Plant Biology, Vol. 59: 167 -189
(Volume publication date June 2008)
http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/full/
10.1146/annurev.arplant.59.032607.092847
%40recept.2009.1.issue-1
[2] Trevor D. Lamb, Detlev Arendt, and
Shaun P. Collin, "The evolution of
phototransduction and eyes", Phil.
Trans. R. Soc. B October 12, 2009
364:2791-2793;
doi:10.1098/rstb.2009.0106 http://rstb.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/364/1
531/2791.full
[3] Kreimer, G. (2009) The green algal
eyespot apparatus: a primordial visual
system and more? Current Genetics
55:19-43 doi:10.007/s00294-008-0224-8
PMID
19107486 http://www.springerlink.com/co
ntent/v54v124mxg52r091/
[1] Adapted from: Euglena is a
photosynthetic euglenoid with at least
150 described species. The cells are
cylindrical with a rounded anterior and
tapered posterior. The chloroplasts are
well-developed, bright green, and
sometimes have pyrenoids. ... Euglena
is a photosynthetic euglenoid with at
least 150 described species. The cells
are cylindrical with a rounded anterior
and tapered posterior. The chloroplasts
are well-developed, bright green, and
sometimes have pyrenoids. They are
often discoidal in shape but can also
be ovate, lobate, elongate, U-shaped,
or ribbon-shaped. Some researchers use
the structure and position of the
chloroplasts to divide the group into
three subgenera. Even though they are
able to photosynthesize, Euglena cells
also have a phagotrophic ingestion
apparatus. Euglena has one long,
protruding flagellum and a shorter
flagellum that is not usually
visible. The euglenoids can glide
and swim using their flagella, or can
ooze along a substrate with an
undulating, shape-changing, contraction
motion called metaboly. The cytoplasm
of Euglena and other euglenoids
contains many paramylon starch storage
granules. The euglenoid cells are
covered by a pellicle composed of
ribbonlike, woven strips of
proteinaceous material that cover the
cell in a helical arrangement from apex
to posterior. Freshwater euglenoids
have a contractile vacuole. Euglenoids
sense light using a red pigmented
eyespot or stigma and the paraflagellar
body located at the base of the
emergent flagella. The cytoplasm of
Euglena and other euglenoids contains
many paramylon starch storage granules.
The euglenoid cells are covered by a
pellicle composed of ribbonlike, woven
strips of proteinaceous material that
cover the cell in a helical arrangement
from apex to posterior. Freshwater
euglenoids have a contractile vacuole.
Euglenoids sense light using a red
pigmented eyespot or stigma and the
paraflagellar body located at the base
of the emergent flagella. UNKNOWN
source: http://silicasecchidisk.conncoll
.edu/Pics/Other%20Algae/Other_jpegs/Eugl
ena_Key225.jpg
[2] Figure 1. The distribution of
three-dimensional phototaxis in the
tree of eukaryotes. Red arrows indicate
the likely point of origin of
phototaxis in a given group. Question
marks indicate uncertainties regarding
independent or common origin. Figure
1 from: Jékely, Gáspár. ''Evolution
of phototaxis.'' Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society B:
Biological Sciences 364 (October
2009):
2795–2808. http://rstb.royalsocietypu
blishing.org/content/364/1531/2795.short
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://rstb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/364/1531/2795/F1.large.jp
g
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
{STro-meN-o-Pi-lEZ5 } (also called
Heterokonts) (ancestor of all brown and
golden algae, diatoms, and oomycota
{Ou-mI-KO-Tu6 )).7 8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=st
ramenopiles
2. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=oo
mycota&submit=Submit
3. ^ Brusca and Brusca,
"Invertebrates", Second Edition, 2003,
p153-155.
4. ^ S. Blair Hedges and Sudhir Kumar,
"The TimeTree of Life", 2009,
p117-118. http://www.timetree.org/book.
php
5. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=st
ramenopiles
6. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=oo
mycota&submit=Submit
7. ^ Brusca and Brusca,
"Invertebrates", Second Edition, 2003,
p153-155.
8. ^ S. Blair Hedges and Sudhir Kumar,
"The TimeTree of Life", 2009,
p117-118. http://www.timetree.org/book.
php
9. ^ Yoon, Hwan Su et al. “A
Molecular Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes.” Molecular
Biology and Evolution 21.5 (2004): 809
-818.
Print. http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/21/5/809.abstract {1050 mybn}
10. ^
Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield NJ,
Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D, "Plastid
endosymbiosis: Sources and timing of
the major events.", in: Falkowski P,
Knoll A, editors. "Evolution of primary
producers in the sea.", Elsevier; 2007,
p119. {1180 mybn}
11. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS,
Butterfield NJ, Sanderson MJ,
Bhattacharya D, "Plastid endosymbiosis:
Sources and timing of the major
events.", in: Falkowski P, Knoll A,
editors. "Evolution of primary
producers in the sea.", Elsevier; 2007,
p120. {1480my}
12. ^ S. Blair Hedges and Sudhir
Kumar, "The TimeTree of Life", 2009,
p117-118. http://www.timetree.org/book.
php {1345 my}
13. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E
Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L
Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2,
(2004). http://www.biomedcentral.com/14
71-2148/4/2 {Hedges_Venturi_Shoe_200311
10.pdf} {1956my} {Alveolates and Plant
split)1956my}
14. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). {1600 my}
{Chromalveolates)1600 my}
15. ^ Cédric
Berney and Jan Pawlowski, "A molecular
time-scale for eukaryote evolution
recalibrated with the continuous
microfossil record", Proc. R. Soc. B
August 7, 2006 273:1867-1872;
doi:10.1098/rspb.2006.3537 http://rspb.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/273/1
596/1867.short
{Berney_Eukaryote_phylogeny_2006.pdf}
{c775my} {c754my}
16. ^ Emmanuelle J. Javaux,
Andrew H. Knoll and Malcolm Walter,
"Recognizing and Interpreting the
Fossils of Early Eukaryotes", Origins
of Life and Evolution of Biospheres,
Volume 33, Number 1, 75-94, DOI:
10.1023/A:1023992712071 http://www.spri
ngerlink.com/content/j1nn04342607n57m/ex
port-citation/ {c1000my}
17. ^ Emmanuel J. P.
Douzery, Elizabeth A. Snell, Eric
Bapteste, Frédéric Delsuc, and Hervé
Philippe, "The timing of eukaryotic
evolution: Does a relaxed molecular
clock reconcile proteins and fossils?",
Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2004 October
26; 101(43):
15386–15391. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.
gov/pmc/articles/PMC524432/?report=abstr
act {872 my}
[1] Phylum Stramenopiles COPYRIGHTED
source: Brusca and Brusca,
"Invertebrates", Second Edition, 2003,
p153-155.
[2] S. Blair Hedges and Sudhir Kumar,
''The TimeTree of Life'', 2009,
p117-118. http://www.timetree.org/book.
php COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.timetree.org/book.php
5
{me-ZO-mI-SE-TO-ZO-u3 } (also called
DRIPS).4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=mesomy
cetozoea&submit=Submit
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=mesomy
cetozoea&submit=Submit
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). {1000 MYBN (end
of Mesoproterozoic}
MORE INFO
[1] Shalchian-Tabrizi K, Minge
MA, Espelund M, Orr R, Ruden T, et al.
2008 Multigene Phylogeny of Choanozoa
and the Origin of Animals. PLoS ONE
3(5): e2098.
doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0002098
[2] Leonel Mendoza, John W. Taylor, and
Libero Ajello, "THE CLASS
MESOMYCETOZOEA: A Heterogeneous Group
of Microorganisms at the Animal-Fungal
Boundary", Annual Review of
Microbiology October 2002, Vol. 56:
315-344. http://www.annualreviews.org/d
oi/full/10.1146/annurev.micro.56.012302.
160950
[1] Ichthyophonus, a fungus-like
protistan that occurs in high
prevalence in Pacific Ocean perch
(Sebastes aultus) and yellowtail
rockfish (Sebastes flavedus). Note the
parasite forms branching hyphae-like
structures. Ichthyophonus hoferi has
caused massive mortalities in herring
in the Atlantic ocean, and has recently
been reported to cause disease in wild
Pacific herring from Washington through
Alaska. COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://oregonstate.edu/dept/salm
on/projects/images/16Ichthyophonus.jpg
[2] Microscopic appearence of the
organism is dependent on its stage of
development. The stages include (1)
spore at ''resting'' stage, (2)
germinating spore, (3) hyphal
stage. It is believed that there are
two forms of Ichthyophonus, both
belonging to one genus. One of them is
known as the ''salmon'' form, occuring
in freshwater and cold-preferring sea
fishes: this form is characterized by
its ability to produce long tubulose
germ hyphae. The other is called the
''aquarium fish'' form, typical of the
tropical freshwater fishes. This form
is completely devoid of hyphae.
Developmental cycle of Ichthyophonus
hoferi: 1-5 - development of
''daughter'' spores, 7-11 - development
of resting spore from the ''daughter''
spore, 12-19 - development of resting
spore by fragmentation. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.fao.org/docrep/field/
003/AC160E/AC160E02.htm
11 12 13
(Water molds).7 8 9 10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=oomyco
ta&submit=Submit
2. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
3. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
4. ^ Sandra L. Baldauf, A. J. Roger, I.
Wenk-Siefert, W. F. Doolittle, "A
Kingdom-Level Phylogeny of Eukaryotes
Based on Combined Protein Data",
Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p 972,
(2000).
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/290/
5493/972.full
5. ^ http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/
6. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=oomyco
ta&submit=Submit
7. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
8. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
9. ^ Sandra L. Baldauf, A. J. Roger, I.
Wenk-Siefert, W. F. Doolittle, "A
Kingdom-Level Phylogeny of Eukaryotes
Based on Combined Protein Data",
Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p 972,
(2000). has heterkonts before
ciliophora and apicomplexa branch
10. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/
11. ^ S. Blair Hedges and Sudhir Kumar,
"The TimeTree of Life", 2009,
p117-118. http://www.timetree.org/book.
php {985}
12. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E
Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L
Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
(1973mybn)
13. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (1600mybn)
MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.ilmyco.gen.chicago.il.us/Term
s/coeno128.html#coeno128
[2] "Coenocyte". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coenocyte
[3]
http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultrane
t/BiologyPages/P/Protists.html#Water_Mol
ds
[4]
http://kentsimmons.uwinnipeg.ca/16cm05/1
116/16protists.htm
[1] Figure 2 from: Sandra L. Baldauf,
A. J. Roger, I. Wenk-Siefert, W. F.
Doolittle, ''A Kingdom-Level Phylogeny
of Eukaryotes Based on Combined Protein
Data'', Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p
972, (2000).
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/290/
5493/972.full Figure 2 Single-gene
phylogenies support subsets of the
combined protein tree. (A) A summary of
the tree in Fig. 1is shown with
supergroups indicated beside brackets
to the right. Multi-taxon represented
clusters are given as triangles, with
height proportional to number of taxa
and width proportional to averaged
overall branch length (1) compensated
for missing data (47). (B) Published
support for the numbered nodes in (A)
is shown for commonly used molecular
phylogenetic markers grouped as (a)
ribosomal RNAs, (b) proteins not used
in the current analysis, (c) proteins
used in the current analysis, and (d)
the combined data (Fig. 1). These
markers are, from left to right, SSU
[SSU rRNA (1–4)], LSU [LSU rRNA
(19)], LSU+SSU [combined LSU and SSU
rRNA (48)], EF-2 (10), V/A-ATPases
[vacuolar ATPases (49)], HSP70-cy
[cytosolic 70-kD heat shock protein
(50)], mito [combined mitochondrial
proteins (51)], RPB1 (52), actin (8,
16, 53), α-tubulin (8, 54), β-tubulin
(8, 54), EF-1α (15, 20), and combined
(Fig. 1). Rejected nodes are indicated
in pink and accepted nodes in green,
with checked circles indicating BP < 70% and solid circles indicating BP >
70%. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/290/5493/972/F2.large.jpg
[2] Fig. 1. A consensus phylogeny of
eukaryotes. The vast majority of
characterized eukaryotes, with the
notable exception of major subgroups of
amoebae, can now be assigned to one of
eight major groups. Opisthokonts (basal
flagellum) have a single basal
flagellum on reproductive cells and
flat mitochondrial cristae (most
eukaryotes have tubular ones).
Eukaryotic photosynthesis originated in
Plants; theirs are the only plastids
with just two outer membranes.
Heterokonts (different flagellae) have
a unique flagellum decorated with
hollow tripartite hairs (stramenopiles)
and, usually, a second plain one.
Cercozoans are amoebae with filose
pseudopodia, often living with in tests
(hard outer shells), some very
elaborate (foraminiferans). Amoebozoa
are mostly naked amoebae (lacking
tests), often with lobose pseudopodia
for at least part of their life cycle.
Alveolates have systems of cortical
alveoli directly beneath their plasma
membranes. Discicristates have discoid
mitochondrial cristae and, in some
cases, a deep (excavated) ventral
feeding groove. Amitochondrial
excavates lack substantial molecular
phylogenetic support, but most have an
excavated ventral feeding groove, and
all lack mitochondria. The tree shown
is based on a consensus of molecular
(1-4) and ultrastructural (16, 17) data
and includes a rough indication of new
ciPCR ''taxa'' (broken black lines)
(7-11). An asterisk preceding the taxon
name indicates probable paraphyletic
group COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/co
ntent/full/300/5626/1703
5 6 7 8
(ancestor of all Radiolaria,
Foraminifera and Cercozoa).4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=rh
izaria&submit=Submit
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=rh
izaria&submit=Submit
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
5. ^ Medlin, L. , Kooistra, W.
, Potter, D. , Saanders, G. and
Wandersen, R. (1997): Phylogenetic
relationships of the 'golden algae'
(haptophytes, heterokont chromophytes)
and their plastids , The origin of the
algae and their plastids (D
Bhattacharya, ed ) Plant systematics
and evolution (Suppl
) http://epic.awi.de/2100/
AND http://epic.awi.de/2100/1/Med1997c.
pdf {900 my}
6. ^
http://www.timetree.org/index.php?taxon_
a=rhizaria&taxon_b=haptophyta&submit=Sea
rch {900 my}
7. ^ Cédric Berney and Jan
Pawlowski, "A molecular time-scale for
eukaryote evolution recalibrated with
the continuous microfossil record",
Proc. R. Soc. B August 7, 2006
273:1867-1872;
doi:10.1098/rspb.2006.3537 http://rspb.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/273/1
596/1867.short {804 my} {754 my}
8. ^
Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004). {1600 my}
MORE INFO
[1] Moreira D, von der Heyden S,
Bass D, López-García P, Chao E,
Cavalier-Smith T (July 2007). "Global
eukaryote phylogeny: Combined small-
and large-subunit ribosomal DNA trees
support monophyly of Rhizaria, Retaria
and Excavata". Mol. Phylogenet. Evol.
44 (1): 255–66.
http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retriev
e/pii/S1055-7903(06)00433-7
[2]
http://www.timetree.org/index.php?taxon_
a=rhizaria&taxon_b=alveolates&submit=Sea
rch
[3] Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield
NJ, Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D,
"Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources and
timing of the major events.", in:
Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors.
"Evolution of primary producers in the
sea.", Elsevier; 2007, p120
[1] Figure : Maximum likelihood
phylogeny of Rhizaria inferred from SSU
rRNA gene sequences using the GTR+G+I
model of evolution. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.unige.ch/sciences/bio
logie/biani/msg/Amoeboids/Rhizaria_large
.jpg
[2] Figure 1 from: Keeling, Patrick
J. et al. “The tree of eukaryotes.”
Trends in Ecology & Evolution 20.12
(2005):
670-676. http://www.sciencedirect.com/s
cience/article/pii/S0169534705003046
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/cac
he/MiamiImageURL/1-s2.0-S016953470500304
6-gr1.jpg/0?wchp=dGLbVBA-zSkWz
9 10 11 12
pin molds).5 6 7 8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
2. ^ Daniel
S. Heckman,1 David M. Geiser,2 Brooke
R. Eidell,1 Rebecca L. Stauffer,1
Natalie L. Kardos, "Molecular Evidence
for the Early Colonization of Land by
Fungi and Plants", Science 10 August
2001: Vol. 293. no. 5532, pp. 1129 -
1133 DOI: 10.1126/science.1061457,
(2001).
3. ^ S. Blair Hedges and Sudhir Kumar,
"Genomic clocks and evolutionary
timescales", Trends in Genetics
Volume 19, Issue 4 , April 2003, Pages
200-206, (2003).
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
5. ^ S Blair Hedges,
Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi and
Jason L Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
6. ^ Daniel
S. Heckman,1 David M. Geiser,2 Brooke
R. Eidell,1 Rebecca L. Stauffer,1
Natalie L. Kardos, "Molecular Evidence
for the Early Colonization of Land by
Fungi and Plants", Science 10 August
2001: Vol. 293. no. 5532, pp. 1129 -
1133 DOI: 10.1126/science.1061457,
(2001).
7. ^ S. Blair Hedges and Sudhir Kumar,
"Genomic clocks and evolutionary
timescales", Trends in Genetics
Volume 19, Issue 4 , April 2003, Pages
200-206, (2003).
8. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
9. ^ S Blair Hedges,
Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi and
Jason L Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
(1250mybn)
10. ^ Daniel S. Heckman,1 David M.
Geiser,2 Brooke R. Eidell,1 Rebecca
L. Stauffer,1 Natalie L. Kardos,
"Molecular Evidence for the Early
Colonization of Land by Fungi and
Plants", Science 10 August 2001: Vol.
293. no. 5532, pp. 1129 - 1133 DOI:
10.1126/science.1061457, (2001).
(1107mybn)
11. ^ S. Blair Hedges and Sudhir Kumar,
"Genomic clocks and evolutionary
timescales", Trends in Genetics
Volume 19, Issue 4 , April 2003, Pages
200-206, (2003). (1107mybn)
12. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
(c850m)
[1] Figure 2. Zygomycota A: sporangia
of Mucor sp. B: whorl of sporangia of
Absidia sp. C: zygospore of
Zygorhynchus sp. D: sporangiophore and
sporangiola of Cunninghamella sp.
source: http://www.botany.utoronto.ca/Re
searchLabs/MallochLab/Malloch/Moulds/Cla
ssification.html
[2] Figure 3. Syncephalis, a member of
the Zygomycota parasitic on other
Zygomycota
source: http://www.botany.utoronto.ca/Re
searchLabs/MallochLab/Malloch/Moulds/Cla
ssification.html
7 8 9
6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
2. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
3. ^ Sandra L. Baldauf, A. J. Roger, I.
Wenk-Siefert, W. F. Doolittle, "A
Kingdom-Level Phylogeny of Eukaryotes
Based on Combined Protein Data",
Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p 972,
(2000). has heterkonts before
ciliophora and apicomplexa branch
4. ^ S Blair
Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi
and Jason L Shoe, "A molecular
timescale of eukaryote evolution and
the rise of complex multicellular
life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004,
4:2 doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2,
(2004).
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
6. ^ Sandra L. Baldauf, A. J.
Roger, I. Wenk-Siefert, W. F.
Doolittle, "A Kingdom-Level Phylogeny
of Eukaryotes Based on Combined Protein
Data", Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p
972, (2000). has heterkonts before
ciliophora and apicomplexa branch
7. ^
Emmanuelle J. Javaux, Andrew H. Knoll
and Malcolm Walter, "Recognizing and
Interpreting the Fossils of Early
Eukaryotes", Origins of Life and
Evolution of Biospheres, Volume 33,
Number 1, 75-94, DOI:
10.1023/A:1023992712071 http://www.spri
ngerlink.com/content/j1nn04342607n57m/ex
port-citation/ {750 my}
8. ^ Emmanuel J. P.
Douzery, Elizabeth A. Snell, Eric
Bapteste, Frédéric Delsuc, and Hervé
Philippe, "The timing of eukaryotic
evolution: Does a relaxed molecular
clock reconcile proteins and fossils?",
Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2004 October
26; 101(43):
15386–15391. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.
gov/pmc/articles/PMC524432/?report=abstr
act {767 my}
9. ^ Cédric Berney and Jan
Pawlowski, "A molecular time-scale for
eukaryote evolution recalibrated with
the continuous microfossil record",
Proc. R. Soc. B August 7, 2006
273:1867-1872;
doi:10.1098/rspb.2006.3537 http://rspb.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/273/1
596/1867.short {620 my}
MORE INFO
[1] S Blair Hedges, Jaime E
Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L
Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
(1973mybn)
[2] Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (1600mybn)
[3] Sandra L. Baldauf,
A. J. Roger, I. Wenk-Siefert, W. F.
Doolittle, "A Kingdom-Level Phylogeny
of Eukaryotes Based on Combined Protein
Data", Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p
972, (2000).
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/290/
5493/972.full has heterkonts before
ciliophora and apicomplexa branch
[1] Paramecium protozoan,
SEM C001/0068 Rights Managed Credit:
STEVE GSCHMEISSNER/SCIENCE PHOTO
LIBRARY Caption: Paramecium protozoan,
coloured scanning electron micrograph
(SEM). Paramecia are a group of
unicellular ciliate protozoa. They
inhabit fresh water, and feed mainly on
bacteria and smaller protozoa.
Paramecia range from about 50 to 350
micrometres in length, depending on
species. Simple cilia, which cover the
body, are moved in a synchronous motion
to allow the cell to move.
Magnification: x825 when printed at 10
centimetres wide. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nonlocal.com/hbar/par
amecium.gif
[2] Summary Description English:
Scanning electron microscope view of
Oxytricha trifallax Español: Imagen
de microscopía electrónica de barrido
de Oxytricha trifallax Date Unknown
date Source http://www.genome.gov/I
mages/press_photos/highres/85-300.jpg
Author Unknown Permission (Reusin
g this file) See below. PD [1] Fig.
1. A consensus phylogeny of eukaryotes.
The vast majority of characterized
eukaryotes, with the notable exception
of major subgroups of amoebae, can now
be assigned to one of eight major
groups. Opisthokonts (basal flagellum)
have a single basal flagellum on
reproductive cells and flat
mitochondrial cristae (most eukaryotes
have tubular ones). Eukaryotic
photosynthesis originated in Plants;
theirs are the only plastids with just
two outer membranes. Heterokonts
(different flagellae) have a unique
flagellum decorated with hollow
tripartite hairs (stramenopiles) and,
usually, a second plain one. Cercozoans
are amoebae with filose pseudopodia,
often living with in tests (hard outer
shells), some very elaborate
(foraminiferans). Amoebozoa are mostly
naked amoebae (lacking tests), often
with lobose pseudopodia for at least
part of their life cycle. Alveolates
have systems of cortical alveoli
directly beneath their plasma
membranes. Discicristates have discoid
mitochondrial cristae and, in some
cases, a deep (excavated) ventral
feeding groove. Amitochondrial
excavates lack substantial molecular
phylogenetic support, but most have an
excavated ventral feeding groove, and
all lack mitochondria. The tree shown
is based on a consensus of molecular
(1-4) and ultrastructural (16, 17) data
and includes a rough indication of new
ciPCR ''taxa'' (broken black lines)
(7-11). An asterisk preceding the taxon
name indicates probable paraphyletic
group COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Oxytricha_trifa
llax.jpg/1024px-Oxytricha_trifallax.jpg
9 10 11
{a-PE-KoM-PleK-Su5 } (Malaria).6 7 8
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=apicom
plexa&submit=Submit
2. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
3. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
4. ^ Sandra L. Baldauf, A. J. Roger, I.
Wenk-Siefert, W. F. Doolittle, "A
Kingdom-Level Phylogeny of Eukaryotes
Based on Combined Protein Data",
Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p 972,
(2000). has heterkonts before
ciliophora and apicomplexa branch
5. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=apicom
plexa&submit=Submit
6. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
7. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
8. ^ Sandra L. Baldauf, A. J. Roger, I.
Wenk-Siefert, W. F. Doolittle, "A
Kingdom-Level Phylogeny of Eukaryotes
Based on Combined Protein Data",
Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p 972,
(2000). has heterkonts before
ciliophora and apicomplexa branch
9. ^
Emmanuel J. P. Douzery, Elizabeth A.
Snell, Eric Bapteste, Frédéric
Delsuc, and Hervé Philippe, "The
timing of eukaryotic evolution: Does a
relaxed molecular clock reconcile
proteins and fossils?", Proc Natl Acad
Sci U S A. 2004 October 26; 101(43):
15386–15391. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.
gov/pmc/articles/PMC524432/?report=abstr
act {767 my}
10. ^ Cédric Berney and Jan
Pawlowski, "A molecular time-scale for
eukaryote evolution recalibrated with
the continuous microfossil record",
Proc. R. Soc. B August 7, 2006
273:1867-1872;
doi:10.1098/rspb.2006.3537 http://rspb.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/273/1
596/1867.short {620 my}
11. ^ Emmanuelle J.
Javaux, Andrew H. Knoll and Malcolm
Walter, "Recognizing and Interpreting
the Fossils of Early Eukaryotes",
Origins of Life and Evolution of
Biospheres, Volume 33, Number 1, 75-94,
DOI:
10.1023/A:1023992712071 http://www.spri
ngerlink.com/content/j1nn04342607n57m/ex
port-citation/ {api+dino and ciliate
split)1100 my}
MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.sirinet.net/~jgjohnso/apbio30
.html
[2] S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
(1973mybn)
[3] Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (1600mybn)
[4] Brusca and Brusca,
"Invertebrates", Second Edition, 2003,
p135
[1] Description A thin-film Giemsa
stained micrograph of ring-forms, and
gametocytes of Plasmodium falciparum.
From
http://phil.cdc.gov/phil/home.asp Date
2006-11-16 (original upload
date) Source Originally from
en.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. Author Original uploader was
TimVickers at
en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3c/Plasmodium.jpg
[2] Fig. 1. A consensus phylogeny of
eukaryotes. The vast majority of
characterized eukaryotes, with the
notable exception of major subgroups of
amoebae, can now be assigned to one of
eight major groups. Opisthokonts (basal
flagellum) have a single basal
flagellum on reproductive cells and
flat mitochondrial cristae (most
eukaryotes have tubular ones).
Eukaryotic photosynthesis originated in
Plants; theirs are the only plastids
with just two outer membranes.
Heterokonts (different flagellae) have
a unique flagellum decorated with
hollow tripartite hairs (stramenopiles)
and, usually, a second plain one.
Cercozoans are amoebae with filose
pseudopodia, often living with in tests
(hard outer shells), some very
elaborate (foraminiferans). Amoebozoa
are mostly naked amoebae (lacking
tests), often with lobose pseudopodia
for at least part of their life cycle.
Alveolates have systems of cortical
alveoli directly beneath their plasma
membranes. Discicristates have discoid
mitochondrial cristae and, in some
cases, a deep (excavated) ventral
feeding groove. Amitochondrial
excavates lack substantial molecular
phylogenetic support, but most have an
excavated ventral feeding groove, and
all lack mitochondria. The tree shown
is based on a consensus of molecular
(1-4) and ultrastructural (16, 17) data
and includes a rough indication of new
ciPCR ''taxa'' (broken black lines)
(7-11). An asterisk preceding the taxon
name indicates probable paraphyletic
group COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/co
ntent/full/300/5626/1703
16 17 18 19 20
{KO-e-nO-FlaJ-e-lATS8 }.9 10 11 12 13
14 Choanoflagellates are the closest
relatives to the animals and may be
direct ancestors of sponges.15
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=choano
flagellate&submit=Submit
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=114293
4. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
5. ^
http://microscope.mbl.edu/scripts/protis
t.php?func=integrate&myID=P2691&chinese_
flag=&system=&version=&documentID=&exclu
deNonLinkedIn=&imagesOnly=
6. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
(1513 (drips?) and 1450 choano)
7. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004). (1000 drips and 900 choano)
8. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=choano
flagellate&submit=Submit
9. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
10. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=114293
11. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
12. ^
http://microscope.mbl.edu/scripts/protis
t.php?func=integrate&myID=P2691&chinese_
flag=&system=&version=&documentID=&exclu
deNonLinkedIn=&imagesOnly=
13. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
(1513 (drips?) and 1450 choano)
14. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004). (1000 drips and 900 choano)
15. ^
Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004), p502.
16. ^ Peterson, Kevin J., and
Nicholas J. Butterfield. “Origin of
the Eumetazoa: Testing Ecological
Predictions of Molecular Clocks Against
the Proterozoic Fossil Record.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences of the United States of
America 102.27 (2005):
9547–9552. http://www.pnas.org/conten
t/102/27/9547.full.pdf+html
17. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (1000 drips and 900
choano) {900 MYBN}
18. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS,
Butterfield NJ, Sanderson MJ,
Bhattacharya D, "Plastid endosymbiosis:
Sources and timing of the major
events.", in: Falkowski P, Knoll A,
editors. "Evolution of primary
producers in the sea.", Elsevier; 2007.
{900 MYBN}
19. ^ S. Blair Hedges and Sudhir
Kumar, "The TimeTree of Life", 2009,
p117-118. http://www.timetree.org/book.
php {1020 mybn}
20. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E
Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L
Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
(1513 (drips?) and 1450 choano) {1450
mybn}
MORE INFO
[1] Elizabeth Pennisi, "Drafting
a Tree", Science, (2003)
[2] "Ichthyosporea".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://species.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ichthy
osporea
[1] Choanoflagellate single cell
(thecate) UNKNOWN
source: http://behance.vo.llnwd.net/prof
iles22/483113/projects/1558429/6ea555ab5
457e21432def0f2e6b83fe3.jpg
[2] Salpingoeca: Cells solitary or
colonial with a distinct and firm
sheath or theca usually as a cup either
sessile or with a pedicel; theca
colourless or amber; contractile
vacuoles posterior in freshwater
specie; in freshwater, brackish, and
marine habitats. Record information:
Salpingoeca (sal-ping-go-eek-a), a
collar flagellate (choanoflagellate) -
all of which have a single anterior
flagellum surrounded by a collar of
very fine pseudopodia (in cross-section
the collar seems like two arms, one on
either side of the flagellum). The
flagellum beats drawing water through
the collar and bacteria and other small
particles are trapped and then
ingested. Believed to be the source
group of the sponges and the metazoa.
Salpingoeca has an organic lorica.
Phase contrast. This picture was
taken by David Patterson, Linda Amaral
Zettler and Virginia Edgcomb of
material from the salt marsh at Little
Sippewissett (Massachusetts, USA) in
Autumn, 2000 and in Spring and summer,
2001. NONCOMMERCIAL USE
source: http://microscope.mbl.edu/script
s/microscope.php?func=imgDetail&imageID=
746
10 11 12
moving Protist.7 8 This allows larger
free moving organisms to evolve.9
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p497-506.
2. ^ S Blair Hedges,
Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi and
Jason L Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
3. ^ Richard
Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA:
Blackwell, 2005).
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p497-506.
5. ^ S Blair
Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi
and Jason L Shoe, "A molecular
timescale of eukaryote evolution and
the rise of complex multicellular
life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004,
4:2 doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2,
(2004).
6. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
7. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004), p497-506.
8. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E
Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L
Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
9. ^ Richard
Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA:
Blackwell, 2005).
10. ^ Peterson, Kevin J.,
and Nicholas J. Butterfield. “Origin
of the Eumetazoa: Testing Ecological
Predictions of Molecular Clocks Against
the Proterozoic Fossil Record.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences of the United States of
America 102.27 (2005):
9547–9552. http://www.pnas.org/conten
t/102/27/9547.full.pdf+html
11. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p497-506. (c850my)
12. ^ S Blair
Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi
and Jason L Shoe, "A molecular
timescale of eukaryote evolution and
the rise of complex multicellular
life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004,
4:2 doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2,
(2004). (1351my)
MORE INFO
[1] Nicholas H. Barton,
"Evolution", 2007,
p225-226. http://books.google.com/books
?id=mMDFQ32oMI8C&pg=PA225
[2] Brusca and Brusca, "Invertebrates",
2003, 188-191
[1] Sponge showing several choanocyte
chambers UNKNOWN
source: http://behance.vo.llnwd.net/prof
iles22/483113/projects/1558429/43a2a4c7e
127f66b7090ed679a8da30a.jpg
[2] Combination of: Saepicula and
Sphaeroeca NONCOMMERCIAL USE
source: http://microscope.mbl.edu/script
s/microscope.php?func=imgDetail&imageID=
3229
predominantly diploid, mitosis in the
haploid phase does not occur.1 2
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ John Ringo, "Fundamental
Genetics", 2004, p201.
2. ^ Mark Kirkpatrick,
"The evolution of haploid-diploid life
cycles", 1994,
p10. http://books.google.com/books?id=X
sgoLnXLIswC&pg=PA10
[1] Gametic Meiosis. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gametic_meiosis.png
[2] Gametic Meiosis. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gametic_meiosis.png
15 16 17 18 19
metazoan, sponges (Porifera). Metazoans
are multicellular and have
differentiation (their cells perform
different functions). There are only
three major kinds of metazoans:
sponges, cnidarians, and bilaterians.7
8 9
Sponges have different cell types: some
form a body wall, some secrete
skeleton, some contract, and some
digest food.10 11 12 13
All sponge cells are totipotent
{TOTiPiTeNT}; capable of regrowing a
new sponge.14
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
2. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004), p497-501.
3. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E
Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L
Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
4. ^ Richard
Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA:
Blackwell, 2005).
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p497-501.
6. ^ S Blair
Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi
and Jason L Shoe, "A molecular
timescale of eukaryote evolution and
the rise of complex multicellular
life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004,
4:2 doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2,
(2004).
7. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
8. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004), p497-501.
9. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E
Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L
Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
10. ^
Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
11. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
12. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
13. ^ Brusca
and Brusca, "Invertebrates", 2003,
188-191.
14. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
15. ^ Peterson,
Kevin J., and Nicholas J. Butterfield.
“Origin of the Eumetazoa: Testing
Ecological Predictions of Molecular
Clocks Against the Proterozoic Fossil
Record.” Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences of the United
States of America 102.27 (2005):
9547–9552. http://www.pnas.org/conten
t/102/27/9547.full.pdf+html
16. ^ S. Blair Hedges and Sudhir Kumar,
"The TimeTree of Life", 2009,
p224-229. http://www.timetree.org/book.
php
17. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (c850my) {c800my}
18. ^ S Blair
Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi
and Jason L Shoe, "A molecular
timescale of eukaryote evolution and
the rise of complex multicellular
life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004,
4:2 doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2,
(2004). (1351my)
19. ^ Richard Cowen, "History
of Life", (Malden, MA: Blackwell,
2005). (600?)
MORE INFO
[1] Müller, Werner E. G. “The
Origin of Metazoan Complexity: Porifera
as Integrated Animals.” Integrative
and Comparative Biology 43.1 (2003):
3–10. http://www.jstor.org/stable/388
4834
[1] Summary Description English:
Marine sponge. Color adjusted (but not
color accurate) underwater photograph
taken by Dlloyd using a digital camera
at a depth of approximately 100 feet in
Cayman. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/62/SpongeColorCorrect.jp
g
[2]
source: http://www.museums.org.za/bio/me
tazoa.htm
5 6 7 8
testicle) evolves in a sponge.4
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p20.
2. ^ D. T.
Anderson, "Invertebrate Zoology",
Oxford University Press, Second
Edition, 2001, p20.
3. ^ "testis." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 21 Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/testis
4. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p20.
5. ^ Peterson,
Kevin J., and Nicholas J. Butterfield.
“Origin of the Eumetazoa: Testing
Ecological Predictions of Molecular
Clocks Against the Proterozoic Fossil
Record.” Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences of the United
States of America 102.27 (2005):
9547–9552. http://www.pnas.org/conten
t/102/27/9547.full.pdf+html
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (c850my) {based on
evolution of sponge) c850my}
7. ^ S Blair
Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi
and Jason L Shoe, "A molecular
timescale of eukaryote evolution and
the rise of complex multicellular
life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004,
4:2 doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2,
(2004). (1351my)
8. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of
Life", (Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
(600?)
MORE INFO
[1] "Proteoglycan." The Oxford
Dictionary of Sports Science . Oxford
University Press, 1998, 2006, 2007.
Answers.com 12 Aug. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/proteoglyca
n
[2] D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p18-19
[3] D. T.
Anderson, "Invertebrate Zoology",
Oxford University Press, Second
Edition, 2001, p17
[1] Oocyte (female egg) release from
sponge, sperm release from sponge,
FIgure from: D. T. Anderson,
''Invertebrate Zoology'', Oxford
University Press, Second Edition,
2001. COPYRIGHTED
source: D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001.
[2] Combination of image from: Brusca
and Brusca, ''Invertebrates'', Second
Edition, 2003,
http://www.oceanicresearch.org/sponges
.html and D. T. Anderson,
''Invertebrate Zoology'', Oxford
University Press, Second Edition,
2001. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.museums.org.za/bio/me
tazoa.htm
Ice Age (650-590 mybn).1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Proc. Ntl. Acad. Sci. USA Vol
91, pp 6743-6750, July
1994 "Proterozoic and Early Cambrian
protists: Evidence for accelerating
evolutionary tempo" Andrew H Knoll
[1] Snowball Earth 600 to 750 million
years ago Earth was incased in ice for
prolong periods of time and each global
glacial event ended under severe
greenhouse conditions. This late
Precambrian planet-wide glaciation is
known as “Snowball Earth” and is an
extension on Sturtian- Varangian
glaciation. UNKNOWN
source: http://geology.fullerton.edu/whe
nderson/Fal201L2005/snowballearth/images
/snoballearth.jpg
[2] Snowball Earth Begins UNKNOWN
source: http://www.gambassa.com/gambassa
files/images/images/1310/20090528_snowba
ll_earth_v1.jpg
4 5 6
are arranged in layers evolve in
metazoans.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p2-3.
2. ^ D. T.
Anderson, "Invertebrate Zoology",
Oxford University Press, Second
Edition, 2001, p2-3.
3. ^ D. T. Anderson,
"Invertebrate Zoology", Oxford
University Press, Second Edition, 2001,
p2-3.
4. ^ Peterson, Kevin J., and Nicholas
J. Butterfield. “Origin of the
Eumetazoa: Testing Ecological
Predictions of Molecular Clocks Against
the Proterozoic Fossil Record.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences of the United States of
America 102.27 (2005):
9547–9552. http://www.pnas.org/conten
t/102/27/9547.full.pdf+html
5. ^ Peterson, Kevin J., and Nicholas
J. Butterfield. “Origin of the
Eumetazoa: Testing Ecological
Predictions of Molecular Clocks Against
the Proterozoic Fossil Record.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences of the United States of
America 102.27 (2005):
9547–9552. http://www.pnas.org/conten
t/102/27/9547.full.pdf+html
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p491-493. (c750)
{c750MYBN (Ctenophores are first
metazoans with tissues}
MORE INFO
[1]
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=12289&tree=0.1
[1] Description This is an example
of a ctenophore, Bathocyroe fosteri,
which is a mesopelagic species. Date
Source Description This is
an example of a ctenophore, Bathocyroe
fosteri, which is a mesopelagic
species. Date Source
[1] Author Photo courtesy of
Marsh Youngbluth Author Photo
courtesy of Marsh Youngbluth PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/21/Bathocyroe_fosteri.jp
g
[2] Light diffracting along the comb
rows of a Mertensia ovum. The right
lower portion of the body is
regenerating from previous damage.
Source: NOAA Photo Gallery/ Photo by
Kevin Raskoff PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/42/LightRefractsOf_comb-
rows_of_ctenophore_Mertensia_ovum.jpg
5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=11212&tree=0.1
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
4. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=11212&tree=0.1
5. ^ Peterson, Kevin J., and Nicholas
J. Butterfield. “Origin of the
Eumetazoa: Testing Ecological
Predictions of Molecular Clocks Against
the Proterozoic Fossil Record.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences of the United States of
America 102.27 (2005):
9547–9552. http://www.pnas.org/conten
t/102/27/9547.full.pdf+html
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). {780 mybn}
MORE INFO
[1] Srivastava, Mansi et al.
“The Trichoplax genome and the nature
of placozoans.” Nature 454.7207
(2008) :
955-960. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v454/n7207/abs/nature07191.html
[2] Dellaporta, Stephen L. et al.
“Mitochondrial genome of Trichoplax
adhaerens supports Placozoa as the
basal lower metazoan phylum.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences 103.23 (2006) : 8751 -8756.
Print. http://www.pnas.org/content/103/
23/8751.full
[1] Description Trichoplax sp.
from Australia in light
microscopy Date February
2006 Source Oliver Voigt Author
Oliver Voigt CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c3/Trichoplax_mic.jpg
[2] from ediacara of australia
source: http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/ven
dian/dickinsonia.html
8 9 10
{KI-TriDEO-mI-KO-Tu) (includes
Chytridiomycetes {KI-TriDEO-mI-SE-TEZ}3
)).4 5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The Origin and
Evolution of Model Organisms", Nature
Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
2. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
3. ^ "Chytridiomycetes." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 24 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/chytridiomy
cetes-1
4. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The Origin and
Evolution of Model Organisms", Nature
Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
5. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
6. ^
http://www.catalogueoflife.org/annual-ch
ecklist/2008/browse_taxa.php?path=0,5597
&selected_taxon=5597
7. ^
http://www.abdn.ac.uk/rhynie/fungi.htm
8. ^
http://www.abdn.ac.uk/rhynie/fungi.htm
9. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The Origin and
Evolution of Model Organisms", Nature
Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849 (2002);
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002). (1460mybn)
10. ^
Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004). (1000mybn)
MORE INFO
[1]
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=71577&tree=0.1
[2]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chytridiomy
cota
[3]
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=chytri
diomycetes&submit=Submit
[4] Kirk, et al., "Dictionary of
Fungi", 2008, p142
[1] Chytrids (Chytridiomycota): The
Primitive Fungi These fungi are
mostly aquatic, are notable for having
a flagella on the cells (a flagella is
a tail, somewhat like a tail on a sperm
or a pollywog), and are thought to be
the most primitive type of
fungi. actual photo comes
from: http://www.csupomona.edu/~jcclark
/classes/bot125/resource/graphics/chy_al
l_sph.html
source: http://www.davidlnelson.md/Cazad
ero/Fungi.htm
[2] Chytridiomycota - Blastocladiales
- zoospore of Allomyces (phase contrast
illumination) X 2000
source: http://www.mycolog.com/chapter2b
.htm
9 10 11 12 13
nervous system evolves in the ancestor
of the Ctenophores and Cnidarians.5 6
This will lead to the first ganglion
and brain.7 Earliest touch and sound
detection and memory.8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
(presumably)
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Richard Cowen, "History
of Life", (Malden, MA: Blackwell,
2005). (presumably)
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Richard Cowen,
"History of Life", (Malden, MA:
Blackwell, 2005). (presumably)
6. ^ D. T. Anderson,
"Invertebrate Zoology", Oxford
University Press, Second Edition, 2001,
p2,30.
7. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
(presumably)
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Peterson, Kevin J., and
Nicholas J. Butterfield. “Origin of
the Eumetazoa: Testing Ecological
Predictions of Molecular Clocks Against
the Proterozoic Fossil Record.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences of the United States of
America 102.27 (2005):
9547–9552. http://www.pnas.org/conten
t/102/27/9547.full.pdf+html
10. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
(presumably) {775 MYBN (estimate based
on Ctenophora as first with nerve and
muscle and Ctenophora evolving
c750mybn)(before c700MYBN} {750 MYBN
(estimate based on Ctenophora as first
with nerve and muscle and Ctenophora
evolving c750mybn}
11. ^ S OOta and N Saitou,
"Phylogenetic relationship of muscle
tissues deduced from superimposition of
gene trees.", Mol Biol Evol (1999)
16(6):
856-867. http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/
content/16/6/856.abstract {Saitou_1999.
pdf} {775 MYBN (estimate based on
Ctenophora as first with nerve and
muscle and Ctenophora evolving
c750mybn)(before c700MYBN} {775 MYBN
(estimate based on Ctenophora as first
with nerve and muscle and Ctenophora
evolving c750mybn)(before
c700MYBN)(before c700MYBN}
12. ^ Richard Cowen,
"History of Life", (Malden, MA:
Blackwell, 2005). (presumably) {775
MYBN (estimate based on Ctenophora as
first with nerve and muscle and
Ctenophora evolving c750mybn)(before
c700MYBN}
13. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
(presumably) {574mybn}
MORE INFO
[1] Ghysen, A. (2003). The origin
and evolution of the nervous system.
The International journal of
developmental biology , 47 (7-8),
555-562. http://view.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/p
ubmed/14756331
[2] Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p491-493. (c750mybn)
[1] English: Drawing of Purkinje cells
(A) and granule cells (B) from pigeon
cerebellum by Santiago Ramón y Cajal,
1899; Instituto Santiago Ramón y
Cajal, Madrid, Spain. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/15/PurkinjeCell.jpg
[2] figure from: D. T. Anderson,
''Invertebrate Zoology'', Oxford
University Press, Second Edition, 2001,
p39. COPYRIGHTED
source: D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p39.
5 6 7 8
Both the earliest known muscle and
nerve cells are found in Ctenophores
and Cnidarians.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Katja Seipel, Volker Schmid,
Evolution of striated muscle: Jellyfish
and the origin of triploblasty,
Developmental Biology, Volume 282,
Issue 1, 1 June 2005, Pages 14-26, ISSN
0012-1606, DOI:
10.1016/j.ydbio.2005.03.032. (http://ww
w.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/
S0012160605002095) {Schmid_20050309.pdf
}
2. ^ Katja Seipel, Volker Schmid,
Evolution of striated muscle: Jellyfish
and the origin of triploblasty,
Developmental Biology, Volume 282,
Issue 1, 1 June 2005, Pages 14-26, ISSN
0012-1606, DOI:
10.1016/j.ydbio.2005.03.032. (http://ww
w.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/
S0012160605002095) {Schmid_20050309.pdf
}
3. ^ Katja Seipel, Volker Schmid,
Evolution of striated muscle: Jellyfish
and the origin of triploblasty,
Developmental Biology, Volume 282,
Issue 1, 1 June 2005, Pages 14-26, ISSN
0012-1606, DOI:
10.1016/j.ydbio.2005.03.032. (http://ww
w.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/
S0012160605002095) {Schmid_20050309.pdf
}
4. ^ Katja Seipel, Volker Schmid,
Evolution of striated muscle: Jellyfish
and the origin of triploblasty,
Developmental Biology, Volume 282,
Issue 1, 1 June 2005, Pages 14-26, ISSN
0012-1606, DOI:
10.1016/j.ydbio.2005.03.032. (http://ww
w.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/
S0012160605002095) {Schmid_20050309.pdf
}
5. ^ Peterson, Kevin J., and Nicholas
J. Butterfield. “Origin of the
Eumetazoa: Testing Ecological
Predictions of Molecular Clocks Against
the Proterozoic Fossil Record.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences of the United States of
America 102.27 (2005):
9547–9552. http://www.pnas.org/conten
t/102/27/9547.full.pdf+html
6. ^ Katja Seipel, Volker Schmid,
Evolution of striated muscle: Jellyfish
and the origin of triploblasty,
Developmental Biology, Volume 282,
Issue 1, 1 June 2005, Pages 14-26, ISSN
0012-1606, DOI:
10.1016/j.ydbio.2005.03.032. (http://ww
w.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/
S0012160605002095) {Schmid_20050309.pdf
} {775 MYBN (estimate based on
Ctenophora as first with nerve and
muscle and Ctenophora evolving
c750mybn)(before c700MYBN} {750 MYBN
(estimate based on Ctenophora as first
with nerve and muscle and Ctenophora
evolving c750mybn}
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p491-493.
(c750mybn) {775 MYBN (estimate based on
Ctenophora as first with nerve and
muscle and Ctenophora evolving
c750mybn)(before c700MYBN} {775 MYBN
(estimate based on Ctenophora as first
with nerve and muscle and Ctenophora
evolving c750mybn)(before
c700MYBN)(before c700MYBN}
8. ^ S OOta and N
Saitou, "Phylogenetic relationship of
muscle tissues deduced from
superimposition of gene trees.", Mol
Biol Evol (1999) 16(6):
856-867. http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/
content/16/6/856.abstract {Saitou_1999.
pdf} {775 MYBN (estimate based on
Ctenophora as first with nerve and
muscle and Ctenophora evolving
c750mybn)(before c700MYBN}
[1] Figure from: D. T. Anderson,
''Invertebrate Zoology'', Oxford
University Press, Second Edition, 2001,
p39. COPYRIGHTED
source: D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p39.
[2] Derek E. G. Briggs and Richard A.
Fortey, ''Wonderful Strife:
Systematics, Stem Groups, and the
Phylogenetic Signal of the Cambrian
Radiation'', Paleobiology , Vol. 31,
No. 2, Supplement. Macroevolution:
Diversity, Disparity, Contingency:
Essays in Honor of Stephen Jay Gould
(Spring, 2005), pp.
94-112 http://www.jstor.org/stable/2548
2671 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2548
2671
3 4 5
metazoans.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p2-3.
2. ^ D. T.
Anderson, "Invertebrate Zoology",
Oxford University Press, Second
Edition, 2001, p2-3.
3. ^ Peterson, Kevin J.,
and Nicholas J. Butterfield. “Origin
of the Eumetazoa: Testing Ecological
Predictions of Molecular Clocks Against
the Proterozoic Fossil Record.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences of the United States of
America 102.27 (2005):
9547–9552. http://www.pnas.org/conten
t/102/27/9547.full.pdf+html
4. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p2-3. {c750MYBN
(all metazoans but sponges have a
closable mouth}
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p491-493.
(c750) {c750MYBN (all metazoans but
sponges have a closable mouth}
MORE INFO
[1]
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=12289&tree=0.1
[1] Description This is an example
of a ctenophore, Bathocyroe fosteri,
which is a mesopelagic species. Date
Source Description This is
an example of a ctenophore, Bathocyroe
fosteri, which is a mesopelagic
species. Date Source
[1] Author Photo courtesy of
Marsh Youngbluth Author Photo
courtesy of Marsh Youngbluth PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/21/Bathocyroe_fosteri.jp
g
[2] Light diffracting along the comb
rows of a Mertensia ovum. The right
lower portion of the body is
regenerating from previous damage.
Source: NOAA Photo Gallery/ Photo by
Kevin Raskoff PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/42/LightRefractsOf_comb-
rows_of_ctenophore_Mertensia_ovum.jpg
7 8 9 10 11
metazoans.5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p48.
2. ^
http://species-identification.org/specie
s.php?species_group=zsao&id=589&menuentr
y=groepen
3. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p48.
4. ^
http://species-identification.org/specie
s.php?species_group=zsao&id=589&menuentr
y=groepen
5. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p48.
6. ^
http://species-identification.org/specie
s.php?species_group=zsao&id=589&menuentr
y=groepen
7. ^ Peterson, Kevin J., and Nicholas
J. Butterfield. “Origin of the
Eumetazoa: Testing Ecological
Predictions of Molecular Clocks Against
the Proterozoic Fossil Record.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences of the United States of
America 102.27 (2005):
9547–9552. http://www.pnas.org/conten
t/102/27/9547.full.pdf+html
8. ^ Peterson, Kevin J., and Nicholas
J. Butterfield. “Origin of the
Eumetazoa: Testing Ecological
Predictions of Molecular Clocks Against
the Proterozoic Fossil Record.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences of the United States of
America 102.27 (2005):
9547–9552. http://www.pnas.org/conten
t/102/27/9547.full.pdf+html
9. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005). (580my)
{based on evolution of cnidaria) 580my}
10. ^
Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004), p477-490. (c700my)
11. ^ S Blair Hedges,
Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi and
Jason L Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
(1298my)
MORE INFO
[1] "Proteoglycan." The Oxford
Dictionary of Sports Science . Oxford
University Press, 1998, 2006, 2007.
Answers.com 12 Aug. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/proteoglyca
n
[2] D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p18-19
[3] D. T.
Anderson, "Invertebrate Zoology",
Oxford University Press, Second
Edition, 2001, p17
[4] Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
(c850my)
[5] S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
(1351my)
[6] Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005). (600?)
[1] From: Brusca and Brusca,
''Invertebrates'', Second Edition,
2003. COPYRIGHTED
source: Brusca and Brusca,
"Invertebrates", Second Edition, 2003
[2] Figure 3.8 Anthozoa. (a) Anemone
(Actiniaria), showing the pharynx,
mesenteries, mesenterial filamnets and
acontia. (b) Structure of a mesenterial
filament in transverse section. (c)
Scleractinian coral, showing calcareous
skeleton and coenenchyme. (d)
Gorgonian, showing skeleton made up of
a horny axial rod and spicules in the
mesogloea (after Pearse et al 1987).
(e) Alcyonarian soft coral, showing
spicular skeleton in the
mesogloea. From: D. T. Anderson,
''Invertebrate Zoology'', Oxford
University Press, Second Edition,
2001. COPYRIGHTED
source: D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001.
5 6
evolve (comb jellies).4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "ctenophore." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 02 May.
2013.
tenophore>.
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p491-493.
3. ^ "ctenophore."
Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random
House, Inc. 02 May. 2013.
tenophore>.
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p491-493.
5. ^ Peterson, Kevin
J., and Nicholas J. Butterfield.
“Origin of the Eumetazoa: Testing
Ecological Predictions of Molecular
Clocks Against the Proterozoic Fossil
Record.” Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences of the United
States of America 102.27 (2005):
9547–9552. http://www.pnas.org/conten
t/102/27/9547.full.pdf+html
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p491-493. (c750)
[1] Description This is an example
of a ctenophore, Bathocyroe fosteri,
which is a mesopelagic species. Date
Source Description This is
an example of a ctenophore, Bathocyroe
fosteri, which is a mesopelagic
species. Date Source
[1] Author Photo courtesy of
Marsh Youngbluth Author Photo
courtesy of Marsh Youngbluth PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/21/Bathocyroe_fosteri.jp
g
[2] Light diffracting along the comb
rows of a Mertensia ovum. The right
lower portion of the body is
regenerating from previous damage.
Source: NOAA Photo Gallery/ Photo by
Kevin Raskoff PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/42/LightRefractsOf_comb-
rows_of_ctenophore_Mertensia_ovum.jpg
19 20 21 22
evolve (ancestor of sea anemones, sea
pens, corals, and jellyfish).13 14 15
16 Earliest animal eye.17 18
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
2. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004), p477-490.
3. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E
Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L
Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
4. ^
"Cnidaria." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2011. Answers.com 22
Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cnidaria
5. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p41.
6. ^ Megan
O'Connor, Anders Garm, Dan-E Nilsson,
"Structure and optics of the eyes of
the box jellyfish Chiropsella
bronzie.", Journal Of Comparative
Physiology A Neuroethology Sensory
Neural And Behavioral Physiology
(2009), Volume: 195, Issue: 6, Pages:
557-569. http://www.mendeley.com/resear
ch/structure-and-optics-of-the-eyes-of-t
he-box-jellyfish-chiropsella-bronzie/
7. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
8. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004), p477-490.
9. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E
Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L
Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
10. ^
"Cnidaria." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2011. Answers.com 22
Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cnidaria
11. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p41.
12. ^ Megan
O'Connor, Anders Garm, Dan-E Nilsson,
"Structure and optics of the eyes of
the box jellyfish Chiropsella
bronzie.", Journal Of Comparative
Physiology A Neuroethology Sensory
Neural And Behavioral Physiology
(2009), Volume: 195, Issue: 6, Pages:
557-569. http://www.mendeley.com/resear
ch/structure-and-optics-of-the-eyes-of-t
he-box-jellyfish-chiropsella-bronzie/
13. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
14. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004), p477-490.
15. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E
Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L
Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
16. ^
"Cnidaria." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2011. Answers.com 22
Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cnidaria
17. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p41.
18. ^ Megan
O'Connor, Anders Garm, Dan-E Nilsson,
"Structure and optics of the eyes of
the box jellyfish Chiropsella
bronzie.", Journal Of Comparative
Physiology A Neuroethology Sensory
Neural And Behavioral Physiology
(2009), Volume: 195, Issue: 6, Pages:
557-569. http://www.mendeley.com/resear
ch/structure-and-optics-of-the-eyes-of-t
he-box-jellyfish-chiropsella-bronzie/
19. ^ Peterson, Kevin J., and Nicholas
J. Butterfield. “Origin of the
Eumetazoa: Testing Ecological
Predictions of Molecular Clocks Against
the Proterozoic Fossil Record.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences of the United States of
America 102.27 (2005):
9547–9552. http://www.pnas.org/conten
t/102/27/9547.full.pdf+html
20. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p477-490. (c700my)
21. ^ Richard
Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA:
Blackwell, 2005). (580my)
22. ^ S Blair Hedges,
Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi and
Jason L Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
(1298my)
MORE INFO
[1] Collins, A.G. (2002).
"Phylogeny of Medusozoa and the
Evolution of Cnidarian Life Cycles"
(PDF). Journal of Evolutionary Biology
15 (3): 418–432.
doi:10.1046/j.1420-9101.2002.00403.x. h
ttp://cima.uprm.edu/~n_schizas/CMOB_8676
/Collins2002.pdf
[2] Philippe, H. (April 2009).
"Phylogenomics Revives Traditional
Views on Deep Animal Relationships".
Current Biology 19: 706–712.
doi:10.1016/j.cub.2009.02.052. PMID
19345102. http://www.sciencedirect.com/
science/article/pii/S0960982209008057
[3] doi:10.1038/4631003b; Published
online 24 February
2010 http://www.nature.com/nature/journ
al/v463/n7284/full/4631003b.html
[1] Octocorals Stylatula elongata –
White Sea Pen UNKNOWN
source: http://pt-lobos.com/cnidarianimg
/white_sea_pens.jpg
[2] Sea nettles, Chrysaora
quinquecirrha CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/36/Sea_nettles.jpg
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
soft-bodied invertebrate fossils.4
The sudden appearance of Ediacaran
fossils may relate to the accumulation
of free oxygen in the atmosphere and
sea, which may permit an oxidative
metabolism.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Ediacaran." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 28
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ediacaran
2. ^ Harold Levin, "The Earth Through
Time", Eighth Edition, 2006,
p258-264,329.
3. ^ "Ediacaran." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 28
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ediacaran
4. ^ Harold Levin, "The Earth Through
Time", Eighth Edition, 2006,
p258-264,329.
5. ^ Harold Levin, "The Earth Through
Time", Eighth Edition, 2006,
p258-264,329.
6. ^ McMenamin, M. A. S. (1996).
"Ediacaran biota from Sonora, Mexico".
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences (USA) 93:
4990–4993. http://www.pnas.org/conten
t/93/10/4990.full.pdf
7. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
8. ^ Meert, J.
G.; Gibsher, A. S.; Levashova, N. M.;
Grice, W. C.; Kamenov, G. D.; Rybanin,
A. (2010). "Glaciation and ~770 Ma
Ediacara (?) Fossils from the Lesser
Karatau Microcontinent, Kazakhstan".
Gondwana Research 19 (4): 867–880.
doi:10.1016/j.gr.2010.11.008. http://ww
w.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/
S1342937X10002005
9. ^ McMenamin, M. A. S. (1996).
"Ediacaran biota from Sonora, Mexico".
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences (USA) 93:
4990–4993. http://www.pnas.org/conten
t/93/10/4990.full.pdf
10. ^ Ben Waggoner, "The Ediacaran
Biotas in Space and Time", Integrative
and Comparative Biology , Vol. 43, No.
1 (Feb., 2003), pp.
104-113. http://www.jstor.org/stable/38
84845 {Waggoner_200302xx.pdf}
11. ^ H. J. Hofmann, G. M. Narbonne and
J. D. Aitken, "Ediacaran remains from
intertillite beds in northwestern
Canada", Geology, December, 1990, v.
18, p.
1199-1202. http://geology.gsapubs.org/c
ontent/18/12/1199.abstract {Hofmann_Edi
acaran_Fossils_1990.pdf}
12. ^ Knoll, Andrew H. et al. “A New
Period for the Geologic Time Scale.”
Science 305.5684 (2004): 621 –622.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/305/5684/621.short
13. ^ Knoll, Andrew H. et al. “A New
Period for the Geologic Time Scale.”
Science 305.5684 (2004): 621 –622.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/305/5684/621.short
14. ^ Harold Levin, "The Earth Through
Time", Eighth Edition, 2006,
p258-264,329. {630 mybn}
15. ^ Richard Cowen,
"History of Life", (Malden, MA:
Blackwell, 2005). {575 mybn}
16. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm {670 mybn}
17. ^ Meert, J. G.;
Gibsher, A. S.; Levashova, N. M.;
Grice, W. C.; Kamenov, G. D.; Rybanin,
A. (2010). "Glaciation and ~770 Ma
Ediacara (?) Fossils from the Lesser
Karatau Microcontinent, Kazakhstan".
Gondwana Research 19 (4): 867–880.
doi:10.1016/j.gr.2010.11.008. http://ww
w.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/
S1342937X10002005
MORE INFO
[1] Ivantsov, A. Yu (2004). "New
Proarticulata from the Vendian of the
Arkhangel'sk Region" (PDF).
Paleontological Journal 38 (3):
247–253
[2] Peterson, Kevin J., and Nicholas J.
Butterfield. “Origin of the
Eumetazoa: Testing Ecological
Predictions of Molecular Clocks Against
the Proterozoic Fossil Record.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences of the United States of
America 102.27 (2005):
9547–9552. http://www.pnas.org/conten
t/102/27/9547.short
Lesser Karatau Microcontinent,
Kazakhsta8
[1] A general view of the life in the
time frame from about 605 to 542
million years ago (the Vendian), is
found at this New Zealand site which
concentrates on the Ediacaran epoch; it
mentions Australian and other
geographic localities where the
assemblages have been found. The fossil
life is represented entirely by
creatures with soft parts only. It is
suggested that these may be ancestral
to later phylla observed at the
beginning of the Paleozoic. Below is a
chart presenting typical Ediacaran
fauna, followed by an artist's
depiction of life on the sea floor at
that time, and beneath that is a layout
of some actual fossils: PD
source: http://rst.gsfc.nasa.gov/Sect20/
800pxlife_in_the_ediacaran_sea.jpg
[2] A more general view of the life in
the time frame from about 600+ to 542
million years ago (end of Proterozoic
and Precambrian into the oldest
Cambrian), known as the Ediacaran or
Vendian, is found at this New Zealand
site; it mentions Australian and other
geographic localities where the
assemblages have been found. The fossil
life represents entirely creatures with
soft parts only and suggestions that
these may be ancestral to later phylla
observed at the beginning of the
Paleozoic. Below is an artist's sketch
of some of these creatures: UNKNOWN
source: http://www.fas.org/irp/imint/doc
s/rst/Sect20/vendintro.jpg
23 24 25
sided symmetry).15 16 17
Earliest
animal brain.18 19 First triploblastic
species (third embryonic layer: the
mesoderm {meZuDRM20 }).21
In most bilaterians food enters in one
end (the mouth) and waste exits at the
opposite end (the anus). There is an
advantage for sense organs like light,
sound, touch, smell, and taste
detection to be located on the head
near the mouth to help with getting
food.22
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p472-476.
2. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=201049&tree=0.1
3. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
4. ^ D. T.
Anderson, "Invertebrate Zoology",
Oxford University Press, Second
Edition, 2001, p69.
5. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p396-400.
6. ^ "mesoderm." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 27
Dec. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/mesoderm
7. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p59.
8. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004), p472-476.
9. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=201049&tree=0.1
10. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
11. ^ D. T.
Anderson, "Invertebrate Zoology",
Oxford University Press, Second
Edition, 2001, p69.
12. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p396-400.
13. ^ "mesoderm." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 27
Dec. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/mesoderm
14. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p59.
15. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004), p472-476.
16. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=201049&tree=0.1
17. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
18. ^ D. T.
Anderson, "Invertebrate Zoology",
Oxford University Press, Second
Edition, 2001, p69.
19. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p396-400.
20. ^ "mesoderm." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 27
Dec. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/mesoderm
21. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p59.
22. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004), p396.
23. ^ Peterson, Kevin J., and
Nicholas J. Butterfield. “Origin of
the Eumetazoa: Testing Ecological
Predictions of Molecular Clocks Against
the Proterozoic Fossil Record.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences of the United States of
America 102.27 (2005):
9547–9552. http://www.pnas.org/conten
t/102/27/9547.full.pdf+html
24. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p472-476. (630my)
25. ^ Richard
Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA:
Blackwell, 2005). (575 (fossil is
older)
[1] Convoluta pulchra Smith and Bush
1991, a typical mud-inhabiting acoel
that feeds on diatoms
source: ?
[2] Figure from: Giribet, G. (2008).
Assembling the lophotrochozoan
(=spiralian) tree of life.
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society B: Biological Sciences , 363
(1496), 1513-1522. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2007.2241
http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/363/1496/1513 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://rstb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/363/1496/1513
9 10 11
Acoelomorpha (acoela flat worms and
nemertodermatida).4 5 6
Acoelomorpha lack a digestive track,
anus and coelom.7 8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p472-476.
2. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=201049&tree=0.1
3. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
4. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004), p472-476.
5. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=201049&tree=0.1
6. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
7. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
8. ^ "Acoelomorpha". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acoelomorph
a
9. ^ Peterson, Kevin J., and Nicholas
J. Butterfield. “Origin of the
Eumetazoa: Testing Ecological
Predictions of Molecular Clocks Against
the Proterozoic Fossil Record.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences of the United States of
America 102.27 (2005):
9547–9552. http://www.pnas.org/conten
t/102/27/9547.full.pdf+html
10. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p472-476. (630my)
11. ^ Richard
Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA:
Blackwell, 2005). (575 (fossil is
older)
MORE INFO
[1] Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p396
[1] Convoluta pulchra Smith and Bush
1991, a typical mud-inhabiting acoel
that feeds on diatoms
source: ?
[2] Figure from: Giribet, G. (2008).
Assembling the lophotrochozoan
(=spiralian) tree of life.
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society B: Biological Sciences , 363
(1496), 1513-1522. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2007.2241
http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/363/1496/1513 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://rstb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/363/1496/1513
4 5 6
bilaterian.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p61,66-67.
2. ^ D. T.
Anderson, "Invertebrate Zoology",
Oxford University Press, Second
Edition, 2001, p61,66-67.
3. ^ D. T. Anderson,
"Invertebrate Zoology", Oxford
University Press, Second Edition, 2001,
p61,66-67.
4. ^ Peterson, Kevin J., and Nicholas
J. Butterfield. “Origin of the
Eumetazoa: Testing Ecological
Predictions of Molecular Clocks Against
the Proterozoic Fossil Record.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences of the United States of
America 102.27 (2005):
9547–9552. http://www.pnas.org/conten
t/102/27/9547.full.pdf+html
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p472-476. (630my)
6. ^ Richard
Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA:
Blackwell, 2005). (575 (fossil is
older)
[1] From: D. T. Anderson,
''Invertebrate Zoology'', Oxford
University Press, Second Edition,
2001. COPYRIGHTED
source: D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001.
[2] Convoluta pulchra Smith and Bush
1991, a typical mud-inhabiting acoel
that feeds on diatoms
source: ?
6 7 8
through-put of food evolves in a
bilaterian;3 found in all bilaterians
except Acoelomorpha4 and
Platyhelminthes.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p4.
2. ^ D. T.
Anderson, "Invertebrate Zoology",
Oxford University Press, Second
Edition, 2001, p4.
3. ^ D. T. Anderson,
"Invertebrate Zoology", Oxford
University Press, Second Edition, 2001,
p4.
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p472-476.
5. ^ D. T. Anderson,
"Invertebrate Zoology", Oxford
University Press, Second Edition, 2001,
p4.
6. ^ Peterson, Kevin J., and Nicholas
J. Butterfield. “Origin of the
Eumetazoa: Testing Ecological
Predictions of Molecular Clocks Against
the Proterozoic Fossil Record.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences of the United States of
America 102.27 (2005):
9547–9552. http://www.pnas.org/conten
t/102/27/9547.full.pdf+html
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p472-476. (630my)
{630my (first bilateral
species-acoelomates}
8. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005). (575
(fossil is older) {575 (first bilateral
species-acoelomates)(fossil record is
older}
[1] From: D. T. Anderson,
''Invertebrate Zoology'', Oxford
University Press, Second Edition,
2001. COPYRIGHTED
source: D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001.
[2] Convoluta pulchra Smith and Bush
1991, a typical mud-inhabiting acoel
that feeds on diatoms
source: ?
4 5 6
uterus evolve in a bilaterian.3
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p58-79.
2. ^ D. T.
Anderson, "Invertebrate Zoology",
Oxford University Press, Second
Edition, 2001, p58-79.
3. ^ D. T. Anderson,
"Invertebrate Zoology", Oxford
University Press, Second Edition, 2001,
p58-79.
4. ^ Peterson, Kevin J., and Nicholas
J. Butterfield. “Origin of the
Eumetazoa: Testing Ecological
Predictions of Molecular Clocks Against
the Proterozoic Fossil Record.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences of the United States of
America 102.27 (2005):
9547–9552. http://www.pnas.org/conten
t/102/27/9547.full.pdf+html
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p472-476. (630my)
6. ^ Richard
Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA:
Blackwell, 2005). (575 (fossil is
older)
[1] From: D. T. Anderson,
''Invertebrate Zoology'', Oxford
University Press, Second Edition,
2001. COPYRIGHTED
source: D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001.
[2] Convoluta pulchra Smith and Bush
1991, a typical mud-inhabiting acoel
that feeds on diatoms
source: ?
4 5 6
bilaterian.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ruppert, Fox, Barnes,
"Invertebrate Zoology", 2004.
2. ^ Ruppert,
Fox, Barnes, "Invertebrate Zoology",
2004.
3. ^ Ruppert, Fox, Barnes,
"Invertebrate Zoology", 2004.
4. ^ Peterson,
Kevin J., and Nicholas J. Butterfield.
“Origin of the Eumetazoa: Testing
Ecological Predictions of Molecular
Clocks Against the Proterozoic Fossil
Record.” Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences of the United
States of America 102.27 (2005):
9547–9552. http://www.pnas.org/conten
t/102/27/9547.full.pdf+html
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p472-476. (630my)
{based on some Platyhelminthes have a
penis) 630my}
6. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of
Life", (Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
(575 (fossil is older)
MORE INFO
[1] D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001
[1] From: Brusca and Brusca,
''Invertebrates'', Second Edition,
2003 COPYRIGHTED
source: Brusca and Brusca,
"Invertebrates", Second Edition, 2003
[2] From: Ruppert, Fox, Barnes,
''Invertebrate Zoology'',
2004. COPYRIGHTED
source: Ruppert, Fox, Barnes,
"Invertebrate Zoology", 2004.
mybn).1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Proc. Ntl. Acad. Sci. USA Vol
91, pp 6743-6750, July
1994 "Proterozoic and Early Cambrian
protists: Evidence for accelerating
evolutionary tempo" Andrew H Knoll
[1] Precambrian Earth from the South
Pole 600MYBN UNKNOWN
source: http://cpgeosystems.com/gallery.
html
3 4
(SEleM) evolves in a bilaterian.2
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
2. ^ Richard
Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA:
Blackwell, 2005).
3. ^ Peterson, Kevin J., and
Nicholas J. Butterfield. “Origin of
the Eumetazoa: Testing Ecological
Predictions of Molecular Clocks Against
the Proterozoic Fossil Record.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences of the United States of
America 102.27 (2005):
9547–9552. http://www.pnas.org/conten
t/102/27/9547.full.pdf+html
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). {estimate based on
coelom being before
protostome-deutostome division, after
acoelomorph) 630-590 mybn}
MORE INFO
[1] "coelom." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 24
Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/body-cavity
[1] Example of the coleom's from 3
organisms UNKNOWN
source: http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_5DLPaU
qdg2g/TBBz3rcLDOI/AAAAAAAAAGA/Z34_-_usSc
w/s1600/3927715.jpg
[2] From NATURAL HISTORY
COLLECTIONS OF THE UNIVERSITY OF
EDINBURGH Formation of the coelom or
body cavity Acoelomates lack a
body cavity. In pseudocoelomates,
the coelom is formed from a persistent
embryonic cavity. In schizocoelous
coelomates, the coelom is formed by
splits in the embryonic mesoderm, the
middle layer of the body. In
enterocoelous coelomates, the coelom
forms within pouches of the gut
wall. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.nhc.ed.ac.uk/images/c
ollections/invertebrates/intros/LgCoelom
.jpg
9 10
vessels, and blood evolve in a
bilaterian.4 First blood cells.5
Cnidarians and flatworms are no more
than two sheets of tissue thick and so
allow gas exchange and nutrient
distribution by diffusion, but larger
animals with thicker tissues require a
circulatory system to distribute
materials.6 7 8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
2. ^ D. T.
Anderson, "Invertebrate Zoology",
Oxford University Press, Second
Edition, 2001, p4.
3. ^ D. T. Anderson,
"Invertebrate Zoology", Oxford
University Press, Second Edition, 2001,
p81.
4. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p81.
5. ^ Brusca and
Brusca, "Invertebrates", 2003, p327.
6. ^
Solomon, E., L. Berg, and D.W. Martin.
Biology. Cengage Learning, 2010.
Available Titles CourseMate Series,
p938-939. http://books.google.com/books
?id=itHVNZicPgwC
7. ^ Brusca and Brusca,
"Invertebrates", 2003, p299.
8. ^ Cowen, R.
History of Life. John Wiley & Sons,
2009,
p46. http://books.google.com/books?id=Z
-Tam4XuXLkC&pg=PA46
9. ^ Peterson, Kevin J., and Nicholas
J. Butterfield. “Origin of the
Eumetazoa: Testing Ecological
Predictions of Molecular Clocks Against
the Proterozoic Fossil Record.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences of the United States of
America 102.27 (2005):
9547–9552. http://www.pnas.org/conten
t/102/27/9547.full.pdf+html
10. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). {based on}
[1] D. T. Anderson, ''Invertebrate
Zoology'', Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001 AND Fig 11.1G
from: Brusca and Brusca,
''Invertebrates'', 2003,
p320. COPYRIGHTED
source: D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001Brusca and Brusca,
"Invertebrates", 2003, p320.
[2] From: D. T. Anderson,
''Invertebrate Zoology'', Oxford
University Press, Second Edition,
2001 COPYRIGHTED
source: D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001
21 22 23 24
14 Ancestor of all Ecdysozoa
{eK-DiS-u-ZOu15 } and Lophotrochozoa
{LuFoTroKoZOu16 }.17 18 19 20
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=198701
3. ^ Dunn et al., CW; Hejnol, A; Matus,
DQ; Pang, K; Browne, WE; Smith, SA;
Seaver, E; Rouse, GW et al. (2008).
"Broad phylogenomic sampling improves
resolution of the animal tree of life".
Nature 452 (7188): 745–749.
doi:10.1038/nature06614. PMID
18322464. http://www.nature.com/nature/
journal/v452/n7188/abs/nature06614.html
4. ^ Giribet, G. (2008). Assembling the
lophotrochozoan (=spiralian) tree of
life. Philosophical Transactions of the
Royal Society B: Biological Sciences ,
363 (1496), 1513-1522. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2007.2241
http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/363/1496/1513
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
6. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=198701
7. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=ecdyso
zoa&submit=Submit
8. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=lophot
rochozoa&submit=Submit
9. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
10. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=198701
11. ^ Dunn et al., CW; Hejnol, A;
Matus, DQ; Pang, K; Browne, WE; Smith,
SA; Seaver, E; Rouse, GW et al. (2008).
"Broad phylogenomic sampling improves
resolution of the animal tree of life".
Nature 452 (7188): 745–749.
doi:10.1038/nature06614. PMID
18322464. http://www.nature.com/nature/
journal/v452/n7188/abs/nature06614.html
12. ^ Giribet, G. (2008). Assembling
the lophotrochozoan (=spiralian) tree
of life. Philosophical Transactions of
the Royal Society B: Biological
Sciences , 363 (1496), 1513-1522. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2007.2241
http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/363/1496/1513
13. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
14. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=198701
15. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=ecdyso
zoa&submit=Submit
16. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=lophot
rochozoa&submit=Submit
17. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
18. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=198701
19. ^ Dunn et al., CW; Hejnol, A;
Matus, DQ; Pang, K; Browne, WE; Smith,
SA; Seaver, E; Rouse, GW et al. (2008).
"Broad phylogenomic sampling improves
resolution of the animal tree of life".
Nature 452 (7188): 745–749.
doi:10.1038/nature06614. PMID
18322464. http://www.nature.com/nature/
journal/v452/n7188/abs/nature06614.html
20. ^ Giribet, G. (2008). Assembling
the lophotrochozoan (=spiralian) tree
of life. Philosophical Transactions of
the Royal Society B: Biological
Sciences , 363 (1496), 1513-1522. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2007.2241
http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/363/1496/1513
21. ^ Peterson, Kevin J., and Nicholas
J. Butterfield. “Origin of the
Eumetazoa: Testing Ecological
Predictions of Molecular Clocks Against
the Proterozoic Fossil Record.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences of the United States of
America 102.27 (2005):
9547–9552. http://www.pnas.org/conten
t/102/27/9547.full.pdf+html
22. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (590my) {590 mybn}
23. ^
Cartwright, Paulyn, and Allen Collins.
“Fossils and phylogenies: integrating
multiple lines of evidence to
investigate the origin of early major
metazoan lineages.” Integrative and
Comparative Biology 47.5 (2007): 744
-751.
Print. http://icb.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/47/5/744.full {543 mybn}
24. ^ S. Blair
Hedges and Sudhir Kumar, "The TimeTree
of Life", 2009,
p224-225. http://www.timetree.org/book.
php {910 mybn}
MORE INFO
[1]
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=priapu
lids
[2] Kevin J Peterson, James A Cotton,
James G Gehling, and Davide Pisani,
"The Ediacaran emergence of
bilaterians: congruence between the
genetic and the geological fossil
records", Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B April
27, 2008 363 (1496) 1435-1443;
doi:10.1098/rstb.2007.2233 http://rstb.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/363/1
496/1435.short
[1] English: This diagram is showing
the difference of the two major types
of coelomates: the protostomes
(molluscs, annelids, arthropods, ...)
and deuterostomes (echinoderms,
vertebrates, ...). These groups differ
in several characteristics of early
development; In deuterostomes blastula
devisions is called ''radial cleavage''
because it occurs parallel or
perpendicular to the major polar axis.
In protostomes the cleavage is called
''spirale'' because division planes are
oriented obliquely to the polar major
axis. During gastrulation, protostomes
embryos' mouth was given first by the
blastopore while the anus was formed
later and vis versa for the
deuterostomes. As examples :
Squids are protostomes. Sea
urchins are deuterostomes. Date
14 October 2009 Source Own
work Author WYassineMrabetTalk✉ CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Protovsdeuteros
tomes.svg/1000px-Protovsdeuterostomes.sv
g.png
[2] English: This diagram is showing
the difference of the two major types
of coelomates: the protostomes
(molluscs, annelids, arthropods, ...)
and deuterostomes (echinoderms,
vertebrates, ...). These groups differ
in several characteristics of early
development; In deuterostomes blastula
devisions is called ''radial cleavage''
because it occurs parallel or
perpendicular to the major polar axis.
In protostomes the cleavage is called
''spirale'' because division planes are
oriented obliquely to the polar major
axis. During gastrulation, protostomes
embryos' mouth was given first by the
blastopore while the anus was formed
later and vis versa for the
deuterostomes. As examples :
Squids are protostomes. Sea
urchins are deuterostomes. Date
14 October 2009 Source Own
work Author WYassineMrabetTalk✉ CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Protovsdeuteros
tomes.svg/1000px-Protovsdeuterostomes.sv
g.png
9 10 11 12 13
Ancestor of all Echinoderms (iKIniDRMS
6 }, Hemichordates, and Chordates.7 8
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/
3. ^ "echinoderm." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 29
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/echinoderm
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
5. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/
6. ^ "echinoderm." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 29
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/echinoderm
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
8. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/
9. ^ Peterson, Kevin J., and Nicholas
J. Butterfield. “Origin of the
Eumetazoa: Testing Ecological
Predictions of Molecular Clocks Against
the Proterozoic Fossil Record.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences of the United States of
America 102.27 (2005):
9547–9552. http://www.pnas.org/conten
t/102/27/9547.full.pdf+html
10. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). {570 mybn}
11. ^ S. Blair
Hedges and Sudhir Kumar, "The TimeTree
of Life", 2009,
p224-225. http://www.timetree.org/book.
php {910 mybn}
12. ^ Cartwright, Paulyn, and
Allen Collins. “Fossils and
phylogenies: integrating multiple lines
of evidence to investigate the origin
of early major metazoan lineages.”
Integrative and Comparative Biology
47.5 (2007): 744 -751.
Print. http://icb.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/47/5/744.full {367 mybn}
13. ^ Jun-Yuan
Chen, David J. Bottjer, Paola
Oliveri,Stephen Q. Dornbos, Feng Gao,
Seth Ruffins, Huimei Chi, Chia-Wei Li,
Eric H. Davidson, "Small Bilaterian
Fossils from 40 to 55 Million Years
Before the Cambrian", Science, Vol 305,
Issue 5681, 218-222, 9 July
2004 http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/cont
ent/full/sci;305/5681/218
MORE INFO
[1] Kevin J Peterson, James A
Cotton, James G Gehling, and Davide
Pisani, "The Ediacaran emergence of
bilaterians: congruence between the
genetic and the geological fossil
records", Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B April
27, 2008 363 (1496) 1435-1443;
doi:10.1098/rstb.2007.2233 http://rstb.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/363/1
496/1435.short
[1] English: This diagram is showing
the difference of the two major types
of coelomates: the protostomes
(molluscs, annelids, arthropods, ...)
and deuterostomes (echinoderms,
vertebrates, ...). These groups differ
in several characteristics of early
development; In deuterostomes blastula
devisions is called ''radial cleavage''
because it occurs parallel or
perpendicular to the major polar axis.
In protostomes the cleavage is called
''spirale'' because division planes are
oriented obliquely to the polar major
axis. During gastrulation, protostomes
embryos' mouth was given first by the
blastopore while the anus was formed
later and vis versa for the
deuterostomes. As examples :
Squids are protostomes. Sea
urchins are deuterostomes. Date
14 October 2009 Source Own
work Author WYassineMrabetTalk✉ CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Protovsdeuteros
tomes.svg/1000px-Protovsdeuterostomes.sv
g.png
[2] English: This diagram is showing
the difference of the two major types
of coelomates: the protostomes
(molluscs, annelids, arthropods, ...)
and deuterostomes (echinoderms,
vertebrates, ...). These groups differ
in several characteristics of early
development; In deuterostomes blastula
devisions is called ''radial cleavage''
because it occurs parallel or
perpendicular to the major polar axis.
In protostomes the cleavage is called
''spirale'' because division planes are
oriented obliquely to the polar major
axis. During gastrulation, protostomes
embryos' mouth was given first by the
blastopore while the anus was formed
later and vis versa for the
deuterostomes. As examples :
Squids are protostomes. Sea
urchins are deuterostomes. Date
14 October 2009 Source Own
work Author WYassineMrabetTalk✉ CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Protovsdeuteros
tomes.svg/1000px-Protovsdeuterostomes.sv
g.png
6 7
evolves; in ciliates.3 Skeletons
evolve independently in different
groups.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Li, C.-W.; et al. (2007).
"Ciliated protozoans from the
Precambrian Doushantuo Formation,
Wengan, South China". Geological
Society, London, Special Publications
286: 151–156.
doi:10.1144/SP286.11. http://dx.doi.org
/10.1144/SP286.11
{Ciliates_Fossils_Precambrian_Li_580my
bn.pdf}
2. ^ Li, C.-W.; et al. (2007).
"Ciliated protozoans from the
Precambrian Doushantuo Formation,
Wengan, South China". Geological
Society, London, Special Publications
286: 151–156.
doi:10.1144/SP286.11. http://dx.doi.org
/10.1144/SP286.11
{Ciliates_Fossils_Precambrian_Li_580my
bn.pdf}
3. ^ Li, C.-W.; et al. (2007).
"Ciliated protozoans from the
Precambrian Doushantuo Formation,
Wengan, South China". Geological
Society, London, Special Publications
286: 151–156.
doi:10.1144/SP286.11. http://dx.doi.org
/10.1144/SP286.11
{Ciliates_Fossils_Precambrian_Li_580my
bn.pdf}
4. ^ "skeleton." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2011. Web. 25 Dec. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/547371/skeleton>.
5. ^ Li, C.-W.; et al. (2007).
"Ciliated protozoans from the
Precambrian Doushantuo Formation,
Wengan, South China". Geological
Society, London, Special Publications
286: 151–156.
doi:10.1144/SP286.11. http://dx.doi.org
/10.1144/SP286.11
{Ciliates_Fossils_Precambrian_Li_580my
bn.pdf}
6. ^ Li, C.-W.; et al. (2007).
"Ciliated protozoans from the
Precambrian Doushantuo Formation,
Wengan, South China". Geological
Society, London, Special Publications
286: 151–156.
doi:10.1144/SP286.11. http://dx.doi.org
/10.1144/SP286.11
{Ciliates_Fossils_Precambrian_Li_580my
bn.pdf} {earliest hard shell fossil -
ciliate) 580 mybn}
7. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime
E Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L
Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
{Euglenozoa -pellicle) 1956 mybn}
MORE INFO
[1] Hamm, Smetacek, "Armor: Why,
When, and How", in Falkowski, Knoll,
"Evolution of Primary Producers in the
Sea", 2007, p311-332, p323
[2] Bengtson, S.
(2004), Early skeletal fossils, in
Lipps, J.H., and Waggoner, B.M.,
"Neoproterozoic- Cambrian Biological
Revolutions" (PDF), Paleontological
Society Papers 10: 67–78, retrieved
2008-07-18 http://www.nrm.se/download/1
8.4e32c81078a8d9249800021554/Bengtson200
4ESF.pdf
Guizhou Province, South China5
[1] Figure 1 from: Li, C.-W.; et al.
(2007). ''Ciliated protozoans from the
Precambrian Doushantuo Formation,
Wengan, South China''. Geological
Society, London, Special Publications
286: 151–156.
doi:10.1144/SP286.11. http://dx.doi.org
/10.1144/SP286.11
{Ciliates_Fossils_Precambrian_Li_580my
bn.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://dx.doi.org/10.1144/SP286.
11
[2] Figure 1 from: Li, C.-W.; et al.
(2007). ''Ciliated protozoans from the
Precambrian Doushantuo Formation,
Wengan, South China''. Geological
Society, London, Special Publications
286: 151–156.
doi:10.1144/SP286.11. http://dx.doi.org
/10.1144/SP286.11
{Ciliates_Fossils_Precambrian_Li_580my
bn.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://dx.doi.org/10.1144/SP286.
11
14 15 16 17
{KE-ToG-nutu8 9 } evolve (Arrow
Worms).10
Earliest teeth. Animals start to eat
other animals.11 12
The evolution of teeth and animal
predation starts an "arms race" that
rapidly transforms ecosystems around
the Earth.13
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Douglas Palmer, "Prehistoric
Life", 2009, p68.
2. ^ Vannier, J.; Steiner,
M.; Renvoise, E.; Hu, S.-X.; Casanova,
J.-P. (2007). "Early Cambrian origin of
modern food webs: evidence from
predator arrow worms". Proceedings of
the Royal Society B 274 (1610):
627–633. doi:10.1098/rspb.2006.3761.
PMC 2197202. PMID 17254986.
http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/article
render.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=2197202
.
3. ^ "arrow worm." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2012.
Answers.com 21 Jan. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/chaetognath
a
4. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=chaeto
gnatha&submit=Submit
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
6. ^ Douglas Palmer,
"Prehistoric Life", 2009, p68.
7. ^ Vannier,
J.; Steiner, M.; Renvoise, E.; Hu,
S.-X.; Casanova, J.-P. (2007). "Early
Cambrian origin of modern food webs:
evidence from predator arrow worms".
Proceedings of the Royal Society B 274
(1610): 627–633.
doi:10.1098/rspb.2006.3761. PMC
2197202. PMID 17254986.
http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/article
render.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=2197202
.
8. ^ "arrow worm." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2012.
Answers.com 21 Jan. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/chaetognath
a
9. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=chaeto
gnatha&submit=Submit
10. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
11. ^ Douglas Palmer,
"Prehistoric Life", 2009, p68.
12. ^
Vannier, J.; Steiner, M.; Renvoise, E.;
Hu, S.-X.; Casanova, J.-P. (2007).
"Early Cambrian origin of modern food
webs: evidence from predator arrow
worms". Proceedings of the Royal
Society B 274 (1610): 627–633.
doi:10.1098/rspb.2006.3761. PMC
2197202. PMID 17254986.
http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/article
render.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=2197202
.
13. ^ Douglas Palmer, "Prehistoric
Life", 2009, p68.
14. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). (570)
15. ^
Chen, J.-Y.; Huang, D.-Y. (2002). "A
possible Lower Cambrian chaetognath
(arrow worm)". Science 298 (5591): 187.
doi:10.1126/science.1075059. PMID
12364798.
16. ^ Peterson, Kevin J., and Nicholas
J. Butterfield. “Origin of the
Eumetazoa: Testing Ecological
Predictions of Molecular Clocks Against
the Proterozoic Fossil Record.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences of the United States of
America 102.27 (2005):
9547–9552. http://www.pnas.org/conten
t/102/27/9547.full.pdf+html
17. ^ S. Blair Hedges and Sudhir Kumar,
"TimeTree of Life", Oxford University
Press, New York., 2009, Chap 24,
p224-225. http://timetree.org/book.php
MORE INFO
[1] Gonzalo Giribet, Daniel L.
Distel, Martin Polz, Wolfgang Sterrer,
and Ward C. Wheeler Triploblastic
Relationships with Emphasis on the
Acoelomates and the Position of
Gnathostomulida, Cycliophora,
Plathelminthes, and Chaetognatha: A
Combined Approach of 18S rDNA Sequences
and Morphology Syst Biol (2000) 49(3):
539-562 doi:10.1080/10635159950127385
[2] Martin Helmkampf, Iris
Bruchhaus, Bernhard Hausdorf, Multigene
analysis of lophophorate and
chaetognath phylogenetic relationships,
Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution,
Volume 46, Issue 1, January 2008, Pages
206-214, ISSN 1055-7903,
10.1016/j.ympev.2007.09.004. (http://ww
w.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/
S105579030700317X)
[3] S. Blair Hedges, "The origin and
evolution of model organisms", Nature
Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849 (November
2002) http://www.nature.com/nrg/journal
/v3/n11/full/nrg929.html
[4] Brusca and Brusca, "Invertebrates",
2002, p844
[1] Chaetognatha UNKNOWN
source: http://content5.eol.org/content/
2010/08/09/03/74200_large.jpg
[2] Description Chatognath
Spadella cephaloptera Date
Unkown Source Own
work Author
Zatelmar Permission (Reusing
this file) See below. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8e/Chaetoblack.png
9 10 11
(pterobranchs {TARuBrANKS5 }6 , acorn
worms).7
Adult Pterobranchs are sessile,
fastening to solid structures, but the
younger (or larval) form is free
swimming, and is thought to have
evolved into tunicates and then the
first fish.8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=pterob
ranchs&submit=Submit
2. ^ Prothero, "Evolution What the
Fossils Say and Why It Matters", 2007,
p201.
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
4. ^ Prothero, "Evolution What
the Fossils Say and Why It Matters",
2007, p203.
5. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=pterob
ranchs&submit=Submit
6. ^ Prothero, "Evolution What the
Fossils Say and Why It Matters", 2007,
p201.
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
8. ^ Prothero, "Evolution What
the Fossils Say and Why It Matters",
2007, p203.
9. ^ Peterson, Kevin J., and
Nicholas J. Butterfield. “Origin of
the Eumetazoa: Testing Ecological
Predictions of Molecular Clocks Against
the Proterozoic Fossil Record.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences of the United States of
America 102.27 (2005):
9547–9552. http://www.pnas.org/conten
t/102/27/9547.full.pdf+html
10. ^ Xian-guang Hou, Richard J.
Aldridge, David J. Siveter, Derek J.
Siveter, Mark Williams, Jan
Zalasiewicz, Xiao-ya Ma. A pterobranch
hemichordate zooid from the lower
Cambrian. Current Biology, 24 March
2011 DOI:
10.1016/j.cub.2011.03.005 http://www.sc
iencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S096
0982211002776
11. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p383.
MORE INFO
[1]
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=126698
[1] Description Eichelwurm, Exemplar
aus der Sammlung des Institutes für
Zoologie, FU Berlin. GNU
FDL Date Source Foto:
de:Benutzer:Necrophorus Author User
Necrophorus on
de.wikipedia Permission (Reusing
this file) Released under the GNU Free
Documentation License. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Eichelwurm.jpg/
1024px-Eichelwurm.jpg
[2] Pterobranchs Resembling slugs
with hairy, branching tentacles,
Pterobranchs filter food from the water
and form colonies of “clones,” much
like coral polyps, often secreting a
network of hard tubing. Individual
zooids can crawl about freely within
the colony, but are connected to one
another by thin “cables,” quickly
retracting if disturbed. What makes the
Pterobranchs even stranger than corals
is that these slimy, slithering weirdos
are “hemichordates,” closer to us
vertebrates than to invertebrates like
worms and jellyfish. Read more:
http://www.toptenz.net/top-10-colonial-o
rganisms.php#ixzz1lJRtH61S COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.toptenz.net/wp-conten
t/uploads/2011/10/Pterobranch-colonial-o
rganisms.jpg
15 16
evolves. Chordates are a very large
group that include all tunicates
{TUNiKiTS}, fishes, amphibians,
reptiles, mammals, and birds.8 9
Chordates get their name from the
notochord {nOTe-KORD10 }, the cartilage
rod that runs along the back of the
animal, in the embryo if not in the
adult.11
The ancestor of all chordates evolves
"upside-down". Unlike earlier
invertebrates, this ancestor and all
vertebrates have their nerve cord near
their back and their heart near their
front.12 13 14
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). p368-p381.
2. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
p368-p381.
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). p368-p381.
4. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
p368-p381.
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). p399-400.
6. ^
"ventral."Answers.com 01 Apr. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ventral
7. ^ "dorsal." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 01 Apr.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/dorsal
8. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). p368-p381.
9. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
p368-p381.
10. ^ "notochord." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 04
Jun. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/notochord
11. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). p368-p381.
12. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
p399-400.
13. ^ "ventral."Answers.com 01 Apr.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ventral
14. ^ "dorsal." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 01 Apr.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/dorsal
15. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). p368-p381. {565 MYBN}
16. ^
http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/3208
583.stm
MORE INFO
[1] Douzery, E. J. P., Snell, E.
A., Bapteste, E., Delsuc, F., &
Philippe, H. (2004). The timing of
eukaryotic evolution: Does a relaxed
molecular clock reconcile proteins and
fossils? Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences of the United
States of America , 101 (43),
15386-15391. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.040398410
1
[2] Russell F. Doolittle, Da-Fei Feng,
Simon Tsang, Glen Cho and Elizabeth
Little, "Determining Divergence Times
of the Major Kingdoms of Living
Organisms with a Protein Clock",
Science New Series, Vol. 271, No. 5248
(Jan. 26, 1996), pp.
470-477. http://www.jstor.org/stable/28
90144
[3] Pennisi, Elizabeth. “Drafting a
Tree.” Science 300.5626 (2003) :
1694.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/300/5626/1694.summary
[4] Philip C. J. Donoghue and Mark A.
Purnell, "The Evolutionary Emergence of
Vertebrates From Among Their Spineless
Relatives", EVOLUTION: EDUCATION AND
OUTREACH, Volume 2, Number 2, 204-212,
DOI:
10.1007/s12052-009-0134-3 http://www.sp
ringerlink.com/content/l48138g81qv4m18k/
export-citation/
[5]
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=41451
[1] from adelaide, australia UNKNOWN
source: http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/t
ech/3208583.stm
[2] [t Note that this is a vertebrate
- not a pre-vertebrate
chordate] Portion of figure
from: D.-G. Shu, S. Conway Morris, J.
Han, Z.-F. Zhang, K. Yasui, P. Janvier,
L. Chen, X.-L. Zhang, J.-N. Liu, Y. Li
and H.-Q. Liu, ''Head and backbone of
the Early Cambrian vertebrate
Haikouichthys'', Nature 421,
526-529(30 January
2003) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v421/n6922/full/nature01264.html CO
PYRIGHTED
source: https://nature.com/journal/v421/
n6922/images/nature01264-f1.2.jpg
4 5
Tunicates {TUNiKiTS} evolve (sea
squirts).3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004),p377-381.
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004),p377-381.
3. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004),p377-381.
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004),p377-381. {565 mybn}
5. ^
Chen, Jun-Yuan et al. “The First
Tunicate from the Early Cambrian of
South China.” Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences 100.14
(2003): 8314 –8318.
Print. http://www.pnas.org/content/100/
14/8314.full
[1] Description Clavelina
moluccensis, the bluebell
tunicate English: Tunicate colony.
(Clavelina moluccensis) Date
04/17/05 Source Own
work Author Nhobgood CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/98/Bluebell_tunicates_Ni
ck_Hobgood.jpg
[2] Timeline of phylogeny of animals,
figure 6 from: S. Blair Hedges, ''The
origin and evolution of model
organisms'', Nature Reviews Genetics 3,
838-849 (November
2002) http://www.nature.com/nrg/journal
/v3/n11/full/nrg929.html {Hedges_2002.p
df} a) The relationships and
divergence times (millions of years ago
(Mya) plusminus one standard error) of
selected model animals are shown, based
on recent multigene and multiprotein
studies51, 61, 84. The fossil
divergence time of birds and mammals
(310 Mya) was used to calibrate the
molecular clock. Branch lengths are not
proportional to time. b ) The
relationships and numbers of living
species, from a diversity of sources in
most of the main groups. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nrg/journa
l/v3/n11/images/nrg929-f6.jpg
8 9 10 11 12 13
skeleton).2
Earliest evidence of
animals eating other animals
(predation).3 4
Appearance of small
shelly fossils and deep burrows
correlated with a decline in
stromatolites, possibly from feeding.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Dott and Prothero, "Evolution of
the Earth", sixth edition, 2002, p210.
2. ^
Dzik, J (2007), "The Verdun Syndrome:
simultaneous origin of protective
armour and infaunal shelters at the
Precambrian–Cambrian transition", in
Vickers-Rich, Patricia; Komarower,
Patricia, The Rise and Fall of the
Ediacaran Biota, Special publications,
286, London: Geological Society, pp.
405–414, doi:10.1144/SP286.30, ISBN
9781862392335, OCLC 191881597 156823511
191881597
http://www.paleo.pan.pl/people/Dzik/Pu
blications/Verdun.pdf
3. ^ Bengtson, S. and Zhao, Y. (17 July
1992). "Predatorial Borings in Late
Precambrian Mineralized Exoskeletons"
(abstract). Science 257 (5068): 367.
doi:10.1126/science.257.5068.367. PMID
17832833.
http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/
abstract/257/5068/367
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/2877345
4. ^ HONG HUA, BRIAN R. PRATT, and
LU-YI ZHANG, "Borings in Cloudina
Shells: Complex Predator-Prey Dynamics
in the Terminal Neoproterozoic",
PALAIOS, October 2003, v. 18, p.
454-459,
doi:10.1669/0883-1351(2003)018<0454:BICSCP>2.0.CO;2
http://palaios.geoscienceworld.org/citmg
r?gca=palaios;18/4-5/454
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/3515782
5. ^ Dott and Prothero, "Evolution of
the Earth", sixth edition, 2002, p210.
6. ^
SW Grant, "Shell structure and
distribution of Cloudina, a potential
index fossil for the terminal
Proterozoic.", Source: American journal
of science (1990) volume: 290-A
(Special volume) page: 261
-94 http://earth.geology.yale.edu/~ajs/
1990/11.1990.10SpecialConway.pdf
7. ^ HONG HUA, BRIAN R. PRATT, and
LU-YI ZHANG, "Borings in Cloudina
Shells: Complex Predator-Prey Dynamics
in the Terminal Neoproterozoic",
PALAIOS, October 2003, v. 18, p.
454-459,
doi:10.1669/0883-1351(2003)018<0454:BICSCP>2.0.CO;2
http://palaios.geoscienceworld.org/citmg
r?gca=palaios;18/4-5/454
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/3515782
8. ^ Donald Prothero, "Evolution What
the Fossils Say and Why It Matters",
2007, p163-170.
9. ^ Dott, Prothero, "Evolution
of the Earth", 6th edition 2002, p212.
10. ^
Adam C. Maloof, Susannah M. Porter,
John L. Moore, Frank Ö. Dudás, Samuel
A. Bowring, John A. Higgins, David A.
Fike, and Michael P. Eddy, "The
earliest Cambrian record of animals and
ocean geochemical change", Geological
Society of America Bulletin, November
2010, v. 122, p. 1731-1774,
doi:10.1130/B30346.1 http://gsabulletin
.gsapubs.org/content/122/11-12/1731.full
11. ^ SW Grant, "Shell structure and
distribution of Cloudina, a potential
index fossil for the terminal
Proterozoic.", Source: American journal
of science (1990) volume: 290-A
(Special volume) page: 261
-94 http://earth.geology.yale.edu/~ajs/
1990/11.1990.10SpecialConway.pdf
12. ^
http://palaeos.com/proterozoic/neoproter
ozoic/ediacaran/ediacaran2.htm
13. ^ HONG HUA, BRIAN R. PRATT, and
LU-YI ZHANG, "Borings in Cloudina
Shells: Complex Predator-Prey Dynamics
in the Terminal Neoproterozoic",
PALAIOS, October 2003, v. 18, p.
454-459,
doi:10.1669/0883-1351(2003)018<0454:BICSCP>2.0.CO;2
http://palaios.geoscienceworld.org/citmg
r?gca=palaios;18/4-5/454
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/3515782
MORE INFO
[1] Philip W. Signor and Mark A.
S. McMenamin "The Early Cambrian Worm
Tube Onuphionella from California and
Nevada", Journal of Paleontology , Vol.
62, No. 2 (Mar., 1988), pp.
233-240 Published by: Paleontological
Society Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/1305228
[2] MATTHEWS, S. C., AND V. V.
MISSARZHEVSKY. 1975. "Small shelly
fossils of late Precambrian and early
Cambrian age: a review of recent work."
Journal of the Geological Society,
131:289-304 http://jgs.geoscienceworld.
org/content/131/3/289.abstract
[3] GRANT, S. W. F. 1990. "Shell
structure and distribution of Cloudina,
a potential index fossil for the
terminal Proterozoic." American Journal
of Science, 290(A):261-294
Ningqiang County, Shaanxi Province7
[1] Cloudina COPYRIGHTED
source: http://palaeos.com/proterozoic/n
eoproterozoic/ediacaran/images/Cloudina.
jpg
[2] Cloudina from: HONG HUA, BRIAN R.
PRATT, and LU-YI ZHANG, ''Borings in
Cloudina Shells: Complex Predator-Prey
Dynamics in the Terminal
Neoproterozoic'', PALAIOS, October
2003, v. 18, p. 454-459,
doi:10.1669/0883-1351(2003)018<0454:BICSCP>2.0.CO;2
http://palaios.geoscienceworld.org/citmg
r?gca=palaios;18/4-5/454 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://palaios.geoscienceworld.o
rg/content/vol18/issue4-5/images/large/i
0883-1351-018-04-0454-f03.jpeg
8 9 10 11 12
{eK-DiS-u-ZOu4 } evolve. Ecdysozoa are
animals that molt (lose their outer
skin) as they grow.5 6 This is the
ancestor of round worms, and arthropods
(which includes insects and
crustaceans).7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=ecdyso
zoa&submit=Submit
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Cowen, "History
of Life", (Malden, MA: Blackwell,
2005),p390-394.
4. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=ecdyso
zoa&submit=Submit
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
6. ^ Richard Cowen, "History
of Life", (Malden, MA: Blackwell,
2005),p390-394.
7. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=198710
8. ^ Peterson, Kevin J., and Nicholas
J. Butterfield. “Origin of the
Eumetazoa: Testing Ecological
Predictions of Molecular Clocks Against
the Proterozoic Fossil Record.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences of the United States of
America 102.27 (2005):
9547–9552. http://www.pnas.org/conten
t/102/27/9547.full.pdf+html
9. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (c580) {c580 mybn}
10. ^
Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005),p388-394.
(560) {560 mybn}
11. ^ S. Blair Hedges and
Sudhir Kumar, "The TimeTree of Life",
2009,
p224-225. http://www.timetree.org/book.
php {790 mybn}
12. ^ Cartwright, Paulyn, and
Allen Collins. “Fossils and
phylogenies: integrating multiple lines
of evidence to investigate the origin
of early major metazoan lineages.”
Integrative and Comparative Biology
47.5 (2007): 744 -751.
Print. http://icb.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/47/5/744.full {530 mybn}
MORE INFO
[1] Dunn et al., CW; Hejnol, A;
Matus, DQ; Pang, K; Browne, WE; Smith,
SA; Seaver, E; Rouse, GW et al. (2008).
"Broad phylogenomic sampling improves
resolution of the animal tree of life".
Nature 452 (7188): 745–749.
doi:10.1038/nature06614. PMID
18322464. http://www.nature.com/nature/
journal/v452/n7188/abs/nature06614.html
[2] Giribet, G. (2008). Assembling the
lophotrochozoan (=spiralian) tree of
life. Philosophical Transactions of the
Royal Society B: Biological Sciences ,
363 (1496), 1513-1522. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2007.2241
http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/363/1496/1513
[3] Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004),p390-394
[4] Telford, Maximilian J et
al. “The Evolution of the
Ecdysozoa.” Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society B:
Biological Sciences 363.1496 (2008):
1529 –1537.
Print. http://rstb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/363/1496/1529.long
[1] Description English: Life
restoration of Ottoia in natural
environment with nearby
Haplophrentis. Date 11-29-08 Source
Own work Author Smokeybjb GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/10/Ottoia_burrowing.jpg
[2] Description
en:category:Caenorhabditis
elegans Date 2006-09-06 (original
upload date) (Original text :
09/05/2006) Source Originally from
en.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. (Original text : Donated by
Zeynep F. Altun) Author Original
uploader was Kbradnam at
en.wikipedia (Original text : Zeynep
F. Altun, Editor of
www.wormatlas.org) Permission (Reusing
this file) CC-BY-SA-2.5. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Adult_Caenorhab
ditis_elegans.jpg/1280px-Adult_Caenorhab
ditis_elegans.jpg
10 11 12 13 14
{Lu-Fo-Tro-Ku-ZO-u4 } evolve. Ancestor
of rotifers, phoronids, brachiopods
{BrA-KE-O-PoDZ5 }, entoprocts
{eNTuProKS6 }, bryozoans {BrI-u-ZO-iNZ7
}, platyhelminthes, gastrotrichs,
nemertea, molluscs and annelids.8 9
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=lophot
rochozoa&submit=Submit
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^ Elizabeth Pennisi,
"Drafting a Tree", Science, (2003).
4. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=lophot
rochozoa&submit=Submit
5. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=brachi
opods&submit=Submit
6. ^ "entoproct?s=t". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/e
ntoproct?s=t
7. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=bryozo
ans&submit=Submit
8. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
9. ^ Elizabeth Pennisi,
"Drafting a Tree", Science, (2003).
10. ^
Peterson, Kevin J., and Nicholas J.
Butterfield. “Origin of the
Eumetazoa: Testing Ecological
Predictions of Molecular Clocks Against
the Proterozoic Fossil Record.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences of the United States of
America 102.27 (2005):
9547–9552. http://www.pnas.org/conten
t/102/27/9547.full.pdf+html
11. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (c547) {c580 mybn}
12. ^
Elizabeth Pennisi, "Drafting a Tree",
Science, (2003). (550) {550 mybn}
13. ^ S.
Blair Hedges and Sudhir Kumar, "The
TimeTree of Life", 2009,
p224-225. http://www.timetree.org/book.
php {790 mybn}
14. ^ Cartwright, Paulyn, and
Allen Collins. “Fossils and
phylogenies: integrating multiple lines
of evidence to investigate the origin
of early major metazoan lineages.”
Integrative and Comparative Biology
47.5 (2007): 744 -751.
Print. http://icb.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/47/5/744.full {538 mybn}
MORE INFO
[1]
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=202032
[1] A rotifer. The cilia around
this rotifer's mouth are unusually
long; they reach as far as the strand
of spirogyra to the right. 10×
objective, 15× eyepiece. The numbered
ticks on the scale are 122 µM apart.
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencephoto.com/imag
e/121893/530wm/C0058380-Rotifer_SEM-SPL.
jpg
[2] Description Clams Date
Source Own work Author
Marlith CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8f/Clams.JPG
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004),p372-376.
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004),p372-376.
3. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004),p372-376.
MORE INFO
[1]
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=41451
[1] Lancelet (Branchiostoma
lanceolatum) Description
Branchiostoma lanceolatum (Pallas,
1774) English: Amphioxus from course
sandy sediments (600µm) on the Belgian
continental shelf. Length: ~22
mm. Geo-location not applicable as the
picture was taken in the
lab. Français : Branchiostoma
lanceolatum, un céphalochordé,
récolté dans des sédiments de sable
grossier (600µm) sur le Plateau
continental belge. Longueur totale: 22
mm environ. Date 1997 Source
Own work Author (Hans
Hillewaert) CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/47/Branchiostoma_lanceol
atum.jpg
{laNSleTS4 }.5 First liver and
kidney.6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "lancelet." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 11
Feb. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/lancelet
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004),p372-376.
3. ^ Prothero, "Evolution What
the Fossils Say and Why It Matters",
2007, p205.
4. ^ "lancelet." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 11
Feb. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/lancelet
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004),p372-376.
6. ^ Prothero, "Evolution What
the Fossils Say and Why It Matters",
2007, p205.
MORE INFO
[1] Philip C. J. Donoghue and
Mark A. Purnell, "The Evolutionary
Emergence of Vertebrates From Among
Their Spineless Relatives", EVOLUTION:
EDUCATION AND OUTREACH, Volume 2,
Number 2, 204-212, DOI:
10.1007/s12052-009-0134-3 http://www.sp
ringerlink.com/content/l48138g81qv4m18k/
export-citation/
[2]
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=41451
[1] Lancelet (Branchiostoma
lanceolatum) Description
Branchiostoma lanceolatum (Pallas,
1774) English: Amphioxus from course
sandy sediments (600µm) on the Belgian
continental shelf. Length: ~22
mm. Geo-location not applicable as the
picture was taken in the
lab. Français : Branchiostoma
lanceolatum, un céphalochordé,
récolté dans des sédiments de sable
grossier (600µm) sur le Plateau
continental belge. Longueur totale: 22
mm environ. Date 1997 Source
Own work Author (Hans
Hillewaert) CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/47/Branchiostoma_lanceol
atum.jpg
[2] Lancelet COPYRIGHTED
source: http://kentsimmons.uwinnipeg.ca/
16cm05/1116/34-04b-Lancelet.jpg
7
{aSKHeLmiNtEZ3 4 } (worms: nematodes
and priapulids).5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=126691
3. ^ "Aschelminthes." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 22 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/aschelminth
es
4. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=aschel
minthes
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
6. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=126691
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (c550)
[1] Description English: Priapulid
worm Priapulus caudatus in a Petry
dish. The specimen was found in the
intertidal of the Russian coast of the
Barents Sea. Русский:
Приапулида Priapulus caudatus
в чашке Петри. Особь
найдена в
приливно-отливной
зоне на российском
побережье Баренцева
моря. Date between 2005 and
2007 Source kindly granted by the
author Author Dmitry
Aristov Permission (Reusing this
file) See below. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/62/Priapulus_caudatus.jp
g
[2] Giribet, G. (2008). Assembling the
lophotrochozoan (=spiralian) tree of
life. Philosophical Transactions of the
Royal Society B: Biological Sciences ,
363 (1496), 1513-1522. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2007.2241
http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/363/1496/1513 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://rstb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/363/1496/1513
2
{BrAKEOPoDZ}.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). (c547)
MORE INFO
[1]
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=202032
[1] Brachiopod UNKNOWN
source: http://paleo.cortland.edu/tutori
al/Brachiopods/Brachiopod%20Images/lingu
la.GIF
[2] Brachiopods (Glottidia
Albida) Photographic Print by Richard
Herrmann item #: 357011759A UNKNOWN
source: http://cache2.artprintimages.com
/lrg/38/3813/HHRIF00Z.jpg
7
are repeated serially).5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
2. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004),p622-624.
3. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
4. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004),p622-624.
5. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
6. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004),p622-624.
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). {537 MYBN (based on
Annaleda - segmented worns} {543 MYBN
(based on arthropods, annelids -
segmented worns=537}
[1] Dikinsonia grew to a length of as
much as two feet (60 cm), which made it
one of the larger complex organisms of
the Vendian. It's body is segmented
with midline symmetry dividing it's
body. Its body may have been denser
than modern jellyfish or worms. [Atlas
of Prehistoric World, Discovery
Books Reconstruction of Dickinsonia,
based on images from Atlas of the
Prehistoric World, Discovery Channel
Books and Kingfisher Illustrated
Dinosaur Encyclopedia UNKNOWN
source: http://paleontology.edwardtbabin
ski.us/vendian/dickinsonia.jpg
[2] Spriggina Spriggina was
definitely a predator of the seas of
that time. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.museum.toulouse.fr/IM
G/jpg/spriginna_72dpi_680.jpg
5
the Proterozoic and start of the
Phanerozoic {FaNReZOiK1 } Eon. Start of
the Paleozoic {PAlEuZOiK2 } Era and the
Cambrian Period.3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Phanerozoic." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 09
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/phanerozoic
2. ^ "Paleozoic." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 09 Mar.
2013.
aleozoic>.
3. ^
http://www.geosociety.org/science/timesc
ale/
4. ^ USGS "Divisions of Geologic
Time— Major Chronostratigraphic and
Geochronologic Units", July
2010. http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2010/3059
/pdf/FS10-3059.pdf
5. ^ USGS "Divisions of Geologic
Time— Major Chronostratigraphic and
Geochronologic Units", July
2010. http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2010/3059
/pdf/FS10-3059.pdf
MORE INFO
[1] Knoll, Andrew H. et al. “A
New Period for the Geologic Time
Scale.” Science 305.5684 (2004): 621
–622.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/305/5684/621.short
[1] Geologic Time Scale 2009 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.geosociety.org/scienc
e/timescale/timescl.pdf
[2] Description English: Global
pareconstruction of the Earth in the
early Cambrian period 540 million years
ago. Deutsch: Globale
paläogeografische Rekonstruktion der
Erde während des frühen Kambriums vor
540 Millionen Jahren. русский:
Глобальная
палеогеографическая
реконструкция Земли
в начале
Кембрийского периода
540 миллионов лет тому
назад. українська:
Глобальная
палеогеографічна
реконструкція Землі
на початку
Кембрійського
періоду 540 мільйонів
років тому назад. Date
23 April 2008 Source
http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~rcb7/mollglobe.
html Author Dr. Ron Blakey -
http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~rcb7/ CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d6/EarlyCambrianGlobal.j
pg
9 10
"Cambrian explosion"), the rapid
diversification of multicellular
animals between 542 and 530 million
years ago that results in the
appearance of many (between 20 and 35)
of the major phyla of animals.5 6 7 An
increase of animals with shells.8
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^ "Cambrian Explosion." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 26 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cambrian-ex
plosion
2. ^ Harold Levin, "The Earth Through
Time", Eighth edition, 2006, p329-333.
3. ^
"Cambrian explosion." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2011. Web. 26 Dec. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/90620/Cambrian-explosion>.
4. ^ Harold Levin, "The Earth Through
Time", Eighth edition, 2006, p329-333.
5. ^
"Cambrian Explosion." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 26
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cambrian-ex
plosion
6. ^ Harold Levin, "The Earth Through
Time", Eighth edition, 2006, p329-333.
7. ^
"Cambrian explosion." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2011. Web. 26 Dec. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/90620/Cambrian-explosion>.
8. ^ Harold Levin, "The Earth Through
Time", Eighth edition, 2006, p329-333.
9. ^
"Cambrian explosion." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2011. Web. 26 Dec. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/90620/Cambrian-explosion>. {542-530
mybn}
10. ^ Harold Levin, "The Earth Through
Time", Eighth edition, 2006, p329-333.
{535 mybn}
MORE INFO
[1] Derek E. G. Briggs and
Richard A. Fortey, "Wonderful Strife:
Systematics, Stem Groups, and the
Phylogenetic Signal of the Cambrian
Radiation", Paleobiology , Vol. 31, No.
2, Supplement. Macroevolution:
Diversity, Disparity, Contingency:
Essays in Honor of Stephen Jay Gould
(Spring, 2005), pp.
94-112 http://www.jstor.org/stable/2548
2671
[1] Artist drawing of the bottom of the
Cambrian shallow sea floor, showing
trilobites (imagine these crawling
around on the Cambrian sea floor at
Devil's Lake state park 550 m.y. ago!)
(above). UNKNOWN
source: http://www.geology.wisc.edu/home
pages/g100s2/public_html/Geologic_Time/L
3_Cambrian_Life_More.jpg
[2] Description English: Fossil
specimen of Opabinia regalis from the
Burgess shale on display at the
Smithsonian in Washington, DC. This
appears to be the exact specimen
pictured in Fig. 42 of 'The Crucible of
Creation: The Burgess Shale and the
Rise of Animals', by Simon Conway
Morris, Oxford University Press,
1998. Date 12 April 2009 (original
upload date) Source Transferred
from en.wikipedia; transferred to
Commons by User:FunkMonk using
CommonsHelper. Author Original
uploader was Jstuby at en.wikipedia PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/50/Opabinia_smithsonian.
JPG
5 6 7
} Platyhelminthes {PlaTEheLmiNtEZ}
evolve (flatworms).4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=lophot
rochozoa&submit=Submit
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=lophot
rochozoa&submit=Submit
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). (c543)
6. ^ Douzery,
Emmanuel J. P. et al. “The Timing of
Eukaryotic Evolution: Does a Relaxed
Molecular Clock Reconcile Proteins and
Fossils?” Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences of the United
States of America 101.43 (2004): 15386
-15391.
Print. http://www.pnas.org/content/101/
43/15386
7. ^ Peterson, Kevin J et al. “The
Ediacaran Emergence of Bilaterians:
Congruence Between the Genetic and the
Geological Fossil Records.”
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society B: Biological Sciences 363.1496
(2008): 1435 -1443.
Print. http://rstb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/363/1496/1435.full
[1] Description English: The
flatworm Pseudoceros dimidiatus. North
Horn, Osprey Reef, Coral Sea. Date
August 9, 2005 Source
Flickr Author Richard
Ling CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1e/Pseudoceros_dimidiatu
s.jpg
[2] Two turbellarians mating by penis
fencing. Each has two penises, the
white spikes on the undersides of their
heads. Description English: Two
Individuals of Pseudobiceros bedfordi
about to have a Sperm Battle. –
Species of the flatworm genus
Pseudobiceros are hermaphroditic and
have two penises that are used to
inject sperm into the partner. P.
bedfordi is exceptional in that it
applies sperm onto the partner's skin
rather than injecting it. Deutsch:
Zwei Plattwürmer (Pseudobiceros
bedfordi) vor der Begattung. Der
doppelte Penis ist bei beiden
Individuen gut sichtbar. Date
Published: 2004-06-15 Source
Whitfield J: Everything You Always
Wanted to Know about Sexes. PLoS Biol
2/6/2004: e183.
doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0020183.g001,
photo page Author Photo courtesy
of Nico Michiels. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/38/Flatworm_sex.png
7 8 9
}.5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Radiolaria." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Mar. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/radiolaria-
2
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). 1600mybn for excavates,
discricristales, rhizaria,
chromalveolates
3. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
4. ^
"Radiolaria." McGraw-Hill Dictionary of
Scientific and Technical Terms.
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003.
Answers.com 30 Mar. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/radiolaria-
2
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). 1600mybn for excavates,
discricristales, rhizaria,
chromalveolates
6. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
7. ^ A.
Braun, J. Chen, D. Waloszek and A.
Maas, "First Early Cambrian
Radiolaria", Geological Society,
London, Special Publications 2007, v.
286, p.
143-149. http://sp.lyellcollection.org/
content/286/1/143.short
and http://www.core-orsten-research.de/
Publications/PDF_Paper/ulm_team/2007b_Br
aun_etal.pdf {Earliest radiolaria
fossils) 540 mybn}
8. ^ Cédric Berney and
Jan Pawlowski, "A molecular time-scale
for eukaryote evolution recalibrated
with the continuous microfossil
record", Proc. R. Soc. B August 7, 2006
273:1867-1872;
doi:10.1098/rspb.2006.3537 http://rspb.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/273/1
596/1867.short {804 my}
9. ^
http://www.timetree.org/index.php?found_
taxon_a=65574 {804 my}
MORE INFO
[1] Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). 1600mybn for
excavates, discricristales, rhizaria,
chromalveolates (1600my)
[2] Keeling, Patrick J.
et al. "The tree of eukaryotes." Trends
in Ecology & Evolution 20.12 (2005):
670-676. http://www.sciencedirect.com/s
cience/article/pii/S0169534705003046
[3] Delsuc, Frederic, Henner Brinkmann,
and Herve Philippe. "Phylogenomics and
the reconstruction of the tree of
life." Nat Rev Genet 6.5 (2005):
361-375. http://www.nature.com/nrg/jour
nal/v6/n5/abs/nrg1603.html
[4]
http://www.bio.georgiasouthern.edu/Bio-h
ome/Pratt/boo305.htm
[5]
http://www.sirinet.net/~jgjohnso/apbio30
.html
[6]
http://www.ucl.ac.uk/GeolSci/micropal/ra
diolaria.html
[7] "Polycystine". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polycystine
[1] FIG. 2. The tree of life based on
molecular, ultrastructural and
palaeontological evidence. Contrary to
widespread assumptions, the root is
among the eubacteria, probably within
the double-enveloped Negibacteria, not
between eubacteria and archaebacteria
(Cavalier-Smith, 2002b); it may lie
between Eobacteria and other
Negibacteria (Cavalier-Smith, 2002b).
The position of the eukaryotic root has
been nearly as controversial, but is
less hard to establish: it probably
lies between unikonts and bikonts (Lang
et al., 2002; Stechmann and
Cavalier-Smith, 2002, 2003). For
clarity the basal eukaryotic kingdom
Protozoa is not labelled; it comprises
four major groups (alveolates, cabozoa,
Amoebozoa and Choanozoa) plus the small
bikont phylum Apusozoa of unclear
precise position; whether Heliozoa are
protozoa as shown or chromists is
uncertain (Cavalier-Smith, 2003b).
Symbiogenetic cell enslavement occurred
four or five times: in the origin of
mitochondria and chloroplasts from
different negibacteria, of
chromalveolates by the enslaving of a
red alga (Cavalier-Smith, 1999, 2003;
Harper and Keeling, 2003) and in the
origin of the green plastids of
euglenoid (excavate) and chlorarachnean
(cercozoan) algae-a green algal cell
was enslaved either by the ancestral
cabozoan (arrow) or (less likely) twice
independently within excavates and
Cercozoa (asterisks) (Cavalier-Smith,
2003a). The upper thumbnail sketch
shows membrane topology in the
chimaeric cryptophytes (class
Cryptophyceae of the phylum Cryptista);
in the ancestral chromist the former
food vacuole membrane fused with the
rough endoplasmic reticulum placing the
enslaved cell within its lumen (red) to
yield the complex membrane topology
shown. The large host nucleus and the
tiny nucleomorph are shown in blue,
chloroplast green and mitochondrion
purple. In chlorarachneans (class
Chlorarachnea of phylum Cercozoa) the
former food vacuole membrane remained
topologically distinct from the ER to
become an epiplastid membrane and so
did not acquire ribosomes on its
surface, but their membrane topology is
otherwise similar to the cryptophytes.
The other sketches portray the four
major kinds of cell in the living world
and their membrane topology. The upper
ones show the contrasting ancestral
microtubular cytoskeleton (ciliary
roots, in red) of unikonts (a cone of
single microtubules attaching the
single centriole to the nucleus, blue)
and bikonts (two bands of microtubules
attached to the posterior centriole and
an anterior fan of microtubules
attached to the anterior centriole).
The lower ones show the single plasma
membrane of unibacteria (posibacteria
plus archaebacteria), which were
ancestral to eukaryotes and the double
envelope of negibacteria, which were
ancestral to mitochondria and
chloroplasts (which retained the outer
membrane, red).
source: http://aob.oxfordjournals.org/cg
i/content/full/95/1/147/FIG2
[2] Fig. 1. A consensus phylogeny of
eukaryotes. The vast majority of
characterized eukaryotes, with the
notable exception of major subgroups of
amoebae, can now be assigned to one of
eight major groups. Opisthokonts (basal
flagellum) have a single basal
flagellum on reproductive cells and
flat mitochondrial cristae (most
eukaryotes have tubular ones).
Eukaryotic photosynthesis originated in
Plants; theirs are the only plastids
with just two outer membranes.
Heterokonts (different flagellae) have
a unique flagellum decorated with
hollow tripartite hairs (stramenopiles)
and, usually, a second plain one.
Cercozoans are amoebae with filose
pseudopodia, often living with in tests
(hard outer shells), some very
elaborate (foraminiferans). Amoebozoa
are mostly naked amoebae (lacking
tests), often with lobose pseudopodia
for at least part of their life cycle.
Alveolates have systems of cortical
alveoli directly beneath their plasma
membranes. Discicristates have discoid
mitochondrial cristae and, in some
cases, a deep (excavated) ventral
feeding groove. Amitochondrial
excavates lack substantial molecular
phylogenetic support, but most have an
excavated ventral feeding groove, and
all lack mitochondria. The tree shown
is based on a consensus of molecular
(1-4) and ultrastructural (16, 17) data
and includes a rough indication of new
ciPCR ''taxa'' (broken black lines)
(7-11). An asterisk preceding the taxon
name indicates probable paraphyletic
group.
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/co
ntent/full/300/5626/1703
7 8 9 10 11
{FOraMiniFRu4 }.5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=forami
nifera&submit=Submit
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). has 1600mybn for
excavates, discricristales, rhizaria,
chromalveolates
3. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
4. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=forami
nifera&submit=Submit
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). has 1600mybn for
excavates, discricristales, rhizaria,
chromalveolates
6. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
7. ^ Brusca
and Brusca, "Invertebrates", Second
Edition, 2003, p165-167. {earliest
fossils, lower Cambrian) c540 my}
8. ^
Culver, S. J. (1991) Science 254,
689–691.
http://www.pnas.org/cgi/ijlink?linkTyp
e=ABST&journalCode=sci&resid=254/5032/68
9
and http://www.sciencemag.org/content/2
54/5032/689.full.pdf {earliest fossils,
lower Cambrian) c540 my}
9. ^ Culver, S. J.
(1994) J. Foraminiferal Res. 24,
191–202. http://www.pnas.org/cgi/ijli
nk?linkType=ABST&journalCode=gsjfr&resid
=24/3/191 {earliest fossils, lower
Cambrian) c540 my}
10. ^ Cédric Berney and
Jan Pawlowski, "A molecular time-scale
for eukaryote evolution recalibrated
with the continuous microfossil
record", Proc. R. Soc. B August 7, 2006
273:1867-1872;
doi:10.1098/rspb.2006.3537 http://rspb.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/273/1
596/1867.short {804 my}
11. ^
http://www.timetree.org/index.php?found_
taxon_a=65574 {804 my}
MORE INFO
[1] Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). has 1600mybn
for excavates, discricristales,
rhizaria, chromalveolates (1600mybn)
[2]
http://www.sirinet.net/~jgjohnso/apbio30
.html
[3]
http://www.ucl.ac.uk/GeolSci/micropal/fo
ram.html
[4] "Allogromiida". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allogromiid
a
[5] "Fusulinid". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fusulinid
[6] "Globigerinida". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Globigerini
da
[7] "Miliolid". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miliolid
[8] "Rotaliida". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotaliida
[9] "Textulariida". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Textulariid
a
[10]
http://microscope.mbl.edu/scripts/protis
t.php?func=integrate&myID=P4356&chinese_
flag=&system=&version=&documentID=&exclu
deNonLinkedIn=&imagesOnly=
[11]
http://microscope.mbl.edu/scripts/protis
t.php?func=integrate&myID=P2007&chinese_
flag=&system=&version=&documentID=&exclu
deNonLinkedIn=&imagesOnly=
[1] FIG. 2. The tree of life based on
molecular, ultrastructural and
palaeontological evidence. Contrary to
widespread assumptions, the root is
among the eubacteria, probably within
the double-enveloped Negibacteria, not
between eubacteria and archaebacteria
(Cavalier-Smith, 2002b); it may lie
between Eobacteria and other
Negibacteria (Cavalier-Smith, 2002b).
The position of the eukaryotic root has
been nearly as controversial, but is
less hard to establish: it probably
lies between unikonts and bikonts (Lang
et al., 2002; Stechmann and
Cavalier-Smith, 2002, 2003). For
clarity the basal eukaryotic kingdom
Protozoa is not labelled; it comprises
four major groups (alveolates, cabozoa,
Amoebozoa and Choanozoa) plus the small
bikont phylum Apusozoa of unclear
precise position; whether Heliozoa are
protozoa as shown or chromists is
uncertain (Cavalier-Smith, 2003b).
Symbiogenetic cell enslavement occurred
four or five times: in the origin of
mitochondria and chloroplasts from
different negibacteria, of
chromalveolates by the enslaving of a
red alga (Cavalier-Smith, 1999, 2003;
Harper and Keeling, 2003) and in the
origin of the green plastids of
euglenoid (excavate) and chlorarachnean
(cercozoan) algae-a green algal cell
was enslaved either by the ancestral
cabozoan (arrow) or (less likely) twice
independently within excavates and
Cercozoa (asterisks) (Cavalier-Smith,
2003a). The upper thumbnail sketch
shows membrane topology in the
chimaeric cryptophytes (class
Cryptophyceae of the phylum Cryptista);
in the ancestral chromist the former
food vacuole membrane fused with the
rough endoplasmic reticulum placing the
enslaved cell within its lumen (red) to
yield the complex membrane topology
shown. The large host nucleus and the
tiny nucleomorph are shown in blue,
chloroplast green and mitochondrion
purple. In chlorarachneans (class
Chlorarachnea of phylum Cercozoa) the
former food vacuole membrane remained
topologically distinct from the ER to
become an epiplastid membrane and so
did not acquire ribosomes on its
surface, but their membrane topology is
otherwise similar to the cryptophytes.
The other sketches portray the four
major kinds of cell in the living world
and their membrane topology. The upper
ones show the contrasting ancestral
microtubular cytoskeleton (ciliary
roots, in red) of unikonts (a cone of
single microtubules attaching the
single centriole to the nucleus, blue)
and bikonts (two bands of microtubules
attached to the posterior centriole and
an anterior fan of microtubules
attached to the anterior centriole).
The lower ones show the single plasma
membrane of unibacteria (posibacteria
plus archaebacteria), which were
ancestral to eukaryotes and the double
envelope of negibacteria, which were
ancestral to mitochondria and
chloroplasts (which retained the outer
membrane, red).
source: http://aob.oxfordjournals.org/cg
i/content/full/95/1/147/FIG2
[2] Fig. 1. A consensus phylogeny of
eukaryotes. The vast majority of
characterized eukaryotes, with the
notable exception of major subgroups of
amoebae, can now be assigned to one of
eight major groups. Opisthokonts (basal
flagellum) have a single basal
flagellum on reproductive cells and
flat mitochondrial cristae (most
eukaryotes have tubular ones).
Eukaryotic photosynthesis originated in
Plants; theirs are the only plastids
with just two outer membranes.
Heterokonts (different flagellae) have
a unique flagellum decorated with
hollow tripartite hairs (stramenopiles)
and, usually, a second plain one.
Cercozoans are amoebae with filose
pseudopodia, often living with in tests
(hard outer shells), some very
elaborate (foraminiferans). Amoebozoa
are mostly naked amoebae (lacking
tests), often with lobose pseudopodia
for at least part of their life cycle.
Alveolates have systems of cortical
alveoli directly beneath their plasma
membranes. Discicristates have discoid
mitochondrial cristae and, in some
cases, a deep (excavated) ventral
feeding groove. Amitochondrial
excavates lack substantial molecular
phylogenetic support, but most have an
excavated ventral feeding groove, and
all lack mitochondria. The tree shown
is based on a consensus of molecular
(1-4) and ultrastructural (16, 17) data
and includes a rough indication of new
ciPCR ''taxa'' (broken black lines)
(7-11). An asterisk preceding the taxon
name indicates probable paraphyletic
group.
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/co
ntent/full/300/5626/1703
5
{ne-mR-TEu3 } (ribbon worms).4
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=nemert
ea&submit=Submit
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=nemert
ea&submit=Submit
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). (c541)
MORE INFO
[1]
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=201563
[1] Description English: Basiodiscus
mexicanus was photographed at Los
Arcos, near Puerto Vallarta,
Mexico Date Source University
of California Museum of Paleology:
Introduction to the Nemertini Author
Chris Meyer and Allen
Collins Permission (Reusing this
file) See below. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/49/Nemertea_Basiodiscus_
mexicanus.png
[2] Timeline of phylogeny of animals,
figure 6 from: S. Blair Hedges, ''The
origin and evolution of model
organisms'', Nature Reviews Genetics 3,
838-849 (November
2002) http://www.nature.com/nrg/journal
/v3/n11/full/nrg929.html {Hedges_2002.p
df} a) The relationships and
divergence times (millions of years ago
(Mya) plusminus one standard error) of
selected model animals are shown, based
on recent multigene and multiprotein
studies51, 61, 84. The fossil
divergence time of birds and mammals
(310 Mya) was used to calibrate the
molecular clock. Branch lengths are not
proportional to time. b ) The
relationships and numbers of living
species, from a diversity of sources in
most of the main groups. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://rstb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/363/1496/1513
5
}.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "tardigrade." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 05
Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/tardigrade
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^ "tardigrade." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 05 Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/tardigrade
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). (c543)
MORE INFO
[1]
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?pos=0
[1] Description Willow Gabriel and
Bob Goldstein,
http://tardigrades.bio.unc.edu/ Date
2007-05-20 (original upload
date) CC
source: http://28.media.tumblr.com/tumbl
r_limfh2NXtC1qc6j5yo1_400.jpg
[2] from Giribet 2007
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/65/Hypsibiusdujardini.jp
g
6
{oniKoFereNS3 } evolve.4 Onychophorans
are a transition between worms and
arthropods: they have segmented
worm-like bodies but with appendages
like arthropods.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "onychophoran." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 05
Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/velvet-worm
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^ "onychophoran." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 05 Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/velvet-worm
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
5. ^ Donald Prothero,
"Evolution: What the Fossils Say and
Why It Matters", 2007, p193.
6. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004). (c543)
MORE INFO
[1]
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?pos=0
[1] Euperipatoides kanangrensis on a
eucalyptus log, in which it normally
resides. Description English:
Cropped version of File:Euperipatoides
kanangrensis.jpg Date 13 October
2009 CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/67/Euperipatoides_kanang
rensis_crop.jpg
[2] Figure from: Giribet, G. (2008).
Assembling the lophotrochozoan
(=spiralian) tree of life.
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society B: Biological Sciences , 363
(1496), 1513-1522. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2007.2241
http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/363/1496/1513 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://rstb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/363/1496/1513
4 5 6 7
bilaterians.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p124-125.
2. ^ D. T.
Anderson, "Invertebrate Zoology",
Oxford University Press, Second
Edition, 2001, p124-125.
3. ^ D. T. Anderson,
"Invertebrate Zoology", Oxford
University Press, Second Edition, 2001,
p124-125.
4. ^ Brusca and Brusca,
"Invertebrates", 2003, p 73.
5. ^ Palmer,
et. al., "Prehistoric Life", p66.
6. ^
Peterson, Kevin J., and Nicholas J.
Butterfield. “Origin of the
Eumetazoa: Testing Ecological
Predictions of Molecular Clocks Against
the Proterozoic Fossil Record.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences of the United States of
America 102.27 (2005):
9547–9552. http://www.pnas.org/conten
t/102/27/9547.full.pdf+html
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). {based on} {539 MYBN
(based on mollusca}
[1] From: Ruppert, Fox, Barnes,
''Invertebrate Zoology'',
2004. COPYRIGHTED
source: Ruppert, Fox, Barnes,
"Invertebrate Zoology", 2004.
[2] From: Ruppert, Fox, Barnes,
''Invertebrate Zoology'',
2004. COPYRIGHTED
source: Ruppert, Fox, Barnes,
"Invertebrate Zoology", 2004.
7 8 9
The phylum Mollusca is the second
largest animal phylum after the
arthropods, and is divided into seven
classes, three of which (Gastropoda
{GaSTroPeDu4 } (snails), Bivalvia
(clams and muscles), and Cephalopoda
{SeFeloPeDu5 } (squids and octupuses)
are of major importance.6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=gastro
poda&submit=Submit
5. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=cephal
opoda&submit=Submit
6. ^ "Mollusca." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 18 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/mollusca
7. ^ S. Blair Hedges and Sudhir Kumar,
"The TimeTree of Life", 2009,
p224-229. http://www.timetree.org/book.
php
8. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (c539)
9. ^ Caron,
Jean-Bernard et al. "A soft-bodied
mollusc with radula from the Middle
Cambrian Burgess Shale." Nature
442.7099 (2006):
159-163. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v442/n7099/full/nature04894.html
MORE INFO
[1]
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=201563
[1] From: Ruppert, E.E., Fox, R.S.,
and Barnes, R.D. (2004). Invertebrate
Zoology (7 ed.). Brooks / Cole. pp.
284–291. ISBN 0030259827. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mol
lusca
[2] Description Clams Date
Source Own work Author
Marlith CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8f/Clams.JPG
3
worms).2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). (c537)
MORE INFO
[1]
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=201563
[1] An earthworm's clitellum they have
a unique reproductive organ, the
ring-shaped clitellum (''pack saddle'')
round their bodies, which produces a
cocoon that stores and nourishes
fertilized eggs until they
hatch Description Regenwurm mit
Clitellum - (sattelförmige Verdickung
im vorderen Drittel).Das Sekret der
Clitellum-Drüsen dient u. a. zur
Bildung dieses Ei-Kokons. Français :
Ver de terre (Oligochaeta,
Lumbricina) Svenska: Daggmask
(Lumbricus spec.) Русский:
Дождевой червь (род
Лумбрикус) Date Source
first upload in de wikipedia on
09:58, 16. Feb 2005 by Michael
Linnenbach Author Michael
Linnenbach GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/30/Regenwurm1.jpg
[2] Figure from: Giribet, G. (2008).
Assembling the lophotrochozoan
(=spiralian) tree of life.
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society B: Biological Sciences , 363
(1496), 1513-1522. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2007.2241
http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/363/1496/1513 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://rstb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/363/1496/1513
7 8
Arthropods can be compared to a
segmented worm encased in a rigid
exoskeleton.4
The phylum Arthropoda is the largest
phylum in the animal kingdom.
Arthropods include the trilobites, the
crustaceans (shrimps, crabs, and
lobsters), the Myriapoda (centipedes
and millipedes), the Chelicerata
(arachnids and horseshoe crabs) and the
insects.5 All arthropods have a
segmented body covered by an
exoskeleton containing chitin, which
serves as both armor and as a surface
for muscle attachment.6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^ Brusca
and Brusca, "Invertebrates", 2003,
p476.
5. ^ Hedges and Kumar, Time Tree, 2009,
p251. http://timetree.org/pdf/Pisani200
9Chap29.pdf
6. ^ "arthropod." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 22 May.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/arthropod
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (c543)
8. ^ Palmer, et. al.,
"Prehistoric Life", p66.
MORE INFO
[1]
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?pos=0
[1] Extinct and modern
arthropods English: Arthropoda
collage. From left to right and from
top to bottom: Kolihapeltis,
Stylonurus, Scorpion, Crab, Centipede,
Butterfly CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/80/Arthropoda.jpg
[2] Figure from: Giribet, G. (2008).
Assembling the lophotrochozoan
(=spiralian) tree of life.
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society B: Biological Sciences , 363
(1496), 1513-1522. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2007.2241
http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/363/1496/1513 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://rstb.royalsociorg/content
/363/1496/1513
This Subphylum contains most fishes,
and all amphibians, reptiles, mammals,
and birds.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
MORE INFO
[1]
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=41579
[1] Description Lampetra
fluviatilis from the german
northsea Date 2004 Source
Germany Author
M.Buschmann Permission (Reusing
this file) Author is owner CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3f/Lampetra_fluviatilis.
jpg
[2] Description Clockwise,
starting from top left: 1. Fire
Salamander (Salamandra salamandra) 2.
Saltwater Crocodile (Crocodylus
porosus) 3. Southern Cassowary
(Casusarius casuarius) 4.
Black-and-rufus Giant Elephant Shrew
(Rhynchocyon petersi) 5. Ocean Sunfish
(Mola mola) Date CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/ec/Vertebrates.png
3
(agnatha).2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p364-371.
2. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p364-371.
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p364-371.
MORE INFO
[1] William Patten, "New
Ostracoderms from Oesel", Science, New
Series, Vol. 73, No. 1903 (Jun. 19,
1931), pp.
671-673 http://www.jstor.org/stable/165
5241
[2]
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=41579
[1] Description English: Pacific
hagfish (Eptatretus stoutii) in a hole
at 150 meters depth. Latitude 37 58 N.,
Longitude 123 27 W. Location:
California, Cordell Bank National
Marine Sanctuary. Date Last Updated:
September 30, 2009. Source
http://www.photolib.noaa.gov/htmls/sanc
1692.htm
http://www.photolib.noaa.gov/bigs/sanc16
92.jpg Author Linda Snook, National
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
(NOAA) / Cordell Bank National Marine
Sanctuary (CBNMS) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Eptatretus_stou
tii.jpg/1280px-Eptatretus_stoutii.jpg
[2] Description Lampetra
fluviatilis from the german
northsea Date 2004 Source
Germany Author
M.Buschmann Permission (Reusing
this file) Author is owner CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3f/Lampetra_fluviatilis.
jpg
7 8 9 10
(KeliSuroTo4 ) (eight legs, ancestor of
horseshoe crabs, mites, spiders, and
scorpions).5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=chelic
erata&submit=Submit
2. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "TimeTree of
Life", 2009, p251-253.
3. ^ J. W. Shultz (2007).
"A phylogenetic analysis of the
arachnid orders based on morphological
characters". Zoological Journal of the
Linnean Society 150: 221–265.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1096-364
2.2007.00284.x
4. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=chelic
erata&submit=Submit
5. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "TimeTree of
Life", 2009, p251-253.
6. ^ D. Waloszek, J.A.
Dunlop, "A larval sea spider
(Arthropoda: Pycnogonida) from the
Upper Cambrian ‘Orsten’ of Sweden
and the phylogenetic position of
pycnogonids", Palaeontology, 45 (2002),
pp.
421–446 http://onlinelibrary.wiley.co
m/doi/10.1111/1475-4983.00244/abstract
7. ^ Prothero, "Evolution What the
Fossils Say and Why It Matters", 2007,
p168.
8. ^ Dott and Prothero, "Evolution of
the Earth", sixth edition, 2002,
p210-211.
9. ^ Palmer, et al., "Prehistoric
Life", 2009, p66-67.
10. ^ Hedges and Kumar,
"TimeTree of Life", 2009, p251-253.
MORE INFO
[1] Charbonnier, S, J Vannier,
and B Riou. “New Sea Spiders from the
Jurassic La Voulte-sur-Rhône
Lagerstätte.” Proceedings of the
Royal Society B: Biological Sciences
274, no. 1625 (October 22, 2007): 2555
–2561. http://rspb.royalsocietypublis
hing.org/content/274/1625/2555.full
[2] Dunlop and Seldon, "The Early
History and Phylogeny of the
Chelicerates", in Fortey and Thomas,
"Arthropod Relatioinships", 1997, p231
Sweden6
[1] Description English: Horseshoe
crab dorsal and ventral Italiano:
Limulus polyphemus dorsale e
ventrale Date 10 April 2009 Source
Own work Author Ricce PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Limulo_dorsale_
e_ventrale.jpg/1280px-Limulo_dorsale_e_v
entrale.jpg
[2] taken from en:Image:Horseshoe crab
female.jpg Dead female horseshoe crab
from NOAA Photo Library: Image ID:
line2632, America's Coastlines
Collection Location: Patuxent River,
Maryland Photo Date: 2002 August
17 Photographer: Mary Hollinger,
NESDIS/NODC biologist, NOAA PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1b/Horseshoe_crab_female
.jpg
2 3
arthropods.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Koyanagi, M.; Nagata, T.; Katoh,
K.; Yamashita, S.; Tokunaga, F. (2008).
"Molecular Evolution of Arthropod Color
Vision Deduced from Multiple Opsin
Genes of Jumping Spiders". Journal of
Molecular Evolution 66 (2): 130–137.
DOI:10.1007/s00239-008-9065-9. PMID
18217181. http://www.springerlink.com/c
ontent/e67h525378645572/?MUD=MP
2. ^ Prothero, "Evolution What the
Fossils Say and Why It Matters", 2007,
p168.
3. ^ Dott and Prothero, "Evolution of
the Earth", sixth edition, 2002,
p210-211.
MORE INFO
[1] Yokoyama, S., and B. F.
Radlwimmer. 2001. The molecular
genetics and evolution of red and green
color vision in vertebrates. Genetics
Society of America. 158: 1697-1710
[2] Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004)
[1] Microphotograph of the multiple eye
of the trilobite Phacops, showing the
calcite lenses in the eye. PD
source: http://disc.sci.gsfc.nasa.gov/ed
ucation-and-outreach/additional/science-
focus/images/phacops_eye.jpg
[2] Description English: A
schizochroal [eye] of the trilobite
Phacops rana, eye dimensions 8mm across
by 5.5mm high, found near Sylvania,
Ohio, USA, from the Devonian Date 15
October 2011 Source Own work Author
Dwergenpaartje CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0f/Phacops_rana_crassitu
berculata_eye_3.jpg
5 6 7 8 9
(iKIniDRMS 3 } (sea cucumbers, sea
urchins, sand dollars, star fish).4
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ "echinoderm." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 29
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/echinoderm
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^ "echinoderm." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 29 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/echinoderm
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
5. ^ Adam M. English, Loren E.
Babcock, Census of the Indian Springs
Lagerstätte, Poleta Formation
(Cambrian), western Nevada, USA,
Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology,
Palaeoecology, Volume 295, Issues
1–2, 1 September 2010, Pages 236-244,
ISSN 0031-0182,
10.1016/j.palaeo.2010.05.041. (http://w
ww.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii
/S0031018210003287)
6. ^ J. Wyatt Durham, "Notes on the
Helicoplacoidea and Early Echinoderms",
Journal of Paleontology , Vol. 41, No.
1 (Jan., 1967), pp.
97-102 http://www.jstor.org/stable/1301
905
7. ^ Palmer et al, "Prehistoric Life",
2009, p66.
8. ^ Peterson, Kevin J., and
Nicholas J. Butterfield. “Origin of
the Eumetazoa: Testing Ecological
Predictions of Molecular Clocks Against
the Proterozoic Fossil Record.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences of the United States of
America 102.27 (2005):
9547–9552. http://www.pnas.org/conten
t/102/27/9547.full.pdf+html
9. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p384.
MORE INFO
[1]
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=126698
[1] Kachemak Bay National Estuarine
Research Reserve. A beautiful array of
starfish , sea urchins and mussel
shells in the rocky intertidal zone of
Kachemak Bay. Image ID: nerr0878,
NOAA National Estuarine Research
Reserve Collection from NOAA:
http://www.photolib.noaa.gov/nerr/nerr08
78.htm PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Nerr0878.jpg/10
24px-Nerr0878.jpg
[2] Description English: The first
in a sequence of three photos that show
a brittle star flipping itself
rightside-up. Date 1 May
2011 Source Own work Author
Alexcooper1 CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/A_brittle_star_
flipping_itself_rightside-up.jpg/1024px-
A_brittle_star_flipping_itself_rightside
-up.jpg
9 10 11 12
evolve.5 6 7 8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Xiao, S., Yang, Z. & Knoll, A. H.
Nature 391, 553-558 (1998). Article
ISI ChemPort
http://www.nature.com/cgi-taf/DynaPage
.taf?file=/nature/journal/v391/n6667/ful
l/391553a0_fs.html (not clear that
these are trilobite...this needs to be
checked)
2. ^
http://www.nature.com0/nature/journal/v4
27/n6971/full/427205a.html (here it is
claimed they are trilobite embryos)
3. ^ Patel,
N.H. (1994). Developmental evolution:
insights from studies of insect
segmentation. Science 266(5185):
581--590. http://www.sciencemag.org/con
tent/266/5185/581.abstract {science_266
_5185_oldest_trilo.pdf}
AND http://patelweb.berkeley.edu/Nipam%
27s%20Own%20Articles.PDFs/Patel1994A.pdf
has 510my
4. ^
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/arthropoda/
trilobita/trilobitafr.html
5. ^ Xiao, S., Yang, Z. & Knoll, A. H.
Nature 391, 553-558 (1998). Article
ISI ChemPort
http://www.nature.com/cgi-taf/DynaPage
.taf?file=/nature/journal/v391/n6667/ful
l/391553a0_fs.html (not clear that
these are trilobite...this needs to be
checked)
6. ^
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v42
7/n6971/full/427205a.html (here it is
claimed they are trilobite embryos)
7. ^ Patel,
N.H. (1994). Developmental evolution:
insights from studies of insect
segmentation. Science 266(5185):
581--590. http://www.sciencemag.org/con
tent/266/5185/581.abstract {science_266
_5185_oldest_trilo.pdf}
AND http://patelweb.berkeley.edu/Nipam%
27s%20Own%20Articles.PDFs/Patel1994A.pdf
has 510my
8. ^
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/arthropoda/
trilobita/trilobitafr.html
9. ^ Prothero, "Evolution What the
Fossils Say and Why It Matters", 2007,
p168.
10. ^ Dott and Prothero, "Evolution of
the Earth", sixth edition, 2002,
p210-211.
11. ^ Patel, N.H. (1994). Developmental
evolution: insights from studies of
insect segmentation. Science 266(5185):
581--590. http://www.sciencemag.org/con
tent/266/5185/581.abstract {science_266
_5185_oldest_trilo.pdf}
AND http://patelweb.berkeley.edu/Nipam%
27s%20Own%20Articles.PDFs/Patel1994A.pdf
has 510my {510 mybn}
12. ^
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/arthropoda/
trilobita/trilobitafr.html {540 mybn}
MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.trilobites.info/biostratigrap
hy.htm
[2]
http://www.trilobites.info/origins.htm
[3] Babcock, L.E., S Peng, G. Geyer, &
J.H. Shergold. 2005. Changing
perspectives on Cambrian
chronostratigraphy and progress toward
subdivision of the Cambrian System.
Geosci. Journal
9(2):101-6. http://www.springerlink.com
/content/t7062n5744462260/
[4] Niles Eldredge, "Trilobites and
Evolutionary Patterns", p305-332 in
Anthony Hallam, "Patterns of evolution
as illustrated by the fossil record,
Volume 5", 1977,
p322. http://books.google.com/books?id=
q7GjDIyyWegC
[5] Hughes, N. 2007. The evolution of
trilobite body patterning. Annu. Rev.
Earth Planet. Sci. 2007.
35:401–34. http://www.annualreviews.o
rg/doi/pdf/10.1146/annurev.earth.35.0313
06.140258
[6] Richard A. Fortey "Trilobite
Systematics: The Last 75 Years",
Journal of Paleontology , Vol. 75, No.
6, 75th Anniversary Issue (Nov., 2001),
pp.
1141-1151 http://www.jstor.org/stable/1
307082
[7]
http://www.palaeos.org/Cambrian_Stage_3
[1] example of earliest trilobites
(e.g., Fallotaspis longa) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.trilobites.info/biost
ratfallon.jpg
[2] Niles Eldredge, ''Trilobites and
Evolutionary Patterns'', p305-332 in
Anthony Hallam, ''Patterns of evolution
as illustrated by the fossil record,
Volume 5'', 1977,
p322. http://books.google.com/books?id=
q7GjDIyyWegC COPYRIGHTED
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=q7GjDIyyWegC
5 6 7 8 9
Crustaceans (shrimps, crabs, lobsters,
barnicles).2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "TimeTree of
Life", 2009, p251-253.
2. ^ Hedges and Kumar,
"TimeTree of Life", 2009, p251-253.
3. ^ David J.
Siveter, Mark Williams, and Dieter
Waloszek, "An early Cambrian
phosphatocopid crustacean with
three-dimensionally preserved soft
parts from Shropshire, England",
Special Papers in Paleontology, 70,
2003
4. ^ Siveter, David J., Mark Williams,
and Dieter Waloszek. “A
Phosphatocopid Crustacean with
Appendages from the Lower Cambrian.”
Science 293, no. 5529 (July 20, 2001):
479
–481. http://www.sciencemag.org/conte
nt/293/5529/479.abstract
5. ^ David J. Siveter, Mark Williams,
and Dieter Waloszek, "An early Cambrian
phosphatocopid crustacean with
three-dimensionally preserved soft
parts from Shropshire, England",
Special Papers in Paleontology, 70,
2003
6. ^ Siveter, David J., Mark Williams,
and Dieter Waloszek. “A
Phosphatocopid Crustacean with
Appendages from the Lower Cambrian.”
Science 293, no. 5529 (July 20, 2001):
479
–481. http://www.sciencemag.org/conte
nt/293/5529/479.abstract
7. ^ Palmer, "Primitive Life", 2009,
p66-67.
8. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "TimeTree of
Life", 2009, p251-253.
9. ^ Regier, et al,
"Pancrustacean phylogeny: hexapods are
terrestrial crustaceans and maxillopods
are not monophyletic", Proc Biol Sci.
2005 February 22; 272(1561): 395–401.
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/272/1561/395
MORE INFO
[1]
http://palaeo.gly.bris.ac.uk/Palaeofiles
/Fossilgroups/Crustacea/fossils.html
[2]
http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/
2001/07/0719_crustacean.html
4
[1] Canadaspis perfecta (ROM 61119) –
Part and counterpart. Complete specimen
showing phosphatized gut diverticulae
and posterior dark stain (probably
representing decay fluids), lateral
view. Left images, complete slab (part)
showing associated species; Yohoia
tenuis (bottom right), Waptia
fieldensis (left, partially covered by
a disarticulated carapace of
Canadaspis), Burgessia bella (far
left). Right images, details of the
counterpart. Specimen length = 72 mm.
Specimen dry – direct light (top
row), dry – polarized light (bottom
left), wet – polarized light (bottom
right). Walcott Quarry. © Royal
Ontario Museum. Photos: Jean-Bernard
Caron COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.burgess-shale.rom.on.
ca/images/zoomify/canadaspis-rom-61119.j
pg
[2] 3D model of Canadaspis
perfecta. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://burgess-shale.rom.on.ca/v
ideo/fossil-gallery/0b1-canadaspis-turnt
able.jpg
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
} (centipedes and millipedes).4
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ "Myriapoda." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 05 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/myriapoda-1
2. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "TimeTree of
Life", 2009, p251-253.
3. ^ "Myriapoda."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 05
May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/myriapoda-1
4. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "TimeTree of
Life", 2009, p251-253.
5. ^ Robison, Richard A.
“Earliest-known Uniramous
Arthropod.” Nature 343.6254 (1990):
163–164.
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
343/n6254/abs/343163a0.html
{Robison_19900111.pdf}
6. ^ Fortey and Thomas, "Arthropod
Relationships", 1998, p212-213.
7. ^ Budd, G.E.,
Högström, A.E.S., and Gogin, I.,
2001, A myriapod-like arthropod from
the Upper Cambrian of East Siberia:
Paläontologische Zeitschrift, v. 75p.
37-41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF0302
2596 {Budd_2001.pdf}
8. ^ Jeram, Andrew J., Paul A.
Selden, and Dianne Edwards. “Land
Animals in the Silurian: Arachnids and
Myriapods from Shropshire, England.”
Science 250, no. 4981 (November 2,
1990): 658
–661. http://www.sciencemag.org/citmg
r?gca=sci;250/4981/658
9. ^ Robison, Richard A.
“Earliest-known Uniramous
Arthropod.” Nature 343.6254 (1990):
163–164.
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
343/n6254/abs/343163a0.html
{Robison_19900111.pdf}
10. ^ Fortey and Thomas, "Arthropod
Relationships", 1998, p212-213.
11. ^ Budd, G.E.,
Högström, A.E.S., and Gogin, I.,
2001, A myriapod-like arthropod from
the Upper Cambrian of East Siberia:
Paläontologische Zeitschrift, v. 75p.
37-41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF0302
2596 {Budd_2001.pdf}
12. ^ MacNaughton, Robert B.,
Jennifer M. Cole, Robert W. Dalrymple,
Simon J. Braddy, Derek E.G. Briggs, and
Terrence D. Lukie. “First Steps on
Land: Arthropod Trackways in
Cambrian-Ordovician Eolian Sandstone,
Southeastern Ontario, Canada.”
Geology 30, no. 5 (May 2002): 391
–394. http://geology.geoscienceworld.
org/citmgr?gca=geology;30/5/391
13. ^ Budd, G.E., Högström, A.E.S.,
and Gogin, I., 2001, A myriapod-like
arthropod from the Upper Cambrian of
East Siberia: Paläontologische
Zeitschrift, v. 75p.
37-41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF0302
2596
14. ^ MacNaughton, Robert B., Jennifer
M. Cole, Robert W. Dalrymple, Simon J.
Braddy, Derek E.G. Briggs, and Terrence
D. Lukie. “First Steps on Land:
Arthropod Trackways in
Cambrian-Ordovician Eolian Sandstone,
Southeastern Ontario, Canada.”
Geology 30, no. 5 (May 2002): 391
–394. http://geology.geoscienceworld.
org/citmgr?gca=geology;30/5/391
15. ^ Jeram, Andrew J., Paul A. Selden,
and Dianne Edwards. “Land Animals in
the Silurian: Arachnids and Myriapods
from Shropshire, England.” Science
250, no. 4981 (November 2, 1990): 658
–661. http://www.sciencemag.org/citmg
r?gca=sci;250/4981/658
16. ^
http://www.geosociety.org/science/timesc
ale/
17. ^ William A Shear, Andrew J Jeram
and Paul Selden, "Centiped legs
(Arthropoda,
Chilopoda, Scutigeromorpha) from the
Silurian and Devonian of Britain and
the Devonian of North America.",
American Museum novitates 3231:1-16
(1998)
http://biostor.org/reference/30111
18. ^ Grimaldi, Engels, "Evolution of
the Insects", 2005, p107-108.
19. ^ Hedges and
Kumar, "TimeTree of Life", 2009,
p251-253.
20. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive
Life", 2009, p111.
deposits)(Wheeler Formation) Utah, USA5
6 and (Ust-Majan formation) East
Siberia7 |(earliest fossils)
Shropshire, England8
[1] Description Lithobius
forficatus Deutsch: Steinläufer Date
9 August 2005 Source Own
work Author Darkone CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/79/Steinl%C3%A4ufer_%28L
ithobius_forficatus%29_3.jpg
[2] Description Tachypodoiulus
niger Date 2007-06-28 Source Own
work Author Stemonitis CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Tachypodoiulus_
niger_1.jpg/1280px-Tachypodoiulus_niger_
1.jpg
3
mybn), and start of the Ordovician
{ORDiVisiN1 } (488.3-443.7 mybn)
Period.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Ordovician." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 10
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ordovician
2. ^ USGS "Divisions of Geologic
Time— Major Chronostratigraphic and
Geochronologic Units", July
2010. http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2010/3059
/pdf/FS10-3059.pdf
3. ^ USGS "Divisions of Geologic
Time— Major Chronostratigraphic and
Geochronologic Units", July
2010. http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2010/3059
/pdf/FS10-3059.pdf
[1] Geologic Time Scale 2009 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.geosociety.org/scienc
e/timescale/timescl.pdf
[2] 500 Ma - Late Cambrian UNKNOWN
source: http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~rcb7/500
_Camb_2globes.jpg
7
radiation. During the Ordovician the
number of genera {JeN-R-u5 } will
quadruple.6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Ordovician." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 30
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ordovician
2. ^ "genera." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 05 Aug.
2013.
enera>.
3. ^ "Ordovician radiation."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 30 Dec.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/1312376/Ordovician-radiation>.
4. ^ "Ordovician." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 30
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ordovician
5. ^ "genera." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 05 Aug.
2013.
enera>.
6. ^ "Ordovician radiation."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 30 Dec.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/1312376/Ordovician-radiation>.
7. ^ "Ordovician radiation."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 30 Dec.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/1312376/Ordovician-radiation>.
MORE INFO
[1] Harold Levine, "The Eath
Through Time", 2006, p333
[1] Recreation of life during the
Ordovician UNKNOWN
source: http://ferrebeekeeper.files.word
press.com/2010/11/ordovician.jpg
[2] A second peak time in the
abundance of shell-surviving life forms
was in the Upper Ordovician (by this
time also, the first larger
vertebrates, fossil fish, had
appeared). Below are two illustrations:
the first, an artist' conception of
marine invertebrate life in the late
Ordovician; the second, a typical slab
of Ordovician limestone (from Indiana)
containing the fossil types listed in
its caption: PD
source: http://rst.gsfc.nasa.gov/Sect20/
ordovicsea.jpg
11 12 13
Bryophyta {BrIoFiTo6 }, (Liverworts,
Hornworts, Mosses).7 8
The Bryophytes are the simplest land
plants, and reproduce with spores.9 10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
2. ^ Hwan
Su Yoon, Jeremiah D. Hackett, Claudia
Ciniglia, Gabriele Pinto and Debashish,
"A Molecular Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution, (2004).
3. ^
"Bryophyta." Webster's Revised
Unabridged Dictionary. MICRA, Inc. 01
Jan. 2013.
ryophyta>.
4. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
5. ^ Hwan
Su Yoon, Jeremiah D. Hackett, Claudia
Ciniglia, Gabriele Pinto and Debashish,
"A Molecular Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution, (2004).
6. ^
"Bryophyta." Webster's Revised
Unabridged Dictionary. MICRA, Inc. 01
Jan. 2013.
ryophyta>.
7. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
8. ^ Hwan
Su Yoon, Jeremiah D. Hackett, Claudia
Ciniglia, Gabriele Pinto and Debashish,
"A Molecular Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution, (2004).
9. ^ Peter
Robert Bell, Alan R. Hemsley, "Green
Plants: Their Origin and Diversity",
2000,
p102. http://books.google.com/books?id=
HYkTvGq_RccC&pg=PA102
10. ^ Diego Fontaneto, "Biogeography of
Microscopic Organisms: Is Everything
Small Everywhere?", 2011,
p211. http://books.google.com/books?id=
QdcLHCPgG-wC&pg=PA211
11. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p82.
12. ^ S26 (c475)
13. ^ S15 (c475)
MORE INFO
[1] "Bryophyte". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bryophyte
[2] "Bryophyta." McGraw-Hill Dictionary
of Scientific and Technical Terms.
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003.
Answers.com 22 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/bryophyta-1
[1] Phaeoceros laevis (L.) Prosk. gnu
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Anthoceros_levis.jpg
[2] English: A closeup shot of moss on
a rock in Beacon Hill Park, Victoria,
Canada. Sony Alpha A100 Date 25
March 2007 Source Own
work Author KirinX at
en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) CC-BY-SA-2.5. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1c/Moss_closeup.jpg
11 12
fossil spores belonging to land
plants.7 8 9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Gray, J., Massa, D., & Boucot, A.
J. Caradocian land plant microfossils
from libya. Geology , April 1982, 10
(4), 197-201. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1130/0091-7613(1982
)10<197:CLPMFL>2.0.CO;2 http://geology.gsapubs.org
/content/10/4/197.abstract?sid=dadb8801-
cfd4-4eb4-b70e-95cb217113e4 {Gray_Jane_
198204xx.pdf}
2. ^ Wellman, Charles H., Peter L.
Osterloff, and Uzma Mohiuddin.
“Fragments of the earliest land
plants.” Nature 425.6955 (2003) :
282-285. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v425/n6955/full/nature01884.html
3. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
4. ^ Gray, J.,
Massa, D., & Boucot, A. J. Caradocian
land plant microfossils from libya.
Geology , April 1982, 10 (4),
197-201. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1130/0091-7613(1982
)10<197:CLPMFL>2.0.CO;2 http://geology.gsapubs.org
/content/10/4/197.abstract?sid=dadb8801-
cfd4-4eb4-b70e-95cb217113e4 {Gray_Jane_
198204xx.pdf}
5. ^ Wellman, Charles H., Peter L.
Osterloff, and Uzma Mohiuddin.
“Fragments of the earliest land
plants.” Nature 425.6955 (2003) :
282-285. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v425/n6955/full/nature01884.html
6. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
7. ^ Gray, J.,
Massa, D., & Boucot, A. J. Caradocian
land plant microfossils from libya.
Geology , April 1982, 10 (4),
197-201. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1130/0091-7613(1982
)10<197:CLPMFL>2.0.CO;2 http://geology.gsapubs.org
/content/10/4/197.abstract?sid=dadb8801-
cfd4-4eb4-b70e-95cb217113e4 {Gray_Jane_
198204xx.pdf}
8. ^ Wellman, Charles H., Peter L.
Osterloff, and Uzma Mohiuddin.
“Fragments of the earliest land
plants.” Nature 425.6955 (2003) :
282-285. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v425/n6955/full/nature01884.html
9. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
10. ^ Gray, J.,
Massa, D., & Boucot, A. J. Caradocian
land plant microfossils from libya.
Geology , April 1982, 10 (4),
197-201. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1130/0091-7613(1982
)10<197:CLPMFL>2.0.CO;2 http://geology.gsapubs.org
/content/10/4/197.abstract?sid=dadb8801-
cfd4-4eb4-b70e-95cb217113e4 {Gray_Jane_
198204xx.pdf}
11. ^ Wellman, Charles H., Peter L.
Osterloff, and Uzma Mohiuddin.
“Fragments of the earliest land
plants.” Nature 425.6955 (2003) :
282-285. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v425/n6955/full/nature01884.html
{475 MYBN}
12. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive
Life", 2009, p82.
[1] Gray, J., Massa, D., & Boucot, A.
J. Caradocian land plant microfossils
from libya. Geology , April 1982, 10
(4), 197-201. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1130/0091-7613(1982
)10<197:CLPMFL>2.0.CO;2 http://geology.gsapubs.org/
content/10/4/197.abstract?sid=dadb8801-c
fd4-4eb4-b70e-95cb217113e4 {Gray_Jane_1
98204xx.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://geology.gsapubs.org/conte
nt/10/4/197.abstract?sid=dadb8801-cfd4-4
eb4-b70e-95cb217113e4
[2] Phaeoceros laevis (L.) Prosk. gnu
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Anthoceros_levis.jpg
11 12 13
arthropods Myriapoda (centipedes and
millipedes).7 8 9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ MacNaughton, Robert B., Jennifer
M. Cole, Robert W. Dalrymple, Simon J.
Braddy, Derek E.G. Briggs, and Terrence
D. Lukie. “First Steps on Land:
Arthropod Trackways in
Cambrian-Ordovician Eolian Sandstone,
Southeastern Ontario, Canada.”
Geology 30, no. 5 (May 2002): 391
–394. http://geology.geoscienceworld.
org/citmgr?gca=geology;30/5/391
2. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of the
Insects", 2005, p109-110.
3. ^ Heather M. Wilson
and Lyall I. Anderson, "Morphology and
Taxonomy of Paleozoic Millipedes
(Diplopoda: Chilognatha: Archipolypoda)
from Scotland", Journal of
Paleontology, Vol. 78, No. 1 (Jan.,
2004), pp.
169-184 http://www.jstor.org/stable/409
4847 {Anderson_Lyall_200401xx.pdf}
4. ^ MacNaughton, Robert B., Jennifer
M. Cole, Robert W. Dalrymple, Simon J.
Braddy, Derek E.G. Briggs, and Terrence
D. Lukie. “First Steps on Land:
Arthropod Trackways in
Cambrian-Ordovician Eolian Sandstone,
Southeastern Ontario, Canada.”
Geology 30, no. 5 (May 2002): 391
–394. http://geology.geoscienceworld.
org/citmgr?gca=geology;30/5/391
5. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of the
Insects", 2005, p109-110.
6. ^ Heather M. Wilson
and Lyall I. Anderson, "Morphology and
Taxonomy of Paleozoic Millipedes
(Diplopoda: Chilognatha: Archipolypoda)
from Scotland", Journal of
Paleontology, Vol. 78, No. 1 (Jan.,
2004), pp.
169-184 http://www.jstor.org/stable/409
4847 {Anderson_Lyall_200401xx.pdf}
7. ^ MacNaughton, Robert B., Jennifer
M. Cole, Robert W. Dalrymple, Simon J.
Braddy, Derek E.G. Briggs, and Terrence
D. Lukie. “First Steps on Land:
Arthropod Trackways in
Cambrian-Ordovician Eolian Sandstone,
Southeastern Ontario, Canada.”
Geology 30, no. 5 (May 2002): 391
–394. http://geology.geoscienceworld.
org/citmgr?gca=geology;30/5/391
8. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of the
Insects", 2005, p109-110.
9. ^ Heather M. Wilson
and Lyall I. Anderson, "Morphology and
Taxonomy of Paleozoic Millipedes
(Diplopoda: Chilognatha: Archipolypoda)
from Scotland", Journal of
Paleontology, Vol. 78, No. 1 (Jan.,
2004), pp.
169-184 http://www.jstor.org/stable/409
4847 {Anderson_Lyall_200401xx.pdf}
10. ^ MacNaughton, Robert B., Jennifer
M. Cole, Robert W. Dalrymple, Simon J.
Braddy, Derek E.G. Briggs, and Terrence
D. Lukie. “First Steps on Land:
Arthropod Trackways in
Cambrian-Ordovician Eolian Sandstone,
Southeastern Ontario, Canada.”
Geology 30, no. 5 (May 2002): 391
–394. http://geology.geoscienceworld.
org/citmgr?gca=geology;30/5/391
11. ^ MacNaughton, Robert B., Jennifer
M. Cole, Robert W. Dalrymple, Simon J.
Braddy, Derek E.G. Briggs, and Terrence
D. Lukie. “First Steps on Land:
Arthropod Trackways in
Cambrian-Ordovician Eolian Sandstone,
Southeastern Ontario, Canada.”
Geology 30, no. 5 (May 2002): 391
–394. http://geology.geoscienceworld.
org/citmgr?gca=geology;30/5/391
12. ^ Heather M. Wilson and Lyall I.
Anderson, "Morphology and Taxonomy of
Paleozoic Millipedes (Diplopoda:
Chilognatha: Archipolypoda) from
Scotland", Journal of Paleontology,
Vol. 78, No. 1 (Jan., 2004), pp.
169-184 http://www.jstor.org/stable/409
4847 {Anderson_Lyall_200401xx.pdf}
13. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive
Life", 2009, p67.
Ontario, Canada10
[1] Figure 4. Field photographs of
representative trackways. Scale bars
represent 5 cm. A: Trackway with
central drag and well-defined appendage
marks. Bottom surface. B: Trackway with
central drag and poorly defined
appendage marks. Top surface. Surface
dips to top of photograph; note downdip
offset of central drag. C: Robust
trackway with well-developed appendage
marks and no central drag. Note
push-ups of sand (arrows) associated
with appendage impressions. Figure 4
from: MacNaughton, Robert B., Jennifer
M. Cole, Robert W. Dalrymple, Simon J.
Braddy, Derek E.G. Briggs, and Terrence
D. Lukie. “First Steps on Land:
Arthropod Trackways in
Cambrian-Ordovician Eolian Sandstone,
Southeastern Ontario, Canada.”
Geology 30, no. 5 (May 2002): 391
–394. http://geology.geoscienceworld.
org/citmgr?gca=geology;30/5/391 COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://geology.geoscienceworld.o
rg/citmgr?gca=geology;30/5/391
[2] Figure 2 from: Heather M. Wilson
and Lyall I. Anderson, ''Morphology and
Taxonomy of Paleozoic Millipedes
(Diplopoda: Chilognatha: Archipolypoda)
from Scotland'', Journal of
Paleontology, Vol. 78, No. 1 (Jan.,
2004), pp.
169-184 http://www.jstor.org/stable/409
4847 {Anderson_Lyall_200401xx.pdf} COP
YRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/4094
847?&Search=yes&searchText=MILLIPEDES&se
archText=TAXONOMY&searchText=MORPHOLOGY&
searchText=PALEOZOIC&list=hide&searchUri
=%2Faction%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuery%3DMOR
PHOLOGY%2BAND%2BTAXONOMY%2BOF%2BPALEOZOI
C%2BMILLIPEDES%26acc%3Don%26wc%3Don&prev
Search=&item=2&ttl=43&returnArticleServi
ce=showFullText
3
evolve.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p364-371.
2. ^ Prothero,
"Evolution. What the Fossils Have to
Say and Why It Matters", 2007, p198.
3. ^
Prothero, "Evolution. What the Fossils
Have to Say and Why It Matters", 2007,
p198.
MORE INFO
[1] William Patten, "New
Ostracoderms from Oesel", Science, New
Series, Vol. 73, No. 1903 (Jun. 19,
1931), pp.
671-673 http://www.jstor.org/stable/165
5241
[2]
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=41579
[3] "ostracoderm." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 01
Jan. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ostracoderm
[1] Description Lampetra
fluviatilis from the german
northsea Date 2004 Source
Germany Author
M.Buschmann Permission (Reusing
this file) Author is owner CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3f/Lampetra_fluviatilis.
jpg
[2] Fossil Ostracoderms.
Representatives of three extinct
groups. The head armor is especially
well developed in Hemicyclaspis, an
ostracoderm of the ''Cephalapsis''
type, in which the head is flattened
and expanded into a large
filter-feeding basket. Ostracoderms
lacked the paired (pectoral and pelvic)
fins of more advanced fish. In some
cases, small spines were present at the
points where paired fins develop in
higher fishes. In Hemicyclaspis, one
sees a pair of anterior, flipper-like
structures in lieu of pectoral fins.
From Romer, A. S. 1964. The Vertebrate
Body. W. B. Saunders.
Philadelphia. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.blc.arizona.edu/cours
es/schaffer/182/Vertebrates/Ostracoderms
.jpg
9
Gnathostomata {no toST omoTo4 }.5 This
large group includes all jawed fishes,
amphibians, reptiles, mammals, and
birds. First vertebrate teeth.6
The jaw evolves from parts of the gill
skeleton.7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p360-363.
2. ^ "Gnathostomata."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 29
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gnathostoma
ta-1
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p360-363.
4. ^ "Gnathostomata."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 29
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gnathostoma
ta-1
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p360-363.
6. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p360-363.
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p360-363.
8. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p360-363.
9. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p360-363. {460 MYBN}
MORE INFO
[1] Douglas Palmer, "Prehistoric
Life", 2009, p106,110
[2]
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl
[1] Image from: Palmer, D. The
Marshall Illustrated Encyclopedia of
Dinosaurs & Prehistoric Animals: A
Comprehensive Color Guide to Over 500
Species. New Line Books,
2002. COPYRIGHTED
source: Palmer, D. The Marshall
Illustrated Encyclopedia of Dinosaurs &
Prehistoric Animals: A Comprehensive
Color Guide to Over 500 Species. New
Line Books, 2002.
[2] Kardong, ''Vertebrates'', Third
Edition, 2002. COPYRIGHTED
source: Kardong, "Vertebrates", Third
Edition, 2002.
4 5
{KoN-DriK-tE-EZ2 } (Cartilaginous
fishes: ancestor of all sharks, rays,
skates, and sawfishes).3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p360-363.
2. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=chondr
ichthyes&submit=Submit
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p360-363.
4. ^ Miller, Randall
F., Richard Cloutier, and Susan Turner.
“The Oldest Articulated
Chondrichthyan from the Early Devonian
Period.” Nature 425.6957 (2003):
501–504. Web. 23 May
2012. http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v425/n6957/full/nature02001.html {M
iller_Chondrichthyans_2003.pdf}
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p360-363.
[1] Richard Dawkins, ''The Ancestor's
Tale'', (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p360-363. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p360-363.
[2] Miller, Randall F., Richard
Cloutier, and Susan Turner. “The
Oldest Articulated Chondrichthyan from
the Early Devonian Period.” Nature
425.6957 (2003): 501–504. Web. 23 May
2012. http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v425/n6957/full/nature02001.html {M
iller_Chondrichthyans_2003.pdf} COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v425/n6957/full/nature02001.html
3 4
of all terrestrial fungi.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Redecker D, Kodner R, Graham LE.
(2000). "Glomalean fungi from the
Ordovician". Science 289 (5486):
1920–21. Bibcode 2000Sci...289.1920R.
doi:10.1126/science.289.5486.1920. PMID
10988069. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3
077684
2. ^ Redecker D, Kodner R, Graham LE.
(2000). "Glomalean fungi from the
Ordovician". Science 289 (5486):
1920–21. Bibcode 2000Sci...289.1920R.
doi:10.1126/science.289.5486.1920. PMID
10988069. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3
077684
3. ^ Redecker D, Kodner R, Graham LE.
(2000). "Glomalean fungi from the
Ordovician". Science 289 (5486):
1920–21. Bibcode 2000Sci...289.1920R.
doi:10.1126/science.289.5486.1920. PMID
10988069. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3
077684
4. ^ Redecker D, Kodner R, Graham LE.
(2000). "Glomalean fungi from the
Ordovician". Science 289 (5486):
1920–21. Bibcode 2000Sci...289.1920R.
doi:10.1126/science.289.5486.1920. PMID
10988069. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3
077684
[1] Earliest Glomerales fossil fig 1
from: Redecker D, Kodner R, Graham LE.
(2000). ''Glomalean fungi from the
Ordovician''. Science 289 (5486):
1920–21. Bibcode 2000Sci...289.1920R.
doi:10.1126/science.289.5486.1920. PMID
10988069. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3
077684 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3077
684
[2] Phylogenetic tree from: Richard
Dawkins, ''The Ancestor's Tale'',
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004), p511. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p511.
12 13 14 15
{GlO-mi-rO-mI-KO-Tu5 } (Arbuscular
{oRBuSKYUlR6 } mycorrhizal {MIKerIZL7 }
fungi).8 9 10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=glomer
omycota&submit=Submit
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The
Origin and Evolution of Model
Organisms", Nature Reviews Genetics 3,
838-849; doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
4. ^ S
Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L
Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A molecular
timescale of eukaryote evolution and
the rise of complex multicellular
life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004,
4:2 doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2,
(2004).
5. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=glomer
omycota&submit=Submit
6. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=arbusc
ular&submit=Submit
7. ^ "mycorrhiza." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 09
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/mycorrhiza
8. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
9. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The
Origin and Evolution of Model
Organisms", Nature Reviews Genetics 3,
838-849; doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
10. ^ S
Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L
Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A molecular
timescale of eukaryote evolution and
the rise of complex multicellular
life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004,
4:2 doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2,
(2004).
11. ^ Redecker D, Kodner R, Graham LE.
(2000). "Glomalean fungi from the
Ordovician". Science 289 (5486):
1920–21. Bibcode 2000Sci...289.1920R.
doi:10.1126/science.289.5486.1920. PMID
10988069. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3
077684
12. ^ Redecker D, Kodner R, Graham LE.
(2000). "Glomalean fungi from the
Ordovician". Science 289 (5486):
1920–21. Bibcode 2000Sci...289.1920R.
doi:10.1126/science.289.5486.1920. PMID
10988069. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3
077684
13. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (c750mybn)
14. ^ S. Blair Hedges,
"The Origin and Evolution of Model
Organisms", Nature Reviews Genetics 3,
838-849 (2002); doi:10.1038/nrg929,
(2002). (c1460 to 1210mybn)
15. ^ S Blair Hedges,
Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi and
Jason L Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
(estimate that between 947 and 968)
MORE INFO
[1]
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=glomer
omycetes&submit=Submit
[2] Kirk, et al., "Dictionary of
Fungi", 2008, p142
[3] Redecker, Dirk, and
Philipp Raab. "Phylogeny of the
Glomeromycota (arbuscular Mycorrhizal
Fungi): Recent Developments and New
Gene Markers." Mycologia 98.6
(November): 2006, p885
–895. http://www.mycologia.org/conten
t/98/6/885.abstract
[1] Gigaspora margarita in association
with Lotus corniculatus Description
Lotus corniculatus var. japonicus
kolonisiert durch Gigaspora
margarita Date 18 September
2007 Source Own work Author
Mike Guether GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Gigaspora_marga
rita.JPG/1024px-Gigaspora_margarita.JPG
[2] germinating Gigaspora decipiens
source: http://pages.unibas.ch/bothebel/
people/redecker/ff/glomero.htm
3 4
2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ David Jablonski and W. G.
Chaloner,"Extinctions in the Fossil
Record (and Discussion)", Philosophical
Transactions: Biological Sciences, Vol.
344, No. 1307, Estimating Extinction
Rates: Sir Joseph Banks Anniversary
Meeting (Apr. 29, 1994), pp.
11-17. http://www.jstor.org/stable/5614
8
2. ^ THE LATE ORDOVICIAN MASS
EXTINCTION - Annual Review of Earth and
Planetary Sciences, 29(1):331 -
Abstract".
Arjournals.annualreviews.org.
2003-11-28.
http://arjournals.annualreviews.org/do
i/abs/10.1146/annurev.earth.29.1.331?jou
rnalCode=earth
3. ^ Palmer, et al, "Primitive Life",
2009, p83.
4. ^ David Jablonski and W. G.
Chaloner,"Extinctions in the Fossil
Record (and Discussion)", Philosophical
Transactions: Biological Sciences, Vol.
344, No. 1307, Estimating Extinction
Rates: Sir Joseph Banks Anniversary
Meeting (Apr. 29, 1994), pp.
11-17. http://www.jstor.org/stable/5614
8 {439 mybn}
MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
[2] David Jablonski, "Lessons from the
Past: Evolutionary Impacts of Mass
Extinctions", Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the
United States of America, Vol. 98, No.
10 (May 8, 2001), pp.
5393-5398. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
3055638
[1] NOAA Photo Library Image -
corp1440 Flying over a huge glacier
on the way to McMurdo Station
Image ID: corp1440, NOAA At The Ends of
the Earth Collection Location:
Antarctica Photographer: Mr. Fred
Walton, NOAA Category:
Antarctica/McMurdo/Glacier/ PD
source: http://www.photolib.noaa.gov/big
s/corp1440.jpg
[2] Image of object impact with
Earth UNKNOWN
source: http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-u1aaDd
JP2M0/Tj0QtfwPQQI/AAAAAAAAAbk/3SpkL8NCec
w/s1600/asteroid-impact.jpg
2
mybn), and start of the Silurian
(443.7-416) Period.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ USGS "Divisions of Geologic
Time— Major Chronostratigraphic and
Geochronologic Units", July
2010. http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2010/3059
/pdf/FS10-3059.pdf
2. ^ USGS "Divisions of Geologic
Time— Major Chronostratigraphic and
Geochronologic Units", July
2010. http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2010/3059
/pdf/FS10-3059.pdf
[1] Geologic Time Scale 2009 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.geosociety.org/scienc
e/timescale/timescl.pdf
[2] 450 Ma - Late Ordovician UNKNOWN
source: http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~rcb7/450
_Ord_3globes.jpg
9 10 11
Tracheophyta.5 6 7 8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
http://www.amjbot.org/content/91/10/14
37.full {Chase_Mark_2004.pdf}
2. ^ Hwan Su Yoon, Jeremiah D.
Hackett, Claudia Ciniglia, Gabriele
Pinto and Debashish, "A Molecular
Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution, (2004).
3. ^ Jeffrey D.
Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W.
Chase, "The plant tree of life: an
overview and some points of view",
American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
http://www.amjbot.org/content/91/10/14
37.full {Chase_Mark_2004.pdf}
4. ^ Hwan Su Yoon, Jeremiah D.
Hackett, Claudia Ciniglia, Gabriele
Pinto and Debashish, "A Molecular
Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution, (2004).
5. ^ Jeffrey D.
Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W.
Chase, "The plant tree of life: an
overview and some points of view",
American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
http://www.amjbot.org/content/91/10/14
37.full {Chase_Mark_2004.pdf}
6. ^ Hwan Su Yoon, Jeremiah D.
Hackett, Claudia Ciniglia, Gabriele
Pinto and Debashish, "A Molecular
Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution, (2004).
7. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/
8. ^ McElwain, Jenny C.; Willis, K. G.;
Willis, Kathy; McElwain, J. C. (2002).
The evolution of plants. Oxford
Oxfordshire. ^: Oxford University
Press. ISBN 0-19-850065-3.
9. ^ Palmer et al,
"Primitive Life", 2009, p96.
10. ^ Jeffrey
D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and Mark
W. Chase, "The plant tree of life: an
overview and some points of view",
American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004). (c400)
http://www.amjbot.org/content/91/10/14
37.full {Chase_Mark_2004.pdf}
11. ^ Hwan Su Yoon, Jeremiah D.
Hackett, Claudia Ciniglia, Gabriele
Pinto and Debashish, "A Molecular
Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution, (2004). (c390)
[1] Description Equisetum telmateia
(Equisetopsida) at Cambridge Botanic
Garden Date 18 May 2008 Source Own
work Author Rror Other versions
Derivative works of this file:
species on earth.jpg GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/7c/Equisetopsida.jpg
[2] Fig. 2. Chronogram showing
estimates of phylogenetic relationships
and divergence times among the major
groups of extant land plants. The
estimate of relationships is
synthesized from the following papers
in this issue: Burleigh and Mathews
(2004) , Pryer et al. (2004) , Shaw and
Renzaglia (2004) , and Soltis and
Soltis (2004) . Divergence time
estimates are mostly based on analyses
of molecular data with fossil
constraints (Wikström et al., 2001 ;
Pryer et al., 2004 ) and are augmented
by fossil evidence (Kenrick and Crane,
1997 ; Wellman et al., 2003 ).
Estimates of the number of species in
each group are from Judd et al. (2002)
and W. S. Judd (personal
communication). Groups covered by a
particular article in this special
issue are circled and connected to the
names of the article's authors. ''Other
conifers'' refers to the clade
consisting of all conifers except for
Pinaceae (see Burleigh and Mathews,
2004 ). ''Lepto. ferns'' refers to
leptosporangiate ferns fig 2
from: Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, ''The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view'', American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
http://www.amjbot.org/content/91/10/14
37.full {Chase_Mark_2004.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.amjbot.org/content/91
/10/1437/F2.large.jpg
5 6
Ray-finned fishes.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p338-363.
2. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p338-363.
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p338-363.
4. ^ "bony fish."
Britannica Concise Encyclopedia.
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.,
1994-2010. Answers.com 25 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/osteichthye
s
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p338-363. {440 MYBN}
6. ^
Palmet et al, "Primitive Life", 2009,
p97.
MORE INFO
[1] "teleost." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 26
Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/teleost
[1] Adapted from: Richard Dawkins,
''The Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p339. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p339.
[2] A sturgeon
(pt:esturjāo). esturgeon noir
d'Amérique (Acipenser oxyrinchus
oxyrinchus) http://images.fws.gov/ PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c2/Sturgeon2.jpg
5
swim bladder in ray-finned fishes.3
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p338-363.
2. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p338-363.
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p338-363.
4. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p338-363.
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p338-363. {440 MYBN
(guess based on ray-finned fish
evolving}
MORE INFO
[1] Farmer, C.G. 1999. The
evolution of the vertebrate
cardio-pulmonary system. Annual Review
of Physiology
61:573-592 http://biologylabs.utah.edu/
farmer/publications%20pdf/1999%20AnnuRev
Physiol61.pdf
[1] Image from: Palmer, D. The
Marshall Illustrated Encyclopedia of
Dinosaurs & Prehistoric Animals: A
Comprehensive Color Guide to Over 500
Species. New Line Books,
2002. COPYRIGHTED
source: Palmer, D. The Marshall
Illustrated Encyclopedia of Dinosaurs &
Prehistoric Animals: A Comprehensive
Color Guide to Over 500 Species. New
Line Books, 2002.
[2] Earliest fish with lung in
existance?[t] Nile Bichir (Polypterus
bichir bichir) from Günther, A.C.L.G.,
1880. An introduction to the study of
fishes. Today & Tomorrow's Book Agency,
New Delhi. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e8/Nile_bichir.png
3
evolve. Coelacanths.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p335-338.
2. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p335-338.
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p335-338.
MORE INFO
[1]
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=89942
[2]
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=42376
[1] Description Preserved
specimen of chalumnae (Also known as
Coelacanth [1]) in the Natural History
Museum, Vienna, Austria. Believed
to have been extinct for 70 million
years, this specimen was caught the 18
October of 1974, next to
Salimani/Selimani (Grande Comore,
Comoros Islands) 11°48′40.7″S
43°16′3.3″E Length: 170 cm -
Weight: 60 kg Obtained by stiching
3 HiRes images and removing the
background with image
post-processing. Date August
2007 Source Own work Author
Alberto Fernandez Fernandez GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/fa/Latimeria_Chalumnae_-
_Coelacanth_-_NHMW.jpg
6 7 8 9
with six legs {3 pairs}, includes all
insects).3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Timothy Duane Schowalter, "Insect
Ecology: An Ecosystem Approach", 2006,
p781. http://books.google.com/books?id=
LQqHWCtj0F0C&pg=PA781
2. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "TimeTree of
Life", 2009, p251-253.
3. ^ Timothy Duane
Schowalter, "Insect Ecology: An
Ecosystem Approach", 2006,
p781. http://books.google.com/books?id=
LQqHWCtj0F0C&pg=PA781
4. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "TimeTree of
Life", 2009, p251-253.
5. ^ Grimaldi, Engel,
Evolution of the Insects, 2005,
p66,116.
6. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, Evolution of the
Insects, 2005, p146.
7. ^ Grimaldi, Engel,
Evolution of the Insects, 2005,
p66,116.
8. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "TimeTree of
Life", 2009, p251-253.
9. ^ Regier, et al,
"Pancrustacean phylogeny: hexapods are
terrestrial crustaceans and maxillopods
are not monophyletic", Proc Biol Sci.
2005 February 22; 272(1561): 395–401.
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/272/1561/395
MORE INFO
[1] Blaxter, Mark.
“Evolutionary Biology: Sum of the
Arthropod Parts.” Nature 413.6852
(2001):
121–122. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v413/n6852/full/413121a0.html
Scotland5
[1] Description Protura specimen,
taken under stereo microscope (40x).
Acerentomon sp. Date 7 December 2008,
03:13 Source Protura Uploaded
by Richard001 Author Gregor
?nidar CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
_micrograph.jpg){kind=link}
pedia/commons/b/bc/Protura_specimen_(Ace
rentomon_species)_micrograph.jpg
[2] Description English: Campodea
staphylinus, a dipluran. Photo by
Michel Vuijlsteke. Taken on May 9, 2006
at 4.09pm CEST in Gent, Belgium. Date
2007-07-08 (original upload
date) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia Author Original uploader
was Mvuijlst at
en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2e/Diplura.jpg
2 3
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
MORE INFO
[1]
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=42316&tree=0.1
[1] Description English: Australian
lungfish (Neoceratodus forsteri) Date
Source Picure taken by Tannin
(from English wikipedia) Author
User:Tannin GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/61/Australian-Lungfish.j
pg
[2] Description English: Lateral
view of lungs of a dissected
Protopterus dolloi Date
2007ish (15 February 2009
(original upload date)) Source
Transferred from
en.wikipedia (Original text : Photo
from lab dissection at U. of
Cincinnati) Author Mokele (talk).
Original uploader was Mokele at
en.wikipedia GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/ae/Lungs_of_Protopterus_
dolloi.JPG
3
mybn), and start of the Devonian
{DiVONEiN1 } (416-359.2 mybn) Period.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Devonian." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 10
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/devonian
2. ^ USGS "Divisions of Geologic
Time— Major Chronostratigraphic and
Geochronologic Units", July
2010. http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2010/3059
/pdf/FS10-3059.pdf
3. ^ USGS "Divisions of Geologic
Time— Major Chronostratigraphic and
Geochronologic Units", July
2010. http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2010/3059
/pdf/FS10-3059.pdf
[1] Geologic Time Scale 2009 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.geosociety.org/scienc
e/timescale/timescl.pdf
[2] 430 Ma - Early Silurian UNKNOWN
source: http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~rcb7/430
_Silurian_2globes.jpg
7 8 9 10
Bristletail and Silverfish.6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, Evolution of the
Insects, 2005, p146.
2. ^ Regier, et al,
"Pancrustacean phylogeny: hexapods are
terrestrial crustaceans and maxillopods
are not monophyletic", Proc Biol Sci.
2005 February 22; 272(1561): 395–401.
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/272/1561/395
3. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, Evolution of the
Insects, 2005, p146.
4. ^ Grimaldi, Engel,
Evolution of the Insects, 2005, p146.
5. ^
Regier, et al, "Pancrustacean
phylogeny: hexapods are terrestrial
crustaceans and maxillopods are not
monophyletic", Proc Biol Sci. 2005
February 22; 272(1561): 395–401.
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/272/1561/395
6. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, Evolution of the
Insects, 2005, p146.
7. ^ Grimaldi, Engel,
Evolution of the Insects, 2005, p146.
8. ^
Regier, et al, "Pancrustacean
phylogeny: hexapods are terrestrial
crustaceans and maxillopods are not
monophyletic", Proc Biol Sci. 2005
February 22; 272(1561): 395–401.
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/272/1561/395
9. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "Time Tree of
Life", 2009, p250-254.
10. ^ David A. Grimaldi,
Michael S. Engel, "Evolution of the
Insects", 2005,
p1. http://books.google.com/books?id=Ql
6Jl6wKb88C&pg=PA1
[1] Description Français : Groupe
de Petrobius maritimus sur falaise
supralittorale, Toull ar C'Hrabanoù,
Goulien, Finistère, Bretagne,
France Date 2 June 2010 Source Own
work Author Jymm PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a4/Petrobius_maritimus_2
010-06-02.jpg
[2] Description Archaeognatha:
Machilidae, collected from Anglesey,
UK Date 2006-12-28 Source Own work
(own photo) Author
User:Stemonitis Permission (Reusing
this file) CC Attribution
ShareAlike 2.5 CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/42/Archaeognatha.jpg
12 13 14 15 16
{aS-KO-mI-KO-Tu6 } (ancestor of yeasts,
truffles, Penicillium, and morels {mu
reLZ7 }).8 9 10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=ascomy
cota&submit=Submit
2. ^ "morel." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 01 Jul.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/morel
3. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
4. ^ S.
Blair Hedges, "The Origin and Evolution
of Model Organisms", Nature Reviews
Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
5. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
6. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=ascomy
cota&submit=Submit
7. ^ "morel." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 01 Jul.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/morel
8. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
9. ^ S.
Blair Hedges, "The Origin and Evolution
of Model Organisms", Nature Reviews
Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
10. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
11. ^ T. N. Taylor, H. Hass & H. Kerp,
"The oldest fossil ascomycetes", Nature
399, 648 (17 June 1999),
doi:10.1038/21349 http://www.nature.com
/nature/journal/v399/n6737/full/399648a0
.html
12. ^ T. N. Taylor, H. Hass & H. Kerp,
"The oldest fossil ascomycetes", Nature
399, 648 (17 June 1999),
doi:10.1038/21349 http://www.nature.com
/nature/journal/v399/n6737/full/399648a0
.html
13. ^ Redecker D, Kodner R, Graham LE.
(2000). "Glomalean fungi from the
Ordovician". Science 289 (5486):
1920–21. Bibcode 2000Sci...289.1920R.
doi:10.1126/science.289.5486.1920. PMID
10988069. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3
077684
14. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
(1009my)
15. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The Origin and
Evolution of Model Organisms", Nature
Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849 (2002);
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002). (1140my)
16. ^
Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004). (700my)
MORE INFO
[1] Kirk, et al., "Dictionary of
Fungi", 2008, p142
Aberdeenshire, Scotland11
[1] white truffle
cutted photographed by
myself GNU head Permission is
granted to copy, distribute and/or
modify this document under the terms of
the GNU Free Documentation License,
Version 1.2 or any later version
published by the Free Software
Foundation; with no Invariant Sections,
no Front-Cover Texts, and no Back-Cover
Texts. A copy of the license is
included in the section entitled ''Text
of the GNU Free Documentation
License.''
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/fd/Truffle_washed_and_cu
tted.jpg
[2] EColi-Scerevisiae.jpg (50KB, MIME
type: image/jpeg) Wikimedia Commons
logo This is a file from the Wikimedia
Commons. The description on its
description page there is shown
below. Escherichia coli (little
forms) & Saccharomyces cerevisiae (big
forms) by MEB Public domain This file
has been released into the public
domain by the copyright holder, its
copyright has expired, or it is
ineligible for copyright. This applies
worldwide. brewer's yeast/baker's
yeast
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:EColi-Scerevisiae.jpg
3 4 5 6
mosses, ferns and horsetails).2
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
http://www.amjbot.org/content/91/10/14
37.full {Chase_Mark_2004.pdf}
2. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas
E. Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
http://www.amjbot.org/content/91/10/14
37.full {Chase_Mark_2004.pdf}
3. ^ Palmer et al, "Prehistoric
Life", 2009, p110.
4. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer,
Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W. Chase,
"The plant tree of life: an overview
and some points of view", American
Journal of Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445.,
(2004). (c390 (360 for living species)
5. ^ Hwan
Su Yoon, Jeremiah D. Hackett, Claudia
Ciniglia, Gabriele Pinto and Debashish,
"A Molecular Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution, (2004). (c390)
6. ^
Taylor, Thomas N.; Edith L. Taylor.
(1993). The Biology and Evolution of
Fossil Plants. Englewood Cliffs, NJ:
Prentice Hall. pp. 332–334. ISBN
0-13-651589-4.
MORE INFO
[1] Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
http://www.amjbot.org/content/91/10/14
37.full (318mybn)
[2] Hwan Su Yoon, Jeremiah
D. Hackett, Claudia Ciniglia, Gabriele
Pinto and Debashish, "A Molecular
Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution, (2004).
(350mybn)
[1] Fig. 2. Chronogram showing
estimates of phylogenetic relationships
and divergence times among the major
groups of extant land plants. The
estimate of relationships is
synthesized from the following papers
in this issue: Burleigh and Mathews
(2004) , Pryer et al. (2004) , Shaw and
Renzaglia (2004) , and Soltis and
Soltis (2004) . Divergence time
estimates are mostly based on analyses
of molecular data with fossil
constraints (Wikström et al., 2001 ;
Pryer et al., 2004 ) and are augmented
by fossil evidence (Kenrick and Crane,
1997 ; Wellman et al., 2003 ).
Estimates of the number of species in
each group are from Judd et al. (2002)
and W. S. Judd (personal
communication). Groups covered by a
particular article in this special
issue are circled and connected to the
names of the article's authors. ''Other
conifers'' refers to the clade
consisting of all conifers except for
Pinaceae (see Burleigh and Mathews,
2004 ). ''Lepto. ferns'' refers to
leptosporangiate ferns fig 2
from: Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, ''The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view'', American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
http://www.amjbot.org/content/91/10/14
37.full {Chase_Mark_2004.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.amjbot.org/content/91
/10/1437/F2.large.jpg
[2] Fig. 2. Chronogram showing
estimates of phylogenetic relationships
and divergence times among the major
groups of extant land plants. The
estimate of relationships is
synthesized from the following papers
in this issue: Burleigh and Mathews
(2004) , Pryer et al. (2004) , Shaw and
Renzaglia (2004) , and Soltis and
Soltis (2004) . Divergence time
estimates are mostly based on analyses
of molecular data with fossil
constraints (Wikström et al., 2001 ;
Pryer et al., 2004 ) and are augmented
by fossil evidence (Kenrick and Crane,
1997 ; Wellman et al., 2003 ).
Estimates of the number of species in
each group are from Judd et al. (2002)
and W. S. Judd (personal
communication). Groups covered by a
particular article in this special
issue are circled and connected to the
names of the article's authors. ''Other
conifers'' refers to the clade
consisting of all conifers except for
Pinaceae (see Burleigh and Mathews,
2004 ). ''Lepto. ferns'' refers to
leptosporangiate ferns fig 2
from: Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, ''The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view'', American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
http://www.amjbot.org/content/91/10/14
37.full {Chase_Mark_2004.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.amjbot.org/content/91
/10/1437/F2.large.jpg
4 5
{SelAKEE1 or I2 } evolve, (ancestor of
all sharks: includes great white,
hammerhead, mako, tiger and nurse
sharks).3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=selach
ii&submit=Submit
2. ^ "Selachii." McGraw-Hill Dictionary
of Scientific and Technical Terms.
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003.
Answers.com 26 Aug. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/selachii-2
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
4. ^ Prothero, D.R., and C.D.
Buell. Evolution: What the Fossils Say
and Why It Matters. Columbia University
Press, 2007, p198.
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). {190 MYBN}
MORE INFO
[1]
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=selach
imorpha&submit=Submit
[1] Richard Dawkins, ''The Ancestor's
Tale'', (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p361. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p361.
[2] Grey reef shark (Carcharhinus
amblyrhynchos) Description Un
gran tiburón surcando aguas
oceánicas. Date 14 March
2004 Source Original image:
Carcharhinus-amblyrynchos.jpg by
Fbattail at fr.wikipedia, March 14,
2004 cropped image:
Greyreefsharksmall.jpg by Chris huh at
en.wikipedia, August 29. 2006
Transfered to Commons by Harryemi,
September 21, 2008 Author
original author is Fbattail , the
image is cropped by Chris huh GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/bb/Tibur%C3%B3n.jpg
8 9 10
tree fossils.5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ William E. Stein1, Frank
Mannolini2, Linda VanAller Hernick2, Ed
Landing2 & Christopher M. Berry3,
"Giant cladoxylopsid trees resolve the
enigma of the Earth's earliest forest
stumps at Gilboa", Nature 446, 904-907
(19 April
2007) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v446/n7138/full/nature05705.html
2. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
3. ^ William E. Stein1, Frank
Mannolini2, Linda VanAller Hernick2, Ed
Landing2 & Christopher M. Berry3,
"Giant cladoxylopsid trees resolve the
enigma of the Earth's earliest forest
stumps at Gilboa", Nature 446, 904-907
(19 April
2007) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v446/n7138/full/nature05705.html
4. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
5. ^ William E. Stein1, Frank
Mannolini2, Linda VanAller Hernick2, Ed
Landing2 & Christopher M. Berry3,
"Giant cladoxylopsid trees resolve the
enigma of the Earth's earliest forest
stumps at Gilboa", Nature 446, 904-907
(19 April
2007) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v446/n7138/full/nature05705.html
6. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
7. ^ William E. Stein1, Frank
Mannolini2, Linda VanAller Hernick2, Ed
Landing2 & Christopher M. Berry3,
"Giant cladoxylopsid trees resolve the
enigma of the Earth's earliest forest
stumps at Gilboa", Nature 446, 904-907
(19 April
2007) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v446/n7138/full/nature05705.html
8. ^ William E. Stein1, Frank
Mannolini2, Linda VanAller Hernick2, Ed
Landing2 & Christopher M. Berry3,
"Giant cladoxylopsid trees resolve the
enigma of the Earth's earliest forest
stumps at Gilboa", Nature 446, 904-907
(19 April
2007) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v446/n7138/full/nature05705.html
{385 mybn}
9. ^ Palmet et al, "Primitive
Life", 2009, p111.
10. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm {380mybn}
USA7
[1] a, General view of the crown
portion, showing longitudinal ranks of
branch bases on the trunk proximally,
and attached branches with digitate
ramification and speckled surface
pattern distally. Scale bar, 20 cm. b,
Line drawing of the specimen as
recovered including trunk and crown;
the box shows the portion in a, and the
arrow indicates the branch in c. Scale
bar, 10 cm. c, Close-up of a distal
branch showing speckled texture and
lateral appendages. Scale bar, 20
mm. figure 1 from: William E. Stein1,
Frank Mannolini2, Linda VanAller
Hernick2, Ed Landing2 & Christopher M.
Berry3, ''Giant cladoxylopsid trees
resolve the enigma of the Earth's
earliest forest stumps at Gilboa'',
Nature 446, 904-907 (19 April
2007) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v446/n7138/full/nature05705.html CO
PYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v446/n7138/images/nature05705-f1.2.
jpg
[2] a, Composite image of large trunk
specimen, a cast with upper and lower
counterparts, NYSM 17040. Arrows at the
distal end (top) correspond to the
region in Fig. 3a; arrows at the
proximal end (bottom) correspond to the
region in Fig. 3b. b, Line drawing
showing the architecture of Wattieza
attached to Eospermatopteris. The
length of the trunk is not firmly
established, so the minimum tree height
is shown. Light branches right, also in
Fig. 1a right, appear in life position
but are not definitively attached.
Scale bar, 1 m for both panels. figure
2 from: William E. Stein1, Frank
Mannolini2, Linda VanAller Hernick2, Ed
Landing2 & Christopher M. Berry3,
''Giant cladoxylopsid trees resolve the
enigma of the Earth's earliest forest
stumps at Gilboa'', Nature 446, 904-907
(19 April
2007) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v446/n7138/full/nature05705.html CO
PYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v446/n7138/images/nature05705-f2.2.
jpg
14 15 16 17 18 19 20
arthropod insect. Ancestor of all
winged insects (Pterygota {TARiGOTu8 })
(Mayflies, Dragonflies, Damselflies).9
10 11
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael S.
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005,
p148. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Ql6Jl6wKb88C&pg=PA157
2. ^ Grimaldi, D. 2001. Insect
evolutionary history from Handlirsch to
Hennig, and beyond. Journal of
Paleontology
75:1152-1160. http://jpaleontol.geoscie
nceworld.org/content/75/6/1152
AND www.online-keys.net/sciaroidea/2000
_/Grimaldi_2001_insect_evolution_history
3. ^ Regier, et al, "Pancrustacean
phylogeny: hexapods are terrestrial
crustaceans and maxillopods are not
monophyletic", Proc Biol Sci. 2005
February 22; 272(1561): 395–401.
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/272/1561/395
4. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=pteryg
ota&submit=Submit
5. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael S.
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005,
p148. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Ql6Jl6wKb88C&pg=PA157
6. ^ Grimaldi, D. 2001. Insect
evolutionary history from Handlirsch to
Hennig, and beyond. Journal of
Paleontology
75:1152-1160. http://jpaleontol.geoscie
nceworld.org/content/75/6/1152
AND www.online-keys.net/sciaroidea/2000
_/Grimaldi_2001_insect_evolution_history
7. ^ Regier, et al, "Pancrustacean
phylogeny: hexapods are terrestrial
crustaceans and maxillopods are not
monophyletic", Proc Biol Sci. 2005
February 22; 272(1561): 395–401.
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/272/1561/395
8. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=pteryg
ota&submit=Submit
9. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael S.
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005,
p148. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Ql6Jl6wKb88C&pg=PA157
10. ^ Grimaldi, D. 2001. Insect
evolutionary history from Handlirsch to
Hennig, and beyond. Journal of
Paleontology
75:1152-1160. http://jpaleontol.geoscie
nceworld.org/content/75/6/1152
AND www.online-keys.net/sciaroidea/2000
_/Grimaldi_2001_insect_evolution_history
11. ^ Regier, et al, "Pancrustacean
phylogeny: hexapods are terrestrial
crustaceans and maxillopods are not
monophyletic", Proc Biol Sci. 2005
February 22; 272(1561): 395–401.
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/272/1561/395
12. ^ Knecht, R. J., Engel, M. S., &
Benner, J. S. (2011). Late
carboniferous paleoichnology reveals
the oldest full-body impression of a
flying insect. Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences , 108
(16),
6515-6519. http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pn
as.1015948108
13. ^ Prokop J, Nel A, Hoch I (2005)
Discovery of the oldest known Pterygota
in the Lower Carboniferous of the
Upper Silesian Basin in the Czech
Republic (Insecta:
Archaeorthoptera). Geobios
38:383–387. http://www.sciencedirect.
com/science/article/pii/S001669950500028
8
14. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of
the Insects", 2005, p146
15. ^ David A.
Grimaldi, Michael S. Engel, "Evolution
of the Insects", 2005,
p163. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Ql6Jl6wKb88C&pg=PA163
16. ^ Palmer, et al., "Prehistoric
Life", 2009, p142.
17. ^ Prokop J, Nel A,
Hoch I (2005) Discovery of the oldest
known Pterygota in the
Lower Carboniferous of the Upper
Silesian Basin in the Czech Republic
(Insecta: Archaeorthoptera). Geobios
38:383–387. http://www.sciencedirect.
com/science/article/pii/S001669950500028
8 {324 MYBN}
18. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm {315 MYBN}
19. ^ Regier, et al,
"Pancrustacean phylogeny: hexapods are
terrestrial crustaceans and maxillopods
are not monophyletic", Proc Biol Sci.
2005 February 22; 272(1561): 395–401.
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/272/1561/395
20. ^ Palmer, et al., "Prehistoric
Life", 2009, p142.
MORE INFO
[1] Engel MS, Grimaldi DA (2004)
New light shed on the oldest insect.
Nature 427: 627–630
[2] Grimaldi D, Engel MS (2005)
Evolution of the Insects (Cambridge
Univ. Press, Cambridge)
[3] Prokop J, Nel A, Hoch I
(2005) Discovery of the oldest known
Pterygota in the Lower Carboniferous
of the Upper Silesian Basin in the
Czech Republic (Insecta:
Archoaeorthoptera). Geobios
38:383–387. http://www.sciencedirect.
com/science/article/pii/S001669950500028
8
[4] "Orthoptera." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 27 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/orthoptera-
1
[5] David A. Grimaldi, Michael S.
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005,
p159. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Ql6Jl6wKb88C&pg=PA159
southeastern Massachusetts12 and Upper
Silesian Basin, Czech Republic13
[1] English: A female subimago of March
Brown (Rhithrogena germanica) of family
Heptageniidae. Mayflies are insects
which belong to the Order Ephemeroptera
(from the Greek ephemeros, short-lived
and pteron, wing, referring to the
short life span of adults). They have
been placed into an ancient group of
insects termed the Paleoptera, which
also contains the dragonflies and
damselflies. They are aquatic insects
whose immature stage (called naiad or,
colloquially, nymph) usually lasts one
year in fresh water. The rests on Rough
Horsetail or Scouringrush Horsetail
(Equisetum hyemale) Date 8 January
2008 Source Own work Author Richard
Bartz, Munich aka Makro Freak
Image:MFB.jpg CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/49/Rhithrogena_germanica
_subimago_on_Equisetum_hyemale.jpg
[2] FIGURE 2—Preliminary hypothesis
of phylogenetic relationships among
major and interesting groups of living
and extinct hexapods and
basal pterygote Insecta. Numbers refer
to synapomorphies (see Table 1); empty
boxes are homoplasious synapomorphies.
Some significant fossils
are-CSCO-3h--F3.large denoted by
circled letters (see Table 2), but many
fossils are not listed for most groups.
Thick lines indicate the approximate
chronology of lineages. The number of
lineages depicted for paraphyletic
lineages
(‘‘Protodonata,’’‘‘Protortho
ptera,’’ Blattaria [Blattoptera])
are arbitrary, and simply indicate
multiple, unresolved lineages. The
names of orders with freshwater aquatic
larvae are shaded (a presumed ancestral
habit). Relationships are based on
Kristensen (1975, 1991, 1999), Willmann
(1997, 1999), Grimaldi (1997, for
Dictyoptera), Engel and Grimaldi (2000,
Zoraptera and related orders), and
others. Figure 2 from: Grimaldi, D.
2001. Insect evolutionary history from
Handlirsch to Hennig, and beyond.
Journal of Paleontology
75:1152-1160. http://jpaleontol.geoscie
nceworld.org/content/75/6/1152
AND www.online-keys.net/sciaroidea/2000
_/Grimaldi_2001_insect_evolution_history
.pdf COPYRIGHTED
source: www.online-keys.net/sciaroidea/2
000_/Grimaldi_2001_insect_evolution_hist
ory.pdf
9 10 11 12 13
with four feet), the amphibians, evolve
in fresh water.5 The first vertebrate
limbs (arms and legs) and fingers.6
Ancestor of caecillians, frogs, toads,
and salamanders.7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p302-329.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004), p302-329.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p302-329.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p302-329.
8. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004), p302-329.
9. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The
origin and evolution of model
organisms", Nature Reviews Genetics 3,
838-849 (November
2002) http://www.nature.com/nrg/journal
/v3/n11/full/nrg929.html {Hedges_2002.p
df} {375(360+-15) mybn}
10. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004), p302-329. {340 mybn}
11. ^ P. E.
Ahlberg, "Tetrapod or near-tetrapod
fossils from the Upper Devonian of
Scotland", Nature 354, 298 - 301 (28
November
1991) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v354/n6351/abs/354298a0.html {368
mybn (fossil}
12. ^
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/vertebrates
/tetrapods/amphibfr.html {368 mybn
(fossil}
13. ^
http://palaeo.gly.bris.ac.uk/Palaeofiles
/Fossilgroups/Amphibia/fossilrecord.html
{368 mybn (fossil}
equator)8
[1] Timeline of phylogeny of animals,
figure 6 from: S. Blair Hedges, ''The
origin and evolution of model
organisms'', Nature Reviews Genetics 3,
838-849 (November
2002) http://www.nature.com/nrg/journal
/v3/n11/full/nrg929.html {Hedges_2002.p
df} a) The relationships and
divergence times (millions of years ago
(Mya) plusminus one standard error) of
selected model animals are shown, based
on recent multigene and multiprotein
studies51, 61, 84. The fossil
divergence time of birds and mammals
(310 Mya) was used to calibrate the
molecular clock. Branch lengths are not
proportional to time. b ) The
relationships and numbers of living
species, from a diversity of sources in
most of the main groups. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nrg/journa
l/v3/n11/images/nrg929-f6.jpg
[2] Reconstructions of (a)
Acanthostega and (b) Ichthyostega, from
Benton, 1997. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://palaeo.gly.bris.ac.uk/Pal
aeofiles/Fossilgroups/Amphibia/amphibpic
s/ichthyostega.jpg
2 3
age.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
2. ^ David Jablonski and W. G.
Chaloner,"Extinctions in the Fossil
Record (and Discussion)", Philosophical
Transactions: Biological Sciences, Vol.
344, No. 1307, Estimating Extinction
Rates: Sir Joseph Banks Anniversary
Meeting (Apr. 29, 1994), pp.
11-17. http://www.jstor.org/stable/5614
8 {367 mybn}
3. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm {360 mybn}
MORE INFO
[1] David Jablonski, "Lessons
from the Past: Evolutionary Impacts of
Mass Extinctions", Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the
United States of America, Vol. 98, No.
10 (May 8, 2001), pp.
5393-5398. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
3055638
[1] Description English: Antarctica:
The blue ice covering Lake Fryxell, in
the Transantarctic Mountains, comes
from glacial meltwater from the Canada
Glacier and other smaller glaciers. The
freshwater stays on top of the lake and
freezes, sealing in briny water
below. http://photolibrary.usap.gov/Por
tscripts/PortWeb.dll?query&field1=Filena
me&op1=matches&value=LakeFryxell.jpg&cat
alog=Antarctica&template=ShowMidThumbs
Français : Antarctique: La glace bleue
couvrant le Lac Fryxell, dans la
Chaîne Transantarctique, vient des
eaux de fonte du Glacier Canada et
d'autres glaciers plus petits. L'eau
fraîche se trouve au sommet du lac et
gèle, scellant une eau saumâtre
située en-dessous. Date 10 December
2002 Source From Antarctic Photo
Library: LAKEFRYXELL.JPG Author Joe
Mastroianni, National Science
Foundation PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Fryxellsee_Opt.
jpg/1280px-Fryxellsee_Opt.jpg
[2] Description Deutsch: Der Vulkan
Mount Erebus, Antarktika. English:
Mount Erebus, Ross Island,
Antarctica. Español: Monte Erebus,
Isla Ross,Antártida Français : Le
mont Erebus, île de Ross,
Antarctique. Türkçe: Erebus Dağı,
Antarktika Русский:
Вулкан Эребус,
Антарктида Date
1972 Source U.S. Geological Survey
(USGS) Author Richard Waitt, U.S.
Geological Survey Permission (Reusing
this file) PD-US Other versions
Image:Mt Erebus (original).jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/4e/Mt_erebus.jpg
5 6
(an amphibian).3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p302-329.
2. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p302-329.
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p302-329.
4. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p302-329.
5. ^
http://palaeo.gly.bris.ac.uk/Palaeofiles
/Fossilgroups/Amphibia/fossilrecord.html
{363mybn}
6. ^
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/vertebrates
/tetrapods/tetrafr.html {360mybn}
MORE INFO
[1] P. E. Ahlberg, "Tetrapod or
near-tetrapod fossils from the Upper
Devonian of Scotland", Nature 354, 298
- 301 (28 November
1991) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v354/n6351/abs/354298a0.html
[2]
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/vertebrates
/tetrapods/amphibfr.html
equator)4
[1] Yes, it's time for the Palaeozoic
scenes of Life before Man. Or some of
them, anyway - if you really want to
see a load of trilobites, you're
probably Richard Fortey, and I will
ignore any comments that claim
otherwise. (Also, I can't include
everything - otherwise we'd have to
rename this blog Love in the Time of
Burian, which sounds a bit rubbish.) My
bias is most definitely towards
vertebrates and, in particular,
tetrapods, and the below scene -
featuring Ichthyostega - marks their
first appearance in the book. This
painting is perhaps unique in this book
as it combines the elements of the
animal-free landscapes with, well, some
animals. Burian's skill is in making
this scene, filled as it is with flora
so utterly different to what we are
accustomed to seeing today, look as if
he just took a casual stroll out into
the country to paint it. UNKNOWN
source: http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-Zdvegv
1Fny4/UCk-Z929irI/AAAAAAAABM8/_7c21BO7T1
s/s1600/Ichthyostega.jpg
[2] Timeline of phylogeny of animals,
figure 6 from: S. Blair Hedges, ''The
origin and evolution of model
organisms'', Nature Reviews Genetics 3,
838-849 (November
2002) http://www.nature.com/nrg/journal
/v3/n11/full/nrg929.html {Hedges_2002.p
df} a) The relationships and
divergence times (millions of years ago
(Mya) plusminus one standard error) of
selected model animals are shown, based
on recent multigene and multiprotein
studies51, 61, 84. The fossil
divergence time of birds and mammals
(310 Mya) was used to calibrate the
molecular clock. Branch lengths are not
proportional to time. b ) The
relationships and numbers of living
species, from a diversity of sources in
most of the main groups. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nrg/journa
l/v3/n11/images/nrg929-f6.jpg
16 17 18 19 20
{Bo-SiDEO-mI-KO-Tu5 } (ancestor of many
mushrooms: button, chanterelle
{saNTRreL6 }, cremini{KremENE7 }, enoki
{inoKE8 }, fly agaric {uGaRiK9 },
oyster, porcino {PORCEnO 10 },
portabella, psilocybe, puffball,
shiitake {sEToKE11 }, woodear, rusts,
and club fungi).12 13 14
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=basidi
omycota&submit=Submit
2. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
3. ^ S.
Blair Hedges, "The Origin and Evolution
of Model Organisms", Nature Reviews
Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
4. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
5. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=basidi
omycota&submit=Submit
6. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=chante
relle&submit=Submit
7. ^ "cremini." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 04 Jan.
2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cremini
8. ^ "enoki?s=t". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/e
noki?s=t
9. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=agaric
&submit=Submit
10. ^ "porcino." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 04
Jan. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/porcino
11. ^ "shiitake." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 04
Jan. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/shiitake
12. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
13. ^ S.
Blair Hedges, "The Origin and Evolution
of Model Organisms", Nature Reviews
Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
14. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
15. ^ Stubblefield SP, Taylor TN, Beck
CB (1985) Studies of Paleozoic fungi.
V. Wood-decaying fungi in Callixylon
newberryi from the Upper Devonian. Am
J Bot
72:1765–1774 http://paleobotany.bio.k
u.edu/taylorPDFs%5C%5B1985%5D%20Stubblef
ield%20et%20al.-Wood%20decaying%20fungi%
20in%20Callixylon%20newberryi%20from%20t
he%20Upper%20Devonian.pdf
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/2443734
16. ^ Stubblefield SP, Taylor TN, Beck
CB (1985) Studies of Paleozoic fungi.
V. Wood-decaying fungi in Callixylon
newberryi from the Upper Devonian. Am
J Bot
72:1765–1774 http://paleobotany.bio.k
u.edu/taylorPDFs%5C%5B1985%5D%20Stubblef
ield%20et%20al.-Wood%20decaying%20fungi%
20in%20Callixylon%20newberryi%20from%20t
he%20Upper%20Devonian.pdf
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/2443734
17. ^ Michael Krings, Nora Dotzler,
Jean Galtier and Thomas N. Taylor,
"Oldest fossil basidiomycete clamp
connections", Mycoscience, Volume 52,
Number 1 (2011), 18-23, DOI:
10.1007/s10267-010-0065-4 http://www.sp
ringerlink.com/content/725614321xj0604w/
18. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
(968my)
19. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The Origin and
Evolution of Model Organisms", Nature
Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849 (2002);
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002). (1210my)
20. ^
Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004). (700my)
MORE INFO
[1] "Basidiomycota". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basidiomyco
ta
[2] McLAUGHLIN, DAVID J., ALAN BECKETT,
and KWON S. YOON. “Ultrastructure and
Evolution of Ballistosporic
Basidiospores.” Botanical Journal of
the Linnean Society 91.1-2 (1985):
253–271. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.c
om/doi/10.1111/j.1095-8339.1985.tb01149.
x/abstract
[1] Amanita muscaria
(Homobasidiomycetes)
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Agaricales.jpg
[2] Basidiomycete Life Cycle tjv
source: http://botit.botany.wisc.edu/ima
ges/332/Basidiomycota/General_basidio/Ba
sidiomycete_Life_Cycle_tjv.php?highres=t
rue
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
insects.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Grimaldi, D. 2001. Insect
evolutionary history from Handlirsch to
Hennig, and beyond. Journal of
Paleontology
75:1152-1160. http://jpaleontol.geoscie
nceworld.org/content/75/6/1152
AND www.online-keys.net/sciaroidea/2000
_/Grimaldi_2001_insect_evolution_history
2. ^ Grimaldi, D. 2001. Insect
evolutionary history from Handlirsch to
Hennig, and beyond. Journal of
Paleontology
75:1152-1160. http://jpaleontol.geoscie
nceworld.org/content/75/6/1152
AND www.online-keys.net/sciaroidea/2000
_/Grimaldi_2001_insect_evolution_history
3. ^ Garwood, Russell, and Mark Sutton.
“X-ray Micro-tomography of
Carboniferous stem-Dictyoptera: New
Insights into Early Insects.” Biology
Letters 6.5 (2010): 699 –702.
Print. http://rsbl.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/6/5/699.full
4. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of the
Insects", 2005, p146.
5. ^ David A.
Grimaldi, Michael S. Engel, "Evolution
of the Insects", 2005,
p191. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Ql6Jl6wKb88C&pg=PA191
6. ^ Gaunt et al., "An insect molecular
clock dates the origin of the insects
and accords with palaeontological and
biogeographic landmarks.", Mol Biol
Evol,
2002. http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/con
tent/19/5/748.full.pdf {Gaunt_Insects_2
002.pdf}
7. ^ Palmer, et al, "Prehistoric Life",
2009, p143.
8. ^ Prokop J, Nel A, Hoch I
(2005) Discovery of the oldest known
Pterygota in the Lower Carboniferous
of the Upper Silesian Basin in the
Czech Republic (Insecta:
Archaeorthoptera). Geobios
38:383–387. http://www.sciencedirect.
com/science/article/pii/S001669950500028
8 {324 MYBN}
9. ^ Grimaldi, D. 2001. Insect
evolutionary history from Handlirsch to
Hennig, and beyond. Journal of
Paleontology
75:1152-1160. http://jpaleontol.geoscie
nceworld.org/content/75/6/1152
AND www.online-keys.net/sciaroidea/2000
_/Grimaldi_2001_insect_evolution_history
10. ^ Regier, et al, "Pancrustacean
phylogeny: hexapods are terrestrial
crustaceans and maxillopods are not
monophyletic", Proc Biol Sci. 2005
February 22; 272(1561): 395–401.
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/272/1561/395
11. ^ Garwood, Russell, and Mark
Sutton. “X-ray Micro-tomography of
Carboniferous stem-Dictyoptera: New
Insights into Early Insects.” Biology
Letters 6.5 (2010): 699 –702.
Print. http://rsbl.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/6/5/699.full
MORE INFO
[1] Video: Virtual fossil of
Archimylacris eggintoni,
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yR-_nq2
UsOc
eggintoni, Coseley Lagerstätte)
Staffordshire, UK3
[1] Stonefly in the genus Dinotoperla.
Taken in Swifts Creek, Victoria in
November 2007 GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e6/Stonefly_-_dinotoperl
a.jpg
[2] Nymph of unidentified
stonefly Description Deutsch:
Steinfliegenlarve Date 16 June
2006 Source Own work Author
böhringer friedrich CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/SteinfliegenLar
ve2.JPG/1280px-SteinfliegenLarve2.JPG
2
mybn), and start of the Carboniferous
(359.2-299 mybn) Period.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ USGS "Divisions of Geologic
Time— Major Chronostratigraphic and
Geochronologic Units", July
2010. http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2010/3059
/pdf/FS10-3059.pdf
2. ^ USGS "Divisions of Geologic
Time— Major Chronostratigraphic and
Geochronologic Units", July
2010. http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2010/3059
/pdf/FS10-3059.pdf
[1] Geologic Time Scale 2009 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.geosociety.org/scienc
e/timescale/timescl.pdf
[2] 370 Ma Middle Devonian UNKNOWN
source: http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~rcb7/370
_Devonian_2globes.jpg
20 21
Ancestor of all seed plants.9 10 11 12
The earliest fossil seed is from a seed
fern (Pteridosperm {TARiDOSPRM13 }).14
15 16 17
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Gillespie, William H., Gar W.
Rothwell, and Stephen E. Scheckler.
“The earliest seeds.” Nature
293.5832 (1981) :
462-464. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v293/n5832/abs/293462a0.html
2. ^ Henry N. Andrews, "Early Seed
Plants", Science, New Series, Vol. 142,
No. 3594 (Nov. 15, 1963), pp.
925-931. http://www.jstor.org/stable/17
11577
3. ^ A. G. Long, Trans. Royal Soc.
Edinburgh V64, 29, 201, 261 (1960);
ibid, V64, 281 (1961), V64, 401.
4. ^
"Pteridosperms." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 27 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pteridosper
ms
5. ^ Gillespie, William H., Gar W.
Rothwell, and Stephen E. Scheckler.
“The earliest seeds.” Nature
293.5832 (1981) :
462-464. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v293/n5832/abs/293462a0.html
6. ^ Henry N. Andrews, "Early Seed
Plants", Science, New Series, Vol. 142,
No. 3594 (Nov. 15, 1963), pp.
925-931. http://www.jstor.org/stable/17
11577
7. ^ A. G. Long, Trans. Royal Soc.
Edinburgh V64, 29, 201, 261 (1960);
ibid, V64, 281 (1961), V64, 401.
8. ^
"Pteridosperms." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 27 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pteridosper
ms
9. ^ Gillespie, William H., Gar W.
Rothwell, and Stephen E. Scheckler.
“The earliest seeds.” Nature
293.5832 (1981) :
462-464. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v293/n5832/abs/293462a0.html
10. ^ Henry N. Andrews, "Early Seed
Plants", Science, New Series, Vol. 142,
No. 3594 (Nov. 15, 1963), pp.
925-931. http://www.jstor.org/stable/17
11577
11. ^ A. G. Long, Trans. Royal Soc.
Edinburgh V64, 29, 201, 261 (1960);
ibid, V64, 281 (1961), V64, 401.
12. ^
"Pteridosperms." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 27 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pteridosper
ms
13. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=pterid
ospermae
14. ^ Gillespie, William H., Gar W.
Rothwell, and Stephen E. Scheckler.
“The earliest seeds.” Nature
293.5832 (1981) :
462-464. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v293/n5832/abs/293462a0.html
15. ^ Henry N. Andrews, "Early Seed
Plants", Science, New Series, Vol. 142,
No. 3594 (Nov. 15, 1963), pp.
925-931. http://www.jstor.org/stable/17
11577
16. ^ A. G. Long, Trans. Royal Soc.
Edinburgh V64, 29, 201, 261 (1960);
ibid, V64, 281 (1961), V64, 401.
17. ^
"Pteridosperms." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 27 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pteridosper
ms
18. ^ Henry N. Andrews, "Early Seed
Plants", Science, New Series, Vol. 142,
No. 3594 (Nov. 15, 1963), pp.
925-931. http://www.jstor.org/stable/17
11577
19. ^ "Genomosperma kidstonii."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online Academic Edition.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 27
Jul. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/229254/Genomosperma-kidstonii>.
20. ^ Henry N. Andrews, "Early Seed
Plants", Science, New Series, Vol. 142,
No. 3594 (Nov. 15, 1963), pp.
925-931. http://www.jstor.org/stable/17
11577 {359 MYBN (Lower Carboniferous}
21. ^
"Genomosperma kidstonii." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 27 Jul. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/229254/Genomosperma-kidstonii>. {359
MYBN (Lower Carboniferous}
MORE INFO
[1] "Gymnosperms". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gymnosperms
[2] Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445.,
(2004). http://www.jstor.org/stable/412
3845
[3] Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
http://www.jstor.org/stable/4123845
(c320 (360 for living species)
[4] Hwan Su
Yoon, Jeremiah D. Hackett, Claudia
Ciniglia, Gabriele Pinto and Debashish,
"A Molecular Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution, (2004). (c350
(300 for radiation)
[5] Dr. Singh, Dr. Pande & Dr.
Jain, "Diversity and Systematics of
Seed Plants",
2005. http://books.google.com/books?id=
GTUgfghg80gC
[6] Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445.,
(2004). http://www.jstor.org/stable/412
3845
[1] Henry N. Andrews, ''Early Seed
Plants'', Science, New Series, Vol.
142, No. 3594 (Nov. 15, 1963), pp.
925-931. http://www.jstor.org/stable/17
11577 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1711
577
[2] Fig. 2. Chronogram showing
estimates of phylogenetic relationships
and divergence times among the major
groups of extant land plants. The
estimate of relationships is
synthesized from the following papers
in this issue: Burleigh and Mathews
(2004) , Pryer et al. (2004) , Shaw and
Renzaglia (2004) , and Soltis and
Soltis (2004) . Divergence time
estimates are mostly based on analyses
of molecular data with fossil
constraints (Wikström et al., 2001 ;
Pryer et al., 2004 ) and are augmented
by fossil evidence (Kenrick and Crane,
1997 ; Wellman et al., 2003 ).
Estimates of the number of species in
each group are from Judd et al. (2002)
and W. S. Judd (personal
communication). Groups covered by a
particular article in this special
issue are circled and connected to the
names of the article's authors. ''Other
conifers'' refers to the clade
consisting of all conifers except for
Pinaceae (see Burleigh and Mathews,
2004 ). ''Lepto. ferns'' refers to
leptosporangiate ferns fig 2
from: Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, ''The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view'', American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
http://www.amjbot.org/content/91/10/14
37.full {Chase_Mark_2004.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.amjbot.org/content/91
/10/1437/F2.large.jpg
3
Paddlefish.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). {350
MYBN}
[1] Adapted from: Richard Dawkins,
''The Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p339. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p339.
[2] Adapted from: Richard Dawkins,
''The Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p339. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p339.
7 8 9 10 11 12
{DiKTEoPTRu4 } (ancestor of
Cockroaches, Termites, and Mantises).5
6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=dictyo
ptera&submit=Submit
2. ^ Palmer, et al, "Prehistoric Life",
2009, p143.
3. ^ Grimaldi, D. 2001. Insect
evolutionary history from Handlirsch to
Hennig, and beyond. Journal of
Paleontology
75:1152-1160. http://jpaleontol.geoscie
nceworld.org/content/75/6/1152
AND www.online-keys.net/sciaroidea/2000
_/Grimaldi_2001_insect_evolution_history
4. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=dictyo
ptera&submit=Submit
5. ^ Palmer, et al, "Prehistoric Life",
2009, p143.
6. ^ Grimaldi, D. 2001. Insect
evolutionary history from Handlirsch to
Hennig, and beyond. Journal of
Paleontology
75:1152-1160. http://jpaleontol.geoscie
nceworld.org/content/75/6/1152
AND www.online-keys.net/sciaroidea/2000
_/Grimaldi_2001_insect_evolution_history
7. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of the
Insects", 2005, p146.
8. ^ David A. Grimaldi,
Michael S. Engel, "Evolution of the
Insects", 2005,
p191. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Ql6Jl6wKb88C&pg=PA191
9. ^ Palmer, et al, "Prehistoric Life",
2009, p143.
10. ^ Prokop J, Nel A, Hoch I
(2005) Discovery of the oldest known
Pterygota in the Lower Carboniferous
of the Upper Silesian Basin in the
Czech Republic (Insecta:
Archaeorthoptera). Geobios
38:383–387. http://www.sciencedirect.
com/science/article/pii/S001669950500028
8 {324 MYBN}
11. ^ Gaunt et al., "An insect
molecular clock dates the origin of the
insects and accords with
palaeontological and biogeographic
landmarks.", Mol Biol Evol,
2002. http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/con
tent/19/5/748.full.pdf {Gaunt_Insects_2
002.pdf}
12. ^ Palmer, et al, "Prehistoric
Life", 2009, p283.
MORE INFO
[1] "orthopteran". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 06 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/433540/orthopteran/39576/Evoluti
on-and-paleontology>
[1] Description English: Juvenile,
Madagascar hissing cockroach at the
Atlanta Botanical Garden. Taken
9/23/2007. Date 25 September 2007
(original upload date) Source
Transferred from en.wikipedia;
transferred to Commons by
User:Sreejithk2000 using
CommonsHelper. Author Original
uploader was Almabes at
en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) Released into the public
domain (by the author). Other versions
Derivative works of this file:
Female Madagascar hissing
cockroach2.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/46/Female_Madagascar_his
sing_cockroach.JPG
[2] Figure 4.11. German Cockroaches,
Various Stages and Ages PD
source: http://www.cdc.gov/nceh/publicat
ions/books/housing/Graphics/chapter_04/F
igure4.11.jpg
16 17 18 19 20 21 22
Amniota {aMnEOtu10 } (ancestor of
reptiles, mammals and birds).11 The
hard-shell egg is waterproof.12 This
is the start of vertebrate internal
fertilization, because on land the egg
cannot be fertilized as most fishes and
amphibians do, by a male swimming near
the eggs and spraying them with
sperm.13
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=am
niota&submit=Submit
3. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=50568&tree=0.1
4. ^ Prothero, "Evolution What the
Fossils Say and Why It Matters", 2007,
p234.
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
6. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=am
niota&submit=Submit
7. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=50568&tree=0.1
8. ^ Prothero, "Evolution What the
Fossils Say and Why It Matters", 2007,
p234.
9. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
10. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=am
niota&submit=Submit
11. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=50568&tree=0.1
12. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
13. ^ Prothero, "Evolution
What the Fossils Say and Why It
Matters", 2007, p234.
14. ^ T. R. Smithson,
"The earliest known reptile", Nature
342, 676 - 678 (07 December
1989). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v342/n6250/abs/342676a0.html
15. ^ JOHN NOBLE WILFORD, "Oldest
Reptile Fossil Reported Found in
Scotland", NY Times, Nov 17,
1988. http://www.nytimes.com/1988/11/17
/us/oldest-reptile-fossil-reported-found
-in-scotland.html
16. ^ Prothero, "Evolution What the
Fossils Say and Why It Matters", 2007,
p232.
17. ^ T. R. Smithson, "The earliest
known reptile", Nature 342, 676 - 678
(07 December
1989). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v342/n6250/abs/342676a0.html {338
MYBN (oldest reptil fossil}
18. ^ JOHN NOBLE
WILFORD, "Oldest Reptile Fossil
Reported Found in Scotland", NY Times,
Nov 17,
1988. http://www.nytimes.com/1988/11/17
/us/oldest-reptile-fossil-reported-found
-in-scotland.html {338 MYBN (oldest
reptil fossil}
19. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). {310 MYBN}
20. ^
"Eryops". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eryops
{295 MYBN (verify}
21. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "Time
Tree", 2009.
22. ^ Benton, Michael J., and
Philip C. J. Donoghue.
“Paleontological Evidence to Date the
Tree of Life.” Molecular Biology and
Evolution 24.1 (2007): 26 -53.
Print. http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/24/1/26.abstract
MORE INFO
[1] Romer, Alfred Sherwood,
Price, Llewellyn Ivor, "The oldest
vertebrate egg", Am J Sci 1939 237:
826-829. http://www.ajsonline.org/cgi/c
ontent/abstract/237/11/826?maxtoshow=&hi
ts=10&RESULTFORMAT=1&title=The+oldest+ve
rtebrate+egg&andorexacttitle=and&andorex
acttitleabs=and&andorexactfulltext=and&s
earchid=1&FIRSTINDEX=0&sortspec=relevanc
e&resourcetype=HWCIT
[2] Karl F. Hirsch, "The Oldest
Vertebrate Egg?", Journal of
Paleontology, Vol. 53, No. 5 (Sep.,
1979), pp.
1068-1084. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
1304086
[3] Robert R. Reisz, Johannes Müller,
Molecular timescales and the fossil
record: a paleontological perspective,
Trends in Genetics, Volume 20, Issue 5,
1 May 2004, Pages 237-241, ISSN
0168-9525,
10.1016/j.tig.2004.03.007. (http://www.
sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0
168952504000757)
[4] "fenestrae." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 08 Jul.
2012.
enestrae>
[5] "orbit." Dictionary.com Unabridged.
Random House, Inc. 08 Jul. 2012.
rbit>
Lothian, Scotland14 15
[1] Figure 2 from: [t Note that this
egg is only of Permian age: 299-251
mybn] Karl F. Hirsch, ''The Oldest
Vertebrate Egg?'', Journal of
Paleontology, Vol. 53, No. 5 (Sep.,
1979), pp.
1068-1084. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
1304086 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1304
086
[2] Prothero, ''Bringing Fossils To
Life'', 2004. COPYRIGHTED
source: Prothero, "Bringing Fossils To
Life", 2004. COPYRIGHTED
10 11
the Sauropsida {SOR-roP-SiDu4 } (which
includes reptiles and birds) and the
Synapsida {Si-naP-Si-Du5 } (which
includes mammals).6
The Sauropsids have two major lineages:
the Parareptilia (turtles) and the
Eureptilia (dinosaurs, crocodiles and
birds).7 The Synapsids also have two
major lineages: pelycosaurs
(sail-backed) and therapsids
(mammal-like).8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=saurop
sida&submit=Submit
2. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=synaps
ida&submit=Submit
3. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002,
p108.
4. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=saurop
sida&submit=Submit
5. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=synaps
ida&submit=Submit
6. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002,
p108.
7. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002,
p108-109.
8. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002,
p119.
9. ^ Carroll, R.L., 1964, The ear1iest
reptiles: Jour. Linn. Soc (Zool.), v.
45, p.
61-83. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/d
oi/10.1111/j.1096-3642.1964.tb00488.x/ab
stract
10. ^ Prothero, "Evolution What the
Fossils Say and Why It Matters", 2007,
p232.
11. ^ Benton, Michael J., and Philip C.
J. Donoghue. “Paleontological
Evidence to Date the Tree of Life.”
Molecular Biology and Evolution 24.1
(2007): 26 -53.
Print. http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/24/1/26.abstract
MORE INFO
[1] Prothero, "Evolution What the
Fossils Say and Why It Matters", 2007,
p271
[2] Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p263
[3] Reisz RR.
Pelycosaurian reptiles from the Middle
Pennsylvanian of North America. Bull
Mus Comp Zool Harv
1972;144:27-62. http://digitool.library
.mcgill.ca/R/?func=dbin-jump-full&object
_id=47789&local_base=GEN01-MCG02
[4] "reptile." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 27 Jul.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/reptile
(Cumberland group, Joggins formation)
Joggins, Nova Scotia, Canada9
[1] Prothero, ''Evolution What the
Fossils Say and Why It Matters'', 2007,
p232. COPYRIGHTED
source: Prothero, "Evolution What the
Fossils Say and Why It Matters", 2007,
p232.
[2] Prothero, ''Bringing Fossils To
Life'', 2004. COPYRIGHTED
source: Prothero, "Bringing Fossils To
Life", 2004. COPYRIGHTED
4
{PeLiKuSOREu1 } evolve (includes
Edaphosaurus {eDaFoSORuS2 } and
Dimetrodon).3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Pelycosaur." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 10 Jun.
2012.
elycosaur>.
2. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=edapho
saurus&submit=Submit
3. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002,
p119-122.
4. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002,
p119-122.
[1] Description This just might be
a depiction of Edaphosaurus pogonias,
to make a guess from the title. If you
know more about this image, please
place a good description here. Date
2007-04-30 (original upload
date) Source Originally from
ru.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. Author Original uploader
was ДиБгд at
ru.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) This image is in the public
domain; PD-ART. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/7d/Edaphosaurus_pogonias
.jpg
[2] Kardong, ''Vertebrates'',
2002. COPYRIGHTED
source: Kardong, "Vertebrates",
2002. COPYRIGHTED
3 4
Caecilians evolve.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p302-329.
2. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p302-329.
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). {325 MYBN}
4. ^ Roelants, K.,
Gower, D. J., Wilkinson, M., Loader, S.
P., Biju, S. D., Guillaume, K., Moriau,
L., & Bossuyt, F. (2007). Global
patterns of diversification in the
history of modern amphibians.
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences , 104 (3), 887-892. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.060837810
4 {370 MYBN}
MORE INFO
[1] Andrea E. Feller, S. Blair
Hedges, Molecular Evidence for the
Early History of Living Amphibians,
Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution,
Volume 9, Issue 3, June 1998, Pages
509-516, ISSN 1055-7903, DOI:
10.1006/mpev.1998.0500. (http://www.sci
encedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1055
790398905000)
[1] Description Eocaecilia
micropodia, an early caecilian from the
Lower Jurassic of Arizona, pencil
drawing Date 22 August
2007 Source Own work Author
Nobu Tamura
email:nobu.tamura@yahoo.com
www.palaeocritti.com Permission (Reusi
ng this file) See below. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/27/Eocaecilia_BW.jpg
[2] Figure 1 from: Roelants, K.,
Gower, D. J., Wilkinson, M., Loader, S.
P., Biju, S. D., Guillaume, K., Moriau,
L., & Bossuyt, F. (2007). Global
patterns of diversification in the
history of modern amphibians.
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences , 104 (3), 887-892. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.060837810
4 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0
608378104
10 11 12 13 14
of all Cycads, Ginkgos and the
Conifers5 6 ).7 8
The most primitive extant Gymnosperms,
the Cycads evolve now.9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "conifer." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 23 May.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/conifer
2. ^ "Pinophyta." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2012.
Answers.com 23 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pinophyta
3. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445.,
(2004). http://www.jstor.org/stable/412
3845 {Chase_Mark_2004.pdf}
4. ^ Hwan Su Yoon, Jeremiah D. Hackett,
Claudia Ciniglia, Gabriele Pinto and
Debashish, "A Molecular Timeline for
the Origin of Photosynthetic
Eukaryotes", Molecular Biology and
Evolution, (2004).
5. ^ "conifer." Britannica
Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia
Britannica, Inc., 1994-2010.
Answers.com 23 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/conifer
6. ^ "Pinophyta." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2012.
Answers.com 23 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pinophyta
7. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445.,
(2004). http://www.jstor.org/stable/412
3845 {Chase_Mark_2004.pdf}
8. ^ Hwan Su Yoon, Jeremiah D. Hackett,
Claudia Ciniglia, Gabriele Pinto and
Debashish, "A Molecular Timeline for
the Origin of Photosynthetic
Eukaryotes", Molecular Biology and
Evolution, (2004).
9. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer,
Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W. Chase,
"The plant tree of life: an overview
and some points of view", American
Journal of Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445.,
(2004). http://www.jstor.org/stable/412
3845 {Chase_Mark_2004.pdf}
10. ^ Taylor, E.L., T.N. Taylor, and M.
Krings. Paleobotany: The Biology and
Evolution of Fossil Plants. Elsevier
Science, 2008.
11. ^ Norstog K, Nicholls TJ.
1997.The biology of cycads. Ithaca, NY:
Cornell University Press.
12. ^ Pant, D.D., R.
Osborne, and Birbal Sahni Institute of
Palaeobotany. An Introduction to
Gymnosperms, Cycas, and Cycadales.
Birbal Sahni Institute of Palaeobotany,
2002. BSIP
Monograph. http://books.google.com/book
s?ei=twN6UJqpA5D2qQGvhYHoAQ
13. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
http://www.jstor.org/stable/4123845 {
Chase_Mark_2004.pdf} (c320 (360 for
living species)
14. ^ Hwan Su Yoon, Jeremiah D.
Hackett, Claudia Ciniglia, Gabriele
Pinto and Debashish, "A Molecular
Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution, (2004). (c350
(300 for radiation)
MORE INFO
[1] "Gymnosperms". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gymnosperms
[2] Gillespie, William H., Gar W.
Rothwell, and Stephen E. Scheckler.
“The earliest seeds.” Nature
293.5832 (1981) :
462-464. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v293/n5832/abs/293462a0.html
[3] Henry N. Andrews, "Early Seed
Plants", Science, New Series, Vol. 142,
No. 3594 (Nov. 15, 1963), pp.
925-931. http://www.jstor.org/stable/17
11577
[4]
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Main/Overview/
3213.htm
[1] Fig. 2. Chronogram showing
estimates of phylogenetic relationships
and divergence times among the major
groups of extant land plants. The
estimate of relationships is
synthesized from the following papers
in this issue: Burleigh and Mathews
(2004) , Pryer et al. (2004) , Shaw and
Renzaglia (2004) , and Soltis and
Soltis (2004) . Divergence time
estimates are mostly based on analyses
of molecular data with fossil
constraints (Wikström et al., 2001 ;
Pryer et al., 2004 ) and are augmented
by fossil evidence (Kenrick and Crane,
1997 ; Wellman et al., 2003 ).
Estimates of the number of species in
each group are from Judd et al. (2002)
and W. S. Judd (personal
communication). Groups covered by a
particular article in this special
issue are circled and connected to the
names of the article's authors. ''Other
conifers'' refers to the clade
consisting of all conifers except for
Pinaceae (see Burleigh and Mathews,
2004 ). ''Lepto. ferns'' refers to
leptosporangiate ferns fig 2
from: Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, ''The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view'', American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
http://www.amjbot.org/content/91/10/14
37.full {Chase_Mark_2004.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.amjbot.org/content/91
/10/1437/F2.large.jpg
[2] Fig. 2. Chronogram showing
estimates of phylogenetic relationships
and divergence times among the major
groups of extant land plants. The
estimate of relationships is
synthesized from the following papers
in this issue: Burleigh and Mathews
(2004) , Pryer et al. (2004) , Shaw and
Renzaglia (2004) , and Soltis and
Soltis (2004) . Divergence time
estimates are mostly based on analyses
of molecular data with fossil
constraints (Wikström et al., 2001 ;
Pryer et al., 2004 ) and are augmented
by fossil evidence (Kenrick and Crane,
1997 ; Wellman et al., 2003 ).
Estimates of the number of species in
each group are from Judd et al. (2002)
and W. S. Judd (personal
communication). Groups covered by a
particular article in this special
issue are circled and connected to the
names of the article's authors. ''Other
conifers'' refers to the clade
consisting of all conifers except for
Pinaceae (see Burleigh and Mathews,
2004 ). ''Lepto. ferns'' refers to
leptosporangiate ferns fig 2
from: Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, ''The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view'', American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
http://www.amjbot.org/content/91/10/14
37.full {Chase_Mark_2004.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.amjbot.org/content/91
/10/1437/F2.large.jpg
3 4 5
(ancestor of crickets, grasshoppers,
locusts, and walking sticks).2
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael S.
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005,
p191. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Ql6Jl6wKb88C&pg=PA191
2. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael S.
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005,
p191. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Ql6Jl6wKb88C&pg=PA191
3. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael S.
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005,
p191. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Ql6Jl6wKb88C&pg=PA191
4. ^ Gaunt et al., "An insect molecular
clock dates the origin of the insects
and accords with palaeontological and
biogeographic landmarks.", Mol Biol
Evol,
2002. http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/con
tent/19/5/748.full.pdf {Gaunt_Insects_2
002.pdf}
5. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael S.
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p208.
MORE INFO
[1] "orthopteran". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 06 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/433540/orthopteran/39576/Evoluti
on-and-paleontology>
[2]
http://www.cals.ncsu.edu/course/ent425/t
ext02/orthopteroids.html#A
[1] African Field cricket Gryllus
bimaculatus at Bristol Zoo, Bristol,
England. Photographed by Adrian
Pingstone in February 2005 and released
to the public domain. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/2/27/African.field.c
ricket.arp.jpg/1200px-African.field.cric
ket.arp.jpg
[2] Description
grasshopper Source self
made Date unknown Author
Stephen Friedt PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/thumb/3/3c/Grasshopper_%2827%29
.JPG/1280px-Grasshopper_%2827%29.JPG
11 12 13 14 15
(ancestor of all turtles, crocodiles,
pterosaurs, dinosaurs and birds3 ).4 5
Reptiles are a group of air-breathing
amniotes with internal fertilization
and scales covering part or all of
their body.6 7 8 Like amphibians, the
earliest reptiles are cold-blooded.9
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Kardong,
"Vertebrates", 2002, p108.
4. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
5. ^ Benton, Michael J., and Philip C.
J. Donoghue. “Paleontological
Evidence to Date the Tree of Life.”
Molecular Biology and Evolution 24.1
(2007): 26 -53.
Print. http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/24/1/26.abstract
6. ^ "reptile". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 21 Jul.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/498684/reptile>.
7. ^ "reptile." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 27 Jul.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/reptile
8. ^ Palmer et al, "Primitive Life",
2009, p163.
9. ^ Douglas Palmer, "The
Marshall Illustrated Encyclopedia of
Dinosaurs and Prehistoric Animals",
1999, p59.
10. ^ Benton, Michael J., and
Philip C. J. Donoghue.
“Paleontological Evidence to Date the
Tree of Life.” Molecular Biology and
Evolution 24.1 (2007): 26 -53.
Print. http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/24/1/26.abstract
11. ^ Prothero, "Evolution What The
Fossils Say and Why It Matters", 2009,
p232.
12. ^ T. R. Smithson, "The earliest
known reptile", Nature 342, 676 - 678
(07 December
1989). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v342/n6250/abs/342676a0.html
{338MYBN (oldest reptile fossil}
13. ^ JOHN
NOBLE WILFORD, "Oldest Reptile Fossil
Reported Found in Scotland", NY Times,
Nov 17,
1988. http://www.nytimes.com/1988/11/17
/us/oldest-reptile-fossil-reported-found
-in-scotland.html {338MYBN (oldest
reptile fossil}
14. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). {310 MYBN}
15. ^
Benton, Michael J., and Philip C. J.
Donoghue. “Paleontological Evidence
to Date the Tree of Life.” Molecular
Biology and Evolution 24.1 (2007): 26
-53.
Print. http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/24/1/26.abstract
Nova Scotia, Canada10
[1] from: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004), p262.
COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p262.
[2] Description English: Reptilia
(reptiles), based on:
File:Buberel cayman 3.jpg
File:Crotalus adamanteus (5).jpg
File:Karettschildkroete 01.jpg
File:Henry at Invercargill.jpg All
of them are either under a free licence
already in Wikicommons or in the public
domain Date 3/2/09 Source
Compilation made by myself Author
see respective profiles of
photos PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/67/Reptiles.jpg
8 9 10 11 12
} (ancestor of the Conifers: includes
Pine, Fir, Spruce, Redwood, Cedar,
Juniper, Hemlock, Larch, Yew, and
Cypress.2 3 ).4 5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=pinoph
yta&submit=Submit
2. ^ "conifer." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 23 May.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/conifer
3. ^ "Pinophyta." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2012.
Answers.com 23 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pinophyta
4. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
5. ^ Hwan
Su Yoon, Jeremiah D. Hackett, Claudia
Ciniglia, Gabriele Pinto and Debashish,
"A Molecular Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution, (2004).
6. ^ SCOTT,
ANDREW. “The Earliest Conifer.”
Nature 251.5477 (1974):
707–708. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v251/n5477/abs/251707a0.html
7. ^ Taylor, E.L., T.N. Taylor, and M.
Krings. Paleobotany: The Biology and
Evolution of Fossil Plants. Elsevier
Science, 2008, p806.
8. ^ SCOTT, ANDREW.
“The Earliest Conifer.” Nature
251.5477 (1974):
707–708. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v251/n5477/abs/251707a0.html
9. ^ Lyons, Paul C. et al.
“Radiometric Ages of the Fire Clay
Tonstein Pennsylvanian (Upper
Carboniferous), Westphalian,
Duckmantian. ^: A Comparison of U–Pb
Zircon Single-crystal Ages and
40Ar/39Ar Sanidine Single-crystal
Plateau Ages.” International Journal
of Coal Geology 67.4 (2006):
259–266. http://www.sciencedirect.com
/science/article/pii/S0166516206000140
10. ^ Taylor, E.L., T.N. Taylor, and M.
Krings. Paleobotany: The Biology and
Evolution of Fossil Plants. Elsevier
Science, 2008, p806.
11. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer,
Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W. Chase,
"The plant tree of life: an overview
and some points of view", American
Journal of Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445.,
(2004). http://www.amjbot.org/content/9
1/10/1437.abstract (c270 (290 for
living species)
12. ^ Hwan Su Yoon, Jeremiah D.
Hackett, Claudia Ciniglia, Gabriele
Pinto and Debashish, "A Molecular
Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution, (2004). (c350
(300 for radiation)
MORE INFO
[1] Burleigh J. G. S. Mathews
2004 Phylogenetic signal in nucleotide
data from seed plants: implications for
resolving the seed plant tree of life.
American Journal of Botany 91:
1599-1613 http://www.amjbot.org/content
/91/10/1599.abstract?ijkey=b60985db66551
09e270893676c522743d400bc1e&keytype2=tf_
ipsecsha
England6 7
[1] Closeup shot of a stem of needles
(perhaps Norway spruce?) by USFWS and
obtained from the GIMP photo
library. United States Federal
Government This work is in the
public domain because it is a work of
the United States Federal Government.
This applies worldwide. See
Copyright Close-up of pinophyte leaves
(needles): Norway Spruce (Picea abies)
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pin
ophyta
[2] Native Pinus sylvestris forest,
Scotland: Deeside, Mar Lodge, April
2005 GNU 1.2
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pin
aceae
5 6 7 8 9 10
(ancestor of lice, thrips, and the
Hemiptera {HemiPTRu2 } piercing and
sucking insects: cicadas, aphids, bed
bugs, and stink bugs).3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.cals.ncsu.edu/course/ent425/t
ext02/hemipteroids.html
2. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=hemipt
era&submit=Submit
3. ^
http://www.cals.ncsu.edu/course/ent425/t
ext02/hemipteroids.html
4. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of the
Insects", 2005, p261.
5. ^ David A. Grimaldi,
Michael S. Engel, "Evolution of the
Insects", 2005, p146.
6. ^ Labandeira, Conrad
C. “Evidence for an Earliest Late
Carboniferous Divergence Time and the
Early Larval Ecology and
Diversification of Major Holometabola
Lineages.” Entomologica Americana
117.1 & 2 (2011):
9–21. http://www.bioone.org/doi/abs/1
0.1664/10-RA-011.1
7. ^
http://www.cals.ncsu.edu/course/ent425/t
ext02/hemipteroids.html
8. ^ Gaunt et al., "An insect molecular
clock dates the origin of the insects
and accords with palaeontological and
biogeographic landmarks.", Mol Biol
Evol,
2002. http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/con
tent/19/5/748.full.pdf {Gaunt_Insects_2
002.pdf}
9. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of the
Insects", 2005, p286.
10. ^ Grimaldi, Engel,
"Evolution of the Insects", 2005, p321.
[1] Description Tibicen
linnei English: Annual cicada. Date
22 June 2003 Source Own work
http://www.cirrusimage.com/homoptera_cic
ada_T_linnei.htm Author Bruce
Marlin CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Tibicen_linnei.
jpg/1142px-Tibicen_linnei.jpg
[2] Description English: Pea aphids
extracting sap from the stem and leaves
of garden peas. Date February
2010 Source PLoS Biology, February
2010 direct link to the image
description Author Shipher Wu
(photograph) and Gee-way Lin (aphid
provision), National Taiwan
University CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/20/Acyrthosiphon_pisum_%
28pea_aphid%29-PLoS.jpg
7 8 9 10
{HoLomeTaBolu or HOlOmeTABolu4 5 }:
Holometabolous insects: (complete
metamorphosis, ancestor of beetles,
bees, true flies, and butterflies).6
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ "holometabolous." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 05 Jan.
2013.
olometabolous>.
2. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=holome
tabolous+&submit=Submit
3. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael S.
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p146,331.
4. ^ "holometabolous."
Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random
House, Inc. 05 Jan. 2013.
olometabolous>.
5. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=holome
tabolous+&submit=Submit
6. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael S.
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p146,331.
7. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael
S. Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p146.
8. ^
http://www.cals.ncsu.edu/course/ent425/t
ext02/holometabola.html
9. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "Time Tree of
Life", 2009, p260-263.
10. ^ Labandeira, Conrad
C. “Evidence for an Earliest Late
Carboniferous Divergence Time and the
Early Larval Ecology and
Diversification of Major Holometabola
Lineages.” Entomologica Americana
117.1 & 2 (2011):
9–21. http://www.bioone.org/doi/abs/1
0.1664/10-RA-011.1
[1] Description wespenpoppen in
verschillende ontwikkelstadia Eigen
foto's Date 2005-06-13 (original
upload date) Source Originally from
nl.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. Author Original uploader was
Asaf at
nl.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) SELF2 GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/79/Ontwikkelstadia_wespe
npoppen.jpg
[2] Miomoptera- viewed by many as
stem-group Holometabola. UNKNOWN
source: http://wdict.net/img/miomoptera,
2.jpg
5
and Toads) evolve.3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=anura&
submit=Submit
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
4. ^ "frog." Britannica
Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia
Britannica, Inc., 1994-2010.
Answers.com 10 Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/frog
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). {305 MYBN}
MORE INFO
[1] Neil H. Shubin and Farish A.
Jenkins, Jr (7 September 1995). "An
Early Jurassic jumping frog". Nature
377 (6544): 49–52.
doi:10.1038/377049a0.http://www.nature.c
om/nature/journal/v377/n6544/full/377049
a0.html
[2] "Pliensbachian Stage."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online Academic Edition.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 27
Jul. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/464801/Pliensbachian-Stage>
[1] Richard Dawkins, ''The Ancestor's
Tale'', (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), 303. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), 303.
[2] Description English: A green
frog on a palm frond. Date 18
October 2003 Source Burning
Well Author Leon Brooks PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8d/Frog_on_palm_frond.jp
g
3 4
(Chrysophyta {KriSoFiTu1 }).2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=chryso
phyta&submit=Submit
2. ^ Brown JW, Sorhannus U (2010) A
Molecular Genetic Timescale for the
Diversification of Autotrophic
Stramenopiles (Ochrophyta): Substantive
Underestimation of Putative Fossil
Ages. PLoS ONE 5(9): e12759.
doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0012759
3. ^ Brown JW, Sorhannus U (2010) A
Molecular Genetic Timescale for the
Diversification of Autotrophic
Stramenopiles (Ochrophyta): Substantive
Underestimation of Putative Fossil
Ages. PLoS ONE 5(9): e12759.
doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0012759
4. ^
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/chromista/c
hrysophyta.html
[1] Description Dinobryon sp. / from
Shishitsuka Pond, Tsuchiura, Ibaraki
Pref., Japan / Microscope:Leica DMRD
(DIC) Date 20 May 2007 Source Own
work Author ja:User:NEON /
commons:User:NEON_ja CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/68/Dinobryon_sp.jpg
[2] Dinobryon, a colony of
Chrysophytes showing flagella and red
eyespots UNKNOWN
source: http://www.microscopy-uk.org.uk/
mag//imagsmall/Dinobryonb.jpg
2
(359.2-299 mybn), and start of the
Permian (299-251 mybn) Period.1
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ The geological Society of America
2009 Time
Scale http://www.geosociety.org/science
/timescale/timescl.pdf
2. ^ USGS "Divisions of Geologic
Time— Major Chronostratigraphic and
Geochronologic Units", July
2010. http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2010/3059
/pdf/FS10-3059.pdf
[1] Geologic Time Scale 2009 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.geosociety.org/scienc
e/timescale/timescl.pdf
[2] 300 Ma Late
Pennsylvanian UNKNOWN
source: http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~rcb7/300
_Penn_2globes.jpg
8 9 10 11
{KOlEoPTRu4 5 } (Beetles).6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Coleoptera." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 07 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/coleoptera-
2
2. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=coleop
tera&submit=Submit
3. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "Time Tree of
Life", 2009, p260-263.
4. ^ "Coleoptera."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 07
May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/coleoptera-
2
5. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=coleop
tera&submit=Submit
6. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "Time Tree of
Life", 2009, p260-263.
7. ^ Béthoux, Olivier.
“The Earliest Beetle Identified.”
Journal of Paleontology 83.6 (2009):
931–937. http://www.bioone.org/doi/ab
s/10.1666/08-158.1
8. ^ Labandeira, Conrad C. “Evidence
for an Earliest Late Carboniferous
Divergence Time and the Early Larval
Ecology and Diversification of Major
Holometabola Lineages.” Entomologica
Americana 117.1 & 2 (2011):
9–21. http://www.bioone.org/doi/abs/1
0.1664/10-RA-011.1
9. ^ Béthoux, Olivier. “The Earliest
Beetle Identified.” Journal of
Paleontology 83.6 (2009):
931–937. http://www.bioone.org/doi/ab
s/10.1666/08-158.1
10. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael S.
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p146.
11. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "Time
Tree of Life", 2009, p260-263.
deposit) Mazon Creek, Illinois, USA7
[1] Figure 1. 1–7, Adiphlebia lacoana
Scudder, 1885. 1, 2, holotype specimen
(USNM 38143), reconstruction of the
wing venation (1), and photograph
(negative imprint, light-mirrored,
composite; 2); 3, specimen USNM 38140,
photograph (negative imprint,
light-mirrored, composite); 4,5,
specimen FMNH PE 3416, reconstruction
of the wing venation (forewings
separated; 4) and photograph (negative
imprint, composite; 5); 6, 7, specimen
FMNH PE 60291, reconstruction of the
wing venation (6) and photograph
(positive imprint; 7); 8, 9, details of
forewing main and intercalary veins
(black and white arrows, respectively)
in Adiphlabia lacoana (specimen FMNH PE
3416, right forewing; 8) and
Tetraphalerus bruchi Heller, 1913 (♀,
ventral view; 9). Abbreviations: LFW,
left forewing; RFW, right forewing;
ScP, posterior Subcosta; R, Radius; RA,
anterior Radius; RP, posterior Radius;
M, Media; CuA, anterior Cubitus; CuP,
posterior Cubitus; AA: anterior anal
vein. Color-coding: Subcosta, yellow;
Radius, blue; Media, red; Cubitus,
green; Analis, yellow. from Béthoux,
Olivier. “The Earliest Beetle
Identified.” Journal of Paleontology
83.6 (2009):
931–937. http://www.bioone.org/doi/ab
s/10.1666/08-158.1 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://jpaleontol.geoscienceworl
d.org/content/vol83/issue6/images/large/
i0022-3360-83-6-931-f01.jpeg
[2] {ULSF: Early Permian fossil
beetles see {Kukalová (1969), in
particular pl. 1; Ponomarenko (1969),
in particular figs. 16, 31, 32, 36, 40
41, 43, 44} and representatives of the
beetle sub-order Archostemata,
represented nowadays, exhibit
intercalary veins (Fig. 1.9) similar to
those exhibited by A.
lacoana} Archostemata is the smallest
suborder of beetles, consisting of
fewer than fifty known species
organized into five families.
Archostemata is an ancient lineage with
a number of primitive characteristics.
They are similar in morphology to the
first beetles, which appear in the
fossil record approximately 250 million
years ag Description
Tenomerga mucida (Chevrolat, 1829)
(Coleoptera: Cupedidae) - female.
Loc: Yokohama, kanagawa, japan.
ja: ナガヒラタムシ（鞘翅目:
ナガヒラタムシ科）のメス。
浜市内。産卵管をさかんに
し入れし、朽木の割れ目に挿
し込もうとしていたことから
産卵に来ていたものと思わ
る。 Date 13 July 2005 Source
my own file Author me PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/68/Tenomerga_mucida01.jp
g
3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
2. ^ Hwan
Su Yoon, Jeremiah D. Hackett, Claudia
Ciniglia, Gabriele Pinto and Debashish,
"A Molecular Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution, (2004).
3. ^ Jeffrey D.
Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W.
Chase, "The plant tree of life: an
overview and some points of view",
American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004). (c290 (300
for living species)
4. ^ Hwan Su Yoon, Jeremiah
D. Hackett, Claudia Ciniglia, Gabriele
Pinto and Debashish, "A Molecular
Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution, (2004). (c350
(300 for radiation)
[1] * Description: Leaves of Ginkgo
biloba. * Source: picure taken by
Reinhard Kraasch in his own garden in
August 2003 (from German wikipedia)
* Licence: released per the GNU Free
Documentation License by the
photographer
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gin
kgo
[2] Name Ginkgo biloba Family
Ginkgoaceae Image no. 1 Permission
granted to use under GFDL by Kurt
Stueber GNU Ginkgo fruit and leaves
source: same
3 4 5 6 7 8 9
ants, and wasps).2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "Time Tree of
Life", 2009, p260-263.
2. ^ Hedges and Kumar,
"Time Tree of Life", 2009, p260-263.
3. ^ David
A. Grimaldi, Michael S. Engel,
"Evolution of the Insects", 2005, p146.
4. ^
Labandeira, Conrad C. “Evidence for
an Earliest Late Carboniferous
Divergence Time and the Early Larval
Ecology and Diversification of Major
Holometabola Lineages.” Entomologica
Americana 117.1 & 2 (2011):
9–21. http://www.bioone.org/doi/abs/1
0.1664/10-RA-011.1
5. ^
http://www.cals.ncsu.edu/course/ent425/t
ext02/holometabola.html
6. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "Time Tree of
Life", 2009, p260-263.
7. ^ Palmer, et al.,
"Prehistoric Life", 2009, p283.
8. ^ Palmer,
et al., "Prehistoric Life", 2009, p283.
9. ^
http://www.cals.ncsu.edu/course/ent425/t
ext02/holometabola.html
[1] {ULSF: Xyelidae saw flies are the
most primitive of the
hymenoptera} Hymenoptera, Xyelidae,
dorsal - Macroxyela ferruginea -
Female Ames - Tullamore, Story County,
Iowa, USA April 30, 2008 Size: 11
mm It's a big one. (11 mm includes the
ovipositor) Oak hickory maple basswood
woodland malaise, April 23-30,
2008. Photo - still floating in
alcohol. Copyright © 2008 MJ
Hatfield COPYRIGHTED Fig. 2
Placement of fossil evidence for the
earliest Holometabola within a
phylogenetic context. Geologic time
line at left is after Ogg, et al.
(2008); note that the Mississippian is
equivalent to the Early Carboniferous
and Pennsylvanian equivalent to the
Late Carboniferous. Earliest reliable
occurrences of taxa (solid dots,
followed by a thick black line) are
after various sources mentioned in the
text; major localities for the initial
diversification of the Holometabola
are: Elmo, Kansas, the “insect bed”
of the Wellington Formation from the
Artinskian Stage of the Early Permian;
Calhoun, the Calhoun Coal Member of the
Mattoon Formation, from the Kasimovian
Stage of the Late Pennsylvanian; Mazon
Creek of the Francis Creek Shale Member
of the Carbondale Formation, from the
Moscovian Stage of the Middle
Pennsylvanian; and the Terril Shale at
Pas-de-Calais, Bruay-la-Bussière,
France, from the Bashkirian Stage of
the Early Pennsylvanian. The horizontal
stippled bar at bottom represents the
initial diversification and the
earliest fossil occurrences of
holometabolan insects in the fossil
record. Labandeira, Conrad C.
“Evidence for an Earliest Late
Carboniferous Divergence Time and the
Early Larval Ecology and
Diversification of Major Holometabola
Lineages.” Entomologica Americana
117.1 & 2 (2011):
9–21. http://www.bioone.org/doi/abs/1
0.1664/10-RA-011.1 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://bugguide.net/images/raw/S
H8RHHPR0H7RDZHZULYLULRZ2LLZTLSZBLQZKH4RH
H7ZVL4RVL0ZALSZBLXZKH8RVLXZHHPRLHQRLH.jp
g
[2] Macroxyela ferruginea
Trusted Creative Commons Attribution
Non Commercial Share Alike 3.0 (CC
BY-NC-SA 3.0) ©
SusanneSchulmeister Source:
Morphbank Image Repository
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.bioone.org/na101/home
/literatum/publisher/bioone/journals/con
tent/nynt.1/2011/19475144-117.1/10-ra-01
1.1/production/images/large/i1947-5144-1
17-1-9-f02.jpeg
2
(Cynodonts).1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002,
p119-122.
2. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002,
p119-122.
[1] Kardong, ''Vertebrates'',
2002. COPYRIGHTED
source: Description English:
Moschops capensis - Middle Permian of
South Africa. Based on skeleton from
AMNH. Русский: Moschops
capensis - средняя пермь
Южной Африки.
Основано на скелете
из Американского
музея Естественной
истории. Date 2008 Source
dmitrchel@mail.ru Author
Creator:Dmitry Bogdanov GNU
[2] Kardong, ''Vertebrates'',
2002. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Moschops11DB.jp
g/1024px-Moschops11DB.jpg
9 10 11 12 13 14
(Brown Algae) (includes many seaweeds
like the giant kelps5 ).6 7 8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2,
(2004). http://www.biomedcentral.com/14
71-2148/4/2{Hedges_Venturi_Shoe_20031110
.pdf}
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^ Sandra L. Baldauf, A. J.
Roger, I. Wenk-Siefert, W. F.
Doolittle, "A Kingdom-Level Phylogeny
of Eukaryotes Based on Combined Protein
Data", Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p
972, (2000).
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/290/
5493/972.full {Baldauf_Doolittle_199911
17.pdf} has heterkonts before
ciliophora and apicomplexa branch
4. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=phaeop
hyta&submit=Submit
5. ^ "Phaeophyta." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2011.
Answers.com 12 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/phaeophyta
6. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2,
(2004). http://www.biomedcentral.com/14
71-2148/4/2 {Hedges_Venturi_Shoe_200311
10.pdf}
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
8. ^ Sandra L. Baldauf, A. J.
Roger, I. Wenk-Siefert, W. F.
Doolittle, "A Kingdom-Level Phylogeny
of Eukaryotes Based on Combined Protein
Data", Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p
972, (2000).
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/290/
5493/972.full {Baldauf_Doolittle_199911
17.pdf} has heterkonts before
ciliophora and apicomplexa branch
9. ^ Linda
Medlin, et al, "Phylogenic
relationships of the 'golden algae'
(haptophytes, heterokont chromophytes)
and their plastids", Plant Systematics
and Evolution (Supplement), v11, 1997,
p187-219. http://epic.awi.de/2100/1/Med
1997c.pdf {genetic) 274 mybn}
10. ^ Cédric
Berney and Jan Pawlowski, "A molecular
time-scale for eukaryote evolution
recalibrated with the continuous
microfossil record", Proc. R. Soc. B
August 7, 2006 273:1867-1872;
doi:10.1098/rspb.2006.3537 http://rspb.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/273/1
596/1867.short {genetic) 200 mybn}
11. ^ Zhu
Shixing and Chen Huineng, "Megascopic
Multicellular Organisms from the
1700-Million-Year-Old Tuanshanzi
Formation in the Jixian Area, North
China", Science , New Series, Vol. 270,
No. 5236 (Oct. 27, 1995), pp.
620-622. http://www.jstor.org/stable/28
88330 {Shixing_Huineng_19950331.pdf}
{Fossil) 1600-1800 mybn}
12. ^ S Blair
Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi
and Jason L Shoe, "A molecular
timescale of eukaryote evolution and
the rise of complex multicellular
life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004,
4:2 doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2,
(2004). {Alveolates) 1956mybn}
{Alveolates and Plants) 1956mybn}
13. ^ S. Blair
Hedges and Sudhir Kumar, "The TimeTree
of Life", 2009.
http://www.timetree.org/book.php
{1345 my}
14. ^ Cécile Gueidan,
Constantino Ruibal, G.S. de Hoog,
Harald Schneider, Rock-inhabiting fungi
originated during periods of dry
climate in the late Devonian and middle
Triassic, Fungal Biology, Volume 115,
Issue 10, October 2011, Pages 987-996,
ISSN 1878-6146,
10.1016/j.funbio.2011.04.002. (http://w
ww.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii
/S1878614611000675) {822.5 my}
MORE INFO
[1] Sandra L. Baldauf, A. J.
Roger, I. Wenk-Siefert, W. F.
Doolittle, "A Kingdom-Level Phylogeny
of Eukaryotes Based on Combined Protein
Data", Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p
972,
(2000). http://www.sciencemag.org/conte
nt/290/5493/972.full has heterkonts
before ciliophora and apicomplexa
branch
[2] Douzery, Emmanuel J. P. et al.
“The timing of eukaryotic evolution:
Does a relaxed molecular clock
reconcile proteins and fossils?”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences of the United States of
America 101.43 (2004): 15386
-15391. http://www.pnas.org/content/101
/43/15386.long
[3] Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (1600mybn)
[4] Hackett JD, Yoon
HS, Butterfield NJ, Sanderson MJ,
Bhattacharya D, "Plastid endosymbiosis:
Sources and timing of the major
events.", in: Falkowski P, Knoll A,
editors. "Evolution of primary
producers in the sea.", Elsevier; 2007,
p120
[5] "Phaeophyta". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phaeophyta
[6] Michael Sleigh, "Protozoa and Other
Protists", (London; New York: Edward
Arnold, 1989)
[7] "Brown algae". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brown_algae
[8]
http://www.sirinet.net/~jgjohnso/apbio30
.html
[1] Fig. 1. A consensus phylogeny of
eukaryotes. The vast majority of
characterized eukaryotes, with the
notable exception of major subgroups of
amoebae, can now be assigned to one of
eight major groups. Opisthokonts (basal
flagellum) have a single basal
flagellum on reproductive cells and
flat mitochondrial cristae (most
eukaryotes have tubular ones).
Eukaryotic photosynthesis originated in
Plants; theirs are the only plastids
with just two outer membranes.
Heterokonts (different flagellae) have
a unique flagellum decorated with
hollow tripartite hairs (stramenopiles)
and, usually, a second plain one.
Cercozoans are amoebae with filose
pseudopodia, often living with in tests
(hard outer shells), some very
elaborate (foraminiferans). Amoebozoa
are mostly naked amoebae (lacking
tests), often with lobose pseudopodia
for at least part of their life cycle.
Alveolates have systems of cortical
alveoli directly beneath their plasma
membranes. Discicristates have discoid
mitochondrial cristae and, in some
cases, a deep (excavated) ventral
feeding groove. Amitochondrial
excavates lack substantial molecular
phylogenetic support, but most have an
excavated ventral feeding groove, and
all lack mitochondria. The tree shown
is based on a consensus of molecular
(1-4) and ultrastructural (16, 17) data
and includes a rough indication of new
ciPCR ''taxa'' (broken black lines)
(7-11). An asterisk preceding the taxon
name indicates probable paraphyletic
group COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/co
ntent/full/300/5626/1703
[2] Pacific Rockweed (Fucus distichus)
in Olympic National Park Cropped from
PhotoCD image, from Kodak ISO 800 film,
taken by k.lee June 2004, hereby
released under GFDL.
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Pacific_rockweed%2C_Olympic_National_
Park%2C_USA.jpg
3 4 5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Kooistra, W. H. C. F. and Medlin,
L. K. (1996). Evolution of the diatoms
(Bacillariophyta) : IV. A
reconstruction of their age from small
subunit rRNA coding regions and the
fossil record. Mol. Phylogenet. Evol.
6, 391-407.
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/a
rticle/pii/S1055790396900883
2. ^ Kooistra, W. H. C. F. and Medlin,
L. K. (1996). Evolution of the diatoms
(Bacillariophyta) : IV. A
reconstruction of their age from small
subunit rRNA coding regions and the
fossil record. Mol. Phylogenet. Evol.
6, 391-407.
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/a
rticle/pii/S1055790396900883
3. ^ Kooistra, W. H. C. F. and Medlin,
L. K. (1996). Evolution of the diatoms
(Bacillariophyta) : IV. A
reconstruction of their age from small
subunit rRNA coding regions and the
fossil record. Mol. Phylogenet. Evol.
6, 391-407.
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/a
rticle/pii/S1055790396900883 {no
earlier than) 266 MYBN}
4. ^ S Blair Hedges,
Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi and
Jason L Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
{Hedges_Venturi_Shoe_20031110.pdf} (1
973mybn) {Alveolates) 1956mybn}
5. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004). (1600mybn)
MORE INFO
[1] S Blair Hedges, Jaime E
Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L
Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2,
(2004). http://www.biomedcentral.com/14
71-2148/4/2
[1] Fig. 1. A consensus phylogeny of
eukaryotes. The vast majority of
characterized eukaryotes, with the
notable exception of major subgroups of
amoebae, can now be assigned to one of
eight major groups. Opisthokonts (basal
flagellum) have a single basal
flagellum on reproductive cells and
flat mitochondrial cristae (most
eukaryotes have tubular ones).
Eukaryotic photosynthesis originated in
Plants; theirs are the only plastids
with just two outer membranes.
Heterokonts (different flagellae) have
a unique flagellum decorated with
hollow tripartite hairs (stramenopiles)
and, usually, a second plain one.
Cercozoans are amoebae with filose
pseudopodia, often living with in tests
(hard outer shells), some very
elaborate (foraminiferans). Amoebozoa
are mostly naked amoebae (lacking
tests), often with lobose pseudopodia
for at least part of their life cycle.
Alveolates have systems of cortical
alveoli directly beneath their plasma
membranes. Discicristates have discoid
mitochondrial cristae and, in some
cases, a deep (excavated) ventral
feeding groove. Amitochondrial
excavates lack substantial molecular
phylogenetic support, but most have an
excavated ventral feeding groove, and
all lack mitochondria. The tree shown
is based on a consensus of molecular
(1-4) and ultrastructural (16, 17) data
and includes a rough indication of new
ciPCR ''taxa'' (broken black lines)
(7-11). An asterisk preceding the taxon
name indicates probable paraphyletic
group COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/co
ntent/full/300/5626/1703
[2] Figure 1. Phylogenetic hypothesis
of the eukaryotic lineage based on
ultrastructural and molecular data.
Organisms are divided into three main
groups distinguished by mitochondrial
cristal shape (either discoidal,
flattened or tubular). Unbroken lines
indicate phylogenetic relationships
that are firmly supported by available
data; broken lines indicate
uncertainties in phylogenetic
placement, resolution of which will
require additional data. Color coding
of organismal genus names indicates
mitochondrial genomes that have been
completely (Table 1), almost completely
(Jakoba, Naegleria and
Thraustochytrium) or partially (*)
sequenced by the OGMP (red), the FMGP
(black) or other groups (green). Names
in blue indicate those species whose
mtDNAs are currently being sequenced by
the OGMP or are future candidates for
complete sequencing. Amitochondriate
retortamonads are positioned at the
base of the tree, with broken arrows
denoting the endosymbiotic origin(s) of
mitochondria from a Rickettsia-like
eubacterium. Macrophar.,
Macropharyngomonas. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nar.oxfordjournals.org/cg
i/content/full/26/4/865
7 8 9
"warm-blooded") and hair growing
animal, a therapsid.3 4
Endothermy is the physiological
maintenance by a body, of a constant
temperature independent of the external
environmental temperature. Hair for
insulation is correlated to
endothermy.5
Both birds and mammals are endothermic
(also called "warm blooded") as opposed
to many other vertebrates which are
ectothermic (or "cold blooded) and
cannot internally generate heat.6
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^ Ruben J.A. 1995. The evolution of
endothermy in mammals and birds: from
physiology to fossils. Ann Rev Physiol
57:69–95. http://www.annualreviews.or
g/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev.ph.57.030195.0
00441
2. ^ Ruben J.A. 1995. The evolution of
endothermy in mammals and birds: from
physiology to fossils. Ann Rev Physiol
57:69–95. http://www.annualreviews.or
g/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev.ph.57.030195.0
00441
3. ^ Ruben J.A. 1995. The evolution of
endothermy in mammals and birds: from
physiology to fossils. Ann Rev Physiol
57:69–95. http://www.annualreviews.or
g/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev.ph.57.030195.0
00441
4. ^ Willem J. Hillenius, "Turbinates
in Therapsids: Evidence for Late
Permian Origins of Mammalian
Endothermy", Evolution, Vol. 48, No. 2
(Apr., 1994), pp. 207-229. Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/2410089
5. ^ "mammal." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 07 Feb. 2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/360838/mammal>.
6. ^ Willem J. Hillenius, "Turbinates
in Therapsids: Evidence for Late
Permian Origins of Mammalian
Endothermy", Evolution, Vol. 48, No. 2
(Apr., 1994), pp. 207-229. Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/2410089
7. ^ Willem J. Hillenius, "Turbinates
in Therapsids: Evidence for Late
Permian Origins of Mammalian
Endothermy", Evolution, Vol. 48, No. 2
(Apr., 1994), pp. 207-229. Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/2410089
8. ^ Ruben J.A. 1995. The evolution of
endothermy in mammals and birds: from
physiology to fossils. Ann Rev Physiol
57:69–95. http://www.annualreviews.or
g/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev.ph.57.030195.0
00441 {c250 MYBN (Late Permian}
9. ^ Ted
Huntington. {230 MYBN (between
crocodilia 240mybn and pterosaur
220mybn}
MORE INFO
[1] Schweitzer, Mary Higby, and
Cynthia Lee Marshall. “A molecular
model for the evolution of endothermy
in the theropod-bird lineage.”
Journal of Experimental Zoology 291.4
(2001) :
317-338. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com
/doi/10.1002/jez.1132/abstract
[1] Description English: Life
restoration of Purlovia maxima. Based
on figures 8-10 of ''Permian and
Triassic therocephals (Eutherapsida) of
Eastern Europe'' by M. F. Ivakhnenko
(Paleontological Journal 45 (9):
981-1144). Date 8 January
2012 Source Own
work Author Smokeybjb CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a5/Purlovia_maxima.jpg
[2] Description Bauria , a
therocephalian therapsid from the early
Middle Triassic of South Africa, pencil
drawing Date 20 February
2007 Source Own work Author
Nobu Tamura
email:nobu.tamura@yahoo.com
www.palaeocritti.com GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c0/Bauria_BW.jpg
7 8 9 10 11
} true flies, single pair of wings:
ancestor of mosquito, gnat, fruit fly,
and house fly)6 .
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "Time Tree of
Life", 2009, p260-263.
2. ^ "Diptera."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 07
May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/diptera
3. ^ "Diptera." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 07 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/diptera
4. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "Time Tree of
Life", 2009, p260-263.
5. ^ "Diptera."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 07
May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/diptera
6. ^ "Diptera." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 07 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/diptera
7. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "Time Tree of
Life", 2009, p260-263.
8. ^ Labandeira, Conrad C.
“Evidence for an Earliest Late
Carboniferous Divergence Time and the
Early Larval Ecology and
Diversification of Major Holometabola
Lineages.” Entomologica Americana
117.1 & 2 (2011):
9–21. http://www.bioone.org/doi/abs/1
0.1664/10-RA-011.1
9. ^ "Diptera." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 07 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/diptera
10. ^ Wiegmann, Brian M. et al.
“Episodic Radiations in the Fly Tree
of Life.” Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences (2011): n.
pag. http://www.pnas.org/content/early/
2011/03/15/1012675108.full.pdf+html
11. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of
the Insects", 2005, p469.
MORE INFO
[1] Palmer, et al, "Primitive
Life", 2009, p197
[1] Nymphomyia alba adult UNKNOWN
source: http://whyevolutionistrue.files.
wordpress.com/2011/03/nymphomyia-alba.jp
g
[2] Nymphomyia alba larva UNKNOWN
source: http://whyevolutionistrue.files.
wordpress.com/2011/03/nymphomyia.jpg
3 4 5
history.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ David Jablonski and W. G.
Chaloner,"Extinctions in the Fossil
Record (and Discussion)", Philosophical
Transactions: Biological Sciences, Vol.
344, No. 1307, Estimating Extinction
Rates: Sir Joseph Banks Anniversary
Meeting (Apr. 29, 1994), pp.
11-17. http://www.jstor.org/stable/5614
8
2. ^ David Jablonski and W. G.
Chaloner,"Extinctions in the Fossil
Record (and Discussion)", Philosophical
Transactions: Biological Sciences, Vol.
344, No. 1307, Estimating Extinction
Rates: Sir Joseph Banks Anniversary
Meeting (Apr. 29, 1994), pp.
11-17. http://www.jstor.org/stable/5614
8
3. ^ Jin YG, Wang Y, Wang W, Shang QH,
Cao CQ, Erwin DH (2000). "Pattern of
Marine Mass Extinction Near the
Permian–Triassic Boundary in South
China". Science 289 (5478): 432–436.
Bibcode 2000Sci...289..432J.
doi:10.1126/science.289.5478.432. PMID
10903200. {251.4 MYBN}
4. ^ Bowring SA, Erwin
DH, Jin YG, Martin MW, Davidek K, Wang
W (1998). "U/Pb Zircon Geochronology
and Tempo of the End-Permian Mass
Extinction". Science 280 (5366):
1039–1045.
doi:10.1126/science.280.5366.1039.
{251.4 MYBN}
5. ^ David Jablonski and W. G.
Chaloner,"Extinctions in the Fossil
Record (and Discussion)", Philosophical
Transactions: Biological Sciences, Vol.
344, No. 1307, Estimating Extinction
Rates: Sir Joseph Banks Anniversary
Meeting (Apr. 29, 1994), pp.
11-17. http://www.jstor.org/stable/5614
8 {245 mybn}
MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
[2]
http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/200
6/06/060601174729.htm
[3]
http://www.ia.ucsb.edu/pa/display.aspx?p
key=1073
[1] Description English:
Description: Illustration of an
en:impact event. Source Made by
Fredrik. Cloud texture from public
domain NASA image. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/cb/Impact_event.jpg
[2] Timeline of mass extinctions.
COPYRIGHTED Benjamin
Cummings. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://io.uwinnipeg.ca/~simmons/
16cm05/1116/16macro.htm
2
the Mesozoic Era, and the end of the
Permian (299-251 mybn) and start of the
Triassic (251-201.6 mybn) period.1
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ The geological Society of America
2009 Time
Scale http://www.geosociety.org/science
/timescale/timescl.pdf
2. ^ USGS "Divisions of Geologic
Time— Major Chronostratigraphic and
Geochronologic Units", July
2010. http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2010/3059
/pdf/FS10-3059.pdf
[1] Geologic Time Scale 2009 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.geosociety.org/scienc
e/timescale/timescl.pdf
[2] 260 Ma Late Permian UNKNOWN
source: http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~rcb7/260
_Permian_2globes.jpg
forms.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
2. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
[1] 260 Ma Late Permian UNKNOWN
source: http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~rcb7/260
_Permian_2globes.jpg
[2] In geologic terms, a plate is a
large, rigid slab of solid rock. The
word tectonics comes from the Greek
root ''to build.'' Putting these two
words together, we get the term plate
tectonics, which refers to how the
Earth's surface is built of plates. The
theory of plate tectonics states that
the Earth's outermost layer is
fragmented into a dozen or more large
and small plates that are moving
relative to one another as they ride
atop hotter, more mobile material.
Before the advent of plate tectonics,
however, some people already believed
that the present-day continents were
the fragmented pieces of preexisting
larger landmasses
(''supercontinents''). The diagrams
below show the break-up of the
supercontinent Pangaea (meaning ''all
lands'' in Greek), which figured
prominently in the theory of
continental drift -- the forerunner to
the theory of plate tectonics. PD
source: http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/dynamic
/graphics/Fig2-5globes.gif
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21
} (Coccolithophores) {KoK-o-lit-u-FORZ7
}.8 9 10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=haptop
hyta&submit=Submit
2. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=co
ccolithophores&submit=Submit
3. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
4. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
5. ^ Sandra L. Baldauf, A. J. Roger, I.
Wenk-Siefert, W. F. Doolittle, "A
Kingdom-Level Phylogeny of Eukaryotes
Based on Combined Protein Data",
Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p 972,
(2000).has heterkonts before ciliophora
and apicomplexa branch
6. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=haptop
hyta&submit=Submit
7. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=co
ccolithophores&submit=Submit
8. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
9. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
10. ^ Sandra L. Baldauf, A. J. Roger,
I. Wenk-Siefert, W. F. Doolittle, "A
Kingdom-Level Phylogeny of Eukaryotes
Based on Combined Protein Data",
Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p 972,
(2000).has heterkonts before ciliophora
and apicomplexa branch
11. ^ Taylor, E.L.,
T.N. Taylor, and M. Krings.
Paleobotany: The Biology and Evolution
of Fossil Plants. Elsevier Science,
2008,
p145. http://books.google.com/books?id=
_29tNNeQKeMC
12. ^ Yoon, Hwan Su et al. “A
Molecular Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes.” Molecular
Biology and Evolution 21.5 (2004): 809
-818.
Print. http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/21/5/809.abstract {c1050 mybn}
13. ^
Cédric Berney and Jan Pawlowski, "A
molecular time-scale for eukaryote
evolution recalibrated with the
continuous microfossil record", Proc.
R. Soc. B August 7, 2006 273:1867-1872;
doi:10.1098/rspb.2006.3537 http://rspb.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/273/1
596/1867.short {920 mybn}
14. ^ S. Blair
Hedges and Sudhir Kumar, "The TimeTree
of Life", 2009,
p117-118. http://www.timetree.org/book.
php {genetic)1382 mybn}
15. ^ De Vargas,
Aubry, Probert, Young, "Origin and
Evolution of Cocolithophores: From
Coastal Hunters to Oceanic Farmers",
Chapter 12, p251. in: Paul G.
Falkowski, Andrew H. Knoll, "Evolution
of primary producers in the sea",
2007. http://books.google.com/books?id=
5tRSAr1JMhwC {DNA)1900mybn}
{genetic)1900mybn}
16. ^ Linda Medlin, et al, "Phylogenic
relationships of the 'golden algae'
(haptophytes, heterokont chromophytes)
and their plastids", Plant Systematics
and Evolution (Supplement), v11, 1997,
p187-219. http://epic.awi.de/2100/1/Med
1997c.pdf {DNA)1750 mybn} {genetic)1750
mybn}
17. ^
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/chromista/p
rymnesiophyta.html {possible fossil)
318mybn}
18. ^ Cédric Berney and Jan Pawlowski,
"A molecular time-scale for eukaryote
evolution recalibrated with the
continuous microfossil record", Proc.
R. Soc. B August 7, 2006 273:1867-1872;
doi:10.1098/rspb.2006.3537 http://rspb.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/273/1
596/1867.short {genetic) 920 mybn}
19. ^
http://www.geosociety.org/science/timesc
ale/ {possible fossil) 318mybn}
20. ^
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/chromista/p
rymnesiophyta.html {certain fossil)
201mybn}
21. ^
http://www.geosociety.org/science/timesc
ale/ {certain fossil) 201mybn}
MORE INFO
[1] S Blair Hedges, Jaime E
Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L
Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
(1973mybn)
[2] Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (1600mybn)
[3] Sandra L. Baldauf,
A. J. Roger, I. Wenk-Siefert, W. F.
Doolittle, "A Kingdom-Level Phylogeny
of Eukaryotes Based on Combined Protein
Data", Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p
972, (2000). (has heterkonts before
ciliophora and apicomplexa branch)
[4]
http://www.life.umd.edu/labs/delwiche/PS
life/lectures/Haptophyta.html
[1] Fig. 1. A consensus phylogeny of
eukaryotes. The vast majority of
characterized eukaryotes, with the
notable exception of major subgroups of
amoebae, can now be assigned to one of
eight major groups. Opisthokonts (basal
flagellum) have a single basal
flagellum on reproductive cells and
flat mitochondrial cristae (most
eukaryotes have tubular ones).
Eukaryotic photosynthesis originated in
Plants; theirs are the only plastids
with just two outer membranes.
Heterokonts (different flagellae) have
a unique flagellum decorated with
hollow tripartite hairs (stramenopiles)
and, usually, a second plain one.
Cercozoans are amoebae with filose
pseudopodia, often living with in tests
(hard outer shells), some very
elaborate (foraminiferans). Amoebozoa
are mostly naked amoebae (lacking
tests), often with lobose pseudopodia
for at least part of their life cycle.
Alveolates have systems of cortical
alveoli directly beneath their plasma
membranes. Discicristates have discoid
mitochondrial cristae and, in some
cases, a deep (excavated) ventral
feeding groove. Amitochondrial
excavates lack substantial molecular
phylogenetic support, but most have an
excavated ventral feeding groove, and
all lack mitochondria. The tree shown
is based on a consensus of molecular
(1-4) and ultrastructural (16, 17) data
and includes a rough indication of new
ciPCR ''taxa'' (broken black lines)
(7-11). An asterisk preceding the taxon
name indicates probable paraphyletic
group
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/co
ntent/full/300/5626/1703
[2] Emiliania huxleyi, a
coccolithophore. Photo courtesy Dr.
Markus Geisen - photographer, and The
Natural History Museum. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Emiliania_huxleyi_3.jpg
14 15 16
11
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Benton, "Vertebrate
Paleontology", 2005, p154.
2. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
3. ^ Sereno, Paul C. et al.
“Primitive dinosaur skeleton from
Argentina and the early evolution of
Dinosauria.” Nature 361.6407 (1993) :
64-66. http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v361/n6407/abs/361064a0.html
4. ^ Benton, "Vertebrate Paleontology",
2005, p154.
5. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
6. ^ "dinosaur." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 25 Dec.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/dinosaur
7. ^ Sereno, Paul C. et al.
“Primitive dinosaur skeleton from
Argentina and the early evolution of
Dinosauria.” Nature 361.6407 (1993) :
64-66. http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v361/n6407/abs/361064a0.html
8. ^ Benton, "Vertebrate Paleontology",
2005, p154.
9. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
10. ^ "dinosaur." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 25 Dec.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/dinosaur
11. ^ Sereno, Paul C. et al.
“Primitive dinosaur skeleton from
Argentina and the early evolution of
Dinosauria.” Nature 361.6407 (1993) :
64-66. http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v361/n6407/abs/361064a0.html
12. ^ Sereno, Paul C. et al.
“Primitive dinosaur skeleton from
Argentina and the early evolution of
Dinosauria.” Nature 361.6407 (1993) :
64-66. http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v361/n6407/abs/361064a0.html
13. ^ Benton, "Vertebrate
Paleontology", 2005, p154.
14. ^ Sereno, Paul
C. et al. “Primitive dinosaur
skeleton from Argentina and the early
evolution of Dinosauria.” Nature
361.6407 (1993) :
64-66. http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v361/n6407/abs/361064a0.html {228
MYBN}
15. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm {228 MYBN}
16. ^ Benton, "Vertebrate
Paleontology", 2005, p154. {230-220
MYBN}
Formation) Valley of the Moon,
Ischigualasto Provinvial Park,
northwestern Argestina12 13
[1] Figure 2 from: Sereno, Paul C. et
al. “Primitive dinosaur skeleton from
Argentina and the early evolution of
Dinosauria.” Nature 361.6407 (1993) :
64-66. http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v361/n6407/abs/361064a0.html COPYR
IGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v361/n6407/abs/361064a0.html
[2] Eoraptor was a genus of small,
slender theropod native to northwest
Argentina. It was quite possibly the
earliest theropod genus and has not
been classified in any family.
UNKNOWN
source: http://images.wikia.com/deadtime
s/images/a/a2/Eoraptor.jpg
5
lines: Ornithischians {ORnitiSKEiNZ1 }
(Bird-hipped dinosaurs) and
Saurischians {SoriSKEiNZ2 }
(Lizard-hipped dinosaurs).3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "ornithischian." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 10 Jun.
2012.
rnithischian>.
2. ^ "saurischian." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 10
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/saurischian
3. ^ James O. Farlow, M. K.
Brett-Surman, "The Complete Dinosaur",
1999,
p210. http://books.google.com/books?hl=
en&lr=&id=FOViD-lDPy0C
4. ^ Harold Levine, "The Earth Through
Time", 2006, p417.
5. ^ James O. Farlow, M.
K. Brett-Surman, "The Complete
Dinosaur", 1999,
p210. http://books.google.com/books?hl=
en&lr=&id=FOViD-lDPy0C {Carnian:
average of) 235-228 mybn}
[1] Harold Levine, ''The Earth Through
Time'', 2006, p417. COPYRIGHTED
source: Harold Levine, "The Earth
Through Time", 2006, p417.
[2] Harold Levine, ''The Earth Through
Time'', 2006, p418. COPYRIGHTED
source: Harold Levine, "The Earth
Through Time", 2006, p418.
11 12 13
Dinosaurs split into two major lines:
The Sauropodomorpha (SoroPiDimORFu2 }
and the Therapoda {tiRoPiDu3 }.4
Sauropodomorphs are divided into
prosauropods and sauropods, are mostly
plant-eating, and include the large,
long-necked dinosaurs like
Apatosaurus.5
Theropod {tERePoD6 } dinosaurs are
bipedal and carnivorous and include
Allosaurus, Tyrannosaurus, and
Velociraptor. All birds descend from a
Therapod ancestor.7 8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "saurischian." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 10
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/saurischian
2. ^ "sauropod." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 15
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sauropod
3. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=therop
oda
4. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002,
p115-116.
5. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002,
p115-116.
6. ^ "theropod." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 15
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/theropod
7. ^ "theropod." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 15 Jun.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/theropod
8. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002,
p115-116.
9. ^ Sereno, Paul C. et al.
“Primitive dinosaur skeleton from
Argentina and the early evolution of
Dinosauria.” Nature 361.6407 (1993) :
64-66. http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v361/n6407/abs/361064a0.html
10. ^ Benton, "Vertebrate
Paleontology", 2005, p154.
11. ^ Sereno, Paul
C. et al. “Primitive dinosaur
skeleton from Argentina and the early
evolution of Dinosauria.” Nature
361.6407 (1993) :
64-66. http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v361/n6407/abs/361064a0.html {228
MYBN}
12. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm {228 MYBN}
13. ^ Benton, "Vertebrate
Paleontology", 2005, p154. {230-220
MYBN}
MORE INFO
[1]
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=saurop
odomorpha&submit=Submit
Formation) Valley of the Moon,
Ischigualasto Provinvial Park,
northwestern Argestina9 10
[1] Fig 3.38 from Kardong,
''Vertebrates'', p116,
2002. COPYRIGHTED
source: Kardong, "Vertebrates", p116,
2002.
[2] Figure 2 from: Sereno, Paul C. et
al. “Primitive dinosaur skeleton from
Argentina and the early evolution of
Dinosauria.” Nature 361.6407 (1993) :
64-66. http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v361/n6407/abs/361064a0.html COPYR
IGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v361/n6407/abs/361064a0.html
7 8 9
gland.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Spencer G. Lucas and Zhexi Luo,
"Adelobasileus from the Upper Triassic
of West Texas: The Oldest Mammal",
Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology,
Vol. 13, No. 3 (Sep. 23, 1993), pp.
309-334 Published by: Taylor &
Francis, Ltd. on behalf of The Society
of Vertebrate Paleontology Article
Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/4523514
2. ^ Spencer G. Lucas and Zhexi Luo,
"Adelobasileus from the Upper Triassic
of West Texas: The Oldest Mammal",
Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology,
Vol. 13, No. 3 (Sep. 23, 1993), pp.
309-334 Published by: Taylor &
Francis, Ltd. on behalf of The Society
of Vertebrate Paleontology Article
Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/4523514
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Spencer G. Lucas and
Zhexi Luo, "Adelobasileus from the
Upper Triassic of West Texas: The
Oldest Mammal", Journal of Vertebrate
Paleontology, Vol. 13, No. 3 (Sep. 23,
1993), pp. 309-334 Published by:
Taylor & Francis, Ltd. on behalf of The
Society of Vertebrate
Paleontology Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/4523514
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Spencer G. Lucas and
Zhexi Luo, "Adelobasileus from the
Upper Triassic of West Texas: The
Oldest Mammal", Journal of Vertebrate
Paleontology, Vol. 13, No. 3 (Sep. 23,
1993), pp. 309-334 Published by:
Taylor & Francis, Ltd. on behalf of The
Society of Vertebrate
Paleontology Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/4523514
7. ^ Spencer G. Lucas and Zhexi Luo,
"Adelobasileus from the Upper Triassic
of West Texas: The Oldest Mammal",
Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology,
Vol. 13, No. 3 (Sep. 23, 1993), pp.
309-334 Published by: Taylor &
Francis, Ltd. on behalf of The Society
of Vertebrate Paleontology Article
Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/4523514
{225 MYBN}
8. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive
Life", 2009, p197.
9. ^ Palmer, Tree of Life,
2009. http://timetree.org/pdf/Shedlock2
009Chap52.pdf
MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.abqtrib.com/albq/nw_science/a
rticle/0,2668,ALBQ_21236_4546322,00.html
Kalgary, Crosby County, Texas, USA6
[1] Figure 6 from: Spencer G. Lucas
and Zhexi Luo, ''Adelobasileus from the
Upper Triassic of West Texas: The
Oldest Mammal'', Journal of Vertebrate
Paleontology, Vol. 13, No. 3 (Sep. 23,
1993), pp. 309-334 Published by:
Taylor & Francis, Ltd. on behalf of The
Society of Vertebrate
Paleontology Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/4523514 COP
YRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/4523
514
[2] [t Note that this image is not
clearly from a scholarly
source] Description English:
Adelobasileus cromptoni, a mammaliaform
from the Late Triassic of Texas.
Digital. Date 9 September
2008 Source Own work Author
Nobu Tamura
email:nobu.tamura@yahoo.com
www.palaeocritti.com Permission (Reusi
ng this file) See below. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2f/Adelobasileus_BW.jpg
3 4
teleost (TeLEoST) fishes evolves.2
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Palmer, et al.,
"Primitive Life", 2009, p197.
4. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
MORE INFO
[1] Inoue, JG, Miya, M,
Tsukamoto, K, Nishida, M (2003) "Basal
actinopterygian relationships: A
mitogenomic perspective on the
phylogeny of the ldquoancient
fish.rdquo" Mol Phylogenet Evol 26:
110-120 http://www.sciencedirect.com/sc
ience/article/pii/S1055790302003317
[1] Fig. 2. The single
most-parsimonious (MP) tree derived
from unweighted analysis of mitogenomic
data comprising concatenated nucleotide
sequences from 12 protein-coding
(excluding the ND6 gene and third codon
positions) and 22 transfer RNA (tRNA)
genes (stem regions only) from all 28
species examined. Tree length, 12,709
steps; consistency index, 0.355;
retention index, 0.471; and rescaled
consistency index, 0.167. Numbers above
and below internal branches indicate
jackknife values obtained for 500
replicates using the heuristic search
option in PAUP*4.0b10 (Swofford, 2002)
with 20 random-addition sequences being
performed in each replication and decay
indices, respectively. The scale
indicates 100 changes. from: Inoue,
JG, Miya, M, Tsukamoto, K, Nishida, M
(2003) ''Basal actinopterygian
relationships: A mitogenomic
perspective on the phylogeny of the
ldquoancient fish.rdquo'' Mol
Phylogenet Evol 26:
110-120 http://www.sciencedirect.com/sc
ience/article/pii/S1055790302003317 COP
YRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/cac
he/MiamiImageURL/B6WNH-475B9D7-6-1K/0?wc
hp=dGLbVlz-zSkzk
[2] Arapaima gigas at the Smithsonian
Zoo. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b1/Arapaima_gigas.jpg
5 6
}: Turtles, Tortoises and Terrapins.3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p261-301.
2. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=testud
ines&submit=Submit
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p261-301.
4. ^ "turtle."
Britannica Concise Encyclopedia.
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.,
1994-2010. Answers.com 10 Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/turtle
5. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p196.
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p262. {300
MYBN}
MORE INFO
[1] "terrapin." Britannica
Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia
Britannica, Inc., 1994-2010.
Answers.com 27 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/terrapin
[1] Richard Dawkins, ''The Ancestor's
Tale'', (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), 262. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), 262.
[2] English: Odontochelys
semitestacea, from the Late Triassic of
China, the oldest known turtle.
Digital. 中文(简体):
半甲齿龟，已知最为古老的乌
，于2007年在中国贵州境内发
。(三维模拟图) Date 4
December 2008 Source Own
work Author Nobu Tamura
email:nobu.tamura@yahoo.com
www.palaeocritti.com GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/39/Odontochelys_BW.jpg
3 4 5
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p261-301.
2. ^ "tuatara." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2011. Answers.com 27 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/tuatara
3. ^ "tuatara." Encyclop�dia
Britannica. Encyclop�dia Britannica
Online. Encyclop�dia Britannica Inc.,
2013. Web. 29 Jan. 2013.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/608113/tuatara>.
4. ^ Cracraft, J., and M.J. Donoghue.
Assembling the Tree of Life. Oxford
University Press, USA, 2004. Nueva
Colecci�n Labor,
p452. http://books.google.com/books?id=
6lXTP0YU6_kC&pg=PA452
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p261-301. {255 MYBN}
[1] Richard Dawkins, ''The Ancestor's
Tale'', (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p262. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p262.
[2] A male tuatara named Henry, living
at the Southland Museum and Art
Gallery, is still reproductively active
at 111 years of age. 111-Year-Old
Reptile Becomes a Dad After Tumor
Surgery Discover Magazine, 26 January
2009. Retrieved 20 March
2009. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disc
over_Magazine Description English:
Henry, the world's oldest Tuatara in
captivity at Invercargill, New
Zealand Date 22 November
2007 Source Own work Author
KeresH CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/96/Henry_at_Invercargill
.jpg
9 10
(Pterosaur).7 8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Éric Buffetaut, "Evolution and
palaeobiology of pterosaurs",
Geological Society, 2003,
p107. http://books.google.com/books?id=
8CKYxcylOycC
2. ^ Steven M. Stanley, "Earth System
History", Third edition, 2009, p390.
3. ^
Unwin, David M. “Pterosaurs: back to
the traditional model?” Trends in
Ecology & Evolution 14.7 (1999) :
263-268. http://www.sciencedirect.com/s
cience/article/pii/S0169534799016055
4. ^ Éric Buffetaut, "Evolution and
palaeobiology of pterosaurs",
Geological Society, 2003,
p107. http://books.google.com/books?id=
8CKYxcylOycC
5. ^ Steven M. Stanley, "Earth System
History", Third edition, 2009, p390.
6. ^
Unwin, David M. “Pterosaurs: back to
the traditional model?” Trends in
Ecology & Evolution 14.7 (1999) :
263-268. http://www.sciencedirect.com/s
cience/article/pii/S0169534799016055
7. ^ Éric Buffetaut, "Evolution and
palaeobiology of pterosaurs",
Geological Society, 2003,
p107. http://books.google.com/books?id=
8CKYxcylOycC
8. ^ Steven M. Stanley, "Earth System
History", Third edition, 2009, p390.
9. ^
Peter Wellnhofer, "Pterosaurs", 1991,
p59-60,166. {220MYBN}
10. ^
http://www.dinodata.net/DNM/dallav.htm
{215 MYBN}
MORE INFO
[1]
http://dipbsf.uninsubria.it/paleo/dvecch
ia.htm
[2] Eberhard Frey, Helmut Tischlinger,
Marie-Céline Buchy, and David M.
Martill, "New specimens of Pterosauria
(Reptilia) with soft parts with
implications for pterosaurian anatomy
and locomotion ", Geological Society,
London, Special Publications 2003,
217:233-266;
doi:10.1144/GSL.SP.2003.217.01.14
[1] Eudimorphon and Peteinosaurus
from: Wellnhofer, ''Pterosaurs'',
1991, p60-61. COPYRIGHTED
source: Wellnhofer, "Pterosaurs", 1991,
p60-61.
[2] Eudimorphon and Peteinosaurus
from: Wellnhofer, ''Pterosaurs'',
1991, p60-61. COPYRIGHTED
source: Wellnhofer, "Pterosaurs", 1991,
p60-61.
3
chameleons, and spiny lizards).2
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p261-301.
2. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p261-301.
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p261-301. {210 MYBN}
[1] Richard Dawkins, ''The Ancestor's
Tale'', (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), 262. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), 262.
[2] Description Iguana sp. Foto
tomada en el Zoo de Madrid. Date
Summer 2007 Source Own
work Author Manuel de Corselas
ARS SUMMUM, Centro para el Estudio y
Difusión Libres de la Historia del
Arte PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/57/AA_Iguana_Fot_Ars_Sum
mum.JPG
3
(snakes, skinks, and geckos).2
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). {210
MYBN}
[1] Richard Dawkins, ''The Ancestor's
Tale'', (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), 262. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), 262.
[2] Description Deutsch:
Versteinerung eines Archaeophis proavus
Massalongo - aus Monte Bolca. Museum
für Naturkunde (Berlin). English:
Fossil of a Archaeophis proavus
Massalongo, Monte Bolca. Museum für
Naturkunde (Berlin). Date 22 July
2007 Source Own work Author
Raymond - Raimond
Spekking Permission (Reusing this
file) See
below. Attribution (required by the
license) © Raimond Spekking /
CC-BY-SA-3.0 CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f1/Naturkundemuseum_Berl
in_-_Archaeophis_proavus_Massalongo_-_Mo
nte_Bolca.jpg
2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
MORE INFO
[1] Inoue, JG, Miya, M,
Tsukamoto, K, Nishida, M (2003) "Basal
actinopterygian relationships: A
mitogenomic perspective on the
phylogeny of the ldquoancient
fish.rdquo" Mol Phylogenet Evol 26:
110-120 http://www.sciencedirect.com/sc
ience/article/pii/S1055790302003317
[1] Fig. 2. The single
most-parsimonious (MP) tree derived
from unweighted analysis of mitogenomic
data comprising concatenated nucleotide
sequences from 12 protein-coding
(excluding the ND6 gene and third codon
positions) and 22 transfer RNA (tRNA)
genes (stem regions only) from all 28
species examined. Tree length, 12,709
steps; consistency index, 0.355;
retention index, 0.471; and rescaled
consistency index, 0.167. Numbers above
and below internal branches indicate
jackknife values obtained for 500
replicates using the heuristic search
option in PAUP*4.0b10 (Swofford, 2002)
with 20 random-addition sequences being
performed in each replication and decay
indices, respectively. The scale
indicates 100 changes. from: Inoue,
JG, Miya, M, Tsukamoto, K, Nishida, M
(2003) ''Basal actinopterygian
relationships: A mitogenomic
perspective on the phylogeny of the
ldquoancient fish.rdquo'' Mol
Phylogenet Evol 26:
110-120 http://www.sciencedirect.com/sc
ience/article/pii/S1055790302003317 COP
YRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/cac
he/MiamiImageURL/B6WNH-475B9D7-6-1K/0?wc
hp=dGLbVlz-zSkzk
[2] Arapaima gigas at the Smithsonian
Zoo. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b1/Arapaima_gigas.jpg
2 3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ David Jablonski and W. G.
Chaloner,"Extinctions in the Fossil
Record (and Discussion)", Philosophical
Transactions: Biological Sciences, Vol.
344, No. 1307, Estimating Extinction
Rates: Sir Joseph Banks Anniversary
Meeting (Apr. 29, 1994), pp.
11-17. http://www.jstor.org/stable/5614
8
2. ^ The geological Society of America
2009 Time
Scale http://www.geosociety.org/science
/timescale/timescl.pdf
3. ^ Whiteside, Jessica H.; Paul E.
Olsen, Timothy Eglinton, Michael E.
Brookfield, and Raymond N. Sambrotto
(March 22, 2010). "Compound-specific
carbon isotopes from Earth's largest
flood basalt eruptions directly linked
to the end-Triassic mass extinction".
PNAS 107 (15): 6721–5.
doi:10.1073/pnas.1001706107. PMC
2872409. PMID 20308590. {201.4 MYBN}
4. ^
David Jablonski and W. G.
Chaloner,"Extinctions in the Fossil
Record (and Discussion)", Philosophical
Transactions: Biological Sciences, Vol.
344, No. 1307, Estimating Extinction
Rates: Sir Joseph Banks Anniversary
Meeting (Apr. 29, 1994), pp.
11-17. http://www.jstor.org/stable/5614
8 {208 mybn}
MORE INFO
[1] David Jablonski, "Lessons
from the Past: Evolutionary Impacts of
Mass Extinctions", Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the
United States of America, Vol. 98, No.
10 (May 8, 2001), pp.
5393-5398. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
3055638
[1] A modified version of
Image:Extinction
Intensity.svg. Changes: Time
runs from left to right Periods
are coloured as per the Paris system -
see w:Template:Period color for full
explanation Text removed so
wikilinks can be floated over. See
w:Template:Annotated image/Extinction
for implementation. Cubic
polynomial removed as this doesn't
convey any useful information and is
mainly an artefact. The caption on
the original file is: Marine Genus
Biodiversity: Extinction
Intensity GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/06/Extinction_intensity.
svg
[2] Hawaii Volcanoes National Park.
May 1954 eruption of Kilauea Volcano.
Halemaumau fountains. Photo by J.P.
Eaton, May 31, 1954. Image file:
/htmllib/batch37/batch37j/batch37z/batch
37/hvo00014.jpg PD
source: http://libraryphoto.cr.usgs.gov/
htmllib/batch37/batch37j/batch37z/batch3
7/hvo00014.jpg
2
mybn), and start of the Jurassic
(201.6-145.5 mybn) Period.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ The geological Society of America
2009 Time
Scale http://www.geosociety.org/science
/timescale/timescl.pdf
2. ^ The geological Society of America
2009 Time
Scale http://www.geosociety.org/science
/timescale/timescl.pdf
MORE INFO
[1] USGS "Divisions of Geologic
Time— Major Chronostratigraphic and
Geochronologic Units", July
2010. http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2010/3059
/pdf/FS10-3059.pdf
[1] Description English: Global
paleogeographic reconstruction of the
Earth in the late Jurassic period 150
million years ago. Deutsch: Globale
paläogeografische Rekonstruktion der
Erde während des späten Jura vor 150
Millionen Jahren. Русский:
Глобальная
палеогеографическая
реконструкция Земли
в конце Юрского
периода, 150 миллионов
лет назад. Date 23 April
2008 Source
http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~rcb7/mollgl
obe.html Author Dr. Ron Blakey -
http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~rcb7/ CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/76/LateJurassicGlobal.jp
g
[2] Geologic Time Scale 2009 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.geosociety.org/scienc
e/timescale/timescl.pdf
6 7
{tIRrEoFeru1 } evolve; ancestor of the
armored ankylosaurs {ANKilOSORZ2 } and
the plated stegosaurs {STeGeSORZ3 }.4
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=thyreo
phora&submit=Submit
2. ^ "ankylosaur." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 16
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ankylosauru
s
3. ^ "stegosaur." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 16
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/stegosaur
4. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p271.
5. ^ Colbert, "A primitive
ornithischian dinosaur from the Kayenta
Formation of Arizona", Bulletin (Museum
of Northern Arizona), No 53, 1981.
6. ^
Colbert, "A primitive ornithischian
dinosaur from the Kayenta Formation of
Arizona", Bulletin (Museum of Northern
Arizona), No 53, 1981, p56-57.
7. ^ Palmer, et
al., "Primitive Life", 2009, p224.
MORE INFO
[1] Palmer, D., ed. (1999). The
Marshall Illustrated Encyclopedia of
Dinosaurs and Prehistoric Animals.
London: Marshall Editions. pp.
134–135. ISBN 1-84028-152-9
[1] Description Scutellosaurus
lawleri, an ornithischian from the
Early Jurassic of North America, pencil
drawing, digital coloring Date
November 30, 2006, modified October
11, 2007 Source Own work Author
Nobu Tamura
(http://spinops.blogspot.com) GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/12/Scutellosaurus.jpg
[2] Description Scutellosaurus Date
Source Own Work by Pavel Riha (see
also the paleo-gallery by Pavel
Riha) Author Pavel Riha = user
Pavel.Riha.CB GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b0/Scutellosaurus1.jpg
3
evolve.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). {200
MYBN}
[1] Adapted from: Richard Dawkins,
''The Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p339. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p339.
[2] Adapted from: Richard Dawkins,
''The Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p339. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p339.
4 5 6
} evolve (Crocodiles, allegators, and
caimans {KAmeNS}).3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p261-301.
2. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=crocod
ilia&submit=Submit
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p261-301.
4. ^ "crocodile."
Encyclop�dia Britannica.
Encyclop�dia Britannica Online.
Encyclop�dia Britannica Inc., 2013.
Web. 29 Jan. 2013.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/143679/crocodile>.
5. ^ Cracraft, J., and M.J. Donoghue.
Assembling the Tree of Life. Oxford
University Press, USA, 2004. Nueva
Colecci�n Labor,
p452. http://books.google.com/books?id=
6lXTP0YU6_kC&pg=PA452
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p261-301. {245 MYBN}
[1] Richard Dawkins, ''The Ancestor's
Tale'', (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p262. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p262.
[2] Nile crocodile, taken at the Le
Bonheur Crocodile Farm near
Stellenbosch, South Africa. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/81/NileCrocodile.jpg
9 10
ancestor of the large, long-necked
dinosaurs like Apatosaurus {uPaTuSORuS2
}, Brachiosaurus {BrAKEuSORuS3 }, and
Diplodocus {DiPloDiKuS4 }.5 6 7
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ "Sauropod." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 14 Jun.
2012.
auropod>.
2. ^ "apatosaur." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 11
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/apatosaurus
3. ^ "brachiosaur." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 11
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/brachiosaur
us
4. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=diplod
ocus&submit=Submit
5. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
6. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", p115-116,
2002.
7. ^ Palmer et al, "Primative Life",
2009, p224.
8. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
9. ^ Palmer et al, "Primative Life",
2009, p224.
10. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm {150 MYBN}
[1] [t may not be
scholarly] Description
Brachiosaurus altithorax Date
2007 Source Own work Author
Богданов
dmitrchel@mail.ru PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d9/Brachiosaurus_DB.jpg
[2] Description English: Bronze
Brachiosaurus mount outside of the
Field Museum of Natural History,
Chicago, IL. Date
10/12/2009 Source Own
work Author
AStrangerintheAlps CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/4b/FMNH_Brachiosaurus.JP
G
4
{ORnitoPiDu1 } evolve; the duck-billed
dinosaurs, ancestor of the Hadrosaurs.2
3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=ornith
opoda
2. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p224.
3. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates",
p115-116, 2002.
4. ^ Palmer, et al.,
"Primitive Life", 2009, p224.
[1] Heterodontosaurus UNKNOWN
source: http://www.wikidino.com/wp-conte
nt/uploads/Heterodontosaurus-Jan-Sovak.j
pg
[2] Harold Levine, ''The Earth Through
Time'', 2006, p417. COPYRIGHTED
source: Harold Levine, "The Earth
Through Time", 2006, p417.
3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). {190
MYBN}
MORE INFO
[1]
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=201773&tree=0.1
[1] Adapted from: Richard Dawkins,
''The Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p339. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p339.
[2] Description Northern
anchovies are important prey for marine
mammals and game fish Image ID:
nur00009, National Undersearch Research
Program (NURP) Collection Location:
Pacific Ocean. Credit: OAR/National
Undersea Research Program
(NURP) Downloaded from:
http://www.photolib.noaa.gov/htmls/nur00
009.htm Note: Another image from this
collection had fish described as
northern anchovies, with the scientific
name Engraulis mordax, or Californian
anchovy. The species may be
misidentified. Date 2006-12-08
(original upload date) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0f/Anchovy_closeup.jpg
4
Laurasia and Gondwana. The northern
part, Laurasia will form North America
and Europe. The southern part, Gondwana
will form South America and Africa.2
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ Harold Levin, "The Earth Through
Time", Eighth Edition, 2006, p176,375.
2. ^
Harold Levin, "The Earth Through Time",
Eighth Edition, 2006, p176,375.
3. ^ Harold
Levin, "The Earth Through Time", Eighth
Edition, 2006, p176,375.
4. ^ Harold Levin, "The
Earth Through Time", Eighth Edition,
2006, p176,375. {190 mybn}
[1] 200 Ma Early Jurassic UNKNOWN
source: http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~rcb7/200
_Jurassic_2globes.jpg
[2] In geologic terms, a plate is a
large, rigid slab of solid rock. The
word tectonics comes from the Greek
root ''to build.'' Putting these two
words together, we get the term plate
tectonics, which refers to how the
Earth's surface is built of plates. The
theory of plate tectonics states that
the Earth's outermost layer is
fragmented into a dozen or more large
and small plates that are moving
relative to one another as they ride
atop hotter, more mobile material.
Before the advent of plate tectonics,
however, some people already believed
that the present-day continents were
the fragmented pieces of preexisting
larger landmasses
(''supercontinents''). The diagrams
below show the break-up of the
supercontinent Pangaea (meaning ''all
lands'' in Greek), which figured
prominently in the theory of
continental drift -- the forerunner to
the theory of plate tectonics. PD
source: http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/dynamic
/graphics/Fig2-5globes.gif
8 9 10 11 12 13
{lePiDoPTRu4 } evolve (moths,
butterflies, caterpillars).5 6
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=lepido
ptera&submit=Submit
2. ^ Gaunt et al., "An insect molecular
clock dates the origin of the insects
and accords with palaeontological and
biogeographic landmarks.", Mol Biol
Evol,
2002. http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/con
tent/19/5/748.full.pdf {Gaunt_Insects_2
002.pdf}
3. ^ Douzery et al., "The timing of
eukaryotic evolution: does a relaxed
molecular clock reconcile proteins and
fossils?", Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A,
2004. http://www.pnas.org/content/101/4
3/15386.abstract
4. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=lepido
ptera&submit=Submit
5. ^ Gaunt et al., "An insect molecular
clock dates the origin of the insects
and accords with palaeontological and
biogeographic landmarks.", Mol Biol
Evol,
2002. http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/con
tent/19/5/748.full.pdf {Gaunt_Insects_2
002.pdf}
6. ^ Douzery et al., "The timing of
eukaryotic evolution: does a relaxed
molecular clock reconcile proteins and
fossils?", Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A,
2004. http://www.pnas.org/content/101/4
3/15386.abstract
7. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of the
Insects", 2005, p556.
8. ^ Palmer, et al,
"Prehistoric Life", 2009, p224.
9. ^
Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of the
Insects", 2005, p556.
10. ^ Grimaldi, Engel,
"Evolution of the Insects", 2005, p469.
11. ^
Hedges and Kumar, "TimeTree of Life",
2009, p262.
12. ^ Douzery et al., "The timing
of eukaryotic evolution: does a relaxed
molecular clock reconcile proteins and
fossils?", Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A,
2004. http://www.pnas.org/content/101/4
3/15386.abstract
13. ^ Gaunt et al., "An insect
molecular clock dates the origin of the
insects and accords with
palaeontological and biogeographic
landmarks.", Mol Biol Evol,
2002. http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/con
tent/19/5/748.full.pdf {Gaunt_Insects_2
002.pdf}
[1] Description Photograph of a male
Monarch butterfly (Danaus plexippus en
). This butterfly was stationary on a
leaf with his wings outstretched in an
attempt to show off and attract a mate.
The picture was taken in the butterfly
house at the Tyler Arboretum. Camera
and Exposure Details: Camera: Nikon
D50 Lens: Nikon Nikkor ED AF-S DX
18-55mm f/3.5-5.6G Exposure: 55mm
(82.5mm in 35mm equivalent) f/9 @ 1/125
s. Date 9 September 2006 Source Own
work (Own Picture) Author Photo
(c)2006 Derek Ramsey
(Ram-Man) Permission (Reusing this
file) You may NOT use this image
on your own web site or anywhere else
unless you release this image and any
derivative works (which may include the
web page or other medium where this
image is used, if it is not considered
a ''collective work'') by following the
terms of the following license. Any
other use will be considered a breach
of copyright law. Please do not copy
this image illegally by ignoring the
terms of the license, as it is not in
the public domain. If you would like
special permission to use, license, or
purchase the image or prints of the
image, or for use in any other fashion
or would simply like a copy of the
original file, please contact me or
email me first to ask. Please see the
non-legalese usage guide for more
information. Note: While you are not
required to do so by the license,
please consider letting me know when
you reuse one of my photograph images,
as a courtesy. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Monarch_Butterf
ly_Showy_Male_3000px.jpg/1280px-Monarch_
Butterfly_Showy_Male_3000px.jpg
[2] Description Photograph of a
female Monarch Butterflyen (Danaus
plexippus en ) laying an egg on a
Mexican Milkweeden (Asclepias
curassavica en 'Silky Gold'). The
picture was taken in Aston Township,
Pennsylvania. Camera and Exposure
Details: Camera: Nikon D50 Lens:
Sigma 70mm f/2.8 EX DG Macro Exposure:
70mm (105mm in 35mm equivalent) f/8 @
1/160 s. (200 ISO) Date Friday,
August 8, 2008 Source Own
Picture. Author Photo by and (c)2009
Derek Ramsey
(Ram-Man) Permission (Reusing this
file) You may NOT use this image
on your own web site or anywhere else
unless you release this image and any
derivative works (which may include the
web page or other medium where this
image is used, if it is not considered
a ''collective work'') by following the
terms of the following license. Any
other use will be considered a breach
of copyright law. Please do not copy
this image illegally by ignoring the
terms of the license, as it is not in
the public domain. If you would like
special permission to use, license, or
purchase the image or prints of the
image, or for use in any other fashion
or would simply like a copy of the
original file, please contact me or
email me first to ask. Please see the
non-legalese usage guide for more
information. Note: While you are not
required to do so by the license,
please consider letting me know when
you reuse one of my photograph images,
as a courtesy. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Monarch_Butterf
ly_Danaus_plexippus_Laying_Eggs.jpg/1096
px-Monarch_Butterfly_Danaus_plexippus_La
ying_Eggs.jpg
6 7 8
Monotremes {moNeTrEMZ3 } evolve.4
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^ "monotreme." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 06
Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/monotreme
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), 238-260.
3. ^ "monotreme." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 06 Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/monotreme
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), 238-260.
5. ^ "monotreme."
Britannica Concise Encyclopedia.
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.,
1994-2010. Answers.com 28 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/monotreme
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). {180 MYBN}
7. ^ Palmer, et
al., "Primitive Life", 2009, p282.
8. ^
Hedges, Tree of Life,
2009 http://timetree.org/pdf/Madsen2009
Chap68.pdf
MORE INFO
[1] "Monotremata". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monotremata
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
239. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), 239.
[2] Description Photo: model of
Steropodon galmani at the Australian
Museum, Sydney. Date 20 April
2008 Source Own work Author
Matt Martyniuk
(Dinoguy2) Permission (Reusing this
file) See below. Other versions
Derivative works of this file:
Prototheria collage.png GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f8/Steropodon_model_aus.
jpg
3
piranhas.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). {170
MYBN}
[1] Adapted from: Richard Dawkins,
''The Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p339. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p339.
[2] Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Commo
n_carp.jpg Common carp (Cyprinus
carpio). Public domain image from USFWS
National Image Library. Created by
Duane Raver. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a8/Common_carp.jpg
3
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
[1] Adapted from: Richard Dawkins,
''The Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p339. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p339.
[2] Fig. 2. The single
most-parsimonious (MP) tree derived
from unweighted analysis of mitogenomic
data comprising concatenated nucleotide
sequences from 12 protein-coding
(excluding the ND6 gene and third codon
positions) and 22 transfer RNA (tRNA)
genes (stem regions only) from all 28
species examined. Tree length, 12,709
steps; consistency index, 0.355;
retention index, 0.471; and rescaled
consistency index, 0.167. Numbers above
and below internal branches indicate
jackknife values obtained for 500
replicates using the heuristic search
option in PAUP*4.0b10 (Swofford, 2002)
with 20 random-addition sequences being
performed in each replication and decay
indices, respectively. The scale
indicates 100 changes. from: Inoue,
JG, Miya, M, Tsukamoto, K, Nishida, M
(2003) ''Basal actinopterygian
relationships: A mitogenomic
perspective on the phylogeny of the
ldquoancient fish.rdquo'' Mol
Phylogenet Evol 26:
110-120 http://www.sciencedirect.com/sc
ience/article/pii/S1055790302003317 COP
YRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/cac
he/MiamiImageURL/B6WNH-475B9D7-6-1K/0?wc
hp=dGLbVlz-zSkzk
3 4
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Palmer, et al.,
"Primitive Life", 2009, p225.
4. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004). {305 MYBN}
[1] Richard Dawkins, ''The Ancestor's
Tale'', (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), 303. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), 303.
[2] Description central
Pennsylvania Spotted Salamander
(Ambystoma maculatum) Source
self-made Date 25 March
2008 Author Camazine (talk) Scott
Camazine web.mac.com/camazine CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/b/b2/SpottedSalamander.jpg
5 6
{BuTOEDEu1 } evolve, ancestor of all
rays, skates, and sawfishes.2 3 4
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=batoid
ea&submit=Submit
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p360-363.
3. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl
4. ^ Douady, Christophe J. et al.
“Molecular Phylogenetic Evidence
Refuting the Hypothesis of Batoidea
(rays and Skates) as Derived Sharks.”
Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution
26.2 (2003):
215–221. http://www.sciencedirect.com
/science/article/pii/S1055790302003330
5. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p282.
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p360-363. {190
MYBN}
MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Taxonomy/Bro
wser/wwwtax.cgi?name=Elasmobranchii
[1] Richard Dawkins, ''The Ancestor's
Tale'', (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p361. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p361.
[2] Description Manta Ray (Manta
birostris) at Hin Daeng,
Thailand. Date 30 November
2005 Source Flickr Author
jon hanson from london, UK CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/df/Manta_birostris-Thail
and4.jpg
3
Dragonfish.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). {150
MYBN}
[1] Adapted from: Richard Dawkins,
''The Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p339. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p339.
[2] Description English: This
deep-sea fish, Photostomias guernei,
has a built-in bioluminescent
''flashlight'' it uses to help it see
in the dark. Date 1999 Source
Photostomias.jpg Author
derivative work: Una Smith
Photostomias.jpg: Edith
Widder/HBOI PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/63/Photostomias2.jpg
4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004). {245 MYBN} {245 MYBN (bird and
croc split}
MORE INFO
[1] Xu, X., Z. Tang, and X. Wang.
1999a. A therizinosauroid dinosaur with
integumentary structures from China.
Nature, 399350-354
[2] LIVEZEY, BRADLEY C., and
RICHARD L. ZUSI. “Higher-order
phylogeny of modern birds (Theropoda,
Aves: Neornithes) based on comparative
anatomy. II. Analysis and
discussion.” Zoological Journal of
the Linnean Society 149.1 (2007) :
1-95. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/do
i/10.1111/j.1096-3642.2006.00293.x/full
[3] Hackett, Shannon J. et al. “A
Phylogenomic Study of Birds Reveals
Their Evolutionary History.” Science
320.5884 (2008) : 1763 -1768.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763
[4] Hedges, S. Blair et al.
“Continental breakup and the ordinal
diversification of birds and
mammals.” Nature 381.6579 (1996) :
226-229. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v381/n6579/abs/381226a0.html
[5] Ivanov, M., Hrdlickova, S. &
Gregorova, R. (2001) The Complete
Encyclopedia of Fossils. Rebo
Publishers, Netherlands. pp. 312
[6] Zhang,
Z., Gao, C., Meng, Q., Liu, J., Hou,
L., & Zheng, G. (2009). Diversification
in an early cretaceous avian genus:
evidence from a new species of
Confuciusornis from china. Journal of
Ornithology , 150 (4), 783-790. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10336-009-039
9-x
[7] Hou L, Zhou Z, Gu Y, Zhang H
(1995a) Confuciusornis sanctus, a new
Late Jurassic sauriurine bird from
China. Chin Sci Bull 40:1545–1551
[1] Richard Dawkins, ''The Ancestor's
Tale'', (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p262. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p262.
[2] Description English:
Archaeopteryx lithographica, specimen
displayed at the Museum für Naturkunde
in Berlin. (This image shows the
original fossil - not a
cast.) Deutsch: Archaeopteryx
lithographica, Exemplar im Museum für
Naturkunde in Berlin. (Dieses Bild
zeigt das Original-Fossil, keinen
Abguss.) Date 5 July 2009 Source
Own work Author H. Raab
(User:Vesta) CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/9d/Archaeopteryx_lithogr
aphica_%28Berlin_specimen%29.jpg
15 16 17 18 19
flowering plant.9 10 11
Almost all grains, beans, nuts, fruits,
vegetables, herbs and spices come from
plants with flowers. Much of our
clothing, and many commercial dyes and
drugs come from flowering plants.12
Angiosperms represent approximately 80
percent of all the known green plants
now living.13 The fruit is the ovary
of a plant which encloses seeds.14
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445.,
(2004). http://www.amjbot.org/content/9
1/10/1437.short
2. ^ Hwan Su Yoon, Jeremiah D. Hackett,
Claudia Ciniglia, Gabriele Pinto and
Debashish, "A Molecular Timeline for
the Origin of Photosynthetic
Eukaryotes", Molecular Biology and
Evolution, (2004).
3. ^ N Wikstrom, V
Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the
angiosperms: calibrating the family
tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001). http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc
/articles/PMC1088868/
4. ^
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/anthophyta/
anthophyta.html
5. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
6. ^ Hwan
Su Yoon, Jeremiah D. Hackett, Claudia
Ciniglia, Gabriele Pinto and Debashish,
"A Molecular Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution, (2004).
7. ^ N Wikstrom,
V Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of
the angiosperms: calibrating the family
tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
8. ^
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/anthophyta/
anthophyta.html
9. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
10. ^ Hwan
Su Yoon, Jeremiah D. Hackett, Claudia
Ciniglia, Gabriele Pinto and Debashish,
"A Molecular Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution, (2004).
11. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
12. ^
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/anthophyta/
anthophyta.html
13. ^ "Article". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online. "angiosperm",
Encyclopedia Britannica 2012.
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/to
pic/24667/angiosperm/24667main/Article
14. ^ "fruit". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
"fruit", Encyclopedia Britannica,
2012. http://www.britannica.com/EBcheck
ed/topic/221056/fruit
15. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of
the Insects", 2005, p607-613.
16. ^ Palmer, et
al., "Primitive Life", 2009, p282.
17. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
http://www.amjbot.org/content/91/10/14
37.short (175mybn) {Gymno-angio spilt)
320 mybn (radiation at 180my}
18. ^ Hwan Su
Yoon, Jeremiah D. Hackett, Claudia
Ciniglia, Gabriele Pinto and Debashish,
"A Molecular Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution,
(2004). http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/c
ontent/21/5/809.abstract (c100mybn)
{320-290 mybn (radiation at 100 mybn}
19. ^
Kumar and Hedges, "Time Tree", 2009,
p135. http://timetree.org/pdf/Magallon2
009Chap11.pdf
MORE INFO
[1] "Fruit". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fruit
[2] THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP.
“An Update of the Angiosperm
Phylogeny Group Classification for the
Orders and Families of Flowering
Plants: APG III.” Botanical Journal
of the Linnean Society 161.2 (2009):
105–121. doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339
[3] Kumar, Hedges, "Time Tree of Life",
2009. http://timetree.org/book.php
China
[1] Description
辽宁古果（Archaefructus
liaoningensis），为迄今发现的最
早的花（早白垩纪），于北京
然博物馆 Date 17:15, 18 October
2006 (UTC) Source Own work Author
Shizhao CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Archaefructus_l
iaoningensis.jpg/1280px-Archaefructus_li
aoningensis.jpg
[2] Figure 2 from: Sun, G. , Dilcher,
D. L. , Zheng, S.-L. & Zhou, Z.-K. In
search of the first flower: A Jurassic
angiosperm, Archaefructus, from
northeast China. Science 282,
1692–1695
(1998). http://www.sciencemag.org/conte
nt/282/5394/1692
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/2896858
COPYRIGHTED
source: Sun, G. , Dilcher, D. L. ,
Zheng, S.-L. & Zhou, Z.-K. In search of
the first flower: A Jurassic
angiosperm, Archaefructus, from
northeast China. Science 282,
1692–1695
(1998). http://www.sciencemag.org/conte
nt/282/5394/1692http://www.jstor.org/sta
ble/2896858
mybn), and start of the Cretaceous
(145.5-65.5 mybn) Period.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ The geological Society of America
2009 Time
Scale http://www.geosociety.org/science
/timescale/timescl.pdf
[1] Geologic Time Scale 2009 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.geosociety.org/scienc
e/timescale/timescl.pdf
[2] 150 Ma Late Jurassic UNKNOWN
source: http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~rcb7/150
_Jurassic_2globes.jpg
9 10 11 12 13
"Amborella".5 6 7 8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
2. ^ Hwan
Su Yoon, Jeremiah D. Hackett, Claudia
Ciniglia, Gabriele Pinto and Debashish,
"A Molecular Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution, (2004).
3. ^ N Wikstrom,
V Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of
the angiosperms: calibrating the family
tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
4. ^ Grimaldi,
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p612.
5. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas
E. Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
6. ^ Hwan
Su Yoon, Jeremiah D. Hackett, Claudia
Ciniglia, Gabriele Pinto and Debashish,
"A Molecular Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution, (2004).
7. ^ N Wikstrom,
V Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of
the angiosperms: calibrating the family
tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
8. ^ Grimaldi,
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p612.
9. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution
of the Insects", 2005, p612.
10. ^ Kumar and
Hedges, "Time Tree", 2009.
http://timetree.org/book.php
11. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001). (175mybn) {179mybn}
12. ^ Jeffrey D.
Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W.
Chase, "The plant tree of life: an
overview and some points of view",
American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004). (175mybn)
13. ^ Hwan
Su Yoon, Jeremiah D. Hackett, Claudia
Ciniglia, Gabriele Pinto and Debashish,
"A Molecular Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution, (2004).
(c100mybn)
MORE INFO
[1] "Fruit". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fruit
[2] Sun, G. , Dilcher, D. L. , Zheng,
S.-L. & Zhou, Z.-K. In search of the
first flower: A Jurassic angiosperm,
Archaefructus, from northeast China.
Science 282, 1692–1695
(1998). http://www.sciencemag.org/conte
nt/282/5394/1692
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/2896858
[1] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
''Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree'', Proc
Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/268/1482/2211.abstract COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://rspb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/268/1482/2211.abstract
[2] Photo of Amborella trichopoda
(Amborellaceae; photo © Sangtae Kim).
source: http://tolweb.org/tree?group=ang
iosperms
7 8 9 10
{niM-FE-A-lEZ4 } (water lilies).5 6
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ based on:
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=nympha
eaceae
2. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
3. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
4. ^ based on:
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=nympha
eaceae
5. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
6. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
7. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of the
Insects", 2005, p612.
8. ^ Kumar and Hedges,
"Time Tree", 2009.
http://timetree.org/book.php
9. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001). (171mybn)
10. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer,
Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W. Chase,
"The plant tree of life: an overview
and some points of view", American
Journal of Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445.,
(2004). (165mybn)
[1] Nymphaea alba Nymphaea alba -
image taken on 29 August 2004 in the
outdoor botanical garden of Technion -
Haifa, Israel public domain
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nym
phaeaceae
[2] Nymphaea colorata from
Africa presume is gnu or pd
source: same
4 5
dinosaurs evolve (ancestor of
Triceratops).2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", p116,
2002.
2. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p282.
3. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
4. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p282.
5. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm {80 MYBN}
[1] Psittacosaurus Palmer, ''The
Marshall Illustrated Encyclopedia of
Dinosaurs & Prehistoric Animals'',
1999, p162-163. COPYRIGHTED
source: Palmer, "The Marshall
Illustrated Encyclopedia of Dinosaurs &
Prehistoric Animals", 1999, p162-163.
[2] Description Protoceratops
andrewsi skeleton at Carnegie Museum of
Natural History. Date 28 November
2009, 14:07 Source
http://www.flickr.com/photos/139061
48@N00/4168549790/ Uploaded by
FunkMonk Author Tadek Kurpaski
from London, Poland CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/7c/Andrewsi.jpg
12 13 14 15 16 17
First nipple and breast.7 8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p230-237.
2. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p230-237.
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p230-237.
4. ^ Williams, W.R. A
Monograph on Diseases of the Breast:
Their Pathology and Treatment, with
Special Reference to Cancer. Bale,
1894,
p9. http://books.google.com/books?id=QB
01AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA9
5. ^ Loke, Y.W. Life�s Vital Link:
The Astonishing Role of the Placenta.
OUP Oxford,
2013. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ELoP_omQfkoC&pg=PP34
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p230-237.
7. ^ Williams, W.R. A
Monograph on Diseases of the Breast:
Their Pathology and Treatment, with
Special Reference to Cancer. Bale,
1894,
p9. http://books.google.com/books?id=QB
01AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA9
8. ^ Loke, Y.W. Life�s Vital Link:
The Astonishing Role of the Placenta.
OUP Oxford,
2013. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ELoP_omQfkoC&pg=PP34
9. ^ Rincon, Paul (2003-12-12).
"Rincon, P., Oldest Marsupial Ancestor
Found, BBC, Dec 2003". BBC News.
Retrieved
2010-03-16. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/
science/nature/3311911.stm
10. ^ "Pickrell, J., Oldest Marsupial
Fossil Found in China, National
Geographic, December 2003".
News.nationalgeographic.com. Retrieved
2010-03-16.
http://news.nationalgeographic.com/new
s/2003/12/1215_031215_oldestmarsupial.ht
ml
11. ^ "Vertebrate Paleontology:
Sinodelphys szalayi". Carnegie Museum
of Natural History. Retrieved
2010-10-21. http://www.carnegiemnh.org/
vp/sinodelphys.html
12. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p230-237. {140 MYBN}
13. ^
Luo Z, Yuan C, Meng Q & Ji Q (2011), "A
Jurassic eutherian mammal and
divergence of marsupials and
placentals", Nature 476(7361): p.
42–45. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v476/n7361/full/nature10291.html
{nature10291.pdf} {165MYBN}
14. ^ Hedges, Tree
of Life,
2009 http://timetree.org/pdf/Madsen2009
Chap68.pdf
15. ^ van Rheede, T. et al. The
platypus is in its place: nuclear genes
and Indels confirm the sister group
relation of monotremes and therians.
Mol. Biol. Evol. 23, 587–597 (2006).
{143-178MYBN}
16. ^ Phillips, M. J., Bennett, T. H. &
Lee, M. S. Y. Molecules, morphology,
and ecology indicate a recent,
amphibious ancestry for echidnas. Proc.
Natl Acad. Sci. USA 106, 17089–17094
(2009). {193-186}
17. ^ Palmer, et al.,
"Primitive Life", 2009, p282.
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p231. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p231.
[2] Description English: Virginia
Opossum (Didelphis virginiana) in a
juniper tree in northeastern
Ohio. Date 27 December
2008 Source Own work Author
Wilson44691 Permission (Reusing
this file) See below. Other versions
PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6a/Possum122708.JPG
3
{iNaNTEORNitEZ1 } evolve.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=enanti
ornithes&submit=Submit
2. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/350Aves/350.500.html#Enantiornithes
3. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/350Aves/350.500.html#Enantiornithes
{136 MYBN (estimate from}
MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.fossilmuseum.net/Fossil-Pictu
res/Birds/Protopteryx/Protopteryx-fengni
ngensis.htm
[1] Protopteryx fengningensis Name:
Protopteryx fengningensis Phylum:
Chordata; Subphylum Vertebrata; Class
Aves; Subclass
Enantiornithes Geological Time:
Early Cretaceous Size: 120 mm long
(tip of skull to tip of toes); Matrix:
85 mm by 141 mm Fossil Site: Yixian
Formation, Fengning County, Hebei
Province of China UNKNOWN
source: http://www.fossilmuseum.net/Foss
il-Pictures/Birds/Protopteryx/CF017A.jpg
[2] Sinornis santensis Artist: James
Reece COPYRIGHTED AUSTRALIA
source: http://www.amonline.net.au/chine
se_dinosaurs/feathered_dinosaurs/photo07
.htm
9 10 11
} evolve (ancestor of nutmeg, avocado,
sassafras, cinnamon, black and white
pepper, camphor, bay (or laurel) tree,
and magnolia.5 6 ).7 8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "magnoliid>.". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
"magnoliid." The American Heritage®
Science Dictionary. Houghton Mifflin
Company. 20 May. 2012.
agnoliid>.
2. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
http://www.amjbot.org/content/91/10/14
37.short
3. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1088868/
4. ^ "magnoliid>.". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
"magnoliid." The American Heritage®
Science Dictionary. Houghton Mifflin
Company. 20 May. 2012.
agnoliid>.
5. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1088868/
6. ^ "Magnoliid". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnoliid
7. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
8. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001). entire group is called
magnoliids
9. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of the
Insects", 2005, p612.
10. ^ Kumar and Hedges,
"Time Tree", 2009.
http://timetree.org/book.php
11. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001). entire group is called
magnoliids {179 MYBN}
MORE INFO
[1] Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
(128mybn)
[1] Magnolia This photo is a part of
the Wikipedia:Plant photo collection
I. Downloaded URL:
http://tencent.homestead.com/files/magno
lia.jpg Warning sign This image has
no source information. Source
information must be provided so that
the copyright status can be verified by
others. Unless the copyright status is
provided and a source is given, the
image will be deleted seven days after
this template was added (see page
history). If you just added this
template, please use {{no source
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mag
noliales
[2] ~~~~~}} (to include the date
here). Please consider using
source: same
8 9 10
evolve (the largest lineage of
flowers).5 6
The two main groups of the Eudicots are
the "rosids" and the "asterids".7
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^ "eudicot>.". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
"eudicot." The American Heritage®
Science Dictionary. Houghton Mifflin
Company. 29 Dec. 2011.
udicot>.
2. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
3. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
4. ^ "eudicot>.". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
"eudicot." The American Heritage®
Science Dictionary. Houghton Mifflin
Company. 29 Dec. 2011.
udicot>.
5. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
6. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
7. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
8. ^
Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of the
Insects", 2005, p612.
9. ^ Kumar and Hedges,
"Time Tree", 2009.
http://timetree.org/book.php
10. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001). (153mybn) {155 mybn}
MORE INFO
[1] Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
(128mybn)
[2]
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=eudico
t&submit=Submit
[1] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
''Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree'', Proc
Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/268/1482/2211.abstract COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://rspb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/268/1482/2211.abstract
[2] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, ''Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree'', Proc
Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/268/1482/2211.abstract COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://rspb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/268/1482/2211.abstract
5
fish, pufferfish, and barracuda.3 4
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=44719&tree=0.1
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
4. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=44719&tree=0.1
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). {130 MYBN}
[1] Adapted from: Richard Dawkins,
''The Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p339. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p339.
[2] Seahorse - Hippocampus
sp. Image ID reef2027, The
Coral Kingdom Collection Location
Gulf of Aqaba, Red Sea Photographer
Mr. Mohammed Al Momany, Aqaba,
Jordan Source
http://www.photolib.noaa.gov/htmls/reef2
027.htm PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/4b/Hippocampus.jpg
3
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). {130
MYBN}
[1] Adapted from: Richard Dawkins,
''The Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p339. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p339.
[2] Fig. 2. The single
most-parsimonious (MP) tree derived
from unweighted analysis of mitogenomic
data comprising concatenated nucleotide
sequences from 12 protein-coding
(excluding the ND6 gene and third codon
positions) and 22 transfer RNA (tRNA)
genes (stem regions only) from all 28
species examined. Tree length, 12,709
steps; consistency index, 0.355;
retention index, 0.471; and rescaled
consistency index, 0.167. Numbers above
and below internal branches indicate
jackknife values obtained for 500
replicates using the heuristic search
option in PAUP*4.0b10 (Swofford, 2002)
with 20 random-addition sequences being
performed in each replication and decay
indices, respectively. The scale
indicates 100 changes. from: Inoue,
JG, Miya, M, Tsukamoto, K, Nishida, M
(2003) ''Basal actinopterygian
relationships: A mitogenomic
perspective on the phylogeny of the
ldquoancient fish.rdquo'' Mol
Phylogenet Evol 26:
110-120 http://www.sciencedirect.com/sc
ience/article/pii/S1055790302003317 COP
YRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/cf/Gadus_morhua-Cod-2-At
lanterhavsparken-Norway.JPG
5 6 7 8
evolve.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Russell F. Doolittle, Da-Fei
Feng, Simon Tsang, Glen Cho, Elizabeth
Little, "Determining Divergence Times
of the Major Kingdoms of Living
Organisms with a Protein Clock",
Science, (1996).
2. ^ Russell F. Doolittle,
Da-Fei Feng, Simon Tsang, Glen Cho,
Elizabeth Little, "Determining
Divergence Times of the Major Kingdoms
of Living Organisms with a Protein
Clock", Science, (1996).
3. ^ Russell F.
Doolittle, Da-Fei Feng, Simon Tsang,
Glen Cho, Elizabeth Little,
"Determining Divergence Times of the
Major Kingdoms of Living Organisms with
a Protein Clock", Science, (1996).
4. ^ Luo Z,
Yuan C, Meng Q & Ji Q (2011), "A
Jurassic eutherian mammal and
divergence of marsupials and
placentals", Nature 476(7361): p.
42–45. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v476/n7361/full/nature10291.html
{nature10291.pdf}
5. ^ Luo Z, Yuan C, Meng Q & Ji Q
(2011), "A Jurassic eutherian mammal
and divergence of marsupials and
placentals", Nature 476(7361): p.
42–45. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v476/n7361/full/nature10291.html
{nature10291.pdf} {160MYBN}
6. ^ Russell F.
Doolittle, Da-Fei Feng, Simon Tsang,
Glen Cho, Elizabeth Little,
"Determining Divergence Times of the
Major Kingdoms of Living Organisms with
a Protein Clock", Science, (1996).
{130MYBN}
7. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p282.
8. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p225.
MORE INFO
[1] Nature. "Ji, Q., et al., The
Earliest Known Eutherian Mammal,
Nature, 416, Pages 816-822, Apr 2002".
Nature.com.
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
416/n6883/full/416816a.html
County, Liaoning Province, China4
[1] Description English:
Juramaia Date 30 April 2012 Source
Own work Author Nobu Tamura
http://paleoexhibit.blogspot.com/
http://spinops.blogspot.com/
http://www.palaeocritti.com CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/15/Juramaia_NT.jpg
[2] Figure 1 from: Luo Z, Yuan C,
Meng Q & Ji Q (2011), ''A Jurassic
eutherian mammal and divergence of
marsupials and placentals'', Nature
476(7361): p.
42–45. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v476/n7361/full/nature10291.html
{nature10291.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nature.com/nature/journal
/v476/n7361/carousel/nature10291-f1.2.jp
g
5
(modern birds: the most recent common
ancestor of all living birds).4
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=ne
ornithes&submit=Submit
2. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/350Aves/350.800.html#Neornithes
3. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=ne
ornithes&submit=Submit
4. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/350Aves/350.800.html#Neornithes
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (estimate from) {120
MYBN (estimate from}
MORE INFO
[1] LIVEZEY, BRADLEY C., and
RICHARD L. ZUSI. “Higher-order
phylogeny of modern birds (Theropoda,
Aves: Neornithes) based on comparative
anatomy. II. Analysis and
discussion.” Zoological Journal of
the Linnean Society 149.1 (2007) :
1-95. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/do
i/10.1111/j.1096-3642.2006.00293.x/full
[2] Hackett, Shannon J. et al. “A
Phylogenomic Study of Birds Reveals
Their Evolutionary History.” Science
320.5884 (2008) : 1763 -1768.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763
[3] Brown, Joseph, Joshua Rest, Jaime
G. Moreno, Michael Sorenson, and David
Mindell. "Strong mitochondrial DNA
support for a Cretaceous origin of
modern avian lineages." BMC Biology 6
(January 2008):
6:6. http://www.biomedcentral.com/1741-
7007/6/6
[1] aepyornis The same image appears
in: Palmer, The Marshall Illustrated
Encyclopedia of Dinosaurs and
Prehistoric Animals, 1999,
p176. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://photo.starnet.ru/Thematic
_Wallpapers/Zhizn/Dikie_zhivotnye/dinosa
urs_fossils/images/aepyornis.jpg
[2] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p262. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p262.
9 10 11
"Monocots") evolve: Flowering plants
that have a single cotyledon (or seed
leaf) in the embryo.4 5 6
Monocots are the second largest lineage
of flowers after the Eudicots, and
include lilies, palms, orchids, and
grasses.7 8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
2. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
3. ^ "Monocotyledon", Oxford Dictionary
of Biochemistry,
http://www.answers.com/topic/monocotyled
on
4. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
5. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
6. ^ "Monocotyledon", Oxford Dictionary
of Biochemistry,
http://www.answers.com/topic/monocotyled
on
7. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
8. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
9. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of the
Insects", 2005, p612.
10. ^ Kumar and Hedges,
"Time Tree", 2009.
http://timetree.org/book.php
11. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001). (154mybn)
MORE INFO
[1] Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
(128mybn)
[1] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
''Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree'', Proc
Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/268/1482/2211.abstract COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://rspb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/268/1482/2211.abstract
[2] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, ''Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree'', Proc
Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/268/1482/2211.abstract COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://rspb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/268/1482/2211.abstract
9 10 11
(includes buttercup, clematis, poppy,
macadamia, lotus, and sycamore).5 6 7 8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
2. ^ S.
Blair Hedges, "The Origin and Evolution
of Model Organisms", Nature Reviews
Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
3. ^ N Wikstrom, V
Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the
angiosperms: calibrating the family
tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
4. ^ Jeffrey D.
Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W.
Chase, "The plant tree of life: an
overview and some points of view",
American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
5. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM
PHYLOGENY GROUP*, "An update of the
Angiosperm Phylogeny Group
classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
6. ^ S.
Blair Hedges, "The Origin and Evolution
of Model Organisms", Nature Reviews
Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
7. ^ N Wikstrom, V
Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the
angiosperms: calibrating the family
tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
8. ^ Jeffrey D.
Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W.
Chase, "The plant tree of life: an
overview and some points of view",
American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
9. ^ Grimaldi,
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p612.
10. ^ Kumar and Hedges, "Time
Tree", 2009.
http://timetree.org/book.php
11. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001). (145mybn) {147 MYBN}
MORE INFO
[1] Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
(128mybn)
[2] wiki
[1] Creeping butercup (Ranunculus
repens). GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Creeping_butercup_close_800.jpg
[2] Clematis hybrid from
http://www.ars.usda.gov/is/graphics/phot
os/ public domain
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cle
matis
11 12
caper, buckwheat, rhubarb, venus
flytrap, old world pitcher plants,
beet, quinoa, spinach, grape plants).6
7 8 9 10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
2. ^ S.
Blair Hedges, "The Origin and Evolution
of Model Organisms", Nature Reviews
Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
3. ^ N Wikstrom, V
Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the
angiosperms: calibrating the family
tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/268/1482/2211.abstract
4. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
http://www.jstor.org/stable/4123845
5. ^ wiki
6. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY
GROUP*, "An update of the Angiosperm
Phylogeny Group classification for the
orders and families of flowering
plants: APG II", Botanical Journal of
the Linnean Society Volume 141 Page
399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
7. ^ S.
Blair Hedges, "The Origin and Evolution
of Model Organisms", Nature Reviews
Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
8. ^ N Wikstrom, V
Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the
angiosperms: calibrating the family
tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/268/1482/2211.abstract
9. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
http://www.jstor.org/stable/4123845
10. ^ wiki
11. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution
of the Insects", 2005, p612.
12. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/268/1482/2211.abstract (145my)
{124 MYBN}
MORE INFO
[1] Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
http://www.jstor.org/stable/4123845 (
128mybn)
[1] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
''Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree'', Proc
Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/268/1482/2211.abstract COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://rspb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/268/1482/2211.abstract
[2] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, ''Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree'', Proc
Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/268/1482/2211.abstract COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://rspb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/268/1482/2211.abstract
6 7 8
Afrotheres evolves.3
Afrotheres originate in Africa and are
the earliest extant placental mammals.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p224-229.
2. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p224-229.
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p224-229.
4. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p224-229.
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p224-229.
6. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p224-229. {105 MYBN}
7. ^ Mark S. Springer,
William J. Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and
Stephen J. O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003).
8. ^ Michael J. Benton and Francisco J.
Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003).
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p225. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p225.
[2] Description Afrotheria Date
18 December 2007 Source
self-made, based on:
Image:Orycteropus afer.jpg
Image:Dugong.jpg Image:Elephant
Shrew.jpg Image:Manatee Looking at
the Camera.jpg Image:Taupe
doree.jpg Image:Klippschliefer
Suedafrika Hermanus.jpg
Image:Elefante Lake Manyara Park.jpg
Image:Tanrek.jpg Author
Esculapio GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f0/Afrotheria.jpg
5
emu, cassowary {KaSOwaRE3 }, kiwis).4
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=ca
ssowary&submit=Submit
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (estimate from)
3. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=ca
ssowary&submit=Submit
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (estimate from)
5. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004). (estimate from) {100 MYBN
(estimate from}
MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/350Aves/350.900.html#Ratites
[2] LIVEZEY, BRADLEY C., and RICHARD L.
ZUSI. “Higher-order phylogeny of
modern birds (Theropoda, Aves:
Neornithes) based on comparative
anatomy. II. Analysis and
discussion.” Zoological Journal of
the Linnean Society 149.1 (2007) :
1-95. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/do
i/10.1111/j.1096-3642.2006.00293.x/full
[3] Hackett, Shannon J. et al. “A
Phylogenomic Study of Birds Reveals
Their Evolutionary History.” Science
320.5884 (2008) : 1763 -1768.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763
[1] Richard Dawkins, ''The Ancestor's
Tale'', (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p262. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p262.
[2] Description Various Ratite
birds (clockwise from top left): Brown
kiwi Apteryx mantelli, Greater rhea,
double-wattled cassowary Casuarius
casuarius, Haast's eagle attacking New
Zealand moa, Masai ostrich
(photographed in Nairobi National Park,
Kenya). Date 19 June 2007 Source
self-made from
Image:Brown_kiwi.jpg,
Image:Nandu-Portrait 2.jpg,
Image:Casuarius_casuarius_-_double-wattl
ed_cassowary.jpg,
Image:Giant_Haasts_eagle_attacking_New_Z
ealand_moa.jpg, Image:Masai ostrich.jpg
(see original images for copyright
information). Author
Richard001 GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/31/Ratites.PNG
10 11 12
{ZeNoRtreNZ5 } evolve (ancestor of
Sloths, Anteaters, and Armadillos).6 7
8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=xenart
hran
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p219-223.
3. ^ Mark S. Springer,
William J. Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and
Stephen J. O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003).
4. ^ Michael J. Benton and Francisco J.
Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003).
5. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=xenart
hran
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p219-223.
7. ^ Mark S. Springer,
William J. Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and
Stephen J. O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003).
8. ^ Michael J. Benton and Francisco J.
Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003).
9. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p219-223.
10. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004),219-223. {95 MYBN}
11. ^ Mark S.
Springer, William J. Murphy, Eduardo
Eizirik, and Stephen J. O'Brien,
"Placental mammal diversification and
the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003).
12. ^ Michael J. Benton and Francisco
J. Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003).
MORE INFO
[1] Cornelis, Guillaume et al.
“Ancestral Capture of syncytin-Car1,
a Fusogenic Endogenous Retroviral
Envelope Gene Involved in Placentation
and Conserved in Carnivora.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences 109.7 (2012):
E432–E441. http://www.pnas.org/conten
t/109/7/E432.abstract
[2] Delsuc, Frédéric et al.
“Molecular Phylogenetics Unveils the
Ancient Evolutionary Origins of the
Enigmatic Fairy Armadillos.”
Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution
62.2 (2012):
673–680. http://www.sciencedirect.com
/science/article/pii/S1055790311004799
[3] Shattuck, Milena R., and Scott A.
Williams. “Arboreality Has Allowed
for the Evolution of Increased
Longevity in Mammals.” Proceedings of
the National Academy of Sciences 107.10
(2010): 4635–4639.
Print. http://www.pnas.org/content/107/
10/4635.abstract
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p220. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p220.
[2] Description Hoffmann's Two-toed
Sloth (Choloepus hoffmanni) in
Milwaukee County Zoological
Gardens Date 8 January
2006 Source Flickr Author
Woodsm CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b5/Choloepus_hoffmanni.j
pg
7 8 9
Rosids include: pomegranate, clove,
guava, allspice, and eucalyptus).4 5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
2. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
3. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
4. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
5. ^ N Wikstrom, V
Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the
angiosperms: calibrating the family
tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
6. ^ THE
ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*, "An update
of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group
classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
7. ^
Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of the
Insects", 2005, p612.
8. ^ Grimaldi, Engel,
"Evolution of the Insects", 2005, p612.
9. ^
N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001). (122mybn) {117} {109}
MORE INFO
[1] Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
(128mybn)
[1] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
''Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree'', Proc
Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/268/1482/2211.abstract COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://rspb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/268/1482/2211.abstract
[2] A photo of the tree Staphylea
colchica taken by me in Århus, Denmark
GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cro
ssosomatales
9 10
evolve (ancestor of beans, pea, peanut,
soy, and lentil).6 7 8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=fabace
ae
2. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
3. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
4. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
5. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=fabace
ae
6. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
7. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
8. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
9. ^ Grimaldi,
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p612.
10. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen,
MW Chase, "Evolution of the
angiosperms: calibrating the family
tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001). {94 MYBN}
MORE INFO
[1] Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
(128mybn)
[2] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001). (102mybn)
[1] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
''Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree'', Proc
Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/268/1482/2211.abstract COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://rspb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/268/1482/2211.abstract
[2] Abrus precatorius (Black-eyed
Susan) USGS public domain
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abr
us
5 6 7 8
(ancestor of vanilla, orchid,
asparagus, onion, garlic, agave, aloe,
and lily).3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
2. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
3. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
4. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
5. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of the
Insects", 2005, p612.
6. ^ Grimaldi, Engel,
"Evolution of the Insects", 2005, p612.
7. ^
Kumar and Hedges, "Time Tree", 2009.
http://timetree.org/book.php
8. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001). (153my) {141 MYBN} {154 MYBN}
MORE INFO
[1] Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
(128mybn)
[2] Stevens, P.F. (2001 onwards),
Angiosperm Phylogeny
Website. http://www.mobot.org/MOBOT/res
earch/APweb/welcome.html
[1] Sweet Flag (Acorus calamus) -
spadix Spadix of Sweet Flag. usgs
public domain
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aco
rus
[2] Ivy Duckweed (Lemna
trisulca) Name Lemna
trisulca Family Lemnaceae
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ali
smatales
9 10
{KomelIniDZ5 } evolve (palms, coconut,
corn, rice, barley, oat, wheat, rye,
sugarcane, bamboo, grass, pineapple,
papyrus, turmeric {TRmRiK6 }, banana,
ginger).7 8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Commelinidae." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/commelinida
e
2. ^ "turmeric." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 06
Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/turmeric
3. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
4. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
5. ^ "Commelinidae." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/commelinida
e
6. ^ "turmeric." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 06
Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/turmeric
7. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
8. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
9. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of the
Insects", 2005, p612.
10. ^ N Wikstrom, V
Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the
angiosperms: calibrating the family
tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001). (153my)
{94 MYBN}
MORE INFO
[1] Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
(128mybn)
[1] Manila dwarf coconut palm from
http://www.ars.usda.gov/is/graphics/phot
os/ Manila dwarf coconut palm
thumbnail A Manila dwarf coconut palm
on the grounds of the Tropical
Agriculture Research Station in
Mayaguez, Puerto Rico. dept of
ag public domain
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Are
cales
[2] coconut GOV public domain
source: http://www.nps.gov/kaho/KAHOckLs
/KAHOplnt/images/IMG_03957.jpg
11 12
{AReKAlEZ6 7 } (kiwi, ebony, persimmon,
blueberry, cranberry, brazil nut, new
world pitcher plants, tea).8 9 10
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=ericac
eae&submit=Submit
2. ^ "Ericales." McGraw-Hill Dictionary
of Scientific and Technical Terms.
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003.
Answers.com 02 Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ericales-1
3. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
4. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
5. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
6. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=ericac
eae&submit=Submit
7. ^ "Ericales." McGraw-Hill Dictionary
of Scientific and Technical Terms.
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003.
Answers.com 02 Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ericales-1
8. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
9. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
10. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
11. ^ Grimaldi,
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p612.
12. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen,
MW Chase, "Evolution of the
angiosperms: calibrating the family
tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001). {113
MYBN} {100 MYBN} {114 MYBN}
MORE INFO
[1] Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
(128mybn)
[2] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001). (102mybn)
[1] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
''Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree'', Proc
Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/268/1482/2211.abstract COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://rspb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/268/1482/2211.abstract
[2] Actinidia fruit. kiwifruit. public
domain
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Aethionema_grandiflora0.jpg
9 10
evolve (ancestor of dill, celery,
cilantro, carrot, parsnip, fennel,
parsley, and ivy).6 7 8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=apiace
ae+&submit=Submit
2. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
3. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
4. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
5. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=apiace
ae+&submit=Submit
6. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
7. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
8. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
9. ^ Grimaldi,
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p612.
10. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen,
MW Chase, "Evolution of the
angiosperms: calibrating the family
tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001). (102mybn)
{95 MYBN}
MORE INFO
[1] Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
(128mybn)
[1] Variegated Ground-elder (Aegopodium
podagraria L.) in flower. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ground-elder_bloom.jpg
[2] An established spread of
variegated Ground-elder (Aegopodium
podagraria L.). GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ground-elder.jpg
9 10
evolve (ancestor of tarragon, daisy,
artichoke, sunflower, lettuce, and
dandelion).6 7 8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Asterales." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/asterales
2. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
3. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
4. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
5. ^ "Asterales."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 30
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/asterales
6. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
7. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
8. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
9. ^ Grimaldi,
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p612.
10. ^ wiki
MORE INFO
[1] Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
(128mybn)
[2] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001). (102mybn)
[1] Ray floret, typical for flowers of
the family Asteraceae. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ray.floret01.jpg
[2] disc floret, typical part of a
flower of the family Asteraceae. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Disc_floret01.jpg
10 11
{maLPiGEAlEZ5 } evolve 6 7 8 (ancestor
of coca, rubber tree, cassava,
poinsettia, willow, poplar, and
aspen).9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Malpighiaceae." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/malpighiace
ae-1
2. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
3. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
4. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
5. ^
"Malpighiaceae." McGraw-Hill Dictionary
of Scientific and Technical Terms.
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003.
Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/malpighiace
ae-1
6. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
7. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
8. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
9. ^ wiki
10. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001). {90 MYBN} {81 MYBN} {91 MYBN}
11. ^
Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of the
Insects", 2005, p612.
MORE INFO
[1] Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
(128mybn)
[2] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001). (102mybn)
[1] mangosteen public domain
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gar
cinia
[2] Mangosteen fruit public domain
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Man
gosteen
11
} evolve (ancestor of horseradish,
mustard, cabbage, broccoli, radish, and
papaya).7 8 9 10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=brassi
cacea
2. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
3. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
4. ^
wiki
5. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
6. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=brassi
cacea
7. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
8. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
9. ^
wiki
10. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
11. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001). {88 MYBN} {90 MYBN}
MORE INFO
[1] Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
(128mybn)
[2] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001). (102my)
[1] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
''Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree'', Proc
Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/268/1482/2211.abstract COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://rspb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/268/1482/2211.abstract
[2] Aethionema grandiflora, GFDL by
Kurt Stueber
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Aethionema_grandiflora0.jpg
9 10
evolve (ancestor of hemp, hop,
jackfruit, fig, strawberry, rose,
raspberry, apple, pear, plum, cherry,
peach, and almond).6 7 8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Rosales." McGraw-Hill Dictionary
of Scientific and Technical Terms.
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003.
Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/rosales-1
2. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
3. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
4. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
5. ^ "Rosales."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 30
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/rosales-1
6. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
7. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
8. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
9. ^ N Wikstrom, V
Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the
angiosperms: calibrating the family
tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001). {87 MYBN}
{76 MYBN} {89 MYBN}
10. ^ Grimaldi, Engel,
"Evolution of the Insects", 2005, p612.
MORE INFO
[1] Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
(128mybn)
[2] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001). (102mybn)
[1] Filipendula ulmaria, GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fil
ipendula
[2] A display of different apples,
We've even worked on bashless
bagging-packaging systems that are used
by wholesalers to bring you apples
without bruises. US ARS public domain
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/App
le
9
{JeNsinAlEZ5 } evolve (includes
oleander, and coffee).6 7 8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Gentianales." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gentianales
-1
2. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
3. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
4. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
5. ^ "Gentianales."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 30
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gentianales
-1
6. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
7. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
8. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
9. ^ N Wikstrom, V
Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the
angiosperms: calibrating the family
tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001). {87 MYBN}
{89 MYBN}
MORE INFO
[1] Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
(128mybn)
[2] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001). (102mybn)
[1] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
''Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree'', Proc
Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/268/1482/2211.abstract COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://rspb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/268/1482/2211.abstract
[2] Anthocleista grandiflora. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Anthocleista_grandiflora.jpg
9
evolve (ancestor of bell pepper,
tomato, tobacco, potato, and
eggplant).6 7 8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=solana
cea
2. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
3. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
4. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
5. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=solana
cea
6. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
7. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
8. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
9. ^ N Wikstrom, V
Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the
angiosperms: calibrating the family
tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001). {87 MYBN}
{86 MYBN}
MORE INFO
[1] Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
(128mybn)
[2] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001). (102mybn)
[1] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
''Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree'', Proc
Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/268/1482/2211.abstract COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://rspb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/268/1482/2211.abstract
[2] Atropa belladonna. Deadly
nightshade. GFDL by Kurt Stueber
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Atropa_bella-donna1.jpg
9 10
(KYUKRBiTAlEZ5 } evolve (ancestor of
melon, cucumber, pumpkin, squash, and
zucchini).6 7 8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "cucurbit." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 30
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cucurbit
2. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
3. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
4. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
5. ^ "cucurbit."
The American Heritage® Dictionary of
the English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cucurbit
6. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
7. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
8. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
9. ^ N Wikstrom, V
Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the
angiosperms: calibrating the family
tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001). {85 MYBN}
{65 MYBN}
10. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution
of the Insects", 2005, p612.
MORE INFO
[1] Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
(128mybn)
[2] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001). (102mybn)
[1] White bryony (Bryonia dioica). GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:White_bryony_male_800.jpg
[2] watermelon public domain
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Vampire_watermelon.jpg
10 11
evolve (ancestor of many flowers that
produce edible nuts: Birch, Hazel
{nut}, Chestnut, Beech {nut}, Oak,
Walnut, Pecan {PEKoN6 }, and Hickory).7
8 9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Fagales." McGraw-Hill Dictionary
of Scientific and Technical Terms.
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003.
Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/fagales-1
2. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
3. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
4. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
5. ^
"Fagales." McGraw-Hill Dictionary of
Scientific and Technical Terms.
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003.
Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/fagales-1
6. ^ "pecan." The American Heritage�
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 04 Jan.
2013. http://www.answers.com/topic/peca
7. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas
E. Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
8. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
9. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
10. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004). {85 MYBN}
{61 MYBN}
11. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution
of the Insects", 2005, p612.
MORE INFO
[1] Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
(128mybn)
[2] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001). (102my)
[1] Alnus serrulata (Tag Alder) Male
catkins on right, mature female catkins
left Johnsonville, South Carolina GFDL
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Tagalder8139.jpg
[2] Speckled Alder (Alnus incana
subsp. rugosa) - leaves GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Alnus_incana_rugosa_leaves.jpg
5
} evolve (Chicken, Turkey, Pheasant,
Peacock, Quail).4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=gallif
ormes&submit=Submit
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=gallif
ormes&submit=Submit
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). {85 MYBN
(estimate from}
MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/360Galloanserae/360.100.html#Galloanser
ae
[1] Richard Dawkins, ''The Ancestor's
Tale'', (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p262. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p262.
[2] Description English: Meleagris
gallopavo (Wild Turkey) Date 30
July 2006 Source Own work Author
MONGO PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/69/Meleagris_gallopavo_W
ild_Turkey.jpg
5
} evolve (ancestor of ducks, geese, and
swans).4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Anseriformes." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/anseriforme
s-1 and
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=anse
riformes&submit=Submit
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^ "Anseriformes."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 30
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/anseriforme
s-1 and
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=anse
riformes&submit=Submit
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). {85 MYBN}
MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/360Galloanserae/360.500.html#Anseriform
es
[1] Richard Dawkins, ''The Ancestor's
Tale'', (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p262. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p262.
[2] Description English: Pair of
Wood Ducks Date 18 April
2007 Source
http://flickr.com/photos/sherseydc/
1623995158/ Author
http://www.flickr.com/people/sherse
ydc/ CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/08/Pair_of_Wood_Ducks.jp
g
5 6
"Laurasiatheres" evolves.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p199-218.
2. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p199-218.
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p199-218.
4. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p199-218.
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p200. {85 MYBN}
6. ^ Michael
J. Benton and Francisco J. Ayala,
"Dating the Tree of Life", Science,
(2003).
MORE INFO
[1] Mark S. Springer, William J.
Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003)
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p200. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p200.
[2] Description Mamíferos
(mammals), based on:
Image:Giraffa camelopardalis angolensis
(head).jpg Image:Golden crowned
fruit bat.jpg
Image:Hedgehog-en.jpg Image:Lion
waiting in Nambia.jpg All of them
under a free licence already in
Wikicommons Date
11-01-2008 Source
Compilation made by myself,
Authors of the photos see
below. Author Hans Hillewaert
(Giraffe); (Bat) Original uploader was
Latorilla at en.wikipedia;
(Hedgehog-en) John Mittler at
777Life.com Free Image Archive; (Lion)
yaaaay CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a5/Mam%C3%ADferos.jpg
form.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
[1] 90 Ma Late Cretaceous UNKNOWN
source: http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~rcb7/090
_Cretaceous_3globes.jpg
[2] A satellite image of Canada taken
in Summer. Snow cover is still
prominent in the Artic and on the Rocky
Mountains. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.virtualamericas.net/c
anada/maps/canada-satellite.jpg
13
evolve (ancestor of okra, marsh mallow
{malO7 }, durian {DUREiN8 }, cotton,
balsa, and cacao {KoKoU9 }.10 11 12
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ "Malvales." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/malvales-1
2. ^ "cacao." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 06 Sep.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cacao
3. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
4. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
5. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
6. ^ "Malvales."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 30
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/malvales-1
7. ^ "mallow." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 13 Jun.
2012.
allow>.
8. ^ "Durian", The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia Copyright ©
2004. Licensed from Columbia
University Press
http://www.reference.com/browse/Durian
?s=ts
9. ^ "cacao." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 06 Sep.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cacao
10. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
11. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
12. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
13. ^ N Wikstrom, V
Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the
angiosperms: calibrating the family
tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001). {83 MYBN}
{68 MYBN} {82 MYBN}
MORE INFO
[1] Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
(128mybn)
[2] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001). (102my)
[3] wiki
[1] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
''Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree'', Proc
Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/268/1482/2211.abstract COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://rspb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/268/1482/2211.abstract
[2] Bixa orellana L., floro en Lavras,
Minas Gerais, Brazilo, GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Aethionema_grandiflora0.jpg
11
evolve (ancestor of maple, lychee,
mahogany, cashew, mango, pistachio, and
the citrus trees: orange, lemon, and
grapefruit).7 8 9 10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Sapindales." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sapindales-
1
and http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=s
apindaceae
2. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
3. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
4. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
5. ^ wiki
6. ^
"Sapindales." McGraw-Hill Dictionary of
Scientific and Technical Terms.
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003.
Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sapindales-
1
and http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=s
apindaceae
7. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
8. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
9. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
10. ^ wiki
11. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001). {80 MYBN} {61 MYBN}
MORE INFO
[1] Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
(128mybn)
[2] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001). (102mybn)
[1] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
''Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree'', Proc
Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/268/1482/2211.abstract COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Aethionema_grandiflora0.jpg
[2] Field Maple foliage and flowers,
Acer campestre. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Acer-campestre.JPG
Hadrosaurs, (duck-billed) dinosaurs.2
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^ "ornithopod." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 16
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ornithopod
2. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
[1] Description Parasaurolophus
cyrtocristatus skeleton, Field
Museum. Date 1 October 2006,
00:00 Source Field Museum
Dinosaur Author Lisa Andres from
Riverside, USA Permission (Reusing
this file) See below. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/14/Parasaurolophus_cyrto
cristatus.jpg
[2] Description English: A
clickable image of the
en:Hadrosauroidea. Illustration by
en:User:Debivort. The
en:Hadrosaurids comprise the dinosaurs
commonly known as ''duck-billed''
dinosaurs. They were common herbivores
during the en:Cretaceous period, and
prey to en:therapods such as
en:Tyrannosaurus. Spectacular fossils
of hadrosaurs have been found,
including mummified specimens in which
soft tissue was preserved, skin
impressions, tracks of footprints, and
nest sites that demonstrate the animals
had parental care of offspring. Animals
are shown to scale. A crisp diagram
showing the evolutionary relationships
between the tribes of the
Hadrosauroidea, with representative
individuals shown to scale. Conveys the
diversity of the group. Every dinosaur
shown has passed review for scientific
accuracy at en:Wikipedia:WikiProject
Dinosaurs/Image review. The
individual drawings are genera, and the
branches of the tree go down to tribe.
All these groups were alive in the late
Cretaceous, and are generally known
only from a single fossil
site en:Category:Approved
dinosaur images en:Category:Approved
dinosaur scale diagrams Date
2007-06-21 (first version);
2007-10-14 (last version) Source
Originally from en.wikipedia;
description page is/was here. Author
Original uploader was Debivort at
en.wikipedia GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/14/Hadrosaur-tree-v4.jpg
5 6
evolves (ancestor of shrews, moles, and
hedgehogs).3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p199-218.
2. ^ Michael J. Benton
and Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the
Tree of Life", Science, (2003).
3. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004), p199-218.
4. ^ Michael J. Benton and
Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the Tree of
Life", Science, (2003).
5. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p199-218. {82 MYBN}
6. ^ Michael J. Benton
and Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the
Tree of Life", Science, (2003).
MORE INFO
[1] Mark S. Springer, William J.
Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003)
[2] "Laurasiatheria". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laurasiathe
ria
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p200. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p200.
[2] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p200. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p200.
4
{DrOmEoSORZ2 } evolve: Raptors.3
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ "theropod." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 15
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/theropod
2. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=dromae
osaur&submit=Submit
3. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
4. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm {80 MYBN}
[1] Buitreraptor (foreground) and
Deinonychus (background) skeletons on
display at the Field Museum of Natural
History in Chicago, Illinois. Taken
August 2006 by my girlfriend, C.
Horwitz, and uploaded with permission
under the GFDL. —Steven G.
Johnson GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/29/Buitreraptor-Deinonyc
hus.jpg
[2] Description Digital +
graphite drawing of Velociraptor
mongoliensis Date 4 August
2006 Source image from
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Veloc
iraptor_dinoguy2.jpg Author Matt
Martyniuk GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/cd/Velociraptor_dinoguy2
.jpg
6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p230-237.
2. ^ Hedges and Kumar,
Time Tree of Life,
2009. http://timetree.org/pdf/Springer2
009Chap70.pdf
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p230-237.
4. ^ Hedges and Kumar,
Time Tree of Life,
2009. http://timetree.org/pdf/Springer2
009Chap70.pdf
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p230-237.
6. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p230-237. {80 MYBN}
MORE INFO
[1] "Didelphimorphia". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Didelphimor
phia
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p231. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p231.
[2] Description English: North
American Opossum with winter
coat. Français : Opossum de Virginie
en livrée d'hiver. Deutsch: Ein
Nordopossum (Didelphis virginiana) im
Winterfell Date 21 February
2007 Source
Wikipedia:User:Cody.pope Author
Cody Pope CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/27/Opossum_2.jpg
4 5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004). {75 MYBN}
5. ^ Mark S. Springer,
William J. Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and
Stephen J. O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003).
6. ^ Michael J. Benton and Francisco J.
Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003).
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p225. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p225.
[2] Description An aardvark at
Detroit Zoo Date 15 April
2008 Source Cropped from
File:Porcs formiguers (Orycteropus
afer).jpg Author MontageMan is
the author of the original image, I did
the crop Permission (Reusing this
file) See below. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8a/Porc_formiguer.JPG
10
evolve (ancestor of many spices: mint,
basil, marjoram {moRJ uruM6 }, oregano,
rosemary, sage, savory, thyme, teak,
sesame, olive, ash, lilac and
jasmine).7 8 9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Lamiales." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/lamiales
2. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
3. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
4. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
5. ^ "Lamiales."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 30
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/lamiales
6. ^ "marjoram." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 16
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/marjoram
7. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
8. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
9. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
10. ^ N Wikstrom, V
Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the
angiosperms: calibrating the family
tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001). (102my)
{74 MYBN}
MORE INFO
[1] Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
(128mybn)
[1] Common Bugle (Ajuga reptans) GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ajuga-reptans01.jpg
[2] Calamintha grandiflora. GFDL by
Kurt Stueber
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Calamintha_grandiflora2.jpg
6
{BiLBEZ3 }.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=bi
lby&submit=Submit
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=bi
lby&submit=Submit
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
6. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). {73
MYBN}
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p231. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p231.
[2] Description Eastern Barred
Bandicoot (Perameles gunnii), Poimena
Reserve, Austin's Ferry, Tasmania,
Australia. The photo taken at night
with off camera flashes. Date 31
July 2010 Source Own work Author
Noodle snacks
(http://www.noodlesnacks.com/) CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8b/Perameles_gunni.jpg
6
predators: Tyrannosaurus rex
{TiraNiSORuS reKS2 } in North America
and Giganotosaurus {JiGuNOTuSORuS3 } in
South America.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "theropod." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 15
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/theropod
2. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=tyrann
osaurus+rex&submit=Submit
3. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=gigano
tosaurus&submit=Submit
4. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
5. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
6. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm {70 MYBN}
[1] Description English: View of the
fossil/cast Tyranausaurus Rex at the
Royal Tyrell Museum in Alberta, Canada.
The image has been modified to remove
background persons and
objects. Français : Le fossile du
Tyranausaurus Rex dans le Royal Tyrell
Museum en Alberta au Canada. L'image a
été modifié pour enlever les
personnes et objets en arrière
plan. Date 27 June 2010 Source
Own work Author Pierre
Camateros CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a8/Fossil_Tyranausaurus_
Rex_at_the_Royal_Tyrell_Museum%2C_Albert
a%2C_Canada.jpg
[2] Description English: The
Wonderful Paleo Art of Heinrich Harder
- Illustrations for Die Wunder der
Urwelt 1912 Date 1912 Source
http://www.copyrightexpired.com/Hei
nrich_Harder/gigantosaurus_dwdu_1912.htm
l Author Heinrich Harder
(1858-1935) Permission (Reusing this
file) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/92/500_gigantosaurus_dwd
u1912cropped.jpg
{mOSeSORZ1 } evolve.2 3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "mosasaur." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 16
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/mosasaur
2. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
3. ^ "Mosasaurs". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosasaurs
[1] Description English: Mosasaurus
skeleton; Maastricht Natural History
Museum, The Netherlands. Date 9
August 2010 Source Own
work Author
Wilson44691 Permission (Reusing
this file) See
below. Photograph taken by Mark A.
Wilson (Department of Geology, The
College of Wooster). PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/06/MosasaurMaastricht080
910.JPG
[2] Restoration of Aigialosaurus
bucchichi, a basal
mosasaur Description Aigialosaurus
bucchichi Date 2009 Source Own
work Author FunkMonk (Michael B.
H.) CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Aigialosaurus_b
ucchichi.jpg/1280px-Aigialosaurus_bucchi
chi.jpg
4
{PoDiSiPeDeFORmEZ1 } (grebes {GreBS2
}).3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Podicipediformes." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 23 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/podicipedif
ormes-1
2. ^ "grebe." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 03 Jun.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/grebe
3. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record
2)
4. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record
2) {70 MYBN (need to check with fossil
record 2}
[1] Fig. 4. Our phylogeny differs from
and agrees with previous
classifications. We merged
well-supported (>70% bootstrap values)
monophyletic clades at the tips with
the same ordinal designation across all
three classifications (e.g., 24 species
called Passerines). Only higher
relationships supported by bootstrap
values >50% are shown. Colors are as in
Fig. 2. Color bars to the right of the
tree show membership in three different
classifications: Peters' (25) (left),
Sibley and Monroe's (30) (middle), and
Livezey and Zusi's (13) (right). Black
text within the bars indicates
monophyletic orders in our phylogeny,
whereas white text within the bars
indicates nonmonophyletic orders.
Ordinal name codes: ANS (Anseriformes),
APO (Apodiformes), APT
(Apterygiformes), ARD (Ardeiformes),
BAL (Balaenicipitiformes), BUC
(Bucerotiformes), CAP
(Caprimulgiformes), CAS
(Casuariiformes), CHA
(Charadriiformes), CIC (Ciconiiformes),
CLM (Columbiformes), COL (Coliiformes),
COR (Coraciiformes), CRA (Craciformes),
CUC (Cuculiformes), FAL
(Falconiformes), GAL (Galliformes), GAV
(Gaviiformes), GLB (Galbuliformes), GRU
(Gruiformes), MUS (Musophagiformes),
OPI (Opisthocomiformes), PAS
(Passeriformes), PEL (Pelecaniformes),
PIC (Piciformes), POD
(Podicipediformes), PRO
(Procellariiformes), PSI
(Psittaciformes), RAL (Ralliformes),
RHE (Rheiformes), SPH
(Sphenisciformes), STH
(Struthioniformes), STR (Strigiformes),
TIN (Tinamiformes), TRC
(Trochiliformes), TRO (Trogoniformes),
TUR (Turniciformes), and UPU
(Upupiformes). Figure 4
from: Hackett, Shannon J. et al. “A
Phylogenomic Study of Birds Reveals
Their Evolutionary History.” Science
320.5884 (2008) : 1763 -1768.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763/F4.large.jpg
[2] Description Podiceps
nigricollis English: Black-necked
Grebe, Jan. 2007, Ibaraki
JAPAN 日本語:
ハジロカイツブリ 2007年1月
茨城県神栖市波崎
(投稿者自身による撮影) Date
5 January 2007 Source photo
taken by Maga-chan Author
Maga-chan CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/66/Podiceps_nigricollis_
001.jpg
5 6
and Pikas {PIKuZ3 }.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "pika." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 06 Sep.
2011. http://www.answers.com/topic/pika
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ "pika." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 06 Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pika
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). {70 MYBN}
6. ^
Palmer, et al, "Primitive Life", 2009,
p360.
MORE INFO
[1] Michael J. Benton and
Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the Tree of
Life", Science, (2003)
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p187. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p187.
[2] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p187. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p187.
5
Colugos {KolUGOZ3 }.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "colugo." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 30 Dec.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/colugo-1
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^ "colugo." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 30
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/colugo-1
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). {70 MYBN}
MORE INFO
[1] Mark S. Springer, William J.
Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003)
[2] "Euarchontoglires". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euarchontog
lires
[3] "Colugo". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colugo
[4] Michael J. Benton and Francisco J.
Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003)
[5] http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/
[6] "Colugos". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colugos
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p182. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p182.
[2] Description English: Indian
Tree-shrew (Anathana ellioti) in
Yercaud, India. Date Taken on
film in the 1990s - scanned on
2005-09-26 (according to EXIF
data) Source Photographed by S.
Karthikeyan ( palmfly at gmail . com )
Please contact author for usage of any
higher resolution images. Author
S. Karthikeyan CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/78/Anathana_ellioti.jpg
3
{KeTZLKWoTLuS1 }.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=quetza
lcoatl
2. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
3. ^ Wellnhofer, "Pterosaurs", 1991,
p142.
[1] Description English: fossil of
Quetzalcoatlus, an extinct
pterosaur Date June 2009 Source
Own work Author
Ghedoghedo GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/ab/Quetzalcoatlus_1.JPG
[2] Description Size comparison
of the azhdarchid pterosaurs
Quetzalcoatlus northropi and
Quetzalcoatlus unnamed species, with a
human. Modified from a diagram featured
in Witton and Naish (2008). Date
29 May 2008 Source Own
work Author Matt Martyniuk
(Dinoguy2), Mark Witton and Darren
Naish CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e5/Quetzscale1.png
3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ David Jablonski and W. G.
Chaloner,"Extinctions in the Fossil
Record (and Discussion)", Philosophical
Transactions: Biological Sciences, Vol.
344, No. 1307, Estimating Extinction
Rates: Sir Joseph Banks Anniversary
Meeting (Apr. 29, 1994), pp.
11-17. http://www.jstor.org/stable/5614
8
2. ^ David Jablonski and W. G.
Chaloner,"Extinctions in the Fossil
Record (and Discussion)", Philosophical
Transactions: Biological Sciences, Vol.
344, No. 1307, Estimating Extinction
Rates: Sir Joseph Banks Anniversary
Meeting (Apr. 29, 1994), pp.
11-17. http://www.jstor.org/stable/5614
8
3. ^
http://io.uwinnipeg.ca/~simmons/16cm05/1
116/16macro.htm {65.5 MYBN}
[1] Cretaceous meteor impact. Benjamin
Cummings. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://io.uwinnipeg.ca/~simmons/
16cm05/1116/16macro.htm
[2] Cretaceous meteor impact. Benjamin
Cummings. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://io.uwinnipeg.ca/~simmons/
16cm05/1116/16macro.htm
3
the Cenozoic Era, and the end of the
Cretaceous (145.5-65.5 mybn), and start
of the Tertiary {TRsEARE1 } (65.5-1.8
mybn) Period.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Tertiary period." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2012.
Answers.com 17 Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/tertiary-1
2. ^ The geological Society of America
2009 Time
Scale http://www.geosociety.org/science
/timescale/timescl.pdf
3. ^ The geological Society of America
2009 Time
Scale http://www.geosociety.org/science
/timescale/timescl.pdf
[1] Geologic Time Scale 2009 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.geosociety.org/scienc
e/timescale/timescl.pdf
[2] 65 Ma K-T Boundary -
Tertiary/Cretaceous UNKNOWN
source: http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~rcb7/065
_K_Tboundary_3globes.jpg
2 3
mammals.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p360.
2. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm {65 MYBN}
3. ^ Palmer, et al.,
"Primitive Life", 2009, p360.
[1] UNKNOWN
source: http://bp0.blogger.com/_AejGb2Gc
r_o/SIlTsz-2RrI/AAAAAAAAAAY/8b_-LPsmDbc/
s1600/mammal3.jpg
[2] Fig 3.46 from: Kardong,
''Vertebrates'', 2002,
p123. COPYRIGHTED
source: from: Kardong, "Vertebrates",
2002, p123.
5
(cranes and rails).4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Gruiformes." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gruiformes-
1
2. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record
2)
3. ^ "Gruiformes." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gruiformes-
1
4. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record
2)
5. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record
2)
[1] Fig. 4. Our phylogeny differs from
and agrees with previous
classifications. We merged
well-supported (>70% bootstrap values)
monophyletic clades at the tips with
the same ordinal designation across all
three classifications (e.g., 24 species
called Passerines). Only higher
relationships supported by bootstrap
values >50% are shown. Colors are as in
Fig. 2. Color bars to the right of the
tree show membership in three different
classifications: Peters' (25) (left),
Sibley and Monroe's (30) (middle), and
Livezey and Zusi's (13) (right). Black
text within the bars indicates
monophyletic orders in our phylogeny,
whereas white text within the bars
indicates nonmonophyletic orders.
Ordinal name codes: ANS (Anseriformes),
APO (Apodiformes), APT
(Apterygiformes), ARD (Ardeiformes),
BAL (Balaenicipitiformes), BUC
(Bucerotiformes), CAP
(Caprimulgiformes), CAS
(Casuariiformes), CHA
(Charadriiformes), CIC (Ciconiiformes),
CLM (Columbiformes), COL (Coliiformes),
COR (Coraciiformes), CRA (Craciformes),
CUC (Cuculiformes), FAL
(Falconiformes), GAL (Galliformes), GAV
(Gaviiformes), GLB (Galbuliformes), GRU
(Gruiformes), MUS (Musophagiformes),
OPI (Opisthocomiformes), PAS
(Passeriformes), PEL (Pelecaniformes),
PIC (Piciformes), POD
(Podicipediformes), PRO
(Procellariiformes), PSI
(Psittaciformes), RAL (Ralliformes),
RHE (Rheiformes), SPH
(Sphenisciformes), STH
(Struthioniformes), STR (Strigiformes),
TIN (Tinamiformes), TRC
(Trochiliformes), TRO (Trogoniformes),
TUR (Turniciformes), and UPU
(Upupiformes). Figure 4
from: Hackett, Shannon J. et al. “A
Phylogenomic Study of Birds Reveals
Their Evolutionary History.” Science
320.5884 (2008) : 1763 -1768.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763/F4.large.jpg
[2] By Aaron Logan, from
http://www.lightmatter.net/gallery/album
s.php w:en:Creative
Commons attribution CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8d/Grey_Crowned_Crane.jp
g
4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004). {65 MYBN}
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p231. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p231.
[2] English: The southern marsupial
mole (Notoryctes typhlops). Date
Originally uploaded to
pl.wikipedia on 10 May 2006. Source
Own work; originally from
pl.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. Author Bartus.malec at
pl.wikipedia. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/4b/Notoryctes_typhlops.j
pg
6
Numbat {nuMBaT3 }.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=nu
mbat&submit=Submit
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=nu
mbat&submit=Submit
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
6. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). {65
MYBN}
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p231. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p231.
[2] Description English: Quoll
imaged at a rescue park, Tasmania,
Austrailia, probably Tiger Quoll
(Dasyurus maculatus), indicated by
spots on tail Photographer's note.
This is a lucky through-the-fence shot
using an old Sony camera as the animal
was quite active. The small size of the
lens is a distinct advantage in this
case (my Canon xTi would not have been
able to get the
shot). Category:Dasyurus
maculatus Date Taken November 18,
2008, uploaded December 28, 2008 (28
December 2008 (original upload
date)) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia; transferred to Commons by
User:Berichard using CommonsHelper. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f6/Dasyurus_maculatus.jp
g
6
{DIPrOTODoNsEu3 } evolve (Wombats,
Kangeroos, Possums, Koalas).4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=diprot
odontia&submit=Submit
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=diprot
odontia&submit=Submit
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
6. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). {65
MYBN}
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p231. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p231.
[2] Eastern Grey Kangaroo with
joey PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0d/Kangaroo_and_joey03.j
pg
13 14
Rodents:
"Myomorpha" {MIemORFu8 } (rats, mice,
gerbils, voles {VOLZ9 }, lemmings,
hamsters).10 11 12
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/
3. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p360.
4. ^ "vole." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 30
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/vole
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
6. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/
7. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p360.
8. ^ "Myomorpha." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/myomorpha-2
9. ^ "vole." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 30 Dec.
2011. http://www.answers.com/topic/vole
10. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
11. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/
12. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p360.
13. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). {65 MYBN}
14. ^
Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life", 2009,
p360.
MORE INFO
[1] Mark S. Springer, William J.
Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003)
[2] "Euarchontoglires". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euarchontog
lires
[3] "Placentalia". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Placentalia
[4] Michael J. Benton and Francisco J.
Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003)
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p187. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p187.
[2] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p187. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p187.
5
thumb.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (=63my) {63 MYBN}
MORE INFO
[1]
http://anthro.palomar.edu/earlyprimates/
first_primates.htm
[2]
http://www.cnrs.fr/cw/fr/pres/compress/T
oumai/Tounaigb/lienparengb.html
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p168. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p168.
[2] Description English: Gray
slender loris (Loris lydekkerianus)
photographed at Dindigal in Tamil
Nadu. Date 27 June 2008 Source
Own work Author Kalyan Varma
(Kalyanvarma) GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8f/Slender_Loris.jpg
7 8
{STriJiFORmEZ4 } evolve (owls).5 6
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ "Strigiformes." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/strigiforme
s-1
2. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record
2)
3. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p360.
4. ^ "Strigiformes." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/strigiforme
s-1
5. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record
2)
6. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p360.
7. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive
Life", 2009, p360.
8. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record
2) {65 MYBN(need to check with fossil
record 2}
MORE INFO
[1] Hackett, Shannon J. et al.
“A Phylogenomic Study of Birds
Reveals Their Evolutionary History.”
Science 320.5884 (2008) : 1763 -1768.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763
[2] LIVEZEY, BRADLEY C., and RICHARD L.
ZUSI. “Higher-order phylogeny of
modern birds (Theropoda, Aves:
Neornithes) based on comparative
anatomy. II. Analysis and
discussion.” Zoological Journal of
the Linnean Society 149.1 (2007) :
1-95. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/do
i/10.1111/j.1096-3642.2006.00293.x/full
[1] Fig. 4. Our phylogeny differs from
and agrees with previous
classifications. We merged
well-supported (>70% bootstrap values)
monophyletic clades at the tips with
the same ordinal designation across all
three classifications (e.g., 24 species
called Passerines). Only higher
relationships supported by bootstrap
values >50% are shown. Colors are as in
Fig. 2. Color bars to the right of the
tree show membership in three different
classifications: Peters' (25) (left),
Sibley and Monroe's (30) (middle), and
Livezey and Zusi's (13) (right). Black
text within the bars indicates
monophyletic orders in our phylogeny,
whereas white text within the bars
indicates nonmonophyletic orders.
Ordinal name codes: ANS (Anseriformes),
APO (Apodiformes), APT
(Apterygiformes), ARD (Ardeiformes),
BAL (Balaenicipitiformes), BUC
(Bucerotiformes), CAP
(Caprimulgiformes), CAS
(Casuariiformes), CHA
(Charadriiformes), CIC (Ciconiiformes),
CLM (Columbiformes), COL (Coliiformes),
COR (Coraciiformes), CRA (Craciformes),
CUC (Cuculiformes), FAL
(Falconiformes), GAL (Galliformes), GAV
(Gaviiformes), GLB (Galbuliformes), GRU
(Gruiformes), MUS (Musophagiformes),
OPI (Opisthocomiformes), PAS
(Passeriformes), PEL (Pelecaniformes),
PIC (Piciformes), POD
(Podicipediformes), PRO
(Procellariiformes), PSI
(Psittaciformes), RAL (Ralliformes),
RHE (Rheiformes), SPH
(Sphenisciformes), STH
(Struthioniformes), STR (Strigiformes),
TIN (Tinamiformes), TRC
(Trochiliformes), TRO (Trogoniformes),
TUR (Turniciformes), and UPU
(Upupiformes). Figure 4
from: Hackett, Shannon J. et al. “A
Phylogenomic Study of Birds Reveals
Their Evolutionary History.” Science
320.5884 (2008) : 1763 -1768.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763/F4.large.jpg
[2] Description Athene
noctua English: Little owl Español:
Mochuelo Date 2011-02-27 07:27
(UTC) Source
Athene_noctua_(portrait).jpg Author
Athene_noctua_(portrait).jpg:
Trebol-a derivative work:
Stemonitis (talk) CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/39/Athene_noctua_%28crop
ped%29.jpg
8 9 10
{KoRniVRu4 } (ancestor of Cats, Dogs,
Bears, Weasels, Hyenas, Seals, and
Walruses).5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "carnivora?s=t&ld=1089".
Dictionary.com Unabridged (v 1.1).
Random House, Inc.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/c
arnivora?s=t&ld=1089
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^ Michael J. Benton and
Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the Tree of
Life", Science, (2003).
4. ^
"carnivora?s=t&ld=1089". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/c
arnivora?s=t&ld=1089
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
6. ^ Michael J. Benton and
Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the Tree of
Life", Science, (2003).
7. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
8. ^ Palmer,
et al., "Primitive Life", 2009, p360.
9. ^
Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004). {75 MYBN}
10. ^ Michael J. Benton and
Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the Tree of
Life", Science, (2003).
MORE INFO
[1] Mark S. Springer, William J.
Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003)
[2] "Laurasiatheria". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laurasiathe
ria
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p200. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p200.
[2] Description English:
Two-spotted palm civet Nandinia
binotata mounted specimen in Manchester
Museum Date 2008-07-28 (original
upload date) (Original text : July
2008) GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5a/14-nandinia_binotata.
JPG
5
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^ "tarsier." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 06
Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/tarsier
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^ "tarsier." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 06
Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/tarsier
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). {58 MYBN}
MORE INFO
[1] Mark S. Springer, William J.
Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003)
[2] Michael J. Benton and Francisco J.
Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003)
[3] "Euarchontoglires".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euarchontog
lires
[4] "Placentalia". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Placentalia
[5] "Tarsier". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarsier
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p164. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p164.
[2] Description Tarsius syrichta
(Philippine Tarsier) Date
- Source
http://www.sxc.hu/photo/490924 Aut
hor Jasper Greek Golangco PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1d/Tarsius_Syrichta-GG.j
pg
7 8
{oPoD-i-FORmEZ4 } (hummingbirds,
swifts).5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Apodiformes." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/apodiformes
-1 AND
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=apod
iformes&submit=Submit
2. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record
2)
3. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p360.
4. ^ "Apodiformes." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/apodiformes
-1 AND
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=apod
iformes&submit=Submit
5. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record
2)
6. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p360.
7. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive
Life", 2009, p360.
8. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record
2) {37 MYBN (need to check with fossil
record 2}
[1] Fig. 4. Our phylogeny differs from
and agrees with previous
classifications. We merged
well-supported (>70% bootstrap values)
monophyletic clades at the tips with
the same ordinal designation across all
three classifications (e.g., 24 species
called Passerines). Only higher
relationships supported by bootstrap
values >50% are shown. Colors are as in
Fig. 2. Color bars to the right of the
tree show membership in three different
classifications: Peters' (25) (left),
Sibley and Monroe's (30) (middle), and
Livezey and Zusi's (13) (right). Black
text within the bars indicates
monophyletic orders in our phylogeny,
whereas white text within the bars
indicates nonmonophyletic orders.
Ordinal name codes: ANS (Anseriformes),
APO (Apodiformes), APT
(Apterygiformes), ARD (Ardeiformes),
BAL (Balaenicipitiformes), BUC
(Bucerotiformes), CAP
(Caprimulgiformes), CAS
(Casuariiformes), CHA
(Charadriiformes), CIC (Ciconiiformes),
CLM (Columbiformes), COL (Coliiformes),
COR (Coraciiformes), CRA (Craciformes),
CUC (Cuculiformes), FAL
(Falconiformes), GAL (Galliformes), GAV
(Gaviiformes), GLB (Galbuliformes), GRU
(Gruiformes), MUS (Musophagiformes),
OPI (Opisthocomiformes), PAS
(Passeriformes), PEL (Pelecaniformes),
PIC (Piciformes), POD
(Podicipediformes), PRO
(Procellariiformes), PSI
(Psittaciformes), RAL (Ralliformes),
RHE (Rheiformes), SPH
(Sphenisciformes), STH
(Struthioniformes), STR (Strigiformes),
TIN (Tinamiformes), TRC
(Trochiliformes), TRO (Trogoniformes),
TUR (Turniciformes), and UPU
(Upupiformes). Figure 4
from: Hackett, Shannon J. et al. “A
Phylogenomic Study of Birds Reveals
Their Evolutionary History.” Science
320.5884 (2008) : 1763 -1768.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763/F4.large.jpg
[2] Description Ruby-throated
hummingbird public domain USFWA Date
11 February 2003 Source
Cropped from U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service Digital Library
System Author Steve Maslowski PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/87/Rubythroathummer65.jp
g
7 8
(woodpeckers, toucans).5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Piciformes." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/piciformes-
1
AND http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=p
iciformes&submit=Submit
2. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record
2)
3. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p360.
4. ^ "Piciformes." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/piciformes-
1
AND http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=p
iciformes&submit=Submit
5. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record
2)
6. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p360.
7. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive
Life", 2009, p360.
8. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record
2) {37 MYBN (need to check with fossil
record 2}
MORE INFO
[1] Hackett, Shannon J. et al.
“A Phylogenomic Study of Birds
Reveals Their Evolutionary History.”
Science 320.5884 (2008) : 1763 -1768.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763
[1] Fig. 4. Our phylogeny differs from
and agrees with previous
classifications. We merged
well-supported (>70% bootstrap values)
monophyletic clades at the tips with
the same ordinal designation across all
three classifications (e.g., 24 species
called Passerines). Only higher
relationships supported by bootstrap
values >50% are shown. Colors are as in
Fig. 2. Color bars to the right of the
tree show membership in three different
classifications: Peters' (25) (left),
Sibley and Monroe's (30) (middle), and
Livezey and Zusi's (13) (right). Black
text within the bars indicates
monophyletic orders in our phylogeny,
whereas white text within the bars
indicates nonmonophyletic orders.
Ordinal name codes: ANS (Anseriformes),
APO (Apodiformes), APT
(Apterygiformes), ARD (Ardeiformes),
BAL (Balaenicipitiformes), BUC
(Bucerotiformes), CAP
(Caprimulgiformes), CAS
(Casuariiformes), CHA
(Charadriiformes), CIC (Ciconiiformes),
CLM (Columbiformes), COL (Coliiformes),
COR (Coraciiformes), CRA (Craciformes),
CUC (Cuculiformes), FAL
(Falconiformes), GAL (Galliformes), GAV
(Gaviiformes), GLB (Galbuliformes), GRU
(Gruiformes), MUS (Musophagiformes),
OPI (Opisthocomiformes), PAS
(Passeriformes), PEL (Pelecaniformes),
PIC (Piciformes), POD
(Podicipediformes), PRO
(Procellariiformes), PSI
(Psittaciformes), RAL (Ralliformes),
RHE (Rheiformes), SPH
(Sphenisciformes), STH
(Struthioniformes), STR (Strigiformes),
TIN (Tinamiformes), TRC
(Trochiliformes), TRO (Trogoniformes),
TUR (Turniciformes), and UPU
(Upupiformes). Figure 4
from: Hackett, Shannon J. et al. “A
Phylogenomic Study of Birds Reveals
Their Evolutionary History.” Science
320.5884 (2008) : 1763 -1768.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763/F4.large.jpg
[2] Description Hispaniolan
Woodpecker / Melanerpes striatus Date
20 January 2004 Source
http://www.pbase.com/wwcsig/image/4
1280575 Author Wolfgang
Wander GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1b/Melanerpes_striatus00
1.jpg
11 12
{PaSRiFORmEZ5 } (perching songbirds)
evolve. This order includes many common
birds: crows, jays, sparrows, warblers,
mockingbirds, robins, orioles,
bluebirds, vireos {VEREOZ6 }, larks,
finches.7 8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Passeriformes." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/passeriform
es-1
AND http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=p
asseriformes&submit=Submit
2. ^ "vireo." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 06 Sep.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/vireo
3. ^ "Passeriformes". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passeriform
es
4. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p360.
5. ^ "Passeriformes." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/passeriform
es-1
AND http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=p
asseriformes&submit=Submit
6. ^ "vireo." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 06 Sep.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/vireo
7. ^ "Passeriformes". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passeriform
es
8. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p360.
9. ^ Boles, Walter E. (1997):
Fossil Songbirds (Passeriformes) from
the Early Eocene of Australia. Emu
'97'(1): 43–50. doi:10.1071/MU97004
10. ^ L. Christidis,
A. Cooper, M. Irestedt, et al., "A
Gondwanan origin of passerine birds
supported by DNA sequences of the
endemic New Zealand wrens" Proceedings
of the Royal Society B, February
2002:235–241.
11. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p360.
12. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record
2)
MORE INFO
[1] Ericson, Per G. P. et al.
“A Gondwanan Origin of Passerine
Birds Supported by DNA Sequences of the
Endemic New Zealand Wrens.”
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London. Series B: Biological Sciences
269.1488 (2002):
235–241. http://rspb.royalsocietypubl
ishing.org/content/269/1488/235.abstract
|Gondwana10
[1] Fig. 4. Our phylogeny differs from
and agrees with previous
classifications. We merged
well-supported (>70% bootstrap values)
monophyletic clades at the tips with
the same ordinal designation across all
three classifications (e.g., 24 species
called Passerines). Only higher
relationships supported by bootstrap
values >50% are shown. Colors are as in
Fig. 2. Color bars to the right of the
tree show membership in three different
classifications: Peters' (25) (left),
Sibley and Monroe's (30) (middle), and
Livezey and Zusi's (13) (right). Black
text within the bars indicates
monophyletic orders in our phylogeny,
whereas white text within the bars
indicates nonmonophyletic orders.
Ordinal name codes: ANS (Anseriformes),
APO (Apodiformes), APT
(Apterygiformes), ARD (Ardeiformes),
BAL (Balaenicipitiformes), BUC
(Bucerotiformes), CAP
(Caprimulgiformes), CAS
(Casuariiformes), CHA
(Charadriiformes), CIC (Ciconiiformes),
CLM (Columbiformes), COL (Coliiformes),
COR (Coraciiformes), CRA (Craciformes),
CUC (Cuculiformes), FAL
(Falconiformes), GAL (Galliformes), GAV
(Gaviiformes), GLB (Galbuliformes), GRU
(Gruiformes), MUS (Musophagiformes),
OPI (Opisthocomiformes), PAS
(Passeriformes), PEL (Pelecaniformes),
PIC (Piciformes), POD
(Podicipediformes), PRO
(Procellariiformes), PSI
(Psittaciformes), RAL (Ralliformes),
RHE (Rheiformes), SPH
(Sphenisciformes), STH
(Struthioniformes), STR (Strigiformes),
TIN (Tinamiformes), TRC
(Trochiliformes), TRO (Trogoniformes),
TUR (Turniciformes), and UPU
(Upupiformes). Figure 4
from: Hackett, Shannon J. et al. “A
Phylogenomic Study of Birds Reveals
Their Evolutionary History.” Science
320.5884 (2008) : 1763 -1768.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763/F4.large.jpg
[2] Western Bluebirds (female on
left) Irvine, CA PD
source: http://tedhuntington.com/bluebir
ds.jpg
7 8 9 10
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^ Mark S. Springer, William J.
Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003).
2. ^ Michael J. Benton and Francisco J.
Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003).
3. ^ Mark S. Springer, William
J. Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen
J. O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003).
4. ^ Michael J. Benton and Francisco J.
Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003).
5. ^ Delmer, C., Mahboubi, M.,
Tabuce, R. & Tassy, P. 2006. "A new
species of Moeritherium (Proboscidae,
Mammalia) from the Eocene of Algeria:
new perspectives on the ancestral
morphotype of the genus." Palaeontology
49 (2),
421-434. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com
/doi/10.1111/j.1475-4983.2006.00548.x/ab
stract
6. ^ Mark S. Springer, William J.
Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003).
7. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p360.
8. ^ Mark S. Springer, William J.
Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003). {62 MYBN}
9. ^ Michael J. Benton and
Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the Tree of
Life", Science, (2003).
10. ^ Palmer, D., ed.
(1999). The Marshall Illustrated
Encyclopedia of Dinosaurs and
Prehistoric Animals. London: Marshall
Editions. p. 238. ISBN 1-84028-152-9.
MORE INFO
[1] Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004)
[1] Description Moeritherium Date
1920 (probably) Source The Wonderful
Paleo Art of Heinrich Harder Author
Heinrich Harder (1858-1935) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/97/Moeritherium.jpg
[2] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p225. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p225.
4 5 6 7
3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Mark S. Springer, William
J. Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen
J. O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003).
3. ^ Michael J. Benton and Francisco J.
Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003).
4. ^ Palmer, et al.,
"Primitive Life", 2009, p360.
5. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004). {59 MYBN}
6. ^ Mark S. Springer,
William J. Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and
Stephen J. O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003).
7. ^ Michael J. Benton and Francisco J.
Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003).
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p225. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p225.
[2] Description Trichechus
manatus English: This group of three
West Indian manatees (Trichechus
manatus) was photographed while feeding
on seagrass. Date Source from
http://www.csc.noaa.gov/benthic/resource
s/gallery/life/manatee.htm Author
PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/81/Manatee.jpg
18 19 20
{SiToRTEODaKTilu7 } evolve (ancestor of
all Artiodactyla {oRTEODaKTiLu8 } also
called "even-toed ungulates"
{uNGYUlATS9 or uNGYUliTS10 }11 :
camels, pigs, ruminants {includes deer,
giraffe, cattle, sheep, and antelope12
}, hippos, and all Cetacea {SiTASEu or
SiTAsEu13 }: Whales, and Dolphins).14
15 16
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=cetart
iodactyla&submit=Submit
2. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=artiod
actyla&submit=Submit
3. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=cetace
a&submit=Submit
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p199-218.
5. ^ Michael J. Benton
and Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the
Tree of Life", Science, (2003).
6. ^
"Cetartiodactyla", Oxford Dictionary
for Scientific Writers and Editors. New
Oxford Dictionary for Scientific
Writers and Editors. ©
1991 http://www.answers.com/topic/cetar
tiodactyla
7. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=cetart
iodactyla&submit=Submit
8. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=artiod
actyla&submit=Submit
9. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=ungula
te&submit=Submit
10. ^ "ungulate." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 16
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ungulate
11. ^ "artiodactyla." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 08 Jan. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/artiodactyl
a-1
12. ^ "artiodactyla." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 08 Jan. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/artiodactyl
a-1
13. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=cetace
a&submit=Submit
14. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p199-218.
15. ^ Michael J. Benton
and Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the
Tree of Life", Science, (2003).
16. ^
"Cetartiodactyla", Oxford Dictionary
for Scientific Writers and Editors. New
Oxford Dictionary for Scientific
Writers and Editors. ©
1991 http://www.answers.com/topic/cetar
tiodactyla
17. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p199-218.
18. ^ Palmer et al,
"Primitive Life", 2009, p360.
19. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004), p199-218. {78 MYBN}
20. ^ Michael J.
Benton and Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating
the Tree of Life", Science, (2003).
MORE INFO
[1] Mark S. Springer, William J.
Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003)
[2] "Laurasiatheria". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laurasiathe
ria
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p200. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p200.
[2] [t may or may not be
accurate] Description Pakicetus
inachus, a whale ancestor from the
Early Eocene of Pakistan, after
Nummelai et al., (2006), pencil
drawing, digital coloring Date 29
November 2007 Source Own
work Author Nobu Tamura
email:nobu.tamura@yahoo.com
www.palaeocritti.com GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/34/Pakicetus_BW.jpg
13 14 15
{PeriSODaKTilu5 } evolve (also called
"odd-toed ungulates6 ) {uNGYUlATS7 or
uNGYUliTS8 } (Horses, Tapirs {TAPRZ 9
}, Rhinos).10 11
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Perissodactyla." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/perissodact
yla-2
2. ^ "tapir." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 06 Sep.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/tapir
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p199-218.
4. ^ Michael J. Benton
and Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the
Tree of Life", Science, (2003).
5. ^
"Perissodactyla." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/perissodact
yla-2
6. ^ "ungulate." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 02 Jun.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ungulate
7. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=ungula
te&submit=Submit
8. ^ "ungulate." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 16
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ungulate
9. ^ "tapir." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 06 Sep.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/tapir
10. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p199-218.
11. ^ Michael J. Benton
and Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the
Tree of Life", Science, (2003).
12. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004), p199-218.
13. ^ Palmer et al, "Primitive
Life", 2009, p360.
14. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p199-218. {76 MYBN}
15. ^ Michael J. Benton
and Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the
Tree of Life", Science, (2003).
MORE INFO
[1] Mark S. Springer, William J.
Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003)
[2] "Laurasiatheria". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laurasiathe
ria
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p200. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p200.
[2] Description Two young Nokota
mares Date 2010-02-11 22:34
(UTC) Source
Nokota_Horses.jpg Author
Nokota_Horses.jpg: François Marchal
derivative work: Dana boomer
(talk) CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/de/Nokota_Horses_cropped
.jpg
5 6 7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
4. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/
5. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p360.
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). {65 MYBN}
7. ^
Michael J. Benton and Francisco J.
Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003). {65 MYBN}
MORE INFO
[1] Mark S. Springer, William J.
Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003)
[2] "Euarchontoglires". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euarchontog
lires
[3] "Placentalia". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Placentalia
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p187. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p187.
[2] Description he was happily
sitting back and munching on something.
and munching, and munching... Date
4 July 2007, 12:55 Source
American Beaver Author Steve
from washington, dc,
usa Permission (Reusing this file)
See below. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6b/American_Beaver.jpg
4 5 6
Beaver, Squirrel and Marmot {moRmuT2
}.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=marmot
&submit=Submit
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
4. ^ Palmer, et al.,
"Primitive Life", 2009, p360.
5. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004). {58 MYBN}
6. ^ Michael J. Benton and
Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the Tree of
Life", Science, (2003). {58 MYBN}
MORE INFO
[1] Mark S. Springer, William J.
Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003)
[2] "Euarchontoglires". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euarchontog
lires
[3] http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p187. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p187.
[2] Description Membres de la
famille des Suridés Date Source
Own work Author Chicoutimi
(montage) Montage 9 pictures.jpg
Karakal AndiW National Park
Service en:User:Markus Krötzsch
The Lilac Breasted Roller Nico
Conradie from Centurion, South Africa
Hans Hillewaert Sylvouille
National Park Service GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/68/Sciuridae.jpg
4 5
{SiTaS-iFORmEZ1 } (Parrots).2 3
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ "Psittaciformes." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 19 Feb. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/psittacifor
mes-1
2. ^ Brown, Joseph, Joshua Rest, Jaime
G. Moreno, Michael Sorenson, and David
Mindell. "Strong mitochondrial DNA
support for a Cretaceous origin of
modern avian lineages." BMC Biology 6
(January 2008):
6:6. http://www.biomedcentral.com/1741-
7007/6/6
3. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p360.
4. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive
Life", 2009, p360.
5. ^ Brown, Joseph, Joshua
Rest, Jaime G. Moreno, Michael
Sorenson, and David Mindell. "Strong
mitochondrial DNA support for a
Cretaceous origin of modern avian
lineages." BMC Biology 6 (January
2008):
6:6. http://www.biomedcentral.com/1741-
7007/6/6
MORE INFO
[1] LIVEZEY, BRADLEY C., and
RICHARD L. ZUSI. “Higher-order
phylogeny of modern birds (Theropoda,
Aves: Neornithes) based on comparative
anatomy. II. Analysis and
discussion.” Zoological Journal of
the Linnean Society 149.1 (2007) :
1-95. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/do
i/10.1111/j.1096-3642.2006.00293.x/full
[2] Hackett, Shannon J. et al. “A
Phylogenomic Study of Birds Reveals
Their Evolutionary History.” Science
320.5884 (2008) : 1763 -1768.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763
[3] "Neornithes." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 28 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/neornithes
[4] Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (estimate from)
[1] Brown, Joseph, Joshua Rest, Jaime
G. Moreno, Michael Sorenson, and David
Mindell. ''Strong mitochondrial DNA
support for a Cretaceous origin of
modern avian lineages.'' BMC Biology 6
(January 2008):
6:6. http://www.biomedcentral.com/1741-
7007/6/6 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.biomedcentral.com/174
1-7007/6/6
[2] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p262. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p262.
2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
2. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm {55 MYBN}
[1] Description English: This
reproduction of a painting of an
undetermined species of Hyracotherium
was made to illustrate one card of a
set of 30 collector cards from ''Tiere
der Urwelt'' (Animals of the
Prehistoric World). From the Series
III. Deutsch: Diese Reproduktion eines
Gemäldes einer nicht näher
bezeichneten Art von Hyracotherium
wurde zur Illustration einer Karte aus
einem Set von 30 Sammelkarten mit dem
Titel „Tiere der Urwelt“
angefertigt. Aus der Serie III. Date
1920 (probably) Source The Wonderful
Paleo Art of Heinrich Harder Author
Heinrich Harder (1858-1935) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6e/Hyracotherium_Eohippu
s_hharder.jpg
[2] The artwork depicting horse
evolution is from Professor Donald
Levin's course in BioEvolution at the
University of Texas in Austin. This is
a brief, highly illustrated course with
many examples given of macroevolution.
Notice that the generalized branching
diagram in this illustration is less
twiggy than the more bushy branching
depicted at other resources mentioned
here. UNKNOWN
source: http://darwiniana.org/equid2t.gi
f
3 4
hippos with dolphins and whales.2
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). (=54)
{54 MYBN}
4. ^ Mark S. Springer, William J.
Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003). (=53) {53 MYBN}
MORE INFO
[1] Michael J. Benton and
Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the Tree of
Life", Science, (2003)
[1] Fig. 2. Molecular time scale for
the orders of placental mammals based
on the 16,397-bp data set and maximum
likelihood tree of ref. 14 with an
opossum outgroup (data not shown), 13
fossil constraints (Materials and
Methods), and a mean prior of 105 mya
for the placental root. Ordinal
designations are listed above the
branches. Orange and green lines denote
orders with basal diversification
before or after the K/T boundary,
respectively. Black lines depict orders
for which only one taxon was available.
Asterisks denote placental taxa
included in the ''K/T body size'' taxon
set. The composition of chimeric taxa,
including caniform, caviomorph,
strepsirrhine, and sirenian, is
indicated elsewhere (14). Numbers for
internal nodes are cross-referenced in
the supporting information.
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.pnas.org/content/vol1
00/issue3/images/large/pq0334222002.jpeg
[2] Description Deutsch: Eine
Gruppe Flußpferde im Luangwa-Tal,
Sambia. English: Pod of Hippos
(Hippopotamus amphibius) in Luangwa
Valley, Zambia Français : Groupe
d'hippopotames (Hippopotamus amphibius)
dans la vallée du Luangua, en
Zambie Date 2005 Source Own
work Author Paul Maritz GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a3/Hippo_pod_edit.jpg
4 5 6 7
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ S. Bajpai and P. D. Gingerich.
1998. A new Eocene archaeocete
(Mammalia, Cetacea) from India and the
time of origin of whales. Proceedings
of the National Academy of Sciences
95:15464-15468 http://www.pnas.org/cont
ent/95/26/15464.abstract
2. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p360.
3. ^
http://www.sciencenews.org/pages/sn_arc9
8/10_10_98/fob3.htm
4. ^ S. Bajpai and P. D. Gingerich.
1998. A new Eocene archaeocete
(Mammalia, Cetacea) from India and the
time of origin of whales. Proceedings
of the National Academy of Sciences
95:15464-15468 http://www.pnas.org/cont
ent/95/26/15464.abstract
5. ^
http://www.sciencenews.org/pages/sn_arc9
8/10_10_98/fob3.htm (=53.5) {53.5 MYBN}
6. ^
Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004). (=50) {50 MYBN}
7. ^ Mark S. Springer,
William J. Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and
Stephen J. O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003). (=52) {52 MYBN}
MORE INFO
[1] Michael J. Benton and
Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the Tree of
Life", Science, (2003)
Northern India3
[1] The evolution of whales The
first thing to notice on this evogram
is that hippos are the closest living
relatives of whales, but they are not
the ancestors of whales. In fact, none
of the individual animals on the
evogram is the direct ancestor of any
other, as far as we know. That's why
each of them gets its own branch on the
family tree. UNKNOWN
source: http://evolution.berkeley.edu/ev
olibrary/images/evograms/whale_evo.jpg
[2] Description Pakicetus inachus, a
whale ancestor from the Early Eocene of
Pakistan, after Nummelai et al.,
(2006), pencil drawing, digital
coloring Date 29 November
2007 Source Own work Author Nobu
Tamura
(http://spinops.blogspot.com) GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/34/Pakicetus_BW.jpg
8 9 10
{KIroPTRu4 } (fruit bats, echolocating
bats).5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Chiroptera." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/chiroptera-
1
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^ Michael J. Benton and
Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the Tree of
Life", Science, (2003).
4. ^ "Chiroptera."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 30
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/chiroptera-
1
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
6. ^ Michael J. Benton and
Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the Tree of
Life", Science, (2003).
7. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
8. ^ Palmer,
et al., "Primitive Life", 2009, p360.
9. ^
Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004). {80 MYBN}
10. ^ Michael J. Benton and
Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the Tree of
Life", Science, (2003).
MORE INFO
[1] Mark S. Springer, William J.
Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003)
[2] "Laurasiatheria". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laurasiathe
ria
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p200. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p200.
[2] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p200. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p200.
3
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). {51
MYBN}
MORE INFO
[1] Mark S. Springer, William J.
Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003)
[2] "Euarchontoglires". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euarchontog
lires
[3] "Placentalia". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Placentalia
[4] Michael J. Benton and Francisco J.
Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003)
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p187. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p187.
[2] Photograph of a brush-tailed
porcupine in Berlin Zoologischer
Garten. Taken by Eloquence in July 2005
and released into the public
domain. Public domain PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/21/Brush_tailed_porcupin
e_Berlin_Zoo.jpg
4
start to form.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Himalayan." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 06 Jan.
2013.
imalayan>.
2. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
3. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
4. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm {50 MYBN}
[1] 50 Ma Eocene NONCOMMERCIAL
source: http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~rcb7/050
_Eocene_3globes.jpg
[2] Himalayas as pictured by NASA
Landsat 7 Satellite. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/2/25/Himalayas_landsat_7.png
2
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^
http://www.ncseweb.org/resources/article
s/5359_71_miller_1999_iof_panda_12_6_200
4.asp
2. ^
http://www.ncseweb.org/resources/article
s/5359_71_miller_1999_iof_panda_12_6_200
4.asp (=40)
[1] Ambulocetus natans in action. A
reconstruction of an early close cousin
of whales. by artist Carl
Buell. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.indiana.edu/~ensiweb/
images/whal.amb.jpeg
[2] Ambulocetus The name Ambulocetus
gives away its early ancestry. It means
'walking whale'. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.abc.net.au/beasts/evi
dence/prog1/images/evi_amulocetus_large.
jpg
5 6
{FaLKoNiFORmEZ3 } (falcons, hawks,
eagles, Old World vultures).4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Falconiformes." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/falconiform
es-1
2. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record
2)
3. ^ "Falconiformes." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/falconiform
es-1
4. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record
2)
5. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p361.
6. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record
2) {49 MYBN (need to check with fossil
record 2}
[1] Fig. 4. Our phylogeny differs from
and agrees with previous
classifications. We merged
well-supported (>70% bootstrap values)
monophyletic clades at the tips with
the same ordinal designation across all
three classifications (e.g., 24 species
called Passerines). Only higher
relationships supported by bootstrap
values >50% are shown. Colors are as in
Fig. 2. Color bars to the right of the
tree show membership in three different
classifications: Peters' (25) (left),
Sibley and Monroe's (30) (middle), and
Livezey and Zusi's (13) (right). Black
text within the bars indicates
monophyletic orders in our phylogeny,
whereas white text within the bars
indicates nonmonophyletic orders.
Ordinal name codes: ANS (Anseriformes),
APO (Apodiformes), APT
(Apterygiformes), ARD (Ardeiformes),
BAL (Balaenicipitiformes), BUC
(Bucerotiformes), CAP
(Caprimulgiformes), CAS
(Casuariiformes), CHA
(Charadriiformes), CIC (Ciconiiformes),
CLM (Columbiformes), COL (Coliiformes),
COR (Coraciiformes), CRA (Craciformes),
CUC (Cuculiformes), FAL
(Falconiformes), GAL (Galliformes), GAV
(Gaviiformes), GLB (Galbuliformes), GRU
(Gruiformes), MUS (Musophagiformes),
OPI (Opisthocomiformes), PAS
(Passeriformes), PEL (Pelecaniformes),
PIC (Piciformes), POD
(Podicipediformes), PRO
(Procellariiformes), PSI
(Psittaciformes), RAL (Ralliformes),
RHE (Rheiformes), SPH
(Sphenisciformes), STH
(Struthioniformes), STR (Strigiformes),
TIN (Tinamiformes), TRC
(Trochiliformes), TRO (Trogoniformes),
TUR (Turniciformes), and UPU
(Upupiformes). Figure 4
from: Hackett, Shannon J. et al. “A
Phylogenomic Study of Birds Reveals
Their Evolutionary History.” Science
320.5884 (2008) : 1763 -1768.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763/F4.large.jpg
[2] Description English: Bald Eagle
(Haliaeetus leucocephalus) in
Tree Date July 2005 Source
U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service Author Hillebrand,
Steve PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/69/Haliaeetus_leucocepha
lus-tree-USFWS.jpg
5
guinea pigs, capybaras {KaPuBoRoZ3 }.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "capybara." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 06
Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/capybara
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^ "capybara." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 06
Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/capybara
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). {49 MYBN}
MORE INFO
[1] Mark S. Springer, William J.
Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003)
[2] "Euarchontoglires". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euarchontog
lires
[3] "Placentalia". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Placentalia
[4] Michael J. Benton and Francisco J.
Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003)
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p187. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p187.
[2] Description English: A North
American porcupine (Erethizon dorsatum)
rests in a tree in Montreal's
BioDome. Date 20 July
2004 Source self-made with a
Nikon D70 Author J. Glover CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/83/Porcupine-BioDome.jpg
6
World Monkeys" (Sakis, Spider, Howler
and Squirrel monkeys, Capuchins {KaP YU
CiNZ3 }, and Tamarins).4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "capuchin." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 06
Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/capuchin
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^ "capuchin." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 06
Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/capuchin
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p147 (guess is
in Africa).
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). {40 MYBN}
MORE INFO
[1] Mark S. Springer, William J.
Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003)
[2] Michael J. Benton and Francisco J.
Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003)
[3] "Euarchontoglires".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euarchontog
lires
[4] "Placentalia". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Placentalia
[5] "New world monkey". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_world_m
onkey
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p149. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p149.
[2] Description English: A
critically endangered Brown Spider
Monkey, Ateles hybridus, with uncommon
blue eyes. Shot in captivity in
Barquisimeto,
Venezuela Русский:
Паукообразная
обезьяна Ateles hybridus с
редко встречающимися
голубыми глазами.
Сфотографирована в
неволе в
Венесуэле. Date
September 2008 Source
Image:BrownSpiderMonkey.jpg Author
http://www.birdphotos.com edit by
Fir0002 Permission (Reusing this
file) See below. Attribution must
appear on same page as photo. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/dc/BrownSpiderMonkey_%28
edit2%29.jpg
2 3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
2. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm {37 MYBN}
3. ^ Palmer, et al.,
"Primitive Life", 2009, p361.
[1] Cynodictus from: A history of land
mammals in the western hemisphere By
William Berryman Scott PD
source: https://play.google.com/books/re
ader?id=HbAlAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover
&output=reader&authuser=0&hl=en&pg=GBS.P
A529
[2] Description Hesperocyon
gregarius 32 - 30 million years ago;
Early Oligocene; Oldest recognized
member of the dog family. Date 10
October 2008, 10:42 Source
Hesperocyon gregarius (Dog)
Uploaded by FunkMonk Author
Claire H. from New York City,
USA Permission (Reusing this file)
CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5f/Hesperocyon_Gregarius
.jpg
5
} evolve (cuckoos, roadrunners).4
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=cuculi
formes&submit=Submit
2. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record
2)
3. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=cuculi
formes&submit=Submit
4. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record
2)
5. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record
2) {37 MYBN (need to check with fossil
record 2}
[1] Fig. 4. Our phylogeny differs from
and agrees with previous
classifications. We merged
well-supported (>70% bootstrap values)
monophyletic clades at the tips with
the same ordinal designation across all
three classifications (e.g., 24 species
called Passerines). Only higher
relationships supported by bootstrap
values >50% are shown. Colors are as in
Fig. 2. Color bars to the right of the
tree show membership in three different
classifications: Peters' (25) (left),
Sibley and Monroe's (30) (middle), and
Livezey and Zusi's (13) (right). Black
text within the bars indicates
monophyletic orders in our phylogeny,
whereas white text within the bars
indicates nonmonophyletic orders.
Ordinal name codes: ANS (Anseriformes),
APO (Apodiformes), APT
(Apterygiformes), ARD (Ardeiformes),
BAL (Balaenicipitiformes), BUC
(Bucerotiformes), CAP
(Caprimulgiformes), CAS
(Casuariiformes), CHA
(Charadriiformes), CIC (Ciconiiformes),
CLM (Columbiformes), COL (Coliiformes),
COR (Coraciiformes), CRA (Craciformes),
CUC (Cuculiformes), FAL
(Falconiformes), GAL (Galliformes), GAV
(Gaviiformes), GLB (Galbuliformes), GRU
(Gruiformes), MUS (Musophagiformes),
OPI (Opisthocomiformes), PAS
(Passeriformes), PEL (Pelecaniformes),
PIC (Piciformes), POD
(Podicipediformes), PRO
(Procellariiformes), PSI
(Psittaciformes), RAL (Ralliformes),
RHE (Rheiformes), SPH
(Sphenisciformes), STH
(Struthioniformes), STR (Strigiformes),
TIN (Tinamiformes), TRC
(Trochiliformes), TRO (Trogoniformes),
TUR (Turniciformes), and UPU
(Upupiformes). Figure 4
from: Hackett, Shannon J. et al. “A
Phylogenomic Study of Birds Reveals
Their Evolutionary History.” Science
320.5884 (2008) : 1763 -1768.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763/F4.large.jpg
[2] Description English: Common
cuckoo Deutsch: Kuckuck Date
Source Own work Author
Vogelartinfo GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b0/Cuculus_canorus_vogel
artinfo_chris_romeiks_CHR0791.jpg
4
split.1
Toothed whales include dolphins, sperm,
and killer whales. Baleen whales
include blue, humpback, and gray
whales.2 3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ "toothed whale."
Britannica Concise Encyclopedia.
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.,
1994-2010. Answers.com 15 Jul. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/toothed-wha
le
3. ^ "baleen whale." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 15 Jul.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/baleen-whal
e
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (=34) {34 MYBN}
MORE INFO
[1] Mark S. Springer, William J.
Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003)
[2] Michael J. Benton and Francisco J.
Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003)
[1] Dorudon apparently from Walking
With Beasts UNKNOWN
source: http://www.makradafish.newmail.r
u/WalkingWithBeast/dorudon.jpg
[2] Fig. 2. Molecular time scale
for the orders of placental mammals
based on the 16,397-bp data set and
maximum likelihood tree of ref. 14 with
an opossum outgroup (data not shown),
13 fossil constraints (Materials and
Methods), and a mean prior of 105 mya
for the placental root. Ordinal
designations are listed above the
branches. Orange and green lines denote
orders with basal diversification
before or after the K/T boundary,
respectively. Black lines depict orders
for which only one taxon was available.
Asterisks denote placental taxa
included in the ''K/T body size'' taxon
set. The composition of chimeric taxa,
including caniform, caviomorph,
strepsirrhine, and sirenian, is
indicated elsewhere (14). Numbers for
internal nodes are cross-referenced in
the supporting information.
. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.pnas.org/content/vol1
00/issue3/images/large/pq0334222002.jpeg
3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Palmer et al, "Primitive Life",
2009, p361.
2. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
3. ^ Palmer et al, "Primitive Life",
2009, p361.
4. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
[1] Proailurus Wikimedia
Commons Proailurus may or may not have
been a true feline; some experts place
it in the Feloidea family, which
includes not only cats, but also hyenas
and mongooses. Whatever the case,
Proailurus was a relatively small
carnivore, only a little bit bigger
than a modern tabby. GNU
source: http://0.tqn.com/d/dinosaurs/1/0
/e/6/-/-/proailurus.jpg
3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (63 mybn)
2. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004). (63 mybn)
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). (63 mybn) {30
MYBN}
MORE INFO
[1] "Euarchontoglires".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euarchontog
lires
[2] "Strepsirrhini". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strepsirrhi
ni
[3] "Lemuridae". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lemuridae
[4] "Placentalia". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Placentalia
[5] "Lemur". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lemur
[6] Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (63 mybn) (=63 mybn)
[7] Mark
S. Springer, William J. Murphy, Eduardo
Eizirik, and Stephen J. O'Brien,
"Placental mammal diversification and
the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003). (70 mybn) (=70 mybn)
[8] Michael J.
Benton and Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating
the Tree of Life", Science, (2003). (70
mybn) (=70 mybn)
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p168. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p168.
[2] Description English:
Ring-tailed Lemur (Lemur catta) at
Berenty Private Reserve in
Madagascar Date 4 October
2009 Source Own work Author
Alex Dunkel
(Visionholder) Permission (Reusing
this file) See below. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f5/Lemur_catta_001.jpg
6
World Monkeys" (Macaques, Baboons,
Mandrills, Proboscis and Colobus
{KoLiBeS3 } monkeys).4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "colobus monkey." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 06
Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/black-and-w
hite-colobus
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^ "colobus monkey." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 06 Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/black-and-w
hite-colobus
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
6. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). {25
MYBN}
MORE INFO
[1] Michael J. Benton and
Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the Tree of
Life", Science, (2003)
[2] "Euarchontoglires".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euarchontog
lires
[3] Caro-Beth Stewart and Todd R.
Disotell, "Primate evolution - in and
out of Africa", Current Biology Volume
8, Issue 16, 30 July 1998, Pages
R582-R588, (1998) . see image
[4]
"Placentalia". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Placentalia
[5] Mark S. Springer, William J.
Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003)
[1] From: Stewart, Caro-Beth, and Todd
R Disotell. “Primate evolution - in
and out of Africa.” Current Biology
8.16 (1998) :
R582-R588. http://www.sciencedirect.com
/science/article/pii/S0960982207003673
Figure 2. A synthetic hypothesis of
catarrhine primate evolution. The
branching order shown for the living
species is well-supported by numerous
molecular phylogenetic studies (for
example [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 18, 24
and 25]). We present the dates of
divergence calculated by Goodman and
colleagues [11], on the understanding
that these are still rough estimates
and more precise measurements are
needed, especially for the Old World
monkeys. The fossil species (genus
names in italics) were placed on this
tree by parsimony analyses of
relatively large morphological datasets
[4, 11, 14 and 15]. Known dates for
fossils [1, 2 and 21] are indicated by
the thicker lines; these lines are
attached to the tree as determined by
the parsimony analyses, although the
dates of the attachment points are our
best guesses. Species found in Africa
are in red and species found in Eurasia
are in black. The continental locations
of the ancestral lineages were inferred
by parsimony using the computer program
MacClade [30]. The intercontinental
dispersal events required, at a
minimum, to explain the distribution of
the living and fossil species are
indicated by the arrows. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4C4DVM4-D
&_user=4422&_handle=V-WA-A-W-WC-MsSAYVW-
UUW-U-AAVECYCCBC-AAVDAZZBBC-YCACYAZCV-WC
-U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=07%2F30%2F1998&_
rdoc=12&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236243
%231998%23999919983%23494082!&_cdi=6243&
view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlV
ersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=5558415c4ccd34
6c64e2e6be03c3865e
[2] Description Colobus
angolensis monkey Date 13 June
2007, 13:13 Source Angola Colobus
Monkey #6 Author Ryan E.
Poplin CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5a/Colobus_angolensis.jp
g
4
(Gibbons and Hominids) loses its tail.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004). (based on Aegyptopithecus=22my)
{24 MYBN (based on
Aegyptopithecus=22my}
[1] From: Stewart, Caro-Beth, and Todd
R Disotell. “Primate evolution - in
and out of Africa.” Current Biology
8.16 (1998) :
R582-R588. http://www.sciencedirect.com
/science/article/pii/S0960982207003673
Figure 2. A synthetic hypothesis of
catarrhine primate evolution. The
branching order shown for the living
species is well-supported by numerous
molecular phylogenetic studies (for
example [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 18, 24
and 25]). We present the dates of
divergence calculated by Goodman and
colleagues [11], on the understanding
that these are still rough estimates
and more precise measurements are
needed, especially for the Old World
monkeys. The fossil species (genus
names in italics) were placed on this
tree by parsimony analyses of
relatively large morphological datasets
[4, 11, 14 and 15]. Known dates for
fossils [1, 2 and 21] are indicated by
the thicker lines; these lines are
attached to the tree as determined by
the parsimony analyses, although the
dates of the attachment points are our
best guesses. Species found in Africa
are in red and species found in Eurasia
are in black. The continental locations
of the ancestral lineages were inferred
by parsimony using the computer program
MacClade [30]. The intercontinental
dispersal events required, at a
minimum, to explain the distribution of
the living and fossil species are
indicated by the arrows. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4C4DVM4-D
&_user=4422&_handle=V-WA-A-W-WC-MsSAYVW-
UUW-U-AAVECYCCBC-AAVDAZZBBC-YCACYAZCV-WC
-U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=07%2F30%2F1998&_
rdoc=12&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236243
%231998%23999919983%23494082!&_cdi=6243&
view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlV
ersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=5558415c4ccd34
6c64e2e6be03c3865e
[2] Gregoire: 62-year-old
chimpanzee Description English:
Chimpanzee named ''Gregoire'' born in
1944 (Jane Goodall sanctuary of
Tchimpounga in Congo Brazzaville) -
Picture taken the 9th of December
2006 Français : Chimpanzé nommé
''Grégoire'' né en 1944 (sanctuaire
Jane Goodall de Tchimpounga au Congo
Brazzaville) - Photo prise le 9
décembre 2006 Date 9 December
2006 Source Own work Author
Delphine
Bruyère Permission (Reusing this
file) Attribution : Delphine
Bruyere GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/ba/2006-12-09_Chimpanzee
_Gregoire_D_Bruyere.JPG
4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ "monotreme."
Britannica Concise Encyclopedia.
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.,
1994-2010. Answers.com 28 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/monotreme
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). {23 MYBN}
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
239. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), 239.
[2] The echidna is one of a handful of
mammals to give birth to its offspring
by laying eggs. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3b/Long-beakedEchidna.jp
g
4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ "platypus." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 30 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/platypus
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). {23 MYBN}
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
239. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), 239.
[2] Description Description
Swiming Platypus * Photographer Peter
Scheunis * Source self-made Date
September 2004 Location Broken
River-Queensland-Australia Date
2010-01-18 03:46 (UTC) Source
Platypus_BrokenRiver_QLD_Australia.jpg
Author
Platypus_BrokenRiver_QLD_Australia.jpg:
Peterdvv derivative work: Bobisbob
(talk) CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/12/Platypus_BrokenRiver_
QLD_Australia2.png
3 4 5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Caro-Beth Stewart and
Todd R. Disotell, "Primate evolution -
in and out of Africa", Current Biology
Volume 8, Issue 16, 30 July 1998, Pages
R582-R588, (1998).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^ Caro-Beth Stewart
and Todd R. Disotell, "Primate
evolution - in and out of Africa",
Current Biology Volume 8, Issue 16, 30
July 1998, Pages R582-R588, (1998).
(c22-c16mybn)
5. ^
http://johnhawks.net/weblog/fossils/apes
/proconsul/ 22-10 mybn (22-10 mybn)
6. ^
"Proconsul (genus) 27-17 mybn".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proconsul_%
28genus%29 27-17 mybn (27-17mybn)
[1] Figure 2. A synthetic hypothesis of
catarrhine primate evolution. The
branching order shown for the living
species is well-supported by numerous
molecular phylogenetic studies (for
example [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 18, 24
and 25]). We present the dates of
divergence calculated by Goodman and
colleagues [11], on the understanding
that these are still rough estimates
and more precise measurements are
needed, especially for the Old World
monkeys. The fossil species (genus
names in italics) were placed on this
tree by parsimony analyses of
relatively large morphological datasets
[4, 11, 14 and 15]. Known dates for
fossils [1, 2 and 21] are indicated by
the thicker lines; these lines are
attached to the tree as determined by
the parsimony analyses, although the
dates of the attachment points are our
best guesses. Species found in Africa
are in red and species found in Eurasia
are in black. The continental locations
of the ancestral lineages were inferred
by parsimony using the computer program
MacClade [30]. The intercontinental
dispersal events required, at a
minimum, to explain the distribution of
the living and fossil species are
indicated by the arrows. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4C4DVM4-D
&_user=4422&_handle=V-WA-A-W-WC-MsSAYVW-
UUW-U-AAVECYCCBC-AAVDAZZBBC-YCACYAZCV-WC
-U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=07%2F30%2F1998&_
rdoc=12&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236243
%231998%23999919983%23494082!&_cdi=6243&
view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlV
ersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=5558415c4ccd34
6c64e2e6be03c3865e
[2] Proconsul COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://www.andromeda.rutgers.edu
/~biosci/RutgersHumanEcology/Proconsul.j
pg
6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Caro-Beth Stewart and
Todd R. Disotell, "Primate evolution -
in and out of Africa", Current Biology
Volume 8, Issue 16, 30 July 1998, Pages
R582-R588, (1998) .
3. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^
Caro-Beth Stewart and Todd R. Disotell,
"Primate evolution - in and out of
Africa", Current Biology Volume 8,
Issue 16, 30 July 1998, Pages
R582-R588, (1998) .
5. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
6. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004). {18 MYBN}
MORE INFO
[1] Mark S. Springer, William J.
Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003)
[2] Michael J. Benton and Francisco J.
Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003)
[3] "Euarchontoglires".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euarchontog
lires
[4] "Old World monkey". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_World_m
onkey
[5] "Gibbon". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gibbon
[6] "Placentalia". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Placentalia
[7] http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/
[1] Figure 2. A synthetic hypothesis of
catarrhine primate evolution. The
branching order shown for the living
species is well-supported by numerous
molecular phylogenetic studies (for
example [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 18, 24
and 25]). We present the dates of
divergence calculated by Goodman and
colleagues [11], on the understanding
that these are still rough estimates
and more precise measurements are
needed, especially for the Old World
monkeys. The fossil species (genus
names in italics) were placed on this
tree by parsimony analyses of
relatively large morphological datasets
[4, 11, 14 and 15]. Known dates for
fossils [1, 2 and 21] are indicated by
the thicker lines; these lines are
attached to the tree as determined by
the parsimony analyses, although the
dates of the attachment points are our
best guesses. Species found in Africa
are in red and species found in Eurasia
are in black. The continental locations
of the ancestral lineages were inferred
by parsimony using the computer program
MacClade [30]. The intercontinental
dispersal events required, at a
minimum, to explain the distribution of
the living and fossil species are
indicated by the arrows. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4C4DVM4-D
&_user=4422&_handle=V-WA-A-W-WC-MsSAYVW-
UUW-U-AAVECYCCBC-AAVDAZZBBC-YCACYAZCV-WC
-U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=07%2F30%2F1998&_
rdoc=12&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236243
%231998%23999919983%23494082!&_cdi=6243&
view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlV
ersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=5558415c4ccd34
6c64e2e6be03c3865e
[2] Description Deutsch:
Weißhandgibbons Date 25 May
2006 Source Own work Author
User:MatthiasKabel GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/38/Hylobates_lar_pair_of
_white_and_black_01.jpg
6 7 8 9
Orangutans.3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Begun, "African and
Eurasian Miocene hominoids and the
origins of the Hominidae", in Louis de
Bonis, George D. Koufos, Peter Andrews,
"Phylogeny of the Neogene hominoid
primates of Eurasia", p232.
3. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
4. ^ Begun, "African and Eurasian
Miocene hominoids and the origins of
the Hominidae", in Louis de Bonis,
George D. Koufos, Peter Andrews,
"Phylogeny of the Neogene hominoid
primates of Eurasia", p232.
5. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). {14 MYBN}
7. ^ Chan Y-C, Roos
C, Inoue-Murayama M, Inoue E, Shih C-C,
et al. (2010) Mitochondrial Genome
Sequences Effectively Reveal the
Phylogeny of Hylobates Gibbons. PLoS
ONE 5(12): e14419.
doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0014419 http:/
/www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10
.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0014419
8. ^ Palmer, "Primitive Life", 2009,
p442.
9. ^ P-.H. Fabre, A. Rodrigues, E.J.P.
Douzery, Patterns of macroevolution
among Primates inferred from a
supermatrix of mitochondrial and
nuclear DNA, Molecular Phylogenetics
and Evolution, Volume 53, Issue 3,
December 2009, Pages 808-825, ISSN
1055-7903,
10.1016/j.ympev.2009.08.004. (http://ww
w.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/
S1055790309003169)
MORE INFO
[1] Mark S. Springer, William J.
Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003)
[2] Michael J. Benton and Francisco J.
Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003)
[1] From: Stewart, Caro-Beth, and Todd
R Disotell. “Primate evolution - in
and out of Africa.” Current Biology
8.16 (1998) :
R582-R588. http://www.sciencedirect.com
/science/article/pii/S0960982207003673
Figure 2. A synthetic hypothesis of
catarrhine primate evolution. The
branching order shown for the living
species is well-supported by numerous
molecular phylogenetic studies (for
example [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 18, 24
and 25]). We present the dates of
divergence calculated by Goodman and
colleagues [11], on the understanding
that these are still rough estimates
and more precise measurements are
needed, especially for the Old World
monkeys. The fossil species (genus
names in italics) were placed on this
tree by parsimony analyses of
relatively large morphological datasets
[4, 11, 14 and 15]. Known dates for
fossils [1, 2 and 21] are indicated by
the thicker lines; these lines are
attached to the tree as determined by
the parsimony analyses, although the
dates of the attachment points are our
best guesses. Species found in Africa
are in red and species found in Eurasia
are in black. The continental locations
of the ancestral lineages were inferred
by parsimony using the computer program
MacClade [30]. The intercontinental
dispersal events required, at a
minimum, to explain the distribution of
the living and fossil species are
indicated by the arrows. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4C4DVM4-D
&_user=4422&_handle=V-WA-A-W-WC-MsSAYVW-
UUW-U-AAVECYCCBC-AAVDAZZBBC-YCACYAZCV-WC
-U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=07%2F30%2F1998&_
rdoc=12&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236243
%231998%23999919983%23494082!&_cdi=6243&
view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlV
ersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=5558415c4ccd34
6c64e2e6be03c3865e
[2] Taken from Wikipedia. Same
name. ''Orangutan image taken by Tom
Low at Camp Leakey, Tanjung Puting,
Kalimantan, Indonesia (2003).'' PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0b/Orangutan.jpg
4 5 6 7 8 9
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^ P-.H.
Fabre, A. Rodrigues, E.J.P. Douzery,
Patterns of macroevolution among
Primates inferred from a supermatrix of
mitochondrial and nuclear DNA,
Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution,
Volume 53, Issue 3, December 2009,
Pages 808-825, ISSN 1055-7903,
10.1016/j.ympev.2009.08.004. (http://ww
w.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/
S1055790309003169)
5. ^ Palmer, "Primitive Life", 2009,
p442.
6. ^ Suwa, Gen et al. "A New Species of
Great Ape from the Late Miocene Epoch
in Ethiopia." Nature 448.7156 (2007):
921–924. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v448/n7156/full/nature06113.htm
l
7. ^ Kunimatsu, Yutaka et al. "A New
Late Miocene Great Ape from Kenya and
Its Implications for the Origins of
African Great Apes and Humans."
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences 104.49 (2007): 19220 –19225.
Print. http://www.pnas.org/content/104/
49/19220.abstract
8. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). {7 MYBN}
9. ^ Chan Y-C, Roos
C, Inoue-Murayama M, Inoue E, Shih C-C,
et al. (2010) Mitochondrial Genome
Sequences Effectively Reveal the
Phylogeny of Hylobates Gibbons. PLoS
ONE 5(12): e14419.
doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0014419 http:/
/www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10
.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0014419
MORE INFO
[1] Mark S. Springer, William J.
Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003)
[2] Michael J. Benton and Francisco J.
Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003)
[3] "Gorilla". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gorilla
[4] Prothero, "Bring Fossils To Life",
Second Edition, 2004, p34
[1] From: Stewart, Caro-Beth, and Todd
R Disotell. “Primate evolution - in
and out of Africa.” Current Biology
8.16 (1998) :
R582-R588. http://www.sciencedirect.com
/science/article/pii/S0960982207003673
Figure 2. A synthetic hypothesis of
catarrhine primate evolution. The
branching order shown for the living
species is well-supported by numerous
molecular phylogenetic studies (for
example [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 18, 24
and 25]). We present the dates of
divergence calculated by Goodman and
colleagues [11], on the understanding
that these are still rough estimates
and more precise measurements are
needed, especially for the Old World
monkeys. The fossil species (genus
names in italics) were placed on this
tree by parsimony analyses of
relatively large morphological datasets
[4, 11, 14 and 15]. Known dates for
fossils [1, 2 and 21] are indicated by
the thicker lines; these lines are
attached to the tree as determined by
the parsimony analyses, although the
dates of the attachment points are our
best guesses. Species found in Africa
are in red and species found in Eurasia
are in black. The continental locations
of the ancestral lineages were inferred
by parsimony using the computer program
MacClade [30]. The intercontinental
dispersal events required, at a
minimum, to explain the distribution of
the living and fossil species are
indicated by the arrows. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4C4DVM4-D
&_user=4422&_handle=V-WA-A-W-WC-MsSAYVW-
UUW-U-AAVECYCCBC-AAVDAZZBBC-YCACYAZCV-WC
-U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=07%2F30%2F1998&_
rdoc=12&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236243
%231998%23999919983%23494082!&_cdi=6243&
view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlV
ersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=5558415c4ccd34
6c64e2e6be03c3865e
[2] Description English: Male
silverback w:Gorilla, Gorilla gorilla
in SF zoo Date Source Own
work Author Mila
Zinkova Permission (Reusing this
file) See below. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/50/Male_gorilla_in_SF_zo
o.jpg
8 9
common ancestor of chimpanzees and
humans.5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). 6mybn
2. ^
http://www.cnrs.fr/cw/fr/pres/compress/T
oumai/Tounaigb/lienparengb.html (8
mybn see image 4)
3. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). 6mybn
4. ^
http://www.cnrs.fr/cw/fr/pres/compress/T
oumai/Tounaigb/lienparengb.html (8
mybn see image 4)
5. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). 6mybn
6. ^
http://www.cnrs.fr/cw/fr/pres/compress/T
oumai/Tounaigb/lienparengb.html (8
mybn see image 4)
7. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). 6mybn
8. ^
Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004). 6mybn (6mybn) {6 MYBN}
9. ^
http://www.cnrs.fr/cw/fr/pres/compress/T
oumai/Tounaigb/lienparengb.html (8
mybn see image 4) (8mybn) {8 MYBN}
MORE INFO
[1] Mark S. Springer, William J.
Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003)
[2] Michael J. Benton and Francisco J.
Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003)
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p106. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p106.
[2] Gregoire: 62-year-old
chimpanzee Description English:
Chimpanzee named ''Gregoire'' born in
1944 (Jane Goodall sanctuary of
Tchimpounga in Congo Brazzaville) -
Picture taken the 9th of December
2006 Français : Chimpanzé nommé
''Grégoire'' né en 1944 (sanctuaire
Jane Goodall de Tchimpounga au Congo
Brazzaville) - Photo prise le 9
décembre 2006 Date 9 December
2006 Source Own work Author
Delphine
Bruyère Permission (Reusing this
file) Attribution : Delphine
Bruyere GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/ba/2006-12-09_Chimpanzee
_Gregoire_D_Bruyere.JPG
23 24
19 20 Earliest bipedal primate.21
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ Pickford, M. & Senut, B. The
geological and faunal context of Late
Miocene hominid remains from Lukeino,
Kenya. C.R. Acad. Sci. Ser. IIa 332,
145-152
(2001). http://www.sciencedirect.com/sc
ience/article/pii/S1251805001015282
2. ^ B. Senut, M. Pickford, D. Gommery,
P. Mein, K. Cheboi and Y. Coppens ,
First hominid from the Miocene (Lukeino
Formation, Kenya). C. R. Acad. Sci.
Paris, série IIa 332 (2001), pp.
137–144. http://www.sciencedirect.com
/science/article/pii/S1251805001015294
3. ^ Perlman, David (July 12, 2001).
"Fossils From Ethiopia May Be Earliest
Human Ancestor". National Geographic
News. Retrieved July 2009.
http://news.nationalgeographic.com/new
s/2001/07/0712_ethiopianbones.html
4. ^ White, Tim D.; Asfaw, Berhane;
Beyene, Yonas; Haile-Selassie,
Yohannes; Lovejoy, C. Owen; Suwa, Gen;
WoldeGabriel, Giday (2009).
"Ardipithecus ramidus and the
Paleobiology of Early Hominids.".
Science 326 (5949):
75–86. http://www.sciencemag.org/cont
ent/326/5949/64.abstract
5. ^ White, T. D.; Suwa, G.; Asfaw, B.
(1994). "Australopithecus ramidus, a
new species of early hominid from
Aramis, Ethiopia". Nature 371 (6495):
306. Bibcode 1994Natur.371..306W.
doi:10.1038/371306a0.
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/326/
5949/64.abstract
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p93.
7. ^ B. Senut, M.
Pickford, D. Gommery, P. Mein, K.
Cheboi and Y. Coppens , First hominid
from the Miocene (Lukeino Formation,
Kenya). C. R. Acad. Sci. Paris, série
IIa 332 (2001), pp.
137–144. http://www.sciencedirect.com
/science/article/pii/S1251805001015294
8. ^ Pickford, M. & Senut, B. The
geological and faunal context of Late
Miocene hominid remains from Lukeino,
Kenya. C.R. Acad. Sci. Ser. IIa 332,
145-152
(2001). http://www.sciencedirect.com/sc
ience/article/pii/S1251805001015282
9. ^ B. Senut, M. Pickford, D. Gommery,
P. Mein, K. Cheboi and Y. Coppens ,
First hominid from the Miocene (Lukeino
Formation, Kenya). C. R. Acad. Sci.
Paris, série IIa 332 (2001), pp.
137–144. http://www.sciencedirect.com
/science/article/pii/S1251805001015294
10. ^ Perlman, David (July 12, 2001).
"Fossils From Ethiopia May Be Earliest
Human Ancestor". National Geographic
News. Retrieved July 2009.
http://news.nationalgeographic.com/new
s/2001/07/0712_ethiopianbones.html
11. ^ White, Tim D.; Asfaw, Berhane;
Beyene, Yonas; Haile-Selassie,
Yohannes; Lovejoy, C. Owen; Suwa, Gen;
WoldeGabriel, Giday (2009).
"Ardipithecus ramidus and the
Paleobiology of Early Hominids.".
Science 326 (5949):
75–86. http://www.sciencemag.org/cont
ent/326/5949/64.abstract
12. ^ White, T. D.; Suwa, G.; Asfaw, B.
(1994). "Australopithecus ramidus, a
new species of early hominid from
Aramis, Ethiopia". Nature 371 (6495):
306. Bibcode 1994Natur.371..306W.
doi:10.1038/371306a0.
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/326/
5949/64.abstract
13. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p93.
14. ^ B. Senut, M.
Pickford, D. Gommery, P. Mein, K.
Cheboi and Y. Coppens , First hominid
from the Miocene (Lukeino Formation,
Kenya). C. R. Acad. Sci. Paris, série
IIa 332 (2001), pp.
137–144. http://www.sciencedirect.com
/science/article/pii/S1251805001015294
15. ^ Pickford, M. & Senut, B. The
geological and faunal context of Late
Miocene hominid remains from Lukeino,
Kenya. C.R. Acad. Sci. Ser. IIa 332,
145-152
(2001). http://www.sciencedirect.com/sc
ience/article/pii/S1251805001015282
16. ^ B. Senut, M. Pickford, D.
Gommery, P. Mein, K. Cheboi and Y.
Coppens , First hominid from the
Miocene (Lukeino Formation, Kenya). C.
R. Acad. Sci. Paris, série IIa 332
(2001), pp.
137–144. http://www.sciencedirect.com
/science/article/pii/S1251805001015294
17. ^ Perlman, David (July 12, 2001).
"Fossils From Ethiopia May Be Earliest
Human Ancestor". National Geographic
News. Retrieved July 2009.
http://news.nationalgeographic.com/new
s/2001/07/0712_ethiopianbones.html
18. ^ White, Tim D.; Asfaw, Berhane;
Beyene, Yonas; Haile-Selassie,
Yohannes; Lovejoy, C. Owen; Suwa, Gen;
WoldeGabriel, Giday (2009).
"Ardipithecus ramidus and the
Paleobiology of Early Hominids.".
Science 326 (5949): 75–86.
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/326/
5949/64.abstract
19. ^ White, T. D.; Suwa, G.; Asfaw, B.
(1994). "Australopithecus ramidus, a
new species of early hominid from
Aramis, Ethiopia". Nature 371 (6495):
306. Bibcode 1994Natur.371..306W.
doi:10.1038/371306a0.
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/326/
5949/64.abstract
20. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p93.
21. ^ B. Senut, M.
Pickford, D. Gommery, P. Mein, K.
Cheboi and Y. Coppens , First hominid
from the Miocene (Lukeino Formation,
Kenya). C. R. Acad. Sci. Paris, série
IIa 332 (2001), pp.
137–144. http://www.sciencedirect.com
/science/article/pii/S1251805001015294
22. ^ B. Senut, M. Pickford, D.
Gommery, P. Mein, K. Cheboi and Y.
Coppens , First hominid from the
Miocene (Lukeino Formation, Kenya). C.
R. Acad. Sci. Paris, série IIa 332
(2001), pp.
137–144. http://www.sciencedirect.com
/science/article/pii/S1251805001015294
23. ^ Pickford, M. & Senut, B. The
geological and faunal context of Late
Miocene hominid remains from Lukeino,
Kenya. C.R. Acad. Sci. Ser. IIa 332,
145-152
(2001). http://www.sciencedirect.com/sc
ience/article/pii/S1251805001015282 {6
MYBN}
24. ^ B. Senut, M. Pickford, D.
Gommery, P. Mein, K. Cheboi and Y.
Coppens , First hominid from the
Miocene (Lukeino Formation, Kenya). C.
R. Acad. Sci. Paris, série IIa 332
(2001), pp.
137–144. http://www.sciencedirect.com
/science/article/pii/S1251805001015294
{6 MYBN}
MORE INFO
[1] Haile-Selassie, Y. Late
Miocene hominids from the Middle Awash,
Ethiopia. Nature 412, 178-181 (2001).
http://www.nature.com/uidfinder/10.103
8/35084063
Africa22
[1] Fig. 1. Orrorin tugenensis nov.
gen. nov. sp. A: BAR 1002′00, left
femur, posterior view; B: BAR
1002′00, left femur, anterior view;
C: BAR 1000′00, right mandibular
fragment with M3, buccal view; D: BAR
1000′00, left mandibular fragment
with M2–3, lingual view; E: BAR
1000′00, left mandibular fragment
with M2–3, occlusal view; F: BAR
1900′00, right M3, occlusal view; G:
BAR 1390′00, right P4, distal view;
H: BAR 1001′00, upper I1, labial
view; I: BAR 1425′00, right
Image , lingual view; J: BAR
1004′00, right distal humerus,
posterior view; K: BAR 1003′00,
proximal left femur, anterior view; L:
BAR 349′00, manual proximal phalanx,
superior view; M: BAR 1426′00, left
M3, distal view; N: BAR 1215′00,
fragmentary right proximal femur,
posterior view. Scale bars = 1
cm.Orrorin tugenensis nov. gen. nov.
sp. A : BAR 1002′00, fémur gauche,
vue postérieure ; B : BAR 1002′00,
fémur gauche, vue antérieure ; C :
BAR 1000′00, fragment mandibulaire
droit avec M3, vue buccale ; D : BAR
1000′00, fragment mandibulaire gauche
avec M2–3, vue linguale ; E : BAR
1000′00, fragment mandibulaire gauche
avec M2–3, vue occlusale ; F : BAR
1900′00, M3 droite, vue occlusale ; G
: BAR 1390′00, P4 droite, vue distale
; H : BAR 1001′00, I1, vue labiale ;
I : BAR 1425′00, Image droite, vue
linguale ; J : BAR 1004′00, humérus
distal droit, vue postérieure ; K :
BAR 1003′00, fémur proximal gauche,
vue antérieure ; L : BAR 349′00,
phalange proximale de la main, vue
supérieure ; M : BAR 1426′00, M3
gauche, vue distale ; N : BAR
1215′00, fémur proximal
fragmentaire, vue postérieure. Chaque
barre équivaut à 1 cm. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/cac
he/MiamiImageURL/B6VJ3-42FS9XV-9-1/0?wch
p=dGLzVlz-zSkzS
[2] Description Ardipithecus
ramidus specimen, nicknamed
?Ardi?. After Gen Suwa, Berhane
Asfaw, Reiko T. Kono, Daisuke Kubo, C.
Owen Lovejoy, Tim D. White (2009):
''The Ardipithecus ramidus Skull and
Its Implications for Hominid Origins.''
Science, 2 October 2009: Vol. 326. no.
5949, pp. 68e1-68e7, Fig. 2 Date
14 November 2009, 16:50 Source
Zanclean skull Uploaded by
FunkMonk Author T. Michael
Keesey Permission (Reusing this file)
CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e1/Ardi.jpg
11 12 13 14
(x-STrA-lO-PitiKuS5 }.6 7 8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Australopithecus." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 31 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/australopit
hecus
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^ Clarke, R.J. and P.V.
Tobias (1995). Sterkfontein Member 2
foot bones of the oldest South African
hominid. Science 269,
521–524. http://www.sciencemag.org/co
ntent/269/5223/521
4. ^ Partridge, T.C., Granger, D.E.,
Caffee, M.W. and Clarke, R.J. (2003),
"Lower Pliocene Hominid Remains from
Sterkfontein", Science, Vol. 300, pp.
pp. 607–612.
5. ^ "Australopithecus."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 31
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/australopit
hecus
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
7. ^ Clarke, R.J. and P.V.
Tobias (1995). Sterkfontein Member 2
foot bones of the oldest South African
hominid. Science 269,
521–524. http://www.sciencemag.org/co
ntent/269/5223/521
8. ^ Partridge, T.C., Granger, D.E.,
Caffee, M.W. and Clarke, R.J. (2003),
"Lower Pliocene Hominid Remains from
Sterkfontein", Science, Vol. 300, pp.
pp. 607–612.
9. ^ Clarke, R.J. and P.V. Tobias
(1995). Sterkfontein Member 2 foot
bones of the oldest South African
hominid. Science 269,
521–524. http://www.sciencemag.org/co
ntent/269/5223/521
10. ^ Partridge, T.C., Granger, D.E.,
Caffee, M.W. and Clarke, R.J. (2003),
"Lower Pliocene Hominid Remains from
Sterkfontein", Science, Vol. 300, pp.
pp. 607–612.
11. ^ Partridge, T.C., Granger,
D.E., Caffee, M.W. and Clarke, R.J.
(2003), "Lower Pliocene Hominid Remains
from Sterkfontein", Science, Vol. 300,
pp. pp. 607–612. {4MYBN}
12. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004). {4MYBN}
13. ^ "Australopithecus".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australopit
hecus {3.9 to 3my}
14. ^ "Australopithecus
afarensis". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australopit
hecus_afarensis (3.9 to 3my)
MORE INFO
[1] Mark S. Springer, William J.
Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003)
[2] Michael J. Benton and Francisco J.
Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003)
[1] Australopithecus squinted at the
blue African sky. He had never seen a
star in broad daylight before, but he
could see one today. White. Piercing.
Not as bright as the Sun, yet much more
than a full moon. Was it dangerous? He
stared for a long time, puzzled, but
nothing happened, and after a while he
strode across the savanna
unconcerned. Millions of years
later, we know better. ''That star
was a supernova, one of many that
exploded in our part of the galaxy
during the past 10 million years,''
says astronomer Mark Hurwitz of the
University of
California-Berkeley. Right: Human
ancestors, unconcerned by odd lights in
the daytime sky. This image is based on
a painting featured in The
Economist. PD
source: http://science.nasa.gov/headline
s/y2003/06jan_bubble.htm?list847478
[2] Image Source *
http://www.familie-rebmann.de/photo11.ht
m COPYRIGHTED CLAIMED FAIR USE
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Laetoliafar.jpg.jpg
SCIENCE
4
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ McPherron, Shannon P. et al.
“Evidence for stone-tool-assisted
consumption of animal tissues before
3.39 million years ago at Dikika,
Ethiopia.” Nature 466.7308 (2010) :
857-860. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v466/n7308/full/nature09248.html
2. ^ McPherron, Shannon P. et al.
“Evidence for stone-tool-assisted
consumption of animal tissues before
3.39 million years ago at Dikika,
Ethiopia.” Nature 466.7308 (2010) :
857-860. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v466/n7308/full/nature09248.html
3. ^ McPherron, Shannon P. et al.
“Evidence for stone-tool-assisted
consumption of animal tissues before
3.39 million years ago at Dikika,
Ethiopia.” Nature 466.7308 (2010) :
857-860. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v466/n7308/full/nature09248.html
4. ^ McPherron, Shannon P. et al.
“Evidence for stone-tool-assisted
consumption of animal tissues before
3.39 million years ago at Dikika,
Ethiopia.” Nature 466.7308 (2010) :
857-860. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v466/n7308/full/nature09248.html
{3.39 MYBN}
MORE INFO
[1] "Homo erectus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homo_erectu
s
[2] "Stone Age". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stone_Age
[3] "Paleolithic". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleolithic
[1] a, The exterior surface of
DIK-55-2, and the location of each of
the surface marks. The rib is oriented
such that the rib head (broken off)
would be to the left. Dashed rule,
4 cm. b, Marks A1 and A2
(high-confidence stone-tool cut marks)
under low-power optical magnification;
the yellow rectangle demarcates c.
Scale bar, 5 mm. c, ESEM image
showing microstriations indicative of
cutting with a stone tool. Scale bar,
100 μm. d, Mark B (high-confidence
stone-tool-inflicted mark) under
low-power optical magnification,
indicative of a cutting and scraping
action or percussion; the yellow
rectangle demarcates e. Scale bar,
5 mm. e, ESEM image showing
microstriations indicative of stone
tool action. Scale bar, 500 μm.
b–e, The direction of the rib head is
indicated by the black arrows. See
Supplementary Information for the
details of mark C. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v466/n7308/images/nature09248-f2.2.
jpg
6
PuS3 }; a line of extinct early bipedal
hominids.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=pa
ranthropus&submit=Submit
2. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p445.
3. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=pa
ranthropus&submit=Submit
4. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p445.
5. ^ "Paranthropus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paranthropu
s
6. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p445.
MORE INFO
[1] Thure E. Cerling, Emma Mbua,
Francis M. Kirera, Fredrick Kyalo
Manthi, Frederick E. Grine, Meave G.
Leakey, Matt Sponheimer, and Kevin T.
Uno. Diet of Paranthropus boisei in the
early Pleistocene of East Africa; PNAS
2011; published ahead of print May 2,
2011, doi:10.1073/pnas.1104627108
http://www.pnas.org/content/early/2011/0
4/27/1104627108.full.pdf+html?sid=71bf86
4d-bcc2-420e-9c3d-6c390c4a31c3
[2] Dawkins, Richard (2004). The
Ancestor's Tale: A Pilgrimage To the
Dawn of Life. London: Weidenfeld &
Nicolson. p. 90. ISBN 0-297-82503-8
[1] Description Deutsch: plastische
wissenschaftliche Rekonstruktion eines
Paranthropus boisei English:
scientiffic reconstruction of a
Paranthropus boisei Date 25 March
2007 Source Photographed at
Westfälisches Museum für
Archäologie, Herne Author
Photographed by
User:Lillyundfreya Permission (Reusing
this file) own work GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6c/Paranthropus_boisei.J
PG
[2] Skull of Paranthropus
boisei. From Smithsonian Institute
website. COPYRIGHTED CLAIMED FAIR USE
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Zinj3.jpg
5
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ "Homo erectus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homo_erectu
s
2. ^ "Homo erectus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homo_erectu
s
3. ^ "Homo erectus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homo_erectu
s
4. ^ Semaw, S. et al.
2.5-million-year-old stone tools from
Gona, Ethiopia. Nature 385, 333–336
(1997)
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
385/n6614/abs/385333a0.html
5. ^ Semaw, S. et al.
2.5-million-year-old stone tools from
Gona, Ethiopia. Nature 385, 333–336
(1997)
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
385/n6614/abs/385333a0.html {2.5 MYBN}
[1] Figure 3 from: Semaw, S. et al.
2.5-million-year-old stone tools from
Gona, Ethiopia. Nature 385, 333–336
(1997)
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
385/n6614/abs/385333a0.html COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v385/n6614/abs/385333a0.html
[2] Early man lived on elephant meat,
so much they died out in the Middle
East 400,000 years ago Submitted by
Anonymous on Wed Dec 14 2011 17:23:00
GMT-0800 (Pacific Standard Time) -
Source: dailymail.co.uk Docile,
lumbering elephants were so perfect for
Homo erectus, that they provided up to
60 per cent of their diet - until
constant hunting wiped out elephants in
the Middle East. The disappearance
of elephants helped kill off Homo
erectus, and paved the way for Homo
sapiens - modern humans - to take
over. Findings from the University
of Tel Aviv reveal how important the
huge animals were to the diet of early
humans - researchers that elephants
provided 60 per cent of the meat eaten
by Homo erectus. UNKNOWN
source: http://i4.asntown.net/Mastodon-t
vfm.jpg
15
evolve (earliest member of the genus
"Homo"9 ).10
This is when the human brain begins to
get bigger.11
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "human." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 04 May.
2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/human-1
2. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). p78
4. ^ "human." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 04 May. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/human-1
5. ^ Palmer et al, "Primitive Life",
2009, p445.
6. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). p78
8. ^ "human." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 04 May. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/human-1
9. ^ Palmer et al, "Primitive Life",
2009, p445.
10. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
11. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). p78
12. ^ F. Spoor, M. G.
Leakey, P. N. Gathogo, F. H. Brown, S.
C. Antón, I. McDougall, C. Kiarie, F.
K. Manthi & L. N. Leakey (2007-08-09).
"Implications of new early Homo fossils
from Ileret, east of Lake Turkana,
Kenya". Nature 448 (7154): 688–691.
doi:10.1038/nature05986. PMID
17687323 http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v448/n7154/full/nature05986.html
13. ^ Donald C. Johanson, Fidelis T.
Masao, Gerald G. Eck, Tim D. White,
Robert C. Walter, William H. Kimbel,
Berhane Asfaw, Paul Manega, Prosper
Ndessokia & Gen Suwa (21 May 1987).
"New partial skeleton of Homo habilis
from Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania". Nature
327 (6119): 205–209.
doi:10.1038/327205a0. PMID 3106831
14. ^
Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004). p78
15. ^ Palmer et al, "Primitive
Life", 2009, p445.
[1] KNM ER 1813 Homo habilis This
image is from the website of the
Smithsonian Institution [1] and may be
copyrighted. The Smithsonian
Institution explicitly considers the
use of its content for non-commercial
educational purposes to qualify as fair
use under United States copyright law,
if: 1. The author and source of the
content is clearly cited. 2. Any
additional copyright information about
the photograph from the Smithsonian
Institution website is included. 3.
None of the content is modified or
altered.
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:KNM_ER_1813.jpg
[2] red= Homo rudolfensis black=Homo
habilis COPYRIGHTED
source: http://sesha.net/eden/Eerste_men
sen.asp
6
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ "bonobo." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 10 Sep.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/bonobo
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^ "bonobo." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 10
Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/bonobo
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
6. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). {2
MYBN}
MORE INFO
[1] Mark S. Springer, William J.
Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003)
[2] Michael J. Benton and Francisco J.
Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003)
[3] "Bonobo". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bonobo
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p106. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p106.
[2] Gregoire: 62-year-old
chimpanzee Description English:
Chimpanzee named ''Gregoire'' born in
1944 (Jane Goodall sanctuary of
Tchimpounga in Congo Brazzaville) -
Picture taken the 9th of December
2006 Français : Chimpanzé nommé
''Grégoire'' né en 1944 (sanctuaire
Jane Goodall de Tchimpounga au Congo
Brazzaville) - Photo prise le 9
décembre 2006 Date 9 December
2006 Source Own work Author
Delphine
Bruyère Permission (Reusing this
file) Attribution : Delphine
Bruyere GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/ba/2006-12-09_Chimpanzee
_Gregoire_D_Bruyere.JPG
(65-1.8 mybn), and start of the
Quaternary {KWoTRnARE or KWoTRNRE2 }
(1.8 mybn-now) Period.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Tertiary period." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2012.
Answers.com 17 Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/tertiary-1
2. ^ "quaternary." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 17
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/quaternary
3. ^ The geological Society of America
[1] Geologic Time Scale 2009 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.geosociety.org/scienc
e/timescale/timescl.pdf
[2] 000 Ma - Present Time UNKNOWN
source: http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~rcb7/000
_present_3globes.jpg
8 9 10
evolves in Africa.6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Homo erectus." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 10
Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/homo-erectu
s
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). p68-71
3. ^ "Homo erectus."
The American Heritage® Dictionary of
the English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 10 Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/homo-erectu
s
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). p68-71
5. ^ "Homo erectus."
The American Heritage® Dictionary of
the English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 10 Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/homo-erectu
s
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). p68-71
7. ^ Brown, Frank et
al. “Early Homo Erectus Skeleton from
West Lake Turkana, Kenya.” Nature
316.6031 (1985):
788–792. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v316/n6031/abs/316788a0.html
8. ^ "Homo ergaster 1.9-1.4 mybn".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homo_ergast
er 1.9-1.4 mybn (1.9-1.4mybn) {1.9-1.4
MYBN}
9. ^ Palmer et al, "Primitive Life",
2009, p445.
10. ^ "Homo ergaster 1.9-1.4
mybn". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homo_ergast
er 1.9-1.4 mybn (1.9-1.4mybn) {1.9-1.4
MYBN}
MORE INFO
[1] Donald Johanson, "Origins of
Modern Humans: Multiregional or Out of
Africa?", ActionBioscience.org, May
2001
http://www.actionbioscience.org/evolut
ion/johanson.html
[2] Palmer et al, "Primitive Life",
2009, p416
[3] Templeton, Alan. “Out of
Africa again and again.” Nature
416.6876 (2002) :
45-51. http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v416/n6876/full/416045a.html
[4] Vekua, Abesalom et al. “A New
Skull of Early Homo from Dmanisi,
Georgia.” Science 297.5578 (2002):
85–89. Print. New Series
[1] Homo ergaster. Capacité
crânienne de 800 à 950
cm3 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://ma.prehistoire.free.fr/er
gaster.htm
[2] Turkana Boy COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.anthropology.at/virta
nth/evo_links/turkana%20boy.jpg
10
from Africa.7 8 9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Templeton, Alan. “Out
of Africa again and again.” Nature
416.6876 (2002) :
45-51. http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v416/n6876/full/416045a.html
3. ^ G. Philip Rightmire, "The
Dispersal of Homo erectus from Africa
and the Emergence of More Modern
Humans", Journal of Anthropological
Research, Vol. 47, No. 2, A Quarter
Century of Paleoanthropology: Views
from the U.S.A. (Summer, 1991), pp.
177-191 Published by: University of
New Mexico Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/3630324
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
5. ^ Templeton, Alan. “Out
of Africa again and again.” Nature
416.6876 (2002) :
45-51. http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v416/n6876/full/416045a.html
6. ^ G. Philip Rightmire, "The
Dispersal of Homo erectus from Africa
and the Emergence of More Modern
Humans", Journal of Anthropological
Research, Vol. 47, No. 2, A Quarter
Century of Paleoanthropology: Views
from the U.S.A. (Summer, 1991), pp.
177-191 Published by: University of
New Mexico Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/3630324
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
8. ^ Templeton, Alan. “Out
of Africa again and again.” Nature
416.6876 (2002) :
45-51. http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v416/n6876/full/416045a.html
9. ^ G. Philip Rightmire, "The
Dispersal of Homo erectus from Africa
and the Emergence of More Modern
Humans", Journal of Anthropological
Research, Vol. 47, No. 2, A Quarter
Century of Paleoanthropology: Views
from the U.S.A. (Summer, 1991), pp.
177-191 Published by: University of
New Mexico Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/3630324
10. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). {1.7 MYBN}
MORE INFO
[1] Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p69-77
[2] Parker, G.
Compact History of the World. Barnes &
Noble, 2001.
[1] G. Philip Rightmire, ''The
Dispersal of Homo erectus from Africa
and the Emergence of More Modern
Humans'', Journal of Anthropological
Research, Vol. 47, No. 2, A Quarter
Century of Paleoanthropology: Views
from the U.S.A. (Summer, 1991), pp.
177-191 Published by: University of
New Mexico Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/3630324
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3630
324
[2] All statistically significant
inferences in Tables 1 and 2 are
incorporated into this single model.
Major expansions of human populations
are indicated by red arrows. Genetic
descent is indicated by vertical lines,
and gene flow by diagonal lines. The
timing of inferences lacking resolution
at the 5% level and/or not validated by
more than one locus are indicated by
question marks. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v416/n6876/images/416045a-f1.2.jpg
5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Brain, C. K., and A. Sillent.
“Evidence from the Swartkrans cave
for the earliest use of fire.” Nature
336.6198 (1988) :
464-466. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v336/n6198/abs/336464a0.html
{Brain_Sillent_19881201.pdf}
2. ^ Brain, C. K., and A. Sillent.
“Evidence from the Swartkrans cave
for the earliest use of fire.” Nature
336.6198 (1988) :
464-466. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v336/n6198/abs/336464a0.html
{Brain_Sillent_19881201.pdf}
3. ^ Brain, C. K., and A. Sillent.
“Evidence from the Swartkrans cave
for the earliest use of fire.” Nature
336.6198 (1988) :
464-466. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v336/n6198/abs/336464a0.html
{Brain_Sillent_19881201.pdf}
4. ^ Brain, C. K., and A. Sillent.
“Evidence from the Swartkrans cave
for the earliest use of fire.” Nature
336.6198 (1988) :
464-466. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v336/n6198/abs/336464a0.html
{1.0-1.5
MYBN} {Brain_Sillent_19881201.pdf}
5. ^ Brain, C. K., and A. Sillent.
“Evidence from the Swartkrans cave
for the earliest use of fire.” Nature
336.6198 (1988) :
464-466. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v336/n6198/abs/336464a0.html
{1.0-1.5
MYBN} {Brain_Sillent_19881201.pdf}
Africa4
[1] Description English: A fire lit
using twigs and pine cones. Date
2008-03-27 (original upload
date) (Original text : 10:58, 27 March
2008 (UTC)) Source Transferred
from en.wikipedia (Original text :
http://waxingnonsensical.blogspot.com)
Author Original uploader was
Emeldil at en.wikipedia (Original text
: Pavan Srinath) Permission (Reusing
this file) CC-BY-SA-3.0. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Campfire_Pineco
ne.png/450px-Campfire_Pinecone.png
[2] Swartkrans Caves For any
picture requests, please email:
marketing@maropeng.co.za All photos
should be credited (© Maropeng),
unless otherwise stated in the caption.
UNKNOWN
source: http://maropeng.flowcommunicatio
.netdna-cdn.com/images/sized/images/medi
agallery/IMG_7223-600x450.JPG
4 5
hair.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). p69-70,273-275
2. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
p69-70,273-275
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). p69-70,273-275
4. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
p69-70,273-275 {1 MYBN}
5. ^ Rogers AR, Iltis
D, Wooding S, "Genetic variation at the
MC1R locus and the time since loss of
human body hair." Curr Anthropol
2004;45:105-108. http://www.jstor.org/p
ss/10.1086/381006 {1.2 MYBN}
[1] escription English: A diorama in
National Museum of Indonesia, Jakarta,
depicting the life size model of stone
equipped hunter, a Homo erectus family
living in Sangiran about 900,000 years
ago. Bahasa Indonesia: Sebuah diorama
di Museum Nasional Indonesia di Jakarta
menampilkan adegan pemburu dengan
alat-alat batu, sebuah keluarga Homo
erectus yang hidup di Sangiran sekitar
900.000 tahun yang lalu. Date 24
August 2010 Source Own
work Author Gunkarta Gunawan
Kartapranata CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Sangiran_Homo_e
rectus_Diorama.jpg/1280px-Sangiran_Homo_
erectus_Diorama.jpg
8 9 10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Parfitt, Simon A., Nick M.
Ashton, Simon G. Lewis, Richard L.
Abel, G. Russell Coope, Mike H. Field,
and others, ‘Early Pleistocene Human
Occupation at the Edge of the Boreal
Zone in Northwest Europe’, Nature,
466 (2010), 229-233
/n7303/full/nature09117.html
2. ^ Pallab Ghosh, "Humans' early
arrival in Britain", BBC News,
07/07/2010 http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/10
531419
3. ^ Parfitt, Simon A., Nick M. Ashton,
Simon G. Lewis, Richard L. Abel, G.
Russell Coope, Mike H. Field, and
others, ‘Early Pleistocene Human
Occupation at the Edge of the Boreal
Zone in Northwest Europe’, Nature,
466 (2010), 229-233
/n7303/full/nature09117.html
4. ^ Pallab Ghosh, "Humans' early
arrival in Britain", BBC News,
07/07/2010 http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/10
531419
5. ^ Parfitt, Simon A., Nick M. Ashton,
Simon G. Lewis, Richard L. Abel, G.
Russell Coope, Mike H. Field, and
others, ‘Early Pleistocene Human
Occupation at the Edge of the Boreal
Zone in Northwest Europe’, Nature,
466 (2010), 229-233
/n7303/full/nature09117.html
6. ^ Pallab Ghosh, "Humans' early
arrival in Britain", BBC News,
07/07/2010 http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/10
531419
7. ^ Parfitt, Simon A., Nick M. Ashton,
Simon G. Lewis, Richard L. Abel, G.
Russell Coope, Mike H. Field, and
others, ‘Early Pleistocene Human
Occupation at the Edge of the Boreal
Zone in Northwest Europe’, Nature,
466 (2010), 229-233
/n7303/full/nature09117.html
8. ^ Parfitt, Simon A., Nick M. Ashton,
Simon G. Lewis, Richard L. Abel, G.
Russell Coope, Mike H. Field, and
others, ‘Early Pleistocene Human
Occupation at the Edge of the Boreal
Zone in Northwest Europe’, Nature,
466 (2010), 229-233
/n7303/full/nature09117.html {970,000}
9. ^
Melissa A. Toups, Andrew Kitchen,
Jessica E. Light, and David L. Reed,
"Origin of Clothing Lice Indicates
Early Clothing Use by Anatomically
Modern Humans in Africa", Mol Biol Evol
(2011) 28(1): 29-32 first published
online September 7, 2010
doi:10.1093/molbev/msq234
{83,000-170,000YBN}
10. ^ Ralf Kittler, Manfred Kayser,
Mark Stoneking, Molecular Evolution of
Pediculus humanus and the Origin of
Clothing, Current Biology, Volume 13,
Issue 16, 19 August 2003, Pages
1414-1417, ISSN 0960-9822,
10.1016/S0960-9822(03)00507-4. (http://
www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pi
i/S0960982203005074) {72,000YBN +/-
42,000years}
[1] Homo erectus, artwork C010/4389
Rights Managed Credit: JOSE ANTONIO
PEÑAS/SCIENCE PHOTO
LIBRARY Caption: Homo erectus.
Computer artwork of a Homo erectus man
standing in a prehistoric landscape.
Homo erectus is the most widespread and
longest-surviving of all the fossil
hominids. Its geographical spread
included north and east Africa, Europe,
Indonesia and China, where it lived
between 1 and 2 million years
ago. Release details: Model and
property releases are not available
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.sciencephoto.com/imag
e/417426/large/C0104389-Homo_erectus,_ar
twork-SPL.jpg
[2] Flint artefacts include
hard-hammer flakes, notches, retouched
flakes and cores (a–c, hard-hammer
flake; d, e, multiple notch; f,
hard-hammer flake; g, h, hard-hammer
flake, showing pronounced point of
percussion on plain butt).
Supplementary Information includes
micro-CT volume rendering of artefacts
(still example shown as a) with
three-dimensional animations (see
Supplementary Movies 1–10). i, Cone
of Pinus cf. sylvestris. j, Upper
second molar of Mammuthus cf.
meridionalis. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nature.com/nature/journal
/v466/n7303/images/nature09117-f2.2.jpg
6 7 8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Wilkins, Jayne et al. “Evidence
for Early Hafted Hunting Technology.”
Science 338.6109 (2012):
942–946. http://www.sciencemag.org/co
ntent/338/6109/942
2. ^ Wilkins, Jayne et al. “Evidence
for Early Hafted Hunting Technology.”
Science 338.6109 (2012):
942–946. http://www.sciencemag.org/co
ntent/338/6109/942
3. ^ Wilkins, Jayne et al. “Evidence
for Early Hafted Hunting Technology.”
Science 338.6109 (2012):
942–946. http://www.sciencemag.org/co
ntent/338/6109/942
4. ^ Wilkins, Jayne et al. “Evidence
for Early Hafted Hunting Technology.”
Science 338.6109 (2012):
942–946. http://www.sciencemag.org/co
ntent/338/6109/942
5. ^ Thieme, Hartmut, ‘Lower
Palaeolithic Hunting Spears from
Germany’, Nature, 385 (1997), 807-810
v385/n6619/abs/385807a0.html {Thieme_19
970227.pdf} {400,000YBN}
6. ^ Wilkins, Jayne et al.
“Evidence for Early Hafted Hunting
Technology.” Science 338.6109 (2012):
942–946. http://www.sciencemag.org/co
ntent/338/6109/942
7. ^ Thieme, Hartmut, ‘Lower
Palaeolithic Hunting Spears from
Germany’, Nature, 385 (1997), 807-810
v385/n6619/abs/385807a0.html {Thieme_19
970227.pdf} {400,000YBN}
8. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A
history of invention : from stone axes
to silicon chips ", (New York:
Checkmark Books, 2000). {8000 YBN}
MORE INFO
[1] Lower Palaeolithic hunting
spears from Germany. Hartmut Thieme.
Letters to Nature. Nature 385, 807 -
810 (27 February 1997);
doi:10.1038/385807a0
|(Schöningen, Germany.5 )
[1] (Photo : Jayne Wilkins) Replicas of
the 500,000-year-old stone points from
Kathu Pan 1 were hafted onto wooden
dowels with acacia resin and sinew, and
plunged into antelope carcasses Read
more at
http://www.latinospost.com/articles/6938
/20121115/oldest-stone-spear-tips-found-
came-200.htm#irhScS4kokLTYQJp.99 UNKNOW
N
source: http://images.latinospost.com/da
ta/images/full/8174/early-hafted-spears.
jpg?w=600
[2] Fig. 2 (A and B) Distal
step-terminating bending fractures on
ventral surfaces of complete
nonretouched convergent blades, banded
ironstone. (C) Distal impact burination
on ventral surface of a complete
nonretouched convergent flake, banded
ironstone. (D) Distal impact burination
on ventral surface of complete
nonretouched convergent blade, banded
ironstone. (E) Comparison of DIF
frequencies (95% confidence intervals)
at Holocene kill and habitation sites
with well-established weapon tips (11,
27, 28, 36), experimental weapon tip
studies (10, 27, 37–40), trampling
experiments (32, 41), and KP1.
Wilkins, Jayne et al. “Evidence for
Early Hafted Hunting Technology.”
Science 338.6109 (2012):
942–946. http://www.sciencemag.org/co
ntent/338/6109/942 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/338/6109/942
3
Earth, all hunter-gathering people.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Kremer, Michael. “Population
Growth and Technological Change: One
Million B.C. to 1990.” The Quarterly
Journal of Economics 108.3 (1993):
681–716. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
2118405
2. ^ Parker, G. Compact History of the
World. Barnes & Noble, 2001, p17.
3. ^
Kremer, Michael. “Population Growth
and Technological Change: One Million
B.C. to 1990.” The Quarterly Journal
of Economics 108.3 (1993):
681–716. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
2118405
[1] Parker, G. Compact History of the
World. Barnes & Noble, 2001,
p17. COPYRIGHTED
source: Parker, G. Compact History of
the World. Barnes & Noble, 2001, p17.
16 17 18
11 12
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Day, M. H. "Omo human skeletal
remains." Nature 222, 1135–1138
(1969)
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
222/n5199/pdf/2221135a0.pdf
2. ^ Ian McDougall, Francis H. Brown &
John G. Fleagle, "Stratigraphic
placement and age of modern humans from
Kibish, Ethiopia", Nature 433, 733-736
(17 February
2005). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v433/n7027/abs/nature03258.html
3. ^ University Of Utah. "The Oldest
Homo Sapiens: Fossils Push Human
Emergence Back To 195,000 Years Ago."
ScienceDaily, 28 Feb. 2005. Web. 9 Oct.
2011.
4. ^ Tim D. White, Berhane Asfaw, David
DeGusta, Henry Gilbert, Gary D.
Richards, Gen Suwa & F. Clark Howell,
"Pleistocene Homo sapiens from Middle
Awash, Ethiopia", Nature 423, 742-747
(12 June
2003) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v423/n6941/full/nature01669.html
5. ^ Day, M. H. "Omo human skeletal
remains." Nature 222, 1135–1138
(1969)
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
222/n5199/pdf/2221135a0.pdf
6. ^ Ian McDougall, Francis H. Brown &
John G. Fleagle, "Stratigraphic
placement and age of modern humans from
Kibish, Ethiopia", Nature 433, 733-736
(17 February
2005). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v433/n7027/abs/nature03258.html
7. ^ University Of Utah. "The Oldest
Homo Sapiens: Fossils Push Human
Emergence Back To 195,000 Years Ago."
ScienceDaily, 28 Feb. 2005. Web. 9 Oct.
2011.
8. ^ Tim D. White, Berhane Asfaw, David
DeGusta, Henry Gilbert, Gary D.
Richards, Gen Suwa & F. Clark Howell,
"Pleistocene Homo sapiens from Middle
Awash, Ethiopia", Nature 423, 742-747
(12 June
2003) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v423/n6941/full/nature01669.html
9. ^ Day, M. H. "Omo human skeletal
remains." Nature 222, 1135–1138
(1969)
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
222/n5199/pdf/2221135a0.pdf
10. ^ Ian McDougall, Francis H. Brown &
John G. Fleagle, "Stratigraphic
placement and age of modern humans from
Kibish, Ethiopia", Nature 433, 733-736
(17 February
2005). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v433/n7027/abs/nature03258.html
11. ^ University Of Utah. "The Oldest
Homo Sapiens: Fossils Push Human
Emergence Back To 195,000 Years Ago."
ScienceDaily, 28 Feb. 2005. Web. 9 Oct.
2011.
12. ^ Tim D. White, Berhane Asfaw,
David DeGusta, Henry Gilbert, Gary D.
Richards, Gen Suwa & F. Clark Howell,
"Pleistocene Homo sapiens from Middle
Awash, Ethiopia", Nature 423, 742-747
(12 June
2003) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v423/n6941/full/nature01669.html
13. ^ Day, M. H. "Omo human skeletal
remains." Nature 222, 1135–1138
(1969)
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
222/n5199/pdf/2221135a0.pdf
14. ^ Ian McDougall, Francis H. Brown &
John G. Fleagle, "Stratigraphic
placement and age of modern humans from
Kibish, Ethiopia", Nature 433, 733-736
(17 February
2005). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v433/n7027/abs/nature03258.html
15. ^ McDougall, Ian, Francis H. Brown,
and John G. Fleagle. “Sapropels and
the age of hominins Omo I and II,
Kibish, Ethiopia.” Journal of Human
Evolution 55.3 (2008) :
409-420. http://www.sciencedirect.com/s
cience/article/pii/S0047248408001024
16. ^ McDougall, Ian, Francis H. Brown,
and John G. Fleagle. “Sapropels and
the age of hominins Omo I and II,
Kibish, Ethiopia.” Journal of Human
Evolution 55.3 (2008) :
409-420. http://www.sciencedirect.com/s
cience/article/pii/S0047248408001024
17. ^ Ian McDougall, Francis H. Brown &
John G. Fleagle, "Stratigraphic
placement and age of modern humans from
Kibish, Ethiopia", Nature 433, 733-736
(17 February
2005). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v433/n7027/abs/nature03258.html
{200,000 YBN}
18. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p65. (165,000
YBN) {200,000 YBN}
MORE INFO
[1] Mark S. Springer, William J.
Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003)
[2] Michael J. Benton and Francisco J.
Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003)
[1] Figure from: Day, M. H. ''Omo
human skeletal remains.'' Nature 222,
1135–1138 (1969)
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
222/n5199/pdf/2221135a0.pdf COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v222/n5199/pdf/2221135a0.pdf
[2] Figure 1 from: Tim D. White,
Berhane Asfaw, David DeGusta, Henry
Gilbert, Gary D. Richards, Gen Suwa &
F. Clark Howell, ''Pleistocene Homo
sapiens from Middle Awash, Ethiopia'',
Nature 423, 742-747 (12 June
2003) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v423/n6941/full/nature01669.html CO
PYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v423/n6941/images/nature01669-f1.2.
jpg
sounds begins to develop.4 All words
are single syllable.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington
2. ^ Ted Huntington
3. ^ (The vast
majority of Sumerian language is made
of one-syllable words) Archaic
Bookkeeping, Nisson, 1993, p117.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington
5. ^ (The vast majority of Sumerian
language is made of one-syllable words)
Archaic Bookkeeping, Nisson, 1993,
p117.
[1] EARLY HUMANS SETTLED IN BRITAIN
800,000 YEARS AGO July 7, 2010 --
During the harsh winters, early humans
almost certainly relied on hunting
animals, as edible plants would have
been in very short supply, the study
says. UNKNOWN
source: http://news.discovery.com/archae
ology/2010/07/07/early-humans-zoom.jpg
[2] Phonetic Alphabet Symbols used by
Ted Huntington PD
source: http://tedhuntington.com/fonikal
f.jpg
5 6
Eurasia.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Donald Johanson, "Origins of
Modern Humans: Multiregional or Out of
Africa?", ActionBioscience.org, May
2001
http://www.actionbioscience.org/evolut
ion/johanson.html
2. ^ Douglas Palmer, et al, "Primitive
Life", 2009, p464.
3. ^ Donald Johanson,
"Origins of Modern Humans:
Multiregional or Out of Africa?",
ActionBioscience.org, May 2001
http://www.actionbioscience.org/evolut
ion/johanson.html
4. ^ Donald Johanson, "Origins of
Modern Humans: Multiregional or Out of
Africa?", ActionBioscience.org, May
2001
http://www.actionbioscience.org/evolut
ion/johanson.html
5. ^Donald Johanson, "Origins of Modern
Humans: Multiregional or Out of
Africa?", ActionBioscience.org, May
2001
http://www.actionbioscience.org/evolut
ion/johanson.html {000}
6. ^
http://humanorigins.si.edu/evidence/gene
tics/ancient-dna-and-neanderthals
MORE INFO
[1] "Neanderthal". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neanderthal
[1] Description Deutsch:
Rekonstruierter Neandertaler im
Neanderthal-Museum Date 2007 Source
Own
work Author Ökologix Permission
(Reusing this file) See below. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Neandertaler-im
-Museum.jpg/1024px-Neandertaler-im-Museu
m.jpg
[2] Description English: Homo
neanderthalensis. Skull discovered in
1908 at La Chapelle-aux-Saints
(France). Date October
2005 Source Own
work Author Luna04 GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e0/Homo_sapiens_neandert
halensis.jpg
[99000 BC] 6 7 8
into Eurasia.4 This is the beginning
of differences in race within the human
species.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.actionbioscience.org/evolutio
n/johanson.html
2. ^
http://www.actionbioscience.org/evolutio
n/johanson.html
3. ^ Cavalli-Sforza, L L et al.
“Reconstruction of human evolution:
bringing together genetic,
archaeological, and linguistic data.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences 85.16 (1988) : 6002
-6006. http://www.pnas.org/content/85/1
6/6002.short
4. ^
http://www.actionbioscience.org/evolutio
n/johanson.html
5. ^ Cavalli-Sforza, L L et al.
“Reconstruction of human evolution:
bringing together genetic,
archaeological, and linguistic data.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences 85.16 (1988) : 6002
-6006. http://www.pnas.org/content/85/1
6/6002.short
6. ^ N. Mercier, H. Valladas, O.
Bar-Yosef, B. Vandermeersch, C.
Stringer, J.-L. Joron,
Thermoluminescence Date for the
Mousterian Burial Site of Es-Skhul, Mt.
Carmel, Journal of Archaeological
Science, Volume 20, Issue 2, March
1993, Pages 169-174, ISSN 0305-4403,
10.1006/jasc.1993.1012. http://www.scie
ncedirect.com/science/article/pii/S03054
40383710125
7. ^
http://www.actionbioscience.org/evolutio
n/johanson.html {000 YBN}
8. ^
Cavalli-Sforza, L L et al.
“Reconstruction of human evolution:
bringing together genetic,
archaeological, and linguistic data.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences 85.16 (1988) : 6002
-6006. http://www.pnas.org/content/85/1
6/6002.short {000 YBN}
MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.infoplease.com/ipa/A0908490.h
tml
[2] Templeton, Alan. “Out of Africa
again and again.” Nature 416.6876
(2002) :
45-51. http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v416/n6876/abs/416045a.html
[1] The northern route (along the
Danube) is represented by the 'classic'
Aurignacian technologies, while the
southern (Mediterranean) route is
represented by the 'proto-Aurignacian'
bladelet technologies (Fig. 3)-with
their inferred origins in the preceding
early Upper Palaeolithic technologies
in the Near East and southeastern
Europe. Dates (in thousands of years
bp) indicate the earliest radiocarbon
dates for these technologies in
different areas, expressed in thousands
of radiocarbon years before present
(bp). (These are likely to
underestimate the true (calendar) ages
of the sites by between 2,000 and 4,000
yr; see ref. 32). Dashed lines indicate
uncertain routes. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v432/n7016/fig_tab/nature03103_F1.h
tml
[2] The figure shows the geographical
and temporal distribution of hominid
populations, based on fossil finds,
using different taxonomic schemes. The
new finds from Herto4, 5 (H) represent
early Homo sapiens. a, This reflects
the view that both Neanderthals and
modern humans derived from a widespread
ancestral species called H.
heidelbergensis2. b, However, evidence
is growing that Neanderthal features
have deep roots in Europe2, 8, so H.
neanderthalensis might extend back over
400,000 years. The roots of H. sapiens
might be similarly deep in Africa, but
this figure represents the alternative
view that the ancestor was a separate
African species called H. rhodesiensis.
Different views of early human
evolution are also shown. Some workers
prefer to lump the earlier records
together and recognize only one
widespread species, H. erectus2 (shown
in a). Others recognize several
species, with H. ergaster and H.
antecessor (or H. mauritanicus) in the
West, and H. erectus only in the Far
East8 (shown in b). Adapted with
permission from refs 8, 11. 8.
Hublin, J.-J in Human Roots: Africa
and Asia in the Middle Pleistocene (eds
Barham, L. & Robson-Brown, K.) 99-121
(Western Academic & Specialist Press,
Bristol, 2001). 11. Rightmire, G. P.
in Human Roots: Africa and Asia in the
Middle Pleistocene (eds Barham, L. &
Robson-Brown, K.) 123-133 (Western
Academic & Specialist Press, Bristol,
2001). COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v423/n6941/fig_tab/423692a_F1.html
[98000 BC] 3 4
Africa; in Israel.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.stephenjaygould.org/ctrl/bill
ings_africa.html (92,000-115,000)
2. ^
http://www.stephenjaygould.org/ctrl/bill
ings_africa.html (92,000-115,000)
3. ^ N. Mercier, H.
Valladas, O. Bar-Yosef, B.
Vandermeersch, C. Stringer, J.-L.
Joron, Thermoluminescence Date for the
Mousterian Burial Site of Es-Skhul, Mt.
Carmel, Journal of Archaeological
Science, Volume 20, Issue 2, March
1993, Pages 169-174, ISSN 0305-4403,
10.1006/jasc.1993.1012. http://www.scie
ncedirect.com/science/article/pii/S03054
40383710125
4. ^
http://www.stephenjaygould.org/ctrl/bill
ings_africa.html (92,000-115,000)
MORE INFO
[1] Bar-Yosef, O. in The
Geography of Neandertals and Modern
Humans in Europe and the Greater
Mediterranean (eds Bar-Yosef, O. &
Pilbeam, D.) 107−156 (Peabody Museum,
Harvard Univ., Cambridge,
Massachusetts, 2000)
[2] Mellars, Paul.
“Neanderthals and the modern human
colonization of Europe.” Nature
432.7016 (2004) :
461-465. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v432/n7016/full/nature03103.html
[3] Bar-Yosef, O., B. Vandermeersch, B.
Arensburg, A. Belfer-Cohen, P.
Goldberg, H. Laville, L. Meignen, Y.
Rak, J. D. Speth, E. Tchernov, A. M.
Tillier, S. Weiner, G. A. Clark, A.
Garrard, D. O. Henry, F. Hole, D. Roe,
K. R. Rosenberg, L. A. Schepartz, J. J.
Shea, F. H. Smith, E. Trinkaus, N. M.
Whalen and L. Wilson. 199. The
Excavations in Kebara Cave, Mt. Carmel
(and Comments and Replies). Current
Anthropology
33(5):497-550. http://www.jstor.org/dis
cover/10.2307/2743915?uid=3739256&uid=21
29&uid=2&uid=70&uid=4&sid=21101120105141
[4] "Skhul remains". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skhul_remai
ns
[5] McCown, Keith, "The Stone Age of
Mount Carmel", Vol II, 1939
[6] Stringer, C.
B. et al. “ESR Dates for the Hominid
Burial Site of Es Skhul in Israel.”
Nature 338.6218 (1989):
756–758. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v338/n6218/abs/338756a0.html
[1] Индекс: Кафзех 9
(Qafzeh IX) Место
находки: Qafzeh Cave,
Israel Найден: B. Vandermeersch,
1969 Предполагаемый
возраст находки: 90–115
тыс. лет
Разновидность: Homo
sapiens Объем мозга: 1500
см3 Примечания:
Женщина была
захоронена вместе с
маленьким
ребенком. Автор: Sasha
на 15:13 UNKNOWN
source: http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-atwty2
hbM9Y/TxIL8eshIkI/AAAAAAAAGG4/KNd7DfaWco
s/s1600/qafzeh_9_big.jpg
[2] Figure 2: Three-quarter view of
the Mousterian cranium Qafzeh 9 from
Jebel Qafzeh in Israel, about 92,000
years old. Photo: Tsila
Sagiv/IDAM. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.metmuseum.org/special
/Genesis/tattersall_lecture.asp?printFla
g=1&refPage=1
[98000 BC] 6 7 8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^
Stringer, C. B. et al. “ESR Dates for
the Hominid Burial Site of Es Skhul in
Israel.” Nature 338.6218 (1989):
756–758. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v338/n6218/abs/338756a0.html
5. ^ N. Mercier, H. Valladas, O.
Bar-Yosef, B. Vandermeersch, C.
Stringer, J.-L. Joron,
Thermoluminescence Date for the
Mousterian Burial Site of Es-Skhul, Mt.
Carmel, Journal of Archaeological
Science, Volume 20, Issue 2, March
1993, Pages 169-174, ISSN 0305-4403,
10.1006/jasc.1993.1012. http://www.scie
ncedirect.com/science/article/pii/S03054
40383710125
6. ^ Philip Lieberman, "Uniquely human:
the evolution of speech, thought, and
selfless behavior", 1993, p163.
7. ^
Stringer, C. B. et al. “ESR Dates for
the Hominid Burial Site of Es Skhul in
Israel.” Nature 338.6218 (1989):
756–758. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v338/n6218/abs/338756a0.html
8. ^ N. Mercier, H. Valladas, O.
Bar-Yosef, B. Vandermeersch, C.
Stringer, J.-L. Joron,
Thermoluminescence Date for the
Mousterian Burial Site of Es-Skhul, Mt.
Carmel, Journal of Archaeological
Science, Volume 20, Issue 2, March
1993, Pages 169-174, ISSN 0305-4403,
10.1006/jasc.1993.1012. http://www.scie
ncedirect.com/science/article/pii/S03054
40383710125
[1] {ULSF: Skhul IV from Mugharet
Es-Skhul, corresponds to images in
pages between p112 and p113 Garrod,
''The Stone Age of Mount Carmel
excavations at the
Wady-el-Mughara'',1937} Reconstructio
n of the burial of Skhul 4 , a
strongly-built, ''early modern''
human. (photograph from Stringer C.S.
et al., 1994) UNKNOWN
source: http://indiaeng.com/Tsunami-2004
--Andaman%20fault/Toba%20Volcano,%20ch_5
%20-%20Human%20evolution_files/mht1055(1
).TMP
[2] The following is taken from James
Shreeve's book The Neandertal Enigma:
solving the mystery of modern human
origins (William Morrow and Company,
New York, 1995.) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.mesacc.edu/dept/d10/a
sb/origins/hominid_journey/pictures/buri
al.jpeg
[59000 BC] 9 10 11 12 13
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Stone-Age arrows found", News,
University of Johannesburg. See also
Antiquity
84:635-648 http://www.uj.ac.za/EN/Newsr
oom/News/Pages/Stone-Agearrowsfound.aspx
2. ^ Lucinda Backwella, Francesco
d'Erricob and Lyn Wadley (june 2008).
"Middle Stone Age bone tools from the
Howiesons Poort layers, Sibudu Cave,
South Africa". ScienceDirect.
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/a
rticle/pii/S0305440307002142
3. ^ "Stone-Age arrows found", News,
University of Johannesburg. See also
Antiquity
84:635-648 http://www.uj.ac.za/EN/Newsr
oom/News/Pages/Stone-Agearrowsfound.aspx
4. ^ Lucinda Backwella, Francesco
d'Erricob and Lyn Wadley (june 2008).
"Middle Stone Age bone tools from the
Howiesons Poort layers, Sibudu Cave,
South Africa". ScienceDirect.
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/a
rticle/pii/S0305440307002142
5. ^ "Stone-Age arrows found", News,
University of Johannesburg. See also
Antiquity
84:635-648 http://www.uj.ac.za/EN/Newsr
oom/News/Pages/Stone-Agearrowsfound.aspx
6. ^ Lucinda Backwella, Francesco
d'Erricob and Lyn Wadley (june 2008).
"Middle Stone Age bone tools from the
Howiesons Poort layers, Sibudu Cave,
South Africa". ScienceDirect.
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/a
rticle/pii/S0305440307002142
7. ^ "Stone-Age arrows found", News,
University of Johannesburg. See also
Antiquity
84:635-648 http://www.uj.ac.za/EN/Newsr
oom/News/Pages/Stone-Agearrowsfound.aspx
8. ^ Lucinda Backwella, Francesco
d'Erricob and Lyn Wadley (june 2008).
"Middle Stone Age bone tools from the
Howiesons Poort layers, Sibudu Cave,
South Africa". ScienceDirect.
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/a
rticle/pii/S0305440307002142
9. ^ Lucinda Backwella, Francesco
d'Erricob and Lyn Wadley (june 2008).
"Middle Stone Age bone tools from the
Howiesons Poort layers, Sibudu Cave,
South Africa". ScienceDirect.
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/a
rticle/pii/S0305440307002142
10. ^ "Modern culture emerged in Africa
20,000 years earlier than thought", LA
Times,
07/30/2012 http://www.latimes.com/news/
science/sciencenow/la-sci-sn-modern-cult
ure-africa-20120730,0,4412702.story?trac
k=rss
11. ^ Paola Villa, et al, "Border Cave
and the beginning of the Later Stone
Age in South Africa", PNAS, July 30,
2012. http://www.pnas.org/content/early
/2012/07/23/1202629109.abstract
12. ^ Lucinda Backwella, Francesco
d'Erricob and Lyn Wadley (june 2008).
"Middle Stone Age bone tools from the
Howiesons Poort layers, Sibudu Cave,
South Africa". ScienceDirect.
{10,000YBN}
13. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000). {8000 YBN}
MORE INFO
[1] Jim Hamm, "The Traditional
Bowyer's Bible", Volume 2, 2000,
p86. books.google.com/books?id=D9yQiKTt
prAC&pg=PA86&lpg=PA86
[2] Collins, Desmond (1973). Background
to archaeology: Britain in its European
setting (Revised ed.). Cambridge
University Press. ISBN 0521201551
[1] Lucinda Backwella, Francesco
d'Erricob and Lyn Wadley (june 2008).
''Middle Stone Age bone tools from the
Howiesons Poort layers, Sibudu Cave,
South Africa''. ScienceDirect.
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/a
rticle/pii/S0305440307002142
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence/article/pii/S0305440307002142
[2] Objects found in the
archaeological site called Border Cave
include a) a wooden digging stick; b) a
wooden poison applicator; c) a bone
arrow point decorated with a spiral
incision filled with red pigment; d) a
bone object with four sets of notches;
e) a lump of beeswax; and f) ostrich
eggshell beads and marine shell beads
used as personal ornaments. (Francesco
d'Errico and Lucinda Backwell / July
30, 2012) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.trbimg.com/img-5016e6
83/turbine/la-sci-sn-modern-culture-afri
ca-20120730-001/600
[51300 BC] 3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Swisher, C. C. et al. “Latest
Homo erectus of Java: Potential
Contemporaneity with Homo sapiens in
Southeast Asia.” Science 274.5294
(1996) : 1870 -1874.
http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/
abstract/274/5294/1870 AND
http://www.jstor.org/stable/2891688
2. ^ Swisher, C. C. et al. “Latest
Homo erectus of Java: Potential
Contemporaneity with Homo sapiens in
Southeast Asia.” Science 274.5294
(1996) : 1870 -1874.
http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/
abstract/274/5294/1870
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/2891688
3. ^ Swisher, C. C. et al. “Latest
Homo erectus of Java: Potential
Contemporaneity with Homo sapiens in
Southeast Asia.” Science 274.5294
(1996) : 1870 -1874.
http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/
abstract/274/5294/1870
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/2891688
{300 YBN}
[1] homo erectus cranium COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/a/ad/Ng6f.jpg
[2] [t Note that this skull is from
Junniushan and is 280,000 years
old] Chang, P.K.C. et al. The
Formation of Chinese Civilization: An
Archaeological Perspective. Yale
University Press, 2005. The Culture and
Civilization of China Series.
p206. http://books.google.com/books?id=
sP-PN2StH2cC COPYRIGHTED
source: Chang, P.K.C. et al. The
Formation of Chinese Civilization: An
Archaeological Perspective. Yale
University Press, 2005. The Culture and
Civilization of China Series.
p206. http://books.google.com/books?id=
sP-PN2StH2cC
[48000 BC] 2
mammals due in part to humans.1
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ Koch, Paul L. and Anthony D.
Barnosky. "Late Quaternary Extinctions
: State of the Debate." (2006):
215-252. http://ib.berkeley.edu/labs/ba
rnosky/Koch%20%20and%20Barnosky%202006.p
df
2. ^ Koch, Paul L. and Anthony D.
Barnosky. "Late Quaternary Extinctions
: State of the Debate." (2006):
215-252. http://ib.berkeley.edu/labs/ba
rnosky/Koch%20%20and%20Barnosky%202006.p
df
[1] Description Glyptodon Date 1920
(probably) Source The Wonderful Paleo
Art of Heinrich Harder Author
Heinrich Harder (1858-1935) PD
AND Smilodon, Sabertooth
Tiger Source: Painting; Smilodon from
the American Museum of Natural
History. By: Charles R.
Knight Status: Public Domain in the
USA* PD AND Description Wooly
mammoths near the Somme River, AMNH
mural. Date 1916 Source
http://io9.com/5891441/celebrating-char
les-r-knight-the-artist-who-first-brough
t-dinosaurs-and-megafauna-to-life Autho
r Charles R. Knight PD
AND Description English: (Rusty,
the giant ground sloth, at the Iowa
Museum of Natural History, University
of Iowa. Based on Megalonyx
jeffersonii.) Date 16 October 2008
(original upload date) Source
Uploader - Billwhittaker
(talk) Author Billwhittaker (talk) at
en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) Released into the public
domain (by the author). PD AND Artist
[show]Roelant Savery (1576–1639)
Link back to Creator infobox
template Description One of the most
famous and often copied paintings of a
Dodo specimen, as painted by Roelant
Savery in 1626. The image came into the
posession of the ornithologist George
Edwards, who later gave it to the
British Museum, hence the name.[1][2]
The bird swallowing a frog in the lower
right may be the likewise extinct Red
Rail. Date 1626 Current location
[show]British MuseumLink back to
Institution infobox
template Source/Photographer
http://julianhume.co.uk/wp-content/uplo
ads/2010/07/History-of-the-dodo-Hume.pdf
PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a1/Glyptodon_old_drawing
.jpghttp://www.fantasy-workshop.com/faw/
image-files/smilodon-1.jpghttp://upload.
wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/93/Woo
ly_Mammoths.jpghttp://upload.wikimedia.o
rg/wikipedia/commons/6/6a/Giant_ground_s
loth_Iowa.JPGhttp://upload.wikimedia.org
/wikipedia/commons/b/b9/Edward%27s_Dodo.
jpg
[2] Koch, Paul L. and Anthony D.
Barnosky. ''Late Quaternary Extinctions
: State of the Debate.'' (2006):
215-252. http://ib.berkeley.edu/labs/ba
rnosky/Koch%20%20and%20Barnosky%202006.p
df COPYRIGHTED
source: http://ib.berkeley.edu/labs/barn
osky/Koch%20%20and%20Barnosky%202006.pdf
[44000 BC] 7 8 9
Australia from Southeast Asia.5 6
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^
http://www.time.com/time/archive/preview
/0,10987,1169905,00.html
2. ^ Bowler, James M. et al 2003, "New
ages for human occupation and climatic
change at Lake Mungo, Australia",
Nature 421, 837-840 (20 February 2003)
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
421/n6925/abs/nature01383.html
3. ^
http://www.time.com/time/archive/preview
/0,10987,1169905,00.html
4. ^ Bowler, James M. et al 2003, "New
ages for human occupation and climatic
change at Lake Mungo, Australia",
Nature 421, 837-840 (20 February 2003)
5. ^
http://www.time.com/time/archive/preview
/0,10987,1169905,00.html
6. ^ Bowler, James M. et al 2003, "New
ages for human occupation and climatic
change at Lake Mungo, Australia",
Nature 421, 837-840 (20 February 2003)
7. ^
Bowler, James M. et al 2003, "New ages
for human occupation and climatic
change at Lake Mungo, Australia",
Nature 421, 837-840 (20 February 2003)
8. ^
http://www.time.com/time/archive/preview
/0,10987,1169905,00.html
9. ^ Palmer, "Primitive Life", 2009,
p471.
MORE INFO
[1] David B. Goldstein and
Lounès Chikhi, "HUMAN MIGRATIONS AND
POPULATION STRUCTURE: What We Know and
Why it Matters", Annual Review of
Genomics and Human Genetics, Vol. 3:
129 -152 (Volume publication date
September
2002) http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/
abs/10.1146/annurev.genom.3.022502.10320
0
[2] Peter A. Underhill and Toomas
Kivisild, "Use of Y Chromosome and
Mitochondrial DNA Population Structure
in Tracing Human Migrations", Annual
Review of Genetics, Vol. 41: 539 -564
(Volume publication date December
2007) http://www.annualreviews.org/acti
on/showCitFormats?doi=10.1146%2Fannurev.
genet.41.110306.130407
[3]
doi:10.1038/nature01383 http://www.natu
re.com/nature/journal/v421/n6925/abs/nat
ure01383.html
[4]
http://www.infoplease.com/ipa/A0908490.h
tml
[1] Palmer, et al, ''Prehistoric
Life'', 2009, p470-471. COPYRIGHTED
source: Palmer, et al, "Prehistoric
Life", 2009, p470-471.
[2] World map of human migrations,
with the North Pole at center. Africa,
harboring the start of the migration,
is at the top left and South America at
the far right. Migration patterns are
based on studies of mitochondrial
(matrilinear) DNA. Numbers represent
thousand years before present. The
blue line represents area covered in
ice or tundra during the last great ice
age. The letters are the mitochondrial
DNA haplogroups (pure motherly
lineages); Haplogroups can be used to
define genetic populations and are
often geographically oriented. For
example, the following are common
divisions for mtDNA
haplogroups: African: L, L1, L2,
L3 Near Eastern: J, N Southern
European: J, K General European: H,
V Northern European: T, U, X Asian:
A, B, C, D, E, F, G (note: M is
composed of C, D, E, and G) Native
American: A, B, C, D, and sometimes
X [edit]Data
derivation Image:Northern icesheet
hg.png shows the region that was
covered by ice or tundra in the last
ice age All migration data based on
mitomap Geographic data from
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Last_
glacial_vegetation_map.png and adding
the following data
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Ice_A
ge_Temperature.png we get this
interesting result
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Human
-migration-temperature.jpg GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/37/Map-of-human-migratio
ns.jpg
[41000 BC] 6 7 8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Swaziland Natural Trust
Commission, "Cultural Resources -
Malolotja Archaeology, Lion Cavern,"
Retrieved August 27, 2007.
http://www.sntc.org.sz/cultural/malarc
h.asp
2. ^ Peace Parks Foundation, "Major
Features: Cultural Importance."
Republic of South Africa: Author.
Retrieved August 27,
2007 http://www.peaceparks.org/story.ph
p?mid=168&pid=148
3. ^ Swaziland Natural Trust
Commission, "Cultural Resources -
Malolotja Archaeology, Lion Cavern,"
Retrieved August 27, 2007.
http://www.sntc.org.sz/cultural/malarc
h.asp
4. ^ Peace Parks Foundation, "Major
Features: Cultural Importance."
Republic of South Africa: Author.
Retrieved August 27,
2007 http://www.peaceparks.org/story.ph
p?mid=168&pid=148
5. ^ F. Yachir, "Mining in Africa
Today: Strategies and Prospects", 1988,
p1. http://books.google.com/books?id=9W
yyamT93REC&pg=PA1
6. ^ Swaziland Natural Trust
Commission, "Cultural Resources -
Malolotja Archaeology, Lion Cavern,"
Retrieved August 27, 2007.
http://www.sntc.org.sz/cultural/malarc
h.asp
7. ^ Peace Parks Foundation, "Major
Features: Cultural Importance."
Republic of South Africa: Author.
Retrieved August 27,
2007 http://www.peaceparks.org/story.ph
p?mid=168&pid=148
8. ^ F. Yachir, "Mining in Africa
Today: Strategies and Prospects", 1988,
p1. http://books.google.com/books?id=9W
yyamT93REC&pg=PA1
[1] Oldest Mine in the World -
Swaziland The Lion Cavern at Ngwenya
Mountain, just north of the Swaziland
Capital Mbabane, is thought to be the
oldest evidence of human mining in the
world. Carbon-dating has shown mining
activity for red ocre (haematite)
within this cavity dating back to a
period between 41000 and 43000BC. The
site is preserved as an open-air museum
of visitors and is a popular tourism
attraction. (By Darron
Raw) www.swazi.travel CC
source: http://farm3.staticflickr.com/27
23/4303217549_a15d58e869_b.jpg
[2] Ngwenya Mountain Lion Cave in
Swaziland UNKNOWN
source: http://www.ancienttrenches.com/_
/rsrc/1328277651042/ancient-mines/bb92d5
f7-639a-42d2-aee1-daaaa87267b8.jpg?heigh
t=300&width=400
[38000 BC] 5 6 7 8 9 10
Europe.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trinkaus, Erik et al. “An Early
Modern Human from the Peştera Cu Oase,
Romania.” Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences 100.20 (2003):
11231–11236. http://www.pnas.org/cont
ent/100/20/11231
2. ^ Trinkaus, Erik et al. “An Early
Modern Human from the Peştera Cu Oase,
Romania.” Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences 100.20 (2003):
11231–11236. http://www.pnas.org/cont
ent/100/20/11231
3. ^ Benazzi, Stefano et al. “Early
Dispersal of Modern Humans in Europe
and Implications for Neanderthal
Behaviour.” Nature 479.7374 (2011):
525–528. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v479/n7374/full/nature10617.htm
l
4. ^ Higham, Tom et al. “The Earliest
Evidence for Anatomically Modern Humans
in Northwestern Europe.” Nature
479.7374 (2011):
521–524. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v479/n7374/full/nature10484.htm
l
5. ^ Higham, Tom et al. “Revised
Direct Radiocarbon Dating of the
Vindija G1 Upper Paleolithic
Neandertals.” Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the
United States of America 103.3 (2006):
553–557. http://www.pnas.org/content/
103/3/553.abstract
6. ^ Tool to convert C14 age to
calendar
age: ht41264tp://radiocarbon.ldeo.colum
bia.edu/cgi-bin/radcarbcal?id=0&fig=1&en
try_type=0&add=1&age=34000&std=100
7. ^ JOHN NOBLE WILFORD, "Fossil Teeth
Put Humans in Europe Earlier Than
Thought", NY Times, November 2,
2011. http://www.nytimes.com/2011/11/03
/science/fossil-teeth-put-humans-in-euro
pe-earlier-than-thought.html
8. ^
http://www.stephenjaygould.org/ctrl/bill
ings_africa.html (40,000 YBN)
9. ^
http://www.actionbioscience.org/evolutio
n/johanson.html
10. ^ Palmer, "primtive Life", 2009,
p472.
tooth: Grotta del Cavallo, Italy3 ,
jaw: Kent's Cavern, UK4 )
[1] Oblique view of the Oase 1
mandible. Figure 1 from: Trinkaus,
Erik et al. “An Early Modern Human
from the Peştera Cu Oase, Romania.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences 100.20 (2003):
11231–11236. http://www.pnas.org/cont
ent/100/20/11231 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.pnas.org/content/100/
20/11231/F1.large.jpg
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en
/3/36/Cromagf.jpg
[2] Front view of Cro-magnon 1
fossil COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.antikitera.net/images
/imgNews/4253-european-head_169813t.jpg
[38000 BC] 5 6 7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
3. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
4. ^ Sophie A. de Beaune and Randall
White, "Ice Age Lamps", Scientific
American, March
1993. http://halshs.archives-ouvertes.f
r/docs/00/42/17/69/PDF/Sc.Amer.1993.pdf
{Beaune_White_199303xx.pdf}
5. ^ Sophie A. de Beaune and Randall
White, "Ice Age Lamps", Scientific
American, March
1993. http://halshs.archives-ouvertes.f
r/docs/00/42/17/69/PDF/Sc.Amer.1993.pdf
{Beaune_White_199303xx.pdf}
{40,000YBN}
6. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p5.
{79,000BCE}
7. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000). {8000YBN}
MORE INFO
[1] "Ancient oil lamp".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_oil
_lamp
[1] Figure from: Sophie A. de Beaune
and Randall White, ''Ice Age Lamps'',
Scientific American, March
1993. http://halshs.archives-ouvertes.f
r/docs/00/42/17/69/PDF/Sc.Amer.1993.pdf
source: http://halshs.archives-ouvertes.
fr/docs/00/42/17/69/PDF/Sc.Amer.1993.pdf
[38000 BC] 9 10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ BBC News "Red dot becomes 'oldest
cave art' ",
6/15/2012. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/en
tertainment-arts-18459492
2. ^ Pike, A. W. G. et al. “U-Series
Dating of Paleolithic Art in 11 Caves
in Spain.” Science 336.6087 (2012):
1409 –1413.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/336/6087/1409.abstract
3. ^ BBC News "Red dot becomes 'oldest
cave art' ",
6/15/2012. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/en
tertainment-arts-18459492
4. ^ Pike, A. W. G. et al. “U-Series
Dating of Paleolithic Art in 11 Caves
in Spain.” Science 336.6087 (2012):
1409 –1413.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/336/6087/1409.abstract
5. ^ BBC News "Red dot becomes 'oldest
cave art' ",
6/15/2012. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/en
tertainment-arts-18459492
6. ^ Pike, A. W. G. et al. “U-Series
Dating of Paleolithic Art in 11 Caves
in Spain.” Science 336.6087 (2012):
1409 –1413.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/336/6087/1409.abstract
7. ^ Pike, A. W. G. et al. “U-Series
Dating of Paleolithic Art in 11 Caves
in Spain.” Science 336.6087 (2012):
1409 –1413.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/336/6087/1409.abstract
8. ^ "Chauvet Cave". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chauvet_Cav
e
9. ^ Pike, A. W. G. et al. “U-Series
Dating of Paleolithic Art in 11 Caves
in Spain.” Science 336.6087 (2012):
1409 –1413.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/336/6087/1409.abstract
10. ^ "Chauvet Cave". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chauvet_Cav
e
Cave, Spain7 |Southern France8
[1] Drawings of horses from Chauvet
Cave GNU
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/336/6087/F5.large.jpg
[2] Fig 3 from: Pike, A. W. G. et al.
“U-Series Dating of Paleolithic Art
in 11 Caves in Spain.” Science
336.6087 (2012): 1409 –1413.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/336/6087/1409.abstract A time line
of the cave art dated. A single arrow
represents a minimum age, but, where
two dates are indicated, both maximum
and minimum ages have been obtained.
The error bars for O-21 reflect the
variation resulting from the two
different methods of detrital
correction (11). Larger versions of
these images showing sample locations
are available in the supplementary
materials, figs. S2 to
S12. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Chauvethorses.jpg
[38000 BC] 14 15 16
flute.9 10 11 12
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Daniel S. Adler, "Archaeology:
The earliest musical tradition", Nature
460, 695-696(6 August
2009) doi:10.1038/460695a http://www.n
ature.com/nature/journal/v460/n7256/full
/460695a.html?free=2
2. ^
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/natur
e/8117915.stm
3. ^ Mark Evan Bonds, "A History of
Music in Western Culture", 2003, p1.
4. ^
http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/art
icle/ALeqM5j6MhTK_oltyMTR7POcAgfbT5XeZQ
5. ^ Daniel S. Adler, "Archaeology: The
earliest musical tradition", Nature
460, 695-696(6 August
2009) doi:10.1038/460695a http://www.n
ature.com/nature/journal/v460/n7256/full
/460695a.html?free=2
6. ^
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/natur
e/8117915.stm
7. ^ Mark Evan Bonds, "A History of
Music in Western Culture", 2003, p1.
8. ^
http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/art
icle/ALeqM5j6MhTK_oltyMTR7POcAgfbT5XeZQ
9. ^ Daniel S. Adler, "Archaeology: The
earliest musical tradition", Nature
460, 695-696(6 August
2009) doi:10.1038/460695a http://www.n
ature.com/nature/journal/v460/n7256/full
/460695a.html?free=2
10. ^
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/natur
e/8117915.stm
11. ^ Mark Evan Bonds, "A History of
Music in Western Culture", 2003, p1.
12. ^
http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/art
icle/ALeqM5j6MhTK_oltyMTR7POcAgfbT5XeZQ
13. ^ Daniel S. Adler, "Archaeology:
The earliest musical tradition", Nature
460, 695-696(6 August
2009) doi:10.1038/460695a http://www.n
ature.com/nature/journal/v460/n7256/full
/460695a.html?free=2
14. ^ Daniel S. Adler, "Archaeology:
The earliest musical tradition", Nature
460, 695-696(6 August
2009) doi:10.1038/460695a http://www.n
ature.com/nature/journal/v460/n7256/full
/460695a.html?free=2 {40000YBN}
15. ^
http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/art
icle/ALeqM5j6MhTK_oltyMTR7POcAgfbT5XeZQ
{35000BCE}
16. ^ Mark Evan Bonds, "A History of
Music in Western Culture", 2003, p1.
{34000BCE}
[1] Prehistorian historian Nicholas
Conard presents the bone flute from
Hohle Fels to journalists COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.google.com/hostednews
/afp/media/ALeqM5hlF6Vh9FxCmW4OYCeiBOJqR
J3VgA?size=l
[2] Conard et al.1 have discovered the
oldest known flute, at Hohle Fels Cave
in Germany. The flute is made from bird
bone, and dates from the early
Aurignacian, 40,000 years ago. H.
JENSEN/UNIV. TÜBINGEN COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v460/n7256/images/460695a-f1.2.jpg
[38000 BC] 4 5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ First direct evidence of
substantial fish consumption by early
modern humans in China PhysOrg.com, 6
July
2009. http://phys.org/news166120605.htm
l
2. ^ Richards, Michael P., and Erik
Trinkaus. “Isotopic Evidence for the
Diets of European Neanderthals and
Early Modern Humans.” Proceedings of
the National Academy of Sciences 106.38
(2009): 16034–16039.
http://www.pnas.org/content/106/38/160
34.abstract
3. ^ Trinkaus, Erik et al. “An Early
Modern Human from the Peştera Cu Oase,
Romania.” Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences 100.20 (2003):
11231–11236. http://www.pnas.org/cont
ent/100/20/11231
4. ^ Richards, Michael P., and Erik
Trinkaus. “Isotopic Evidence for the
Diets of European Neanderthals and
Early Modern Humans.” Proceedings of
the National Academy of Sciences 106.38
(2009): 16034–16039.
http://www.pnas.org/content/106/38/160
34.abstract
5. ^ First direct evidence of
substantial fish consumption by early
modern humans in China PhysOrg.com, 6
July
2009. http://phys.org/news166120605.htm
l
MORE INFO
[1] Higham, Tom et al. “Revised
Direct Radiocarbon Dating of the
Vindija G1 Upper Paleolithic
Neandertals.” Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the
United States of America 103.3 (2006):
553–557. http://www.pnas.org/content/
103/3/553.abstract
[1] This is the lower mandible of the
40,000-year-old human skeleton, found
in the Tianyuan Cave near Beijing.
Analyses of collagen extracted from
this bone prove that this individual
was a regular consumer of fish. Credit:
Image: Hong Shang / Chinese Academy of
Sciences, Beijing Read more at:
http://phys.org/news166120605.html#jCp
UNKNOWN
source: http://cdn.physorg.com/newman/gf
x/news/hires/2009/fishonthemen.jpg
[2] Translated from Italian with
translate.google.com Revealed the face
of the first
European PHOTOGALLERY reading time
provided for 4 min. about This is
the face of the first anatomically
modern man lived in Europe. Belonged to
a man - or woman - who inhabited the
ancient forests of the Carpathian
Mountains in Romania, about 35,000
years ago. The reconstruction of the
artist - a face that can be of a male
or of a female - is based on the parts
of the skull and jaw found in a cave in
which it was known that bears
hibernate. The facial features indicate
the close affinity of these first
Europeans with their immediate
ancestors Africans, even if it was not
yet possible to determine the sex of
the person. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.antikitera.net/images
/imgNews/4253-european-head_169813t.jpg
[37000 BC] 6 7 8 9 10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Shang, Hong et al. “An Early
Modern Human from Tianyuan Cave,
Zhoukoudian, China.” Proceedings of
the National Academy of Sciences 104.16
(2007): 6573 –6578.
Print. http://www.pnas.org/content/104/
16/6573.full?sid=be561296-85f1-4b9a-8eee
-04e66b845307
2. ^ "Ancient human unearthed in
China". BBC news. April 2, 2007.
Retrieved February 26, 2011.
3. ^ Shang, Hong
et al. “An Early Modern Human from
Tianyuan Cave, Zhoukoudian, China.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences 104.16 (2007): 6573 –6578.
Print. http://www.pnas.org/content/104/
16/6573.full?sid=be561296-85f1-4b9a-8eee
-04e66b845307
4. ^ Shen, G et al. “U-Series Dating
of Liujiang Hominid Site in Guangxi,
Southern China.” Journal of human
evolution 43.6 (2002): 817–829.
Print. http://europepmc.org/abstract/ME
D/12473485/reload=0;jsessionid=lswboz0xC
pa7qfBZuHb2.6
5. ^ Chang, P.K.C. et al. The Formation
of Chinese Civilization: An
Archaeological Perspective. Yale
University Press, 2005. The Culture and
Civilization of China Series.
p23. http://books.google.com/books?id=s
P-PN2StH2cC
6. ^ Shang, Hong et al. “An Early
Modern Human from Tianyuan Cave,
Zhoukoudian, China.” Proceedings of
the National Academy of Sciences 104.16
(2007): 6573 –6578.
Print. http://www.pnas.org/content/104/
16/6573.full?sid=be561296-85f1-4b9a-8eee
-04e66b845307
7. ^ "Ancient human unearthed in
China". BBC news. April 2, 2007.
Retrieved February 26, 2011.
8. ^ Palmer et
al, "Primitive Life", 2009, p473.
9. ^
http://www.stephenjaygould.org/ctrl/bill
ings_africa.html (30,000 YBN)
10. ^ Shen, G
et al. “U-Series Dating of Liujiang
Hominid Site in Guangxi, Southern
China.” Journal of human evolution
43.6 (2002): 817–829.
Print. http://europepmc.org/abstract/ME
D/12473485/reload=0;jsessionid=lswboz0xC
pa7qfBZuHb2.6
MORE INFO
[1] Hu, Y. .; Shang, H. .; Tong,
H. .; Nehlich, O. .; Liu, W. .; Zhao,
C. .; Yu, J. .; Wang, C. . et al. (Jul
2009). "Stable isotope dietary analysis
of the Tianyuan 1 early modern human".
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences 106 (27): 10971–4. Bibcode
2009PNAS..10610971H.
DOI:10.1073/pnas.0904826106. ISSN
0027-8424. PMC 2706269. PMID 19581579
(Tongtianyan Cave, Liujiang County,
Guangxi Zhuang4 5 )
[1] Fig. 1. Anterolateral oblique
view of the Tianyuan 1 mandible (lower
left), medial view of the right corpus
and ramus (upper left), and occlusal
view of the dentition and alveoli
(upper right). Views are not to the
same scale. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.pnas.org/content/104/
16/6573/F1.large.jpg
[2] Fossilized skull of the Liujiang
hominid, H. sapiens sapiens, found in a
cave in Liujiang County, Guangxi Zhuang
Autonomous Region Chang, P.K.C. et al.
The Formation of Chinese Civilization:
An Archaeological Perspective. Yale
University Press, 2005. The Culture and
Civilization of China Series.
p23. http://books.google.com/books?id=s
P-PN2StH2cC COPYRIGHTED
source: Chang, P.K.C. et al. The
Formation of Chinese Civilization: An
Archaeological Perspective. Yale
University Press, 2005. The Culture and
Civilization of China Series.
p23. http://books.google.com/books?id=s
P-PN2StH2cC
[30000 BC] 8 9 10 11 12
dyes.5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Eliso Kvavadze, Ofer Bar-Yosef,
Anna Belfer-Cohen, Elisabetta Boaretto,
Nino Jakeli, Zinovi Matskevich, and
Tengiz Meshveliani, "30,000-Year-Old
Wild Flax Fibers", Science 11 September
2009: 325 (5946),
1359. http://www.sciencemag.org/content
/325/5946/1359
2. ^ Michael Balter, "Clothes Make the
(Hu) Man", Science 11 September 2009:
325 (5946),
1329. http://www.sciencemag.org/content
/325/5946/1329.1
3. ^ Eliso Kvavadze, Ofer Bar-Yosef,
Anna Belfer-Cohen, Elisabetta Boaretto,
Nino Jakeli, Zinovi Matskevich, and
Tengiz Meshveliani, "30,000-Year-Old
Wild Flax Fibers", Science 11 September
2009: 325 (5946),
1359. http://www.sciencemag.org/content
/325/5946/1359
4. ^ Michael Balter, "Clothes Make the
(Hu) Man", Science 11 September 2009:
325 (5946),
1329. http://www.sciencemag.org/content
/325/5946/1329.1
5. ^ Eliso Kvavadze, Ofer Bar-Yosef,
Anna Belfer-Cohen, Elisabetta Boaretto,
Nino Jakeli, Zinovi Matskevich, and
Tengiz Meshveliani, "30,000-Year-Old
Wild Flax Fibers", Science 11 September
2009: 325 (5946),
1359. http://www.sciencemag.org/content
/325/5946/1359
6. ^ Michael Balter, "Clothes Make the
(Hu) Man", Science 11 September 2009:
325 (5946),
1329. http://www.sciencemag.org/content
/325/5946/1329.1
7. ^ Eliso Kvavadze, Ofer Bar-Yosef,
Anna Belfer-Cohen, Elisabetta Boaretto,
Nino Jakeli, Zinovi Matskevich, and
Tengiz Meshveliani, "30,000-Year-Old
Wild Flax Fibers", Science 11 September
2009: 325 (5946),
1359. http://www.sciencemag.org/content
/325/5946/1359
8. ^ Eliso Kvavadze, Ofer Bar-Yosef,
Anna Belfer-Cohen, Elisabetta Boaretto,
Nino Jakeli, Zinovi Matskevich, and
Tengiz Meshveliani, "30,000-Year-Old
Wild Flax Fibers", Science 11 September
2009: 325 (5946),
1359. http://www.sciencemag.org/content
/325/5946/1359 {32,000 YBN}
9. ^ ADOVASIO J.
M., SOFFER O., KLÍMA B., 1996: Upper
Paleolithic fibre technology:
Interlaced woven finds from Pavlov I,
Czech Republic, c. 26,000 years ago.
Antiquity 70: 526–534. {000 YBN}
{26,000 YBN}
10. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A
history of invention : from stone axes
to silicon chips ", (New York:
Checkmark Books, 2000). {8000 YBN}
11. ^
{9000YBN}
12. ^ E. J. W. Barber, "Prehistoric
Textiles: The Development of Cloth in
the Neolithic and Bronze ...",
1991. http://books.google.com/books?id=
HnSlynSfeEIC {7000YBN}
MORE INFO
[1] "textile." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 31 Jul. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/589392/textile>
[1] Fig. 1 (1 to 7) Fibers from
Dzudzuana, Georgia, unit D. 1, twisted
flax fibers; 2 to 4, flax fibers; and 5
to 7, unraveled flax fibers. (8 to 12)
Fibers from Dzudzuana, unit C. 8 and 9,
twisted flax fibers; 10 and 12, flax
fibers; and 11, dyed flax fibers.
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/325/5946/-CSCO-3h--1359/-CSCO-3h--F1.l
arge.jpg
[2] On a lump of fired clay from the
Dolní Věstonice / Pavlov area were
found the impressions of substances
from plant fibres. The whole process of
picking nettles, crushing the dried
stem, preparation of tow, spinning the
thread and then weaving was tested and
shown to be possible using tools of the
time by M. Bunatova. Urbanová (ca
1999) http://www.donsmaps.com/dolnivpot
tery.html Dexterity of the First
Weavers A decade ago, experts did
not dare to think about people living
in the last ice age making
fabric. However, on a lump of fired
clay from the Dolní Věstonice /
Pavlov area were found the impressions
of substances from plant fibres. The
whole process of picking nettles,
crushing the dried stem, preparation of
tow, spinning the thread and then
weaving was tested and shown to be
possible using tools of the time by M.
Bunatova. Urbanová (ca
1999) Source: Display, Dolní
Věstonice Museum From Buňatová
(1999) and Sosna (2000): Buňatová,
M., 1999: Textilní produkce v mladém
paleolitu, experiment pro
dokumentární film ''Úsvit géniů'',
in: AR LI, Praha, 104 - 111. Sosna,
D., 2000: Počátky textilnictví. PhD.
Dissertation, Department of
Anthropology, Masaryk University, Brno.
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.ancient-wisdom.co.uk/
Images/countries/Czech%20pics/dolnifabri
c.jpg
[29700 BC] 5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Mietje Germonpré, Mikhail V.
Sablin, Rhiannon E. Stevens, Robert
E.M. Hedges, Michael Hofreiter, Mathias
Stiller, Viviane R. Després, Fossil
dogs and wolves from Palaeolithic sites
in Belgium, the Ukraine and Russia:
osteometry, ancient DNA and stable
isotopes, Journal of Archaeological
Science, Volume 36, Issue 2, February
2009, Pages 473-490, ISSN 0305-4403,
10.1016/j.jas.2008.09.033. (http://www.
sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0
305440308002380)
2. ^ Mietje Germonpré, Mikhail V.
Sablin, Rhiannon E. Stevens, Robert
E.M. Hedges, Michael Hofreiter, Mathias
Stiller, Viviane R. Després, Fossil
dogs and wolves from Palaeolithic sites
in Belgium, the Ukraine and Russia:
osteometry, ancient DNA and stable
isotopes, Journal of Archaeological
Science, Volume 36, Issue 2, February
2009, Pages 473-490, ISSN 0305-4403,
10.1016/j.jas.2008.09.033. (http://www.
sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0
305440308002380)
3. ^ Mietje Germonpré, Mikhail V.
Sablin, Rhiannon E. Stevens, Robert
E.M. Hedges, Michael Hofreiter, Mathias
Stiller, Viviane R. Després, Fossil
dogs and wolves from Palaeolithic sites
in Belgium, the Ukraine and Russia:
osteometry, ancient DNA and stable
isotopes, Journal of Archaeological
Science, Volume 36, Issue 2, February
2009, Pages 473-490, ISSN 0305-4403,
10.1016/j.jas.2008.09.033. (http://www.
sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0
305440308002380)
4. ^ Mietje Germonpré, Mikhail V.
Sablin, Rhiannon E. Stevens, Robert
E.M. Hedges, Michael Hofreiter, Mathias
Stiller, Viviane R. Després, Fossil
dogs and wolves from Palaeolithic sites
in Belgium, the Ukraine and Russia:
osteometry, ancient DNA and stable
isotopes, Journal of Archaeological
Science, Volume 36, Issue 2, February
2009, Pages 473-490, ISSN 0305-4403,
10.1016/j.jas.2008.09.033. (http://www.
sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0
305440308002380)
5. ^ Mietje Germonpré, Mikhail V.
Sablin, Rhiannon E. Stevens, Robert
E.M. Hedges, Michael Hofreiter, Mathias
Stiller, Viviane R. Després, Fossil
dogs and wolves from Palaeolithic sites
in Belgium, the Ukraine and Russia:
osteometry, ancient DNA and stable
isotopes, Journal of Archaeological
Science, Volume 36, Issue 2, February
2009, Pages 473-490, ISSN 0305-4403,
10.1016/j.jas.2008.09.033. (http://www.
sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0
305440308002380) {31,700 YBN}
6. ^ Alexander
Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables
of Science", Second edition, Simon and
Schuster, 1991, p7. {10,000BCE}
MORE INFO
[1]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domesticati
on
[1] Description Deutsch:
Europäischer Grauwolf (Canis
lupus) English: grey wolf Date
February 2009 Source Own
work (own photo) Author Gunnar
Ries Amphibol Permission (Reusing
this file) You must give the
original author credit. If you use my
pictures outside the wiki projects,
please let me know. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Grauwolf_P11302
75.jpg/1024px-Grauwolf_P1130275.jpg
[2] Description Español: Lobo en
el zoo de Kolmården (Suecia). Date
2010-12-23 18:10 (UTC) Source
Wolf_Kolmården.jpg Author
Wolf_Kolmården.jpg: Daniel
Mott from Stockholm, Sweden
derivative work:
Mariomassone Permission (Reusing
this file) See below. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5f/Kolm%C3%A5rden_Wolf.j
pg
[27000 BC] 5 6
Venus figurines.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ O. Soffer, J. M. Adovasio, D. C.
Hyland, "The “Venus” Figurines:
Textiles, Basketry, Gender, and Status
in the Upper Paleolithic", Current
Anthropology, Vol. 41, No. 4
(August/October 2000), pp.
511-537 URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/3173
81
2. ^ O. Soffer, J. M. Adovasio, D. C.
Hyland, "The “Venus” Figurines:
Textiles, Basketry, Gender, and Status
in the Upper Paleolithic", Current
Anthropology, Vol. 41, No. 4
(August/October 2000), pp.
511-537 URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/3173
81
3. ^ PAMELA B. VANDIVER, OLGA SOFFER,
BOHUSLAV KLIMA, and JIŘI SVOBODA, "The
Origins of Ceramic Technology at Dolni
Věstonice, Czechoslovakia", Science 24
November 1989: 246 (4933), 1002-1008.
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/246/49
33/1002.short
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/1704937
4. ^ PAMELA B. VANDIVER, OLGA SOFFER,
BOHUSLAV KLIMA, and JIŘI SVOBODA, "The
Origins of Ceramic Technology at Dolni
Věstonice, Czechoslovakia", Science 24
November 1989: 246 (4933), 1002-1008.
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/246/49
33/1002.short
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/1704937
5. ^ O. Soffer, J. M. Adovasio, D. C.
Hyland, "The “Venus” Figurines:
Textiles, Basketry, Gender, and Status
in the Upper Paleolithic", Current
Anthropology, Vol. 41, No. 4
(August/October 2000), pp.
511-537 URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/3173
81 {29,000}
6. ^ PAMELA B. VANDIVER, OLGA
SOFFER, BOHUSLAV KLIMA, and JIŘI
SVOBODA, "The Origins of Ceramic
Technology at Dolni Věstonice,
Czechoslovakia", Science 24 November
1989: 246 (4933), 1002-1008.
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/246/49
33/1002.short
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/1704937
{26,000}
[1] Description Věstonická
venuše na výstavě Lovci mamutů v
Národním muzeu v Praze Date 2.
9. 2007 Source che Author
che (Please credit as ''Petr
Novák, Wikipedia'' in case you use
this outside WMF projects.) guidance:
Danny B. Permission (Reusing this
file) As they reached the Summit,
he said: “Thou shall take this
Snapshot and use it according to the
Code of License, and let your people
flourish all around the world.” They
brought the Snapshot to their homes and
there was much rejoicing. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b8/Vestonicka_venuse_edi
t.jpg
[2] Description Deutsch: Venus von
Willendorf Date 1 January
2007 Source Own work Author
User:MatthiasKabel Own work,
attribution required (Multi-license
with GFDL and Creative Commons CC-BY
2.5) GNU Figure 2 from: O. Soffer,
J. M. Adovasio, D. C. Hyland, ''The
“Venus” Figurines: Textiles,
Basketry, Gender, and Status in the
Upper Paleolithic'', Current
Anthropology, Vol. 41, No. 4
(August/October 2000), pp.
511-537 URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/3173
81 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/50/Venus_von_Willendorf_
01.jpg
[26000 BC] 3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
2. ^ Finlayson C, Pacheco FG,
Rodríguez-Vidal J, et al. (October
2006). "Late survival of Neanderthals
at the southernmost extreme of Europe"
(PDF). Nature 443 (7113): 850–3.
doi:10.1038/nature05195. PMID
16971951. http://www.nature.com/nature/
journal/v443/n7113/abs/nature05195.html
3. ^ Finlayson C, Pacheco FG,
Rodríguez-Vidal J, et al. (October
2006). "Late survival of Neanderthals
at the southernmost extreme of Europe"
(PDF). Nature 443 (7113): 850–3.
doi:10.1038/nature05195. PMID
16971951. http://www.nature.com/nature/
journal/v443/n7113/abs/nature05195.html
{000 YBN}
4. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm {000 YBN}
MORE INFO
[1] Garrod, D. A. E., Buxton, L.
H. D., Elliot Smith, G. & Bate, D. M.
A. Excavation of a Mousterian
Rock-shelter at Devil's Tower,
Gibraltar. J. R. Anthropol. Inst. 58,
91–113
(1928) http://www.jstor.org/stable/4619
528
[2] Busk, G. On a very ancient cranium
from Gibraltar. Report of the 34th
Meeting of the British Association for
the Advancement of Science (Bath, 1864)
91–92 (1865)
[1] Description English: View of
Gorham's Cave, a sea cave in the east
face of the Rock of Gibraltar,
Gibraltar. Date {ULSF: with top
part showing house removed} 3 July
2007 Source Own work Author
Gibmetal77 CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Gorham%27s_Cave
.jpg/800px-Gorham%27s_Cave.jpg
[2] Description English: View of
Gorham's Cave, a sea cave in the east
face of the Rock of Gibraltar,
Gibraltar. Date 3 July
2007 Source Own work Author
Gibmetal77 CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Gorham%27s_Cave
.jpg/800px-Gorham%27s_Cave.jpg
[24000 BC] 4
hardened by fire).1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ ADOVASIO J. M., SOFFER O., KLÍMA
B., 1996: Upper Paleolithic fibre
technology: Interlaced woven finds from
Pavlov I, Czech Republic, c. 26,000
years ago. Antiquity 70: 526–534.
2. ^ Alexander
Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables
of Science", Second edition, Simon and
Schuster, 1991, p5.
3. ^ ADOVASIO J. M.,
SOFFER O., KLÍMA B., 1996: Upper
Paleolithic fibre technology:
Interlaced woven finds from Pavlov I,
Czech Republic, c. 26,000 years ago.
Antiquity 70: 526–534.
4. ^ ADOVASIO J. M.,
SOFFER O., KLÍMA B., 1996: Upper
Paleolithic fibre technology:
Interlaced woven finds from Pavlov I,
Czech Republic, c. 26,000 years ago.
Antiquity 70: 526–534. {26000 YBN}
Republic3
[1] On a lump of fired clay from the
Dolní Věstonice / Pavlov area were
found the impressions of substances
from plant fibres. The whole process of
picking nettles, crushing the dried
stem, preparation of tow, spinning the
thread and then weaving was tested and
shown to be possible using tools of the
time by M. Bunatova. Urbanová (ca
1999) http://www.donsmaps.com/dolnivpot
tery.html Dexterity of the First
Weavers A decade ago, experts did
not dare to think about people living
in the last ice age making
fabric. However, on a lump of fired
clay from the Dolní Věstonice /
Pavlov area were found the impressions
of substances from plant fibres. The
whole process of picking nettles,
crushing the dried stem, preparation of
tow, spinning the thread and then
weaving was tested and shown to be
possible using tools of the time by M.
Bunatova. Urbanová (ca
1999) Source: Display, Dolní
Věstonice Museum From Buňatová
(1999) and Sosna (2000): Buňatová,
M., 1999: Textilní produkce v mladém
paleolitu, experiment pro
dokumentární film ''Úsvit géniů'',
in: AR LI, Praha, 104 - 111. Sosna,
D., 2000: Počátky textilnictví. PhD.
Dissertation, Department of
Anthropology, Masaryk University, Brno.
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.ancient-wisdom.co.uk/
Images/countries/Czech%20pics/dolnifabri
c.jpg
[21000 BC] 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://news.discovery.com/history/oldest
-man-made-structure-found-in-greek-cave.
html
2. ^
http://news.discovery.com/history/oldest
-man-made-structure-found-in-greek-cave.
html
3. ^
http://news.discovery.com/history/oldest
-man-made-structure-found-in-greek-cave.
html
4. ^
http://news.discovery.com/history/oldest
-man-made-structure-found-in-greek-cave.
html {23,000 YBN}
[1] Picture: Remains of the stone wall.
From the Greek Ministry of Culture.
UNKNOWN
source: http://blogs.discovery.com/files
/wall.jpg
[17000 BC] 4 5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Tanno, Ken-ichi, and George
Willcox. “How Fast Was Wild Wheat
Domesticated?” Science 311.5769
(2006) : 1886.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/311/5769/1886.short
2. ^ Tanno, Ken-ichi, and George
Willcox. “How Fast Was Wild Wheat
Domesticated?” Science 311.5769
(2006) : 1886.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/311/5769/1886.short
3. ^ Tanno, Ken-ichi, and George
Willcox. “How Fast Was Wild Wheat
Domesticated?” Science 311.5769
(2006) : 1886.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/311/5769/1886.short
4. ^ Tanno, Ken-ichi, and George
Willcox. “How Fast Was Wild Wheat
Domesticated?” Science 311.5769
(2006) : 1886.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/311/5769/1886.short {19000 YBN}
5. ^
Zohary, Daniel; Maria Hopf (2000).
Domestication of Plants in the Old
World: The Origin and Spread of
Cultivated Plants in West Asia, Europe,
and the Nile Valley (3rd ed.). Oxford
University Press. pp. 67. ISBN
0-19-850357-1. http://books.google.com/
?id=C1H6_XWJS_gC&pg=PA67.
{Zohary_Hopf_Domestication_of_Plants_i
n_the_Old_World_2000.pdf}
Lebanon, Israel, Iraq, Jordan, Saudi
Arabia)3
[1] escription Русский:
Дикая пшеница
Эребунийского
заповедника -
Однозернянка
араратская (Triticum
araraticum) English: The Wild Wheat of
Erebuni Reserve (Triticum
araraticum) Date 5 June 2007 Source
for-wikimedia.wowarmenia.ru Author
uncredited Permission (Reusing this
file) Released by WOWARMENIA for
Wikimedia under Creative Commons
Attribution-Share Alike license
(Multi-license with GFDL and Creative
Commons CC-BY-SA-3.0 and older versions
(2.5, 2.0 and 1.0)). If you wish to
reuse the photos elsewhere, please read
the instructions at COM:REUSE. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/WildWheat_Erebu
ni_Reserve.jpg/1280px-WildWheat_Erebuni_
Reserve.jpg
[2] Description Česky:
Pšenice. Deutsch: Weizen. English:
Wheat. Español: Trigo. Français :
Blé. Magyar: Búza. Tiếng Việt:
Lúa mì. Date August
2005 Source Own work Author
User:Bluemoose GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Wheat_close-up.
JPG/800px-Wheat_close-up.JPG
[16000 BC] 6 7 8 9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
3. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
4. ^
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/natur
e/8077168.stm
5. ^ Elisabetta Boaretto, Xiaohong Wu,
Jiarong Yuan, Ofer Bar-Yosef, Vikki
Chu, Yan Pan, Kexin Liu, David Cohen,
Tianlong Jiao, Shuicheng Li, Haibin Gu,
Paul Goldberg, and Steve Weiner,
"Radiocarbon dating of charcoal and
bone collagen associated with early
pottery at Yuchanyan Cave, Hunan
Province, China PNAS 2009 106 (24)
9595-9600;" published ahead of print
June 1, 2009,
doi:10.1073/pnas.0900539106
http://www.pnas.org/content/106/24/959
5.full?sid=4a6f1743-94c2-4be8-b046-575b4
f27ab46
6. ^ Elisabetta Boaretto, Xiaohong Wu,
Jiarong Yuan, Ofer Bar-Yosef, Vikki
Chu, Yan Pan, Kexin Liu, David Cohen,
Tianlong Jiao, Shuicheng Li, Haibin Gu,
Paul Goldberg, and Steve Weiner,
"Radiocarbon dating of charcoal and
bone collagen associated with early
pottery at Yuchanyan Cave, Hunan
Province, China PNAS 2009 106 (24)
9595-9600;" published ahead of print
June 1, 2009,
doi:10.1073/pnas.0900539106
http://www.pnas.org/content/106/24/959
5.full?sid=4a6f1743-94c2-4be8-b046-575b4
f27ab46 {18,000}
7. ^ "pottery." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2011.
Answers.com 31 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pottery
{17,500YBN}
8. ^
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/natur
e/8077168.stm {17,500YBN}
9. ^ Trevor I. Williams,
"A history of invention : from stone
axes to silicon chips ", (New York:
Checkmark Books, 2000). {8000 YBN}
Province, China4 5
[1] Pottery Fu (Cooking Vessel)-Shaped
Vessel Paleolithic Age to Neolithic
Age 12000 years ago Diameter at mouth
32.5cm height 29.8cm Restored on the
basis of unearthed pottery pieces at
Yuchanyan, Dao County in 1995 It is by
far the earliest pottery discovered, a
cooking vessel. [t Note that there
are apparently fragments of 2 or more
pottery vessels, and they are redated
in the article to 18000ybn: Elisabetta
Boaretto, Xiaohong Wu, Jiarong Yuan,
Ofer Bar-Yosef, Vikki Chu, Yan Pan,
Kexin Liu, David Cohen, Tianlong Jiao,
Shuicheng Li, Haibin Gu, Paul Goldberg,
and Steve Weiner, ''Radiocarbon dating
of charcoal and bone collagen
associated with early pottery at
Yuchanyan Cave, Hunan Province, China
PNAS 2009 106 (24) 9595-9600;''
published ahead of print June 1, 2009,
doi:10.1073/pnas.0900539106
http://www.pnas.org/content/106/24/959
5.full?sid=4a6f1743-94c2-4be8-b046-575b4
f27ab46]
source: http://www.hnmuseum.com/hnmuseum
/eng/whatson/exhibition/images/kg/2.jpg
[15000 BC] 10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ LEROI-GOURHAN, A., Lascaux
Inconnu (A. LEROIGOURHAN & J. ALLAIN,
eds.), Xlle Suppl. à Gallia
Préhistoire, CNRS: Paris, 1979, p183.
2. ^
Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The
Timetables of Science", Second edition,
Simon and Schuster, 1991, p7.
3. ^ Bahn,
Paul G., "Lascaux: ¿Composición o
Acumulación?", Zephyrus, 47
(1994) http://gredos.usal.es/jspui/hand
le/10366/71521
4. ^ LEROI-GOURHAN, A., Lascaux Inconnu
(A. LEROIGOURHAN & J. ALLAIN, eds.),
Xlle Suppl. à Gallia Préhistoire,
CNRS: Paris, 1979, p183.
5. ^ Alexander
Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables
of Science", Second edition, Simon and
Schuster, 1991, p7.
6. ^ Bahn, Paul G.,
"Lascaux: ¿Composición o
Acumulación?", Zephyrus, 47
(1994) http://gredos.usal.es/jspui/hand
le/10366/71521
7. ^ LEROI-GOURHAN, A., Lascaux Inconnu
(A. LEROIGOURHAN & J. ALLAIN, eds.),
Xlle Suppl. à Gallia Préhistoire,
CNRS: Paris, 1979, p183.
8. ^ Alexander
Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables
of Science", Second edition, Simon and
Schuster, 1991, p7.
9. ^ Bahn, Paul G.,
"Lascaux: ¿Composición o
Acumulación?", Zephyrus, 47
(1994) http://gredos.usal.es/jspui/hand
le/10366/71521
10. ^ Bahn, Paul G., "Lascaux:
¿Composición o Acumulación?",
Zephyrus, 47
(1994) http://gredos.usal.es/jspui/hand
le/10366/71521 {17000 YBN}
[1] Remains of the rope. Fragments of
the first piece of clay (at left the
remains of the rope, at right, its
mark). Images from: LEROI-GOURHAN,
A., Lascaux Inconnu (A. LEROIGOURHAN &
J. ALLAIN, eds.), Xlle Suppl. à Gallia
Préhistoire, CNRS: Paris, 1979,
p183. COPYRIGHTED
source: LEROI-GOURHAN, A., Lascaux
Inconnu (A. LEROIGOURHAN & J. ALLAIN,
eds.), Xlle Suppl. à Gallia
Préhistoire, CNRS: Paris, 1979, p183.
[2] Figure 142. - Fragments of the
second piece of clay. The remains of
the cord appear on both sides. Images
from: LEROI-GOURHAN, A., Lascaux
Inconnu (A. LEROIGOURHAN & J. ALLAIN,
eds.), Xlle Suppl. à Gallia
Préhistoire, CNRS: Paris, 1979,
p183. COPYRIGHTED
source: LEROI-GOURHAN, A., Lascaux
Inconnu (A. LEROIGOURHAN & J. ALLAIN,
eds.), Xlle Suppl. à Gallia
Préhistoire, CNRS: Paris, 1979, p183.
[15000 BC] 2 3
Earth, all hunter-gathering people.1
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ Parker, G. Compact History of the
World. Barnes & Noble, 2001, p17.
2. ^
Parker, G. Compact History of the
World. Barnes & Noble, 2001, p17.
3. ^
Kremer, Michael. “Population Growth
and Technological Change: One Million
B.C. to 1990.” The Quarterly Journal
of Economics 108.3 (1993):
681–716. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
2118405
[1] Parker, G. Compact History of the
World. Barnes & Noble, 2001,
p17. COPYRIGHTED
source: Parker, G. Compact History of
the World. Barnes & Noble, 2001, p17.
[12000 BC] 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Gladkih, M. I., Kornietz, N. L.,
and Soffer, 0. "Mammoth Bone Dwellings
on the Russian Plain." Scientific
American (1984): 251.
2. ^ Bibikov, S.
N. (Sergei Nikolaevich) (1981).
Drevneishii Muzykalnyi Kompleks iz
Kostei Mamonta: Ocherk Materialnoi i
Dukhovnoi Kultury Paleoliticheskogo
Cheloveka (The Oldest Musical Complex
Made of Mammoth Bones). Akademiia Nauk
Ukrainskoi SSR, Institut Arkheologii.
Kiev, Ukraine: Naukova Dumka. In
Russian. Contains summary in English
and French; table of contents also in
English and French.
3. ^ Alexander Hellemans,
Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables of
Science", Second edition, Simon and
Schuster, 1991, p7.
4. ^ Alexander
Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables
of Science", Second edition, Simon and
Schuster, 1991, p7.
5. ^
http://www.infoukes.com/history/inventio
ns/
6. ^
http://www.infoukes.com/history/inventio
ns/ {12,000 BC (verify}
MORE INFO
[1] Pidoplichko, I. H. (1998)
Upper Palaeolithic dwellings of mammoth
bones in the Ukraine:
Kiev-Kirillovskii, Gontsy,
Dobranichevka, Mezin and Mezhirich,
Oxford: J. and E. Hedges. ISBN
0-86054-949-6
[2] Pidoplichko, I. H. (1978) The
Mezhirich mammoth-bone houses, U.S.
Geological Survey. ISBN B0006WZGIS
[3] (Ukrainian)
(1972). Icтopiя мicт i ciл
Укpaїнcькoї CCP -
Черкаськa область
(History of Towns and Villages of the
Ukrainian SSR - Cherkasy Oblast), Kiev
[4]
"Mezhyrich". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mezhyrich
[1] The oldest known map in the world,
discovered by archeologists, is from
12,000 B.C. and was found in Mezhirich,
Ukraine.
source: http://www.infoukes.com/history/
images/inventions/figure02.gif
[12000 BC] 5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Kingery, W D, Pamela B. Vandiver,
and Martha Prickett. "The Beginnings of
Pyrotechnology, Part Ii: Production and
Use of Lime and Gypsum Plaster in the
Pre-Pottery Neolithic Near East."
Journal of Field Archaeology. 15.2
(1988): 219-244.
http://faculty.ksu.edu.sa/archaeology/
Publications/General/Lime%20and%20Gypsum
%20Plaster%20in%20the%20Pre-Pottery%20Ne
olithic%20near%20East.pdf AND
http://www.jstor.org/stable/530304
2. ^ Bar-Yosef, O., and A. N.
Goring-Morris 1977 "Geometric Kebaran
Occurrences,"in O. Bar-Yosef and J. L.
Phillips, eds., Prehistoric
Investigations in Gebel Maghara,
Northern Sinai, Qedem 7. Monographs of
the Institute of Archaeology
Jerusalem: The Hebrew University,
331-368.
3. ^ Kingery, W D, Pamela B. Vandiver,
and Martha Prickett. "The Beginnings of
Pyrotechnology, Part Ii: Production and
Use of Lime and Gypsum Plaster in the
Pre-Pottery Neolithic Near East."
Journal of Field Archaeology. 15.2
(1988): 219-244.
http://faculty.ksu.edu.sa/archaeology/
Publications/General/Lime%20and%20Gypsum
%20Plaster%20in%20the%20Pre-Pottery%20Ne
olithic%20near%20East.pdf AND
http://www.jstor.org/stable/530304
4. ^ Bar-Yosef, O., and A. N.
Goring-Morris 1977 "Geometric Kebaran
Occurrences,"in O. Bar-Yosef and J. L.
Phillips, eds., Prehistoric
Investigations in Gebel Maghara,
Northern Sinai, Qedem 7. Monographs of
the Institute of Archaeology
Jerusalem: The Hebrew University,
331-368.
5. ^ Kingery, W D, Pamela B. Vandiver,
and Martha Prickett. "The Beginnings of
Pyrotechnology, Part Ii: Production and
Use of Lime and Gypsum Plaster in the
Pre-Pottery Neolithic Near East."
Journal of Field Archaeology. 15.2
(1988): 219-244.
http://faculty.ksu.edu.sa/archaeology/
Publications/General/Lime%20and%20Gypsum
%20Plaster%20in%20the%20Pre-Pottery%20Ne
olithic%20near%20East.pdf AND
http://www.jstor.org/stable/530304
VIII, Gebel Maghara, Northern Sinai,
Egypt3 4
[1] Figure 6 from: Kingery, W D,
Pamela B. Vandiver, and Martha
Prickett. ''The Beginnings of
Pyrotechnology, Part Ii: Production and
Use of Lime and Gypsum Plaster in the
Pre-Pottery Neolithic Near East.''
Journal of Field Archaeology. 15.2
(1988): 219-244.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/530304 CO
PYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/5303
04
[2] See text ''In the north corner of
the room was an interesting structure
of unbaked plano-convex bricks (Fig.
44). It had a rectangular base
measuring approximately 1.00 x 1.60 m.,
the north-east side of which was only
15 cm. from the outer inclosure wall.
... The tops of these two walls were
rounded off toward the outside
throughout their length, on the higher
as well as on the lower parts (Fig. 45;
cf. also Fig. 65), and trhe whole
structure was originally coated with a
thick layer of white lime plaster- a
circumstance which greatly facilitated
its excavation and the tracing of its
peculiar shape. ... Fig 44
from: Delougaz, Pinhas, ''The temple
oval at Khafājah'', University of
Chicago Press/Chicago Ill., 1940.
http://oi.uchicago.edu/pdf/oip53.pdf
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://oi.uchicago.edu/pdf/oip53
[11000 BC] 12 13 14
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ Eliza Barclay (September 3,
2008). "Oldest Skeleton in Americas
Found in Underwater Cave?". National
Geographic News (National Geographic).
http://news.nationalgeographic.com/new
s/2008/09/080903-oldest-skeletons.html
2. ^
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/natur
e/2538323.stm
3. ^
http://edition.cnn.com/NATURE/9906/08/an
cient.woman/
4. ^ Eliza Barclay (September 3, 2008).
"Oldest Skeleton in Americas Found in
Underwater Cave?". National Geographic
News (National Geographic).
http://news.nationalgeographic.com/new
s/2008/09/080903-oldest-skeletons.html
5. ^
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/natur
e/2538323.stm
6. ^
http://edition.cnn.com/NATURE/9906/08/an
cient.woman/
7. ^ Eliza Barclay (September 3, 2008).
"Oldest Skeleton in Americas Found in
Underwater Cave?". National Geographic
News (National Geographic).
http://news.nationalgeographic.com/new
s/2008/09/080903-oldest-skeletons.html
8. ^
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/natur
e/2538323.stm
9. ^
http://edition.cnn.com/NATURE/9906/08/an
cient.woman/
10. ^
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/natur
e/2538323.stm
11. ^ Michael Vincent McGinnis,
Negotiating ecology: Marine bioregions
and the destruction of the Southern
California Bight, Futures, Volume 38,
Issue 4, Futures of Bioregions, May
2006, Pages 382-405, ISSN 0016-3287,
DOI:
10.1016/j.futures.2005.07.016. (http://
www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pi
i/S0016328705001382)
12. ^
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/natur
e/2538323.stm {13000 YBN}
13. ^
http://edition.cnn.com/NATURE/9906/08/an
cient.woman/ {13000 YBN}
14. ^ Michael
Vincent McGinnis, Negotiating ecology:
Marine bioregions and the destruction
of the Southern California Bight,
Futures, Volume 38, Issue 4, Futures of
Bioregions, May 2006, Pages 382-405,
ISSN 0016-3287, DOI:
10.1016/j.futures.2005.07.016. (http://
www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pi
i/S0016328705001382) {13000 YBN}
Santa Rosa Island, California, USA11
[1] A member of Arturo González's
underwater archaeological team studies
a skull in an underwater cave on the
coast of the Yucatán Peninsula near
Tulum, Mexico. Skeletons found in
similar caves may be among the oldest
human remains ever found in North or
South America. Photograph courtesy
Arturo Gonzáles COPYRIGHTED
source: http://news.nationalgeographic.c
om/news/bigphotos/images/080903-oldest-s
keletons_big.jpg
[2] Tulum, Mexico UNKNOWN
source: maps.google.com
[9500 BC] 9 10 11 12
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ Rolf E. Hummel, "Understanding
Material Science", 2004,
p5. http://203.158.253.140/media/e-Book
/Engineer/Material/Understanding%20Mater
ials%20Science.pdf
2. ^ Cyril Stanley Smith, "Metallurgy
as a human experience", Metallurgical
and Materials Transactions A Volume 6,
Number 4 (1975), 603-623, DOI:
10.1007/BF02672281 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/4r60p045832k01l6/
3. ^ Rolf E. Hummel, "Understanding
Material Science", 2004,
p5. http://203.158.253.140/media/e-Book
/Engineer/Material/Understanding%20Mater
ials%20Science.pdf
4. ^ Noël H. Gale, "Metals and
Metallurgy in the Chalcolithic Period",
Bulletin of the American Schools of
Oriental Research , No. 282/283,
Symposium: Chalcolithic Cyprus (May -
Aug., 1991), pp.
37-61. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1357
261
5. ^
http://www.codelco.com/english/cu_zonaco
bre/pasado.asp
6. ^ Linda Braidwood and Robert
Braidwood, "Prehistoric Village
Archaeology in south-eastern Turkey:
The eight-millennium B.C> site at
Çayönü, its chipped and ground stone
undustries and faunal remains:, 1982,
p4,10-11.
7. ^ "Copper". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copper
8. ^ "Bronze Age". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 01 Jul.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/81017/Bronze-Age>.
9. ^ Rolf E. Hummel, "Understanding
Material Science", 2004,
p5. http://203.158.253.140/media/e-Book
/Engineer/Material/Understanding%20Mater
ials%20Science.pdf
10. ^ Noël H. Gale, "Metals and
Metallurgy in the Chalcolithic Period",
Bulletin of the American Schools of
Oriental Research , No. 282/283,
Symposium: Chalcolithic Cyprus (May -
Aug., 1991), pp.
37-61. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1357
261
11. ^ "Bronze Age". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 01 Jul.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/81017/Bronze-Age>.
12. ^
http://www.codelco.com/english/cu_zonaco
bre/pasado.asp {700 YBN}
MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.kkhec.ac.ir/Iran%20informatio
n/iranian_copper_iran_exports.htm
|(Çayönü) Anatolia (modern Turkey)4
|Northern Iraq5 6 7 |Eastern Anatolia8
[1] from ''Metallurgy as a human
experience'': fgi2: Copper pendant from
Shanidar Cave, Northeast Iraq, about
9500 B.C. Length 2.3cm; thickness
0.3cm. Shaped by hammering a piece of
native metal and finishing with
abrasives. (It is completely
mineralized and there is a slight
possibility that it was originally
simply carved from a lump of
malachite.) Courtesy Professor Ralph S.
Solecki. --- Malachite is a green
mineral, basic copper carbonate, Cu 2
CO 3 (OH) 2 , an ore of copper, used
for making ornamental articles.
''Malachite.'' Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 04 Jul.
2012.
''Metallurgy as a human experience'',
Metallurgical and Materials
Transactions A Volume 6, Number 4
(1975), 603-623, DOI:
10.1007/BF02672281 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/4r60p045832k01l6/ COPYR
IGHTED
source: http://www.springerlink.com/cont
ent/4r60p045832k01l6/
[2] Description View of the exterior
of Shanidar Cave, taken during the
summer of 2005. Note for scale the two
crouching men in front of the cave. At
the time this photo was taken, the
interior of the cave was being used as
a pen by a local
shepherd. Licensing Date 2006-08-03
(original upload date) Source
Originally from en.wikipedia;
description page is/was here. Author
Original uploader was JosephV at
en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) Licensed under the GFDL by
the author; Released under the GNU Free
Documentation License. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a8/Erbil_governorate_sha
nidar_cave.jpg
[9000 BC] 6 7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
3. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
4. ^ "Jericho." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2011. Web. 19 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/302707/Jericho>. {9,000 BC}
5. ^
"Jericho." The Concise Oxford
Dictionary of Archaeology. Oxford
University Press, 2002, 2003.
Answers.com 31 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/jericho
6. ^ "Jericho." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2011. Web. 19 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/302707/Jericho>. {9,000 BC}
7. ^ Trevor
I. Williams, "A history of invention :
from stone axes to silicon chips ",
(New York: Checkmark Books, 2000). {000
YBN} {8,000 YBN}
MORE INFO
[1] Kathleen Kenyon, "Excavations
at Jericho", 1981,
p6. {Kenyon_Excavations_At_Jericho_1981
.pdf}
Palestine5
[1] An aerial view of Jericho showing
the ruins of Tell
es-Sultan Description Italiano:
veduta aerea dell'area archeologica di
Gerico Date 2008-03-05 (original
upload date) Source Transferred
from it.wikipedia Author Original
uploader was Fullo88 at
it.wikipedia PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f4/Tell_es-sultan.jpg
[2] Plastered skulls figures
from: Kathleen Kenyon, ''Excavations
at Jericho'', 1981,
vol5. {Kenyon_Excavations_At_Jericho_19
81.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: Kenyon_Excavations_At_Jericho_19
81.pdf
[9000 BC] 6 7
stone and rounded stone used to grind
grain into flour).2 3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "quern." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 17 Jun.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/quern
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
3. ^ "saddle quern". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 16 Jun.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/515851/saddle-quern>.
4. ^ "quern." A Dictionary of Food and
Nutrition. Oxford University Press,
1995, 2003, 2005. Answers.com 17 Jun.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/quern
5. ^ British Museum: The oldest known
tool for making flour found in the
Middle
East http://www.britishmuseum.org/explo
re/highlights/highlight_objects/pe/q/que
rn_stone_for_making_flour.aspx
6. ^ British Museum: The oldest known
tool for making flour found in the
Middle
East http://www.britishmuseum.org/explo
re/highlights/highlight_objects/pe/q/que
rn_stone_for_making_flour.aspx
7. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
[1] (presumably the:) Quern stone used
for making flour 9,500–9,000
BC Abu Hureyra, Syria NONCOMMERCIAL
USE
source: http://www.britishmuseum.org/ima
ges/quern_l.jpg
[2] Setting where Quern stone was used
for making flour 9,500–9,000
BC Abu Hureyra, Syria NONCOMMERCIAL
USE
source: http://www.britishmuseum.org/ima
ges/quern_setting_l.jpg
[9000 BC] 3 4 5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ Hirst, K. Kris. "The History of
the Domestication of Goats". About.com.
3. ^
Hirst, K. Kris. "The History of the
Domestication of Goats". About.com.
4. ^ Breeds of
Livestock; Goats: (Capra hircus).
Oklahoma State University Board of
Regents
5. ^ Zeder MA. 2008. Domestication and
early agriculture in the Mediterranean
Basin: Origins, diffusion, and impact.
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences
105(33):11597-11604. http://www.pnas.or
g/content/105/33/11597
Turkey| (11,000 bp), and the Zagros
Mountains of Iran at Ganj Dareh
(10,000).2
[1] Description Bezoar Ibex (Capra
aegagrus aegagrus) Deutsch:
Bezoarziege, fotografiert im Tierpark
Berlin Date January
2006 Source Uploaded first to de
wikipedia on 13:25, 19. Feb 2006 by Der
Irbis Author F. Spangenberg (Der
Irbis, own photo) GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f6/Bezoarziege.jpg
[2] Domestic goat kid, in field of
capeweed. Swifts Creek, Victoria,
September 2007 GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Domestic_goat_k
id_in_capeweed.jpg/1024px-Domestic_goat_
kid_in_capeweed.jpg
[8500 BC] 3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ Zohary, D., and M. Hopf.
Domestication of Plants in the Old
World: The Origin and Spread of
Cultivated Plants in West Asia, Europe,
and the Nile Valley. Oxford University
Press, 2000, p126-132. 2012 edition:
http://books.google.com/books?id=tc6vr0q
zk_4C
3. ^ Zohary, D., and M. Hopf.
Domestication of Plants in the Old
World: The Origin and Spread of
Cultivated Plants in West Asia, Europe,
and the Nile Valley. Oxford University
Press, 2000, p126-132. 2012 edition:
http://books.google.com/books?id=tc6vr0q
zk_4C
4. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
[1] Lewis Blue Flax seeding along
I-86. PD
source: http://itd.idaho.gov/highways/op
s/maintenance/Roadside/ImageGalleries/Na
tive-Management/LewisBlueFlax4.jpg
[2] from:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Flax_
seeds.jpg I took this picture of flax
seed in July of 2005 and grant its use
under the Creative Commons
Attribution-Sharealike 2.5 CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/15/Flax_seeds.jpg
[8500 BC] 4 5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Per Jensen (2009). The ethology
of domestic animals: an introductory
text. CABI. pp. 162–. ISBN
9781845935368.
http://books.google.com/books?id=FuJKS
EgccUEC&pg=PA162#v=onepage&q&f=false
2. ^ Zeder MA. 2008. Domestication and
early agriculture in the Mediterranean
Basin: Origins, diffusion, and impact.
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences
105(33):11597-11604. http://www.pnas.or
g/content/105/33/11597
3. ^ Per Jensen (2009). The ethology of
domestic animals: an introductory text.
CABI. pp. 162–. ISBN 9781845935368.
http://books.google.com/books?id=FuJKS
EgccUEC&pg=PA162#v=onepage&q&f=false
4. ^ Zeder MA. 2008. Domestication and
early agriculture in the Mediterranean
Basin: Origins, diffusion, and impact.
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences
105(33):11597-11604. http://www.pnas.or
g/content/105/33/11597
5. ^ Per Jensen (2009). The ethology of
domestic animals: an introductory text.
CABI. pp. 162–. ISBN 9781845935368.
http://books.google.com/books?id=FuJKS
EgccUEC&pg=PA162#v=onepage&q&f=false
MORE INFO
[1] Krebs, Robert E. & Carolyn A.
(2003). Groundbreaking Scientific
Experiments, Inventions & Discoveries
of the Ancient World. Westport, CT:
Greenwood Press. ISBN 0-313-31342-3
Anatolia2 |(Middle East) Eastern
Mediterranean3
[1] Ovis canadensis Information from
en: Subject: Rocky Mountain Bighorn
Sheep Camera: Canon D60 Lens: Canon
100--400mm IS Originally uploaded to
en: by
Sunborn Source http://pdphoto.org/Pict
ureDetail.php?mat=pdef&pg=8208 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3a/Ovis_canadensis_2.jpg
[2] Description Fotografía tomada
en Brunete, Madrid,
España. Date 30 March 2008,
10:24 Source Black sheep . Do u
also feel different? // la Oveja negra.
Tambien te sientes
diferente? Uploaded by
Petronas Author Jesus Solana from
Madrid, Spain CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Black_sheep-1.j
pg/1024px-Black_sheep-1.jpg
[8000 BC] 6 7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Giuffra E, Kijas JM, Amarger V,
Carlborg O, Jeon JT, Andersson L (April
2000). "The origin of the domestic pig:
independent domestication and
subsequent introgression". Genetics 154
(4): 1785–91. PMC 1461048. PMID
10747069.
http://www.genetics.org/cgi/pmidlookup
?view=long&pmid=10747069
2. ^ Giuffra E, Kijas JM, Amarger V,
Carlborg O, Jeon JT, Andersson L (April
2000). "The origin of the domestic pig:
independent domestication and
subsequent introgression". Genetics 154
(4): 1785–91. PMC 1461048. PMID
10747069.
http://www.genetics.org/cgi/pmidlookup
?view=long&pmid=10747069
3. ^ G. Larson, K. Dobney, U.
Albarella, M. Fang, E. Matisso-Smith,
J. Robins, S. Lowden, H. Finlayson, T.
Brand, E. Willerslev, P. Rowley-Conwy,
L. Andersson, A. Cooper (March 2005).
"Worldwide Phylogeography of Wild Boar
Reveals Multiple Centers of Pig
Domestication". Science 307 (5715):
1618. doi:10.1126/science.1106927. PMID
15761152. http://www.sciencemag.org/con
tent/307/5715/1618.full.pdf
4. ^ G. Larson, K. Dobney, U.
Albarella, M. Fang, E. Matisso-Smith,
J. Robins, S. Lowden, H. Finlayson, T.
Brand, E. Willerslev, P. Rowley-Conwy,
L. Andersson, A. Cooper (March 2005).
"Worldwide Phylogeography of Wild Boar
Reveals Multiple Centers of Pig
Domestication". Science 307 (5715):
1618. doi:10.1126/science.1106927. PMID
15761152. http://www.sciencemag.org/con
tent/307/5715/1618.full.pdf
5. ^ Zeder MA. 2008. Domestication and
early agriculture in the Mediterranean
Basin: Origins, diffusion, and impact.
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences
105(33):11597-11604. http://www.pnas.or
g/content/105/33/11597
6. ^ Zeder MA. 2008. Domestication and
early agriculture in the Mediterranean
Basin: Origins, diffusion, and impact.
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences
105(33):11597-11604. http://www.pnas.or
g/content/105/33/11597
7. ^ Giuffra E, Kijas JM, Amarger V,
Carlborg O, Jeon JT, Andersson L (April
2000). "The origin of the domestic pig:
independent domestication and
subsequent introgression". Genetics 154
(4): 1785–91. PMC 1461048. PMID
10747069.
http://www.genetics.org/cgi/pmidlookup
?view=long&pmid=10747069
and Island South East Asia4
|southeastern Anatolia5
[1] Description English: A baby Wild
Boar (Sus scrofa) in a wildlife park in
the Netherlands Français : Marcassin
(Sus scrofa) dans une réserve faunique
au Pays-Bas Date 12 May 2010,
15:10 Source Frisling Author S
ander van der Wel CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Sus_scrofa_pigl
et.jpg/1024px-Sus_scrofa_piglet.jpg
[2] Edited version of Image:Wild Boar
Habbitat 2.jpg slightly cropped with
artifacts
removed. [edit]Summary Description
Deutsch: Das Wildschwein (Sus scrofa)
gehört zur Familie der altweltlichen
oder echten Schweine (Suidae) aus der
Ordnung der Paarhufer. Hier zu sehen in
seinem natürlichen Umfeld: Eine
Suhle English: The Wild Boar (Sus
scrofa) is the wild ancestor of the
domestic pig. As shown in his natural
habitat. Español: El jabalí salvaje
(Sus scrofa), ancestro del cerdo
doméstico, en su hábitat
natural. Français : Sanglier (Sus
scrofa) dans son habitat naturel. Le
sanglier est l'ancêtre sauvage du
porc. Grünvalder forst, Bavière
(Allemagne). Cymraeg: Baedd gwyllt
(Sus scrofa), hynafiad y mochyn
dof. Italiano: Il cinghiale (Sus
scrofa), è la forma ancestrale del
maiale domestico, ritratto nel suo
habitat naturale. Nederlands: Wild
zwijn (Sus scrofa) neemt een
modderbad Norsk (bokmål):
Villsvin (Sus scrofa) i sitt naturlige
miljø Português: Um javali da
espécie Sus scrofa, ancestral selvagem
do porco doméstico. Русский:
Кабан (Sus scrofa),
валяющийся в грязи;
предок домашней
свиньи. Svenska: Ett vildsvin
(Sus scrofa) i sin naturliga
miljö. Date 2007-05-22 Source O
wn work Author Richard Bartz,
Munich Makro Freak CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Wild_Boar_Habbi
tat_3.jpg/1024px-Wild_Boar_Habbitat_3.jp
g
[8000 BC] 6 7 8 9
products used in Mesopotamia.1 2 3
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ Fischer, "A History of Writing",
2001, p25.
2. ^ Nissen, et al, "Archaic
Bookkeeping", 1993, p11.
3. ^
Schmandt-Besserat, Denise. "Two
Precursors of Writing: Plain and
Complex Tokens", in The Origins of
Writing / edited by Wayne M. Senner.
1991: 27-41.
http://en.finaly.org/index.php/Two_pre
cursors_of_writing:_plain_and_complex_to
kens#n_1_a
4. ^ Fischer, "A History of Writing",
2001, p25.
5. ^ Nissen, et al, "Archaic
Bookkeeping", 1993, p11.
6. ^ Fischer, "A
History of Writing", 2001, p25.
7. ^ Nissen,
et al, "Archaic Bookkeeping", 1993,
p11.
8. ^
http://www.earth-history.com/Clay-tablet
s.htm
9. ^ Schmandt-Besserat, Denise. "Two
Precursors of Writing: Plain and
Complex Tokens", in The Origins of
Writing / edited by Wayne M. Senner.
1991: 27-41.
http://en.finaly.org/index.php/Two_pre
cursors_of_writing:_plain_and_complex_to
kens#n_1_a
Sumer (modern Iraq)4 |Babylonia5
|Syria, Sumer and Highland Iran
[1] Pre-literate counting and
accounting MS 5067/1-8 NEOLITHIC
PLAIN COUNTING TOKENS POSSIBLY
REPRESENTING 1 MEASURE OF GRAIN, 1
ANIMAL AND 1 MAN OR 1 DAY'S LABOUR,
RESPECTIVELY ms5067/1-8Counting tokens
in clay, Syria/Sumer/Highland Iran, ca.
8000-3500 BC, 3 spheres: diam. 1,6, 1,7
and 1,9 cm , (D.S.-B 2:1); 3 discs:
diam. 1,0x0,4 cm, 1,1x0,4 cm and
1,0x0,5 cm (D.S.-B 3:1); 2
tetrahedrons: sides 1,4 cm and 1,7 cm
(D.S.-B 5:1). Exhibited: The
Norwegian Intitute of Palaeography and
Historical Philology (PHI), Oslo,
13.10.2003- COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.earth-history.com/_im
ages/ms5067.jpg
[2] MS 4631 BULLA-ENVELOPE WITH 11
PLAIN AND COMPLEX TOKENS INSIDE,
REPRESENTING AN ACCOUNT OR AGREEMENT,
TENTATIVELY OF WAGES FOR 4 DAYS' WORK,
4 MEASURES OF METAL, 1 LARGE MEASURE OF
BARLEY AND 2 SMALL MEASURES OF SOME
OTHER COMMODITY ms4631Bulla in clay,
Syria/Sumer/Highland Iran, ca.
3700-3200 BC, 1 spherical
bulla-envelope (complete), diam. ca.
6,5 cm, cylinder seal impressions of a
row of men walking left; and of a
predator attacking a deer, inside a
complete set of plain and complex
tokens: 4 tetrahedrons 0,9x1,0 cm
(D.S.-B.5:1), 4 triangles with 2
incised lines 2,0x0,9 (D.S.-B.(:14), 1
sphere diam. 1,7 cm (D.S.-B.2:2), 1
cylinder with 1 grove 2,0x0,3 cm
(D.S.-B.4:13), 1 bent paraboloid
1,3xdiam. 0,5 cm
(D.S.-B.8:14). Context: MSS 4631-4646
and 5114-5127are from the same archive.
Total number of bulla-envelopes
worldwide is ca. 165 intact and 70
fragmentary. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.earth-history.com/_im
ages/ms4631.jpg
[8000 BC] 4 5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Zeder MA. 2008. Domestication and
early agriculture in the Mediterranean
Basin: Origins, diffusion, and impact.
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences
105(33):11597-11604. http://www.pnas.or
g/content/105/33/11597
2. ^
http://archaeology.about.com/od/domestic
ations/qt/cattle.htm
3. ^ Zeder MA. 2008. Domestication and
early agriculture in the Mediterranean
Basin: Origins, diffusion, and impact.
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences
105(33):11597-11604. http://www.pnas.or
g/content/105/33/11597
4. ^ Zeder MA. 2008. Domestication and
early agriculture in the Mediterranean
Basin: Origins, diffusion, and impact.
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences
105(33):11597-11604. http://www.pnas.or
g/content/105/33/11597
5. ^
http://archaeology.about.com/od/domestic
ations/qt/cattle.htm
[1] Description Deutsch: Heckrinder
in den Niederlanden. English: An Heck
cattle group, in Oostvaardersplassen, a
nature reserve in the province of
Flevoland in the
Netherlands. Français : Aurochs de
Heck Nederlands: Heckrunderen in de
Oostvaardersplassen, een natuurgebied
in de provincie Flevoland,
Nederland. Date 16 septembre
2004 Source Travail personnel Auteur
GerardM GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Heckrund1.JPG/1
280px-Heckrund1.JPG
[2] Wild Cattle in Britain The
Chillingham Herd Chillingham
cattle (picture from
Whitepark.org.uk) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.vegaresearch.org/imag
es/Chillingham1.jpg
[7800 BC] 4 5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ Lev-Yadun, Simcha, Avi Gopher, and
Shahal Abbo. The Cradle of
Agriculture. Science 288.5471 (2000):
16021603.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/288/5471/1602.summary
3. ^ Unger-Hamilton, Romana (July
1985). "Microscopic Striations on Flint
Sickle-Blades as an Indication of Plant
Cultivation: Preliminary Results".
World Archaeology 17 (1): 121-6.
doi:10.1080/00438243.1985.9979955. http
://dx.doi.org/10.1080%2F00438243.1985.99
79955
4. ^ Lev-Yadun, Simcha, Avi Gopher, and
Shahal Abbo. The Cradle of
Agriculture. Science 288.5471 (2000):
16021603.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/288/5471/1602.summary
5. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
6. ^ Unger-Hamilton, Romana (July
1985). "Microscopic Striations on Flint
Sickle-Blades as an Indication of Plant
Cultivation: Preliminary Results".
World Archaeology 17 (1): 121-6.
doi:10.1080/00438243.1985.9979955. http
://dx.doi.org/10.1080%2F00438243.1985.99
79955 http://www.jstor.org/stable/12468
0
MORE INFO
[1] Banning, E.B. (1998). "The
Neolithic Period: Triumphs of
Architecture, Agriculture, and Art".
Near Eastern Archaeology 61 (4):
188–237. doi:10.2307/3210656. JSTOR
3210656. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307%2F32
10656 AND
http://www.jstor.org/stable/3210656
[1] [t NOTE not- earliest sickle] [1]
Faucille néolithique danoise en silex
1/Danish Neolithic flint
sickle flint 105 UNKNOWN
source: http://idata.over-blog.com/4/25/
41/68/danois/flint-130.jpg
[2] [t NOTE not- earliest sickle]
Ancient Stone Age Neolithic Flint
Sickle Denmark UNKNOWN
source: http://www.artancient.com/ebay/2
50310/020412JSA010.jpg
[7500 BC] 7 8 9 10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Lev-Yadun, Simcha, Avi Gopher,
and Shahal Abbo. "The Cradle of
Agriculture." Science 288.5471 (2000):
1602�1603.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/288/5471/1602.full
2. ^ Lev-Yadun, Simcha, Avi Gopher, and
Shahal Abbo. "The Cradle of
Agriculture." Science 288.5471 (2000):
1602�1603.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/288/5471/1602.full
3. ^ Lev-Yadun, Simcha, Avi Gopher, and
Shahal Abbo. "The Cradle of
Agriculture." Science 288.5471 (2000):
1602�1603.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/288/5471/1602.full
4. ^ Lev-Yadun, Simcha, Avi Gopher, and
Shahal Abbo. "The Cradle of
Agriculture." Science 288.5471 (2000):
1602�1603.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/288/5471/1602.full
5. ^ Tanno, Ken-ichi, and George
Willcox. "How Fast Was Wild Wheat
Domesticated?"� Science 311.5769
(2006) : 1886.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/311/5769/1886.short
6. ^ Which came first, monumental
building projects or farming?". Archaeo
News. 2008-12-14.
7. ^ Lev-Yadun, Simcha, Avi
Gopher, and Shahal Abbo. "The Cradle of
Agriculture." Science 288.5471 (2000):
1602�1603.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/288/5471/1602.full
8. ^ Tanno, Ken-ichi, and George
Willcox. "How Fast Was Wild Wheat
Domesticated?" Science 311.5769 (2006)
: 1886.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/311/5769/1886.short {9300 YBN}
9. ^ Which
came first, monumental building
projects or farming?". Archaeo News.
2008-12-14.
10. ^ "First farmers discovered". BBC
News.
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nat
ure/489449.stm
MORE INFO
[1] Diamond, Jared. "Evolution,
Consequences and Future of Plant and
Animal Domestication." Nature 418.6898
(2002):
700�707. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v418/n6898/full/nature01019.htm
l
[2] Moore, Andrew Michael Tangye,
Gordon C. Hillman, and Anthony J.
Legge. Village on the Euphrates: from
foraging to farming at Abu Hureyra.
Oxford: Oxford University Press xvii,
2000, p.
528. http://www.amazon.com/Village-Euph
rates-Foraging-Farming-Hureyra/dp/019510
8078
[3] Ozkan, H; Brandolini, A;
Sch�fer-Pregl, R; Salamini, F
(October 2002). "AFLP analysis of a
collection of tetraploid wheats
indicates the origin of emmer and hard
wheat domestication in southeast
Turkey". Molecular Biology and
Evolution 19 (10): 1797�801. PMID
12270906
[4] Zohary, Daniel; Maria Hopf (2000).
Domestication of Plants in the Old
World: The Origin and Spread of
Cultivated Plants in West Asia, Europe,
and the Nile Valley (3rd ed.). Oxford
University Press. pp. 67. ISBN
0-19-850357-1. http://books.google.com/
?id=C1H6_XWJS_gC&pg=PA67
Turkey and northern Syria5 (Nevali
Cori, Turkey6 )
[1] Description Česky:
Pšenice. Deutsch: Weizen. English:
Wheat. Español: Trigo. Français :
Blé. Magyar: Búza. Tiếng Việt:
Lúa mì. Date August
2005 Source Own work Author
User:Bluemoose GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Wheat_close-up.
JPG/800px-Wheat_close-up.JPG
[2] Nevali Cori, Turkey from Google
Maps UNKNOWN
source: https://maps.google.com/maps?ll=
37.518333,38.605556&spn=0.01,0.01&t=m&q=
37.518333,38.605556 http://localhost/ul
sf/images/Nevali_Cori_Turkey.jpg
[7500 BC] 4 5 6 7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Lu, H; Zhang, J; Liu, KB; Wu, N;
Li, Y; Zhou, K; Ye, M; Zhang, T et al.
(2009). "Earliest domestication of
common millet (Panicum miliaceum) in
East Asia extended to 10,000 years
ago". Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences of the United
States of America 106 (18): 7367–72.
doi:10.1073/pnas.0900158106. PMC
2678631. PMID
19383791. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/p
mc/articles/PMC2678631/
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
3. ^ Lu, H; Zhang, J; Liu, KB; Wu, N;
Li, Y; Zhou, K; Ye, M; Zhang, T et al.
(2009). "Earliest domestication of
common millet (Panicum miliaceum) in
East Asia extended to 10,000 years
ago". Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences of the United
States of America 106 (18): 7367–72.
doi:10.1073/pnas.0900158106. PMC
2678631. PMID
19383791. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/p
mc/articles/PMC2678631/
4. ^ Lu, H; Zhang, J; Liu, KB; Wu, N;
Li, Y; Zhou, K; Ye, M; Zhang, T et al.
(2009). "Earliest domestication of
common millet (Panicum miliaceum) in
East Asia extended to 10,000 years
ago". Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences of the United
States of America 106 (18): 7367–72.
doi:10.1073/pnas.0900158106. PMC
2678631. PMID
19383791. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/p
mc/articles/PMC2678631/
5. ^ Chang, P.K.C. et al. The Formation
of Chinese Civilization: An
Archaeological Perspective. Yale
University Press, 2005. The Culture and
Civilization of China Series.
p206. http://books.google.com/books?id=
sP-PN2StH2cC
6. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
7. ^ Zohary, Daniel; Maria Hopf (2000).
Domestication of Plants in the Old
World: The Origin and Spread of
Cultivated Plants in West Asia, Europe,
and the Nile Valley (3rd ed.). Oxford
University Press. pp. 83-88. ISBN
0-19-850357-1. http://books.google.com/
?id=C1H6_XWJS_gC {Zohary_Hopf_Domestica
tion_of_Plants_in_the_Old_World_2000.pdf
}
[1] Description English: Panicum
miliaceum Date 2008-5-4 Source Own
work Author Dalgial CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Panicum_miliace
um_2.JPG/768px-Panicum_miliaceum_2.JPG
[2] Name Panicum
miliaceum Family Poaceae
Bildbeschreibung: noch grüne
Rispenhirse Quelle: selbst
erstellt Fotograf:
User:MarkusHagenlocher Datum: 21.
Juli GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/51/Rispenhirse_gr%C3%BCn
.jpg
[7500 BC] 3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Zohary, Daniel; Maria Hopf
(2000). Domestication of Plants in the
Old World: The Origin and Spread of
Cultivated Plants in West Asia, Europe,
and the Nile Valley (3rd ed.). Oxford
University Press. pp. 59-69. ISBN
0-19-850357-1. http://books.google.com/
?id=C1H6_XWJS_gC&pg=PA59
{Zohary_Hopf_Domestication_of_Plants_i
n_the_Old_World_2000.pdf}
2. ^ Zohary, Daniel; Maria Hopf (2000).
Domestication of Plants in the Old
World: The Origin and Spread of
Cultivated Plants in West Asia, Europe,
and the Nile Valley (3rd ed.). Oxford
University Press. pp. 67. ISBN
0-19-850357-1. http://books.google.com/
?id=C1H6_XWJS_gC&pg=PA67
{Zohary_Hopf_Domestication_of_Plants_i
n_the_Old_World_2000.pdf}
3. ^ Zohary, Daniel; Maria Hopf (2000).
Domestication of Plants in the Old
World: The Origin and Spread of
Cultivated Plants in West Asia, Europe,
and the Nile Valley (3rd ed.). Oxford
University Press. pp. 67. ISBN
0-19-850357-1. http://books.google.com/
?id=C1H6_XWJS_gC&pg=PA67
{Zohary_Hopf_Domestication_of_Plants_i
n_the_Old_World_2000.pdf}
4. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
[1] Hordeum-barley -
http://www.ars.usda.gov/is/graphics/ph
otos/k5141-4.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/55/Hordeum-barley.jpg
[2] Tell Abu Hureyra, Syria in Google
Maps UNKNOWN
source: https://maps.google.com/maps?ll=
35.866,38.4&spn=0.01,0.01&t=m&q=35.866,3
8.4
[7240 BC] 5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Tom D. Dillehay, Jack Rossen,
Thomas C. Andres, and David E.
Williams, "Preceramic Adoption of
Peanut, Squash, and Cotton in Northern
Peru", Science 29 June 2007: 316
(5833),
1890-1893. http://www.sciencemag.org/co
ntent/316/5833/1890.abstract
2. ^ Tom D. Dillehay, Jack Rossen,
Thomas C. Andres, and David E.
Williams, "Preceramic Adoption of
Peanut, Squash, and Cotton in Northern
Peru", Science 29 June 2007: 316
(5833),
1890-1893. http://www.sciencemag.org/co
ntent/316/5833/1890.abstract
3. ^ Tom D. Dillehay, Jack Rossen,
Thomas C. Andres, and David E.
Williams, "Preceramic Adoption of
Peanut, Squash, and Cotton in Northern
Peru", Science 29 June 2007: 316
(5833),
1890-1893. http://www.sciencemag.org/co
ntent/316/5833/1890.abstract
4. ^ Tom D. Dillehay, Jack Rossen,
Thomas C. Andres, and David E.
Williams, "Preceramic Adoption of
Peanut, Squash, and Cotton in Northern
Peru", Science 29 June 2007: 316
(5833),
1890-1893. http://www.sciencemag.org/co
ntent/316/5833/1890.abstract
5. ^ Tom D. Dillehay, Jack Rossen,
Thomas C. Andres, and David E.
Williams, "Preceramic Adoption of
Peanut, Squash, and Cotton in Northern
Peru", Science 29 June 2007: 316
(5833),
1890-1893. http://www.sciencemag.org/co
ntent/316/5833/1890.abstract {9240}
6. ^
http://www.nytimes.com/2007/06/28/scienc
e/28cnd-squash.html?_r=1&adxnnl=1&oref=s
login&adxnnlx=1183057296-Up92joKUeK1fZr+
Wt4cXsQ (10000ybn)
[1] Fig. 3. Close-up of two dark
brown squash seed (C. moschata)
fragments recovered from a buried house
floor at CA-09-27. from: Tom D.
Dillehay, Jack Rossen, Thomas C.
Andres, and David E. Williams,
''Preceramic Adoption of Peanut,
Squash, and Cotton in Northern Peru'',
Science 29 June 2007: 316 (5833),
1890-1893. http://www.sciencemag.org/co
ntent/316/5833/1890.abstract COPYRIGHTE
D
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/316/5833/1890/F3.large.jpg
[6000 BC] 3 4
boat.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
3. ^ "Oudste bootje ter wereld kon
werkelijk varen". Leeuwarder Courant.
ANP. 12 April
2001. http://www.archeoforum.nl/Pesse10
.html
4. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
[1] De boot van Pesse (Drenthe).
C14-dateringen geven aan dat dit object
uit het mesolithicum dateert (ca. 8600
voor Chr.). De lengte bedraagt iets
minder dan 3 meter. foto: Drents
Museum grotere afbeelding UNKNOWN
source: http://www.archeoforum.nl/images
/webboot.jpg
[2] Afb. 1 Mark Jan Dielemans
probeert een kopie van de kano van
Pesse uit in een ven bij
recreatiecentrum Witterzomer in
Assen foto: GPD grotere
afbeeldin UNKNOWN
source: http://www.archeoforum.nl/images
/Pesse10afb1.jpg
[6000 BC] 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "drum." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 12
Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/172045/drum>.
2. ^ "drum." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 12
Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/172045/drum>.
3. ^ "drum." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 12
Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/172045/drum>.
4. ^ "drum." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 12
Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/172045/drum>. {6000 BC}
[1] Curt Sachs, ''The History of
Musical Instruments'', 1940, p81. PD
source: Curt Sachs, "The History of
Musical Instruments", 1940, p81.
[5700 BC] 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Normile, Dennis. “Archaeology:
Yangtze Seen as Earliest Rice Site.”
Science 275.5298 (1997) : 309.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/275/5298/309.full
{Normile_Earliest_Rice_1997.pdf}
2. ^ Normile, Dennis. “Archaeology:
Yangtze Seen as Earliest Rice Site.”
Science 275.5298 (1997) : 309.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/275/5298/309.full
{Normile_Earliest_Rice_1997.pdf}
3. ^ Normile, Dennis. “Archaeology:
Yangtze Seen as Earliest Rice Site.”
Science 275.5298 (1997) : 309.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/275/5298/309.full
{Normile_Earliest_Rice_1997.pdf}
4. ^ Fuller, Dorian Q et al. “The
Domestication Process and Domestication
Rate in Rice: Spikelet Bases from the
Lower Yangtze.” Science 323.5921
(2009):
1607–1610. http://www.sciencemag.org/
content/323/5921/1607.short {Fuller_Dom
estication_Rice_2009.pdf}
5. ^ Y. Zheng, G. Sun, X. Chen, Chin.
Sci. Bull. 52, 1654 (2007).
6. ^ Normile,
Dennis. “Archaeology: Yangtze Seen as
Earliest Rice Site.” Science 275.5298
(1997) : 309.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/275/5298/309.full
{Normile_Earliest_Rice_1997.pdf}
7. ^ Fuller, Dorian Q et al. “The
Domestication Process and Domestication
Rate in Rice: Spikelet Bases from the
Lower Yangtze.” Science 323.5921
(2009):
1607–1610. http://www.sciencemag.org/
content/323/5921/1607.short {Fuller_Dom
estication_Rice_2009.pdf}
8. ^ Y. Zheng, G. Sun, X. Chen, Chin.
Sci. Bull. 52, 1654 (2007).
9. ^ Domestication
and the origins of agriculture: an
appraisal Progress in Physical
Geography 1 March 1999: 37-56.
http://ppg.sagepub.com/content/23/1/37
.short {Mannion_Agriculture_1999.pdf}
10. ^ Normile, Dennis. “Archaeology:
Yangtze Seen as Earliest Rice Site.”
Science 275.5298 (1997) : 309.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/275/5298/309.full {11500}
{Normile_Earliest_Rice_1997.pdf}
11. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000). {3500 YBN}
12. ^ Zohary, Daniel;
Maria Hopf (2000). Domestication of
Plants in the Old World: The Origin and
Spread of Cultivated Plants in West
Asia, Europe, and the Nile Valley (3rd
ed.). Oxford University Press. pp. 91.
ISBN
0-19-850357-1. http://books.google.com/
?id=C1H6_XWJS_gC&pg=PA91
{Zohary_Hopf_Domestication_of_Plants_i
n_the_Old_World_2000.pdf}
13. ^ Zohary, D., M. Hopf, and E.
Weiss. Domestication of Plants in the
Old World: The Origin and Spread of
Domesticated Plants in Southwest Asia,
Europe, and the Mediterranean Basin.
OUP Oxford, 2012,
p74. http://books.google.com/books?id=t
c6vr0qzk_4C
Province4 5 |Yangtze (in Hubei and
Hunan provinces), China6
[1] Description English: Paddy in
West Bengal, India Date 18 October
2009 Source Own
work Author Amartyabag CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Paddy_West_Beng
al.jpg/1280px-Paddy_West_Bengal.jpg
[2] Description: Cambodia, Kratie: A
worker is removing the rice
seedlings. Capture date: August
2002 Photographer: Oliver Spalt
Published under CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/07/Rice_02.jpg
[5100 BC] 5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Pope, Kevin O. et al. �Origin
and Environmental Setting of Ancient
Agriculture in the Lowlands of
Mesoamerica.� Science 292.5520
(2001): 1370�1373.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/292/5520/1370.abstract
2. ^ Pope, Kevin O. et al. �Origin
and Environmental Setting of Ancient
Agriculture in the Lowlands of
Mesoamerica.� Science 292.5520
(2001): 1370�1373.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/292/5520/1370.abstract
3. ^ Pope, Kevin O. et al. �Origin
and Environmental Setting of Ancient
Agriculture in the Lowlands of
Mesoamerica.� Science 292.5520
(2001): 1370�1373.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/292/5520/1370.abstract
4. ^ Piperno, D. R., and K. V.
Flannery. “The earliest
archaeological maize (Zea mays L.) from
highland Mexico: New accelerator mass
spectrometry dates and their
implications.” Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences 98.4
(2001) : 2101 -2103.
Print. http://www.pnas.org/content/98/4
/2101.short
5. ^ Pope, Kevin O. et al. �Origin
and Environmental Setting of Ancient
Agriculture in the Lowlands of
Mesoamerica.� Science 292.5520
(2001): 1370�1373.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/292/5520/1370.abstract
6. ^ Piperno, D. R., and K. V.
Flannery. “The earliest
archaeological maize (Zea mays L.) from
highland Mexico: New accelerator mass
spectrometry dates and their
implications.” Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences 98.4
(2001) : 2101 -2103.
Print. http://www.pnas.org/content/98/4
/2101.short {6250}
MORE INFO
[1] Trevor I. Williams, "A
history of invention : from stone axes
to silicon chips ", (New York:
Checkmark Books, 2000)
)
[1] Description Deutsch:
Maispflanzen (Zea mays) English: Maize
(Zea mays) plant with ears, the baby
corn growing level தமிழ்:
இளங்கதிர்கள்,
நன்கு
வளர்நிலையில்
இருக்கிறது. Date
2004 Source Own work Author
burgkirsch CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/32/Maispflanze.jpg
[5000 BC] 5 6 7 8
(copper).3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Miljana Radivojević, Thilo
Rehren, Ernst Pernicka, Dušan
Šljivar, Michael Brauns, Dušan
Borić, On the origins of extractive
metallurgy: new evidence from Europe,
Journal of Archaeological Science,
Volume 37, Issue 11, November 2010,
Pages 2775-2787, ISSN 0305-4403,
10.1016/j.jas.2010.06.012. (http://www.
sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0
305440310001986)
2. ^ Miljana Radivojević, Thilo
Rehren, Ernst Pernicka, Dušan
Šljivar, Michael Brauns, Dušan
Borić, On the origins of extractive
metallurgy: new evidence from Europe,
Journal of Archaeological Science,
Volume 37, Issue 11, November 2010,
Pages 2775-2787, ISSN 0305-4403,
10.1016/j.jas.2010.06.012. (http://www.
sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0
305440310001986)
3. ^ Miljana Radivojević, Thilo
Rehren, Ernst Pernicka, Dušan
Šljivar, Michael Brauns, Dušan
Borić, On the origins of extractive
metallurgy: new evidence from Europe,
Journal of Archaeological Science,
Volume 37, Issue 11, November 2010,
Pages 2775-2787, ISSN 0305-4403,
10.1016/j.jas.2010.06.012. (http://www.
sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0
305440310001986)
4. ^ Miljana Radivojević, Thilo
Rehren, Ernst Pernicka, Dušan
Šljivar, Michael Brauns, Dušan
Borić, On the origins of extractive
metallurgy: new evidence from Europe,
Journal of Archaeological Science,
Volume 37, Issue 11, November 2010,
Pages 2775-2787, ISSN 0305-4403,
10.1016/j.jas.2010.06.012. (http://www.
sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0
305440310001986)
5. ^ Miljana Radivojević, Thilo
Rehren, Ernst Pernicka, Dušan
Šljivar, Michael Brauns, Dušan
Borić, On the origins of extractive
metallurgy: new evidence from Europe,
Journal of Archaeological Science,
Volume 37, Issue 11, November 2010,
Pages 2775-2787, ISSN 0305-4403,
10.1016/j.jas.2010.06.012. (http://www.
sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0
305440310001986) {c7000 YBN}
6. ^ P.t.,
Craddock. “From hearth to furnace :
evidences for the earliest metal
smelting technologies in the Eastern
Mediterranean.” Paléorient (2000) :
151-165.
Print. http://www.persee.fr/web/revues/
home/prescript/article/paleo_0153-9345_2
000_num_26_2_4716 {8000BCE}
{article_paleo_0153-9345_2000_num_26_2
_4716.pdf} {5500BCE}
7. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A
history of invention : from stone axes
to silicon chips ", (New York:
Checkmark Books, 2000). (3500 BCE)
(=3500bce)
8. ^ "Copper (5000 BCE)". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copper
(5000 BCE) (=5000bce) {5000BCE}
MORE INFO
[1] Metals and Metallurgy in the
Chalcolithic Period Noël H.
Gale Bulletin of the American Schools
of Oriental Research No. 282/283,
Symposium: Chalcolithic Cyprus (May -
Aug., 1991), pp. 37-61 Published by:
The American Schools of Oriental
Research Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/1357261
[1] Copper slag from Belovode (sample
No. 21). Figure 3 from: Miljana
Radivojević, Thilo Rehren, Ernst
Pernicka, Dušan Šljivar, Michael
Brauns, Dušan Borić, On the origins
of extractive metallurgy: new evidence
from Europe, Journal of Archaeological
Science, Volume 37, Issue 11, November
2010, Pages 2775-2787, ISSN 0305-4403,
10.1016/j.jas.2010.06.012. (http://www.
sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0
305440310001986) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence/article/pii/S0305440310001986
[2] Byzantine Roman
Collection tanged arrowhead Inventory
#: 308-316 Type:
Arrowhead Material: Iron Period:
Byzantine (Eastern Roman) 6th - 14th
Cent. A.D. Provenance: Balkan
Region Measurements: (lengths in cm,
left to right): 14.5, 17 cm UNKNOWN
source: http://www.worldmuseumofman.org/
img1000/308316b.jpg
[4900 BC] 5 6 7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Connan, Jacques et al. “A
comparative geochemical study of
bituminous boat remains from H3,
As-Sabiyah (Kuwait), and RJ-2, Ra’s
al-Jinz (Oman).” Arabian Archaeology
and Epigraphy 16.1 (2005):
21-66. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/d
oi/10.1111/j.1600-0471.2005.00041.x/abst
ract {Connan_Norman_200505xx.pdf}
2. ^
http://archaeology.about.com/od/hterms/g
/h3sabiyah.htm
3. ^ Connan, Jacques et al. “A
comparative geochemical study of
bituminous boat remains from H3,
As-Sabiyah (Kuwait), and RJ-2, Ra’s
al-Jinz (Oman).” Arabian Archaeology
and Epigraphy 16.1 (2005):
21-66. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/d
oi/10.1111/j.1600-0471.2005.00041.x/abst
ract {Connan_Norman_200505xx.pdf}
4. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p9.
5. ^
Connan, Jacques et al. “A comparative
geochemical study of bituminous boat
remains from H3, As-Sabiyah (Kuwait),
and RJ-2, Ra’s al-Jinz (Oman).”
Arabian Archaeology and Epigraphy 16.1
(2005):
21-66. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/d
oi/10.1111/j.1600-0471.2005.00041.x/abst
ract {Connan_Norman_200505xx.pdf}
{5300-4900 BC}
6. ^ Alexander Hellemans,
Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables of
Science", Second edition, Simon and
Schuster, 1991, p9. {5000-4001 BC}
7. ^
Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000). {3000 BC}
[1] Scale 1/20 model of a Bronze Age
reed boat, as proposed by Tom Vosmer,
Model of a Third Millennium BC Reed
Boat Image from: Connan, Jacques et
al. “A comparative geochemical study
of bituminous boat remains from H3,
As-Sabiyah (Kuwait), and RJ-2, Ra’s
al-Jinz (Oman).” Arabian Archaeology
and Epigraphy 16.1 (2005):
21-66. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/d
oi/10.1111/j.1600-0471.2005.00041.x/abst
ract {Connan_Norman_200505xx.pdf} COPY
RIGHTED
source: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/d
oi/10.1111/j.1600-0471.2005.00041.x/abst
ract
[4000 BC] 4
house.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "brick and tile." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2011. Web. 19 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/79195/brick>.
2. ^ "brick and tile." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2011. Web. 19 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/79195/brick>.
3. ^ "brick and tile." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2011. Web. 19 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/79195/brick>.
4. ^ "brick and tile." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2011. Web. 19 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/79195/brick>. {4000 BC}
[1] The Royal Tombs (Cemetery) of Ur.
Courtesy Nathanm, Creative Commons. CC
source: http://popular-archaeology.com/u
pload/2697/urroyaltombs.jpg
[2] Pre-Historic Tell Uqair UNKNOWN
source: http://ancientneareast.tripod.co
m/IMAGES/Uqair.jpg
[3500 BC] 7 8 9 10 11
numbers. First stamp (or seal).2
The first writing begins as symbols for
numbers on clay bulla (hollow clay
containers that hold clay tokens).
These symbols represent the quantity
and kind of tokens inside the bulla.3 4
5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Archaic Bookkeeping, Nissen,
1993, pp13-14.
2. ^ Archaic Bookkeeping, Nissen,
1993, pp13-14.
3. ^ Archaic Bookkeeping, Nissen,
1993, pp13-14.
4. ^ Schmandt-Besserat, Denise.
"Two Precursors of Writing: Plain and
Complex Tokens", in The Origins of
Writing / edited by Wayne M. Senner.
1991: 27-41.
http://en.finaly.org/index.php/Two_pre
cursors_of_writing:_plain_and_complex_to
kens#n_1_a
5. ^ Fischer, "A History of Writing",
2001, p25-27.
6. ^ Archaic Bookkeeping, Nissen,
1993, pp13-14.
7. ^
http://www.earth-history.com/Clay-tablet
s.htm {5500 YBN}
8. ^ Denise
Schmandt-Besserat, "Reckoning Before
Writing", Archaeology. May/June 1979,
Vol. 32, No. 3, p. 22-31.
http://en.finaly.org/index.php/Reckoni
ng_before_writing
9. ^ "writing." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/649670/writing>. {3500 BC}
10. ^ Trevor
I. Williams, "A history of invention :
from stone axes to silicon chips ",
(New York: Checkmark Books, 2000). {for
stamp)3500BC}
11. ^ Schmandt-Besserat, Denise. "Two
Precursors of Writing: Plain and
Complex Tokens", in The Origins of
Writing / edited by Wayne M. Senner.
1991: 27-41.
http://en.finaly.org/index.php/Two_pre
cursors_of_writing:_plain_and_complex_to
kens#n_1_a
MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.jstor.org/view/00030279/ap020
117/02a00010/0 (sexagesimal.pdf)
[2] Barbara Watterson,
"Introducing Egyptian hieroglyphs",
(Edinburgh: Scottish Academic Press,
1993)
[3] Roy MacLeod, "The Library of
Alexandria Centre of Learning in the
Ancient World", (New York: I.B.Tauris &
Co Ltd, 2000)
[4] "sigillography."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online Academic Edition.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 20
Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/543584/sigillography>
[5]
http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~hist
ory/HistTopics/Babylonian_numerals.html
[6] "Numeral system#History".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numeral_sys
tem#History
Sumer, Highland Iran)
[1] Fig 109 from: Nissen, Archaic
Bookkeeping, 1993, p127. COPYRIGHTED
source: Archaic Bookkeeping, Nissen,
1993, p127.
[2] Fig 110 from: Nissen, Archaic
Bookkeeping, 1993, p128. COPYRIGHTED
source: Archaic Bookkeeping, Nissen,
1993, p128.
[3500 BC] 6 7 8
device.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "sundial." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 13 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/573826/sundial>.
2. ^ "sundial." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 13 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/573826/sundial>.
3. ^ "sundial." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 13 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/573826/sundial>.
4. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p10.
5. ^
"sundial." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online
Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 13 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/573826/sundial>.
6. ^ "sundial." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 13 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/573826/sundial>. {-3500 BCE}
7. ^
"sundial." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online
Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 13 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/573826/sundial>. {-3500 BCE}
8. ^
Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The
Timetables of Science", Second edition,
Simon and Schuster, 1991, p10.
{2600-2501 BC}
MORE INFO
[1] Yenne and Grosser, "100
Inventions That Shaped World History",
1993, p15
[1] Stick in sand with shadow UNKNOWN
source: http://farm1.static.flickr.com/1
77/484077420_e01337d101.jpg
[2] Description English: Ancient
sundial from Marcianopolis, Museum of
Mosaicas, Devnya,
Bulgaria Български:
Слънчев часовник от
Марцианополис, Музей
на мозайките,
Девня Date 21 September
2010 Source Own work Author
Edal Anton Lefterov CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/ff/Sundial-from-Marciano
polis.jpg
[3500 BC] 3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ Lal, R., D.C. Reicosky, and J.D.
Hanson. “Evolution of the Plow over
10,000 Years and the Rationale for
No-till Farming.” Soil and Tillage
Research 93.1 (2007):
1–12. http://www.sciencedirect.com/sc
ience/article/pii/S0167198706002522
3. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
MORE INFO
[1] M. Green/H. J. Nissen,
Zeichenliste der Archaischen Texte aus
Uruk (ATU 2; Berlin 1987)
[1] [t determine source of
drawing] Apparently mesopotamian
drawing of animal pulled plow. UNKNOWN
source: http://ed101.bu.edu/StudentDoc/A
rchives/ED101fa06/jtobz87/pic-3-2plow-lg
.png
[2] Akkadian plough with seeder c2200
BCE Peter Roger Stuart Moorey,
''Ancient Mesopotamian Materials and
Industries: The Archaeological
Evidence'', 1999,
p2. http://books.google.com/books?id=P_
Ixuott4doC&pg=PA3 UNKNOWN
source: Peter Roger Stuart Moorey,
"Ancient Mesopotamian Materials and
Industries: The Archaeological
Evidence", 1999,
p2. http://books.google.com/books?id=P_
Ixuott4doC&pg=PA3
[3500 BC] 3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
3. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
Mediterranean)2
[1] Illustration 1. A shaduf was used
to raise water above the level of the
Nile. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.waterhistory.org/hist
ories/nile/shaduf.jpg
[2] This is a picture of how egyptians
could have used the Nile to plant their
crops. They are using an irrigation
method. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.amersol.edu.pe/class1
5/_15eescob/6th/humanities/images/nile_i
rrigation.jpg
[3500 BC] 2
transport.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
[1] Artist Maler der Grabkammer
des Panehsi Title Deutsch:
Grabkammer des Panehsi, Priester,
Szene: Esel mit Bauern Date
Deutsch: um 1298-1235 v.
Chr. English: c. 1298-1235 BCE Medium
Deutsch: Wandbild Dimensions
Deutsch: 30 × 61 cm Current
location Deutsch: Grab des
Panehsi Deutsch:
Theben Source/Photographer The
Yorck Project: 10.000 Meisterwerke der
Malerei. DVD-ROM, 2002. ISBN
3936122202. Distributed by DIRECTMEDIA
Publishing
GmbH. http://mail.wikipedia.org/piperma
il/wikide-l/2005-April/012195.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Maler_der_Grabk
ammer_des_Panehsi_001.jpg/1024px-Maler_d
er_Grabkammer_des_Panehsi_001.jpg
[3500 BC] 3
of 30 days, plus 5 extra days1 ).2
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ O. Neugebauer, "A History of
Ancient Mathematical Astronomy: Volume
2", p1975,
1064 http://books.google.com/books?id=v
O5FCVIxz2YC&pg=PA1064
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
3. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
[1] Egyptian Calendar UNKNOWN
source: http://analyzer.depaul.edu/paper
plate/2002%20vernal%20equinox/Egyptian_c
alendar_dark.jpg
[3500 BC] 12 13
pottery wheel.7 8 9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Sir Leonard Woolley, "Ur 'of the
Chaldees"', 1982, p27.
2. ^ Trevor I.
Williams, "A history of invention :
from stone axes to silicon chips ",
(New York: Checkmark Books, 2000).
(3500BCE)
3. ^
http://inventors.about.com/od/wstartinve
ntions/a/wheel.htm (3500BCE)
4. ^ Sir Leonard
Woolley, "Ur 'of the Chaldees"', 1982,
p27.
5. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000). (3500BCE)
6. ^
http://inventors.about.com/od/wstartinve
ntions/a/wheel.htm (3500BCE)
7. ^ Sir Leonard
Woolley, "Ur 'of the Chaldees"', 1982,
p27.
8. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000). (3500BCE)
9. ^
http://inventors.about.com/od/wstartinve
ntions/a/wheel.htm (3500BCE)
10. ^ Trevor I.
Williams, "A history of invention :
from stone axes to silicon chips ",
(New York: Checkmark Books, 2000).
(3500BCE)
11. ^
http://inventors.about.com/od/wstartinve
ntions/a/wheel.htm (3500BCE)
12. ^ Trevor I.
Williams, "A history of invention :
from stone axes to silicon chips ",
(New York: Checkmark Books, 2000).
(3500BCE) (=3500BCE) {35000BCE}
13. ^
http://inventors.about.com/od/wstartinve
ntions/a/wheel.htm (3500BCE) (=3500BCE)
{35000BCE}
MORE INFO
[1] Margaret Sax, Nigel D. Meeks
and Dominique Collon , "The Early
Development of the Lapidary Engraving
Wheel in Mesopotamia", Iraq, Vol. 62,
(2000), pp. 157-176 Published by:
British Institute for the Study of
Iraq Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/4200487
[2]
http://www.hartford-hwp.com/image_archiv
e/ue/uea.html
[3] Stuart Piggott, "The earliest
wheeled transport : from the Atlantic
Coast to the Caspian Sea", Thames and
Hudson, 1983
[4] "WORLD'S OLDEST WHEEL FOUND
IN SLOVENIA" March
2003 http://www.ukom.gov.si/en/media_re
lations/background_information/culture/w
orlds_oldest_wheel_found_in_slovenia/
pottery wheel from Choga Mish,
Iran)
[1] These pots, found at al`Ubaid type
site itself are typical of last phase
of Ubaid pottery found throughout much
of Mesopotamia, including Uruk. London:
British Museum. [t Note that the
first and tihrd match figures in
Woolley's 1982 book.] PD
source: http://www.hartford-hwp.com/imag
e_archive/ue/pottery03.jpg
[2] 14. Pottery jar of Jemdat Nasr
type. It was found in the al`Ain region
of the United Arab Emirates, which
attests to contacts between Mesopotamia
and Oman peninsula—an important
source of copper. Ca. 3000 BC. London:
British Museum. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.hartford-hwp.com/imag
e_archive/ue/pottery02.jpg
[3490 BC] 5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Tom D. Dillehay, Jack Rossen,
Thomas C. Andres, and David E.
Williams, "Preceramic Adoption of
Peanut, Squash, and Cotton in Northern
Peru", Science 29 June 2007: 316
(5833),
1890-1893. http://www.sciencemag.org/co
ntent/316/5833/1890.abstract
2. ^ Tom D. Dillehay, Jack Rossen,
Thomas C. Andres, and David E.
Williams, "Preceramic Adoption of
Peanut, Squash, and Cotton in Northern
Peru", Science 29 June 2007: 316
(5833),
1890-1893. http://www.sciencemag.org/co
ntent/316/5833/1890.abstract
3. ^ Tom D. Dillehay, Jack Rossen,
Thomas C. Andres, and David E.
Williams, "Preceramic Adoption of
Peanut, Squash, and Cotton in Northern
Peru", Science 29 June 2007: 316
(5833),
1890-1893. http://www.sciencemag.org/co
ntent/316/5833/1890.abstract
4. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
5. ^ Tom D. Dillehay, Jack Rossen,
Thomas C. Andres, and David E.
Williams, "Preceramic Adoption of
Peanut, Squash, and Cotton in Northern
Peru", Science 29 June 2007: 316
(5833),
1890-1893. http://www.sciencemag.org/co
ntent/316/5833/1890.abstract {5490 YBN}
6. ^
Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000). {4000 YBN}
[1] English: cotton plant, Texas, 1996,
after chemical haulm (topkilling
Chemical ; usually by the Monosodium
methyl arsenate used to quickly kill
the leaves that would interfere with
harvesting machines). This chemical is
a growing source of residual
contamination of soils by arsenic,
which is not degradable; Photo courtesy
of USDA Natural Resources Conservation
Service. http://photogallery.nrcs.usda.
gov/Index.asp This came from the
website PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/6/68/CottonPlant.JPG
/1024px-CottonPlant.JPG
[3350 BC] 15 16 17 18
Symbols that represent a product (such
as cows, sheep, and cereals10 ), drawn
with a stylus on clay tablets, are the
earliest record of what will become the
modern alphabet.11 12
Training of scribes is an early
school.13
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.earth-history.com/Clay-tablet
s.htm
2. ^ "writing". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online.
3. ^ Schmandt-Besserat, Denise. "Two
Precursors of Writing: Plain and
Complex Tokens", in The Origins of
Writing / edited by Wayne M. Senner.
1991: 27-41.
http://en.finaly.org/index.php/Two_pre
cursors_of_writing:_plain_and_complex_to
kens#n_1_a
4. ^
http://www.earth-history.com/Clay-tablet
s.htm
5. ^ "writing". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online.
6. ^ Schmandt-Besserat, Denise. "Two
Precursors of Writing: Plain and
Complex Tokens", in The Origins of
Writing / edited by Wayne M. Senner.
1991: 27-41.
http://en.finaly.org/index.php/Two_pre
cursors_of_writing:_plain_and_complex_to
kens#n_1_a
7. ^
http://www.earth-history.com/Clay-tablet
s.htm
8. ^ "writing". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online.
9. ^ Schmandt-Besserat, Denise. "Two
Precursors of Writing: Plain and
Complex Tokens", in The Origins of
Writing / edited by Wayne M. Senner.
1991: 27-41.
http://en.finaly.org/index.php/Two_pre
cursors_of_writing:_plain_and_complex_to
kens#n_1_a
10. ^ Barbara Watterson, "Introducing
Egyptian hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh:
Scottish Academic Press, 1993).
11. ^
Schmandt-Besserat, Denise. "Two
Precursors of Writing: Plain and
Complex Tokens", in The Origins of
Writing / edited by Wayne M. Senner.
1991: 27-41.
http://en.finaly.org/index.php/Two_pre
cursors_of_writing:_plain_and_complex_to
kens#n_1_a
12. ^ Denise Schmandt-Besserat, "The
Earliest Precursor of Writing",
Scientific American. June 1977, Vol.
238, No. 6, p.
50-58. http://en.finaly.org/index.php/T
he_earliest_precursor_of_writing
13. ^ Archaic Bookkeeping, Nissen,
1993, p105.
14. ^ "Sumerian writing>.".
Encyclopedia wrBritannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2012.
Web. 15 Jul.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/649670/writing/53659/Sumerian-wr
iting>.
15. ^ Denise Schmandt-Besserat, "The
Earliest Precursor of Writing",
Scientific American. June 1977, Vol.
238, No. 6, p.
50-58. http://en.finaly.org/index.php/T
he_earliest_precursor_of_writing
16. ^
http://www.earth-history.com/Clay-tablet
s.htm (3300bce)
17. ^ Nissen, H.J. et al. Archaic
Bookkeeping: Early Writing and
Techniques of Economic Administration
in the Ancient Near East. University of
Chicago Press,
1994. http://books.google.com/books?id=
YBAzXV4YtQ8C&pg=PA5#v=onepage&q&f=false
18. ^ "writing". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online.
MORE INFO
[1]
http://cdli.ucla.edu:16080/wiki/index.ph
p/The_Late_Uruk_period
[2] Roy MacLeod, "The Library of
Alexandria Centre of Learning in the
Ancient World", (New York: I.B.Tauris &
Co Ltd, 2000)
[3] Archaic Bookkeeping,
Nissen, 1993, pp13-14
[1] MS 4551 Account of grain products,
bread, beer, butter oil. Sumer 32nd
century COPYRIGHTED?
source: http://www.earth-history.com/_im
ages/ms4551.jpg
[2] MS2963 Account of male and female
slaves Sumer
c3300-3200BCE COPYRIGHTED?
source: http://www.earth-history.com/_im
ages/ms2963.jpg
[3310 BC] 6 7 8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
3. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
4. ^ Stuart and Piggott, "The Earliest
Wheeled Transport", 1983, p40,62-63.
5. ^ Stuart
and Piggott, "The Earliest Wheeled
Transport", 1983, p40,62-63.
6. ^ Stuart and
Piggott, "The Earliest Wheeled
Transport", 1983, p40,62-63.
{c3530-3310 BC}
7. ^ Stuart and Piggott,
"The Earliest Wheeled Transport", 1983,
p40,62-63. {Standard of Ur) 2600-2400
BC}
8. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000). {4000 YBN}
MORE INFO
[1] Zettler, Richard L.; Horne,
Lee; Hansen, Donald P.; Pittman, Holly.
Treasures from the royal tombs of Ur,
pp. 45-47. UPenn Museum of Archaeology,
1998. ISBN 9780924171543
[2]
http://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/hig
hlights/highlight_objects/me/t/the_stand
ard_of_ur.aspx
Bronocice, Krakow, Poland5
[1] Stuart and Piggott, ''The Earliest
Wheeled Transport'', 1983,
p40,62-63. COPYRIGHTED
source: Stuart and Piggott, "The
Earliest Wheeled Transport", 1983,
p40,62-63.
[2] According
to: http://www.britishmuseum.org/explor
e/highlights/highlight_objects/me/t/the_
standard_of_ur.aspx 2600-2400
BC According to:
http://sumerianshakespeare.com/687045.ht
ml this image is 4500 years old -
putting it at 2500bce - get more
evidence of age [1] Description
English: detail of the ''Standard of
Ur'', ca. 2500 BC. Date 2500
BC Source
http://www.alexandriaarchive.org/op
encontext/iraq_ghf/ur_standard/ur_standa
rd_8.jpg Author
Anonymous Permission (Reusing
this file) See below. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/7d/Ur_chariot.jpg
[3100 BC] 3
Gods and Goddesses.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Nissen, H.J. et al. Archaic
Bookkeeping: Early Writing and
Techniques of Economic Administration
in the Ancient Near East. University of
Chicago Press, 1994, p5, 20-21,116.
2. ^ Nissen,
H.J. et al. Archaic Bookkeeping: Early
Writing and Techniques of Economic
Administration in the Ancient Near
East. University of Chicago Press,
1994, p5, 20-21,116.
3. ^ Nissen, H.J. et al.
Archaic Bookkeeping: Early Writing and
Techniques of Economic Administration
in the Ancient Near East. University of
Chicago Press, 1994, p5, 20-21,116.
[1] Archaic
Bookkeeping,Nissen,1993,p20-21.
COPYRIGHTED
source: Archaic
Bookkeeping,Nissen,1993,p20-21.
[3000 BC] 6 7
and harp).3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Curt Sachs, "The History of
Musical Instruments", 1940, p78-80.
2. ^ Yenne
and Grosser, "100 Inventions That
Shaped World History", 1993, p17.
3. ^ Curt
Sachs, "The History of Musical
Instruments", 1940, p78-80.
4. ^ Yenne and
Grosser, "100 Inventions That Shaped
World History", 1993, p17.
5. ^ Curt Sachs,
"The History of Musical Instruments",
1940, p78-80.
6. ^ Curt Sachs, "The History of
Musical Instruments", 1940, p78-80.
{-3000 BC}
7. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100
Inventions That Shaped World History",
1993, p17. {-3000 BC}
MORE INFO
[1] C. Leonard Woolley, "Ur
Excavations. Vol. II. The Royal
Cemetery.", 1934
{Ur_Excavations_Royal_Cemetary_1934.pd
f}
[2]
http://www.penn.museum/long-term-exhibit
s/267-iraq.html
[1] Bearded Harpists, detail from
Sumerian tablet in the Temple of Sin in
Khafage, Mesopotamia (presently Iraq) c
3000 BC. Reprinted by permission
from The Harp by Rajka
Dobronic-Mazzoni. Published by Graficki
Zavrod Hrvatske, OOUR, Izdavcka
djelatnost, Preobrazenska 4, Zagreb,
Croatia, 1989 PD
source: http://www.harpspectrum.org/time
line/images/mesopotamia_1.jpg
[2] Harp-player of Sumer, from a
plaque of Khafaje (After Heras, 1953,
p. 182). PD
source: http://www.hindunet.org/hindu_hi
story/sarasvati/html/HARPPL-1.jpg
[3000 BC] 5 6
words.2 Transition from word-writing
to sound-writing.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p47-48.
2. ^ Archaic Bookkeeping,
Nisson, 1993, p117.
3. ^ Fischer, S.R. A
History of Writing. Reaktion, 2001.
Globalities Series. p47-48.
4. ^ Archaic
Bookkeeping, Nisson, 1993, 9.
5. ^ Archaic
Bookkeeping, Nisson, 1993 (during
writing phase Uruk III 3000bce)
6. ^ "Sumer".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sumer
(3200bce)
MORE INFO
[1]
encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761565349/A
lphabet.html
[1] Fischer, S.R. A History of Writing.
Reaktion, 2001. Globalities Series.
p47-48. COPYRIGHTED
source: Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p47-48.
[2] Source:
http://pandora.cii.wwu.edu/vajda/ling201
/writingsystems/sumeriancuneiform.htm U
NKNOWN
source: http://www.omniglot.com/images/w
riting/sumerian_glyphs.jpg
[3000 BC] 7 8 9
casted.3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Artifacts provide insights on
Fertile Crescent", University of
Chicago News Office, Jan. 12,
2005 http://www-news.uchicago.edu/relea
ses/05/050112.oi-objects.shtml
2. ^ Edwards I. E. S, "The Cambridge
ancient history, Volumes 1-3", 1970.
http://books.google.com/books?id=slR7S
FScEnwC&pg=PA342&lpg=PA342&dq=Tell+Judai
dah+bronze&source=bl&ots=nsUpGgmod8&sig=
hHbgeyEJy95EC7mkTgsuvCaMFR0&hl=en&sa=X&e
i=MPkRT5anJamoiAKilaXXDQ&sqi=2&ved=0CEYQ
6AEwBQ#v=onepage&q=Tell%20Judaidah%20bro
nze&f=false
3. ^ "Artifacts provide insights on
Fertile Crescent", University of
Chicago News Office, Jan. 12,
2005 http://www-news.uchicago.edu/relea
ses/05/050112.oi-objects.shtml
4. ^ Edwards I. E. S, "The Cambridge
ancient history, Volumes 1-3", 1970.
http://books.google.com/books?id=slR7S
FScEnwC&pg=PA342&lpg=PA342&dq=Tell+Judai
dah+bronze&source=bl&ots=nsUpGgmod8&sig=
hHbgeyEJy95EC7mkTgsuvCaMFR0&hl=en&sa=X&e
i=MPkRT5anJamoiAKilaXXDQ&sqi=2&ved=0CEYQ
6AEwBQ#v=onepage&q=Tell%20Judaidah%20bro
nze&f=false
5. ^ "Artifacts provide insights on
Fertile Crescent", University of
Chicago News Office, Jan. 12,
2005 http://www-news.uchicago.edu/relea
ses/05/050112.oi-objects.shtml
6. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000). (3500 BCE) (=3500bce)
7. ^ "Artifacts
provide insights on Fertile Crescent",
University of Chicago News Office, Jan.
12,
2005 http://www-news.uchicago.edu/relea
ses/05/050112.oi-objects.shtml
8. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000). (3500 BCE) (=3500bce)
9. ^ "Bronze (late
3000 BCE)". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bronze
(late 3000 BCE) (late 3000bce) {Late
3000 BCE}
MORE INFO
[1] "Copper". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copper
[2] V. Gordon Childe, "The Bronze Age",
Cambridge University Press, 2011
http://books.google.com/books?id=Fxb9brY
SPVYC
[3] "Bronze". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bronze
(late 3000 BCE)
[4] "Bronze Age". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bronze_Age
[5]
http://www.asa3.org/archive/ASA/199604/0
288.html
[1] Tell Judaidah bronze
figurines These figurines of men and
women from Tell Judaidah, Turkey, are
the oldest examples of true bronze
(combination of copper and tin) known.
They date to about 3000 B.C. The male
figures were originally equipped as
warriors, and the women were dressed
with accessories of precious metal.
They are the forerunners of later
figurines of gods who were ''dressed''
in gold and silver. Recently, the ore
content of the figurines was tested at
the Advanced Photon Source at Argonne
National Laboratory. UNKNOWN
source: http://www-news.uchicago.edu/rel
eases/05/050112.oi-3.jpg
[2] Female Figurine Amuq Valley Tell
Judaidah Turkey Amuq G Early Bronze Age
I (3400-2750 BCE)
Bronze Photographed at the Oriental
Institute of the University of Chicago,
Chicago, Illinois. UNKNOWN
source: http://farm3.staticflickr.com/26
18/3859375883_ccc6b90ec4_b.jpg
[3000 BC] 3 4 5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100
Inventions That Shaped World History",
1993, p9.
2. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100
Inventions That Shaped World History",
1993, p9.
3. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A
history of invention : from stone axes
to silicon chips ", (New York:
Checkmark Books, 2000). {3000 BC}
4. ^
Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The
Timetables of Science", Second edition,
Simon and Schuster, 1991, p11. {2900
BCE (based on Pyramid of Giza}
5. ^ Yenne and
Grosser, "100 Inventions That Shaped
World History", 1993, p9. {2.4 Million
BC}
[1] Description A free body
diagram of a mass on an inclined
plane Date 27 May 2007 Source
Own work Author Mets501 CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Free_body.svg/1
000px-Free_body.svg.png
[2980 BC] 4
designed by the earliest known
scientist, Imhotep.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.1.
2. ^ "pyramid".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 04 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/484720/pyramid>.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.1.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p.1. {flourished
2980-2950 BCE}
[1] Description English: The Pyramid
of Djoser in Saqqara, Egypt. Date
6 February 2010 Source Own
work Author Wknight94 talk GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Pyramid_of_Djos
er_2010.jpg/1280px-Pyramid_of_Djoser_201
0.jpg
[2800 BC] 3 4
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ Wade-Matthews, M. Music: An
Illustrated History. Hermes House,
2002, p34-35.
2. ^ Wade-Matthews, M. Music: An
Illustrated History. Hermes House,
2002, p34-35.
3. ^ Wade-Matthews, M. Music: An
Illustrated History. Hermes House,
2002, p34-35.
4. ^ Landels, J.G., and J.G.
Landels. Music in Ancient Greece and
Rome. Taylor & Francis,
2002. http://books.google.com/books?id=
NIJCJ1acjisC&pg=PA25
[1] Description figurines of a flutist
(playing a flute of the en:aulos type)
and a harpplayer, bronze age, 2600
B.C., from the Greek island en:Keros in
the island group of the Cyclades. On
display at the en:National
Archaeological Museum of Athens. Date
see metadata Source Own work (my
camera) Author sailko GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/85/Cycladic_idol_03_2_re
touched.jpg
[2] Artist English: Euaion
Painter Français : Peintre
d'Euaion Description English: Youth
playing the aulos, detail of a banquet
scene. Tondo of an Attic red-figure
cup, ca. 460 BC–450 BC. Français :
Jeune garçon jouant de l'aulos,
détail d'une scène de banquet. Tondo
d'une coupe attique à figures rouges,
v. 460–450 av. J.-C. Dimensions D.
31.1 cm (12 in.) Current location
(Inventory)Louvre MuseumLink back to
Institution infobox
template Department of Greek, Etruscan
and Roman Antiquities, Sully, first
floor, room 43, case 24 Accession
number G 467 Credit line Campana
Collection, 1861 References ARV²
792,47; Add² 290 Source/Photographer
Jastrow (2008) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/33/Banquet_Euaion_Louvre
_G467_n2.jpg
[2750 BC] 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Deshayes, Jean, "Les outils de
bronze, de l'Indus au Danube (IVe au
IIe millénaire)", Librairie
orientaliste P. Geuthner/Paris,
1960 {Deshayes_Les_Outils_1960.pdf}
2. ^ Wells, H. Bartlett, "The Position
of the Large Bronze Saws of Minoan
Crete in the History of Tool Making",
Expedition, 16.4, 1974,
p2-8. http://www.penn.museum/expedition
-back-issues/114-volumes-11-20/560-exped
ition-volume-16-number-4-summer-1974.htm
l
3. ^ Wells, H. Bartlett, "The Position
of the Large Bronze Saws of Minoan
Crete in the History of Tool Making",
Expedition, 16.4, 1974,
p2-8. http://www.penn.museum/expedition
-back-issues/114-volumes-11-20/560-exped
ition-volume-16-number-4-summer-1974.htm
l
4. ^ Wells, H. Bartlett, "The Position
of the Large Bronze Saws of Minoan
Crete in the History of Tool Making",
Expedition, 16.4, 1974,
p2-8. http://www.penn.museum/expedition
-back-issues/114-volumes-11-20/560-exped
ition-volume-16-number-4-summer-1974.htm
l {2750 BC}
[1] [t Note that these are not the
oldest known saws, but more recent saws
from Minoa.] Figures from: Wells, H.
Bartlett, ''The Position of the Large
Bronze Saws of Minoan Crete in the
History of Tool Making'', Expedition,
16.4, 1974,
p2-8. http://www.penn.museum/expedition
-back-issues/114-volumes-11-20/560-exped
ition-volume-16-number-4-summer-1974.htm
l
source: http://www.penn.museum/expeditio
n-back-issues/114-volumes-11-20/560-expe
dition-volume-16-number-4-summer-1974.ht
ml
[2] Saws from: [1] Deshayes, Jean,
''Les outils de bronze, de l'Indus au
Danube (IVe au IIe millénaire)'',
Librairie orientaliste P.
Geuthner/Paris,
1960 {Deshayes_Les_Outils_1960.pdf} CO
PYRIGHTED
source: Deshayes, Jean, "Les outils de
bronze, de l'Indus au Danube (IVe au
IIe millénaire)", Librairie
orientaliste P. Geuthner/Paris, 1960
[2500 BC] 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^ Yalçın, Ünsal. “Early Iron
Metallurgy in Anatolia.” Anatolian
Studies 49 (1999): 177–187.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/3643073
2. ^ Wertime, Theodore A. “The
Beginnings of Metallurgy: A New
Look.” Science 182.4115 (1973):
875–887.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/1737722
3. ^ Arik, Remzi O. Les Fouilles
D'alaca Höyük Entreprises Par La
Société D'histoire Turque: Rapport
Préliminaire Sur Les Travaux En 1935.
Ankara, 1937.
4. ^ Yalçın, Ünsal. “Early
Iron Metallurgy in Anatolia.”
Anatolian Studies 49 (1999): 177–187.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/3643073
5. ^ Wertime, Theodore A. “The
Beginnings of Metallurgy: A New
Look.” Science 182.4115 (1973):
875–887.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/1737722
6. ^ Arik, Remzi O. Les Fouilles
D'alaca Höyük Entreprises Par La
Société D'histoire Turque: Rapport
Préliminaire Sur Les Travaux En 1935.
Ankara, 1937.
7. ^ Yalçın, Ünsal. “Early
Iron Metallurgy in Anatolia.”
Anatolian Studies 49 (1999): 177–187.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/3643073
8. ^ Wertime, Theodore A. “The
Beginnings of Metallurgy: A New
Look.” Science 182.4115 (1973):
875–887.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/1737722
9. ^ Arik, Remzi O. Les Fouilles
D'alaca Höyük Entreprises Par La
Société D'histoire Turque: Rapport
Préliminaire Sur Les Travaux En 1935.
Ankara, 1937.
10. ^ Yalçın, Ünsal.
“Early Iron Metallurgy in
Anatolia.” Anatolian Studies 49
(1999): 177–187.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/3643073
11. ^ Wertime, Theodore A. “The
Beginnings of Metallurgy: A New
Look.” Science 182.4115 (1973):
875–887.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/1737722
12. ^ Arik, Remzi O. Les Fouilles
D'alaca Höyük Entreprises Par La
Société D'histoire Turque: Rapport
Préliminaire Sur Les Travaux En 1935.
Ankara, 1937.
13. ^ Petrie, W.M.F. Gerar.
British School of Archaeology in Egypt,
1928. Egyptian Research Account.
14. ^ Rickard,
T. A. “The Primitive Smelting of
Iron.” American Journal of
Archaeology 43.1 (1939): 85–101.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/499136
15. ^ Veldhuijzen, HA and Rehren, T ,
"Iron Smelting Slag Formation at Tell
Hammeh (Al-Zarqa), Jordan". (2006),
(Proceedings) 34th International
Symposium on Archaeometry, Zaragoza,
3-7 May 2004. (pp. 245 - 250).
Institucion 'Fernando el Catolico'
(CSIC) Excma. Diputacion de Zaragoza:
Zaragoza. http://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/11
494/
16. ^ Xander Veldhuijzen and Eveline
van der Steen, "Iron Production Center
Found in the Jordan Valley", Near
Eastern Archaeology, Vol. 62, No. 3
(Sep., 1999), pp. 195-199 Published
by: The American Schools of Oriental
Research Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/3210714
17. ^ Richardson, Harry Craig. “Iron,
Prehistoric and Ancient.” American
Journal of Archaeology 38.4 (1934):
555–583.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/498191
18. ^ Yalçın, Ünsal. “Early Iron
Metallurgy in Anatolia.” Anatolian
Studies 49 (1999): 177–187.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/3643073
19. ^ Petrie, W.M.F. Gerar. British
School of Archaeology in Egypt, 1928.
Egyptian Research Account, p14-16,
Plate 25-32. {Petrie_Gerar_1928.pdf}
20. ^ Rickard, T. A. “The
Primitive Smelting of Iron.” American
Journal of Archaeology 43.1 (1939):
85–101.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/499136
21. ^ Veldhuijzen, HA and Rehren, T ,
"Iron Smelting Slag Formation at Tell
Hammeh (Al-Zarqa), Jordan". (2006),
(Proceedings) 34th International
Symposium on Archaeometry, Zaragoza,
3-7 May 2004. (pp. 245 - 250).
Institucion 'Fernando el Catolico'
(CSIC) Excma. Diputacion de Zaragoza:
Zaragoza. http://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/11
494/ {930/910 BCE}
22. ^ Trevor I. Williams,
"A history of invention : from stone
axes to silicon chips ", (New York:
Checkmark Books, 2000). (3500 YBN)
23. ^
http://nobel.scas.bcit.ca/resource/ptabl
e/fe.htm (3000 YBN) (3000)
24. ^ "Iron (3500
YBN)". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron (3500
YBN) (3500)
25. ^ "Iron Age". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 08 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/294368/Iron-Age>.
26. ^ Richardson, Harry Craig. “Iron,
Prehistoric and Ancient.” American
Journal of Archaeology 38.4 (1934):
555–583.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/498191
MORE INFO
[1] "Iron age". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron_age
(modern Turkey)10 11 12 |Palestine13 14
|Tell Hammeh (az-Zarqa), Jordan15 16
|Central Europe and north Assyria17
[1] Description Dagger with iron blade
and golden hilt from Alaca Höyük.
Early evidence for the use of iron in
Anatolia. Date 2005 Source Own
work Author Stipich Béla GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b9/Alaca_H%C3%BCy%C3%BCk
_dagger.jpg
[2] Xander Veldhuijzen and Eveline van
der Steen, ''Iron Production Center
Found in the Jordan Valley'', Near
Eastern Archaeology, Vol. 62, No. 3
(Sep., 1999), pp. 195-199 Published
by: The American Schools of Oriental
Research Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/3210714 COP
YRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3210
714
[2345 BC] 3 4 5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Amelia Ann Blanford Edwards,
"Egypt and its monuments: pharaohs,
fellahs and explorers", 1891,
p195. http://books.google.com/books?id=
QIwWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA195
2. ^ Amelia Ann Blanford Edwards,
"Egypt and its monuments: pharaohs,
fellahs and explorers", 1891,
p195. http://books.google.com/books?id=
QIwWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA195
3. ^ "papyrus." The Concise Oxford
Dictionary of Archaeology. Oxford
University Press, 2002, 2003.
Answers.com 25 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/papyrus
4. ^
http://www-user.uni-bremen.de/~wie/Egert
on/BellSkeat2.html
5. ^
http://www.travellersinegypt.org/archive
s/2005/07/prisse_davennes.html (=3300)
6. ^
"Djedkare Isesi". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Djedkare_Is
esi (=2407 or 2419)
[1] Papyrus Prisse. Egyptien 189.
Enseignement de Ptahhotep(217-298)
UNKNOWN
source: http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148
/btv1b8304612b/f1.highres
[2300 BC] 5 6 7 8 9 10
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ J. Henderson, J. Evans and K.
Nikita, "ISOTOPIC EVIDENCE FOR THE
PRIMARY PRODUCTION, PROVENANCE AND
TRADE OF LATE BRONZE AGE GLASS IN THE
MEDITERRANEAN", Mediterranean
Archaeology and Archaeometry, Vol. 10,
No. 1, pp. 1‐24.
2010. http://www.rhodes.aegean.gr/maa_j
ournal/Henderson%2010_1.pdf
2. ^ J. Henderson, J. Evans and K.
Nikita, "ISOTOPIC EVIDENCE FOR THE
PRIMARY PRODUCTION, PROVENANCE AND
TRADE OF LATE BRONZE AGE GLASS IN THE
MEDITERRANEAN", Mediterranean
Archaeology and Archaeometry, Vol. 10,
No. 1, pp. 1‐24.
2010. http://www.rhodes.aegean.gr/maa_j
ournal/Henderson%2010_1.pdf
3. ^ J. Henderson, J. Evans and K.
Nikita, "ISOTOPIC EVIDENCE FOR THE
PRIMARY PRODUCTION, PROVENANCE AND
TRADE OF LATE BRONZE AGE GLASS IN THE
MEDITERRANEAN", Mediterranean
Archaeology and Archaeometry, Vol. 10,
No. 1, pp. 1‐24.
2010. http://www.rhodes.aegean.gr/maa_j
ournal/Henderson%2010_1.pdf
4. ^ J. Henderson, J. Evans and K.
Nikita, "ISOTOPIC EVIDENCE FOR THE
PRIMARY PRODUCTION, PROVENANCE AND
TRADE OF LATE BRONZE AGE GLASS IN THE
MEDITERRANEAN", Mediterranean
Archaeology and Archaeometry, Vol. 10,
No. 1, pp. 1‐24.
2010. http://www.rhodes.aegean.gr/maa_j
ournal/Henderson%2010_1.pdf
5. ^ J. Henderson, J. Evans and K.
Nikita, "ISOTOPIC EVIDENCE FOR THE
PRIMARY PRODUCTION, PROVENANCE AND
TRADE OF LATE BRONZE AGE GLASS IN THE
MEDITERRANEAN", Mediterranean
Archaeology and Archaeometry, Vol. 10,
No. 1, pp. 1‐24.
2010. http://www.rhodes.aegean.gr/maa_j
ournal/Henderson%2010_1.pdf {4300 YBN}
6. ^
P. R. S. Moorey, "Ancient Mesopotamian
Materials and Industries. The
Archaeological Evidence", Clarendon
Press, Oxford, 1994,
p190. {Mesopotamian_Materials_and_Indus
tries_Moorey_1994.pdf}
AND {Moorey-Ancient_Mesopotamian_Materi
als_and_Industries-1994.pdf} {c4000YBN}
7. ^ James
Owen, "Ancient Egyptian City Yields
World's Oldest Glassworks", National
Geographic News June 16,
2005 http://news.nationalgeographic.com
/news/2005/06/0616_050616_egyptglass.htm
l {35000 YBN}
8. ^ Thilo Rehren and Edgar B.
Pusch, "Late Bronze Age Glass
Production at Qantir-Piramesses,
Egypt", Science New Series, Vol. 308,
No. 5729 (Jun. 17, 2005), pp.
1756-1758 Published by: American
Association for the Advancement of
Science Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/3841666
{35000 YBN}
9. ^
http://glassonline.com/infoserv/history.
html {5500YBN}
10. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A
history of invention : from stone axes
to silicon chips ", (New York:
Checkmark Books, 2000). {5000YBN}
[1] Figures 2b and 2a from: J.
Henderson, J. Evans and K. Nikita,
''ISOTOPIC EVIDENCE FOR THE PRIMARY
PRODUCTION, PROVENANCE AND TRADE OF
LATE BRONZE AGE GLASS IN THE
MEDITERRANEAN'', Mediterranean
Archaeology and Archaeometry, Vol. 10,
No. 1, pp. 1‐24.
2010. http://www.rhodes.aegean.gr/maa_j
ournal/Henderson%2010_1.pdf COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.rhodes.aegean.gr/maa_
journal/Henderson%2010_1.pdf
[2] Glass ingots (inset) from a Bronze
Age shipwreck near Turkey fit Egyptian
molds. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.toutankharton.com/IMG
/jpg/a6260_1449.jpg
[2300 BC] 8 9 10 11 12
These consist of epics and myths, hymns
and laments, proverbs and wisdom.3
These stories record a belief in a
Heaven and an Under World4 and include
the Sumerian flood myth.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Kramer, S.N. Sumerian Mythology:
A Study of Spiritual and Literary
Achievement in the Third Millennium,
B.C. c by. ^ S. N. Kramer ... American
Philosophical Society, 1944. Memoirs of
the American Philosophical
Society. http://books.google.com/books?
id=77aDgCLAZS8C
2. ^ Kramer, S.N. Sumerian Mythology: A
Study of Spiritual and Literary
Achievement in the Third Millennium,
B.C. c by. ^ S. N. Kramer ... American
Philosophical Society, 1944. Memoirs of
the American Philosophical
Society. http://books.google.com/books?
id=77aDgCLAZS8C
3. ^ Kramer, S.N. Sumerian Mythology: A
Study of Spiritual and Literary
Achievement in the Third Millennium,
B.C. c by. ^ S. N. Kramer ... American
Philosophical Society, 1944. Memoirs of
the American Philosophical
Society. http://books.google.com/books?
id=77aDgCLAZS8C
4. ^ Kramer, Samuel N. Sumerian
Mythology: A Study of Spiritual and
Literary Achievement in the Third
Millennium B.c. New York: Harper, 1961.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/986108
5. ^ Kramer, S.N. Sumerian Mythology: A
Study of Spiritual and Literary
Achievement in the Third Millennium,
B.C. c by. ^ S. N. Kramer ... American
Philosophical Society, 1944. Memoirs of
the American Philosophical
Society. http://books.google.com/books?
id=77aDgCLAZS8C
6. ^ Hayes, A Manual of Sumerian
grammar and texts, 1990, p270.
7. ^ Kramer,
S.N. Sumerian Mythology: A Study of
Spiritual and Literary Achievement in
the Third Millennium, B.C. c by. ^ S.
N. Kramer ... American Philosophical
Society, 1944. Memoirs of the American
Philosophical
Society. http://books.google.com/books?
id=77aDgCLAZS8C
8. ^ Hayes, A Manual of Sumerian
grammar and texts, 1990, p270. (there
is also a 2000 edition
{Hayes_Sumerian_2000.pdf})
9. ^ Kramer, S.N. Sumerian Mythology: A
Study of Spiritual and Literary
Achievement in the Third Millennium,
B.C. c by. ^ S. N. Kramer ... American
Philosophical Society, 1944. Memoirs of
the American Philosophical
Society. http://books.google.com/books?
id=77aDgCLAZS8C
10. ^ Kramer, Samuel N. Sumerian
Mythology: A Study of Spiritual and
Literary Achievement in the Third
Millennium B.c. New York: Harper, 1961.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/986108
11. ^ Thomson, G.A. First Writers-The
Sumerians: They Wrote on Clay.
iUniverse, 2011, p xi.
12. ^ Alexander,
T.D., and D.W. Baker. Dictionary of the
Old Testament: Pentateuch: A Compendium
of Contemporary Biblical Scholarship.
InterVarsity Press, 2002. The IVP Bible
Dictionary Series, p608.
MORE INFO
[1] "Ancient literature".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_lit
erature
[2] Arno Poebel, "Historical and
grammatical texts", vols 1-5,
1914. vol 1:
http://books.google.com/books?id=tg0TAAA
AYAAJ vol 4:
http://books.google.com/books?id=mxwYAAA
AYAAJ vol 5:
http://books.google.com/books?id=_A0TAAA
AYAAJ
[3] Jeffrey H. Tigay, "The evolution of
the Gilgamesh epic",
http://books.google.com/books?id=cxjuH
TH6I2sC
[4] Kramer, S. N. "Sumerian Literature;
A Preliminary Survey of the Oldest
Literature in the World." Proceedings
of the American Philosophical Society
85.3 (1942): 293�323.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/985008
[1] Photo of Creation and deluge tablet
- I did verify that this is the
earliest tablet of the earliest written
story with Kramer's Sumerian
Mythology[t] Arno Poebel, ''Historical
and grammatical texts'', vols 1-5,
1914. vol 1:
http://books.google.com/books?id=tg0TAAA
AYAAJ vol 4:
http://books.google.com/books?id=mxwYAAA
AYAAJ vol 5:
http://books.google.com/books?id=_A0TAAA
AYAAJ PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=_A0TAAAAYAAJ
[2] Photo of Creation and deluge
tablet - I did verify that this is the
earliest tablet of the earliest written
story with Kramer's Sumerian
Mythology[t] Arno Poebel, ''Historical
and grammatical texts'', vols 1-5,
1914. vol 1:
http://books.google.com/books?id=tg0TAAA
AYAAJ vol 4:
http://books.google.com/books?id=mxwYAAA
AYAAJ vol 5:
http://books.google.com/books?id=_A0TAAA
AYAAJ PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=_A0TAAAAYAAJ
[2130 BC] 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Curt Sachs, "The History of
Musical Instruments", 1940, p73.
2. ^ Curt
Sachs, "The History of Musical
Instruments", 1940, p73.
3. ^
http://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/hig
hlights/article_index/g/gudea,_king_of_l
agash.aspx
4. ^
http://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/hig
hlights/article_index/g/gudea,_king_of_l
agash.aspx {around) 2130 BCE}
[1] [t Note that this is not evidence
of the earliest horn, but is from
around 1250BC or 700 BCE] Hittites:
Musical scene, Carchemish Height:
100 cm, 700 BC. Museum of Anatolian
Civilizations, Ankara Three men are
playing a drum, while on the left a man
is holding a horn-shaped instrument to
his mouth with both hands. PD
source: http://farm1.staticflickr.com/6/
10156251_017f473153_b.jpg
[2100 BC] 3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Samual Kramer, "History Begins at
Sumer", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday
Anchor Books, 1959), p52.
2. ^ Samual
Kramer, "History Begins at Sumer",
(Garden City, NY: Doubleday Anchor
Books, 1959), p60.
3. ^ Samual Kramer,
"History Begins at Sumer", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday Anchor Books,
1959), p60. (=toward the end of the 3rd
millenium) (=toward the end of the 3rd
millenium)
4. ^
http://www.uic.edu/classes/osci/osci590/
11_1OldestPrescription.htm (The tablet
was inscribed toward the end of the
dynasty founded by Sargon the Great,
some time during the last quarter of
Third Millennium B.C)
[1] Cuneiform medical
recipes Picture from a reproduction
of the original clay tablet dug in
Nippur, Sumer, dated from the III
millennium before Christ, and kept in
the Museum of the University of
Philadelphia (USA). This is
considered to be the earliest medical
recipes manual known. Thew original
picture at 7 Mpixel resolution is
available from the author. CC
source: http://farm4.staticflickr.com/33
27/3524713203_7d0a64d7aa_b.jpg
[2] Figure 2:The oldest medical text
“handbook” Clay Tablet with
pharmacological inscription from Nuppur
late 3rd Millennium B.C. University
museum, University of Pennsylvania,
Philadelphia USA . UNKNOWN
source: http://www.ispub.com/journal/the
-internet-journal-of-health/volume-5-num
ber-1/surgical-medical-and-anesthesia-in
-the-middle-east-notes-on-ancient-and-me
dieval-practice-with-reference-to-islami
c-arabic-medicine.article-g05.fs.jpg
[2100 BC] 3
system, a sexagesimal (base 60) number
system.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Archaic Bookkeeping, Nissen,
1993, pp5,142-143.
2. ^ Archaic Bookkeeping, Nissen,
1993, pp5,142-143.
3. ^ Archaic Bookkeeping, Nissen,
1993, pp5,142-143.
MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.jstor.org/view/00030279/ap020
117/02a00010/0 (sexagesimal.pdf)
[2] Barbara Watterson,
"Introducing Egyptian hieroglyphs",
(Edinburgh: Scottish Academic Press,
1993)
[3] Roy MacLeod, "The Library of
Alexandria Centre of Learning in the
Ancient World", (New York: I.B.Tauris &
Co Ltd, 2000)
[4] "sigillography."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online Academic Edition.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 20
Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/543584/sigillography>
[5]
http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~hist
ory/HistTopics/Babylonian_numerals.html
[6] "Numeral system#History".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numeral_sys
tem#History
[7]
http://www.earth-history.com/Clay-tablet
s.htm
[8] "writing." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/649670/writing>
[9] Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000)
[1] Archaic Bookkeeping, Nissen, 1993,
pp145. COPYRIGHTED
source: Archaic Bookkeeping, Nissen,
1993, pp145.
[2] Archaic Bookkeeping, Nissen, 1993,
pp145. COPYRIGHTED
source: Archaic Bookkeeping, Nissen,
1993, pp145.
[2050 BC] 3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Samual Kramer, "History Begins at
Sumer", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday
Anchor Books, 1959), p52.
2. ^ Samual
Kramer, "History Begins at Sumer",
(Garden City, NY: Doubleday Anchor
Books, 1959), p52.
3. ^ Samual Kramer,
"History Begins at Sumer", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday Anchor Books,
1959), p52.
[1] Tablet 3191 20 x 10 cm sun-baked
tablet. Kramer, ''History Begins At
Sumer'', 1956, p53.
source: Kramer, "History Begins At
Sumer", 1956, p53.
[2] [t Note - this doesn't look like
JKramer's image''] The Code of
Ur-Namma, the world's first known
codified list of laws. See the laws of
Ur-Namma.
source: http://sumerianshakespeare.com/m
ediac/450_0/media/fa2c170b2842c984ffff80
05ffffe415.jpg
[2000 BC] 3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Outram, Alan K. et al. “The
Earliest Horse Harnessing and
Milking.” Science 323.5919 (2009):
1332 –1335.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/323/5919/1332.short
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/2547163
9
2. ^ Outram, Alan K. et al. “The
Earliest Horse Harnessing and
Milking.” Science 323.5919 (2009):
1332 –1335.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/323/5919/1332.short
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/2547163
9
3. ^ Outram, Alan K. et al. “The
Earliest Horse Harnessing and
Milking.” Science 323.5919 (2009):
1332 –1335.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/323/5919/1332.short
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/2547163
9
4. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
[1] Tell-tale signs of 'bit damage'
found by researchers in Kazakhstan are
evidence that horses were harnessed and
may have been ridden as early as 5,500
years ago. Researchers found traces of
the use of thong bridles, which are
simply leather thongs draped over the
gap between the teeth of a horse's
lower jaw and knotted under the chin,
with the trailing ends acting as the
reins. This is a depiction of the use
of a rawhide thong bridle on a
primitive domesticated horse. The thong
loops over the bar, or diastema,
between the anterior and cheek teeth,
and is knotted below the
chin. Credit: Illustration by Sandra
Olsen, Carnegie Museum of Natural
History Evidence of thong bridle use
suggests horses may have been ridden as
early as 5,500 years ago. Illustration
by Sandra Olsen, Carnegie Museum of
Natural History PD
source: http://www.nsf.gov/news/mmg/medi
a/images/horse1_f.jpg
[2] Outram, Alan K. et al. “The
Earliest Horse Harnessing and
Milking.” Science 323.5919 (2009):
1332 –1335.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/323/5919/1332.short
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/2547163
9
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/323/5919/1332.short
[2000 BC] 9 10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "article 4263". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-426
3
2. ^
http://www.usgennet.org/usa/topic/preser
vation/science/inventions/chpt8.htm
3. ^ "article 4263". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-426
3
4. ^
http://www.usgennet.org/usa/topic/preser
vation/science/inventions/chpt8.htm
5. ^ "article 4263". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-426
3
6. ^
http://www.usgennet.org/usa/topic/preser
vation/science/inventions/chpt8.htm
7. ^
http://www.usgennet.org/usa/topic/preser
vation/science/inventions/chpt8.htm
(=4000ybn/nineveh)
8. ^ "Nineveh." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 05 May.
2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/nineveh
9. ^
http://www.usgennet.org/usa/topic/preser
vation/science/inventions/chpt8.htm
(=4000ybn/nineveh) {4000 YBN(nineveh}
10. ^ Trevor
I. Williams, "A history of invention :
from stone axes to silicon chips ",
(New York: Checkmark Books, 2000).
(=1200bce/egypt) {1200 BCE (egypt}
[1] Ancient wooden lock and key from
Khorsabad (Much reduced) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.usgennet.org/usa/topi
c/preservation/science/inventions/chpt8.
htm
[2000 BC] 3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "money." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/389170/money>.
2. ^ "money." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online
Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/389170/money>.
3. ^ "money." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online
Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/389170/money>. {older than) 2000 BCE}
[1] Copper ingot from Zakros,
Crete Photo by Chris 73 GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/02/Copper_Ingot_Crete.jp
g
[1531 BC] 8 9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Russell Hobson, THE EXACT
TRANSMISSION OF TEXTS IN THE FIRST
MILLENNIUM B.C.E., Published PhD
Thesis. Department of Hebrew, Biblical
and Jewish Studies. University of
Sydney, 2009,
p6. http://www.caeno.org/_Eponym/pdf/Ga
sche_Ammizaduga%20new%20chronology.pdf
2. ^ Evans, James (1998). The History
and Practice of Ancient Astronomy.
Oxford University Press. pp. 296–7.
ISBN 9780195095395.
http://books.google.com/books?id=nS51_
7qbEWsC&pg=PA17&lpg=PA17&dq=babylon+gree
k+astronomy&hl=en#v=onepage&q=babylon%20
greek%20astronomy&f=false
3. ^ Russell Hobson, THE EXACT
TRANSMISSION OF TEXTS IN THE FIRST
MILLENNIUM B.C.E., Published PhD
Thesis. Department of Hebrew, Biblical
and Jewish Studies. University of
Sydney, 2009,
p6. http://www.caeno.org/_Eponym/pdf/Ga
sche_Ammizaduga%20new%20chronology.pdf
4. ^ Evans, James (1998). The History
and Practice of Ancient Astronomy.
Oxford University Press. pp. 296–7.
ISBN 9780195095395.
http://books.google.com/books?id=nS51_
7qbEWsC&pg=PA17&lpg=PA17&dq=babylon+gree
k+astronomy&hl=en#v=onepage&q=babylon%20
greek%20astronomy&f=false
5. ^ Russell Hobson, THE EXACT
TRANSMISSION OF TEXTS IN THE FIRST
MILLENNIUM B.C.E., Published PhD
Thesis. Department of Hebrew, Biblical
and Jewish Studies. University of
Sydney, 2009,
p6. http://www.caeno.org/_Eponym/pdf/Ga
sche_Ammizaduga%20new%20chronology.pdf
6. ^ Evans, James (1998). The History
and Practice of Ancient Astronomy.
Oxford University Press. pp. 296–7.
ISBN 9780195095395.
http://books.google.com/books?id=nS51_
7qbEWsC&pg=PA17&lpg=PA17&dq=babylon+gree
k+astronomy&hl=en#v=onepage&q=babylon%20
greek%20astronomy&f=false
7. ^ Russell Hobson, THE EXACT
TRANSMISSION OF TEXTS IN THE FIRST
MILLENNIUM B.C.E., Published PhD
Thesis. Department of Hebrew, Biblical
and Jewish Studies. University of
Sydney, 2009,
p6. http://www.caeno.org/_Eponym/pdf/Ga
sche_Ammizaduga%20new%20chronology.pdf
8. ^ Russell Hobson, THE EXACT
TRANSMISSION OF TEXTS IN THE FIRST
MILLENNIUM B.C.E., Published PhD
Thesis. Department of Hebrew, Biblical
and Jewish Studies. University of
Sydney, 2009,
p6. http://www.caeno.org/_Eponym/pdf/Ga
sche_Ammizaduga%20new%20chronology.pdf
9. ^ Evans, James (1998). The History
and Practice of Ancient Astronomy.
Oxford University Press. pp. 296–7.
ISBN 9780195095395.
http://books.google.com/books?id=nS51_
7qbEWsC&pg=PA17&lpg=PA17&dq=babylon+gree
k+astronomy&hl=en#v=onepage&q=babylon%20
greek%20astronomy&f=false
[1] Description English: Venus Tablet
of Ammisaduqa. Neo-Assyrian
period. Date 15 July 2010 Current
location [show]British
Museum Source/Photographer Fæ (Own
work) Permission (Reusing this
file) See below. British Museum
reference K.160 Detailed
description Upper part of a clay
tablet, 3 pieces, beginning of obverse
and the end of reverse are wanting,
astrological forecasts, a copy of the
so-called Venus Tablet of Ammisaduqa,
Neo-Assyrian. ~ Description extract
from BM record. Size Length: 17.14 cm
(6.75 in) Width: 9.2 cm (3.6 in)
Thickness: 2.22 cm (0.87
in) Location Room 55 CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/bb/Venus_Tablet_of_Ammis
aduqa.jpg
[1500 BC] 4
brick").1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "brick and tile." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2011. Web. 26 Dec. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/79195/brick>.
2. ^ "burnt brick." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Architecture and
Construction. McGraw-Hill Companies,
Inc., 2003. Answers.com 27 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/burnt-brick
-1
3. ^ "brick and tile." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2011. Web. 26 Dec. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/79195/brick>.
4. ^ "brick and tile." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2011. Web. 26 Dec. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/79195/brick>. {1500 BC}
[1] [t Note that this is not the oldest
baked brick as far as I
know] Description العربية:
أنقاض مدينة أور
الأثرية في محافظة ذي
قار جنوب العراق English:
Ruins in the Town of Ur, Southern
Iraq Español: Ruinas de la ciuad de
Ur con el Zigurat de Ur-Nammu al fondo
a las afueras de Nasiriyah. Date 20
June 2006 Source Flickr Author
M.Lubinski from Iraq,USA. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Ur-Nassiriyah.j
pg/1280px-Ur-Nassiriyah.jpg
[1500 BC] 5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
3. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
4. ^ Sir Austen Henry Layard, "Nineveh
and its remains: with an account of a
visit to the Chaldean ...", 1850,
p219. http://books.google.com/books?id=
-J5CAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA219
5. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000). {1500 BC}
6. ^ Yenne and Grosser,
"100 Inventions That Shaped World
History", 1993, p21. {before 260 BC}
[1] Part of a Bas-relief showing a
Pulley, and a Warrior originally in
the most ancient palace of Nimroud. PD
source: http://www.ctesiphon.com/auction
s/Nineve-Remains-NY-1854-s-g.jpg
[2] Description Ilustración de una
polea simple fija. Date 7 agugust
2004 Source Own work Author César
Rincón GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a3/Polea-simple-fija.jpg
[1500 BC] 5 6
{KlePSi-Dru1 }).2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "quaternary." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 17
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/quaternary
2. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100 Inventions
That Shaped World History", 1993, p27.
3. ^
Yenne and Grosser, "100 Inventions That
Shaped World History", 1993, p27.
4. ^
Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The
Timetables of Science", Second edition,
Simon and Schuster, 1991, p17.
5. ^ Yenne
and Grosser, "100 Inventions That
Shaped World History", 1993, p27. {1500
BC}
6. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p17.
{1450-1401 BC}
[1] clepsydra Egyptian clepsydra An
Egyptian clepsydra Also known as a
water clock, an instrument in which the
discharge of water from a storage tank
is monitored in order to measure the
passing of time. Clepsydras were used
from ancient times until the
Renaissance. ''Clepsydra'' is Greek for
''water thief.'' UNKNOWN
source: http://www.daviddarling.info/ima
ges/Egyptian_clepsydra.jpg
[2] The Karnak clepsydra In 1904,
archaeological excavations within the
ancient temple complex of Karnak in
Egypt led to the recovery of fragments
of a large conical vessel. The presence
of an outlet near the base, plus
calibration scales on the interior
walls, showed the object to be a
classic example of an outflow
clepsydra. Figure 6: A full-size
reconstruction of the Karnak clepsydraA
full-size reconstruction (Fig. 6) may
be seen in the New Walk Museum, and
illustrates how it could act as a
timekeeper independent of the Sun. The
vessel is filled with water to a mark
near the rim, and then allowed to empty
via a narrow jet near the base. With a
cylindrical container the rate of flow
diminishes as the head of water within
the pot decreases, so the water surface
drops more slowly with time. The
ancient Egyptian designer (Amenhemhet,
about 1550 B.C.) has cleverly
compensated for this by employing a
conical vessel, and trials conducted
during the construction of this exhibit
have shown that the chosen angle gives
rise to an excellent approximation to a
linear descent of the water
surface. The hieroglyphics covering
the outside of the vessel (delineated
by Dr. Sarah Symons) do not explain how
the water clock was to be used: they
are simply traditional decorations in
praise of the gods. More information is
given alongside the exhibit. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.sundials.co.uk/leices
ter/fig06.jpg
[1000 BC] 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Whitehouse, David (1999-07-01).
"World's oldest telescope?". BBC News.
Retrieved
2008-05-10. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/
science/nature/380186.stm
2. ^ D. Brewster (1852). "On an account
of a rock-crystal lens and decomposed
glass found in Niniveh" (in German).
Die Fortschritte der Physik (Deutsche
Physikalische
Gesellschaft). http://books.google.com/
books?id=bHwEAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PA355&dq=ni
niveh+lens&hl=en#v=onepage&q=niniveh%20l
ens&f=false
3. ^ Whitehouse, David (1999-07-01).
"World's oldest telescope?". BBC News.
Retrieved
2008-05-10. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/
science/nature/380186.stm
4. ^ Whitehouse, David (1999-07-01).
"World's oldest telescope?". BBC News.
Retrieved
2008-05-10. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/
science/nature/380186.stm {3000YBN}
[1] Description English: Photo of
the Nimrud lens in the british
museum Date feb 2011 Source
Photo by user:geni Author
Geni CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/65/Nimrud_lens_British_M
useum.jpg
[785 BC] 3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Elliott Friedman, "Who
wrote the Bible?", (San Francisco:
Summit Books, 1987).
2. ^ Richard Elliott
Friedman, "Who wrote the Bible?", (San
Francisco: Summit Books, 1987).
3. ^ Richard
Elliott Friedman, "Who wrote the
Bible?", (San Francisco: Summit Books,
1987).
[1] by Ted Huntington PD
source: my own based on info from
http://www.britannica.com/eb/art-3466?ar
ticleTypeId=1 and
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/fac
tsheet/sunfact.html
[690 BC] 4 5
from one place to another1 .2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "aqueduct." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 01 Jul.
2012.
queduct>.
2. ^ Thorkild Jacobsen and Seton Lloyd,
Sennacherib's Aqueduct at Jerwan,
Oriental Institute Publication 24,
University of Chicago Press,
1935 http://oi.uchicago.edu/pdf/oip24.p
df
3. ^ Thorkild Jacobsen and Seton Lloyd,
Sennacherib's Aqueduct at Jerwan,
Oriental Institute Publication 24,
University of Chicago Press,
1935 http://oi.uchicago.edu/pdf/oip24.p
df
4. ^ Thorkild Jacobsen and Seton Lloyd,
Sennacherib's Aqueduct at Jerwan,
Oriental Institute Publication 24,
University of Chicago Press,
1935 http://oi.uchicago.edu/pdf/oip24.p
df
5. ^ "Aquaduct". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquaduct
(7th cent)
[1] Thorkild Jacobsen and Seton Lloyd,
Sennacherib's Aqueduct at Jerwan,
Oriental Institute Publication 24,
University of Chicago Press,
1935 http://oi.uchicago.edu/pdf/oip24.p
df UNKNOWN
source: http://oi.uchicago.edu/pdf/oip24
[2] Ruined corbelled arch of an
aqueduct, Jerwan, Iraq, 1977. Credit:
Spectrum Colour Library /
Heritage-Images Additional
information Ruined corbelled arch of
an aqueduct, Jerwan, Iraq, 1977. Built
in around 700 BC by the Assyrian King
Sennacherib to supply water to his
capital city, Nineveh, this is thought
to be the oldest aqueduct in the
world. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://watermarked.heritage-imag
es.com/2332294.jpg
[690 BC] 4 5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Thorkild Jacobsen and Seton
Lloyd, Sennacherib's Aqueduct at
Jerwan, Oriental Institute Publication
24, University of Chicago Press,
1935 http://oi.uchicago.edu/pdf/oip24.p
df
2. ^ Peter Roger Stuart Moorey,
"Ancient Mesopotamian Materials and
Industries: The Archaeological
Evidence", 1999,
p331. http://books.google.com/books?id=
P_Ixuott4doC&pg=PA331&lpg=PA331 {Moorey
_plaster_1999.pdf}
3. ^ Thorkild Jacobsen and Seton Lloyd,
Sennacherib's Aqueduct at Jerwan,
Oriental Institute Publication 24,
University of Chicago Press,
1935 http://oi.uchicago.edu/pdf/oip24.p
df
4. ^ Thorkild Jacobsen and Seton Lloyd,
Sennacherib's Aqueduct at Jerwan,
Oriental Institute Publication 24,
University of Chicago Press,
1935 http://oi.uchicago.edu/pdf/oip24.p
df
5. ^ "Aquaduct". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquaduct
(7th cent)
MORE INFO
[1] "Sennacherib". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 01 Jul.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/534613/Sennacherib/6562/Building
-and-technological-achievements>
[2] "cement". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 12 Jul.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/101833/cement>
[1] Plate 14 image B from: Thorkild
Jacobsen and Seton Lloyd, Sennacherib's
Aqueduct at Jerwan, Oriental Institute
Publication 24, University of Chicago
Press,
1935 http://oi.uchicago.edu/pdf/oip24.p
df UNKNOWN
source: http://oi.uchicago.edu/pdf/oip24
[2] Thorkild Jacobsen and Seton Lloyd,
Sennacherib's Aqueduct at Jerwan,
Oriental Institute Publication 24,
University of Chicago Press,
1935 http://oi.uchicago.edu/pdf/oip24.p
df UNKNOWN
source: http://oi.uchicago.edu/pdf/oip24
[651 BC] 5 6
eye (Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and
Saturn) are clearly distinguished from
stars.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ A. Sachs, "Babylonian
Observational Astronomy", Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London. Series A, Mathematical and
Physical Sciences , Vol. 276, No. 1257,
The Place of Astronomy in the Ancient
World (May 2, 1974), pp.
43-50 http://www.jstor.org/stable/74273
2. ^ David Brown, "Mesopotamian
planetary astronomy-astrology", 2000,
p55-56.
3. ^ A. Sachs, "Babylonian
Observational Astronomy", Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London. Series A, Mathematical and
Physical Sciences , Vol. 276, No. 1257,
The Place of Astronomy in the Ancient
World (May 2, 1974), pp.
43-50 http://www.jstor.org/stable/74273
4. ^ David Brown, "Mesopotamian
planetary astronomy-astrology", 2000,
p55-56.
5. ^ A. Sachs, "Babylonian
Observational Astronomy", Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London. Series A, Mathematical and
Physical Sciences , Vol. 276, No. 1257,
The Place of Astronomy in the Ancient
World (May 2, 1974), pp.
43-50 http://www.jstor.org/stable/74273
6. ^ David Brown, "Mesopotamian
planetary astronomy-astrology", 2000,
p55-56.
[1] A. Sachs, ''Babylonian
Observational Astronomy'',
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London. Series A,
Mathematical and Physical Sciences ,
Vol. 276, No. 1257, The Place of
Astronomy in the Ancient World (May 2,
1974), pp.
43-50 http://www.jstor.org/stable/74273
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/7427
3
[622 BC] 4 5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "biblical literature".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 25 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/64496/biblical-literature/73158/
The-history-of-canonization>.
2. ^ "biblical literature".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 25 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/64496/biblical-literature/73158/
The-history-of-canonization>.
3. ^ Richard Elliott Friedman, "Who
wrote the Bible?", (San Francisco:
Summit Books, 1987).
4. ^ "biblical
literature". Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 25 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/64496/biblical-literature/73158/
The-history-of-canonization>.
5. ^ Richard Elliott Friedman, "Who
wrote the Bible?", (San Francisco:
Summit Books, 1987).
6. ^ "Hebrew Bible".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 25 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/259039/Hebrew-Bible>.
[1]
http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/scrolls/imag
es/torah-b.jpg Miqsat Ma`ase
ha-Torah 4Q396(MMT[superscript]c) Parc
hment Copied late first century
B.C.E.-early first century C.E. The
Torah Precepts Scroll Translation of
the Torah Precepts Scroll Miqsat
Ma`ase
ha-Torah 4Q396(MMT[superscript]c) Parc
hment Copied late first century
B.C.E.-early first century
C.E. Fragment A: height 8 cm (3 1/8
in.), length 12.9 cm (5 in.) Fragment
B: height 4.3 cm (1 11/16 in.), length
7 cm (2 3/4 in.) Fragment C: height
9.1 cm (3 9/16 in.), length 17.4 cm (6
7/8 in.) Courtesy of the Israel
Antiquities Authority (8) The Torah
Precepts Scroll This scroll,
apparently in the form of a letter, is
unique in language, style, and content.
Using linguistic and theological
analysis, the original text has been
dated as one of the earliest works of
the Qumran sect. This sectarian
polemical document, of which six
incomplete manuscripts have been
discovered, is commonly referred to as
MMT, an abbreviation of its Hebrew
name, Miqsat Ma`ase ha-Torah. Together
the six fragments provide a composite
text of about 130 lines, which probably
cover about two-thirds of the original.
The initial part of the text is
completely missing. Apparently it
consisted of four sections: (1) the
opening formula, now lost; (2) a
calendar of 364 days; (3) a list of
more than twenty rulings in religious
law (Halakhot), most of which are
peculiar to the sect; and (4) an
epilogue that deals with the separation
of the sect from the multitude of the
people and attempts to persuade the
addressee to adopt the sect's legal
views. The ''halakhot,'' or religious
laws, form the core of the letter; the
remainder of the text is merely the
framework. The calendar, although a
separate section, was probably also
related to the sphere of ''halakhah.''
These ''halakhot'' deal chiefly with
the Temple and its ritual. The author
states that disagreement on these
matters caused the sect to secede from
Israel. References: Strugnell,
J., and E. Qimron. Discoveries in the
Judaean Desert, X. Oxford,
forthcoming. Sussman, Y. ''The
History of `Halakha' and the Dead Sea
Scrolls -- Preliminary Observations on
Miqsat Ma`ase Ha-Torah (4QMMT)'' (in
Hebrew), Tarbiz 59 (1990):11-76. PD
source: http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/scro
lls/images/torah-b.jpg
[600 BC] 3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "money." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/389170/money>.
2. ^ "money." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online
Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/389170/money>.
3. ^ "money." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online
Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/389170/money>. {7th Century BC}
[1] King Kroisos period. Circa 561-546
BC. Kings of Lydia. Time of Kroisos.
Circa 561-546 BC. AV Stater (8.06
gm). Sardes mint. Light series.
Confronted foreparts of lion and
bull Two square incuse
punches of unequal size. Traité
pl. X, 2; BMC Lydia pg. 6, 31; SNG
Copenhagen Suppl. 362; Boston MFA 2073;
SNG von Aulock 2875. Choice
EF. From the Ronald Cohen
Collection. Ex Tkalec (18 February
2002), lot 81. Date Source
http://www.wildwinds.com/coins/gree
ce/lydia/kings/kroisos/BMC_31.jpg GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5c/Kroisos_BMC_31.jpg
[2] Description English: Political
map of Asia Minor in 500 BC Date
2009-04-22 17:00 (UTC) Source
Asia_Minor_Political_500BC.svg Author
Asia_Minor_Political_500BC.svg:
*Mysia.svg: Emok derivative
work:
Mysia_map_ancient_community.jpg:
User:Roke derivative work:
MinisterForBadTimes (talk)
derivative work: MinisterForBadTimes
(talk) Other versions
Derivative works of this file:
Lycia locator map.svg Political
map of Asia Minor in 500 BC in
Masry.PNG GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Anatolia_Ancien
t_Regions_base.svg/1000px-Anatolia_Ancie
nt_Regions_base.svg.png
[600 BC] 5
of Gods.1 2 3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ "Thales". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thales
3. ^ "Cosmos", Carl Sagan
4. ^ "Cosmos", Carl
Sagan
5. ^ estimate on guess of 30 years old
when realizes to remove Marduct
MORE INFO
[1] Ueberweg, F. et al. A History
of Philosophy: From Thales to the
Present Time. C. Scribner’s
sons, 1891. A History of Philosophy:
From Thales to the Present Time,
p32. http://books.google.com/books?id=A
h_7Od24BXsC&pg=PA32
[1] Ueberweg, F. et al. A History of
Philosophy: From Thales to the Present
Time. C. Scribner’s sons, 1891. A
History of Philosophy: From Thales to
the Present Time,
p32. http://books.google.com/books?id=A
h_7Od24BXsC&pg=PA32 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=Ah_7Od24BXsC&pg=PA32
[2] Thales, one of the Seven Sages of
Greece From French Wikipedia:
fr:Image:Thales.jpg Original source:
http://www.phil-fak.uni-duesseldorf.de/p
hilo/galerie/antike/thales.html PD
source: http://ujszo.com/sites/default/f
iles/old/ujszo_1221803126_14.jpg
[580 BC] 3
Theory that humans evolved from fish.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ estimate on guess of 30
years old when makes science
contributions
MORE INFO
[1] "Cosmos", Carl Sagan
[1] A map of Anaximander's
Earth-centered theory UNKNOWN
source: http://www.utm.edu/research/iep-
wp/wp-content/media/anaxfig1.gif
[2] Detail of Raphael's painting The
School of Athens, 1510–1511. This
could be a representation of
Anaximander leaning towards Pythagoras
on his left.[1] Born c. 610 BCE c.
546 BCE (aged around 64) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/38/Anaximander.jpg
[529 BC] 8
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ "Pythagoras."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 11 Nov. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pythagoras
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
4. ^ "Pythagoras."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 11 Nov. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pythagoras
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
6. ^ "Pythagoras."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 11 Nov. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pythagoras
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). {529 BCE}
MORE INFO
[1] "Polycrates". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polycrates
[2] "Pythagorean theorem". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pythagorean
_theorem
[1] Description: Phytagoras, coin made
under emperor Decius Source:
Baumeister, Denkmäler des klassischen
Altertums. 1888. Band III., Seite
1429 s Roman Emperor from 249 to
251. PD
source: http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.
uk/~history/BigPictures/Pythagoras_4.jpe
g
[2] Bust of Pythagoras UNKNOWN
source: http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.
uk/~history/BigPictures/Pythagoras.jpeg
[500 BC] 3
Earth.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Kremer, Michael. “Population
Growth and Technological Change: One
Million B.C. to 1990.” The Quarterly
Journal of Economics 108.3 (1993):
681–716. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
2118405
2. ^ Parker, G. Compact History of the
World. Barnes & Noble, 2001, p17.
3. ^
Kremer, Michael. “Population Growth
and Technological Change: One Million
B.C. to 1990.” The Quarterly Journal
of Economics 108.3 (1993):
681–716. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
2118405
[1] Parker, G. Compact History of the
World. Barnes & Noble, 2001,
p17. COPYRIGHTED
source: Parker, G. Compact History of
the World. Barnes & Noble, 2001, p17.
[467 BC] 9 10
of red-hot metal is recognized.5 6
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ Diogenes Laertius, tr: R. D.
Hicks, "Lives of Eminent Philosophers
Books I-V", 137-139. (similar
translation:) http://books.google.com/b
ooks?id=JkYzAAAAYAAJ
2. ^ Popkin, R.H., S.F. Brown, and D.
Carr. The Columbia History of Western
Philosophy. Columbia University Press,
1999,
p17. http://books.google.com/books?id=o
k4F_SawQaEC&pg=PA17
3. ^ Diogenes Laertius, tr: R. D.
Hicks, "Lives of Eminent Philosophers
Books I-V", 137-139. (similar
translation:) http://books.google.com/b
ooks?id=JkYzAAAAYAAJ
4. ^ Popkin, R.H., S.F. Brown, and D.
Carr. The Columbia History of Western
Philosophy. Columbia University Press,
1999,
p17. http://books.google.com/books?id=o
k4F_SawQaEC&pg=PA17
5. ^ Diogenes Laertius, tr: R. D.
Hicks, "Lives of Eminent Philosophers
Books I-V", 137-139. (similar
translation:) http://books.google.com/b
ooks?id=JkYzAAAAYAAJ
6. ^ Popkin, R.H., S.F. Brown, and D.
Carr. The Columbia History of Western
Philosophy. Columbia University Press,
1999,
p17. http://books.google.com/books?id=o
k4F_SawQaEC&pg=PA17
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p8-9.
9. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p8-9.
10. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (450bc+30yrs estimate
for science contributions)
MORE INFO
[1] "Anaxagoras". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anaxagoras
(=490?-430?)
Miletus)|Athens7 |Did not move to
Athens until around 462 bce8
[1] Description English: Detail of
the right-hand facade fresco, showing
Anaxagoras. National and Kapodistrian
University of Athens. Date c.
1888 Source http://nibiryukov.narod.r
u/nb_pinacoteca/nbe_pinacoteca_artists_l
.htm Author Eduard Lebiedzki,
after a design by Carl Rahl PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2c/Anaxagoras_Lebiedzki_
Rahl.jpg
[467 BC] 11
communication. The optical telegraph.7
8 9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Aeschylus. Aeschylus, with an
English translation by Herbert Weir
Smyth, Ph. D. in two volumes.
2.Agamemnon. Herbert Weir Smyth, Ph. D.
Cambridge, MA. Harvard University
Press. 1926, lines 278-316.
http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/te
xt?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0004%3Ac
ard%3D258
2. ^ "Optical telegraph#History".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_tel
egraph#History
3. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p33.
4. ^
Aeschylus. Aeschylus, with an English
translation by Herbert Weir Smyth, Ph.
D. in two volumes. 2.Agamemnon. Herbert
Weir Smyth, Ph. D. Cambridge, MA.
Harvard University Press. 1926, lines
278-316.
http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/te
xt?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0004%3Ac
ard%3D258
5. ^ "Optical telegraph#History".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_tel
egraph#History
6. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p33.
7. ^
Aeschylus. Aeschylus, with an English
translation by Herbert Weir Smyth, Ph.
D. in two volumes. 2.Agamemnon. Herbert
Weir Smyth, Ph. D. Cambridge, MA.
Harvard University Press. 1926, lines
278-316.
http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/te
xt?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0004%3Ac
ard%3D258
8. ^ "Optical telegraph#History".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_tel
egraph#History
9. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p33.
10.
^ "Aeschylus." The Concise Oxford
Companion to Classical Literature.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 2003.
Answers.com 14 Nov. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/aeschylus
11. ^ "Aeschylus." The Concise Oxford
Companion to Classical Literature.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 2003.
Answers.com 14 Nov. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/aeschylus
{467 BCE}
MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982)
[2] "Robert Hooke".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0979/Robert-Hooke
[3] "Robert Hooke". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Hook
e
[4]
http://www.answers.com/Robert+Hooke?cat=
technology
[5]
http://www.libraries.uc.edu/source/volfo
ur/oesper2.html
[6] http://www.roberthooke.org.uk/
[7]
http://freespace.virgin.net/ric.martin/v
ectis/hookeweb/roberthooke.htm
[8]
http://www.she-philosopher.com/gallery/c
yclopaedia.html
[9] "Optical telegraph#History".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_tel
egraph#History (1684)
[1] This image was moved from
Image:Image62.gif Description A
drawing of the lighthouse by German
archaeologist Prof. H. Thiersch
(1909). Date 2007-01-16 (original
upload date) Source Originally from
en.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. Author Original uploader
was Ragemanchoo at
en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2e/Lighthouse_-_Thiersch
.gif
[2] English: Mosaic Lighthouse of
Alexandria: was found in the Qasr Libya
in Libya, which was known by several
names including history and Olbia
Theodorias, This is a painting that was
left over to show the form of
lighthouse after the quake, which
destroyed the lighthouse. Qasr Libya
Museum PD
source: http://freespace.virgin.net/ric.
martin/vectis/hookeweb/roberthooke.htm
[460 BC] 7 8
atoms.5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ "Leucippus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leucippus
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
4. ^ "Leucippus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leucippus
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
6. ^ "Leucippus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leucippus
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (=~490bce)
8. ^ "Leucippus".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leucippus
(=500-450bce)
[1] Coin with the head of Leukippos on
it from around 330-320
BC.[t] Greece,Metapont
330-320BC,Leukkipos,1/3stater. Hammer
price 2002: CHF 12.000. UNKNOWN
source: http://numisbooks.dk/info/fotos/
romanphotos/leukippos330-320.jpg
[387 BC] 3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (=440-?? BCE)
MORE INFO
[1] "Plato". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plato
[2] "plato". The Stanford Encyclopedia
of Philosophy (Winter 2003 Edition),
Edward N. Zalta (ed.).
http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/plato/
[1] Plato's Academy, Mosaic from Villa
of T. Siminius Stephanus, Pompeii
(photo courtesy of Branislav
Slantchev) PD
source: http://www.electrummagazine.com/
wp-content/uploads/2011/11/Platos_Academ
y_mosaic_T_Siminius_Stephanus_Pompeii.jp
g
[2] Description Academy of Athens
(modern) Source I (Dimboukas (talk))
created this work entirely by
myself. Date 19:53, 1 December 2009
(UTC) Author Dimboukas (talk) CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/thumb/8/82/Athens_academy.jpg/1
024px-Athens_academy.jpg
[358 BC] 3
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p18.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p18.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p18.
MORE INFO
[1] "Heracleides". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heracleides
(=387 - 312 BCE)
(presumably)
[1] Ηράκλειτος (~544 - 483
π.Χ.) COPYRIGHTED GREECE
source: http://sfr.ee.teiath.gr/historia
/historia/important/html/images/Heraklit
.jpg
[297 BC] 2 3 4 5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life and
Fate of the Ancient Library of
Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990),
p79.
2. ^
http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/GreekScienc
e/Students/Ellen/Museum.html (=297bce)
3. ^
"article 29287". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-292
87 (=late 200s by P1)
4. ^ "Museum of
Alexandria". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://concise.britannica.com/ebc/articl
e-9372871/Museum-of-Alexandria (=280 by
P2)
5. ^
http://ehistory.osu.edu/world/articles/A
rticleView.cfm?AID=9 (= 283 BCE by P2
Soter)
MORE INFO
[1] "article 9009440".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
9440
[2]
http://www.earlyjewishwritings.com/lette
raristeas.html
[3]
http://www.ccel.org/c/charles/otpseudepi
g/aristeas.htm (translated letter)
[4] "Letter
of Aristeas". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Letter_of_A
risteas
[5] http://www.bede.org.uk/Library2.htm
has sources for LofA
[6] "Timon
(philosopher)". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timon_%28ph
ilosopher%29
[7] "Herodas". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herodas
[8]
http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/3707
641.stm
[1] A reconstruction of the main hall
of the Museum of Alexandria used in the
series Cosmos by Carl Sagan. The wall
portraits show Alexander the Great
(left) and Serapis
(right). COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.thelivingmoon.com/43a
ncients/04images/Alexandria/Alexandria-C
osmosReconstruction1.jpg
[2] Credit:
s_davies@mail.utexas.edu The Library
of Alexandria was one of the best-known
of the libraries of the ancient world.
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.thelivingmoon.com/43a
ncients/04images/Alexandria/alexlibext.j
pg
[285 BC] 3 4 5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Ctesibius Of Alexandria".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 25 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/145475/Ctesibius-Of-Alexandria>.
2. ^ "Ctesibius Of Alexandria".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 25 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/145475/Ctesibius-Of-Alexandria>.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (=c300bce) (=c300bce)
4. ^
"Ctesibius". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ctesibius
(=(working 285 - 222 BCE)
5. ^
http://www.tmth.edu.gr/en/aet/1/31.html
(flourished285-222bce)
MORE INFO
[1] "Water clock". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_clock
[2] "Pipe organ". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pipe_organ
[1] Musicians playing tuba (l.) ,
hydraulis (top) and cornua to accompany
gladiatorial combat (Roman mosaic of
1st-2nd century, from Libya)
Musicians playing during the games.
Instruments: cornua, tuba and water
organ, Mosaic of the Gladiators,
Jamahiriya Museum, Tripoli, Libya. From
Dar Buc Ammera villa (Zliten). Mozaic
from: Libya / Tsarrbuus / Tripoli /
Bāb al ‘Azīzīyah Música antiga
- Ancient music • Jamahiriya
Museum - Museu de Trípoli UNKNOWN
source: http://www.uned.es/geo-1-histori
a-antigua-universal/NOTICIAS/Zliten%20Mo
saic.jpg
[2] Musicians playing during the
games. Instruments: cornua, tuba and
water organ, Mosaic of the Gladiators,
Jamahiriya Museum, Tripoli, Libya. From
Dar Buc Ammera villa (Zliten). Mozaic
from: Libya / Tsarrbuus / Tripoli /
Bāb al ‘Azīzīyah Música antiga
- Ancient music • Jamahiriya
Museum - Museu de Trípoli UNKNOWN
source: http://www.uned.es/geo-1-histori
a-antigua-universal/NOTICIAS/Zliten%20Mo
saic.jpg
[260 BC] 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100
Inventions That Shaped World History",
1993, p16.
2. ^ Pappus, Collection,
Synagogue, Book VIII, c. AD 340.
3. ^ Yenne
and Grosser, "100 Inventions That
Shaped World History", 1993, p16.
4. ^
Pappus, Collection, Synagogue, Book
VIII, c. AD 340.
5. ^ Asimov, I. Asimov’s
Biographical Encyclopedia of Science
and Technology: The Lives and
Achievements of 1510 Great Scientists
from Ancient Times to the Present
Chronologically Arranged. 1982, p29
6. ^
Yenne and Grosser, "100 Inventions That
Shaped World History", 1993, p16.
{before) 260 BC}
[1] Description Español: Esta
imagen ilustra la ventaja mecánica de
la palanca. Deutsch: Illustration des
Hebelgesetzes. Copyright © 2004
César Rincón. Imagen creada para la
Wikipedia en Español. Date
2004-08-05 (first version);
2004-08-07 (last version) Source
Originally from es.wikipedia;
description page is/was here. Author
Original uploader was CR at
es.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) Released under the GNU Free
Documentation License. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f2/Palanca-ejemplo.jpg
[2] Publishing, DK. Science: The
Definitive Visual Guide. DK Publishing,
2009, p40. COPYRIGHTED
source: Publishing, DK. Science: The
Definitive Visual Guide. DK Publishing,
2009, p40.
[260 BC] 4 5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "hand tool." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 14 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/254115/hand-tool>.
2. ^ "hand tool." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 14 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/254115/hand-tool>.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
4. ^ Yenne and
Grosser, "100 Inventions That Shaped
World History", 1993, p22. {260 BC}
5. ^
Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000). (=500)
6. ^
http://www.reference.com/browse/wiki/Nin
eveh (=600)
MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/enc1/ha
nging_gardens_of_babylon
[2] "screw." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online
Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 14 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/529876/screw>
[3] Technology and Culture Volume 44,
Number 1, January 2003 (PDF) Dalley,
Stephanie. Oleson, John Peter.
"Sennacherib, Archimedes, and the Water
Screw: The Context of Invention in the
Ancient
World" http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/tec
hnology_and_culture/toc/tech44.1.html
[1] Description Archimedes' screw.
Public domain, from Chambers's
Encyclopedia (Philadelphia: J. B.
Lippincott Company, 1875). Added to
illustrate article en:Archimedes. Date
2007-06-18 (original upload
date) Source Originally from
en.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. Author Original uploader
was Ianmacm at en.wikipedia PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/82/Archimedes_screw.JPG
[2] Description Deutsch: animierte
Prinzip einer Foerderschnecke oder auch
Archimedesche Spirale genannt, mit
einer Kugel zur Demonstration der
Foerderbewegung. Date published
06.Mai 2007 Source
File:Archimedes-screw_one-screw-thr
eads_with-ball_3D-view_animated.gif
created by Silberwolf Author
Silberwolf (size changed by:
Jahobr) Permission (Reusing this
file) Own work, share alike,
attribution required (Creative Commons
CC-BY-SA-2.5) CC
source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wik
ipedia/commons/a/a1/Archimedes-screw_one
-screw-threads_with-ball_3D-view_animate
d.gif
[260 BC] 5
its own axis once a day and around the
Sun once a year is understood.3
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). {c260 BCE}
MORE INFO
[1] "article 9009438".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
9438
[2] "Cleanthes". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cleanthes
Egpyt4
[1] Aristarchus's 3rd century BC
calculations on the relative sizes of
from left the Sun, Earth and Moon, from
a 10th century CE Greek copy PD
source: http://www.thelivingmoon.com/43a
ncients/04images/Artifacts/Aristarchus_w
orking.jpg
[2] Statue of Aristarchus at Aristotle
University in Thessalonica,
Greece UNKNOWN
source: http://www.thelivingmoon.com/43a
ncients/04images/People/Aristarchos_Samo
s.png
[246 BC] 11 12 13
calculated.7 8 9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
(276-196,240BCE 246bce?)
2. ^ "Eratosthenes".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eratosthene
s
3. ^ Carl Sagan, "Cosmos", Carl Sagan
Productions, KCET Los Angeles, (1980).
4. ^
Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and technology;
the lives and achievements of 1195
great scientists from ancient times to
the present, chronologically arranged",
(Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
(276-196,240BCE 246bce?)
5. ^ "Eratosthenes".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eratosthene
s
6. ^ Carl Sagan, "Cosmos", Carl Sagan
Productions, KCET Los Angeles, (1980).
7. ^
Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and technology;
the lives and achievements of 1195
great scientists from ancient times to
the present, chronologically arranged",
(Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
(276-196,240BCE 246bce?)
8. ^ "Eratosthenes".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eratosthene
s
9. ^ Carl Sagan, "Cosmos", Carl Sagan
Productions, KCET Los Angeles, (1980).
10. ^
Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and technology;
the lives and achievements of 1195
great scientists from ancient times to
the present, chronologically arranged",
(Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
(276-196,240BCE 246bce?)
11. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
(276-196,240BCE 246bce?)
12. ^ Mostafa
El-Abbadi, "The Life and Fate of the
Ancient Library of Alexandria", (Paris:
UNESCO, 1990). (c276-194BCE)
13. ^ Dutka, Jacques.
“‘Eratosthenes’ Measurement of
the Earth Reconsidered’.” Archive
for History of Exact Sciences 46.1
(1993): 55–66. Web. 25 May
2012. http://www.springerlink.com/conte
nt/km185753675743p8/fulltext.pdf
(c230BCE {275-194BCE})
[1] Eratosthenes experiment UNKNOWN
source: http://www.iucaa.ernet.in/~scipo
p/Obsetion/eratos/image008.jpg
[2] Eratosthenes (portrait) Copied
from w:es
Imagen:Eratostenes-retrato.png
(originally from Enciclopedia
Libre) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a2/Portrait_of_Eratosthe
nes.png
[240 BC] 6
2 3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Halley's comet 'was spotted by
the ancient Greeks"'. BBC.
2010. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science
-environment-11255168
2. ^
http://cometography.com/pcomets/001p.htm
l
3. ^
http://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/ask_as
tro/answers/971112e.html
4. ^ Graham and Hintz, "An Ancient
Greek Sighting of Halley's Comet? ",
Journal of Cosmology, 2010, Vol 9,
2130-2136.
http://journalofcosmology.com/AncientA
stronomy106.html
5. ^ "Halley's comet 'was spotted by
the ancient Greeks"'. BBC.
2010. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science
-environment-11255168
6. ^ "Halley's comet 'was spotted by
the ancient Greeks"'. BBC.
2010. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science
-environment-11255168
[1] Description Comet P/Halley as
taken March 8, 1986 by W. Liller,
Easter Island, part of the
International Halley Watch (IHW) Large
Scale Phenomena Network. Date image
taken on 8. Mar. 1986 Source NSSDC's
Photo Gallery (NASA):
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/photo_gallery
/photogallery-comets.html
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image/planeta
ry/comet/lspn_comet_halley1.jpg Autho
r NASA/W. Liller Permission (Reusing
this file) Copyright information
from
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/photo_gallery
/photogallery-faq.html - All of the
images presented on NSSDC's Photo
Gallery are in the public domain. As
such, they may be used for any purpose.
[...] PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2a/Lspn_comet_halley.jpg
[231 BC] 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Dudás, I. The Theory And
Practice Of Worm Gear Drives. Kogan
Page Science, 2004. Kogan Page Science,
p7. http://books.google.com/books?id=I2
NnbsyJsvAC&pg=PA7
2. ^ Dudás, I. The Theory And Practice
Of Worm Gear Drives. Kogan Page
Science, 2004. Kogan Page Science,
p7. http://books.google.com/books?id=I2
NnbsyJsvAC&pg=PA7
3. ^ Dudás, I. The Theory And Practice
Of Worm Gear Drives. Kogan Page
Science, 2004. Kogan Page Science,
p7. http://books.google.com/books?id=I2
NnbsyJsvAC&pg=PA7
4. ^ Dudás, I. The Theory And Practice
Of Worm Gear Drives. Kogan Page
Science, 2004. Kogan Page Science,
p7. http://books.google.com/books?id=I2
NnbsyJsvAC&pg=PA7
MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/enc1/ha
nging_gardens_of_babylon
[2] "screw." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online
Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 14 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/529876/screw>
[3] Technology and Culture Volume 44,
Number 1, January 2003 (PDF) Dalley,
Stephanie. Oleson, John Peter.
"Sennacherib, Archimedes, and the Water
Screw: The Context of Invention in the
Ancient
World" http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/tec
hnology_and_culture/toc/tech44.1.html
[4] "Archimedes screw." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 14 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/32831/Archimedes-screw>
[5] Yenne and Grosser, "100 Inventions
That Shaped World History", 1993, p22
[6]
Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000). (=500)
[7]
http://www.reference.com/browse/wiki/Nin
eveh (=600)
[1] Description Archimedes' screw.
Public domain, from Chambers's
Encyclopedia (Philadelphia: J. B.
Lippincott Company, 1875). Added to
illustrate article en:Archimedes. Date
2007-06-18 (original upload
date) Source Originally from
en.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. Author Original uploader
was Ianmacm at en.wikipedia PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/82/Archimedes_screw.JPG
[2] Description Deutsch: animierte
Prinzip einer Foerderschnecke oder auch
Archimedesche Spirale genannt, mit
einer Kugel zur Demonstration der
Foerderbewegung. Date published
06.Mai 2007 Source
File:Archimedes-screw_one-screw-thr
eads_with-ball_3D-view_animated.gif
created by Silberwolf Author
Silberwolf (size changed by:
Jahobr) Permission (Reusing this
file) Own work, share alike,
attribution required (Creative Commons
CC-BY-SA-2.5) CC
source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wik
ipedia/commons/a/a1/Archimedes-screw_one
-screw-threads_with-ball_3D-view_animate
d.gif
[160 BC] 11
its motion5 ).6 7 8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "inertia." The Oxford Dictionary
of Sports Science & Medicine. Oxford
University Press, 1998, 2006, 2007.
Answers.com 26 Nov. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/inertia ht
tp://www.answers.com/main/cite_this_answ
er.jsp#ixzz2DN5kNYiR
2. ^ Sambursky, S. The Physical World
of Late Antiquity. Routledge and K.
Paul, 1962, p74?.
3. ^ "John Philoponus". The
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
(Winter 2003 Edition), Edward N. Zalta
(ed.).
http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/philop
onus/#2.2
4. ^ Dimarogonas, A.D. Vibration for
Engineers. Prentice Hall, 1996,
p5. http://books.google.com/books?ei=eW
yyUITrL8f-2QXAroGQCQ
5. ^ "inertia." The Oxford Dictionary
of Sports Science & Medicine. Oxford
University Press, 1998, 2006, 2007.
Answers.com 26 Nov. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/inertia ht
tp://www.answers.com/main/cite_this_answ
er.jsp#ixzz2DN5kNYiR
6. ^ Sambursky, S. The Physical World
of Late Antiquity. Routledge and K.
Paul, 1962, p74?.
7. ^ "John Philoponus". The
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
(Winter 2003 Edition), Edward N. Zalta
(ed.).
http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/philop
onus/#2.2
8. ^ Dimarogonas, A.D. Vibration for
Engineers. Prentice Hall, 1996,
p5. http://books.google.com/books?ei=eW
yyUITrL8f-2QXAroGQCQ
9. ^ American Council of Learned
Societies. Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Scribner's, 2000,
p425-426.
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p33-34.
11. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and technology;
the lives and achievements of 1195
great scientists from ancient times to
the present, chronologically arranged",
(Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982),
p33-34.
MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.windows.ucar.edu/tour/link=/p
eople/ancient_epoch/hipparchus.html
[2] Narrien, J. An Historical Account
of the Origin and Progress of
Astronomy: With Plates Illustrating,
Chiefly, the Ancient Systems. Baldwin
and Cradock, 1833,
p206. books.google.com/books?id=gYYoAAA
AYAAJ&pg=PA206
[3] "Hipparchus." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 18 Nov.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hipparchus-
1
[4] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p32
[5] Lucio
Russo, "The Forgotten Revolution",
(Berlin; New York: Springer-Verlag,
2004), p88 Pliny, Naturalis historia,
II 95
[6] Lucio Russo, "The Forgotten
Revolution", (Berlin; New York:
Springer-Verlag, 2004), p89
[7] "inertia."
The Oxford Dictionary of Sports Science
. Oxford University Press, 1998, 2006,
2007. Answers.com 11 Aug. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/inertia
[8] Edward Grant, "Motion in the Void
and the Principle of Inertia in the
Middle Ages", Isis, Vol. 55, No. 3
(Sep., 1964), pp. 265-292 Published
by: The University of Chicago Press on
behalf of The History of Science
Society http://www.jstor.org/stable/228
571
[9] "Simplicius of Cilicia". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simplicius_
of_Cilicia
Nicaea)9 |(observatory on) Island of
Rhodes, Greece10
[1] Hipparchus (196 BC – 120 BC) was
born in Nicaea (now Iznik, Turkey), and
probably died on the island of Rhodes.
He is known to have been a working
astronomer at least from 147 BC to 127
BC. UNKNOWN
source: http://web.jccc.edu/gallery/astr
otext/Bills%20Files/Astronomy%20Textbook
/Chapter%203_files/img12qwe.jpg
[2] image of Hipparchos from coin?
http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/hist
ory/Mathematicians/Hipparchus.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Hipparchos_1.jpeg
[140 BC] 9 10 11
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Tsien, Tsuen-Hsuin (1985). Paper
and Printing. Joseph Needham, Science
and Civilisation in China, Chemistry
and Chemical Technology. Vol. 5 part 1.
Cambridge University Press,
p38. {Needham_Vol5_Part1_1954CE.pdf}
2. ^
http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2006-0
8/08/content_4937457.htm
3. ^ Tsien, Tsuen-Hsuin (1985). Paper
and Printing. Joseph Needham, Science
and Civilisation in China, Chemistry
and Chemical Technology. Vol. 5 part 1.
Cambridge University Press,
p38. {Needham_Vol5_Part1_1954CE.pdf}
4. ^
http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2006-0
8/08/content_4937457.htm
5. ^ Tsien, Tsuen-Hsuin (1985). Paper
and Printing. Joseph Needham, Science
and Civilisation in China, Chemistry
and Chemical Technology. Vol. 5 part 1.
Cambridge University Press,
p38. {Needham_Vol5_Part1_1954CE.pdf}
6. ^
http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2006-0
8/08/content_4937457.htm
7. ^ Tsien, Tsuen-Hsuin (1985). Paper
and Printing. Joseph Needham, Science
and Civilisation in China, Chemistry
and Chemical Technology. Vol. 5 part 1.
Cambridge University Press,
p38. {Needham_Vol5_Part1_1954CE.pdf}
8. ^ www.apio.org/chinese05.htm
9. ^ Tsien, Tsuen-Hsuin (1985).
Paper and Printing. Joseph Needham,
Science and Civilisation in China,
Chemistry and Chemical Technology. Vol.
5 part 1. Cambridge University Press,
p38. {Needham_Vol5_Part1_1954CE.pdf}
10. ^ www.apio.org/chinese05.htm
(=140-87BCE)
11. ^
http://www.amateras.com/trip/china/xian-
e.htm {140-87BCE}
MORE INFO
[1] David Buisseret (1998),
Envisaging the City, U Chicago Press,
p. 12, ISBN 978-0-226-07993-6
province of China7 |Xian, China8
[1] Description Early Chinese hemp
fiber paper, used for wrapping not
writing, on display at the Shaanxi
history museum in Xi'An, China.
Excavated from the Han Tomb of Wu Di
(140-87 BC) at Baqiao, Xi'An. Photo by
Yannick Trottier, 2007 Date 22
June 2007 Source Own work Author
Ytrottier GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/7f/Chinese_hemp_paper_we
stern_han.jpg
[2] It's the earliest Paper in the
world : Western Han (140-87
BC) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.amateras.com/trip/chi
na/12Sha-Paper360x240.jpg
[75 BC] 3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "East Asian mathematics".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 18 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/1238455/East-Asian-mathematics>.
2. ^ "East Asian mathematics".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 18 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/1238455/East-Asian-mathematics>.
3. ^ "East Asian mathematics".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 18 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/1238455/East-Asian-mathematics>.
MORE INFO
[1] Christopher Cullen, The Suàn
shù shū , “Writings on
reckoning”: Rewriting the history of
early Chinese mathematics in the light
of an excavated manuscript, Historia
Mathematica, Volume 34, Issue 1,
February 2007, Pages 10-44, ISSN
0315-0860,
10.1016/j.hm.2005.11.006. (http://www.s
ciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S03
15086005001084)
[2] "Negative number". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Negative_nu
mber (100bce-50bce)
[3] "Nine Chapters on the
Mathematical Art". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nine_Chapte
rs_on_the_Mathematical_Art
(200bce-100ce)
[4] "Suàn shù shū". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Su%C3%A0n_s
h%C3%B9_sh%C5%AB (100ce)
[5] Shepherd, W.
Outline History of Science. Ward Lock,
1965.
p43. http://books.google.com/books?ei=R
2ypUKnUAsrY2QWvsYCQDg&id=Fu64AAAAIAAJ
[6] Shen, K. et al. The Nine Chapters
on the Mathematical Art: Companion and
Commentary. Oxford University Press,
1999.
p405. http://books.google.com/books?ei=
R2ypUKnUAsrY2QWvsYCQDg&id=0DlGAQAAIAAJ
[1] [t Image of how Chinese counting
rods are used to represent positive and
negative numbers] GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cou
nting_rods
[2] Digital text of the Nine Chapters
on the Mathematical Art. PD
source: http://science.math.ntnu.edu.tw/
ELME/GEO/files/001.jpg
[56 BC] 11
atoms that move very fast.7 8 9
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ Titus Carus Lucretius, "T.
Lucreti Cari De rerum natura libri sex,
Volume 1", 1866, lines 176-229,
p530 http://books.google.com/books?id=o
iUTAAAAQAAJ
2. ^ Titus Lucretius Carus, "T. Lucreti
Cari De rerum natura libri sex", J.
Allyn, 1884,
p105. http://books.google.com/books?id=
LCmRGMJBoYUC
3. ^ William Ellery Leonard, "De Rerum
Natura: The Latin Text of Lucretius",
Univ of Wisconsin Press, 2008,
p439. http://books.google.com/books?id=
mUsQtrxbfxIC
4. ^ Titus Carus Lucretius, "T. Lucreti
Cari De rerum natura libri sex, Volume
1", 1866, lines 176-229,
p530 http://books.google.com/books?id=o
iUTAAAAQAAJ
5. ^ Titus Lucretius Carus, "T. Lucreti
Cari De rerum natura libri sex", J.
Allyn, 1884,
p105. http://books.google.com/books?id=
LCmRGMJBoYUC
6. ^ William Ellery Leonard, "De Rerum
Natura: The Latin Text of Lucretius",
Univ of Wisconsin Press, 2008,
p439. http://books.google.com/books?id=
mUsQtrxbfxIC
7. ^ Titus Carus Lucretius, "T. Lucreti
Cari De rerum natura libri sex, Volume
1", 1866, lines 176-229,
p530 http://books.google.com/books?id=o
iUTAAAAQAAJ
8. ^ Titus Lucretius Carus, "T. Lucreti
Cari De rerum natura libri sex", J.
Allyn, 1884,
p105. http://books.google.com/books?id=
LCmRGMJBoYUC
9. ^ William Ellery Leonard, "De Rerum
Natura: The Latin Text of Lucretius",
Univ of Wisconsin Press, 2008,
p439. http://books.google.com/books?id=
mUsQtrxbfxIC
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p36-37.
11. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp36-37.
MORE INFO
[1] "Lucretius". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucretius
(=(ca. 94 BC- ca. 49 BC)
[2] "Light".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light
[3] "didactic." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 07 Aug.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/didactic
[4] "hexameter." The Concise Oxford
Dictionary of Literary Terms. Oxford
University Press, 2001, 2004.
Answers.com 07 Aug. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hexameter
[1] Text copied from: Titus Carus
Lucretius, ''T. Lucreti Cari De rerum
natura libri sex, Volume 1'', 1866,
lines 176-229,
p530 http://books.google.com/books?id=o
iUTAAAAQAAJ PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=oiUTAAAAQAAJ
[2] Text copied from: Titus Carus
Lucretius, ''T. Lucreti Cari De rerum
natura libri sex, Volume 1'', 1866,
lines 176-229,
p530 http://books.google.com/books?id=o
iUTAAAAQAAJ PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=oiUTAAAAQAAJ
[40 BC] 5 6 7
(vertical lift)3 .
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "waterwheel." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/637559/waterwheel>.
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
3. ^ "elevator." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 13 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
2371>.
4. ^ "Vitruvius." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/631310/Vitruvius>.
5. ^ "Vitruvius." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/631310/Vitruvius>. {after 27BCE}
6. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (c70-c25) (c70-c25)
7. ^
"Vitruvius". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitruvius
(=c80/70-c25)
MORE INFO
[1] "Waterwheel". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waterwheel
[1] Description Nederlands:
Repronegatief. Kintjir of
waterschepwiel in Djambi, Sumatra Date
1914-1921 Source
Tropenmuseum Author
Unknown Permission (Reusing this
file) See below. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c6/COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEU
M_Kintjir_of_waterschepwiel_in_Djambi_Su
matra_TMnr_10007886.jpg
[2] [t Notice that the oxen walk in
circles and there must be some 90
degree gear below deck - an animal
powered boat.] XVth century miniature
of an ox-powered paddle wheel boat from
the 4th century Roman military treatise
De Rebus Bellicis by Anonymous PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c0/De_Rebus_Bellicis%2C_
XVth_Century_Miniature.JPG
[50 AD] 7 8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p40.
2. ^ "Hero
of Alexandria". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hero_of_Ale
xandria
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p40.
4. ^ "Hero
of Alexandria". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hero_of_Ale
xandria
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p40.
6. ^ "Hero
of Alexandria". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hero_of_Ale
xandria
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982). (=c20-?)
8. ^ "Hero
of Alexandria". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hero_of_Ale
xandria (=c.10-c.70(+40)
MORE INFO
[1] Carl Sagan, "Cosmos", Carl
Sagan Productions, KCET Los Angeles,
(1980)
[1] Name of Image: Hero's Engine MIX
#: 9513982 NIX #: MSFC-9513982 Date
of Image: 2004-04-15 Category: Early
Rockets Full Description:
Legendary characters used the power of
mythology to fly through the heavens.
About 200 BC, a Greek inventor known as
Hero of Alexandria came up with a new
invention that depended on the
mechanical interaction of heat and
water. He invented a rocket-like device
called an aeolipile. It used steam for
propulsion. Hero mounted a sphere on
top of a water kettle. A fire below the
kettle turned the water into steam, and
the gas traveled through the pipes to
the sphere. Two L-shaped tubes on
opposite sides of the sphere allowed
the gas to escape, and in doing so gave
a thrust to the sphere that caused it
to rotate. (MRPO) MRD/SPD
Discipline(s): n/a (MRPO) Subject
Type: n/a Keywords: Hero's Engine,
Aeolipile MSFC Negative Number:
9513982 Reference Number:
MSFC-75-SA-4105-2C n/a
n/a from: http://mix.msfc.nasa.gov/ab
stracts.php?p=1867 PD
source: http://mix.msfc.nasa.gov/IMAGES/
HIGH/9513982.jpg
[2] Hero's aeolipile From Knight's
American Mechanical Dictionary, 1876.
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Aeolipile_illustration.JPG
[65 AD] 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Seneca, L.A., and T. Lodge.
Works, Both Moral and Natural. 1620,
p772. http://books.google.com/books?id=
FElCAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA886&lpg=PA886
2. ^ The Development of Newton's Theory
of Color Richard S. Westfall Isis ,
Vol. 53, No. 3 (Sep., 1962), pp.
339-358 URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/227786
3. ^ "Lucius Annaeus Seneca".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 14 Oct.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/534392/Lucius-Annaeus-Seneca>.
4. ^ McBeath, A. & Gheorghe, A. D.,
"Meteor Beliefs Project: Classical
beliefs connecting meteors with life
and death", WGN, Journal of the
International Meteor Organization, vol.
34, no. 5, p.
148-150. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full
/2006JIMO...34..148M
[1] Description Seneca, part of
double-herm in Antikensammlung
Berlin Date 21 May 2004 Source Own
work Author Calidius GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/9b/Seneca-berlinantikens
ammlung-1.jpg
[77 AD] 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "encyclopedia." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2012.
Answers.com 03 Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/encyclopedi
a
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
[1] Contemporary laced limp parchment
wrapper made from a bifolium of a 14th
century [?] Italian missal, rubricated,
red and blue initials. Binding for:
Francesco Massari, … In nonum Plinii
de naturali historia librum
castigationes & annotationes. Basel:
Froben, 1537. (ExRockey) 2008-0021N •
Massari (fl. 1530), a Venetian
physician, comments on the ninth book
of the Natural History of Pliny (1st
cent. AD), covering fish and marine
life. The work’s editor, Beatus
Rhenanus (1485-1547), stated that
Massari’s comments were based on his
extensive voyages and observations in
the Mediterranean and Adriatic. PD
source: http://blogs.princeton.edu/rareb
ooks/Massari-wrapper.JPG
[2] MS1000 The Pliny of Saint James in
the March: Historia Naturalis Italy
c1400 PD
source: http://www.schoyencollection.com
/lexical_files/ms1000.jpg
[83 AD] 4 5 6 7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Needham, Joseph and Ronan, Colin
A. (1986) The shorter Science and
civilisation in China : an abridgement
of Joseph Needham's original text, Vol.
3, Chapter 1: "Magnetism and
Electricity", Cambridge University
Press, p252. ISBN 0-521-25272-5
2. ^ Needham, Joseph
and Ronan, Colin A. (1986) The shorter
Science and civilisation in China : an
abridgement of Joseph Needham's
original text, Vol. 3, Chapter 1:
"Magnetism and Electricity", Cambridge
University Press, p252. ISBN
0-521-25272-5
3. ^ Needham, Joseph and Ronan, Colin
A. (1986) The shorter Science and
civilisation in China : an abridgement
of Joseph Needham's original text, Vol.
3, Chapter 1: "Magnetism and
Electricity", Cambridge University
Press, p252. ISBN 0-521-25272-5
4. ^ Joseph Needham,
"Science and Civilization in China",
vol 4, part 1, 1962,
p230-268. {Needham_China_compass_1962.p
df} {83 CE}
5. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100
Inventions That Shaped World History",
1993, p24. {83 CE}
6. ^ Needham, Joseph and
Ronan, Colin A. (1986) The shorter
Science and civilisation in China : an
abridgement of Joseph Needham's
original text, Vol. 3, Chapter 1:
"Magnetism and Electricity", Cambridge
University Press, p252. ISBN
0-521-25272-5 {1040-1044}
7. ^ Trevor I. Williams,
"A history of invention : from stone
axes to silicon chips ", (New York:
Checkmark Books, 2000). {600 BC}
[1] Figure from: Joseph Needham,
''Science and Civilization in China'',
vol 4, part 1, 1962,
p230-268. {Needham_China_compass_1962.p
df} COPYRIGHTED
source: Joseph Needham, "Science and
Civilization in China", vol 4, part 1,
1962, p230-268.
[2] ''The south-pointing fish'' was
recorded in the documents of the
Northern Song Dynasty. Such
direction-pointing device is a thin
steel plate cut into the shape of a
fish magnetized in the geomagnetic
field. The tail of the fish is
magnetized in the geological direction
of the North Pole, thus the tail has
the south magnetic pole and the head of
the fish has the north magnetic pole.
When put into the water, the floating
fish has its head pointing to the
south. UNKNOWN
source: http://kaleidoscope.cultural-chi
na.com/chinaWH/images/exbig_images/3ee20
b9ad9430ca4fcd43b3165a315c5.jpg
[391 AD] 3
2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life and
Fate of the Ancient Library of
Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990).
2. ^
Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life and Fate
of the Ancient Library of Alexandria",
(Paris: UNESCO, 1990), p160.
3. ^ "Theodosius
I". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodosius_
I (391/392)
MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.leeds.ac.uk/classics/rhetoric
/prog-aph.htm
[1] Description Theophilus and the
Serapeum. Bishop Theophilus of
Alexandria, en:Gospel book in hand,
stands triumphantly atop the
en:Serapeum in en:391. The cult image
of en:Serapis, crowned with the
en:modius, is visible within the temple
at the bottom. Marginal illustration
from a chronicle written in Alexandria
in the early fifth century, thus
providing a nearly contemporary
portrait of Theophilus. P. Goleniscev 6
verso. (From A. Bauer and J.
Strygowski, ''Eine alexandrinische
Weltchronik,'' Denkschriften der
Kaiserlichen Akademie der
Wissenschaften: Wien 51.2 [en:1906]:
1-204, fig. 6 verso) Date 2002-11-10
(first version); 2004-05-14 (last
version) Source Originally from
en.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. Author Original uploader was
Eloquence at en.wikipedia Later
versions were uploaded by Hephaestos at
en.wikipedia. Permission (Reusing
this file) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/34/Theophil.jpg
[2] Serapeum Temple which housed the
''daughter library'' of the Library of
Alexandria. Source
www.alexandrinelibrarian.blogspot.com U
NKNOWN
source: http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_KQyC59
HU4I0/SrRlFDYM2iI/AAAAAAAAAC4/fmxC6-MP49
U/s320/Serapis_Temple02.jpg
[529 AD] 4
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ "Justinian." The Concise Oxford
Companion to Classical Literature.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 2003.
Answers.com 26 Feb. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/justinian-5
2. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life and
Fate of the Ancient Library of
Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990),
p188.
3. ^ "Justinian." The Concise Oxford
Companion to Classical Literature.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 2003.
Answers.com 26 Feb. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/justinian-5
4. ^ "Justinian." The Concise Oxford
Companion to Classical Literature.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 2003.
Answers.com 26 Feb. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/justinian-5
MORE INFO
[1] "Damascius". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Damascius
[2] "Justinian I." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 26 Feb. 2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/308858/Justinian-I>
[3] "Justinian I". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 18 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/308858/Justinian-I>
[1] Artist Meister von San Vitale in
Ravenna Title Justinian I , San
Vitale (Ravenna) Deutsch: Chormosaiken
in San Vitale in Ravenna, Szene: Kaiser
Justinian und Bischof Maximilianus und
sein Hof, Detail: Büste des
Justinian Italiano: Basilica di San
Vitale a Ravenna, L'imperatore
Giustiniano I e il suo seguito.
Dettaglio della decorazione a mosaico
bizantina, compiuta entro il 547.
Dettaglio: Giustiniano
I. Date Deutsch: vor 547 English:
before 547 Medium Deutsch:
Mosaik Current location San Vitale
in Ravenna. Ravenna. Notes Deutsch:
Ravennatische Schule,
italo-byzantinische Werkstatt,
Auftraggeber: Bischof Maximilian und
Bankier Julianus, Mosaik im
Chor Source/Photographer The Yorck
Project: 10.000 Meisterwerke der
Malerei. DVD-ROM, 2002. ISBN
3936122202. Distributed by DIRECTMEDIA
Publishing GmbH. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Meister_von_San
_Vitale_in_Ravenna.jpg/778px-Meister_von
_San_Vitale_in_Ravenna.jpg
[2] Description English: Basilica of
Sant'Apollinare Nuovo (mosaic of
Justinian I) Date 2008 Source Own
work Author Testus CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a2/Sant%27Apollinare_Nuo
vo_%28Justinian_I%29.jpg
[600 AD] 4 5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p63.
2. ^
Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The
Timetables of Science", Second edition,
Simon and Schuster, 1991, p63.
3. ^
Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The
Timetables of Science", Second edition,
Simon and Schuster, 1991, p63.
4. ^
Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The
Timetables of Science", Second edition,
Simon and Schuster, 1991, p63. {600}
5. ^
Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000). (6th century) (6th century)
6. ^ "Wind
mill". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wind_mill
(6th century)
MORE INFO
[1] Yenne and Grosser, "100
Inventions That Shaped World History",
1993, p25
[1] (Images via: Ullesthorpe,
BluePlanet, DeutschesMuseum and
WorldofEnergy) UNKNOWN
source: http://cdn.webecoist.com/wp-cont
ent/uploads/2009/01/ancient-persian-wind
mills.jpg
[700 AD] 4 5
decimal notation.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "South Asian mathematics".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 18 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/1238473/South-Asian-mathematics/
253515/Classical-mathematical-literature
>.
2. ^ "Hindu-Arabic numerals".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2013. Web. 13 Jan.
2013 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/31743/Hindu-Arabic-numerals>.
3. ^ "South Asian mathematics".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 18 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/1238473/South-Asian-mathematics/
253515/Classical-mathematical-literature
>.
4. ^ "South Asian mathematics".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 18 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/1238473/South-Asian-mathematics/
253515/Classical-mathematical-literature
>.
5. ^ "Hindu-Arabic numerals".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2013. Web. 13 Jan.
2013 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/31743/Hindu-Arabic-numerals>.
MORE INFO
[1] "Bakhshali Manuscript".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bakhshali_M
anuscript
[2] "Indian mathematics#Bakhshali
Manuscript .28200 BC - 400 CE.29".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_math
ematics#Bakhshali_Manuscript_.28200_BC_-
_400_CE.29 (200 BCE - 400 CE)
[3] Ho, P.Y.
Li, Qi and Shu: An Introduction to
Science and Civilization in China.
Dover, 2000. Dover Science
Books. http://books.google.com/books?id
=_P6C4JO4JCUC&pg=PA58
Pakistan)3
[1] Combination of image 2 and
3 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.thecultureconcept.com
/circle/wp-content/uploads/2011/09/Bakhs
hali-Manuscript.jpghttp://upload.wikimed
ia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/64/Bakhshali_
numerals_1.jpg
[2] 3rd or 4th century The Bakhshali
Manuscript – is an early mathematical
manuscript discovered in 1881 near the
village Bakhshali (or Bakhshalai) in
the modern Peshawar district of
Pakistan. It is the only known document
on mathematics from this early period
of its culture and was written on birch
bark. 70 leaves, a few of which were
only scraps, survived to the time of
its discovery. It is a handbook of
rules and illustrative examples
together with their solutions. It is
devoted mainly to arithmetic and
algebra, with just a few problems on
geometry and mensuration. Only parts
have been restored, so we cannot be
certain about the balance between
different topics UNKNOWN
source: http://www.thecultureconcept.com
/circle/wp-content/uploads/2011/09/Bakhs
hali-Manuscript.jpg
[751 AD] 4 5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ "Geber". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geber
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (+30) (+30)
5. ^ "Geber".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geber
(+30)
[1] Portrait of Jabir ibn Hayyan
http://histoirechimie.free.fr/Lien/Geber
.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Geber.jpg
[2] alchemist Jabir ibn Hayyan, from a
15th c. European portrait of ''Geber'',
Codici Ashburnhamiani 1166, Biblioteca
Medicea Laurenziana, Florence, public
domain PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jabir_ibn_Hayyan.jpg
[770 AD] 3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "printing." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/477017/printing>.
2. ^ "printing." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/477017/printing>.
3. ^ "printing." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/477017/printing>. {868}
[1]
http://specialcollections.wichita.edu/ex
hibits/aitchison/images/aitch05.jpg UNK
NOWN
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jingangjing.gif
[2] Printed sutra enclosed in a wood
pagoda Commissioned by the Empress
Shotoku-tenno in 764 AD (r.
765-769) Japan, Hyakumanto 19 cm x
10.3 cm pagoda and 7 x 45 cm scroll;
wood and paper UNKNOWN
source: http://specialcollections.wichit
a.edu/exhibits/aitchison/images/aitch05.
jpg
[781 AD] 4 5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (c732-05/19/804+30)
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
(c732-05/19/804+30)
3. ^ "804, 781=accepts Charlemagne
invitation)". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcuin
(c735-05/19/804, 781=accepts
Charlemagne invitation)
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
(c732-05/19/804+30)
5. ^ "804, 781=accepts Charlemagne
invitation)". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcuin
(c735-05/19/804, 781=accepts
Charlemagne invitation)
MORE INFO
[1] "Great vowel shift".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_vowel
_shift
[2] "Phonological history of the
English language". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonologica
l_history_of_the_English_language
[3] "Carolingian minuscule". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carolingian
_minuscule
England2 3
[1] Raban Maur (left), supported by
Alcuin (middle), dedicates his work to
Archbishop Otgar of Mainz
(Right) Hrabanus Maurus, von Alcuin
empfohlen, übergibt sein Werk dem
Erzbischof von Mainz,
Otgar Carolingian
Manuscript manuscriptum Fuldense ca.
831/40, Österreichische
Nationalbibliothek Wien PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Raban-Maur_Alcuin_Otgar.jpg
[2] Page of text (folio 160v) from a
Carolingian Gospel Book (British
Library, MS Add. 11848), written in
Carolingian minuscule. Taken from
http://www.bl.uk/catalogues/illuminatedm
anuscripts/record.asp?MSID=8614&CollID=2
7&NStart=11848 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:BritLibAddMS11848Fol160rText.jpg
[800 AD] 3
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ Mary Remnant, "Musical
Instruments", 1989, p47.
2. ^ Mary Remnant,
"Musical Instruments", 1989, p47.
3. ^ Mary
Remnant, "Musical Instruments", 1989,
p47. {no later than 9th century) 800
CE}
(Central Asia)2
[1] Fig 1: Byzantine, ivory casket
c.1000 (from Museo Nazionale, Florence,
Coll. Carrand, No.26) - earliest
depiction of a rebec like instrument.
Has pear shaped body blending into long
narrow neck. There is a definite
anchorpoint at the base, with a kind of
fleur tailpiece, though the pegs appear
to be missing from the depiction (no
other anchorpoint is clearly
indicated). There are only two strings,
and the bow is very long and narrow
(though it may simply be the artist
trying the show that the bow is
perpendicular to the surface of the
strings, thus appearing flat when
viewed edge on). No sound holes are
shown, the soundboard seems to be a
distinct, attached piece (possibly a
skin covering much like in rababs).
This is the instrument in
transition. PD
source: http://crab.rutgers.edu/~pbutler
/ob09.jpg
[2] Fig 2: Spanish, Catalan Psalter,
c.1050. (''King David and musicians
tuning their instruments'' in
Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris, MS Lat.
11550, fol. 7v)- Shows a normal pear
body shape. Three distinct strings,
attached to a triangular tailpiece at
the base, and to vertically mounted
pegs at the other end. The pegbox is a
round disk that appears to be made of
the same piece as the neck/body,
suggesting that this is a unibody
construction. Again a little endpiece
or endpeg is indicated. There are two
round sound holes set far back on the
instrument. The bow is a simple curved
bow with end pressure grip (see below).
This image is also somewhat suspect
from the distortion of the left hand,
which has the fingers curling backwards
rather than forward as they actually
must. PD
source: http://crab.rutgers.edu/~pbutler
/ob25.jpg
[815 AD] 3 4
Wisdom).1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Seyyed Hossein Nasr, "Science and
Civilization in Islam", (Cambridge: The
Islamic Texts Society, 1987), p69.
2. ^
Seyyed Hossein Nasr, "Science and
Civilization in Islam", (Cambridge: The
Islamic Texts Society, 1987).
3. ^ Seyyed
Hossein Nasr, "Science and Civilization
in Islam", (Cambridge: The Islamic
Texts Society, 1987). (c815) (c815)
4. ^
Delacy O`Leary, "How Greek Science
Passed to the Arabs", (London; New
York: Kegan Paul, 2001). (before
828/829) (before 828/829)
MORE INFO
[1] "House of Wisdom)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bayt_al-Hik
ma
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_W
isdom)
[2] "Harun Al-Rashid". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harun_Al-Ra
shid
[1] Harun al-Rashid: (ca: 763-809) was
the fifth and most famous Abbasid
Caliph. Ruling from 786 until 809, his
reign and the fabulous court over which
he held sway are immortalized in The
Book of One Thousand and One Nights PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Harun_Al-Rashid_and_the_World_of_the_
Thousand_and_One_Nights.jpg
[2] Julius Köckert's painting of
Harun al-Rashid receiving the
delegation of Charlemagne demonstrates
the latter's recognition of Hārūn
ar-Rashīd as the most powerful man of
his culture. The painting by Julius
Köckert (Koeckert) (1827-1918), dated
1864, is located at Maximilianeum
Foundation in Munich. It is Oil on
Canvas. This Image of the painting was
created and provided by Zereshk. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Harun-Charlemagne.jpg
[850 AD] 9 10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Buchanan, Brenda J., ed. (2006),
"Gunpowder, Explosives and the State: A
Technological History", Aldershot:
Ashgate, ISBN 0754652599,
p3. {Gunpowder_Buchanan_2006.pdf}
2. ^ Joseph Needham, et al, "Science
and Civilization in China", vol 5, part
7, "Military Technology: The Gunpowder
Epic", Cambridge University Press,
1986, p7.
3. ^ Buchanan, Brenda J., ed.
(2006), "Gunpowder, Explosives and the
State: A Technological History",
Aldershot: Ashgate, ISBN 0754652599,
p3. {Gunpowder_Buchanan_2006.pdf}
4. ^ Joseph Needham, et al, "Science
and Civilization in China", vol 5, part
7, "Military Technology: The Gunpowder
Epic", Cambridge University Press,
1986, p7.
5. ^ Buchanan, Brenda J., ed.
(2006), "Gunpowder, Explosives and the
State: A Technological History",
Aldershot: Ashgate, ISBN 0754652599,
p3. {Gunpowder_Buchanan_2006.pdf}
6. ^ Joseph Needham, et al, "Science
and Civilization in China", vol 5, part
7, "Military Technology: The Gunpowder
Epic", Cambridge University Press,
1986, p7.
7. ^ Buchanan, Brenda J., ed.
(2006), "Gunpowder, Explosives and the
State: A Technological History",
Aldershot: Ashgate, ISBN 0754652599,
p3. {Gunpowder_Buchanan_2006.pdf}
8. ^ Joseph Needham, et al, "Science
and Civilization in China", vol 5, part
7, "Military Technology: The Gunpowder
Epic", Cambridge University Press,
1986, p7.
9. ^ Buchanan, Brenda J., ed.
(2006), "Gunpowder, Explosives and the
State: A Technological History",
Aldershot: Ashgate, ISBN 0754652599,
p3. {Gunpowder_Buchanan_2006.pdf}
{850}
10. ^ Joseph Needham, et al, "Science
and Civilization in China", vol 5, part
7, "Military Technology: The Gunpowder
Epic", Cambridge University Press,
1986, p7. {850}
[1] Description The earliest known
written description of the formula for
gunpowder, from the Chinese Wujing
Zongyao military manuscript that was
compiled by 1044 during the Song
Dynasty of China. It was written and
compiled by the 11th century Song
scholars Zeng Gongliang (曾公亮),
Ding Du (丁度), and Yang Weide
(楊惟德). The entry for this
specific page is headed with the title
''method for making the fire-chemical''
(''huo yao fa''). This picture can
also be found on page 119 of Joseph
Needham's book Science and Civilization
in China: Volume 5, Part 7. Date
11 August 2007 Source Own
work (My book) Author
PericlesofAthens Permission (Reus
ing this file) See below. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c2/Chinese_Gunpowder_For
mula.JPG
[920 AD] 7
America.3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Einar Haugen Reviewed work(s):
The Discovery of a Norse Settlement in
America: Excavations at L'Anse aux
Meadows, Newfoundland, 1961-1968 by
Anne Stine Ingstad The Journal of
Interdisciplinary History Vol. 10, No.
1 (Summer, 1979), pp.
176-178 Published by: The MIT
Press Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/203319
2. ^ Helge Ingstad, "The Viking
Discovery of America: The Excavation of
a Norse Settlement in L'Anse aux
Meadows, Newfoundland", 2001.
3. ^ Einar
Haugen Reviewed work(s): The Discovery
of a Norse Settlement in America:
Excavations at L'Anse aux Meadows,
Newfoundland, 1961-1968 by Anne Stine
Ingstad The Journal of
Interdisciplinary History Vol. 10, No.
1 (Summer, 1979), pp.
176-178 Published by: The MIT
Press Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/203319
4. ^ Helge Ingstad, "The Viking
Discovery of America: The Excavation of
a Norse Settlement in L'Anse aux
Meadows, Newfoundland", 2001.
5. ^ Einar
Haugen Reviewed work(s): The Discovery
of a Norse Settlement in America:
Excavations at L'Anse aux Meadows,
Newfoundland, 1961-1968 by Anne Stine
Ingstad The Journal of
Interdisciplinary History Vol. 10, No.
1 (Summer, 1979), pp.
176-178 Published by: The MIT
Press Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/203319
6. ^ Wallace, Birgitta. “L’Anse Aux
Meadows, Leif Eriksson’s Home in
Vinland.” Journal of the North
Atlantic 2.sp2 (2011) :
114-125. http://www.bioone.org/doi/abs/
10.3721/037.002.s212
7. ^ Einar Haugen Reviewed work(s):
The Discovery of a Norse Settlement in
America: Excavations at L'Anse aux
Meadows, Newfoundland, 1961-1968 by
Anne Stine Ingstad The Journal of
Interdisciplinary History Vol. 10, No.
1 (Summer, 1979), pp.
176-178 Published by: The MIT
Press Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/203319
{920}
[1] Figure from: Helge Ingstad, ''The
Viking Discovery of America: The
Excavation of a Norse Settlement in
L'Anse aux Meadows, Newfoundland'',
2001. COPYRIGHTED
source: Helge Ingstad, "The Viking
Discovery of America: The Excavation of
a Norse Settlement in L'Anse aux
Meadows, Newfoundland", 2001.
[2] Figure 24 from: Helge Ingstad,
''The Viking Discovery of America: The
Excavation of a Norse Settlement in
L'Anse aux Meadows, Newfoundland'',
2001. COPYRIGHTED
source: Helge Ingstad, "The Viking
Discovery of America: The Excavation of
a Norse Settlement in L'Anse aux
Meadows, Newfoundland", 2001.
[960 AD] 6 7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://science.ksc.nasa.gov/history/rock
et-history.txt
2. ^
http://science.ksc.nasa.gov/history/rock
et-history.txt
3. ^
http://science.ksc.nasa.gov/history/rock
et-history.txt
4. ^ David Baker, "The rocket: the
history and development of rocket &
missile technology", 1978, p10.
5. ^
http://science.ksc.nasa.gov/history/rock
et-history.txt
6. ^ David Baker, "The rocket: the
history and development of rocket &
missile technology", 1978, p10. {960
CE}
7. ^
http://science.ksc.nasa.gov/history/rock
et-history.txt {1045} {1045 CE}
MORE INFO
[1] "military technology".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 23 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/382397/military-technology/57612
/The-gunpowder-revolution-c-1300-1650>
[1] Description Drawing of an
early Chinese soldier lighting a
rocket Date 2007 Source
http://history.msfc.nasa.gov/rocket
ry/03.html Author
NASA Permission (Reusing this
file) NASA still images, audio
files and video generally are not
copyrighted. You may use NASA imagery,
video and audio material for
educational or informational purposes,
including photo collections, textbooks,
public exhibits and Internet Web
pages. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/63/Chinese_rocket.gif
[2] Widely reputed as the world's
first ''astronaut'', Wan Hu was a minor
Chinese official of the Ming Dynasty
(1368-1644). Early in the 16th century,
Wan Hu decided to take advantage of
China's advanced power and fireworks
technology to launch himself into outer
space. He had a chair built with 47
''rockets'' attached. On the day of
lift-off, Wan climbed into his rocket
chair and held one enormous kite in
each hand. The ignition of the 47 fuses
caused a huge explosion and sent him
into the sky. But unfortunately, he
failed to go into orbit and his body
smashed into pieces on the ground.
UNKNOWN
source: http://images.china.cn/images1/2
00710/410673.jpg
[1000 AD] 3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "money." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/389170/money>.
2. ^ "money." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online
Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/389170/money>.
3. ^ "money." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online
Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/389170/money>. {before) 1000 YBN}
[1] English: Early paper money, China,
Song Dynasty scan from
《社会历史博物馆》 ISBN
7-5347-1397-8 北宋交子 jiaozi,
w:Northern Song Dynasty The text
reads:
除四川外許於諸路州縣公私從
主管並同見錢七百七十陌流
行使, which essentially means that
except in w:Sichuan, the bill may be
used in the stead of 77,000 wen of
metal coinage. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d9/Jiao_zi.jpg
[2] scan from
《社会历史博物馆》 ISBN
7-5347-1397-8 会子 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6a/Hui_zi.jpg
[1038 AD] 3 4 5 6 7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ Seyyed Hossein Nasr,
"Science and Civilization in Islam",
(Cambridge: The Islamic Texts Society,
1987), p50.
3. ^ "Ibn Al-Haytham, Abū
ʿAlī Al-Ḥasan Ibn Al-Ḥasan."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 6. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 189-210. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 26 Feb.
2012. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?id=
GALE%7CCX2830901904&v=2.1&u=univca20&it=
r&p=GVRL&sw=w
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (c965-1039)
(c965-1039)
5. ^ "Ibn al Haytham". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
5710/Ibn-al-Haytham (c965-c.1040)
6. ^ "Alhazen".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alhazen
(965-1039)
7. ^ Seyyed Hossein Nasr, "Science and
Civilization in Islam", (Cambridge: The
Islamic Texts Society, 1987).
(c965-1039) (c965-1039)
MORE INFO
[1] "Camera obscura". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camera_obsc
ura
[2] "Heliocentrism". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliocentri
sm
[3] "Catoptrics". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catoptrics
[1] Figure 2. The concept of the
camera obscura as perceived a thousand
years ago by Alhazen (Ibn al-Haytham),
who coined the term (see text). Note
the formation of the inverted image
through a ray diagram. Adapted from
Al-Hassani et al. (2006). from: Ahmed
H. Zewail, Micrographia of the
twenty-first century: from camera
obscura to 4D microscopy Phil. Trans.
R. Soc. A March 13, 2010 368 (1914)
1191-1204;
doi:10.1098/rsta.2009.0265 http://rsta.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/368/1
914/1191.abstract COPYRIGHTED
source: http://rsta.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/368/1914/1191/F2.large.jp
g
[2] [t Portrait of al-Hazen on paper
money] UNKNOWN
source: http://robbani.net78.net/wp/wp-c
ontent/uploads/2012/01/haisam5.jpg
[1041 AD] 3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "printing." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/477017/printing>.
2. ^ "printing." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/477017/printing>.
3. ^ "printing." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/477017/printing>. {1041-48}
[1] Figure 1138. Earliest extant
edition of the ''Meng Chhi Pi Than'',
printed in the + 14th century. The
passage rearranged into one double-leaf
above records the first use of the
earthenware movable type printing by Pi
Sheng in the middle of the + 11th
century. Copy preserved at the National
Library of China. Joseph Needham,
''Science and Civilisation in China'',
Tsien, v5,part 1, Paper and Printing.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
1985.
{Needham_printing_China_1985.pdf} PD
source: Joseph Needham, "Science and
Civilisation in China", Tsien, v5,part
1, Paper and Printing. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1985.
[2] Fig 1141. Earthenware types of
Chai Chin-Sheng, c +1844, discovered in
1962 in Hui-chou, Anhui province. Above
are four different sizes of the type
and below are the printed characters
from the large size of the
type. Courtesy of the Institute of
History of Science, Academia Sinica,
Peking. Joseph Needham, ''Science and
Civilisation in China'', Tsien, v5,part
1, Paper and Printing. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1985.
{Needham_printing_China_1985.pdf} PD
source: Joseph Needham, "Science and
Civilisation in China", Tsien, v5,part
1, Paper and Printing. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1985.
[1088 AD] 3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.unibo.it/Portale/Ateneo/La+no
stra+storia/NoveSecoli.htm
2. ^
http://www.unibo.it/Portale/Ateneo/La+no
stra+storia/NoveSecoli.htm
3. ^
http://www.unibo.it/Portale/Ateneo/La+no
stra+storia/NoveSecoli.htm
MORE INFO
[1] "List of oldest universities
in continuous operation". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_old
est_universities_in_continuous_operation
[2] "University of Bologna". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_
of_Bologna (1088)
[3]
http://www.eng.unibo.it/PortaleEn/Univer
sity/Our+History/default.htm
[1] Description Il Palazzo dei notai
(a sin.) e Palazzo d'Accursio, in
Piazza Maggiore a Bologna,
Italia. Date 2006-27-03 Source
Flickr Author Gaspa Reviewer
Mac9 CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/11/Bologna-vista02.jpg
[2] English: The Collegio di Spagna, a
historic university college, originally
founded to support Spanish students in
Bologna, Italy. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Collegio-spagna
3.jpg/1280px-Collegio-spagna3.jpg
[1132 AD] 9 10
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^ Peter James, Nick Thorpe,
"Ancient Inventions", 1994, p236-237.
2. ^
Gwei-Djen, Lu, Joseph Needham, and Phan
Chi-Hsing. “The Oldest Representation
of a Bombard.” Technology and Culture
29.3 (1988): 594–605.
Print. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3105
275 {Gwei-Djen_1988.pdf}
3. ^ Peter James, Nick Thorpe, "Ancient
Inventions", 1994, p236-237.
4. ^ Gwei-Djen, Lu,
Joseph Needham, and Phan Chi-Hsing.
“The Oldest Representation of a
Bombard.” Technology and Culture 29.3
(1988): 594–605.
Print. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3105
275 {Gwei-Djen_1988.pdf}
5. ^ Peter James, Nick Thorpe, "Ancient
Inventions", 1994, p236-237.
6. ^ Gwei-Djen, Lu,
Joseph Needham, and Phan Chi-Hsing.
“The Oldest Representation of a
Bombard.” Technology and Culture 29.3
(1988): 594–605.
Print. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3105
275 {Gwei-Djen_1988.pdf}
7. ^ Peter James, Nick Thorpe, "Ancient
Inventions", 1994, p236-237.
8. ^ Gwei-Djen, Lu,
Joseph Needham, and Phan Chi-Hsing.
“The Oldest Representation of a
Bombard.” Technology and Culture 29.3
(1988): 594–605.
Print. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3105
275 {Gwei-Djen_1988.pdf}
9. ^ Peter James, Nick Thorpe, "Ancient
Inventions", 1994, p236-237.
10. ^ Gwei-Djen, Lu,
Joseph Needham, and Phan Chi-Hsing.
“The Oldest Representation of a
Bombard.” Technology and Culture 29.3
(1988): 594–605.
Print. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3105
275 {Gwei-Djen_1988.pdf}
MORE INFO
[1] "gunpowder". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8534/gunpowder
[2] Needham, Joseph (1986), Science &
Civilisation in China, V:7: The
Gunpowder Epic, Cambridge University
Press, ISBN 0521303583
[3] "Gunpowder". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gunpowder
[1] Figure 2 from: Gwei-Djen, Lu,
Joseph Needham, and Phan Chi-Hsing.
“The Oldest Representation of a
Bombard.” Technology and Culture 29.3
(1988): 594–605.
Print. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3105
275 {Gwei-Djen_1988.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: Gwei-Djen, Lu, Joseph Needham,
and Phan Chi-Hsing. “The Oldest
Representation of a Bombard.”
Technology and Culture 29.3 (1988):
594–605.
Print. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3105
275
[2] Figure 3 from: Gwei-Djen, Lu,
Joseph Needham, and Phan Chi-Hsing.
“The Oldest Representation of a
Bombard.” Technology and Culture 29.3
(1988): 594–605.
Print. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3105
275 {Gwei-Djen_1988.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: Gwei-Djen, Lu, Joseph Needham,
and Phan Chi-Hsing. “The Oldest
Representation of a Bombard.”
Technology and Culture 29.3 (1988):
594–605.
Print. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3105
275
[1167 AD] 3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "A brief history of the
University" http://www.ox.ac.uk/about_t
he_university/introducing_oxford/a_brief
_history_of_the_university/index.html
2. ^ "University of Oxford."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 29 Feb.
2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/436492/University-of-Oxford>.
3. ^ "A brief history of the
University" http://www.ox.ac.uk/about_t
he_university/introducing_oxford/a_brief
_history_of_the_university/index.html
MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.ox.ac.uk/aboutoxford/history.
shtml (1167 but teaching starts 1096)
[1] All Souls College quad COPYRIGHTED
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Oxford_University_Colleges-All_Souls_
quad.jpg
[2] Oxford's 'Dreaming Spires' at
sunset View of All Souls College and
the Radcliffe Camera, Oxford,
England COPYRIGHTED
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Oxfordskylinedawn.jpg
[1170 AD] 3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Universities of Paris I XIII".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
8484/Universities-of-Paris-I-XIII
(c1170)
2. ^ "Universities of Paris I XIII".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
8484/Universities-of-Paris-I-XIII
(c1170)
3. ^ "Universities of Paris I XIII".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
8484/Universities-of-Paris-I-XIII
(c1170)
MORE INFO
[1] "Peter Abelard". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
3315/Peter-Abelard
[1] The Sorbonne, Paris, in a 17th
century engraving PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Sorbonne_17thc.jpg
[11/??/1184 AD] 4
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ "inquisition." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 26 Feb. 2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/288915/inquisition>.
2. ^ "Lucius III." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 26 Feb. 2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/350632/Lucius-III>.
3. ^ "Lucius III." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 26 Feb. 2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/350632/Lucius-III>.
4. ^ "Lucius III." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 26 Feb. 2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/350632/Lucius-III>.
MORE INFO
[1] "Saint Dominic". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Domin
ic
[2] "Inquisition". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inquisition
[3] "Pope Lucius III". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Lucius
_III (11/1184)
[1] St Dominic (1170-1221[3]) presiding
over an auto de fe, Spanish,
1475 Representation of an Auto de fe,
(1475). [t I think this is a dubious
claim, that people didn't stay
around...they quickly leave when time
for the burning...I doubt it:] Many
artistic representations depict torture
and the burning at the stake as
occurring during the auto da fe.
Actually, burning at the stake usually
occurred after, not during the
ceremonies. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Inquisition2.jpg
[2] English: The burning of the knight
of Hohenberg with his servant before
the walls of Zürich, for sodomy,
1482. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5c/Burning_of_Sodomites.
jpg
[1228 AD] 11 12 13 14 15
light.7 8 9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Robert Grosseteste, tr: Clare C.
Riedl, "On Light {De Luce}", 1942.
http://web.mit.edu/jwk/www/docs/Riedel
%201942%20Grosseteste%20On%20Light.pdf
{Grosseteste_OnLight.pdf}
2. ^
http://www.grosseteste.com/cgi-bin/textd
isplay.cgi?text=de-luce.xml
3. ^
http://www.colorado.edu/StudentGroups/lc
m/lunch/deluce.html
4. ^ Robert Grosseteste, tr: Clare C.
Riedl, "On Light {De Luce}", 1942.
http://web.mit.edu/jwk/www/docs/Riedel
%201942%20Grosseteste%20On%20Light.pdf
{Grosseteste_OnLight.pdf}
5. ^
http://www.grosseteste.com/cgi-bin/textd
isplay.cgi?text=de-luce.xml
6. ^
http://www.colorado.edu/StudentGroups/lc
m/lunch/deluce.html
7. ^ Robert Grosseteste, tr: Clare C.
Riedl, "On Light {De Luce}", 1942.
http://web.mit.edu/jwk/www/docs/Riedel
%201942%20Grosseteste%20On%20Light.pdf
{Grosseteste_OnLight.pdf}
8. ^
http://www.grosseteste.com/cgi-bin/textd
isplay.cgi?text=de-luce.xml
9. ^
http://www.colorado.edu/StudentGroups/lc
m/lunch/deluce.html
10. ^ Trevor Henry Aston, J. I. Catto,
The Early Oxford Schools, Volume 1,
1984,
p442. http://books.google.com/books?id=
AkJO3TAxMtwC&pg=PA442
11. ^ Trevor Henry Aston, J. I. Catto,
The Early Oxford Schools, Volume 1,
1984,
p442. http://books.google.com/books?id=
AkJO3TAxMtwC&pg=PA442
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (c1168-1253)
(c1168-1253)
13. ^ "Robert Grosseteste".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8191/Robert-Grosseteste (c1175-1253)
14. ^ "Robert
Grosseteste". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Gros
seteste (c1175-1253)
15. ^
http://www.grosseteste.com/bio.htm
(c1170-1253)
[1] Record Number: 19885 Shelfmark:
Royal 6 E. V Page Folio Number:
f.6 Description: [Miniature only]
Initial 'A', portrait of Robert
Grosseteste, Bishop of Lincoln. The
beginning of one of the bishop's
sermons Title of Work: Works of
Robert Grosseteste, Bishop of
Lincoln Author: Grosseteste,
Robert Illustrator: - Production:
England; 15th
century Language/Script: Latin /
- PD
source: http://www.imagesonline.bl.uk/br
itishlibrary/controller/textsearch?text=
grosseteste&y=0&x=0&startid=31330&width=
4&height=2&idx=2
[2] Robert Grosseteste (1168-1253).
Scientist, Philosopher, Bishop of
Lincoln. PD
source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wik
i/Image:Grosseteste-color.png
[1300 AD] 3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
1987).
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
1987).
3. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
1987). {around 1300}
MORE INFO
[1] "Clock#Early mechanical
clocks". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clock#Early
_mechanical_clocks
[2] Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000). (8th century) (8th century)
[1] By Jason Hopwood CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/01/Salisbury_02.jpg
[2] The striking train of the
Salisbury cathedral clock CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/8/8a/Salisbury_striking_train.j
pg
[02/12/1440 AD] 4 5 6 7
size, and stars described as other suns
with inhabited planets.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ "De Docta Ignorantia".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_Docta_Ig
norantia
3. ^ "Bernkastel-Kues". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernkastel-
Kues
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (1401-1464)
(1401-1464)
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (1440 book) (1440
book)
6. ^ "Nicholas Of Cusa". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
5730/Nicholas-Of-Cusa (1440 book)
7. ^ "De
Docta Ignorantia". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_Docta_Ig
norantia (02/12/1440)
[1] Picture of Nicholas of
Cusa English: Nicholas of Cusa Source
from a painting by Meister des
Marienlebens, located in the hospital
at Kues (Germany) Date ca. 1480 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Nicholas_of_Cusa.jpg
[2] Nicholas of Cusa (Nicholas
Krebs) Library of Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/topic/nic
holas-of-cusa?cat=technology
[1450 AD] 4
clocks.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "clock". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 25 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/121951/clock>.
2. ^ Britten, F.J. Former Clock &
Watchmakers and Their Work, Including
an Account of the Development of
Horological Instruments from the
Earliest Mechanism, with Portraits of
Masters of the Art: a Directory of over
Five Thousand Names and Some Examples
of Modern Construction. E. & F.N. Spon,
1894,
p35. http://books.google.com/books?id=S
_U9AQAAIAAJ&pg=PA35
3. ^ "clock". Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 25 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/121951/clock>.
4. ^ "clock". Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 25 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/121951/clock>.
MORE INFO
[1] Trevor I. Williams, "A
history of invention : from stone axes
to silicon chips ", (New York:
Checkmark Books, 2000). (1400s century
estimate) (1400s century estimate)
[2] "Clock".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clock
(early 1400s)
[3] "spring." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 28
Dec. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/spring
[1] Britten, F.J. Former Clock &
Watchmakers and Their Work, Including
an Account of the Development of
Horological Instruments from the
Earliest Mechanism, with Portraits of
Masters of the Art: a Directory of over
Five Thousand Names and Some Examples
of Modern Construction. E. & F.N. Spon,
1894,
p35. http://books.google.com/books?id=S
_U9AQAAIAAJ&pg=PA35 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=S_U9AQAAIAAJ&pg=PA35
[2] The earliest dated watch known,
from 1530 Artist Anonymous
(German artist) [show]Philipp
Melanchthon (1497–1560) Link back to
Creator infobox template Title
Spherical Table Watch (Melanchthon's
Watch) Description English: This is
the earliest dated watch known. It is
engraved on the bottom: ''PHIL{IP}.
MELA{NCHTHON}. GOTT. ALEIN. DIE.
EHR{E}. 1530'' (Philip Melanchthon, to
God alone the glory, 1530). There are
very few watches existing today that
predate 1550; only two dated examples
are known--this one from 1530 and
another from 1548. There is no
watchmaker's mark, although Nuremberg
is considered the birthplace of
spherical watches (called ''Nuremberg
Eggs''). A single winding kept it
running for 12 to 16 hours, and it told
time to within the nearest half hour.
The perforations in the case permitted
one to see the time without opening the
watch. This watch was commissioned by
the great German reformer and humanist
Philip Melanchthon (1497-1560). Date
1530 (Renaissance) Medium gilt on
brass case, gilt on brass dial, iron
movement Dimensions Height: 4.8 cm
(1.9 in). Width: 4.8 cm (1.9
in). Current location Walters Art
MuseumLink back to Institution infobox
template Accession number
58.17 Exhibition history Philip
Melanchthon's Watch. The Walters Art
Gallery, Baltimore. 2000-2001. Credit
line Acquired by Henry Walters,
1910 Inscriptions {Transcription}
Engraved on the bottom: PHIL{IP}.
MELA{NCHTHON}. GOTT. ALEIN. DIE.
EHR{E}. 1530; {Translation} Engraved on
bottom: Philip Melanchthon, to God
alone the glory, 1530 Ownership
history Jacques Seligmann,
Paris, by purchase 1910: purchased
by Henry Walters, Baltimore 1931:
bequeathed to Walters Art Museum by
Henry Walters Place of origin
Augsburg, Germany
(?) Source/Photographer Walters Art
Museum: Nuvola filesystems folder
home.svg Home page Information icon.svg
Info about artwork PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/5/52/German_-_Spheri
cal_Table_Watch_%28Melanchthon%27s_Watch
%29_-_Walters_5817_-_View_C.jpg/1280px-G
erman_-_Spherical_Table_Watch_%28Melanch
thon%27s_Watch%29_-_Walters_5817_-_View_
C.jpg
[10/12/1492 AD] 4
America.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ "Christopher Columbus".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9621/Christopher-Columbus
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (10/12/1492)
(10/12/1492)
MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/christopher%20col
umbus
[1] Artist [show]Sebastiano del
Piombo (1485–1547) Link back to
Creator infobox template
wikidata:Q285423 Description
Christopher Columbus Date
1519 Medium painting Current
location [show]Metropolitan Museum
of ArtLink back to Institution infobox
template wikidata:Q160236 Inscriptions
Text top center Source/Photographer
http://www.metmuseum.org/works_of_art/c
ollection_database/european_paintings/po
rtrait_of_a_man_said_to_be_christopher_c
olumbus_sebastiano_del_piombo_sebastiano
_luciani/objectview.aspx?page=1&sort=6&s
ortdir=asc&keyword=Piombo&fp=1&dd1=11&dd
2=0&vw=0&collID=11&OID=110002098&vT=1&hi
=0&ov=0 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5d/Christopher_Columbus.
PNG
[2] Portrait of Christopher Columbus
from the painting Virgen de los
Navegantes (in the Sala de los
Almirantes, Royal Alcazar, Seville). A
painting by Alejo Fernández between
1505 and 1536. It is the only state
sponsored portrait of the First Admiral
of the Indias. Photo by a Columbus
historian, Manuel Rosa. More info
http://www.UnmaskingColumbus.com PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Christopher_Columbus_Face.jpg
[09/08/1522 AD] 6 7 8
4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ "Juan Sebastian de
Elcano". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
2242/Juan-Sebastian-de-Elcano
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
4. ^ "Juan Sebastian de
Elcano". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
2242/Juan-Sebastian-de-Elcano
5. ^
http://www.answers.com/Juan%20Sebastian%
20del%20Cano
6. ^ "Juan Sebastián Elcano".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juan_Sebast
i%C3%A1n_Elcano (09/08/1522)
7. ^ "Ferdinand
Magellan". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-225
336/Ferdinand-Magellan (09/08/1522)
8. ^
http://www.answers.com/Juan%20Sebastian%
20del%20Cano (09/06/1522)
[1] An anonymous portrait of Ferdinand
Magellan, 16th or 17th century (The
Mariner's Museum Collection, Newport
News, VA) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ferdinand_Magellan.jpg
[2] Juan Sebastián
Elcano Litografía de J. Donon en
Historia de la Marina Real Española.
Madrid,
1854 http://marenostrum.org/bibliotecad
elmar/historia/pacifico/ PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Elcano.jpg
[1543 AD] 5 6
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ "Nicolaus Copernicus".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5759/Nicolaus-Copernicus
3. ^ "Nicolaus Copernicus".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 26 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/136591/Nicolaus-Copernicus/8437/
Publication-of-De-revolutionibus>.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (1543)
5. ^ "Nicolaus
Copernicus". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5759/Nicolaus-Copernicus (1543)
6. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (1543)
MORE INFO
[1] "Nicolaus Copernicus".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicolaus_Co
pernicus
[2] "Heliocentric theory". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliocentri
c_theory
East Prussia now:)Frombork, Poland3 ;
(printed in)Nuremberg, Germany4
[1] Nicolaus Copernicus (portrait from
Toruń - beginning of the 16th
century), from
http://www.frombork.art.pl/Ang10.htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Nikolaus_Kopernikus.jpg
[2] Nicolaus Copernicus PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Copernicus.jpg
[1592 AD] 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "thermometer." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 21 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/591653/thermometer>.
2. ^ "thermometer." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 21 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/591653/thermometer>.
3. ^ "Galileo". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5766/Galileo
4. ^ "thermometer." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 21 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/591653/thermometer>. {1592}
MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/Galileo+Galilei?c
at=technology
[2]
http://catalogue.museogalileo.it/indepth
/Thermometer.html
[3] "Galileo Galilei". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Gal
ilei (1593)
[1] Fig. 1. Galileo’s
thermoscope. from: David Sherry,
Thermoscopes, thermometers, and the
foundations of measurement, Studies In
History and Philosophy of Science Part
A, Volume 42, Issue 4, December 2011,
Pages 509-524, ISSN 0039-3681,
10.1016/j.shpsa.2011.07.001. (http://ww
w.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/
S0039368111000616) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/cac
he/MiamiImageURL/1-s2.0-S003936811100061
6-gr1.jpg/0?wchp=dGLzVBA-zSkzS
[2] Thermoscope Instrument to
measure heat and cold invented by
Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) during his
stay in Padua. Santorio Santorio
(1561-1636) made a similar instrument
in Venice in 1612. A precursor of the
modern thermometer, the thermoscope
consists of a glass vessel with a long
neck. The vessel was heated with the
hands and partially immersed, in an
upright position, in a container full
of water. When the heat of the hands
was taken away, the water was observed
to rise in the thermoscope neck. The
experiment showed the changes in air
density produced by variations in
temperature. UNKNOWN
source: http://catalogue.museogalileo.it
/images/cat/approfondimenti_944/AF0020-5
1000_944.jpg
[1608 AD] 6 7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p105.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p105.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p105.
4. ^ Dick, T. The
Telescope and Microscope. Lane & Scott,
1852,
p9-10. http://books.google.com/books?id
=PjoIAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA9
5. ^ "Hans Lippershey". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8449/Hans-Lippershey
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p105. (1608) (1608)
7. ^
Dick, T. The Telescope and Microscope.
Lane & Scott, 1852,
p9-10. http://books.google.com/books?id
=PjoIAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA9
MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/Hans+Lippershey?c
at=technology
(modern: Netherlands)5
[1] Hans Lippershey (1570-September
1619), Dutch lensmaker. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Hans_Lippershey.jpg
[2] Description English: Early
depiction of a ‘Dutch telescope’
from the “Emblemata of zinne-werck”
(Middelburg, 1624) of the poet and
statesman Johan de Brune (1588-1658).
The print was engraved by Adriaen van
de Venne, who, together with his
brother Jan Pieters van de Venne,
printed books not far from the original
optical workshop of Hans
Lipperhey. Date 1624 Source
http://www.phys.uu.nl/~vgent/telesc
ope/telescopenl.htm Author Adriaen
Pietersz. van de Venne (1589–1662)
Link back to Creator infobox
template PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/51/Emblemata_1624.jpg
[1609 AD] 6
orbits is understood.3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Johannes Kepler". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 26 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/315225/Johannes-Kepler>.
2. ^ Johannes Kepler, "Astronomia
nova",
1609. http://www.e-rara.ch/zut/content/
titleinfo/162514 {Astronomia_nova_seu_p
hysica_coelestis_tradita_commentariis_de
_motibus_stellae_m.pdf}
3. ^ "Johannes Kepler". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 26 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/315225/Johannes-Kepler>.
4. ^ Johannes Kepler, "Astronomia
nova",
1609. http://www.e-rara.ch/zut/content/
titleinfo/162514 {Astronomia_nova_seu_p
hysica_coelestis_tradita_commentariis_de
_motibus_stellae_m.pdf}
5. ^ "Johannes Kepler". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Ke
pler
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp105-108. (1609)
(1609)
MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/Johannes+Kepler?c
at=technology
Stuttgart Region in the German state of
Baden-Württemberg, 30 km west of
Stuttgart's center)5
[1] Johannes Kepler, ''Astronomia
nova'', 1609,
p267. http://www.e-rara.ch/zut/content/
titleinfo/162514 {Astronomia_nova_seu_p
hysica_coelestis_tradita_commentariis_de
_motibus_stellae_m.pdf} PD
AND Description English: Portrait
of Johannes Kepler. Date 8 March 2006
(original upload date) Source
Transferred from en.wikipedia Author
Original uploader was Brandmeister at
en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) PD-US; PD-ART. PD
source: http://www.e-rara.ch/zut/content
/titleinfo/162514http://upload.wikimedia
.org/wikipedia/commons/7/74/JKepler.jpg
[2] Johannes Kepler, ''Astronomia
nova'', 1609,
p267. http://www.e-rara.ch/zut/content/
titleinfo/162514 {Astronomia_nova_seu_p
hysica_coelestis_tradita_commentariis_de
_motibus_stellae_m.pdf} PD
source: http://www.e-rara.ch/zut/content
/titleinfo/162514
[01/??/1610 AD] 5
period determined.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Galileo". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5766/Galileo
2. ^ "Galileo". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5766/Galileo
3. ^ "Galileo". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5766/Galileo
4. ^ "Galileo". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5766/Galileo
5. ^ "Galileo". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5766/Galileo (01/1610)
MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/Galileo+Galilei?c
at=technology
Italy4
[1] Galileo's Letter to Prince of
Venice PD
source: http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/galileo
/ganymede/manuscript1.jpg
[2] Galileo's illustrations of the
Moon, from his Sidereus Nuncius (1610;
The Sidereal Messenger). Courtesy of
the Joseph Regenstein Library, The
University of Chicago PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-2914/Galileos-illustrations-of-the-Moon
-from-his-Sidereus-Nuncius?articleTypeId
=1
[1610 AD] 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ King, H.C. The History of the
Telescope. Dover Publications, 1955.
Dover Books on Astronomy Series,
p30-31. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=KAWwzHlDVksC&pg=PA30
2. ^ King, H.C. The History of the
Telescope. Dover Publications, 1955.
Dover Books on Astronomy Series,
p30-31. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=KAWwzHlDVksC&pg=PA30
3. ^ King, H.C. The History of the
Telescope. Dover Publications, 1955.
Dover Books on Astronomy Series,
p30-31. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=KAWwzHlDVksC&pg=PA30
4. ^ Dick, T. The Telescope and
Microscope. Lane & Scott, 1852,
p9-10. http://books.google.com/books?id
=PjoIAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA9
5. ^ "Hans Lippershey". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8449/Hans-Lippershey
6. ^ King, H.C. The History of the
Telescope. Dover Publications, 1955.
Dover Books on Astronomy Series,
p30-31. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=KAWwzHlDVksC&pg=PA30
MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/Hans+Lippershey?c
at=technology
[2] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p105. (1608) (1608)
[3]
"microscope". Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 04 Dec.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/380582/microscope>
(modern: Netherlands)5
[1] The microscope was first built in
1595 by Hans and Zacharias Jansen
(1588-1631) in Holland (see figure).
source: http://www.cerebromente.org.br/n
17/history/jansen-micro.JPG
[2] Description Portrait of Zacharias
Jansen Date 1655 Source Pierre
Borel, De vero telescopii
inventore Author Pierre Borel
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3b/Zacharias.jpg
[06/13/1611 AD] 6 7
3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Fabricius, J. De Maculis in Sole
Observatis Narratio.
1611. http://books.google.com/books?id=
aGFRAAAAcAAJ
2. ^ "Johannes Fabricius".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 26 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/199808/Johannes-Fabricius>.
3. ^ Fabricius, J. De Maculis in Sole
Observatis Narratio.
1611. http://books.google.com/books?id=
aGFRAAAAcAAJ
4. ^ Walter M. Mitchell, "The history
of the discovery of the solar spots",
Popular Astronomy, V24,
1916. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/191
6PA.....24...22M {Mitchell_History_of_t
he_Discovery_of_Sun-spots_1916.pdf}
5. ^ Galilei, G. et al. On Sunspots.
University of Chicago Press, 2010,
p30. http://books.google.com/books?id=v
dDhfPxIcLQC&pg=PA31
6. ^ Vaquero, J.M. The Sun Recorded
Through History. Springer-Verlag New
York, 2009. Astrophysics and Space
Science Library,
p111. http://books.google.com/books?id=
iWkyiEeiyksC&pg=PA111
7. ^ Galilei, G. et al. On Sunspots.
University of Chicago Press, 2010,
p31. http://books.google.com/books?id=v
dDhfPxIcLQC&pg=PA31
MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982)
[2]
http://galileo.rice.edu/sci/fabricius.ht
ml
[3] "David Fabricius". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Fabri
cius (06/??/1611)
Germany and northeast
Netherlands)
[1] Fabricius, J. De Maculis in Sole
Observatis Narratio.
1611. http://books.google.com/books?id=
aGFRAAAAcAAJ PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=aGFRAAAAcAAJ
[2] Johannes Fabricius PD
source: http://www.daviddarling.info/enc
yclopedia/F/Fabricius.html
[1614 AD] 4
logarithms.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "John Napier". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
4813/John-Napier , -97.
2. ^ Napier, J.,
and H. Briggs. Mirifici Logarithmorum
Canonis Constructio: Et Eorum Ad
Naturales Ipsorum Numeros Habitudines;
Una Cum Appendice ... Una Cum
Annotationibus ... A. Hermann,
1620. http://books.google.com/books?id=
VukHAQAAIAAJ
3. ^ "John Napier". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
4813/John-Napier (1614)
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
MORE INFO
[1] "John Napier". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Napier
[2] "Simon Stevinus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simon_Stevi
nus (1614)
[1] Napier, J., and H. Briggs. Mirifici
Logarithmorum Canonis Constructio: Et
Eorum Ad Naturales Ipsorum Numeros
Habitudines; Una Cum Appendice ... Una
Cum Annotationibus ... A. Hermann,
1620. http://books.google.com/books?id=
VukHAQAAIAAJ PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=VukHAQAAIAAJ
[2] Painting of John Napier PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:John_Napier_%28Painting%29.jpeg
[1616 AD] 3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Niccolo Zucchi". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8475/Niccolo-Zucchi
2. ^
http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/optics/timel
ine/people/zucchi.html
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (1616) (1616)
4. ^
http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/optics/timel
ine/people/zucchi.html (1616)
[1] Description English: Niccolò
Zucchi (December 6, 1586 – May 21,
1670) an Italian Jesuit, astronomer,
and physicist. He may have been the
first to see the belts on the planet
Jupiter (on May 17, 1630) and reported
spots on Mars in 1640. In his book
''Optica philosophia experimentalis et
ratione a fundamentis constituta'' in
1652–56 he described his attempt in
1616 to construct a reflecting
telescope, which may be the first time
anyone ever tried to construct
one. Date Source Lithuanian
Science Council of Lithuania on Science
''Science Lithuania - Lithuanian
scientists newspaper. - Andrius
Rudamina: tarp legendos ir
tikrovės Author Unknown PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/76/Niccol%C3%B2_Zucchi.p
ng
[2] 03-08-04/42 BAROQUE TELESCOPE
18TH Newton's first reflecting
telescope. 18th century. The Royal
Society, London, Great Britain UNKNOWN
source: http://www.lessing-photo.com/p3/
030804/03080442.jpg
[1624 AD] 3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "submarine." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/570813/submarine>.
2. ^ "submarine." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/570813/submarine>.
3. ^ "submarine." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/570813/submarine>. {1624}
[1] Description Drebbel's first
submarine Date 17th
century Source
http://www.rnsubmus.co.uk/images/ph
otodp/sm001%20-%20Van%20Drebbel.jpg Aut
hor Unknown Permission (Reusing
this file) See
below. Lithographie aus dem Jahre
1626 von G. W. Tweedale. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/fe/Van_Drebbel.jpg
[2] Description English: Cornelis
Drebbel Alcmariensis.Son of Jacob Jansz
Dremmel en Hilgont Jans. Born in 1572,
died in Londen in 1631. Nederlands:
Cornelis Drebbel Alcmariensis. Zoon van
Jacob Jansz Dremmel en Hilgont Jans.
Geboren in 1572, overleden in Londen in
1631. Date 1631 Source
http://www.archiefalkmaar.nl/ Auth
or Sichem, C. van PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a0/Drebbel_Van_Sichem_ca
_1631_groot.jpg
[1631 AD] 4
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p115.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p115.
3. ^ "Pierre
Gassendi". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Gass
endi
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p115. (1631) (1631)
MORE INFO
[1] "Pierre Gassendi".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
6159/Pierre-Gassendi
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Pierre+Gassendi?c
at=technology
[1] Pierre Gassendi
(1592-1655). Peinture de Louis
Édouard Rioult. (Base Joconde du
Ministère de la Culture) PD
source: http://www.voltaire-integral.com
/Html/14/04CATALO_1_2.html
[2] Scientist: Gassendi, Pierre
(1592 - 1655) Discipline(s): Physics
; Astronomy Print Artist: Jacques
Lubin, 1637-1695 Medium: Engraving
Original Dimensions: Graphic: 17.6 x
14.1 cm / Sheet: 27.9 x 21.7 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/by_n
ame_display_results.cfm?scientist=Gassen
di
[1635 AD] 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~hist
ory/Biographies/Mersenne.html
2. ^
http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~hist
ory/Biographies/Mersenne.html
3. ^ "Marin Mersenne". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
2176/Marin-Mersenne
4. ^ Marin Marsenne, tr: R. E. Chapman,
"Harmonie Universelle", 1635, 1957.
MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/Marin%20Mersenne
[2] "Marin Mersenne". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
2176/Marin-Mersenne (1637)
[1] Table of string
vibrations from: Marin Marsenne, tr:
R. E. Chapman, ''Harmonie
Universelle'', 1635, 1957,
p194. UNKNOWN
source: Marin Marsenne, tr: R. E.
Chapman, "Harmonie Universelle", 1635,
1957, p194.
[2] Ted Huntington adapted
from: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikip
edia/en/math/6/c/8/6c88fce3e57d1eac8408b
abe264e1795.png GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/math/6/c/8/6c88fce3e57d1eac8408
babe264e1795.png
[1637 AD] 4
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^ Discourse on the Method
("Discours de la Methode"). An
introduction to Dioptrique, Des
Météores and La Géométrie. Original
in French, because intended for a wider
public., 1637 English: tr: John
Veitch, "Discourse on the Method of
Rightly Conducting the Reason, and
Seeking Truth in the Sciences",
1899 and "La
géométrie" http://books.google.com/bo
oks?id=aHBtAAAAMAAJ http://books.google
.com/books?id=DSjXAAAAMAAJ 2nd
edition:
http://books.google.com/books?id=lGFxGEE
K52oC
2. ^ "René Descartes." A Dictionary of
Statistics. Oxford University Press,
2008. Answers.com 27 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ren-descart
es
3. ^ "Descartes". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Descartes
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp115-118. (1637)
(1637)
MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/topic/ren-descart
es?cat=technology
[1] De Beaune, F. et al. Geometria a
Renato Descartes: Anno 1637 Gallicè
Edita Postea Autem Una Cum Notis
Florimondi De Beaune ... apud Ludovicum
& Danielem Elzevirios, 1659.
Diapositivas (Biblioteca Histórica
UCM).2nd
edition http://books.google.com/books?i
d=lGFxGEEK52oC PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=lGFxGEEK52oC
[2] De Beaune, F. et al. Geometria a
Renato Descartes: Anno 1637 Gallicè
Edita Postea Autem Una Cum Notis
Florimondi De Beaune ... apud Ludovicum
& Danielem Elzevirios, 1659.
Diapositivas (Biblioteca Histórica
UCM).2nd
edition http://books.google.com/books?i
d=lGFxGEEK52oC PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=lGFxGEEK52oC
[11/24/1639 AD] 4
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p128.
2. ^ "Jeremiah
Horrocks". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
1099/Jeremiah-Horrocks
3. ^ "Jeremiah Horrocks". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
1099/Jeremiah-Horrocks
4. ^ "Jeremiah Horrocks". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
1099/Jeremiah-Horrocks (11/24/1639 (Old
Style (Julian?)
MORE INFO
[1] "Jeremiah Horrocks".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeremiah_Ho
rrocks
(presumably)
[1] This illustration, recreated from
Horrocks's notes by the prominent
Polish astronomer Hevelius, shows three
positions of the planet Venus as it
crosses the face of the Sun. Notice the
two black and one white dot (the
progression of Venus) in the lower left
portion of the central circle (the
Sun). PD
source: http://www.adlerplanetarium.org/
research/collections/transit-of-venus/jh
evelius1662b.jpg
[2] Jeremiah Horrocks observand
tranzitul lui Venus PD
source: http://aira.astro.ro/2004/Venus2
/Importanta_fisa%20scurta.htm
[1641 AD] 4 5 6 7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "repeating rifle." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 24 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/498312/repeating-rifle>.
2. ^
http://www.earmi.it/A-Enciclopedia/ripet
izione.html
3. ^ "The new weapons of the world
encyclopedia : an international
encyclopedia from 5000 B.C. to the 21st
century",
2007. http://books.google.com/books?id=
3Il9ubyJCisC&pg=PA353&
4. ^ "The new weapons of the world
encyclopedia : an international
encyclopedia from 5000 B.C. to the 21st
century",
2007. http://books.google.com/books?id=
3Il9ubyJCisC&pg=PA353& {1641}
5. ^
http://www.earmi.it/A-Enciclopedia/ripet
izione.html {1641}
6. ^ "repeating rifle."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online Academic Edition.
Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2011.
Web. 24 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/498312/repeating-rifle>. {early
1600s}
7. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100 Inventions
That Shaped World History", 1993, p49.
{1836}
MORE INFO
[1] Jeff Kinard, "Pistols: an
illustrated history of their impact",
2004, p37-38.
http://books.google.com/books?id=ZVnuHX_
6bG0C&pg=PA37
[1] Kalthoff 1641 translated with
Google from:
http://www.earmi.it/A-Enciclopedia/ripet
izione.html The first attempt at a
mechanical repetition of the shot goes
back to the German Peter Kalthoff,
which operates in Denmark, who in 1641
invented and built in 1646. It was a
rifle with a wheel in the dust
reservoir a reservoir for calcium and
balls under the barrel, breech block
has three rooms that can move
sideways. PD
source: http://www.earmi.it/A-Encicloped
ia/img/Kalthoff.png
[2] translated with Google from:
http://www.earmi.it/A-Enciclopedia/ripet
izione.html In Italy as early as
1572 the Milan Marcantonio Valgrana
proposes a rifle capable of firing 4
shots below, but of questionable
functionality. This was followed in 600
different mechanical repeating rifles,
probably inspired by Kalthoff, but with
original solutions. It certainly
reminds weapon Berselli James (1660)
and other Fresh Water Sebastiano
(1619-1692) and the Florentine Michele
Lorenzoni (died 1735). These have gone
down in history as ''system Lorenzoni''
and are innovative compared to
Kalthoff. Tanks for powder and ball
(well 25) both are in football, behind
a circular rotor driven by an external
lever, the gun with the barrel is
turned down so that powder and ball
fall under gravity, the first movement
of lever drops a ball in the barrel
where it is retained by a ring of
forcing, the second movement takes a
dose of dust. There followed many
other weapons, but none went beyond the
experimental models. The technology of
the time did not allow the creation of
mechanisms are too delicate and until
the invention of the metal cartridge
case was difficult to keep the power is
communicated by a charge al'altra. The
first weapon is the repetition really
functioning Paterson Colt revolver of
1936 followed by rifle-revolver .44
Rifle Dragon namely the
Whitneyville-Hartford Dragon Colt
Revolver of 1847. To solve the problem
remained that the number of hits
greater than 6-8. The first weapon
taken from a manual repeater army
Spencer (March 1860) that has a
reservoir of calcium and seven
cartridges in a loading lever with
shutter lock shooting. The cartridge
was rimfire cartridge case with copper,
was calculated. 13.3 mm which
represented an improvement over the
previous much larger calibers.
Contemporary Henry and the system
immediately after the Winchester. PD
source: http://www.earmi.it/A-Encicloped
ia/img/lorenzoni.png
[1643 AD] 5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Evangelista Torricelli".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
2977/Evangelista-Torricelli
2. ^ "Evangelista Torricelli".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
2977/Evangelista-Torricelli
3. ^ "Evangelista Torricelli".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
2977/Evangelista-Torricelli
4. ^ "Evangelista Torricelli".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
2977/Evangelista-Torricelli
5. ^ "Evangelista Torricelli".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
2977/Evangelista-Torricelli (1643)
MORE INFO
[1] "Evangelista Torricelli".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evangelista
_Torricelli
[2] "atmospheric pressure." The
American Heritage� Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 05 Dec. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/atmospheric
-pressure
[1] Frontispiece to ''Lezioni
accademiche d'Evangelista
Torricelli....'', published in 1715.
Library Call Number Q155 .T69
1715. Image ID: libr0367, Treasures of
the NOAA Library Collection
Photographer: Archival Photograph by
Mr. Steve Nicklas, NOS, NGS Secondary
source: NOAA Central Library National
Oceanic & Atmospheric Adminstration
(NOAA), USA
http://www.photolib.noaa.gov/library/lib
r0367.htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Libr0367.jpg
[2] Frontispiece and title page to
''Lezioni accademiche d'Evangelista
Torricelli ....'', published in 1715.
Library Call Number Q155 .T69
1715. Image ID: libr0366, Treasures of
the NOAA Library Collection
Photographer: Archival Photograph by
Mr. Steve Nicklas, NOS, NGS Secondary
source: NOAA Central Library National
Oceanic & Atmospheric Adminstration
(NOAA),
USA http://www.photolib.noaa.gov/librar
y/libr0366.htm PD
source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wik
i/Image:Libr0366.jpg
[1650 AD] 3 4 5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp120-121.
2. ^ "Otto von
Guericke". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8368/Otto-von-Guericke
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp120-121. (1650)
(1650)
4. ^ "Otto von Guericke". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8368/Otto-von-Guericke (1650)
5. ^ Daniel Coit
Gilman, Harry Thurston Peck, Frank
Moore Colby, "The New International
Encyclopædia",
pp238-239. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=f2dMAAAAMAAJ&dq=%22geissler+pump%22
&pg=PA239&ci=10,460,449,440&source=bookc
lip (1654)
MORE INFO
[1] "Otto von Guericke".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otto_von_Gu
ericke
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Otto+von+Guericke
?cat=technology
[1] Apparatus of Otto von Guerricke
with water receptacle at base
removed. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=f2dMAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA239&dq=%22geissler+pu
mp%22#PPA238,M1
[2] Apparatus of Otto von Guerricke
with water receptacle at base
removed. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=f2dMAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA239&dq=%22geissler+pu
mp%22#PPA238,M1
[03/25/1655 AD] 3 4 5
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp138-140.
2. ^ "Christiaan
Huygens". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
1658/Christiaan-Huygens
3. ^
http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/ap050325.html
(3/25/1655)
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp138-140. (1656)
(1656)
5. ^ "Titan". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
2639/Titan (1655)
MORE INFO
[1] "Christiaan Huygens".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christiaan_
Huygens
[2] "Orion nebula#History". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orion_nebul
a#History
(presumably)
[1] Huygens' aerial telescope, 1655
from Development of the Telescope from
1561 to 1896 DEVELOPMENT OF THE
ASTRONOMICAL TELESCOPE IN FIFTY
YEARS. source: July 25, 1896
Scientific
American http://www.machine-history.com
/Development%20of%20the%20Telescope PD
source: http://www.machine-history.com/
[2] This natural color composite was
taken during the Cassini spacecraft's
April 16, 2005, flyby of Titan. It is a
combination of images taken through
three filters that are sensitive to
red, green and violet light. It
shows approximately what Titan would
look like to the human eye: a hazy
orange globe surrounded by a tenuous,
bluish haze. The orange color is due to
the hydrocarbon particles which make up
Titan's atmospheric haze. This
obscuring haze was particularly
frustrating for planetary scientists
following the NASA Voyager mission
encounters in 1980-81. Fortunately,
Cassini is able to pierce Titan's veil
at infrared wavelengths (see
PIA06228). North on Titan is up and
tilted 30 degrees to the right. The
images to create this composite were
taken with the Cassini spacecraft wide
angle camera on April 16, 2005, at
distances ranging from approximately
173,000 to 168,200 kilometers (107,500
to 104,500 miles) from Titan and from a
Sun-Titan-spacecraft, or phase, angle
of 56 degrees. Resolution in the images
is approximately 10 kilometers per
pixel. The Cassini-Huygens mission
is a cooperative project of NASA, the
European Space Agency and the Italian
Space Agency. The Jet Propulsion
Laboratory, a division of the
California Institute of Technology in
Pasadena, manages the mission for
NASA's Science Mission Directorate,
Washington, D.C. The Cassini orbiter
and its two onboard cameras were
designed, developed and assembled at
JPL. The imaging team is based at the
Space Science Institute, Boulder,
Colo. For more information about the
Cassini-Huygens mission, visit
http://saturn.jpl.nasa.gov and the
Cassini imaging team home page,
http://ciclops.org. Source *
http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog
/PIA06230 (cropped and rotated from the
original) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Titan_in_natural_color_Cassini.jpg
[1662 AD] 5 6
are inversely related is known.1 2 3
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp134-136.
2. ^ Boyle, R. New
Experiments Physico-mechanical,
Touching the Spring of the Air, and Its
Effects: (made, for the Most Part, in a
New Pneumatical Engine). H. Hall, 1662,
p156. books.google.com/books?id=LqYrAQA
AMAAJ&pg=PA156
3. ^ Publishing, DK. Science: The
Definitive Visual Guide. DK Publishing,
2009, p99.
4. ^ "Robert Boyle". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6071/Robert-Boyle
5. ^ "Robert Boyle". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6071/Robert-Boyle (1662)
6. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp134-136. (1662)
(1662)
MORE INFO
[1] "Robert Boyle". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Boyl
e
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Robert+Boyle?cat=
technology
[1] Boyle, R. New Experiments
Physico-mechanical, Touching the Spring
of the Air, and Its Effects: (made, for
the Most Part, in a New Pneumatical
Engine). H. Hall, 1662,
p156. books.google.com/books?id=LqYrAQA
AMAAJ&pg=PA156 PD AND Description
Portrait of Robert Boyle Source
http://www.bbk.ac.uk/boyle/Issue4.html
Date c. 1689 Author Johann
Kerseboom Permission Author has been
dead more than 70 years Other versions
Robert boyle.jpg PD AND {ULSF:
Note that this drawing of the J-tube
does not come from Boyle's
text} Artist's impression of Boyle's
Experiment, with precautions against
tube breaking. UNKNOWN
source: books.google.com/books?id=LqYrAQ
AAMAAJ&pg=PA162http://www.sil.si.edu/dig
italcollections/hst/scientific-identity/
cf/by_name_display_results.cfm?scientist
=Boyle%20Roberthttp://iweb.tntech.edu/ch
em281-tf/Boyle_files/image002.gif
[2] Boyle, R. New Experiments
Physico-mechanical, Touching the Spring
of the Air, and Its Effects: (made, for
the Most Part, in a New Pneumatical
Engine). H. Hall, 1662,
p156. books.google.com/books?id=LqYrAQA
AMAAJ&pg=PA156 PD AND Description
Portrait of Robert Boyle Source
http://www.bbk.ac.uk/boyle/Issue4.html
Date c. 1689 Author Johann
Kerseboom Permission Author has been
dead more than 70 years Other versions
Robert boyle.jpg PD
source: books.google.com/books?id=LqYrAQ
AAMAAJ&pg=PA162http://www.sil.si.edu/dig
italcollections/hst/scientific-identity/
cf/by_name_display_results.cfm?scientist
=Boyle%20Robert PD
[1663 AD] 4
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ "Otto von Guericke". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Otto+von+Guericke
?cat=technology
2. ^ "Otto von Guericke". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Otto+von+Guericke
?cat=technology
3. ^ "Otto von Guericke". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8368/Otto-von-Guericke
4. ^ "Otto von Guericke". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Otto+von+Guericke
?cat=technology (1663)
MORE INFO
[1] "Otto von Guericke".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otto_von_Gu
ericke
[2]
http://books.google.com/books?id=R3Yt1N-
qotsC
[1] Guericke's experiments with the
sulfur globe published 1672 PD
source: http://img.readtiger.com/wkp/en/
Guericke_Sulfur_globe.jpg
[2] Guericke's experiments with the
sulfur globe published 1672 PD
source: http://img.readtiger.com/wkp/en/
Guericke_Sulfur_globe.jpg
[1664 AD] 4 5
particles is revived.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Rene Descartes, Translated by
Michael S. Mahoney, "The World or
Treatise on Light", Chapters 13 and 14.
http://www.princeton.edu/~hos/mike/tex
ts/descartes/world/worldfr.htm AND
http://books.google.com/books?id=YUo7A
AAAYAAJ&pg=PA265
2. ^ Descartes, R. Le Monde ... Ou Le
Traité De La Lumière Et Des Autres
Objets Principaux Des Sens, Avec Un
Discours De L’action Des Corps Et Un
Autre Des Fièvres, Composez Selon Les
Principes Du Même Auteur. Michel Bobin
et Nic. le Gras,
1664. http://books.google.com/books?id=
DHEPAAAAQAAJ
3. ^ "Rene Descartes". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 14 Oct.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/158787/Rene-Descartes/43352/Resi
dence-in-the-Netherlands>.
4. ^ "Rene Descartes". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 14 Oct.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/158787/Rene-Descartes/43352/Resi
dence-in-the-Netherlands>.
5. ^ Descartes, R. Le Monde ... Ou Le
Traité De La Lumière Et Des Autres
Objets Principaux Des Sens, Avec Un
Discours De L’action Des Corps Et Un
Autre Des Fièvres, Composez Selon Les
Principes Du Même Auteur. Michel Bobin
et Nic. le Gras,
1664. http://books.google.com/books?id=
DHEPAAAAQAAJ
MORE INFO
[1] "The World (Descartes)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_World_%
28Descartes%29
[2]
http://classiques.uqac.ca/classiques/Des
cartes/extraits/le_monde/le_monde.doc
[3] "Rene Descartes". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
8563/Rene-Descartes (1633)
[4] "Rene
Descartes". Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 26 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/158787/Rene-Descartes>
[1] Descartes, R. Le Monde ... Ou Le
Traité De La Lumière Et Des Autres
Objets Principaux Des Sens, Avec Un
Discours De L’action Des Corps Et Un
Autre Des Fièvres, Composez Selon Les
Principes Du Même Auteur. Michel Bobin
et Nic. le Gras, 1664,
p221. http://books.google.com/books?id=
DHEPAAAAQAAJ PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=DHEPAAAAQAAJ
[2] The balls of the ''second
element'' which I think is a theory of
particles similar to an aether that
fill empty space, but its not
clear[t] PD/Corel
source: http://www.princeton.edu/~hos/mi
ke/texts/descartes/world/Image9.gif
[10/??/1666 AD] 5 6 7 8
integration.1 2 3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Newton, "The October 1666
Tract on Fluxions", MS Add. 3958.3, ff.
48r-63v, Cambridge University Library,
Cambridge,
UK http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.u
k/catalogue/record/NATP00100
AND http://cudl.lib.cam.ac.uk/view/MS-A
DD-03958/92
2. ^ "Sir Isaac Newton". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
8764/Sir-Isaac-Newton
3. ^ Isaac Newton, "De Analysi per
Aequationes Numero Terminorum
Infinitas" (1669; "On Analysis by
Equations with an Infinite Number of
Terms"), todo: find original work,
and English translation of original
work. partially described in
Latin: Wallis, J. Johannis Wallis ...
Opera Mathematica ... E Theatro
Sheldoniano, 1693. Johannis Wallis ...
Opera
Mathematica. http://books.google.com/bo
oks?id=I2BDAAAAcAAJ explained in
English: Newton, I. Two Treatises of
the Quadrature of Curves and Analysis
by Equations of an Infinite Number of
Terms, Explained by John Stewart. James
Bettenham,
1745. http://books.google.com/books?id=
eg4OAAAAQAAJ
4. ^ "Sir Isaac Newton". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
8764/Sir-Isaac-Newton
5. ^ Isaac Newton, "The October 1666
Tract on Fluxions", MS Add. 3958.3, ff.
48r-63v, Cambridge University Library,
Cambridge,
UK http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.u
k/catalogue/record/NATP00100
AND http://cudl.lib.cam.ac.uk/view/MS-A
DD-03958/92
6. ^ Brewster, D., and I. Newton.
Memoirs of the Life, Writings and
Discoveries of Sir Isaac Newton.
Constable, 1855. Memoirs of the Life,
Writings and Discoveries of Sir Isaac
Newton. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=4hY6AAAAcAAJ&pg=PA35&lpg=PA35&dq=%E2%8
0%9COn+Analysis+by+Equations+with+an+Inf
inite+Number+of+Terms%E2%80%9D&source=bl
&ots=TPKbJAoHv0&sig=K_kBe8m59TO6GE8oAtLd
ugq3lCs&hl=en&sa=X&ei=aSA5UMWePIjPrQHj0o
DYDQ&ved=0CDwQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=%E2%80%
9COn%20Analysis%20by%20Equations%20with%
20an%20Infinite%20Number%20of%20Terms%E2
%80%9D&f=false
7. ^
http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/
Biographies/Newton.html (07/1669)
8. ^ "Sir Isaac
Newton". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
8764/Sir-Isaac-Newton (07/1669)
MORE INFO
[1] "Isaac Newton". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newto
n
[2] "Sir Isaac Newton". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Isaa
c_Newton
[3] "binomial theorem". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
9241/binomial-theorem
[4]
http://www.newton.cam.ac.uk/newtlife.htm
l
[5]
http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.uk/pr
ism.php?id=47
[6] Abe Mizrahi and Michael Sullivan,
"Calculus and Analytic Geometry",
Second Edition, Wadsworth Publishing
Company, (1986), pp107-181
(Derivative), pp278-323 (Integral) {For
a basic explanation of differentiation
and integration, or any modern calculus
textbook}
[7] Newton, I. The Method of Fluxions
and Infinite Series: With Its
Application to the Geometry of
Curve-lines. By ... Sir Isaac Newton,
... Translated from the Author’s
Latin Original Not Yet Made Publick. To
Which Is Subjoin’d, a Perpetual
Comment Upon the Whole Work, ... By
John Colson, ... Henry Woodfall; and
sold by John Nourse, 1736
[1] Drawing from: Isaac Newton, ''The
October 1666 Tract on Fluxions'', MS
Add. 3958.3, ff. 48r-63v, Cambridge
University Library, Cambridge,
UK http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.u
k/catalogue/record/NATP00100
AND http://cudl.lib.cam.ac.uk/view/MS-A
DD-03958/92 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.newtonproject.sussex.
ac.uk/view/texts/normalized/NATP00100
[2] Description Isaac Newton Date
1689 Author Godfrey Kneller PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg
[1669 AD] 3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp133-134.
2. ^
"Erasmus Bartholin". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
3525/Erasmus-Bartholin
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp133-134.
(1669)
MORE INFO
[1] "double refraction".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
1617/double-refraction
[1] Taken from: Brahe, T. Tychonis
Brahe Dani Opera Omnia: Tomus XIII.
Gyldendal, 1926 PD
source: Brahe, T. Tychonis Brahe Dani
Opera Omnia: Tomus XIII. Gyldendal,
1926
[2] Taken from: Brahe, T. Tychonis
Brahe Dani Opera Omnia: Tomus XIII.
Gyldendal, 1926 PD
source: Brahe, T. Tychonis Brahe Dani
Opera Omnia: Tomus XIII. Gyldendal,
1926
[02/19/1672 AD] 5 6 7 8 9
material particles is firmly
established. Color determined to be a
property of light, not of objects.
White light separated into and
recreated from primary colors.1 2 3
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Newton, "Draft of 'A Theory
Concerning Light and Colors"', Feb 6,
1671/2, in English, c. 5,137 words,
14pp. Shelfmark: MS Add. 3970.3,
ff.460-466 Location: Cambridge
University Library, Cambridge,
UK http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.u
k/view/texts/normalized/NATP00003
2. ^ Isaac Newton, "A Letter of Mr.
Isaac Newton … containing his New
Theory about Light and Colors", Feb 19,
1671/2, in English, c. 5,263 words,
13pp. Published in: Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society, No.
80 (19 Feb. 1671/2), pp.
3075-3087. http://www.newtonproject.sus
sex.ac.uk/view/texts/normalized/NATP0000
6 AND
http://books.google.com/books?id=L1Ito
Q2GjMAC&pg=PA3075
3. ^ Isaac Newton, "Mr Isaac Newtons
Answer to some Considerations of Robert
Hooke. ^ upon his doctrine of Light and
Colors", Philosophical Transactions of
the Royal Society, No. 88 (18 November
1672), pp.
5084-5103. http://www.newtonproject.sus
sex.ac.uk/view/texts/normalized/NATP0002
8
4. ^ "Sir Isaac Newton". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
8764/Sir-Isaac-Newton (02/19/1672)
5. ^ Isaac
Newton, "Draft of 'A Theory Concerning
Light and Colors"', Feb 6, 1671/2, in
English, c. 5,137 words, 14pp.
Shelfmark: MS Add. 3970.3, ff.460-466
Location: Cambridge University Library,
Cambridge,
UK http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.u
k/view/texts/normalized/NATP00003
6. ^ "Sir Isaac Newton". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 27 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/413189/Sir-Isaac-Newton/12246/In
fluence-of-the-scientific-revolution>.
7. ^ Isaac Newton, "A Letter of Mr.
Isaac Newton … containing his New
Theory about Light and Colors", Feb 19,
1671/2, in English, c. 5,263 words,
13pp. Published in: Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society, No.
80 (19 Feb. 1671/2), pp.
3075-3087. http://www.newtonproject.sus
sex.ac.uk/view/texts/normalized/NATP0000
6
8. ^ "Sir Isaac Newton". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 27 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/413189/Sir-Isaac-Newton/12246/In
fluence-of-the-scientific-revolution>.
9. ^ Isaac Newton, "A Letter of Mr.
Isaac Newton … containing his New
Theory about Light and Colors", Feb 19,
1671/2, in English, c. 5,263 words,
13pp. Published in: Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society, No.
80 (19 Feb. 1671/2), pp.
3075-3087. http://www.newtonproject.sus
sex.ac.uk/view/texts/normalized/NATP0000
6 AND
http://books.google.com/books?id=L1Ito
Q2GjMAC&pg=PA3075
MORE INFO
[1] "Isaac Newton". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newto
n
[2] "Sir Isaac Newton". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Isaa
c_Newton
[3] "binomial theorem". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
9241/binomial-theorem
[4]
http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/
Biographies/Newton.html
[5]
http://www.newton.cam.ac.uk/newtlife.htm
l
[6] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p148
[7] Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp148-154.
(02/19/1672)
[1] Isaac Newton, ''A Letter of Mr.
Isaac Newton … containing his New
Theory about Light and Colors'', Feb
19, 1671/2, in English, c. 5,263 words,
13pp. Published in: Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society, No.
80 (19 Feb. 1671/2), pp.
3075-3087. http://www.newtonproject.sus
sex.ac.uk/view/texts/normalized/NATP0000
6 AND
http://books.google.com/books?id=L1Ito
Q2GjMAC&pg=PA3075 PD AND Description
Isaac Newton Date 1689 Author
Godfrey Kneller PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=L1ItoQ2GjMAC&pg=PA3075http://en.wikiped
ia.org/wiki/Image:GodfreyKneller-IsaacNe
wton-1689.jpg
[2] Isaac Newton, ''Draft of 'A Theory
Concerning Light and Colors''', Feb 6,
1671/2, in English, c. 5,137 words,
14pp. Shelfmark: MS Add. 3970.3,
ff.460-466 Location: Cambridge
University Library, Cambridge,
UK http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.u
k/view/texts/normalized/NATP00003 PD
source: http://www.newtonproject.sussex.
ac.uk/view/texts/normalized/NATP00003
[1672 AD] 4
measured.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isobel Black Gill, David Gill,
"Six Months in Ascension",
1878. http://books.google.com/books?id=
DwJFAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=gill
+ascension+date:1878-1878&lr=&ei=EsCISaS
VA5OmkQTSoKSXBg
2. ^ "Giovanni Domenico Cassini".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giovanni_Do
menico_Cassini
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p140.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp132-133. (1672)
(1672)
MORE INFO
[1] "Gian Domenico Cassini".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
0655/Gian-Domenico-Cassini
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Giovanni+Domenico
+Cassini+?cat=technology
[1] Scientist: Cassini, Giovanni
Domenico (1625 - 1712) Discipline(s):
Astronomy ; Geodesy Print Artist: N.
Dupuis Medium: Engraving Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 14.3 x 10.2 cm /
Sheet: 24.6 x 16.2 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=c
[2] Scientist: Cassini, Giovanni
Domenico (1625 - 1712) Discipline(s):
Astronomy ; Geodesy Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 25.2 x 18.5 cm /
Sheet: 27.4 x 19.5 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=c
[1676 AD] 11 12
light.5 6 7 8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Olaus Roemer". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Olaus+Roemer?cat=
technology
2. ^ "Ole Romer". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-908
3854/Ole-Romer
3. ^ "Demonstration touchant le
mouvement de la lumiere trouvé par M.
Römer de l' Academie Royale des
Sciences", Journal des sçavans,
December 7,
1676 http://books.google.com/books?id=5
scUAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA484
4. ^ "A Demonstration concerning the
Motion of Light, communicated from
Paris" is published in the
"Philosophical Transactions of the
Royal Society" (No. 136) on June 25,
1677. http://books.google.com/books?id=
juU4AAAAMAAJ&pg=118
5. ^ "Olaus Roemer". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Olaus+Roemer?cat=
technology
6. ^ "Ole Romer". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-908
3854/Ole-Romer
7. ^ "Demonstration touchant le
mouvement de la lumiere trouvé par M.
Römer de l' Academie Royale des
Sciences", Journal des sçavans,
December 7,
1676 http://books.google.com/books?id=5
scUAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA484
8. ^ "A Demonstration concerning the
Motion of Light, communicated from
Paris" is published in the
"Philosophical Transactions of the
Royal Society" (No. 136) on June 25,
1677. http://books.google.com/books?id=
juU4AAAAMAAJ&pg=118
9. ^ William Tobin, "The Life and
Science of Léon Foucault", Cambridge
University Press, 2003, p118.
10. ^ "Olaus
Roemer". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Olaus+Roemer?cat=
technology
11. ^ "Olaus Roemer". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Olaus+Roemer?cat=
technology (1676)
12. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp154-155. (1676)
(1676)
[1] ''Demonstration touchant le
mouvement de la lumiere trouvé par M.
Römer de l' Academie Royale des
Sciences'', Journal des sçavans,
December 7,
1676 http://books.google.com/books?id=5
scUAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA484 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=5scUAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA484
[2] Ole Rømer PD
source: http://www.rundetaarn.dk/dansk/o
bservatorium/grafik/roemer1.jpg
[1678 AD] 5
writing). Human contracts muscle with
electricity.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ John Joseph Fahie, "A History of
Electric Telegraphy, to the Year 1837",
E. & F. N. Spon,
1884. http://books.google.com/books?id=
0Mo3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=A+Hi
story+of+Electric+Telegraphy+to+the+year
+1837&ei=esfUSJWpC6K-tgOhnYWOBA
2. ^ John Joseph Fahie, "A History of
Electric Telegraphy, to the Year 1837",
E. & F. N. Spon,
1884. http://books.google.com/books?id=
0Mo3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=A+Hi
story+of+Electric+Telegraphy+to+the+year
+1837&ei=esfUSJWpC6K-tgOhnYWOBA
3. ^ John Joseph Fahie, "A History of
Electric Telegraphy, to the Year 1837",
E. & F. N. Spon,
1884. http://books.google.com/books?id=
0Mo3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=A+Hi
story+of+Electric+Telegraphy+to+the+year
+1837&ei=esfUSJWpC6K-tgOhnYWOBA
4. ^ "Jan Swammerdam". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
0581/Jan-Swammerdam
5. ^ John Joseph Fahie, "A History of
Electric Telegraphy, to the Year 1837",
E. & F. N. Spon,
1884. http://books.google.com/books?id=
0Mo3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=A+Hi
story+of+Electric+Telegraphy+to+the+year
+1837&ei=esfUSJWpC6K-tgOhnYWOBA {1678}"
MORE INFO
[1] "Jan Swammerdam". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jan_Swammer
dam
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Jan+Swammerdam+?c
at=technology
[3]
http://www.janswammerdam.net/portrait.ht
ml
[4] "Apothecary". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apothecary
[5]
http://www.library.umass.edu/spcoll/exhi
bits/herbal/swammerdam.htm
[6] "Jan Swammerdam". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
0581/Jan-Swammerdam (1672)
[7] "Electricity
and Magnetism" Amédée Guillemin,
translated by Silvanus P. Thompson,
B.A., D.Sc., F.R.A.S. Macmillan and
Co., London, 1891.
http://books.google.com/books?id=iHg9A
QAAIAAJ
[8]
http://www.telephonecollecting.org/feeli
ng.htm
(presumably)
[1] One of Galvani’s decisive
experiments was to show that movement
could be induced by stroking an iron
plate against a brass hook inserted
into the frog’s spinal column, which
generated a small electric current. In
one version of Swammerdam’s nerve
muscle experiment, the nerve was
suspended in a brass hook, which was
then stroked with a silver
wire: PD/Corel
source: http://www.janswammerdam.net/Ima
ges/Fig4.jpg
[03/03/1682 AD] 4 5 6 7
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ Leeuwenhoek, Antonie van, and
Johan Arnold Langerak. Antonii à
Leeuwenhoeck ... Opera Omnia, Seu
Arcana Naturae, Ope Exactissimorum
Microscopiorum Detecta, Experimentis
Variis Comprobata, Epistolis, Ad Varios
Illustres Viros, Ut Et Ad Integram,
Quae Londini Floret, Sapientem
Societatem, Cujus Membrum Est, Datis,
Comprehensa, et. ^ Quatuor Tomis
Distincta. Editio novissima, prioribus
emendatior, cum indicibus cuique tomo
accommodatis. Lugduni Batavorum: apud
Joh. Arnold Langerak, 1722, p213.
http://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/0
09289705 {Leeuwenhoek_Opera_Omnia_Seu_A
rcana_Naturae_1719.pdf}
2. ^ Leeuwenhoek, A. van: Opera Omnia,
seu Arcana Naturae ope exactissimorum
Microscopiorum detecta, experimentis
variis comprobata, Epistolis ad varios
illustres viros., Langerak, 1722 ,
p51.
http://books.google.com/books?id=0Zs_A
AAAcAAJ {Leeuwenhoek_Opera_Omnia_Seu_Ar
cana_Naturae_1722.pdf} Cited after:
Dieter Gerlach, Geschichte der
Mikroskopie. Verlag Harry Deutsch,
Frankfurt am Main, Germany, 2009. ISBN
978-3-8171-1781-9.
3. ^ "Leeuwenhoek". Encyclopedia of
Public Health. The Gale Group, Inc,
2002. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Leeuwenhoek?cat=h
ealth
4. ^ Henry Harris, "The Birth of the
Cell",
p76 http://books.google.com/books?id=zV
sxFp3CyngC&pg=PA76
5. ^
http://www.med-ed.virginia.edu/courses/c
ell/resources/blooddisc.htm?HeaderFooter
=0
6. ^ Leeuwenhoek, A. van: Opera Omnia,
seu Arcana Naturae ope exactissimorum
Microscopiorum detecta, experimentis
variis comprobata, Epistolis ad varios
illustres viros., Langerak, 1722 ,
p51.
http://books.google.com/books?id=0Zs_A
AAAcAAJ {Leeuwenhoek_Opera_Omnia_Seu_Ar
cana_Naturae_1722.pdf} Cited after:
Dieter Gerlach, Geschichte der
Mikroskopie. Verlag Harry Deutsch,
Frankfurt am Main, Germany, 2009. ISBN
978-3-8171-1781-9.
7. ^ Leeuwenhoek, Antonie van, and
Johan Arnold Langerak. Antonii à
Leeuwenhoeck ... Opera Omnia, Seu
Arcana Naturae, Ope Exactissimorum
Microscopiorum Detecta, Experimentis
Variis Comprobata, Epistolis, Ad Varios
Illustres Viros, Ut Et Ad Integram,
Quae Londini Floret, Sapientem
Societatem, Cujus Membrum Est, Datis,
Comprehensa, et. ^ Quatuor Tomis
Distincta. Editio novissima, prioribus
emendatior, cum indicibus cuique tomo
accommodatis. Lugduni Batavorum: apud
Joh. Arnold Langerak, 1722, p213.
http://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/0
09289705 {Leeuwenhoek_Opera_Omnia_Seu_A
rcana_Naturae_1719.pdf}
MORE INFO
[1] "Anton van Leeuwenhoek".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anton_van_L
eeuwenhoek
[2] "Haberdasher". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haberdasher
[3] "Leeuwenhoek". Encyclopedia of the
Early Modern World. The Gale Group,
Inc, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Leeuwenhoek?cat=h
ealth (10/09/1676 (letter to Royal
Society)
[4] "Leeuwenhoek". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Leeuwenhoek?cat=h
ealth (10/09/1676 (letter to Royal
Society)
[1] Leeuwenhoek, A. van: Opera Omnia,
seu Arcana Naturae ope exactissimorum
Microscopiorum detecta, experimentis
variis comprobata, Epistolis ad varios
illustres viros. J. Arnold et Delphis,
A. Beman, Lugdinum Batavorum
1719–1730, p51.
http://books.google.com/books?id=0Zs_A
AAAcAAJ {Leeuwenhoek_Opera_Omnia_Seu_Ar
cana_Naturae_1722.pdf} PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=0Zs_AAAAcAAJ
[2] Description English: Red Blood
cells from Salmon, with ''Lumen'' (cell
nuclei). Deutsch: Rote Blutkörperchen
vom Lachs, mit ''Lumen''
(Zellkernen). Date Leeuwenhoek lived
from 1632 - 1723.. Source
Dieter Gerlach, Geschichte der
Mikroskopie. Verlag Harry Deutsch,
Frankfurt am Main, Germany, 2009. ISBN
978-3-8171-1781-9.(Accompanying
CD-ROM). Source given in there:
Leeuwenhoek, A. van: Opera Omnia, seu
Arcana Naturae ope exactissimorum
Microscopiorum detecta, experimentis
variis comprobata, Epistolis ad varios
illustres viros. J. Arnold et Delphis,
A. Beman, Lugdinum Batavorum
1719–1730. – Reprint: Georg Olms
Verlag, Hildesheim, New York
1971–1972 Author Antoni van
Leeuwenhoek PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/39/Leeuwenhoek1719RedBlo
odCells.jpg
[09/12/1683 AD] 4 5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Antonie van Leeuwenhoek".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7611/Antonie-van-Leeuwenhoek
2. ^ Egerton, Frank N. "A history of
the ecological sciences, part 19:
Leeuwenhoek's microscopic natural
history." Bulletin of the Ecological
Society of America 87.1 (2006):
47-58. http://esapubs.org/bulletin/curr
ent/history_list/history19.pdf
3. ^ "Leeuwenhoek". Encyclopedia of
Public Health. The Gale Group, Inc,
2002. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Leeuwenhoek?cat=h
ealth
4. ^
http://www.euronet.nl/users/warnar/leeuw
enhoek.html (09/12/1683)
5. ^ Egerton, Frank N. "A
history of the ecological sciences,
part 19: Leeuwenhoek's microscopic
natural history." Bulletin of the
Ecological Society of America 87.1
(2006):
47-58. http://esapubs.org/bulletin/curr
ent/history_list/history19.pdf
MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982)
[2] "Anton van Leeuwenhoek".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anton_van_L
eeuwenhoek
[3] "Haberdasher". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haberdasher
[1] Fig. 7. Bacteria from a human
mouth, letter of 17 September 1683. A
is a motile Bacillus, B is Selenomonas
sputigena, with C…D its path, E is
Micrococci, F is Leptothrix buccalis,
and G is a spirochaete, probably
Spirochaeta buccalis (Dobell 1932:Plate
24 or Leeuwenhoek 1939–1999, IV:Plate
8). PD
source: http://www.madrimasd.org/blogs/m
icrobiologia/wp-content/blogs.dir/110/fi
les/1431/o_Leeuwenhoek.jpg
[2] Fig. 7. Bacteria from a human
mouth, letter of 17 September 1683. A
is a motile Bacillus, B is Selenomonas
sputigena, with C D its path, E is
Micrococci, F is Leptothrix buccalis,
and G is a spirochaete, probably
Spirochaeta buccalis (Dobell 1932:Plate
24 or Leeuwenhoek 1939-1999, IV:Plate
8). COPYRIGHTED?
source: http://esapubs.org/bulletin/back
issues/087-1/bulletin_jan2006.htm
[1687 AD] 5
attracts other matter with a force that
is the product of their masses, and the
inverse of their distance squared.3
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ (Liber I Prop. LXIX. Theor.
XXIX.) Isaac Newton, Philosophiae
Naturalis Principia Mathematica.
(London: 1687),
p190. http://books.google.com/books?id=
qjEyAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA190
AND http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.
uk/catalogue/record/NATP00071 English
(note: Third Edition): Newton, I., A.
Motte, and J. Machin. The Mathematical
Principles of Natural Philosophy. B.
Motte, 1729. The Mathematical
Principles of Natural Philosophy,
Volume 1,
p259. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Tm0FAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA259
2. ^ (Liber I Prop. LXIX. Theor. XXIX.)
Isaac Newton, Philosophiae Naturalis
Principia Mathematica. (London: 1687),
p190. http://books.google.com/books?id=
qjEyAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA190
AND http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.
uk/catalogue/record/NATP00071 English
(note: Third Edition): Newton, I., A.
Motte, and J. Machin. The Mathematical
Principles of Natural Philosophy. B.
Motte, 1729. The Mathematical
Principles of Natural Philosophy,
Volume 1,
p259. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Tm0FAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA259
3. ^ (Liber I Prop. LXIX. Theor. XXIX.)
Isaac Newton, Philosophiae Naturalis
Principia Mathematica. (London: 1687),
p190. http://books.google.com/books?id=
qjEyAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA190
AND http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.
uk/catalogue/record/NATP00071 English
(note: Third Edition): Newton, I., A.
Motte, and J. Machin. The Mathematical
Principles of Natural Philosophy. B.
Motte, 1729. The Mathematical
Principles of Natural Philosophy,
Volume 1,
p259. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Tm0FAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA259
4. ^ "Sir Isaac Newton". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
8764/Sir-Isaac-Newton
5. ^
Newton_isaac_letters_739364699_content.p
df Annals of Science, The Newton
Letters Vols I and II, G Burniston
Brown, 06/01/1960 (publishes: 1687)
MORE INFO
[1] "Sir Isaac Newton".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Isaa
c_Newton
[2] "binomial theorem". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
9241/binomial-theorem
[3]
http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/
Biographies/Newton.html
[4]
http://www.newton.cam.ac.uk/newtlife.htm
l
[5]
http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.uk/pr
ism.php?id=47
[6]
http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.uk/te
xts/viewtext.php?id=NATP00006&mode=norma
lized
[7]
http://www.jstor.org/view/03702316/ap000
007/00a00090/0
[8] "Niccolo Zucchi". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8475/Niccolo-Zucchi
[9]
http://grus.berkeley.edu/~jrg/TelescopeH
istory/Early_Period.html
[10]
http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.uk/pr
ism.php?id=15
[11] "acoustics". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-640
48/acoustics
[12] (Scholium.) Newton, I., and A.
Motte. The Principia. Prometheus Books,
1848. Great Minds Series., p182
[1] Sir Isaac Newton's own first
edition copy of his Philosophiae
Naturalis Principia Mathematica with
his handwritten corrections for the
second edition. The first edition was
published under the imprint of Samuel
Pepys who was president of the Royal
Society. By the time of the second
edition, Newton himself had become
president of the Royal Society, as
noted in his corrections. The book can
be seen in the Wren Library of Trinity
College, Cambridge. CC
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:NewtonsPrincipia.jpg
[2] Description Isaac Newton Date
1689 Author Godfrey Kneller PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg
[1698 AD] 5
stars is measured.1 2 3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Sagan, Soter, Druyan, "Cosmos",
1984.
2. ^ Thomas Dick, "The sidereal heavens
and other subjects connected with
astronomy: as ...", 1844,
p63. books.google.com/books?id=a-gRAAAA
YAAJ&pg=PA63
3. ^ Huygens, "Cosmotheoros, Or
Conjectures Concerning the Planetary
Worlds and Their Inhabitants",
1699. Huygens, Christiaan.
Cosmotheoros: or, conjectures
concerning the inhabitants of the
planets. Translated from the Latin of
Christian Huygens. A new edition,
corrected. Glasgow, Mcdlxii (1762).
Eighteenth Century Collections Online.
Gale. UC Irvine. 27 May 2012, Book 2,
p116.
http://find.galegroup.com/ecco/infomar
k.do?&source=gale&prodId=ECCO&userGroupN
ame=ucirvine&tabID=T001&docId=CW33099415
61&type=multipage&contentSet=ECCOArticle
s&version=1.0&docLevel=FASCIMILE {Huyge
ns_Cosmotheoros.pdf}
4. ^ "Christiaan Huygens". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
1658/Christiaan-Huygens
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp138-140. (1698)
(1698)
MORE INFO
[1] "Christiaan Huygens".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christiaan_
Huygens
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Christiaan+Huygen
s?cat=technology
[3]
http://books.google.com/books?id=ntZwxtt
ZF-sC&pg=PA64&lpg=PA64&dq=huygens+distan
ce+stars+sirius&source=web&ots=LS3xk1VXz
b&sig=dggeaF1_TGO8d12SB7CC9-t0Wxg
(presumably)
[1] Cosmotheoros (1698) PD
source: http://www.phys.uu.nl/~huygens/c
osmotheoros_en.htm
[2] The Proportion of the Magnitude of
the Planets, in respect of one another,
and the Sun PD
source: http://www.phys.uu.nl/~huygens/c
osmotheoros_nl.htm
[03/28/1713 AD] 5
determined1 and the theory that the
Universe is made of mostly empty space2
.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ (Proposition VIII) Newton, I.
Philosophiae Naturalis Principia
Mathematica. sumptibus Societatis,
(Second edition), 1723,
p370-371. http://books.google.com/books
?id=3h9_GY8v-hgC&pg=PA370 AND Newton,
Isaac, Sir. Philosophi� naturalis
principia mathematica. Auctore Isaaco
Newtono, Equite Aurato. Editio secunda
auctior et emendatior. Cantabrigi�,
MDCCXIII. (1713). Eighteenth Century
Collections Online. Gale. UC Irvine. 27
Mar. 2013, p370-371.
{Newton_Principia_Second_Edition_17130
328.pdf} For English see Third
Edition: Newton, I. The Mathematical
Principles of Natural Philosophy.
printed for Benjamin Motte, 1729. The
Mathematical Principles of Natural
Philosophy, Volume 2,
p228. http://books.google.com/books?id=
6EqxPav3vIsC&pg=PA228
2. ^ (Book III, Propositions X)
Newton, I. Philosophiae Naturalis
Principia Mathematica. sumptibus
Societatis, (Second edition), 1723,
p372-373. http://books.google.com/books
?id=3h9_GY8v-hgC&pg=PA372 AND: Newton,
Isaac, Sir. Philosophi� naturalis
principia mathematica. Auctore Isaaco
Newtono, Equite Aurato. Editio secunda
auctior et emendatior. Cantabrigi�,
MDCCXIII. (1713). Eighteenth Century
Collections Online. Gale. UC Irvine. 27
Mar. 2013, p372-373.
{Newton_Principia_Second_Edition_17130
328.pdf} For English see Third
Edition: Newton, I. The Mathematical
Principles of Natural Philosophy.
printed for Benjamin Motte, 1729. The
Mathematical Principles of Natural
Philosophy, Volume 2,
p230-232. http://books.google.com/books
?id=6EqxPav3vIsC&pg=PA230
3. ^ (Proposition VIII) Newton, I.
Philosophiae Naturalis Principia
Mathematica. sumptibus Societatis,
(Second edition), 1723,
p370-371. http://books.google.com/books
?id=3h9_GY8v-hgC&pg=PA370 AND Newton,
Isaac, Sir. Philosophi� naturalis
principia mathematica. Auctore Isaaco
Newtono, Equite Aurato. Editio secunda
auctior et emendatior. Cantabrigi�,
MDCCXIII. (1713). Eighteenth Century
Collections Online. Gale. UC Irvine. 27
Mar. 2013, p370-371.
{Newton_Principia_Second_Edition_17130
328.pdf}
4. ^ "Sir Isaac Newton." Encyclop�dia
Britannica. Encyclop�dia Britannica
Online. Encyclop�dia Britannica Inc.,
2013. Web. 27 Mar. 2013.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/413189/Sir-Isaac-Newton>.
5. ^ (Proposition VIII) Newton, I.
Philosophiae Naturalis Principia
Mathematica. sumptibus Societatis,
(Second edition), 1723,
p370-371. http://books.google.com/books
?id=3h9_GY8v-hgC&pg=PA370 AND Newton,
Isaac, Sir. Philosophi� naturalis
principia mathematica. Auctore Isaaco
Newtono, Equite Aurato. Editio secunda
auctior et emendatior. Cantabrigi�,
MDCCXIII. (1713). Eighteenth Century
Collections Online. Gale. UC Irvine. 27
Mar. 2013, p370-371.
{Newton_Principia_Second_Edition_17130
328.pdf} For English see Third
Edition: Newton, I. The Mathematical
Principles of Natural Philosophy.
printed for Benjamin Motte, 1729. The
Mathematical Principles of Natural
Philosophy, Volume 2,
p228. http://books.google.com/books?id=
6EqxPav3vIsC&pg=PA228
MORE INFO
[1] "Sir Isaac Newton".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Isaa
c_Newton
[2] "binomial theorem". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
9241/binomial-theorem
[3]
http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/
Biographies/Newton.html
[4]
http://www.newton.cam.ac.uk/newtlife.htm
l
[5]
http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.uk/pr
ism.php?id=47
[6]
http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.uk/te
xts/viewtext.php?id=NATP00006&mode=norma
lized
[7]
http://www.jstor.org/view/03702316/ap000
007/00a00090/0
[8] "Niccolo Zucchi". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8475/Niccolo-Zucchi
[9]
http://grus.berkeley.edu/~jrg/TelescopeH
istory/Early_Period.html
[10]
http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.uk/pr
ism.php?id=15
[11] "acoustics". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-640
48/acoustics
[12] (De Motu Corporum -Liber Primus-
Scholium) Isaac Newton, Philosophiae
Naturalis Principia Mathematica.
(London: 1687),
p34. http://books.google.com/books?id=q
jEyAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA34
AND http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.
uk/catalogue/record/NATP00071
[13] Sir Isaac Newton, The mathematical
principles of natural philosophy,
Volume 2, printed for Benjamin Motte,
1729,
p227-228. http://books.google.com/books
?id=6EqxPav3vIsC&pg=PA227
[14] "Ismael Bullialdus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ismael_Bull
ialdus
[15] Isaac Newton, "Opticks: Or, A
treatise of the Reflections,
Refractions, Inflexions and Colours of
Light. Also Two treatises of the
Species and Magnitude of Curvilinear
Figures", First Edition, (London:
1704),
p132. http://www.newtonproject.sussex.a
c.uk/catalogue/record/NATP00031
AND http://archive.org/details/optickso
rtreatis00newt
[16] Isaac Newton, "Opticks: Or, A
treatise of the Reflections,
Refractions, Inflexions and Colours of
Light. Also Two treatises of the
Species and Magnitude of Curvilinear
Figures", First Edition, (London:
1704) http://www.newtonproject.sussex.a
c.uk/catalogue/record/NATP00031
[17]
http://www.physics.odu.edu/~kuhn/PHYS101
/VisViva.html#ref
[18] "Isaac Newton". Encyclopedia of
the Early Modern World. The Gale Group,
Inc, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Isaac+Newton+?cat
=technology
[19]
http://books.google.com/books?id=Q7wkAAA
AMAAJ&pg=RA1-PA136&dq=aristotle+physics+
gravity+levity&as_brr=1
[20]
http://books.google.com/books?id=Q7wkAAA
AMAAJ&pg=RA1-PA141&lpg=RA1-PA141&dq=aris
totle+gravity+levity&source=web&ots=uMyd
iEAeSU&sig=7Jj8rcY4QjtyJC6olR_uyAt2KAE#P
RA1-PA141,M1
[21] "Isaac Newton". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newto
n
[22] "Edmund Halley". Who2?
Biographies. Who2?, 2008. Answers.com
2008.
http://www.answers.com/Edmund+Halley+?ca
t=technology
[23] The Mechanical Universe, Episode
18, Waves
[24]
http://www.mathpages.com/home/kmath109/k
math109.htm
[25] Tricker, R. A. R., "Early
Electrodynamics - The First Law of
Circulation", (Pergamon, NY), 1965, p4
[1] Newton, Isaac, Sir. Philosophiæ
naturalis principia mathematica.
Auctore Isaaco Newtono, Equite Aurato.
Editio secunda auctior et emendatior.
Cantabrigiæ, MDCCXIII. [1713].
Eighteenth Century Collections Online.
Gale. UC Irvine. 27 Mar. 2013,
p370-371.
{Newton_Principia_Second_Edition_17130
328.pdf} PD
source:
[2] Sir Isaac Newton's own first
edition copy of his Philosophiae
Naturalis Principia Mathematica with
his handwritten corrections for the
second edition. The first edition was
published under the imprint of Samuel
Pepys who was president of the Royal
Society. By the time of the second
edition, Newton himself had become
president of the Royal Society, as
noted in his corrections. The book can
be seen in the Wren Library of Trinity
College, Cambridge. CC
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:NewtonsPrincipia.jpg
[1718 AD] 4 5
long periods of time is proven.1 2 3
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ Edmund Halley, "Considerations on
the Change of the Latitudes of Some of
the Principal Fixt Stars.", R. S. Sec.
Phil. Trans. 1717 30 351-363 736-738;
doi:10.1098/rstl.1717.0025
http://intl-rstl.royalsocietypublishin
g.org/citmgr?gca=roypt;30/351-363/736
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/103320
2. ^ Aitken, R. G., "Edmund Halley and
Stellar Proper Motions", Astronomical
Society of the Pacific Leaflets, Vol.
4, No. 164,
p.103. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du//full/1942ASPL....4..103A/0000106.000
.html
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp159-160.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp159-160.
5. ^ Aitken, R.
G., "Edmund Halley and Stellar Proper
Motions", Astronomical Society of the
Pacific Leaflets, Vol. 4, No. 164,
p.103. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du//full/1942ASPL....4..103A/0000106.000
.html
MORE INFO
[1] "Edmond Halley". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8943/Edmond-Halley
[2] "Edmund Halley". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmund_Hall
ey
[3] "comet". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-911
0156/comet
[4] "Comet Halley". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet_Halle
y
[1] Description Comet P/Halley as
taken March 8, 1986 by W. Liller,
Easter Island, part of the
International Halley Watch (IHW) Large
Scale Phenomena Network. Source
NSSDC's Photo Gallery (NASA): *
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/photo_gallery
/photogallery-comets.html *
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image/planeta
ry/comet/lspn_comet_halley1.jpg Date
image taken on 8. Mar. 1986 Author
NASA/W. Liller Permission (Reusing
this image) Copyright information
from
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/photo_gallery
/photogallery-faq.html - All of the
images presented on NSSDC's Photo
Gallery are in the public domain. As
such, they may be used for any purpose.
[...] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Lspn_comet_halley.jpg
[2] Portrait of Edmond Halley painted
around 1687 by Thomas Murray (Royal
Society, London) uploaded from
http://www.phys.uu.nl/~vgent/astrology/n
ewton.htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Edmund_Halley.gif
[1735 AD] 5 6 7
categorized.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Carolus Linnaeus". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8407/Carolus-Linnaeus
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp181-183.
3. ^
"carolus linnaeus". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/carolus-lin
naeus
4. ^ "Carolus Linnaeus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carolus_Lin
naeus
5. ^ "Carolus Linnaeus". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8407/Carolus-Linnaeus (1735)
6. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and technology;
the lives and achievements of 1195
great scientists from ancient times to
the present, chronologically arranged",
(Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982),
pp181-183. (1735)
7. ^ "carolus linnaeus".
History of Science and Technology.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/carolus-lin
naeus (1735)
[1] Table of the Animal Kingdom (Regnum
Animale) from Carolus Linnaeus's first
edition (1735) of Systema Naturae. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Linnaeus_-_Regnum_Animale_%281735%29.
png
[2] Artist Alexander Roslin Title
Carl von Linné 1707-1778 Year
1775 Technique Oil on
canvas Dimensions 56 x 46 cm Current
location Royal Science Academy of
Sweden (Kungliga vetenskapsakademin)
Stockholm Permission Public
domain Carl von Linné painted by
Alexander Roslin in 1775. The original
painting can be viewed at the Royal
Science Academy of Sweden (Kungliga
vetenskapsakademin). PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Carl_von_Linn%C3%A9.jpg
[11/04/1745 AD] 11 12 13
capacitor.4 5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "E Georg von Kleist".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
5738/E-Georg-von-Kleist
2. ^ Priestley, Joseph. The history and
present state of electricity, with
original experiments, by Joseph
Priestley, ... The third edition,
corrected and enlarged Vol. 1. London,
1775. 2 vols. Eighteenth Century
Collections Online. Gale Group,
pp102-103.
http://galenet.galegroup.com/servlet/ECC
O Gale Document Number: CW3308601351
3. ^ Keithley,
J.F. The Story of Electrical and
Magnetic Measurements: From 500 BC to
the 1940s. Wiley, 1999,
p21. http://books.google.com/books?id=u
wgNAtqSHuQC&pg=PA21
4. ^ "E Georg von Kleist". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
5738/E-Georg-von-Kleist
5. ^ Priestley, Joseph. The history and
present state of electricity, with
original experiments, by Joseph
Priestley, ... The third edition,
corrected and enlarged Vol. 1. London,
1775. 2 vols. Eighteenth Century
Collections Online. Gale Group,
pp102-103.
http://galenet.galegroup.com/servlet/ECC
O Gale Document Number: CW3308601351
6. ^ Keithley,
J.F. The Story of Electrical and
Magnetic Measurements: From 500 BC to
the 1940s. Wiley, 1999,
p21. http://books.google.com/books?id=u
wgNAtqSHuQC&pg=PA21
7. ^ Keithley, J.F. The Story of
Electrical and Magnetic Measurements:
From 500 BC to the 1940s. Wiley, 1999,
p21. http://books.google.com/books?id=u
wgNAtqSHuQC&pg=PA21
8. ^ "E Georg von Kleist". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
5738/E-Georg-von-Kleist
9. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/kleist
.html
10. ^ "Pomerania". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pomerania
11. ^ Keithley, J.F. The Story of
Electrical and Magnetic Measurements:
From 500 BC to the 1940s. Wiley, 1999,
p21. http://books.google.com/books?id=u
wgNAtqSHuQC&pg=PA21
12. ^ Priestley, Joseph. The history
and present state of electricity, with
original experiments, by Joseph
Priestley, ... The third edition,
corrected and enlarged Vol. 1. London,
1775. 2 vols. Eighteenth Century
Collections Online. Gale Group, p102.
http://galenet.galegroup.com/servlet/ECC
O Gale Document Number: CW3308601351
(11/04/1745)
13. ^ "E Georg von Kleist".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
5738/E-Georg-von-Kleist (1745)
MORE INFO
[1] "Ewald Georg von Kleist".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ewald_Georg
_von_Kleist
Germany7 (was for von Kleist:
Pomerania?, Prussia8 9 ) (coast of
Baltic Sea between Germany and Poland10
)
[1]
http://books.google.com/books?id=ko9BAAA
AIAAJ&pg=PA71&dq=jar+%22von+Kleist%22&lr
=&as_brr=1&ei=aniTR_uCJ5HwsgOQ5bU4#PPA71
,M1 page with text and figure about
von Kleist's invention of the Leyden
jar Source Electricity in Every-day
Life Date 1905 Author Edwin J.
Houston PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Von_Kleist_Leyden_jar_1905.png
[2] Pieter van Musschenbroek aus:
http://20eeuwennederland.nl/actueel/1113
.htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Pieter_van_Musschenbroek.jpeg
[1747 AD] 3
understood.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ William Cullen, "Of the Cold
produced by evaporating Fluids and of
some other Means of producing Cold",
Philosophical Society of Edinburgh.
Essays and observations, physical and
literary. Read before a Society in
Edinburgh, and published by them.
Volume 2. Edinburgh, 1754. 464pp. 2
vols,
p145-156. {Cullen_evaporation.pdf}
2. ^ William Cullen, "Of the Cold
produced by evaporating Fluids and of
some other Means of producing Cold",
Philosophical Society of Edinburgh.
Essays and observations, physical and
literary. Read before a Society in
Edinburgh, and published by them.
Volume 2. Edinburgh, 1754. 464pp. 2
vols,
p145-156. {Cullen_evaporation.pdf}
3. ^ William Cullen, "Of the Cold
produced by evaporating Fluids and of
some other Means of producing Cold",
Philosophical Society of Edinburgh.
Essays and observations, physical and
literary. Read before a Society in
Edinburgh, and published by them.
Volume 2. Edinburgh, 1754. 464pp. 2
vols,
p145-156. {Cullen_evaporation.pdf}
{1747}
MORE INFO
[1] "William Cullen". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Cul
len
[2] "William Cullen." Encyclopedia of
the Early Modern World. The Gale Group,
Inc, 2004. Answers.com 09 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-cul
len
[3] Thomas S. Kuhn, "The Caloric Theory
of Adiabatic Compression", Isis, Vol.
49, No. 2 (Jun., 1958), pp.
132-140. http://www.jstor.org/sici?sici
=0021-1753(195806)49%3A2%3C132%3ATCTOAC%
3E2.0.CO%3B2-7 {Cullen_William_1755_Isi
s.pdf} (05/01/1755)
Russia2
[1] William Cullen, ''Of the Cold
produced by evaporating Fluids and of
some other Means of producing Cold'',
Philosophical Society of Edinburgh.
Essays and observations, physical and
literary. Read before a Society in
Edinburgh, and published by them.
Volume 2. Edinburgh, 1754. 464pp. 2
vols,
p145-156. {Cullen_evaporation.pdf} PD
source: Cullen_evaporation.pdf
[2] St. Petersburg, 6 August 1783.
Prof. Richman and his assistant being
struck by lightning while charging
capacitors. The assistant escaped
almost unharmed, whereas Richman was
dead immediately. The pathologic
analysis revealed that ''he only had a
small hole in his forehead, a burnt
left shoe and a blue spot at his foot.
[...] the brain being ok, the front
part of the lung sane, but the rear
being brown and black of blood.'' The
conclusion was that the electric
discharge had taken its way through
Richmann's body. The scientific
community was shocked. [t notice
difference in dates] PD/Corel
source: http://www.hp-gramatke.net/histo
ry/english/page4000.htm
[1760 AD] 4 5
using electricity. Water is separated
into hydrogen and oxygen gases using
electricity.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^
http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/16009a.h
tm
3. ^ "Giovanni Battista Beccaria".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giovanni_Ba
ttista_Beccaria
4. ^
http://www.journals.royalsoc.ac.uk/conte
nt/c8x97gg743267538/fulltext.pdf (1760
(presumably)
5. ^
http://books.google.com/books?id=wKzJTBZ
h20wC&pg=PA59&lpg=PA59&dq=%22john+warlti
re%22+electricity&source=web&ots=qx-N2a9
F9w&sig=0ReDFF5mI7Bgvvrn__a-VFc2T-0
(c1762)
MORE INFO
[1] "Electricity". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Electric
ity
[2] Phil. Trans., 1 744, 43, p. 167)
[3]
"Electrolysis". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Electrol
ysis
[4]
http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/06649b.h
tm
[5]
http://www.journals.royalsoc.ac.uk/conte
nt/?k=Beccaria
[6] "biophysics#48706.toc".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-911
0580/biophysics#48706.toc
[7]
http://www.amphilsoc.org/library/mole/b/
beccaria.xml
[1] Anonimo, Giambattista Beccaria,
fine secolo XVIII PD?
source: http://www.torinoscienza.it/img/
orig/it/s00/00/000c/00000c89.jpg
[2] Beccaria, Giovanni Battista
(1716-1781) PD?
source: http://bms.beniculturali.it/ritr
atti/ritratti.php?chiave=ritr0079
[05/29/1766 AD] 4 5
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ "Henry Cavendish". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
1916/Henry-Cavendish
2. ^ Henry Cavendish, "Three Papers,
Containing Experiments on Factitious
Air, by the Hon. Henry Cavendish, F. R.
S.", Philosophical Transactions
(1683-1775) , Vol. 56, (1766), pp.
141-184 http://www.jstor.org/stable/105
491
3. ^ "Henry Cavendish". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
1916/Henry-Cavendish
4. ^ Henry Cavendish, "Three Papers,
Containing Experiments on Factitious
Air, by the Hon. Henry Cavendish, F. R.
S.", Philosophical Transactions
(1683-1775) , Vol. 56, (1766), pp.
141-184 http://www.jstor.org/stable/105
491
5. ^ "Henry Cavendish". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
1916/Henry-Cavendish (1766)
MORE INFO
[1] "Henry Cavendish". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Caven
dish
[2] "Hydrogen#History". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen#Hi
story
[3]
http://books.google.com/books?id=ygqYnSR
3oe0C&printsec=frontcover&dq=the+scienti
fic+papers+cavendish#PPA77,M1
[4]
http://portal.acs.org/portal/acs/corg/co
ntent?_nfpb=true&_pageLabel=PP_ARTICLEMA
IN&node_id=925&content_id=CTP_004439&use
_sec=true&sec_url_var=region1
[5] Three Papers, Containing
Experiments on Factitious Air, by the
Hon. Henry Cavendish, F. R.
S. Journal Philosophical Transactions
(1683-1775) Issue Volume 56 -
1766 Pages 141-184 DOI 10.1098/rstl.17
66.0019 http://www.journals.royalsoc.ac
.uk/content/k22512528480nx11/?p=d80161c9
05fe4831aa63484ba66ccb98&pi=2 cavendish
_3gases.pdf
[1] Figures 1-6 from: Henry Cavendish,
''Three Papers, Containing Experiments
on Factitious Air, by the Hon. Henry
Cavendish, F. R. S.'', Philosophical
Transactions (1683-1775) , Vol. 56,
(1766), pp.
141-184 http://www.jstor.org/stable/105
491 PD
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1054
91
[2] By Henry Cavendish Published
1921 The University Press PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=ygqYnSR3oe0C&printsec=frontcover&dq=the
+scientific+papers+cavendish#PPA78-IA
[1769 AD] 8
vehicle.3 4 A steam-engine powered
automobile.5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ "Cugnot". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cugnot
3. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
4. ^ "Cugnot". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cugnot
5. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
6. ^ "Cugnot". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cugnot
7. ^ "Cugnot". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cugnot
8. ^ "Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 02
Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/145966/Nicolas-Joseph-Cugnot>. {1769}
[1] Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot's steam auto,
from 7 August, 1869 issue of Appleton's
Journal of Popular Literature, Science,
and Art. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:CugnotAppleton.jpg
[2] Fardier de Cugnot, modèle de
1771. Musée des Arts et Métiers,
Paris. 11 janvier 2005. (Note that
this is the second fardier, the
full-size one. It is not a 'model' (as
has been mis-translated
elsewhere)) Source : Photo et
photographisme © Roby 19:13, 12 Jan
2005 (UTC). Avec l'aimable permission
du Musée des Arts et Métiers, Paris.
GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/56/FardierdeCugnot200501
11.jpg
[1772 AD] 3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p238.
2. ^ "Daniel
Rutherford". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Daniel+Rutherford
?cat=technology
3. ^ "nitrogen". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
5947/nitrogen (1772)
MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[2] "Nitrogen". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrogen
[1] Description Scan of an old
picture of Daniel Rutherford Source
The Gases of the Atmosphere (old
book) Date 1896 Author William
Ramsay PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Rutherford_Daniel.jpg
[08/01/1774 AD] 3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Joseph Priestley". Encyclopedia
of the Early Modern World. The Gale
Group, Inc, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Joseph%20Priestle
y
2. ^ "Joseph Priestley". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Prie
stley
3. ^ "Joseph Priestley". Encyclopedia
of the Early Modern World. The Gale
Group, Inc, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Joseph%20Priestle
y (08/01/1774)
4. ^ Experiments and Observations on
Different Kinds of Air, Vol.2. London,
1775,
p34. books.google.com/books?id=gB0UAAAA
QAAJ&pg=PA34
MORE INFO
[1] "Joseph Priestley".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
1366/Joseph-Priestley
[2] "oxygen". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
7841/oxygen
[3] "Oxygen". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxygen
[4]
http://www.answers.com/oxygen?cat=health
[1] Portrait of Joseph
Priestley Source
http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=h
ttp://www.chemistry.msu.edu/Portraits/im
ages/priestlyc.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.
chemistry.msu.edu/Portraits/PortraitsHH_
Detail.asp%3FHH_LName%3DPriestley&h=640&
w=462&sz=57&hl=en&start=9&tbnid=ipHldQCy
TukivM:&tbnh=137&tbnw=99&prev=/images%3F
q%3Djoseph%2Bpriestley%26gbv%3D2%26svnum
%3D10%26hl%3Den%26sa%3DG Date
1794 Author Ellen Sharples PD
AND [5] Joseph Priestley Library of
Congress PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Priestley.jpghttp://www.answers.com/K
arl+Wilhelm+Scheele+?cat=technology
[2] Portrait of Joseph
Priestley Source
http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=h
ttp://www.chemistry.msu.edu/Portraits/im
ages/priestlyc.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.
chemistry.msu.edu/Portraits/PortraitsHH_
Detail.asp%3FHH_LName%3DPriestley&h=640&
w=462&sz=57&hl=en&start=9&tbnid=ipHldQCy
TukivM:&tbnh=137&tbnw=99&prev=/images%3F
q%3Djoseph%2Bpriestley%26gbv%3D2%26svnum
%3D10%26hl%3Den%26sa%3DG Date
1794 Author Ellen Sharples PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Priestley.jpg
[1774 AD] 3
reaction with a gas in the air (later
named oxygen).1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp222-226.
2. ^ "Antoine Laurent
Lavoisier". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
6472/Antoine-Laurent-Lavoisier
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp222-226. (1774)
(1774)
MORE INFO
[1] "Antoine Laurent Lavoisier".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antoine_Lau
rent_Lavoisier
[1] Creator/Artist Name English:
Jacques-Louis David Alternative names
English: David Date of birth/death
1748-08-30 1825-12-29 Location of
birth/death English: Paris Work
location Title English: Portrait
of Monsieur de Lavoisier and his
Wife Year 1788 Technique English:
Oil on canvas Dimensions 259.7 x 196
cm Current location Metropolitan
Museum of Art New York PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:David_-_Portrait_of_Monsieur_Lavoisie
r_and_His_Wife.jpg
[2] Scientist: Lavoisier, Antoine
Laurent (1743 - 1794) Discipline(s):
Chemistry Print Artist: William G.
Jackman, fl. 1841-1860 Medium:
Engraving Original Artist: Jacques
Louis David, 1744-1825 Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 15.2 x 10.8 cm /
Sheet: 24.7 x 13.9 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=L
[1774 AD] 5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.ilt.columbia.edu/projects/blu
etelephone/html/part4.html
2. ^ Bowers , Brain, "Sir Charles
Wheatstone" Science Museum- London Her
Majesty's Stationery Office 1977, Pg109
3. ^
The Worldwide History of
Telecommunications, By Anton A.
Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052, John
Wiley & Sons, Inc, p48.
4. ^ The Worldwide
History of Telecommunications, By Anton
A. Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052,
John Wiley & Sons, Inc, p48-49.
5. ^ The
Worldwide History of
Telecommunications, By Anton A.
Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052, John
Wiley & Sons, Inc, p48-49. (1774)
MORE INFO
[1] "Georges-Louis LeSage".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georges-Lou
is_LeSage
[1] Le Sage: Telegraph, 1774 PD
source: http://images.fineartamerica.com
/images-medium-large/le-sage-telegraph-1
774-granger.jpg
[2] Description Georges-Louis Le
Sage Source Bibliotheque
Geneve Date 2007-08-27 Author
Created around 1780 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Lesage.jpg
[03/13/1781 AD] 3 4
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp212-215.
2. ^ "Sir William
Herschel". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0235/Sir-William-Herschel
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp212-215. (1781)
(1781)
4. ^ "William Herschel". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/William+Herschel?
cat=technology (03/13/1781)
MORE INFO
[1] # Full text of The Story of
the Herschels (1886) from Project
Gutenberg
http://www.gutenberg.net/etext/12340
[2]
http://www.seds.org/messier/xtra/similar
/herschel.html
[3]
http://www.ruf.rice.edu/~trw/telescopes.
html
[1] Wilhelm Herschel, German-British
astronomer. from fr. PD
source: http://cunosc.ro/curiozitati/ima
gini/backup/Astronomie/William_Herschel-
high.jpg
[2] Wilhelm Herschel, German-British
astronomer. from fr. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:William_Herschel01.jpg
[07/15/1783 AD] 3 4 5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Claude Francois Dorothee marquis
de Jouffroy dAbbans". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
4021/Claude-Francois-Dorothee-marquis-de
-Jouffroy-dAbbans
2. ^ "Claude Francois Dorothee marquis
de Jouffroy dAbbans". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
4021/Claude-Francois-Dorothee-marquis-de
-Jouffroy-dAbbans
3. ^ http://www.answers.com/steamship
(1783)
4. ^ "Claude Francois Dorothee marquis
de Jouffroy dAbbans". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
4021/Claude-Francois-Dorothee-marquis-de
-Jouffroy-dAbbans (1783)
5. ^
http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08526b.h
tm (07/15/1783)
MORE INFO
[1] "Claude de Jouffroy".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claude_de_J
ouffroy
[2] "Steamboat". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steamboat
[1] Model of a steamship, built by
d'Abbans in 1784. Musee de la Marine.
GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:D%27AbbansSteamshipModel.jpg
[11/21/1783 AD] 3 4
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ "balloon flight." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 21 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/1424455/balloon-flight>.
2. ^ "Montgolfier". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Montgolfier?cat=t
echnology
3. ^ "balloon flight." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 21 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/1424455/balloon-flight>. {11/21/1783}
4. ^ Yenne
and Grosser, "100 Inventions That
Shaped World History", 1993, p40.
{11/21/1783}
MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982)
[2] "Joseph Michel and
Jacques Etienne Montgolfier".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
3540/Joseph-Michel-and-Jacques-Etienne-M
ontgolfier
[3] "Montgolfier". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montgolfier
[4] "Jean-François Pilâtre de
Rozier". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Fran%C
3%A7ois_Pil%C3%A2tre_de_Rozier
(11/21/1783)
.jpg)
[1] This image is available from the
United States Library of Congress
Prints and Pictures division under the
digital ID ppmsca.02562 The first
untethered balloon flight, by Rosier
and the Marquis d'Arlandes on 21
November 1783. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Early_flight_02562u_%284%29.jpg
[2] REPRODUCTION NUMBER:
LC-DIG-ppmsca-02227 (digital file from
original print) LC-USZ62-15586 (b&w
film copy neg.) No known restrictions
on publication. SUMMARY: Oval
head-and-shoulders portrait of French
balloonist Jean-François Pilâtre de
Rozier, who took the first balloon
flight in 1783. MEDIUM: 1 print :
etching with
engraving. CREATED/PUBLISHED: [S.l.]
: Chez Mr. Pujos, peintre, [between
1783 and 1800] RELATED
NAMES: Pujos, André, 1738-1788,
artist. NOTES: ''Et se trouve
chez Mr. Pujos Peintre, Quai Pelletier
prés la Greve''-- at bottom of
print. Title from
item. Tissandier
collection. SUBJECTS: Pilâtre de
Rozier, Jean-François, 1754-1785.
Balloonists--French--1780-1800. FORMA
T: Portrait prints 1780-1800.
Etchings 1780-1800. REPOSITORY:
Library of Congress Prints and
Photographs Division Washington, D.C.
20540 USA DIGITAL ID: (digital file
from original print) ppmsca 02227
http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/ppmsca.02227
(b&w film copy neg.) cph 3a17830
http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/cph.3a17830
CARD #: 2002724820 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Pilatre_de_Rozier.jpg
[01/15/1784 AD] 4 5
an element. Fusion of molecules using
electricity. Water is synthesized by
using an electric spark in hydrogen and
oxygen gases.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Henry Cavendish." Britannica
Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia
Britannica, Inc., 1994-2010.
Answers.com 28 Feb. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/henry-caven
dish
2. ^ Henry Cavendish, "Experiments On
Air", Philosophical Transactions, Vol
74, 1784,
pp119-153. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=Dk9FAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA119 AND
http://books.google.com/books?id=-uEKA
AAAIAAJ
3. ^ "Henry Cavendish". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
1916/Henry-Cavendish
4. ^ Henry Cavendish, "Experiments On
Air", Philosophical Transactions, Vol
74, 1784,
pp119-153. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=Dk9FAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA119 AND
http://books.google.com/books?id=-uEKA
AAAIAAJ
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp200-202.
(01/15/1784) (01/15/1784)
MORE INFO
[1] "Henry Cavendish". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Caven
dish
[2] "Henry Cavendish". History of
Science and Technology. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Henry+Cavendish?c
at=technology
[1] Text from: Henry Cavendish,
''Experiments On Air'', Philosophical
Transactions, Vol 74, 1784, pp119-153,
text from
p129. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Dk9FAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA119 AND
http://books.google.com/books?id=-uEKA
AAAIAAJ PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=Dk9FAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false
[2] Scan of a drawing of Cavendish's
apparatus for making hydrogen
gas Source Philosophical
Transactions (periodical) Date
1766 Author Henry Cavendish PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Cavendish_hydrogen.jpg
[1784 AD] 5 6 7
sulfur dioxide.1 2 3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Monge, Gaspard." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 9. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 469-478. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 26 Mar. 2013.
2. ^
Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp230-231.
3. ^ Ren� Taton,
Gaspard MONGE (Count de P�luse.),
"L'�uvre Scientifique de Monge",
1951,
p332-333. {Monge_First_liquefaction_of_
gas_Taton_1951.pdf}
4. ^ "Monge, Gaspard." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 9. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 469-478. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 26 Mar. 2013.
5. ^
"Monge, Gaspard." Complete Dictionary
of Scientific Biography. Vol. 9.
Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008.
469-478. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Web. 26 Mar. 2013.
6. ^ Ren�
Taton, Gaspard MONGE (Count de
P�luse.), "L'�uvre Scientifique de
Monge", 1951,
p332-333. {Monge_First_liquefaction_of_
gas_Taton_1951.pdf}
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp230-231. (1785)
(1785)
MORE INFO
[1] "Gaspard Monge". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaspard_Mon
ge
[2]
http://books.google.com/books?id=YrQEAAA
AYAAJ&pg=PA15&dq=intitle:statics&as_brr=
1&hl=en An Elementary Treatise on
Statics With a Biographical Notice of
the Author (Biddle, Philadelphia, 1851)
[3]
http://books.google.com/books?id=UjEDAAA
AQAAJ&printsec=titlepage&dq=inauthor:Gas
pard+inauthor:Monge&as_brr=0&hl=en An
elementary treatise on descriptive
geometry, with a theory of shadows and
of perspective (Weale, London, 1851)
[1] Scientist: Monge, Gaspard (1746 -
1818) Discipline(s): Mathematics ;
Chemistry ; Physics Print Artist:
François-Seraphin Delpech, 1778-1825
Medium: Lithograph Original
Artist: Henri-Joseph Hesse, 1781-1849
Original Dimensions: Graphic: 9.2 x
8.5 cm / Sheet: 21.3 x 12.4
cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=M
[2] GASPARD MONGE Photo : Patrice
Maurin-Berthier (C) Photo
Collections Ecole
polytechnique PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sabix.org/bulletin/b2
3/monge.html
[06/02/1785 AD] 3 4
gases, and not a single element.1
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^ "Henry Cavendish". History of
Science and Technology. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Henry+Cavendish?c
at=technology
2. ^ "Henry Cavendish". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
1916/Henry-Cavendish
3. ^ Henry Cavendish, "Experiments on
Air.", Philosophical Transactions of
the Royal Society of London
(1776-1886), Volume 75 - 1785,
372-384 Henry Cavendish, "Experiments
On Air", Philosophical Transactions,
Vol 74, 1784,
pp119-153. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=-uEKAAAAIAAJ
4. ^ "Henry Cavendish". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
1916/Henry-Cavendish (1785)
MORE INFO
[1] "Henry Cavendish". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Caven
dish
[1] Figures 1-3 from: Henry
Cavendish, ''Experiments on Air.'',
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1776-1886), Volume
75 - 1785, 372-384 Henry Cavendish,
''Experiments On Air'', Philosophical
Transactions, Vol 74, 1784,
pp119-153. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=-uEKAAAAIAAJ PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=-uEKAAAAIAAJ
[2] Figure from Experiments on Air.
By Henry Cavendish, Esq. F.R.S. and
A.S. Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 75 -
1785 Pages 372-384 DOI 10.1098/rstl.17
85.0023 PD?
source: http://www.journals.royalsoc.ac.
uk/content/002m322p050qv423/?p=d80161c90
5fe4831aa63484ba66ccb98&pi=6
[1785 AD] 4
and repulsion are proven to be both
proportional to amount of charge and
inversely proportional to distance
squared.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Baigrie, B.S. Electricity and
Magnetism: a Historical Perspective.
Greenwood Press., p46.
http://books.google.com/books?id=3XEc5
xkWxi4C&pg=PA43&lpg=PA43&dq=coulomb+1785
+construction+and+usage&source=web&ots=R
Cp1tlEosB&sig=olOXH2XVdh36x0kmcoBsMtstqT
I#PPA44,M1 Electricity and Magnetism,
By Brian Baigrie, 2006
2. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p211.
4. ^
"Charles Augustin Coulomb".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Charles+Augustin+
Coulomb+?cat=technology (1785)
MORE INFO
[1] "Charles Augustin de
Coulomb". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
6555/Charles-Augustin-de-Coulomb
[2] "Charles Augustin Coulomb".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Aug
ustin_Coulomb
[1] Portrait by Hippolyte Lecomte PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Coulomb.jpg
[2] Charles-Augustin de Coulomb,
detail of a bronze bust. H.
Roger-Viollet COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-9659/Charles-Augustin-de-Coulomb-detail
-of-a-bronze-bust?articleTypeId=1
[1791 AD] 5
neuron writing). Muscle contracted
remotely by using an electric spark and
metal connected to a nerve.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Luigi Galvani, Elizabeth Licht,
Robert Green, "Commentary on the Effect
of Electricity on Muscular Motion",
Waverly Press, 1953.
2. ^ Luigi Galvani,
Elizabeth Licht, Robert Green,
"Commentary on the Effect of
Electricity on Muscular Motion",
Waverly Press, 1953.
3. ^ Luigi Galvani,
Elizabeth Licht, Robert Green,
"Commentary on the Effect of
Electricity on Muscular Motion",
Waverly Press, 1953.
4. ^ "Luigi Galvani".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
5937/Luigi-Galvani
5. ^ "Luigi Galvani". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
5937/Luigi-Galvani (1791)
MORE INFO
[1]
https://eee.uci.edu/clients/bjbecker/Nat
ureandArtifice/lecture14.html
[1] Italian physicists Luigi
Galvani Source
http://www.museopalazzopoggi.unibo.it
//poggi_eng/palazzo/foto/prot Date
18-19 th century Author
Unknown PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Luigi_Galvani%2C_oil-painting.jpg
[2] The electrochemical behavior of
two dissimilar metals [(zinc (Z) and
copper (C)] in a bimetallic arch, in
contact with the electrolytes of
tissue, produces an electric
stimulating current that elicits
muscular contraction. [Malmivuo, J., &
Plonsey, R. (1995).
Bioelectromagnatism: Principles and
applications of bioelectric and
biomagnetic fields. New York: Oxford
University Press., Ch.1] URL:
http://butler.cc.tut.fi/~malmivuo/bem/be
mbook/01/01.htm Diagram of Luigi
Galvani's frog legs (~1770s) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Galvani%27s_legs.gif
[07/01/1796 AD] 3 4 5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp236-237.
2. ^ "Edward Jenner".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
3524/Edward-Jenner
3. ^ "Edward Jenner". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
3524/Edward-Jenner (07/01/1796
(injection of small pox)
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp236-237.
(05/14/1796 (injection of cow pox)
(05/14/1796 (injection of cow pox)
5. ^
"Edward Jenner". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
3524/Edward-Jenner (05/14/1796
(injection of cow pox)
MORE INFO
[1] "Edward Jenner". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Jenn
er
[2]
http://www.answers.com/edward+jenner?cat
=health
[3]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[1] Source:
http://www.edward-jenner.com/family-life
.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Edward_Jenner2.jpg
[2] Figure 1: Portrait of Edward
Jenner painted in about 1800 by William
Pearce. Note the cows in the
background, the source of the cowpox
virus he used to vaccinate people
against smallpox. PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://openlearn.open.ac.uk/file
.php/2642/formats/S320_1_rss.xml
[1798 AD] 4
mass, and the density of the Earth are
measured.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp200-202.
2. ^ "Henry
Cavendish". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
1916/Henry-Cavendish
3. ^ "Henry Cavendish". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
1916/Henry-Cavendish
4. ^ "Henry Cavendish". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
1916/Henry-Cavendish (1798)
MORE INFO
[1] "Henry Cavendish". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Caven
dish
[1] Henry Cavendish Henry
CavendishBorn: 10-Oct-1731 Birthplace:
Nice, France Died:
24-Feb-1810 Location of death:
Clapham, England PD?
source: http://www.nndb.com/people/030/0
00083778/
[2] Old picture from F. Moore's
History of Chemistry, published in
1901 PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Caven
dish_Henry.jpg
[1799 AD] 3 4 5 6
definite proportions.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp245-246.
2. ^ "Joseph Louis
Proust". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
1640/Joseph-Louis-Proust
3. ^ "Joseph Louis Proust".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
1640/Joseph-Louis-Proust (1793)
4. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp245-246. (1799)
(1799)
5. ^ "Joseph Louis Proust". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Joseph+Louis+Prou
st?cat=technology (1799)
6. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
(1799)
MORE INFO
[1] "Joseph Louis Proust".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Loui
s_Proust
[1] Joseph Proust French
chemist Source Originally from
en.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. Date 2005-10-15 (original
upload date) Author Original
uploader was HappyApple at
en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
image) PD-AUTHOR; Released into the
public domain (by the author). PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Proust_joseph.jpg
[2] Joseph-Louis Proust, medallion by
Pierre-Jean David H. Roger-Viollet To
cite this page: * MLA style:
''Proust, Joseph-Louis: portrait
coin.'' Online Photograph.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 13
Dec. 2007
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-30847/Joseph-Louis-Proust-medallion-by-
Pierre-Jean-David?articleTypeId=1
[03/20/1800 AD] 6 7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp228-229.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp228-229.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp228-229.
4. ^ Volta, "On the
Electricity excited by the mere Contact
of conducting Substances of different
Kinds.", Philosophical Magazine,
September 1800,
p288. http://archive.org/download/lepid
opterarepor07winc/lepidopterarepor07winc
5. ^ "Conte Alessandro Volta".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
5699/Conte-Alessandro-Volta
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp228-229. (1800)
(1800)
7. ^ "alessandro volta". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alessandro-
volta?cat=technology (03/20/1800(sends
letter to Banks secretary of royal
society)
MORE INFO
[1] "Alessandro Volta".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alessandro_
Volta
[2]
http://inventors.about.com/library/inven
tors/bl_Alessandro_Volta.htm
[1] Volta, ''On the Electricity excited
by the mere Contact of conducting
Substances of different Kinds.'',
Philosophical Magazine, September 1800,
p415. http://archive.org/download/lepid
opterarepor07winc/lepidopterarepor07winc
.pdf PD
source: http://archive.org/download/lepi
dopterarepor07winc/lepidopterarepor07win
c.pdf
[2] Description Alessandro Giuseppe
Antonio Anastasio Volta Source
http://www.anthroposophie.net/bibliot
hek/nawi/physik/volta/bib_volta.htm Dat
e 2006-03-02 (original upload
date) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Alessandro_Volta.jpeg
[03/27/1800 AD] 8 9
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ William Herschel, "Investigation
of the Powers of the Prismatic Colours
to Heat and Illuminate Objects; With
Remarks, That Prove the Different
Refrangibility of Radiant Heat. To
Which is Added, an Inquiry into the
Method of Viewing the Sun
Advantageously, with Telescopes of
Large Apertures and High Magnifying
Powers.", Philosophical Transactions of
the Royal Society of London , Vol. 90,
(1800), pp. 255-283.
books.google.com/books?id=dlFFAAAAcAAJ
&pg=PA255
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp212-215.
3. ^ William
Herschel, "Investigation of the Powers
of the Prismatic Colours to Heat and
Illuminate Objects; With Remarks, That
Prove the Different Refrangibility of
Radiant Heat. To Which is Added, an
Inquiry into the Method of Viewing the
Sun Advantageously, with Telescopes of
Large Apertures and High Magnifying
Powers.", Philosophical Transactions of
the Royal Society of London , Vol. 90,
(1800), pp. 255-283.
books.google.com/books?id=dlFFAAAAcAAJ
&pg=PA255
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp212-215.
5. ^ William
Herschel, "Investigation of the Powers
of the Prismatic Colours to Heat and
Illuminate Objects; With Remarks, That
Prove the Different Refrangibility of
Radiant Heat. To Which is Added, an
Inquiry into the Method of Viewing the
Sun Advantageously, with Telescopes of
Large Apertures and High Magnifying
Powers.", Philosophical Transactions of
the Royal Society of London , Vol. 90,
(1800), pp. 255-283.
books.google.com/books?id=dlFFAAAAcAAJ
&pg=PA255
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp212-215.
7. ^ "Sir William
Herschel". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0235/Sir-William-Herschel
8. ^ William Herschel, "Investigation
of the Powers of the Prismatic Colours
to Heat and Illuminate Objects; With
Remarks, That Prove the Different
Refrangibility of Radiant Heat. To
Which is Added, an Inquiry into the
Method of Viewing the Sun
Advantageously, with Telescopes of
Large Apertures and High Magnifying
Powers.", Philosophical Transactions of
the Royal Society of London , Vol. 90,
(1800), pp. 255-283.
books.google.com/books?id=dlFFAAAAcAAJ
&pg=PA255
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp212-215. (1800)
(1800)
MORE INFO
[1] "William Herschel".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Her
schel
[1] William Herschel, ''Investigation
of the Powers of the Prismatic Colours
to Heat and Illuminate Objects; With
Remarks, That Prove the Different
Refrangibility of Radiant Heat. To
Which is Added, an Inquiry into the
Method of Viewing the Sun
Advantageously, with Telescopes of
Large Apertures and High Magnifying
Powers.'', Philosophical Transactions
of the Royal Society of London , Vol.
90, (1800), pp. 255-283.
books.google.com/books?id=dlFFAAAAcAAJ
&pg=PA255 PD
source: books.google.com/books?id=dlFFAA
AAcAAJ&pg=PA255
[2] Description Wilhelm Herschel,
German-British
astronomer. Date 1785 Source Nat
ional Portrait Gallery, London: NPG
98 Author Lemuel Francis Abbott PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/36/William_Herschel01.jp
g
[09/17/1800 AD] 3 4
separately from electrolysis of water.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p278.
2. ^ "Johann Wilhelm
Ritter". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
3787/Johann-Wilhelm-Ritter
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p244. (Nicholson:
05/02/1800)(by: )09/17/1800)
(Nicholson: 05/02/1800)(by:
)09/17/1800)
4. ^
http://www.acmi.net.au/AIC/RITTER_BIO.ht
ml (Nicholson: 05/02/1800)(by:
)09/17/1800) (Nicholson:
05/02/1800)(by: )09/17/1800)
MORE INFO
[1] "Johann Wilhelm Ritter".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Wilh
elm_Ritter
[2]
http://www2.uni-jena.de/biologie/ehh/for
um/ausstellungen/Physik_als_Kunst/Physik
_als_Kunst.htm
[3]
http://www.sil.si.edu/silpublications/di
bner-library-lectures/scientific-discove
ries/text-lecture.htm
[1] Undatiertes Portrait von J. W.
Ritter PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www2.uni-jena.de/biologie
/ehh/forum/ausstellungen/Physik_als_Kuns
t/Physik_als_Kunst.htm
[2] Johann Wilhelm Ritter. Undated
woodcut, courtesy Deutsches Museum,
Munich. Reproduced in Ritter
1986. PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/silpublica
tions/dibner-library-lectures/scientific
-discoveries/text-lecture.htm
[02/22/1801 AD] 4 5
light is discovered.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p278.
2. ^ Ritter, J. W.
"Auffindung nicht-sichtbarer
Sonnenstrahlen an der Seite des
Violett." Annalen der Physik 7 (1801):
527. http://books.google.com/books?id=q
wU4AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA527 English:
"Discovery of non-visible solar
radiation to the side of
violet." {todo: Determine if there is
any English translation of this work}
3. ^
"Johann Wilhelm Ritter". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
3787/Johann-Wilhelm-Ritter
4. ^ Ritter, J. W. "Auffindung
nicht-sichtbarer Sonnenstrahlen an der
Seite des Violett." Annalen der Physik
7 (1801):
527. http://books.google.com/books?id=q
wU4AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA527 English:
"Discovery of non-visible solar
radiation to the side of
violet." {todo: Determine if there is
any English translation of this work}
5. ^
Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p278. (1801) (1801)
MORE INFO
[1] "Johann Wilhelm Ritter".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Wilh
elm_Ritter
[2]
http://www2.uni-jena.de/biologie/ehh/for
um/ausstellungen/Physik_als_Kunst/Physik
_als_Kunst.htm
[3]
http://www.sil.si.edu/silpublications/di
bner-library-lectures/scientific-discove
ries/text-lecture.htm
[4] "Dowsing". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dowsing
[5]
http://www.acmi.net.au/AIC/RITTER_BIO.ht
ml
[1] Ritter, J. W. ''Auffindung
nicht-sichtbarer Sonnenstrahlen an der
Seite des Violett.'' Annalen der Physik
7 (1801):
527. http://books.google.com/books?id=q
wU4AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA527 English:
''Discovery of non-visible solar
radiation to the side of violet.'' PD
AND [1] Undatiertes Portrait von J. W.
Ritter PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=qwU4AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA527http://www2.uni-je
na.de/biologie/ehh/forum/ausstellungen/P
hysik_als_Kunst/Physik_als_Kunst.htm
[2] Undatiertes Portrait von J. W.
Ritter PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www2.uni-jena.de/biologie
/ehh/forum/ausstellungen/Physik_als_Kuns
t/Physik_als_Kunst.htm
[11/12/1801 AD] 8
particle intervals) of light
determined. Glass diffraction
gratings.5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Miscellaneous Works of the Late
Thomas Young", Thomas Young, George
Peacock, 1855 John Murray, p161.
2. ^ Thomas
Young, "The Bakerian Lecture: On the
Theory of Light and Colours",
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1776-1886),Volume
92, (1802),
pp12-48. http://journals.royalsociety.o
rg/content/q3r7063hh2281211/?p=422e575ba
e414c9a974a16d595c628d0π=24
AND http://books.google.com/books?id=-X
AXAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA140 {Young_Thomas_1802_
on_the_theory_of_light_and_colours.pdf}
3. ^ "Miscellaneous Works of the Late
Thomas Young", Thomas Young, George
Peacock, 1855 John Murray, p161.
4. ^ Thomas
Young, "The Bakerian Lecture: On the
Theory of Light and Colours",
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1776-1886),Volume
92, (1802),
pp12-48. http://journals.royalsociety.o
rg/content/q3r7063hh2281211/?p=422e575ba
e414c9a974a16d595c628d0π=24
AND http://books.google.com/books?id=-X
AXAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA140 {Young_Thomas_1802_
on_the_theory_of_light_and_colours.pdf}
5. ^ "Miscellaneous Works of the Late
Thomas Young", Thomas Young, George
Peacock, 1855 John Murray, p161.
6. ^ Thomas
Young, "The Bakerian Lecture: On the
Theory of Light and Colours",
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1776-1886),Volume
92, (1802),
pp12-48. http://journals.royalsociety.o
rg/content/q3r7063hh2281211/?p=422e575ba
e414c9a974a16d595c628d0π=24
AND http://books.google.com/books?id=-X
AXAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA140 {Young_Thomas_1802_
on_the_theory_of_light_and_colours.pdf}
7. ^ John Charles Drury Brand, Raymond
Bonnett, "Lines of Light: The Sources
of Dispersive Spectroscopy, 1800-1930",
CRC Press, 1995, p27.
http://books.google.com/books?id=sKx0I
BC22p4C&pg=PA32&lpg=PA32&dq=joseph+fraun
hofer+measured+wavelengths+lines&source=
web&ots=qKuKNGN2kv&sig=ZwvLfbjr0XPa68680
mOZkZhEnUs&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&res
num=4&ct=result#PPA32,M1 {11/12/1801}
8. ^ Thomas
Young, Philip Kelland, "A Course of
Lectures on Natural Philosophy and the
Mechanical Arts", Taylor and Walton,
1845. {Contains the lectures which form
vol. I of the 1807
edition.} http://books.google.com/books
?id=fGMSAAAAIAAJ {11/12/1801}
MORE INFO
[1] "Thomas Young (scientist)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Youn
g_%28scientist%29
[2] "etalon." Dictionary.com Unabridged
(v 1.1). Random House, Inc. 17 Jun.
2008.
talon>
[3] Thomas Young, "The Bakerian
Lecture: On the Theory of Light and
Colours", Philosophical Transactions of
the Royal Society of London
(1776-1886),Volume 92, (1802), pp12-48.
http://journals.royalsociety.org/conte
nt/q3r7063hh2281211/?p=422e575bae414c9a9
74a16d595c628d0π=24
AND http://books.google.com/books?id=-X
AXAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA140
[1] {ULSF: Table of light wavelengths
and frequencies calculated by Young
from Theory of Light and Colours
11/12/1801} The inch used in the table
is the French (Paris) inch of
27.07mm. PD/Corel AND Portrait of
Thomas Young in color PD
source: Young_Thomas_1802_on_the_theory_
of_light_and_colours.pdfhttp://ugadayki.
ru/images/sv/133163204157_full.jpg
[2] {ULSF: Table of light wavelengths
and frequencies calculated by Young
from Theory of Light and Colours
11/12/1801} The inch used in the table
is the French (Paris) inch of
27.07mm. PD/Corel
source: Young_Thomas_1802_on_the_theory_
of_light_and_colours.pdf
[1802 AD] 5 6
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^ "William Hyde Wollaston". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/William+Hyde+Woll
aston+?cat=technology
2. ^ William Hyde Wollaston, "A Method
of Examining Refractive and Dispersive
Powers, by Prismatic Reflection",
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1776-1886), Volume
92, (1802),
pp365-380. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
107124
AND http://journals.royalsociety.org/co
ntent/k1u515395v15n93p/?p=5f779c071a024f
e5bd90a27e9245eea7π=13 {Wollaston_Will
iam_1802_PT.pdf}
3. ^ Norman Lockyer, The Chemistry of
the Sun, Macmillan and co., (1887).
http://books.google.com/books?id=tr8KA
AAAIAAJ&pg=PA13&lpg=PA13&dq=Fraunhofer+1
814&source=web&ots=-3MHM347gt&sig=NeAo2-
HxUlNyC-wX6KRrM3pz_so&hl=en#PPA15,M1 {T
he_Chemistry_of_the_Sun.pdf}
4. ^ "William Hyde Wollaston". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/William+Hyde+Woll
aston+?cat=technology
5. ^ "William Hyde Wollaston". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/William+Hyde+Woll
aston+?cat=technology (1802)
6. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp257-258. (1802)
MORE INFO
[1] "William Hyde Wollaston".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Hyd
e_Wollaston
[2]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[3] Francis Wollaston, "The secret
history of a private man",
1795. http://books.google.com/books?hl=
en&id=vCUAAAAAQAAJ&dq=The+Secret+History
+of+a+Private+Man&printsec=frontcover&so
urce=web&ots=lMwgXnBmu7&sig=JiY5flaqsad7
lmMEp0aw3Smzu-c&sa=X&oi=book_result&resn
um=1&ct=result
[4] "William Hyde Wollaston."
Encyclopdia Britannica. Encyclopdia
Britannica Online. Encyclopdia
Britannica Inc., 2013. Web. 15 May.
2013.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/646649/William-Hyde-Wollaston>.
[1] William Wollaston Fiure 3 from
1802 Philosophical
Transactions PD/Corel
source: Wollaston_William_1802_PT.pdf
[2] Scientist: Wollaston, William
Hyde (1766 - 1878) Discipline(s):
Chemistry ; Physics ; Medicine Print
Artist: James Thomson, 1789-1850
Medium: Lithograph Original
Artist: J. Jackson Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 11.5 x 8.7 cm /
Sheet: 24.5 x 16 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=W
[10/21/1803 AD] 3 4
vary in size and mass is shown. Table
of elements by atomic mass.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "John Dalton". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 27 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/150287/John-Dalton/217770/Atomic
-theory>.
2. ^ "John Dalton". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
8616/John-Dalton (10/21/1803 (paper to
Manchester Literary and Philosophical
Society)
3. ^ "John Dalton". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 27 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/150287/John-Dalton/217770/Atomic
-theory>.
4. ^ John Dalton, "On the Absorption of
Gases by Water and Other Liquids."
Memoirs of the Literary and
Philosophical Society of Manchester ,
Second Series, 1, 271-87
(1805). http://books.google.com/books?i
d=LJNIAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA259
MORE INFO
[1] "John Dalton". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Dalton
[2]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[3] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp259-261. (1803)
(10/21/1803 (paper to Manchester
Literary and Philosophical Society)
[4]
http://www.surveyor.in-berlin.de/himmel/
Bios/Goodricke-e.html (1803)
[1] Two figures from: John Dalton,
''On the Absorption of Gases by Water
and Other Liquids.'' Memoirs of the
Literary and Philosophical Society of
Manchester , Second Series, 1, 271-87
(1805). http://books.google.com/books?i
d=LJNIAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA287 PD
AND Engraving of a painting of John
Dalton Source Frontispiece of John
Dalton and the Rise of Modern Chemistry
by Henry Roscoe Date 1895 Author
Henry Roscoe (author), William Henry
Worthington (engraver), and Joseph
Allen (painter) [t right one finger =
?] PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=LJNIAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA259http://en.wikipedi
a.org/wiki/Image:Dalton_John_desk.jpg
[2] Figure from: John Dalton, ''On
the Absorption of Gases by Water and
Other Liquids.'' Memoirs of the
Literary and Philosophical Society of
Manchester , Second Series, 1, 271-87
(1805). http://books.google.com/books?i
d=LJNIAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA287 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=LJNIAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA259
[1804 AD] 3 4
Earth.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Kremer, Michael. “Population
Growth and Technological Change: One
Million B.C. to 1990.” The Quarterly
Journal of Economics 108.3 (1993):
681–716. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
2118405
2. ^ Parker, G. Compact History of the
World. Barnes & Noble, 2001, p17.
3. ^
Kremer, Michael. “Population Growth
and Technological Change: One Million
B.C. to 1990.” The Quarterly Journal
of Economics 108.3 (1993):
681–716. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
2118405
4. ^
http://geography.about.com/od/obtainpopu
lationdata/a/worldpopulation.htm
[1] Parker, G. Compact History of the
World. Barnes & Noble, 2001,
p17. COPYRIGHTED
source: Parker, G. Compact History of
the World. Barnes & Noble, 2001, p17.
[1809 AD] 4 5
whole number ratios by volume.1 2
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp282-284.
3. ^ "Joseph Louis
Gay Lussac". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
6247/Joseph-Louis-Gay-Lussac
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp282-284. (1809)
(1809)
5. ^ "Joseph Louis Gay Lussac". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Joseph%20Louis%20
Gay-Lussac (1808)
MORE INFO
[1] "Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Loui
s_Gay-Lussac
[1] Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gaylussac.jpg
[2] Scientist: Gay-Lussac, Joseph
Louis (1778 - 1850) Discipline(s):
Chemistry ; Physics Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 10 x 6.4 cm /
Sheet: 25 x 19.3 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=g
[1809 AD] 8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp284-286.
2. ^ "Humphry Davy".
History of Science and Technology.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Humphry+Davy+?cat
=technology
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp284-286.
4. ^ "Humphry Davy".
History of Science and Technology.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Humphry+Davy+?cat
=technology
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp284-286.
6. ^ "Humphry Davy".
History of Science and Technology.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Humphry+Davy+?cat
=technology
7. ^ "Humphry Davy". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Humphry+Davy+?cat
=technology
8. ^ "Humphry Davy". History of Science
and Technology. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Humphry+Davy+?cat
=technology (1809)
MORE INFO
[1] "Sir Humphry Davy Baronet".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
9535/Sir-Humphry-Davy-Baronet
[2] "Humphry Davy". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humphry_Dav
y
[3]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[1] Humphry Davy demonstrates his new
electric light for the members of the
Royal Institution of London. Power is
drawn from the banks of batteries in
the basement and rapidly used up by the
intense light. Electric light was then
only a scientific curiosity, practical
only when expense was no
object. Humphry Davy Demonstrating the
Arc Light, 1809 PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://people.clarkson.edu/%7Eek
atz/scientists/davy.htm
[2]
http://www.nndb.com/people/028/000083776
/humphry-davy-2-sized.jpg [left finger
1: ''left'' viewed as educated
intellectuals in 1800s England? just
coincidence?] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Sir_Humphry_Davy2.jpg
[1811 AD] 3
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp277-278.
2. ^
"Amedeo Avogadro". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
4090/Amedeo-Avogadro
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp277-278.
(1811)
MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[1] Amedeo Avogadro, lithograph,
1856. The Granger Collection, New York
PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-15471/Amedeo-Avogadro-lithograph-1856?a
rticleTypeId=1
[2] [t [3 wiki] describes as
''Caricature of Amedeo Avogadro'', is
this not an accurate portrait? and no
photo by 1856?] Amedeo Avogadro -
chemist PD
source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wik
i/Image:Amedeo_Avogadro.gif
[1814 AD] 5
emit specific spectral lines is known.1
2 3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Joseph von Fraunhofer".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
5214/Joseph-von-Fraunhofer
2. ^ Norman Lockyer, The Chemistry of
the Sun, Macmillan and co., (1887).
http://books.google.com/books?id=tr8KA
AAAIAAJ&pg=PA13&lpg=PA13&dq=Fraunhofer+1
814&source=web&ots=-3MHM347gt&sig=NeAo2-
HxUlNyC-wX6KRrM3pz_so&hl=en#PPA15,M1 {T
he_Chemistry_of_the_Sun.pdf}
3. ^ Joseph, Fraunhofer, "Bestimmung
des Brechungs- und
Farbenzerstreuungs-Vermögens
verschiedener Glasarten, in Bezug auf
die Vervollkommnung achromatischer
Fernrohre.", Akademie Der
Wissenschaften zu München, (1814), 15
Band v, pp 193-226.
http://books.google.com/books?id=2-AAA
AAAYAAJ&pg=PA203 This work is
translated from German into English in
the "Edinburgh Philosophical Journal",
(1823) vol IX,
pp288-299 http://books.google.com/books
?id=Py87AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA288 and
"Edinburgh Philosophical Journal"
(1824), vol X,
p26. http://books.google.com/books?id=x
S87AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA26 In addition this
is printed in: Vol. 56, pp. 264-313.
Gilberts Annalen der Physik.
(1817) (Apparently the figures are not
included) {Fraunhofer_1817_1814.pdf} O
riginal in German:
{Fraunhofer_Joseph_1814.pdf} Another
English translation: Excerpts in
English translation "DETERMINATION OF
THE REFRACTIVE AND THE DISPERSIVE POWER
OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF GLASS WITH
REFERENCE TO THE PERFECTING OF
ACHROMATIC TELESCOPES.": J. S. Ames
(ed.), Prismatic and Diffraction
Spectra: Memoirs by Joseph von
Fraunhofer, New York 1898, pp. 1-10.
http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&id
=5GE3AAAAMAAJ&dq=Prismatic+and+Diffracti
on+Spectra:++Memoirs+by+Joseph+von+Fraun
hofer&printsec=frontcover&source=web&ots
=K2VGb4IsNb&sig=HcoZYrNDKoTfjsUErIWZX5pL
tn0&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&ct=resu
lt#PPA1,M1
4. ^ "Joseph von Fraunhofer".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
5214/Joseph-von-Fraunhofer
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp303-304. (1814)
MORE INFO
[1] "Joseph von Fraunhofer".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_von_
Fraunhofer
[1] Figure 3 from: Joseph,
Fraunhofer, ''Bestimmung des Brechungs-
und Farbenzerstreuungs-Vermögens
verschiedener Glasarten, in Bezug auf
die Vervollkommnung achromatischer
Fernrohre.'', Akademie Der
Wissenschaften zu München, (1814), 15
Band v, pp 193-226.
http://books.google.com/books?id=2-AAA
AAAYAAJ&pg=PA203 PD AND Figure 1
from: Joseph, Fraunhofer,
''Bestimmung des Brechungs- und
Farbenzerstreuungs-Vermögens
verschiedener Glasarten, in Bezug auf
die Vervollkommnung achromatischer
Fernrohre.'', Akademie Der
Wissenschaften zu München, (1814), 15
Band v, pp 193-226.
http://books.google.com/books?id=2-AAA
AAAYAAJ&pg=PA203 PD AND circa 1820
- 01 Jan 1820 Email this image Rate
this image Joseph von
Fraunhofer (Photo by Hulton
Archive/Getty Images) PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=2-AAAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA203http://www.viewima
ges.com/Search.aspx?mid=3270856&epmid=1&
partner=Google
[2] Figure 3 from: Joseph,
Fraunhofer, ''Bestimmung des Brechungs-
und Farbenzerstreuungs-Vermögens
verschiedener Glasarten, in Bezug auf
die Vervollkommnung achromatischer
Fernrohre.'', Akademie Der
Wissenschaften zu München, (1814), 15
Band v, pp 193-226.
http://books.google.com/books?id=2-AAA
AAAYAAJ&pg=PA203 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=2-AAAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA203
[11/??/1815 AD] 4 5 6
a multiple of hydrogen.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp297-298.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp297-298.
3. ^ "William
Prout". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/William+Prout?cat
=technology
4. ^ William Prout (published
anonymously), On the Relation between
the Specific Gravities of Bodies in
their Gaseous State and the Weights of
their Atoms. Annals of Philosophy 6,
p321-330
(1815). books.google.com/books?id=tDowA
AAAYAAJ
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp297-298. (1815)
(1815)
6. ^ "William Prout". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
1643/William-Prout (1815)
MORE INFO
[1] "William Prout". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Pro
ut
[2]
http://www.chem.yale.edu/~chem125/125/hi
story99/4RadicalsTypes/Analysis/Liebigan
al.html
[1] William Prout (published
anonymously), On the Relation between
the Specific Gravities of Bodies in
their Gaseous State and the Weights of
their Atoms. Annals of Philosophy 6,
p321-330
(1815). books.google.com/books?id=tDowA
AAAYAAJ PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=tDowAAAAYAA
[2] William Prout
(1785-1850) PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.uam.es/departamentos/
ciencias/qorg/docencia_red/qo/l0/1830.ht
ml
[04/21/1820 AD] 4 5 6 7 8 9
magnetism. First electromagnet.2
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ Hans Christian Oersted, (title in
Latin?), "Experiments on the Effect of
a Current of Electricity on the
Magnetic Needle.", Annals of
Philosophy, Vol. 16, pp. 274-75,
October 1820. Translated from a printed
account drawn up in Latin by the author
and transmitted by hum to the Editor of
the Annals of Philosophy. reprint is
in: Tricker, R. A. R., "Early
Electrodynamics - The First Law of
Circulation", (Pergamon, NY), 1965,
p113-117.
2. ^ Hans Christian Oersted, (title in
Latin?), "Experiments on the Effect of
a Current of Electricity on the
Magnetic Needle.", Annals of
Philosophy, Vol. 16, pp. 274-75,
October 1820. Translated from a printed
account drawn up in Latin by the author
and transmitted by hum to the Editor of
the Annals of Philosophy. reprint is
in: Tricker, R. A. R., "Early
Electrodynamics - The First Law of
Circulation", (Pergamon, NY), 1965,
p113-117.
3. ^ Hans Christian Oersted, (title in
Latin?), "Experiments on the Effect of
a Current of Electricity on the
Magnetic Needle.", Annals of
Philosophy, Vol. 16, pp. 274-75,
October 1820. Translated from a printed
account drawn up in Latin by the author
and transmitted by hum to the Editor of
the Annals of Philosophy. reprint is
in: Tricker, R. A. R., "Early
Electrodynamics - The First Law of
Circulation", (Pergamon, NY), 1965,
p113-117.
4. ^ "Hans Christian Ørsted".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Christ
ian_%C3%98rsted (04/21/1820)
5. ^ "Hans Christian
Orsted". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
7470/Hans-Christian-Orsted (04/1820)
6. ^ "hans
christian rsted". History of Science
and Technology. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hans-christ
ian-rsted?cat=technology (1820)
7. ^ "hans
christian rsted". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hans-christ
ian-rsted?cat=technology (1820)
8. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp281-282. (1819)
(1819)
9. ^ "hans christian rsted". The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hans-christ
ian-rsted?cat=technology (1819)
MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[2] "electromagnetic radiation".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-113
56/electromagnetic-radiation
[1] A younger Hans Christian Ørsted,
painted in the 19th century. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:%C3%98rsted.jpg
[2] Picture number :317 CD number
:9 Picture size :757x859[pixels],
66x75[mm] Date taken :0000-00-00
Date added
:2000-04-13 Fotographer/Owner :Engrave
d Location
:Denmark Description H.C. Oersted
(1777-1851). Danish physicist. Here as
a youngster. The picture was donated to
the Danish Polytech Institute,
Copenhagen, by his daughter Miss
Mathilde Oersted, April 19,
1905. PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.polytechphotos.dk/ind
ex.php?CHGLAN=2&CatID=286
[09/25/1820 AD] 3 4 5
electricity.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ AMPERE, André-Marie. Mémoire
présenté é l'Académie royale des
Sciences, le 2 octobre 1820, oé se
trouve compris le résumé de ce qui
avait été lu é la méme Académie
les 18 et 25 septembre 1820, sur les
effets des courans électriques.
Annales de chimie et de physique, 1820,
vol. 15, p. 59-74,
p.170-218. http://www.ampere.cnrs.fr/ic
e/ice_book_detail.php?lang=fr&type=text&
bdd=ampere&table=ampere_text&bookId=2&ty
peofbookId=1 partial translation to
English in: R. A. R. Tricker, "Early
Electrodynamics", Pergamum Press, 1965,
p140-154. http://www.ampere.cnrs.fr/ice
/ice_book_detail.php?lang=fr&type=text&b
dd=ampere&table=ampere_text&bookId=2&typ
eofbookId=1
2. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/ampere.htm
3. ^ AMPERE, André-Marie. "Mémoire
présenté à l'Académie royale des
Sciences, le 2 octobre 1820, où se
trouve compris le résumé de ce qui
avait été lu à la même Académie
les 18 et 25 septembre 1820, sur les
effets des courans électriques.",
Annales de chimie et de physique, 1820,
vol. 15, p. 59-74,
p.170-218. http://www.ampere.cnrs.fr/ic
e/ice_book_detail.php?lang=fr&type=text&
bdd=ampere&table=ampere_text&bookId=2&ty
peofbookId=1 partial translation to
English in: R. A. R. Tricker, "Early
Electrodynamics", Pergamum Press, 1965,
p140-154. http://www.ampere.cnrs.fr/ice
/ice_book_detail.php?lang=fr&type=text&b
dd=ampere&table=ampere_text&bookId=2&typ
eofbookId=1 {1820) 10/02/1820}
4. ^ R. A. R.
Tricker, "Early Electrodynamics",
Pergamum Press, 1965, p140-154.
{10/20/1820 (mistake}
5. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/ampere.htm c09/30/1820) (before
the end of September) c09/30/1820)
MORE INFO
[1] "Andre Marie Ampere".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
7234/Andre-Marie-Ampere
[2] "André Marie Ampère". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_
Marie_Amp%C3%A8re
[3]
http://www.answers.com/topic/hans-christ
ian-rsted?cat=technology
[4]
http://books.google.com/books?id=3XEc5xk
Wxi4C&pg=PA69&lpg=PA69&dq=%22The+mutual+
action+of+two+electric+currents%22&sourc
e=web&ots=RDi1vlMrpC&sig=gi8URXRfofk0H64
F6rtiHIYWarw&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&r
esnum=4&ct=result#PPA70,M1
[5] L. Pearce Williams, "What Were
Ampere's Earliest Discoveries in
Electrodynamics?", Isis , Vol. 74, No.
4 (Dec., 1983), pp.
492-508 http://www.jstor.org/stable/232
209
[6] "Analyse des Memoires lus par M.
Ampere a l'Academie des sciences, dans
les seances des 18 et 25 septembre,
des 9 et 30 octobre 1820," Annales
générales des sciences physiques
(published only 1819-1821), 1820,
6:238-257 ("Analyse");
p241-257. http://books.google.com/books
?id=3ugrAQAAMAAJ
[7] "Memoire presente a l'Academie
royale des Sciences, le 2 octobre 1820,
oiu se trouve compris le resume de ce
qui avait ete lu a la meme Academie les
18 et 25 septembre 1820, sur les
effets des courans electriques.","
Ann. chim. phys., 1820, 15:59-76;
"Suite du Mémoire," ibid.,
pp. 170-218. http://books.google.com/b
ooks?id=YezNlOSC2pcC&pg=PA59#v=onepage&q
&f=false
[1] [t Figure 1 and 2 from 10/02/1820
paper] PD/Corel
source: http://www.ampere.cnrs.fr/i-corp
uspic/tab/Oeuvres/annales_chimie_15/077.
jpg
[2] André-Marie Ampère
(1775-1836) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ampere1.jpg
[1820 AD] 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Gas Engine". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Gas_Engi
ne
2. ^ "Gas Engine". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Gas_Engi
ne
3. ^ "Gas Engine". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Gas_Engi
ne
4. ^ Cambridge Philosophical Society,
"Transactions of the Cambridge
Philosophical Society", University
Press, 1822, p217-239.
http://books.google.com/books?id=hgYFA
AAAQAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:
0iE3HbhCd9wmSagF2t&as_brr=1#PPA217,M1
5. ^ "Gas Engine". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Gas_Engi
ne
6. ^ "Gas Engine". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Gas_Engi
ne {1820}
MORE INFO
[1] "history of technology."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 01
Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/1350805/history-of-technology>
England5
[1] W. Cecil's hydrogen combustion
vacuum engine PD/Corel
source: http://www.eng.cam.ac.uk/DesignO
ffice/projects/cecil/images/isometricalv
iew.jpg
[2] Cecil's figures PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=hgYFAAAAQAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edi
tions:0iE3HbhCd9wmSagF2t&as_brr=1#PPA230
,M1
[09/11/1821 AD] 5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.sparkmuseum.com/MOTORS.HTM
2. ^
http://www.sparkmuseum.com/MOTORS.HTM
3. ^
http://www.sparkmuseum.com/MOTORS.HTM
4. ^ "Michael Faraday". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9756/Michael-Faraday
5. ^ Michael Faraday, "On some new
Electro-Magnetical Motions, and on the
Theory of Magnetism", Royal Institution
Quarterly Journal of Science and Arts.
Volume XII, (1822), pp74-96.
http://books.google.com/books?id=lCUCA
AAAYAAJ&pg=PA127&lpg=PA127&dq=%22on+some
+new+electro-magnetical+motions%22&sourc
e=web&ots=VKIy3FqaNj&sig=YybSGqm9Q6m-Wqj
9LSQTTX8JGDk&hl=en {Faraday_1821_motor.
pdf} (09/11/1821)
6. ^
http://www.sparkmuseum.com/MOTORS.HTM
(1821)
MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/Michael+Faraday+?
cat=technology
[2] "Michael Faraday". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Michael_
Faraday
[3]
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/farada
y.htm
[4] Faraday_referee_1831.pdf
http://journals.royalsociety.org/conte
nt/n5776546166232n5/fulltext.pdf The
Referees' Assessment of Faraday's
Electromagnetic Induction Paper of
1831 Journal Notes and Records of the
Royal Society of London
(1938-1996) Issue Volume 47, Number 2
/
1993 Pages 243-256 DOI 10.1098/rsnr.19
93.0031
[5]
Faraday_1832_Experimental_Researches_in_
Electricity_1.pdf Experimental
Researches in
Electricity Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 122 -
1832 Author Michael
Faraday DOI 10.1098/rstl.1832.0006
[6] "calico". Dictionary.com Unabridged
(v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/c
alico
[7] "Charles Darwin". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9642/Charles-Darwin
[8]
http://physics.bu.edu/~duffy/PY106/MagMa
terials.html
[9]
http://books.google.com/books?id=KgMUAAA
AIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=the+science
+of+everyday+life#PPA341,M1
[10] Institution of Engineering and
Technology, London Archives, Michael
Faraday
[1] The first electric motors - Michael
Faraday, 1821 From the Quarterly
Journal of Science, Vol XII, 1821 PD
source: http://www.sparkmuseum.com/MOTOR
S.HTM
[2] Description Michael Faraday,
oil, by Thomas Phillips Source
Thomas Phillips,1842 Date
1842 Author Thomas Phillips[3
wiki] The portrait shown here was
painted by Thomas Phillips (1770-1845),
oil on canvas, The National Portrait
Gallery, London.[7] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:M_Faraday_Th_Phillips_oil_1842.jpg
[1826 AD] 5 6 7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.hrc.utexas.edu/exhibitions/pe
rmanent/wfp/7.html
2. ^ "Nicephore Niepce". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
5791/Nicephore-Niepce
3. ^
http://www.hrc.utexas.edu/exhibitions/pe
rmanent/wfp/7.html
4. ^ "Nicephore Niepce". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
5791/Nicephore-Niepce
5. ^ "Joseph Nicéphore Niepce". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Joseph+Nic%C3%A9p
hore+Niepce?cat=technology (1826)
6. ^
http://www.hrc.utexas.edu/exhibitions/pe
rmanent/wfp/7.html (1826/7)
7. ^ "Nicephore
Niepce". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
5791/Nicephore-Niepce (1826/7)
MORE INFO
[1] "Joseph Nicéphore Niepce".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Nic%
C3%A9phore_Niepce
[2] "lithography". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8518/lithography
[1] English: By Nicéphore Niépce in
1826, entitled ''View from the Window
at Le Gras,'' captured on 20 × 25 cm
oil-treated bitumen. Due to the 8-hour
exposure, the buildings are illuminated
by the sun from both right and left.
This photo is generally considered the
first successful permanent
photograph. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:View_from_the_Window_at_Le_Gras%2C_Jo
seph_Nic%C3%A9phore_Ni%C3%A9pce.jpg
[2] Joseph-Nicéphore Niépce. ©
Bettmann/Corbis PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://concise.britannica.com/eb
c/art-59378/Joseph-Nicephore-Niepce
[1827 AD] 3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ John Joseph Fahie, "A History of
Electric Telegraphy, to the Year 1837",
E. & F. N. Spon,
1884. http://books.google.com/books?id=
0Mo3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=A+Hi
story+of+Electric+Telegraphy+to+the+year
+1837&ei=esfUSJWpC6K-tgOhnYWOBA
2. ^ John Joseph Fahie, "A History of
Electric Telegraphy, to the Year 1837",
E. & F. N. Spon,
1884. http://books.google.com/books?id=
0Mo3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=A+Hi
story+of+Electric+Telegraphy+to+the+year
+1837&ei=esfUSJWpC6K-tgOhnYWOBA
3. ^ John Joseph Fahie, "A History of
Electric Telegraphy, to the Year 1837",
E. & F. N. Spon,
1884. http://books.google.com/books?id=
0Mo3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=A+Hi
story+of+Electric+Telegraphy+to+the+year
+1837&ei=esfUSJWpC6K-tgOhnYWOBA {1827}
MORE INFO
[1] John Joseph Fahie, "A History
of Wireless Telegraphy: Including Some
Bare-wire Proposals for Subaqueous
Telegraphs", Dodd, Mead,
1902. http://books.google.com/books?id=
alIXAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=john
+j+fahie&ei=8xfYSLjYNKGutgP_lpXeDg
[2] "Old Time Telegraphic History",
Electrical World and Engineer,
01/17/1903,
p113. http://books.google.com/books?id=
hbZQAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA115
[1] Text from: ''Old Time Telegraphic
History'', Electrical World and
Engineer, 01/17/1903,
p113. http://books.google.com/books?id=
hbZQAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA115 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=hbZQAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA115
[02/??/1828 AD] 4 5
produced from inorganic sources
(urea).1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Wöhler, Friedrich. "Ueber
künstliche Bildung des Harnstoffs"
Annalen der physik und chemie V12 p253
(1828):
1828. http://books.google.com/books?id=
n5OZAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA253 English
translation: "On the artificial
formation of
urea." http://www.chemteam.info/Chem-Hi
story/Wohler-article.html
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp342-343.
3. ^ "Friedrich
Wohler". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
7322/Friedrich-Wohler
4. ^ "Friedrich Wohler". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
7322/Friedrich-Wohler (02/1828)
5. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp342-343. (1828)
(1828)
MORE INFO
[1] "Friedrich Wöhler".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_W
%C3%B6hler
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Friedrich+W%C3%B6
hler?cat=technology
[3] "Friedrich Wohler". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Friedric
h_Wohler
[4]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
Berlin, Germany3
[1] * Title: Friedrich Wöhler *
Year: unknown * Source:
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollections
/hst/scientific-identity/explore.htm
* Licence: Public Domain PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Friedrich_W%C3%B6hler_Stich.jpg
[2] Friedrich Wöhler, German
chemist Source:
http://wwwihm.nlm.nih.gov/ PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Friedrich_woehler.jpg
[03/27/1829 AD] 8
wire near a magnet.4 5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Biblioteca Italiana, o sia
Giornale di letteratura, scienze ed
arti,1829,vol 53,pp398-402
{Zantedeschi_1829.pdf}
2. ^ Stewart, I. In Pursuit of the
Unknown: 17 Equations That Changed the
World. Basic Books, 2012,
p169. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ezzWkITecN8C&pg=PT169
3. ^ Herbermann, C.G. et al. The
Catholic Encyclopedia: An International
Work of Reference on the Constitution,
Doctrine, Discipline, and History of
the Catholic Church. Robert Appleton
Company, 1912. The Catholic
Encyclopedia: An International Work of
Reference on the Constitution,
Doctrine, Discipline, and History of
the Catholic Church,
p750. http://books.google.com/books?id=
9sZAAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA750
4. ^ Biblioteca Italiana, o sia
Giornale di letteratura, scienze ed
arti,1829,vol 53,pp398-402
{Zantedeschi_1829.pdf}
5. ^ Stewart, I. In Pursuit of the
Unknown: 17 Equations That Changed the
World. Basic Books, 2012,
p169. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ezzWkITecN8C&pg=PT169
6. ^ Herbermann, C.G. et al. The
Catholic Encyclopedia: An International
Work of Reference on the Constitution,
Doctrine, Discipline, and History of
the Catholic Church. Robert Appleton
Company, 1912. The Catholic
Encyclopedia: An International Work of
Reference on the Constitution,
Doctrine, Discipline, and History of
the Catholic Church,
p750. http://books.google.com/books?id=
9sZAAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA750
7. ^ Biblioteca Italiana, o sia
Giornale di letteratura, scienze ed
arti,1829,vol 53,pp398-402, p402.
Zantedeschi_1829.pdf
8. ^ Biblioteca Italiana, o sia
Giornale di letteratura, scienze ed
arti,1829,vol 53,pp398-402, p402.
Zantedeschi_1829.pdf (03/27/1829)
MORE INFO
[1] The Contribution of Fracesco
Zantedeschi at the Development of the
Experimental Laboratory of Physics
Faculty of the Padua University,
Massimo Tinazzi,
http://www.brera.unimi.it/SISFA/atti/199
9/Tinazzi.pdf Zantedeschi_Tinazzi.pdf
[2] La Electricidad,
http://www2.ubu.es/ingelec/ingelect/Hist
II.pdf Zantedeschi_HistII.pdf
(apparently text identical to
[3]
http://books.google.com/books?id=fngtAAA
AMAAJ&printsec=titlepage#PRA2-PA398,M1
[4]
http://books.google.com/books?id=yUYEAAA
AYAAJ&printsec=titlepage#PPA76,M1
[5] http://www.wordreference.com/
[1] Francesco Zantedeschi PD/Corel
source: http://www.liceofoscarini.it/sto
ria/bio/zantedeschi.html
[2] Image of Francesco Zantedeschi
1797 to 1873 to illustrate that
article. Uploaded from
http://www.jergym.hiedu.cz/~canovm/objev
ite/objev4/zan.htm and
http://www.jergym.hiedu.cz/~canovm/objev
ite/objev4/zan2.htm (English
translation) This portrait of
Francesco Zantedeschi was published by
Stefano de Stefani, president of the
Academy of Agriculture, Arts and
Commerce of Verona, on March 21, 1875
to accompany his eulogy to Zantedeschi
on the occasion of the transport of his
ashes to the cemetery at Verona. Black
and white version PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Franc
esco_Zantedeschi_bw.jpg
[1830 AD] 20 21 22 23
a tuning fork with an attached whisker
that marks a sooted glass plate.13 14
15 16 17 18
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Franz Josef Pisko, "Die neueren
apparate der akustik: Für freunde der
naturwissenschaft und der ...",
1865. http://books.google.com/books?id=
fvs4AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA238&dq=wilhelm+weber+v
ibrograph#v=onepage&q=&f=false
2. ^ Friedrich A. Kittler, "Gramophone,
film, typewriter", 1999,
p26. http://books.google.com/books?id=z
Srte54_9ZwC&pg=PA26&dq=Wilhelm+Weber+gla
ss+cylinder#v=onepage&q=Wilhelm%20Weber%
20glass%20cylinder&f=false
3. ^ edited by Clarence John Blake,
"The American journal of otology,
Volume 1", 1879,
p3. http://books.google.com/books?id=aI
pXAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA3&dq=Wilhelm+Weber+tunin
g+fork+1830#v=onepage&q=Wilhelm%20Weber%
20tuning%20fork%201830&f=false
4. ^ edited by Juan C. Abel, Thomas
Harrison Cummings, Wilfred A. French,
A. H. Beardsley, "Photo-era magazine,
Volume 29",
p229-230. http://books.google.com/books
?id=DR3OAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA229&dq=Wilhelm+Web
er+tuning+fork+1830#v=onepage&q=Wilhelm%
20Weber%20tuning%20fork%201830&f=false
5. ^ Dr. Franz Melde, Lehre von den
Schwingungscurven. Leipzig, Barth 1864,
pag. 83, §. 17.
http://books.google.com/books?id=Ymj_c
6z3kfYC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Lehre+von
+den+Schwingungscurven+date:1864-1864#v=
onepage&q=weber&f=false (in
English:) Dr. Franz Melde, "theory of
Vibration-Curves". Leipzig, Barth 1864,
p. 83, §. 17.
6. ^ Schilling musikalisches
Lexicon, Stuttgart 1830, I. Band,
Artikel Akustik von Wilhelm Weber. (in
English:) Schilling musical lexicon,
Stuttgart, 1830, Volume I, Article
Acoustics by William Weber.
7. ^ Franz Josef
Pisko, "Die neueren apparate der
akustik: Für freunde der
naturwissenschaft und der ...",
1865. http://books.google.com/books?id=
fvs4AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA238&dq=wilhelm+weber+v
ibrograph#v=onepage&q=&f=false
8. ^ Friedrich A. Kittler, "Gramophone,
film, typewriter", 1999,
p26. http://books.google.com/books?id=z
Srte54_9ZwC&pg=PA26&dq=Wilhelm+Weber+gla
ss+cylinder#v=onepage&q=Wilhelm%20Weber%
20glass%20cylinder&f=false
9. ^ edited by Clarence John Blake,
"The American journal of otology,
Volume 1", 1879,
p3. http://books.google.com/books?id=aI
pXAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA3&dq=Wilhelm+Weber+tunin
g+fork+1830#v=onepage&q=Wilhelm%20Weber%
20tuning%20fork%201830&f=false
10. ^ edited by Juan C. Abel, Thomas
Harrison Cummings, Wilfred A. French,
A. H. Beardsley, "Photo-era magazine,
Volume 29",
p229-230. http://books.google.com/books
?id=DR3OAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA229&dq=Wilhelm+Web
er+tuning+fork+1830#v=onepage&q=Wilhelm%
20Weber%20tuning%20fork%201830&f=false
11. ^ Dr. Franz Melde, Lehre von den
Schwingungscurven. Leipzig, Barth 1864,
pag. 83, §. 17.
http://books.google.com/books?id=Ymj_c
6z3kfYC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Lehre+von
+den+Schwingungscurven+date:1864-1864#v=
onepage&q=weber&f=false (in
English:) Dr. Franz Melde, "theory of
Vibration-Curves". Leipzig, Barth 1864,
p. 83, §. 17.
12. ^ Schilling
musikalisches Lexicon, Stuttgart 1830,
I. Band, Artikel Akustik von Wilhelm
Weber. (in English:) Schilling
musical lexicon, Stuttgart, 1830,
Volume I, Article Acoustics by William
Weber.
13. ^ Franz Josef Pisko, "Die neueren
apparate der akustik: Für freunde der
naturwissenschaft und der ...",
1865. http://books.google.com/books?id=
fvs4AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA238&dq=wilhelm+weber+v
ibrograph#v=onepage&q=&f=false
14. ^ Friedrich A. Kittler,
"Gramophone, film, typewriter", 1999,
p26. http://books.google.com/books?id=z
Srte54_9ZwC&pg=PA26&dq=Wilhelm+Weber+gla
ss+cylinder#v=onepage&q=Wilhelm%20Weber%
20glass%20cylinder&f=false
15. ^ edited by Clarence John Blake,
"The American journal of otology,
Volume 1", 1879,
p3. http://books.google.com/books?id=aI
pXAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA3&dq=Wilhelm+Weber+tunin
g+fork+1830#v=onepage&q=Wilhelm%20Weber%
20tuning%20fork%201830&f=false
16. ^ edited by Juan C. Abel, Thomas
Harrison Cummings, Wilfred A. French,
A. H. Beardsley, "Photo-era magazine,
Volume 29",
p229-230. http://books.google.com/books
?id=DR3OAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA229&dq=Wilhelm+Web
er+tuning+fork+1830#v=onepage&q=Wilhelm%
20Weber%20tuning%20fork%201830&f=false
17. ^ Dr. Franz Melde, Lehre von den
Schwingungscurven. Leipzig, Barth 1864,
pag. 83, §. 17.
http://books.google.com/books?id=Ymj_c
6z3kfYC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Lehre+von
+den+Schwingungscurven+date:1864-1864#v=
onepage&q=weber&f=false (in
English:) Dr. Franz Melde, "theory of
Vibration-Curves". Leipzig, Barth 1864,
p. 83, §. 17.
18. ^ Schilling
musikalisches Lexicon, Stuttgart 1830,
I. Band, Artikel Akustik von Wilhelm
Weber. (in English:) Schilling
musical lexicon, Stuttgart, 1830,
Volume I, Article Acoustics by William
Weber.
19. ^ Friedrich A. Kittler,
"Gramophone, film, typewriter", 1999,
p26. http://books.google.com/books?id=z
Srte54_9ZwC&pg=PA26&dq=Wilhelm+Weber+gla
ss+cylinder#v=onepage&q=Wilhelm%20Weber%
20glass%20cylinder&f=false
20. ^ Franz Josef Pisko, "Die neueren
apparate der akustik: Für freunde der
naturwissenschaft und der ...",
1865. http://books.google.com/books?id=
fvs4AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA238&dq=wilhelm+weber+v
ibrograph#v=onepage&q=&f=false {1830}
21. ^
Friedrich A. Kittler, "Gramophone,
film, typewriter", 1999,
p26. http://books.google.com/books?id=z
Srte54_9ZwC&pg=PA26&dq=Wilhelm+Weber+gla
ss+cylinder#v=onepage&q=Wilhelm%20Weber%
20glass%20cylinder&f=false {1830}
22. ^ edited
by Clarence John Blake, "The American
journal of otology, Volume 1", 1879,
p3. http://books.google.com/books?id=aI
pXAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA3&dq=Wilhelm+Weber+tunin
g+fork+1830#v=onepage&q=Wilhelm%20Weber%
20tuning%20fork%201830&f=false
23. ^ edited by Juan C. Abel, Thomas
Harrison Cummings, Wilfred A. French,
A. H. Beardsley, "Photo-era magazine,
Volume 29",
p229-230. http://books.google.com/books
?id=DR3OAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA229&dq=Wilhelm+Web
er+tuning+fork+1830#v=onepage&q=Wilhelm%
20Weber%20tuning%20fork%201830&f=false
MORE INFO
[1] "Wilhelm Eduard Weber".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelm_Edu
ard_Weber
[2]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[3] "Wilhelm Eduard Weber".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
6390/Wilhelm-Eduard-Weber (1837)
[1] Wilhelm Eduard Weber
(1804-1891) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Wilhelm_Eduard_Weber_II.jpg
[02/17/1831 AD] 4
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ "Michael Faraday". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online. "Michael Faraday".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9
109756/Michael-Faraday
2. ^ "Michael Faraday". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online. "Michael Faraday".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9
109756/Michael-Faraday
3. ^
http://proquest.umi.com/pqdlink?index=0&
did=338986411&SrchMode=3&sid=7&Fmt=10&VI
nst=PROD&VType=PQD&RQT=309&VName=HNP&TS=
1204938559&clientId=48051&aid=1 Henry_J
oseph_1832_ajs.pdf American Journal of
Science and Arts (1820-1879); Jan 3,
1832; 22, 2; APS Online pg. 403 On
the Production of Current and Sparks of
Electricity from Magnetism (02/17/1831
{more full account published:}
08/29/1831)
4. ^ "Michael Faraday". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9756/Michael-Faraday (02/17/1831 {more
full account published:} 08/29/1831)
{02/17/1831 (more full account
published:) 08/29/1831}
MORE INFO
[1] "Michael Faraday". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Far
aday
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Michael+Faraday+?
cat=technology
[3] "Michael Faraday". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Michael_
Faraday
[4]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[5]
http://physics.bu.edu/~duffy/PY106/MagMa
terials.html
[6]
http://books.google.com/books?id=KgMUAAA
AIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=the+science
+of+everyday+life#PPA341,M1
[7]
http://www.rigb.org/heritage/faradaypage
.jsp
[8]
http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/15750b.h
tm
[9] The Contribution of Fracesco
Zantedeschi at the Development of the
Experimental Laboratory of Physics
Faculty of the Padua University,
Massimo Tinazzi,
http://www.brera.unimi.it/SISFA/atti/199
9/Tinazzi.pdf Zantadeschi_Tinazzi.pdf
[10] La Electricidad,
http://www2.ubu.es/ingelec/ingelect/Hist
II.pdf Zantadeschi_HistII.pdf
(apparently text identical to
[11]
http://books.google.com/books?id=fngtAAA
AMAAJ&printsec=titlepage#PRA2-PA398,M1
[12]
http://books.google.com/books?id=fxsAAAA
AQAAJ&pg=RA6-PA44&lpg=RA6-PA44&dq=lebail
lif+scope&source=web&ots=36wpS-5ksg&sig=
A7KVLfh8fg1hdDtoB5Kr81UzNAw&hl=en#PRA6-P
A43,M1 (for a description of a
sideroscope of M Lebaillid)
[13] "Faradays law of
induction". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
3718/Faradays-law-of-induction
[14] Faraday_referee_1831.pdf, p243.
http://journals.royalsociety.org/content
/n5776546166232n5/fulltext.pdf The
Referees' Assessment of Faraday's
Electromagnetic Induction Paper of
1831 Journal Notes and Records of the
Royal Society of London
(1938-1996) Issue Volume 47, Number 2
/
1993 Pages 243-256 DOI 10.1098/rsnr.19
93.0031
[15] "calico". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
"calico". Dictionary.com Unabridged (v
1.1). Random House, Inc.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/c
alico
[16] "Charles Darwin". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online. "Charles Darwin".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9642/Charles-Darwin
[17]
http://books.google.com/books?id=yUYEAAA
AYAAJ&printsec=titlepage#PPA76,M1
[1] Michael Faraday, ''Experimental
Researches in Electricity'',
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1776-1886), Volume
122, 1832. DOI 10.1098/rstl.1832.0006
{Faraday_1832_Experimental_Researches_
in_Electricity_1.pdf} PD
source: Faraday_1832_Experimental_Resear
ches_in_Electricity_1.pdf
[2] Description Michael Faraday,
oil, by Thomas Phillips Source
Thomas Phillips,1842 Date
1842 Author Thomas Phillips[3
wiki] The portrait shown here was
painted by Thomas Phillips (1770-1845),
oil on canvas, The National Portrait
Gallery, London.[7] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:M_Faraday_Th_Phillips_oil_1842.jpg
[09/??/1831 AD] 8
(constant current produced).5 6
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ Michael Faraday, "Experimental
Researches in Electricity",
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1776-1886), Volume
122, (1832),
p146. DOI 10.1098/rstl.1832.0006.
{Faraday_1832_Experimental_Researches_
in_Electricity_1.pdf}
2. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/farada
y.htm
3. ^ Michael Faraday, "Experimental
Researches in Electricity",
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1776-1886), Volume
122, (1832),
p146. DOI 10.1098/rstl.1832.0006.
{Faraday_1832_Experimental_Researches_
in_Electricity_1.pdf}
4. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/farada
y.htm
5. ^ Michael Faraday, "Experimental
Researches in Electricity",
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1776-1886), Volume
122, (1832),
p146. DOI 10.1098/rstl.1832.0006.
{Faraday_1832_Experimental_Researches_
in_Electricity_1.pdf}
6. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/farada
y.htm
7. ^ "Michael Faraday". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9756/Michael-Faraday
8. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/farada
y.htm (09/??/1831)
MORE INFO
[1] "Michael Faraday". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Far
aday
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Michael+Faraday+?
cat=technology
[3] "Michael Faraday". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Michael_
Faraday
[4]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[5] Faraday_referee_1831.pdf
http://journals.royalsociety.org/conte
nt/n5776546166232n5/fulltext.pdf The
Referees' Assessment of Faraday's
Electromagnetic Induction Paper of
1831 Journal Notes and Records of the
Royal Society of London
(1938-1996) Issue Volume 47, Number 2
/
1993 Pages 243-256 DOI 10.1098/rsnr.19
93.0031
[6] "calico". Dictionary.com Unabridged
(v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/c
alico
[7] "Charles Darwin". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9642/Charles-Darwin
[8]
http://physics.bu.edu/~duffy/PY106/MagMa
terials.html
[9]
http://books.google.com/books?id=KgMUAAA
AIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=the+science
+of+everyday+life#PPA341,M1
[1] Description Michael Faraday,
oil, by Thomas Phillips Source
Thomas Phillips,1842 Date
1842 Author Thomas Phillips[3
wiki] The portrait shown here was
painted by Thomas Phillips (1770-1845),
oil on canvas, The National Portrait
Gallery, London.[7] PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:M_Far
aday_Th_Phillips_oil_1842.jpg
[2] Michael Faraday - Project
Gutenberg eText 13103 From The Project
Gutenberg eBook, Great Britain and Her
Queen, by Anne E.
Keeling http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/
13103 PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Micha
el_Faraday_-_Project_Gutenberg_eText_131
03.jpg
[1832 AD] 9
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.cyberlipid.org/chevreul/braco
nnot.htm
2. ^ "major industrial polymers".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-764
71/major-industrial-polymers
3. ^
http://www.cyberlipid.org/chevreul/braco
nnot.htm
4. ^ "major industrial polymers".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-764
71/major-industrial-polymers
5. ^
http://www.cyberlipid.org/chevreul/braco
nnot.htm
6. ^ "major industrial polymers".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-764
71/major-industrial-polymers
7. ^ "Henri Braconnot", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p130.
8. ^
http://www.cyberlipid.org/chevreul/braco
nnot.htm
9. ^
http://www.cyberlipid.org/chevreul/braco
nnot.htm (1832)
MORE INFO
[1] "Henri Braconnot". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_Braco
nnot
[2]
http://www.answers.com/saponification?ca
t=health
[1] Henri Braconnot, French
chemist H402/0577 Rights
Managed Credit: CCI ARCHIVES/SCIENCE
PHOTO LIBRARY Caption: Henri
Braconnot (1780-1855), French chemist
and pharmacist. At 13 Braconnot
undertook a two year apprenticeship in
a pharmacy in Nancy. As well as
pharmacology he also studied chemistry
and botany. He continued his education
in Strasbourg and Paris, before
returning to Nancy in 1802 to become
the chairman of the botanical garden.
His research lead to the discovery of
numerous plant compounds, including
acids and sugars, as well as
discovering chitin, the earliest known
polysaccharide, in mushrooms. Braconnot
was also the first chemist to create a
polymer when he added nitric acid to
wood or cotton to obtain
xyloidine. Release details: Model
and property releases are not available
PD
source: http://www.sciencephoto.com/imag
e/223788/large/H4020577-Henri_Braconnot,
_French_chemist-SPL.jpg
[2] Henri Braconnot, French
chemist H402/0577 Rights
Managed Credit: CCI ARCHIVES/SCIENCE
PHOTO LIBRARY Caption: Henri
Braconnot (1780-1855), French chemist
and pharmacist. At 13 Braconnot
undertook a two year apprenticeship in
a pharmacy in Nancy. As well as
pharmacology he also studied chemistry
and botany. He continued his education
in Strasbourg and Paris, before
returning to Nancy in 1802 to become
the chairman of the botanical garden.
His research lead to the discovery of
numerous plant compounds, including
acids and sugars, as well as
discovering chitin, the earliest known
polysaccharide, in mushrooms. Braconnot
was also the first chemist to create a
polymer when he added nitric acid to
wood or cotton to obtain
xyloidine. Release details: Model
and property releases are not available
PD
source:
[01/01/1834 AD]
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "reaper." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 21 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/493183/reaper>.
2. ^ "Robert Hall McCormick".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Hall
_McCormick
MORE INFO
[1] "Cyrus McCormick". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyrus_McCor
mick
[1] Early reaping machine for
harvesting grain. V900/0023 Rights
Managed Credit: SCIENCE PHOTO
LIBRARY Caption: Reaping machine.
Engraving of the first reaping machine
for harvesting grain, invented by Cyrus
Hall McCormick (1809-1884) in 1831. As
the wheel (at centre) spun, the paddles
on it pushed the crop onto a moving
cutter bar and knife. This design
feature has been retained in modern
combine harvesters although McCormick's
machine was pulled by horses rather
than being pushed. McCormick patented
his invention in 1834, made his first
sale in 1840 and moved to Chicago in
1847 to begin large-scale production.
The six million harvesters he
manufactured opened the prairie lands
to intensive agriculture, a major
factor in America's
prosperity. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.sciencephoto.com/imag
e/364617/large/V9000023-Early_reaping_ma
chine_for_harvesting_grain.-SPL.jpg
[2] New Reaper, Getreidemäher New
Reaper, Stein der Weisen 1889 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Agriculture_2.jpg
[06/19/1834 AD] 4 5
measured.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Sir Charles Wheatstone".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
6748/Sir-Charles-Wheatstone
2. ^ Charles Wheatstone, "An Account of
Some Experiments to Measure the
Velocity of Electricity and the
Duration of Electric Light",
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London, Vol. 124, (1834),
pp.
583-591. http://books.google.com/books?
id=G09FAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA583 AND http://ww
w.jstor.org/stable/108080 {Wheatstone_v
elocity.pdf}
3. ^ "Sir Charles Wheatstone".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
6748/Sir-Charles-Wheatstone
4. ^ Charles Wheatstone, "An Account of
Some Experiments to Measure the
Velocity of Electricity and the
Duration of Electric Light",
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London, Vol. 124, (1834),
pp.
583-591. http://books.google.com/books?
id=G09FAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA583 AND http://ww
w.jstor.org/stable/108080 {Wheatstone_v
elocity.pdf}
5. ^ "Sir Charles Wheatstone".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
6748/Sir-Charles-Wheatstone (1834)
MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/Charles+Wheatston
e?cat=entertainment
[2]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[3]
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/wheats
tone.html
[4]
http://books.google.com/books?id=5iw5AAA
AMAAJ&pg=PA311&lpg=PA311&dq=faraday+velo
city+of+electricity&source=web&ots=5NZWU
d1EhA&sig=NK0D0pm5FFvHZpV7lB3JamIKhoo&hl
=en#PPA311,M1
[5]
http://books.google.com/books?id=0qSDQld
RTFMC&pg=PA131&lpg=PA131&dq=velocity+of+
electricity&source=web&ots=HZUnerxDqB&si
g=XJ1gYT3wGhkgfzjTLNa99vSFNrQ&hl=en#PPA1
32,M1
[1] Figure from [7 591] PD
source: An Account of Some Experiments
to Measure the Velocity of Electricity
and the Duration of Electric
Light Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 124 -
1834 Author Charles
Wheatstone DOI 10.1098/rstl.1834.0031
Wheatstone_velocity.pdf 591
[2] Figure from [7 592] PD
source: An Account of Some Experiments
to Measure the Velocity of Electricity
and the Duration of Electric
Light Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 124 -
1834 Author Charles
Wheatstone DOI 10.1098/rstl.1834.0031
Wheatstone_velocity.pdf 592
[1838 AD] 4
measured.1 Parallax is the difference
in the direction of an object as seen
from two widely separated points; used
to measure the distance to an object.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp296-297.
2. ^ "parallax."
Britannica Concise Encyclopedia.
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.,
1994-2010. Answers.com 18 Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/parallax
3. ^ "Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-823
3/Friedrich-Wilhelm-Bessel
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp296-297. (1838)
(1838)
MORE INFO
[1] "popup?va=parallax".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/mwu/popup?va=p
arallax
[1] Stellar parallax motion PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Stellarparallax2.svg
[2] Example of lunar parallax:
Occultation of Pleiades by the
Moon Example of lunar parallax from 4
points on earth This is a simulated
image, combining of 4 views of the sky
and the moon's location relative to the
background stars at a single point in
time. The bright stars visible are the
star cluster Pleiades. The date March
22, 1988 was chosen because the moon
occulted stars within the pleides as
visible from North America. NOTE: This
diagram is geometrically accurate,
although not physically possible to see
since the moon was not actually above
the horizon in half the views.
Specifically you can never see the
Pleiades from the south pole! They were
just picked as extreme views from the
earth, the limit of what might be seen
from a set of four locations in a
square on a great circle and a moon
just above the horizon in all four
locations. Credit: Tom Ruen, Full Sky
Observatory * This image was
generated by my own solar system
viewing software. * Source bitmap
for projection from Nasa's Clementine
Spacecraft: o USGS: Global
simple cylindrical projection at 10
km/pixel.
(http://astrogeology.usgs.gov/Projects/C
lementine/images/albedo.simp750.jpeg) P
D
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Lunarparallax_22_3_1988.png
[1838 AD] 4
all living objects are made of cells.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp354-355.
2. ^ "Cell theory."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 18
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cell-theory
-1
3. ^ "Mathias Jacob Schleiden".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
6147/Mathias-Jacob-Schleiden
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp354-355. (1838)
MORE INFO
[1] "Matthias Jakob Schleiden".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Matthias
_Jakob_Schleiden
[2] Trisha Creekmore. The Science
Channel :: 100 Greatest Discoveries:
Biology. Discovery Communications.
http://science.discovery.com/convergence
/100discoveries/big100/biology.html
[3] "University of Jena". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_
of_Jena
[1] Matthias Jakob Schleiden Library
of Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/Matthias+
Jakob+Schleiden+?cat=technology
[2] 01 Jan 1870 Matthias
Schleiden (Photo by Kean
Collection/Getty Images ) [t again
large side burns looks to be mid to
late 1800s] PD
source: http://www.viewimages.com/Search
.aspx?mid=50898741&epmid=1&partner=Googl
e
[07/29/1839 AD] 11
(photoelectric effect).7 8 9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Becquerel, Alexandre-Edmond.
"Recherches sur les effets de la
radiation chimique de la lumi�re
solaire, au moyen des courants
�lectriques." CR Acad. Sci 9 (1839):
145-149. English: "Studies of the
effect of actinitic radiation of
sunlight by means of electric
currents" books.google.com/books?id=zmZ
FAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA145
2. ^ Becquerel, A. E. "M�moire sur
les effets �lectriques produits sous
l�influence des rayons solaires."
Comptes Rendus 9.567 (1839): 1839,
p561-567. English: "Note on the
electric effects produces under the
influence of
sunlight" http://books.google.com/books
?id=zmZFAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA561
3. ^ "solar cell." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 26 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/552875/solar-cell>.
4. ^ Becquerel, Alexandre-Edmond.
"Recherches sur les effets de la
radiation chimique de la lumi�re
solaire, au moyen des courants
�lectriques." CR Acad. Sci 9 (1839):
145-149. English: "Studies of the
effect of actinitic radiation of
sunlight by means of electric
currents" books.google.com/books?id=zmZ
FAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA145
5. ^ Becquerel, A. E. "M�moire sur
les effets �lectriques produits sous
l�influence des rayons solaires."
Comptes Rendus 9.567 (1839): 1839,
p561-567. English: "Note on the
electric effects produces under the
influence of
sunlight" http://books.google.com/books
?id=zmZFAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA561
6. ^ "solar cell." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 26 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/552875/solar-cell>.
7. ^ Becquerel, Alexandre-Edmond.
"Recherches sur les effets de la
radiation chimique de la lumi�re
solaire, au moyen des courants
�lectriques." CR Acad. Sci 9 (1839):
145-149. English: "Studies of the
effect of actinitic radiation of
sunlight by means of electric
currents" books.google.com/books?id=zmZ
FAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA145
8. ^ Becquerel, A. E. "M�moire sur
les effets �lectriques produits sous
l�influence des rayons solaires."
Comptes Rendus 9.567 (1839): 1839,
p561-567. English: "Note on the
electric effects produces under the
influence of
sunlight" http://books.google.com/books
?id=zmZFAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA561
9. ^ "solar cell." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 26 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/552875/solar-cell>.
10. ^ "Becquerel, Alexandre-Edmond",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p72.
11. ^
Becquerel, Alexandre-Edmond.
"Recherches sur les effets de la
radiation chimique de la lumière
solaire, au moyen des courants
électriques." CR Acad. Sci 9 (1839):
145-149; 561. also Annalen der Physick
und Chemie, Vol. 54, pp. 18-34,
1841. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/
CadresFenetre?O=NUMM-2968&M=chemindefer
English: "Research on the effects of
the chemical radiation of solar light
by means of the electric
currents" {Becquerel_Edmond_1839.pdf}
{07/29/1839}
MORE INFO
[1] "thermionic power converter."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 19
June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
6050>
[2] "A. E. Becquerel". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A._E._Becqu
erel
[3] "Becquerel". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Becquere
l
[4] Edmond Becquerel, "Des effets
chimiques et électriques produits sous
l'influence de la lumière solaire",
1840. http://jubil.upmc.fr/sdx/pl/doc-t
dm.xsp?id=TH_000231_001_page1&fmt=upmc&b
ase=fa&root=&n=&qid=&ss=&as=&ai=#page1
[5] "solar cell." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 19 June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-458
72>
[6]
http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/biograph
y/BecquerelEdmond.html
[7]
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Isd9IEnR4
bw {video of liquid oxygen
paramagnetism}
[1] Becquerel, Alexandre-Edmond.
''Recherches sur les effets de la
radiation chimique de la lumière
solaire, au moyen des courants
électriques.'' CR Acad. Sci 9 (1839):
145-149. English: ''Studies of the
effect of actinitic radiation of
sunlight by means of electric
currents'' books.google.com/books?id=zm
ZFAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA145 PD AND [2]
Scientist: Becquerel, Alexandre Edmond
(1820 - 1891) Discipline(s):
Physics Print Artist: Charles
Jeremie Fuhr, b.1832 Medium:
Lithograph Original Artist: Pierre
Petit, 1832-1885 Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 25.5 x 19 cm / Sheet: 30.6 x
20.1 cm PD/Corel
source: books.google.com/books?id=zmZFAA
AAcAAJ&pg=PA145http://www.sil.si.edu/dig
italcollections/hst/scientific-identity/
fullsize/SIL14-B2-07a.jpg
[2] Becquerel, Alexandre-Edmond.
''Recherches sur les effets de la
radiation chimique de la lumière
solaire, au moyen des courants
électriques.'' CR Acad. Sci 9 (1839):
145-149. English: ''Studies of the
effect of actinitic radiation of
sunlight by means of electric
currents'' books.google.com/books?id=zm
ZFAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA145 PD
source: books.google.com/books?id=zmZFAA
AAcAAJ&pg=PA145
[03/30/1842 AD] 3
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ "anesthesia." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 24 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/1507634/anesthesia>.
2. ^ "Long, Crawford Williamson."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 25 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8846>.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p389. (03/30/1842)
[1] 1870 photograph of Crawford Long,
anesthesia pioneer PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8c/CrawfordLong.jpg
[04/??/1845 AD] 8 9 10
galaxies is recognized.5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ The Earl of Rosse. "Observations
on the Nebulae." Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1850):
499-514. http://books.google.com/books?
id=BlFFAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA499
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2307
/108449
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp341-342.
3. ^ The Earl of
Rosse. "Observations on the Nebulae."
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1850):
499-514. http://books.google.com/books?
id=BlFFAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA499
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2307
/108449
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp341-342.
5. ^ The Earl of
Rosse. "Observations on the Nebulae."
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1850):
499-514. http://books.google.com/books?
id=BlFFAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA499
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2307
/108449
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp341-342.
7. ^
http://casswww.ucsd.edu/public/tutorial/
Galaxies.html
8. ^ The Earl of Rosse. "Observations
on the Nebulae." Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1850):
499-514. http://books.google.com/books?
id=BlFFAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA499
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2307
/108449
9. ^
http://www.klima-luft.de/steinicke/Artik
el/birr/birr_e.htm (04/1845)
10. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp341-342. (1845)
(1845)
MORE INFO
[1] "William Parsons, 3rd Earl of
Rosse". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Par
sons%2C_3rd_Earl_of_Rosse
[2] "William Parsons Rosse".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/William_
Parsons_Rosse
[3]
http://www.ruf.rice.edu/~trw/telescopes.
html
[4]
http://seds.org/MESSIER/more/m-rosse.htm
l
[5]
http://www.bbc.co.uk/science/space/unive
rse/scientists/william_parsons_3rd_earl_
of_rosse#default
[6] Rosse, Earl of. "Observations on
Some of the Nebulae." Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London 134 (1844):
321-324. http://www.jstor.org/stable/10
.2307/108366
[1] The Earl of Rosse. ''Observations
on the Nebulae.'' Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1850):
499-514. http://www.jstor.org/stable/10
.2307/108449 PD
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2
307/108449
[2] Abb. 2 - Lord Rosse's drwaing of M
51 showing its spiral structure. [t
Notice that Parsons numbers stars which
appear to be part of the
galaxy] PD/Corel
source: http://www.klima-luft.de/steinic
ke/Artikel/birr/birr_e.htm
[09/23/1846 AD] 13 14 15
9 10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp373-374.
2. ^ Galle, J. G.,
"Account of the discovery of Le
Verrier's planet Neptune, at Berlin,
Sept. 23, 1846", Monthly Notices of the
Royal Astronomical Society, Vol. 7,
p.153. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?1846MNRAS.
..7..153G&data_type=PDF_HIGH&whole_paper
=YES&type=PRINTER&filetype=.pdf
3. ^ "Obituary Notices : Associates :
Galle, Johann Gottfried". Monthly
Notices of the Royal Astronomical
Society 71: 275. 1911.
Bibcode:1911MNRAS..71R.275. http://adsa
bs.harvard.edu/abs/1911MNRAS..71R.275.
4. ^ Encke, M. "XXXII. On the newly
discovered planet." The London,
Edinburgh, and Dublin Philosophical
Magazine and Journal of Science 30.200
(1847):
181-185. http://books.google.com/books?
id=iB9DAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA181
5. ^ Bericht �ber die zur
Bekanntmachung geeigneten Verhandlungen
der K�nigl. preuss. Akademie der
Wissenschaften zu Berlin, Oct 22 1846,
p279 http://books.google.com/books?id=H
q0EAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA279
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp373-374.
7. ^ Galle, J. G.,
"Account of the discovery of Le
Verrier's planet Neptune, at Berlin,
Sept. 23, 1846", Monthly Notices of the
Royal Astronomical Society, Vol. 7,
p.153. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?1846MNRAS.
..7..153G&data_type=PDF_HIGH&whole_paper
=YES&type=PRINTER&filetype=.pdf
8. ^ "Obituary Notices : Associates :
Galle, Johann Gottfried". Monthly
Notices of the Royal Astronomical
Society 71: 275. 1911.
Bibcode:1911MNRAS..71R.275. http://adsa
bs.harvard.edu/abs/1911MNRAS..71R.275.
9. ^ Encke, M. "XXXII. On the newly
discovered planet." The London,
Edinburgh, and Dublin Philosophical
Magazine and Journal of Science 30.200
(1847):
181-185. http://books.google.com/books?
id=iB9DAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA181
10. ^ Bericht �ber die zur
Bekanntmachung geeigneten Verhandlungen
der K�nigl. preuss. Akademie der
Wissenschaften zu Berlin, Oct 22 1846,
p279 http://books.google.com/books?id=H
q0EAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA279
11. ^ "Urbain Jean Joseph Leverrier." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 07 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/urbain-jean
-joseph-leverrier
12. ^ "Le Verrier, Urbain-Jean-Joseph."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 7 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7487>.
13. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp373-374.
(09/23/1846)
14. ^ "Le Verrier, Urbain-Jean-Joseph."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 7 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7487>. (09/23/1846)
15. ^ "Obituary Notices :
Associates : Galle, Johann Gottfried".
Monthly Notices of the Royal
Astronomical Society 71: 275. 1911.
Bibcode:1911MNRAS..71R.275. http://adsa
bs.harvard.edu/abs/1911MNRAS..71R.275.
MORE INFO
[1] "Urbain-Jean-Joseph Le
Verrier", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition
2, Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000),
p538
[2] "celestial mechanics."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 8 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-774
32>
)
[1] Galle, J. G., ''Account of the
discovery of Le Verrier's planet
Neptune, at Berlin, Sept. 23, 1846'',
Monthly Notices of the Royal
Astronomical Society, Vol. 7,
p.153. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?1846MNRAS.
..7..153G&data_type=PDF_HIGH&whole_paper
=YES&type=PRINTER&filetype=.pdf PD
AND [1] Scientist: Le Verrier,
Urbain Jean Joseph (1811 -
1877) Discipline(s): Astronomy Print
Artist: Auguste Bry, 19th C. Medium:
Lithograph Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 12.5 x 10 cm / Sheet: 26.1 x
17 cm PD/Corel AND Galle, Johann
Gottfried (1812-1910) PD/Corel
source: http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?1846MNRAS.
..7..153G&data_type=PDF_HIGH&whole_paper
=YES&type=PRINTER&filetype=.pdfhttp://up
load.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8
9/Urbain_Le_Verrier.jpghttp://www.davidd
arling.info/images/Galle.jpg
[2] Scientist: Le Verrier, Urbain
Jean Joseph (1811 -
1877) Discipline(s): Astronomy Print
Artist: Auguste Bry, 19th C. Medium:
Lithograph Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 12.5 x 10 cm / Sheet: 26.1 x
17 cm PD/Corel
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/89/Urbain_Le_Verrier.jpg
[08/10/1848 AD] 3 4
gas-filled evacuated tubes.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Grove, William Robert. "On the
Effect of Surrounding Media on Voltaic
Ignition." Philosophical Transactions
of the Royal Society of London V139,
1849,
p49-59. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=WVBFAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA49 Grove_W_R_1849.p
df
2. ^ Grove, William Robert. "On the
Effect of Surrounding Media on Voltaic
Ignition." Philosophical Transactions
of the Royal Society of London V139,
1849,
p49-59. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=WVBFAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA49 Grove_W_R_1849.p
df
3. ^ Grove, William Robert. "On the
Effect of Surrounding Media on Voltaic
Ignition." Philosophical Transactions
of the Royal Society of London V139,
1849,
p49-59. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=WVBFAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA49 Grove_W_R_1849.p
df
4. ^ Grove, William Robert. "On the
electro-chemical polarity of gases."
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London 142 (1852):
87-101;87. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=CE9FAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA96 {Groves_W_R_1
852_polarity.pdf}
MORE INFO
[1] "On the Effect of Surrounding
Media on Voltaic Ignition",
http://journals.royalsociety.org/conte
nt/rt1ug6668r7331x0/?p=8799fd4b7cc14bfd8
785b2ebc7cf84b9&pi=5 Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886)
[2] "antithetic". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/a
ntithetic
[3] Harrison, W. J. (2004) "Gassiot,
John Peter (1797-1877)", rev. Iwan Rhys
Morus, Oxford Dictionary of National
Biography, Oxford University Press,
accessed 5 August 2007 (subscription
required) http://www.oxforddnb.com/view
/article/10439
[4] Grove, William Robert. "On the
electro-chemical polarity of gases."
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London 142 (1852):
87-101. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=CE9FAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA96
[5] Grove, William Robert. "On the
electro-chemical polarity of gases."
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London 142 (1852): 87-101;
89-90. http://books.google.com/books?id
=CE9FAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA96
[6]
http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/doi/pdf
/10.1046/j.1440-1622.2000.01745.x?cookie
Set=1
[7] Grove, William Robert. "On the
electro-chemical polarity of gases."
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London 142 (1852):
87-101;95. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=CE9FAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA96
[8] Grove, William Robert. "On the
electro-chemical polarity of gases."
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London 142 (1852):
87-101;97. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=CE9FAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA96
[9] "Sir William Robert Grove".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8234/Sir-William-Robert-Grove
[10] "William Robert Grove". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Rob
ert_Grove
[11] "On the Effect of Surrounding
Media on Voltaic Ignition",
http://journals.royalsociety.org/conte
nt/rt1ug6668r7331x0/?p=8799fd4b7cc14bfd8
785b2ebc7cf84b9&pi=5 Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 139 -
1849 Pages 49-59 DOI 10.1098/rstl.1849
.0005 Grove_W_R_1849.pdf
[1] Figures 1 to 10 show the spots and
rings in the order referred to: it
should be observed that printed figures
give but a very imperfect notion of the
actual effects. Fig 11 is the coil
apparatus, the contact breaker being in
front. Fig. 12. The air-pump, of a
construction which I proposed many
years ago, and have found most useful
for electrical or chemical experiments
on gases. P. An imperforate piston,
with a conical end, which, when pressed
down, fits accurately the end of the
tube, the apex touching the valve V,
which opens outwards. A. Aperture for
the air to rush from the receiver when
the piston has been drawn beyond
it. B. Bladder containing the gas to
be experimented on. The piston-rod
works air-tight in a collar of
leathers, and the operation of the pump
will be easily understood without
further description. If it be
required to examine the gas after
experiment, a bladder, or tube leading
to a pneumatic trough, can be attached
at the extrmeity over the valve V. [5
p101] PD
source: http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekat
z/scientists/grove.htm Issue Volume
139 -
1849 Pages 49-59 DOI 10.1098/rstl.1849
.0005 Grove_W_R_1849.pdf p101
[2] Sir William Robert Grove
(1811-1896), British scientist. PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Willi
am_Robert_Grove.jpg
[05/06/1850 AD] 3
in water than in air.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Léon Foucault, Charles Marie
Gariel, Jules Antoine Lissajous,
"Recueil des travaux scientifiques",
Gauthier-Villars, 1878,
pp173-184. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=Kc0EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA593&dq=Recueil+de
s+travaux+scientifiques+de+L%C3%A9on+Fou
cault&as_brr=1#PPP13,M1
2. ^ "Jean Bernard Leon Foucault".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Jean_Ber
nard_Leon_Foucault
3. ^ Léon Foucault, Charles Marie
Gariel, Jules Antoine Lissajous,
"Recueil des travaux scientifiques",
Gauthier-Villars, 1878,
pp173-184. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=Kc0EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA593&dq=Recueil+de
s+travaux+scientifiques+de+L%C3%A9on+Fou
cault&as_brr=1#PPP13,M1 (05/06/1850)
MORE INFO
[1] "Foucault, Jean."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 14
June 2008
<http://search.eb.com/eb/article-9035012>
[2] "Foucault, Jean Bernard Léon."
History of Science and Technology.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 15 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/l-on-foucau
lt
[3] "Foucault, Jean Bernard Léon."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 15 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/l-on-foucau
lt
[4] "Foucault, Jean Bernard Léon." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 15 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/l-on-foucau
lt
[5] "Jean Bernard Léon Foucault".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Bernar
d_L%C3%A9on_Foucault
[6] "Foucault, Jean-Bertrand-Léon",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 1, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (1981), p259
[7] L'Institut
Feb 7 1849. Léon Foucault, Charles
Marie Gariel, Jules Antoine Lissajous,
"Recueil des travaux scientifiques",
Gauthier-Villars, 1878,
pp170-171. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=Kc0EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA593&dq=Recueil+de
s+travaux+scientifiques+de+L%C3%A9on+Fou
cault&as_brr=1#PPA170,M1 Translated by
Professor Stokes in Phil Mag vol xix
(1860) p194.
{stokes_foucault_kirchhoff.pdf}
[8] Collected Works Volume One -
Recueil des travaux scientifiques de
Léon Foucault 1878.
http://num-scd-ulp.u-strasbg.fr:8080/5
13/
[9] Collected Works Volume Two -
Recueil des travaux scientifiques de
Léon Foucault
1878. http://num-scd-ulp.u-strasbg.fr:8
080/527/
[10] Fox, William. "Jean-Bertrand-Léon
Foucault." The Catholic Encyclopedia.
Vol. 6. New York: Robert Appleton
Company, 1909. 14 Jun. 2008
<http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/06156c.h
tm>
[11]
http://ams.astro.univie.ac.at/~nendwich/
Science/SoFi/portrait.html
[12]
http://books.google.com/books?id=Q7oAAAA
AYAAJ&pg=PA23&dq=foucault+sun+daguerreot
ype+features&as_brr=1
[1] Plan view of the optical layout of
Foucault's 1850 rotating mirror
experiment. COPYRIGHTED
source: William Tobin, "The life and
science of Léon Foucault: the man who
proved the earth rotates", Cambridge
University Press, 2003
[2] Eyepiece view of air and water
Foucault 1850 experiment PD/Corel
source: William Tobin, "The life and
science of Léon Foucault: the man who
proved the earth rotates", Cambridge
University Press, 2003, p126.
[02/03/1851 AD] 3 4
axis proven experimentally with a
pendulum.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Foucault, Jean." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 14 June 2008
<http://search.eb.com/eb/article-9035012>
.
2. ^ "Jean Bernard Leon Foucault".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Jean_Ber
nard_Leon_Foucault
3. ^ Léon Foucault, "Demonstration
physique du mouvement de rotation de la
terre au moyen du pendule", Comptes
Rendus de l'Acad. de Sciences de Paris.
tome XXXII, 3 Fevrier, 1851,
p435. English translation: "Physical
Demonstration of the Rotation of the
Earth by Means of the Pendulum"
http://www.fi.edu/time/journey/Pendulum/
foucault_paper_page_one.html Léon
Foucault, Charles Marie Gariel, Jules
Antoine Lissajous, "Recueil des travaux
scientifiques", Gauthier-Villars, 1878,
pp378-384. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=Kc0EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA593&dq=Recueil+de
s+travaux+scientifiques+de+L%C3%A9on+Fou
cault&as_brr=1#PPP13,M1 {Foucault_Recue
il_des_travaux_scientifiques.pdf}
(02/03/1851)
4. ^ "Foucault, Jean." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 14 June 2008
<http://search.eb.com/eb/article-9035012>
. (1851)
MORE INFO
[1] "Foucault, Jean Bernard
Léon." History of Science and
Technology. Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004. Answers.com 15 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/l-on-foucau
lt
[2] "Foucault, Jean Bernard Léon." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 15 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/l-on-foucau
lt
[3] "Jean Bernard Léon Foucault".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Bernar
d_L%C3%A9on_Foucault
[4] "Foucault, Jean-Bertrand-Léon",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 1, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (1981), p259
[5] L'Institut
Feb 7 1849. Léon Foucault, Charles
Marie Gariel, Jules Antoine Lissajous,
"Recueil des travaux scientifiques",
Gauthier-Villars, 1878,
pp170-171. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=Kc0EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA593&dq=Recueil+de
s+travaux+scientifiques+de+L%C3%A9on+Fou
cault&as_brr=1#PPA170,M1 Translated by
Professor Stokes in Phil Mag vol xix
(1860) p194.
{stokes_foucault_kirchhoff.pdf}
[6] Collected Works Volume One -
Recueil des travaux scientifiques de
Léon Foucault 1878.
http://num-scd-ulp.u-strasbg.fr:8080/5
13/
[7] Collected Works Volume Two -
Recueil des travaux scientifiques de
Léon Foucault
1878. http://num-scd-ulp.u-strasbg.fr:8
080/527/
[8] Fox, William. "Jean-Bertrand-Léon
Foucault." The Catholic Encyclopedia.
Vol. 6. New York: Robert Appleton
Company, 1909. 14 Jun. 2008
<http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/06156c.h
tm>
[9]
http://ams.astro.univie.ac.at/~nendwich/
Science/SoFi/portrait.html
[10]
http://books.google.com/books?id=Q7oAAAA
AYAAJ&pg=PA23&dq=foucault+sun+daguerreot
ype+features&as_brr=1
[11] "Foucault pendulum." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 15 June 2008
<http://search.eb.com/eb/article-9035014>
[12] "Foucault pendulum". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foucault_pe
ndulum
[1] Faucault's pendulum demonstration
re-visited in 1902 PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=UbMRmyxCZmYC&pg=PA55&lpg=PA55&dq=foucau
lt+sun+daguerreotype+features&source=web
&ots=sqQtMMzhko&sig=L_EL2qJEgsbAuU5PsDuO
Dxa-NPA&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum
=2&ct=result#PPP1,M1
[2] [t rotateable table-top pendulum
illustrates principle of
inertia] PD/Corel
source: William Tobin, "The life and
science of Léon Foucault: the man who
proved the earth rotates", Cambridge
University Press, 2003
[07/01/1858 AD] 8 9
understand their descent from a single
ancestor4 and the process of natural
selection.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Darwin, Charles, and Alfred
Wallace. "On the tendency of species to
form varieties; and on the perpetuation
of varieties and species by natural
means of selection." Journal of the
proceedings of the Linnean Society of
London. Zoology V3 N9 (1858):
45-62. http://books.google.com/books?id
=lwRvy1WD5YkC&pg=PA45
2. ^ Currently I am presuming Darwin
and or Wallace identified the idea of a
single common ancestor for all of life
on Earth-Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Darwin, Charles, and
Alfred Wallace. "On the tendency of
species to form varieties; and on the
perpetuation of varieties and species
by natural means of selection." Journal
of the proceedings of the Linnean
Society of London. Zoology V3 N9
(1858):
45-62. http://books.google.com/books?id
=lwRvy1WD5YkC&pg=PA45
4. ^ Currently I am presuming Darwin
and or Wallace identified the idea of a
single common ancestor for all of life
on Earth-Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Darwin, Charles, and
Alfred Wallace. "On the tendency of
species to form varieties; and on the
perpetuation of varieties and species
by natural means of selection." Journal
of the proceedings of the Linnean
Society of London. Zoology V3 N9
(1858):
45-62. http://books.google.com/books?id
=lwRvy1WD5YkC&pg=PA45
6. ^ "Darwin, Charles." Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online. 30 Apr. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9642>.
7. ^ Darwin, Charles, and Alfred
Wallace. "On the tendency of species to
form varieties; and on the perpetuation
of varieties and species by natural
means of selection." Journal of the
proceedings of the Linnean Society of
London. Zoology V3 N9 (1858):
45-62. http://books.google.com/books?id
=lwRvy1WD5YkC&pg=PA45
8. ^ Darwin, Charles, and Alfred
Wallace. "On the tendency of species to
form varieties; and on the perpetuation
of varieties and species by natural
means of selection." Journal of the
proceedings of the Linnean Society of
London. Zoology V3 N9 (1858):
45-62. http://books.google.com/books?id
=lwRvy1WD5YkC&pg=PA45
9. ^ "Darwin, Charles." Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online. 30 Apr. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9642>. (07/01/1858)
MORE INFO
[1] The Complete Works of Charles
Darwin Online.
http://darwin-online.org.uk/
[2]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Rob
ert_Darwin
[1] ''Charles Darwin, aged 51.''
Scanned from Karl Pearson, The Life,
Letters, and Labours of Francis Galton.
Photo originally from the 1859 or
1860. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/42/Charles_Darwin_aged_5
1.jpg
[2] Charles Darwin as a 7-year old boy
in 1816 The seven-year-old Charles
Darwin in 1816, one year before his
mother's death. [t A rare smile, there
are not many photos of Darwin
smiling.] PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/6/6c/Charles_Darwin_1816.jpg
[10/20/1859 AD] 6 7 8 9
spectra can be used to determine atomic
composition.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Gustav Kirchhoff, "Uber die
Fraunhofer'schen Linien,"
Monatsberichte der Koniglich
Preussischen Akademie der
Wissenschaften zu Berlin, 1859, pp.
662-665 (presented Oct. 20, 1859).
http://books.google.com/books?id=AE0OA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:
0opDDCnWdNSgTdMkKm&lr=#PPA662,M1 Reprin
ted in Gustav Kirchhoff, Gesammelte
Abhandlungen (Leipzig: Johann Ambrosius
Barth, 1882), pp. 564-566, as well as
in Kangro, {Kirchhoff's}
Untersuchungen, pp. 1-6. English
translation in George Gabriel Stokes,
"On the Simultaneous Emission and
Absorption of Rays of the same definite
Refrangibility; being a translation of
a portion of a paper by M. Leon
Foucault, and of a paper by Professor
Kirchhoff," Philosophical Magazine,
1860,
19:196-197. http://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=pRJDAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA193 {stokes_fou
cault_kirchhoff.pdf}
2. ^ Gustav Kirchhoff, "Uber die
Fraunhofer'schen Linien,"
Monatsberichte der Koniglich
Preussischen Akademie der
Wissenschaften zu Berlin, 1859, pp.
662-665 (presented Oct. 20, 1859).
http://books.google.com/books?id=AE0OA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:
0opDDCnWdNSgTdMkKm&lr=#PPA662,M1 Reprin
ted in Gustav Kirchhoff, Gesammelte
Abhandlungen (Leipzig: Johann Ambrosius
Barth, 1882), pp. 564-566, as well as
in Kangro, {Kirchhoff's}
Untersuchungen, pp. 1-6. English
translation in George Gabriel Stokes,
"On the Simultaneous Emission and
Absorption of Rays of the same definite
Refrangibility; being a translation of
a portion of a paper by M. Leon
Foucault, and of a paper by Professor
Kirchhoff," Philosophical Magazine,
1860,
19:196-197. http://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=pRJDAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA193 {stokes_fou
cault_kirchhoff.pdf}
3. ^ Gustav Kirchhoff, "Uber die
Fraunhofer'schen Linien,"
Monatsberichte der Koniglich
Preussischen Akademie der
Wissenschaften zu Berlin, 1859, pp.
662-665 (presented Oct. 20, 1859).
http://books.google.com/books?id=AE0OA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:
0opDDCnWdNSgTdMkKm&lr=#PPA662,M1 Reprin
ted in Gustav Kirchhoff, Gesammelte
Abhandlungen (Leipzig: Johann Ambrosius
Barth, 1882), pp. 564-566, as well as
in Kangro, {Kirchhoff's}
Untersuchungen, pp. 1-6. English
translation in George Gabriel Stokes,
"On the Simultaneous Emission and
Absorption of Rays of the same definite
Refrangibility; being a translation of
a portion of a paper by M. Leon
Foucault, and of a paper by Professor
Kirchhoff," Philosophical Magazine,
1860,
19:196-197. http://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=pRJDAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA193 {stokes_fou
cault_kirchhoff.pdf}
4. ^ "Robert Bunsen." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 08 May.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-buns
en
5. ^ Gustav Kirchhoff, "Uber die
Fraunhofer'schen Linien,"
Monatsberichte der Koniglich
Preussischen Akademie der
Wissenschaften zu Berlin, 1859, pp.
662-665 (presented Oct. 20, 1859).
http://books.google.com/books?id=AE0OA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:
0opDDCnWdNSgTdMkKm&lr=#PPA662,M1 Reprin
ted in Gustav Kirchhoff, Gesammelte
Abhandlungen (Leipzig: Johann Ambrosius
Barth, 1882), pp. 564-566, as well as
in Kangro, {Kirchhoff's}
Untersuchungen, pp. 1-6. English
translation in George Gabriel Stokes,
"On the Simultaneous Emission and
Absorption of Rays of the same definite
Refrangibility; being a translation of
a portion of a paper by M. Leon
Foucault, and of a paper by Professor
Kirchhoff," Philosophical Magazine,
1860,
19:196-197. http://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=pRJDAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA193 {stokes_fou
cault_kirchhoff.pdf}
6. ^ Gustav Kirchhoff, "Uber die
Fraunhofer'schen Linien,"
Monatsberichte der Koniglich
Preussischen Akademie der
Wissenschaften zu Berlin, 1859, pp.
662-665 (presented Oct. 20, 1859).
http://books.google.com/books?id=AE0OA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:
0opDDCnWdNSgTdMkKm&lr=#PPA662,M1 Reprin
ted in Gustav Kirchhoff, Gesammelte
Abhandlungen (Leipzig: Johann Ambrosius
Barth, 1882), pp. 564-566, as well as
in Kangro, {Kirchhoff's}
Untersuchungen, pp. 1-6. English
translation in George Gabriel Stokes,
"On the Simultaneous Emission and
Absorption of Rays of the same definite
Refrangibility; being a translation of
a portion of a paper by M. Leon
Foucault, and of a paper by Professor
Kirchhoff," Philosophical Magazine,
1860,
19:196-197. http://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=pRJDAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA193 {stokes_fou
cault_kirchhoff.pdf} {10/20/1859}
7. ^ Daniel M.
Siegel, "Balfour Stewart and Gustav
Robert Kirchhoff: Two Independent
Approaches to 'Kirchhoff's Radiation
Law"', Isis, Vol. 67, No. 4 (Dec.,
1976), pp.
565-600. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23
0562?seq=2
{Kirchhoff_Siegal_Isis_1976_230562.pdf
} {10/20/1859}
8. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/bunsen.html (1859)
9. ^ "Bunsen, Robert
Wilhelm." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
8 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
8091>. (1859)
MORE INFO
[1] "Robert Bunsen." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
08 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-buns
en
[2] "Robert Bunsen". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Buns
en
[3]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[4] "Robert Wilhelm Eberhard Bunsen",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), pp153-154
[5]
http://www.chemheritage.org/classroom/ch
emach/periodic/bunsen-kirchhoff.html
[6] Norman Lockyer, The Chemistry of
the Sun, Macmillan and co., (1887).
http://books.google.com/books?id=tr8KA
AAAIAAJ&pg=PA13&lpg=PA13&dq=Fraunhofer+1
814&source=web&ots=-3MHM347gt&sig=NeAo2-
HxUlNyC-wX6KRrM3pz_so&hl=en#PPA15,M1 {T
he_Chemistry_of_the_Sun.pdf}
[7] (English translation of 1860 paper)
Gustav Kirchhoff and Robert Bunsen,
"Chemical Analysis by Observation of
Spectra", Annalen der Physik und der
Chemie (Poggendorff), Vol. 110 (1860),
pp161-189. http://dbhs.wvusd.k12.ca.us/
webdocs/Chem-History/Kirchhoff-Bunsen-18
60.html {Kirchhoff-Bunsen-1860.html}
[8] "Gustav Robert Kirchhoff",
Obituary Notice. Proc. Roy, Soc. vol.
46, p. vi. (1889).
http://journals.royalsociety.org/conte
nt/cg61418590l307t2/?p=b6c499a7daa34dfb9
4680da0469118ebπ=1 {Kirchhoff_obituary
_PRS.pdf}
Germany4 5
[1] Bunsen-Kirchhoff spectroscope with
the Bunsen burner (labeled D), from
Annalen der Physik (1860). Chemical
Heritage Foundation
Collections. PD/Corel AND Kirchhoff
(left) and Bunsen (right) PD
source: http://www.chemheritage.org/clas
sroom/chemach/images/lgfotos/04periodic/
bunsen-kirchhoff2.jpghttp://2.bp.blogspo
t.com/-DmiBHx0pAXc/TZGos9g4_yI/AAAAAAAAA
Wk/eFxlDSws9zI/s1600/kirchoff_bunsen.jpg
[2] Bunsen-Kirchhoff spectroscope with
the Bunsen burner (labeled D), from
Annalen der Physik (1860). Chemical
Heritage Foundation
Collections. PD/Corel
source: http://www.chemheritage.org/clas
sroom/chemach/images/lgfotos/04periodic/
bunsen-kirchhoff2.jpg
[10/26/1861 AD] 9 10
telephone. Sound converted to
electricity and back to sound again.5 6
Quietly sending sound over longer
distance is possible.7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Silvanus Phillips Thompson,
"Philipp Reis: inventor of the
telephone: A biographical sketch, with
...",
1883. http://books.google.com/books?id=
YkHu_MiyFSkC&printsec=frontcover&dq=phil
ip+reis+inventor+of+the+telephone#v=onep
age&q=&f=false
{Philipp_Reis__inventor_of_the_telepho
ne.pdf}
2. ^ George Bartlett Prescott, "The
speaking telephone, talking phonograph,
and other novelties",
1878,p147. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=Fdpuup7RSrUC&pg=PA110&lpg=PA110&dq=
%22galvanic+music%22&source=bl&ots=XSKEE
-YQX1&sig=LnqVekN9DrlsZbrt8uQvjga8znk&hl
=en&ei=ze-eSqviJYOgswPdgpSCDg&sa=X&oi=bo
ok_result&ct=result&resnum=5#v=onepage&q
=%22galvanic%20music%22&f=false
3. ^ Silvanus Phillips Thompson,
"Philipp Reis: inventor of the
telephone: A biographical sketch, with
...",
1883. http://books.google.com/books?id=
YkHu_MiyFSkC&printsec=frontcover&dq=phil
ip+reis+inventor+of+the+telephone#v=onep
age&q=&f=false
{Philipp_Reis__inventor_of_the_telepho
ne.pdf}
4. ^ George Bartlett Prescott, "The
speaking telephone, talking phonograph,
and other novelties",
1878,p147. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=Fdpuup7RSrUC&pg=PA110&lpg=PA110&dq=
%22galvanic+music%22&source=bl&ots=XSKEE
-YQX1&sig=LnqVekN9DrlsZbrt8uQvjga8znk&hl
=en&ei=ze-eSqviJYOgswPdgpSCDg&sa=X&oi=bo
ok_result&ct=result&resnum=5#v=onepage&q
=%22galvanic%20music%22&f=false
5. ^ Silvanus Phillips Thompson,
"Philipp Reis: inventor of the
telephone: A biographical sketch, with
...",
1883. http://books.google.com/books?id=
YkHu_MiyFSkC&printsec=frontcover&dq=phil
ip+reis+inventor+of+the+telephone#v=onep
age&q=&f=false
{Philipp_Reis__inventor_of_the_telepho
ne.pdf}
6. ^ George Bartlett Prescott, "The
speaking telephone, talking phonograph,
and other novelties",
1878,p147. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=Fdpuup7RSrUC&pg=PA110&lpg=PA110&dq=
%22galvanic+music%22&source=bl&ots=XSKEE
-YQX1&sig=LnqVekN9DrlsZbrt8uQvjga8znk&hl
=en&ei=ze-eSqviJYOgswPdgpSCDg&sa=X&oi=bo
ok_result&ct=result&resnum=5#v=onepage&q
=%22galvanic%20music%22&f=false
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ George Bartlett Prescott,
"The speaking telephone, talking
phonograph, and other novelties",
1878,p9. http://books.google.com/books?
id=ANw3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=t
he+speaking+telephone#v=onepage&q=&f=fal
se
9. ^ George Bartlett Prescott, "The
speaking telephone, talking phonograph,
and other novelties",
1878,p9. http://books.google.com/books?
id=ANw3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=t
he+speaking+telephone#v=onepage&q=&f=fal
se {10/26/1861}
10. ^ George Bartlett Prescott, "The
speaking telephone, talking phonograph,
and other novelties",
1878,p9. http://books.google.com/books?
id=ANw3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=t
he+speaking+telephone#v=onepage&q=&f=fal
se {1861}
MORE INFO
[1] Herbert Newton Casson, "The
history of the telephone",
1910. http://books.google.com/books?id=
4iU1AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=The+
History+of+the+Telephone&as_brr=1#v=onep
age&q=&f=false
[2] Théodore Achille L. Du Moncel,
"The telephone, the microphone, and the
phonograph",
1879. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Do4DAAAAQAAJ&pg=PR7&dq=history+microphon
e#v=onepage&q=history%20microphone&f=fal
se
and http://books.google.com/books?id=se
QOAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA7&dq=history+microphone&
as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=history%20microphon
e&f=false
[3] W. F. Barrett, "The Telephone, Its
History and Its Recent Improvements",
Nature, vol19, 11/07/1878,
p12-14. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=oC0CAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA12&dq=history+microp
hone&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=history%20micr
ophone&f=false
[4] The Talking Machine
Industry http://www.archive.org/stream/
talkingmachinein00mitcuoft/talkingmachin
ein00mitcuoft_djvu.txt
and cabinet in Garnier's Institute,
Friedrichsdorf, demonstrated before
Physical Society) Frankfort, Germany8
[1] Drawing of Philip Reiss telephone
used for 10/26/1861 demonstration
before Physical Society in Frankfort,
Germany. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=Fdpuup7RSrUC&pg=PA110&lpg=PA110&dq=%22g
alvanic+music%22&source=bl&ots=XSKEE-YQX
1&sig=LnqVekN9DrlsZbrt8uQvjga8znk&hl=en&
ei=ze-eSqviJYOgswPdgpSCDg&sa=X&oi=book_r
esult&ct=result&resnum=5#v=onepage&q=%22
galvanic%20music%22&f=false
[2] portrait of Philip Reiss From
Silvanus Thompson: ''Reis is here
represented as holding in his hand the
telephone with which he had a few days
preceding (May 11, 1862) achieved such
success at his lecture before the
Freies Deutsches Hochstift (Free German
Institute) in Frankfort. '' PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=YkHu_MiyFSkC&printsec=frontcover&dq=phi
lip+reis+inventor+of+the+telephone#v=one
page&q=&f=false
[08/28/1875 AD] 5
Electricity in nerve cells measured.3
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Caton, "The Electric
Currents of the Brain", British Medical
Journal, 1875, V2,
p278. http://www.bmj.com/content/2/765/
257.full.pdf+html {Caton_Richard_187508
28.pdf}
2. ^ Richard Caton, "The Electric
Currents of the Brain", British Medical
Journal, 1875, V2,
p278. http://www.bmj.com/content/2/765/
257.full.pdf+html {Caton_Richard_187508
28.pdf}
3. ^ Richard Caton, "The Electric
Currents of the Brain", British Medical
Journal, 1875, V2,
p278. http://www.bmj.com/content/2/765/
257.full.pdf+html {Caton_Richard_187508
28.pdf}
4. ^ Richard Caton, "The Electric
Currents of the Brain", British Medical
Journal, 1875, V2,
p278. http://www.bmj.com/content/2/765/
257.full.pdf+html {Caton_Richard_187508
28.pdf}
5. ^ Richard Caton, "The Electric
Currents of the Brain", British Medical
Journal, 1875, V2,
p278. http://www.bmj.com/content/2/765/
257.full.pdf+html {Caton_Richard_187508
28.pdf} {08/28/1875}
[1] Text of: Richard Caton, ''The
Electric Currents of the Brain'',
British Medical Journal, 1875, V2,
p278. http://www.bmj.com/content/2/765/
257.full.pdf+html {Caton_Richard_187508
28.pdf} PD
source: http://www.bmj.com/content/2/765
/257.full.pdf+html
[2]
http://books.google.com/books?id=_GMeW9E
1IB4C&pg=PA41 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=_GMeW9E1IB4C&pg=PA41
[12/24/1877 AD] 4 5
2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Herbert Treadwell Wade,
"Phonograph", The New international
encyclopaedia, Volume
18. http://books.google.com/books?id=VD
JXAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA542&dq=scott+1855+phonau
tograph&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=scott%20185
5%20phonautograph&f=false
2. ^ Edison "improvements to
phonograph..." patent
#200521 http://www.google.com/patents/a
bout?id=SWg_AAAAEBAJ
3. ^ Edison "improvements to
phonograph..." patent
#200521 http://www.google.com/patents/a
bout?id=SWg_AAAAEBAJ
4. ^ Edison "improvements to
phonograph..." patent
#200521 http://www.google.com/patents/a
bout?id=SWg_AAAAEBAJ {12/24/1877}
5. ^ Francis
Arthur Jones, "Thomas Alva Edison:
sixty years of an inventor's life",
1907,
p138. http://books.google.com/books?id=
29HAPQBd-JsC&pg=PA5&dq=thomas+alva+ediso
n&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f=false
{12/24/1877}
MORE INFO
[1] "Thomas Edison." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 01 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/thomas-edis
on
[2] "Thomas Alva Edison". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Alva
_Edison
[3] "Thomas Alva Edison". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Thomas_A
lva_Edison
[4] "Edison, Thomas Alva", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p274
[5] Video of Thomas Edison on
youtube.com: http://www.youtube.com/wat
ch?v=H7RQ5sKHR5E
[6] Video: A day with Thomas A. Edison
/ General Electric Co. ; producer, Bray
Studios. http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/
query/r?ammem/papr:@filreq(@field(NUMBER
+@band(edmp+4057s6))+@field(COLLID+ediso
n))
[7]
http://www.atheists.org/Thomas_Alva_Edis
on:_1911_Columbian_Interview
[8]
http://www.atheistempire.com/greatminds/
quotes.php?author=11
[9] Francis Rolt-Wheeler, "Thomas Alva
Edison",
1915. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ZKIDAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=thom
as+alva+edison&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f=f
alse
[10] Edith C. Kenyon, "Thomas Alva
Edison: the telegraph-boy who became a
great inventor",
1896. http://books.google.com/books?id=
24UVAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=thom
as+alva+edison&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f=f
alse
[11]
http://users.belgacom.net/gc391665/micro
phone_history.htm
[12] Frank Lewis Dyer, Thomas
Commerford Martin, "Edison: his life
and inventions",
1910. http://books.google.com/books?id=
qN83AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA200&dq=%22carbon+relay
%22&lr=#v=onepage&q=%22carbon%20relay%22
&f=false
[13] George Bartlett Prescott, "The
speaking telephone, talking phonograph,
and other novelties",
1878,p9. http://books.google.com/books?
id=ANw3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=t
he+speaking+telephone#v=onepage&q=&f=fal
se
[14] Théodore Achille L. Du Moncel,
"The telephone, the microphone, and the
phonograph",
1879. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Do4DAAAAQAAJ&pg=PR7&dq=history+microphon
e#v=onepage&q=history%20microphone&f=fal
se
and http://books.google.com/books?id=se
QOAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA7&dq=history+microphone&
as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=history%20microphon
e&f=false
[15] Theodore Du Moncel (comte),
"Exposé des applications de
l'électricité",
http://books.google.com/books?q=editio
ns:0WEbvzifraAvqv&lr=&id=jdYnAAAAYAAJ&sa
=N&start=0 Volume 5
(1862): http://books.google.com/books?i
d=jdYnAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=ed
itions:0WEbvzifraAvqv&lr=#v=onepage&q=&f
=false
[16] Chemical news and journal of
industrial science, Volume 38, 1878,
p241. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ugYAAAAAMAAJ&pg=RA4-PA241&dq=%22carbon+r
elay%22&lr=#v=onepage&q=%22carbon%20rela
y%22&f=false
[17] Silvanus P. Thompson, "On the
Electric Resistance of Carbon under
Pressure.", Philosophical Magazine, S5,
Vol 13, Num 81, April 1882,
p262-265. http://books.google.com/books
?id=B1IwAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA265&dq=%22carbon+r
elay%22&lr=#v=onepage&q=%22carbon%20rela
y%22&f=false
[18] "Under Pressure", The Electrician,
Volume 82, 03/11/1882,
p264. http://books.google.com/books?id=
IOYTAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA264&dq=%22carbon+relay
%22&lr=#v=onepage&q=%22carbon%20relay%22
&f=false
[19] "plumbago>.". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
"plumbago." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. 02 Sep. 2009.
lumbago>
[20] Edison, 12/13/1887
patent http://www.google.com/patents?id
=Gr9BAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4#v
=onepage&q=&f=false
[21] "rheostat>.". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
"rheostat." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. 02 Sep. 2009.
heostat>
[22] "rheostat>.". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
"rheostat." Online Etymology
Dictionary. Douglas Harper, Historian.
02 Sep. 2009.
heostat>
[23]
http://atheism.about.com/library/quotes/
bl_q_TAEdison.htm
[24] Edison patent 203,014, April 30,
1878, filed
07/20/1877 http://www.google.com/patent
s?id=Fr9BAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom
=4#v=onepage&q=&f=false
[25] "Edison, Thomas Alva."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 1
Sept. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9106
218>
[26] Edison's Patent on the pressure
relay,
203015. http://www.google.com/patents?i
d=F79BAAAAEBAJ&printsec=drawing&zoom=4#v
=onepage&q=&f=false
[27] The Iron age, Volume 94, Issues
14-27 http://books.google.com/books?id=
Na0vAAAAYAAJ&pg=PT22&dq=edison+phonograp
h+uses+recording+phone+calls&as_brr=1#v=
onepage&q=&f=false
[28]
http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/edhtml/edtim
e.html
USA3
[1] Original Edison Tin Foil
Phonograph. Photo courtesy of U.S.
Department of the Interior, National
Park Service, Edison National Historic
Site. source:
http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/edhtml/edcyl
dr.html PD
source: http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/edht
ml/tinfoil.jpg
[2] Edison's 12/24/1877 patent for
improvements to the phonograph. PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=SWg_AAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4#v
=onepage&q=&f=false
[1878 AD] 4 5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p487.
2. ^ "Chardonnet,
Louis-Marie-Hilaire Bernigaud, Comte
De", Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p183-184.
3. ^ "Hilaire
Bernigaud, count de Chardonnet".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 23 Dec.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/106367/Hilaire-Bernigaud-count-d
e-Chardonnet>.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p487. {1878}
5. ^ "Hilaire
Bernigaud, count de Chardonnet".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 23 Dec.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/106367/Hilaire-Bernigaud-count-d
e-Chardonnet>.
MORE INFO
[1] "rayon." How Products are
Made. The Gale Group, Inc, 2002.
Answers.com 01 Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/rayon
[2] "Hilaire de Chardonnet". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hilaire_de_
Chardonnet
[3]
http://inventors.about.com/library/inven
tors/blfabric.htm
[4]
http://www.chemistryexplained.com/Ce-Co/
Chardonnet-Hilaire.html
[1] n particolare ingrandito di una
gonna in rayon. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/00/Rayon_closeup_1.jpg
[2] Hilaire Bernigaud PD/Corel
source: http://www.scienceandsociety.co.
uk/Pix/PER/07/10284307_T.JPG
[1880 AD] 5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p502-504.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p502-504.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p502-504.
4. ^ W. C. Röntgen,
"Ueber die durch Electricität
bewirkten Form- und Volumenänderungen
von dielectrischen Körpern", Annalen
der Physik, Volume 247, Issue 13, pages
771–786,
1880. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/do
i/10.1002/andp.18802471304/abstract {Ro
ntgen_Wilhelm_Conrad_188009xx.pdf}
English: "About the changes in shape
and volume of dielectrics caused by
electricity"
5. ^ W. C. Röntgen, "Ueber die durch
Electricität bewirkten Form- und
Volumenänderungen von dielectrischen
Körpern", Annalen der Physik, Volume
247, Issue 13, pages 771–786,
1880. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/do
i/10.1002/andp.18802471304/abstract {Ro
ntgen_Wilhelm_Conrad_188009xx.pdf}
English: "About the changes in shape
and volume of dielectrics caused by
electricity" {09/1880}
MORE INFO
[1] "Roentgen, Wilhelm Konrad." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 20 Mar. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/wilhelm-con
rad-r-ntgen
[2] "Roentgen, Wilhelm Konrad."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 20 Mar. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/wilhelm-con
rad-r-ntgen
[3] "Roentgen, Wilhelm Konrad." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 20 Mar. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/wilhelm-con
rad-r-ntgen
[4] "Wilhelm Konrad Röntgen".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelm_Kon
rad_R%C3%B6ntgen
[5] "Rontgen rays". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Rontgen_
rays
[6] W. C. Röntgen, "Ueber die durch
Bewegung eines im homogenen
electrischen Felde befindlichen
Dielectricums hervorgerufene
electrodynamische Kraft", Ann. Phys.
Chem. 35, 264-270
(1888). http://www3.interscience.wiley.
com/cgi-bin/fulltext/112488000/PDFSTART
[7] W. C. Röntgen, "Beschreibung des
Apparates, mit welchem die Versuche
über die electrodynamische Wirkung
bewegter Dielectrica ausgeführt
wurden", Annalen der Physik und Chemie,
Volume 276, Issue 5, Date: 1890, Pages:
93-108. http://www3.interscience.wiley.
com/cgi-bin/fulltext/112506815/PDFSTART
[8] "Röntgen, Wilhelm Conrad."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 20
Mar. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9083
885>
[9] "Röntgen (Roentgen), Wilhelm
Conrad", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000),
p751-752
Germany4
[1] Figures 1 and 2 from: W. C.
Röntgen, ''Ueber die durch
Electricität bewirkten Form- und
Volumenänderungen von dielectrischen
Körpern'', Annalen der Physik, Volume
247, Issue 13, pages 771–786,
1880. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/do
i/10.1002/andp.18802471304/abstract {Ro
ntgen_Wilhelm_Conrad_188009xx.pdf}
English: ''About the changes in
shape and volume of dielectrics caused
by electricity'' PD
source: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/d
oi/10.1002/andp.18802471304/abstract
[2] English: Photo of Wilhelm Conrad
Röntgen. Cleaned up version of
http://images.google.com/hosted/life/l?i
mgurl=6b3da250c6b5560f Source
unknown source Date 1900 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/71/Roentgen2.jpg
[1880 AD]
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "slavery". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2013. Web. 24 Feb.
2013 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/548305/slavery/24160/Ways-of-end
ing-slavery>.
[1] Two Full pages from the Illustrated
London News dated 1861, an illustrated
weekly newspaper weeks date as shown on
top of page, the size of each page is
approx ( including margins as shown
)imately 11 x 16 inches (280x410). All
are genuine antique prints and not
modern copies, the Illustrated London
News is an illustrated magazine which
was first printed in 1842 and is the
finest pictorial example of a historic
social record of British and world
events up to the present day PD
source: http://www.old-print.com/mas_ass
ets/full2/P1380861/P1380861139.jpg
[2] {ULSF: Slave auction} PD
source: http://striking-women.org/sites/
striking-women.org/files/slave%20market%
20in%20virginia.jpg
[01/05/1881 AD] 3 4
Image captured and sent
electronically.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Shelford Bidwell,
"Tele-Photography", Nature, Volume 23,
Number 589, 10 February 1881,
pp333-356. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v23/n589/index.html {Bidwell_S
helford_1881_023344a0.pdf}
2. ^
http://www.ingenious.org.uk/See/?target=
SeeMedium&ObjectID={362EAEAA-D808-2BE4-8
8E7-CAB0D5B92C95}&s=S1&SearchString=bidw
ell&source=Search&viewby=images&
3. ^ Shelford Bidwell,
"Tele-Photography", Nature, Volume 23,
Number 589, 10 February 1881,
pp333-356. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v23/n589/index.html {Bidwell_S
helford_1881_023344a0.pdf} {01/05/1881}
4. ^
http://www.hffax.de/html/hauptteil_faxhi
story.htm {1881}
MORE INFO
[1]
http://books.google.com/books?id=wNURAAA
AYAAJ&pg=PA546&dq=Shelford+Bidwell+photo
telegraphy&as_brr=1&ei=aHrZSMyOLpGgswOOu
uTeDg#PPA546,M1
[2] Marcus J. Martin, "The Electrical
Transmission of Photographs", Sir I.
Pitman & sons, ltd.,
1921. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Aw9IAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA12&dq=Shelford+Bidwell
+phototelegraphy&as_brr=1&ei=aHrZSMyOLpG
gswOOuuTeDg#PPA12,M1
[3] "Electricity". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Electric
ity
[4] "Telegraph". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Telegrap
h
[5] "Shelford Bidwell". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shelford_Bi
dwell
[6] Shelford Bidwell, "Telegraphic
Photography and Electric Vision",
Nature, Volume 78 Number 2014 pp97-120,
(04 June 1908),
p105. http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v78/n2014/index.html http://www.nat
ure.com/nature/journal/v78/n2014/pdf/078
105a0.pdf
[1] Image of gas flame focused on
transmitter figure 3 PD/Corel
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v23/n589/pdf/023344a0.pdf
[2] Image as reproduced by receiver
figure 4 PD/Corel
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v23/n589/pdf/023344a0.pdf
[03/24/1882 AD] 11 12
Radio communication.7 8 9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ John Joseph Fahie, "A History of
Wireless Telegraphy", Dodd, Mead & Co.,
1902,
p.94-100. http://books.google.com/books
?hl=en&id=WE41AAAAMAAJ&dq=A+History+of+W
ireless+Telegraphy&printsec=frontcover&s
ource=web&ots=08aQE8FQHe&sig=0AB8rC1DTmK
fhhsRE55cYSIq2PM&sa=X&oi=book_result&res
num=2&ct=result#PPA98,M1
2. ^ A. E. Dolbear, "Mode of Electric
Communication", Patent number: 350299,
Issue date: Oct 5,
1886. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
Pc9cAAAAEBAJ
3. ^ A. E. Dolbear, "Electric
Communication Without Wires",
Scientific American Supplement, Number
571, 12/11/1886,
p9119. http://books.google.com/books?id
=_jEiAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA9119
4. ^ John Joseph Fahie, "A History of
Wireless Telegraphy", Dodd, Mead & Co.,
1902,
p.94-100. http://books.google.com/books
?hl=en&id=WE41AAAAMAAJ&dq=A+History+of+W
ireless+Telegraphy&printsec=frontcover&s
ource=web&ots=08aQE8FQHe&sig=0AB8rC1DTmK
fhhsRE55cYSIq2PM&sa=X&oi=book_result&res
num=2&ct=result#PPA98,M1
5. ^ A. E. Dolbear, "Mode of Electric
Communication", Patent number: 350299,
Issue date: Oct 5,
1886. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
Pc9cAAAAEBAJ
6. ^ A. E. Dolbear, "Electric
Communication Without Wires",
Scientific American Supplement, Number
571, 12/11/1886,
p9119. http://books.google.com/books?id
=_jEiAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA9119
7. ^ John Joseph Fahie, "A History of
Wireless Telegraphy", Dodd, Mead & Co.,
1902,
p.94-100. http://books.google.com/books
?hl=en&id=WE41AAAAMAAJ&dq=A+History+of+W
ireless+Telegraphy&printsec=frontcover&s
ource=web&ots=08aQE8FQHe&sig=0AB8rC1DTmK
fhhsRE55cYSIq2PM&sa=X&oi=book_result&res
num=2&ct=result#PPA98,M1
8. ^ A. E. Dolbear, "Mode of Electric
Communication", Patent number: 350299,
Issue date: Oct 5,
1886. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
Pc9cAAAAEBAJ
9. ^ A. E. Dolbear, "Electric
Communication Without Wires",
Scientific American Supplement, Number
571, 12/11/1886,
p9119. http://books.google.com/books?id
=_jEiAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA9119
10. ^ A. E. Dolbear, "Mode of Electric
Communication", Patent number: 350299,
Issue date: Oct 5,
1886. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
Pc9cAAAAEBAJ
11. ^ A. E. Dolbear, "Mode of Electric
Communication", Patent number: 350299,
Issue date: Oct 5,
1886. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
Pc9cAAAAEBAJ
12. ^ John Joseph Fahie, "A History of
Wireless Telegraphy", Dodd, Mead & Co.,
1902,
p.94-100. http://books.google.com/books
?hl=en&id=WE41AAAAMAAJ&dq=A+History+of+W
ireless+Telegraphy&printsec=frontcover&s
ource=web&ots=08aQE8FQHe&sig=0AB8rC1DTmK
fhhsRE55cYSIq2PM&sa=X&oi=book_result&res
num=2&ct=result#PPA98,M1 {1882}
MORE INFO
[1] Dolbear, A.E. �On the
Development of a New Telephonic
System.� Telegraph Engineers and of
Electricians, Journal of the Society of
11.41 (1882):
130�144. books.google.com/books?id=nB
E4AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA130
Sommerville, Massachusetts, USA10
[1] A. E. Dolbear, ''Mode of Electric
Communication'', Patent number: 350299,
Issue date: Oct 5,
1886. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
Pc9cAAAAEBAJ PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=Pc9cAAAAEBAJ
[2] From Scientific American
Supplement, December 11, 1886 PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?hl
=en&id=WE41AAAAMAAJ&dq=A+History+of+Wire
less+Telegraphy&printsec=frontcover&sour
ce=web&ots=08aQE8FQHe&sig=0AB8rC1DTmKfhh
sRE55cYSIq2PM&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum
=2&ct=result#PPA98,M1
[1887 AD] 4
measured and recorded.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Augustus D. Waller, "A
Demonstration on Man of Electromotive
Changes accompanying the Heart's Beat",
J Physiol. 1887 October; 8(5):
229–234. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
pmc/articles/PMC1485094/?page=1 {Waller
_Augustus_electrocardiograph_1887.pdf}
2. ^ Burch, G.E., and N.P. DePasquale.
The History of Electrocardiography.
Norman Pub., 1964. Norman Cardiology
Series, No
1. http://books.google.com/books?id=_w9
v_ZkzTZoC&pg=PA28
3. ^
http://www.hrsonline.org/news/ep-history
/notable-figures/augustuswaller.cfm
4. ^ Augustus D. Waller, "A
Demonstration on Man of Electromotive
Changes accompanying the Heart's Beat",
J Physiol. 1887 October; 8(5):
229–234. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
pmc/articles/PMC1485094/?page=1 {Waller
_Augustus_electrocardiograph_1887.pdf}
MORE INFO
[1] "A. D. Waller Obituary",
Nature, Vol 109, N2735, April 1, 1922,
p
418. http://books.google.com/books?id=x
vARAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA418&lpg=PA418&dq=obitua
ry+einthoven+intitle:nature&source=bl&ot
s=ku9EmPPB1V&sig=WZRcbRFA9qoQo4ip0qYobAQ
rYLk&hl=en&ei=1Wz9S6riB4XENr_F3d4H&sa=X&
oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0C
CMQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=obituary%20einthov
en%20intitle%3Anature&f=false
[2] "Augustus Desiré Waller".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augustus_De
sir%C3%A9_Waller
[3]
http://caribbean.scielo.org/scielo.php?s
cript=sci_arttext&pid=S0043-314420050003
00012&lng=en&nrm=
[1] Figure 1 from Waller 1887 paper PD
source: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/
articles/PMC1485094/pdf/jphysiol02445-00
01.pdf
[2] Image of Augustus Waller part of
same image
at: http://www.hrsonline.org/news/ep-hi
story/notable-figures/augustuswaller.cfm
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.nyteknik.se/multimedi
a/archive/00033/Jimmie-och-Augustus-_330
47a.jpg
[06/21/1889 AD] 14 15 16 17
projector.9 10 11 12
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Cecil Bembridge, "Moving Pictures
in Colors", Technical World Magazine,
Vol 11, 1909,
p290. http://books.google.com/books?id=
CQfOAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA291&dq=Friese-Greene&a
s_brr=1#v=onepage&q=Friese-Greene&f=fals
e
2. ^ Francis Rolt-Wheeler, "Thomas Alva
Edison", 1915,
p159. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ZKIDAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=thom
as+alva+edison&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=tasi
meter&f=false
3. ^ Ray Allister, pseudonym for Muriel
Forth, "Friese-Greene: Close-up of an
Inventor", Marsland Publications, 1948,
p53-57. {ULSF: copyright on work was
now renewed and so the book is now in
the public domain in the USA. Notice
the pseudonym - perhaps there was fear
of being labeled a "rat"?}
4. ^ Josef Eder,
"History of Photography", 1945, p515.
5. ^
Cecil Bembridge, "Moving Pictures in
Colors", Technical World Magazine, Vol
11, 1909,
p290. http://books.google.com/books?id=
CQfOAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA291&dq=Friese-Greene&a
s_brr=1#v=onepage&q=Friese-Greene&f=fals
e
6. ^ Francis Rolt-Wheeler, "Thomas Alva
Edison", 1915,
p159. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ZKIDAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=thom
as+alva+edison&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=tasi
meter&f=false
7. ^ Ray Allister, pseudonym for Muriel
Forth, "Friese-Greene: Close-up of an
Inventor", Marsland Publications, 1948,
p53-57. {ULSF: copyright on work was
now renewed and so the book is now in
the public domain in the USA. Notice
the pseudonym - perhaps there was fear
of being labeled a "rat"?}
8. ^ Josef Eder,
"History of Photography", 1945, p515.
9. ^
Cecil Bembridge, "Moving Pictures in
Colors", Technical World Magazine, Vol
11, 1909,
p290. http://books.google.com/books?id=
CQfOAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA291&dq=Friese-Greene&a
s_brr=1#v=onepage&q=Friese-Greene&f=fals
e
10. ^ Francis Rolt-Wheeler, "Thomas
Alva Edison", 1915,
p159. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ZKIDAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=thom
as+alva+edison&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=tasi
meter&f=false
11. ^ Ray Allister, pseudonym for
Muriel Forth, "Friese-Greene: Close-up
of an Inventor", Marsland Publications,
1948, p53-57. {ULSF: copyright on work
was now renewed and so the book is now
in the public domain in the USA. Notice
the pseudonym - perhaps there was fear
of being labeled a "rat"?}
12. ^ Josef Eder,
"History of Photography", 1945, p515.
13. ^
Ray Allister, pseudonym for Muriel
Forth, "Friese-Greene: Close-up of an
Inventor", Marsland Publications,
1948. {ULSF: copyright on work was now
renewed and so the book is now in the
public domain in the USA. Notice the
pseudonym - perhaps there was fear of
being labeled a "rat"?}
14. ^ "William
Friese-Greene". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Fri
ese-Greene {06/21/1889}
15. ^ Ray Allister,
pseudonym for Muriel Forth,
"Friese-Greene: Close-up of an
Inventor", Marsland Publications,
1948. {ULSF: copyright on work was now
renewed and so the book is now in the
public domain in the USA. Notice the
pseudonym - perhaps there was fear of
being labeled a "rat"?} {06/21/1889}
16. ^ Francis
Rolt-Wheeler, "Thomas Alva Edison",
1915,
p159. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ZKIDAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=thom
as+alva+edison&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=tasi
meter&f=false {1882}
17. ^ Cecil Bembridge,
"Moving Pictures in Colors", Technical
World Magazine, Vol 11, 1909,
p290. http://books.google.com/books?id=
CQfOAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA291&dq=Friese-Greene&a
s_brr=1#v=onepage&q=Friese-Greene&f=fals
e {1889}
MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.screenonline.org.uk/people/id
/508948/index.html (note: seems
somewhat biased against
Frieses-Greene[t])
[2] Earl Theisen, "The Depicting of
Motion Prior to the Advent of the
Screen", Journal of the Society of
Motion Picture Engineers, Volumes
20-21, 1943,
p249. http://www.archive.org/stream/jou
rnalofsociety20socirich/journalofsociety
20socirich_djvu.txt http://books.google
.com/books?id=Ct-BAAAAIAAJ&q=THE+DEPICTI
NG+OF+MOTION+PRIOR+TO+THE+ADVENT+OF+++TH
E+SCREEN&dq=THE+DEPICTING+OF+MOTION+PRIO
R+TO+THE+ADVENT+OF+++THE+SCREEN&as_brr=0
[3]
http://www.precinemahistory.net/1885.htm
[1] The first (publicly known[t]) Films
Made on Celluloid (1889-1890) PD
source: Ray Allister, pseudonym for
Muriel Forth, "Friese-Greene: Close-up
of an Inventor", Marsland Publications,
1948.
[2] Description
Williamfriesegreen.jpg English:
William Friese-Greene photographed in
c.1890 Date c1890 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2d/Williamfriesegreen.jp
g
[11/28/1889 AD] 4 5 6
detected.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Vogel, H.C., Scheiner, "Der
Vorsitzende berichtete über die
Resultate spectrographischer
Beobachtungen des Sterns Algol durch
die", Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen
Akademie der Wissenschaften, 1789,
p1045-1046. books.google.com/books?id=_
k8VAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA1045 English
translation: "The Chairman reported on
the results of spectrographic
observations of the star Algol by prof.
H. C. Vogel and Dr. Scheiner"
(Transactions of the Prussian Academy
of Sciences)
2. ^ Anton Pannekoek, "A History of
Astronomy", Courier Dover Publications,
1989,
p434-435. http://books.google.com/books
?id=O7D9AyU-nLYC&pg=PA435&lpg=PA435&dq=a
lgol+vogel&source=web&ots=8ZX6T6iHqP&sig
=FBWWwbfCBLrO80GS1idBcEWVxIU#PPA434,M1
3. ^ "Vogel, Hermann Karl."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 6 Jan.
2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9075
639>.
4. ^ Vogel, H.C., Scheiner, "Der
Vorsitzende berichtete über die
Resultate spectrographischer
Beobachtungen des Sterns Algol durch
die", Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen
Akademie der Wissenschaften, 1789,
p1045-1046. http://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=_k8VAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA1081&dq=intitle:
Sitzungsberichte+intitle:preussischen+da
te:1889-1889&lr=&ei=heBjSYaAN4H4lQTejf2E
Cw#PPA1045,M1 English
translation: "The Chairman reported on
the results of spectrographic
observations of the star Algol by prof.
H. C. Vogel and Dr. Scheiner"
(Transactions of the Prussian Academy
of Sciences) {11/28/1889}
5. ^ Hector Macpherson, "A
century's progress in astronomy",
Blackwood and sons, 1906,
p183. http://books.google.com/books?id=
4ftCAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=cent
ury%27s+progress&ei=as5jScbVK4WcMuarpf8I
#PPA175,M1 {1889}
6. ^ Alexander Hellemans,
Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables of
Science", Second edition, Simon and
Schuster, 1991, p370. {1889}
MORE INFO
[1] "Hermann Karl Vogel." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 06 Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hermann-kar
l-vogel
[2] "Hermann Carl Vogel". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermann_Car
l_Vogel
[3] "Vogel, Hermann Carl", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p910
[4] "Untersuchungen uber die
Spectra der Planeten", Gekronte
Preisschrift von der K. Gesellsch. d.
Wiss. in Kopenhagen, Leipzig, 1874.
Later 1876 paper?: Vogel, H.C.
"Untersuchungen uber die Spectra der
Planeten", Pogg. Ann., 158, 1876,
p461-472. http://www3.interscience.wile
y.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/112504372/PDFSTAR
T English translation: H. C. Vogel,
"Recent Research on the Spectra of
Planets", The Astrophysical Journal,
1895. http://books.google.com/books?id=
CWUsAAAAIAAJ&pg=RA1-PA196&dq=Recent+Rese
arches+on+the+Spectra+of+the+Planets+vog
el&as_brr=1&ei=P7ZjSd7uM5byMu_91f8I
[5] Review in 1895
"Science": http://books.google.com/book
s?id=73oCAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA474&dq=Spectra+of
+the+planets+vogel&as_brr=1&ei=47VjSfq7K
4zKM7HN-KwG
[6] "Vogel on the Spectra of the
Planets", Harper's Magazine,
1872. http://books.google.com/books?id=
OnkCAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA783&dq=Spectra+of+the+
planets+vogel&as_brr=1&ei=47VjSfq7K4zKM7
HN-KwG#PPA783,M1
[7] Edwin Frost, "Hermann Carl Vogel"
(obituary), The Astrophysical Journal,
v.27, Jan. 1908,
p1. http://books.google.com/books?id=6J
csAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA1&dq=The+Astrophysical+J
ournal+vogel&as_brr=1&ei=-rpjSdW8I4rONcK
PzZQI
[8]
http://phys-astro.sonoma.edu/brucemedali
sts/vogel/
[9] "Antonia Maury." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 07 Jan.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/antonia-mau
ry
Potsdam, Germany3
[1] Vogel, H.C., Scheiner, ''Der
Vorsitzende berichtete über die
Resultate spectrographischer
Beobachtungen des Sterns Algol durch
die'', Sitzungsberichte der
Preussischen Akademie der
Wissenschaften, 1789,
p1045-1046. books.google.com/books?id=_
k8VAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA1045 English
translation: ''The Chairman reported
on the results of spectrographic
observations of the star Algol by prof.
H. C. Vogel and Dr. Scheiner''
(Transactions of the Prussian Academy
of Sciences) PD
source: books.google.com/books?id=_k8VAA
AAYAAJ&pg=PA1045
[2] Description Photograph of
Hermann Carl Vogel, the
astronomer Source Opposite page
129 of Astronomers of Today Date
1905 Author Hector
Macpherson PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d2/Vogel_Hermann_Carl.jp
g
[01/31/1895 AD] 3
identified.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Lord Rayleigh, William Ramsay,
"Argon, a New Constituent of the
Atmosphere.", Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London, 1895,
p.265-287. http://journals.royalsociety
.org/content/1012472m98g64233/?p=3f7bb64
e1e0840a6b69bee16651602a9π=32 and
http://books.google.com/books?id=cqYOA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=intitle:r
oyal+date:1895-1895&as_brr=1&ei=PZN3SdS8
JYWekwTLxeyMAw#PPA265,M1 {Strutt_John_R
ayleigh_Lord_Ramsay_William_1894.pdf}
2. ^ "Strutt, John William, Third Baron
Rayleigh", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p844.
3. ^
Lord Rayleigh, William Ramsay, "Argon,
a New Constituent of the Atmosphere.",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London, 1895,
p.265-287. http://journals.royalsociety
.org/content/1012472m98g64233/?p=3f7bb64
e1e0840a6b69bee16651602a9π=32 and
http://books.google.com/books?id=cqYOA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=intitle:r
oyal+date:1895-1895&as_brr=1&ei=PZN3SdS8
JYWekwTLxeyMAw#PPA265,M1 {Strutt_John_R
ayleigh_Lord_Ramsay_William_1894.pdf}
{01/31/1895}
MORE INFO
[1] "Baron Rayleigh." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 14 Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/baron-rayle
igh
[2] "Baron Rayleigh." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 14 Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/baron-rayle
igh
[3] "John Rayleigh". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Raylei
gh
[4] "Rayleigh scattering."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 13
Jan. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9062
822>
[5] "John William Strutt, 3rd baron
Rayleigh". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/John_Wil
liam_Strutt,_3rd_baron_Rayleigh
[6] John Tyndall, "On Chemical Rays,
and the Light of the Sky.",
Philosophical Magazine, 1869,
p429-450. http://books.google.com/books
?id=PiHR6flNP-sC&pg=PA429
[7] J. W. Strutt, "On the Reflection of
Light from Transparent Matter.", Phil.
Mag., S. 4, Vol. 42, Num 278, Aug 1871,
p.81-97
[8] J. W. Strutt, "On the Light from
the Sky, its Polarization and Colour.",
Phil. Mag., S. 4, Vol. 41, Feb 1871,
p.107-120,274-279
[9] "Rayleigh scattering". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rayleigh_sc
attering
[10] By John William Strutt, Baron
Rayleigh, "Scientific papers
(1869-1919)", University Press,
1899. vol
1: http://books.google.com/books?id=KWM
SAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edition
s:0YOgfc3cBhm9OyqKb8T8X_O vol
2: http://books.google.com/books?id=Y2M
SAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edition
s:0YOgfc3cBhm9OyqKb8T8X_O vol
3: http://books.google.com/books?id=gWM
SAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edition
s:0YOgfc3cBhm9OyqKb8T8X_O vol
4: http://books.google.com/books?id=S-s
PAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=strutt+
+scientific+papers&ei=r3F2Sa_lIYrUkwSUjJ
DKBg vol 5 &
6: http://books.google.com/books?id=Tht
WAAAAMAAJ&dq=editions:0YOgfc3cBhm9OyqKb8
T8X_O&lr=&pgis=1
[11] R. J. Strutt, "On the Tendency of
the Atomic Weights to approximate to
Whole Numbers.", Philosophical
Magazine, S. 6, V. 1, March 1901,
p311-314. http://books.google.com/books
?id=CJAOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA311&dq=strutt+atom
ic+weight&ei=Wl53ScT8JIGklQS0xMHmBA#PPA3
11,M1
[12] "Baron Rayleigh." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
14 Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/baron-rayle
igh
[13] Lord Rayleigh, "On the Relative
Densities of Hydrogen and Oxygen",
Proceedings of the Royal Society, 1888,
p356-363. http://books.google.com/books
?id=gKQOAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=
intitle:royal++date:1888-1888&as_brr=1&e
i=PmR3Sd7HKYnikATOldjRBg#PPA356,M1
[14] (original footnote:) "The Relative
Values of the Atomic Weights of
Hydrogen and Oxygen," by J. P. Cooke
and T. W. Richards, 'Amer. Acad.
Proc.,' vol 23, 1887
[15] (original
footnote:) Address to Section A,
British Association 'Report,' 1882
[16]
(original footnote:) "On the
Composition of Water by Volume," by A.
Scott, 'Roy. Soc. Proc.,' June 16, 1887
(vol. 42, p. 396)
[17] Lord Rayleigh, "On an
Anomaly encountered in Determination of
the Density of Nitrogen Gas.",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London, 1894,
p340-344. http://books.google.com/books
?id=t6gOAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=
intitle:proceedings+date:1894-1894&as_br
r=1&ei=n4B3SYiGFonikATOldjRBg#PPA340,M1
[18] Lord Rayleigh, "On the Densities
of the Principle Gases.", Proceedings
of the Royal Society of London, 1893,
p134-151. http://books.google.com/books
?id=qwYWAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=
intitle:proceedings+intitle:london+date:
1893-1893&as_brr=1&ei=KYN3Se-sN5bskgTq7b
XHBg#PPA134,M1
[1] Figure 1 from Rayleigh 1893 PD
source: self-made Author: Atanamir PD
[2] William Ramsay (CE 1852-1916) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0b/Ar-TableImage.svg
[11/05/1895 AD] 8 9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen, "Über
eine neue Art von Strahlen", Aus den
Sitzungsberichten der Würzburger
Physik.-medic. Gesellschaft 1895.
also http://de.wikisource.org/wiki/%C3%
9Cber_eine_neue_Art_von_Strahlen Annale
n der Physik, vol. 300, Issue 1,
pp.1-11 http://www3.interscience.wiley.
com/journal/112488309/abstract English
translation: "On a New Kind of Rays",
Nature, Volume 53, Number 1369, Jan.
23, 1896,
p274. http://books.google.com/books?id=
nWojdmTmch0C&pg=PA274
OR http://www.nature.com/nature/journal
/v53/n1369/pdf/053274b0.pdf
OR Science,
02/14/1896 http://books.google.com/book
s?id=4Z8SAAAAYAAJ&pg=PR13&dq=%22A+NEW+FO
RM+OF+RADIATION%22&ei=cMXESaPkLIzOkATcx4
2ADg#PPA227,M1
OR http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/roent
gen.html
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p502-504.
3. ^ Wilhelm Conrad
Röntgen, "Über eine neue Art von
Strahlen", Aus den Sitzungsberichten
der Würzburger Physik.-medic.
Gesellschaft 1895.
also http://de.wikisource.org/wiki/%C3%
9Cber_eine_neue_Art_von_Strahlen Annale
n der Physik, vol. 300, Issue 1,
pp.1-11 http://www3.interscience.wiley.
com/journal/112488309/abstract English
translation: "On a New Kind of Rays",
Nature, Volume 53, Number 1369, Jan.
23, 1896,
p274. http://books.google.com/books?id=
nWojdmTmch0C&pg=PA274
OR http://www.nature.com/nature/journal
/v53/n1369/pdf/053274b0.pdf
OR Science,
02/14/1896 http://books.google.com/book
s?id=4Z8SAAAAYAAJ&pg=PR13&dq=%22A+NEW+FO
RM+OF+RADIATION%22&ei=cMXESaPkLIzOkATcx4
2ADg#PPA227,M1
OR http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/roent
gen.html
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p502-504.
5. ^ Wilhelm Conrad
Röntgen, "Über eine neue Art von
Strahlen", Aus den Sitzungsberichten
der Würzburger Physik.-medic.
Gesellschaft 1895.
also http://de.wikisource.org/wiki/%C3%
9Cber_eine_neue_Art_von_Strahlen Annale
n der Physik, vol. 300, Issue 1,
pp.1-11 http://www3.interscience.wiley.
com/journal/112488309/abstract English
translation: "On a New Kind of Rays",
Nature, Volume 53, Number 1369, Jan.
23, 1896,
p274. http://books.google.com/books?id=
nWojdmTmch0C&pg=PA274
OR http://www.nature.com/nature/journal
/v53/n1369/pdf/053274b0.pdf
OR Science,
02/14/1896 http://books.google.com/book
s?id=4Z8SAAAAYAAJ&pg=PR13&dq=%22A+NEW+FO
RM+OF+RADIATION%22&ei=cMXESaPkLIzOkATcx4
2ADg#PPA227,M1
OR http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/roent
gen.html
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p502-504.
7. ^ "Röntgen,
Wilhelm Conrad." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 20 Mar. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9083
885>.
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p502-504.
{11/05/1895}
9. ^
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1901/rontgen-bio.html
{11/05/1895}
MORE INFO
[1] "Roentgen, Wilhelm Konrad." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 20 Mar. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/wilhelm-con
rad-r-ntgen
[2] "Roentgen, Wilhelm Konrad."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 20 Mar. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/wilhelm-con
rad-r-ntgen
[3] "Roentgen, Wilhelm Konrad." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 20 Mar. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/wilhelm-con
rad-r-ntgen
[4] "Wilhelm Konrad Röntgen".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelm_Kon
rad_R%C3%B6ntgen
[5] "Rontgen rays". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Rontgen_
rays
[6] "Röntgen (Roentgen), Wilhelm
Conrad", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000),
p751-752
[7] W. C. Röntgen, "Ueber die durch
Bewegung eines im homogenen
electrischen Felde befindlichen
Dielectricums hervorgerufene
electrodynamische Kraft", Ann. Phys.
Chem. 35, 264-270
(1888). http://www3.interscience.wiley.
com/cgi-bin/fulltext/112488000/PDFSTART
[8] W. C. Röntgen, "Beschreibung des
Apparates, mit welchem die Versuche
über die electrodynamische Wirkung
bewegter Dielectrica ausgeführt
wurden", Annalen der Physik und Chemie,
Volume 276, Issue 5, Date: 1890, Pages:
93-108. http://www3.interscience.wiley.
com/cgi-bin/fulltext/112506815/PDFSTART
[9] Edmund Taylor Whittaker, "History
of the theories of aether and
electricity: from the age of Descartes
to the close of the nineteenth
century", Longmans, Green, 1910,
p426. http://books.google.com/books?id=
vTHJah8btZIC&pg=PA426&dq=R%C3%B6ntgen+18
88+maxwell+dielectric&lr=&as_brr=1&ei=1t
PDSenwHKS6kgSD7-3-DQ#PPA426,M1
[10]
http://www.aps.org/publications/apsnews/
200708/history.cfm
[11] R. W. Wood, "The n-Rays.", Nature,
n1822, v70, 09/29/1904,
p530-531. http://books.google.com/books
?id=Qn0CAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=
intitle:nature+date:1904-1904&ei=wADJSd7
UN4TIlQScj-3_DQ#PPA530,M1
[12] Rene Blondlot, tr:Julien Francois
William Garcin, "'N' rays", Longmans,
Green, and co.,
1905. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Jpg3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=N+ra
ys+a+collection+of+papers&ei=DsTISdm3N4T
ckASbmYHLAw
[13]
www.rexresearch.com/blondlot/nrays.htm
Germany7
[1] English: Photo of Wilhelm Conrad
Röntgen. Cleaned up version of
http://images.google.com/hosted/life/l?i
mgurl=6b3da250c6b5560f Source
unknown source Date 1900 PD
AND Anna Berthe Roentgen.gif Print
of Wilhelm Röntgen's (1845-1923) first
x-ray, the hand of his wife Anna taken
on 1895-12-22, presented to Professor
Ludwig Zehnder of the Physik Institut,
University of Freiburg, on 1 January
1896. Source
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:An
na_Berthe_Roentgen.gif Date 22
December 1895 (1895-12-22) Author
Wilhelm Röntgen PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/71/Roentgen2.jpghttp://u
pload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/
6e/Anna_Berthe_Roentgen.gif
[2] English: Photo of Wilhelm Conrad
Röntgen. Cleaned up version of
http://images.google.com/hosted/life/l?i
mgurl=6b3da250c6b5560f Source
unknown source Date 1900 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/71/Roentgen2.jpg
[1897 AD] 5 6 7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p523-524.
2. ^ "Braun,
Ferdinand." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
2 Oct. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9016
270>.
3. ^ Ferdinand Braun, "Ueber ein
Verfahren zur Demonstration und zum
Studium des zeitlichen Verlaufes
variabler Ströme", Annalen der Physik
und Chemie, vol. lx., 1897, p.
552-559. books.google.com/books?id=QUXk
AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA552
AND http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bp
t6k15301j.image.f558.langFR {Braun_Ferd
inand_oscilloscope_1897.pdf} English
translation: Ferdinand Braun, "A
Method of Demonstrating and Studying
the Time-relations of Variable
Currents.", Minutes of proceedings of
the Institution of Civil Engineers,
Volume 129, 1897,
p464. http://books.google.com/books?id=
rXgMAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA464
4. ^ Ferdinand Braun, "Ueber ein
Verfahren zur Demonstration und zum
Studium des zeitlichen Verlaufes
variabler Ströme", Annalen der Physik
und Chemie, vol. lx., 1897, p.
552-559. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/121
48/bpt6k15301j.image.f558.langFR {Braun
_Ferdinand_oscilloscope_1897.pdf} Engli
sh translation: Ferdinand Braun, "A
Method of Demonstrating and Studying
the Time-relations of Variable
Currents.", Minutes of proceedings of
the Institution of Civil Engineers,
Volume 129, 1897,
p464. http://books.google.com/books?id=
rXgMAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA464&lpg=PA464&dq=A+Met
hod+of+Demonstrating+and+Studying+the+Ti
me-relations+of+Variable+Currents.+Ferdi
nand+Braun.&source=bl&ots=CY1GqwE3Ku&sig
=7-zDHHHs-PeoCHn_veDdZXebryM&hl=en&ei=O0
bOSoKvC5L0sgPulqm2Dg&sa=X&oi=book_result
&ct=result&resnum=1#v=onepage&q=A%20Meth
od%20of%20Demonstrating%20and%20Studying
%20the%20Time-relations%20of%20Variable%
20Currents.%20Ferdinand%20Braun.&f=false
5. ^ Ferdinand Braun, "Ueber ein
Verfahren zur Demonstration und zum
Studium des zeitlichen Verlaufes
variabler Ströme", Annalen der Physik
und Chemie, vol. lx., 1897, p.
552-559. books.google.com/books?id=QUXk
AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA552
AND http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bp
t6k15301j.image.f558.langFR {Braun_Ferd
inand_oscilloscope_1897.pdf} English
translation: Ferdinand Braun, "A
Method of Demonstrating and Studying
the Time-relations of Variable
Currents.", Minutes of proceedings of
the Institution of Civil Engineers,
Volume 129, 1897,
p464. http://books.google.com/books?id=
rXgMAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA464
6. ^ "Braun, Ferdinand." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 2 Oct. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9016
270>. {1897}
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p523-524. {1897}
MORE INFO
[1] "Karl Ferdinand Braun." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 02 Oct. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/karl-ferdin
and-braun
[2] "Karl Ferdinand Braun". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Ferdin
and_Braun
[3] "Braun, Ferdinand", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's
Sons, (2000), pp135
[4]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1909/braun-bio.html
[5] catalog of
papers http://books.google.com/books?id
=E-ItAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA334&dq=Karl+Ferdinand
+Braun+1874&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f=fals
e
[6]
http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_7615
83126/braun_karl_ferdinand.html
[7] "Karl Ferdinand Braun."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 02 Oct. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/karl-ferdin
and-braun
France4
[1] Figure 1 from Braun's 1897
paper. PD AND Ferdinand Braun PD
source: Ferdinand Braun, "Ueber ein
Verfahren zur Demonstration und zum
Studium des zeitlichen Verlaufes
variabler Ströme", Annalen der Physik
und Chemie, vol. lx., 1897, p.
552-559. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/121
48/bpt6k15301j.image.f558.langFR Engl
ish translation: Ferdinand Braun, "A
Method of Demonstrating and Studying
the Time-relations of Variable
Currents.", Minutes of proceedings of
the Institution of Civil Engineers,
Volume 129, 1897,
p464. http://books.google.com/books?id=
rXgMAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA464&lpg=PA464&dq=A+Met
hod+of+Demonstrating+and+Studying+the+Ti
me-relations+of+Variable+Currents.+Ferdi
nand+Braun.&source=bl&ots=CY1GqwE3Ku&sig
=7-zDHHHs-PeoCHn_veDdZXebryM&hl=en&ei=O0
bOSoKvC5L0sgPulqm2Dg&sa=X&oi=book_result
&ct=result&resnum=1#v=onepage&q=A%20Meth
od%20of%20Demonstrating%20and%20Studying
%20the%20Time-relations%20of%20Variable%
20Currents.%20Ferdinand%20Braun.&f=false
PDhttp://www.lecad.fs.uni-lj.si/tmce20
06/2012/pics/venue_html_68645264.jpg
[2] Figure 1 from Braun's 1897
paper. PD
source: Ferdinand Braun, "Ueber ein
Verfahren zur Demonstration und zum
Studium des zeitlichen Verlaufes
variabler Ströme", Annalen der Physik
und Chemie, vol. lx., 1897, p.
552-559. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/121
48/bpt6k15301j.image.f558.langFR Engl
ish translation: Ferdinand Braun, "A
Method of Demonstrating and Studying
the Time-relations of Variable
Currents.", Minutes of proceedings of
the Institution of Civil Engineers,
Volume 129, 1897,
p464. http://books.google.com/books?id=
rXgMAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA464&lpg=PA464&dq=A+Met
hod+of+Demonstrating+and+Studying+the+Ti
me-relations+of+Variable+Currents.+Ferdi
nand+Braun.&source=bl&ots=CY1GqwE3Ku&sig
=7-zDHHHs-PeoCHn_veDdZXebryM&hl=en&ei=O0
bOSoKvC5L0sgPulqm2Dg&sa=X&oi=book_result
&ct=result&resnum=1#v=onepage&q=A%20Meth
od%20of%20Demonstrating%20and%20Studying
%20the%20Time-relations%20of%20Variable%
20Currents.%20Ferdinand%20Braun.&f=false
PD
[1898 AD] 6
data.3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Poulsen patent 661,619 Method of
Recording and Reproducing Sounds or
Signals http://www.google.com/patents/a
bout?id=e79kAAAAEBAJ&dq=661,619
2. ^ "Poulsen, Valdemar." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 30 July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9061
097>.
3. ^ Poulsen patent 661,619 Method of
Recording and Reproducing Sounds or
Signals http://www.google.com/patents/a
bout?id=e79kAAAAEBAJ&dq=661,619
4. ^ "Poulsen, Valdemar." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 30 July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9061
097>.
5. ^ "Poulsen, Valdemar." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 30 July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9061
097>.
6. ^ "Poulsen, Valdemar." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 30 July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9061
097>. {1898}
MORE INFO
[1] "Valdemar Poulsen." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2010. Answers.com 30 Jul. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/valdemar-po
ulsen-danish-engineer
[2] "Valdemar Poulsen." Science and Its
Times. Ed. Neil Schlager and Josh
Lauer. Vol. 6: 1900 to 1949. Detroit:
Gale, 2000. 612. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Web. 30 July 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX3408503938&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[3] "Valdemar Poulsen". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valdemar_Po
ulsen
[4] Compilation of Oberlin Smith
biographical and technical information
of his inventions
Copenhagen, Denmark5
[1] Description Telegrafon
8154.jpg Magyar: Valdemar Poulsen
mágneses hangrögzítő készüléke
1898-ból. A Brede Værk ipari
múzeumban látható a dániai
Lingbyben. Saját felvétel. Dansk:
Valdemar Poulsen opfandt i i 1898 af en
magnetisk optageenhed der kaldes en
Telegrafon English: Magnetic wire
recorder, invented by Valdemar Poulsen,
1898. It is exhibited at Brede works
Industrial Museum, Lingby,
Danmark. Date 25 October
2009(2009-10-25) (original upload
date) Source Transferred from
hu.wikipedia; transferred to Commons by
User:Nico-dk using
CommonsHelper. Author Original
uploader was Bitman at
hu.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) CC-BY-SA-2.5; Released under
the GNU Free Documentation
License. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f9/Telegrafon_8154.jpg
[2] 1 Valdemar Poulsen (1869-1942),
der Erfinder der magnetischen
Schallaufzeichnung UNKNOWN
source: http://www.theimann.com/Analog/H
istory/100_Jahre/Bild1.jpg
[10/10/1901 AD] 3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Fischer, Emil Hermann." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 5. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 1-5. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Gale. University of California
- Irvine. 4 Nov. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
2. ^ "Fischer, Emil Hermann." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 5. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 1-5. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Gale. University of California
- Irvine. 4 Nov. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
3. ^ "Fischer, Emil Hermann." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 5. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 1-5. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Gale. University of California
- Irvine. 4 Nov. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>. {1901}
4. ^ "Emil Fischer -
Biography". Nobelprize.org. 11 May 2013
http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/c
hemistry/laureates/1902/fischer-bio.html
MORE INFO
[1] "Hermann Emil Fischer."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 05 Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hermann-emi
l-fischer
[2] "Emil Hermann Fischer". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emil_Herman
n_Fischer
[3] Untersuchungen über Aminosäuren,
Polypeptide und Proteine, 1899–1906
(Berlin,
1906); http://books.google.com/books?id
=YwXiXA-UN0UC&dq=Untersuchungen+%C3%BCbe
r+Aminos%C3%A4uren,+Polypeptide+und+Prot
eine&printsec=frontcover&source=bl&ots=o
_b7eX-MYN&sig=NBTkQPTKqSIIuIrisZiCgoRR_Y
k&hl=en&ei=iCDySqWpCIn4tAOJrMneAQ&sa=X&o
i=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CA
8Q6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=&f=false
[4] Untersuchungen in der Puringruppe,
1882–1906 (Berlin, 1907);
http://books.google.com/books?id=L5JPy
TLCkA8C&pg=PA611&dq=Untersuchungen+in+de
r+Puringruppe#v=onepage&q=&f=false
[5] "Fischer, Emil." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 4 Nov. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9034
371>
[6] "Hermann Emil Fischer." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 05 Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hermann-emi
l-fischer
[7] Fischer, E. "Die Hydrolyse der
Proteinstoffe." Zeitschrift für
Lebensmitteluntersuchung und-Forschung
A 5.24 (1902):
1207-1208. http://link.springer.com/art
icle/10.1007%2FBF02506767?LI=true
[8] Fischer, Emil, and Ernest Fourneau.
"Ueber einige Derivate des Glykocolls."
Berichte der deutschen chemischen
Gesellschaft 34.2 (1901):
2868-2877. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.c
om/doi/10.1002/cber.190103402249/abstrac
t
[1] Fischer, Emil, and Ernest Fourneau.
''Ueber einige Derivate des
Glykocolls.'' Berichte der deutschen
chemischen Gesellschaft 34.2 (1901):
2868-2877. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.c
om/doi/10.1002/cber.190103402249/abstrac
t {Fischer_19011010.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/d
oi/10.1002/cber.190103402249/abstract
[2] Fischer, Emil, and Ernest
Fourneau. ''Ueber einige Derivate des
Glykocolls.'' Berichte der deutschen
chemischen Gesellschaft 34.2 (1901):
2868-2877. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.c
om/doi/10.1002/cber.190103402249/abstrac
t {Fischer_19011010.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/d
oi/10.1002/cber.190103402249/abstract
[03/23/1903 AD] 5 6
sustained, and controlled airplane
flight.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Wright, Wilbur and Orville."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 6 July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-8026
>.
2. ^ "Wright, Wilbur and Orville."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 6 July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-8026
>.
3. ^ "Wright, Wilbur and Orville."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 6 July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-8026
>.
4. ^ "Wright, Wilbur." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 14. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 520-521. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 6 July
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904733&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
5. ^ "Wright, Wilbur." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 14. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 520-521. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 6 July
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904733&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {12/17/1903}
6. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p613-614,634-635.
{12/17/1903}
MORE INFO
[1] "The Wright Brothers."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 06 Jul. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/
[2] "Wright brothers". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wright_brot
hers
[3] Patent 821393 FLYING-MACHINE
ORVILLE
WRIGHT http://www.google.com/patents?id
=h5NWAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f
=false
[4] "airfoil." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 06 Jul.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/airfoil
[5] Wright, Wilbur and Orville. Video.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Web. 6
July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/art-127561>
[6] aviation: flight of the first
military airplane, 1909. Video.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Web. 6
July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/art-15290>
[1] Description First
flight2.jpg English: First successful
flight of the Wright Flyer, by the
Wright brothers. The machine traveled
120 ft (36.6 m) in 12 seconds at 10:35
a.m. at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina.
Orville Wright was at the controls of
the machine, lying prone on the lower
wing with his hips in the cradle which
operated the wing-warping mechanism.
Wilbur Wright ran alongside to balance
the machine, and just released his hold
on the forward upright of the right
wing in the photo. The starting rail,
the wing-rest, a coil box, and other
items needed for flight preparation are
visible behind the machine. This was
considered ''the first sustained and
controlled heavier-than-air, powered
flight'' by the Fédération
Aéronautique
Internationale. Français : L’un des
premier vols habités de l’histoire
dans un aéronef plus lourd que l’air
(36.6 mètres en 12 secondes), par les
frères Wright le 17 décembre 1903 à
10h35 sur la plage de Kitty Hawk en
Caroline du Nord. Orville est aux
commandes, allongé sur le ventre sur
l’aile basse et les hanches dans la
nacelle qui servait à contrôler le
mouvement des ailes ; Wilbur court le
long de l’appareil et vient de lacher
l’aile droite. Le rail de lancement,
des étais et d’autres équipements
nécessaires pour la préparation du
vol sont visibles. 日本語:
1903年12月17日、ライト兄弟が
類初の動力飛行機での有人飛
行に成功した時の写真。 Date
17 December 1903 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/86/First_flight2.jpg
[2] * Description: Wilbur
Wright Background notes: Wright
brothers English: Early Wright
brother’s airplanes explored basic
principles of flight. The Wright
brothers are widely credited with
engineering the first aircraft capable
of sustained powered
flight. Commons-emblem-notice.svg
Wright brothers Wikipedia:
Asturianu Bosanski Català
Čeština Dansk Deutsch English
Esperanto Español Euskara Suomi
Français עברית Magyar Bahasa
Indonesia Italiano 日本語
한국어 Latina Lietuvių
Nederlands Norsk (Bokmål) Polski
Português Русский Slovenčina
Slovenščina Српски / Srpski
Svenska ไทย Türkçe Tiếng
Việt 中文 Other links: US
inventors *** Smithsonian Stories of
the Wright flights *** National Park
Service, Wright Brothers' Memorial ***
PBS Nova: The Wright Brothers' Flying
Machines * Source:
http://lcweb2.loc.gov/pp/wrihtml/wribac.
html * Photographer: unknwon PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/77/Wilbur_Wright.jpg
[1904 AD] 3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "radar." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 03 Jan. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/488278/radar>.
2. ^ US patent 810,150 dated Jan. 16,
1906. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
2Ao_AAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=
false
3. ^ "radar." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 03
Jan. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/488278/radar>. {1904}
MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p732-733
[2] Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p735
[3] "Watson-Watt,
Robert Alexander." Complete Dictionary
of Scientific Biography. Vol. 18.
Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008.
977-978. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Web. 3 Jan. 2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830905388&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[4] "Robert Watson-Watt." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 03 Jan.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-wats
on-watt
[5] Frank Adcock, Improvement in Means
for Determining the Direction of a
Distant Source of Electro-magnetic
Radiation, UK Patent 130490, August 7,
1919
[6] Robert A. Watson-Watt and J.F.
Herd: “An Instantaneous Direct
Reading Goniometer,” J. IEE (London),
vol. 64, p. 11, 1926, also Wireless
World vol. 18 p. 366, 1926
[7]
http://www.watsonwatt.org/theman.htm
[8] "Sir Robert Alexander Watson-Watt."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 03 Jan. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/637658/Sir-Robert-Alexander-Watson-Wat
t>
(presumably)
[1] Figure 1: Hülsmeyer’s German
165,546 (1904) telemobileoscope PD
source: http://www.q-track.com/Files/fil
es/Schantz-RF%20since%20WWII.pdf
[2] Christian Huelsmeyer UNKNOWN
source: http://www.radarworld.org/images
/scans/Hulsmeyer.jpg
[12/21/1906 AD] 8 9 10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p411.
2. ^ Lee De Forest, "Space Telegraphy",
Patent number: 879532, Filing date: Jan
29, 1907, Issue date: Feb 18,
1908 http://www.google.com/patents?id=6
i1vAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&sou
rce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=f
alse
3. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p411.
4. ^ Lee De Forest, "Space Telegraphy",
Patent number: 879532, Filing date: Jan
29, 1907, Issue date: Feb 18,
1908 http://www.google.com/patents?id=6
i1vAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&sou
rce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=f
alse
5. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p411.
6. ^ Lee De Forest, "Space Telegraphy",
Patent number: 879532, Filing date: Jan
29, 1907, Issue date: Feb 18,
1908 http://www.google.com/patents?id=6
i1vAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&sou
rce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=f
alse
7. ^ Lee De Forest, "Space Telegraphy",
Patent number: 879532, Filing date: Jan
29, 1907, Issue date: Feb 18,
1908 http://www.google.com/patents?id=6
i1vAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&sou
rce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=f
alse
8. ^ Lee De Forest, "Space Telegraphy",
Patent number: 879532, Filing date: Jan
29, 1907, Issue date: Feb 18,
1908 http://www.google.com/patents?id=6
i1vAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&sou
rce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=f
alse {12/21/1906}
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p646-647. {1906}
10. ^ "Lee
De Forest." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 09 Sep. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/lee-de-fore
st {1907 (patented}
MORE INFO
[1] "De Forest, Lee." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 4. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 6-7. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Web. 9 Sept. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901119&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[2] "Lee De Forest". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lee_De_Fore
st
[3] diathermy. (n.d.) Dorland's Medical
Dictionary for Health Consumers.
(2007). Retrieved September 9 2010 from
http://medical-dictionary.thefreediction
ary.com/diathermy
York City, New York, USA7
[1] From De Forest 1907 Patent: Lee De
Forest, ''Space Telegraphy'', Patent
number: 879532, Filing date: Jan 29,
1907, Issue date: Feb 18,
1908 http://www.google.com/patents?id=6
i1vAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&sou
rce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=f
alse PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=6i1vAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f
=false
[2] Description Lee De
Forest.jpg en:Lee De Forest,
published in the February 1904 issue of
The Electrical Age. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/65/Lee_De_Forest.jpg
[05/??/1907 AD] 5
separated by mass.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Thomson, J. J., "On Rays of
Positive Electricity", Phil. Mag., S6,
V13, N77, May 1907,
p561. books.google.com/books?id=vVjKOdk
tZhsC&pg=PA561
2. ^ Thomson, J. J., "On Rays of
Positive Electricity", Phil. Mag., S6,
V13, N77, May 1907,
p561. books.google.com/books?id=vVjKOdk
tZhsC&pg=PA561
3. ^ Thomson, J. J., "On Rays of
Positive Electricity", Phil. Mag., S6,
V13, N77, May 1907,
p561. books.google.com/books?id=vVjKOdk
tZhsC&pg=PA561
4. ^ Thomson, J. J., "On Rays of
Positive Electricity", Phil. Mag., S6,
V13, N77, May 1907,
p561. books.google.com/books?id=vVjKOdk
tZhsC&pg=PA561
5. ^ Thomson, J. J., "On Rays of
Positive Electricity", Phil. Mag., S6,
V13, N77, May 1907,
p561. books.google.com/books?id=vVjKOdk
tZhsC&pg=PA561 {05/1907}
MORE INFO
[1] "Sir Joseph John Thomson".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sir_Joseph_
John_Thomson
[2]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1906/thomson-bio.html
[3] "Sir Joseph John Thomson." A
Dictionary of Chemistry. Oxford
University Press, 2008. Answers.com 03
Mar. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sir-joseph-
john-thomson-1
[4] J. J. Thomson, "On the Rate of
Propagation of the Luminous Discharge
of Electricity through a Rarefied
Gas", Proc. R. Soc. Lond. January 1,
1890 49:84-100;
doi:10.1098/rspl.1890.0071 http://books
.google.com/books?id=jAUWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA8
4&dq=%22the+velocity+of+propagation%22+o
f+electric+discharge+through+gases+thoms
on&as_brr=1&cd=1#v=onepage&q=%22the%20ve
locity%20of%20propagation%22%20of%20elec
tric%20discharge%20through%20gases%20tho
mson&f=false
[5] J. J. Thomson, "On the Rate of
Propagation of the Luminous Discharge
of Electricity through a Rarefied
Gas", Proc. R. Soc. Lond. January 1,
1890 49:84-100;
doi:10.1098/rspl.1890.0071 http://books
.google.com/books?id=jAUWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA8
4&dq=%22the+velocity+of+propagation%22+o
f+electric+discharge+through+gases+thoms
on&as_brr=1&cd=1#v=onepage&q=%22the%20ve
locity%20of%20propagation%22%20of%20elec
tric%20discharge%20through%20gases%20tho
mson&f=false
[6] J. J. Thomson, "On the velocity of
the cathode-rays.", Phil. Mag. 38,
1894,
p358. http://books.google.com/books?id=
TVQwAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA358&dq=On+the+velocity
+of+the+cathode-rays&as_brr=1&cd=3#v=one
page&q=On%20the%20velocity%20of%20the%20
cathode-rays&f=false
[7] J. J. Thomson and E. Rutherford,
"On the passage of electricity gases
exposed to Rontgen-rays.", Phil. Mag.,
S.5, V. 42, N. 258, Nov 1896,
p392. http://books.google.com/books?id=
cbRw3OxLhUcC&printsec=frontcover&dq=edit
ions:UOM39015024088687&lr=#v=onepage&q=t
homson&f=false
[8] J.J. Thomson, "Experiments to show
that negative electricity is given off
by a metal exposed to R6ntgen-rays."
Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc. 12, 1903, p312
[9]
J.J. Thomson, (With J. A. MCCLELLAND.)
On the leakage of electricity
through dielectrics traversed by
Rontgen-rays. Proc. Camb. Phil.
Soc. 9, 1896, 126
[10] J. J. Thomson, "On
the discharge of electricity produced
by the Rontgen-rays." Proc. Roy. Soc.
59, 1896, 274
[11] Sir Joseph John Thomson,
Applications of dynamics to physics and
chemistry,
1888. http://books.google.com/books?id=
zWYSAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA32&dq=%22electricity+b
ehaves+in+some+respects%22&cd=2#v=onepag
e&q=%22electricity%20behaves%20in%20some
%20respects%22&f=false http://books.goo
gle.com/books?id=cOLUiUml_qgC&pg=PA32&lp
g=PA32&dq=%22electricity+behaves+in+some
+respects%22&source=bl&ots=HRChO2-Ci-&si
g=yjqoyERWPc1b8Byyk6rU7JtujMQ&hl=en&ei=m
YyaS6vTA4TCsgOW6PCtAQ&sa=X&oi=book_resul
t&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CAYQ6AEwAA#v=o
nepage&q=%22electricity%20behaves%20in%2
0some%20respects%22&f=false
[12] Henry Crew, "The Rise of Modern
Physics", Williams and Wilkens, 1935,
edition 2, p319-320
[13] "Thomson, Joseph John."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 13. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 362-372. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 3 Mar.
2010
[14] Thomson, J. J., "The Existence of
Bodies Smaller Than Atoms", Notices of
the proceedings at the meetings of the
members of the ..., Volume 16,
04/19/1901. http://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=YvoAAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PA574&dq=The+e
xistence+of+bodies+smaller+than+atoms+th
omson&lr=&cd=2#v=onepage&q=The%20existen
ce%20of%20bodies%20smaller%20than%20atom
s%20thomson&f=false
[15] Thomson J J 1897a 'Cathode Rays'
Royal Institution Friday Evening
Discourse, 30 April 1897, published in
The Electrician 21 May 1897, p104–9
[16]
Isobel Falconer, "J J Thomson and the
discovery of the electron", 1997 Phys.
Educ. 32
226 (http://iopscience.iop.org/0031-912
0/32/4/015)
[17] "Thomson, Sir J.J.." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 3 Mar. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9072
205>
[18] Thomson, J. J., "On the ions
produced by incandescent platinum.",
Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc. II, 1901, 509
[19]
Thomson, J. J., "On the Masses of the
Ions in Gases at Low Pressures", Phil
Mag, S5, V48, N295, Dec 1899,
p547. http://books.google.com/books?id=
il4wAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA557&dq=On+the+ions+pro
duced+by+incandescent+platinum&cd=1#v=on
epage&q=On%20the%20ions%20produced%20by%
20incandescent%20platinum&f=false
[20] Do the gamma-rays carry a charge
of negative electricity? Proc. Camb.
Phil. Soc. 13, 1905,
p121. http://books.google.com/books?id=
7x7WAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA396&dq=Thomson+do+the+
gamma+rays+intitle:philosophical+carry+c
harge&hl=en&ei=6bqiS9H4BoS8sgO9g6X6Aw&sa
=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved
=0CDcQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=Thomson%20do%20
the%20gamma%20rays%20intitle%3Aphilosoph
ical%20carry%20charge&f=false
[21] Thomson, Joseph John, "On the
number of corpuscles in an atom.",
Phil. Mag. II, 769,
1906. http://books.google.com/books?id=
GNjPAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA769&dq=thomson+On+the+
number+of+corpuscles+in+an+atom&as_brr=1
&cd=1#v=onepage&q=thomson%20On%20the%20n
umber%20of%20corpuscles%20in%20an%20atom
&f=false
[22] J. J. Thomson, "Bakerian Lecture:
Rays of Positive Electricity",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London. Series A, Containing Papers of
a Mathematical and Physical Character,
Vol. 89, No. 607 (Aug. 1, 1913), pp.
1-20. http://www.jstor.org/stable/93452
?&Search=yes&term=%22Rays+of+Positive+El
ectricity%22&list=hide&searchUri=%2Facti
on%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuery%3D%2522Rays%2
Bof%2BPositive%2BElectricity%2522%26x%3D
0%26y%3D0%26wc%3Don&item=1&ttl=46&return
ArticleService=showArticle
[23] Thomson, J. J., "The unit theory
of light.", Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc. 16,
1912, 643
England4
[1] fig 2 from: Thomson, J. J., ''On
Rays of Positive Electricity'', Phil.
Mag., S6, V13, N77, May 1907, p561. PD
AND figs 10-12 from: Thomson, J.
J., ''On Rays of Positive
Electricity'', Phil. Mag., S6, V13,
N77, May 1907, p561. PD AND [10]
figures 2-15 from: # Bakerian Lecture:
Rays of Positive Electricity # J. J.
Thomson # Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London. Series A, Containing
Papers of a Mathematical and Physical
Character, Vol. 89, No. 607 (Aug. 1,
1913), pp. 1-20 PD AND English
physicist J J Thomson Date GWS -
The Great War: The Standard History of
the All Europe Conflict (volume four)
edited by H. W. Wilson and J. A.
Hammerton (Amalgamated Press, London
1915) (So, it is taken before
1915) Source
http://www.firstworldwar.com/photos/g
raphics/gws_thomson_01.jpg First World
War.com PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=vVjKOdktZhsC&printsec=frontcover&dq=edi
tions:UOM39015024088414#v=onepage&q=&f=f
alsehttp://www.jstor.org/stable/93452?&S
earch=yes&term=electricity&term=positive
&term=rays&list=hide&searchUri=%2Faction
%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuery%3Drays%2Bof%2Bp
ositive%2Belectricity%26jc%3Dj100836%26w
c%3Don%26Search.x%3D0%26Search.y%3D0%26S
earch%3DSearch&item=1&ttl=262&returnArti
cleService=showArticlehttp://upload.wiki
media.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c1/J.J_Tho
mson.jpg
[2] fig 2 from: Thomson, J. J., ''On
Rays of Positive Electricity'', Phil.
Mag., S6, V13, N77, May 1907, p561. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=vVjKOdktZhsC&printsec=frontcover&dq=edi
tions:UOM39015024088414#v=onepage&q=&f=f
alse
[11/13/1907 AD] 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "helicopter." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 06 Aug. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/259992/helicopter>.
2. ^ "helicopter." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 06 Aug. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/259992/helicopter>.
3. ^ "helicopter." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 06 Aug. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/259992/helicopter>.
4. ^
http://www.centennialofflight.gov/essay/
Dictionary/Cornu/DI18.htm {11/13/1907}
MORE INFO
[1] "Paul Cornu." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 06 Aug. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/138077/Paul-Cornu>
[1] Paul Cornu's helicopter was the
first to achieve free flight while
carrying a passenger (1907). Credits
-National Air and Space
Museum, Smithsonian Institution (SI
Neg. No. 93-640) The French bicycle
maker and engineer Paul Cornu, born in
1881 in Lisieux, France, was the first
person to design and build a helicopter
that achieved free flight while
carrying a passenger. His twin-rotor
craft flew for about 20 seconds on
November 13, 1907, rising about one
foot (0.3 meter) off the ground. A
24-horsepower (18-kilowatt) engine
powered the helicopter, which had
counter-rotating rotors. The helicopter
had no effective means of control and
was abandoned after a few
flights. Cornu died in 1944. PD
source: http://www.centennialofflight.go
v/essay/Dictionary/Cornu/DI18G1.jpg
[2] Paul Cornu in his first helicopter
in 1907. Note that he is sitting
between the two rotors, which rotated
in opposite directions to cancel
torque. This helicopter was the first
flying machine to have risen from the
ground using rotor blades instead of
wings. Credits - © 2001 Smithsonian
Institution, National Air and Space
Museum, Videodisc. 2B 5847 PD
source: http://www.centennialofflight.go
v/essay/Rotary/early_20th_century/HE2G13
.jpg
[06/06/1908 AD] 5
radio.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ KNUDSEN'S PROCESS OF TRANSMITTING
PICTURES BY WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY. BY
THE ENGLISH CORREESPONDENT OF THE
SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN.. Scientific
American (1845-1908). New York: Jun 6,
1908. Vol. Vol. XCVIII., Iss. No. 23.;
p. 412 (1 page)
http://proquest.umi.com/pqdlink?index=
0&did=176336491&SrchMode=1&sid=2&Fmt=10&
VInst=PROD&VType=PQD&RQT=309&VName=HNP&T
S=1222470748&clientId=48051 {Knudsen_Ha
ns_1908.pdf}
2. ^ KNUDSEN'S PROCESS OF TRANSMITTING
PICTURES BY WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY. BY
THE ENGLISH CORREESPONDENT OF THE
SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN.. Scientific
American (1845-1908). New York: Jun 6,
1908. Vol. Vol. XCVIII., Iss. No. 23.;
p. 412 (1 page)
http://proquest.umi.com/pqdlink?index=
0&did=176336491&SrchMode=1&sid=2&Fmt=10&
VInst=PROD&VType=PQD&RQT=309&VName=HNP&T
S=1222470748&clientId=48051 {Knudsen_Ha
ns_1908.pdf}
3. ^ KNUDSEN'S PROCESS OF TRANSMITTING
PICTURES BY WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY. BY
THE ENGLISH CORREESPONDENT OF THE
SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN.. Scientific
American (1845-1908). New York: Jun 6,
1908. Vol. Vol. XCVIII., Iss. No. 23.;
p. 412 (1 page)
http://proquest.umi.com/pqdlink?index=
0&did=176336491&SrchMode=1&sid=2&Fmt=10&
VInst=PROD&VType=PQD&RQT=309&VName=HNP&T
S=1222470748&clientId=48051 {Knudsen_Ha
ns_1908.pdf}
4. ^ KNUDSEN'S PROCESS OF TRANSMITTING
PICTURES BY WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY. BY
THE ENGLISH CORREESPONDENT OF THE
SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN.. Scientific
American (1845-1908). New York: Jun 6,
1908. Vol. Vol. XCVIII., Iss. No. 23.;
p. 412 (1 page)
http://proquest.umi.com/pqdlink?index=
0&did=176336491&SrchMode=1&sid=2&Fmt=10&
VInst=PROD&VType=PQD&RQT=309&VName=HNP&T
S=1222470748&clientId=48051 {Knudsen_Ha
ns_1908.pdf}
5. ^ KNUDSEN'S PROCESS OF TRANSMITTING
PICTURES BY WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY. BY
THE ENGLISH CORREESPONDENT OF THE
SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN.. Scientific
American (1845-1908). New York: Jun 6,
1908. Vol. Vol. XCVIII., Iss. No. 23.;
p. 412 (1 page)
http://proquest.umi.com/pqdlink?index=
0&did=176336491&SrchMode=1&sid=2&Fmt=10&
VInst=PROD&VType=PQD&RQT=309&VName=HNP&T
S=1222470748&clientId=48051 {Knudsen_Ha
ns_1908.pdf} {06/06/1908}
MORE INFO
[1] John Joseph Fahie, "A History
of Wireless Telegraphy", Dodd, Mead &
Co.,
1902. http://books.google.com/books?hl=
en&id=WE41AAAAMAAJ&dq=A+History+of+Wirel
ess+Telegraphy&printsec=frontcover&sourc
e=web&ots=08aQE8FQHe&sig=0AB8rC1DTmKfhhs
RE55cYSIq2PM&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=
2&ct=result
[1] From top to bottom, left to
right Top: Plan View of Receiver
Showing Negative Received. Middle:
Plan View of Transmitter Showing
Traveling Carriage Carrying
Picture. Bottom Left: The Transmitting
Apparatus Bottom Middle: Photograph of
Edward VII. Transmitted by Wireless
Telegraphy. Bottom Right: The Receiver
Showing Relay to Which Recording Needle
is Connected. PD/Corel
source: KNUDSEN'S PROCESS OF
TRANSMITTING PICTURES BY WIRELESS
TELEGRAPHY. BY THE ENGLISH
CORREESPONDENT OF THE SCIENTIFIC
AMERICAN.. Scientific American
(1845-1908). New York: Jun 6, 1908.
Vol. Vol. XCVIII., Iss. No. 23.; p. 412
(1 page)
[1909 AD] 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ B. Jacot, "Marconi-Master of
Spacep119.
2. ^ B. Jacot, "Marconi-Master of
Spacep119.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ B. Jacot, "Marconi-Master
of Spacep119. {1909}
MORE INFO
[1] "Guglielmo Marconi."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 19 Oct. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/guglielmo-m
arconi
[2] "Guglielmo Marconi". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guglielmo_M
arconi
[3]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1909/marconi-bio.html
[4] G. Marconi, "Wireless Telegraphy",
proceedings of the institution of
electrical engineers, v28, 1899,
p273. http://books.google.com/books?id=
UQAUAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=proc
eedings+of+the+institution+of+electrical
+engineers&hl=en&ei=5yu-TOTnFIugsQOn9bzI
DA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=
2&ved=0CDIQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=marconi&f=
false
[5] G. Marconi, "Wireless Telegraphy",
Proceedings of the Royal Institution of
Great Britain, 16 (1899– 1901),
247–256
[6] G. Marconi, "Syntonic Wireless
Telegraphy", Royal Society of Arts.
Journal, 49 (1901), 505
[7] Orrin E.
Dunlap, Jr., "Marconi: The Man and His
Wireless" (1937)
[8] W. P. Jolly, "Marconi",
1972, p78
[9] British patent No. 12,039,
Date of Application 2 June 1896;
Complete Specification Left, 2 March
1897; Accepted, 2 July 1897 (later
claimed by Oliver Lodge to contain his
own ideas which he failed to
patent) http://www.earlyradiohistory.us
/1901fae.htm
[10] U.S. Patent 0,586,193
"Transmitting electrical signals",
(using Ruhmkorff coil and Morse code
key) filed December 1896, patented
July,
1897. http://www.google.com/patents?vid
=586193
[11] U.S. Patent 0,763,772 "Apparatus
for wireless telegraphy" (Four tuned
system; this innovation was predated by
N. Tesla, O. Lodge, and J. S.
Stone) http://www.google.com/patents?id
=L5tvAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f
=false
[12] B. L. Jacot de Boinod and D. M. B.
Collier, "Marconi: Master of Space"
(1935), p273.
http://books.google.com/books?id=xiFDA
AAAIAAJ&q=Marconi:+Master+of+Space&dq=Ma
rconi:+Master+of+Space&hl=en&ei=GFG_TMyW
PJSfnQf_yqSJDg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=re
sult&resnum=1&ved=0CCkQ6AEwAA
[13] "Marconi, Guglielmo." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 9. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 98-99. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 19 Oct.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902815&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
(verify3 )
[1] St. John's Newfoundland kite which
received the famous signal 1901 PD
source: B. L. Jacot de Boinod and D. M.
B. Collier, "Marconi: Master of Space"
(1935)
[2] Marconi Station at Poldhu,
Cornwall, from which first
transatlantic signals were transmitted.
Contrasted with top picture, the
Bridgewater Beam transmitting
station. PD
source: B. L. Jacot de Boinod and D. M.
B. Collier, "Marconi: Master of Space"
(1935)
[11/11/1912 AD] 4 5
reflection.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Bragg, W.L. The Diffraction of
Short Electromagnetic Waves by a
Crystal. Proceedings of the Cambridge
Philosophical Society, 1913: 17, pp.
43-57. http://tedhuntington.com/ulsf/do
cs_pd/Bragg_William_Lawrence_19121111.pd
f {Bragg_William_Lawrence_19121111.pdf}
2. ^ William Lawrence Bragg, "The
Specular Reflection of X-rays.",
Nature, vol 90, num 2250, 12/12/1912,
p410. http://books.google.com/books?id=
KI9FAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA410&dq=%22X-rays+and+C
rystals%22+intitle:nature&hl=en&ei=_foHT
MiQIpmyMZT63bUE&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=r
esult&resnum=1&ved=0CC8Q6AEwAA#v=onepage
&q=%22X-rays%20and%20Crystals%22%20intit
le%3Anature&f=false
3. ^ William Lawrence Bragg, "The
Specular Reflection of X-rays.",
Nature, vol 90, num 2250, 12/12/1912,
p410. http://books.google.com/books?id=
KI9FAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA410&dq=%22X-rays+and+C
rystals%22+intitle:nature&hl=en&ei=_foHT
MiQIpmyMZT63bUE&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=r
esult&resnum=1&ved=0CC8Q6AEwAA#v=onepage
&q=%22X-rays%20and%20Crystals%22%20intit
le%3Anature&f=false
4. ^ Bragg, W.L. The Diffraction of
Short Electromagnetic Waves by a
Crystal. Proceedings of the Cambridge
Philosophical Society, 1913: 17, pp.
43-57. {Bragg_William_Lawrence_19121111
.pdf} {11/11/1912}
5. ^ William Lawrence Bragg, "The
Specular Reflection of X-rays.",
Nature, vol 90, num 2250, 12/12/1912,
p410. http://books.google.com/books?id=
KI9FAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA410&dq=%22X-rays+and+C
rystals%22+intitle:nature&hl=en&ei=_foHT
MiQIpmyMZT63bUE&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=r
esult&resnum=1&ved=0CC8Q6AEwAA#v=onepage
&q=%22X-rays%20and%20Crystals%22%20intit
le%3Anature&f=false {12/08/1904}
{12/08/1912} {and Nature article:
12/08/1912}
MORE INFO
[1] "Bragg, Sir William."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 2 June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9016
145>
[2] "Sir William Henry Bragg." A
Dictionary of Chemistry. Oxford
University Press, 2008. Answers.com 02
Jun. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sir-william
-henry-bragg
[3] "William Henry Bragg". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Hen
ry_Bragg
[4] William Henry Bragg, The World of
Sound (1920)
[5] William Henry Bragg,
Concerning the Nature of Things
(1925) http://books.google.com/books?id
=-ysYrMza-ukC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Con
cerning+the+Nature+of+Things&source=bl&o
ts=oxGn9h6_Nh&sig=5iWXT3YPVpAsaRroIJp9lv
Tz250&hl=en&ei=3eEGTLTIL5X2NY3P9Y8J&sa=X
&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0
CBgQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false
[6] William Henry Bragg, Old Trades and
New Knowledge (1926)
[7] William Henry Bragg,
An Introduction to Crystal Analysis
(1928)
[8] William Henry Bragg, The Universe
of Light (1933)
[9] Bragg, “On the
Absorption of X-rays, and on the
Classification of the X-rays of
Radium,” in Philosophical Magazine,
6th ser., 8 (Dec. 1904),
719–725; http://books.google.com/book
s?id=9k8EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA719&dq=On+the+Abs
orption+of+X-rays,+and+on+the+Classifica
tion+of+the+X-rays+of+Radium&hl=en&ei=VO
QGTLL9BIH48AaElfCRDA&sa=X&oi=book_result
&ct=result&resnum=5&ved=0CDwQ6AEwBA#v=on
epage&q&f=false
[10] Bragg and Kleeman. “On the
lonization Curves of Radium,”
Philosophical Magazine, 726–738.
Dated 8 September
1904. http://books.google.com/books?id=
9k8EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA726&dq=On+the+ionizati
on+Curves+of+Radium&lr=&as_drrb_is=b&as_
minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1904&as_maxm_is=0&a
s_maxy_is=1904&as_brr=0&cd=2#v=onepage&q
=On%20the%20ionization%20Curves%20of%20R
adium&f=false
[11] Bragg, “The Consequences of the
Corpuscular Hypothesis of γ and
X-rays, and the Range of β Rays”,
Philosophical Magazine, 6th Ser., 20
(Sept. 1910), 385–416; Studies in
Radio-activity
[12] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p592-593
[13] "Bragg, William
Henry." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 2. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 397-400.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 2
June 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900594&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[14] Bragg, "On the Properties and
Natures of Various Electric
Radiations", Philosophical Magazine,
6th Ser., 14 (Oct. 1907), 429–449.
Read before the Royal Society of South
Australia, 7 May and 4 June 1907.
http://books.google.com/books?id=EhQXB
Z1r44AC&pg=PA429&dq=On+the+Properties+an
d+Natures+of+Various+Electric+Radiations
&lr=&as_drrb_is=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_i
s=1907&as_maxm_is=0&as_maxy_is=1907&as_b
rr=0&cd=1#v=onepage&q=On%20the%20Propert
ies%20and%20Natures%20of%20Various%20Ele
ctric%20Radiations&f=false
University) Cambridge, England3
[1] Bragg, W.L. The Diffraction of
Short Electromagnetic Waves by a
Crystal. Proceedings of the Cambridge
Philosophical Society, 1913: 17, pp.
43-57. http://tedhuntington.com/ulsf/do
cs_pd/Bragg_William_Lawrence_19121111.pd
f PD
source: Bragg, W.L. The Diffraction of
Short Electromagnetic Waves by a
Crystal. Proceedings of the Cambridge
Philosophical Society, 1913: 17, pp.
43-57. http://tedhuntington.com/ulsf/do
cs_pd/Bragg_William_Lawrence_19121111.pd
f
[2] Figure 2 from: Bragg, W.L. The
Diffraction of Short Electromagnetic
Waves by a Crystal. Proceedings of the
Cambridge Philosophical Society, 1913:
17, pp.
43-57. {Bragg_William_Lawrence_19121111
.pdf} PD
source: Bragg_William_Lawrence_19121111.
[1914 AD] 4 5
other galaxies.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p427.
2. ^ "Sir Arthur Stanley Eddington."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 29 Dec. 2010.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/178891/Sir-Arthur-Stanley-Eddington>.
3. ^ Sir Arthur Stanley Eddington,
"Stellar movements and the structure of
the universe",
1914 http://books.google.com/books?id=6
KQ5AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=g
bs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=fals
e
4. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p427. {1914}
5. ^ Sir Arthur Stanley
Eddington, "Stellar movements and the
structure of the universe",
1914 http://books.google.com/books?id=6
KQ5AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=g
bs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=fals
e
MORE INFO
[1] "Sir Arthur Stanley
Eddington." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 29 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/arthur-stan
ley-eddington
England3
[1] Description Arthur Stanley
Eddington.jpg English: English
astrophysicist Sir Arthur Stanley
Eddington (1882–1944) Date
Unrecorded Source
US-LibraryOfCongress-BookLogo.svg
This image is available from the
United States Library of Congress's
Prints and Photographs division under
the digital ID ggbain.38064. This tag
does not indicate the copyright status
of the attached work. A normal
copyright tag is still required. See
Commons:Licensing for more
information. العربية
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/24/Arthur_Stanley_Edding
ton.jpg
[04/??/1918 AD] 4
the outer part of our galaxy.1 2
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p702-703.
2. ^ Shapley,
"Remarks on the Arrangement of the
Sidereal Universe", Astrophysical
Journal, 49 (1919), 311–336.
http://books.google.com/books?id=wX4OA
AAAIAAJ&pg=PA311&lpg=PA311&dq=Remarks+on
+the+Arrangement+of+the+Sidereal+Univers
e&source=bl&ots=Akurl3Ntg9&sig=CIY6NgmTy
xBZqKK3RXWo3MWIr2U&hl=en&ei=hmMcTaKJK5So
sAPG2ZDSAg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result
&resnum=2&ved=0CBoQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=Re
marks%20on%20the%20Arrangement%20of%20th
e%20Sidereal%20Universe&f=false
3. ^ Shapley, H., "On the Nature and
Cause of Cepheid Variation",
Astrophysical Journal, vol. 40, 1914,
p.448. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
914ApJ....40..448S {Shapley_Harlow_1914
0813.pdf}
4. ^ Shapley, "Remarks on the
Arrangement of the Sidereal Universe",
Astrophysical Journal, 49 (1919),
311–336.
http://books.google.com/books?id=wX4OA
AAAIAAJ&pg=PA311&lpg=PA311&dq=Remarks+on
+the+Arrangement+of+the+Sidereal+Univers
e&source=bl&ots=Akurl3Ntg9&sig=CIY6NgmTy
xBZqKK3RXWo3MWIr2U&hl=en&ei=hmMcTaKJK5So
sAPG2ZDSAg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result
&resnum=2&ved=0CBoQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=Re
marks%20on%20the%20Arrangement%20of%20th
e%20Sidereal%20Universe&f=false
{04/1918}
Wilson, California, USA3
[1] Figure 1 from: Shapley, ''Remarks
on the Arrangement of the Sidereal
Universe'', Astrophysical Journal, 49
(1919), 311–336.
http://books.google.com/books?id=wX4OA
AAAIAAJ&pg=PA311&lpg=PA311&dq=Remarks+on
+the+Arrangement+of+the+Sidereal+Univers
e&source=bl&ots=Akurl3Ntg9&sig=CIY6NgmTy
xBZqKK3RXWo3MWIr2U&hl=en&ei=hmMcTaKJK5So
sAPG2ZDSAg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result
&resnum=2&ved=0CBoQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=Re
marks%20on%20the%20Arrangement%20of%20th
e%20Sidereal%20Universe&f=false PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=wX4OAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA311&lpg=PA311&dq=Rema
rks+on+the+Arrangement+of+the+Sidereal+U
niverse&source=bl&ots=Akurl3Ntg9&sig=CIY
6NgmTyxBZqKK3RXWo3MWIr2U&hl=en&ei=hmMcTa
KJK5SosAPG2ZDSAg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=
result&resnum=2&ved=0CBoQ6AEwAQ#v=onepag
e&q=Remarks%20on%20the%20Arrangement%20o
f%20the%20Sidereal%20Universe&f=false
[2] * Harlow Shapley's observations
placed the Sun about 25,000 light years
from the center of our home Galaxy.
* Photo credit: National
Academies UNKNOWN
source: http://www.cosmotography.com/ima
ges/dark_matter_gallery/HarlowShapley.jp
g
[06/21/1918 AD] 6
memory.3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ William Henry Eccles and Frank
Wilfred Jordan, "Improvements in ionic
relays" British patent number: GB
148582 (filed: 21 June 1918; published:
5 August 1920).
http://worldwide.espacenet.com/publica
tionDetails/originalDocument?CC=GB&NR=14
8582&KC=&FT=E {Eccles_William_Henry_ele
ctronic_memory_GB148582A_19180621.pdf}
2. ^ W. H. Eccles and F. W. Jordan (19
September 1919) "A trigger relay
utilizing three-electrode thermionic
vacuum tubes." The Electrician, vol.
83, page 298.
{Eccles_flip-flop_19190919.pdf} Repri
nted in: Radio Review, vol. 1, no. 3,
pages 143–146 (December
1919) {Eccles_flip-flop_19191201.pdf}
3. ^ William Henry Eccles and Frank
Wilfred Jordan, "Improvements in ionic
relays" British patent number: GB
148582 (filed: 21 June 1918; published:
5 August 1920).
http://worldwide.espacenet.com/publica
tionDetails/originalDocument?CC=GB&NR=14
8582&KC=&FT=E {Eccles_William_Henry_ele
ctronic_memory_GB148582A_19180621.pdf}
4. ^ W. H. Eccles and F. W. Jordan (19
September 1919) "A trigger relay
utilizing three-electrode thermionic
vacuum tubes." The Electrician, vol.
83, page 298.
{Eccles_flip-flop_19190919.pdf} Repri
nted in: Radio Review, vol. 1, no. 3,
pages 143–146 (December
1919) {Eccles_flip-flop_19191201.pdf}
5. ^ William Henry Eccles and Frank
Wilfred Jordan, "Improvements in ionic
relays" British patent number: GB
148582 (filed: 21 June 1918; published:
5 August 1920).
http://worldwide.espacenet.com/publica
tionDetails/originalDocument?CC=GB&NR=14
8582&KC=&FT=E {Eccles_William_Henry_ele
ctronic_memory_GB148582A_19180621.pdf}
6. ^ William Henry Eccles and Frank
Wilfred Jordan, "Improvements in ionic
relays" British patent number: GB
148582 (filed: 21 June 1918; published:
5 August 1920).
http://worldwide.espacenet.com/publica
tionDetails/originalDocument?CC=GB&NR=14
8582&KC=&FT=E {Eccles_William_Henry_ele
ctronic_memory_GB148582A_19180621.pdf}
{06/21/1918}
London, UK5
[1] Image from: William Henry Eccles
and Frank Wilfred Jordan,
''Improvements in ionic relays''
British patent number: GB 148582
(filed: 21 June 1918; published: 5
August 1920).
http://worldwide.espacenet.com/publica
tionDetails/originalDocument?CC=GB&NR=14
8582&KC=&FT=E {Eccles_William_Henry_ele
ctronic_memory_GB148582A_19180621.pdf}
PD
source: http://worldwide.espacenet.com/p
ublicationDetails/originalDocument?CC=GB
&NR=148582&KC=&FT=E
[2] A simple yet powerful animation of
how an R-S flip-flop works. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f4/R-S.gif
[04/??/1919 AD] 10
fusion. Atoms of Nitrogen changed into
atoms of Oxygen by high speed alpha
particles colliding with Nitrogen gas.6
7 8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ernest Rutherford, "Collision of
α Particles with Light Atoms", Phil.
Mag. June 1919, s6, 37, pp581-87.
http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/rutherf
ord.html {Rutherford_191904xx.pdf}
2. ^ "Rutherford, Ernest." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 25-36. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 17 Aug.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903798&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
3. ^ Ernest Rutherford, "Collision of
α Particles with Light Atoms", Phil.
Mag. June 1919, s6, 37, pp581-87.
http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/rutherf
ord.html {Rutherford_191904xx.pdf}
4. ^ "Rutherford, Ernest." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 25-36. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 17 Aug.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903798&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
5. ^ "fusion>.". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
"fusion." The American Heritage®
Science Dictionary. Houghton Mifflin
Company. 18 May. 2013.
usion>.
6. ^ Ernest Rutherford, "Collision of
α Particles with Light Atoms", Phil.
Mag. June 1919, s6, 37, pp581-87.
http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/rutherf
ord.html {Rutherford_191904xx.pdf}
7. ^ "Rutherford, Ernest." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 25-36. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 17 Aug.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903798&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
8. ^ "fusion>.". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
"fusion." The American Heritage®
Science Dictionary. Houghton Mifflin
Company. 18 May. 2013.
usion>.
9. ^ Rutherford, Collision of α
Particles with Light Atoms, Phil. Mag.
June 1919, s6, 37,
pp537-61. http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunt
a/rutherford.html {Rutherford_191904xx.
pdf}
10. ^ Rutherford, Collision of α
Particles with Light Atoms, Phil. Mag.
June 1919, s6, 37, pp537-61.
http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/rutherf
ord.html {Rutherford_191904xx.pdf}
{04/1919}
MORE INFO
[1] "Ernest Rutherford."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 12 Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ernest-ruth
erford-1st-baron-rutherford-of-nelson
[2] "Ernest Rutherford". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Ruth
erford
[3] Ernest Rutherford, "Radioactive
transformations", C. Scribner's Sons,
1906
http://books.google.com/books?id=Rb0KA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=rutherfor
d&hl=en&ei=C4lkTIvqDZOjnQe_urBe&sa=X&oi=
book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CDUQ
6AEwAg#v=onepage&q&f=false
[4] Ernest Rutherford, Collected
papers., New York, Interscience
Publishers, 1962, 3 volumes
[5] Ernest
Rutherford, "A Magnetic Detector of
Electrical Waves, and Some of its
applications", Philosophical
Transactions A, 01/01/1897,
189:1-24. http://rsta.royalsocietypubli
shing.org/content/189/1.full.pdf+html?si
d=75c97b8c-5669-4ad5-a5fb-51b24afaa343
[6] Ernest Rutherford (obituary), The
London, Edinburgh and Dublin
philosophical magazine and journal of
science, 1937, p1022
[7] Ernest Rutherford,
"The Modern Theories of Electricity and
their Relation to the Franklinian
Theory", The record of the celebration
of the two hundredth anniversary of the
birth of Benjamin Franklin, American
Philosophical Society, delivered April
18, 1906,
p123. http://books.google.com/books?id=
wQIOAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=
gbs_atb#v=onepage&q&f=false
[8] Rutherford, "The Velocity and rate
of Recombination of the Ions of Gases
exposed to Rontgen Radiation.",
Philosophical Magazine, S5, V44, N270,
Nov 1897,
p422. http://books.google.com/books?id=
utXnmtFZ6TUC&pg=PA422&dq=The+velocity+an
d+rate+of+recombination+of+the+ions+of+g
ases+exposed+to+R%C3%B6ntgen+radiation&h
l=en&ei=A8JpTJKVDYzWtQO8mp2kBw&sa=X&oi=b
ook_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CCkQ6
AEwAQ#v=onepage&q&f=false
[9] Rutherford
publications: http://www.rutherford.org
.nz/bibliography.htm
[10] Rutherford, "Uranium Radiation and
the Electrical Conduction Produced by
It", Phil Mag ser 5 xlvii 109-163
1899. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ipMOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA110&dq=Uranium+Radiati
on+and+the+Electrical+Conduction+Produce
d+by+It&hl=en&ei=TctpTKKkOZO8sAObsu2mBw&
sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&v
ed=0CDgQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=Uranium%20Rad
iation%20and%20the%20Electrical%20Conduc
tion%20Produced%20by%20It&f=false
[11] Rutherford, "A Radioactive
Substance emitted from Thorium
Compound", Phil Mag ser 5 xlix 1-14
1900.
http://www.chemteam.info/Chem-History/
Rutherford-half-life.html
[12] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p395
[13] Rutherford, "Radioactivity
Produced in Substances by the Action of
Thorium Compounds", Phil Mag ser 5 xlix
161-192
1990 http://books.google.com/books?id=o
EwEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA161&lpg=PA161&dq=%22Rad
ioactivity+Produced+in+Substances+by+the
+Action+of+Thorium+Compounds%22&source=b
l&ots=-cyiagAP1C&sig=jdQ3u179zO6Xi1azPnw
X4kW8Bgc&hl=en&ei=8xxrTMbZJZH0tgOPn-lG&s
a=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ve
d=0CBIQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22Radioactivi
ty%20Produced%20in%20Substances%20by%20t
he%20Action%20of%20Thorium%20Compounds%2
2&f=false
[14] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p664-665
[15] Rutherford and
Soddy, "The Radioactivity of Thorium
Compounds II, The Cause and Nature of
Radioactivity", Transactions of the
Chemical Society, v81, 1902,
pp837-860. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=uVWNAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq
=editions:UOM39015067129323#v=onepage&q=
rutherford&f=false
[16] Rutherford, Brooks, "Comparison of
the Radiations from Radioactive
Substances", Phil Mag, s6, 4, pp1-23,
July 1902
[17] Ernest Rutherford, "The
Magnetic and Electric Deviation of the
Easily Absorbed Rays from Radium",
Phil. Mag., S6, V 4, Feb 1903,
pp177-187.
http://books.google.com/books?id=EFQwAAA
AIAAJ&pg=PA177&lpg=PA177&dq=The+Magnetic
+and+Electric+Deviation+of+the+Easily+Ab
sorbed+Rays+from+Radium&source=bl&ots=hd
6YYVJA6n&sig=jXFrc1rH_POEoKypoNDmYkoHIHw
&hl=en&ei=4b9tTJmFI5OisQPYo7H5Cg&sa=X&oi
=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBI
Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=The%20Magnetic%20and
%20Electric%20Deviation%20of%20the%20Eas
ily%20Absorbed%20Rays%20from%20Radium&f=
false
[18] "emanation." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 20
Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/emanation
[19] Rutherford, Soddy, "Note on the
condensation points of thorium and
radium emanations", Proc Chem Soc
219-20
1902. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ro0FAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA219&dq=Note+on+the+con
densation+points+of+thorium+and+radium+e
manations&hl=en&ei=cRNvTJ3eHIi-sAOopo26C
w&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=4
&ved=0CDgQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=Note%20on%2
0the%20condensation%20points%20of%20thor
ium%20and%20radium%20emanations&f=false
[20] Rutherford, Soddy, "Condensation
of the Radioactive Emanations", Phil
Mag ser 6, v 561-76 1903
[21] Rutherford,
"Charge Carried by the α and β Rays
of Radium", Phil Mag, August 1905, s6,
v10, pp193-208
[22] Rutherford, "Radioactivity",
ed 1
1904. http://books.google.com/books?id=
xDwJAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=ruth
erford&hl=en&ei=u-dyTO3LC4m6sAOOhfTMDQ&s
a=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ve
d=0CDIQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q&f=false
[23] Rutherford, "Radioactivity" ,ed 2
1905. http://books.google.com/books?id=
g0MNAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=ruth
erford&hl=en&ei=YudyTOL9E4nGsAP3ppzDDQ&s
a=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ve
d=0CCoQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false
[24] E. Rutherford, H. Geiger, "A
Method of Counting the Number of α
Particles from Radio-active Matter",
Memoirs of the Manchester Literary and
Philosophical Society, 1908, V52, N9,
pp1-3
[25] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p687-688
[26] Rutherford, "The
Scattering of the α and β Rays and
the Structure of the Atom", Proceedings
of the Manchester Literary and
Philosophical Society, 4, 55,
03/07/1911, pp18-20
[27] Ernest Rutherford,
"The Structure of the Atom", Phil Mag,
March 1914, s6, v27,
pp488-498. http://www.chemteam.info/Che
m-History/Rutherford-1914.html
[28] Rutherford, "Radiations from
Exploding Atoms", Nature, 95,
1915,pp494-8
[29] Ernest Rutherford, "Collision of
α Particles with Light Atoms", Phil.
Mag. June 1919, s6, 37,
pp581-87. http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunt
a/rutherford.html
England9
[1] Rutherford, Collision of α
Particles with Light Atoms, Phil. Mag.
June 1919, s6, 37, pp537-61. from:
Ernest Rutherford, ''The Collected
Papers of Lord Rutherford of Nelson'',
Vol 2, 1963,
p551. http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/ru
therford.html {Rutherford_191904xx.pdf}
PD
source: Rutherford, Collision of α
Particles with Light Atoms, Phil. Mag.
June 1919, s6, 37, pp537-61. from:
Ernest Rutherford, "The Collected
Papers of Lord Rutherford of Nelson",
Vol 2, 1963, p551.
[2] Figure 1 from: Rutherford,
Collision of α Particles with Light
Atoms, Phil. Mag. June 1919, s6, 37,
pp537-61.
http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/rutherf
ord.html {Rutherford_191904xx.pdf}
PD
source: Rutherford_191306xx003.pdf
[10/22/1925 AD] 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://inventors.about.com/library/inven
tors/bllilienfeld.htm
2. ^ Julius Lilienfeld, Patent number:
1745175, "METHOD AND APPARATUS FOR
CONTROLLING ELECTRIC CURRENTS", US
Filing date: Oct 8, 1926, Canada filing
date: October 22, 1925, Issue date: Jan
28,
1930. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
uBFMAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=
false
3. ^ Julius Lilienfeld, Patent number:
1745175, "METHOD AND APPARATUS FOR
CONTROLLING ELECTRIC CURRENTS", US
Filing date: Oct 8, 1926, Canada filing
date: October 22, 1925, Issue date: Jan
28,
1930. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
uBFMAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=
false
4. ^ Julius Lilienfeld, Patent number:
1745175, "METHOD AND APPARATUS FOR
CONTROLLING ELECTRIC CURRENTS", US
Filing date: Oct 8, 1926, Canada filing
date: October 22, 1925, Issue date: Jan
28,
1930. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
uBFMAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=
false {10/22/1925}
MORE INFO
[1] "Julius Lilienfeld".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julius_Lili
enfeld
[2] Julius Lilienfeld, "Amplifier for
Electronic Circuits", Patent number:
1877140, Filing date: Dec 8, 1928,
Issue date: Sep 13,
1932 http://www.google.com/patents?id=j
vhAAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&sou
rce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=f
alse
[3] Julius Lilienfeld, "Device for
Controlling Electric Current", Patent
number: 1900018, Filing date: Mar 28,
1928, Issue date: Mar 7
1933. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
52BQAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=
false
[4] Julius Lilienfeld, "Rectifying
Apparatus for Alternating Current",
Patent number: 1611653, Filing date:
Mar 27, 1926, Issue date: Dec 21,
1926. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
L7RrAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=
false
[5] Julius Lilienfeld, "Electrical
Condenser Device", Patent number:
1906691, Filing date: Mar 28, 1928,
Issue date: May
1933. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
SoZlAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=
false
[1] Figure 1 from: Julius Lilienfeld,
Patent number: 1745175, ''METHOD AND
APPARATUS FOR CONTROLLING ELECTRIC
CURRENTS'', US Filing date: Oct 8,
1926, Canada filing date: October 22,
1925, Issue date: Jan 28,
1930. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
uBFMAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=
false PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=uBFMAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f
=false
[2] Source: scanned passport
photo Rationale: Photographer died
>70yrs ago. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/5/59/Julius_Edgar_Lilienfeld_%2
81881-1963%29.jpg
[1930 AD] 2
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ "woman suffrage". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2013. Web. 24 Feb.
2013 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/646779/woman-suffrage>.
2. ^ "woman suffrage". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2013. Web. 24 Feb.
2013 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/646779/woman-suffrage>.
[1] Description English: Rose
Sanderson Women's suffragists
demonstrate in February 1913. The
triangular pennants read ''VOTES FOR
WOMEN''. The negative is labeled ''ROSE
SANDERSON'', the woman holding the
trumpet. An adjacent photograph in the
series (LC-DIG-ggbain-12482) contains a
flyer labeled ''COME AND WATCH SUFFRAGE
SPREAD'' that identifies the event as
one sponsored by the National Suffrage
Association. MEDIUM: 1 negative :
glass ; 5 × 7 in. or
smaller. Русский: Роуз
Сандерсон
Демонстрация
суфражисток в
феврале 1913 г. На
треугольном вымпеле
читается надпись
«ГОЛОСОВАНИЕ -
ЖЕНЩИНАМ». Негатив
снимка помечен
словами «Роуз
Сандерсон», это имя
женщины, держащей
трубу. Date 10 February
1913 Source Library of Congress,
Prints & Photographs Division,
LC-DIG-ggbain-12483 (digital file from
original negative), archival TIFF
version (23 MiB), color level (pick
white point), cropped, and converted to
JPEG with the GIMP 2.6.1, image quality
88. Author Bain News Service.
Photographer unknown. Permission No
known restrictions on publication. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Rose-Sanderson-
Votes-for-Women.jpeg/1280px-Rose-Sanders
on-Votes-for-Women.jpeg
[2] {ULSF: Women protesting} PD
source: http://politic365.com/wp-content
/blogs.dir/1/files/2010/08/bellinghamsuf
fragists-1024x738.jpg
[09/10/1931 AD] 6
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^ M. Knoll und E. Ruska, "Beitrag
zur geometrischen Elektronenoptik.",
Ann. Physik 12 (1932) 607-661,
eingegangen am
10.9.1931. http://ernstruska.digilibrar
y.de/bibliographie/q004/q004.html {Rusk
a_Ernst_q004_19310910.pdf}
2. ^ M. Knoll and E. Ruska, "Das
Elektronenmikroskop", Zeitschrift für
Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei,Volume 78,
Numbers 5-6, 318-339, DOI:
10.1007/BF01342199 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/x7l53h8685108383/ {Rusk
a_Ernst_19320616.pdf}
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p820-821.
4. ^ "Ernst Ruska." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 05 Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ernst-ruska
5. ^ M. Knoll und E. Ruska, "Beitrag
zur geometrischen Elektronenoptik.",
Ann. Physik 12 (1932) 607-661,
eingegangen am
10.9.1931. http://ernstruska.digilibrar
y.de/bibliographie/q004/q004.html {Rusk
a_Ernst_q004_19310910.pdf}
6. ^ M. Knoll und E. Ruska, "Beitrag
zur geometrischen Elektronenoptik.",
Ann. Physik 12 (1932) 607-661,
eingegangen am
10.9.1931. http://ernstruska.digilibrar
y.de/bibliographie/q004/q004.html {Rusk
a_Ernst_q004_19310910.pdf} {09/10/1931}
MORE INFO
[1] E. Ruska u. M. Knoll,
Zeitschrift für technische Physik, 12,
389, 448, 1931
[2] "The Nobel Prize in
Physics 1986". Nobelprize.org. 5 Mar
2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1986/
[3] Ernst Ruska, "Über eine
Berechnungsmethode des
Kathodenstrahloszillographen auf Grund
der experimentell gefundenen
Abhängigkeit des
Schreibfleckdurchmessers von der
Stellung der Konzentrierspule.",
Studienarbeit Technische Hochschule
Berlin, Lehrstuhl für
Hochspannungstechnik, eingereicht am
10.5.1929. http://ernstruska.digilibrar
y.de/bibliographie/q001/q001.html
[4] E. Ruska und M. Knoll, "Die
magnetische Sammelspule für schnelle
Elektronenstrahlen.", Z. techn. Physik
12 (1931) 389-400 und 448, eingegangen
am
28.4.1931. http://ernstruska.digilibrar
y.de/bibliographie/q003/q003.html
University) Berlin, Germany5
[1] Figure 2 from: M. Knoll und E.
Ruska, ''Beitrag zur geometrischen
Elektronenoptik.'', Ann. Physik 12
(1932) 607-661, eingegangen am
10.9.1931. http://ernstruska.digilibrar
y.de/bibliographie/q004/q004.html {Rusk
a_Ernst_q004_19310910.pdf} UNKNOWN
source: http://ernstruska.digilibrary.de
/bibliographie/q004/q004.html
[2] Ernst Ruska, 1939 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.siemens.com/history/p
ool/perseunlichkeiten/wissenschaftler/ru
ska_1939.jpg
[04/16/1932 AD] 8
split by protons.5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "John Cockcroft." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 23 Jan.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-cockcr
oft
2. ^ J. D. COCKCROFT & E. T. S. WALTON
, "Disintegration of Lithium by Swift
Protons", Nature 129, 649-649 (30 April
1932). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v129/n3261/abs/129649a0.html {Cock
croft_John_19320416.pdf}
3. ^ "John Cockcroft." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 23 Jan.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-cockcr
oft
4. ^ J. D. COCKCROFT & E. T. S. WALTON
, "Disintegration of Lithium by Swift
Protons", Nature 129, 649-649 (30 April
1932). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v129/n3261/abs/129649a0.html {Cock
croft_John_19320416.pdf}
5. ^ "John Cockcroft." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 23 Jan.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-cockcr
oft
6. ^ J. D. COCKCROFT & E. T. S. WALTON
, "Disintegration of Lithium by Swift
Protons", Nature 129, 649-649 (30 April
1932). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v129/n3261/abs/129649a0.html {Cock
croft_John_19320416.pdf}
7. ^ J. D. COCKCROFT & E. T. S. WALTON
, "Disintegration of Lithium by Swift
Protons", Nature 129, 649-649 (30 April
1932). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v129/n3261/abs/129649a0.html {Cock
croft_John_19320416.pdf}
8. ^ J. D. COCKCROFT & E. T. S. WALTON
, "Disintegration of Lithium by Swift
Protons", Nature 129, 649-649 (30 April
1932). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v129/n3261/abs/129649a0.html {Cock
croft_John_19320416.pdf} {04/16/1932}
MORE INFO
[1] "Ernest Walton." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 23 Jan.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ernest-walt
on
[2] H. GREINACHER, “Eneugung einer
Gleichspannung vom vielfachen Betrag
einer Wechselspannung ohne
Transformator,” Bull. SEV 11.59-66,
(1920)
[3] H Greinacher, "Erzeugung einer
Gleichspannung vom veilfachen Betrag
einer Wechselspannung ohne
Transformer" Bulletin des
Schweizerischen Elektrotechnischen
Vereins, des Verbandes Schweizerischer
Elektrizitätswerke, V11, p59-66, 1920
[4]
Joe W. Kwan, Oscar A. Anderson, Louis
L. Reginato, Michael C. Vella, Simon
S. Yu, Electrostatic Quadrupole DC
Accelerators for BNCT Applications,
04/1994
[5] "Heinrich Greinacher". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinrich_Gr
einacher
[6]
http://www.electrosuisse.ch/g3.cms/s_pag
e/84410/s_name/greinacherh
[7] J. D. Cockcroft and E. T. S.
Walton, "Experiments with High Velocity
Positive Ions", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London. Series A,
Containing Papers of a Mathematical and
Physical Character, Vol. 129, No. 811
(Nov. 3, 1930), pp.
477-489. http://www.jstor.org/stable/95
496
[8] Henry A. Barton, "Comparison of
protons and electrons in the excitation
of x-rays by impact Original Research
Article", Journal of the Franklin
Institute, Volume 209, Issue 1, January
1930, Pages
1-19. http://www.sciencedirect.com/scie
nce?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6V04-49WK9PH-4G
H&_user=4422&_coverDate=01%2F31%2F1930&_
alid=1617078843&_rdoc=2&_fmt=high&_orig=
search&_origin=search&_zone=rslt_list_it
em&_cdi=5636&_sort=r&_st=13&_docanchor=&
view=c&_ct=2&_acct=C000059600&_version=1
&_urlVersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=7ed91ac1
a7c90f1548a87974be6c3ca8&searchtype=a
[9] "Cockcroft, John Douglas." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 3. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 328-331. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 23 Jan.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900939&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[10] "The Nobel Prize in Physics 1951".
Nobelprize.org. 24 Jan 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1951/
[11] J. D. COCKCROFT & E. T. S. WALTON
, "Artificial Production of Fast
Protons", nature 129, 242-242 (13
February
1932. http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v129/n3250/abs/129242a0.html
[12] J. D. COCKCROFT , C. W. GILBERT &
E. T. S. WALTON , "Production of
Induced Radioactivity by High Velocity
Protons", nature 133, 328-328 (03 March
1934). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v133/n3357/abs/133328a0.html
[13] J. D. Cockcroft and E. T. S.
Walton, "Experiments with High Velocity
Positive Ions. (I) Further Developments
in the Method of Obtaining High
Velocity Positive Ions", Proc. R. Soc.
Lond. A June 1, 1932 136:619-630;
doi:10.1098/rspa.1932.0107 http://rspa.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/136/8
30/619.full.pdf+html
[14] J. D. Cockcroft and E. T. S.
Walton, "Experiments with High Velocity
Positive Ions. (I) Further Developments
in the Method of Obtaining High
Velocity Positive Ions", Proc. R. Soc.
Lond. A June 1, 1932 136:619-630;
doi:10.1098/rspa.1932.0107 http://rspa.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/136/8
30/619.full.pdf+html
University) Cambridge, England7
[1] J. D. COCKCROFT & E. T. S. WALTON
, ''Disintegration of Lithium by Swift
Protons'', Nature 129, 649-649 (30
April
1932). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v129/n3261/abs/129649a0.html {Cock
croft_John_19320416.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED AND Enest S Walton,
Lord Rutherford and John Cockcroft:
1932 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v129/n3261/abs/129649a0.htmlhttp://
www.aip.org/history/exhibits/lawrence/im
ages/epa-12.jpg
[2] Enest S Walton, Lord Rutherford
and John Cockcroft: 1932 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.aip.org/history/exhib
its/lawrence/images/epa-12.jpg
[05/22/1937 AD] 8 9
confirmed to be about 0.1 nm in size.5
6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Erwin W. Müller,
"Elektronenmikroskopische Beobachtungen
von Feldkathoden", Zeitschrift für
Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei, Volume
106, Numbers 9-10, 541-550, DOI:
10.1007/BF01339895 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/h425u71vqh66w886/ {Mull
er_Erwin_W_19370522.pdf}
English: "Electron microscopic
observations of field cathode"
2. ^ "Erwin
Wilhelm Müller." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 20 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/396828/Erwin-Wilhelm-Muller>.
3. ^ Erwin W. Müller,
"Elektronenmikroskopische Beobachtungen
von Feldkathoden", Zeitschrift für
Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei, Volume
106, Numbers 9-10, 541-550, DOI:
10.1007/BF01339895 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/h425u71vqh66w886/ {Mull
er_Erwin_W_19370522.pdf}
English: "Electron microscopic
observations of field cathode"
4. ^ "Erwin
Wilhelm Müller." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 20 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/396828/Erwin-Wilhelm-Muller>.
5. ^ Erwin W. Müller,
"Elektronenmikroskopische Beobachtungen
von Feldkathoden", Zeitschrift für
Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei, Volume
106, Numbers 9-10, 541-550, DOI:
10.1007/BF01339895 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/h425u71vqh66w886/ {Mull
er_Erwin_W_19370522.pdf}
English: "Electron microscopic
observations of field cathode"
6. ^ "Erwin
Wilhelm Müller." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 20 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/396828/Erwin-Wilhelm-Muller>.
7. ^ "Erwin Mueller." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 21 Mar.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/erwin-muell
er
8. ^ Erwin W. Müller,
"Elektronenmikroskopische Beobachtungen
von Feldkathoden", Zeitschrift für
Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei, Volume
106, Numbers 9-10, 541-550, DOI:
10.1007/BF01339895 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/h425u71vqh66w886/ {Mull
er_Erwin_W_19370522.pdf}
English: "Electron microscopic
observations of field cathode"
{05/22/1937}
9. ^ "Erwin Mueller." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 21 Mar.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/erwin-muell
er {1936}
MORE INFO
[1] "Erwin Wilhelm Mueller".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erwin_Wilhe
lm_Mueller
[1] Figures 2-4 from: ''Fig 2.
Tungsten cathode (filament) [011] -
Direction in the middle. Fig 3.
Tungsten cathode [211] - Direction,
almost in the middle. Fig 4. Sphere
model with the lattice directions of a
cube-based emission tungsten cathode,
field of view as Fig 3.'' [2] Erwin W.
Müller, ''Elektronenmikroskopische
Beobachtungen von Feldkathoden'',
Zeitschrift für Physik A Hadrons and
Nuclei, Volume 106, Numbers 9-10,
541-550, DOI:
10.1007/BF01339895 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/h425u71vqh66w886/ {Mull
er_Erwin_W_19370522.pdf}
English: ''Electron microscopic
observations of field cathode''
source: http://www.springerlink.com/cont
ent/h425u71vqh66w886/
[2] COPYRIGHTED
source: http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/opti
cs/timeline/people/antiqueimages/mueller
.jpg
[06/22/1938 AD] 4
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ B. v. Borries, E. Ruska und H.
Ruska, "Bakterien und Virus in
übermikroskopischer Aufnahme.", Klin.
Wochenschrift 17 (1938)
921-925. http://ernstruska.digilibrary.
de/bibliographie/q021/q021.html {Ruska_
Ernst_19380622.pdf}
2. ^ B. v. Borries, E. Ruska und H.
Ruska, "Bakterien und Virus in
übermikroskopischer Aufnahme.", Klin.
Wochenschrift 17 (1938)
921-925. http://ernstruska.digilibrary.
de/bibliographie/q021/q021.html {Ruska_
Ernst_19380622.pdf}
3. ^ B. v. Borries, E. Ruska und H.
Ruska, "Bakterien und Virus in
übermikroskopischer Aufnahme.", Klin.
Wochenschrift 17 (1938)
921-925. http://ernstruska.digilibrary.
de/bibliographie/q021/q021.html {Ruska_
Ernst_19380622.pdf}
4. ^ B. v. Borries, E. Ruska und H.
Ruska, "Bakterien und Virus in
übermikroskopischer Aufnahme.", Klin.
Wochenschrift 17 (1938)
921-925. http://ernstruska.digilibrary.
de/bibliographie/q021/q021.html {Ruska_
Ernst_19380622.pdf} {06/22/1938}
MORE INFO
[1] E. Ruska u. M. Knoll,
Zeitschrift für technische Physik, 12,
389, 448, 1931
[2] "The Nobel Prize in
Physics 1986". Nobelprize.org. 5 Mar
2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1986/
[3] M. Knoll and E. Ruska, "Das
Elektronenmikroskop", Zeitschrift für
Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei,Volume 78,
Numbers 5-6, 318-339, DOI:
10.1007/BF01342199 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/x7l53h8685108383/
[4] Ernst Ruska, "Über eine
Berechnungsmethode des
Kathodenstrahloszillographen auf Grund
der experimentell gefundenen
Abhängigkeit des
Schreibfleckdurchmessers von der
Stellung der Konzentrierspule.",
Studienarbeit Technische Hochschule
Berlin, Lehrstuhl für
Hochspannungstechnik, eingereicht am
10.5.1929. http://ernstruska.digilibrar
y.de/bibliographie/q001/q001.html
[5] E. Ruska und M. Knoll, "Die
magnetische Sammelspule für schnelle
Elektronenstrahlen.", Z. techn. Physik
12 (1931) 389-400 und 448, eingegangen
am
28.4.1931. http://ernstruska.digilibrar
y.de/bibliographie/q003/q003.html
[6] M. Knoll und E. Ruska, "Beitrag zur
geometrischen Elektronenoptik.", Ann.
Physik 12 (1932) 607-661, eingegangen
am
10.9.1931. http://ernstruska.digilibrar
y.de/bibliographie/q004/q004.html
[7] Knoll, Max (1935).
"Aufladepotentiel und Sekundäremission
elektronenbestrahlter Körper".
Zeitschrift für technische Physik 16:
467–475
[8] "Microscope". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microscope
[9] E. Ruska, "Über Fortschritte im
Bau und in der Leistung des
magnetischen Elektronenmikroskops.", Z.
Phys. 87 (1934) 580-602. eingegangen am
12.12.1933. http://ernstruska.digilibra
ry.de/bibliographie/q013/q013.html En
glish: "On progress in construction
and performance of the magnetic
electron microscope."
[10] "Ernst Ruska."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 06 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/513086/Ernst-Ruska>
Gesellschaft/Berlin Medical Society)
Berlin, Germany3
[1] (ubermikroskop) Ultramicroscope
image of the virus of ectromelia in the
point mouse. Infectious material from
the lymph of an infected paw. magnified
20,000x. Figure 1 from: B. v.
Borries, E. Ruska und H. Ruska,
''Bakterien und Virus in
übermikroskopischer
Aufnahme.'', Klin. Wochenschrift 17
(1938)
921-925. http://ernstruska.digilibrary.
de/bibliographie/q021/q021.html {Ruska_
Ernst_19380622.pdf} UNKNOWN
source: http://ernstruska.digilibrary.de
/bibliographie/q021/q021.html
[2] Ernst Ruska, 1939 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.siemens.com/history/p
ool/perseunlichkeiten/wissenschaftler/ru
ska_1939.jpg
[04/30/1939 AD] 9 10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://davidszondy.com/future/robot/elek
tro1.htm
2. ^ N Sharkey, A Sharkey,
"Electro-mechanical robots before the
computer", Proceedings of the
Institution of Mechanical Engineers,
Part C: Journal of Mechanical
Engineering Science, Volume 223, Number
1 / 2009,
Pages 235-241. http://journals.pepublis
hing.com/content/j15unr6757440045/ {Sha
rkey_200901xx.pdf}
3. ^
http://davidszondy.com/future/robot/elek
tro1.htm
4. ^ N Sharkey, A Sharkey,
"Electro-mechanical robots before the
computer", Proceedings of the
Institution of Mechanical Engineers,
Part C: Journal of Mechanical
Engineering Science, Volume 223, Number
1 / 2009,
Pages 235-241. http://journals.pepublis
hing.com/content/j15unr6757440045/ {Sha
rkey_200901xx.pdf}
5. ^
http://davidszondy.com/future/robot/elek
tro1.htm
6. ^ N Sharkey, A Sharkey,
"Electro-mechanical robots before the
computer", Proceedings of the
Institution of Mechanical Engineers,
Part C: Journal of Mechanical
Engineering Science, Volume 223, Number
1 / 2009,
Pages 235-241. http://journals.pepublis
hing.com/content/j15unr6757440045/ {Sha
rkey_200901xx.pdf}
7. ^ Scott Schaut, Robots of
Westinghouse 1924-today, 2006, p91,185.
8. ^
"Elektro". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektro
9. ^
http://www.history.com/this-day-in-histo
ry/new-york-worlds-fair-opens {around)
04/30/1939 (opening of World's Fair}
10. ^
http://davidszondy.com/future/robot/elek
tro1.htm {1939 (verify}
MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AuyTRbj8Q
SA&feature=related
[2]
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ay225WkU4
Gs&feature=related
[3] Scott Schaut, "Robots of
Westinghouse, 1924-today", Mansfield,
Ohio : Scott Schautt, Mansfield
Memorial Museum, 2006
[4]
http://www.archive.org/details/middleton
_family_worlds_fair_1939
Mansfield, Ohio, USA7 8
[1] Elektro at the 1939 World's
Fair UNKNOWN
source: http://img.youtube.com/vi/T35A3g
_GvSg/0.jpg
[2] Inside working of Westinghouse
Elektro walking robot UNKNOWN
source: http://davidszondy.com/future/ro
bot/elektro-interior.jpg
[12/02/1942 AD] 5
reaction.1 2 3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ E. Fermi, "Work Carried Out by
the Physics Division", Report CP-387
for month Ending December 15, 1942.
Reprinted in "Enrico Fermi, Collected
Papers, v2, 1965, p270.
2. ^ "Experimental
production of a Divergent Chain
Reaction", American Journal of Physics,
20, 1952,
536-558. http://ajp.aapt.org/resource/1
/ajpias/v20/i9/p536_s1 {Fermi_Enrico_19
520627.pdf}
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p781-783.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p781-783.
5. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p781-783.
{12/02/1942}
MORE INFO
[1] "The Nobel Prize in Physics
1938". Nobelprize.org. 7 Feb 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1938/
[2] E Fermi, "Eine statistische Methode
zur Bestimmung einiger Eigenschaften
des Atoms und ihre Anwendung auf die
Theorie des periodischen Systems der
Elemente", Zeitschrift für Physik A
Hadrons and Nuclei, Volume 48, Numbers
1-2, 73-79. "A statistical method for
determining some properties of the atom
and its application to the theory of
the periodic table of
elements" http://www.springerlink.com/c
ontent/v762582061464612/
[3] E. Fermi, "Zur Quantelung des
idealen einatomigen Gases", Zeitschrift
für Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei,
Volume 36, Numbers 11-12,
902-912. "The quantization of the
ideal monatomic
gas" http://www.springerlink.com/conten
t/k763270092273181/
[4] E. Fermi, "Argomenti pro e contro
la ipotesi dei quanti di luce"
("Arguments for and against the
hypothesis of quanta of light"), Il
Nuovo Cimento (1924-1942), Volume 3,
Numbers 1-2,
xlvii-liv. http://www.springerlink.com/
content/lm022085605043uh/
[5] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p465
[6]
E. Fermi, "Magnetic Moments of Atomic
Nuclei", Nature 125, 16-16 (04 January
1930)
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
125/n3140/abs/125016a0.html
[7] E. Fermi, "Quantum Theory of
Radiation", Rev. Mod. Phys. 4, 87–132
(1932). http://rmp.aps.org/abstract/RMP
/v4/i1/p87_1
[8] E. Fermi, E. Amaldi, B. Pontecorvo,
E. Rasetti and E. Segré, La Ricerca
Scientifica, 2, No. 12; 1933
[9] "Versuch
einer Theorie der β-Strahlen. I ",
Zeitschrift für Physik A Hadrons and
Nuclei, Volume 88, Numbers 3-4, 1933,
161-177. http://www.springerlink.com/co
ntent/wq2r06j058382226/
[10] "Chadwick, James." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 17. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 143-148. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 4 Feb.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830905049&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[11] Fermi, 'Ric. Scient.,' vol. 5,
p282 (1934); Fermi, 'Ric. Scient.,'
vol. 1, pp. 283, 330 (1934); Amaldi,
D'Agostino, Fermi, Rasetti and Segre,
'Ric. Scient.,' vol. 1, pp. 452, 652,
21 (1934); Fermi, Rasetti and
D'Agostino, 'Ric. Scient.,' vol. 1, pp.
533 (1934); Fermi, 'Nature,'
"Radioactivity Induced by Neutron
Bombardment" vol. 133, N3368 pp. 757,
898 (1934). See also Fermi, ' Nuovo
Cim.,' vol. 11, p. 429 (1934); Amaldi,
Fermi, Rasetti and Segre, 'Nuovo
Cim.,' vol. 11, p. 442 (1934); Amaldi
and Segre, 'Nuovo Cim.,' vol.11,. p.
452 (1934); ' D'Agostino ' Gazz. Chim.
Ital.,' in press (1934)
[12] E. Fermi, E.
Amaldi, O. D'Agostino, F. Rasetti and
E. Segre, "Artificial Radioactivity
Produced by Neutron Bombardment",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London. Series A, Containing Papers of
a Mathematical and Physical Character,
Vol. 146, No. 857 (Sep. 1, 1934), pp.
483-500 http://www.jstor.org/stable/293
5604
[13] Enrico Fermi, "Possible Production
of Elements of Atomic Number Higher
than 92", Nature 133, 898-899 (16 June
1934). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v133/n3372/abs/133898a0.html
[14] E. Segre (Ed.): "Enrico Fermi:
Collected Papers" (Nore e Memorie),
University of Chicago Press, Chicago
(Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei.
Roma) 1962, Vol. 1 , p. 640
[15] E Fermi,
"Le ultime particelle costitutive della
materia", Societa italiana per il
progresso, 1934
[16] Fermi, Amaldi,
Pontecorvo, Rasetti, Segre, 'Ric.
Scient.,' vol. 2, p. 280 (1934);
[17] E.
Amaldi, O. D'Agostino, E. Fermi, B.
Pontecorvo, F. Rasetti and E. Segrè,
"Artificial Radioactivity Produced by
Neutron Bombardment. II", Proceedings
of the Royal Society of London. Series
A, Mathematical and Physical
Sciences Vol. 149, No. 868 (Apr. 10,
1935), pp.
522-558 http://www.jstor.org/stable/963
79
[18] ENRICO FERMI, "Reactions Produced
by Neutrons in Heavy Elements", Nature
146, 640-642 (16 November
1940). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v146/n3707/abs/146640a0.html
[19] E. Amaldi and E. Fermi, "On the
Absorption and the Diffusion of Slow
Neutrons", Phys. Rev. 50, 899–928
(1936). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v50/i10/p899_1
Illinois, USA4
[1] Figure 5 from: ''Experimental
production of a Divergent Chain
Reaction'', American Journal of
Physics, 20, 1952,
536-558. http://ajp.aapt.org/resource/1
/ajpias/v20/i9/p536_s1 {Fermi_Enrico_19
520627.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://ajp.aapt.org/resource/1/a
jpias/v20/i9/p536_s1
[2] Enrico Fermi from Argonne
National Laboratory PD
source: http://www.osti.gov/accomplishme
nts/images/08.gif
[07/16/1945 AD] 3
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ "nuclear weapon." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 08 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/421827/nuclear-weapon>.
2. ^
http://www.atomicarchive.com/History/col
dwar/p7_image.shtml
3. ^
http://www.atomicarchive.com/History/col
dwar/p7_image.shtml {07/16/1945}
MORE INFO
[1] "Manhattan Project." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2011. Answers.com 08 Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/manhattan-p
roject
[2] "Project Orion (nuclear
propulsion)". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_Ori
on_(nuclear_propulsion)
Muerto (Journey of Death) desert, New
Mexico, USA2
[1] The fully assembled Gadget. PD
source: http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/
Usa/Tests/GadgetB1024c10.jpg
[2] First uranium-fission explosion
''trinity'' 16 ms after detonation. PD
source: http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/
Usa/Tests/Trin2.jpg
[10/08/1945 AD] 3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ US patent 2495429, Spencer, Percy
L., "Method of treating foodstuffs",
issued
1950-January-24 www.google.com/patents?
id=x_tuAAAAEBAJ
and http://worldwide.espacenet.com/text
doc?DB=EPODOC&IDX=US2495429
2. ^ US patent 2495429, Spencer, Percy
L., "Method of treating foodstuffs",
issued
1950-January-24 www.google.com/patents?
id=x_tuAAAAEBAJ
and http://worldwide.espacenet.com/text
doc?DB=EPODOC&IDX=US2495429
3. ^ US patent 2495429, Spencer, Percy
L., "Method of treating foodstuffs",
issued
1950-January-24 www.google.com/patents?
id=x_tuAAAAEBAJ
and http://worldwide.espacenet.com/text
doc?DB=EPODOC&IDX=US2495429
{10/08/1945}
Newton, Massachusetts, USA2
[1] Figure from: [1] US patent
2495429, Spencer, Percy L., ''Method of
treating foodstuffs'', issued
1950-January-24 www.google.com/patents?
id=x_tuAAAAEBAJ
and http://worldwide.espacenet.com/text
doc?DB=EPODOC&IDX=US2495429 PD
source: www.google.com/patents?id=x_tuAA
AAEBAJ
[2] Spencer, Percy with
Magnetron UNKNOWN
source: http://www.raytheon.com/newsroom
/photogal/photos/percywithmagnetron_l.jp
g
[04/02/1953 AD] 11
understood.7 8 9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ J. D. WATSON & F. H. C. CRICK,
"Molecular structure of nucleic acids;
a structure for deoxyribose nucleic
acid", Nature, (1953) volume: 171
issue: 4356 page:
737. http://www.nature.com/nature/journ
al/v171/n4356/abs/171737a0.html and
also: http://www.faculty.sbc.edu/jmuir/
bio112/watson_crick.pdf {Crick_Francis_
Harry_Compton_19530402.pdf}
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982),
p859-861,863,874,886-887.
3. ^ "Francis Harry Compton Crick."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 10 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/142894/Francis-Harry-Compton-Crick>.
4. ^ J. D. WATSON & F. H. C. CRICK,
"Molecular structure of nucleic acids;
a structure for deoxyribose nucleic
acid", Nature, (1953) volume: 171
issue: 4356 page:
737. http://www.nature.com/nature/journ
al/v171/n4356/abs/171737a0.html and
also: http://www.faculty.sbc.edu/jmuir/
bio112/watson_crick.pdf {Crick_Francis_
Harry_Compton_19530402.pdf}
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982),
p859-861,863,874,886-887.
6. ^ "Francis Harry Compton Crick."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 10 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/142894/Francis-Harry-Compton-Crick>.
7. ^ J. D. WATSON & F. H. C. CRICK,
"Molecular structure of nucleic acids;
a structure for deoxyribose nucleic
acid", Nature, (1953) volume: 171
issue: 4356 page:
737. http://www.nature.com/nature/journ
al/v171/n4356/abs/171737a0.html and
also: http://www.faculty.sbc.edu/jmuir/
bio112/watson_crick.pdf {Crick_Francis_
Harry_Compton_19530402.pdf}
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982),
p859-861,863,874,886-887.
9. ^ "Francis Harry Compton Crick."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 10 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/142894/Francis-Harry-Compton-Crick>.
10. ^ J. D. WATSON & F. H. C. CRICK,
"Molecular structure of nucleic acids;
a structure for deoxyribose nucleic
acid", Nature, (1953) volume: 171
issue: 4356 page:
737. http://www.nature.com/nature/journ
al/v171/n4356/abs/171737a0.html and
also: http://www.faculty.sbc.edu/jmuir/
bio112/watson_crick.pdf {Crick_Francis_
Harry_Compton_19530402.pdf}
11. ^ J. D. WATSON & F. H. C. CRICK,
"Molecular structure of nucleic acids;
a structure for deoxyribose nucleic
acid", Nature, (1953) volume: 171
issue: 4356 page:
737. http://www.nature.com/nature/journ
al/v171/n4356/abs/171737a0.html and
also: http://www.faculty.sbc.edu/jmuir/
bio112/watson_crick.pdf {Crick_Francis_
Harry_Compton_19530402.pdf}
{04/02/1953}
Cambridge) Cambridge, England10
[1] Figure 1 from: J. D. WATSON & F.
H. C. CRICK, ''Molecular structure of
nucleic acids; a structure for
deoxyribose nucleic acid'', Nature,
(1953) volume: 171 issue: 4356 page:
737. http://www.nature.com/nature/journ
al/v171/n4356/abs/171737a0.html {Crick_
Francis_Harry_Compton_19530402.pdf} COP
YRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v171/n4356/abs/171737a0.html
[2] Francis Harry Compton Crick
UNKNOWN
source: http://scientistshowtell.wikispa
ces.com/file/view/FrancisHarryComptonCri
ck2.jpg/39149552/FrancisHarryComptonCric
k2.jpg
[05/05/1954 AD] 20 21
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^ J. P. Gordon, H. J. Zeiger, and
C. H. Townes, "Molecular Microwave
Oscillator and New Hyperfine Structure
in the Microwave Spectrum of NH3",
Phys. Rev. 95, 282–284
(1954). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v95/i1/p282_1 {Townes_Charles_Hard_19
540505.pdf}
2. ^ J. P. Gordon, H. J. Zeiger, and C.
H. Townes, "The Maser—New Type of
Microwave Amplifier, Frequency
Standard, and Spectrometer", Phys. Rev.
99, 1264
(1955). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v99/i4/p1264_1
{Townes_Charles_Hard_19550504.pdf}
3. ^ N. G. Basov and A. M. Prokhorov,
Proc. Acad. of Sciences (U.S.S.R.) 101,
47 (1945). (Doklady Akademii Nauk
SSSR) English:
4. ^ N. G. Basov and A. M. Prokhorov,
J. Exptl, Theoret. Phys. U.S.S.R., 27,
431 (1954) English:
5. ^ N. G. Basov and A. M.
Prokhorov, J. Exptl, Theoret. Phys.
U.S.S.R., 28, 249
(1955) English: Soviet Phys. JETP 1,
184 (1955). {Basov_N_G_19541101.pdf}
6. ^ "Charles Hard Townes."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 05 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/601072/Charles-Hard-Townes>.
7. ^ J. P. Gordon, H. J. Zeiger, and C.
H. Townes, "Molecular Microwave
Oscillator and New Hyperfine Structure
in the Microwave Spectrum of NH3",
Phys. Rev. 95, 282–284
(1954). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v95/i1/p282_1 {Townes_Charles_Hard_19
540505.pdf}
8. ^ J. P. Gordon, H. J. Zeiger, and C.
H. Townes, "The Maser—New Type of
Microwave Amplifier, Frequency
Standard, and Spectrometer", Phys. Rev.
99, 1264
(1955). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v99/i4/p1264_1
{Townes_Charles_Hard_19550504.pdf}
9. ^ N. G. Basov and A. M. Prokhorov,
Proc. Acad. of Sciences (U.S.S.R.) 101,
47 (1945). (Doklady Akademii Nauk
SSSR) English:
10. ^ N. G. Basov and A. M. Prokhorov,
J. Exptl, Theoret. Phys. U.S.S.R., 27,
431 (1954) English:
11. ^ N. G. Basov and A. M.
Prokhorov, J. Exptl, Theoret. Phys.
U.S.S.R., 28, 249
(1955) English: Soviet Phys. JETP 1,
184 (1955). {Basov_N_G_19541101.pdf}
12. ^ "Charles Hard Townes."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 05 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/601072/Charles-Hard-Townes>.
13. ^ J. P. Gordon, H. J. Zeiger, and
C. H. Townes, "Molecular Microwave
Oscillator and New Hyperfine Structure
in the Microwave Spectrum of NH3",
Phys. Rev. 95, 282–284
(1954). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v95/i1/p282_1 {Townes_Charles_Hard_19
540505.pdf}
14. ^ J. P. Gordon, H. J. Zeiger, and
C. H. Townes, "The Maser—New Type of
Microwave Amplifier, Frequency
Standard, and Spectrometer", Phys. Rev.
99, 1264
(1955). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v99/i4/p1264_1
{Townes_Charles_Hard_19550504.pdf}
15. ^ N. G. Basov and A. M. Prokhorov,
Proc. Acad. of Sciences (U.S.S.R.) 101,
47 (1945). (Doklady Akademii Nauk
SSSR) English:
16. ^ N. G. Basov and A. M. Prokhorov,
J. Exptl, Theoret. Phys. U.S.S.R., 27,
431 (1954) English:
17. ^ N. G. Basov and A. M.
Prokhorov, J. Exptl, Theoret. Phys.
U.S.S.R., 28, 249
(1955) English: Soviet Phys. JETP 1,
184 (1955). {Basov_N_G_19541101.pdf}
18. ^ "Charles Hard Townes."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 05 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/601072/Charles-Hard-Townes>.
19. ^ J. P. Gordon, H. J. Zeiger, and
C. H. Townes, "Molecular Microwave
Oscillator and New Hyperfine Structure
in the Microwave Spectrum of NH3",
Phys. Rev. 95, 282–284
(1954). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v95/i1/p282_1 {Townes_Charles_Hard_19
540505.pdf}
20. ^ J. P. Gordon, H. J. Zeiger, and
C. H. Townes, "Molecular Microwave
Oscillator and New Hyperfine Structure
in the Microwave Spectrum of NH3",
Phys. Rev. 95, 282–284
(1954). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v95/i1/p282_1 {Townes_Charles_Hard_19
540505.pdf} {first publication:)
05/05/1954}
21. ^ "Charles Hard Townes."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 05 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/601072/Charles-Hard-Townes>.
{12/1953}
MORE INFO
[1] "Charles Hard Townes." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 04 Apr. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/charles-tow
nes
[2] K. Shimoda, T. C. Wang, and C. H.
Townes, "Further Aspects of the Theory
of the Maser", Phys. Rev. 102, 1308
(1956). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v102/i5/p1308_1
[3] "Charles H. Townes - Nobel
Lecture". Nobelprize.org. 4 Apr 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1964/townes-lecture.html {
Townes_Charles_Hard_19641211.pdf}
[4] T. S. Jaseja, A. Javan, J. Murray,
and C. H. Townes, "Test of Special
Relativity or of the Isotropy of Space
by Use of Infrared Masers", Phys. Rev.
133, A1221
(1964). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v133/i5A/pA1221_1
New York, USA19
[1] Figures 1 and 2 from: J. P.
Gordon, H. J. Zeiger, and C. H. Townes,
''Molecular Microwave Oscillator and
New Hyperfine Structure in the
Microwave Spectrum of NH3'', Phys. Rev.
95, 282–284
(1954). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v95/i1/p282_1 {Townes_Charles_Hard_19
540505.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v95/i1/p282_1
[2] Charles Hard Townes Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/physics/laureates/1964/townes.jpg
[10/04/1957 AD] 5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Sputnik." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 13 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/561534/Sputnik>.
2. ^ "Sputnik." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 13 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/561534/Sputnik>.
3. ^ "Sputnik." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 13 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/561534/Sputnik>.
4. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1957-001B
5. ^ "Sputnik." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 13 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/561534/Sputnik>. {10/04/1957}
Kazakhstan, U.S.S.R.4
[1] Description Sputnik
asm.jpg English: A replica of Sputnik
1, the first artificial satellite in
the world to be put into outer space:
the replica is stored in the National
Air and Space Museum. فارسی:
مدل ماهواره
اسپوتنیک-۱، نخستین
ماهواره فضایی
جهان Suomi: Sputnik 1:n, maailman
ensimmäinen ihmisen laukaiseman Maata
kiertävän keinotekoisen satelliittin,
jäljennös. Date
2004(2004) Source
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/database
/MasterCatalog?sc=1957-001B Author
NSSDC, NASA PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/be/Sputnik_asm.jpg
[08/01/1958 AD] 7
empty space.1 2 3 4 5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.scribd.com/doc/14162962/High-
altitude-nuclear-explosions-HANE
2. ^
http://www.astronautix.com/sites/johslan
d.htm
3. ^
http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/Usa/Test
s/Hardtack1.html
4. ^ Operation Hardtack final report:
http://www.google.com/url?sa=t&source=we
b&cd=5&ved=0CC4QFjAE&url=http%3A%2F%2Fww
w.hss.energy.gov%2FHealthSafety%2FIHS%2F
marshall%2Fcollection%2Fdata%2Fihp2a%2F1
028_a.pdf&rct=j&q=hardtack%20yucca%20apr
il%201958%20site%3Agov%20first&ei=00GUTf
S6GJH6sAP4_Mi3BQ&usg=AFQjCNGK3bPUO2I9Vq0
85Kvryl8BnQKxBA&cad=rja
5. ^ Video of Hardtack Teak explosion:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PBxpHNCDf
ZQ
6. ^
http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/Usa/Test
s/Hardtack1.html
7. ^
http://www.scribd.com/doc/14162962/High-
altitude-nuclear-explosions-HANE
{08/01/1958}
MORE INFO
[1] "Hardtack Teak". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hardtack_Te
ak
[1] Hardtack Teak test PD
source: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=P
BxpHNCDfZQ
[1958 AD] 3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "integrated circuit (IC)".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2013. Web. 26 Jan.
2013 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/289645/integrated-circuit-IC>.
2. ^ "integrated circuit (IC)".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2013. Web. 26 Jan.
2013 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/289645/integrated-circuit-IC>.
3. ^ "integrated circuit (IC)".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2013. Web. 26 Jan.
2013 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/289645/integrated-circuit-IC>.
Semiconductor)2
[1] First Integrated Circuit - Jack
Kilby invented the integrated circuit
at Texas Instruments in 1958. Comprised
of only a transistor and other
components on a slice of germanium,
Kilby's invention, 7/16-by-1/16-inches
in size, revolutionized the electronics
industry. The roots of almost every
electronic device we take for granted
today can be traced back to Dallas more
than 40 years ago.
source: http://www.ti.com/corp/graphics/
press/image/print/co1034.tif
[09/14/1959 AD] 5
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/masterCat
alog.do?sc=1959-014A
2. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/masterCat
alog.do?sc=1959-014A
3. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/masterCat
alog.do?sc=1959-014A
4. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/masterCat
alog.do?sc=1959-014A
5. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/masterCat
alog.do?sc=1959-014A {09/14/1959}
MORE INFO
[1]
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/masterCat
alog.do?sc=1959-012A
[2]
http://www.wired.com/science/discoveries
/news/2008/10/dayintech_1007#
[3]
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/lun
ar/lunarussr.html
Kazakhstan, U.S.S.R.4
[1] Luna 2 PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/plane
tary/image/luna_2.jpg
[2] Luna 1 PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image
/spacecraft/luna1_vsm.jpg
[11/05/1959 AD] 3
controlled remotely.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Glenn WWL, Mauro A, Longo E,
Lavietes PH, MacKay FJ The
Radiofrequency Cardiac Pacemaker.
Remote stimulation of the heart by
radiofrequency transmission. Clinical
application to a patient with
Stoke-Adams Syndrome. New Engl J Med
1959:262;948-951 http://www.nejm.org/do
i/pdf/10.1056/NEJM195911052611905
2. ^ Glenn WWL, Mauro A, Longo E,
Lavietes PH, MacKay FJ The
Radiofrequency Cardiac Pacemaker.
Remote stimulation of the heart by
radiofrequency transmission. Clinical
application to a patient with
Stoke-Adams Syndrome. New Engl J Med
1959:262;948-951 http://www.nejm.org/do
i/pdf/10.1056/NEJM195911052611905
3. ^ Glenn WWL, Mauro A, Longo E,
Lavietes PH, MacKay FJ The
Radiofrequency Cardiac Pacemaker.
Remote stimulation of the heart by
radiofrequency transmission. Clinical
application to a patient with
Stoke-Adams Syndrome. New Engl J Med
1959:262;948-951 http://www.nejm.org/do
i/pdf/10.1056/NEJM195911052611905
New Haven, New Jersey, USA2
[1] Figure 3 from: Glenn WWL, Mauro A,
Longo E, Lavietes PH, MacKay FJ The
Radiofrequency Cardiac Pacemaker.
Remote stimulation of the heart by
radiofrequency transmission. Clinical
application to a patient with
Stoke-Adams Syndrome. New Engl J Med
1959:262;948-951 http://www.nejm.org/do
i/pdf/10.1056/NEJM195911052611905 COPYR
IGHTED
source: http://www.nejm.org/doi/pdf/10.1
056/NEJM195911052611905
[2] Figure 1 from: Glenn WWL, Mauro
A, Longo E, Lavietes PH, MacKay FJ The
Radiofrequency Cardiac Pacemaker.
Remote stimulation of the heart by
radiofrequency transmission. Clinical
application to a patient with
Stoke-Adams Syndrome. New Engl J Med
1959:262;948-951 http://www.nejm.org/do
i/pdf/10.1056/NEJM195911052611905 COPYR
IGHTED
source: http://www.nejm.org/doi/pdf/10.1
056/NEJM195911052611905
[04/22/1960 AD] 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ T. H. Maiman, "Optical and
Microwave-Optical Experiments in Ruby",
Phys. Rev. Lett. 4, 564–566 (1960)
http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v4/i11
/p564_1 {Maiman_Theodore_Harold_1960042
2.pdf}
2. ^ Theodore H. Mainman, "Ruby Laser
Systems", Patent number: 3353115,
Filing date: Apr 13, 1961, Issue date:
Nov 14,
1967 http://www.google.com/patents?id=b
-lUAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&sou
rce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=f
alse
{Maimon_Theodore_Harold_19610413.pdf}
3. ^ T. H. Maiman, "Optical and
Microwave-Optical Experiments in Ruby",
Phys. Rev. Lett. 4, 564–566 (1960)
http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v4/i11
/p564_1 {Maiman_Theodore_Harold_1960042
2.pdf}
4. ^ Theodore H. Mainman, "Ruby Laser
Systems", Patent number: 3353115,
Filing date: Apr 13, 1961, Issue date:
Nov 14,
1967 http://www.google.com/patents?id=b
-lUAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&sou
rce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=f
alse
{Maimon_Theodore_Harold_19610413.pdf}
5. ^ T. H. Maiman, "Optical and
Microwave-Optical Experiments in Ruby",
Phys. Rev. Lett. 4, 564–566 (1960)
http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v4/i11
/p564_1 {Maiman_Theodore_Harold_1960042
2.pdf}
6. ^ T. H. Maiman, "Optical and
Microwave-Optical Experiments in Ruby",
Phys. Rev. Lett. 4, 564–566 (1960)
http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v4/i11
/p564_1 {Maiman_Theodore_Harold_1960042
2.pdf} {04/22/1960}
MORE INFO
[1] Douglas Martin (May 11,
2007). "Theodore Maiman, who built the
first laser, dies at 79". The New York
Times.
http://www.nytimes.com/2007/05/13/world/
americas/13iht-obits.1.5685872.html
[2] T. H. MAIMAN, "Stimulated Optical
Radiation in Ruby", Nature 187, 493 -
494 (06 August 1960);
doi:10.1038/187493a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v187/n4736/abs/187493
a0.html
[3] T. H. Maiman, "Stimulated Optical
Emission in Fluorescent Solids. I.
Theoretical Considerations", Phys. Rev.
123, 1145–1150 (1961)
http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v123/
i4/p1145_1
[4] T. H. Maiman, R. H. Hoskins, I. J.
D'Haenens, C. K. Asawa, and V. Evtuhov,
"Stimulated Optical Emission in
Fluorescent Solids. II. Spectroscopy
and Stimulated Emission in Ruby", Phys.
Rev. 123, 1151–1157 (1961)
http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v123/
i4/p1151_1
[5] "List of laser types". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_las
er_types
California5
[1] Figure 1 from: Theodore H.
Mainman, ''Ruby Laser Systems'', Patent
number: 3353115, Filing date: Apr 13,
1961, Issue date: Nov 14,
1967 http://www.google.com/patents?id=b
-lUAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&sou
rce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=f
alse
{Maimon_Theodore_Harold_19610413.pdf}
PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=b-lUAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f
=false
[2] Description Ted Maiman Holding
First Laser.jpg English: Theodore
Maiman holding his invention of the
world's first laser (invented May 16,
1960) Date 16 May
1983(1983-05-16) Source
Template:TRW Author
Kathleenfmaiman Permission (Reusi
ng this file) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/df/Ted_Maiman_Holding_Fi
rst_Laser.jpg
[04/12/1961 AD] 5
Earth.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1961-012A
2. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1961-012A
3. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1961-012A
4. ^ "Google Maps - Vostok 1 Landing
Site - Monument".
http://maps.google.com/maps?f=q&source=s
_q&hl=en&geocode=&q=51.270682+N,+45.9972
7+E&sll=51.270689,45.997599&sspn=0.00329
6,0.00868&ie=UTF8&ll=51.270716,45.997385
&spn=0.003296,0.00868&t=k&z=17.
5. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1961-012A {04/12/1961}
MORE INFO
[1] "Yury Alekseyevich Gagarin."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 30 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/223437/Yury-Alekseyevich-Gagarin>
[2] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p895-896
[1] The Vostok 1 capsule as recovered
after landing. Currently on display at
the RKK Energiya museum in Korolyov CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/7/70/Vostok_1_after_landing.jpg
[2] Description Yuri Gagarin in
Vostok 1 Source Mission
photography Portion used
Sufficient to show the face of
Gagarin in his spacesuit within the
capsule Low resolution?
yes COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/b/b1/Vostok1.jpg
[10/26/1962 AD] 4
data.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Wayne R. Johnson, "High Speed,
High Density, Optical Recording
System", Patent number: 3154370 Filing
date: Oct 26, 1962, Issue date: Oct 27,
1964 http://www.google.com/patents?id=H
9x0AAAAEBAJ
2. ^ Wayne R. Johnson, "High Speed,
High Density, Optical Recording
System", Patent number: 3154370 Filing
date: Oct 26, 1962, Issue date: Oct 27,
1964 http://www.google.com/patents?id=H
9x0AAAAEBAJ
3. ^ Wayne R. Johnson, "High Speed,
High Density, Optical Recording
System", Patent number: 3154370 Filing
date: Oct 26, 1962, Issue date: Oct 27,
1964 http://www.google.com/patents?id=H
9x0AAAAEBAJ
4. ^ Wayne R. Johnson, "High Speed,
High Density, Optical Recording
System", Patent number: 3154370 Filing
date: Oct 26, 1962, Issue date: Oct 27,
1964 http://www.google.com/patents?id=H
9x0AAAAEBAJ {10/26/1962}
MORE INFO
[1] Carl H. Becker, "LASER
RECORDER WITH VAPORIZABLE FILM", Patent
number: 3314073, Filing date: Oct 20,
1964, Issue date: Apr 11,
1967. http://www.google.com/patents?hl=
en&lr=&vid=USPAT3314073
[2] Joseph T. Mcnaney, "SYSTEM FOR
EFFECTING TRANSFER OF CATHODE RAY TUBE
DISPLAYS ONTO A RECORD MEDIUM", Patent
number: 2898176, Filing date: Aug 26,
1957, Issue date: Aug 4,
1959 http://www.google.com/patents?id=6
DsCAAAAEBAJ
[3] David Paul Gregg, "TRANSPARENT
RECORDING DISC", Patent number:
3430966, Filing date: Apr 3, 1967,
Issue date: Mar 4,
1969. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
H6JnAAAAEBAJ
[4] Jan van der Veen et al, "Optical
recording medium and method of
optically recording information
thereon", Patent number: 4298975,
Filing date: Mar 19, 1979, Issue date:
Nov 3,
1981 http://www.google.com/patents?hl=e
n&lr=&vid=USPAT4298975&id=IRcCAAAAEBAJ&o
i=fnd&dq=laser+recording+philips&printse
c=abstract#v=onepage&q=laser%20recording
%20philips&f=false
[5] Charles M. Goldstein, "Optical Disk
Technology and Information",
Science, New Series, Vol. 215, No.
4534 (Feb. 12, 1982), pp.
862-868. Published by: American
Association for the Advancement of
Science Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/1687481
Angeles, California, USA3
[1] From: Wayne R. Johnson, ''High
Speed, High Density, Optical Recording
System'', Patent number:
3154370 Filing date: Oct 26, 1962,
Issue date: Oct 27,
1964 http://www.google.com/patents?id=H
9x0AAAAEBAJ
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=H9x0AAAAEBAJ
[07/14/1965 AD] 3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1964-077A
2. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1964-077A
3. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1964-077A {07/14/1965}
[1] Mariner 4 image 8E
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/plane
tary/image/mariner4_8e.gif
[03/01/1966 AD] 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/masterCat
alog.do?sc=1965-092A
2. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/masterCat
alog.do?sc=1965-092A
3. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/masterCat
alog.do?sc=1965-092A
4. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/masterCat
alog.do?sc=1965-092A {03/01/1966}
[1] Venera 3 PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/plane
tary/image/venera_3.jpg
[07/21/1969 AD] 5
surface of the moon of Earth.3
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1969-059C
2. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1969-059C
3. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1969-059C
4. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1969-059C
5. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1969-059C {07/21/1969}
{Armstrong walks on Moon on:)
07/21/1969}
MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RMINSD7Mm
T4
[1] ''That's one small step for man,
one giant leap for mankind.'' At 10:56
p.m. EDT on July 20, 1969, Neil
Armstrong became the first human to set
foot on the Moon. This image was taken
from the telecast of the event, watched
by over half a billion people around
the world. Armstrong composed the quote
after landing on the Moon, he had meant
to say, ''That's one small step for
aman ...''. The pictures were taken by
the Apollo lunar surface camera,
mounted on one of the LM legs. The
black bar running through the center of
the picture is an anomaly in the
Goldstone ground data system. (NASA
photo ID S69-42583) PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/plane
tary/lunar/images/a11tvarm.jpg
[2] Here Aldrin is unloading the
passive seismometer of the Early Apollo
Scientific Experiments Package (EASEP)
from the lunar module equipment bay.
The white apparatus in the foreground
is the 35 mm stereo close-up camera.
Beyond the right leg is the solar wind
experiment, and beyond that the lunar
surface TV camera. The LM legs are
wrapped in foil to provide thermal
insulation. There is a split rock in
the lower right of the frame which is
presumably ejecta from a nearby impact
crater. (NASA photo ID
AS11-40-5931) PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/plane
tary/lunar/images/as11_40_5931.jpg
[1969 AD] 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "ARPAnet." Computer Desktop
Encyclopedia. Computer Language Company
Inc., 2011. Answers.com 30 May. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/arpanet
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ "Internet." Britannica
Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia
Britannica, Inc., 1994-2010.
Answers.com 30 May. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/internet
4. ^ "ARPAnet." Computer Desktop
Encyclopedia. Computer Language Company
Inc., 2011. Answers.com 30 May. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/arpanet
{1969}
Angeles) Los Angeles, California,
USA|(Stanford Research Institute)
Stanford, California, USA|(University
of California Santa Barbara) Santa
Barbara, California, USA|(University of
Utah) Salt Lake City, Utah, USA3
[1] Map of ARPANET nodes (1970).
UNKNOWN
source: http://cla.calpoly.edu/~lcall/20
4/8-10/ARPANET-map.jpg
[2] Diagram of the first 2 nodes on
the ARPANET
source: http://www.computerhistory.org/i
nternet_history/full_size_images/1969_2-
node_map.gif
[01/29/1970 AD] 5
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ W. S. Boyle and G. E. Smith
(April 1970). "Charge Coupled
Semiconductor Devices". Bell System
Technical Journal 49 (4): 587–593.
http://www.alcatel-lucent.com/bstj/vol
49-1970/articles/bstj49-4-587.pdf {Smit
h_George_E_19700129.pdf}
2. ^ G. F. Amelio, M. F. Tompsett, and
G. E. Smith, "Experimental Verification
of the Charge Coupled Device Concept",
Bell Sys. Tech. J., 49, 593,
(1970). http://www.alcatel-lucent.com/b
stj/vol49-1970/articles/bstj49-4-593.pdf
} {Smith_George_E_19700205.pdf}
3. ^
http://inventors.about.com/library/inven
tors/bldigitalcamera.htm
4. ^ W. S. Boyle and G. E. Smith (April
1970). "Charge Coupled Semiconductor
Devices". Bell System Technical Journal
49 (4): 587–593.
http://www.alcatel-lucent.com/bstj/vol
49-1970/articles/bstj49-4-587.pdf {Smit
h_George_E_19700129.pdf}
5. ^ W. S. Boyle and G. E. Smith (April
1970). "Charge Coupled Semiconductor
Devices". Bell System Technical Journal
49 (4): 587–593.
http://www.alcatel-lucent.com/bstj/vol
49-1970/articles/bstj49-4-587.pdf {Smit
h_George_E_19700129.pdf} {01/29/1970}
MORE INFO
[1] "Willard S. Boyle - Nobel
Lecture". Nobelprize.org. 29 May 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/2009/boyle-lecture.html
{Boyle_Willard_S_20091208.pdf
[2] Jeffrey, Davene. "Willard Boyle,
Nova Scotian Nobel Prize winner, dies
at 86". The Chronicle Herald.ca.
http://thechronicleherald.ca/Front/12424
28.html. Retrieved 9 May 2011
Hill, New Jersey, USA4
[1] Figure 7 from: ''George E. Smith -
Nobel Lecture''. Nobelprize.org. 29 May
2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/2009/smith-lecture.html {S
mith_George_E_20091208.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/physics/laureates/2009/smith-lecture.
html
[2] Willard Boyle (Property of AT&T
Archives) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.casca.ca/ecass/issues
/2006-me/features/boyle/boyle_files/imag
e001.jpg
[06/16/1970 AD] 4
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^ K. L. AGARWAL, H. BÜCHI, M. H.
CARUTHERS, N. GUPTA, H. G. KHORANA, K.
KLEPPE, A. KUMAR, E. OHTSUKA, U. L.
RAJBHANDARY, J. H. VAN DE SANDE, V.
SGARAMELLA, H. WEBER & T. YAMADA,
"Total synthesis of the gene for an
alanine transfer ribonucleic acid from
yeast", Nature 227, 27 - 34 (04 July
1970);
doi:10.1038/227027a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v227/n5253/abs/227027
a0.html {Khorana_Har_Gobind_19700616.pd
f}
2. ^ "Har Gobind Khorana."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 24 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/316846/Har-Gobind-Khorana>.
3. ^ K. L. AGARWAL, H. BÜCHI, M. H.
CARUTHERS, N. GUPTA, H. G. KHORANA, K.
KLEPPE, A. KUMAR, E. OHTSUKA, U. L.
RAJBHANDARY, J. H. VAN DE SANDE, V.
SGARAMELLA, H. WEBER & T. YAMADA ,
"Total synthesis of the gene for an
alanine transfer ribonucleic acid from
yeast", Nature 227, 27 - 34 (04 July
1970);
doi:10.1038/227027a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v227/n5253/abs/227027
a0.html {Khorana_Har_Gobind_19700616.pd
f}
4. ^ K. L. AGARWAL, H. BÜCHI, M. H.
CARUTHERS, N. GUPTA, H. G. KHORANA, K.
KLEPPE, A. KUMAR, E. OHTSUKA, U. L.
RAJBHANDARY, J. H. VAN DE SANDE, V.
SGARAMELLA, H. WEBER & T. YAMADA ,
"Total synthesis of the gene for an
alanine transfer ribonucleic acid from
yeast", Nature 227, 27 - 34 (04 July
1970);
doi:10.1038/227027a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v227/n5253/abs/227027
a0.html {Khorana_Har_Gobind_19700616.pd
f} {06/16/1970}
MORE INFO
[1] "Har Gobind Khorana." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 24 Apr. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/har-gobind-
khorana
[2] "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or
Medicine 1968". Nobelprize.org. 24 Apr
2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1968/
[3] "H. Gobind Khorana - Nobel
Lecture". Nobelprize.org. 24 Apr 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1968/khorana-lecture.html
[4] R. Lohrmann, D. Söll, H. Hayatsu,
E. Ohtsuka, H. G. Khorana, "Studies on
Polynucleotides. LI. Syntheses of the
64 Possible Ribotrinucleotides Derived
from the Four Major
Ribomononucleotides", Khorand, J. Am.
Chem. Soc., 88, 819
(1966) http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1
021/ja00956a039
[5] H.G.Khorana, H.Büchi, T.M. Jacob,
H.Kössel, S.A.Narang and E.Ohtsuka,
"Studies on Polynucleotides. LXI.'
Polynucleotide Synthesis in Relation to
the Genetic Code. General Introduction"
J. Am.Chem.Soc., 89 (1967)
2154. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.10
21/ja00985a031
[6] H. G. Khorana, Federation Proc.,
24, 1473 (1965)
[7] H. Kössel, A. R. Morgan
and H. G. Khorana, "Studies on
polynucleotides: LXXIII. Synthesis in
vitro of polypeptides containing
repeating tetrapeptide sequences
dependent upon DNA-like polymers
containing repeating tetranucleotide
sequences: Direction of reading of
messenger RNA", Journal of Molecular
Biology, Volume 26, Issue 3, 28 June
1967, Pages
449-475. http://www.sciencedirect.com/s
cience?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6WK7-4DM1GS1
-13&_user=4422&_coverDate=06%2F28%2F1967
&_alid=1728726947&_rdoc=1&_fmt=high&_ori
g=search&_origin=search&_zone=rslt_list_
item&_cdi=6899&_sort=r&_st=13&_docanchor
=&view=c&_ct=2&_acct=C000059600&_version
=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=4856df
9c96658f9c5733d2b24ae007f7&searchtype=a
[8] S. BRENNER, A. O. W. STRETTON & S.
KAPLAN, "Genetic Code: The 'Nonsense'
Triplets for Chain Termination and
their Suppression", Nature, 5 June 1965
Vol 206 No 4988
p994. http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v206/n4988/index.html
[9] MARTIN G. WEIGERT & ALAN GAREN,
"Base Composition of Nonsense Condons
in E. coli: Evidence from Amino-Acid
Substitutions at a Tryptophan Site in
Alkaline Phosphatase", Nature, 5 June
1965 Vol 206 No 4988
p992. http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v206/n4988/index.html
[10] "kinase." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 30 Jun.
2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/kinase
Wisconsin, USA3
[1] Figure 1 from: K. L. AGARWAL, H.
BÜCHI, M. H. CARUTHERS, N. GUPTA, H.
G. KHORANA, K. KLEPPE, A. KUMAR, E.
OHTSUKA, U. L. RAJBHANDARY, J. H. VAN
DE SANDE, V. SGARAMELLA, H. WEBER & T.
YAMADA , ''Total synthesis of the gene
for an alanine transfer ribonucleic
acid from yeast'', Nature 227, 27 - 34
(04 July 1970);
doi:10.1038/227027a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v227/n5253/abs/227027
a0.html {Khorana_Har_Gobind_19700616.pd
f} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v227/n5253/abs/227027a0.html
[2] Har Gobind Khorana Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1968/khorana.jpg
[11/14/1971 AD] 4
(Mars).2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1971-051A
2. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1971-051A
3. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1971-051A
4. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1971-051A {11/14/1971}
MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.astronomy.csdb.cn/ceps/rpif/m
ariner9/mariner9_archive.htm
[1] Mariner 9 PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image
/spacecraft/mariner09.jpg
[2] Mariner 9 imagery of Olympus Mons
volcano on Mars compared to the eight
principal Hawaiian islands at the same
scale. (Mariner 9 image mosaic,
NASA/JPL) PD
source: http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/volc/fi
g38.gif
[11/27/1971 AD] 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1971-045A
2. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1971-045A
3. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1971-045A
4. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1971-045D {11/27/1971}
[1] Mars 3 Lander PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image
/spacecraft/mars3_lander_vsm.jpg
[2] Description Mars3
iki.jpg English: The Mars 3
spacecraft Date Source
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image/sp
acecraft/mars3_iki.jpg Author
NASA PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/13/Mars3_iki.jpg
[12/02/1971 AD] 5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1971-049F
2. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1971-049F
3. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1971-049F
4. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1971-049F
5. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1971-049F {12/02/1971}
[1] Signal from mars-3 Lander UNKNOWN
source: http://www.mentallandscape.com/C
_Mars03_lander.jpg
[2] Mars 3 Lander PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image
/spacecraft/mars3_lander_vsm.jpg
[07/31/1972 AD] 4
adding DNA to bacteria.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ David A. Jackson, Robert H.
Symons, and Paul Berg, "Biochemical
Method for Inserting New Genetic
Information into DNA of Simian Virus
40: Circular SV40 DNA Molecules
Containing Lambda Phage Genes and the
Galactose Operon of Escherichia coli",
PNAS October 1, 1972 vol. 69 no. 10
2904-2909
http://www.pnas.org/content/69/10/2904
.short {Berg_Paul_19720731.pdf}
2. ^ "Paul Berg." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 02 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/61698/Paul-Berg>.
3. ^ David A. Jackson, Robert H.
Symons, and Paul Berg, "Biochemical
Method for Inserting New Genetic
Information into DNA of Simian Virus
40: Circular SV40 DNA Molecules
Containing Lambda Phage Genes and the
Galactose Operon of Escherichia coli",
PNAS October 1, 1972 vol. 69 no. 10
2904-2909
http://www.pnas.org/content/69/10/2904
.short {Berg_Paul_19720731.pdf}
4. ^ David A. Jackson, Robert H.
Symons, and Paul Berg, "Biochemical
Method for Inserting New Genetic
Information into DNA of Simian Virus
40: Circular SV40 DNA Molecules
Containing Lambda Phage Genes and the
Galactose Operon of Escherichia coli",
PNAS October 1, 1972 vol. 69 no. 10
2904-2909
http://www.pnas.org/content/69/10/2904
.short {Berg_Paul_19720731.pdf}
{07/31/1972}
Stanford, California, USA3
[1] Figure 1 from: David A. Jackson,
Robert H. Symons, and Paul Berg,
''Biochemical Method for Inserting New
Genetic Information into DNA of Simian
Virus 40: Circular SV40 DNA Molecules
Containing Lambda Phage Genes and the
Galactose Operon of Escherichia coli'',
PNAS October 1, 1972 vol. 69 no. 10
2904-2909
http://www.pnas.org/content/69/10/2904
.short {Berg_Paul_19720731.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.pnas.org/content/69/1
0/2904.short
[2] Description Paul Berg in
1980.jpg Paul Berg - 1980 Albert
Lasker Basic Medical Research Award
Winner Date 1980(1980) Source
http://profiles.nlm.nih.gov/CD/B/B/
L/L/ Author
Unknown Permission (Reusing this
file) Courtesy of the National
Library of Medicine. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/88/Paul_Berg_in_1980.jpg
[12/03/1973 AD] 5
the first close-up images.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1972-012A
2. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1972-012A
3. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1972-012A
4. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1972-012A
5. ^
http://www.nasa.gov/centers/ames/news/re
leases/2003/03_25HQ.html {12/03/1973}
MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.aerospaceguide.net/pioneer10.
html
[1] Description
http://history.nasa.gov/SP-349/p142.jpg
English: Pioneer 10 Jupiter
encounter. Date Source
http://history.nasa.gov/SP-349/ch8.
htm Author
NASA Permission (Reusing this
file) PD
source: http://history.nasa.gov/SP-349/p
142.jpg
[2] Pioneer 10 PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image
/spacecraft/pioneer10-11.jpg
[1974 AD] 5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan
Bunch, "The Timetables of Science",
Second edition, Simon and Schuster,
1991, p577.
2. ^ "Altair." Computer Desktop
Encyclopedia. Computer Language Company
Inc., 2011. Answers.com 30 May. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/altair
3. ^ "Altair." Computer Desktop
Encyclopedia. Computer Language Company
Inc., 2011. Answers.com 30 May. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/altair
4. ^ "Micro Instrumentation and
Telemetry Systems". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Micro_Instr
umentation_and_Telemetry_Systems
5. ^ "Altair." Computer Desktop
Encyclopedia. Computer Language Company
Inc., 2011. Answers.com 30 May. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/altair
{1974}
6. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p577. {1975}
Systems) Albuquerque, New Mexico, USA3
4 (verify)
[1] Description Altair 8800
Computer.jpg Altair 8800 Computer
with 8 inch floppy disk
system. Circuit boards - left to
right 1. Seals 8K Static RAM
board 2. MITS floppy disk
controller (2 board set) 3. MITS
floppy disk controller 4. MITS 16K
Dynamic RAM board 5. MITS 16K
Dynamic RAM board 6. MITS SIO-2
Dual serial port board 7. Solid
State Music PROM board 8. MITS 8080
CPU board Photo taken at the Vintage
Computer Festival 7.0 held at the
Computer History Museum, Mountain View
California. November 6-7, 2004
[1] This was one of Altair systems
exhibited by Erik Klein [2] Photo by
Michael Holley, November 2004 Nikon
E3200 with on camera flash. Touched up
in Adobe Photoshop Elements 3.0. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/01/Altair_8800_Computer.
jpg
[10/20/1975 AD] 6
4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1975-050A
2. ^
http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/missions/pro
file.cfm?MCode=Venera_09
3. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1975-050A
4. ^
http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/missions/pro
file.cfm?MCode=Venera_09
5. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1975-050A
6. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1975-050A {10/20/1975}
[1] Image of the surface of Venus from
Venera 9 PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/imgca
t/hires/v09_lander.gif
[2] Venera 9 Descent Craft PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/plane
tary/image/venera_9_lander.jpg
[1975 AD] 2
thought.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "The Incredible Human Machine",
National Geographic (1975)
2. ^ "The
Incredible Human Machine", National
Geographic (1975)
MORE INFO
[1]
http://news.yahoo.com/paralyzed-woman-us
es-her-mind-control-robot-arm-181141007-
-finance.html
[2]
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/439638
7.stm
[1] todo: change to video from National
Geographic ''The Incredible Human
Machine'' video Adapted from picture
of EEG electrodes and toy train View
of EEG electrodes on a model phrenology
head M400/0123 Rights
Managed Credit: JAMES
KING-HOLMES/SCIENCE PHOTO
LIBRARY COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencephoto.com/imag
e/271056/large/M4000123-View_of_EEG_elec
trodes_on_a_model_phrenology_head-SPL.jp
ghttp://howtobuildamodeltrain.com/wp-con
tent/uploads/2011/12/howtobuildamodeltra
in1.jpg
[2] ''The Incredible Human Machine'',
National Geographic
(1975) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://ecx.images-amazon.com/ima
ges/I/51PVRJGKR8L._SL500_AA300_.jpg
[09/01/1979 AD] 5
close-up images.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.nasa.gov/centers/ames/mission
s/archive/pioneer.html
2. ^
http://www.nasa.gov/centers/ames/mission
s/archive/pioneer.html
3. ^
http://www.nasa.gov/centers/ames/mission
s/archive/pioneer.html
4. ^
http://www.nasa.gov/centers/ames/mission
s/archive/pioneer.html
5. ^
http://www.nasa.gov/centers/ames/mission
s/archive/pioneer.html {09/01/1979}
[1] Pioneer 11 Image of Saturn and Its
Moon Titan {ULSF: Titan is at the upper
left} The Pioneer 11 spacecraft
launched from Cape Canaveral forty
years ago, on April 5, 1973. Pioneer
11's path through Saturn's outer rings
took it within 21,000 km of the planet,
where it discovered two new moons
(almost smacking into one of them in
September 1979) and a new ''F'' ring.
The spacecraft also discovered and
charted the magnetosphere, magnetic
field and mapped the general structure
of Saturn's interior. The spacecraft's
instruments measured the heat radiation
from Saturn's interior and found that
its planet-sized moon, Titan, was too
cold to support life. This image
from Pioneer 11 shows Saturn and its
moon Titan. The irregularities in ring
silhouette and shadow are due to
technical anomalies in the preliminary
data later corrected. At the time this
image was taken, Pioneer was 2,846,000
km (1,768,422 miles) from
Saturn. › NASA Celebrates Four
Decades of Plucky Pioneer 11 Image
credit: NASA Ames PD
source: http://www.nasa.gov/images/conte
nt/739507main_739460main_AC79-9107.3_160
0-1200.jpg
[2] Pioneer 10 PD
source: http://quest.nasa.gov/sso/cool/p
ioneer10/graphics/lasher/slide4.jpg
[03/10/1984 AD] 4
2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ SM Willadsen and RA Godke, "A
simple procedure for the production of
identical sheep twins", Veterinary
Record 1984;114:240-243
doi:10.1136/vr.114.10.240
http://veterinaryrecord.bmj.com/conten
t/114/10/240.abstract
{Willadsen_Steen_M_19840310.pdf}
2. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p594.
3. ^ SM Willadsen and RA Godke, "A
simple procedure for the production of
identical sheep twins", Veterinary
Record 1984;114:240-243
doi:10.1136/vr.114.10.240
http://veterinaryrecord.bmj.com/conten
t/114/10/240.abstract
{Willadsen_Steen_M_19840310.pdf} {03/
1984}
4. ^ SM Willadsen and RA Godke, "A
simple procedure for the production of
identical sheep twins", Veterinary
Record 1984;114:240-243
doi:10.1136/vr.114.10.240
http://veterinaryrecord.bmj.com/conten
t/114/10/240.abstract
{Willadsen_Steen_M_19840310.pdf} {03/
1984} {03/10/1984}
Cambridge, UK3
[1] Figure 3 from: SM Willadsen and RA
Godke, ''A simple procedure for the
production of identical sheep twins'',
Veterinary Record 1984;114:240-243
doi:10.1136/vr.114.10.240
http://veterinaryrecord.bmj.com/conten
t/114/10/240.abstract
{Willadsen_Steen_M_19840310.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source:
[01/24/1986 AD] 8
close-up images.5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1977-076A
2. ^
http://voyager.jpl.nasa.gov/science/uran
us.html
3. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1977-076A
4. ^
http://voyager.jpl.nasa.gov/science/uran
us.html
5. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1977-076A
6. ^
http://voyager.jpl.nasa.gov/science/uran
us.html
7. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1977-076A
8. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1977-076A {01/24/1986}
MORE INFO
[1] "Voyager 2". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voyager_2
[1] Description Uranus.jpg English:
NASA photo of Uranus taken by Voyager
2. Caption: This pictures of Uranus was
compiled from images recorded by
Voyager 2 on January 10, 1986, when the
NASA spacecraft was 18 million
kilometers (11 million miles) from the
planet. The images were obtained by
Voyager's narrow-angle camera; the view
is toward the planet's pole of
rotation, which lies just left of
center. The picture has been processed
to show Uranus as human eyes would see
it from the vantage point of the
spacecraft. The dark shading of the
upper right edge of the disk is the
terminator, or day-night boundary. The
blue-green appearance of Uranus results
from methane in the atmosphere; this
gas absorbs red wavelengths from the
incoming sunlight, leaving the
predominant bluish color seen here.
Images shuttered through different
color filters were added and
manipulated by computer, greatly
enhancing the low-contrast details in
the original images. The planet reveals
a dark polar hood surrounded by a
series of progressively lighter
convective bands. The banded structure
is real, though exaggerated here. The
Voyager project is managed for NASA by
the Jet Propulsion Laboratory. Date
January 1986(1986-01) Source
http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/ca
talog/PIA01360 Author NASA PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/bb/Uranus.jpg
[2] Description
Voyager.jpg Voyager 1 / Voyager
2 English: NASA photograph of one of
the two identical Voyager space probes
Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 launched in
1977. The 3.7 metre diameter
high-gain antenna (HGA) is attached to
the hollow ten-sided polygonal body
housing the electronics, here seen in
profile. The Voyager Golden Record is
attached to one of the bus
sides. The angled square panel below
is the optical calibration target and
excess heat radiator. The three
radioisotope thermoelectric generators
(RTGs) are mounted end-to-end on the
left-extending boom. One of the two
planetary radio and plasma wave antenna
extends diagonally left and down, the
other extends to the rear, mostly
hidden here. The compact structure
between the RTGs and the HGA are the
high-field and low-field magnetometers
(MAG) in their stowed state; after
launch an Astromast boom extended to 13
metres to distance the low-field
magnetometers. The instrument boom
extending to the right holds, from left
to right: the cosmic ray subsystem
(CRS) above and Low-Energy Charged
Particle (LECP) detector below; the
Plasma Spectrometer (PLS) above; and
the scan platform that rotates about a
vertical axis. The scan platform
comprises: the Infrared Interferometer
Spectrometer (IRIS) (largest camera at
right); the Ultraviolet Spectrometer
(UVS) to the right of the UVS; the two
Imaging Science Subsystem (ISS) vidicon
cameras to the left of the UVS; and the
Photopolarimeter System (PPS) barely
visible under the ISS. Suggested for
English Wikipedia:alternative text for
images: A space probe with squat
cylindrical body topped by a large
parabolic radio antenna dish pointing
upwards, a three-element radioisotope
thermoelectric generator on a boom
extending left, and scientific
instruments on a boom extending right.
A golden disk is fixed to the
body. Date Source NASA
website http://voyager.jpl.nasa.gov/ima
ge/images/spacecraft/Voyager.jpg Author
NASA Permission (Reusing this
file) PD-NASA PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d2/Voyager.jpg
[12/14/1988 AD] 5
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ Long-Sheng Fan; Yu-Chong Tai;
R.S. Muller; , "IC-processed
electrostatic micro-motors," Electron
Devices Meeting, 1988. IEDM '88.
Technical Digest., International ,
vol., no., pp.666-669, 1988 doi:
10.1109/IEDM.1988.32901 URL:
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.j
sp?tp=&arnumber=32901&isnumber=1415
2. ^ Long-Sheng Fan; Yu-Chong Tai; R.S.
Muller; , "IC-processed electrostatic
micro-motors," Electron Devices
Meeting, 1988. IEDM '88. Technical
Digest., International , vol., no.,
pp.666-669, 1988 doi:
10.1109/IEDM.1988.32901 URL:
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.j
sp?tp=&arnumber=32901&isnumber=1415
3. ^ Long-Sheng Fan; Yu-Chong Tai; R.S.
Muller; , "IC-processed electrostatic
micro-motors," Electron Devices
Meeting, 1988. IEDM '88. Technical
Digest., International , vol., no.,
pp.666-669, 1988 doi:
10.1109/IEDM.1988.32901 URL:
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.j
sp?tp=&arnumber=32901&isnumber=1415
4. ^ Long-Sheng Fan; Yu-Chong Tai; R.S.
Muller; , "IC-processed electrostatic
micro-motors," Electron Devices
Meeting, 1988. IEDM '88. Technical
Digest., International , vol., no.,
pp.666-669, 1988 doi:
10.1109/IEDM.1988.32901 URL:
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.j
sp?tp=&arnumber=32901&isnumber=1415
5. ^ Long-Sheng Fan; Yu-Chong Tai; R.S.
Muller; , "IC-processed electrostatic
micro-motors," Electron Devices
Meeting, 1988. IEDM '88. Technical
Digest., International , vol., no.,
pp.666-669, 1988 doi:
10.1109/IEDM.1988.32901 URL:
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.j
sp?tp=&arnumber=32901&isnumber=1415
{12/11/1988-12/14/1988}
Berkeley, California, USA4
[1] Figures 1 from: Long-Sheng Fan;
Yu-Chong Tai; R.S. Muller; ,
''IC-processed electrostatic
micro-motors,'' Electron Devices
Meeting, 1988. IEDM '88. Technical
Digest., International , vol., no.,
pp.666-669, 1988 doi:
10.1109/IEDM.1988.32901 URL:
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.j
sp?tp=&arnumber=32901&isnumber=1415 COP
YRIGHTED
source: URL:
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.j
sp?tp=&arnumber=32901&isnumber=1415
[2] Figures 2 from: Long-Sheng Fan;
Yu-Chong Tai; R.S. Muller; ,
''IC-processed electrostatic
micro-motors,'' Electron Devices
Meeting, 1988. IEDM '88. Technical
Digest., International , vol., no.,
pp.666-669, 1988 doi:
10.1109/IEDM.1988.32901 URL:
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.j
sp?tp=&arnumber=32901&isnumber=1415 COP
YRIGHTED
source: URL:
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.j
sp?tp=&arnumber=32901&isnumber=1415
[08/25/1989 AD] 5
close-up images.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1977-076A
2. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1977-076A
3. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1977-076A
4. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1977-076A
5. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1977-076A {08/25/1989}
MORE INFO
[1] "Voyager 2". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voyager_2
[1] A picture of Neptune taken by
Voyager 2, showing off the Great Dark
Spot which has since disappeared from
the planet's surface. Original
Caption Released with Image: During
August 16 and 17, 1989, the Voyager 2
narrow-angle camera was used to
photograph Neptune almost continuously,
recording approximately two and
one-half rotations of the planet. These
images represent the most complete set
of full disk Neptune images that the
spacecraft will acquire. This picture
from the sequence shows two of the four
cloud features which have been tracked
by the Voyager cameras during the past
two months. The large dark oval near
the western limb (the left edge) is at
a latitude of 22 degrees south and
circuits Neptune every 18.3 hours. The
bright clouds immediately to the south
and east of this oval are seen to
substantially change their appearances
in periods as short as four hours. The
second dark spot, at 54 degrees south
latitude near the terminator (lower
right edge), circuits Neptune every
16.1 hours. This image has been
processed to enhance the visibility of
small features, at some sacrifice of
color fidelity. The Voyager Mission is
conducted by JPL for NASA's Office of
Space Science and
Applications. Source:
http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog
/PIA00046 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/06/Neptune.jpg
[2] Description
Voyager.jpg Voyager 1 / Voyager
2 English: NASA photograph of one of
the two identical Voyager space probes
Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 launched in
1977. The 3.7 metre diameter
high-gain antenna (HGA) is attached to
the hollow ten-sided polygonal body
housing the electronics, here seen in
profile. The Voyager Golden Record is
attached to one of the bus
sides. The angled square panel below
is the optical calibration target and
excess heat radiator. The three
radioisotope thermoelectric generators
(RTGs) are mounted end-to-end on the
left-extending boom. One of the two
planetary radio and plasma wave antenna
extends diagonally left and down, the
other extends to the rear, mostly
hidden here. The compact structure
between the RTGs and the HGA are the
high-field and low-field magnetometers
(MAG) in their stowed state; after
launch an Astromast boom extended to 13
metres to distance the low-field
magnetometers. The instrument boom
extending to the right holds, from left
to right: the cosmic ray subsystem
(CRS) above and Low-Energy Charged
Particle (LECP) detector below; the
Plasma Spectrometer (PLS) above; and
the scan platform that rotates about a
vertical axis. The scan platform
comprises: the Infrared Interferometer
Spectrometer (IRIS) (largest camera at
right); the Ultraviolet Spectrometer
(UVS) to the right of the UVS; the two
Imaging Science Subsystem (ISS) vidicon
cameras to the left of the UVS; and the
Photopolarimeter System (PPS) barely
visible under the ISS. Suggested for
English Wikipedia:alternative text for
images: A space probe with squat
cylindrical body topped by a large
parabolic radio antenna dish pointing
upwards, a three-element radioisotope
thermoelectric generator on a boom
extending left, and scientific
instruments on a boom extending right.
A golden disk is fixed to the
body. Date Source NASA
website http://voyager.jpl.nasa.gov/ima
ge/images/spacecraft/Voyager.jpg Author
NASA Permission (Reusing this
file) PD-NASA PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d2/Voyager.jpg
[01/17/1990 AD] 5
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^ D. M. Eigler & E. K. Schweizer,
"Positioning single atoms with a
scanning tunnelling microscope", Nature
344, 524 - 526 (05 April 1990);
doi:10.1038/344524a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v344/n6266/abs/344524
a0.html
2. ^ D. M. Eigler & E. K. Schweizer,
"Positioning single atoms with a
scanning tunnelling microscope", Nature
344, 524 - 526 (05 April 1990);
doi:10.1038/344524a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v344/n6266/abs/344524
a0.html
3. ^ D. M. Eigler & E. K. Schweizer,
"Positioning single atoms with a
scanning tunnelling microscope", Nature
344, 524 - 526 (05 April 1990);
doi:10.1038/344524a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v344/n6266/abs/344524
a0.html
4. ^ D. M. Eigler & E. K. Schweizer,
"Positioning single atoms with a
scanning tunnelling microscope", Nature
344, 524 - 526 (05 April 1990);
doi:10.1038/344524a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v344/n6266/abs/344524
a0.html
5. ^ D. M. Eigler & E. K. Schweizer,
"Positioning single atoms with a
scanning tunnelling microscope", Nature
344, 524 - 526 (05 April 1990);
doi:10.1038/344524a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v344/n6266/abs/344524
a0.html {01/17/1990}
MORE INFO
[1] Driscoll, Robert J., Michael
G. Youngquist, and John D.
Baldeschwieler. "Atomic-scale imaging
of DNA using scanning tunnelling
microscopy."� Nature 346.6281 (1990)
:
294-296. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v346/n6281/abs/346294a0.html
[2] G. Binnig, H. Rohrer, Ch. Gerber,
and E. Weibel, "Tunneling through a
controllable vacuum gap", Appl. Phys.
Lett. 40, 178 (1982);
doi:10.1063/1.92999 http://apl.aip.org/
resource/1/applab/v40/i2/p178_s1
Research Center) San Jose, California,
USA4
[1] Figures 1 and 2 from: D. M. Eigler
& E. K. Schweizer, ''Positioning single
atoms with a scanning tunnelling
microscope'', Nature 344, 524 - 526 (05
April 1990);
doi:10.1038/344524a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v344/n6266/abs/344524
a0.html COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v344/n6266/abs/344524a0.html
[2] Figure 3 from: D. M. Eigler & E.
K. Schweizer, ''Positioning single
atoms with a scanning tunnelling
microscope'', Nature 344, 524 - 526 (05
April 1990);
doi:10.1038/344524a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v344/n6266/abs/344524
a0.html COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v344/n6266/abs/344524a0.html
[12/07/1995 AD] 4 5
FOOTNOTES
1.
^http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecra
ftDisplay.do?id=1989-084B
2.
^http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecra
ftDisplay.do?id=1989-084B
3. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tOrbit.do?id=1989-084B
4. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tOrbit.do?id=1989-084B {12/07/1995}
5. ^
http://www.sandia.gov/LabNews/LN02-09-01
/galileo/timeline_story.htm
MORE INFO
[1] "Galileo End of Mission Press
Kit" (PDF). Retrieved
2011-05-15. http://solarsystem.nasa.gov
/missions/docs/galileo-end.pdf
[2]
http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/galileo/gall
ery/top10science-3.cfm
[1] Drifting Galileo Date: 18 Oct
1989 Galileo spacecraft atop the
inertial upper stage drifts into the
blackness of space after deployment
from the Space Shuttle Atlantis payload
bay during mission STS-34 in October
1989. Image Credit: NASA Credit:
NASA PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/ea/Galileo_encounter_wit
h_Io.gif
[2] The Asteroid 243 Ida and Its Moon
Dactyl This color picture is made
from images taken from the Galileo
spacecraft about 14 minutes before its
closest approach to asteroid 243 Ida on
August 28, 1993. The range from the
spacecraft was about 10,500 kilometers
(6,500 miles). The images used are from
the sequence in which Ida's moon was
originally discovered; the tiny moon is
visible to the right of the asteroid.
The color is ''enhanced'' in the sense
that the CCD camera is sensitive to
near infrared wavelengths of light
beyond human vision; a ''natural''
color picture of this asteroid would
appear mostly gray. PD
source: http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/mult
imedia/gallery/STS34_10063774-browse.jpg
[11/25/1996 AD] 3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Wilmut, I. et al. "Viable
Offspring Derived from Fetal and Adult
Mammalian Cells." Nature 385.6619
(1997):
810–813. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v385/n6619/abs/385810a0.html
{Wilmut_19961125.pdf}
2. ^ I. Wilmut, A. E. Schnieke*, J.
McWhir, A. J. Kind* & K. H. S.
Campbell, "Viable offspring derived
from fetal and adult mammalian cells",
Nature 385, 810 - 813 (27 February
1997);
doi:10.1038/385810a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v385/n6619/abs/385810
a0.html {Wilmut_Ian_19961125.pdf}
3. ^ Wilmut, I. et al. "Viable
Offspring Derived from Fetal and Adult
Mammalian Cells." Nature 385.6619
(1997):
810–813. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v385/n6619/abs/385810a0.html {
Wilmut_19961125.pdf}
Institute), Roslin Midlothian, UK2
[1] Figre 2 from: I. Wilmut, A. E.
Schnieke*, J. McWhir, A. J. Kind* & K.
H. S. Campbell, ''Viable offspring
derived from fetal and adult mammalian
cells'', Nature 385, 810 - 813 (27
February 1997);
doi:10.1038/385810a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v385/n6619/abs/385810
a0.html {Wilmut_Ian_19961125.pdf}
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v385/n6619/abs/385810a0.html
[2] Description English: Modified
version of Commons
image en:Category:Animal
testing Date 2008-02-22 (original
upload date) (Original text : 22 Feb
08) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia (Original text :
Image:Dollyscotland.JPG) Author Origina
l uploader was TimVickers at
en.wikipedia (Original text :
User:Llull on English
Wikipedia) Permission (Reusing this
file) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Dollyscotland_%
28crop%29.jpg/1280px-Dollyscotland_%28cr
op%29.jpg
[02/12/2001 AD] 3
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1996-008A
2. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1996-008A
3. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1996-008A {02/12/2001}
[1] Description
Erosregolith.jpg One of the last
photos taken by the NEAR Shoemaker
spacecraft as it landed on the asteroid
433Eros Date 2003(2003) Source
NASA Author
NASA Permission (Reusing this
file) public domain PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a6/Erosregolith.jpg
[2] Description
WholeEros.jpg English: False color
view of
http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog
/PIA02923 Original caption from
NASA's Astronomy picture of the
day...: Asteroid Eros
Reconstructed Credit: NEAR
Project, NLR, JHUAPL, Goddard SVS,
NASA Explanation: Orbiting the Sun
between Mars and Earth, asteroid 433
Eros was visited by the robot
spacecraft NEAR-Shoemaker in 2000
February. High-resolution surface
images and measurements made by NEAR's
Laser Rangefinder (NLR) have been
combined into the above visualization
based on the derived 3D model of the
tumbling space rock. NEAR allowed
scientists to discover that Eros is a
single solid body, that its composition
is nearly uniform, and that it formed
during the early years of our Solar
System. Mysteries remain, however,
including why some rocks on the surface
have disintegrated. On 2001 February
12, the NEAR mission drew to a dramatic
close as it was crash landed onto the
asteroid's surface, surviving well
enough to return an analysis of the
composition of the surface regolith. In
December of 2002, NASA made an
unsuccessful attempt to communicate
with the spacecraft after it spent 22
months resting on the asteroid's
surface. NEAR will likely remain on the
asteroid for billions of years as a
monument to human ingenuity at the turn
of the third millennium. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/25/WholeEros.jpg
[06/28/2001 AD] 5
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.hitachi.com/New/cnews/030902.
html
2. ^
http://www.hitachi.com/New/cnews/030902.
html
3. ^
http://www.hitachi.com/New/cnews/030902.
html
4. ^ "World's smallest RFID IC,the
“µ-chip” "
http://www.hitachi.com/New/cnews/E/200
1/0628/index.html {Hitachi_u-chip_20010
628.pdf}
5. ^ "World's smallest RFID IC,the
“µ-chip” "
http://www.hitachi.com/New/cnews/E/200
1/0628/index.html {Hitachi_u-chip_20010
628.pdf} {06/28/2001}
MORE INFO
[1] "World's tiniest RFID tag
unveiled", BBC,
02/23/2007 http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/t
echnology/6389581.stm
[2]
http://www.rfidjournal.com/article/view/
337
[3]
http://www.thelibertyvoice.com/hitachi-d
evelops-a-new-rfid-with-embedded-antenna
-%C2%B5-chip
[1] Hitachi Develops a New RFID with
Embedded Antenna µ-Chip --Makes
Possible Wireless Links that Work Using
Nothing More Than a 0.4mm X 0.4mm Chip,
One of the World's Smallest ICs-- A
New RFID with Embedded Antenna
MU-Chip Tokyo, September 2,
2003-Hitachi, Ltd. (TSE: 6501) today
announced that it has developed a new
version of its RFID µ-Chip embedding
an antenna. When using Hitachi's
original µ-Chip, one of the world's
smallest RFID ICs measuring only 0.4mm
X 0.4mm, an external antenna must be
attached to the chip to allow external
devices to read the 128-bit ID number
stored in its ROM (Read-Only-Memory).
This newly developed version, however,
features an internal antenna, enabling
chips to employ the energy of incoming
electrical waves to wirelessly transmit
its ID number to a reader. The 0.4mm X
0.4mm chip can thus operate entirely on
its own, making it possible to use
µ-Chip as RFID IC tags without the
need to attach external devices. This
breakthrough opens the door to using
µ-Chips as RFID IC tags in extremely
minute and precise applications that
had been impractical until now. For
example, the new µ-Chip can be easily
embedded in bank notes, gift
certificates, documents and whole paper
media etc. The µ-Chip, announced by
Hitachi in July 2001, is one of the
world's smallest IC chips at 0.4mm X
0.4mm. The chip data is recorded in
read-only memory during the
semiconductor production process, and
therefore cannot be rewritten, thus
guaranteeing its authenticity.
Applications of the µ-Chip include a
system for managing the SCM materials
on sites, and entrance tickets for Expo
2005 Aichi Japan which opens on March
25, 2005. The primary features of
this revolutionary µ-Chip are as
follows. (1) A RFID IC chip measuring
only 0.4mm X 0.4mm with built-in
antenna Despite its extremely small
size, this µ-Chip has a built-in
antenna to permit contactless
communications (at very close
proximity) with other devices without
using an external antenna. (2) No need
for special manufacturing
equipment The antenna is formed using
bump-metalization technology (used to
create the electrical contacts of an
IC), a process already widely used by
semiconductor manufacturers, thus
eliminating any need for specialized
equipment. (3) Complete compatibility
with conventional µ-Chip With ID
numbers and support systems that are
fully compatible with those of existing
µ-Chip, the new chip is fully
compatible with all systems that use
current µ-Chip technology. Hitachi
plans to develop numerous markets for
this chip that take full advantage of
its outstanding features. Embedding the
chip in securities, identification and
other valuable documents such as
vouchers offers a highly sophisticated
means of preventing counterfeiting.
Another high-potential application is
agricultural products, where the chips
can help ensure the safety of food by
providing traceability of ingredients.
Additionally, the chips can be embedded
in business forms to automate logistics
systems and many other business
processes. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.hitachi.com/New/cnews
/030902_030902.jpg
[2] The world's smallest radio
frequency identification tags have been
unveiled by Japanese electronics firm
Hitachi. The minute devices measure
just 0.05mm by 0.05mm (0.002x0.002in)
and to the naked eye look like spots of
powder. Here the tiny tags can be
seen next to a human hair UNKNOWN
source: http://newsimg.bbc.co.uk/media/i
mages/42606000/jpg/_42606003_tag_203.jpg
[04/04/2003 AD] 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ A. M. Fennimore, T. D. Yuzvinsky,
Wei-Qiang Han, M. S. Fuhrer, J. Cumings
& A. Zettl, “Rotational actuators
based on carbon nanotubes.” Nature
424.6947 (2003) :
408-410. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v424/n6947/abs/nature01823.html
2. ^ Fennimore, A. M. et al.
“Rotational actuators based on carbon
nanotubes.” Nature 424.6947 (2003) :
408-410. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v424/n6947/abs/nature01823.html
3. ^ Fennimore, A. M. et al.
“Rotational actuators based on carbon
nanotubes.” Nature 424.6947 (2003) :
408-410. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v424/n6947/abs/nature01823.html
4. ^ Fennimore, A. M. et al.
“Rotational actuators based on carbon
nanotubes.” Nature 424.6947 (2003) :
408-410. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v424/n6947/abs/nature01823.html
{04/04/2003}
MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.mpoweruk.com/motorsspecial.ht
m
Berkeley, California, USA3
[1] Credit: Zettl Research Group LBNL,
University of California,
Berkley Electric Drives - Special
Purpose Motors (Description and
Applications) Motor
Construction Special purpose designs
have been developed to solve a wide
range of drive problems. Some common
examples are included here.
Integrated Starter Generator
(ISG) The electronically controlled
integrated starter generator used in
mild hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs)
combines the automotive starter and
alternator into a single machine. The
conventional starter is a low speed,
high current DC machine, while the
alternator is a variable speed 3 phase
AC machine. The ISG has four
important functions in a hybrid vehicle
application It enables the
''start-stop'' function, turning off
the engine when the vehicle is
stationary saving fuel. It
generates the electrical energy to
power all the electrical ancillaries.
It provides a power boost to assist
the engine when required, permitting
smaller engines for similar
performance. In some
configurations it recuperates energy
from regenerative braking. In a
typical implementation (below), the ISG
is a short axis, large diameter
''pancake'' shaped switched reluctance
machine mounted directly on the end of
the engine crankshaft between the
engine and the clutch in the gearbox
bell housing. Image source Long,
Schofield, Howe, Piron &
McClelland ''Design of a Switched
Reluctance Machine for Extended Speed
Operation'' IMEDC June 2003 The ISG
is a bi-directional energy converter
acting as a motor when powered by the
battery or a generator when driven by
the engine. The system voltage in a
mild HEV is 42 Volts which means that,
for the same cranking power as a 12
Volt machine, the starter current can
be reduced. Typical power throughput is
between 5kW and 15 kW with a possible
peak power of 70 kW for cold
cranking.. The brushless ISG design
eliminates one rotating machine
completely as well as the associated
commutator and brushes from the DC
machine and the sliprings and brushes
from the AC machine. The starter
solenoid, the Bendix ring (starter
gear) and the pulley or gear drive to
the alternator are also no longer
needed and because of the higher system
voltage, the diameter and weight of the
copper cabling is also reduced
substantially. The savings however
come at a cost. The system must be
integrated with several subsystems as
follows An AC/DC converter to
rectify the generator output voltage.
A DC/DC converter to supply the
vehicle's electrical power system
voltages. Power electronics and
software to control the ISG current,
voltage, speed, torque and temperature
as appropriate. An overall energy
management system integrated with the
vehicle's engine, battery and
brakes. Larger versions of this
construction are also used in full
hybrid electric vehicles. The
switched reluctance machine with its
simple rotor of inert iron is very
robust, able to operate at high speed
and to withstand the harsh operating
conditions in the engine
compartment. History
Outer Rotor Motors There are many
designs using this construction, mostly
for small sizes. Two examples of low
power motors are shown below. High
power versions are used for ''in
wheel'' automotive applications.
Inside Out Motor These are
permanent magnet motors with the moving
magnets arranged around the periphery
of a multi pole fixed stator carrying
the field windings.
Used for automotive drive
systems including in-wheel motors. Low
power versions used in small cooling
fans and direct drive record player
turntables. Toroidal Coil
Motor This is an ''inside out''
brushless permanent magnet motor with a
toroidal wound stator covered by a cup
shaped permanent magnet outer
rotor. Because
of the low inertia and friction free
rotor, the toroidal motor is capable of
speeds up to 25,000 RPM. Suitable for
low power applications it is used for
example to drive the polygonal rotating
mirrors which are mounted directly on
the rotor in laser printers.
Linear Motors In most cases the
linear motor can be considered as a
conventional rotary motor with both the
stator and the rotor split and rolled
out flat. The same electromagnetic
forces apply and these have been
employed in similar classes of AC and
DC machines. Except for traction motors
the travel of the motor armature is
usually quite short. Linear
Stepping Motors The most common
application is the stepping motor.
Stator poles are laid out along the
track and excited by windings fed from
a pulsed DC source. Permanent magnets
forming the armature are held in the
carriage. The carriage moves along the
track in response to pulses sent to the
the stator windings in much the same
way as the rotor turns in a brushless
DC motor. Closed loop control is
possible by mounting a position sensor
on the carriage. Despite the
elegance of the linear motor, linear
motion is more often provided by the
less expensive and more mundane method
of using a rotary stepping motor
driving a lead screw. Maglev
Traction Motors The principle of
the linear induction motor is used to
propel high speed Maglev (Magnetic
Levitation) trains which float on a
magnetic field created by
electromagnets in the trackbed under
the train . A separate set of trackside
guidance magnets is used to control the
lateral position of the train relative
to the track. Thus the maglev train
uses electromagnetic forces for three
different tasks, to suspend, to guide
and to propel the train. Maglev
trains have been developed in several
countries of the world using a variety
of configurations. Examples of the
essential features are described
below. Propulsion
The train has no onboard motor.
Electromagnets in the trackbed are
excited in sequence creating a linear
rather than a rotating field. By
transformer action, the trackbed coils
induce currents in coils on board the
train which are used to energise
powerful electromagnets. The Lorentz
force between the trackbed currents and
the the onboard electromagnets causes
the magnets to be propelled along by
the moving field. The
principles involved are very similar to
those of the induction motor but with
the static and moving parts
interchanged. See diagram below.
For illustrative
purposes the track can be likened to a
ladder formed by the unrolled squirrel
cage rotor of the induction motor. In
this case however it is fixed and it
supplies the moving field. Currents are
induced in the train's electromagnets
which are equivalent to the stator
poles of the induction motor but in
this case the magnets are free to move.
In practical designs the trackbed
currents are actually provided in a
series of individual coils laid along
the track. Levitation
Various levitation schemes are used.
The force holding the train aloft can
be created by the magnetic repulsion
between the same electromagnets on the
track and the onboard electromagnets in
the train which are used for
propulsion. The train's levitating
magnets are powered by direct current
supplied by a battery which is kept
charged by an induction generator
taking its power from the currents
induced by the trackbed coils in the
onboard generator coils. In
the diagram above, when the magnet is
directly above the current carrying
conductor as shown, the magnetic forces
(north and south poles) from the two
adjacent current loops cancel out and
there is no lift. If however the magnet
is moving very quickly over the coils,
it will reach a position over like,
repulsive, poles (north poles in the
diagram) which are displaced from the
attractive south poles so that the net
effect is a force repelling the magnet
away from the track. This is only
possible because the current in the
trackbed magnets lags the voltage due
to the inductance of the windings,
creating a delay in the build up of the
balanced field by which time the magnet
has moved into the adjacent region
where there is a net repulsive force.
This effect only happens when the
magnet on the train is moving at high
speed across the trackbed magnets. Thus
the train needs to be in motion for
this system to work and the train needs
wheels for support as it accelerates
from rest and when it is slowing to a
halt. Alternatively
levitation can be provided by separate
windings. The train's levitation
magnets protrude from the side of the
train and run between pairs of
vertically separated electromagnets in
guideways at each side of the train,
rather than in the trackbed. This
arrangement creates an attractive force
above the train's magnets combined with
a repulsive force beneath the train's
magnets to provide the levitating
force. Guidance For
guidance the train uses magnetic fields
provided by a separate set of weaker
magnets along each side of the train.
Similar in principle to the levitation
magnets they are used to control the
lateral position of the train relative
to the track.
Excitation of the trackside magnets is
arranged such that only the section
under the train is active. As the train
moves along the track between sections
the current to the previous section is
switched off and the current to the
next section is switched on pulling the
train along. This serves the dual
purpose of avoiding losses by
energising only the section of track
directly under the train and at the
same time, since the power to the rest
of the track is switched off, it
provides security against electric
shock to anybody near to the track and
avoids the possibility of accidentally
short circuiting the system by dropping
rubbish onto live conductors.
Very high armature currents of
thousands of amps or more are involved
and some designs use high temperature
superconductors ( HTS ) in the onboard
magnets, cooled with liquid nitrogen or
helium to minimise the resistive
losses. As might be expected some
sophisticated control systems are
needed to keep everything on track.
History Axial Field
Motors Axial field motors have been
developed for applications which
require short, flat, ''pancake''
construction. Printed Circuit
(PCB) or ''Pancake'' Motor The
printed circuit motor is an example of
an ironless or coreless motor with
several unique features. The pancake
construction uses an axial magnetic
field to achieve the short flat
construction. Radial field PCB motors
are also possible.
Construction The rotor windings
are printed, stamped or welded onto a
thin, disc shaped glass fibre circuit
board which rotates in the air gap
between pairs of permanent magnets
arranged around the periphery of the
disk. The windings fan out in a series
of radial loops around the surface of
the disk. The magnets are arranged
alternatively north and south so that
the magnetic fields in the air gaps of
adjacent magnet pairs are in opposite
directions. The magnets are held in
place by two iron end caps in a compact
''pancake'' shaped block to complete
the magnetic circuit. Current is fed to
the rotor windings via brushes through
precious metal commutator segments
printed on the disc. Operating
Principle Traditional electric
motors have a radial magnetic field or
flux with the rotor current flowing
axially along the length of the rotor.
In typical printed circuit motors the
construction is reversed. The magnetic
field is axial (oriented along the axis
of the machine) and the current flows
radially from the axis to the edge of
the disc and back again. A tangential
force on the disk is created by the
current passing through the magnetic
fields in the air gaps between the pole
pairs of the permanent magnets. So that
the return current does not cancel out
the effect of the outgoing current, the
return wire is physically separated or
displaced to one side from the outgoing
wire by the width of the magnet. In
this way it interacts with the magnetic
field of the adjacent magnet which is
in the opposite direction and thus
reinforces the tangential force on the
disk. In many ways it is similar
to Faraday's 1831disk or homopolar
motor which used a single magnet and
was driven by a unidirectional current
fed by brushes at the centre and on the
periphery of the disk.
Applications The printed circuit
motor is a very compact and light
weight design making it useful in
confined spaces. Since the rotor does
not have drag a lump of iron around, it
has very low inertia and can run up to
speed very quickly. Because of the many
commutator segments and the low current
capability of the windings, the PCB
motor is only suitable for low power
applications and is not suitable for
continuous operation. It is however
ideal for servo systems and industrial
controls and automotive applications
such as electric window winders.
Micro-motors
(Micro-ElectroMechanical Systems -
MEMS) Electrostatic Motor
The motor shown below is an example of
semiconductor manufacturing technology
used to fabricate very small mechanical
components. It measures 100 microns
across, or about the width of a human
hair. Similar in principle to a
reluctance motor, it depends on
electrostatic attraction, rather than
magnetic attraction, between the stator
and rotor poles. Because the dimensions
are so tiny, very high electric fields
can be built up with only a few volts
between the motor poles.
Fan Long-Shen, Tai Yu-Chong
and Richard S. Muller 1989
IC-processed electrostatic
micromotors Sensors Actuators 20
41-7 Fan L-S, Tai Y-C and R S
Muller 1988 Integrated moveable
micromechanical structures for sensors
and actuators IEEE Trans. Electron
Devices The motor is
not assembled from individual
components. Instead the components are
built up on a semiconductor substrate
by masking and etching and a mask-less
post-processing release step is
performed to etch away sacrificial
layers, allowing the structural layers
to move and rotate.
Micromachined micromotors can be
monolithically integrated together with
the necessary CMOS drive circuits,
containing oscillators, frequency
dividers and counters, and transistors
for the drive circuit all on one
silicon chip. Common uses
include defense/munitions applications,
computer hard drives, optics, sensors
and actuators.
History Nano-motors
(Nano-ElectroMechanical Systems -
NEMS) Electrostatic Motor
Even smaller motors have been made
using nanotechnology. An example is
shown below. It consists of a tiny gold
slab rotor, about 100 nm square,
mounted on concentric carbon nanotubes.
The outer tube carries the rotor,
driven by electrostatic electrodes,
rotating around an inner tube which
acts as a supporting shaft. By applying
voltage pulses of up to 5 Volts between
the rotor plate and stators, the
position, speed and direction of
rotation of the rotor can be
controlled. It measures about 500
nanometers across, 300 times smaller
than the diameter of a human hair.
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.mpoweruk.com/images/n
ems.gif
[2] Credit: Zettl Research
Group LBNL, University of California,
Berkley Electric Drives - Special
Purpose Motors (Description and
Applications) Motor
Construction Special purpose designs
have been developed to solve a wide
range of drive problems. Some common
examples are included here.
Integrated Starter Generator
(ISG) The electronically controlled
integrated starter generator used in
mild hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs)
combines the automotive starter and
alternator into a single machine. The
conventional starter is a low speed,
high current DC machine, while the
alternator is a variable speed 3 phase
AC machine. The ISG has four
important functions in a hybrid vehicle
application It enables the
''start-stop'' function, turning off
the engine when the vehicle is
stationary saving fuel. It
generates the electrical energy to
power all the electrical ancillaries.
It provides a power boost to assist
the engine when required, permitting
smaller engines for similar
performance. In some
configurations it recuperates energy
from regenerative braking. In a
typical implementation (below), the ISG
is a short axis, large diameter
''pancake'' shaped switched reluctance
machine mounted directly on the end of
the engine crankshaft between the
engine and the clutch in the gearbox
bell housing. Image source Long,
Schofield, Howe, Piron &
McClelland ''Design of a Switched
Reluctance Machine for Extended Speed
Operation'' IMEDC June 2003 The ISG
is a bi-directional energy converter
acting as a motor when powered by the
battery or a generator when driven by
the engine. The system voltage in a
mild HEV is 42 Volts which means that,
for the same cranking power as a 12
Volt machine, the starter current can
be reduced. Typical power throughput is
between 5kW and 15 kW with a possible
peak power of 70 kW for cold
cranking.. The brushless ISG design
eliminates one rotating machine
completely as well as the associated
commutator and brushes from the DC
machine and the sliprings and brushes
from the AC machine. The starter
solenoid, the Bendix ring (starter
gear) and the pulley or gear drive to
the alternator are also no longer
needed and because of the higher system
voltage, the diameter and weight of the
copper cabling is also reduced
substantially. The savings however
come at a cost. The system must be
integrated with several subsystems as
follows An AC/DC converter to
rectify the generator output voltage.
A DC/DC converter to supply the
vehicle's electrical power system
voltages. Power electronics and
software to control the ISG current,
voltage, speed, torque and temperature
as appropriate. An overall energy
management system integrated with the
vehicle's engine, battery and
brakes. Larger versions of this
construction are also used in full
hybrid electric vehicles. The
switched reluctance machine with its
simple rotor of inert iron is very
robust, able to operate at high speed
and to withstand the harsh operating
conditions in the engine
compartment. History
Outer Rotor Motors There are many
designs using this construction, mostly
for small sizes. Two examples of low
power motors are shown below. High
power versions are used for ''in
wheel'' automotive applications.
Inside Out Motor These are
permanent magnet motors with the moving
magnets arranged around the periphery
of a multi pole fixed stator carrying
the field windings.
Used for automotive drive
systems including in-wheel motors. Low
power versions used in small cooling
fans and direct drive record player
turntables. Toroidal Coil
Motor This is an ''inside out''
brushless permanent magnet motor with a
toroidal wound stator covered by a cup
shaped permanent magnet outer
rotor. Because
of the low inertia and friction free
rotor, the toroidal motor is capable of
speeds up to 25,000 RPM. Suitable for
low power applications it is used for
example to drive the polygonal rotating
mirrors which are mounted directly on
the rotor in laser printers.
Linear Motors In most cases the
linear motor can be considered as a
conventional rotary motor with both the
stator and the rotor split and rolled
out flat. The same electromagnetic
forces apply and these have been
employed in similar classes of AC and
DC machines. Except for traction motors
the travel of the motor armature is
usually quite short. Linear
Stepping Motors The most common
application is the stepping motor.
Stator poles are laid out along the
track and excited by windings fed from
a pulsed DC source. Permanent magnets
forming the armature are held in the
carriage. The carriage moves along the
track in response to pulses sent to the
the stator windings in much the same
way as the rotor turns in a brushless
DC motor. Closed loop control is
possible by mounting a position sensor
on the carriage. Despite the
elegance of the linear motor, linear
motion is more often provided by the
less expensive and more mundane method
of using a rotary stepping motor
driving a lead screw. Maglev
Traction Motors The principle of
the linear induction motor is used to
propel high speed Maglev (Magnetic
Levitation) trains which float on a
magnetic field created by
electromagnets in the trackbed under
the train . A separate set of trackside
guidance magnets is used to control the
lateral position of the train relative
to the track. Thus the maglev train
uses electromagnetic forces for three
different tasks, to suspend, to guide
and to propel the train. Maglev
trains have been developed in several
countries of the world using a variety
of configurations. Examples of the
essential features are described
below. Propulsion
The train has no onboard motor.
Electromagnets in the trackbed are
excited in sequence creating a linear
rather than a rotating field. By
transformer action, the trackbed coils
induce currents in coils on board the
train which are used to energise
powerful electromagnets. The Lorentz
force between the trackbed currents and
the the onboard electromagnets causes
the magnets to be propelled along by
the moving field. The
principles involved are very similar to
those of the induction motor but with
the static and moving parts
interchanged. See diagram below.
For illustrative
purposes the track can be likened to a
ladder formed by the unrolled squirrel
cage rotor of the induction motor. In
this case however it is fixed and it
supplies the moving field. Currents are
induced in the train's electromagnets
which are equivalent to the stator
poles of the induction motor but in
this case the magnets are free to move.
In practical designs the trackbed
currents are actually provided in a
series of individual coils laid along
the track. Levitation
Various levitation schemes are used.
The force holding the train aloft can
be created by the magnetic repulsion
between the same electromagnets on the
track and the onboard electromagnets in
the train which are used for
propulsion. The train's levitating
magnets are powered by direct current
supplied by a battery which is kept
charged by an induction generator
taking its power from the currents
induced by the trackbed coils in the
onboard generator coils. In
the diagram above, when the magnet is
directly above the current carrying
conductor as shown, the magnetic forces
(north and south poles) from the two
adjacent current loops cancel out and
there is no lift. If however the magnet
is moving very quickly over the coils,
it will reach a position over like,
repulsive, poles (north poles in the
diagram) which are displaced from the
attractive south poles so that the net
effect is a force repelling the magnet
away from the track. This is only
possible because the current in the
trackbed magnets lags the voltage due
to the inductance of the windings,
creating a delay in the build up of the
balanced field by which time the magnet
has moved into the adjacent region
where there is a net repulsive force.
This effect only happens when the
magnet on the train is moving at high
speed across the trackbed magnets. Thus
the train needs to be in motion for
this system to work and the train needs
wheels for support as it accelerates
from rest and when it is slowing to a
halt. Alternatively
levitation can be provided by separate
windings. The train's levitation
magnets protrude from the side of the
train and run between pairs of
vertically separated electromagnets in
guideways at each side of the train,
rather than in the trackbed. This
arrangement creates an attractive force
above the train's magnets combined with
a repulsive force beneath the train's
magnets to provide the levitating
force. Guidance For
guidance the train uses magnetic fields
provided by a separate set of weaker
magnets along each side of the train.
Similar in principle to the levitation
magnets they are used to control the
lateral position of the train relative
to the track.
Excitation of the trackside magnets is
arranged such that only the section
under the train is active. As the train
moves along the track between sections
the current to the previous section is
switched off and the current to the
next section is switched on pulling the
train along. This serves the dual
purpose of avoiding losses by
energising only the section of track
directly under the train and at the
same time, since the power to the rest
of the track is switched off, it
provides security against electric
shock to anybody near to the track and
avoids the possibility of accidentally
short circuiting the system by dropping
rubbish onto live conductors.
Very high armature currents of
thousands of amps or more are involved
and some designs use high temperature
superconductors ( HTS ) in the onboard
magnets, cooled with liquid nitrogen or
helium to minimise the resistive
losses. As might be expected some
sophisticated control systems are
needed to keep everything on track.
History Axial Field
Motors Axial field motors have been
developed for applications which
require short, flat, ''pancake''
construction. Printed Circuit
(PCB) or ''Pancake'' Motor The
printed circuit motor is an example of
an ironless or coreless motor with
several unique features. The pancake
construction uses an axial magnetic
field to achieve the short flat
construction. Radial field PCB motors
are also possible.
Construction The rotor windings
are printed, stamped or welded onto a
thin, disc shaped glass fibre circuit
board which rotates in the air gap
between pairs of permanent magnets
arranged around the periphery of the
disk. The windings fan out in a series
of radial loops around the surface of
the disk. The magnets are arranged
alternatively north and south so that
the magnetic fields in the air gaps of
adjacent magnet pairs are in opposite
directions. The magnets are held in
place by two iron end caps in a compact
''pancake'' shaped block to complete
the magnetic circuit. Current is fed to
the rotor windings via brushes through
precious metal commutator segments
printed on the disc. Operating
Principle Traditional electric
motors have a radial magnetic field or
flux with the rotor current flowing
axially along the length of the rotor.
In typical printed circuit motors the
construction is reversed. The magnetic
field is axial (oriented along the axis
of the machine) and the current flows
radially from the axis to the edge of
the disc and back again. A tangential
force on the disk is created by the
current passing through the magnetic
fields in the air gaps between the pole
pairs of the permanent magnets. So that
the return current does not cancel out
the effect of the outgoing current, the
return wire is physically separated or
displaced to one side from the outgoing
wire by the width of the magnet. In
this way it interacts with the magnetic
field of the adjacent magnet which is
in the opposite direction and thus
reinforces the tangential force on the
disk. In many ways it is similar
to Faraday's 1831disk or homopolar
motor which used a single magnet and
was driven by a unidirectional current
fed by brushes at the centre and on the
periphery of the disk.
Applications The printed circuit
motor is a very compact and light
weight design making it useful in
confined spaces. Since the rotor does
not have drag a lump of iron around, it
has very low inertia and can run up to
speed very quickly. Because of the many
commutator segments and the low current
capability of the windings, the PCB
motor is only suitable for low power
applications and is not suitable for
continuous operation. It is however
ideal for servo systems and industrial
controls and automotive applications
such as electric window winders.
Micro-motors
(Micro-ElectroMechanical Systems -
MEMS) Electrostatic Motor
The motor shown below is an example of
semiconductor manufacturing technology
used to fabricate very small mechanical
components. It measures 100 microns
across, or about the width of a human
hair. Similar in principle to a
reluctance motor, it depends on
electrostatic attraction, rather than
magnetic attraction, between the stator
and rotor poles. Because the dimensions
are so tiny, very high electric fields
can be built up with only a few volts
between the motor poles.
Fan Long-Shen, Tai Yu-Chong
and Richard S. Muller 1989
IC-processed electrostatic
micromotors Sensors Actuators 20
41-7 Fan L-S, Tai Y-C and R S
Muller 1988 Integrated moveable
micromechanical structures for sensors
and actuators IEEE Trans. Electron
Devices The motor is
not assembled from individual
components. Instead the components are
built up on a semiconductor substrate
by masking and etching and a mask-less
post-processing release step is
performed to etch away sacrificial
layers, allowing the structural layers
to move and rotate.
Micromachined micromotors can be
monolithically integrated together with
the necessary CMOS drive circuits,
containing oscillators, frequency
dividers and counters, and transistors
for the drive circuit all on one
silicon chip. Common uses
include defense/munitions applications,
computer hard drives, optics, sensors
and actuators.
History Nano-motors
(Nano-ElectroMechanical Systems -
NEMS) Electrostatic Motor
Even smaller motors have been made
using nanotechnology. An example is
shown below. It consists of a tiny gold
slab rotor, about 100 nm square,
mounted on concentric carbon nanotubes.
The outer tube carries the rotor,
driven by electrostatic electrodes,
rotating around an inner tube which
acts as a supporting shaft. By applying
voltage pulses of up to 5 Volts between
the rotor plate and stators, the
position, speed and direction of
rotation of the rotor can be
controlled. It measures about 500
nanometers across, 300 times smaller
than the diameter of a human hair.
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.mpoweruk.com/images/n
ems.gif
[07/01/2004 AD] 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://saturn.jpl.nasa.gov/mission/satur
ntourdates/2004through2006saturntourhigh
lights/
2. ^
http://saturn.jpl.nasa.gov/mission/satur
ntourdates/2004through2006saturntourhigh
lights/
3. ^
http://saturn.jpl.nasa.gov/mission/satur
ntourdates/2004through2006saturntourhigh
lights/
4. ^
http://saturn.jpl.nasa.gov/mission/satur
ntourdates/2004through2006saturntourhigh
lights/ {07/01/2004}
MORE INFO
[1]
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1997-061A
[1] * original caption: Jet Propulsion
Laboratory (JPL) workers use a
borescope to verify pressure relief
device bellows integrity on a
radioisotope thermoelectric generator
(RTG) which has been installed on the
Cassini spacecraft in the Payload
Hazardous Servicing Facility. The
activity is part of the mechanical and
electrical verification testing of RTGs
during prelaunch processing. RTGs use
heat from the natural decay of
plutonium to generate electric power.
The three RTGs on Cassini will enable
the spacecraft to operate far from the
Sun where solar power systems are not
feasible. They will provide electrical
power to Cassini on its 6.7-year trip
to the Saturnian system and during its
four-year mission at Saturn. The
Cassini mission is scheduled for an
Oct. 6 launch aboard a Titan
IVB/Centaur expendable launch vehicle.
Cassini is built and managed for NASA
by JPL. * date: 18. Dec 1997
* image ID: KSC-97PC-1070 *
source:
http://nix.ksc.nasa.gov/info;jsessionid=
1tplxxjif20rp?id=KSC-97PC-1070&orgid=5
PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/61/Cassini_assembly.jpg
[2] Original Caption Released with
Image: This is an artists concept of
Cassini during the Saturn Orbit
Insertion (SOI) maneuver, just after
the main engine has begun firing. The
spacecraft is moving out of the plane
of the page and to the right (firing to
reduce its spacecraft velocity with
respect to Saturn) and has just crossed
the ring plane. The SOI maneuver,
which is approximately 90 minutes long,
will allow Cassini to be captured by
Saturn's gravity into a five-month
orbit. Cassini's close proximity to the
planet after the maneuver offers a
unique opportunity to observe Saturn
and its rings at extremely high
resolution. Source:
http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog
/PIA03883 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b2/Cassini_Saturn_Orbit_
Insertion.jpg
[11/29/2004 AD]
damaged nerves.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Stem cell therapy brings
paralyzed to feet",
ChinaDaily http://www.chinadaily.com.cn
/english/doc/2004-11/29/content_395570.h
tm
2. ^ "Stem cell therapy brings
paralyzed to feet",
ChinaDaily http://www.chinadaily.com.cn
/english/doc/2004-11/29/content_395570.h
tm
MORE INFO
[1] Kang KS, Kim SW, Oh YH, et
al. (2005). "A 37-year-old spinal
cord-injured female patient,
transplanted of multipotent stem cells
from human UC blood, with improved
sensory perception and mobility, both
functionally and morphologically: a
case study". Cytotherapy 7 (4):
368–73.
DOI:10.1080/14653240500238160. PMID
16162459
[2] "team co-headed by researchers at
Chosun University", Seoul National
University and the Seoul Cord Blood
Bank (SCB) Umbilical cord cells 'allow
paralysed woman to walk' By Roger
Highfield, Science Editor. Last
Updated: 1:28AM GMT 30 Nov 2004
Korea2
[1] Figure 2 The atrophied spinal
cord is expanded after stem cell
administration with total laminectomy
on pre-contrast axial CT films (b). The
lowermost portion of the atrophied
spinal cord is enlarged, along with
thinning and interruption of the
calcified pia mater at the T12–L1
level on pre-contrast axial CT films
(d). Sagittal T2 weighted SE MRI reveal
regenerating spinal cord at the injured
level (arrow, f) and some of the cauda
equina below it (arrow heads, f). CT
images before cell transplantation (a,
c) and MRI image before cell
transplantation (e). Fig 2
from: Kang KS, Kim SW, Oh YH, et al.
(2005). ''A 37-year-old spinal
cord-injured female patient,
transplanted of multipotent stem cells
from human UC blood, with improved
sensory perception and mobility, both
functionally and morphologically: a
case study''. Cytotherapy 7 (4):
368–73.
DOI:10.1080/14653240500238160. PMID
16162459. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://informahealthcare.com/na1
01/home/literatum/publisher/ashley/journ
als/content/cyt/2005/cyt.2005.7.issue-4/
14653240500238160/production/images/larg
e/14653240500238160fig002.jpeg
[01/14/2005 AD] 3
(Titan).1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://saturn.jpl.nasa.gov/mission/satur
ntourdates/2004through2006saturntourhigh
lights/
2. ^
http://saturn.jpl.nasa.gov/mission/satur
ntourdates/2004through2006saturntourhigh
lights/
3. ^
http://saturn.jpl.nasa.gov/mission/satur
ntourdates/2004through2006saturntourhigh
lights/ {01/14/2005}
MORE INFO
[1]
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1997-061A
[1] Description Huygens on
Titan.jpg English: This artist's
impression is based on images from
Huygens landing on Titan. In the
foreground, sits the car-sized lander
that sent back images for more than 90
minutes before running out of battery
power. The parachute that slowed
Huygen's re-entry is seen in the
background, still attached to the
lander. Smooth stones, possibly
containing water-ice, are strewn about
the landscape. Analyses of Huygen's
images and data show that Titan's
surface today has intriguing
similarities to the surface of the
early Earth. Date 8 March
2010(2010-03-08) Source NASA
Image of the Day Author ESA PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/bc/Huygens_on_Titan.jpg
[2] English: Image of Titan's surface
taken by the Huygens probe on 14
January 2005. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/bc/Huygens_surface_color
.jpg
[12/10/2008 AD] 5
what the eyes are seeing captured
remotely.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Miyawaki, Y., Uchida, H.,
Yamashita, O., Sato, M., Morito, Y.,
Tanabe, H. C., Sadato, N., Kamitani, Y.
(2008). Visual image reconstruction
from human brain activity using a
combination of multi-scale local image
decoders. Neuron, 60, 5, 915-929.
http://www.cell.com/neuron/abstract/S0
896-6273(08)00958-6
2. ^ Miyawaki, Y., Uchida, H.,
Yamashita, O., Sato, M., Morito, Y.,
Tanabe, H. C., Sadato, N., Kamitani, Y.
(2008). Visual image reconstruction
from human brain activity using a
combination of multi-scale local image
decoders. Neuron, 60, 5, 915-929.
http://www.cell.com/neuron/abstract/S0
896-6273(08)00958-6
3. ^ Miyawaki, Y., Uchida, H.,
Yamashita, O., Sato, M., Morito, Y.,
Tanabe, H. C., Sadato, N., Kamitani, Y.
(2008). Visual image reconstruction
from human brain activity using a
combination of multi-scale local image
decoders. Neuron, 60, 5, 915-929.
http://www.cell.com/neuron/abstract/S0
896-6273(08)00958-6
4. ^ Miyawaki, Y., Uchida, H.,
Yamashita, O., Sato, M., Morito, Y.,
Tanabe, H. C., Sadato, N., Kamitani, Y.
(2008). Visual image reconstruction
from human brain activity using a
combination of multi-scale local image
decoders. Neuron, 60, 5, 915-929.
http://www.cell.com/neuron/abstract/S0
896-6273(08)00958-6
5. ^ Miyawaki, Y., Uchida, H.,
Yamashita, O., Sato, M., Morito, Y.,
Tanabe, H. C., Sadato, N., Kamitani, Y.
(2008). Visual image reconstruction
from human brain activity using a
combination of multi-scale local image
decoders. Neuron, 60, 5, 915-929.
http://www.cell.com/neuron/abstract/S0
896-6273(08)00958-6 {12/10/2008}
MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.nerdgrind.com/dream-and-thoug
ht-recorder-created-by-japanese-research
-team/
[2]
http://gizmodo.com/5107377/new-technolog
y-could-display-your-dreams-on-screen
two Japanese Universities, two research
Institutes, and ATR Computational
Neuroscience Laboratories) Kyoto,
Japan4
[1] Image from 12/10/2008 ''Neuron''
paper COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.cell.com/neuron/image
/S0896-6273(08)00958-6?imageId=gr2&image
Type=large
[2] Image from 12/10/2008 ''Neuron''
paper COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.cell.com/neuron/image
/S0896-6273(08)00958-6?imageId=gr1&image
Type=large
[2015 AD] 4
remotely.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^
http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/world.html
{2015}
[1] Image by Ted Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
[2015 AD]
transmitter and receiver).
[1] The Scale of Things - Nanometers
and More the scale of things
graphic Chart also available in
Powerpoint file at:
http://science.energy.gov/bes/news-and-r
esources/scale-of-things-chart/. PD
source: http://science.energy.gov/~/medi
a/bes/images/scale-of-things-26may06.jpg
[2018 AD]
organelle.
MORE INFO
[1]
[1] Adapted from: Description
English: Drawing illustrating the
process of synaptic transmission in
neurons, cropped from original in an
NIA brochure. Date 2009-12-30,
first publication of original
unknown Source
http://www.nia.nih.gov/Alzheimers/P
ublications/UnravelingtheMystery/ Autho
r user:Looie496 created file, US
National Institutes of Health, National
Institute on Aging created
original Permission (Reusing this
file)
http://www.nia.nih.gov/Policies.htm Ot
her versions
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Chemi
cal_synapse_schema.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/30/Chemical_synapse_sche
ma_cropped.jpg
[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington PD
source: Ted Huntington
[2020 AD]
flying device.
[1] Drive Gear Side View Side view
of a microengine drive gear meshed with
another gear. PD
source: http://mems.sandia.gov/gallery/i
mages/rs1563_9.jpg
[2] Imaginary microscopic flying
camera on top of salt crystals Ted
Huntington PD
source: http://tedhuntington.com/saltcry
stal_127um.jpg
[2025 AD]
microscopic devices in neurons.
Microscopic devices enter the human
body by the lung, enter the blood
circulation, and position themselves as
organelles inside cells. External
devices communicate with the
intracellular devices to make the
neuron cell fire.3
Sounds, images, smells, and muscle
contractions can be remotely activated
in a brain by sending light particles
to intracellular devices.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.nerdgrind.com/dream-and-thoug
ht-recorder-created-by-japanese-research
-team/
[2]
http://gizmodo.com/5107377/new-technolog
y-could-display-your-dreams-on-screen
[3] personal communication, see most of
Kamatani's email correspondence with me
at:
http://www.tedhuntington.com/neuron_read
ing_and_writing.htm
[1] Image of Remote neuron writing by
Ted Huntington PD
source: Ted Huntington
[2] Image of Remote neuron writing by
Ted Huntington PD
source: Ted Huntington
[2025 AD]
microphone.
MORE INFO
[1]
[1] Torsional Ratcheting Actuator A
high torque rotary electrostatic
actuator PD
source: http://www.mems.sandia.gov/image
s/mems5.jpg
[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington PD
source: Ted Huntington
[2025 AD]
flying camera.
[1] Imaginary microscopic flying camera
on top of salt crystals Ted
Huntington PD
source: http://tedhuntington.com/saltcry
stal_127um.jpg
[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington PD
source: Ted Huntington
[2025 AD]
MORE INFO
[1]
[1] Silicon Mirror Assembly
Close-up Close-up view of previous
device; detail of rails and hinges is
visible. PD
source: http://mems.sandia.gov/gallery/i
mages/m26.jpg
[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington PD
source: Ted Huntington
[2030 AD] 4
neuron reading) and played out loud
publicly. The first recorded thought
audio may be the audio "1 2 3". Humans
start to communicate by thought-image
and thought-sound only.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington. {2025}
MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/world.html
[1] Hearing Thought by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
[2] Image of Direct-to-brain windows
by Ted Huntington GNU
source: http://www.tedhuntington.com/Mic
key_Mouse_eyes_thought_screens.jpg
[2030 AD] 1
lighter than motor robots.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington. {2040}
[1] Muscular system P150/0098 Rights
Managed Credit: PASIEKA/SCIENCE
PHOTO LIBRARY Caption: Muscular
system. Computer artwork of a male
runner demonstrating the human muscular
system. These muscles, making up one of
the outer layers of the body, are
skeletal muscles, which are under the
conscious control of the brain. They
account for around 45% of the weight of
the body. Muscles are mainly composed
of proteins; in particular, the
proteins actin and myosin are involved
in making muscles contract. The muscles
then pull on tendons that are attached
to the bones of the skeleton, producing
movements such as running. Skin and fat
cover the muscles, while the internal
organs and bones lie
underneath. Release details: Model
and property releases are not available
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.sciencephoto.com/imag
e/302911/large/P1500098-Muscular_system-
SPL.jpg
[2] Muscular system P150/0098
Rights Managed Credit:
PASIEKA/SCIENCE PHOTO
LIBRARY Caption: Muscular system.
Computer artwork of a male runner
demonstrating the human muscular
system. These muscles, making up one of
the outer layers of the body, are
skeletal muscles, which are under the
conscious control of the brain. They
account for around 45% of the weight of
the body. Muscles are mainly composed
of proteins; in particular, the
proteins actin and myosin are involved
in making muscles contract. The muscles
then pull on tendons that are attached
to the bones of the skeleton, producing
movements such as running. Skin and fat
cover the muscles, while the internal
organs and bones lie
underneath. Release details: Model
and property releases are not available
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.sciencephoto.com/imag
e/302911/large/P1500098-Muscular_system-
SPL.jpg
[2030 AD] 4
remotely using remote neuron reading
and shown publicly.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington. {2025}
MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/world.html
[1] Image of seeing thought by Ted
Huntington. PD
source: Ted Huntington
[2] Image of seeing thought by Ted
Huntington. Image of person
from: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikip
edia/commons/3/30/Cassatt_Mary_Portrait_
of_a_Elderly_Lady_1883.jpg Title:
Portrait of a Elderly Lady Date:
1883 Mary Cassatt (1845–1926) Link
back to Creator infobox
template PD [1] Image of
Direct-to-brain windows by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted
Huntingtonhttp://upload.wikimedia.org/wi
kipedia/commons/3/30/Cassatt_Mary_Portra
it_of_a_Elderly_Lady_1883.jpg
[2030 AD] 2
humans in most low-skill jobs (for
example as walking security cameras, in
fast-food, and fruit picking).1
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ Ted Huntington
2. ^ Ted Huntington (my own
estimate)
[1] Description English: TOPIO
(''TOSY Ping Pong Playing Robot'') is a
bipedal humanoid robot designed to play
table tennis against a human being.
TOPIO version 3.0 at Tokyo
International Robot Exhibition, Nov
2009 Date 27 November 2009 Source
Own work Author Humanrobo CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/9/92/TOPIO_3.jpg/128
0px-TOPIO_3.jpg
[2] Humanoid robot UNKNOWN
source: http://embeddedfortheevil.files.
wordpress.com/2010/06/humanoid-robot-pic
-getty-image-1-449939772.jpg
[2030 AD]
MORE INFO
[1]
[1] The Scale of Things - Nanometers
and More the scale of things
graphic Chart also available in
Powerpoint file at:
http://science.energy.gov/bes/news-and-r
esources/scale-of-things-chart/. PD
source: http://science.energy.gov/~/medi
a/bes/images/scale-of-things-26may06.jpg
[2] The space between two carbon atoms
within a molecule is about one-tenth of
a nanometer. The DNA double helix has a
diameter of about two nanometers. The
smallest bacteria, on the other hand,
are much bigger: a few hundred
nanometers in length. PD
source: http://publications.nigms.nih.go
v/chemhealth/images/ch4_size.jpg
[2050 AD] 4
servants.3 These robots clean and cook
for their owners.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington
2. ^ Ted Huntington
3. ^ Ted Huntington
4. ^ Ted
Huntington. {2050 (my own estimate}
[1] Ted Huntington image of two humans
walking with robot servants. GNU
source: Ted Huntington
[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
[2050 AD] 1
by microscopic device inside animal
body.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington. {2500} {2100}
{2050}
[1] Adapted from: Electron microscopy
image of several E. coli cells,
including two pairs of dividing
cells PD
source: http://www.bnl.gov/bnlweb/pubaf/
pr/photos/2009/10/eColi-350px.jpg
[2] Figure 2. Phagocytosis Coloured
scanning electron micrograph of a white
blood cell (orange) caught in the act
of engulfing bacteria (blue rods). As
Ilya Metchikov observed, wandering
cells called phagocytes migrate to
areas of tissue damage or infection to
engulf and digest any harmful foreign
particles, bacteria, and dead/dying
cells. Credit: Dr Kari Lounatmaa /
Science Photo Library. The photo was
kindly provided by Dr Kari Lounatmaa /
Science Photo Library. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nobelprize.org/educat
ional/medicine/immuneresponses/overview/
images/fig_02.jpg
[2051 AD] 3 4 5
Earth.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Kremer, Michael. “Population
Growth and Technological Change: One
Million B.C. to 1990.” The Quarterly
Journal of Economics 108.3 (1993):
681–716. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
2118405
2. ^ Parker, G. Compact History of the
World. Barnes & Noble, 2001, p17.
3. ^ Ted
Huntington.
4. ^
http://geography.about.com/od/obtainpopu
lationdata/a/worldpopulation.htm
5. ^ Ted Huntington
[1] Parker, G. Compact History of the
World. Barnes & Noble, 2001,
p17. COPYRIGHTED
source: Parker, G. Compact History of
the World. Barnes & Noble, 2001, p17.
[2055 AD] 1
microscopic devices.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington. {2055}
MORE INFO
[1] Schroeder, Avi et al.
“Treating Metastatic Cancer with
Nanotechnology.” Nat Rev Cancer 12.1
(2012):
39–50. http://www.nature.com/nrc/jour
nal/v12/n1/full/nrc3180.html?WT.ec_id=NR
C-201201
[1] Adapted from: Pictured is a breast
cancer cell, photographed by a scanning
electron microscope. This picture shows
the overall shape of the cell's surface
at a very high magnification. Cancer
cells are best identified by internal
details, but research with a scanning
electron microscope can show how cells
respond in changing environments and
can show mapping distribution of
binding sites of hormones and other
biological molecules. (National Cancer
Institute) UNKNOWN
source: http://cache.boston.com/universa
l/site_graphics/blogs/bigpicture/micro_1
1_14/m31_3b.jpg
[2] Lung Cancer Cells This image of
warped lung cancer cells is in stark
contrast to the healthy lung. UNKNOWN
source: http://1.bp.blogspot.com/_kGhJLc
78v60/TCytjueY3wI/AAAAAAAAA00/F8-TCWOsNq
4/s1600/Lung+cancer+cellsl.jpg
[2060 AD] 1
microscopic devices.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington. {2060}
[1] Image taken from cover of CalIT
Interface Winter 2011 magazine UNKNOWN
source: http://www.calit2.uci.edu/calit2
-newsroom/itemdetail.aspx?cguid=a01325cf
-2548-43fc-a2c4-0b9161f6cf84
[2] Artificial Nano “T4
Bacteriophage” Description: “T4
Bacteriophage” is a virus like the
robot in the living body. Artificial
nano “T4 Bacteriophage” was
fabricated by FIB-CVD on Si surface.
Size of the artificial nano “T4
Bacteriophage” is about ten times as
large as the real virus. It is made of
Diamond-like Carbon. It is likely to
begin to walk in the nano space!!
Magnification: 25,000X Instrument: SII
NanoTechnology Inc. / SMI2050MS2
Submitted by: Reo Kometani & Shinji
Matsui (University of Hyogo) UNKNOWN
source: http://cache.gizmodo.com/assets/
images/4/2009/11/t4bacteriophage.jpg
[2100 AD]
images and sounds of thought.
MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/world.html
[1] Image of Direct-to-brain windows by
Ted Huntington GNU
source: http://www.tedhuntington.com/Mic
key_Mouse_eyes_thought_screens.jpg
[2] Image of Direct-to-brain windows
by Ted Huntington GNU
source: http://www.tedhuntington.com/dir
ect-to-brain_windows_002.jpg
[2100 AD] 4
of traffic above the streets.3
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^ Ted Huntington
2. ^ Ted Huntington
3. ^ Ted Huntington
4. ^ Ted
Huntington (my own estimate) {2100 my
own estimate}
MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.sdi.gov/curtis/Trans_Trends.h
tml
[2] future_est.xls
[1] Image of single helicopter highway
by Ted Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
[2] Image of double helicopter highway
by Ted Huntington Note that
helicopters are moving in wrong
way. GNU
source: Ted Huntington
[2100 AD] 1
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ Ted Huntington future_est.xls
[1] Three TDRS satellites, the
International Space Station (ISS) and
Hubble Space Telescope orbit a
blue-green Earth in this artist's
concept. The TDRS network facilitates
around the clock communication access
between ground stations and other
satellites and the ISS. Credit:
NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center ›
Larger image PD
source: http://www.nasa.gov/images/conte
nt/605410main_tdrsPlus.jpg
[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
[2100 AD] 2
and build buildings.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
[1] From ''Moon Zero Two'',
1969 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.youtube.com/watch?fea
ture=player_embedded&v=hM1lsDhSjD8
[2] Pole Colony PD
source: http://artcontest.larc.nasa.gov/
images/2008_win/Pole_Colony.jpg
[2100 AD] 2
viruses. Microscopic devices can
identify and destroy all known bacteria
and viruses anywhere inside or outside
of the body.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington. {2500}
{2100}
[1] Conference on nanotechnology in
animal health UNKNOWN
source: http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-mFYS8z
kMHXg/T4wFLpl8biI/AAAAAAAAILw/CJQi432-3Y
E/s1600/nanotechnology.jpg
[2] Image taken from cover of CalIT
Interface Winter 2011 magazine UNKNOWN
source: http://www.calit2.uci.edu/calit2
-newsroom/itemdetail.aspx?cguid=a01325cf
-2548-43fc-a2c4-0b9161f6cf84
[2120 AD]
on Mars.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
[1] Once built and populated, a colony
with excellent recycling will need only
a few materials to replace leaks and
losses. However, a great deal of
materials will be needed to build a
space colony, particularly shielding.
If a colony expands, builds new
colonies, or builds solar power
satellites or other export products, a
lot of material will be necessary.
There are several sources of materials
to consider: Earth, the Moon,
asteroids, other planets, and other
moons. All the materials necessary for
space colonies are available on Earth.
In addition, manufacturing facilities
to provide finished products are
readily available. PD
source: http://settlement.arc.nasa.gov/d
esigner/mars.gif
[2] Future Mars Base 2030 STANDARD
YOUTUBE LICENSE
source: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F
fVny-TnxZo
[2140 AD] 1
can convert most common atoms (like
Silicon, Aluminum, Iron, and Calcium)
into much more useful atoms (like
Hydrogen, Oxygen, and Nitrogen). This
allows many humans to live
independently of Earth, in ships, and
on planets and moons without air or
water.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/world.html
[2] future_est.xls
[1] Image of Large Scale Atomic
Transmutation by Ted Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
[2] Image of Large Scale Atomic
Transmutation by Ted Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
[2150 AD] 1
democratic.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington. (50 years to get
progressive president, 50 years to get
pro fully democratic, 50 years for
actual full democracy to be integrated
(in courts, military, laws))
[1] Description English: A map of
the world colored in to reflect the
latest Democracy Index report from The
Economist. Date 22 December
2011 Source Own work Author
48Lugur CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/87/Democracy_Index_2011_
red_and_green.png
[2150 AD]
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
[1] Artist's concept of possible
colonies on future mars missions. PD
source: http://www.nasa.gov/centers/ames
/images/content/135855main_marsconcept-1
.jpg
[2] Future Mars Base 2030 STANDARD
YOUTUBE LICENSE
source: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F
fVny-TnxZo
[2150 AD]
[1] Description This artist's concept
of a lunar base and extra-base activity
was created during a 1984 NASA Summer
Study at the California Space Institute
(CalSpace), Scripps Institute of
Oceanography, University of California,
San Diego. A lunar rover vehicle
similar to the one used on three Apollo
missions is depicted in the
foreground. Date May 1984 Source
http://spaceflight1.nasa.gov/gallery/im
ages/exploration/lunarexploration/html/s
86_27256.html Author NASA/Dennis M.
Davidson PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Moon_colony_wit
h_rover.jpeg/1024px-Moon_colony_with_rov
er.jpeg
[2150 AD] 1
control microscopic devices.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington. {2058} {2150}
[1] nanocaduceus Nanomedicine Art
Gallery Image 108 DNA Repair
Machines Image 108 Title:
DNA Repair Machines Date:
1989 Artist(s): Bryan Leister
Image Size: 45,592 bytes
[CLICK to download] Image Dimensions:
800 X 1,061 pixels Image
Palette: Color Image Size:
408,316 bytes [CLICK to
download] Image Dimensions: 1,170
X 1,552 pixels Image Palette:
Color Image Description:
Floating inside the nucleus of a human
cell, an assembler-built repair vessel
performs some genetic maintenance.
Stretching a supercoil of DNA between
its lower pair of robot arms, the
nanomachine gently pulls the unwound
strand through an opening in its prow
for analysis. Upper arms, meanwhile,
detach regulatory proteins from the
chain and place them in an intake port.
The molecular structures of both DNA
and proteins are compared to
information stored in the database of a
larger nanocomputer positioned outside
the nucleus and connected to the
cell-repair ship by a communications
link. Irregularities found in either
structure are corrected and the
proteins reattached to the DNA chain,
which re-coils into its original
form. With a diameter of only 50
nanometers, the repair vessel would be
smaller than most bacteria and viruses,
yet capable of therapies and cures well
beyond the reach of present-day
physicians. With trillions of these
machines coursing through a patient's
bloodstream, ''internal medicine''
would take on new significance. Disease
would be attacked at the molecular
level, and such maladies as cancer,
viral infections and arteriosclerosis
could be wiped out. Copyright Info:
© Copyright 1989 by Time-Life Books
Inc. For reprint permission, please
contact Time-Life Books Inc. at P.O.
Box C-32068, Richmond, VA 23261-2068,
Tel. 1-800-621-7026, URL:
http://www.timelife.com/. Print
Source(s): Time-Life Editors,
Alternative Computers, Time-Life Books,
Richmond VA, 1989, pp. 112-113. Online
Source(s): None COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.foresight.org/Nanomed
icine/Gallery/Images/TimeLifeNM.jpeg
[2] Microscopic laser-machined
particle communication devices identify
and change nucleotides in a DNA
molecule as seen with an scanning
tunneling microscope.[t] Adapted
from: F/col STM image of
DNA G110/0150 Rights Managed Credit:
LAWRENCE LIVERMORE LABORATORY/SCIENCE
PHOTO LIBRARY Caption: False-colour
scanning tunnelling micrograph (STM) of
DNA. A sample of uncoated,
double-stranded DNA was dissolved in a
salt solution & deposited on graphite
prior to being imaged in air by the
STM. An STM image is formed by scanning
a fine point just above the specimen
surface & electronically recording the
height of the point as it moves. The
main feature of this image is a
right-handed, double-stranded DNA
molecule (a DNA duplex), which appears
as the row of orange/yellow peaks at
centre-left. These peaks correspond to
the ridges of the DNA double helix.
Magnification: x1,600,000 at 6x7cm
size. Release details: Model and
property releases are not
available UNKNOWN
source: http://www.sciencephoto.com/imag
e/209654/large/G1100150-F_col_STM_image_
of_DNA-SPL.jpg
[2180 AD]
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
[1] Adapted from: Spirit's
Destination This image, cropped from
a larger panoramic image mosaic taken
by the Mars Exploration Rover Spirit
panoramic camera, shows the rover's
destination toward the hills nicknamed
the ''Columbia Hills.'' The rover is
currently positioned outside the view
of this image, on the right. This image
was taken on sols 68 and 69 of Spirit's
mission (March 12 and 13, 2004) from
the location the rover first reached on
the western rim of the crater. The
image is in approximate true color,
based on a scaling of data from the
red, green and blue (750 nanometers,
530 nanometers, and 480 nanometers)
filters. Image credit:
NASA/JPL/Cornell PD
source: http://marsrover.nasa.gov/galler
y/press/spirit/20040318a/10-JG-04-hills-
A074R1.jpg
[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
[2190 AD] 2
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
[1] AS17-147-22526 (11 Dec. 1972) ---
Astronaut Eugene A. Cernan, commander,
makes a short checkout of the Lunar
Roving Vehicle (LRV) during the early
part of the first Apollo 17
extravehicular activity (EVA) at the
Taurus-Littrow landing site. This view
of the ''stripped down'' LRV is prior
to loading up. Equipment later loaded
onto the LRV included the
ground-controlled television assembly,
the lunar communications relay unit,
hi-gain antenna, low-gain antenna, aft
tool pallet, lunar tools and scientific
gear. This photograph was taken by
scientist-astronaut Harrison H.
Schmitt, lunar module pilot. The
mountain in the right background is the
east end of South Massif. While
astronauts Cernan and Schmitt descended
in the Lunar Module (LM) ''Challenger''
to explore the moon, astronaut Ronald
E. Evans, command module pilot,
remained with the Command and Service
Modules (CSM) ''America'' in lunar
orbit. PD
source: http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/gall
ery/images/apollo/apollo17/hires/as17-14
7-22526.jpg
[2] Adapted
from: http://www.nasa.gov/images/conten
t/208698main_merc_horizon.jpg PD
source: http://www.nasa.gov/images/conte
nt/208698main_merc_horizon.jpg
[2200 AD] 4
replaced humans in most manual labor
tasks (including driving, cleaning, and
food planting, harvesting, preparing
and serving).3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington
2. ^ Ted Huntington
3. ^ Ted Huntington
4. ^ Ted
Huntington (my own estimate) {2200 my
own estimate}
[1] Robots pick
oranges Viroids orange
trees Development of HRP-4, a Research
and Development Platform for Working
Humanoid Robots - Supply to external
research organizations from January
2011 - UNKNOWN and Orange
trees: Viroid diseases are
responsible for significant losses of
food and fiber. Our research goals are
to obtain fundamental knowledge about
the molecular interactions between
viroids and their host, to apply this
knowledge to the control of viroid
diseases, and to develop and test
viroid-induced dwarfing strategies to
increase citrus production efficiency.
Robert A. Owens PD UNKNOWN
source: http://www.aist.go.jp/aist_e/lat
est_research/2010/20101108/fig1.jpghttp:
//www.ars.usda.gov/sp2UserFiles/Place/12
752500/research/images/citrus.jpg
[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
[2200 AD] 4
earth.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington future_est.xls
2. ^ Ted
Huntington future_est.xls
3. ^ Ted Huntington
future_est.xls
4. ^ Ted Huntington future_est.xls (my
own estimate)
[1] Image adapted from from
http://www.nasa.gov/externalflash/gemini
_gallery/hi-resjpgs/10.jpg Cape
Canaveral, site of NASA's Kennedy Space
Center, from the Gemini V ... PD
source: http://www.nasa.gov/externalflas
h/gemini_gallery/hi-resjpgs/10.jpgTed
Huntington
[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
[2200 AD] 1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
[1] Adapted from image from NASA
Messenger ship PD
source: http://1.bp.blogspot.com/_qcuftp
B9Hx8/TJOQmeFucWI/AAAAAAAACwg/Bl0M9a2_M1
0/s1600/Planet-Mercury.jpg
[2200 AD]
regrow, and reshape damaged cells.
[1] Skin cells, SEM C001/7939 Rights
Managed Credit: SCIENCE PHOTO
LIBRARY Caption: Skin cells.
Coloured scanning electron micrograph
(SEM) of squamous cells from the
surface of the skin. These are flat,
keratinised, dead cells that are
continuously sloughed off and replaced
with new cells from
below. AND Researchers are
developing a new class of tiny
mechanical devices containing
vibrating, hair-thin structures that
could be used to filter electronic
signals in cell phones and for other
more exotic applications. The work is
done inside a vacuum chamber sitting on
top of a special vibration-absorbing
platform critical to making the precise
measurements. A tiny prototype, roughly
comparable in size to a grain of sand,
is pictured on the monitor at right.
The device is an example of a
microelectromechanical system, or a
MEMS, which contains tiny moving parts.
(Birck Nanotechnology Center, Purdue
University) A publication-quality
photo is available at
http://news.uns.purdue.edu/images/+2009/
rhoads-mems2.jpg [1] A scanning
electron microscope (SEM) image of
nanowire-alginate composite scaffolds.
Star-shaped clusters of nanowires can
be seen in these images. Image
courtesy of the Disease Biophysics
Group, Harvard University UNKNOWN
source: http://www.sciencephoto.com/imag
e/82340/large/C0017939-Skin_cells,_SEM-S
PL.jpghttp://news.uns.purdue.edu/images/
+2009/rhoads-mems2.jpg
[2] Skin cells, SEM C001/7939
Rights Managed Credit: SCIENCE PHOTO
LIBRARY Caption: Skin cells.
Coloured scanning electron micrograph
(SEM) of squamous cells from the
surface of the skin. These are flat,
keratinised, dead cells that are
continuously sloughed off and replaced
with new cells from
below. AND Researchers are
developing a new class of tiny
mechanical devices containing
vibrating, hair-thin structures that
could be used to filter electronic
signals in cell phones and for other
more exotic applications. The work is
done inside a vacuum chamber sitting on
top of a special vibration-absorbing
platform critical to making the precise
measurements. A tiny prototype, roughly
comparable in size to a grain of sand,
is pictured on the monitor at right.
The device is an example of a
microelectromechanical system, or a
MEMS, which contains tiny moving parts.
(Birck Nanotechnology Center, Purdue
University) A publication-quality
photo is available at
http://news.uns.purdue.edu/images/+2009/
rhoads-mems2.jpg [1] A scanning
electron microscope (SEM) image of
nanowire-alginate composite scaffolds.
Star-shaped clusters of nanowires can
be seen in these images. Image
courtesy of the Disease Biophysics
Group, Harvard University UNKNOWN
source: http://www.sciencephoto.com/imag
e/82340/large/C0017939-Skin_cells,_SEM-S
PL.jpghttp://news.uns.purdue.edu/images/
+2009/rhoads-mems2.jpg
[2250 AD] 3
Jupiter.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
[1] The image show the Lander Falcon
skimming over one of the many ice
cravas of Jupiter’s moon Europa
looking for a suitable landing
place. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://api.ning.com/files/s7oIN4
97UMEE6dpA1xd*IhqzsZkYEn1zbiUE5*qsj*mBXD
EV7F1lGV*Qngn1qBdiZSdmNBsHbXquTTpGfoIHib
xxEsocyNr-/BB131FalconoverEuropaNR.jpg?w
idth=737&height=400
[2] Ganymede: Global Color View PD
source: http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/mult
imedia/gallery/gg1.jpg
[2280 AD] 2
Sun.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington. {2280}
[1] The Solar Probe Plus spacecraft
with solar panels folded into the
shadows of its protective shield,
gathers data on its approach to the
Sun. Credit: JHU/APL PD
source: http://www.nasa.gov/images/conte
nt/479540main_SPPObservingSun.jpg
[2280 AD] 1
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
[1] Saturn from the surface of
Dione. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://spaceart1.ning.com/photo/
saturn-from-dione/next?context=userhttp:
//microgravity.grc.nasa.gov/Advanced/Cap
abilities/ETDP/images/lunarlander.jpg
[2] Artist concept of Cassini at
Saturn. Image credit: NASA/JPL ›
Larger image PD
source: http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/images/c
assini/20090202/pia03883-full.jpg
[2300 AD] 3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
{2800}
[1] Adapted from: Uranus seen from
Oberon UNKNOWN
source: http://api.ning.com/files/DzXL-l
W6TdpjPVXja-k32xq4*PiPHvNiITlxVu5JoQ*XRl
Z72k*OlXD710b-zT2jIomp7im9tEUk0AzJ4HNiph
MGf2J-UCLg/Oberon.jpg?width=737&height=5
69http://microgravity.grc.nasa.gov/Advan
ced/Capabilities/ETDP/images/lunarlander
.jpg
[2350 AD] 1 2
a moon of Neptune.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington. {2900}
[1] Intrepid-over-Proteus Neptune's
Moon Proteus The Lander Intrepid skims
the heavily cratered moon Proteus in
search for a landing area. Proteus is a
relatively large moon, similar in size
to Saturn’s moon Mimas, but was not
discovered until Voyager 2 flew by
because it is very dark and orbits very
close to Neptune. Like Mimas, it is
irregular in shape, heavily cratered,
and has no sign of internally generated
geologic activity in its
past. UNKNOWN
source: http://api.ning.com/files/n*cJoC
Qsunpuu6EpNQKC3KHkTJPnAZoABx8opILfQ7o_/I
ntrepidoverProteus.jpg?width=737&height=
469
[2350 AD]
Centauri). The first close up pictures
of
planets of a different star.
MORE INFO
[1]
[1] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted
Huntingtonhttp://upload.wikimedia.org/wi
kipedia/commons/0/08/Planet-alphacen1.pn
g
[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted
Huntingtonhttp://upload.wikimedia.org/wi
kipedia/commons/0/08/Planet-alphacen1.pn
g
[2370 AD] 1
another star identified (bacteria made
of DNA).
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington. {2760} {2765}
[1] Descripción English:
Filamentous cyanobacterium of a genus
Lyngbya, as collected in Baja
California, Mexico Česky: Vláknitá
sinice rodu Lyngbya; Baja California,
Mexico Fecha Fuente
http://microbes.arc.nasa.gov/images/con
tent/gallery/lightms/publication/lyngbya
.jpg Autor NASA PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Lyngbya.jpg/128
0px-Lyngbya.jpg
[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
[2500 AD] 1 2
started.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/fac
tsheet/venusfact.html
2. ^ future_est.xls
[1] Description Image of Venus in
real color processed from the clear and
blue filters (colors are probably
enhanced). Date 2006-09-16
(original upload
date) Source http://astrosurf.com/n
unes/explor/explor_m10.htm Author N
ASA/Ricardo Nunes PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/51/Venus-real.jpg
[2] Adapted from: A rover that could
survive the intense heat of Venus, seen
here in an artist's impression, could
revolutionise our understanding of the
planet. Cooled by a Stirling Cooler
with electronics at 200 °C and
external radiator at 500 °C. Since the
Venusian atmosphere is 'only' 450 °C
the radiator will lose
energy. Geoffrey Landis and Kenneth
Mellott from NASA's Glenn Research
Center in Ohio. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/15/Venus_Rover.jpg
[2500 AD] 4 5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^
http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/world.html
{2500}
5. ^ future_est.xls
[1] Adapted by Ted Huntington
from: Solution structure of a
trans-opened (10S)-dA adduct of
+)-(7S,8R,9S,10R)-7,8-dihydroxy-9,10-epo
xy-7,8,9,10-tetrahydrobenzo[a]pyrene in
a DNA duplex. GNU AND Multiple Gear
Speed Reduction Unit Top view of
gear reduction unit. PD PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d8/Benzopyrene_DNA_adduc
t_1JDG.pnghttp://mems.sandia.gov/gallery
/images/tg8.jpgTed Huntington
[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
[2600 AD]
MORE INFO
[1]
[1] {ULSF: adapted by Ted Huntington
from below:} Description This
picture is an artist's impression
showing how the binary star system of
Sirius A and its diminutive blue
companion, Sirius B, might appear to an
interstellar visitor. The large,
bluish-white star Sirius A dominates
the scene, while Sirius B is the small
but very hot and blue white-dwarf star
on the right. The two stars revolve
around each other every 50 years. White
dwarfs are the leftover remnants of
stars similar to our Sun. The Sirius
system, only 8.6 light-years from
Earth, is the fifth closest stellar
system known. Sirius B is faint because
of its tiny size. Its diameter is only
7,500 miles (about 12 thousand
kilometres), slightly smaller than the
size of our Earth. The Sirius system is
so close to Earth that most of the
familiar constellations would have
nearly the same appearance as in our
own sky. In this rendition, we see in
the background the three bright stars
that make up the Summer Triangle:
Altair, Deneb, and Vega. Altair is the
white dot above Sirius A; Deneb is the
dot to the upper right; and Vega lies
below Sirius B. But there is one
unfamiliar addition to the
constellations: our own Sun is the
second-magnitude star, shown as a small
dot just below and to the right of
Sirius
A. Date Source http://www.spacete
lescope.org/images/html/heic0516b.html
Author NASA, ESA Credit: G. Bacon
(STScI) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c9/Sirius_A_and_B_artwor
k.jpg
[2] Adapted from: Description This
picture is an artist's impression
showing how the binary star system of
Sirius A and its diminutive blue
companion, Sirius B, might appear to an
interstellar visitor. The large,
bluish-white star Sirius A dominates
the scene, while Sirius B is the small
but very hot and blue white-dwarf star
on the right. The two stars revolve
around each other every 50 years. White
dwarfs are the leftover remnants of
stars similar to our Sun. The Sirius
system, only 8.6 light-years from
Earth, is the fifth closest stellar
system known. Sirius B is faint because
of its tiny size. Its diameter is only
7,500 miles (about 12 thousand
kilometres), slightly smaller than the
size of our Earth. The Sirius system is
so close to Earth that most of the
familiar constellations would have
nearly the same appearance as in our
own sky. In this rendition, we see in
the background the three bright stars
that make up the Summer Triangle:
Altair, Deneb, and Vega. Altair is the
white dot above Sirius A; Deneb is the
dot to the upper right; and Vega lies
below Sirius B. But there is one
unfamiliar addition to the
constellations: our own Sun is the
second-magnitude star, shown as a small
dot just below and to the right of
Sirius
A. Date Source http://www.spacete
lescope.org/images/html/heic0516b.html
Author NASA, ESA Credit: G. Bacon
(STScI) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c9/Sirius_A_and_B_artwor
k.jpghttp://aetd.gsfc.nasa.gov/code540/5
40/new_images/MLAS.jpg
[2650 AD] 4
particles. Photon fusion: the reverse
of separating atoms into light
particles.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington. {2650}
[1] Humans create atoms from light
particles Ted Huntington PD
source: Ted Huntington
[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
[2750 AD] 1
different star (Alpha Centauri).
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
[1] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
[2800 AD]
MORE INFO
[1]
[1] Adapted from: The Missing Craters
of Asteroid Itokawa Credit &
Copyright: ISAS, JAXA Explanation:
Where are the craters on asteroid
Itokawa? No one knows. The Japanese
robot probe Hayabusa recently
approached the Earth-crossing asteroid
and is returning pictures showing a
surface unlike any other Solar System
body yet photographed -- a surface
possibly devoid of craters. One
possibility for the lack of common
circular indentations is that asteroid
Itokawa is a rubble pile -- a bunch of
rocks and ice chunks only loosely held
together by a small amount of gravity.
If so, craters might be filled in
whenever the asteroid gets jiggled by a
passing planet -- Earth in this case.
Alternatively, surface particles may
become electrically charged by the Sun,
levitate in the microgravity field, and
move to fill in craters. Over the
weekend, Hayabusa lowered itself to the
surface of the strange asteroid in an
effort to study the unusual body and
collect surface samples that could be
returned to Earth in 2007. PD
source: http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/image/
0511/itokawa05_hayabusa.jpg
[2800 AD] 1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
[1] Summary A rover that could
survive the intense heat of Venus, seen
here in an artist's impression, could
revolutionise our understanding of the
planet. Cooled by a Stirling Cooler
with electronics at 200 °C and
external radiator at 500 °C. Since the
Venusian atmosphere is 'only' 450 °C
the radiator will lose
energy. Geoffrey Landis and Kenneth
Mellott from NASA's Glenn Research
Center in Ohio. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/15/Venus_Rover.jpg
[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
[2800 AD] 1
moon. (A moon of Jupiter).
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington. {2800}
[1] A map of Io This map of Io was
created by taking three relatively low
resolution Voyager 2 maps of Io and
composing them into a color map. These
maps were taken from this FTP site.
Each of the three original maps was
created from images taken through
differently colored filters. I then
replaced the luminosity channel of the
color map with a very high resolution
grayscale map from the above site. That
map was created from Voyager 1 photos.
The result was impressive despite the
fact that Io changed somewhat between
the two Voyager flybys (it is after all
the most volcanically active body in
the solar system !). I then removed the
most prominent seams and color
discontinuities. Some seams still
remain (I was more lazy when creating
this map than e.g. the Europa map ;)
but remarkably they are usually not
visible in 3D renderings except for
renderings showing Io from a close
range. I may remove these defects some
day. Finally I replaced small, black
areas near the poles (where no imagery
is available) with fictional data
created by cloning adjacent
areas. This map is aesthetically
better than the ones at David Seal's
site and also of higher resolution but
the color is probably less realistic
than in his ''yellowish'' map. His maps
are also more realistic in the sense
that there is no fictional data at the
poles, they are simply blank. Click
the map below to view the 2880x1440
pixel (442 KB JPG) full size map.
Actually my original map is 5760x2880
pixels but I do not have space for such
a monster here. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.mmedia.is/~bjj/data/i
o/io.jpg
[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
[2850 AD] 1
planet (planet Earth).
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
[1] Image of ships surrounding Earth in
the future by Ted Huntington Source of
Texture map for Earth unknown GNU
source: Ted Huntington
[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
[2900 AD] 1
Jupiter. First image of the surface of
Jupiter. The solid and liquid body of
Jupiter is confirmed to be 6 times the
diameter of Earth.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
[1] Ted Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
[2] This close-up of the northwestern
region of the Sun shows a filament
erupting. Credit: NASA/SDO PD
source: http://www.nasa.gov/images/conte
nt/480276main_20100904-fulldisk.jpg
[3000 AD]
Jupiter atmosphere.
MORE INFO
[1]
[1] PIA01369: Jupiter from Voyager
2 PD
source: http://ppj-web-1.jpl.nasa.gov/jp
eg/PIA01369.jpg
[3150 AD] 1
second closest star, Barnard's star.
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
[1] Adapted
from: Description English: Artist's
conception of a the red dwarf star CHRX
73 A and its companion object CHRX 73
B. The companion object is around 12
Jupiter masses, and may either be a
planet, a failed star or a brown
dwarf Date 2006-09-02 Source Sel
f-made JPEG version of original TIFF
image at Hubble
website Author NASA, ESA and G.
Bacon (STScI) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/6/68/RedDwarfPlanet.
jpg/800px-RedDwarfPlanet.jpghttp://aetd.
gsfc.nasa.gov/code540/540/new_images/MLA
S.jpg
[3200 AD]
Earth and returns the first objects
from a different star.
MORE INFO
[1]
[1] Ship from Centauri reaches
Earth PD
source: Ted Huntington
[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
[3200 AD] 4
(Alpha Centauri). Humans now live
around two star systems.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington. {3100} {3200 (100 years per
light year 400 years}
[1] Humans reach Alpha
Centauri adapted by Ted Huntington
from: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikip
edia/commons/0/08/Planet-alphacen1.png
CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/08/Planet-alphacen1.png
[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
[3300 AD]
MORE INFO
[1] future_est.xls
[2] "MODERNIZATION, CULTURAL
CHANGE, AND THE PERSISTENCE OF
TRADITIONAL VALUES" Ronald
Inglehart University of
Michigan Wayne E. Baker University of
Michigan religion_inglehart_baker.pdf
[3] "ESTIMATING THE RELIGIOUS
COMPOSITION OF ALL NATIONS: AN
EMPIRICAL ASSESSMENT", Becky Hsu, Amy
Reynolds, Conrad Hackett, James
Gibbon Princeton University November
2, 2005 Religions_estimating.pdf
[1] Images representing 5 major
religions UNKNOWN
source: UNKNOWN
[3400 AD] 2
by orbiting ships.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington. {3600}
[1] Ship surround planet Mars in the
far future. Maps map source: Currently
unknown Ted Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
[2] Nighttime city lights of Europe
from the ISS: London is on the lower
left and Paris is in the
middle UNKNOWN
source: http://www.tamaratemple.com/wp-c
ontent/uploads/2011/08/ISS028-E-024360_l
rg.jpg
[3500 AD] 1 2
completely removed.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/world.html
2. ^ future_est.xls
[1] Atmosphere of Venus completely
removed adapted by Ted Huntington
from: Summary A rover that could
survive the intense heat of Venus, seen
here in an artist's impression, could
revolutionise our understanding of the
planet. Cooled by a Stirling Cooler
with electronics at 200 °C and
external radiator at 500 °C. Since the
Venusian atmosphere is 'only' 450 °C
the radiator will lose
energy. Geoffrey Landis and Kenneth
Mellott from NASA's Glenn Research
Center in Ohio. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/15/Venus_Rover.jpg
[2] Venus with no atmosphere adapted
from Mars texture map UNKNOWN
source:
[3800 AD] 2
controlled by orbiting ships.1
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington. {3800}
[1] Ships surround Jupiter inj the far
future. by Ted Huntington, Jupiter map
from unknown source. GNU
source: Ted Huntington
[4000 AD]
completely removed.
MORE INFO
[1]
[1] Jupiter after atmosphere is
consumed. By Ted Huntington, adapted
from: http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/Imgs/Jp
g/Photoglossary/aa_large.jpg GNU
source: http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/Imgs/J
pg/Photoglossary/aa_large.jpg
[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
[4000 AD]
systems.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
[1] Description English: Praesepe:
the open cluster Messier 44 Date
Source 2MASS Atlas Image Gallery:
The Messier Catalog Author Two Micron
All Sky Survey (2MASS), a joint project
of the University of Massachusetts and
the Infrared Processing and Analysis
Center/California Institute of
Technology, funded by the National
Aeronautics and Space Administration
and the National Science
Foundation. Licensing Public domain
This image is from the Two Micron All
Sky Survey (2MASS) project. The images
from this project have been released
into the public domain. 2MASS kindly
requests acknowledgement in one of the
following forms, the longer of which is
preferred. Atlas Image [or Atlas
Image mosaic] obtained as part of the
Two Micron All Sky Survey (2MASS), a
joint project of the University of
Massachusetts and the Infrared
Processing and Analysis
Center/California Institute of
Technology, funded by the National
Aeronautics and Space Administration
and the National Science Foundation.
Atlas Image [or Atlas Image mosaic]
courtesy of
2MASS/UMass/IPAC-Caltech/NASA/NSF. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3a/Messier_044_2MASS.jpg
[2] Description English: Praesepe:
the open cluster Messier 44 Date
Source 2MASS Atlas Image Gallery:
The Messier Catalog Author Two Micron
All Sky Survey (2MASS), a joint project
of the University of Massachusetts and
the Infrared Processing and Analysis
Center/California Institute of
Technology, funded by the National
Aeronautics and Space Administration
and the National Science
Foundation. Licensing Public domain
This image is from the Two Micron All
Sky Survey (2MASS) project. The images
from this project have been released
into the public domain. 2MASS kindly
requests acknowledgement in one of the
following forms, the longer of which is
preferred. Atlas Image [or Atlas
Image mosaic] obtained as part of the
Two Micron All Sky Survey (2MASS), a
joint project of the University of
Massachusetts and the Infrared
Processing and Analysis
Center/California Institute of
Technology, funded by the National
Aeronautics and Space Administration
and the National Science Foundation.
Atlas Image [or Atlas Image mosaic]
courtesy of
2MASS/UMass/IPAC-Caltech/NASA/NSF. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3a/Messier_044_2MASS.jpg
[4200 AD] 1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington. {4200}
[1] Saturn surrounded by ships in the
far future. by Ted Huntington using
texture map of Saturn from:
http://www.mmedia.is/~bjj/data/saturn/sa
turn.jpg UNKNOWN
source: http://www.mmedia.is/~bjj/data/s
aturn/saturn.jpgTed Huntington
[4300 AD] 2
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington. {4300}
[1] by Ted Huntington adapted
from: http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/Imgs/Jp
g/Photoglossary/aa_large.jpg PD
source: http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/Imgs/J
pg/Photoglossary/aa_large.jpg
[2] by Ted Huntington adapted
from: http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/Imgs/Jp
g/Photoglossary/aa_large.jpg PD
source: http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/Imgs/J
pg/Photoglossary/aa_large.jpg
[4500 AD] 1 2
atmosphere of Earth.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/world.html
{4500}
2. ^ future_est.xls {4500}
[1] International Space Station crew
members are trained to observe and
document dynamic events on the
Earth’s surface, such as hurricanes,
forest fires, and volcanic eruptions.
Their observations provide scientists
and the general public a different
perspective on these events. Earlier
this week, astronauts in the crew of
the ISS-5 mission were able to observe
Mt. Etna’s spectacular eruption, and
photograph the details of the eruption
plume as well as smoke from fires
triggered by the lava as it flowed down
the 11,000-foot mountain. This image is
looking obliquely to the southeast over
the island of Sicily. A wider view
(ISS005-E-19016) shows the ash plume
curving out toward the horizon, caught
first by low-level winds blowing to the
southeast, and to the south toward
Africa at higher altitudes. Ashfall was
reported in Libya, more than 350 miles
away. The lighter-colored plumes
downslope and north of the summit (see
detailed view, ISS005-E-19024) are
produced by gas emissions from a line
of vents on the mountain’s north
flank. The detailed image provides a
three-dimensional profile of the
eruption plume. This was one of
Etna’s most vigorous eruptions in
years. The eruption was triggered by a
series of earthquakes on October 27.
These images were taken on October 30,
2002. Sicilans have learned to live
with Etna’s eruptions. Although
schools were closed and air traffic was
diverted because of the ash, no towns
or villages were threatened by the lava
flow. Astronaut photographs
ISS005-E-19016 and ISS005-E-19024 were
taken on October 30, 2002, at about
11:30 GMT and are provided by the Earth
Sciences and Image Analysis Laboratory
at Johnson Space Center. Additional
images taken by astronauts and
cosmonauts can be viewed at the
NASA-JSC Gateway to Astronaut
Photography of Earth. Instrument:
ISS - Digital Camera PD
source: http://eoimages.gsfc.nasa.gov/im
ages/imagerecords/2000/2923/etna2_ISS200
2303_lrg.jpg
[4500 AD]
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
[1] Lava flows on Krafla in
Iceland Licensing: This image
was created by Chris 73. The image is
licensed under a dual license; please
choose either of the two licenses below
as desired. Attribution to Wikipedia or
another project of the Wikimedia
foundation is required for both
licenses if the image is used outside
of projects of the Wikimedia
foundation. Attribution to me is not
required. GNU head Es ist erlaubt,
die Datei unter den Bedingungen der
GNU-Lizenz für freie Dokumentation,
Version 1.3 oder einer späteren
Version, veröffentlicht von der Free
Software Foundation, zu kopieren, zu
verbreiten und/oder zu modifizieren; es
gibt keine unveränderlichen
Abschnitte, keinen vorderen und keinen
hinteren Umschlagtext. Der
vollständige Text der Lizenz ist im
Kapitel GNU-Lizenz für freie
Dokumentation verfügbar. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d6/Lava_at_Vulkan_Krafla
_Iceland_1.JPG
[2] Volle resolusie (3 888 × 2 592
pixels, lêergrootte: 5,96 MG, MIME
type: image/jpeg) Hierdie lêer kom
vanaf Wikimedia Commons en kan ook in
ander projekte gebruik word. Die
beskrywing op die lêer se
inligtingsblad word hieronder
weergegee. Beskrywing English: Lava
flow at The Big Island of Hawaii. The
lava flow is due to July 21 fissure
eruption. The picture was taken from a
helicopter. Datum 09/10/07 Bron
Created and originally uploaded to the
English Wikipedia by Brocken
Inaglory. Outeur Brocken
Inaglory Toestemming (Hergebruik van
die lêer)
CC-BY-SA-3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0; Released
under the GNU Free Documentation
License. Kameraligging 19°
23' 11.0'' N, 155° 6' 18.0''
W Hierdie en ander beelde in: Google
Maps - Google Earth - OpenStreetMa CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/62/Hawaiian_lava_flow.jp
g
[4500 AD] 1
control.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
[1] Various planetary texture maps and
public domain lava texture map mapped
onto 3D sphere and rendered two spheres
of ships added by Ted Huntington PD
source: Various planetary texture maps
and public domain lava texture map
mapped onto 3D sphere and rendered two
spheres of ships added by Ted
Huntington
[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
[5100 AD] 4
living objects that evolved around a
different star.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington. {5100}
[1] Life of another star by Ted
Huntington with background
image: 说明 English: Open Star
Cluster NGC663 in Cassiopeia 日期
2010年11月9日 来源
自己的作品 作者
Hewholooks CC
source: Ted
Huntingtonhttp://upload.wikimedia.org/wi
kipedia/commons/1/12/NGC663HunterWilson.
jpg
[2] Living object from other star by
Ted Huntington with image in
background: Description English:
This impressive image of the open
cluster known as Trumpler 14 was
obtained with the Multi-conjugate
Adaptive optics Demonstrator (MAD)
mounted on ESO’s Very Large
Telescope. The cluster, which is found
to be only 500 000 years old — a
blink of an eye in the Universe’s
history — resides at the outskirts of
the central region of the Carina
Nebula, located some 8000 light-years
away towards the constellation of
Carina (the Keel). Trumpler 14 is not
only the youngest, but also one of the
most populous clusters within the
nebula. Astronomers counted about 2000
stars in the very central parts of this
cluster. The MAD instrument allows
astronomers to obtain very sharp images
over a wide area and this image is the
adaptive optics image that so far
covers the widest area on the sky. The
field of view is about 2 arcminutes
across and the image is based on data
obtained through two different filters
(K and H). Date 03-12-2009 Source
http://www.eso.org/public/images/eso094
7a/ Author ESO/H. Sana CC
source: Ted
Huntingtonhttp://upload.wikimedia.org/wi
kipedia/commons/5/57/ESO-Trumpler14-clus
ter.jpg
[5500 AD]
of Earth moved in direction of
Centauri.
[1] Humans move star by Ted
Huntington PD
source: Ted Huntington
[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
[6000 AD]
star of Earth.
MORE INFO
[1]
[1] Ships move Alpha Centauri A by Ted
Huntington PD
source: Ted Huntington
[2] Ships move Alpha Centauri A by
Ted Huntington PD
source: Ted Huntington
[6000 AD] 4
objects that evolved around a different
star.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington. {6000}
[1] Humans touch advanced life of
another star by Ted Huntington with
background image of: Double Cluster
in Perseus Credit & Copyright: Roth
Ritter (Dark
Atmospheres) Explanation: Some 7,000
light-years away, this pair of open or
galactic star clusters is an easy
binocular target, a lovely starfield in
the northern constellation Perseus.
Also visible to the unaided eye from
dark sky areas, it was cataloged in 130
BC by Greek astronomer Hipparchus. Now
known as h and chi Persei, or NGC
869(above right) and NGC 884, the
clusters themselves are separated by
only a few hundred light-years and
contain stars much younger and hotter
than the Sun. In addition to being
physically close together, the
clusters' ages based on their
individual stars are similar - evidence
that both clusters were likely a
product of the same star-forming
region. PD
source: Ted
Huntingtonhttp://apod.nasa.gov/apod/imag
e/0901/clusters_2_ritter.jpg
[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
[6500 AD]
(the Sun and the three stars of
Centauri).
[1] Open Star Cluster M38 Credit &
Copyright: NOAO, AURA,
NSF Explanation: Open cluster M38
can be seen with binoculars toward the
constellation of Auriga. M38 is
considered an intermediately rich open
cluster of stars, each of which is
about 200 million years old. Located in
the disk of our Milky Way galaxy, M38
is still young enough to house many
bright blue stars, although it's
brightest star is a yellow giant
shining 900 times brighter than our
Sun. The cluster spans roughly 25
light-years and lies about 4000
light-years away. M38, pictured above,
is found only about 2.5 degrees
northwest of open cluster M36. Loosely
bound by gravity, open clusters spread
out over time as they orbit the
galactic center and their member stars
slowly escape. PD
source: http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/image/
0301/m38_noao.jpg
[7000 AD] 1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/world.html
2. ^
http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/world.html
{15,505 YAN (rate=0.033%) (at current
rate is 2600}
[1] Image summarizing population of
humans around planets and stars by Ted
Huntington PD
source: Ted Huntington
[2] Image summarizing population of
humans around planets and stars by Ted
Huntington PD
source: Ted Huntington
[27000 AD]
a globular cluster of 10 stars.
[1] Hyades for the Holidays Image
Credit & Copyright: Jerry Lodriguss
(Catching the Light) Explanation:
Recognized since antiquity and depicted
on the shield of Achilles according to
Homer, stars of the Hyades cluster form
the head of the constellation Taurus
the Bull. Their general V-shape is
anchored by Aldebaran, the eye of the
Bull and by far the constellation's
brightest star. Yellowish in
appearance, red giant Aldebaran is not
a Hyades cluster member, though. Modern
astronomy puts the Hyades cluster 151
light-years away making it the nearest
established open star cluster, while
Aldebaran lies at less than half that
distance, along the same line-of-sight.
Along with colorful Hyades stars, this
stellar holiday portrait locates
Aldebaran just below center, as well as
another open star cluster in Taurus,
NGC 1647 at the left, some 2,000
light-years or more in the background.
Just slide your cursor over the image
to identify the stars. The central
Hyades stars are spread out over about
15 light-years. Formed some 800 million
years ago, the Hyades star cluster may
share a common origin with M44
(Praesepe), a naked-eye open star
cluster in Cancer, based on M44's
motion through space and remarkably
similar age. UNKNOWN
source: http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/image/
1212/HyadesLodriguss.jpg
[2] Hyades for the Holidays Image
Credit & Copyright: Jerry Lodriguss
(Catching the Light) Explanation:
Recognized since antiquity and depicted
on the shield of Achilles according to
Homer, stars of the Hyades cluster form
the head of the constellation Taurus
the Bull. Their general V-shape is
anchored by Aldebaran, the eye of the
Bull and by far the constellation's
brightest star. Yellowish in
appearance, red giant Aldebaran is not
a Hyades cluster member, though. Modern
astronomy puts the Hyades cluster 151
light-years away making it the nearest
established open star cluster, while
Aldebaran lies at less than half that
distance, along the same line-of-sight.
Along with colorful Hyades stars, this
stellar holiday portrait locates
Aldebaran just below center, as well as
another open star cluster in Taurus,
NGC 1647 at the left, some 2,000
light-years or more in the background.
Just slide your cursor over the image
to identify the stars. The central
Hyades stars are spread out over about
15 light-years. Formed some 800 million
years ago, the Hyades star cluster may
share a common origin with M44
(Praesepe), a naked-eye open star
cluster in Cancer, based on M44's
motion through space and remarkably
similar age. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.cfht.hawaii.edu/Scien
ce/Astros/Imageofweek/ciw-image/050600-2
.jpg
[47000 AD]
form a globular cluster of 100 stars.
[1] The CFHT Open Cluster Survey : NGC
2099 Credit: Image courtesy of
Harvey Richer1, Patrick Durrell1,
Gregory Fahlman2, J. Kalirai1, F.
D'Antona3 & G. Marconi3 1 University
of British Columbia, Vancouver,
Canada 2 Canada-France-Hawaii
Telescope Corporation, Hawaii, USA 3
Osservatorio Astronomico di Roma, Italy
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.cfht.hawaii.edu/Scien
ce/Astros/Imageofweek/ciw-image/050600-2
.jpg
[2] Hyades for the Holidays Image
Credit & Copyright: Jerry Lodriguss
(Catching the Light) Explanation:
Recognized since antiquity and depicted
on the shield of Achilles according to
Homer, stars of the Hyades cluster form
the head of the constellation Taurus
the Bull. Their general V-shape is
anchored by Aldebaran, the eye of the
Bull and by far the constellation's
brightest star. Yellowish in
appearance, red giant Aldebaran is not
a Hyades cluster member, though. Modern
astronomy puts the Hyades cluster 151
light-years away making it the nearest
established open star cluster, while
Aldebaran lies at less than half that
distance, along the same line-of-sight.
Along with colorful Hyades stars, this
stellar holiday portrait locates
Aldebaran just below center, as well as
another open star cluster in Taurus,
NGC 1647 at the left, some 2,000
light-years or more in the background.
Just slide your cursor over the image
to identify the stars. The central
Hyades stars are spread out over about
15 light-years. Formed some 800 million
years ago, the Hyades star cluster may
share a common origin with M44
(Praesepe), a naked-eye open star
cluster in Cancer, based on M44's
motion through space and remarkably
similar age. UNKNOWN
source: http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/image/
1212/HyadesLodriguss.jpg
[52000 AD]
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
[1] Adapted from: The Missing Craters
of Asteroid Itokawa Credit &
Copyright: ISAS, JAXA Explanation:
Where are the craters on asteroid
Itokawa? No one knows. The Japanese
robot probe Hayabusa recently
approached the Earth-crossing asteroid
and is returning pictures showing a
surface unlike any other Solar System
body yet photographed -- a surface
possibly devoid of craters. One
possibility for the lack of common
circular indentations is that asteroid
Itokawa is a rubble pile -- a bunch of
rocks and ice chunks only loosely held
together by a small amount of gravity.
If so, craters might be filled in
whenever the asteroid gets jiggled by a
passing planet -- Earth in this case.
Alternatively, surface particles may
become electrically charged by the Sun,
levitate in the microgravity field, and
move to fill in craters. Over the
weekend, Hayabusa lowered itself to the
surface of the strange asteroid in an
effort to study the unusual body and
collect surface samples that could be
returned to Earth in 2007. PD
source: http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/image/
0511/itokawa05_hayabusa.jpg
[65000 AD]
Earth.
MORE INFO
[1]
Huntington_Ted_population_estimates.txt
[1] by Ted Huntington PD
source: Ted Huntington
[2] Adapted from: The Death Star is
the size of a small moon. See more Star
Wars pictures. Photo courtesy ©
Lucasfilm Ltd. & TM. All Rights
Reserved. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://static.ddmcdn.com/gif/dea
th-star-1.jpg
[67000 AD] 1
living objects.
There is no more molten material inside
the Earth. All the molten compressed
matter was extracted, cooled and
consumed, mostly as building materials,
fuel, and food.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "quintillion." The American
Heritage� Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 25
Jan. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/quintillion
[1] Earth is completely filled by Ted
Huntington PD
source: Ted Huntington
[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
[72000 AD]
form a globular cluster of 1,000 stars.
[1] M15 Second attempt for a star
cluster. L 12x2min, RGB each 5x2min,
Dark no Flat. 1 click on the picture
(1024x690, 115 KB) Distance: 35000
Ly UNKNOWN
source: http://www.luluobservatorium.de/
Big%20Pictures/M15.jpg
[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
[92000 AD] 1
10,000 stars leaves the plane of the
Milky Way Galaxy.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington based on 0.03%
growth from 2000 to 90000
[1] M31 with some globular clusters
marked [t Note that each globular
cluster can be imagined to be formed by
some intelligent living
objects.] Image by Peter
Kennett UNKNOWN
source: http://www.petesastrophotography
.com/m31globs.jpg
[2] M31, Southwest Arm, NGC
206 copyright Robert Gendler
2005 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.robgendlerastropics.c
om/M31NMmosaicSW.jpg
4 5 6 7
reaches the maximum possible (200
quadrillion).1 2 3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
Huntington_Ted_population_estimates.txt
2. ^
http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/world.html
3. ^ future_est.xls
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^
Huntington_Ted_population_estimates.txt
6. ^
http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/world.html
{3800}
7. ^ future_est.xls {3800}
[1] Ships surround Moon of Earth in the
future. Source of Moon Texture Map:
unknown Ted Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
filled with living objects.
[1] Mercury at maximum population
adapted by Ted Huntington
from: http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/
Features/CitiesAtNight/images/ISS007-E-1
6525_night.jpg GNU
source: http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov
/Features/CitiesAtNight/images/ISS007-E-
16525_night.jpg
4 5 6
maximum.1 2 3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
Huntington_Ted_population_estimates.txt
2. ^
http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/world.html
3. ^ future_est.xls
4. ^
Huntington_Ted_population_estimates.txt
5. ^
http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/world.html
6. ^ future_est.xls
[1] Ship surround planet Mars in the
far future. Maps map source: Currently
unknown Ted Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
consumed.
MORE INFO
[1]
Huntington_Ted_population_estimates.txt
[1] Star with many ships around
it. Adapted from: English: The Sun
photographed by the Atmospheric Imaging
Assembly (AIA 304) of NASA's Solar
Dynamics Observatory (SDO). This is a
false color image of the sun observed
in the extreme ultraviolet region of
the spectrum. For example, similar
image. Date 2010-08-19T00:32:21Z
(ISO 8601) Source NASA/SDO
(AIA). Author NASA/SDO (AIA). PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/The_Sun_by_the_
Atmospheric_Imaging_Assembly_of_NASA%27s
_Solar_Dynamics_Observatory_-_20100819.j
pg/628px-The_Sun_by_the_Atmospheric_Imag
ing_Assembly_of_NASA%27s_Solar_Dynamics_
Observatory_-_20100819.jpg
[2] Globular Star Cluster 47
Tuc Image Credit & Copyright: Dieter
Willasch
(Astro-Cabinet) Explanation:
Globular star cluster 47 Tucanae is a
jewel of the southern sky. Also known
as NGC 104, it roams the halo of our
Milky Way Galaxy along with some 200
other globular star clusters. The
second brightest globular cluster
(after Omega Centauri) as seen from
planet Earth, it lies about 13,000
light-years away and can be spotted
naked-eye near the Small Magellanic
Cloud in the constellation of the
Toucan. The dense cluster is made up of
several million stars in a volume only
about 120 light-years across. Red giant
stars on the outskirts of the cluster
are easy to pick out as yellowish stars
in this sharp telescopic portrait.
Globular cluster 47 Tuc is also home to
exotic x-ray binary star systems. PD
source: http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/image/
1101/47Tuc_DW.jpg
1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
Huntington_Ted_population_estimates.txt
[1] Star with many ships around
it. Adapted from: English: The Sun
photographed by the Atmospheric Imaging
Assembly (AIA 304) of NASA's Solar
Dynamics Observatory (SDO). This is a
false color image of the sun observed
in the extreme ultraviolet region of
the spectrum. For example, similar
image. Date 2010-08-19T00:32:21Z
(ISO 8601) Source NASA/SDO
(AIA). Author NASA/SDO (AIA). PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/The_Sun_by_the_
Atmospheric_Imaging_Assembly_of_NASA%27s
_Solar_Dynamics_Observatory_-_20100819.j
pg/628px-The_Sun_by_the_Atmospheric_Imag
ing_Assembly_of_NASA%27s_Solar_Dynamics_
Observatory_-_20100819.jpg
[2] Globular Star Cluster 47
Tuc Image Credit & Copyright: Dieter
Willasch
(Astro-Cabinet) Explanation:
Globular star cluster 47 Tucanae is a
jewel of the southern sky. Also known
as NGC 104, it roams the halo of our
Milky Way Galaxy along with some 200
other globular star clusters. The
second brightest globular cluster
(after Omega Centauri) as seen from
planet Earth, it lies about 13,000
light-years away and can be spotted
naked-eye near the Small Magellanic
Cloud in the constellation of the
Toucan. The dense cluster is made up of
several million stars in a volume only
about 120 light-years across. Red giant
stars on the outskirts of the cluster
are easy to pick out as yellowish stars
in this sharp telescopic portrait.
Globular cluster 47 Tuc is also home to
exotic x-ray binary star systems. PD
source: http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/image/
1101/47Tuc_DW.jpg
[1] Adapted from: Description This
picture is an artist's impression
showing how the binary star system of
Sirius A and its diminutive blue
companion, Sirius B, might appear to an
interstellar visitor. The large,
bluish-white star Sirius A dominates
the scene, while Sirius B is the small
but very hot and blue white-dwarf star
on the right. The two stars revolve
around each other every 50 years. White
dwarfs are the leftover remnants of
stars similar to our Sun. The Sirius
system, only 8.6 light-years from
Earth, is the fifth closest stellar
system known. Sirius B is faint because
of its tiny size. Its diameter is only
7,500 miles (about 12 thousand
kilometres), slightly smaller than the
size of our Earth. The Sirius system is
so close to Earth that most of the
familiar constellations would have
nearly the same appearance as in our
own sky. In this rendition, we see in
the background the three bright stars
that make up the Summer Triangle:
Altair, Deneb, and Vega. Altair is the
white dot above Sirius A; Deneb is the
dot to the upper right; and Vega lies
below Sirius B. But there is one
unfamiliar addition to the
constellations: our own Sun is the
second-magnitude star, shown as a small
dot just below and to the right of
Sirius
A. Date Source http://www.spacete
lescope.org/images/html/heic0516b.html
Author NASA, ESA Credit: G. Bacon
(STScI) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Sirius_A_and_B_
artwork.jpg/800px-Sirius_A_and_B_artwork
.jpg
[2] Adapted from: Description This
picture is an artist's impression
showing how the binary star system of
Sirius A and its diminutive blue
companion, Sirius B, might appear to an
interstellar visitor. The large,
bluish-white star Sirius A dominates
the scene, while Sirius B is the small
but very hot and blue white-dwarf star
on the right. The two stars revolve
around each other every 50 years. White
dwarfs are the leftover remnants of
stars similar to our Sun. The Sirius
system, only 8.6 light-years from
Earth, is the fifth closest stellar
system known. Sirius B is faint because
of its tiny size. Its diameter is only
7,500 miles (about 12 thousand
kilometres), slightly smaller than the
size of our Earth. The Sirius system is
so close to Earth that most of the
familiar constellations would have
nearly the same appearance as in our
own sky. In this rendition, we see in
the background the three bright stars
that make up the Summer Triangle:
Altair, Deneb, and Vega. Altair is the
white dot above Sirius A; Deneb is the
dot to the upper right; and Vega lies
below Sirius B. But there is one
unfamiliar addition to the
constellations: our own Sun is the
second-magnitude star, shown as a small
dot just below and to the right of
Sirius
A. Date Source http://www.spacete
lescope.org/images/html/heic0516b.html
Author NASA, ESA Credit: G. Bacon
(STScI) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Sirius_A_and_B_
artwork.jpg/800px-Sirius_A_and_B_artwork
.jpg
MORE INFO
[1]
[1] Globular Star Cluster 47 Tuc Image
Credit & Copyright: Dieter Willasch
(Astro-Cabinet) Explanation:
Globular star cluster 47 Tucanae is a
jewel of the southern sky. Also known
as NGC 104, it roams the halo of our
Milky Way Galaxy along with some 200
other globular star clusters. The
second brightest globular cluster
(after Omega Centauri) as seen from
planet Earth, it lies about 13,000
light-years away and can be spotted
naked-eye near the Small Magellanic
Cloud in the constellation of the
Toucan. The dense cluster is made up of
several million stars in a volume only
about 120 light-years across. Red giant
stars on the outskirts of the cluster
are easy to pick out as yellowish stars
in this sharp telescopic portrait.
Globular cluster 47 Tuc is also home to
exotic x-ray binary star systems. PD
source: http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/image/
1101/47Tuc_DW.jpg
[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
2 3
Galaxy belong to a globular cluster.1
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
{100002000}
[1] Designation NGC 3115, Bennett 42,
Caldwell 53, the Spindle
Galaxy Object type Type S(0)
lenticular galaxy Coordinates 10 h 05
min - 07° 43' Sextans
(Sex) Description NGC 3115 is also
known as the ''Spindle Galaxy.'' It is
a lenticular, a ''spiral galaxy without
spiral structure'', i.e. a smooth disk
galaxy, where stellar formation has
stopped because the interstellar matter
was used up. From their appearance and
stellar contents, they can often hardly
be distinguished from ellipticals
observationally. Dreyer calls this
lenticular galaxy very bright (mag
9.7), large (8.3'x3.2'), very much
elongated (P.A. 46°), and brightening
sharply to a brightened, elongated
nucleus. It lies 4.8° north of Lambda
Hydrae. North is to the right in the
15 x 10 arcmin field of view.
Exposure LRGB 60:20:20:20 min @
-15°C, all exposures unbinned Camera
SBIG ST-10XE selfguided + CFW8 with
Astrodon LRGB filterset Optics RCOS
14.5'' Ritchey-Chrétien @ f/9 (prime
focus) Mount Astro-Physics
AP1200GTO Software MaxIm DL/CCD,
Adobe Photoshop CS Location - Date -
Time San Esteban (Chile) - 10Apr05 @
00:30 UTC Conditions Transparency 7,
Seeing 5, Temperature +10°C UNKNOWN
source: http://astrosurf.com/antilhue/NG
C3115-LRGB.jpg
[2] All stars in the Milky Way belong
to a globular cluster. Adapted
from: http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/image/0
506/m22_cfht_big.jpg Globular Cluster
M22 from CFHT Credit & Copyright:
Jean-Charles Cuillandre (CFHT),
Hawaiian Starlight,
CFHT Explanation: The globular
cluster M22, pictured above, contains
over 100,000 stars. These stars formed
together and are gravitationally bound.
Stars orbit the center of the cluster,
and the cluster orbits the center of
our Galaxy. So far, about 140 globular
clusters are known to exist in a
roughly spherical halo around the
Galactic center. Globular clusters do
not appear spherically distributed as
viewed from the Earth, and this fact
was a key point in the determination
that our Sun is not at the center of
our Galaxy. Globular clusters are very
old. There is a straightforward method
of determining their age, and this
nearly matches the 13.7 billion-year
age of our entire universe. PD
source: http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/image/
0506/m22_cfht_big.jpg
integrates the matter of the Magellanic
Cloud galaxies.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
[1] Elliptical Galaxy Centaurus A from
CFHT Credit & Copyright: Jean-Charles
Cuillandre (CFHT) & Giovanni Anselmi
(Coelum Astronomia), Hawaiian
Starlight Explanation: Why is
peculiar galaxy Centaurus A so dusty?
Dramatic dust lanes that run across the
galaxy's center mark Cen A. These dust
lanes are so thick they almost
completely obscure the galaxy's center
in visible light. This is particularly
unusual as Cen A's red stars and round
shape are characteristic of a giant
elliptical galaxy, a galaxy type
usually low in dark dust. Cen A, also
known as NGC 5128, is also unusual
compared to an average elliptical
galaxy because it contains a higher
proportion of young blue stars and is a
very strong source of radio emission.
Evidence indicates that Cen A is likely
the result of the collision of two
normal galaxies. During the collision,
many young stars were formed, but
details of the creation of Cen A's
unusual dust belts are still being
researched. Cen A lies only 13 million
light years away, making it the closest
active galaxy. Cen A, pictured above,
spans 60,000 light years and can be
seen with binoculars toward the
constellation of Centaurus. PD
source: http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/image/
0607/cenA_cfht.jpg
[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
globular galaxies join.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
Galaxy
[1] See Explanation. Clicking on the
picture will download the highest
resolution version available. In the
Center of the Virgo Cluster Credit &
Copyright: Jean-Charles Cuillandre
(CFHT), Hawaiian Starlight,
CFHT Explanation: The Virgo Cluster
of Galaxies is the closest cluster of
galaxies to our Milky Way Galaxy. The
Virgo Cluster is so close that it spans
more than 5 degrees on the sky - about
10 times the angle made by a full Moon.
It contains over 100 galaxies of many
types - including spiral, elliptical,
and irregular galaxies. The Virgo
Cluster is so massive that it is
noticeably pulling our Galaxy toward
it. The cluster contains not only
galaxies filled with stars but also gas
so hot it glows in X-rays. Motions of
galaxies in and around clusters
indicate that they contain more dark
matter than any visible matter we can
see. Pictured above, the center of the
Virgo cluster might appear to some as a
human face, and includes bright Messier
galaxies M86 at the top, M84 on the far
right, NGC 4388 at the bottom, and NGC
4387 in the middle. PD
source: http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/image/
0308/virgocenter_cfht.jpg
[2] See Explanation. Clicking on the
picture will download the highest
resolution version available. In the
Center of the Virgo Cluster Credit &
Copyright: Jean-Charles Cuillandre
(CFHT), Hawaiian Starlight,
CFHT Explanation: The Virgo Cluster
of Galaxies is the closest cluster of
galaxies to our Milky Way Galaxy. The
Virgo Cluster is so close that it spans
more than 5 degrees on the sky - about
10 times the angle made by a full Moon.
It contains over 100 galaxies of many
types - including spiral, elliptical,
and irregular galaxies. The Virgo
Cluster is so massive that it is
noticeably pulling our Galaxy toward
it. The cluster contains not only
galaxies filled with stars but also gas
so hot it glows in X-rays. Motions of
galaxies in and around clusters
indicate that they contain more dark
matter than any visible matter we can
see. Pictured above, the center of the
Virgo cluster might appear to some as a
human face, and includes bright Messier
galaxies M86 at the top, M84 on the far
right, NGC 4388 at the bottom, and NGC
4387 in the middle. PD
source: http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/image/
0308/virgocenter_cfht.jpg