TIMEEVENT DESCRIPTIONLOCATIONIMAGES

UNIVERSE
1,000,000,000,000 YBN
1) We are a tiny part of a universe
that is made of an infinite amount of
space, matter and time.
 
[1] note
Hubble_ultra_deep_field_high_rez_edit1
is much larger [2] Hubble ultra deep
field high rez
edit1_small.jpg Deutsch: Das Hubble
Ultra Deep Field ist ein Bild einer
kleinen Himmelsregion aufgenommen vom
Hubble-Weltraumteleskop über einen
Zeitraum vom 3. September 2003 bis 16.
Januar 2004. Dabei wurde eine
Himmelsregion ausgewählt, die kaum
störende helle Sterne im Vordergrund
enthält. Man entschied sich für ein
Zielgebiet südwestlich von Orion im
Sternbild Chemischer Ofen. English:
The Hubble Ultra Deep Field, is an
image of a small region of space in the
constellation Fornax, composited from
Hubble Space Telescope data accumulated
over a period from September 3, 2003
through January 16, 2004. The patch of
sky in which the galaxies reside was
chosen because it had a low density of
bright stars in the
near-field. Español: El Campo Ultra
Profundo del Hubble, es una imagen de
una pequeña región del espacio en la
constelación Fornax, compuesta de
datos obtenidos por el telescopio
espacial Hubble durante el período
entre el 3 de Septiembre de 2003 y el
16 de Enero de 2004. Esta parte del
cielo fue escogida por su baja densidad
de estrellas brillantes en sus
proximidades. Français : Le champ
ultra profond de Hubble, une image
d'une petite portion du ciel dans la
constellation du Fourneau, prise par le
télescope spatial Hubble du 3
septembre 2003 au 16 juillet 2004. La
portion de ciel a été choisie car
elle possède peu d'étoiles brillantes
proches. Date 2003-09-03 -
2004-01-16 Source
http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/ar
chive/releases/2004/07/image/a/warn/ Au
thor NASA and the European Space
Agency. Edited by Noodle snacks PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0d/Hubble_ultra_deep_fie
ld_high_rez_edit1.jpg
990,000,000,000 YBN
2) There is more space than matter.
 
[1] note
Hubble_ultra_deep_field_high_rez_edit1
is much larger [2] Hubble ultra deep
field high rez
edit1_small.jpg Deutsch: Das Hubble
Ultra Deep Field ist ein Bild einer
kleinen Himmelsregion aufgenommen vom
Hubble-Weltraumteleskop über einen
Zeitraum vom 3. September 2003 bis 16.
Januar 2004. Dabei wurde eine
Himmelsregion ausgewählt, die kaum
störende helle Sterne im Vordergrund
enthält. Man entschied sich für ein
Zielgebiet südwestlich von Orion im
Sternbild Chemischer Ofen. English:
The Hubble Ultra Deep Field, is an
image of a small region of space in the
constellation Fornax, composited from
Hubble Space Telescope data accumulated
over a period from September 3, 2003
through January 16, 2004. The patch of
sky in which the galaxies reside was
chosen because it had a low density of
bright stars in the
near-field. Español: El Campo Ultra
Profundo del Hubble, es una imagen de
una pequeña región del espacio en la
constelación Fornax, compuesta de
datos obtenidos por el telescopio
espacial Hubble durante el período
entre el 3 de Septiembre de 2003 y el
16 de Enero de 2004. Esta parte del
cielo fue escogida por su baja densidad
de estrellas brillantes en sus
proximidades. Français : Le champ
ultra profond de Hubble, une image
d'une petite portion du ciel dans la
constellation du Fourneau, prise par le
télescope spatial Hubble du 3
septembre 2003 au 16 juillet 2004. La
portion de ciel a été choisie car
elle possède peu d'étoiles brillantes
proches. Date 2003-09-03 -
2004-01-16 Source
http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/ar
chive/releases/2004/07/image/a/warn/ Au
thor NASA and the European Space
Agency. Edited by Noodle snacks PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0d/Hubble_ultra_deep_fie
ld_high_rez_edit1.jpg
980,000,000,000 YBN
3) All matter is made of particles of
light. Light particles are the base
unit of all matter from the tiniest
particles to the largest galaxies. In
this sense light particles are the most
basic atoms.

This view of light as a material
particle and the basis of all matter,
conflicts with the popular theory that
light is massless.

The basic order of matter from smaller
to larger is light particles, electrons
and positrons, muons, protons and
antiprotons, atoms, molecules, living
objects, planets, stars, globular
clusters, galaxies, and then galactic
clusters.
 
[1] note
Hubble_ultra_deep_field_high_rez_edit1
is much larger [2] Hubble ultra deep
field high rez
edit1_small.jpg Deutsch: Das Hubble
Ultra Deep Field ist ein Bild einer
kleinen Himmelsregion aufgenommen vom
Hubble-Weltraumteleskop über einen
Zeitraum vom 3. September 2003 bis 16.
Januar 2004. Dabei wurde eine
Himmelsregion ausgewählt, die kaum
störende helle Sterne im Vordergrund
enthält. Man entschied sich für ein
Zielgebiet südwestlich von Orion im
Sternbild Chemischer Ofen. English:
The Hubble Ultra Deep Field, is an
image of a small region of space in the
constellation Fornax, composited from
Hubble Space Telescope data accumulated
over a period from September 3, 2003
through January 16, 2004. The patch of
sky in which the galaxies reside was
chosen because it had a low density of
bright stars in the
near-field. Español: El Campo Ultra
Profundo del Hubble, es una imagen de
una pequeña región del espacio en la
constelación Fornax, compuesta de
datos obtenidos por el telescopio
espacial Hubble durante el período
entre el 3 de Septiembre de 2003 y el
16 de Enero de 2004. Esta parte del
cielo fue escogida por su baja densidad
de estrellas brillantes en sus
proximidades. Français : Le champ
ultra profond de Hubble, une image
d'une petite portion du ciel dans la
constellation du Fourneau, prise par le
télescope spatial Hubble du 3
septembre 2003 au 16 juillet 2004. La
portion de ciel a été choisie car
elle possède peu d'étoiles brillantes
proches. Date 2003-09-03 -
2004-01-16 Source
http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/ar
chive/releases/2004/07/image/a/warn/ Au
thor NASA and the European Space
Agency. Edited by Noodle snacks PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0d/Hubble_ultra_deep_fie
ld_high_rez_edit1.jpg
970,000,000,000 YBN
11) The universe has no start or end.
The same light particles that have
always been, continue to move in the
space that has always been.
 
[1] note
Hubble_ultra_deep_field_high_rez_edit1
is much larger [2] Hubble ultra deep
field high rez
edit1_small.jpg Deutsch: Das Hubble
Ultra Deep Field ist ein Bild einer
kleinen Himmelsregion aufgenommen vom
Hubble-Weltraumteleskop über einen
Zeitraum vom 3. September 2003 bis 16.
Januar 2004. Dabei wurde eine
Himmelsregion ausgewählt, die kaum
störende helle Sterne im Vordergrund
enthält. Man entschied sich für ein
Zielgebiet südwestlich von Orion im
Sternbild Chemischer Ofen. English:
The Hubble Ultra Deep Field, is an
image of a small region of space in the
constellation Fornax, composited from
Hubble Space Telescope data accumulated
over a period from September 3, 2003
through January 16, 2004. The patch of
sky in which the galaxies reside was
chosen because it had a low density of
bright stars in the
near-field. Español: El Campo Ultra
Profundo del Hubble, es una imagen de
una pequeña región del espacio en la
constelación Fornax, compuesta de
datos obtenidos por el telescopio
espacial Hubble durante el período
entre el 3 de Septiembre de 2003 y el
16 de Enero de 2004. Esta parte del
cielo fue escogida por su baja densidad
de estrellas brillantes en sus
proximidades. Français : Le champ
ultra profond de Hubble, une image
d'une petite portion du ciel dans la
constellation du Fourneau, prise par le
télescope spatial Hubble du 3
septembre 2003 au 16 juillet 2004. La
portion de ciel a été choisie car
elle possède peu d'étoiles brillantes
proches. Date 2003-09-03 -
2004-01-16 Source
http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/ar
chive/releases/2004/07/image/a/warn/ Au
thor NASA and the European Space
Agency. Edited by Noodle snacks PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0d/Hubble_ultra_deep_fie
ld_high_rez_edit1.jpg
960,000,000,001 YBN
5) Matter and motion can never be
created or destroyed. Matter can never
be converted into motion, and motion
can never be converted into matter.
 
[1] note
Hubble_ultra_deep_field_high_rez_edit1
is much larger [2] Hubble ultra deep
field high rez
edit1_small.jpg Deutsch: Das Hubble
Ultra Deep Field ist ein Bild einer
kleinen Himmelsregion aufgenommen vom
Hubble-Weltraumteleskop über einen
Zeitraum vom 3. September 2003 bis 16.
Januar 2004. Dabei wurde eine
Himmelsregion ausgewählt, die kaum
störende helle Sterne im Vordergrund
enthält. Man entschied sich für ein
Zielgebiet südwestlich von Orion im
Sternbild Chemischer Ofen. English:
The Hubble Ultra Deep Field, is an
image of a small region of space in the
constellation Fornax, composited from
Hubble Space Telescope data accumulated
over a period from September 3, 2003
through January 16, 2004. The patch of
sky in which the galaxies reside was
chosen because it had a low density of
bright stars in the
near-field. Español: El Campo Ultra
Profundo del Hubble, es una imagen de
una pequeña región del espacio en la
constelación Fornax, compuesta de
datos obtenidos por el telescopio
espacial Hubble durante el período
entre el 3 de Septiembre de 2003 y el
16 de Enero de 2004. Esta parte del
cielo fue escogida por su baja densidad
de estrellas brillantes en sus
proximidades. Français : Le champ
ultra profond de Hubble, une image
d'une petite portion du ciel dans la
constellation du Fourneau, prise par le
télescope spatial Hubble du 3
septembre 2003 au 16 juillet 2004. La
portion de ciel a été choisie car
elle possède peu d'étoiles brillantes
proches. Date 2003-09-03 -
2004-01-16 Source
http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/ar
chive/releases/2004/07/image/a/warn/ Au
thor NASA and the European Space
Agency. Edited by Noodle snacks PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0d/Hubble_ultra_deep_fie
ld_high_rez_edit1.jpg
950,000,000,000 YBN
6) Light particles become trapped with
each other and so form structures such
as protons, atoms, molecules, planets,
stars, galaxies, and clusters of
galaxies.

This accumulation of light particles
into atoms may be the result of
particle collision, gravitation, or a
combination of both.
 
[1] note
Hubble_ultra_deep_field_high_rez_edit1
is much larger [2] Hubble ultra deep
field high rez
edit1_small.jpg Deutsch: Das Hubble
Ultra Deep Field ist ein Bild einer
kleinen Himmelsregion aufgenommen vom
Hubble-Weltraumteleskop über einen
Zeitraum vom 3. September 2003 bis 16.
Januar 2004. Dabei wurde eine
Himmelsregion ausgewählt, die kaum
störende helle Sterne im Vordergrund
enthält. Man entschied sich für ein
Zielgebiet südwestlich von Orion im
Sternbild Chemischer Ofen. English:
The Hubble Ultra Deep Field, is an
image of a small region of space in the
constellation Fornax, composited from
Hubble Space Telescope data accumulated
over a period from September 3, 2003
through January 16, 2004. The patch of
sky in which the galaxies reside was
chosen because it had a low density of
bright stars in the
near-field. Español: El Campo Ultra
Profundo del Hubble, es una imagen de
una pequeña región del espacio en la
constelación Fornax, compuesta de
datos obtenidos por el telescopio
espacial Hubble durante el período
entre el 3 de Septiembre de 2003 y el
16 de Enero de 2004. Esta parte del
cielo fue escogida por su baja densidad
de estrellas brillantes en sus
proximidades. Français : Le champ
ultra profond de Hubble, une image
d'une petite portion du ciel dans la
constellation du Fourneau, prise par le
télescope spatial Hubble du 3
septembre 2003 au 16 juillet 2004. La
portion de ciel a été choisie car
elle possède peu d'étoiles brillantes
proches. Date 2003-09-03 -
2004-01-16 Source
http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/ar
chive/releases/2004/07/image/a/warn/ Au
thor NASA and the European Space
Agency. Edited by Noodle snacks PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0d/Hubble_ultra_deep_fie
ld_high_rez_edit1.jpg
940,000,000,000 YBN
7) All of the billions of galaxies we
see are only a tiny part of the
universe. We will never see most of the
universe because no light particles
from there can ever reach us.

Most galaxies are too far away for even
one particle of light they emit to be
going in the exact direction of our
tiny location, and all the light
particles they emit are captured by
atoms in between there and here.

As telescopes grow larger, the number
of galaxies and the distance we can see
will increase.
 
[1] note
Hubble_ultra_deep_field_high_rez_edit1
is much larger [2] Hubble ultra deep
field high rez
edit1_small.jpg Deutsch: Das Hubble
Ultra Deep Field ist ein Bild einer
kleinen Himmelsregion aufgenommen vom
Hubble-Weltraumteleskop über einen
Zeitraum vom 3. September 2003 bis 16.
Januar 2004. Dabei wurde eine
Himmelsregion ausgewählt, die kaum
störende helle Sterne im Vordergrund
enthält. Man entschied sich für ein
Zielgebiet südwestlich von Orion im
Sternbild Chemischer Ofen. English:
The Hubble Ultra Deep Field, is an
image of a small region of space in the
constellation Fornax, composited from
Hubble Space Telescope data accumulated
over a period from September 3, 2003
through January 16, 2004. The patch of
sky in which the galaxies reside was
chosen because it had a low density of
bright stars in the
near-field. Español: El Campo Ultra
Profundo del Hubble, es una imagen de
una pequeña región del espacio en la
constelación Fornax, compuesta de
datos obtenidos por el telescopio
espacial Hubble durante el período
entre el 3 de Septiembre de 2003 y el
16 de Enero de 2004. Esta parte del
cielo fue escogida por su baja densidad
de estrellas brillantes en sus
proximidades. Français : Le champ
ultra profond de Hubble, une image
d'une petite portion du ciel dans la
constellation du Fourneau, prise par le
télescope spatial Hubble du 3
septembre 2003 au 16 juillet 2004. La
portion de ciel a été choisie car
elle possède peu d'étoiles brillantes
proches. Date 2003-09-03 -
2004-01-16 Source
http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/ar
chive/releases/2004/07/image/a/warn/ Au
thor NASA and the European Space
Agency. Edited by Noodle snacks PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0d/Hubble_ultra_deep_fie
ld_high_rez_edit1.jpg
935,000,000,000 YBN
4) There is a pattern in the universe.
Light particles move from highly dense
volumes of space to volumes of less
density. In low density volumes, light
particles slowly accumulate to form
atoms of Hydrogen and Helium which
exist as gas clouds (like the
Magellanic Clouds or Orion nebula).
These gas clouds, called nebulae
continue to accumulate trapped light
particles. At points of high density
planets and stars form and the cloud is
eventually dense enough to become a
galaxy of stars. The stars emit light
particles back out to the rest of the
universe, where the light again becomes
trapped and forms new clouds. Around
each star are many planets and pieces
of matter. On many of the planets
rotating around stars, living objects
evolve that can copy themselves by
converting matter around them into more
of them. Living objects need matter to
replace matter lost from the constant
emitting of light particles (decay).
Like bacteria, these living objects
grow in number, with the most
successful organisms occupying and
moving around many stars. These
advanced organisms then move the groups
of stars they control, as a globular
cluster, away from the plane of the
spiral galaxy. As time continues, all
of the stars of a galaxy are occupied
by living objects who have organized
their stars into globular clusters.
These globular clusters together form
an elliptical galaxy, and then finally
a globular galaxy. The globular galaxy
may then exist for a long time living
off the matter in stars, in addition to
matter from external sources.

So free light particles are trapped
into volumes of space that grow in
density first forming atoms, then gas
clouds, then stars, a spiral galaxy, an
elliptical galaxy, and finally a
globular galaxy.

Globular galaxies at our scale may be
light particles at a much larger scale,
just as light particles at our scale
may be globular galaxies at a much
smaller scale. This system may go on
infinitely in both larger and smaller
scale.
 
[1] note
Hubble_ultra_deep_field_high_rez_edit1
is much larger Hubble ultra deep
field high rez
edit1_small.jpg Deutsch: Das Hubble
Ultra Deep Field ist ein Bild einer
kleinen Himmelsregion aufgenommen vom
Hubble-Weltraumteleskop über einen
Zeitraum vom 3. September 2003 bis 16.
Januar 2004. Dabei wurde eine
Himmelsregion ausgewählt, die kaum
störende helle Sterne im Vordergrund
enthält. Man entschied sich für ein
Zielgebiet südwestlich von Orion im
Sternbild Chemischer Ofen. English:
The Hubble Ultra Deep Field, is an
image of a small region of space in the
constellation Fornax, composited from
Hubble Space Telescope data accumulated
over a period from September 3, 2003
through January 16, 2004. The patch of
sky in which the galaxies reside was
chosen because it had a low density of
bright stars in the
near-field. Español: El Campo Ultra
Profundo del Hubble, es una imagen de
una pequeña región del espacio en la
constelación Fornax, compuesta de
datos obtenidos por el telescopio
espacial Hubble durante el período
entre el 3 de Septiembre de 2003 y el
16 de Enero de 2004. Esta parte del
cielo fue escogida por su baja densidad
de estrellas brillantes en sus
proximidades. Français : Le champ
ultra profond de Hubble, une image
d'une petite portion du ciel dans la
constellation du Fourneau, prise par le
télescope spatial Hubble du 3
septembre 2003 au 16 juillet 2004. La
portion de ciel a été choisie car
elle possède peu d'étoiles brillantes
proches. Date 2003-09-03 -
2004-01-16 Source
http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/ar
chive/releases/2004/07/image/a/warn/ Au
thor NASA and the European Space
Agency. Edited by Noodle snacks PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0d/Hubble_ultra_deep_fie
ld_high_rez_edit1.jpg

[2] LDN 1622: Dark Nebula in
Orion Data: Digitized Sky Survey
(POSS-II), Color Composite: Noel
Carboni Explanation: The silhouette
of an intriguing dark nebula inhabits
this cosmic scene, based on images from
the Palomar Observatory Sky Survey.
Lynds' Dark Nebula (LDN) 1622 appears
against a faint background of glowing
hydrogen gas only easily seen in long
telescopic exposures of the region. LDN
1622 lies near the plane of our Milky
Way Galaxy, close on the sky to
Barnard's Loop - a large cloud
surrounding the rich complex of
emission nebulae found in the Belt and
Sword of Orion. But the obscuring dust
of LDN 1622 is thought to be much
closer than Orion's more famous
nebulae, perhaps only 500 light-years
away. At that distance, this 1 degree
wide field of view would span less than
10 light-years. PD
source: http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/image/
0705/ldn1622_carboni.jpg
930,000,000,000 YBN
8) An expanding universe seems unlikely
to me. The supposed red-shifted calcium
absorption lines may be a mistaken
observation, for one reason because
spectrum size changes the position of
spectral lines (as clearly shown in the
1936 Humason photo), and because the
distance of a light source changes the
position, but not the frequency of
spectral lines.
 
[1] Image of a spectral line shift from
a close and distant fluorescent
lamp. GNU
source: Ted Huntington

[2] The simple trigonometry that shows
that two light sources at different
distances cannot achieve the same angle
at the same location on a horizontal
diffraction grating. GNU
source: Ted Huntington

LIFE
165,000,000,000 YBN
13) The Milky Way Nebula starts to
form.

Galaxies may form from accumulation of
light particles and from the collision
of two or more galaxies.

If a galaxy is viewed as an exponential
accumulation of light particles
starting from a single light particle
up until 500 billion stars, only in the
last 16% of that time would a galaxy
have enough matter for even a single
star.
 
[1] Description This image is
mosaic of multiple shots on
large-format film. It comprises all 360
degrees of the galaxy from our vantage.
Photography was done in Ft. Davis,
Texas for the Northern hemisphere shots
and from Broken Hill, New South Wales,
Australia, for the southern portions.
Note the dust lanes, which obscure our
view of some features beyond them.
Infrared imaging reaches into these
regions, and radio astronomy can look
all the way through with less detail.
The very center, however, shows a
window to the farther side. In the
center, stars are mostly very old and
this causes the more yellow color. The
final file is 1.5GB, and resolves
details of less than one arcminute.
Faintest stars are magnitude 11. There
are 21 pixels of horizontal overlap at
the ends, with the right end slightly
brighter than the corresponding pixels
on the left. Date Source
http://www.digitalskyllc.com (The
image was uploaded to en.wiki at 17:16,
21 September 2006 by Twtunes. Author
Digital Sky LLC CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0a/Milkyway_pan1.jpg

[2] note
Hubble_ultra_deep_field_high_rez_edit1
is much larger [2] Hubble ultra deep
field high rez
edit1_small.jpg Deutsch: Das Hubble
Ultra Deep Field ist ein Bild einer
kleinen Himmelsregion aufgenommen vom
Hubble-Weltraumteleskop über einen
Zeitraum vom 3. September 2003 bis 16.
Januar 2004. Dabei wurde eine
Himmelsregion ausgewählt, die kaum
störende helle Sterne im Vordergrund
enthält. Man entschied sich für ein
Zielgebiet südwestlich von Orion im
Sternbild Chemischer Ofen. English:
The Hubble Ultra Deep Field, is an
image of a small region of space in the
constellation Fornax, composited from
Hubble Space Telescope data accumulated
over a period from September 3, 2003
through January 16, 2004. The patch of
sky in which the galaxies reside was
chosen because it had a low density of
bright stars in the
near-field. Español: El Campo Ultra
Profundo del Hubble, es una imagen de
una pequeña región del espacio en la
constelación Fornax, compuesta de
datos obtenidos por el telescopio
espacial Hubble durante el período
entre el 3 de Septiembre de 2003 y el
16 de Enero de 2004. Esta parte del
cielo fue escogida por su baja densidad
de estrellas brillantes en sus
proximidades. Français : Le champ
ultra profond de Hubble, une image
d'une petite portion du ciel dans la
constellation du Fourneau, prise par le
télescope spatial Hubble du 3
septembre 2003 au 16 juillet 2004. La
portion de ciel a été choisie car
elle possède peu d'étoiles brillantes
proches. Date 2003-09-03 -
2004-01-16 Source
http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/ar
chive/releases/2004/07/image/a/warn/ Au
thor NASA and the European Space
Agency. Edited by Noodle snacks PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0d/Hubble_ultra_deep_fie
ld_high_rez_edit1.jpg
33,000,000,000 YBN
6180) The first star in the Milky Way
Galaxy forms.

Stars may form from the accumulation of
matter or from collisions of two or
more large bodies. As time goes by,
less collisions occur around a star,
because most smaller objects are
absorbed by the star and planets.

Stars and planets may have centers of
densely packed unmoving light
particles. The less dense and colder
area near the surface of planets and
stars may allow atoms and molecules to
form and stay together. Many light
particles must move through the
internal maze of matter inside planets
and stars to eventually reach the
surface and escape into empty space.
 
[1] Description English: M8 Lagoon
Nebula in Sagittarius Date 26 June
2009 Source Own
work Author Hewholooks CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2f/M8HunterWilson.jpg

[2] NGC 7023: The Iris Nebula Credit
& Copyright: Daniel López,
IAC Explanation: Like delicate cosmic
petals, these clouds of interstellar
dust and gas have blossomed 1,300
light-years away in the fertile star
fields of the constellation Cepheus.
Sometimes called the Iris Nebula and
dutifully cataloged as NGC 7023, this
is not the only nebula in the sky to
evoke the imagery of flowers. Still,
this beautiful digital image shows off
the Iris Nebula's range of colors and
symmetries in impressive detail. Within
the Iris, dusty nebular material
surrounds a hot, young star. The
dominant color of the brighter
reflection nebula is blue,
characteristic of dust grains
reflecting starlight. Central filaments
of the dusty clouds glow with a faint
reddish photoluminesence as some dust
grains effectively convert the star's
invisible ultraviolet radiation to
visible red light. Infrared
observations indicate that this nebula
may contain complex carbon molecules
known as PAHs. As shown here, the
bright blue portion of the Iris Nebula
is about six light-years across. PD
source: http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/image/
1011/IRIS_IAC80_DLopez900c.jpg
22,000,000,000 YBN
6181) Living objects in the Milky Way
Galaxy reach another star using a ship,
perhaps 5 billion years after the first
stars formed.
 
[1] close up
of: Description English: M8 Lagoon
Nebula in Sagittarius Date 26 June
2009 Source Own
work Author Hewholooks CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2f/M8HunterWilson.jpg

[2] Description The photograph,
taken by NASA's Hubble Space Telescope,
captures a small region within M17, a
hotbed of star formation. M17, also
known as the Omega or Swan Nebula, is
located about 5500 light-years away in
the constellation Sagittarius. The
wave-like patterns of gas have been
sculpted and illuminated by a torrent
of ultraviolet radiation from young,
massive stars, which lie outside the
picture to the upper left. The glow of
these patterns accentuates the
three-dimensional structure of the
gases. The ultraviolet radiation is
carving and heating the surfaces of
cold hydrogen gas clouds. The warmed
surfaces glow orange and red in this
photograph. The intense heat and
pressure cause some material to stream
away from those surfaces, creating the
glowing veil of even hotter greenish
gas that masks background structures.
The pressure on the tips of the waves
may trigger new star formation within
them. The image, roughly 3
light-years across, was taken May
29-30, 1999, with the Wide Field
Planetary Camera 2. The colors in the
image represent various gases. Red
represents sulfur; green, hydrogen; and
blue, oxygen. Date 24 April
2003 Source
http://spacetelescope.org/images/html/he
ic0305a.html (direct link)
http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/archive
/releases/2003/13/image/a/ Author
NASA, ESA and J. Hester (ASU) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/72/Omega_Nebula.jpg
10,000,000,000 YBN
6182) The first globular cluster of
100,000 stars forms in the Milky Way
Galaxy.
 
[1] Description The globular
cluster Omega Centauri — with as many
as ten million stars — is seen in all
its splendour in this image captured
with the WFI camera from ESO's La Silla
Observatory. The image shows only the
central part of the cluster — about
the size of the full moon on the sky
(half a degree). North is up, East is
to the left. This colour image is a
composite of B, V and I filtered
images. Note that because WFI is
equipped with a mosaic detector, there
are two small gaps in the image which
were filled with lower quality data
from the Digitized Sky Survey. Date
2008 Source
http://www.eso.org/public/outreach/
press-rel/pr-2008/phot-44-08.html Autho
r ESO CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Omega_Centauri_
by_ESO.jpg/638px-Omega_Centauri_by_ESO.j
pg

[2] Description This image is
mosaic of multiple shots on
large-format film. It comprises all 360
degrees of the galaxy from our vantage.
Photography was done in Ft. Davis,
Texas for the Northern hemisphere shots
and from Broken Hill, New South Wales,
Australia, for the southern portions.
Note the dust lanes, which obscure our
view of some features beyond them.
Infrared imaging reaches into these
regions, and radio astronomy can look
all the way through with less detail.
The very center, however, shows a
window to the farther side. In the
center, stars are mostly very old and
this causes the more yellow color. The
final file is 1.5GB, and resolves
details of less than one arcminute.
Faintest stars are magnitude 11. There
are 21 pixels of horizontal overlap at
the ends, with the right end slightly
brighter than the corresponding pixels
on the left. Date Source
http://www.digitalskyllc.com (The
image was uploaded to en.wiki at 17:16,
21 September 2006 by Twtunes. Author
Digital Sky LLC CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0a/Milkyway_pan1.jpg
5,500,000,000 YBN
16) The star Earth orbits forms.
 
[1] Description English: The Sun
photographed by the Atmospheric Imaging
Assembly (AIA 304) of NASA's Solar
Dynamics Observatory (SDO). This is
a false color image of the sun observed
in the extreme ultraviolet region of
the spectrum. For example,similar
image Français : Le soleil,
photographié depuis le Solar Dynamics
Observatory de la NASA. Date
2010-08-19T00:32:21Z (ISO
8601) Source NASA/SDO
(AIA). Author NASA/SDO (AIA). PD

source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/The_Sun_by_the_
Atmospheric_Imaging_Assembly_of_NASAs_So
lar_Dynamics_Observatory_-_20100819.jpg/
628px-The_Sun_by_the_Atmospheric_Imaging
_Assembly_of_NASAs_Solar_Dynamics_Observ
atory_-_20100819.jpg

[2] Summary Description The star
formation region N11B in the LMC taken
by WFPC2 on the NASA/ESA Hubble Space
Telescope. Date Source
http://www.spacetelescope.org/image
s/html/heic0411a.html Author
NASA/ESA and the Hubble Heritage
Team
(AURA/STScI)/HEIC Permission (Reusing
this file) ESA Public Domain, as
per
http://www.spacetelescope.org/copyright.
html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6c/Heic0411a.jpg
5,500,000,000 YBN
17) Planets form around our star from
many collisions. Like the star, they
are red hot with liquid rock and metals
on the surface. Lighter atoms move to
the surface of the planets. Larger
planets are surrounded by gas.

As the number of collisions decrease,
and smaller objects are absorbed by the
star and planets, the average
temperature of the star system is
lowered. As the temperature of the
planets and moons decrease, the surface
solidifies, water and other molecules
condense at the surface.

Perhaps most outer planets are larger,
because their orbit covers a larger
space which includes more matter.
 
[1] an 19, 2005 � For the past five
days, forecasters at the NOAA Space
Environment Center in Boulder, Colo.,
have observed all types of space
weather: radio blackouts, solar
radiation storms and geomagnetic
storms. Currently, space weather
forecasters are observing a moderate
geomagnetic storm (G-2 on the NOAA
Space Weather Scales) and a minor (S-1)
solar radiation storm. Earlier
Wednesday an X-class flare produced a
strong (R-3) radio blackout. (Click
image for larger view of the sun taken
on Jan. 19, 2005, at 2:19 p.m. EST.
Click here for high resolution version,
which is a large file. Please credit
European Space Agency-NASA.) PD
source: http://www.noaanews.noaa.gov/sto
ries2005/images/sun-soho011905-1919z.jpg


[2] This artist’s impression shows
the disk of gas and cosmic dust around
the young star HD 142527. Astronomers
using the Atacama Large
Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA)
telescope have seen vast streams of gas
flowing across the gap in the disc
UNKNOWN
source: http://l2.yimg.com/bt/api/res/1.
2/kB0xEBWbOe3fUGcRF7Y3RA--/YXBwaWQ9eW5ld
3M7Zmk9aW5zZXQ7aD00MDg7cT03OTt3PTU3NQ--/
http://media.zenfs.com/en_US/News/SPACE.
com/Never-Before-Seen_Stage_of_Planet_Bi
rth-893372caafae611ec5e71458c2f79fb8
4,600,000,000 YBN
21) The moon of Earth is captured.

The moon of Earth may form as a planet
that is captured by the Earth, or a
planet that collides with the Earth and
then reforms from the remaining matter
of the collision, or forms in orbit of
the Earth at the same time the Earth
forms.
 
[1] Image of moon superimposed on
Venus PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/dd/Full_Moon_Luc_Viatour
.jpg

[2] an 19, 2005 � For the past five
days, forecasters at the NOAA Space
Environment Center in Boulder, Colo.,
have observed all types of space
weather: radio blackouts, solar
radiation storms and geomagnetic
storms. Currently, space weather
forecasters are observing a moderate
geomagnetic storm (G-2 on the NOAA
Space Weather Scales) and a minor (S-1)
solar radiation storm. Earlier
Wednesday an X-class flare produced a
strong (R-3) radio blackout. (Click
image for larger view of the sun taken
on Jan. 19, 2005, at 2:19 p.m. EST.
Click here for high resolution version,
which is a large file. Please credit
European Space Agency-NASA.) PD
source: http://www.noaanews.noaa.gov/sto
ries2005/images/sun-soho011905-1919z.jpg

4,600,000,000 YBN
30) Planet Earth cools. Molten liquid
rock turns into a solid thin crust.
Water condenses and falls to the
surface, filling the lowest parts of
the land to make the first Earth
oceans, lakes, and rivers.
 
[1] USGS Photo by Tim Orr Pahoehoe
lava breaks out of the crust along a
flow margin PD
source: http://www.nps.gov/havo/parkmgmt
/upload/havo_manage_usgs_20080304_tro381
7_x800.jpg

[2] English: Ultraviolet image of
Venus' clouds as seen by the Pioneer
Venus Orbiter (February 26, 1979). The
immense C- or Y-shaped features which
are visible only in these wavelengths
are individually short lived, but
reform often enough to be considered a
permanent feature of Venus' clouds. The
mechanism by which Venus' clouds absorb
ultraviolet is not well understood. PD

source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Venuspioneeruv.
jpg/953px-Venuspioneeruv.jpg
4,600,000,000 YBN
50) The start of the "Precambrian" and
the Hadean {HA DEen} Eon.
 
[1] Geologic Time Scale 2009 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.geosociety.org/scienc
e/timescale/timescl.pdf
4,571,000,000 YBN
31) The oldest meteorite yet found on
Earth: 4.57 billion years old.
 
[1] The ''Zag'' meteorite fell to Earth
in 1988 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/t
ech/783048.stm
4,530,000,000 YBN
33) The oldest Moon rock returned from
the Moon (4.53 billions old).
 
[1]
http://www.nasm.si.edu/exhibitions/attm/
atmimages/S73-15446.f.jpg
http://www.nasm.si.edu/exhibitions/attm/
nojs/wl.br.1.html
source:
4,404,000,000 YBN
34) The oldest "terrestrial" zircon;
evidence that the crust and liquid
water are on the surface of Earth. A
terrestrial zircon is not from a
meteorite. This zircon is from Gneiss
{nIS} (metamorphic rock) in West
Australia that is 4.4 billion years
old.

This are also the oldest rock and
metamorphic rock; a rock that results
from the alteration of a preexisting
rock in response to changing geological
conditions, including variations in
temperature, pressure, and mechanical
stress.
 
[1]
http://www.geology.wisc.edu/zircon/Earli
est%20Piece/Images/8.jpg
source:
4,400,000,000 YBN
18) Larger molecules form on Earth,
like amino acids, phosphates, and
sugars, the components of living
objects.

These molecules are made in the oceans,
fresh water, and atmosphere of Earth
(and other planets) by lightning, light
particles with high frequency from the
Sun, and from ocean floor volcanoes.

The initial building blocks of living
objects are easily formed, but
assembling them into longer-chain
molecules, or polymers, is more
difficult. Amino acids link up to form
polymers called proteins, simple fatty
acids plus alcohols link up to form
lipids (oils and fats), simple sugars
like glucose and sucrose link together
to form complex carbohydrates and
starches, and finally, the nucleotide
bases (plus phosphates and sugars) link
up to form nucleic acids, the genetic
code of organisms, known as RNA and
DNA.

Perhaps all proteins, carbohydrates,
lipids and DNA are strictly the
products of living objects, while RNA
can be made without the help of any
living objects.
 
[1] The two optical isomers of alanine,
D-Alanine and
L-Alanine D-glucose BOTH PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/65/D%2BL-Alanine.gif
and http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiped
ia/commons/thumb/5/5a/D-glucose-chain-3D
-balls.png/640px-D-glucose-chain-3D-ball
s.png
4,395,000,000 YBN
19) Nucleic acids form on Earth.
Ribonucleic acid (RNA) may be the first
nucleic acid to form. One of these RNA
molecules may be the ancestor of all of
life on Earth.
 
[1] Ribonucleic acid (English
pronunciation:
/raɪbɵ.njuːˌkleɪ.ɨk ˈæsɪd/),
or RNA, is one of the three major
macromolecules (along with DNA and
proteins) that are essential for all
known forms of life. UNKNOWN
source: http://dna-rna.net/wp-content/up
loads/2011/07/rna.jpg
4,390,000,000 YBN
25) An RNA molecule may evolve that can
copy other RNA molecules.
 
[1] Description Full-Length
Hammerhead Ribozyme color-coded so that
the 5'-end of each RNA strand is blue
and the 3'-end is red. The individual
nucleotides are represented as
toothpicks, and the phosphodiester
backbone as a narrow tube. From
Protein Data Bank ID 2GOZ. Date
17 June 2007 Source Own
work Author William G.
Scott GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/28/Full_length_hammerhea
d_ribozyme.png
4,385,000,000 YBN
167) The first proteins on Earth.
Transfer RNA molecules evolve (tRNA),
and link amimo acids into proteins
using other RNA molecules ("messenger"
or mRNA molecules), as a template.

This protein assembly system is the
main system responsible for all the
proteins on Earth.

Part of each tRNA bonds with a specific
amino acid, while another part has a 3
nucleotide sequence that bonds with an
opposite matching 3 nucleotide sequence
on an mRNA.

Perhaps this system, where tRNA
molecules build proteins directly from
free floating RNA strands, evolves
before the first ribosome and the first
cell.
 
[1] Description English:
Illustration of tRNA building peptide
chain Date 1 March 2009 Source
Own work Author
Boumphreyfr CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0f/Peptide_syn.png

[2] Source : ''Role of the
Ribosome'' University of Texas Medical
Branch UNKNOWN
source: http://ead.univ-angers.fr/~jaspa
rd/Page2/COURS/7RelStructFonction/2Bioch
imie/1SyntheseProteines/3Figures/4Organi
tes/2Ribosomes/6Polysome.gif
4,380,000,000 YBN
40) A protein can copy RNA. This
protein is called an RNA polymerase
{PoL-u-mu-rAS}.

For the first time, a nucleic acid
functions both as a template for
building proteins (with the help of
tRNA molecules) and also as a template
for building other nucleic acid
molecules.

An RNA polymerase must be one of the
first useful proteins to be assembled
by the early (presumably) precellular
protein production system. Eventually
an mRNA that codes for the RNA
polymerase and the tRNA needed for the
polymerase may be copied many times.
 
[1] RNA is a versatile molecule. In its
most familiar role, RNA acts as an
intermediary, carrying genetic
information from the DNA to the
machinery of protein synthesis. RNA
also plays more active roles,
performing many of the catalytic and
recognition functions normally reserved
for proteins. In fact, most of the RNA
in cells is found in ribosomes--our
protein-synthesizing machines--and the
transfer RNA molecules used to add each
new amino acid to growing proteins. In
addition, countless small RNA molecules
are involved in regulating, processing
and disposing of the constant traffic
of messenger RNA. The enzyme RNA
polymerase carries the weighty
responsibility of creating all of these
different RNA molecules. The RNA
Factory RNA polymerase is a huge
factory with many moving parts. The one
shown here, from PDB entry 1i6h, is
from yeast cells. It is composed of a
dozen different proteins. Together,
they form a machine that surrounds DNA
strands, unwinds them, and builds an
RNA strand based on the information
held inside the DNA. Once the enzyme
gets started, RNA polymerase marches
confidently along the DNA copying RNA
strands thousands of nucleotides
long. Accuracy As you might expect,
RNA polymerase needs to be accurate in
its copying of genetic information. To
improve its accuracy, it performs a
simple proofreading step as it builds
an RNA strand. The active site is
designed to be able to remove
nucleotides as well as add them to the
growing strand. The enzyme tends to
hover around mismatched nucleotides
longer than properly added ones, giving
the enzyme time to remove them. This
process is somewhat wasteful, since
proper nucleotides are also
occasionally removed, but this is a
small price to pay for creating better
RNA transcripts. Overall, RNA
polymerase makes an error about once in
10,000 nucleotides added, or about once
per RNA strand created. Poisoning
Polymerase Since RNA polymerase is
absolutely essential for the life of
the cell, it is a sensitive target for
poisons and toxins. The most powerful
of these poisons is alpha-amanitin, a
small circular peptide created by the
death cap mushroom. Eating even one of
these mushrooms will lead to coma and
death in a manner of days, as the
poison attacks RNA polymerase
throughout the body. Surprisingly, it
binds on the back side of RNA
polymerase, away from the active site
and away from the binding site for the
DNA and RNA. It does not physically
block the active site, like most
inhibitors, but instead jams the
mechanism of the enzyme. RNA polymerase
is a highly mobile enzyme, that flexes
and changes shape as it performs the
sequential steps of binding to DNA,
unwinding it, and then building the RNA
strand. As seen in PDB entry 1k83, the
poison binds between two subunits of
the protein, gluing them together and
blocking these essential motions. PD
source: http://www.pdb.org/pdb/education
_discussion/molecule_of_the_month/images
/1i6h-composite.gif

[2] [t Notice that many RNA molecules
are being produced all in sequence,
with each RNA molecule getting longer
as each protein reaches the end of the
DNA molecule.] Micrograph of gene
transcription of ribosomal RNA
illustrating the growing primary
transcripts. ''Begin'' indicates the 5'
end of the coding strand of DNA, where
new RNA synthesis begins; ''end''
indicates the 3' end, where the primary
transcripts are almost
complete. This is an alternate
version of
Image:RibosomaleTranskriptionsEinheit.jp
g, original author identified as Dr.
Hans-Heinrich Trepte, labeled in
German. This version with English
labels is from en:Image:Transcription
label fromcommons.jpg, by
en:UserOpabinia regalis, licensed under
GFDL. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/43/Transcription_label_e
n.jpg
4,370,000,000 YBN
168) The ribosome evolves. The first
Ribosomal RNA (rRNA).

The ribosome may function as a
protocell, providing a platform for
more efficient protein production. A
single RNA may contain all the
instructions needed to make more
polymerase, tRNA, and ribosomes.
Alternatively the first ribosome may
not evolve until after the first cell.

All cells contain ribosomes. Ribosomes
are the cellular organelles that carry
out protein synthesis, through a
process called translation. These
molecular machines are responsible for
accurately translating the linear
genetic code on the messenger RNA
(mRNA), into a linear sequence of amino
acids to produce a protein.
 
[1] Description English:
Illustration of tRNA building peptide
chain Date 1 March 2009 Source
Own work Author
Boumphreyfr CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0f/Peptide_syn.png

[2] Source : ''Role of the
Ribosome'' University of Texas Medical
Branch UNKNOWN
source: http://ead.univ-angers.fr/~jaspa
rd/Page2/COURS/7RelStructFonction/2Bioch
imie/1SyntheseProteines/3Figures/4Organi
tes/2Ribosomes/6Polysome.gif
4,365,000,000 YBN
166) The first Deoxyribonucleic acid
(DNA) molecule. A protein evolves that
allows the assembly of DNA from RNA; a
ribonucleotide reductase.

This protein changes ribonucleotides
into deoxyribonucleotides, which can
then be assembled into the first DNA
molecules on Earth.

DNA has the advantage of being more
stable than RNA and can hold together
in longer strands. Longer strands allow
for a more complex organism.

How and when the first DNA evolved is
not certain. Perhaps RNA and DNA were
both created by a similar process, and
created around the same time. But
perhaps the first DNA molecule is the
result of the first ribonucleotide
reductase. One of these DNA molecules
may be the template for the line of
cells that survives to now.
 
[1] Description Crystallographic
structure of the ribonucleotide
reductase protein R1E from Salmonella
typhimurium. The protein is rainbow
colored (N-terminus = blue, C-terminus
= red) while deoxyadenosine
triphosphate is show as sticks and a
complexed magnesium ion as a grey
sphere.[1] ↑ PDB 1PEU; Uppsten M,
Färnegårdh M, Jordan A, Eliasson R,
Eklund H, Uhlin U (June 2003).
''Structure of the large subunit of
class Ib ribonucleotide reductase from
Salmonella typhimurium and its
complexes with allosteric effectors''.
J. Mol. Biol. 330 (1): 87–97. PMID
12818204. Date 28 February
2008 Source Own
work Author Boghog2 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/1PEU_R1E.png/10
24px-1PEU_R1E.png

[2] Description English: The
reaction mechanism of ribonucleotide
reductase Date 14 January 2006
(original upload
date) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia; transferred to Commons by
User:Michał Sobkowski using
CommonsHelper. Author Original
uploader was BorisTM at
en.wikipedia PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2c/RNR_reaction.png
4,360,000,000 YBN
212) A protein can copy DNA molecules,
a DNA polymerase {PoL-u-mu-rAS}.
 
[1] A look at DNA replication, with the
inset showing a larger and general
view. ''Pol'' stands for polymerase, a
key enzyme. Note how each enzyme works
in a 'biochemical team' to complete the
process efficiently COPYRIGHTED
source: http://genmed.yolasite.com/resou
rces/DNA20replication.jpg

[2] Description Diagram of DNA
polymerase extending a DNA strand and
proof-reading. Date Source Own
work Author Madprime GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6f/DNA_polymerase.svg
4,360,000,000 YBN
6409) Transcription evolves. A protein
(an RNA polymerase) assembles RNA from
DNA. This polymerase is also called
DNA-dependent RNA polymerase and
transcriptase.
 
[1] Transcription: DNA-> RNA In E. coli
it is possible to see the strands of
RNA transcripts under the electron
microscope. Relate the image seen under
an electron microscope with the drawing
in your book in Figure 13-3. Why do you
not see any protein strands coming from
the mRNA in the electron microscope
image? UNKNOWN
source: http://www.utexas.edu/courses/zo
o325/13-4.gif

[2] RNA is a versatile molecule. In
its most familiar role, RNA acts as an
intermediary, carrying genetic
information from the DNA to the
machinery of protein synthesis. RNA
also plays more active roles,
performing many of the catalytic and
recognition functions normally reserved
for proteins. In fact, most of the RNA
in cells is found in ribosomes--our
protein-synthesizing machines--and the
transfer RNA molecules used to add each
new amino acid to growing proteins. In
addition, countless small RNA molecules
are involved in regulating, processing
and disposing of the constant traffic
of messenger RNA. The enzyme RNA
polymerase carries the weighty
responsibility of creating all of these
different RNA molecules. The RNA
Factory RNA polymerase is a huge
factory with many moving parts. The one
shown here, from PDB entry 1i6h, is
from yeast cells. It is composed of a
dozen different proteins. Together,
they form a machine that surrounds DNA
strands, unwinds them, and builds an
RNA strand based on the information
held inside the DNA. Once the enzyme
gets started, RNA polymerase marches
confidently along the DNA copying RNA
strands thousands of nucleotides
long. Accuracy As you might expect,
RNA polymerase needs to be accurate in
its copying of genetic information. To
improve its accuracy, it performs a
simple proofreading step as it builds
an RNA strand. The active site is
designed to be able to remove
nucleotides as well as add them to the
growing strand. The enzyme tends to
hover around mismatched nucleotides
longer than properly added ones, giving
the enzyme time to remove them. This
process is somewhat wasteful, since
proper nucleotides are also
occasionally removed, but this is a
small price to pay for creating better
RNA transcripts. Overall, RNA
polymerase makes an error about once in
10,000 nucleotides added, or about once
per RNA strand created. Poisoning
Polymerase Since RNA polymerase is
absolutely essential for the life of
the cell, it is a sensitive target for
poisons and toxins. The most powerful
of these poisons is alpha-amanitin, a
small circular peptide created by the
death cap mushroom. Eating even one of
these mushrooms will lead to coma and
death in a manner of days, as the
poison attacks RNA polymerase
throughout the body. Surprisingly, it
binds on the back side of RNA
polymerase, away from the active site
and away from the binding site for the
DNA and RNA. It does not physically
block the active site, like most
inhibitors, but instead jams the
mechanism of the enzyme. RNA polymerase
is a highly mobile enzyme, that flexes
and changes shape as it performs the
sequential steps of binding to DNA,
unwinding it, and then building the RNA
strand. As seen in PDB entry 1k83, the
poison binds between two subunits of
the protein, gluing them together and
blocking these essential motions. PD
source: http://www.pdb.org/pdb/education
_discussion/molecule_of_the_month/images
/1i6h-composite.gif
4,355,000,000 YBN
20) The first cell on Earth evolves.
This is the first prokaryotic cell and
first bacterium. DNA is surrounded by a
membrane of proteins made by ribosomes;
the first cytoplasm.

This cell may form in either fresh or
salt water, near the sunlit water
surface or near underwater volcanoes on
the ocean floor.

The DNA of this cell is a template
containing the code for a copying
molecule (DNA polymerase
{PoL-u-mu-rAS}), and the necessary
mRNA, tRNA, and rRNA molecules needed
to build the cytoplasm. For the first
time, ribosomes and DNA build cell
structure. DNA protected by cytoplasm
is more likely to survive and be
copied. Copies of this cell also have
cytoplasm.

This is the start of binary cell
division. DNA polymerase duplicates DNA
within the cell and then the cell
divides into two parts. Two important
evolutionary steps evolve: DNA
duplication within cytoplasm, and cell
(DNA with cytoplasm) division. Not only
must the DNA copy and divide, but the
cell membrane must also divide too. A
system of division may evolve in which
the original and newly synthesized copy
of DNA are each attached to the
cytoplasm, so that as the cell grows,
the two copies of DNA can be separated
and the growing mass can eventually
divide into two cells.


This is also the start of passive
transport. Amino acids, nucleotides,
water, and other molecules enter and
exit the cytoplasm only because of a
difference in concentration from inside
and outside the cell. This represent
the beginnings of the first digestive
system.

This membrane forms the first
protective barrier between DNA and the
external universe, and serves as a
container to hold water.

This cell structure forms the basis of
all future cells of every living object
on Earth. These first cells are
probably anaerobic (or anoxygenic- do
not require free oxygen) and are
heterotrophic, meaning that they do not
make their own food (amino acids,
nucleotides, phosphates, and sugars)
but instead depend on obtaining these
molecules from external sources. In
addition, living objects require a
certain temperature range to live, and
this involves the constant absorption
and emission of light particles.
 
[1] Deutsch: Bild über den Reitenden
Urzwerg English: Image of Nanoarchaeum
equitans Date 2005-09-10 (original
upload date) Source Originally
from de.wikipedia; description page
is/was here. Author Original
uploader was Eber-Jimmy at
de.wikipedia Permission (Reusing
this file) This image is in the
public domain due to its
age. Licensing According to this
article, ''Es wurde von dem
Mikrobiologen Karl O. Stetter entdeckt.
Bildrechte: Public domain.'' PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/dc/Urzwerg.jpg

[2] Hydrogenobacter thermophilus
(strain TK-6) is an obligately
chemolithoautotrophic, extremely (and
strictly) thermophilic
hydrogen-oxidizing bacterium whose
optimal growth temperature is around 70
to 75°C and was isolated from hot
springs. UNKNOWN
source: http://standardsingenomics.org/i
ndex.php/sigen/article/viewFile/146/534/
4368
4,350,000,000 YBN
183) Cells make the first lipids on
Earth; (fats, oils, and waxes) by
making proteins that can assemble
lipids.
 
[1] Figure1: Lipid accumulation in
differentiating 3T3-L1 pre-adipocyte
cell line (days in culture) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.emsdiasum.com/microsc
opy/products/sem/wet/images/lipid_accumu
lation.jpg

[2] Lipid Structures under the
microscope. Image by Alison North, The
Rockefeller University. UNKNOWN
source: http://selections.rockefeller.ed
u/cms/images/stories/2010/may/lipid.gif
4,345,000,000 YBN
27) A phospholipid bilayer evolves
around the cell, providing added
protection from the external
environment. All extant cells have this
phospholipid bilayer.

When phospholipids are added to water,
they self-assemble into double-layered
aggregates, or bilayers, with the
phosphate part of the molecule on the
outside and the fatty acid tail part on
the inside.
 
[1] Campbell, N.A., and J.B. Reece.
Biology. Pearson Benjamin Cummings,
2008. Alternative eText Formats Series,
p77. COPYRIGHTED
source: Campbell, N.A., and J.B. Reece.
Biology. Pearson Benjamin Cummings,
2008. Alternative eText Formats Series,
p77.

[2] Gram negative cell
wall http://www.arches.uga.edu/~kristen
c/cellwall.html COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.arches.uga.edu/~krist
enc/cellwall.html
4,340,000,000 YBN
26) Possibly DNA that is connected in a
circle allows the DNA polymerase to
make continuous copies of the cell,
which may increase the speed of cell
growth, duplication, and division.

As far as is known bacteria do not die
of old age, but if a mutation stops
them from dividing, then they die.
Bacteria can also die from physical
destruction in addition to lack of food
and water.
  
4,340,000,000 YBN
64) Operons evolve. An operon is a
sequence of DNA which a protein binds
with in order to block RNA polymerase
from building an mRNA molecule, from
part of the sequence, which would be
translated into a protein. Operons
allow a bacterium to produce certain
proteins only when necessary. Bacteria
before now can only build a constant
stream of all proteins encoded in their
DNA.
 
[1] Figure 6 from: Jacob, F. & Monod,
J. Genetic regulatory mechanisms in the
synthesis of proteins. J. Mol. Biol. 3,
318–356 (1961)
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_
ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6WK7-4Y39HH7-B&_user
=4422&_coverDate=06%2F30%2F1961&_alid=17
23143833&_rdoc=1&_fmt=high&_orig=search&
_origin=search&_zone=rslt_list_item&_cdi
=6899&_sort=r&_st=13&_docanchor=&view=c&
_ct=5&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlVe
rsion=0&_userid=4422&md5=c2699b72c7c5bee
4e2c31224c6261556&searchtype=a {Jacob_F
rancois_19601228.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6WK7-4Y39HH7-B
&_user=4422&_coverDate=06%2F30%2F1961&_a
lid=1723143833&_rdoc=1&_fmt=high&_orig=s
earch&_origin=search&_zone=rslt_list_ite
m&_cdi=6899&_sort=r&_st=13&_docanchor=&v
iew=c&_ct=5&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&
_urlVersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=c2699b72c
7c5bee4e2c31224c6261556&searchtype=a {J
acob_Francois_19601228.pdf}

[2] Figure 3 from: Jacob, F. & Monod,
J. Genetic regulatory mechanisms in the
synthesis of proteins. J. Mol. Biol. 3,
318–356 (1961)
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_
ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6WK7-4Y39HH7-B&_user
=4422&_coverDate=06%2F30%2F1961&_alid=17
23143833&_rdoc=1&_fmt=high&_orig=search&
_origin=search&_zone=rslt_list_item&_cdi
=6899&_sort=r&_st=13&_docanchor=&view=c&
_ct=5&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlVe
rsion=0&_userid=4422&md5=c2699b72c7c5bee
4e2c31224c6261556&searchtype=a {Jacob_F
rancois_19601228.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6WK7-4Y39HH7-B
&_user=4422&_coverDate=06%2F30%2F1961&_a
lid=1723143833&_rdoc=1&_fmt=high&_orig=s
earch&_origin=search&_zone=rslt_list_ite
m&_cdi=6899&_sort=r&_st=13&_docanchor=&v
iew=c&_ct=5&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&
_urlVersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=c2699b72c
7c5bee4e2c31224c6261556&searchtype=a {J
acob_Francois_19601228.pdf}
4,340,000,000 YBN
6340) Facilitated diffusion evolves.
Proteins in the cell membrane allow
only certain molecules to enter the
cell.

"Facilitated diffusion" is passive
transport aided by proteins.
 
[1] Figure 7.15 from: Campbell, Reece,
et al., ''Biology'', 8th Edition, 2008,
P135. COPYRIGHTED
source: Campbell, Reece, et al.,
"Biology", 8th Edition, 2008, P135.

[2] Figure 7.18 from: Campbell,
Reece, et al., ''Biology'', 8th
Edition, 2008, P137. COPYRIGHTED
source: Campbell, Reece, et al.,
"Biology", 8th Edition, 2008, P137.
4,335,000,000 YBN
28) Cellular respiration. Glycolysis
evolves in the cytoplasm. Cells can now
make ATP (adenosine {oDeNoSEN}
triphosphate) by converting glucose
into pyruvate {PIrUVAT}. This is the
beginning of cellular respiration, how
cells convert food into ATP and waste
products.

ATP is the molecule that drives most
cellular work.

The word "glycolysis" means "sugar
splitting", and that is what happens
during this molecular reaction. Glucose
a six-carbon sugar, is split into two
three-carbon sugars. These smaller
sugars are then oxidized (an electron
is removed) and their remaining atoms
rearranged to form two molecules of
pyruvate (the ionized form of pyruvic
acid). Glycolysis occurs whether Oxygen
is present or not.

Oxygen does not start to accumulate in
the air of Earth until around 2.7
billion years ago, so early prokaryotes
may have produced ATP exclusively by
glycolysis. That glycolysis is today
the most widespread metabolic pathway
among Earth's organisms suggests that
it evolved very early in the history of
life. That glycolysis occurs in the
cytoplasm (or cytosol), not requiring
any of the membrane-bounded organelles
of the later evolved eukaryotic cell,
also implies that glycolysis is very
old. That Glycolysis functions as the
first stage in the later evolved
fermentation and aerobic respiration is
also evidence of an ancient origin.
 
[1] Description English: Glycolysis
pathway overview. Date 3
September 2009 Source Own
work Author
WYassineMrabetTalk✉ Inkscape
Logo.svg This vector image was
created with
Inkscape. Permission (Reusing this
file) GFDL license (see below). GFDL
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Glycolysis.svg/
1024px-Glycolysis.svg.png

[2] Figure 9.6 from: Campbell, Reece,
et al, ''Biology'', 8th edition, 2008,
p166. COPYRIGHTED
source: Campbell, Reece, et al,
"Biology", 8th edition, 2008, p166.
4,330,000,000 YBN
44) Fermentation evolves in the cell
cytoplasm. Cells can make lactic acid.

These
cells, which are anaerobic, can now
convert pyruvate, the final product of
glycolysis, into lactate (an ionized
form of lactic acid), and in the
process refuel glycolysis and the
production of ATP molecules.
 
[1] Campbell, Reece, et al,
''Biology'', 8th edition, 2008,
p178. COPYRIGHTED
source: Campbell, Reece, et al,
"Biology", 8th edition, 2008, p178.

[2] IUPAC
name[hide] 2-Hydroxypropanoic
acid Other names[hide] Milk
acid Description de: Struktur
von Milchsäure; en: Structure of
lactic acid Date 12 February
2007 Source Own work Author
NEUROtiker Permission (Reusing
this file) Own work, all rights
released (Public domain) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/59/Lactic-acid-3D-balls.
png
AND http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiped
ia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Lactic-acid-skelet
al.svg/1000px-Lactic-acid-skeletal.svg.p
ng
4,325,000,000 YBN
213) A second kind of fermentation
evolves in the cytoplasm. Cells (all
anaerobic) can now convert pyruvate
(the final product of glycolysis) into
ethanol.
 
[1] Campbell, Reece, et al,
''Biology'', 8th edition, 2008,
p178. COPYRIGHTED
source: Campbell, Reece, et al,
"Biology", 8th edition, 2008, p178.

[2] Ethanol Full structural
formula, Ball and Stick Model, and
Space-Filling Model of Ethanol PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/37/Ethanol-2D-flat.png
AND http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiped
ia/commons/b/b0/Ethanol-3D-balls.png
AND http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiped
ia/commons/0/00/Ethanol-3D-vdW.png
4,315,000,000 YBN
196) Active transport evolves. Proteins
and ATP are used to transport molecules
into and out of the cytoplasm.

Active transport enables a cell to
maintain internal concentrations of
small molecules that differ from the
cell's surroundings.
 
[1] Figure 7.18 from: Campbell, Reece,
et al., ''Biology'', 8th Edition, 2008,
P137. COPYRIGHTED
source: Campbell, Reece, et al.,
"Biology", 8th Edition, 2008, P137.

[2] Figure 7.15 from: Campbell,
Reece, et al., ''Biology'', 8th
Edition, 2008, P135. COPYRIGHTED
source: Campbell, Reece, et al.,
"Biology", 8th Edition, 2008, P135.
4,200,000,000 YBN
292) The prokaryote flagellum evolves.


Prokaryotic cells now have more
mobility, and can make more choices
about their location.
 
[1] Aquifex pyrophilus (platinum
shadowed). © K.O. Stetter & Reinhard
Rachel, University of Regensburg.
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://biology.kenyon.edu/Microb
ial_Biorealm/bacteria/aquifex/aquifex.ht
m

[2] Description English: A
Gram-negative bacterial flagellum. A
flagellum (plural: flagella) is a long,
slender projection from the cell body,
whose function is to propel a
unicellular or small multicellular
organism. The depicted type of
flagellum is found in bacteria such as
E. coli and Salmonella, and rotates
like a propeller when the bacterium
swims. The bacterial movement can be
divided in 2 kinds: run, resulting from
a counterclockwise rotation of the
flagellum, and tumbling, from a
clockwise rotation of the
flagellum. Français : Flagelle de
bactérie Gram-négative. Le flagelle
est une projection longue et fine hors
du corps cellulaire, dont la fonction
est de propulser l'organisme. Ce type
de flagelle est présent dans des
bactéries comme Escherichia coli et
Salmonella, et tourne comme une hélice
quand la bactérie se déplace. Le
flagelle peut provoquer deux types de
déplacement selon son sens de
rotation. Date November 2007 Source
self-made References: [1],[2], [3]
(main 3), [4], [5] (propeller
rotation), PMID 17142059
(bend). Author LadyofHats PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Flagellum_base_
diagram_en.svg/1000px-Flagellum_base_dia
gram_en.svg.png
4,193,000,000 YBN
77) The Archaea (also called
archaebacteria) evolve according to
genetic comparison. The Phylum
Nanoarcheota.

Eubacteria and Archaea are the two
major lines of Prokaryotes.

Archaea have a variety of shapes,
including spherical, rodlike, and
spiral forms. Genetic studies have
indicated that archaea are more closely
related to eukaryotes than to bacteria.
 
[1] Deutsch: Bild über den Reitenden
Urzwerg English: Image of Nanoarchaeum
equitans Date 2005-09-10 (original
upload date) Source Originally
from de.wikipedia; description page
is/was here. Author Original
uploader was Eber-Jimmy at
de.wikipedia Permission (Reusing
this file) This image is in the
public domain due to its
age. Licensing According to this
article, ''Es wurde von dem
Mikrobiologen Karl O. Stetter entdeckt.
Bildrechte: Public domain.'' PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/dc/Urzwerg.jpg

[2] Figure 1) Changing views of the
tree and timescale of life. a) An
early-1990s view, with the tree
determined mostly from ribosomal RNA
(rRNA) sequence analysis. This tree
emphasizes vertical (as opposed to
horizontal) evolution and the close
relationship between eukaryotes and the
Archaebacteria. The deep branching
(>3.5 Giga (109) years ago, Gya) of
CYANOBACTERIA (Cy) and other Eubacteria
(purple), the shallow branching
(approx1 Gya) of plants (Pl), animals
(An) and fungi (Fu), and the early
origin of mitochondria (Mi), were based
on interpretations of the geochemical
and fossil record7, 8. Some deeply
branching amitochondriate (Am) species
were believed to have arisen before the
origin of mitochondria44. Major
symbiotic events (black dots) were
introduced to explain the origin of
eukaryotic organelles42, but were not
assumed to be associated with large
transfers of genes to the host nucleus.
They were: Eu, joining of an
archaebacterium host with a eubacterium
(presumably a SPIROCHAETE) to produce
an amitochondriate eukaryote; Mi,
joining of a eukaryote host with an
alpha-proteobacterium (Ap) symbiont,
leading to the origin of mitochondria,
and plastids (Ps), joining of a
eukaryote host with a cyanobacterium
symbiont, forming the origin of
plastids on the plant lineage and
possibly on other lineages. b) The
present view, based on extensive
genomic analysis. Eukaryotes are no
longer considered to be close relatives
of Archaebacteria, but are genomic
hybrids of Archaebacteria and
Eubacteria, owing to the transfer of
large numbers of genes from the
symbiont genome to the nucleus of the
host (indicated by coloured arrows).
Other new features, largely derived
from molecular-clock studies16, 39 (Box
1), include a relatively recent origin
of Cyanobacteria (approx2.6 Gya) and
mitochondria (approx1.8 Gya), an early
origin (approx1.5 Gya) of plants,
animals and fungi, and a close
relationship between animals and fungi.
Coloured dashed lines indicate
controversial aspects of the present
view: the existence of a
premitochondrial symbiotic event and of
living amitochondriate eukaryotes,
ancestors of which never had
mitochondria. c) The times of
divergence of selected model organisms
from humans, based on molecular clocks.
For the prokaryotes (red), because of
different possible origins through
symbiotic events, divergence times
depend on the gene of interest.
source: http://www.nature.com/nrg/journa
l/v3/n11/full/nrg929_fs.html
4,189,000,000 YBN
193) The Eubacteria "Hyperthermophiles"
evolve (the ancestor of Aquifex and
Thermotoga).

Aquifex and Thermotoga are the only two
major genera of eubacteria that are
hyperthermophiles. They grow best in a
environment that is around 80 degrees
Celsius.
 
[1] A timescale of prokaryote
evolution. Letters indicate nodes
discussed in the text. The last common
ancestor was arbitrarily placed at 4.25
Ga in the tree, although this placement
was not part of the analyses. The grey
rectangle shows the time prior to the
initial rise in oxygen (presumably
anaerobic conditions). Mtb:
Methanothermobacter, Tab:
Thermoanaerobacter, Tsc:
Thermosynechococcus. Battistuzzi et
al. BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004 4:44
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-44 Table
1 Time estimates for selected nodes
in the tree of eubacteria (A-K) and
archaebacteria (L-P). Letters refer to
Fig. 3. Time (Ma)a CIb Node
A 102 57–176 Node
B 2508 2154–2928 Node
C 2800 2452–3223 Node
D 1039 702–1408 Node
E 2558 2310–2969 Node
F 2784 2490–3203 Node
G 2923 2587–3352 Node
H 3054 2697–3490 Node
I 3186 2801–3634 Node
J 3644 3172–4130 Node
K 3977 3434–4464 Node
L 233 118–386 Node
M 3085 2469–3514 Node
N 3566 2876–3948 Node
O 3781 3047–4163 Node
P 4112 3314–4486 a Averages of
the divergence times estimated using
the 2.3 Ga minimum constraint and the
five ingroup root constraints (nodes
A-K) and using the 1.198 ± 0.022 Ga
constraint and the five ingroup root
constraints (nodes L-P). b
Credibility interval (minimum and
maximum averages of the analyses under
the five ingroup root
constraints) Battistuzzi et al. BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004 4:44
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-44 COPYRIGHTED

source: http://www.biomedcentral.com/con
tent/figures/1471-2148-4-44-3-l.jpg

[2] Aquifex pyrophilus (platinum
shadowed). © K.O. Stetter & Reinhard
Rachel, University of Regensburg.
source: http://biology.kenyon.edu/Microb
ial_Biorealm/bacteria/aquifex/aquifex.ht
m
4,187,000,000 YBN
180) The Archaea Phylum: Crenarchaeota
evolves (the ancestor of Sulfolobus).

The phylum Crenarchaeota, commonly
referred to as the Crenarchaea,
contains many organisms that are
extremely thermophilic {tR-mu-FiL-iK}
(heat-loving) and cryophilic
{KrI-e-FiL-iK} (cold-loving).
 
[1] A timescale of prokaryote
evolution. Letters indicate nodes
discussed in the text. The last common
ancestor was arbitrarily placed at 4.25
Ga in the tree, although this placement
was not part of the analyses. The grey
rectangle shows the time prior to the
initial rise in oxygen (presumably
anaerobic conditions). Mtb:
Methanothermobacter, Tab:
Thermoanaerobacter, Tsc:
Thermosynechococcus. Battistuzzi et
al. BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004 4:44
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-44 Table
1 Time estimates for selected nodes
in the tree of eubacteria (A-K) and
archaebacteria (L-P). Letters refer to
Fig. 3. Time (Ma)a CIb Node
A 102 57–176 Node
B 2508 2154–2928 Node
C 2800 2452–3223 Node
D 1039 702–1408 Node
E 2558 2310–2969 Node
F 2784 2490–3203 Node
G 2923 2587–3352 Node
H 3054 2697–3490 Node
I 3186 2801–3634 Node
J 3644 3172–4130 Node
K 3977 3434–4464 Node
L 233 118–386 Node
M 3085 2469–3514 Node
N 3566 2876–3948 Node
O 3781 3047–4163 Node
P 4112 3314–4486 a Averages of
the divergence times estimated using
the 2.3 Ga minimum constraint and the
five ingroup root constraints (nodes
A-K) and using the 1.198 ± 0.022 Ga
constraint and the five ingroup root
constraints (nodes L-P). b
Credibility interval (minimum and
maximum averages of the analyses under
the five ingroup root
constraints) Battistuzzi et al. BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004 4:44
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-44 COPYRIGHTED

source: http://www.biomedcentral.com/con
tent/figures/1471-2148-4-44-3-l.jpg

[2] tree of archaea ?
source: http://www.uni-giessen.de/~gf126
5/GROUPS/KLUG/Stammbaum.html
4,187,000,000 YBN
181) The Archaea Phylum: Euryarchaeota
{YRE-oR-KE-O-Tu} evolves (the ancestor
of methanogens and halobacteria
{HaL-O-BaK-TER-E-u}).

The earliest cell response to light.

The Euryarchaeota {YRE-oR-KE-O-Tu} are
composed of two classes: methanogens,
which produce methane and are often
found in intestines and sewage, and the
halobacteria, which survive in high
concentrations of salt. They are
grouped together on the basis of rRNA
sequence similarities.

Some halobacteria use sensory rhodopsin
(a pigment sensitive to red light) for
phototaxis (positive or negative
movement along a light gradient or
vector).
 
[1] A timescale of prokaryote
evolution. Letters indicate nodes
discussed in the text. The last common
ancestor was arbitrarily placed at 4.25
Ga in the tree, although this placement
was not part of the analyses. The grey
rectangle shows the time prior to the
initial rise in oxygen (presumably
anaerobic conditions). Mtb:
Methanothermobacter, Tab:
Thermoanaerobacter, Tsc:
Thermosynechococcus. Battistuzzi et
al. BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004 4:44
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-44 Table
1 Time estimates for selected nodes
in the tree of eubacteria (A-K) and
archaebacteria (L-P). Letters refer to
Fig. 3. Time (Ma)a CIb Node
A 102 57–176 Node
B 2508 2154–2928 Node
C 2800 2452–3223 Node
D 1039 702–1408 Node
E 2558 2310–2969 Node
F 2784 2490–3203 Node
G 2923 2587–3352 Node
H 3054 2697–3490 Node
I 3186 2801–3634 Node
J 3644 3172–4130 Node
K 3977 3434–4464 Node
L 233 118–386 Node
M 3085 2469–3514 Node
N 3566 2876–3948 Node
O 3781 3047–4163 Node
P 4112 3314–4486 a Averages of
the divergence times estimated using
the 2.3 Ga minimum constraint and the
five ingroup root constraints (nodes
A-K) and using the 1.198 ± 0.022 Ga
constraint and the five ingroup root
constraints (nodes L-P). b
Credibility interval (minimum and
maximum averages of the analyses under
the five ingroup root
constraints) Battistuzzi et al. BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004 4:44
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-44 COPYRIGHTED

source: http://www.biomedcentral.com/con
tent/figures/1471-2148-4-44-3-l.jpg

[2] tree of archaebacteria (archaea)
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.uni-giessen.de/~gf126
5/GROUPS/KLUG/Stammbaum.html
4,112,000,000 YBN
58) The first autotrophic cells; cells
that can produce some of their own
food.

Autotrophs produce their own sugars,
lipids, and amino acids.

There are only two kinds of autotrophs:
chemoautotrophs and photoautotrophs.

Chemoautotrophs (or simply chemotrophs)
use chemical nutrients to synthesize
carbohydrates, while photoautotrophs
use light to synthesize carbohydrates.

This is a chemoautotrophic cell: genes
and metabolic sequences suggest that
chemoautotrophs evolve before
photoautotrophs.
 
[1] Description Methanopyrus
kandleri Date July
2006 Source ms:Imej:Arkea.jpg Auth
or ms:User:PM Poon GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/aa/Arkea.jpg
4,100,000,000 YBN
49) Photosynthesis evolves.

Anaerobic bacteria use light particles
to convert carbon dioxide gas and an
electron donor (also called a
reductant) like Hydrogen sulfide into
glucose, water, and sulfur. This
process of moving carbon from carbon
dioxide gas to the hydrocarbon molecule
glucose is called carbon fixation.

This is the ancestor of Photosystem I.
One of two photosythesis systems,
photosystem I has a chlorophyll
molecule that has a light absorption
peak of 700 nm and is therefore known
as P700.

This system of photosynthesis does not
liberate oxygen.

Photosynthetic organisms that do not
liberate oxygen are found in four of
the 24 phyla of bacteria: Firmicutes
(FiRmiKYUTEZ), Proteobacteria, Chlorobi
{KlOROBE} and Chloroflexi. Some Archaea
like can perform a different kind of
photosynthesis that probably arises
independently after the eubacteria
archaea split.
 
[1] Chemiosmosis as it operates in
photophosphorylation within a
chloroplast. Images from Purves et al.,
Life: The Science of Biology, 4th
Edition, by Sinauer Associates
(www.sinauer.com) and WH Freeman
(www.whfreeman.com) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/facu
lty/farabee/biobk/0817_1.gif

[2] Chemiosmosis as it operates in
photophosphorylation within a
chloroplast. Images from Purves et al.,
Life: The Science of Biology, 4th
Edition, by Sinauer Associates
(www.sinauer.com) and WH Freeman
(www.whfreeman.com) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/facu
lty/farabee/biobk/0817_2.gif
4,000,000,000 YBN
43) Photosynthesis Photosystem II
evolves. Cells with this system emit
free Oxygen.

Anaerobic bacteria use light particles
to convert carbon dioxide gas and water
into glucose, releasing oxygen gas in
the process.

This is the main system
responsible for producing the Oxygen
now in the air of Earth.

Photosystem 2 absorbs light best at
680nm wavelengths, a higher frequency
of light than Photosystem 1. These
cells can break the strong Hydrogen
bonds between Hydrogen and Oxygen in
water molecules (which are more
abundant than Sulphur) and then emit
free Oxygen.
 
[1] Chemiosmosis as it operates in
photophosphorylation within a
chloroplast. Images from Purves et al.,
Life: The Science of Biology, 4th
Edition, by Sinauer Associates
(www.sinauer.com) and WH Freeman
(www.whfreeman.com) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/facu
lty/farabee/biobk/0817_1.gif

[2] Chemiosmosis as it operates in
photophosphorylation within a
chloroplast. Images from Purves et al.,
Life: The Science of Biology, 4th
Edition, by Sinauer Associates
(www.sinauer.com) and WH Freeman
(www.whfreeman.com) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/facu
lty/farabee/biobk/0817_2.gif
4,000,000,000 YBN
51) The end of the Hadean {HADEiN} and
start of the Archean {oRKEiN} Eon.
 
[1] Geologic Time Scale 2009 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.geosociety.org/scienc
e/timescale/timescl.pdf
3,950,000,000 YBN
37) (Filamentous) multicellularity
evolves in prokaryotes. Photosynthetic
bacteria grow in filaments. Cells stay
fastened together after cell division.

Multicellularity appears to have
evolved independently multiple times in
the history of life on Earth.

With multicellularity comes the
evolution of differentiation, cells
with different functions.
 
[1] Microgram of filamentous bacteria
from flexible setae. (Courtesy
Zoosystema © 2005) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://bioweb.uwlax.edu/bio203/s
2009/decker_rour/images/yeti-crab-filame
ntous-bacteria.JPG

[2] Filamentous Bacteria Microthrix
Parvicella UNKNOWN
source: http://ebsbiowizard.com/wp-conte
nt/gallery/filamentous-bacteria-microthr
ix-parvicella/filamentous-bacteria-micro
thrix-parvicella.jpg
3,950,000,000 YBN
316) Cell differentiation evolves in
filamentous prokaryotes, creating
organisms with different kinds of
cells.

One early cell differentiation is that
only the cell at the tip of the
filament can divide while the older
cells below the tip do not divide.

Multicellular organisms can die from
aging, a series of cell
differentiations that ultimately result
in the inability for the multicellular
body to continue functioning and to
decay.
 
[1] Adapted from: Anabaena smitthi
COPYRIGHTED FRANCE
source: http://www.ac-rennes.fr/pedagogi
e/svt/photo/microalg/anabaena.jpg

[2] Anabaena COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://home.manhattan.edu/~franc
es.cardillo/plants/monera/anabaena.gif
3,950,000,000 YBN
322) Nitrogen fixation evolves. Cells
can make nitrogen compounds like
ammonia from Nitrogen gas in the air.

Nitrogen fixing bacteria play an
important role in allowing plants to
obtain nitrogen from nitrogen gas in
the air. Nitrogen is needed to make
proteins and nucleic acids.
West Africa 
[1] Fig. 2. Modern cyanobacterial
akinetes and Archaeoellipsoides
fossils. (A) Three-month-old culture of
living A. cylindrica grown in a medium
without combined nitrogen. A, akinete;
H, heterocyst; V, vegetative cells.
(B–D) Shown are Archaeoellipsoides
fossils from 1,500-Ma Billyakh Group,
northern Siberia (B); 1,650-Ma McArthur
Group, northern Australia (C); and
2,100-Ma Franceville Group, Gabon (D).
(Scale bars, 10 μm.) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.pnas.org/content/103/
14/5442/F2.large.jpg

[2] Fig. 2. Modern cyanobacterial
akinetes and Archaeoellipsoides
fossils. (A) Three-month-old culture of
living A. cylindrica grown in a medium
without combined nitrogen. A, akinete;
H, heterocyst; V, vegetative cells.
(B–D) Shown are Archaeoellipsoides
fossils from 1,500-Ma Billyakh Group,
northern Siberia (B); 1,650-Ma McArthur
Group, northern Australia (C); and
2,100-Ma Franceville Group, Gabon (D).
(Scale bars, 10 μm.) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.pnas.org/content/103/
14/5442/F2.large.jpg
3,900,000,000 YBN
57) Aerobic cellular respiration
evolves. The first aerobic (or
"oxygenic") cell. These cells use
oxygen to convert glucose into carbon
dioxide, water, and ATP.

Aerobic cellular respiration evolves as
an alternative to fermentation by using
oxygen to break down the product of
glycolysis, pyruvate, into carbon
dioxide and water, producing up to 38
ATP molecules in the process.
 
[1] purple aerobic bacteria UNKNOWN
source: http://endosymbiotichypothesis.f
iles.wordpress.com/2010/09/rain-bacteria
.jpg

[2] Organisms of Rickettsia conorii
(r), a close relative of R. rickettsii,
in a cultured human endothelial cell
are located free in the cytosol. One
rickettsia is dividing by binary
fission (arrowhead). (B) These
rickettsiae can move inside the
cytoplasm of the host cell because of
the propulsive force created by the
''tail'' of host cell actin filaments
(arrow). Bars = 0.5 µm. Photo and
text courtesy of David H. Walker -
http://gsbs.utmb.edu/microbook/ch038.htm
UNKNOWN AND Rickettsia prowazekii
(image with Rickettsia outside of
cell) COPYRIGHTED [1] Rickettsia
prowazekii COPYRIGHTED FAIR USE
source: http://www.bio.davidson.edu/peop
le/sosarafova/Assets/Bio307/liwoeste/Pic
tures/Walker%203%5B1%5D.jpg
AND http://web.mst.edu/~microbio/bio221
_2001/Image9.jpg
3,850,000,000 YBN
36) The oldest physical evidence for
life: the ratio of carbon-13 to
carbon-12 in grains of ancient apetite
{aPeTIT} (which are calcium phosphate
minerals).

Life uses the lighter Carbon-12 isotope
and so the ratio of carbon-12 to
carbon-13 is different from a nonliving
source (such as calcium carbonate or
limestone).
Akilia Island, Western Greenland 
[1] Figure 1 from: Mojzsis, S. J. et
al. ''Evidence for Life on Earth Before
3,800 Million Years Ago.'' Nature
384.6604 (1996):
55–59. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v384/n6604/abs/384055a0.html COP
YRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v384/n6604/pdf/384055a0.pdf

[2] Figure 1 from: Mojzsis, S. J. et
al. ''Evidence for Life on Earth Before
3,800 Million Years Ago.'' Nature
384.6604 (1996):
55–59. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v384/n6604/abs/384055a0.html COP
YRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v384/n6604/pdf/384055a0.pdf
3,850,000,000 YBN
45) The oldest sediment, the Banded
Iron Formation begins.
Banded Iron
Formation is sedimentary rock that
spans from 3.8 to 1.8 billion years
ago, made of iron-rich silicates (like
silicon dioxide SiO2) with alternating
layers of black colored ferrous
(reduced) iron and red colored ferric
(oxidized) iron. These alternating
layers represent a seasonal cycle
where the quantity of free oxygen in
the ocean rises and falls, possibly
linked to photosynthetic organisms.

The atmosphere of Earth still has only
small amounts of oxygen at this time.
Akilia Island, Western Greenland 
[1] image of BIF from Akilia from
Nature COPYRIGHTED
source: nature 11/7/96

[2] portion taken
from: Description English: This
image shows a 2.1 billion years old
rock containing black-banded ironstone,
which has a weight of about 8.5 tons.
The approximately two meter high, three
meter wide, and one meter thick block
of stone was found in North America and
belongs to the National Museum of
Mineralogy and Geology in Dresden,
Germany. The rock is located at
+51°2'34.84''
+13°45'26.67''. Deutsch: Dieses Bild
zeigt einen etwa 8,5 Tonnen schweren
und 2,1 Milliarden Jahre alten Block
mit Bändereisenerzen. Der etwa zwei
Meter hohe, drei Meter breite und einen
Meter tiefe Gesteinsblock wurde in
Nordamerika gefunden und gehört dem
Staatlichen Museum für Mineralogie und
Geologie Dresden. Der Block befindet
sich bei den Koordinaten +51°2'34.84''
+13°45'26.67''. Camera
data Camera Nikon D70 Lens Tamron
SP AF 90mm/2.8 Di Macro 1:1 Focal
length 90 mm Aperture f/2.8 Exposure
time 1/250 s Sensivity ISO 200 Please
help translating the description into
more languages. Thanks a lot! If
you want a license with the conditions
of your choice, please email me to
negotiate terms. best new
image Date 26 August
2005 Source Own
work Author André Karwath aka
Aka CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Black-band_iron
stone_%28aka%29.jpg/1280px-Black-band_ir
onstone_%28aka%29.jpg
3,850,000,000 YBN
189) The earliest possible fossils.
Microstructures from Isua Banded iron
formation, Southwest Greenland.
(Isua BIF) SW Greenland 
[1] Fig. 5. (a) Carbonaceous
microstructure from Isua Banded iron
formation, SW-Greenland (ca 3.85 Ga).
(b) Laser mass spectrum (negative ions)
from similar specimen. Field of
measurement ca 1 μm
diameter. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://ars.sciencedirect.com/con
tent/image/1-s2.0-S0301926800001261-gr5.
jpg

[2] Fig. 5. (a) Carbonaceous
microstructure from Isua Banded iron
formation, SW-Greenland (ca 3.85 Ga).
(b) Laser mass spectrum (negative ions)
from similar specimen. Field of
measurement ca 1 small mu, Greekm
diameter. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=MiamiCaptionURL&_method=retriev
e&_udi=B6VBP-42G6M5T-7&_image=fig7&_ba=7
&_user=4422&_coverDate=02%2F01%2F2001&_f
mt=full&_orig=browse&_cdi=5932&view=c&_a
cct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&
_userid=4422&md5=fe1052cbc18dba545ec95c2
e7ff3090b
3,800,000,000 YBN
185) Molecular fossil evidence of
Archaea: Isoprene compounds.
Isua, Greenland 
[1] English: Isopentenyl pyrophosphate;
IPP; isopentenyl diphosphate;
isopentenyl-ppi Deutsch:
Isopentenylpyrophosphat;
Isopentenyldiphosphat Date 24.
November Source Own
work Author Yikrazuul PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Isopentenyl_pyr
ophosphate.svg/1000px-Isopentenyl_pyroph
osphate.svg.png
3,500,000,000 YBN
39) The oldest fossil evidence of life:
stromatolites. Stromatolites made by
photosynthetic bacteria are found in
both Western Australia, and South
Africa.
Warrawoona, Western Australia, and, Fig
Tree Group, South Africa 
[1] image on left is from swaziland
source: nature feb 6

[2]
source: 1986
3,500,000,000 YBN
287) The oldest fossils of an organism,
and the oldest prokaryote and bacteria
fossils. The organism is similar to
cyanobacteria {SIe-NO-BaK-TERE-u}, and
is found in the 3,500 million year old
chert (sedimentary rock made of silica)
in Australia and South Africa.

2.8 billion years will pass before the
first animal evolves.
Warrawoona, northwestern Western
Australia and Onverwacht Group,
Barberton Mountain Land, South
Africa 
[1] Figure 1 Optical photomicrographs
showing carbonaceous (kerogenous)
filamentous microbial fossils in
petrographic thin sections of
Precambrian cherts. Scale in a
represents images in a and c-i; scale
in b represents image in b. All parts
show photomontages, which is
necessitated by the three-dimensional
preservation of the cylindrical sinuous
permineralized microbes. Squares in
each part indicate the areas for which
chemical data are presented in Figs 2
and 3. a, An unnamed cylindrical
prokaryotic filament, probably the
degraded cellular trichome or tubular
sheath of an oscillatoriacean
cyanobacterium, from the 770-Myr
Skillogalee Dolomite of South
Australia12. b, Gunflintia grandis, a
cellular probably oscillatoriacean
trichome, from the 2,100-Myr Gunflint
Formation of Ontario, Canada13. c, d,
Unnamed highly carbonized filamentous
prokaryotes from the 3,375-Myr Kromberg
Formation of South Africa14: the poorly
preserved cylindrical trichome of a
noncyanobacterial or oscillatoriacean
prokaryote (c); the disrupted,
originally cellular trichomic remnants
possibly of an Oscillatoria- or
Lyngbya-like cyanobacterium (d). e-i,
Cellular microbial filaments from the
3,465-Myr Apex chert of northwestern
Western Australia: Primaevifilum
amoenum4,5, from the collections of The
Natural History Museum (TNHM), London,
specimen V.63164[6] (e); P. amoenum4
(f); the holotype of P.
delicatulum4,5,15, TNHM V.63165[2] (g);
P. conicoterminatum5, TNHM V63164[9]
(h); the holotype of Eoleptonema apex5,
TNHM V.63729[1] (i).
source: Nature416

[2] Fig. 3 Filamentous microfossils:
a, cylindrical microfossil from
Hooggenoeg sample; b, threadlike and
tubular filaments extending between
laminae, Kromberg sample; c,d,e,
tubular filamnets oriented subparallel
to bedding, Kromberg sample; f,
threadlike filament flattened parallel
to bedding, Kromberg sample.
source: 73 - 76 (07 Mar 2002) Letters
to Nature
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v41
6/n6876/fig_tab/416073a_F1.html
3,470,000,000 YBN
182) Evidence of sulfate reduction by
bacteria: the ratio of atomic mass 32
to mass 34 sulfur.
Prokaryotes that reduce
sulfate cause a higher ratio of
sulfur-32 to sulfur-34 in the sulfide
they produce.
North Pole, Australia 
[1] Data within the oval are from this
work, the other data are from refs 2,
29. The band (double line) in the upper
part of the figure represents the
isotopic composition of seawater
sulphate through time. The single line
in the lower part of the figure is
displaced from the seawater sulphate
trend by 55permil, representing the
maximum fractionation between sulphate
and sulphide through the past 600
million years. Before 1.7 Gyr ago,
constraints on the isotopic composition
of seawater sulphate are
sparse. Figure 3 from: Muyzer,
Gerard, and Alfons J. M. Stams. “The
Ecology and Biotechnology of
Sulphate-reducing Bacteria.” Nat Rev
Micro 6.6 (2008):
441–454. http://www.nature.com/nrmicr
o/journal/v6/n6/full/nrmicro1892.html A
ND http://www.zjubiolab.zju.edu.cn/wumi
n/webcontent/userfiles/lab-paper/000277-
20100928124623.pdf COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nrmicro/jo
urnal/v6/n6/full/nrmicro1892.html AND
http://www.zjubiolab.zju.edu.cn/wumin/we
bcontent/userfiles/lab-paper/000277-2010
0928124623.pdf
file:///root/web/fossils_biomarker_scien
ce_v67_i22_nov_15_2003.html#bib99

[2] get larger image
source: https://vpn.nacs.uci.edu/+CSCO+d
1756767633A2F2F6A6A6A2E616E676865722E706
27A++/nrmicro/journal/v6/n6/images/nrmic
ro1892-f2.jpg
3,400,000,000 YBN
190) The earliest fossils of coccoid
{KoKOED} (spherical) bacteria; from the
Kromberg Formation of the Swaziland
System in South Africa.
Kromberg Formation, Swaziland System,
South Africa 
[1] Fig. 3. from: Hans D. Pflug,
Earliest organic evolution. Essay to
the memory of Bartholomew Nagy,
Precambrian Research, Volume 106,
Issues 1–2, 1 February 2001, Pages
79-91, ISSN 0301-9268,
10.1016/S0301-9268(00)00126-1. (http://
www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pi
i/S0301926800001261 (a,b) Organic
microstructures from Kromberg
Formation, Swaziland System, South
Africa (ca 3.4 Ga). TEM-micrographs of
demineralized specimens. (c) Portion of
organic microstructure from Bulawaya
stromatolite (see Fig. 2). (d) Portion
of the mucilagenous sheath of recent
Anabaena sp., cyanobacteria (Fig. d
after Leak, 1967). For magnification of
Fig. c see scale of Fig.
a. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence/article/pii/S0301926800001261

[2] Fig. 3. from: Hans D. Pflug,
Earliest organic evolution. Essay to
the memory of Bartholomew Nagy,
Precambrian Research, Volume 106,
Issues 1–2, 1 February 2001, Pages
79-91, ISSN 0301-9268,
10.1016/S0301-9268(00)00126-1. (http://
www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pi
i/S0301926800001261 (a,b) Organic
microstructures from Kromberg
Formation, Swaziland System, South
Africa (ca 3.4 Ga). TEM-micrographs of
demineralized specimens. (c) Portion of
organic microstructure from Bulawaya
stromatolite (see Fig. 2). (d) Portion
of the mucilagenous sheath of recent
Anabaena sp., cyanobacteria (Fig. d
after Leak, 1967). For magnification of
Fig. c see scale of Fig.
a. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=MiamiCaptionURL&_method=retriev
e&_udi=B6VBP-42G6M5T-7&_image=fig9&_ba=9
&_user=4422&_coverDate=02%2F01%2F2001&_f
mt=full&_orig=browse&_cdi=5932&view=c&_a
cct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&
_userid=4422&md5=27a45a0804747bb4b74eaac
305df2905
3,260,000,000 YBN
71) The earliest fossil evidence of
prokaryote reproduction by budding.

Like binary division, budding is a form
of asexual reproduction. However, with
budding a new individual develops from
a certain point of the parent organism.
The new individual may separate to
exist independently, or the buds may
remain attached, forming colonies.
Budding is characteristic of a few
unicellular organisms (certain
bacteria, yeasts, and protozoans) but
some metazoan animals (certain
cnidarian species) regularly reproduce
by budding.
Swartkoppie, South Africa 
[1] Evolutionary relationships of model
organisms and bacteria that show
unusual reproductive strategies. This
phylogenetic tree (a) illustrates the
diversity of organisms that use the
alternative reproductive strategies
shown in (b). Bold type indicates
complete or ongoing genome projects.
Intracellular offspring are produced by
several low-GC Gram-positive bacteria
such as Metabacterium polyspora,
Epulopiscium spp. and the segmented
filamentous bacteria (SFB). Budding and
multiple fission are found in the
proteobacterial genera Hyphomonas and
Bdellovibrio, respectively. In the case
of the Cyanobacteria, Stanieria
produces baeocytes and Chamaesiphon
produces offspring by budding.
Actinoplanes produce dispersible
offspring by multiple fission of
filaments within the sporangium.
source: http://www.nature.com/nrmicro/jo
urnal/v3/n3/full/nrmicro1096_fs.html
(Nature Reviews Microbiology 3

[2] Electron micrograph of a Pirellula
bacterium from giant tiger prawn tissue
(Penaeus monodon). Notice the large
crateriform structures (C) on the cell
surface and flagella. From Fuerst et
al.
source: 214-224 (2005);
doi:10.1038/nrmicro1096)
3,235,000,000 YBN
68) The earliest Archaea fossils.
(Sulphur Springs Deposit) Pilbara
Craton of Australia 
[1] Photomicrographs of filaments from
the Sulphur Springs VMS deposit. Scale
bar, 10 µm. a-f, Straight, sinuous and
curved morphologies, some densely
intertwined. g, Filaments parallel to
the concentric layering. h, Filaments
oriented sub-perpendicular to
banding. Figure 3 from: Rasmussen,
Birger. ''Filamentous Microfossils in a
3,235-million-year-old Volcanogenic
Massive Sulphide Deposit.'' Nature
405.6787 (2000):
676–679. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v405/n6787/abs/405676a0.html C
OPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v405/n6787/abs/405676a0.html

[2] Photomicrographs of filaments from
the Sulphur Springs VMS deposit. Scale
bar, 10 µm. a-f, Straight, sinuous and
curved morphologies, some densely
intertwined. g, Filaments parallel to
the concentric layering. h, Filaments
oriented sub-perpendicular to
banding. Figure 3 from: Rasmussen,
Birger. ''Filamentous Microfossils in a
3,235-million-year-old Volcanogenic
Massive Sulphide Deposit.'' Nature
405.6787 (2000):
676–679. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v405/n6787/abs/405676a0.html C
OPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v405/n6787/abs/405676a0.html
3,200,000,000 YBN
66) The earliest acritarch fossils
(unicellular microfossils with
uncertain affinity). These acritarchs
are also the earliest possible
eukaryote fossils.

Living spherical prokaryotic cells
rarely exceed 20 microns in diameter,
but eukaryotic cells are nearly always
larger than 60 microns. Although their
precise nature is uncertain, acritarchs
appear to be phytoplankton
{FITO-PlaNK-TeN} (freely floating
microscopic algae) that grow thick
coverings during a resting stage in
their life cycle. Some resemble the
resting stage of modern marine algae
known as dinoflagellates.
(Moodies Group) South Africa 
[1] Figure from: Javaux, Emmanuelle
J., Craig P. Marshall, and Andrey
Bekker. “Organic-walled microfossils
in 3.2-billion-year-old shallow-marine
siliciclastic deposits.” Nature
463.7283 (2010):
934-938. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v463/n7283/full/nature08793.html
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v463/n7283/full/nature08793.html

[2] Figure from: Javaux, Emmanuelle
J., Andrew H. Knoll, and Malcolm R.
Walter. “Morphological and ecological
complexity in early eukaryotic
ecosystems.” Nature 412.6842 (2001):
66-69. http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v412/n6842/abs/412066a0.html Figur
e 1 Protistan microfossils from the
Roper Group. a, c, Tappania plana,
showing asymmetrically distributed
processes and bulbous protrusions
(arrow in a). b, detail of a, showing
dichotomously branching process. d,
Valeria lophostriata. e, Dictyosphaera
sp. f, Satka favosa. The scale bar in a
is 35 µm for a and c; 10 µm for b;
100 µm for d; 15 µm for e; and 40 µm
for f.
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v412/n6842/abs/412066a0.html
2,923,000,000 YBN
178) The Eubacteria Phylum Firmicutes
(FiRmiKYUTEZ) evolves (Gram positive
bacteria: the cause of botulism,
tetanus, and anthrax).

Firmicutes is a phylum of
nonphotosynthetic, mainly gram-positive
bacteria. Firmicutes and Bacteriodetes
are the two main groups of bacteria
found in the intestine.

Firmicutes includes rods and cocci
{KoKSE} forms, and some form
endospores.

An endospore is a tough reduced dry
form of a bacterium, triggered by a
lack of nutrients, that protects the
bacterium, and allows it to be revived
after long periods of time.
 
[1] Listeria monocytogenes is a
Gram-positive bacterium, in the
division Firmicutes, named for Joseph
Lister. It is motile by means of
flagella. Some studies suggest that 1
to 10% of humans may carry L.
monocytogenes in their
intestines. Researchers have found L.
monocytogenes in at least 37 mammalian
species, both domesticated and feral,
as well as in at least 17 species of
birds and possibly in some species of
fish and shellfish. Laboratories can
isolate L. monocytogenes from soil,
silage, and other environmental
sources. L. monocytogenes is quite
hardy and resists the deleterious
effects of freezing, drying, and heat
remarkably well for a bacterium that
does not form spores. Most L.
monocytogenes are pathogenic to some
degree.
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Listeria.jpg

[2] These are bacteria (about 0.3 µm
in diameter) that do not have outer
walls, only cytoplasmic membranes.
However, they do have cytoskeletal
elements that give them a distinct
non-spherical shape. They look like
schmoos that are pulled along by their
heads. How they are able to glide is a
mystery.
source: http://webmac.rowland.org/labs/b
acteria/projects_glide.html
2,920,000,000 YBN
288) The first endospores evolve; in
firmicutes.
 
[1] Spore forming inside a bacterium.
Stahly, MicrobeLibrary COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.microbe.org/microbes/
spores.asp

[2] Listeria monocytogenes is a
Gram-positive bacterium, in the
division Firmicutes, named for Joseph
Lister. It is motile by means of
flagella. Some studies suggest that 1
to 10% of humans may carry L.
monocytogenes in their
intestines. Researchers have found L.
monocytogenes in at least 37 mammalian
species, both domesticated and feral,
as well as in at least 17 species of
birds and possibly in some species of
fish and shellfish. Laboratories can
isolate L. monocytogenes from soil,
silage, and other environmental
sources. L. monocytogenes is quite
hardy and resists the deleterious
effects of freezing, drying, and heat
remarkably well for a bacterium that
does not form spores. Most L.
monocytogenes are pathogenic to some
degree.
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Listeria.jpg
2,800,000,000 YBN
76) The Eubacteria Phylum
Proteobacteria evolves (includes
Rickettsia {the ancestor of all
mitochondria}, gonorrhea, Salmonella,
and Escherichia coli {esRriKEo KOlI} or
E coli {E KOlI}).

The proteobacteria are the largest
group of bacteria by far in terms of
number of described species. There are
5 groups of proteobacteria: alpha,
beta, gamma, delta, and epsilon. The
common ancestor of all proteobacteria
is probably a photoautotroph.
 
[1] Figure 1. Transmission electron
micrograph of the ELB agent in XTC-2
cells. The rickettsia are free in the
cytoplasm and surrounded by an electron
transparent halo. Original
magnification X 30,000. CDC PD
source: www.cdc.gov/ncidod/
eid/vol7no1/raoultG1.htm

[2] Caulobacter crescentus. From
http://sunflower.bio.indiana.edu/~ybrun/
L305.html COPYRIGHTED EDU was in wiki
but appears to be removed
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/4/42/Caulobacter.jpg
2,800,000,000 YBN
177) Gender and sex (conjugation)
evolve in Escherichia Coli {esRriKEo
KOlI} bacteria. Conjugation is the
exchange of DNA (plasmids) by a donor
{male} bacterium through a pilus to a
recipient {female} bacterium. This may
be the process that evolves into
eukaryote sexual reproduction.

In addition to pili and conjugation,
proteins that can cut DNA and other
proteins that can connect two strands
of DNA evolve.

Some protists (cilliates and some
algae) reproduce sexually by
conjugation. If conjugation in
eukaryotes descends directly from a
proteobacteria then perhaps a
proteobacterium is the ancestor of some
or all eukaryotes.
 
[1] the fertility factor or F factor is
a very large (94,500 bp) circular dsDNA
plasmid; it is generally independent of
the host chromosome. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.mun.ca/biochem/course
s/3107/images/Fplasmidmap.gif

[2] conjugation (via pilus)
COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://www.bio.miami.edu/dana/16
0/conjugation.jpg
2,795,000,000 YBN
23) The first virus evolves.

A virus is an infectious agent of small
size and simple composition that can
multiply only in living cells of
animals, plants, or bacteria. Viruses
contain nucleic acid— either DNA or
RNA and protein but cannot synthesize
proteins, because they lack ribosomes.
So viruses depend on the DNA
duplicating and protein producing
systems of other cells to reproduce
themselves. The first viruses may be
made from bacteria, or may be bacteria
initially.
 
[1] Description Electron
micrograph of Bacteriophages Date
Source
en:Image:Phage.jpg Author
en:User:GrahamColm PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/52/Phage.jpg
2,784,000,000 YBN
176) The Eubacteria Phylum,
Planctomycetes {PlaNK-TO-mI-SETS}
evolves (also known as
Planctobacteria).

Planctomycetes are a widely distributed
group of eubacteria that reproduce by
budding, have cell walls that do not
contain peptidoglycan like most
bacteria, and some have a
membrane-bound nucleoid, similar to the
eukaryotic nucleus.
 
[1] Electron micrographs of cells of
new Gemmata-like and Isosphaera-like
isolates. (A) Negatively stained cell
of the Gemmata-like strain JW11-2f5
showing crateriform structures
(arrowhead) and coccoid cell
morphology. Bar marker, 200 nm. (B)
Negatively stained budding cell of
Isosphaera-like strain CJuql1 showing
uniform crateriform structures
(arrowhead) on the mother cell and
coccoid cell morphology. Bar marker,
200 nm. (C) Thin section of
Gemmata-like cryosubstituted cell of
strain JW3-8s0 showing the
double-membrane-bounded nuclear body
(NB) and nucleoid (N) enclosed within
it. Bar marker, 200 nm. (D) Thin
section of Isosphaera-like strain C2-3
possessing a fibrillar nucleoid (N)
within a cytoplasmic compartment
bounded by a single membrane (M) only.
Bar marker, 200 nm. Appl Environ
Microbiol. 2002 January; 68(1):
417-422. doi:
10.1128/AEM.68.1.417-422.2002.
source: http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/art
iclerender.fcgi?tool=pubmed&pubmedid=117
72655

[2] Evolutionary distance tree derived
from comparative analysis of 16S rDNAs
from freshwater and soil isolates and
reference strains of the order
Planctomycetales. Database accession
numbers are shown in parentheses after
species, strain, or clone names.
Bootstrap values of greater than 70%
from 100 bootstrap resamplings from the
distance analysis are presented at
nodes. Thermotoga maritima was used as
an outgroup. Isolates from this study
and representative named species of the
planctomycetes are indicated in bold.
The scale bar represents 0.1 nucleotide
substitution per nucleotide
position. Appl Environ Microbiol.
2002 January; 68(1): 417-422. doi:
10.1128/AEM.68.1.417-422.2002.
source: http://florey.biosci.uq.edu.au/m
ypa/images/fuerst2.gif
2,784,000,000 YBN
179) The Eubacteria Phylum,
Actinobacteria {aKTinO-BaK-TER-Eu}
evolves (the source of streptomycin and
the cause of tuberculosis and
leprosy).

The Actinobacteria or Actinomycetes are
a group of Gram-positive bacteria, that
are rod-shaped or form branching
filaments, and include many soil
bacteria.
 
[1] Aerial mycelium and spore of
Streptomyces coelicolor. The mycelium
and the oval spores are about 1µm
wide, typical for bacteria and much
smaller than fungal hyphae and spores.
(Scanning electron micrograph, Mark
Buttner, Kim Findlay, John Innes
Centre). COPYRIGHT UK
source: http://www.sanger.ac.uk/Projects
/S_coelicolor/micro_image4.shtml

[2] Frankia is a genus of
nitrogen-fixing soil bacteria, which
possesses a set of features that are
unique amongst symbiotic
nitrogen-fixing microorganisms,
including rhizobia, making it an
attractive taxon to study. These
heterotrophic Gram-positive bacteria
which are able to induce symbiotic
nitrogen-fixing root nodules
(actinorhizas) in a wide range of
dicotyledonous species (actinorhizal
plants), have also the capacity to fix
atmospheric nitrogen in culture and
under aerobic conditions.
source: http://www.ibmc.up.pt/webpagesgr
upos/cam/Frankia.htm
2,775,000,000 YBN
174) The Eubacteria Phylum,
Spirochaetes (SPIrOKETEZ) evolves (the
cause of Syphilis, and Lyme disease).

Spirochetes {SPIrOKETS} are helical
heterotrophs that spiral through their
environment by rotating, internal,
flagellum-like filaments.
 
[1] Syphilis is a complex, sexually
transmitted disease (STD) with a highly
variable clinical course. The disease
is caused by the bacterium, Treponema
pallidum. In the United States, 32,871
cases of syphilis, including 432 cases
of congenital syphilis, were detected
by public health officials in 2002.
Eight of the ten states with the
highest rates of syphilis are located
in the southern region of the United
States.
source: http://www.cdc.gov/nchstp/od/tus
kegee/syphilis.htm

[2] unknown
source: http://uhavax.hartford.edu/bugl/
images/Treponema%20pallidum.jpg
2,775,000,000 YBN
175) The Eubacteria Phylum
Bacteroidetes {BaKTRrOEDiTEZ} evolves.

Bacteroidetes is composed of
Gram-stain-negative, rod-shaped, mostly
anaerobic, nonsporeforming bacteria
that are widely distributed in the
environment, including in soil, in
sediments, sea water and in the guts,
and on the skin of animals.
 
[1] Description Bacteroides
biacutis—one of many en:commensal
anaerobic en:Bacteroides spp. in the
en:gastrointestinal tract—cultured in
blood agar medium for 48
hours. Obtained from the CDC Public
Health Image Library. Image credit:
CDC/Dr. V.R. Dowell, Jr. (PHIL #3087),
1972. Date 2006-03-11 (original
upload date) Source Originally from
en.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. Author Original uploader was
MarcoTolo at
en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) PD-USGOV-HHS-CDC. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Bacteroides_bia
cutis_01.jpg/1280px-Bacteroides_biacutis
_01.jpg

[2] Bacteroides fragilis . From the
Zdravotni University
source: http://biology.kenyon.edu/Microb
ial_Biorealm/bacteria/bacteroidete_chlor
ob_group/bacteroides/bacteroides.htm
2,775,000,000 YBN
217) The Eubacteria Phylum Chlamydiae
{Klo-mi-DE-I or Klo-mi-DE-E} evolves.

Chlamydiae are parasites that can
survive only within animal cells. One
species Chlamydia trachomatis
(TreKOmuTis} is the most common cause
of blindness on Earth, and also causes
a common sexually transmitted disease.
 
[1] cell infected with Chlamydia The
Bavoil laboratory studies the
pathogenesis of the obligate
intracellular pathogen, Chlamydia, and
its bacteriophages. Specific research
areas include the role of Chlamydia
type III secretion in pathogenesis and
development, the impact of Chlamydia
phage infection on disease, the role of
the polymorphic membrane protein family
of C. trachomatis in infection and
disease and comparative genomics within
the Chlamydiaceae. [1] Chlamydia
trachomatis wiki, is copyrighted
source: http://www.dental.umaryland.edu/
sebin/p/o/chlamydia_infected_cell2.jpg

[2] wiki, public domain
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chl
amydia_trachomatis
2,775,000,000 YBN
6309) The Eubacteria Phylum Chlorobi
{KlOROBE} evolves (green sulphur
bacteria).

Chlorobi are obligately anoxygenic
(cannot survive in the presence of
oxygen), photosythesizing bacteria,
that fix carbon from carbon dioxide
into carbon compounds for cell growth,
by using sulfur compounds, hydrogen, or
ferrous iron as electron donors
(oxidizing them).
 
[1] Description Deutsch: Grüne
Schwefelbakterien (Chlorobiaceae) im
unteren Bereich einer
Winogradsky-Säule Date
20.03.2007 (20 March 2007
(original upload date)) Source
Transferred from de.wikipedia;
transfer was stated to be made by
User:Jacopo Werther. (Original text :
Mikrobiologie Praktikum Universität
Kassel März 2007) Author
kOchstudiO. Original uploader was
KOchstudiO at
de.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) Released into the public
domain (by the author). (Original text
: uneingeschränkte Nutzung) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e7/Green_d_winogradsky.j
pg

[2] Campbell, N.A., and J.B. Reece.
Biology. Pearson Benjamin Cummings,
2008. Alternative eText Formats Series,
p194. COPYRIGHTED
source: Campbell, N.A., and J.B. Reece.
Biology. Pearson Benjamin Cummings,
2008. Alternative eText Formats Series,
p194.
2,775,000,000 YBN
6310) The Eubacteria Phylum
Verrucomicrobia (VeR-rUKO-mI-KrO-BEo)
evolves.

Verrucomicrobia are found in soil,
fresh and marine waters, and hot
springs. Like Planctomycetes, some
members of Verrucomicrobia also have
intracellular membrane enclosed
compartments, including a membrane that
encloses the DNA.
 
[1] Figure 1 Transmission electron
micrographs of high-pressure frozen and
cryosubstituted Verrucomicrobium
spinosum. A. Cell prepared by
high-pressure freezing and
cryosubstitution showing prostheca
(PT), paryphoplasm (P), and an
intracytoplasmic membrane (ICM)
enclosing a pirellulosome region
containing a condensed fibrillar
nucleoid (N). Inset: enlarged view of
area of cell outlined in the white box
showing cytoplasmic membrane (CM),
paryphoplasm and ICM. B.
freeze-fracture replica of cell showing
cross-fractured paryphoplasm (P) and
fracture faces of ICM and CM. Bar –
500 nm Lee et al. BMC Microbiology
2009 9:5
doi:10.1186/1471-2180-9-5 CC
source: http://www.biomedcentral.com/con
tent/figures/1471-2180-9-5-1-l.jpg

[2] Figure 2 Transmission electron
micrograph of high-pressure frozen and
cryosubstituted Verrucomicrobium
spinosum. Cell prepared by
high-pressure freezing and
cryosubstitution showing prostheca
(PT), ribosome-free paryphoplasm (P),
and an intracytoplasmic membrane (ICM)
enclosing a pirellulosome region
containing a condensed fibrillar
nucleoid (N). Membrane-bounded
vesicle-like compartments within some
prosthecae extensions are also present
(see arrowheads). Bar – 1 μm Lee
et al. BMC Microbiology 2009 9:5
doi:10.1186/1471-2180-9-5 CC
source: http://www.biomedcentral.com/con
tent/figures/1471-2180-9-5-2-l.jpg
2,730,000,000 YBN
80) Endo and exocytosis evolve. Cells
can now eat other cells.

In endocytosis the plasma membrane
folds inward to bring substances into
the cell.

In Exocytosis substances contained in
vesicles are released from the cell.
 
[1] Endocytosis and Exocytosis: For
example, this electron micrograph is
showing the process of exocytosis . The
process begins by fusion of the
membranes at the peripheral pole of the
granule. Then an opening is created
which widens to look like an omicron
figure. This opening allows the
granular material to be released. The
membrane is now part of the plasma
membrane and any proteins carried with
it can be incorporated into the plasma
membrane. Note that there is no coating
on the membrane. This figure was taken
from Alberts et al, Molecular Biology
of the Cell, Garland Publishing Third
Edition, 1994 In contrast, this
micrograph shows a figure which looks
something like an omicron, however,
this view is showing receptor mediated
endocytosis of virus particles. In both
cases, the membrane is coated with
clathrin and these represent classical
receptor mediated endocytosis profiles.
Most ligands cannot be visualized by
themselves, like a virus particle.
Therefore, the cytochemist must attach
label to the ligand. Alternatively, the
cytochemist could immunocytochemically
detect the receptor with antibodies
that recognize the extracellular
domain. This figure was taken from
Endocytosis, Edited by Ira Pastan and
Mark C. Willingham, Plenum Press, N.Y.,
1985 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.cytochemistry.net/cel
l-biology/end7.jpg

[2] Pinocytosis In the process of
pinocytosis the plasma membrane froms
an invagination. What ever substance
is found within the area of
invagination is brought into the
cell. In general this material will
be dissolved in water and thus this
process is also refered to as
''cellular drinking'' to indicate that
liquids and material dissolved in
liquids are ingested by the
cell. This is opposed to the
ingestion of large particulate material
like bacteria or other cells or cell
debris.
source: http://academic.brooklyn.cuny.ed
u/biology/bio4fv/page/endocytb.htm
2,700,000,000 YBN
60) The eukaryotic cell evolves. The
first cell with a nucleus. The first
protist. The nucleus may develop from
the infolding of plasma membrane.

There are some differences between
prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells:
In
prokaryotic cells the DNA is
concentrated in a region that is not
membrane enclosed called the "nucleoid"
while in eukaryotic cells most of the
DNA is contained in a nucleus that is
bounded by a double membrane.
Eukaryotic cells are generally much
larger than prokaryotic cells. Typical
bacteria are between 1-5 um in
diameter, while eukaryotic cells are
typically 10-100 um in diameter. Unlike
prokaryotic cells, eukaryotic cells
have a cytoskeleton. The cytoskeleton
enables eukaryotic cells to change
their shape and to surround and engulf
other cells. Eukaryotic cells also have
internal structures that prokaryotic
cells lack such as mitochondria and
plastids. DNA in prokaryotic cells is
usually in the form of a single
circular chromosome, while DNA in the
nucleus of eukaryotes contains linear
chromosomes. Some organelles in
eukaryotes also contain DNA; most
mitochondrial and chloroplast DNA is
also circular reflecting their
prokaryote origin.

Like prokaryotes, this cell is probably
haploid (has a single unique DNA), most
eukaryotes are diploid (having two sets
of DNA).

All protist, fungi, animal and plant
cells descend from this common
eukaryotic cell.
 
[1] Campbell, Reece, et al,
''Biology'', 2008, p517. COPYRIGHTED
source: Campbell, Reece, et al,
"Biology", 2008, p517.

[2]
http://www.regx.de/m_organisms.php#planc
to
source: http://www.regx.de/m_organisms.p
hp#plancto
2,700,000,000 YBN
62) The earliest molecular fossil
evidence of eukaryotes (sterane {STiR
AN molecules). Steranes are formed from
sterols {STeRoLZ}, molecules made by
mitochondria.
Northwestern Australia 
[1] Jochen J. Brocks, Graham A. Logan,
Roger Buick, Roger E. Summons,
''Archean Molecular Fossils and the
Early Rise of Eukaryotes'', Science,
Vol 285, Issue 5430, 13 August 1999,
p1033-1036.
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/285/
5430/1033.short
and http://www.jstor.org/stable/2898534
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/285/5430/1033.short
and http://www.jstor.org/stable/2898534

2,700,000,000 YBN
198) The endoplasmic reticulum evolves
in a eukaryote cell. The endoplasmic
reticulum (or ER) is a membrane system
that extends from the nucleus,
important in the synthesis of proteins
and lipids.

There are two distinct regions of ER:
the rough ER (so called because of the
protein-synthesizing ribosomes attached
to it), and the smooth ER, which is not
associated with ribosomes and is
involved in the synthesis of lipids and
the detoxification of some toxic
chemicals.
 
[1] Figure 1 : Image of n, endoplasmic
reticulum and Golgi apparatus. (1)
Nucleus. (2) Nuclear pore. (3) Rough
endoplasmic reticulum (RER). (4) Smooth
endoplasmic reticulum (SER). (5)
Ribosome on the rough ER. (6) Proteins
that are transported. (7) Transport
vesicle. (8) Golgi apparatus. (9) Cis
face of the Golgi apparatus. (10) Trans
face of the Golgi apparatus. (11)
Cisternae of the Golgi apparatus. I
am the copyright holder of that image
(I might even have the CorelDraw file
around somewhere:-), and I hereby place
the image and all partial images
created from it in the public domain.
So, you are free to use it any way you
like. In fact, I am delighted that one
of my drawings makes it into
print! I can mail you the .cdr file,
if you like (and if I can find it), if
you need a better resolution for
printing. Yours, Magnus
Manske Source: See also User:Magnus
Manske
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Nucleus_ER_golgi.jpg

[2] Description English: The
elongation and membrane targeting
stages of eukaryotic translation. The
ribosome is green and yellow, the tRNAs
are dark blue, and the other proteins
involved are light blue. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3c/Translation.gif
2,700,000,000 YBN
214) Biomarkers characteristic of
cyanobacteria, 2α-methylhopanes,
indicate that oxygenic photosynthesis
evolves long before the atmosphere
becomes oxidizing.
 
[1] Figure 1 and Table 2 from: Jochen
J. Brocks, Graham A. Logan, Roger
Buick, Roger E. Summons, ''Archean
Molecular Fossils and the Early Rise of
Eukaryotes'', Science, Vol 285, Issue
5430, 1033-1036, 13 August 1999,
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/285/
5430/1033.abstract COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/285/5430/1033.abstract
2,690,000,000 YBN
207) The cytoskeleton {SI-Te-SKeL-i-TN}
forms in the eukaryote cytoplasm.
 
[1] English: Endothelial cells under
the microscope. Nuclei are stained blue
with DAPI, microtubles are marked green
by an antibody bound to FITC and actin
filaments are labelled red with
phalloidin bound to TRITC. Bovine
pulmonary artery endothelial
cells http://rsb.info.nih.gov/ij/images
/ PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/09/FluorescentCells.jpg

[2] FIG. 7. In vitro polymerization
of cytoskeletal proteins of the
MinD/ParA superfamily. (A) Formation of
MinD filament bundles in the presence
of MinE, ATP, and phospholipid
vesicles. One end of the bundle is
markedly frayed because of the presence
of MinE. (Reprinted from reference 198
with permission of the publisher.
Copyright 2003 National Academy of
Sciences, U.S.A.) (B) Formation of a
ParApTP228(ParF) filament bundle in the
presence of ParBpTP228(ParG) and ATP.
ParBpTP228(ParG) stimulates formation
of the frayed end(s) of the
ParApTP228(ParF) bundle. (Reprinted
from reference 11 by permission from
Macmillan Publishers Ltd.) (C)
Formation of Soj filaments in the
presence of DNA and ATP. (Reprinted
from reference 116 by permission from
Macmillan Publishers Ltd.) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/
articles/PMC1594594/bin/zmr0030621350007
.jpg
2,690,000,000 YBN
208) The eukaryote flagellum and cilia
evolve.

The eukaryote flagellum and cilia are
structurally the same but are very
different from the prokaryote
flagellum. The eukaryote flagellum is
composed of a characteristic "9+2"
arrangement of microtubules
{mIKrO-TUB-YU-LZ} surrounded by a
sheath which is an extension of the
plasma membrane. Unlike the prokaryote
flagella that rotate, the flagella and
cilia of eukaryotic cells undulate in a
wave-like motion to propel the cell.

Some cilia are nonmotile and serve a
signal-receiving "antennae" for the
cell.

The sperm cells of algae, animals, and
some plants have flagella.
 
[1] Cilia and flagella are projections
from the cell. They are made up of
microtubules , as shown in this cartoon
and are covered by an extension of the
plasma membrane. They are motile and
designed either to move the cell itself
or to move substances over or around
the cell. The primary purpose of cilia
in mammalian cells is to move fluid,
mucous, or cells over their surface.
Cilia and flagella have the same
internal structure. The major
difference is in their length. This
figure shows a cross section of a
cilium next to a longitudinal section.
Below, we will see how the microtubules
are organized in the core (shown in the
cartoon in this figure). Also shown is
the centriole or basal body that
organizes the formation and direction
of the cilia. COPYRIGHTED
source: Description Transmission
electron microscope image, showing an
example of green algae
(Chlorophyta). Chlamydomanas
reinhardtii is a unicellular flagellate
used as a model system in molecular
genetics work and flagellar motility
studies. This image is a
longitudinal section through the
flagella area. In the cell apex is the
basal body that is the anchoring site
for a flagella. Basal bodies originate
from and have a substructure similar to
that of centrioles, with nine
peripheral microtubule triplets(see
structure at bottom center of image).
The two inner microtubules of each
triplet in a basal body become the two
outer doublets in the flagella. This
image also shows the transition region,
with its fibers of the stellate
structure. The top of the image shows
the flagella passing through the cell
wall. Date 20 September
2007 Source Source and public domain
notice at
http://remf.dartmouth.edu/imagesindex.ht
ml Author Dartmouth Electron
Microscope Facility, Dartmouth
College PD

[2] This figure shows an electron
micrograph of a cross section of a
cilium. Note that you can see the
dynein arms and the nexin links. The
dynein arms have ATPase activity. In
the presence of ATP, they can move from
one tubulin to another. They enable the
tubules to slide along one another so
the cilium can bend. The dynein
bridges are regulated so that sliding
leads to synchronized bending. Because
of the nexin and radial spokes, the
doublets are held in place so sliding
is limited lengthwise. If nexin and the
radial spokes are subjected to enzyme
digestion, and exposed to ATP, the
doublets will continue to slide and
telescope up to 9X their length.
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Chlamydomonas_T
EM_09.jpg/1280px-Chlamydomonas_TEM_09.jp
g
2,680,000,000 YBN
65) The circular chromosome in the
eukaryote nucleus changes into linear
chromosomes.

Alternatively, the eukaryotic cell may
descend from a prokaryote that already
has linear DNA.

Some extant prokaryotes can have a
linear chromosome.
 
[1] A DNA molecule is very long (a few
meters) but extremely thin (narrow;
measured in nanometers). Here is an
electron microscope photo of a DNA
strand: PD
source: http://rst.gsfc.nasa.gov/Sect20/
dna1.jpg

[2] [t Is this an accurate image? - Is
a chromosome made of a single wound
strand of DNA? update- no see image
8] Every cell in the human body
(except red blood cells) contains 23
pairs of chromosomes. (a) Each
chromosome is made up of a tightly
coiled strand of DNA. (b) DNA’s
uncoiled state reveals its familiar
double helix shape. If DNA is pictured
as a twisted ladder, its sides, made of
sugar and phosphate molecules, are
connected by (c) rungs made of
chemicals called bases. DNA has four
bases—adenine, thymine, guanine, and
cytosine—that form interlocking
pairs. The order of the bases along the
length of the ladder is the DNA
sequence. PD
source: https://www.llnl.gov/str/June03/
gifs/Stubbs1.gif
2,680,000,000 YBN
216) Histones evolve. Histones are
proteins found in all eukaryotic cell
nuclei that package and order a single
continuous DNA molecule into structural
units called nucleosomes {nUKlEuSOMZ}.
The nucleosomes are coiled into a 30
nanometer fiber called a chromatin, and
then looped again around a chromosome
scaffold into a larger 300 nanometer
fiber which forms one of the two
chromatids in a chromosome.
 
[1] Campbell, N.A., and J.B. Reece.
Biology. Pearson Benjamin Cummings,
2008. Alternative eText Formats
Series. COPYRIGHTED
source: Campbell, N.A., and J.B. Reece.
Biology. Pearson Benjamin Cummings,
2008. Alternative eText Formats Series.

[2] Description Schematic
representation of the assembly of the
core histones into the nucleosome Date
15 November 2005 Source English
Wikipedia Author Richard Wheeler
(Zephyris) GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8a/Nucleosome_structure.
png
2,680,000,000 YBN
291) The eukaryote cell evolves two
intermediate stages between cell
division and DNA synthesis.

In prokaryotes, DNA synthesis can take
place uninterrupted between cell
divisions, but eukaryotes duplicate
their DNA exactly once during a
discrete period between cell divisions.
This period is called the S (for
synthesis) phase, and is preceded by a
period called G1 (meaning "first gap")
and followed by a period called G2,
during which nuclear DNA synthesis does
not occur.
 
[1] Figure 14.1Phases of the cell
cycle The division cycle of most
eukaryotic cells is divided into four
discrete phases: M, G1, S, and G2. M
phase (mitosis) is usually followed by
cytokinesis. S phase is the period
during which DNA replication occurs.
The cell grows throughout interphase,
which includes G1, S, and G2. The
relative lengths of the cell cycle
phases shown here are typical of
rapidly replicating mammalian
cells. From: The Eukaryotic Cell
Cycle The Cell: A Molecular
Approach. 2nd edition. Cooper
GM. Sunderland (MA): Sinauer
Associates; 2000. Copyright © 2000,
Geoffrey M Cooper. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/book
s/NBK9876/bin/ch14f1.jpg

[2] The cell cycle. Image from Purves
et al., Life: The Science of Biology,
4th Edition, by Sinauer Associates
(www.sinauer.com) and WH Freeman
(www.whfreeman.com) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/facu
lty/farabee/biobk/cellcycle.gif
2,670,000,000 YBN
199) The Eukaryote Golgi Apparatus
evolves. The Golgi apparatus packages
proteins and lipids into vesicles for
delivery to targeted destinations.

A vesicle is a closed structure, found
only in eukaryotic cells, that is
completely surrounded by a membrane
but, unlike a vacuole, contains
non-liquid material.
 
[1] Figure 1: Image of nucleus,
endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi
apparatus: (1) Nucleus, (2) Nuclear
pore, (3) Rough endoplasmic reticulum
(RER), (4) Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
(SER), (5) Ribosome on the rough ER,
(6) Proteins that are transported, (7)
Transport vesicle, (8) Golgi apparatus,
(9) Cis face of the Golgi apparatus,
(10) Trans face of the Golgi apparatus,
(11) Cisternae of the Golgi apparatus,
(12) Secretory vesicle, (13) Plasma
membrane, (14) Exocytosis, (15)
Cytoplasm, (16) Extracellular space.
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Nucleus_ER_golgi_ex.jpg

[2] no description UNKNOWN
source: http://sun.menloschool.org/~cwea
ver/cells/e/lysosomes/
2,670,000,000 YBN
290) The nucleolus evolves. The
nucleolus is a sphere in the nucleus
that makes ribosomes.

The nucleolus, which appears as a dense
area within the nucleus, contains the
genes that encode (ribosomal or) rRNA
and are where molecules of rRNA are
synthesized. The nucleolus also
assembles ribosome subunits from rRNA
and ribosomal proteins. Ribosomal
proteins are synthesized in the
cytoplasm and transported to the
nucleus for subassembly in the
nucleolus. The subunits are then
returned to the cytoplasm for final
assembly of the ribosome.
 
[1] Nucleolus, COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.eccentrix.com/members
/chempics/Slike/cell/Nucleolus.jpg

[2] With the combination of x-rays
from the Advanced Light Source and a
new protein-labeling technique,
scientists can see the distribution of
the nucleoli within the nucleus of a
mammary epithelial cell. USG PD
source: http://www.lbl.gov/Science-Artic
les/Archive/xray-inside-cells.html
2,660,000,000 YBN
72) Mitosis evolves in Eukaryote cells.


Mitosis is the process in eukaryotic
cell division in which the duplicated
chromosomes are separated and the
nucleus divides resulting in two new
nuclei, each of which contains an
identical copy of the parental
chromosomes. Mitosis is usually
immediately followed by cytokinesis,
the division of the cytoplasm.

The cell division cycle contains four
stages, G1 ("first gap"), S
("synthesis"), G2 ("second gap"), and M
("mitotic phase"). The first three
stages are called "interphase" which
alternates with the mitotic phase.
Interphase is a much longer stage that
often accounts for 90% of the cycle.
During interphase the cell grows and
copies its chromosomes in preparation
for cell division. In the mitotic
phase, mitosis separates the chromosome
pairs, and division of the nucleus is
followed by cytokinesis.

Mitosis is thought to have
evolved from prokaryote binary fission
and possible intermediate stages can be
seen in some protists.
 
[1] Mitosis divides genetic information
during cell division Source:
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/About/primer
/genetics_cell.html This image is
from the Science Primer, a work of the
National Center for Biotechnology
Information, part of the National
Institutes of Health. As a work of the
U.S. federal government, the image is
in the public domain.
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mit
osis

[2] Prophase: The two round objects
above the nucleus are the centrosomes.
Note the condensed chromatin. from
Gray's Anatomy. Unless stated
otherwise, it is from the online
edition of the 20th U.S. edition of
Gray's Anatomy of the Human Body,
originally published in 1918. Online
editions can be found on Bartleby and
also on Yahoo!
source: UNKNOWN
2,640,000,000 YBN
73) Eukaryote sex evolves. This is the
first diploid cell and the first
zygote.

Because of sex, two cells with
different DNA can mix providing more
genetic variety. Having two chromosome
sets also provides a backup copy of
important genes (sequences that code
for proteins, or nucleic acids) that
might be lost with only a set of single
chromosomes.

Eukaryotic sexual reproduction, which
is initially the fusion of two cells
and their nuclei, may first occur in a
single cell protist that usually
reproduces asexually by mitosis. Two
haploid eukaryote cells (gametes, cells
with one set of chromosomes each) merge
and then their nuclei merge to form the
first diploid cell, a cell with two
sets of chromosomes, the first zygote.
"Syngamy" {SiNG-Gu-mE} refers to gamete
fusion and "karyogamy" {KaR-E-oG-e-mE}
to nucleus fusion. In most cases
syngamy is immediately followed by
karyogamy.

This fusion of two haploid cells
results in the first diploid
single-celled organism, which may then
immediately divide back to two haploid
cells.

Conjugation, the second major kind of
sexual phenomenon, which occurs in the
ciliates, involves the fusion of
gametic nuclei instead of independent
gamete cells.

Initially sex may be the fusion of two
indistinguishable cells (isogamy) with
gender (anisogamy) only evolving later.
Although possibly eukaryote cell fusion
and gender is directly descended from
prokaryote conjugation.

All sexual species alternate between
haploid and diploid. There are three
main different types of sexual life
cycles; haplontic, haplodiplontic, and
diplontic.
This begins the haplontic life cycle:
in the entire life cycle the only
diploid cell is the zygote and mitosis
only occurs in the haploid phase.

Most fungi and some protists including
some algae are "haplontic"; they have a
multicellular haploid stage and no
multicellular diploid stage. Plants and
some algae are "haplodiplontic"; they
make both a multicellular haploid and
multicellular diploid organism. Animals
are "diplontic"; they make a diploid
multicellular organism and no
multicellular haploid organism.
 
[1] Theoretical first eukaryote
sex adapted from image of gametic
meiosis GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Zygotic_meiosis.jpg

[2] Theoretical first eukaryote
sex adapted from image of gametic
meiosis GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Zygotic_meiosis.jpg
2,640,000,000 YBN
206) Meiosis evolves (one-step meiosis:
a single cell division of a diploid
cell into two haploid cells).

Meiosis, which looks similar to
mitosis, is the process of cell
division in sexually reproducing
organisms that reduces the number of
chromosomes in reproductive cells from
diploid to haploid, leading to the
production of gametes in animals and
spores in plants.

Without the reduction back to haploid,
genomes would double in size with every
generation.
 
[1] Theoretical first eukaryote
sex adapted from image of gametic
meiosis GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Zygotic_meiosis.jpg

[2] Theoretical first eukaryote
sex adapted from image of gametic
meiosis GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Zygotic_meiosis.jpg
2,610,000,000 YBN
296) Gender in eukaryotes evolves.
Anisogamy {aNISoGomE}, sex (cell and
nucleus fusion) between two cells that
are different in size or shape.
 
[1] Combination of images: Description
English: Different types of
isogamy: A) Isogamy of motile
cells B) Isogamy of non-motile
cells C) Conjugation of
gametangia Date 30 July
2008 Source Vectorised SVG version of
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Isoga
my.png Author Original bitmap version
by Tameeria, SVG version by Qef Other
versions
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:
Isogamy.png PD AND Description
Different types of en:anisogamy:
A) Anisogamy of motile gametes B)
Oogamy (non-motile egg cell, motile
sperm cell) C) Anisogamy of
non-motile gametes Date 2008-06-30
02:07 (UTC) Source
Anisogamy.png Author This
SVG version by Qef (talk)
Anisogamy.png: Original uploader was
Tameeria at en.wikipedia Later
versions were uploaded by Helix84 at
en.wikipedia. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d5/Isogamy.svg AND
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/a/a7/Anisogamy.svg

[2] Description Different types of
en:anisogamy: A) Anisogamy of motile
gametes B) Oogamy (non-motile egg
cell, motile sperm cell) C) Anisogamy
of non-motile
gametes Date 2008-06-30 02:07
(UTC) Source Anisogamy.png Author
This SVG version by Qef
(talk) Anisogamy.png: Original
uploader was Tameeria at
en.wikipedia Later versions were
uploaded by Helix84 at
en.wikipedia. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Anisogamy.svg/1
000px-Anisogamy.svg.png
2,590,000,000 YBN
298) Oogamy {O-oG-omE}, a form of
anisogamy, evolves in protists: sex
between a flagellated gamete and an
unflagellated gamete.
 
[1] Combination of images: Description
English: Different types of
isogamy: A) Isogamy of motile
cells B) Isogamy of non-motile
cells C) Conjugation of
gametangia Date 30 July
2008 Source Vectorised SVG version of
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Isoga
my.png Author Original bitmap version
by Tameeria, SVG version by Qef Other
versions
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:
Isogamy.png PD AND Description
Different types of en:anisogamy:
A) Anisogamy of motile gametes B)
Oogamy (non-motile egg cell, motile
sperm cell) C) Anisogamy of
non-motile gametes Date 2008-06-30
02:07 (UTC) Source
Anisogamy.png Author This
SVG version by Qef (talk)
Anisogamy.png: Original uploader was
Tameeria at en.wikipedia Later
versions were uploaded by Helix84 at
en.wikipedia. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d5/Isogamy.svg AND
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/a/a7/Anisogamy.svg

[2] Description English: A sperm
cell fertilizing an egg cell Date
Source
http://www.pdimages.com/web9.htm Autho
r Unknown Permission (Reusing this
file)
http://www.pdimages.com/web9.htm P
D
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/86/Sperm-egg.jpg
2,580,000,000 YBN
300) Diploid cell fusion evolves
(Gamontogamy).
 
[1] The Oxymonad, Notila (diploid
Pacific form) life cycle. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.zoology.ubc.ca/~redfi
eld/clevelan/notila.GIF
2,570,000,000 YBN
295) Two-step meiosis evolves (diploid
DNA copies and then the cell divides
twice into four haploid cells).

Most protists divide by two-step
meiosis, and one-step meiosis is rare.

Many of the steps of meiosis closely
resemble corresponding steps in
mitosis. Meiosis, like mitosis, is
preceded by the replication of
chromosome, but this single replication
is followed not by one but two
consecutive cell divisions called
meiosis I and meiosis II. These two
divisions result in four child cells
instead of the two child cells of
mitosis.

Mitosis produces child cells that are
genetically identical to their parent
cells and each other, while meiosis
produces cells that differ genetically
from their parent cell and from each
other.
 
[1] GametoGenesis. COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://www.bio.miami.edu/dana/10
4/gametogenesis.jpg

[2] Sexual cycle oxymonas, identical
to saccinobaculus, one step meiosis.
haploid. COPYRIGHTED CANADA
source: http://www.zoology.ubc.ca/~redfi
eld/clevelan/oxymonas.GIF
2,558,000,000 YBN
171) The Eubacteria phylum
"Deinococcus-Thermus" evolves (includes
Thermus Aquaticus {used in PCR}, and
Deinococcus radiodurans {which can
survive long exposure to radiation}).
 
[1] D. radiodurans growing on a
nutrient agar plate. The red color is
due to carotenoid pigment. Links to
816x711-pixel, 351KB JPG. Credit: M.
Daly, Uniformed Services University of
the Health Sciences NASA
source: http://science.nasa.gov/newhome/
headlines/images/conan/D_rad_dish.jpg

[2] Photomicrograph of Deinococcus
radiodurans, from
www.ornl.gov/ORNLReview/ v34 The Oak
Ridge National Laboratory United
States Federal Government This work
is in the public domain because it is a
work of the United States Federal
Government. This applies worldwide. See
Copyright.
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Deinococcus.jpg
2,558,000,000 YBN
172) The Eubacteria phylum,
Cyanobacteria {SIe-NO-BaK-TERE-u}
evolves.

Cyanobacteria are the only prokaryotes
with oxygen-producing photosynthesis,
and are the ancestor of all eukaryote
plastids (for example chloroplasts).

Fossil evidence suggests that
cyanobacteria existed as early as 3.8
billion years before now, but the
genetic evidence places the origin of
cyanobacteria here at 2.5 billion years
before now.
 
[1] Oscillatoria COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://www.stcsc.edu/ecology/alg
ae/oscillatoria.jpg

[2] Lyngbya COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://www.stanford.edu/~bohanna
n/Media/LYNGB5.jpg
2,558,000,000 YBN
315) The Eubacteria Phylum Chloroflexi
evolves; (Green Non-Sulphur bacteria).

The Chloroflexi are filamentous
bacteria that perform anoxygenic
photosynthesis.
 
[1] Chloroflexus photomicrograph from
Doe Joint Genome Institute of US Dept
Energy PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Chlorofl.jpg
2,500,000,000 YBN
52) The end of the Archean and start of
the Proterozoic {PrOTReZOiK or
ProTReZOiK} Eon.

The Proterozoic spans from 2,500 to 542
million years ago, and represents 42%
of Earth's history.
 
[1] Geologic Time Scale 2009 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.geosociety.org/scienc
e/timescale/timescl.pdf
2,500,000,000 YBN
56) Banded Iron Formation starts to
appear in many places.
 
[1] portion taken
from: Description English: This
image shows a 2.1 billion years old
rock containing black-banded ironstone,
which has a weight of about 8.5 tons.
The approximately two meter high, three
meter wide, and one meter thick block
of stone was found in North America and
belongs to the National Museum of
Mineralogy and Geology in Dresden,
Germany. The rock is located at
+51°2'34.84''
+13°45'26.67''. Deutsch: Dieses Bild
zeigt einen etwa 8,5 Tonnen schweren
und 2,1 Milliarden Jahre alten Block
mit Bändereisenerzen. Der etwa zwei
Meter hohe, drei Meter breite und einen
Meter tiefe Gesteinsblock wurde in
Nordamerika gefunden und gehört dem
Staatlichen Museum für Mineralogie und
Geologie Dresden. Der Block befindet
sich bei den Koordinaten +51°2'34.84''
+13°45'26.67''. Camera
data Camera Nikon D70 Lens Tamron
SP AF 90mm/2.8 Di Macro 1:1 Focal
length 90 mm Aperture f/2.8 Exposure
time 1/250 s Sensivity ISO 200 Please
help translating the description into
more languages. Thanks a lot! If
you want a license with the conditions
of your choice, please email me to
negotiate terms. best new
image Date 26 August
2005 Source Own
work Author André Karwath aka
Aka CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Black-band_iron
stone_%28aka%29.jpg/1280px-Black-band_ir
onstone_%28aka%29.jpg

[2] This rock resulted from
accumulations of ferrous Iron (Fe+2) in
oceans and lakes (which were more green
in color than today; ferrous iron can
produce that color as, for example, in
a Coca-Cola glass bottle). The Iron
readily combined with any available
oxygen, so that the latter was always
destined to be caught up in the iron
precipitates (Fe2O3) and thus didn't
remain in the atmosphere. While BIF is
a hallmark of sedimentary rock
formations during this extended period,
other rocks also formed (shales;
sandstones) but carbonates (limestones)
were much less commmon. Starting about
2.3 billion years ago, oxygen levels
and other factors led to common
production of ferric oxides (Hematite)
that made prominent red beds
periodically to the present. One
variety includes alternating chert
layers, some rich in iron PD
source: http://rst.gsfc.nasa.gov/Sect19/
2929573315_7bb69aeebb.jpg
2,480,000,000 YBN
170) Bacteria live on land.

Chemoauthotrophs oxidize sulfur or
nitrogen to form sulfate and nitrate,
and therefore sulfuric and nitric
acids, which then dissolve rocks.

Increased chromium levels in seabed
sediments is evidence that acidophilic
chemolithoautotrophic bacteria dissolve
rocks and soils into a mixture of
metals, including chromium, which are
then carried to the oceans by the
run-off of rain water.
 
[1] Acidic waste water from a modern
mining site supports the same oxygen
using bacterial life that appeared on
Earth 2.48 billion years ago. UNKNOWN

source: http://media.news.ualberta.ca/~/
media/University%20of%20Alberta/Administ
ration/External%20Relations/ExpressNews/
Images/2011/10/111020-RocksBanner-cw.jpg


[2] Bacillus specie soil
bacteria. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.scharfphoto.com/fine_
art_prints/archives/199812-054-Soil-Bact
eria.jpg
2,400,000,000 YBN
59) Start of a 200 million year ice
age.
 
[1] snowball Earth UNKNOWN
source: http://www.cosmosmagazine.com/fi
les/imagecache/feature/files/features/pr
int/20090528_snowball_earth.jpg

[2] Snowball Earth Snowball Earth
describes a theory that for millions of
years the Earth was entirely smothered
in ice, stretching from the poles to
the tropics. This freezing happened
over 650 million years ago in the
Pre-Cambrian, though it's now thought
that there may have been more than one
of these global glaciations. They
varied in duration and extent but
during a full-on snowball event, life
could only cling on in ice-free
refuges, or where sunlight managed to
penetrate through the ice to allow
photosynthesis. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/imag
es/ic/credit/640x395/s/sn/snowball_earth
/snowball_earth_1.jpg
2,300,000,000 YBN
47) Evidence of free oxygen
accumulating in the air of Earth for
the first time, the most recent
uraninite {YRANninIT}, a mineral that
cannot exist for much time if exposed
to oxygen.
 
[1] Description English:
Uraninite Locality:
Trebilcock Pit, Topsham, Maine
Size: thumbnail, 2.7 x 2.4 x 1.4 cm
Uraninite The
so-called ''Trebilcock ''
locationuraninites found in the late
1970s represent the pinnacle of
crystallized uraninite, to most
collectors. Specimens today are rare on
the market. THis beautiful large
thubmnail features a dominant
1.5-cm-across crystal perched atop
smaller ones, on matrix! SUPERB
quality...a competition level specimen.
ex. Ken Hollman Collection Deutsch:
Uraninit Größe: 2.7 x 2.4
x 1.4 cm Date before March
2010 Source Image:
http://www.irocks.com/db_pics/usa1/usa32
abg.jpg, Description:
http://www.irocks.com/render.html?specie
s=Uraninite&page=2 Author Rob
Lavinsky / iRocks.com Link back to
Creator infobox template CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a7/Uraninite-usa32abg.jp
g

[2] Description English: Pyrite
from Ampliación a Victoria Mine,
Navajún, La Rioja, Spain. Français :
Cristaux de Pyrite provenant de la mine
Ampliación a Victoria de Navajún,
dans la La Rioja (Espagne). Camera
data Camera Canon EOS 400D
Lens Tamron EF 180mm f3.5 1:1 Macro
Flash Light Tent Focal length 180
mm Aperture f/9 Exposure time
1/125 s Sensivity ISO 100 Date
1/07/2009 Source Own work Author
JJ Harrison
(http://www.noodlesnacks.com/) GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/fd/Pyrite_from_Ampliaci%
C3%B3n_a_Victoria_Mine%2C_Navaj%C3%BAn%2
C_La_Rioja%2C_Spain_2.jpg
2,300,000,000 YBN
48) The oldest "Red Beds", iron oxide
formed on land, begin here, and are
also evidence of more free oxygen in
the air of Earth.
 
[1]
http://www.kgs.ukans.edu/Extension/redhi
lls/redhills.html
source: http://www.kgs.ukans.edu/Extensi
on/redhills/redhills.html

[2] In Archean rocks, metals tend to
occur in low oxidation states (for
example, Fe2+ instead of Fe3+)
indicating a high metal:oxygen ratio in
the oceans and atmosphere. The
sediments are essentially rust-free.
After the late Proterozoic,
sedimentary deposits often have reddish
colors and are called red beds due to
the presence of iron-oxide coatings
between sand grains. From the later
Proterozoic onward, enough free oxygen
has been available to oxidize iron in
sediments. A sandstone butte outside
of Sedona, Arizona. Public domain
image by Jon Sullivan. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/38/Butte_pdphoto_roadtri
p_24_bg_021604.jpg
2,000,000,000 YBN
63) A parasitic bacterium, closely
related to Rickettsia prowazekii, an
aerobic proteobacteria, is engulfed by
an early eukaryote cell and over time a
symbiotic relationship evolves within
the eukaryote cell (an endosymbiosis)
where the Rickettsia becomes the
mitochondria.

Mitochondria are membrane-bound
organelles found in the cytoplasm of
almost all eukaryotic cells, and are
where cellular respiration occurs
producing most of the ATP in a
eukaryotic cell.

In eukaryotes the mitochondria perform
the Citric Acid Cycle and Oxidative
phosphorylation using oxygen to
breakdown pyruvate from glycolysis into
carbon dioxide and water, and provide
up to 36 ATP molecules.
 
[1] Figure from: Michael W. Gray, et
al, ''Genome structure and gene content
in protist mitochondrial DNAs'',
Nucl. Acids Res. (1998) 26(4):
865-878 doi:10.1093/nar/26.4.865
http://nar.oxfordjournals.org/content/
26/4/865.full Phylogenetic hypothesis
of the eukaryotic lineage based on
ultrastructural and molecular data.
Organisms are divided into three main
groups distinguished by mitochondrial
cristal shape (either discoidal,
flattened or tubular). Unbroken lines
indicate phylogenetic relationships
that are firmly supported by available
data; broken lines indicate
uncertainties in phylogenetic
placement, resolution of which will
require additional data. Color coding
of organismal genus names indicates
mitochondrial genomes that have been
completely (Table 1), almost completely
(Jakoba, Naegleria and
Thraustochytrium) or partially (*)
sequenced by the OGMP (red), the FMGP
(black) or other groups (green). Names
in blue indicate those species whose
mtDNAs are currently being sequenced by
the OGMP or are future candidates for
complete sequencing. Amitochondriate
retortamonads are positioned at the
base of the tree, with broken arrows
denoting the endosymbiotic origin(s) of
mitochondria from a Rickettsia-like
eubacterium. Macrophar.,
Macropharyngomonas.
source: http://nar.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/vol26/issue4/images/gkb18201.gif

[2] Figure 1 Phylogenetic tree of
eukaryotes based on ultrastructural and
molecular data. Organisms are
sub-divided into main groups as
discussed in the text. Only a few
representative species for which
complete (or almost complete) mtDNA
sequences are known are shown in each
lineage. In some cases, line drawings
or actual pictures of the organisms are
provided (Acanthamoeba, M. Nagata; URL:
http://protist.i.hosei.ac.jp/PDB/PCD3379
/htmls/21.html; Allomyces, Tom Volk;
URL:
http://botit.botany.wisc.edu/images/332/
Chytridiomycota/Allomyces_r_So_pa/A._arb
uscula_pit._sporangia_tjv.html;
Amoebidium, URL:
http://cgdc3.igmors.upsud.fr/microbiolog
ie/mesomycetozoaires.htm; Marchantia,
URL:
http://www.science.siu.edu/landplants/He
patophyta/images/March.female.JPEG
Scenedesmus, Entwisle et al.,
http://www.rbgsyd.gov.au/_data/page/1824
/Scenedesmus.gif). The color-coding of
the main groups (alternating between
dark and light blue) on the outer
circle corresponds to the color-coding
of the species names. Unbroken lines
indicate phylogenetic relationships
that are firmly supported by available
molecular data; broken lines indicate
uncertainties in phylogenetic
placement, resolution of which will
require additional sequence data. [t:
why not color code or add which type of
mito?]
source: http://arjournals.annualreviews.
org/doi/full/10.1146/annurev.genet.37.11
0801.142526
1,874,000,000 YBN
61) The earliest large filamentous
fossil (Grypania). Grypania spiralis is
about 10 cm long, and is thought to be
either a green alga or a large
cyanobacterium. If eukaryote, Grypania
would be the earliest non-acritarch
eukaryote fossil.

Han and Runnegar, finders of this
fossil, conclude that the best modern
analog to Grypania is Acetabularia
{aS-i-TaB-YU-lAR-Eu}, a large
single-celled green algae. If true,
this would make Grypania the oldest
green algae fossil. They write
"Grypania is interpreted as a sessile,
eukaryotic alga that may have been
unicellular but is more likely to have
been either multinucleate or
multicellular...".

The Grypania fossils have no blade
(leaf) or holdfast structures, but
stretching implies that Grypania was a
sessile organism connected to a
surface.

Similar fossils only 1 billion years
old have been found in Montana, China
and India.
(Banded Iron Formation) Michigan,
USA 
[1]
file:/root/web/Grypania_spiralis_wmel000
0.htm
source: file:/root/web/Grypania_spiralis
_wmel0000.htm

[2]
http://www.peripatus.gen.nz/paleontology
/lrgGrypaniaspiralis.jpg
source: http://www.peripatus.gen.nz/pale
ontology/lrgGrypaniaspiralis.jpg
1,800,000,000 YBN
46) The end of the Banded Iron
Formation.
 
[1] Ted Huntington PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/62/MichiganBIF.jpg

[2] Ted Huntington PD
source: Ted Huntington
1,570,000,000 YBN
99) The first homeobox genes evolve.
These genes regulate the building of
major body parts in algae, plants,
fungi and animals.

In 1894 William Bateson coined the term
"homeosis" for a mutation which causes
a part of a body to appear in some
different part. "Homeo" comes from
Bateson's "homoeosis" and "box" refers
to a "box" of 180 nucleotide code
letters that all genes known as
homeobox genes have somewhere in their
length. The name "Hox", a contraction
of homeobox, refers to a subset of
homeobox genes, found only in animals,
that determine position along the
length of an animal's body and which
are homologous in nearly all animals.

For example, when a hox gene
responsible for growing a mouse eye is
added to the cell of a fruit-fly embryo
that is destined to be a leg, an extra
fruit fly eye is built on the leg.
A Hox
gene doesn't tell a cell how to make an
eye, but only that here is the place to
make an eye.
 
[1] {ULSF: Homeobox genes} Desajustes
en el modelo UNKNOWN
source: http://cnho.files.wordpress.com/
2010/07/hox_genes_illus.png

[2] {ULSF: Homeobox genes} UNKNOWN
source: http://cnho.files.wordpress.com/
2010/07/homeobox1.jpg
1,570,000,000 YBN
197) The ancestor of all living
eukaryotes divides into bikont and
unikont descendants. Bikonts lead to
all Chromalveolates, Excavates,
Rhizaria, and Plants. Unikonts lead to
all Amoebozoa, Animals and Fungi.
 
[1] Figure 1: Figure 1. Eukaryote
phylogeny integrating ultrastructure,
sequence trees, gene fusions and
molecular cladistic markers. The
unikont topology is established, but
the branching order of the six bikont
groups remains uncertain. The single
enslavement [12] of a red alga (R) to
create chromalveolates is supported by
a plastid glyceraldehyde phosphate
dehydrogenase (GAPDH) replacement [13].
Whether there was a single enslavement
of a green alga (G) to form cabozoa or
two separate enslavements (asterisks)
to form Cercozoa and Excavata is
uncertain [12], as is the position of
Heliozoa [14]. Polyubiquitin [15] and
EF-1α[16] insertions strongly support
the clades core Rhizaria and
opisthokonts. The inset shows the BamHI
restriction fragment from H.
cantabrigiensis that was sequenced and
analysed in this study, spanning the
DHFR and the amino terminus of the TS
gene (red, introns are green). The
length of the noncoding regions
upstream and downstream of the DHFR
gene from one of the clones is
indicated. Figure 1 from: Stechmann
A, Cavalier-Smith T, ''The root of the
eukaryote tree pinpointed.'', 2003,
Curr. Biol. 13, R665–R666.
doi:10.1016/S0960-9822(03)00602-X. http
://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article
/pii/S096098220300602X COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=MiamiCaptionURL&_method=retriev
e&_eid=1-s2.0-S096098220300602X&_image=1
-s2.0-S096098220300602X-gr1_lrg.jpg&_ba=
&_fmt=full&_orig=na&_issn=09609822&_pii=
S096098220300602X&_isHiQual=Y&_acct=C000
059600&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=
4422&md5=cec46b2161caca87740f4ff34545ab6
9

[2] cavalier-smith diagram COPYRIGHTED

source: cavalier_jmolevol_2003_56_540-56
3.pdf
1,520,000,000 YBN
202) The Protist Phylum Amoebozoa
evolves (amoebas and slime molds); the
first feeding using pseudopods (a
temporary projection of the
cytoplasm).

The Amoebozoa include amoebas, both
naked and testate (partially enclosed
by a "test" or shell), and slime molds
and are characterized by pseudopods.
Slime molds will diverge into two main
branches, plasmodial slime molds and
cellular slime molds.
 
[1] SUBPHYLUM Lobosa CLASS Amoebaea
Chaos diffluens, an amoeba. Photo
released by Dr. Ralf Wagner.
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Chaos_diffluens.jpg

[2] CLASS Amoebaea Mayorella (may-or
-ell-a) a medium sized free-living
naked amoeba with conical pseudopodia.
Central body is the nucleus. Phase
contrast. This picture was taken by
David Patterson of material from
Limulus-ridden sediments at Plum Island
(Massachusetts USA) in spring and
summer, 2001. NONCOMMERCIAL USE
source: http://microscope.mbl.edu/script
s/microscope.php?func=imgDetail&imageID=
515
1,520,000,000 YBN
203) Colonialism (where cells form a
colony) evolves for the first time in
Eukaryotes.

Many cells that form colonies are
apparently identical but because each
cell is exposed to a different
environment, they transcribe different
genes.
 
[1] [t Note that this Chrysophytes
{golden algae} do not evolve
genetically until much later - but I
can't find colonial euglinas or
kinetoplasts- dinobryon look very
similar to euglenas however, even with
a red eyespot- which implies a close
relation.] [1] Dinobryon, a colony of
Chrysophytes showing flagella and red
eyespots UNKNOWN
source: http://www.microscopy-uk.org.uk/
mag//imagsmall/Dinobryonb.jpg

[2] [t Note that this CHrysophytes
{golden algae} do not evolve
genetically until much later - but I
can't find colonial euglinas or
kinetoplasts] [2] golden algae colony
(synura) Scanning EM showing the
colony of cells covered with scales By
Joel Mancuso UNKNOWN
source: http://farm1.staticflickr.com/38
/110623789_7d189c795b_b.jpg
1,500,000,000 YBN
15) The first "plastids" evolve.
Cyanobacteria form plastids through
endosymbiosis within a eukaryotic cell.
Like mitochondria, these organelles
copy themselves and are not made by the
cell DNA.

Plastids provide the eukaryotic cell
with food from photosynthesis and gain
protection by living within the cell.

This is a primary plastid endosymbiosis
and so these plastids are surrounded by
a double membrane. The inner wall of
the plastid being that of the
bacterium, the outer wall being that of
the eukoaryote.
 
[1] Description Plagiomnium
affine, Laminazellen, Rostock Date
created 01.11.2006 Source
photographed by myself Author
Kristian Peters --
Fabelfroh Permission (Reusing this
file) GFDL
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/49/Plagiomnium_affine_la
minazellen.jpeg
1,500,000,000 YBN
86) The first plant (ancestor of all
green and red algae and land plants).

This begins the plant kingdom. The
first plant is probably unicellular,
similar to the glaucophytes
{GlxKoFITS}.
 
[1] ? COPYRIGHTED
source: http://protist.i.hosei.ac.jp/PDB
3/PCD3711/htmls/86.html

[2] (See Image) COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). (c1500)
1,500,000,000 YBN
220) The Protists Opisthokonts evolve
(the ancestor of all Fungi,
Choanoflagellates and Animals).
 
[1] Parasite spore, SEM Z115/0073
Rights Managed Credit: EYE OF
SCIENCE/SCIENCE PHOTO
LIBRARY Caption: Parasite spore.
Coloured scanning electron micrograph
(SEM) of a microsporidian (Tubulinosema
ratisbonensis) spore cultured on human
lung fibroblast cells (brown).
Microsporidia are single-celled
parasites. T. ratisbonenesis is a
parasite of the fruit fly (Drosophila
melanogaster), but may also be able to
infect humans with weakened immune
systems. The spore is the infective
phase of the life cycle. It is excreted
by the old host and enters the gut of a
new host. The contents of the spore,
the sporoplasm, is injected into the
host's cell via the polar tubule. Once
in the cell the organism divides many
times with the resultant organisms
producing more spores. Magnification:
x10,000 at 10 centimetres
wide. Release details: Model and
property releases are not available
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.sciencephoto.com/imag
e/365473/large/Z1150073-Parasite_spore,_
SEM-SPL.jpg

[2] Parasite spore, SEM Z115/0073
Rights Managed Credit: EYE OF
SCIENCE/SCIENCE PHOTO
LIBRARY Caption: Parasite spore.
Coloured scanning electron micrograph
(SEM) of a microsporidian (Tubulinosema
ratisbonensis) spore cultured on human
lung fibroblast cells (brown).
Microsporidia are single-celled
parasites. T. ratisbonenesis is a
parasite of the fruit fly (Drosophila
melanogaster), but may also be able to
infect humans with weakened immune
systems. The spore is the infective
phase of the life cycle. It is excreted
by the old host and enters the gut of a
new host. The contents of the spore,
the sporoplasm, is injected into the
host's cell via the polar tubule. Once
in the cell the organism divides many
times with the resultant organisms
producing more spores. Magnification:
x10,000 at 10 centimetres
wide. Release details: Model and
property releases are not available
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.sciencephoto.com/imag
e/365473/large/Z1150073-Parasite_spore,_
SEM-SPL.jpg
1,400,000,000 YBN
209) The earliest extant plant:
Glaucophyta {GlxKoFITu}.

Glaucophytes are unicellular algae
found in freshwater.

Glaucophyta probably branched off the
evolutionary tree before the divergence
of red and green algae from one
another.

Glaucophyte plastids represent an
intermediate in the transition from a
cyanobacterium endosymbiont to a
plastid, because they retain the
prokaryotic peptidoglycan layer between
their two membranes.
 
[1] ? COPYRIGHTED
source: http://protist.i.hosei.ac.jp/PDB
3/PCD3711/htmls/86.html

[2] ? COPYRIGHTED
source: http://protist.i.hosei.ac.jp/PDB
/Images/Others/Glaucocystis/
1,300,000,000 YBN
188) The Plant Phylum Chlorophyta
{KlORoFiTu} evolves, Green Algae:
(ancestor of Volvox, Sea lettuce,
Spirogyra, and Stoneworts).

The green algae are the most diverse
group of algae on Earth today in terms
of number of species (having at least
7000 species).

The first land plants most likely
evolve from green algae.
 
[1] Description Flagellar pit of
Pyramimonas sp. / from Nigaku-Ike of
University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Ibaraki
Pref., Japan / SEM:JEOL JSM-6330F /
scale bar = 1.0μm Date 2009-05-04
18:30 (UTC) Source
Pyramimonas_sp.jpg Author
Pyramimonas_sp.jpg: ja:User:NEON /
User:NEON_ja derivative work:
Addicted04 (talk) CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/cb/Pyramimonas_sp_color.
jpg

[2] Micrograph of Volvox aureus.
Copyright held by Dr. Ralf Wagner,
uploaded to German Wikipedia under
GFDL. Permission is granted to copy,
distribute and/or modify this document
under the terms of the GNU Free
Documentation License, Version 1.2 or
any later version published by the Free
Software Foundation; with no Invariant
Sections, no Front-Cover Texts, and no
Back-Cover Texts. Subject to
disclaimers.
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vol
vox
1,300,000,000 YBN
219) The plant Phylum Rhodophyta
{rODOFITu} evolves (Red Algae).

Rhodophyta are unicellular and
multicellular (reaching up to 1 m {or 3
feet} in length), and are mostly
free-living but some are parasitic or
symbiotic. Red algae are common and
widespread, and are are ecologically
and economically important (for example
as a source of agar).
 
[1] Close-up of a red alga (Genus?
Laurencia), Class Florideophyceae,
Order=? a marine seaweed from Hawaii.
GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Laurencia.jpg

[2] Bangia atropurpurea Profile:
unbranched filaments in tufts. Often
forming dense fringes in the spalsh
zone. Uniseriate at base, multiseriate
above with protoplasts separate in a
firm gelatinous sheath. Stellate
chloroplasts. US NOAA PD
source: http://www.glerl.noaa.gov/seagra
nt/GLWL/Algae/Rhodophyta/Cards/Bangia.ht
ml
1,300,000,000 YBN
323) The Protists Excavates evolve: the
ancestor of the Parabasalids
{PaRu-BAS-a-liDS}, and the Diplomonads
{DiP-lO-mO-naDZ} {which includes
Giardia {JE-oR-DE-u}).

Most of these species have an excavated
ventral feeding groove, and all lack
mitochondria. However, mitochondria are
thought by many to be lost secondarily
because parabasalids contain
hydrogenosomes and the diplomonad
Giardia intestinalis contains
mitosomes, both of which are descended
from mitochondria.
 
[1] A timescale of eukaryote evolution.
The times for each node are taken from
the summary times in Table 1, except
for nodes 1 (310 Ma), 2 (360 Ma), 3
(450 Ma), and 4 (520 Ma), which are
from the fossil record [25]; nodes 8
(1450 Ma) and 16 (1587 Ma) are
phylogenetically constrained and are
the midpoints between adjacent nodes.
Nodes 12–14 were similar in time and
therefore shown as a multifurcation at
1000 Ma; likewise, nodes 21–22 are
shown as a multifurcation at 1967 Ma.
The star indicates the occurrence of
red algae in the fossil record at 1200
Ma, the oldest taxonomically
identifiable eukaryote [12]. Hedges
et al. BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004
4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.biomedcentral.com/con
tent/figures/1471-2148-4-2-2.jpg

[2] Giardia lamblia, a parasitic
flagellate that causes giardiasis.
Image from public domain source at
http://www.nigms.nih.gov/news/releases/i
mages/para.jpg
source: http://www.nigms.nih.gov/news/re
leases/images/para.jpg
1,280,000,000 YBN
38) (Filamentous) multicellularity in
Eukaryotes evolves.

In this organism, unlike single cell
eukaryotes, cells stay fastened
together after cell division.

Multicellularity seems to have arisen
multiple times independently in
eukaryotes: in fungi, animals, slime
molds, and algae.
(earlest red alga fossils:) (Hunting
Formation) Somerset Island, arctic
Canada 
[1] Bodanella (bow-dan-ell-a)
lauterbornii, a branching filamentous
brown alga. Nearly all brown algae are
marine organisms, but this species is
found in the bottoms of freshwater
lakes. Bright field. data on this
strain. This image is of material
from Provasoli-Guillard National Center
for Culture of Marine Phytoplankton,
images taken by David Patterson and Bob
Andersen. Image copyright: Bob Andersen
and D. J. Patterson, image used under
license to MBL
(micro*scope). NONCOMMERCIAL USE ONLY
source: http://starcentral.mbl.edu/msr/r
awdata/files/bodonella_bgz.zip

[2] Bodanella (bow-dan-ell-a)
lauterbornii, a branching filamentous
brown alga. Nearly all brown algae are
marine organisms, but this species is
found in the bottoms of freshwater
lakes. Bright field. data on this
strain. This image is of material
from Provasoli-Guillard National Center
for Culture of Marine Phytoplankton,
images taken by David Patterson and Bob
Andersen. Image copyright: Bob Andersen
and D. J. Patterson, image used under
license to MBL
(micro*scope). NONCOMMERCIAL USE ONLY
source: http://starcentral.mbl.edu/msr/r
awdata/viewable/bodonella_bgw.jpg
1,280,000,000 YBN
85) Differentiation in a multicellular
eukaryote evolves. In addition to
gamete (or spore) cells, there are
somatic cells. Unlike gamete cells,
somatic cells are asexual
(non-fusing).

All cells of an organism are somatic
cells, except the sperm and egg cells,
the cells from which they arise
(gametocytes), and undifferentiated
stem cells.

Cell differentiation is how cells in a
multicellular organism become
specialized to perform specific
functions in a variety of tissues and
organs.
 
[1] Volvoxcell differentiation. The
pathways leading to germ cells or
somatic cells are controlled by genes
that cause cells to follow one or the
other fate. Mutations can prevent the
formation of one of these lineages.
http://www.devbio.com/chap02/link0204.sh
tml Although all the volvocaceans,
like their unicellular relative
Chlamydomonas, reproduce predominantly
by asexual means, they are also capable
of sexual reproduction, which involves
the production and fusion of haploid
gametes. In many species of
Chlamydomonas, including the one
illustrated in Figure 2.10, sexual
reproduction is isogamous (“the same
gametes”), since the haploid gametes
that meet are similar in size,
structure, and motility. However, in
other species of Chlamydomonas—as
well as many species of colonial
volvocaceans—swimming gametes of very
different sizes are produced by the
different mating types. This pattern is
called heterogamy (“different
gametes”). But the larger
volvocaceans have evolved a specialized
form of heterogamy, called oogamy,
which involves the production of large,
relatively immotile eggs by one mating
type and small, motile sperm by the
other (see Sidelights and
Speculations) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/book
s/NBK10031/bin/ch2f12.jpg

[2] Description English: Four
Different Species of Volvocales Algae.
(A) Gonium pectorale, (B) Eudorina
elegans, (C) Pleodorina californica,
and (D) Volvox carteri. These are
unicellular organisms that live in
colonies and have both large and small
gametes. Date Published: June 15,
2004 Source Whitfield J:
Everything You Always Wanted to Know
about Sexes. PLoS Biol 2/6/2004: e183.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.0
020183 Author Photo courtesy of
Aurora M. Nedelcu, from the Volvocales
Information Project
(http://www.unbf.ca/vip/index.htm). Per
mission (Reusing this file) See
below. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c5/Volvocales.png
1,280,000,000 YBN
210) Mitosis of diploid cells evolves.
 
[1] Mitosis divides genetic information
during cell division Source:
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/About/primer
/genetics_cell.html This image is
from the Science Primer, a work of the
National Center for Biotechnology
Information, part of the National
Institutes of Health. As a work of the
U.S. federal government, the image is
in the public domain.
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mit
osis

[2] Prophase: The two round objects
above the nucleus are the centrosomes.
Note the condensed chromatin. from
Gray's Anatomy. Unless stated
otherwise, it is from the online
edition of the 20th U.S. edition of
Gray's Anatomy of the Human Body,
originally published in 1918. Online
editions can be found on Bartleby and
also on Yahoo!
source: UNKNOWN
1,280,000,000 YBN
301) The haplodiplontic life cycle
evolves in algae (mitosis occurs in
both haploid and diploid life stages).


This is also known as the "alternation
of generations".

Some algae and plants have a
haplodiplontic life cycle; a life cycle
where both diploid and haploid stages
are multicellular. The multicellular
haploid stage is called the gametophyte
and the multicellular diploid stage is
called the sporophyte.
 
[1] Drawn by self for Biological life
cycle Based on Freeman & Worth's
Biology of Plants (p. 171). GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Sporic_meiosis.png

[2] Drawn by self for Biological life
cycle Based on Freeman & Worth's
Biology of Plants (p. 171). GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Sporic_meiosis.png
1,274,000,000 YBN
187) A captured red alga, through
endosymbiosis, becomes a plastid in the
ancestor of all chromalveolates.

This is a secondary plastid
endosymbiosis, where an algae cell is
captured instead of a cyanobacterium
which results in a plastid with more
than two membranes.
 
[1] Fig. 2. The tree of life based
on molecular, ultrastructural and
palaeontological evidence. Contrary to
widespread assumptions, the root is
among the eubacteria, probably within
the double-enveloped Negibacteria, not
between eubacteria and archaebacteria
(Cavalier-Smith, 2002b); it may lie
between Eobacteria and other
Negibacteria (Cavalier-Smith, 2002b).
The position of the eukaryotic root has
been nearly as controversial, but is
less hard to establish: it probably
lies between unikonts and bikonts (Lang
et al., 2002; Stechmann and
Cavalier-Smith, 2002, 2003). For
clarity the basal eukaryotic kingdom
Protozoa is not labelled; it comprises
four major groups (alveolates, cabozoa,
Amoebozoa and Choanozoa) plus the small
bikont phylum Apusozoa of unclear
precise position; whether Heliozoa are
protozoa as shown or chromists is
uncertain (Cavalier-Smith, 2003b).
Symbiogenetic cell enslavement occurred
four or five times: in the origin of
mitochondria and chloroplasts from
different negibacteria, of
chromalveolates by the enslaving of a
red alga (Cavalier-Smith, 1999, 2003;
Harper and Keeling, 2003) and in the
origin of the green plastids of
euglenoid (excavate) and chlorarachnean
(cercozoan) algae—a green algal cell
was enslaved either by the ancestral
cabozoan (arrow) or (less likely) twice
independently within excavates and
Cercozoa (asterisks) (Cavalier-Smith,
2003a). The upper thumbnail sketch
shows membrane topology in the
chimaeric cryptophytes (class
Cryptophyceae of the phylum Cryptista);
in the ancestral chromist the former
food vacuole membrane fused with the
rough endoplasmic reticulum placing the
enslaved cell within its lumen (red) to
yield the complex membrane topology
shown. The large host nucleus and the
tiny nucleomorph are shown in blue,
chloroplast green and mitochondrion
purple. In chlorarachneans (class
Chlorarachnea of phylum Cercozoa) the
former food vacuole membrane remained
topologically distinct from the ER to
become an epiplastid membrane and so
did not acquire ribosomes on its
surface, but their membrane topology is
otherwise similar to the cryptophytes.
The other sketches portray the four
major kinds of cell in the living world
and their membrane topology. The upper
ones show the contrasting ancestral
microtubular cytoskeleton (ciliary
roots, in red) of unikonts (a cone of
single microtubules attaching the
single centriole to the nucleus, blue)
and bikonts (two bands of microtubules
attached to the posterior centriole and
an anterior fan of microtubules
attached to the anterior centriole).
The lower ones show the single plasma
membrane of unibacteria (posibacteria
plus archaebacteria), which were
ancestral to eukaryotes and the double
envelope of negibacteria, which were
ancestral to mitochondria and
chloroplasts (which retained the outer
membrane, red). COPYRIGHTED
source: http://aob.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/95/1/147/F2.large.jpg

[2] Figure 3: Fig. 3. Schematic
representation of the evolutionary
relationships and divergence times for
the red, green, glaucophyte, and
chromist algae. These photosynthetic
groups are outgroup-rooted with the
Opisthokonta which putatively
ancestrally lacked a plastid. The
branches on which the cyanobacterial
(CB) primary and red algal chromist
secondary endosymbioses occurred are
shown Figure 3 from: Yoon, Hwan Su
et al. “A Molecular Timeline for the
Origin of Photosynthetic Eukaryotes.”
Molecular Biology and Evolution 21.5
(2004): 809 -818.
Print. http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/21/5/809.abstract COPYRIGHTED
source: http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/21/5/809/F3.large.jpg
1,250,000,000 YBN
88) The Protists "Chromalveolates"
{KrOM-aL-VEO-leTS} evolve (the ancestor
of the Chromista {Cryptophytes,
Haptophytes, and Stramenopiles
{STro-meN-o-Pi-lEZ}} and Alveolates
{aL-VEO-leTS}).
 
[1] S. Blair Hedges and Sudhir Kumar,
''The TimeTree of Life'', 2009,
p117-118. http://www.timetree.org/book.
php COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.timetree.org/book.php


[2] Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield
NJ, Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D,
''Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources and
timing of the major events.'', in:
Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors.
''Evolution of primary producers in the
sea.'', Elsevier; 2007, p120.
COPYRIGHTED
source: Hackett JD, Yoon HS,
Butterfield NJ, Sanderson MJ,
Bhattacharya D, "Plastid endosymbiosis:
Sources and timing of the major
events.", in: Falkowski P, Knoll A,
editors. "Evolution of primary
producers in the sea.", Elsevier; 2007,
p120.
1,250,000,000 YBN
201) The earliest certain eukaryote
fossils and earliest certain fossils of
eukaryote filamentous multicellularity:
a bangiophyte {BoNJEuFIT} red alga
fossil named "Bangiomorpha pubescens"
{BoNEumORFu}.

These are also the earliest fossils of
a eukaryote that can reproduce sexually
and that have differentiated cells (a
basal holdfast).
(Hunting Formation) Somerset Island,
arctic Canada 
[1] Figure 4 from: Science 1990 vol
250 Butterfield N. J. A. H. Knoll K.
Swett 1990 A bangiophyte red alga from
the Proterozoic of Arctic Canada.
Science 250: 104-107
http://www.jstor.org/stable/2877905
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2877
905

[2] Figure 2 from: Science 1990 vol
250 Butterfield N. J. A. H. Knoll K.
Swett 1990 A bangiophyte red alga from
the Proterozoic of Arctic Canada.
Science 250: 104-107
http://www.jstor.org/stable/2877905
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2877
905
1,200,000,000 YBN
221) The first fungi. This begins the
Fungi Kingdom.

Like animals, fungi are heterotrophic
(unable to build structural materials
by photosynthesis) and so must feed on
other living things.

Fungi live on organic material and are
therefore generally parasitic (live or
feed on another organism to the
detriment of the host organism) or are
saprophytic (live on dead or decaying
organic matter). Some types of fungi,
however, form symbioses with plants.

Fungi may reproduce sexually or
asexually and like plants show
alternations in their life cycle.
 
[1] Microsporidia. Image from Sterling
Parasitology Microsporidia
Research. UNKNOWN
source: http://microbewiki.kenyon.edu/im
ages/3/37/Micro2.jpg

[2] Penicillium [t Note: Penecillium
is a multicellular fungi.] UNKNOWN
source: http://www.mold-help.org/pages/i
mages/Penicillium.jpg
1,189,000,000 YBN
305) The Chromista Phylum "Cryptophyta"
{KriPTuFITu} evolve (the cryptomonads
{KRiPToMunaDZ}).

Cryptophytes are unicellular eukaryotic
algae that acquired photosynthesis
secondarily through the uptake and
retention of a red-algal endosymbiont.
 
[1] Fig. 1. A consensus phylogeny of
eukaryotes. The vast majority of
characterized eukaryotes, with the
notable exception of major subgroups of
amoebae, can now be assigned to one of
eight major groups. Opisthokonts (basal
flagellum) have a single basal
flagellum on reproductive cells and
flat mitochondrial cristae (most
eukaryotes have tubular ones).
Eukaryotic photosynthesis originated in
Plants; theirs are the only plastids
with just two outer membranes.
Heterokonts (different flagellae) have
a unique flagellum decorated with
hollow tripartite hairs (stramenopiles)
and, usually, a second plain one.
Cercozoans are amoebae with filose
pseudopodia, often living with in tests
(hard outer shells), some very
elaborate (foraminiferans). Amoebozoa
are mostly naked amoebae (lacking
tests), often with lobose pseudopodia
for at least part of their life cycle.
Alveolates have systems of cortical
alveoli directly beneath their plasma
membranes. Discicristates have discoid
mitochondrial cristae and, in some
cases, a deep (excavated) ventral
feeding groove. Amitochondrial
excavates lack substantial molecular
phylogenetic support, but most have an
excavated ventral feeding groove, and
all lack mitochondria. The tree shown
is based on a consensus of molecular
(1-4) and ultrastructural (16, 17) data
and includes a rough indication of new
ciPCR ''taxa'' (broken black lines)
(7-11). An asterisk preceding the taxon
name indicates probable paraphyletic
group COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/co
ntent/full/300/5626/1703

[2] Figure 1. Phylogenetic hypothesis
of the eukaryotic lineage based on
ultrastructural and molecular data.
Organisms are divided into three main
groups distinguished by mitochondrial
cristal shape (either discoidal,
flattened or tubular). Unbroken lines
indicate phylogenetic relationships
that are firmly supported by available
data; broken lines indicate
uncertainties in phylogenetic
placement, resolution of which will
require additional data. Color coding
of organismal genus names indicates
mitochondrial genomes that have been
completely (Table 1), almost completely
(Jakoba, Naegleria and
Thraustochytrium) or partially (*)
sequenced by the OGMP (red), the FMGP
(black) or other groups (green). Names
in blue indicate those species whose
mtDNAs are currently being sequenced by
the OGMP or are future candidates for
complete sequencing. Amitochondriate
retortamonads are positioned at the
base of the tree, with broken arrows
denoting the endosymbiotic origin(s) of
mitochondria from a Rickettsia-like
eubacterium. Macrophar.,
Macropharyngomonas. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nar.oxfordjournals.org/cg
i/content/full/26/4/865
1,180,000,000 YBN
6280) The Protists Alveolates
{aL-VEO-leTS} (the ancestor of all
Ciliates, Apicomplexans, and
Dinoflagellates {DInOFlaJeleTS}).

These three protist phyla all have an
alveolar {aL-VE-e-lR} membrane system,
made of flattened membrane-bound sacs
called "alveoli" {aL-VE-e-lI}.
 
[1]
Unknown http://www.genome.gov/Images/pr
ess_photos/highres/85-300.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Oxytricha_trifa
llax.jpg/1024px-Oxytricha_trifallax.jpg

[2] Description English: Unknown
species of cilliate in the last stages
of mitosis (cytokinesis), with cleavage
furrow visible. Date Source
Own work Author
TheAlphaWolf CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/55/Unk.cilliate.jpg
1,100,000,000 YBN
75) The oldest extant fungi phylum
"Microsporidia" evolves.

Microsporidia are obligate (survive
only as) intracellular parasites of
eukaryotes.

They most commonly infect insects,
crustaceans, and fishes.

Microsporidians have some of the
smallest eukaryotic genomes known
(around 2.3 million base pairs).
 
[1] Sporoblast of the Microsporidium
Fibrillanosema crangonycis. Electron
micrograph taken by Leon White. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Fibrillanosema_spore.jpg

[2] Spironema
multiciliatum Spironema:
Octosporoblastic sporogony producing
horseshoe-shaped monokaryotic spores in
sporophorous vesicles; monomorphic,
diplokaryotic and monokaryotic;
merogony - last generation merozoites
are diplokaryotic; sporogony - initial
division of the sporont nuclei is
meiotic as indicated by the occurrence
of synaptonemal complexes; spores are
horse-shoe-shaped, with swollen ends in
T. variabilis and have one elongate
nucleus; exospore with three layers,
endospore is of medium thickness;
polaroplast composed of two lamellar
parts, an anterior part of closely
packed lamellae and a posterior part of
wider compartments; polar tube is
isofilar and forms, in the posterior
quarter of the spore, 3-4 coils in a
single rank (T. variabilis) or 8-10
coils in a single rank (T. chironomi);
type species Toxoglugea vibrio in
adipose tissue of larvae of Ceratopogon
sp. (Diptera, Ceratopogonidae).
Spironema (spire-oh-knee-ma)
multiciliatum Klebs, 1893. Cells are
lanceolate, relatively flattened and
flexible. The cells have a spiral
groove, long kinetics and a tail, which
tapers posteriorly, and are about 15 -
21 microns without the tail. The
nucleus is located anteriorly or near
the centre of the cell. When the cells
are squashed, the cells are more
flexible. Food materials are seen under
the cell surface. Rarely observed.
This picture was taken by Won Je Lee
using conventional photographic film
using a Zeiss Axiophot microscope of
material collected in marine sediments
of Botany Bay (Sydney, Australia). The
image description refers to material
from Botany Bay. NONCOMMERCIAL USE
source: http://microscope.mbl.edu/script
s/microscope.php?func=imgDetail&imageID=
3928
1,100,000,000 YBN
313) The Protist Phylum
"Dinoflagellata" evolves.

Dinoflagellates {DI-nO-Fla-Je-leTS} are
single-celled, aquatic organisms that
have two dissimilar flagella. Most are
microscopic and marine. An important
link in the food chain, Dinoflagellates
also "bloom" which can produce
luminescence seen in the sea.
 
[1] Dinoflagellate Ceratium
sp. Phylum Dinoflagellata Upper
Newport Bay, Orange County, CA.
9/22/12. © Peter J.
Bryant COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nathistoc.bio.uci.edu/Din
oflagellates/DSC_6886b.jpg

[2] Model of Pyrodinium bahamense, a
dinoflagellate species, in the American
Museum of Natural History Credit:
Life’s Little Mysteries Fire
water Have you ever seen glowing ocean
water, like the bright blue surf
pictured in the intro slide? The neon
water is brimming with dinoflagellates,
single-celled plankton with tails that
slosh around together in vast numbers.
These creatures have been highlighting
Earth’s coastlines for 1.2 billion
years, and for the past few millennia,
they’ve puzzled humans, who used to
attribute the glow of some ocean water
to magic or the gods.Dinoflagellates
still puzzle us; we know how they glow,
but not why. They might have evolved
bioluminescence as a way of frightening
predators, or to reveal those
predators’ locations by flashing when
touched. Alternatively, their
bioluminescence may just be a fancy way
of ridding themselves of oxygen
radicals (because the chemical reaction
requires oxygen). Whatever the answer,
they certainly make for a nice holiday
in the Bahamas. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.lifeslittlemysteries.
com/images/i/1651/original/dinoflagellat
e.jpg
1,080,000,000 YBN
87) The Excavates Discicristates
{DiSKIKriSTATS}; the ancestor of
protists which have mitochondria with
discoidal (shaped like a disk) cristae
(the folded inner membrane of a
mitochondrion) (the ancestor of
euglenids, leishmanias {lEsmaNEuZ},
trypanosomes {TriPaNiSOMZ}, and acrasid
{oKrASiD} slime molds).

In eukaryote mitochondria there are
three kinds of christae: discoidal,
tubular, and flattened. Discoidal are
found in kinetoplasts and euglynoids.
Tubular christae are found in diatoms,
crysophyte algae, and apicomplexans.
Flattened cristae are found in both
green and red algae and in opisthokonts
(animals and fungi).
 
[1] euglena
source: http://www.fcps.k12.va.us/Stratf
ordLandingES/Ecology/mpages/euglena.htm

[2] euglena
source: http://protist.i.hosei.ac.jp/PDB
/Images/Mastigophora/Euglena/genus1L.jpg

1,080,000,000 YBN
97) A eukaryote eye evolves; the first
three-dimensional response to light.

The earliest eye is a light sensitive
area in a unicellular eukaryote that
probably evolved from a plastid.

Eukaryotes are the first organisms to
evolve the ability to follow light
direction in three dimensions in open
water.
 
[1] Adapted from: Euglena is a
photosynthetic euglenoid with at least
150 described species. The cells are
cylindrical with a rounded anterior and
tapered posterior. The chloroplasts are
well-developed, bright green, and
sometimes have pyrenoids. ... Euglena
is a photosynthetic euglenoid with at
least 150 described species. The cells
are cylindrical with a rounded anterior
and tapered posterior. The chloroplasts
are well-developed, bright green, and
sometimes have pyrenoids. They are
often discoidal in shape but can also
be ovate, lobate, elongate, U-shaped,
or ribbon-shaped. Some researchers use
the structure and position of the
chloroplasts to divide the group into
three subgenera. Even though they are
able to photosynthesize, Euglena cells
also have a phagotrophic ingestion
apparatus. Euglena has one long,
protruding flagellum and a shorter
flagellum that is not usually
visible. The euglenoids can glide
and swim using their flagella, or can
ooze along a substrate with an
undulating, shape-changing, contraction
motion called metaboly. The cytoplasm
of Euglena and other euglenoids
contains many paramylon starch storage
granules. The euglenoid cells are
covered by a pellicle composed of
ribbonlike, woven strips of
proteinaceous material that cover the
cell in a helical arrangement from apex
to posterior. Freshwater euglenoids
have a contractile vacuole. Euglenoids
sense light using a red pigmented
eyespot or stigma and the paraflagellar
body located at the base of the
emergent flagella. The cytoplasm of
Euglena and other euglenoids contains
many paramylon starch storage granules.
The euglenoid cells are covered by a
pellicle composed of ribbonlike, woven
strips of proteinaceous material that
cover the cell in a helical arrangement
from apex to posterior. Freshwater
euglenoids have a contractile vacuole.
Euglenoids sense light using a red
pigmented eyespot or stigma and the
paraflagellar body located at the base
of the emergent flagella. UNKNOWN
source: http://silicasecchidisk.conncoll
.edu/Pics/Other%20Algae/Other_jpegs/Eugl
ena_Key225.jpg

[2] Figure 1. The distribution of
three-dimensional phototaxis in the
tree of eukaryotes. Red arrows indicate
the likely point of origin of
phototaxis in a given group. Question
marks indicate uncertainties regarding
independent or common origin. Figure
1 from: Jékely, Gáspár. ''Evolution
of phototaxis.'' Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society B:
Biological Sciences 364 (October
2009):
2795–2808. http://rstb.royalsocietypu
blishing.org/content/364/1531/2795.short
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://rstb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/364/1531/2795/F1.large.jp
g
1,050,000,000 YBN
169) The Protists Stramenopiles
{STro-meN-o-Pi-lEZ} (also called
Heterokonts) evolve (ancestor of all
brown algae, golden algae, diatoms, and
oomycota {Ou-mI-KO-Tu)).

Almost all Stramenopiles have unique
three-part tubular hairs on the
flagella at some stage in the life
cycle. The name Stramenopiles (from the
Latin stamen, "straw"; and pilius
"hair") refers to the appearance of
these hairs.
 
[1] Phylum Stramenopiles COPYRIGHTED
source: Brusca and Brusca,
"Invertebrates", Second Edition, 2003,
p153-155.

[2] S. Blair Hedges and Sudhir Kumar,
''The TimeTree of Life'', 2009,
p117-118. http://www.timetree.org/book.
php COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.timetree.org/book.php

1,000,000,000 YBN
324) The Protists Mesomycetozoea
{me-ZO-mI-SE-TO-ZO-u} evolve (also
called DRIPS).

Mesomycetozoea are in the protist
Phylum Choanozoa (which includes the
Choanoflagellates
{KO-e-nO-FlaJ-e-lATS}, thought to be
the ancestor of sponges).
 
[1] Ichthyophonus, a fungus-like
protistan that occurs in high
prevalence in Pacific Ocean perch
(Sebastes aultus) and yellowtail
rockfish (Sebastes flavedus). Note the
parasite forms branching hyphae-like
structures. Ichthyophonus hoferi has
caused massive mortalities in herring
in the Atlantic ocean, and has recently
been reported to cause disease in wild
Pacific herring from Washington through
Alaska. COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://oregonstate.edu/dept/salm
on/projects/images/16Ichthyophonus.jpg

[2] Microscopic appearence of the
organism is dependent on its stage of
development. The stages include (1)
spore at ''resting'' stage, (2)
germinating spore, (3) hyphal
stage. It is believed that there are
two forms of Ichthyophonus, both
belonging to one genus. One of them is
known as the ''salmon'' form, occuring
in freshwater and cold-preferring sea
fishes: this form is characterized by
its ability to produce long tubulose
germ hyphae. The other is called the
''aquarium fish'' form, typical of the
tropical freshwater fishes. This form
is completely devoid of hyphae.
Developmental cycle of Ichthyophonus
hoferi: 1-5 - development of
''daughter'' spores, 7-11 - development
of resting spore from the ''daughter''
spore, 12-19 - development of resting
spore by fragmentation. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.fao.org/docrep/field/
003/AC160E/AC160E02.htm
985,000,000 YBN
309) The Protist Phylum Oomycota
{Ou-mI-KO-Tu} evolves (ancestor of the
Oomycetes; water molds).

Oomycetes (or water molds), contain
about 580 species, which vary from
unicellular to multicellular highly
brached filamentous forms.
 
[1] Figure 2 from: Sandra L. Baldauf,
A. J. Roger, I. Wenk-Siefert, W. F.
Doolittle, ''A Kingdom-Level Phylogeny
of Eukaryotes Based on Combined Protein
Data'', Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p
972, (2000).
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/290/
5493/972.full Figure 2 Single-gene
phylogenies support subsets of the
combined protein tree. (A) A summary of
the tree in Fig. 1is shown with
supergroups indicated beside brackets
to the right. Multi-taxon represented
clusters are given as triangles, with
height proportional to number of taxa
and width proportional to averaged
overall branch length (1) compensated
for missing data (47). (B) Published
support for the numbered nodes in (A)
is shown for commonly used molecular
phylogenetic markers grouped as (a)
ribosomal RNAs, (b) proteins not used
in the current analysis, (c) proteins
used in the current analysis, and (d)
the combined data (Fig. 1). These
markers are, from left to right, SSU
[SSU rRNA (1–4)], LSU [LSU rRNA
(19)], LSU+SSU [combined LSU and SSU
rRNA (48)], EF-2 (10), V/A-ATPases
[vacuolar ATPases (49)], HSP70-cy
[cytosolic 70-kD heat shock protein
(50)], mito [combined mitochondrial
proteins (51)], RPB1 (52), actin (8,
16, 53), α-tubulin (8, 54), β-tubulin
(8, 54), EF-1α (15, 20), and combined
(Fig. 1). Rejected nodes are indicated
in pink and accepted nodes in green,
with checked circles indicating BP < 70% and solid circles indicating BP >
70%. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/290/5493/972/F2.large.jpg

[2] Fig. 1. A consensus phylogeny of
eukaryotes. The vast majority of
characterized eukaryotes, with the
notable exception of major subgroups of
amoebae, can now be assigned to one of
eight major groups. Opisthokonts (basal
flagellum) have a single basal
flagellum on reproductive cells and
flat mitochondrial cristae (most
eukaryotes have tubular ones).
Eukaryotic photosynthesis originated in
Plants; theirs are the only plastids
with just two outer membranes.
Heterokonts (different flagellae) have
a unique flagellum decorated with
hollow tripartite hairs (stramenopiles)
and, usually, a second plain one.
Cercozoans are amoebae with filose
pseudopodia, often living with in tests
(hard outer shells), some very
elaborate (foraminiferans). Amoebozoa
are mostly naked amoebae (lacking
tests), often with lobose pseudopodia
for at least part of their life cycle.
Alveolates have systems of cortical
alveoli directly beneath their plasma
membranes. Discicristates have discoid
mitochondrial cristae and, in some
cases, a deep (excavated) ventral
feeding groove. Amitochondrial
excavates lack substantial molecular
phylogenetic support, but most have an
excavated ventral feeding groove, and
all lack mitochondria. The tree shown
is based on a consensus of molecular
(1-4) and ultrastructural (16, 17) data
and includes a rough indication of new
ciPCR ''taxa'' (broken black lines)
(7-11). An asterisk preceding the taxon
name indicates probable paraphyletic
group COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/co
ntent/full/300/5626/1703
900,000,000 YBN
6281) The protists Rhizaria
{rI-ZaR-E-u} evolve (ancestor of all
Radiolaria, Foraminifera and
Cercozoa).

The Rhizaria are an assemblage, or
supergroup, of eukaryotes comprising
mostly amoeboid protists, including
‘skeleton’-forming types such as
the foraminiferans and radiolarians.
 
[1] Figure : Maximum likelihood
phylogeny of Rhizaria inferred from SSU
rRNA gene sequences using the GTR+G+I
model of evolution. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.unige.ch/sciences/bio
logie/biani/msg/Amoeboids/Rhizaria_large
.jpg

[2] Figure 1 from: Keeling, Patrick
J. et al. “The tree of eukaryotes.”
Trends in Ecology & Evolution 20.12
(2005):
670-676. http://www.sciencedirect.com/s
cience/article/pii/S0169534705003046
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/cac
he/MiamiImageURL/1-s2.0-S016953470500304
6-gr1.jpg/0?wchp=dGLbVBA-zSkWz
850,000,000 YBN
224) The Fungi "Zygomycota" evolves
(ancestor of bread molds, and pin
molds).

The taxon Zygomycota is polyphyletic
(developed from more than one ancestral
type) or paraphyletic (composed of some
but not all members descending from a
common ancestor) and currently includes
four subphyla.
 
[1] Figure 2. Zygomycota A: sporangia
of Mucor sp. B: whorl of sporangia of
Absidia sp. C: zygospore of
Zygorhynchus sp. D: sporangiophore and
sporangiola of Cunninghamella sp.
source: http://www.botany.utoronto.ca/Re
searchLabs/MallochLab/Malloch/Moulds/Cla
ssification.html

[2] Figure 3. Syncephalis, a member of
the Zygomycota parasitic on other
Zygomycota
source: http://www.botany.utoronto.ca/Re
searchLabs/MallochLab/Malloch/Moulds/Cla
ssification.html
767,000,000 YBN
312) The Protist Phylum "Ciliophora"
{SiL-E-oF-R-u} evolves (the "Ciliates")
(ancestor of the paramecium).

The Ciliophora are characterized by
having numerous cilia which they use to
move themselves. Most ciliates are
unicellular. Ciliates reproduce
asexually by binary fission and
sexually by conjugation.
 
[1] Paramecium protozoan,
SEM C001/0068 Rights Managed Credit:
STEVE GSCHMEISSNER/SCIENCE PHOTO
LIBRARY Caption: Paramecium protozoan,
coloured scanning electron micrograph
(SEM). Paramecia are a group of
unicellular ciliate protozoa. They
inhabit fresh water, and feed mainly on
bacteria and smaller protozoa.
Paramecia range from about 50 to 350
micrometres in length, depending on
species. Simple cilia, which cover the
body, are moved in a synchronous motion
to allow the cell to move.
Magnification: x825 when printed at 10
centimetres wide. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nonlocal.com/hbar/par
amecium.gif

[2] Summary Description English:
Scanning electron microscope view of
Oxytricha trifallax Español: Imagen
de microscopía electrónica de barrido
de Oxytricha trifallax Date Unknown
date Source http://www.genome.gov/I
mages/press_photos/highres/85-300.jpg
Author Unknown Permission (Reusin
g this file) See below. PD [1] Fig.
1. A consensus phylogeny of eukaryotes.
The vast majority of characterized
eukaryotes, with the notable exception
of major subgroups of amoebae, can now
be assigned to one of eight major
groups. Opisthokonts (basal flagellum)
have a single basal flagellum on
reproductive cells and flat
mitochondrial cristae (most eukaryotes
have tubular ones). Eukaryotic
photosynthesis originated in Plants;
theirs are the only plastids with just
two outer membranes. Heterokonts
(different flagellae) have a unique
flagellum decorated with hollow
tripartite hairs (stramenopiles) and,
usually, a second plain one. Cercozoans
are amoebae with filose pseudopodia,
often living with in tests (hard outer
shells), some very elaborate
(foraminiferans). Amoebozoa are mostly
naked amoebae (lacking tests), often
with lobose pseudopodia for at least
part of their life cycle. Alveolates
have systems of cortical alveoli
directly beneath their plasma
membranes. Discicristates have discoid
mitochondrial cristae and, in some
cases, a deep (excavated) ventral
feeding groove. Amitochondrial
excavates lack substantial molecular
phylogenetic support, but most have an
excavated ventral feeding groove, and
all lack mitochondria. The tree shown
is based on a consensus of molecular
(1-4) and ultrastructural (16, 17) data
and includes a rough indication of new
ciPCR ''taxa'' (broken black lines)
(7-11). An asterisk preceding the taxon
name indicates probable paraphyletic
group COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Oxytricha_trifa
llax.jpg/1024px-Oxytricha_trifallax.jpg
767,000,000 YBN
314) The Protist Phylum "Apicomplexa"
{a-PE-KoM-PleK-Su} evolves (includes
Malaria and Toxoplasmosis).

Apicomplexans have a special cell
organelle called the apical complex
which helps to invade the host cell.
 
[1] Description A thin-film Giemsa
stained micrograph of ring-forms, and
gametocytes of Plasmodium falciparum.
From
http://phil.cdc.gov/phil/home.asp Date
2006-11-16 (original upload
date) Source Originally from
en.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. Author Original uploader was
TimVickers at
en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3c/Plasmodium.jpg

[2] Fig. 1. A consensus phylogeny of
eukaryotes. The vast majority of
characterized eukaryotes, with the
notable exception of major subgroups of
amoebae, can now be assigned to one of
eight major groups. Opisthokonts (basal
flagellum) have a single basal
flagellum on reproductive cells and
flat mitochondrial cristae (most
eukaryotes have tubular ones).
Eukaryotic photosynthesis originated in
Plants; theirs are the only plastids
with just two outer membranes.
Heterokonts (different flagellae) have
a unique flagellum decorated with
hollow tripartite hairs (stramenopiles)
and, usually, a second plain one.
Cercozoans are amoebae with filose
pseudopodia, often living with in tests
(hard outer shells), some very
elaborate (foraminiferans). Amoebozoa
are mostly naked amoebae (lacking
tests), often with lobose pseudopodia
for at least part of their life cycle.
Alveolates have systems of cortical
alveoli directly beneath their plasma
membranes. Discicristates have discoid
mitochondrial cristae and, in some
cases, a deep (excavated) ventral
feeding groove. Amitochondrial
excavates lack substantial molecular
phylogenetic support, but most have an
excavated ventral feeding groove, and
all lack mitochondria. The tree shown
is based on a consensus of molecular
(1-4) and ultrastructural (16, 17) data
and includes a rough indication of new
ciPCR ''taxa'' (broken black lines)
(7-11). An asterisk preceding the taxon
name indicates probable paraphyletic
group COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/co
ntent/full/300/5626/1703
680,000,000 YBN
326) The Protists "Choanoflagellates"
{KO-e-nO-FlaJ-e-lATS} evolve.
Choanoflag
ellates are the closest relatives to
the animals and may be direct ancestors
of sponges.

There are about 140 species of
choanoflagellates. Some are
free-swimming, propelling themselves
with a flagellum. Others are attached
by a stalk, sometimes with several
together in a colony. Choanoflagellates
use their flagellum to drive water into
the funnel where food particles like
bacteria are trapped and engulfed. This
is different from their analogous
cells, choanocytes of sponges where
each flagellum is used to draw water in
through holes in the walls of the
sponge and out through the sponge's
main opening.
 
[1] Choanoflagellate single cell
(thecate) UNKNOWN
source: http://behance.vo.llnwd.net/prof
iles22/483113/projects/1558429/6ea555ab5
457e21432def0f2e6b83fe3.jpg

[2] Salpingoeca: Cells solitary or
colonial with a distinct and firm
sheath or theca usually as a cup either
sessile or with a pedicel; theca
colourless or amber; contractile
vacuoles posterior in freshwater
specie; in freshwater, brackish, and
marine habitats. Record information:
Salpingoeca (sal-ping-go-eek-a), a
collar flagellate (choanoflagellate) -
all of which have a single anterior
flagellum surrounded by a collar of
very fine pseudopodia (in cross-section
the collar seems like two arms, one on
either side of the flagellum). The
flagellum beats drawing water through
the collar and bacteria and other small
particles are trapped and then
ingested. Believed to be the source
group of the sponges and the metazoa.
Salpingoeca has an organic lorica.
Phase contrast. This picture was
taken by David Patterson, Linda Amaral
Zettler and Virginia Edgcomb of
material from the salt marsh at Little
Sippewissett (Massachusetts, USA) in
Autumn, 2000 and in Spring and summer,
2001. NONCOMMERCIAL USE
source: http://microscope.mbl.edu/script
s/microscope.php?func=imgDetail&imageID=
746
670,000,000 YBN
286) Multicellularity evolves in a free
moving Protist. This allows larger free
moving organisms to evolve.

This multicellularity is thought to be
independently evolved, and not related
to the earlier filamentous
multicellularity of prokaryotes like
cyanobacteria, and eukaryotes like
algae.
 
[1] Sponge showing several choanocyte
chambers UNKNOWN
source: http://behance.vo.llnwd.net/prof
iles22/483113/projects/1558429/43a2a4c7e
127f66b7090ed679a8da30a.jpg

[2] Combination of: Saepicula and
Sphaeroeca NONCOMMERCIAL USE
source: http://microscope.mbl.edu/script
s/microscope.php?func=imgDetail&imageID=
3229
670,000,000 YBN
297) The diplontic life cycle evolves;
this organism is predominantly diploid,
mitosis in the haploid phase does not
occur.

All animals are diplontic, and descend
from this multicellular organism.
 
[1] Gametic Meiosis. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gametic_meiosis.png

[2] Gametic Meiosis. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gametic_meiosis.png
660,000,000 YBN
81) The first animal and first
metazoan, the sponge evolves. This
begins the Animal Kingdom, and the
Phylum Porifera; the sponges. There are
only three major kinds of metazoans:
sponges, cnidarians, and bilaterians.


The word "porifera" means "pore
bearing" in Latin, and water
continuously flows through the pores in
sponges.

Metazoans are multicellular and have
differentiation (their cells perform
different functions). Sponges have
cells that form a body wall, cells that
secrete the skeleton, contractile
{KunTraKTL} cells, cells that digest
food, and other kinds of cell types.

All sponge cells are totipotent and so
are capable of regrowing a new sponge.
In sponges there is no distinction
between germ line and soma. Some
sponges can live for over 1000 years.

Sponges have two layers, each a single
cell thick. The outer surface is called
the pinacoderm {PiN-o-KO-DRM} and is
made of cells called pinacocytes
{PiN-o-KO-SITS}. On the inner surface
is the choanoderm {KOenO-DRM or
KO-aNo-DRM} which is made of
flagellated cells called choanocytes
{KOenO-SITS or KO-aNo-SITS}. Between
these two thin cellular sheets is the
jellylike mesohyl {mASuHIL}, which may
vary in thickness and plays vital roles
in digestion, gamete production,
secretion of skeleton, and transport of
nutrients and waste products by special
amoeboid cells.
 
[1] Summary Description English:
Marine sponge. Color adjusted (but not
color accurate) underwater photograph
taken by Dlloyd using a digital camera
at a depth of approximately 100 feet in
Cayman. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/62/SpongeColorCorrect.jp
g

[2]
source: http://www.museums.org.za/bio/me
tazoa.htm
660,000,000 YBN
517) The male gonad (testis {TeSTiS} or
testicle) evolves in a sponge. In
sponges sperm are contained in
spermatic cysts, which are choanocyte
chambers transformed by the formation
of sperm (spermatogenesis), but ova are
distributed throughout the mesohyl
{mASuHIL} (or middle layer).
 
[1] Oocyte (female egg) release from
sponge, sperm release from sponge,
FIgure from: D. T. Anderson,
''Invertebrate Zoology'', Oxford
University Press, Second Edition,
2001. COPYRIGHTED
source: D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001.

[2] Combination of image from: Brusca
and Brusca, ''Invertebrates'', Second
Edition, 2003,
http://www.oceanicresearch.org/sponges
.html and D. T. Anderson,
''Invertebrate Zoology'', Oxford
University Press, Second Edition,
2001. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.museums.org.za/bio/me
tazoa.htm
650,000,000 YBN
41) The start of the 60 million year
(Varanger) Ice Age (650-590 mybn).
 
[1] Snowball Earth 600 to 750 million
years ago Earth was incased in ice for
prolong periods of time and each global
glacial event ended under severe
greenhouse conditions. This late
Precambrian planet-wide glaciation is
known as “Snowball Earth” and is an
extension on Sturtian- Varangian
glaciation. UNKNOWN
source: http://geology.fullerton.edu/whe
nderson/Fal201L2005/snowballearth/images
/snoballearth.jpg

[2] Snowball Earth Begins UNKNOWN
source: http://www.gambassa.com/gambassa
files/images/images/1310/20090528_snowba
ll_earth_v1.jpg
650,000,000 YBN
69) Cells that group as tissues that
are arranged in layers evolve in
metazoans.

Unlike the Porifera, in the Placozoa
and all later metazoans, cells group as
tissues.
 
[1] Description This is an example
of a ctenophore, Bathocyroe fosteri,
which is a mesopelagic species. Date
Source Description This is
an example of a ctenophore, Bathocyroe
fosteri, which is a mesopelagic
species. Date Source
[1] Author Photo courtesy of
Marsh Youngbluth Author Photo
courtesy of Marsh Youngbluth PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/21/Bathocyroe_fosteri.jp
g

[2] Light diffracting along the comb
rows of a Mertensia ovum. The right
lower portion of the body is
regenerating from previous damage.
Source: NOAA Photo Gallery/ Photo by
Kevin Raskoff PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/42/LightRefractsOf_comb-
rows_of_ctenophore_Mertensia_ovum.jpg
650,000,000 YBN
79) The Metazoan Phylum "Placozoa"
evolves.

Placozoans look like amoebas but are
multicellular. The only known species
is Trichoplax adhaerens {TriKOPlaKS
aDHEReNZ}. Trichoplax lives in the sea
and feeds on single celled organisms,
mostly algae. There are only 4 cell
types in Trichoplax compared to the
more than 200 cell types in humans.
Trichoplax has two main cell layers,
like a cnidarian or ctenophore. Between
these two layers are a few contractile
cells that are similar to muscle cells,
however placozoans have no muscle or
nerve cells.

Trichoplax has the lowest content of
DNA of any metazoan, about two-thirds
that in sponges, and only 10 times that
of bacteria, which implies that
placozoa are very primitive.

Trichoplax has only 1 hox gene.
 
[1] Description Trichoplax sp.
from Australia in light
microscopy Date February
2006 Source Oliver Voigt Author
Oliver Voigt CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c3/Trichoplax_mic.jpg

[2] from ediacara of australia
source: http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/ven
dian/dickinsonia.html
650,000,000 YBN
223) The Fungi "Chytridiomycota"
{KI-TriDEO-mI-KO-Tu) evolves (includes
all Chytridiomycetes
{KI-TriDEO-mI-SE-TEZ})).

The chytrids are primitive fungi and
are mostly saprobic (feed on dead
species, decomposing chitin and
keratin). Many chytrids are aquatic
(mostly found in freshwater) and some
species are unicellular.
Northern Russia 
[1] Chytrids (Chytridiomycota): The
Primitive Fungi These fungi are
mostly aquatic, are notable for having
a flagella on the cells (a flagella is
a tail, somewhat like a tail on a sperm
or a pollywog), and are thought to be
the most primitive type of
fungi. actual photo comes
from: http://www.csupomona.edu/~jcclark
/classes/bot125/resource/graphics/chy_al
l_sph.html
source: http://www.davidlnelson.md/Cazad
ero/Fungi.htm

[2] Chytridiomycota - Blastocladiales
- zoospore of Allomyces (phase contrast
illumination) X 2000
source: http://www.mycolog.com/chapter2b
.htm
640,000,000 YBN
83) The first nerve cell (neuron), and
nervous system evolves in the ancestor
of the Ctenophores and Cnidarians. This
leads to the first ganglion and brain.
This is the earliest touch and sound
detection. This is also the first
memory, because a neuron can store an
electric potential.

As time continues in the evolution of
the metazoans, the number of neurons
increases while the size of neurons
decreases, showing that more neurons
and smaller neurons, similar to
transistors in a computer, give an
organism more memory and as a result a
selective advantage in survival.
 
[1] English: Drawing of Purkinje cells
(A) and granule cells (B) from pigeon
cerebellum by Santiago Ramón y Cajal,
1899; Instituto Santiago Ramón y
Cajal, Madrid, Spain. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/15/PurkinjeCell.jpg

[2] figure from: D. T. Anderson,
''Invertebrate Zoology'', Oxford
University Press, Second Edition, 2001,
p39. COPYRIGHTED
source: D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p39.
640,000,000 YBN
96) Muscle cells evolve in the ancestor
of the Ctenophores and Cnidarians. Both
the earliest known muscle and nerve
cells are found in Ctenophores and
Cnidarians.
 
[1] Figure from: D. T. Anderson,
''Invertebrate Zoology'', Oxford
University Press, Second Edition, 2001,
p39. COPYRIGHTED
source: D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p39.

[2] Derek E. G. Briggs and Richard A.
Fortey, ''Wonderful Strife:
Systematics, Stem Groups, and the
Phylogenetic Signal of the Cambrian
Radiation'', Paleobiology , Vol. 31,
No. 2, Supplement. Macroevolution:
Diversity, Disparity, Contingency:
Essays in Honor of Stephen Jay Gould
(Spring, 2005), pp.
94-112 http://www.jstor.org/stable/2548
2671 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2548
2671
640,000,000 YBN
225) A closeable mouth evolves for the
first time, in the ancestor of all
ctenophores and cnidarians.
 
[1] Description This is an example
of a ctenophore, Bathocyroe fosteri,
which is a mesopelagic species. Date
Source Description This is
an example of a ctenophore, Bathocyroe
fosteri, which is a mesopelagic
species. Date Source
[1] Author Photo courtesy of
Marsh Youngbluth Author Photo
courtesy of Marsh Youngbluth PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/21/Bathocyroe_fosteri.jp
g

[2] Light diffracting along the comb
rows of a Mertensia ovum. The right
lower portion of the body is
regenerating from previous damage.
Source: NOAA Photo Gallery/ Photo by
Kevin Raskoff PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/42/LightRefractsOf_comb-
rows_of_ctenophore_Mertensia_ovum.jpg
640,000,000 YBN
414) The female gonad (the first ovary)
evolves in the ancestor of Ctenophores
and Cnidarians.
 
[1] From: Brusca and Brusca,
''Invertebrates'', Second Edition,
2003. COPYRIGHTED
source: Brusca and Brusca,
"Invertebrates", Second Edition, 2003

[2] Figure 3.8 Anthozoa. (a) Anemone
(Actiniaria), showing the pharynx,
mesenteries, mesenterial filamnets and
acontia. (b) Structure of a mesenterial
filament in transverse section. (c)
Scleractinian coral, showing calcareous
skeleton and coenenchyme. (d)
Gorgonian, showing skeleton made up of
a horny axial rod and spicules in the
mesogloea (after Pearse et al 1987).
(e) Alcyonarian soft coral, showing
spicular skeleton in the
mesogloea. From: D. T. Anderson,
''Invertebrate Zoology'', Oxford
University Press, Second Edition,
2001. COPYRIGHTED
source: D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001.
640,000,000 YBN
523) The animal Phylum Ctenophora
{Ti-noF-R-u} evolves (comb jellies).

Ctenophora were initially wrongly
categorized as cnidarians, but unlike
cnidarians, ctenophores lack stinging
cells, there is no alternation of
generations in the life cycle, and
ctenophores are never colonial.

Like the Cnidarians, the Ctenophores
are diploblastic; they have two
embryonic germ layers- the ectoderm
{EKTeDRM} and the endoderm {eNDeDRM}
which become the adult epidermis and
gastrodermis, respectively. The middle
mesenchyme {meSeNKIM}, a watery
gelatinous fluid, never produces the
complex organs seen in triploblastic
Metazoa.

The Ctenophores have biradial symmetry.
The main body cavity of the ctenophores
is also the digestive chamber, and they
have a simple nerve net.

On the surface of the body are eight
equally spaced comb plates, called
ctenes {TENZ}, each ctene is composed
of a band of cilia. The ctenes provide
most of the movement for the
ctenophores.

Ctenophores are hermaphroditic. Ovaries
and testies differentiate from the
endoderm. The gametes are released
through temporary gonopores
{GoN-o-PORZ}, and fertilization is
external.
 
[1] Description This is an example
of a ctenophore, Bathocyroe fosteri,
which is a mesopelagic species. Date
Source Description This is
an example of a ctenophore, Bathocyroe
fosteri, which is a mesopelagic
species. Date Source
[1] Author Photo courtesy of
Marsh Youngbluth Author Photo
courtesy of Marsh Youngbluth PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/21/Bathocyroe_fosteri.jp
g

[2] Light diffracting along the comb
rows of a Mertensia ovum. The right
lower portion of the body is
regenerating from previous damage.
Source: NOAA Photo Gallery/ Photo by
Kevin Raskoff PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/42/LightRefractsOf_comb-
rows_of_ctenophore_Mertensia_ovum.jpg
635,000,000 YBN
6413) The start of the Ediacaran
Period.

A large increase in the evolutionary
turnover rate of acritarchs is thought
to be the result of the evolution of
the nervous system and gut in the
eumetazoa (all cnidarians and
bilaterians).
 
[1] Description English: The 'golden
spike' marking the Global Boundary
Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP) at
the base of the Ediacaran Period Date
16 August 2008 Source Own work
Original filename =
DSC07914.JPG Author Bahudhara CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Ediacaran_GSSP_
-_closeup.JPG/1280px-Ediacaran_GSSP_-_cl
oseup.JPG

[2] Geologic Time Scale 2009 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.geosociety.org/scienc
e/timescale/timescl.pdf
630,000,000 YBN
82) The Animal Phylum Cnidaria
{NIDAREeo} evolves (the ancestor of sea
anemones, sea pens, corals, and
jellyfish). Cnidaria also evolve the
earliest animal eye.

Cnidaria are primarily radially
symmetrical animals with tentacles,
have a single body cavity with only one
opening to take in food and to release
wastes, and have specialized stinging
cells.

Cnidarians have two alternate body
plans, the polyp and the medusa
{miDUSe}. A sea anemone or Hydra is a
typical polyp: non-moving, mouth on
top, bottom end fixed to the ground
like a plant. Corals are colonial
marine polyps of the Cnidarian class
Anthozoa that secrete calcareous
{KaL-KAR-E-uS} (calcium carbonate)
skeletons which they live inside of.
The medusa form is upside down compared
to the polyp form, and is free
swimming. A jellyfish has a typical
medusa form, swimming through the open
sea. Many cnidarians have both polyp
and medusa forms in a single life
cycle.

Polyps often reproduce by budding; a
new baby polyp clone grows on the side
of the parent. When cnidaria reproduce
sexually, sperm are released into the
water and fertilization is usually
external.

Digestion in Cnidarians starts in the
gastrovascular cavity, but once the
food is reduced to particles small
enough to enter the digestive cells of
the gastrodermis, digestion is
completed inside the cell
(intracellularly).

Cnidarians have a nervous system which
is a network without a centralized
structure. They have no circulatory
system. All cnidarians have cells
called cnidocytes, unique to all
cniadrians, each with its own
cell-sized harpoon called a cnida that
delivers a paralyzing sting when
propelled into attackers and prey.

Cnidarians have sensory cells that
respond to light, chemical or
mechanical stimuli. Each has a cilium
that protrudes into the water. The
sensory cells and nerve cells are
separated by a small space (synapse),
allowing the animal to generally
respond to stimuli at a distance
instead of responding at the site of
the stimulus.

Cnidarians see in black or white,
because their eyes have only one
pigment; for color vision the eye must
have more than one pigment.
 
[1] Octocorals Stylatula elongata –
White Sea Pen UNKNOWN
source: http://pt-lobos.com/cnidarianimg
/white_sea_pens.jpg

[2] Sea nettles, Chrysaora
quinquecirrha CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/36/Sea_nettles.jpg
600,000,000 YBN
91) The start of the Ediacaran
{EDEoKRiN} soft-bodied invertebrate
fossils.

The sudden appearance of Ediacaran
fossils may relate to the accumulation
of free oxygen in the atmosphere and
sea, which may permit an oxidative
metabolism.

From around 600-560 MYA simple medusoid
and frond fossils are found, after that
tubular and bilaterian fossils are
found.

Because the Ediacaran animals are
soft-bodied, they are infrequently
preserved.
Sonora, Mexico|Adelaide, Australia|
Lesser Karatau Microcontinent,
Kazakhsta 
[1] A general view of the life in the
time frame from about 605 to 542
million years ago (the Vendian), is
found at this New Zealand site which
concentrates on the Ediacaran epoch; it
mentions Australian and other
geographic localities where the
assemblages have been found. The fossil
life is represented entirely by
creatures with soft parts only. It is
suggested that these may be ancestral
to later phylla observed at the
beginning of the Paleozoic. Below is a
chart presenting typical Ediacaran
fauna, followed by an artist's
depiction of life on the sea floor at
that time, and beneath that is a layout
of some actual fossils: PD
source: http://rst.gsfc.nasa.gov/Sect20/
800pxlife_in_the_ediacaran_sea.jpg

[2] A more general view of the life in
the time frame from about 600+ to 542
million years ago (end of Proterozoic
and Precambrian into the oldest
Cambrian), known as the Ediacaran or
Vendian, is found at this New Zealand
site; it mentions Australian and other
geographic localities where the
assemblages have been found. The fossil
life represents entirely creatures with
soft parts only and suggestions that
these may be ancestral to later phylla
observed at the beginning of the
Paleozoic. Below is an artist's sketch
of some of these creatures: UNKNOWN
source: http://www.fas.org/irp/imint/doc
s/rst/Sect20/vendintro.jpg
600,000,000 YBN
107) The Animals Bilaterians evolve
(metazoans with two sided symmetry).
Thi
s is the first triploblastic animal; an
animal with a third embryonic layer,
the mesoderm {meZuDRM}. This is also
the earliest animal brain.

In most bilaterians food enters in one
end (the mouth) and waste exits at the
opposite end (the anus). There is an
advantage for sense organs like light,
sound, touch, smell, and taste
detection to be located on the head
near the mouth to help with getting
food.

The earliest brain develops in a
bilaterian worm.

Unlike the diploblastic Cnidaria and
Ctenophora, bilaterians are
triploblastic. A third embryonic layer,
the mesoderm, lies between the ectoderm
and endoderm. This layer increases the
options for the development of organs
with specific functions.

This begins the Animal Subkingdom
"Bilateria".
 
[1] Convoluta pulchra Smith and Bush
1991, a typical mud-inhabiting acoel
that feeds on diatoms
source: ?

[2] Figure from: Giribet, G. (2008).
Assembling the lophotrochozoan
(=spiralian) tree of life.
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society B: Biological Sciences , 363
(1496), 1513-1522. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2007.2241
http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/363/1496/1513 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://rstb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/363/1496/1513
600,000,000 YBN
403) The earliest extant bilaterian:
Acoelomorpha (the ancestor of acoela
flat worms and nemertodermatida).

The Acoelomorpha lack a digestive
track, anus and coelom.

Flatworms have no lungs or gills and
breathe through their skin. Flatworms
also have no circulating blood and so
their branched gut presumably
transports nutrients to all parts of
the body.
 
[1] Convoluta pulchra Smith and Bush
1991, a typical mud-inhabiting acoel
that feeds on diatoms
source: ?

[2] Figure from: Giribet, G. (2008).
Assembling the lophotrochozoan
(=spiralian) tree of life.
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society B: Biological Sciences , 363
(1496), 1513-1522. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2007.2241
http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/363/1496/1513 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://rstb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/363/1496/1513
600,000,000 YBN
459) An intestine evolves in a
bilaterian. Since the gut of this
organism has no anus, undigested food
must be regurgitated through the mouth.
The intestine is lined with a single
layer of endodermal cells that perform
some or all of the processes of
digestion and absorption.
 
[1] From: D. T. Anderson,
''Invertebrate Zoology'', Oxford
University Press, Second Edition,
2001. COPYRIGHTED
source: D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001.

[2] Convoluta pulchra Smith and Bush
1991, a typical mud-inhabiting acoel
that feeds on diatoms
source: ?
600,000,000 YBN
532) A cylindrical gut, anus, and
through-put of food evolves in a
bilaterian.

All bilaterally symmetrical metazoans
except the Phyla Acoelomorpha and
Platyhelminthes, have a tubular gut
with an anus, mouth, and through-put of
food. The Phyla Nemertea and Entoprocta
are the earliest bilaterians with an
anus.
 
[1] From: D. T. Anderson,
''Invertebrate Zoology'', Oxford
University Press, Second Edition,
2001. COPYRIGHTED
source: D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001.

[2] Convoluta pulchra Smith and Bush
1991, a typical mud-inhabiting acoel
that feeds on diatoms
source: ?
600,000,000 YBN
593) The genital pore, vagina, and
uterus evolve in a bilaterian.
 
[1] From: D. T. Anderson,
''Invertebrate Zoology'', Oxford
University Press, Second Edition,
2001. COPYRIGHTED
source: D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001.

[2] Convoluta pulchra Smith and Bush
1991, a typical mud-inhabiting acoel
that feeds on diatoms
source: ?
600,000,000 YBN
660) The penis evolves in a bilaterian.
 
[1] From: Brusca and Brusca,
''Invertebrates'', Second Edition,
2003 COPYRIGHTED
source: Brusca and Brusca,
"Invertebrates", Second Edition, 2003

[2] From: Ruppert, Fox, Barnes,
''Invertebrate Zoology'',
2004. COPYRIGHTED
source: Ruppert, Fox, Barnes,
"Invertebrate Zoology", 2004.
590,000,000 YBN
70) The end of the Varanger Ice Age
(650-590 mybn).
 
[1] Precambrian Earth from the South
Pole 600MYBN UNKNOWN
source: http://cpgeosystems.com/gallery.
html
590,000,000 YBN
95) The coelom (SEleM) evolves in a
bilaterian.

The coelem is a fluid filled cavity
that forms within the mesoderm and
exists between the gut and body wall in
most triploblastic animals.

The advantage of a coelem is that it
allows the body wall and gut wall to
act independently, and also that other
organ systems can be developed in the
fluid-filled space. In addition, the
fluid in the cavity can act as a
deformable skeleton.
 
[1] Example of the coleom's from 3
organisms UNKNOWN
source: http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_5DLPaU
qdg2g/TBBz3rcLDOI/AAAAAAAAAGA/Z34_-_usSc
w/s1600/3927715.jpg

[2] From NATURAL HISTORY
COLLECTIONS OF THE UNIVERSITY OF
EDINBURGH Formation of the coelom or
body cavity Acoelomates lack a
body cavity. In pseudocoelomates,
the coelom is formed from a persistent
embryonic cavity. In schizocoelous
coelomates, the coelom is formed by
splits in the embryonic mesoderm, the
middle layer of the body. In
enterocoelous coelomates, the coelom
forms within pouches of the gut
wall. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.nhc.ed.ac.uk/images/c
ollections/invertebrates/intros/LgCoelom
.jpg
590,000,000 YBN
98) The first circulatory system
evolves; blood vessels, and blood
evolve in a bilaterian. The first blood
cells. Cnidarians and flatworms are at
most two sheets of tissue thick and so
allow gas exchange and nutrient
distribution by diffusion, but larger
animals with thicker tissues require a
circulatory system to distribute
materials.

The circulatory system transports
molecules like gases, food, and waste
to and from individual cells.

In bilaterians with circulatory systems
blood may be distributed by contractile
vessels in the blood vessel walls,
and/or by hearts.

Circulatory systems can be divided into
two kinds, "open", where blood and
coelomic {SElomiK} fluid are together,
and "closed" where blood and coelomic
fluid are separate.
 
[1] D. T. Anderson, ''Invertebrate
Zoology'', Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001 AND Fig 11.1G
from: Brusca and Brusca,
''Invertebrates'', 2003,
p320. COPYRIGHTED
source: D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001 AND Brusca and
Brusca, "Invertebrates", 2003, p320.

[2] From: D. T. Anderson,
''Invertebrate Zoology'', Oxford
University Press, Second Edition,
2001 COPYRIGHTED
source: D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001
580,000,000 YBN
93) The Bilaterians Protostomes evolve.
Protostomes are divided into two major
groups: the Ecdysozoa {eK-DiS-u-ZOu}
and the Lophotrochozoa {LuFoTroKoZOu}.


The difference between protostomes and
deutrostomes arises during embryonic
development. In protostomes, the first
indentation of the gastrula (an early
stage of the embryo) develops into the
mouth and the second indentation
develops into the anus. The reverse is
true for the deuterostomes.
 
[1] English: This diagram is showing
the difference of the two major types
of coelomates: the protostomes
(molluscs, annelids, arthropods, ...)
and deuterostomes (echinoderms,
vertebrates, ...). These groups differ
in several characteristics of early
development; In deuterostomes blastula
devisions is called ''radial cleavage''
because it occurs parallel or
perpendicular to the major polar axis.
In protostomes the cleavage is called
''spirale'' because division planes are
oriented obliquely to the polar major
axis. During gastrulation, protostomes
embryos' mouth was given first by the
blastopore while the anus was formed
later and vis versa for the
deuterostomes. As examples :
Squids are protostomes. Sea
urchins are deuterostomes. Date
14 October 2009 Source Own
work Author WYassineMrabetTalk✉ CC

source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Protovsdeuteros
tomes.svg/1000px-Protovsdeuterostomes.sv
g.png

[2] English: This diagram is showing
the difference of the two major types
of coelomates: the protostomes
(molluscs, annelids, arthropods, ...)
and deuterostomes (echinoderms,
vertebrates, ...). These groups differ
in several characteristics of early
development; In deuterostomes blastula
devisions is called ''radial cleavage''
because it occurs parallel or
perpendicular to the major polar axis.
In protostomes the cleavage is called
''spirale'' because division planes are
oriented obliquely to the polar major
axis. During gastrulation, protostomes
embryos' mouth was given first by the
blastopore while the anus was formed
later and vis versa for the
deuterostomes. As examples :
Squids are protostomes. Sea
urchins are deuterostomes. Date
14 October 2009 Source Own
work Author WYassineMrabetTalk✉ CC

source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Protovsdeuteros
tomes.svg/1000px-Protovsdeuterostomes.sv
g.png
580,000,000 YBN
105) The Bilaterians Deuterostomes
evolve; the ancestor of all Echinoderms
(iKIniDRMS }, Hemichordates, and
Chordates.
 
[1] English: This diagram is showing
the difference of the two major types
of coelomates: the protostomes
(molluscs, annelids, arthropods, ...)
and deuterostomes (echinoderms,
vertebrates, ...). These groups differ
in several characteristics of early
development; In deuterostomes blastula
devisions is called ''radial cleavage''
because it occurs parallel or
perpendicular to the major polar axis.
In protostomes the cleavage is called
''spirale'' because division planes are
oriented obliquely to the polar major
axis. During gastrulation, protostomes
embryos' mouth was given first by the
blastopore while the anus was formed
later and vis versa for the
deuterostomes. As examples :
Squids are protostomes. Sea
urchins are deuterostomes. Date
14 October 2009 Source Own
work Author WYassineMrabetTalk✉ CC

source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Protovsdeuteros
tomes.svg/1000px-Protovsdeuterostomes.sv
g.png

[2] English: This diagram is showing
the difference of the two major types
of coelomates: the protostomes
(molluscs, annelids, arthropods, ...)
and deuterostomes (echinoderms,
vertebrates, ...). These groups differ
in several characteristics of early
development; In deuterostomes blastula
devisions is called ''radial cleavage''
because it occurs parallel or
perpendicular to the major polar axis.
In protostomes the cleavage is called
''spirale'' because division planes are
oriented obliquely to the polar major
axis. During gastrulation, protostomes
embryos' mouth was given first by the
blastopore while the anus was formed
later and vis versa for the
deuterostomes. As examples :
Squids are protostomes. Sea
urchins are deuterostomes. Date
14 October 2009 Source Own
work Author WYassineMrabetTalk✉ CC

source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Protovsdeuteros
tomes.svg/1000px-Protovsdeuterostomes.sv
g.png
580,000,000 YBN
131) The first shell (or skeleton)
evolves. The first known shell belongs
to a group of ciliates called
tintinnids. Skeletons evolve
independently in different groups of
organisms.

These are also the earliest known
ciliate fossils.
(Doushantuo Formation) Beidoushan,
Guizhou Province, South China 
[1] Figure 1 from: Li, C.-W.; et al.
(2007). ''Ciliated protozoans from the
Precambrian Doushantuo Formation,
Wengan, South China''. Geological
Society, London, Special Publications
286: 151–156.
doi:10.1144/SP286.11. http://dx.doi.org
/10.1144%2FSP286.11
{Ciliates_Fossils_Precambrian_Li_580my
bn.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://dx.doi.org/10.1144%2FSP28
6.11
AND {Ciliates_Fossils_Precambrian_Li_58
0mybn.pdf}

[2] Figure 1 from: Li, C.-W.; et al.
(2007). ''Ciliated protozoans from the
Precambrian Doushantuo Formation,
Wengan, South China''. Geological
Society, London, Special Publications
286: 151–156.
doi:10.1144/SP286.11. http://dx.doi.org
/10.1144%2FSP286.11
{Ciliates_Fossils_Precambrian_Li_580my
bn.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://dx.doi.org/10.1144%2FSP28
6.11
AND {Ciliates_Fossils_Precambrian_Li_58
0mybn.pdf}
570,000,000 YBN
311) The Bilaterians Chaetognatha
{KE-ToG-nutu} evolve (Arrow Worms).

The earliest teeth evolve. Animals
start to eat other animals.

The evolution of teeth and animal
predation starts an "arms race" that
rapidly transforms ecosystems around
the Earth. Teeth and shells evolve as
advantages to survival.

On each side of the head Chaetognaths
{KE-TO-natS}have a group of curved
grasping hooks and one or two rows of
teeth. Both hooks and teeth are made of
chitin. Chaetognaths also have a pair
of pigmented eyespots.
 
[1] Chaetognatha UNKNOWN
source: http://content5.eol.org/content/
2010/08/09/03/74200_large.jpg

[2] Description Chatognath
Spadella cephaloptera Date
Unkown Source Own
work Author
Zatelmar Permission (Reusing
this file) See below. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8e/Chaetoblack.png
565,000,000 YBN
345) The Deuterostome Phylum
Hemichordata evolves; The
"Hemichordates", the ancestor of
pterobranchs {TARuBrANKS} and acorn
worms).

Adult Pterobrachs are sessile,
fastening to solid structures, but the
younger (or larval) form is free
swimming, and is thought to have
retained this form before evolving into
tunicates and then the first fish.
 
[1] Description Eichelwurm, Exemplar
aus der Sammlung des Institutes für
Zoologie, FU Berlin. GNU
FDL Date Source Foto:
de:Benutzer:Necrophorus Author User
Necrophorus on
de.wikipedia Permission (Reusing
this file) Released under the GNU Free
Documentation License. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Eichelwurm.jpg/
1024px-Eichelwurm.jpg

[2] Pterobranchs Resembling slugs
with hairy, branching tentacles,
Pterobranchs filter food from the water
and form colonies of “clones,” much
like coral polyps, often secreting a
network of hard tubing. Individual
zooids can crawl about freely within
the colony, but are connected to one
another by thin “cables,” quickly
retracting if disturbed. What makes the
Pterobranchs even stranger than corals
is that these slimy, slithering weirdos
are “hemichordates,” closer to us
vertebrates than to invertebrates like
worms and jellyfish. Read more:
http://www.toptenz.net/top-10-colonial-o
rganisms.php#ixzz1lJRtH61S COPYRIGHTED

source: http://www.toptenz.net/wp-conten
t/uploads/2011/10/Pterobranch-colonial-o
rganisms.jpg
565,000,000 YBN
347) The Deuterostome Phylum Chordata
evolves. Chordates are a very large
group that include all tunicates
{TUNiKiTS}, fishes, amphibians,
reptiles, mammals, and birds. Chordates
get their name from the notochord
{nOTe-KORD}, the cartilage rod that
runs along the back of the animal, in
the embryo if not in the adult.

The ancestor of all chordates evolves
"upside-down": unlike earlier
invertebrates who have a ventral nerve
cord (near the belly) and a dorsal
heart (near the back), this ancestor
and all later vertebrates have a dorsal
nerve cord and a ventral heart.
Probably a worm-like ancestor between
the ventricords and dorsocords evolved
upside down because the alternative
theory of the internal anatomy
reversing seems less likely.

Chordates have four key characters: a
notochord; a dorsal, hollow nerve
chord; gill slits (also called
pharyngeal {Fu-riN-JE-uL} slits); and a
muscular, post-anal tail. The notochord
is a longitudinal, flexible rod located
between the digestive tube and the
nerve cord. The notochord is made of
large, fluid-filled cells encased in
fairly stiff, fibrous tissue. The
notochord provides skeletal support
throughout most of the length of the
chordate and provides a firm but
flexible structure from which attached
muscles can contract.

In lower chordates and the early groups
of vertebrates, the notochord persists
as the axial support for the body
throughout life, but in the higher fish
the notochord is surrounded and
gradually replaced by segmental
vertebrae.
 
[1] from adelaide, australia UNKNOWN
source: http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/t
ech/3208583.stm

[2] [t Note that this is a vertebrate
- not a pre-vertebrate
chordate] Portion of figure
from: D.-G. Shu, S. Conway Morris, J.
Han, Z.-F. Zhang, K. Yasui, P. Janvier,
L. Chen, X.-L. Zhang, J.-N. Liu, Y. Li
and H.-Q. Liu, ''Head and backbone of
the Early Cambrian vertebrate
Haikouichthys'', Nature 421,
526-529(30 January
2003) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v421/n6922/full/nature01264.html CO
PYRIGHTED
source: https://nature.com/journal/v421/
n6922/images/nature01264-f1.2.jpg
565,000,000 YBN
348) The earliest extant chordate:
Tunicates {TUNiKiTS} evolve (also
called sea squirts).
 
[1] Description Clavelina
moluccensis, the bluebell
tunicate English: Tunicate colony.
(Clavelina moluccensis) Date
04/17/05 Source Own
work Author Nhobgood CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/98/Bluebell_tunicates_Ni
ck_Hobgood.jpg

[2] Timeline of phylogeny of animals,
figure 6 from: S. Blair Hedges, ''The
origin and evolution of model
organisms'', Nature Reviews Genetics 3,
838-849 (November
2002) http://www.nature.com/nrg/journal
/v3/n11/full/nrg929.html {Hedges_2002.p
df} a) The relationships and
divergence times (millions of years ago
(Mya) plusminus one standard error) of
selected model animals are shown, based
on recent multigene and multiprotein
studies51, 61, 84. The fossil
divergence time of birds and mammals
(310 Mya) was used to calibrate the
molecular clock. Branch lengths are not
proportional to time. b ) The
relationships and numbers of living
species, from a diversity of sources in
most of the main groups. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nrg/journa
l/v3/n11/images/nrg929-f6.jpg
560,000,000 YBN
117) The earliest animal shell (or
skeleton) evolves.
This is the earliest evidence
of animals eating other animals
(predation).
This begins the appearance of small
shelly fossils and deep burrows
correlated with a decline in
stromatolites, possibly from feeding.

The earliest animal shells are made by
tiny organisms with simple tubelike
skeletons, such as Cloudina and
Sinotubulites in addition to sponge
skeleton fossils.

The shell of Cloudina is made of
Calcium carbonate (CaCO3), and is
possibly made by some kind of worm.

Predatory bore holes have been found in
Cloudina shells. This is the oldest
evidence of predation known.

In addition to its supportive function,
the animal skeleton may provide
protection, facilitate movement, and
aid in certain sensory functions. In
the many groups of animals that can
move, body support is provided either
by external structures known as
exoskeletons or by internal structures
known as endoskeletons.
(Ara Formation) Oman|Lijiagou,
Ningqiang County, Shaanxi
Province 
[1] Cloudina COPYRIGHTED
source: http://palaeos.com/proterozoic/n
eoproterozoic/ediacaran/images/Cloudina.
jpg

[2] Cloudina from: HONG HUA, BRIAN R.
PRATT, and LU-YI ZHANG, ''Borings in
Cloudina Shells: Complex Predator-Prey
Dynamics in the Terminal
Neoproterozoic'', PALAIOS, October
2003, v. 18, p. 454-459,
doi:10.1669/0883-1351(2003)018<0454:BICSCP>2.0.CO;2
http://palaios.geoscienceworld.org/citmg
r?gca=palaios;18/4-5/454 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://palaios.geoscienceworld.o
rg/content/vol18/issue4-5/images/large/i
0883-1351-018-04-0454-f03.jpeg
560,000,000 YBN
318) The Protostomes Ecdysozoa
{eK-DiS-u-ZOu} evolve. Ecdysozoa are
animals that molt (lose their outer
skin) as they grow. This is the
ancestor of round worms, and arthropods
(which includes insects and crustaceans
{also known as "shell-fish"}).
 
[1] Description English: Life
restoration of Ottoia in natural
environment with nearby
Haplophrentis. Date 11-29-08 Source
Own work Author Smokeybjb GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/10/Ottoia_burrowing.jpg

[2] Description
en:category:Caenorhabditis
elegans Date 2006-09-06 (original
upload date) (Original text :
09/05/2006) Source Originally from
en.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. (Original text : Donated by
Zeynep F. Altun) Author Original
uploader was Kbradnam at
en.wikipedia (Original text : Zeynep
F. Altun, Editor of
www.wormatlas.org) Permission (Reusing
this file) CC-BY-SA-2.5. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Adult_Caenorhab
ditis_elegans.jpg/1280px-Adult_Caenorhab
ditis_elegans.jpg
560,000,000 YBN
331) The Protostomes Lophotrochozoa
{Lu-Fo-Tro-Ku-ZO-u} evolve, the
ancestor of all rotifers, phoronids,
brachiopods {BrA-KE-O-PoDZ}, entoprocts
{eNTuProKS}, bryozoans {BrI-u-ZO-iNZ},
platyhelminthes, gastrotrichs,
nemertea, molluscs and annelids.
 
[1] A rotifer. The cilia around
this rotifer's mouth are unusually
long; they reach as far as the strand
of spirogyra to the right. 10×
objective, 15× eyepiece. The numbered
ticks on the scale are 122 µM apart.
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencephoto.com/imag
e/121893/530wm/C0058380-Rotifer_SEM-SPL.
jpg

[2] Description Clams Date
Source Own work Author
Marlith CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8f/Clams.JPG
560,000,000 YBN
349) The first fish evolves.
 
[1] Lancelet (Branchiostoma
lanceolatum) Description
Branchiostoma lanceolatum (Pallas,
1774) English: Amphioxus from course
sandy sediments (600µm) on the Belgian
continental shelf. Length: ~22
mm. Geo-location not applicable as the
picture was taken in the
lab. Français : Branchiostoma
lanceolatum, un céphalochordé,
récolté dans des sédiments de sable
grossier (600µm) sur le Plateau
continental belge. Longueur totale: 22
mm environ. Date 1997 Source
Own work Author (Hans
Hillewaert) CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/47/Branchiostoma_lanceol
atum.jpg
560,000,000 YBN
6290) The earliest extant fish, the
Chordates Lancelets {laNSleTS} (also
called amphioxus {aMFEoKSiS}). This is
also the first liver and kidney.

Lancelets are the most primitive
chordates to have a liver and a kidney,
which are not found in hemichordates or
tunicates.

The Lancelet is different from a worm
in not being cylindrical, and swims
like a fish using its muscles with
side-to-side undulations.

Lancelets are not vertebrates. They
have only a nerve tube on the notochord
and no brain other than a small
swelling at the front end of the nerve
tube. They also have an eye-spot.

Lancelets have gill slits at the sides
that are primarily for filter feeding:
water is drawn in through the mouth and
passed out through the gill slits,
which catch food particles that are
then passed to the gut by cilia. So the
gill slits only play a minor role in
gas exchange (the absorption of oxygen
and emission of carbon dioxide), which
occurs mainly across the external body
surface. This implies that gills that
are primarily for breathing evolve
later.

Lancelets have no heart and blood is
pumped around the body by contractions
of the blood vessels.
 
[1] Lancelet (Branchiostoma
lanceolatum) Description
Branchiostoma lanceolatum (Pallas,
1774) English: Amphioxus from course
sandy sediments (600µm) on the Belgian
continental shelf. Length: ~22
mm. Geo-location not applicable as the
picture was taken in the
lab. Français : Branchiostoma
lanceolatum, un céphalochordé,
récolté dans des sédiments de sable
grossier (600µm) sur le Plateau
continental belge. Longueur totale: 22
mm environ. Date 1997 Source
Own work Author (Hans
Hillewaert) CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/47/Branchiostoma_lanceol
atum.jpg

[2] Lancelet COPYRIGHTED
source: http://kentsimmons.uwinnipeg.ca/
16cm05/1116/34-04b-Lancelet.jpg
550,000,000 YBN
119) The Ediacaran fossil Arkarua.
 

source: http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/ven
dian/arkarua.html


source:
550,000,000 YBN
328) The Ecdysozoa Superphylum
"Aschelminthes" {aSKHeLmiNtEZ} evolves.
This includes the three Phyla:
Nematoda
(round worms),
Nematomorpha (horsehair worms),
and
Priapulida (priapulids).
 
[1] Description English: Priapulid
worm Priapulus caudatus in a Petry
dish. The specimen was found in the
intertidal of the Russian coast of the
Barents Sea. Русский:
Приапулида Priapulus caudatus
в чашке Петри. Особь
найдена в
приливно-отливной
зоне на российском
побережье Баренцева
моря. Date between 2005 and
2007 Source kindly granted by the
author Author Dmitry
Aristov Permission (Reusing this
file) See below. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/62/Priapulus_caudatus.jp
g

[2] Giribet, G. (2008). Assembling the
lophotrochozoan (=spiralian) tree of
life. Philosophical Transactions of the
Royal Society B: Biological Sciences ,
363 (1496), 1513-1522. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2007.2241
http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/363/1496/1513 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://rstb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/363/1496/1513
550,000,000 YBN
329) The Lophotrochozoa Phylum Rotifera
{rOTiFeru) evolves (the rotifers).

The rotifers are tiny metazoans
characterized by an anterior ciliary
apparatus (the corona), and are most
common in fresh water.
 
[1] A rotifer. The cilia around
this rotifer's mouth are unusually
long; they reach as far as the strand
of spirogyra to the right. 10×
objective, 15× eyepiece. The numbered
ticks on the scale are 122 µM apart.
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencephoto.com/imag
e/121893/530wm/C0058380-Rotifer_SEM-SPL.
jpg

[2] Figure from: Giribet, G. (2008).
Assembling the lophotrochozoan
(=spiralian) tree of life.
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society B: Biological Sciences , 363
(1496), 1513-1522. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2007.2241
http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/363/1496/1513 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/a/ad/20090917_013641_Rotifer.jp
g
547,000,000 YBN
333) The Lophotrochozoa Phylum
Phoronida {FeroNiDu}, (the phoronids
{FerOniDZ}).

The phoronids are chitinous tube
dwellers located worldwide in mild
temperature seas.
 
[1] Description English: Phoronis
hippocrepis photographed in shallow
water in Italy. Photo by Maria Grazia
Montanucci. Date Source Own
work Author
Etrusko25 Permission (Reusing
this file) See below. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/52/Phoronis_Maria_Grazia
_Montanucci2.jpg

[2] Timeline of phylogeny of animals,
figure 6 from: S. Blair Hedges, ''The
origin and evolution of model
organisms'', Nature Reviews Genetics 3,
838-849 (November
2002) http://www.nature.com/nrg/journal
/v3/n11/full/nrg929.html {Hedges_2002.p
df} a) The relationships and
divergence times (millions of years ago
(Mya) plusminus one standard error) of
selected model animals are shown, based
on recent multigene and multiprotein
studies51, 61, 84. The fossil
divergence time of birds and mammals
(310 Mya) was used to calibrate the
molecular clock. Branch lengths are not
proportional to time. b ) The
relationships and numbers of living
species, from a diversity of sources in
most of the main groups. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://rstb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/363/1496/1513
547,000,000 YBN
334) The Lophotrochozoa Phylum
Brachiopoda {BrAKEoPiDu} evolves (the
brachiopods {BrAKEOPoDZ}).

The Brachiopods are marine
invertebrates that have bivalve dorsal
and ventral shells enclosing a pair of
tentacled, armlike structures that are
used to sweep minute food particles
into their mouth. Brachiopods are also
called lampshells.
 
[1] Brachiopod UNKNOWN
source: http://paleo.cortland.edu/tutori
al/Brachiopods/Brachiopod%20Images/lingu
la.GIF

[2] Brachiopods (Glottidia
Albida) Photographic Print by Richard
Herrmann item #: 357011759A UNKNOWN
source: http://cache2.artprintimages.com
/lrg/38/3813/HHRIF00Z.jpg
547,000,000 YBN
335) The Lophotrochozoa Phylum
Entoprocta {eNTuProKTu} {the
eNtoProKTS}.

The entoprocts are sessile, aquatic,
often colonial invertebrates having a
looped gut with both mouth and anus
located inside a circlet of tentacles,
a pseudocoelomate body cavity, and no
hardened skeleton. All but a single
genus of entoprocts are marine.
 
[1] Barentsa discreta(Barentsiidae)
Japanese name:Suzukokemusi
Date;2007,05,18;Tanabe city, Wakayama
prefecture, Japan
Author;Keisotyo GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f9/Barentsa_discreta_suz
ukokemusi02.jpg

[2] Figure from: Giribet, G. (2008).
Assembling the lophotrochozoan
(=spiralian) tree of life.
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society B: Biological Sciences , 363
(1496), 1513-1522. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2007.2241
http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/363/1496/1513 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://rstb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/363/1496/1513
543,000,000 YBN
101) Segmentation evolves (body parts
are repeated serially, for example
vertebrae).

Some think that segmentation evolved
independently in annelid worms,
arthropods, and vertebrates. But the
universality of Homeobox genes, evolved
over a billion years earlier, implies
that all segmented species may share a
common segmented ancestor.
 
[1] Dikinsonia grew to a length of as
much as two feet (60 cm), which made it
one of the larger complex organisms of
the Vendian. It's body is segmented
with midline symmetry dividing it's
body. Its body may have been denser
than modern jellyfish or worms. [Atlas
of Prehistoric World, Discovery
Books Reconstruction of Dickinsonia,
based on images from Atlas of the
Prehistoric World, Discovery Channel
Books and Kingfisher Illustrated
Dinosaur Encyclopedia UNKNOWN
source: http://paleontology.edwardtbabin
ski.us/vendian/dickinsonia.jpg

[2] Spriggina Spriggina was
definitely a predator of the seas of
that time. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.museum.toulouse.fr/IM
G/jpg/spriginna_72dpi_680.jpg
543,000,000 YBN
336) The Lophotrochozoa Phylum Bryozoa
evolves; the bryozoans or moss animals.
Bryozoans are tiny animals that grow in
colonies that look like branches.
 
[1] A bryozoan, showing extended
lophophore Brooker Biology textbook,
Copyright McGraw-Hill
companies COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.doctortee.com/dsu/tif
tickjian/cse-img/biology/animals/inverte
brates/bryozoan.jpg

[2] Freshwater bryozoan from a lake in
NC, USA. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b9/Freshwater_Bryozoan23
4.JPG
542,000,000 YBN
53) The end of the "Precambrian". The
end of the Proterozoic and start of the
Phanerozoic {FaNReZOiK} Eon. The end
of the Neoproterozoic and start of the
Paleozoic {PAlEuZOiK} Era, and the end
of the Ediacaran and start of the
Cambrian Period.
 
[1] Geologic Time Scale 2009 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.geosociety.org/scienc
e/timescale/timescl.pdf

[2] Description English: Global
pareconstruction of the Earth in the
early Cambrian period 540 million years
ago. Deutsch: Globale
paläogeografische Rekonstruktion der
Erde während des frühen Kambriums vor
540 Millionen Jahren. русский:
Глобальная
палеогеографическая
реконструкция Земли
в начале
Кембрийского периода
540 миллионов лет тому
назад. українська:
Глобальная
палеогеографічна
реконструкція Землі
на початку
Кембрійського
періоду 540 мільйонів
років тому назад. Date
23 April 2008 Source
http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~rcb7/mollglobe.
html Author Dr. Ron Blakey -
http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~rcb7/ CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d6/EarlyCambrianGlobal.j
pg
542,000,000 YBN
6297) The Cambrian radiation, (or
"Cambrian explosion"), the rapid
diversification of multicellular
animals between 542 and 530 million
years ago that results in the
appearance of many (between 20 and 35)
of the major phyla of animals. An
increase of animals with shells.

The Cambrian metazoan radiation may be
the result of a major increase in
atmospheric oxygen, and animal
predation.

The earlier Ediacaran animals are
soft-bodied and so are infrequently
preserved, but when animals begin to
develop hard parts, their probability
of preservation greatly improves.

Two fossil locations preserve this
period on Earth, the Burgess Shale in
British Columbia Canada, and the
Chengjiang in the Yunnan Province of
China.
 
[1] Artist drawing of the bottom of the
Cambrian shallow sea floor, showing
trilobites (imagine these crawling
around on the Cambrian sea floor at
Devil's Lake state park 550 m.y. ago!)
(above). UNKNOWN
source: http://www.geology.wisc.edu/home
pages/g100s2/public_html/Geologic_Time/L
3_Cambrian_Life_More.jpg

[2] Description English: Fossil
specimen of Opabinia regalis from the
Burgess shale on display at the
Smithsonian in Washington, DC. This
appears to be the exact specimen
pictured in Fig. 42 of 'The Crucible of
Creation: The Burgess Shale and the
Rise of Animals', by Simon Conway
Morris, Oxford University Press,
1998. Date 12 April 2009 (original
upload date) Source Transferred
from en.wikipedia; transferred to
Commons by User:FunkMonk using
CommonsHelper. Author Original
uploader was Jstuby at en.wikipedia PD

source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/50/Opabinia_smithsonian.
JPG
540,000,000 YBN
104) The Lophotrochozoa
{Lu-Fo-Tro-Ku-ZO-u} Phylum
Platyhelminthes {PlaTEheLmiNtEZ}
evolves (flatworms).

Platyhelminthes, which is Greek for
flat worms, include 20,000 extant
species of free-living and parasitic
acoelomate (having no coelum) worms.
They can reproduce sexually, and also
asexually by transverse fission
(splitting in half). Platyhelminthes
are also hermaphroditic containing both
female and male gonads.
 
[1] Description English: The
flatworm Pseudoceros dimidiatus. North
Horn, Osprey Reef, Coral Sea. Date
August 9, 2005 Source
Flickr Author Richard
Ling CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1e/Pseudoceros_dimidiatu
s.jpg

[2] Two turbellarians mating by penis
fencing. Each has two penises, the
white spikes on the undersides of their
heads. Description English: Two
Individuals of Pseudobiceros bedfordi
about to have a Sperm Battle. –
Species of the flatworm genus
Pseudobiceros are hermaphroditic and
have two penises that are used to
inject sperm into the partner. P.
bedfordi is exceptional in that it
applies sperm onto the partner's skin
rather than injecting it. Deutsch:
Zwei Plattwürmer (Pseudobiceros
bedfordi) vor der Begattung. Der
doppelte Penis ist bei beiden
Individuen gut sichtbar. Date
Published: 2004-06-15 Source
Whitfield J: Everything You Always
Wanted to Know about Sexes. PLoS Biol
2/6/2004: e183.
doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0020183.g001,
photo page Author Photo courtesy
of Nico Michiels. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/38/Flatworm_sex.png
540,000,000 YBN
319) The Protist Phylum "Radiolaria"
{rADEOlaREo} evolves.

Radiolarians are protists found in the
upper layers of all oceans, are mostly
spherically symmetrical, and known for
their complex and beautiful tiny
skeletons, called "tests". Tests are
usually made of silica (SiO2).

Radiolarian skeletons are used to
analyze the layers of the sedimentary
record.
 
[1] FIG. 2. The tree of life based on
molecular, ultrastructural and
palaeontological evidence. Contrary to
widespread assumptions, the root is
among the eubacteria, probably within
the double-enveloped Negibacteria, not
between eubacteria and archaebacteria
(Cavalier-Smith, 2002b); it may lie
between Eobacteria and other
Negibacteria (Cavalier-Smith, 2002b).
The position of the eukaryotic root has
been nearly as controversial, but is
less hard to establish: it probably
lies between unikonts and bikonts (Lang
et al., 2002; Stechmann and
Cavalier-Smith, 2002, 2003). For
clarity the basal eukaryotic kingdom
Protozoa is not labelled; it comprises
four major groups (alveolates, cabozoa,
Amoebozoa and Choanozoa) plus the small
bikont phylum Apusozoa of unclear
precise position; whether Heliozoa are
protozoa as shown or chromists is
uncertain (Cavalier-Smith, 2003b).
Symbiogenetic cell enslavement occurred
four or five times: in the origin of
mitochondria and chloroplasts from
different negibacteria, of
chromalveolates by the enslaving of a
red alga (Cavalier-Smith, 1999, 2003;
Harper and Keeling, 2003) and in the
origin of the green plastids of
euglenoid (excavate) and chlorarachnean
(cercozoan) algae-a green algal cell
was enslaved either by the ancestral
cabozoan (arrow) or (less likely) twice
independently within excavates and
Cercozoa (asterisks) (Cavalier-Smith,
2003a). The upper thumbnail sketch
shows membrane topology in the
chimaeric cryptophytes (class
Cryptophyceae of the phylum Cryptista);
in the ancestral chromist the former
food vacuole membrane fused with the
rough endoplasmic reticulum placing the
enslaved cell within its lumen (red) to
yield the complex membrane topology
shown. The large host nucleus and the
tiny nucleomorph are shown in blue,
chloroplast green and mitochondrion
purple. In chlorarachneans (class
Chlorarachnea of phylum Cercozoa) the
former food vacuole membrane remained
topologically distinct from the ER to
become an epiplastid membrane and so
did not acquire ribosomes on its
surface, but their membrane topology is
otherwise similar to the cryptophytes.
The other sketches portray the four
major kinds of cell in the living world
and their membrane topology. The upper
ones show the contrasting ancestral
microtubular cytoskeleton (ciliary
roots, in red) of unikonts (a cone of
single microtubules attaching the
single centriole to the nucleus, blue)
and bikonts (two bands of microtubules
attached to the posterior centriole and
an anterior fan of microtubules
attached to the anterior centriole).
The lower ones show the single plasma
membrane of unibacteria (posibacteria
plus archaebacteria), which were
ancestral to eukaryotes and the double
envelope of negibacteria, which were
ancestral to mitochondria and
chloroplasts (which retained the outer
membrane, red).
source: http://aob.oxfordjournals.org/cg
i/content/full/95/1/147/FIG2

[2] Fig. 1. A consensus phylogeny of
eukaryotes. The vast majority of
characterized eukaryotes, with the
notable exception of major subgroups of
amoebae, can now be assigned to one of
eight major groups. Opisthokonts (basal
flagellum) have a single basal
flagellum on reproductive cells and
flat mitochondrial cristae (most
eukaryotes have tubular ones).
Eukaryotic photosynthesis originated in
Plants; theirs are the only plastids
with just two outer membranes.
Heterokonts (different flagellae) have
a unique flagellum decorated with
hollow tripartite hairs (stramenopiles)
and, usually, a second plain one.
Cercozoans are amoebae with filose
pseudopodia, often living with in tests
(hard outer shells), some very
elaborate (foraminiferans). Amoebozoa
are mostly naked amoebae (lacking
tests), often with lobose pseudopodia
for at least part of their life cycle.
Alveolates have systems of cortical
alveoli directly beneath their plasma
membranes. Discicristates have discoid
mitochondrial cristae and, in some
cases, a deep (excavated) ventral
feeding groove. Amitochondrial
excavates lack substantial molecular
phylogenetic support, but most have an
excavated ventral feeding groove, and
all lack mitochondria. The tree shown
is based on a consensus of molecular
(1-4) and ultrastructural (16, 17) data
and includes a rough indication of new
ciPCR ''taxa'' (broken black lines)
(7-11). An asterisk preceding the taxon
name indicates probable paraphyletic
group.
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/co
ntent/full/300/5626/1703
540,000,000 YBN
321) The Protist Phylum "Foraminifera"
{FOraMiniFRu} evolves.

Foraminifera (or "forams" for short),
are unicellular protists characterized
by long, fine pseudopods that extend
from a cytoplasmic body encased within
a test, or shell. Shell sizes may be as
large as 5 cm (or 2 inches) in
diameter.

Forams are the most diverse and most
widely studied of microfossils. Forams
are related to the amoeba but unlike an
amoeba they have a shell. Forams secret
skeletons of calcium carbonate (the
mineral calcite), which is different
than radiolarians which secrete
skeletons of silica. Most are marine
and live on or in the sea bottom (are
benthic) but one family is tiny and
buoyant and make up a major part of the
marine plankton.
 
[1] FIG. 2. The tree of life based on
molecular, ultrastructural and
palaeontological evidence. Contrary to
widespread assumptions, the root is
among the eubacteria, probably within
the double-enveloped Negibacteria, not
between eubacteria and archaebacteria
(Cavalier-Smith, 2002b); it may lie
between Eobacteria and other
Negibacteria (Cavalier-Smith, 2002b).
The position of the eukaryotic root has
been nearly as controversial, but is
less hard to establish: it probably
lies between unikonts and bikonts (Lang
et al., 2002; Stechmann and
Cavalier-Smith, 2002, 2003). For
clarity the basal eukaryotic kingdom
Protozoa is not labelled; it comprises
four major groups (alveolates, cabozoa,
Amoebozoa and Choanozoa) plus the small
bikont phylum Apusozoa of unclear
precise position; whether Heliozoa are
protozoa as shown or chromists is
uncertain (Cavalier-Smith, 2003b).
Symbiogenetic cell enslavement occurred
four or five times: in the origin of
mitochondria and chloroplasts from
different negibacteria, of
chromalveolates by the enslaving of a
red alga (Cavalier-Smith, 1999, 2003;
Harper and Keeling, 2003) and in the
origin of the green plastids of
euglenoid (excavate) and chlorarachnean
(cercozoan) algae-a green algal cell
was enslaved either by the ancestral
cabozoan (arrow) or (less likely) twice
independently within excavates and
Cercozoa (asterisks) (Cavalier-Smith,
2003a). The upper thumbnail sketch
shows membrane topology in the
chimaeric cryptophytes (class
Cryptophyceae of the phylum Cryptista);
in the ancestral chromist the former
food vacuole membrane fused with the
rough endoplasmic reticulum placing the
enslaved cell within its lumen (red) to
yield the complex membrane topology
shown. The large host nucleus and the
tiny nucleomorph are shown in blue,
chloroplast green and mitochondrion
purple. In chlorarachneans (class
Chlorarachnea of phylum Cercozoa) the
former food vacuole membrane remained
topologically distinct from the ER to
become an epiplastid membrane and so
did not acquire ribosomes on its
surface, but their membrane topology is
otherwise similar to the cryptophytes.
The other sketches portray the four
major kinds of cell in the living world
and their membrane topology. The upper
ones show the contrasting ancestral
microtubular cytoskeleton (ciliary
roots, in red) of unikonts (a cone of
single microtubules attaching the
single centriole to the nucleus, blue)
and bikonts (two bands of microtubules
attached to the posterior centriole and
an anterior fan of microtubules
attached to the anterior centriole).
The lower ones show the single plasma
membrane of unibacteria (posibacteria
plus archaebacteria), which were
ancestral to eukaryotes and the double
envelope of negibacteria, which were
ancestral to mitochondria and
chloroplasts (which retained the outer
membrane, red).
source: http://aob.oxfordjournals.org/cg
i/content/full/95/1/147/FIG2

[2] Fig. 1. A consensus phylogeny of
eukaryotes. The vast majority of
characterized eukaryotes, with the
notable exception of major subgroups of
amoebae, can now be assigned to one of
eight major groups. Opisthokonts (basal
flagellum) have a single basal
flagellum on reproductive cells and
flat mitochondrial cristae (most
eukaryotes have tubular ones).
Eukaryotic photosynthesis originated in
Plants; theirs are the only plastids
with just two outer membranes.
Heterokonts (different flagellae) have
a unique flagellum decorated with
hollow tripartite hairs (stramenopiles)
and, usually, a second plain one.
Cercozoans are amoebae with filose
pseudopodia, often living with in tests
(hard outer shells), some very
elaborate (foraminiferans). Amoebozoa
are mostly naked amoebae (lacking
tests), often with lobose pseudopodia
for at least part of their life cycle.
Alveolates have systems of cortical
alveoli directly beneath their plasma
membranes. Discicristates have discoid
mitochondrial cristae and, in some
cases, a deep (excavated) ventral
feeding groove. Amitochondrial
excavates lack substantial molecular
phylogenetic support, but most have an
excavated ventral feeding groove, and
all lack mitochondria. The tree shown
is based on a consensus of molecular
(1-4) and ultrastructural (16, 17) data
and includes a rough indication of new
ciPCR ''taxa'' (broken black lines)
(7-11). An asterisk preceding the taxon
name indicates probable paraphyletic
group.
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/co
ntent/full/300/5626/1703
540,000,000 YBN
340) The Lophotrochozoa Phylum Nemertea
{ne-mR-TEu} evolves (ribbon worms).

Nemertea are coelomate ({SE-lu-mAT}
have a coelem) unsegmented worms that
live in marine, freshwater and
terrestrial environments. Nemertea have
a complete digestive tract with an
anus, and a closed circulatory system;
some species having hemoglobin. They
are capable of sexual reproduction and
asexual reproduction by fragmentation
is common.
 
[1] Description English: Basiodiscus
mexicanus was photographed at Los
Arcos, near Puerto Vallarta,
Mexico Date Source University
of California Museum of Paleology:
Introduction to the Nemertini Author
Chris Meyer and Allen
Collins Permission (Reusing this
file) See below. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/49/Nemertea_Basiodiscus_
mexicanus.png

[2] Timeline of phylogeny of animals,
figure 6 from: S. Blair Hedges, ''The
origin and evolution of model
organisms'', Nature Reviews Genetics 3,
838-849 (November
2002) http://www.nature.com/nrg/journal
/v3/n11/full/nrg929.html {Hedges_2002.p
df} a) The relationships and
divergence times (millions of years ago
(Mya) plusminus one standard error) of
selected model animals are shown, based
on recent multigene and multiprotein
studies51, 61, 84. The fossil
divergence time of birds and mammals
(310 Mya) was used to calibrate the
molecular clock. Branch lengths are not
proportional to time. b ) The
relationships and numbers of living
species, from a diversity of sources in
most of the main groups. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://rstb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/363/1496/1513
540,000,000 YBN
341) The Ecdysozoa Phylum Tardigrada
{ToRDiGRiDe} evolves (tardigrades).

Tardigrades are slow-moving,
microscopic invertebrates, related to
the arthropods. Tardigrades have four
body segments, eight legs, and live in
water or damp moss. Tardigrades are
also called "water bears".
 
[1] Description Willow Gabriel and
Bob Goldstein,
http://tardigrades.bio.unc.edu/ Date
2007-05-20 (original upload
date) CC
source: http://28.media.tumblr.com/tumbl
r_limfh2NXtC1qc6j5yo1_400.jpg

[2] from Giribet 2007
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/65/Hypsibiusdujardini.jp
g
540,000,000 YBN
342) The Ecdysozoa Phylum Onychophora
evolves.

Onychophorans, known as "velvet worms",
are the living transitional form
between worms and arthropods. Although
they have segmented worm-like bodies,
they also have jointed appendages,
antennae, and shed their cuticle like
arthropods do.
 
[1] Euperipatoides kanangrensis on a
eucalyptus log, in which it normally
resides. Description English:
Cropped version of File:Euperipatoides
kanangrensis.jpg Date 13 October
2009 CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/67/Euperipatoides_kanang
rensis_crop.jpg

[2] Figure from: Giribet, G. (2008).
Assembling the lophotrochozoan
(=spiralian) tree of life.
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society B: Biological Sciences , 363
(1496), 1513-1522. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2007.2241
http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/363/1496/1513 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://rstb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/363/1496/1513
540,000,000 YBN
6287) The Lophotrochozoa Phylum
Gastrotricha {GaSTroTriKo} Gastrotrichs
{GaSTreTriKS}.

Gastrotrichs comprise about 450 species
of small marine and freshwater
metazoans. Most species are less than 1
mm long, and are hermaphroditic or are
known only as females that reproduce by
parthenogenesis.
 
[1] Description English: Darkfield
photograph of a gastrotrich. Taken
through a 10x ocular and 10x objective
with a Pentax *ist DL at 1/180th with
an understage flash. Date 18
April 2006 Source
en:Image:Gastrotrich.jpg Author
Jasper Nance GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6d/Gastrotrich.jpg

[2] Figure from: Giribet, G. (2008).
Assembling the lophotrochozoan
(=spiralian) tree of life.
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society B: Biological Sciences , 363
(1496), 1513-1522. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2007.2241
http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/363/1496/1513 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://rstb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/363/1496/1513
537,000,000 YBN
344) The Lophotrochozoa Phylum
Sipuncula {SI-PuNK-YU-lo} (peanut
worms) evolve.

The Spiuncula include about 250
species, most of which are commonly
called "peanut worms". They are
entirely marine and benthic (living on
the bottom of a body of water) and are
usually reclusive; burrowing into
sediments, living beneath stones, or in
algal holdfasts.
 
[1] English: A bucket of
deliciously-looking purple worms
(labeled 即劏北海沙虫 - '''Sand
worms' from Beihai, to be killed on
demand'') at a street vendor in
Guangzhou. At 48 yuan / 500 g (around
$7/lb), they look quite affordable...
The second character in the sign (劏,
in its simplified form), ''to slaughter
/ to butcher'', is peculiarly
Cantonese. GFDL
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f3/Sipuncula.jpg

[2] Brusca and Brusca,
''Invertebrates'', 2003,
p446. COPYRIGHTED
source: Brusca and Brusca,
"Invertebrates", 2003, p446.
535,000,000 YBN
114) The first heart evolves in
bilaterians.

Muscles for pumping blood and for
maintaining adequate blood pressure can
be divided into three groups:
contractile blood vessels (found in
nemerteans and annelids), ostiate
{oSTEAT} hearts (found in arthropods)
and chambered hearts (found in molluscs
and vertebrates).
 
[1] From: Ruppert, Fox, Barnes,
''Invertebrate Zoology'',
2004. COPYRIGHTED
source: Ruppert, Fox, Barnes,
"Invertebrate Zoology", 2004.

[2] From: Ruppert, Fox, Barnes,
''Invertebrate Zoology'',
2004. COPYRIGHTED
source: Ruppert, Fox, Barnes,
"Invertebrate Zoology", 2004.
533,000,000 YBN
343) The Lophotrochozoa Phylum Mollusca
evolves; Mollusks.

The phylum Mollusca is the second
largest animal phylum after the
arthropods, and is divided into seven
classes, three of which (Gastropoda
{GaSTroPeDu} (snails), Bivalvia (clams
and muscles), and Cephalopoda
{SeFeloPeDu} (squids and octupuses) are
of major importance.

The phylum name is derived from mollis,
meaning soft, referring to the soft
body within a hard calcareous shell.
Soft-bodied mollusks make extensive use
of ciliary and mucous mechanisms in
feeding, locomotion, and reproduction.
The Mollusca are a successful phylum
with probably over 110,000 living
species, more than double the number of
vertebrate species. More than 99% of
living molluscan species belong to two
classes: Gastropoda {GaSTroPeDu}
(snails) and Bivalvia (muscles and
clams). These two classes can make up a
dominant fraction of the animal biomass
in many natural communities, both
marine and fresh-water.

An early Cambrian fossil (Maikhanella)
has a shell made from individual plates
(sclerites {SKlR-ITS}) that are only
loosely fused together, and this
implies that over the course of
millions of years these plates fused
together to make the single, rigid
shell of modern mollusks.
Another early Cambrian
molusk fossil (Neopilina) has a mollusk
shell but still retains the
segmentation of its worm-like
ancestors.
 
[1] From: Ruppert, E.E., Fox, R.S.,
and Barnes, R.D. (2004). Invertebrate
Zoology (7 ed.). Brooks / Cole. pp.
284–291. ISBN 0030259827. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mol
lusca

[2] Description Clams Date
Source Own work Author
Marlith CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8f/Clams.JPG
530,000,000 YBN
338) The Lophotrochozoa Phylum Annelida
(segmented worms) evolves.

Annelids are various worms or wormlike
animals, characterized by an elongated,
cylindrical, segmented body and
includes the earthworm and leech.
 
[1] An earthworm's clitellum they have
a unique reproductive organ, the
ring-shaped clitellum (''pack saddle'')
round their bodies, which produces a
cocoon that stores and nourishes
fertilized eggs until they
hatch Description Regenwurm mit
Clitellum - (sattelförmige Verdickung
im vorderen Drittel).Das Sekret der
Clitellum-Drüsen dient u. a. zur
Bildung dieses Ei-Kokons. Français :
Ver de terre (Oligochaeta,
Lumbricina) Svenska: Daggmask
(Lumbricus spec.) Русский:
Дождевой червь (род
Лумбрикус) Date Source
first upload in de wikipedia on
09:58, 16. Feb 2005 by Michael
Linnenbach Author Michael
Linnenbach GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/30/Regenwurm1.jpg

[2] Figure from: Giribet, G. (2008).
Assembling the lophotrochozoan
(=spiralian) tree of life.
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society B: Biological Sciences , 363
(1496), 1513-1522. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2007.2241
http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/363/1496/1513 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://rstb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/363/1496/1513
530,000,000 YBN
339) The Ecdysozoa Phylum Arthropoda
evolves; the "Arthropods".

Arthropods can be compared to a
segmented worm encased in a rigid
exoskeleton.

The phylum Arthropoda is the largest
phylum in the animal kingdom.
Arthropods include the trilobites, the
crustaceans (shrimps, crabs, and
lobsters), the Myriapoda (centipedes
and millipedes), the Chelicerata
(arachnids and horseshoe crabs) and the
insects. All arthropods have a
segmented body covered by an
exoskeleton containing chitin, which
serves as both armor and as a surface
for muscle attachment.
 
[1] Extinct and modern
arthropods English: Arthropoda
collage. From left to right and from
top to bottom: Kolihapeltis,
Stylonurus, Scorpion, Crab, Centipede,
Butterfly CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/80/Arthropoda.jpg

[2] Figure from: Giribet, G. (2008).
Assembling the lophotrochozoan
(=spiralian) tree of life.
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society B: Biological Sciences , 363
(1496), 1513-1522. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2007.2241
http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/363/1496/1513 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://rstb.royalsociorg/content
/363/1496/1513
530,000,000 YBN
350) The Chordata Vertebrates evolve.
This Subphylum, Vertebrata, contains
most fishes, and all amphibians,
reptiles, mammals, and birds.

The characteristic features of the
Vertebrata are a vertebral column, or
backbone, and a cranium, which protects
the central nervous system (brain and
spinal cord) and major sense organs.
This earliest vertebrate skeleton is
made completely of cartilage.
 
[1] Description Lampetra
fluviatilis from the german
northsea Date 2004 Source
Germany Author
M.Buschmann Permission (Reusing
this file) Author is owner CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3f/Lampetra_fluviatilis.
jpg

[2] Description Clockwise,
starting from top left: 1. Fire
Salamander (Salamandra salamandra) 2.
Saltwater Crocodile (Crocodylus
porosus) 3. Southern Cassowary
(Casusarius casuarius) 4.
Black-and-rufus Giant Elephant Shrew
(Rhynchocyon petersi) 5. Ocean Sunfish
(Mola mola) Date CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/ec/Vertebrates.png
530,000,000 YBN
351) The extinct Vertebrates the
Conodonts {KO-nu-DoNTS} evolve.

Conodonts have no lower jaw, but have
calcified teeth positioned under
well-developed eyes.
 
[1] Kardong, ''Vertebrates'', 2002,
p86. COPYRIGHTED
source: Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002,
p86.

[2] From the Englich
Wikipedia Mateus Zica draw it with
macromedia flash 28 oct
2005 mateus zica 18:25, 28
October 2005
(UTC) PD AND Description English:
The inclusion of euconodonts in the
vertebrates, or even craniates, is
still controversial. Admittedly, the
tissue structure of the ''conodonts''
(i.e; the denticles situated in their
mouth; left) is at odds with
conventional vertebrate hard tissues.
Nevertheless, the eyes, body shape, and
tail stucture of the euconodonta are
strikingly vertebrate-like. After
Purnell et al. 1995 Date 30 November
2012, 03:32:10 Source Tree of Life
Web Project Author Philippe Janvier,
1997 CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2d/ConodontZICA.png
AND http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiped
ia/commons/3/33/Euconodonta.gif
530,000,000 YBN
6637) The Vertebrates Jawless fishes
evolve (agnatha).

The earliest extant jawless fishes, the
hagfishes evolve now. Hagfishes are
eel-like scavengers that feed on the
insides of dead or dying invertebrates
and other fishes. Ovaries and testes
occur in the same individual, but only
one is functional; so hagfishes are not
practicing hermaphrodites.
 
[1] Description English: Pacific
hagfish (Eptatretus stoutii) in a hole
at 150 meters depth. Latitude 37 58 N.,
Longitude 123 27 W. Location:
California, Cordell Bank National
Marine Sanctuary. Date Last Updated:
September 30, 2009. Source
http://www.photolib.noaa.gov/htmls/sanc
1692.htm
http://www.photolib.noaa.gov/bigs/sanc16
92.jpg Author Linda Snook, National
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
(NOAA) / Cordell Bank National Marine
Sanctuary (CBNMS) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Eptatretus_stou
tii.jpg/1280px-Eptatretus_stoutii.jpg

[2] Description Lampetra
fluviatilis from the german
northsea Date 2004 Source
Germany Author
M.Buschmann Permission (Reusing
this file) Author is owner CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3f/Lampetra_fluviatilis.
jpg
520,000,000 YBN
133) The Arthropod subphylum
Chelicerata (KeliSuroTo) evolves (eight
legs, ancestor of the horseshoe crabs,
sea spiders, and the Arachnids: mites,
spiders, and scorpions).
(sea spider fossils, Orsten)
Sweden 
[1] Description English: Horseshoe
crab dorsal and ventral Italiano:
Limulus polyphemus dorsale e
ventrale Date 10 April 2009 Source
Own work Author Ricce PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Limulo_dorsale_
e_ventrale.jpg/1280px-Limulo_dorsale_e_v
entrale.jpg

[2] taken from en:Image:Horseshoe crab
female.jpg Dead female horseshoe crab
from NOAA Photo Library: Image ID:
line2632, America's Coastlines
Collection Location: Patuxent River,
Maryland Photo Date: 2002 August
17 Photographer: Mary Hollinger,
NESDIS/NODC biologist, NOAA PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1b/Horseshoe_crab_female
.jpg
520,000,000 YBN
148) The earliest color vision evolves
in arthropods.

Vertebrates with color vision include:
some fishes and amphibians, many
reptiles and all birds, but only a few
mammals, humans and some other higher
primates, can see in color.
 
[1] Microphotograph of the multiple eye
of the trilobite Phacops, showing the
calcite lenses in the eye. PD
source: http://disc.sci.gsfc.nasa.gov/ed
ucation-and-outreach/additional/science-
focus/images/phacops_eye.jpg

[2] Description English: A
schizochroal [eye] of the trilobite
Phacops rana, eye dimensions 8mm across
by 5.5mm high, found near Sylvania,
Ohio, USA, from the Devonian Date 15
October 2011 Source Own work Author
Dwergenpaartje CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0f/Phacops_rana_crassitu
berculata_eye_3.jpg
520,000,000 YBN
346) The Deuterostome Phylum
Echinodermata evolves; the
"Echinoderms" (iKIniDRMS }, the
ancestor of the sea cucumbers, sea
urchins, sand dollars, and star fishes.
 
[1] Kachemak Bay National Estuarine
Research Reserve. A beautiful array of
starfish , sea urchins and mussel
shells in the rocky intertidal zone of
Kachemak Bay. Image ID: nerr0878,
NOAA National Estuarine Research
Reserve Collection from NOAA:
http://www.photolib.noaa.gov/nerr/nerr08
78.htm PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Nerr0878.jpg/10
24px-Nerr0878.jpg

[2] Description English: The first
in a sequence of three photos that show
a brittle star flipping itself
rightside-up. Date 1 May
2011 Source Own work Author
Alexcooper1 CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/A_brittle_star_
flipping_itself_rightside-up.jpg/1024px-
A_brittle_star_flipping_itself_rightside
-up.jpg
520,000,000 YBN
6349) The arthropods trilobites
evolve.

Trilobites are numerous extinct marine
arthropods of the Paleozoic Era.
Trilobites have a segmented body that
is divided by into three vertical
lobes.

There is a transition, after the
soft-bodied (unshelled) organisms of
the Ediacaran are the earliest small
cylindrical shells of Cloudina and
Sinotubulites in the Proterozoic, then
the clam-like shells of the brachiopods
in the Tommotian (Stage 2 of the Early
Cambrian) to the segmented calcite and
chitin shells of the trilobites in the
Atdabianian (Stage 3).

Trilobites are found as fossils
throughout the world.

One fossil arthropod, known as
aglaspids, may be related to both
trilobites and horseshoe crabs.
Horseshoe crabs are not true crabs, but
are members of the Chelicerata- a group
that includes spiders and scorpions.
True crabs are a family within the
Crustacea, a different group entirely.
So horseshoe crabs may be descended
from trilobites.
 
[1] example of earliest trilobites
(e.g., Fallotaspis longa) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.trilobites.info/biost
ratfallon.jpg

[2] Niles Eldredge, ''Trilobites and
Evolutionary Patterns'', p305-332 in
Anthony Hallam, ''Patterns of evolution
as illustrated by the fossil record,
Volume 5'', 1977,
p322. http://books.google.com/books?id=
q7GjDIyyWegC COPYRIGHTED
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=q7GjDIyyWegC
513,000,000 YBN
6351) The Arthropods Crustaceans evolve
(the ancestor of all shrimps, crabs,
lobsters, and barnicles).
(earliest fossils) Shropshire,
England 
[1] Canadaspis perfecta (ROM 61119) –
Part and counterpart. Complete specimen
showing phosphatized gut diverticulae
and posterior dark stain (probably
representing decay fluids), lateral
view. Left images, complete slab (part)
showing associated species; Yohoia
tenuis (bottom right), Waptia
fieldensis (left, partially covered by
a disarticulated carapace of
Canadaspis), Burgessia bella (far
left). Right images, details of the
counterpart. Specimen length = 72 mm.
Specimen dry – direct light (top
row), dry – polarized light (bottom
left), wet – polarized light (bottom
right). Walcott Quarry. © Royal
Ontario Museum. Photos: Jean-Bernard
Caron COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.burgess-shale.rom.on.
ca/images/zoomify/canadaspis-rom-61119.j
pg

[2] 3D model of Canadaspis
perfecta. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://burgess-shale.rom.on.ca/v
ideo/fossil-gallery/0b1-canadaspis-turnt
able.jpg
501,000,000 YBN
6348) The Arthropods Myriapoda
{mEREaPeDu} evolve; the ancestor of all
centipedes and millipedes.
(earliest possible fossils Marine
deposits)(Wheeler Formation) Utah, USA
and (Ust-Majan formation) East
Siberia|(earliest fossils) Shropshire,
England 
[1] Description Lithobius
forficatus Deutsch: Steinläufer Date
9 August 2005 Source Own
work Author Darkone CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/79/Steinl%C3%A4ufer_%28L
ithobius_forficatus%29_3.jpg

[2] Description Tachypodoiulus
niger Date 2007-06-28 Source Own
work Author Stemonitis CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Tachypodoiulus_
niger_1.jpg/1280px-Tachypodoiulus_niger_
1.jpg
488,300,000 YBN
121) The end of the Cambrian (542-488.3
mybn), and start of the Ordovician
{ORDiVisiN} (488.3-443.7 mybn) Period.
 
[1] Geologic Time Scale 2009 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.geosociety.org/scienc
e/timescale/timescl.pdf

[2] 500 Ma - Late Cambrian UNKNOWN
source: http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~rcb7/500
_Camb_2globes.jpg
488,000,000 YBN
6314) The Ordovician (ORDeVisiN}
radiation. During the Ordovician the
number of genera will quadruple.
 
[1] Recreation of life during the
Ordovician UNKNOWN
source: http://ferrebeekeeper.files.word
press.com/2010/11/ordovician.jpg

[2] A second peak time in the
abundance of shell-surviving life forms
was in the Upper Ordovician (by this
time also, the first larger
vertebrates, fossil fish, had
appeared). Below are two illustrations:
the first, an artist' conception of
marine invertebrate life in the late
Ordovician; the second, a typical slab
of Ordovician limestone (from Indiana)
containing the fossil types listed in
its caption: PD
source: http://rst.gsfc.nasa.gov/Sect20/
ordovicsea.jpg
488,000,000 YBN
6635) The extinct Jawless fishes
Ostracoderms {oS-Tru-KO-DRM} evolve.

The Ostracoderms are the first
vertebrates to have paired appendages,
an inner ear with two semicircular
canals, and bone, although almost
exclusively in the outer exoskeleton.
Most early ostracoderms are minnow
sized, not more than a few centimeters
in length. Bony plates are found on the
head and trunk.
 
[1] Kardong, ''Vertebrates'', 2002,
p86. COPYRIGHTED
source: Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002,
p86.

[2] Description English:
Arandaspis Date 10 October
2010 Source Own work Author Nobu
Tamura
(http://spinops.blogspot.com) CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/58/Arandaspis_NT.jpg
475,000,000 YBN
244) The non-vascular plants evolve,
Bryophyta {BrIoFiTo}, (the ancestor of
the Liverworts, Hornworts, and
Mosses).

The Bryophytes are the simplest land
plants, and reproduce with spores.

The Phylum Bryophyta contains green,
seedless land plants that contain at
least 18,000 species and are divided
into three classes: liverworts,
hornworts, and mosses. Bryophytes are
distinguished from vascular plants and
seed plants by the production of only
one spore-containing organ in their
spore-producing stage. Most bryophytes
are 2-5 cm (1-2 in.) tall. Bryophytes
are found throughout the surface of
earth, from polar regions to the
tropics, they are most abundant in
humid environments, though none is
marine. Bryophytes are extremely
tolerant of dry and freezing
conditions.
 
[1] Phaeoceros laevis (L.) Prosk. gnu
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Anthoceros_levis.jpg

[2] English: A closeup shot of moss on
a rock in Beacon Hill Park, Victoria,
Canada. Sony Alpha A100 Date 25
March 2007 Source Own
work Author KirinX at
en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) CC-BY-SA-2.5. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1c/Moss_closeup.jpg
475,000,000 YBN
398) Plants live on land. The earliest
fossil spores belonging to land plants.
These are also the earliest
non-vascular plant spores and look like
the spores of living liverworts.

Plants conquer land before animals do,
and like animals may move to land not
by sea but by freshwater.
Caradoc, Libya 
[1] Gray, J., Massa, D., & Boucot, A.
J. Caradocian land plant microfossils
from libya. Geology , April 1982, 10
(4), 197-201. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1130/0091-7613(1982
)10<197:CLPMFL>2.0.CO;2 http://geology.gsapubs.org/
content/10/4/197.abstract?sid=dadb8801-c
fd4-4eb4-b70e-95cb217113e4 {Gray_Jane_1
98204xx.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://geology.gsapubs.org/conte
nt/10/4/197.abstract?sid=dadb8801-cfd4-4
eb4-b70e-95cb217113e4

[2] Phaeoceros laevis (L.) Prosk. gnu

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Anthoceros_levis.jpg
472,000,000 YBN
402) The first animals live on land,
the arthropods Myriapoda (centipedes
and millipedes).
(earliest arthropod tracks) Kingston,
Ontario, Canada 
[1] Figure 4. Field photographs of
representative trackways. Scale bars
represent 5 cm. A: Trackway with
central drag and well-defined appendage
marks. Bottom surface. B: Trackway with
central drag and poorly defined
appendage marks. Top surface. Surface
dips to top of photograph; note downdip
offset of central drag. C: Robust
trackway with well-developed appendage
marks and no central drag. Note
push-ups of sand (arrows) associated
with appendage impressions. Figure 4
from: MacNaughton, Robert B., Jennifer
M. Cole, Robert W. Dalrymple, Simon J.
Braddy, Derek E.G. Briggs, and Terrence
D. Lukie. “First Steps on Land:
Arthropod Trackways in
Cambrian-Ordovician Eolian Sandstone,
Southeastern Ontario, Canada.”
Geology 30, no. 5 (May 2002): 391
–394. http://geology.geoscienceworld.
org/citmgr?gca=geology;30/5/391 COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://geology.geoscienceworld.o
rg/citmgr?gca=geology;30/5/391

[2] Figure 2 from: Heather M. Wilson
and Lyall I. Anderson, ''Morphology and
Taxonomy of Paleozoic Millipedes
(Diplopoda: Chilognatha: Archipolypoda)
from Scotland'', Journal of
Paleontology, Vol. 78, No. 1 (Jan.,
2004), pp.
169-184 http://www.jstor.org/stable/409
4847 {Anderson_Lyall_200401xx.pdf} COP
YRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/4094
847?&Search=yes&searchText=MILLIPEDES&se
archText=TAXONOMY&searchText=MORPHOLOGY&
searchText=PALEOZOIC&list=hide&searchUri
=%2Faction%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuery%3DMOR
PHOLOGY%2BAND%2BTAXONOMY%2BOF%2BPALEOZOI
C%2BMILLIPEDES%26acc%3Don%26wc%3Don&prev
Search=&item=2&ttl=43&returnArticleServi
ce=showFullText
470,000,000 YBN
234) The non-vascular plants Hornworts
evolve.
 
[1] Phaeoceros laevis (L.) Prosk. gnu
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Anthoceros_levis.jpg

[2] Image of Phaeoceros (hornwort)
spores taken by J. Ziffer. public
domain
source: wiki
465,000,000 YBN
6636) The Jawless fishes lamprays
evolve.
 
[1] Description Lampetra
fluviatilis from the german
northsea Date 2004 Source
Germany Author
M.Buschmann Permission (Reusing
this file) Author is owner CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3f/Lampetra_fluviatilis.
jpg

[2] Fossil Ostracoderms.
Representatives of three extinct
groups. The head armor is especially
well developed in Hemicyclaspis, an
ostracoderm of the ''Cephalapsis''
type, in which the head is flattened
and expanded into a large
filter-feeding basket. Ostracoderms
lacked the paired (pectoral and pelvic)
fins of more advanced fish. In some
cases, small spines were present at the
points where paired fins develop in
higher fishes. In Hemicyclaspis, one
sees a pair of anterior, flipper-like
structures in lieu of pectoral fins.
From Romer, A. S. 1964. The Vertebrate
Body. W. B. Saunders.
Philadelphia. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.blc.arizona.edu/cours
es/schaffer/182/Vertebrates/Ostracoderms
.jpg
460,000,000 YBN
235) The non-vasular plants Mosses
evolve.
 
[1] A moss covered log. Photo by sannse
at Mistley, England. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mos
s

[2] life cycle of
moss ladyofhats public domain
source: same
460,000,000 YBN
353) Jawed vertebrates evolve,
Gnathostomata {no toST omoTo}. This
large group includes all jawed fishes,
amphibians, reptiles, mammals, and
birds.

Jawed fishes have a skeleton made
completely of cartilage. Only the teeth
become ossified when mineral crystals,
mostly calcium phosphate, become
integrated into them.

The jaw evolves from parts of the gill
skeleton.
Oceans 
[1] Image from: Palmer, D. The
Marshall Illustrated Encyclopedia of
Dinosaurs & Prehistoric Animals: A
Comprehensive Color Guide to Over 500
Species. New Line Books,
2002. COPYRIGHTED
source: Palmer, D. The Marshall
Illustrated Encyclopedia of Dinosaurs &
Prehistoric Animals: A Comprehensive
Color Guide to Over 500 Species. New
Line Books, 2002.

[2] Kardong, ''Vertebrates'', Third
Edition, 2002. COPYRIGHTED
source: Kardong, "Vertebrates", Third
Edition, 2002.
460,000,000 YBN
404) The Jawed fishes Class
Chondrichthyes {KoN-DriK-tE-EZ} evolves
(Cartilaginous fishes: ancestor of all
sharks, rays, skates, and sawfishes).

Chondrichthyes has two subclasses: the
Elasmobranchii {elaZmOBrANKEE or I} and
the Holocephali {HoloSeFolE or I}.
 
[1] Richard Dawkins, ''The Ancestor's
Tale'', (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p360-363. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p360-363.

[2] Miller, Randall F., Richard
Cloutier, and Susan Turner. “The
Oldest Articulated Chondrichthyan from
the Early Devonian Period.” Nature
425.6957 (2003): 501–504. Web. 23 May
2012. http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v425/n6957/full/nature02001.html {M
iller_Chondrichthyans_2003.pdf} COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v425/n6957/full/nature02001.html {
Miller_Chondrichthyans_2003.pdf}
460,000,000 YBN
458) The earliest fungi on land. The
ancestor of all terrestrial fungi (the
Glomeromycota, Ascomycota, and
Basidiomycota).
 
[1] Earliest Glomerales fossil fig 1
from: Redecker D, Kodner R, Graham LE.
(2000). ''Glomalean fungi from the
Ordovician''. Science 289 (5486):
1920–21. Bibcode 2000Sci...289.1920R.
doi:10.1126/science.289.5486.1920. PMID
10988069. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3
077684 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3077
684

[2] Phylogenetic tree from: Richard
Dawkins, ''The Ancestor's Tale'',
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004), p511. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p511.
460,000,000 YBN
6414) The Fungi Phylum "Glomeromycota"
{GlO-mi-rO-mI-KO-Tu} evolves
(arbuscular {oRBuSKYUlR} mycorrhizal
{MIKerIZL} fungi).

Glomeromycota are also know by their
class name Glomeromycetes
{GlO-mi-rO-mI-SETS}

Although the Glomeromycota comprise a
group of fungi mostly unknown to the
public, they are essential for
terrestrial ecosystem function. Members
of this group are mutualistic symbionts
that form arbuscular (pertaining to
shrub-like trees) mycorrhizal
associations (mycorrhiza are the
product
of a close association between the
mycelium, branched, tubular filaments
or hyphae, of a fungus and the roots of
plants) intracellularly within the
roots of the vast majority of
herbaceous plants and tropical trees.
This type of symbiosis is termed
mutualistic because the fungus and host
plant both benefit from this intimate
association. The fungal symbiont
receives carbohydrates from the plant
in exchange for functioning as an
extended root system, thereby
dramatically improving mineral uptake
by the plant roots.
Wisconsin 
[1] Gigaspora margarita in association
with Lotus corniculatus Description
Lotus corniculatus var. japonicus
kolonisiert durch Gigaspora
margarita Date 18 September
2007 Source Own work Author
Mike Guether GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Gigaspora_marga
rita.JPG/1024px-Gigaspora_margarita.JPG

[2] germinating Gigaspora decipiens
source: http://pages.unibas.ch/bothebel/
people/redecker/ff/glomero.htm
445,000,000 YBN
90) The end-Ordovician mass extinction.
This is caused by an ice age. 60% of
all genera are observed extinct.

This is the first of five mass
extinctions in the Phanerozoic.

About 85% of marine species die.

Many species go extinct, mostly
trilobites, echinoderms, corals,
nautiloids, brachiopods, graptolites,
conodonts, and acritarchs.
 
[1] NOAA Photo Library Image -
corp1440 Flying over a huge glacier
on the way to McMurdo Station
Image ID: corp1440, NOAA At The Ends of
the Earth Collection Location:
Antarctica Photographer: Mr. Fred
Walton, NOAA Category:
Antarctica/McMurdo/Glacier/ PD
source: http://www.photolib.noaa.gov/big
s/corp1440.jpg

[2] Image of object impact with
Earth UNKNOWN
source: http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-u1aaDd
JP2M0/Tj0QtfwPQQI/AAAAAAAAAbk/3SpkL8NCec
w/s1600/asteroid-impact.jpg
443,700,000 YBN
122) The end of the Ordovician
(488.3-443.7 mybn), and the start of
the Silurian (443.7-416) Period.
 
[1] Geologic Time Scale 2009 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.geosociety.org/scienc
e/timescale/timescl.pdf

[2] 450 Ma - Late Ordovician UNKNOWN
source: http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~rcb7/450
_Ord_3globes.jpg
440,000,000 YBN
236) The Vascular plants evolve, the
Phylum Tracheophyta {TrAKEoFiTu}.

Vascular plants have a specialized
conducting system consisting mostly of
phloem (food-conducting tissue) and
xylem (water-conducting tissue),
collectively called vascular tissue.
The phloem transports sugar and the
xylem transports water and salts.
Ferns, gymnosperms, and flowering
plants are all vascular plants. In
contrast to the nonvascular bryophytes,
where the gametophyte is the dominant
phase, the dominant phase among
vascular plants is the sporophyte.
Because they have vascular tissues,
these plants have true stems, leaves,
and roots, modifications of which
enable species of vascular plants to
survive in a variety of habitats under
diverse, even extreme, environmental
conditions. This ability to flourish in
so many different habitats is the
primary reason that vascular plants
have become dominant among terrestrial
plants.

The earliest spores of vascular plants
date to now.
 
[1] Description Equisetum telmateia
(Equisetopsida) at Cambridge Botanic
Garden Date 18 May 2008 Source Own
work Author Rror Other versions
Derivative works of this file:
species on earth.jpg GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/7c/Equisetopsida.jpg

[2] Fig. 2. Chronogram showing
estimates of phylogenetic relationships
and divergence times among the major
groups of extant land plants. The
estimate of relationships is
synthesized from the following papers
in this issue: Burleigh and Mathews
(2004) , Pryer et al. (2004) , Shaw and
Renzaglia (2004) , and Soltis and
Soltis (2004) . Divergence time
estimates are mostly based on analyses
of molecular data with fossil
constraints (Wikström et al., 2001 ;
Pryer et al., 2004 ) and are augmented
by fossil evidence (Kenrick and Crane,
1997 ; Wellman et al., 2003 ).
Estimates of the number of species in
each group are from Judd et al. (2002)
and W. S. Judd (personal
communication). Groups covered by a
particular article in this special
issue are circled and connected to the
names of the article's authors. ''Other
conifers'' refers to the clade
consisting of all conifers except for
Pinaceae (see Burleigh and Mathews,
2004 ). ''Lepto. ferns'' refers to
leptosporangiate ferns fig 2
from: Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, ''The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view'', American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
http://www.amjbot.org/content/91/10/14
37.full {Chase_Mark_2004.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.amjbot.org/content/91
/10/1437/F2.large.jpg
440,000,000 YBN
360) The Jawed fishes Class
Osteichthyes {oS TE iK tE EZ}) evolves;
Bony fishes, the ancestor of the
ray-finned, lobe-fin, and lung fishes.

Bony-fishes have a skeleton that is at
least partly ossified or made of bone.

The bony fishes are the ancestors of
the tetrapods who will ultimately move
onto land.

The earliest bony fishes are the
ray-finned fishes. The name ray is
because their fins have a skeleton
similar to a handheld fan.

Other features include, in most
species, a swim bladder (an air-filled
sac to give buoyancy), gill covers over
the gill chamber, bony plate-like
scales, a skull with sutures, and
external fertilization of eggs.

Most of the ray-finned fish are known
as teleosts, a very successful
evolutionary line that exist in both
salt and freshwater.
Ocean and fresh water 
[1] Adapted from: Richard Dawkins,
''The Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p339. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p339.

[2] A sturgeon
(pt:esturjāo). esturgeon noir
d'Amérique (Acipenser oxyrinchus
oxyrinchus) http://images.fws.gov/ PD

source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c2/Sturgeon2.jpg
440,000,000 YBN
6172) The first lung evolves from the
swim bladder in ray-finned fishes. Some
teleosts still use their swim bladder
for breathing out of water. Fishes that
breathe with a lung evolve breathing
through a completely different route
than fishes that breathe air through
their gill chamber.
Ocean (presumably) 
[1] Image from: Palmer, D. The
Marshall Illustrated Encyclopedia of
Dinosaurs & Prehistoric Animals: A
Comprehensive Color Guide to Over 500
Species. New Line Books,
2002. COPYRIGHTED
source: Palmer, D. The Marshall
Illustrated Encyclopedia of Dinosaurs &
Prehistoric Animals: A Comprehensive
Color Guide to Over 500 Species. New
Line Books, 2002.

[2] Earliest fish with lung in
existance?[t] Nile Bichir (Polypterus
bichir bichir) from Günther, A.C.L.G.,
1880. An introduction to the study of
fishes. Today & Tomorrow's Book Agency,
New Delhi. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e8/Nile_bichir.png
425,000,000 YBN
377) The Jawed fishes, Lobe-fin fishes
evolve. Lobe-fin fishes have a fleshy
lobe at the base of each fin. The
earliest extant Lobe-fin fishes, the
coelacanths evolve now. There are 2
living species of coelacanths known.
 
[1] Description Preserved
specimen of chalumnae (Also known as
Coelacanth [1]) in the Natural History
Museum, Vienna, Austria. Believed
to have been extinct for 70 million
years, this specimen was caught the 18
October of 1974, next to
Salimani/Selimani (Grande Comore,
Comoros Islands) 11°48′40.7″S
43°16′3.3″E Length: 170 cm -
Weight: 60 kg Obtained by stiching
3 HiRes images and removing the
background with image
post-processing. Date August
2007 Source Own work Author
Alberto Fernandez Fernandez GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/fa/Latimeria_Chalumnae_-
_Coelacanth_-_NHMW.jpg
425,000,000 YBN
401) The earliest fossil vascular
plants, Cooksonia.
(Wenlock strata) Devilsbit Mountain
district of County Tipperary,
Ireland 
[1] Cooksonia pertoni with three
sporangia. Height of the plant 2.5
cm Pridolian (Upper
Silurian) Shropshire, England.
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.xs4all.nl/~steurh/eng
cook/ecookwal.html

[2] Cooksonia pertoni, fossilised
plant COPYRIGHTED UK
source: http://owen.nhm.ac.uk/piclib/web
images/0/0/900/936_sml.jpg
420,000,000 YBN
6350) The Arthropods Hexapods
(arthropods with six legs {3 pairs},
the ancestor of all insects).
The closest
relative of the Hexapoda is most likely
the Branchiopoda, the brine shrimps and
their
allies.
(Rhynie chert) Scotland 
[1] Description Protura specimen,
taken under stereo microscope (40x).
Acerentomon sp. Date 7 December 2008,
03:13 Source Protura Uploaded
by Richard001 Author Gregor
?nidar CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/bc/Protura_specimen_(Ace
rentomon_species)_micrograph.jpg

[2] Description English: Campodea
staphylinus, a dipluran. Photo by
Michel Vuijlsteke. Taken on May 9, 2006
at 4.09pm CEST in Gent, Belgium. Date
2007-07-08 (original upload
date) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia Author Original uploader
was Mvuijlst at
en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2e/Diplura.jpg
418,000,000 YBN
6431) The Chelicerata Class Arachnida
{araK-niDe} evolves (the Arachnids: the
ancestor of all scorpions, spiders,
mites and ticks).
("Bertie Waterlime" of) NY, USA 
[1] Description Proscorpius osborni
fossil. The Eurypterida of New York.
Volume 2. New York State Museum Memoir
14, plate 88 Date 1912 Source
California/Google Books Author John
Mason Clarke (1857-1925) and Rudolf
Ruedemann (1864-1956) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/15/The_Eurypterida_of_Ne
w_York_plate_88.jpg

[2] Description The Eurypterida of
New York. Volume 1. New York State
Museum Memoir 14, figure 81-83 Date
1912 Source Google Books Author
John Mason Clarke (1857-1925) and
Rudolf Ruedemann (1864-1956) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/ef/The_Eurypterida_of_Ne
w_York_figure_81-83.jpg
417,000,000 YBN
378) The Lobefin fishes, Lungfishes
evolve.

There are only six species of lungfish
alive today. The Australian lungfish
has a single lung, the others have two.
The African and South American species
bury themselves in mud during the dry
season, breathing air through a little
breathing hole in the mud.
 
[1] Description English: Australian
lungfish (Neoceratodus forsteri) Date
Source Picure taken by Tannin
(from English wikipedia) Author
User:Tannin GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/61/Australian-Lungfish.j
pg

[2] Description English: Lateral
view of lungs of a dissected
Protopterus dolloi Date
2007ish (15 February 2009
(original upload date)) Source
Transferred from
en.wikipedia (Original text : Photo
from lab dissection at U. of
Cincinnati) Author Mokele (talk).
Original uploader was Mokele at
en.wikipedia GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/ae/Lungs_of_Protopterus_
dolloi.JPG
416,000,000 YBN
123) The end of the Silurian (443.7-416
mybn), and start of the Devonian
{DiVONEiN} (416-359.2 mybn) Period.
 
[1] Geologic Time Scale 2009 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.geosociety.org/scienc
e/timescale/timescl.pdf

[2] 430 Ma - Early Silurian UNKNOWN
source: http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~rcb7/430
_Silurian_2globes.jpg
416,000,000 YBN
6352) The Hexapod Class Insecta
evolves: the insects.

The insects are the most diverse
organisms known, having nearly one
million named species, which is over
half of all named species on Earth.

Like other arthropods, an insect has a
hard outer covering, or exoskeleton
made of chitin, a segmented body, and
jointed legs. Adult insects typically
have wings and are the only flying
invertebrates. The body of the typical
adult insect is divided into three
distinct parts, the head, thorax, and
abdomen. The head bears three pairs of
mouthparts, one pair of compound eyes,
three simple eyes (ocelli), and one
pair of jointed sensory antennae. The
thorax is divided into three segments,
each with a pair of jointed legs, and
usually two pairs of wings. The abdomen
has posterior appendages associated
with reproduction. Insects breathe
through a complex network of air tubes
(tracheae) that open to the outside
through a series of small valved
apertures (spiracles) along the sides
of the body. The simple circulatory
system is composed of a tubular heart
that pumps blood forward into the head,
from which it diffuses through the
tissues and back into the heart. The
aquatic larvae of many insects breathe
by means of external gills; some very
primitive species breathe directly
through the body wall.

The most primitive living insect Order
Archaeognatha, the Bristletails evolve
now.
 
[1] Description Français : Groupe
de Petrobius maritimus sur falaise
supralittorale, Toull ar C'Hrabanoù,
Goulien, Finistère, Bretagne,
France Date 2 June 2010 Source Own
work Author Jymm PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a4/Petrobius_maritimus_2
010-06-02.jpg

[2] Description Archaeognatha:
Machilidae, collected from Anglesey,
UK Date 2006-12-28 Source Own work
(own photo) Author
User:Stemonitis Permission (Reusing
this file) CC Attribution
ShareAlike 2.5 CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/42/Archaeognatha.jpg
415,000,000 YBN
6427) Early vascular plants
zosterophylls {ZoS-Te-rO-FiLZ}.
 
[1] Description English: Fossil of
Zosterophyllum an extinct plant Date
Aug 2010 - Museum Mensch und Natur,
Munchen Source Own work Author
Ghedoghedo CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Zosterophyllum.
JPG/1280px-Zosterophyllum.JPG

[2] Description Sawdonia ornata.
Collected from the Lower Devonian
Battery Point formation (Emsian stage
of Quebec), from cliffs between
D'algvillon and seql rock, by Dianne
Edwards. Date 2008-01-26, transfer to
commons 21 June 2008 Source
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Sawd
onia_ornata.jpg Author Verisimilus
T GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Sawdonia_ornata
.jpg/1280px-Sawdonia_ornata.jpg
410,000,000 YBN
6354) Early arachnids: Trigonotarbids.
(Rhynie chert) Scotland 
[1] {ULSF: Note that this is not a
fossil from Rhnie Chert} Pleophrynus
ensifer ISM 14873 Pleophrynus is a
member of an extinct group of arachnids
called trigonotarbids. These
spider-like animals probably lived on
land. This specimen is the
holotype. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.museum.state.il.us/ex
hibits/mazon_creek/images/pleophrynus1.j
pg AND
http://www.museum.state.il.us/exhibits
/mazon_creek/images/pleophrynus2.jpg

[2] Fig 1 from: M. F. Claridge & A.
G. Lyon (1961). ''Lung-books in the
Devonian Palæocharinidae
(Arachnida)''. Nature 191 (4794):
1190–1191.
doi:10.1038/1911190b0 http://www.nature
.com/nature/journal/v191/n4794/abs/19111
90b0.html COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v191/n4794/abs/1911190b0.html
410,000,000 YBN
6363) The Insect Order Zygentoma
{ZIGeNTOmu} evolves: Silverfish.

Dicondylic insects (insects in which
the mandible has two points of
articulation with the head instead of
one). Ancestor of Insect Order
Zygentoma (Silverfish). Silverfish and
all pterygota (winged insects) have
dicondylic mandibles.
 
[1] Thysanura is an order of insects,
encompassing silverfish and
firebrats, Description
Silberfischchen, Lepisma
saccharina Date Source from the
http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bild:Silber
fischchen.jpg German wiki; taken with
Canon EOS 300D Author Sebastian
Stabinger GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/54/Silberfischchen.jpg

[2] Image from: David A. Grimaldi,
Michael S. Engel, ''Evolution of the
Insects'', 2005, p144. COPYRIGHTED
source: David A. Grimaldi, Michael S.
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p146
410,000,000 YBN
6428) Early vascular plants lycophytes
{lIKe-FITS} and trimerophytes
{Tri-mER-e-FITS}.
 
[1] Baragwanathia fosili UNKNOWN
source: http://www.biltek.tubitak.gov.tr
/bilgipaket/jeolojik/Fanerozoik/Paleozoi
k/Siluriyen/Baragwanathia.jpg

[2] Description English: An
artificial model of the extinct early
club moss genus Barahwanathia at the
Melbourne Museum. Date 25 March
2012 Source Own work Author
Canley CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Baragwanathia_a
rtificial_model.jpg/1280px-Baragwanathia
_artificial_model.jpg
400,000,000 YBN
227) The largest Fungi phylum
"Ascomycota" {aS-KO-mI-KO-Tu} evolves
(the ancestor of yeasts, truffles,
Penicillium, and morels {mu-reLZ}).

There are 47,000 described Ascomycota
species.

The Ascomycota, or sac fungi, accounts
for approximately 75% of all described
fungi. It includes most of the fungi
that combine with algae to form
lichens, and the majority of fungi that
lack morphological evidence of sexual
reproduction.

The shared derived character that
defines the Ascomycota is the ascus. It
is within the ascus that nuclear fusion
and meiosis take place. In the ascus,
one round of mitosis typically follows
meiosis to leave eight nuclei, and
eventually eight ascospores.
(Rhynie chert) Aberdeenshire,
Scotland 
[1] white truffle
cutted photographed by
myself GNU head Permission is
granted to copy, distribute and/or
modify this document under the terms of
the GNU Free Documentation License,
Version 1.2 or any later version
published by the Free Software
Foundation; with no Invariant Sections,
no Front-Cover Texts, and no Back-Cover
Texts. A copy of the license is
included in the section entitled ''Text
of the GNU Free Documentation
License.''
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/fd/Truffle_washed_and_cu
tted.jpg

[2] EColi-Scerevisiae.jpg (50KB, MIME
type: image/jpeg) Wikimedia Commons
logo This is a file from the Wikimedia
Commons. The description on its
description page there is shown
below. Escherichia coli (little
forms) & Saccharomyces cerevisiae (big
forms) by MEB Public domain This file
has been released into the public
domain by the copyright holder, its
copyright has expired, or it is
ineligible for copyright. This applies
worldwide. brewer's yeast/baker's
yeast
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:EColi-Scerevisiae.jpg
400,000,000 YBN
237) The Vascular plants ferns evolve
(the ancestor of club mosses, ferns and
horsetails).

Ferns are flowerless, seedless vascular
plants that have roots, stems, and
fronds (the leaf-like part of a fern),
and reproduce by spores.

There are around 12,000 species of
Ferns. The life cycle is characterized
by an alternation of generations
between the mature, fronded form (the
sporophyte) familiar in greenhouses and
gardens and the form that strongly
resembles a moss or liverwort (the
gametophyte).
 
[1] Fig. 2. Chronogram showing
estimates of phylogenetic relationships
and divergence times among the major
groups of extant land plants. The
estimate of relationships is
synthesized from the following papers
in this issue: Burleigh and Mathews
(2004) , Pryer et al. (2004) , Shaw and
Renzaglia (2004) , and Soltis and
Soltis (2004) . Divergence time
estimates are mostly based on analyses
of molecular data with fossil
constraints (Wikström et al., 2001 ;
Pryer et al., 2004 ) and are augmented
by fossil evidence (Kenrick and Crane,
1997 ; Wellman et al., 2003 ).
Estimates of the number of species in
each group are from Judd et al. (2002)
and W. S. Judd (personal
communication). Groups covered by a
particular article in this special
issue are circled and connected to the
names of the article's authors. ''Other
conifers'' refers to the clade
consisting of all conifers except for
Pinaceae (see Burleigh and Mathews,
2004 ). ''Lepto. ferns'' refers to
leptosporangiate ferns fig 2
from: Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, ''The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view'', American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
http://www.amjbot.org/content/91/10/14
37.full {Chase_Mark_2004.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.amjbot.org/content/91
/10/1437/F2.large.jpg

[2] Fig. 2. Chronogram showing
estimates of phylogenetic relationships
and divergence times among the major
groups of extant land plants. The
estimate of relationships is
synthesized from the following papers
in this issue: Burleigh and Mathews
(2004) , Pryer et al. (2004) , Shaw and
Renzaglia (2004) , and Soltis and
Soltis (2004) . Divergence time
estimates are mostly based on analyses
of molecular data with fossil
constraints (Wikström et al., 2001 ;
Pryer et al., 2004 ) and are augmented
by fossil evidence (Kenrick and Crane,
1997 ; Wellman et al., 2003 ).
Estimates of the number of species in
each group are from Judd et al. (2002)
and W. S. Judd (personal
communication). Groups covered by a
particular article in this special
issue are circled and connected to the
names of the article's authors. ''Other
conifers'' refers to the clade
consisting of all conifers except for
Pinaceae (see Burleigh and Mathews,
2004 ). ''Lepto. ferns'' refers to
leptosporangiate ferns fig 2
from: Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, ''The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view'', American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
http://www.amjbot.org/content/91/10/14
37.full {Chase_Mark_2004.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.amjbot.org/content/91
/10/1437/F2.large.jpg
400,000,000 YBN
436) The Cartilaginous fishes Subclass:
"Elasmobranchii" {elaZmOBrANKEE or I}
evolve, (the ancestor of sharks,
dogfishes, skates and rays).

The elasmobranchs evolve during the
early Devonian, some 400 million years
ago, and sharks have changed little
over this time. Sharks diversify into
many forms in the Carboniferous, and
after a period of decline, have a
second burst of evolution in the
Jurassic, when most of the modern
groups appear. The skates, rays, and
sawfishes evolve in the Early Jurassic,
some 200 million years after sharks.
 
[1] Richard Dawkins, ''The Ancestor's
Tale'', (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p361. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p361.

[2] Grey reef shark (Carcharhinus
amblyrhynchos) Description Un
gran tiburón surcando aguas
oceánicas. Date 14 March
2004 Source Original image:
Carcharhinus-amblyrynchos.jpg by
Fbattail at fr.wikipedia, March 14,
2004 cropped image:
Greyreefsharksmall.jpg by Chris huh at
en.wikipedia, August 29. 2006
Transfered to Commons by Harryemi,
September 21, 2008 Author
original author is Fbattail , the
image is cropped by Chris huh GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/bb/Tibur%C3%B3n.jpg
395,000,000 YBN
6429) The Green Algae Charophytes
evolve (Stoneworts).
 
[1] Description English: The
stoneworts alga Chara globularis (Syn.:
Chara fragilis; Characeae). Deutsch:
Habitus der Zerbrechlichen
Armleuchteralge (Chara globularis;
Syn.: Chara fragilis). Bild mit
Flachbettscanner angefertigt. Date
October 2005 Source Own work.
Location: North-eastern Lower Saxony,
Germany. Author Christian Fischer CC

source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/cf/CharaFragilis.jpg

[2] Description English: The
stoneworts alga Chara globularis (Syn.:
Chara fragilis; Characeae). Deutsch:
Habitus der Zerbrechlichen
Armleuchteralge (Chara globularis;
Syn.: Chara fragilis); drapiert in
einem mit Wasser gefüllten Teller und
senkrecht von oben fotografiert. Diese
Art ist die wohl häufigste
Armleuchteralge in Deutschland (bei
regionalen Unterschieden) – die
meisten anderen Arten stehen auf der
Roten Liste, einige sind extrem
selten. Date 2 July 2011 Source Own
work. Location: North-eastern Lower
Saxony, Germany. Author Christian
Fischer CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/CharaGlobularis
.jpg/833px-CharaGlobularis.jpg
395,000,000 YBN
6430) The earliest fungi lichen
{lIKiN}.

A lichen is a fungus, usually of the
class Ascomycetes {aSKOmISETS}, that
grows symbiotically with algae and
cyanobacteria, resulting in a composite
organism that characteristically forms
a crustlike or branching growth on
rocks or tree trunks.

Because lichens can colonize and make
cracks in rock, they may have
contributed to the formation of the
first soils.

Lichens have a planet-wide distribution
and thrive in some of the Earth's
harshest environments, such as polar
regions, deserts, and high mountains.
 
[1] Xanthoparmelia cf. lavicola, a
foliose lichen, on basalt.
Photograph of lichen on basalt taken at
Ulupo, Kailua, O'ahu, Hawai'i by Eric
Guinther (Marshman at en.wikipedia) and
released under the GNU Free
Documentation License. first
upload en.wikipedia 23:52, 23 September
2003 . . Marshman (185124 bytes)
(Lichen photograph) GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2c/Lichen_squamulose.jpg


[2] Fig 1 from: Taylor, T. N. et al.
“The Oldest Fossil Lichen.” Nature
378.6554 (1995):
244–244. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v378/n6554/abs/378244a0.html C
OPYRIGHTED
source: Taylor, T. N. et al. “The
Oldest Fossil Lichen.” Nature
378.6554 (1995):
244–244. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v378/n6554/abs/378244a0.html
392,000,000 YBN
359) The Cartilaginous fishes
Infraclass: "Selachii" {SelAKEE or I}
evolves, (the ancestor of all sharks:
includes great white, hammerhead, mako,
tiger and nurse sharks).
 
[1] Richard Dawkins, ''The Ancestor's
Tale'', (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p361. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p361.

[2] Grey reef shark (Carcharhinus
amblyrhynchos) Description Un
gran tiburón surcando aguas
oceánicas. Date 14 March
2004 Source Original image:
Carcharhinus-amblyrynchos.jpg by
Fbattail at fr.wikipedia, March 14,
2004 cropped image:
Greyreefsharksmall.jpg by Chris huh at
en.wikipedia, August 29. 2006
Transfered to Commons by Harryemi,
September 21, 2008 Author
original author is Fbattail , the
image is cropped by Chris huh GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/bb/Tibur%C3%B3n.jpg
392,000,000 YBN
437) The Cartilaginous fishes Subclass:
"Holocephali" {HoloSeFolE or I}
evolves, (the ancestor of the chimaeras
{KiMERoZ} also called rabbit-fishes or
ratfishes).
 
[1] Description Spotted ratfish
(Hydrolagus colliei) observed off Pt
Pinos during a sanctuary seafloor
monitoring survey using the Delta
submersible. Date 13 August
2004 Source
http://www.mbnms-simon.org/other/photos
/photo_info.php?photoID=1307 Author
Linda Snook /
MBNMS Permission (Reusing this file)
All SIMoN photos and video are in
the public domain and CANNOT be
copyrighted. Although at present, no
fee is charged for using the media.
Credit MUST be given to the
photographer or other source as stated
with the photo metadata. [1] PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f9/Hydrolagus_colliei.jp
g

[2] Richard Dawkins, ''The Ancestor's
Tale'', (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p361. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p361.
386,000,000 YBN
406) The Arachnids Spiders evolve.
(Givetian of) Gilboa, New York 
[1] Fig. 1. Attercopus fimbriunguis,
Devonian of New York (localities: G,
Gilboa; SM, South Mountain), macerated
from matrix with HF and slide-mounted.
(A) First-described “spinneret,” G
334.1b.34; darkness of cuticle reflects
number of layers, so this fragment is
folded over twice. (B) Palpal femur, SM
1.11.12; arrow indicates patch of
distinctive spinules. (C) Piece of
cuticle from corner of opisthosomal
ventral plate showing setae, spigots,
and possible silk strand, SM 1.11.4.
(D) Close-up of E showing possible silk
strand emerging from spigot shaft, SM
1.11.4. (E) Flagellar structure with 12
segments (including possible
distalmost) from original Gilboa
locality; segments show distal collars
and setae, G 334.1a.4. (F) Close-up of
cheliceral fang showing a number of
holes (arrowed), the most distal of
which had been interpreted as a
venom-gland opening, G 329.22.9. (Scale
bars: 0.5 mm, except F, 0.25 mm.)
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.pnas.org/content/105/
52/20781/F1.large.jpg

[2] Permarachne novokshonovi, Permian
of Russia, from the Kungurian
c276mybn UNKNOWN
source: http://media.tumblr.com/tumblr_l
y6ahnZoxc1qgxyxw.jpg
385,000,000 YBN
405) The first forests. The earliest
large tree fossils.

The first progymnosperms (treelike
plants), like Archaeopteris.
Gilboa, New York, USA 
[1] a, General view of the crown
portion, showing longitudinal ranks of
branch bases on the trunk proximally,
and attached branches with digitate
ramification and speckled surface
pattern distally. Scale bar, 20 cm. b,
Line drawing of the specimen as
recovered including trunk and crown;
the box shows the portion in a, and the
arrow indicates the branch in c. Scale
bar, 10 cm. c, Close-up of a distal
branch showing speckled texture and
lateral appendages. Scale bar, 20
mm. figure 1 from: William E. Stein1,
Frank Mannolini2, Linda VanAller
Hernick2, Ed Landing2 & Christopher M.
Berry3, ''Giant cladoxylopsid trees
resolve the enigma of the Earth's
earliest forest stumps at Gilboa'',
Nature 446, 904-907 (19 April
2007) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v446/n7138/full/nature05705.html CO
PYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v446/n7138/images/nature05705-f1.2.
jpg

[2] a, Composite image of large trunk
specimen, a cast with upper and lower
counterparts, NYSM 17040. Arrows at the
distal end (top) correspond to the
region in Fig. 3a; arrows at the
proximal end (bottom) correspond to the
region in Fig. 3b. b, Line drawing
showing the architecture of Wattieza
attached to Eospermatopteris. The
length of the trunk is not firmly
established, so the minimum tree height
is shown. Light branches right, also in
Fig. 1a right, appear in life position
but are not definitively attached.
Scale bar, 1 m for both panels. figure
2 from: William E. Stein1, Frank
Mannolini2, Linda VanAller Hernick2, Ed
Landing2 & Christopher M. Berry3,
''Giant cladoxylopsid trees resolve the
enigma of the Earth's earliest forest
stumps at Gilboa'', Nature 446, 904-907
(19 April
2007) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v446/n7138/full/nature05705.html CO
PYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v446/n7138/images/nature05705-f2.2.
jpg
385,000,000 YBN
411) The first flying animal, an
arthropod insect, the ancestor of all
winged insects (Pterygota {TARiGOTu}).
The earliest extant winged insects are
the Orders Ephemeroptera {eFeMeroPTRo}:
Mayflies, and the Odonata {ODenoDo}:
Dragonflies and Damselflies.

Insect wings evolve only once, and all
winged insects descend from the first
winged insect.

The development of wings may have
helped early insects to escape
predators and to move over larger
distances to find new habitats.

Insects are the only group of
invertebrates that have evolved powered
flight.

Arthropods evolve flight at least 100
million years before the first flight
of vertebrates.

How flight evolves in insects is still
debated. Wings may develop from
extensions of the top of a thoracic
segment called paranotal {PaRu-nOTL}
lobes. Silverfish have paranotal lobes
that can be used to control their
descent when falling. Wings may provide
early insects with the ability to
glide, and eventually to control the
aerial descent of the insect from tall
plants.
(Wamsutta Formation) southeastern
Massachusetts and Upper Silesian Basin,
Czech Republic 
[1] English: A female subimago of March
Brown (Rhithrogena germanica) of family
Heptageniidae. Mayflies are insects
which belong to the Order Ephemeroptera
(from the Greek ephemeros, short-lived
and pteron, wing, referring to the
short life span of adults). They have
been placed into an ancient group of
insects termed the Paleoptera, which
also contains the dragonflies and
damselflies. They are aquatic insects
whose immature stage (called naiad or,
colloquially, nymph) usually lasts one
year in fresh water. The rests on Rough
Horsetail or Scouringrush Horsetail
(Equisetum hyemale) Date 8 January
2008 Source Own work Author Richard
Bartz, Munich aka Makro Freak
Image:MFB.jpg CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/49/Rhithrogena_germanica
_subimago_on_Equisetum_hyemale.jpg

[2] FIGURE 2—Preliminary hypothesis
of phylogenetic relationships among
major and interesting groups of living
and extinct hexapods and
basal pterygote Insecta. Numbers refer
to synapomorphies (see Table 1); empty
boxes are homoplasious synapomorphies.
Some significant fossils
are-CSCO-3h--F3.large denoted by
circled letters (see Table 2), but many
fossils are not listed for most groups.
Thick lines indicate the approximate
chronology of lineages. The number of
lineages depicted for paraphyletic
lineages
(‘‘Protodonata,’’‘‘Protortho
ptera,’’ Blattaria [Blattoptera])
are arbitrary, and simply indicate
multiple, unresolved lineages. The
names of orders with freshwater aquatic
larvae are shaded (a presumed ancestral
habit). Relationships are based on
Kristensen (1975, 1991, 1999), Willmann
(1997, 1999), Grimaldi (1997, for
Dictyoptera), Engel and Grimaldi (2000,
Zoraptera and related orders), and
others. Figure 2 from: Grimaldi, D.
2001. Insect evolutionary history from
Handlirsch to Hennig, and beyond.
Journal of Paleontology
75:1152-1160. http://jpaleontol.geoscie
nceworld.org/content/75/6/1152
AND www.online-keys.net/sciaroidea/2000
_/Grimaldi_2001_insect_evolution_history
.pdf COPYRIGHTED
source: www.online-keys.net/sciaroidea/2
000_/Grimaldi_2001_insect_evolution_hist
ory.pdf
380,000,000 YBN
6330) The lobe-finned fish "Tiktaalik"
{TiK ToLiK}, an important transition
between fish and amphibian.
(Fram Formation) Nunavut Territory,
Canada 
[1] A reconstruction of Tiktaalik
alongside a cast of its fossil, and a
map showing where the fossil was found,
on Ellesmere Island, Nunavut,
Canada. UNKNOWN
source: http://evolution.berkeley.edu/ev
olibrary/images/news/tiktaalik_reconstru
ction.jpg

[2] Description English: Life
restoration of Tiktaalik roseae, a
transitional fossil (''missing link'')
between sarcopterygian fishes and
tetrapods from the late Devonian period
of North America. Original description:
''Fossil fish bridges evolutionary gap
between animals of land and
sea.'' Deutsch: Lebendrekonstruktion
von Tiktaalik roseae, einer
Übergangsform („Missing Link“)
zwischen Muskelflosser-Fischen und
Landwirbeltieren aus dem Oberdevon von
Nordamerika. Polski: Artystyczna
próba rekonstrukcji sposobu życia
Tiktaalika roseae, przejściowej formy
kopalnej (tzw. “brakującego ogniwa
ewolucji”) pomiędzy rybami a
czworonożnymi płazami (późny Dewon,
Ameryka
Północna). Date Unknown Source
National Science
Foundation Author Zina Deretsky,
National Science Foundation (Courtesy:
National Science
Foundation) Permission (Reusing
this file) Images credited to the
National Science Foundation, a U. S.
federal agency, are in the public
domain. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Tiktaalik_rosea
e_life_restor.jpg/1280px-Tiktaalik_rosea
e_life_restor.jpg
375,000,000 YBN
380) The Jawed fishes superclass
Tetrapoda {TeTC-ru-PoDu} evolves. The
first tetrapods (vertebrates with four
feet) evolve in fresh water. These are
the first vertebrate limbs (arms and
legs) and fingers. This is also the
first amphibian, the ancestor of
caecillians, frogs, toads, and
salamanders.

Almost no amphibians live in sea water.
Fresh water, Greenland (on the
equator) 
[1] Timeline of phylogeny of animals,
figure 6 from: S. Blair Hedges, ''The
origin and evolution of model
organisms'', Nature Reviews Genetics 3,
838-849 (November
2002) http://www.nature.com/nrg/journal
/v3/n11/full/nrg929.html {Hedges_2002.p
df} a) The relationships and
divergence times (millions of years ago
(Mya) plusminus one standard error) of
selected model animals are shown, based
on recent multigene and multiprotein
studies51, 61, 84. The fossil
divergence time of birds and mammals
(310 Mya) was used to calibrate the
molecular clock. Branch lengths are not
proportional to time. b ) The
relationships and numbers of living
species, from a diversity of sources in
most of the main groups. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nrg/journa
l/v3/n11/images/nrg929-f6.jpg

[2] Reconstructions of (a)
Acanthostega and (b) Ichthyostega, from
Benton, 1997. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://palaeo.gly.bris.ac.uk/Pal
aeofiles/Fossilgroups/Amphibia/amphibpic
s/ichthyostega.jpg
367,000,000 YBN
408) The late Devonian mass extinction
caused by an ice age.

70% of all species go extinct. This
includes 3 of 5 trilobite orders, 90%
of brachiopod genera, and major loss of
reefs.
 
[1] Description English: Antarctica:
The blue ice covering Lake Fryxell, in
the Transantarctic Mountains, comes
from glacial meltwater from the Canada
Glacier and other smaller glaciers. The
freshwater stays on top of the lake and
freezes, sealing in briny water
below. http://photolibrary.usap.gov/Por
tscripts/PortWeb.dll?query&field1=Filena
me&op1=matches&value=LakeFryxell.jpg&cat
alog=Antarctica&template=ShowMidThumbs
Français : Antarctique: La glace bleue
couvrant le Lac Fryxell, dans la
Chaîne Transantarctique, vient des
eaux de fonte du Glacier Canada et
d'autres glaciers plus petits. L'eau
fraîche se trouve au sommet du lac et
gèle, scellant une eau saumâtre
située en-dessous. Date 10 December
2002 Source From Antarctic Photo
Library: LAKEFRYXELL.JPG Author Joe
Mastroianni, National Science
Foundation PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Fryxellsee_Opt.
jpg/1280px-Fryxellsee_Opt.jpg

[2] Description Deutsch: Der Vulkan
Mount Erebus, Antarktika. English:
Mount Erebus, Ross Island,
Antarctica. Español: Monte Erebus,
Isla Ross,Antártida Français : Le
mont Erebus, île de Ross,
Antarctique. Türkçe: Erebus Dağı,
Antarktika Русский:
Вулкан Эребус,
Антарктида Date
1972 Source U.S. Geological Survey
(USGS) Author Richard Waitt, U.S.
Geological Survey Permission (Reusing
this file) PD-US Other versions
Image:Mt Erebus (original).jpg PD

source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/4e/Mt_erebus.jpg
363,000,000 YBN
379) The first vertebrates live on land
(an amphibian).
Fresh water, Greenland (on the
equator) 
[1] Yes, it's time for the Palaeozoic
scenes of Life before Man. Or some of
them, anyway - if you really want to
see a load of trilobites, you're
probably Richard Fortey, and I will
ignore any comments that claim
otherwise. (Also, I can't include
everything - otherwise we'd have to
rename this blog Love in the Time of
Burian, which sounds a bit rubbish.) My
bias is most definitely towards
vertebrates and, in particular,
tetrapods, and the below scene -
featuring Ichthyostega - marks their
first appearance in the book. This
painting is perhaps unique in this book
as it combines the elements of the
animal-free landscapes with, well, some
animals. Burian's skill is in making
this scene, filled as it is with flora
so utterly different to what we are
accustomed to seeing today, look as if
he just took a casual stroll out into
the country to paint it. UNKNOWN
source: http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-Zdvegv
1Fny4/UCk-Z929irI/AAAAAAAABM8/_7c21BO7T1
s/s1600/Ichthyostega.jpg

[2] Timeline of phylogeny of animals,
figure 6 from: S. Blair Hedges, ''The
origin and evolution of model
organisms'', Nature Reviews Genetics 3,
838-849 (November
2002) http://www.nature.com/nrg/journal
/v3/n11/full/nrg929.html {Hedges_2002.p
df} a) The relationships and
divergence times (millions of years ago
(Mya) plusminus one standard error) of
selected model animals are shown, based
on recent multigene and multiprotein
studies51, 61, 84. The fossil
divergence time of birds and mammals
(310 Mya) was used to calibrate the
molecular clock. Branch lengths are not
proportional to time. b ) The
relationships and numbers of living
species, from a diversity of sources in
most of the main groups. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nrg/journa
l/v3/n11/images/nrg929-f6.jpg
360,000,000 YBN
226) The second largest Fungi phylum,
"Basidiomycota" {Bo-SiDEO-mI-KO-Tu}
evolves (the ancestor of many
mushrooms: button, chanterelle
{saNTRreL}, cremini {KremENE}, enoki
{inoKE}, fly agaric {uGaRiK}, oyster,
porcino {PORCEnO }, portabella,
psilocybe, puffball, shiitake {sEToKE},
woodear, rusts, and club fungi).

The Basidiomycota phylum contains about
30,000 described species, which is 37%
of the described species of true Fungi.
Indiana 
[1] Amanita muscaria
(Homobasidiomycetes)
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Agaricales.jpg

[2] Basidiomycete Life Cycle tjv
source: http://botit.botany.wisc.edu/ima
ges/332/Basidiomycota/General_basidio/Ba
sidiomycete_Life_Cycle_tjv.php?highres=t
rue
360,000,000 YBN
6353) The Neoptera, folding wing
insects evolve.

A mechanism to fold the wings against
the body after landing has a selective
advantage by making the wings less
conspicuous, awkward, and susceptible
to breakage.

The Neoptera are a very successful
lineage and are the ancestors of all
"higher" orders of insects.
(Fossil: Archimylacris eggintoni,
Coseley Lagerstätte) Staffordshire,
UK 
[1] Stonefly in the genus Dinotoperla.
Taken in Swifts Creek, Victoria in
November 2007 GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e6/Stonefly_-_dinotoperl
a.jpg

[2] Nymph of unidentified
stonefly Description Deutsch:
Steinfliegenlarve Date 16 June
2006 Source Own work Author
böhringer friedrich CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/SteinfliegenLar
ve2.JPG/1280px-SteinfliegenLarve2.JPG
359,200,000 YBN
124) The end of the Devonian (416-359.2
mybn), and start of the Carboniferous
(359.2-299 mybn) Period.
 
[1] Geologic Time Scale 2009 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.geosociety.org/scienc
e/timescale/timescl.pdf

[2] 370 Ma Middle Devonian UNKNOWN
source: http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~rcb7/370
_Devonian_2globes.jpg
359,000,000 YBN
243) The first plant seed evolves; the
ancestor of all seed plants
(Spermatophyta {SPRM-i-ToF-i-Tu}).

The earliest fossil seed is from a seed
fern (Pteridosperm {TARiDOSPRM}).
Pteridosperms are a group of extinct
seed plants with fernlike leaves and
naked seeds.

Fossils indicate that the first seed
evolves from an enclosing ring of
vegetative lobes that fuse together.

A seed can be described as an
"integumented megasporangium". In the
most primitive vascular plants, the
spores are all the same size, but
eventually gender evolves, producing
small male "microspores" and larger
female "megaspores". Then individual
female megaspores are enclosed by a
ring of vegetative lobes which form an
integument or cover.
Scotland 
[1] Henry N. Andrews, ''Early Seed
Plants'', Science, New Series, Vol.
142, No. 3594 (Nov. 15, 1963), pp.
925-931. http://www.jstor.org/stable/17
11577 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1711
577

[2] Fig. 2. Chronogram showing
estimates of phylogenetic relationships
and divergence times among the major
groups of extant land plants. The
estimate of relationships is
synthesized from the following papers
in this issue: Burleigh and Mathews
(2004) , Pryer et al. (2004) , Shaw and
Renzaglia (2004) , and Soltis and
Soltis (2004) . Divergence time
estimates are mostly based on analyses
of molecular data with fossil
constraints (Wikström et al., 2001 ;
Pryer et al., 2004 ) and are augmented
by fossil evidence (Kenrick and Crane,
1997 ; Wellman et al., 2003 ).
Estimates of the number of species in
each group are from Judd et al. (2002)
and W. S. Judd (personal
communication). Groups covered by a
particular article in this special
issue are circled and connected to the
names of the article's authors. ''Other
conifers'' refers to the clade
consisting of all conifers except for
Pinaceae (see Burleigh and Mathews,
2004 ). ''Lepto. ferns'' refers to
leptosporangiate ferns fig 2
from: Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, ''The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view'', American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
http://www.amjbot.org/content/91/10/14
37.full {Chase_Mark_2004.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.amjbot.org/content/91
/10/1437/F2.large.jpg
355,000,000 YBN
6410) Hearing in Amphibians adapts to
sounds transmitted through the air.
This is the beginning of vertebrates
making vocal sounds.
 
[1] Figure 6.2 from: Peter M. Narins,
Albert S. Feng, Richard R. Fay and
Arthur N. Popper, ''Hearing and Sound
Communication in Amphibians'', Springer
Handbook of Auditory Research, Volume
28, 2006, DOI:
10.1007/978-0-387-47796-1 http://www.sp
ringerlink.com/content/l637813537l70704/
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.springerlink.com/cont
ent/l637813537l70704/

[2] Description Eocaecilia
micropodia, an early caecilian from the
Lower Jurassic of Arizona, pencil
drawing Date 22 August
2007 Source Own work Author
Nobu Tamura
email:nobu.tamura@yahoo.com
www.palaeocritti.com Permission (Reusi
ng this file) See below. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/27/Eocaecilia_BW.jpg
350,000,000 YBN
361) The Ray-finned fishes, Sturgeons
and Paddlefish evolve.
 
[1] Adapted from: Richard Dawkins,
''The Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p339. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p339.

[2] Adapted from: Richard Dawkins,
''The Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p339. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p339.
350,000,000 YBN
362) The Ray-finned fishes: Bichirs
evolve.
 
[1] Barred bichir Polypterus
delhezi Photo by Grégoire Germeau and
Yves Doumont. Copyright Grégoire
Germeau and Yves Doumont. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.gregboettcher.com/as/
science/classification/images/bichir.jpg


[2] Adapted from: Richard Dawkins,
''The Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p339. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p339.
350,000,000 YBN
6355) The Neoptera: Dictyoptera
{DiKTEoPTRu} evolve (the ancestor of
Cockroaches, Termites, and Mantises).
 
[1] Description English: Juvenile,
Madagascar hissing cockroach at the
Atlanta Botanical Garden. Taken
9/23/2007. Date 25 September 2007
(original upload date) Source
Transferred from en.wikipedia;
transferred to Commons by
User:Sreejithk2000 using
CommonsHelper. Author Original
uploader was Almabes at
en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) Released into the public
domain (by the author). Other versions
Derivative works of this file:
Female Madagascar hissing
cockroach2.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/46/Female_Madagascar_his
sing_cockroach.JPG

[2] Figure 4.11. German Cockroaches,
Various Stages and Ages PD
source: http://www.cdc.gov/nceh/publicat
ions/books/housing/Graphics/chapter_04/F
igure4.11.jpg
340,000,000 YBN
384) The first hard-shell egg. The
Tetrapods Amniota {aMnEOtu} evolve; the
ancestor of all reptiles, mammals and
birds and the first hard-shell egg.
The hard-shell egg is waterproof. This
is the start of vertebrate internal
fertilization, because on land the egg
cannot be fertilized as most fishes and
amphibians do, by a male swimming near
the eggs and spraying them with sperm.
Amniote males and females must copulate
{KoPYelAT} so that the sperm can reach
the eggs inside the female.

Amniotes (reptiles, mammals, and birds)
are distinguished from non-amniote
tetrapods (amphibians) by the presence
of complex embryonic membranes. One of
these, the amnion, gives its name to
the group.

All living amniotes lay hard-shelled
eggs, except most mammals and some
snakes and lizards, where egg laying
has been replaced by live birth.

The egg shell of amniotes may be
flexible (like the eggs of many turtles
and lizards) or mineralized and hard
(like the eggs of birds, crocodiles and
many tortoises).
Bathgate, West Lothian, Scotland 
[1] Figure 2 from: [t Note that this
egg is only of Permian age: 299-251
mybn] Karl F. Hirsch, ''The Oldest
Vertebrate Egg?'', Journal of
Paleontology, Vol. 53, No. 5 (Sep.,
1979), pp.
1068-1084. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
1304086 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1304
086

[2] Prothero, ''Bringing Fossils To
Life'', 2004. COPYRIGHTED
source: Prothero, "Bringing Fossils To
Life", 2004. COPYRIGHTED
335,000,000 YBN
6331) The Amniota divide into the
Sauropsida {SOR-roP-SiDu} and the
Synapsida {Si-naP-Si-Du}.

The Sauropsida have two major lineages:
the Parareptilia (turtles) and the
Eureptilia (dinosaurs, crocodiles and
birds). The Synapsids also have two
major lineages: the pelycosaurs (which
are sail-backed amniotes) and the
therapsids (which are mammal-like
amniotes).

Synapsids are a subclass of extinct
amniotes from which mammals descend.
Synapsids are sometimes called
"mammal-like reptiles" but it is
incorrect to call them reptiles because
they diverge at the beginning of
amniote evolution, before the reptiles
do.
(earliest possible Synapsid fossil:
Cumberland group, Joggins formation.)
Joggins, Nova Scotia, Canada 
[1] Prothero, ''Evolution What the
Fossils Say and Why It Matters'', 2007,
p232. COPYRIGHTED
source: Prothero, "Evolution What the
Fossils Say and Why It Matters", 2007,
p232.

[2] Prothero, ''Bringing Fossils To
Life'', 2004. COPYRIGHTED
source: Prothero, "Bringing Fossils To
Life", 2004. COPYRIGHTED
330,000,000 YBN
6307) The Synapsids Pelycosauria
{PeLiKuSOREu} evolve (the ancestor of
Edaphosaurus {eDaFoSORuS} and
Dimetrodon).

The most notable feature in some
species of Pelycosaur is a broad "sail"
along the back consisting of an
extensive layer of skin supported
internally by a row of fixed neural
spines projecting from successive
vertebrae. The sail may be a Sun light
collector to heat the body and if
brightly colored for courtship.
 
[1] Description This just might be
a depiction of Edaphosaurus pogonias,
to make a guess from the title. If you
know more about this image, please
place a good description here. Date
2007-04-30 (original upload
date) Source Originally from
ru.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. Author Original uploader
was ДиБгд at
ru.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) This image is in the public
domain; PD-ART. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/7d/Edaphosaurus_pogonias
.jpg

[2] Kardong, ''Vertebrates'',
2002. COPYRIGHTED
source: Kardong, "Vertebrates",
2002. COPYRIGHTED
325,000,000 YBN
381) The earliest extant Amphibians:
Caecilians evolve.
 
[1] Description Eocaecilia
micropodia, an early caecilian from the
Lower Jurassic of Arizona, pencil
drawing Date 22 August
2007 Source Own work Author
Nobu Tamura
email:nobu.tamura@yahoo.com
www.palaeocritti.com Permission (Reusi
ng this file) See below. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/27/Eocaecilia_BW.jpg

[2] Figure 1 from: Roelants, K.,
Gower, D. J., Wilkinson, M., Loader, S.
P., Biju, S. D., Guillaume, K., Moriau,
L., & Bossuyt, F. (2007). Global
patterns of diversification in the
history of modern amphibians.
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences , 104 (3), 887-892. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.060837810
4 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0
608378104
320,000,000 YBN
238) The seed plants: Gymnosperms
evolve. Gymnosperms are the earliest
surviving seed plants, and ancestor of
all Cycads, Ginkgos and the Conifers).


The most primitive extant Gymnosperms,
the Cycads evolve now.

Gymnosperm is Greek for "Naked Seed". A
gymnosperm reproduces by a seed that is
in direct contact with the environment,
as opposed to an angiosperm (a
flowering plant) whose seeds are
enclosed by mature ovaries, or fruits.
 
[1] Fig. 2. Chronogram showing
estimates of phylogenetic relationships
and divergence times among the major
groups of extant land plants. The
estimate of relationships is
synthesized from the following papers
in this issue: Burleigh and Mathews
(2004) , Pryer et al. (2004) , Shaw and
Renzaglia (2004) , and Soltis and
Soltis (2004) . Divergence time
estimates are mostly based on analyses
of molecular data with fossil
constraints (Wikström et al., 2001 ;
Pryer et al., 2004 ) and are augmented
by fossil evidence (Kenrick and Crane,
1997 ; Wellman et al., 2003 ).
Estimates of the number of species in
each group are from Judd et al. (2002)
and W. S. Judd (personal
communication). Groups covered by a
particular article in this special
issue are circled and connected to the
names of the article's authors. ''Other
conifers'' refers to the clade
consisting of all conifers except for
Pinaceae (see Burleigh and Mathews,
2004 ). ''Lepto. ferns'' refers to
leptosporangiate ferns fig 2
from: Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, ''The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view'', American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
http://www.amjbot.org/content/91/10/14
37.full {Chase_Mark_2004.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.amjbot.org/content/91
/10/1437/F2.large.jpg

[2] Fig. 2. Chronogram showing
estimates of phylogenetic relationships
and divergence times among the major
groups of extant land plants. The
estimate of relationships is
synthesized from the following papers
in this issue: Burleigh and Mathews
(2004) , Pryer et al. (2004) , Shaw and
Renzaglia (2004) , and Soltis and
Soltis (2004) . Divergence time
estimates are mostly based on analyses
of molecular data with fossil
constraints (Wikström et al., 2001 ;
Pryer et al., 2004 ) and are augmented
by fossil evidence (Kenrick and Crane,
1997 ; Wellman et al., 2003 ).
Estimates of the number of species in
each group are from Judd et al. (2002)
and W. S. Judd (personal
communication). Groups covered by a
particular article in this special
issue are circled and connected to the
names of the article's authors. ''Other
conifers'' refers to the clade
consisting of all conifers except for
Pinaceae (see Burleigh and Mathews,
2004 ). ''Lepto. ferns'' refers to
leptosporangiate ferns fig 2
from: Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, ''The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view'', American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
http://www.amjbot.org/content/91/10/14
37.full {Chase_Mark_2004.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.amjbot.org/content/91
/10/1437/F2.large.jpg
320,000,000 YBN
6356) The Neoptera Order: Orthoptera
evolves (the ancestor of crickets,
grasshoppers, locusts, and walking
sticks).

The Orthoptera and the later Hemiptera
are termed hemimetabolous, and are said
to undergo incomplete metamorphosis. In
incomplete metamorphosis, the general
form is constant until the final molt,
when the larva undergoes substantial
changes in body form to become a winged
adult with fully developed genitalia.

Many insects in the order Orthoptera
produce sound (known as a
"stridulation") by rubbing their wings
against each other or their legs, the
wings or legs containing rows of
corrugated bumps.

Orthopterans are the most "vocal" of
all the insect orders, with calling
behavior playing a major role in the
biology and evolution of the order.
Males regularly chorus on warm evenings
for females.
 
[1] African Field cricket Gryllus
bimaculatus at Bristol Zoo, Bristol,
England. Photographed by Adrian
Pingstone in February 2005 and released
to the public domain. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/2/27/African.field.c
ricket.arp.jpg/1200px-African.field.cric
ket.arp.jpg

[2] Description
grasshopper Source self
made Date unknown Author
Stephen Friedt PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/thumb/3/3c/Grasshopper_%2827%29
.JPG/1280px-Grasshopper_%2827%29.JPG
320,000,000 YBN
6364) The Neoptera: Plectopterida
evolve (the ancestor of Stoneflies, and
webspinners).
 
[1] Description Eusthenia sp.
(possibly E. costalis), Marriott Falls
Track, Mt Field National Park,
Tasmania, Australia Camera
data Camera Canon EOS 400D
Lens Tamron EF 180mm f3.5 1:1 Macro
Flash Umbrella Right Focal length
180 mm Aperture f/11 Exposure
time 1/200 s Sensivity ISO
400 Date 12/04/2009 Source Own
work Author JJ Harrison
(http://www.noodlesnacks.com/) GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/4c/Eusthenia_sp.jpg

[2] Stonefly in the genus Dinotoperla.
Taken in Swifts Creek, Victoria in
November 2007 GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e6/Stonefly_-_dinotoperl
a.jpg
317,000,000 YBN
385) The Sauropsid Class Reptilia
{reP-TiL-E-u} evolves, the Reptiles;
the ancestor of all turtles,
crocodiles, pterosaurs, dinosaurs and
birds.

The class Reptilia contains
approximately 8,700 species and is a
group of air-breathing vertebrates that
have internal fertilization, and scales
covering part or all of their body.

All reptiles are cold-blooded, except
for birds, and possibly some or all
pterosaurs and dinosaurs.

Most species have short legs (or none),
long tails, and lay eggs. Living
reptiles include the scaly reptiles
(snakes and lizards: Squamata), the
crocodiles (Crocodylia), the turtles
(Testudines), and the unique tuatara
(Sphenodontida). Being cold-blooded,
reptiles are not found in very cold
regions. Extinct reptiles include the
dinosaurs, the pterosaurs, and the
dolphin-like ichthyosaurs.
(Joggins Formation) Nova Scotia,
Canada 
[1] from: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004), p262.
COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p262.

[2] Description English: Reptilia
(reptiles), based on:
File:Buberel cayman 3.jpg
File:Crotalus adamanteus (5).jpg
File:Karettschildkroete 01.jpg
File:Henry at Invercargill.jpg All
of them are either under a free licence
already in Wikicommons or in the public
domain Date 3/2/09 Source
Compilation made by myself Author
see respective profiles of
photos PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/67/Reptiles.jpg
315,000,000 YBN
453) The Allegheny mountains form as a
result of the collision of Europe and
eastern North America.
 
[1] 300 Ma UNKNOWN
source: http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~rcb7/300
_Penn_2globes.jpg

[2] This map shows the subdivisions of
the southern Appalachian Plateau as
defined by Bailey's ecoregions.[1] I,
Karl Musser, created it based on
USGS. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/36/Cumberlandplateaumap.
png
314,000,000 YBN
240) The Gymnosperms Pinophyta
{PInoFiTu} evolve (the ancestor of the
Conifers: includes Pine, Fir, Spruce,
Redwood, Cedar, Juniper, Hemlock,
Larch, Yew, and Cypress.).

The oldest known living plants are
found among the conifers, some
estimated to be around 5000 years old.
Wakefield, Yorkshire, England 
[1] Closeup shot of a stem of needles
(perhaps Norway spruce?) by USFWS and
obtained from the GIMP photo
library. United States Federal
Government This work is in the
public domain because it is a work of
the United States Federal Government.
This applies worldwide. See
Copyright Close-up of pinophyte leaves
(needles): Norway Spruce (Picea abies)

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pin
ophyta

[2] Native Pinus sylvestris forest,
Scotland: Deeside, Mar Lodge, April
2005 GNU 1.2
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pin
aceae
310,000,000 YBN
6357) The Neoptera: Paraneoptera evolve
(the ancestor of bark lice, true lice,
thrips, and the Hemiptera {HemiPTRu}.
The Hemiptera have mouthparts adapted
for piercing and sucking and include:
Cicadas, Aphids, and "true bugs": such
as Bed bugs, and Stink bugs).
 
[1] Description Tibicen
linnei English: Annual cicada. Date
22 June 2003 Source Own work
http://www.cirrusimage.com/homoptera_cic
ada_T_linnei.htm Author Bruce
Marlin CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Tibicen_linnei.
jpg/1142px-Tibicen_linnei.jpg

[2] Description English: Pea aphids
extracting sap from the stem and leaves
of garden peas. Date February
2010 Source PLoS Biology, February
2010 direct link to the image
description Author Shipher Wu
(photograph) and Gee-way Lin (aphid
provision), National Taiwan
University CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/20/Acyrthosiphon_pisum_%
28pea_aphid%29-PLoS.jpg
310,000,000 YBN
6359) The Neoptera Holometabola
{HoLomeTaBolu or HOlOmeTABolu} evolve:
Holometabolous insects: (insects that
undergo complete metamorphosis, the
ancestor of beetles, bees, true flies,
and butterflies).
The holometabolous insects account
for nearly 85% of all insects.

The Holometabola are insects that have
complete metamorphosis (or
holometabolous development). These
insects have four developmental stages
in the life cycle: egg, larva, pupa,
and adult (imago). Unlike
hemimetabolous insects in which the
immature structures (legs, eyes,
antennae, etc.) must also serve the
adults, holometabolous insects have a
morphologically reduced larval stage
and acquire a completely new body
during the pupal stage.

The larva is the defining feature of
Holometabola.
 
[1] Description wespenpoppen in
verschillende ontwikkelstadia Eigen
foto's Date 2005-06-13 (original
upload date) Source Originally from
nl.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. Author Original uploader was
Asaf at
nl.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) SELF2 GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/79/Ontwikkelstadia_wespe
npoppen.jpg

[2] Miomoptera- viewed by many as
stem-group Holometabola. UNKNOWN
source: http://wdict.net/img/miomoptera,
2.jpg
305,000,000 YBN
242) The Amphibians: Anura {unRu}
evolve (the ancestor of all Frogs and
Toads).

The order Anura, are tailless
amphibians that include all frogs and
toads.
 
[1] Richard Dawkins, ''The Ancestor's
Tale'', (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), 303. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), 303.

[2] Description English: A green
frog on a palm frond. Date 18
October 2003 Source Burning
Well Author Leon Brooks PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8d/Frog_on_palm_frond.jp
g
300,000,000 YBN
1310) The Stramenopiles Chrysophyta
{KriSoFiTu} evolve (Golden algae).
 
[1] Description Dinobryon sp. / from
Shishitsuka Pond, Tsuchiura, Ibaraki
Pref., Japan / Microscope:Leica DMRD
(DIC) Date 20 May 2007 Source Own
work Author ja:User:NEON /
commons:User:NEON_ja CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/68/Dinobryon_sp.jpg

[2] Dinobryon, a colony of
Chrysophytes showing flagella and red
eyespots UNKNOWN
source: http://www.microscopy-uk.org.uk/
mag//imagsmall/Dinobryonb.jpg
299,000,000 YBN
125) The end of the Carboniferous
(359.2-299 mybn), and start of the
Permian (299-251 mybn) Period.
 
[1] Geologic Time Scale 2009 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.geosociety.org/scienc
e/timescale/timescl.pdf

[2] 300 Ma Late
Pennsylvanian UNKNOWN
source: http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~rcb7/300
_Penn_2globes.jpg
299,000,000 YBN
6360) The Holometabola Order:
Coleoptera {KOlEoPTRu} evolves (the
ancestor of the Beetles).

Coleoptera is the largest order of all
organisms known containing 350,000
named species; 40% of all the insects.

Well known beetles include: Ladybugs,
Fireflies, Dung beetles, Japanese
beetles, weevils, and scarabs.
(Pennsylvanian deposit) Mazon Creek,
Illinois, USA 
[1] Figure 1. 1–7, Adiphlebia lacoana
Scudder, 1885. 1, 2, holotype specimen
(USNM 38143), reconstruction of the
wing venation (1), and photograph
(negative imprint, light-mirrored,
composite; 2); 3, specimen USNM 38140,
photograph (negative imprint,
light-mirrored, composite); 4,5,
specimen FMNH PE 3416, reconstruction
of the wing venation (forewings
separated; 4) and photograph (negative
imprint, composite; 5); 6, 7, specimen
FMNH PE 60291, reconstruction of the
wing venation (6) and photograph
(positive imprint; 7); 8, 9, details of
forewing main and intercalary veins
(black and white arrows, respectively)
in Adiphlabia lacoana (specimen FMNH PE
3416, right forewing; 8) and
Tetraphalerus bruchi Heller, 1913 (♀,
ventral view; 9). Abbreviations: LFW,
left forewing; RFW, right forewing;
ScP, posterior Subcosta; R, Radius; RA,
anterior Radius; RP, posterior Radius;
M, Media; CuA, anterior Cubitus; CuP,
posterior Cubitus; AA: anterior anal
vein. Color-coding: Subcosta, yellow;
Radius, blue; Media, red; Cubitus,
green; Analis, yellow. from Béthoux,
Olivier. “The Earliest Beetle
Identified.” Journal of Paleontology
83.6 (2009):
931–937. http://www.bioone.org/doi/ab
s/10.1666/08-158.1 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://jpaleontol.geoscienceworl
d.org/content/vol83/issue6/images/large/
i0022-3360-83-6-931-f01.jpeg

[2] {ULSF: Early Permian fossil
beetles see {Kukalová (1969), in
particular pl. 1; Ponomarenko (1969),
in particular figs. 16, 31, 32, 36, 40
41, 43, 44} and representatives of the
beetle sub-order Archostemata,
represented nowadays, exhibit
intercalary veins (Fig. 1.9) similar to
those exhibited by A.
lacoana} Archostemata is the smallest
suborder of beetles, consisting of
fewer than fifty known species
organized into five families.
Archostemata is an ancient lineage with
a number of primitive characteristics.
They are similar in morphology to the
first beetles, which appear in the
fossil record approximately 250 million
years ag Description
Tenomerga mucida (Chevrolat, 1829)
(Coleoptera: Cupedidae) - female.
Loc: Yokohama, kanagawa, japan.
ja: ナガヒラタムシ（鞘翅目:
ナガヒラタムシ科）のメス。
浜市内。産卵管をさかんに
し入れし、朽木の割れ目に挿
し込もうとしていたことから
産卵に来ていたものと思わ
る。 Date 13 July 2005 Source
my own file Author me PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/68/Tenomerga_mucida01.jp
g
290,000,000 YBN
239) The Gymnosperms: Ginkgophyta
evolve (Ginkgos).
 
[1] * Description: Leaves of Ginkgo
biloba. * Source: picure taken by
Reinhard Kraasch in his own garden in
August 2003 (from German wikipedia)
* Licence: released per the GNU Free
Documentation License by the
photographer
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gin
kgo

[2] Name Ginkgo biloba Family
Ginkgoaceae Image no. 1 Permission
granted to use under GFDL by Kurt
Stueber GNU Ginkgo fruit and leaves
source: same
290,000,000 YBN
6358) The Holometabola Order:
Hymenoptera evolves (the ancestor of
all bees, ants, and wasps).
 
[1] {ULSF: Xyelidae saw flies are the
most primitive of the
hymenoptera} Hymenoptera, Xyelidae,
dorsal - Macroxyela ferruginea -
Female Ames - Tullamore, Story County,
Iowa, USA April 30, 2008 Size: 11
mm It's a big one. (11 mm includes the
ovipositor) Oak hickory maple basswood
woodland malaise, April 23-30,
2008. Photo - still floating in
alcohol. Copyright © 2008 MJ
Hatfield COPYRIGHTED Fig. 2
Placement of fossil evidence for the
earliest Holometabola within a
phylogenetic context. Geologic time
line at left is after Ogg, et al.
(2008); note that the Mississippian is
equivalent to the Early Carboniferous
and Pennsylvanian equivalent to the
Late Carboniferous. Earliest reliable
occurrences of taxa (solid dots,
followed by a thick black line) are
after various sources mentioned in the
text; major localities for the initial
diversification of the Holometabola
are: Elmo, Kansas, the “insect bed”
of the Wellington Formation from the
Artinskian Stage of the Early Permian;
Calhoun, the Calhoun Coal Member of the
Mattoon Formation, from the Kasimovian
Stage of the Late Pennsylvanian; Mazon
Creek of the Francis Creek Shale Member
of the Carbondale Formation, from the
Moscovian Stage of the Middle
Pennsylvanian; and the Terril Shale at
Pas-de-Calais, Bruay-la-Bussière,
France, from the Bashkirian Stage of
the Early Pennsylvanian. The horizontal
stippled bar at bottom represents the
initial diversification and the
earliest fossil occurrences of
holometabolan insects in the fossil
record. Labandeira, Conrad C.
“Evidence for an Earliest Late
Carboniferous Divergence Time and the
Early Larval Ecology and
Diversification of Major Holometabola
Lineages.” Entomologica Americana
117.1 & 2 (2011):
9–21. http://www.bioone.org/doi/abs/1
0.1664/10-RA-011.1 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://bugguide.net/images/raw/S
H8RHHPR0H7RDZHZULYLULRZ2LLZTLSZBLQZKH4RH
H7ZVL4RVL0ZALSZBLXZKH8RVLXZHHPRLHQRLH.jp
g

[2] Macroxyela ferruginea
Trusted Creative Commons Attribution
Non Commercial Share Alike 3.0 (CC
BY-NC-SA 3.0) ©
SusanneSchulmeister Source:
Morphbank Image Repository
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.bioone.org/na101/home
/literatum/publisher/bioone/journals/con
tent/nynt.1/2011/19475144-117.1/10-ra-01
1.1/production/images/large/i1947-5144-1
17-1-9-f02.jpeg
287,000,000 YBN
6308) The Synapsid Therapsids evolve
(Cynodonts).

The Therapsids evolve from Pelycosaurs
and largely replace them for a time as
the dominant terrestrial vertebrates.
The legs of Therapsids are more
directly positioned under the weight of
their body, which results in a more
efficient mode of movement.
 
[1] Kardong, ''Vertebrates'',
2002. COPYRIGHTED
source: Description English:
Moschops capensis - Middle Permian of
South Africa. Based on skeleton from
AMNH. Русский: Moschops
capensis - средняя пермь
Южной Африки.
Основано на скелете
из Американского
музея Естественной
истории. Date 2008 Source
dmitrchel@mail.ru Author
Creator:Dmitry Bogdanov GNU

[2] Kardong, ''Vertebrates'',
2002. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Moschops11DB.jp
g/1024px-Moschops11DB.jpg
280,000,000 YBN
6365) The Holometabola: Neuropterida
(the ancestor of all lacewings and
snakeflies).
 
[1] This image was moved from
File:Guldoeje.jpg En: Green
lacewing (Chrysoperla carnea). Da:
Guldøje (Chrysoperla carnea), der har
sat sig til overvintring på et
loft. Date: 18. august
2004. This file was made by Malene
Thyssen. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e0/Chrysoperla_carnea_Gu
ldoeje.jpg

[2] Description Mantispidae, Ditaxis
biseriata (det. Hauser, 2006),
Carnarvon National Park, Queensland,
Australia Date 9 October 2002 Source
Own work Author Fritz
Geller-Grimm Permission (Reusing this
file) CC-By-SA-2.5 CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Mantispidae_fg1
.jpg/1280px-Mantispidae_fg1.jpg
274,000,000 YBN
307) The Stramenopiles: Phaeophyta
{FEoFiTu} evolve (the ancestor of all
Brown Algae).

Many of the Earth's familiar seaweeds
are members of Phaeophyta, like the
giant kelps. Brown algae derive their
color from the presence, in the cell
chloroplasts, of several brownish
carotenoid pigments. With only a few
exceptions, brown algae are marine.

Note that brown algae are not plants
but are protists .
 
[1] Fig. 1. A consensus phylogeny of
eukaryotes. The vast majority of
characterized eukaryotes, with the
notable exception of major subgroups of
amoebae, can now be assigned to one of
eight major groups. Opisthokonts (basal
flagellum) have a single basal
flagellum on reproductive cells and
flat mitochondrial cristae (most
eukaryotes have tubular ones).
Eukaryotic photosynthesis originated in
Plants; theirs are the only plastids
with just two outer membranes.
Heterokonts (different flagellae) have
a unique flagellum decorated with
hollow tripartite hairs (stramenopiles)
and, usually, a second plain one.
Cercozoans are amoebae with filose
pseudopodia, often living with in tests
(hard outer shells), some very
elaborate (foraminiferans). Amoebozoa
are mostly naked amoebae (lacking
tests), often with lobose pseudopodia
for at least part of their life cycle.
Alveolates have systems of cortical
alveoli directly beneath their plasma
membranes. Discicristates have discoid
mitochondrial cristae and, in some
cases, a deep (excavated) ventral
feeding groove. Amitochondrial
excavates lack substantial molecular
phylogenetic support, but most have an
excavated ventral feeding groove, and
all lack mitochondria. The tree shown
is based on a consensus of molecular
(1-4) and ultrastructural (16, 17) data
and includes a rough indication of new
ciPCR ''taxa'' (broken black lines)
(7-11). An asterisk preceding the taxon
name indicates probable paraphyletic
group COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/co
ntent/full/300/5626/1703

[2] Pacific Rockweed (Fucus distichus)
in Olympic National Park Cropped from
PhotoCD image, from Kodak ISO 800 film,
taken by k.lee June 2004, hereby
released under GFDL.
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Pacific_rockweed%2C_Olympic_National_
Park%2C_USA.jpg
266,000,000 YBN
308) The Stramenopiles: Diatoms
evolve.

Diatoms are microscopic unicellular or
colonial algae, having cell walls of
silica consisting of two interlocking
symmetrical valves.
 
[1] Fig. 1. A consensus phylogeny of
eukaryotes. The vast majority of
characterized eukaryotes, with the
notable exception of major subgroups of
amoebae, can now be assigned to one of
eight major groups. Opisthokonts (basal
flagellum) have a single basal
flagellum on reproductive cells and
flat mitochondrial cristae (most
eukaryotes have tubular ones).
Eukaryotic photosynthesis originated in
Plants; theirs are the only plastids
with just two outer membranes.
Heterokonts (different flagellae) have
a unique flagellum decorated with
hollow tripartite hairs (stramenopiles)
and, usually, a second plain one.
Cercozoans are amoebae with filose
pseudopodia, often living with in tests
(hard outer shells), some very
elaborate (foraminiferans). Amoebozoa
are mostly naked amoebae (lacking
tests), often with lobose pseudopodia
for at least part of their life cycle.
Alveolates have systems of cortical
alveoli directly beneath their plasma
membranes. Discicristates have discoid
mitochondrial cristae and, in some
cases, a deep (excavated) ventral
feeding groove. Amitochondrial
excavates lack substantial molecular
phylogenetic support, but most have an
excavated ventral feeding groove, and
all lack mitochondria. The tree shown
is based on a consensus of molecular
(1-4) and ultrastructural (16, 17) data
and includes a rough indication of new
ciPCR ''taxa'' (broken black lines)
(7-11). An asterisk preceding the taxon
name indicates probable paraphyletic
group COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/co
ntent/full/300/5626/1703

[2] Figure 1. Phylogenetic hypothesis
of the eukaryotic lineage based on
ultrastructural and molecular data.
Organisms are divided into three main
groups distinguished by mitochondrial
cristal shape (either discoidal,
flattened or tubular). Unbroken lines
indicate phylogenetic relationships
that are firmly supported by available
data; broken lines indicate
uncertainties in phylogenetic
placement, resolution of which will
require additional data. Color coding
of organismal genus names indicates
mitochondrial genomes that have been
completely (Table 1), almost completely
(Jakoba, Naegleria and
Thraustochytrium) or partially (*)
sequenced by the OGMP (red), the FMGP
(black) or other groups (green). Names
in blue indicate those species whose
mtDNAs are currently being sequenced by
the OGMP or are future candidates for
complete sequencing. Amitochondriate
retortamonads are positioned at the
base of the tree, with broken arrows
denoting the endosymbiotic origin(s) of
mitochondria from a Rickettsia-like
eubacterium. Macrophar.,
Macropharyngomonas. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nar.oxfordjournals.org/cg
i/content/full/26/4/865
260,000,000 YBN
232) The earliest endothermic (or
"warm-blooded") and hair growing
animal, a therapsid.

Endothermy is the physiological
maintenance, by a body, of a constant
temperature independent of the external
environmental temperature. Hair for
insulation is correlated to endothermy.


Both birds and mammals are endothermic
(also called "warm blooded") as opposed
to other vertebrates (like amphibians
and crocodiles) which are ectothermic
(or "cold blooded) and cannot
internally generate heat.

Endothermy allows birds and mammals to
maintain a high and relatively constant
body temperature, even at rest, during
a wide range of external environmental
conditions.

Respiratory conchae {KoN-KE} (or
turbinates {TR-Bi-niTS}) (small curved
bones in the nasal passage, some which
reduce respiratory water loss with
rapid breathing), found in the
primitive therocephalian Glanosuchus
and in several cynodonts, are the first
reliable morphological indicator of
endothermy.
 
[1] Description English: Life
restoration of Purlovia maxima. Based
on figures 8-10 of ''Permian and
Triassic therocephals (Eutherapsida) of
Eastern Europe'' by M. F. Ivakhnenko
(Paleontological Journal 45 (9):
981-1144). Date 8 January
2012 Source Own
work Author Smokeybjb CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a5/Purlovia_maxima.jpg

[2] Description Bauria , a
therocephalian therapsid from the early
Middle Triassic of South Africa, pencil
drawing Date 20 February
2007 Source Own work Author
Nobu Tamura
email:nobu.tamura@yahoo.com
www.palaeocritti.com GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c0/Bauria_BW.jpg
260,000,000 YBN
364) The Ray-finned fishes: Gars
evolve.
 
[1] Spotted gar (Lepisosteus
oculatus) Creator Montague,
Brian Source
WO2445-28 Publisher U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service Contributor
DIVISION OF PUBLIC AFFAIRS Rights
(public domain) Source: fws.gov PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d8/Lepisosteus_oculatus.
jpg

[2] Adapted from: Richard Dawkins,
''The Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p339. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p339.
256,000,000 YBN
6362) The Holometabola Order: Diptera
{DiPTRe} evolves, true flies, having a
single pair of wings: the ancestor of
the mosquito, gnat, deer fly, horse
fly, fruit fly, drosophila, and house
fly).
 
[1] Nymphomyia alba adult UNKNOWN
source: http://whyevolutionistrue.files.
wordpress.com/2011/03/nymphomyia-alba.jp
g

[2] Nymphomyia alba larva UNKNOWN
source: http://whyevolutionistrue.files.
wordpress.com/2011/03/nymphomyia.jpg
251,400,000 YBN
102) The largest mass extinction of
history, the End-Permian mass
extinction. 82% of all genera are
observed extinct.

The Permian–Triassic extinction event
is the Earth's most severe extinction
event, with up to 96% of all marine
species and 70% of terrestrial
vertebrate species becoming extinct.It
is the only known mass extinction of
insects.
 
[1] Description English:
Description: Illustration of an
en:impact event. Source Made by
Fredrik. Cloud texture from public
domain NASA image. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/cb/Impact_event.jpg

[2] Timeline of mass extinctions.
COPYRIGHTED Benjamin
Cummings. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://io.uwinnipeg.ca/~simmons/
16cm05/1116/16macro.htm
251,000,000 YBN
54) The end of the Paleozoic and start
of the Mesozoic Era, and the end of the
Permian (299-251 mybn) and start of the
Triassic (251-201.6 mybn) period.
 
[1] Geologic Time Scale 2009 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.geosociety.org/scienc
e/timescale/timescl.pdf

[2] 260 Ma Late Permian UNKNOWN
source: http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~rcb7/260
_Permian_2globes.jpg
251,000,000 YBN
452) The supercontinent Pangea (PaNJEe)
forms.
 
[1] 260 Ma Late Permian UNKNOWN
source: http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~rcb7/260
_Permian_2globes.jpg

[2] In geologic terms, a plate is a
large, rigid slab of solid rock. The
word tectonics comes from the Greek
root ''to build.'' Putting these two
words together, we get the term plate
tectonics, which refers to how the
Earth's surface is built of plates. The
theory of plate tectonics states that
the Earth's outermost layer is
fragmented into a dozen or more large
and small plates that are moving
relative to one another as they ride
atop hotter, more mobile material.
Before the advent of plate tectonics,
however, some people already believed
that the present-day continents were
the fragmented pieces of preexisting
larger landmasses
(''supercontinents''). The diagrams
below show the break-up of the
supercontinent Pangaea (meaning ''all
lands'' in Greek), which figured
prominently in the theory of
continental drift -- the forerunner to
the theory of plate tectonics. PD
source: http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/dynamic
/graphics/Fig2-5globes.gif
250,000,000 YBN
241) The gymnosperms "Gnetales"
{ne-TA-lEZ} evolve. Gnetales are
thought to be the closest living
gymnosperm relatives of the
angiosperms.
 
[1] Description English: Ephedra
fragilis growing at Cap de Formentor,
peninsula of Formentor, Pollença,
Mallorca Date created 18. Dec.
2009 Source Own work Author Frank
Vincentz Permission (Reusing this
file) GFDL (self made) GFDL
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Pollen%C3%A7a_-
_Ma-2210_-_Cap_de_Formentor_-_Ephedra_fr
agilis_05_ies.jpg/1280px-Pollen%C3%A7a_-
_Ma-2210_-_Cap_de_Formentor_-_Ephedra_fr
agilis_05_ies.jpg

[2] Ephedra viridis in western
Nevada Ephedra_viridis_1.jpg (59KB,
MIME type:
image/jpeg) GFDL Permission is
granted to copy, distribute and/or
modify this document under the terms of
the GNU Ephedra viridis ('Green
Mormon Tea'), photo taken near Reno,
Nevada GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eph
edra
250,000,000 YBN
368) The Ray-finned fishes: Bowfin
fishes evolve.
 
[1] Description English: Bowfin
(Amia calva) Deutsch: Kahlhecht Date
Source USFWS alt graphic A.svg
This image originates from the
National Digital Library of the United
States Fish and Wildlife Service at
this page This tag does not indicate
the copyright status of the attached
work. A normal copyright tag is still
required. See Commons:Licensing for
more information. See Category:Images
from the United States Fish and
Wildlife Service. Author Duane
Raver/U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5c/Amia_calva1.jpg

[2] Adapted from: Richard Dawkins,
''The Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p339. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p339.
235,000,000 YBN
304) The Protist Phlyum "Haptophyta"
{HaPTuFITu} evolves, the
Coccolithophores {KoK-o-lit-u-FORZ}.

Most haptophytes are coccolithophores,
unicellular (flagellated) marine
protists with calcified plates (or
coccoliths) embedded in their cell
walls.

Some haptophytes turn parts of the
ocean bright turquoise during their
blooms.
 
[1] Fig. 1. A consensus phylogeny of
eukaryotes. The vast majority of
characterized eukaryotes, with the
notable exception of major subgroups of
amoebae, can now be assigned to one of
eight major groups. Opisthokonts (basal
flagellum) have a single basal
flagellum on reproductive cells and
flat mitochondrial cristae (most
eukaryotes have tubular ones).
Eukaryotic photosynthesis originated in
Plants; theirs are the only plastids
with just two outer membranes.
Heterokonts (different flagellae) have
a unique flagellum decorated with
hollow tripartite hairs (stramenopiles)
and, usually, a second plain one.
Cercozoans are amoebae with filose
pseudopodia, often living with in tests
(hard outer shells), some very
elaborate (foraminiferans). Amoebozoa
are mostly naked amoebae (lacking
tests), often with lobose pseudopodia
for at least part of their life cycle.
Alveolates have systems of cortical
alveoli directly beneath their plasma
membranes. Discicristates have discoid
mitochondrial cristae and, in some
cases, a deep (excavated) ventral
feeding groove. Amitochondrial
excavates lack substantial molecular
phylogenetic support, but most have an
excavated ventral feeding groove, and
all lack mitochondria. The tree shown
is based on a consensus of molecular
(1-4) and ultrastructural (16, 17) data
and includes a rough indication of new
ciPCR ''taxa'' (broken black lines)
(7-11). An asterisk preceding the taxon
name indicates probable paraphyletic
group
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/co
ntent/full/300/5626/1703

[2] Emiliania huxleyi, a
coccolithophore. Photo courtesy Dr.
Markus Geisen - photographer, and The
Natural History Museum. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Emiliania_huxleyi_3.jpg
230,000,000 YBN
6416) The earliest arthropod fossils in
amber: gall mites (Arachnids) and a
nematoceran fly (Diptera).
(near the village of Cortina in the
Dolomite Alps of) northeastern
Italy 
[1] Schmidt, Alexander R. et al.
“Arthropods in Amber from the
Triassic Period.” Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences (2012): n.
pag. http://www.pnas.org/content/early/
2012/08/21/1208464109.abstract COPYRIGH
TED
source: http://www.pnas.org/content/earl
y/2012/08/21/1208464109.abstract
228,000,000 YBN
412) The Reptiles: Dinosaurs evolve.
(Ischigualasto Formation) Valley of the
Moon, Ischigualasto Provinvial Park,
northwestern Argestina 
[1] Figure 2 from: Sereno, Paul C. et
al. “Primitive dinosaur skeleton from
Argentina and the early evolution of
Dinosauria.” Nature 361.6407 (1993) :
64-66. http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v361/n6407/abs/361064a0.html COPYR
IGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v361/n6407/abs/361064a0.html

[2] Eoraptor was a genus of small,
slender theropod native to northwest
Argentina. It was quite possibly the
earliest theropod genus and has not
been classified in any family.
UNKNOWN
source: http://images.wikia.com/deadtime
s/images/a/a2/Eoraptor.jpg
228,000,000 YBN
611) The earliest dinosaur fossil, the
Theropod Eoraptor.
This dinosaur is a cat-sized
meat eater.
(Ischigualasto Formation) Valley of the
Moon, Ischigualasto Provinvial Park,
northwestern Argestina 
[1] Figure 2 from: Sereno, Paul C. et
al. “Primitive dinosaur skeleton from
Argentina and the early evolution of
Dinosauria.” Nature 361.6407 (1993) :
64-66. http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v361/n6407/abs/361064a0.html COPYR
IGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v361/n6407/abs/361064a0.html

[2] Eoraptor was a genus of small,
slender theropod native to northwest
Argentina. It was quite possibly the
earliest theropod genus and has not
been classified in any family.
UNKNOWN
source: http://images.wikia.com/deadtime
s/images/a/a2/Eoraptor.jpg
228,000,000 YBN
6282) Dinosaurs divide into two major
lines: the Ornithischians
{ORnitiSKEiNZ} (Bird-hipped dinosaurs)
and the Saurischians {SoriSKEiNZ}
(Lizard-hipped dinosaurs). Note that
birds do not evolve from the
bird-hipped Ornithischians, but evolve
from the lizard-hipped Sauriscians. The
Ornithischians will evolve into both
bipedal and quadrupedal plant-eaters
(herbavores), and the Saurischians will
evolve into bipedal meat-eaters
(carnivores) and quadrupedal
plant-eaters.
 
[1] Harold Levine, ''The Earth Through
Time'', 2006, p417. COPYRIGHTED
source: Harold Levine, "The Earth
Through Time", 2006, p417.

[2] Harold Levine, ''The Earth Through
Time'', 2006, p418. COPYRIGHTED
source: Harold Levine, "The Earth
Through Time", 2006, p418.
228,000,000 YBN
6283) The Saurischian {SoriSKEiN}
Dinosaurs split into two major lines:
The Sauropodomorpha (SoroPiDimORFu} and
the Therapoda {tiRoPiDu}.

The Sauropodomorphs are divided into
prosauropods and sauropods, are mostly
plant-eating, and include the large,
long-necked dinosaurs like
Apatosaurus.

The Theropod {tERePoD} dinosaurs are
bipedal and carnivorous and include
Allosaurus, Tyrannosaurus, and
Velociraptor. All birds descend from a
Therapod ancestor.
(Ischigualasto Formation) Valley of the
Moon, Ischigualasto Provinvial Park,
northwestern Argestina 
[1] Fig 3.38 from Kardong,
''Vertebrates'', p116,
2002. COPYRIGHTED
source: Kardong, "Vertebrates", p116,
2002.

[2] Figure 2 from: Sereno, Paul C. et
al. “Primitive dinosaur skeleton from
Argentina and the early evolution of
Dinosauria.” Nature 361.6407 (1993) :
64-66. http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v361/n6407/abs/361064a0.html COPYR
IGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v361/n6407/abs/361064a0.html
225,000,000 YBN
126) The Synapsids Mammals evolve. The
first mammary gland.

Mammals are warm-blooded vertebrates
that have four limbs (except for some
aquatic species).
The female has mammary glands,
which secrete milk for the nourishment
of the young after birth. In the
majority of mammals the body is
partially or entirely covered with
hair. Other unique characteristics
include a jaw hinged directly to the
skull, hearing through bones in the
middle ear, and mature red blood cells
that have no nucleus.

The earliest evidence for mammals is
the fossil Adelobasileus, a 15mm skull
found in Texas.
(Dockum Formation) Kalgary, Crosby
County, Texas, USA 
[1] Figure 6 from: Spencer G. Lucas
and Zhexi Luo, ''Adelobasileus from the
Upper Triassic of West Texas: The
Oldest Mammal'', Journal of Vertebrate
Paleontology, Vol. 13, No. 3 (Sep. 23,
1993), pp. 309-334 Published by:
Taylor & Francis, Ltd. on behalf of The
Society of Vertebrate
Paleontology Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/4523514 COP
YRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/4523
514

[2] [t Note that this image is not
clearly from a scholarly
source] Description English:
Adelobasileus cromptoni, a mammaliaform
from the Late Triassic of Texas.
Digital. Date 9 September
2008 Source Own work Author
Nobu Tamura
email:nobu.tamura@yahoo.com
www.palaeocritti.com Permission (Reusi
ng this file) See below. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2f/Adelobasileus_BW.jpg
225,000,000 YBN
369) The Ray-Finned Fishes Teleost
(TeLEoST) fishes evolve.

Teleosts are a large group of fishes
with bony skeletons, including most
common fishes.

Most ray-finned fishes are teleosts.
The teleost fishes are a very
successful evolutionary line, with
about 23,500 species, 30 times the
number of shark species.
 
[1] Fig. 2. The single
most-parsimonious (MP) tree derived
from unweighted analysis of mitogenomic
data comprising concatenated nucleotide
sequences from 12 protein-coding
(excluding the ND6 gene and third codon
positions) and 22 transfer RNA (tRNA)
genes (stem regions only) from all 28
species examined. Tree length, 12,709
steps; consistency index, 0.355;
retention index, 0.471; and rescaled
consistency index, 0.167. Numbers above
and below internal branches indicate
jackknife values obtained for 500
replicates using the heuristic search
option in PAUP*4.0b10 (Swofford, 2002)
with 20 random-addition sequences being
performed in each replication and decay
indices, respectively. The scale
indicates 100 changes. from: Inoue,
JG, Miya, M, Tsukamoto, K, Nishida, M
(2003) ''Basal actinopterygian
relationships: A mitogenomic
perspective on the phylogeny of the
ldquoancient fish.rdquo'' Mol
Phylogenet Evol 26:
110-120 http://www.sciencedirect.com/sc
ience/article/pii/S1055790302003317 COP
YRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/cac
he/MiamiImageURL/B6WNH-475B9D7-6-1K/0?wc
hp=dGLbVlz-zSkzk

[2] Arapaima gigas at the Smithsonian
Zoo. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b1/Arapaima_gigas.jpg
225,000,000 YBN
6370) The Holometabola Order Tricoptera
evolves: Caddisflies {KaDiSFLIZ}.
 
[1] Description Original description
on website: ''Caddisfly adults resemble
moths, but the wings are covered with
fine hair instead of scales.
(Trichoptera = ''hair wing.'')
Caddisfly larvae are a favorite food of
many fish, including trout, and are
used as bait by sport fishermen. The
larvae are especially sensitive to
water pollution and their numbers can
be monitored over a period of time as a
good indicator of water quality. These
primitive flying insects are most
abundant near well-aerated streams and
fast-flowing water, but also frequent
lakes, ponds and marshes. This specimen
was found at the west branch of the
DuPage River, a fairly sluggish body of
water, home to both large and
smallmouth bass, walleye, and panfish
such as bluegills and sunfish.'' Date
27 May 2005 Source Own work
http://www.cirrusimage.com/Trichoptera_c
addisfly.htm Author Bruce Marlin CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d7/Trichoptera_caddisfly
_1.jpg

[2] Description Caddisfly larva with
pebble case in Thornton Creek, early
Summer 2007, Seattle, WA, USA. Date
20070623 Source Taken by Ashley Pond
V Author Ashley Pond V CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Caddisfly-larva
.jpg/1204px-Caddisfly-larva.jpg
220,000,000 YBN
387) The most primitive extant
reptiles, the Testudines {TeSTUDinEZ}
evolve: the ancestor of all Turtles,
Tortoises and Terrapins.

Most Testudines are aquatic or
semiaquatic, fresh water or marine, but
lay eggs on land. They have webbed feet
or flippers and their body is covered
by a shell from which only the legs,
head and neck, and tail protrude when
needed.

220 million year old turtle fossils
have an incomplete top shell indicate
that the earliest turtle shell was made
from broadened ribs, which over the
course of time fused together to form
the modern shell.
 
[1] Richard Dawkins, ''The Ancestor's
Tale'', (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), 262. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), 262.

[2] English: Odontochelys
semitestacea, from the Late Triassic of
China, the oldest known turtle.
Digital. ‪中文(简体)‬:
半甲齿龟，已知最为古老的乌
，于2007年在中国贵州境内发
。(三维模拟图) Date 4
December 2008 Source Own
work Author Nobu Tamura
email:nobu.tamura@yahoo.com
www.palaeocritti.com GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/39/Odontochelys_BW.jpg
220,000,000 YBN
389) The reptiles: Tuataras {TUeToRoZ}
evolve.

The tuatara is a lizardlike reptile
found around New Zealand. Like certain
lizards, tuataras have a vestigial
third eye on top of their head.
Tuataras may live several decades
longer than a century.
(Islands of) New Zealand 
[1] Richard Dawkins, ''The Ancestor's
Tale'', (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p262. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p262.

[2] A male tuatara named Henry, living
at the Southland Museum and Art
Gallery, is still reproductively active
at 111 years of age. 111-Year-Old
Reptile Becomes a Dad After Tumor
Surgery Discover Magazine, 26 January
2009. Retrieved 20 March
2009. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disc
over_Magazine Description English:
Henry, the world's oldest Tuatara in
captivity at Invercargill, New
Zealand Date 22 November
2007 Source Own work Author
KeresH CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/96/Henry_at_Invercargill
.jpg
220,000,000 YBN
428) The first flying vertebrate, the
Reptiles Pterosaurs evolve.

Flight in pterosaurs, birds, and bats
evolves independently.

Pterosaurs actively fly (contracting
their wing muscles to flap), as opposed
to only glide.

That some pterosaurs had hair is
evidence that they may have been
warm-blooded.
 
[1] Eudimorphon and Peteinosaurus
from: Wellnhofer, ''Pterosaurs'',
1991, p60-61. COPYRIGHTED
source: Wellnhofer, "Pterosaurs", 1991,
p60-61.

[2] Eudimorphon and Peteinosaurus
from: Wellnhofer, ''Pterosaurs'',
1991, p60-61. COPYRIGHTED
source: Wellnhofer, "Pterosaurs", 1991,
p60-61.
210,000,000 YBN
390) The Reptiles Iguania evolve: (the
ancestor of iguanas, chameleons, and
spiny lizards).
 
[1] Richard Dawkins, ''The Ancestor's
Tale'', (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), 262. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), 262.

[2] Description Iguana sp. Foto
tomada en el Zoo de Madrid. Date
Summer 2007 Source Own
work Author Manuel de Corselas
ARS SUMMUM, Centro para el Estudio y
Difusión Libres de la Historia del
Arte PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/57/AA_Iguana_Fot_Ars_Sum
mum.JPG
210,000,000 YBN
391) The Reptiles: Scleroglossa evolve
(the ancestor of snakes, skinks, and
geckos).
 
[1] Richard Dawkins, ''The Ancestor's
Tale'', (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), 262. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), 262.

[2] Description Deutsch:
Versteinerung eines Archaeophis proavus
Massalongo - aus Monte Bolca. Museum
für Naturkunde (Berlin). English:
Fossil of a Archaeophis proavus
Massalongo, Monte Bolca. Museum für
Naturkunde (Berlin). Date 22 July
2007 Source Own work Author
Raymond - Raimond
Spekking Permission (Reusing this
file) See
below. Attribution (required by the
license) © Raimond Spekking /
CC-BY-SA-3.0 CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f1/Naturkundemuseum_Berl
in_-_Archaeophis_proavus_Massalongo_-_Mo
nte_Bolca.jpg
210,000,000 YBN
6313) The earliest extant Teleosts:
Bonytongues evolve.
 
[1] Fig. 2. The single
most-parsimonious (MP) tree derived
from unweighted analysis of mitogenomic
data comprising concatenated nucleotide
sequences from 12 protein-coding
(excluding the ND6 gene and third codon
positions) and 22 transfer RNA (tRNA)
genes (stem regions only) from all 28
species examined. Tree length, 12,709
steps; consistency index, 0.355;
retention index, 0.471; and rescaled
consistency index, 0.167. Numbers above
and below internal branches indicate
jackknife values obtained for 500
replicates using the heuristic search
option in PAUP*4.0b10 (Swofford, 2002)
with 20 random-addition sequences being
performed in each replication and decay
indices, respectively. The scale
indicates 100 changes. from: Inoue,
JG, Miya, M, Tsukamoto, K, Nishida, M
(2003) ''Basal actinopterygian
relationships: A mitogenomic
perspective on the phylogeny of the
ldquoancient fish.rdquo'' Mol
Phylogenet Evol 26:
110-120 http://www.sciencedirect.com/sc
ience/article/pii/S1055790302003317 COP
YRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/cac
he/MiamiImageURL/B6WNH-475B9D7-6-1K/0?wc
hp=dGLbVlz-zSkzk

[2] Arapaima gigas at the Smithsonian
Zoo. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b1/Arapaima_gigas.jpg
209,500,000 YBN
489) The extinct Mammals Triconodonta
{TrIKoNoDoNTo} evolve.
 
[1] [t May not be from scholarly
source] Description
Gobiconodon Date Source
Own Work by Pavel Riha (see also
the paleo-gallery by Pavel
Riha) Author Pavel Riha = user
Pavel.Riha.CB
(e-mail) Permission (Reusing this
file) See below. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2d/Gobiconodon.jpg
201,600,000 YBN
127) The End-Triassic mass extinction.
53% of all genera are observed
extinct.

Many terrestrial vertebrates and large
amphibians go extinct.

Large outpourings of lava from the
break-up of Pangea may cause climate or
sea-level change.
 
[1] A modified version of
Image:Extinction
Intensity.svg. Changes: Time
runs from left to right Periods
are coloured as per the Paris system -
see w:Template:Period color for full
explanation Text removed so
wikilinks can be floated over. See
w:Template:Annotated image/Extinction
for implementation. Cubic
polynomial removed as this doesn't
convey any useful information and is
mainly an artefact. The caption on
the original file is: Marine Genus
Biodiversity: Extinction
Intensity GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/06/Extinction_intensity.
svg

[2] Hawaii Volcanoes National Park.
May 1954 eruption of Kilauea Volcano.
Halemaumau fountains. Photo by J.P.
Eaton, May 31, 1954. Image file:
/htmllib/batch37/batch37j/batch37z/batch
37/hvo00014.jpg PD
source: http://libraryphoto.cr.usgs.gov/
htmllib/batch37/batch37j/batch37z/batch3
7/hvo00014.jpg
201,600,000 YBN
228) The end of the Triassic (251-201.6
mybn), and start of the Jurassic
(201.6-145.5 mybn) Period.
 
[1] Description English: Global
paleogeographic reconstruction of the
Earth in the late Jurassic period 150
million years ago. Deutsch: Globale
paläogeografische Rekonstruktion der
Erde während des späten Jura vor 150
Millionen Jahren. Русский:
Глобальная
палеогеографическая
реконструкция Земли
в конце Юрского
периода, 150 миллионов
лет назад. Date 23 April
2008 Source
http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~rcb7/mollgl
obe.html Author Dr. Ron Blakey -
http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~rcb7/ CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/76/LateJurassicGlobal.jp
g

[2] Geologic Time Scale 2009 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.geosociety.org/scienc
e/timescale/timescl.pdf
201,600,000 YBN
6372) The Ornithischians Thyreophora
{tIrEoFeru} evolve; the ancestor of the
armored ankylosaurs {ANKilOSORZ} and
the plated stegosaurs {STeGeSORZ}.

One of the most primitive Thyreophorans
is Scutellosaurus which has rows of
armored plates along its body and tail.
(Kayenta Formation) Arizona, USA 
[1] Description Scutellosaurus
lawleri, an ornithischian from the
Early Jurassic of North America, pencil
drawing, digital coloring Date
November 30, 2006, modified October
11, 2007 Source Own work Author
Nobu Tamura
(http://spinops.blogspot.com) GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/12/Scutellosaurus.jpg

[2] Description Scutellosaurus Date
Source Own Work by Pavel Riha (see
also the paleo-gallery by Pavel
Riha) Author Pavel Riha = user
Pavel.Riha.CB GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b0/Scutellosaurus1.jpg
201,000,000 YBN
6652) The earliest wasps evolve: wood
wasps.
 
[1] David A. Grimaldi, Michael S.
Engel, ''Evolution of the Insects'',
2005, p411. COPYRIGHTED
source: David A. Grimaldi, Michael S.
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p411.

[2] Description English: Xiphydria
prolongata (Symphyta) Date Source
British Phytophagous
Hymenoptera Author Peter Cameron
(died 1912) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f6/Xiphydria_prolongata.
jpg
200,000,000 YBN
370) The Teleosts: eels and tarpons
evolve.
 
[1] Adapted from: Richard Dawkins,
''The Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p339. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p339.

[2] Adapted from: Richard Dawkins,
''The Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p339. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p339.
200,000,000 YBN
392) The Reptiles: Crocodilia
{KroKoDiLEu} evolve (the ancestor of
Crocodiles, allegators, and caimans
{KAmeNS}).
 
[1] Richard Dawkins, ''The Ancestor's
Tale'', (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p262. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p262.

[2] Nile crocodile, taken at the Le
Bonheur Crocodile Farm near
Stellenbosch, South Africa. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/81/NileCrocodile.jpg
195,000,000 YBN
246) The Saurischian {SoriSKEiN}
Sauropods {SoRuPoDZ} evolve; the
ancestor of the large, long-necked
dinosaurs like Apatosaurus
{uPaTuSORuS}, Brachiosaurus
{BrAKEuSORuS}, and Diplodocus
{DiPloDiKuS}.
western USA 
[1] [t may not be
scholarly] Description
Brachiosaurus altithorax Date
2007 Source Own work Author
Богданов
dmitrchel@mail.ru PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d9/Brachiosaurus_DB.jpg

[2] Description English: Bronze
Brachiosaurus mount outside of the
Field Museum of Natural History,
Chicago, IL. Date
10/12/2009 Source Own
work Author
AStrangerintheAlps CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/4b/FMNH_Brachiosaurus.JP
G
195,000,000 YBN
6373) The Ornithischian Ornithopoda
{ORnitoPiDu} evolve; the duck-billed
dinosaurs, ancestor of the Hadrosaurs.

One of the most primitive Ornithopods
is Heterodontosaurus.
 
[1] Heterodontosaurus UNKNOWN
source: http://www.wikidino.com/wp-conte
nt/uploads/Heterodontosaurus-Jan-Sovak.j
pg

[2] Harold Levine, ''The Earth Through
Time'', 2006, p417. COPYRIGHTED
source: Harold Levine, "The Earth
Through Time", 2006, p417.
190,000,000 YBN
371) The Teleosts: herrings and
anchovies evolve.
 
[1] Adapted from: Richard Dawkins,
''The Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p339. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p339.

[2] Description Northern
anchovies are important prey for marine
mammals and game fish Image ID:
nur00009, National Undersearch Research
Program (NURP) Collection Location:
Pacific Ocean. Credit: OAR/National
Undersea Research Program
(NURP) Downloaded from:
http://www.photolib.noaa.gov/htmls/nur00
009.htm Note: Another image from this
collection had fish described as
northern anchovies, with the scientific
name Engraulis mordax, or Californian
anchovy. The species may be
misidentified. Date 2006-12-08
(original upload date) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0f/Anchovy_closeup.jpg
190,000,000 YBN
6289) The Supercontinent Pangea splits
into Laurasia and Gondwana. The
northern part, Laurasia will form North
America and Europe. The southern part,
Gondwana will form South America and
Africa.
Pangea 
[1] 200 Ma Early Jurassic UNKNOWN
source: http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~rcb7/200
_Jurassic_2globes.jpg

[2] In geologic terms, a plate is a
large, rigid slab of solid rock. The
word tectonics comes from the Greek
root ''to build.'' Putting these two
words together, we get the term plate
tectonics, which refers to how the
Earth's surface is built of plates. The
theory of plate tectonics states that
the Earth's outermost layer is
fragmented into a dozen or more large
and small plates that are moving
relative to one another as they ride
atop hotter, more mobile material.
Before the advent of plate tectonics,
however, some people already believed
that the present-day continents were
the fragmented pieces of preexisting
larger landmasses
(''supercontinents''). The diagrams
below show the break-up of the
supercontinent Pangaea (meaning ''all
lands'' in Greek), which figured
prominently in the theory of
continental drift -- the forerunner to
the theory of plate tectonics. PD
source: http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/dynamic
/graphics/Fig2-5globes.gif
190,000,000 YBN
6347) The Holometabola Order
Lepidoptera {lePiDoPTRu} evolves (the
ancestor of moths, butterflies, and
caterpillars).

The Lepidoptera comprise the largest
lineage of plant-feeding organisms. The
plant eating beetles form the other
largest group.
Dorset, England 
[1] Description Photograph of a male
Monarch butterfly (Danaus plexippus en
). This butterfly was stationary on a
leaf with his wings outstretched in an
attempt to show off and attract a mate.
The picture was taken in the butterfly
house at the Tyler Arboretum. Camera
and Exposure Details: Camera: Nikon
D50 Lens: Nikon Nikkor ED AF-S DX
18-55mm f/3.5-5.6G Exposure: 55mm
(82.5mm in 35mm equivalent) f/9 @ 1/125
s. Date 9 September 2006 Source Own
work (Own Picture) Author Photo
(c)2006 Derek Ramsey
(Ram-Man) Permission (Reusing this
file) You may NOT use this image
on your own web site or anywhere else
unless you release this image and any
derivative works (which may include the
web page or other medium where this
image is used, if it is not considered
a ''collective work'') by following the
terms of the following license. Any
other use will be considered a breach
of copyright law. Please do not copy
this image illegally by ignoring the
terms of the license, as it is not in
the public domain. If you would like
special permission to use, license, or
purchase the image or prints of the
image, or for use in any other fashion
or would simply like a copy of the
original file, please contact me or
email me first to ask. Please see the
non-legalese usage guide for more
information. Note: While you are not
required to do so by the license,
please consider letting me know when
you reuse one of my photograph images,
as a courtesy. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Monarch_Butterf
ly_Showy_Male_3000px.jpg/1280px-Monarch_
Butterfly_Showy_Male_3000px.jpg

[2] Description Photograph of a
female Monarch Butterflyen (Danaus
plexippus en ) laying an egg on a
Mexican Milkweeden (Asclepias
curassavica en 'Silky Gold'). The
picture was taken in Aston Township,
Pennsylvania. Camera and Exposure
Details: Camera: Nikon D50 Lens:
Sigma 70mm f/2.8 EX DG Macro Exposure:
70mm (105mm in 35mm equivalent) f/8 @
1/160 s. (200 ISO) Date Friday,
August 8, 2008 Source Own
Picture. Author Photo by and (c)2009
Derek Ramsey
(Ram-Man) Permission (Reusing this
file) You may NOT use this image
on your own web site or anywhere else
unless you release this image and any
derivative works (which may include the
web page or other medium where this
image is used, if it is not considered
a ''collective work'') by following the
terms of the following license. Any
other use will be considered a breach
of copyright law. Please do not copy
this image illegally by ignoring the
terms of the license, as it is not in
the public domain. If you would like
special permission to use, license, or
purchase the image or prints of the
image, or for use in any other fashion
or would simply like a copy of the
original file, please contact me or
email me first to ask. Please see the
non-legalese usage guide for more
information. Note: While you are not
required to do so by the license,
please consider letting me know when
you reuse one of my photograph images,
as a courtesy. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Monarch_Butterf
ly_Danaus_plexippus_Laying_Eggs.jpg/1096
px-Monarch_Butterfly_Danaus_plexippus_La
ying_Eggs.jpg
180,000,000 YBN
456) The earliest extant mammals, the
Mammal Order Monotremata
{moN-O-Tre-moD-e} evolves: the
Monotremes {moNeTrEMZ}.

Monotremes are an order of primitive
egg-laying mammals restricted to
Australia, Tasmania and New Guinea. The
Monotremes consist of only the platypus
and two species of echidna.

Monotreme means "single hole" in Greek.
Like birds and reptiles, monotremes
have a single opening, the cloaca
{KlO-A-Ko}, for the passage of liquid
and solid wastes, the transfer of
sperm, and, in the female, the laying
of eggs.

Except for their egg laying, they have
mammalian characteristics, such as
mammary glands, hair, and a complete
diaphragm. After hatching young cling
to the belly of the mother. Monotremes
have no nipples, but milk is secreted
for the young by mammary glands on the
belly of the mother through openings in
the mother's skin.

Monotremes are also the most primitive
extant warm blooded and hair growing
species. The regulation of body
temperature is less effective in
monotremes than in other mammals.
Australia, Tasmania and New
Guinea 
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
239. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), 239.

[2] Description Photo: model of
Steropodon galmani at the Australian
Museum, Sydney. Date 20 April
2008 Source Own work Author
Matt Martyniuk
(Dinoguy2) Permission (Reusing this
file) See below. Other versions
Derivative works of this file:
Prototheria collage.png GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f8/Steropodon_model_aus.
jpg
170,000,000 YBN
372) The Teleosts: carp, minnows, and
piranhas evolve.
 
[1] Adapted from: Richard Dawkins,
''The Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p339. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p339.

[2] Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Commo
n_carp.jpg Common carp (Cyprinus
carpio). Public domain image from USFWS
National Image Library. Created by
Duane Raver. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a8/Common_carp.jpg
170,000,000 YBN
373) The Teleosts: salmon, trout, and
pike evolve.
 
[1] Adapted from: Richard Dawkins,
''The Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p339. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p339.

[2] Fig. 2. The single
most-parsimonious (MP) tree derived
from unweighted analysis of mitogenomic
data comprising concatenated nucleotide
sequences from 12 protein-coding
(excluding the ND6 gene and third codon
positions) and 22 transfer RNA (tRNA)
genes (stem regions only) from all 28
species examined. Tree length, 12,709
steps; consistency index, 0.355;
retention index, 0.471; and rescaled
consistency index, 0.167. Numbers above
and below internal branches indicate
jackknife values obtained for 500
replicates using the heuristic search
option in PAUP*4.0b10 (Swofford, 2002)
with 20 random-addition sequences being
performed in each replication and decay
indices, respectively. The scale
indicates 100 changes. from: Inoue,
JG, Miya, M, Tsukamoto, K, Nishida, M
(2003) ''Basal actinopterygian
relationships: A mitogenomic
perspective on the phylogeny of the
ldquoancient fish.rdquo'' Mol
Phylogenet Evol 26:
110-120 http://www.sciencedirect.com/sc
ience/article/pii/S1055790302003317 COP
YRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/cac
he/MiamiImageURL/B6WNH-475B9D7-6-1K/0?wc
hp=dGLbVlz-zSkzk
170,000,000 YBN
383) The Amphibians: Salamanders
evolve.

Salamanders include about 400 species
in 10 amphibian families (the Order
Caudata), commonly found in fresh water
and damp woodlands, principally in
temperate regions of the Northern
Hemisphere.
Salamanders are generally nocturnal,
brightly colored, and are 4-6 in.
(10-15 cm) long.

Salamanders are able to regenerate a
lost limb or tail, by cells in the
damaged area changing back to slightly
less mature versions.
 
[1] Richard Dawkins, ''The Ancestor's
Tale'', (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), 303. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), 303.

[2] Description central
Pennsylvania Spotted Salamander
(Ambystoma maculatum) Source
self-made Date 25 March
2008 Author Camazine (talk) Scott
Camazine web.mac.com/camazine CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/b/b2/SpottedSalamander.jpg
165,000,000 YBN
358) The Cartilaginous fishes: batoidea
{BuTOEDEu} evolve, the ancestor of all
rays, skates, and sawfishes.
 
[1] Richard Dawkins, ''The Ancestor's
Tale'', (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p361. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p361.

[2] Description Manta Ray (Manta
birostris) at Hin Daeng,
Thailand. Date 30 November
2005 Source Flickr Author
jon hanson from london, UK CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/df/Manta_birostris-Thail
and4.jpg
161,000,000 YBN
6369) The Holometabola Order:
Siphonaptera evolves: fleas.

The earliest fleas are much larger than
modern flea species.
(Jiulongshan Formation) Daohugou,
Ningcheng County, Inner Mongolia 
[1] Huang, Diying et al. “Diverse
Transitional Giant Fleas from the
Mesozoic Era of China.” Nature
advance online publication (2012): n.
pag. http://www.nature.com/nature/journ
al/vaop/ncurrent/full/nature10839.html
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/vaop/ncurrent/full/nature10839.html


[2] Description English: Scanning
Electron Micrograph of a Flea. See
bellow for a colorized version of this
image. Fleas are known to carry a
number of diseases that are
transferable to human beings through
their bites. Included in this
infections is the plague, caused by the
bacterium Yersinia pestis. Français :
Une puce observée en microscopie
électronique. Les puces transmettent
de nombreuses maladies qu'elles peuvent
transmettre à l'homme par leur
morsures. Parmi ces maladies on trouve
la peste, causée par la bactérie
Yersinia pestis. Date Source
http://phil.cdc.gov/PHIL_Images/0507200
2/00001/PHIL_240_lores.jpg Author
Content Provider(s): Centers for
Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) /
Janice Carr PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/66/Scanning_Electron_Mic
rograph_of_a_Flea.jpg
150,000,000 YBN
330) Stegosaurus, an armored,
plant-eating Thyreophoran {tIRrEoFereN}
dinosaur lives around this time.
western USA 
[1] [t may not be
scholarly] Description
Stegosaurus stenops, a stegosaur
from the Late Jurassic of North
America, pencil drawing Date 6
May 2007 Source Own work Author
Nobu Tamura
email:nobu.tamura@yahoo.com
www.palaeocritti.com Permission (Reusi
ng this file) See below. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/70/Stegosaurus_BW.jpg

[2] Description Deutsch:
Rekonstruktion eines
Stegosaurus-Skeletts im Naturmuseum
Senckenberg in Frankfurt am
Main English: Reconstruction of a
Stegosaurus skeleton in the Senckenberg
Museum in Frankfurt am Main Date
2 September 2007 Source
EvaK Author EvaK GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6a/Stegosaurus_Senckenbe
rg.jpg
150,000,000 YBN
374) The Teleosts: Lightfish and
Dragonfish evolve.

Lightfish are characterized by
luminescent organs on the undersides of
their bodies.

Bioluminescence is the emission of
light by an organism or biochemical
system. It occurs in a wide range of
protists and animals, including
bacteria and fungi, insects, marine
invertebrates, and fish. It results
from a chemical reaction that produces
light very efficiently, giving off very
little heat. In higher organisms, light
production is used to frighten
predators and to help members of a
species recognize each other.
 
[1] Adapted from: Richard Dawkins,
''The Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p339. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p339.

[2] Description English: This
deep-sea fish, Photostomias guernei,
has a built-in bioluminescent
''flashlight'' it uses to help it see
in the dark. Date 1999 Source
Photostomias.jpg Author
derivative work: Una Smith
Photostomias.jpg: Edith
Widder/HBOI PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/63/Photostomias2.jpg
150,000,000 YBN
393) The Therapods {tERePoDZ} Birds
evolve. The first feather.

Fossils of therapod dinosaurs from
China (~120 MYBN) indicate that
feathers may have originally evolved on
non-flying reptiles for insulation (or
courting) and not for flight.

At least one known feathered dinosaur
can probably glide, which suggests that
flapping flight evolves as an extension
of gliding from trees.

Birds have highly developed color
vision.

The evolution of birds may be
responsible for the disappearance of
large insects.
 
[1] Richard Dawkins, ''The Ancestor's
Tale'', (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p262. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p262.

[2] Description English:
Archaeopteryx lithographica, specimen
displayed at the Museum für Naturkunde
in Berlin. (This image shows the
original fossil - not a
cast.) Deutsch: Archaeopteryx
lithographica, Exemplar im Museum für
Naturkunde in Berlin. (Dieses Bild
zeigt das Original-Fossil, keinen
Abguss.) Date 5 July 2009 Source
Own work Author H. Raab
(User:Vesta) CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/9d/Archaeopteryx_lithogr
aphica_%28Berlin_specimen%29.jpg
150,000,000 YBN
6374) Sauropod {SoRuPoD} dinosaurs are
common; large, long-necked dinosaurs
like Apatosaurus {uPaTuSORuS},
Brachiosaurus {BrAKEuSORuS}, and
Diplodocus {DiPloDiKuS}.
western USA 
[1] [t may not be
scholarly] Description
Brachiosaurus altithorax Date
2007 Source Own work Author
Богданов
dmitrchel@mail.ru PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d9/Brachiosaurus_DB.jpg

[2] Description English: Bronze
Brachiosaurus mount outside of the
Field Museum of Natural History,
Chicago, IL. Date
10/12/2009 Source Own
work Author
AStrangerintheAlps CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/4b/FMNH_Brachiosaurus.JP
G
146,000,000 YBN
490) An extinct major group of early
mammals, the Multituberculata evolve.
 
[1] Figure 1: Reconstruction of the
Paleocene multituberculate Ptilodus,
about 50 cm in length. From Cox
(1998). COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.paleocene-mammals.de/
ptilodus.jpg

[2] [t Note: image not clearly from
scholarly source] Description
Skull of Ptilodus, a paleocene
multituberculate, after Vaughan, 1986,
pencil drawing Date 13 November
2007 Source Own work Author
Nobu Tamura
email:nobu.tamura@yahoo.com
www.palaeocritti.com GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/19/Ptilodus_skull_BW.jpg

145,000,000 YBN
245) The Seed plants angiosperms
evolve. The first flowering plant.

Almost all grains, beans, nuts, fruits,
vegetables, herbs and spices come from
plants with flowers. Tea, coffee,
chocolate, wine, beer, tequila, and
cola all come from flowing plants. Much
of our clothing comes from flowering
plants too: cotton and linen are made
from "fibers" of flowering plants, as
are rope and burlap, and many
commercial dyes are extracted from
flowering plants. Many drugs also come
from flowering plants including:
aspirin, digitalis, opium, cocaine,
marijuana, and tobacco.

Angiosperms represent approximately 80
percent of all the known green plants
now living. The angiosperms are
vascular seed plants in which the ovule
(or egg) is fertilized and develops
into a seed in an enclosed hollow
ovary. The ovary is usually enclosed in
a flower, the part of the angiosperm
that contains the male or female
reproductive organs or both. The fruit
is the ovary of a plant which encloses
seeds.

Aside from primitive flowers like the
Magnoliids, most later angiosperms can
be divided into the more primitive
Monocotyledons (Monocots), flowering
plants that have a single cotyledon
(seed leaf) in the embryo, and the more
recent Dicotyledons (Dicots) (also
called Eudicotylendons or eudicots),
which have two cotyledons in the
embryo. The dicots contain two groups
that account for two-thirds of all
angiosperm species: the asterids, and
the rosids.
Israel, Morocco, Libya, and possibly
China 
[1] Description
辽宁古果（Archaefructus
liaoningensis），为迄今发现的最
早的花（早白垩纪），于北京
然博物馆 Date 17:15, 18 October
2006 (UTC) Source Own work Author
Shizhao CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Archaefructus_l
iaoningensis.jpg/1280px-Archaefructus_li
aoningensis.jpg

[2] Figure 2 from: Sun, G. , Dilcher,
D. L. , Zheng, S.-L. & Zhou, Z.-K. In
search of the first flower: A Jurassic
angiosperm, Archaefructus, from
northeast China. Science 282,
1692–1695
(1998). http://www.sciencemag.org/conte
nt/282/5394/1692
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/2896858
COPYRIGHTED
source: Sun, G. , Dilcher, D. L. ,
Zheng, S.-L. & Zhou, Z.-K. In search of
the first flower: A Jurassic
angiosperm, Archaefructus, from
northeast China. Science 282,
1692–1695
(1998). http://www.sciencemag.org/conte
nt/282/5394/1692
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/2896858

145,000,000 YBN
415) The earliest flower fossil is
Archaefructus, a submerged wetland
plant in China.
(Yixian Formation) Liaoning Province,
northeastern China 
[1] Archaefructus liaoningensis. The
leaf-like structures on the stem of
this 140 million year old fossil are
pods containing the seeds, a
characteristic unique to flowering
plants. Credit: University of Florida.
PD?
source: http://science.nasa.gov/headline
s/y2001/ast17apr_1.htm?list118443

[2] Archaefructus liaoningensis Sun,
Dilcher, Zheng et Zhou (Sun et al.,
1998). Fruiting axes and remains of two
subtending leaves (Photo courtesy of
David Dilcher). COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://www.flmnh.ufl.edu/deeptim
e/virtualfossilcollection/Archaeofructus
.html
144,000,000 YBN
128) The end of the Jurassic
(201.6-145.5 mybn), and start of the
Cretaceous (145.5-65.5 mybn) Period.
 
[1] Geologic Time Scale 2009 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.geosociety.org/scienc
e/timescale/timescl.pdf

[2] 150 Ma Late Jurassic UNKNOWN
source: http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~rcb7/150
_Jurassic_2globes.jpg
143,000,000 YBN
6288) The earliest extant Angiosperm
"Amborella".
 
[1] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
''Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree'', Proc
Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/268/1482/2211.abstract COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://rspb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/268/1482/2211.abstract

[2] Photo of Amborella trichopoda
(Amborellaceae; photo © Sangtae Kim).
source: http://tolweb.org/tree?group=ang
iosperms
140,000,000 YBN
247) The Angiosperms Nymphaeales
{niM-FE-A-lEZ} evolve, the Water
Lilies.
 
[1] Nymphaea alba Nymphaea alba -
image taken on 29 August 2004 in the
outdoor botanical garden of Technion -
Haifa, Israel public domain
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nym
phaeaceae

[2] Nymphaea colorata from
Africa presume is gnu or pd
source: same
140,000,000 YBN
421) The Ornithiscian Ceratopsian
dinosaurs evolve (the ancestor of
Triceratops).

Ceratopsian dinosaurs are plant-eating
dinosaurs. Later ceratopsians have
massive heads armed with a sharp beak,
long horns and a large sheet of bone
that grows from the back of the skull.
Mongolia, China 
[1] Psittacosaurus Palmer, ''The
Marshall Illustrated Encyclopedia of
Dinosaurs & Prehistoric Animals'',
1999, p162-163. COPYRIGHTED
source: Palmer, "The Marshall
Illustrated Encyclopedia of Dinosaurs &
Prehistoric Animals", 1999, p162-163.

[2] Description Protoceratops
andrewsi skeleton at Carnegie Museum of
Natural History. Date 28 November
2009, 14:07 Source
http://www.flickr.com/photos/139061
48@N00/4168549790/ Uploaded by
FunkMonk Author Tadek Kurpaski
from London, Poland CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/7c/Andrewsi.jpg
140,000,000 YBN
457) The Mammals Marsupials evolve. The
first nipple and breast.

Marsupium means pouch in Latin.
Marsupials are born as tiny embryos and
crawl through their mother's fur into
the pouch where they clamp their mouths
to a nipple. The other main group of
mammals are called placentals because
they feed their embryos with a placenta
which allows the baby to be born much
later. The pouch is like an external
womb.
China 
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p231. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p231.

[2] Description English: Virginia
Opossum (Didelphis virginiana) in a
juniper tree in northeastern
Ohio. Date 27 December
2008 Source Own work Author
Wilson44691 Permission (Reusing
this file) See below. Other versions
PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6a/Possum122708.JPG
138,000,000 YBN
248) The Angiosperms "Austrobaileyales"
evolve.
 
[1] Austrobaileya scandens C.T.
White * Query NCU-3e or IPNI
* Common Name: * Family:
Austrobaileyaceae (Croiz.) Croiz.
* Country of Origin: Australia -
Queensland * Habitat: Mesophyll /
notophyll vine forest *
Eco-region(s): o AA0117 -
Queensland tropical rain forests
* Description: Evergreen, woody vines
with loosely twining main stem and
straight, leafy lateral branches
endemic to the rainforests of northeast
Queensland, Australia. This species is
the only member of the genus and the
genus is the only member of the family,
Austrobaileyaceae. It is a very
primitive angiosperm family although it
is sometimes placed in the Magnoliales
(Cronquist) or Laurales. Cronquist
considers it an ''isolated small group,
not wholly compatible with the bulk of
either the Laurales or Magnoliales, but
not sufficiently distinctive to
constitute a family of its own.''
The flowers are rather large,
solitary in the axils of the leaves,
with a putrescent odor, probably
pollinated by flies. Its
pollen is the oldest recorded flowering
plant pollen in Australia.
source: http://florawww.eeb.uconn.edu/im
ages/byspecies/AUSTROBAILEYA_SCANDENS_01
.JPG

[2] Austrobaileya scandens
(Austrobaileyaceae) mature
fruit Lamins Hill via Malanda,
Queensland date uncertain Larger
image (81K) Robust vine in rainforest
canopy. It is a single species in an
Australian endemic family. Its pollen
is the oldest recorded flowering plant
pollen in Australia. See reference
under Image 7-93. Mesophyll/notophyll
vine forest.
source: http://www.gu.edu.au/ins/collect
ions/webb/html/6-15.html
136,000,000 YBN
249) The Angiosperms "Chloranthaceae"
evolve.
 
[1] Scientific Name Chloranthus
japonicus Location Vityaz inlet,
Gamov Peninsula, Khasansky distr.,
Primorsky Territory (Russian
Federation) Acknowledgements courtesy
CalPhotos Copyright © 2001 Nick
Kurzenko
source: http://tolweb.org/tree?group=Chl
oranthaceae

[2] Hedyosmum scaberrimum AB201a is
from arizona.edu
source: http://eebweb.arizona.edu/grads/
alice/Chloranthaceae/Hedyosmum%20scaberr
imum%20AB201a.html
136,000,000 YBN
460) The Birds Enantiornithes
{iNaNTEORNitEZ} evolve.
 
[1] Protopteryx fengningensis Name:
Protopteryx fengningensis Phylum:
Chordata; Subphylum Vertebrata; Class
Aves; Subclass
Enantiornithes Geological Time:
Early Cretaceous Size: 120 mm long
(tip of skull to tip of toes); Matrix:
85 mm by 141 mm Fossil Site: Yixian
Formation, Fengning County, Hebei
Province of China UNKNOWN
source: http://www.fossilmuseum.net/Foss
il-Pictures/Birds/Protopteryx/CF017A.jpg


[2] Sinornis santensis Artist: James
Reece COPYRIGHTED AUSTRALIA
source: http://www.amonline.net.au/chine
se_dinosaurs/feathered_dinosaurs/photo07
.htm
134,000,000 YBN
250) The Angiosperms: "Magnoliids"
{maGnOlEiDZ} evolve (the ancestor of
nutmeg, avocado, sassafras, cinnamon,
black and white pepper, camphor, bay
(or laurel) tree, and magnolia.).
 
[1] Magnolia This photo is a part of
the Wikipedia:Plant photo collection
I. Downloaded URL:
http://tencent.homestead.com/files/magno
lia.jpg Warning sign This image has
no source information. Source
information must be provided so that
the copyright status can be verified by
others. Unless the copyright status is
provided and a source is given, the
image will be deleted seven days after
this template was added (see page
history). If you just added this
template, please use {{no source
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mag
noliales

[2] ~~~~~}} (to include the date
here). Please consider using
source: same
133,000,000 YBN
253) The Angiosperms Eudicots
{YUDIKoTS} evolve (the largest lineage
of flowers).

Eudicots are also called "tricolpates"
which refers to the structure of the
pollen.

The two main groups of the Eudicots are
the "rosids" and the "asterids".
 
[1] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
''Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree'', Proc
Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/268/1482/2211.abstract COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://rspb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/268/1482/2211.abstract

[2] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, ''Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree'', Proc
Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/268/1482/2211.abstract COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://rspb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/268/1482/2211.abstract
132,000,000 YBN
462) The Birds Hesperornithiformes
{HeS-Pe-rOR-nit-e-FOR-mEZ} evolve.
 
[1] Hesperornis. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.savageancientseas.com
/images/labels/hesperornis.jpg

[2] Detail of a painting by Ely Kish,
Copyright © Ely Kish; used with
permission of Ely Kish (EMAIL)
Hesperornis regalis Hesperornis
(pronounced HES-per-OR-nis) means
''western bird''. Toothed marine birds
of the Late Cretaceous
seas COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.oceansofkansas.com/He
sperornis/kish-01.jpg
130,000,000 YBN
375) The Teleosts: Perch, seahorses,
flying fish, pufferfish, and barracuda
evolve.
 
[1] Adapted from: Richard Dawkins,
''The Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p339. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p339.

[2] Seahorse - Hippocampus
sp. Image ID reef2027, The
Coral Kingdom Collection Location
Gulf of Aqaba, Red Sea Photographer
Mr. Mohammed Al Momany, Aqaba,
Jordan Source
http://www.photolib.noaa.gov/htmls/reef2
027.htm PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/4b/Hippocampus.jpg
130,000,000 YBN
376) The Teleosts: cod and anglerfish
evolve.
 
[1] Adapted from: Richard Dawkins,
''The Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p339. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p339.

[2] Fig. 2. The single
most-parsimonious (MP) tree derived
from unweighted analysis of mitogenomic
data comprising concatenated nucleotide
sequences from 12 protein-coding
(excluding the ND6 gene and third codon
positions) and 22 transfer RNA (tRNA)
genes (stem regions only) from all 28
species examined. Tree length, 12,709
steps; consistency index, 0.355;
retention index, 0.471; and rescaled
consistency index, 0.167. Numbers above
and below internal branches indicate
jackknife values obtained for 500
replicates using the heuristic search
option in PAUP*4.0b10 (Swofford, 2002)
with 20 random-addition sequences being
performed in each replication and decay
indices, respectively. The scale
indicates 100 changes. from: Inoue,
JG, Miya, M, Tsukamoto, K, Nishida, M
(2003) ''Basal actinopterygian
relationships: A mitogenomic
perspective on the phylogeny of the
ldquoancient fish.rdquo'' Mol
Phylogenet Evol 26:
110-120 http://www.sciencedirect.com/sc
ience/article/pii/S1055790302003317 COP
YRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/cf/Gadus_morhua-Cod-2-At
lanterhavsparken-Norway.JPG
125,000,000 YBN
163) The Mammals Eutheria evolve:
Placental mammals.

The Eutheria are mammals that have a
placenta. The placenta is an organ that
forms in the uterus to aid in the
exchange of food and wastes between the
blood of the mother and fetus through
an umbilical cord.

Placental mammals include all living
mammals except marsupials and
monotremes. The placenta allows for a
longer developmental period within the
protection of the womb which may give
the placentals a selective advantage.
(Daxigou) Jianchang County, Liaoning
Province, China 
[1] Description English:
Juramaia Date 30 April 2012 Source
Own work Author Nobu Tamura
http://paleoexhibit.blogspot.com/
http://spinops.blogspot.com/
http://www.palaeocritti.com CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/15/Juramaia_NT.jpg

[2] Figure 1 from: Luo Z, Yuan C,
Meng Q & Ji Q (2011), ''A Jurassic
eutherian mammal and divergence of
marsupials and placentals'', Nature
476(7361): p.
42–45. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v476/n7361/full/nature10291.html
{nature10291.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nature.com/nature/journal
/v476/n7361/carousel/nature10291-f1.2.jp
g
125,000,000 YBN
395) The bird beak evolves.
(Yixian Formation) Liaoning Province,
northeastern China 
[1] Confuciusornis
source: http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/dia
psids/birds/confuciusornislg.jpg

[2] Description Confuciusornis
sanctus skeleton displayed in Hong Kong
Science Museum Date 30 June
2007 CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/78/Confuchisornis_sanctu
s.JPG
120,000,000 YBN
463) The birds Neornithes {nEORnitEZ}
evolve (modern birds: the most recent
common ancestor of all extant birds).

Neornithes is the subclass of Aves that
contains all of the known birds other
than those placed in the
Archaeornithes. Neornithes includes
more than 30 orders, both fossil and
living, its members are characterized
by a bony, keeled sternum with fully
developed powers of flapping flight
(secondarily lost in a number of
groups); a short tail with fused
vertebrae to which all tail feathers
attach; a large fused pelvic girdle;
and a large brain and eyes contained
within a fused braincase. In addition
Neornithes have a fully-separated
four-chambered heart and typically
exhibit complex social behaviors.
 
[1] aepyornis The same image appears
in: Palmer, The Marshall Illustrated
Encyclopedia of Dinosaurs and
Prehistoric Animals, 1999,
p176. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://photo.starnet.ru/Thematic
_Wallpapers/Zhizn/Dikie_zhivotnye/dinosa
urs_fossils/images/aepyornis.jpg

[2] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p262. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p262.
120,000,000 YBN
6361) Bees evolve.
  
120,000,000 YBN
6653) The earliest ants evolve: the
Hymenoptera Family "Formicidae".
 
[1] Description Atta cephalotes. Left
most 7 are workers of various castes,
right 2 are queens (rightmost: winged
form). Date 2008-06-08 10:32
(UTC) Source
Atta.cephalotes.gamut.jpg Author
derivative work: GameKeeper
Atta.cephalotes.gamut.jpg:
Sarefo CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Atta.cephalotes
.gamut.selection.jpg/1280px-Atta.cephalo
tes.gamut.selection.jpg

[2] David A. Grimaldi, Michael S.
Engel, ''Evolution of the Insects'',
2005, p431. COPYRIGHTED
source: David A. Grimaldi, Michael S.
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p431.
119,000,000 YBN
251) The Angiosperms
"Ceratophyllaceae", the closest living
relative of all eudicots.
 
[1] Ceratophyllum
submersum Description: Ceratophyllum
submersum; an aquatic plant. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cer
atophyllaceae

[2] Ceratophyllum
demersum Ceratophyllum_demersum3.jpg
(78KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) Common
Hornwort (Ceratophyllum demersum) usgs

source: same
112,000,000 YBN
252) The Angiosperms Monocotyledons (or
"Monocots") evolve: Flowering plants
that have a single cotyledon (or seed
leaf) in the embryo.

Monocots are the second largest lineage
of flowers after the Eudicots, and
include lilies, palms, orchids, and
grasses.

The two main orders of Monocots are
"Base Monocots" and "Commelinids".
 
[1] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
''Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree'', Proc
Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/268/1482/2211.abstract COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://rspb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/268/1482/2211.abstract

[2] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, ''Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree'', Proc
Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/268/1482/2211.abstract COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://rspb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/268/1482/2211.abstract
110,000,000 YBN
416) Sauroposeidon, a long-neck
(sauropod) brachiosaur lives around
this time, possibly the tallest animal
of all time, at an estimated height of
18 meters (or 60 feet).
Oklahoma, USA 
[1] [t Note: not clearly from scholarly
source] Description Sauroposeidon
was a sauropod from the Early
Cretaceous Period, related to the more
famous Brachiosaurus. The only specimen
to date is represented by four neck
vertebrae. It was the tallest dinosaur
known, estimated at 18 m (60 ft). Date
13 December 2006 Source i
made it myself Author
LadyofHats PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Sauroposeidon_d
inosaur.svg/1000px-Sauroposeidon_dinosau
r.svg.png
108,000,000 YBN
254) The Basal Eudicots evolve (the
ancestor of the buttercup, clematis,
poppy {source of opium and morphine},
macadamia, lotus, and sycamore).
 
[1] Creeping butercup (Ranunculus
repens). GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Creeping_butercup_close_800.jpg

[2] Clematis hybrid from
http://www.ars.usda.gov/is/graphics/phot
os/ public domain
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cle
matis
106,000,000 YBN
267) The "Core Eudicots" evolve (the
ancestor of the carnation, cactus,
caper, buckwheat, rhubarb, sundew,
venus flytrap, old world pitcher
plants, beet, quinoa, spinach, currant,
sweet gum, peony, witch-hazel,
mistletoe, and grape plants.).
 
[1] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
''Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree'', Proc
Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/268/1482/2211.abstract COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://rspb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/268/1482/2211.abstract

[2] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, ''Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree'', Proc
Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/268/1482/2211.abstract COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://rspb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/268/1482/2211.abstract
105,000,000 YBN
417) The Sauropod Argentinosaurus
{oRJeNTiNuSORuS} evolves, possibly the
longest animal of all time.
 
[1] Description
Argentinosaurus Deutsch:
Skelettrekonstruktion in einer
Sonderausstellung des Naturmuseums
Senckenberg English: Skeletal
reconstruktion in a special exhibition
of the Naturmuseum Senckenberg Date
6 August 2010 Source Eva
K. Author Eva K. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a9/Argentinosaurus_DSC_2
943.jpg

[2] [t May not be
scholarly] Description
Argentinosaurus huinculensis, a
titanosaur from the Middle Cretaceous
of Argentina, pencil drawing, digital
coloring Date 15 August
2007 Source Own work Author
Nobu Tamura
email:nobu.tamura@yahoo.com
www.palaeocritti.com GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e1/Argentinosaurus_BW.jp
g
105,000,000 YBN
491) The Eutheria Superorder Afrotheria
evolves (the ancestor of all elephants,
manatees, and aardvarks).

Afrotheres originate in Africa and are
the earliest extant placental mammals.
Africa 
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p225. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p225.

[2] Description Afrotheria Date
18 December 2007 Source
self-made, based on:
Image:Orycteropus afer.jpg
Image:Dugong.jpg Image:Elephant
Shrew.jpg Image:Manatee Looking at
the Camera.jpg Image:Taupe
doree.jpg Image:Klippschliefer
Suedafrika Hermanus.jpg
Image:Elefante Lake Manyara Park.jpg
Image:Tanrek.jpg Author
Esculapio GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f0/Afrotheria.jpg
100,000,000 YBN
464) The Birds "Tinamiformes" evolve
(the ancestor of the Tinamous
{TiNomYUZ}).
 
[1] Richard Dawkins, ''The Ancestor's
Tale'', (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p262. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p262.

[2] Phylum : Chordata - Class : Aves -
Order : Tinamiformes - Family :
Tinamidae - Species : Crypturellus
tataupa (Tataupa tinamou) Given to the
wikipedia by the owner, Marcos
Massarioli. Status GNU
source: http://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
gem:Crypturellus_tataupa.JPG
100,000,000 YBN
465) The Birds "Ratites" evolve (the
ancestor of the ostrich, rhea {rEe},
emu, cassowary {KaSOwaRE}, and kiwi).
 
[1] Richard Dawkins, ''The Ancestor's
Tale'', (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p262. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p262.

[2] Description Various Ratite
birds (clockwise from top left): Brown
kiwi Apteryx mantelli, Greater rhea,
double-wattled cassowary Casuarius
casuarius, Haast's eagle attacking New
Zealand moa, Masai ostrich
(photographed in Nairobi National Park,
Kenya). Date 19 June 2007 Source
self-made from
Image:Brown_kiwi.jpg,
Image:Nandu-Portrait 2.jpg,
Image:Casuarius_casuarius_-_double-wattl
ed_cassowary.jpg,
Image:Giant_Haasts_eagle_attacking_New_Z
ealand_moa.jpg, Image:Masai ostrich.jpg
(see original images for copyright
information). Author
Richard001 GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/31/Ratites.PNG
95,000,000 YBN
419) The Therapod {tERePoD} Spinosaurus
{SPINuSORuS} evolves, perhaps the
largest meat-eating dinosaur.
 
[1] Description Spinosaurus -
01 Date 6 November 2009,
11:18 Source Spinosaurus - 01
Uploaded by FunkMonk Author
Kabacchi CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/64/Spinosaurus_skeleton.
jpg

[2] [t May or may not be from
scholarly source] Description
Spinosaurus aegipticus with hands,
tail and skull fixed. Date 2003
(modified 6-May-2008) Source
dmitrchel@mail.ru Author
Bogdanov, modified by Matt
Martyniuk (User:Dinoguy2) and
User:FunkMonk. Jaw muscles taken
from[1] by User:Steveoc_86.
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2b/Spinosaurus1DBa.png
95,000,000 YBN
498) The Eutheria Superorder
"Xenarthra" {ZeN-oR-tro} evolves in
South America, the Xenarthrans
{ZeNoRtreNZ} (the ancestor of Sloths,
Anteaters, and Armadillos).
South America 
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p220. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p220.

[2] Description Hoffmann's Two-toed
Sloth (Choloepus hoffmanni) in
Milwaukee County Zoological
Gardens Date 8 January
2006 Source Flickr Author
Woodsm CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b5/Choloepus_hoffmanni.j
pg
93,000,000 YBN
256) The Angiosperms: "Rosids" evolve
(Basal Rosids include: the geranium,
pomegranate, myrtle, clove, guava,
allspice, and eucalyptus).
 
[1] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
''Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree'', Proc
Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/268/1482/2211.abstract COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://rspb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/268/1482/2211.abstract

[2] A photo of the tree Staphylea
colchica taken by me in Århus, Denmark
GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cro
ssosomatales
93,000,000 YBN
261) The Rosids Order "Fabales"
{FoBAlEZ} evolves.

Fabales include many beans (green,
lima, kidney, pinto, white, black,
mung, fava, cow (or black-eyed),
popping), pea, peanut, soy {used in
tofu, miso, tempeh, and milk}, lentil,
chick pea (or garbonzo) {used in
falafel}, lupin, clover, alfalfa {used
as sprouts}, cassia {Kasu}, jicama,
Judas tree, tamarind {TaMuriND}, acacia
{uKAsYu}, and mesquite.
 
[1] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
''Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree'', Proc
Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/268/1482/2211.abstract COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://rspb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/268/1482/2211.abstract

[2] Abrus precatorius (Black-eyed
Susan) USGS public domain
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abr
us
93,000,000 YBN
265) The Monocots "Base Monocots"
evolve (the ancestor of vanilla,
orchid, asparagus, onion, garlic,
agave, aloe, and lily).
 
[1] Sweet Flag (Acorus calamus) -
spadix Spadix of Sweet Flag. usgs
public domain
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aco
rus

[2] Ivy Duckweed (Lemna
trisulca) Name Lemna
trisulca Family Lemnaceae
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ali
smatales
93,000,000 YBN
266) The Monocots "Commelinids"
{KomelIniDZ} evolve (the ancestor of
palms, coconut, corn, rice, barley,
oat, wheat, rye, sugarcane, bamboo,
grass, pineapple, papyrus, turmeric
{TRmRiK}, banana, and ginger).
 
[1] Manila dwarf coconut palm from
http://www.ars.usda.gov/is/graphics/phot
os/ Manila dwarf coconut palm
thumbnail A Manila dwarf coconut palm
on the grounds of the Tropical
Agriculture Research Station in
Mayaguez, Puerto Rico. dept of
ag public domain
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Are
cales

[2] coconut GOV public domain
source: http://www.nps.gov/kaho/KAHOckLs
/KAHOplnt/images/IMG_03957.jpg
93,000,000 YBN
274) The Angiosperms: "Asterids"
evolve. The Basal Asterid Order
Cornales {KORnAlEZ} evolves, the
ancestor of the dogwood, tupelo, and
dove tree.
 
[1] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
''Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree'', Proc
Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/268/1482/2211.abstract COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://rspb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/268/1482/2211.abstract

[2] European Cornel (Cornus mas)
Paris, France, cc
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Aethionema_grandiflora0.jpg
93,000,000 YBN
275) The Basal Asterids Order
"Ericales" {AReKAlEZ} evolves.
Ericales is the
ancestor of the kiwifruit, Impatiens,
ebony, persimmon, heather, crowberry,
rhododendron, azalia, cranberry,
blueberry, lingonberry, bilberry,
huckleberry, brazil nut, primrose,
sapodilla {SaPeDiLe or SaPeDEYe}, mamey
sapote (produces the sapota), chicle,
balatá, canistel {KaNiSTeL} {produces
the egg fruit}, new world pitcher plant
{a carniverous plant}, and tea {the
plant: Camellia sinensis {KemELYe}}
 
[1] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
''Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree'', Proc
Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/268/1482/2211.abstract COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://rspb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/268/1482/2211.abstract

[2] Actinidia fruit. kiwifruit. public
domain
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Aethionema_grandiflora0.jpg
93,000,000 YBN
283) The Asterids Order "Apiales"
{APEAlEZ} evolves; the ancestor of
dill, angelica, chervil {CRViL},
celery, caraway, cumin, sea holly,
poison hemlock, coriander (or
cilantro), carrot, lovage {LuViJ},
parsnip, anise {aNiS}, fennel, cicely
{SiSelE}, parsley, ivy, and ginseng.
 
[1] Variegated Ground-elder (Aegopodium
podagraria L.) in flower. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ground-elder_bloom.jpg

[2] An established spread of
variegated Ground-elder (Aegopodium
podagraria L.). GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ground-elder.jpg
93,000,000 YBN
285) The Asterid Order "Asterales"
{aSTRAlEZ} evolves; the ancestor of
burdock, tarragon, daisy, marigold,
safflower, chrysanthemum (mums),
chickory, endive, artichoke, sunflower,
sunroot (or Jerusalem artichoke),
lettuce, chamomile, black-eyed susan,
salsify {SoLSiFE}, dandelion, and
zinnia.
 
[1] Ray floret, typical for flowers of
the family Asteraceae. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ray.floret01.jpg

[2] disc floret, typical part of a
flower of the family Asteraceae. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Disc_floret01.jpg
91,000,000 YBN
259) The Rosids Order "Malpighiales"
{maLPiGEAlEZ} evolves (the ancestor of
gamboge {GaM BOJ}, mangosteen
{mANGuSTEN}, coca {used in cocaine and
in drinks}, rubber tree, cassava (or
manioc {maNEoK}) {used like a potato,
and in tapioca}, castor oil,
poinsettia, flax, acerola {aSorOlu} (or
barbados cherry), willow, poplar,
aspen, and violet (or pansy).
 
[1] mangosteen public domain
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gar
cinia

[2] Mangosteen fruit public domain
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Man
gosteen
91,000,000 YBN
260) The Rosid Order "Oxalidales" (the
ancestor of the fly-catcher plant, wood
sorrel family {leaves show "sleep
movements"}, and the oca {an edible
tuber}).
 
[1] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
''Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree'', Proc
Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/268/1482/2211.abstract COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://rspb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/268/1482/2211.abstract

[2] Oxalis regnellii atropurpurea
(Regnell's Sorrel) GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxa
lidaceae
90,000,000 YBN
270) The Rosids Order "Brassicales"
{BraSiKAlEZ} evolves (the ancestor of
horseradish, rapeseed, mustard, kale,
Chinese broccoli (kai-lan {KI laN}),
cauliflower, collard greens, cabbage
(used in coleslaw and sauerkraut),
Brussels sprouts, kohlrabi {KOLroBE},
broccoli, watercress, radish, rutabega,
turnip, wasabi, mignonette {miNYuNeT},
and papaya).
 
[1] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
''Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree'', Proc
Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/268/1482/2211.abstract COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://rspb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/268/1482/2211.abstract

[2] Aethionema grandiflora, GFDL by
Kurt Stueber
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Aethionema_grandiflora0.jpg
89,000,000 YBN
262) The Rosids Order "Rosales"
{ROZAlEZ} evolves (the ancestor of hemp
(cannibis, marijuana) {used for rope,
oil, and as a recreational drug},
hackberry, hop {used in beer},
breadfruit, cempedak {CeMPeDaK},
jackfruit, marang {moroNG?}, paper
mulberry, fig, banyan, strawberry,
rose, red raspberry, black raspberry,
blackberry, cloudberry, loganberry,
salmonberry, thimbleberry,
serviceberry, chokeberry, quince
{KWiNS}, loquat {lOKWoT}, apple,
crabapple, pear, plum, cherry, peach,
apricot, almond, jujube {JUJUB}, and
elm).
 
[1] Filipendula ulmaria, GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fil
ipendula

[2] A display of different apples,
We've even worked on bashless
bagging-packaging systems that are used
by wholesalers to bring you apples
without bruises. US ARS public domain
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/App
le
89,000,000 YBN
279) The Asterids Order "Gentianales"
{JeNsinAlEZ} evolves (the ancestor of
gentian {JeNsEn}, dogbane {DoGBAN},
carissa (produces the Natal plum),
oleander, logania {LOGAnEe}, and
coffee).
 
[1] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
''Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree'', Proc
Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/268/1482/2211.abstract COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://rspb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/268/1482/2211.abstract

[2] Anthocleista grandiflora. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Anthocleista_grandiflora.jpg
88,000,000 YBN
284) The Asterid Order "Dipsacales"
evolves (the ancestor of the
Elderberry, Honeysuckle, Teasel, and
the Corn Salad plant).
 
[1] Adoxa moschatellina (L.). 2005
Vellefrey et Vellefrange (France). GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Adoxa_moschatellina01.jpg

[2] Danewort inflorescence. Sambucus
ebulus (L.). European Dwarf Elder. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Sambucus_nigra_flori_bgiu.jpg
86,000,000 YBN
278) The Asterids Order "Solanales"
{SOlanAlEZ} evolves (the ancestor of
deadly nightshade or belladonna,
capsicum (bell pepper, paprika,
Jalapeño, Pimento), cayenne pepper {KI
YeN}, datura {DeTRu}, tomato, mandrake,
tobacco, petunia, tomatillo, potato,
eggplant, morning glory, sweet potato,
and water spinach).
Americas 
[1] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
''Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree'', Proc
Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/268/1482/2211.abstract COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://rspb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/268/1482/2211.abstract

[2] Atropa belladonna. Deadly
nightshade. GFDL by Kurt Stueber
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Atropa_bella-donna1.jpg
85,000,000 YBN
263) The Rosids Order "Cucurbitales"
(KYUKRBiTAlEZ} evolves (the ancestor of
watermelon, musk, cantaloupe, honeydew,
casaba, cucumbers, gourds, pumpkins,
squashes (acorn, buttercup, butternut,
cushaw {Kuso}, hubbard, pattypan,
spaghetti), zucchini, and begonia).
Americas 
[1] White bryony (Bryonia dioica). GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:White_bryony_male_800.jpg

[2] watermelon public domain
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Vampire_watermelon.jpg
85,000,000 YBN
264) The Rosids Order "Fagales"
{FaGAlEZ} evolves (the ancestor of many
flowers that produce edible nuts: for
example Birch, Hazel {nut}, Filbert
{nut}, Chestnut, Beech {nut}, Oak {used
for wood, and cork}, Walnut, Pecan
{PEKoN}, Hickory, and Bayberry).
 
[1] Alnus serrulata (Tag Alder) Male
catkins on right, mature female catkins
left Johnsonville, South Carolina GFDL
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Tagalder8139.jpg

[2] Speckled Alder (Alnus incana
subsp. rugosa) - leaves GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Alnus_incana_rugosa_leaves.jpg
85,000,000 YBN
466) The Bird Order "Galliformes"
{GaLliFORmEZ} evolves (the ancestor of
the Chicken, Turkey, Pheasant, Peacock,
and Quail).
 
[1] Richard Dawkins, ''The Ancestor's
Tale'', (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p262. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p262.

[2] Description English: Meleagris
gallopavo (Wild Turkey) Date 30
July 2006 Source Own work Author
MONGO PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/69/Meleagris_gallopavo_W
ild_Turkey.jpg
85,000,000 YBN
467) The Bird Order "Anseriformes"
{aNSRiFORmEZ} evolves (the ancestor of
ducks, geese, and swans).

The "Anseriformes" are an order of
birds, characterized by a broad, flat
bill and webbed feet.
 
[1] Richard Dawkins, ''The Ancestor's
Tale'', (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p262. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p262.

[2] Description English: Pair of
Wood Ducks Date 18 April
2007 Source
http://flickr.com/photos/sherseydc/
1623995158/ Author
http://www.flickr.com/people/sherse
ydc/ CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/08/Pair_of_Wood_Ducks.jp
g
85,000,000 YBN
499) The Eutheria Superorder
"Laurasiatheres" evolves. This major
line of placental mammals includes the
Insectivora (shrews, moles, hedgehogs),
Chiroptera (bats), Cetartiodactyla
(camels, pigs, deer, sheep, hippos,
whales), Perissodactyla (horses,
rhinos), Carnivora (cats, dogs, bears,
seals, walruses) and Pholidota
(pangolins).

The Laurasiatheres originate in the
northern continent Laurasia.
Laurasia 
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p200. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p200.

[2] Description Mamíferos
(mammals), based on:
Image:Giraffa camelopardalis angolensis
(head).jpg Image:Golden crowned
fruit bat.jpg
Image:Hedgehog-en.jpg Image:Lion
waiting in Nambia.jpg All of them
under a free licence already in
Wikicommons Date
11-01-2008 Source
Compilation made by myself,
Authors of the photos see
below. Author Hans Hillewaert
(Giraffe); (Bat) Original uploader was
Latorilla at en.wikipedia;
(Hedgehog-en) John Mittler at
777Life.com Free Image Archive; (Lion)
yaaaay CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a5/Mam%C3%ADferos.jpg
85,000,000 YBN
6654) The Eutheria Superorder
Euarchontoglires {YU-oR-KoNT-u-GlI-rEZ}
evolves (the ancestor of all Rabbits,
rodents, tree shrews, colugos, and the
primates).
 
[1] Description English: American
pika (Ochotona princeps) ''haying'' in
rocks (carrying back a mouthful of
grass it has dried for winter food). At
2,340 m (7,700 ft) in streamside
campsite below Black Rock Pass, Sequoia
National Park, California. Date 6
August 2006 Source Own work Author
Dcrjsr CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Ochotona_prince
ps_pika_haying_in_rocks.jpg/1280px-Ochot
ona_princeps_pika_haying_in_rocks.jpg

[2] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p187. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p187.
84,000,000 YBN
454) The Rocky mountains start to form.
 
[1] 90 Ma Late Cretaceous UNKNOWN
source: http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~rcb7/090
_Cretaceous_3globes.jpg

[2] A satellite image of Canada taken
in Summer. Snow cover is still
prominent in the Artic and on the Rocky
Mountains. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.virtualamericas.net/c
anada/maps/canada-satellite.jpg
82,000,000 YBN
271) The Rosids Order "Malvales"
{moLVAlEZ} evolves (the ancestor of
okra, marsh mallow {malO}, kola nut,
durian {DUREiN}, cotton, hibiscus,
balsa, and cacao {KoKoU} {used in
chocolate}).
Americas 
[1] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
''Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree'', Proc
Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/268/1482/2211.abstract COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://rspb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/268/1482/2211.abstract

[2] Bixa orellana L., floro en Lavras,
Minas Gerais, Brazilo, GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Aethionema_grandiflora0.jpg
82,000,000 YBN
272) The Rosids Order "Sapindales"
{SaPiNDAlEZ} evolves (the ancestor of
the maple, buckeye, horse chestnut,
longan {loNGeN or loNGuN}, lychee
{lECE}, rambutan {raMBUTeN}, guarana
{GWoR-u-no}, bael {BeL or BAL}, langsat
{loNGSoT} {or duku {DUKU}}, mahogany,
cashew, mango, pistachio {PiSTasEO or
PiSTosEO}, sumac, peppertree,
poison-ivy, frankincense, and the
citris trees: orange, lemon,
grapefruit, lime, tangerine, pomelo,
and kumquat).
Americas 
[1] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
''Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree'', Proc
Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/268/1482/2211.abstract COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Aethionema_grandiflora0.jpg

[2] Field Maple foliage and flowers,
Acer campestre. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Acer-campestre.JPG
82,000,000 YBN
420) The Ornithopods {ORnitePoDZ}
Hadrosaurs evolve; the duck-billed
dinosaurs.
 
[1] Description Parasaurolophus
cyrtocristatus skeleton, Field
Museum. Date 1 October 2006,
00:00 Source Field Museum
Dinosaur Author Lisa Andres from
Riverside, USA Permission (Reusing
this file) See below. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/14/Parasaurolophus_cyrto
cristatus.jpg

[2] Description English: A
clickable image of the
en:Hadrosauroidea. Illustration by
en:User:Debivort. The
en:Hadrosaurids comprise the dinosaurs
commonly known as ''duck-billed''
dinosaurs. They were common herbivores
during the en:Cretaceous period, and
prey to en:therapods such as
en:Tyrannosaurus. Spectacular fossils
of hadrosaurs have been found,
including mummified specimens in which
soft tissue was preserved, skin
impressions, tracks of footprints, and
nest sites that demonstrate the animals
had parental care of offspring. Animals
are shown to scale. A crisp diagram
showing the evolutionary relationships
between the tribes of the
Hadrosauroidea, with representative
individuals shown to scale. Conveys the
diversity of the group. Every dinosaur
shown has passed review for scientific
accuracy at en:Wikipedia:WikiProject
Dinosaurs/Image review. The
individual drawings are genera, and the
branches of the tree go down to tribe.
All these groups were alive in the late
Cretaceous, and are generally known
only from a single fossil
site en:Category:Approved
dinosaur images en:Category:Approved
dinosaur scale diagrams Date
2007-06-21 (first version);
2007-10-14 (last version) Source
Originally from en.wikipedia;
description page is/was here. Author
Original uploader was Debivort at
en.wikipedia GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/14/Hadrosaur-tree-v4.jpg

82,000,000 YBN
500) The Laurasiatheres Order
Insectivora evolves (the ancestor of
shrews, moles, and hedgehogs).
 
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p200. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p200.

[2] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p200. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p200.
80,000,000 YBN
422) The Therapods {tERePoDZ}
Dromaeosaurs {DrOmEoSORZ} evolve:
Raptors.

Raptors have large, hook claws on their
feet. Velociraptor is one example.
 
[1] Buitreraptor (foreground) and
Deinonychus (background) skeletons on
display at the Field Museum of Natural
History in Chicago, Illinois. Taken
August 2006 by my girlfriend, C.
Horwitz, and uploaded with permission
under the GFDL. —Steven G.
Johnson GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/29/Buitreraptor-Deinonyc
hus.jpg

[2] Description Digital +
graphite drawing of Velociraptor
mongoliensis Date 4 August
2006 Source image from
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Veloc
iraptor_dinoguy2.jpg Author Matt
Martyniuk GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/cd/Velociraptor_dinoguy2
.jpg
80,000,000 YBN
482) The earliest extant Marsupials,
the Order "Didelphimorphia" evolve (New
World opossums).
Americas 
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p231. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p231.

[2] Description English: North
American Opossum with winter
coat. Français : Opossum de Virginie
en livrée d'hiver. Deutsch: Ein
Nordopossum (Didelphis virginiana) im
Winterfell Date 21 February
2007 Source
Wikipedia:User:Cody.pope Author
Cody Pope CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/27/Opossum_2.jpg
77,000,000 YBN
483) The Marsupials Shrew opossums
evolve.
Andes Mountains, South America
(source) 
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p231. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p231.

[2] English: Shrew opossum (Family:
Caenolestidae) Author: pl.wiki:
Dixi PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d5/Shrew_opossum_-_Caeno
lestidae.png
75,000,000 YBN
423) Ceratopsian dinosaurs are common.
 
[1] Description Life restoration
of Monoclonius Date 1917 Source
http://digitallibrary.amnh.org/dspa
ce/bitstream/2246/1336/1/B037a10.pdf Au
thor Richard
Deckert Permission (Reusing this
file) See below. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1f/Monoclonius.jpg

[2] Description Monoclonius
nasicornis skeleton.[1] Date
1920 Source
http://www.copyrightexpired.com/ear
lyimage/bones/sharp/display_naturalhisto
ry1920_monoclonius.htm Author
BARNUM BROWN PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c4/Sharp_naturalhistory1
920_monoclonius.jpg
75,000,000 YBN
492) The Afrotheres: Aardvarks evolve.
Africa 
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p225. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p225.

[2] Description An aardvark at
Detroit Zoo Date 15 April
2008 Source Cropped from
File:Porcs formiguers (Orycteropus
afer).jpg Author MontageMan is
the author of the original image, I did
the crop Permission (Reusing this
file) See below. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8a/Porc_formiguer.JPG
75,000,000 YBN
505) The Laurasiatheres Pangolins
evolve.
Laurasia 
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p200. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p200.

[2] Description English: Pangolin,
Manis javanica Deutsch: Schuppentier,
Manis javanica Date May
2006 2007-03-12 (original upload
date) (Original text : mai
2006) Source photo taken by:
de:User:Piekfrosch Originally from
de.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. (Original text : selbst
fotografiert) Author Original
uploader was Piekfrosch at
de.wikipedia (Original text :
Piekfrosch
(Wikipedia-User)) Permission (Reusing
this file) Licensed under the GFDL
by the author. GFDL
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/42/Pangolin_borneo.jpg
74,000,000 YBN
280) The Asterids Order "Lamiales"
{lAmEAlEZ} evolves (ancestor of many
spices: lavender, mint, peppermint,
basil, marjoram {moRJ uruM}, oregano,
perilla, rosemary, sage, savory, thyme,
teak, sesame, corkscrew plants,
bladderwort, snapdragon, olive, ash,
lilac, and jasmine).
 
[1] Common Bugle (Ajuga reptans) GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ajuga-reptans01.jpg

[2] Calamintha grandiflora. GFDL by
Kurt Stueber
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Calamintha_grandiflora2.jpg
73,000,000 YBN
484) The Marsupials: Bandicoots and
Bilbies {BiLBEZ} evolve; in Australia.
Australia 
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p231. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p231.

[2] Description Eastern Barred
Bandicoot (Perameles gunnii), Poimena
Reserve, Austin's Ferry, Tasmania,
Australia. The photo taken at night
with off camera flashes. Date 31
July 2010 Source Own work Author
Noodle snacks
(http://www.noodlesnacks.com/) CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8b/Perameles_gunni.jpg
70,000,000 YBN
424) Two of the largest meat-eating
dinosaurs known are common (both
Therapods {tERePoDZ}): Tyrannosaurus
rex {TiraNiSORuS reKS} is the top
predator in North America and
Giganotosaurus {JiGuNOTuSORuS} is the
top predator in South America.
Americas 
[1] Description English: View of the
fossil/cast Tyranausaurus Rex at the
Royal Tyrell Museum in Alberta, Canada.
The image has been modified to remove
background persons and
objects. Français : Le fossile du
Tyranausaurus Rex dans le Royal Tyrell
Museum en Alberta au Canada. L'image a
été modifié pour enlever les
personnes et objets en arrière
plan. Date 27 June 2010 Source
Own work Author Pierre
Camateros CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a8/Fossil_Tyranausaurus_
Rex_at_the_Royal_Tyrell_Museum%2C_Albert
a%2C_Canada.jpg

[2] Description English: The
Wonderful Paleo Art of Heinrich Harder
- Illustrations for Die Wunder der
Urwelt 1912 Date 1912 Source
http://www.copyrightexpired.com/Hei
nrich_Harder/gigantosaurus_dwdu_1912.htm
l Author Heinrich Harder
(1858-1935) Permission (Reusing this
file) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/92/500_gigantosaurus_dwd
u1912cropped.jpg
70,000,000 YBN
425) The Thyreophoran {tIRrEoFereNZ}
Ankylosaurs {ANKilOSORZ} evolve (the
shield back and/or clubbed tail
dinosaurs) and are the most heavily
armored land-animals known.
 
[1] Description the image shows an
edmontonia. a sort of dinosaur Date
5 July 2006 Source the image
i did myself based on the images found
here: [1], [2],[3] and [4] Author
Mariana Ruiz (aka:LadyofHats) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/92/Edmontonia_dinosaur.p
ng

[2] Description the image shows
an edmontonia. a sort of dinosaur Date
5 July 2006 Source the image
i did myself based on the images found
here: [1], [2],[3] and [4] Author
Mariana Ruiz (aka:LadyofHats) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/92/Edmontonia_dinosaur.p
ng
70,000,000 YBN
426) The Marine reptiles Mosasaurs
{mOSeSORZ} evolve.
 
[1] Description English: Mosasaurus
skeleton; Maastricht Natural History
Museum, The Netherlands. Date 9
August 2010 Source Own
work Author
Wilson44691 Permission (Reusing
this file) See
below. Photograph taken by Mark A.
Wilson (Department of Geology, The
College of Wooster). PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/06/MosasaurMaastricht080
910.JPG

[2] Restoration of Aigialosaurus
bucchichi, a basal
mosasaur Description Aigialosaurus
bucchichi Date 2009 Source Own
work Author FunkMonk (Michael B.
H.) CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Aigialosaurus_b
ucchichi.jpg/1280px-Aigialosaurus_bucchi
chi.jpg
70,000,000 YBN
469) The Bird Order "Podicipediformes"
{PoDiSiPeDeFORmEZ} evolves (grebes
{GreBS}).
 
[1] Fig. 4. Our phylogeny differs from
and agrees with previous
classifications. We merged
well-supported (>70% bootstrap values)
monophyletic clades at the tips with
the same ordinal designation across all
three classifications (e.g., 24 species
called Passerines). Only higher
relationships supported by bootstrap
values >50% are shown. Colors are as in
Fig. 2. Color bars to the right of the
tree show membership in three different
classifications: Peters' (25) (left),
Sibley and Monroe's (30) (middle), and
Livezey and Zusi's (13) (right). Black
text within the bars indicates
monophyletic orders in our phylogeny,
whereas white text within the bars
indicates nonmonophyletic orders.
Ordinal name codes: ANS (Anseriformes),
APO (Apodiformes), APT
(Apterygiformes), ARD (Ardeiformes),
BAL (Balaenicipitiformes), BUC
(Bucerotiformes), CAP
(Caprimulgiformes), CAS
(Casuariiformes), CHA
(Charadriiformes), CIC (Ciconiiformes),
CLM (Columbiformes), COL (Coliiformes),
COR (Coraciiformes), CRA (Craciformes),
CUC (Cuculiformes), FAL
(Falconiformes), GAL (Galliformes), GAV
(Gaviiformes), GLB (Galbuliformes), GRU
(Gruiformes), MUS (Musophagiformes),
OPI (Opisthocomiformes), PAS
(Passeriformes), PEL (Pelecaniformes),
PIC (Piciformes), POD
(Podicipediformes), PRO
(Procellariiformes), PSI
(Psittaciformes), RAL (Ralliformes),
RHE (Rheiformes), SPH
(Sphenisciformes), STH
(Struthioniformes), STR (Strigiformes),
TIN (Tinamiformes), TRC
(Trochiliformes), TRO (Trogoniformes),
TUR (Turniciformes), and UPU
(Upupiformes). Figure 4
from: Hackett, Shannon J. et al. “A
Phylogenomic Study of Birds Reveals
Their Evolutionary History.” Science
320.5884 (2008) : 1763 -1768.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763/F4.large.jpg

[2] Description Podiceps
nigricollis English: Black-necked
Grebe, Jan. 2007, Ibaraki
JAPAN 日本語:
ハジロカイツブリ 2007年1月
茨城県神栖市波崎
(投稿者自身による撮影) Date
5 January 2007 Source photo
taken by Maga-chan Author
Maga-chan CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/66/Podiceps_nigricollis_
001.jpg
70,000,000 YBN
493) The Afrotheres: Tenrecs and golden
moles evolve.
Africa 
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p225. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p225.

[2] Beschreibung/ description: Großer
Tenrek (Tenrec ecaudatus) Quelle/
source: selber fotografiert auf der
Insel La Réunion im Juni 2003/
selfmade on island La Réunion.
photo taken by de:User:Markus Fink
Fotograf oder Zeichner: Markus Fink
first upload: Dec 6, 2004 -
de:Wikipedia by the photographer GNU

source: http://upload.wikimedia
70,000,000 YBN
494) The Afrotheres Elephant Shrews
evolve.
Africa 
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p225. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p225.

[2] Description A picture of a
male Black and Rufous Elephant Shrew at
the National Zoo. The Elephant shrew is
part of the small mammals exhibit at
the zoo. Date 16 June
2007 Source Own work Author
ZeWrestler PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c5/Rhynchocyon_petersi_o
ne.JPG
70,000,000 YBN
507) The Euarchontoglires
{YU-oR-KoNT-u-GlI-rEZ} Order
"Lagomorpha" {loGomORFo} evolves: the
ancestor of Rabbits, Hares, and Pikas
{PIKuZ}.

Rabbits were once classified as
rodents, because they also have very
prominent gnawing teeth at the front,
but were separated into their own order
called "Lagomorpha". Lagomorphs and
rodents are grouped together in a
cohort named "Glires" {GlIrEZ}.
 
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p187. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p187.

[2] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p187. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p187.
70,000,000 YBN
516) The Euarchontoglires
{YU-oR-KoNT-u-GlI-rEZ} Tree Shrews and
Colugos {KolUGOZ} evolve.
 
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p182. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p182.

[2] Description English: Indian
Tree-shrew (Anathana ellioti) in
Yercaud, India. Date Taken on
film in the 1990s - scanned on
2005-09-26 (according to EXIF
data) Source Photographed by S.
Karthikeyan ( palmfly at gmail . com )
Please contact author for usage of any
higher resolution images. Author
S. Karthikeyan CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/78/Anathana_ellioti.jpg
70,000,000 YBN
1383) The giant bird-like Therapod
dinosaur Gigantoraptor {JIGaNTOraPTR}
evolves.
 
[1] Alive, the beast is thought to have
been 8 metres long, 3.5 metres high at
the hip and 1,400 kilograms in weight -
35 times as heavy as its next largest
family members and 300 times the size
of smaller ones such as Caudiperyx. It
has been classified as a new species
and genus: Gigantoraptor erlianensis.
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/news/2007/
070611/full/070611-9.html

[2] Claro Cortes IV/Reuters A model
of the Gigantoraptor''s
head. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nytimes.com/2007/06/1
3/science/13cnd-dino.html?_r=1&hp&oref=s
login
66,000,000 YBN
120) The largest Pterosaur and largest
flying animal ever known,
Quetzalcoatlus {KeTZLKWoTLuS} evolves.
Quetzalcoa
tlus has a wing span of 12 meters (40
feet).
 
[1] Description English: fossil of
Quetzalcoatlus, an extinct
pterosaur Date June 2009 Source
Own work Author
Ghedoghedo GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/ab/Quetzalcoatlus_1.JPG

[2] Description Size comparison
of the azhdarchid pterosaurs
Quetzalcoatlus northropi and
Quetzalcoatlus unnamed species, with a
human. Modified from a diagram featured
in Witton and Naish (2008). Date
29 May 2008 Source Own
work Author Matt Martyniuk
(Dinoguy2), Mark Witton and Darren
Naish CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e5/Quetzscale1.png
65,500,000 YBN
129) The End-Cretaceous mass
extinction. 47% of all genera are
observed extinct.

Made extinct are: 60% of plant species,
and all dinosaurs, mosasaurs,
pterosaurs, plesiosaurs {PlESEoSORZ}
and pliosaurs {PlIoSORZ}.

A comet or meteor collides with the
Earth in what is now the Yucatan
{YUKoTaN} Peninsula of Mexico and huge
amounts of lava erupt from India. No
large animals survive on land, in the
air, or in the sea.
 
[1] Cretaceous meteor impact. Benjamin
Cummings. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://io.uwinnipeg.ca/~simmons/
16cm05/1116/16macro.htm

[2] Cretaceous meteor impact. Benjamin
Cummings. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://io.uwinnipeg.ca/~simmons/
16cm05/1116/16macro.htm
65,500,000 YBN
397) The end of the Mesozoic and start
of the Cenozoic Era, and the end of the
Cretaceous (145.5-65.5 mybn), and start
of the Tertiary (65.5-1.8 mybn) Period.
 
[1] Geologic Time Scale 2009 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.geosociety.org/scienc
e/timescale/timescl.pdf

[2] 65 Ma K-T Boundary -
Tertiary/Cretaceous UNKNOWN
source: http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~rcb7/065
_K_Tboundary_3globes.jpg
65,000,000 YBN
429) The start of the rapid
diversification of mammals.

There is a rapid increase in new
species of fossil mammals after the
extinction of the dinosaurs.

Most early Cenozoic mammal fossils are
small.
 
[1] UNKNOWN
source: http://bp0.blogger.com/_AejGb2Gc
r_o/SIlTsz-2RrI/AAAAAAAAAAY/8b_-LPsmDbc/
s1600/mammal3.jpg

[2] Fig 3.46 from: Kardong,
''Vertebrates'', 2002,
p123. COPYRIGHTED
source: from: Kardong, "Vertebrates",
2002, p123.
65,000,000 YBN
468) The Bird Order "Gruiformes"
{GrUiFORmEZ} evolves (the ancestor of
cranes, rails, and bustards {BuSTRDZ}).
 
[1] Fig. 4. Our phylogeny differs from
and agrees with previous
classifications. We merged
well-supported (>70% bootstrap values)
monophyletic clades at the tips with
the same ordinal designation across all
three classifications (e.g., 24 species
called Passerines). Only higher
relationships supported by bootstrap
values >50% are shown. Colors are as in
Fig. 2. Color bars to the right of the
tree show membership in three different
classifications: Peters' (25) (left),
Sibley and Monroe's (30) (middle), and
Livezey and Zusi's (13) (right). Black
text within the bars indicates
monophyletic orders in our phylogeny,
whereas white text within the bars
indicates nonmonophyletic orders.
Ordinal name codes: ANS (Anseriformes),
APO (Apodiformes), APT
(Apterygiformes), ARD (Ardeiformes),
BAL (Balaenicipitiformes), BUC
(Bucerotiformes), CAP
(Caprimulgiformes), CAS
(Casuariiformes), CHA
(Charadriiformes), CIC (Ciconiiformes),
CLM (Columbiformes), COL (Coliiformes),
COR (Coraciiformes), CRA (Craciformes),
CUC (Cuculiformes), FAL
(Falconiformes), GAL (Galliformes), GAV
(Gaviiformes), GLB (Galbuliformes), GRU
(Gruiformes), MUS (Musophagiformes),
OPI (Opisthocomiformes), PAS
(Passeriformes), PEL (Pelecaniformes),
PIC (Piciformes), POD
(Podicipediformes), PRO
(Procellariiformes), PSI
(Psittaciformes), RAL (Ralliformes),
RHE (Rheiformes), SPH
(Sphenisciformes), STH
(Struthioniformes), STR (Strigiformes),
TIN (Tinamiformes), TRC
(Trochiliformes), TRO (Trogoniformes),
TUR (Turniciformes), and UPU
(Upupiformes). Figure 4
from: Hackett, Shannon J. et al. “A
Phylogenomic Study of Birds Reveals
Their Evolutionary History.” Science
320.5884 (2008) : 1763 -1768.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763/F4.large.jpg

[2] By Aaron Logan, from
http://www.lightmatter.net/gallery/album
s.php w:en:Creative
Commons attribution CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8d/Grey_Crowned_Crane.jp
g
65,000,000 YBN
485) Marsupial moles evolve.
Australia 
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p231. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p231.

[2] English: The southern marsupial
mole (Notoryctes typhlops). Date
Originally uploaded to
pl.wikipedia on 10 May 2006. Source
Own work; originally from
pl.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. Author Bartus.malec at
pl.wikipedia. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/4b/Notoryctes_typhlops.j
pg
65,000,000 YBN
486) The Marsupials Tasmanian Devil and
Numbat {nuMBaT} evolve.
Australia 
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p231. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p231.

[2] Description English: Quoll
imaged at a rescue park, Tasmania,
Austrailia, probably Tiger Quoll
(Dasyurus maculatus), indicated by
spots on tail Photographer's note.
This is a lucky through-the-fence shot
using an old Sony camera as the animal
was quite active. The small size of the
lens is a distinct advantage in this
case (my Canon xTi would not have been
able to get the
shot). Category:Dasyurus
maculatus Date Taken November 18,
2008, uploaded December 28, 2008 (28
December 2008 (original upload
date)) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia; transferred to Commons by
User:Berichard using CommonsHelper. PD

source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f6/Dasyurus_maculatus.jp
g
65,000,000 YBN
488) The Marsupial Order
"Diprotodontia" {DIPrOTODoNsEu} evolves
(the ancestor of Wombats, Kangeroos,
Possums, and Koalas).
Australia 
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p231. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p231.

[2] Eastern Grey Kangaroo with
joey PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0d/Kangaroo_and_joey03.j
pg
65,000,000 YBN
508) The Euarchontoglires
{YU-oR-KoNT-u-GlI-rEZ} Order "Rodentia"
evolve; rodents.
The Rodents: "Myomorpha"
{MIemORFu} evolve (the ancestor of
rats, mice, gerbils, voles {VOLZ},
lemmings, and hamsters).

Rodents are an order of mammals
characterized by a single pair of
ever-growing upper and lower front
teeth (incisors).
 
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p187. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p187.

[2] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p187. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p187.
63,000,000 YBN
587) The Euarchontoglires
{YU-oR-KoNT-u-GlI-rEZ} Order Primates
evolve, most likely in Africa or the
Indian subcontinent. The first
opposable thumb.

The primates contains more than 300
species, including monkeys, apes, and
humans. The primates are one of the
most diverse orders of mammals on
Earth. They include the lemurs, the
lorises, the tarsiers, the New World
monkeys, the Old World monkeys, and the
apes and humans.
Africa or India 
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p168. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p168.

[2] Description English: Gray
slender loris (Loris lydekkerianus)
photographed at Dindigal in Tamil
Nadu. Date 27 June 2008 Source
Own work Author Kalyan Varma
(Kalyanvarma) GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8f/Slender_Loris.jpg
60,000,000 YBN
430) In South America, the Andes
mountains start to form.
 
[1] Andes, 70.30345W, 42.99203S NASA
World Wind screenshot. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2d/Andes_70.30345W_42.99
203S.jpg
60,000,000 YBN
432) The cat-like Laurasiatheres
Creodonts {KrEuDoNTS} are common.
 
[1] Description Patriofelis
ferox Date 2000 Source
dmitrchel@mail.ru Author
[show]Dmitry Bogdanov Link back to
Creator infobox template GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Patriofelis22DB
.jpg/1114px-Patriofelis22DB.jpg

[2] Description Hyaenodon
cayluxi Date January 2007 Source
took the foto on the ''Muséum
national d'Histoire naturelle,
Paris'' Author Ghedo PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/db/Hyaenodon_cayluxi.JPG

60,000,000 YBN
470) The Bird Order "Strigiformes"
{STriJiFORmEZ} evolve (owls).
 
[1] Fig. 4. Our phylogeny differs from
and agrees with previous
classifications. We merged
well-supported (>70% bootstrap values)
monophyletic clades at the tips with
the same ordinal designation across all
three classifications (e.g., 24 species
called Passerines). Only higher
relationships supported by bootstrap
values >50% are shown. Colors are as in
Fig. 2. Color bars to the right of the
tree show membership in three different
classifications: Peters' (25) (left),
Sibley and Monroe's (30) (middle), and
Livezey and Zusi's (13) (right). Black
text within the bars indicates
monophyletic orders in our phylogeny,
whereas white text within the bars
indicates nonmonophyletic orders.
Ordinal name codes: ANS (Anseriformes),
APO (Apodiformes), APT
(Apterygiformes), ARD (Ardeiformes),
BAL (Balaenicipitiformes), BUC
(Bucerotiformes), CAP
(Caprimulgiformes), CAS
(Casuariiformes), CHA
(Charadriiformes), CIC (Ciconiiformes),
CLM (Columbiformes), COL (Coliiformes),
COR (Coraciiformes), CRA (Craciformes),
CUC (Cuculiformes), FAL
(Falconiformes), GAL (Galliformes), GAV
(Gaviiformes), GLB (Galbuliformes), GRU
(Gruiformes), MUS (Musophagiformes),
OPI (Opisthocomiformes), PAS
(Passeriformes), PEL (Pelecaniformes),
PIC (Piciformes), POD
(Podicipediformes), PRO
(Procellariiformes), PSI
(Psittaciformes), RAL (Ralliformes),
RHE (Rheiformes), SPH
(Sphenisciformes), STH
(Struthioniformes), STR (Strigiformes),
TIN (Tinamiformes), TRC
(Trochiliformes), TRO (Trogoniformes),
TUR (Turniciformes), and UPU
(Upupiformes). Figure 4
from: Hackett, Shannon J. et al. “A
Phylogenomic Study of Birds Reveals
Their Evolutionary History.” Science
320.5884 (2008) : 1763 -1768.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763/F4.large.jpg

[2] Description Athene
noctua English: Little owl Español:
Mochuelo Date 2011-02-27 07:27
(UTC) Source
Athene_noctua_(portrait).jpg Author
Athene_noctua_(portrait).jpg:
Trebol-a derivative work:
Stemonitis (talk) CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/39/Athene_noctua_%28crop
ped%29.jpg
60,000,000 YBN
504) The Laurasiatheres Order
"Carnivora" evolves (the ancestor of
Cats, Dogs, Bears, Weasels, Hyenas,
Seals, and Walruses).
Laurasia 
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p200. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p200.

[2] Description English:
Two-spotted palm civet Nandinia
binotata mounted specimen in Manchester
Museum Date 2008-07-28 (original
upload date) (Original text : July
2008) GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5a/14-nandinia_binotata.
JPG
59,000,000 YBN
496) The Afrotheres Hyraxes evolve.
Africa 
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p225. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p225.

[2] Description English:
Yellow-spotted Hyrax (Heterohyrax
brucei), Serengeti NP, Tanzania Date
1 July 2009 Source Own
work Author D. Gordon E.
Robertson Permission (Reusing this
file) CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0c/Yellow-spotted_Rock_H
yrax.jpg
58,000,000 YBN
524) The Primates: Tarsiers {ToRSERZ}
evolve.
 
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p164. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p164.

[2] Description Tarsius syrichta
(Philippine Tarsier) Date
- Source
http://www.sxc.hu/photo/490924 Aut
hor Jasper Greek Golangco PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1d/Tarsius_Syrichta-GG.j
pg
55,000,000 YBN
435) The Rhinoceros-like Placental
mammals Uintatherium {YUiNTutEREuM} are
the largest land animals at this time.
 
[1] Description Uintatherium Date
1890s Source
http://www.copyrightexpired.com/earlyim
age/prehistoriclifeafterkt/uertatherium0
1.html Author Charles R. Knight PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/33/Uintatherium_C_R_Knig
ht.jpg

[2] Description Uintatherium
mirabile, AMNH. Date Pre-923. Source
http://www.copyrightexpired.com/earlyim
age/bones/display_osborn_uintatherium.ht
m Author Osborn. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3d/Uintatherium.jpg
55,000,000 YBN
471) The Bird Order "Apodiformes"
{oPoD-i-FORmEZ} evolves (hummingbirds,
and swifts).
 
[1] Fig. 4. Our phylogeny differs from
and agrees with previous
classifications. We merged
well-supported (>70% bootstrap values)
monophyletic clades at the tips with
the same ordinal designation across all
three classifications (e.g., 24 species
called Passerines). Only higher
relationships supported by bootstrap
values >50% are shown. Colors are as in
Fig. 2. Color bars to the right of the
tree show membership in three different
classifications: Peters' (25) (left),
Sibley and Monroe's (30) (middle), and
Livezey and Zusi's (13) (right). Black
text within the bars indicates
monophyletic orders in our phylogeny,
whereas white text within the bars
indicates nonmonophyletic orders.
Ordinal name codes: ANS (Anseriformes),
APO (Apodiformes), APT
(Apterygiformes), ARD (Ardeiformes),
BAL (Balaenicipitiformes), BUC
(Bucerotiformes), CAP
(Caprimulgiformes), CAS
(Casuariiformes), CHA
(Charadriiformes), CIC (Ciconiiformes),
CLM (Columbiformes), COL (Coliiformes),
COR (Coraciiformes), CRA (Craciformes),
CUC (Cuculiformes), FAL
(Falconiformes), GAL (Galliformes), GAV
(Gaviiformes), GLB (Galbuliformes), GRU
(Gruiformes), MUS (Musophagiformes),
OPI (Opisthocomiformes), PAS
(Passeriformes), PEL (Pelecaniformes),
PIC (Piciformes), POD
(Podicipediformes), PRO
(Procellariiformes), PSI
(Psittaciformes), RAL (Ralliformes),
RHE (Rheiformes), SPH
(Sphenisciformes), STH
(Struthioniformes), STR (Strigiformes),
TIN (Tinamiformes), TRC
(Trochiliformes), TRO (Trogoniformes),
TUR (Turniciformes), and UPU
(Upupiformes). Figure 4
from: Hackett, Shannon J. et al. “A
Phylogenomic Study of Birds Reveals
Their Evolutionary History.” Science
320.5884 (2008) : 1763 -1768.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763/F4.large.jpg

[2] Description Ruby-throated
hummingbird public domain USFWA Date
11 February 2003 Source
Cropped from U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service Digital Library
System Author Steve Maslowski PD

source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/87/Rubythroathummer65.jp
g
55,000,000 YBN
476) The Bird Order "Piciformes"
{PESiFORmEZ} evolves (woodpeckers, and
toucans).
 
[1] Fig. 4. Our phylogeny differs from
and agrees with previous
classifications. We merged
well-supported (>70% bootstrap values)
monophyletic clades at the tips with
the same ordinal designation across all
three classifications (e.g., 24 species
called Passerines). Only higher
relationships supported by bootstrap
values >50% are shown. Colors are as in
Fig. 2. Color bars to the right of the
tree show membership in three different
classifications: Peters' (25) (left),
Sibley and Monroe's (30) (middle), and
Livezey and Zusi's (13) (right). Black
text within the bars indicates
monophyletic orders in our phylogeny,
whereas white text within the bars
indicates nonmonophyletic orders.
Ordinal name codes: ANS (Anseriformes),
APO (Apodiformes), APT
(Apterygiformes), ARD (Ardeiformes),
BAL (Balaenicipitiformes), BUC
(Bucerotiformes), CAP
(Caprimulgiformes), CAS
(Casuariiformes), CHA
(Charadriiformes), CIC (Ciconiiformes),
CLM (Columbiformes), COL (Coliiformes),
COR (Coraciiformes), CRA (Craciformes),
CUC (Cuculiformes), FAL
(Falconiformes), GAL (Galliformes), GAV
(Gaviiformes), GLB (Galbuliformes), GRU
(Gruiformes), MUS (Musophagiformes),
OPI (Opisthocomiformes), PAS
(Passeriformes), PEL (Pelecaniformes),
PIC (Piciformes), POD
(Podicipediformes), PRO
(Procellariiformes), PSI
(Psittaciformes), RAL (Ralliformes),
RHE (Rheiformes), SPH
(Sphenisciformes), STH
(Struthioniformes), STR (Strigiformes),
TIN (Tinamiformes), TRC
(Trochiliformes), TRO (Trogoniformes),
TUR (Turniciformes), and UPU
(Upupiformes). Figure 4
from: Hackett, Shannon J. et al. “A
Phylogenomic Study of Birds Reveals
Their Evolutionary History.” Science
320.5884 (2008) : 1763 -1768.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763/F4.large.jpg

[2] Description Hispaniolan
Woodpecker / Melanerpes striatus Date
20 January 2004 Source
http://www.pbase.com/wwcsig/image/4
1280575 Author Wolfgang
Wander GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1b/Melanerpes_striatus00
1.jpg
55,000,000 YBN
477) The Bird Order "Passeriformes"
{PaSRiFORmEZ} evolves (perching
songbirds). This order includes many
common birds: for example crows, jays,
sparrows, warblers, mockingbirds,
wrens, robins, orioles, bluebirds,
vireos {VEREOZ}, larks, swallows, and
finches.

More than half of all species of birds
are passerines. With around 5,400
species, passerines are roughly twice
as diverse as the largest of the mammal
orders, the Rodentia.
(earliest fossils)
Australia|Gondwana 
[1] Fig. 4. Our phylogeny differs from
and agrees with previous
classifications. We merged
well-supported (>70% bootstrap values)
monophyletic clades at the tips with
the same ordinal designation across all
three classifications (e.g., 24 species
called Passerines). Only higher
relationships supported by bootstrap
values >50% are shown. Colors are as in
Fig. 2. Color bars to the right of the
tree show membership in three different
classifications: Peters' (25) (left),
Sibley and Monroe's (30) (middle), and
Livezey and Zusi's (13) (right). Black
text within the bars indicates
monophyletic orders in our phylogeny,
whereas white text within the bars
indicates nonmonophyletic orders.
Ordinal name codes: ANS (Anseriformes),
APO (Apodiformes), APT
(Apterygiformes), ARD (Ardeiformes),
BAL (Balaenicipitiformes), BUC
(Bucerotiformes), CAP
(Caprimulgiformes), CAS
(Casuariiformes), CHA
(Charadriiformes), CIC (Ciconiiformes),
CLM (Columbiformes), COL (Coliiformes),
COR (Coraciiformes), CRA (Craciformes),
CUC (Cuculiformes), FAL
(Falconiformes), GAL (Galliformes), GAV
(Gaviiformes), GLB (Galbuliformes), GRU
(Gruiformes), MUS (Musophagiformes),
OPI (Opisthocomiformes), PAS
(Passeriformes), PEL (Pelecaniformes),
PIC (Piciformes), POD
(Podicipediformes), PRO
(Procellariiformes), PSI
(Psittaciformes), RAL (Ralliformes),
RHE (Rheiformes), SPH
(Sphenisciformes), STH
(Struthioniformes), STR (Strigiformes),
TIN (Tinamiformes), TRC
(Trochiliformes), TRO (Trogoniformes),
TUR (Turniciformes), and UPU
(Upupiformes). Figure 4
from: Hackett, Shannon J. et al. “A
Phylogenomic Study of Birds Reveals
Their Evolutionary History.” Science
320.5884 (2008) : 1763 -1768.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763/F4.large.jpg

[2] Western Bluebirds (female on
left) Irvine, CA PD
source: http://tedhuntington.com/bluebir
ds.jpg
55,000,000 YBN
495) The Afrotheres Order Proboscidea
{PrO-Be-SiD-E-e} evolves (the ancestor
of Mammoths, Mastodons, and Elephants).
Algeria, Africa|Africa 
[1] Description Moeritherium Date
1920 (probably) Source The Wonderful
Paleo Art of Heinrich Harder Author
Heinrich Harder (1858-1935) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/97/Moeritherium.jpg

[2] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p225. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p225.
55,000,000 YBN
497) The Afrotheres: Manatee and Dugong
evolve.
 
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p225. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p225.

[2] Description Trichechus
manatus English: This group of three
West Indian manatees (Trichechus
manatus) was photographed while feeding
on seagrass. Date Source from
http://www.csc.noaa.gov/benthic/resource
s/gallery/life/manatee.htm Author
PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/81/Manatee.jpg
55,000,000 YBN
502) The Laurasiatheres
"Cetartiodactyla" {SiToRTEODaKTilu}
evolve (the ancestor of all
Artiodactyla {oRTEODaKTiLu}: camels,
pigs, ruminants, hippos, and all
Cetacea {SiTASEu or SiTAsEu}: Whales,
and Dolphins).

Hippos are the closest living land
relative of the whales and dolphins.

Cetartiodactyla is an unranked
taxonomic group, equivalent to a
superorder, containing the orders
Artiodactyla and Cetacea. It is
proposed on the basis of molecular
evidence suggesting a close
evolutionary relationship between the
two orders.
Laurasia 
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p200. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p200.

[2] [t may or may not be
accurate] Description Pakicetus
inachus, a whale ancestor from the
Early Eocene of Pakistan, after
Nummelai et al., (2006), pencil
drawing, digital coloring Date 29
November 2007 Source Own
work Author Nobu Tamura
email:nobu.tamura@yahoo.com
www.palaeocritti.com GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/34/Pakicetus_BW.jpg
55,000,000 YBN
503) The Laurasiatheres
"Perissodactyla" {PeriSODaKTilu} evolve
(also called "odd-toed ungulates")
{uNGYUlATS or uNGYUliTS} (the ancestor
of all Horses, Tapirs {TAPRZ }, and
Rhinos).

Perissodactyla is an order of
herbivorous, odd-toed, hoofed mammals,
most of which have either one or three
toes on each foot.
Laurasia 
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p200. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p200.

[2] Description Two young Nokota
mares Date 2010-02-11 22:34
(UTC) Source
Nokota_Horses.jpg Author
Nokota_Horses.jpg: François Marchal
derivative work: Dana boomer
(talk) CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/de/Nokota_Horses_cropped
.jpg
55,000,000 YBN
509) The Rodents: Beavers, Pocket
gophers, Pocket mice and kangaroo rats
evolve.
 
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p187. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p187.

[2] Description he was happily
sitting back and munching on something.
and munching, and munching... Date
4 July 2007, 12:55 Source
American Beaver Author Steve
from washington, dc,
usa Permission (Reusing this file)
See below. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6b/American_Beaver.jpg
55,000,000 YBN
510) Rodents: Springhares and
Scaly-tailed Squirrels.
 
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p187. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p187.

[2] Description English: Captive
Springhare, Henry Doorly Zoo, Omaha
Nebraska. Date 2007-06-14
(original upload date) Source
Originally from en.wikipedia;
description page is/was here. Author
Original uploader was Devonpike at
en.wikipedia PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/63/Springharelg.jpg
55,000,000 YBN
511) The Rodents: Dormouse, Mountain
Beaver, Squirrel and Marmot {moRmuT}
evolve.
 
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p187. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p187.

[2] Description Membres de la
famille des Suridés Date Source
Own work Author Chicoutimi
(montage) Montage 9 pictures.jpg
Karakal AndiW National Park
Service en:User:Markus Krötzsch
The Lilac Breasted Roller Nico
Conradie from Centurion, South Africa
Hans Hillewaert Sylvouille
National Park Service GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/68/Sciuridae.jpg
55,000,000 YBN
512) The Rodents: Gundis {GuNDEZ}
evolve.
 
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p187. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p187.

[2] The picture shows a Gundi
Ctenodactylus The image is a variant
of Image:Gundi Ctenodactylus gundi
051117.jpg by user de:Benutzer:BS
Thurner Hof. He tagged the image as
PD. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/37/Gundi_Ctenodactylus_g
undi_051117_2.jpg
55,000,000 YBN
585) The Bird Order Psittaciformes
{SiTaS-iFORmEZ} evolves (Parrots).
 
[1] Brown, Joseph, Joshua Rest, Jaime
G. Moreno, Michael Sorenson, and David
Mindell. ''Strong mitochondrial DNA
support for a Cretaceous origin of
modern avian lineages.'' BMC Biology 6
(January 2008):
6:6. http://www.biomedcentral.com/1741-
7007/6/6 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.biomedcentral.com/174
1-7007/6/6

[2] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p262. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p262.
55,000,000 YBN
6381) The Perissodactyla Horses evolve.
The earliest fossil horse,
Hyractotherium, is about the size of a
dog.
 
[1] Description English: This
reproduction of a painting of an
undetermined species of Hyracotherium
was made to illustrate one card of a
set of 30 collector cards from ''Tiere
der Urwelt'' (Animals of the
Prehistoric World). From the Series
III. Deutsch: Diese Reproduktion eines
Gemäldes einer nicht näher
bezeichneten Art von Hyracotherium
wurde zur Illustration einer Karte aus
einem Set von 30 Sammelkarten mit dem
Titel „Tiere der Urwelt“
angefertigt. Aus der Serie III. Date
1920 (probably) Source The Wonderful
Paleo Art of Heinrich Harder Author
Heinrich Harder (1858-1935) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6e/Hyracotherium_Eohippu
s_hharder.jpg

[2] The artwork depicting horse
evolution is from Professor Donald
Levin's course in BioEvolution at the
University of Texas in Austin. This is
a brief, highly illustrated course with
many examples given of macroevolution.
Notice that the generalized branching
diagram in this illustration is less
twiggy than the more bushy branching
depicted at other resources mentioned
here. UNKNOWN
source: http://darwiniana.org/equid2t.gi
f
55,000,000 YBN
6387) The Ruminants Giraffes evolve.
 
[1] Description Adult male Reticulated
giraffe feeding high up on an acacia,
in central Kenya Date 8 July 2010,
10:25 Source High-rise living Author
Steve Garvie from Dunfermline, Fife,
Scotland CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f4/Flickr_-_Rainbirder_-
_High-rise_living.jpg

[2] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p200. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p200.
54,000,000 YBN
810) The last common ancestor between
hippos with dolphins and whales.
 
[1] Fig. 2. Molecular time scale for
the orders of placental mammals based
on the 16,397-bp data set and maximum
likelihood tree of ref. 14 with an
opossum outgroup (data not shown), 13
fossil constraints (Materials and
Methods), and a mean prior of 105 mya
for the placental root. Ordinal
designations are listed above the
branches. Orange and green lines denote
orders with basal diversification
before or after the K/T boundary,
respectively. Black lines depict orders
for which only one taxon was available.
Asterisks denote placental taxa
included in the ''K/T body size'' taxon
set. The composition of chimeric taxa,
including caniform, caviomorph,
strepsirrhine, and sirenian, is
indicated elsewhere (14). Numbers for
internal nodes are cross-referenced in
the supporting information.
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.pnas.org/content/vol1
00/issue3/images/large/pq0334222002.jpeg


[2] Description Deutsch: Eine
Gruppe Flußpferde im Luangwa-Tal,
Sambia. English: Pod of Hippos
(Hippopotamus amphibius) in Luangwa
Valley, Zambia Français : Groupe
d'hippopotames (Hippopotamus amphibius)
dans la vallée du Luangua, en
Zambie Date 2005 Source Own
work Author Paul Maritz GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a3/Hippo_pod_edit.jpg
53,500,000 YBN
812) The earliest marine mammal (and
earliest whale) "Himalayacetus".
(Subathu Formation) Northern
India 
[1] The evolution of whales The
first thing to notice on this evogram
is that hippos are the closest living
relatives of whales, but they are not
the ancestors of whales. In fact, none
of the individual animals on the
evogram is the direct ancestor of any
other, as far as we know. That's why
each of them gets its own branch on the
family tree. UNKNOWN
source: http://evolution.berkeley.edu/ev
olibrary/images/evograms/whale_evo.jpg

[2] Description Pakicetus inachus, a
whale ancestor from the Early Eocene of
Pakistan, after Nummelai et al.,
(2006), pencil drawing, digital
coloring Date 29 November
2007 Source Own work Author Nobu
Tamura
(http://spinops.blogspot.com) GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/34/Pakicetus_BW.jpg
52,000,000 YBN
501) The Laurasiatheres Order
"Chiroptera" {KIroPTRu} evolves (the
ancestor of fruit bats, and
echolocating bats).
Laurasia 
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p200. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p200.

[2] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p200. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p200.
51,000,000 YBN
513) The Rodents: Old World Porcupines
evolve.
 
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p187. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p187.

[2] Photograph of a brush-tailed
porcupine in Berlin Zoologischer
Garten. Taken by Eloquence in July 2005
and released into the public
domain. Public domain PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/21/Brush_tailed_porcupin
e_Berlin_Zoo.jpg
50,000,000 YBN
438) The Himalayan {HiMolAYeN}
mountains start to form as India
collides with Eurasia.
This will
continue for millions of years.
Himalyia Mountains, India 
[1] 50 Ma Eocene NONCOMMERCIAL
source: http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~rcb7/050
_Eocene_3globes.jpg

[2] Himalayas as pictured by NASA
Landsat 7 Satellite. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/2/25/Himalayas_landsat_7.png
50,000,000 YBN
518) The Primates: Lorises {LORiSEZ},
Bushbabies, and Pottos {PoTTOZ} evolve.
 
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p168. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p168.

[2] Description English: Gray
slender loris (Loris lydekkerianus)
photographed at Dindigal in Tamil
Nadu. Date 27 June 2008 Source
Own work Author Kalyan Varma
(Kalyanvarma) GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8f/Slender_Loris.jpg
50,000,000 YBN
816) The early whale Ambulocetus
evolves.
 
[1] Ambulocetus natans in action. A
reconstruction of an early close cousin
of whales. by artist Carl
Buell. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.indiana.edu/~ensiweb/
images/whal.amb.jpeg

[2] Ambulocetus The name Ambulocetus
gives away its early ancestry. It means
'walking whale'. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.abc.net.au/beasts/evi
dence/prog1/images/evi_amulocetus_large.
jpg
50,000,000 YBN
6382) The first camels.
Laurasia 
[1] Description English: Dromedary
camel in outback Australia, near
Silverton, NSW. Date 7 July
2007 Source Own work Author
Jjron Taken by John
O'Neill This image has been
released for use worldwide under the
licensing specified below. If you
require different licensing (e.g., for
commercial publishing), or a larger or
higher quality version of this image,
it may be available from the author.
You can contact the author by clicking
here and leaving a message, or by
sending me an email. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/43/07._Camel_Profile%2C_
near_Silverton%2C_NSW%2C_07.07.2007.jpg

[2] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p200. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p200.
50,000,000 YBN
6383) The first rhinos.
Laurasia 
[1] English: Male Diceros bicornis
(Black rhinoceros or Hook-lipped
rhinoceros) at the Saint Louis
Zoological Park in Missouri Date
4 March 2011 Source Own
work Author Jonathunder GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/63/Diceros_bicornis.jpg

[2] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p200. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p200.
49,000,000 YBN
439) The largest meat-eating land
animals are flightless birds.
 
[1] Diatrymaby ~ministerart Digital
Art / 3-Dimensional Art / Characters /
Animals & Creatures ©2010-2012
~ministerart COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.deviantart.com/downlo
ad/154444542/Diatryma_by_ministerart.jpg


[2] Diatryma The extinct Eocene
bird Diatryma was up to nine feet high.
It is shown here chasing down an
oreodont artiodactyl. (after Spinar
1972, from Price 1996) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.mun.ca/biology/scarr/
Diatryma_giant_bird.gif
49,000,000 YBN
472) The Bird Order "Caprimulgiformes"
evolves (the ancestor of nightjars,
night hawks, potoos, and oilbirds).
 
[1] Fig. 4. Our phylogeny differs from
and agrees with previous
classifications. We merged
well-supported (>70% bootstrap values)
monophyletic clades at the tips with
the same ordinal designation across all
three classifications (e.g., 24 species
called Passerines). Only higher
relationships supported by bootstrap
values >50% are shown. Colors are as in
Fig. 2. Color bars to the right of the
tree show membership in three different
classifications: Peters' (25) (left),
Sibley and Monroe's (30) (middle), and
Livezey and Zusi's (13) (right). Black
text within the bars indicates
monophyletic orders in our phylogeny,
whereas white text within the bars
indicates nonmonophyletic orders.
Ordinal name codes: ANS (Anseriformes),
APO (Apodiformes), APT
(Apterygiformes), ARD (Ardeiformes),
BAL (Balaenicipitiformes), BUC
(Bucerotiformes), CAP
(Caprimulgiformes), CAS
(Casuariiformes), CHA
(Charadriiformes), CIC (Ciconiiformes),
CLM (Columbiformes), COL (Coliiformes),
COR (Coraciiformes), CRA (Craciformes),
CUC (Cuculiformes), FAL
(Falconiformes), GAL (Galliformes), GAV
(Gaviiformes), GLB (Galbuliformes), GRU
(Gruiformes), MUS (Musophagiformes),
OPI (Opisthocomiformes), PAS
(Passeriformes), PEL (Pelecaniformes),
PIC (Piciformes), POD
(Podicipediformes), PRO
(Procellariiformes), PSI
(Psittaciformes), RAL (Ralliformes),
RHE (Rheiformes), SPH
(Sphenisciformes), STH
(Struthioniformes), STR (Strigiformes),
TIN (Tinamiformes), TRC
(Trochiliformes), TRO (Trogoniformes),
TUR (Turniciformes), and UPU
(Upupiformes). Figure 4
from: Hackett, Shannon J. et al. “A
Phylogenomic Study of Birds Reveals
Their Evolutionary History.” Science
320.5884 (2008) : 1763 -1768.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763/F4.large.jpg

[2] Description A wild Tawny
Frogmouth, Podargus strigoides, image
taken at night hence the black
background. Taken in south east
Australia Date Source Own
work Author Benjamint444 GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/44/Tawny_frogmouth_whole
body444.jpg
49,000,000 YBN
474) The Bird Order "Falconiformes"
{FaLKoNiFORmEZ} evolves (the ancestor
of falcons, hawks, eagles, and Old
World vultures).
 
[1] Fig. 4. Our phylogeny differs from
and agrees with previous
classifications. We merged
well-supported (>70% bootstrap values)
monophyletic clades at the tips with
the same ordinal designation across all
three classifications (e.g., 24 species
called Passerines). Only higher
relationships supported by bootstrap
values >50% are shown. Colors are as in
Fig. 2. Color bars to the right of the
tree show membership in three different
classifications: Peters' (25) (left),
Sibley and Monroe's (30) (middle), and
Livezey and Zusi's (13) (right). Black
text within the bars indicates
monophyletic orders in our phylogeny,
whereas white text within the bars
indicates nonmonophyletic orders.
Ordinal name codes: ANS (Anseriformes),
APO (Apodiformes), APT
(Apterygiformes), ARD (Ardeiformes),
BAL (Balaenicipitiformes), BUC
(Bucerotiformes), CAP
(Caprimulgiformes), CAS
(Casuariiformes), CHA
(Charadriiformes), CIC (Ciconiiformes),
CLM (Columbiformes), COL (Coliiformes),
COR (Coraciiformes), CRA (Craciformes),
CUC (Cuculiformes), FAL
(Falconiformes), GAL (Galliformes), GAV
(Gaviiformes), GLB (Galbuliformes), GRU
(Gruiformes), MUS (Musophagiformes),
OPI (Opisthocomiformes), PAS
(Passeriformes), PEL (Pelecaniformes),
PIC (Piciformes), POD
(Podicipediformes), PRO
(Procellariiformes), PSI
(Psittaciformes), RAL (Ralliformes),
RHE (Rheiformes), SPH
(Sphenisciformes), STH
(Struthioniformes), STR (Strigiformes),
TIN (Tinamiformes), TRC
(Trochiliformes), TRO (Trogoniformes),
TUR (Turniciformes), and UPU
(Upupiformes). Figure 4
from: Hackett, Shannon J. et al. “A
Phylogenomic Study of Birds Reveals
Their Evolutionary History.” Science
320.5884 (2008) : 1763 -1768.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763/F4.large.jpg

[2] Description English: Bald Eagle
(Haliaeetus leucocephalus) in
Tree Date July 2005 Source
U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service Author Hillebrand,
Steve PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/69/Haliaeetus_leucocepha
lus-tree-USFWS.jpg
49,000,000 YBN
514) The Rodents: African mole rats,
cane rats, and dassie rats evolve.
 
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p187. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p187.

[2] Description Petromus typicus,
''Noki'' Afrikaans: 'n Dassierot,
afgeneem by Twyfelfontein, in Kunene,
Namibië Deutsch: Eine Felsenratte,
aufgenommen in Twyfelfontein, Kunene,
Namibia English: A Dassie Rat, image
taken at Twyfelfontein, in Kunene,
Namibia Date 17 August
2010 Source Namibnat,
Flickr Author Vernon
Swanepoel CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b0/Petromus_typicus.jpg
49,000,000 YBN
515) The Rodents: New World porcupines,
guinea pigs, agoutis {uGUTEZ}, and
capybaras {KaPuBoRoZ} evolve.
 
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p187. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p187.

[2] Description English: A North
American porcupine (Erethizon dorsatum)
rests in a tree in Montreal's
BioDome. Date 20 July
2004 Source self-made with a
Nikon D70 Author J. Glover CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/83/Porcupine-BioDome.jpg

45,000,000 YBN
519) The Primates: Aye-ayes {I-IZ}
evolve.
 
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p168. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p168.

[2] Description Aye-aye
(Daubentonia madagascariensis) Date
9 May 2003 Source Own
work Author Tom Junek CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/ba/Aye-aye_%28Daubentoni
a_madagascariensis%29.jpg
40,000,000 YBN
440) The Alpine mountains start to
form.
Alpine mountains 
[1] Screenshot from Worldwind Image
composed of NASA Blue Marble images,
and is hence in the public domain:
''The Landsat Global Mosaic, Blue
Marble, and the USGS raster maps and
images are all Public Domain.''
(http://www.worldwindcentral.com/wiki/Wo
rld_Wind_FAQ) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c1/Alps_from_space.png

[2] Screenshot from Worldwind Image
composed of NASA Blue Marble images,
and is hence in the public domain:
''The Landsat Global Mosaic, Blue
Marble, and the USGS raster maps and
images are all Public Domain.''
(http://www.worldwindcentral.com/wiki/Wo
rld_Wind_FAQ) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c1/Alps_from_space.png
40,000,000 YBN
525) The Primates "New World Monkeys"
evolve (the ancestor of the Sakis,
Spider, Howler and Squirrel monkeys,
Capuchins {KaP YU CiNZ}, and
Tamarins).

The ancestor of all New World monkeys
probably originates in Africa, but all
surviving descendants now live in the
Americas, which suggests that a small
group of New World monkeys got across
the early Atlantic Ocean to South
America, perhaps by rafting on fallen
trees over a chain of islands.
Africa 
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p149. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p149.

[2] Description English: A
critically endangered Brown Spider
Monkey, Ateles hybridus, with uncommon
blue eyes. Shot in captivity in
Barquisimeto,
Venezuela Русский:
Паукообразная
обезьяна Ateles hybridus с
редко встречающимися
голубыми глазами.
Сфотографирована в
неволе в
Венесуэле. Date
September 2008 Source
Image:BrownSpiderMonkey.jpg Author
http://www.birdphotos.com edit by
Fir0002 Permission (Reusing this
file) See below. Attribution must
appear on same page as photo. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/dc/BrownSpiderMonkey_%28
edit2%29.jpg
37,000,000 YBN
442) The Carnivora: Dogs evolve.
 
[1] Cynodictus from: A history of land
mammals in the western hemisphere By
William Berryman Scott PD
source: https://play.google.com/books/re
ader?id=HbAlAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover
&output=reader&authuser=0&hl=en&pg=GBS.P
A529

[2] Description Hesperocyon
gregarius 32 - 30 million years ago;
Early Oligocene; Oldest recognized
member of the dog family. Date 10
October 2008, 10:42 Source
Hesperocyon gregarius (Dog)
Uploaded by FunkMonk Author
Claire H. from New York City,
USA Permission (Reusing this file)
CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5f/Hesperocyon_Gregarius
.jpg
37,000,000 YBN
473) The Bird Order "Coliiformes"
{KolAiFORmEZ} evolves (mouse birds).
 
[1] Fig. 4. Our phylogeny differs from
and agrees with previous
classifications. We merged
well-supported (>70% bootstrap values)
monophyletic clades at the tips with
the same ordinal designation across all
three classifications (e.g., 24 species
called Passerines). Only higher
relationships supported by bootstrap
values >50% are shown. Colors are as in
Fig. 2. Color bars to the right of the
tree show membership in three different
classifications: Peters' (25) (left),
Sibley and Monroe's (30) (middle), and
Livezey and Zusi's (13) (right). Black
text within the bars indicates
monophyletic orders in our phylogeny,
whereas white text within the bars
indicates nonmonophyletic orders.
Ordinal name codes: ANS (Anseriformes),
APO (Apodiformes), APT
(Apterygiformes), ARD (Ardeiformes),
BAL (Balaenicipitiformes), BUC
(Bucerotiformes), CAP
(Caprimulgiformes), CAS
(Casuariiformes), CHA
(Charadriiformes), CIC (Ciconiiformes),
CLM (Columbiformes), COL (Coliiformes),
COR (Coraciiformes), CRA (Craciformes),
CUC (Cuculiformes), FAL
(Falconiformes), GAL (Galliformes), GAV
(Gaviiformes), GLB (Galbuliformes), GRU
(Gruiformes), MUS (Musophagiformes),
OPI (Opisthocomiformes), PAS
(Passeriformes), PEL (Pelecaniformes),
PIC (Piciformes), POD
(Podicipediformes), PRO
(Procellariiformes), PSI
(Psittaciformes), RAL (Ralliformes),
RHE (Rheiformes), SPH
(Sphenisciformes), STH
(Struthioniformes), STR (Strigiformes),
TIN (Tinamiformes), TRC
(Trochiliformes), TRO (Trogoniformes),
TUR (Turniciformes), and UPU
(Upupiformes). Figure 4
from: Hackett, Shannon J. et al. “A
Phylogenomic Study of Birds Reveals
Their Evolutionary History.” Science
320.5884 (2008) : 1763 -1768.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763/F4.large.jpg

[2] Description Speckled
Mousebird, Colius striatus, Sweetwaters
Game Reserve, Kenya Date 24 June
2007 Source Own work Author
JerryFriedman GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8c/Colius_striatus1.jpg
37,000,000 YBN
475) The Bird Order Cuculiformes
{KUKUliFORmEZ} evolves (the ancestor of
cuckoos, and roadrunners).
 
[1] Fig. 4. Our phylogeny differs from
and agrees with previous
classifications. We merged
well-supported (>70% bootstrap values)
monophyletic clades at the tips with
the same ordinal designation across all
three classifications (e.g., 24 species
called Passerines). Only higher
relationships supported by bootstrap
values >50% are shown. Colors are as in
Fig. 2. Color bars to the right of the
tree show membership in three different
classifications: Peters' (25) (left),
Sibley and Monroe's (30) (middle), and
Livezey and Zusi's (13) (right). Black
text within the bars indicates
monophyletic orders in our phylogeny,
whereas white text within the bars
indicates nonmonophyletic orders.
Ordinal name codes: ANS (Anseriformes),
APO (Apodiformes), APT
(Apterygiformes), ARD (Ardeiformes),
BAL (Balaenicipitiformes), BUC
(Bucerotiformes), CAP
(Caprimulgiformes), CAS
(Casuariiformes), CHA
(Charadriiformes), CIC (Ciconiiformes),
CLM (Columbiformes), COL (Coliiformes),
COR (Coraciiformes), CRA (Craciformes),
CUC (Cuculiformes), FAL
(Falconiformes), GAL (Galliformes), GAV
(Gaviiformes), GLB (Galbuliformes), GRU
(Gruiformes), MUS (Musophagiformes),
OPI (Opisthocomiformes), PAS
(Passeriformes), PEL (Pelecaniformes),
PIC (Piciformes), POD
(Podicipediformes), PRO
(Procellariiformes), PSI
(Psittaciformes), RAL (Ralliformes),
RHE (Rheiformes), SPH
(Sphenisciformes), STH
(Struthioniformes), STR (Strigiformes),
TIN (Tinamiformes), TRC
(Trochiliformes), TRO (Trogoniformes),
TUR (Turniciformes), and UPU
(Upupiformes). Figure 4
from: Hackett, Shannon J. et al. “A
Phylogenomic Study of Birds Reveals
Their Evolutionary History.” Science
320.5884 (2008) : 1763 -1768.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763/F4.large.jpg

[2] Description English: Common
cuckoo Deutsch: Kuckuck Date
Source Own work Author
Vogelartinfo GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b0/Cuculus_canorus_vogel
artinfo_chris_romeiks_CHR0791.jpg
37,000,000 YBN
796) The largest terrestrial
carnivorous mammal known, the
Laurasiatheres Andrewsarchus evolves.
Mongolia, Asia 
[1] Description English: Original
description in the English Wikipedia:
''Andrewsarchus, autor -
Bogdanov,2006.'' - Andrewsarchus
mongoliensis from the Late Eocene of
Central Asia was the largest member of
the Mesonychia, a extinct group of
carnivorous hoofed mammals. Deutsch:
Andrewsarchus mongoliensis aus dem
späten Eozän von Innerasien war der
größte Vertreter der Mesonychia, eine
Gruppe fleischfressender huftragender
Säugetiere. Русский:
Реконструкция
эндрьюсарха Date 3
June 2007 (Upload date in the English
Wikipedia) Source English
Wikipedia Author w:en:User:DiBgd
(Богданов) PD AND Description
A man and a woman Date 23 August
2007 Source self-made (based on PD
Pioneer plaque) Author MrKimm (MrKimm
21:26, 23 August 2007 (UTC)) Other
versions
File:Human-gender-neutral.png PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/98/Andrewsarchus_DB.jpg
AND
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/8/85/Human-gender-neutral.svg

[2] Description English: Original
description in the English Wikipedia:
''Andrewsarchus, autor -
Bogdanov,2006.'' - Andrewsarchus
mongoliensis from the Late Eocene of
Central Asia was the largest member of
the Mesonychia, a extinct group of
carnivorous hoofed mammals. Deutsch:
Andrewsarchus mongoliensis aus dem
späten Eozän von Innerasien war der
größte Vertreter der Mesonychia, eine
Gruppe fleischfressender huftragender
Säugetiere. Русский:
Реконструкция
эндрьюсарха Date 3
June 2007 (Upload date in the English
Wikipedia) Source English
Wikipedia Author w:en:User:DiBgd
(Богданов) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/98/Andrewsarchus_DB.jpg
35,000,000 YBN
6384) The Xenarthrans Ground sloths
evolve.
 
[1] Description English: (Rusty, the
giant ground sloth, at the Iowa Museum
of Natural History, University of Iowa.
Based on Megalonyx jeffersonii.) Date
16 October 2008 (original upload
date) Source Uploader - Billwhittaker
(talk) Author Billwhittaker (talk) at
en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) Released into the public
domain (by the author). PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Giant_ground_sl
oth_Iowa.JPG/768px-Giant_ground_sloth_Io
wa.JPG
34,000,000 YBN
813) Toothed and Baleen whale lines
split.

Toothed whales include dolphins, sperm,
and killer whales. Baleen whales
include blue, humpback, and gray
whales.
 
[1] Dorudon apparently from Walking
With Beasts UNKNOWN
source: http://www.makradafish.newmail.r
u/WalkingWithBeast/dorudon.jpg

[2] Fig. 2. Molecular time scale
for the orders of placental mammals
based on the 16,397-bp data set and
maximum likelihood tree of ref. 14 with
an opossum outgroup (data not shown),
13 fossil constraints (Materials and
Methods), and a mean prior of 105 mya
for the placental root. Ordinal
designations are listed above the
branches. Orange and green lines denote
orders with basal diversification
before or after the K/T boundary,
respectively. Black lines depict orders
for which only one taxon was available.
Asterisks denote placental taxa
included in the ''K/T body size'' taxon
set. The composition of chimeric taxa,
including caniform, caviomorph,
strepsirrhine, and sirenian, is
indicated elsewhere (14). Numbers for
internal nodes are cross-referenced in
the supporting information.
. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.pnas.org/content/vol1
00/issue3/images/large/pq0334222002.jpeg

30,000,000 YBN
443) The largest land mammal ever
known, the hornless Rhinoceros,
Paraceratherium lives at this time.
India 
[1] Description Skelton of
Indricotherium transouralicum
in National Science Museum,
Tokyo. Date 8 November
2006 Source Photo by
CooZone Author CooZone GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d9/Indricotherium_skelto
n.jpg

[2] Description
Paraceratherium The
Paraceratherium (jr synonym=
Baluchitherium) was an early rhinoceros
which lived in Asia about 20 to 30
million years ago during the late
Oligocene (24 to 38 million years ago
)and early Miocene (5 to 24 million
years ago) Date All images on the
site are at least PD-US.[1] Source
http://www.50birds.com/extan/gextan
imals1.htm Author Unknown PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/9c/Paraceratherium_size.
jpg
30,000,000 YBN
444) The Carnivora cats evolve.
 
[1] Proailurus Wikimedia
Commons Proailurus may or may not have
been a true feline; some experts place
it in the Feloidea family, which
includes not only cats, but also hyenas
and mongooses. Whatever the case,
Proailurus was a relatively small
carnivore, only a little bit bigger
than a modern tabby. GNU
source: http://0.tqn.com/d/dinosaurs/1/0
/e/6/-/-/proailurus.jpg
30,000,000 YBN
520) The Primates: True Lemurs evolve.
 
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p168. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p168.

[2] Description English:
Ring-tailed Lemur (Lemur catta) at
Berenty Private Reserve in
Madagascar Date 4 October
2009 Source Own work Author
Alex Dunkel
(Visionholder) Permission (Reusing
this file) See below. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f5/Lemur_catta_001.jpg
30,000,000 YBN
6385) The first pigs evolve.
 
[1] Description Wild pig (Sus scrofa)
stop near the Kennedy Space Center
Press Site in the Launch Complex 39
Area on their daily foraging
rounds. Not a native in the
environment, the pigs are believed to
be descendants from those brought to
Florida by the early Spanish explorers.
Without many predators other than
human, the pigs have flourished in the
surrounding environs. Date May
2002 Source
http://mediaarchive.ksc.nasa.gov/detail
.cfm?mediaid=9807 Author NASA or
National Aeronautics and Space
Administration PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/9b/Wild_Pig_KSC02pd0873.
jpg

[2] en:Pig: sow with
piglet de:Hausschwein: Sau mit
Ferkel Photo by Scott Bauer. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/59/Sow_with_piglet.jpg
27,000,000 YBN
521) The Primates: Wooly and Leaping
Lemurs evolve.
 
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p168. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p168.

[2] Description English: Indri
(Indri indri) in Madagascar Date
18 May 2009 Source
email Author Erik Patel CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/83/Indri_indri_001.jpg
25,000,000 YBN
522) The Primates: Sportive, Mouse, and
Dwarf Lemurs evolve.
 
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p168. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p168.

[2] Description Zwerg-Mausmaki
(Microcebus myoxinus) Date
2008.02.10. Source Deutsch
wikipedia
http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bild:Microz
eb.jpg Author
User:Bikeadventure PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/93/Microcebus_myoxinus.j
pg
25,000,000 YBN
531) The Primates "Old World Monkeys"
evolve (the ancestor of the Macaques,
Baboons, Mandrills, Proboscis and
Colobus {KoLiBeS} monkeys).

This is also the last common ancestor
of the Old World monkeys and the
hominoids, which includes apes and
humans.
(perhaps around Lake Victoria)
Africa 
[1] From: Stewart, Caro-Beth, and Todd
R Disotell. “Primate evolution - in
and out of Africa.” Current Biology
8.16 (1998) :
R582-R588. http://www.sciencedirect.com
/science/article/pii/S0960982207003673
Figure 2. A synthetic hypothesis of
catarrhine primate evolution. The
branching order shown for the living
species is well-supported by numerous
molecular phylogenetic studies (for
example [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 18, 24
and 25]). We present the dates of
divergence calculated by Goodman and
colleagues [11], on the understanding
that these are still rough estimates
and more precise measurements are
needed, especially for the Old World
monkeys. The fossil species (genus
names in italics) were placed on this
tree by parsimony analyses of
relatively large morphological datasets
[4, 11, 14 and 15]. Known dates for
fossils [1, 2 and 21] are indicated by
the thicker lines; these lines are
attached to the tree as determined by
the parsimony analyses, although the
dates of the attachment points are our
best guesses. Species found in Africa
are in red and species found in Eurasia
are in black. The continental locations
of the ancestral lineages were inferred
by parsimony using the computer program
MacClade [30]. The intercontinental
dispersal events required, at a
minimum, to explain the distribution of
the living and fossil species are
indicated by the arrows. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4C4DVM4-D
&_user=4422&_handle=V-WA-A-W-WC-MsSAYVW-
UUW-U-AAVECYCCBC-AAVDAZZBBC-YCACYAZCV-WC
-U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=07%2F30%2F1998&_
rdoc=12&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236243
%231998%23999919983%23494082!&_cdi=6243&
view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlV
ersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=5558415c4ccd34
6c64e2e6be03c3865e

[2] Description Colobus
angolensis monkey Date 13 June
2007, 13:13 Source Angola Colobus
Monkey #6 Author Ryan E.
Poplin CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5a/Colobus_angolensis.jp
g
25,000,000 YBN
6386) The first deer evolves.
 
[1] White-tailed deer in Toronto,
Canada PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/c/c2/White-tail_deer.jpg

[2] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p200. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p200.
24,000,000 YBN
662) The ancestor of all Hominoids
(Gibbons and Hominids) loses its tail.
 
[1] From: Stewart, Caro-Beth, and Todd
R Disotell. “Primate evolution - in
and out of Africa.” Current Biology
8.16 (1998) :
R582-R588. http://www.sciencedirect.com
/science/article/pii/S0960982207003673
Figure 2. A synthetic hypothesis of
catarrhine primate evolution. The
branching order shown for the living
species is well-supported by numerous
molecular phylogenetic studies (for
example [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 18, 24
and 25]). We present the dates of
divergence calculated by Goodman and
colleagues [11], on the understanding
that these are still rough estimates
and more precise measurements are
needed, especially for the Old World
monkeys. The fossil species (genus
names in italics) were placed on this
tree by parsimony analyses of
relatively large morphological datasets
[4, 11, 14 and 15]. Known dates for
fossils [1, 2 and 21] are indicated by
the thicker lines; these lines are
attached to the tree as determined by
the parsimony analyses, although the
dates of the attachment points are our
best guesses. Species found in Africa
are in red and species found in Eurasia
are in black. The continental locations
of the ancestral lineages were inferred
by parsimony using the computer program
MacClade [30]. The intercontinental
dispersal events required, at a
minimum, to explain the distribution of
the living and fossil species are
indicated by the arrows. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4C4DVM4-D
&_user=4422&_handle=V-WA-A-W-WC-MsSAYVW-
UUW-U-AAVECYCCBC-AAVDAZZBBC-YCACYAZCV-WC
-U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=07%2F30%2F1998&_
rdoc=12&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236243
%231998%23999919983%23494082!&_cdi=6243&
view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlV
ersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=5558415c4ccd34
6c64e2e6be03c3865e

[2] Gregoire: 62-year-old
chimpanzee Description English:
Chimpanzee named ''Gregoire'' born in
1944 (Jane Goodall sanctuary of
Tchimpounga in Congo Brazzaville) -
Picture taken the 9th of December
2006 Français : Chimpanzé nommé
''Grégoire'' né en 1944 (sanctuaire
Jane Goodall de Tchimpounga au Congo
Brazzaville) - Photo prise le 9
décembre 2006 Date 9 December
2006 Source Own work Author
Delphine
Bruyère Permission (Reusing this
file) Attribution : Delphine
Bruyere GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/ba/2006-12-09_Chimpanzee
_Gregoire_D_Bruyere.JPG
23,000,000 YBN
478) The Monotreme: Echidna evolves.
Australia, Tasmania and New
Guinea 
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
239. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), 239.

[2] The echidna is one of a handful of
mammals to give birth to its offspring
by laying eggs. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3b/Long-beakedEchidna.jp
g
23,000,000 YBN
479) The Monotreme: Duck-Billed
Platypus evolves.
Australia and Tasmania 
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
239. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), 239.

[2] Description Description
Swiming Platypus * Photographer Peter
Scheunis * Source self-made Date
September 2004 Location Broken
River-Queensland-Australia Date
2010-01-18 03:46 (UTC) Source

Platypus_BrokenRiver_QLD_Australia.jpg
Author
Platypus_BrokenRiver_QLD_Australia.jpg:
Peterdvv derivative work: Bobisbob
(talk) CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/12/Platypus_BrokenRiver_
QLD_Australia2.png
22,000,000 YBN
526) The New World Monkeys: Sakis,
Uakaris {WoKoREZ}, and Titis {TETEZ}.
 
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p149. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p149.

[2] Description White-faced Saki
(Pithecia pithecia) at the Oregon
Zoo Date 8-6-2006 Source This
file is lacking source
information. Please edit this file's
description and provide a
source. Author
User:Cacophony GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e6/WhiteFacedSaki.jpg
22,000,000 YBN
527) The New World Monkeys: Howler,
Spider and Woolly monkeys.
 
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p149. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p149.

[2] Description these guys (well,
guy and lady friend) are unbelievably
loud. of course with a name like howler
monkey you'd have to be :) Date
16 June 2007, 08:29 Source
howler monkees doing their
thing Author Steve from
washington, dc, usa CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2f/Howler_monkey.jpg
22,000,000 YBN
528) The New World Monkeys: Capuchins
{KaPYUCiNZ} and Squirrel monkeys.
Americas 
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p149. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p149.

[2] Description Cebus apella
group. Capuchin Monkeys Sharing Date
Published: December 22,
2003 Source Powell K: Economy of
the Mind. PLoS Biol 1/3/2003: e77.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.0
000077 Author (Photo courtesy of
Frans de Waal.) CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/4e/Cebus_capucinus.png
22,000,000 YBN
558) The Hominoid Afropithecus evolves
in Africa.
 
[1] Figure 2. A synthetic hypothesis of
catarrhine primate evolution. The
branching order shown for the living
species is well-supported by numerous
molecular phylogenetic studies (for
example [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 18, 24
and 25]). We present the dates of
divergence calculated by Goodman and
colleagues [11], on the understanding
that these are still rough estimates
and more precise measurements are
needed, especially for the Old World
monkeys. The fossil species (genus
names in italics) were placed on this
tree by parsimony analyses of
relatively large morphological datasets
[4, 11, 14 and 15]. Known dates for
fossils [1, 2 and 21] are indicated by
the thicker lines; these lines are
attached to the tree as determined by
the parsimony analyses, although the
dates of the attachment points are our
best guesses. Species found in Africa
are in red and species found in Eurasia
are in black. The continental locations
of the ancestral lineages were inferred
by parsimony using the computer program
MacClade [30]. The intercontinental
dispersal events required, at a
minimum, to explain the distribution of
the living and fossil species are
indicated by the arrows. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4C4DVM4-D
&_user=4422&_handle=V-WA-A-W-WC-MsSAYVW-
UUW-U-AAVECYCCBC-AAVDAZZBBC-YCACYAZCV-WC
-U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=07%2F30%2F1998&_
rdoc=12&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236243
%231998%23999919983%23494082!&_cdi=6243&
view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlV
ersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=5558415c4ccd34
6c64e2e6be03c3865e

[2] Afropithecus turkanensis cranium,
KNM-WK 16999 (type specimen) a:
Occlusal aspect b: Superior aspect c:''
Right lateral aspect d: Frontal aspect
e: Detail of glabella and frontal
region taken at right
angles. COPYRIGHTED
source: afropithecus.pdf
22,000,000 YBN
559) The Hominoid Proconsul evolves in
East Africa.
 
[1] Figure 2. A synthetic hypothesis of
catarrhine primate evolution. The
branching order shown for the living
species is well-supported by numerous
molecular phylogenetic studies (for
example [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 18, 24
and 25]). We present the dates of
divergence calculated by Goodman and
colleagues [11], on the understanding
that these are still rough estimates
and more precise measurements are
needed, especially for the Old World
monkeys. The fossil species (genus
names in italics) were placed on this
tree by parsimony analyses of
relatively large morphological datasets
[4, 11, 14 and 15]. Known dates for
fossils [1, 2 and 21] are indicated by
the thicker lines; these lines are
attached to the tree as determined by
the parsimony analyses, although the
dates of the attachment points are our
best guesses. Species found in Africa
are in red and species found in Eurasia
are in black. The continental locations
of the ancestral lineages were inferred
by parsimony using the computer program
MacClade [30]. The intercontinental
dispersal events required, at a
minimum, to explain the distribution of
the living and fossil species are
indicated by the arrows. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4C4DVM4-D
&_user=4422&_handle=V-WA-A-W-WC-MsSAYVW-
UUW-U-AAVECYCCBC-AAVDAZZBBC-YCACYAZCV-WC
-U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=07%2F30%2F1998&_
rdoc=12&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236243
%231998%23999919983%23494082!&_cdi=6243&
view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlV
ersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=5558415c4ccd34
6c64e2e6be03c3865e

[2] Proconsul COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://www.andromeda.rutgers.edu
/~biosci/RutgersHumanEcology/Proconsul.j
pg
21,000,000 YBN
529) The New World Monkeys: Night (or
Owl) monkeys evolve.
 
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p149. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p149.

[2] Description A Night Monkey
(Aotus lemurinus zonalis) in
Panama Date 18 March 2005,
12:00 Source night monkey Author
dsasso CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d7/Panamanian_night_monk
ey.jpg
21,000,000 YBN
530) The New World Monkeys: Tamarins
{TaMariNZ} and Marmosets {moRmoSeTS}
evolve.
 
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p149. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p149.

[2] Description Emperor
Tamarin(Saguinus imperator) is a
tamarin allegedly named for its
similarity with the William II, German
Emperor.The name was first intended as
a joke, but has become the official
scientific name. This tamarin lives in
the southwest Amazon Basin, in east
Peru, north Bolivia and in the west
Brazilian states of Acre and Amazonas.
The males and females Emperor
Tamarinlook alike. Males are the ones,
who are carrying babies on their backs.
The image is of female Emperor Tamarin.
The image was taken in San Francisco
Zoo. Date 2007 Source Own
work Author Mila Zinkova, edited
by Fir0002, edited by Mbz1 GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/85/Tamarin_portrait_2_ed
it3.jpg
21,000,000 YBN
556) The Hominoid Kenyapithecus evolves
in Africa.
 
[1] Figure 2. A synthetic hypothesis of
catarrhine primate evolution. The
branching order shown for the living
species is well-supported by numerous
molecular phylogenetic studies (for
example [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 18, 24
and 25]). We present the dates of
divergence calculated by Goodman and
colleagues [11], on the understanding
that these are still rough estimates
and more precise measurements are
needed, especially for the Old World
monkeys. The fossil species (genus
names in italics) were placed on this
tree by parsimony analyses of
relatively large morphological datasets
[4, 11, 14 and 15]. Known dates for
fossils [1, 2 and 21] are indicated by
the thicker lines; these lines are
attached to the tree as determined by
the parsimony analyses, although the
dates of the attachment points are our
best guesses. Species found in Africa
are in red and species found in Eurasia
are in black. The continental locations
of the ancestral lineages were inferred
by parsimony using the computer program
MacClade [30]. The intercontinental
dispersal events required, at a
minimum, to explain the distribution of
the living and fossil species are
indicated by the arrows. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4C4DVM4-D
&_user=4422&_handle=V-WA-A-W-WC-MsSAYVW-
UUW-U-AAVECYCCBC-AAVDAZZBBC-YCACYAZCV-WC
-U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=07%2F30%2F1998&_
rdoc=12&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236243
%231998%23999919983%23494082!&_cdi=6243&
view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlV
ersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=5558415c4ccd34
6c64e2e6be03c3865e

[2] Ape Evolution Branching
Diagram COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.ablongman.com/html/an
thro/phys/databank/fig5.24.html
20,000,000 YBN
549) The ancestor of all Homonids may
move (over land) from Africa into
Eurasia.
 
[1] Figure 2. A synthetic hypothesis of
catarrhine primate evolution. The
branching order shown for the living
species is well-supported by numerous
molecular phylogenetic studies (for
example [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 18, 24
and 25]). We present the dates of
divergence calculated by Goodman and
colleagues [11], on the understanding
that these are still rough estimates
and more precise measurements are
needed, especially for the Old World
monkeys. The fossil species (genus
names in italics) were placed on this
tree by parsimony analyses of
relatively large morphological datasets
[4, 11, 14 and 15]. Known dates for
fossils [1, 2 and 21] are indicated by
the thicker lines; these lines are
attached to the tree as determined by
the parsimony analyses, although the
dates of the attachment points are our
best guesses. Species found in Africa
are in red and species found in Eurasia
are in black. The continental locations
of the ancestral lineages were inferred
by parsimony using the computer program
MacClade [30]. The intercontinental
dispersal events required, at a
minimum, to explain the distribution of
the living and fossil species are
indicated by the arrows. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4C4DVM4-D
&_user=4422&_handle=V-WA-A-W-WC-MsSAYVW-
UUW-U-AAVECYCCBC-AAVDAZZBBC-YCACYAZCV-WC
-U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=07%2F30%2F1998&_
rdoc=12&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236243
%231998%23999919983%23494082!&_cdi=6243&
view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlV
ersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=5558415c4ccd34
6c64e2e6be03c3865e

[2] Figure 1. Potential contacts
between Africa and Eurasia during the
past 40 million years, based upon
geological and faunal evidence (after
[28 and 29]). (a) Late Eocene,
approximately 40 million years ago. The
Tethys seaway prevents migration
between Africa and Eurasia. Uplifting
in the western region of the Arabian
peninsula coincides with the rifting of
the future Red Sea. (b) Early Miocene,
approximately 20 million years ago. The
Red Sea begins to form, while potential
land bridges exist between Africa and
Eurasia. (c) Late Miocene,
approximately 10 million years ago. The
Red Sea continues to grow, and
potential connections between Africa
and Eurasia exist along the Indian
Ocean margin. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4C4DVM4-D
&_user=4422&_handle=V-WA-A-W-WC-MsSAYVW-
UUW-U-AAVECYCCBC-AAVDAZZBBC-YCACYAZCV-WC
-U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=07%2F30%2F1998&_
rdoc=12&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236243
%231998%23999919983%23494082!&_cdi=6243&
view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlV
ersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=5558415c4ccd34
6c64e2e6be03c3865e
18,000,000 YBN
537) The Hominoids: Gibbons evolve in
South-east Asia.
South-East Asia 
[1] Figure 2. A synthetic hypothesis of
catarrhine primate evolution. The
branching order shown for the living
species is well-supported by numerous
molecular phylogenetic studies (for
example [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 18, 24
and 25]). We present the dates of
divergence calculated by Goodman and
colleagues [11], on the understanding
that these are still rough estimates
and more precise measurements are
needed, especially for the Old World
monkeys. The fossil species (genus
names in italics) were placed on this
tree by parsimony analyses of
relatively large morphological datasets
[4, 11, 14 and 15]. Known dates for
fossils [1, 2 and 21] are indicated by
the thicker lines; these lines are
attached to the tree as determined by
the parsimony analyses, although the
dates of the attachment points are our
best guesses. Species found in Africa
are in red and species found in Eurasia
are in black. The continental locations
of the ancestral lineages were inferred
by parsimony using the computer program
MacClade [30]. The intercontinental
dispersal events required, at a
minimum, to explain the distribution of
the living and fossil species are
indicated by the arrows. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4C4DVM4-D
&_user=4422&_handle=V-WA-A-W-WC-MsSAYVW-
UUW-U-AAVECYCCBC-AAVDAZZBBC-YCACYAZCV-WC
-U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=07%2F30%2F1998&_
rdoc=12&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236243
%231998%23999919983%23494082!&_cdi=6243&
view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlV
ersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=5558415c4ccd34
6c64e2e6be03c3865e

[2] Description Deutsch:
Weißhandgibbons Date 25 May
2006 Source Own work Author
User:MatthiasKabel GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/38/Hylobates_lar_pair_of
_white_and_black_01.jpg
15,000,000 YBN
6388) The first Kangeroos evolve.
Australia 
[1] Description English: Agile
Wallaby Latina: Macropus
agilis Nederlands:
Zandwallabie Deutsch:
Flinkwallaby Date November
2004 Source Own work Author
User:Nino Barbieri GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/26/Macropus_agilis_-_02.
jpg

[2] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p231. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p231.
15,000,000 YBN
6389) The first bovids {BOViDZ} evolve
(hollow-horned ruminants: oxen,
antelopes, sheep, cattle, and goats).
 
[1] Description Slender-horned
gazelle, at the Cincinnati Zoo Date
10 November 2007 Source Own
work Author FisherQueen GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Slender-horned_
gazelle_%28Cincinnati_Zoo%29.jpg/1280px-
Slender-horned_gazelle_%28Cincinnati_Zoo
%29.jpg

[2] Español: Antílope sable Sable
Antelope (Bull), photo taken and
submitted by Paul Maritz (paulmaz).
Photo taken near Kafue River in Zambia,
2004 GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Sable_bull.jpg/
1186px-Sable_bull.jpg
15,000,000 YBN
6390) The first hippos evolve.
 
[1] Description Afrikaans:
Seekoei. Nederlands: Nijlpaard Date
2007-08-13 (original upload
date) (Original text : 8 augustus
2007) Source Originally from
nl.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. Transfer was stated to be made by
User:Multichill. (Original text :
Eigen werk) Author Original uploader
was Pbrundel at nl.wikipedia (Original
text : P. Brundel) GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Nijlpaard.jpg/1
024px-Nijlpaard.jpg

[2] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p200. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p200.
14,000,000 YBN
542) The earliest extant Hominids:
Orangutans evolve in South-East Asia.
South-East Asia 
[1] From: Stewart, Caro-Beth, and Todd
R Disotell. “Primate evolution - in
and out of Africa.” Current Biology
8.16 (1998) :
R582-R588. http://www.sciencedirect.com
/science/article/pii/S0960982207003673
Figure 2. A synthetic hypothesis of
catarrhine primate evolution. The
branching order shown for the living
species is well-supported by numerous
molecular phylogenetic studies (for
example [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 18, 24
and 25]). We present the dates of
divergence calculated by Goodman and
colleagues [11], on the understanding
that these are still rough estimates
and more precise measurements are
needed, especially for the Old World
monkeys. The fossil species (genus
names in italics) were placed on this
tree by parsimony analyses of
relatively large morphological datasets
[4, 11, 14 and 15]. Known dates for
fossils [1, 2 and 21] are indicated by
the thicker lines; these lines are
attached to the tree as determined by
the parsimony analyses, although the
dates of the attachment points are our
best guesses. Species found in Africa
are in red and species found in Eurasia
are in black. The continental locations
of the ancestral lineages were inferred
by parsimony using the computer program
MacClade [30]. The intercontinental
dispersal events required, at a
minimum, to explain the distribution of
the living and fossil species are
indicated by the arrows. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4C4DVM4-D
&_user=4422&_handle=V-WA-A-W-WC-MsSAYVW-
UUW-U-AAVECYCCBC-AAVDAZZBBC-YCACYAZCV-WC
-U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=07%2F30%2F1998&_
rdoc=12&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236243
%231998%23999919983%23494082!&_cdi=6243&
view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlV
ersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=5558415c4ccd34
6c64e2e6be03c3865e

[2] Taken from Wikipedia. Same
name. ''Orangutan image taken by Tom
Low at Camp Leakey, Tanjung Puting,
Kalimantan, Indonesia (2003).'' PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0b/Orangutan.jpg
10,500,000 YBN
538) The Gibbons: Crested Gibbons
evolve.
South-East Asia 
[1] Figure 2. A synthetic hypothesis of
catarrhine primate evolution. The
branching order shown for the living
species is well-supported by numerous
molecular phylogenetic studies (for
example [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 18, 24
and 25]). We present the dates of
divergence calculated by Goodman and
colleagues [11], on the understanding
that these are still rough estimates
and more precise measurements are
needed, especially for the Old World
monkeys. The fossil species (genus
names in italics) were placed on this
tree by parsimony analyses of
relatively large morphological datasets
[4, 11, 14 and 15]. Known dates for
fossils [1, 2 and 21] are indicated by
the thicker lines; these lines are
attached to the tree as determined by
the parsimony analyses, although the
dates of the attachment points are our
best guesses. Species found in Africa
are in red and species found in Eurasia
are in black. The continental locations
of the ancestral lineages were inferred
by parsimony using the computer program
MacClade [30]. The intercontinental
dispersal events required, at a
minimum, to explain the distribution of
the living and fossil species are
indicated by the arrows. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4C4DVM4-D
&_user=4422&_handle=V-WA-A-W-WC-MsSAYVW-
UUW-U-AAVECYCCBC-AAVDAZZBBC-YCACYAZCV-WC
-U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=07%2F30%2F1998&_
rdoc=12&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236243
%231998%23999919983%23494082!&_cdi=6243&
view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlV
ersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=5558415c4ccd34
6c64e2e6be03c3865e

[2] Description English: Photo of a
male White Cheeked Gibbon, holding a
child, taken at the Toledo Zoo. Date
24 September 2008 (15 March 2009
(original upload date)) Source
Transferred from en.wikipedia;
transferred to Commons by User:Albval
using CommonsHelper. (Original text :
I created this work entirely by
myself.) Author Ruby 1x2 (talk).
Original uploader was Ruby 1x2 at
en.wikipedia PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/13/White_Cheeked_Gibbon_
Male.jpg
10,500,000 YBN
550) The ancestor of all Gorillas,
Chimpanzees, and archaic humans may
move over land from Eurasia back into
Africa.
 
[1] Figure 2. A synthetic hypothesis of
catarrhine primate evolution. The
branching order shown for the living
species is well-supported by numerous
molecular phylogenetic studies (for
example [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 18, 24
and 25]). We present the dates of
divergence calculated by Goodman and
colleagues [11], on the understanding
that these are still rough estimates
and more precise measurements are
needed, especially for the Old World
monkeys. The fossil species (genus
names in italics) were placed on this
tree by parsimony analyses of
relatively large morphological datasets
[4, 11, 14 and 15]. Known dates for
fossils [1, 2 and 21] are indicated by
the thicker lines; these lines are
attached to the tree as determined by
the parsimony analyses, although the
dates of the attachment points are our
best guesses. Species found in Africa
are in red and species found in Eurasia
are in black. The continental locations
of the ancestral lineages were inferred
by parsimony using the computer program
MacClade [30]. The intercontinental
dispersal events required, at a
minimum, to explain the distribution of
the living and fossil species are
indicated by the arrows. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4C4DVM4-D
&_user=4422&_handle=V-WA-A-W-WC-MsSAYVW-
UUW-U-AAVECYCCBC-AAVDAZZBBC-YCACYAZCV-WC
-U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=07%2F30%2F1998&_
rdoc=12&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236243
%231998%23999919983%23494082!&_cdi=6243&
view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlV
ersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=5558415c4ccd34
6c64e2e6be03c3865e

[2] Figure 1. Potential contacts
between Africa and Eurasia during the
past 40 million years, based upon
geological and faunal evidence (after
[28 and 29]). (a) Late Eocene,
approximately 40 million years ago. The
Tethys seaway prevents migration
between Africa and Eurasia. Uplifting
in the western region of the Arabian
peninsula coincides with the rifting of
the future Red Sea. (b) Early Miocene,
approximately 20 million years ago. The
Red Sea begins to form, while potential
land bridges exist between Africa and
Eurasia. (c) Late Miocene,
approximately 10 million years ago. The
Red Sea continues to grow, and
potential connections between Africa
and Eurasia exist along the Indian
Ocean margin. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4C4DVM4-D
&_user=4422&_handle=V-WA-A-W-WC-MsSAYVW-
UUW-U-AAVECYCCBC-AAVDAZZBBC-YCACYAZCV-WC
-U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=07%2F30%2F1998&_
rdoc=12&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236243
%231998%23999919983%23494082!&_cdi=6243&
view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlV
ersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=5558415c4ccd34
6c64e2e6be03c3865e
10,000,000 YBN
533) The Old World Monkeys: Colobus
{KoLiBeS} monkeys evolve.
Africa 
[1] Description Colobus angolensis
monkey Date 13 June 2007,
13:13 Source Angola Colobus
Monkey #6 Author Ryan E.
Poplin CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5a/Colobus_angolensis.jp
g

[2] From: Stewart, Caro-Beth, and
Todd R Disotell. “Primate evolution -
in and out of Africa.” Current
Biology 8.16 (1998) :
R582-R588. http://www.sciencedirect.com
/science/article/pii/S0960982207003673
Figure 2. A synthetic hypothesis of
catarrhine primate evolution. The
branching order shown for the living
species is well-supported by numerous
molecular phylogenetic studies (for
example [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 18, 24
and 25]). We present the dates of
divergence calculated by Goodman and
colleagues [11], on the understanding
that these are still rough estimates
and more precise measurements are
needed, especially for the Old World
monkeys. The fossil species (genus
names in italics) were placed on this
tree by parsimony analyses of
relatively large morphological datasets
[4, 11, 14 and 15]. Known dates for
fossils [1, 2 and 21] are indicated by
the thicker lines; these lines are
attached to the tree as determined by
the parsimony analyses, although the
dates of the attachment points are our
best guesses. Species found in Africa
are in red and species found in Eurasia
are in black. The continental locations
of the ancestral lineages were inferred
by parsimony using the computer program
MacClade [30]. The intercontinental
dispersal events required, at a
minimum, to explain the distribution of
the living and fossil species are
indicated by the arrows. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4C4DVM4-D
&_user=4422&_handle=V-WA-A-W-WC-MsSAYVW-
UUW-U-AAVECYCCBC-AAVDAZZBBC-YCACYAZCV-WC
-U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=07%2F30%2F1998&_
rdoc=12&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236243
%231998%23999919983%23494082!&_cdi=6243&
view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlV
ersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=5558415c4ccd34
6c64e2e6be03c3865e
10,000,000 YBN
534) The Old World Monkeys: Langurs
{LoNGURZ} and Proboscis monkeys evolve.
Asia 
[1] From: Stewart, Caro-Beth, and Todd
R Disotell. “Primate evolution - in
and out of Africa.” Current Biology
8.16 (1998) :
R582-R588. http://www.sciencedirect.com
/science/article/pii/S0960982207003673
Figure 2. A synthetic hypothesis of
catarrhine primate evolution. The
branching order shown for the living
species is well-supported by numerous
molecular phylogenetic studies (for
example [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 18, 24
and 25]). We present the dates of
divergence calculated by Goodman and
colleagues [11], on the understanding
that these are still rough estimates
and more precise measurements are
needed, especially for the Old World
monkeys. The fossil species (genus
names in italics) were placed on this
tree by parsimony analyses of
relatively large morphological datasets
[4, 11, 14 and 15]. Known dates for
fossils [1, 2 and 21] are indicated by
the thicker lines; these lines are
attached to the tree as determined by
the parsimony analyses, although the
dates of the attachment points are our
best guesses. Species found in Africa
are in red and species found in Eurasia
are in black. The continental locations
of the ancestral lineages were inferred
by parsimony using the computer program
MacClade [30]. The intercontinental
dispersal events required, at a
minimum, to explain the distribution of
the living and fossil species are
indicated by the arrows. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4C4DVM4-D
&_user=4422&_handle=V-WA-A-W-WC-MsSAYVW-
UUW-U-AAVECYCCBC-AAVDAZZBBC-YCACYAZCV-WC
-U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=07%2F30%2F1998&_
rdoc=12&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236243
%231998%23999919983%23494082!&_cdi=6243&
view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlV
ersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=5558415c4ccd34
6c64e2e6be03c3865e

[2] Description English: A dominant
male proboscis monkey at the Singapore
Zoo, one of few places where captive
animals of this species seem to
thrive. Date 9 November
2008 Source Own work by uploader,
http://bjornfree.com/galleries.html Aut
hor Bjørn Christian
Tørrissen Permission (Reusing this
file) CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/09/Portrait_of_a_Probosc
is_Monkey.jpg
10,000,000 YBN
535) The Old World Monkeys: Guenons
{GenONZ} evolve.
 
[1] From: Stewart, Caro-Beth, and Todd
R Disotell. “Primate evolution - in
and out of Africa.” Current Biology
8.16 (1998) :
R582-R588. http://www.sciencedirect.com
/science/article/pii/S0960982207003673
Figure 2. A synthetic hypothesis of
catarrhine primate evolution. The
branching order shown for the living
species is well-supported by numerous
molecular phylogenetic studies (for
example [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 18, 24
and 25]). We present the dates of
divergence calculated by Goodman and
colleagues [11], on the understanding
that these are still rough estimates
and more precise measurements are
needed, especially for the Old World
monkeys. The fossil species (genus
names in italics) were placed on this
tree by parsimony analyses of
relatively large morphological datasets
[4, 11, 14 and 15]. Known dates for
fossils [1, 2 and 21] are indicated by
the thicker lines; these lines are
attached to the tree as determined by
the parsimony analyses, although the
dates of the attachment points are our
best guesses. Species found in Africa
are in red and species found in Eurasia
are in black. The continental locations
of the ancestral lineages were inferred
by parsimony using the computer program
MacClade [30]. The intercontinental
dispersal events required, at a
minimum, to explain the distribution of
the living and fossil species are
indicated by the arrows. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4C4DVM4-D
&_user=4422&_handle=V-WA-A-W-WC-MsSAYVW-
UUW-U-AAVECYCCBC-AAVDAZZBBC-YCACYAZCV-WC
-U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=07%2F30%2F1998&_
rdoc=12&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236243
%231998%23999919983%23494082!&_cdi=6243&
view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlV
ersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=5558415c4ccd34
6c64e2e6be03c3865e

[2] Phylum: Chordata - Class: Mammalia
- Order: Primates - Family:
Cercopithecidae - Species:Cercopithecus
neglectus Description (De
Brazza's Monkey) taken at the Los
Angeles Zoo Date Source from
http://www.lightmatter.net/gallery/Anima
ls/guenon Author By Aaron
Logan CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e1/Lightmatter_guenon.jp
g
10,000,000 YBN
543) The Hominids: Gorillas evolve in
Africa.
Africa 
[1] From: Stewart, Caro-Beth, and Todd
R Disotell. “Primate evolution - in
and out of Africa.” Current Biology
8.16 (1998) :
R582-R588. http://www.sciencedirect.com
/science/article/pii/S0960982207003673
Figure 2. A synthetic hypothesis of
catarrhine primate evolution. The
branching order shown for the living
species is well-supported by numerous
molecular phylogenetic studies (for
example [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 18, 24
and 25]). We present the dates of
divergence calculated by Goodman and
colleagues [11], on the understanding
that these are still rough estimates
and more precise measurements are
needed, especially for the Old World
monkeys. The fossil species (genus
names in italics) were placed on this
tree by parsimony analyses of
relatively large morphological datasets
[4, 11, 14 and 15]. Known dates for
fossils [1, 2 and 21] are indicated by
the thicker lines; these lines are
attached to the tree as determined by
the parsimony analyses, although the
dates of the attachment points are our
best guesses. Species found in Africa
are in red and species found in Eurasia
are in black. The continental locations
of the ancestral lineages were inferred
by parsimony using the computer program
MacClade [30]. The intercontinental
dispersal events required, at a
minimum, to explain the distribution of
the living and fossil species are
indicated by the arrows. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4C4DVM4-D
&_user=4422&_handle=V-WA-A-W-WC-MsSAYVW-
UUW-U-AAVECYCCBC-AAVDAZZBBC-YCACYAZCV-WC
-U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=07%2F30%2F1998&_
rdoc=12&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236243
%231998%23999919983%23494082!&_cdi=6243&
view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlV
ersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=5558415c4ccd34
6c64e2e6be03c3865e

[2] Description English: Male
silverback w:Gorilla, Gorilla gorilla
in SF zoo Date Source Own
work Author Mila
Zinkova Permission (Reusing this
file) See below. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/50/Male_gorilla_in_SF_zo
o.jpg
7,750,000 YBN
539) The Gibbons: Siamangs {SEumANGZ}
evolve.
South-East Asia 
[1] Figure 2. A synthetic hypothesis of
catarrhine primate evolution. The
branching order shown for the living
species is well-supported by numerous
molecular phylogenetic studies (for
example [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 18, 24
and 25]). We present the dates of
divergence calculated by Goodman and
colleagues [11], on the understanding
that these are still rough estimates
and more precise measurements are
needed, especially for the Old World
monkeys. The fossil species (genus
names in italics) were placed on this
tree by parsimony analyses of
relatively large morphological datasets
[4, 11, 14 and 15]. Known dates for
fossils [1, 2 and 21] are indicated by
the thicker lines; these lines are
attached to the tree as determined by
the parsimony analyses, although the
dates of the attachment points are our
best guesses. Species found in Africa
are in red and species found in Eurasia
are in black. The continental locations
of the ancestral lineages were inferred
by parsimony using the computer program
MacClade [30]. The intercontinental
dispersal events required, at a
minimum, to explain the distribution of
the living and fossil species are
indicated by the arrows. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4C4DVM4-D
&_user=4422&_handle=V-WA-A-W-WC-MsSAYVW-
UUW-U-AAVECYCCBC-AAVDAZZBBC-YCACYAZCV-WC
-U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=07%2F30%2F1998&_
rdoc=12&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236243
%231998%23999919983%23494082!&_cdi=6243&
view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlV
ersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=5558415c4ccd34
6c64e2e6be03c3865e

[2] Description shout Date
28 January 2007 Source
http://www.flickr.com/photos/suneko
/373310729/ Author suneko CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a6/Suneko_-_shout_%28by%
29.jpg
6,000,000 YBN
540) The Gibbons: Hylobates {HIlOBATEZ}
evolve.
South-East Asia 
[1] Figure 2. A synthetic hypothesis of
catarrhine primate evolution. The
branching order shown for the living
species is well-supported by numerous
molecular phylogenetic studies (for
example [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 18, 24
and 25]). We present the dates of
divergence calculated by Goodman and
colleagues [11], on the understanding
that these are still rough estimates
and more precise measurements are
needed, especially for the Old World
monkeys. The fossil species (genus
names in italics) were placed on this
tree by parsimony analyses of
relatively large morphological datasets
[4, 11, 14 and 15]. Known dates for
fossils [1, 2 and 21] are indicated by
the thicker lines; these lines are
attached to the tree as determined by
the parsimony analyses, although the
dates of the attachment points are our
best guesses. Species found in Africa
are in red and species found in Eurasia
are in black. The continental locations
of the ancestral lineages were inferred
by parsimony using the computer program
MacClade [30]. The intercontinental
dispersal events required, at a
minimum, to explain the distribution of
the living and fossil species are
indicated by the arrows. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4C4DVM4-D
&_user=4422&_handle=V-WA-A-W-WC-MsSAYVW-
UUW-U-AAVECYCCBC-AAVDAZZBBC-YCACYAZCV-WC
-U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=07%2F30%2F1998&_
rdoc=12&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236243
%231998%23999919983%23494082!&_cdi=6243&
view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlV
ersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=5558415c4ccd34
6c64e2e6be03c3865e

[2] Description Deutsch:
Weißhandgibbons Date 25 May
2006 Source Own work Author
User:MatthiasKabel GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/38/Hylobates_lar_pair_of
_white_and_black_01.jpg
6,000,000 YBN
541) The Gibbons: Hoolocks {HUleKS}
evolve.
South-East Asia 
[1] Figure 2. A synthetic hypothesis of
catarrhine primate evolution. The
branching order shown for the living
species is well-supported by numerous
molecular phylogenetic studies (for
example [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 18, 24
and 25]). We present the dates of
divergence calculated by Goodman and
colleagues [11], on the understanding
that these are still rough estimates
and more precise measurements are
needed, especially for the Old World
monkeys. The fossil species (genus
names in italics) were placed on this
tree by parsimony analyses of
relatively large morphological datasets
[4, 11, 14 and 15]. Known dates for
fossils [1, 2 and 21] are indicated by
the thicker lines; these lines are
attached to the tree as determined by
the parsimony analyses, although the
dates of the attachment points are our
best guesses. Species found in Africa
are in red and species found in Eurasia
are in black. The continental locations
of the ancestral lineages were inferred
by parsimony using the computer program
MacClade [30]. The intercontinental
dispersal events required, at a
minimum, to explain the distribution of
the living and fossil species are
indicated by the arrows. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4C4DVM4-D
&_user=4422&_handle=V-WA-A-W-WC-MsSAYVW-
UUW-U-AAVECYCCBC-AAVDAZZBBC-YCACYAZCV-WC
-U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=07%2F30%2F1998&_
rdoc=12&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236243
%231998%23999919983%23494082!&_cdi=6243&
view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlV
ersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=5558415c4ccd34
6c64e2e6be03c3865e

[2] Description English: Ulluk, or
Hoolock gibbon, from Shrimangal,
Sylhet, Bangladesh. Date 19 June
2007 Source Bhaskar
Chowdhury Author Bhaskar
Chowdhury CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e2/Ulluk-2.jpg
6,000,000 YBN
544) The Hominids: Chimpanzees evolve
in Africa. This is the last common
ancestor of chimpanzees and humans.
Africa 
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p106. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p106.

[2] Gregoire: 62-year-old
chimpanzee Description English:
Chimpanzee named ''Gregoire'' born in
1944 (Jane Goodall sanctuary of
Tchimpounga in Congo Brazzaville) -
Picture taken the 9th of December
2006 Français : Chimpanzé nommé
''Grégoire'' né en 1944 (sanctuaire
Jane Goodall de Tchimpounga au Congo
Brazzaville) - Photo prise le 9
décembre 2006 Date 9 December
2006 Source Own work Author
Delphine
Bruyère Permission (Reusing this
file) Attribution : Delphine
Bruyere GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/ba/2006-12-09_Chimpanzee
_Gregoire_D_Bruyere.JPG
6,000,000 YBN
1490) The largest flying bird ever
known lives in Argentina, Argentavis.
Argentina 
[1] Argentavis magnificens COPYRIGHTED

source: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/scien
ce/nature/6262740.stm#map

[2] This handout illustration recieved
courtesy of Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences (PNAS) shows
Argentavis magnificens, the world's
largest known flying bird with a
wingspan of 7 meters, (7.6 yds) about
the size of a Cessna 152 aircraft,
soaring across the Miocene skies of the
Argentinean Pampas six million years
ago. Like today’s condors,
Argentavis was a lazy glider that
relied either on updrafts, in the rocky
Andes, or thermals, on the grassy
pampas, to provide lifting
power.(AFP/PNAS-HO/Jeff
Martz) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://news.yahoo.com/s/ap/20070
703/ap_on_sc/biggest_bird;_ylt=An2dhz0Fn
wfN7LIRXnKg7VfMWM0F
4,400,000 YBN
546) The Hominid: Ardipithecus evolves.
The earliest bipedal primate.

Some theories to explain why bipedalism
evolved are: that hands are freed to
carry food home, for later use or for
others (a leopard uses its jaws), that
hands are freed to use weapons, that
walking may be more efficient in
traveling long distances, and as a
sexual selection.

Hominids walking upright on two legs,
away from a life in the trees, may
signal that they have become the top of
the food chain on land as the result of
using weapons.
Lukeino Formation, Tugen Hills, Kenya,
Africa 
[1] Fig. 1. Orrorin tugenensis nov.
gen. nov. sp. A: BAR 1002′00, left
femur, posterior view; B: BAR
1002′00, left femur, anterior view;
C: BAR 1000′00, right mandibular
fragment with M3, buccal view; D: BAR
1000′00, left mandibular fragment
with M2–3, lingual view; E: BAR
1000′00, left mandibular fragment
with M2–3, occlusal view; F: BAR
1900′00, right M3, occlusal view; G:
BAR 1390′00, right P4, distal view;
H: BAR 1001′00, upper I1, labial
view; I: BAR 1425′00, right
Image , lingual view; J: BAR
1004′00, right distal humerus,
posterior view; K: BAR 1003′00,
proximal left femur, anterior view; L:
BAR 349′00, manual proximal phalanx,
superior view; M: BAR 1426′00, left
M3, distal view; N: BAR 1215′00,
fragmentary right proximal femur,
posterior view. Scale bars = 1
cm.Orrorin tugenensis nov. gen. nov.
sp. A : BAR 1002′00, fémur gauche,
vue postérieure ; B : BAR 1002′00,
fémur gauche, vue antérieure ; C :
BAR 1000′00, fragment mandibulaire
droit avec M3, vue buccale ; D : BAR
1000′00, fragment mandibulaire gauche
avec M2–3, vue linguale ; E : BAR
1000′00, fragment mandibulaire gauche
avec M2–3, vue occlusale ; F : BAR
1900′00, M3 droite, vue occlusale ; G
: BAR 1390′00, P4 droite, vue distale
; H : BAR 1001′00, I1, vue labiale ;
I : BAR 1425′00, Image droite, vue
linguale ; J : BAR 1004′00, humérus
distal droit, vue postérieure ; K :
BAR 1003′00, fémur proximal gauche,
vue antérieure ; L : BAR 349′00,
phalange proximale de la main, vue
supérieure ; M : BAR 1426′00, M3
gauche, vue distale ; N : BAR
1215′00, fémur proximal
fragmentaire, vue postérieure. Chaque
barre équivaut à 1 cm. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/cac
he/MiamiImageURL/B6VJ3-42FS9XV-9-1/0?wch
p=dGLzVlz-zSkzS

[2] Description Ardipithecus
ramidus specimen, nicknamed
?Ardi?. After Gen Suwa, Berhane
Asfaw, Reiko T. Kono, Daisuke Kubo, C.
Owen Lovejoy, Tim D. White (2009):
''The Ardipithecus ramidus Skull and
Its Implications for Hominid Origins.''
Science, 2 October 2009: Vol. 326. no.
5949, pp. 68e1-68e7, Fig. 2 Date
14 November 2009, 16:50 Source
Zanclean skull Uploaded by
FunkMonk Author T. Michael
Keesey Permission (Reusing this file)
CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e1/Ardi.jpg
4,000,000 YBN
547) The Hominid: Australopithecus
(x-STrA-lO-PitiKuS} evolves.
Sterkfontein, South Africa 
[1] Australopithecus squinted at the
blue African sky. He had never seen a
star in broad daylight before, but he
could see one today. White. Piercing.
Not as bright as the Sun, yet much more
than a full moon. Was it dangerous? He
stared for a long time, puzzled, but
nothing happened, and after a while he
strode across the savanna
unconcerned. Millions of years
later, we know better. ''That star
was a supernova, one of many that
exploded in our part of the galaxy
during the past 10 million years,''
says astronomer Mark Hurwitz of the
University of
California-Berkeley. Right: Human
ancestors, unconcerned by odd lights in
the daytime sky. This image is based on
a painting featured in The
Economist. PD
source: http://science.nasa.gov/headline
s/y2003/06jan_bubble.htm?list847478

[2] Image Source *
http://www.familie-rebmann.de/photo11.ht
m COPYRIGHTED CLAIMED FAIR USE
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Laetoliafar.jpg.jpg

SCIENCE
3,390,000 YBN
269) Hominids use stones as tools.

Some people may cite the use of stones
as tools by hominids as the start of
science on Earth, but perhaps a living
object simply learning to take
advantage of its environment may be
thought of as the start of science. If
true, then science is at least as old
as the first nerve cell.
Dikika, Ethiopia 
[1] a, The exterior surface of
DIK-55-2, and the location of each of
the surface marks. The rib is oriented
such that the rib head (broken off)
would be to the left. Dashed rule,
4 cm. b, Marks A1 and A2
(high-confidence stone-tool cut marks)
under low-power optical magnification;
the yellow rectangle demarcates c.
Scale bar, 5 mm. c, ESEM image
showing microstriations indicative of
cutting with a stone tool. Scale bar,
100 μm. d, Mark B (high-confidence
stone-tool-inflicted mark) under
low-power optical magnification,
indicative of a cutting and scraping
action or percussion; the yellow
rectangle demarcates e. Scale bar,
5 mm. e, ESEM image showing
microstriations indicative of stone
tool action. Scale bar, 500 μm.
b–e, The direction of the rib head is
indicated by the black arrows. See
Supplementary Information for the
details of mark C. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v466/n7308/images/nature09248-f2.2.
jpg
3,000,000 YBN
446) North and South America connect.
 
[1] Present Day NONCOMMERCIAL
source: http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~rcb7/000
_present_3globes.jpg
2,700,000 YBN
564) The Hominid: Paranthropus {Pa raN
tru PuS} evolves; a line of extinct
early bipedal hominids.
Africa 
[1] Description Deutsch: plastische
wissenschaftliche Rekonstruktion eines
Paranthropus boisei English:
scientiffic reconstruction of a
Paranthropus boisei Date 25 March
2007 Source Photographed at
Westfälisches Museum für
Archäologie, Herne Author
Photographed by
User:Lillyundfreya Permission (Reusing
this file) own work GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6c/Paranthropus_boisei.J
PG

[2] Skull of Paranthropus
boisei. From Smithsonian Institute
website. COPYRIGHTED CLAIMED FAIR USE
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Zinj3.jpg
2,500,000 YBN
455) The oldest formed stone tools. The
start of the Paleolithic or "Old Stone
Age".
Gona, Ethiopia 
[1] Figure 3 from: Semaw, S. et al.
2.5-million-year-old stone tools from
Gona, Ethiopia. Nature 385, 333–336
(1997)
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
385/n6614/abs/385333a0.html COPYRIGHTED

source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v385/n6614/abs/385333a0.html

[2] Early man lived on elephant meat,
so much they died out in the Middle
East 400,000 years ago Submitted by
Anonymous on Wed Dec 14 2011 17:23:00
GMT-0800 (Pacific Standard Time) -
Source: dailymail.co.uk Docile,
lumbering elephants were so perfect for
Homo erectus, that they provided up to
60 per cent of their diet - until
constant hunting wiped out elephants in
the Middle East. The disappearance
of elephants helped kill off Homo
erectus, and paved the way for Homo
sapiens - modern humans - to take
over. Findings from the University
of Tel Aviv reveal how important the
huge animals were to the diet of early
humans - researchers that elephants
provided 60 per cent of the meat eaten
by Homo erectus. UNKNOWN
source: http://i4.asntown.net/Mastodon-t
vfm.jpg
2,200,000 YBN
447) The first humans. The Hominid:
Homo habilis evolves (the earliest
member of the genus "Homo").

This is when the human brain begins to
get bigger.
(Kenya and Tanzania) Africa 
[1] KNM ER 1813 Homo habilis This
image is from the website of the
Smithsonian Institution [1] and may be
copyrighted. The Smithsonian
Institution explicitly considers the
use of its content for non-commercial
educational purposes to qualify as fair
use under United States copyright law,
if: 1. The author and source of the
content is clearly cited. 2. Any
additional copyright information about
the photograph from the Smithsonian
Institution website is included. 3.
None of the content is modified or
altered.
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:KNM_ER_1813.jpg

[2] red= Homo rudolfensis black=Homo
habilis COPYRIGHTED
source: http://sesha.net/eden/Eerste_men
sen.asp
2,000,000 YBN
545) The Hominids: Bonobos {BunOBOZ}
evolve.
Africa 
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p106. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p106.

[2] Gregoire: 62-year-old
chimpanzee Description English:
Chimpanzee named ''Gregoire'' born in
1944 (Jane Goodall sanctuary of
Tchimpounga in Congo Brazzaville) -
Picture taken the 9th of December
2006 Français : Chimpanzé nommé
''Grégoire'' né en 1944 (sanctuaire
Jane Goodall de Tchimpounga au Congo
Brazzaville) - Photo prise le 9
décembre 2006 Date 9 December
2006 Source Own work Author
Delphine
Bruyère Permission (Reusing this
file) Attribution : Delphine
Bruyere GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/ba/2006-12-09_Chimpanzee
_Gregoire_D_Bruyere.JPG
1,800,000 YBN
130) The end of the Tertiary {TRsEARE}
(65-1.8 mybn), and start of the
Quaternary {KWoTRnARE or KWoTRNRE} (1.8
mybn-now) Period.
 
[1] Geologic Time Scale 2009 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.geosociety.org/scienc
e/timescale/timescl.pdf

[2] 000 Ma - Present Time UNKNOWN
source: http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~rcb7/000
_present_3globes.jpg
1,800,000 YBN
563) Homo erectus {hOmO ireKTuS}
evolves in Africa.

Some people call Homo Erectus in
Africa, "Homo Ergaster", and think that
Ergaster leaves Africa and evolves into
Homo erectus in Asia, and into Homo
Neaderthalensis in Europe and western
Asia.
Lake Turkana, East Africa 
[1] Homo ergaster. Capacité
crânienne de 800 à 950
cm3 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://ma.prehistoire.free.fr/er
gaster.htm

[2] Turkana Boy COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.anthropology.at/virta
nth/evo_links/turkana%20boy.jpg
1,700,000 YBN
449) Homo erectus moves into Eurasia
from Africa.
 
[1] G. Philip Rightmire, ''The
Dispersal of Homo erectus from Africa
and the Emergence of More Modern
Humans'', Journal of Anthropological
Research, Vol. 47, No. 2, A Quarter
Century of Paleoanthropology: Views
from the U.S.A. (Summer, 1991), pp.
177-191 Published by: University of
New Mexico Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/3630324
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3630
324

[2] All statistically significant
inferences in Tables 1 and 2 are
incorporated into this single model.
Major expansions of human populations
are indicated by red arrows. Genetic
descent is indicated by vertical lines,
and gene flow by diagonal lines. The
timing of inferences lacking resolution
at the 5% level and/or not validated by
more than one locus are indicated by
question marks. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v416/n6876/images/416045a-f1.2.jpg
1,500,000 YBN
583) The controlled use of fire by
Hominids.

Controlled fires may be made first by
Australopithecus or Homo erectus.
(Swartkrans cave) Swartkrans, South
Africa 
[1] Description English: A fire lit
using twigs and pine cones. Date
2008-03-27 (original upload
date) (Original text : 10:58, 27 March
2008 (UTC)) Source Transferred
from en.wikipedia (Original text :
http://waxingnonsensical.blogspot.com)
Author Original uploader was
Emeldil at en.wikipedia (Original text
: Pavan Srinath) Permission (Reusing
this file) CC-BY-SA-3.0. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Campfire_Pineco
ne.png/450px-Campfire_Pinecone.png

[2] Swartkrans Caves For any
picture requests, please email:
marketing@maropeng.co.za All photos
should be credited (© Maropeng),
unless otherwise stated in the caption.
UNKNOWN
source: http://maropeng.flowcommunicatio
.netdna-cdn.com/images/sized/images/medi
agallery/IMG_7223-600x450.JPG
1,000,000 YBN
554) The Hominoid Gigantopithecus
{JIGaNTOPitiKuS} evolves, the largest
ape known.
China, Vietnam and India 
[1] Figure 2. A synthetic hypothesis of
catarrhine primate evolution. The
branching order shown for the living
species is well-supported by numerous
molecular phylogenetic studies (for
example [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 18, 24
and 25]). We present the dates of
divergence calculated by Goodman and
colleagues [11], on the understanding
that these are still rough estimates
and more precise measurements are
needed, especially for the Old World
monkeys. The fossil species (genus
names in italics) were placed on this
tree by parsimony analyses of
relatively large morphological datasets
[4, 11, 14 and 15]. Known dates for
fossils [1, 2 and 21] are indicated by
the thicker lines; these lines are
attached to the tree as determined by
the parsimony analyses, although the
dates of the attachment points are our
best guesses. Species found in Africa
are in red and species found in Eurasia
are in black. The continental locations
of the ancestral lineages were inferred
by parsimony using the computer program
MacClade [30]. The intercontinental
dispersal events required, at a
minimum, to explain the distribution of
the living and fossil species are
indicated by the arrows. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4C4DVM4-D
&_user=4422&_handle=V-WA-A-W-WC-MsSAYVW-
UUW-U-AAVECYCCBC-AAVDAZZBBC-YCACYAZCV-WC
-U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=07%2F30%2F1998&_
rdoc=12&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236243
%231998%23999919983%23494082!&_cdi=6243&
view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlV
ersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=5558415c4ccd34
6c64e2e6be03c3865e

[2] Bill Munns stands next to his
model of a Gigantopithecus male, a
quadrupedal, fist-walking creature that
also could have stood erect, as bears
do. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.uiowa.edu/~bioanth/gi
ganto.html
1,000,000 YBN
589) Homo erectus evolves far less body
hair, except on the head, face, airpit,
chest, and groin.
 
[1] escription English: A diorama in
National Museum of Indonesia, Jakarta,
depicting the life size model of stone
equipped hunter, a Homo erectus family
living in Sangiran about 900,000 years
ago. Bahasa Indonesia: Sebuah diorama
di Museum Nasional Indonesia di Jakarta
menampilkan adegan pemburu dengan
alat-alat batu, sebuah keluarga Homo
erectus yang hidup di Sangiran sekitar
900.000 tahun yang lalu. Date 24
August 2010 Source Own
work Author Gunkarta Gunawan
Kartapranata CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Sangiran_Homo_e
rectus_Diorama.jpg/1280px-Sangiran_Homo_
erectus_Diorama.jpg
1,000,000 YBN
6467) Homo erectus reaches China.
Gongwangling, Lantian County, Shaanxi
Province, China 
[1] Chang, P.K.C. et al. The Formation
of Chinese Civilization: An
Archaeological Perspective. Yale
University Press, 2005. The Culture and
Civilization of China Series.
p206. http://books.google.com/books?id=
sP-PN2StH2cC COPYRIGHTED
source: Chang, P.K.C. et al. The
Formation of Chinese Civilization: An
Archaeological Perspective. Yale
University Press, 2005. The Culture and
Civilization of China Series.
p206. http://books.google.com/books?id=
sP-PN2StH2cC

[2] Chang, P.K.C. et al. The Formation
of Chinese Civilization: An
Archaeological Perspective. Yale
University Press, 2005. The Culture and
Civilization of China Series.
p206. http://books.google.com/books?id=
sP-PN2StH2cC COPYRIGHTED
source: Chang, P.K.C. et al. The
Formation of Chinese Civilization: An
Archaeological Perspective. Yale
University Press, 2005. The Culture and
Civilization of China Series.
p206. http://books.google.com/books?id=
sP-PN2StH2cC
970,000 YBN
200) Humans wear clothing.

That archaic humans wear clothing at
this time is implied by the cold
climate that occurs at the same time
that stone tools found in the area are
used.
Happisburgh, Norfolk, UK 
[1] Homo erectus, artwork C010/4389
Rights Managed Credit: JOSE ANTONIO
PEÑAS/SCIENCE PHOTO
LIBRARY Caption: Homo erectus.
Computer artwork of a Homo erectus man
standing in a prehistoric landscape.
Homo erectus is the most widespread and
longest-surviving of all the fossil
hominids. Its geographical spread
included north and east Africa, Europe,
Indonesia and China, where it lived
between 1 and 2 million years
ago. Release details: Model and
property releases are not available
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.sciencephoto.com/imag
e/417426/large/C0104389-Homo_erectus,_ar
twork-SPL.jpg

[2] Flint artefacts include
hard-hammer flakes, notches, retouched
flakes and cores (a–c, hard-hammer
flake; d, e, multiple notch; f,
hard-hammer flake; g, h, hard-hammer
flake, showing pronounced point of
percussion on plain butt).
Supplementary Information includes
micro-CT volume rendering of artefacts
(still example shown as a) with
three-dimensional animations (see
Supplementary Movies 1–10). i, Cone
of Pinus cf. sylvestris. j, Upper
second molar of Mammuthus cf.
meridionalis. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nature.com/nature/journal
/v466/n7303/images/nature09117-f2.2.jpg
400,000 YBN
615) The earliest evidence of spears.
Kathu Pan 1, South Africa|(Schöningen,
Germany.) 
[1] (Photo : Jayne Wilkins) Replicas of
the 500,000-year-old stone points from
Kathu Pan 1 were hafted onto wooden
dowels with acacia resin and sinew, and
plunged into antelope carcasses Read
more at
http://www.latinospost.com/articles/6938
/20121115/oldest-stone-spear-tips-found-
came-200.htm#irhScS4kokLTYQJp.99 UNKNOW
N
source: http://images.latinospost.com/da
ta/images/full/8174/early-hafted-spears.
jpg?w=600

[2] Fig. 2 (A and B) Distal
step-terminating bending fractures on
ventral surfaces of complete
nonretouched convergent blades, banded
ironstone. (C) Distal impact burination
on ventral surface of a complete
nonretouched convergent flake, banded
ironstone. (D) Distal impact burination
on ventral surface of complete
nonretouched convergent blade, banded
ironstone. (E) Comparison of DIF
frequencies (95% confidence intervals)
at Holocene kill and habitation sites
with well-established weapon tips (11,
27, 28, 36), experimental weapon tip
studies (10, 27, 37–40), trampling
experiments (32, 41), and KP1.
Wilkins, Jayne et al. “Evidence for
Early Hafted Hunting Technology.”
Science 338.6109 (2012):
942–946. http://www.sciencemag.org/co
ntent/338/6109/942 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/338/6109/942
302,000 YBN
6517) There are 1 million humans on
Earth, all hunter-gathering people.
 
[1] Parker, G. Compact History of the
World. Barnes & Noble, 2001,
p17. COPYRIGHTED
source: Parker, G. Compact History of
the World. Barnes & Noble, 2001, p17.
200,000 YBN
548) Homo sapiens evolve in Africa.

The oldest Homo sapiens fossils (Omo I
and II) are from Ethiopia.
Ethiopia, Africa 
[1] Figure from: Day, M. H. ''Omo
human skeletal remains.'' Nature 222,
1135–1138 (1969)
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
222/n5199/pdf/2221135a0.pdf COPYRIGHTED

source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v222/n5199/pdf/2221135a0.pdf

[2] Figure 1 from: Tim D. White,
Berhane Asfaw, David DeGusta, Henry
Gilbert, Gary D. Richards, Gen Suwa &
F. Clark Howell, ''Pleistocene Homo
sapiens from Middle Awash, Ethiopia'',
Nature 423, 742-747 (12 June
2003) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v423/n6941/full/nature01669.html CO
PYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v423/n6941/images/nature01669-f1.2.
jpg
200,000 YBN
590) The Human language of thirty short
sounds begins to develop. All words are
single syllable. Vowel sounds (U, o,
and E) may be in use.

This is the beginning of the transition
from the verbal language of chimpanzees
and monkeys, to the language humans use
now, which has shorter sound duration
and a larger number of sounds.

The majority of the 40 or so basic
sounds in human language (U, o, K, S,
etc.) are probably learned before
humans leave Africa, because although
words vary, all humans use the same
base sounds.

Humans start to give names to objects
(nouns) and actions (verbs).
 
[1] EARLY HUMANS SETTLED IN BRITAIN
800,000 YEARS AGO July 7, 2010 --
During the harsh winters, early humans
almost certainly relied on hunting
animals, as edible plants would have
been in very short supply, the study
says. UNKNOWN
source: http://news.discovery.com/archae
ology/2010/07/07/early-humans-zoom.jpg

[2] Phonetic Alphabet Symbols used by
Ted Huntington PD
source: http://tedhuntington.com/fonikal
f.jpg
190,000 YBN
601) The "Stop" family of sounds are in
use; the sounds made by the letters B,
D, G, K, P and T (in other words the
sounds /B/, /D/, /G/, /K/, /P/, and /T/
are in use).
 
[1] EARLY HUMANS SETTLED IN BRITAIN
800,000 YEARS AGO July 7, 2010 --
During the harsh winters, early humans
almost certainly relied on hunting
animals, as edible plants would have
been in very short supply, the study
says. UNKNOWN
source: http://news.discovery.com/archae
ology/2010/07/07/early-humans-zoom.jpg

[2] Phonetic Alphabet Symbols used by
Ted Huntington PD
source: http://tedhuntington.com/fonikal
f.jpg
170,000 YBN
600) Humans use the S sound.
 
[1] EARLY HUMANS SETTLED IN BRITAIN
800,000 YEARS AGO July 7, 2010 --
During the harsh winters, early humans
almost certainly relied on hunting
animals, as edible plants would have
been in very short supply, the study
says. UNKNOWN
source: http://news.discovery.com/archae
ology/2010/07/07/early-humans-zoom.jpg

[2] Phonetic Alphabet Symbols used by
Ted Huntington PD
source: http://tedhuntington.com/fonikal
f.jpg
150,000 YBN
592) Humans use the sounds represented
by the letters M, N, L, and R.
 
[1] EARLY HUMANS SETTLED IN BRITAIN
800,000 YEARS AGO July 7, 2010 --
During the harsh winters, early humans
almost certainly relied on hunting
animals, as edible plants would have
been in very short supply, the study
says. UNKNOWN
source: http://news.discovery.com/archae
ology/2010/07/07/early-humans-zoom.jpg

[2] Phonetic Alphabet Symbols used by
Ted Huntington PD
source: http://tedhuntington.com/fonikal
f.jpg
130,000 YBN
450) Homo Neanderthalensis evolves in
Europe and Western Asia.
Europe and Western Asia 
[1] Description Deutsch:
Rekonstruierter Neandertaler im
Neanderthal-Museum Date 2007 Source
Own
work Author Ökologix Permission
(Reusing this file) See below. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Neandertaler-im
-Museum.jpg/1024px-Neandertaler-im-Museu
m.jpg

[2] Description English: Homo
neanderthalensis. Skull discovered in
1908 at La Chapelle-aux-Saints
(France). Date October
2005 Source Own
work Author Luna04 GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e0/Homo_sapiens_neandert
halensis.jpg
120,000 YBN
572) The start of the Wurm glaciation,
which connects a land bridge between
Asia and America.
 
[1] Description English: Ice age
Earth at glacial maximum. Based on:
''Ice age terrestrial carbon changes
revisited'' by Thomas J. Crowley
(Global Biogeochemical Cycles, Vol. 9,
1995, pp. 377-389 Date 30 January
2010 Source Own work Author
Ittiz CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/IceAgeEarth.jpg
/1024px-IceAgeEarth.jpg
101,000 YBN
[99000 BC] 		594) Homo sapiens move out of Africa
into Eurasia. This is the beginning of
differences in race within the human
species.
 
[1] The northern route (along the
Danube) is represented by the 'classic'
Aurignacian technologies, while the
southern (Mediterranean) route is
represented by the 'proto-Aurignacian'
bladelet technologies (Fig. 3)-with
their inferred origins in the preceding
early Upper Palaeolithic technologies
in the Near East and southeastern
Europe. Dates (in thousands of years
bp) indicate the earliest radiocarbon
dates for these technologies in
different areas, expressed in thousands
of radiocarbon years before present
(bp). (These are likely to
underestimate the true (calendar) ages
of the sites by between 2,000 and 4,000
yr; see ref. 32). Dashed lines indicate
uncertain routes. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v432/n7016/fig_tab/nature03103_F1.h
tml

[2] The figure shows the geographical
and temporal distribution of hominid
populations, based on fossil finds,
using different taxonomic schemes. The
new finds from Herto4, 5 (H) represent
early Homo sapiens. a, This reflects
the view that both Neanderthals and
modern humans derived from a widespread
ancestral species called H.
heidelbergensis2. b, However, evidence
is growing that Neanderthal features
have deep roots in Europe2, 8, so H.
neanderthalensis might extend back over
400,000 years. The roots of H. sapiens
might be similarly deep in Africa, but
this figure represents the alternative
view that the ancestor was a separate
African species called H. rhodesiensis.
Different views of early human
evolution are also shown. Some workers
prefer to lump the earlier records
together and recognize only one
widespread species, H. erectus2 (shown
in a). Others recognize several
species, with H. ergaster and H.
antecessor (or H. mauritanicus) in the
West, and H. erectus only in the Far
East8 (shown in b). Adapted with
permission from refs 8, 11. 8.
Hublin, J.-J in Human Roots: Africa
and Asia in the Middle Pleistocene (eds
Barham, L. & Robson-Brown, K.) 99-121
(Western Academic & Specialist Press,
Bristol, 2001). 11. Rightmire, G. P.
in Human Roots: Africa and Asia in the
Middle Pleistocene (eds Barham, L. &
Robson-Brown, K.) 123-133 (Western
Academic & Specialist Press, Bristol,
2001). COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v423/n6941/fig_tab/423692a_F1.html
100,000 YBN
[98000 BC] 		257) The oldest Homo sapiens skull
outside of Africa; in Israel.
(Skhul Cave) Mount Carmel, Israel 
[1] Индекс: Кафзех 9
(Qafzeh IX) Место
находки: Qafzeh Cave,
Israel Найден: B. Vandermeersch,
1969 Предполагаемый
возраст находки: 90–115
тыс. лет
Разновидность: Homo
sapiens Объем мозга: 1500
см3 Примечания:
Женщина была
захоронена вместе с
маленьким
ребенком. Автор: Sasha
на 15:13 UNKNOWN
source: http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-atwty2
hbM9Y/TxIL8eshIkI/AAAAAAAAGG4/KNd7DfaWco
s/s1600/qafzeh_9_big.jpg

[2] Figure 2: Three-quarter view of
the Mousterian cranium Qafzeh 9 from
Jebel Qafzeh in Israel, about 92,000
years old. Photo: Tsila
Sagiv/IDAM. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.metmuseum.org/special
/Genesis/tattersall_lecture.asp?printFla
g=1&refPage=1
100,000 YBN
[98000 BC] 		597) The earliest human burial. Burial
of archaic Homo sapiens in the Skhul
cave at Qafzeh, Israel.
(es-Skhul cave) Mount Carmel,
Israel 
[1] {ULSF: Skhul IV from Mugharet
Es-Skhul, corresponds to images in
pages between p112 and p113 Garrod,
''The Stone Age of Mount Carmel
excavations at the
Wady-el-Mughara'',1937} Reconstructio
n of the burial of Skhul 4 , a
strongly-built, ''early modern''
human. (photograph from Stringer C.S.
et al., 1994) UNKNOWN
source: http://indiaeng.com/Tsunami-2004
--Andaman%20fault/Toba%20Volcano,%20ch_5
%20-%20Human%20evolution_files/mht1055(1
).TMP

[2] [t Note that this may not be the
actual 100,000 year burial.] This is a
burial site of a Homo sapiens
neaderthalensis young adult male who
lived about 50,000 years ago. The
burial site was found in the Kebara
cave in Israel. UKNOWN
source: http://www.mitchellteachers.net/
WorldHistory/MrMEarlyHumansProject/Trans
parencies/NeanderthalensisTrans.jpg
100,000 YBN
[98000 BC] 		6333) The theory that the universe is
controlled by Gods.

The explanation that many phenomena in
the universe are controlled by objects
with human and animal bodies that have
supernatural powers is one of the
earliest theories that tries to explain
how the universe works.

The theory that one or more Gods or
Goddesses control the universe is
perhaps the oldest theory that is still
believed by some humans.
Es-Skhul, Mt. Carmel, Israel 
[1] {ULSF: Skhul IV from Mugharet
Es-Skhul, corresponds to images in
pages between p112 and p113 Garrod,
''The Stone Age of Mount Carmel
excavations at the
Wady-el-Mughara'',1937} Reconstructio
n of the burial of Skhul 4 , a
strongly-built, ''early modern''
human. (photograph from Stringer C.S.
et al., 1994) UNKNOWN
source: http://indiaeng.com/Tsunami-2004
--Andaman%20fault/Toba%20Volcano,%20ch_5
%20-%20Human%20evolution_files/mht1055(1
).TMP

[2] The following is taken from James
Shreeve's book The Neandertal Enigma:
solving the mystery of modern human
origins (William Morrow and Company,
New York, 1995.) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.mesacc.edu/dept/d10/a
sb/origins/hominid_journey/pictures/buri
al.jpeg
61,000 YBN
[59000 BC] 		614) Humans use a bow and arrows, and
poison arrow heads.
Sibudu Cave, South Africa 
[1] Lucinda Backwella, Francesco
d'Erricob and Lyn Wadley (june 2008).
''Middle Stone Age bone tools from the
Howiesons Poort layers, Sibudu Cave,
South Africa''. ScienceDirect.
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/a
rticle/pii/S0305440307002142
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence/article/pii/S0305440307002142

[2] Objects found in the
archaeological site called Border Cave
include a) a wooden digging stick; b) a
wooden poison applicator; c) a bone
arrow point decorated with a spiral
incision filled with red pigment; d) a
bone object with four sets of notches;
e) a lump of beeswax; and f) ostrich
eggshell beads and marine shell beads
used as personal ornaments. (Francesco
d'Errico and Lucinda Backwell / July
30, 2012) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.trbimg.com/img-5016e6
83/turbine/la-sci-sn-modern-culture-afri
ca-20120730-001/600
53,300 YBN
[51300 BC] 		557) Homo Erectus goes extinct; the
most recent Homo erectus fossil is in
Southeast Asia.
This shows that Homo erectus
lived at the same time as Homo sapiens.
Ngandong, Indonesia 
[1] homo erectus cranium COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/a/ad/Ng6f.jpg

[2] [t Note that this skull is from
Junniushan and is 280,000 years
old] Chang, P.K.C. et al. The
Formation of Chinese Civilization: An
Archaeological Perspective. Yale
University Press, 2005. The Culture and
Civilization of China Series.
p206. http://books.google.com/books?id=
sP-PN2StH2cC COPYRIGHTED
source: Chang, P.K.C. et al. The
Formation of Chinese Civilization: An
Archaeological Perspective. Yale
University Press, 2005. The Culture and
Civilization of China Series.
p206. http://books.google.com/books?id=
sP-PN2StH2cC
50,000 YBN
[48000 BC] 		6399) The start of the mass extinction
of large mammals due in part to human
impact. This includes direct impacts
(like hunting) and indirect impacts
(like competition and changes to
habitat).
 
[1] Description Glyptodon Date 1920
(probably) Source The Wonderful Paleo
Art of Heinrich Harder Author
Heinrich Harder (1858-1935) PD
AND Smilodon, Sabertooth
Tiger Source: Painting; Smilodon from
the American Museum of Natural
History. By: Charles R.
Knight Status: Public Domain in the
USA* PD AND Description Wooly
mammoths near the Somme River, AMNH
mural. Date 1916 Source
http://io9.com/5891441/celebrating-char
les-r-knight-the-artist-who-first-brough
t-dinosaurs-and-megafauna-to-life Autho
r Charles R. Knight PD
AND Description English: (Rusty,
the giant ground sloth, at the Iowa
Museum of Natural History, University
of Iowa. Based on Megalonyx
jeffersonii.) Date 16 October 2008
(original upload date) Source
Uploader - Billwhittaker
(talk) Author Billwhittaker (talk) at
en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) Released into the public
domain (by the author). PD AND Artist
[show]Roelant Savery (1576–1639)
Link back to Creator infobox
template Description One of the most
famous and often copied paintings of a
Dodo specimen, as painted by Roelant
Savery in 1626. The image came into the
posession of the ornithologist George
Edwards, who later gave it to the
British Museum, hence the name.[1][2]
The bird swallowing a frog in the lower
right may be the likewise extinct Red
Rail. Date 1626 Current location
[show]British MuseumLink back to
Institution infobox
template Source/Photographer
http://julianhume.co.uk/wp-content/uplo
ads/2010/07/History-of-the-dodo-Hume.pdf
PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a1/Glyptodon_old_drawing
.jpg
AND http://www.fantasy-workshop.com/faw
/image-files/smilodon-1.jpg AND
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/9/93/Wooly_Mammoths.jpg
AND http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiped
ia/commons/6/6a/Giant_ground_sloth_Iowa.
JPG AND
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/b/b9/Edward%27s_Dodo.jpg

[2] Koch, Paul L. and Anthony D.
Barnosky. ''Late Quaternary Extinctions
: State of the Debate.'' (2006):
215-252. http://ib.berkeley.edu/labs/ba
rnosky/Koch%20%20and%20Barnosky%202006.p
df COPYRIGHTED
source: http://ib.berkeley.edu/labs/barn
osky/Koch%20%20and%20Barnosky%202006.pdf

46,000 YBN
[44000 BC] 		577) The earliest evidence of water
ships. Sapiens from Southeast Asia
reach Australia using water ships.

The earliest sapians fossils in
Australia, "Mungo man".
 
[1] Palmer, et al, ''Prehistoric
Life'', 2009, p470-471. COPYRIGHTED
source: Palmer, et al, "Prehistoric
Life", 2009, p470-471.

[2] World map of human migrations,
with the North Pole at center. Africa,
harboring the start of the migration,
is at the top left and South America at
the far right. Migration patterns are
based on studies of mitochondrial
(matrilinear) DNA. Numbers represent
thousand years before present. The
blue line represents area covered in
ice or tundra during the last great ice
age. The letters are the mitochondrial
DNA haplogroups (pure motherly
lineages); Haplogroups can be used to
define genetic populations and are
often geographically oriented. For
example, the following are common
divisions for mtDNA
haplogroups: African: L, L1, L2,
L3 Near Eastern: J, N Southern
European: J, K General European: H,
V Northern European: T, U, X Asian:
A, B, C, D, E, F, G (note: M is
composed of C, D, E, and G) Native
American: A, B, C, D, and sometimes
X [edit]Data
derivation Image:Northern icesheet
hg.png shows the region that was
covered by ice or tundra in the last
ice age All migration data based on
mitomap Geographic data from
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Last_
glacial_vegetation_map.png and adding
the following data
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Ice_A
ge_Temperature.png we get this
interesting result
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Human
-migration-temperature.jpg GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/37/Map-of-human-migratio
ns.jpg
43,000 YBN
[41000 BC] 		1187) The earliest known mine: "Lion
Cave" in Swaziland, Africa is in use.
Paleolithic humans mine for the
iron-containing mineral hematite, which
they grind to produce the red pigment
ochre.
Swaziland, Africa 
[1] Oldest Mine in the World -
Swaziland The Lion Cavern at Ngwenya
Mountain, just north of the Swaziland
Capital Mbabane, is thought to be the
oldest evidence of human mining in the
world. Carbon-dating has shown mining
activity for red ocre (haematite)
within this cavity dating back to a
period between 41000 and 43000BC. The
site is preserved as an open-air museum
of visitors and is a popular tourism
attraction. (By Darron
Raw) www.swazi.travel CC
source: http://farm3.staticflickr.com/27
23/4303217549_a15d58e869_b.jpg

[2] Ngwenya Mountain Lion Cave in
Swaziland UNKNOWN
source: http://www.ancienttrenches.com/_
/rsrc/1328277651042/ancient-mines/bb92d5
f7-639a-42d2-aee1-daaaa87267b8.jpg?heigh
t=300&width=400
40,000 YBN
[38000 BC] 		598) The earliest sapiens fossils in
Europe (Romania).
Peştera cu Oase, Romania (and baby
tooth: Grotta del Cavallo, Italy, jaw:
Kent's Cavern, UK) 
[1] Oblique view of the Oase 1
mandible. Figure 1 from: Trinkaus,
Erik et al. “An Early Modern Human
from the Peştera Cu Oase, Romania.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences 100.20 (2003):
11231–11236. http://www.pnas.org/cont
ent/100/20/11231 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.pnas.org/content/100/
20/11231/F1.large.jpg
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en
/3/36/Cromagf.jpg

[2] Front view of Cro-magnon 1
fossil COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.antikitera.net/images
/imgNews/4253-european-head_169813t.jpg
40,000 YBN
[38000 BC] 		604) The earliest oil lamp.
Southwest France 
[1] Figure from: Sophie A. de Beaune
and Randall White, ''Ice Age Lamps'',
Scientific American, March
1993. http://halshs.archives-ouvertes.f
r/docs/00/42/17/69/PDF/Sc.Amer.1993.pdf

source: http://halshs.archives-ouvertes.
fr/docs/00/42/17/69/PDF/Sc.Amer.1993.pdf

40,000 YBN
[38000 BC] 		1262) The earliest known human-made
painting.

A cave painting made by using a blowing
technique in El Castillo Cave in Spain
is the oldest painting known from
Europe. The cave art may be made by the
first sapiens in Europe or possibly by
Neanderthals.
(The Panel de las Manos,) El Castillo
Cave, Spain|Southern France 
[1] Drawings of horses from Chauvet
Cave GNU
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/336/6087/F5.large.jpg

[2] Fig 3 from: Pike, A. W. G. et al.
“U-Series Dating of Paleolithic Art
in 11 Caves in Spain.” Science
336.6087 (2012): 1409 –1413.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/336/6087/1409.abstract A time line
of the cave art dated. A single arrow
represents a minimum age, but, where
two dates are indicated, both maximum
and minimum ages have been obtained.
The error bars for O-21 reflect the
variation resulting from the two
different methods of detrital
correction (11). Larger versions of
these images showing sample locations
are available in the supplementary
materials, figs. S2 to
S12. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Chauvethorses.jpg
40,000 YBN
[38000 BC] 		5871) The earliest indisputable musical
instrument, a flute made from the wing
bone of a vulture.
Hohle Fels Cave, Germany 
[1] Prehistorian historian Nicholas
Conard presents the bone flute from
Hohle Fels to journalists COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.google.com/hostednews
/afp/media/ALeqM5hlF6Vh9FxCmW4OYCeiBOJqR
J3VgA?size=l

[2] Conard et al.1 have discovered the
oldest known flute, at Hohle Fels Cave
in Germany. The flute is made from bird
bone, and dates from the early
Aurignacian, 40,000 years ago. H.
JENSEN/UNIV. TÜBINGEN COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v460/n7256/images/460695a-f1.2.jpg
40,000 YBN
[38000 BC] 		6483) Humans catch fish.

Isotopic evidence shows that early
sapiens ate fish.
Peçstera cu Oase, Romania 
[1] This is the lower mandible of the
40,000-year-old human skeleton, found
in the Tianyuan Cave near Beijing.
Analyses of collagen extracted from
this bone prove that this individual
was a regular consumer of fish. Credit:
Image: Hong Shang / Chinese Academy of
Sciences, Beijing Read more at:
http://phys.org/news166120605.html#jCp
UNKNOWN
source: http://cdn.physorg.com/newman/gf
x/news/hires/2009/fishonthemen.jpg

[2] Translated from Italian with
translate.google.com Revealed the face
of the first
European PHOTOGALLERY reading time
provided for 4 min. about This is
the face of the first anatomically
modern man lived in Europe. Belonged to
a man - or woman - who inhabited the
ancient forests of the Carpathian
Mountains in Romania, about 35,000
years ago. The reconstruction of the
artist - a face that can be of a male
or of a female - is based on the parts
of the skull and jaw found in a cave in
which it was known that bears
hibernate. The facial features indicate
the close affinity of these first
Europeans with their immediate
ancestors Africans, even if it was not
yet possible to determine the sex of
the person. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.antikitera.net/images
/imgNews/4253-european-head_169813t.jpg
39,000 YBN
[37000 BC] 		599) Sapiens reach China.

The earliest Homo sapiens fossil in
China; from the Zhoukoudian Cave in
China.
(Tianyuan Cave) Zhoukoudian, China
(Tongtianyan Cave, Liujiang County,
Guangxi Zhuang) 
[1] Fig. 1. Anterolateral oblique
view of the Tianyuan 1 mandible (lower
left), medial view of the right corpus
and ramus (upper left), and occlusal
view of the dentition and alveoli
(upper right). Views are not to the
same scale. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.pnas.org/content/104/
16/6573/F1.large.jpg

[2] Fossilized skull of the Liujiang
hominid, H. sapiens sapiens, found in a
cave in Liujiang County, Guangxi Zhuang
Autonomous Region Chang, P.K.C. et al.
The Formation of Chinese Civilization:
An Archaeological Perspective. Yale
University Press, 2005. The Culture and
Civilization of China Series.
p23. http://books.google.com/books?id=s
P-PN2StH2cC COPYRIGHTED
source: Chang, P.K.C. et al. The
Formation of Chinese Civilization: An
Archaeological Perspective. Yale
University Press, 2005. The Culture and
Civilization of China Series.
p23. http://books.google.com/books?id=s
P-PN2StH2cC
35,000 YBN
[33000 BC] 		3943) The oldest known sculpture of the
human form, a statue made from
mammoth-ivory.
Hohle Fels Cave, Germany 
[1] Photos by H. Jensen; copyright,
University of Tübingen.
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v459/n7244/images/nature07995-f1.2.
jpg
32,000 YBN
[30000 BC] 		602) Humans weave textiles from flax
and use coloring dyes.

The earliest evidence of weaving are
32,000 year old flax fibers. Some of
the flax fibers are spun, dyed, and
knotted.

The flax plant is the source of
flaxseed for linseed oil and fiber for
linen products.

Flax fibers are used for spinning into
yarn by twisting the discontinuous
fibers together to form a continuous
thread because of the mechanical
interlocking of the fibers.
Dzudzuana Cave, Georgia 
[1] Fig. 1 (1 to 7) Fibers from
Dzudzuana, Georgia, unit D. 1, twisted
flax fibers; 2 to 4, flax fibers; and 5
to 7, unraveled flax fibers. (8 to 12)
Fibers from Dzudzuana, unit C. 8 and 9,
twisted flax fibers; 10 and 12, flax
fibers; and 11, dyed flax fibers.
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/325/5946/-CSCO-3h--1359/-CSCO-3h--F1.l
arge.jpg

[2] On a lump of fired clay from the
Dolní Věstonice / Pavlov area were
found the impressions of substances
from plant fibres. The whole process of
picking nettles, crushing the dried
stem, preparation of tow, spinning the
thread and then weaving was tested and
shown to be possible using tools of the
time by M. Bunatova. Urbanová (ca
1999) http://www.donsmaps.com/dolnivpot
tery.html Dexterity of the First
Weavers A decade ago, experts did
not dare to think about people living
in the last ice age making
fabric. However, on a lump of fired
clay from the Dolní Věstonice /
Pavlov area were found the impressions
of substances from plant fibres. The
whole process of picking nettles,
crushing the dried stem, preparation of
tow, spinning the thread and then
weaving was tested and shown to be
possible using tools of the time by M.
Bunatova. Urbanová (ca
1999) Source: Display, Dolní
Věstonice Museum From Buňatová
(1999) and Sosna (2000): Buňatová,
M., 1999: Textilní produkce v mladém
paleolitu, experiment pro
dokumentární film ''Úsvit géniů'',
in: AR LI, Praha, 104 - 111. Sosna,
D., 2000: Počátky textilnictví. PhD.
Dissertation, Department of
Anthropology, Masaryk University, Brno.
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.ancient-wisdom.co.uk/
Images/countries/Czech%20pics/dolnifabri
c.jpg
31,700 YBN
[29700 BC] 		42) Humans raise dogs.
Goyet cave, Belgium 
[1] Description Deutsch:
Europäischer Grauwolf (Canis
lupus) English: grey wolf Date
February 2009 Source Own
work (own photo) Author Gunnar
Ries Amphibol Permission (Reusing
this file) You must give the
original author credit. If you use my
pictures outside the wiki projects,
please let me know. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Grauwolf_P11302
75.jpg/1024px-Grauwolf_P1130275.jpg

[2] Description Español: Lobo en
el zoo de Kolmården (Suecia). Date
2010-12-23 18:10 (UTC) Source
Wolf_Kolmården.jpg Author
Wolf_Kolmården.jpg: Daniel
Mott from Stockholm, Sweden
derivative work:
Mariomassone Permission (Reusing
this file) See below. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5f/Kolm%C3%A5rden_Wolf.j
pg
29,000 YBN
[27000 BC] 		6215) The earliest ceramic objects, the
Venus figurines.
Dolni Věstonice, Czechoslovakia 
[1] Description Věstonická
venuše na výstavě Lovci mamutů v
Národním muzeu v Praze Date 2.
9. 2007 Source che Author
che (Please credit as ''Petr
Novák, Wikipedia'' in case you use
this outside WMF projects.) guidance:
Danny B. Permission (Reusing this
file) As they reached the Summit,
he said: “Thou shall take this
Snapshot and use it according to the
Code of License, and let your people
flourish all around the world.” They
brought the Snapshot to their homes and
there was much rejoicing. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b8/Vestonicka_venuse_edi
t.jpg

[2] Description Deutsch: Venus von
Willendorf Date 1 January
2007 Source Own work Author
User:MatthiasKabel Own work,
attribution required (Multi-license
with GFDL and Creative Commons CC-BY
2.5) GNU Figure 2 from: O. Soffer,
J. M. Adovasio, D. C. Hyland, ''The
“Venus” Figurines: Textiles,
Basketry, Gender, and Status in the
Upper Paleolithic'', Current
Anthropology, Vol. 41, No. 4
(August/October 2000), pp.
511-537 URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/3173
81 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/50/Venus_von_Willendorf_
01.jpg
28,000 YBN
[26000 BC] 		451) The Neanderthals go extinct. The
most recent Neanderthal fossil.
Gorham's Cave, Gibraltar, Spain 
[1] Description English: View of
Gorham's Cave, a sea cave in the east
face of the Rock of Gibraltar,
Gibraltar. Date {ULSF: with top
part showing house removed} 3 July
2007 Source Own work Author
Gibmetal77 CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Gorham%27s_Cave
.jpg/800px-Gorham%27s_Cave.jpg

[2] Description English: View of
Gorham's Cave, a sea cave in the east
face of the Rock of Gibraltar,
Gibraltar. Date 3 July
2007 Source Own work Author
Gibmetal77 CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Gorham%27s_Cave
.jpg/800px-Gorham%27s_Cave.jpg
26,000 YBN
[24000 BC] 		6224) The earliest "fired" clay (clay
dried and hardened by fire).
Dolní Věstonice, Pavlov, Czech
Republic 
[1] On a lump of fired clay from the
Dolní Věstonice / Pavlov area were
found the impressions of substances
from plant fibres. The whole process of
picking nettles, crushing the dried
stem, preparation of tow, spinning the
thread and then weaving was tested and
shown to be possible using tools of the
time by M. Bunatova. Urbanová (ca
1999) http://www.donsmaps.com/dolnivpot
tery.html Dexterity of the First
Weavers A decade ago, experts did
not dare to think about people living
in the last ice age making
fabric. However, on a lump of fired
clay from the Dolní Věstonice /
Pavlov area were found the impressions
of substances from plant fibres. The
whole process of picking nettles,
crushing the dried stem, preparation of
tow, spinning the thread and then
weaving was tested and shown to be
possible using tools of the time by M.
Bunatova. Urbanová (ca
1999) Source: Display, Dolní
Věstonice Museum From Buňatová
(1999) and Sosna (2000): Buňatová,
M., 1999: Textilní produkce v mladém
paleolitu, experiment pro
dokumentární film ''Úsvit géniů'',
in: AR LI, Praha, 104 - 111. Sosna,
D., 2000: Počátky textilnictví. PhD.
Dissertation, Department of
Anthropology, Masaryk University, Brno.
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.ancient-wisdom.co.uk/
Images/countries/Czech%20pics/dolnifabri
c.jpg
25,000 YBN
[23000 BC] 		724) Woven baskets.
Pavlov, Czech Republic  
[1] Figures 3 and 4 from: ADOVASIO J.
M., SOFFER O., KLÍMA B., 1996: Upper
Paleolithic fibre technology:
Interlaced woven finds from Pavlov I,
Czech Republic, c. 26,000 years ago.
Antiquity 70: 526-534.
{Adovasio_Fibre_technology_1996.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: {Adovasio_Fibre_technology_1996.
pdf}

[2] On a lump of fired clay from the
Dolní Věstonice / Pavlov area were
found the impressions of substances
from plant fibres. The whole process of
picking nettles, crushing the dried
stem, preparation of tow, spinning the
thread and then weaving was tested and
shown to be possible using tools of the
time by M. Bunatova. Urbanová (ca
1999) http://www.donsmaps.com/dolnivpot
tery.html Dexterity of the First
Weavers A decade ago, experts did
not dare to think about people living
in the last ice age making
fabric. However, on a lump of fired
clay from the Dolní Věstonice /
Pavlov area were found the impressions
of substances from plant fibres. The
whole process of picking nettles,
crushing the dried stem, preparation of
tow, spinning the thread and then
weaving was tested and shown to be
possible using tools of the time by M.
Bunatova. Urbanová (ca
1999) Source: Display, Dolní
Věstonice Museum From Buňatová
(1999) and Sosna (2000): Buňatová,
M., 1999: Textilní produkce v mladém
paleolitu, experiment pro
dokumentární film ''Úsvit géniů'',
in: AR LI, Praha, 104 - 111. Sosna,
D., 2000: Počátky textilnictví. PhD.
Dissertation, Department of
Anthropology, Masaryk University, Brno.
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.ancient-wisdom.co.uk/
Images/countries/Czech%20pics/dolnifabri
c.jpg
23,000 YBN
[21000 BC] 		6231) The earliest human-made
structure. A stone wall.
(Theopetra Cave) Kalambaka,
Greece 
[1] Picture: Remains of the stone wall.
From the Greek Ministry of Culture.
UNKNOWN
source: http://blogs.discovery.com/files
/wall.jpg
23,000 YBN
[21000 BC] 		6461) The earliest fishing hooks.
Jerimalai Cave (east end of East Timor,
an island off northwestern
Australia) 
[1] Fishing hook Source: Susan
O'Connor UNKNOWN
source: http://www.archaeology.org/1203/
trenches/images/fish-hooks.jpg
19,000 YBN
[17000 BC] 		6175) Cereal gathering.
Near East (Southwest Asia Turkey,
Lebanon, Israel, Iraq, Jordan, Saudi
Arabia) 
[1] escription Русский:
Дикая пшеница
Эребунийского
заповедника -
Однозернянка
араратская (Triticum
araraticum) English: The Wild Wheat of
Erebuni Reserve (Triticum
araraticum) Date 5 June 2007 Source
for-wikimedia.wowarmenia.ru Author
uncredited Permission (Reusing this
file) Released by WOWARMENIA for
Wikimedia under Creative Commons
Attribution-Share Alike license
(Multi-license with GFDL and Creative
Commons CC-BY-SA-3.0 and older versions
(2.5, 2.0 and 1.0)). If you wish to
reuse the photos elsewhere, please read
the instructions at COM:REUSE. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/WildWheat_Erebu
ni_Reserve.jpg/1280px-WildWheat_Erebuni_
Reserve.jpg

[2] Description Česky:
Pšenice. Deutsch: Weizen. English:
Wheat. Español: Trigo. Français :
Blé. Magyar: Búza. Tiếng Việt:
Lúa mì. Date August
2005 Source Own work Author
User:Bluemoose GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Wheat_close-up.
JPG/800px-Wheat_close-up.JPG
19,000 YBN
[17000 BC] 		6184) The earliest evidence of
harvesting wild barley.
Ohalo II, south shore of the Sea of
Galilee 
[1] Hordeum-barley -
http://www.ars.usda.gov/is/graphics/ph
otos/k5141-4.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/55/Hordeum-barley.jpg
18,000 YBN
[16000 BC] 		603) The earliest pottery; from
Yuchanyan cave in China
(Yuchanyan cave), Daoxian County, Hunan
Province, China 
[1] Pottery Fu (Cooking Vessel)-Shaped
Vessel Paleolithic Age to Neolithic
Age 12000 years ago Diameter at mouth
32.5cm height 29.8cm Restored on the
basis of unearthed pottery pieces at
Yuchanyan, Dao County in 1995 It is by
far the earliest pottery discovered, a
cooking vessel. [t Note that there
are apparently fragments of 2 or more
pottery vessels, and they are redated
in the article to 18000ybn: Elisabetta
Boaretto, Xiaohong Wu, Jiarong Yuan,
Ofer Bar-Yosef, Vikki Chu, Yan Pan,
Kexin Liu, David Cohen, Tianlong Jiao,
Shuicheng Li, Haibin Gu, Paul Goldberg,
and Steve Weiner, ''Radiocarbon dating
of charcoal and bone collagen
associated with early pottery at
Yuchanyan Cave, Hunan Province, China
PNAS 2009 106 (24) 9595-9600;''
published ahead of print June 1, 2009,
doi:10.1073/pnas.0900539106
http://www.pnas.org/content/106/24/959
5.full?sid=4a6f1743-94c2-4be8-b046-575b4
f27ab46]
source: http://www.hnmuseum.com/hnmuseum
/eng/whatson/exhibition/images/kg/2.jpg
17,000 YBN
[15000 BC] 		6225) The earliest rope.
Lascaux, France 
[1] Remains of the rope. Fragments of
the first piece of clay (at left the
remains of the rope, at right, its
mark). Images from: LEROI-GOURHAN,
A., Lascaux Inconnu (A. LEROIGOURHAN &
J. ALLAIN, eds.), Xlle Suppl. à Gallia
Préhistoire, CNRS: Paris, 1979,
p183. COPYRIGHTED
source: LEROI-GOURHAN, A., Lascaux
Inconnu (A. LEROIGOURHAN & J. ALLAIN,
eds.), Xlle Suppl. à Gallia
Préhistoire, CNRS: Paris, 1979, p183.

[2] Figure 142. - Fragments of the
second piece of clay. The remains of
the cord appear on both sides. Images
from: LEROI-GOURHAN, A., Lascaux
Inconnu (A. LEROIGOURHAN & J. ALLAIN,
eds.), Xlle Suppl. à Gallia
Préhistoire, CNRS: Paris, 1979,
p183. COPYRIGHTED
source: LEROI-GOURHAN, A., Lascaux
Inconnu (A. LEROIGOURHAN & J. ALLAIN,
eds.), Xlle Suppl. à Gallia
Préhistoire, CNRS: Paris, 1979, p183.
17,000 YBN
[15000 BC] 		6516) There are 10 million humans on
Earth, all hunter-gathering people.
 
[1] Parker, G. Compact History of the
World. Barnes & Noble, 2001,
p17. COPYRIGHTED
source: Parker, G. Compact History of
the World. Barnes & Noble, 2001, p17.
14,000 YBN
[12000 BC] 		6227) The earliest known map.
Mezhirich, Ukraine 
[1] The oldest known map in the world,
discovered by archeologists, is from
12,000 B.C. and was found in Mezhirich,
Ukraine.
source: http://www.infoukes.com/history/
images/inventions/figure02.gif
14,000 YBN
[12000 BC] 		6439) Lime cement is used as an
adhesive on small stone tools
(microliths) from Northern Sinai.
Geometric Kebaran site Lagama North
VIII, Gebel Maghara, Northern Sinai,
Egypt 
[1] Figure 6 from: Kingery, W D,
Pamela B. Vandiver, and Martha
Prickett. ''The Beginnings of
Pyrotechnology, Part Ii: Production and
Use of Lime and Gypsum Plaster in the
Pre-Pottery Neolithic Near East.''
Journal of Field Archaeology. 15.2
(1988): 219-244.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/530304 CO
PYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/5303
04

[2] See text ''In the north corner of
the room was an interesting structure
of unbaked plano-convex bricks (Fig.
44). It had a rectangular base
measuring approximately 1.00 x 1.60 m.,
the north-east side of which was only
15 cm. from the outer inclosure wall.
... The tops of these two walls were
rounded off toward the outside
throughout their length, on the higher
as well as on the lower parts (Fig. 45;
cf. also Fig. 65), and trhe whole
structure was originally coated with a
thick layer of white lime plaster- a
circumstance which greatly facilitated
its excavation and the tracing of its
peculiar shape. ... Fig 44
from: Delougaz, Pinhas, ''The temple
oval at Khafājah'', University of
Chicago Press/Chicago Ill., 1940.
http://oi.uchicago.edu/pdf/oip53.pdf
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://oi.uchicago.edu/pdf/oip53
.pdf
13,000 YBN
[11000 BC] 		578) Sapiens reach America. The oldest
human bones in America.
Mexico City and Arlington Canyon on
Santa Rosa Island, California,
USA 
[1] A member of Arturo González's
underwater archaeological team studies
a skull in an underwater cave on the
coast of the Yucatán Peninsula near
Tulum, Mexico. Skeletons found in
similar caves may be among the oldest
human remains ever found in North or
South America. Photograph courtesy
Arturo Gonzáles COPYRIGHTED
source: http://news.nationalgeographic.c
om/news/bigphotos/images/080903-oldest-s
keletons_big.jpg

[2] Tulum, Mexico UNKNOWN
source: maps.google.com
12,000 YBN
[10000 BC] 		6522) Humans transform from hunting and
gathering to agriculture, from a
migratory to a sedentary life, building
the first cities. There are five main
areas of plant and animal
domestication: southwest and central
Asia, China and South-East Asia,
Northern tropical Africa, MesoAmerica,
and Northern South America.
 
[1] Parker, G. Compact History of the
World. Barnes & Noble, 2001,
p16-17. COPYRIGHTED
source: Parker, G. Compact History of
the World. Barnes & Noble, 2001,
p16-17.
11,700 YBN
[9700 BC] 		827) The end of the Pleistocene
(PlISTeSEN), and start of the Holocene
{HoLoSEN or HOLoSEN} epoch. This is the
end of the last Ice Age.
 
[1] Geologic Time Scale 2009 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.geosociety.org/scienc
e/timescale/timescl.pdf
11,700 YBN
[9700 BC] 		828) The start of the Neolithic or "New
Stone Age" in the Fertile Crescent, a
region of the Middle East arching from
the Nile Valley to the Tigris and
Euphrates rivers. The neolithic was
originally defined by the occurrence of
polished stone tools and pottery, but
is now used most frequently in
connection with the beginnings of
farming.
 
[1] Lake dwellers lived in central
Europe and were ancestral to the Celts
and northern Italians, and built their
houses very near water so that their
kind of wheat, that grew in marshy
areas, could grow in fields nearby.
They built their houses on stilts to
keep them dry. They were genetically
characterized by a very large clade of
R2b1b2. UNKNOWN
source: http://freepages.genealogy.roots
web.ancestry.com/~villandra/McKinstry/I2
b1/lakedwellingNeolithic.jpg

[2] Catal Hoyuk
Reconstruction UNKNOWN
source: http://www.veeb.net/wp-content/u
ploads/2011/01/Catal_Hoyuk_Reconstructio
n.jpg
11,500 YBN
[9500 BC] 		829) Humans shape metal objects.

Copper is the first metal shaped by
humans.

This accomplishment is sometimes called
the Chalcolithic (Copper-Stone) Age,
referring to the initial use of pure
copper (along with its predecessor
toolmaking material, stone).

The oldest shaped metal object is a
pendant found in Shanidar Cave in
northeast Iraq shaped from native
copper.
(Shanidar Cave) North East
Iraq|(Çayönü) Anatolia (modern
Turkey)|Northern Iraq|Eastern
Anatolia 
[1] from ''Metallurgy as a human
experience'': fgi2: Copper pendant from
Shanidar Cave, Northeast Iraq, about
9500 B.C. Length 2.3cm; thickness
0.3cm. Shaped by hammering a piece of
native metal and finishing with
abrasives. (It is completely
mineralized and there is a slight
possibility that it was originally
simply carved from a lump of
malachite.) Courtesy Professor Ralph S.
Solecki. --- Malachite is a green
mineral, basic copper carbonate, Cu 2
CO 3 (OH) 2 , an ore of copper, used
for making ornamental articles.
''Malachite.'' Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 04 Jul.
2012. . Cyril Stanley Smith,
''Metallurgy as a human experience'',
Metallurgical and Materials
Transactions A Volume 6, Number 4
(1975), 603-623, DOI:
10.1007/BF02672281 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/4r60p045832k01l6/ COPYR
IGHTED
source: http://www.springerlink.com/cont
ent/4r60p045832k01l6/

[2] Description View of the exterior
of Shanidar Cave, taken during the
summer of 2005. Note for scale the two
crouching men in front of the cave. At
the time this photo was taken, the
interior of the cave was being used as
a pen by a local
shepherd. Licensing Date 2006-08-03
(original upload date) Source
Originally from en.wikipedia;
description page is/was here. Author
Original uploader was JosephV at
en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) Licensed under the GFDL by
the author; Released under the GNU Free
Documentation License. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a8/Erbil_governorate_sha
nidar_cave.jpg
11,000 YBN
[9000 BC] 		606) The oldest city, Jericho.

Jericho is located in the West bank,
near the Jordan river.
Jericho, (modern West Bank)
Palestine 
[1] An aerial view of Jericho showing
the ruins of Tell
es-Sultan Description Italiano:
veduta aerea dell'area archeologica di
Gerico Date 2008-03-05 (original
upload date) Source Transferred
from it.wikipedia Author Original
uploader was Fullo88 at
it.wikipedia PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f4/Tell_es-sultan.jpg

[2] Plastered skulls figures
from: Kathleen Kenyon, ''Excavations
at Jericho'', 1981,
vol5. {Kenyon_Excavations_At_Jericho_19
81.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: Kenyon_Excavations_At_Jericho_19
81.pdf
11,000 YBN
[9000 BC] 		608) The oldest saddle quern {KWRN} (a
flat stone and rounded stone used to
grind grain into flour).
Abu Hureyra, Syria 
[1] (presumably the:) Quern stone used
for making flour 9,500–9,000
BC Abu Hureyra, Syria NONCOMMERCIAL
USE
source: http://www.britishmuseum.org/ima
ges/quern_l.jpg

[2] Setting where Quern stone was used
for making flour 9,500–9,000
BC Abu Hureyra, Syria NONCOMMERCIAL
USE
source: http://www.britishmuseum.org/ima
ges/quern_setting_l.jpg
11,000 YBN
[9000 BC] 		617) Goats are kept, fed, milked, and
killed for food.
Euphrates river valley at Nevali Çori,
Turkey (11,000 bp), and the Zagros
Mountains of Iran at Ganj Dareh
(10,000). 
[1] Description Bezoar Ibex (Capra
aegagrus aegagrus) Deutsch:
Bezoarziege, fotografiert im Tierpark
Berlin Date January
2006 Source Uploaded first to de
wikipedia on 13:25, 19. Feb 2006 by Der
Irbis Author F. Spangenberg (Der
Irbis, own photo) GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f6/Bezoarziege.jpg

[2] Domestic goat kid, in field of
capeweed. Swifts Creek, Victoria,
September 2007 GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Domestic_goat_k
id_in_capeweed.jpg/1024px-Domestic_goat_
kid_in_capeweed.jpg
11,000 YBN
[9000 BC] 		1292) The earliest stone buildings and
temple; in Turkey, Göbekli Tepe
{GuBeKlE TePe} (Turkish for: "belly
hill").
G�bekli Tepe, near Sanliurfa,
Southeastern Turkey 
[1] Description English: Göbekli
Tepe, Şanlıurfa Date 6 September
2011 Source Own work Author
Teomancimit CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/G%C3%B6bekli_Te
pe%2C_Urfa.jpg/1280px-G%C3%B6bekli_Tepe%
2C_Urfa.jpg

[2] Göbekli Tepe may hold first human
writings Prehistory specialist of
the German Archeological Institute in
Berlin announced the findings of a
South Eastern Turkish Excavation site
near Sanliurfa called Göbekli Tepe
(''Nabelberg'') . Klaus Schmidt claims
the 11 600 old stone markings of this
temple are the worlds earliest known
form of writing. ''The geometrical
forms and small animal reliefs are
surely more than just ornamentations.
Humans somewhat wanted to communicate
with future humans here '' he says in a
February 14, 2006 Berliner Morgenpost
article. Excavator Schmidt interprets
Goebekli Tepe as a center for a
complicated dead cult and adds, ''This
was monumental architecture, 6000 years
before the pyramids.'' The monoliths
were lower than the surrounding walls
indicating that the intention was not
architectural in erecting
them. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.lahana.org/blog/Gobek
litepe.htm
11,000 YBN
[9000 BC] 		6468) The earliest settlement in China;
Nanzhuangtou.
Nanzhuangtou, Xushui County, Hebei
Province, China 
[1] Chi, Zang. ''The discovery of early
pottery in China.'' Documenta
Prehistorica 29 (2002):
34. http://arheologija.ff.uni-lj.si/doc
umenta/pdf29/29chi UNKNOWN
source: http://arheologija.ff.uni-lj.si/
documenta/pdf29/29chi
11,000 YBN
[9000 BC] 		6509) Rye is grown in modern Syria.

The domestication of plants is thought
to have originated in the Fertile
Crescent. The evidence for this is that
the wild progenitors of modern cereal
species intersect in this region, and
that seeds of the wild species occur in
early archaeological sites of the
region, followed in age and in
successive layers by the remains of
domesticated forms.
Abu Hureyra, Syria 
[1] Description an ear of rye Date
11 June 2007 Source Own work Author
LSDSL Permission (Reusing this file)
Please quote me as LSDSL Bitte
nennen Sie mich als LSDSL GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/79/Ear_of_rye.jpg

[2] Tell Abu Hureyra, Syria in Google
Maps UNKNOWN
source: https://maps.google.com/maps?ll=
35.866,38.4&spn=0.01,0.01&t=m&q=35.866,3
8.4
10,870 YBN
[8870 BC] 		6438) The earliest settlement in
Mesopotamia, Zawi Chemi Shanidar.
Zawi Chemi, Shanidar, Northern
Iraq 
[1] Solecki, R.L. An Early Village Site
at Zawi Chemi Shanidar. Undena
Publications, 1981. Bibliotheca
Mesopotamica. COPYRIGHTED
source: Solecki, R.L. An Early Village
Site at Zawi Chemi Shanidar. Undena
Publications, 1981. Bibliotheca
Mesopotamica.

[2] Solecki, R.L. An Early Village
Site at Zawi Chemi Shanidar. Undena
Publications, 1981. Bibliotheca
Mesopotamica. COPYRIGHTED
source: Solecki, R.L. An Early Village
Site at Zawi Chemi Shanidar. Undena
Publications, 1981. Bibliotheca
Mesopotamica.
10,500 YBN
[8500 BC] 		610) Flax is grown.

Flax is an oil and fiber crop.
Tell Abu Hureyra, Syria 
[1] Lewis Blue Flax seeding along
I-86. PD
source: http://itd.idaho.gov/highways/op
s/maintenance/Roadside/ImageGalleries/Na
tive-Management/LewisBlueFlax4.jpg

[2] from:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Flax_
seeds.jpg I took this picture of flax
seed in July of 2005 and grant its use
under the Creative Commons
Attribution-Sharealike 2.5 CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/15/Flax_seeds.jpg
10,500 YBN
[8500 BC] 		6315) Sheep are raised for wool, skins,
meat and dung (which is used for fuel).
Northern Zagros to southeastern
Anatolia|(Middle East) Eastern
Mediterranean 
[1] Ovis canadensis Information from
en: Subject: Rocky Mountain Bighorn
Sheep Camera: Canon D60 Lens: Canon
100--400mm IS Originally uploaded to
en: by
Sunborn Source http://pdphoto.org/Pict
ureDetail.php?mat=pdef&pg=8208 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3a/Ovis_canadensis_2.jpg


[2] Description Fotografía tomada
en Brunete, Madrid,
España. Date 30 March 2008,
10:24 Source Black sheep . Do u
also feel different? // la Oveja negra.
Tambien te sientes
diferente? Uploaded by
Petronas Author Jesus Solana from
Madrid, Spain CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Black_sheep-1.j
pg/1024px-Black_sheep-1.jpg
10,000 YBN
[8000 BC] 		205) Pigs are raised and killed for
food.
(Near East) Eastern Mediterranean and
Island South East Asia|southeastern
Anatolia 
[1] Description English: A baby Wild
Boar (Sus scrofa) in a wildlife park in
the Netherlands Français : Marcassin
(Sus scrofa) dans une réserve faunique
au Pays-Bas Date 12 May 2010,
15:10 Source Frisling Author S
ander van der Wel CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Sus_scrofa_pigl
et.jpg/1024px-Sus_scrofa_piglet.jpg

[2] Edited version of Image:Wild Boar
Habbitat 2.jpg slightly cropped with
artifacts
removed. [edit]Summary Description
Deutsch: Das Wildschwein (Sus scrofa)
gehört zur Familie der altweltlichen
oder echten Schweine (Suidae) aus der
Ordnung der Paarhufer. Hier zu sehen in
seinem natürlichen Umfeld: Eine
Suhle English: The Wild Boar (Sus
scrofa) is the wild ancestor of the
domestic pig. As shown in his natural
habitat. Español: El jabalí salvaje
(Sus scrofa), ancestro del cerdo
doméstico, en su hábitat
natural. Français : Sanglier (Sus
scrofa) dans son habitat naturel. Le
sanglier est l'ancêtre sauvage du
porc. Grünvalder forst, Bavière
(Allemagne). Cymraeg: Baedd gwyllt
(Sus scrofa), hynafiad y mochyn
dof. Italiano: Il cinghiale (Sus
scrofa), è la forma ancestrale del
maiale domestico, ritratto nel suo
habitat naturale. Nederlands: Wild
zwijn (Sus scrofa) neemt een
modderbad ‪Norsk (bokmål)‬:
Villsvin (Sus scrofa) i sitt naturlige
miljø Português: Um javali da
espécie Sus scrofa, ancestral selvagem
do porco doméstico. Русский:
Кабан (Sus scrofa),
валяющийся в грязи;
предок домашней
свиньи. Svenska: Ett vildsvin
(Sus scrofa) i sin naturliga
miljö. Date 2007-05-22 Source O
wn work Author Richard Bartz,
Munich Makro Freak CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Wild_Boar_Habbi
tat_3.jpg/1024px-Wild_Boar_Habbitat_3.jp
g
10,000 YBN
[8000 BC] 		1259) Clay tokens of various
geometrical shapes that represent
products are used in Mesopotamia.
eastern Iran, southern Turkey, Israel,
Sumer (modern Iraq)|Babylonia|Syria,
Sumer and Highland Iran 
[1] Pre-literate counting and
accounting MS 5067/1-8 NEOLITHIC
PLAIN COUNTING TOKENS POSSIBLY
REPRESENTING 1 MEASURE OF GRAIN, 1
ANIMAL AND 1 MAN OR 1 DAY'S LABOUR,
RESPECTIVELY ms5067/1-8Counting tokens
in clay, Syria/Sumer/Highland Iran, ca.
8000-3500 BC, 3 spheres: diam. 1,6, 1,7
and 1,9 cm , (D.S.-B 2:1); 3 discs:
diam. 1,0x0,4 cm, 1,1x0,4 cm and
1,0x0,5 cm (D.S.-B 3:1); 2
tetrahedrons: sides 1,4 cm and 1,7 cm
(D.S.-B 5:1). Exhibited: The
Norwegian Intitute of Palaeography and
Historical Philology (PHI), Oslo,
13.10.2003- COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.earth-history.com/_im
ages/ms5067.jpg

[2] MS 4631 BULLA-ENVELOPE WITH 11
PLAIN AND COMPLEX TOKENS INSIDE,
REPRESENTING AN ACCOUNT OR AGREEMENT,
TENTATIVELY OF WAGES FOR 4 DAYS' WORK,
4 MEASURES OF METAL, 1 LARGE MEASURE OF
BARLEY AND 2 SMALL MEASURES OF SOME
OTHER COMMODITY ms4631Bulla in clay,
Syria/Sumer/Highland Iran, ca.
3700-3200 BC, 1 spherical
bulla-envelope (complete), diam. ca.
6,5 cm, cylinder seal impressions of a
row of men walking left; and of a
predator attacking a deer, inside a
complete set of plain and complex
tokens: 4 tetrahedrons 0,9x1,0 cm
(D.S.-B.5:1), 4 triangles with 2
incised lines 2,0x0,9 (D.S.-B.(:14), 1
sphere diam. 1,7 cm (D.S.-B.2:2), 1
cylinder with 1 grove 2,0x0,3 cm
(D.S.-B.4:13), 1 bent paraboloid
1,3xdiam. 0,5 cm
(D.S.-B.8:14). Context: MSS 4631-4646
and 5114-5127are from the same archive.
Total number of bulla-envelopes
worldwide is ca. 165 intact and 70
fragmentary. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.earth-history.com/_im
ages/ms4631.jpg
10,000 YBN
[8000 BC] 		6316) Cows are raised for milk, for
meat and eventually for plowing.
upper Euphrates Valley 
[1] Description Deutsch: Heckrinder
in den Niederlanden. English: An Heck
cattle group, in Oostvaardersplassen, a
nature reserve in the province of
Flevoland in the
Netherlands. Français : Aurochs de
Heck Nederlands: Heckrunderen in de
Oostvaardersplassen, een natuurgebied
in de provincie Flevoland,
Nederland. Date 16 septembre
2004 Source Travail personnel Auteur
GerardM GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Heckrund1.JPG/1
280px-Heckrund1.JPG

[2] Wild Cattle in Britain The
Chillingham Herd Chillingham
cattle (picture from
Whitepark.org.uk) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.vegaresearch.org/imag
es/Chillingham1.jpg
9,800 YBN
[7800 BC] 		607) The earliest flint sickle.

A sickle has a semicircular blade and
is used for cutting grain or tall
grass.
The earliest flint sickle.

A sickle has a semicircular blade and
is used for cutting grain or tall
grass.
Tell Aswad (modern
Syria)|Palestine 
[1] [t NOTE not- earliest sickle] [1]
Faucille néolithique danoise en silex
1/Danish Neolithic flint
sickle flint 105 UNKNOWN
source: http://idata.over-blog.com/4/25/
41/68/danois/flint-130.jpg

[2] [t NOTE not- earliest sickle]
Ancient Stone Age Neolithic Flint
Sickle Denmark UNKNOWN
source: http://www.artancient.com/ebay/2
50310/020412JSA010.jpg
9,500 YBN
[7500 BC] 		612) Emmer {eMR} wheat is grown in
modern Syria.
Tell Abu Hureyra, Syria|southeastern
Turkey and northern Syria (Nevali Cori,
Turkey) 
[1] Description Česky:
Pšenice. Deutsch: Weizen. English:
Wheat. Español: Trigo. Français :
Blé. Magyar: Búza. Tiếng Việt:
Lúa mì. Date August
2005 Source Own work Author
User:Bluemoose GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Wheat_close-up.
JPG/800px-Wheat_close-up.JPG

[2] Nevali Cori, Turkey from Google
Maps UNKNOWN
source: https://maps.google.com/maps?ll=
37.518333,38.605556&spn=0.01,0.01&t=m&q=
37.518333,38.605556 http://localhost/ul
sf/images/Nevali_Cori_Turkey.jpg
9,500 YBN
[7500 BC] 		613) Common millet is grown in China.
Cishan, North China 
[1] Description English: Panicum
miliaceum Date 2008-5-4 Source Own
work Author Dalgial CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Panicum_miliace
um_2.JPG/768px-Panicum_miliaceum_2.JPG

[2] Name Panicum
miliaceum Family Poaceae
Bildbeschreibung: noch grüne
Rispenhirse Quelle: selbst
erstellt Fotograf:
User:MarkusHagenlocher Datum: 21.
Juli GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/51/Rispenhirse_gr%C3%BCn
.jpg
9,500 YBN
[7500 BC] 		6185) Barley is grown in modern Syria.
Tell Abu Hureyra, Syria 
[1] Hordeum-barley -
http://www.ars.usda.gov/is/graphics/ph
otos/k5141-4.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/55/Hordeum-barley.jpg

[2] Tell Abu Hureyra, Syria in Google
Maps UNKNOWN
source: https://maps.google.com/maps?ll=
35.866,38.4&spn=0.01,0.01&t=m&q=35.866,3
8.4
9,500 YBN
[7500 BC] 		6440) The earliest gypsum cement (or
plaster).
Abu Hureyra, Syria 
[1] Andrew M. T. Moore, ''The
Prehistory of Syria'', Bulletin of the
American Schools of Oriental Research ,
No. 270, Ancient Syria (May, 1988), pp.
3-12. http://www.jstor.org/stable/13570
02 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1357
002

[2] Kingery, W D, Pamela B. Vandiver,
and Martha Prickett. ''The Beginnings
of Pyrotechnology, Part Ii: Production
and Use of Lime and Gypsum Plaster in
the Pre-Pottery Neolithic Near East.''
Journal of Field Archaeology. 15.2
(1988): 219-244.
http://faculty.ksu.edu.sa/archaeology/
Publications/General/Lime%20and%20Gypsum
%20Plaster%20in%20the%20Pre-Pottery%20Ne
olithic%20near%20East.pdf AND
http://www.jstor.org/stable/530304 CO
PYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/5303
04
9,240 YBN
[7240 BC] 		1478) The earliest domesticated plants
in America. Squash is grown in Peru.
Paiján, Peru 
[1] Fig. 3. Close-up of two dark
brown squash seed (C. moschata)
fragments recovered from a buried house
floor at CA-09-27. from: Tom D.
Dillehay, Jack Rossen, Thomas C.
Andres, and David E. Williams,
''Preceramic Adoption of Peanut,
Squash, and Cotton in Northern Peru'',
Science 29 June 2007: 316 (5833),
1890-1893. http://www.sciencemag.org/co
ntent/316/5833/1890.abstract COPYRIGHTE
D
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/316/5833/1890/F3.large.jpg
9,000 YBN
[7000 BC] 		1288) Mehrgarh {mARGoR}, an Indus
Valley city is founded.
Kachi plain of Baluchistan,
Pakistan 
[1] Early farming village in Mehrgarh,
c. 7000 BCE, with houses built with mud
bricks. (Musée Guimet, Paris). The
image was downloaded from the website
of the Indus and Mehrgarh
archaeological mission, Musée Guimet,
by Fowler&fowler«Talk» 22:56, 6 March
2007 (UTC) COPYRIGHTED FAIRUSE
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Neolithic_mehrgarh.jpg

[2] A relief map of Pakistan showing
Mehrgarh This is an annotated version
of a relief map of Pakistan in the
public domain([1]). The map was
annotated by Fowler&fowler«Talk»
08:07, 7 March 2007 (UTC) and
rereleased to the public domain. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Mehrgarh_pakistan_rel96.JPG
9,000 YBN
[7000 BC] 		6484) The earliest fishing net.
Korpilahti, Karelian Isthmus, Finland
(Antrea, Finland, now:Kamennogorsk,
Russia) 
[1] Description English: Some of the
remains of the Paleolithic Antrea
net. Suomi: Osa kivikautisen Antrean
verkon jäännöksistä. Date
1920 Source Suomen
Muinaismuistoyhdistyksen Aikakauskirja
XXVIII Author Sakari Pälsi PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c1/AntreaNet.jpg
8,800 YBN
[6800 BC] 		6511) Lentils are grown in Israel.
Yifta'el, North Israel 
[1] Name Lens
culinaris Family
Fabaceae Original book source: Prof.
Dr. Otto Wilhelm Thomé Flora von
Deutschland, Österreich und der
Schweiz 1885, Gera,
Germany Permission granted to use
under GFDL by Kurt Stueber Source:
www.biolib.de PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/da/Illustration_Lens_cul
inaris0.jpg

[2] Description English: Lentil
plants 75 days after emergence,
Castelltallat, Catalonia Català:
Plantes de llentilla 75 dies després
de l'emergència Date
14/05/2011 Source Own work Author
Victor M. Vicente Selvas PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Llenties_maig.J
PG/1280px-Llenties_maig.JPG
8,750 YBN
[6750 BC] 		1289) Jarmo, a settlement in Iraq.
ChamChamal, Iraq 
[1] Figure 63 from L. S. Braidwood et
al., Prehistoric Archeology Along the
Zagros Flanks, Oriental Institute
Publications 105, 1983, ISBN
0-918986-36-2 http://oi.uchicago.edu/pd
f/oip105.pdf COPYRIGHTED
source: http://oi.uchicago.edu/pdf/oip10
5.pdf

[2] Figure 61 from L. S. Braidwood et
al., Prehistoric Archeology Along the
Zagros Flanks, Oriental Institute
Publications 105, 1983, ISBN
0-918986-36-2 http://oi.uchicago.edu/pd
f/oip105.pdf COPYRIGHTED
source: http://oi.uchicago.edu/pdf/oip10
5.pdf
8,700 YBN
[6700 BC] 		6515) Foxtail millet is grown in China.
Cishan, North China 
[1] Description English: Date 19
August 2012 Source Own work Author
STRONGlk7 CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Japanese_Foxtai
l_millet_02.jpg/1280px-Japanese_Foxtail_
millet_02.jpg

[2] Description Millet in
grains Date 12 April 2010 Source
Own work Author Ithunn GNU [1]
Pearl millet developed by USDA-ARS and
grown at Tifton, GA. Non-copyrightable
image courtesy of the USDA-ARS. (From
the English Wikipedia) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Miglio.jpg/1280
px-Miglio.jpg
8,600 YBN
[6600 BC] 		848) Symbols are carved on tortoise
shells in China.
Jiahu, in central China's Henan
Province 
[1] This tortoise shell is over 8,000
years old and has inscribed symbols
similar to the Chinese character ''mu''
(meaning ''eye'') in oracle bone
inscriptions of the Shang Dynasty. This
may not be the evidence of the
existence of characters 8,000 years
ago, but one thing is for sure, that
the Chinese people had already begun to
express their thoughts through symbols
at that time. UNKNOWN
source: http://history.cultural-china.co
m/chinaWH/images/exbig_images/1439a64c77
7f51442934daf575c6bc7a.jpg

[2] First attempt at writing on a
tortoise shell. COPYRIGHTED but PD on
wiki
source: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/scien
ce/nature/2956925.stm
8,500 YBN
[6500 BC] 		609) Einkorn {INKORN} wheat is grown in
Syria.
Abu Hureyra, Syria 
[1] Name Triticum
monococcum Family Poaceae Image
no. 1 Permission granted to use under
GFDL by Kurt Stueber Source:
www.biolib.de GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/59/Triticum_monococcum0.
jpg

[2] Einkorn wheat berries are similar
to what some call farro, but farro is
made from the emmer variety of wheat
and our wheat berries are 100% einkorn.
This gets a bit tricky because in
Italy, they can call both spelt and
emmer farro, so you cannot always be
sure of what you are getting (Triticum
Dicoccum for emmer and Triticum Spelta
for Spelt). There are very big
difference between einkorn, emmer and
spelt. If you are interested in
learning more details, we have more
details on our website. UNKNOWN
source: http://jovialfoods.com/blog/wp-c
ontent/uploads/2012/01/Green-Einkorn-Fie
ld-.jpg
8,500 YBN
[6500 BC] 		6469) The earliest farming settlements
in China. Xinglongwa in Mongolia, has
around 100 houses. Domesticated animals
include pigs, chickens, and dogs.
Xinglongwa, Chifeng, Inner
Mongolia 
[1] [t age is presumed from
text] Chang, P.K.C. et al. The
Formation of Chinese Civilization: An
Archaeological Perspective. Yale
University Press, 2005. The Culture and
Civilization of China Series.
p206. http://books.google.com/books?id=
sP-PN2StH2cC COPYRIGHTED
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=sP-PN2StH2cC

[2] [t age is presumed from
text] Chang, P.K.C. et al. The
Formation of Chinese Civilization: An
Archaeological Perspective. Yale
University Press, 2005. The Culture and
Civilization of China Series.
p206. http://books.google.com/books?id=
sP-PN2StH2cC COPYRIGHTED
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=sP-PN2StH2cC
8,500 YBN
[6500 BC] 		6512) Peas are grown in Turkey.
ayn, Turkey 
[1] Pea plant: Pisum sativum Picture
taken by myself: (nl:Doperwt rijserwt
peulen)Pisum sativum pods; GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/bc/Doperwt_rijserwt_peul
en_Pisum_sativum.jpg

[2] Description English: Studio
photo of peas in their pods. Date 7
July 2011 Source Own work Author
Bill Ebbesen CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Peas_in_pods_-_
Studio.jpg/1186px-Peas_in_pods_-_Studio.
jpg
8,500 YBN
[6500 BC] 		6513) Chickpeas are grown in the Near
East.
Jericho (modern Palestine) and Ain
Ghazal (modern Jordan) 
[1] Description pods of Cicer
arietinum Date 28 May 2007 Source
Own work Author Eitan f PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/55/Chickpea_pods.jpg

[2] Species Cicer arietinum
L. Genus Cicer L. Tribus
Cicereae Subfamilia
Faboideae Familia
Fabaceae Location Berlin
Botanical Gardens Berlin-Dahlem Time
September 2006 Habitus and
Fruits Picture taken by:
User:BotBln GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/70/Cicer_arietinum_Habit
usFruits_BotGardBln0906a.jpg
8,000 YBN
[6000 BC] 		605) The oldest known boat, a dug-out
boat.
Netherlands 
[1] De boot van Pesse (Drenthe).
C14-dateringen geven aan dat dit object
uit het mesolithicum dateert (ca. 8600
voor Chr.). De lengte bedraagt iets
minder dan 3 meter. foto: Drents
Museum grotere afbeelding UNKNOWN
source: http://www.archeoforum.nl/images
/webboot.jpg

[2] Afb. 1 Mark Jan Dielemans
probeert een kopie van de kano van
Pesse uit in een ven bij
recreatiecentrum Witterzomer in
Assen foto: GPD grotere
afbeeldin UNKNOWN
source: http://www.archeoforum.nl/images
/Pesse10afb1.jpg
8,000 YBN
[6000 BC] 		616) The city "Catal Hüyük" {CaTL
HvEK or KeToL HoYqK} in Turkey is
founded.
Çatal Hüyük, (modern:) Turkey 
[1] Çatal Höyük
Reconstruction Konya, Turkey UNKNOWN

source: http://www.minoanatlantis.com/pi
x/Catal_Hoyuk_Reconstruction.jpg

[2] Excavations at the South Area of
Çatal Höyük Çatal Höyük,
Turkey GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:CatalHoyukSouthArea.JPG
8,000 YBN
[6000 BC] 		6220) The earliest drums. Drums appear
with wide geographic distribution in
archaeological excavations from
Neolithic times onward; one excavated
in Moravia is dated to 6000 bce.
Moravia, Czeck Republic 
[1] Curt Sachs, ''The History of
Musical Instruments'', 1940, p81. PD
source: Curt Sachs, "The History of
Musical Instruments", 1940, p81.
7,750 YBN
[5750 BC] 		6525) Poppy plants are grown in Italy.
La Marmotta, Italy 
[1] Description العربية:
بذور نبتة
الخشخاش. English: Opium poppy
(Papaver somniferum) seeds. Poppy
seeds, used to make poppyseed oil. Bulk
poppy seeds, black. Author Odedr PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/69/Poppy_seeds.jpg

[2] Opium poppy (Papaver
somniferum) Description English:
Poppy, but of unknown species. Date 6
August 2005 (original upload date); 12
May 2006 (last version) Source Own
work PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Poppy-purple.pn
g/1024px-Poppy-purple.png
7,700 YBN
[5700 BC] 		719) Rice is grown near the Yangtze
river in China.
Kuahuqiao, Hangzhou Bay, Zhejiang
Province|Yangtze (in Hubei and Hunan
provinces), China 
[1] Description English: Paddy in
West Bengal, India Date 18 October
2009 Source Own
work Author Amartyabag CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Paddy_West_Beng
al.jpg/1280px-Paddy_West_Bengal.jpg

[2] Description: Cambodia, Kratie: A
worker is removing the rice
seedlings. Capture date: August
2002 Photographer: Oliver Spalt
Published under CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/07/Rice_02.jpg
7,570 YBN
[5570 BC] 		626) The city of Eridu {ARiDU} in
Mesopotamia is founded.
(Eridu) Tell Abu Shahrain, (22 km south
of) Nasiriya, Iraq 
[1] Drawing of Eridu UNKNOWN
source: http://jqjacobs.net/blog/images/
eridu.jpg

[2] Eridu as envisioned by Balage
Balogh UNKNOWN
source: http://ferrebeekeeper.files.word
press.com/2010/05/eridu_2.jpg
7,100 YBN
[5100 BC] 		720) Corn is grown in Mexico.
San Andr�s, Mexico|(Oaxaca,
Mexico) 
[1] Description Deutsch:
Maispflanzen (Zea mays) English: Maize
(Zea mays) plant with ears, the baby
corn growing level தமிழ்:
இளங்கதிர்கள்,
நன்கு
வளர்நிலையில்
இருக்கிறது. Date
2004 Source Own work Author
burgkirsch CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/32/Maispflanze.jpg
7,000 YBN
[5000 BC] 		627) The first metal to be smelted and
casted (copper). Smelting is separating
a metal from its ore by using heat and
a reducing material such as coke, or an
oxidizing material such as air. Other
impurities are removed by adding flux,
which impurities combine with to form
slag which can be removed because it
floats on the surface of the liquid
metal.

Casting involves pouring liquid metal
into a shaped mold of baked clay,
stone, metal, or sand. The earliest
molds are one-piece, of clay or stone,
used for the manufacture of simple
tools, flat weapons such as tanged
arrowheads (arrowheads with a sharp
projection or tang which secures the
arrowhead to the shaft), bar-ingots,
and jewellery.

These moulds are open at the top so
that the product has one flat surface.
Core-pieces can be inserted to form
sockets for handles.
Belovode, Eastern Serbia 
[1] Copper slag from Belovode (sample
No. 21). Figure 3 from: Miljana
Radivojević, Thilo Rehren, Ernst
Pernicka, Dušan Šljivar, Michael
Brauns, Dušan Borić, On the origins
of extractive metallurgy: new evidence
from Europe, Journal of Archaeological
Science, Volume 37, Issue 11, November
2010, Pages 2775-2787, ISSN 0305-4403,
10.1016/j.jas.2010.06.012. (http://www.
sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0
305440310001986) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence/article/pii/S0305440310001986

[2] Byzantine Roman
Collection tanged arrowhead Inventory
#: 308-316 Type:
Arrowhead Material: Iron Period:
Byzantine (Eastern Roman) 6th - 14th
Cent. A.D. Provenance: Balkan
Region Measurements: (lengths in cm,
left to right): 14.5, 17 cm UNKNOWN
source: http://www.worldmuseumofman.org/
img1000/308316b.jpg
7,000 YBN
[5000 BC] 		727) The earliest reed boats.
Kuwait 
[1] Bitumin remains from older Kuwaiti
boat show rope impressions. Lawler,
Andrew (June 7, 2002). ''Report of
Oldest Boat Hints at Early Trade
Routes''. Science (AAAS) 296 (5574):
1791–1792.
doi:10.1126/science.296.5574.1791. PMID
12052936.
http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/
summary/296/5574/1791
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/3076918
COPYRIGHTED
source: Lawler, Andrew (June 7, 2002).
"Report of Oldest Boat Hints at Early
Trade Routes". Science (AAAS) 296
(5574): 1791–1792.
doi:10.1126/science.296.5574.1791. PMID
12052936.
http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/
summary/296/5574/1791
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/3076918


[2] Description Totora reed fishing
boats on the beach at Huanchaco,
Peru Date 13 October 2006,
15:26 Source Totora reed fishing
boats on the beach at Huanchaco,
Peru Author Roy & Danielle CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Peruvian_fishin
g_boats.jpg/768px-Peruvian_fishing_boats
.jpg
7,000 YBN
[5000 BC] 		1296) The city of Uruk {RuK} in
Mesopotamia is founded. Uruk will last
until the 400s CE.
Uruk, southern Babylonia 
[1] Excavated walls at the site of
Uruk. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd
/uruk/hd_uruk.htm

[2] Kish (Sumer) localisation GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Meso2mil.JPG
7,000 YBN
[5000 BC] 		6466) The earliest pottery in America.
(near) Santar�m (in the lower
Amazon), Brazil 
[1] Roosevelt, AC et al. “Eighth
Millennium Pottery from a Prehistoric
Shell Midden in the Brazilian
Amazon.” Science (New York, N.Y.)
254.5038 (1991):
1621–1624. http://www.jstor.org/stabl
e/2879492 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2879
492
6,900 YBN
[4900 BC] 		648) The sail boat.
Mesopotamia 
[1] Scale 1/20 model of a Bronze Age
reed boat, as proposed by Tom Vosmer,
Model of a Third Millennium BC Reed
Boat Image from: Connan, Jacques et
al. “A comparative geochemical study
of bituminous boat remains from H3,
As-Sabiyah (Kuwait), and RJ-2, Ra’s
al-Jinz (Oman).” Arabian Archaeology
and Epigraphy 16.1 (2005):
21-66. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/d
oi/10.1111/j.1600-0471.2005.00041.x/abst
ract {Connan_Norman_200505xx.pdf} COPY
RIGHTED
source: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/d
oi/10.1111/j.1600-0471.2005.00041.x/abst
ract
6,800 YBN
[4800 BC] 		6527) The first fruit trees, olives are
grown in Israel and Jordan.
(Chalcolithic) Tuleilat Ghassul (north
of the Dead Sea) 
[1] Description English: Olive trees
on Thasos Deutsch: Alte Olivenbäume
auf Thasos Date 9.7.2006 Source Own
work Author Petr Pakandl CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Olive_trees_on_
Thassos.JPG/1280px-Olive_trees_on_Thasso
s.JPG

[2] Description English: Unique
Ancient Olive Tree Date 30 January
2011 Source Own work Author Dennis
koutou CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Ancient_Olive_T
ree_in_Pelion%2C_Greece.jpg/768px-Ancien
t_Olive_Tree_in_Pelion%2C_Greece.jpg
6,500 YBN
[4500 BC] 		6437) The earliest settlement in
Europe, Provadia-Solnitsata {PrOVoDEYo
SOLnETSoTo?}, in Bulgaria is founded.
(near) Provadia, Bulgaria 
[1] The remains of the settlement made
of two-story houses near the town of
Provadia The prehistoric town at
Provadia features two-storey houses and
a defensive
wall (AFP/Getty) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://i.telegraph.co.uk/multime
dia/archive/02384/b2_2384873c.jpg

[2] The remains of a man with a
ceramic bowl Photo:
AFP/GETTY COPYRIGHTED
source: http://i.telegraph.co.uk/multime
dia/archive/02384/b1_2384879b.jpg
6,200 YBN
[4200 BC] 		1295) An early city map in Catal Huyuk.
Catal Huyuk 
[1] City plan of Çatal Höyük. The
map is painted on a wall and measures
more than de 2,5 m long. Image courtesy
of Ali Turan in Turkey in maps
www.turkeyinmaps.com COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.infovis.net/printMag.
php?num=110&lang=2

[2] City plan of Çatal Höyük.
Recreation of the original plan, where
you can appreciates the structure of
the city. An erupting volcano also
appars. It's probably the Hasan Dag,
still visible from Çatal Höyük in
the present time. COPYRIGHTED
source: same
6,000 YBN
[4000 BC] 		665) Wine making.
(Areni-1 cave complex in) southeastern
Armenia|Egypt 
[1] Wine press The wine press (center)
is clearly evident in this photograph
of the excavation. Behind the press is
an archaeological identification kit.
The vat (to the right of the press),
which was apparently used for
accumulating grape juice and the
consequent wine fermentation, emerges
clearly here as a result of the
excavation. (Photo credit: Gregory
Areshian) UNKNOWN
source: http://newsroom.ucla.edu/portal/
ucla/artwork/8/8/6/8/3/188683/wine_press
.jpg

[2] Grape stems and seeds A range of
6,100-year-old desiccated grape stems
and dried, pressed grapes was found on
and around the wine press in the
Armenian cave. The chemical studies
were led by UCLA scientists and
supported by the National Geographic
Society, which also funded the
archaeological work. (Photo credit:
Gregory Areshian) UNKNOWN
source: http://newsroom.ucla.edu/portal/
ucla/artwork/8/8/6/8/3/188683/stems_seed
s_grapes.jpg
6,000 YBN
[4000 BC] 		1263) Symbols on clay pottery in Vinča
{ViNCA}, Serbia.
Vinča, a suburb of Belgrade
(Serbia) 
[1] Description English: symbols of
ancient vincan writtings Date
Source
http://weburbanist.com/2010/05/24/undea
d-languages-10-mysterious-undeciphered-s
cripts/?ref=search Author
unknown Permission (Reusing this
file) scientific work PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/9f/Vincan_symbols.jpg

[2] Drawing of a clay vessel unearthed
near Vinca. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Vinca_vessel.png
6,000 YBN
[4000 BC] 		6232) The earliest sun-dried mud bricks
and mud-brick house; in Mesopotamia.

Mud brick, dried by the Sun, is one of
the first building materials.

In the early Ubaid period settlement a
thick layer of reed matting is the
earliest sign of occupation. Above that
walls are built, first of pisé (which
is clay, earth, or gravel beaten down
until it is solid) and then mud-brick.
Ur, Mesopotamia (modern Iraq) 
[1] The Royal Tombs (Cemetery) of Ur.
Courtesy Nathanm, Creative Commons. CC

source: http://popular-archaeology.com/u
pload/2697/urroyaltombs.jpg

[2] Pre-Historic Tell Uqair UNKNOWN
source: http://ancientneareast.tripod.co
m/IMAGES/Uqair.jpg
6,000 YBN
[4000 BC] 		6530) Date palm trees are grown in
Mesopotamia.
Eridu, Lower mesopotamia 
[1] Description English: palm tree
with dates-a shot from Rashidiya,
Dubai, UAE Date 30 June 2011 Source
Own work Author Vicharam CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/ab/Palm_tree_wtih_Dates.
JPG

[2] Description When selecting dates,
look for plump, evenly colored
specimens. All dates have a single long
seed, but they can range in shape from
oblong to round, depending on the
cultivar. The date should not look dry
or withered, and no crystals should
appear on the exterior of the date.
Fresh dates will last for up to two
weeks under refrigeration, while
preserved dates can last much longer,
depending on how they are
preserved. Date 8 June 2008,
15:37:22 Source originally posted to
Flickr as Kajur Author abcdz2000 CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Kajur.jpg/1280p
x-Kajur.jpg
5,800 YBN
[3800 BC] 		6235) An early map of Northern
Mesopotamia.
Harran, Mesopotamia 
[1] Image of map from: Leo Bagrow,
''History of Cartography'', Second
Edition,
1985. {Bagrow_History_of_Cartography_19
85.pdf} PD
source: Leo Bagrow, "History of
Cartography", Second Edition,
1985. {Bagrow_History_of_Cartography_19
85.pdf}

[2] Redrawing with
interpretation UNKNOWN
source: http://www.henry-davis.com/MAPS/
Ancientimages/100E.JPEG
5,800 YBN
[3800 BC] 		6540) The earliest nut crops, almond
trees are grown in the eastern part of
the Mediterranean basin.
Eastern part of the Mediterranean
Basin 
[1] Description English: Amond
blossom, Plants of Israel עברית:
פרי השקד, Original Image
Name:שקדיה,
Location:מודיעין Date circa
2010 Source Wild Flowers of Israel
via the PikiWiki - Israel free image
collection project Author שרה
גולד Permission (Reusing this
file) w:en:Creative
Commons attribution CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/84/PikiWiki_Israel_7025_
Amond_blossom.jpg

[2] Description English: Green
Almonds. Date 4 April 2009 Source
Own work Author 6th Happiness My
own work. Green Almonds, originally
posted here:
http://fithfath.com/images/2009/04/04/yo
ung-green-almonds/ PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a2/Green_almonds.jpg
5,650 YBN
[3650 BC] 		6529) Figs are grown in Egypt.
Maadi and Pre-dynastic Tell el-Fara'in
(Buto), the Nile Delta, Egypt 
[1] Source Own work Author
Roei.tabak CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/02/Fig_black.JPG

[2] from de:wiki @16:29, 2. Okt 2004
by User:Rainer Zenz (Querschnitt
durch den reifen Fruchtstand der Echten
Feige. Eigenes Foto. Public
Domain) (Przekrój przez świeży
owoc figowca pospolitego) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/23/Feige-Schnitt.jpg
5,500 YBN
[3500 BC] 		233) The earliest writing (on clay
objects in Mesopotamia). The first
numbers. The first stamp (or seal).

The first writing begins as symbols for
numbers on clay bulla (hollow clay
containers that hold clay tokens).
These symbols represent the quantity
and kind of tokens inside the bulla.
Markings on clay tokens which represent
products like sheep, oil, or metal, may
lead to the first symbols of the
alphabet. Hollow bullae and clay tokens
are eventually replaced by solid clay
tablets with the same impressions.
Mesopotamia (Babylonia)|Sumer (Syria,
Sumer, Highland Iran) 
[1] Fig 109 from: Nissen, Archaic
Bookkeeping, 1993, p127. COPYRIGHTED
source: Archaic Bookkeeping, Nissen,
1993, p127.

[2] Fig 110 from: Nissen, Archaic
Bookkeeping, 1993, p128. COPYRIGHTED
source: Archaic Bookkeeping, Nissen,
1993, p128.
5,500 YBN
[3500 BC] 		294) The sundial, the earliest
timekeeping device. The first device
for indicating the time of day is
probably the gnomon, which is a
vertical object. The length of the
gnomon's shadow indicates the time of
day.
China and Chaldea 
[1] Stick in sand with shadow UNKNOWN
source: http://farm1.static.flickr.com/1
77/484077420_e01337d101.jpg

[2] Description English: Ancient
sundial from Marcianopolis, Museum of
Mosaicas, Devnya,
Bulgaria Български:
Слънчев часовник от
Марцианополис, Музей
на мозайките,
Девня Date 21 September
2010 Source Own work Author
Edal Anton Lefterov CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/ff/Sundial-from-Marciano
polis.jpg
5,500 YBN
[3500 BC] 		621) The earliest plow. Plows are used
to break up soil. Pictographs from
Mesopotamia show a beam-ard, a simple
machine that scratches a trench without
turning the soil.
Mesopotamia 
[1] [t determine source of
drawing] Apparently mesopotamian
drawing of animal pulled plow. UNKNOWN

source: http://ed101.bu.edu/StudentDoc/A
rchives/ED101fa06/jtobz87/pic-3-2plow-lg
.png

[2] Akkadian plough with seeder c2200
BCE Peter Roger Stuart Moorey,
''Ancient Mesopotamian Materials and
Industries: The Archaeological
Evidence'', 1999,
p2. http://books.google.com/books?id=P_
Ixuott4doC&pg=PA3 UNKNOWN
source: Peter Roger Stuart Moorey,
"Ancient Mesopotamian Materials and
Industries: The Archaeological
Evidence", 1999,
p2. http://books.google.com/books?id=P_
Ixuott4doC&pg=PA3
5,500 YBN
[3500 BC] 		622) The earliest irrigation (an
artificial supply of water to land for
food crops).
Middle east (eastern part of
Mediterranean) 
[1] Illustration 1. A shaduf was used
to raise water above the level of the
Nile. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.waterhistory.org/hist
ories/nile/shaduf.jpg

[2] This is a picture of how egyptians
could have used the Nile to plant their
crops. They are using an irrigation
method. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.amersol.edu.pe/class1
5/_15eescob/6th/humanities/images/nile_i
rrigation.jpg
5,500 YBN
[3500 BC] 		625) Donkeys are raised and used for
transport.
 
[1] Artist Maler der Grabkammer
des Panehsi Title Deutsch:
Grabkammer des Panehsi, Priester,
Szene: Esel mit Bauern Date
Deutsch: um 1298-1235 v.
Chr. English: c. 1298-1235 BCE Medium
Deutsch: Wandbild Dimensions
Deutsch: 30 × 61 cm Current
location Deutsch: Grab des
Panehsi Deutsch:
Theben Source/Photographer The
Yorck Project: 10.000 Meisterwerke der
Malerei. DVD-ROM, 2002. ISBN
3936122202. Distributed by DIRECTMEDIA
Publishing
GmbH. http://mail.wikipedia.org/piperma
il/wikide-l/2005-April/012195.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Maler_der_Grabk
ammer_des_Panehsi_001.jpg/1024px-Maler_d
er_Grabkammer_des_Panehsi_001.jpg
5,500 YBN
[3500 BC] 		634) The Egyptian calendar (12 months
of 30 days, plus 5 extra days).
 
[1] Egyptian Calendar UNKNOWN
source: http://analyzer.depaul.edu/paper
plate/2002%20vernal%20equinox/Egyptian_c
alendar_dark.jpg
5,500 YBN
[3500 BC] 		646) The earliest known wheel, a
pottery wheel, in Mesopotamia.
Mesopotamia (and a similar pottery
wheel from Choga Mish, Iran) 
[1] These pots, found at al`Ubaid type
site itself are typical of last phase
of Ubaid pottery found throughout much
of Mesopotamia, including Uruk. London:
British Museum. [t Note that the
first and tihrd match figures in
Woolley's 1982 book.] PD
source: http://www.hartford-hwp.com/imag
e_archive/ue/pottery03.jpg

[2] 14. Pottery jar of Jemdat Nasr
type. It was found in the al`Ain region
of the United Arab Emirates, which
attests to contacts between Mesopotamia
and Oman peninsula—an important
source of copper. Ca. 3000 BC. London:
British Museum. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.hartford-hwp.com/imag
e_archive/ue/pottery02.jpg
5,500 YBN
[3500 BC] 		693) The Indus valley city Harappa.
Harappa, Sāhiwāl, Punjob,
Pakistan 
[1] Description English: Harappa
Pakistan Indus Valley Civilization . A
large well and bathing platforms from
Harappa occupation around 2200–1900
BC. Date 6 January 2009 (4 January
2009, according to EXIF data) Source
Own work Author Obed Suhail GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/WellAndBathingP
latforms-Harappa.jpg/1280px-WellAndBathi
ngPlatforms-Harappa.jpg
5,490 YBN
[3490 BC] 		702) Cotton is grown in Peru.
Northwestern Peru|Indus valley 
[1] English: cotton plant, Texas, 1996,
after chemical haulm (topkilling
Chemical ; usually by the Monosodium
methyl arsenate used to quickly kill
the leaves that would interfere with
harvesting machines). This chemical is
a growing source of residual
contamination of soils by arsenic,
which is not degradable; Photo courtesy
of USDA Natural Resources Conservation
Service. http://photogallery.nrcs.usda.
gov/Index.asp This came from the
website PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/6/68/CottonPlant.JPG
/1024px-CottonPlant.JPG
5,350 YBN
[3350 BC] 		1261) Writing on clay tablets.

Symbols that represent a product (such
as cows, sheep, and cereals), drawn
with a stylus on clay tablets, are the
earliest record of what will become the
modern alphabet. Many of the symbols
look like the marked clay tokens that
represent actual products, and that are
replaced by the drawn symbols on clay
tablets.

This is the first training and industry
of scribes, which will ultimately
evolve into the modern school system.
Writing will be continuously taught
eventually in all major civilizations
(even through the Dark Ages) until
now.

These tablets are all economic records,
used to keep a record of objects owned
or traded, and contain no stories.

This writing is evidence that most of
the 30 or so basic sounds of humans
language were already in use by the
origin of writing.
Uruk 
[1] MS 4551 Account of grain products,
bread, beer, butter oil. Sumer 32nd
century COPYRIGHTED?
source: http://www.earth-history.com/_im
ages/ms4551.jpg

[2] MS2963 Account of male and female
slaves Sumer
c3300-3200BCE COPYRIGHTED?
source: http://www.earth-history.com/_im
ages/ms2963.jpg
5,310 YBN
[3310 BC] 		704) The earliest wheeled vehicles and
ox pulled wheeled vehicles; in Poland.
(TRB - Funnel Beaker culture)
Bronocice, Krakow, Poland 
[1] Stuart and Piggott, ''The Earliest
Wheeled Transport'', 1983,
p40,62-63. COPYRIGHTED
source: Stuart and Piggott, "The
Earliest Wheeled Transport", 1983,
p40,62-63.

[2] According
to: http://www.britishmuseum.org/explor
e/highlights/highlight_objects/me/t/the_
standard_of_ur.aspx 2600-2400
BC According to:
http://sumerianshakespeare.com/687045.ht
ml this image is 4500 years old -
putting it at 2500bce - get more
evidence of age [1] Description
English: detail of the ''Standard of
Ur'', ca. 2500 BC. Date 2500
BC Source
http://www.alexandriaarchive.org/op
encontext/iraq_ghf/ur_standard/ur_standa
rd_8.jpg Author
Anonymous Permission (Reusing
this file) See below. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/7d/Ur_chariot.jpg
5,200 YBN
[3200 BC] 		1266) The earliest writing in Egypt.
(Tomb U-j supposedly of King Scorpian,
Royal Cemetery of:) Abydos (modern:)
Umm el-Qa'ab 
[1] Figure 1 from: Richard Mattessich
(2002). ''The oldest writings, and
inventory tags of Egypt''. Accounting
Historians Journal 29 (1): 195–208.
JSTOR
40698264 http://umiss.lib.olemiss.edu:8
2/articles/1033062.3758/1.PDF
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/4069826
4 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/4069
8264

[2] These insciptions show early
writing making the transition from
pictorial to phonetic
meaning. Courtesy Gunter Dreyer,
German Institute of Archaeology,
Cairo. Dreyer says the symbols for a
stork and a chair found on one label
''make no sense as symbols'' literally
interpreted. In subsequent
hieroglyphics, however, they would have
the phonetic significance of
''Ba-fet,'' a city on the Nile Delta.
Thus Dreyer concludes the symbols are
actually writing that inform us that
the commodity attached to the tag came
from Ba-fet. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://whyfiles.org/079writing/2
.html
5,200 YBN
[3200 BC] 		1285) Indus valley symbols.
Harrapa, Indus Valley 
[1] The fragments of pottery are about
5,500 years old COPYRIGHTED
source: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/scien
ce/nature/334517.stm

[2] Description English: Collection
of seals of the Indus Valley
Civilization. also showing Swastikas.
British Museum. Date 14 August
2005 Source Self-photographed Author
World Imaging GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/3/32/IndusValleySeal
s.JPG/1280px-IndusValleySeals.JPG
5,200 YBN
[3200 BC] 		6493) The earliest evidence of
cheese-making.
Linear Pottery settlements along the
lower Vistula river (including Brześć
Kujawski 3 and 4, Miechowice 4, Smólsk
4, Wolica Nowa 1, Stare Nakonowo 2, and
Ludwinowo 6 and 7) 
[1] Figure 1: Drawings of
representative reconstructed sieve
vessels and photographs of specific
sieve fragments from the region of
Kuyavia submitted to lipid residue
analyses. a, b, KUY0750, from Brześć
Kujawski site 3. c, d, KUY0757 from
Smólsk site 4. The typology of the
sieve vessels is comparable to those
used by modern-day cheese producers
(Supplementary Fig. 1). Drawings used
with permission from ref. 20. Figure
1ab from: Salque, Melanie et al.
“Earliest Evidence for Cheese Making
in the Sixth Millennium Bc in Northern
Europe.” Nature advance online
publication (2012): n.
pag. http://www.nature.com/nature/journ
al/vaop/ncurrent/full/nature11698.html
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/vaop/ncurrent/images/nature11698-f1
.2.jpg
5,100 YBN
[3100 BC] 		641) The earliest record of a belief in
Gods and Goddesses.
Uruk 
[1] Archaic
Bookkeeping,Nissen,1993,p20-21.
COPYRIGHTED
source: Archaic
Bookkeeping,Nissen,1993,p20-21.
5,100 YBN
[3100 BC] 		6562) The Narmer Palette; early
Egyptian hieroglyphic writing.
 
[1] Reverse and obverse sides of Narmer
Palette, this facsimile on display at
the Royal Ontario Museum in Toronto,
Canada Image:NarmerPalette ROM.jpg by
Captmondo, gamma adjusted to bring out
more detail at lower resolutions PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/NarmerPalette_R
OM-gamma.jpg/1280px-NarmerPalette_ROM-ga
mma.jpg
5,000 YBN
[3000 BC] 		569) The earliest stringed musical
instrument (the lyre and the harp); in
Mesopotamia. The lyre has a yoke-shaped
frame consisting of two arms and a
crossbar, with strings stretched over
the frontal soundboard. The lyre is
first depicted in Sumerian art works
around 3000 BC. Harps have a plane of
strings vertical, not parallel to the
soundboard. There are two kinds of
harps: an arched harp in which the body
is elongated at one end into a curved
neck, together forming an arch, and an
angular harp, in which the body and
neck form an angle. Arched harps are
thought to originate from the musical
bow. The only harps used in Sumer are
arched harps. Arched harps are depicted
on a stone slab from Khafaje in Sumer
and a vase from Bismya in South
Babylonia, both which date to around
3000 BC.
Sumer (modern Iraq) 
[1] Bearded Harpists, detail from
Sumerian tablet in the Temple of Sin in
Khafage, Mesopotamia (presently Iraq) c
3000 BC. Reprinted by permission
from The Harp by Rajka
Dobronic-Mazzoni. Published by Graficki
Zavrod Hrvatske, OOUR, Izdavcka
djelatnost, Preobrazenska 4, Zagreb,
Croatia, 1989 PD
source: http://www.harpspectrum.org/time
line/images/mesopotamia_1.jpg

[2] Harp-player of Sumer, from a
plaque of Khafaje (After Heras, 1953,
p. 182). PD
source: http://www.hindunet.org/hindu_hi
story/sarasvati/html/HARPPL-1.jpg
5,000 YBN
[3000 BC] 		596) Written symbols are combined to
form words; there is a transition from
word-writing to sound-writing in
Sumarian.

Evidence of this is the sign /ti/, for
"arrow" that is now also defined as the
Sumarian word for "life" /til/ which
starts with the same sound.

The vast majority of Sumerian language
is made of one-syllable words. This
suggests that all earlier spoken
languages contained only
single-syllable words.
Jemdet Nasr 
[1] Fischer, S.R. A History of Writing.
Reaktion, 2001. Globalities Series.
p47-48. COPYRIGHTED
source: Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p47-48.

[2] Source:
http://pandora.cii.wwu.edu/vajda/ling201
/writingsystems/sumeriancuneiform.htm U
NKNOWN
source: http://www.omniglot.com/images/w
riting/sumerian_glyphs.jpg
5,000 YBN
[3000 BC] 		628) Bronze (copper and tin) are
smelted and casted; in modern Turkey.

The start of the Bronze Age. The Bronze
Age has different start dates and
different durations in different parts
of the Earth.

Bronze is made by smelting together two
separate ores, one bearing copper, and
the other tin. Bronze tools will
replace copper tools.

The oldest examples of true bronze
(combination of copper and tin) known
are figurines of men and women from
Tell Judaidah, Turkey.
Tell Judaidah, Turkey|Egypt 
[1] Tell Judaidah bronze
figurines These figurines of men and
women from Tell Judaidah, Turkey, are
the oldest examples of true bronze
(combination of copper and tin) known.
They date to about 3000 B.C. The male
figures were originally equipped as
warriors, and the women were dressed
with accessories of precious metal.
They are the forerunners of later
figurines of gods who were ''dressed''
in gold and silver. Recently, the ore
content of the figurines was tested at
the Advanced Photon Source at Argonne
National Laboratory. UNKNOWN
source: http://www-news.uchicago.edu/rel
eases/05/050112.oi-3.jpg

[2] Female Figurine Amuq Valley Tell
Judaidah Turkey Amuq G Early Bronze Age
I (3400-2750 BCE)
Bronze Photographed at the Oriental
Institute of the University of Chicago,
Chicago, Illinois. UNKNOWN
source: http://farm3.staticflickr.com/26
18/3859375883_ccc6b90ec4_b.jpg
5,000 YBN
[3000 BC] 		650) Cuneiform writing. Pictures are
not drawn with pointed reed, but drawn
with a cut reed-stem pressed into the
wet clay to make wedges.
Uruk 
[1] Archaic
Bookkeeping,Nissen,1993,p118.
COPYRIGHTED
source: Archaic
Bookkeeping,Nissen,1993,p118.

[2] Description Cuneiform script
tablet from the Kirkor Minassian
collection in the Library of Congress.
From Year 6 in the reign from
Amar-Suena/Amar-Sin between 2041 and
2040 BC.
http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.amed/amcune.cf001
3 Date 2012-02-28 16:01 (UTC) Source
This file was derived from:
Cuneiform_script2.jpg Cuneiform
script2.jpg Author
Cuneiform_script2.jpg: derivative
work: Yjenith (talk) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/19/Cuneiform_script2.png

5,000 YBN
[3000 BC] 		653) The earliest stone buildings; in
Egypt.
  
5,000 YBN
[3000 BC] 		664) Soft soldering of metals. In soft
soldering the solder melts at a
temperature below 350ºC.

Soldering is a process that uses metal
alloys with low melting points to join
metallic surfaces without melting the
surfaces.
Tell al-'Ubaid|Mesopotamia 
[1] Im-Dugud El-Ubaid Mesopotamia the
earliest soft solder 3000BC, presumably
with tin UNKNOWN
source: http://farm4.static.flickr.com/3
116/2778973410_6db0e4ab03_o.jpg}
http://www.britishmuseum.org/images/ps16
5397_l.jpg

[2] {ULSF: Note that this may not be
the earliest known soldered
(soft-soldered joint) material
presumably with tin- update- this is
the correct panel- it's shown by the
Singer source in the Footnotes} Copper
frieze From the temple of Ninhursag,
Tell al-'Ubaid, southern Iraq About
2600-2400 BC COPYRIGHTED
source: http://link.springer.com/article
/10.1007%2FBF03216523?LI=true#
5,000 YBN
[3000 BC] 		668) Silk making; in China.
  
5,000 YBN
[3000 BC] 		672) The earliest dam.

This dam is built in Egypt to provide a
water reservoir.
Wadi Gerrawi, Egypt 
[1] M. Kassas and M. Imam, ''Habitat
and Plant Communities in the Egyptian
Desert: III. The Wadi Bed Ecosystem'',
Journal of Ecology, Vol. 42, No. 2
(Jul., 1954), pp.
424-441 http://www.jstor.org/stable/225
6869 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2256
869
5,000 YBN
[3000 BC] 		673) The earliest wooden adze {aDZ}
with a copper blade. An adze is a hand
tool for shaping wood.
Egypt 
[1] Artist Jon Bodsworth Description
Copper adze, 1st Dynasty Date 23:37,
10 December 2007 (UTC) Current
location British MuseumLink back to
Institution infobox template British
Museum from NE 2.JPG Native name
British Museum Location
London Coordinates 51° 31′
10.0″ N, 0° 7′ 37.0″
W Established 1753 Website
www.britishmuseum.org Authority
control VIAF: 155502113
LCCN: n79107735 GND: 4074329-9
BnF: cb11871460b ULAN:
500125180
WorldCat Source/Photographer
http://www.egyptarchive.co.uk/html/brit
ish_museum_10.html COPYRIGHTED ANY
PURPOSE
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b9/Copper_adze.jpg

[2] Description Picture of w:adze
taken 18 September, 2005 by Luigi
Zanasi (myself) on my workbench using a
Olympus digital camera. Date 18
September 2005 Source Own
work Author Luigi Zanasi (myself) CC

source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Adze.jpg/1218px
-Adze.jpg
5,000 YBN
[3000 BC] 		675) The earliest silver objects.
Ur 
[1] Queen Shub-ad harp with
silver Woolley, C. Leonard, and L.
Legrain. Ur excavations. Oxford
University Press,
1934. http://www.clintgoss.com/flutoped
ia.com/refs/Woolley_1934_UrExcavations_V
ol02_excerpt_FP.pdf COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.clintgoss.com/flutope
dia.com/refs/Woolley_1934_UrExcavations_
Vol02_excerpt_FP.pdf
5,000 YBN
[3000 BC] 		676) Metal casting where wax is melted
in a clay mold (also called cire-perdu
{SErA PARDU} or "lost-wax").
 
[1] Trevor I. Williams, ''A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips '', (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000), p79.
source: Trevor I. Williams, "A history
of invention : from stone axes to
silicon chips ", (New York: Checkmark
Books, 2000), p79.

[2] Description English: Liquid
bronze at 1200°C is poured into the
dried and empty casting mold. Date
Source Own work Author Takkk CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/de/Born_bronze_-_Bronze_
casts.jpg
5,000 YBN
[3000 BC] 		1268) The Proto-Elamite language (which
is still undeciphered), is pressed into
tablets to represent the language of
Elam in modern southwest Iran.
modern southwest Iran 
[1] Description English: Economic
tablet with numeric signs and
Proto-Elamite script. Clay accounting
tokens, Uruk period. From the Tell of
the Acropolis in Susa. Français :
Tablette économique portant des signes
numéraux et des signes d'écriture
proto-élamite. Terre cuite, période
d'Uruk. Provenance : tell de l'Acropole
à Suse. Current location
(Inventory)Louvre MuseumLink back to
Institution infobox template
wikidata:Q19675 Department of Oriental
antiquities, Richelieu, room 7, case
5 Accession number Sb 15439 Credit
line Excavated by Jacques de Morgan,
1907 Source/Photographer Marie-Lan
Nguyen (2009) CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Economic_tablet
_Susa_Louvre_Sb15439.jpg/1244px-Economic
_tablet_Susa_Louvre_Sb15439.jpg

[2] Description English: Economic
tablet with numeric signs and
Proto-Elamite script. Clay accounting
tokens, Uruk period. From the Tell of
the Acropolis in Susa. Français :
Tablette économique portant des signes
numéraux et des signes d'écriture
proto-élamite. Terre cuite, période
d'Uruk. Provenance : tell de l'Acropole
à Suse. Current location
[show](Inventory)Louvre MuseumLink
back to Institution infobox template
wikidata:Q19675 Department of Oriental
antiquities, Richelieu, room 7, case
5 Accession number Sb 3047 Credit
line Excavated by Jacques de Morgan,
1907 Source/Photographer Marie-Lan
Nguyen (2009) CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Economic_tablet
_Susa_Louvre_Sb3047.jpg/1280px-Economic_
tablet_Susa_Louvre_Sb3047.jpg
5,000 YBN
[3000 BC] 		1276) The first recorded political
assembly.
Sumer, Uruk, Kish 
[1] Kramer, Samuel Noah, and Thorkild
Jacobsen. “Gilgamesh and Agga.”
American Journal of Archaeology 53.1
(1949):
1–18. http://www.jstor.org/stable/501
208 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/5012
08

[2] Kramer, Samuel Noah, and Thorkild
Jacobsen. “Gilgamesh and Agga.”
American Journal of Archaeology 53.1
(1949):
1–18. http://www.jstor.org/stable/501
208 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/5012
08
5,000 YBN
[3000 BC] 		6222) The inclined plane (or ramp).

The inclined plane is based on the
concept that moving an object from a
lower to higher elevation is easier
when pushed up a flatter slope.
Egypt? 
[1] Description A free body
diagram of a mass on an inclined
plane Date 27 May 2007 Source
Own work Author Mets501 CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Free_body.svg/1
000px-Free_body.svg.png
5,000 YBN
[3000 BC] 		6226) The abacus.

The abacus is a bead and wire analog
counting and calculating computer which
first appears in Mesopotamia as a
sand-covered board in which marks are
made by finger or stick.
Mesopotamia 
[1] Suanpan (the number represented in
the picture is 6,302,715,408). [t Note
that each place represents a decimal
place, and a bead on top at the bar
indicates +5, a bead on bottom at the
bar +1.] English: Abacus Scanned and
uploaded by Malcolm Farmer (englische
Wikipedia) Source: Article for
''abacus'', 9th edition Encyclopedia
Britannica, volume 1 (1875) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/af/Abacus_6.png
5,000 YBN
[3000 BC] 		6441) The earliest bow drill. A bow can
be used for drilling: the bow string is
looped around the pointed shaft, which
is a long, narrow stick or stone. By
moving the bow back and forth in a
sawing motion, the shaft is made to
spin. A bow drill can drill holes, and
can also be used to start a fire from
friction.
Egypt 
[1] Description Bow Drill Date
14:27, 7 April 2008 (UTC) Source Own
work Author
Reddi Permission (Reusing this file)
GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6f/Bow_Drill.png
5,000 YBN
[3000 BC] 		6453) The start of the Indus valley
settlement Mohenjo-daro.
Indus River, Sindh province, southern
Pakistan 
[1] Description A city-settlement of
the the Indus Valley Civilization, ca.
2600-1500 BCE. Date 1 June 2010,
00:00 Source Mohenjo-daro Author
Comrogues from San Francisco,
California Camera
location 27° 19′ 42.47″ N,
68° 8′ 11.47″ E CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Mohenjo-daro-20
10.jpg/1280px-Mohenjo-daro-2010.jpg
4,980 YBN
[2980 BC] 		654) The earliest pyramid in Egypt, the
step pyramid of Djoser, designed by
Imhotep, the earliest known scientist
of history.
Sakkara, Egypt 
[1] Description English: The Pyramid
of Djoser in Saqqara, Egypt. Date
6 February 2010 Source Own
work Author Wknight94 talk GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Pyramid_of_Djos
er_2010.jpg/1280px-Pyramid_of_Djoser_201
0.jpg
4,925 YBN
[2925 BC] 		643) Hieratic script, a cursive script
of traditional Egyptian hieroglyphs,
replaces traditional hieroglyphs.
  
4,900 YBN
[2900 BC] 		6528) Grapes are grown in Jordan and
Turkey.
Tell es-Sa'idiyeh Jordan, and Kurban
Hoyuk, south-eastern Turkey 
[1] Description Deutsch: Vitis
vinifera; Anordnung der Gescheine, des
länglichen, rispenartigen
Blütenstands der Weinrebe auf einem
einjährigen Trieb Français : Vitis
vinifera; boutons floraux séparés,
forme typique de l’inflorescence en
grappe Italiano: Vitis vinifera;
infiorescenze in prefioritura. Date
12/05/07 Source Own work Author
Vassil PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1a/Vigne_inflorescence_2
.jpg

[2] Description Español: Vista
parcial del pago de Miraflores la Alta,
en Sanlúcar de Barrameda, donde puede
apreciarse la albariza, uno de los
suelos característicos del Marco de
Jerez y la casa de labor de la Viña
San Rafael. Date April 2008 Source
Own work Author Antonio M. Romero
Dorado GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/50/Pago_de_miraflores_la
_alta_albariza_sanl%C3%BAcar_barrameda.j
pg
4,900 YBN
[2900 BC] 		6531) Pomegranates are grown in
Palestine and Jordan.
Jericho and Tell es-Sa'idiyeh (ancient
Zaretan), Jordan 
[1] Dansk: Granatæble. Deutsch: Ein
aufgebrochener Granatapfel. English:
Pomegranate Fruits. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Pomegranate03_e
dit.jpg/1280px-Pomegranate03_edit.jpg

[2] Description English:
Pomegranate Blossom Date Source
Own work Author Momali CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Pomegranate_Blo
ssom.jpg/1280px-Pomegranate_Blossom.jpg
4,800 YBN
[2800 BC] 		6565) Musical reed instruments.
Greece 
[1] Description figurines of a flutist
(playing a flute of the en:aulos type)
and a harpplayer, bronze age, 2600
B.C., from the Greek island en:Keros in
the island group of the Cyclades. On
display at the en:National
Archaeological Museum of Athens. Date
see metadata Source Own work (my
camera) Author sailko GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/85/Cycladic_idol_03_2_re
touched.jpg

[2] Artist English: Euaion
Painter Français : Peintre
d'Euaion Description English: Youth
playing the aulos, detail of a banquet
scene. Tondo of an Attic red-figure
cup, ca. 460 BC–450 BC. Français :
Jeune garçon jouant de l'aulos,
détail d'une scène de banquet. Tondo
d'une coupe attique à figures rouges,
v. 460–450 av. J.-C. Dimensions D.
31.1 cm (12 in.) Current location
(Inventory)Louvre MuseumLink back to
Institution infobox
template Department of Greek, Etruscan
and Roman Antiquities, Sully, first
floor, room 43, case 24 Accession
number G 467 Credit line Campana
Collection, 1861 References ARV²
792,47; Add² 290 Source/Photographer
Jastrow (2008) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/33/Banquet_Euaion_Louvre
_G467_n2.jpg
4,750 YBN
[2750 BC] 		320) The earliest metal saw.
Mesopotamia 
[1] [t Note that these are not the
oldest known saws, but more recent saws
from Minoa.] Figures from: Wells, H.
Bartlett, ''The Position of the Large
Bronze Saws of Minoan Crete in the
History of Tool Making'', Expedition,
16.4, 1974,
p2-8. http://www.penn.museum/expedition
-back-issues/114-volumes-11-20/560-exped
ition-volume-16-number-4-summer-1974.htm
l
source: http://www.penn.museum/expeditio
n-back-issues/114-volumes-11-20/560-expe
dition-volume-16-number-4-summer-1974.ht
ml

[2] Saws from: [1] Deshayes, Jean,
''Les outils de bronze, de l'Indus au
Danube (IVe au IIe millénaire)'',
Librairie orientaliste P.
Geuthner/Paris,
1960 {Deshayes_Les_Outils_1960.pdf} CO
PYRIGHTED
source: Deshayes, Jean, "Les outils de
bronze, de l'Indus au Danube (IVe au
IIe millénaire)", Librairie
orientaliste P. Geuthner/Paris,
1960 {Deshayes_Les_Outils_1960.pdf}
4,700 YBN
[2700 BC] 		1052) The earliest arch.
Nippur, Mesopotamia 
[1] One of the most ancient arches as
yet discovered is that which was brough
to light during the course of the
excavations carried on ... at the
ancient city of Nuippur (cf. Fig. 15).
It was found at a great depth below the
surface of the mound, being more than
22 1/2 feet below the pavement of
Ur-Engur (c2400BC), and 14 feet below
that of Naram-Sin (c2700 BC) Handcock,
P.S.P. Mesopotamian Archaeology: An
Introduction to the Archaeology of
Babylonia and Assyria. Putnam,
1912. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ErcoAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA170 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=ErcoAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA170
4,600 YBN
[2600 BC] 		1269) The earliest known inscription to
a king; in Sumer.
Kish, a city in Sumer, 80km south of
modern Bagdad 
[1] Postgate, N. Early Mesopotamia:
Society and Economy at the Dawn of
History. Taylor & Francis,
2004. http://books.google.com/books?id=
QvVUV52d68AC
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=QvVUV52d68AC
4,530 YBN
[2530 BC] 		6544) The first carvel-built boats in
Egypt (planks are edge to edge).
Egypt 
[1] Description English: A
comparison of clinker-building and
carvel-building styles of boat
building. Date 2007-12-13 (first
version); 2007-12-13 (last
version) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia Author Original uploader
was Willhig at
en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) Released into the public
domain (by the author). PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Clinker-carvel.
svg/1000px-Clinker-carvel.svg.png

[2] Description Gokstadskipet,
Vikingskipmuseet, Oslo Date
2005 Source Own work Author
Karamell CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/53/Gokstadskipet1.jpg
4,500 YBN
[2500 BC] 		635) Iron is smelted and casted.

The start of the Iron Age in Turkey.
Alaca Höyük in northern Anatolia
(modern Turkey)|Palestine|Tell Hammeh
(az-Zarqa), Jordan|Central Europe and
north Assyria 
[1] Description Dagger with iron blade
and golden hilt from Alaca Höyük.
Early evidence for the use of iron in
Anatolia. Date 2005 Source Own
work Author Stipich Béla GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b9/Alaca_H%C3%BCy%C3%BCk
_dagger.jpg

[2] Xander Veldhuijzen and Eveline van
der Steen, ''Iron Production Center
Found in the Jordan Valley'', Near
Eastern Archaeology, Vol. 62, No. 3
(Sep., 1999), pp. 195-199 Published
by: The American Schools of Oriental
Research Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/3210714 COP
YRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3210
714
4,500 YBN
[2500 BC] 		637) Scribes in Sumer change from
writing in columns right to left to
writing in rows left to right (except
on stone monuments until around 1500
BC). Pictures are also turned 90
degrees counter-clockwise.
Sumer 
[1] Fischer, S.R. A History of Writing.
Reaktion, 2001. Globalities Series.
p47-48. COPYRIGHTED
source: Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p47-48.

[2] Nissen, Archaic Bookkeeping, 1993,
p22. COPYRIGHTED AND List of gods in
order of seniority: Enlil, Ninlil,
Enki, Nergal, Hendursanga,
Inanna-Zabalam, Ninebgal, Inanna, Utu,
Nanna. Sumerian cuneiform script
clay tablet, Sumer, 2400-2200 BC, 1
tablet, 4,7x4,4x1,7 cm, single column,
5+5 lines. Binding: Barking, Essex,
1998, blue cloth gilt folding case by
Aquarius. PD
source: Nissen, Archaic Bookkeeping,
1993, p22. AND
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/e/e1/Sumerian_MS2272_2400BC.jpg
4,500 YBN
[2500 BC] 		677) Bronze sickles.
  
4,500 YBN
[2500 BC] 		691) Skis are used in Skandinavia.
  
4,500 YBN
[2500 BC] 		6230) The earliest dice and boardgame.
Ur, Mesopotamia 
[1] The Royal Game of Ur From Ur,
southern Iraq, about 2600-2400
BC One of the most popular games of
the ancient world This game board is
one of several with a similar layout
found by Leonard Woolley in the Royal
Cemetery at Ur. The wood had decayed
but the inlay of shell, red limestone
and lapis lazuli survived in position
so that the original shape could be
restored. The board has twenty squares
made of shell: Five squares each have
flower rosettes, 'eyes', and circled
dots. The remaining five squares have
various designs of five dots. According
to references in ancient documents, two
players competed to race their pieces
from one end of the board to another.
Pieces were allowed on to the board at
the beginning only with specific throws
of the dice. We also know that rosette
spaces were lucky. The gaming pieces
for this particular board do not
survive. However, some sets of gaming
pieces of inlaid shale and shell were
excavated at Ur with their boards. The
boards appear to have been hollow with
the pieces stored inside. Dice, either
stick dice or tetrahedral in shape,
were also found. Examples of this
'Game of Twenty Squares' date from
about 3000 BC to the first millennium
AD and are found widely from the
eastern Mediterranean and Egypt to
India. A version of the Mesopotamian
game survived within the Jewish
community at Cochin, South India until
modern times. PD
source: http://www.britishmuseum.org/ima
ges/ps121289_l.jpg

[2] he oldest backgammon in the world
along with 60 pieces has been unearthed
beneath the rubbles of the legendary
Burnt City in Sistan-Baluchistan
province, southeastern Iran, Iranian
Cultural Heritage News Agency
reported. Iranian archeologists
working on the relics of the
5,000-year-old civilization argue this
backgammon is much older than the one
already discovered in Mesopotamia and
their evidence is strong enough to
claim the board game was first played
in the Burnt City and then transferred
to other civilizations. ''The
backgammon reveals intriguing clues to
the lifestyle of those people,'' said
Mansour Sajjadi, head of the research
team. ''The board is rectangular and
made of ebony, which did not grow in
Sistan and merchants used to import it
from India.'' He added the board
features an engraved serpent coiling
around itself for 20 times, thus
producing 20 slots for the game, more
affectionately known in Persian as
Nard. The engraving, artistically done,
indicates artisans in the Burnt City
were masters of the craft. ''The 60
pieces were also unearthed inside a
terracotta vessel beside the board.
They were made of common stones
quarried in the city, including agate
and turquoise,'' Sajjadi
added. Experts still wonder why they
played the game with 60 pieces and are
trying to discern its rules, but it at
least shows it is 100-200 years older
than the one discovered in Mesopotamia.
... PD
source: http://www.payvand.com/news/04/d
ec/dice-ancient.jpg
4,500 YBN
[2500 BC] 		6462) The Babylonians describe
constellations.
(Elamite capital) Susa, Iran 
[1] Rogers, J. H., ''Origins of the
ancient constellations: I. The
Mesopotamian traditions'', Journal of
the British Astronomical Association,
vol.108, no.1,
p.9-28. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1
998JBAA..108....9R UNKNOWN
source: http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/19
98JBAA..108....9R

[2] Seal of Adda From about 5,000
BC, stamp seals, cut with simple
designs, were used to mark ownership on
clay sealings on storeroom doors. They
were also found on the bags, baskets
etc in which goods were traded up and
down the Tigris and Euphrates. Around
3,500 BC, the cylinder seal was
invented; it provided room for
elaborately carved designs, and could
be rolled over clay. The Akkadian
greenstone seal (height 3.9cm) shown
here, dating to about 2,300 BC, is
shown alongside its modern impression.
Gods and goddesses are depicted,
identified by their horned head-dresses
and attributes as a hunting god, the
goddess Ishtar, the sun god Shamash and
the water god Enki followed by his
vizier. 'Adda, scribe' is written in
cuneiform above a lion, identifying the
owner as a high official, who could
also have sealed letters and
administrative documents on
clay. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/anc
ient/cultures/images/mesopotamia_seal.jp
g
4,500 YBN
[2500 BC] 		6523) Hemp is grown in China.
China 
[1] Description Deutsch:
Hanfstengel Česky: Konopny
stonek English: Hemp
stalk Slovenščina: Konopljino
steblo Français : Tige de
chanvre Date 6 October 2002 Source
Own work Author User:Natrij PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Hanfstengel.jpg
/1280px-Hanfstengel.jpg

[2] Description Close-up of the 100 %
Hemp fabric Date 30 September 2009,
17:25:57 Source Flickr:
hemp-600x600.jpg Author Halyma CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6b/Hemp-600x600.jpg
4,500 YBN
[2500 BC] 		6560) Hard soldering of metals. Hard
soldering (which includes brazing) uses
a solder that melts above 350ºC.

Gold based hard solders are used in
Mesopotamia.
Mesopotamia|Ur 
[1] from: (see caption) L. B. H.,
''The origins of gold brazing'', Gold
Bulletin, March 1977, Volume 10, Issue
1, pp
27-28. http://link.springer.com/article
/10.1007%2FBF03216523?LI=true# UNKNOWN

source: http://link.springer.com/article
/10.1007%2FBF03216523?LI=true#

[2] {ULSF: This is not the earliest
brazed axe-head mentioned in this
record.} A Mesopotamian Bronze
Axe Period: 3rd millennium
BC Dimensions: length:
12.2cm Condition: good; with nice
brown and green patina UNKNOWN
source: http://www.archaeological-center
.com/images/auction38/38-197g.jpg
4,450 YBN
[2450 BC] 		708) Animal skin (leather) is used for
writing (the earliest parchment).
Egypt 
[1] Image: A detail of the Ten
Commandments scroll. Credit:
DCI UNKNOWN
source: http://blogs.discovery.com/.a/6a
00d8341bf67c53ef0154384d333c970c-pi
4,400 YBN
[2400 BC] 		1277) The earliest recorded written
history.

Two clay cylinders describe the history
of the border and struggle for power
between Lagash and Umma.
Lagash 
[1] Nies, James Buchanan, Clarence
Elwood Keiser, and Albert Tobias Clay.
''Historical, religious and economic
texts and antiquities.''
(1920). http://digital.library.stonybro
ok.edu/cdm/singleitem/collection/iraqiar
cheology/id/25/rec/12 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://digital.library.stonybroo
k.edu/cdm/singleitem/collection/iraqiarc
heology/id/25/rec/12
4,345 YBN
[2345 BC] 		800) Writing on papyrus. Papyrus sheets
are made from the fibrous layers within
the stem of the papyrus plant.
Egypt 
[1] Papyrus Prisse. Egyptien 189.
Enseignement de Ptahhotep(217-298)
UNKNOWN
source: http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148
/btv1b8304612b/f1.highres
4,300 YBN
[2300 BC] 		629) The Akkadian language, the
earliest known semitic language. The
earliest verb tense, and noun gender.
The first dictionary.

The Akkadian language has no written
form and so Akkadian speaking people
adopt the Sumerian script. Bilingual
lexical lists with both Akkadian and
Sumerian are the first dictionaries.
Agade, Mesopotamia  
[1] Nissen, H.J. et al. Archaic
Bookkeeping: Early Writing and
Techniques of Economic Administration
in the Ancient Near East. University of
Chicago Press, 1994, p124. COPYRIGHTED

source: Nissen, H.J. et al. Archaic
Bookkeeping: Early Writing and
Techniques of Economic Administration
in the Ancient Near East. University of
Chicago Press, 1994, p124.

[2] Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p50. COPYRIGHTED
source: Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p50.
4,300 YBN
[2300 BC] 		667) The earliest evidence of glass
making, glass beads.

The first human-made glass beads and
pendants are made in the area of modern
Iraq and northern Syria (Mesopotamia).
Mesopotamia 
[1] Figures 2b and 2a from: J.
Henderson, J. Evans and K. Nikita,
''ISOTOPIC EVIDENCE FOR THE PRIMARY
PRODUCTION, PROVENANCE AND TRADE OF
LATE BRONZE AGE GLASS IN THE
MEDITERRANEAN'', Mediterranean
Archaeology and Archaeometry, Vol. 10,
No. 1, pp. 1‐24.
2010. http://www.rhodes.aegean.gr/maa_j
ournal/Henderson%2010_1.pdf COPYRIGHTED

source: http://www.rhodes.aegean.gr/maa_
journal/Henderson%2010_1.pdf

[2] Glass ingots (inset) from a Bronze
Age shipwreck near Turkey fit Egyptian
molds. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.toutankharton.com/IMG
/jpg/a6260_1449.jpg
4,300 YBN
[2300 BC] 		1271) The earliest written stories.
These consist of epics and myths, hymns
and laments, proverbs and wisdom.

These writings record a belief in Gods,
Goddesses, a Heaven, and an Under
World.

There are clear similarities between
the Sumerian and the later Greek
stories, for example stories about: the
creation of the universe, the birth of
the gods, the hero, the slaying of the
dragon, good and bad deeds of the gods,
fighting between gods, stories of a
flood, plagues as divine punishment,
and the dreary Under World with its
river and ferryman.

The Sumerian Flood myth tells about the
creation of humans, animals and the
first cities, how the Gods send a flood
to destroy humanity, how the God Enki
warns the hero, Ziusudra {ZEUSUDru} to
build a large boat, which Ziusudra then
builds, and survives the flood.

There are many similarities between the
flood story of Ziusudra, and the later
flood stories with a different hero,
for example, the Babylonian
"Atrahasis", and Babylonian
"Utnapishtim" of the Gigamesh epic, and
"Noah" of the Old Testament.

The Sumerians believe in a variety of
Gods and Goddesses. People of other
regions have similar Gods and
Goddesses, but with different names,
for example, the Sumerian Goddess of
love and war, Inanna is analogous to
the Babylonian Ishtar, the Greek
Aphrodite, and the Roman Venus.
Similarly the Sumerian sky-god An {oN},
is analogous to the Babylonian "Anu"
{o-nU}, the Greek "Zeus", and Roman
"Jupiter".
Lagash|Nippur 
[1] Photo of Creation and deluge tablet
- I did verify that this is the
earliest tablet of the earliest written
story with Kramer's Sumerian
Mythology[t] Arno Poebel, ''Historical
and grammatical texts'', vols 1-5,
1914. vol 1:
http://books.google.com/books?id=tg0TAAA
AYAAJ vol 4:
http://books.google.com/books?id=mxwYAAA
AYAAJ vol 5:
http://books.google.com/books?id=_A0TAAA
AYAAJ PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=_A0TAAAAYAAJ

[2] Photo of Creation and deluge
tablet - I did verify that this is the
earliest tablet of the earliest written
story with Kramer's Sumerian
Mythology[t] Arno Poebel, ''Historical
and grammatical texts'', vols 1-5,
1914. vol 1:
http://books.google.com/books?id=tg0TAAA
AYAAJ vol 4:
http://books.google.com/books?id=mxwYAAA
AYAAJ vol 5:
http://books.google.com/books?id=_A0TAAA
AYAAJ PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=_A0TAAAAYAAJ
4,250 YBN
[2250 BC] 		6524) Cotton is grown in the Indus
Valley.
Mohenjo-Daro, Pakistan and Harappan
sites in India 
[1] Description English: Gossypium
herbaceum, Malvaceae, Levant Cotton,
fruits; Botanical Garden KIT,
Karlsruhe, Germany. The fresh, inner
rootbark is used in homeopathy as
remedy: Gossypium herbaceum
(Goss.) Deutsch: Gossypium herbaceum,
Malvaceae, Topfbaumwolle, Früchte;
Botanischer Garten KIT, Karlsruhe,
Deutschland. Die frische, innere
Wurzelrinde wird in der Homöopathie
als Arzneimittel verwendet: Gossypium
herbaceum (Goss.) Dansk: Almindelig
Bomuld (Gossypium herbaceum) af
Katost-familien. Den botaniske have KIT
i Karlsruhe, Tyskland. Den friske,
indvendige rodbark bruges som et
homæopatisk lægemiddel under plantens
botaniske navn, Gossypium herbaceum
(Goss.) Date 12 April 2009 Source
Own work Author H. Zell GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/9c/Gossypium_herbaceum_0
04.JPG

[2] Gossypium herbaceum, also called
Levant cotton, is a species of cotton
native to the semi-arid regions of
sub-Saharan Africa and Arabia where it
still grows in the wild as a perennial
shrub. It was probably first cultivated
in Ethiopia or southern Arabia and from
there, cultivation spread to Persia,
Afghanistan, Turkey, North Africa,
Spain, Ukraine, Turkestan and finally,
to China. It was first cultivated in
China by about 600 AD. UNKNOWN
source: http://images.bidorbuy.co.za/use
r_images/651/390651_090112204118_Gossypi
um_herbaceum6.jpg
4,250 YBN
[2250 BC] 		6526) Sesame is grown in the Indus
Valley.
Harapa in the Indus Valley 
[1] Description Magnified image of
white sesame seeds Date 11 July
2007 Source Own work Author Sanjay
ach GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Sa_white_sesame
_seeds.jpg/1280px-Sa_white_sesame_seeds.
jpg

[2] Description English: Sesamum
indicum in Panchkhal Valley in
Nepal. Date 4 January 2009,
08:40:38 Source Own work Author
Krish Dulal CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Sesamum_indicum
_NP.jpg/1280px-Sesamum_indicum_NP.jpg
4,200 YBN
[2200 BC] 		6446) Egyptian writing becomes
completely phonetic. The first
alphabet.

Egyptian scribes reduce Egyptian
writing to only 26 signs, each
representing only one consonant. This
is the first alphabet, although there
are no vowels and these consonantal
signs are almost always used together
with symbols (such as logograms, or
word signs, including determinatives,
word signs attached to the end of
phonograms, or sound signs, to identify
the precise meaning of the word).

The Egyptian alphabet is the ancestor
of all modern alphabets and may
ultimately replace the writing systems
of all other human languages.

Writing originates in Sumer, but the
modern alphabet descends from the
Egyptian alphabet.
Egypt 
[1] Fischer, S.R. A History of Writing.
Reaktion, 2001. Globalities Series.
p48. COPYRIGHTED
source: Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p48.
4,200 YBN
[2200 BC] 		6539) Citrus trees are grown in China.
China 
[1] Closeup of mandarin tree Photo
taken December 16, 2004 by Allen
Timothy Chang in the Berkeley Botanical
Garden GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/58/Mandarin_tree_closeup
.JPG

[2] Description English: Ambersweet
oranges, a new cold-resistant orange
variety. Français : Oranges de la
variété Ambersweet, une variété
tolérante au froid. Date 22 March
2005 This image was released by the
Agricultural Research Service, the
research agency of the United States
Department of Agriculture, with the ID
k3644-12 (next). PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Ambersweet_oran
ges.jpg/908px-Ambersweet_oranges.jpg
4,130 YBN
[2130 BC] 		6234) The earliest evidence of a horn
used as a musical instrument.
Lagash, Mesopotamia 
[1] [t Note that this is not evidence
of the earliest horn, but is from
around 1250BC or 700 BCE] Hittites:
Musical scene, Carchemish Height:
100 cm, 700 BC. Museum of Anatolian
Civilizations, Ankara Three men are
playing a drum, while on the left a man
is holding a horn-shaped instrument to
his mouth with both hands. PD
source: http://farm1.staticflickr.com/6/
10156251_017f473153_b.jpg
4,100 YBN
[2100 BC] 		1279) The earliest Health science (or
medical) text, found in Nippur.

There are more than 10 remedies listed
on this clay tablet.
Nippur 
[1] Cuneiform medical
recipes Picture from a reproduction
of the original clay tablet dug in
Nippur, Sumer, dated from the III
millennium before Christ, and kept in
the Museum of the University of
Philadelphia (USA). This is
considered to be the earliest medical
recipes manual known. Thew original
picture at 7 Mpixel resolution is
available from the author. CC
source: http://farm4.staticflickr.com/33
27/3524713203_7d0a64d7aa_b.jpg

[2] Figure 2:The oldest medical text
“handbook” Clay Tablet with
pharmacological inscription from Nuppur
late 3rd Millennium B.C. University
museum, University of Pennsylvania,
Philadelphia USA . UNKNOWN
source: http://www.ispub.com/journal/the
-internet-journal-of-health/volume-5-num
ber-1/surgical-medical-and-anesthesia-in
-the-middle-east-notes-on-ancient-and-me
dieval-practice-with-reference-to-islami
c-arabic-medicine.article-g05.fs.jpg
4,100 YBN
[2100 BC] 		6376) The first place value number
system, a sexagesimal (base 60) number
system. Fractional values such as 1/60
and 1/3600 are also in use.

This sexagesimal, base 60, number
system is still in use to measure time
(60 seconds, 60 minutes), and angles
(for example in astronomical and
geographic coordinates).
Babylonia 
[1] Archaic Bookkeeping, Nissen, 1993,
pp145. COPYRIGHTED
source: Archaic Bookkeeping, Nissen,
1993, pp145.

[2] Archaic Bookkeeping, Nissen, 1993,
pp145. COPYRIGHTED
source: Archaic Bookkeeping, Nissen,
1993, pp145.
4,050 YBN
[2050 BC] 		1278) The earliest recorded laws. One
law involves a trial by water, another
describes the return of a slave to
their master.
Ur 
[1] Tablet 3191 20 x 10 cm sun-baked
tablet. Kramer, ''History Begins At
Sumer'', 1956, p53.
source: Kramer, "History Begins At
Sumer", 1956, p53.

[2] [t Note - this doesn't look like
JKramer's image''] The Code of
Ur-Namma, the world's first known
codified list of laws. See the laws of
Ur-Namma.
source: http://sumerianshakespeare.com/m
ediac/450_0/media/fa2c170b2842c984ffff80
05ffffe415.jpg
4,000 YBN
[2000 BC] 		703) Kaolin, soft white clay needed to
make porcelain, is used in China.
China  
4,000 YBN
[2000 BC] 		705) Stonehenge is built.
  
4,000 YBN
[2000 BC] 		706) Humans ride horses. Horses are
raised for milk and for riding in
Kazakhstan.
Kazakhstan 
[1] Tell-tale signs of 'bit damage'
found by researchers in Kazakhstan are
evidence that horses were harnessed and
may have been ridden as early as 5,500
years ago. Researchers found traces of
the use of thong bridles, which are
simply leather thongs draped over the
gap between the teeth of a horse's
lower jaw and knotted under the chin,
with the trailing ends acting as the
reins. This is a depiction of the use
of a rawhide thong bridle on a
primitive domesticated horse. The thong
loops over the bar, or diastema,
between the anterior and cheek teeth,
and is knotted below the
chin. Credit: Illustration by Sandra
Olsen, Carnegie Museum of Natural
History Evidence of thong bridle use
suggests horses may have been ridden as
early as 5,500 years ago. Illustration
by Sandra Olsen, Carnegie Museum of
Natural History PD
source: http://www.nsf.gov/news/mmg/medi
a/images/horse1_f.jpg

[2] Outram, Alan K. et al. “The
Earliest Horse Harnessing and
Milking.” Science 323.5919 (2009):
1332 –1335.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/323/5919/1332.short
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/2547163
9
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/323/5919/1332.short
4,000 YBN
[2000 BC] 		710) The earliest Shaduf, an irrigation
tool.
 
[1] Illustration 1. A shaduf was used
to raise water above the level of the
Nile. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.waterhistory.org/hist
ories/nile/shaduf.jpg

[2] One man and his Shadoof. Kom Ombo,
Egypt. Photo taken by Hajor,
December 2001. Released under cc-by-sa
and/or GFDL. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a2/Egypt.KomOmbo.Shaduf.
01.jpg
4,000 YBN
[2000 BC] 		711) The earliest spoked wheel. Spokes
make the wheel lighter in weight.
 
[1] Fig. 4. Rakhigarhi: Terracotta
wheel. The painted lines radiating from
the central hub and reaching the
circumference clearly represent the
spokes of the wheel. Mature
Harappan. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.sksuman.110mb.com/ind
ex_files/image542.jpg

[2] Fig. 5. Banawali: Terracotta
wheels showing the spokes in low
relief. The specimen on the left
is worn out but the spokes may still
be seen. The specimen on the right,
though broken, shows the spokes very
clearly. Mature Harappan. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.sksuman.110mb.com/ind
ex_files/image620.jpg
4,000 YBN
[2000 BC] 		733) The earliest lock and key; near
Nineveh on the Tigris River.
Nineveh, Assyria on the Tigris
River 
[1] Ancient wooden lock and key from
Khorsabad (Much reduced) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.usgennet.org/usa/topi
c/preservation/science/inventions/chpt8.
htm
4,000 YBN
[2000 BC] 		830) Shaped iron artifacts are made
from meteorites.
Iron beads are worn in Egypt.
Egpyt (and near East)  
4,000 YBN
[2000 BC] 		1283) The earliest library catalog, a
clay tablet from the tablet house in
Nippur; on the Euphrates River.
Nippur an ancient city of Babylonia on
the Euphrates River southeast of
Babylon  
[1] PLATE II OLDEST LITERARY
CATALOGUE This plate illustrates a
literary catalogue compiled in
approximately 2000 B. C. (clay tablet
29.15.155 in the Nippur collection of
the University Museum). The upper part
represents the tablet itself; the lower
part, the author's hand copy of the
tablet. The titles of those
compositions whose actual contents we
can now reconstruct in large part are
as follows: 1. Hymn of King Shulgi
(approximately 2100 B. C.). 2. Hymn of
King Lipit-Ishtar (approximately 1950
B. C.). 3. Myth, ''The Creation of the
Pickax'' (see p. 51). 4. Hymn to
Inanna, queen of heaven. 5. Hymn to
Enlil, the air-god. 6. Hymn to the
temple of the mother-goddess Ninhursag
in the city of Kesh. 7. Epic tale,
''Gilgamesh, Enkidu, and the Nether
World'' (see p. 30). 8. Epic tale,
''Inanna and Ebih'' (see p. 82). 9.
Epic tale, ''Gilgamesh and
Huwawa.'' 10. Epic tale, ''Gilgamesh
and Agga.'' 11. Myth, ''Cattle and
Grain'' (see p. 53). 12. Lamentation
over the fall of Agade in the time of
Naram-Sin (approximately 2400 B.
C.). 13. Lamentation over the
destruction of Ur. This composition,
consisting of 436 lines, has been
almost completely reconstructed and
published by the author as
Assyriological Study No. 12 of the
Oriental Institute of the University of
Chicago. 14. Lamentation over the
destruction of Nippur. 15. Lamentation
over the destruction of Sumer. 16.
Epic tale, ''Lugalbanda and
Enmerkar.'' 17. Myth, ''Inanna's
Descent to the Nether World'' (see p.
83). 18. Perhaps a hymn to
Inanna. 19. Collection of short hymns
to all the important temples of
Sumer. 20. Wisdom compositions
describing the activities of a boy
training to be a scribe. 21. Wisdom
composition, ''Instructions of a
Peasant to His Son.'' 16 PD
source: http://www.sacred-texts.com/ane/
sum/img/pl02.jpg
4,000 YBN
[2000 BC] 		6236) Metal is traded as money; in
Babylonia.
Babylonia 
[1] Copper ingot from Zakros,
Crete Photo by Chris 73 GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/02/Copper_Ingot_Crete.jp
g
4,000 YBN
[2000 BC] 		6514) Faba Beans are grown in the
Mediterranean Basin and central Europe.
Jericho (modern Palestine),
Mediterranean basic and central
Europe 
[1] Description English: Vica faba
or broad beans, known in the US as fava
beans. Date 12 October 2011 Source

Tuinboon_zaden_in_peul.jpg Author
Tuinboon_zaden_in_peul.jpg:
User:Rasbak derivative work: Hohum
at en.wikipedia GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/74/Fava_beans_1.jpg

[2] Description English: Vicia
faba, the broad bean, fava bean, faba
bean, horse bean, field bean, tic bean
is a species of bean (Fabaceae) native
to north Africa and southwest Asia, and
extensively cultivated elsewhere.
Although usually classified in the same
genus Vicia as the vetches, some
botanists treat it in a separate
monotypic genus as Faba sativa
Moench. Date 31 May 2008 Source Own
work Author Lamiot GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Vicia_fabaF%C3%
A8veL%C3%A9gumineuse%2C.jpg/1280px-Vicia
_fabaF%C3%A8veL%C3%A9gumineuse%2C.jpg
4,000 YBN
[2000 BC] 		6532) Apple trees are grown. Fruit
trees such as apple, pear, plum, and
sweet cherry depend on grafting. A
grafted branch gives fruit true to
type, but seedlings tend to revert to
the wild state or produce fruit of poor
quality.
Central Europe or (genetic evidence)
Tian Shan Mountains, Central Asia 
[1] Description English: Apple Tree.
What County Armagh is famous for -
fully laden apple trees ready for
harvesting! Date 14 September
2007 Source From
geograph.org.uk Author P
Flannagan CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f3/Apple_Tree._-_geograp
h.org.uk_-_556176.jpg
4,000 YBN
[2000 BC] 		6538) Peach trees are grown in China.
China 
[1] Description English: Autumn Red
peach. Français : Pêches Español:
Durazno cortado por la mitad Date
August 1997 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Autumn_Red_peac
hes.jpg/1280px-Autumn_Red_peaches.jpg

[2] English: Nectarine (Prunus
persica) fruit development over a 7½
month period, from early winter to
midsummer; East Gippsland, Victoria,
Australia. Bud formation can be
observed on new growth on the plant
(early winter) (individual image)
Flower buds clearly formed and leaves
start to develop (early spring, ≈ 3
months) (individual image).
Flowers fully develop and are
pollinated by wind or insects (early
spring, ≈ 3½ months) (individual
image). If successfully
pollinated, flowers die back and
incipient fruit can be observed; leaves
have quickly grown to provide tree with
food and energy from photosynthesis
(mid-spring, ≈ 4 months) (individual
image). Fruit is well developed
and continues to grow (late spring, ≈
5½ months) (individual image).
Fruit fully ripens to an edible form to
encourage spreading of seed contained
within by animals (midsummer, ≈ 7½
months) (individual image). Date
Early winter to midsummer,
2007/2008 Source Own work Author
jjron Permission (Reusing this file)
Taken by John O'Neill GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Nectarine_Fruit
_Development.jpg/1007px-Nectarine_Fruit_
Development.jpg
4,000 YBN
[2000 BC] 		6542) The vegetables leek, garlic and
onion are grown around the fertile
crescent.
Mesopotamia 
[1] Description English: Leek field
in Italy Date 19 January 2008,
10:07 Source Flickr: Porri, Lauch,
Leek Author Peter Forster CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Leek_field_in_I
taly_3.jpg/640px-Leek_field_in_Italy_3.j
pg
3,842 YBN
[1842 BC] 		712) The proto-Sinaitic {SInEiTiK}
alphabet evolves from the Egyptian
(hieroglyphic) alphabet.
(Caanan modern:) Palestine|(turquoise
mines ) Serabit el-Khadem, Sinai
Peninsula 
[1] Combination of 3 images: [1] Erich
Lessing THE RIDDLE OF THE SPHINX. This
10-inch-long sphinx fashioned from
sandstone proved to be the key to
deciphering the Proto-Sinaitic script.
It was discovered by Petrie amid the
ruins of Serabit’s Hathor temple and
includes dedicatory inscriptions on
both sides of the base (underlined in
yellow in the photo above) and on the
right shoulder. Both inscriptions on
the base are written in the
Proto-Sinaitic alphabetic script. The
inscription on the right shoulder is
written in Egyptian hieroglyphs, The
hieroglyphic text identifies the name
of the goddess to whom the sphinx is
dedicated as Hathor, “the mistress of
turquoise.” The famous Egyptologist
Alan Gardiner observed that each of the
signs in the Proto-Sinaitic texts
represented not an entire word, as in
hieroglyphic, but only its initial
sound. Four of these strange signs
(written left-to-right) spelled the
name Baalat, a Canaanite word also
meaning “the Mistress.” Thus was
Gardiner able to translate Baalat, the
first word deciphered in alphabetic
script. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.basarchive.org/bswb_g
raphics/BSBA/36/02/BSBA360204220L.jpg

[2] Erich Lessing THE RIDDLE OF THE
SPHINX. This 10-inch-long sphinx
fashioned from sandstone proved to be
the key to deciphering the
Proto-Sinaitic script. It was
discovered by Petrie amid the ruins of
Serabit’s Hathor temple and includes
dedicatory inscriptions on both sides
of the base (underlined in yellow in
the photo above) and on the right
shoulder. Both inscriptions on the base
are written in the Proto-Sinaitic
alphabetic script. The inscription on
the right shoulder is written in
Egyptian hieroglyphs, The hieroglyphic
text identifies the name of the goddess
to whom the sphinx is dedicated as
Hathor, “the mistress of
turquoise.” The famous Egyptologist
Alan Gardiner observed that each of the
signs in the Proto-Sinaitic texts
represented not an entire word, as in
hieroglyphic, but only its initial
sound. Four of these strange signs
(written left-to-right) spelled the
name Baalat, a Canaanite word also
meaning “the Mistress.” Thus was
Gardiner able to translate Baalat, the
first word deciphered in alphabetic
script. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.basarchive.org/bswb_g
raphics/BSBA/36/02/BSBA360204220L.jpg
3,700 YBN
[1700 BC] 		1181) The earliest brass (a copper and
zinc alloy); in Iran.
Tepe Yahya (modern Iran)|Asia
Minor 
[1] Thornton, Christopher P. et al.
“On Pins and Needles: Tracing the
Evolution of Copper-base Alloying at
Tepe Yahya, Iran, via ICP-MS Analysis
of Common-place Items.” Journal of
Archaeological Science 29.12 (2002):
1451–1460. http://www.sciencedirect.c
om/science/article/pii/S0305440302908095
{Thornton_Brass_2002CE.pdf} PD
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence/article/pii/S0305440302908095
3,700 YBN
[1700 BC] 		1280) The earliest agricultural science
text.

The text include instructions for how
far apart to space barley seeds, and
when to water and harvest the plants.
Nippur 
[1] Samual Kramer, ''History Begins at
Sumer'', (Garden City, NY: Doubleday
Anchor Books, 1959), 3rd edition, 1981,
p66. copyrighted
source: Samual Kramer, "History Begins
at Sumer", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday
Anchor Books, 1959), 3rd edition, 1981,
p66.
3,650 YBN
[1650 BC] 		716) The earliest mathematical text,
the he "Rhind Mathematical Papyrus".
Egypt 
[1] Description Rhind Mathematical
Papyrus Thebes, End of the Second
Intermediate Period (c.1550
BC) Acquired by the Scottish lawyer
A.H. Rhind during his sojourn in Thebes
in the 1850s. Overall length 319 cm,
width: 34.3 cm Frame length: 216 cm,
width: 43 cm British Museum EA
10057 Department of Ancient Egypt and
Sudan Date 21 May 2006 Source
http://www.archaeowiki.org/Image:Rhind_
Mathematical_Papyrus.jpg Author Paul
James Cowie (Pjamescowie)
source: http://kak.ru/vimg/article/f304a
d8044c45bfa5b9a21fd400ae5b2.gif

[2] Rhind Mathematical Papyrus
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.bbc.co.uk/ahistoryoft
heworld/images/emp/00017_02.jpg
3,600 YBN
[1600 BC] 		6460) The "Pythagorean Theorem" is
known in Babylonia: that the sum of the
squares of the two legs of a right
triangle is equal to the square of the
hypotenuse. This also shows a knowledge
of the square root of the number 2
which is an irrational number (cannot
be represented as the ratio of two
whole numbers).
Babylonia 
[1] YBC 7289 (obverse). Image by West
Semitic Research. All rights reserved.
AND YBC 7289 (reverse). Image by
West Semitic Research. All rights
reserved. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://isaw.nyu.edu/exhibitions/
before-pythagoras/items/ybc-7289/images/
YBC7289obv.png AND
http://isaw.nyu.edu/exhibitions/before
-pythagoras/items/ybc-7289/images/YBC728
9rev.png

[2] Summary A black and white
rendition of my own photograph of the
Yale Babylonian Collection's Tablet YBC
7289 (c. 1800–1600 BCE), showing a
Babylonian approximation to the square
root of 2 in the context of Pythagoras'
Theorem for an isosceles
triangle. All use should attribute
both me (mentioning
http://www.math.ubc.ca/~cass/Euclid/ybc/
ybc.html) and the Yale Babylonian
Collection as the original holder of
the tablet. Author: Bill Casselman
(mailto:cass@math.ubc.ca) GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0b/Ybc7289-bw.jpg
3,531 YBN
[1531 BC] 		639) The first planet, Venus, is
recognized in Babylon.

The Venus Tablet records astronomical
observations when Venus is on the
horizon on a new Moon for 21 years.
Babylon 
[1] Description English: Venus Tablet
of Ammisaduqa. Neo-Assyrian
period. Date 15 July 2010 Current
location [show]British
Museum Source/Photographer Fæ (Own
work) Permission (Reusing this
file) See below. British Museum
reference K.160 Detailed
description Upper part of a clay
tablet, 3 pieces, beginning of obverse
and the end of reverse are wanting,
astrological forecasts, a copy of the
so-called Venus Tablet of Ammisaduqa,
Neo-Assyrian. ~ Description extract
from BM record. Size Length: 17.14 cm
(6.75 in) Width: 9.2 cm (3.6 in)
Thickness: 2.22 cm (0.87
in) Location Room 55 CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/bb/Venus_Tablet_of_Ammis
aduqa.jpg
3,500 YBN
[1500 BC] 		624) The earliest oven-baked mud brick
(also called "burned brick").

A burned brick is a mud brick that been
baked in an oven (kiln) which improves
its resistance to moisture.
Ur, Mesopotamia (modern Iraq) 
[1] [t Note that this is not the oldest
baked brick as far as I
know] Description العربية:
أنقاض مدينة أور
الأثرية في محافظة ذي
قار جنوب العراق English:
Ruins in the Town of Ur, Southern
Iraq Español: Ruinas de la ciuad de
Ur con el Zigurat de Ur-Nammu al fondo
a las afueras de Nasiriyah. Date 20
June 2006 Source Flickr Author
M.Lubinski from Iraq,USA. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Ur-Nassiriyah.j
pg/1280px-Ur-Nassiriyah.jpg
3,500 YBN
[1500 BC] 		723) The earliest pulley.

A pulley is a wheel that has a grooved
rim for carrying a rope. One or more
pulleys can be used to gain mechanical
advantage, especially for lifting
weights.
Nimroud, Assyria 
[1] Part of a Bas-relief showing a
Pulley, and a Warrior originally in
the most ancient palace of Nimroud. PD

source: http://www.ctesiphon.com/auction
s/Nineve-Remains-NY-1854-s-g.jpg

[2] Description Ilustración de una
polea simple fija. Date 7 agugust
2004 Source Own work Author César
Rincón GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a3/Polea-simple-fija.jpg

3,500 YBN
[1500 BC] 		1516) The "Vedas", four ancient Indian
collections of poems or hymns,
originate as an oral tradition before
being written down 1200 years later
around 300 bce.
India 
[1] Geographic horizon of the Rigveda,
with river names. Also indicated are
the extent of the contemporary Swat and
Cemetary H cultures, and the location
of Harappa. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d5/Rigvedic_geography.jp
g
3,500 YBN
[1500 BC] 		6228) The water clock (or Clepsydra
{KlePSi-Dru}).
Egypt 
[1] clepsydra Egyptian clepsydra An
Egyptian clepsydra Also known as a
water clock, an instrument in which the
discharge of water from a storage tank
is monitored in order to measure the
passing of time. Clepsydras were used
from ancient times until the
Renaissance. ''Clepsydra'' is Greek for
''water thief.'' UNKNOWN
source: http://www.daviddarling.info/ima
ges/Egyptian_clepsydra.jpg

[2] The Karnak clepsydra In 1904,
archaeological excavations within the
ancient temple complex of Karnak in
Egypt led to the recovery of fragments
of a large conical vessel. The presence
of an outlet near the base, plus
calibration scales on the interior
walls, showed the object to be a
classic example of an outflow
clepsydra. Figure 6: A full-size
reconstruction of the Karnak clepsydraA
full-size reconstruction (Fig. 6) may
be seen in the New Walk Museum, and
illustrates how it could act as a
timekeeper independent of the Sun. The
vessel is filled with water to a mark
near the rim, and then allowed to empty
via a narrow jet near the base. With a
cylindrical container the rate of flow
diminishes as the head of water within
the pot decreases, so the water surface
drops more slowly with time. The
ancient Egyptian designer (Amenhemhet,
about 1550 B.C.) has cleverly
compensated for this by employing a
conical vessel, and trials conducted
during the construction of this exhibit
have shown that the chosen angle gives
rise to an excellent approximation to a
linear descent of the water
surface. The hieroglyphics covering
the outside of the vessel (delineated
by Dr. Sarah Symons) do not explain how
the water clock was to be used: they
are simply traditional decorations in
praise of the gods. More information is
given alongside the exhibit. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.sundials.co.uk/leices
ter/fig06.jpg
3,500 YBN
[1500 BC] 		6456) The earliest American city, an
Olmec city in Veracruz, Mexico.
(El Manati shrine, near modern) San
Lorenzo, Veracruz, Mexico 
[1] Edited CabezaColosal1
MuseoXalapa.jpg file already in Commons
by adding a white line to visually
separate the two photos/views. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/20/CabezaColosal1_MuseoX
alapa_v1.1.jpg
3,500 YBN
[1500 BC] 		6541) Walnut trees are grown in
south-west Asia.
south-west Asia 
[1] Description Deutsch: Die Echte
Walnuss (Juglans regia) ist ein
sommergrüner Laubbaum aus der Familie
der Walnussgewächse
(Juglandaceae). English: Juglans regia
(the Common walnut or Persian walnut),
is the original walnut tree of the Old
World. Date 20 September 2008 Source
Own work Author Böhringer
Friedrich CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Juglans_regia_E
chte_Walnu%C3%9Ffrucht_2.JPG/1280px-Jugl
ans_regia_Echte_Walnu%C3%9Ffrucht_2.JPG

[2] Description English: Two
Juglans regia walnuts. Deutsch: Zwei
Juglans regia Walnüsse Date 30
December 2006 Source Own work Author
User:AndonicO GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/English_Walnuts
.jpg/1280px-English_Walnuts.jpg
3,450 YBN
[1450 BC] 		6449) The first letters that represent
vowel sounds. The alphabet of Ugarit
{UGerET} in Syria includes three
letters for the sounds /o/, /E/, and
/U/.
Ugarit (modern Ra's Shamra on Syria's
north coast) 
[1] 14th century
BC provenance Ugarit area Syria per
iod 2000-1000 BC size 1.3 cm x 5.1
cm materials Clay
. themes Commerce. Communication.
Daily Life. and alphabet UNKNOWN
source: http://www.unesco.org/culture/mu
seum-for-dialogue/images/items/650/021.j
pg AND
http://www.websters-online-dictionary.
org/images/wiki/wikipedia/commons/c/c5/U
garitic_alphabet.png

[2] Ugarit tablet datation 14th
century
BC provenance Ugarit area Syria per
iod 2000-1000 BC size 1.3 cm x 5.1
cm materials Clay
. themes Commerce. Communication.
Daily Life. and alphabet UNKNOWN
source: http://www.unesco.org/culture/mu
seum-for-dialogue/images/items/650/021.j
pg
AND http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiped
ia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Ugaritic-alphabet-
chart.svg/1000px-Ugaritic-alphabet-chart
.svg.png http://www.oocities.org/encycl
opedia_damascena/ancientsyria/images/mus
013.jpg
3,400 YBN
[1400 BC] 		6454) The earliest Chinese writing.
Chinese is the oldest of all East Asian
writing, emerging in nearly fully
developed form around 1400 BC. Some
scholars think that Chinese writing
developed natively, but others think
Chinese writing borrowed from
Mesopotamian writing.
near Anyang, north-central China 
[1] Fischer, S.R. A History of Writing.
Reaktion, 2001. Globalities Series.
p171. COPYRIGHTED
source: Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p171.

[2] Description English: Ox scapula
with a divination inscription from the
Shang Dynasty, dating to the reign of
King Wu Ding. Unearthed at Anyang,
Henan Province. Held at the National
Museum of China in Beijing. Date 2
August 2011 Source Own work Author
BabelStone CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Shang_dynasty_i
nscribed_scapula.jpg/684px-Shang_dynasty
_inscribed_scapula.jpg
3,350 YBN
[1350 BC] 		6559) The earliest evidence of human
kissing.
 
[1] Descripció A ''house altar''
depicting Akhenaten, Nefertiti and
three of their Daughters. New Kingdom,
Amarna period, 18th dynasty. Image
taken at the Altes Museum,
Berlin. Data 8 novembre 2006 Origen
Own Work (photo) Autor Keith
Schengili-Roberts Permís (Com
reutilitzar aquest fitxer) I, the
author of this photo, hereby release it
under copyleft/GFDL/CC Altres versions
another photograph of this object:
Image:House_Altar_Akhenaten_Nefertiti_Be
rlin.jpg GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/b/be/HouseAltar-Akhe
natenNefertitiAndThreeOfTheirDaughters.p
ng/1280px-HouseAltar-AkhenatenNefertitiA
ndThreeOfTheirDaughters.png
3,350 YBN
[1350 BC] 		6561) Welding of iron using heat and
hammering; in Egypt. "Hot pressure
welding" (also known as "forge
welding"), is done by hammering with
the addition of heat.
Egypt 
[1] Items from inside King
Tutankhamen's tomb UNKNOWN
source: http://castle.pri.ee/wp-content/
uploads/2010/08/210403_3.jpg
3,348 YBN
[1348 BC] 		2727) Monotheism, the theory that only
one God exists.

Amenhotep IV (also Akhenaton), the
Pharaoh of Egypt, introduces the
concept of monotheism.

All monotheistic religions (including
Zoroastrianism, Judaism, Christianity,
and Islam) may originate from the
influence of Amenhotep's monotheistic
religion based on the Sun God "Aton".
Amarna, Egypt 
[1] Antiquit� �gyptienne,
Akh�naton, Mus�e
�gyptien du Caire, (�gypte).
Statue of Akhenaten depicted in a
style typical of the Amarna period, on
display at the Museum of Egyptian
Antiquities, Cairo Reign 1353 BC
� 1336 BC[2] or 1352 BC �
1336 BC[3] or 1351�1334 BC[4] CC

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:GD-EG-Caire-Mus%C3%A9e061.JPG

[2] English: Amun and Mut Nederlands:
Amon en
Mut Source http://runeberg.org/nfba/04
95.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Amon_och_Mut%2C_Nordisk_familjebok.pn
g
3,300 YBN
[1300 BC] 		736) Two piece mold metal casting.
Mesopotamia 
[1] Half of a two-piece limestone mould
for casting a flat-bladed tool,
1650-1050 BC
(1899,1229.91). COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.britishmuseum.org/col
lectionimages/AN00854/AN00854035_001_l.j
pg
3,300 YBN
[1300 BC] 		5862) The earliest written musical
notation and musical composition; on
clay tablets from Ur in Babylonia.
Ur, Babylonia|Mesopotamia 
[1] Tablet U.3011 (handcopy of O. R.
Gurney, 1974) Volume 32 of the Old
Babylonian Encyclopaedia Nabnitu
(Creature) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.kingmixers.com/images
/tablet.jpg
3,200 YBN
[1200 BC] 		3134) Lac (also called shellac) is used
as plastic in India. Lac is a natural
thermoplastic (liquid when heated and
solid at room temperature) made from
resin secreted by an insect.
India|(from India to Spain and the
South of France) 
[1] Blond shellac sample PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e5/Schellak.jpg

[2] English: Picture of Kerria lacca
from book Indian Insect Life: a Manual
of the Insects of the Plains by Harold
Maxwell-Lefroy. 1. Healthy
insects on stick 2. Unhealthy
insects on stick 3. First instar,
active stage. 40x 4. Female, 4
weeks after inoculation. 35x. 5.
Female, 13 weeks after inoculation.
15x. 6. Dead female cell, with
young emerging. 4x. 7. Male cell,
13 weeks after inoculation. 15x.
8. Wingless male. 12x. 9. Wingled
male. 40x. Date 1909 Source
http://www.flickr.com/photos/biodivlibr
ary/6280048728/in/set-72157627975114672
Author Harold Maxwell-Lefroy CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/4/47/02-Indian-Insec
t-Life_-_Harold_Maxwell-Lefroy_-_Kerria-
Lacca.jpg/611px-02-Indian-Insect-Life_-_
Harold_Maxwell-Lefroy_-_Kerria-Lacca.jpg

3,150 YBN
[1150 BC] 		6447) The Phoenician alphabet.
Phoenician people convert the pictorial
alphabet of their Canaanite ancestors
into a streamlined non-pictorial
alphabet of 22 consonant letters, from
which the Greek and Latin alphabets
descend.
(coastal centers) Byblos, Tyre, Sidon,
Beurut, and Ashkelon 
[1] Fischer, S.R. A History of Writing.
Reaktion, 2001. Globalities Series.
p48. COPYRIGHTED
source: Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p48.

[2] Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p54. COPYRIGHTED
source: Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p54.
3,000 YBN
[1000 BC] 		746) Complex pulleys. The lifting power
of a pulley is multiplied by the number
of ropes pulling the load.
 
[1] Diagram 3a: A simple compound
pulley system—a movable pulley and a
fixed pulley lifting weight W, with an
additional pulley redirecting the
lifting force downward. The tension in
each line is W/3, yielding an advantage
of 3. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Pulley2a.svg/10
00px-Pulley2a.svg.png

[2] Publishing, DK. Science: The
Definitive Visual Guide. DK Publishing,
2009, p41. COPYRIGHTED
source: Publishing, DK. Science: The
Definitive Visual Guide. DK Publishing,
2009, p41.
3,000 YBN
[1000 BC] 		1048) The tea plant is grown and made
into the classic tea drink in China.
  
3,000 YBN
[1000 BC] 		6237) The earliest lens; a plano-convex
lens (one side is plane and the other
convex) made from rock-crystal found in
Nimrud; a magnifying and burning glass.
Nimrud, Mesopotamia (modern Iraq) 
[1] Description English: Photo of
the Nimrud lens in the british
museum Date feb 2011 Source
Photo by user:geni Author
Geni CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/65/Nimrud_lens_British_M
useum.jpg
3,000 YBN
[1000 BC] 		6448) The Aramaic alphabet, the
ancestor of Hebrew, Arabic, and
probably the hundreds of alphabets of
the Indian subcontinent. Aramaic uses
consonant letters to mark vowel sounds
which makes the correct pronunciation
of words clearer.
 
[1] Summary Pergamonmuseum,
Eck-Orthostat des Fürsten Kilamuwa,
Samal (heute Zincirli, Türkei), selbst
fotografiert. Memorial stone of
Kilamuwa King of Sam'al (Zincirli), c.
850 B.C., written in aramean. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Pergamonmuseum_
-_Vorderasiatisches_Museum_046.JPG/768px
-Pergamonmuseum_-_Vorderasiatisches_Muse
um_046.JPG

[2] Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p54. COPYRIGHTED
source: Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p54.
3,000 YBN
[1000 BC] 		6450) The earliest Hebrew writing.
Khirbet Qeiyafa near the Elah valley,
Israel 
[1] Fischer, S.R. A History of Writing.
Reaktion, 2001. Globalities Series.
p96. COPYRIGHTED
source: Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p96.

[2] The deciphered text: Hebrew
transliteration: English
translation: {.......................
.....................................}
1′ you shall not do {it}, but worship
the {Lord}. 2′ Judge the sla{ve} and
the wid{ow} / Judge the orph{an} 3′
{and} the stranger. {Pl}ead for the
infant / plead for the po{or and} 4′
the widow. Rehabilitate {the poor} at
the hands of the king. 5′ Protect
the po{or and} the slave / {supp}ort
the stranger. UNKNOWN
source: http://wordpress.haifa.ac.il/wp-
content/uploads/2010/01/d797d7a8d7a1-2.j
pg
3,000 YBN
[1000 BC] 		6510) Oat is grown; in the Czech
Republic.
Czech Republic 
[1] Oat plants with inflorescences I,
the copyright holder of this work,
hereby publish it under the following
license: w:en:Creative
Commons attribution share alike This
file is licensed under the Creative
Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0
Unported, 2.5 Generic, 2.0 Generic and
1.0 Generic license. You are
free: to share – to copy,
distribute and transmit the work
to remix – to adapt the work
Under the following conditions:
attribution – You must attribute
the work in the manner specified by the
author or licensor (but not in any way
that suggests that they endorse you or
your use of the work). share
alike – If you alter, transform, or
build upon this work, you may
distribute the resulting work only
under the same or similar license to
this one. Attribution: I want my
name ''Henrik Sendelbach'' near the
photo or on a page associated to the
image, like this one. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f7/Avena_sativa_L.jpg

[2] Oat grains in their husks Picture
taken by myself: (nl:Haverkorrels)
Avena sativa; GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/57/Haverkorrels_Avena_sa
tiva.jpg
3,000 YBN
[1000 BC] 		6537) Apricot trees are grown in China.
China 
[1] Apricot and its cross section
isolated on a white background. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Apricot_and_cro
ss_section.jpg/1024px-Apricot_and_cross_
section.jpg

[2] Apricot fruits GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f9/Apricots.jpg
2,922 YBN
[922 BC] 		753) The monotheistic religion: Judaism
is founded. The story of Moses is
created around this time.
Israel 
[1] Oldest Hebrew Writing Found in the
Elah Fortress 18 miles west of
Jerusalem,, Deciphered January 7,
2010 Image source: University of
Haifa UNKNOWN
source: http://www.redorbit.com/media/up
loads/2010/01/b67acf4eda9e77d153ebac3bf1
99744b1.jpg

[2] Oldest Hebrew Writing Found in the
Elah Fortress 18 miles west of
Jerusalem, Deciphered January 7,
2010 Image source: University of
Haifa UNKNOWN
source: http://www.redorbit.com/media/up
loads/2010/01/1b8fb494e2a99c79e89b2e72e5
41f7e61.jpg
2,900 YBN
[900 BC] 		6605) The first steel; in Egypt. Steel
is an alloy of iron and carbon with
carbon content up to 2 percent.
Egypt  
2,850 YBN
[850 BC] 		751) The Greek alphabet. The Greek
alphabet is developed from the
Phoenician alphabet. Unlike the
Phoenicians, the Greeks give each vowel
its own sign, like a consonant and so
speech is more accurately represented.
Greece 
[1] National Archaeological Museum of
Greece Discovered in 1871 near
Athens’s Dipylon Gate, this jug,
dating to around 740 B.C., bears one of
the earliest Greek alphabetic
inscriptions: “Whoever of all the
dancers now dances most friskily.”
The vase was probably awarded to the
winner of a dance competition, like the
one described by Homer in Book VIII of
the Odyssey. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.basarchive.org/bswb_g
raphics/BSAO/01/01/BSAO010104800L.jpg

[2] Description English: One of the
four oldest known samples of the use of
the Greek alphabet. It has been dated
to ca. 740 BCE. ...(h)ος νῦν
ὀρχεστôν πάντον
ἀταλό(τατα)... Date 20
March 2010 Source Durutomo Author
Durutomo The text of the
inscription runs:
ΗΟΣΝΥΝΟΡΧΕΣΤΟΝΠΑΝΤΟΝ
ΑΤΑΛΟΤΑΤΑΠΑΙΖΕΙΤΟΤΟΔ
ΕΚΛΜΙΝ In modern scholarly
editions this is transcribed as:
hος νῦν ὀρχεστôν
πάντον ἀταλότατα
παίζει, τô τόδε
κλ[.]μιν[...] This corresponds
to the following in the later classical
orthography in Greek (using the Ionian
form of the Greek alphabet), with the
metric feet of the hexameter
indicated: ὃς νῦν
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Dipylon_Inscrip
tion.JPG/1280px-Dipylon_Inscription.JPG
2,800 YBN
[800 BC] 		1062) A padded cloth is used as a
saddle in Assyria.
Assyria 
[1] The sculptures on the West side of
the Gallery are all of the time of
Sennacherib and illustrate his
conquests Most of those on the East
side are also of this king referring
for the most part to his architectural
works His son Esarhaddon who reigned
from BC 681 to BC 668 is only
represented by one monument a cast from
a bas relief at the mouth of the Nahr
el Kelb Biver Six slabs on the East
side of the Gallery of a hard
fossiliferous limestone were sculptured
under Assur bani apli or Assur banipal
and represent the victories of that
king over the Elamites or inhabitants
of Susiana Six Table cases in the
middle of the room contain small
objects found in the various
excavations These are a selection of
the most valuable and interesting of
the terra cotta tablets the cylinder
seals many of which are from Babylonia
and a collection of objects in bronze
and iron In the middle of the room are
also two obelisks one of Assur nasir
apli or Assurnazirpal and the other
broken supposed to be of the reign of
Tiglath pileser I British Museum.
Dept. of Egyptian and Assyrian
Antiquities. Assyrian Antiquities:
Guide to the Kouyunjik Gallery. W.
Clowes and Sons,
1883. http://books.google.com/books?hl=
en&lr=&id=pZZRW0qg1D4C&oi=fnd&pg=PA76
source: http://books.google.com/books?hl
=en&lr=&id=pZZRW0qg1D4C&oi=fnd&pg=PA76
2,800 YBN
[800 BC] 		6452) The Indian alphabets of India and
South-East Asia. The Indian alphabets
all descend from a Semitic alphabet,
probably Aramaic. There are hundreds of
past and present alphabets of the
Indian subcontinent and their numerous
Asian and Pacific descendent scripts.
Writing does not occur on the Indian
subcontinent until around the eighth
century BC. By this time Indus Valley
writing had been extinct for a thousand
years, having left no descendants.
India 
[1] Fischer, S.R. A History of Writing.
Reaktion, 2001. Globalities Series.
p107. COPYRIGHTED
source: Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p107.

[2] Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p109. COPYRIGHTED
source: Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p109.
2,785 YBN
[785 BC] 		771) Eclipses are predicted by
Babylonian astronomers.
 
[1] by Ted Huntington PD
source: my own based on info from
http://www.britannica.com/eb/art-3466?ar
ticleTypeId=1 and
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/fac
tsheet/sunfact.html
2,753 YBN
[753 BC] 		6457) Rome is founded.
Rome, Italy  
2,731 YBN
[731 BC] 		6299) Lunar eclipses are recorded in
Babylon.
Babylon  
2,690 YBN
[690 BC] 		1066) The earliest aqueduct, a pipe or
channel to move water from one place to
another, Sennacherib's Aqueduct at
Jerwan near Nineveh.
Jerwan, Nineveh 
[1] Thorkild Jacobsen and Seton Lloyd,
Sennacherib's Aqueduct at Jerwan,
Oriental Institute Publication 24,
University of Chicago Press,
1935 http://oi.uchicago.edu/pdf/oip24.p
df UNKNOWN
source: http://oi.uchicago.edu/pdf/oip24
.pdf

[2] Ruined corbelled arch of an
aqueduct, Jerwan, Iraq, 1977. Credit:
Spectrum Colour Library /
Heritage-Images Additional
information Ruined corbelled arch of
an aqueduct, Jerwan, Iraq, 1977. Built
in around 700 BC by the Assyrian King
Sennacherib to supply water to his
capital city, Nineveh, this is thought
to be the oldest aqueduct in the
world. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://watermarked.heritage-imag
es.com/2332294.jpg
2,690 YBN
[690 BC] 		6378) The earliest concrete.
Sennacherib's Aqueduct contains
magnesium-oxide lime cement with
limestone and sand concrete.
Jerwan, Nineveh 
[1] Plate 14 image B from: Thorkild
Jacobsen and Seton Lloyd, Sennacherib's
Aqueduct at Jerwan, Oriental Institute
Publication 24, University of Chicago
Press,
1935 http://oi.uchicago.edu/pdf/oip24.p
df UNKNOWN
source: http://oi.uchicago.edu/pdf/oip24
.pdf

[2] Thorkild Jacobsen and Seton Lloyd,
Sennacherib's Aqueduct at Jerwan,
Oriental Institute Publication 24,
University of Chicago Press,
1935 http://oi.uchicago.edu/pdf/oip24.p
df UNKNOWN
source: http://oi.uchicago.edu/pdf/oip24
.pdf
2,660 YBN
[660 BC] 		644) The Demotic script replaces
hieratic in Egypt.
  
2,651 YBN
[651 BC] 		6337) All planets visible to the naked
eye (Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and
Saturn) are clearly distinguished from
stars in Babylonia. The position of
these five planets compared to the
stars is found in a series of baked
clay tablet astronomical "diaries".
Babylonia 
[1] A. Sachs, ''Babylonian
Observational Astronomy'',
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London. Series A,
Mathematical and Physical Sciences ,
Vol. 276, No. 1257, The Place of
Astronomy in the Ancient World (May 2,
1974), pp.
43-50 http://www.jstor.org/stable/74273
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/7427
3
2,651 YBN
[651 BC] 		6463) Babylonian astronomers measure
planetary positions in cubits and
fingers (similar to degrees and
minutes) of arc relative to certain
stars.
Babylonia 
[1] The account of the astronomic
events found in the BM 32312 chronicle,
permits its dating in 652 b.C. The
king's name an year of reign are
erased, but may be attained by an
historic incident mentioned in this
chronicle, dating the participation of
the Babylonian king in the battle of
Hiritu, on the 27th day of the 12th
month. This battle is also mentioned in
the Akitu Chronicle (BM 86739) written
by a scribe intended to record the
interruptions of Akitu's celebrations.
His registration says: ''On the
16th year (of the kingdom) of
Shamash-shuma-ukin, from the month of
Ayyar to the month of Tebet, the butler
puts up a selection in Akkad. On the
19th day of the month of Tebet, Asiria
and Akkad got into a war. Avoiding the
enemy, the king turned back to Babylon.
On the 27th day of month of Addar, the
Assyrian army and the Akkadian army
fought a battle in Hiritu. The Akkadian
army broke the battle and suffered a
smashing defeat. The state of war
persisted; the battles came one after
another. Mesopotamian Chronicles; nº
20, J.J.Glassner. The
combination of the information on these
two tablets permits dating the 16th
year of Shamash-shuma-ukin, as the year
652 to 651 b.C. Ptolomeos assigns this
king 20 a year reign, and calls him
Saosdouchinou, then 22 years to his
successor Kinilanadanou (Kandalanu) and
21 years to Nabopolassarou
(Nabopolassar). The chronicles confirm
thus the Ptolomeos'
records. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.lavia.org/english/arc
hivo/grafica/BM32312.jpg
2,650 YBN
[650 BC] 		6458) The Etruscan {iTruSKeN} alphabet.
The Latin alphabet is descended from
the Etruscan alphabet. Letter names are
changed to /A/, /BA/, /KA/, etc. The
sound /s/ may result as an abbreviation
of the common letter combination of S
and H.
 
[1] Fischer, S.R. A History of Writing.
Reaktion, 2001. Globalities Series.
p104. COPYRIGHTED
source: Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p104.

[2] The Marsiliana Tablet (Ivory, 650
B.C.) and Etruscan alphabets (click
image to enlarge): UNKNOWN
source: http://www.ou.edu/class/ahi4163/
slides3/alphabet.gif
2,622 YBN
[622 BC] 		826) The Old Testament (The Torah, The
Hebrew Bible, The Ten Commandments, and
The Story of Genesis).
Judah|(Israel) 
[1]
http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/scrolls/imag
es/torah-b.jpg Miqsat Ma`ase
ha-Torah 4Q396(MMT[superscript]c) Parc
hment Copied late first century
B.C.E.-early first century C.E. The
Torah Precepts Scroll Translation of
the Torah Precepts Scroll Miqsat
Ma`ase
ha-Torah 4Q396(MMT[superscript]c) Parc
hment Copied late first century
B.C.E.-early first century
C.E. Fragment A: height 8 cm (3 1/8
in.), length 12.9 cm (5 in.) Fragment
B: height 4.3 cm (1 11/16 in.), length
7 cm (2 3/4 in.) Fragment C: height
9.1 cm (3 9/16 in.), length 17.4 cm (6
7/8 in.) Courtesy of the Israel
Antiquities Authority (8) The Torah
Precepts Scroll This scroll,
apparently in the form of a letter, is
unique in language, style, and content.
Using linguistic and theological
analysis, the original text has been
dated as one of the earliest works of
the Qumran sect. This sectarian
polemical document, of which six
incomplete manuscripts have been
discovered, is commonly referred to as
MMT, an abbreviation of its Hebrew
name, Miqsat Ma`ase ha-Torah. Together
the six fragments provide a composite
text of about 130 lines, which probably
cover about two-thirds of the original.
The initial part of the text is
completely missing. Apparently it
consisted of four sections: (1) the
opening formula, now lost; (2) a
calendar of 364 days; (3) a list of
more than twenty rulings in religious
law (Halakhot), most of which are
peculiar to the sect; and (4) an
epilogue that deals with the separation
of the sect from the multitude of the
people and attempts to persuade the
addressee to adopt the sect's legal
views. The ''halakhot,'' or religious
laws, form the core of the letter; the
remainder of the text is merely the
framework. The calendar, although a
separate section, was probably also
related to the sphere of ''halakhah.''
These ''halakhot'' deal chiefly with
the Temple and its ritual. The author
states that disagreement on these
matters caused the sect to secede from
Israel. References: Strugnell,
J., and E. Qimron. Discoveries in the
Judaean Desert, X. Oxford,
forthcoming. Sussman, Y. ''The
History of `Halakha' and the Dead Sea
Scrolls -- Preliminary Observations on
Miqsat Ma`ase Ha-Torah (4QMMT)'' (in
Hebrew), Tarbiz 59 (1990):11-76. PD
source: http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/scro
lls/images/torah-b.jpg
2,600 YBN
[600 BC] 		630) The earliest metal coin money is
traded in Lydia, Anatolia.
Lydia, Anatolia 
[1] King Kroisos period. Circa 561-546
BC. Kings of Lydia. Time of Kroisos.
Circa 561-546 BC. AV Stater (8.06
gm). Sardes mint. Light series.
Confronted foreparts of lion and
bull Two square incuse
punches of unequal size. Traité
pl. X, 2; BMC Lydia pg. 6, 31; SNG
Copenhagen Suppl. 362; Boston MFA 2073;
SNG von Aulock 2875. Choice
EF. From the Ronald Cohen
Collection. Ex Tkalec (18 February
2002), lot 81. Date Source
http://www.wildwinds.com/coins/gree
ce/lydia/kings/kroisos/BMC_31.jpg GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5c/Kroisos_BMC_31.jpg

[2] Description English: Political
map of Asia Minor in 500 BC Date
2009-04-22 17:00 (UTC) Source

Asia_Minor_Political_500BC.svg Author

Asia_Minor_Political_500BC.svg:
*Mysia.svg: Emok derivative
work:
Mysia_map_ancient_community.jpg:
User:Roke derivative work:
MinisterForBadTimes (talk)
derivative work: MinisterForBadTimes
(talk) Other versions
Derivative works of this file:
Lycia locator map.svg Political
map of Asia Minor in 500 BC in
Masry.PNG GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Anatolia_Ancien
t_Regions_base.svg/1000px-Anatolia_Ancie
nt_Regions_base.svg.png
2,600 YBN
[600 BC] 		762) The Universe is explained without
using the theory of Gods by Thales of
Miletus (in Greek: Θαλης).
Thales claims the
universe originated as water, that moon
light is reflected sun light, and
measures a pyramid by comparing the
pyramid shadow with the shadow from a
stick.
Miletus, Greece 
[1] Ueberweg, F. et al. A History of
Philosophy: From Thales to the Present
Time. C. Scribner’s sons, 1891. A
History of Philosophy: From Thales to
the Present Time,
p32. http://books.google.com/books?id=A
h_7Od24BXsC&pg=PA32 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=Ah_7Od24BXsC&pg=PA32

[2] Thales, one of the Seven Sages of
Greece From French Wikipedia:
fr:Image:Thales.jpg Original source:
http://www.phil-fak.uni-duesseldorf.de/p
hilo/galerie/antike/thales.html PD
source: http://ujszo.com/sites/default/f
iles/old/ujszo_1221803126_14.jpg
2,600 YBN
[600 BC] 		2619) The concept of a Devil is created
and is first recorded in the book of
Job, written around this time.
  
2,600 YBN
[600 BC] 		6455) The earliest Native American
writing. Mesoamerican humans either
borrow writing from the Chinese or
independently invent writing
themselves.
San Jose Mogote, Oaxaca, Mexico 
[1] Stelae 12 and 13 from Monte Alban,
provisionally dated to 500-400 BCE,
showing what is thought to be one of
the earliest calendric representations
in Mesoamerica Stelae 12 and 13 from
Monte Alban. These two stelae contain
what is thought to be one of the oldest
calendar signs (calendrics) from
Mesoamerica. Taken from the Japanese
Wikipedia: Thanks to
Siyajkak! GNU AND AND The oldest
writing in all of Meso-America. These
Zapotec hieroglyphs, carved on stone
stelae found in the Palacio de
Danzantes, are among the oldest
examples Zapotec writing. The Zapotecs
possessed the oldest fully-developed
writing system of ancient Meso-America.
The building is named for the relief
carvings of danzantes, or dancers,
which were found by Guillaume Dupaix, a
Belgian traveler who visited in 1806.
The carvings were found on the sides of
a palace which had been covered over by
a building constructed in a later
period, a common practice throughout
Meso-America. The glyphs on the stelae
above appear to be dates of great
events in the city's early history. On
both stones you can see horizontal rows
of dots, sometimes accompanied by a
solid bar underneath. These symbols
represent numbers. Zapotec writing is
made up of both phonetic symbols and
symbols representing ideas. It is still
mostly undeciphered because even the
Zapotec language the Spanish recorded
in the 1520s had undergone more than
1000 years of evolution since the above
texts were written somewhere between
400 - 200 BC. UNKNOWN
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3d/Monte_Alban_Stela_12_
%26_13.jpg
AND http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_uXDMPKN0B
jo/TIBLPDXtTeI/AAAAAAAAFcw/5sMjcYdsgQg/s
1600/MA+Danzante+hieroglyphs.jpg

[2] The oldest writing in all of
Meso-America. These Zapotec
hieroglyphs, carved on stone stelae
found in the Palacio de Danzantes, are
among the oldest examples Zapotec
writing. The Zapotecs possessed the
oldest fully-developed writing system
of ancient Meso-America. The building
is named for the relief carvings of
danzantes, or dancers, which were found
by Guillaume Dupaix, a Belgian traveler
who visited in 1806. The carvings were
found on the sides of a palace which
had been covered over by a building
constructed in a later period, a common
practice throughout Meso-America. The
glyphs on the stelae above appear to be
dates of great events in the city's
early history. On both stones you can
see horizontal rows of dots, sometimes
accompanied by a solid bar underneath.
These symbols represent numbers.
Zapotec writing is made up of both
phonetic symbols and symbols
representing ideas. It is still mostly
undeciphered because even the Zapotec
language the Spanish recorded in the
1520s had undergone more than 1000
years of evolution since the above
texts were written somewhere between
400 - 200 BC. UNKNOWN
source: http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_uXDMPK
N0Bjo/TIBLPDXtTeI/AAAAAAAAFcw/5sMjcYdsgQ
g/s1600/MA+Danzante+hieroglyphs.jpg
2,600 YBN
[600 BC] 		6470) The /w/ sound, represented with
the letter theta (Θ), is created by
Greek people from the combination of
the letters T and H (as in the word
"then"). Theta will also later have the
/t/ sound (as in "theater").
(Dorian Islands) Thera (modern
Santorini), Greece 
[1] English: Early Greek alphabet
painted on the body of an Attic
black-figure cup at the National
Archaeological Museum of
Athens. Σημερινή θέση
[εμφάνιση](Συλλογή)Ε
νικό Αρχαιολογικό
ΜουσείοΣύνδεσμος
προς το πλαίσιο
πληροφοριών
οργανισμού Department of
Ceramics Αριθμός
καταχώρησης
9146 Πηγή/φωτογράφος
Marsyas (2007) GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/d/df/NAMA_Alphabet_g
rec.jpg/1172px-NAMA_Alphabet_grec.jpg

[2] IG XII^3 762: Arkhagetas
Inscription Gravestone of several
men, including Reksanor, Arkhagetas,
Prokles, Kleagoras, Peraieus,
Orthokles, and Leontidas. From
Thera. 600 BCE? EM 10633 IG XII³
762 LSAG 323.05 Epigraphical Museum,
Athens UNKNOWN
source: http://farm4.staticflickr.com/30
02/3035339932_0d6c3a58c3_b.jpg
2,588 YBN
[588 BC] 		6434) The monotheistic religion:
Zoroasterism is founded.
(Chorasmia south of the Aral Sea,
modern Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan)
Central Asia and/or (born in Rhages,
now Rayy, a suburb of Tehrān, a town
in Media)Tehrān, Iran 
[1] Portrait of Zarathustra as depicted
in a Mithraic Temple in Dura Europus
(in modern Syria) in the 3rd Century
AD. PD
source: http://www.kavehfarrokh.com/wp-c
ontent/uploads/2008/10/Pic2-Zoroaster.jp
g

[2] Ptolemy viewed from the back
holding an earth sphere. He is facing
Zoroaster who holds a celestial sphere.
Western Astrology is based on Ptolemy's
Tetrabiblos. It is significant that the
two are part of a conversation and that
Zoroaster holds the celestial
sphere. PD
source: http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-pZn4a1
CwgVI/TcNDKrEPBwI/AAAAAAAAAUY/wN7Lp4wDVB
0/s1600/The+School+of+Athens+by+Raphael+
1509-+Zoroaster+left%252C+with+star-stud
ded+globe.jpg
2,580 YBN
[580 BC] 		764) The Earth-centered Universe
theory, and the theory that humans
evolved from fish by Anaximander,
friend and student of Thales.

The Earth-centered theory will dominate
until the 1500s.
Miletus 
[1] A map of Anaximander's
Earth-centered theory UNKNOWN
source: http://www.utm.edu/research/iep-
wp/wp-content/media/anaxfig1.gif

[2] Detail of Raphael's painting The
School of Athens, 1510–1511. This
could be a representation of
Anaximander leaning towards Pythagoras
on his left.[1] Born c. 610 BCE c.
546 BCE (aged around 64) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/38/Anaximander.jpg
2,550 YBN
[550 BC] 		1036) The Latin alphabet. The Romans
borrow the writing system and alphabet
of the Etruscans who live in the North.
Rome 
[1] The Lapis Niger Archaic
Latin When Giacomo Boni was
excavating the Forum in 1899 he found a
spot paved with black stone among the
Imperial era travertine – the Lapis
Niger. Further excavation revealed an
ancient shrine complex that had been
filled in and later constructed over.
The location was thought by the ancient
Romans to be where Romulus was killed
by the Senate, or perhaps the grave of
Hostilius. A second excavation in 1955
found no evidence of a grave but the
site was clearly considered a sacred
place by the Romans. The shrine
consists of the remnants of a U-shaped
alter, a monolithic column (a tufa
cone) and an inscribed stone
cippus. The black stone cippus,
ca.550–500 BC, carved out of Grotta
Oscura tufa from Veii, contains an
early boustrophon inscription on all
four sides (actually five, as one
corner is truncated). About a third to
a half of each line is missing so a
complete translation is not possible,
but it appears to be a warning against
those who would defile the site. It is
one of only a handful of sixth century
BC Latin inscriptions. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.codex99.com/typograph
y/images/ancient/niger_1_lg.gif

[2] Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p138. COPYRIGHTED
source: Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p138.
2,540 YBN
[540 BC] 		783) Planets are clearly distinguished
from stars in Greece.
Miletus 
[1] [t Find better image if possible,
perhaps writing of Anaximenes work or
about him.] Description English:
Anaximenes of Miletus, presocratic
philosopher. Français : Anaximène de
Milet, philosophe
présocratique. Date Source first
upload to de.wikipedia by Dr. Manuel on
10 Mar 2005, cropped from
http://www.sir-ray.com/Anaximenes.jpeg
and tagged as Public Domain PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2d/Anaximenes.jpg
2,540 YBN
[540 BC] 		784) Xenophanes finds seashells on
mountain tops and reasons that the
Earth changes over time, so that
mountains must have been in the sea and
then rose.
Elea, Southern Italy  
2,533 YBN
[533 BC] 		6436) The start of Buddhism.
(modern) southern Nepal, India 
[1] Summary Scene of the Buddha's
Great Departure from palatial life.
Gandahara 1-2nd century. Guimet Museum.
Personal photograph 2005. This scene
depicts the ''Great Departure''
predestined being, he appears here
surrounded by a halo, and accompanied
by numerous guards, mithuna loving
couples, and devata, come to pay
homage. source:
http://www.guimet.fr/The-Great-Departure
GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Great_Departure
.JPG/1024px-Great_Departure.JPG

[2] Description Prince Siddharta
Gautama shaves the hair off his head as
the sign to decline his status as
ksatriya (warrior class) and become sn
ascetic hermit, his servants holds his
sword, crown, and princely jewelry
while his horse Kanthaka stood on
right. Bas-relief panel at Borobudur,
Java, Indonesia. Date Februaty
2007 Source Own work Author
Gunkarta GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Siddharta_Gauta
ma_Borobudur.jpg/1024px-Siddharta_Gautam
a_Borobudur.jpg
2,530 YBN
[530 BC] 		797) A tunnel is cut 800 meters (a 1/2
mile) through a hill from two sides
that meet at the center.
Samos, Greece  
2,529 YBN
[529 BC] 		772) The Earth is described as a sphere
by Pythagoras.

Pythagoras teaches that the Sun, Moon,
and planets do not follow the motion of
the stars, but have paths of their own,
adding separate spheres to
Anaximander's single heavenly crystal
sphere.

Pythagoras is credited with proving the
so-called "Pythagorean Theorem", and
shows mathematically how pitch is
related to string length in stringed
musical instruments, for example, that
twice the length equals 1 octave lower.
Croton, Italy 
[1] Description: Phytagoras, coin made
under emperor Decius Source:
Baumeister, Denkmäler des klassischen
Altertums. 1888. Band III., Seite
1429 s Roman Emperor from 249 to
251. PD
source: http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.
uk/~history/BigPictures/Pythagoras_4.jpe
g

[2] Bust of Pythagoras UNKNOWN
source: http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.
uk/~history/BigPictures/Pythagoras.jpeg
2,521 YBN
[521 BC] 		6435) The Chinese philosopher Confucius
lives around this time.
(hometown, place of birth and death)
state of Lu, China 
[1] English: The teaching Confucius.
Portrait by Wu Daozi, 685-758, Tang
Dynasty. 中文:
孔夫子（畫者：唐朝吳道子）
Bân-lâm-gú: Khóng-hu-tsú
(uē-tsiá:Tông-tiâu
Ngôo-tō-tsú). PD
source: http://www.theepochtimes.com/n2/
images/stories/large/2011/03/16/Confuciu
s_Tang_Dynasty.jpg
2,510 YBN
[510 BC] 		786) Heraclitus views fire as the
ultimate substance.
Miletus, Greece 
[1] Heraclitus, by Johannes Moreelse
(1602-1634) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/fa/Heraclitus%2C_Johanne
s_Moreelse.jpg
2,510 YBN
[510 BC] 		787) Parmenides follows in the
tradition of the Ionian exiled
Pythagorus and Xenophanes and founds a
school in Elea, the "Eliatic School"
based on his philosophy of reason over
senses.
  
2,500 YBN
[500 BC] 		824) The earliest iron reinforced
building.
  
2,500 YBN
[500 BC] 		825) The crossbow is invented in China.
A crossbow is a normal bow which is
mounted on a block of wood, which can
be fired with a single hand.
China  
2,500 YBN
[500 BC] 		6518) There are 100 million humans on
Earth.
 
[1] Parker, G. Compact History of the
World. Barnes & Noble, 2001,
p17. COPYRIGHTED
source: Parker, G. Compact History of
the World. Barnes & Noble, 2001, p17.
2,490 YBN
[490 BC] 		789) Carthaginian navigator Hanno sails
ships below the equator and reports
that in the far south, the Sun at noon
is in the northern part of the sky,
which is true.
Carthage (modern: Tunis) 
[1] Description Français : Carte du
trajet de Hannon English: Map in
French of Hanno the Navigator's
exploration Deutsch: Karte in
Franzosisch der Reiseroute von Hanno
dem Seefahrer Español: Zona explorada
por Hannón el Navegante en su famoso
Periplo, en francés Date 26 April
2009 Source travail personnel (own
work) + File:Africa topography map.png
(relief bitmap embedded in the svg) +
File:Periplo de Hannón.jpg
(data) Author Bourrichon GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Hannon_map-fr.s
vg/1000px-Hannon_map-fr.svg.png
2,475 YBN
[475 BC] 		6464) Babylonian astronomers divide the
sky into the 12 parts which correspond
to constellations (also called the
zodiac).
Babylonia 
[1] Further Information: WA 86378 [BM
86378] Mul.Apin tablet 1 [pictured] is
in the British Museum, London. [The
tablet is 8.4 centimetres high incised
with miniature cuneiform writing.] This
principal copy of Tablet 1 probably
dates circa 500 BC and is a late
Babylonian copy. The earliest copies
were recovered from the royal library
of the Assyrian King Assurbanipal
(667-629 BC) in Nineveh (and also from
Assur). The text of Tablet 1 was able
to be restored with the aid of five
copies - one dated to the
Neo-Babylonian Period, two from
Assurbanipal's library [hence written
before 612 BC when Nineveh was sacked],
and two from Assur. [The first part of
Mul.Apin to be published was this
almost complete copy of tablet 1 by
Leonard King in CT 33, Plates 1-8
(1912)].* The principal copy of the
second tablet is VAT 9412 from Assur,
dated 687 BC. (This is the oldest of
the texts.) Multiple copies of tablet 2
are known: principally three from
Assur, three from Assurbanipal's
library, and one dated to the
Neo-Babylonian period. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.reocities.com/astrolo
gysources/images/mulapin.jpg

[2] WA 86378 [now BM 86378]. Mul.Apin
tablet 1 (obverse side and reverse
side) in the British Museum, London.
(The tablet, the most complete
surviving copy, is 8.4 cms high and is
considered to be a masterpiece of
miniature cuneiform writing.) The broad
astronomical content and significance
of the (two-tablet) Mul.Apin series had
been identified by the English
assyriologists Archibald Sayce and
Robert Bosanquet in a journal article
published in 1880. The first part of
the Mul.Apin series to be published
(transcribed but not translated) was BM
86378 in Cuneiform Texts from
Babylonian Tablets in the British
Museum: Part XXXIII (Plates 1-8) by
Leonard King (1912). This tablet is
almost complete copy of tablet 1. (No
complete text of Mul.Apin has
survived.) See also ''A Neo-Babylonian
Astronomical Treatise in the British
Museum and its Bearing on the Age of
Babylonian Astronomy.'' by Leonard King
(Proceedings of the Society for
Biblical Archaeology, Volume 35, 1913).
This article by the English
assyriologist Leonard King drew
attention to the importance of this
text for identifying the Babylonian
constellations. In the next two years
numerous articles and books appeared
that utilised its star list information
in the attempt to identify the
Babylonian constellations and the stars
that comprised such. This
principal copy of tablet 1 (WA 86378
[now BM 86378]) probably dates to circa
500 BCE and is a late Babylonian copy
of tablet 1 of the astronomical
compendium Mul.Apin. The earliest
copies were recovered from the royal
archives of the Assyrian King
Assurbanipal (667-626 BCE) in Nineveh
(and also from Assur). The Mul.Apin
series contains the most comprehensive
surviving star/constellation catalogue.
It is largely devoted to describing the
risings and settings of
constellations/stars in relation to the
schematic calendar of twelve 30-day
months. The text of tablet 1 was
able to be completely restored with the
aid of five copies - one dated to the
Neo-Babylonian Period, two from
Assurbanipal's library (hence written
before 612 BCE), and two from
Assur. The principal copy of the
second tablet is VAT 9412 from Assur,
dated 687 BCE. (This is the oldest of
the texts.) Multiple copies of tablet 2
are known: principally three from
Assur, three from Assurbanipal's
library, and one dated to the
Neo-Babylonian period. In its
standard form Mul.Apin is written on 2
clay tablets and is comprised of almost
400 lines of cuneiform text. Each
tablet contains 4 columns with about 50
lines of text per column. The text of
Mul.Apin is divided into a number of
sections and subsections, usually
marked by horizontal dividing lines by
the scribes. There are also texts of
Mul.Apin in which the two tablets are
combined in one large tablet. The
connection of a third tablet to the
Mul.Apin series, by some modern
commentators, was probably only an
occasionally added appendix to
Mul.Apin. Many copies of Mul.Apin
texts exist from across the entire
Neo-Assyrian Period, and it was still
being recopied as late as the Seleucid
Era. The Mul.Apin series (the name
being derived from its opening words)
is obviously a compilation of nearly
all astronomical knowledge of the
period before 700 BCE. Some statements
in the Mul.Apin text (i.e., stars in
the paths of Anu, Enlil, and Ea appear
in other, much earlier, cuneiform
texts; the Astrolabes and in the omens
of Enuma, Anu, Enlil. Mul.Apin is the
first reasonably full exposition of the
knowledge developed within the almost
millennium-old written tradition of
cuneiform astronomical and astral omen
texts. Rita Watson and Wayne Horowitz
(Writing Science before the Greeks: A
Naturalistic Analysis of the Babylonian
Treatise MUL.APIN (2011)) state (Pages
?-175): ''The consolidation of the
MUL.APIN text marks the emergence of a
formal written astronomical science.
... MUL.APIN may not represent fully
developed science, but it does offer a
unique, even vital, window onto its
beginnings, and the dynamic, reflective
processes involved in the emergence of
a formal written science.'' Also (Page
174): ''The observational science of
MUL.APIN appears to occupy a pivotal
role in the development of the late,
more sophisticated
mathematical-astronomy of the ACT
[Astronomical Cuneiform Texts]
tradition.'' ... COPYRIGHTED
source: http://members.westnet.com.au/ga
ry-david-thompson/mul_apin_tablet1.JPG
2,470 YBN
[470 BC] 		836) The Sun is described as a mass of
red-hot metal, that people live on the
Moon, and that the Universe is made of
tiny bodies by Anaxagoras.
Athens 
[1] Description English: Detail of
the right-hand facade fresco, showing
Anaxagoras. National and Kapodistrian
University of Athens. Date c.
1888 Source http://nibiryukov.narod.r
u/nb_pinacoteca/nbe_pinacoteca_artists_l
.htm Author Eduard Lebiedzki,
after a design by Carl Rahl PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2c/Anaxagoras_Lebiedzki_
Rahl.jpg
2,470 YBN
[470 BC] 		840) That the brain controls the body
is understood, and the first human
dissection by Greek physician Alcmaeon
(oLKmEoN). Alcmaeon identifies the
optic nerve, the tube connecting the
ear and mouth (the Eustachian tubes),
and distinguishes arteries from veins.
(academy at Croton, now:) Crotone,
southern Italy 
[1] Erich Lessing / Art Resource,
NY UNKOWN
source: http://members.bib-arch.org/bswb
_graphics/BSAO/08/04/BSAO080402410L.jpg

[2] Alcmaeon UNKNOWN
source: http://clendening.kumc.edu/dc/pc
/Alcmaeon.jpg
2,467 YBN
[467 BC] 		1894) The earliest particle (or
wireless) communication. The optical
telegraph (or semaphore)

News of the fall of Troy reaches the
city of Argos 600 km (370 miles) away
in only a few hours by the use of fire
signals.
Greece (presumably) 
[1] This image was moved from
Image:Image62.gif Description A
drawing of the lighthouse by German
archaeologist Prof. H. Thiersch
(1909). Date 2007-01-16 (original
upload date) Source Originally from
en.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. Author Original uploader
was Ragemanchoo at
en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2e/Lighthouse_-_Thiersch
.gif

[2] English: Mosaic Lighthouse of
Alexandria: was found in the Qasr Libya
in Libya, which was known by several
names including history and Olbia
Theodorias, This is a painting that was
left over to show the form of
lighthouse after the quake, which
destroyed the lighthouse. Qasr Libya
Museum PD
source: http://freespace.virgin.net/ric.
martin/vectis/hookeweb/roberthooke.htm
2,460 YBN
[460 BC] 		841) The theory that all matter is made
of atoms by Leucippus.

Leucippus theorizes that the universe
is made of two different elements,
which he calls "solid" and "empty", and
that matter is composed entirely of an
infinity of small indivisible particles
called atoms, which are constantly in
motion, and through their collisions
and regroupings form various compounds.
 
[1] Coin with the head of Leukippos on
it from around 330-320
BC.[t] Greece,Metapont
330-320BC,Leukkipos,1/3stater. Hammer
price 2002: CHF 12.000. UNKNOWN
source: http://numisbooks.dk/info/fotos/
romanphotos/leukippos330-320.jpg
2,460 YBN
[460 BC] 		842) The theory that the universe is
made of only four elements: water, air,
fire and earth by Empedocles.

Empedocles unites the 4 elements
(water, air, fire, earth) described by
earlier people into a theory of the
universe.

Empedicles recognizes the material
nature of air because water will not
enter a clepsydra (also called a "water
thief", a hollow brass sphere with a
long tube) when the hole is covered
with his thumb because of the air
inside.

Empedocles understands that the heart
is the center of the blood vessel
system, but wrongly views the heart as
the center of decision making. This
theory is passed on to Aristotle from
whom it has descended to modern times.
Humans still say a person is
"lion-hearted" to mean brave, and
"broken-hearted" to mean disappointed,
etc.
 
[1] The temple of Hera at Agrigentum,
built when Empedocles was a young man,
c. 470 BC. Tempio di Hera ad
Agrigento, Sicilia. From:
Giambattista Scivoletto -
http://www.studioscivoletto.it/ COPYRIG
HTED ANY USE AND Empedocles in the
Nuremberg Chronicle. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1d/Agrigento_Tempio_di_H
era.jpg
AND http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiped
ia/commons/thumb/9/95/Empedocles-2-sized
.jpg/1030px-Empedocles-2-sized.jpg

[2] Description English:
Empedocles, ancient Greek Presocratic
philosopher. From Thomas Stanley,
(1655), The history of philosophy:
containing the lives, opinions, actions
and Discourses of the Philosophers of
every Sect, illustrated with effigies
of divers of them. Date circa
1655 Source Thomas Stanley, 1655, The
history of philosophy Author
Unknown PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2b/Empedocles_in_Thomas_
Stanley_History_of_Philosophy.jpg
2,451 YBN
[451 BC] 		906) Books of Protagoras are burned for
doubting the existence of Gods.
 
[1] [t Get better image- perhaps of
text.] Picture of Protagoras UNKNOWN
source: http://i2.listal.com/image/59712
8/600full-protagoras.jpg
2,450 YBN
[450 BC] 		838) The first recorded trial of a
person for atheism; Anaxagoras.
Pericles defends Anaxagoras in court,
and Anaxagoras is freed (unlike
Socrates a generation later).
Athens, Greece 
[1] Description English: Detail of
the right-hand facade fresco, showing
Anaxagoras. National and Kapodistrian
University of Athens. Date c.
1888 Source http://nibiryukov.narod.r
u/nb_pinacoteca/nbe_pinacoteca_artists_l
.htm Author Eduard Lebiedzki,
after a design by Carl Rahl PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2c/Anaxagoras_Lebiedzki_
Rahl.jpg
2,450 YBN
[450 BC] 		843) Philolaus theorizes that the Earth
is not the center of the universe, but
instead that the Earth, Moon, planets,
and Sun circle a great fire in separate
spheres, and that the Sun is only a
reflection of this fire. This is the
first record of the theory that the
Earth moves through space.
Croton, Italy 
[1] Description Pythagoras and
Philolaus experimenting with musical
pipes. From Theorica musicae by
Franchino Gaffurio, 1492 (1480?) Date
2010-04-28 16:51 (UTC) Source
Gaffurio_Pythagoras.png Author
Gaffurio_Pythagoras.png:
Franchino Gaffurio (publisher)
derivative work: Singinglemon
(talk) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e8/Pythagoras_and_Philol
aus.png
2,432 YBN
[432 BC] 		849) Meton creates a calendar with 12
years of 12 months and 7 years of 13
months (the Metonic calendar).

Meton finds that 235 lunar months make
around 19 years, so 12 years of 12
months and 7 years of 13 months will
allow the lunar calendar to match the
seasons. This calendar lasts until the
Julian Calendar of 46 BCE
Athens, Greece (presumably) 
[1] Description The relation of the
phases of the Moon with its revolution
around Earth. The sizes of Earth and
Moon, and their distance you see here
are far from real. On this image the
following are also depicted: the
synchronous rotation of the Moon, the
motion of the Earth around the common
center of mass, the difference between
the sidereal and synodical month (green
mark), the Earth's axial tilt. (NOTE:
the precise moment of a New Moon take
place in daylight when you can see only
the bright Sun.) Date
2010-08-19ddd Source Own
work Author Orion 8 Other versions
CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Moon_phases_en.
jpg/1024px-Moon_phases_en.jpg

[2] The Antikythera
mechanism UNKNOWN
source: http://www.bibliotecapleyades.ne
t/imagenes_ciencia/antikythera06_02.jpg
2,430 YBN
[430 BC] 		845) The Universe is explained as being
filled with many other worlds, and the
Milky Way as a large group of stars by
Democritus of Abdera. Demokritos
explains the motions of atoms as based
on natural laws, not on the wants of
gods or demons.
Abdera, Thrace 
[1] DEMOCRITO DE ABDERA UNKNOWN
source: http://tareaescolar.co/tareaesco
lar/filo/images/democrito.jpg
2,430 YBN
[430 BC] 		847) A school of health science is
founded by Hippocrates of Cos (in
Greek: Ἱπποκράτης) who views
disease as a physical phenomenon, not
the product of gods or demons.
Cos 
[1] Hippocrates, engraving by Peter
Paul Rubens, 1638. Courtesy of the
National Library of
Medicine[1]. http://wwwihm.nlm.nih.gov/
ihm/images/B/14/555.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/32/Hippocrates_rubens.jp
g
2,425 YBN
[425 BC] 		920) The Greek historian Herodotus.
Athens or central Greece 
[1] Description English: Bust
of Herodotus. 2nd century AD. Roman
copy after a Greek original. On display
along the portico of the Stoa of
Attalus, which houses the Ancient Agora
Museum in Athens. Français :
Buste d'Hérodote, IIe s. p. C., Stoa
d'Attale, Musée de l'Agora antique
d'Athènes, n°S270. Italiano:
Busto di Erodoto. Copia romana del
secolo II d.C. di un originale greco.
Esposto nel porticato dello Stoà di
Attalo, sede del Museo dell'antica
agorà ad Atene. Date 13 April
2008 Source Own work Author
Konstantinos Stampoulis
(el:User:Geraki) CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/bf/AGMA_Herodotus_7307.j
pg

[2] Summary English: Bust of
Herodotus. 2nd century AD. Roman copy
after a Greek original. On display
along the portico of the Stoa of
Attalus, which houses the Ancient Agora
Museum in Athens. Français :
Buste d'Hérodote, IIe s. p. C., Stoa
d'Attale, Musée de l'Agora antique
d'Athènes, n°S270. Italiano:
Busto di Erodoto. Copia romana del
secolo II d.C. di un originale greco.
Esposto nel porticato dello Stoà di
Attalo, sede del Museo GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/da/AGMA_H%C3%A9rodote.jp
g
2,424 YBN
[424 BC] 		6533) Grafting of plants in Greece.

A Hippocratic treatise {TrE-TiS}
describes plant grafting.
Greece|(presumably for Theophrastus)
(The Lyceum) Athens, Greece  
[1] Description a good example of
a whip graft that has ''taken'' Source
I (Chris Hibbard, acct:
chrishibbard7) created this work
entirely by myself. Date
4/27/2009 Author Chris
Hibbard Permission (Reusing this
file) See below. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/c/c8/Good_graft.JPG

[2] Description English: Example of
a successful cleft graft after 4 years
of growth. Uploading specifically for
use in the Grafting article, where the
same graft is displayed after 2 years
of growth, for comparison. Date
3/23/2012 Source With a camera, of
course. Adjusted light levels with
Gimp Previously published:
http://pinterest.com/pin/527766268533219
03/ Author Chrishibbard7 GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/5/51/CleftGraft4thYr
.JPG/1194px-CleftGraft4thYr.JPG
2,403 YBN
[403 BC] 		818) The creation of the F sound.

Greek people add a new letter, phi (Φ)
as an abbreviation to represent the
sound of the commonly paired letters P
and H (as in "top hat").
Ionia, Greece 
[1] Fischer, S.R. A History of Writing.
Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. COPYRIGHTED
source: Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series.

[2] From
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teth GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tet
h
2,399 YBN
[399 BC] 		846) Socrates is sentenced to death, in
part for disrespecting the Gods.
Athens, Greece 
[1] From
http://hypernews.ngdc.noaa.gov This
image is in the public domain because
its copyright has expired in the United
States and those countries with a
copyright term of life of the author
plus 100 years or less. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Socrates.png

[2] The Death of Socrates, by
Jacques-Louis David (1787) The
two-dimensional work of art depicted in
this image is in the public domain in
the United States and in those
countries with a copyright term of life
of the author plus 100 years. This
photograph of the work is also in the
public domain in the United States (see
Bridgeman Art Library v. Corel Corp.).
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Socratesdeath.jpg
2,387 YBN
[387 BC] 		851) The school "the Academy" is
founded by Plato in Athens. The word
"academy" will eventually be applied to
all schools.
Athens, Greece 
[1] Plato's Academy, Mosaic from Villa
of T. Siminius Stephanus, Pompeii
(photo courtesy of Branislav
Slantchev) PD
source: http://www.electrummagazine.com/
wp-content/uploads/2011/11/Platos_Academ
y_mosaic_T_Siminius_Stephanus_Pompeii.jp
g

[2] Description Academy of Athens
(modern) Source I (Dimboukas (talk))
created this work entirely by
myself. Date 19:53, 1 December 2009
(UTC) Author Dimboukas (talk) CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/thumb/8/82/Athens_academy.jpg/1
024px-Athens_academy.jpg
2,378 YBN
[378 BC] 		854) The sky is divided into degrees of
latitude and longitude (a system that
is eventually applied to the Earth),
and stars are mapped, by Eudoxus of
Cnidus {nI-DuS} (in Greek:
Εύδοξος).

Eudoxus develops a universe model of 27
interconnected, Earth-centered spheres;
one for the fixed stars, four for each
planet, and three each for the Sun and
Moon.
 
[1] A pupil of Plato, Eudoxus
elaborated a geocentric model composed
of crystalline spheres, incorporating
the Platonic ideal of uniform circular
motion. System of 27 Spheres:
* 1 for the fixed stars * 3 each
for the Sun and Moon * 4 each for
the 5 planets Spheres within
spheres in perfect circular motion
combine to give retrograde
motions. Spheres within
Spheres (Click on the image to
view at full scale [Size: 20Kb]) 4
Spheres for each planet: * One
was aligned with the celestial poles,
turning once a day to give rising &
setting. * Second was tilted
23.5º, rotated slowly in the opposite
direction to give the usual
west-to-east drift of the planets
relative to the fixed stars. *
Third & Fourth were introduced to
produce the periodic retrograde motions
of the planets. All were in uniform
circular motion about their axes.
COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://www-astronomy.mps.ohio-st
ate.edu/~pogge/Ast161/Unit3/greek.html
2,358 YBN
[358 BC] 		856) The theory that the Earth rotates
around its own axis, and that some
planets rotate around the Sun by
Heracleides.
(Academy) Athens, Greece
(presumably) 
[1] Ηράκλειτος (~544 - 483
π.Χ.) COPYRIGHTED GREECE
source: http://sfr.ee.teiath.gr/historia
/historia/important/html/images/Heraklit
.jpg
2,350 YBN
[350 BC] 		6534) Pear trees are grown in Greece.
Greece 
[1] Description Pyrus pyraster or Wild
pear in full blossom. Ayrshire,
Scotland. Date May 2008 Source
self-made - Roger Griffith Author
Rosser1954 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Wild_Pear_Tree_
in_full_blossom.JPG/1280px-Wild_Pear_Tre
e_in_full_blossom.JPG

[2] Description w:Pear blossoms,
California, unknown variety Date 7
April 2008 Source Own work Author
Elf GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/7/78/PearBlossomsCal
ifornia.jpg/1280px-PearBlossomsCaliforni
a.jpg
2,335 YBN
[335 BC] 		859) The school called the Lyceum {LI
SEuM or lU-KEoN} is opened in Athens by
Aristotle.

Aristotle adds a fifth element to the
four elements of Empedocles, "aether"
which the "heavens" are made of, and
rejects the theory of atoms; two
inaccurate views that will last for
more than 2000 years.

Aristotle also puts forward the first
theory of gravity, claiming that heavy
objects go down and incorrectly that
light objects go up.

Aristotle classifies 500 species, and
dissects nearly 50, correctly
classifying dolphins with species of
the field, not with fish.
Athens, Greece 
[1] Date 1511 Source Stitched
together from vatican.va Author
Raphael (1483–1520) Link back to
Creator infobox template
wikidata:Q5597 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Sanzio_01.jpg/1
280px-Sanzio_01.jpg

[2] English: The School of Athens -
fresco by Raffaello Sanzio
(w) Artist Copy of
Lysippus English: Bust of Aristotle.
Marble, Roman copy after a Greek bronze
original by Lysippos from 330 BC; the
alabaster mantle is a modern
addition. Current location
[show]National Museum_of Rome -
Palazzo AltempsLink back to Institution
infobox template Ground
floor Accession number Inv.
8575 Credit line Ludovisi
Collection Source/Photographer
Jastrow (2006) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Aristotle_Altem
ps_Inv8575.jpg/765px-Aristotle_Altemps_I
nv8575.jpg
2,330 YBN
[06/28/330 BC] 		864) A 76 year cycle of 940 months
created by Callipus is more accurate
than the Metonic cycle.
(probably) Cyzicus (an ancient city in
NW Asia Minor, in Mysia, on a peninsula
in the Sea of Marmara) 
[1] Description The relation of the
phases of the Moon with its revolution
around Earth. The sizes of Earth and
Moon, and their distance you see here
are far from real. On this image the
following are also depicted: the
synchronous rotation of the Moon, the
motion of the Earth around the common
center of mass, the difference between
the sidereal and synodical month (green
mark), the Earth's axial tilt. (NOTE:
the precise moment of a New Moon take
place in daylight when you can see only
the bright Sun.) Date
2010-08-19ddd Source Own
work Author Orion 8 Other versions
CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Moon_phases_en.
jpg/1024px-Moon_phases_en.jpg
2,325 YBN
[325 BC] 		887) The theory that the Moon
influences the tides by Pytheas. Not
until 2000 years later will Newton
explain the attraction of the moon.
Massalia (now: Marseille France) 
[1] Description Statue de Pythéas
sur la façade du palais de la Bourse
à Marseille. Date 6 February
2008 Source Own
work Author Rvalette Permission
(Reusing this file) See below. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Pyth%C3%A9as.jp
g/639px-Pyth%C3%A9as.jpg
2,323 YBN
[323 BC] 		862) Theophrastus describes over 500
species of plants, and is charged with
atheism but acquitted.
Athens 
[1] The bust inscribed ''Theophrastos
Melanta Eresios'' The marble herm
figure with the bearded head of
philosopher type, bearing the explicit
inscription, must be taken as purely
conventional. Unidentified portrait
heads did not find a ready market in
post-Renaissance Rome.[82] This bust
was formerly in the collection of
marchese Pietro Massimi at Palazzo
Massimi and belonged to marchese L.
Massimi at the time the engraving was
made. It is now in the Villa Albani,
Rome (inv. 1034). The inscribed bust
has often been illustrated in
engravings[83] and photographs: a
photograph of it forms the frontispiece
to the Loeb Classical Library
Theophrastus: Enquiry into Plants vol.
I, 1916. Theophrastus, greek
philosopher, peripatetic. From
German Wikipedia:
de:Bild:Theophrast.jpg Baumeister:
Denkmäler des klassischen Altertums.
1888. Band III., Seite 1764. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/79/Theophrastus.jpg

[2] Description Teofrasto Ancient
greek philosopher and botanist. Orto
botanico di Palermo Date 2009-02-11
21:34 (UTC) Source
Teofrasto_Orto_botanico_PA.jpg Author

Teofrasto_Orto_botanico_PA.jpg: tato
grasso CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d3/Teofrasto_Orto_botani
co_detail.jpg
2,311 YBN
[311 BC] 		885) A school in Athens is founded by
Epicurus who argues against the
existence of any Gods, and bases his
philosophy on the principle that
pleasure is good and pain is bad. This
is the first school to admit females
and slaves.
 
[1] Description English: Hermes-type
bust (pillar with the top as a sculpted
head) of Epicurus leaned with his back
against his disciple Metrodorus of
Lampsacus (the younger) (note : the
legend at the bottom of the hermes is
mixed with the Metrodorus side).
Pentelic marble, Roman artwork,
Imperial Era (2nd-half of the 2nd
century ?). Found in Rome,
Italy. Français : Pilier hermaïque
représentant Épicure adossé à son
disciple Métrodore de Lampsaque (le
jeune). Marbre du Pentélique, œuvre
romaine d'époque impériale (deuxième
moitié du IIe siècle ?). Découvert
à Rome, Italie. Dimensions H. 62 cm
(24 ¼ in.) Current location
[show](Inventory)Louvre MuseumLink
back to Institution infobox template
wikidata:Q19675 Department of Greek,
Etruscan and Roman Antiquities, Sully
wing, ground floor, room 17 Accession
number Ma 88 (MR 478) Credit line
Collections of the Duke of
Penthièvre; seized during the French
Revolution: in the Louvre collections
since 1800 References notice sur le
site du Louvre Source/Photographer
Eric Gaba (User:Sting), July 2005 CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a6/Epicurus_Louvre.jpg

[2] Description English: File
already in use by Wikipedia. Generally
enhanced viewability. English:
Marble bust of Epicurus. Roman copy of
Greek original, 3rd century BC/2nd
century BC. On display in the British
Museum, London. Source
Self-created Date 18 June
2006 Author ChrisO Permission I,
the copyright holder of this work,
hereby release it into the public
domain. This applies worldwide. In
case this is not legally possible: I
grant anyone the right to use this work
for any purpose, without any
conditions, unless such conditions are
required by law. Date 19 August 2007
(original upload date) Source
Transferred from en.wikipedia;
transferred to Commons by
User:Jayantanth using
CommonsHelper. Author Original
uploader was Interstate295revisited at
en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) Released into the public
domain (by the author). PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/14/Epicurus_bust2.jpg
2,305 YBN
[305 BC] 		884) Nerves are distinguished from
blood vessels, and divided into sensory
(those which receive sense impressions)
and motor (those which stimulate
motion) by Herophilus. Herophilus is
also the first to describe the liver,
ovaries, Fallopian tubes, to name the
retina, and to measure the pulse.
Alexandria, Egypt 
[1] Herophilus of Chalcedon (c. 330-260
BCE) Detail of a 1532 woodcut showing
Herophilus (left) and
Erasistratus. Credits:Wellcome
Library, London UNKNOWN
source: http://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/
hommedia.ashx?id=91862&size=Small

[2] Description English: Scheme of
digestive tract, with duodenum
marked. Polski: Schemat przewodu
pokarmowego, z zaznaczoną dwunastnicą
. Inkscape Logo.svg This vector
image was created with Inkscape. Date
18:05, 21 August 2007 (UTC) (upload on
commons) Source Own work Author
Olek Remesz (wiki-pl: Orem, commons:
Orem) Permission (Reusing this file)
CC-BY-SA ver. 2.5, 2.0, 1.0 CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Tractus_intesti
nalis_duodenum.svg/1000px-Tractus_intest
inalis_duodenum.svg.png
2,300 YBN
[300 BC] 		871) That falling bodies accelerate,
that is, move more quickly with each
successive unit of time is recognized
by Straton of Lampsacus.
(Lyceum) Athens, Greece
(presumably) 
[1] Description English: Detail of
the right-hand facade fresco, showing
Aristotle, Theophrastus, and Strato of
Lampsacus. National and Kapodistrian
University of Athens. Date c.
1888 Source
Aristotle_and_his_disciples_Lebiedzki_Ra
hl.jpg Author
Aristotle_and_his_disciples_Lebiedzki_Ra
hl.jpg: Eduard Lebiedzki, after a
design by Karl Rahl derivative
work: Singinglemon (talk) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6a/Aristotle_Theophrastu
s_Strato_Lebiedzki_Rahl.jpg

[2] Description English: Ancient
Greek philosopher Strato of Lampsacus,
depicted in the Nuremberg
Chronicle Date 2009-04-26 20:14
(UTC) Source
Nuremberg_chronicles_f_082v_4.png Aut
hor
Nuremberg_chronicles_f_082v_4.png:
Hartmann Schedel derivative work:
Singinglemon (talk) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/56/Strato_Nuremberg_Chro
nicle.jpg
2,300 YBN
[300 BC] 		1166) A lathe is used in Egypt. A lathe
is a machine in which material is
removed from a workpiece that is
rotated against a cutting tool.
Egypt 
[1] Two man Egyptian Lathe The
earliest picture of a lathe is one on
the wall of an Egyptian grave of the
third century B.C., shown here in a
line drawing. The man at left is
holding the cutting tool. The man at
the right is making the workpiece
rotate back and forth by pulling on a
cord or thong. UNKNOWN
source: http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-wdvm-N
qT5UA/T2hJOxBSe7I/AAAAAAAAAQw/FowRtQg4yS
U/s1600/Petosiris_lathe.jpg AND
http://homepages.tig.com.au/~dispater/tu
rning.htm

[2] A carved stone pictograph from the
tomb of an Egyptian Priest. 300
B.C UNKNOWN [1] find book this is
from The earliest picture of a lathe
is one on the wall of an Egyptian grave
of the third century B.C., shown here
in a line drawing. The man at left is
holding the cutting tool. The man at
the right is making the workpiece
rotate back and forth by pulling on a
cord or thong. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://homepages.tig.com.au/~dis
pater/turning.htm
2,300 YBN
[300 BC] 		6482) The earliest known use of a
chain-drive; used in an automatic
repeating crossbow.
Rhodes, Greece 
[1] Figure from: Werner Soedel,
Vernard Foley: ''Ancient Catapults'',
Scientific American, Vol. 240, No. 3
(March 1979), p. 124-125.
{Ancient_Catapults_Scientific_American
_197903xx.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: Werner Soedel, Vernard Foley:
"Ancient Catapults", Scientific
American, Vol. 240, No. 3 (March 1979),
p. 124-125.
{Ancient_Catapults_Scientific_American
_197903xx.pdf} COPYRIGHTED

[2] English: Arsenal of ancient
mechanical artillery in the Saalburg
Museum, Hesse, Germany Left:
Polybolos, a 3rd century BC repeating
catapult (reconstruction by the German
engineer Erwin Schramm (1856–1935))
Right: Catapult on Trajan's Column,
early 2nd century AD (reconstruction by
Schramm) Bottom center:
Chain-drive mechanism of the
Polybolos Bottom right: ?
Background, on wall: Gastraphetes, a
Greek crossbow Date 7 August 2007,
12:34:51 Source originally posted to
Flickr as Artilleria experimental
romana a Saalburg / Roman experimental
artillery in Saalburg Author
SBA73 CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Ancient_Mechani
cal_Artillery._Pic_01.jpg/1280px-Ancient
_Mechanical_Artillery._Pic_01.jpg
2,297 YBN
[297 BC] 		902) The Museum and Library of
Alexandria is founded.
 
[1] A reconstruction of the main hall
of the Museum of Alexandria used in the
series Cosmos by Carl Sagan. The wall
portraits show Alexander the Great
(left) and Serapis
(right). COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.thelivingmoon.com/43a
ncients/04images/Alexandria/Alexandria-C
osmosReconstruction1.jpg

[2] Credit:
s_davies@mail.utexas.edu The Library
of Alexandria was one of the best-known
of the libraries of the ancient world.
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.thelivingmoon.com/43a
ncients/04images/Alexandria/alexlibext.j
pg
2,295 YBN
[295 BC] 		878) Euclid's "Elements" compiles all
known mathematics. Euclid proves that
the number of prime numbers is
infinite, that the square root of the
number 2 is irrational, and describes
light rays as straight lines.
(Mouseion) Alexandria, Egypt 
[1] Description አማርኛ:
የዩክሊድን ኢለመንት
የተባለ መጽሐፍ
የሚያሳይ ከልጥ (ፓፒሪ)
የተጻፈ የጥንት
መዝገብ English: Oxyrhynchus
papyrus (P.Oxy. I 29) showing fragment
of Euclid's Elements Русский:
Папирус из Oxyrhynchus (P.Oxy.
I 29) с франментами
Начал Евклида Date 7
October 1994 Source
http://www.math.ubc.ca/~cass/Euclid/pap
yrus/tha.jpg Author Euclid PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/P._Oxy._I_29.jp
g/1280px-P._Oxy._I_29.jpg

[2] Euclid elements UNKNOWN
source: http://zaccus.com/wp-content/upl
oads/2010/08/Euclid_large.jpg
2,285 YBN
[285 BC] 		1028) Compressed air is used for a
catapult and for the earliest musical
keyboard instrument, an organ, by
Ctesibius in Alexandria.

This is the earliest known keyboard
instrument and musical organ, the
"hydraulus".
Alexandria, Egpyt 
[1] Musicians playing tuba (l.) ,
hydraulis (top) and cornua to accompany
gladiatorial combat (Roman mosaic of
1st-2nd century, from Libya)
Musicians playing during the games.
Instruments: cornua, tuba and water
organ, Mosaic of the Gladiators,
Jamahiriya Museum, Tripoli, Libya. From
Dar Buc Ammera villa (Zliten). Mozaic
from: Libya / Tsarrbuus / Tripoli /
Bāb al ‘Azīzīyah Música antiga
- Ancient music • Jamahiriya
Museum - Museu de Trípoli UNKNOWN
source: http://www.uned.es/geo-1-histori
a-antigua-universal/NOTICIAS/Zliten%20Mo
saic.jpg

[2] Musicians playing during the
games. Instruments: cornua, tuba and
water organ, Mosaic of the Gladiators,
Jamahiriya Museum, Tripoli, Libya. From
Dar Buc Ammera villa (Zliten). Mozaic
from: Libya / Tsarrbuus / Tripoli /
Bāb al ‘Azīzīyah Música antiga
- Ancient music • Jamahiriya
Museum - Museu de Trípoli UNKNOWN
source: http://www.uned.es/geo-1-histori
a-antigua-universal/NOTICIAS/Zliten%20Mo
saic.jpg
2,281 YBN
[281 BC] 		935) Ptolemy II creates a zoo and
observatory in Alexandria.
  
2,275 YBN
[275 BC] 		873) The Septuagint, the earliest
extant Greek translation of the Old
Testament from the original Hebrew.
Alexandria, Egypt  
2,274 YBN
[274 BC] 		886) The cerebrum and cerebellum of the
brain are identified by Erasistratus.
Alexandria, Egpyt 
[1] Detail of a 1532 woodcut showing
Herophilus (left) and
Erasistratus. Credits:Wellcome
Library, London PD
source: http://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/
hommedia.ashx?id=91862&size=Small

[2] Artist Jacques-Louis David Title
Antiochus et Stratonice, Ecole
nationale supérieure des beaux-arts,
Paris, France. Date 1774 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/73/David-Antiochus_et_St
ratonice.jpg
2,265 YBN
[265 BC] 		6591) A paddle-wheel turned by oxen
propels a Roman water ship.
Sicily 

source:
2,260 YBN
[260 BC] 		663) The earliest lever by Archimedes.

A lever is a rigid bar pivoted on a
support point (fulcrum) which can be
used to exert a force on a load. Levers
are used to either multiply the force
or to apply it in a different place.
There are only three different types of
lever, class 1, the most familiar kind
in which the fulcrum is between the
effort and load, class 2, where the
fulcrum is at one end and the effort at
the other, and class 3 where the effort
is exerted in the center which are
designed not for power but for precise
action at a distance.
Syracuse, Sicily 
[1] Description Español: Esta
imagen ilustra la ventaja mecánica de
la palanca. Deutsch: Illustration des
Hebelgesetzes. Copyright © 2004
César Rincón. Imagen creada para la
Wikipedia en Español. Date
2004-08-05 (first version);
2004-08-07 (last version) Source
Originally from es.wikipedia;
description page is/was here. Author
Original uploader was CR at
es.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) Released under the GNU Free
Documentation License. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f2/Palanca-ejemplo.jpg

[2] Publishing, DK. Science: The
Definitive Visual Guide. DK Publishing,
2009, p40. COPYRIGHTED
source: Publishing, DK. Science: The
Definitive Visual Guide. DK Publishing,
2009, p40.
2,260 YBN
[260 BC] 		822) The earliest screw; a device for
raising water.
The concept of density (mass
divided by volume) is understood.

A spiral screw is an inclined plane
wrapped around a cylinder. The spiral
is called a "thread", and the distance
between adjacent edges is called the
"pitch" of the screw. The pitch is
equal to the distance that the screw
advances in one turn in a solid medium.
Syracuse, Sicily 
[1] Description Archimedes' screw.
Public domain, from Chambers's
Encyclopedia (Philadelphia: J. B.
Lippincott Company, 1875). Added to
illustrate article en:Archimedes. Date
2007-06-18 (original upload
date) Source Originally from
en.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. Author Original uploader
was Ianmacm at en.wikipedia PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/82/Archimedes_screw.JPG

[2] Description Deutsch: animierte
Prinzip einer Foerderschnecke oder auch
Archimedesche Spirale genannt, mit
einer Kugel zur Demonstration der
Foerderbewegung. Date published
06.Mai 2007 Source
File:Archimedes-screw_one-screw-thr
eads_with-ball_3D-view_animated.gif
created by Silberwolf Author
Silberwolf (size changed by:
Jahobr) Permission (Reusing this
file) Own work, share alike,
attribution required (Creative Commons
CC-BY-SA-2.5) CC
source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wik
ipedia/commons/a/a1/Archimedes-screw_one
-screw-threads_with-ball_3D-view_animate
d.gif
2,260 YBN
[260 BC] 		882) The rotation of the Earth around
its own axis once a day and around the
Sun once a year is understood by
Aristarchus of Samos.

Aristarchus also determines that the
Sun is farther away from Earth than the
Moon is by measuring the angle between
the Moon and Sun when the moon appears
half lit.
(Mousion of Alexandria) Alexandria,
Egpyt 
[1] Aristarchus's 3rd century BC
calculations on the relative sizes of
from left the Sun, Earth and Moon, from
a 10th century CE Greek copy PD
source: http://www.thelivingmoon.com/43a
ncients/04images/Artifacts/Aristarchus_w
orking.jpg

[2] Statue of Aristarchus at Aristotle
University in Thessalonica,
Greece UNKNOWN
source: http://www.thelivingmoon.com/43a
ncients/04images/People/Aristarchos_Samo
s.png
2,250 YBN
[250 BC] 		890) The earliest known escapement, a
device that controls the rotation of a
toothed gear to provide periodic
impulses, is described by Philon of
Byzantium.
 
[1] Description English:
Reconstruction of a washstand with
escapement mechanism, the earliest
known, as described by the Greek
engineer Philo of Byzantium (3rd
century BC) Date 1903 Source Carra
de Vaux, B. (1903): ''Le livre des
appareils pneumatiques et des machines
hydrauliques de Philon de Byzance
d'après les versions arabes d'Oxford
et de Constantinople'', Academie des
inscriptions et des belles lettres:
Notices et extraits des mss. de la
Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris 38,
27–235 (163), depicted in: Lewis,
Michael (2000), ''Theoretical
Hydraulics, Automata, and Water
Clocks'', in Wikander, Örjan, Handbook
of Ancient Water Technology, Technology
and Change in History, 2, Leiden, pp.
343–369 (356, fig. 5), ISBN
90-04-11123-9 Author Carra de Vaux,
B. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/46/Washstand_by_Philo_of
_Byzantium.png
2,250 YBN
[250 BC] 		894) The ellipse, parabola, and
hyperbola are described by Apollonios
of Perga (Απολλώνιος ο
Περγαίος ), in Alexandria.
Alexandria, Egypt  
2,246 YBN
[246 BC] 		898) The size of Earth is correctly
calculated by Eratosthenes by using the
angle of the shadow the Sun forms in
Alexandria on the longest day of the
year and the distance between the
cities of Alexandria and Syene.
Alexandria, Egypt 
[1] Eratosthenes experiment UNKNOWN
source: http://www.iucaa.ernet.in/~scipo
p/Obsetion/eratos/image008.jpg

[2] Eratosthenes (portrait) Copied
from w:es
Imagen:Eratostenes-retrato.png
(originally from Enciclopedia
Libre) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a2/Portrait_of_Eratosthe
nes.png
2,240 YBN
[240 BC] 		923) The Sarapeum (SARuPEuM} Library in
Alexandria is built.
Alexandria, Egypt 
[1] Serapeum Temple which housed the
''daughter library'' of the Library of
Alexandria. Source
www.alexandrinelibrarian.blogspot.com U
NKNOWN
source: http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_KQyC59
HU4I0/SrRlFDYM2iI/AAAAAAAAAC4/fmxC6-MP49
U/s320/Serapis_Temple02.jpg

[2] Hypatia (Rachel Weisz) teaching at
the Serapeum UNKNOWN
source: http://dmkraig.net/page13/page5/
files/agora1.jpg
2,240 YBN
[240 BC] 		1325) The earliest observation of a
comet. Chinese astronomers observe
Halley's comet.
China 
[1] Description Comet P/Halley as
taken March 8, 1986 by W. Liller,
Easter Island, part of the
International Halley Watch (IHW) Large
Scale Phenomena Network. Date image
taken on 8. Mar. 1986 Source NSSDC's
Photo Gallery (NASA):
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/photo_gallery
/photogallery-comets.html
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image/planeta
ry/comet/lspn_comet_halley1.jpg Autho
r NASA/W. Liller Permission (Reusing
this file) Copyright information
from
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/photo_gallery
/photogallery-faq.html - All of the
images presented on NSSDC's Photo
Gallery are in the public domain. As
such, they may be used for any purpose.
[...] PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2a/Lspn_comet_halley.jpg

2,231 YBN
[231 BC] 		833) The earliest evidence of gears:
the spur and worm gears by Archimedes.


A gear is a toothed machine part, such
as a wheel or cylinder, that meshes
with another toothed part to transmit
motion or to change speed or
direction.

Archimedes uses a worm drive in a crane
to launch large ships into water, which
he calls the "barulkon".
Syracuse, Sicily 
[1] Description Archimedes' screw.
Public domain, from Chambers's
Encyclopedia (Philadelphia: J. B.
Lippincott Company, 1875). Added to
illustrate article en:Archimedes. Date
2007-06-18 (original upload
date) Source Originally from
en.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. Author Original uploader
was Ianmacm at en.wikipedia PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/82/Archimedes_screw.JPG

[2] Description Deutsch: animierte
Prinzip einer Foerderschnecke oder auch
Archimedesche Spirale genannt, mit
einer Kugel zur Demonstration der
Foerderbewegung. Date published
06.Mai 2007 Source
File:Archimedes-screw_one-screw-thr
eads_with-ball_3D-view_animated.gif
created by Silberwolf Author
Silberwolf (size changed by:
Jahobr) Permission (Reusing this
file) Own work, share alike,
attribution required (Creative Commons
CC-BY-SA-2.5) CC
source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wik
ipedia/commons/a/a1/Archimedes-screw_one
-screw-threads_with-ball_3D-view_animate
d.gif
2,230 YBN
[230 BC] 		1034) The letter "G" is added to the
Latin alphabet in Rome, as the seventh
letter replacing the letter Z.
 
[1] The Latin alphabet was used for the
language of Latin - which was spoken by
the Romans. It was developed around 400
BCE. Since the Roman Empire covered a
good portion of Europe - the Latin
alphabet was spread throughout Europe -
and later around the world. UNKNOWN
source: http://i1.squidoocdn.com/resize/
squidoo_images/590/draft_lens19075914mod
ule156500317photo_1327177503latin_alphab
et.gif
2,208 YBN
[208 BC] 		1051) The beginning of the construction
of the Great Wall of China.
 
[1] Description English: The Great
Wall of China at Mutianyu, near
Beijing, in July 2006. Français : La
Grande Muraille vue de Mutianyu, près
de Pékin, en juillet 2006. Date
2006-07-21 Camera
location 40° 25′ 44.95″ N,
116° 34′ 2.9″ E This and other
images at their locations on: Google
Maps - Google Earth - OpenStreetMap
(Info) Source Own work Author
Nicolas Perrault
III Permission (Reusing this file)
English: You hereby have the
permission to use, copy, modify, and
redistribute this image, all without
attribution, unless such attribution is
required by law. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Great_Wall_of_C
hina_July_2006.JPG/1280px-Great_Wall_of_
China_July_2006.JPG

[2] English: Map of the Great Wall of
China Español: Mapa de la Gran
Muralla China Français : Carte de
la Grande Muraille de Chine
Português: Mapa da Grande Muralha da
China Русский: Карта
Великой Китайской
стены Date April 2008 Source
Self made, using the following
sources: National Geographic's
map of the Great Wall Jan,
Michel / Michaud, Roland / Michaud,
Sabrina: Die Chinesische Mauer,
München 2000 (Hirmer), ISBN
3-7774-8680-9 svg map of Asia
from for the orientation map inlay
Asie.svg NASA World Wind for the
topological background, adapted in the
German graphic lab by Rainer Zenz
Satellitenbild Nordchina und
Mongolei.jpg Satellitenbild
Nordchina und Mongolei-2.jpg A
map of the world known to the Han
dynasty originally from Saperaud to get
the course of the Silk Route Han
foreign relations CE 2 chinese.jpg
A map of the walls from the Warring
States Period from Like tears in rain
to get the locations of them
GreatWallChina1.png A map of the
Warring States originally uploaded by
Louis le Grand to understand the
political situation in the Warring
States Period
Streitende-Reiche2.jpg Edge-firefox
.svg This map is the result from a
map request to the Kartenwünsche in
the Kartenwerkstatt. You can make a
request for a new map to us as
well. Deutsch
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Map_of_the_Grea
t_Wall_of_China.jpg/1273px-Map_of_the_Gr
eat_Wall_of_China.jpg
2,196 YBN
[196 BC] 		1267) The "Rosetta Stone" is inscribed
in three scripts, Egyptian hieroglyphs,
Egyptian demotic, and Greek.
Egypt  
2,186 YBN
[186 BC] 		1117) The earliest Chinese mathematic
text.
Zhangjiashan, Hubei Provience,
China 
[1] Fig. 1. Some of the bamboo strips
on which the Suàn shù shū was
written. Counting from the right, the
first strip shows the label Suàn shù
shū, “Writings on Reckoning,” that
described the contents of the original
bundle. The second, third, fourth, and
eighth strips show section titles above
the upper node of the bamboo, and the
second and fifth strips have the names
Wáng and Yáng below their lower
nodes. The ninth strip has the words
Yáng yıˇ chóu, “Checked by
Yáng,” below the lower node. In the
numbering system used for the
translation in [Cullen, 2004], the
strips shown here are numbered as 6
(reverse side shown here), 119, 148,
113, 102, 101, 134, 133, and 56.
Reproduced with permission from {Péng,
2001}. COPYRIGHTED [1] The Nine
Chapters on the Mathematical
Art Source:
http://www.chinapage.com/jiuzhang.gif P
D
source: http://ars.sciencedirect.com/con
tent/image/1-s2.0-S0315086005001084-gr00
2.jpg


source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:%E4%B9%9D%E7%AB%A0%E7%AE%97%E8%A1%93.
gif
2,160 YBN
[160 BC] 		1029) The distance to the Moon is
measured by Hipparchus using parallax;
by measuring how much an object appears
to move compared to a more distant
object when the observer changes
positions.

Hipparchos determines the distance to
the Moon from Earth to be between 62 to
72 1/2 times the radius of Earth; close
to the correct value of 60 times the
radius of Earth.
(before 141 BC) Bithynia (presumably
Nicaea)|(observatory on) Island of
Rhodes, Greece 
[1] Hipparchus (196 BC – 120 BC) was
born in Nicaea (now Iznik, Turkey), and
probably died on the island of Rhodes.
He is known to have been a working
astronomer at least from 147 BC to 127
BC. UNKNOWN
source: http://web.jccc.edu/gallery/astr
otext/Bills%20Files/Astronomy%20Textbook
/Chapter%203_files/img12qwe.jpg

[2] Hipparchus compared observations
of a solar eclipse in Syene and in
Alexandria to determine the distance
from the Earth to the
Moon. Hipparchus measured the
distance from the Earth to the Moon
during a solar eclipse that was a total
eclipse at Syene and a partial eclipse
at Alexandria. At the same time that an
observer at Syene saw the entire Sun
blocked by the Moon, one at Alexandria
saw 1/5th of the Sun's disk, that is
1/5th of 30 arcminutes of the Sun's
disk was visible (The Sun's angular
diameter is 30 arcminutes or 1/2
degree). The angular size of the
visible Sun seen at Alexandria
therefore is 1/10th of a degree (0.1
degree) and this angle, expressed in
radians and applying the small angle
approximation gives the ratio of the
Syene-Alexandria distance to the
Earth-Moon distance. UNKNOWN
source: http://astrosun2.astro.cornell.e
du/academics/courses//astro201/hipparchu
s.htm
2,160 YBN
[160 BC] 		6477) The law of inertia (that a body
preserves its motion) is understood by
Hipparchus.

Hipparchus is the first person known to
reject Aristotle's theory of motion
which states that an object needs a
continuous force to keep the object
moving, arguing instead that an initial
force on an object is all that is
needed and that the motion then
continues indefinitely.
(before 141 BC) Bithynia (presumably
Nicaea)|(observatory on) Island of
Rhodes, Greece 
[1] Hipparchus (196 BC – 120 BC) was
born in Nicaea (now Iznik, Turkey), and
probably died on the island of Rhodes.
He is known to have been a working
astronomer at least from 147 BC to 127
BC. UNKNOWN
source: http://web.jccc.edu/gallery/astr
otext/Bills%20Files/Astronomy%20Textbook
/Chapter%203_files/img12qwe.jpg

[2] image of Hipparchos from coin?
http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/hist
ory/Mathematicians/Hipparchus.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Hipparchos_1.jpeg
2,150 YBN
[150 BC] 		1039) The theory that the universe is
infinite in size by the Greek
astronomer Seleucus {SeLYUKuS} of
Seleucia.
Seleucus also supports the sun-centered
theory of Aristarchus.
Seleucia (on the Tigris River),
Babylon 
[1] from: Plutarch, ''Plutarch's
Morals, Volume 10'',
p438-439. http://books.google.com/books
?id=unNXAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA438
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=unNXAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA438
2,140 YBN
[140 BC] 		1070) The invention of paper in China.

Paper is a sheet of fibers formed on a
fine screen from a mixture of fibers
and water. When the water drains away,
the remaining mat of fibers is removed
from the screen and dried.

Paper making will reach Central Asia by
751, but not until the 1100s is there a
paper mill in Europe.
Pa-chhiao near Sian in the Shensi
province of China|Xian, China 
[1] Description Early Chinese hemp
fiber paper, used for wrapping not
writing, on display at the Shaanxi
history museum in Xi'An, China.
Excavated from the Han Tomb of Wu Di
(140-87 BC) at Baqiao, Xi'An. Photo by
Yannick Trottier, 2007 Date 22
June 2007 Source Own work Author
Ytrottier GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/7f/Chinese_hemp_paper_we
stern_han.jpg

[2] It's the earliest Paper in the
world : Western Han (140-87
BC) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.amateras.com/trip/chi
na/12Sha-Paper360x240.jpg
2,134 YBN
[134 BC] 		1041) Hipparchus observes a "new star"
(a nova), and creates the first star
catalog that uses celestial coordinates
of latitude and longitude, and that
divides stars by brightness. Hipparchus
also recognizes the "precession of the
equinoxes"; that the position of the
stars at equinox changes slightly each
year, so that the north celestial pole
move in a slow circle in the sky,
completing a full circle in 26,700
years.
(observatory on) Island of Rhodes,
Greece 
[1] Hipparchus (196 BC – 120 BC) was
born in Nicaea (now Iznik, Turkey), and
probably died on the island of Rhodes.
He is known to have been a working
astronomer at least from 147 BC to 127
BC. UNKNOWN
source: http://web.jccc.edu/gallery/astr
otext/Bills%20Files/Astronomy%20Textbook
/Chapter%203_files/img12qwe.jpg

[2] image of Hipparchos from coin?
http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/hist
ory/Mathematicians/Hipparchus.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Hipparchos_1.jpeg
2,105 YBN
[105 BC] 		1042) The largest and most accurate
size for the Sun is calculated by
Poseidonius.
  
2,100 YBN
[100 BC] 		870) The earliest known metal spur gear
and mechanical computer, the
Antikythera {aNTiKutEro} device
(Αντικυθήρων); a hand
cranked astronomical clock that shows
the Metonic cycle and the phases of the
Moon.
near the island of Antikythera,
Mediterranean Sea 
[1] English: Main w:en:Antikythera
mechanism fragment (fragment A). The
mechanism consists of a complex system
of 30 wheels and plates with
inscriptions relating to signs of the
zodiac, months, eclipses and
pan-Hellenic games. The study of the
fragments suggests that this was a kind
of astrolabe. The interpretation now
generally accepted dates back to
studies by Professor w:en:Derek de
Solla Price, who was the first to
suggest that the mechanism is a machine
to calculate the solar and lunar
calendar, that is to say, an ingenious
machine to determine the time based on
the movements of the sun and moon,
their relationship (eclipses) and the
movements of other stars and planets
known at that time. Later research by
the Antikythera Mechanism Research
Project and scholar Michael Wright has
added to and improved upon Price's
work. The mechanism was probably built
by an mechanic engineer of the school
of Posidonius in Rhodes. Cicero, who
visited the island in 79/78 B.C.
reported that such devices were indeed
designed by the Stoic philosopher
Posidonius of Apamea. The design of the
Antikythera mechanism appears to follow
the tradition of Archimedes'
planetarium, and may be related to
sundials. His modus operandi is based
on the use of gears. The machine is
dated around 89 B.C. and comes from the
wreck found off the island of
Antikythera. National Archaeological
Museum, Athens, No. 15987. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/66/NAMA_Machine_d%27Anti
cyth%C3%A8re_1.jpg

[2] English: Fragment A (rear) of the
Antikythera mechanism. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a4/NAMA_Machine_d%27Anti
cyth%C3%A8re_4.jpg
2,079 YBN
[79 BC] 		6535) Plums are grown in Italy.
Pompeii, Naples, Italy 
[1] English: Pompeian painter around 70
AD Still life with glass bowl of fruit
and vases Museo Archeologico Nazionale
(Naples) Roman painting. Second
Pompeian Style, from the House of Julia
Felix in Pompeii. The Yorck Project:
10.000 Meisterwerke der Malerei.
DVD-ROM, 2002. ISBN 3936122202.
Distributed by DIRECTMEDIA Publishing
GmbH. http://mail.wikipedia.org/piperma
il/wikide-l/2005-April/012195.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Pompejanischer_
Maler_um_70_001.jpg/1280px-Pompejanische
r_Maler_um_70_001.jpg
2,075 YBN
[75 BC] 		1116) Negative numbers are used in
China.
Round counting rods are colored white
or red for positive numbers and black
for negative numbers.
China 
[1] [t Image of how Chinese counting
rods are used to represent positive and
negative numbers] GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cou
nting_rods

[2] Digital text of the Nine Chapters
on the Mathematical Art. PD
source: http://science.math.ntnu.edu.tw/
ELME/GEO/files/001.jpg
2,073 YBN
[73 BC] 		6536) Sweet cherry trees are grown in
Turkey.
 
[1] Prunus avium fruit; Northumberland,
UK; 14 August 2006 GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Prunus_avium_fr
uit.jpg/1019px-Prunus_avium_fruit.jpg

[2] Description English: A map of
the Middle east, Greece and Asia minor,
showing the states at the breakout of
the first Mithridatic war, 89 BC. Date
Sunday, may 17, 1009 (17 May 2009
(original upload date)) Source
Transferred from
en.wikipedia (Original text : I
created this work entirely by myself.
Historical Sources used: Penguin
Historical Atlas, Historical Atlas of
Ancient Rome by Nick
Constable.) Author Javierfv1212
(talk). Original uploader was
Javierfv1212 at
en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) Released into the public
domain (by the author). PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/fd/1stMithritadicwar89BC
.png
2,056 YBN
[56 BC] 		1045) The theory that light is made of
atoms that move very fast by Roman
philosopher and poet Lucretius.

In "De rerum natura" Lucretius writes
(translated from Latin): "...the
velocity with which these images travel
is enormous: light things made of fine
atoms ("corporibus") often travel very
swiftly, as sunlight; it is natural
then that these images should do the
same; of which too there is a constant
succession one following on the other
like light or heat from the sun. ...".
Rome, Italy 
[1] Text copied from: Titus Carus
Lucretius, ''T. Lucreti Cari De rerum
natura libri sex, Volume 1'', 1866,
lines 176-229,
p530 http://books.google.com/books?id=o
iUTAAAAQAAJ PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=oiUTAAAAQAAJ

[2] Text copied from: Titus Carus
Lucretius, ''T. Lucreti Cari De rerum
natura libri sex, Volume 1'', 1866,
lines 176-229,
p530 http://books.google.com/books?id=o
iUTAAAAQAAJ PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=oiUTAAAAQAAJ
2,050 YBN
[50 BC] 		1050) The first glass blowing; in
Jerusalem.
(origin of glass blowing probably in
the Syro-Palestine area, but earliest
artifact is from) Jerusalem 
[1] AVIGAD, N. “Excavations in the
Jewish Quarter of the Old City of
Jerusalem, 1971 (Third Preliminary
Report).” Israel Exploration Journal
22.4 (1972):
193–200. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
27925355 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2792
5355

[2] AVIGAD, N. “Excavations in the
Jewish Quarter of the Old City of
Jerusalem, 1971 (Third Preliminary
Report).” Israel Exploration Journal
22.4 (1972):
193–200. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
27925355 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2792
5355
2,045 YBN
[01/01/45 BC] 		1056) The Julian calendar: 365 days
with an extra day every 4 years.
Rome (presumably) 
[1] Description: Büste des Gaius
Iulius Caesar PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Giulio-cesare-enhanced_1-800x1450.jpg


[2] Julius Caesar PD
source: http://www4.vjc.edu/ENG36002Sp02
/discuss/msgReader$35
2,040 YBN
[40 BC] 		1058) The earliest waterwheel, and the
earliest elevator (or vertical lift)
are described by Roman engineer
Vitruvius.

In his book "De architectura" Roman
engineer Vitruvius describes the
undershot water wheel and lifting
platforms operated by human, animal, or
water power.
Rome 
[1] Description Nederlands:
Repronegatief. Kintjir of
waterschepwiel in Djambi, Sumatra Date
1914-1921 Source
Tropenmuseum Author
Unknown Permission (Reusing this
file) See below. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c6/COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEU
M_Kintjir_of_waterschepwiel_in_Djambi_Su
matra_TMnr_10007886.jpg

[2] [t Notice that the oxen walk in
circles and there must be some 90
degree gear below deck - an animal
powered boat.] XVth century miniature
of an ox-powered paddle wheel boat from
the 4th century Roman military treatise
De Rebus Bellicis by Anonymous PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c0/De_Rebus_Bellicis%2C_
XVth_Century_Miniature.JPG
2,037 YBN
[37 BC] 		6549) The germ theory of disease; that
disease can be caused by tiny living
organisms by Marcus Terentius Varro.
Rome (presumably) 
[1] Varro, M.T., and H. Keil. Rerum
Rusticarum Libri Tres. In aedibus B.G.
Teubneri, 1889. Bibliotheca Scriptorum
Graecorum Et Romanorum Teubneriana,
p28. http://books.google.com/books?id=C
OffAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA28 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=COffAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA28

[2] Marcus Varro PD
source: http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcr
op/history/lecture19/fig_19-03.jpg
2,008 YBN
[8 BC] 		1049) Silk from China is traded as far
west as Rome.
Rome 
[1] Fresco depicting the reading of the
rituals of the bridal mysteries
English: Roman Painting - Villa dei
Misteri - Pompeii - Italia.
Italiano: Rituale di iniziazione ai
Misteri. Dettaglio dell'affresco della
Villa dei Misteri a Pompei, dipinto nel
''secondo stile'' pompeiano, del 60
a.C. circa. Date 60/50 BC Source
fresco Author Unknown PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/49/Roman_Painting_1.jpg
1,991 YBN
[9 AD] 		1055) Stack-Casting is invented in
China. In this technique multiple metal
objects are cast vertically.
 
[1] Needham, J., and L. Wang. Science
and Civilisation in China. University
Press, 2008. Science & Civilisation in
China. http://books.google.com/books?id
=FAud8CE5stsC&pg=PA155 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=FAud8CE5stsC&pg=PA155
1,980 YBN
[20 AD] 		1390) The monotheistic religion:
Christianity is founded, branching from
Judaism.
Galilee 
[1] Mural painting from the catacomb of
Commodilla. Bust of Christ. This is one
of first bearded images of Christ,
during the 4th century Jesus was
beginning to be depicted as older and
bearded, in contrast to earlier
Christian art, which usually showed a
young and clean-shaven Jesus. *
Date: Late 4th century *
Commodilla catacombs Christ from
http://drwagnernet.com/40a/lecture-view.
cfm?lecture=5&image=10 Cristo barbato
(dettaglio), affresco 60x72, fine
IV-inizio V secolo, Catacombe di
Commodilla, Roma PD
source: http://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki
/Image:Christ_with_beard.jpg

[2] This image of what Jesus may have
looked like is on the cover of Popular
Mechanics this month. Israeli and
British forensic anthropologists and
computer programmers got together to
create the face featured in the
1.2-million circulation magazine [t
knowing the dishonesty of Popular
Mechanics' 9/11 ''debunking'', I have
serious doubts about anything they
funded, but I don't see a head like
this as being unlikely. Roman
depictions have no beard until later,
would beard not be
longer?] COPYRIGHTED
source: http://archives.cnn.com/2002/TEC
H/science/12/25/face.jesus/
1,950 YBN
[50 AD] 		1078) The steam engine by Heron of
Alexandria.

Heron invents an aeolipile
{E-oL-u-PIL}, which is a hollow metal
sphere that rotates from the power of
steam jets that escape through open
tubes on each side of the sphere.

Heron also reasons that because air can
be compressed, air must be made of
particles separated by space.

Heron describes the syphon, syringe,
and uses gears to make the first known
odometer (a meter that indicates the
distance traveled) for a chariot.

The steam engine will not be used for
practical purposes until the 1600s.
Alexandria, Egypt 
[1] Name of Image: Hero's Engine MIX
#: 9513982 NIX #: MSFC-9513982 Date
of Image: 2004-04-15 Category: Early
Rockets Full Description:
Legendary characters used the power of
mythology to fly through the heavens.
About 200 BC, a Greek inventor known as
Hero of Alexandria came up with a new
invention that depended on the
mechanical interaction of heat and
water. He invented a rocket-like device
called an aeolipile. It used steam for
propulsion. Hero mounted a sphere on
top of a water kettle. A fire below the
kettle turned the water into steam, and
the gas traveled through the pipes to
the sphere. Two L-shaped tubes on
opposite sides of the sphere allowed
the gas to escape, and in doing so gave
a thrust to the sphere that caused it
to rotate. (MRPO) MRD/SPD
Discipline(s): n/a (MRPO) Subject
Type: n/a Keywords: Hero's Engine,
Aeolipile MSFC Negative Number:
9513982 Reference Number:
MSFC-75-SA-4105-2C n/a
n/a from: http://mix.msfc.nasa.gov/ab
stracts.php?p=1867 PD
source: http://mix.msfc.nasa.gov/IMAGES/
HIGH/9513982.jpg

[2] Hero's aeolipile From Knight's
American Mechanical Dictionary, 1876.
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Aeolipile_illustration.JPG
1,950 YBN
[50 AD] 		6566) A wind-wheel powered machine by
Heron of Alexandria.
Alexandria, Egypt 
[1] Description Deutsch:
Neuzeitliche Rekonstruktion von
Windorgel und Windrad des Heron von
Alexandria (1. Jh. n. Chr.) nach W.
Schmidt: Herons von Alexandria
Druckwerke und Automatentheater,
griechisch und deutsch hg., 1899
(Heronis Alexandrini opera I, Neudruck
1971), S. 205, Abb. 44; vgl. ebenda
Einleitung S. XXXIX English: Modern
reconstruction of wind organ and wind
wheel of Heron of Alexandria (1st
century AD) according to W. Schmidt:
Herons von Alexandria Druckwerke und
Automatentheater, Greek and German,
1899 (Heronis Alexandrini opera I,
Reprint 1971), p. 205, fig. 44; cf.
introduction p. XXXIX Date
1899 Source W. Schmidt: Herons von
Alexandria Druckwerke und
Automatentheater, gr-dt, 1899 Author
W. Schmidt PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Heron%27s_Windw
heel.jpg/1026px-Heron%27s_Windwheel.jpg

[2] Hero's aeolipile From Knight's
American Mechanical Dictionary, 1876.
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Aeolipile_illustration.JPG
1,935 YBN
[65 AD] 		6432) The glass prism is described by
Roman philosopher Seneca.
Rome 
[1] Description Seneca, part of
double-herm in Antikensammlung
Berlin Date 21 May 2004 Source Own
work Author Calidius GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/9b/Seneca-berlinantikens
ammlung-1.jpg
1,925 YBN
[75 AD] 		1270) The last cuneiform texts. This
ends 3000 years of cuneiform writing.
Sumer/Babylon (Southern Iraq) 
[1] Sachs, Abraham. ''The latest
datable cuneiform tablets.'' Kramer
Anniversary Volume. Alter Orient und
Altes Testament 25 (1976): 379-98. ALSO
IN Kramer, Samuel Noah, et al., eds.
Kramer Anniversary Volume. Vol. 25.
Butzon & Bercker, 1976, Plate
19. COPYRIGHTED
source: Sachs, Abraham. "The latest
datable cuneiform tablets." Kramer
Anniversary Volume. Alter Orient und
Altes Testament 25 (1976): 379-98. ALSO
IN Kramer, Samuel Noah, et al., eds.
Kramer Anniversary Volume. Vol. 25.
Butzon & Bercker, 1976, Plate 19.

[2] Sachs, Abraham. ''The latest
datable cuneiform tablets.'' Kramer
Anniversary Volume. Alter Orient und
Altes Testament 25 (1976): 379-98. ALSO
IN Kramer, Samuel Noah, et al., eds.
Kramer Anniversary Volume. Vol. 25.
Butzon & Bercker, 1976,
p398. COPYRIGHTED
source: Sachs, Abraham. "The latest
datable cuneiform tablets." Kramer
Anniversary Volume. Alter Orient und
Altes Testament 25 (1976): 379-98. ALSO
IN Kramer, Samuel Noah, et al., eds.
Kramer Anniversary Volume. Vol. 25.
Butzon & Bercker, 1976, p398.
1,923 YBN
[77 AD] 		1083) The earliest Encyclopedia: Pliny
the Elder's "Historia naturalis"
("Natural History").
Spain? 
[1] Contemporary laced limp parchment
wrapper made from a bifolium of a 14th
century [?] Italian missal, rubricated,
red and blue initials. Binding for:
Francesco Massari, … In nonum Plinii
de naturali historia librum
castigationes & annotationes. Basel:
Froben, 1537. (ExRockey) 2008-0021N •
Massari (fl. 1530), a Venetian
physician, comments on the ninth book
of the Natural History of Pliny (1st
cent. AD), covering fish and marine
life. The work’s editor, Beatus
Rhenanus (1485-1547), stated that
Massari’s comments were based on his
extensive voyages and observations in
the Mediterranean and Adriatic. PD
source: http://blogs.princeton.edu/rareb
ooks/Massari-wrapper.JPG

[2] MS1000 The Pliny of Saint James in
the March: Historia Naturalis Italy
c1400 PD
source: http://www.schoyencollection.com
/lexical_files/ms1000.jpg
1,920 YBN
[80 AD] 		1077) An encyclopedia of medical plants
and drugs.
Tingentera, Southern Spain 
[1] Dioscorides from www.nlm.nih.gov PD

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Dioscorides.jpg

[2] Dioscorides: Materia Medica.
(Arabic copy) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Arabic_herbal_medicine_guidebook.jpeg

1,917 YBN
[83 AD] 		766) The earliest magnetic compass; in
China.
China (more specific) 
[1] Figure from: Joseph Needham,
''Science and Civilization in China'',
vol 4, part 1, 1962,
p230-268. {Needham_China_compass_1962.p
df} COPYRIGHTED
source: Joseph Needham, "Science and
Civilization in China", vol 4, part 1,
1962,
p230-268. {Needham_China_compass_1962.p
df}

[2] ''The south-pointing fish'' was
recorded in the documents of the
Northern Song Dynasty. Such
direction-pointing device is a thin
steel plate cut into the shape of a
fish magnetized in the geomagnetic
field. The tail of the fish is
magnetized in the geological direction
of the North Pole, thus the tail has
the south magnetic pole and the head of
the fish has the north magnetic pole.
When put into the water, the floating
fish has its head pointing to the
south. UNKNOWN
source: http://kaleidoscope.cultural-chi
na.com/chinaWH/images/exbig_images/3ee20
b9ad9430ca4fcd43b3165a315c5.jpg
1,900 YBN
[100 AD] 		5861) The earliest known complete
musical composition, including musical
notation (the Epitaph of Seikilos).
(now Aidin, Turkey) (verify) 
[1] Seikilos søjlen Seikilos Epitaph
(200 f.Kr.) οσον ζης,
φαίνου (oson zis,
fainou) μηδέν ‘ολως
συλυπού (miden olos
silittou) προς ολίγον
εσtί to ζην, (pros oligon esti to
zin,) το τέλος ο χρόνος
απαιτεί (to telos o chronos
apeti) Skjul ikke dit lys så længe
du lever, Sørg aldrig helt til
bunds, Livet løber kun en kort
stund, Tiden sætter en fast
fermin (Oversættelse, Carsten
Høeg) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.natmus.dk/graphics/Pr
essefoto/antik/seikilos.jpg

[2] Seiklos inscription UNKNOWN
source: http://www.geoffknorr.com/image/
images/Seikilos_Inscription.svg.png
1,900 YBN
[100 AD] 		6638) The earliest distillation; in
Alexandria.

Distillation is the process of
evaporating or boiling a liquid and
condensing its vapor.
Alexandria, Egypt 
[1] Forbes, Robert James. A short
history of the art of distillation:
from the beginnings up to the death of
Cellier Blumenthal. BRILL. 1948,
p21. COPYRIGHTED
source: Forbes, Robert James. A short
history of the art of distillation:
from the beginnings up to the death of
Cellier Blumenthal. BRILL. 1948, p21.

[2] Forbes, Robert James. A short
history of the art of distillation:
from the beginnings up to the death of
Cellier Blumenthal. BRILL. 1948,
p20. COPYRIGHTED
source: Forbes, Robert James. A short
history of the art of distillation:
from the beginnings up to the death of
Cellier Blumenthal. BRILL. 1948, p21.
1,850 YBN
[150 AD] 		1087) Ptolomy's "Almagest" (or
"syntaxis"), which contains: a star
catalog of 1022 stars (listed with
their latitudes, longitudes, and
magnitudes), and an Earth-centered
model of the universe, with the Earth a
stationary sphere in the center,
surrounded by 7 larger planetary
spheres, one for the Moon, the Sun, and
the 5 known planets, with an additional
sphere for the fixed stars.
(in Mouseion?) Alexandria, Egypt 
[1] Peter Apian, Cosmographia, Antwerp,
1524 PD
source: http://heliophysics.files.wordpr
ess.com/2012/05/ptolemaic_system.jpg

[2] An early Baroque artist's
rendition of Claudius Ptolemaeus
(Greek: Κλαύδιος
Πτολεμαῖος Klaúdios
Ptolemaîos; c. AD 90 – c. 168),
known in English as Ptolemy , was a
Roman citizen of Egypt who wrote in
Greek. He was a mathematician,
astronomer, geographer, astrologer and
a poet of a single epigram in the Greek
Anthology. He lived in Egypt under
Roman rule, and is believed to have
been born in the town of Ptolemais
Hermiou in the Thebaid. He died in
Alexandria around AD 168. Ptolemy
was the author of several scientific
treatises, at least three of which were
of continuing importance to later
Islamic and European science. The first
is the astronomical treatise now known
as the Almagest (in Greek, Ἡ
Μεγάλη Σύνταξις, ''The
Great Treatise'', originally
Μαθηματικὴ Σύνταξις,
''Mathematical Treatise''). The second
is the Geography, which is a thorough
discussion of the geographic knowledge
of the Greco-Roman world. The third is
the astrological treatise known
sometimes in Greek as the
Apotelesmatika
(Ἀποτελεσματικά), more
commonly in Greek as the Tetrabiblos
(Τετράβιβλος ''Four
books''), and in Latin as the
Quadripartitum (or four books) in which
he attempted to adapt horoscopic
astrology to the Aristotelian natural
philosophy of his day. Uploaded on
en:wiki by
en:User:Tuckerresearch. It is under
public domain because it comes from an
old manuscript. PD
source: http://i296.photobucket.com/albu
ms/mm192/dog2010/Ptolemaeus.jpg
1,850 YBN
[150 AD] 		6177) A bellow-fed musical organ.
  
1,838 YBN
[162 AD] 		971) The valves of the heart are
described, and that the brain controls
the voice is shown by Greek physician
Galen of Pergamum.
 
[1] Galen of Pergamon. Vasiliadis et
al. Scoliosis 2009 4:6
doi:10.1186/1748-7161-4-6 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.scoliosisjournal.com/
content/figures/1748-7161-4-6-11-l.jpg

[2] Description English: Claude
Galien. Lithograph by Pierre Roche
Vigneron. (Paris: Lith de Gregoire et
Deneux, ca.
1865). Date Source http://www.nlm.nih
.gov/hmd/greek/popup/images/galen_detail
.jpg Author NLM PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f5/Galen_detail.jpg
1,825 YBN
[175 AD] 		1068) The earliest evidence of a
crank-handle in China.
China  
1,823 YBN
[177 AD] 		1030) The Christian belief in a Devil
is described as a human invention by
Celsus (KeLSuS).
 
[1] Donaldson, J. Ante-Nicene Christian
Library: Origen Contra Celsum (1872).
T. and T. Clark, 1872. Ante-Nicene
Christian Library: Translations of the
Writings of the Fathers Down to A.D.
325,
p.380 http://books.google.com/books?id=
_WZKAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA380 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=_WZKAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA380
1,800 YBN
[200 AD] 		1073) The earliest "press-on" printing.
Chinese people put ink on Buddhist text
inscribed on marble pillars, and then
apply damp paper to the inscriptions to
make a copy of the text onto the paper.
China 
[1] Rubbing of the top panel of the
Nestorial Tablet Dated 781 CE, Tang
dynasty Ink rubbing on paper 52.23 x
31.91 cm Acquisition numbers:
#92.78.1 Gift of James K.
Penfield Image from Seattle Art
Museum PD
source: http://depts.washington.edu/silk
road/exhibit/religion/nestorians/images/
92_78_1.jpg
1,738 YBN
[262 AD] 		1031) Porphyry writes "Adversus
Christianos" (Against the Christians)
in 15 books, of which only fragments
remain.

Porfurios also advocates rights for the
other species.
 
[1] Description Imaginary debate
between Averroes And Porphyry Date
14th century Source Monfredo de
Monte Imperiali ''Liber de herbis'',
14th century. Reproduction in
''Inventions et decouvertes au
Moyen-Age'', Samuel Sadaune Author
Monfredo de Monte Imperiali PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/0/07/AverroesAndPorp
hyry.JPG/1280px-AverroesAndPorphyry.JPG

[2] Porphyry, ancient Greek
neoplatonist philosopher. Source:
http://www.phil-fak.uni-duesseldorf.de/p
hilo/galerie/antike/porphyr.html Porphy
rios aus Tyros, urspr. Malchos gen.,
ca. 234-301/05 v. Chr., Neuplatoniker,
lebenslanger Kontakt zu
Plotin, Herausgeber seiner Werke. PD
source: http://www.phil-fak.uni-duesseld
orf.de/philo/galerie/antike/porphyr.jpg
1,710 YBN
[290 AD] 		1092) An encyclopedia that summarizes
300 hundred writings on alchemy by
Zosimus of Panopolis.
Panopolis {now Akhmim}, Egypt 
[1] Distillation apparatus of Zosimos,
from Marcelin Berthelot, Collection des
anciens alchimistes grecs (3 vol.,
Paris, 1887-1888). Read more:
http://www.answers.com/topic/zosimos-of-
panopolis#ixzz2NTz2SaHo Berthelot,
M., and C.E. Ruelle. Collection Des
Anciens Alchimistes Grecs. G.
Steinheil, 1888. Collection Des Anciens
Alchimistes Grecs,
p163. http://books.google.com/books?id=
lrRXAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA163 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=lrRXAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA163
1,681 YBN
[319 AD] 		946) Christian priest of Alexandria,
Arius rejects the theory that Jesus was
divine.
 
[1] Arius UNKNOWN
source: http://www.goldenflowermeditatio
n.com/_Media/arius_med.jpeg

[2] Description English: Icon from
the Mégalo Metéoron Monastery in
Greece, representing the First
Ecumenical Council of Nikea 325 A.D.,
with the condemned Arius in the bottom
of the icon. Norsk (bokmål)‎: Ikon
fra Mégalo Metéoron Klosteret i
Hellas, med motiv fra det første
økumeniske konsil i Nikea (325 e.Kr.),
med kjetteren Arius i nederste del av
ikonet. Date 23 August 2008 Source
Own work Author Jjensen GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/da/Nikea-arius.png
1,679 YBN
[321 AD] 		4060) Constantine I establishes the
seven-day week in the Roman calendar
and makes Sunday the first day of the
week. The Sumerians and Babylonians had
divided the year into weeks of seven
days each, one of which they designated
as a day of recreation. The Babylonians
named each of the days after one of the
five planetary bodies known to them and
the Sun and the Moon, a custom later
adopted by the Romans.
Constantanople 
[1] Description
Rome-Capitole-StatueConstantin.jpg S
tatue de Constantin Ier, Musée du
Capitole, Rome Date 3 August
2007(2007-08-03) Source Oeuvre
personnelle Author
Jean-Christophe BENOIST GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/ce/Rome-Capitole-StatueC
onstantin.jpg
1,678 YBN
[322 AD] 		1063) The earliest stirrup (a
flat-based loop or ring hung from
either side of a horse's saddle to
support the rider's foot in mounting
and riding).
Nanjing, China|India|Asian
steppes|southern Siberia|Assyria 
[1] Dien, Albert E. “The Stirrup and
Its Effect on Chinese Military
History.” Ars Orientalis 16 (1986):
33–56. http://www.jstor.org/stable/46
29341 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/4629
341

[2] Dien, Albert E. “The Stirrup and
Its Effect on Chinese Military
History.” Ars Orientalis 16 (1986):
33–56. http://www.jstor.org/stable/46
29341 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/4629
341
1,675 YBN
[05/??/325 AD] 		947) The Council of Nicaea {nI-SE-u}
condemns the claim of Arius {u-rI-uS or
AR-E-uS}, that Jesus was not divine, as
a heresy.
Nicaea, Bithynia(now İznik,
Turkey) 
[1] Description English: Emperor
Constantine and the Council of Nicaea.
The burning of Arian books is
illustrated below. Drawing on vellum.
From MS CLXV, Biblioteca Capitolare,
Vercelli, a compendium of canon law
produced in northern Italy ca.
825. Text: ''Sinodus Niceni u[bi?]
[f?]ui[t?] numerus / s[an]c[t]o[rum]
patr[um] . CCCXVIII . et omnes /
subscrip/seru/n/t.'' ''Constantinus
imp(erator)''. ''Heretici / Arriani /
damnati'' Translation: ''[of?] the
synod of Nicaea [where the] number / of
holy fathers [was] 318 [.] and all /
subscribed.'' ''Constantine the
emperor.'' ''Arian heretics
condemned.'' Date circa 825 Source
Jean Hubert et al., Europe in the Dark
Ages (London: Thames & Hudson, 1969),
p. 143 Author file: James Steakley;
artwork: unknown PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Constantine_bur
ning_Arian_books.jpg/744px-Constantine_b
urning_Arian_books.jpg

[2] Description Eastern Orthodox icon
depicting the First Council of Nicea
(325).PD
source: http://santosapostolesmiami.org/
wp-content/uploads/2013/03/nicaeacouncil
.jpg
1,672 YBN
[328 AD] 		6451) The Arabic alphabet.
(early inscription) Namara, Syria 
[1] Fischer, S.R. A History of Writing.
Reaktion, 2001. Globalities Series.
p101. COPYRIGHTED
source: Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p101.

[2] Artist Unknown Description
Arabic epitaph of “Imru-l-Qays, son
of 'Amr, king of all the Arabs”,
inscribed in Nabataean script. Basalt,
dated in 7 Kislul, 223, viz. December,
7 328 AD. Found at Nemara in the Hauran
(Southern Syria). Dimensions H. 45 cm
(17 ½ in.), W. 1.73 m (5 ft. 8 in.),
D. 15 cm (5 ¾ in.) Current location
(Inventory)Louvre MuseumLink back to
Institution infobox
template Department of Oriental
Antiquities, Sully wing, ground floor,
room 19 Accession number AO
4083 Credit line Purchase,
1903 Source/Photographer Jastrow
(2007) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Epitaph_Imru-l-
Qays_Louvre_AO4083.jpg/1280px-Epitaph_Im
ru-l-Qays_Louvre_AO4083.jpg
AND http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiped
ia/commons/0/04/Dussad_Namara.jpg
1,669 YBN
[331 AD] 		1375) Roman emperor Constantine I
abolishes all pagan (polytheistic)
hospitals.
Constantanople 
[1] Description
Rome-Capitole-StatueConstantin.jpg S
tatue de Constantin Ier, Musée du
Capitole, Rome Date 3 August
2007(2007-08-03) Source Oeuvre
personnelle Author
Jean-Christophe BENOIST GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/ce/Rome-Capitole-StatueC
onstantin.jpg
1,609 YBN
[02/24/391 AD] 		1002) Roman Emperor Theodosius I
prohibits the visiting of non-Christian
temples (which includes the Serapeum in
Alexandria).
(presumably) Rome, Italy 
[1] Theodosius I UNKNOWN
source: http://finds.org.uk/images/ruler
s/Theodosius%20I.jpg

[2] Description Français :
Théodose Ier Date 2005-03-07
(original upload date) Source
Transfered from fr.wikipedia Transfer
was stated to be made by User:Alter
Mandarine. Author Original uploader
was Erine at
fr.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) Released under the GNU Free
Documentation License. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0b/Theodosius-1-.jpg
1,609 YBN
[391 AD] 		1003) The library in the Temple to
Serapis (the Serapeum) in Alexandria is
violently destroyed by Christian people
and the temple is converted to a
Christian church.
Alexandria, Egypt 
[1] Description Theophilus and the
Serapeum. Bishop Theophilus of
Alexandria, en:Gospel book in hand,
stands triumphantly atop the
en:Serapeum in en:391. The cult image
of en:Serapis, crowned with the
en:modius, is visible within the temple
at the bottom. Marginal illustration
from a chronicle written in Alexandria
in the early fifth century, thus
providing a nearly contemporary
portrait of Theophilus. P. Goleniscev 6
verso. (From A. Bauer and J.
Strygowski, ''Eine alexandrinische
Weltchronik,'' Denkschriften der
Kaiserlichen Akademie der
Wissenschaften: Wien 51.2 [en:1906]:
1-204, fig. 6 verso) Date 2002-11-10
(first version); 2004-05-14 (last
version) Source Originally from
en.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. Author Original uploader was
Eloquence at en.wikipedia Later
versions were uploaded by Hephaestos at
en.wikipedia. Permission (Reusing
this file) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/34/Theophil.jpg

[2] Serapeum Temple which housed the
''daughter library'' of the Library of
Alexandria. Source
www.alexandrinelibrarian.blogspot.com U
NKNOWN
source: http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_KQyC59
HU4I0/SrRlFDYM2iI/AAAAAAAAAC4/fmxC6-MP49
U/s320/Serapis_Temple02.jpg
1,606 YBN
[08/24/394 AD] 		1095) The last recorded hieroglyph
inscription in Egypt. By the 400s no
human will be able to read or
understand hieroglyphic writing.
island of Philae, near Aswan  
1,600 YBN
[400 AD] 		1072) The iron pillar of Delhi is
built.
Vishnupadagiri, India  
1,585 YBN
[03/??/415 AD] 		1009) The murder of Greek philosopher
Hypatia by Christian people.
(steps of a church called The Caesarium
) Alexandria, Egypt 
[1] Hypatia of Alexandria, aka the
''Pagan Scholar'' Cheered for
inventing the plane astrolabe, 1
Hypatia was slaughtered by Christian
monks in AD 415. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.dctc.edu/assets/pics/
spring-2010/hypatia.jpg

[2] Hypatia was a mathematician,
astronomer, teacher, editor, inventor,
musician, and author. In March, 415
A.D. she was murdered by a mob of
fanatics on the steps of a church
called The Caesarium in Alexandria,
Egypt. She has become a symbol of
martryed Reason, feminism, and
Classical paganism. UNKNOWN
source: http://cosmographica.com/alexand
ria/images/hypatia_portrait_large.jpg
1,584 YBN
[416 AD] 		1011) The Museum, the temple to the
Muses, is most likely destroyed by
Christians, like the temple to Sarapis
around this time.
 
[1] A reconstruction of the main hall
of the Museum of Alexandria used in the
series Cosmos by Carl Sagan. The wall
portraits show Alexander the Great
(left) and Serapis
(right). COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.thelivingmoon.com/43a
ncients/04images/Alexandria/Alexandria-C
osmosReconstruction1.jpg

[2] Credit:
s_davies@mail.utexas.edu The Library
of Alexandria was one of the best-known
of the libraries of the ancient world.
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.thelivingmoon.com/43a
ncients/04images/Alexandria/alexlibext.j
pg
1,552 YBN
[448 AD] 		1043) Eastern Roman Emperor Theodosius
II orders all non-Christian books
burned.
 
[1] Description English: Bust of
Byzantine Empreror Theodosius II
(reigned 408–450 AD). Marble, 5th
century AD. Français : Buste de
l'empereur byzantin Théodose II
(règne 408-450 ap. J.-C.). Marbre, Ve
siècle ap.
J.-C. Date Dimensions H. 29 cm (11
¼ in.) Current
location [show](Inventory)Louvre
Museum Département des Antiquités
grecques, étrusques et romaines,
Denon, ground floor, room 29 Accession
number Ma 1036 (OA 9056) Credit
line In the royal collections since
the 16th
century Source/Photographer Marie-Lan
Nguyen (User:Jastrow),
2009 Permission (Reusing this
file) See below. Other
versions P1080088 Louvre tête
empereur Téodose II Ma1036 rwk.JPG CC

source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Theodosius_II_L
ouvre_Ma1036.jpg/768px-Theodosius_II_Lou
vre_Ma1036.jpg

[2] THEODOSIUS II, 402-450, (son of
Arcadius) 10616. THEODOSIUS II.
AD 402-450. AV Solidus (20mm, 4.42 g,
12h). Ravenna mint. Struck AD 423-425.
Pearl-diademed, draped, and cuirassed
bust right / Emperor standing right,
holding labarum and Victory on globe,
placing foot on captive on the ground
below; R-V//COMOB. RIC X 1801; Depeyrot
7/3. Good VF. Ex Peus 369 (31 October
2001), lot 899. UNKNOWN
source: http://edgarlowen.com/theodosius
-10616.jpg
1,501 YBN
[499 AD] 		1309) The Earth rotation around its own
axis is described by Indian astronomer
and mathematician Aryabhata.
Kusumapura (modern Patna), India 
[1] Español: Estatua de Aryabhata en
India This image of a public statue in
IUCAA Pune was photographed in May 2006
by myself, and I release all
rights. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:2064_aryabhata-crp.jpg
1,500 YBN
[500 AD] 		1101) The first clinker-built boats
(planks are overlapped and joined by
sewing). The Viking ships.
Scandinavia 
[1] Description English: A
comparison of clinker-building and
carvel-building styles of boat
building. Date 2007-12-13 (first
version); 2007-12-13 (last
version) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia Author Original uploader
was Willhig at
en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) Released into the public
domain (by the author). PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Clinker-carvel.
svg/1000px-Clinker-carvel.svg.png

[2] Description Gokstadskipet,
Vikingskipmuseet, Oslo Date
2005 Source Own work Author
Karamell CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/53/Gokstadskipet1.jpg
1,500 YBN
[500 AD] 		1102) The first boats with a bulkhead,
a vertical wall that divides a ship
into compartments to add rigidity and
prevent the spread of water leakage.
China 
[1] Description Fig. 9 Compartments:
watertight subdivision Ships are
divided into compartments by walls
called bulkheads. Access to these
compartments is by doors or hatches,
designed, when closed, to keep the
compartment watertight. Date
1943 Source Scan from by Authority
of the Lords Commissioners of the
Admiralty (June 1943) A Seaman's
Pocket-Book, London: HMSO, pp. p.
11,fig. 9 Author Andy Dingley
(scanner) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e8/Compartments_and_wate
rtight_subdivision_of_a_ship%27s_hull_%2
8Seaman%27s_Pocket-Book%2C_1943%29.jpg
1,500 YBN
[500 AD] 		1329) Paper made of bark is used in
America.
Yucatán Peninsula 
[1] Part of the Huexotzinco Codex,
printed on amatl Source URL:
http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/treasures/tr
t045.html Image made in 1531 by Nahua
Indians in legal case in Mexico and
Spain against Spanish administrators
who abused them. The Indians were part
of the Cortes estate. Cortes was a
co-plantiff against the administrators
who mismanaged his estate. Image taken
form a Library of Congress page. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Huex_codex_1a_loc.jpg
1,472 YBN
[528 AD] 		1426) The law of inertia is confirmed
by John Philoponus, a Christian
philosopher in Alexandria, who
recognizes that the medium is actually
an impediment to a projectile's motion.
Alexandria, Egypt 
[1] The Iconoclast theologian John the
Grammarian and an Iconoclast bishop
whitewash an image of Christ, from a
9th century Psalter PD
source: http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_CijcaA
9yq58/SrTp9neBmfI/AAAAAAAADiI/YW-8LcUktW
4/s1600/Iconoclasm+scan.jpg

[2] [t Note that this is not
contemporary with
Grammarian] Description English:
The embassy of John the Grammarian in
829, between the Byzantine emperor
Theophilos (right) and the Abbasid
caliph Al-Ma'mun, from the Madrid
Skylitzes, fol. 47r, detail. Date
12th/13th century Source Chronicle
of John Skylitzes, cod. Vitr. 26-2,
Madrid National Library Author
Unknown, 12th/13th century author PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/22/John_the_Grammarian_a
s_ambassador_before_Theophilos_and_Mamun
.jpg
1,471 YBN
[529 AD] 		1014) Byzantine {BiZeNTEN} Emperor
Justinian closes the schools of
Alexandria and Athens (including
Plato's Academy).
Athens, Greece (and
Alexandria,Egypt) 
[1] Artist Meister von San Vitale in
Ravenna Title Justinian I , San
Vitale (Ravenna) Deutsch: Chormosaiken
in San Vitale in Ravenna, Szene: Kaiser
Justinian und Bischof Maximilianus und
sein Hof, Detail: Büste des
Justinian Italiano: Basilica di San
Vitale a Ravenna, L'imperatore
Giustiniano I e il suo seguito.
Dettaglio della decorazione a mosaico
bizantina, compiuta entro il 547.
Dettaglio: Giustiniano
I. Date Deutsch: vor 547 English:
before 547 Medium Deutsch:
Mosaik Current location San Vitale
in Ravenna. Ravenna. Notes Deutsch:
Ravennatische Schule,
italo-byzantinische Werkstatt,
Auftraggeber: Bischof Maximilian und
Bankier Julianus, Mosaik im
Chor Source/Photographer The Yorck
Project: 10.000 Meisterwerke der
Malerei. DVD-ROM, 2002. ISBN
3936122202. Distributed by DIRECTMEDIA
Publishing GmbH. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Meister_von_San
_Vitale_in_Ravenna.jpg/778px-Meister_von
_San_Vitale_in_Ravenna.jpg

[2] Description English: Basilica of
Sant'Apollinare Nuovo (mosaic of
Justinian I) Date 2008 Source Own
work Author Testus CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a2/Sant%27Apollinare_Nuo
vo_%28Justinian_I%29.jpg
1,458 YBN
[542 AD] 		1381) The Hôtel-Dieu in Lyon is
founded: the earliest hospital in
France.
Lyon, France 
[1] Hospital Hôtel-Dieu : patio
interior
source: http://www.lyon.fr/vdl/sections/
es/tourisme/histoire/?aIndex=2
1,411 YBN
[589 AD] 		1328) Toilet paper is used in China.
China 
[1] The Explanatory Notes to the Five
Classics (五经正义) was an official
book issued in the Tang Dynasty. The
five classics refer to the five
Confucius books, namely, the Classic of
Poetry, the Classic of History, the
Classic of Rites, the Classic of
Changes and Spring and Autumn Annals.
In the reign of Emperor Wu of the Han
Dynasty, the five books were reputed as
classics, thus having their name as
Five Classics. UNKNOWN
source: http://history.cultural-china.co
m/chinaWH/upload/upfiles/2008-12/24/expl
anatory_notes_to_the_five_classics502e1c
5858304ebb3671.jpg
1,400 YBN
[600 AD] 		1111) The earliest windmill, in Persia.
This windmill uses a vertical shaft and
horizontal sails to grind grain.
Persia (Iran) 
[1] (Images via: Ullesthorpe,
BluePlanet, DeutschesMuseum and
WorldofEnergy) UNKNOWN
source: http://cdn.webecoist.com/wp-cont
ent/uploads/2009/01/ancient-persian-wind
mills.jpg
1,387 YBN
[613 AD] 		1391) The monotheistic religion: Islam
is founded.
Mecca, Arabia (modern Saudi
Arabia) 
[1] Muhammd solves a dispute over
lifting the black stone into position
at al-Ka'ba. Note from pp. 100-101 of
''The illustrations to the World
history of Rashid al-Din / David Talbot
Rice ; edited by Basil Gray. Edinburgh
: Edinburgh University Press, c1976.''
- In the center, Muhammad, with two
long hair plaits, places the stone on a
carpet held at the four corners by
representatives of the four tribes, so
that all have the honor of lifting it.
The carpet is a kelim from Central
Asia. Behind, two other men lift the
black curtain which conceals the doors
of the sancuary. This work may be
assigned to the Master of the Scenes
from the Life of the Prophet. Source
Jami' al-Tavarikh (''The Compendium of
Chronicles'' or ''The Universal
Histroy'') This illustration is in a
folio in the Oriental Manuscript
Section of the Edinburgh University
Library, Special Collections and
Archives Date 1315 Author Rashid
Al-Din The earliest surviving image
of Muhammad from Rashid al-Din's Jami'
al-Tawarikh, approximately 1315,
depicting the episode of the Black
Stone. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Mohammed_kaaba_1315.jpg
1,360 YBN
[640 AD] 		1120) The first flame throwing weapon:
"Greek fire".
Constantinople 
[1] Depiction of Greek fire in the
Madrid Skylitzes manuscript. Image
from an illuminated manuscript showing
greek fire in use. From the Skylitzes
manuscript in Madrid PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Greekfire-madridskylitzes1.jpg
1,300 YBN
[700 AD] 		1118) The numerals (0 through 9), and
decimal notation are used in Pakistan.
Negative numbers are written with a
plus symbol "+" after them.
Bakhshali (near modern Peshawar,
Pakistan) 
[1] Combination of image 2 and
3 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.thecultureconcept.com
/circle/wp-content/uploads/2011/09/Bakhs
hali-Manuscript.jpg
AND http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiped
ia/commons/6/64/Bakhshali_numerals_1.jpg


[2] 3rd or 4th century The Bakhshali
Manuscript – is an early mathematical
manuscript discovered in 1881 near the
village Bakhshali (or Bakhshalai) in
the modern Peshawar district of
Pakistan. It is the only known document
on mathematics from this early period
of its culture and was written on birch
bark. 70 leaves, a few of which were
only scraps, survived to the time of
its discovery. It is a handbook of
rules and illustrative examples
together with their solutions. It is
devoted mainly to arithmetic and
algebra, with just a few problems on
geometry and mensuration. Only parts
have been restored, so we cannot be
certain about the balance between
different topics UNKNOWN
source: http://www.thecultureconcept.com
/circle/wp-content/uploads/2011/09/Bakhs
hali-Manuscript.jpg
1,249 YBN
[751 AD] 		1253) Acids are prepared and identified
by Arabian alchemist Jabir.
Jabir prepares
weak nitric acid, and distills vinegar
to get strong acetic acid.
Kufa, (now Iraq) 
[1] Portrait of Jabir ibn Hayyan
http://histoirechimie.free.fr/Lien/Geber
.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Geber.jpg

[2] alchemist Jabir ibn Hayyan, from a
15th c. European portrait of ''Geber'',
Codici Ashburnhamiani 1166, Biblioteca
Medicea Laurenziana, Florence, public
domain PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jabir_ibn_Hayyan.jpg
1,230 YBN
[770 AD] 		1060) Wood-cut Printing. Carved wood
block is a substitute to pressing paper
onto marble pillars covered in ink.
Text is written on a paper, applied
with rice paste to a block of wood, the
uninked parts are cut away, the block
is inked with a paintbrush, a sheet of
paper spread on it, and the back of the
sheet rubbed with a brush.
Japan 
[1]
http://specialcollections.wichita.edu/ex
hibits/aitchison/images/aitch05.jpg UNK
NOWN
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jingangjing.gif

[2] Printed sutra enclosed in a wood
pagoda Commissioned by the Empress
Shotoku-tenno in 764 AD (r.
765-769) Japan, Hyakumanto 19 cm x
10.3 cm pagoda and 7 x 45 cm scroll;
wood and paper UNKNOWN
source: http://specialcollections.wichit
a.edu/exhibits/aitchison/images/aitch05.
jpg
1,219 YBN
[781 AD] 		1254) Lower case letters are created by
English scholar Alcuin (oLKWiN).
Aachen, in north-west Germany, or York,
England 
[1] Raban Maur (left), supported by
Alcuin (middle), dedicates his work to
Archbishop Otgar of Mainz
(Right) Hrabanus Maurus, von Alcuin
empfohlen, übergibt sein Werk dem
Erzbischof von Mainz,
Otgar Carolingian
Manuscript manuscriptum Fuldense ca.
831/40, Österreichische
Nationalbibliothek Wien PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Raban-Maur_Alcuin_Otgar.jpg

[2] Page of text (folio 160v) from a
Carolingian Gospel Book (British
Library, MS Add. 11848), written in
Carolingian minuscule. Taken from
http://www.bl.uk/catalogues/illuminatedm
anuscripts/record.asp?MSID=8614&CollID=2
7&NStart=11848 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:BritLibAddMS11848Fol160rText.jpg
1,211 YBN
[789 AD] 		1256) Charlemagne {soRlemAN} (CE
c742-814) establishes schools where
math and grammar are taught.
Aachen, in north-west Germany 
[1] No description from Charlemagne's
lifetime exists.[2] Charlemagne and
Pippin the Hunchback (Karl der Große
und Pippin der Bucklige) 10th
century copy of a lost original, which
was made back between 829 and 836 in
Fulda for Eberhard von Friaul PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Karl_der_Grosse_-_Pippin_der_Bucklige
.jpg

[2] A portrait of Charlemagne by
Albrecht Dürer that was painted
several centuries after Charlemagne's
death. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Charlemagne-by-Durer.jpg
1,204 YBN
[796 AD] 		1255) Alcuin establishes a school in
Tours, France where scribes are trained
to carefully copy manuscripts.
Tours, France 
[1] Raban Maur (left), supported by
Alcuin (middle), dedicates his work to
Archbishop Otgar of Mainz
(Right) Hrabanus Maurus, von Alcuin
empfohlen, übergibt sein Werk dem
Erzbischof von Mainz,
Otgar Carolingian
Manuscript manuscriptum Fuldense ca.
831/40, Österreichische
Nationalbibliothek Wien PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Raban-Maur_Alcuin_Otgar.jpg

[2] Page of text (folio 160v) from a
Carolingian Gospel Book (British
Library, MS Add. 11848), written in
Carolingian minuscule. Taken from
http://www.bl.uk/catalogues/illuminatedm
anuscripts/record.asp?MSID=8614&CollID=2
7&NStart=11848 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:BritLibAddMS11848Fol160rText.jpg
1,200 YBN
[800 AD] 		6221) String instruments are played
with a bow.
River Oxus (modern) Turkmenistan
(Central Asia) 
[1] Fig 1: Byzantine, ivory casket
c.1000 (from Museo Nazionale, Florence,
Coll. Carrand, No.26) - earliest
depiction of a rebec like instrument.
Has pear shaped body blending into long
narrow neck. There is a definite
anchorpoint at the base, with a kind of
fleur tailpiece, though the pegs appear
to be missing from the depiction (no
other anchorpoint is clearly
indicated). There are only two strings,
and the bow is very long and narrow
(though it may simply be the artist
trying the show that the bow is
perpendicular to the surface of the
strings, thus appearing flat when
viewed edge on). No sound holes are
shown, the soundboard seems to be a
distinct, attached piece (possibly a
skin covering much like in rababs).
This is the instrument in
transition. PD
source: http://crab.rutgers.edu/~pbutler
/ob09.jpg

[2] Fig 2: Spanish, Catalan Psalter,
c.1050. (''King David and musicians
tuning their instruments'' in
Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris, MS Lat.
11550, fol. 7v)- Shows a normal pear
body shape. Three distinct strings,
attached to a triangular tailpiece at
the base, and to vertically mounted
pegs at the other end. The pegbox is a
round disk that appears to be made of
the same piece as the neck/body,
suggesting that this is a unibody
construction. Again a little endpiece
or endpeg is indicated. There are two
round sound holes set far back on the
instrument. The bow is a simple curved
bow with end pressure grip (see below).
This image is also somewhat suspect
from the distortion of the left hand,
which has the fingers curling backwards
rather than forward as they actually
must. PD
source: http://crab.rutgers.edu/~pbutler
/ob25.jpg
1,185 YBN
[815 AD] 		1021) The "Bayt al-Hikma" (House of
Wisdom) is founded in Baghdad, Iraq, by
Caliph al-Mamun. The "Bayt al-Hikma" is
where many scientific Greek, Persian
and Indian works are translated into
Arabic.
Baghdad 
[1] Harun al-Rashid: (ca: 763-809) was
the fifth and most famous Abbasid
Caliph. Ruling from 786 until 809, his
reign and the fabulous court over which
he held sway are immortalized in The
Book of One Thousand and One Nights PD

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Harun_Al-Rashid_and_the_World_of_the_
Thousand_and_One_Nights.jpg

[2] Julius Köckert's painting of
Harun al-Rashid receiving the
delegation of Charlemagne demonstrates
the latter's recognition of Hārūn
ar-Rashīd as the most powerful man of
his culture. The painting by Julius
Köckert (Koeckert) (1827-1918), dated
1864, is located at Maximilianeum
Foundation in Munich. It is Oil on
Canvas. This Image of the painting was
created and provided by Zereshk. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Harun-Charlemagne.jpg
1,175 YBN
[825 AD] 		1257) The words "algebra" and
"algorithm", and the numerals (0
through 9) and decimal point notation
of India are recorded in books by House
of Wisdom scholar Al-Khwārizmī
{oLKWoriZmE}.
(House of Wisdom) Bagdad, Iraq 
[1] A page from Al-Khwārizmī's
al-Kitāb al-mukhtaṣar fī ḥisāb
al-jabr wa-l-muqābala. Source John
L. Esposito. The Oxford History of
Islam. Oxford University Press. ISBN
0195107993. Date c. 830 Author
al-Khwarizmi PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Al-Kitab_al-mukhtasar_fi_hisab_al-jab
r_wa-l-muqabala.jpg

[2] Muḥammad ibn Mūsā
al-Ḵwārizmī. (He is on a Soviet
Union commemorative stamp, issued
September 6, 1983. The stamp bears his
name and says ''1200 years'', referring
to the approximate anniversary of his
birth). ПОЧТА СССР 1983
POČTA SSSR 1983 Soviet Post
1983 4к 4k 4 kopeks 1200 ЛЕТ
1200 LET 1200 years Мухаммед
аль·Хорезми Muxammed
al′·Xorezmi Muhammad
al-Khwarizmi Source:
http://jeff560.tripod.com/ specifically
http://jeff560.tripod.com/khowar.jpg
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Abu_Abdullah_Muhammad_bin_Musa_al-Khw
arizmi.jpg
1,150 YBN
[850 AD] 		1144) Gunpowder is invented in China

The earliest gunpowder, black powder,
is a mixture of saltpeter (potassium
nitrate), sulfur, and charcoal.
China 
[1] Description The earliest known
written description of the formula for
gunpowder, from the Chinese Wujing
Zongyao military manuscript that was
compiled by 1044 during the Song
Dynasty of China. It was written and
compiled by the 11th century Song
scholars Zeng Gongliang (曾公亮),
Ding Du (丁度), and Yang Weide
(楊惟德). The entry for this
specific page is headed with the title
''method for making the fire-chemical''
(''huo yao fa''). This picture can
also be found on page 119 of Joseph
Needham's book Science and Civilization
in China: Volume 5, Part 7. Date
11 August 2007 Source Own
work (My book) Author
PericlesofAthens Permission (Reus
ing this file) See below. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c2/Chinese_Gunpowder_For
mula.JPG
1,100 YBN
[900 AD] 		1379) A health science school is
founded in Salerno, Italy.

The school is exceptional for the time
in accepting Arab and Jewish people,
and women.
Salerno (near Naples), Italy 
[1] A miniature depicting the Schola
Medica Salernitana from a copy of
Avicenna's Canons PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:ScuolaMedicaMiniatura.jpg

[2] Hand colored wood cut illustration
depicting the medical school at
Salerno. De conservanda bona
valetudine opusculum scholae
Salernitanae, 1554. Galter Medical
Rare Books 613 R26 1554 PD
source: http://www.galter.northwestern.e
du/library_notes/40/woodcut_full.jpg
1,100 YBN
[900 AD] 		5865) The first polyphonic
(many-voiced) music (Organum), and
unambiguously identifiable pitches.
northern part of the West Frankish
empire|Possibly written in what is now
Eastern France 
[1] Skildring Deutsch: Früheste
Darstellung eines Organums in einer
theoretischen Schrift, der ''Musica
enchiriades'' aus dem späten 9.
Jahrhundert Dato late 9th
century Kjelda Musica
enchiriadis, Bamberg, Staatsbibliothek,
Var. 1, fol 57r Opphavsperson
Unknown writer Løyve (Gjenbruk
av denne fila) Sjå under. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/9e/Musica_enchiriadis_Re
x_celi.png
1,095 YBN
[905 AD] 		1303) Gypsum plaster is used to hold
broken bones in place by Al-Razi
{oL-rAZE}, who also openly rejects
Islam and other religions.
Rayy (near Tehran, Iran)  
[1] Description English: Muhammad ibn
Zakariya ar-Razi Date before
1970 Source Iranian 2nd year of
Rahnamai textbook Author Unknown PD
source: http://www.hmc.org.qa/hmc/qmj/ju
ne2002/biography/BIO3.HTM

[2] Al-Razi from a book cover
COPYRIGHTED FAIR USE
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Rhazes.jpg
1,080 YBN
[920 AD] 		6183) Norwegian explorers reach North
America.
L'Anse Aux Meadows, Newfoundland 
[1] Figure from: Helge Ingstad, ''The
Viking Discovery of America: The
Excavation of a Norse Settlement in
L'Anse aux Meadows, Newfoundland'',
2001. COPYRIGHTED
source: Helge Ingstad, "The Viking
Discovery of America: The Excavation of
a Norse Settlement in L'Anse aux
Meadows, Newfoundland", 2001.

[2] Figure 24 from: Helge Ingstad,
''The Viking Discovery of America: The
Excavation of a Norse Settlement in
L'Anse aux Meadows, Newfoundland'',
2001. COPYRIGHTED
source: Helge Ingstad, "The Viking
Discovery of America: The Excavation of
a Norse Settlement in L'Anse aux
Meadows, Newfoundland", 2001.
1,040 YBN
[960 AD] 		6186) The earliest rocket in China;
gun-powder rockets probably in hollow
bamboo tubes.
China 
[1] Description Drawing of an
early Chinese soldier lighting a
rocket Date 2007 Source
http://history.msfc.nasa.gov/rocket
ry/03.html Author
NASA Permission (Reusing this
file) NASA still images, audio
files and video generally are not
copyrighted. You may use NASA imagery,
video and audio material for
educational or informational purposes,
including photo collections, textbooks,
public exhibits and Internet Web
pages. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/63/Chinese_rocket.gif

[2] Widely reputed as the world's
first ''astronaut'', Wan Hu was a minor
Chinese official of the Ming Dynasty
(1368-1644). Early in the 16th century,
Wan Hu decided to take advantage of
China's advanced power and fireworks
technology to launch himself into outer
space. He had a chair built with 47
''rockets'' attached. On the day of
lift-off, Wan climbed into his rocket
chair and held one enormous kite in
each hand. The ignition of the 47 fuses
caused a huge explosion and sent him
into the sky. But unfortunately, he
failed to go into orbit and his body
smashed into pieces on the ground.
UNKNOWN
source: http://images.china.cn/images1/2
00710/410673.jpg
1,036 YBN
[964 AD] 		1502) A catalog of 1,018 stars giving
positions, magnitudes, and colors is
created by Persian astronomer Al-Sufi.
This book includes Arabic star names
which, in corrupted form, are still in
use today.
(court of the Emire Adud ad-Daula in)
Isfahan, Persia (modern Iran) 
[1] [t Note that Sahabi means friends
of Muhammad- possibly to imply life
around other stars?] Jones, ''The
Search For The Nebulae'', 1975,
p7. {Jones_The_Search_For_The_Nebulae_1
975.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: Jones, "The Search For The
Nebulae", 1975,
p7. {Jones_The_Search_For_The_Nebulae_1
975.pdf}

[2] [t Note that this is the reverse
orientation (horizontally) of the
Andromeda constellation, and that
Bullialdus writes that the author is
anonymous, but is similar to the one
from the earlier St. Petersburg
manuscruot if Al-Sufi's Book of the
Fixed Stars.] Jones, ''The Search For
The Nebulae'', 1975,
p15. {Jones_The_Search_For_The_Nebulae_
1975.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: Jones, "The Search For The
Nebulae", 1975,
p15. {Jones_The_Search_For_The_Nebulae_
1975.pdf}
1,024 YBN
[976 AD] 		1307) The earliest Arabic numerals in
Europe.
 
[1] The first Arabic numerals in a
Western manuscript, AD 976. From Codex
Vigilanus PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:1st_Arabic_numerals_in_West.jpg
1,019 YBN
[981 AD] 		1385) The Al-Adudi Hospital is founded
in Baghdad.
Baghdad, Iraq  
1,000 YBN
[1000 AD] 		1022) The Encyclopedia the "Suda".
 
[1] English First page (AA-AB) from an
early printed edition of the Suda. The
column headings read ''Beginning of
letter A/A standing alone'' and ''A
with B''. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e2/Suda.jpg
1,000 YBN
[1000 AD] 		1054) Paper money is used in China.

Initially paper money represents
promises to pay specified amounts of
metal coin money.
China 
[1] English: Early paper money, China,
Song Dynasty scan from
《社会历史博物馆》 ISBN
7-5347-1397-8 北宋交子 jiaozi,
w:Northern Song Dynasty The text
reads:
除四川外許於諸路州縣公私從
主管並同見錢七百七十陌流
行使, which essentially means that
except in w:Sichuan, the bill may be
used in the stead of 77,000 wen of
metal coinage. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d9/Jiao_zi.jpg

[2] scan from
《社会历史博物馆》 ISBN
7-5347-1397-8 会子 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6a/Hui_zi.jpg
990 YBN
[1010 AD] 		1311) Persian physician Ibn Sina's
"Canon of Medicine"; the most important
health science text until the time of
Harvey 500 years later.
Hamadan, Iran 
[1] Source:
http://www.cais-soas.com/CAIS/Science/ir
an_sience.htm - Permission granted by
CAIS. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Avicenna_Persian_Physician.jpg

[2] Ibn Sina - w:Avicenna, as
appearing on a Polish stamp PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Avicenna2.jpg
975 YBN
[1025 AD] 		5868) Musical staff notation and the
solmization {SoL-mi-ZA-suN} syllables
(ut, re, mi, fa, sol, la) by Italian
monk Guido d’Arezzo {u-reTSO}.
(Cathedral school) Arezzo, Italy 
[1] The 11th century Benedictine monk
Guido d’Arezzo invented a mnemonic
system using parts of the hand to
indicate pitches for singers. The note
names ut, re, mi, fa, sol and la were
also placed on horizontal lines to
notate pitch. These inventions evolved
into solfeggio (do re mi fa sol la ti
do) and staff notation as used today.
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.designwritingresearch
.org/music/images/3.jpg

[2] Statue of Guido of Arezzo, Arezzo,
Italy (photo taken by Wilson Delgado,
March 30, 2003) Author:
en:User:Wilson Delgado Source:
en:Image:Guido of arezzo.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2b/Statue_of_Guido_of_Ar
ezzo.jpg
970 YBN
[1030 AD] 		1409) The daily rotation of Earth and
the attraction of objects to the center
of the Earth is recognized by Persian
scholar Al-Biruni.
Ghazna, Afghanistan 
[1] Biruni on a 1973 post stamp
commemorating his one thousandth
anniversary PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Abu-Rayhan_Biruni_1973_Afghanistan_po
st_stamp.jpg

[2] An illustration from Beruni's
Persian book. It shows different phases
of the moon. Illustration by Al-Biruni
(973-1048) of different phases of the
moon, from Kitab al-tafhim (in
Persian). Source Scanned from:
Seyyed Hossein Nasr (1976). Islamic
Science: An Illustrated Study, World of
Islam Festival Publishing Company. ISBN
090503502X PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Lunar_eclipse_al-Biruni.jpg
962 YBN
[1038 AD] 		1308) The pin-hole camera (or camera
obscura) by Ibn al-Haytham {iBN oL
HIteM} (in Latin: Alhazen (oLHoZeN)).
Cairo, Egypt 
[1] Figure 2. The concept of the
camera obscura as perceived a thousand
years ago by Alhazen (Ibn al-Haytham),
who coined the term (see text). Note
the formation of the inverted image
through a ray diagram. Adapted from
Al-Hassani et al. (2006). from: Ahmed
H. Zewail, Micrographia of the
twenty-first century: from camera
obscura to 4D microscopy Phil. Trans.
R. Soc. A March 13, 2010 368 (1914)
1191-1204;
doi:10.1098/rsta.2009.0265 http://rsta.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/368/1
914/1191.abstract COPYRIGHTED
source: http://rsta.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/368/1914/1191/F2.large.jp
g

[2] [t Portrait of al-Hazen on paper
money] UNKNOWN
source: http://robbani.net78.net/wp/wp-c
ontent/uploads/2012/01/haisam5.jpg
959 YBN
[1041 AD] 		1124) Movable type printing, where
individual blocks can be put together
to form a text, is invented in China.

Chinese alchemist Pi Sheng uses movable
type made of clay hardened by baking.
Sheng composes texts by placing the
types side by side on an iron plate
coated with a mixture of resin, wax,
and paper ash. Gently heating this
plate and then letting the plate cool
solidifies the type. When done
printing, the type can be detached by
reheating the plate.
China 
[1] Figure 1138. Earliest extant
edition of the ''Meng Chhi Pi Than'',
printed in the + 14th century. The
passage rearranged into one double-leaf
above records the first use of the
earthenware movable type printing by Pi
Sheng in the middle of the + 11th
century. Copy preserved at the National
Library of China. Joseph Needham,
''Science and Civilisation in China'',
Tsien, v5,part 1, Paper and Printing.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
1985.
{Needham_printing_China_1985.pdf} PD

source: Joseph Needham, "Science and
Civilisation in China", Tsien, v5,part
1, Paper and Printing. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1985.
{Needham_printing_China_1985.pdf}

[2] Fig 1141. Earthenware types of
Chai Chin-Sheng, c +1844, discovered in
1962 in Hui-chou, Anhui province. Above
are four different sizes of the type
and below are the printed characters
from the large size of the
type. Courtesy of the Institute of
History of Science, Academia Sinica,
Peking. Joseph Needham, ''Science and
Civilisation in China'', Tsien, v5,part
1, Paper and Printing. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1985.
{Needham_printing_China_1985.pdf} PD

source: Joseph Needham, "Science and
Civilisation in China", Tsien, v5,part
1, Paper and Printing. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1985.
{Needham_printing_China_1985.pdf}
919 YBN
[1081 AD] 		1312) The orbit of planet Mercury is
described as an oval in an
Earth-centered model by astronomer
Al-Zarqali.
Toledo (in Castile, now) Spain 
[1] Spain 1986. Al-Zarqali (dead 1100).
Astronomer. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://worldheritage.heindorffhu
s.dk/frame-SpainCordoba.htm

[2] None, but next to text about
al-Zarqali COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/
issue/200407/science.in.al-andalus-.comp
ilation..htm
912 YBN
[1088 AD] 		1339) The University of Bologna is
founded.
Bologna, Italy 
[1] Description Il Palazzo dei notai
(a sin.) e Palazzo d'Accursio, in
Piazza Maggiore a Bologna,
Italia. Date 2006-27-03 Source
Flickr Author Gaspa Reviewer
Mac9 CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/11/Bologna-vista02.jpg

[2] English: The Collegio di Spagna, a
historic university college, originally
founded to support Spanish students in
Bologna, Italy. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Collegio-spagna
3.jpg/1280px-Collegio-spagna3.jpg
900 YBN
[1100 AD] 		5883) Non-religious (secular) music
evolves in France.
Provence, France (Southern
France) 
[1] [t Image of troubador] PD
source: http://heathergoodman.us/files/i
mages/F_002_13thcTroubadour.jpg

[2] 03-08-01/20 ROMANESQUE MANUSCRIPT,
ILLUMINATED 12TH King David
playing the harp surrounded by his
musicians. Psalter, 12th century.
Municipial Library, Mantua,
Italy UNKNOWN
source: http://www.lessing-photo.com/p3/
030801/03080120.jpg
894 YBN
[1106 AD] 		1411) Al-Ghazzali's {oL-Go-Zo-lE} "The
Incoherence of the Philosophers" slows
the influence of ancient Greek
philosophy in Arab and Persian nations.
(Niẓāmīyah college) Nishapur,
Iran 
[1] Portrait of Ghazali in his late
years by an Iraqi artist Name:
Al-Ghazali (Algazel) Birth: 1058 CE
(450 AH) Death: 1111 CE (505
AH) School/tradition: Sufism, Sunnite
(Shafi'ite), Asharite Main interests:
Sufism, Theology (Kalam), Philosophy,
Logic, Islamic
Jurisprudence Influenced: Fakhruddin
Razi, Maimonides[1], Thomas Aquinas,
Raymund Martin, Nicholas of Autrecourt,
Shah Waliullah, Abdul-Qader Bedil PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ghazali.gif

[2] Haruniyah stucture in Tus, Iran,
named after Harun al-Rashid, the
mausoleum of Al-Ghazali is expected to
be situated on the entrance of this
monument Haruniyeh, Razavi Khorasan.
Sufis used to hang out here during the
Middle Ages. Iran GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Haruniyeh.JPG
868 YBN
[1132 AD] 		1146) The first cannon and gun; in
China.
Ta-tsu, Szechuan Province, China 
[1] Figure 2 from: Gwei-Djen, Lu,
Joseph Needham, and Phan Chi-Hsing.
“The Oldest Representation of a
Bombard.” Technology and Culture 29.3
(1988): 594–605.
Print. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3105
275 {Gwei-Djen_1988.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: Gwei-Djen, Lu, Joseph Needham,
and Phan Chi-Hsing. “The Oldest
Representation of a Bombard.”
Technology and Culture 29.3 (1988):
594–605.
Print. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3105
275 {Gwei-Djen_1988.pdf}

[2] Figure 3 from: Gwei-Djen, Lu,
Joseph Needham, and Phan Chi-Hsing.
“The Oldest Representation of a
Bombard.” Technology and Culture 29.3
(1988): 594–605.
Print. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3105
275 {Gwei-Djen_1988.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: Gwei-Djen, Lu, Joseph Needham,
and Phan Chi-Hsing. “The Oldest
Representation of a Bombard.”
Technology and Culture 29.3 (1988):
594–605.
Print. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3105
275 {Gwei-Djen_1988.pdf}
850 YBN
[1150 AD] 		6239) The first stringed instrument to
use a keyboard, the organistrum.
Europe 
[1] Two Elders of the Apocolypse plying
an organistrum in the Portico de la
Gloria, completed in 1188, of Santiago
de Compostela Cathedral. Santiago de
Compostela, Spain GFDL
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6b/Organistrumsantiago20
060414.jpg
833 YBN
[1167 AD] 		1340) The University of Oxford is
founded.
Oxford, England (now: United
Kingdom) 
[1] All Souls College quad COPYRIGHTED

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Oxford_University_Colleges-All_Souls_
quad.jpg

[2] Oxford's 'Dreaming Spires' at
sunset View of All Souls College and
the Radcliffe Camera, Oxford,
England COPYRIGHTED
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Oxfordskylinedawn.jpg
830 YBN
[1170 AD] 		1319) The University of Paris is
founded.
Paris, France 
[1] The Sorbonne, Paris, in a 17th
century engraving PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Sorbonne_17thc.jpg
820 YBN
[1180 AD] 		6476) Ibn Rushd {iBN rusD} (in Latin:
Averroës) {uVROEZ} writes a counter to
Ghazzali's attack on philosophers, but
after Averroes the Islamic world will
enter a Dark Age, where scientific
inquiry will be lost, just as the
Christian world is emerging from a Dark
Age.
Cordova, Spain (presumably) 
[1] Averroes, detail of the
fourteenth-century Florentine artist
Andrea Bonaiuto's Triunfo de Santo
Tomás. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:AverroesColor.jpg

[2] Averroes, a closeup of The School
of Athens, a fresco by Raffaello
Sanzio, 1509. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Averroes_closeup.jpg
816 YBN
[11/??/1184 AD] 		1153) The start of the Inquisition.
Pope Lucius III (Ubaldo Allucingoli)
makes burning the official punishment
for heresy {HAReSE}.

The Inquisition will last until the
1800s.
Verona, Italy 
[1] St Dominic (1170-1221[3]) presiding
over an auto de fe, Spanish,
1475 Representation of an Auto de fe,
(1475). [t I think this is a dubious
claim, that people didn't stay
around...they quickly leave when time
for the burning...I doubt it:] Many
artistic representations depict torture
and the burning at the stake as
occurring during the auto da fe.
Actually, burning at the stake usually
occurred after, not during the
ceremonies. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Inquisition2.jpg

[2] English: The burning of the knight
of Hohenberg with his servant before
the walls of Zürich, for sodomy,
1482. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5c/Burning_of_Sodomites.
jpg
800 YBN
[09/08/1200 AD] 		1352) The University of Perugia in
Italy is founded.
Perugia, Italy 
[1] Logo for U of Perudia COPYRIGHTED
EDU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Unipg.gif

[2] ''Perugia is a poetic, university
city, one of the beautiful, learned
cities of old Italy.'' George Sand,
1855. COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://www.sbu.edu/images/pics_g
allery_2.jpg
791 YBN
[1209 AD] 		1342) The University of Cambridge is
founded.
Cambridge, England 
[1] The town centre of Cambridge with
the University Church (Great St Mary's)
on the right, the Senate House of
Cambridge University on the left, and
Gonville and Caius College in the
middle at the back. CC
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:CambridgeTownCentre.jpg

[2] Photograph of Cambridge colleges
seen from St Johns College Chapel PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Cam_colls_from_johns.jpg
785 YBN
[06/15/1215 AD] 		1520) The Magna Carta limits the power
of the King of England.
Runnymede, England 
[1] # Magna Carta. This is not the
original charter signed by John of
England, which has been lost (though
four copies survive), but the version
issued in 1225 by Henry III of England
and preserved in the UK's National
Archives. # Quelle:
http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/pathw
ays/citizenship/images/citizen_subject/m
agna_carta.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Magna_Carta.jpg

[2] John of England signs Magna
Carta Image from Cassell's History of
England - Century Edition - published
circa 1902 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:King_John_of_England_signs_the_Magna_
Carta_-_Illustration_from_Cassell%27s_Hi
story_of_England_-_Century_Edition_-_pub
lished_circa_1902.jpg
784 YBN
[1216 AD] 		1155) The earliest artesian well, a
well from which water flows under
natural pressure without pumping.
Artois, France 
[1] Geological strata giving rise to an
Artesian well. CC
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Artesian_Well.png

[2] An roadside artesian well with a
pipe for filling bottles or jugs.
Copyright as if PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Artesianwell.jpg
782 YBN
[1218 AD] 		1344) The University of Salamanca in
Spain is founded.
Salamanca, Spain 
[1] Plateresque facade of the
University GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:University_of_Salamanca.jpg
778 YBN
[1222 AD] 		1346) The University of Padua in Italy
is founded.
Padua, Italy 
[1] Ornate ceiling in the conference
auditorium. University of Padua, Padua,
Italy, January 31, 2003 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.big6.com/showarticle.
php?id=342

[2] University of Padua, anatomical
theater, from Jacob Tomasini''s
Gymnasium Patavinum, 1654. Major, 327,
347 PD
source: http://clendening.kumc.edu/dc/rm
/major_17th.htm
776 YBN
[06/05/1224 AD] 		1347) The University of Naples is
founded.
Naples, Italy 
[1] Main building, university of
Naples, Federico II PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Uninap.JPG
772 YBN
[1228 AD] 		1392) The theory that all matter is
made of light by English scholar,
Robert Grosseteste (GrOSTeST).
Oxford, England 
[1] Record Number: 19885 Shelfmark:
Royal 6 E. V Page Folio Number:
f.6 Description: [Miniature only]
Initial 'A', portrait of Robert
Grosseteste, Bishop of Lincoln. The
beginning of one of the bishop's
sermons Title of Work: Works of
Robert Grosseteste, Bishop of
Lincoln Author: Grosseteste,
Robert Illustrator: - Production:
England; 15th
century Language/Script: Latin /
- PD
source: http://www.imagesonline.bl.uk/br
itishlibrary/controller/textsearch?text=
grosseteste&y=0&x=0&startid=31330&width=
4&height=2&idx=2

[2] Robert Grosseteste (1168-1253).
Scientist, Philosopher, Bishop of
Lincoln. PD
source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wik
i/Image:Grosseteste-color.png
766 YBN
[1234 AD] 		1125) The movable metal block printing
press is invented in Korea.
Korea 
[1] English: Jikji or ''Selected
Teachings of Buddhist Sages and Seon
Masters'', published in 1377, Korea
during the Goryeo Dynasty. It is the
earliest known book printed with
movable metal type. 한국어:
백운화상초록불조직지심체요
(白雲和尙抄錄佛祖直指心體
節, 간단히
불조직지심체요절,
직지심체요절, 직지)은
백운화상 경한이 선(禪)의
요체를 깨닫는 데에 필요한
내용을 뽑아 1372년에 펴낸
불교 서적으로, 상·하권으로
이루어져 있다. 원나라에서
받아온 불조직지심체요절의
내용을 대폭 늘려 상·하
2권으로 엮은 것이다. 전
세계에 남아 있는 금속
활자로 인쇄된 책 중에서
가장 오래된 것으로, 2001년
9월 4일 《승정원일기》와
함께 유네스코
세계기록유산에 등재되었다.
현존하는 것은 하권 1책
뿐인데, 1900년대 말 콜랭 드
프랑시 주한 프랑스 공사가
프랑스로 가지고 갔으며 현재
프랑스 국립도서관에
소장되어 있다. 이는 독일
구텐베르크의 활자보다 78년
이상 앞서 편찬되었다. Date
1377 Source Bibliotheque
Nationale de France. Source Author
English: Authored by Baegun Hwaseng
(1289-1374), a master of Seon Buddhism
in Korea, and published by his
students, Seokchan and Daljam in
1377. 한국어: 선종의 대가인
백운화상 (1289년-1374)이 지은
책을 그의 제자인 석찬과
달잠이 1377년에
출판하였다. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/9f/Korean_book-Jikji-Sel
ected_Teachings_of_Buddhist_Sages_and_Se
on_Masters-1377.jpg
758 YBN
[1242 AD] 		1403) Instructions for making gunpowder
are introduced to Europe by Roger
Bacon.
Oxford, England 
[1] English philosopher and Franciscan
friar. Possible ancestor of Sir Francis
Bacon, who authored The New
Atlantis. UNKNOWN
source: http://i393.photobucket.com/albu
ms/pp14/Inverted_Heptagram_Star/RogerBac
on1214-1294.jpg

[2] Roger Bacon Library of
Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/roger%20b
acon
748 YBN
[1252 AD] 		1416) Alfonso X of Castille, a Spanish
monarch, founds schools, and encourages
learning. Alfonso orders the creation
of the Alfonsine Tables, astronomical
tables that will be used for more than
300 years.
Castile, Spain 
[1] Español: Alfonso X el
Sabio Alfonso X el Sabio (Toledo
1221-Sevilla 1284), rey de Castilla y
de León (en la actual España)
(1252-1284). From en.wiki: *
Alfonso X of Castile from the Libro des
Juegas. Scanned from Four Gothic
Kings, Elizabeth Hallam ed. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:LibroDesJuegasAlfonXAndCourt.jpg

[2] Statue of Alfonso X of Castile
(1221â€''1284) at the entrance
staircase of the National Library of
Spain, in Madrid. Sculpted by José
Alcoverro y Amorós (1835â€''1910) in
1892. 2006 CC
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Alfonso_X_el_Sabio_%28Jos%C3%A9_Alcov
erro%29_01.jpg
733 YBN
[1267 AD] 		1401) Mechanically propelled ships and
carriages, and that the Earth can be
circumnavigated are proposed by Roger
Bacon in his encyclopedia "Opus Majus".
Oxford, England 
[1] Statue of Roger Bacon in the Oxford
University Museum of Natural History.
2004 GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Roger-bacon-statue.jpg

[2] English Franciscan philosopher and
educational reformer Roger Bacon shown
in his observatory at the Franciscan
monastery, Oxford, England (engraving
c. 1867). Credit: ©
Photos.com/Thinkstock COPYRIGHTED
source: http://media-1.web.britannica.co
m/eb-media/06/147406-004-CEEDC2D2.jpg
723 YBN
[1277 AD] 		1404) Roger Bacon is imprisoned by his
fellow Franciscan Christians and his
works are ordered suppressed.
Oxford, England 
[1] Roger Bacon Library of
Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/roger%20b
acon

[2] Statue of Roger Bacon in the
Oxford University Museum of Natural
History. 2004 GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Roger-bacon-statue.jpg
720 YBN
[1280 AD] 		5873) Musical notes are defined in
terms of time ("long", "breve" {BrEV}
and "semibreve") in "mensural notation"
{meN-sRL} (from the Latin "measured",
in the sense of division of units).
Cologne, Germany 
[1] 1.1.6. Deutschland 12. u. 13./14.
Jh. – Antiphonar, benediktinisch,
Herkunft unsicher
source: http://www.musicademy.de/uploads
/pics/27.3_01.jpg

[2] 1.1.4. Frankreich 12. Jh.:
Kantatorium aus der Benediktinerabtei
Saint-Evroult de'Ouche PD
source: http://www.musicademy.de/uploads
/pics/27.1_01.jpg
720 YBN
[1280 AD] 		6238) The first eyeglasses.
Florence, Italy 
[1] Detail of a portrait of Hugh de
Provence, painted by Tomaso da Modena
in 1352 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Hugh_specs.jpg
700 YBN
[1300 AD] 		1121) The first mechanical clocks in
Europe. These clocks are driven by a
weight suspended from a cord wrapped
many times around a shaft. As the
weight descends (regulated by an
escapement) the shaft turns and moves
the clock hour hand.
Europe 
[1] By Jason Hopwood CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/01/Salisbury_02.jpg

[2] The striking train of the
Salisbury cathedral clock CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/8/8a/Salisbury_striking_train.j
pg
697 YBN
[1303 AD] 		1351) The University of Rome is
founded.
Rome, Italy 
[1] Church of Sant'Ivo alla Sapienza,
by Borromini, originally a chapel of
the La Sapienza see. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Borromini_SantIvo.jpg

[2] The statue of Minerva in la
Sapienza University, Rome PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:MinervaSapienza.JPG
690 YBN
[1310 AD] 		1424) Sulfuric and other strong acids
are described by False Geber, an
unknown alchemist writing under the
name of Jabir. Before this vinegar is
the strongest acid known.
Spain 
[1] alchemist Jabir ibn Hayyan, from a
15th c. European portrait of ''Geber'',
Codici Ashburnhamiani 1166, Biblioteca
Medicea Laurenziana, Florence, public
domain PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jabir_ibn_Hayyan.jpg

[2] Portrait of Jabir ibn Hayyan
http://histoirechimie.free.fr/Lien/Geber
.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Geber.jpg
684 YBN
[1316 AD] 		1428) The first book devoted entirely
to anatomy; by Italian anatomist
Mondino De' Luzzi (MoNDEnO DA lUTSE)
Bologna, Italy 
[1] An Early Renaissance Anatomy
Scene This illustration of a medical
school dissection scene is from the
Fasciculo di medicina (1493), a
compendium of medieval anatomical works
edited by Johannes Ketham. Included in
this edition was a new translation of
Mondino de' Luzzi's Anathomia, a work
that is generally considered to be the
best medieval work on anatomy. This
scene has often been read as supporting
Vesalius's description of the anatomy
professors who read from their
classical texts ''like jackdaws aloft
in their high chairs, with egregious
arrogance croaking things they have
never investigated,'' while ignorant
dissectors cut up the cadaver without
any knowledge of the anatomy of the
body. Yet in this scene the dissector
works under the watchful eye of the
physician, who stand behind him with
his hand on the dissector's
shoulder. Mondino de' Luzzi, a
professor of anatomy at Bologna, was
considered by contemporaries to be the
leading authority on anatomy until
Vesalius. His work was the standard
text on anatomy, one that Vesalius
himself used. PD
source: http://honors.nmsu.edu/weamon/ke
tham2.jpg

[2] Mondino da Luzzi supervising an
autopsy Johannes de Ketham
Fasciculo di Medicina, Venice, 1493,
engraving National Library of
Medicine, USA PD
source: http://www.afip.org/Departments/
HepGastr_dept/sobin/chap2.htm
675 YBN
[1325 AD] 		5887) The earliest known notated organ
music.
(Abbey of) Robertsbridge, Sussex,
UK 
[1] Description Fol. 44r from
''Robertsbridge Codex'' with
transcription of the beginning of
''Tribum, quem non abhorruit'' Date
Ms.: Appendix with this Folio
written about 1350, Transsription:
2006 Source British Museum Ms.
add. 28550, Transscription by
Wetwassermann Author Ms.:
unknown, Transcription:
Wetwassermann Permission (Reusing
this file) PD (Ms.) and GFDL
(Transcription) GFDL
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2a/Robertsbridgecodex_fo
l44r.jpg
665 YBN
[1335 AD] 		1425) The law of inertia is revived by
French philosopher, Jean Buridan
(BYUrEDoN).
Paris, France 
[1] The Index Librorum Prohibitorum
(''List of Prohibited Books'') is a
list of publications which the Catholic
Church censored for being a danger to
itself and its members. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Index_Librorum_Prohibitorum_1.jpg

[2] Jean Buridan (1300-1358) “O
dinheiro, portanto, é um bem do
mercado, e o valor desse dinheiro, como
nos outros casos de bens do mercado,
deve ser mensurado pela necessidade
humana. Os valores dos bens de troca
são proporcionados pela necessidade
humana”. PD
source: http://www.cieep.org.br/images/b
uridanbio.jpg
652 YBN
[04/07/1348 AD] 		1357) The Charles University in Prague
is founded, the first university in
central Europe.
Prague, Czech Republic (EU) 
[1] Charles University UNKNOWN
source: http://2010fall.blog.ntu.edu.tw/
files/2010/10/Charles-University.jpg

[2] Charles University UNKNOWN
source: https://studyabroad.asu.edu/_cus
tomtags/ct_Image.cfm?Image_ID=92902
650 YBN
[1350 AD] 		1168) Three-masted sailing ships are
built and sailed in the Mediterranean.
Mediterranean 
[1] The Santa Maria at anchor by
Andries van Eertvelt, painted c. 1628
shows the famous carrack of Christopher
Columbus. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Eertvelt%2C_Santa_Maria.jpg

[2] A Portuguese ''Nanban'' carrack in
Nagasaki, Japan, 17th century. [t: I
think these are Portuguese people
trading with China, as drawn by Chinese
people] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:NanbanCarrack.jpg
640 YBN
[1360 AD] 		1977) Uniformly accelerated motion is
described, and rectangular coordinates
(latitude and longitude) are used to
draw geometric figures by French Roman
Catholic bishop and scholar Nicholas
Oresme (OrAM).
Paris, France (presumably) 
[1] Oresme, N., and M. Clagett. Nicole
Oresme and the Medieval Geometry of
Qualities and Motions: a Treatise on
the Uniformity and Difformity of
Intensities Known as Tractatus De
Configurationibus Qualitatum Et Motuum.
University of Wisconsin Press, 1968.
University of Wisconsin Publications in
Medieval Science. COPYRIGHTED
source: Oresme, N., and M. Clagett.
Nicole Oresme and the Medieval Geometry
of Qualities and Motions: a Treatise on
the Uniformity and Difformity of
Intensities Known as Tractatus De
Configurationibus Qualitatum Et Motuum.
University of Wisconsin Press, 1968.
University of Wisconsin Publications in
Medieval Science.

[2] Figures copied from: Nicolaus
Oresmius: Nicole Oresme and the
medieval geometry of qualities and
motions: a treatise on the uniformity
and difformity of intensities known as
Tr actatus de
configurationibus qualitatum et
motuum/ edited with an introduction,
English translation, and commentary by
Marshall Clagett. - Madison, Wis.:
Univ. of Wisconsin Pr., 1968 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.uni-due.de/imperia/md
/content/didmath/ag_jahnke/oresme.pdf
635 YBN
[03/12/1365 AD] 		1360) The University of Vienna is
founded; the oldest university in the
German speaking world.
Vienna, Austria 
[1] The University of Vienna main
building at the Ringstraße in
Vienna CC
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Universit%C3%A4t_Vienna_June_2006_164
.jpg

[2] Interior view of the main library
reading hall (Hauptlesesaal) of the
University of Vienna PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Uni_Wien_Bibliothek%2C_Vienna_2.jpg
630 YBN
[1370 AD] 		1978) The first translation of
Aristotle from Latin into a vernacular
language; French.
Paris, France (presumably) 
[1] Nicole Oresme Miniature of Nicole
Oresmes Traité de l''espere,
Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris, France,
fonds français 565, fol. 1r. from:
http://www.math.uqam.ca/_charbonneau/GRM
S04/RepresentBasMA.htm Portrait of
Nicole Oresme: Miniature of Nicole
Oresme's Traité de l''espere,
Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris, France,
fonds français 565, fol. 1r. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Oresme-Nicole.jpg

[2] Nicole Oresme Miniature of Nicole
Oresmes Traité de l''espere,
Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris, France,
fonds français 565, fol. 1r. PD
source: http://www.nicole-oresme.com/sei
ten/chronology.html
623 YBN
[1377 AD] 		1979) The theory that the Earth rotates
daily is revived in France by Nicholas
Oresme (OrAM).
Paris, France (presumably) 
[1] Nicole Oresme Miniature of Nicole
Oresmes Traité de l''espere,
Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris, France,
fonds français 565, fol. 1r. from:
http://www.math.uqam.ca/_charbonneau/GRM
S04/RepresentBasMA.htm Portrait of
Nicole Oresme: Miniature of Nicole
Oresme's Traité de l''espere,
Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris, France,
fonds français 565, fol. 1r. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Oresme-Nicole.jpg

[2] Nicole Oresme Miniature of Nicole
Oresmes Traité de l''espere,
Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris, France,
fonds français 565, fol. 1r. PD
source: http://www.nicole-oresme.com/sei
ten/chronology.html
603 YBN
[1397 AD] 		5897) The first harpsichords; in Italy.
Padua, Italy 
[1] Description English: Harpsichord
in the Flemish style with the
inscription SINE SCIENTIA ARS NIHIL EST
(Latin ''without knowledge, skill is
nothing'') and DUM VIXI TACUI MORTUA
DULCE CANO (Latin ''while I lived, I
was mute, dead, I sweetly
sing''). Deutsch: Cembalo im
flämischen Stil, mit der Inschrift
SINE SCIENTIA ARS NIHIL EST (''Kunst
ist nichts ohne Wissen'') und DUM VIXI
TACUI MORTUA DULCE CANO (''Während ich
lebte, schwieg ich, tot, singe ich
süß''). Français : Clavecin de
style flamand Italiano: Clavicembalo
di stile fiammingo recante le
iscrizioni: SINE SCIENTIA ARS NIHIL EST
(''Senza la conoscenza, l'arte è
nulla'') e DUM VIXI TACUI MORTUA DULCE
CANO (''Ho vissuto tacendo, nella morte
canto dolcemente'') Íslenska :
Semball í flæmskum stíl. Á því
stendur SINE SCIENTIA ARS NIHIL EST
(latína „engin er færni án
þekkingar“) og DUM VIXI TACUI MORTUA
DULCE CANO (latína „er ég lifði
orðvana var, en liðinn sing ég
blítt“). Date 1 June
2004 Source Own work Author
Ratigan (instrument et
photo) Permission (Reusing this file)
GFDL
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c5/Clavecin_flamand.png
602 YBN
[1398 AD] 		1364) Sungkyunkwan University in Korea
is founded.
Seoul, South Korea 
[1] Sign for the 600th Anniversary Hall
on Sungkyunkwan University's Seoul
campus. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Sungkyunkwan_600.jpg

[2] Official logo of Sungkyunkwan
University, South Korea. Retrieved Oct
12, 2005 from university website.
Background transparent
version. COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Skku_logo.png
600 YBN
[1400 AD] 		1170) Caravel sailing ships are
invented. A caravel is a small, highly
maneuverable, three-masted ship.
Speyer, Germany and Basal,
Switzerland 
[1] Caravela Latina / Latin
Caravel Description Caravel Boa
Esperança of Portugal Source photo
taken by Brazillian Navy NO COPYRIGHT
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Caravel_Boa_Esperanca_Portugal.jpg

[2] Description Caravel Espírito
Santo of Brazil Source photo taken
by Brazillian Navy NO COPYRIGHT PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Caravel_Espirito_Santo_Brazil.jpg
570 YBN
[1430 AD] 		6584) The magic lantern, an early image
projector, is shown by Giovanni de
Fontana.
Venice, Italy 
[1] Giovanni de Fontana, ''Bellicorum
instrumentorum liber cum figuris'', BSB
Cod.icon. 242 Venedig 1420 -
1430. http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:d
e:bvb:12-bsb00013084-8 {Fontana_Bellico
rum_c1430.pdf} NON COMMERCIAL
source: http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:
de:bvb:12-bsb00013084-8
565 YBN
[1435 AD] 		1435) The movable type printing press
is introduced into Europe by German
inventor, Johannes Gutenberg
(GUTeNBRG).
Strassburg (now Strasbourg,
France) 
[1] An artist's visualization of
Johannes Gutenberg in his workshop,
showing his first proof
sheet. Bettmann/Corbis PD
source: http://www.jaars.org/museum/alph
abet/galleries/gutenberg.htm

[2] Johannes Gutenberg, engraving,
1584. Science Source/Photo
Researchers, Inc. PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-15524?articleTypeId=1
565 YBN
[1435 AD] 		1440) The laws of perspective (how to
draw a three-dimensional scene on a
two-dimensional plane).
Florence, Italy 
[1] Leon Battista Alberti, De pictura
and Elementa picture 1518 Paper
codex; ff. 62 (4n.n. + 54 + 4n.n.),
ill.; 21,5x15,5 cm Lucca, Biblioteca
Governativa, Ms. 1448, ff.
23r-v Facsimile The codex contains
the principles of linear perspective
conceived by Alberti in Florence in
1435. The figure illustrates the ''best
way'' devised by the author for drawing
in correct perspective by means of the
intersection of the visual
pyramid. PD
source: http://vitruvio.imss.fi.it/foto/
mediciscienze/70019_450.jpg

[2] Late statue of Leon Battista
Alberti. Courtyard of the Uffizi
Gallery, Florence GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Leon_Battista_Alberti.jpg
560 YBN
[02/12/1440 AD] 		1437) Space is described as infinite in
size, and stars are described as other
suns with inhabited planets by Nicholas
of Cusa.
Cusa, Germany 
[1] Picture of Nicholas of
Cusa English: Nicholas of Cusa Source
from a painting by Meister des
Marienlebens, located in the hospital
at Kues (Germany) Date ca. 1480 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Nicholas_of_Cusa.jpg

[2] Nicholas of Cusa (Nicholas
Krebs) Library of Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/topic/nic
holas-of-cusa?cat=technology
550 YBN
[1450 AD] 		1171) The earliest wound spiral spring
and spring driven clocks, in southern
Germany or northern Italy.

A spring is an elastic device, such as
a coil of wire, that is able to recover
its original shape after being
compressed or extended.

The use of a spring to replace the
weight to drive the wheel-train allows
smaller time-keeping devices to be
made.
southern Germany or northern
Italy 
[1] Britten, F.J. Former Clock &
Watchmakers and Their Work, Including
an Account of the Development of
Horological Instruments from the
Earliest Mechanism, with Portraits of
Masters of the Art: a Directory of over
Five Thousand Names and Some Examples
of Modern Construction. E. & F.N. Spon,
1894,
p35. http://books.google.com/books?id=S
_U9AQAAIAAJ&pg=PA35 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=S_U9AQAAIAAJ&pg=PA35

[2] The earliest dated watch known,
from 1530 Artist Anonymous
(German artist) [show]Philipp
Melanchthon (1497–1560) Link back to
Creator infobox template Title
Spherical Table Watch (Melanchthon's
Watch) Description English: This is
the earliest dated watch known. It is
engraved on the bottom: ''PHIL{IP}.
MELA{NCHTHON}. GOTT. ALEIN. DIE.
EHR{E}. 1530'' (Philip Melanchthon, to
God alone the glory, 1530). There are
very few watches existing today that
predate 1550; only two dated examples
are known--this one from 1530 and
another from 1548. There is no
watchmaker's mark, although Nuremberg
is considered the birthplace of
spherical watches (called ''Nuremberg
Eggs''). A single winding kept it
running for 12 to 16 hours, and it told
time to within the nearest half hour.
The perforations in the case permitted
one to see the time without opening the
watch. This watch was commissioned by
the great German reformer and humanist
Philip Melanchthon (1497-1560). Date
1530 (Renaissance) Medium gilt on
brass case, gilt on brass dial, iron
movement Dimensions Height: 4.8 cm
(1.9 in). Width: 4.8 cm (1.9
in). Current location Walters Art
MuseumLink back to Institution infobox
template Accession number
58.17 Exhibition history Philip
Melanchthon's Watch. The Walters Art
Gallery, Baltimore. 2000-2001. Credit
line Acquired by Henry Walters,
1910 Inscriptions {Transcription}
Engraved on the bottom: PHIL{IP}.
MELA{NCHTHON}. GOTT. ALEIN. DIE.
EHR{E}. 1530; {Translation} Engraved on
bottom: Philip Melanchthon, to God
alone the glory, 1530 Ownership
history Jacques Seligmann,
Paris, by purchase 1910: purchased
by Henry Walters, Baltimore 1931:
bequeathed to Walters Art Museum by
Henry Walters Place of origin
Augsburg, Germany
(?) Source/Photographer Walters Art
Museum: Nuvola filesystems folder
home.svg Home page Information icon.svg
Info about artwork PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/5/52/German_-_Spheri
cal_Table_Watch_%28Melanchthon%27s_Watch
%29_-_Walters_5817_-_View_C.jpg/1280px-G
erman_-_Spherical_Table_Watch_%28Melanch
thon%27s_Watch%29_-_Walters_5817_-_View_
C.jpg
546 YBN
[1454 AD] 		1436) Gutenberg (GUTeNBRG) (CE
c1398-c1468) produces printed copies of
the Bible, the first printed book in
Europe.

Printing in Europe will spread quickly,
and results in low cost books. This
increase in books leads to more
educated and literate people. Scholars
can now communicate their ideas to each
other faster.

The scientific revolution 100 years
from now would probably be impossible
without the printing press.
Mainz, Germany 
[1] Gutenberg Bible, Library of
Congress, Washington D.C. Picture of a
copy of the en:Gutenberg Bible owned by
the US Library of Congress GFDL
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:915h_Johannes_Gutenberg_%28Gensfleisc
h%29_statue%2C_Mainz%2C_1_Ma.jpg

[2] Johannes Gutenberg, engraving,
1584. Science Source/Photo
Researchers, Inc. PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-15524?articleTypeId=1
533 YBN
[1467 AD] 		6478) The cipher wheel for encrypting
messages is invented by Leon Alberti
(oLBRTE).
Rome, Italy (presumably) 
[1] [t Figure from Alberti's treatise
on ciphers] De Leeuw, K.M.M., and J.
Bergstra. The History of Information
Security: A Comprehensive Handbook.
Elsevier Science, 2007,
p280-281. http://books.google.com/books
?id=pQBrsonDp6cC&pg=PA280 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=pQBrsonDp6cC&pg=PA322

[2] Late statue of Leon Battista
Alberti. Courtyard of the Uffizi
Gallery, Florence GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Leon_Battista_Alberti.jpg
523 YBN
[1477 AD] 		1368) Uppsala {oP-So-lo} University is
founded, the first university in
Scandinavia.
Uppsala, Sweden 
[1] 18th century engraving of
Riddartorget in Uppsala, with the later
demolished Academia Carolina (the old
chapter house) to the left (by the
Cathedral which is just outside the
picture). To the right is the
Oxenstierna Palace, the former
residence of w:Bengt Gabrielsson
Oxenstierna. The latter was then used
for the ''Royal Academy [=University]
Hospital'' (''Kgl Academi Sjukhus''),
and is now the main building for the
Faculty of Law. In the middle one can
see a part of the Skytteanum, where the
Professor Skytteanus has his residence
and office and parts of the Department
of Government are still
located. Engraving by F. Akrelius in:
J. B. Busser, Beskrifning om Upsala
(1769). PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Academia_Carolina_Uppsala.jpg

[2] Engraving by Fredrik Akrel
(Akrelius). Source: From: Johan
Benedict Busser, Utkast till
beskrifning om Upsala. Upsala, tryckt
hos Joh. Edman, kongl. acad. boktr.
1-2. 1769-73. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Exercise_yard_-_from_Busser%2C_Om_Ups
ala_Stad_etc.jpg
517 YBN
[1483 AD] 		6481) A parachute is designed by
Leonardo da Vinci (VENcE).
Milan, Italy 
[1] Design for a parachute by Leonardo
da Vinci, from the Codex Atlanticus, c.
1478–1518; in the Biblioteca
Ambrosiana, Milan, Italy. Credit:
Baldwin H. Ward and Kathryn C.
Ward/Corbis COPYRIGHTED
source: http://media-2.web.britannica.co
m/eb-media/81/96681-004-4FCB9F08.jpg

[2] [t Da Vinci Tank or armored
vehicle - 1484] UNKNOWN
source: http://www.leonardodavincisecret
s.com/inventions/warmachines.jpg
514 YBN
[1486 AD] 		1467) Gliders, a helical air-screw, and
an "ornithopher" a flying machine with
flapping wings are designed by Da Vinci
(VENcE).
Milan, Italy 
[1] Design for a Flying Machine is a
1488 drawing by Leonardo da Vinci. PD
source: http://inventors.about.com/od/ds
tartinventors/ig/Inventions-of-Leonardo-
DaVinci/Design-for-a-Flying-Machine-2.ht
m

[2] Design for a Flying Machine (c.
1488) is a drawing by Leonardo da
Vinci. Source:
http://www.visi.com/~reuteler/leonardo.h
tml PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Design_for_a_Flying_Machine.jpg
508 YBN
[10/12/1492 AD] 		1450) Humans from Europe reach the
Americas by crossing the Atlantic Ocean
in three small ships commanded by
Italian explorer Christopher Columbus.

Columbus lands on a small island in
America (probably San Salvador).

In America Columbus explores, finds a
new race of people, new plants, and
many other new phenomena.
(probably) San Salvador 
[1] Artist [show]Sebastiano del
Piombo (1485–1547) Link back to
Creator infobox template
wikidata:Q285423 Description
Christopher Columbus Date
1519 Medium painting Current
location [show]Metropolitan Museum
of ArtLink back to Institution infobox
template wikidata:Q160236 Inscriptions
Text top center Source/Photographer
http://www.metmuseum.org/works_of_art/c
ollection_database/european_paintings/po
rtrait_of_a_man_said_to_be_christopher_c
olumbus_sebastiano_del_piombo_sebastiano
_luciani/objectview.aspx?page=1&sort=6&s
ortdir=asc&keyword=Piombo&fp=1&dd1=11&dd
2=0&vw=0&collID=11&OID=110002098&vT=1&hi
=0&ov=0 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5d/Christopher_Columbus.
PNG

[2] Portrait of Christopher Columbus
from the painting Virgen de los
Navegantes (in the Sala de los
Almirantes, Royal Alcazar, Seville). A
painting by Alejo Fernández between
1505 and 1536. It is the only state
sponsored portrait of the First Admiral
of the Indias. Photo by a Columbus
historian, Manuel Rosa. More info
http://www.UnmaskingColumbus.com PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Christopher_Columbus_Face.jpg
500 YBN
[1500 AD] 		6480) Da Vinci (VENcE) designs a screw
cutting machine.
Florence, Italy 
[1] # Self-portrait of Leonardo da
Vinci, circa 1512-1515 # Location:
Royal Library, Turin # Technique: Red
chalk # Dimensions: 13 x 8.5'' (33 x
21.6 cm) Source:
http://www.vivoscuola.it/us/ic-villalaga
rina/Ipertesti/caritro/images/Leonardo_a
utorutratto.jpg PD
source: Screw-cutting machine by
Leonardo da Vinci, c. 1500; in the
Bibliothèque de l’Institut de
France, Paris (MS B, folio 70
verso). Credit: Courtesy of the
Bibliothèque de l’Institut de
France, Paris; photograph, The Science
Museum, London PD

[2] Verrocchio, Florence, 15thC,
''David'' bronze statue. The model is
thought to have been Leonardo da
Vinci Source WGA Date
1467 Author Verrocchio PD
source: http://media-3.web.britannica.co
m/eb-media/39/60539-004-FFD00218.jpg
496 YBN
[1504 AD] 		1474) That the new lands extend too far
to the South to be Asia, but instead
represent a new continent unknown to
ancient people, separated from Asia by
a second ocean, is recognized by
Italian navigator Amerigo Vespucci
(VeSPYUCI) for whom the new continent
"America" will be named after.
 
[1] Amerigo Vespucci From Amerigo
Vespucci by Frederick A. Ober - Project
Gutenberg eText
19997 http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/19
997 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Amerigo_Vespucci_-_Project_Gutenberg_
etext_19997.jpg

[2] Statue at the Uffizi,
Florence. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Amerigo_Vespucci01.jpg
491 YBN
[1509 AD] 		1447) Euclid is translated into Latin.
Bologna?,Italy 
[1] Ritratto di Frà Luca Pacioli
(1495). Luca Pacioli (1445 - 1517) is
the central figure in this painting
exhibited in the Museo e Gallerie di
Capodimonte in Napoli (Italy). The
painter is unknown, although some
people are convinced the painter is
Jacopo de' Barbari (1440-1515). Table
is filled with geomerical tools: slate,
chalk, compas, a dodecahedron model and
a rhombicuboctahedron half-filed with
water is hanging in the air. Pacioli is
demonstrating a theorem by Euclid. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Pacioli.jpg

[2] The first ever printed version of
the Rhombicuboctahedron was by Leonardo
da Vinci, as appeared in the Divina
Proportione by Luca Pacioli 1509,
Venise PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Leonardo_polyhedra.png
490 YBN
[1510 AD] 		1472) The anatomy of the human embryo
is drawn by Da Vinci (VENcE).
Milan, Italy 
[1] Studies of Embryos by Leonardo da
Vinci * Date: circa 1510-1513
* Technique: Pen over red chalk *
Dimensions: 12 x 8'' (30.5 × 20 cm)
* Location: Royal Library, Windsor
Castle Source:
http://www.theartgallery.com.au/ArtEduca
tion/greatartists/DaVinci/14_Studies_of_
Embryos/index.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Leonardo_da_Vinci_Studies_of_Embryos.
jpg

[2] Studies of the Arm showing the
Movements made by Biceps (c. 1510) is a
drawing by Leonardo da Vinci. Source:
http://www.visi.com/~reuteler/leonardo.h
tml PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Studies_of_the_Arm_showing_the_Moveme
nts_made_by_the_Biceps.jpg
487 YBN
[09/25/1513 AD] 		1485) Europeans reach the Pacific
Ocean.

Spanish explorer Vasco Nunez de Balboa
(BoLBOo) names the Pacific Ocean the
"South Sea".
from a peak in Darién, Panama 
[1] Vasco Núñez de Balboa PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Vascon%C3%BA%C3%B1ezdebalboa.jpeg

[2] Vasco Núñez de Balboa executing
Native Americans for same-sex
love. New York Public Library, Rare
Book Room, De Bry Collection, New
York http://www.androphile.org/preview/
Museum/New_World/Panama_Two-SpiritA.html
Théodore De
Bry (1528-1598) Balboa setting his
dogs upon Indian practitioners of male
love (1594) The Spanish invader Vasco
Núñez de Balboa (1475-1519) shown in
Central America with his troops,
presiding over the execution of
Indians, whom he ordered eaten alive by
the war dogs for having practiced male
love. New York Public Library, Rare
Book Room, De Bry Collection, New
York. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Balboamurder.jpg
485 YBN
[1515 AD] 		3222) The wheel-lock is invented; a
device that strikes a spark to ignite
powder in a gun.
  
483 YBN
[10/31/1517 AD] 		1389) The start of the Protestant
Reformation.
Wittenberg, Germany 
[1] Luther in 1529 by Lucas
Cranach Painting by Lucas Cranach the
Elder. Uffizi gallery. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Luther46c.jpg
480 YBN
[10/21/1520 AD] 		1496) Magellan reaches and names the
Pacific Ocean.
Straight of Magellan 
[1] An anonymous portrait of Ferdinand
Magellan, 16th or 17th century (The
Mariner's Museum Collection, Newport
News, VA) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ferdinand_Magellan.jpg

[2] Map of Ferdinand Magellans voyage
around the world GFDL
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Magellan%27s_voyage_EN.svg
478 YBN
[09/08/1522 AD] 		1475) Humans circumnavigate the Earth.

Spanish Navigator Juan Sebastian del
Cano (KonO) returns in a single
remaining ship originally lead by
Magellan to Seville, Spain with a crew
that is the first to circumnavigate the
Earth.

This voyage lasts 3 years and cost 4
ships, but the spices and other
merchandise brought back more than
compensate for the loss. This voyage
proves that Eratosthenes estimate of
the size of the Earth is correct, and
that of Poseidoinius and Ptolemy wrong,
and that a single ocean covers the
Earth.
Seville, Spain 
[1] An anonymous portrait of Ferdinand
Magellan, 16th or 17th century (The
Mariner's Museum Collection, Newport
News, VA) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ferdinand_Magellan.jpg

[2] Juan Sebastián
Elcano Litografía de J. Donon en
Historia de la Marina Real Española.
Madrid,
1854 http://marenostrum.org/bibliotecad
elmar/historia/pacifico/ PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Elcano.jpg
470 YBN
[1530 AD] 		1503) The disease "syphillis" is
described and named.
Verona, Italy (and possibly mountain
villa at Incaffi) 
[1] Girolamo Fracastoro. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a1/Fracastoro.jpg
469 YBN
[1531 AD] 		1546) Spanish physician Michael
Servetus publishes a book that
describes Jesus as only human.
Toulouse, France (presumably) 
[1] Miguel Servet, (Villanueva de
Sigena 1511- Genevra 1553) Spanish
scientist and theologist of the
Renaissance. Artist : Christian
Fritzsch (author) born in about 1660,
Mittweida, Bautzen, Sachsen,
Germany. Source:
http://mcgovern.library.tmc.edu/data/www
/html/people/osler/MS/P000d.htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Michael_Servetus.jpg

[2] Servetus, detail from an engraving
by Carl Sichem Courtesy of the
National Library of Medicine, Bethesda,
Md. PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-14212/Servetus-detail-from-an-engraving
-by-Carl-Sichem?articleTypeId=1
467 YBN
[1533 AD] 		1541) The method of triangulation to
measure distance by Dutch cartographer
Reiner Gemma Frisius: a base line of
known length is chosen, and from its
endpoints the angles of sight to a
remote object are measured. The
distance to the object from either
endpoint can then be calculated using
simple trigonometry.
Friesland (present day Netherlands)
(presumably) 
[1] English: Measuring the width of a
river by triangulation, Hulsius, 16th
century. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/CD006-Triangula
tion_16th_century.png/1280px-CD006-Trian
gulation_16th_century.png

[2] English: Gemma Frisius, 1508-1555,
cartographer and mathematician Source
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollection
s/hst/scientific-identity/fullsize/SIL14
-G002-05a.jpg Date 17th
century Author Esme de Boulonois PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gemma_frisius_dockumensis.jpg
462 YBN
[10/28/1538 AD] 		1371) The University of Santo Domingo,
the first university in the Western
Hemisphere.
Santo Domingo, (now the) Dominican
Republic 
[1] La Universidad de Santo Domingo fue
creada mediante la Bula In Apostolatus
Culmine, expedida el 28 de octubre de
1538, por el Papa Paulo III, la cual
elevó a esa categoría el Estudio
General que los dominicos regenteaban
desde el 1518, en Santo Domingo, sede
virreinal de la colonización y el más
viejo establecimiento colonial del
Nuevo Mundo. COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://www.uasd.edu.do/principal
es/general.html
462 YBN
[1538 AD] 		3059) The theory that the Earth and
planets rotate around a central fixed
point by Girolamo Fracastro.
(University of Padua) Padua,
Italy|Verona, Italy (and possibly
mountain villa at Incaffi) 
[1] Fracastoro, G. Hieronymi
Fracastorii ... Opera Omnia Quorum
Nomina Sequens Pagina Plenius Indicat
... apud Iuntas, 1584,
p. http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&
lr=&id=rG98CDUIsWoC PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?hl
=en&lr=&id=rG98CDUIsWoC

[2] Girolamo Fracastoro. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a1/Fracastoro.jpg
460 YBN
[1540 AD] 		1483) Copernicus and Rheticus publish
the main elements of the heliocentric
theory.
Frauenburg (Frombork, Poland) 
[1] Page from: Georg Joachim Rheticus.
Narratio Prima, 1540.
http://www.lindahall.org/services/digi
tal/ebooks/rheticus/rheticus07.shtml PD

source: http://www.lindahall.org/service
s/digital/ebooks/rheticus/bigpix/0035_00
7b.jpg

[2] Page from: Georg Joachim
Rheticus. Narratio Prima, 1540.
http://www.lindahall.org/services/digi
tal/ebooks/rheticus/rheticus08.shtml PD

source: http://www.lindahall.org/service
s/digital/ebooks/rheticus/bigpix/0035_00
9b.jpg
460 YBN
[1540 AD] 		1509) That comets always have their
tails pointing away from the Sun is
recognized.
Ingolstadt, Bavaria, Germany 
[1] Petrus Apianus. From Icones sive
imagines virorum literis illustrium,
Frankfurt 1719. Image source:
http://www.math.uni-hamburg.de/math/ig
n/xyz/ca00-v5.htm#tth_sEc3 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Peter_Apian.png

[2] A page from Petrus Apianus'
Astronomicum Caesareum (1540). Img src:
Library of
Congress. http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/w
orld/world-object.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Astronomicum_Caesareum.jpg
458 YBN
[1542 AD] 		1511) Appendicitis (an inflammation of
the appendix) and the central canal of
the spinal cord are described.
 
[1] Description العربية:
مخطط للمعدة والقولون
والمستقيم، الجهاز
الهضمي. English: Stomach colon
rectum diagram. Date 19 December
2006 Source US PD picture. Author
Indolences created it on the English
Wikipedia. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Stomach_colon_r
ectum_diagram.svg/1000px-Stomach_colon_r
ectum_diagram.svg.png

[2] Description English: Tracts of
the spinal cord. Date 17 July
2010 Source File:Medulla spinalis -
tracts - English.svg by Polarlys
(translation by Selket). Author
Polarlys and Mikael Häggström CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b2/Spinal_cord_tracts_-_
English.svg
457 YBN
[1543 AD] 		1482) The Sun centered theory is
revived by Nicolaus Copernicus.
(presumably) written in (Frauenburg,
East Prussia now:)Frombork, Poland;
(printed in)Nuremberg, Germany 
[1] Nicolaus Copernicus (portrait from
Toruń - beginning of the 16th
century), from
http://www.frombork.art.pl/Ang10.htm PD

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Nikolaus_Kopernikus.jpg

[2] Nicolaus Copernicus PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Copernicus.jpg
457 YBN
[1543 AD] 		1553) The first accurate book on human
anatomy.
Basel, Switzerland 
[1] Portrait of Vesalius from his De
humani corporis fabrica (1543). PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Vesalius_Fabrica_portrait.jpg

[2] Image from Andreas Vesalius's De
humani corporis fabrica (1543), page
190. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Vesalius_Fabrica_p190.jpg
456 YBN
[01/24/1544 AD] 		3346) A pin-hole camera is used to
observe a solar eclipse.
Louvain, Belgium 
[1] Frisius, R.G., and R. Gemma. Gemmae
Frisii ... De Radio Astronomico &
Geometrico Liber: In Quo Multa Quae Ad
Geographia[m], Opticam, Geometriam &
Astronomiam Vtilis Sunt, Demonstrantur
... apud Greg. Bontiu[m], 1545,
p32. http://books.google.com/books?id=b
jS1Cl2mS1AC&pg=PA23 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=bjS1Cl2mS1AC&pg=PA23

[2] Reinerus Gemma-Frisius's
illustration (left) of the solar
eclipse he observed in Louvain on
January 24, 1544. PD/Corel
source: http://www.acmi.net.au/AIC/CAM_O
BS_LOUVAIN_1544.GIF
455 YBN
[1545 AD] 		1537) The first imaginary numbers; the
square root of a negative number.
(University of Pavia) Pavia, Italy
(presumably) 
[1] Girolamo Cardano, coloured woodcut
on the cover of his Practica
arithmetica (1539). The Granger
Collection, New York PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-15447/Girolamo-Cardano-coloured-woodcut
-on-the-cover-of-his-Practica?articleTyp
eId=1

[2] wikipedia contributor typed: I
found this picture at the library the
other day and haven't ever seen it
online before and thought it would make
a great addition to the Cardano page.
The author was marked as unknown. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:CardanoPortrait.jpg
455 YBN
[1545 AD] 		1543) Arteries are tied to stop
bleeding and artificial limbs are
created by French surgeon Ambroise
Paré (PorA).
Paris, France 
[1] Ambroise Paré (ca. 1510-1590),
famous French surgeon Posthumous
(fantasy) portrait by William Holl
(1807-1871) Source:
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollections
/hst/scientific-identity/CF/by_name_disp
lay_results.cfm?scientist=Par%C3%A9,%20A
mbroise PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ambroise_Par%C3%A9.jpg

[2] Paré, detail of an engraving,
1582 PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-13373/Pare-detail-of-an-engraving-1582?
articleTypeId=1
454 YBN
[1546 AD] 		1507) The scientific classification of
minerals by German mineralogist,
Georgius Agricola (oGriKOlo).
written: Chemnitz, Saxony, Germany|
published: Basel, Switzerland 
[1] The ''Father of Mineralogy'',
Georgius Agricola. URL:
http://kanitz.onlinehome.de/agricolagymn
asium/agrigale.htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Georgius_Agricola.jpg

[2] Georgius Agricola, portrait from
Icones veterum aliquot ac recentium
medicorum philosophorumque (1574) by
Joannes Sambucus, printed in
Antwerp. Courtesy of the Museum
National d'Histoire Naturelle,
Paris[2] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Georg_Agricola.jpg
454 YBN
[1546 AD] 		1547) Pulmonary circulation is
understood by Spanish physician,
Michael Servetus (SRVETuS): that blood
goes from the right side of the heart
to the lung where it is mixed with air
becoming red, and then to the left side
of the heart where it is sent through
the rest of the body.

Servetus shows that no blood goes from
the left side of the heart to right
side through the middle wall as Galen
had thought.
Vienne, France 
[1] Miguel Servet, (Villanueva de
Sigena 1511- Genevra 1553) Spanish
scientist and theologist of the
Renaissance. Artist : Christian
Fritzsch (author) born in about 1660,
Mittweida, Bautzen, Sachsen,
Germany. Source:
http://mcgovern.library.tmc.edu/data/www
/html/people/osler/MS/P000d.htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Michael_Servetus.jpg

[2] Servetus, detail from an engraving
by Carl Sichem Courtesy of the
National Library of Medicine, Bethesda,
Md. PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-14212/Servetus-detail-from-an-engraving
-by-Carl-Sichem?articleTypeId=1
454 YBN
[1546 AD] 		3057) The germ theory of disease is
revived by Italian physician Girolamo
Fracastoro.
Verona, Italy 
[1] Fracastoro, G., and L.A. Giunta.
Hieronymi Fracastorii ... De Sympathia
Et Antipathia Rerum Liber Vnus: De
Contagione Et Contagiosis Morbis Et
Curatione Libri III. apud heredes
Lucantonii Iuntae,
1546. http://books.google.com/books?id=
B580FxRJwQUC PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=B580FxRJwQUC

[2] Girolamo Fracastoro. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a1/Fracastoro.jpg
451 YBN
[1549 AD] 		1555) A catalog of all known books in
Hebrew, Greek, and Latin.
 
[1] Conrad Gessner (1516-1565), Swiss
naturalist. Source Galerie des
naturalistes de J. Pizzetta, Ed.
Hennuyer, 1893 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gessner_Conrad_1516-1565.jpg

[2] Conrad Gesner. Historiae
Animalium. (Zurich, 1551ff).
http://www.nlm.nih.gov/exhibition/histor
icalanatomies/Images/1200_pixels/porcupi
ne_33.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Porcupine_33.jpg
449 YBN
[1551 AD] 		1549) The first planetary tables based
on the Sun-centered theory.
 
[1] Reinhold, Prutenic Tables (1585),
title page. [t must be later
edition] PD
source: http://hsci.cas.ou.edu/images/jp
g-100dpi-5in/16thCentury/Reinhold/1585/R
einhold-1585-000tp.jpg

[2] Reinhold, Prutenic Tables (1585),
133v. PD
source: http://hsci.cas.ou.edu/exhibits/
exhibit.php?exbgrp=9&exbid=52&exbpg=25
448 YBN
[1552 AD] 		1545) The adrenal gland is identified.
Rome, Italy 
[1] Description Portrait of
Bartolomeus Eustachius, the
anatomist. Source Plate from A
History of dentistry from the most
ancient times until the end of the
eighteenth century, by Vincenzo
Guerini. Scanned by Google Book
Search. Date Plate published 1909;
possibly much earlier. Author Unknown
(not specified); possibly from one of
Eustachius' books. Permission Public
domain due to age. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Bartolomeus_Eustachius.jpg

[2] Portrait of Eustachius Eustachi,
Bartholomeo (d. 1574) - Tabulae
anatomicae. Tabulae anatomicae (Rome,
1783) Title page PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Eustachi01.jpg
447 YBN
[10/27/1553 AD] 		1548) Michael Servetus is burned alive
for heresy {HAReSE} in Champel, Geneva,
Switzerland.
Geneva, Switzerland 
[1] Miguel Servet, (Villanueva de
Sigena 1511- Genevra 1553) Spanish
scientist and theologist of the
Renaissance. Artist : Christian
Fritzsch (author) born in about 1660,
Mittweida, Bautzen, Sachsen,
Germany. Source:
http://mcgovern.library.tmc.edu/data/www
/html/people/osler/MS/P000d.htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Michael_Servetus.jpg

[2] Servetus, detail from an engraving
by Carl Sichem Courtesy of the
National Library of Medicine, Bethesda,
Md. PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-14212/Servetus-detail-from-an-engraving
-by-Carl-Sichem?articleTypeId=1
440 YBN
[1560 AD] 		1538) The first systematic computations
of probabilities (for example the
chance of a certain combination in the
fall of 3 dice) by Italian
mathematician Girolamo Cardano
(KoRDoNO).
Italy 
[1] Girolamo Cardano, coloured woodcut
on the cover of his Practica
arithmetica (1539). The Granger
Collection, New York PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-15447/Girolamo-Cardano-coloured-woodcut
-on-the-cover-of-his-Practica?articleTyp
eId=1

[2] wikipedia contributor typed: I
found this picture at the library the
other day and haven't ever seen it
online before and thought it would make
a great addition to the Cardano page.
The author was marked as unknown. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:CardanoPortrait.jpg
440 YBN
[1560 AD] 		1563) The first scientific society (a
group for the communication of
scientific research), the precursor of
the Academy of the Lynx, is formed by
Italian physicist Giambattista della
Porta (PoURTo).
 
[1] Giambattista della Porta PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Dellaporta.jpg
439 YBN
[1561 AD] 		1562) Gabriel Fallopius identifies the
tubes that connect the ovaries to the
uterus (now known as fallopian tubes),
and the semicircular canals of the
inner ear (three tubular and looped
structures of the inner ear, together
functioning in the maintenance of the
sense of balance in the body).
Fallopius names the "vagina",
"placenta", "clitoris", "palate", and
"cochlea" (the snail-shaped organ of
hearing in the inner ear).
(University of Padua) Padua,
Italy 
[1] 16th century portrait by unknown
artist Retrieved from
http://www.peoples.ru/science/professor/
gabriello/ PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gabriele_Falloppio.jpg

[2] Gabriel Fallopius, coloured copper
engraving, 17th century. The Granger
Collection, New York PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-15449/Gabriel-Fallopius-coloured-copper
-engraving-17th-century?articleTypeId=1
435 YBN
[1565 AD] 		1558) The first illustrations of
fossils.
Zurich, Swizerland (presumably) 
[1] Gesner, K. et al. De Omni Rerum
Fossilium Genere, Gemmis, Lapidibus,
Metallis, Et Huiusmodi, Libri Aliquot,
Plerique Nunc Primum Editi. excudebat
Iacobus Gesnerus, 1565. De Omni Rerum
Fossilium Genere, Gemmis, Lapidibus,
Metallis, Et Huiusmodi, Libri Aliquot,
Plerique Nunc Primum
Editi. http://books.google.com/books?id
=JP0qBLnRY58C PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=JP0qBLnRY58C

[2] Gesner, K. et al. De Omni Rerum
Fossilium Genere, Gemmis, Lapidibus,
Metallis, Et Huiusmodi, Libri Aliquot,
Plerique Nunc Primum Editi. excudebat
Iacobus Gesnerus, 1565. De Omni Rerum
Fossilium Genere, Gemmis, Lapidibus,
Metallis, Et Huiusmodi, Libri Aliquot,
Plerique Nunc Primum
Editi. http://books.google.com/books?id
=JP0qBLnRY58C PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=JP0qBLnRY58C
433 YBN
[1567 AD] 		1512) Peristalsis is described;
(involuntary progressive wave-like
muscle contractions in the esophagus,
stomach, and intestines that help push
matter inside them).
 
[1] Scientist: Fernel, Jean François
(1497 - 1558) Discipline(s):
Medicine Print Artist: Nicolas de
Larmessin Medium: Woodcut Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 16.9 x 13.3 cm /
Sheet: 19 x 14.2 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/by_d
iscipline_display_results.cfm?Research_D
iscipline_1=Medicine
431 YBN
[1569 AD] 		1550) Cyclindrical projection is used
to make a world map so that lines of
latitude and longitude are straight by
Gerardus Mercator {mRKATR}.
Duchy of Cleves, Germany
(presumably) 
[1] esta es un Carta do Mundo de
Mercator (1569) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b2/Mercator_1569.png

[2] Portrait of en:Gerardus
Mercator Source Originally from
en.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. (Original text :
http://www.nmm.ac.uk/collections/prints/
viewRepro.cfm?reproID=PU2381) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Mercator.jpg
431 YBN
[1569 AD] 		1992) The symbol "i" is used for the
square root of -1.
Bologna, Italy 
[1] Rafael Bombelli Source
unknown contemporary? PD?
COPYRIGHTED?
source: http://www-history.mcs.st-andrew
s.ac.uk/PictDisplay/Bombelli.html
427 YBN
[1573 AD] 		1575) A comet is proven to be farther
away than the moon by Tycho Brahe (TIKO
BroHA). Brahe also shows that the orbit
of the comet is not circular, but is
elongated, and so would be passing
through the supposed planetary
(crystal) spheres which would be
impossible if such spheres actually
exist.
Island of Hven (now Ven, Sweden) 
[1] The comet of 1577 From the comet
of 1577, Tycho learned that comets are
above the atmosphere. Seen above is a
page from his notebook. The comet is
placed near the orbit of the planet
Venus. The inner solar system is in
accordance with his own system, with
the Earth in the center and the Sun
moving around, all the other planets
are moving around the Sun. He could not
accept the Copernican system because he
could not measure the parallax of the
stars. He also observed that the tail
of the comet pointed away from the
Sun. Retrieved from
http://www.rundetaarn.dk/engelsk/observa
torium/komet.htm. PD AND The
astronomer Tycho Brahe Source
http://measure.igpp.ucla.edu/solar-terr
estrial-luminaries/brahe.JPG PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/da/Brahe_notebook.jpg
AND http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imag
e:Tycho_Brahe.JPG

[2] The comet of 1577 From the comet
of 1577, Tycho learned that comets are
above the atmosphere. Seen above is a
page from his notebook. The comet is
placed near the orbit of the planet
Venus. The inner solar system is in
accordance with his own system, with
the Earth in the center and the Sun
moving around, all the other planets
are moving around the Sun. He could not
accept the Copernican system because he
could not measure the parallax of the
stars. He also observed that the tail
of the comet pointed away from the
Sun. Retrieved from
http://www.rundetaarn.dk/engelsk/observa
torium/komet.htm. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/da/Brahe_notebook.jpg
420 YBN
[1580 AD] 		3221) The earliest flintlock gun. The
flintlock replaces the matchlock.
Netherlands 
[1] External view, showing the cock and
frizzen rotated back. Description
English: A snaphance lock, cocked,
showing the outside of the
mechanism Date 19 June
2010 Source Own work Author
Hatchetfish CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Snaphance_Lock%
2C_External_View%2C_Cocked.png/1280px-Sn
aphance_Lock%2C_External_View%2C_Cocked.
png

[2] Internal view, showing the flash
pan cover closed and the lateral sear
engaged. Description English: A
snaphance lock, cocked, showing the
internal mechanism Date 19 June
2010 Source Own work Author
Hatchetfish CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Snaphance_Lock%
2C_Internal_View%2C_Cocked.png/1280px-Sn
aphance_Lock%2C_Internal_View%2C_Cocked.
png
419 YBN
[1581 AD] 		1597) That two pendulums of the same
length swing in the same time
regardless of the amplitude is
recognized by Galileo Galilei
(GoLilAO).
Pisa, Italy 
[1] Galileo Galilei. Portrait in crayon
by Leoni Source: French WP
(Utilisateur:Kelson via
http://iafosun.ifsi.rm.cnr.it/~iafolla/h
ome/homegrsp.html) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Galilee.jpg

[2] Original portrait of Galileo
Galilei by Justus Sustermans painted in
1636. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Galileo.arp.300pix.jpg
418 YBN
[1582 AD] 		1566) The Gregorian calendar: February
29th is omitted in century years which
are not divisible by 400.
Rome, Italy 
[1] Christopher Clavius (1538-1612),
German mathematician and
astronomer. Immediate source:
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollections
/hst/scientific-identity/fullsize/SIL14-
C4-02a.jpg Ultimate source: A 16th
century engraving after a painting by
Francisco Villamena. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Christopher_Clavius.jpg
415 YBN
[1585 AD] 		1581) Decimal point notation is
introduced into Europe by Simon Stevin
(STEVen).
Netherlands (presumably) 
[1] Simon Stevin, ''De Thiende'', 1585,
p12.
http://www.dbnl.org/tekst/stev001thie0
1_01/downloads.php {Stevin_De_Thiende_1
585.pdf} English ''The Tenth'' PD
source: http://www.dbnl.org/tekst/saveas
.php?filename=stev001thie01_01_scans.pdf
&dir=stev001thie01_01&type=pdf

[2] Simon Stevin, ''De Thiende'',
1585, p16.
http://www.dbnl.org/tekst/stev001thie0
1_01/downloads.php {Stevin_De_Thiende_1
585.pdf} English ''The Tenth'' PD
source: http://www.dbnl.org/tekst/saveas
.php?filename=stev001thie01_01_scans.pdf
&dir=stev001thie01_01&type=pdf
414 YBN
[1586 AD] 		1583) Simon Stevin (STEVen) (CE
1548-1620) shows that objects of
different weight fall the same distance
in the same amount of time. This proves
that Aristotle's claim that heavier
objects fall faster is inaccurate.
Netherlands (presumably) 
[1] Simon Stevin, from English
wikipedia. Older than 100 years, so
it's Public Domain for countries with a
copyright term of life of the author
plus 100 years from en: Portrait by an
unknown artist, library of University
of Leiden. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Simon-stevin.jpeg
409 YBN
[1591 AD] 		1182) The first modern flush toilet is
invented by John Harington.
(Palace of Queen Elizabeth) Richmond,
Surrey, England 
[1] Picture A Drawing of Sir John
Harrington's Flush Toilet as Described
in ''A New Discourse of a Stale
Subject, Called The Metamorphosis of
Ajax'' (1596) 1888-1889 Source
Popular Science Monthly Volume 34,
p310 http://www.archive.org/details/pop
ularsciencemo34newy PD
source: http://ultimatehistoryproject.co
m/uploads/3/0/6/7/3067335/1340909250.jpg


[2] Artist Attributed to Hieronimo
Custodis (fl. 1589–1598) Link back to
Creator infobox template
wikidata:Q2725000 Title Sir John
Harington Description English:
Portrait of Sir John Harington
(1561-1612). Date c.
1590-95[1] Medium oil on
panel Dimensions 91.5 x 71 cm Object
history Ampleforth Abbey, offered at
Sotheby's, London, sale L11034, Lot
145 Notes A cut-down version of this
portrait is in the National Portrait
Gallery, London. References
↑ Roy Strong, The English Icon:
Elizabethan and Jacobean Portraiture,
1969, Routledge & Kegan Paul,
London Source/Photographer
Sotheby's PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/09/Sir_John_Harington%2C
_attributed_to_Hieronimo_Custodis.png
409 YBN
[1591 AD] 		1568) Letters are used to represent
constant and unknown numbers (the first
"variables") by Franciscus Vieta
(VYATu).
(possibly) Paris, France 
[1] Viète, F. Algèbre.
1636. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ATs1AAAAcAAJ&pg=PA7 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=ATs1AAAAcAAJ&pg=PA7

[2] François Viète. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Francois_Viete.jpg
408 YBN
[1592 AD] 		1587) That plants, like animals, have
gender is recognized.
Venice, Italy 
[1] Prospero Alpini PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Prospero_Alpini.jpg

[2] Alpini, engraving Courtesy of the
Ashmolean Museum, Oxford PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-8320/Alpini-engraving?articleTypeId=1
408 YBN
[1592 AD] 		1613) The first thermometer is invented
by Galileo Galilei.

A glass tube ending in a bulb, is
turned upside down in a container of
water. A change in temperature of the
vessel produces an expansion or
contraction of the air within the
partially filled vessel, which in turn
changes the level of the water within
it.
Padua, Italy 
[1] Fig. 1. Galileo’s
thermoscope. from: David Sherry,
Thermoscopes, thermometers, and the
foundations of measurement, Studies In
History and Philosophy of Science Part
A, Volume 42, Issue 4, December 2011,
Pages 509-524, ISSN 0039-3681,
10.1016/j.shpsa.2011.07.001. (http://ww
w.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/
S0039368111000616) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/cac
he/MiamiImageURL/1-s2.0-S003936811100061
6-gr1.jpg/0?wchp=dGLzVBA-zSkzS

[2] Thermoscope Instrument to
measure heat and cold invented by
Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) during his
stay in Padua. Santorio Santorio
(1561-1636) made a similar instrument
in Venice in 1612. A precursor of the
modern thermometer, the thermoscope
consists of a glass vessel with a long
neck. The vessel was heated with the
hands and partially immersed, in an
upright position, in a container full
of water. When the heat of the hands
was taken away, the water was observed
to rise in the thermoscope neck. The
experiment showed the changes in air
density produced by variations in
temperature. UNKNOWN
source: http://catalogue.museogalileo.it
/images/cat/approfondimenti_944/AF0020-5
1000_944.jpg
404 YBN
[08/03/1596 AD] 		1616) A variable star is discovered, a
star that shows periodic changes in
brightness by German astronomer David
Fabricius (FoBrisEuS).

Fabricius finds this star (what will be
called Omicron Ceti, and later "Mira")
before the use of the telescope.
Resterhave (near Dorum) East Frisia
(now northwest Germany and northeast
Netherlands) (presumably)  
[1] Kepler, J., and E. Rosen.
Kepler’s Somnium: The Dream, Or
Posthumous Work on Lunar Astronomy.
Dover Publ., 1967,
p.226. http://books.google.com/books?id
=OdCJAS0eQ64C&pg=PA226 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=OdCJAS0eQ64C&pg=PA226

[2] David Fabricius
(1564-1617) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.tayabeixo.org/biograf
ias/mar_1q.htm
404 YBN
[1596 AD] 		1552) Trigonometric functions (sin,
cos, tan) are related to angles in a
triangle instead of arcs of a circle.
Kassa, Hungary  
400 YBN
[02/17/1600 AD] 		1578) Italian philosopher Giordano
Bruno is burned alive at the stake for
heresy.

Bruno might have lived had he recanted
as Galileo will, but Bruno chooses not
to.
(Campo de' Fiori {flower market}) Rome,
Italy 
[1] Giordano Bruno PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Giordano_Bruno.jpg

[2] Statue of Giordano Bruno in Campo
de Fiori, Rome, Italy. This monument
was erected in 1889, by Italian Masonic
circles, in the site where he was
burned alive for opposing the Catholic
church authority. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Brunostatue.jpg
400 YBN
[1600 AD] 		1564) That the pupil of the eye changes
its size is demonstrated, fetal
development of many animals compared,
and the first detailed description of
the placenta.
Padua, Italy (presumably) 
[1] Girolamo Fabrizi d'Acquapendente
(1537-1619) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Girolamo_Fabrizi_d%27Acquapendente.jp
g

[2] Fabricius ab Aquapendente, oil
painting by an unknown
artist Alinari-Art Resource/EB Inc.
PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-10511/Fabricius-ab-Aquapendente-oil-pai
nting-by-an-unknown-artist?articleTypeId
=1
400 YBN
[1600 AD] 		1571) That the Earth is a spherical
magnet on which a compass points to the
magnetic poles is recognized by William
Gilbert.

Gilbert is the first to use the terms
electric attraction, electric force,
and magnetic pole.

Gilbert also invents the first known
electroscope, a device to measure the
quantity of static electricity, and the
first to distinguish clearly between
electric and magnetic phenomena.
London, England (presumably) 
[1] Gilbert, W., and P. Short. Gulielmi
Gilberti ... De Magnete, Magneticisque
Corporibus, Et De Magno Magnete
Tellure: Physiologia Noua Plurimis Et
Argumentis, Et Experimentis
Demonstrata. excudebet Petrus Short,
1600. Biblioteca Digital Dioscórides,
p222. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Mbo2oDsnrAAC&pg=PA222 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=Mbo2oDsnrAAC&pg=PA222

[2] Paiting of William Gilbert (1544 -
1603) Source
http://physics.ship.edu/~mrc/pfs/110/in
side_out/vu1/Galileo/Images/Port/gilbert
.gif Date Author Unknown, after
title page of De Magnete (1600) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:William_Gilbert.jpg
397 YBN
[1603 AD] 		1636) The first star catalog to show
the entire celestial sphere, and an
ordered star naming system are
published by German astronomer, Johann
Bayer (BIR). In Bayer's system each
star is named after the constellation
associated with it in order of
brightness, for example Betelgeuse, the
brightest star in Orion is named Alpha
Orionis, and Rigel is Beta Orionis.
Augsburg, Germany 
[1] The constellation of Hydrus was
first published in Johann Bayer's
Uranometria atlas. Bayer's Uranometria
opened a new age in the history of
celestial cartography, and was praised
for the careful placement of star
positions and brightnesses and for its
attractive plates. Click on the above
image for an enlarged view. Image
credit: U.S. Naval Observatory
Library PD
source: http://www.aavso.org/images/baye
r.jpg

[2] A print of the copperplate
engraving for Johann Bayer's
Uranometria showing the constellation
Orion. This image is courtesy of the
United States Naval Observatory
Library, who gives explicit permission
to use it so long as the attribution is
attached. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Uranometria_orion.jpg
397 YBN
[1603 AD] 		3678) The first synthetic luminescent
material; barium sulfide by Vincenzo
Cascariolo.

Luminescence is light emission that
cannot be attributed merely to the
temperature of the emitting body.
Various types of luminescence are often
distinguished according to the source
of the energy which excites the
emission.
Bologna, Italy  
396 YBN
[1604 AD] 		1622) The inverse squared law of light
is described by Johannes Kepler: that
the intensity of light is inversely
related to the square of the distance.

Kepler also understands that light
enters the eye through the pupil and
forms an upside-down image on the
retina.
Prague, (now: Czech Republic)
(presumably) 
[1] A plate from Johannes Kepler's Ad
Vitellionem Paralipomena, quibus
Astronomiae Pars Optica (1604),
illustrating the structure of
eyes. Source:
http://www.hps.cam.ac.uk/starry/keplerbo
oks.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Kepler_Optica.jpg

[2] Johannes Kepler, oil painting by
an unknown artist, 1627; in the
cathedral, Strasbourg, France. Erich
Lessing/Art Resource, New York PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-2965/Johannes-Kepler-oil-painting-by-an
-unknown-artist-1627-in?articleTypeId=1
394 YBN
[1606 AD] 		1589) The preparation of hydrochloric
acid, tin tetrachloride, ammonium
sulfate, and antimony sulfide are
described by Andreas Libavius
(liBAVEuS).
  
394 YBN
[1606 AD] 		2099) Europeans discover and explore
Australia.
Australia 
[1] Description Chart of the Malay
Archipelago and the Dutch discoveries
in Australia Date 1618-1638 Source
National Library of Australia Author
Hessel Gerritsz Link back to Creator
infobox template Permission (Reusing
this file) PD because of age PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Hessel_Gerritsz
_-_Malay_Archipelago_and_Australia.jpg/6
91px-Hessel_Gerritsz_-_Malay_Archipelago
_and_Australia.jpg
392 YBN
[1608 AD] 		1618) The earliest telescope (a
refracting telescope); which is
traditionally credited to Hans
Lippershey (LiPRsE), a spectacle maker
in the Netherlands.

Lippershey places a double convex lens
(the "object glass") at the farther end
of a tube, and a double concave lens
(the "eyepiece") at the nearer end.

This is a refracting telescope, which
bends light out using two transparent
lens.
Middleburgh, Zeeland (Holland) (modern:
Netherlands) 
[1] Hans Lippershey (1570-September
1619), Dutch lensmaker. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Hans_Lippershey.jpg

[2] Description English: Early
depiction of a ‘Dutch telescope’
from the “Emblemata of zinne-werck”
(Middelburg, 1624) of the poet and
statesman Johan de Brune (1588-1658).
The print was engraved by Adriaen van
de Venne, who, together with his
brother Jan Pieters van de Venne,
printed books not far from the original
optical workshop of Hans
Lipperhey. Date 1624 Source
http://www.phys.uu.nl/~vgent/telesc
ope/telescopenl.htm Author Adriaen
Pietersz. van de Venne (1589–1662)
Link back to Creator infobox
template PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/51/Emblemata_1624.jpg
391 YBN
[1609 AD] 		1599) The "law of falling bodies"; that
the distance covered by a falling body
is proportional to the square of the
elapsed time is understood by Galileo
Galilei {GoL-i-lAO GoL-i-LAE}. Galilei
also determines that the path of a
projectile is a parabola recognizing
that two forces can work on an object
at the same time.
(University of Padua) Padua,
Italy 
[1] Galileo Galilei. Portrait in crayon
by Leoni Source: French WP
(Utilisateur:Kelson via
http://iafosun.ifsi.rm.cnr.it/~iafolla/h
ome/homegrsp.html) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Galilee.jpg

[2] Original portrait of Galileo
Galilei by Justus Sustermans painted in
1636. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Galileo.arp.300pix.jpg
391 YBN
[1609 AD] 		1619) That planets move in elliptical
orbits with the Sun at one focus of the
ellipse, and that a line connecting a
planet and the Sun will sweep over
equal areas in equal times is shown by
Johannes Kepler; (Kepler's first two
laws of planetary motion).
Weil der Stadt (now part of the
Stuttgart Region in the German state of
Baden-Württemberg, 30 km west of
Stuttgart's center) 
[1] Johannes Kepler, ''Astronomia
nova'', 1609,
p267. http://www.e-rara.ch/zut/content/
titleinfo/162514 {Astronomia_nova_seu_p
hysica_coelestis_tradita_commentariis_de
_motibus_stellae_m.pdf} PD
AND Description English: Portrait
of Johannes Kepler. Date 8 March 2006
(original upload date) Source
Transferred from en.wikipedia Author
Original uploader was Brandmeister at
en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) PD-US; PD-ART. PD
source: http://www.e-rara.ch/zut/content
/titleinfo/162514
AND http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikip
edia/commons/7/74/JKepler.jpg

[2] Johannes Kepler, ''Astronomia
nova'', 1609,
p267. http://www.e-rara.ch/zut/content/
titleinfo/162514 {Astronomia_nova_seu_p
hysica_coelestis_tradita_commentariis_de
_motibus_stellae_m.pdf} PD
source: http://www.e-rara.ch/zut/content
/titleinfo/162514
390 YBN
[01/??/1610 AD] 		1605) The moons of Jupiter are first
seen and their period determined by
Galileo.

Galileo Galilei finds that planet
Jupiter has four moons, visible only by
telescope, that circle Jupiter with
regular motions. Within a few weeks
Galileo determines the periods of each
moon.
(University of Padua) Padua, Venice,
Italy 
[1] Galileo's Letter to Prince of
Venice PD
source: http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/galileo
/ganymede/manuscript1.jpg

[2] Galileo's illustrations of the
Moon, from his Sidereus Nuncius (1610;
The Sidereal Messenger). Courtesy of
the Joseph Regenstein Library, The
University of Chicago PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-2914/Galileos-illustrations-of-the-Moon
-from-his-Sidereus-Nuncius?articleTypeId
=1
390 YBN
[12/11/1610 AD] 		6485) The phases of planet Venus are
seen by Galileo.
Florence, Italy 
[1] [t Note that this drawing is from
13 years later in 1623.] Galileo
Galilei, Il Saggiatore {The Assayer}
Rome, 1623. Drawing showing the phases
of Venus. PD
source: http://brunelleschi.imss.fi.it/e
splora/cannocchiale/dswmedia/storia/imma
gini/02/15.jpg

[2] Galileo's Letter to Prince of
Venice PD
source: http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/galileo
/ganymede/manuscript1.jpg
390 YBN
[1610 AD] 		1626) Kepler confirms Galileo's finding
of the moons of Jupiter and names these
moons "satellites".
Prague, (now: Czech Republic) 
[1] Kepler, J. Ioannis Kepleri ...
Dissertatio Cum Nuncio Sidereo Nuper Ad
Mortales Misso à Galilaeo Galilaeo ...
typis Danielis Sedesani, 1610.
Diapositivas (Biblioteca Histórica
UCM). http://books.google.com/books?id=
jBSq5Bx_NekC PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=jBSq5Bx_NekC

[2] Johannes Kepler, oil painting by
an unknown artist, 1627; in the
cathedral, Strasbourg, France. Erich
Lessing/Art Resource, New York PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-2965/Johannes-Kepler-oil-painting-by-an
-unknown-artist-1627-in?articleTypeId=1
390 YBN
[1610 AD] 		6488) The earliest Microscope; a
compound light microscope, often
credited to Zacharias Janson, like
Lippershey, a spectacle maker in
Middleburgh, Netherlands.
Middleburgh, Zeeland (Holland) (modern:
Netherlands) 
[1] The microscope was first built in
1595 by Hans and Zacharias Jansen
(1588-1631) in Holland (see figure).
source: http://www.cerebromente.org.br/n
17/history/jansen-micro.JPG

[2] Description Portrait of Zacharias
Jansen Date 1655 Source Pierre
Borel, De vero telescopii
inventore Author Pierre Borel
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3b/Zacharias.jpg
389 YBN
[06/13/1611 AD] 		1617) That the Sun has spots and
rotates around its own axis is first
shown by Johannes Fabricius
(FoBrisEuS).
Osteel, East Frisia (now northwest
Germany and northeast
Netherlands) 
[1] Fabricius, J. De Maculis in Sole
Observatis Narratio.
1611. http://books.google.com/books?id=
aGFRAAAAcAAJ PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=aGFRAAAAcAAJ

[2] Johannes Fabricius PD
source: http://www.daviddarling.info/enc
yclopedia/F/Fabricius.html
389 YBN
[1611 AD] 		1627) A story about a man who travels
to the moon by Kepler.
Prague, (now: Czech Republic) 
[1] ''SOMNIUM'' 1634 PD
source: http://www.um.zagan.pl/kepler/im
age/somnium.jpg

[2] Johannes Kepler, oil painting by
an unknown artist, 1627; in the
cathedral, Strasbourg, France. Erich
Lessing/Art Resource, New York PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-2965/Johannes-Kepler-oil-painting-by-an
-unknown-artist-1627-in?articleTypeId=1
388 YBN
[1612 AD] 		1595) A thermometer is used to measure
body temperature.
Padua, Italy (presumably) 
[1] Santorio mouth thermometer, first
illustration of. From Commentaria in I
Fen I libri canonis Avicenna, Venice,
Sarcina, 1625. Santorio Santorio
(1561-1636) devised three types of
thermometers. PD
source: http://clendening.kumc.edu/dc/rm
/17_74p.jpg

[2] Engraving of Sanctorius of
Padua PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Sanctorius.jpg
388 YBN
[1612 AD] 		3680) The theory of storage of light;
that light can be absorbed in materials
and re-emitted later by Giulio Cesare
La Galla. La Galla creates this theory
to explain luminescence.

In this view light must be absorbed,
like a sponge absorbs water, and this
supports the theory that light is a
material substance.
(Collegio Romano) Rome, Italy 
[1] Ted Huntington PD
source: Ted Huntington
386 YBN
[1614 AD] 		1584) Exponential notation and
logarithms are invented by Scottish
mathematician John Napier (nAPER).
Scotland (presumably) 
[1] Napier, J., and H. Briggs. Mirifici
Logarithmorum Canonis Constructio: Et
Eorum Ad Naturales Ipsorum Numeros
Habitudines; Una Cum Appendice ... Una
Cum Annotationibus ... A. Hermann,
1620. http://books.google.com/books?id=
VukHAQAAIAAJ PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=VukHAQAAIAAJ

[2] Painting of John Napier PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:John_Napier_%28Painting%29.jpeg
384 YBN
[1616 AD] 		1608) Copernicanism is declared a
heresy by Pope "Paul V" (Camillo
Borghese).
Rome, Italy 
[1] Portrait of Pope ''Paul V'' (aka
Camillo Borghese) by Michelangelo
Merisi da Caravaggio. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Pope_Paul_V.jpg

[2] Galileo Galilei. Portrait in
crayon by Leoni Source: French WP
(Utilisateur:Kelson via
http://iafosun.ifsi.rm.cnr.it/~iafolla/h
ome/homegrsp.html) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Galilee.jpg
384 YBN
[1616 AD] 		1644) The circulatory system is
described by William Harvey; that the
heart is a muscle that contracts to
push blood out, that blood can only
move in one direction in blood vessels
(not back and forth as Galen had
believed), and that blood moves in a
circle from the heart to the arteries,
from the arteries to the veins, and
through the veins back to the heart.
London, England 
[1] William Harvey Library of
Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/William+H
arvey?cat=health

[2] William Harvey Source University
of Texas Libraries, The University of
Texas at Austin PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:William_Harvey.jpg
384 YBN
[1616 AD] 		1831) The reflecting telescope is built
by Niccolò Zucchi.

A reflecting telescope focuses light
reflected off a parabolic shaped
(concave) mirror instead of through a
lens. These telescopes remove the
problem of "chromatic aberration" of
refraqcting telescopes; how light is
separated into different frequencies
(or colors) in refraction.
Rome, Italy 
[1] Description English: Niccolò
Zucchi (December 6, 1586 – May 21,
1670) an Italian Jesuit, astronomer,
and physicist. He may have been the
first to see the belts on the planet
Jupiter (on May 17, 1630) and reported
spots on Mars in 1640. In his book
''Optica philosophia experimentalis et
ratione a fundamentis constituta'' in
1652–56 he described his attempt in
1616 to construct a reflecting
telescope, which may be the first time
anyone ever tried to construct
one. Date Source Lithuanian
Science Council of Lithuania on Science
''Science Lithuania - Lithuanian
scientists newspaper. - Andrius
Rudamina: tarp legendos ir
tikrovės Author Unknown PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/76/Niccol%C3%B2_Zucchi.p
ng

[2] 03-08-04/42 BAROQUE TELESCOPE
18TH Newton's first reflecting
telescope. 18th century. The Royal
Society, London, Great Britain UNKNOWN

source: http://www.lessing-photo.com/p3/
030804/03080442.jpg
383 YBN
[01/15/1617 AD] 		6491) The first double (or binary) star
system is observed by Galileo (and
probably Castelli): Mizar {mIZoR} in
Ursa Major.
(University of Florence) Florence,
Italy 
[1] [t Note that this is apparently
public domain because of the age.]
''The middle star of the Tail of Elix
[Great Bear] falls, by [ecliptical]
longitude, on the 9th degree of Virgo,
and its latitude is 56. Earth is now in
Cancer 25, out of which position the
star is 44 degrees distant. Between the
middle star of the Tail of Elix and the
star closest to it [Mizar B], I now put
0.0.15''. The semidiameter [radius] of
the large star, 0.0.3''; of the
smaller, 2''; the interval, 10''. The
semidiameter of the great orb [Earth's
orbit] contains 226 solar
semidiameters. The solar semidiameter
contains 300 semidiameters of the large
star. So the distance of the star
contains 300 solar distances, if the
star is posited to be as big as the
Sun, that is, 67800 solar
semidiameters.'' The amazingly
detailed record of the observation of
Mizar in Galileo's handwriting and its
translation by Thomas Winter
(University of Nebraska). No date is
given, but there are good reasons to
believe it was made on January 15,
1617. Ms. Gal. 70 c. 10r, Biblioteca
Nazionale Centrale Firenze. Reproduced
with authorization from the Ministry of
Cultural Activities. Any further
reproduction or publication of this
image is forbidden. PD
source: http://www.leosondra.cz/obrazky/
mizar/msgal.jpg

[2] Le Opere di Galileo Galilei.
Edizione Nazionale Sotto Gli Auspicii
Di Sua Maestà Il Re D'Italia, Edited
by Antonio Favaro, 20 vols., G.
Barbèra, Florence, 1890–1909 Vol.
III, Part II (1892), p. 877. Mss. Gal.
P.IV, T.VI, car 10r, BNCF.
http://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/t
ext-idx?cc=genpub;view=toc;idno=AGH6462.
0003.002 PD
source: http://quod.lib.umich.edu/g/genp
ub/agh6462.0003.002/481?page=root;rgn=fu
ll+text;size=100;view=image
381 YBN
[1619 AD] 		1632) That the square of the period of
orbit of a planet is proportional to
the cube of its distance from the Sun
is shown; (Kepler's third law of
planetary motion).
Linz, Austria 
[1] A hand-annotated illustration plate
from Johannes Kepler's Harmonices mundi
(1619), showing the perfect
solids. source:
http://hsci.cas.ou.edu/digitized/16thCen
tury/Kepler/1619/Kepler-1619-pl-3-image/
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Kepler-1619-pl-3.jpg

[2] Johannes Kepler, oil painting by
an unknown artist, 1627; in the
cathedral, Strasbourg, France. Erich
Lessing/Art Resource, New York PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-2965/Johannes-Kepler-oil-painting-by-an
-unknown-artist-1627-in?articleTypeId=1
381 YBN
[1619 AD] 		1641) That the curvature of the lens in
the human eye changes as the eye
focuses to different distances is
recognized by Christoph Scheiner
{sInR}.
Dillingen, Germany 
[1] Scheiner, C. Oculus, Hoc Est,
Fundamentum Opticum. 1619,
p125. http://books.google.com/books?id=
gGY_AAAAcAAJ PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=gGY_AAAAcAAJ

[2] Christoph Scheiner No source
specified. Please edit this image
description and provide a source. Date
1725 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Scheiner_christoph.gif
379 YBN
[1621 AD] 		1651) The law of refraction by
Willebrord von Roijen Snell, which
describes how a light ray bends when
passing between two mediums of
different density.

Each medium has an index of refraction,
and the ratio of those indices is equal
to the ratio of the sine of the angle
of incidence and refraction of a ray of
light that passes between two mediums
of different density.
Leiden, Netherlands (presumably) 
[1] adapted from Description
Illustration of Snell's law Date
00:46, 25 December 2007 (UTC) Source
Rotated and tweaked version of
en:Image:Snells law.svg, same
license Author Oleg Alexandrov — I
just tweaked the original Other
versions Derivative works of this
file: Snells law el.svg
Snells law2-cs.svgImage:Snells
law.svg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Snells_law2.svg
/1000px-Snells_law2.svg.png

[2] Willibrord
Snellius http://images.google.com/imgre
s?imgurl=http://tau.fesg.tu-muenchen.de/
~iapg/web/fame/images/geo/snellius.jpg&i
mgrefurl=http://tau.fesg.tu-muenchen.de/
~iapg/web/fame/seiten/snellius.php&h=584
&w=407&sz=81&hl=en&sig2=5XbrrVTx-PVInTZc
fU_5ng&start=1&tbnid=QsmS80Z3DsqbhM:&tbn
h=135&tbnw=94&ei=psvoRKCJLLP2wQGCnPDfDg&
prev=/images%3Fq%3D%2522Snellius%2522%26
svnum%3D100%26hl%3Den%26lr%3D%26safe%3Do
ff%26client%3Dfirefox-a%26rls%3Dorg.mozi
lla:en-US:official%26sa%3DN http://tau.
fesg.tu-muenchen.de/~iapg/web/fame/image
s/geo/snellius.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Willebrord_Snellius.jpg
376 YBN
[1624 AD] 		1667) Paris parliament declares that on
penalty of death "no person should
either hold or teach any doctrine
opposed to Aristotle".
Paris, France  
376 YBN
[1624 AD] 		6241) The submarine is invented by
Cornelis Drebbel.

The outer hull is made of greased
leather over a wooden frame; oars
sealed with tight-fitting leather flaps
extend through the sides and provide
for propulsion both on the surface and
underwater.
Thames River, England 
[1] Description Drebbel's first
submarine Date 17th
century Source
http://www.rnsubmus.co.uk/images/ph
otodp/sm001%20-%20Van%20Drebbel.jpg Aut
hor Unknown Permission (Reusing
this file) See
below. Lithographie aus dem Jahre
1626 von G. W. Tweedale. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/fe/Van_Drebbel.jpg

[2] Description English: Cornelis
Drebbel Alcmariensis.Son of Jacob Jansz
Dremmel en Hilgont Jans. Born in 1572,
died in Londen in 1631. Nederlands:
Cornelis Drebbel Alcmariensis. Zoon van
Jacob Jansz Dremmel en Hilgont Jans.
Geboren in 1572, overleden in Londen in
1631. Date 1631 Source
http://www.archiefalkmaar.nl/ Auth
or Sichem, C. van PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a0/Drebbel_Van_Sichem_ca
_1631_groot.jpg
374 YBN
[1626 AD] 		1693) The sealed thermometer. Unlike
Galileo's thermometer, which is open, a
sealed thermometer does not vary with
the air pressure.
(The Low Countries) Belgium, the
Netherlands, and Luxembourg|was:
Tuscany, Italy (presumably) 
[1] Leurechon, J. Récréation
Mathématique: Composée De Plusieurs
Problèmes Plaisants Et Facétieux :
En Feict d’Arithméticque,
Géométrie, Méchanicque, Opticque, Et
Autres Parties De Ces Belles Sciences.
Hanzelet, 1626, facing
p90. http://books.google.com/books?id=Q
sY5AAAAcAAJ&pg=PA68 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=QsY5AAAAcAAJ&pg=PA68

[2] Double Portrait of the Grand Duke
Ferdinand II of Tuscany and his Wife
Vittoria della Rovere probably
1660s SUSTERMANS, Justus 1597 -
1681 NG89. Bought with the J.J.
Angerstein collection, 1824. Ferdinand
II de' Medici (1610 - 1670), who wears
a commander's sash and the military
order of San Stefano, and carries a
commander's baton, succeeded his father
as Grand Duke of Tuscany in 1621,
assuming power in 1627. In 1634 he
married Vittoria della Rovere (1621 -
1694). The poses of the two figures
correspond with two single portraits of
them by Sustermans (Florence, Uffizi).
It is possible that earlier drawings
were used forthis double portrait and
that it was not painted directly from
life. Oil on canvas 161 x 147
cm. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nationalgallery.org.u
k/cgi-bin/WebObjects.dll/CollectionPubli
sher.woa/wa/work?workNumber=NG89
373 YBN
[1627 AD] 		1188) Gunpowder is used to crack rocks
in gold and silver mines in Slovakia.
Banská Štiavnica, Slovakia  
373 YBN
[1627 AD] 		1634) Kepler publishes the first time
estimates for the never before observed
"transit" of the planets Mercury and
Venus across the face of the Sun.
Ulm, Germany 
[1] from
http://www.britannica.com/eb/art-2966/Fr
ontispiece-from-Tabulae-Rudolphinae-by-J
ohannes-Kepler?articleTypeId=1 Frontisp
iece from Tabulae Rudolphinae (1627;
''Rudolphine Tables'') by Johannes
Kepler. This is one of the most famous
and richly symbolic images in the
history of science. The figures, from
left to right, are the astronomers
Hipparchus, Nicolaus Copernicus, an
anonymous ancient observer, Tycho
Brahe, and Ptolemy, each surrounded by
symbols of their work. The pillars in
the background are made of wood; those
in the foreground are made of brick and
marble, symbolizing the progress of
astronomy. Astronomical instruments
serve as decorations. The figures on
the cornice symbolize mathematical
sciences; Kepler's patron, the Holy
Roman emperor Rudolph II, is
represented by the eagle. On the base,
from left to right, are Kepler in his
study, a map of Tycho Brahe's island of
Ven, and a printing press. The writing
at the bottom is Kepler's; this copy
was given by him to a friend, Benjamin
Ursinus. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Libr0310.jpg

[2] World map in: ''Tabulae
Rudolphinae : quibus astronomicae
....'' by Johannes Kepler, 1627.
Source: NOAA
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Kepler-world.jpg
370 YBN
[1630 AD] 		1642) The Sun's period of rotation is
determined to be 25.3 days by Christoph
Scheiner (sInR).

Scheiner also determines the
inclination of the Sun's axis to the
plane of the ecliptic (the projection
of the orbit of Earth around the Sun
onto the celestial sphere) to be 7
degrees.
Rome, Italy 
[1] Sunspot plate from Scheiner's
``Tres Epistolae'' (650 x 505;
250K) http://www.math.yorku.ca/SCS/Gall
ery/milestone/sec3.html PD/Corel
source: http://cnx.rice.edu/content/m119
70/latest/tres_epistolae.gif

[2] Sunspot plate from Scheiner's
``Tres Epistolae'' (650 x 505;
250K) http://www.math.yorku.ca/SCS/Gall
ery/milestone/sec3.html PD/Corel
source: http://cnx.rice.edu/content/m119
70/latest/tres_epistolae.gif
369 YBN
[11/07/1631 AD] 		1663) The transit of Mercury across the
Sun is observed by Pierre Gassendi
(GoSoNDE).
Paris, France (presumably) 
[1] Gassendi, ''Mercurius in sole visus
et Venus invisa Parislis anno 1611'',
1632 in Gassendi, 1658, vol3,
p441. (''Mercury Seen in the Sun, and
Venus Unseen at paris in the Year
1631'') http://books.google.com/books?i
d=VA1TAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA441 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=VA1TAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA441

[2] Gassendi, ''Mercurius in sole
visus et Venus invisa Parislis anno
1611'', 1632 in Gassendi, 1658, vol3,
p441. (''Mercury Seen in the Sun, and
Venus Unseen at paris in the Year
1631'') http://books.google.com/books?i
d=VA1TAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA441 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=VA1TAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA441
369 YBN
[1631 AD] 		1655) The "vernier {VRnYA or VRNER}
scale", a device capable of precise
measurement is invented by Pierre
Vernier (VRnYA).
Ornans, France (presumably: birth and
death location) 
[1] using the vernier caliper to
measure a nut Source own image Date
October 2006 Author Joaquim Alves
Gaspar GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Using_the_caliper_new_en.gif

[2] Zoom-in on ''Messschieber.jpg''
from commons made by danish user
Ultraman. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Close_up_of_vernier_scale.jpg
369 YBN
[1631 AD] 		1664) The speed of sound is measured
and shown to be independent of pitch by
Pierre Gassendi (GoSoNDE), by measuring
the time difference between seeing the
flash of a gun and hearing the sound
over a long distance on a still day.
Paris, France (presumably) 
[1] Pierre Gassendi
(1592-1655). Peinture de Louis
Édouard Rioult. (Base Joconde du
Ministère de la Culture) PD
source: http://www.voltaire-integral.com
/Html/14/04CATALO_1_2.html

[2] Scientist: Gassendi, Pierre
(1592 - 1655) Discipline(s): Physics
; Astronomy Print Artist: Jacques
Lubin, 1637-1695 Medium: Engraving
Original Dimensions: Graphic: 17.6 x
14.1 cm / Sheet: 27.9 x 21.7 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/by_n
ame_display_results.cfm?scientist=Gassen
di
369 YBN
[1631 AD] 		6580) The "pantograph" is invented, an
instrument that can duplicate drawings
to an adjustable scale.
Rome 
[1] Pantograph, from Book Pantographice
seu ars delineandi, Page 29 Source
http://fermi.imss.fi.it/rd/bdv?/bdviewe
r/bid=000000920801 Date 1631 Author
Christoph Scheiner PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Pantograph_by_Christoph_Scheiner.jpg

[2] Christoph Scheiner No source
specified. Please edit this image
description and provide a source. Date
1725 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Scheiner_christoph.gif
367 YBN
[06/22/1633 AD] 		1611) Galileo is condemned to life
imprisonment by the Inquisition.
Rome, Italy 
[1] Galileo before the Holy Office, a
19th century painting by Joseph-Nicolas
Robert-Fleury. Source:
http://library.thinkquest.org/C005358/im
ages/galilei_image01.jpeg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Galileo_before_the_Holy_Office.jpg

[2] Galileo's Letter to Prince of
Venice PD
source: http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/galileo
/ganymede/manuscript1.jpg
365 YBN
[1635 AD] 		1657) The "Académie Parisienne" (the
precursor to the French Academy of
Sciences) is formed by Marin Mersenne
(mRSeN).
Paris, France (presumably) 
[1] Marin Mersenne PD
source: http://www.nndb.com/people/576/0
00107255/

[2] Mersenne, Marin (1588-1648) PD
source: http://www.cartage.org.lb/en/the
mes/biographies/MainBiographies/M/Mersen
ne/1.html
365 YBN
[1635 AD] 		1660) Frequencies of sounds are
measured by Marin Mersenne (mRSeN).

Mersenne also creates a law to
determine the frequency of a sound from
the various properties of a vibrating
string.
Paris, France (presumably) 
[1] Table of string
vibrations from: Marin Marsenne, tr:
R. E. Chapman, ''Harmonie
Universelle'', 1635, 1957,
p194. UNKNOWN
source: Marin Marsenne, tr: R. E.
Chapman, "Harmonie Universelle", 1635,
1957, p194.

[2] Ted Huntington adapted
from: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikip
edia/en/math/6/c/8/6c88fce3e57d1eac8408b
abe264e1795.png GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/math/6/c/8/6c88fce3e57d1eac8408
babe264e1795.png
365 YBN
[1635 AD] 		1669) That the direction of the Earth's
magnetic field changes over time is
recognized.
?, England 
[1] Gellibrand, H. A Discourse
Mathematical on the Variation of the
Magneticall Needle: Together with Its
Admirable Diminution Lately Discovered.
By Henry Gellibrand Professor of
Astronomie in Gresham College. William
Iones, dwelling in Red-crosse-street,
1635. Early English Books,
1475-1640. http://luna.folger.edu/luna/
servlet/detail/FOLGERCM1~6~6~354589~1298
48:A-discourse-mathematical-on-the-var
AND http://books.google.com/books?id=H6
qvmAEACAAJ PD
source: http://luna.folger.edu/luna/serv
let/detail/FOLGERCM1~6~6~354589~129848:A
-discourse-mathematical-on-the-var

[2] Henry Gellibrand Discovered
the secular (change over years)
variation of magnetic declination.
(Gellibrand, H., Epitome of Navigation,
London, Printed by Andr. Clark for
William Fisher, 1674 - published many
decades after his death). PD
source: http://www.geophys.tu-bs.de/gesc
hichte/gellibrand.htm
364 YBN
[1636 AD] 		1219) Harvard College is founded in the
Province of Massachusetts Bay.
Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA 
[1] Lt Gov William Stoughton
(1631-1701) overlooking one of the
buildings of Harvard College, quite
probably Stoughton Hall for which he
was its main benefactor. The painting
dates to circa 1700. This picture,
which was taken from: Albert Bushnell
Hart, Commonwealth History of
Massachusetts (1927, vol. 1) opposite
p. 562; was originally taken from an
original portrait presumably still in
the possession of Harvard
University. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:HarvardStaughton.jpg
363 YBN
[1637 AD] 		1615) The slow swaying (or "libration"
{lI-BrA-suN}) of the moon as it rotates
is recognized by Galileo.
Florence, Italy 
[1] Galileo Galilei. Portrait in crayon
by Leoni Source: French WP
(Utilisateur:Kelson via
http://iafosun.ifsi.rm.cnr.it/~iafolla/h
ome/homegrsp.html) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Galilee.jpg

[2] Original portrait of Galileo
Galilei by Justus Sustermans painted in
1636. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Galileo.arp.300pix.jpg
363 YBN
[1637 AD] 		1668) The Cartesian coordinate system,
where points are plotted on a two
dimensional graph, is described by
René Descartes (DAKoRT).
Netherlands (presumably) 
[1] De Beaune, F. et al. Geometria a
Renato Descartes: Anno 1637 Gallicè
Edita Postea Autem Una Cum Notis
Florimondi De Beaune ... apud Ludovicum
& Danielem Elzevirios, 1659.
Diapositivas (Biblioteca Histórica
UCM).2nd
edition http://books.google.com/books?i
d=lGFxGEEK52oC PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=lGFxGEEK52oC

[2] De Beaune, F. et al. Geometria a
Renato Descartes: Anno 1637 Gallicè
Edita Postea Autem Una Cum Notis
Florimondi De Beaune ... apud Ludovicum
& Danielem Elzevirios, 1659.
Diapositivas (Biblioteca Histórica
UCM).2nd
edition http://books.google.com/books?i
d=lGFxGEEK52oC PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=lGFxGEEK52oC
361 YBN
[11/24/1639 AD] 		1708) The transit of Venus is observed
by Jeremiah Horrocks.

From his observations Horrocks
establishes the apparent diameter of
Venus as 1' 12" compared with the Sun's
diameter of 30', a figure much smaller
than the 11' assigned by Kepler.
Hoole, Lancashire, England
(presumably) 
[1] This illustration, recreated from
Horrocks's notes by the prominent
Polish astronomer Hevelius, shows three
positions of the planet Venus as it
crosses the face of the Sun. Notice the
two black and one white dot (the
progression of Venus) in the lower left
portion of the central circle (the
Sun). PD
source: http://www.adlerplanetarium.org/
research/collections/transit-of-venus/jh
evelius1662b.jpg

[2] Jeremiah Horrocks observand
tranzitul lui Venus PD
source: http://aira.astro.ro/2004/Venus2
/Importanta_fisa%20scurta.htm
361 YBN
[11/24/1639 AD] 		6581) That the orbit of the Moon around
the Earth is approximately elliptical
(with the Earth at one focus) is shown
by Horrocks. Horrocks also suggests
correctly that the Sun has a perturbing
effect on the Moon’s orbit.
Hoole, Lancashire, England
(presumably) 
[1] Jeremiah Horrocks observand
tranzitul lui Venus PD
source: http://aira.astro.ro/2004/Venus2
/Importanta_fisa%20scurta.htm

[2] Jeremiah Horrocks English
Astronomer Giclee Print PD
source: http://www.art.com/asp/sp-asp/_/
pd--12377906/sp--A/Jeremiah_Horrocks_Eng
lish_Astronomer.htm
360 YBN
[10/??/1640 AD] 		1665) That a falling object from the
mast of a moving ship shares the same
motion as the ship is shown by Pierre
Gassendi (GoSoNDE).
(near the port of) Marseilles,
France 
[1] Pierre Gassendi
(1592-1655). Peinture de Louis
Édouard Rioult. (Base Joconde du
Ministère de la Culture) PD
source: http://www.voltaire-integral.com
/Html/14/04CATALO_1_2.html

[2] Scientist: Gassendi, Pierre
(1592 - 1655) Discipline(s): Physics
; Astronomy Print Artist: Jacques
Lubin, 1637-1695 Medium: Engraving
Original Dimensions: Graphic: 17.6 x
14.1 cm / Sheet: 27.9 x 21.7 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/by_n
ame_display_results.cfm?scientist=Gassen
di
360 YBN
[1640 AD] 		1697) The micrometer (a device for
precision measurement) is invented and
applied to the telescope by William
Gascoigne (GasKOEN).
Middleton (West Yorkshire),
England 
[1] ''Gascoigne''s micrometer'' - via
Richard Towneley - as drawn by Robert
Hooke for the Royal Society,1667. PD
source: http://www.narrowbandimaging.com
/Northern%20Astronomical%20Review.htm

[2] [t Modern micrometer] Outside
micrometer, inside micrometer, and
depth micrometer. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Micrometers.jpg
360 YBN
[1640 AD] 		6490) The Earth's acceleration due to
gravity is measured by Giovanni
Battista Riccioli (rETcOlE).
Bologna, Italy (presumably) 
[1] Description English: Giovanni
Battista Riccioli Date 20 September
2011 Source Old Book from 17th
century -- scan partially cleaned up by
me Author Wiccioli PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6a/Giovanni_Battista_Ric
cioli.jpg
359 YBN
[1641 AD] 		6244) The repeating gun, a gun in which
ammunition is fed from a magazine.
Netherlands 
[1] Kalthoff 1641 translated with
Google from:
http://www.earmi.it/A-Enciclopedia/ripet
izione.html The first attempt at a
mechanical repetition of the shot goes
back to the German Peter Kalthoff,
which operates in Denmark, who in 1641
invented and built in 1646. It was a
rifle with a wheel in the dust
reservoir a reservoir for calcium and
balls under the barrel, breech block
has three rooms that can move
sideways. PD
source: http://www.earmi.it/A-Encicloped
ia/img/Kalthoff.png

[2] translated with Google from:
http://www.earmi.it/A-Enciclopedia/ripet
izione.html In Italy as early as
1572 the Milan Marcantonio Valgrana
proposes a rifle capable of firing 4
shots below, but of questionable
functionality. This was followed in 600
different mechanical repeating rifles,
probably inspired by Kalthoff, but with
original solutions. It certainly
reminds weapon Berselli James (1660)
and other Fresh Water Sebastiano
(1619-1692) and the Florentine Michele
Lorenzoni (died 1735). These have gone
down in history as ''system Lorenzoni''
and are innovative compared to
Kalthoff. Tanks for powder and ball
(well 25) both are in football, behind
a circular rotor driven by an external
lever, the gun with the barrel is
turned down so that powder and ball
fall under gravity, the first movement
of lever drops a ball in the barrel
where it is retained by a ring of
forcing, the second movement takes a
dose of dust. There followed many
other weapons, but none went beyond the
experimental models. The technology of
the time did not allow the creation of
mechanisms are too delicate and until
the invention of the metal cartridge
case was difficult to keep the power is
communicated by a charge al'altra. The
first weapon is the repetition really
functioning Paterson Colt revolver of
1936 followed by rifle-revolver .44
Rifle Dragon namely the
Whitneyville-Hartford Dragon Colt
Revolver of 1847. To solve the problem
remained that the number of hits
greater than 6-8. The first weapon
taken from a manual repeater army
Spencer (March 1860) that has a
reservoir of calcium and seven
cartridges in a loading lever with
shutter lock shooting. The cartridge
was rimfire cartridge case with copper,
was calculated. 13.3 mm which
represented an improvement over the
previous much larger calibers.
Contemporary Henry and the system
immediately after the Winchester. PD
source: http://www.earmi.it/A-Encicloped
ia/img/lorenzoni.png
358 YBN
[1642 AD] 		1719) A mechanical calculating machine
that can add and subtract is invented
by Blaise Pascal (BlAZ PoSKoL).
Rouen, France (presumably) 
[1] A Pascaline, an early
calculator. (Machine à calculer de
Blaise Pascal sans sous ni deniers,
signed by Pascal 1652) English: This
item is on display at the Musée des
Arts et Métiers, Paris Inv 823-1 GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Arts_et_Metiers_Pascaline_dsc03869.jp
g

[2] Scientist: Pascal, Blaise (1623
- 1662) Discipline(s): Mathematics ;
Physics Print Artist: T. Dale
Medium: Engraving Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 14.4 x 8.1 cm /
Sheet: 27.8 x 21.3 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/cf/by_n
ame_display_results.cfm?scientist=Pascal

357 YBN
[1643 AD] 		1650) That Kepler's third law applies
to the satellites of Jupiter is
recognized.
Belgium (presumably)  
357 YBN
[1643 AD] 		1692) The earliest vacuum (a space
empty of matter), and barometer (which
measures the pressure of the air of
Earth) is made by Evangelista
Torricelli (TORriceLlE).

When Torricelli inverts a tube filled
with mercury into a dish he observes
that some of the mercury does not flow
out and that the space above the
mercury in the tube is a vacuum.

This tube is empty of gas but light
particles and other subatomic matter
still move through the tube.

This device is also the first
barometer, a measure of pressure
exerted by air.
Florence, Italy 
[1] Frontispiece to ''Lezioni
accademiche d'Evangelista
Torricelli....'', published in 1715.
Library Call Number Q155 .T69
1715. Image ID: libr0367, Treasures of
the NOAA Library Collection
Photographer: Archival Photograph by
Mr. Steve Nicklas, NOS, NGS Secondary
source: NOAA Central Library National
Oceanic & Atmospheric Adminstration
(NOAA), USA
http://www.photolib.noaa.gov/library/lib
r0367.htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Libr0367.jpg

[2] Frontispiece and title page to
''Lezioni accademiche d'Evangelista
Torricelli ....'', published in 1715.
Library Call Number Q155 .T69
1715. Image ID: libr0366, Treasures of
the NOAA Library Collection
Photographer: Archival Photograph by
Mr. Steve Nicklas, NOS, NGS Secondary
source: NOAA Central Library National
Oceanic & Atmospheric Adminstration
(NOAA),
USA http://www.photolib.noaa.gov/librar
y/libr0366.htm PD
source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wik
i/Image:Libr0366.jpg
356 YBN
[11/22/1644 AD] 		1694) The phases of Mercury are
observed by Polish astronomer Johannes
Hevelius (HeVAlEUS).
(rooftop observatories on many houses)
Danzig (now Gdansk in Poland) 
[1] Hevelius, J. Johannis Hevelii
Selenographia: Sive, Lunae Descriptio;
Atque Accurata, Tam Macularum Ejus,
Quam Motuum Diversorum, Aliarumque
Omnium Vicissitudinum, Phasiumque,
Telescopii Ope Deprehensarum,
Delineatio. In Quâ Simul Caeterorum
Omnium Planetarum Nativa Facies,
Variaeque Observationes, Praesertim
Autem Macularum Solarium ... Addita
Est, Lentes Expoliendi Nova Ratio; Ut
Et Telescopia Diversa Construendi ...
autoris sumtibus, typis Hünefeldianis,
1647. http://books.google.com/books?id=
i1lDAAAAcAAJ PD
source: Hevelius, J. Johannis Hevelii
Selenographia: Sive, Lunae Descriptio;
Atque Accurata, Tam Macularum Ejus,
Quam Motuum Diversorum, Aliarumque
Omnium Vicissitudinum, Phasiumque,
Telescopii Ope Deprehensarum,
Delineatio. In Quâ Simul Caeterorum
Omnium Planetarum Nativa Facies,
Variaeque Observationes, Praesertim
Autem Macularum Solarium ... Addita
Est, Lentes Expoliendi Nova Ratio; Ut
Et Telescopia Diversa Construendi ...
autoris sumtibus, typis Hünefeldianis,
1647. http://books.google.com/books?id=
i1lDAAAAcAAJ

[2] [t Note that Mercury has the
symbol for Mercury and Venus has the
symbol for Venus.] Hevelius, J.
Johannis Hevelii Selenographia: Sive,
Lunae Descriptio; Atque Accurata, Tam
Macularum Ejus, Quam Motuum Diversorum,
Aliarumque Omnium Vicissitudinum,
Phasiumque, Telescopii Ope
Deprehensarum, Delineatio. In Quâ
Simul Caeterorum Omnium Planetarum
Nativa Facies, Variaeque Observationes,
Praesertim Autem Macularum Solarium ...
Addita Est, Lentes Expoliendi Nova
Ratio; Ut Et Telescopia Diversa
Construendi ... autoris sumtibus, typis
Hünefeldianis,
1647. http://books.google.com/books?id=
i1lDAAAAcAAJ PD
source: Hevelius, J. Johannis Hevelii
Selenographia: Sive, Lunae Descriptio;
Atque Accurata, Tam Macularum Ejus,
Quam Motuum Diversorum, Aliarumque
Omnium Vicissitudinum, Phasiumque,
Telescopii Ope Deprehensarum,
Delineatio. In Quâ Simul Caeterorum
Omnium Planetarum Nativa Facies,
Variaeque Observationes, Praesertim
Autem Macularum Solarium ... Addita
Est, Lentes Expoliendi Nova Ratio; Ut
Et Telescopia Diversa Construendi ...
autoris sumtibus, typis Hünefeldianis,
1647. http://books.google.com/books?id=
i1lDAAAAcAAJ
356 YBN
[1644 AD] 		2618) The principle of the conservation
of motion is described by Descartes.

Descartes formally defines the law of
inertia, and the conservation of
motion: 1) that all objects remain in
the same state of motion, changing only
as a result of external causes, 2) that
all matter moves in a straight line,
and 3) if a moving body collides with
another, if it has less force (in
Latin: "vim") to continue than the
other body has to resist it, it will be
deflected in the opposite direction
retaining its own motion, but if it has
a greater force, then it will move the
other body giving as much of its motion
to the other body as it loses.
Netherlands (presumably) 
[1] Descartes, R. Principia
Philosophiae. apud Ludovicum
Elzevirium, 1644, Part II, art
37-40. http://books.google.com/books?id
=lHpbAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA60 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=lHpbAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA60

[2] Descartes, R. Principia
Philosophiae. apud Ludovicum
Elzevirium, 1644, Part II, art
37-40. http://books.google.com/books?id
=lHpbAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA56 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=lHpbAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA56
355 YBN
[1645 AD] 		1844) That the strength the Sun holds
the planets with decreases by the
inverse distance squared is recognized
by Ismaël Bullialdus.
Paris, France 
[1] Ismaël Bullialdus PD
AND Ismaelis Bvllialdi, Astronomia
Philolaica, Sumptibus Simeonis Piget,
Parisiis, 1645,p13 Latin text from
''Astronomia Philolaica'' PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Boulliau.jpeg AND Ismaelis
Bvllialdi, Astronomia Philolaica,
Sumptibus Simeonis Piget, Parisiis,
1645, p13.

[2] Ismaël Bullialdus PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Boulliau.jpeg
352 YBN
[09/19/1648 AD] 		1721) Atmospheric pressure is shown to
change at different elevations by
Blaise Pascal (PoSKoL). This implies
that empty space (a vacuum) exists
above the atmosphere.
Rouen, France (presumably) 
[1] Scientist: Pascal, Blaise (1623 -
1662) Discipline(s): Mathematics ;
Physics Print Artist: T. Dale
Medium: Engraving Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 14.4 x 8.1 cm /
Sheet: 27.8 x 21.3 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/cf/by_n
ame_display_results.cfm?scientist=Pascal


[2] Blaise Pascal source :
http://www.thocp.net/biographies/pascal_
blaise.html PD
source: %20Blaise
352 YBN
[1648 AD] 		1648) The label of "gas" is applied to
a substance, and carbon dioxide (CO2)
gas is recognized by Flemish physician
and alchemist Jan Baptista van Helmont.
Vilvoorde, Belgium 
[1] Van Helmont, J.B. Joannis Baptistae
Van Helmont ... Opera Omnia. Additis
His De Novo Tractatibus Aliquot
Posthumis Ejusdem Authoris, Maximè
Curiosis Pariter Ac Perutilissimis,
Antehac Non in Lucem Editis; Una Cum
Indicibus Rerum Ac Verborum Ut
Locupletissimis, Ita Et Accuratissimis.
sumptibus Johannis Justi Erythropili,
typis Johannis Philippi Andreae,
1682. http://books.google.com/books?id=
qzFFAAAAcAAJ English: John Baptista
Van Helmont; John Chandler (translator)
(1662). ''Oriatrike or Physick
Refined'' http://www.nightenlight.com/h
igher-worlds-visited/rsc/john-baptista-v
an-helmont/oriatrike-or-physick-refined-
001-030 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=qzFFAAAAcAAJ AND http://www.nightenli
ght.com/higher-worlds-visited/rsc/john-b
aptista-van-helmont/oriatrike-or-physick
-refined-001-030

[2] Portrait of Helmont, mistakenly
thought to be Robert Hooke see
http://www.libraries.uc.edu/source/volfo
ur/oesper2.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:HOOKE_Robert.jpg
352 YBN
[1648 AD] 		1686) Acetone and benzene are prepared.
Amsterdam, Netherlands
(presumably) 
[1] Glauber, engraving PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Johann_Rudolf_Glauber.jpg

[2] Glauber, Furni novi philosophici :
sive Description artis destillatoriae
novae, 1651 PD
source: http://hdelboy.club.fr/chevreul_
hoefer_2.html
350 YBN
[1650 AD] 		1675) The first air pump is constructed
by German physicist Otto von Guericke
(GAriKu). That sound cannot be produced
in the absence of air is proven.

This air pump is like a waterpump but
airtight and is powered by hand
pumping. Guericke uses the pump to
create evacuated containers, and shows
that a bell cannot be heard, candles
will not burn, and animals cannot live
in a vacuum. Guericke also demonstrates
the enormous strength that two
semispheres connected with a vacuum
inside have.

Aristotle is shown to be correct in his
claim that sound cannot be produced
without air.
Magdeburg, Germany (presumably) 
[1] Apparatus of Otto von Guerricke
with water receptacle at base
removed. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=f2dMAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA239&dq=%22geissler+pu
mp%22#PPA238,M1

[2] Apparatus of Otto von Guerricke
with water receptacle at base
removed. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=f2dMAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA239&dq=%22geissler+pu
mp%22#PPA238,M1
350 YBN
[1650 AD] 		1722) The hydraulic press by Blaise
Pascal (PoSKoL). Pascal understands the
basis of the hydraulic press, that
pressure applied to a confined liquid
is transmitted equally through the
liquid in all directions regardless of
the area to which the pressure is
applied; (Pascal's law).
Rouen, France (presumably) 
[1] Description English: Hydraulic
Force ratio principle; Language
Neutral Ελληνικά:
υδραυλικό πιεστήριο
αρχή λειτουργίας Date
2008-01-21 (original upload
date) (Original text :
1/20/2008) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia; transferred to Commons by
User:Sk using CommonsHelper. (Original
text : self-made) Author Original
uploader was Darbyshmr at
en.wikipedia PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/7d/Hydraulic_Force%2C_la
nguage_neutral.png

[2] Scientist: Pascal, Blaise (1623
- 1662) Discipline(s): Mathematics ;
Physics Print Artist: T. Dale
Medium: Engraving Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 14.4 x 8.1 cm /
Sheet: 27.8 x 21.3 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/cf/by_n
ame_display_results.cfm?scientist=Pascal

348 YBN
[1652 AD] 		1775) Lymphatic vessels are identified
by Olof Rudbeck (rUDBeK). The
lymphatics resemble blood vessels but
have thinner walls and carry the clear,
watery fluid portion of the blood
(lymph). This fluid is forced out of
the thin-walled capillaries into the
spaces around the cells, forming the
interstitial fluid, and also is carried
back by the lymphatics into the blood
vessels.
Uppsala, Sweden 
[1] Portrait of the Swedish physician
and polyhistor Olaus Rudbeck (also
known as Olof Rudbeck, Olaus
Rudbeckius) the Elder (1630-1702).
Rudbeck was an anatomist, and one of
the discoverers of the lymphic vessels
in 1651-52 (discovered independently by
the Dane Thomas Bartholin at about the
same time), and was long professor of
Medicine at Uppsala University. He also
founded the earliest botanical garden
in Uppsala (later named after Carolus
Linnaeus) and initiated a major
botanical work with detailed
copperplate engravings, some of which
were printed but many of which were
destroyed in the Uppsala fire in 1702
before publication. He is also known as
an engineer and architect, who, among
other things, designed the anatomical
theatre in the Gustavianum building in
Uppsala, and as a speculative
historical writer who tried to prove
that Sweden was in fact the lost
Atlantis. Source First version:
This photograph was first uploaded as
Bild:Olof Rudbeck dä målad av Martin
Mijtens dä 1696.jpg to the Swedish
Wikipedia on 8 October 2003, 21.50 by
sv:Användare:Den fjättrade ankan and
then had the size 340x360 (11 386
bytes). Second version: less
cropped, fetched from [1] Date
1696 Author Martin Mijtens the
Elder (1548-1736), Dutch-Swedish
painter. A detail of this painting in
black and white is used to illustrate
the article on Rudbeck in Svenskt
biografiskt lexikon, vol. 30, p. 643.
It is discussed in the article on
Mijtens in SBL 25, p. 501. PD
source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wik
i/Image:Olaus_Rudbeck_Sr_%28portrait_by_
Martin_Mijtens_Sr%2C_1696%29.jpg

[2] The archaeologist Olof Rudbeck
(1630 - 1702) reveals his
„Predecessors'' Hesiod, Platon,
Aristoteles, Apollodor, Tacitus,
Odysseus, Ptolemäus, Plutarch and
Orpheus the „Truth'' about Atlantis.
From „Atland eller Manheim'', 1679-89.
PD
source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wik
i/Image:Rudbeck_Atlantis.jpg
346 YBN
[1654 AD] 		1720) The science of probability is
created by Blaise Pascal (PoSKoL) and
Pierre de Fermat (FARmo).
Paris, France (presumably) 
[1] Scientist: Pascal, Blaise (1623 -
1662) Discipline(s): Mathematics ;
Physics Print Artist: T. Dale
Medium: Engraving Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 14.4 x 8.1 cm /
Sheet: 27.8 x 21.3 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/cf/by_n
ame_display_results.cfm?scientist=Pascal


[2] Blaise Pascal source :
http://www.thocp.net/biographies/pascal_
blaise.html PD
source: %20Blaise
345 YBN
[03/25/1655 AD] 		1763) The first known moon of Saturn,
Titan is identified by Christiaan
Huygens (HOEGeNZ).
The Hague, Netherlands
(presumably) 
[1] Huygens' aerial telescope, 1655
from Development of the Telescope from
1561 to 1896 DEVELOPMENT OF THE
ASTRONOMICAL TELESCOPE IN FIFTY
YEARS. source: July 25, 1896
Scientific
American http://www.machine-history.com
/Development%20of%20the%20Telescope PD

source: http://www.machine-history.com/

[2] This natural color composite was
taken during the Cassini spacecraft's
April 16, 2005, flyby of Titan. It is a
combination of images taken through
three filters that are sensitive to
red, green and violet light. It
shows approximately what Titan would
look like to the human eye: a hazy
orange globe surrounded by a tenuous,
bluish haze. The orange color is due to
the hydrocarbon particles which make up
Titan's atmospheric haze. This
obscuring haze was particularly
frustrating for planetary scientists
following the NASA Voyager mission
encounters in 1980-81. Fortunately,
Cassini is able to pierce Titan's veil
at infrared wavelengths (see
PIA06228). North on Titan is up and
tilted 30 degrees to the right. The
images to create this composite were
taken with the Cassini spacecraft wide
angle camera on April 16, 2005, at
distances ranging from approximately
173,000 to 168,200 kilometers (107,500
to 104,500 miles) from Titan and from a
Sun-Titan-spacecraft, or phase, angle
of 56 degrees. Resolution in the images
is approximately 10 kilometers per
pixel. The Cassini-Huygens mission
is a cooperative project of NASA, the
European Space Agency and the Italian
Space Agency. The Jet Propulsion
Laboratory, a division of the
California Institute of Technology in
Pasadena, manages the mission for
NASA's Science Mission Directorate,
Washington, D.C. The Cassini orbiter
and its two onboard cameras were
designed, developed and assembled at
JPL. The imaging team is based at the
Space Science Institute, Boulder,
Colo. For more information about the
Cassini-Huygens mission, visit
http://saturn.jpl.nasa.gov and the
Cassini imaging team home page,
http://ciclops.org. Source *
http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog
/PIA06230 (cropped and rotated from the
original) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Titan_in_natural_color_Cassini.jpg
345 YBN
[1655 AD] 		1702) Exponents are extended to include
negative numbers and fractions by John
Wallis.
(University of Oxford) Oxford,
England 
[1]
from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John
_wallis GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joh
n_wallis

[2] Wallis, J. Arithmetica
Infinitorum.
1656. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Z5w_AAAAcAAJ PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=Z5w_AAAAcAAJ
344 YBN
[1656 AD] 		1764) The pendulum {PeNJUluM or
PeNDUluM} clock.
The Hague, Netherlands
(presumably) 
[1] Reconstruction of the pioneer
pendulum clock designed by the Dutch
scientist, Christiaan Huygens
(1629-1693), in 1656. Huygens
commissioned the clockmaker Salomon
Coster of the Hague to make the clock
and a patent was issued in Coster's
name in 1657. It was described and
illustrated by Huygen in his book,
'Horologium' in 1658. Although Galileo
had suggested the use of a pendulum to
count the time, Huygen's design, where
the dial and hands of a clock were
controlled by a pendulum, was the first
truly practical pendulum clock. Huygens
attached a pendulum to the gears of a
clock. The regular swing of the
pendulum allowed the clock to achieve
greater accuracy, as the hands are
turned by the falling weight, which
releases the same amount of energy with
each tick. Side view. Image
number: 10239953 Credit:
Science Museum/Science & Society
Picture Library Date taken: 12
January 2004 13:57 Image rights:
Science Museum
source: http://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/
images/I010/10239953.aspx

[2] Buy the rights or a
print COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/
images/I022/10284689.aspx
342 YBN
[1658 AD] 		1804) Red blood cells are observed and
described by Jan Swammerdam (Yon
SVoMRDoM).
Amsterdam, Netherlands
(presumably) 
[1] Swammerdam, J., H. Boerhaave, and
H.D. Gaubius. Bybel Der Natuure. by
Isaak Severinus, Boudewyn van der Aa,
Pieter van der Aa, 1738. Bybel Der
Natuure, Door Jan Swammerdam,
Amsteldammer. Of Historie Der Insecten,
Tot Zeekere Zoorten Gebracht: Door
Voorbeelden, Ontleedkundige
Onderzoekingen Van Veelerhande Kleine
Gediertens, Als Ook Door Kunstige
Kopere Plaaten Opgeheldert: Verrykt Met
Ontelbaare Waarnemingen Van Nooit
Ontdekte Zeldzaamhedenin De
Natuur. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=1SxMAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA819 PD
source: Swammerdam, J., H. Boerhaave,
and H.D. Gaubius. Bybel Der Natuure. by
Isaak Severinus, Boudewyn van der Aa,
Pieter van der Aa, 1738. Bybel Der
Natuure, Door Jan Swammerdam,
Amsteldammer. Of Historie Der Insecten,
Tot Zeekere Zoorten Gebracht: Door
Voorbeelden, Ontleedkundige
Onderzoekingen Van Veelerhande Kleine
Gediertens, Als Ook Door Kunstige
Kopere Plaaten Opgeheldert: Verrykt Met
Ontelbaare Waarnemingen Van Nooit
Ontdekte Zeldzaamhedenin De
Natuur. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=1SxMAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA819

[2] Image from Swammerdam letter of
1678 showing lens and blood cells
from: Gerrit A. Lindeboom, ''Jan
Swammerdam als microscopist.''
Tijdschift voor de Geschiedenis der
Genees- , Natuurwetenschappen, Wiskunde
en Techniek 4 (1981):
87-110. http://gewina-tggnwt.library.uu
.nl/index.php/gewina-tggnwt/article/view
/140 UNKNOWN
source: http://gewina-tggnwt.library.uu.
nl/index.php/gewina-tggnwt/article/view/
140
341 YBN
[1659 AD] 		1755) The lymph glands (or lymph nodes)
are identified by Marcello Malpighi
(moLPEJE).
Bologna, Italy 
[1] Description Marcello
Malphigi Source L C Miall. The
History of Biology. Watts and Co. Date
1911 Author L C Miall PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:MarcelloMalphigiMiall.jpg

[2] from http://wwwihm.nlm.nih.gov/
* 11:57, 27 August 2002 Magnus Manske
432x575 (78,604 bytes) (from
meta) Source Originally from
en.wikipedia; description page is (was)
here Date Commons upload by Magnus
Manske 10:03, 10 May 2006 (UTC) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Marcello_Malpighi_large.jpg
341 YBN
[1659 AD] 		1771) The ring of Saturn is seen by
Christaan Huygens. Huygens also
measures the apparent size of the
planets in seconds of arc.
The Hague, Netherlands
(presumably) 
[1] Images from Christiaan Huygens'
Systema Saturnium, drawn from
1610-1650. PD
source: http://www.californiasciencecent
er.org/Exhibits/AirAndSpace/MissionToThe
Planets/Cassini/CassiniUpdates/Archive/C
history.php

[2] Author: Huygens, Christiaan,
1629-1695. Title: Christiani Hvgenii
... Systema Satvrnivm; sive, De causis
mirandorum Satvrni phænomenôn, et
comite ejus planeta nova Imprint:
Hagæ-Comitis, ex typographia A.
Vlacq, 1659. Description: 6 p.l., 84
p. illus., fold. plate. 20 cm. [See
''Introduction'' for full
collation] Added Title: Systema
Satvrnivm. De causis mirandorum
Saturni phaenomenon. Systema
Saturnium. Christiani Hugenii ...
Systema Saturnium. Notes: Gift of the
Burndy Library (founded by Bern
Dibner) Signatures: Collation: ( )4
piB2 A-K4 L2. Call Number: QB671 .H98
Dibner Library of the History of
Science and Technology PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/DigitalCol
lections/HST/Huygens/huygens-toc.htm
340 YBN
[11/28/1660 AD] 		1704) The Royal Society is formed by 12
men at Gresham College in London.
London, England 
[1] The Fame of the Royal Society. From
Thomas Sprat's History of the Royal
Society In the Center is a bust of the
Society's Founder - Charles II Left is
William Brouncker- The first
President On the Right is Francis
Bacon the Inspiration of the Royal
Society PD
source: http://www.sirbacon.org/esquire.
html

[2] Frontispiece to Sprat 's History
of the Royal Society (1667). Engraving
by Wenceslaus Hollar, design probably
hy John Evelyn for John Beale in about
1666-1667, and transferred to Sprat's
book later. Boyle's revised version of
the air-pump is in the centre-left
background (see also figure 17). The
three figures in the foreground are the
president of the Royal Society, Lord
Brouncker (left); the King (bust,
centre, being crowned by Fame.); and
Francis Bacon (right). (From the
British Library.) PD
source: http://www4.ncsu.edu/~kimler/hi3
22001/sprat.jpg
340 YBN
[1660 AD] 		1737) Gas is collected for the first
time by Robert Boyle. Boyle also
reports that electrical attraction is
transmitted through empty space (a
vacuum), and that when dropped from the
same height, a feather and lump of lead
land at the same time in a vacuum.
Oxford, England (presumably) 
[1] Scientist: Boyle, Robert (1627 -
1691) Discipline(s): Chemistry ;
Physics Original Dimensions: Graphic:
13.1 x 8.2 cm / PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/cf/by_n
ame_display_results.cfm?scientist=Boyle

[2] Scientist: Boyle, Robert (1627 -
1691) Discipline(s): Chemistry ;
Physics Print Artist: George Vertue,
1684-1756 Medium: Engraving
Original Artist: Johann Kerseboom,
d.1708 Original Dimensions: Graphic:
39.5 x 24.3 cm / PD
source: %20Robert
340 YBN
[1660 AD] 		3142) A sub-atmospheric pressure is
measured by Robert Boyle using a
mercury filled tube (a manometer
{mu-noM-i-TR}) to measure the pressure
produced in a bell jar by a piston
pump.
Oxford, England (presumably) 
[1] Fig. 2. The first measurement of a
sub-atmospheric pressure by
Robert Boyle c.1660. A beaker of
mercury with a manometer tube more
than 32 in long was sealed in a bell
jar and evacuated by the pump in Fig.
1. PD/Corel
source: Vacuum_1999_sdarticle.pdf

[2] Fig. 1. Piston pump constructed by
Robert Hook and used by Robert Boyle in
the Þrst measurement of a vacuum in
about 1660. PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/cf/by_n
ame_display_results.cfm?scientist=Boyle
339 YBN
[1661 AD] 		1738) Acids, bases, and neutral liquids
are recognized using acid-base
indicators by Robert Boyle.
In addition Boyle
defines an element as any substance
that cannot be broken down farther into
another substance.
Oxford, England (presumably) 
[1] The Skeptical Chymist title
page PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:000a.jpg

[2] Scientist: Boyle, Robert (1627 -
1691) Discipline(s): Chemistry ;
Physics Original Dimensions: Graphic:
13.1 x 8.2 cm / PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/cf/by_n
ame_display_results.cfm?scientist=Boyle
339 YBN
[1661 AD] 		1754) The connection of arteries and
veins is observed by Marcello Malpighi
(moLPEJE).
Malpighi (moLPEJE) observes microscopic
blood vessels, eventually named
"capillaries", in the wings of bats,
that connect the smallest parts of the
arteries with the smallest parts of the
veins.
Bologna, Italy 
[1] Description Marcello
Malphigi Source L C Miall. The
History of Biology. Watts and Co. Date
1911 Author L C Miall PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:MarcelloMalphigiMiall.jpg

[2] from http://wwwihm.nlm.nih.gov/
* 11:57, 27 August 2002 Magnus Manske
432x575 (78,604 bytes) (from
meta) Source Originally from
en.wikipedia; description page is (was)
here Date Commons upload by Magnus
Manske 10:03, 10 May 2006 (UTC) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Marcello_Malpighi_large.jpg
338 YBN
[1662 AD] 		1739) That pressure and volume of a gas
are inversely related is explained by
Robert Boyle (Boyle's Law).

Using a long J-shaped tube to trap air
using mercury, Boyle finds that adding
twice the mercury, adds twice the
pressure, and the volume of air in the
end of the tube is reduced by half, and
when half of the mercury is removed the
volume of air is doubled.
Oxford, England (presumably) 
[1] Boyle, R. New Experiments
Physico-mechanical, Touching the Spring
of the Air, and Its Effects: (made, for
the Most Part, in a New Pneumatical
Engine). H. Hall, 1662,
p156. books.google.com/books?id=LqYrAQA
AMAAJ&pg=PA156 PD AND Description
Portrait of Robert Boyle Source
http://www.bbk.ac.uk/boyle/Issue4.html
Date c. 1689 Author Johann
Kerseboom Permission Author has been
dead more than 70 years Other versions
Robert boyle.jpg PD AND {ULSF:
Note that this drawing of the J-tube
does not come from Boyle's
text} Artist's impression of Boyle's
Experiment, with precautions against
tube breaking. UNKNOWN
source: books.google.com/books?id=LqYrAQ
AAMAAJ&pg=PA162
AND http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcoll
ections/hst/scientific-identity/cf/by_na
me_display_results.cfm?scientist=Boyle%2
0Robert AND http://iweb.tntech.edu/che
m281-tf/Boyle_files/image002.gif

[2] Boyle, R. New Experiments
Physico-mechanical, Touching the Spring
of the Air, and Its Effects: (made, for
the Most Part, in a New Pneumatical
Engine). H. Hall, 1662,
p156. books.google.com/books?id=LqYrAQA
AMAAJ&pg=PA156 PD AND Description
Portrait of Robert Boyle Source
http://www.bbk.ac.uk/boyle/Issue4.html
Date c. 1689 Author Johann
Kerseboom Permission Author has been
dead more than 70 years Other versions
Robert boyle.jpg PD
source: books.google.com/books?id=LqYrAQ
AAMAAJ&pg=PA162
AND http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollec
tions/hst/scientific-identity/cf/by_name
_display_results.cfm?scientist=Boyle%20R
obert PD
337 YBN
[1663 AD] 		2247) The first static electricity
generator is built by Otto von Guericke
(GAriKu): a sulfur globe is rotated
against a cloth.

With this globe Guericke produces
sizable electric sparks.
Magdeburg, Germany (presumably) 
[1] Guericke's experiments with the
sulfur globe published 1672 PD
source: http://img.readtiger.com/wkp/en/
Guericke_Sulfur_globe.jpg

[2] Guericke's experiments with the
sulfur globe published 1672 PD
source: http://img.readtiger.com/wkp/en/
Guericke_Sulfur_globe.jpg
336 YBN
[1664 AD] 		1666) The theory that light is made of
particles is revived by Rene Descartes
(DAKoRT), who compares light to a ball,
and is the first to describe the two
major theories of light: that light may
be transmitted by particle collision
(the "wave" or "constant collision"
theory) or by particles that move
mostly without collision through space
(the "corpuscular" or "rare collision"
theory).
(in 1633:) Netherlands
(presumably) 
[1] Descartes, R. Le Monde ... Ou Le
Traité De La Lumière Et Des Autres
Objets Principaux Des Sens, Avec Un
Discours De L’action Des Corps Et Un
Autre Des Fièvres, Composez Selon Les
Principes Du Même Auteur. Michel Bobin
et Nic. le Gras, 1664,
p221. http://books.google.com/books?id=
DHEPAAAAQAAJ PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=DHEPAAAAQAAJ

[2] The balls of the ''second
element'' which I think is a theory of
particles similar to an aether that
fill empty space, but its not
clear[t] PD/Corel
source: http://www.princeton.edu/~hos/mi
ke/texts/descartes/world/Image9.gif
336 YBN
[1664 AD] 		1714) Typhoid fever is described.
Oxford, England (presumably) 
[1] Scientist: Willis, Thomas (1621 -
1675) Discipline(s):
Medicine Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 15.8 x 9.6 cm / Sheet: 17.5 x
11 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=w

[2] Thomas Willis, engraving by G.
Vertue, 1742, after a portrait by D.
Loggan, c. 1666 Archiv fur Kunst und
Geschichte, Berlin PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-33103/Thomas-Willis-engraving-by-G-Vert
ue-1742-after-a-portrait?articleTypeId=1

335 YBN
[1665 AD] 		1688) The theory that comets move in
elliptical orbits by Giovanni Alfonso
Borelli (BoreLE).
Pisa, Italy (presumably) 
[1] Portrait of Giovanni Borelli from
this web site:
http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/optics/timel
ine/people/borelli.html The portrait
is made in 17th century. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:GBorelli.jpg

[2] Giovanni Alfonso Borelli. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Giovanni_Alfonso_Borelli.jpg
335 YBN
[1665 AD] 		1707) The theory of light "diffraction"
(that light bends around the sides of a
hole it passes through) by Francesco
Grimaldo {GrEmoLDO} (or Grimaldi}
{GrEmoLDE}.

Grimaldo passes light through two
narrow holes, one behind the other. The
light then reflects off a white surface
behind the two holes. Grimaldo observes
that the width of the light on the
white surface is wider than the cone of
light that enters the holes and
believes that this is a new property of
light he names "diffraction",
theorizing that light bends around the
sides of the hole. But Grimaldo fails
to account for light that reflects off
the inside surface of the holes which
can light areas outside of the cone of
unreflected light.
Bologna, Italy (presumably) 
[1] Physico-mathesis de lvmine,
coloribvs, et iride, aliisqve adnexis;
libri dvo ... Avctore Francisco Maria
Grimaldo. Bononiae, Ex Typographia
Haeredis V. Benatij; impensis H.
Berniae, 1665, [London, Dawsons, 1966]
Latin Light through two holes between
diffracts in the transmission, we see a
large widening that shows its stretched
out direction. (my own translation, and
needs correction) PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: Physico-mathesis de lvmine,
coloribvs, et iride, aliisqve adnexis;
libri dvo ... Avctore Francisco Maria
Grimaldo. Bononiae, Ex Typographia
Haeredis V. Benatij; impensis H.
Berniae, 1665, [London, Dawsons, 1966
Latin 9

[2] Francesco Maria Grimaldi (Bologna,
2 aprile 1618 - Bologna 28 dicembre
1663), astronomo e fisico italiano, in
un'incisione seicentesca. PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Franc
escomaria_Grimaldi.jpg
335 YBN
[1665 AD] 		1726) The period of a Mars day is
measured as 24 hours and 40 minutes by
Giovanni Domenico Cassini (Ko-SEnE).
Bologna, Italy 
[1] Scientist: Cassini, Giovanni
Domenico (1625 - 1712) Discipline(s):
Astronomy ; Geodesy Print Artist: N.
Dupuis Medium: Engraving Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 14.3 x 10.2 cm /
Sheet: 24.6 x 16.2 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=c

[2] Scientist: Cassini, Giovanni
Domenico (1625 - 1712) Discipline(s):
Astronomy ; Geodesy Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 25.2 x 18.5 cm /
Sheet: 27.4 x 19.5 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=c
335 YBN
[1665 AD] 		1776) The first blood transfusion is
performed by Richard Lower.
London?, England 
[1] Richard Lower (1631-1691) PD
source: http://images.fineartamerica.com
/images-medium-large/richard-lower-1631-
1691-granger.jpg

[2] Richard Lower PD
source: http://clendening.kumc.edu/dc/pc
/lower.jpg
335 YBN
[1665 AD] 		1799) The wave theory of light is
firmly established by Robert Hooke,
with the medium being a fluid between
the stars associated with the ancient
concept of aether. In this view light
is interpreted as analogous to sound in
being a motion that results from the
collisions of many transparent material
particles of a medium.

Hooke compares the
spreading of light to the spreading of
a circle in water caused by the sinking
of a stone.

Hooke also is the first to use the word
"cells" to describe the tiny
rectangular holes he identifies in a
thin sliver of cork viewed under a
microscope, and publishes the first
images of a microorganism (and
protist): the fungi in a mold named
"Mucor".
London, England 
[1] Hooke, R. Micrographia: Or, Some
Physiological Descriptions of Minute
Bodies Made by Magnifying Glasses. With
Observations and Inquiries Thereupon.
printed for James Allestry, 1667,
p56-57,96-97. http://books.google.com/b
ooks?id=SgFMAAAAcAAJ PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=SgFMAAAAcAAJ

[2] Hooke, R. Micrographia: Or, Some
Physiological Descriptions of Minute
Bodies Made by Magnifying Glasses. With
Observations and Inquiries Thereupon.
printed for James Allestry, 1667,
p56-57,96-97. http://books.google.com/b
ooks?id=SgFMAAAAcAAJ PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=SgFMAAAAcAAJ
334 YBN
[10/??/1666 AD] 		1827) Calculus is invented by Isaac
Newton. Calculus is a system of
calculating, using two main tools:
differentiation and integration.
Differentiation determines the rate of
change of an equation, and integration
determines the length, area or volume
described by an equation.
Cambridge, England 
[1] Drawing from: Isaac Newton, ''The
October 1666 Tract on Fluxions'', MS
Add. 3958.3, ff. 48r-63v, Cambridge
University Library, Cambridge,
UK http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.u
k/catalogue/record/NATP00100
AND http://cudl.lib.cam.ac.uk/view/MS-A
DD-03958/92 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.newtonproject.sussex.
ac.uk/view/texts/normalized/NATP00100

[2] Description Isaac Newton Date
1689 Author Godfrey Kneller PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg
334 YBN
[12/22/1666 AD] 		1712) The Academy of Sciences is
established in Paris by Jean-Baptiste
Colbert.
Paris, France 
[1] A celebratory engraving of the
activities of the Académie des
Sciences from 1698. Source:
http://www.princeton.edu/~his291/Jpegs/A
cademie.JPG PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Acad%C3%A9mie_des_Sciences_1698.jpg

[2] Louis XIV visiting the Académie
in 1671 An engraving by Sebastien Le
Clerc from Mémoires pour servir a
l'Histoire Naturelle des Animause
(Paris, 1671), depicting King Louis XIV
visting the Académie des
Sciences. Source:
http://www.phys.uu.nl/~huygens/images/ac
ademie_royale_paris.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Acad%C3%A9mie_des_Sciences_1671.jpg
334 YBN
[1666 AD] 		1757) The structure of the liver,
spleen, and kidney is described.
Bologna, Italy 
[1] Description Marcello
Malphigi Source L C Miall. The
History of Biology. Watts and Co. Date
1911 Author L C Miall PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:MarcelloMalphigiMiall.jpg

[2] from http://wwwihm.nlm.nih.gov/
* 11:57, 27 August 2002 Magnus Manske
432x575 (78,604 bytes) (from
meta) Source Originally from
en.wikipedia; description page is (was)
here Date Commons upload by Magnus
Manske 10:03, 10 May 2006 (UTC) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Marcello_Malpighi_large.jpg
333 YBN
[06/15/1667 AD] 		1815) The first human blood
transfusion.
?, France 
[1] Jean-Baptiste Denis PD
source: http://vietsciences.free.fr/lich
su/lichsutruyenmau.htm

[2] Starr's book opens with an account
of this early transfusion, illustrated
in a 1692 German medical textbook. The
physician, Jean-Baptiste Denis,
believed the lamb's blood -- rich in
gentle ''humors'' -- would pacify the
madman Antoine Mauroy. PD
source: http://www.bu.edu/bridge/archive
/1998/09-18/features7.html
333 YBN
[1667 AD] 		1816) The first study of a "convergent
series", a series with an infinite
number of members but a finite sum.
Padua?, Italy 
[1] Portrait of the Astronomer James
Gregory. Description James
Gregory Source
http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~his
tory/PictDisplay/Gregory.html Date
? Author ? Permission
http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~his
tory/Miscellaneous/Copyright.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:James_Gregory.jpeg

[2] Gregorian reflecting telescope
(1663) Long before the technology
existed to make it, James Gregory
envisioned a telescope with a parabolic
primary mirror. The telescope''s
images would have been free of both
chromatic and spherical aberration. By
using a mirror, rather than a lens,
Gregory eliminated chromatic
aberration. The mirror's shape was
parabolic, not spherical, eliminating
spherical aberration. COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://amazing-space.stsci.edu/r
esources/explorations/groundup/lesson/ba
sics/g10b/index.php
332 YBN
[11/26/1668 AD] 		3257) The equation Distance = velocity
multiplied by Time is identified by
John Wallis.

Wallis also identifies the concept and
equation of momentum (mass times
velocity), and the theory of the
conservation of momentum.

Note that if motion and matter cannot
be converted into each other, then the
conservation of momentum is actually a
combination of the conservation of mass
and the conservation of motion.
London, England (presumably) 
[1] Dr. John Wallis, and Dr.
Christopher Wren, ''A Summary Account
of the General Laws of Motion'',
Philosophical Transactions,
(1665-1678), Volume 3,1668,
pp864-868. books.google.com/books?id=SF
5FAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA864 http://journals.roy
alsociety.org/content/3t6172g2t153q212/?
p=712eb21bc6624d76b0bd5d68f591a77a&pi=0
{Wallis_John_Wren_Christopher_Laws_of_M
otion_1668.pdf} PD
source: books.google.com/books?id=SF5FAA
AAcAAJ&pg=PA864 http://journals.royalso
ciety.org/content/3t6172g2t153q212/?p=71
2eb21bc6624d76b0bd5d68f591a77a&pi=0

[2] John Wallis, English mathematician
with important contributions to
analysis. Source:
en:Image:John_Wallis.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:John_Wallis.jpg
332 YBN
[1668 AD] 		1727) Jupiter's period of daily
rotation of nine hours fifty-six
minutes is determined by Giovanni
Cassini (Ko SEnE) by observing the
movement of spots of Jupiter's clouds.

Cassini is also the first to observe
the shadows of Jupiter's moons as they
pass between Jupiter and the Sun.
(Observatory at) Panzano (near
Bologna), Italy 
[1] Description: Gemälde Giovanni
Domenico Cassini Source::
http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/hist
ory/PictDisplay/Cassini.html
Painter: Durangel 1879, nach einer
alten Radierung, welche wiederum nach
einem alten Bild von Madame Milon de
a PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d6/Giovanni_Cassini.jpg

[2] Scientist: Cassini, Giovanni
Domenico (1625 - 1712) Discipline(s):
Astronomy ; Geodesy Print Artist: N.
Dupuis Medium: Engraving Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 14.3 x 10.2 cm /
Sheet: 24.6 x 16.2 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=c
332 YBN
[1668 AD] 		1736) The theory of "spontaneous
regeneration" of flies from meat is
disproven by Francesco Redi (rADE), by
proving that maggots only appear in
meat placed in open vessels which flies
can land on, and not in closed vessels.
Florence, Italy (presumably) 
[1] Scientist: Redi, Francesco (1626 -
1698) Discipline(s): Medicine Print
Artist: Lodovico Pelli, 1814-1876
Medium: Engraving Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 11 x 11 cm /
Sheet: 19.2 x 14.3 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/by_d
iscipline_display_results.cfm?Research_D
iscipline_1=Medicine

[2] Francesco Redi Esperienze intorno
alla generazione degl'insetti fatte da
Francesco Redi ... e da lvi scritte in
vna lettera all'illvstrissimo Signor
Carlo Dati.. Firenze, All'insegna
della Stella, 1668. 3 p. l., 228 p.
illus., plates (part fold.) 24
cm. Call no.: QL496.R35 1668 PD
source: http://www.library.umass.edu/spc
oll/exhibits/herbal/redi.htm
331 YBN
[03/18/1669 AD] 		3258) The concept of energy (mass
multiplied by velocity squared), and
the theory of conservation of energy is
defined by Christiaan Huygens
(HOEGeNZ).
The Hague, Netherlands
(presumably) 
[1] Huygens, C., J.A. Vollgraff, and
Hollandsche Maatschappij der
Wetenschappen. Oeuvres Complètes:
Correspondance. M. Nijhoff, 1895.
Oeuvres Complètes,
p385. books.google.com/books?id=sH3tV6o
gFtcC&pg=PA385 PD AND Christiaan
Huygens, the astronomer. source:
http://ressources2.techno.free.fr/inform
atique/sites/inventions/inventions.html
PD
source: books.google.com/books?id=sH3tV6
ogFtcC&pg=PA385 AND
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Chris
tiaan_Huygens-painting.jpeg

[2] Huygens, C., J.A. Vollgraff, and
Hollandsche Maatschappij der
Wetenschappen. Oeuvres Complètes:
Correspondance. M. Nijhoff, 1895.
Oeuvres Complètes,
p385. books.google.com/books?id=sH3tV6o
gFtcC&pg=PA385 PD
source: books.google.com/books?id=sH3tV6
ogFtcC&pg=PA385
331 YBN
[1669 AD] 		1735) The phenomenon of "double
refraction" is first observed in
calcite by Erasmus Bartholin
(BoRTUliN).

Bartholin notes that objects viewed
through calcite are seen double and
presumes that light traveling through
the crystal is refracted at two angles,
so that two rays of light emerge where
one had entered. This phenomenon is
therefore called "double refraction".

But reflection of light from the two
planes at different angles within the
crystal can also explain this
phenomenon.
Copenhagen, Denmark 
[1] Taken from: Brahe, T. Tychonis
Brahe Dani Opera Omnia: Tomus XIII.
Gyldendal, 1926 PD
source: Brahe, T. Tychonis Brahe Dani
Opera Omnia: Tomus XIII. Gyldendal,
1926

[2] Taken from: Brahe, T. Tychonis
Brahe Dani Opera Omnia: Tomus XIII.
Gyldendal, 1926 PD
source: Brahe, T. Tychonis Brahe Dani
Opera Omnia: Tomus XIII. Gyldendal,
1926
331 YBN
[1669 AD] 		1758) The first detailed description of
invertebrate anatomy, by Malpighi
(moLPEJE).
Bologna, Italy 
[1] From: Malpighi, M. Dissertatio
Epistolica De Bombyce. apud Jo. Martyn
& Jac. Atlestry, 1669. Malpighi, The
silkworm, 1669. Malpighi, Marcello.
Dissertatio epistolica de bombyce.
Londini: Apud Joannem Martyn & Jacobum
Allestry, 1699. [9], 100 pp.
plates. The image (right) is a plate
from Marcello Malpighi's Dissertatio
epistolica de bombyce, of 1669. This
detailed study of the silkworm was the
first monograph on an invertebrate.
Malpighi was the founder of histology
and the greatest of the microscopists.
He dissected and observed silkworms,
publishing his findings in this
treatise. It had been believed
previously that silkworms had no
internal organs. PD AND Malpighi,
M. Dissertatio Epistolica De Bombyce.
apud Jo. Martyn & Jac. Atlestry,
1669. http://books.google.com/books?id=
-yIOAAAAQAAJ PD
source: http://www.ucl.ac.uk/library/spe
cial-coll/malpighi01.gif AND http://en
.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:MarcelloMalphi
giMiall.jpg

[2] Malpighi, The silkworm,
1669. Malpighi, Marcello.
Dissertatio epistolica de bombyce.
Londini: Apud Joannem Martyn & Jacobum
Allestry, 1699. [9], 100 pp.
plates. The image (right) is a plate
from Marcello Malpighi's Dissertatio
epistolica de bombyce, of 1669. This
detailed study of the silkworm was the
first monograph on an invertebrate.
Malpighi was the founder of histology
and the greatest of the microscopists.
He dissected and observed silkworms,
publishing his findings in this
treatise. It had been believed
previously that silkworms had no
internal organs. PD
source: http://www.ucl.ac.uk/library/spe
cial-coll/malpighi01.gif
331 YBN
[1669 AD] 		1774) The element Phosphorus is
identified by Hennig Brand who obtains
a heavy glowing liquid by distilling a
red oil distilled from urine with
carbon.
Hamburg, Germany (presumably) 
[1] The Alchemist in Search of the
Philosophers Stone (1771) by Joseph
Wright depicting Hennig Brand
discovering phosphorus (the glow shown
is exaggerated) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Henning_brand.jpg

[2] A retort. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:My_retort.jpg
331 YBN
[1669 AD] 		1793) The theory that when a substance
is burned, a combustible earth is
liberated by German chemist Johann
Joachim Becher (BeKR). This leads to
the phlogiston theory by Georg Stahl, a
theory that will be proved wrong by
Lavoisier.
?, Germany 
[1] Johann Joachim Becher. Stich von P.
Kilian. PD
source: http://aeiou.iicm.tugraz.at/aeio
u.encyclop.data.image.b/b221398a.jpg

[2] Johann Joachim Becher, detail from
an engraving Historia-Photo PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-8793/Johann-Joachim-Becher-detail-from-
an-engraving?articleTypeId=1
329 YBN
[1671 AD] 		1729) Iapetus (IoPeTuS), the moon of
Saturn is identified by Giovanni
Cassini (Ko SEnE).
(Paris Observatory) Paris, France
 
[1] Approximately natural color mosaic
of Iapetus taken on December 31, 2004
at a distance of about 173 000 km and
phase angle of 52 degrees. The mosaic
consists of two footprints which were
the only ones where multispectral
coverage exists at this point in the
flyby. The missing portions for
full-disk coverage were filled in with
three clear filter frames which were
colorized. The view is dominated by
the dark Cassini Regio. Brighter
terrain is visible high on Iapetus'
northern latitudes. Hints of much
brighter terrain can also be seen at
the limb at approx. 7 o'clock position
where slight camera saturation
occured. Two huge and ancient impact
basins are visible as well as a
mysterious mountain range running
precisely along the equator. North pole
is approximately at 1 o'clock position
and is in darkness here. Credit: NASA
/ JPL / SSI / Gordan Ugarkovic [t
looks very like a terrestrial with
meteor impacts, might this have been
orbiting the Sun? or absorbs impacts
around Saturn? If around the Sun and
then fell back to Saturn that might be
important. It's a classic question of
moon form around planets or only around
stars.] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Iapetus_mosaic_color.jpg

[2] Scientist: Cassini, Giovanni
Domenico (1625 - 1712) Discipline(s):
Astronomy ; Geodesy Print Artist: N.
Dupuis Medium: Engraving Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 14.3 x 10.2 cm /
Sheet: 24.6 x 16.2 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=c
329 YBN
[1671 AD] 		1854) A calculating machine that can
add, subtract, multiply and divide is
constructed by Gottfried Wilhelm
Leibniz (LIPniTS).
Mainz, Germany 
[1] Description Deutsch: Gottfried
Wilhelm Leibniz (Gemälde von Bernhard
Christoph Francke, Braunschweig,
Herzog-Anton-Ulrich-Museum, um
1700) Source
http://www.hfac.uh.edu/gbrown/philosoph
ers/leibniz/BritannicaPages/Leibniz/Leib
nizGif.html Date ca. 1700 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gottfried_Wilhelm_von_Leibniz.jpg

[2] Source:
http://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedi
a/L/Leibniz.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Leibniz_231.jpg
329 YBN
[1671 AD] 		2119) The element Hydrogen is
identified by Robert Boyle who finds
that Hydrogen gas is released by mixing
iron filings and acids and is
flammable.

The gas burns so easily that Boyle
describes the gas as "inflammable
solution of Mars" (Mars being the word
for iron).
Oxford, England (presumably) 
[1] Title page from: Boyle, Robert.
Tracts Written by the Honourable Robert
Boyle: Containing New Experiments
Touching the Relation Betwixt Flame and
Air : and About Explosions : an
Hydrostatical Discourse Occasion'd by
Some Objections of Dr. Henry More
against Some Explications of New
Experiments Made by the Author of These
Tracts : to Which Is Annex't, an
Hydrostatical Letter, Dilucidating an
Experiment About a Way of Weighing
Water in Water. London: Printed for
Richard Davis, 1673. Internet resource.
http://uci.worldcat.org/title/tracts-w
ritten-by-the-honourable-robert-boyle-co
ntaining-new-experiments-touching-the-re
lation-betwixt-flame-and-air-and-about-e
xplosions-an-hydrostatical-discourse-occ
asiond-by-some-objections-of-dr-henry-mo
re-against-some-explications-of-new-expe
riments-made-by-the-author-of-these-trac
ts-to-which-is-annext-an-hydrostatical-l
etter-dilucidating-an-experiment-about-a
-way-of-weighing-water-in-water/oclc/606
570832?referer=di&ht=edition PD
source: Boyle, Robert. Tracts Written
by the Honourable Robert Boyle:
Containing New Experiments Touching the
Relation Betwixt Flame and Air : and
About Explosions : an Hydrostatical
Discourse Occasion'd by Some Objections
of Dr. Henry More against Some
Explications of New Experiments Made by
the Author of These Tracts : to Which
Is Annex't, an Hydrostatical Letter,
Dilucidating an Experiment About a Way
of Weighing Water in Water. London:
Printed for Richard Davis, 1673.
Internet resource.
http://uci.worldcat.org/title/tracts-w
ritten-by-the-honourable-robert-boyle-co
ntaining-new-experiments-touching-the-re
lation-betwixt-flame-and-air-and-about-e
xplosions-an-hydrostatical-discourse-occ
asiond-by-some-objections-of-dr-henry-mo
re-against-some-explications-of-new-expe
riments-made-by-the-author-of-these-trac
ts-to-which-is-annext-an-hydrostatical-l
etter-dilucidating-an-experiment-about-a
-way-of-weighing-water-in-water/oclc/606
570832?referer=di&ht=edition

[2] Scientist: Boyle, Robert (1627 -
1691) Discipline(s): Chemistry ;
Physics Original Dimensions: Graphic:
13.1 x 8.2 cm / PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/cf/by_n
ame_display_results.cfm?scientist=Boyle
328 YBN
[02/19/1672 AD] 		1829) The corpuscular theory of light
is firmly established by Isaac Newton.
In this view light is thought to be
made of material particles that move
through any medium. Newton shows that
color is a property of light, not of
objects. Newton also separates white
light into primary colors and
recombines primary colors to form white
light. Newton also shows that light of
different colors refract at different
angles.
Cambridge, England 
[1] Isaac Newton, ''Draft of 'A Theory
Concerning Light and Colors''', Feb 6,
1671/2, in English, c. 5,137 words,
14pp. Shelfmark: MS Add. 3970.3,
ff.460-466 Location: Cambridge
University Library, Cambridge,
UK http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.u
k/view/texts/normalized/NATP00003 PD
source: http://www.newtonproject.sussex.
ac.uk/view/texts/normalized/NATP00003

[2] Description Isaac Newton Date
1689 Author Godfrey Kneller PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg
328 YBN
[1672 AD] 		1730) The moon of Saturn, Rhea {rEo} is
identified by Giovanni Cassini (Ko
SEnE).
Paris, France 
[1] 2005-12-06 Rhea
mission:Cassini Imaging Science
Subsystem - Narrow
Angle 4500x4500x1 Rhea: Full Moon
PIA07763: Full Resolution: TIFF
(20.29 MB) JPEG (2.354 MB) PD
source: http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov
/target/Rhea?start=50

[2] Ancient Craters on Saturn's
Rhea Credit: Cassini Imaging Team,
SSI, JPL, ESA, NASA Explanation:
Saturn's ragged moon Rhea has one of
the oldest surfaces known. Estimated as
changing little in the past billion
years, Rhea shows craters so old they
no longer appear round - their edges
have become compromised by more recent
cratering. Like Earth's Moon, Rhea's
rotation is locked on Saturn, and the
above image shows part of Rhea's
surface that always faces Saturn.
Rhea's leading surface is more highly
cratered than its trailing surface.
Rhea is composed mostly of water-ice
but is thought to have a small rocky
core. The above image was taken by the
robot Cassini spacecraft now orbiting
Saturn. Cassini swooped past Rhea two
months ago and captured the above image
from about 100,000 kilometers away.
Rhea spans 1,500 kilometers making it
Saturn's second largest moon after
Titan. Several surface features on Rhea
remain unexplained including large
light patches. PD
source: http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/ap0605
30.html
328 YBN
[1672 AD] 		1731) The scale of our star system is
measured by Giovanni Cassini (Ko
SEnE).

Cassini (Ko SEnE) uses the parallax of
Mars to measure the distance from Earth
to Mars. This then provides a scale to
our star system, allowing the distance
to all the other planets to be
calculated.

The Sun is calculated to be 138 million
km (or 86 million miles) from Earth.
Paris, France;Guiana, South
America 
[1] Scientist: Cassini, Giovanni
Domenico (1625 - 1712) Discipline(s):
Astronomy ; Geodesy Print Artist: N.
Dupuis Medium: Engraving Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 14.3 x 10.2 cm /
Sheet: 24.6 x 16.2 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=c

[2] Scientist: Cassini, Giovanni
Domenico (1625 - 1712) Discipline(s):
Astronomy ; Geodesy Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 25.2 x 18.5 cm /
Sheet: 27.4 x 19.5 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=c
327 YBN
[1673 AD] 		1819) The ovary is named and the
follicles of the ovary identified.
Delft, Netherlands (presumably) 
[1] Regnier de Graaf, Dutch
anatomist. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Regnier_de_graaf.jpeg

[2] Regnier de Graaf the Graafian
follicles and female ejaculation, PD
source: http://www2.hu-berlin.de/sexolog
y/GESUND/ARCHIV/GIF/XA_GRAAF.JPG
327 YBN
[1673 AD] 		3377) The combustion of gun powder is
used to create a vacuum by Christiaan
Huygens (HOEGeNZ).
Paris, France (presumably) 
[1] Powder machine, Chr. Huygens 1673,
drawing by Huygens Powder machine,
Christian Huygens, 1673 Huygens´
powder machine produced mechanical
energy in a cylinder by means of
combustion. PD/Corel
source: http://www.deutsches-museum.de/t
ypo3temp/pics/d2f04f7a88.jpg

[2] Christiaan Huygens, the
astronomer. source:
http://ressources2.techno.free.fr/inform
atique/sites/inventions/inventions.html
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Christiaan_Huygens-painting.jpeg
326 YBN
[09/07/1674 AD] 		1781) Individual unicellular protists
are first described by Antoni van
Leeuwenhoek (lAVeNHvK).
Delft, Netherlands 
[1] Leeuwenhoek Antonie van
Leeuwenhoek, detail of a portrait by
Jan Verkolje; in the Rijksmuseum,
Amsterdam.[2] COPYRIGHTED photo but
PD painting
source: http://www.abdn.ac.uk/mediarelea
ses/release.php?id=197

[2] Description w:Antoni van
Leeuwenhoek Source Project Gutenberg
ebook of Den Waaragtigen Omloop des
Bloeds http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/1
8929 http://www.gutenberg.org/files/189
29/18929-h/18929-h.htm Date
1686 Author J. Verkolje PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Antoni_van_Leeuwenhoek.png
326 YBN
[1674 AD] 		1825) The element Oxygen is identified
by John Mayow (mAO).
Oxford, England 
[1] John Mayow PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:John_Mayow.jpg

[2] John Mayow, 1641-1679. Tractatus
quinque medico-physici. [Five
medico-physical tracts] Oxford: E
Theatro Sheldoniano, 1674. Gift of
John F. Fulton. PD
source: http://www.med.yale.edu/library/
historical/founders/images/tractatus.jpg

325 YBN
[1675 AD] 		1732) The space between the ring of
Saturn (the "Cassini division") is seen
by Giovanni Cassini (Ko SEnE).
Paris, France 
[1] What's That Speck? Cassini's climb
to progressively higher elevations
reveals the ''negative'' side of
Saturn's rings. As the Sun shines
through the rings, they take on the
appearance of a photonegative: the
dense B ring (at the center) blocks
much of the incoming light, while the
less dense regions scatter and transmit
light. Close inspection reveals not
one, but two moons in this scene. Mimas
(397 kilometers, or 247 miles across)
is easily visible near the upper right,
but the shepherd moon Prometheus (102
kilometers, or 63 miles across) can
also be seen. Prometheus is a dark spot
against the far side of the thin,
bright F ring. Most of Prometheus'
sunlit side is turned away from Cassini
in this view. The image was taken in
visible light with the Cassini
spacecraft wide-angle camera on April
15, 2005, at a distance of
approximately 570,000 kilometers
(350,000 miles) from Saturn. The image
scale is 30 kilometers (19 miles) per
pixel. The Cassini-Huygens mission
is a cooperative project of NASA, the
European Space Agency and the Italian
Space Agency. The Jet Propulsion
Laboratory, a division of the
California Institute of Technology in
Pasadena, manages the mission for
NASA's Science Mission Directorate,
Washington, D.C. The Cassini orbiter
and its two onboard cameras were
designed, developed and assembled at
JPL. The imaging team is based at the
Space Science Institute, Boulder,
Colo. For more information about the
Cassini-Huygens mission visit
http://saturn.jpl.nasa.gov . For
additional images visit the Cassini
imaging team homepage
http://ciclops.org . Image Credit:
NASA/JPL/Space Science Institute PD
source: http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/mult
imedia/display.cfm?IM_ID=3943

[2] Scientist: Cassini, Giovanni
Domenico (1625 - 1712) Discipline(s):
Astronomy ; Geodesy Print Artist: N.
Dupuis Medium: Engraving Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 14.3 x 10.2 cm /
Sheet: 24.6 x 16.2 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=c
324 YBN
[06/13/1676 AD] 		1837) The binomial theorem is described
by Newton. The binomial theorem is the
statement that, for any positive
integer n, the nth power of the sum of
two numbers a and b may be expressed as
the sum of n + 1 terms.
Cambridge, England  
[1] Series infinitas: el binomio de
Newton PD
source: http://platea.pntic.mec.es/apere
z4/html/newton/newton2.html

[2] In mathematics, the binomial
theorem is an important formula giving
the expansion of powers of sums. Its
simplest version says GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bin
omial_theorem
324 YBN
[10/09/1676 AD] 		1782) Individual bacteria are first
observed by Antoni van Leeuwenhoek
(lAVeNHvK).
Delft, Netherlands 
[1] Leeuwenhoek Antonie van
Leeuwenhoek, detail of a portrait by
Jan Verkolje; in the Rijksmuseum,
Amsterdam.[2] COPYRIGHTED photo but
PD painting
source: http://www.abdn.ac.uk/mediarelea
ses/release.php?id=197

[2] Description w:Antoni van
Leeuwenhoek Source Project Gutenberg
ebook of Den Waaragtigen Omloop des
Bloeds http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/1
8929 http://www.gutenberg.org/files/189
29/18929-h/18929-h.htm Date
1686 Author J. Verkolje PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Antoni_van_Leeuwenhoek.png
324 YBN
[1676 AD] 		1851) The speed of light is shown to be
finite and is measured by Olaus Rømer
(ROEmR), by subtracting the time it
takes for the moon of Jupiter, Io to
enter and exit the shadow of Jupiter
when the Earth is moving toward
Jupiter, from the time it takes when
the Earth is moving away from Jupiter.
(Paris Observatory) Paris, France 
[1] ''Demonstration touchant le
mouvement de la lumiere trouvé par M.
Römer de l' Academie Royale des
Sciences'', Journal des sçavans,
December 7,
1676 http://books.google.com/books?id=5
scUAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA484 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=5scUAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA484

[2] Ole Rømer PD
source: http://www.rundetaarn.dk/dansk/o
bservatorium/grafik/roemer1.jpg
324 YBN
[1676 AD] 		1870) The first observatory in the
southern hemisphere.
Saint Helena 
[1] Portrait of Edmond Halley painted
around 1687 by Thomas Murray (Royal
Society, London) uploaded from
http://www.phys.uu.nl/~vgent/astrology/n
ewton.htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Edmund_Halley.gif

[2] Portrait of Edmond Halley PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Edmond_Halley_5.jpg
323 YBN
[1677 AD] 		1784) Sperm cells are first described
by Antoni van Leeuwenhoek (lAVeNHvK).
Delft, Netherlands 
[1] Figure 2. from Clarke, Gary N.
“A.R.T. and History, 1678–1978.”
Human Reproduction 21.7 (2006):
1645–1650. Van Leeuwenhoek’s
drawings of spermatozoa. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://humrep.oxfordjournals.org
/content/21/7/1645/F2.large.jpg

[2] Spermatozoa (Dutch =
''zaaddiertjes'') after an image
published in Phil.Trans. XII,nov. 1678)
: 1-4 Human, 5-8 Dog. PD
source: http://www.euronet.nl/users/warn
ar/leeuwenhoek.html
322 YBN
[01/??/1678 AD] 		6564) The first picture of red blood
cells.
Amsterdam, Netherlands
(presumably) 
[1] Image from Swammerdam letter of
1678 showing lens and blood cells
from: Gerrit A. Lindeboom, ''Jan
Swammerdam als microscopist.''
Tijdschift voor de Geschiedenis der
Genees- , Natuurwetenschappen, Wiskunde
en Techniek 4 (1981):
87-110. http://gewina-tggnwt.library.uu
.nl/index.php/gewina-tggnwt/article/view
/140 UNKNOWN
source: http://gewina-tggnwt.library.uu.
nl/index.php/gewina-tggnwt/article/view/
140

[2] Swammerdam, J., H. Boerhaave, and
H.D. Gaubius. Bybel Der Natuure. by
Isaak Severinus, Boudewyn van der Aa,
Pieter van der Aa, 1738. Bybel Der
Natuure, Door Jan Swammerdam,
Amsteldammer. Of Historie Der Insecten,
Tot Zeekere Zoorten Gebracht: Door
Voorbeelden, Ontleedkundige
Onderzoekingen Van Veelerhande Kleine
Gediertens, Als Ook Door Kunstige
Kopere Plaaten Opgeheldert: Verrykt Met
Ontelbaare Waarnemingen Van Nooit
Ontdekte Zeldzaamhedenin De
Natuur. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=1SxMAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA819 PD
source: Swammerdam, J., H. Boerhaave,
and H.D. Gaubius. Bybel Der Natuure. by
Isaak Severinus, Boudewyn van der Aa,
Pieter van der Aa, 1738. Bybel Der
Natuure, Door Jan Swammerdam,
Amsteldammer. Of Historie Der Insecten,
Tot Zeekere Zoorten Gebracht: Door
Voorbeelden, Ontleedkundige
Onderzoekingen Van Veelerhande Kleine
Gediertens, Als Ook Door Kunstige
Kopere Plaaten Opgeheldert: Verrykt Met
Ontelbaare Waarnemingen Van Nooit
Ontdekte Zeldzaamhedenin De
Natuur. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=1SxMAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA819
322 YBN
[06/25/1678 AD] 		3862) The first woman to teach at a
university after the collapse of
science of the 400s CE;Helena Piscopia
at the University of Padua.
(University of Padua) Padua,
Italy 
[1] Elena Lucrezia Cornaro Piscopia [t
Verify is authentic] PD
source: http://www.agnesscott.edu/lriddl
e/women/piscopia.gif
322 YBN
[1678 AD] 		1794) The helical spring is described
by Robert Hooke.
London, England (presumably)|(if 1657:)
Oxford, England (presumably) 
[1] Plate to Hooke's Lecture of Spring
1678 PD
source: http://www1.umn.edu/ships/module
s/phys/hooke/images/Hooke1678.jpg

[2] Hooke memorial window, St Helen's
Bishopsgate (now
destroyed) http://www.roberthooke.org.u
k/
on http://freespace.virgin.net/ric.mart
in/vectis/hookeweb/roberthooke.htm PD
source: http://freespace.virgin.net/ric.
martin/vectis/hookeweb/roberthooke.htm
322 YBN
[1678 AD] 		1802) That the force that restores a
spring (or any elastic system) to its
equilibrium position is proportional to
the distance by which it is displaced
from that equilibrium position is
recognized by Robert Hooke (and is
called "Hooke's Law").
London, England (presumably) 
[1] Hooke memorial window, St Helen's
Bishopsgate (now
destroyed) http://www.roberthooke.org.u
k/
on http://freespace.virgin.net/ric.mart
in/vectis/hookeweb/roberthooke.htm PD
source: http://freespace.virgin.net/ric.
martin/vectis/hookeweb/roberthooke.htm

[2] Frontispiece to Cyclopædia, 1728
edition View an enlarged 1000 x 811
pixel JPG image (271KB) the engraved
frontispiece to the 1728 edition of
Chambers' Cyclopedia shows as an
interesting detail a bust of Robert
Hooke.[3] [t there are busts of Newton
in the upper left, and a few on the
bottom
right] [Frontispiece] COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.she-philosopher.com/g
allery/cyclopaedia.html
322 YBN
[1678 AD] 		1871) The first catalog of
telescopically located stars seen only
from the southern hemisphere is
published by Edmond Halley.
London, England (presumably) 
[1] Title page of: Halley, E.
Catalogus Stellarum Australium: Sive,
Supplementum Catalogi Tychenici,
Exhibens Longitudines Et Latitudines
Stellarum Fixarum, Quae, Prope Polum
Antarcticum Sitae, in Horizonte
Uraniburgico Tychoni Inconspicuae
Fuere, Accurato Calculo Ex Distantiis
Supputatas, & Ad Annum 1677 Completum
correctas...Accedit Appendicula De
Rebus Quibusdam Astronomicis... Typis
T. James,
1679. http://books.google.com/books?id=
QVg4AAAAMAAJ PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Edmund_Halley.gif

[2] Portrait of Edmond Halley painted
around 1687 by Thomas Murray (Royal
Society, London) uploaded from
http://www.phys.uu.nl/~vgent/astrology/n
ewton.htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Edmond_Halley_5.jpg
322 YBN
[1678 AD] 		3592) Direct neuron activation (or
direct neuron writing). Jan Swammerdam
(Yon SVoMRDoM) contracts a muscle by
making neurons fire using electricity.


Swammerdam hangs a frog by a silver
wire and finds that the frog leg
twitches when a brass ring contacts
it.

This electrical muscle movement will
eventually lead to very precise remote
neuron stimulation.
Amsterdam, Netherlands
(presumably) 
[1] One of Galvani’s decisive
experiments was to show that movement
could be induced by stroking an iron
plate against a brass hook inserted
into the frog’s spinal column, which
generated a small electric current. In
one version of Swammerdam’s nerve
muscle experiment, the nerve was
suspended in a brass hook, which was
then stroked with a silver
wire: PD/Corel
source: http://www.janswammerdam.net/Ima
ges/Fig4.jpg
321 YBN
[03/15/1679 AD] 		1858) Binary numbers are established by
Gottfried Leibniz. This system will
form the basis of all modern computers.
Hannover, Germany 
[1] Figure 14. G. W. Leibniz's
manuscript of the binary number theory,
written on March 15, 1679. Latin text
explains the principle to use the two
signs 1 and 0 for all
numbers. (Source: Upper part of page
shows his scheme of dual number
systems, which he called “Progressio
dyadica,” as written in title at top.
Sequence of upper lines 1–32 is
continued in left vertical column to
reach number 100 in lowest part(not
reproduced). Leibniz submitted this
dual system to the Paris Academy in
1703, where it was published in 1705
244. Practical application of this
principle had to wait for electronic
computers, which had less difficulty in
using the long number sequences than a
hand-writing mathematician. Source: the
Leibniz-Archiv, Niedersächsiche
Landesbibliothek,
Hannover.) from: Richard Jung.
Sensory Research in Historical
Perspective: Some Philosophical
Foundations of Perception. Compr
Physiol 2011, Supplement 3: Handbook of
Physiology, The Nervous System, Sensory
Processes: 1-74. First published in
print 1984. doi: 10.1002/cphy.cp010301
http://www.comprehensivephysiology.com
/WileyCDA/CompPhysArticle/refId-cp010301
.html UNKNOWN
source: http://media.wiley.com/mrw_image
s/compphys/articles/cp010301/image_n/ncp
01030114.jpg

[2] Description Deutsch: Gottfried
Wilhelm Leibniz (Gemälde von Bernhard
Christoph Francke, Braunschweig,
Herzog-Anton-Ulrich-Museum, um
1700) Source
http://www.hfac.uh.edu/gbrown/philosoph
ers/leibniz/BritannicaPages/Leibniz/Leib
nizGif.html Date ca. 1700 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gottfried_Wilhelm_von_Leibniz.jpg
321 YBN
[1679 AD] 		1863) The first pressure cooker; by
Denis Papin (PoPoN). Water boiled in an
air-tight container raises the pressure
in the container, which raises the
boiling point of water allowing food to
cook faster. A safety value prevents
explosions.
London, England 
[1] subject: Denis Papin, unknown
artist, 1689. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Denis_Papin.jpg

[2]
http://www.chemistryexplained.com/Bo-Ce/
Boyle-Robert.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Boyle-Papin-Digester.jpg
320 YBN
[1680 AD] 		1690) The movement of bones by muscles
in terms of levers is correctly
explained.
Rome, Italy (presumably) 
[1] Portrait of Giovanni Borelli from
this web site:
http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/optics/timel
ine/people/borelli.html The portrait
is made in 17th century. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:GBorelli.jpg

[2] Giovanni Alfonso Borelli. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Giovanni_Alfonso_Borelli.jpg
320 YBN
[1680 AD] 		1740) That phosphorus and sulfur burst
into flame instantly if rubbed together
is discovered by Robert Boyle. This is
the basis of the match.
London, England (presumably) 
[1] Scientist: Boyle, Robert (1627 -
1691) Discipline(s): Chemistry ;
Physics Original Dimensions: Graphic:
13.1 x 8.2 cm / PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/cf/by_n
ame_display_results.cfm?scientist=Boyle

[2] Scientist: Boyle, Robert (1627 -
1691) Discipline(s): Chemistry ;
Physics Print Artist: George Vertue,
1684-1756 Medium: Engraving
Original Artist: Johann Kerseboom,
d.1708 Original Dimensions: Graphic:
39.5 x 24.3 cm / PD
source: %20Robert
318 YBN
[03/03/1682 AD] 		1788) The cell nucleus is described by
Leeuwenhoek (lAVeNHvK) who draws the
nucleus of red blood cells of a cod and
salmon.
Delft, Netherlands 
[1] Leeuwenhoek, A. van: Opera Omnia,
seu Arcana Naturae ope exactissimorum
Microscopiorum detecta, experimentis
variis comprobata, Epistolis ad varios
illustres viros. J. Arnold et Delphis,
A. Beman, Lugdinum Batavorum
1719–1730, p51.
http://books.google.com/books?id=0Zs_A
AAAcAAJ {Leeuwenhoek_Opera_Omnia_Seu_Ar
cana_Naturae_1722.pdf} PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=0Zs_AAAAcAAJ

[2] Description English: Red Blood
cells from Salmon, with ''Lumen'' (cell
nuclei). Deutsch: Rote Blutkörperchen
vom Lachs, mit ''Lumen''
(Zellkernen). Date Leeuwenhoek lived
from 1632 - 1723.. Source
Dieter Gerlach, Geschichte der
Mikroskopie. Verlag Harry Deutsch,
Frankfurt am Main, Germany, 2009. ISBN
978-3-8171-1781-9.(Accompanying
CD-ROM). Source given in there:
Leeuwenhoek, A. van: Opera Omnia, seu
Arcana Naturae ope exactissimorum
Microscopiorum detecta, experimentis
variis comprobata, Epistolis ad varios
illustres viros. J. Arnold et Delphis,
A. Beman, Lugdinum Batavorum
1719–1730. – Reprint: Georg Olms
Verlag, Hildesheim, New York
1971–1972 Author Antoni van
Leeuwenhoek PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/39/Leeuwenhoek1719RedBlo
odCells.jpg
318 YBN
[1682 AD] 		1821) The sex organs of plants, the
pistils (female) and stamens (male) are
identified by Nehemiah Grew.

Grew also understands that grains of
pollen produced by the stamens are the
equivalent to sperm cells in animals.
presented: London, England 
[1] Title Page of ''The Anatomy of
Plants'' PD
source: http://www.wsulibs.wsu.edu/holla
nd/masc/masctour/earlyprinting/images/50
.jpg

[2] Vine-Root Cut Transversely PD
source: http://www.wsulibs.wsu.edu/holla
nd/masc/masctour/earlyprinting/images/51
.jpg
317 YBN
[07/16/1683 AD] 		6588) The first picture of individual
unicellular protists; by Antoni van
Leeuwenhoek (lAVeNHvK).
Delft, Netherlands 
[1] Fig. 4. Leeuwenhoek’s simple
illustration of animalcules from
frogs, which we call protozoa. A
is Opalina dimidiate , B
is Nyctotherus cordiformis , and C is
perhaps a larval nematode. Drawn for
the Dutch edition of his letter of 16
July 1683 (Dobell 1932: Plate 23).
Egerton, Frank N. ''A history of
the ecological sciences, part 19:
Leeuwenhoek's microscopic natural
history.'' Bulletin of the Ecological
Society of America 87.1 (2006):
47-58. http://esapubs.org/bulletin/curr
ent/history_list/history19.pdf UNKNOWN

source: http://esapubs.org/bulletin/curr
ent/history_list/history19.pdf

[2] Fig. 7. Bacteria from a human
mouth, letter of 17 September 1683. A
is a motile Bacillus, B is Selenomonas
sputigena, with C…D its path, E is
Micrococci, F is Leptothrix buccalis,
and G is a spirochaete, probably
Spirochaeta buccalis (Dobell 1932:Plate
24 or Leeuwenhoek 1939–1999, IV:Plate
8). PD
source: http://www.madrimasd.org/blogs/m
icrobiologia/wp-content/blogs.dir/110/fi
les/1431/o_Leeuwenhoek.jpg
317 YBN
[09/12/1683 AD] 		1785) The first picture of bacteria; by
Antoni van Leeuwenhoek (lAVeNHvK).
Delft, Netherlands 
[1] Fig. 7. Bacteria from a human
mouth, letter of 17 September 1683. A
is a motile Bacillus, B is Selenomonas
sputigena, with C…D its path, E is
Micrococci, F is Leptothrix buccalis,
and G is a spirochaete, probably
Spirochaeta buccalis (Dobell 1932:Plate
24 or Leeuwenhoek 1939–1999, IV:Plate
8). PD
source: http://www.madrimasd.org/blogs/m
icrobiologia/wp-content/blogs.dir/110/fi
les/1431/o_Leeuwenhoek.jpg

[2] Fig. 7. Bacteria from a human
mouth, letter of 17 September 1683. A
is a motile Bacillus, B is Selenomonas
sputigena, with C…D its path, E is
Micrococci, F is Leptothrix buccalis,
and G is a spirochaete, probably
Spirochaeta buccalis (Dobell 1932:Plate
24 or Leeuwenhoek 1939-1999, IV:Plate
8). COPYRIGHTED?
source: http://esapubs.org/bulletin/back
issues/087-1/bulletin_jan2006.htm
316 YBN
[1684 AD] 		1733) The moons of Saturn: Dione
(DIOnE) (Greek Διώνη) and Tethys
(TEtuS) (Greek Τηθύς) are
identified by Giovanni Cassini (Ko
SEnE).
(Paris Observatory) Paris, France 
[1] Bright Cliffs Across Saturn's Moon
Dione Credit: Cassini Imaging Team,
SSI, JPL, ESA, NASA Explanation:
What causes the bright streaks on
Dione? Recent images of this unusual
moon by the robot Cassini spacecraft
now orbiting Saturn are helping to
crack the mystery. Close inspection of
Dione's trailing hemisphere, pictured
above, indicates that the white wisps
are composed of deep ice cliffs
dropping hundreds of meters. The cliffs
may indicate that Dione has undergone
some sort of tectonic surface
displacements in its past. The bright
ice-cliffs run across some of Dione's
many craters, indicating that the
process that created them occurred
later than the impacts that created
those craters. Dione is made of mostly
water ice but its relatively high
density indicates that it contains much
rock inside. Giovanni Cassini
discovered Dione in 1684. The above
image was taken at the end of July from
a distance of about 263,000 kilometers.
Other high resolution images of Dione
were taken by the passing Voyager
spacecraft in 1980. PD
source: http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/ap0609
05.html

[2] 4,500 Kilometers Above
Dione Credit : Cassini Imaging Team,
SSI, JPL, ESA, NASA Explanation:
What does the surface of Saturn's moon
Dione look like? To find out, the robot
Cassini spacecraft currently orbiting
Saturn flew right past the fourth
largest moon of the giant planet
earlier this month. Pictured above is
an image taken about 4,500 kilometers
above Dione's icy surface, spanning
about 23 kilometers. Fractures,
grooves, and craters in Dione's ice and
rock are visible. In many cases,
surface features are caused by unknown
processes and can only be described.
Many of the craters have bright walls
but dark floors, indicating that
fresher ice is brighter. Nearly
parallel grooves run from the upper
right to the lower left. Fractures
sometimes across the bottom of craters,
indicating a relatively recent
formation. The lip of a 60-kilometer
wide crater runs from the middle left
to the upper center of the image, while
the crater's center is visible on the
lower right. Images like this will
continue to be studied to better
understand Dione as well as Saturn's
complex system of rings and moons. PD

source: http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/ap0510
26.html
316 YBN
[1684 AD] 		1822) Seawater is converted into
freshwater.
London, England (presumably) 
[1] cover of book Grew, N. New
Experiments and Useful Observations
Concerning Sea-water Made Fresh:
According to the Patentee[s] Invention:
In a Discourse Humbly Dedicated to His
Majesty, the King of Great Britain, &c.
By Nehemiah Grew, M.D. Fellow of the
Colledge of Physicians, and of the
Royal-Society. John Harefinch in
Mountague-Court in Little Britain,
1684. http://www.amazon.com/experiments
-observations-concerning-sea-water-accor
ding/dp/1171293186 UNKNOWN
source: http://ecx.images-amazon.com/ima
ges/I/51-zHqbSXgL.jpg

[2] Nehemiah Grew (1641-1712) British
botanist Artist : Robert White,
1645-1703 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Nehemiah-Grew-1641-1712.jpg
315 YBN
[1685 AD] 		3348) A portable pin-hole camera by
Johann Zahn.
(Würzburg praemonstrantensian
monastery) Würzburg, Germany 
[1] Johann Zahn, camera obscura
portabilis (reflex box camera obscura),
1685. Courtesy of the Gernsheim
Collection, Harry Ransom Humanities
Research Center, University of Texas
at Austin. PD/Corel
source: http://content.cdlib.org/xtf/dat
a/13030/6b/ft296nb16b/figures/ft296nb16b
_00000.gif
313 YBN
[1687 AD] 		1845) The universal law of gravitation
by Isaac Newton; that all matter
attracts other matter with a force that
is the product of their masses, and the
inverse of their distance squared.

Newton also theorizes that light
particles are affected by gravity.

Newton clearly distinguishes between
mass and weight, viewing mass as the
quantity of matter contained in a body,
and defines a force in terms of mass
and acceleration with the equation
F=ma.

The famous equation Newton describes
for the force of gravitation is:
F=Gm1m2/d^2 where m1 and m2 are the
masses of two objects (for example, the
Earth and Moon), d is the distance
between their centers, G is the
gravitational constant, and F is the
force of gravitational attraction
between them. Newton holds that this
law is true for any two objects in the
universe.

Newton shows that the acceleration on
any mass from a second mass due to
gravity can be calculated as the mass
of the second object divided by the
distance squared (a2=Gm1/distance^2).

This is the first modeling of the
motion of bodies orbiting the Sun based
on the theory of gravity. Note that the
initial model is a static model that
does not calculate the future positions
of bodies by iterating for each second
into the future starting from the
current positions and motions of each
body, but instead uses equations that
represent constant repetitive motions
with additions to account for the
regular perturbations from other
bodies. The problem with this initial
static model is that small fluctuations
due to small incalculable factors, like
small changes in mass and the motions
of the liquids of the Sun and planets,
mean that the current positions of
bodies must constantly updated and
corrected.
Cambridge, England (presumably) 
[1] Sir Isaac Newton's own first
edition copy of his Philosophiae
Naturalis Principia Mathematica with
his handwritten corrections for the
second edition. The first edition was
published under the imprint of Samuel
Pepys who was president of the Royal
Society. By the time of the second
edition, Newton himself had become
president of the Royal Society, as
noted in his corrections. The book can
be seen in the Wren Library of Trinity
College, Cambridge. CC
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:NewtonsPrincipia.jpg

[2] Description Isaac Newton Date
1689 Author Godfrey Kneller PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg
313 YBN
[1687 AD] 		1890) A hygrometer: a device that
measures the quantity of moisture in
the air.
Paris, France 
[1] Society for the Diffusion of Useful
Knowledge (Great Britain). The
Biographical Dictionary of the Society
for the Diffusion of Useful
Knowledge--. Longman, Brown, Green, and
Longmans, 1843. The Biographical
Dictionary of the Society for the
Diffusion of Useful Knowledge--,
p492. http://books.google.com/books?id=
p5VUAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA492 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=p5VUAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA492
313 YBN
[1687 AD] 		3895) That a mite causes scabies, a
skin inflammation, is proven and the
mite first seen with a microscope by
Giovan Cosimo Bonomo.
Livorno, Italy 
[1] Bonomo's drawings of the agent of
scabies PD/Corel AND source:
de.wikipedia Deutsch: Räudemilbe,
weiblich author: Kalumet
date: 06.11.2004 GNU
source: http://www3.interscience.wiley.c
om/cgi-bin/fulltext/119104681/nf1 AND
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/co
mmons/c/c0/Sarcoptes_scabei_2.jpg

[2] Bonomo's drawings of the agent of
scabies PD/Corel
source: http://www3.interscience.wiley.c
om/cgi-bin/fulltext/119104681/nf1
310 YBN
[1690 AD] 		1200) A gear-cutting machine (a machine
for cutting gears out of cylinders of
metal) is invented by Christopher
Polhem.
Sweden 
[1] Christopher Polhem in 1741. PD
AND On Sunday, December 18
inaugurated the exhibition of
Christopher Polhem On Technical ...
Class 5 pilot from Klastorp School had
the honor to visit it before,
photographed, snabbguidas and also
showcase their inventions. There are
many parts of the mechanical alphabet,
mine lifts, computer games, one point
for creative children and adolescents
mm. UNKNOWN
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Christopher_Polhem_painted_by_Johan_H
enrik_Scheffel_1741.jpg
AND http://kungsholmsuppfinnare.se/wp
-content/uploads/2011/12/IMG_1050.jpg

[2] Christopher Polhem in 1741. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Christopher_Polhem_painted_by_Johan_H
enrik_Scheffel_1741.jpg
310 YBN
[1690 AD] 		1864) The steam engine is reinvented by
Denis Papin (PoPoN).

Papin builds a pump with a piston
raised by steam.
Leipzig, Germany 
[1] First Piston Steam Engine, by
Papin. 19th century encyclopedia. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Papinengine.jpg

[2] subject: Denis Papin, unknown
artist, 1689. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Denis_Papin.jpg
310 YBN
[1690 AD] 		1873) A diving bell by Edmond Halley.
London, England (presumably) 
[1] Edmund Halley’s Diving Bell. ©
National Maritime Museum, London Repro
ID: 8010 Description: This engraving
shows how the diving bell suggested by
Edmund Halley, might work in practice.
The aim of the diving bell was to allow
people to breath and even do
experiments underwater. The bell would
be dropped down with a man inside,
trapping air inside. As the air got
stale, it would be replaced by fresh
air from the surface via a tube. Date:
17th century Credit line: National
Maritime Museum,
London COPYRIGHTED AND Edmond
Halley’s Diving Bell UNKNOWN
source: http://www.portcities.org.uk/lon
don/upload/img_400/8010.jpg
AND http://www.divingmuseum.org/wp/20
10/06/the-diving-bell/

[2] Edmund Halley’s Diving Bell. ©
National Maritime Museum, London Repro
ID: 8010 Description: This engraving
shows how the diving bell suggested by
Edmund Halley, might work in practice.
The aim of the diving bell was to allow
people to breath and even do
experiments underwater. The bell would
be dropped down with a man inside,
trapping air inside. As the air got
stale, it would be replaced by fresh
air from the surface via a tube. Date:
17th century Credit line: National
Maritime Museum, London COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.portcities.org.uk/lon
don/upload/img_400/8010.jpg
307 YBN
[1693 AD] 		1745) The first logical classification
of animals, based mainly of hoofs,
toes, and teeth.
Cambridge?, England 
[1] John Ray From Shuster & Shipley,
facing p. 232. In turn from an original
portrait, by a painter not identified,
in (1917) the British Museum. PD
source: http://www.marcdatabase.com/~lem
ur/lemur.com/gallery-of-antiquarian-tech
nology/worthies/
306 YBN
[1694 AD] 		1888) A water wheel is used to lift ore
from a mine by Christopher Polhem
(PULHeM).
(Falun Mine) Blankstoten, Sweden 
[1] Svenska teknologf�reningen.
Christopher Polhem, the Father of
Swedish Technology. Trustees of Trinity
College, 1963,
p167. {Polhem_1963.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: Svenska teknologf�reningen.
Christopher Polhem, the Father of
Swedish Technology. Trustees of Trinity
College, 1963, p167. {Polhem_1963.pdf}

[2] Svenska teknologf�reningen.
Christopher Polhem, the Father of
Swedish Technology. Trustees of Trinity
College, 1963,
p25. {Polhem_1963.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: Svenska teknologf�reningen.
Christopher Polhem, the Father of
Swedish Technology. Trustees of Trinity
College, 1963, p25. {Polhem_1963.pdf}
305 YBN
[1695 AD] 		3260) The quantity mass times velocity
squared is named "vis-visa" ("the
living force"), and the theory that
vis-visa, not momentum is the quantity
always conserved, by Gottfried Wilhelm
Leibniz (LIPniTS). This quantity will
later be called "energy" by Thomas
Young.
Hannover, Germany (presumably) 
[1] Gottfried Leibniz, ''Specimen
Dynamicum''
(1695). books.google.com/books?id=0je_D
N18UkoC&pg=PA315 PD English
translation: L. E. Loemker,
''Philosophical Papers and Letters'',
(1976),
pp.435-452. http://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=vm_7-mtXj0YC {Leibniz_specimen_16
95.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: books.google.com/books?id=0je_DN
18UkoC&pg=PA315 AND
http://books.google.com/books?id=vm_7-
mtXj0YC {Leibniz_specimen_1695.pdf}

[2] [t Diagram from Leibniz's Specimen
Dynamicum] PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=vm_7-mtXj0YC&printsec=frontcover&dq=phi
losophical+papers+and+letters+leibniz&si
g=8UL3CfCXAuOCpgMc-1WCFh7hHvg#PPA435,M1
303 YBN
[04/20/1697 AD] 		1887) The "laboratorium mechanicum" is
established by Christopher Polhem
(PULHeM) as a technical school and
experimental center.
Stockholm, Sweden 
[1] Svenska teknologf�reningen.
Christopher Polhem, the Father of
Swedish Technology. Trustees of Trinity
College, 1963, p32. COPYRIGHTED
source: Svenska teknologf�reningen.
Christopher Polhem, the Father of
Swedish Technology. Trustees of Trinity
College, 1963, p32.

[2] Svenska teknologf�reningen.
Christopher Polhem, the Father of
Swedish Technology. Trustees of Trinity
College, 1963. COPYRIGHTED
source: Svenska teknologf�reningen.
Christopher Polhem, the Father of
Swedish Technology. Trustees of Trinity
College, 1963.
302 YBN
[07/02/1698 AD] 		1868) The first practical steam
engine.

The steam engine allows water to be
pumped up and then released to turn a
water wheel, which removes the need for
factories to be located near running
water.
?, England 
[1]
URL:http://www.humanthermodynamics.com/H
T-history.html Description: Savery
Steam Engine [1698] PD
source: http://www.answers.com/topic/sav
ery-engine-jpg

[2]
http://www.history.rochester.edu/steam/t
hurston/1878/Chapter1.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Thomas_Savery.gif
302 YBN
[1698 AD] 		1777) The size and distance of other
stars is measured by Christaan Huygens
(HOEGeNZ). Huygens makes the first
specific estimate of the distance and
size of the stars by comparing the
apparent size of Sirius to a fractional
portion of the Sun.
The Hague, Netherlands
(presumably) 
[1] Cosmotheoros (1698) PD
source: http://www.phys.uu.nl/~huygens/c
osmotheoros_en.htm

[2] The Proportion of the Magnitude of
the Planets, in respect of one another,
and the Sun PD
source: http://www.phys.uu.nl/~huygens/c
osmotheoros_nl.htm
301 YBN
[1699 AD] 		1896) The theory and laws of friction.
Friction is a force that resists
sliding or rolling of one solid object
over another.
Paris, France (presumably)  
301 YBN
[1699 AD] 		2008) The theory that color is
determined by the frequency of light by
Nicolas Malebranche.
Paris, France 
[1] Engraving by N. Edelinck after I.
B. Santerre - Nicolas Malebranche PD
source: http://www.archiv.cas.cz/english
/foto/malebra.htm
300 YBN
[07/11/1700 AD] 		1857) The "Akademie der Wissenschaften"
(Academy of Sciences) is established in
Berlin by King Frederick I of Prussia
at the request of Leibniz.
Berlin, Germany 
[1] Description Deutsch: Gottfried
Wilhelm Leibniz (Gemälde von Bernhard
Christoph Francke, Braunschweig,
Herzog-Anton-Ulrich-Museum, um
1700) Source
http://www.hfac.uh.edu/gbrown/philosoph
ers/leibniz/BritannicaPages/Leibniz/Leib
nizGif.html Date ca. 1700 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gottfried_Wilhelm_von_Leibniz.jpg

[2] Source:
http://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedi
a/L/Leibniz.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Leibniz_231.jpg
300 YBN
[1700 AD] 		1885) The "phlogiston theory" of
combustion by George Stahl. Phlogiston
is thought to be the combustible
element in substances.
Halle, Germany 
[1] English: Georg Ernst Stahl
(1660-1734), German chemist, physician
and metallurgist Source
http://www.scs.uiuc.edu/~mainzv/exhibit
/large/01_19.gif Date 18th
century PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Georg_Ernst_Stahl.png
300 YBN
[1700 AD] 		3593) A frog muscle is caused to move
by rubbing a cut nerve with a scalpel
by Joseph-Guichard du Verney.
Paris, France (presumably)  
300 YBN
[1700 AD] 		6251) The pianoforte (or piano) is
invented by Bartolomeo Cristofori in
Florence, Italy. The piano is a
harpsichord but with hammers instead of
plectra.
Florence, Italy 
[1] [t Note Remnant describes
apparently the same piao as ''The
oldest surviving piano, by Bartolomeo
Cristofori, Florence, 1720. New York
Metropolitan Museum of Art, Crosby
Brown Collection''] Description
English: Piano forte by Bartolomeo
Cristofori manufactured in 1722, Museo
Nazionale degli Strumenti Musicali di
Roma Date 28 January 2010 Source
Own work CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/32/Piano_forte_Cristofor
i_1722.JPG
299 YBN
[1701 AD] 		1875) The first magnetic charts of the
Atlantic and Pacific Oceans.
London, England (presumably) 
[1] Description Edmond Halley's New
and Correct Chart Shewing the
Variations of the Compass (1701), the
first chart to show lines of equal
magnetic variation. See also exhibit
G201:1/1 at the UK National Maritime
Museum. The NMM scan may however be
protected by copyright in the UK. Date
1702 Source Plate 22 from Mount &
Page's 1702 ''Atlas Maritimus Novus, or
the New Sea-Atlas.'' This image was
found at [1], in the online map
database of the Louisiana State Museum,
accession number 1982.077.020 Author
Edmond Halley Other versions
Halley compass variations
1720.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/62/Halley_compass_variat
ions_1702.jpg

[2] Portrait of Edmond Halley painted
around 1687 by Thomas Murray (Royal
Society, London) uploaded from
http://www.phys.uu.nl/~vgent/astrology/n
ewton.htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Edmund_Halley.gif
298 YBN
[1702 AD] 		1892) That liquids such as water always
boil at the same temperature is
determined by Guillaume Amontons
(omoNToN).
Paris, France (presumably)  
295 YBN
[1705 AD] 		1872) The path of a comet is correctly
calculated by Edmond Halley.
London, England (presumably) 
[1] Halley's comet on the Bayeux
tapesry {ULSF: determine date} PD
source: http://classconnection.s3.amazon
aws.com/510/flashcards/1411510/jpg/pictu
re1061336605287772.jpg

[2] Halley's comet on the Bayeux
tapesry {ULSF: determine date} PD
source: http://rubens.anu.edu.au/htdocs/
laserdisk/0214/21434.JPG
292 YBN
[1708 AD] 		4481) Light rays are shown to move
low-mass objects by Guillaume Homberg.
Paris, France  
291 YBN
[1709 AD] 		1194) The first successful coke-fired
blast furnace to produce cast iron.
Coke is the solid product resulting
from the destructive distillation of
coal in an oven. The result of
inexpensive iron helps lead to the
industrial revolution.
England  
290 YBN
[1710 AD] 		3773) The first theory of relativity by
George Berkeley (BoRKlA); that a motion
requires at least two bodies. Berkeley
(BoRKlA) rejects the theory of absolute
space, time, and motion accepted by
Newton.
(Trinity College) Dublin, Ireland 
[1] George Berkeley PD/Corel
source: http://www.nndb.com/people/584/0
00087323/berkeley-3.jpg
288 YBN
[1712 AD] 		1889) An improved steam engine by
Thomas Newcomen. Newcomen's engine does
not use high-pressure steam; steam
raises a piston, and cold water is then
used to condense the steam, and
atmospheric pressure lowers the piston.
Dudley Castle, Staffordshire,
England 
[1] Il disegno rappresenta il principio
di funzionamento della macchina
realizzata da Newcomen nel 1712 PD
source: http://www.racine.ra.it/ungarett
i/SeT/macvapor/wattbiog.htm

[2] Newcomen engine from Practical
physics for secondary schools.
Fundamental principles and applications
to daily life, publ. 1913 by Macmillan
and Company, p. 219 A full version of
the book can be found at
http://www.archive.org/details/practical
physics00blacrich, including
high-resultion colour scans (300 dpi)
of every page
(ftp://ia310940.us.archive.org/1/items/p
racticalphysics00blacrich). PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Newcomen6325.png
287 YBN
[03/28/1713 AD] 		6594) The mass and density of the
planets are determined and the theory
that the Universe is made of mostly
empty space by Newton.

Newton calculates the mass of Jupiter
to be around 1/1000th the mass of the
Sun, Saturn around 1/2000th, and the
Earth to be 1/200000th the mass of the
Sun.

For densities Newton has the Earth
about 4 times more dense than the Sun,
Jupiter 3/4 the density of the Sun, and
Saturn only 1/2 the density of the
Sun.

Newton also allows that gravitational
attraction may arise as a result of
emissions from the bodies themselves,
or by the action of a material medium.

Newton recognizes that the Sun is not
the center of gravitation and is moved
by the gravity of the other planets.
(Dabam) London, England 
[1] Newton, Isaac, Sir. Philosophiæ
naturalis principia mathematica.
Auctore Isaaco Newtono, Equite Aurato.
Editio secunda auctior et emendatior.
Cantabrigiæ, MDCCXIII. [1713].
Eighteenth Century Collections Online.
Gale. UC Irvine. 27 Mar. 2013,
p370-371. .
{Newton_Principia_Second_Edition_17130
328.pdf} PD
source: .
{Newton_Principia_Second_Edition_17130
328.pdf}

[2] Sir Isaac Newton's own first
edition copy of his Philosophiae
Naturalis Principia Mathematica with
his handwritten corrections for the
second edition. The first edition was
published under the imprint of Samuel
Pepys who was president of the Royal
Society. By the time of the second
edition, Newton himself had become
president of the Royal Society, as
noted in his corrections. The book can
be seen in the Wren Library of Trinity
College, Cambridge. CC
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:NewtonsPrincipia.jpg
286 YBN
[1714 AD] 		1925) A thermometer that uses mercury
and the Fahrenheit temperature scale by
Gabriel Fahrenheit (ForeNHIT).

Fahrenheit also notices that boiling
point changes with change in pressure.
Amsterdam, Netherlands
(presumably) 
[1] Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit (1686 -
1736) PD
source: http://sabaoth.infoserve.pl/danz
ig-online/sl.html

[2] Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit
(Quecksilberthermometer) (* 24. Mai
1686 in Danzig, † 16. September 1736
in Den Haag) PD
source: http://www.erfinder.at/tag-der-e
rfinder/Daniel-Gabriel-Fahrenheit.php
282 YBN
[1718 AD] 		1876) The movement of the stars over
long periods of time is proven by
Halley.

Before this most people believed that
stars unlike the planets never move in
relation to each other.

This adds proof against the ancient
claim that the stars are fixed on a
celestial sphere.
 
[1] Description Comet P/Halley as
taken March 8, 1986 by W. Liller,
Easter Island, part of the
International Halley Watch (IHW) Large
Scale Phenomena Network. Source
NSSDC's Photo Gallery (NASA): *
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/photo_gallery
/photogallery-comets.html *
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image/planeta
ry/comet/lspn_comet_halley1.jpg Date
image taken on 8. Mar. 1986 Author
NASA/W. Liller Permission (Reusing
this image) Copyright information
from
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/photo_gallery
/photogallery-faq.html - All of the
images presented on NSSDC's Photo
Gallery are in the public domain. As
such, they may be used for any purpose.
[...] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Lspn_comet_halley.jpg

[2] Portrait of Edmond Halley painted
around 1687 by Thomas Murray (Royal
Society, London) uploaded from
http://www.phys.uu.nl/~vgent/astrology/n
ewton.htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Edmund_Halley.gif
280 YBN
[1720 AD] 		6593) The apparent size of Jupiter is
measured to be 39 seconds of arc.
(Pound's observatory) Wanstead,
Essex 
[1] Description English: Tubeless
Aerial telescope of Christiaan
Huygens Date 1684 Source
http://www.phys.uu.nl/~huygens/astrosco
pia_nl.htm Author [show]Christiaan
Huygens (1629–1695) Link back to
Creator infobox template
wikidata:Q39599 s:en:Author:Christiaan
Huygens PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/84/Aerialtelescope.jpg
280 YBN
[1720 AD] 		6650) The theory that space is mostly
dark because light from other stars is
too far to be going in our direction.
 
[1] Portrait of Edmond Halley painted
around 1687 by Thomas Murray (Royal
Society, London) uploaded from
http://www.phys.uu.nl/~vgent/astrology/n
ewton.htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Edmund_Halley.gif

[2] Portrait of Edmond Halley PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Edmond_Halley_5.jpg
275 YBN
[1725 AD] 		3604) A machine uses a perforated roll
of paper to form patterns in textiles.

Basile Bouchon builds a device which
selects the cords to be drawn to form
the pattern in a textile according to
the perforated pattern in a roll of
paper.

Perforated paper is the basis for early
mechanical computers, and perforated
film.
Lyon, France 
[1] Basile Bouchon's loom,
1725 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://cs-exhibitions.uni-klu.ac
.at/uploads/pics/Basile_Bouchons_loom_01
.jpg
274 YBN
[1726 AD] 		3381) "Coal gas", an inflammable gas
made mostly of hydrogen, methane and
carbon monoxide is produced by
distillation of coal.
Teddington, England (presumably) 
[1] Description Scan of old picture of
Stephen Hales Source The Gases of the
Atmosphere (old book) Date
1896 Author William Ramsay PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Hales_Stephen.jpg

[2] Stephen Hales measuring the blood
pressure of a mare by means of a tube
placed in the carotid artery. The
Granger Collection, New York
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-15460/Stephen-Hales-measuring-the-blood
-pressure-of-a-mare-by?articleTypeId=1
271 YBN
[01/??/1729 AD] 		1931) The "aberration of starlight" is
discovered; an apparent slight change
in the positions of stars (in a small
ellipse) caused by the yearly motion of
the Earth.
Kew, England 
[1] Figure from Bradley's paper PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?pg
=PA260&dq=%22Mr.+B+considered+this+matte
r%22&id=MPg4AAAAMAAJ#v=onepage&q=%22Mr.%
20B%20considered%20this%20matter%22&f=fa
lse

[2] James Bradley (1693-1762), English
astronomer. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:James_Bradley.jpg
271 YBN
[1729 AD] 		1884) The first achromatic lens is made
with a combination of crown glass and
flint glass. This lens solves the
problem of chromatic aberration caused
by the different frequencies that make
up white light being refracted to
different amounts by the glass, each
color being focused at a different
point.
?, England 
[1] Diagram of an achromatic lens
(doublet). PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/46/Achromat_doublet_en.s
vg
271 YBN
[1729 AD] 		1957) That electricity can flow is
discovered by Stephen Gray.

Gray transmits electricity around 150
meters through a hemp thread supported
by silk cords and even farther through
metal wire.
London, England 
[1] Picture of the month - Flying
boy Stephen Gray FRS Flying boy The
above image depicts the famous ''flying
boy'' experiment carried out by Stephen
Gray in the early 18th century. The
experiment was used to demonstrate
electrical polarity in suspended
objects. The boy was suspended on silk
cords and charged with electricity,
which attracted paper and other light
objects to his hands. Gray's work was
very important in the understanding of
the role played by conductors and
insulators in electricity for which he
was awarded the Society's first Copley
Medal in 1731. PD
source: http://www.royalsoc.ac.uk/page.a
sp?id=6276

[2] Stephen Gray découvre la
conduction (Les Merveilles de la
Science, Louis Figuier) PD
source: http://www.ampere.cnrs.fr/parcou
rspedagogique/agora/spip.php?article18
270 YBN
[1730 AD] 		1941) The element cobalt is identified.
Stockholm, Sweden 
[1] Appearance metallic with gray
tinge PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Cobalt-sample.jpg

[2] Cobalt GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Co-TableImage.png
267 YBN
[12/27/1733 AD] 		1965) The theory that electricity is
made of two different fluids by Charles
Du Fay.

Du Fay identifies two kinds of
electricity: "vitreous" and "resinous".
Paris, France 
[1] Du Fay, ''V. A Letter from Mons. Du
Fay'', Philosophical Transactions.
N432, Jan-Mar 1734, p258-266,p263.
(p797 in
link) http://books.google.com/books?id=
sfMyAQAAMAAJ&pg=RA1-PA263 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=sfMyAQAAMAAJ&pg=RA1-PA263

[2] 1733 AD: Charles Francois de
Cisternay Du FayThe French chemist
Charles Francois de Cisternay Du Fay
(1698-1739) discovered that when
objects are rubbed together they either
repel or attract each other and
therefore that electricity came in two
forms, which he called ''resinous'' (-)
and ''vitreous'' (+). PD
source: http://www.worldofenergy.com.au/
07_timeline_world_1675_1780.html
267 YBN
[1733 AD] 		1943) The classification of semi-metals
(now called metalloids) is invented by
Georg Brandt, in which he includes the
elements arsenic, bismuth, antimony,
mercury, and zinc.
Stockholm, Sweden (presumably) 
[1]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metalloid
GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Met
alloid

[2] Appearance metallic with gray
tinge PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Cobalt-sample.jpg
265 YBN
[1735 AD] 		1936) The first clock that can keep
accurate time at sea.
London, England 
[1] John Harrison était autodidacte.
Son frère James et lui mirent au point
une première horloge en 1735: le H1,
elle ne ressemblait pas du tout à une
horloge au sens propre, mais elle
fonctionnait plutôt bien. Ce fût
le début des premiers chronomètres de
marine avec balancier et spiral. Il est
en outre l'inventeur du pendule
compensateur à gril et d'un système
de compensation pour les
montres. From [2]: John Harrison,
detail of an oil painting by Thomas
King; in the Science Museum,
London Courtesy of the Science Museum,
London, lent by W.H. Barton[2] PD
source: http://www.worldtempus.com/wt/1/
903

[2] Scientist: Harrison, John (1693 -
1776) Discipline(s): Scientific
Instruments Print Artist: William
Holl, 1807-1871 Medium: Engraving
Original Artist: King Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 12.5 x 10.2 cm /
Sheet: 27.3 x 18.1 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=h
265 YBN
[1735 AD] 		1996) Life of Earth, including the
human species, is systematically
categorized by Carolus Linnaeus (lin
Aus).
Netherlands 
[1] Table of the Animal Kingdom (Regnum
Animale) from Carolus Linnaeus's first
edition (1735) of Systema Naturae. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Linnaeus_-_Regnum_Animale_%281735%29.
png

[2] Artist Alexander Roslin Title
Carl von Linné 1707-1778 Year
1775 Technique Oil on
canvas Dimensions 56 x 46 cm Current
location Royal Science Academy of
Sweden (Kungliga vetenskapsakademin)
Stockholm Permission Public
domain Carl von Linné painted by
Alexander Roslin in 1775. The original
painting can be viewed at the Royal
Science Academy of Sweden (Kungliga
vetenskapsakademin). PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Carl_von_Linn%C3%A9.jpg
264 YBN
[1736 AD] 		1923) Substances that can conduct a
flow of electricity are called
"conductors" and substances that cannot
carry the electric fluid are called
"insulators" by John Théophile
Desaguliers {DAZaGjUlEA?}.
London, England 
[1] Scientist: Desaguliers, John
Theophilus (1683 -
1744) Discipline(s):
Physics Original Artist: Hans
Hysing, 1678-1752 Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 15.6 x 10 cm PD

source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-D3-02a.jpg

[2] Scientist: Desaguliers, John
Theophilus (1683 -
1744) Discipline(s): Physics Print
Artist: James Tookey, 19th C.
Medium: Engraving Original Artist:
Hans Hysing, 1678-1752 Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 12 x 9.6 cm /
Sheet: 17.5 x 11.5 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-D3-01a.jpg
264 YBN
[1736 AD] 		1966) That the Earth is an oblate
spheroid (a sphere flattened at the
poles) is verified by Pierre de
Maupertuis (moPARTUE).
Lapland 
[1] Scientist: Maupertuis,
Pierre-Louis Moreau de (1698 -
1759) Discipline(s): Mathematics ;
Biology ; Physics Print Artist:
Johann Jakob Haid, 1704-1767 Medium:
Engraving Original Artist: R.
Tourmere Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 31 x 19 cm / PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/by_d
iscipline_display_results.cfm?Research_D
iscipline_1=Biology

[2] Scientist: Maupertuis,
Pierre-Louis Moreau de (1698 -
1759) Discipline(s): Mathematics ;
Biology ; Physics Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 13.9 x 11 cm / Sheet: 30.7 x
21.5 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/by_d
iscipline_display_results.cfm?Research_D
iscipline_1=Biology
262 YBN
[1738 AD] 		1971) The kinetic theory of gases and
heat by Daniel Bernoulli (BRnULE).
Bernoulli demonstrates that the impact
of molecules on a surface would explain
pressure and that, assuming the
constant, random motion of molecules,
pressure and motion increase with
temperature.
Basel, Switzerland (presumably)|
(published in ) Strasbourg 
[1] Bernoulli's Picture [t From 1738
book] PD/Corel
source: http://galileo.phys.virginia.edu
/classes/252/kinetic_theory_files/image0
02.jpg

[2] Daniel Bernoulli
(1700-1782) [Portrait by anonymous
painter, in Historisches Museum
Basel; from the frontispiece of Die
Werke von Daniel Bernoulli, Band 1,
Birkhaeuser Verlag] PD
source: http://www.bun.kyoto-u.ac.jp/phi
sci/Gallery/D.bernoulli.html
261 YBN
[1739 AD] 		1912) Using sulfur dioxide (a
colorless, extremely irritating gas or
liquid, SO2) to protect plants from
weevils and insects is suggested.
Cambridge, England 
[1] Hales, S. et al. Philosophical
Experiments:: Containing Useful, and
Necessary Instructions for Such as
Undertake Long Voyages at Sea. Shewing
How Sea-water May Be Made Fresh and
Wholsome: And How Fresh-water May Be
Preserv’d Sweet. How Biscuit, Corn,
&c. May Be Secured from the Weevel,
Meggots, and Other Insects. And Flesh
Preserv’d in Hot Climates, by Salting
Animals Whole. To Which Is Added, an
Account of Several Experiments and
Observations on Chalybeate Or
Steel-waters: With Some Attempts to
Convey Them to Distant Places,
Preserving Their Virtue to a Greater
Degree Than Has Hitherto Been Done.
Likewise a Proposal for Cleaning Away
Mud, &c. Out of Rivers, Harbours, and
Reservoirs. W. Innys and R. Manby, at
the West End of St. Paul’s; and T.
Woodward, at the Half-Moon between the
Temple-Gates, in Fleet-Street.,
1739. http://books.google.com/books?id=
QMxbAAAAQAAJ PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=QMxbAAAAQAAJ

[2] Description Scan of old picture
of Stephen Hales Source The Gases of
the Atmosphere (old book) Date
1896 Author William Ramsay PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Hales_Stephen.jpg
260 YBN
[1740 AD] 		2007) The first age estimate for the
universe to go beyond the 6,000 year
limit apparently set by the Book of
Genesis.
Montbard, France 
[1] Portrait de Georges-Louis Leclerc,
comte de Buffon Source Musée
Buffon à Montbard Date Author
François-Hubert Drouais PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Buffon_1707-1788.jpg
260 YBN
[1740 AD] 		2019) That phosphorus gains weight when
burned (now known as oxidation) is
found by Andreas Marggraf (MoRKGroF).
This conflicts with the phlogistan
theory of Stahl.
Berlin, Germany (presumably) 
[1] Marggraf,
engraving Bavaria-Verlag To cite this
page: * MLA style:
''Marggraf, Andreas Sigismund.'' Online
Photograph. Britannica Student
Encyclopædia. 4 Nov. 2007 . PD
source: http://student.britannica.com/eb
/art-28657/Marggraf-engraving
260 YBN
[1740 AD] 		2067) Parthenogenesis (reproduction
without fertilization) is conclusively
proven; by Charles Bonnet (BOnA) in
female aphids.
Geneva?, Switzerland (presumably) 
[1] engraving of Charles Bonnet Source
http://www.ville-ge.ch/musinfo/mhng/pag
e1/ins-ill-04.htm Date paint in
1777 Author Paint by I. Iuel et
engraved by IF. Clemens PD
source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wik
i/Image:Charles_Bonnet_engraved.jpg

[2] Charles Bonnet
(1720-1793). Source:
http://www.univie.ac.at/science-archives
/wissenschaftstheorie_2/bonnet.html PD

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:CharlesBonnet.jpg
259 YBN
[1741 AD] 		1911) Air filtering is described.
Cambridge, England 
[1] Hales, S. et al. A Description of
Ventilators: Whereby Great Quantities
of Fresh Air May with Ease Be Conveyed
into Mines, Goals, Hospitals,
Work-houses and Ships ... printed for
W. Innys .... R. Manby ... and T.
Woodward,
1743. http://books.google.com/books?id=
gWENVdXbR3cC
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=gWENVdXbR3cC

[2] Description Scan of old picture
of Stephen Hales Source The Gases of
the Atmosphere (old book) Date
1896 Author William Ramsay PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Hales_Stephen.jpg
258 YBN
[1742 AD] 		1975) The Celsius (or centigrade)
temperature scale is invented by Anders
Celsius (SeLSEuS) divides the freezing
and boiling point of water into 100
degrees.
Uppsala, Sweden (presumably) 
[1] Painting by Olof Arenius (1701 -
1766) Uppsala University -
Astronomical Observatory PD
source: http://www.astro.uu.se/history/i
mages/celsius2.jpg

[2] Anders Celsius, detail from a
drawing by an unknown artist, 18th
century. Archiv fur Kunst und
Geschichte, Berlin PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
/print?id=9261&articleTypeId=0
257 YBN
[1743 AD] 		1976) The first philosophical society
in America, "the American Philosophical
Society" is formed by Benjamin
Franklin.
Philadelphia, Pennsylviania, (English
Colonies) USA 
[1] Credit: ''White House Historical
Association (White House Collection)''
(981) Painted in 1759 by British
artist and scientist Benjamin Wilson
-who disagreed with Franklin's findings
about electrical polarity-this portrait
hung in Franklin's dining room in
Philadelphia until Captain Andre' stole
it during the British occupation of
Philadelphia. Returned to the U.S. in
1906, it is now in the White House, in
Washington, D. C. PD
source: http://www.explorepahistory.com/
displayimage.php?imgId=668

[2] Multimedia Gallery -
Image Portrait of Benjamin Franklin by
artist David Martin
(1737-1797) Portrait of Benjamin
Franklin by artist David Martin
(1737-1797) Credit: Library of
Congress, LC-USZC4-3576 PD
source: http://www.nsf.gov/news/mmg/medi
a/images/benfranklin2_h3.jpg
256 YBN
[1744 AD] 		2059) Partial differential equations
are invented. A partial derivative is
used when a function is expressed in
terms of more than one variable.
Paris, France (presumably) 
[1] Maurice Quentin de La Tour - Jean
le Rond d'Alembert (1717-1783). [t one
of the few portraits of a person
smiling] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jean_d%27Alembert.jpeg

[2] Scientist: Alembert, Jean le Rond
d' (1717 - 1783) Discipline(s):
Physics ; Mathematics Print Artist:
Pierre Maleuvre, 1740-1803 Medium:
Engraving Original Artist: Andre
Pujos, 1738-1788 Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 16.6 x 10.8 cm / Sheet: 25.2
x 16.4 cm ORIGINAL: PD DIGITAL
IMAGE: COPYRIGHTED? EDU
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/by_d
iscipline_display_results.cfm?Research_D
iscipline_1=Mathematics
256 YBN
[1744 AD] 		2121) An electric spark is used to
ignite a flammable liquid; ether.
 
[1] Royal Society (Great Britain).
Philosophical Transactions, Giving Some
Account of the Present Undertakings,
Studies, and Labours of the Ingenious
in Many Considerable Parts of the
World. Royal Society, Volume 43, N744,
1746,
p167. books.google.com/books?id=6j9WAAA
AYAAJ&pg=PA167 PD
source: books.google.com/books?id=6j9WAA
AAYAAJ&pg=PA167
255 YBN
[03/27/1745 AD] 		1244) An electric spark ignites black
powder.
England 
[1] William Watson (1715-1787) *
Print Artist: J. Thornwaite *
Medium/Year: Line engraving, 1784
* Original Artist: after an oilpainting
by Lemuel Francis Abbott *
Original Dimensions: Graphic: 9.8 x 7.7
cm / Sheet: 14.5 x 10.2 cm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:William_Watson.jpg
255 YBN
[11/04/1745 AD] 		1972) The storage of electricity. The
first electric memory and capacitor
(commonly called the Leyden jar).

Georg Bose, Ewald von Kleist (KlIST),
and Peter van Musschenbroek somewhat
independently invent the Leyden jar).

A Leyden jar is a glass bottle holding
water that can store electricity and
give the holder of the bottle a large
electric shock.
(University of Wittenburg) Wittenburg,
Germany(was for von Kleist: Pomerania?,
Prussia) (coast of Baltic Sea between
Germany and Poland) 
[1]
http://books.google.com/books?id=ko9BAAA
AIAAJ&pg=PA71&dq=jar+%22von+Kleist%22&lr
=&as_brr=1&ei=aniTR_uCJ5HwsgOQ5bU4#PPA71
,M1 page with text and figure about
von Kleist's invention of the Leyden
jar Source Electricity in Every-day
Life Date 1905 Author Edwin J.
Houston PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Von_Kleist_Leyden_jar_1905.png

[2] Pieter van Musschenbroek aus:
http://20eeuwennederland.nl/actueel/1113
.htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Pieter_van_Musschenbroek.jpeg
255 YBN
[1745 AD] 		2966) An electrostatic motor by Andrew
Gordon.

A clapper swings back and forth between
two bells of oppositely charged
glasses, causing a ring on contact with
each, until the charge is gone.
(University of Erfurt) Erfurt,
Germany 
[1] Elementary Lessons in Electricity
and Magnetism By Silvanus Phillips
Thompson http://books.google.com/books?
id=hLk3AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA45&lpg=PA45&dq=winc
kler+leipzig+electricity&source=web&ots=
Op8vIkfDDE&sig=qHZAdRw3VdIi8ePfK7kcsGP6H
zA&hl=en PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=hLk3AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA45&lpg=PA45&dq=winckl
er+leipzig+electricity&source=web&ots=Op
8vIkfDDE&sig=qHZAdRw3VdIi8ePfK7kcsGP6HzA
&hl=en

[2] Elementary Lessons in Electricity
and Magnetism By Silvanus Phillips
Thompson http://books.google.com/books?
id=hLk3AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA45&lpg=PA45&dq=winc
kler+leipzig+electricity&source=web&ots=
Op8vIkfDDE&sig=qHZAdRw3VdIi8ePfK7kcsGP6H
zA&hl=en PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=hLk3AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA45&lpg=PA45&dq=winckl
er+leipzig+electricity&source=web&ots=Op
8vIkfDDE&sig=qHZAdRw3VdIi8ePfK7kcsGP6HzA
&hl=en
http://books.google.com/books?id=TFLkGa4
bDCIC
254 YBN
[1746 AD] 		2022) Zinc is isolated by Andreas
Sigismunf Marggraf (MoRKGroF).
Berlin, Germany (presumably) 
[1] Marggraf,
engraving Bavaria-Verlag To cite this
page: * MLA style:
''Marggraf, Andreas Sigismund.'' Online
Photograph. Britannica Student
Encyclopædia. 4 Nov. 2007 . PD
source: http://student.britannica.com/eb
/art-28657/Marggraf-engraving
254 YBN
[1746 AD] 		2953) The theory that electricity is
made of two streams of electrical fluid
that move in opposite directions by
French clergyman, and experimental
physicist Jean-Antoine Nollet.
Paris, France (presumably) 
[1] Jean-Antoine Nollet PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Abben
ollet.jpg

[2] Scientist: Nollet, Jean-Antoine,
abbé (1700 - 1770) Discipline(s):
Physics Print Artist: Pasqual Pere
Moles I Corones, 1741-1797 Medium:
Engraving Original Artist: Georges
de a Tour, 1593-1652 Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 13.8 x 11.8 cm /
Sheet: 27.4 x 19.5 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=n
254 YBN
[1746 AD] 		2968) That electricity in an
electrostatic generator comes from the
ground and not the sphere is proven by
English physician and scientist William
Watson.
London, England 
[1] William Watson (1715â€''1787)
* Print Artist: J. Thornwaite *
Medium/Year: Line engraving, 1784
* Original Artist: after an oilpainting
by Lemuel Francis Abbott *
Original Dimensions: Graphic: 9.8 x 7.7
cm / Sheet: 14.5 x 10.2 cm PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Willi
am_Watson.jpg

[2] Figure from a Watson 1746
paper PD/Corel
source: A Sequel to the Experiments and
Observations Tending to Illustrate the
Nature and Properties of Electricity;
In a Letter to the Royal Society from
the Same Journal Philosophical
Transactions (1683-1775) Issue Volume
44 - 1746/1747 Author William
Watson DOI 10.1098/rstl.1746.0119 Wats
on_William_1746_Sequel.pdf
254 YBN
[1746 AD] 		2969) The capacity of the Leyden jar is
increased by coating the inside and
outside with lead foil.
London, England 
[1] William Watson (1715â€''1787)
* Print Artist: J. Thornwaite *
Medium/Year: Line engraving, 1784
* Original Artist: after an oilpainting
by Lemuel Francis Abbott *
Original Dimensions: Graphic: 9.8 x 7.7
cm / Sheet: 14.5 x 10.2 cm PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Willi
am_Watson.jpg

[2] Figure from a Watson 1746
paper PD/Corel
source: A Sequel to the Experiments and
Observations Tending to Illustrate the
Nature and Properties of Electricity;
In a Letter to the Royal Society from
the Same Journal Philosophical
Transactions (1683-1775) Issue Volume
44 - 1746/1747 Author William
Watson DOI 10.1098/rstl.1746.0119 Wats
on_William_1746_Sequel.pdf
253 YBN
[07/11/1747 AD] 		1981) The theory that electricity is a
single fluid, and that lightning is
electricity by Benjamin Franklin.
Philadelphia, PA (English colonies) USA
(letter to London, England) 
[1] Credit: ''White House Historical
Association (White House Collection)''
(981) Painted in 1759 by British
artist and scientist Benjamin Wilson
-who disagreed with Franklin's findings
about electrical polarity -this
portrait hung in Franklin's dining room
in Philadelphia until Captain Andre'
stole it during the British occupation
of Philadelphia. Returned to the U.S.
in 1906, it is now in the White House,
in Washington, D. C. PD
source: http://www.explorepahistory.com/
displayimage.php?imgId=668

[2] Multimedia Gallery -
Image Portrait of Benjamin Franklin by
artist David Martin
(1737-1797) Portrait of Benjamin
Franklin by artist David Martin
(1737-1797) Credit: Library of
Congress, LC-USZC4-3576 PD
source: http://www.nsf.gov/news/mmg/medi
a/images/benfranklin2_h3.jpg
253 YBN
[1747 AD] 		2055) Citris fruits are proven to cure
scurvy in one of the earliest clinical
experiments by James Lind.
England 
[1] James Lind painting: PD image:
COPYRIGHTED?
source: http://dodd.cmcvellore.ac.in/hom
/17%20-%20James%20Lind.html

[2] Painted by Sir George Chalmers, c
1720-1791. painting: PD image:
COPYRIGHTED?
source: http://www.jameslindlibrary.org/
trial_records/17th_18th_Century/lind/lin
d_portrait.html
253 YBN
[1747 AD] 		3452) The basis of refrigeration is
understood. George Richman and
independently William Cullen describe
that evaporating liquids produces cold.
(Academy of Petersburg) Petersburg,
Russia 
[1] William Cullen, ''Of the Cold
produced by evaporating Fluids and of
some other Means of producing Cold'',
Philosophical Society of Edinburgh.
Essays and observations, physical and
literary. Read before a Society in
Edinburgh, and published by them.
Volume 2. Edinburgh, 1754. 464pp. 2
vols,
p145-156. {Cullen_evaporation.pdf} PD

source: Cullen_evaporation.pdf

[2] St. Petersburg, 6 August 1783.
Prof. Richman and his assistant being
struck by lightning while charging
capacitors. The assistant escaped
almost unharmed, whereas Richman was
dead immediately. The pathologic
analysis revealed that ''he only had a
small hole in his forehead, a burnt
left shoe and a blue spot at his foot.
[...] the brain being ok, the front
part of the lung sane, but the rear
being brown and black of blood.'' The
conclusion was that the electric
discharge had taken its way through
Richmann's body. The scientific
community was shocked. [t notice
difference in dates] PD/Corel
source: http://www.hp-gramatke.net/histo
ry/english/page4000.htm
252 YBN
[01/01/1748 AD] 		1960) The first device to measure the
quantity of light.
??, France (presumably) 
[1] Pierre Bouguer Born:
16-Feb-1698 Birthplace: Le Croisic,
France Died: 15-Aug-1758 Location of
death: Paris, France Cause of death:
unspecified PD
source: http://www.nndb.com/people/065/0
00100762/
252 YBN
[02/14/1748 AD] 		1932) The phenomenon of "nutation",
that the apparent declination of some
stars changes annually because of the
movement of the nodes of the Moon's
orbit around the Earth.
Kew, England 
[1] James Bradley (1693-1762), English
astronomer. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:James_Bradley.jpg

[2] Description English: Movement
of a planet's (e.g. Earth's) axis
R - Rotation of a planet P -
Precession N - Nutation Date Bad
Muskau, May 2004 Source This file
is lacking source
information. Please edit this file's
description and provide a
source. Author User Herbye (German
Wikipedia). Designed by Dr. H.
Sulzer GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Praezession.svg
/1000px-Praezession.svg.png
252 YBN
[1748 AD] 		2954) Osmosis is described (the
spontaneous passage or diffusion of
water or some other solvent through a
semipermeable membrane).
Paris, France (presumably) 
[1] Jean-Antoine Nollet PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Abbenollet.jpg

[2] Scientist: Nollet, Jean-Antoine,
abbé (1700 - 1770) Discipline(s):
Physics Print Artist: Pasqual Pere
Moles I Corones, 1741-1797 Medium:
Engraving Original Artist: Georges
de a Tour, 1593-1652 Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 13.8 x 11.8 cm /
Sheet: 27.4 x 19.5 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=n
252 YBN
[1748 AD] 		4537) That irregularities in the
motions of satellites occur because the
bodies they orbit are not perfectly
spherical is recognized.
Berlin, Germany 
[1] portrait by Johann Georg
Brucker From English Wikipedia:
Leonhard Euler Source:
http://www.mathematik.de/mde/information
/kalenderblatt/differentialrechnung/eule
r-1000.png PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Leonhard_Euler_2.jpg

[2] From:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Leonh
ard_Euler.jpg Leonhard_Euler.jpg (219
× 283 pixel, file size: 13 KB, MIME
type: image/jpeg) Picture of Leonhard
Euler by Emanuel Handmann. Retrieved
from: http://www.kunstkopie.de/static/m
otive/Bildnis-des-Mathematikers-Leonhard
-Euler-Emanuel-Handmann-1010890.html PD

source: http://www.croeos.net/Mambo/inde
x.php?Itemid=67&id=527&option=com_conten
t&task=view
251 YBN
[04/29/1749 AD] 		2971) A modern capacitor (a Franklin
pane): a glass with metal foil coated
on both sides is invented by Benjamin
Franklin. Franklin also proves that the
electric charge is stored in the glass
of a Leyden jar and not in the metal
coatings, by showing that when a
capacitor has been charged, the
metallic coatings can be exchanged for
fresh ones and the electric charge of
the capacitor still remains. Franklin
also invents the first electrostatic
battery by connecting Leyden jars by
metal in parallel.
Philadelphia, Pennsylviania, (English
Colonies) USA 
[1] Benjamin Franklin, ''The Writings
of Benjamin Franklin'', Macmillan &
co., ltd., 1905, p402.
http://books.google.com/books?id=BITTQfM
LcpEC&pg=PA402 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=BITTQfMLcpEC&pg=PA402

[2] Franklin, B., W.T. Franklin, and
W. Duane. Memoirs of Benjamin Franklin.
McCarty & Davis, 1840. Memoirs of
Benjamin Franklin,
p251. http://books.google.com/books?id=
HptPAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA251 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=HptPAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA251
251 YBN
[1749 AD] 		1997) The binomial naming system; all
organisms are classified by genus and
species by Linnaeus.
Uppsala, Sweden (presumably) 
[1] Artist Alexander Roslin Title
Carl von Linné 1707-1778 Year
1775 Technique Oil on
canvas Dimensions 56 x 46 cm Current
location Royal Science Academy of
Sweden (Kungliga vetenskapsakademin)
Stockholm Permission Public
domain Carl von Linné painted by
Alexander Roslin in 1775. The original
painting can be viewed at the Royal
Science Academy of Sweden (Kungliga
vetenskapsakademin). PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Carl_von_Linn%C3%A9.jpg

[2] Carl von Linné (Carolus Linnaeus)
(1707 - 1778) ''The Father of
Taxonomy'' PD
source: http://www.mun.ca/biology/scarr/
Linnaeus.htm
250 YBN
[1750 AD] 		2025) The theory that the Sun is not
the center of the universe, and that
the Milky Way is flattened.
 
[1] AN ORIGINAL THEORY OR NEW
HYPOTHESIS OF THE UNIVERSE ~ Thomas
Wright, 1750 :: The confinement of
the Milky Way to a narrow plane in the
sky gave rise to speculation in the
18th century about the structure f the
universe. Thomas Wright of Durham,
England, hypothesized that the Earth
was at the center of a vast spherical
shell of stars :: PD
source: http://25.media.tumblr.com/tumbl
r_mdg7jlYfnG1qb07b5o1_1280.jpg

[2] Thomas Wright PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Thomas_Wright_%28astronomer%29.jpg
249 YBN
[1751 AD] 		2047) Diderot's (DEDrO)
"Encyclopédie", a twenty-eight volume
encyclopedia.
Paris, France 
[1] Info: Cover of the Encyclopédie.
Resized to 600px width Credit: See
List of contributors to the
Encyclopédie Source:
http://ets.lib.uchicago.edu/ARTFL/OLDENC
YC/images PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:ENC_1-NA5_600px.jpeg

[2] Info: ''Figurative System of
organisation of human knowledge from
the en:Encyclopédie. For an English
translation see: en:Figurative system
of human knowledge
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Figurativ
e_system_of_human_knowledge Credit:
See en:List of contributors to the
Encyclopédie Source:
http://ets.lib.uchicago.edu/ARTFL/OLDENC
YC/images PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:ENC_SYSTEME_FIGURE.jpeg
249 YBN
[1751 AD] 		2070) The element nickel.
 
[1] Axel Fredrik Cronstedt
(1722-1765) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jergym.hiedu.cz/~cano
vm/objevite/objev/cron.htm

[2] Axel Fredrik Cronstedt
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.bgf.nu/ljus/u/cronste
dt.html
248 YBN
[01/03/1752 AD] 		2009) The different spectra of an
alcohol flame colored by various salts
is described.
Edinburgh, Scotland 
[1] Melvill, Thomas, ''Observations on
Light and Colours'', Journal of the
Royal Astronomical Society of Canada,
Vol. 8, p.231,
08/1914 http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1
914JRASC...8..231M {melville_thomas.pdf
} PD
source: http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/19
14JRASC...8..231M
248 YBN
[02/20/1752 AD] 		2976) A spark is passed through a
vacuum tube by William Watson. This,
although unknown at the time, produces
X-Ray light.
London, England 
[1] William Watson (1715â€''1787)
* Print Artist: J. Thornwaite *
Medium/Year: Line engraving, 1784
* Original Artist: after an oilpainting
by Lemuel Francis Abbott *
Original Dimensions: Graphic: 9.8 x 7.7
cm / Sheet: 14.5 x 10.2 cm PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Willi
am_Watson.jpg

[2] Figure from a Watson 1746
paper PD/Corel
source: A Sequel to the Experiments and
Observations Tending to Illustrate the
Nature and Properties of Electricity;
In a Letter to the Royal Society from
the Same Journal Philosophical
Transactions (1683-1775) Issue Volume
44 - 1746/1747 Author William
Watson DOI 10.1098/rstl.1746.0119 Wats
on_William_1746_Sequel.pdf
248 YBN
[1752 AD] 		1922) Digestion of food is proven to be
chemical and not mechanical by putting
food in small metal cylinders which are
then regurgitated by birds with
partially digested food.
Paris, France (presumably) 
[1] René-Antoine Ferchault de
Réaumur Source Galerie des
naturalistes de J. Pizzetta, Ed.
Hennuyer, 1893 (tombé dans le domaine
public) Date Author J.
Pizzetta PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Reaumur_1683-1757.jpg
248 YBN
[1752 AD] 		1983) Lightning is proven to be
electricity by Benjamin Franklin by
charging a Leyden jar with electricity
from the sky using a kite.
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
(presumably) 
[1] A drawing of Franklin's kite
experiment CREDIT: Currier & Ives.
''Franklin's experiment, June 1752:
Demonstrating the identity of lightning
and electricty, from which he invented
the lightning rod.'' Prints and
Photographs Division of the Library of
Congress. PD
source: http://www.americaslibrary.gov/a
a/franklinb/aa_franklinb_electric_2_e.ht
ml

[2] Franklin with kite PD/COPYRIGHTED

source: http://www.wilsonsalmanac.com/bo
ok/apr17.html
247 YBN
[12/??/1753 AD] 		2972) Electrostatic induction is
identified: that an electrified object
can induce an opposite charge in a
second object just by being close.
London, England 
[1] 1762 John CANTON
(1718-1772). PD/Corel
source: http://11magazine.free.fr/SWL_BC
L/2004/04/swl_bcl04_fichiers/image008.jp
g

[2] C. F. de C. du Fay, J. Canton, W.
Henley and others devised the pith
ball, or double straw electroscope
(fig. I). PD
source: http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/
Electroscope
247 YBN
[1753 AD] 		2957) That air can hold electricity is
discovered.
London, England 
[1] 1762 John CANTON
(1718-1772). PD/Corel
source: http://11magazine.free.fr/SWL_BC
L/2004/04/swl_bcl04_fichiers/image008.jp
g

[2] C. F. de C. du Fay, J. Canton, W.
Henley and others devised the pith
ball, or double straw electroscope
(fig. I). PD
source: http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/
Electroscope
245 YBN
[01/25/1755 AD] 		1370) Moscow State University the
oldest and largest university in Russia
is founded at the suggestion of Russian
chemist Michail Lomonosov.
Moscow, Russia 
[1] Lomonosov University in Moscow,
Russia GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Moskau_Uni.jpg

[2] Building of the Moscow State
University on the Mokhovaya Street (now
the dean's office). 18th-century
watercolour. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Mgu_1798.jpg
245 YBN
[06/05/1755 AD] 		2089) Carbon dioxide is isolated by
Joseph Black. Black finds that magnesia
alba (magnesium carbonate) like chalk
(calcium carbonate) produces a gas when
mixed with acids. This gas Black calls
"fixed air". Black finds that the
products magnesia usta (now known as
magnesium oxide), like quicklime
(calcium oxide), do not produce gas
with acids. Black hypothesizes that the
weight lost is due to the gas
generated, and finds that the alba can
be produced again with the same weight
by adding a solution of potash
(potassium carbonate) to the magnesia
usta; showing that the alba and usta
can be converted into each other.
Edinburgh, Scotland 
[1] Joseph Black, ''Experiments upon
Magnesia Alba, Quicklime, and Some
Other Alcaline Substances'',
Philosophical Society of Edinburgh.
Essays and Observations, Physical and
Literary. G. Hamilton and J. Balfour,
1756. Essays and Observations, Physical
and Literary,
p157. http://books.google.com/books?id=
7IUDAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA157 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=7IUDAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA157

[2] Scan of an old picture of Joseph
Black Source The Gases of the
Atmosphere (old book) Date
1896 Author William Ramsay PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Black_Joseph.jpg
245 YBN
[1755 AD] 		2072) The nebular hypothesis, that the
star system formed as a result of the
gravitational interaction of atoms,
that the Milky Way is a lens shaped
collection of stars, and that other
such "island universes" exist.
Königsberg, Germany 
[1] Steel engraving by J. L. Raab, 1791
after a painting by Döbler Source:
[1]
http://www.jhu.edu/~phil/kant-hegelconfe
rence/main.htm PD
source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wik
i/Image:Immanuel_Kant_(portrait).jpg

[2] Kant PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Kant_2.jpg
243 YBN
[1757 AD] 		2697) The method of "least squares": a
method for estimating a value based on
the errors in observations, in
particular, the line (in other words
function) that minimizes the sum of the
squared distances from the line to each
observation. This is used to determine
the orbit of a planet from only three
observations of its position.
Rome?, Italy 
[1] Portrait of Rudjer Boskovic. Work
of R. Edge Pine, London, 1760
[http://knjiznica.irb.hr/hrv/rudjer.html
] [http://www.hr/darko/etf/et111.html]
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Rudjer_Boskovic.jpg
242 YBN
[1758 AD] 		3649) The first color specification
based on the painters' three primary
colors (red, yellow, and blue).
(lecture at U of Göttingen)
Göttingen, Germany 
[1] tobias mayer's trichromatic mixing
triangle (1758) PD/Corel
source: http://www.handprint.com/HP/WCL/
IMG/mayer.jpg
241 YBN
[1759 AD] 		2141) That specialized organs arise out
of unspecialized tissue in the embryo
is introduced and will replace the
theory that a body is preformed in the
egg or sperm.
Halle, Germany 
[1] {ULSF: Note that this is from a
later edition} One of the founding
works of modern embryology, Caspar
Wolff’s Theoria generationis (1774)
proposes a ‘theory of generation’
for plants and animals. This plate
shows chick embryos and their parts.
CCD.46.87, table 2 PD
source: http://www.lib.cam.ac.uk/exhibit
ions/Babies/pictures/big/CCD.46.87.jpg

[2] C. F. Wolff, attribution of the
portrait dubious.
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cas
par_Friedrich_Wolff
241 YBN
[1759 AD] 		3011) The electrical inverse distance
squared law. The theory that electrical
attraction and repulsion between
charged bodies decreases by the inverse
of the distance between them squared.
St. Petersberg, Russia 
[1] Ulrich Theodor Aepinus PD/Corel
source: http://www.fisicamente.net/aepin
us2.jpg

[2] Charge device by Ulrich Theodor
Aepinus
source: http://www.fisicamente.net/aepin
us1.jpg
240 YBN
[1760 AD] 		2074) Locating the center of an
earthquake by recording the time when
the earthquake is felt in different
places is described.
Cambridge, England 
[1] Conjectures Concerning the Cause
and Observations upon the Phaenomena of
Earthquakes (1760),
p10-11. http://archive.org/details/Mich
ell1760sc82C PD
source: http://archive.org/details/Miche
ll1760sc82C
240 YBN
[1760 AD] 		2122) Electrolysis. Molecules are split
using electricity by Giovanni Beccaria.
Water is separated into hydrogen and
oxygen gases using electricity.
Beccaria passes sparks through water
and sees bubbles but does not recognize
that the gases produced are the
components of water instead thinking
that the bubbles are from evaporation.
Turin, Italy 
[1] Anonimo, Giambattista Beccaria,
fine secolo XVIII PD?
source: http://www.torinoscienza.it/img/
orig/it/s00/00/000c/00000c89.jpg

[2] Beccaria, Giovanni Battista
(1716-1781) PD?
source: http://bms.beniculturali.it/ritr
atti/ritratti.php?chiave=ritr0079
239 YBN
[1761 AD] 		2028) That Venus has an atmosphere is
observed during a transit of Venus
across the Sun.
Saint Petersburg, Russia 
[1] from
http://www.peoples.ru/science/founder/lo
monosov/ PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Lomonosov.jpg
237 YBN
[1763 AD] 		2043) Lacaille (LoKoYu) publishes a
star catalog of nearly 10,000 southern
hemisphere stars. Lacaille names 14 new
southern constellations after
astronomical instruments.
Paris, France (presumably) 
[1] [t map from Lacaille's 1763
catalog] PD
source: http://www.e-rara.ch/zut/content
/zoom/197200?lang=en

[2] Above is a copy of Nicolas Louis
de Lacaille’s star chart on which his
14 new southern constellations were
first published. They are mixed in with
the old Ptolemaic figures and the newer
additions by Keyser, de Houtman, and
Plancius. Lacaille rearranged some of
Keyser and de Houtman’s southern
constellations to make way for his own,
notably in the case of Hydrus, which
was rerouted and had its tail cropped.
The original engraving appeared in the
Mémoires of the Académie Royal des
Sciences dated 1752 but actually
published in 1756. This copy is from
Jean Fortin’s Atlas Céleste and
gives constellation names in French, as
did Lacaille’s original. A second
edition of Lacaille’s planisphere was
published in 1763 in Coelum Australe
Stelliferum (for a zoomable version of
it, see here). On that 1763 edition
Lacaille Latinized the constellation
names and labelled stars with Greek
letters but the figures were the same
as in 1756. Fortin’s version, above,
adopted Lacaille’s Greek letters for
the stars but kept the constellation
names in French. Fortin’s Atlas
Céleste, first published in 1776, was
highly popular, and it is in this form
that Lacaille’s inventions would have
been most widely disseminated.
(Author’s collection.) PD
source: http://www.ianridpath.com/starta
les/image/lacaillesmall.jpg
237 YBN
[1763 AD] 		2080) That valleys are formed by
streams that run through them is
understood.
That all rocks are not sedimentary is
proven because basalt is shown to be
formed by volcanoes (has an igneous
origin).
France 
[1] Desmarest, Nicolas (1725-1815).
''Mémoire Sur l'origine & la nature du
Basalte à grandes colonnes polygones,
determinées par l'Histoire Naturelle
de cette pierre, observée en
Auvergne''. Histoire de l'Académie
royale des Sciences, Année M. DCCLXXI,
Avec les Mémoires de Mathématique &
de Physique. Paris, De l'Imprimerie
Royale, 1774, pp. 705-775 PD?
source: http://members.chello.nl/~a.heks
tra2/VII%2019%20In%201771%20werd%20de%20
vulkanische%20oorsprong...htm

[2] Puy De Dome COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.wired.cz/cyklo/images
/Provence/puy_de_dome.jpg
236 YBN
[05/08/1764 AD] 		6589) A globular cluster is recognized
as a group of stars by Charles Messier
(meSYA).
Paris, France 
[1] Description Charles Messier,
French astronomer, at the age of
40 Date circa 1770 Source Stoyan R.
et al. Atlas of the Messier Objects:
Highlights of the Deep Sky. —
Cambridge: Cambridge Univercity Press,
2008. — P. 15. Author Ansiaume
(1729—1786) PD AND Charles
Messier, 1774. Catalogue des
Nébuleuses & des amas d'Étoiles, que
l'on découvre parmi les Étoiles fixes
sur l'horizon de Paris; observées à
l'Observatoire de la Marine, avec
differens instruments. Mémoires de
l'Académie Royale des Sciences for
1771, Paris (dated February 16, 1771,
published 1774), pp. 435-461 + Pl.
VIII.
http://books.google.com/books?id=z0FRA
AAAYAAJ&pg=PA435 PD AND English: htt
p://messier.seds.org/xtra/history/m-cat7
1.html UNKNOWN
source: http://www.messier.com.ar/messie
r/fotos_messier/m4.jpg AND http://book
s.google.com/books?id=z0FRAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA
435 AND http://messier.seds.org/xtra/h
istory/m-cat71.html

[2] Listado Completo - M4 - NGC
6121 Cúmulo Globular en
Scorpius Datos del objeto Messier
Mapa Celeste centrado en el
objeto Nombre: Número Messier:
M4 Número NGC:
NGC6121 Constelación a la que
pertenece: Scorpio Ascensión recta:
16h
23,6m Declinación: -26,32° Magni
tud aparente: 5.0 Tamaño aparente:
26,3 (min/arco) Distancia en años
luz: 7200 años luz Estación del
año que es visible: (Depende de la
latitud del lugar de observación)
Invierno Invierno (Hemisferio
Sur) Verano Verano (Hemisferio
Norte) Mejor fecha para la
observación: 2008-06-07 CC
source: http://www.messier.com.ar/messie
r/fotos_messier/m4.jpg
236 YBN
[1764 AD] 		2091) The concept of "latent heat", the
quantity of heat absorbed or released
by a substance during a change in its
physical state that occurs without
changing its temperature.
Glasgow, Scotland 
[1] Scan of an old picture of Joseph
Black Source The Gases of the
Atmosphere (old book) Date
1896 Author William Ramsay PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Black_Joseph.jpg
234 YBN
[05/29/1766 AD] 		2113) Hydrogen gas is isolated by Henry
Cavendish.

Cavendish produces "inflammable air"
(hydrogen) by dissolving metals in
acids, and "fixed air" (carbon dioxide)
by dissolving alkalies (strong bases in
the periodic table column with lithium,
sodium, and potassium) in acids, and he
collects these and other gases in
bottles inverted over water or mercury.
London, England 
[1] Figures 1-6 from: Henry Cavendish,
''Three Papers, Containing Experiments
on Factitious Air, by the Hon. Henry
Cavendish, F. R. S.'', Philosophical
Transactions (1683-1775) , Vol. 56,
(1766), pp.
141-184 http://www.jstor.org/stable/105
491 PD
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1054
91

[2] By Henry Cavendish Published
1921 The University Press PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=ygqYnSR3oe0C&printsec=frontcover&dq=the
+scientific+papers+cavendish#PPA78-IA
232 YBN
[1768 AD] 		2093) The hyperbolic trigonometric
functions (sinh, cosh, etc.). Just as
the ordinary sine and cosine functions
trace (or parameterize) a circle, so
the sinh and cosh parameterize a
hyperbola).
Berlin, Germany 
[1] copied from
http://www.galerie-universum.de/gu_2003/
ausstellungstafeln/ahnengalerie_wissensc
haftler/lambert_lang.htm Johann H.
Lambert PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:JHLambert.jpg

[2] Lambert, Johann Heinrich (1728 -
1777) Discipline(s): Mathematics ;
Physics ; Astronomy Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 7.6 x 8.8 cm
PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/by_d
iscipline_display_results.cfm?Research_D
iscipline_1=Physics
232 YBN
[1768 AD] 		2667) The first Encyclopaedia
Britannica.
Edinburgh, Scotland 
[1] Scanned titlepage of my facsimile
copy of the first edition of the
Encyclopædia Britannica, published in
1771. Slightly rotated and saved using
the GIMP. Scanned and modified by me on
3 April 2007 and released into the
public domain, owing to its age. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:EB1_titlepage.gif

[2] First edition of the Encyclopædia
Britannica. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-97337/First-edition-of-the-Encyclopaedi
a-Britannica?articleTypeId=1
232 YBN
[1768 AD] 		4482) That light particles do not
appear to interfere or collide with
each other is recognized.
London, England 
[1] 1762 John CANTON
(1718-1772). ORIGINAL:
PD COPYRIGHTED?
source: http://11magazine.free.fr/SWL_BC
L/2004/04/swl_bcl04_fichiers/image008.jp
g
231 YBN
[1769 AD] 		1206) The first self-propelled vehicle.
A steam-engine powered automobile by
Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot.
England 
[1] Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot's steam auto,
from 7 August, 1869 issue of Appleton's
Journal of Popular Literature, Science,
and Art. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:CugnotAppleton.jpg

[2] Fardier de Cugnot, modèle de
1771. Musée des Arts et Métiers,
Paris. 11 janvier 2005. (Note that
this is the second fardier, the
full-size one. It is not a 'model' (as
has been mis-translated
elsewhere)) Source : Photo et
photographisme © Roby 19:13, 12 Jan
2005 (UTC). Avec l'aimable permission
du Musée des Arts et Métiers, Paris.
GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/56/FardierdeCugnot200501
11.jpg
231 YBN
[1769 AD] 		2069) The theory that fossils that
resemble no living creature may have
been animals that went extinct, and the
first use of the word "evolution" in a
biological context.
Geneva?, Switzerland (presumably) 
[1] engraving of Charles Bonnet Source
http://www.ville-ge.ch/musinfo/mhng/pag
e1/ins-ill-04.htm Date paint in
1777 Author Paint by I. Iuel et
engraved by IF. Clemens PD
source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wik
i/Image:Charles_Bonnet_engraved.jpg

[2] Charles Bonnet
(1720-1793). Source:
http://www.univie.ac.at/science-archives
/wissenschaftstheorie_2/bonnet.html PD

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:CharlesBonnet.jpg
231 YBN
[1769 AD] 		2130) A machine that spins thread by
mechanically reproducing the motions
made by the human hand.
 
[1] Richard Arkwright's textile
innovations, 1765-75 © Science
Museum/Science and Society Picture
Library COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.makingthemodernworld.
org.uk/icons_of_invention/technology/175
0-1820/IC.005/

[2] Description Richard Arkwright
portrait Source
http://utopia.utexas.edu/project/port
raits/arkwright.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Richard_arkwright.jpg
229 YBN
[1771 AD] 		2118) The relation between quantity and
electric potential is recognized by
Henry Cavendish, in modern form, Q=CV
(where Q is quantity of charge, C is a
constant called capacity, and V is
electric potential). The first
measurement of electrical "capacity".
London, England 
[1] Henry Cavendish Henry
CavendishBorn: 10-Oct-1731 Birthplace:
Nice, France Died:
24-Feb-1810 Location of death:
Clapham, England PD?
source: http://www.nndb.com/people/030/0
00083778/

[2] Old picture from F. Moore's
History of Chemistry, published in
1901 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Cavendish_Henry.jpg
228 YBN
[06/04/1772 AD] 		2138) Carbon dioxide gas is dissolved
in water by Joseph Priestley which is
the beginning of the soda-water
industry.
Leeds, England 
[1] Priestley, J. Directions for
Impregnating Water with Fixed Air: In
Order to Communicate to It the Peculiar
Spirit and Virtues of Pyrmont Water,
and Other Mineral Waters of a Similar
Nature. By Joseph Priestley, LL.D.
F.R.S. printed for J. Johnson,
1772. http://books.google.com/books?id=
huNbAAAAQAAJ PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=huNbAAAAQAAJ

[2] Portrait of Joseph
Priestley Source
http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=h
ttp://www.chemistry.msu.edu/Portraits/im
ages/priestlyc.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.
chemistry.msu.edu/Portraits/PortraitsHH_
Detail.asp%3FHH_LName%3DPriestley&h=640&
w=462&sz=57&hl=en&start=9&tbnid=ipHldQCy
TukivM:&tbnh=137&tbnw=99&prev=/images%3F
q%3Djoseph%2Bpriestley%26gbv%3D2%26svnum
%3D10%26hl%3Den%26sa%3DG Date
1794 Author Ellen Sharples PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Priestley.jpg
228 YBN
[06/04/1772 AD] 		6495) Five new gases are identified and
isolated by Joseph Priestley: carbon
monoxide (CO), nitric oxide (NO),
nitric dioxide (NO2), Nitrous oxide
(N2O), and hydrogen chloride (HCl).

Before this there are only 3 known
gases: air, carbon dioxide and
hydrogen. Priestley will go on to
isolate and identify ten gases in all,
most of them previously unknown.

Priestley collects gas over mercury and
therefore is able to isolate gases that
cannot be collected over water because
they are soluble in water.
Leeds, England (does not move to Calne
until 1773) 
[1] Portrait of Joseph
Priestley Source
http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=h
ttp://www.chemistry.msu.edu/Portraits/im
ages/priestlyc.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.
chemistry.msu.edu/Portraits/PortraitsHH_
Detail.asp%3FHH_LName%3DPriestley&h=640&
w=462&sz=57&hl=en&start=9&tbnid=ipHldQCy
TukivM:&tbnh=137&tbnw=99&prev=/images%3F
q%3Djoseph%2Bpriestley%26gbv%3D2%26svnum
%3D10%26hl%3Den%26sa%3DG Date
1794 Author Ellen Sharples PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Priestley.jpg

[2] Description Portrait of Joseph
Priestley Source
http://www.search.revolutionaryplayers.
org.uk/engine/resource/default.asp?theme
=47&originator=%2Fengine%2Ftheme%2Fdefau
lt%2Easp&page=3&records=58&direction=1&p
ointer=2784&text=0&resource=4501 Date
c.1763 Author Artist is unknown. PD

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:PriestleyLeeds.jpg
228 YBN
[11/01/1772 AD] 		2225) The burning of sulfur (like
phosphorus) is shown to result in the
sulfur gaining weight, which conflicts
with the phlogiston theory.
Paris, France (presumably) 
[1] Creator/Artist Name English:
Jacques-Louis David Alternative names
English: David Date of birth/death
1748-08-30 1825-12-29 Location of
birth/death English: Paris Work
location Title English: Portrait
of Monsieur de Lavoisier and his
Wife Year 1788 Technique English:
Oil on canvas Dimensions 259.7 x 196
cm Current location Metropolitan
Museum of Art New York PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:David_-_Portrait_of_Monsieur_Lavoisie
r_and_His_Wife.jpg

[2] Scientist: Lavoisier, Antoine
Laurent (1743 - 1794) Discipline(s):
Chemistry Print Artist: William G.
Jackman, fl. 1841-1860 Medium:
Engraving Original Artist: Jacques
Louis David, 1744-1825 Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 15.2 x 10.8 cm /
Sheet: 24.7 x 13.9 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=L
228 YBN
[1772 AD] 		2076) The theory that since light
particles are subject to the force of
gravity, gravity must change the speed
of light, and that a mass may be so
large that light particles cannot
escape it by John Michell (MicL).
Michell also theorizes that the force
that causes light to be emitted from
luminous bodies is much higher than the
force of gravity at the surface of the
Sun.
Thornhill, Yorkshire, England 
[1] Text from p789 in: Joseph
Priestley, ''The history and present
state of discoveries relating to
vision, light, and colours.'', Leeds:
n.p., 1771, p786-791,787. Vol 1:
http://books.google.com/books?id=MLxz5yy
mkNcC Vol 2:
http://books.google.com/books?id=pmF8xgh
257sC&pg=PA787 PD
source: books.google.com/books?id=pmF8xg
h257sC&pg=PA789

[2] Portrait of Joseph
Priestley Source
http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=h
ttp://www.chemistry.msu.edu/Portraits/im
ages/priestlyc.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.
chemistry.msu.edu/Portraits/PortraitsHH_
Detail.asp%3FHH_LName%3DPriestley&h=640&
w=462&sz=57&hl=en&start=9&tbnid=ipHldQCy
TukivM:&tbnh=137&tbnw=99&prev=/images%3F
q%3Djoseph%2Bpriestley%26gbv%3D2%26svnum
%3D10%26hl%3Den%26sa%3DG Date
1794 Author Ellen Sharples PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Priestley.jpg
228 YBN
[1772 AD] 		2140) The mass of a light particle is
measured by John Michell to be 18 x
10-8 parts of a grain.
Leeds, England 
[1] Joseph Priestley, ''The history and
present state of discoveries relating
to vision, light, and colours.'',
Leeds: n.p., 1771, p390. Vol 1:
http://books.google.com/books?id=MLxz5yy
mkNcC&pg=PA390 Vol 2:
http://books.google.com/books?id=pmF8xgh
257sC PD
source: Vol 1:
http://books.google.com/books?id=MLxz5yy
mkNcC&pg=PA390

[2] Portrait of Joseph
Priestley Source
http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=h
ttp://www.chemistry.msu.edu/Portraits/im
ages/priestlyc.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.
chemistry.msu.edu/Portraits/PortraitsHH_
Detail.asp%3FHH_LName%3DPriestley&h=640&
w=462&sz=57&hl=en&start=9&tbnid=ipHldQCy
TukivM:&tbnh=137&tbnw=99&prev=/images%3F
q%3Djoseph%2Bpriestley%26gbv%3D2%26svnum
%3D10%26hl%3Den%26sa%3DG Date
1794 Author Ellen Sharples PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Priestley.jpg
228 YBN
[1772 AD] 		2162) Lagrangian points are identified,
points in space at which a small body
will remain approximately at rest
relative to two larger mass bodies
(because the gravitational influence of
both is equal in opposite directions).
Berlin, Germany 
[1] Lagrange PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Langrange_portrait.jpg

[2] Joseph-Louis Lagrange Library of
Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/Lagrange
228 YBN
[1772 AD] 		2172) The inverse square law of
gravitation is applied to chemical
forces of attraction.
Dijon, France 
[1] Louis-Bernard Guyton de Morveau,
also known as Louis-Bernard
Guyton-Morveau. This is a cropped and
contrast-enhanced version of an image
from the Library of Congress online
collection. It is in the public domain;
see catalog information below. TITLE:
Louis Bernard Guyton-Morveau, né Ã
Dijon le 4 janvier 1737 / Dess. et
gravé au physionotrace par Quenedey,
rue Croix des Petits Champs, no. 10,Ã
Paris. CALL NUMBER: LOT 13400, no. 56
[P&P] Check for an online group
record (may link to related
items) REPRODUCTION NUMBER:
LC-DIG-ppmsca-02240 (digital file from
original print) No known restrictions
on publication. SUMMARY:
Head-and-shoulders profile portrait of
French scientist Louis Bernard
Guyton-Morveau. MEDIUM: 1 print :
stipple engraving. CREATED/PUBLISHED:
[Paris : s.n., between 1790 and
1820] CREATOR: Quenedey, Edme PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Louis-Bernard_Guyton_de_Morveau.jpg
228 YBN
[1772 AD] 		2215) That diamonds are made of carbon
and cannot burn in the absence of air
is known by Lavoisier (loVWoZYA).
Paris, France (presumably) 
[1] Creator/Artist Name English:
Jacques-Louis David Alternative names
English: David Date of birth/death
1748-08-30 1825-12-29 Location of
birth/death English: Paris Work
location Title English: Portrait
of Monsieur de Lavoisier and his
Wife Year 1788 Technique English:
Oil on canvas Dimensions 259.7 x 196
cm Current location Metropolitan
Museum of Art New York PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:David_-_Portrait_of_Monsieur_Lavoisie
r_and_His_Wife.jpg

[2] Scientist: Lavoisier, Antoine
Laurent (1743 - 1794) Discipline(s):
Chemistry Print Artist: William G.
Jackman, fl. 1841-1860 Medium:
Engraving Original Artist: Jacques
Louis David, 1744-1825 Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 15.2 x 10.8 cm /
Sheet: 24.7 x 13.9 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=L
228 YBN
[1772 AD] 		2285) Nitrogen gas is isolated by
Daniel Rutherford.

In Rutherford's experiment a mouse
lives in a closed container until it
dies (of suffocation). The remaining
air is then passed through a strong
alkali (caustic potash) which absorbs
the fixed air (carbon dioxide). The
remaining air, which does not support
respiration or combustion, is nitrogen.
Edinburgh, Scotland 
[1] Description Scan of an old
picture of Daniel Rutherford Source
The Gases of the Atmosphere (old
book) Date 1896 Author William
Ramsay PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Rutherford_Daniel.jpg
226 YBN
[08/01/1774 AD] 		2139) Oxygen gas is isolated
independently by Joseph Priestley and
Karl Wilhelm Scheele (sAlu) by
collecting the gas emitted by heating
mercury oxide.

Priestley collects oxygen ("which he
calls dephlogisticated air") by melting
mercuric oxide (red calx of mercury)
(in an evacuated container) with a
lens.

Mercury when heated in air will form a
brick-red calx now called mercuric
oxide. Priestly heats some of this calx
in an (evacuated?) test tube with a
lens. These focus (light particles) on
the calx and convert the substance back
into liquid mercury again which appears
as shining globules in the upper
portion of the test tube. In addition a
gas is given off with interesting
properties.

This gas is colorless, odorless and
tasteless. Priestley finds that this
new gas is "between five and six times
as good as the best common air" in
supporting combustion.

Scheele, who publishes after Priestley
isolates Oxygen by a variety of
methods: by heating a mixture of nitric
and sulfuric acid in a retort and
collecting the gas in a bladder
attached to the neck, by heating
mercuric oxide (Priestley's method),
and from mixtures of manganese dioxide
and sulfuric and phosphoric acids.
Calne, England 
[1] Portrait of Joseph
Priestley Source
http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=h
ttp://www.chemistry.msu.edu/Portraits/im
ages/priestlyc.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.
chemistry.msu.edu/Portraits/PortraitsHH_
Detail.asp%3FHH_LName%3DPriestley&h=640&
w=462&sz=57&hl=en&start=9&tbnid=ipHldQCy
TukivM:&tbnh=137&tbnw=99&prev=/images%3F
q%3Djoseph%2Bpriestley%26gbv%3D2%26svnum
%3D10%26hl%3Den%26sa%3DG Date
1794 Author Ellen Sharples PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Priestley.jpg

[2] Description Portrait of Joseph
Priestley Source
http://www.search.revolutionaryplayers.
org.uk/engine/resource/default.asp?theme
=47&originator=%2Fengine%2Ftheme%2Fdefau
lt%2Easp&page=3&records=58&direction=1&p
ointer=2784&text=0&resource=4501 Date
c.1763 Author Artist is unknown. PD

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:PriestleyLeeds.jpg
226 YBN
[11/26/1774 AD] 		6498) Sulfur dioxide gas (SO2), (a
heavy, colorless, poisonous gas) is
identified and isolated by Joseph
Priestley.
Calne, England 
[1] Portrait of Joseph
Priestley Source
http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=h
ttp://www.chemistry.msu.edu/Portraits/im
ages/priestlyc.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.
chemistry.msu.edu/Portraits/PortraitsHH_
Detail.asp%3FHH_LName%3DPriestley&h=640&
w=462&sz=57&hl=en&start=9&tbnid=ipHldQCy
TukivM:&tbnh=137&tbnw=99&prev=/images%3F
q%3Djoseph%2Bpriestley%26gbv%3D2%26svnum
%3D10%26hl%3Den%26sa%3DG Date
1794 Author Ellen Sharples PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Priestley.jpg

[2] Description Portrait of Joseph
Priestley Source
http://www.search.revolutionaryplayers.
org.uk/engine/resource/default.asp?theme
=47&originator=%2Fengine%2Ftheme%2Fdefau
lt%2Easp&page=3&records=58&direction=1&p
ointer=2784&text=0&resource=4501 Date
c.1763 Author Artist is unknown. PD

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:PriestleyLeeds.jpg
226 YBN
[1774 AD] 		2111) The first catalog of Messier
objects, celestial objects which
include nebulae and star clusters.
Paris, France (presumably) 
[1] Charles Messier 1730 - 1817 [t
Notice how the curtain appears to be
made to look like a spiral galaxy with
the earth as part of it. I doubt this
is coincidence. Interesting that the
artist felt that this needed to be
hidden. it seems unlikely to be
coincidence, because the curtain is so
important as to cover part of the
globe.] PD
source: http://www.wwu.edu/depts/skywise
/a101_historicalfigures.html

[2] Messier, Charles Joseph
(1730-1817) PD
source: http://www.daviddarling.info/enc
yclopedia/M/Messier.html
226 YBN
[1774 AD] 		2129) The average density of Earth is
measured as 4.5 times the density of
water by using a pendulum.
Schiehallion Mountain, North
Perthshireit, Scotland 
[1] Nevil Maskelyne * 12:15, 28
July 2004 Magnus Manske 816x1026
(118,983 bytes) ({{PD}} from
[http://web4.si.edu/sil/scientific-ident
ity/display_results.cfm?alpha_sort=N])
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Nevil_Maskelyne.jpg
226 YBN
[1774 AD] 		2200) The element chlorine is isolated,
as a gas, by Karl Wilhelm Scheele
(sAlu) using hydrochloric acid on
manganese dioxide.
Uppsala, Sweden 
[1] Karl Wilhelm Scheele Library of
Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/Karl+Wilh
elm+Scheele+?cat=technology

[2] Chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele from
Svenska Familj-Journalen 1874. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Carl_Wilhelm_Scheele_from_Familj-Jour
nalen1874.png
226 YBN
[1774 AD] 		2216) Combustion is shown to be a
reaction with a gas in the air (later
named oxygen) by Antoine Laurent
Lavoisier {loVWoZYA}.

Lavoisier shows how material in the air
combines with metals when heated, which
will end the phlogiston theory of
combustion, and demonstrates the
conservation of mass.
Paris, France (presumably) 
[1] Creator/Artist Name English:
Jacques-Louis David Alternative names
English: David Date of birth/death
1748-08-30 1825-12-29 Location of
birth/death English: Paris Work
location Title English: Portrait
of Monsieur de Lavoisier and his
Wife Year 1788 Technique English:
Oil on canvas Dimensions 259.7 x 196
cm Current location Metropolitan
Museum of Art New York PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:David_-_Portrait_of_Monsieur_Lavoisie
r_and_His_Wife.jpg

[2] Scientist: Lavoisier, Antoine
Laurent (1743 - 1794) Discipline(s):
Chemistry Print Artist: William G.
Jackman, fl. 1841-1860 Medium:
Engraving Original Artist: Jacques
Louis David, 1744-1825 Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 15.2 x 10.8 cm /
Sheet: 24.7 x 13.9 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=L
226 YBN
[1774 AD] 		2258) The element manganese.
Uppsala, Sweden 
[1] Manganese GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Mangan_1.jpg

[2] Johan Gottlieb Gahn Ljus från
Sverige Född: 1745, Samtida med:
Gustav III, Gustav IV Adolf Nyckelord:
kemist, mangan Död:
1818 PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.bgf.nu/ljus/u/gahn.ht
ml
226 YBN
[1774 AD] 		2664) The earliest telegraph: each
letter has a wire, and letters on pith
balls (the sponge-like central cylinder
of a flower stem) are displayed when
any wire is charged.
Switzerland (presumably) 
[1] Le Sage: Telegraph, 1774 PD
source: http://images.fineartamerica.com
/images-medium-large/le-sage-telegraph-1
774-granger.jpg

[2] Description Georges-Louis Le
Sage Source Bibliotheque
Geneve Date 2007-08-27 Author
Created around 1780 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Lesage.jpg
226 YBN
[1774 AD] 		6497) Ammonia gas (NH3) is identified
and isolated by Priestley.
Calne, England 
[1] Portrait of Joseph
Priestley Source
http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=h
ttp://www.chemistry.msu.edu/Portraits/im
ages/priestlyc.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.
chemistry.msu.edu/Portraits/PortraitsHH_
Detail.asp%3FHH_LName%3DPriestley&h=640&
w=462&sz=57&hl=en&start=9&tbnid=ipHldQCy
TukivM:&tbnh=137&tbnw=99&prev=/images%3F
q%3Djoseph%2Bpriestley%26gbv%3D2%26svnum
%3D10%26hl%3Den%26sa%3DG Date
1794 Author Ellen Sharples PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Priestley.jpg

[2] Description Portrait of Joseph
Priestley Source
http://www.search.revolutionaryplayers.
org.uk/engine/resource/default.asp?theme
=47&originator=%2Fengine%2Ftheme%2Fdefau
lt%2Easp&page=3&records=58&direction=1&p
ointer=2784&text=0&resource=4501 Date
c.1763 Author Artist is unknown. PD

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:PriestleyLeeds.jpg
225 YBN
[06/10/1775 AD] 		2246) The electrophorus, the first
induction based electrostatic generator
is invented by Volta.
Como, Italy 
[1] The basic operational steps for the
electrophorus are depicted in the
sequence of diagrams below. Note that
the electrode, though making intimate
contact with the tribocharged plate,
actually charges by induction. No
charge is removed from the charged cake
and, in principle, the electrode can be
charged any number of time by repeating
the steps depicted. Click here to view
a neat animation of the electrophorus
charging process. Ainslie describes
interesting experiments with an
electrophorus that was charged in the
Springtime and then its charge
monitored throughout the summer
[Ainslie, 1982]. The apparent
disappearance of the charge during
humid weather and its reappearance in
the Fall must be attributed to changes
in the humidity. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.ece.rochester.edu/~jo
nes/demos/electrophorus.gif

[2] Volta's electrophore: a) charging
by 'oscillation of the electricities'
b) charging a bottle by an electrphore
c) charging an electrophore by a
bottle. From Alessandro Volta, ''Le
Opere. 7 vols. Milan, 1918-29. vol III,
p101.
source: John L. Heilbron, "Electricity
in the 17th and 18th centuries: a study
of early Modern physics", University
of California Press, (1979), p417.
ISBN 0-520-03478-3
225 YBN
[1775 AD] 		2143) The classification of substances
based on chemical characterists and a
table of "affinities" based on
chemicals that react with each other.
Uppsala, Sweden (presumably) 
[1] Torbern Olof Bergman (1735-1784),
Swedish chemist and mineralogist. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Torbern_Bergman.jpg

[2] Torbern Olof Bergman
1735-1784 PD?
source: http://www.chemsoc.se/sidor/KK/a
nadag/torberneng.htm
223 YBN
[1777 AD] 		2165) A torsion balance is invented by
Charles Coulomb: a device that measures
a quantity of force by the amount of
twist the force produces on a suspended
thread or wire.
Paris?, France 
[1] Charles-Augustin de Coulomb's
torsion balance, from his Mémoires sur
l'électricité et le magnétisme
(1785â€''89). PD (GOV FRANCE)
source: http://www.academie-sciences.fr/
Membres/in_memoriam/Coulomb/Coulomb_pdf/
Mem1785_p576.jpg

[2] Portrait by Hippolyte Lecomte PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Coulomb.jpg
223 YBN
[1777 AD] 		2201) Eleven new acids are identified
(including citric and lactic), in
addition to the identification of
casein, aldehyde, and glycerol by Karl
Scheele (sAlu).

Scheele also describes the effect of
light on silver compounds, which 50
years later will be used in the
development of photography.
(starts phramacy position in 1777 in)
Uppsala, Sweden 
[1] PD
source: http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/s
cheele77.html

[2] Karl Wilhelm Scheele Library of
Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/Karl+Wilh
elm+Scheele+?cat=technology
222 YBN
[1778 AD] 		1209) A threshing machine (or
thresher), a farm machine for
separating wheat, peas, beans, and
other small grain and seed crops from
their straw and chaff (which are
indigestible materials, like the husks
that enclose grains on cereal plants).
Houston Mill, near Dunbar, East
Lothian, Scotland 
[1] Threshing machine from
1881 Source: cropped from
http://www.unige.ch/lareh/Archives/Archi
ves-images/Images/Dictionnaire-arts-indu
striels/Page%20585%20-%20batteuse.jpg 1
881 Dictionnaire d'arts industriels. PD

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Batteuse_1881.jpg

[2] Flail PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Dreschflegel.jpg
222 YBN
[1778 AD] 		2248) Methane gas is discovered and
isolated by Alessandro Volta (VOLTo).
Volta distinguishes methane from
hydrogen by methane's different-color
flame, its slower rate of combustion,
and the larger volume of air and larger
electric spark required for detonation.
Como, Italy 
[1] Description Alessandro Giuseppe
Antonio Anastasio Volta Source
http://www.anthroposophie.net/bibliot
hek/nawi/physik/volta/bib_volta.htm Dat
e 2006-03-02 (original upload
date) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Alessandro_Volta.jpeg

[2] Scientist: Volta, Alessandro
(1745 - 1827) Discipline(s):
Physics Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 11.9 x 9.7 cm / Sheet: 18.2 x
12.3 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=V
221 YBN
[1779 AD] 		2106) That actual contact between egg
and semen is needed for the development
of a new animal is proven.
Pavia, Italy (presumably) 
[1] Lazzaro Spallanzani, Italian
biologist,
1729-99 Source:http://home.tiscalinet.c
h/biografien/biografien/spallanzani.htm
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Spallanzani.jpg

[2] Spallanzani, detail of an oil
painting by an unknown artist; in the
collection of the Universita degli
Studi di Pavia, Italy Courtesy of the
Universita degli Studi di Pavia,
Italy Related Articles: Spallanzani,
Lazzaro (Encyclopædia
Britannica) Italian physiologist who
made important contributions to the
experimental study of bodily functions
and animal reproduction. His
investigations into the development of
microscopic life in nutrient culture
solutions paved the way for the
research of Louis Pasteur. To cite
this page: * MLA style:
''Spallanzani, Lazzaro.'' Online
Photograph. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. 12 Nov. 2007 . PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-31518/Spallanzani-detail-of-an-oil-pain
ting-by-an-unknown-artist?articleTypeId=
1
221 YBN
[1779 AD] 		2112) That plants take in carbon
dioxide only in the light, and in the
dark, plants, like animals, give off
carbon dioxide and absorb oxygen is
proven by Jan Ingenhousz {iNGeNHoUZ}.
London, England 
[1] Jan Ingenhousz PD?
source: http://www.americanchemistry.com
/s_acc/sec_learning.asp?CID=1020&DID=401
6

[2] Ingenhousz, detail of an
engraving BBC Hulton Picture
Library Related Articles: Ingenhousz,
Jan (Encyclop�dia
Britannica) Dutch-born British
physician and scientist who is best
known for his discovery of the process
of photosynthesis, by which green
plants in sunlight absorb carbon
dioxide and release oxygen. To cite
this page: * MLA style:
''Ingenhousz, Jan.'' Online Photograph.
Encyclop�dia Britannica Online. 12
Nov. 2007 . ORIGINAL:
PD COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.google.com/imgres?
imgurl=http://cache.eb.com/eb/image%3Fid
%3D10796%26rendTypeId%3D4&imgrefurl=http
://www.britannica.com/ebc/art-11958/Inge
nhousz-detail-of-an-engraving&h=300&w=24
8&sz=20&hl=en&start=6&um=1&tbnid=t9wu82P
uoXVatM:&tbnh=116&tbnw=96&prev=/images%3
Fq%3DJan%2BIngenhousz%26ndsp%3D18%26svnu
m%3D10%26um%3D1%26hl%3Den%26safe%3Doff%2
6sa%3DN
220 YBN
[1780 AD] 		2053) The first modern geological map.
France 
[1]
http://books.google.com/books?id=ZYT6Rpr
r6boC
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=ZYT6Rprr6boC

[2] Jean-Étienne Guettard Portrait
de Jean-Etienne Guettard par Théodore
Charpentier (Musée d'Etampes) ©
Corpus Etampois & Musée d''Étampes
2002 PAINTING: PD IMAGE: COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.corpusetampois.com/cb
e-guettard.html
220 YBN
[1780 AD] 		2274) The theory that the quantity of
heat required to decompose a compound
into its elements is equal to the heat
emitted when that compound is formed
from its elements.
Paris, France (presumably) 
[1] Laplace (French mathematician).
from en. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Pierre-Simon_Laplace.jpg

[2] Pierre-Simon Laplace's home at
Arcueil near Paris. Original in British
Museum Plate 15b Crosland, M.
(1967). The Society of Arcueil: A View
of French Science at the Time of
Napoleon I. Cambridge MA: Harvard
University Press. ISBN 043554201X. -
scanned by User:cutler 30 August
2007. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Laplace_house_Arcueil.jpg
219 YBN
[03/13/1781 AD] 		2840) Planet Uranus is identified by
William Herschel.

This is the first new planet to be
discovered since prehistoric times.
Bath, England 
[1] Wilhelm Herschel, German-British
astronomer. from fr. PD
source: http://cunosc.ro/curiozitati/ima
gini/backup/Astronomie/William_Herschel-
high.jpg

[2] Wilhelm Herschel, German-British
astronomer. from fr. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:William_Herschel01.jpg
219 YBN
[1781 AD] 		2147) The sun-and-planet gear; converts
reciprocating (back and forth) motion
into a rotary motion.
Birmingham, England (presumably) 
[1] Schematic animation of Watt's sun
and planet gears. The Sun is yellow,
the planet red, the reciprocating crank
is blue, the flywheel is green and the
driveshaft is grey. Notice that the sun
and flywheel rotate twice for every
rotation of the planet. Schematic
animation of Watt's Sun and Planet
gears, drawn by me using Xarax
Emoscopes 03:36, 4 March 2006
(UTC) GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun
_and_planet_gear

[2] William Murdoch, reproduction of a
portrait by John Graham Gilbert in the
City Museum and Art Gallery,
Birmingham. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:William_Murdoch_%281754-1839%29.jpg
219 YBN
[1781 AD] 		2208) That the shape of crystals as
shown by the way they always break into
the same shapes (for example
rhombohedral) implies their chemical
composition is understood.
Paris, France (presumably) 
[1] René Just Haüy (1743-1822),
French mineralogist. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ren%C3%A9_Just_Ha%C3%BCy.jpg

[2] Scientist: Haüy, René Just
(1743 - 1822) Discipline(s):
Geology Print Artist: Riedel
Medium: Engraving Original Artist:
Felix Massard, 1773- Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 9 x 7.2 cm /
Sheet: 20.5 x 15.9 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=H
219 YBN
[1781 AD] 		2263) The element molybdenum.
Uppsala, Sweden (presumably) 
[1] Molybdenum sample GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Mo%2C42.jpg

[2] Molybdenum ingot COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.molybdenum.com/molyin
fo/molyinfo.html
218 YBN
[11/??/1782 AD] 		2348) Periodic variations in the
intensity of the light from variable
stars is explained as the star being
eclipsed by a darker companion body.
York Minster, England 
[1] John Goodricke (1764-1786),
Astronomer PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.surveyor.in-berlin.de
/himmel/Bios/Goodricke-e.html

[2] The position of Beta Persei
(Algol; Gorgona; Gorgonea Prima; Demon
Star; El Ghoul) By
Zwergelstern Thanks for the help of
Patrick Chevalley PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Position_Beta_Per.png
218 YBN
[1782 AD] 		2190) The element tellurium.
Transylvania, Romania (was Hungary at
time) 
[1] Image by Daniel Mayer or
GreatPatton and released under terms of
the GNU FDL GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Te-TableImage.png

[2] English: Tellurium sample. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Te%2C52.jpg
218 YBN
[1782 AD] 		2202) Three highly poisonous gases are
prepared by Karl Scheele (sAlu):
hydrogen fluoride, hydrogen sulfide and
hydrogen cyanide.
Köping, Sweden (presumably) 
[1] Karl Wilhelm Scheele Library of
Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/Karl+Wilh
elm+Scheele+?cat=technology

[2] Chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele from
Svenska Familj-Journalen 1874. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Carl_Wilhelm_Scheele_from_Familj-Jour
nalen1874.png
218 YBN
[1782 AD] 		2220) The theory that respiration is a
combustion process that enables animals
to maintain their body temperature
above the temperature of their
surroundings, and accounts for animal
heat by Lavoisier (loVWoZYA).
Paris, France (presumably) 
[1] Creator/Artist Name English:
Jacques-Louis David Alternative names
English: David Date of birth/death
1748-08-30 1825-12-29 Location of
birth/death English: Paris Work
location Title English: Portrait
of Monsieur de Lavoisier and his
Wife Year 1788 Technique English:
Oil on canvas Dimensions 259.7 x 196
cm Current location Metropolitan
Museum of Art New York PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:David_-_Portrait_of_Monsieur_Lavoisie
r_and_His_Wife.jpg

[2] Scientist: Lavoisier, Antoine
Laurent (1743 - 1794) Discipline(s):
Chemistry Print Artist: William G.
Jackman, fl. 1841-1860 Medium:
Engraving Original Artist: Jacques
Louis David, 1744-1825 Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 15.2 x 10.8 cm /
Sheet: 24.7 x 13.9 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=L
218 YBN
[1782 AD] 		3387) The first automated mill (a
building equipped with machinery for
grinding grain into flour and other
cereal products).
Red Clay Creek, Delaware, USA 
[1] Automated mill for processing grain
designed by American inventor Oliver
Evans (1775-1819) Source This
image is available from the United
States Library of Congress's Prints and
Photographs Division under the digital
ID cph.3c10379 This tag does not
indicate the copyright status of the
attached work. A normal copyright tag
is still required. See
Commons:Licensing for more
information. Date 1795 Author
Illustration by James Poupard from
''The young mill-wright & miller's
guide : in five parts, embellished with
twenty five plates'' by Oliver Evans,
of Philadelphia. Philadelphia : Printed
for, and sold by the author,
1795. Permission (Reusing this image)
PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/42/Oliver_Evans_-_Automa
ted_mill.jpg

[2] Scientist: Evans, Oliver (1755 -
1819) Discipline(s):
Engineering Print Artist: William G.
Jackman, fl. 1841-1860 Medium:
Engraving Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 15.4 x 10.9 cm / Sheet: 21.5
x 15.2 cm PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-E2-09a.jpg
218 YBN
[1782 AD] 		6608) The first sewer to be installed
under the streets.
A sewer is a drain or pipe,
especially one that is underground,
used to carry away surface water or
sewage.
New York City, New York, USA  
217 YBN
[02/01/1783 AD] 		2183) The motion of the Sun relative to
the other stars is recognized by
William Herschel.

Herschel uses the motion of other stars
to recognize that the Sun is moving
towards the constellation Hercules.

Herschel notes the proper motions of
seven bright stars and shows that their
movement seems to converge on a fixed
point, which he interprets correctly as
the point the sun is moving toward.
Datchet, near Winsor, England|(Slough,
England) 
[1] Figure 3 from: Herschel, William.
''On the Proper Motion of the Sun and
Solar System; With an Account of
Several Changes That Have Happened
among the Fixed Stars since the Time of
Mr. Flamstead. By William Herschel,
Esq. FRS.'' Philosophical Transactions
of the Royal Society of London 73
(1783):
247-283. http://archive.org/details/phi
ltrans06614922
AND http://books.google.com/books?id=AE
9FAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA247 PD
source: http://archive.org/details/philt
rans06614922

[2] Wilhelm Herschel, German-British
astronomer. from fr. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:William_Herschel01.jpg
217 YBN
[06/04/1783 AD] 		2192) The hot air balloon by the
Montgolfier brothers.
Annonay, France 
[1] First public demonstration in
Annonay, 1783-06-04. Library of
Congress PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Early_flight_02562u_%282%29.jpg

[2] Jacques Étienne Montgolfier
(1745-1799), inventor of the hot air
balloon. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jacques_%C3%89tienne_Montgolfier.jpg
217 YBN
[07/15/1783 AD] 		2206) A steam engine boat.

Marquis Claude de Jouffroy d'Abbans
travels upstream on the Saône River
near Lyon, France in the first
successful steamboat.
Saône River, near Lyon, France 
[1] Model of a steamship, built by
d'Abbans in 1784. Musee de la Marine.
GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:D%27AbbansSteamshipModel.jpg
217 YBN
[08/27/1783 AD] 		2264) The hydrogen gas balloon.
Paris, France (presumably) 
[1] First flight by Prof. Jacques
Charles with Ainé Roberts, December 1,
1783. Illustration from the late 19th
Century. N°. 5 - Premier voyage
aérien par Charles et Robert
(1783) First aerial voyage by Charles
and Robert · Erste Flugreise mit
Charles und Robert Library of
Congress PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Early_flight_02562u_%285%29.jpg

[2] Jacques Alexandre César Charles,
1820 Jacques Alexandre César Charles,
French scientist, mathematician, and
balloonist. This image is from the
Library of Congress online collection,
and is in the public domain. It has
been cropped for concision. See catalog
information below. TITLE: Charles,
(Jacques Alexandre César.) né
Beaugency-sur-Loire, le 11 novembre
1746, élu en 1793 / Jul. Bailly,
1820. CALL NUMBER: LOT 13400, no. 22
[P&P] Check for an online group
record (may link to related
items) REPRODUCTION NUMBER:
LC-DIG-ppmsca-02185 (digital file from
original print) LC-USZ62-70373 (b&w
film copy neg.) No known restrictions
on publication. SUMMARY:
Head-and-shoulders portrait of French
balloonist Jacques Alexandre César
Charles, who made the first flight in a
hydrogen balloon, Dec. 1,
1783. MEDIUM: 1 print :
lithograph. CREATED/PUBLISHED: [S.l.
: s.n., 1820] NOTES: ''Institut
royal de France, Académie des sciences
(physique génle.)''--printed above
title. Title from
item. Tissandier
collection. SUBJECTS: Charles,
Jacques Alexandre César, 1746-1823.
Balloonists--French--1820. FORMAT:
Portrait prints 1820. Lithographs
1820. REPOSITORY: Library of
Congress Prints and Photographs
Division Washington, D.C. 20540
USA DIGITAL ID: (digital file from
original print) ppmsca 02185
http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/ppmsca.02185
(b&w film copy neg.) cph 3b17771
http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/cph.3b17771
CARD #: 2002716398 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jacques_Alexandre_C%C3%A9sar_Charles.
jpg
217 YBN
[11/21/1783 AD] 		2194) Human flight by balloon.
The first
untethered balloon flight with a human
passenger is made in Paris.
Paris, France 
[1] This image is available from the
United States Library of Congress
Prints and Pictures division under the
digital ID ppmsca.02562 The first
untethered balloon flight, by Rosier
and the Marquis d'Arlandes on 21
November 1783. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Early_flight_02562u_%284%29.jpg

[2] REPRODUCTION NUMBER:
LC-DIG-ppmsca-02227 (digital file from
original print) LC-USZ62-15586 (b&w
film copy neg.) No known restrictions
on publication. SUMMARY: Oval
head-and-shoulders portrait of French
balloonist Jean-François Pilâtre de
Rozier, who took the first balloon
flight in 1783. MEDIUM: 1 print :
etching with
engraving. CREATED/PUBLISHED: [S.l.]
: Chez Mr. Pujos, peintre, [between
1783 and 1800] RELATED
NAMES: Pujos, André, 1738-1788,
artist. NOTES: ''Et se trouve
chez Mr. Pujos Peintre, Quai Pelletier
prés la Greve''-- at bottom of
print. Title from
item. Tissandier
collection. SUBJECTS: Pilâtre de
Rozier, Jean-François, 1754-1785.
Balloonists--French--1780-1800. FORMA
T: Portrait prints 1780-1800.
Etchings 1780-1800. REPOSITORY:
Library of Congress Prints and
Photographs Division Washington, D.C.
20540 USA DIGITAL ID: (digital file
from original print) ppmsca 02227
http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/ppmsca.02227
(b&w film copy neg.) cph 3a17830
http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/cph.3a17830
CARD #: 2002724820 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Pilatre_de_Rozier.jpg
217 YBN
[1783 AD] 		2114) The density of gases is measured
by Henry Cavendish, who measures the
weight of particular volumes of gas.
London, England 
[1] Henry Cavendish Henry
CavendishBorn: 10-Oct-1731 Birthplace:
Nice, France Died:
24-Feb-1810 Location of death:
Clapham, England PD?
source: http://www.nndb.com/people/030/0
00083778/

[2] Old picture from F. Moore's
History of Chemistry, published in
1901 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Cavendish_Henry.jpg
217 YBN
[1783 AD] 		2311) A parachute is demonstrated.
?, France  
217 YBN
[1783 AD] 		2320) The element tungsten.
Vergara, Spain 
[1] Fausto Elhuyarren urteurrena
(1755-1833) PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.zientzia.net/argazkik
onts.asp?Artik_kod=3751

[2] FAUSTO FERMÍN DE ELHUYAR
(1757-1833) PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.minas.upm.es/inicio/M
useo%20Historico/Ingles/history.htm
216 YBN
[01/15/1784 AD] 		2115) Water is shown to be a compound,
not an element, by Henry Cavendish. The
fusion of molecules using electricity.


Cavendish shows that water is produced
by burning hydrogen gas in oxygen gas.
In this way water is shown to be a
combination of two gases, hydrogen and
oxygen, and not an element as was
thought for centuries.
London, England 
[1] Text from: Henry Cavendish,
''Experiments On Air'', Philosophical
Transactions, Vol 74, 1784, pp119-153,
text from
p129. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Dk9FAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA119 AND
http://books.google.com/books?id=-uEKA
AAAIAAJ PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=Dk9FAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false


[2] Scan of a drawing of Cavendish's
apparatus for making hydrogen
gas Source Philosophical
Transactions (periodical) Date
1766 Author Henry Cavendish PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Cavendish_hydrogen.jpg
216 YBN
[1784 AD] 		2180) That some nebulae contain stars
is observed by William Herschel.
Herschel also concludes that these
nebulae must be very large and distant
collections of stars.
Datchet, England 
[1] Wilhelm Herschel, German-British
astronomer. from fr. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:William_Herschel01.jpg

[2] William Herschel AKA Frederick
William Herschel Born:
15-Nov-1738 Birthplace: Hannover,
Hanover, Germany Died:
25-Aug-1822 Location of death: Slough,
Buckinghamshire, England Cause of
death: unspecified Gender: Male Race
or Ethnicity: White Occupation:
Astronomer Nationality:
England Executive summary: Mapped
heavens, discovered
Uranus PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nndb.com/people/661/0
00096373/
216 YBN
[1784 AD] 		2259) The first gas is liquefied,
sulfur dioxide.
(École du génie) Angers, France 
[1] Scientist: Monge, Gaspard (1746 -
1818) Discipline(s): Mathematics ;
Chemistry ; Physics Print Artist:
François-Seraphin Delpech, 1778-1825
Medium: Lithograph Original
Artist: Henri-Joseph Hesse, 1781-1849
Original Dimensions: Graphic: 9.2 x
8.5 cm / Sheet: 21.3 x 12.4
cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=M

[2] GASPARD MONGE Photo : Patrice
Maurin-Berthier (C) Photo
Collections Ecole
polytechnique PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sabix.org/bulletin/b2
3/monge.html
215 YBN
[02/17/1785 AD] 		3463) The earliest "diffraction"
grating.

David Rittenhouse constructs a
diffraction grating using hair.
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA 
[1] David Rittenhouse from an original
Picture in the possession of Mrs.
Sergeant. PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=_J8RAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=dav
id+rittenhouse#PPP6,M1
215 YBN
[03/07/1785 AD] 		2083) The "uniformitarian principle":
that all geologic phenomena on the
Earth can be explained by observable
processes, and that these processes
have operated with general uniformity
over immensely long periods of time.
Edinburgh, Scotland 
[1] Plate 1 from: Hutton, James.
Theory of the Earth; Or, An
Investigation of the Laws Observable in
the Composition, Dissolution and
Restoration of Land Upon the Globe.
Royal Society of Edinburgh,
1788. http://books.google.com/books?id=
PXobAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA209 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=PXobAAAAMAAJ

[2] JAMES HUTTON (1726-1797) PD
source: http://www.uwmc.uwc.edu/geograph
y/hutton/hutton.htm
215 YBN
[04/??/1785 AD] 		2184) A star catalog with 1000 new
"nebulae" (now called galaxies) and
star clusters by William Herschel which
enlarges the map of the known universe.
Datchet, England 
[1] Wilhelm Herschel, German-British
astronomer. from fr. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:William_Herschel01.jpg

[2] William Herschel AKA Frederick
William Herschel Born:
15-Nov-1738 Birthplace: Hannover,
Hanover, Germany Died:
25-Aug-1822 Location of death: Slough,
Buckinghamshire, England Cause of
death: unspecified Gender: Male Race
or Ethnicity: White Occupation:
Astronomer Nationality:
England Executive summary: Mapped
heavens, discovered
Uranus PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nndb.com/people/661/0
00096373/
215 YBN
[06/02/1785 AD] 		2116) Air is shown to be a mixture of
gases, and not a single element by
Henry Cavendish.

Cavendish shows, by sparking air to
make nitric acid, that air is a mixture
of gases, not a single element as was
thought. Cavendish is the first to
recognize that air is composed of
around 4 parts nitrogen to 1 part
oxygen.
London, England 
[1] Figures 1-3 from: Henry
Cavendish, ''Experiments on Air.'',
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1776-1886), Volume
75 - 1785, 372-384 Henry Cavendish,
''Experiments On Air'', Philosophical
Transactions, Vol 74, 1784,
pp119-153. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=-uEKAAAAIAAJ PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=-uEKAAAAIAAJ

[2] Figure from Experiments on Air.
By Henry Cavendish, Esq. F.R.S. and
A.S. Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 75 -
1785 Pages 372-384 DOI 10.1098/rstl.17
85.0023 PD?
source: http://www.journals.royalsoc.ac.
uk/content/002m322p050qv423/?p=d80161c90
5fe4831aa63484ba66ccb98&pi=6
215 YBN
[1785 AD] 		2107) The first artificial insemination
(impregnating an organism by injecting
semen into the vagina).
Pavia, Italy (presumably) 
[1] Lazzaro Spallanzani, Italian
biologist,
1729-99 Source:http://home.tiscalinet.c
h/biografien/biografien/spallanzani.htm
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Spallanzani.jpg

[2] Spallanzani, detail of an oil
painting by an unknown artist; in the
collection of the Universita degli
Studi di Pavia, Italy Courtesy of the
Universita degli Studi di Pavia,
Italy Related Articles: Spallanzani,
Lazzaro (Encyclopædia
Britannica) Italian physiologist who
made important contributions to the
experimental study of bodily functions
and animal reproduction. His
investigations into the development of
microscopic life in nutrient culture
solutions paved the way for the
research of Louis Pasteur. To cite
this page: * MLA style:
''Spallanzani, Lazzaro.'' Online
Photograph. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. 12 Nov. 2007 . PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-31518/Spallanzani-detail-of-an-oil-pain
ting-by-an-unknown-artist?articleTypeId=
1
215 YBN
[1785 AD] 		2168) Electric and magnetic attraction
and repulsion are proven to be both
proportional to amount of charge and
inversely proportional to distance
squared by Charles Coulomb (KUlOM).

This will eventually lead to the famous
equation now called Coulomb's law which
is very similar to Newton's law for
gravitation but with charge replacing
mass and a different constant:
F=kq1q2/r^2
Paris?, France (presumably) 
[1] Portrait by Hippolyte Lecomte PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Coulomb.jpg

[2] Charles-Augustin de Coulomb,
detail of a bronze bust. H.
Roger-Viollet COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-9659/Charles-Augustin-de-Coulomb-detail
-of-a-bronze-bust?articleTypeId=1
215 YBN
[1785 AD] 		2271) That ammonia is a composed of
nitrogen and hydrogen, and that
chlorine gas in a solution of alkali
can be used as a bleach is shown.
Paris, France (presumably) 
[1] Berthollet_Claude_Louis
(1748-1822) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Berthollet_Claude_Louis_.jpg

[2] Scientist: Berthollet, Claude
Louis (1748 - 1822) Discipline(s):
Chemistry Original Artist: Jean
Pierre Sudre, 1783-1866 Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 28 x 19.5 cm /
Sheet: 33 x 22.8 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=B
213 YBN
[07/28/1787 AD] 		6595) The earliest iron ship.
Birmingham, England 
[1] Grantham, J. Iron Ship-building:
With Practical Illustrations. Virtue &
Company, 1868. Weale’s Rudimentary
Series,
p6. http://books.google.com/books?id=3z
cEAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA6 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=3zcEAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA6
213 YBN
[08/27/1787 AD] 		2265) That volume and temperature of a
gas are inversely related is known by
Jacques Alexandre César Charles (soRL)
.

Charles (soRL) states that the volume
of a fixed quantity of gas at constant
pressure is inversely proportional to
its temperature (Charles' law) and
finds that for each degree Centigrade
rise in temperature, the volume of a
gas expands by 1/273 of its volume at 0
degrees which implies that at a
temperature of -273˚ Celsius the
volume of a gas would reach 0, and that
there can be no lower temperature.
Paris, France (presumably) 
[1] Jacques Alexandre César Charles,
1820 Jacques Alexandre César Charles,
French scientist, mathematician, and
balloonist. This image is from the
Library of Congress online collection,
and is in the public domain. It has
been cropped for concision. See catalog
information below. TITLE: Charles,
(Jacques Alexandre César.) né
Beaugency-sur-Loire, le 11 novembre
1746, élu en 1793 / Jul. Bailly,
1820. CALL NUMBER: LOT 13400, no. 22
[P&P] Check for an online group
record (may link to related
items) REPRODUCTION NUMBER:
LC-DIG-ppmsca-02185 (digital file from
original print) LC-USZ62-70373 (b&w
film copy neg.) No known restrictions
on publication. SUMMARY:
Head-and-shoulders portrait of French
balloonist Jacques Alexandre César
Charles, who made the first flight in a
hydrogen balloon, Dec. 1,
1783. MEDIUM: 1 print :
lithograph. CREATED/PUBLISHED: [S.l.
: s.n., 1820] NOTES: ''Institut
royal de France, Académie des sciences
(physique génle.)''--printed above
title. Title from
item. Tissandier
collection. SUBJECTS: Charles,
Jacques Alexandre César, 1746-1823.
Balloonists--French--1820. FORMAT:
Portrait prints 1820. Lithographs
1820. REPOSITORY: Library of
Congress Prints and Photographs
Division Washington, D.C. 20540
USA DIGITAL ID: (digital file from
original print) ppmsca 02185
http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/ppmsca.02185
(b&w film copy neg.) cph 3b17771
http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/cph.3b17771
CARD #: 2002716398 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jacques_Alexandre_C%C3%A9sar_Charles.
jpg

[2] First flight by Prof. Jacques
Charles with Ainé Roberts, December 1,
1783. Illustration from the late 19th
Century. N°. 5 - Premier voyage
aérien par Charles et Robert
(1783) First aerial voyage by Charles
and Robert · Erste Flugreise mit
Charles und Robert Library of
Congress PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Early_flight_02562u_%285%29.jpg
213 YBN
[1787 AD] 		2171) A standard method of chemical
nomenclature, in which every substance
has a name based on the elements it is
composed of, is established.
Paris, France (presumably) 
[1] DE MORVEAU, GUYTON (1737 - 1816);
LAVOISIER, ANTOINE LAURENT (1743 -
1794); BERTHOLLET, CLAUDE LOUIS (1748 -
1822); DE FOURCROY, ANTOINE FRANCOIS
(1755 - 1809). Méthode de Nomenclature
Chimique. Paris, 1787. PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.scs.uiuc.edu/~mainzv/
exhibit/large/02_19.gif

[2] DE MORVEAU, GUYTON (1737 - 1816);
LAVOISIER, ANTOINE LAURENT (1743 -
1794); BERTHOLLET, CLAUDE LOUIS (1748 -
1822); DE FOURCROY, ANTOINE FRANCOIS
(1755 - 1809). Méthode de Nomenclature
Chimique. Paris, 1787. PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.scs.uiuc.edu/~mainzv/
exhibit/large/02_20.gif
213 YBN
[1787 AD] 		2178) Two moons of Uranus are
identified by William Herschel.
Old Windsor, England (presumably) 
[1] Wilhelm Herschel, German-British
astronomer. from fr. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:William_Herschel01.jpg

[2] William Herschel AKA Frederick
William Herschel Born:
15-Nov-1738 Birthplace: Hannover,
Hanover, Germany Died:
25-Aug-1822 Location of death: Slough,
Buckinghamshire, England Cause of
death: unspecified Gender: Male Race
or Ethnicity: White Occupation:
Astronomer Nationality:
England Executive summary: Mapped
heavens, discovered
Uranus PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nndb.com/people/661/0
00096373/
211 YBN
[08/28/1789 AD] 		2181) William Herschel constructs a 1.2
meter (4 foot) mirror telescope and
identifies two new satellites of
Saturn, Enceladus and Mimas for a total
of 7 moons for Saturn.
Slough, England 
[1] Herschel's 40 foot
telescope. Scanned from''Leisure
Hour'', Nov 2,1867, page 729 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Herschel_40_foot.jpg

[2] Wilhelm Herschel, German-British
astronomer. from fr. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:William_Herschel01.jpg
211 YBN
[1789 AD] 		2222) Light is listed as the most
simple element on the first list of the
known elements; by Lavoisier.
Paris, France (presumably) 
[1] LAVOISIER, ANTOINE LAURENT (1743 -
1794). Traité élémentaire de chimie,
présenté dans un ordre nouveau et
d'après les découvertes modernes. 2
vols. Paris, 1789. PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.scs.uiuc.edu/~mainzv/
exhibit/lavoisier.htm

[2] same PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.scs.uiuc.edu/~mainzv/
exhibit/lavoisier.htm
211 YBN
[1789 AD] 		2230) The element Uranium.
Berlin, (was Prussia) Germany
(presumably) 
[1] # Title: Martin Heinrich
Klaproth # Author:Ambroise Tardieu
(engraving) after original portrait by
Eberhard-Siegfried Henne # Year:
unknown # Source:
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollections
/hst/scientific-identity/explore.htm
(reworked) Scientist: Klapproth,
Martin Heinrich (1743 -
1817) Discipline(s): Chemistry Print
Artist: Ambroise Tardieu, 1788-1841
Medium: Engraving Original Artist:
Eberhard-Siegfried Henne, 1759-1828
Original Dimensions: Graphic: 7.5 x
10.3 cm / Sheet: 21.2 x 14.3 cm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Martin_Heinrich_Klaproth.jpg

[2] Scientist: Klapproth, Martin
Heinrich (1743 - 1817) Discipline(s):
Chemistry Original Artist:
Eberhard-Siegfried Henne, 1759-1828
Original Dimensions: Graphic: 10.7 x
9.2 cm / Sheet: 14.9 x 9.2 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=K
211 YBN
[1789 AD] 		2231) The element Zirconium.
Berlin, (was Prussia) Germany
(presumably) 
[1] Zircon crystal Origin:Peixes,
Goiás, Brazil Description = One
single brown zircon crystal (2x2
cm) Source = the authors are
owner Date = created
2005-12-07 Authors = Eurico Zimbres
(FGEL-UERJ) / Tom Epaminondas (mineral
collector) Permission = Free for all
use CC
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Zirc%C3%A3o.jpeg

[2] # Title: Martin Heinrich
Klaproth # Author:Ambroise Tardieu
(engraving) after original portrait by
Eberhard-Siegfried Henne # Year:
unknown # Source:
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollections
/hst/scientific-identity/explore.htm
(reworked) Scientist: Klapproth,
Martin Heinrich (1743 -
1817) Discipline(s): Chemistry Print
Artist: Ambroise Tardieu, 1788-1841
Medium: Engraving Original Artist:
Eberhard-Siegfried Henne, 1759-1828
Original Dimensions: Graphic: 7.5 x
10.3 cm / Sheet: 21.2 x 14.3 cm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Martin_Heinrich_Klaproth.jpg
210 YBN
[1790 AD] 		2191) Stone age tools and fossilized
bones are found.
Hoxne, Suffolk, England  
210 YBN
[1790 AD] 		2198) Salt (sodium chloride) is
converted into soda ash (sodium
carbonate).
Paris, France 
[1] * Statue of Nicolas Leblanc
probably from early 1800s. * The
following image was obtained from a
public domain website available on
http://isimabomba.free.fr/biographies/ch
imistes/leblanc.htm (in French) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:NicholasLeblanc.JPG
210 YBN
[1790 AD] 		3271) A sewing machine.
England 
[1] Thomas Saint Sewing
Machine Replica sewing machine created
for Brother International for their
Sewing Machine museum in Nagoya,
Japan. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.gluefactory.co.uk/mod
elmaker/thomas-saint-1.jpg
209 YBN
[1791 AD] 		2175) Remote neuron activation (or
remote neuron writing) by Luigi
Galvani. A muscle is contracted
remotely by using a remote electric
spark while metal is connected to the
nerve.
Bologna, Italy 
[1] Italian physicists Luigi
Galvani Source
http://www.museopalazzopoggi.unibo.it
//poggi_eng/palazzo/foto/prot Date
18-19 th century Author
Unknown PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Luigi_Galvani%2C_oil-painting.jpg

[2] The electrochemical behavior of
two dissimilar metals [(zinc (Z) and
copper (C)] in a bimetallic arch, in
contact with the electrolytes of
tissue, produces an electric
stimulating current that elicits
muscular contraction. [Malmivuo, J., &
Plonsey, R. (1995).
Bioelectromagnatism: Principles and
applications of bioelectric and
biomagnetic fields. New York: Oxford
University Press., Ch.1] URL:
http://butler.cc.tut.fi/~malmivuo/bem/be
mbook/01/01.htm Diagram of Luigi
Galvani's frog legs (~1770s) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Galvani%27s_legs.gif
209 YBN
[1791 AD] 		2295) That all objects emit heat and
that heat always moves from a hot body
to a cold body is known.
  
209 YBN
[1791 AD] 		2342) The element titanium.
Cornwall, England 
[1] In 1791, while studying ilmenite
from the Manaccan valley, he isolated
the calx of an unknown metal which he
named manaccanite.[3 wiki] *
Italiano: Ilmenite, dall'Italia. Foto
di Sebastian Socha, 2006. *
Polski: Ilmenit, pochodzenie Włochy;
autor zdjęcia Sebastian Socha. 11.10.
2006 r. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ilmenit%2C_W%C5%82ochy.jpg
209 YBN
[1791 AD] 		2343) That acids and bases neutralize
each other in fixed proportions is
shown. That it takes 615 parts by
weight of magnesia (MgO) to neutralize
1000 parts by weight of sulfuric acid
is determined.
?, Germany 
[1] Photograph reproduced courtesy of
the Library & Information Centre, Royal
Society of Chemistry PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Richterchemist.gif
209 YBN
[1791 AD] 		3380) The first flammable gas engine
design.
?, England 
[1] [t Drawing of Barber's 1791
exploder gas engine] PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=8e9MAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA103&lpg=PA103&dq=%22r
obert+street%22+patent+engine&source=web
&ots=zXhunpMWQn&sig=OK3zL_tlF9en_5S83tLJ
0kuNyVI&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum
=1&ct=result#PPA103,M1
208 YBN
[04/01/1792 AD] 		2249) That electric current comes from
the moist contact of two different
metals is shown by Volta (VOLTo).
Pavia, Italy 
[1] Description Alessandro Giuseppe
Antonio Anastasio Volta Source
http://www.anthroposophie.net/bibliot
hek/nawi/physik/volta/bib_volta.htm Dat
e 2006-03-02 (original upload
date) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Alessandro_Volta.jpeg

[2] Scientist: Volta, Alessandro
(1745 - 1827) Discipline(s):
Physics Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 11.9 x 9.7 cm / Sheet: 18.2 x
12.3 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=V
208 YBN
[1792 AD] 		2312) Coal gas is used to light a
house. Coal gas is a mixture of
hydrogen, methane and carbon monoxide
emitted when coal is heated in the
absence of air.
Redruth, Cornwall, England 
[1] William Murdoch, reproduction of a
portrait by John Graham Gilbert in the
City Museum and Art Gallery,
Birmingham. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:William_Murdoch_%281754-1839%29.jpg

[2] Scientist: Murdock, William (1754
- 1834) Discipline(s):
Engineering Original Artist: Grahma
Gilbert Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 10.4 x 8.1 cm / Sheet: 14 x
8.7 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=M
207 YBN
[04/??/1793 AD] 		2359) The cotton gin makes separating
cotton fibers from their seeds easier.
Mulberry Grove, Georgia
(presumably) 
[1] An Engraving, based on a painting
of Eli Whitney, an American
inventor Source LoC
http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/cph.3g12270
Date 1820-1830 Author Painting,
Charles Bird King (1785-1862),
Engraving William Hoogland (1794 or 5
to 1832) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Whitney-Eli-LOC.jpg

[2] U.S. Patent and Trademark
Office PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Whitney_Gin.jpg
207 YBN
[1793 AD] 		2291) Insect assisted fertilization of
flowers is recognized.
Spandau, Germany 
[1] reprint of Sprengel's 1793
book PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nedabei.net/jacquin/a
rchives/2006/01/

[2] Christian Konrad Sprengel Das
entdeckte Geheimniss der Natur im Bau
und in der Befruchtung der Blumen [The
secret of nature in the form and
fertilization of flowers
discovered] Berlin,
1793 PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/Exhibition
s/Science-and-the-Artists-Book/94-13500.
jpg
207 YBN
[1793 AD] 		2372) That the amount of water vapor
the air can hold rises with temperature
is shown by John Dalton.
Manchester, England 
[1] Engraving of a painting of John
Dalton Source Frontispiece of John
Dalton and the Rise of Modern Chemistry
by Henry Roscoe Date 1895 Author
Henry Roscoe (author), William Henry
Worthington (engraver), and Joseph
Allen (painter) [t right one finger =
?] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Dalton_John_desk.jpg

[2] John Dalton John Dalton,
1766-1844, English chemist and Fellow
of the Royal Society. [t this pose,
hand in coat=?, famous Napoleon
pose] PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.english.upenn.edu/Pro
jects/knarf/People/dalton.html
206 YBN
[08/15/1794 AD] 		1895) Long distance communication over
an optical telegraph with towers spaced
8-16 km (5-10 miles) apart in France.
France 
[1] Optical Telegraf of Claude Chappe
on the Litermont near Nalbach,
Germany GNU
source: http://commons.media.org//Image:
OptischerTelegraf.jpg

[2] # Subject: Claude Chappe #
Source: *
http://www-phase.c-strasbourg.fr/~morel/
chappe/t2.html PD
source: http://commons.media.org//Image:
Claude_Chappe.jpg
206 YBN
[1794 AD] 		2085) The theory of natural selection
is explained by James Hutton: that
species less adapted are more likely to
die while those better adapted will
continue and multiply.
Edinburgh, Scotland (presumably) 
[1] Hutton, J. An Investigation of the
Principles of Knowledge and of the
Progress of Reason, from Sense to
Science and Philosophy... by James
Hutton,... A. Strahan, 1794, Volume 2,
p500. http://books.google.com/books?id=
b_MkAQAAIAAJ
{Hutton_Investigation_of_the_Principle
_of_Knowledge_1794.pdf} PD
source: Hutton, J. An Investigation of
the Principles of Knowledge and of the
Progress of Reason, from Sense to
Science and Philosophy... by James
Hutton,... A. Strahan, 1794, Volume 2,
p500. http://books.google.com/books?id=
b_MkAQAAIAAJ
{Hutton_Investigation_of_the_Principle
_of_Knowledge_1794.pdf}

[2] JAMES HUTTON (1726-1797) PD
source: http://www.uwmc.uwc.edu/geograph
y/hutton/hutton.htm
206 YBN
[1794 AD] 		2336) Yttrium {iTrEuM}, the first rare
earth element.
(was Åbo is now)Turku, Finland 
[1] Gadolinite The mineral that
Gadolin examined was named gadolinite
in
1800.[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johan
_Gadolin] GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gadolinitas.jpg

[2] Portrait of Johan Gadolin
(1760-1852). Scanned from the book
Johan Gadolin 1760-1852 in memoriam
(published in 1910). Artist unknown but
most probably born many years before
1852, so the copyright has
expired. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Johan_Gadolin.jpg
206 YBN
[1794 AD] 		3376) The first gas combustion
direct-acting engine with cylinder and
piston is designed.
?, England  
204 YBN
[07/01/1796 AD] 		2280) Immunity by vaccination is proven
by Edward Jenner who confirms that
having cow pox disease provides
immunity from the more severe small pox
disease.
Berkeley, England (presumably) 
[1] Source:
http://www.edward-jenner.com/family-life
.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Edward_Jenner2.jpg

[2] Figure 1: Portrait of Edward
Jenner painted in about 1800 by William
Pearce. Note the cows in the
background, the source of the cowpox
virus he used to vaccinate people
against smallpox. PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://openlearn.open.ac.uk/file
.php/2642/formats/S320_1_rss.xml
204 YBN
[1796 AD] 		2277) Theo theory that the solar system
formed by cooling and contracting of a
gaseous nebula by Laplace.
Paris, France (presumably) 
[1] Laplace (French mathematician).
from en. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Pierre-Simon_Laplace.jpg

[2] Pierre-Simon Laplace's home at
Arcueil near Paris. Original in British
Museum Plate 15b Crosland, M.
(1967). The Society of Arcueil: A View
of French Science at the Time of
Napoleon I. Cambridge MA: Harvard
University Press. ISBN 043554201X. -
scanned by User:cutler 30 August
2007. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Laplace_house_Arcueil.jpg
204 YBN
[1796 AD] 		2330) That different parts of the brain
control different parts of the body is
understood.
Vienna, Germany 
[1] English: Franz Joseph Gall
(1758-1828), German physician and
anatomist Source
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollecti
ons/hst/scientific-identity/explore.htmh
ere. Date early 19th century PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Franz_Joseph_Gall.jpg

[2] Franz Joseph Gall, engraving by
Friedrich Wilhelm Bollinger after a
portrait by Karl Heinrich Rahl, c.
1812 Archiv fur Kunst und Geschichte,
Berlin PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-10919/Franz-Joseph-Gall-engraving-by-Fr
iedrich-Wilhelm-Bollinger-after-a?articl
eTypeId=1
204 YBN
[1796 AD] 		2339) That diamond is made only of
carbon is proven by measuring the
amount of carbon dioxide produced by
burning the diamond.
London, England (presumably) 
[1] A slightly misshapen octahedral
diamond crystal in matrix. Image from
the USGS. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Rough_diamond.jpg
203 YBN
[1797 AD] 		2338) Marble is produced by melting and
quickly cooling limestone (calcium
carbonate) by James Hall.
 
[1] Description A limestone formation
in the Waitomo District of New
Zealand. Date 2007-12-?? Source
Self-photographed Author
Uploader. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Limestone_Forma
tion_In_Waitomo.jpg/1280px-Limestone_For
mation_In_Waitomo.jpg

[2] Description English: Weathered
marble anticline at General Carrera
Lake, Chile Date 17 November
2008 Source Glaciers Transferred
from en.wikipedia to Commons by
User:Common Good using
CommonsHelper. Author Dentren at
en.wikipedia CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Catedraldemarmo
l.JPG/1280px-Catedraldemarmol.JPG
203 YBN
[1797 AD] 		2344) The element chromium.
Paris, France 
[1] Chrom Source
http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bild:Chr
om_1.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Chrom_1.jpg

[2] Louis Nicolas Vauquelin from
en:Wikipedia PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Louis_Nicolas_Vauquelin.jpg
202 YBN
[1798 AD] 		2117) The gravitational constant, the
mass, and the density of the Earth are
measured by Henry Cavendish using a
torsion balance.
London, England 
[1] Henry Cavendish Henry
CavendishBorn: 10-Oct-1731 Birthplace:
Nice, France Died:
24-Feb-1810 Location of death:
Clapham, England PD?
source: http://www.nndb.com/people/030/0
00083778/

[2] Old picture from F. Moore's
History of Chemistry, published in
1901 PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Caven
dish_Henry.jpg
202 YBN
[1798 AD] 		2303) The quantity of heat produced by
a given quantity of mechanical energy
is measured.
Bavaria, Germany (presumably) 
[1] * description: Benjamin Thompson
* source:
http://web4.si.edu/sil/scientific-identi
ty/display_results.cfm?alpha_sort=W
* license: public domain PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Benjamin_Thompson.jpg

[2] Count Rumford (Benjamin
Thompson) Library of Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/Benjamin+
Thompson?cat=technology
202 YBN
[1798 AD] 		2345) The element beryllium
{Be-rilE-uM}.
Paris, France 
[1] Louis Nicolas Vauquelin from
en:Wikipedia PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Louis_Nicolas_Vauquelin.jpg

[2] Portrait de Vauquelin situé dans
la Salle des actes de la Faculté de
pharmacie, 4 avenue de l'Observatoire
à Paris PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://euromin.w3sites.net/Nouve
au_site/mineralogiste/biographies/Vauque
linf.htm
201 YBN
[1799 AD] 		2283) The metric system.
France 
[1] Scientist: Delambre, Jean Baptiste
Joseph (1749 - 1822) Discipline(s):
Astronomy ; Geodesy Print Artist:
Attributed to Julien Leopold Boilly,
1796-1874 and Benjamin Holl, 1808-1884
Medium: Lithograph Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 12.7 x 10.2 cm /
Sheet: 25.8 x 17.5 cm Jean-Baptiste
Joseph Delambre - French mathematician
and astronomer. Source
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollection
s/hst/scientific-identity/fullsize/SIL14
-D2-17a.jpg Date 1820 Author Julien
Leopold Boilly (1796-1874) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jean_Baptiste_Joseph_Delambre.jpg

[2] Jean-Baptiste-Joseph
Delambre Jean-Baptiste-Joseph
DelambreBorn: 19-Sep-1749 Birthplace:
Amiens, France Died:
19-Aug-1822 Location of death: Paris,
France Cause of death:
unspecified PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nndb.com/people/404/0
00097113/
201 YBN
[1799 AD] 		2315) Elements are shown to combine in
definite proportions by Joseph Proust
(PrUST).
Segovia, Spain 
[1] Joseph Proust French
chemist Source Originally from
en.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. Date 2005-10-15 (original
upload date) Author Original
uploader was HappyApple at
en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
image) PD-AUTHOR; Released into the
public domain (by the author). PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Proust_joseph.jpg

[2] Joseph-Louis Proust, medallion by
Pierre-Jean David H. Roger-Viollet To
cite this page: * MLA style:
''Proust, Joseph-Louis: portrait
coin.'' Online Photograph.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 13
Dec. 2007 . PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-30847/Joseph-Louis-Proust-medallion-by-
Pierre-Jean-David?articleTypeId=1
200 YBN
[03/20/1800 AD] 		2250) The electric battery (or voltaic
pile) is invented.

The "voltaic pile": disks of silver and
zinc plates in contact are separated by
a moist pad, and then stacked to
produce a large electric force when
opposite ends are connected with a
conductor.

This battery provides a continuous
source of electrical current.
Pavia, Italy 
[1] Volta, ''On the Electricity excited
by the mere Contact of conducting
Substances of different Kinds.'',
Philosophical Magazine, September 1800,
p415. http://archive.org/download/lepid
opterarepor07winc/lepidopterarepor07winc
.pdf PD
source: http://archive.org/download/lepi
dopterarepor07winc/lepidopterarepor07win
c.pdf

[2] Description Alessandro Giuseppe
Antonio Anastasio Volta Source
http://www.anthroposophie.net/bibliot
hek/nawi/physik/volta/bib_volta.htm Dat
e 2006-03-02 (original upload
date) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Alessandro_Volta.jpeg
200 YBN
[03/27/1800 AD] 		2179) Invisible light is recognized by
William Herschel, who finds that an
invisible portion of the spectrum of
light beyond the color red (later named
infrared) heats up a thermometer more
than any other color.
Slough, England 
[1] William Herschel, ''Investigation
of the Powers of the Prismatic Colours
to Heat and Illuminate Objects; With
Remarks, That Prove the Different
Refrangibility of Radiant Heat. To
Which is Added, an Inquiry into the
Method of Viewing the Sun
Advantageously, with Telescopes of
Large Apertures and High Magnifying
Powers.'', Philosophical Transactions
of the Royal Society of London , Vol.
90, (1800), pp. 255-283.
books.google.com/books?id=dlFFAAAAcAAJ
&pg=PA255 PD
source: books.google.com/books?id=dlFFAA
AAcAAJ&pg=PA255

[2] Description Wilhelm Herschel,
German-British
astronomer. Date 1785 Source Nat
ional Portrait Gallery, London: NPG
98 Author Lemuel Francis Abbott PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/36/William_Herschel01.jp
g
200 YBN
[05/02/1800 AD] 		2307) That Hydrogen and Oxygen gas are
separated from water using electricity
(using a voltaic pile) is recognized.
This is the reverse of the find of
Cavendish that hydrogen and oxygen gas
are united by electricity to form
water.
London, England (presumably) 
[1] William Nicholson, ca. 1812,
engraving by T. Blood after a portrait
painted by Samuel Drummond
(1765-1844) PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/histor
y/nicholson.html

[2] The example of Nicholson's
Hydrometer at the right is 25 cm
high, and is in the Greenslade
Collection. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://physics.kenyon.edu/EarlyA
pparatus/Fluids/Nicholsons_Hydrometer/Ni
cholsons_Hydrometer.html
200 YBN
[06/27/1800 AD] 		3254) The change in temperature caused
by compressing and expanding air is
measured by Dalton.
Manchester, England 
[1] Engraving of a painting of John
Dalton Source Frontispiece of John
Dalton and the Rise of Modern Chemistry
by Henry Roscoe Date 1895 Author
Henry Roscoe (author), William Henry
Worthington (engraver), and Joseph
Allen (painter) [t right one finger =
?] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Dalton_John_desk.jpg

[2] John Dalton John Dalton,
1766-1844, English chemist and Fellow
of the Royal Society. [t this pose,
hand in coat=?, famous Napoleon
pose] PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.english.upenn.edu/Pro
jects/knarf/People/dalton.html
200 YBN
[06/??/1800 AD] 		3597) That electricity in water mixed
with litmus is colored blue around the
silver electrode and red around the
zinc electrode is found. This is the
basis of the first electric dot
printer.

Litmus is a material obtained from
certain lichens that turns blue in in
alkaline solution and red in acid
solution.
(Royal Military Academy at Woolwich)
Woolwich, England 		 
200 YBN
[09/17/1800 AD] 		2436) Hydrogen and oxygen gas are
collected separately from the
electrolysis of water by Johann Wilhelm
Ritter.
Jena, Germany (presumably) 
[1] Undatiertes Portrait von J. W.
Ritter PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www2.uni-jena.de/biologie
/ehh/forum/ausstellungen/Physik_als_Kuns
t/Physik_als_Kunst.htm

[2] Johann Wilhelm Ritter. Undated
woodcut, courtesy Deutsches Museum,
Munich. Reproduced in Ritter
1986. PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/silpublica
tions/dibner-library-lectures/scientific
-discoveries/text-lecture.htm
200 YBN
[11/??/1800 AD] 		2437) Electroplating is discovered by
Johann Wilhelm Ritter, who shows that
by passing current through a solution
of copper sulfate that metallic copper
can be made to cover (or plate) a
conductive object that is used as an
electrode.
Jena, Germany (presumably) 
[1] Undatiertes Portrait von J. W.
Ritter PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www2.uni-jena.de/biologie
/ehh/forum/ausstellungen/Physik_als_Kuns
t/Physik_als_Kunst.htm

[2] Johann Wilhelm Ritter. Undated
woodcut, courtesy Deutsches Museum,
Munich. Reproduced in Ritter
1986. PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/silpublica
tions/dibner-library-lectures/scientific
-discoveries/text-lecture.htm
200 YBN
[1800 AD] 		3233) Mercury fulminates are
discovered: explosive compounds derived
from fulminic acid.
London, England (presumably) 
[1] Structural formula of the fulminate
anion Structural formula of the
fulminate ion Source Own work Date
10 July 2007 Author Ben
Mills PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e5/Fulminate-2D.png

[2] Edward Charles Howard PD/Corel
source: Howard_Edward.pdf
199 YBN
[01/01/1801 AD] 		2261) The first known asteroid (and
minor planet), Ceres {SErEZ}, is
recognized by Giuseppe Piazzi (PYoTSE).
Palermo, Sicily 
[1] NASA's Hubble Space Telescope color
image of Ceres, the largest Main Belt
asteroid. Astronomers optimized spatial
resolution to about 18 km per pixel,
enhancing the contrast in these images
to bring out features on Ceres'
surface, that are both brighter and
darker than the average which absorbs
91% of sunlight falling on it.
(Original discription by NASA) Source
http://dawn.jpl.nasa.gov/images/ceres
.jpg (Slightly cropped from
original) Date Taken: December 2003
- January 2004. Released 7 September
2005 Author NASA, ESA, J. Parker
(Southwest Research Institute), P.
Thomas (Cornell University), and L.
McFadden (University of Maryland,
College Park) Permission Unless
otherwise specifically stated, no claim
to copyright is being asserted by STScI
and it may be freely used as in the
public domain in accordance with NASA's
contract. [...] [1] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ceres_optimized.jpg

[2] Scientist: Piazzi, Giuseppe (1746
- 1846) Discipline(s):
Astronomy Print Artist: F. Bordiga
Medium: Engraving Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 11.9 x 9.4 cm /
Sheet: 20.7 x 15.9 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=P
199 YBN
[02/22/1801 AD] 		2167) The invisible light, ultra-violet
light is discovered by Johann Ritter,
who observes that an invisible part of
the spectrum of light beyond the violet
causes a silver chloride chemical
reaction more strongly than any other
part of the spectrum.
Jena, Germany (presumably) 
[1] Ritter, J. W. ''Auffindung
nicht-sichtbarer Sonnenstrahlen an der
Seite des Violett.'' Annalen der Physik
7 (1801):
527. http://books.google.com/books?id=q
wU4AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA527 English:
''Discovery of non-visible solar
radiation to the side of violet.'' PD
AND [1] Undatiertes Portrait von J. W.
Ritter PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=qwU4AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA527 AND http://www2
.uni-jena.de/biologie/ehh/forum/ausstell
ungen/Physik_als_Kunst/Physik_als_Kunst.
htm

[2] Undatiertes Portrait von J. W.
Ritter PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www2.uni-jena.de/biologie
/ehh/forum/ausstellungen/Physik_als_Kuns
t/Physik_als_Kunst.htm
199 YBN
[11/12/1801 AD] 		2405) The frequencies and wavelengths
(or particle intervals) of light are
determined by Thomas Young. Young also
creates the theory of light
interference: that two light waves can
add to or cancel each other out,
similar to the way two sound waves can
add to or cancel each other out to
produce silence. But the phenomenon
called interference can be explained as
particle reflection similar to the way
diffraction is.

Young also recognizes that only three
colors in different proportions are
needed to see any other color.

The first glass diffraction gratings
are in use.
London, England 
[1] [t Table of light wavelengths and
frequencies calculated by Young from
Theory of Light and Colours
11/12/1801] The inch used in the table
is the French (Paris) inch of
27.07mm. PD/Corel
source: Young_Thomas_1802_on_the_theory_
of_light_and_colours.pdf

[2] Portrait of Thomas Young in
color PD
source: http://ugadayki.ru/images/sv/133
163204157_full.jpg
199 YBN
[12/10/1801 AD] 		2508) The first oxygen-hydrogen torch;
by US chemist Robert Hare. The first
gas torch welding

Hare builds the first oxygen-hydrogen
torch by making a beer keg a two
compartment container for hydrogen and
oxygen gas. Hare works a sheet of tin
into two tubes (which are used as the
torch handle). This blowpipe is the
ancestor of all welding torches.
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 
[1] {ULSF: Note that this image is
different slightly from the
original} Smith, E.F. Chemistry in
America: Chapters from the History of
the Science in the United States. D.
Appleton and company, 1914,
p157-179. http://books.google.com/books
?id=SiJDAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA157 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=SiJDAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA157

[2] Smith, E.F. Chemistry in America:
Chapters from the History of the
Science in the United States. D.
Appleton and company, 1914,
p157-179. http://books.google.com/books
?id=SiJDAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA157 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=SiJDAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA157
199 YBN
[1801 AD] 		2238) The classification of
invetebrates.
Paris, France (presumably) 
[1] Lamarck, Jean B. P. A. M. Systême
Des Animaux Sans Vertèbres; Ou,
Tableau Génŕal Des Classes, Des
Classes, Des Orres Et Des Genres De Ces
Animaux. Paris: L'Auteur, 1801.
Internet resource, p33.
http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bib
liography/14255#/summary PD AND An
engraving of Jean-Baptiste Lamarck at
35 years of age. Source Alpheus
Spring Packard's 1901 Lamarck, the
Founder of Evolution: His Life and Work
with Translations of His Writings on
Organic Evolution, page 20. PD
source: http://www.biodiversitylibrary.o
rg/bibliography/14255#/summary AND htt
p://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Lamarcka
t35.PNG

[2] Lamarck, Jean B. P. A. M.
Systême Des Animaux Sans Vertèbres;
Ou, Tableau Génŕal Des Classes, Des
Classes, Des Orres Et Des Genres De Ces
Animaux. Paris: L'Auteur, 1801.
Internet resource, p33.
http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bib
liography/14255#/summary PD
source: http://www.biodiversitylibrary.o
rg/bibliography/14255#/summary
199 YBN
[1801 AD] 		2349) The element vanadium {VunADEuM}.
Mexico City, Mexico (presumably) 
[1] Andrés Manuel del Río
(1764-1849), Spanish-Mexican geologist
and chemist. This image is a picture of
an oil painting dated from the XIX
century. The Painting is on public
display at the Palacio de Minería in
Mexico City. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Del_Rio.jpg

[2] Vanadium is not found in the
native state, but is present in
minerals such as vanadinite,
Pb5(VO4)3Cl. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Vanadinita_Mibladen%2C_Midelt_Marruec
os.png
199 YBN
[1801 AD] 		2350) The element niobium {nIOBEuM}.
 
[1] Image of chemist en:Charles
Hatchett PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Charles_Hatchett.jpg

[2] Ferrocolumbite Photo Copyright ©
Keith Compton - This image is
copyrighted. Unauthorized reproduction
prohibited. Locality: Giles
Columbite-Beryl Pegmatite (Giles
Prospect), Spargoville, Coolgardie
Shire, Western Australia,
Australia Single black terminated
Ferrocolumbite xl. 36mm x 25mm x
14mm Personal collection and
photo. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.mindat.org/min-1514.h
tml
199 YBN
[1801 AD] 		2374) The law of partial pressures by
Dalton: that each component of a
mixture of gases exerts the same
pressure that it would if it alone
occupied the whole volume of the
mixture, at the same temperature.
Manchester, England 
[1] Engraving of a painting of John
Dalton Source Frontispiece of John
Dalton and the Rise of Modern Chemistry
by Henry Roscoe Date 1895 Author
Henry Roscoe (author), William Henry
Worthington (engraver), and Joseph
Allen (painter) [t right one finger =
?] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Dalton_John_desk.jpg

[2] John Dalton John Dalton,
1766-1844, English chemist and Fellow
of the Royal Society. [t this pose,
hand in coat=?, famous Napoleon
pose] PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.english.upenn.edu/Pro
jects/knarf/People/dalton.html
198 YBN
[03/??/1802 AD] 		2332) The asteroid (and minor planet)
Pallas {PaLuS} is recognized.
Bremen, Germany 
[1] Pallas The asteroid
Pallas Pallas’s largest
crater-like feature seen in the digital
model (left) and from two perspectives:
appearing face-on (upper right) and
edge-on along the limb (lower right).
This image is courtesy of Science/AAAS
in a paper by Britney Schmidt, et
al. UNKNOWN
source: http://newsroom.ucla.edu/portal/
ucla/artwork/1/1/1/6/3/111163/Pallas_fig
ure_3_image.jpg

[2] Heinrich Wilhelm Matthäus Olbers
(October 11, 1758 - March 2, 1840) was
a German astronomer, physician and
physicist. Source
http://web4.si.edu/sil/scientific-ide
ntity/display_results.cfm?alpha_sort=W
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Heinrich_Wilhelm_Olbers.jpg
198 YBN
[1802 AD] 		2239) The word "biology".
Paris, France (presumably) 
[1] La bildo estas kopiita de
wikipedia:fr. La originala priskribo
estas: Deuxi�me portrait de
Lamarck Sujet : Lamarck. Source :
Galerie des naturalistes de J.
Pizzetta, Ed. Hennuyer, 1893
(tomb� dans le domaine
public) GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jean-baptiste_lamarck2.jpg

[2] An engraving of Jean-Baptiste
Lamarck at 35 years of age. Source
Alpheus Spring Packard's 1901
Lamarck, the Founder of Evolution: His
Life and Work with Translations of His
Writings on Organic Evolution, page
20. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Lamarckat35.PNG
198 YBN
[1802 AD] 		2365) Spectral lines are identified by
William Hyde Wollaston (WOLuSTuN) when
he notices dark lines in the spectrum
of a ray of light from the Sun.
London, England 
[1] William Wollaston Fiure 3 from
1802 Philosophical
Transactions PD/Corel
source: Wollaston_William_1802_PT.pdf

[2] Scientist: Wollaston, William
Hyde (1766 - 1878) Discipline(s):
Chemistry ; Physics ; Medicine Print
Artist: James Thomson, 1789-1850
Medium: Lithograph Original
Artist: J. Jackson Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 11.5 x 8.7 cm /
Sheet: 24.5 x 16 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=W
198 YBN
[1802 AD] 		2377) The element tantalum.
Uppsala, Sweden 
[1] This image was copied from
en.wikipedia.org. The original
description was: Tantalum sample. GNU

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ta%2C73.jpg

[2] Anders Gustaf Ekeberg
(1767-1813) PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://homepage.mac.com/dtrapp/E
lements/myth.html
198 YBN
[1802 AD] 		2439) The first dry electric battery;
by Johann Ritter.
Gotha, Germany 
[1] Replikation der trockenen
Ladungssäule Ritters, dem ersten
Akkumulator PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www2.uni-jena.de/biologie
/ehh/forum/ausstellungen/Physik_als_Kuns
t/Physik_als_Kunst.htm

[2] Undatiertes Portrait von J. W.
Ritter PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www2.uni-jena.de/biologie
/ehh/forum/ausstellungen/Physik_als_Kuns
t/Physik_als_Kunst.htm
198 YBN
[1802 AD] 		2464) That different gases all expand
by equal amounts with rise in
temperature is discovered by Joseph
Louis Gay-Lussac (GAlYUSoK).
Arcueil, France (presumably) 
[1] Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gaylussac.jpg

[2] Scientist: Gay-Lussac, Joseph
Louis (1778 - 1850) Discipline(s):
Chemistry ; Physics Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 10 x 6.4 cm /
Sheet: 25 x 19.3 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=g
198 YBN
[1802 AD] 		6609) The first water distribution
system of a city; Philadelphia.
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA  
197 YBN
[10/21/1803 AD] 		2375) That atoms of different elements
vary in size and mass is shown, and the
first table of elements by atomic mass
is created by John Dalton.

Dalton assigns to Hydrogen a value of
1.
Manchester, England 
[1] Two figures from: John Dalton,
''On the Absorption of Gases by Water
and Other Liquids.'' Memoirs of the
Literary and Philosophical Society of
Manchester , Second Series, 1, 271-87
(1805). http://books.google.com/books?i
d=LJNIAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA287 PD
AND Engraving of a painting of John
Dalton Source Frontispiece of John
Dalton and the Rise of Modern Chemistry
by Henry Roscoe Date 1895 Author
Henry Roscoe (author), William Henry
Worthington (engraver), and Joseph
Allen (painter) [t right one finger =
?] PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=LJNIAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA259
AND http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imag
e:Dalton_John_desk.jpg

[2] Figure from: John Dalton, ''On
the Absorption of Gases by Water and
Other Liquids.'' Memoirs of the
Literary and Philosophical Society of
Manchester , Second Series, 1, 271-87
(1805). http://books.google.com/books?i
d=LJNIAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA287 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=LJNIAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA259
197 YBN
[1803 AD] 		2235) The element cerium {SEREuM}; the
first lanthanide element to be
discovered.

The lanthanides are a series of 15
naturally occurring metallic elements
from atomic number 57 (lanthanum)
through 71 (lutetium). They are grouped
apart from the rest of the elements in
the periodic table because they all
behave in a similar way in chemical
reactions.
Berlin, (was Prussia) Germany
(presumably) 
[1] A sample of cerium(IV) oxide
(CeO2). PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Cerium%28IV%29_oxide.jpg

[2] # Title: Martin Heinrich
Klaproth # Author:Ambroise Tardieu
(engraving) after original portrait by
Eberhard-Siegfried Henne # Year:
unknown # Source:
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollections
/hst/scientific-identity/explore.htm
(reworked) Scientist: Klapproth,
Martin Heinrich (1743 -
1817) Discipline(s): Chemistry Print
Artist: Ambroise Tardieu, 1788-1841
Medium: Engraving Original Artist:
Eberhard-Siegfried Henne, 1759-1828
Original Dimensions: Graphic: 7.5 x
10.3 cm / Sheet: 21.2 x 14.3 cm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Martin_Heinrich_Klaproth.jpg
197 YBN
[1803 AD] 		2400) The steam engine railway train by
Richard Trevithick (Tre-Vi-tiK).
South Wales, England 
[1] On the plaques is the following
text: ''This model was refurbished by
the combined efforts of: THE FRIENDS OF
TREVITHICK CENTRAL TRAINS EASTERN
GENERATION ABB-PCL ENGINEERING KUE
ENGINEERING Presented to Central Trains
by Frank Trevithick-Okuno on 17th April
1998. 1803 LOCOMOTIVE RICHARD
TREVITHICK This is a full scale
replica of the first steam railway
locomotive in the world, which preceded
Stephenson's 'Rocket' by 26 years. It
was designed by Richard Trevithick
(1771-1833), and built near Ironbridge
in Shropshire by the Coalbrookdale
Company in the winter of 1802/3. A near
identical engine ran the following year
at Pen-y-Darren. The replica was
built by Task Undertakings, a Manpower
Services Commission project in
Birmingham, under the guidance of Allen
Gulliver, to drawings made for the
Ironbridge Gorge Museum by Stewart
Johnson.'' This replica is located in
Telford Central Station, Telford,
Shropshire, UK. The photo was taken on
14 June 2005 by Mark Barker. CC
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Trevithick1803Locomotive.jpg

[2] London Steam Carriage, eigener
Scan Road locomotive by Trevithick and
Vivian, demonstrated in London in
1803. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Trevithicks_Dampfwagen.jpg
196 YBN
[12/20/1804 AD] 		6506) The size of an atom is estimated
to be around a nanometer by Thomas
Young.
London, England (presumably) 
[1] Scientist: Young, Thomas (1773 -
1829) Discipline(s): Physics Print
Artist: G. Adcock, 19th C. Medium:
Engraving Original Artist: Thomas
Lawrence, 1769-1830 Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 11.1 x 8.7 cm /
Sheet: 19.6 x 12.5 cm PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Thoma
s_Young_%28scientist%29.jpg

[2] Scientist: Young, Thomas (1773 -
1829) Discipline(s): Physics Print
Artist: Henry Adlard, 19th C.
Medium: Engraving Original Artist:
Thomas Lawrence, 1769-1830 Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 11.2 x 9 cm /
Sheet: 24.8 x 16.6 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=Y
196 YBN
[1804 AD] 		2362) The element platinum.
London, England 
[1] Scientist: Wollaston, William Hyde
(1766 - 1878) Discipline(s):
Chemistry ; Physics ; Medicine Print
Artist: James Thomson, 1789-1850
Medium: Lithograph Original
Artist: J. Jackson Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 11.5 x 8.7 cm /
Sheet: 24.5 x 16 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=W

[2] Scientist: Wollaston, William
Hyde (1766 - 1828) Discipline(s):
Chemistry ; Physics ;
Medicine Original Artist: J. Jackson
Original Dimensions: Graphic: 13.8 x
11 cm / Sheet: 27.4 x 18.3
cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=W
196 YBN
[1804 AD] 		2363) The element palladium {PulADEuM}.
London, England 
[1] Scientist: Wollaston, William Hyde
(1766 - 1878) Discipline(s):
Chemistry ; Physics ; Medicine Print
Artist: James Thomson, 1789-1850
Medium: Lithograph Original
Artist: J. Jackson Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 11.5 x 8.7 cm /
Sheet: 24.5 x 16 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=W

[2] Scientist: Wollaston, William
Hyde (1766 - 1828) Discipline(s):
Chemistry ; Physics ;
Medicine Original Artist: J. Jackson
Original Dimensions: Graphic: 13.8 x
11 cm / Sheet: 27.4 x 18.3
cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=W
196 YBN
[1804 AD] 		2417) That the Earth's magnetic field
extends into the atmosphere but does
not vary with altitude is shown.
Paris, France (presumably) 
[1] Gay-Lussac and Biot and an altitude
of 4000 metres Biot and Gay-Lussac
ascend in a hot air balloon, 1804.
Illustration from the late 19th
Century. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Early_flight_02561u_%285%29.jpg

[2] Jean Baptiste Biot PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jbiot.jpg
196 YBN
[1804 AD] 		2440) Morphine is isolated from opium,
the first alkaloid to be obtained in
pure form.
{France and}Paderborn, Germany 
[1] Raw Morphine (Opium) From the
Department of Justice website
[1]http://www.usdoj.gov/dea/photos/opium
/opium1.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Morphine1.jpg

[2] Bernard Courtois PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.iodinesource.com/Hist
oryOfIodine.asp
196 YBN
[1804 AD] 		6519) There are 1 billion humans on
Earth.
 
[1] Parker, G. Compact History of the
World. Barnes & Noble, 2001,
p17. COPYRIGHTED
source: Parker, G. Compact History of
the World. Barnes & Noble, 2001, p17.
195 YBN
[1805 AD] 		2364) The element rhodium {rODEuM}.
London, England 
[1] Rhodium foil and wire. Image taken
by User:Dschwen on January 12th
2006. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Rhodium_foil_and_wire.jpg

[2] Scientist: Wollaston, William
Hyde (1766 - 1878) Discipline(s):
Chemistry ; Physics ; Medicine Print
Artist: James Thomson, 1789-1850
Medium: Lithograph Original
Artist: J. Jackson Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 11.5 x 8.7 cm /
Sheet: 24.5 x 16 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=W
195 YBN
[1805 AD] 		3223) The first percussion ignition
gun. Percussion ignition will replace
ignition by flint spark.
Belhelvie, Aberdeenshire, Scotland
(presumably) 
[1] Forsyth gun with special
lock UNKNOWN
source: http://www.wikitree.com/photo.ph
p/2/23/Forsyth_guns.jpg
195 YBN
[1805 AD] 		6249) The first refrigeration machine,
a machine that compresses and condenses
a recycled gas to lower the temperature
of water.
Philadelphia, PA, USA 
[1] [t Note, I don't know if this is
the water cooler and ice making
machine.] Plate 1 from: Oliver
Evans, John Stevens, ''The abortion of
the young steam engineer's guide'',
1805 http://books.google.com/books?id=z
lpGAAAAYAA
AND http://infoweb.newsbank.com/iw-sear
ch/we/Evans
AND http://www.himedo.net/TheHopkinThom
asProject/TimeLine/Wales/Steam/URocheste
rCollection/Evans/Evans%20Combined.htm#A
RTICLE9 PD
source: http://www.himedo.net/TheHopkinT
homasProject/TimeLine/Wales/Steam/URoche
sterCollection/Evans/Evans%20Combined.ht
m#ARTICLE9

[2] Colin Hempstead, William E.
Worthington, ''Encyclopedia of
20th-century technology, Volume 2'',
2005. http://books.google.com/books?id=
0wkIlnNjDWcC&pg=PA672&dq=Oliver+Evans+an
d+refrigeration#v=onepage&q&f=false COP
YRIGHTED
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=0wkIlnNjDWcC&pg=PA672&dq=Oliver+Evans+a
nd+refrigeration#v=onepage&q&f=false
194 YBN
[02/15/1806 AD] 		6600) Chlorine gas is liquefied.
(Devonshire Street, Portland Place)
London, England 
[1] Plate XIV Thomas Northmore,
''Experiments on the remarkable Effects
which take place in the Gases, by
Change in their Habitudes, or elective
Attractions, when mechanically
compressed.'', A Journal of Natural
Philosophy, Chemistry and the Arts
(Nicholson's Journal), Volume 12,
p368. http://books.google.com/books?id=
vd43AQAAIAAJ&pg=PA378 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=vd43AQAAIAAJ&pg=PA378
194 YBN
[11/20/1806 AD] 		2474) The theory that elements are held
together by electrical energy, that
chemical combination occurs between
substances of opposite charge, and that
electricity is the most likely method
to decompose all substances to their
elements by Humphry Davy.
London, England 
[1]
http://www.nndb.com/people/028/000083776
/humphry-davy-2-sized.jpg [left finger
1: ''left'' viewed as educated
intellectuals in 1800s England? just
coincidence?] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Sir_Humphry_Davy2.jpg

[2] Taken from The Life of Sir Humphry
Davy by John A. Paris, London: Colburn
and Bentley, 1831. Engraving from about
1830, based on a portrait by Sir Thomas
Lawrence (1769 - 1830) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Humphry_Davy_Engraving_1830.jpg
194 YBN
[1806 AD] 		2346) Asparagine {e-SPAR-e-JEN}, the
first amino acid, is isolated, by Louis
Vauquelin (VoKloN).
Paris, France 
[1] Louis Nicolas Vauquelin from
en:Wikipedia PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Louis_Nicolas_Vauquelin.jpg

[2] Portrait de Vauquelin situé dans
la Salle des actes de la Faculté de
pharmacie, 4 avenue de l'Observatoire
à Paris PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://euromin.w3sites.net/Nouve
au_site/mineralogiste/biographies/Vauque
linf.htm
193 YBN
[03/29/1807 AD] 		2333) The asteroid Vesta is observed.
Bremen, Germany 
[1] Description English: As NASA's
Dawn spacecraft takes off for its next
destination, this mosaic synthesizes
some of the best views the spacecraft
had of the giant asteroid Vesta. Dawn
studied Vesta from July 2011 to
September 2012. The towering mountain
at the south pole — more than twice
the height of Mount Everest — is
visible at the bottom of the image. The
set of three craters known as the
''snowman'' can be seen at the top
left. Date 17 September 2012,
10:29:10 Source Full View of
Vesta Author
NASA/JPL-Caltech/UCAL/MPS/DLR/IDA PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/14/Vesta_full_mosaic.jpg


[2] Vesta PD
source: http://rst.gsfc.nasa.gov/Sect19/
Sect19_2.html
193 YBN
[03/??/1807 AD] 		2407) The quantity mv2 (vis-visa) is
called "energy".
London, England 
[1] Figure 442 Fig. 442. The manner in
which two portions of coloured light,
admitted through two small apertures,
produce light and dark stripes or
fringes by their interference,
proceeding in the form of hyperbolas;
the middle ones are however usually a
little dilated as at A. P. 365.
PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=bW8SAAAAIAAJ&printsec=titlepage&dq=edit
ions:LCCN07026143#PPT122,M1

[2] Figure 443 Fig 443 À séries of
stripes of all colours, of their
appropriate breadths, placed side by
side in the manner in which they would
be separated by refraction, and
combined together so as to form the
fringes of colours below them,
beginning from white. P. 365.
PD/Corel
source: same
193 YBN
[10/06/1807 AD] 		2476) The element potassium {PuTaSEuM}.
London, England 
[1] Image:Kmetal.jpg Size of this
preview: 800 × 600 pixels Full
resolution‎ (4,000 × 3,000 pixels,
file size: 4.83 MB, MIME type:
image/jpeg) [t Does metal oxide? Is
volatile in water?] CC
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Kmetal.jpg

[2] Flame test Kalium,
violett Source: German Wikipedia,
original upload 24. Jan 2005 by Herge
(selfmade) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Flammenf%C3%A4rbungK.png
193 YBN
[10/13/1807 AD] 		2477) The element sodium.
London, England 
[1] Sodium metal from the Dennis s.k
collection. CC
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Nametal.JPG.jpg

[2] The flame test for sodium displays
a brilliantly bright yellow emission
due to the so called ''sodium D-lines''
at 588.9950 and 589.5924
nanometers. 13. jun 2005 GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Flametest--Na.swn.jpg
193 YBN
[1807 AD] 		2313) Streets are lit with gas
lighting; in London.
London, England 
[1] Scientist: Murdock, William (1754
- 1834) Discipline(s):
Engineering Original Artist: Grahma
Gilbert Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 10.4 x 8.1 cm / Sheet: 14 x
8.7 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=M

[2] William Murdock, bust by an
unknown artist; in the Science Museum,
London Courtesy of the Science Museum,
London COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-33699/William-Murdock-bust-by-an-unknow
n-artist-in-the-Science?articleTypeId=1
193 YBN
[1807 AD] 		2380) "Fourier's theorem": that any
periodic oscillation can be reduced to
a sum of simple trigonometric (sine, or
cosine, etc.) wave motions.
Grenoble, France 
[1]
http://br.geocities.com/saladefisica3/fo
tos/fourier.jpg PD/CC
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Fourier2.jpg

[2] Scientist: Fourier, Jean Baptiste
Joseph (1768 - 1830) Discipline(s):
Mathematics ; Physics Print Artist:
Julien Leopold Boilly, 1796-1874
Medium: Lithograph Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 16.3 x 16.5 cm /
Sheet: 30.1 x 19.5 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=F
192 YBN
[06/21/1808 AD] 		2465) The element boron.
Paris, France (presumably) 
[1] English: Boron sample. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:B%2C5.jpg

[2] Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gaylussac.jpg
192 YBN
[1808 AD] 		2428) The phenomenon of light
"polarization" is described by Étienne
Louis Malus (molYUS).

Malus finds that an image of sun light
reflected from a window that passes
through Iceland spar (calcite) is not
double refracted finding that only one
image can be seen.

The phenomenon of polarization is most
likely the result of light rays that
are filtered into a set of parallel
planes as a result of reflection off of
regularly spaced structures. So instead
of being polarized, light is
"planarized", and polarization is a
form of planar filtration.
Paris, France 
[1] Etienne-Louis Malus (1775-1812),
French officer, engineer, physicist,
and mathematician. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Etienne-Louis_Malus.jpg

[2] Scientist: Malus, Etienne Louis
(1775 - 1812) Discipline(s):
Physics Print Artist: Ambroise
Tardieu, 1788-1841 Medium: Engraving
Original Artist: Arago Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 10.3 x 7.7 cm /
Sheet: 23.8 x 15 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=M
192 YBN
[1808 AD] 		2478) The elements barium, strontium
{STronsEuM or STroNTEuM}, calcium and
magnesium.
London, England 
[1] This image was copied from
en.wikipedia.org. The original
description was: Barium sample.GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ba%2C56.jpg

[2] This image was copied from
en.wikipedia.org. The original
description was: Strontium
sample. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Sr%2C38.jpg
191 YBN
[11/15/1809 AD] 		6606) Electric arc welding and an
electric arc furnace: a metal
(aluminum) is melted using electricity
by Humphry Davy.
London, England 
[1] Fig l The apparatus for electrizing
potassium in gasses A the glass tube B
the wire negatively electrified C and D
the cup and wire positively electrified
Fig 2 The apparatus for decomposing
water out of the contact of air page 4
1 AA the cones containing the water BBB
the tubes for conveying the gas C and D
the pneumatic apparatus Fig 3 The
apparatus for decomposing and
recomposing water under oil CC the
wires for communicating the Voltaic
electricity DD the wires for producing
the explosion B the tube A the vessel
containing it a.d.c. the level of the
different fluids Humphry Davy,
''The Bakerian Lecture for 1809 On some
new Electrochemical Researches on
various Objects particularly the
metallic Bodies the Alkalies and Earths
and on some Combinations of
Hydrogene'', Philosophical Transactions
of London, Volume 100, 1810,
p16-74. books.google.com/books?id=nVBFA
AAAcAAJ&pg=PA16 PD
source: books.google.com/books?id=nVBFAA
AAcAAJ&pg=PA75

[2] Plate 2 Fig 4 The apparatus for
exposing water to the action of ignited
potash and charcoal out of the contact
of air A the tube for water B the iron
tube C the receiver for the ammonia D
the pneumatic apparatus Fig 5 The
apparatus for the decomposition of
ammonia Fig 6 A Voltaic apparatus
being one of the 200 which compose the
new Voltaic battery of the Royal
Institution For the construction of
this battery and of other instruments
applicable to new researches a fund of
upwards 1000 has been raised by
subscription from members of the Royal
Institution As yet the whole
combination has not been put into
action but reasoning from the effects
of that part of it which have been used
some important phaenomena may be
expected from so great an accumulation
of electrical power Humphry Davy,
''The Bakerian Lecture for 1809 On some
new Electrochemical Researches on
various Objects particularly the
metallic Bodies the Alkalies and Earths
and on some Combinations of
Hydrogene'', Philosophical Transactions
of London, Volume 100, 1810,
p16-74. books.google.com/books?id=nVBFA
AAAcAAJ&pg=PA16 PD
source: books.google.com/books?id=nVBFAA
AAcAAJ&pg=PA75
191 YBN
[1809 AD] 		2302) The method of preserving food for
several years by heating and sealing it
in an air-tight container is
discovered.
Paris, France (presumably) 
[1] Appert, N. L’art De Conserver
Pendant Plusieurs Années Toutes Les
Substances Animales Et Végétales...
Patris et Cie,
1810. http://digital.slub-dresden.de/we
rkansicht/dlf/10850/1/cache.off PD AND

http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=5759&r
endTypeId=4 Appert, lithograph by
Guffanli H. Roger-Viollet[2] PD
source: http://digital.slub-dresden.de/w
erkansicht/dlf/10850/1/cache.off
AND http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:
Nicolas_Fran%C3%A7ois_Appert.jpg

[2]
http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=5759&ren
dTypeId=4 Appert, lithograph by
Guffanli H. Roger-Viollet[2] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Nicolas_Fran%C3%A7ois_Appert.jpg htt
p://digital.slub-dresden.de/werkansicht/
dlf/10850/1/cache.off
191 YBN
[1809 AD] 		2466) Gases are shown to combine in
small whole number ratios by volume and
not by mass (as long as temperature and
pressure are constant) by Joseph Louis
Gay-Lussac (GAlYUSoK).
For example, two parts of
hydrogen unite with one part nitrogen
to form ammonia.
Paris, France (presumably) 
[1] Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gaylussac.jpg

[2] Scientist: Gay-Lussac, Joseph
Louis (1778 - 1850) Discipline(s):
Chemistry ; Physics Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 10 x 6.4 cm /
Sheet: 25 x 19.3 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=g
191 YBN
[1809 AD] 		2481) The first electric light; the arc
lamp by Humphry Davy.
London, England 
[1] Humphry Davy demonstrates his new
electric light for the members of the
Royal Institution of London. Power is
drawn from the banks of batteries in
the basement and rapidly used up by the
intense light. Electric light was then
only a scientific curiosity, practical
only when expense was no
object. Humphry Davy Demonstrating the
Arc Light, 1809 PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://people.clarkson.edu/%7Eek
atz/scientists/davy.htm

[2]
http://www.nndb.com/people/028/000083776
/humphry-davy-2-sized.jpg [left finger
1: ''left'' viewed as educated
intellectuals in 1800s England? just
coincidence?] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Sir_Humphry_Davy2.jpg
190 YBN
[1810 AD] 		2480) Chlorine is shown to be an
element and shown to support combustion
as oxygen does by Humphry Davy who uses
a powerful current from a voltaic pile
to decompose one of the strongest acids
known, muriatic (now called
hydrochloric) acid into hydrogen and
chlorine gas. In doing this Davy also
shows that hydrogen is characteristic
of acids, not oxygen, as Lavoisier had
thought.
London, England 
[1]
http://www.nndb.com/people/028/000083776
/humphry-davy-2-sized.jpg [left finger
1: ''left'' viewed as educated
intellectuals in 1800s England? just
coincidence?] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Sir_Humphry_Davy2.jpg

[2] Taken from The Life of Sir Humphry
Davy by John A. Paris, London: Colburn
and Bentley, 1831. Engraving from about
1830, based on a portrait by Sir Thomas
Lawrence (1769 - 1830) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Humphry_Davy_Engraving_1830.jpg
189 YBN
[1811 AD] 		2334) That the tail of a comet always
points away from the Sun because of
pressure from Sun light is understood.
Bremen, Germany 
[1] Heinrich Wilhelm Matthäus Olbers
(October 11, 1758 - March 2, 1840) was
a German astronomer, physician and
physicist. Source
http://web4.si.edu/sil/scientific-ide
ntity/display_results.cfm?alpha_sort=W
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Heinrich_Wilhelm_Olbers.jpg

[2] Olbers, detail from an
engraving Courtesy of the trustees of
the British Museum; photograph, J.R.
Freeman & Co. Ltd. PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-30472/Olbers-detail-from-an-engraving?a
rticleTypeId=1
189 YBN
[1811 AD] 		2432) The concept of molecules, and the
method to determine correct atomic mass
and molecular formula by Amedeo
Avogadro (oVOGoDrO).

Avogadro creates the concept of a
molecule and distinguishes between
atoms and molecules.

By presuming that the distance between
molecules does not vary, Avogadro
explains that equal volumes of all
gases at the same temperature and
pressure must contain the same number
of molecules.

Using this principle Avogadro correctly
describes the molecular formula for
water, ammonia, carbon monoxide and
other compounds.
Vercelli, Italy 
[1] Amedeo Avogadro, lithograph,
1856. The Granger Collection, New York
PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-15471/Amedeo-Avogadro-lithograph-1856?a
rticleTypeId=1

[2] [t [3 wiki] describes as
''Caricature of Amedeo Avogadro'', is
this not an accurate portrait? and no
photo by 1856?] Amedeo Avogadro -
chemist PD
source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wik
i/Image:Amedeo_Avogadro.gif
189 YBN
[1811 AD] 		2441) The element iodine.
Dijon, France 
[1] Pure iodine crystals, heated
slightly, showing some solid iodine
escaping directly to the air as obvious
violet colored vapors. Because of this
''sublimation'' property, exposures
include dermal contact with solid
crystals and inhalation of vapors which
may not be quite as visible as this at
room temperature. Photographer, Charles
Salocks. PD
source: http://www.dtsc.ca.gov/SiteClean
up/ERP/Clan_Labs.cfm

[2] Bernard Courtois PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.iodinesource.com/Hist
oryOfIodine.asp
189 YBN
[1811 AD] 		2564) That fats are combinations of
glycerol and fatty acids is recognized.
Paris, France (presumably) 
[1] Michel Eugène Chevreul
(1786-1889), French chemist. Source
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollecti
ons/hst/scientific-identity/fullsize/SIL
14-C3-10a.jpg Scientist: Chevreul,
Michel Eugène (1786 -
1889) Discipline(s): Chemistry ;
Medicine Print Artist: C. Cook
Medium: Engraving Original Artist:
Maurir Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 15.4 x 12 cm / Sheet: 23.5 x
16.5 cm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Michel_Eug%C3%A8ne_Chevreul.jpg

[2] Michel Eugène Chevreul
(1786-08-31-1889-04-09). Tagged as
retouched by source. Cropped by
uploader. Source Ministère de la
culture - La Médiathèque de
l'Architecture et du Patrimoine - Base
Mémoire >
http://www.mediatheque-patrimoine.cultur
e.gouv.fr/fr/archives_photo/fonds_photo/
nadar.html > [1] >
http://www.culture.gouv.fr/Wave/image/me
moire/0071/sap01_v1-17878_t.jpg Date
1886 Author Félix Nadar PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Chevreul_by_Nadar_1886.jpg
188 YBN
[1812 AD] 		2347) Glucose is isolated.
St Petersburg?, Russia?  
187 YBN
[1813 AD] 		2492) Elements are represented with one
or two letters.
Stokholm, Sweden (presumably) 
[1] Page 52 from: Berzelius, Jöns
Jacob. ''Essay on the cause of chemical
proportions, and on some circumstances
relating to them; together with a short
and easy method of expressing them.''
Annals of Philosophy 2 (1813):
443-454. http://books.google.com/books?
id=e2I7AQAAIAAJ&pg=PA443 CONTINUED
ON http://books.google.com/books?id=E8M
4AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA51 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=E8M4AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA51

[2]
http://www.chemistry.msu.edu/Portraits/i
mages/Berzelius3c.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:J%C3%B6ns_Jacob_Berzelius.jpg
187 YBN
[1813 AD] 		2503) The theory that all compounds are
composed of 2 electrically opposite
parts.
Stokholm, Sweden (presumably) 
[1]
http://www.chemistry.msu.edu/Portraits/i
mages/Berzelius3c.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:J%C3%B6ns_Jacob_Berzelius.jpg

[2] Scientist: Berzelius, Jons Jakob
(1779 - 1848) Discipline(s):
Chemistry Print Artist: Charles W.
Sharpe, d. 1875(76) Medium:
Engraving Original Artist: Johan
Olaf Sodermark, 1790-1848 Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 26.8 x 18.2 cm /
Sheet: 31.6 x 23 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=B
186 YBN
[1814 AD] 		2571) The spectroscope is invented by
Joseph von Fraunhofer (FroUNHoFR or
HOFR?). Using the spectroscope
Fraunhofer recognizes that substances
emit specific spectral lines, that the
spectrum of planet Venus has the same
absorption lines as the Sun, and that
the spectrum of other stars have
absorption lines that are different
from those of the Sun.
Benedictbeuern (near Munich),
Germany 
[1] Figure 3 from: Joseph,
Fraunhofer, ''Bestimmung des Brechungs-
und Farbenzerstreuungs-Vermögens
verschiedener Glasarten, in Bezug auf
die Vervollkommnung achromatischer
Fernrohre.'', Akademie Der
Wissenschaften zu München, (1814), 15
Band v, pp 193-226.
http://books.google.com/books?id=2-AAA
AAAYAAJ&pg=PA203 PD AND Figure 1
from: Joseph, Fraunhofer,
''Bestimmung des Brechungs- und
Farbenzerstreuungs-Vermögens
verschiedener Glasarten, in Bezug auf
die Vervollkommnung achromatischer
Fernrohre.'', Akademie Der
Wissenschaften zu München, (1814), 15
Band v, pp 193-226.
http://books.google.com/books?id=2-AAA
AAAYAAJ&pg=PA203 PD AND circa 1820
- 01 Jan 1820 Email this image Rate
this image Joseph von
Fraunhofer (Photo by Hulton
Archive/Getty Images) PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=2-AAAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA203
AND http://www.viewimages.com/Search.
aspx?mid=3270856&epmid=1&partner=Google

[2] Figure 3 from: Joseph,
Fraunhofer, ''Bestimmung des Brechungs-
und Farbenzerstreuungs-Vermögens
verschiedener Glasarten, in Bezug auf
die Vervollkommnung achromatischer
Fernrohre.'', Akademie Der
Wissenschaften zu München, (1814), 15
Band v, pp 193-226.
http://books.google.com/books?id=2-AAA
AAAYAAJ&pg=PA203 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=2-AAAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA203
185 YBN
[11/??/1815 AD] 		2544) The theory that all atomic masses
are multiples of the atomic mass of
hydrogen by William Prout.

Many atomic masses are shown to not be
multiples of hydrogen but will be shown
later to be from isotopes which vary in
mass.
London, England (presumably) 
[1] William Prout (published
anonymously), On the Relation between
the Specific Gravities of Bodies in
their Gaseous State and the Weights of
their Atoms. Annals of Philosophy 6,
p321-330
(1815). books.google.com/books?id=tDowA
AAAYAAJ PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=tDowAAAAYAA

[2] William Prout
(1785-1850) PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.uam.es/departamentos/
ciencias/qorg/docencia_red/qo/l0/1830.ht
ml
185 YBN
[1815 AD] 		2419) Optical isomers are discovered:
chemically identical molecules that
rotate polarized light in different
directions because of differences in
their shape.
Paris, France (presumably) 
[1] Jean Baptiste Biot PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jbiot.jpg

[2] Gay-Lussac and Biot and an
altitude of 4000 metres Biot and
Gay-Lussac ascend in a hot air balloon,
1804. Illustration from the late 19th
Century. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Early_flight_02561u_%285%29.jpg
185 YBN
[1815 AD] 		2469) Chemical radicals are recognized
by Gay-Lussac (GAlYUSoK): a group of
atoms that take part in most chemical
reactions as a single unit, usually
passing from one compound to another
but incapable of existing freely for a
long time.
Paris, France (presumably) 
[1] Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gaylussac.jpg

[2] Scientist: Gay-Lussac, Joseph
Louis (1778 - 1850) Discipline(s):
Chemistry ; Physics Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 10 x 6.4 cm /
Sheet: 25 x 19.3 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=g
185 YBN
[1815 AD] 		3224) The percussion cap, a cone of
metal that contains fulminate of
mercury which explodes when struck.
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
(presumably) 		 
184 YBN
[04/??/1816 AD] 		2351) Joseph Nicéphore Niepce (nYePS)
creates a photograph on paper
sensitized with silver chloride which
he can only fix partially with nitric
acid.
Chalon-sur-Saône, France 
[1] C. Laguiche. Joseph Nicéphore
Niépce. ca1795. Ink and
watercolor. 18.5 cm in
diameter. PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.hrc.utexas.edu/exhibi
tions/permanent/wfp/3.html

[2] English: By Nicéphore Niépce in
1826, entitled ''View from the Window
at Le Gras,'' captured on 20 × 25 cm
oil-treated bitumen. Due to the 8-hour
exposure, the buildings are illuminated
by the sun from both right and left.
This photo is generally considered the
first successful permanent
photograph. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:View_from_the_Window_at_Le_Gras%2C_Jo
seph_Nic%C3%A9phore_Ni%C3%A9pce.jpg
184 YBN
[1816 AD] 		2384) That strata layers can be
recognized by the kinds of fossils in
them is understood.
 
[1] William Smith, from
http://web4.si.edu/sil/scientific-identi
ty/display_results.cfm?alpha_sort=W Sci
entist: Smith, William (1769 -
1839) Discipline(s):
Geology Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 13.2 x 10.3 cm / [t looks
like early photo in history of
photography - first photo in 1816 and
not permanent until 1822 and 1826
(oldest existing photo. Smith dies in
1839, it shows that photography spread
fast within 13 years.] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:William_Smith.g.jpg
183 YBN
[01/12/1817 AD] 		2408) The theory that light is a
transverse wave (oscillates at a right
angle to the direction of travel) in an
aether medium by Thomas Young. Young
then uses this theory to explain light
polarization as the alignment of light
waves oscillating in the same plane.
But
polarization can also be explained as
"planarization", in which light is
filtered into parallel planes when
reflected.
London, England 
[1] ''Letter from Dr. Young to M.
Arago'', Jan. 12, 1817, found in:
Young, T., G. Peacock, and J. Leitch.
Miscellaneous Works: Scientific
Memoirs. Murray,
1855. http://books.google.com/books?id=
-XAXAQAAMAAJ&pg=380 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=-XAXAQAAMAAJ&pg=380

[2] ''Letter from Dr. Young to M.
Arago'', Jan. 12, 1817, found in:
Young, T., G. Peacock, and J. Leitch.
Miscellaneous Works: Scientific
Memoirs. Murray,
1855. http://books.google.com/books?id=
-XAXAQAAMAAJ&pg=380 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=-XAXAQAAMAAJ&pg=380
183 YBN
[1817 AD] 		2431) The element cadmium.
Göttingen, Germany 
[1] Cadmium metal PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:CadmiumMetalUSGOV.jpg

[2] Friedrich Stromeyer PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Friedrich_Strohmeyer.jpg
183 YBN
[1817 AD] 		2493) The element selenium.
Stokholm, Sweden (presumably) 
[1] Selenium sample. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Se%2C34.jpg

[2] black, grey and red Selene Source
http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bild:S
elen_1.jpg Date 03/2006 Author
http://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?t
itle=Benutzer:Tomihahndorf&action=edit
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Selen_1.jpg
183 YBN
[1817 AD] 		2600) The theory that chemicals contain
light and the systemization of
chemistry by Leopold Gmelin (GumAliN).
Heidelberg, Germany 
[1] Gmelin, L. Handbuch Der
Theoretischen Chemie. Springer-Verlag,
1817. Handbuch Der Theoretischen
Chemie. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=ohUoAQAAIAAJ PD AND Scientist:
Gmelin, Leopold (1788 -
1853) Discipline(s): Chemistry Print
Artist: George Cook, 1793-1849
Medium: Engraving Original Artist:
J. Woelfyle Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 15.2 x 12 cm / Sheet: 26.9 x
18.4 cm PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=ohUoAQAAIAAJ
AND http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollec
tions/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/displ
ay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=G

[2] Scientist: Gmelin, Leopold (1788
- 1853) Discipline(s):
Chemistry Print Artist: George Cook,
1793-1849 Medium: Engraving
Original Artist: J. Woelfyle
Original Dimensions: Graphic: 15.2 x
12 cm / Sheet: 26.9 x 18.4 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=G
183 YBN
[1817 AD] 		2783) The three embryonic layers of
animals are described.
Carnikava (near Riga), Latvia 
[1] Embrión de pollo mostrando los
primeros síntomas de circulación
sanguínea. Dibujado por D'Alton para
ilustrar la obra de Pander Beiträge
zur Entwicklungsgeschichte des
Hühnchens im Eye, Brönner, Würzburg
(1817) PD
source: http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
gen:Pander_chick_embryo.png

[2] Founder of embryology Christian
Heinrich Pander (1794-1865) PD/Corel
source: http://www.li.lv/index.php?optio
n=com_content&task=view&id=66&Itemid=39
183 YBN
[1817 AD] 		6598) The earliest rolled roads.
London, England (presumably) 
[1] Law, H., and D.K. Clark. The
Construction of Roads and Streets: In
Two Parts. The Art of Constructing
Common Roads, by Henry Law, C.E.
Revised and Condensed by D. Kinnear
Clark, C.E.. Recent Practice in the
Construction of Roads and Streets
Including Pavements of Stone, Wood, and
Asphalte. Crosby, Lockwood & Co., 1877.
Weale�s Rudimentary Series,
p319. http://books.google.com/books?id=
uq43AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA319 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=uq43AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA319

[2] John Loudon McAdam (1756 - 1836),
Scottish engineer and road-builder. PD

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:John_Loudon_McAdam.jpg
182 YBN
[11/26/1818 AD] 		2341) Comet Encke is identified; the
comet with the shortest period (3
years).
Marseilles, France 
[1] # subject: Pierre Méchain #
source:
http://www.kunstgeografie.nl/nulstandaar
dmeter.htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pie
rre_M%C3%A9chain

[2] Kitt Peak Telsecope Image of Comet
Encke taken January 5, 1994. {Public
Domain image taken from:
http://neo.jpl.nasa.gov/images/encke.htm
l) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Comet2PEncke.jpg
182 YBN
[1818 AD] 		2549) That the specific heat (the heat
in calories required to raise the
temperature of one gram of a substance
one degree Celsius) of an element is
inversely related to its atomic weight
is shown.
Paris, France (presumably) 
[1] Description Photograph taken
from a 19th-century scientific
book Source Elektrochemie - Ihre
Geschichte und Lehre Date
1895 Author Wilhelm Ostwald PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Pierre_Louis_Dulong.jpg

[2] Scientist: Dulong, Perre Louis
(1785 - 1838) Discipline(s):
Chemistry ; Physics Print Artist:
Ambroise Tardieu, 1788-1841 Medium:
Engraving PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=d
182 YBN
[1818 AD] 		2585) Strychnine is isolated by French
chemists Joseph Bienaimé Caventou
{KoVoNTU} and Pierre Joseph Pelletier
{PeLTYA}. Strychnine is a poisonous
alkaloid from Saint-Ignatius'-beans a
woody vine of the Philippines.
Paris, France 
[1] Joseph Caventou und Pierre
Pelletier
http://www.asmalldoseof.org/historyoft
ox/1800s.htox.php PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.pharmtech.tu-bs.de/ph
armgesch/wahl07/Chinin/chinin3.html

[2] Pierre-Joseph PELLETIER (1788 -
1842) PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://es.geocities.com/fisicas/
cientificos/quimicos/pelletier.htm
182 YBN
[1818 AD] 		2790) That fungi originate from spores
is proven.
Berlin, Germany 
[1] Portrait of Christian Gottfried
Ehrenberg (1795-1876) PD/Corel
source: http://www.springerlink.com/cont
ent/y0w6w64010355260/ Gone with the
wind â€" a second blow against
spontaneous generation In memoriam,
Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg
(1795â€"1876) Journal Aerobiologia P
ublisher Springer
Netherlands ISSN 0393-5965 (Print)
1573-3025 (Online) Issue Volume 11,
Number 3 / September,
1995 Category Historial
Biography DOI 10.1007/BF02450041 Pages
205-211 Subject Collection Earth and
Environmental Science SpringerLink
Date Tuesday, August 01,
2006 Ehrenberg.pdf

[2] Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg
(1795-1876) German naturalist,
zoologist, comparative anatomist,
geologist, and microscopist PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Ehren
berg_Christian_Gottfried_1795-1876.png
181 YBN
[12/??/1819 AD] 		2768) Isomophism, the similarity of
crystal structure between two or more
distinct substances, and that
isomorphous substances have similar
chemical formulas is recognized.
Berlin, Germany 
[1] Eilhard Mitscherlich Source
* first published at the German
Wikipedia project as de:Bild:Eilhard
Mitscherlich.jpg, cropped by
User:Frumpy Original Uploader:
de:User:Bedrich at 21:17, 13. Aug
2004. * Description on de.wiki:
Die Abbildung stammt von
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollections
/hst/scientific-identity/explore.htm
und ist als ''Public Domain''
lizensiert, da das Copyright abgelaufen
ist PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Eilhard_Mitscherlich.jpg

[2] Mitscherlich, Eilhardt (January
17, 1794 - August 28, 1863) German
chemist who discovered the Law of
Isomorphism. He also made other
important discoveries, including
selenic acid (1827) and the monoclinic
crystal form of sulfur (1823), named
benzene, became the first to synthesize
nitrobenzene in 1832, and was one of
the first to recognize contact action,
now known as catalytic action. PD
source: http://vernadsky.lib.ru/mingalee
v/scilogy/Mitscherlich.jpg
181 YBN
[1819 AD] 		2598) Two rays of light polarized in
perpendicular directions are shown to
not interfere with each other by
Augustin-Jean Fresnel (FrAneL) and
François Arago (oroGO).
Paris, France 
[1] Scientist: Fresnel, Augustin Jean
(1788 - 1827) Discipline(s):
Physics Print Artist: Ambroise
Tardieu, 1788-1841 Medium: Engraving
Original Dimensions: Graphic: 10.9 x
7.9 cm / Sheet: 21.5 x 14.7
cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=f

[2] Fresnel Lens displayed in the
Musée national de la marine in Paris,
France CeCILL
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Musee
Marine-phareFresnel-p1000466.jpg
180 YBN
[04/21/1820 AD] 		2454) Electricity is understood to
cause magnetism, and the first
electromagnet; by Hans Christian
Ørsted (RSTeD), who finds that
electric current running through a wire
causes a magnetic compass needle to
move.
Copenhagen, Denmark 
[1] A younger Hans Christian Ørsted,
painted in the 19th century. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:%C3%98rsted.jpg

[2] Picture number :317 CD number
:9 Picture size :757x859[pixels],
66x75[mm] Date taken :0000-00-00
Date added
:2000-04-13 Fotographer/Owner :Engrave
d Location
:Denmark Description H.C. Oersted
(1777-1851). Danish physicist. Here as
a youngster. The picture was donated to
the Danish Polytech Institute,
Copenhagen, by his daughter Miss
Mathilde Oersted, April 19,
1905. PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.polytechphotos.dk/ind
ex.php?CHGLAN=2&CatID=286
180 YBN
[09/18/1820 AD] 		2423) The direction of electric current
in a wire is related to magnetic force
by André Marie Ampère (oMPAR).

Ampère (oMPAR) creates the "right hand
screw rule". The right hand is imagined
holding the wire with the thumb
pointing from positive to negative. The
fingers then indicate the direction in
which the north pole of a magnet will
be deflected.
Paris, France 
[1] Ampere and Arago, French
physicists UNKNOWN
source: http://static.greatbigcanvas.com
/images/print_rolled_photoluster/science
-photo-library/1153189.jpg?max=540

[2] André-Marie Ampère
(1775-1836) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ampere1.jpg
180 YBN
[09/25/1820 AD] 		2424) Magnetism is identified as
electricity by André Marie Ampère
(oMPAR); that electric current runs
through a permanent magnet..

In addition, Ampère (oMPAR) observes
that two parallel wires attract each
other when carrying current in the same
direction and repel each other when
carrying current in opposite
directions.
Paris, France 
[1] [t Figure 1 and 2 from 10/02/1820
paper] PD/Corel
source: http://www.ampere.cnrs.fr/i-corp
uspic/tab/Oeuvres/annales_chimie_15/077.
jpg

[2] André-Marie Ampère
(1775-1836) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ampere1.jpg
180 YBN
[1820 AD] 		2486) The electric current meter is
invented by Johann Schweigger (sVIGGR),
who finds that a deflecting needle can
be used to measure a current and that
wrapping a wire several turns around a
compass needle increases the effect.
Halle, Germany 
[1] Diagram of Schweigger's
multiplier. From Journal für Chemie
und Physik 31 (Neue Reihe, Bd.
I, 1821), Plate I (after p. 114), Fig.
10. Smithsonian neg. no. 46,825. PD
source: http://siarchives.si.edu/history
/jhp/joseph21.htm

[2] Multiplier (Multiplicator) In
1820, Schweigger built a rectangular
wooden frame on which he wound an
insulated wire. This was called the
Schweigger multiplier. A magnetic
needle was suspended from a thin thread
inside the coil. In the absence of
electrical current the needle is
oriented according to the magnetic
meridian. When an electrical current is
passed through the coil on the frame,
the needle changes direction; the
stronger the current, the more marked
the deflection. PD?/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/histor
y/schweigger.html
180 YBN
[1820 AD] 		2505) The continent of Antarctica is
discovered.
Antarctica 
[1] Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen
. Source Can be downloaded from
e.g.
http://www.70south.com/resources/antarct
ic-history/explorers/bellingshausen The
portrait was also on a British postal
stamp (see
http://www.ivki.ru/kapustin/expedition/a
ntarctida/antarctida.htm) Date 19th
century portrait PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Fabian_Gottlieb_von_Bellingshausen.jp
g
180 YBN
[1820 AD] 		2587) The alkaloids cinchonine,
colchicine, and quinine are isolated by
Pelletier (PeLTYA) and Caventou
(KoVoNTU. These have powerful effects
on the animal body and Magendie
introduces some of them into medical
practice.
Paris, France 
[1] Joseph Caventou und Pierre
Pelletier
http://www.asmalldoseof.org/historyoft
ox/1800s.htox.php PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.pharmtech.tu-bs.de/ph
armgesch/wahl07/Chinin/chinin3.html

[2] Pierre-Joseph PELLETIER (1788 -
1842) PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://es.geocities.com/fisicas/
cientificos/quimicos/pelletier.htm
180 YBN
[1820 AD] 		3374) The first gas combustion engine;
by William Cecil. This engine uses
hydrogen gas combustion to create a
vacuum. This engine is stated to run at
60 revolutions per minute, consuming
5.3 cubic meters (17.6 cubic feet) of
hydrogen gas per hour.
(Magdalen College) Cambridge,
England 
[1] W. Cecil's hydrogen combustion
vacuum engine PD/Corel
source: http://www.eng.cam.ac.uk/DesignO
ffice/projects/cecil/images/isometricalv
iew.jpg

[2] Cecil's figures PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=hgYFAAAAQAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edi
tions:0iE3HbhCd9wmSagF2t&as_brr=1#PPA230
,M1
179 YBN
[07/05/1821 AD] 		2883) Electrical current in air and in
a vacuum is moved by a magnet.
London, England 
[1] A. The tube, of the usual
diameter. B. The wire for
communicating electricity. E. A small
cylinder of metallic foil, to place as
a cap on tubes not having the wire B,
to make a coated surface. C. The
surface of the quicksilver, or fused
tin. D. The part of the tube to be
exhausted by the stop-cock F, after
being filled by means of the same
stop-cock, when necessary, with
hydrogene. G. The moveable[err] tube
connected with the air-pump. It is
evident, that by introducing more
mercury, the leg D may be filled with
mercury, and the stop-cock closed upon
it, so as to leave only a torricellian
vacuum in the tube, in which the
mercury may be boiled. I have found
that the experiment tried in this way,
offers no difference of result. PD
source: http://journals.royalsociety.org
/content/cu3223052t214156/?p=a822388f3bd
34c1f976f9a6152c9ebcbπ=55 Farther
Researches on the Magnetic Phaenomena
Produced by Electricity; With Some New
Experiments on the Properties of
Electrified Bodies in Their Relations
to Conducting Powers and
Temperature Davy_magnetic_full.pdf p74

[2]
http://www.nndb.com/people/028/000083776
/humphry-davy-2-sized.jpg [left finger
1: ''left'' viewed as educated
intellectuals in 1800s England? just
coincidence?] PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Sir_H
umphry_Davy2.jpg
179 YBN
[09/11/1821 AD] 		2701) The dynamic electric motor is
invented by Michael Faraday.

This electric motor creates sustained
mechanical motion from electricity and
is based on the principle that like
poles of a magnet repel one another.
(Royal Institution in) London,
England 
[1] The first electric motors - Michael
Faraday, 1821 From the Quarterly
Journal of Science, Vol XII, 1821 PD
source: http://www.sparkmuseum.com/MOTOR
S.HTM

[2] Description Michael Faraday,
oil, by Thomas Phillips Source
Thomas Phillips,1842 Date
1842 Author Thomas Phillips[3
wiki] The portrait shown here was
painted by Thomas Phillips (1770-1845),
oil on canvas, The National Portrait
Gallery, London.[7] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:M_Faraday_Th_Phillips_oil_1842.jpg
179 YBN
[1821 AD] 		2397) Thermoelectricity (or the Seebeck
effect) is discovered by Thomas Johann
Seebeck (ZABeK): that an electric
current flows between different
conductive materials that are kept at
different temperatures.
This is the basis of the
thermocouple and thermopile.
Berlin, Germany 
[1] the experimental use of Seebeck's
instrument COPYRIGHTED
source: http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/histor
y/seebeck.html

[2] Thomas Seebeck Source
Originally from de.wikipedia; Hans
Wahl, Anton Kippenberg: Goethe und
seine Welt, Insel-Verlag, Leipzig 1932
S.204 Date early 19th century PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:ThomasSeebeck.jpg
178 YBN
[09/01/1822 AD] 		1251) The Egyptian language
hieroglyphics are deciphered.
France  
177 YBN
[04/10/1823 AD] 		2709) Carbon dioxide and nitrous oxide
are liquefied by Michael Faraday.
(Royal Institution in) London,
England 
[1] Description Michael Faraday in his
laboratory at the Royal Institution.
From a painting by Harriet Moore. The
original is in the Chemical Heritage
Foundation Collections. See
http://www.chemheritage.org/classroom/ch
emach/electrochem/faraday.html English:
Michael Faraday in his lab, by Harriet
Moore Date Nineteenth century Source
Harriet Moore Author Harriet
Moore PD AND Roscoe, H.E. et al. A
Treatise on Chemistry. Macmillan, 1920.
A Treatise on Chemistry,
p189. http://books.google.com/books?id=
MktKAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA189 PD AND Liquefac
tion of gases. Michael Faraday (1791 -
1867) conducted an important series of
experiments on liquefying gases. In one
experiment he filled a tube with
chlorine gas using a thick-walled tube
of the type shown in Fig. 4. He put one
end of the tube in a freezing mixture
of salt and ice and heated the other
end. The gas in the heated end expanded
and increased the pressure on the gas
in the cold end and the combined effect
of the pressure and the cooling
liquified the chlorine. He used the
same method to liquefy other gases,
including ammonia and carbon dioxide,
but was unable to liquefy oxygen,
hydrogen and nitrogen in this way. We
now know why he was unable to liquefy
oxygen, hydrogen and nitrogen by this
method. His freezing mixture was not
cold enough to liquefy them no matter
how much pressure is exerted on them.
Oxygen must be cooled to -119o C,
nitrogen to -147o C, and hydrogen to
-240o C before they will liquefy at any
pressure. UNKNOWN
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/M_Faraday_Lab_H
_Moore.jpg/1024px-M_Faraday_Lab_H_Moore.
jpg
AND http://books.google.com/books?id=
MktKAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA189 AND http://www.s
olitaryroad.com/c1026/ole3.gif http://u
pload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/th
umb/c/c8/M_Faraday_Lab_H_Moore.jpg/1024p
x-M_Faraday_Lab_H_Moore.jpg

[2] Description Michael Faraday in
his laboratory at the Royal
Institution. From a painting by Harriet
Moore. The original is in the Chemical
Heritage Foundation Collections. See
http://www.chemheritage.org/classroom/ch
emach/electrochem/faraday.html English:
Michael Faraday in his lab, by Harriet
Moore Date Nineteenth century Source
Harriet Moore Author Harriet
Moore PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:M_Faraday_Th_Phillips_oil_1842.jpg
177 YBN
[06/14/1823 AD] 		3297) The grating equation, nλ=Dsinθ
is established by Joseph von Fraunhofer
(FroUNHoFR). This equation equates
wavelength (or particle interval) of
light to the grating groove spacing and
the angle between the perpendicular to
the grating with the spectral line.
Fraunhofer then uses this equation to
calculate the wavelength of light from
a diffraction grating for the first
time.
Benedictbeuern (near Munich), Germany
(presumably) 
[1] T is the angle made with the plane
of the grating by a colored beam after
diffraction. E is grating spacing, v
is order of spectrum, w is
wavelength Adapter equation 5
from: Kurzer Bericht von den
Resultaten neurer Versuche über die
Gesetze des Lichtes, und die Theorie
derselben, ''Annalen der Physik'',
LXXIV, 1823, pp. 337-378. Excerpts
in English translation ''SHORT ACCOUNT
OF THE RESULTS OF NEW EXPERIMENTS ON
THE LAWS OF LIGHT AND THEIR THEORY'' :
J. S. Ames (ed.), Prismatic and
Diffraction Spectra: Memoirs by
Joseph von Fraunhofer, New York 1898,
pp.
39-61. http://books.google.com/books?hl
=en&id=5GE3AAAAMAAJ&dq=Prismatic+and+Dif
fraction+Spectra:++Memoirs+by+Joseph+von
+Fraunhofer&printsec=frontcover&source=w
eb&ots=K2VGb4IsNb&sig=HcoZYrNDKoTfjsUErI
WZX5pLtn0&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&c
t=result#PPP11,M1 {Fraunhofer_Joseph_vo
n_Prismatic_and_diffraction_spectra_1823
0714.pdf} others: Gilbert's Annalen
der Physlk, Band 74, p. 337-378.
Edinburgh Journal of Science, VII,
VIII, 1827, 1828. PD AND English:
Joseph von Fraunhofer was a German
physicist. Quelle: Engraving in the
Small Portraits collection, History of
Science Collections, University of
Oklahoma
Libraries. http://hsci.cas.ou.edu/exhib
its/exhibit.php?exbid=34&exbpg=1 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?hl
=en&id=5GE3AAAAMAAJ&dq=Prismatic+and+Dif
fraction+Spectra:++Memoirs+by+Joseph+von
+Fraunhofer&printsec=frontcover&source=w
eb&ots=K2VGb4IsNb&sig=HcoZYrNDKoTfjsUErI
WZX5pLtn0&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&c
t=result#PPP11,M1
AND http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imag
e:Fraunhofer_2.jpg

[2] T is the angle made with the plane
of the grating by a colored beam after
diffraction. E is grating spacing, v
is order of spectrum, w is
wavelength Adapter equation 5
from: Kurzer Bericht von den
Resultaten neurer Versuche über die
Gesetze des Lichtes, und die Theorie
derselben, ''Annalen der Physik'',
LXXIV, 1823, pp. 337-378. Excerpts
in English translation ''SHORT ACCOUNT
OF THE RESULTS OF NEW EXPERIMENTS ON
THE LAWS OF LIGHT AND THEIR THEORY'' :
J. S. Ames (ed.), Prismatic and
Diffraction Spectra: Memoirs by
Joseph von Fraunhofer, New York 1898,
pp.
39-61. http://books.google.com/books?hl
=en&id=5GE3AAAAMAAJ&dq=Prismatic+and+Dif
fraction+Spectra:++Memoirs+by+Joseph+von
+Fraunhofer&printsec=frontcover&source=w
eb&ots=K2VGb4IsNb&sig=HcoZYrNDKoTfjsUErI
WZX5pLtn0&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&c
t=result#PPP11,M1 {Fraunhofer_Joseph_vo
n_Prismatic_and_diffraction_spectra_1823
0714.pdf} others: Gilbert's Annalen
der Physlk, Band 74, p. 337-378.
Edinburgh Journal of Science, VII,
VIII, 1827, 1828. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?hl
=en&id=5GE3AAAAMAAJ&dq=Prismatic+and+Dif
fraction+Spectra:++Memoirs+by+Joseph+von
+Fraunhofer&printsec=frontcover&source=w
eb&ots=K2VGb4IsNb&sig=HcoZYrNDKoTfjsUErI
WZX5pLtn0&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&c
t=result#PPP11,M1
176 YBN
[1824 AD] 		2494) The element silicon.
Stokholm, Sweden (presumably) 
[1] Close up photo of a piece purified
silicon. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:SiliconCroda.jpg

[2] Date: 02.04.1998 Title:
SILICON WAFER WITH MIRROR FINISH
Description: SILICON WAFER WITH MIRROR
FINISH ID: C-1998-00319
Credit: NASA Glenn Research Center
(NASA-GRC) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:1998_00319L.jpg
176 YBN
[1824 AD] 		2545) Hydrochloric acid is found in the
stomach using distillation by Prout.
London, England (presumably) 
[1] William Prout
(1785-1850) PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.uam.es/departamentos/
ciencias/qorg/docencia_red/qo/l0/1830.ht
ml
176 YBN
[1824 AD] 		2797) The quantity of work done by a
heat engine (like the steam engine) is
determined to be the temperature of the
steam minus the temperature of the
cooling water divided by the
temperature of the steam by Nicolas
Léonard Sadi Carnot (KoRnO). This
founds the science of thermodynamics,
which studies the nature of heat and
its conversion to mechanical, electric,
and chemical energy.
Paris, France 
[1] La bildo estas kopiita de
wikipedia:de. La originala priskribo
estas: Sadi Carnot aus:
http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/hist
ory/PictDisplay/Carnot_Sadi.html,
public domain PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Sadi_Carnot.jpeg
175 YBN
[03/17/1825 AD] 		4838) The heat from nerves is measured.
London, England (presumably) 
[1] Home, Sir Everard, first baronet
(1756–1832), by Thomas Phillips,
1829 Picture credit © Royal Society
PD
source: http://www.oxforddnb.com/images/
article-imgs/13/13639_1_300px.jpg
175 YBN
[07/??/1825 AD] 		2461) The first successful tracheotomy
(an incision of and entrance into the
trachea through the skin and muscles of
the neck).
Tours, France (presumably) 
[1] Pierre-Fidèle
BRETONNEAU 1778-1862 Clinicien
français PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.medarus.org/Medecins/
MedecinsTextes/bretonneau.html

[2] Pierre Fidèle Bretonneau
(1778-1862) [t is photo?=I think
no] PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://historiadelamedicina.org/
blog/2007/02/18/pierre-fidele-bretonneau
-1778-1862/
175 YBN
[09/27/1825 AD] 		2516) The first successful passenger
train.
Darlington (and Stockdon),
England 
[1] George Stephenson
(1781-1848) Source Duyckinick,
Evert A. Portrait Gallery of Eminent
Men and Women in Europe and America.
New York: Johnson, Wilson & Company,
1873. http://utopia.utexas.edu/project/
portraits/index.html?img=362 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:George_Stephenson.jpg

[2] George Stephenson - Project
Gutenberg etext 13103 From The Project
Gutenberg eBook, Great Britain and Her
Queen, by Anne E.
Keeling http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/
13103 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:George_Stephenson_-_Project_Gutenberg
_etext_13103.jpg
175 YBN
[1825 AD] 		2413) Gymnosperms and angiosperms are
distinguished from each other.
London, England (presumably) 
[1] Robert Brown, a Scotish
botanist. Source: Robert Brown
(15:41, 5 August 2005 . . Neon (Talk
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Brown.robert.jpg

[2] contribs) . . 300x357 (15,406
bytes) (Robert Brown's Picture, who
invented brownian motion ) PD/GNU
source: http://www.abdn.ac.uk/mediarelea
ses/release.php?id=341
175 YBN
[1825 AD] 		2526) The first practical electromagnet
(also known as an inductor) is built by
William Sturgeon.

This is the first electromagnet that
can support more than it's own weight.
Surrey, England (presumably) 
[1] Sturgeon's electromagnet.
From Transactions of the Society
for the Encouragement of the Arts 43
(1824), Plate 3, Fig. 13. Smithsonian
neg. no. 46,761-D. PD/Corel
source: http://siarchives.si.edu/history
/jhp/sturgeon.jpg

[2] Sturgeon's electro- magnet of
1824 PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/histor
y/sturgeon.html
175 YBN
[1825 AD] 		2700) Benzene is identified and
isolated by Faraday.
(Royal Institution in) London,
England 
[1] Chemical structure of
benzene Selfmade by cacycle, uploaded
on 9 November 2004. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Benzene_structure.png

[2] Description Michael Faraday,
oil, by Thomas Phillips Source
Thomas Phillips,1842 Date
1842 Author Thomas Phillips[3
wiki] The portrait shown here was
painted by Thomas Phillips (1770-1845),
oil on canvas, The National Portrait
Gallery, London.[7] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:M_Faraday_Th_Phillips_oil_1842.jpg
174 YBN
[03/??/1826 AD] 		3454) That the spectrum of a flame can
be used to detect the presence of
chemical compounds is understood.
London, England 
[1] W. H. F. Talbot, ''Some Experiments
on Coloured Flames,'' Edinburgh Journal
of Science, 1826,
5:77-81. http://books.google.com/books?
id=FCEAAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=e
ditions:09ag5pOefph1Cw5vrXy#PPA77,M1 PD
AND Description William Henry Fox
Talbot, by John Moffat, 1864. Date
1864 Source Fox Talbot, Lifelines
38, Shire publications Ltd, Princes
Risborough, 3rd Edition 1997. Author
MichaelMaggs PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=FCEAAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edi
tions:09ag5pOefph1Cw5vrXy#PPA77,M1 AND
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/c
ommons/thumb/3/39/William_Henry_Fox_Talb
ot%2C_by_John_Moffat%2C_1864.jpg/810px-W
illiam_Henry_Fox_Talbot%2C_by_John_Moffa
t%2C_1864.jpg

[2] The AMICO Library™ from RLG -
William Henry Fox Talbot. Leaves of
Orchidea (negative). 1839. J. Paul
Getty Museum. [JPGM86.XM.621] PD/Corel

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:William_Fox_Talbot.jpg
174 YBN
[07/31/1826 AD] 		3440) Electrical oscillation is
discovered by Félix Savary. Electrical
oscillation is the basis of alternating
current and radio {or low frequency
light particle} communication.
(Bureau des Longitudes) Paris, France
(presumably) 

source: Félix Savary, "Mémoire sur
l'alimentation", Annales de Chimie et
de Physique, 1827, 34.
:54-56. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=QaQwAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA30 {Savary_1827.pdf
}
174 YBN
[1826 AD] 		2355) The first permanent photograph
and photograph reproduction process; by
Joseph Niepce (nYePS). Niepce coats a
pewter plate with asphalt which hardens
on exposure to light, and puts this
plate into a camera box placed in a
sunlit window. After 8 hours, the unlit
areas with unhardened asphalt are
removed from the plate using oil of
lavender mixed with petroleum jelly
which leaves the image of his courtyard
in relief in exposed metal. Prints of
the image can then be made on a press.
Chalon-sur-Saône, France 
[1] English: By Nicéphore Niépce in
1826, entitled ''View from the Window
at Le Gras,'' captured on 20 × 25 cm
oil-treated bitumen. Due to the 8-hour
exposure, the buildings are illuminated
by the sun from both right and left.
This photo is generally considered the
first successful permanent
photograph. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:View_from_the_Window_at_Le_Gras%2C_Jo
seph_Nic%C3%A9phore_Ni%C3%A9pce.jpg

[2] Joseph-Nicéphore Niépce. ©
Bettmann/Corbis PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://concise.britannica.com/eb
c/art-59378/Joseph-Nicephore-Niepce
174 YBN
[1826 AD] 		2462) The disease diptheria is
identified.
Tours, France (presumably) 
[1] Pierre-Fidèle
BRETONNEAU 1778-1862 Clinicien
français PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.medarus.org/Medecins/
MedecinsTextes/bretonneau.html

[2] Pierre Fidèle Bretonneau
(1778-1862) [t is photo?=I think
no] PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://historiadelamedicina.org/
blog/2007/02/18/pierre-fidele-bretonneau
-1778-1862/
174 YBN
[1826 AD] 		2915) The element bromine.
(Montpellier École de Pharmacie)
Montpellier, France 
[1] This image was copied from
en.wikipedia.org. The original
description was: Bromine sample
(liquid). Photo by RTC. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Br%2C35.jpg

[2] Description Foto des Chemikers
de:Antoine-Jérôme Balard
(1802-1876) Source
http://www.nndb.com/people/586/000114
244/balard-1.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Antoine-Jerome_Balard.jpg
174 YBN
[1826 AD] 		3384) A gas combustion vacuum engine
car and boat; by Samuel Brown.
London, England 
[1] [t Samuel Brown's engine used to
raise water] PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=8e9MAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA103&lpg=PA103&dq=%22r
obert+street%22+patent+engine&source=web
&ots=zXhunpMWQn&sig=OK3zL_tlF9en_5S83tLJ
0kuNyVI&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum
=1&ct=result#PPA105,M1
173 YBN
[04/07/1827 AD] 		6242) The earliest friction match.
England 
[1] This image was selected as a
picture of the day for 1 January 2007.
It was captioned as follows: English:
A paper match igniting. Description
Deutsch: Ein brennendes
Streichholz. English: Lighting a
match. Français : Une allumette
enflammée. Dansk: En tændt
tændstik. Magyar: Egy gyufa
meggyulladása. ‪Norsk (nynorsk)‬:
Ei tent fyrstikke. Polski: Zapłon
zapałki Date 2 January
2006 Source Own work Author
Sebastian Ritter (Rise0011) CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c1/Streichholz.jpg
173 YBN
[05/01/1827 AD] 		2606) The concept of electrical
resistance, and "Ohm's law" by Georg
Simon Ohm (OM): that current is equal
to voltage divided by resistance.
Berlin, Germany (written in
Cologne?) 
[1] [t Figures from 1827 work of
Ohm] PD
source: Ohm_Georg_1827.pdf

[2] Georg Simon Ohm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ohm3.gif
173 YBN
[1827 AD] 		2415) "Brownian motion": the motion of
fine powder in water is observed by
Robert Brown and is evidence of atoms.
London, England (presumably) 
[1] Robert Brown, a Scotish
botanist. Source: Robert Brown
(15:41, 5 August 2005 . . Neon (Talk
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Brown.robert.jpg

[2] contribs) . . 300x357 (15,406
bytes) (Robert Brown's Picture, who
invented brownian motion ) PD/GNU
source: http://www.abdn.ac.uk/mediarelea
ses/release.php?id=341
173 YBN
[1827 AD] 		2546) Food components are classified
into carbohydrates, fats, and proteins
by Prout.
London, England (presumably) 
[1] William Prout
(1785-1850) PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.uam.es/departamentos/
ciencias/qorg/docencia_red/qo/l0/1830.ht
ml
173 YBN
[1827 AD] 		2724) The mammal egg, the ovum, is
discovered.
(Königsberg now) Kaliningrad,
Russia 
[1] Subject : Karl von Baer
(1792-1876) German biologist, father
of embryology. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Baer_Karl_von_1792-1876.jpg

[2] Karl Ernst von
Baer http://www.zbi.ee/baer/vonbaer.jpg
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Vonbaer.jpg
173 YBN
[1827 AD] 		2774) That the wavelength (or particle
interval) of light of a given spectral
line can be used as a standard of
length is realized.
That the wavelength (or
particle interval) of light of a given
spectral line can be used as a standard
of length is realized by French
physicist Jacques Babinet (BoBinA).
Paris, France 
[1] Description French physicist
Jacques Babinet (1794-1872) Source
[1]http://www.molecularexpressions.com/
optics/timeline/people/babinet.html Dat
e 19th century Author Unknown PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jacques_Babinet.jpg
173 YBN
[1827 AD] 		2856) The element aluminum is isolated.
(Berlin Gewerbeschule (trade school))
Berlin, Germany 
[1] This image was copied from
en.wikipedia.org. The original
description was: Aluminum
sample. Photo by RTC. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Al%2C13.jpg

[2] * Title: Friedrich Wöhler *
Year: unknown * Source:
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollections
/hst/scientific-identity/explore.htm
* Licence: Public Domain PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Friedrich_W%C3%B6hler_Stich.jpg
173 YBN
[1827 AD] 		3591) The earliest electric printer by
Harrison Gray Dyar. This printer uses
static electricity to pass a spark
through a rotating strip of litmus
paper which, by the formation of nitric
acid, leaves a red dot where each spark
passes through the paper.
New York City NY (presumably) 
[1] Text from: ''Old Time Telegraphic
History'', Electrical World and
Engineer, 01/17/1903,
p113. http://books.google.com/books?id=
hbZQAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA115 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=hbZQAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA115
172 YBN
[02/??/1828 AD] 		2857) The first "organic" molecule
(urea) is produced from inorganic
sources by Friedrich Wöhler (VOElR).
(Berlin Gewerbeschule (trade school))
Berlin, Germany 
[1] * Title: Friedrich Wöhler *
Year: unknown * Source:
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollections
/hst/scientific-identity/explore.htm
* Licence: Public Domain PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Friedrich_W%C3%B6hler_Stich.jpg

[2] Friedrich Wöhler, German
chemist Source:
http://wwwihm.nlm.nih.gov/ PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Friedrich_woehler.jpg
172 YBN
[06/??/1828 AD] 		2805) Insulated electric wire.
Albany, NY, USA 
[1] Henry's Albany magnet. Image
copied from old photograph, N.M.A.H.
Cat. No. 181,451c. Smithsonian neg.
no. 39,040. PD
source: http://siarchives.si.edu/history
/jhp/39040.gif

[2] In 1846, the Smithsonian Board of
Regents chose Joseph Henry as the
Institution's first
secretary. PD/Corel
source: http://www.150.si.edu/chap2/2man
.htm
172 YBN
[1828 AD] 		2383) A light polarizing prism is made
from two calcite crystals.
Edinburgh, Scotland (presumably) 
[1] William Nicol [t this must be an
early photo in the history of
photography] PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.queensu.ca/secretaria
t/History/bldgs/nicol.html
172 YBN
[1828 AD] 		6246) The electromagnet armature motor
and commutator.

The armature is a revolving structure
in an electric motor or generator,
wound with the coils that carry the
current.

The commutator is the contact between
the rotating shaft electric coils and
the external electric supply which
cause polarity to reverse each 180
degree turn of the rotating shaft.
Pannonhalma, Hungary (presumably) 
[1] Description English: The first
Jedlik motor Date Source
http://www.jedliktarsasag.hu/ Auth
or
http://www.jedliktarsasag.hu/ CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/98/Jedlik_motor.jpg

[2] Description: Ányos Jedlik
Note: from Hungarian Wikipedia, there
uploaded by hu:User:Mihalyia PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a6/Jedlikanyos.jpg
171 YBN
[03/27/1829 AD] 		2844) Electric current is produced by
moving a wire near a magnet by
Francesco Zantedeschi.

This is the phenomenon of dynamic
electrical induction.
Pavia, Italy 
[1] Francesco Zantedeschi PD/Corel
source: http://www.liceofoscarini.it/sto
ria/bio/zantedeschi.html

[2] Image of Francesco Zantedeschi
1797 to 1873 to illustrate that
article. Uploaded from
http://www.jergym.hiedu.cz/~canovm/objev
ite/objev4/zan.htm and
http://www.jergym.hiedu.cz/~canovm/objev
ite/objev4/zan2.htm (English
translation) This portrait of
Francesco Zantedeschi was published by
Stefano de Stefani, president of the
Academy of Agriculture, Arts and
Commerce of Verona, on March 21, 1875
to accompany his eulogy to Zantedeschi
on the occasion of the transport of his
ashes to the cemetery at Verona. Black
and white version PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Franc
esco_Zantedeschi_bw.jpg
171 YBN
[07/26/1829 AD] 		2495) The element thorium.
(Bib Univ) Stokholm, Sweden
(presumably) 
[1] Thorium metal foil (approximately
0.5 mm thick) sealed in a glass ampoule
under an argon atmosphere to prevent
oxidation. Sample is from the personal
collection of Justin Urgitis. CC
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Thorium.jpg

[2]
http://www.chemistry.msu.edu/Portraits/i
mages/Berzelius3c.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:J%C3%B6ns_Jacob_Berzelius.jpg
171 YBN
[1829 AD] 		2507) Elements with similar properties
are grouped into triads.
Jena, Germany (presumably) 
[1] * Title: Johann Wolfgang
Döbereiner * Year: unknown *
Source:
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollections
/hst/scientific-identity/explore.htm
(reworked) * Licence: Public
Domain PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Johann_Wolfgang_D%C3%B6bereiner.jpg
171 YBN
[1829 AD] 		2735) The terms "kinetic energy" (as
E=½mv²) and "work" (W=Fd) are
introduced and defined in their modern
form.
Paris, France 
[1] Gustave Coriolis [Coriolis, detail
of a portrait by Zéphirin Belliard,
19th century, after a painting by Jean
Roller; in the Académie des Sciences,
Paris Courtesy of the Archives de
l'Academie des Sciences de Paris;
photograph, J. Colomb-Gerard, Paris
[2]] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gustave_coriolis.jpg
171 YBN
[1829 AD] 		2767) The theory that space is curved;
that a curved surface geometry applies
to space in the universe by Nikolay
Lobachevsky (luBuCAFSKE). The start of
"Non-Euclidean" geometry; a geometry
where one or more of Euclid's
postulates is supposed to be false.

Lobachevsky shows that angles in a
triangle made of curved lines may not
add to pi as one of Euclid's postulates
requires and that space in the universe
may be "curved" while only appearing to
be straight.
Kazan, Russia 
[1] Figure 8, p19. From German
translation of: NI Lobachevsky,
(translated from Russian) ''On the
foundations of geometry'', Kazan
Messenger, 1829. reprinted in: Kagan
V.F.(ed.): N.I.Lobachevsky - Complete
Collected Works, Vols I-IV (Russian),
Moscow-Leningrad (GITTL)
1946-51 German translation: N I
Lobachevskii; Friedrich Engel, ''Zwei
geometrische Abhandlungen''
,Leipzig,1898-99, 1972. PD
source: N I Lobachevskii; Friedrich
Engel, "Zwei geometrische Abhandlungen"
,Leipzig,1898-99, 1972.

[2] Description Pic of a 19th
century painting. Public domain, from
en wiki image Source
en:Image:Nikolay_Ivanovich_Lobachevsk
y.jpeg Date 19th century PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Nikol
ay_Ivanovich_Lobachevsky.jpeg
171 YBN
[1829 AD] 		3009) The law of diffusion: that the
rate of diffusion of a gas at constant
temperature and pressure is inversely
proportional to the square root of its
density.
(Mechanics' Institute) Glasgow,
Scotland 
[1] Scientist: Graham, Thomas (1805 -
1869) Discipline(s): Chemistry ;
Physics Print Artist: Attributed to
C. Cook Medium: Photograph
Original Artist: Cloudet Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 15.7 x 12.1 cm /
Sheet: 24.7 x 17 cm PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-G003-03a.jpg

[2] Thomas Graham PD/Corel
source: http://www.frca.co.uk/images/gra
ham.jpg
170 YBN
[1830 AD] 		2624) The practice of blood-letting is
denounced.
London, England (presumably) 
[1] Marshall Hall ([2]:Marshall Hall,
detail of an engraving by J. Holl,
1839, after a portrait by J.Z.
Bell Reproduced by courtesy of the
trustees of the British Museum;
photograph, J.R. Freeman & Co.
Ltd.) PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nndb.com/people/940/0
00101637/
170 YBN
[1830 AD] 		4003) The first sound recordings. Sound
vibrations are recorded by a tuning
fork moving an attached whisker onto a
sooted glass plate by German physicist
Wilhelm Eduard Weber.
(University of) Göttingen,
Germany 
[1] Wilhelm Eduard Weber
(1804-1891) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Wilhelm_Eduard_Weber_II.jpg
169 YBN
[02/17/1831 AD] 		2702) The electrical transformer is
invented by Michael Faraday. A
transformer is a device used to
transfer electricity from one circuit
to another, in particular a pair of
wire coils that can be used to transfer
electricity with a change in voltage,
current, or phase.

Faraday finds that a primary coil does
cause current in a secondary coil, but
to his surprise, only when the primary
current is switched on or off, and not
during a constant current as expected.
(Royal Institution in) London,
England 
[1] Michael Faraday, ''Experimental
Researches in Electricity'',
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1776-1886), Volume
122, 1832. DOI 10.1098/rstl.1832.0006
{Faraday_1832_Experimental_Researches_
in_Electricity_1.pdf} PD
source: Faraday_1832_Experimental_Resear
ches_in_Electricity_1.pdf

[2] Description Michael Faraday,
oil, by Thomas Phillips Source
Thomas Phillips,1842 Date
1842 Author Thomas Phillips[3
wiki] The portrait shown here was
painted by Thomas Phillips (1770-1845),
oil on canvas, The National Portrait
Gallery, London.[7] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:M_Faraday_Th_Phillips_oil_1842.jpg
169 YBN
[08/??/1831 AD] 		2525) Chloroform (tri-chloromethane) is
synthesized.
Sackets Harbor, NY, USA 
[1] Dr. Samuel Guthrie (1782-1848),
chemist, one of the discoverers of
chloroform, and inventor of the
percussion compound for firearms, which
superseded flints, resided at Sackets
Harbor. Samuel Guthrie, made
chloroform in 1830 prior to the
independent discoveries by Soubeiran in
France (1831) and Liebig in Germany
(1832). It was used first in
amputations at Sackets Harbor.
His home, pictured above, was in the
old Jewettsville section of town, and
is still occupied as a private
residence today. PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.usgennet.org/usa/ny/c
ounty/jefferson/hounsfield/guthriehome.h
tml
169 YBN
[09/??/1831 AD] 		2705) The (dynamic) electric generator
(or "dynamo") is invented by Michael
Faraday. By mechanically moving a
conductor near a magnet, a constant
electric current is produced.

Faraday turns a copper disk so that its
edge passes between the poles of a
permanent magnet. An electric current
is created in the copper disk and it
continues to flow as long as the wheel
continues to turn. That current can be
led off and put to work and so is the
first electrical generator.

Now a steam engine or water power can
be used to turn the copper disc to
produce electricity. The generator
creates a large and cheap supply of
electric current.
(Royal Institution in) London,
England 
[1] Description Michael Faraday,
oil, by Thomas Phillips Source
Thomas Phillips,1842 Date
1842 Author Thomas Phillips[3
wiki] The portrait shown here was
painted by Thomas Phillips (1770-1845),
oil on canvas, The National Portrait
Gallery, London.[7] PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:M_Far
aday_Th_Phillips_oil_1842.jpg

[2] Michael Faraday - Project
Gutenberg eText 13103 From The Project
Gutenberg eBook, Great Britain and Her
Queen, by Anne E.
Keeling http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/
13103 PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Micha
el_Faraday_-_Project_Gutenberg_eText_131
03.jpg
169 YBN
[10/??/1831 AD] 		6601) A heat sensor that can detect
heat from a person 25 feet (7 meters)
away (the thermo-multiplier).
Naples, Italy 
[1] Setting: Room XVI
Inventor: Leopoldo Nobili,
Macedonio Melloni Maker:
Giuseppe Caldini Place:
Florence Date:
ca. 1880 Materials:
brass, cast iron, bismuth, antimony
Dimensions: total height
430 mm, base diameter 131 mm
Inventory: 3758
Nobili-Melloni radiant-heat thermopile
(Inv. 3758) Nobili-Melloni
radiant-heat thermopile (Inv.
3758) Radiant-heat thermopile,
Nobili - Melloni pattern. Comprises a
brass box with 120 elements and a large
brass cone hinged to an adjustable
support with cast-iron base. The back
cover is missing. Made by Giuseppe
Caldini, about whom we have no
information. UNKNOWN
source: http://catalogue.museogalileo.it
/images/cat/oggetti_944/0554_3253_2145-0
16_944.jpg

[2] The Differential Thermopile was
invented by Macedonio Melloni
(1798-1854), an Italian physicist who
worked in France and Italy. PD/Corel
source: http://physics.kenyon.edu/EarlyA
pparatus/Thermodynamics/Differential_The
rmopile/Differential_Thermopile.html
169 YBN
[11/15/1831 AD] 		2414) The cell nucleus is named.
(Linnean Society) London, England 
[1] Robert Brown, ''On the Organs and
Mode of Fecundation of Orchidae and
Asclepiadeae'', 1831,
p710. http://books.google.com/books?id=
iABLAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA710 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=iABLAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA710

[2] Robert Brown, a Scotish
botanist. Source: Robert Brown
(15:41, 5 August 2005 . . Neon (Talk
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Brown.robert.jpg
169 YBN
[1831 AD] 		2496) The occurrence of different
compounds with the same chemical
composition is named "isomerism".
Stokholm, Sweden (presumably) 
[1]
http://www.chemistry.msu.edu/Portraits/i
mages/Berzelius3c.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:J%C3%B6ns_Jacob_Berzelius.jpg

[2] Scientist: Berzelius, Jons Jakob
(1779 - 1848) Discipline(s):
Chemistry Print Artist: Charles W.
Sharpe, d. 1875(76) Medium:
Engraving Original Artist: Johan
Olaf Sodermark, 1790-1848 Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 26.8 x 18.2 cm /
Sheet: 31.6 x 23 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=B
169 YBN
[1831 AD] 		2625) That capillaries bring the blood
into contact with tissues is shown.
London, England (presumably) 
[1] Marshall Hall ([2]:Marshall Hall,
detail of an engraving by J. Holl,
1839, after a portrait by J.Z.
Bell Reproduced by courtesy of the
trustees of the British Museum;
photograph, J.R. Freeman & Co.
Ltd.) PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nndb.com/people/940/0
00101637/
169 YBN
[1831 AD] 		2895) That iodine can cure goiter is
recognized.
Lyon, France (presumably) 
[1] French chemist Jean-Baptiste
Boussingault (1802-1887) Source
[1]http://www.pdvsa.com/lexico/pioner
os/boussingault.htm Date 19th
century Author Unknown PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jean-Baptiste_Boussingault.jpg
168 YBN
[01/03/1832 AD] 		2808) Self induction is recognized:
that the magnetic field from a changing
electric current (in a coil) induces an
electromotive force opposing the
current.
Albany, NY, USA 
[1] In 1846, the Smithsonian Board of
Regents chose Joseph Henry as the
Institution's first
secretary. PD/Corel
source: http://www.150.si.edu/chap2/2man
.htm

[2] Description Portrait of Joseph
Henry Source
http://www.photolib.noaa.gov/bigs/per
s0124.jpg Date 1879 Author
Henry Ulke
(1821-1910) Permission (Reusing this
image) Public domain. PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Jospe
h_Henry_%281879%29.jpg
168 YBN
[12/15/1832 AD] 		2448) A set of units to measure
magnetism is created.
Göttingen, Germany (presumably) 
[1] Carl Friedrich Gauss, painted by
Christian Albrecht Jensen *
Description: Ausschnitt aus einem
Gemälde von C. F. Gauss * Source:
evtl. von
http://webdoc.sub.gwdg.de/ebook/a/2003/p
etersburg/html/bio_gauss.htm kopiert.
Das Original befindet sich laut [1] in
der Sternwarte Pulkovo [2] (bei Sankt
Petersburg). * Author: C.A. Jensen
(1792-1870) English: oil painting of
Carl Friedrich Gauss, by C.A. Jensen
(1792-1870) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Carl_Friedrich_Gauss.jpg

[2] (Johann) Karl Friedrich
Gauss Library of Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/Carl+Frie
drich+Gauss?cat=technology
168 YBN
[1832 AD] 		2514) The first plastic materials, made
of nitrocellulose, are created by Henri
Braconnot (BroKunO) by treating starch,
sawdust, and cotton with nitric acid.
Nancy, France 
[1] Henri Braconnot, French
chemist H402/0577 Rights
Managed Credit: CCI ARCHIVES/SCIENCE
PHOTO LIBRARY Caption: Henri
Braconnot (1780-1855), French chemist
and pharmacist. At 13 Braconnot
undertook a two year apprenticeship in
a pharmacy in Nancy. As well as
pharmacology he also studied chemistry
and botany. He continued his education
in Strasbourg and Paris, before
returning to Nancy in 1802 to become
the chairman of the botanical garden.
His research lead to the discovery of
numerous plant compounds, including
acids and sugars, as well as
discovering chitin, the earliest known
polysaccharide, in mushrooms. Braconnot
was also the first chemist to create a
polymer when he added nitric acid to
wood or cotton to obtain
xyloidine. Release details: Model
and property releases are not available
PD
source: http://www.sciencephoto.com/imag
e/223788/large/H4020577-Henri_Braconnot,
_French_chemist-SPL.jpg

[2] Henri Braconnot, French
chemist H402/0577 Rights
Managed Credit: CCI ARCHIVES/SCIENCE
PHOTO LIBRARY Caption: Henri
Braconnot (1780-1855), French chemist
and pharmacist. At 13 Braconnot
undertook a two year apprenticeship in
a pharmacy in Nancy. As well as
pharmacology he also studied chemistry
and botany. He continued his education
in Strasbourg and Paris, before
returning to Nancy in 1802 to become
the chairman of the botanical garden.
His research lead to the discovery of
numerous plant compounds, including
acids and sugars, as well as
discovering chitin, the earliest known
polysaccharide, in mushrooms. Braconnot
was also the first chemist to create a
polymer when he added nitric acid to
wood or cotton to obtain
xyloidine. Release details: Model
and property releases are not available
PD
source:
168 YBN
[1832 AD] 		2717) The alternating electric current
(or AC) generator is invented by
Antoine-Hippolyte Pixii.

In this device a rotating permanent
magnet induces an alternating current
in the field coils of a stationary
horseshoe electromagnet.
Paris, France 
[1] The machine contained a permanent
magnet which was rotated by a hand
crank. The spinning magnet was
positioned so that its north and south
poles passed by a piece of iron wrapped
with wire. Pixii found that the
spinning magnet produced a pulse of
current in the wire each time a pole
passed the coil. Furthermore, the north
and south poles of the magnet induced
currents in opposite directions. PD
source: http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/histor
y/pixii.html

[2] Description: Erste bekannt
gewordene magneto-elektrische
Wechselstrommaschine, gebaut 1832 von
Pixii auf Anregung von Ampere; Source:
Niethammer, F.; Ein- und
Mehrphasen-Wechselstrom-Erzeuger;
Verlag S. Hirzel; Leipzig 1906 Date:
created 1906 Author: - Permission:
Hermann A. Wiese put it under public
domain An early form of an alternating
current electrical generator built by
Pixii PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Wechselstromerzeuger.jpg
168 YBN
[1832 AD] 		2860) A number of substances are shown
to contain a common group or "radical".
(Berlin Gewerbeschule (trade school))
Berlin, Germany (and (University of
Giessen), Giessen, Germany) 
[1] * Description: Chemical structure
of Benzoyl chloride * Author, date
of creation: selfmade by Shaddack, 0
November 2005 * Source:
self-made * Copyright: Public
Domain (PD) * Comments: b/w hires
PNG; ChemDraw PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Benzoyl_chloride.png

[2] * Title: Friedrich Wöhler *
Year: unknown * Source:
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollections
/hst/scientific-identity/explore.htm
* Licence: Public Domain PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Friedrich_W%C3%B6hler_Stich.jpg
168 YBN
[1832 AD] 		6599) Roads are paved with asphalt.
France|(Pont Moraud Bridge) Lyons,
France|(A bridge in) Paris,
France 		 
167 YBN
[02/28/1833 AD] 		2906) The Christie (or Wheatstone)
Bridge; a method for comparing the
resistances of wires of different
thicknesses. (verify)
Royal Military Academy, Woolwich,
England 
[1] Description Wheatstone's bridge
circuit diagram. Source
self-made Date
2007-10-09 Author Rhdv [t
Notice that Rx is the unknown
resistor] GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/93/Wheatstonebridge.svg

[2] Description sketch of Sir
Charles Wheatstone Source
Frontispiece of Heroes of the
Telegraph Date 1891 Author J.
Munro PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Wheatstone_Charles.jpg
167 YBN
[07/07/1833 AD] 		2931) That electrical resistance in
metals increases with temperature is
shown.
(University of St. Petersburg) St.
Petersberg, Russia (presumably) 
[1] Heinrich Friedrich Emil Lenz
(1804-1865) Source Originally from
de.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. (Original text : Die Abbildung
stammt von
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollections
/hst/scientific-identity/explore.htm
und ist als ''Public Domain''
lizensiert, da das Copyright abgelaufen
ist.) Date 2004-08-13 (original
upload date) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Emil_Lenz.jpg
167 YBN
[1833 AD] 		2578) Sweat glands are identified.
(Breslau, Prussia now:)Wroclaw,
Poland 
[1] Jan Evangelista
Purkyně Scientist: Purkyne, Jan
Evangelista (1787 -
1869) Discipline(s):
Medicine Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 18 x 15.3 cm / Sheet: 28.2 x
19.5 cm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jan_Evangelista_Purkyne.jpg

[2] Johannes Evangelista
Purkinje Library of Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/topic/jan
-evangelista-purkinje?cat=technology
167 YBN
[1833 AD] 		2786) The first enzyme is discovered
and isolated; diastase {DI-u-STAS},
which speeds the conversion of starch
to sugar. An enzyme is a protein that
can regulate the rate of chemical
changes as a catalyst; being unchanged
in the process.
Paris, France (presumably) 
[1] Description French chemist Anselme
Payen (1795-1871) Source [1]
http://www.allposters.com/-sp/Anselme-Pa
yen-French-Chemist-Posters_i1869301_.htm
Date 19th century Author
Unknown PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Anselme_Payen.jpg

[2] [t page on Cellulose in
paper] PD
source: http://kation.elte.hu/vegybank/t
antov99/papir/payena.gif
167 YBN
[1833 AD] 		2901) A stereoscope, a device for
observing pictures in three dimensions.
(King's College) London, England 
[1] We've all enjoyed 3D movies and
stared at 3D pictures (stereograms) on
walls - well, the first real
stereographer was Sir Charles
Wheatstone, who made geometric 3-D
drawings and a device to view them
called a reflecting mirror stereoscrope
in 1838. This proved that stereo
perception was a result of binocular
vision. Wheatstone's actual stereoscope
is preserved at the Science Museum in
London. PD
source: http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/histor
y/wheatstone.html

[2] Description sketch of Sir
Charles Wheatstone Source
Frontispiece of Heroes of the
Telegraph Date 1891 Author J.
Munro PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Wheatstone_Charles.jpg
166 YBN
[01/01/1834 AD] 		1247) A mechanical reaper; a machine
that cuts grain is invented by Cyrus
McCormick.

Early reapers simply cut the crop and
drop it unbound.
Rockbridge County, Virginia, USA 
[1] Early reaping machine for
harvesting grain. V900/0023 Rights
Managed Credit: SCIENCE PHOTO
LIBRARY Caption: Reaping machine.
Engraving of the first reaping machine
for harvesting grain, invented by Cyrus
Hall McCormick (1809-1884) in 1831. As
the wheel (at centre) spun, the paddles
on it pushed the crop onto a moving
cutter bar and knife. This design
feature has been retained in modern
combine harvesters although McCormick's
machine was pulled by horses rather
than being pushed. McCormick patented
his invention in 1834, made his first
sale in 1840 and moved to Chicago in
1847 to begin large-scale production.
The six million harvesters he
manufactured opened the prairie lands
to intensive agriculture, a major
factor in America's
prosperity. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.sciencephoto.com/imag
e/364617/large/V9000023-Early_reaping_ma
chine_for_harvesting_grain.-SPL.jpg

[2] New Reaper, Getreidemäher New
Reaper, Stein der Weisen 1889 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Agriculture_2.jpg
166 YBN
[01/09/1834 AD] 		2704) The laws of electrolysis by
Faraday: the mass of a substance
deposited on an electrode is in
proportion to the quantity of
electricity and to the atomic mass of
the element liberated.
(Royal Institution in) London,
England 
[1] Description Michael Faraday,
oil, by Thomas Phillips Source
Thomas Phillips,1842 Date
1842 Author Thomas Phillips The
portrait shown here was painted by
Thomas Phillips (1770-1845), oil on
canvas, The National Portrait Gallery,
London. PD AND Faraday, Michael.
''Experimental Researches in
Electricity.--Seventh Series.''
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London 124 (1834):
77-122. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=ZG5KAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA127
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/108055
PD
source: Faraday, Michael. "Experimental
Researches in Electricity.--Seventh
Series." Philosophical Transactions of
the Royal Society of London 124 (1834):
77-122. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=ZG5KAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA127 AND
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:M_Far
aday_Th_Phillips_oil_1842.jpg

[2] Faraday, Michael. ''Experimental
Researches in Electricity.--Seventh
Series.'' Philosophical Transactions of
the Royal Society of London 124 (1834):
77-122. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=ZG5KAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA127
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/108055
PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=ZG5KAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA127
166 YBN
[06/19/1834 AD] 		2899) The speed of electricity in wire
is measured using a rotating mirror by
English physicist Charles Wheatstone.
(King's College) London, England 
[1] Figure from [7 591] PD
source: An Account of Some Experiments
to Measure the Velocity of Electricity
and the Duration of Electric
Light Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 124 -
1834 Author Charles
Wheatstone DOI 10.1098/rstl.1834.0031
Wheatstone_velocity.pdf 591

[2] Figure from [7 592] PD
source: An Account of Some Experiments
to Measure the Velocity of Electricity
and the Duration of Electric
Light Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 124 -
1834 Author Charles
Wheatstone DOI 10.1098/rstl.1834.0031
Wheatstone_velocity.pdf 592
166 YBN
[1834 AD] 		2539) The stars Sirius and Procyon are
shown to have displacements in their
motion later attributed to unseen
companions rotating around them.
Königsberg, (Prussia now:)
Germany 
[1] The image of Sirius A and Sirius B
taken by Hubble Space Telescope. The
white dwarf can be seen to the lower
left.[47] (Credit:NASA) [47] ''The Dog
Star, Sirius, and its Tiny Companion'',
Hubble News Desk, 2005-12-13. Retrieved
on 2006-08-04.
http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/newsd
esk/archive/releases/2005/36/image/a PD

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Sirius_A_and_B_Hubble_photo.jpg

[2] This Hubble Space Telescope image
shows Sirius A, the brightest star in
our nighttime sky, along with its
faint, tiny stellar companion, Sirius
B. Astronomers overexposed the image of
Sirius A [at centre] so that the dim
Sirius B [tiny dot at lower left] could
be seen. The cross-shaped diffraction
spikes and concentric rings around
Sirius A, and the small ring around
Sirius B, are artifacts produced within
the telescope's imaging system. The two
stars revolve around each other every
50 years. Sirius A, only 8.6
light-years from Earth, is the fifth
closest star system known. Source
http://www.spacetelescope.org/images/
html/heic0516a.html Date 15 Oct.,
2003 Author NASA, ESA Credit: H.
Bond (STScI) and M. Barstow (University
of Leicester) PD
source: http://www.answers.com/Friedrich
+Wilhelm+Bessel?cat=technology
166 YBN
[1834 AD] 		2741) The "Analytical Engine", a
programmable mechanical calculating
machine design that uses punch card
programs, has a separate memory and
central processor, is capable of
looping, iteration (the ability to
repeat a sequence of operations a
programmable number of times), and
conditional branching (IF...THEN
statements).
Cambridge, England (presumably) 
[1] Charles Babbage, circa
1843 PD/COREL
source: http://robroy.dyndns.info/Babbag
e/Images/babbage-1843.jpg

[2] Scientist: Babbage, Charles (1791
- 1871) Discipline(s):
Mathematics Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 10.8 x 8.8 cm / Sheet: 32.8 x
22.8 cm PD/COREL
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=b
166 YBN
[1834 AD] 		2758) The first computer program.
Cambridge, England (presumably) 
[1] Español: Ada King, Condesa de
Lovelace (1838) From The Ada Picture
Gallery. Evelyn Silva scanned this
from a picture she found ''in the
trash'' in Lousianna, USA, and
submitted it to the Ada Picture Gallery
in October 2000. She wrote: On the
bottom of the picture it says ''LONDON
PUBLISHED NOV 1 1838 FOR THE
PROPRIETORS, No 18 & 19 SOUTHAMPTON
PLACE, EUSTON SQUARE, NEW ROAD''. In
the lower left corner it says
''Printered by Mc Queen''. On the lower
right of the picture its ''Engraved By
W. H. Mote''. On the left ''Drawn by
A.E. Chaton R.A.''. There was also a
page with a bio on it. This was not in
a book when I found it, it was loose
along with some other Ladies of the
Queens court. So I don't have any other
info on it. It is an orginal print from
its time, not a reproduction. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ada_Lovelace_1838.jpg

[2] Español: Ada Augusta Byron
King Ada Lovelace, 19th century
British mathematician. Source:
National Physical Gallery,
Teddington. Copied from
en:Image:Ada_Lovelace.jpg. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ada_Lovelace.jpg
166 YBN
[1834 AD] 		2787) The carbohydrate cellulose is
discovered.
Paris, France (presumably) 
[1] Description French chemist Anselme
Payen (1795-1871) Source [1]
http://www.allposters.com/-sp/Anselme-Pa
yen-French-Chemist-Posters_i1869301_.htm
Date 19th century Author
Unknown PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Anselme_Payen.jpg

[2] [t page on Cellulose in paper] PD

source: http://kation.elte.hu/vegybank/t
antov99/papir/payena.gif
166 YBN
[1834 AD] 		2851) Methyl alcohol (methanol) is
discovered by distilling wood.
(Ecole Polytechnique) Paris, France
(presumably) 
[1] Methanol PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Met
hanol

[2] French chemist Jean Baptiste
André Dumas (1800-1884) from English
wikipedia original text: - Magnus
Manske (164993 bytes) from
http://web4.si.edu/sil/scientific-identi
ty/display_results.cfm?alpha_sort=d PD

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jean_Baptiste_Andr%C3%A9_Dumas.jpg
166 YBN
[1834 AD] 		2853) The Law of substitution: that
hydrogen atoms (electropositive) can be
substituted by chlorine or oxygen atoms
(electronegative) in certain reactions
without any drastic alteration in the
structure.
(Ecole Polytechnique) Paris, France
(presumably) 
[1] French chemist Jean Baptiste André
Dumas (1800-1884) from English
wikipedia original text: - Magnus
Manske (164993 bytes) from
http://web4.si.edu/sil/scientific-identi
ty/display_results.cfm?alpha_sort=d PD

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jean_Baptiste_Andr%C3%A9_Dumas.jpg

[2] Scientist: Dumas, Jean-Baptiste
(1800 - 1884) Discipline(s):
Chemistry Print Artist: Samuel
Freeman, 1773-1857 Medium: Engraving
Original Artist: Emililen
Desmaisons, 1812-1880 Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 14.7 x 12.3 cm /
Sheet: 27.8 x 19.2 cm PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-D5-08a.jpg
166 YBN
[1834 AD] 		3076) An antidote to arsenic poisoning
is found: freshly precipitated hydrated
ferric oxide.
(University of Göttingen), Göttingen,
Germany 
[1] Robert Bunsen PD/Corel
source: http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekat
z/scientists/bunsen10.jpg

[2] Young Robert Bunsen PD/Corel
source: http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekat
z/scientists/bunsen17.jpg
165 YBN
[01/29/1835 AD] 		3459) The infrared light can be
reflected, refracted and polarized is
proven.
(University of Edinburgh) Edinburgh,
Scotland 		 
165 YBN
[02/06/1835 AD] 		2810) The electrical relay is invented
by Joseph Henry. The relay is a device
that allows the electric current of
telegraph signals to be carried over
long distances.
Princeton, NJ, USA 
[1] In 1846, the Smithsonian Board of
Regents chose Joseph Henry as the
Institution's first
secretary. PD/Corel
source: http://www.150.si.edu/chap2/2man
.htm

[2] Description Portrait of Joseph
Henry Source
http://www.photolib.noaa.gov/bigs/per
s0124.jpg Date 1879 Author
Henry Ulke
(1821-1910) Permission (Reusing this
image) Public domain. PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Jospe
h_Henry_%281879%29.jpg
165 YBN
[08/12/1835 AD] 		2900) That sparks from electrodes made
of different metals give distinctive
spectra, which allow a method of
distinguishing between them is shown by
Charles Wheatstone.
(King's College) London, England 
[1] Table of the Bright Lines in the
Spectrum of the Magneto-Electric Spark,
taken from different melted Metals, and
observed with the Prismatic
Telescope. PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=oKEEAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edi
tions:0SjhzkMWwWl6wOhIn6z2P4&lr=#PRA2-PA
199,M1

[2] Description sketch of Sir
Charles Wheatstone Source
Frontispiece of Heroes of the
Telegraph Date 1891 Author J.
Munro PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Wheatstone_Charles.jpg
165 YBN
[1835 AD] 		2498) The name "catalysis" is suggested
by Berzelius (BRZElEuS) for reactions
that occur only in the presence of a
third substance.
Stokholm, Sweden (presumably) 
[1]
http://www.chemistry.msu.edu/Portraits/i
mages/Berzelius3c.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:J%C3%B6ns_Jacob_Berzelius.jpg

[2] Scientist: Berzelius, Jons Jakob
(1779 - 1848) Discipline(s):
Chemistry Print Artist: Charles W.
Sharpe, d. 1875(76) Medium:
Engraving Original Artist: Johan
Olaf Sodermark, 1790-1848 Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 26.8 x 18.2 cm /
Sheet: 31.6 x 23 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=B
165 YBN
[1835 AD] 		2738) The "Coriolis effect": how air
moving away from the equator retains a
higher horizontal velocity and so moves
ahead of the land above or below the
equator.
Paris, France 
[1] Coriolis Effect The rotation of
the Earth on its axis deflects the
atmosphere toward the right in the
Northern Hemisphere and toward the left
in the Southern Hemisphere, resulting
in curved paths. The deflection of the
atmosphere sets up the complex global
wind patterns which drive surface ocean
currents. This deflection is called the
Coriolis effect. It is named after the
French mathematician Gaspard Gustave de
Coriolis (1792-1843), who studied the
transfer of energy in rotating systems
like waterwheels. (Ross, 1995). PD
source: http://oceanservice.noaa.gov/edu
cation/kits/currents/media/supp_cur05b.h
tml

[2] English: Illustration of the
coriolis force Deutsch: Zur
Corioliskraft (Kugel auf Drehteller),
Animation Source German
Wikipedia Date November
2003 Author
Hubi Permission (Reusing this
image) GFDL
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Corioliskraftanimation.gif
165 YBN
[1835 AD] 		3300) The process of silvering objects
by chemical reduction of a silver
nitrate solution with an aldehyde. This
is the modern process of silvering
glass for mirrors.
(University of Giessen), Giessen,
Germany 
[1] Source:
http://www.uh.edu/engines/jliebig.jpg A
rtist & subject dies >70yrs ago. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:JustusLiebig.jpg

[2] Deutsch: Justus Liebig 1821 als
junger Student mit Burschenschaftsband,
Zeichnung von 1843 Source
http://www.liebig-museum.de/Tafeln/se
ite_02.pdf Date 1843 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Young-Justus-Liebig.jpg
165 YBN
[1835 AD] 		3896) A microscopic parasitic fungus
disease is discovered in silkworms.
Lodi, Italy (verify) 
[1] Bassi Agostino (1773-1856) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a8/Bassi_Agostino_1773-1
856.png

[2] Agostino Bassi PD
source: http://www.dmipfmv.ulg.ac.be/bac
vet/images/original/ABassi.jpg
165 YBN
[1835 AD] 		6623) Vinyl chloride is discovered, a
colourless, flammable, toxic gas
belonging to the family of
organohalogen compounds and used mostly
in making polyvinyl chloride, or PVC, a
widely used plastic.
(University of Lyons) Lyons,
France 
[1]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vinyl_chlor
ide GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vin
yl_chloride

[2] Victor Regnault peint par son
fils PD
source: http://www.annales.org/archives/
x/regnault1.jpg
164 YBN
[02/09/1836 AD] 		6602) The nerve cell, or neuron is
first identified.
(Breslau now:) Wrocław, Poland
(presumably) 
[1] Valentin, G. G. ''Über den Verlauf
und die letzten Enden der Nerven.'',
Nova Acta Phys. Med. Acad. Nat. Curios
18.51,541
(1836). books.google.com/books?id=--IxA
QAAMAAJ&pg=PA241 PD AND Description
English: Gabriel G.
Valentin Polski: Gabriel G.
Valentin Date before 1880 Source
IHM Author
Unknown Permission (Reusing this
file) The National Library of
Medicine believes this item to be in
the public domain. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=--IxAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA241
AND http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikip
edia/commons/7/75/Gabriel_G._Valentin.jp
g

[2] Description English: Gabriel G.
Valentin Polski: Gabriel G.
Valentin Date before 1880 Source
IHM Author
Unknown Permission (Reusing this
file) The National Library of
Medicine believes this item to be in
the public domain. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/75/Gabriel_G._Valentin.j
pg
164 YBN
[1836 AD] 		2813) A high voltage induction coil is
built by Nicholas Joseph Callan.

This coil can reach an estimated
600,000 volts, the highest voltage
created at the time, far above any
voltage that can be generated with a
voltaic pile.
Maynooth, Ireland 
[1] Nicholas Joseph Callan, Professor
of Natural Philosophy PD/Corel
source: http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekat
z/scientists/callan.html

[2] The ''Great Coil'' of Nicholas
Callan, 1837 COPYRIGHTED
source: same
164 YBN
[1836 AD] 		2863) Acetylene, a flammable gas is
discovered.
(Royal Dublin Society) Dublin, Ireland
(presumably) 
[1] Acetylene PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ace
tylene

[2] Description English: Calcium
Carbide after exposure to air. Source
Originally from en.wikipedia;
description page is/was here. Date
2005-12-28 (original upload
date) Author Original uploader was
Rjb uk at
en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
image) Released into the public
domain (by the author). PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Cac2.jpg
164 YBN
[1836 AD] 		2926) A screw propeller that replaces
the paddle wheel.
London, England (presumably) 
[1] John Ericsson (1803 - 1889),
Swedish-born inventor. Original print
in possession of National Archives. PD

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:John_Ericsson_2.jpg

[2] Library of Congress PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
/print?id=97184&articleTypeId=0
164 YBN
[1836 AD] 		3070) The enzyme pepsin, a substance
responsible for digestion in the
stomach is isolated and named.
(University of Berlin) Berlin,
Germany 
[1] Theodor Schwann Library of
Congress PD
source: http://content.answers.com/main/
content/img/scitech/HStheodo.jpg

[2] Autore: Pasquale Baroni Fonte:
foto Gonella Copyright © Museo di
Anatomia Umana ''Luigi Rolando'',
Torino olio su tela PD? COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.torinoscienza.it/img/
orig/it/s00/00/0011/000011a0.jpg
164 YBN
[1836 AD] 		3071) That yeast is a living organism
and the cause of fermentation of sugar
and starch is recognized.
(University of Louvain) Louvain,
Belgium (verify) 
[1] Theodor Schwann Library of
Congress PD
source: http://content.answers.com/main/
content/img/scitech/HStheodo.jpg

[2] Autore: Pasquale Baroni Fonte:
foto Gonella Copyright © Museo di
Anatomia Umana ''Luigi Rolando'',
Torino olio su tela PD? COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.torinoscienza.it/img/
orig/it/s00/00/0011/000011a0.jpg
164 YBN
[1836 AD] 		6257) The electric motor train.
Brandon, Vermont, USA 
[1] Henry Walter Young, ''Popular
Electricity and the World's Advocate,
Volume 4'', 1911,
p6. http://books.google.com/books?id=Wh
pbAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA5 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=WhpbAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA5

[2] The Electrical World. Electrical
World, V16, 1890,
p276. http://books.google.com/books?id=
yItMAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA276 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=yItMAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA276
163 YBN
[07/??/1837 AD] 		3995) This principle of the electric
speaker; that an iron bar emits sounds
that correspond to the number of
currents that rapidly magnetize and
demagnetize it.
Salem, Massachusetts, USA 
[1] ''The Production of Galvanic
Music'', The American journal of
science and arts, Volume 32, Number 2,
July, 1837, p396-397.
http://books.google.com/books?id=gT0PA
AAAYAAJ&pg=PA396 PD AND [1]
Description English: Charles Grafton
Page Date c. 1860 Source
Smithsonian file Transferred from
en.wikipedia to Commons by
User:Wdwd.. Author Charles Grafton
Page. Anemonella at
en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) This image is in the public
domain due to its age;
PD-OLD-100. (Original text :
Smithsonian negative 73-5100) PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=gT0PAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA396 AND
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/co
mmons/f/f6/CGPageportrait.jpg

[2] Description English: Charles
Grafton Page Date c. 1860 Source
Smithsonian file Transferred from
en.wikipedia to Commons by
User:Wdwd.. Author Charles Grafton
Page. Anemonella at
en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) This image is in the public
domain due to its age;
PD-OLD-100. (Original text :
Smithsonian negative 73-5100) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f6/CGPageportrait.jpg
162 YBN
[12/??/1838 AD] 		3103) The basis of the fuel-cell
battery: the chemical union of hydrogen
and oxygen gas in acidified water
caused by platinum that generates
electricity.
(University of Basel) Basel,
Switzerland 
[1] C. F. Shoenbein, ''On the Voltaic
Properties of certain Solid and Fluid
Substances'', ''Philosophical
Magazine'', ser3, vol14, (1839).
books.google.com/books?id=dF1KiX7MbSMC
&pg=PA43 {schoenbein004.pdf} PD
AND 19th century photograph. public
domain. PD
source: books.google.com/books?id=dF1KiX
7MbSMC&pg=PA43 AND
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Sch
%C3%B6nbein.jpg

[2] 19th century photograph. public
domain. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Sch%C3%B6nbein.jpg
162 YBN
[1838 AD] 		2500) The occurrence of different forms
of the same element is named
"allotropy".
Stokholm, Sweden (presumably) 
[1]
http://www.chemistry.msu.edu/Portraits/i
mages/Berzelius3c.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:J%C3%B6ns_Jacob_Berzelius.jpg

[2] Scientist: Berzelius, Jons Jakob
(1779 - 1848) Discipline(s):
Chemistry Print Artist: Charles W.
Sharpe, d. 1875(76) Medium:
Engraving Original Artist: Johan
Olaf Sodermark, 1790-1848 Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 26.8 x 18.2 cm /
Sheet: 31.6 x 23 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=B
162 YBN
[1838 AD] 		2540) The parallax of a different star
is measured by Friedrich Wilhelm
Bessel. By comparing the position of 61
Cygni, to two other more distant stars
during the course of a year. After
correcting for the proper motion, the
star appears to move in an ellipse
every year which is due to parallax.
Königsberg, (Prussia now:)
Germany 
[1] Stellar parallax motion PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Stellarparallax2.svg

[2] Example of lunar parallax:
Occultation of Pleiades by the
Moon Example of lunar parallax from 4
points on earth This is a simulated
image, combining of 4 views of the sky
and the moon's location relative to the
background stars at a single point in
time. The bright stars visible are the
star cluster Pleiades. The date March
22, 1988 was chosen because the moon
occulted stars within the pleides as
visible from North America. NOTE: This
diagram is geometrically accurate,
although not physically possible to see
since the moon was not actually above
the horizon in half the views.
Specifically you can never see the
Pleiades from the south pole! They were
just picked as extreme views from the
earth, the limit of what might be seen
from a set of four locations in a
square on a great circle and a moon
just above the horizon in all four
locations. Credit: Tom Ruen, Full Sky
Observatory * This image was
generated by my own solar system
viewing software. * Source bitmap
for projection from Nasa's Clementine
Spacecraft: o USGS: Global
simple cylindrical projection at 10
km/pixel.
(http://astrogeology.usgs.gov/Projects/C
lementine/images/albedo.simp750.jpeg) P
D
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Lunarparallax_22_3_1988.png
162 YBN
[1838 AD] 		2854) Three hydrogens in acetic acid
are replaced with chlorines to produce
a compound with similar properties
supporting the theory of substitution.
(Ecole Polytechnique) Paris, France
(presumably) 
[1] Trichloroacetic acid PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tri
chloroacetic_acid

[2] acetic acid PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ace
tic_acid
162 YBN
[1838 AD] 		2918) The name protein is used to
describe the nitrogenous parts of all
tissue.
Rotterdam?, Netherlands
(presumably) 
[1] Gerardus Johannes Mulder
(1802-1880) PD/Corel
source: http://www.erfgoed-utrecht.nl/de
tail.aspx?id=197177
162 YBN
[1838 AD] 		2934) The first cell theory: that all
plants are made of cells by Matthias
Jakob Schleiden (slIDeN).
(University of Jena) Jena,
Germany 
[1] Matthias Jakob Schleiden Library
of Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/Matthias+
Jakob+Schleiden+?cat=technology

[2] 01 Jan 1870 Matthias
Schleiden (Photo by Kean
Collection/Getty Images ) [t again
large side burns looks to be mid to
late 1800s] PD
source: http://www.viewimages.com/Search
.aspx?mid=50898741&epmid=1&partner=Googl
e
162 YBN
[1838 AD] 		3006) The mass of Uranus is determined
from the motion of its satellites.
(Royal Observatory) Bogenhausen,
Germany 
[1] Johann Von Lamont
(1805-1879) PD/Corel
source: http://www.tayabeixo.org/sist_so
lar/images/lamont.jpg
162 YBN
[1838 AD] 		3157) That nerves are not hollow tubes,
but are solid and flat is proven.
(University of Berlin) Berlin, Germany
(presumably) 
[1] Robert Remak PD/Corel
source: http://www.cerebromente.org.br/n
17/history/remak2.JPG

[2] Robert Remak PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b2/Robert_Remak.gif
162 YBN
[1838 AD] 		3386) The direct-acting gas combustion
engine; a cylinder is directly moved by
the explosion.
?, England 
[1] Donkin, B. A Text-book on Gas, Oil
and Air Engines: Or, Internal
Combustion Motors Without Boiler. C.
Griffin and company, limited,
1896. http://books.google.com/books?id=
8d03AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA22 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=8d03AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA22

[2] Barnett's ignition cock PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=8e9MAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA103&lpg=PA103&dq=%22r
obert+street%22+patent+engine&source=web
&ots=zXhunpMWQn&sig=OK3zL_tlF9en_5S83tLJ
0kuNyVI&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum
=1&ct=result#PPA219,M1
161 YBN
[01/09/1839 AD] 		2617) Photograph making is reduced from
8 hours to 30 minutes.
Paris, France 
[1] Description English:
Daguerreotype of Louis Daguerre in 1844
by Jean-Baptiste Sabatier-Blot (died
1881) Source Originally from
en.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. Date 2007-01-23 (first
version); 2007-01-23 (last
version) Author Jean-Baptiste
Sabatier-Blot Original uploader was
Aepryus at
en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
image) This image is in the public
domain due to its age. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Louis_Daguerre_2.jpg

[2] Louis-Jacques-Mandé Daguerre (18
November 1787 - 10 July 1851) Source
from English Wiki Date November
1787 July 1851 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Louis_Daguerre.jpg
161 YBN
[02/??/1839 AD] 		3100) A "gas battery" which uses
hydrogen and oxygen gas to produce
electricity; the first "fuel cell".
London, England 
[1] William Robert Grove, ''On Voltaic
Series and the Combination of Gases by
Platinum.'', Philosophical Magazine,
Series 3, Volume 14, Number 86, Feb
1839, pp127-129.
http://books.google.com/books?id=dF1Ki
X7MbSMC&pg=PA127 {Grove_PM_1839.pdf} A
ND Grove On the Gas figures 6 and
7 PD/Corel AND Description Grove
(1811-1896) devised the first fuel
cell. His 'Grove gas voltaic battery'
of 1839 was actually a fuel cell. Grove
realised that the current came from a
chemical reaction. He went on to make
the first electric filament lamp in
1845. The following year he established
the theory of mutual convertibility of
forces. He was also a barrister and QC,
member of the Royal Institution, and
profesor of experimental philosophy at
the London Institution.
Artist Unattributed Image
Ref. 10301768 Sir William Robert
Grove, Welsh lawyer and physicist, c
1850. © Science Museum / Science &
Society COPYRIGHTED
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=dF1KiX7MbSMC&pg=PA127 AND Grove_On_th
e_Gas_1843.pdf AND http://lowres-pictu
recabinet.com.s3-eu-west-1.amazonaws.com
/43/main/10/89370.jpg

[2] Grove's Device: Oxygen and
hydrogen in the tubes over the lower
reservoirs react in sulfuric acid
solution to form water. That is the
energy producing chemical reaction. The
electrons produced electrolyze water to
oxygen and hydrogen in the upper tube
that was actually used as a voltmeter.
This scheme was published by Grove in
one of the first accounts of an
operating fuel cell in Philos. Mag.,
Ser. 3, 1839, 14, 127. Grove proved
that his fuel cells worked, but as he
had no entrepreneurial inclinations,
and there was no practical use for them
at that time anyway, the invention
slumbered for more than 130
years. PD/Corel
source: http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekat
z/scientists/grove_cell2.jpg
161 YBN
[07/29/1839 AD] 		3308) Light is converted into
electricity by Alexandre Edmond
Becquerel (BeKreL), (the photoelectric
or photovoltaic effect). This is the
first photovoltaic (or "solar") cell.

Becquerel demonstrates that allowing
sunlight to contact metal electrodes,
such as platinum, gold, and silver
while immersed in a liquid electrolyte
(such as ferric chloride mixed with
ether) produces a very small electric
current.
(University of Paris) Paris,
France 
[1] Becquerel, Alexandre-Edmond.
''Recherches sur les effets de la
radiation chimique de la lumière
solaire, au moyen des courants
électriques.'' CR Acad. Sci 9 (1839):
145-149. English: ''Studies of the
effect of actinitic radiation of
sunlight by means of electric
currents'' books.google.com/books?id=zm
ZFAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA145 PD
source: books.google.com/books?id=zmZFAA
AAcAAJ&pg=PA145

[2] Scientist: Becquerel, Alexandre
Edmond (1820 - 1891) Discipline(s):
Physics Print Artist: Charles
Jeremie Fuhr, b.1832 Medium:
Lithograph Original Artist: Pierre
Petit, 1832-1885 Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 25.5 x 19 cm / Sheet: 30.6 x
20.1 cm PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-B2-07a.jpg
161 YBN
[1839 AD] 		2660) The first telegraph line in
England.
Liverpool (and Manchester),
England 		 
161 YBN
[1839 AD] 		2800) The element Lanthanum {laNtenuM}.
(Caroline Medical Institute) Stockholm,
Sweden 
[1] The Lanthanum metal GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Lanthanum.jpg

[2] Carl Gustav Mosander
(1797-1858), PD/Corel
source: http://www.vanderkrogt.net/eleme
nts/elem/la.html
161 YBN
[1839 AD] 		2820) The parallax of Alpha Centauri,
the third brightest star as seen from
Earth, is measured to be 0.75 of a
second, which puts Alpha Centauri at 4
light years away; the closest known
star to the Sun.
(University of Edinburgh)Edinburgh,
Scotland (and observation in Cape Town,
South Africa) 
[1] Thomas Henderson. Reconstruction by
Angus McBride from rough sketches by
C.P. Smyth. Source:
Warner,Astronomers. COPYRIGHTED?
source: http://www.saao.ac.za/assa/html/
his-astr-henderson_t.html
161 YBN
[1839 AD] 		2862) "Vulcanized" rubber is made by
heating rubber with sulfur. This solves
the problem of rubber melting in warmth
and cracking in cold.
Woburn, Massachussetts, USA
(presumably) 
[1] Charles Goodyear, as illustrated in
an 1891 Scientific American
article Charles Goodyear - Project
Gutenberg eText 14009 -
http://www.gutenberg.net/dirs/1/4/0/0/14
009/14009-h/14009-h.htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Charles_Goodyear.png

[2] SOURCE:
http://lcweb2.loc.gov/pnp/cph/3a00000/3a
09000/3a09800/3a09814r.jpg GOODYEAR,
CHARLES. Engraving by W. G. Jackman.
New York: D. Appleton & Co. [No date
found on item.] Location: Biographical
File Reproduction Number:
LC-USZ62-7162; LC-USZ6-57 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Goodyear-Charles-LOC.jpg
161 YBN
[1839 AD] 		3072) Cell theory is extended to all
animals and plants.
(University of Louvain) Louvain,
Belgium 
[1] Theodor Schwann Library of
Congress PD
source: http://content.answers.com/main/
content/img/scitech/HStheodo.jpg

[2] Autore: Pasquale Baroni Fonte:
foto Gonella Copyright © Museo di
Anatomia Umana ''Luigi Rolando'',
Torino olio su tela PD? COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.torinoscienza.it/img/
orig/it/s00/00/0011/000011a0.jpg
161 YBN
[1839 AD] 		3137) The plastic polystyrene is
discovered.
This is the first recorded instance of
polymerization.
Berlin, Germany  
160 YBN
[03/12/1840 AD] 		3875) Infrared spectral lines are
identified from sun light by John
Herschel using a thin paper coated with
ink which appears lighter in color
where spectral emission lines have
dried it.
London, England (presumably) 
[1] Thermographs from 1840 John
Herschel paper. PD
source: http://journals.royalsociety.org
/content/j3401r3x2g4r02h8/?p=684dc9788b8
f4fdba45c07657d6560dfπ=11 {Herschel_Jo
hn_infrared_1840.pdf}

[2] John Herschel PD
source: "Herschel, John Frederick
William", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p417.
160 YBN
[12/17/1840 AD] 		3238) The heat created by electrical
current is found to equal the square of
the current multiplied by the
resistance.
Broom Hill (near Manchester),
England 
[1] Description Picture of James
Joule Source The Life & Experiences
of Sir Henry Enfield Roscoe (Macmillan:
London and New York), p. 120 Date
1906 Author Henry Roscoe PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0f/Joule_James_sitting.j
pg

[2] Description Engraving of James
Joule Source Nature, volume 26,
facing page 616 (October, 1882) Date
1882 Author C. H. Jeens PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/41/Joule_James_Jeens_eng
raving.jpg
160 YBN
[1840 AD] 		2827) Ozone is identified and named.
(University of Basel) Basel,
Switzerland 
[1] 19th century photograph. public
domain. PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Sch%C
3%B6nbein.jpg

[2] Scientist: Schönbein, Christian
(1799 - 1868) Discipline(s):
Chemistry Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 8.3 x 7 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=s
160 YBN
[1840 AD] 		2904) A device that can measure an
interval of 137 microseconds.
(King's College) London, England
(presumably) 
[1] Description sketch of Sir
Charles Wheatstone Source
Frontispiece of Heroes of the
Telegraph Date 1891 Author J.
Munro PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Wheatstone_Charles.jpg

[2] Description From left to right:
Michael Faraday, Thomas Henry Huxley,
Charles Wheatstone, David Brewster,
John Tyndall Deutsch: Charles
Wheatstone (Mitte) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Physiker.jpg
160 YBN
[1840 AD] 		2914) Hess' law: That the amount of
heat involved in producing one chemical
from another is always the same, no
matter what chemical route the reaction
takes or how many stages are taken.
(University of Saint Petersberg) Saint
Petersberg, Russia (presumably) 
[1] Description Picture of German
chemist Germain Henri Hess (who died in
1850) Source Edgar Fahs Smith
Collection Date Before 1850 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Hess_Germain_Henri.jpg
160 YBN
[1840 AD] 		2921) The first chemical fertilizers.
That loss of soil fertility is caused
by the consumption by plants of the
minerals necessary for life such as
sodium, potassium, calcium, and
phosphorus is recognized.
(University of Giessen), Giessen,
Germany 
[1] Source:
http://www.uh.edu/engines/jliebig.jpg A
rtist & subject dies >70yrs ago. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:JustusLiebig.jpg

[2] Deutsch: Justus Liebig 1821 als
junger Student mit Burschenschaftsband,
Zeichnung von 1843 Source
http://www.liebig-museum.de/Tafeln/se
ite_02.pdf Date 1843 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Young-Justus-Liebig.jpg
159 YBN
[01/11/1841 AD] 		3600) An electric clock.
London, England 
[1] Bain's clock PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=JkcoAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PA376&dq=Alexander+
Bain+telegraph&as_brr=1&ei=OFTYSM_PEajit
QOKwOGrAQ#PRA2-PA126-IA1,M1

[2] [t Bain's clock - not clear what
year] PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=-PQDAAAAQAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Ale
xander+Bain+telegraph&as_brr=1&ei=OFTYSM
_PEajitQOKwOGrAQ#PPA36,M1
159 YBN
[1841 AD] 		2903) Telegrams are typed in letters on
paper.
(King's College) London, England
(presumably) 
[1] Description sketch of Sir
Charles Wheatstone Source
Frontispiece of Heroes of the
Telegraph Date 1891 Author J.
Munro PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Wheatstone_Charles.jpg

[2] Description From left to right:
Michael Faraday, Thomas Henry Huxley,
Charles Wheatstone, David Brewster,
John Tyndall Deutsch: Charles
Wheatstone (Mitte) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Physiker.jpg
159 YBN
[1841 AD] 		3158) Cell division is described by
Robert Remak (rAmaK).
(University of Berlin) Berlin, Germany
(presumably) 
[1] Robert Remak PD/Corel
source: http://www.cerebromente.org.br/n
17/history/remak2.JPG

[2] Robert Remak PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b2/Robert_Remak.gif
159 YBN
[1841 AD] 		3159) The three embryo germ layers are
identified and named "ectoderm" (outer
skin), "mesoderm" (middle skin), and
"endoderm" (inner skin).
(University of Berlin) Berlin, Germany
(presumably) 
[1] Robert Remak PD/Corel
source: http://www.cerebromente.org.br/n
17/history/remak2.JPG

[2] Robert Remak PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b2/Robert_Remak.gif
159 YBN
[1841 AD] 		3190) That sperm are cells is
demonstrated and the theory that the
nucleus transmits inherited
characteristics is suggested.
(University of Zurich) Zurich,
Switzerland 
[1] Kölliker, Albert von PD/Corel
source: http://clendening.kumc.edu/dc/pc
/kolliker.jpg

[2] Rudolph Albert von Kölliker
(1857–1905) from portrait Left:
Photograph showing Brown-Séquard.
Right: Portrait of Von
Kölliker. PD/Corel
source: http://www.medscape.com/content/
2004/00/46/84/468471/art-nf468471.fig7.j
pg
158 YBN
[03/30/1842 AD] 		3171) The first use of an anesthetic
for surgery; by Crawford Williamson
Long.

A person is made to lose consciousness
by inhaling ether before surgery in
which a neck tumor is removed. When the
person operated on regains
consciousness he tells Long that he did
not experienced any pain.
Jefferson, Georgia 
[1] 1870 photograph of Crawford Long,
anesthesia pioneer PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8c/CrawfordLong.jpg
158 YBN
[06/17/1842 AD] 		2812) The basis of invisible particle
communication (radio), a spark
magnetizes a needle 7 miles away.
Princeton, NJ, USA 
[1] In 1846, the Smithsonian Board of
Regents chose Joseph Henry as the
Institution's first
secretary. PD/Corel
source: http://www.150.si.edu/chap2/2man
.htm

[2] Description Portrait of Joseph
Henry Source
http://www.photolib.noaa.gov/bigs/per
s0124.jpg Date 1879 Author
Henry Ulke
(1821-1910) Permission (Reusing this
image) Public domain. PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Jospe
h_Henry_%281879%29.jpg
158 YBN
[07/04/1842 AD] 		5837) The "light fountain" or "light
pipe". This is the basis of fiber optic
communication.
Paris, France (presumably) 
[1] Daniel Colladon first described
this ''light fountain'' or ''light
pipe'' in an 1842 article titled On the
reflections of a ray of light inside a
parabolic liquid stream. This
particular illustration comes from a
later article by Colladon, in
1884. Author: Jean-Daniel Colladon
(1802-1893). Source: This illustration
appears in ''La Nature'' magazine in
1884 and it is reproduced in modern-day
accounts of the history of fiber optics
including Jeff Hecht's book Story of
Fiber Optics and i-fiberoptics.com.
Collodon first described the system in
an article in ''Comptes Rendus'' 1842,
and described it again in 1884 in ''La
Nature''. In the above illustration,
water comes out of a short spout on the
watertank and then falls through open
air, as in a fountain. The device on
the illustration's lefthand side
produces light and directs a beam of
light into the watertank. The
demonstration of this ''light
fountain'' needs to be done in a
darkened room to see the effect. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/ec/DanielColladon%27s_Li
ghtfountain_or_Lightpipe%2CLaNature%28ma
gazine%29%2C1884.JPG

[2] Jean Daniel COLLADON (1802-1893)
PD
source: http://www.pionnair-ge.com/spip1
/IMG/jpg/Colladon-Jean-Daniel-prtrt.jpg
158 YBN
[07/??/1842 AD] 		2801) The elements erbium, and terbium.
(Caroline Medical Institute) Stockholm,
Sweden 
[1] Carl Gustav Mosander
(1797-1858), PD/Corel
source: http://www.vanderkrogt.net/eleme
nts/elem/la.html

[2] Element: Yttrium Atomic Weight of
Yttrium: 88.9059 Electron
Configuration of Yttrium:
[Kr]5s14d1 Atomic Radius of Yttrium:
181 pm Melting Point of Yttrium: 1522
ºC Boiling Point of Yttrium: 3345
ºC Oxidation States of Yttrium: 3 A.
L. Allred Electronegativity of Yttrium:
1.22 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.chemicalforums.com/in
dex.php?page=periodictable#Y
158 YBN
[1842 AD] 		2929) The Doppler effect: that
frequency of light and sound is
affected by the relative motion of the
source and observer is described by
Christian Johann Doppler (DoPlR).
(Prague Polytechnic, now Czech
Technical University)Prague, Czech
Republic 
[1] Description English:
Photographic portrait of Christian
Doppler (1803-1853) Date unknown, but
subject died in 1853 Source
http://www.scientific-web.com/en/Physic
s/Biographies/images/CDoppler2.jpg Auth
or unknown PD AND Doppler, ''Ueber
das farbige Licht der Doppelsterne und
einiger anderer Gestirne des Himmels,''
Böhm. Gesell. Abbandlungen ii. 1841-42
s.
465. http://books.google.com/books?id=z
l5RAAAAcAAJ PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/86/Christian_Doppler.jpg
AND
http://books.google.com/books?id=zl5RA
AAAcAAJ

[2] Description English:
Photographic portrait of Christian
Doppler (1803-1853) Date unknown, but
subject died in 1853 Source
http://www.scientific-web.com/en/Physic
s/Biographies/images/CDoppler2.jpg Auth
or unknown PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/86/Christian_Doppler.jpg

157 YBN
[1843 AD] 		3231) That a nerve can carry a
negatively charged impulse from one end
to the other is demonstrated.
(University of Berlin) Berlin,
Germany 
[1] Scientist: Du Bois-Reymond, Paul
(1818 - 1896) Discipline(s): Medicine
; Physics Print Artist: Attributed to
Loecher & Petsch Medium: Photograph
PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-D5-04a.jpg

[2] Scientist: Du Bois-Reymond, Paul
(1818 - 1896) Discipline(s): Medicine
; Physics Print Artist: Gesellschaft,
Berlin (Photographic company) Medium:
Photogravure Original Artist: Max
Koner, 1854-1900 Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 23.8 x 17.6 cm / Sheet: 28.8
x 20.4 cm PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-D5-03a.jpg
157 YBN
[1843 AD] 		6240) The first remote controlled wired
explosive by Samuel Colt; an
electrically discharged naval mine.
Paterson, New Jersey, USA
(presumably) 
[1] Description Samuel Colt (1814
– 1862) English: Samuel Colt,
founder of the firearms manufacturer
Colt Deutsch: Samuel Colt, Begründer
des Waffenherstellers Colt Date
Source 19th century
engraving PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3f/SamuelColt.jpg
156 YBN
[1844 AD] 		2795) The element ruthenium {rUtENEuM}.
St. Petersberg, Russia 
[1] English: Ruthenium sample. This
image was copied from en.wikipedia.org.
The original description
was: Ruthenium sample. Photo by
RTC. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ru%2C44.jpg

[2] Name, Symbol, Number Ruthenium,
Ru, 44 Chemical series transition
metals GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ru-TableImage.png
156 YBN
[1844 AD] 		3047) "Transcendental numbers" are
identified: an irrational number that
cannot be the root of any polynomial
with rational-number coefficients.
(École Polytechnique) Paris,
France 
[1]
http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/
history/PictDisplay/Liouville.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/2/20/Liouville.jpeg
156 YBN
[1844 AD] 		3093) The first photographs from a
microscope.
(New York University) New York City,
New York, USA 
[1] Photomicrograph of Frog Blood John
William
Draper Daguerreotype 1844 National
Museum of American History, Behring
Center, Division of Information
Technology and
Communications Photographic History
Collection Image ID: AFS 201 How to
locate or purchase this image A
multitalented scientist and inventor,
John William Draper worked as a
chemistry professor at the University
of New York, where he conducted
research in numerous fields, ranging
from medicine and philosophy to
spectrum analysis and photography. This
photograph displaying the physiological
characteristics of frog blood was taken
after Draper developed a method for
attaching a camera to his microscope.
His photomicrography enabled him to see
and photograph the previously unseen.
PD/Corel
source: http://photography.si.edu/upload
/Images/778_Image_201.jpg

[2] [t note that date in
1840] Spectrograph John William
Draper Daguerreotype 1840 National
Museum of American History, Behring
Center, Division of Information
Technology and
Communications Photographic History
Collection Image ID: AFS 138 PD/Corel

source: http://photography.si.edu/upload
/Images/691_Image_138.jpg
156 YBN
[1844 AD] 		3898) Leukaemia is described: a
condition in which large numbers of
abnormal white cells accumulate.
(Hotel dieu) Paris, France
(verify) 
[1] Photographs of Donne, his wife, and
children. PD
source: http://sti.bmj.com/cgi/reprint/5
0/5/377.pdf
155 YBN
[04/??/1845 AD] 		2839) The spiral shape of other
galaxies is recognized by William
Parsons, (Third Earl of Rosse),
although at the time the other galaxies
are thought to be nebulae.

After constructing a 72-inch (1.8 m)
reflector telescope, the largest on
Earth, Parsons examines M51 and
discovers that the nebula has a spiral
structure and contains stars.
(Birr Castle) Parsonstown,
Ireland 
[1] The Earl of Rosse. ''Observations
on the Nebulae.'' Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1850):
499-514. http://www.jstor.org/stable/10
.2307/108449 PD
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2
307/108449

[2] Abb. 2 - Lord Rosse's drwaing of M
51 showing its spiral structure. [t
Notice that Parsons numbers stars which
appear to be part of the
galaxy] PD/Corel
source: http://www.klima-luft.de/steinic
ke/Artikel/birr/birr_e.htm
155 YBN
[09/18/1845 AD] 		2713) Plane polarized light is rotated
when passing through glass subjected to
an electromagnetic field.
(Royal Institution in) London,
England 
[1] Figure 1 from [16
4] PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: Faraday_e19_polarization.pdf ht
tp://journals.royalsociety.org/content/?
k=michael+faraday+ninetenth+series
Experimental Researches in Electricity.
Nineteenth
Series Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 136 -
1846 Author Michael
Faraday DOI 10.1098/rstl.1846.0001 4

[2] Description Michael Faraday,
oil, by Thomas Phillips Source
Thomas Phillips,1842 Date
1842 Author Thomas Phillips[3
wiki] The portrait shown here was
painted by Thomas Phillips (1770-1845),
oil on canvas, The National Portrait
Gallery, London.[7] PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:M_Far
aday_Th_Phillips_oil_1842.jpg
155 YBN
[12/24/1845 AD] 		2714) Diamagnetism is discovered,
unlike iron, diamagnetic materials are
repelled by magnetic poles.
(Royal Institution in) London,
England 
[1] Michael Faraday, ''Experimental
Researches in Electricity. Twenty-First
Series'', Philosophical Transactions of
the Royal Society of London, Vol. 136,
(1846), pp.
41-62. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1083
05 PD AND [24] [t Michael Faraday,
daguerrotype?] PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1083
05 AND
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/farada
y.htm

[2]
source:
155 YBN
[1845 AD] 		3227) The organic molecule acetic acid
is synthesized from inorganic
molecules.
(University of Marburg) Marburg,
Germany 
[1] Description Adolph Wilhelm
Hermann Kolbe (1818-1884) Source
unknown Date 19th century PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b1/Adolph_Kolbe.jpg

[2] Hermann Kolbe. Historia-Photo
PD/Corel
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
10412&rendTypeId=4
155 YBN
[1845 AD] 		3295) A microscope is lit by the light
of an electric arc.
Paris, France 
[1] Electric Photo Microscope PD/Corel

source: William Tobin, "The Life and
Science of Léon Foucault", Cambridge
University Press, 2003.

[2] carbon electrode PD/Corel
source: William Tobin, "The Life and
Science of Léon Foucault", Cambridge
University Press, 2003.
155 YBN
[1845 AD] 		3401) The air filled tire.
London, England (presumably) 
[1] US Patent 5104 PD/Corel
source: http://v3.espacenet.com/origdoc?
DB=EPODOC&IDX=US5104&F=0&QPN=US5104

[2] Obituary of Robert William
Thomson, Scottish engineer and inventor
of the locomotive traction steam
engine. The text above his obituary is
the end of Lord Ossington (John Evelyn
Denison)'s obituary. Source
Illustrated London News Date
March 29, 1873 Author Engraving
by R & E Taylor, after a photograph by
a Mr. Peterson of Copenhagen. Author of
the obituary unknown. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/77/Robert_William_Thomso
n_-_Illustrated_London_News_March_29_187
3.png
155 YBN
[1845 AD] 		3451) Kirchhoff's laws: that the sum of
the currents into a junction equal the
sum of the currents out of the
junction, and that the sum of the
voltages around a loop is equal to the
sum of voltage drops across each of the
resistances in the loop.
(University of Knigsberg) Knigsberg,
Prussia (now Germany)
(presumably) 
[1] The current entering any junction
is equal to the current leaving that
junction. i1 + i4 = i2 + i3 GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/69/KCL.png

[2] The sum of all the voltages around
the loop is equal to zero. v1 + v2 + v3
+ v4 = 0 GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e3/KVL.png
154 YBN
[09/23/1846 AD] 		3073) Planet Neptune is first observed
by Johann Gottfried Galle (GoLu).
Berlin, Germany (and Paris,
France) 
[1] Galle, J. G., ''Account of the
discovery of Le Verrier's planet
Neptune, at Berlin, Sept. 23, 1846'',
Monthly Notices of the Royal
Astronomical Society, Vol. 7,
p.153. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?1846MNRAS.
..7..153G&data_type=PDF_HIGH&whole_paper
=YES&type=PRINTER&filetype=.pdf PD
AND [1] Scientist: Le Verrier,
Urbain Jean Joseph (1811 -
1877) Discipline(s): Astronomy Print
Artist: Auguste Bry, 19th C. Medium:
Lithograph Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 12.5 x 10 cm / Sheet: 26.1 x
17 cm PD/Corel AND Galle, Johann
Gottfried (1812-1910) PD/Corel
source: http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?1846MNRAS.
..7..153G&data_type=PDF_HIGH&whole_paper
=YES&type=PRINTER&filetype=.pdf AND ht
tp://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/comm
ons/8/89/Urbain_Le_Verrier.jpg
AND http://www.daviddarling.info/imag
es/Galle.jpg

[2] Scientist: Le Verrier, Urbain
Jean Joseph (1811 -
1877) Discipline(s): Astronomy Print
Artist: Auguste Bry, 19th C. Medium:
Lithograph Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 12.5 x 10 cm / Sheet: 26.1 x
17 cm PD/Corel
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/89/Urbain_Le_Verrier.jpg

154 YBN
[10/10/1846 AD] 		2824) Triton, the largest moon of
Neptune is seen.
(Starfield Observatory) Liverpool,
England 
[1] Picture of Triton made by Voyager 2
in 1989. [t Find original drawing from
Lassell] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Triton_%28moon%29.jpg

[2] William Lassell PD/Corel
source: http://www.klima-luft.de/steinic
ke/ngcic/persons/lassell.htm
154 YBN
[10/??/1846 AD] 		3022) Mathematical equations are used
to represent logical statements.
(University College) London,
England 
[1] Augustus De Morgan PD/Corel
source: http://www.nndb.com/people/437/0
00097146/augustus-de-morgan-2-sized.jpg

[2] Beschreibung: Augustus De
Morgan Quelle: Fotografie aus dem 19.
Jahrhundert PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0e/AugustusDeMorgan.png
154 YBN
[1846 AD] 		2716) The theory that gravity
propagates with a finite velocity.
(Royal Institution in) London,
England 
[1] Description Michael Faraday,
oil, by Thomas Phillips Source
Thomas Phillips,1842 Date
1842 Author Thomas Phillips[3
wiki] The portrait shown here was
painted by Thomas Phillips (1770-1845),
oil on canvas, The National Portrait
Gallery, London.[7] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:M_Faraday_Th_Phillips_oil_1842.jpg

[2] Michael Faraday - Project
Gutenberg eText 13103 From The Project
Gutenberg eBook, Great Britain and Her
Queen, by Anne E.
Keeling http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/
13103 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Michael_Faraday_-_Project_Gutenberg_e
Text_13103.jpg
154 YBN
[1846 AD] 		2828) The liquid explosive
nitroglycerine is created by Ascanio
Sobrero (SOBrArO) by slowly adding
glycerine to a mixture of nitric and
sulfuric acids.
Torino, Italy (presumably) 
[1] [t notice there is a lot of oxygen
trapped/stuck in the molecule, perhaps
the more oxygen in the molecule the
more
explosive] Nitroglycerin 1,2,3-trinitr
oxypropane 1,3-dinitrooxypropan-2-yl
nitrate propane-1,2,3-triyl
trinitrate IUPAC name Chemical
formula C3H5(NO3)3 Molar mass
227.0872 g/mol Shock sensitivity
high Friction sensitivity
high Density 1.6 g/cm³ at 15
°C Explosive velocity 7700 m/s RE
factor 1.50 Melting point 13.2 °C
(55.76 °F) Autoignition temperature
Decomposes at 50 to 60 °C (122 to 140
°F) Appearance Clear
yellow/colorless oily liquid PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/40/Nitroglycerin-2D-skel
etal.png

[2] Ascanio Sobrero PD/Corel
source: http://www.liberliber.it/bibliot
eca/s/sobrero/immagini/ritratto.jpg
154 YBN
[1846 AD] 		2944) A system of units for
electricity.
(University of) Leipzig, Germany 
[1] [t Weber's Law from p212 of Weber's
Werke In this initial version, the
letter a represents the static
electricity constant. Later this will
be c as seen in the next
image.] PD/Corel [t Weber's
law] PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=l9AEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA25&vq=Maassbestimmung
en&dq=Ueber+die+Elektricit%C3%A4tsmenge,
+welche+bei+galvanische+Str%C3%B6men+dur
ch+den+Querschnitt+der+Kette+fliesst&as_
brr=1&source=gbs_search_s#PPA212,M1

[2] Description of an instrument for
the measurement of the reciprocal
action of two conducting
wires. PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=l9AEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA25&vq=Maassbestimmung
en&dq=Ueber+die+Elektricit%C3%A4tsmenge,
+welche+bei+galvanische+Str%C3%B6men+dur
ch+den+Querschnitt+der+Kette+fliesst&as_
brr=1&source=gbs_search_s#PPA617,M1
153 YBN
[1847 AD] 		2754) The ophthalmoscope: an instrument
used to study the retina of the eye.
Cambridge, England (presumably) 
[1] The John Bull, circa 1893. PD
source: http://robroy.dyndns.info/Babbag
e/Images/babbage-1843.jpg

[2] Charles Babbage, circa
1843 PD/COREL
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=b
153 YBN
[1847 AD] 		3094) That all substances become
incandescent (start to glow red) at the
same temperature (around 525ºC) and
that with rising temperature they emit
rays of increasing refrangibility is
recognized.
(New York University) New York City,
New York, USA 
[1] [t note that this photo appears to
be an 1845 photo] Daguerreotype of the
Moon taken by John William Draper in
1845. In 1840, the American doctor and
chemist John William Draper produced a
daguerreotype of the Moon: the first
astronomical photograph ever created in
North America. New York University
Archives PD/Corel
source: http://astro-canada.ca/_photos/a
4306_lune1845_g.jpg

[2] Dorothy Catherine Draper, taken by
John W. Draper The earliest American
attempts in duplicating the
photographic experiments of the
Frenchman Louis Daguerre occurred at
NYU in 1839. John W. Draper, professor
of chemistry, built his own camera and
made what may be the first human
portrait taken in the United States,
after a 65-second exposure. The sitter,
his sister Dorothy Catherine Draper,
had her face powdered with flour in an
early attempt to accentuate contrasts.
PD/Corel
source: http://www.nyu.edu/library/bobst
/research/arch/175/images/drapL.jpg
153 YBN
[1847 AD] 		3213) Antisepsis (washing hands in
strong chemicals) is introduced into
the health practice.
(Vienna General Hospital) Vienna,
(Austria now:) Germany 
[1] Semmelweis, Ignaz PD/Corel
source: http://clendening.kumc.edu/dc/pc
/semmelweis01.jpg

[2] Semmelweis, Ignaz PD/Corel
source: http://clendening.kumc.edu/dc/pc
/semmelweis02.jpg
153 YBN
[1847 AD] 		3225) The percussion gun cartridge, a
casing containing an explosive charge
and a bullet or shot.
Paris, France 
[1] A modern cartridge consists of the
following: 1. the bullet itself, which
serves as the projectile; 2. the case,
which holds all parts together; 3. the
propellant, for example gunpowder or
cordite; 4. the rim, part of the
casing used for loading; 5. the
primer, which ignites the
propellant. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bul
let

[2] Rifle cartridges - L to R: .50
BMG, 300 Win Mag, .308 Winchester, 7.62
Russian Short, 5.56 NATO, .22
LR Source
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Ri
fle_cartridge_comparison.jpg Date
25 February 2006 Author Richard
C. Wysong II GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/ab/Rifle_cartridge_compa
rison.jpg
152 YBN
[06/05/1848 AD] 		3477) The absolute temperature scale is
created by William Thomson Kelvin, with
-273°C as absolute 0, where all
molecules stop moving.
(University of Glasgow) Glasgow,
Scotland 
[1] Thomson, William. ''On an absolute
thermometric scale founded on Carnot's
theory of the motive power of heat and
calculated from Regnaut's
observations.'', Cambridge
Philosophical Society Proceedings for
June 5, 1848. also in: THOMSON, W.
MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL PAPERS. 1882,
p100. http://www.google.com/books?id=NG
GOnRx4aakC&pg=PA100 PD AND [1] Baron
Kelvin, William Thomson Library of
Congress PD
source: http://www.google.com/books?id=N
GGOnRx4aakC&pg=PA100
AND http://content.answers.com/main/con
tent/img/scitech/HSbaronk.jpg

[2] Baron Kelvin, William
Thomson Library of Congress PD
source: http://content.answers.com/main/
content/img/scitech/HSbaronk.jpg
152 YBN
[08/10/1848 AD] 		2880) A constant high voltage from an
induction coil is applied through
evacuated tubes filled with various
gases by William Robert Grove.
London, England (presumably) 
[1] Figures 1 to 10 show the spots and
rings in the order referred to: it
should be observed that printed figures
give but a very imperfect notion of the
actual effects. Fig 11 is the coil
apparatus, the contact breaker being in
front. Fig. 12. The air-pump, of a
construction which I proposed many
years ago, and have found most useful
for electrical or chemical experiments
on gases. P. An imperforate piston,
with a conical end, which, when pressed
down, fits accurately the end of the
tube, the apex touching the valve V,
which opens outwards. A. Aperture for
the air to rush from the receiver when
the piston has been drawn beyond
it. B. Bladder containing the gas to
be experimented on. The piston-rod
works air-tight in a collar of
leathers, and the operation of the pump
will be easily understood without
further description. If it be
required to examine the gas after
experiment, a bladder, or tube leading
to a pneumatic trough, can be attached
at the extrmeity over the valve V. [5
p101] PD
source: http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekat
z/scientists/grove.htm Issue Volume
139 -
1849 Pages 49-59 DOI 10.1098/rstl.1849
.0005 Grove_W_R_1849.pdf p101

[2] Sir William Robert Grove
(1811-1896), British scientist. PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Willi
am_Robert_Grove.jpg
152 YBN
[08/??/1848 AD] 		3241) The speed of gas molecules of
hydrogen at a pressure of 30 inches and
temperature 60° is estimated to be
6225 feet (1897 km) per second.
(read at) Swansea, Wales, England 
[1] Description Picture of James
Joule Source The Life & Experiences
of Sir Henry Enfield Roscoe (Macmillan:
London and New York), p. 120 Date
1906 Author Henry Roscoe PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0f/Joule_James_sitting.j
pg

[2] Description Engraving of James
Joule Source Nature, volume 26,
facing page 616 (October, 1882) Date
1882 Author C. H. Jeens PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/41/Joule_James_Jeens_eng
raving.jpg
152 YBN
[1848 AD] 		2811) Sunspots are shown to be cooler
than the rest of the Sun.
Princeton, NJ, USA 
[1] In 1846, the Smithsonian Board of
Regents chose Joseph Henry as the
Institution's first
secretary. PD/Corel
source: http://www.150.si.edu/chap2/2man
.htm

[2] Description Portrait of Joseph
Henry Source
http://www.photolib.noaa.gov/bigs/per
s0124.jpg Date 1879 Author
Henry Ulke
(1821-1910) Permission (Reusing this
image) Public domain. PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Jospe
h_Henry_%281879%29.jpg
152 YBN
[1848 AD] 		3333) That most of the heat produced by
animals is from muscle contraction is
known.
(Physikalische Gesellschaft) Berlin,
Germany 
[1] Young Helmholtz German
physiologist and physicist Hermann
Ludwig Ferdinand Von Helmholtz (1821 -
1894). Original Publication: People
Disc - HE0174 Original Artwork: From a
daguerreotype . (Photo by Hulton
Archive/Getty Images) * by Hulton
Archive * * reference:
2641935 PD/Corel
source: http://www.jamd.com/search?asset
type=g&assetid=2641935&text=Helmholtz

[2] Helmholtz. Courtesy of the
Ruprecht-Karl-Universitat, Heidelberg,
Germany PD/Corel
source: http://media-2.web.britannica.co
m/eb-media/53/43153-004-2D7E855E.jpg
151 YBN
[01/20/1849 AD] 		3280) That two yellow lines missing in
the spectrum of sunlight are emitted
from and also absorbed by an electric
arc between coal electrodes is
observed.
Paris, France (presumably) 
[1] L'Institut Feb 7 1849. Léon
Foucault, Charles Marie Gariel, Jules
Antoine Lissajous, ''Recueil des
travaux scientifiques'',
Gauthier-Villars, 1878,
pp170-171. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=Kc0EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA170 Translated
by Professor Stokes in Phil Mag vol xix
(1860) p194.
{stokes_foucault_kirchhoff.pdf} PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=Kc0EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA170

[2] Reproduction of the first
daguerrotype of the Sun. The original
image was a little over 12 centimeters
in diameter. Reproduced from G. De
Vaucouleurs, Astronomical Photography,
MacMillan, 1961 (plate 1). PD/Corel
source: http://ams.astro.univie.ac.at/~n
endwich/Science/SoFi/firstsunphoto.jpg
151 YBN
[07/23/1849 AD] 		3290) The speed of light is measured
using a terrestrial method by Armand
Hippolyte Louis Fizeau (FEZO). Light
passes between the teeth of a rapidly
turning toothed disc on one hilltop and
reflects off a mirror on another 8 km
(or 5 miles) away.
Paris, France 
[1] Fizeau's apparatus from Arago's
''Astronomie Populaire'' PD/Corel
source: William Tobin, "The life and
science of Léon Foucault: the man who
proved the earth rotates", Cambridge
University Press, 2003

[2] Eyepiece views for Fizeau's 1849
speed of light experiment COPYRIGHTED?

source: William Tobin, "The life and
science of Léon Foucault: the man who
proved the earth rotates", Cambridge
University Press, 2003
151 YBN
[11/05/1849 AD] 		3488) The first "organo-metallic" (or
hydrocarbon-metallic) compounds. This
is the first time a metal atom is added
to a hydrocarbon molecule: the new
compound zincmethyl is created when
zinc and methyl are joined.
(Queenwood school) Hampshire,
England 
[1] Frankland, E. ''XXIX.—On a new
series of organic bodies containing
metals and phosphorus.'' Quarterly
Journal of the Chemical Society of
London 2.4 (1850):
297-299. books.google.com/books?id=oKAw
AAAAYAAJ&pg=PA297 PD AND Scanned
from the frontispiece of Sketches from
the life of Edward Frankland, published
in 1902 PD
source: books.google.com/books?id=oKAwAA
AAYAAJ&pg=PA297 AND http://upload.wiki
media.org/wikipedia/en/0/09/Frankland_Ed
ward_26.jpg

[2] Scanned from the frontispiece of
Sketches from the life of Edward
Frankland, published in 1902 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/0/09/Frankland_Edward_26.jpg
151 YBN
[1849 AD] 		3114) The main processes of digestion
are found to take place in the small
intestine, not in the stomach as was
believed.
(Collège de France) Paris,
France 
[1] Scientist: Bernard, Claude (1813 -
1878) Discipline(s):
Biology Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 30.9 x 24.1 cm / PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-B3-02a.jpg

[2] Claude Bernard
(1813-1873) PD/Corel
source: http://www.cah-research.com/Imag
es/ClaudeBernard.jpg
151 YBN
[1849 AD] 		3195) The first "amine", and organic
derivative of ammonia; ethylamine is
made by replacing one or more of the
hydrogen atoms in ammonia (NH3) with a
hydrocarbon radical.
(Ecole de Médicine, School of
Medicine) Paris, France 
[1] Ethanamine GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eth
ylamine

[2] Methylamine GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Met
hylamine
151 YBN
[1849 AD] 		3229) Electrolysis is applied to
organic compounds.
Braunschweig, Germany 
[1] Description Adolph Wilhelm
Hermann Kolbe (1818-1884) Source
unknown Date 19th century PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b1/Adolph_Kolbe.jpg

[2] Hermann Kolbe. Historia-Photo
PD/Corel
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
10412&rendTypeId=4
150 YBN
[05/06/1850 AD] 		3281) Light is shown to move more
slowly in water than in air, and the
speed of light is shown to be inversely
proportional to the index of refraction
of the medium, by Jean Foucault (FUKo).
Paris, France (presumably) 
[1] Plan view of the optical layout of
Foucault's 1850 rotating mirror
experiment. COPYRIGHTED
source: William Tobin, "The life and
science of Léon Foucault: the man who
proved the earth rotates", Cambridge
University Press, 2003

[2] Eyepiece view of air and water
Foucault 1850 experiment PD/Corel
source: William Tobin, "The life and
science of Léon Foucault: the man who
proved the earth rotates", Cambridge
University Press, 2003, p126.
150 YBN
[08/27/1850 AD] 		3265) The first commercial oil
refinery; which distills kerosene from
crude oil as a lower cost illuminating
oil.
Tarentum, Pennsylvania, USA  
150 YBN
[1850 AD] 		3019) Ocean depths are mapped and the
Atlantic ridge is discovered.
Washington, DC, USA 
[1] Matthew_F_Maury_sup23d.jpg‎
(259 � 366 pixels, file size: 21
KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) Credit:
U.S. Naval Observatory Library Matthew
Fontaine Maury, founder of the United
States Naval Observatory Source *
http://www.usno.navy.mil/library/
*
http://www.usno.navy.mil/library/photo/s
up23d.html Source incorrectly shows as
''Matthew W. F. Maury'' whereas it
should be Commander ''Matthew Fontaine
Maury''
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/a/a8/Matthew_F_Maury_sup23d.jpg


[2] PD [2] Commander Matthew Fontaine
MAURY (NOT ''MURRAY'')
http://www.civil-war.net/searchphotos.as
p?searchphotos=Confederate%20States%20Na
vy%20Officers PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0a/CMFMurray.jpg
150 YBN
[1850 AD] 		3115) The liver is shown to synthesize
glucose which shows that an organ can
have more than one function, and that,
like plants, animals can also
synthesize nutrients.
(Collège de France) Paris,
France 
[1] Scientist: Bernard, Claude (1813 -
1878) Discipline(s):
Biology Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 30.9 x 24.1 cm / PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-B3-02a.jpg

[2] Claude Bernard
(1813-1873) PD/Corel
source: http://www.cah-research.com/Imag
es/ClaudeBernard.jpg
150 YBN
[1850 AD] 		3332) The speed of electricity in
nerves is measured as 27 m/s (90 ft/s)
by Hermann Helmholtz.
(University of Königsberg)
Königsberg, Germany 
[1] Figure from 1850 paper PD/Corel
source: Helmholtz_Hermann_1850_lit1862_L
o.pdf

[2] Young Helmholtz German
physiologist and physicist Hermann
Ludwig Ferdinand Von Helmholtz (1821 -
1894). Original Publication: People
Disc - HE0174 Original Artwork: From a
daguerreotype . (Photo by Hulton
Archive/Getty Images) * by Hulton
Archive * * reference:
2641935 PD/Corel
source: http://www.jamd.com/search?asset
type=g&assetid=2641935&text=Helmholtz
150 YBN
[1850 AD] 		3471) The molecular difference between
ethers and alcohols is determined.
(University College, London) London,
England 
[1] Alexander William Williamson PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/1/16/Williamson_Alexander.jpg

[2] Description Picture of
Alexander W. Williamson Source The
Life & Experiences of Sir Henry Enfield
Roscoe (Macmillan: London and New
York), p. 34 Date 1906 Author
Henry Roscoe PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e6/Williamson_Alexander_
W.jpg
149 YBN
[02/03/1851 AD] 		3282) The rotation of the Earth around
its own axis is proven experimentally
with a pendulum by Foucault (FUKo).
Paris, France (presumably) 
[1] Faucault's pendulum demonstration
re-visited in 1902 PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=UbMRmyxCZmYC&pg=PA55&lpg=PA55&dq=foucau
lt+sun+daguerreotype+features&source=web
&ots=sqQtMMzhko&sig=L_EL2qJEgsbAuU5PsDuO
Dxa-NPA&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum
=2&ct=result#PPP1,M1

[2] [t rotateable table-top pendulum
illustrates principle of
inertia] PD/Corel
source: William Tobin, "The life and
science of Léon Foucault: the man who
proved the earth rotates", Cambridge
University Press, 2003
149 YBN
[09/29/1851 AD] 		3292) The speed of light in water is
shown to change depending on the motion
of water by Fizeau (FEZO).
Paris, France (presumably) 
[1] scheme of Fizo experiment GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/55/Fizo_experiment_schem
e_ru.PNG

[2] [t Rareand early photo of portrait
not looking at camera. To me it may
possibly be a clue that hidden cameras
were in use, but also may reflect a
view that the camera is unimportant,
that cameras are everywhere, and it is
better to go on with life...not to
smile for the camera, but to go about
your life and let the many cameras
document everything...its like ...the
thrill is over for the novelty of
photography. It's perhaps a person for
the transition to the more practical
daily business of the cameras, in
particular when robots walk and
document everything. ] Hippolyte
Fizeau PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5d/Hippolyte_Fizeau.jpg
149 YBN
[11/25/1851 AD] 		6258) The zipper.
Cambridge, Massachussetts, USA 
[1] ELIAS HOWE, ''IMPROVEMENT IN
FASTENINGS FOR GARMENTS'', Patent
number: 8540, Issue date: Nov 25,
1851 http://www.google.com/patents?id=t
a9IAAAAEBA PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=ta9IAAAAEBA

[2] Woodcut of the first patented
lockstitch sewing machine, invented by
Elias Howe in 1845 and patented in
1846. The machine was not successful
commercially. Isaac Singer improved it
and manufactured the first commercially
successful machine in 1850. Howe sued
Singer for patent infringement and won
in 1854, and subsequently earned about
2 million dollars in royalties for his
invention. Alterations: removed the
caption, which read: ''The first Howe
sewing machine'' Source Retrieved
2007-12-21 from Frank Puterbaugh
Bachman (1918) Great Inventors and
their Inventions, American Book Co.,
New York, USA, p.131 on Google
Books Date 1918 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/ad/Elias_Howe_sewing_mac
hine.png
149 YBN
[1851 AD] 		2825) The moons of Uranus Ariel and
Umbriel are identified.
Malta 
[1] Uranus' Moon Ariel: Valley
World Photo Credit: NASA, Voyager 2,
Copyright Calvin J.
Hamilton Explanation: What formed
Ariel's valleys? This question
presented itself when Voyager 2 passed
this satellite of Uranus in January
1986. Speculation includes that heating
caused by the ancient tides of Uranus
caused moonquakes and massive shifting
of the moon's surface. In any event, a
huge network of sunken valleys was
found to cover this frozen moon, and
some unknown material now coats the
bottoms of many of these channels.
Ariel is the second closest to Uranus
outside of Miranda, and is composed of
roughly half water ice and half rock.
Ariel was discovered by William Lassell
in 1851. PD
source: http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/ap9603
03.html

[2] Umbriel, a moon of Uranus. Photo
by Voyager PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Umbriel_moon_1.gif
149 YBN
[1851 AD] 		3025) A seismometer, a device used to
determine the direction, intensity, and
duration of earthquakes by measuring
the actual movement of the ground.
Dublin, Ireland (presumably) 
[1] Mallet's seismoscope (after Mallet,
1852). The image of a cross-hairs in C
is reflected from the surface of
mercury in the basin B and viewed
through a magnifier, D. PD
source: http://earthquake.usgs.gov/learn
ing/topics/seismology/history/figures/fi
g_03.gif

[2] Robert Mallet
(1810-1881) PD/Corel
source: http://www.dias.ie/img/geo/malle
t/robertmallet.jpg
149 YBN
[1851 AD] 		3474) The "alternation of generations"
life-cycle is discovered (in land
plants).
Leipzig, Germany (presumably) 
[1] Wilhelm Hofmeister Source
Goebel, K. von (1905) Wilhelm
Hofmeister. The Plant World 8:
291-298. Date c.1870 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5a/Wilhelm_Hofmeister.jp
g
148 YBN
[01/07/1852 AD] 		6505) Electrolysis is performed on
gases.
London, England (presumably) 
[1] Figures 1 to 10 show the spots and
rings in the order referred to: it
should be observed that printed figures
give but a very imperfect notion of the
actual effects. Fig 11 is the coil
apparatus, the contact breaker being in
front. Fig. 12. The air-pump, of a
construction which I proposed many
years ago, and have found most useful
for electrical or chemical experiments
on gases. P. An imperforate piston,
with a conical end, which, when pressed
down, fits accurately the end of the
tube, the apex touching the valve V,
which opens outwards. A. Aperture for
the air to rush from the receiver when
the piston has been drawn beyond
it. B. Bladder containing the gas to
be experimented on. The piston-rod
works air-tight in a collar of
leathers, and the operation of the pump
will be easily understood without
further description. If it be
required to examine the gas after
experiment, a bladder, or tube leading
to a pneumatic trough, can be attached
at the extrmeity over the valve V. [5
p101] PD
source: http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekat
z/scientists/grove.htm Issue Volume
139 -
1849 Pages 49-59 DOI 10.1098/rstl.1849
.0005 Grove_W_R_1849.pdf p101

[2] Sir William Robert Grove
(1811-1896), British scientist. PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Willi
am_Robert_Grove.jpg
148 YBN
[05/10/1852 AD] 		3489) The theory of "valence": that
each type of atom has a fixed capacity
for combining with other atoms is
created by Edward Frankland.
(Queenwood school) Hampshire,
England 
[1] [t table from Frankland 1852
paper] PD/Corel
source: Frankland_Edward_1852.pdf

[2] [t table from Frankland 1852
paper] PD/Corel
source: Frankland_Edward_1852.pdf
148 YBN
[05/11/1852 AD] 		3274) The term "fluorescence" is
introduced to describe phosphorescence
that lasts only as long as the material
is exposed to light and Stokes' law of
fluorescence: that the emitted light is
always of lower frequency than the
exciting light.
Cambridge, England 
[1] Picture of George G. Stokes Source
Memoir and Scientific Correspondence
of the Late Sir George Gabriel Stokes,
Bart Date 1857 Author George G.
Stokes PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/03/Stokes_George_G.jpg

[2] George Gabriel Stokes From
Shuster & Shipley, facing p. 124. In
turn from a photograph by Fradelle &
Young. PD/Corel
source: http://www.marcdatabase.com/~lem
ur/lemur.com/gallery-of-antiquarian-tech
nology/worthies/stokes-1200-scale1000.jp
g
148 YBN
[1852 AD] 		3104) A practical passenger elevator
with a safety device is invented by
Elisha Graves Otis.
Yonkers, NY, USA 
[1] Elisha Otis Avaliable at
http://www.otis.com/otis150/images/displ
ay/1,2343,2039,00.gif PD
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
3274&rendTypeId=4

[2] Elisha Graves Otis (1811-1861)
invented a safety device in 1852 that
made PD
source: http://arkadien.org/scientists/E
lisha%20Graves2.jpg
147 YBN
[02/16/1853 AD] 		3143) The theory that a gas absorbs and
emits light of the same frequencies.
(University of Uppsala) Uppsala,
Sweden 
[1] Anders Jonas Ångström (1814-1874)
is remembered as one of the fathers of
modern spectroscopy. His unit of
wavelength is still used worldwide; the
Ångström (1 Å = 0.1 nm). PD/Corel
source: http://www.angstrom.uu.se/bilder
/anders.jpg

[2] Anders Jonas Ångström, c.
1865 Courtesy of the Kungl.
Biblioteket, Stockholm PD/Corel
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
13450&rendTypeId=4
147 YBN
[1853 AD] 		3312) The concept of energy is
distinguished into "actual" and
"potential" energy.
(University of Glasgow) Glasgow,
Scotland, UK 
[1] (William John) Macquorn Rankine
(1820-1872) was Regius Professor of
Civil and Engineering and Mechanics
from 1855 to 1872. U of
Glasglow PD/Corel
source: http://www.universitystory.gla.a
c.uk/images/UGSP00025_m.jpg

[2] William John Macquorn
Rankine PD/Corel
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/18/W_J_M_Rankine.JPG
147 YBN
[1853 AD] 		6247) Aspirin.
Paris, France (presumably) 
[1] tion Published in the US
around 1901 in F. Moore's History of
Chemistry Date 2007-05-06
(original upload date) Source
Originally from en.wikipedia;
description page is/was here. Author
Original uploader was Astrochemist
at en.wikipedia PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b2/Gerhardt_Charles.jpg
147 YBN
[1853 AD] 		6545) Spectral lines from the Sun are
matched to spectral lines from chemical
elements.
(University of Uppsala) Uppsala,
Sweden 
[1] From Recherches sur le spectre
solaire PD/Corel
source: Angstrom_1869.pdf

[2] [t one of about 20 pages of solar
spectrum, with a compressed to 4 page
spectra of Aurora Borealis.] From
Recherches sur le spectre
solaire PD/Corel
source: Recherches sur le spectre
solaire
146 YBN
[1854 AD] 		2792) Fossils of microorganisms.
Berlin, Germany 
[1] Portrait of Christian Gottfried
Ehrenberg (1795-1876) PD/Corel
source: http://www.springerlink.com/cont
ent/y0w6w64010355260/ Gone with the
wind â€" a second blow against
spontaneous generation In memoriam,
Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg
(1795â€"1876) Journal Aerobiologia P
ublisher Springer
Netherlands ISSN 0393-5965 (Print)
1573-3025 (Online) Issue Volume 11,
Number 3 / September,
1995 Category Historial
Biography DOI 10.1007/BF02450041 Pages
205-211 Subject Collection Earth and
Environmental Science SpringerLink
Date Tuesday, August 01,
2006 Ehrenberg.pdf

[2] Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg
(1795-1876) German naturalist,
zoologist, comparative anatomist,
geologist, and microscopist PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Ehren
berg_Christian_Gottfried_1795-1876.png
146 YBN
[1854 AD] 		2945) The theory that an electrical
mass will not be influenced by the
electrical force if moving with a
velocity at least the speed of light.
(University of) Gttingen,
Germany 
[1] [t Equation from Annalen paper:
apparently first use of letter ''c'' to
designate a constant, which will later
be identified with the speed of
light.] PD/Corel
source: http://www3.interscience.wiley.c
om/cgi-bin/fulltext/112497888/PDFSTART

[2] [t Another form of the Weber
equation with 1/cc removed from
parenthesis expression] PD/Corel
source: http://www3.interscience.wiley.c
om/cgi-bin/fulltext/112497888/PDFSTART
146 YBN
[1854 AD] 		3111) That an epidemic of cholera is
due to a transmissible agent in
drinking water is understood.
London, England 
[1] During his career, Dr. John Snow
(1813-1858) anesthetized 77 obstetric
patients with chloroform. In addition
to pioneering anesthesia, Dr. Snow is
considered the father of epidemiology:
well before germ theory was formulated,
he studied an epidemic of cholera in S.
London in 1845, and reported (1849)
that the disease was transmitted
through a contaminated
water-supply. PD/Corel
source: http://www.joyceimages.com/image
s/John%20Snow.jpg

[2] Original map by Dr. John Snow
showing the clusters of cholera cases
in the London epidemic of
1854 Original map made by John Snow in
1854, copied from
http://matrix.msu.edu/~johnsnow/images/o
nline_companion/chapter_images/fig12-5.j
pg Author died in 1858, material is
public domain. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/27/Snow-cholera-map-1.jp
g
146 YBN
[1854 AD] 		3472) That a catalytic chemical
reaction is based on the formation of
an intermediate compound is recognized.
(University College, London) London,
England 
[1] Alexander William Williamson PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/1/16/Williamson_Alexander.jpg

[2] Description Picture of
Alexander W. Williamson Source The
Life & Experiences of Sir Henry Enfield
Roscoe (Macmillan: London and New
York), p. 34 Date 1906 Author
Henry Roscoe PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e6/Williamson_Alexander_
W.jpg
146 YBN
[1854 AD] 		3551) The first naturally occurring and
artificial fats are synthesized by
combining glycerol and fatty acids.
(Collège de France) Paris,
France 
[1] Marcellin Berthelot PD/Corel
source: http://content.answers.com/main/
content/wp/en/thumb/1/1d/250px-Marcellin
_Berthelot.jpg

[2] Marcellin Berthelot PD/Corel
source: http://hdelboy.club.fr/berthelot
_6.jpg
146 YBN
[1854 AD] 		3552) Benzene is synthesized by heating
acetylene in a glass tube, which
polymerizes.
(Collège de France) Paris,
France 
[1] acetylene GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ace
tylene

[2] Benzene GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ben
zene
146 YBN
[1854 AD] 		6603) Kerosene is named by British
physician Abraham Gesner. Gesner
distills kerosene from pitch (a thick,
tar-like substance obtained by
distilling coal tar, one of the
products of the distillation of coal).
(patented and distributed) Blissville,
Long Island, NY, USA|(first distilled)
Halifax, Nova Scotia 
[1] Dr Abraham Pineo Gesner: Physician,
Surgeon, Geologist, Inventor PD
source: http://www.rockleigh.org/history
/families/Fam_Images/AbmGesner1797-1864.
gif
AND http://www.google.com/url?sa=i&so
urce=images&cd=&cad=rja&docid=2G57Pnyk5w
o5_M&tbnid=NwWzpdCEFp9DuM:&ved=0CAgQjRww
AA&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.chemistrydaily.c
om%2Fchemistry%2FAbraham_Gesner&ei=4HpgU
ZGvDeLi2gXL4IDQDg&psig=AFQjCNHUm4P2xcfXN
0gTs2H0mbZZMbBUaQ&ust=1365363808270413

[2] Dr Abraham Pineo Gesner:
Physician, Surgeon, Geologist,
Inventor PD
source: http://www.rockleigh.org/history
/families/Fam_Images/AbmGesner1797-1864.
gif
145 YBN
[12/10/1855 AD] 		3641) The concept of magnetic quantity
and magnetic intensity, which are
analogous to electrical current and
voltage, and equations to describe
electromagnetic action, induction and
the forces between two currents are
introduced.
(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England 
[1] James Clerk Maxwell [t it is
unusual that so many other Maxwell
photos have been changed by retouching
to make Maxwell perhaps appear better
looking.] Source: AIP Emilio Serge
Visual Archives
www.aip.org/history/esva PD
source: http://museumvictoria.com.au/sci
discovery/images/mn003204_w561.jpg

[2] James Clerk Maxwell. The Library
of Congress. PD/GOV
source: "Henri Victor Regnault",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p586.
145 YBN
[1855 AD] 		2764) A disease is shown to be
associated with changes in one of the
endocrine glands; Addison's disease,
the hormone deficiency disease that
results from the deterioration of the
adrenal cortex.
(Guy's Hospital) London, England 
[1] Thomas Addison, 1795-1870 PD/Corel

source: http://mysite.wanadoo-members.co
.uk/addisons_network/thomas_addison_espa
nol.html

[2] endocrine gland endocrine
glands A. thyroid B. pituitary
gland C. pineal gland D. thymus E.
adrenal glands F. pancreas G. ovaries
(female) H. testes (male) (Carlyn
Iverson) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.answers.com/topic/end
ocrine-gland?cat=health
145 YBN
[1855 AD] 		3131) Parkesine plastic objects.
(Elkington and Mason copper smelting
plant) Pembrey, South Wales,
England 
[1] A showcase of colourful plastics
was displayed at the 1862 London
International Exhibition. Although
Vulcanite had been shown by both
Hancock and Goodyear at the 1851 Great
Exhibition, this was the first time
that a colourful material that did not
rely on a surface finish or dye had
been put on public display.
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.plastiquarian.com/par
kesine.htm

[2] The following pictures show
perhaps some of those original exhibits
and justify Parkes' optimism and the
award of a prize medal ''for excellence
of product''. 1862 London
exhibit COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.plastiquarian.com/par
kesine.htm
145 YBN
[1855 AD] 		3139) The Geissler pump; which uses
liquid mercury to create a vacuum in
containers more thoroughly than any
before.
Bonn, Germany 
[1] Heinrich Geissler PD/Corel
source: http://www.aargon-neon.com/image
s/recent-projects/Geissler-portraitLG.jp
g

[2] The Geissler pump PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=f2dMAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA239&dq=%22geissler+pu
mp%22
145 YBN
[1855 AD] 		3163) That a current from two
electrodes applied to wet skin can
contract muscles is found.
Paris, France 
[1] Here are the plates from Duchenne
de Bolougne’s Le Mécanisme de la
Physionomie Humaine (ca 1876), an
interesting but slightly insane work
(you just can’t get away with this
type of thing anymore). The images,
however, are useful to artists who
draw, sculpt, or model facial
expressions as they show extreme
activation of the individual muscles of
expressions. The index pages of
collated thumbnails from the original
work (in high resolution) can be found
here. PD
source: http://www.scott-eaton.com/wp/wp
-content/duchenne_expressions_title.jpg

[2] Duchenne de Boulogne (1806 -
1875) Guillaume-Benjamin Duchenne and
assistant electrically stimulate the
face of a live subject in displaying an
expression. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/bb/Duchenne_de_Boulogne_
3.jpg
145 YBN
[1855 AD] 		3196) Long-chain hydrocarbons are
synthesized.
(Ecole de Médicine, School of
Medicine) Paris, France 
[1] Adolphe Wurtz. Courtesy of The
Edgar Fahs Smith Collection, Special
Collections Department, Van
Pelt- Dietrich Library Center,
University of Pennsylvania. PD/Corel
source: http://content.cdlib.org/xtf/dat
a/13030/23/ft5g500723/figures/ft5g500723
_00060.jpg

[2] An improved design was the ‘only
on the cheeks moustache’, developed
by Charles-Adolphe Wurtz PD/Corel
source: http://bp1.blogger.com/_mOsqmOB4
z3s/RebKTINh9oI/AAAAAAAAAWA/Mxvmb0dKPUM/
s1600/wurtz.JPG
145 YBN
[1855 AD] 		3200) The price of aluminum is reduced
100x using the reduction of aluminum
chloride by metallic sodium.
(École Normale Supérieure) Paris,
France 
[1] Description French chemist Henri
Sainte-Claire Deville
(1818-1881) Source
http://hdelboy.club.fr/mineralogistes
.html Date 19th century Author
Unknown PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2e/Henri_Sainte-Claire_D
eville.gif

[2] Description Henri Sainte-Claire
Deville (Graphic: 7.5 x 6.4 cm) Source
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollecti
ons/hst/scientific-identity/CF/display_r
esults.cfm?alpha_sort=s PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/06/Henri_Sainte-Claire_D
eville.jpg
145 YBN
[1855 AD] 		3553) Ethyl alcohol is synthesized from
ethylene by treatment with sulfuric
acid.
(Collège de France) Paris,
France 
[1] Marcellin Berthelot PD/Corel
source: http://content.answers.com/main/
content/wp/en/thumb/1/1d/250px-Marcellin
_Berthelot.jpg

[2] Marcellin Berthelot PD/Corel
source: http://hdelboy.club.fr/berthelot
_6.jpg
144 YBN
[04/21/1856 AD] 		3457) The bright D spectral lines in
flames of hydrocarbons are shown to be
attributed to sodium and the widespread
occurrence of the D lines due to the
contamination of small amounts of
sodium.
Edinburgh, Scotland 
[1] part of p421 from: William Swan
(1857). XXIX.—On the Prismatic
Spectra of the Flames of Compounds of
Carbon and Hydrogen. Transactions of
the Royal Society of Edinburgh, 21, pp
411-429. doi:10.1017/S0080456800032233.
http://books.google.com/books?id=QyxFA
AAAcAAJ&pg=PA411
AND http://journals.cambridge.org/actio
n/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=84
19263 German: Swan, William. ''Ueber
die prismatischen Spectra der Flammen
von Kohlenwasserstoffverbindungen.''
Annalen der Physik 176.2 (1857):
306-335. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com
/doi/10.1002/andp.18571760212/abstract
PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=QyxFAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA421
144 YBN
[1856 AD] 		3109) The "Bessimer process" of burning
away impurities by blowing air through
molten iron makes possible bulk steel
production.
Cheltenham, Gloucestershire, England
(announcement) 
[1] Scientist: Bessemer, Henry (1813
- 1898) Discipline(s):
Engineering Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 16.4 x 12.4 cm / Sheet: 32.8
x 22.7 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-B4-02a.jpg

[2] Henry Bessemer (1813-1898) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/10/Henry_Bessemer.jpg
144 YBN
[1856 AD] 		3118) That carbon monoxide replaces
oxygen in combining with hemoglobin
causing death by oxygen starvation is
shown.
(Sorbonne) Paris, France 
[1] Scientist: Bernard, Claude (1813 -
1878) Discipline(s):
Biology Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 30.9 x 24.1 cm / PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-B3-02a.jpg

[2] Claude Bernard
(1813-1873) PD/Corel
source: http://www.cah-research.com/Imag
es/ClaudeBernard.jpg
144 YBN
[1856 AD] 		3119) Glycogen is identified in
animals, and shown to serve as a
reserve of carbohydrates that can be
broken down into sugar again when
necessary.
(Sorbonne) Paris, France 
[1] Scientist: Bernard, Claude (1813 -
1878) Discipline(s):
Biology Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 30.9 x 24.1 cm / PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-B3-02a.jpg

[2] Claude Bernard
(1813-1873) PD/Corel
source: http://www.cah-research.com/Imag
es/ClaudeBernard.jpg
144 YBN
[1856 AD] 		3181) The first animal organs are kept
alive in vitro (outside the animal's
body) by pumping (perfusing) frog
hearts with a solution similar to the
composition of blood plasma.
(University of Vienna) Vienna, Austria,
Germany 
[1] Carl Wilhelm Friedrich Ludwig,
German physiologist. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/1/16/CarlLudwig.jpeg

[2] Carl F.W. Ludwig, detail of an
engraving H. Roger-Viollet PD/Corel
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
42721&rendTypeId=4
144 YBN
[1856 AD] 		3774) The first synthetic dyes are
produced (aniline dyes).
(Royal College of Chemistry) London,
England 
[1] Aniline Other names
Phenylamine Aminobenzene Benzenamine
GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ani
line

[2] William Henry Perkin (1838-1907),
in 1860. (Credit: Edelstein
Collection.) PD/Corel
source: http://64.202.120.86/upload/imag
e/personal-column/tony-travis/19th-centu
ary-high-tech/william-henry-perkin.jpg
143 YBN
[03/24/1857 AD] 		3999) Sound is recorded mechanically by
the sound vibrating a stylus that draws
onto paper by Leon Scott.
Paris, France 
[1] Figure from Leon Scott's 03/24/1857
patent of the phonautograph CC
source: http://www.firstsounds.org/publi
c/First-Sounds-Working-Paper-02.pdf

[2] Description Edouard-Léon Scott
de Martinville.jpg Portrait of
French typographer Édouard-Léon Scott
de Martinville (1817-1879), inventor of
the phonautograph. Date 19th
century Source
http://www.evolutionofsound.org/con
tent/biog/leonscott.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/33/Edouard-L%C3%A9on_Sco
tt_de_Martinville.jpg
143 YBN
[12/10/1857 AD] 		3325) Mathematical matrices are
created.
London, England (presumably) 
[1] Scientist: Cayley, Arthur (1821 -
1895) Discipline(s): Mathematics ;
Astronomy Original Artist: Barraud &
Jerrard Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 10 x 6 cm / PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-C2-06a.jpg

[2] Arthur Cayley, detail of an oil
painting by W.H. Longmaid, 1884; in the
collection of Trinity College,
Cambridge, England. Courtesy of The
Master and Fellows of Trinity College,
Cambridge, England PD/Corel
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
23758&rendTypeId=4
143 YBN
[1857 AD] 		2831) Cuneiform inscriptions are
deciphered.
Wiltshire, England (presumably) 
[1] Darius I the Great's
inscription GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/04/Darius_I_the_Great%27
s_inscription.jpg

[2] Behistun Inscription, Column 1 (DB
I 1-15) Sketch: Fr. Spiegel, Die
altpers. Keilinschriften, Leipzig
(1881). http://titus.fkidg1.uni-frankfu
rt.de/didact/idg/iran/apers/DB1_1-15.GIF
PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/94/Behistun_DB1_1-15.jpg

143 YBN
[1857 AD] 		2858) Silane (SiH4) the silicon analog
of methane (CH4) is synthesized.
(University of Gttingen) Gttingen,
Germany (presumably) 
[1] Silane PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sil
ane

[2] * Title: Friedrich Wöhler *
Year: unknown * Source:
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollections
/hst/scientific-identity/explore.htm
* Licence: Public Domain PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Friedrich_W%C3%B6hler_Stich.jpg
143 YBN
[1857 AD] 		3628) That mountain ranges are created
by horizontal movements of the Earth's
crust is realized.
(University of Vienna) Vienna, Austria
(now Germany) 
[1] English: Eduard Suess (1831 –
1914), Austrian geologist Source
http://www.jamd.com/image/g/2638599
Date c1890 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/47/Eduard_Suess00.jpg
142 YBN
[03/30/1858 AD] 		2974) The luminescence of various gases
in vacuum tubes under a high voltage is
observed, determined to be from the
gases (not the electrodes), and the
spectrum of the light found to be
specific to each gas.
(University of Bonn) Bonn,
Germany 
[1] rom here Source
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollecti
ons/hst/scientific-identity/CF/display_r
esults.cfm?alpha_sort=p Scientist:
Plucker, Julius (1801 -
1868) Discipline(s): Mathematics ;
Physics Print Artist: Rudolf
Hoffmann, fl. ca. 1840 Medium:
Lithograph Original Artist:
Schafgans Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 19 x 15 cm / Sheet: 33.1 x 23
cm PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Juliu
s_Pl%C3%BCcker.jpg

[2] The Cathode Ray Deflecting tube
demonstrates the influence of a
magnetic field to the electron beam.
The visible beam appears on the
aluminum sheet covered with
phosphor, will bent away from the
center when a magnet is held near
the tube. This phenomena was
discovered by Julius Pl�cker and
Johann Wilhelm Hittorf.
Pl�cker published it in the
Poggendorffs annalen der Physik und
Chemie 1858. and Crookes Cathode Ray
Deflecting tube. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://members.chello.nl/~h.dijk
stra19/page7.html
142 YBN
[07/01/1858 AD] 		3033) The theory of evolution is
popularized by Charles Darwin and
Alfred Wallace. The theory of evolution
is the theory that life descends from a
single common ancestor, that many more
organisms than can survive are born,
each with individual differences, and
through a process of natural selection,
only the best adapted can survive to
reproduce and pass on their successful
traits while the less adapted die out.

Many religious people are shocked
because if humans and apes have a
common ancestor, humans no longer have
a privileged position as created by a
god in his own image. In addition if
all organisms originate by natural
selection, the argument for the
existence of a god based on the idea
that a god designed the organisms is
destroyed.
(Linnean Society), London,
England 
[1] ''Charles Darwin, aged 51.''
Scanned from Karl Pearson, The Life,
Letters, and Labours of Francis Galton.
Photo originally from the 1859 or
1860. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/42/Charles_Darwin_aged_5
1.jpg

[2] Charles Darwin as a 7-year old boy
in 1816 The seven-year-old Charles
Darwin in 1816, one year before his
mother's death. [t A rare smile, there
are not many photos of Darwin
smiling.] PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/6/6c/Charles_Darwin_1816.jpg
142 YBN
[08/16/1858 AD] 		3305) The first transatlantic cable.
(Newfoundland to Ireland) Atlantic
Ocean 
[1] Field, Cyrus West (1819 -
1892) Discipline(s): Science
Patron Original Dimensions: Graphic:
31 x 21.4 cm / Sheet: 32.8 x 25.9
cm PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-F002-06a.jpg

[2] Cyrus West Field. Imperial
salted-paper print by the Mathew Brady
Studio 1858, National Portrait Gallery,
Smithsonian Institution, Washington,
D.C. secondary source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Cyrus
Field.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/01/CyrusField.jpg
142 YBN
[1858 AD] 		3205) Farsightedness is shown to be
caused by a shortening of the eyeball,
so that light rays refracted by the
lens of the eye converge behind the
retina.
(University of Utrecht) Utrecht,
Netherlands 
[1] Scientist: Donders, Franciscus
Cornelis (1818 - 1889) Discipline(s):
Medicine Print Artist: Alexander
Seitz (Photographic company) Medium:
Photograph Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 9.1 x 5.7 cm / Sheet: 10 x
6.2 cm PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-D4-14a.jpg

[2] Franciscus Cornelis
Donders PD/Corel
source: http://www.natuurinformatie.nl/s
ites/nnm.dossiers/contents/i002093/c.1.%
20donders.jpg
142 YBN
[1858 AD] 		3408) The first solution to the general
equation of the fifth degree, the
quintic equation.
(Collège de France) Paris, France
(presumably) 
[1] Charles Hermite PD/Corel
source: http://www.profcardy.com/matemat
icos/bHermite.jpg

[2] Charles Hermite PD/Corel
source: http://www.math.uni-hamburg.de/h
ome/grothkopf/fotos/math-ges/thumbs/081t
humb.jpg
142 YBN
[1858 AD] 		3415) Penecillium, a plant mold,
growing in crystals of racemic acid, is
shown to use only one optical isomer of
two available in racemic acid.
(École Normale Supérieure) Paris,
France 
[1] * Félix Nadar (1820-1910), French
biologist Louis Pasteur (1822-1895),
1878 (detail). Source:
http://history.amedd.army.mil/booksdocs/
misc/evprev Creator/Artist Name
Gaspar-Félix
Tournachon Alternative names Félix
Nadar Date of birth/death 1820-04-05
1910-03-21 Location of birth/death
Paris Paris Work period 1854 -
1910 Work location Paris PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/42/Louis_Pasteur.jpg

[2] Scientist: Pasteur, Louis (1822 -
1895) Discipline(s):
Chemistry Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 21 x 15.2 cm / Sheet: 33 x
23.3 cm PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-P002-04a.jpg
141 YBN
[08/10/1859 AD] 		3754) That nerve fibers can conduct
impulses in both directions is
demonstrated.
(University of ?) Paris, France 
[1] Image of frog nerves from 1888
Kuhne lecture PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=r1cEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA628&dq=K%C3%BChne,+W.
+Untersuchungen+uber+das+Protoplasma+und
+die+Contractility&lr=&as_brr=1&ei=vNNYS
eT4DI3WlQSq6MTuBw#PPA627,M1

[2] Kühne, Wilhelm Friedrich PD
source: http://vlp.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/v
lpimages/images/img3930.jpg
141 YBN
[08/27/1859 AD] 		3264) The first modern oil well.
(near) Titusville, Pennsylvania,
USA 
[1] Edwin Drake [r] and Peter Wilson
[l] in front of the engine house and
derrick for the well which began the
oil industry, 1866. John Mather,
photographer. Image from PHMC, Drake
Well Museum, Titusville PD/Corel
source: http://www.cbsd.org/pennsylvania
people/level2_biographies/images/Drake's
%20well%201.jpg

[2] Edwin Drake Image from PHMC,
Drake Well Museum,
Titusville PD/Corel
source: http://www.cbsd.org/pennsylvania
people/level2_biographies/images/Edwin%2
0Drake.jpg
141 YBN
[09/23/1859 AD] 		3074) The perihelion (the point of the
orbit nearest the Sun) of Mercury is
found to advance 38 seconds of arc per
century.
Paris, France 
[1] Scientist: Le Verrier, Urbain Jean
Joseph (1811 - 1877) Discipline(s):
Astronomy Print Artist: Auguste Bry,
19th C. Medium: Lithograph
Original Dimensions: Graphic: 12.5 x
10 cm / Sheet: 26.1 x 17 cm PD/Corel
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/89/Urbain_Le_Verrier.jpg


[2] Scientist: Le Verrier, Urbain
Jean Joseph (1811 -
1877) Discipline(s): Astronomy Print
Artist: E. Buechner Medium:
Engraving Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 14.5 x 13 cm / Sheet: 19.5 x
14.2 cm PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-L003-01a.jpg
141 YBN
[10/20/1859 AD] 		3087) The spectral lines emitted when a
substance is burned are used to
determine the atomic composition of the
substance by Robert Bunsen and Gustav
Kirchhoff (KRKHuF). Bunsen and
Kirchhoff also demonstrate that each
element emits and absorbs light at the
same specific frequencies, and identify
the first element in the atmosphere of
the Sun, sodium, from the two dark "D"
lines in the Sun's spectrum. Bunsen and
Kirchhoff also find that a spectral
emission line can only be reversed to
an absorption line when the absorber is
colder than the emitter.
(University of Heidelberg), Heidelberg,
Germany 
[1] Bunsen-Kirchhoff spectroscope with
the Bunsen burner (labeled D), from
Annalen der Physik (1860). Chemical
Heritage Foundation
Collections. PD/Corel AND Kirchhoff
(left) and Bunsen (right) PD
source: http://www.chemheritage.org/clas
sroom/chemach/images/lgfotos/04periodic/
bunsen-kirchhoff2.jpg
AND http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-DmiBHx0
pAXc/TZGos9g4_yI/AAAAAAAAAWk/eFxlDSws9zI
/s1600/kirchoff_bunsen.jpg

[2] Bunsen-Kirchhoff spectroscope with
the Bunsen burner (labeled D), from
Annalen der Physik (1860). Chemical
Heritage Foundation
Collections. PD/Corel
source: http://www.chemheritage.org/clas
sroom/chemach/images/lgfotos/04periodic/
bunsen-kirchhoff2.jpg
141 YBN
[12/11/1859 AD] 		3456) The theory that a body at
constant temperature emits and absorbs
heat at the same rate and the concept
of a perfectly black body; one which
absorbs light of all frequencies and
reflects none.
(University of Heidelberg), Heidelberg,
Germany 
[1] Robert Wilhelm von Bunsen (1811 -
1899) and Gustav Kirchhoff (1824 -
1887) [SV] PD/Corel
source: http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/histor
y/kirchhoff6.jpg

[2] Bunsen-Kirchhoff spectroscope with
the Bunsen burner (labeled D), from
Annalen der Physik (1860). Chemical
Heritage Foundation
Collections. PD/Corel
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/ce/Gustav_R._Kirchhoff.j
pg
141 YBN
[1859 AD] 		3183) Oxygen is found to bubble out of
blood in a vacuum.
(University of Vienna) Vienna, Austria,
Germany 
[1] Carl Wilhelm Friedrich Ludwig,
German physiologist. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/1/16/CarlLudwig.jpeg

[2] Carl F.W. Ludwig, detail of an
engraving H. Roger-Viollet PD/Corel
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
42721&rendTypeId=4
141 YBN
[1859 AD] 		3373) The first successful
direct-acting gas combustion engine is
invented by Jean Joseph Étienne Lenoir
(lunWoR).
?, France 
[1] Lenoir motor in the Musée des Arts
et Métiers, Paris PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/7d/Lenoir_Motor_2.jpg

[2] Jean Joseph Etienne
Lenoir PD/Corel
source: http://www.tschoepe.de/auktion47
/bilder/frankreich/Moteurs_Lenoir_Photo.
jpg
141 YBN
[1859 AD] 		3536) A solar flare is observed.
(Redhill Observatory) Surrey,
England 		 
141 YBN
[1859 AD] 		3714) The first rechargeable battery
which is based on lead plates immersed
in sulfuric acid.
(Conservatory of Arts and Crafts)
Paris, France 
[1] Plante battery COPYRIGHTED
source: http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekat
z/scientists/plante_battery1.jpg

[2] Plante cell COPYRIGHTED
source: http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekat
z/scientists/plante_cel.gif
140 YBN
[04/16/1860 AD] 		3088) The element cesium is identified
by Robert Bunsen. Cesium is the first
element to be discovered
spectroscopically.
(University of Heidelberg), Heidelberg,
Germany 
[1] 1860 Bunsen Kirchhoff
figures ''Chemische Analyse durch
Spectralbeobachtungen'', Annalen der
Physik, Volume 189, Issue 7, (1861),
pp337-381. PD/Corel
source: Bunsen_Kirchhoff_Cesium_Rubidium
.pdf

[2] Pollucite (Caesium
mineral) Source:
http://resourcescommittee.house.gov/subc
ommittees/emr/usgsweb/photogallery/
; PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f8/Pollucite%28CesiumMin
eral%29USGOV.jpg
140 YBN
[04/??/1860 AD] 		3458) The position of the spectral
emission lines are found to be the same
for a variety of metals, independent of
the molecular compound the metal is in,
the heat source used, and enormous
differences of temperature.

Sodium, Lithium, Potassium, Calcium and
Strontium are identified in various
minerals by spectral analysis and that
fact that not only potassium and
sodium, but also lithium and strontium
are among the most widely scattered
substances of Earth is realized.
(University of Heidelberg), Heidelberg,
Germany 
[1] 1860 Bunsen Kirchhoff
figures PD/Corel
source: Bunsen_Kirchhuff_1860.pdf

[2] 1860 Bunsen Kirchhoff
figures PD/Corel
source: Bunsen_Kirchhuff_1860.pdf
140 YBN
[1860 AD] 		3124) The atomic masses of some
elements are found to be far from
integral values and this casts doubt on
Prout's hypothesis that all atoms
larger than hydrogen are composed of
multiples of hydrogen.
(Ecole Polytechnique) Paris, France
(presumably) 
[1] Scan of a picture of Belgian
scientist Jean Servais Stas (who died
in 1891) Source Journal of Chemical
Education, pages 353 – 357 Date
1938 Author Timmermans, Jean PD

source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/de/Stas_Jean_Servais.jpg


[2] Stas, Jean Servais 19th
Century Born: Leuven (Belgium),
1813 Died Brussels (Belgium),
1891 PD/Corel
source: http://www.euchems.org/binaries/
Stas_tcm23-29677.gif
140 YBN
[1860 AD] 		3125) Formaldehyde is synthesized and a
carbohydrate is synthesized from a
polymer of formaldehyde.
(Kazan University) Kazan, Russia 
[1] Butlerov, Alexander
Michailovich 19th Century Born:
Tschistopol near Kazan (Russia), 1828
Died: Biarritz (France), 1886 PD
source: http://www.euchems.org/binaries/
Butlerov_tcm23-29647.gif

[2] Description Picture of the
Russian chemist, A. M. Butlerov Source
Screen capture, J. Chem. Educ.,
1994, vol. 71, page 41 Date Before
1886, the date of Butlerov's death PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/67/Butlerov_A.png
140 YBN
[1860 AD] 		3177) The spectra of stars are
classified.
Florence, Italy 
[1] [t Donati's stellar spectra. These
are difficult to read because Donati
give accompanying references for alpha,
beta, etc for example Sirius alpha is
the Sun's F line - 15'' of arc, where
Vega's alpha is the Sun's F line + 40''
of arc.] PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=1AsAAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA100&lpg=PA100&dq=Dona
ti+Florence+1860+spectra&source=web&ots=
P-e2QhLbo9&sig=bK8ckOIpAkXlBWVp2j-mcNFoc
n0&hl=en#PPA103,M1

[2] Giovan Battista Donati PD/Corel
source: http://www.astropa.unipa.it/Libr
ary/Astronomi/cover/donati.jpg
140 YBN
[1860 AD] 		3532) The ring-wound electrical
generator and motor.
(University of Pisa) Pisa, Italy 
[1] Description
Pacinotti-Grammescher Ring Source
Bibliothek allgemeinen und
praktischen Wissens für
Militäranwärter Band III, 1905 /
Deutsches Verlaghaus Bong & Co Berlin *
Leipzig * Wien * Stuttgart PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/00/Pacinotti-Grammescher
_Ring.png

[2] Antonio Pacinotti PD/Corel
source: http://www.geocities.com/neveyaa
kov/electro_science/pacinotti1.jpg
140 YBN
[1860 AD] 		3573) An electric lamp with a carbon
filament in an evacuated glass.
Newcastle, England (presumably) 
[1] {ULSF: Note that this is not the
1860 lamp but is a later 1878-1879
lamp} The lamp on the left is an early
carbon and rod filament incandescent
electric lamp made by the English
chemist, Joseph Swan (1827-1914) in
1878-1879. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/
images/object_images/535x535/10276216.jp
g

[2] Joseph Wilson Swan 1828 -
1914 PD/Corel
source: http://www.hevac-heritage.org/ha
ll_of_fame/lighting_&_electrical/joseph_
wilson_swan_s1.jpg
140 YBN
[1860 AD] 		3586) Invertebrates are found to be
living over about a mile (or km) deep
in the ocean.
(University of Edinburgh) Edinburgh,
Scotland (presumably) 
[1] Sir Charles W. Thomson PD/Corel
source: http://websiterepository.ed.ac.u
k/explore/people/plaques/images/alum_cha
rleswthomson.jpg
139 YBN
[02/25/1861 AD] 		3089) The element rubidium {rUBiDEuM}
is identified from its spectrum.
(University of Heidelberg), Heidelberg,
Germany 
[1] 1860 Bunsen Kirchhoff
figures PD/Corel
source: Bunsen_Kirchhoff_Cesium_Rubidium
.pdf

[2] Pollucite (Caesium
mineral) Source:
http://resourcescommittee.house.gov/subc
ommittees/emr/usgsweb/photogallery/
; PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f8/Pollucite%28CesiumMin
eral%29USGOV.jpg
139 YBN
[04/26/1861 AD] 		3726) The asteroid Hesperia is
identified.
(Brera Observatory) Milan, Italy 
[1] Giovanni Schiaparelli PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/00/GiovanniSchiaparelli.
jpg

[2] Giovanni Schiaparelli PD
source: http://www.mallorcaweb.net/masm/
meteor/schiaparelli.gif
139 YBN
[06/??/1861 AD] 		3462) By matching solar dark lines to
the bright lines emitted by elements,
Kirchhoff explains that the atmosphere
of the sun contains iron, chromium,
nickel, barium, copper, and zinc but
does not contain gold, silver, mercury,
aluminum, cadmium, tin, lead, antimony,
arsenic, strontium, lithium, or
silicon.
(University of Heidelberg), Heidelberg,
Germany 
[1] [t First page of solar
spectrum] PD/Corel
source: Kirchhoff_Researches_on_the_sola
r_spectrum_1861.pdf

[2] The great spectroscope of
kirchhoff for the study of the solar
spectrum (Abh. Berliner Akad. 1861, p.
63) PD/Corel
source: http://www.iop.org/EJ/article/00
38-5670/2/6/R08/PHU_2_6_R08.pdf?request-
id=8f1884a6-fd47-447b-a653-fe3cb7086b72
139 YBN
[10/26/1861 AD] 		3997) The first microphone, speaker,
and telephone is invented by Johann
Philipp Reis. Sound is converted to
electricity and back to sound again.

A microphone converts variations in
sound (air pressure) into variations in
electric current, which can be carried
over long distances in metal wire, and
then converted back into the air
vibrations of sound using a speaker.

Sound can be sent farther as electric
current in a wire than mechanically in
air and travels silently.
(built in workshop behind Reis's house
and cabinet in Garnier's Institute,
Friedrichsdorf, demonstrated before
Physical Society) Frankfort,
Germany 
[1] Drawing of Philip Reiss telephone
used for 10/26/1861 demonstration
before Physical Society in Frankfort,
Germany. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=Fdpuup7RSrUC&pg=PA110&lpg=PA110&dq=%22g
alvanic+music%22&source=bl&ots=XSKEE-YQX
1&sig=LnqVekN9DrlsZbrt8uQvjga8znk&hl=en&
ei=ze-eSqviJYOgswPdgpSCDg&sa=X&oi=book_r
esult&ct=result&resnum=5#v=onepage&q=%22
galvanic%20music%22&f=false

[2] portrait of Philip Reiss From
Silvanus Thompson: ''Reis is here
represented as holding in his hand the
telephone with which he had a few days
preceding (May 11, 1862) achieved such
success at his lecture before the
Freies Deutsches Hochstift (Free German
Institute) in Frankfort. '' PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=YkHu_MiyFSkC&printsec=frontcover&dq=phi
lip+reis+inventor+of+the+telephone#v=one
page&q=&f=false
139 YBN
[11/07/1861 AD] 		3493) That the spectrum of an element
may change with change in temperature
is proven by showing that at high
temperatures a blue line appears for
lithium.
(St. Bartholomew's Hospital) London,
England 
[1] Scanned from the frontispiece of
Sketches from the life of Edward
Frankland, published in 1902 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/0/09/Frankland_Edward_26.jpg

[2] Sir Edward Frankland
(1825–1899), English chemist. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e9/Edward_Frankland.jpg
139 YBN
[1861 AD] 		2651) The first transcontinental
telegraph line, connecting San
Francisco to the East Coast of the USA.
USA 
[1] Logo of The Western Union
Company COPYRIGHTED
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Western_Union_money_transfer.png
139 YBN
[1861 AD] 		3015) The process of dialysis to
separate different substances is
invented.
(Mint) London, England 
[1] Scientist: Graham, Thomas (1805 -
1869) Discipline(s): Chemistry ;
Physics Print Artist: Attributed to
C. Cook Medium: Photograph
Original Artist: Cloudet Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 15.7 x 12.1 cm /
Sheet: 24.7 x 17 cm PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-G003-03a.jpg

[2] Thomas Graham PD/Corel
source: http://www.frca.co.uk/images/gra
ham.jpg
139 YBN
[1861 AD] 		3193) That sperm are formed from the
tubular walls of the testis, just as
pollen grains are formed from cells of
the anthers is shown.
(University of Würzburg) Würzburg,
Germany 
[1] Kölliker, Albert von PD/Corel
source: http://clendening.kumc.edu/dc/pc
/kolliker.jpg

[2] Rudolph Albert von Kölliker
(1857–1905) from portrait Left:
Photograph showing Brown-Séquard.
Right: Portrait of Von
Kölliker. PD/Corel
source: http://www.medscape.com/content/
2004/00/46/84/468471/art-nf468471.fig7.j
pg
139 YBN
[1861 AD] 		3417) That some microorganisms are
anaerobic (do not need oxygen) and
others are aerobic (need oxygen) is
established.
(École Normale Supérieure) Paris,
France 
[1] Aerobically different bacteria
behave differently when grown in liquid
culture: 1: Obligate aerobic bacteria
gather at the top of the test tube in
order to absorb maximal amount of
oxygen. 2: Obligate anaerobic bacteria
gather at the bottom to avoid oxygen.
3: Facultative bacteria gather mostly
at the top, since aerobic respiration
is the most beneficial one; but as lack
of oxygen does not hurt them, they can
be found all along the test tube. 4:
Microaerophiles gather at the upper
part of the test tube but not at the
top. They require oxygen but at a low
concentration. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/90/Anaerobic.png

[2] * Félix Nadar (1820-1910), French
biologist Louis Pasteur (1822-1895),
1878 (detail). Source:
http://history.amedd.army.mil/booksdocs/
misc/evprev Creator/Artist Name
Gaspar-Félix
Tournachon Alternative names Félix
Nadar Date of birth/death 1820-04-05
1910-03-21 Location of birth/death
Paris Paris Work period 1854 -
1910 Work location Paris PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/42/Louis_Pasteur.jpg
139 YBN
[1861 AD] 		3486) Damage to a certain location on
the cerebrum is associated with the
loss of the ability to speak.
(University of Paris) Paris, France
(presumably) 
[1] Taken from NIH publication 97-4257,
http://www.nidcd.nih.gov/health/voice/ap
hasia.asp PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/03/BrocasAreaSmall.png

[2] Pierre Paul BROCA
(1824-1880): PD/Corel
source: http://www.itfnoroloji.org/semi2
/Broca.jpg
139 YBN
[1861 AD] 		3498) The phenomenon of "mimicry" is
identified; the resemblance of one
organism to another or to an object in
its surroundings for concealment and
protection from predators.
London, England (presumably) 
[1] Plate from Bates (1862)
illustrating Batesian mimicry between
Dismorphia species (top row, third row)
and various Ithomiini (Nymphalidae)
(second row, bottom row) Source
Henry Walter Bates 1862.
Contributions to an insect fauna of the
Amazon Valley. Lepidoptera:
Heliconidae. Trans. Linn. Soc. 23:
495-566. Date 1862 Author
Henry Walter Bates PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/95/Batesplate_ArM.jpg

[2] Description photograph of
Bates Source Bates 1892 Naturalist on
River Amazons Date about 1870 Author
unknown PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/90/HW_Bates_23_KB.jpg
139 YBN
[1861 AD] 		3541) That all known eggs and sperm are
single cells, even the giant eggs of
birds and reptiles, is shown.
(U of Jena) Jena, Germany 
[1] Photograph of German anatomist and
professor Carl Gegenbaur in suit (409
pixels wide). Source URL (from German
Wikipedia):
http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bild:Carl_g
egenbaur.jpg Since Carl Gegenbaur died
in 1903, the photo is over 100 years
old. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/d/df/Carl-Gegenbaur-professor-e
lder-suit-photo-409px.jpg
139 YBN
[1861 AD] 		3582) Organic chemistry is defined as
merely the chemistry of carbon
compounds with no mention of living
organisms.
(University of Ghent) Ghent,
Belgium 
[1] Friedrich August von Stradonitz
Kekulé Library of Congress PD
source: http://content.answers.com/main/
content/img/scitech/HSfrieda.jpg

[2] English: Friedrich August Kekulé
von Stradonitz, german chemist PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/fa/Frkekul%C3%A9.jpg
139 YBN
[1861 AD] 		3645) The first color image is
projected by James Clerk Maxwell.
(King's College, exhibit at the Royal
Institution) London, England 
[1] [t Note: This cannot be a
photograph from 1861 - Maxwell
apparently never created a color
photograph in the sense of a single
plate or paper with a multi-color
image, but made 3 glass plates. So this
is a digitized color photo of the
projection of those three plates. The
first color [photograph being created,
at least publicly by: introduced in
1907 by A. Lumiere (eb1911
photography)] wikipedia: English:
Tartan Ribbon, photograph taken by
James Clerk Maxwell in 1861. Considered
the first colour photograph. Maxwell
had the photographer Thomas Sutton
photograph a tartan ribbon three times,
each time with a different colour
filter over the lens. The three images
were developed and then projected onto
a screen with three different
projectors, each equipped with the same
colour filter used to take its image.
When brought into focus, the three
images formed a full colour image. The
three photographic plates now reside in
a small museum at 14 India Street,
Edinburgh, the house where Maxwell was
born. Source Scanned from The
Illustrated History of Colour
Photography, Jack H. Coote, 1993. ISBN
0-86343-380-4. Date 1861 Author
James Clerk Maxwell (original
picture) ; scan by User:Janke. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/7f/Tartan_Ribbon.jpg

[2] James Clerk Maxwell. The Library
of Congress. PD/GOV
source: "Henri Victor Regnault",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p586.
139 YBN
[1861 AD] 		3672) The element thallium {taLEuM}.
(private lab) London, England
(presumably) 
[1] Thallium Source
http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bild:Thalli
um_1.jpg Date March 2006 Author
Tomihahndorf PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/36/Thallium.jpg

[2] Image by Daniel Mayer or
GreatPatton and released under terms of
the GNU FDL GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1a/Tl-TableImage.png
139 YBN
[1861 AD] 		3779) Sodium bicarbonate is made at far
less cost from salt water, ammonia and
carbon dioxide.
(Solvay factory) Charleroi,
Belgium 
[1] Sodium carbonate Other names Soda
ash; washing soda [t what are dashed
lines and why is sodium not connected?
explain diagram, find 3d image] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sod
ium_carbonate

[2] Ernest Solvay (1838-1922)
PD/Corel
source: http://www.solvay.edu/images/Per
sonnes/ErnestSolvay.jpg
138 YBN
[01/31/1862 AD] 		3685) Sirius B is observed.
Cambridgeport, Massachusetts, USA 
[1] Alvan Graham Clark and his
assistant Carl Ludin (right) alongside
of the 40-inch Lens. Source
Astronomy and Astrophysics Yerkes
Observatory Date 1896 Author
Photo Credit: Yerkes Observatory PD

source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/87/Yerkes_Observatory_As
tro4p6.jpg

[2] Alvan Graham Clark PD
source: http://www.adlerplanetarium.org/
research/collections/instruments/images/
tl_clark.jpg
138 YBN
[02/??/1862 AD] 		3743) The spectra of metallic compounds
are found to be different than the
spectra of the metals themselves.
(University of Berlin?) Berlin,
Germany 		 
138 YBN
[11/04/1862 AD] 		3219) The machine gun (or Gatling gun)
is invented by Richard Jordan Gatling
and can fire 200 bullets per minute
(around 3 bullets a second).
Indianapolis, Indiana
(presumably) 
[1] Patent for first Gatlin
gun PD/Corel
source: http://patimg1.uspto.gov/.piw?Do
cid=00036836&homeurl=http%3A%2F%2Fpatft.
uspto.gov%2Fnetacgi%2Fnph-Parser%3FSect1
%3DPTO1%2526Sect2%3DHITOFF%2526d%3DPALL%
2526p%3D1%2526u%3D%25252Fnetahtml%25252F
PTO%25252Fsrchnum.htm%2526r%3D1%2526f%3D
G%2526l%3D50%2526s1%3D0036,836.PN.%2526O
S%3DPN%2F0036,836%2526RS%3DPN%2F0036,836
&PageNum=&Rtype=&SectionNum=&idkey=NONE&
Input=View+first+page

[2] photograph of Richard Jordan
Gatling PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a8/Richard_Jordan_Gatlin
g.jpg
138 YBN
[1862 AD] 		2861) Calcium carbide is discovered,
and mixing it with water is found to
produce the flammable gas acetylene.
(University of Göttingen) Göttingen,
Germany (presumably) 
[1] Description English: Calcium
Carbide after exposure to air. Source
Originally from en.wikipedia;
description page is/was here. Date
2005-12-28 (original upload
date) Author Original uploader was
Rjb uk at
en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
image) Released into the public
domain (by the author). PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Cac2.jpg

[2] Acetylene PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ace
tylene
138 YBN
[1862 AD] 		3146) Hydrogen is detected in the
spectrum of the Sun's atmosphere.
(University of Uppsala) Uppsala,
Sweden 
[1] From Recherches sur le spectre
solaire PD/Corel
source: Angstrom_1869.pdf

[2] [t one of about 20 pages of solar
spectrum, with a compressed to 4 page
spectra of Aurora Borealis.] From
Recherches sur le spectre
solaire PD/Corel
source: Recherches sur le spectre
solaire
138 YBN
[1862 AD] 		3206) That the blurred vision of
astigmatism is caused by the uneven
curvature of the cornea or lens which
diffuse light beams instead of focusing
them is found.

The cornea is the transparent curved
part of the front of the eyeball.
(University of Utrecht) Utrecht,
Netherlands 
[1] Description English: The cornea,
as demarcated from the sclera by the
corneal limbus. Date 15 October 2012,
11:21:40 Source
Image:Schematic_diagram_of_the_human_ey
e_en.svg Author Mikael
Häggström CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/61/Cornea.png

[2] Scientist: Donders, Franciscus
Cornelis (1818 - 1889) Discipline(s):
Medicine Print Artist: Alexander
Seitz (Photographic company) Medium:
Photograph Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 9.1 x 5.7 cm / Sheet: 10 x
6.2 cm PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-D4-14a.jpg
138 YBN
[1862 AD] 		3306) A periodic table of elements.
(École Nationale Supérieure des Mines
de Paris) Paris, France 
[1] Vis tellurique method of organizing
the Periodic table in 1862. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/0/05/Vis_tellurique_de_Chancour
tois.gif

[2] Alexandre-Emile Béguyer de
Chancourtois PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e8/Alexandre-Emile_B%C3%
A9guyer_de_Chancourtois.jpg
138 YBN
[1862 AD] 		3375) The first direct-acting internal
combustion gas engine car (or horseless
carriage) is built by (Jean-Joseph-)
Étienne Lenoir.
Paris, France (presumably) 
[1] Description English: The
hippomobile, a car invented by Étienne
Lenoir in 1863 Date Dont know Source
http://www1.eere.energy.gov/vehiclesand
fuels/pdfs/deer_2004/session1/2004_deer_
fairbanks.pdf Author EERE PD
source: http://www1.eere.energy.gov/vehi
clesandfuels/pdfs/deer_2004/session1/200
4_deer_fairbanks.pdf

[2] Voiture de JEAN JOSEPH ETIENNE
LENOIR - 1860: PD/Corel
source: http://www.forum-auto.com/upload
s/200510/gv_creations_1129490448_voiture
_jean_joseph_etienne_lenoir___1860.jpg
138 YBN
[1862 AD] 		3517) The protein Hemoglobin in
prepared in crystalline form.
(University of Tübingen) Tübingen,
Germany 
[1] Hoppe-Seyler, Felix PD/Corel
source: http://clendening.kumc.edu/dc/pc
/hoppe-seyler.jpg
138 YBN
[1862 AD] 		3521) The absorption spectrum of a
protein is described.
(University of Tübingen) Tübingen,
Germany 
[1] Hoppe-Seyler, Felix PD/Corel
source: http://clendening.kumc.edu/dc/pc
/hoppe-seyler.jpg
137 YBN
[02/19/1863 AD] 		3427) Spectral lines from elements are
matched to spectral lines from other
stars by William Huggins and William
Miller.
(Tulse Hill) London, England 
[1] ''The accompanying drawing shows
with considerable accuracy the
principal lines which the authors have
seen in Sirius, Betelgeux, and
Aldebaran, and their position
relatively to the chief solar
lines.'' ''The position in the stellar
spectra corresponding to that of
Fraunhofer's line D, from which the
others are measured, has been obtained
by coincidence with a sodium line, the
position of which in the apparatus was
compared directly with the line D in
the solar spectrum. The lines in the
drawings against which a mark is placed
have been measured.'' PD/Corel
source: http://journals.royalsociety.org
/content/025553r323116j26/fulltext.pdf

[2] William Huggins PD/Corel
source: https://eee.uci.edu/clients/bjbe
cker/ExploringtheCosmos/hugginsport.jpg
137 YBN
[1863 AD] 		3414) The process of pasteurization is
shown by Louis Pasteur (PoSTUR).
Pasteur discovers the microorganism
responsible for the souring of wine and
shows how heating (pasteurization)
stops fermented substances like wine
and beer from going sour.
(École Normale Supérieure) Paris,
France 
[1] * Félix Nadar (1820-1910), French
biologist Louis Pasteur (1822-1895),
1878 (detail). Source:
http://history.amedd.army.mil/booksdocs/
misc/evprev Creator/Artist Name
Gaspar-Félix
Tournachon Alternative names Félix
Nadar Date of birth/death 1820-04-05
1910-03-21 Location of birth/death
Paris Paris Work period 1854 -
1910 Work location Paris PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/42/Louis_Pasteur.jpg

[2] Scientist: Pasteur, Louis (1822 -
1895) Discipline(s):
Chemistry Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 21 x 15.2 cm / Sheet: 33 x
23.3 cm PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-P002-04a.jpg
137 YBN
[1863 AD] 		3487) The element indium is discovered
using spectroscopic analysis.
(Freiberg University) Freiberg, Saxony,
Germany 
[1] Ferdinand Reich
(1799-1882) PD/Corel
source: http://www.jergym.hiedu.cz/~cano
vm/objevite/objev/rei.htm

[2] Hieronymus Theodor Richter
(1824-1898) PD/Corel
source: same
137 YBN
[1863 AD] 		3537) That the Sun does not rotate as a
single piece but that sun spots at the
equator rotate over two days faster
than sunspots at higher latitudes is
discovered.
(Redhill Observatory) Surrey,
England 		 
137 YBN
[1863 AD] 		3587) The sphygmograph; an instrument
for recording graphically the pulse
rate and changes in blood pressure.
Paris, France (presumably) 
[1] diagram Labeled diagram of a
sphygmograph as described below from
Handbook of the Sphygmograph: Being a
Guide to its Use in Clinical Research
by J. Burdon Sanderson, M.D.
F.R.S. PD/Corel
source: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/hmd/about
/exhibition/images/diagramT.jpg

[2] Étienne-Jules Marey around
1850.[wiki] [t He looks more like 40
here which would be 1870] PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/de/Marey.jpg
136 YBN
[02/23/1864 AD] 		3466) Some substances are found to
exhibit different spectra, depending on
the manner in which they are excited
(by flame or electricity) and spectra
are divided into spectra with bands and
spectra with lines which will be later
interpreted as the distinction between
the spectra of molecules and the
spectra of atoms.
(University of Bonn) Bonn (and
Münster), Germany 
[1] Nitrogen first order spectrum PD
source: Plucker_Hittorf_1865.pdf

[2] Nitrogen second order spectrum PD

source: Plucker_Hittorf_1865.pdf
136 YBN
[08/05/1864 AD] 		3178) The spectrum of a comet is first
described.

At a distance from the Sun the comet
shows only the spectrum of reflected
sunlight, but when the comet gets
closer to the Sun the spectrum changes
(because light is emitted from luminous
gas in the comet tail).
Florence, Italy 
[1] [t Donati's stellar spectra. These
are difficult to read because Donati
give accompanying references for alpha,
beta, etc for example Sirius alpha is
the Sun's F line - 15'' of arc, where
Vega's alpha is the Sun's F line + 40''
of arc.] PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=1AsAAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA100&lpg=PA100&dq=Dona
ti+Florence+1860+spectra&source=web&ots=
P-e2QhLbo9&sig=bK8ckOIpAkXlBWVp2j-mcNFoc
n0&hl=en#PPA103,M1

[2] Giovan Battista Donati PD/Corel
source: http://www.astropa.unipa.it/Libr
ary/Astronomi/cover/donati.jpg
136 YBN
[09/08/1864 AD] 		3428) The spectra of nebulae and
galaxies are seen by William Huggins
and William Miller. Unlike stars,
nebulae are shown to have no spectrum
except for a few emission lines, and
therefore to be composed of gas by
using spectral comparison.

Huggins and Miller describe nebulae as
"enormous masses of luminous gas or
vapour".

Huggins and Miller describe the
spectrum of the Andromeda galaxy and a
globular cluster to have a continuous
spectrum with absorption lines, similar
to that of a star.
(Tulse Hill)London, England 
[1] The Cat's Eye Nebula from
Hubble Credit: NASA, ESA, HEIC, and
The Hubble Heritage Team (STScI/AURA)
PD/Corel
source: http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/image/
0705/catseye2_hst.jpg

[2] Draco's spectrum ...The riddle of
the nebulae was solved. The answer,
which had come to us in the light
itself, read: Not an aggregation of
stars, but a luminous gas.
--Huggins (1897) PD/Corel
source: https://eee.uci.edu/clients/bjbe
cker/ExploringtheCosmos/neblinesdraco.jp
g
136 YBN
[10/27/1864 AD] 		3657) The theory that light is an
electromagnetic transverse wave in a
surrounding aether medium is created by
James Clerk Maxwell.

This theory, like the other wave
theories for light, conflicts with the
corpuscular theory in which light is
theorized to be made of material
particles that move through mostly
empty space.
(King's College) London, England 
[1] Fig. 66 from Maxwell's ''A Treatise
on Electricity and Magnetism'' which
shows the view that light is made of
two sine waves in an aether, one wihch
is an electric displacement and another
which is a magnetic force, both which
are 90 degrees to each other. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=gmQSAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edi
tions:0w8AGC9HxP35YR6Uk9&lr=&as_brr=1#PP
A390,M1

[2] James Clerk Maxwell, ''A Dynamical
Theory of the Electromagnetic Field'',
Royal Society Transactions, Vol. 155,
1865, p. 459-512;
p497. http://books.google.com/books?id=
xVNFAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA497
AND http://journals.royalsociety.org/co
ntent/yw7lx230g0h64637/?p=0677f1423d9744
10b4e2e6e25d052266π=8 {Maxwell_James_C
lerk_dynamical_theory_of_em_field_1864.p
df} also in James Clerk Maxwell, Ed.
by W.D. Niven., ''The Scientific Papers
of James Clerk Maxwell'', C.J. Clay,
1890, vol1, p526-597. and with
selectable
text: http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/A_D
ynamical_Theory_of_the_Electromagnetic_F
ield/Part_I PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=xVNFAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA497 PD
135 YBN
[04/24/1865 AD] 		3370) The theory of "entropy" (also
called the second law of
thermodynamics) by Rudolf Julius
Emmanuel Clausius (KLoUZEUS). Entropy
is the quantity of a body's energy that
is unavailable for work.
(New Polytechnicum) Zurich,
Germany 
[1] Rudolf Clausius Source
http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.
uk/history/Posters2/Clausius.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/40/Clausius.jpg

[2] Rudolf J. E. Clausius Library of
Congress PD
source: http://content.answers.com/main/
content/img/scitech/HSrudolj.jpg
135 YBN
[08/12/1865 AD] 		3548) Wounds are disinfected with
carbolic acid (also known as phenol).
(University of Glasgow) Glagow,
Scotland 
[1] Joseph Lister source:
http://history.amedd.army.mil/booksdocs/
misc/evprev/fig23.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/04/Joseph_Lister.jpg

[2] Joseph Lister, 1857 Courtesy of
the Wellcome Trustees,
London PD/Corel
source: http://media-2.web.britannica.co
m/eb-media/30/10230-004-A30E0562.jpg
135 YBN
[1865 AD] 		3403) The law of genetic inheritance
(the 1:2:1 ratio of inheritance of a
trait) is described by Gregor Johann
Mendel.

Mendel is the first to follow specific
characteristics through generations,
and show that characteristics are
inherited in an all or none fashion.
(Natural Science Society) Brünn,
Austria (now: Brno, the Czech
Republic) 
[1] Gregor Mendel Source
http://www.malaspina.com/jpg/mendel.j
pg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/87/Gregor_Mendel_portrai
t.jpg

[2] [t Gregor Mendel] PD/Corel
source: http://joefelso.files.wordpress.
com/2007/04/mendel2.jpg
135 YBN
[1865 AD] 		3558) Chemical reactions are defined as
"exothermic" for reactions that give
off heat, and "endothermic" for
reactions that absorb heat.
(Ecole Superieure de Pharmacie) Paris,
France 
[1] Marcellin Berthelot PD/Corel
source: http://content.answers.com/main/
content/wp/en/thumb/1/1d/250px-Marcellin
_Berthelot.jpg

[2] Marcellin Berthelot PD/Corel
source: http://hdelboy.club.fr/berthelot
_6.jpg
135 YBN
[1865 AD] 		3583) That benzene is a ring of carbon
atoms is understood.
(University of Ghent) Ghent,
Belgium 
[1] Figures in: Aug. Kekulé (1865).
''Sur la constitution des substances
aromatiques''. Bulletin de la Societe
Chimique de Paris 3 (2):
98–110. PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=bFsSAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edi
tions:0NsVdwsH1RBl1R&lr=#PPA98,M1

[2] Friedrich August von Stradonitz
Kekulé Library of Congress PD
source: http://content.answers.com/main/
content/img/scitech/HSfrieda.jpg
134 YBN
[01/11/1866 AD] 		3431) Nitrogen is identified in the
spectra of a comet.
(Tulse Hill)London, England 
[1] William Huggins PD/Corel
source: https://eee.uci.edu/clients/bjbe
cker/ExploringtheCosmos/hugginsport.jpg

[2] William Huggins' star-spectroscope
PD/Corel
source: https://eee.uci.edu/clients/bjbe
cker/ExploringtheCosmos/hugginsspectrosc
opeb.jpg
134 YBN
[03/04/1866 AD] 		3736) The spectrum of a sun spot is
seen to have the same but thicker
absorption lines as the photosphere.
(at home, employed at War Office)
Wimbledon, England 
[1] Joseph Lockyer BBC Hulton Picture
Library PD/Corel
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
10214&rendTypeId=4

[2] Norman Lockyer - photo published
in the US in 1909 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/8/8b/Lockyer-Norman.jpg
134 YBN
[05/17/1866 AD] 		3430) A nova (an exploded star) is
found to be surrounded by hydrogen gas
from its spectrum.
(Tulse Hill)London, England 
[1] Spectrum of absorption and spectrum
of bright lines forming the Compound
Spectrum of a New Star near epsilon
Coronae Borealis. PD/Corel
source: http://journals.royalsociety.org
/content/j722186535000l64/fulltext.pdf

[2] Hubble Captures the Orion
Nebula PD
source: https://eee.uci.edu/clients/bjbe
cker/ExploringtheCosmos/hugginsport.jpg
134 YBN
[1866 AD] 		3267) A meteor swarm is shown to have a
comet-like orbit.
(Cambridge Observatory) Cambridge,
England 
[1] John Couch Adams PD
source: http://starchild.gsfc.nasa.gov/I
mages/StarChild/scientists/adams_l1.jpg

[2] John Couch Adams. Hulton
Archive/Getty Images PD/Corel
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
68871&rendTypeId=4
134 YBN
[1866 AD] 		3491) The word "bond" is defined as the
connection between elements of a
compound.
(Royal Institution) London,
England 
[1] Scanned from the frontispiece of
Sketches from the life of Edward
Frankland, published in 1902 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/0/09/Frankland_Edward_26.jpg

[2] Sir Edward Frankland
(1825–1899), English chemist. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e9/Edward_Frankland.jpg
134 YBN
[1866 AD] 		3679) Zinc Sulfide (ZnS) is prepared
and recognized as a phosphor (a
substance that exhibits
phosphorescence, a luminescence that
persists after removal of the exciting
source).
(Sorbonne laboratory) Paris,
France 
[1] The white material collected in the
bottom of these test tubes is zinc
sulfide that has settled out of pore
water from push cores taken during this
cruise. Photo courtesy of A.
Eisen. PD
source: http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/ex
plorations/03windows/logs/jul30/media/zi
ncsulfideprecipitate_600.jpg
134 YBN
[1866 AD] 		3695) Dynamite is invented by Alfred
Nobel.

Dynamite is an explosive based on
nitroglycerine but is much safer to
handle because it cannot be exploded
without a detonating cap and is just as
explosive as nitroglycerine.
Paris, France (guess) 
[1] [t get better image of
dynamite] English: Diagram of
dynamite. A. Sawdust (or any
other type of absorbent material)
soaked in nitroglycerin. B.
Protective coating surrounding the
explosive material. C. Blasting
cap. D. Wire connected to the
blasting cap. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/65/Dynamite-5.svg

[2] Alfred Bernhard Nobel. ©
Bettmann/Corbis PD/Corel
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
20999&rendTypeId=4
134 YBN
[1866 AD] 		3792) The wavelength of sound in
different gases is determined by
dusting the inside of a tube with a
fine powder which is shaped by the
moving gas to show the position of
nodes of the sound waves.
(University of Berlin?) Berlin,
Germany 
[1] August Kundt Both photographer and
subject are dead over 70 years.
Therefore in public domain.
http://www.math.uni-hamburg.de/home/grot
hkopf/fotos/math-ges/ PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/92/AugustKundt.jpg
132 YBN
[03/24/1868 AD] 		5834) A motorized two leg (bipedal)
walking robot that pulls a cart is
built.
Newark, New Jersey, USA 
[1] ZADOC P. DEDERICK, ''IMPROVEMENT IN
STEAM-CARRIAGE'', Patent number: 75874,
Issue date: Mar 24,
1868 http://www.google.com/patents?id=d
6kAAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&source=gbs
_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false
PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=d6kAAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&source=g
bs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false

[2] Image from: Patent number:
75874 Issue date: Mar 24,
1868 Inventor: ZADOC P. DEDERICK
source: http://www.davidbuckley.net/DB/H
istoryMakers/1868DederickSteamMan_files/
1868-DederickSteamMan600.jpg
132 YBN
[04/23/1868 AD] 		3435) The Doppler effect is used by
William Huggins to estimate the
relative radial (or line of sight)
velocity of celestial objects by
comparing the position of spectral
lines from the celestial object to
those of a terrestrial light source.

Huggins estimates the relative motion
of Sirius to be 29.4 miles (46 km) per
second away from the Earth, but cannot
detect any motion for any of the
nebulae he examines.

But Huggins does not address the fact
that the distance of a light source
changes the width and position of
spectral lines (relative to the center
node). This change in position does not
represent a change in frequency (or
color) of a spectral line.
(Tulse Hill)London, England 
[1] [t Note that the lines are
absorption lines.] Figure 4
from: Huggins, William. ''Further
Observations on the Spectra of Some of
the Stars and Nebulae, with an Attempt
to Determine Therefrom Whether These
Bodies are Moving towards or from the
Earth, Also Observations on the Spectra
of the Sun and of Comet II., 1868.''
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London 158 (1868):
529-564. http://www.jstor.org/stable/10
.2307/108925 PD [1] William
Huggins PD/Corel
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2
307/108925

[2] William Huggins' star-spectroscope
PD/Corel
source: https://eee.uci.edu/clients/bjbe
cker/ExploringtheCosmos/hugginsport.jpg
132 YBN
[06/23/1868 AD] 		6252) The first practical typewriter.
Milwaukee, Wisconsin, USA 
[1] Description Drawing for a
Typewriter, 06/23/1868. This is the
printed patent drawing for a typewriter
invented by Christopher L. Sholes,
Carlos Glidden, and J. W. Soule. From
the National Archives Date 23
June 1868 Source Patented Case
Files, 1836 - 1956; Records of the
Patent and Trademark Office; Record
Group 241; National Archives. (ARC
Identifier: 595503) Originally
uploaded by Brian0918 Author
Illustrator: Unknown Patent
assignees: Christopher L. Sholes,
Carlos Glidden, and J. W.
Soule Permission (Reusing this file)
Public domain - published in USA
before 1923 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/39/TypewriterPatent1868.
jpg

[2] Image from: Sholes, Glidden &
Soule, ''Type Writing Machine'', Patent
79265 http://www.google.com/patents?id=
t7YAAAAAEBAJ PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=t7YAAAAAEBAJ
132 YBN
[07/02/1868 AD] 		3432) Ethylene, a hydrocarbon is
identified in the spectra of a comet.
(Tulse Hill)London, England 
[1] [t Huggins comet comparison with
olefiant (ethylene) gas] PD/Corel
source: William Huggins, "The Science
Papers of William Huggins".

[2] Comet spectra PD/Corel
source: William Huggins, "The Science
Papers of William Huggins".
132 YBN
[07/02/1868 AD] 		4020) The heat of stars is measured
using a thermopile.
(Tulse Hill)London, England
(presumably) 
[1] figure from 02/18/2009 paper of
William Huggins - thermopile in
telescope[t] PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=CesAAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA309&lpg=PA309&dq=%22N
ote+on+the+Heat+of+the+Stars%22&source=b
l&ots=KE46bXJotc&sig=-gbY5qNWVRYKJFccFGc
CqAA6j_A&hl=en&ei=Oo-qSqWCM42gswOpnsmCBQ
&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1#
v=onepage&q=%22Note%20on%20the%20Heat%20
of%20the%20Stars%22&f=false

[2] William Huggins PD/Corel
source: https://eee.uci.edu/clients/bjbe
cker/ExploringtheCosmos/hugginsport.jpg
132 YBN
[11/23/1868 AD] 		3648) The first permanent color
photograph is created by Louis Ducos du
Hauron by superimposing (and fastening
together) 3 different colored
transparent images.
?, France 
[1] English: Early color photo of Agen,
France, by Louis Ducos du Hauron, 1877.
The cathedral in the scene is the
Cathédrale Saint-Caprais d'Agen.
[1] Source ? Date 1877 Author
Louis Ducos du Hauron (1837 –
1920) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/08/Duhauron1877.jpg

[2] Louis Ducos du Hauron paved way
for modern three-color photography.
''Cinémathèque Française'' PD/Corel

source: http://www.marillier.nom.fr/coll
odions/PGH/pics/photowasborn06.jpg
132 YBN
[1868 AD] 		3418) Bacteria are isolated from
distinct diseases.
(École Normale Supérieure) Paris,
France 
[1] * Félix Nadar (1820-1910), French
biologist Louis Pasteur (1822-1895),
1878 (detail). Source:
http://history.amedd.army.mil/booksdocs/
misc/evprev Creator/Artist Name
Gaspar-Félix
Tournachon Alternative names Félix
Nadar Date of birth/death 1820-04-05
1910-03-21 Location of birth/death
Paris Paris Work period 1854 -
1910 Work location Paris PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/42/Louis_Pasteur.jpg

[2] Scientist: Pasteur, Louis (1822 -
1895) Discipline(s):
Chemistry Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 21 x 15.2 cm / Sheet: 33 x
23.3 cm PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-P002-04a.jpg
132 YBN
[1868 AD] 		3447) The new element helium is named
from an unrecognized yellow spectral
line in the light of the Sun's
chromosphere (a continuous gaseous
medium around the Sun).
(?), India 
[1] Description Pierre Jules Janssen
(1824-1907) Source Bulletin de la
société astronomique de France,
1913 Date Prior to 1907 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6e/Pierre_Janssen.jpg

[2] Joseph Lockyer BBC Hulton Picture
Library PD/Corel
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
10214&rendTypeId=4
131 YBN
[01/15/1869 AD] 		3315) The theory that the sky is blue
because small particles reflect shorter
blue light more than longer
wavelengths.
(Royal Institution) London,
England 
[1] Figure from Tyndall 1869 paper PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=PiHR6flNP-sC&pg=PA429#PPA435,M1

[2] Amyl nitrite C5H11NO2 GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amy
l_nitrite
131 YBN
[01/30/1869 AD] 		4839) The theory that brain-waves
radiating from the brain might allow
images of thought to be captured on a
photograph.
London, England (presumably) 
[1] Text from: J.T.K., ''Brain Waves:
A theory'', The Spectator, 01/30/1869.
http://books.google.com/books?id=Yr0-A
QAAIAAJ&pg=135 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=Yr0-AQAAIAAJ&pg=135
131 YBN
[03/06/1869 AD] 		3703) A periodic table of elements is
published by Dmitri Mendeléev
(meNDelAeF).
(University of St. Petersburg) St.
Petersburg, Russia 
[1] Table from abstract of 1869
paper: Zeitschrift für Chemie 12,
405-406 (1869); PD/Corel
source: http://www.rsc.org/education/tea
chers/learnnet/periodictable/pre16/devel
op/mendel4.jpg

[2] Draft for first version of
Mendeleev's periodic table (17 February
1869). Courtesy Oesper Collection,
University of Cincinnati. PD/Corel
source: http://www.chemheritage.org/clas
sroom/chemach/images/lgfotos/04periodic/
meyer-mendeleev1.jpg
131 YBN
[03/17/1869 AD] 		3495) That a spectral emission line
becomes thicker because of increased
pressure is observed.
(Royal College) London, England 
[1] Scanned from the frontispiece of
Sketches from the life of Edward
Frankland, published in 1902 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/0/09/Frankland_Edward_26.jpg

[2] Sir Edward Frankland
(1825–1899), English chemist. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e9/Edward_Frankland.jpg
131 YBN
[05/??/1869 AD] 		3147) The spectrum of the Aurora
Borealis is examined and found to have
mainly one bright line not belonging to
any known simple or compound gases.
(University of Uppsala) Uppsala,
Sweden 
[1] Anders Jonas Ångström (1814-1874)
is remembered as one of the fathers of
modern spectroscopy. His unit of
wavelength is still used worldwide; the
Ångström (1 Å = 0.1 nm). PD/Corel
source: http://www.angstrom.uu.se/bilder
/anders.jpg

[2] Anders Jonas Ångström, c.
1865 Courtesy of the Kungl.
Biblioteket, Stockholm PD/Corel
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
13450&rendTypeId=4
131 YBN
[1869 AD] 		3127) The "critical temperature" of a
gas is defined as the temperature above
which no increase in pressure will
liquefy the gas.
(Queen's College) Belfast,
Ireland 
[1] Thomas Andrews, ''On the Continuity
of the Gaseous and Liquid States of
Matter'', The London, Edinburgh and
Dublin Philosophical Magazine and
Journal of Science, 1869,
p152 http://books.google.com/books?id=6
V8EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA152 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=6V8EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA152

[2] [t This is the earliest top hat
I've seen] Thomas
Andrews. Photos.com/Jupiterimages
PD/Corel
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
102322&rendTypeId=4
131 YBN
[1869 AD] 		3761) The first practical artificial
plastic, Celluloid, is created.
Celluloid is a transparent, colorless,
synthetic plastic created by heating a
mixture of nitrocellulose, camphor, and
alcohol under pressure until the mold.
Albany, NY, USA 
[1] Description English: celluloid
pen Date 5 April 2008 (original
upload date) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia (Original text :
self-made) Author Helian (talk).
Original uploader was Helian at
en.wikipedia CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Arco_pen.jpg/88
2px-Arco_pen.jpg

[2] John Wesley Hyatt Celluloid
Corporation Records PD
source: http://americanhistory.si.edu/ar
chives/images/d8009-1.jpg
130 YBN
[04/21/1870 AD] 		3571) Multiple bonds between two atoms
are described.
(Kazan University) Kazan, Russia 
[1] Butlerov, A.M. Sur La Structure
Chimique De Quelques Hydrocarbures
Non-saturés. Eggers, 1870. Mémoires
De l’Académie Impériale Des
Sciences De St.-Pétersbourg /
7. http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&
lr=&id=iZZFAAAAcAAJ PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?hl
=en&lr=&id=iZZFAAAAcAAJ

[2] Butlerov, Alexander
Michailovich 19th Century Born:
Tschistopol near Kazan (Russia), 1828
Died: Biarritz (France), 1886 PD
source: http://www.euchems.org/binaries/
Butlerov_tcm23-29647.gif
130 YBN
[04/28/1870 AD] 		3766) That specific parts of the
cerebrum can contract certain muscles
is shown by direct electrical
stimulation of the cerebrum of dogs.
This is the first map of the brain that
connects brain location to function.
(University of Berlin?) Berlin,
Germany 
[1] Figure from English translation of
Fritsch and Hitzig 1870 paper [t
Appears to be different, with symbols
in somewhat different locations] PD
source: Fritsch, G. and Hitzig, E.,
"Ueber die elektrische Erregbarkeit des
Grosshirns", Archiv für Anatomie,
Physiologie und wissenschaftliche
Medicin, 1870, p300-332.
http://books.google.com/books?id=_qkEA
AAAQAAJ&pg=PR5&dq=Archiv+f%C3%BCr+Anatom
ie+Physiologie+und+wissenschaftliche&as_
brr=1&ei=05ZnSYqzC4TMlQSk9PjLCg#PPA300,M
1 English translation: Fritsch, G.
and Hitzig, E., "On the Electrical
Excitability of the Cerebrum", 1870.
in: G. von Bonin, "Some Papers on the
Cerebral Cortex", Springfield, Charles
C. Thomas, 1960.

[2] Figure from original Fritsch and
Hitzig 1870 paper PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=_qkEAAAAQAAJ&pg=PR5&dq=Archiv+f%C3%BCr+
Anatomie+Physiologie+und+wissenschaftlic
he&as_brr=1&ei=05ZnSYqzC4TMlQSk9PjLCg#PP
A313,M1
130 YBN
[1870 AD] 		2687) A communication cable connects
Asia and Australia.
  
130 YBN
[1870 AD] 		3778) The first synthetic perfume in
created (coumarin).
(Perkin factory) Greenford Green,
England (presumably) 
[1] Coumarin GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cou
marinv

[2] William Henry Perkin (1838-1907),
in 1860. (Credit: Edelstein
Collection.) PD/Corel
source: http://64.202.120.86/upload/imag
e/personal-column/tony-travis/19th-centu
ary-high-tech/william-henry-perkin.jpg
129 YBN
[01/07/1871 AD] 		3704) A periodic table is published by
Mendeleev (meNDelAeF) with spaces that
represent elements not found yet.
(University of St. Petersburg) St.
Petersburg, Russia 
[1] {ULSF: Appears to be a larger copy
of:} The 1871 Table COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.meta-synthesis.com/we
bbook/35_pt/Mendeleev_1871b.png

[2] Fig 2 The 1871 Table UNKNOWN
source: http://www.rsc.org/images/featur
es%20laing%20fig2_mar07_tcm18-79039.jpg
129 YBN
[08/??/1871 AD] 		3814) The rotational velocity of the
Sun is determined from the Doppler
shift of a curved spectral emission
line from a solar flare.
(private observatory) Bothkamp,
Germany 
[1] Hermann C. Vogel, ''Resultate
spectralanalytischer Beobachtungen,
angestellt auf der Sternwarte zu
Bothkamp.'', Astronomische Nachrichten,
78, 16, 1872,
p241–252;p249-250; http://books.googl
e.com/books?id=jgZTAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA1871-IA
49
AND http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/
cgi-bin/fulltext/112526975/PDFSTART
AND http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/
journal/112579623/issue {Vogel_Hermann_
Doppler_Sun_Rotation_1871.pdf} PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=jgZTAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA1871-IA49

[2] Description Photograph of
Hermann Carl Vogel, the
astronomer Source Opposite page
129 of Astronomers of Today Date
1905 Author Hector
Macpherson PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d2/Vogel_Hermann_Carl.jp
g
129 YBN
[09/08/1871 AD] 		3113) A gelatin photographic emulsion.
Woolston, Southhampton, England 
[1] Dr. Richard Leach MADDOX
(1816-1902) PD/Corel
source: http://webh01.ua.ac.be/elmc/webs
ite_FL/im_gesch/maddox.gif

[2] Richard Leach Maddox, 1816 -
1902 PD/Corel
source: http://www.cotianet.com.br/photo
/hist/Images/maddox.jpg
129 YBN
[09/11/1871 AD] 		6607) The spectrum of lightning is
found to include emission spectral
lines found in air.
(private observatory) Bothkamp,
Germany 
[1] H. Vogel, ''Ueber die Spectra der
Blitze'', Annalen der Physik, vol. 219,
Issue 8, 1871,
pp.653-654. http://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=6QU4AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA653
AND http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/
cgi-bin/fulltext/112494935/PDFSTART
English translation H. Vogel, ''On
the Spectra of Lightning'' PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=6QU4AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA653

[2] Hermann C. Vogel, ''Resultate
spectralanalytischer Beobachtungen,
angestellt auf der Sternwarte zu
Bothkamp.'', Astronomische Nachrichten,
78, 16, 1872,
p241–252;p249-250; http://books.googl
e.com/books?id=jgZTAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA1871-IA
49
AND http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/
cgi-bin/fulltext/112526975/PDFSTART
AND http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/
journal/112579623/issue {Vogel_Hermann_
Doppler_Sun_Rotation_1871.pdf} PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=jgZTAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA1871-IA49
129 YBN
[11/17/1871 AD] 		4160) A telescope filled with water
which shows no change in the aberration
of light from a star due to light
slowing down in a denser medium, which
casts doubts on the theory that
aberration is due to the speed of
light.
Greenwich, England  
[1] George Biddell Airy (British
Astronomer), from en, PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:George_Biddell_Airy.jpg
129 YBN
[12/07/1871 AD] 		3876) The thermal (or infrared)
spectrum from sunlight and from ignited
lime is determined using a thermopile.
(Helmholtz Lab, U of Heidelberg)
Heidelberg, Germany 
[1] Lamansky, ''Untersuchungen über
das Wärmespectrum des Sonnen‐und
Kalklichtes'', Monatsberichte der
Konigl, Akademie der Wissenshaften zu
Berlin,
1871. books.google.com/books?id=SEwOAAA
AIAAJ&pg=PA632 translated: Lamansky,
''On the Heat Spectrum of the Sun and
the Lime-Light.'', Philosophical
Magazine, April, 1872,
p282. http://books.google.com/books?id=
NpYOAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=inti
tle:philosophical+date:1872-1872&ei=nZuQ
SYqnC4qakwTyvbXIBQ#PPA282,M1
AND Lamansky, Sergie.
''Untersuchungen über das
Wärmespectrum des Sonnen‐und
Kalklichtes.'' Annalen der Physik 222.6
(1872):
200-232. http://books.google.com/books?
id=vR9bAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA200 PD
source: books.google.com/books?id=SEwOAA
AAIAAJ&pg=PA632
129 YBN
[1871 AD] 		2661) The start of binary digital
communication: communication using only
a series of on or off values. This is
the Baudot {BxDO} code which uses a 5
bit code by Jean-Maurice-Émile Baudot.
The Baudot code will replace Morse Code
by the mid 1900s.
France 
[1] Crotch, A. The Hughes and Baudot
Telegraphs. Rentell, 1908,
p49. http://books.google.com/books?id=n
9pAAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA78 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=n9pAAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA49

[2] Émile Baudot PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ita2.png
129 YBN
[1871 AD] 		2686) The first telegraph wire in
China.
Yokohama, Japan 
[1] English: Obsolete Chinese telegraph
codes from 0001 to 0200. Each cell of
the table shows a four-digit numerical
code written in Chinese, and a Chinese
character corresponding to the code.
This is part of Septime Auguste
Viguier''s New Book for the Telegraph
(電報新書) published in Shanghai in
1872. Viguier developed this code
succeeding Hans Carl Frederik Christian
Schjellerup''s earlier work. See
en:Chinese telegraph code. Source
Sheet 13 of the electronically
reproduced New Book for the Telegraph
archived in the Royal Library of
Denmark. Date 1872 Author
Septime Auguste Viguer
(威基謁) Permission PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Obsolete_chinese_telegraph_code.jpg
129 YBN
[1871 AD] 		3355) The speed of electromagnetic
induction is proven to be at least
314,400 meters/second.
(University of Berlin) Berlin,
Germany 
[1] Young Helmholtz German
physiologist and physicist Hermann
Ludwig Ferdinand Von Helmholtz (1821 -
1894). Original Publication: People
Disc - HE0174 Original Artwork: From a
daguerreotype . (Photo by Hulton
Archive/Getty Images) * by Hulton
Archive * * reference:
2641935 PD/Corel
source: http://www.jamd.com/search?asset
type=g&assetid=2641935&text=Helmholtz

[2] Helmholtz. Courtesy of the
Ruprecht-Karl-Universitat, Heidelberg,
Germany PD/Corel
source: http://media-2.web.britannica.co
m/eb-media/53/43153-004-2D7E855E.jpg
128 YBN
[06/07/1872 AD] 		6624) Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) is
produced. PVC is a synthetic resin made
from the polymerization of vinyl
chloride. PVC will become second only
to polyethylene among the plastics in
production and consumption. But
commercial application of the plastic
is at first limited by its extreme
rigidity.
(for doctorate at University of
Tübingen) Tübingen, Germany 
[1]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyvinyl_c
hloride GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pol
yvinyl_chloride

[2] Beschreibung Eugen Baumann
(1846 - 1896), deutscher
Chemiker Quelle
Bioanalytical.com Urheber
bzw. Nutzungsrechtinhaber
Unbekannter Fotograf Datum
vor 1896 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/de/e/e5/Eugen_Baumann.jpg
128 YBN
[1872 AD] 		1249) The first "binder", a machine
that automatically binds grain with a
wire into bundles.
Janesville, Wisconsin, USA 
[1] The Withington Binder Built by the
McCormicks in 1876 This machine binds
the grain with wire.. Read more:
http://chestofbooks.com/reference/Wonder
-Book-Of-Knowledge/Development-Of-The-Re
aper-Continued.html#.UWShTncrzg8#ixzz2Q0
kr3zQv UNKNOWN
source: http://chestofbooks.com/referenc
e/Wonder-Book-Of-Knowledge/images/The-Wi
thington-Binder-Built-by-the-McCormicks-
in-1876-This-m.jpg

[2] McCormick Harvester and Binder of
1876 at work in the field -the first
practical self-binder ever
built Source McCormick Reaper
Centennial Source Material
(International Harvester Company:
Chicago) 1931 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:McCormick_Harvester_and_Binder.gif
128 YBN
[1872 AD] 		3197) The compound "aldol" is
discovered, which is both an alcohol
and aldehyde in containing both an
alcohol group (-OH) and an aldehyde
group (-CHO).
(Ecole de Médicine, School of
Medicine) Paris, France 
[1] A typical Aldol reaction GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ald
ol_reaction

[2] Adolphe Wurtz. Courtesy of The
Edgar Fahs Smith Collection, Special
Collections Department, Van
Pelt- Dietrich Library Center,
University of Pennsylvania. PD/Corel
source: http://content.cdlib.org/xtf/dat
a/13030/23/ft5g500723/figures/ft5g500723
_00060.jpg
128 YBN
[1872 AD] 		3317) Dust in air is shown to contain
microorganisms.
(Royal Institution) London,
England 
[1] Scientist: Tyndall, John (1820 -
1893) Discipline(s): Physics Print
Artist: Rudolf Hoffmann, fl. ca. 1840
Medium: Engraving Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 17 x 12 cm /
Sheet: 33 x 22.9 cm PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-T003-11a.jpg

[2] Scientist: Tyndall, John (1820 -
1893) Discipline(s):
Physics Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 11.5 x 9 cm / Sheet: 27 x
21.3 cm PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-T003-08a.jpg
128 YBN
[1872 AD] 		3566) Bacteria are classified into
genera and species.
(University of Breslau) Breslau, Lower
Silesia (now Wroclaw, Poland) 
[1] Ferdinand Julius Cohn
(1828–1898), German botanist und
microbiologist PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/fd/Ferdinand_Julius_Cohn
_1828-1898.jpg

[2] Ferdinand Cohn PD/Corel
source: http://clendening.kumc.edu/dc/pc
/CohnF.jpg
128 YBN
[1872 AD] 		3909) Bacteria are grown (or cultured)
outside of the body. Pigmented bacteria
are grown on slices of potato in a
moist environment by German biologist
Joseph Schröter.
(University of Breslau) Breslau, Lower
Silesia (now Wroclaw, Poland) 		 
128 YBN
[1872 AD] 		3911) Gelatin is used to grow and
isolate fungi colonies.
Berlin, Germany  
127 YBN
[02/12/1873 AD] 		3336) Selenium is found to convert
light into electricity (the
photoelectric effect).
Valentia, Ireland 
[1] Willoughby Smith was an electrical
engineer working for telegraph
companies, but his the most important
contribution to science was discovery
of photo-conductivity of selenium in
1873. PD/Corel
source: http://www.geocities.com/neveyaa
kov/electro_science/smith1.jpg

[2] Closed lid - high
resistance, open lid - low
resistance PD/Corel
source: http://www.geocities.com/neveyaa
kov/electro_science/smith_experiment.jpg

127 YBN
[1873 AD] 		3758) The van der Waals equation
improves the accuracy of the Pressure
times Volume divided by Temperature = a
constant gas law of Boyle and Charles
by including the size of the gas
molecules and the attractive forces
between the gas molecules.
(University of Leyden) Leyden,
Netherlands 
[1] Plate 5 figures from Van Der Waal
1873 paper PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=8lxMAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Phy
sical+Memoirs+of+the+London+Physical+Soc
iety&as_brr=1&ei=DtBZSZekDovKlQTejPysDw#
PPA499,M1

[2] Johannes Diderik van der
Waals source:
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollections
/hst/scientific-identity/CF/display_resu
lts.cfm?alpha_sort=w PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/7c/Johannes_Diderik_van_
der_Waals.jpg
127 YBN
[1873 AD] 		3863) Silver nitrate as a stain allows
neurons to be seen clearly.
(Home for Incurables) Abbiategrasso,
Italy 
[1] hippocampal tissue (left) and
cerebellar tissue (right) drawn in 1873
paper PD
source: http://neurophilosophy.files.wor
dpress.com/2006/08/golgi-hippo1.jpg?w=73
1&h=254

[2] Camillo Golgi PD
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1906/golgi.jpg
127 YBN
[1873 AD] 		3931) Set theory is founded; deals with
well-defined collections of objects,
which may or may not be of a
mathematical nature, such as numbers or
functions).
(University of Halle) Halle,
Germany 
[1] George Cantor PD
source: http://centros5.pntic.mec.es/sie
rrami/dematesna/demates45/opciones/sabia
s/Cantor/cantor1.jpg

[2] George Cantor This is a pre-1909
image of Georg Cantor (he was born in
1845) and so is out of copyright in the
US. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/17/Georg_Cantor.jpg
127 YBN
[1873 AD] 		3950) A meter that can measure a
voltage as small as a thousandth of a
volt.
University of Heidelberg, Germany 
[1] Capillary electrometer
COPYRIGHTED? FAIR USE (Internet)
source: http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekat
z/scientists/lippmann_electrometer1.jpg

[2] Figures from Annalen Der Physik,
1873 PD/Corel
source: http://www3.interscience.wiley.c
om/cgi-bin/fulltext/112503983/PDFSTART
127 YBN
[1873 AD] 		4233) The bacterium responsible for
leprosy is identified.
Norway 
[1] Gerhard Henrik Armauer Hansen PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/53/Gerhard_Armauer_Hanse
n.jpg

[2] A photomicrograph of Mycobacterium
leprae taken from a leprosy skin lesion
(CDC, US Government public domain,
1979) Public Health Image Library
(PHIL) #2123 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/da/Mycobacterium_leprae.
jpeg
126 YBN
[09/05/1874 AD] 		4134) The four valences of carbon are
shown not to form a square, but a three
dimensional tetrahedron, which create
mirror image compounds that rotate a
plane of polarized light.
(University of Utrecht) Utrecht,
Netherlands 
[1] Figures from English translation of
1874 van't Hoff work PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=ja4RAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=The
+Foundations+of+Stereo+Chemistry.+Memoir
s+by+Pasteur,+van%E2%80%99t+Hoff,+Lebel+
and+Wislicenus#v=onepage&q=&f=false

[2] Picture of Van't
Hoff sources: http://nobelprize.org/no
bel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1901/hoff
-bio.html http://www.knaw.nl/vanthoff/a
rtikel.htm [t Notice the messy hair -
this ''messy hair'' style was popular -
I'm thinking Huxley - but that was long
fluffy side burns after the Darwin full
beard period - clearly Einstein does
the messy hair portrait - but others
did - after the loss of the wig - I
can't remember - possibly Fox
Talbot] PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a4/Vant_Hoff.jpg
126 YBN
[11/23/1874 AD] 		4087) The crystal diode (or rectifier)
is invented by Karl Ferdinand Braun.
Metal sulfide crystals are found to
transmit electricity more easily in one
direction than in the other, and this
will later be used to convert an
alternating current into a direct
current.

Braun will find in 1874 that this
effect is most easily seen if at at
least one electrode is small.
(Würzburg University) Würzburg,
Germany 
[1] Ferdinand Braun (1850-1918), Nobel
laureate 1909. (in
Physics) http://www.cathodique.net/FB
raun.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/55/Ferdinand_Braun.jpg

[2] Karl Ferdinand Braun when
older PD
source: http://phys.bspu.unibel.by/hist/
physport/gif/phys/braun.jpg
126 YBN
[12/12/1874 AD] 		3872) The basis of color photography:
dye in a photographic emulsion allows
specific colors of light (including
infrared) to be photographed, because
the dyes allow only those specific
colors to reach the light sensitive
silver compound.
(Astrophysical observatory) Potsdam,
Germany 
[1] Description Photograph of
Hermann Carl Vogel, the
astronomer Source Opposite page
129 of Astronomers of Today Date
1905 Author Hector
Macpherson PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d2/Vogel_Hermann_Carl.jp
g

[2] Hermann Carl Vogel 1906 Bruce
Medalist PD
source: http://www.phys-astro.sonoma.edu
/brucemedalists/Vogel/vogel.jpg
126 YBN
[1874 AD] 		3780) The element gallium {GaLEuM} is
identified by spectroscopy.
(home lab) Cognac, France
(presumably) 
[1] English: Crystals of 99.999%
gallium. Slovenščina: Kristaliziran
galij. Crystals of 99.999% gallium,
grown and photographed by myself in
February 2003. These particular
crystals took about 45 minutes to grow,
sitting in a plastic dish near a cool
window. The lumpiness on the surface
of these crystals is caused mainly by
me shifting the dish around to monitor
the progression of the crystal growth.
Crystals (of any material) need to be
totally undisturbed in order to grow
perfect, large, smooth facets. Each
time I moved the liquid around, it
interrupted the crystal growth. The
''lumps'' are actually tiny crystals
that started growing on the larger
facets, but got smoothed over due to
the liquid motion. If I had placed
this in a vibration-damped sandbox
(similar to a holography table) and not
disturbed it, the crystals would have
been even larger, more coherent, and
more stunning ;) GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0c/Gallium1_640x480.jpg

[2] Description François Lecoq de
Boisbaudran, discoverer of gallium,
samarium, and dysprosium (died 28 May
1912) Source
http://pagesperso-orange.fr/paysdaigre/
hpa/textes/biographies/images/lecocq.jpg
Date Before 28 May 1912 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/69/Lecoq_de_Boisbaudran.
jpg
125 YBN
[03/20/1875 AD] 		3674) An improved vacuum tube pump in
which the air pressure is 1/75,000 that
in a Geissler tube.
(private lab) London,
England(presumably) 
[1] Figure 1 from 1875 ''On Repulsion..
II'' PD/Corel
source: William Crookes, "On Repulsion
Resulting From Radiation II", Phil.
Trans. v165,
1875. http://journals.royalsociety.org/
content/h27121h181kw0683/?p=08857aca5970
4138b30b219bb3f34264π=74 {Crookes_Will
iam_Repulsion_II_1875.pdf}

[2] 1856 at the age of 24 PD
source: http://home.frognet.net/~ejcov/w
c1850.jpg
125 YBN
[04/27/1875 AD] 		3851) Electrical stimulation and
physical destruction of various
portions of the brain of living monkeys
is shown to cause blindness, deafness,
the loss of sense of touch, smell, and
taste, and the need to scratch.
(King's College Hospital and Medical
School) London, England 
[1] Figures from Ferrier's 1875
work PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=TasOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA409&dq=david+ferrier&
lr=&ei=qP-ASdq9CKWQkAT8l8XHCg#PPA410,M1

[2] David Ferrier PD
source: http://www.lecturelist.org/asset
s/images/199.jpg
125 YBN
[08/28/1875 AD] 		5575) The first direct neuron reading:
changes in electric current are
measured on the brains of rabbits and
monkeys during chewing, and in response
to light shown in the eyes by Dr.
Richard Caton.
Liverpool, England 
[1] Text of: Richard Caton, ''The
Electric Currents of the Brain'',
British Medical Journal, 1875, V2,
p278. http://www.bmj.com/content/2/765/
257.full.pdf+html {Caton_Richard_187508
28.pdf} PD
source: http://www.bmj.com/content/2/765
/257.full.pdf+html

[2]
http://books.google.com/books?id=_GMeW9E
1IB4C&pg=PA41 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=_GMeW9E1IB4C&pg=PA41
125 YBN
[1875 AD] 		3567) Bacterial spores and their
survival after being in boiling water
are described.
(University of Breslau) Breslau, Lower
Silesia (now Wroclaw, Poland) 
[1] Ferdinand Julius Cohn
(1828–1898), German botanist und
microbiologist PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/fd/Ferdinand_Julius_Cohn
_1828-1898.jpg

[2] Ferdinand Cohn PD/Corel
source: http://clendening.kumc.edu/dc/pc
/CohnF.jpg
124 YBN
[02/14/1876 AD] 		4036) Alexander Graham Bell's
telephone.
Salem, Massachusetts, USA 
[1] Figures 1-5 from Bell's 02/14/1876
patent PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=crhRAAAAEBAJ&pg=PA2&source=gbs_selected
_pages&cad=1#v=onepage&q=&f=false

[2] Alexander Graham Bell speaking
into a prototype telephone PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/85/1876_Bell_Speaking_in
to_Telephone.jpg
124 YBN
[02/15/1876 AD] 		4065) A rapidly rotating static
electricity is shown to act like an
electric current by producing a
magnetic field.
(working for Johns Hopkins University,
Baltimore) (University of Berlin)
Berlin, Germany 
[1] Description Rowland
Henry.jpg English: Photograph of Henry
Rowland, the American physicist,
published in 1902 Date
1902(1902) Source
Frontispiece of The Physical
Papers of Henry Augustus
Rowland Author Henry Rowland PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c2/Rowland_Henry.jpg
124 YBN
[05/01/1876 AD] 		3656) The theory that electric current
conduction in water is due, not by
conduction by the water, but by
dissolved particles, such as sodium
ions, and the high conductivity of
acids is explained by the fact that
hydrogen is one of their migrating
components.
(University of Würzburg) Würzburg,
Germany 
[1] Friedrich Wilhelm Georg Kohlrausch
PD/Corel
source: http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/histor
y/kohlrausch2.JPG

[2] Friedrich Kohlrausch PD/Corel
source: http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/histor
y/kohlrausch1.JPG
124 YBN
[1876 AD] 		3669) A four-stroke gas engine; there
are four strokes of the piston for each
ignition.
(Gasmotoren-Frabrik Deutz AG) Deutz,
Cologne, Germany 
[1] Otto Gas Engine PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=8e9MAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA103&lpg=PA103&dq=%22r
obert+street%22+patent+engine&source=web
&ots=zXhunpMWQn&sig=OK3zL_tlF9en_5S83tLJ
0kuNyVI&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum
=1&ct=result#PPA17,M1

[2] from german wiki: Nicolaus August
Otto - Foto ca. 100 Jahre alt PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/archive/a/a6/2008081523045
0!4-Stroke-Engine.gif
124 YBN
[1876 AD] 		3819) The first practical refrigerator
is built by Karl Paul Gottfried von
Linde (liNDu) using liquid ammonia as a
coolant.
(Technische Hochschule) Munich,
Germany 
[1] The first Linde refrigeration
machine ever sold, an improvement on
the original model from 1871 started up
in 1877 at the Creher Brewery in
Trieste (now Italy) PD/Corel
(presumably)
source: http://www.linde.com/internation
al/web/linde/like35lindecom.nsf/reposito
rybyalias/pdf_ch_chronicle/$file/chronic
le_e%5B1%5D.pdf

[2] * by Frederick Muller *
Reference: 3278404 circa 1890:
German scientist Karl Paul Gottfried
Linde. (Photo by Frederick
Muller/Hulton Archive/Getty
Images) PD/Corel
source: http://www.jamd.com/image/g/3278
404
124 YBN
[1876 AD] 		3972) Liquid crystals are discovered,
molecules that have a state of
organization in between solid and
liquid, and are the basis of all liquid
crystal display screens.
University of Strasbourg, Strasbourg,
Alsace, Germany(now in France) 
[1] Liquid Crystals of Ammonium Olcate,
and Parazoxyznisole PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=mXoGAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA650&dq=%22Liquid+Crys
tal%22+lehmann+1889#v=onepage&q=%20lehma
nn&f=false

[2] Photo of Otto Lehmann (1855 -
1922), a German physicist. Picture
taken from publication [1] (an overview
of discovery of liquid crystals). PNG
format used not to reduce image quality
further. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/2/2f/Otto_Lehmann.PNG
124 YBN
[1876 AD] 		4094) The luminescence produced at the
cathode in an evacuated tube (under
high voltage/electric potential) is
named "Cathode-rays", shown to be
emitted perpendicularly to the cathode
surface, and to cast sharp shadows.
(University of Berlin) Berlin,
Germany 
[1] Eugen Goldstein 1850 - 1931 PD

source: http://members.chello.nl/~h.dijk
stra19/image/goldstein.jpg

[2] Eugen Goldstein PD
source: http://www.pkc.ac.th/kobori/Asse
ts/ChemistryMahidol1/www.il.mahidol.ac.t
h/course/ap_chemistry/atomic_structure/p
icture/bild_goldstein.jpg
123 YBN
[03/05/1877 AD] 		3756) The purple pigment (rhodopsin) in
the retina is shown to turn a yellowish
color when exposed to light. Using this
effect, a rabbit retina is removed, the
changed dyes fixed with chemicals, and
a permanent picture (an "optogram") is
made showing the last image the rabbit
saw (of a barred window).
(University of Heidelberg) Heidelberg,
Germany 
[1] One of Kühne's rabbit optograms
from 1878 UNKNOWN AND Kühne,
Wilhelm Friedrich PD
source: http://www.college-optometrists.
org/filemanager/root/site_assets/museum/
eyes/Untitled789.jpg
AND http://vlp.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/vl
pimages/images/img3930.jpg

[2] One of Kühne's rabbit optograms
from 1878 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.college-optometrists.
org/filemanager/root/site_assets/museum/
eyes/Untitled789.jpg
123 YBN
[04/27/1877 AD] 		3994) The "carbon microphone", which
varies electric current in proportion
to the pressure caused by sound.
(private lab) Menlo Park, New Jersey,
USA 
[1] Edison's 04/27/1877 patent for the
carbon microphone (speaking
telegraph) PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=HUVBAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4#v
=onepage&q=&f=false

[2] Thomas Edison 1878 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/b/bb/Thomas_Edison%2C_1878.jpg
123 YBN
[06/??/1877 AD] 		3879) Both red and violet rays are
found to oxidize organic compounds
(continuously increasing from red to
violet), while red rays generally
oxidize and violet rays reduce
inorganic compounds.

Oxidation is a reaction in which oxygen
is combined with a compound, and
reduction is a chemical reaction where
hydrogen is combined with a compound or
oxygen is removed.
(Sorbonne laboratory) Paris, France
(verify) 		 
123 YBN
[08/11/1877 AD] 		3584) The smaller outer moon of Mars,
Deimos is identified..
(Naval Observatory) Washington, DC,
USA 
[1] Asaph Hall PD
source: http://www.usno.navy.mil/library
/photo/images/g269.jpg

[2] Image Source:
http://www.usno.navy.mil/library/photo/g
300.html Image Caption: Type:
Glass Plate #300 Page: 5 Number:
6 Volume: 2 Identifier: g300 Prof
Asaph Hall, Sr. Taken at Equatorial
Bldg Aug. 1899 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f1/Professor_Asaph_Hall.
jpg
123 YBN
[08/17/1877 AD] 		3585) A second moon of Mars is
identified; the larger inner, Phobos.
(Naval Observatory) Washington, DC,
USA 
[1] Title: Observations of the
Satellites of Mars Authors: Hall,
A. Journal: Astronomische Nachrichten,
volume 91, p.11 Bibliographic Code:
1878AN.....91...11H PD/Corel
source: http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?1878AN....
.91...11H&defaultprint=YES&page_ind=1&fi
letype=.pdf

[2] Asaph Hall PD
source: http://www.usno.navy.mil/library
/photo/images/g269.jpg
123 YBN
[12/02/1877 AD] 		3688) Oxygen is liquefied.
(father's ironworks) Chatillon,
France 
[1] Fig. 1. - Cailletet's Apparatus for
Liquefying Gases Ref. Scientific
American Vol. XXXVIII - No. 8 -
February 23, 1878 -- bottom front page
(page 111) PD
source: http://bern-1914.org/pictures/ge
neve1896/pictet/sa_cailletet_fig1_72.gif


[2] Fig. 2. - Fig. 3. Ref. Scientific
American Vol. XXXVIII - No. 8 -
February 23, 1878 -- top front page
(page 111) PD
source: http://bern-1914.org/pictures/ge
neve1896/pictet/sa_cailletet_fig2_3_72.g
if
123 YBN
[12/24/1877 AD] 		4002) A sound recording is played back
out loud by Thomas Alva Edison.

Edison invents a phonograph which not
only records sound but allows the
recorded sound to be played back and
heard out loud.
(private lab) Menlo Park, New Jersey,
USA 
[1] Original Edison Tin Foil
Phonograph. Photo courtesy of U.S.
Department of the Interior, National
Park Service, Edison National Historic
Site. source:
http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/edhtml/edcyl
dr.html PD
source: http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/edht
ml/tinfoil.jpg

[2] Edison's 12/24/1877 patent for
improvements to the phonograph. PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=SWg_AAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4#v
=onepage&q=&f=false
123 YBN
[1877 AD] 		3138) The first gem-quality crystals
(emeralds) of reasonable size are
synthesized.
(Ecole Polytechnique) Paris,
France 
[1] Scientist: Fremy, Edmond (1814 -
1894) Discipline(s):
Chemistry Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 8.8 x 5.2 cm / Sheet: 10.4 x
6.3 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-F005-09a.jpg

[2] synthetic ruby crystals grown in a
crucible PD
source: http://www.valuablestones.com/sy
nthe1.jpg
123 YBN
[1877 AD] 		3342) A sequence of high speed
photographs that show movement is
captured.
Sacramento, CA, USA 
[1] Animated sequence of a race horse
galloping. Photos taken by Eadweard
Muybridge (died 1904), first published
in 1887 at Philadelphia (Animal
Locomotion). PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/dd/Muybridge_race_horse_
animated.gif

[2] Portrait of Eadweard
Muybridge Source:
http://worlds2.tcsn.net/tcwf/web/muy/muy
3.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/07/Muybridge-2.jpg
123 YBN
[1877 AD] 		3928) That certain diseases are
transmitted by insects is proven (a
mosquito is shown to transmit a
parasite that causes elephantiasis).
Hong Kong (presumably) 
[1] Subject : Sir Patrick Manson
(1844-1922) British physician,
specialist about parasitology PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/54/Mason_Patrick_1844-19
22.jpg
123 YBN
[1877 AD] 		3934) The phenomenon of "osmosis" is
fully studied; the diffusion of water
or other solvents through a
semipermeable membrane which blocks the
passage of dissolved substances
(solutes).
 
[1] Wilhelm Pfeffer Quelle
http://www.deutsche-botanische-gesell
schaft.de/html/043PfefferVita.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/de/e/e2/Pfeffer.jpg

[2] Image from Pfeffer's 1877
work (rough translation of partial
description) As shown in Figure 5 to
be seen was the closed cell to a cork
guided by the rod attached to a
Cüvette established that the manometer
liquid immerses completely in Two
accurate thermometer measured the
temperature was about the cover is not
closed by opening the cork with
Cüvette a glass plate served to the
evaporation of liquid to prevent
it... PD An image from a three
dimensional computer simulation of the
process of osmosis. The blue mesh is
impermeable to the larger balls,
whereas all of the balls are (in the
animated version) bouncing about
according to the rules of physical
simulation of the kinetics of an ideal
gas. Averaged over long period of time,
each ball has has the same kinetic
energy as each of the other balls, even
though at any given moment the
velocities are distributed according to
the appropriate Boltzmann functions.
Likewise, each species (in this case
color) of balls (as a group) exerts
time averaged force (due to the
bouncing) upon the walls of the box,
which corresponds to the partial
pressure contribution associated with
that group. These properties emerge
even though the collision function used
in the simulation is trivial. User:
Lazarus666 GNU
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=9SkaAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA14&source=gbs_toc_r&c
ad=0_0#PPA22,M1
123 YBN
[1877 AD] 		4039) Telephone wires are connected to
individual homes.
Boston and New York, USA 
[1] Alexander Graham Bell speaking into
a prototype telephone PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/85/1876_Bell_Speaking_in
to_Telephone.jpg

[2] Figures 6 and 7 from Bell's
02/14/1876 patent PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=crhRAAAAEBAJ&pg=PA2&source=gbs_selected
_pages&cad=1#v=onepage&q=&f=false
123 YBN
[1877 AD] 		4056) A glider is flown around 80 feet
(24 meters).
Derwitz/Krilow (near Potsdam),
Germany 
[1] Derwitz, Sept. 27,
1891. photographer (Carl
Kassner) photo-no: OLM F0811LF 55*97
mm albumen {ULSF some gliders are
albumen on cardboard this glider
apparently just albumin?} PD
source: http://www.lilienthal-museum.de/
olma/images/f019relo.jpg

[2] Otto Lilienthal and his Glider
(1893) In this photograph, Otto
Lilienthal (1848-96), a leading
innovator in aviation, descends in his
glider from the May Heights [Maihöhe]
near Steglitz, a Berlin suburb.
Lilienthal built the flight station –
consisting of a 13' shed on a large
hill – to ensure that he could fly
into the wind during his practice
flights. He designed and tested many
glider prototypes and carried out basic
research on the principles of flying,
laying the groundwork for the Wright
Brothers' invention. In this photo,
Lilienthal flies the model
“Maihöhe-Rhinow-Glider”
[Maihöhe-Rhinow-Apparat], the basis of
the later “Normal Glider”
[Normalapparat], which he eventually
modified into a biplane. He died from
injuries sustained during a glider
crash in 1896. Photo: Ottomar
Anschütz. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/81/Otto-lilienthal.jpg
122 YBN
[04/??/1878 AD] 		4275) Atoms and molecules are modeled
using floating magnets.
Stevens Institute of Technology,
Hoboken, New Jersey, USA 
[1] Figure from Mayer's April 1878
paper PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=6gHSAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edi
tions:HARVARD32044093299154&lr=#v=onepag
e&q=&f=false

[2] Portrait of Alfred Marshall
Mayer PD
source: http://www.informaworld.com/smpp
/content~db=all~content=a751167426
122 YBN
[07/22/1878 AD] 		3949) The theory that friction between
the ocean and land cause the Earth to
slow its speed of rotation, and to
decrease its angular momentum.
(Trinity College) Cambridge,
England 
[1] Image of Sir George Howard Darwin,
located at
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollections
/hst/scientific-identity/fullsize/SIL14-
D1-12a.jpg, accessed June 24,
2007. Subject died in 1912; image is
in the public domain. Information
included with image: Scientist:
Darwin, George Howard (1845 -
1912) Discipline(s): Mathematics ;
Astronomy Print Artist: J. Russell &
Sons (Photographic company) Medium:
Photograph PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/d/dc/George_Darwin_sepia_tone.j
pg

[2] Sir George Darwin, portrait by M.
Gertler, 1912; in the National Portrait
Gallery, London ''Darwin, Sir George
Howard.'' Online Photograph.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 7 Aug.
2009 . PD/Corel
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
12423&rendTypeId=4
122 YBN
[08/01/1878 AD] 		4019) A heat sensor more sensitive than
a thermopile based on the expansion and
contraction of a thin strip of hard
rubber by heat.
(private lab) Menlo Park, New Jersey,
USA 
[1] Edison's micro-tasimeter PD
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v18/n457/pdf/018368b0.pdf

[2] Firgures 2 and 3 from Nature
article on Edison's tasimeter PD
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v18/n457/pdf/018368b0.pdf
122 YBN
[10/10/1878 AD] 		3878) The ultra-violet spectra of
various substances is photographed.
(King's College and Institute of
Chemistry) London, England 
[1] Plate 21 from Hartley Huntington
1879 paper PD
source: W. N. Hartley, A. K.
Huntington, "Researches on the Action
of Organic Substances on the
Ultra-Violet Rays of the Spectrum",
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1776-1886), Volume
170, 1879,
p257-274. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/m5x231r091n48288/?p=17c6ba33
3abb4267ac77d5f672a6e695π=3 {Hartley_H
untington_1879.pdf}

[2] Plate 25 from Hartley Huntington
1879 paper PD
source: same
122 YBN
[1878 AD] 		3188) The element yterrbium (Yb).
(University of Geneva) Geneva,
Switzerland 
[1] Ytterbium is a chemical element
with symbol Yb and atomic number
70. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ytt
erbium

[2] Description Jean Charles
Galissard de Marignac (1817–1894)
Swiss chemist who discoverered
ytterbium in 1878 and codiscovered
gadolinium in 1880. Source Ecole
Nationale Supérieure des Mines de
Paris Date ~ 1850 Author
unknown PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c4/Galissard_de_Marignac
.jpg
122 YBN
[1878 AD] 		3189) The element gadolinium.
(University of Geneva) Geneva,
Switzerland 
[1] Description Jean Charles
Galissard de Marignac (1817–1894)
Swiss chemist who discoverered
ytterbium in 1878 and codiscovered
gadolinium in 1880. Source Ecole
Nationale Supérieure des Mines de
Paris Date ~ 1850 Author
unknown PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c4/Galissard_de_Marignac
.jpg

[2] Slovenščina: Gadolinij v
epruveti. This image was copied from
en.wikipedia.org. The original
description was: Gadolinium
sample. Photo by RTC. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/fe/Gd%2C64.jpg
122 YBN
[1878 AD] 		3576) A practical electric light bulb
is constructed by Joseph Wilson Swan.
Newcastle, England (presumably) 
[1] {ULSF: Note that this is not the
1860 lamp but is a later 1878-1879
lamp} The lamp on the left is an early
carbon and rod filament incandescent
electric lamp made by the English
chemist, Joseph Swan (1827-1914) in
1878-1879. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/
images/object_images/535x535/10276216.jp
g

[2] Joseph Wilson Swan 1828 -
1914 PD/Corel
source: http://www.hevac-heritage.org/ha
ll_of_fame/lighting_&_electrical/joseph_
wilson_swan_s1.jpg
122 YBN
[1878 AD] 		3692) Decompression sickness is
understood to be caused when high
external pressures force large
quantities of atmospheric nitrogen to
dissolve in the blood which during
rapid decompression form gas bubbles
that obstruct capillaries.
(Sorbonne) Paris, France 
[1] French physiologist and politician
Paul Bert (1833-1886) source:
http://www.pb.nogentsurmarne94.iae.pconl
ine.fr/paul_bert.htm PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/26/Paul_Bert_01.jpg

[2] Paul Bert BBC Hulton Picture
Library PD/Corel
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
29879&rendTypeId=4
122 YBN
[1878 AD] 		3716) The bolometer, a heat sensor
based on the change in resistance from
two pieces of metal balanced with a
Wheatstone bridge.
(Western University of Pennsylvania now
the University of Pittsburg) Pittsburg,
Pennsylvania, USA (presumably) 
[1] Figure 1 of Langley's bolometer
Nature article PD
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v25/n627/pdf/025014a0.pdf

[2] Figure 2 of Langley's bolometer
Nature article PD
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v25/n627/pdf/025014a0.pdf
122 YBN
[1878 AD] 		3790) Synthetic fabric. The first
synthetic silk (rayon) is invented by
Louis Bernigaud, comte de Chardonnet
(soRDOnA).

Chardonnet produces fibers by forcing
(extruding) solutions of cellulose
nitrate through very tiny holes in
glass and allowing the solvent to
evaporate.
Paris, France (presumably) 
[1] n particolare ingrandito di una
gonna in rayon. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/00/Rayon_closeup_1.jpg

[2] Hilaire Bernigaud PD/Corel
source: http://www.scienceandsociety.co.
uk/Pix/PER/07/10284307_T.JPG
121 YBN
[03/24/1879 AD] 		3797) The element scandium is
identified spectroscopically.
(University of Uppsala) Uppsala,
Sweden. 
[1] Scandium sample. Photo by
RTC. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/cc/Sc%2C21.jpg

[2] English: Picture of Lars Fredrik
Nilson, the Swedish chemist who
discovered scandium Source Nilson
Memorial Lecture in the Journal of the
Chemical Society, volume 77, between
pages 1276 and 1277 Date
1900 Author Otto
Petterson Permission (Reusing this
image) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/9f/Nilson_Lars_Fredrik.j
pg
121 YBN
[04/05/1879 AD] 		4059) Molecules of bromine and iodine
are shown to be diatomic; breaking into
single atoms on heating as shown by the
density of their vapors being reduced
by two-thirds of their normal values.
(University of Stuttgart), Stuttgart,
Germany (presumably) 
[1] Description Viktor
Meyer.jpg Deutsch: Portrait Date
1901(1901) Source ''History
of Chemistry'' by F. Moore PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/75/Viktor_Meyer.jpg

[2] Viktor
Meyer Historia-Photo ''Meyer,
Viktor.'' Online Photograph.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 24
Sept. 2009 . PD/Corel
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
36829&rendTypeId=4
121 YBN
[05/15/1879 AD] 		3847) That the ultra-violet spectrum of
the Sun as seen on Earth abruptly stops
at 300 nanometers, and that this
cut-off wavelength increases as the
length of the path of sunlight
increases indicates that ultraviolet
light is absorbed inside the atmosphere
of Earth.
Paris, France 
[1] Title: Marie Alfred
Cornu Artist: Nadar Type: Giclee
Print Size: 18 x 24 in PD
source: https://www.allposters.co.uk/-sp
/Marie-Alfred-Cornu-Posters_i1590814_.ht
m

[2] French physicist Alfred Cornu
(1849-1902) Source
http://www.nndb.com/people/962/00010066
2/ Date 19th century PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/ba/Alfred_Cornu.jpg
121 YBN
[07/22/1879 AD] 		3690) A ship reaches the Pacific Ocean
from the Atlantic Ocean using a
Northeast Passage which penetrates the
seas north of Asia.
Port Clarence, Alaska 
[1] journey from 1878 * image made
by User:Nordelch with help of
www.aquarius.geomar.de *
information from a map at: Ethnographic
Museum Stockholm. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a9/Nordenskiold_resa.gif


[2] Description A painting
showing Adolf Erik Nordenskiöld during
his exploration of arctic
regions Source Originally
uploaded on sv.wikipedia: 24 maj 2003
kl.22.42 by Den fjättrade ankan Date
1886 (painting itself) Author
Georg von Rosen (1843 - 1923,
painter) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2b/Adolf_Erik_Nordenski%
C3%B6ld_m%C3%A5lad_av_Georg_von_Rosen_18
86.jpg
121 YBN
[11/22/1879 AD] 		5653) The Hall effect is discovered:
the generation of an electric potential
perpendicular to both an electric
current and an external magnetic field
applied at right angles to the current.
(Johns Hopkins University) Baltimore,
Maryland, USA 
[1] Description
Hall-Effect-diagram.svg English: Hall
effect Русский: Эффект
Холла Date 2011-03-15 13:26
(UTC) Source *
Hall-effect.png Author *
Hall-effect.png: [1] * derivative
work: Gregors (talk) 13:27, 15 March
2011 (UTC) CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Hall-Effect-dia
gram.svg/1000px-Hall-Effect-diagram.svg.
png

[2] Edwin H. Hall (1855-1938) PD
source: http://www.physics.harvard.edu/i
mg/history/Hall.jpg
121 YBN
[1879 AD] 		3782) The element samarium is
identified using spectroscopy.
(home lab) Cognac, France
(presumably) 
[1] Summary: Samarium in a test tube
under Argon gas Source: German
wikipedia
(http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bild:Samar
ium_1.jpg); This imageis already under
Free license. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/2/21/427px-Samarium_1.jpg

[2] Description François Lecoq de
Boisbaudran, discoverer of gallium,
samarium, and dysprosium (died 28 May
1912) Source
http://pagesperso-orange.fr/paysdaigre/
hpa/textes/biographies/images/lecocq.jpg
Date Before 28 May 1912 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/69/Lecoq_de_Boisbaudran.
jpg
121 YBN
[1879 AD] 		3796) The elements thulium and holmium
are identified using spectroscopy.
(University of Uppsala) Uppsala,
Sweden. 
[1] Holmium sample. Photo by
RTC. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6c/Ho%2C67.jpg

[2] Thulium sample. Photo by
RTC. GNU English: Picture of Per
Theodor Cleve, the Swedish chemist and
geologist Source Page 39 of
Svenskt
porträttgalleri http://books.google.co
m/books?id=XL0DAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA39&dq=Per+T
eodor+Cleve&lr=&as_brr=1#PPA39,M1 Date
1903 Author Albin
Hildebrand PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a7/Tm%2C69.jpg
121 YBN
[1879 AD] 		3853) Chromosomes are identified in the
nucleus of cells using dyes.
(University of Kiel) Kiel,
Germany 
[1] Image provided by the Science Photo
Library PD/Corel
source: http://www.nature.com/nrm/journa
l/v2/n1/images/nrm0101_072a_f1.gif
121 YBN
[1879 AD] 		3958) Saccharin, the first commercially
available artificial sweetener.
Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore,
Maryland, USA 
[1] Ira Remsen PD
source: http://hopkins.typepad.com/.a/6a
00d83451db8d69e2011278fa024c28a4-pi

[2] statues of Remsen and
Fahlberg from Smithsonian may be
PD COPYRIGHTED/FAIR USE
source: http://pus.sagepub.com/cgi/repri
nt/4/3/305.pdf?ck=nck
121 YBN
[1879 AD] 		4183) Nucleic acids are identified.
(University of Strasbourg) Strasbourg ,
Germany 
[1] Albrecht Kossel
(1853–1927) George Grantham Bain
Collection (Library of Congress) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0f/Kossel%2C_Albrecht_%2
81853-1927%29.jpg
121 YBN
[1879 AD] 		4231) The bacteria that causes
gonorrhea is identified.
(Oskar Simon’s clinic) Breslau,
Germany 
[1] Description Albert
neisser.jpg English: Albert Neisser,
German bacteriologist who discovered
the Neisseria bacteria. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/9d/Albert_neisser.jpg

[2] Comparison of two culture media
types used to grow Neisseria
gonorrhoeae bacteria. Known as
overgrowth, note that the non-selective
w:en:chocolate agar medium on the left,
due to its composition, allowed for the
growth of organismal colonies other
than those of w:en:Neisseria
gonorrhoeae, while the selective
Thayer-Martin medium on the right,
containing antimicrobials that inhibit
the growth of organisms other than N.
gonorrhoeae, shows no overgrowth, but
is positive for N. gonorrhoeae
bacteria. Obtained from the CDC
Public Health Image Library. Image
credit: CDC/Renelle Woodall (PHIL
#6505), 1969 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f5/Neisseria_gonorrhoeae
_01.png
120 YBN
[02/09/1880 AD] 		3420) A successful vaccine is created
by growing the agent of disease on an
artificial media to create a milder
form.
(École Normale Supérieure) Paris,
France 
[1] * Félix Nadar (1820-1910), French
biologist Louis Pasteur (1822-1895),
1878 (detail). Source:
http://history.amedd.army.mil/booksdocs/
misc/evprev Creator/Artist Name
Gaspar-Félix
Tournachon Alternative names Félix
Nadar Date of birth/death 1820-04-05
1910-03-21 Location of birth/death
Paris Paris Work period 1854 -
1910 Work location Paris PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/42/Louis_Pasteur.jpg

[2] Scientist: Pasteur, Louis (1822 -
1895) Discipline(s):
Chemistry Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 21 x 15.2 cm / Sheet: 33 x
23.3 cm PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-P002-04a.jpg
120 YBN
[05/25/1880 AD] 		6619) Variable stars are categorized.
Cepheid {SeFEiD} variable stars are
defined as variable stars that have a
short and regular period of luminosity.
Harvard College Observatory, Cambridge,
Massachusetts, USA 
[1] Edward Pickering and staff PD
source: http://i149.photobucket.com/albu
ms/s58/omgdude35/leavitt2.jpg

[2] Digital ID: ggbain 06050 Source:
digital file from original
neg. Reproduction Number:
LC-DIG-ggbain-06050 (digital file from
original neg.) Repository: Library of
Congress Prints and Photographs
Division Washington, D.C. 20540 USA
http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/pp.print
PD
source: http://memory.loc.gov/service/pn
p/ggbain/06000/06050v.jpg
120 YBN
[06/03/1880 AD] 		4038) Sound is sent and received using
light particles by Alexander Graham
Bell.

The photophone projects the voice
through an instrument toward a mirror
which vibrates, and sunlight directed
into the mirror projects the vibrations
to a receiver where the vibrations are
transformed back into sound.
(top of Franklin School) Washington, D.
C., USA 
[1] Alexander Bell's Photophone Patent
of 08/28/1880 figures 1 and 2 PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=VpdyAAAAEBAJ&printsec=drawing&zoom=4#v=
onepage&q=&f=false

[2] Alexander Bell's
Photophone Patent of 08/28/1880
figures 1 and 2 PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=VpdyAAAAEBAJ&printsec=drawing&zoom=4#v=
onepage&q=&f=false
120 YBN
[09/20/1880 AD] 		3845) Ozone is liquefied, liquid ozone
is found to be colored sky blue, and
ozone in found to be an explosive gas.
(Academy of Sciences) Paris,
France 
[1] Léon Marquis Paul Hautefeuille
(1836-1902) 1903 PD
source: http://www.corpusetampois.com/cs
e-19-hautefeuille-1g2.jpg
120 YBN
[09/??/1880 AD] 		3759) Van Der Waals simplifies his 1873
equation for gases in which no new
constants are necessarily, by using the
temperature, pressure, and volume of a
gas at its critical point (where the
gas and liquid become equal in density
and cannot be distinguished from each
other).
(University of Amsterdam) Amsterdam,
Netherlands 
[1] Equation from van der Waals 1881
paper in Beiblatter zu den Annalen der
Physik, p568 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=fCk4AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edi
tions:0AzTnbqwl94nUsKlVOkmTq&lr=#PPA568,
M1

[2] Johannes Diderik van der
Waals source:
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollections
/hst/scientific-identity/CF/display_resu
lts.cfm?alpha_sort=w PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/7c/Johannes_Diderik_van_
der_Waals.jpg
120 YBN
[11/23/1880 AD] 		3948) The cause of malaria is found to
be a protist, which shows that disease
can be caused by a protist and not only
by a bacterium.
(Académie de Médecine) Paris,
France 
[1] Charles-Louis-Alphonse Laveran.
Library of Congress PD
source: "Metchnikoff, Elie", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p524.

[2] BBC Hulton Picture
Library,''Laveran, Alphonse.'' Online
Photograph. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. 6 Aug. 2009 .
source: http://www.search.eb.com/eb/art-
12547/Laveran?&articleTypeId=50
120 YBN
[12/12/1880 AD] 		3846) The absorption spectrum of ozone
is found to match absorption bands in
the solar spectrum as seen on Earth and
ozone is thought to have a role in the
color blue of the sky of Earth.
(Academy of Sciences) Paris,
France 
[1] Léon Marquis Paul Hautefeuille
(1836-1902) 1903 PD
source: http://www.corpusetampois.com/cs
e-19-hautefeuille-1g2.jpg
120 YBN
[1880 AD] 		3768) The physical and chemical
properties of 15,000 organic compounds
are compiled and published.
(University of St. Petersburg) St.
Petersburg, Russia 
[1] From Handbuch der organischen
Chemie 1883 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=auP14WcgS2UC&printsec=titlepage#PPA358,
M1

[2] Scan of a picture of German
scientist Friedrich Konrad Beilstein
(who died in 1906) Source Journal
of Chemical Education, pages 310 –
316 Date 1938 Author Richter,
Friedrich PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/27/Beilstein_Friedrich_K
onrad.jpg
120 YBN
[1880 AD] 		4095) That cathode rays can be bent by
magnetic fields is shown.
(University of Berlin) Berlin,
Germany 
[1] Eugen Goldstein 1850 - 1931 PD

source: http://members.chello.nl/~h.dijk
stra19/image/goldstein.jpg

[2] Eugen Goldstein PD
source: http://www.pkc.ac.th/kobori/Asse
ts/ChemistryMahidol1/www.il.mahidol.ac.t
h/course/ap_chemistry/atomic_structure/p
icture/bild_goldstein.jpg
120 YBN
[1880 AD] 		4348) Piezoelectricity
{PIEZOeleKTriSiTE or PEZO- or PEAZO-}
is discovered by Pierre and
Paul-Jacques Curie: when pressure is
applied to certain crystals, an
electric potential is created.
(Sorbonne) Paris, France 
[1] Beschreibung Jacques Curie
(1856-1941, links) mit seinem Bruder
Pierre Curie (1859-1906) und seinen
Eltern Eugène Curie (1827-1910) und
Sophie-Claire Depouilly
(1832-1897) Quelle Françoise
Giroud: Marie Curie. A Life. Holmes &
Meier, New York London 1986, ISBN
0-8419-0977-6, nach Seite 138 Urheber
bzw. Nutzungsrechtinhaber
unbekannt Datum
1878 Genehmigung
Bild-PD-alt-100 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/de/3/3a/Curie%2C_Jacques_und_Pierr
e_mit_Eltern.jpg

[2] Pierre Curie UNKNOWN
source: http://www.espci.fr/esp/MUSE/ima
ge002.gif
120 YBN
[1880 AD] 		5839) An artificial muscle is made by
Wilhelm Konrad Röntgen (ruNTGeN or
rNTGeN) when he measures the physical
contraction of rubber under electric
potential.

Practical artificial muscles will not
be used in consumer products for over
130 years.
(University of Giessen) Giessen,
Germany 
[1] Figures 1 and 2 from: W. C.
Röntgen, ''Ueber die durch
Electricität bewirkten Form- und
Volumenänderungen von dielectrischen
Körpern'', Annalen der Physik, Volume
247, Issue 13, pages 771–786,
1880. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/do
i/10.1002/andp.18802471304/abstract {Ro
ntgen_Wilhelm_Conrad_188009xx.pdf}
English: ''About the changes in
shape and volume of dielectrics caused
by electricity'' PD
source: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/d
oi/10.1002/andp.18802471304/abstract

[2] English: Photo of Wilhelm Conrad
Röntgen. Cleaned up version of
http://images.google.com/hosted/life/l?i
mgurl=6b3da250c6b5560f Source
unknown source Date 1900 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/71/Roentgen2.jpg
120 YBN
[1880 AD] 		6577) Slavery is outlawed in most major
nations.
 
[1] Two Full pages from the Illustrated
London News dated 1861, an illustrated
weekly newspaper weeks date as shown on
top of page, the size of each page is
approx ( including margins as shown
)imately 11 x 16 inches (280x410). All
are genuine antique prints and not
modern copies, the Illustrated London
News is an illustrated magazine which
was first printed in 1842 and is the
finest pictorial example of a historic
social record of British and world
events up to the present day PD
source: http://www.old-print.com/mas_ass
ets/full2/P1380861/P1380861139.jpg

[2] {ULSF: Slave auction} PD
source: http://striking-women.org/sites/
striking-women.org/files/slave%20market%
20in%20virginia.jpg
119 YBN
[01/05/1881 AD] 		3608) The electronic camera and
electronic image. An image is captured
and sent electronically by Shelford
Bidwell.
London, England (presumably) 
[1] Image of gas flame focused on
transmitter figure 3 PD/Corel
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v23/n589/pdf/023344a0.pdf

[2] Image as reproduced by receiver
figure 4 PD/Corel
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v23/n589/pdf/023344a0.pdf
119 YBN
[02/05/1881 AD] 		3877) The infrared spectrum of various
substances is photographed.
(Science and Art Department) South
Kensington, England 
[1] (Plate 86 from Abney and Festing
1881 paper[t]) PD
source: http://journals.royalsociety.org
/content/l1265167un20754x/?p=6dd90979e2a
b457f9f3af40cbfb58d9dπ=4 {Abney_Willia
m_Festing_1881.pdf}

[2] (Plate 87 from Abney and Festing
1881 paper[t]) PD
source: http://journals.royalsociety.org
/content/l1265167un20754x/?p=6dd90979e2a
b457f9f3af40cbfb58d9dπ=4 {Abney_Willia
m_Festing_1881.pdf}
119 YBN
[02/??/1881 AD] 		3421) A successful vaccine for anthrax
is created by gently heating the
anthrax causing bacteria.
(École Normale Supérieure) Paris,
France 
[1] * Félix Nadar (1820-1910), French
biologist Louis Pasteur (1822-1895),
1878 (detail). Source:
http://history.amedd.army.mil/booksdocs/
misc/evprev Creator/Artist Name
Gaspar-Félix
Tournachon Alternative names Félix
Nadar Date of birth/death 1820-04-05
1910-03-21 Location of birth/death
Paris Paris Work period 1854 -
1910 Work location Paris PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/42/Louis_Pasteur.jpg

[2] Scientist: Pasteur, Louis (1822 -
1895) Discipline(s):
Chemistry Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 21 x 15.2 cm / Sheet: 33 x
23.3 cm PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-P002-04a.jpg
119 YBN
[02/??/1881 AD] 		3422) A successful vaccine for rabies
is created.
(École Normale Supérieure) Paris,
France 
[1] * Félix Nadar (1820-1910), French
biologist Louis Pasteur (1822-1895),
1878 (detail). Source:
http://history.amedd.army.mil/booksdocs/
misc/evprev Creator/Artist Name
Gaspar-Félix
Tournachon Alternative names Félix
Nadar Date of birth/death 1820-04-05
1910-03-21 Location of birth/death
Paris Paris Work period 1854 -
1910 Work location Paris PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/42/Louis_Pasteur.jpg

[2] Scientist: Pasteur, Louis (1822 -
1895) Discipline(s):
Chemistry Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 21 x 15.2 cm / Sheet: 33 x
23.3 cm PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-P002-04a.jpg
119 YBN
[12/15/1881 AD] 		3738) Certain spectrum lines are found
to become broader when an element is
heated.
(Solar Physics Observatory) South
Kensington, England 
[1] Joseph Lockyer BBC Hulton Picture
Library PD/Corel
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
10214&rendTypeId=4

[2] Norman Lockyer - photo published
in the US in 1909 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/8/8b/Lockyer-Norman.jpg
119 YBN
[1881 AD] 		4040) A metal detector.
(Volta Lab) Washington, District of
Columbia, USA 
[1] The drawing for Alexander Graham
Bell's metal detector CREDIT: Bell,
Alexander Graham. ''Drawing.'' June 25,
1881. Alexander Graham Bell Papers,
1862-1939, Library of Congress. PD
source: http://www.americaslibrary.gov/a
ssets/jb/gilded/jb_gilded_garshot_2_e.jp
g

[2] Alexander Graham Bell speaking
into a prototype telephone PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/85/1876_Bell_Speaking_in
to_Telephone.jpg
119 YBN
[1881 AD] 		4157) The Michelson experiment: Light
is found to have the same speed in any
direction horizontal to the Earth; this
causes doubt about the existence of an
aether medium and about the wave theory
for light.

An interferometer splits a beam of
monochromatic light with a glass plate
into two directions at a right angle to
each other, and reflects them back
together to detect interference. If the
Earth moves relative to a stationary
aether medium, the beam traveling in
the direction of the motion of Earth
relative to the aether will take less
time, and will cause interference, but
no interference is observed.
(University of Berlin) Berlin,
Germany 
[1] Figure from Michelson's 1881
paper PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=S_kQAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edi
tions:0ocaawEfuqDVXP3-kAaE4N&lr=#v=onepa
ge&q=michelson&f=false

[2] Description Albert Abraham
Michelson2.jpg Photograph of Nobel
Laureate Albert Abraham
Michelson. Date 2006-09-27
(original upload date) Source
Photograph is a higher quality
version of the public domain image
available from
AstroLab http://astro-canada.ca/_en/pho
to690.php?a4313_michelson1 PD
source: Michelson_Albert_Abraham_Michels
on2.jpg
119 YBN
[1881 AD] 		4349) Inverse piezoelectricity is
proven by Pierre and Paul-Jacques
Curie: when an electric potential is
applied to certain crystals, the
crystal vibrates at a regular rate.
(Sorbonne) Paris, France 
[1] Beschreibung Jacques Curie
(1856-1941, links) mit seinem Bruder
Pierre Curie (1859-1906) und seinen
Eltern Eugène Curie (1827-1910) und
Sophie-Claire Depouilly
(1832-1897) Quelle Françoise
Giroud: Marie Curie. A Life. Holmes &
Meier, New York London 1986, ISBN
0-8419-0977-6, nach Seite 138 Urheber
bzw. Nutzungsrechtinhaber
unbekannt Datum
1878 Genehmigung
Bild-PD-alt-100 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/de/3/3a/Curie%2C_Jacques_und_Pierr
e_mit_Eltern.jpg

[2] Pierre Curie UNKNOWN
source: http://www.espci.fr/esp/MUSE/ima
ge002.gif
119 YBN
[1881 AD] 		6646) France 
[1] {ULSF: Note that this is a later
electric car than Raffard's for which I
can't find any image for} Aus diesen
Motoren gehen 1882 das erste
nennenswerte5elektrisch betriebene
Straßenfahrzeug von William Ayrton und
John Perry, das Ayrton/Perry tricycle
(vgl. Abbildung 1), sowie 1895 das
erste Fahrzeug mit Verbrennungsmotor
von Carl Benz, der Benz
Patent-Motorwagen 1 (vgl. Abbildung
2) hervor. Beide sind bezüglich ihrer
Leistung etwa vergleichbar: Benz
schafft mit 0,9 PS 16 km/h,
Ayrton/Perry bringen es mit 0,5 PS auf
14 km/h. UNKNOWN
source: http://cdn.grin.com/images/previ
ew-object/document.90396/307ed9bf6ef810b
9cbd6d6c074f94be7_LARGE.png

[2] Lavergne, G. The Automobile: Its
Construction and Management. Cassell
and Company, limited, 1902,
p601. http://books.google.com/books?id=
rDAaAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA601 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=rDAaAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA601
118 YBN
[01/12/1882 AD] 		4011) The first central electricity
station and distribution of electricity
to houses (for electric lighting) by
Thomas Edison in London.
(57 Holborn Viaduct) London, England
 
[1] first Central Station for
Incandescent lighting on earth. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=uxdHAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA44&dq=edison%27s+elec
trical++station+london+1880&as_brr=1#v=o
nepage&q=holborn&f=false

[2] Edison's 1881 steam electric
generator PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=uxdHAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA44&dq=edison%27s+elec
trical++station+london+1880&as_brr=1#v=o
nepage&q=&f=false
118 YBN
[03/24/1882 AD] 		3620) The first invisible frequency
light particle communication by Amos
Emerson Dolbear. The first radio
communication. The sending and
receiving of a message using light
particles by electrical induction (also
known as "electric waves", "electric
radiation", and simply "radio", but may
just be the photoelectric effect).
(employed at Tuft's College)
Sommerville, Massachusetts, USA 
[1] A. E. Dolbear, ''Mode of Electric
Communication'', Patent number: 350299,
Issue date: Oct 5,
1886. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
Pc9cAAAAEBAJ PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=Pc9cAAAAEBAJ

[2] From Scientific American
Supplement, December 11, 1886 PD/Corel

source: http://books.google.com/books?hl
=en&id=WE41AAAAMAAJ&dq=A+History+of+Wire
less+Telegraphy&printsec=frontcover&sour
ce=web&ots=08aQE8FQHe&sig=0AB8rC1DTmKfhh
sRE55cYSIq2PM&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum
=2&ct=result#PPA98,M1
118 YBN
[03/24/1882 AD] 		3903) The bacteria that causes
tuberculosis is identified.
(Imperial Department of Health) Berlin,
Germany 
[1] Robert Koch Library of
Congress PD
source: "Chamberlin, Thomas Chrowder",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p494 (Library
of Congress)

[2] Robert Koch. Courtesy of the
Nobelstiftelsen, Stockholm Since Koch
died in 1910: PD
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
21045&rendTypeId=4
118 YBN
[05/25/1882 AD] 		4066) Concave gratings are invented
which eliminate the need for a
telescope to view the spectrum.
(Johns Hopkins University), Baltimore,
Maryland, USA 
[1] Rowland with one of his ruling
engines at Johns Hopkins PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=dlULAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source
=gbs_navlinks_s#v=onepage&q=&f=false

[2] Description Rowland
Henry.jpg English: Photograph of Henry
Rowland, the American physicist,
published in 1902 Date
1902(1902) Source
Frontispiece of The Physical
Papers of Henry Augustus
Rowland Author Henry Rowland PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c2/Rowland_Henry.jpg
118 YBN
[09/04/1882 AD] 		4014) The first permanent commercial
central electrical system on Earth.
(Edison Electric illuminating Company,
255 and 257 Pearl Street), New York
City, NY, USA  
[1] Dynamo room (presumably at Pearl
Street Station) PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=uxdHAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA44&dq=edison's+electr
ical++station+london+1880&as_brr=1#v=one
page&q=holborn&f=false

[2] The regulator and bulb rooms PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=uxdHAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA44&dq=edison's+electr
ical++station+london+1880&as_brr=1#v=one
page&q=holborn&f=false
118 YBN
[1882 AD] 		3528) The heat emitted or absorbed by
3,500 different chemical reactions is
published.
(University of Copenhagen) Copenhagen,
Denmark 
[1] Portrait and statue of Hans Peter
Jörgen Julius Thomsen (1826-1909),
Chemist Creator/Photographer:
Unidentified photographer Medium:
Medium unknown Date:
1909-12-31 Collection: Scientific
Identity: Portraits from the Dibner
Library of the History of Science and
Technology - As a supplement to the
Dibner Library for the History of
Science and Technology's collection of
written works by scientists, engineers,
natural philosophers, and inventors,
the library also has a collection of
thousands of portraits of these
individuals. The portraits come in a
variety of formats: drawings, woodcuts,
engravings, paintings, and photographs,
all collected by donor Bern Dibner.
Presented here are a few photos from
the collection, from the late 19th and
early 20th century. Persistent URL:
http://photography.si.edu/SearchImage.as
px?t=5&id=3460&q=SIL14-T002-01 Reposito
ry: Smithsonian Institution
Libraries Accession number:
SIL14-T002-01 PD/Corel
source: http://farm4.static.flickr.com/3
109/2552817267_53206801d0.jpg?v=0

[2] Scientist: Thomsen, Hans Peter
Jörgen Julius (1826 -
1909) Discipline(s):
Chemistry Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 15 x 11.5 cm / PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-T002-01a.jpg
118 YBN
[1882 AD] 		3588) A series of high speed
photographs is captured with a single
instrument.
(College de France) Paris, France
(presumably) 
[1] Marey's photographic gun This item
is on display at the Musée des Arts et
Métiers, Paris Copyright © 2006
David Monniaux GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/7f/Fusil_de_Marey_p10403
53.jpg

[2] The Illustration to the left is
entitled ''Flight of the birds
according to the instantaneous
photographs of Mr. Marey'', From 1882
PD/Corel
source: http://www.precinemahistory.net/
images/marey_fusil_card.jpg
118 YBN
[1882 AD] 		3854) Mitosis is described and named.
(University of Kiel) Kiel,
Germany 
[1] Illustration from Zellsubstanz,
Kern und Zelltheilung PD/Corel
source: http://www.nature.com/nrm/journa
l/v2/n1/images/nrm0101_072a_f2.gif

[2] Image provided by the Science
Photo Library PD/Corel
source: http://www.nature.com/nrm/journa
l/v2/n1/images/nrm0101_072a_f1.gif
118 YBN
[1882 AD] 		3908) Agar is used to make a solid
media on which to grow and isolate
organisms.
(Imperial Department of Health) Berlin,
Germany 
[1] Robert Koch Library of
Congress PD
source: "Chamberlin, Thomas Chrowder",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p494 (Library
of Congress)

[2] Robert Koch. Courtesy of the
Nobelstiftelsen, Stockholm Since Koch
died in 1910: PD
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
21045&rendTypeId=4
118 YBN
[1882 AD] 		3947) White blood cells are identified
and their role of destroying foreign
objects in the immune system of animals
is recognized.
(In his own private laboratory)
Messina, Italy 
[1] Ilya Ilyich Mechnikov, by
Nadar. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/4f/Ilja_Iljitsch_Metschn
ikow_Nadar.jpg

[2] This is a file from the Wikimedia
Commons Ilya Ilyich Mechnikov, Nobel
Prize in Physiology and Medicine,
1908. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/10/Ilya_Mechnikov_%28Nob
el_1908%29.png
118 YBN
[1882 AD] 		4805) The word "telepathy" is used to
describe communication by thought.
London, England 
[1] Description Frederic William Henry
Myers by William Clarke
Wontner.jpg Frederic William Henry
Myers, by William Clarke Wontner, given
to the National Portrait Gallery,
London in 1938. See source website for
additional information. This set of
images was gathered by User:Dcoetzee
from the National Portrait Gallery,
London website using a special tool.
All images in this batch have a known
author, but have manually examined for
strong evidence that the author was
dead before 1939, such as approximate
death dates, birth dates, floruit
dates, and publication dates. Date
Unknown, but was given to the
National Portrait Gallery, London in
1938 Source National Portrait
Gallery, London: NPG 2928 William
Clarke Wontner UNKNOWN
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5c/Frederic_William_Henr
y_Myers_by_William_Clarke_Wontner.jpg
117 YBN
[01/??/1883 AD] 		3733) That small amounts of potassium
and calcium added to a salt-water
(sodium chloride) solution will keep
heart cells, and the heart itself
beating longer, in addition to keeping
other isolated organs functioning for a
longer time is recognized.
(University College Hospital) London,
England 
[1] Figure 1 : Sydney Ringer. This
image was kindly provided by A. K.
Campbell, Cardiff University, UK, and
is reproduced with permission from
University College London, UK. PD
source: http://www.nature.com/nrm/journa
l/v4/n4/images/nrm1073-f1.jpg
117 YBN
[03/05/1883 AD] 		3880) That infrared light is absorbed
by the atmosphere of Earth, and that
some of this absorption is due to water
is recognized.
(Science and Art Department) South
Kensington, England 
[1] Diagram from Abney Festing 1883
paper. In this image wavelengths
increase to the right, the infrared
being on the right beyond A. Absorption
is black while light is white.[t] PD
source: Captain Abney and
Lieut.-Colonel Festing, "Atmospheric
Absorption in the Infra-Red of the
Solar Spectrum.", Phil. Trans., 1883,
p80-83. http://journals.royalsociety.or
g/content/767j2732gwtj7864/?p=6dd90979e2
ab457f9f3af40cbfb58d9dπ=6 {Abney_Festi
ng_1883.pdf}

[2] ''Abney, Sir William de
Wiveleslie.'' Online Photograph.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 5 Feb.
2009 . [t Abney died in 1920 so photo
is:] PD/Corel
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
13667&rendTypeId=4
117 YBN
[03/??/1883 AD] 		4070) A simple method for identifying
nitrogen in molecules is found: adding
them to sulfuric acid, which causes
nitrogen to be released in the form of
ammonia; the quantity of the ammonia
can then easily be measured.
(laboratory of brewer Carl Jacobsen)
Kopenhagen, Denmark 
[1] Kjeldahl3.JPG English: Danish
chemist Johan Kjeldahl picture, circa
1880s. Date 1880s Source
Johan Kjeldahl PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/95/Kjeldahl3.JPG
117 YBN
[06/06/1883 AD] 		4339) Theory of ionic dissociation, how
molecules that are electrolytes
separate in a liquid to form two or
more charged "ions".
(Institute of Physics of the Academy of
Sciences) Stockholm, Sweden 
[1] table from: Recherches sur la
conductibilité galvanique des
électrolytes By Svante
Arrhenius 06/06/1883 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=oao6AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Rec
herches+sur+la+conductibilit%C3%A9+galva
nique+des+electrolytes&hl=en&ei=qU30S_Di
LMK88gaXrOyrDg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=re
sult&resnum=1&ved=0CCoQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&
q&f=false

[2] Svante August
Arrhenius 1859-1927 Portrait:
3 Location - Floor: First - Zone: Room
138 - Wall: South - Sequence:
6 Source: Chemical Heritage
Foundation Sponsor: Kris A.
Berglund UNKNOWN
source: http://www2.chemistry.msu.edu/Po
rtraits/images/arrhenc.jpg
117 YBN
[11/15/1883 AD] 		4016) The "Edison effect", which is now
explained as the emission of electrons
from a hot to a cold electrode.

Edison seals a metal wire into a light
bulb near the hot filament and finds
that the amount of electricity that
flows from the hot filament to the
metal wire is proportional to the
degree of incandescence of the
filament.
(private lab) Menlo Park, New Jersey,
USA 
[1] Edison 11/14/1883 patent 307031
''Electrical Indicator'' exhibiting
Edison effect (thermionic
effect)[t] PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=aVpFAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4#v
=onepage&q=&f=false

[2] closeup of Edison 11/14/1883
patent 307031 ''Electrical Indicator''
exhibiting Edison effect (thermionic
effect)[t] PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=aVpFAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4#v
=onepage&q=&f=false
117 YBN
[1883 AD] 		3710) The first small direct-acting
gasoline engine which rotates at high
speeds.
(factory) Stuttgart, Germany 
[1] Gottlieb Daimler PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/ee/Gottliebdaimler1.jpg
117 YBN
[1883 AD] 		3794) The first fully automatic machine
gun; a gun that uses the recoil of the
barrel to eject the empty cartridge and
reload the chamber. This gun can fire
10 projectiles a second.
(Maxim's shop, Hatton Garden) London,
England 
[1] caption from ''My Life'': ''The
First Automatic Gun This gun fired at
the rate of 666 shots per minute, but
only a few of them were made. It was
followed by a much smaller, cheaper and
lighter gun which has become the
standard for the world.'' PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=nZdBAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA131&source=gbs_select
ed_pages&cad=0_1#PPA172-IA1,M1

[2] Hiram Stevens Maxim circa
1912 [edit]
Source http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalc
ollections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/by
_name_display_results.cfm?scientist=Maxi
m,%20Hiram%20Stevens PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/d/de/SIL14-M002-10a.jpg
117 YBN
[1883 AD] 		3815) The first spectroscopic star
catalog. This catalog lists the spectra
of 4051 stars.
(Astrophysical Observatory at Potsdam)
Potsdam, Germany 
[1] Description Photograph of
Hermann Carl Vogel, the
astronomer Source Opposite page
129 of Astronomers of Today Date
1905 Author Hector
Macpherson PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d2/Vogel_Hermann_Carl.jp
g

[2] Hermann Carl Vogel 1906 Bruce
Medalist PD
source: http://www.phys-astro.sonoma.edu
/brucemedalists/Vogel/vogel.jpg
117 YBN
[1883 AD] 		3916) Meiosis is identified.
(University of Liege) Liege,
Belgium 
[1] Images from Beneden's 1883
paper. PD
source: http://www.ijdb.ehu.es/web/paper
.php?doi=1627480&a=f

[2] E. Van Beneden with his second
daughter Nelly in 1891 in his country
home near Liege. PD
source: http://www.ijdb.ehu.es/web/paper
.php?doi=1627480&a=f
116 YBN
[01/06/1884 AD] 		3621) The mechanical television: a
rotating disk with tiny holes that
sequentially pass successfully over a
picture allows an image to be converted
to electricity and back to light which
is projected onto a display).
Berlin, Germany  
[1] Nipkow's Mechanical Television
System, 1884 Source:
http://www.databahn.net/library/inet/his
tory/tv/ COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.acmi.net.au/AIC/nipko
w_disk.gif

[2] Paul Nipkow (Russian, German)
(1860–1940) PD/Corel
source: http://www.bairdtelevision.com/n
ipkow1.jpg
116 YBN
[01/11/1884 AD] 		3859) The parallax of Southern
Hemisphere stars is determined.
(Royal Observatory) Cape of Good Hope,
Africa 
[1] parallaxes for stars seen from
southern hemisphere[t] PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=F60RAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edi
tions:0A8TmkWWqGBZ7Ts2lX#PRA1-PA188,M1

[2] PLATE I THE dotted lines represent
the form of the parallactic ellipse for
each star whose parallax has been
investigated in the preceding papers.
These ellipses have been laid down from
the following data: (see image
3) The reader must bear in mind that
these ellipses if drawn to scale would
be quite invisible to the naked eye.
The maximum parallax factor for
measures of distance from any star of
comparison is therefore represented
graphically not by AB (fig 5) but by AC
where CD is perpendicular to AC and
tangent to the ellipse. The graphical
construction of such figures has been
found by us to afford great facilities
in selecting stars of comparison. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=F60RAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edi
tions:0A8TmkWWqGBZ7Ts2lX#PRA1-PA197,M1
116 YBN
[03/07/1884 AD] 		4209) Photo-sensitized gelatin coated
paper photographic film.
(Eastman Dry Plate Company) Rochester,
NY, USA 
[1] George Eastman PD
source: http://www.born-today.com/btpix/
eastman_george.jpg

[2] * Photo of en:George Eastman from
the en:United States Library of
Congress * Digital ID:
http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/ggbain.29290
*
http://memory.loc.gov/service/pnp/ggbain
/29200/29290v.jpg Licensing:
* From Loc: ''No known copyright
restrictions''. Part of Bain News
Service collection. * Given
subjects death in 1932 it seems likely
that it's pre-1923. Or if not then it
seems extremely unlikely its copyright
was renewed. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/ec/GeorgeEastman2.jpg
116 YBN
[04/23/1884 AD] 		4206) The first practical steam
turbine, a steam engine that uses steam
to turn a wheel with blades around the
rim directly.
(Clarke, Chapman and Company)
Gateshead, England 
[1] Drawing from 1884 patent - from US
patent PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=d_5sAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&
f=false

[2] Charles Algernon Parsons
(1854–1931), British engineer,
inventor of the steam turbine. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/ec/Charles_Algernon_Pars
ons.jpg
116 YBN
[1884 AD] 		3398) High pitch whistles are invented
and used to measure the threshold of
human hearing to be 18khz.
A system of
fingerprinting is established.
London, England  
[1] Portrait of Galton by Octavius
Oakley, 1840 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/2/2e/Francis_Galton-by_Octavius
_Oakley.jpg

[2] Francis Galton [t First major
scientist to live to potentially see
thought] (1822-1911) PD
source: http://www.stat-athens.aueb.gr/g
r/interest/figures/Galton.jpg
116 YBN
[1884 AD] 		4080) The bacterium that causes typhoid
fever is identified and cultured.
(Imperial Health Office) Berlin,
Germany 
[1] The causative agent of typhoid
fever is the bacterium Salmonella
typhi. (Image courtesy of the Centers
for Disease Control and
Prevention.) PD
source: http://graphics8.nytimes.com/ima
ges/2007/08/01/health/adam/1048.jpg

[2] Deutsch: Georg Gaffky (1850-1918),
deutscher Arzt und Bakteriologe. Data
19 marca 2009(2009-03-19)
(original upload date) Źródło
Transferred from de.wikipedia PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8c/Prof._Dr._G._Gaffky.j
pg
116 YBN
[1884 AD] 		4131) The bacterium that causes
diphtheria is identified and that some
animals have a natural immunity to
diptheria is proven.
(Imperial Health Office) Berlin,
Germany 
[1] Friedrich Loeffler Date
created 22. Jan. 2006 Source
http://www.fli.bund.de/fileadmin/us
er_upload/Abbildungen/Historie/Prof._Fri
edrich_Loeffler_1852-1915_.jpg Author
Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut,
uploaded by Michael Ottenbruch PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/ad/Friedrich_Loeffler.jp
g
116 YBN
[1884 AD] 		4182) The "Gram stain" method which
stains certain kinds of bacteria.
(lab of microbiologist Karl
Friedländer ) Berlin, Germany 
[1] Hans Christian Joachim Gram,
1852-1938. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.scielo.org.ve/img/fbp
e/rsvm/v23n2/image140.jpg
116 YBN
[1884 AD] 		4315) The first use of a local
anesthetic: (a drug that stops the
conduction of impulses in sensory
nerves in the region where it is
applied); cocaine.
(General Hospital in Vienna) Vienna,
Austria 
[1] Carl Coller.jpg Deutsch: Carl
Koller (1857-1944) Date “Foto,
um 1910.” Source
http://aeiou.iicm.tugraz.at/aeiou.e
ncyclop.k/k561735.htm Author
unknown PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/7e/Carl_Coller.jpg
115 YBN
[01/30/1885 AD] 		3500) The Balmer series is discovered,
a simple mathematical formula that
gives the wavelengths of the spectral
lines of hydrogen.
(Secondary School) Basel,
Switzerland 
[1] [t one of Balmer's
tables] PD/Corel
source: Balmer_Johann_1885.pdf

[2] [t English translation of Blamer
table from 1885 work.] COPYRIGHTED
source: http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/b
almer.html
115 YBN
[07/??/1885 AD] 		3827) That the electrical resistance of
various metals is decreased with a
decrease of temperature is observed.
(father's ironworks) Chatillon, France
(presumably) 
[1] Fig. 1. - Cailletet's Apparatus for
Liquefying Gases Ref. Scientific
American Vol. XXXVIII - No. 8 -
February 23, 1878 -- bottom front page
(page 111) PD
source: http://bern-1914.org/pictures/ge
neve1896/pictet/sa_cailletet_fig1_72.gif


[2] Fig. 2. - Fig. 3. Ref. Scientific
American Vol. XXXVIII - No. 8 -
February 23, 1878 -- top front page
(page 111) PD
source: http://bern-1914.org/pictures/ge
neve1896/pictet/sa_cailletet_fig2_3_72.g
if
115 YBN
[1885 AD] 		3711) The first practical gasoline (or
petrol) engine and the first gasoline
motor boat.
(factory) Stuttgart, Germany 
[1] Diagram of the earliest Daimler
gasoline motor PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=PsoNAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA297&dq=daimler&as_brr
=1&ei=9HRVSeuvIJSokATWrLnzBA#PPA298,M1

[2] Gottlieb Daimler PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/ee/Gottliebdaimler1.jpg
115 YBN
[1885 AD] 		3712) The first motorbike.
(factory) Stuttgart, Germany 
[1] First motorcycle by Gottlieb
Daimler and Wilhelm Maybach (1885) (see
de:Deutsches Zweirad- und NSU-Museum),
2006, by J. Köhler Description
First motorcycle called
''Reitwagen'' by Gottlieb Daimler and
Wilhelm Maybach (1885) (264 cm³,
Einzylinder-Viertakt-Motor, 0,5 PS,
Glührohrzündung,
Luftkühlung) Source Photo taken by
myself Date 28. December
2006 Author Joachim
Köhler Permission (Reusing this
image) By courtesy of ''Deutsches
Zweirad- und NSU-Museum'' (e-Mail
17.08.2006 13:14) - With many thanks to
Ms. Dumas & Ms. Grams GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b3/ZweiRadMuseumNSU_Reit
wagen.JPG

[2] Diagram of the earliest Daimler
gasoline motor PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=PsoNAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA297&dq=daimler&as_brr
=1&ei=9HRVSeuvIJSokATWrLnzBA#PPA298,M1
115 YBN
[1885 AD] 		4329) The elements praseodymium
(PrAZEODiMEuM) and neodymium
(nEODiMEuM) are identified.
(University of Vienna) Vienna 
[1]
http://images-of-elements.com/praseodymi
um.php and position on periodic
table CC
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pra
seodymium

[2] Karl Auer von Welsbach
(1858-1929) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f7/Auer_von_Welsbach.jpg

115 YBN
[1885 AD] 		4461) Spectral emission lines are
observed to widen when subjected to an
electromagnetic field.
(Royal Observatory of Brusells)
Bruselles, Belgium 
[1] Image from: Thomas Preston,
''Radiation Phenomena in the Magnetic
Field.'', Philosophical Magazine, S5,
V45, N275, April 1898, p325. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=kpQOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA325&lpg=PA325&dq=Thom
as+Preston+zeeman&source=bl&ots=34SE5113
uy&sig=A-JeUa9Iwa6iuCWj9K6e4KGSwf8&hl=en
&ei=gcMjTKGmDYOinQfW_Ogm&sa=X&oi=book_re
sult&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CB4Q6AEwAg#
v=onepage&q=Thomas%20Preston%20zeeman&f=
false

[2] Description Pieter
Zeeman.jpg Pieter Zeeman Date
ca. 1920(1920) Source
http://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:
Zeeman.jpg Author This file is
lacking author
information. Permission (Reusing this
file) PD by age Other versions
Digital Library, Proceedings of the
Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and
Sciences (KNAW) Emilio Segrè Visual
Archives http://www.knaw.nl/cfdata/digi
tal_library/output/proceedings/biography
.cfm?RecordId=39 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a2/Pieter_Zeeman.jpg
115 YBN
[1885 AD] 		6604) The first steel-framed building
and skyscraper, the Home Insurance
Company Building in Chicago.
Chicago, Illinois, USA 
[1] The first skyscraper, the Home
Insurance Building. UNKNOWN
source: http://chicagopubliclibrary.tumb
lr.com/image/197902876

[2] Description English: Exterior
of the Home Insurance Building by
architect William Le Baron Jenney in
Chicago, Illinois. Date 1884 Source
US-LibraryOfCongress-BookLogo.svg
This image is available from the
United States Library of Congress's
National Digital Library Program under
the digital ID mhsalad.250058. This
tag does not indicate the copyright
status of the attached work. A normal
copyright tag is still required. See
Commons:Licensing for more
information. العربية
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/38/Home_Insurance_Buildi
ng.JPG
114 YBN
[02/23/1886 AD] 		4431) A low cost method of producing
pure aluminum metal is discovered:
aluminum oxide is dissolved in molten
cryolite (a mineral), aluminum is then
isolated using carbon electrodes by
electrolysis.
(Oberlin (Ohio) College Hall) Oberlin,
Ohio, USA 
[1] Image from US patent 400766,
Charles Martin Hall, ''Process of
Reducing Aluminium from its Fluoride
Salts by Electrolysis'', filing date:
Jul 9, 1886 Issue date: Apr 2,
1889 Filing date: Jul 9, 1886 Issue
date: Apr 2,
1889 http://www.google.com/patents?id=k
X9OAAAAEBAJ PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=LE1OAAAAEBAJ&pg=PA2&dq=PROCESS+OF+REDUC
ING+ALUMINIUM+FROM+ITS+FLUORIDE+SALTS+BY
+ELECTROLYSIS&hl=en&sa=X&ei=yQtLT7TzK4qp
iAKm9YHbDQ&ved=0CDYQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f
=false

[2] Description
CharlesMartinHall.jpg English:
Charles Martin
Hall Български: Чарли
Мартин Хол -
портрет Date Source
Originally uploded on
en:File:CharlesMartinHall.jpg Author
Originally uploaded by
en:User:Sillybilly PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c8/CharlesMartinHall.jpg

114 YBN
[06/26/1886 AD] 		4139) The element fluorine is isolated,
as a gas.
(École Supérieure de Pharmacie)
Paris, France 
[1] Henri Moissan (1852-1907) PD
source: http://www.shp-asso.org/albums/p
ortrait01/Moissan.jpg

[2] Fluorine sample (gas, doesn't look
like much). GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f8/F%2C9.jpg
114 YBN
[07/27/1886 AD] 		4096) Positively charged ion beams are
discovered ("Kanalstrahlen" or "channel
rays") by Eugen Goldstein (GOLTsTIN).

Goldstein (GOLTsTIN) uses a perforated
cathode and finds that there are rays
going through the channels in the
direction opposite to that of the
cathode rays.

This is evidence that electricity can
be both two fluids and a single fluid.
(University of Berlin - verify) Berlin,
Germany 
[1] Goldstein, ''Über eine noch nicht
untersuchte Strahlungsform an der
Kathode inducirter Entladungeń'', in
Sitzungsberichie der Königlichen
Akademie der Wissenschaften zu
Berlin,39 (1886),
691. http://books.google.com/books?id=v
UsVAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA457 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=vUsVAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA457

[2] Figure 2 from Goldstein's 1886
paper PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=vUsVAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA457&dq=%C3%9Cber+eine
+noch+nicht+untersuchte+Strahlungsform+a
n+der+Kathode+inducirter+Entladunge%C5%8
4#v=onepage&q=&f=false
114 YBN
[1886 AD] 		3625) "Raoult's law": that the changes
in certain related properties of a
liquid (for example vapour pressure,
boiling point, or freezing point) that
occur when a substance is dissolved in
the liquid are proportional to the
number of molecules of dissolved
substance (solute) present for a given
quantity of solvent molecules which
makes possible determining the
molecular (mass) of dissolved
substances.
(University of Grenoble) Grenoble,
France 
[1] Description=Francois Marie Raoult,
french chemist PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c7/Raoult.jpg

[2] I have created this image to
better explain Negative deviation from
raoult's law PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/b/bb/Negative-deviation-from-ra
oults-law.jpeg
114 YBN
[1886 AD] 		3632) That certain leguminous plants
can make use of atmospheric nitrogen is
found.
Anhalt-Bernburg, Germany 
[1] Beschreibung Hermann Hellriegel
(1831–1895), deutscher
Agrikulturchemiker Quelle Archiv
Institut für Pflanzenbau und
Pflanzenzüchtung der Universität
Göttingen Urheber unbekannt Datum
vor 1895 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/de/0/05/Hermann_Hellriegel.jpg
114 YBN
[1886 AD] 		3741) The idea that stars with
increasing temperature should be
distinguished from stars with
decreasing temperature.
(Solar Physics Observatory) South
Kensington, England (presumably) 
[1] Joseph Lockyer BBC Hulton Picture
Library PD/Corel
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
10214&rendTypeId=4

[2] Norman Lockyer - photo published
in the US in 1909 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/8/8b/Lockyer-Norman.jpg
114 YBN
[1886 AD] 		3783) The element Dysprosium
{DiS-PrO-SE-uM} is identified using
spectroscopy.
(home lab) Cognac, France
(presumably) 
[1] This image was copied from
en.wikipedia.org. The original
description was: English: Dysprosium
sample. Slovenščina: Disprozij v
epruveti. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/17/Dy%2C66.jpg

[2] Description François Lecoq de
Boisbaudran, discoverer of gallium,
samarium, and dysprosium (died 28 May
1912) Source
http://pagesperso-orange.fr/paysdaigre/
hpa/textes/biographies/images/lecocq.jpg
Date Before 28 May 1912 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/69/Lecoq_de_Boisbaudran.
jpg
114 YBN
[1886 AD] 		3786) The element germanium is
identified and isolated .
(Freiberg School of Mining) Freiberg,
Germany 
[1] elementares Germanium Source:
German Wikipedia, original upload 3.
Sep 2004 by Gibe (selfmade) GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5e/Germanium.jpg

[2] Description Picture of German
chemist Clemens Winkler (who died in
1904) Source Edgar Fahs Smith
Collection Date Before
1904 Author PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/9d/Winkler_Clemens.jpg
114 YBN
[1886 AD] 		3799) A book examining sexuality is
published.
Graz, Austria 
[1] Richard von Krafft-Ebing with his
wife Maria Luise PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/bb/Krafft-Ebing.jpg

[2] Baron Richard von Krafft-Ebing.
Lithograph by Baelz. PD
source: http://aeiou.iicm.tugraz.at/aeio
u.encyclop.data.image.k/k720800a.jpg
113 YBN
[03/04/1887 AD] 		3713) The gasoline internal combustion
engine car is built by Gottlieb Wilhelm
Daimler (DIMlR) by putting his engine
in a stagecoach.

This vehicle is capable of a top speed
of 18 kilometers (11 miles) per hour.
(factory) Stuttgart, Germany 
[1] Gottlieb Daimler’s First
Automobile (March 8, 1886) ©
Bildarchiv Preußischer
Kulturbesitz COPYRIGHTED
source: http://germanhistorydocs.ghi-dc.
org/images/20007006-r.jpg

[2] First motorcycle by Gottlieb
Daimler and Wilhelm Maybach (1885) (see
de:Deutsches Zweirad- und NSU-Museum),
2006, by J. Köhler Description
First motorcycle called
''Reitwagen'' by Gottlieb Daimler and
Wilhelm Maybach (1885) (264 cm³,
Einzylinder-Viertakt-Motor, 0,5 PS,
Glührohrzündung,
Luftkühlung) Source Photo taken by
myself Date 28. December
2006 Author Joachim
Köhler Permission (Reusing this
image) By courtesy of ''Deutsches
Zweirad- und NSU-Museum'' (e-Mail
17.08.2006 13:14) - With many thanks to
Ms. Dumas & Ms. Grams GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b3/ZweiRadMuseumNSU_Reit
wagen.JPG
113 YBN
[03/??/1887 AD] 		4285) The phenomenon of electrical
resonance is discovered by Heinrich
Rudolf Hertz (this allows specific
frequencies of light to be singled out
which improves radio communication).

Hertz shows how electrical oscillations
in one circuit, through electrical
induction, can excite the same
electrical oscillations to flow
(causing a spark) in a second
unconnected distant circuit most
effectively, by changing the
capacitance and inductance of each
circuit until a resonance is observed.
(University of Karlsruhe) Karlsruhe,
Germany 
[1] Figure 6 from Hertz's March 1893
paper ''On Very Rapid
Oscillations'' PD
source: Heinrich Hertz, tr: D. E.
Jones, "Electric Waves", 1893, 1962.

[2] Figure 7 from Hertz's March 1893
paper ''On Very Rapid
Oscillations'' PD
source: Heinrich Hertz, tr: D. E.
Jones, "Electric Waves", 1893, 1962.
113 YBN
[05/02/1887 AD] 		3762) Plastic photographic film.
Newark, New Jersey 
[1] Goodwin's Patent
#610,861 PHOTOGRAPHIC PELLICLE AND
PROCESS OF PRODUCING SAME HANNIBAL
GOODWIN PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=bbZkAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&
f=false

[2] Reverend Hannibal Goodwin PD
source: http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/eas
tman/timeline/images/1887.jpg
113 YBN
[05/21/1887 AD] 		4416) A practical electric arc furnace,
a device that heats a substance from
one or both poles of an electric arc.
(Societe Electro Metallurgique
Francaise) Froges, Isere, France
(presumably) 
[1] Borchers, W., and H.G. Solomon.
Electric Furnaces: The Production of
Heat from Electrical Energy and the
Construction of Electric Furnaces.
Longmans, Green, and Co., 1908,
p11-15. books.google.com/books?id=hLpPA
AAAMAAJ&pg=PA12 PD
source: books.google.com/books?id=hLpPAA
AAMAAJ&pg=PA12

[2] Borchers, W., and H.G. Solomon.
Electric Furnaces: The Production of
Heat from Electrical Energy and the
Construction of Electric Furnaces.
Longmans, Green, and Co., 1908,
p11-15. books.google.com/books?id=hLpPA
AAAMAAJ&pg=PA11 PD
source: books.google.com/books?id=hLpPAA
AAMAAJ&pg=PA11
113 YBN
[05/??/1887 AD] 		4286) That ultraviolet light causes
more current to flow on a metal
electrode than lower frequencies of
light is found.

In addition, electrical induction is
shown to be propagated in straight
lines like light (casting a shadow), to
be reflected from polished surfaces,
refracted with a refrangibility much
greater than that of violet rays of
light, and to be non-electrical, since
both non-conducting obstacles such as
glass and paraffin screens and
conducting metal plates can prevent a
spark in the secondary coil.
(University of Karlsruhe) Karlsruhe,
Germany 
[1] Figure 18 from Hertz's Feb 1888
paper H. Hertz. ''Ueber einen
Einfluss des ultravioletten Lichtes auf
die electrische Entladung'', (''An
effect of ultraviolet light on
electrical discharge''), Annalen der
Physik und Chemie, Volume 267 (Vol 33),
Issue 8, Date: 1887, Pages: 983-1000.
source: Heinrich Hertz, tr: D. E.
Jones, "Electric Waves", 1893, 1962.

[2] Figure 18 from Hertz's Feb 1888
paper H. Hertz. ''Ueber einen
Einfluss des ultravioletten Lichtes auf
die electrische Entladung'', (''An
effect of ultraviolet light on
electrical discharge''), Annalen der
Physik und Chemie, Volume 267 (Vol 33),
Issue 8, Date: 1887, Pages: 983-1000.
source: Heinrich Hertz, tr: D. E.
Jones, "Electric Waves", 1893, 1962.
113 YBN
[09/26/1887 AD] 		4112) The grammophone, a sound
recording and playing device in which
the needle vibrates from side to side
as opposed to up and down.
(own lab) Washington, DC, USA 
[1] Berliner's 09/26/1887 patent for a
Grammophone [t The patent image
doesn't look like a flat disk] PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=fCRPAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&
f=false

[2] Emile Berliner with disc record
gramophone - photograph taken between
1910 and 1929. This is a cropped
version of the digital image from the
Library of Congress online collection.
there are no known restrictions on
publication, so this image appears to
be in the public domain; see catalog
information
below. http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/cph.3
c24124 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/b/bc/Emile_Berliner_with_disc_r
ecord_gramophone_-_between_1910_and_1929
.jpg
113 YBN
[10/12/1887 AD] 		4245) The alternating current electric
motor is invented by Nikola Tesla.

Tesla's alternating current motor (or
induction motor) uses an alternating or
sinusoidal current and also serves as
an alternating current generator (or
dynamo) producing alternating current
(when mechanically turned).
(Tesla's private lab) New York City,
NY, USA|(earlier claim of)Strasbourg,
France 
[1] Image from Tesla patent 391,968
submitted: 10/12/1887 ELECTRO-MAGNETIC
MOTOR http://www.google.com/patents?id=
z5FhAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&f
=false PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=z5FhAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&
f=false

[2] Description Tesla
young.jpg English: The image of
en:Nikola Tesla (1856-1943) at age
23. Date image dated: circa
1878 original upload date:
2005-12-02 transfer date: 17:03, 29
July 2008 (UTC) Source Original
downloaded from
http://www.tesla-symp06.org/nikola_tesla
.htm Author Original uploader was
Antidote at en.wikipedia Transferred
from en.wikipedia by
User:emerson7. Permission (Reusing
this file) This image is in the public
domain PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/60/Tesla_young.jpg
113 YBN
[11/07/1887 AD] 		4114) A flat disk sound recording
device.
(own lab) Washington, DC, USA 
[1] Figure 1 from Berliner's 11/07/1887
patent - presumably the first publicly
known flat disk sound recorder PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=hOpjAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&
f=false

[2] Figure 2 from Berliner's
11/07/1887 patent - presumably the
first publicly known flat disk sound
recorder PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=hOpjAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&
f=false
113 YBN
[1887 AD] 		3739) The theory that subatomic
particles produce spectra.
(Solar Physics Observatory) South
Kensington, England (presumably) 
[1] Fluted spectra PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?hl
=en&id=tr8KAAAAIAAJ&dq=chemistry+of+the+
sun&printsec=frontcover&source=web&ots=-
3OHO-18fp&sig=kNsnqgBVPljadCXXtbFG1GaEPu
M#PPA180,M1

[2] spectra of Stellar types PD/Corel

source: http://books.google.com/books?hl
=en&id=tr8KAAAAIAAJ&dq=chemistry+of+the+
sun&printsec=frontcover&source=web&ots=-
3OHO-18fp&sig=kNsnqgBVPljadCXXtbFG1GaEPu
M#PPA189,M1
113 YBN
[1887 AD] 		3960) That the number of chromosomes in
cells is constant, and that each
species has a characteristic number of
chromosomes in their cells is
recognized.
University of Liège, Liège,
Belgium 
[1] Edouard Van Beneden PD
source: http://webapps.fundp.ac.be/umdb/
wiki-bioscope/images/9/9b/Vanbeneden.jpg


[2] Beneden and his daughter in 1891,
outside his home in Liege. PD
source: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/site
s/entrez
113 YBN
[1887 AD] 		4224) That gases are electrified by
incandescent bodies is found.
(Herzoglich Gymnasium) Wolfenbüttel,
Germany 
[1] Elster (left) and Geitel
(right) PD (presumably)
source: http://www.elster-geitel.de/medi
en/baustelle_01.jpg
113 YBN
[1887 AD] 		4369) The electricity of a heart beat
is measured and recorded by Dr.
Augustus Waller.

Waller measures the electric potentials
of the heart muscle, finds them to
coincide with each heart muscle
contraction, and publishes the first
electrocardiograph images.
(St. Mary's Hospital) London,
England 
[1] Figure 1 from Waller 1887 paper PD

source: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/
articles/PMC1485094/pdf/jphysiol02445-00
01.pdf

[2] Image of Augustus Waller part of
same image
at: http://www.hrsonline.org/news/ep-hi
story/notable-figures/augustuswaller.cfm
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.nyteknik.se/multimedi
a/archive/00033/Jimmie-och-Augustus-_330
47a.jpg
112 YBN
[01/10/1888 AD] 		4023) Perforated paper film is played
on a sprocket-wheeled projector.
New York City, NY, USA
(presumably) 		 
112 YBN
[02/02/1888 AD] 		4288) Light interference between two
radio sources is demonstrated and
electrical induction is confirmed to
have the speed of light by Heinrich
Rudolf Hertz.

Hertz finds that the velocity of
electricity in air is faster than the
speed of electricity in wire and
measures the wavelength (or particle
interval) of a radio emitter to be 2.8
meters - much larger than the
wavelength (or interval) for visible
light.
(University of Karlsruhe) Karlsruhe,
Germany 
[1] figure from: H. Hertz, ''Ueber die
Ausbreitungsgeschwindigkeit der
electrodynamischen Wirkungen'', Annalen
der Physik, Volume 270 Issue 7,
p551-569. http://www3.interscience.wile
y.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/112488021/PDFSTAR
T English translation: Heinrich
Hertz, tr: D. E. Jones, ''On the Finite
Velocity of Electromagnetic Actions'',
''Electric Waves'', 1893, 1962,
p107. http://books.google.com/books?id=
EJdAAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=inti
tle:electric+intitle:waves&lr=&as_drrb_i
s=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1893&as_maxm
_is=0&as_maxy_is=1893&as_brr=0&cd=1#v=on
epage&q&f=false PD
source: Heinrich Hertz, tr: D. E.
Jones, "On the Finite Velocity of
Electromagnetic Actions", "Electric
Waves", 1893, 1962.

[2] table from: H. Hertz, ''Ueber die
Ausbreitungsgeschwindigkeit der
electrodynamischen Wirkungen'', Annalen
der Physik, Volume 270 Issue 7,
p551-569. http://www3.interscience.wile
y.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/112488021/PDFSTAR
T English translation: Heinrich
Hertz, tr: D. E. Jones, ''On the Finite
Velocity of Electromagnetic Actions'',
''Electric Waves'', 1893, 1962,
p107. http://books.google.com/books?id=
EJdAAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=inti
tle:electric+intitle:waves&lr=&as_drrb_i
s=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1893&as_maxm
_is=0&as_maxy_is=1893&as_brr=0&cd=1#v=on
epage&q&f=false PD
source: Heinrich Hertz, tr: D. E.
Jones, "On the Finite Velocity of
Electromagnetic Actions", "Electric
Waves", 1893, 1962.
112 YBN
[02/23/1888 AD] 		3817) The radial motions of fifty one
bright stars are measured using the
Doppler effect and the change in
position between spectral lines of the
stars and a terrestrial source.
(Astrophysical Observatory at Potsdam)
Potsdam, Germany 
[1] Vogel, H. C., ''Über die
Bestimmung der Bewegung von Sternen im
Visionsradius durch spectrcgraphische
Beobachtung'', 1888,
p397 http://books.google.com/books?id=D
OsaAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA397 (also in) Vogel,
H. C., ''Über die Bestimmung der
Bewegung von Sternen im Visionsradius
durch spectrcgraphische Beobachtung'',
Mathematische und
Naturwissenschaftliche Mittheilungen
aus den ..., 1888,
p235. http://books.google.com/books?id=
g8AmAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA235 English: ''The
determination of the motions of stars
in the visual radius by spectrographic
observation'' PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=DOsaAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA397

[2] Description Photograph of
Hermann Carl Vogel, the
astronomer Source Opposite page
129 of Astronomers of Today Date
1905 Author Hector
Macpherson PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d2/Vogel_Hermann_Carl.jp
g
112 YBN
[09/08/1888 AD] 		6260) A magnetic recording device is
designed.
Bridgeton, New Jersey, USA 
[1] From Oberlin Smith, ''Some
Possible Forms of Phonograph'', The
Electrical World, September 8, 1888,
pp.
116 http://books.google.com/books?id=Vl
VEAQAAIAAJ {ULSF: Curiously the pages
of the Smith article are missing.}
AND http://www.richardhess.com/tape/his
tory/Engel--Oberlin_Smith_2006.pdf
AND {Smith_Oberlin_Possible_Forms_of_Ph
onograph_18880908.pdf} PD
source: http://www.richardhess.com/tape/
history/Engel--Oberlin_Smith_2006.pdf

[2] Description rare photo of
Oberlin Smith, first to suggest
magnetic recording Source
http://history.sandiego.edu/gen/rec
ording/tape.html Article Oberlin
Smith Portion used
bust/portrait PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/a/a0/Oberlin-smith-c1888.jpg
112 YBN
[09/??/1888 AD] 		3833) That compounds and the elements
they are composed of can absorb
different frequencies of light is
demonstrated by the fact that water is
transparent to ultra-violet rays for
which oxygen is opaque.
(Royal Institution) London, England
 
[1] Picture taken from page 230 of T.
O’Connor Sloane's Liquid Air and the
Liquefaction of Gases, second edition,
published by Norman W. Henley and Co.,
New York, 1900. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/8/89/Dewar_James.jpg

[2] English: Picture of Sir James
Dewar, the scientist Source Page 98
of History of Chemistry (book) Date
1910 Author Thomas Thorpe PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2c/Dewar_James_flask.jpg

112 YBN
[12/13/1888 AD] 		4291) That radio can be focused and
polarized is proven by Heinrich Hertz.
(University of Karlsruhe) Karlsruhe,
Germany 
[1] H. Hertz, ''Ueber Strahlen
electrischer Kraft'', Sitzungsber. d.
Berlin Akad. d. Wiss., 12/13/1888 and
Annalen der Physik Volume 272 (V36),
Issue 4, Pages 769 -
783. http://www3.interscience.wiley.com
/journal/112506747/abstract English
translation: Heinrich Hertz, tr: D. E.
Jones, ''On Electric Radiation'',
''Electric Waves'', 1893, 1962,
p172. http://books.google.com/books?id=
EJdAAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=inti
tle:electric+intitle:waves&lr=&as_drrb_i
s=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1893&as_maxm
_is=0&as_maxy_is=1893&as_brr=0&cd=1#v=on
epage&q&f=false PD
source: Heinrich Hertz, tr: D. E.
Jones, "On Electric Radiation",
"Electric Waves", 1893, 1962.

[2] H. Hertz, ''Ueber Strahlen
electrischer Kraft'', Sitzungsber. d.
Berlin Akad. d. Wiss., 12/13/1888 and
Annalen der Physik Volume 272 (V36),
Issue 4, Pages 769 -
783. http://www3.interscience.wiley.com
/journal/112506747/abstract English
translation: Heinrich Hertz, tr: D. E.
Jones, ''On Electric Radiation'',
''Electric Waves'', 1893, 1962,
p172. http://books.google.com/books?id=
EJdAAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=inti
tle:electric+intitle:waves&lr=&as_drrb_i
s=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1893&as_maxm
_is=0&as_maxy_is=1893&as_brr=0&cd=1#v=on
epage&q&f=false PD
source: Heinrich Hertz, tr: D. E.
Jones, "On Electric Radiation",
"Electric Waves", 1893, 1962.
112 YBN
[1888 AD] 		3745) The name "chromosome" is given.
(University of Berlin) Berlin,
Germany 
[1] Heinrich Wilhelm von
Waldeyer-Hartz, German anatomist. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/4/43/Von-waldeyer-hartz.jpg

[2] Waldeyer-Hartz [Waldeyer], Wilhelm
von PD
source: http://vlp.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/v
lpimages/images/img29768.jpg
112 YBN
[1888 AD] 		3801) A pressure of 3,000 atmospheres
is obtained.
(faculte Libre des Sciences of Lyons)
Lyons, France 
[1] Disposition for apparatus for very
high pressure PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=pwwWTqLaT48C&pg=PA107&dq=Emile+Hilaire+
Amagat&as_brr=1&ei=U7JeSfjXN4qakQSNxungD
Q#PPA68,M1

[2] Figure 2: Pressure apparatus with
electric contacts. fig 3: piezometer
for Gases. fig 4: piezometer for
Liquids. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=pwwWTqLaT48C&pg=PA107&dq=Emile+Hilaire+
Amagat&as_brr=1&ei=U7JeSfjXN4qakQSNxungD
Q#PPA63,M1
112 YBN
[1888 AD] 		3915) That the sex (or germ) cells in
angiosperms, like those in animals,
have only half the number of
chromosomes than cells in the rest of
the body have is recognized.
(University of Bonn) Bonn,
Germany 
[1] Description EStrasburger.jpg E
Strasburger Source The
Darwin-Wallace celebration held on
THURSDAY, IST JULY, 1908, BY THE
LINNEAN SOCIETY OF LONDON. �� Date
1908 (1908) Auteur Linnean
Society PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/aa/EStrasburger.jpg
112 YBN
[1888 AD] 		4025) Moving images are captured and
stored onto rolls of sensitized paper.
(College de France) Paris, France
(presumably) 
[1] Marey's photographic gun This item
is on display at the Musée des Arts et
Métiers, Paris Copyright © 2006
David Monniaux GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/7f/Fusil_de_Marey_p10403
53.jpg

[2] The Illustration to the left is
entitled ''Flight of the birds
according to the instantaneous
photographs of Mr. Marey'', From 1882
PD/Corel
source: http://www.precinemahistory.net/
images/marey_fusil_card.jpg
112 YBN
[1888 AD] 		4108) Bacteria that live in the nodules
of leguminous plants that convert
atmospheric nitrogen into molecules
with nitrogen in a form that plants can
use are identified.
(Dutch Yeast and Spirit Factory) Delft,
Netherlands 
[1] Martinus Beijerinck in his
laboratory. Date 12 May
1921(1921-05-12) Source Delft
School of Microbiology Archives PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d2/Mwb_in_lab.JPG

[2] Martinus Willem Beijerinck 1851
-1931 PD
source: http://www.digitallibrary.nl/rel
ated_files/jpg/beijerinck.jpg
112 YBN
[1888 AD] 		4118) The theory that visible light can
be produced from electrical
oscillation.
(University College) Liverpool,
England 
[1] English: Picture of Sir Oliver
Joseph Lodge, the British
scientist Date 1917(1917) Source
Page 19 of British Universities
and the War: A Record and Its
Meaning Author Herbert Albert
Laurens
Fisher http://books.google.com/books?id
=ZWcoNGuoaGQC&pg=PA20&dq=physics+oliver+
lodge&lr=&as_brr=1#PPA18-IA1,M2 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/cf/Lodge_Oliver_Joseph_b
w.jpg

[2] Caricature of physicist and writer
Oliver Joseph Lodge, printed in
''Vanity Fair'' in 1904 Date
1904(1904) Source Cartoon
by Via
http://web4.si.edu/sil/scientific-iden
tity/display_results.cfm?alpha_sort=N P
D
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/58/Oliver_Joseph_Lodge.j
pg
112 YBN
[1888 AD] 		4210) The first consumer camera, which
brings the ability to capture photos to
average people.
(Eastman Dry Plate Company) Rochester,
NY, USA (presumably) 
[1] Eastman's patent #388,850 for a
camera of 09/04/1888. PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=rAlvAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&
f=false

[2] An early ad featuring a slogan
coined by Eastman. PD
source: http://www.kodak.com/US/images/e
n/corp/kodakHistory/WeddingGiftAd.gif
112 YBN
[1888 AD] 		4350) A piezoelectric balance-can
measure very small quantities of
electricity.
(Sorbonne) Paris, France 
[1] Beschreibung Jacques Curie
(1856-1941, links) mit seinem Bruder
Pierre Curie (1859-1906) und seinen
Eltern Eugène Curie (1827-1910) und
Sophie-Claire Depouilly
(1832-1897) Quelle Françoise
Giroud: Marie Curie. A Life. Holmes &
Meier, New York London 1986, ISBN
0-8419-0977-6, nach Seite 138 Urheber
bzw. Nutzungsrechtinhaber
unbekannt Datum
1878 Genehmigung
Bild-PD-alt-100 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/de/3/3a/Curie%2C_Jacques_und_Pierr
e_mit_Eltern.jpg

[2] Pierre Curie UNKNOWN
source: http://www.espci.fr/esp/MUSE/ima
ge002.gif
111 YBN
[02/16/1889 AD] 		211) Electricity is used to restart a
heart beating by Dr. John A McWilliam.
(University of Aberdeen) Aberdeen,
Scotland 
[1] Figure 2 from: McWilliam JA
(1899). ''Electrical stimulation of the
heart in man''. Br Med J 1 (1468):
348–50.
doi:10.1136/bmj.1.1468.348. http://www.
bmj.com/content/1/1468/348 PD
source: http://www.bmj.com/content/1/146
8/348
111 YBN
[03/12/1889 AD] 		6255) An automatic telephone exchange
that allows people to connect their own
phone calls is invented by Almon
Strowger.
Kansas City, Missouri, USA 
[1] U.S. Patent 447,918 Strowger switch
''Automatic Telephone Exchange'' March
10,
1891 http://www.google.com/patents?id=P
ShCAAAAEBAJ PD
source: Figure from:
http://www.google.com/patents?id=PShCA
AAAEBAJ

[2] U.S. Patent 447,918 Strowger
switch ''Automatic Telephone Exchange''
March 10,
1891 http://www.google.com/patents?id=P
ShCAAAAEBAJ PD
source: Figure
from: http://www.google.com/patents?id=
PShCAAAAEBAJ
111 YBN
[03/14/1889 AD] 		3844) That ozone is highly fluorescent
which provides an alternative
explanation for the blue color of the
sky of Earth is shown.
(Royal College of Science) Dublin,
Ireland 
[1] Walter Hartley
(1846–1913) Walter Hartley
(1846-1913) was appointed professor of
chemistry at the Royal College of
Science for Ireland in 1879 and was
dean of faculty at the time of the
opening of the new building in 1911. A
pioneer in the area of spectroscopy,
Hartley was the recipient of many
international honours. Among his most
significant investigations are his work
on the relationship between molecular
structure and absorption spectra, and
his discovery of the absorption of
ultraviolet radiation by ozone. Many of
his studies addressed practical
applications of scientific research,
covering subjects such as dyes for the
Irish textile industry, studies for the
brewing and distilling industries and
chemicals for the prevention of potato
blight. Hartley was knighted in
1911. The conferral was to have taken
place at the opening of the new college
building, but he was unable to attend
due to ill health. He retired that year
for health reasons and died two years
later. Hartley and his wife, the then
popular novelist Mary (May) Laffan, had
one son, Walter John, a former RCScI
student who died at Gallipoli in
1915. PD
source: http://www.ucd.ie/merrionstreet/
images/1910/hartley.jpg
111 YBN
[05/02/1889 AD] 		4117) The theory that matter contracts
depending on its velocity relative to
the speed of light is used by George
Fitzgerald to explain the Michelson
experiment while preserving the theory
of an aether medium for light.

Fitzgerald suggests, as an explanation
for the Michelson-Morley experiment,
that "the length of material bodies
changes, according as they are moving
through the ether or across it, by an
amount depending on the square of the
ratio of their velocity to that of
light.".
Dublin, Ireland 
[1] George Francis FitzGerald
(1851-1901). Date Unknown, but
1901 or earlier. Source Scanned
from Oliver Heaviside: Sage in Solitude
(ISBN 0-87942-238-6), p. 48. It was
scanned on an Epson Perfection 1250 at
400dpi, reduced to grayscale in
Photoshop, and saved as JPG using the
'Save for Web' optimizer. Originally
uploaded to en.wikipedia on 20:51, 27
July 2004 by Grendelkhan. Author
Unknown. Permission (Reusing
this image) The photograph is
reprinted courtesy of the IEEE in
London (as stated in the credits in the
back of the book, p. 318), but its age
implies that it's public domain. (It
must have been taken in 1901 or
earlier.) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/fa/George_Francis_FitzGe
rald.jpg
111 YBN
[06/03/1889 AD] 		4834) The first commercial wireless
telegraph message.
(University of Glasgow) Glasgow,
Scotland 
[1] Scan of original plain paper
manuscript from Marconi Calling, see
link for more information. Also see a
copy of the telegraph instructions.
PD
source: http://zapatopi.net/kelvin/paper
s/radiotelegraphmessage.png

[2] St. John's Newfoundland kite which
received the famous signal 1901 PD
source: B. L. Jacot de Boinod and D. M.
B. Collier, "Marconi: Master of Space"
(1935)
111 YBN
[06/21/1889 AD] 		4021) The motion picture camera and
projector. Moving images are captured,
stored on plastic film, and projected
onto a screen, played together with
sound from a phonograph.
(Piccadilly) London, England 
[1] The first (publicly known[t]) Films
Made on Celluloid (1889-1890) PD
source: Ray Allister, pseudonym for
Muriel Forth, "Friese-Greene: Close-up
of an Inventor", Marsland Publications,
1948.

[2] Description
Williamfriesegreen.jpg English:
William Friese-Greene photographed in
c.1890 Date c1890 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2d/Williamfriesegreen.jp
g
111 YBN
[06/21/1889 AD] 		4024) The theory that a picture seen by
the eye can be captured from
phosphorescence.
(London and Provincial Photographic
Association) London, England 
[1] Description
Williamfriesegreen.jpg English:
William Friese-Greene photographed in
c.1890 Date c1890 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2d/Williamfriesegreen.jp
g

[2] William Friese-Green PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=CQfOAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA291&dq=Friese-Greene&
as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=Friese-Greene&f=fal
se
111 YBN
[11/12/1889 AD] 		3966) The first "spectroscopic binary"
star is identified and observed to have
a period of rotation of 104 days. A
spectroscopic binary is two stars that
appear as one, but over time a spectral
line appears to double because of
change in relative velocity as one star
moves toward the Earth and the other
star moves away.
Harvard College Observatory, Cambridge,
Massachusetts, USA 
[1] Spectrum of Mizar, showing double
lines above and single lines below
(period 20.5) days from Frost, Yerkes
Observatory. (presumably the two lines
on the far left are the hydrogen lines
- but why do the other lines
align?[t]) PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=mg48AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA512&dq=vogel+pickerin
g+spectroscopic+binary#v=onepage&q=vogel
%20pickering%20spectroscopic%20binary&f=
false

[2] Mizar and Alcor stars The image
was produced by WikiSky's image cutout
tool out of DSS2 data. See Copyright
notice. Source url:
http://server1.wikisky.org/imgcut.jsp?su
rvey=DSS2&img_id=all&angle=2&ra=13.39875
&de=54.92528&width=1800&height=1800&proj
ection=tan&jpeg_quality=0.9&interpolatio
n=bicubic CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/f/f4/Mizar_and_Alcor.jpg
111 YBN
[11/28/1889 AD] 		3818) The first planet of another star
is detected by the oscillation of a
spectral line. The variation in the
light of Algol is shown to be due to
the partial eclipse of its light by a
dark satellite because the spectral
lines shift from blue to red over a
regular period of time in sync with the
variation in the visible light of
Algol.
Unlike spectroscopic binary stars,
these spectra only show one oscillating
spectral line because the light from
the companion is too dim to see.
(Astrophysical Observatory at Potsdam)
Potsdam, Germany 
[1] Vogel, H.C., Scheiner, ''Der
Vorsitzende berichtete über die
Resultate spectrographischer
Beobachtungen des Sterns Algol durch
die'', Sitzungsberichte der
Preussischen Akademie der
Wissenschaften, 1789,
p1045-1046. books.google.com/books?id=_
k8VAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA1045 English
translation: ''The Chairman reported
on the results of spectrographic
observations of the star Algol by prof.
H. C. Vogel and Dr. Scheiner''
(Transactions of the Prussian Academy
of Sciences) PD
source: books.google.com/books?id=_k8VAA
AAYAAJ&pg=PA1045

[2] Description Photograph of
Hermann Carl Vogel, the
astronomer Source Opposite page
129 of Astronomers of Today Date
1905 Author Hector
Macpherson PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d2/Vogel_Hermann_Carl.jp
g
111 YBN
[1889 AD] 		3549) The first practical smokeless
explosive powder, cordite is invented.
London, England (presumably) 
[1] Photograph of sectioned British 18
pounder field gun shrapnel round, World
War I. Exhibit is on display at the
Canadian War Museum, Ottowa. Catalogue
information : Artifact Number
20020045-592 Museum CWM Place of Use
Country - United Kingdom, Municipality
- no entry Place of Origin Country -
no entry, Municipality - no
entry Inscription 18 PR II
48 Measurements Height 8.5 cm, Length
12.5 cm, Width 57.0 cm Events
1914-1919 First World War Service
Component British Expeditionary
Force Category 05: tools and equipment
for science and
technology Sub-category E140:
armament, ammunition Caption Artillery
Shell, 18-pounder Additional
Information (corrected) : This cutaway
of an 18-pounder shell reveals the
shrapnel balls which were embedded in
resin to hold them in a stable
position. The fuze in the nose was time
set to ignite the powder charge in the
cavity in the base of the shell as it
approached the target. At this point
the shell was usually angling towards
the ground. This small explosion
propelled the balls forward out of the
case and they spread apart in a cone at
increased velocity forward and towards
the ground. The effect was of a large
shotgun blast fired from in front of
and above the target. The usual target
was barbed wire defences and
troops. In the cartridge below the
shell is a simulated bundle of cordite,
the propellant charge which fired the
shell. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c5/Brisanzgranate_1_db.j
pg

[2] Frederick Augustus Abel,
engraving. Photos.com/Jupiterimages PD
/Corel
source: http://media-2.web.britannica.co
m/eb-media/73/101973-004-F0247DE2.jpg
111 YBN
[1889 AD] 		3701) That many generations of mice
with their tail cut off still produce
mice with tails is evidence against the
theory of the inheritance of acquired
characteristics.
(University of Freiburg) Freiburg,
Germany 
[1] Weismann, August Friedrich
Leopold The Bettmann Archive PD/Corel

source: http://media-2.web.britannica.co
m/eb-media/23/39723-004-C1872D1B.jpg

[2] Source: Edwin G. Conklin, ''August
Weismann'' Proceedings of the American
Philosophical Society, Vol. 54, No.
220. (Oct. - Dec., 1915), pp.
iii-xii. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/15/August_Weismann.jpg
111 YBN
[1889 AD] 		4128) The neuron theory is established:
that the entire nervous system is made
of cells that nowhere touch each other.
(University of Barcelona) Barcelona,
Spain 
[1] Visual cortex from 1899 Ramon y
Cajal work PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=2Dv-zWg89tsC&pg=PA382&dq=inauthor:cajal
&lr=&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f=false

[2] Portrait of Ramon y Cajal PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=2Dv-zWg89tsC&pg=PA382&dq=inauthor:cajal
&lr=&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f=false
111 YBN
[1889 AD] 		4277) Bacteria are grown on a solid
media surrounded by a hydrogen
atmosphere.
(Robert Koch's laboratory) Berlin,
Germany 
[1] Shibasaburo Kitasato. PD
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/articles/behring/images/fig8
.jpg

[2] Shibasaburo Kitasato PD
source: http://www.lib.city.minato.tokyo
.jp/yukari/person_img/035kitazato.jpg
111 YBN
[1889 AD] 		4396) Phosphorescence is shown to be
caused by the presence of very small
quantities of copper, bismuth, or
manganese in what were previously
thought to be pure alkaline earth
sulfides (a sulfide is a chemical
compound containing sulfur and one
other element or sulfur and a radical).
(University of Heidelberg) Heidelberg,
Germany 
[1] Description Phillipp Lenard in
1900.jpg German physicist Phillipp
Lenard Date According this
source, picture is taked in
1900 Source Encyclopaedia
Britannica. Original source AIP Emilio
Segrè Visual Archives, American
Institute of Physics. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1d/Phillipp_Lenard_in_19
00.jpg
110 YBN
[02/??/1890 AD] 		4223) A simple equation that describes
the spectral lines for various
elements.
(University of Lund) Lund, Sweden 
[1] Rydberg equation form 1 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=9k8wAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source
=gbs_v2_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&f=f
alse

[2] Description: middle age;
three-quarter view; moustache; gold
seal at lower left corner; 'Head of
physics Dept. at the State University
in Lund 1900-1919.' Date:
Unknown Credit: AIP Emilio Segre
Visual Archives, W. F. Meggers
Collection Names: Rydberg, Johannes
Robert PD
source: http://photos.aip.org/history/Th
umbnails/rydberg_johannes_a1.jpg
110 YBN
[09/04/1890 AD] 		4301) The motion of nebulae such as
those of Orion are measured and shown
to be similar to those of the stars
which implies that these nebulae are
part of the Milky Way Galaxy.
(Lick Observatory) Mount Hamilton, CA,
USA 
[1] This is a file from the Wikimedia
Commons Description Keeler
James.jpg American astronomer James
Keeler Date 1903(1903) Source
Biographical Memoirs of the
National Academy of Sciences Author
Charles S. Hastings PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/18/Keeler_James.jpg
110 YBN
[11/15/1890 AD] 		3243) The electric machine gun.
New York City, NY, USA 
[1] Firing the Gatling Gun by
electricity: (1) gun in operation; (2)
gun with electrical attachment; (3)
Crocker-Wheeler motor. PD/Corel
source: http://proquest.umi.com/pqdlink?
index=2&did=171682571&SrchMode=3&sid=2&F
mt=10&VInst=PROD&VType=PQD&RQT=309&VName
=HNP&TS=1212686101&clientId=48051&aid=1

[2] Patent for first Gatlin
gun PD/Corel
source: http://patimg1.uspto.gov/.piw?Do
cid=00036836&homeurl=http%3A%2F%2Fpatft.
uspto.gov%2Fnetacgi%2Fnph-Parser%3FSect1
%3DPTO1%2526Sect2%3DHITOFF%2526d%3DPALL%
2526p%3D1%2526u%3D%25252Fnetahtml%25252F
PTO%25252Fsrchnum.htm%2526r%3D1%2526f%3D
G%2526l%3D50%2526s1%3D0036,836.PN.%2526O
S%3DPN%2F0036,836%2526RS%3DPN%2F0036,836
&PageNum=&Rtype=&SectionNum=&idkey=NONE&
Input=View+first+page
110 YBN
[12/26/1890 AD] 		4123) A method of using hot water under
pressure to melt underground sulfur
deposits which increases the supply of
sulfur.
Cleveland, Ohio, USA 
[1] English: en:Hermann Frasch,
German-American petro-chemist PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6d/Hermann_Frasch.gif

[2] Figures from Frasch's 1890
patent PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=H3FcAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4#v
=onepage&q=&f=false
110 YBN
[1890 AD] 		4200) That an animal can be given
passive (or short lived) immunity
against tetanus (also known as lockjaw)
by injecting the animal with the blood
serum of another animal infected with
the disease is found.
(Robert Koch Institute of Hygiene)
Berlin, Germany 
[1] Description E A
Behring.jpg Emil von Behring Date
Unknown Source
http://ihm.nlm.nih.gov/images/B0144
1 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c7/E_A_Behring.jpg

[2] Shibasaburo Kitasato. PD
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/articles/behring/images/fig8
.jpg
110 YBN
[1890 AD] 		4487) New optically active compounds
are synthesized around such metals as
cobalt, chromium and rhodium.
(Polytechnikum) Zurich,
Switzerland 
[1] Alfred Werner PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/64/Alfred_Werner.jpg
109 YBN
[03/17/1891 AD] 		3610) "Halftone" images (images with
more shades than black and white) are
sent electronically.
Cleveland, Ohio, USA 
[1] It was not until May, 1891, that N.
S. Amstutz, of Valparaiso, Indiana,
sent a picture over telegraph wires
twenty-five miles in length,
accomplishing the first successful
transmission . PD/Corel
source: http://www.hffax.de/history/asse
ts/images/Amstutz.jpg

[2] [t Presumably N S Amstutz, what
must be print from ink on wax engraved
copy] PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=ofcWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA144&dq=Amstutz+telegr
aph&ei=yfrbSPrZDpGssgPvwN3eDg#PPA145,M1
109 YBN
[03/26/1891 AD] 		3522) The suggestion that the minimum
electric charge should be called an
"electron".
(Queen's University) Dublin,
Ireland 
[1] George Johnstone Stoney PD/Corel
source: http://understandingscience.ucc.
ie/img/sc_George_Johnstone_Stoney.jpg

[2] Photo courtesy the Royal Dublin
Society George Johnston Stoney
1826-1911 PD/Corel
source: http://www.iscan.ie/directory/sc
ience/dundrum/images/previews/preview27.
jpg
109 YBN
[04/25/1891 AD] 		4247) The "Tesla coil", a simple
circuit that uses 2 transformers, a
capacitor and spark gap to produce very
high frequency current at very high
voltage.
(Tesla's private lab) New York City,
NY, USA 
[1] Image from Tesla's 1891 patent
#454622 System of Electric Lighting PD

source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=wmBOAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&
f=false

[2] Description Tesla
young.jpg English: The image of
en:Nikola Tesla (1856-1943) at age
23. Date image dated: circa
1878 original upload date:
2005-12-02 transfer date: 17:03, 29
July 2008 (UTC) Source Original
downloaded from
http://www.tesla-symp06.org/nikola_tesla
.htm Author Original uploader was
Antidote at en.wikipedia Transferred
from en.wikipedia by
User:emerson7. Permission (Reusing
this file) This image is in the public
domain PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/60/Tesla_young.jpg
109 YBN
[05/20/1891 AD] 		4018) The first practical motion
picture camera and projector, the
"Kinetoscope".
(private lab) West Orange, New Jersey,
USA 
[1] Sheet of images from one of the
three Monkeyshines films (ca.
1889–90) produced as tests of an
early version of the
Kinetoscope Description
MonkeyshinesStrip.jpg Filmstrip of
one of the three Monkeyshines films
produced by Thomas Edison's laboratory
in 1889–90 for the early cylinder
version of the Kinetoscope PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/65/MonkeyshinesStrip.jpg


[2] Figure 1 from Edison's 08/24/1891
patent
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=A6RoAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4#v
=onepage&q=&f=false
109 YBN
[12/10/1891 AD] 		3822) Liquid oxygen and liquid ozone
are shown to be attracted to both poles
of a magnet.
(Royal Institution) London, England
(presumably) 
[1] Picture taken from page 230 of T.
O’Connor Sloane's Liquid Air and the
Liquefaction of Gases, second edition,
published by Norman W. Henley and Co.,
New York, 1900. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/8/89/Dewar_James.jpg

[2] English: Picture of Sir James
Dewar, the scientist Source Page 98
of History of Chemistry (book) Date
1910 Author Thomas Thorpe PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2c/Dewar_James_flask.jpg

109 YBN
[1891 AD] 		3746) Nerve cells are named "neurons".
(University of Berlin) Berlin,
Germany 
[1] Heinrich Wilhelm von
Waldeyer-Hartz, German anatomist. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/4/43/Von-waldeyer-hartz.jpg

[2] Waldeyer-Hartz [Waldeyer], Wilhelm
von PD
source: http://vlp.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/v
lpimages/images/img29768.jpg
109 YBN
[1891 AD] 		3952) The first color photographic
plate.
University of Paris, Sorbonne
Laboratories of Physical Research,
Paris, France 
[1] Nature morte, 1891-1899 [t more
precise date for photo? and show images
of first color photo by
Lippmann] Photographer: Gabriel
Lippmann (1845-1929) Source:
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/~eugeniik/hist
ory/lippmann.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/87/Lippmann_photo_flower
s.jpg

[2] Self-portrait, ca. 1892 PD
source: http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekat
z/scientists/lippmann_autoport.jpg
109 YBN
[1891 AD] 		4239) Silicon carbide (an extremely
hard substance) is synthesized.
(Carborundum Company) Monongahedla
City, Pennsylvania, USA 
[1] From Acheson's patent PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=U152AAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&
f=false

[2] Edward Acheson in his lab PD
presumably
source: http://www.jergym.hiedu.cz/~cano
vm/objevite/objev4/ach_soubory/acheson_l
ab.jpg
109 YBN
[1891 AD] 		4242) Greenland is proven to be an
island by reaching the previously
unexplored northern coast.
Greenland 
[1] Matthew Henson (centre) and other
members of Robert E. Peary's North Pole
expedition, April 1909. Robert
Peary—Hulton Archive/Getty Images
Henson, Matthew Alexander.
Photograph. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Web. 18 Feb. 2010
. 04/1909 PD
source: http://cache.eb.com/new-multimed
ia/bigimages/polexp002.jpg

[2] Description Robert Edwin
Peary.jpg English: Robert Edwin Peary
(1856 - 1920), polar explorer, on the
main deck of steamship Roosevelt Date
c 1909; first upload: Nov 16, 2004
- de:Wikipedia Source Library of
Congress, Prints and Photographs
Division: LC-USZ62-8234;
LC-USZC4-7507 http://www.loc.gov/rr/pri
nt/list/235_pop.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/21/Robert_Edwin_Peary.jp
g
109 YBN
[1891 AD] 		4417) A camera and motor driven
telescope which compensates for the
motion of the Earth relative to distant
celestial objects is used for long
exposure photographs. 500 asteroids
will be identified with this method, a
third of all known to exist.
(University of Heidelberg) Heidelberg,
Germany 
[1] Description Max
Wolf.jpg Maximilian Franz Joseph
Cornelius Wolf (June 21, 1863–October
3, 1932), German astronomer Date
Source Archiv fur Kunst und
Geschichte,
Berlin http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
icle-9077333/Max-Wolf PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e0/Max_Wolf.jpg
108 YBN
[05/??/1892 AD] 		4399) A jet of water passing through
air is found to cause air to become
negatively electrified.
(University of Bonn) Bonn,
Germany 
[1] Description Phillipp Lenard in
1900.jpg German physicist Phillipp
Lenard Date According this
source, picture is taked in
1900 Source Encyclopaedia
Britannica. Original source AIP Emilio
Segrè Visual Archives, American
Institute of Physics. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1d/Phillipp_Lenard_in_19
00.jpg
108 YBN
[09/03/1892 AD] 		4316) The fifth moon of Jupiter,
Amalthea is observed.
(Lick Observatory) Mt. Hamilton,
California, USA 
[1] Jupiter's moon Amalthea
photographed by Galileo.jpg Courtesy
NASA/JPL-Caltech
http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/images/policy/
index.cfm Jupiter's moon Amalthea,
photographed by Galileo. Date
2004-06-18 (original upload
date) Source Originally from
en.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. Author Original uploader
was Curps at
en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) PD-LAYOUT; PD-USGOV. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c0/Jupiter%27s_moon_Amal
thea_photographed_by_Galileo.jpg

[2] Edward Emerson Barnard Photo from
Mary Lea Shane Archives, Lick
Observatory 16 December 1857 1917
Bruce Medalist PD
source: http://www.phys-astro.sonoma.edu
/BruceMedalists/Barnard/barnard.jpg
108 YBN
[1892 AD] 		3700) The "germ plasm" theory of
heredity; that all inherited traits
come only from the chromosomes.
(University of Freiburg) Freiburg,
Germany 
[1] Weismann, August Friedrich
Leopold The Bettmann Archive PD/Corel

source: http://media-2.web.britannica.co
m/eb-media/23/39723-004-C1872D1B.jpg

[2] Source: Edwin G. Conklin, ''August
Weismann'' Proceedings of the American
Philosophical Society, Vol. 54, No.
220. (Oct. - Dec., 1915), pp.
iii-xii. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/15/August_Weismann.jpg
108 YBN
[1892 AD] 		3823) The double-wall vacuum container
is invented by James Dewar (DYUR).
(Royal Institution) London, England
(presumably) 
[1] Picture taken from page 230 of T.
O’Connor Sloane's Liquid Air and the
Liquefaction of Gases, second edition,
published by Norman W. Henley and Co.,
New York, 1900. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/8/89/Dewar_James.jpg

[2] English: Picture of Sir James
Dewar, the scientist Source Page 98
of History of Chemistry (book) Date
1910 Author Thomas Thorpe PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2c/Dewar_James_flask.jpg

108 YBN
[1892 AD] 		4236) The first synthetic silk (rayon)
(Cross and Bevan's private business)
New Court, Lincoln's Inn, England 
[1] Charles Frederick
Cross COPYRIGHTED?
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/pdfp
lus/768976.pdf
108 YBN
[1892 AD] 		4326) The diesel engine: instead of a
spark, the heat from compressing the
fuel-air mixture raises the temperature
of the mixture to the point where
ignition happens. The diesel engine can
use heavier fractions of petroleum-
kerosene instead of gasoline, and so
costs less and is less flammable. But
the diesel engine is a large structure
that can't be used in cars.
(Carle von Linde firm) Berlin,
Germany 
[1] figure from U.S. Patent
0,542,846 PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=oV5wAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f
=false

[2] This is a file from the Wikimedia
Commons Description Diesel
1883.jpg English: Rudolf Diesel,
inventor of the diesel engine Deutsch:
Rudolf Diesel, Erfinder des
Dieselmotors PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/90/Diesel_1883.jpg
107 YBN
[03/04/1893 AD] 		3841) Nitrogen obtained from air is
found to have a slightly higher density
than nitrogen obtained from ammonium
and this will lead to the discovery of
the inert gases.
(Strutt Home Laboratory) Terling,
England 
[1] Figure 1 from Rayleigh 1893 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=qwYWAAAAYAAJ&printsec=titlepage#PPA136,
M1

[2] Description: young; three-quarter
view; suit; sitting Date:
Unknown Credit: AIP Emilio Segre
Visual Archives, Physics Today
Collection Names: Rayleigh, John
William Strutt, Baron PD/Corel
source: http://photos.aip.org/history/Th
umbnails/rayleigh_john_william_strutt_a3
.jpg
107 YBN
[04/17/1893 AD] 		4161) The meter is measured in terms of
a cadmium-red wavelength.
(Clark University) Worcester,
Massachusetts, USA 
[1] Description Albert Abraham
Michelson2.jpg Photograph of Nobel
Laureate Albert Abraham
Michelson. Date 2006-09-27
(original upload date) Source
Photograph is a higher quality
version of the public domain image
available from
AstroLab http://astro-canada.ca/_en/pho
to690.php?a4313_michelson1 PD
source: Michelson_Albert_Abraham_Michels
on2.jpg

[2] Albert Michelson (verify) Photo
made in 1887 PD
source: http://home.att.net/~dblawren/im
ages3/A-Michelson2.jpg
107 YBN
[04/18/1893 AD] 		4393) Calculating of currents,
voltages, and resistances is simplified
using complex-numbers.
(Edison's company) West Orange, N.J.,
USA 
[1] Figure 1 from ''Impedance'' PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=3C0SAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA226#v=onepage&q&f=fal
se

[2] Arthur E. Kennelly UNKNOWN
source: http://www.ieeeghn.org/wikitest/
images/c/ca/Arthur_E._Kennelly.jpg
107 YBN
[1893 AD] 		4379) High frequency light is found to
kill bacteria.
 
[1] Niels Ryberg Finsen PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/88/Niels_ryberg.jpg
107 YBN
[1893 AD] 		4449) A bolometer shows that infrared
spectral emission lines are produced
merely by heating a gas.
(University of Hannover) Hannover ,
Germany 
[1] Description Friedrich Paschen
Physiker.jpg Friedrich Paschen
(1865-1947) deutscher Physiker Date
unknown Source
www.maerkischeallgemeine.de Author
Schiwago GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a5/Friedrich_Paschen_Phy
siker.jpg
107 YBN
[1893 AD] 		6610) The death rate from cholera is
reduced by 70 per cent among 45
thousand people inoculated by a highly
virulent strain of heat-killed cholera.
India 
[1] Waldemar Haffkine
(1860-1930) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.pasteur.fr/infosci/ar
chives/im/haf.jpg
106 YBN
[01/12/1894 AD] 		4397) A cathode-ray tube is made with
an air-tight thin aluminum window
through which cathode rays can emerge
into open air. Using this tube cathode
rays are shown to ionize the air making
it electrically conducting.
(University of Heidelberg) Heidelberg,
Germany 
[1] Lenard, Philipp. Über
Kathodenstrahlen in Gasen von
atmosphaerischem Druck und im
äussersten Vacuum. Gedruckt in der
Reichsdruckerei, 1893. English:
Cathode rays in gases at atmospheric
pressure and in the highest vacuum and
also: Philipp Lenard (1894). ''Ueber
Kathodenstrahlen in Gasen von
atmosphärischem Druck und im
äussersten Vacuum''. Annalen der
Physik 287 (2): 225–267.
doi:10.1002/andp.18942870202. and Phil
ipp Lenard (1894). ''Ueber
Kathodenstrahlen in Gasen von
atmosphärischem Druck und im
äussersten Vacuum''. Mathematische und
Naturwissenschaftliche Mittheilungen
aus den ...,
p2. http://books.google.com/books?id=2M
UmAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA1 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=2MUmAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA2

[2] Description Phillipp Lenard in
1900.jpg German physicist Phillipp
Lenard Date According this
source, picture is taked in
1900 Source Encyclopaedia
Britannica. Original source AIP Emilio
Segrè Visual Archives, American
Institute of Physics. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1d/Phillipp_Lenard_in_19
00.jpg
106 YBN
[01/19/1894 AD] 		3828) Magnetic strength is shown to
increase with colder temperature.
(Royal Institution) London, England
 
[1] Picture taken from page 230 of T.
O’Connor Sloane's Liquid Air and the
Liquefaction of Gases, second edition,
published by Norman W. Henley and Co.,
New York, 1900. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/8/89/Dewar_James.jpg

[2] English: Picture of Sir James
Dewar, the scientist Source Page 98
of History of Chemistry (book) Date
1910 Author Thomas Thorpe PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2c/Dewar_James_flask.jpg

106 YBN
[09/??/1894 AD] 		6617) The radial velocity of a Cepheid
variable star is found to match its
period of luminosity which suggests
that a dark companion causes the
variation of Cepheid stars.
Pulkowa 
[1] Belopolsky, A. ''The spectrum of
delta Cephei.'' The Astrophysical
Journal 1 (1895):
160-161. http://articles.adsabs.harvard
.edu//full/1895ApJ.....1..160B/0000160.0
00.html PD
source: http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du//full/1895ApJ.....1..160B/0000160.000
.html

[2] Albrecht, Sebastian. ''A
spectrographic study of the
fourth-class variable stars Y Ophuichi
and T Vulpeculae.'' The Astrophysical
Journal 25 (1907):
330-348. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full
/1907ApJ....25..330A PD
source: http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
907ApJ....25..330A
106 YBN
[10/??/1894 AD] 		4258) The speed of cathode rays is
shown to be about a thousand times
slower than the speed of light by
Joseph John Thomson using a rotating
mirror.
(Trinity College) Cambridge,
England 
[1] Figure From On the Rate of
Propagation of the Luminous Discharge
of Electricity through a Rarefied
Gas.'' By J. J. THOMSON, M.A., F.R.S.,
Cavendish Professor of Experimental
Physics, Cambridge. Received January 2,
1891. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=jAUWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA84&dq=%22the+velocity
+of+propagation%22+of+electric+discharge
+through+gases+thomson&as_brr=1&cd=1#v=o
nepage&q=%22the%20velocity%20of%20propag
ation%22%20of%20electric%20discharge%20t
hrough%20gases%20thomson&f=false

[2] English: J. J. Thomson published
in 1896. Deutsch: Joseph John Thomson
(1856–1940). Ein ursprünglich 1896
veröffentlichter Stahlstich. [edit]
Source From Oliver Heaviside: Sage
in Solitude (ISBN 0-87942-238-6), p.
120. This is a reproduction of a steel
engraving originally published in The
Electrician, 1896. It was scanned on an
Epson Perfection 1250 at 400dpi,
cleaned up (some text was showing
through the back) in Photoshop, reduced
to grayscale, and saved as JPG using
the 'Save for Web' optimizer.. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5e/JJ_Thomson.jpg
106 YBN
[1894 AD] 		2657) The start of multiplexing by
Jean-Maurice-Émile Baudot {BxDO}:
using a single wire to transmit
multiple messages by only sending one
character at a time while alternating
between a group of messages.
France 
[1] Crotch, A. The Hughes and Baudot
Telegraphs. Rentell, 1908,
p78. http://books.google.com/books?id=n
9pAAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA78 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=n9pAAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA78

[2] Crotch, A. The Hughes and Baudot
Telegraphs. Rentell, 1908,
p81. http://books.google.com/books?id=n
9pAAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA81 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=n9pAAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA81
106 YBN
[1894 AD] 		3144) A vacuum of 1.8 nanometers of
mercury is obtained by using a metal
tube instead of a glass tube which
avoids the electrification of the glass
by the falling mercury.
(University of Basel) Basel,
Switzerland 
[1] Fig. 7. The ultimate vacuum from
1660 to 1900. Note the break in the
time scale. COPYRIGHTED
source: Vacuum_1999_sdarticle.pdf
106 YBN
[1894 AD] 		3913) The bacteria responsible for the
bubonic plague is isolated.
Hong Kong  
106 YBN
[1894 AD] 		4311) Sensory nerves are shown to exist
in muscles; approximately one third to
one half of the nerves in muscles are
sensory, carrying sensation information
to the brain, in order to judge the
tension of a muscle and joint.
(Brown Institution Animal Hospital)
London, England 
[1] Charles Scott Sherrington Source :
http://wwwihm.nlm.nih.gov/ Courtesy of
the National Library of Medicine. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/7/79/Charles_Scott_Sherrington1
.jpg
106 YBN
[1894 AD] 		4318) The first known homo erectus
fossil is found.
Java 
[1] Description
Pithecanthropus-erectus.jpg original
fossils of Pithecanthropus erectus
(now Homo erectus) found in Java in
1891 Date Source personal
scan Author personal scan
120 Permission (Reusing this file)
See below. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c0/Pithecanthropus-erect
us.jpg

[2] Figure from article by Dubois PD
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v53/n1368/pdf/053245b0.pdf
105 YBN
[01/31/1895 AD] 		3842) The element Argon and the series
of inert gases is identified by John
Strutt, 3d Baron Rayleigh, and William
Ramsay (raMZE).

Rayleigh and Ramsay isolate the gas
from air, and heat it using electricity
in a vacuum tube to examine the
spectral lines produced. The strongest
lines are in positions that fit no
known element, and so they know this is
a new gas, which they name Argon. Since
Argon combines with no element, it has
a valence of zero. Rayleigh and Ramsay
theorize correctly that Argon may be
part of an eighth group of elements
with a valence of zero.
(Own Laboratory) Terling, England 
[1] Figure 1 from Rayleigh 1893 PD
source: self-made Author: Atanamir PD

[2] William Ramsay (CE 1852-1916) PD

source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0b/Ar-TableImage.svg
105 YBN
[03/06/1895 AD] 		4351) Above a certain temperature the
magnetic properties of magnetic objects
are shown to stop, and diamagnetism is
shown to be a property of all matter.
(Sorbonne) Paris, France 
[1] Beschreibung Jacques Curie
(1856-1941, links) mit seinem Bruder
Pierre Curie (1859-1906) und seinen
Eltern Eugène Curie (1827-1910) und
Sophie-Claire Depouilly
(1832-1897) Quelle Françoise
Giroud: Marie Curie. A Life. Holmes &
Meier, New York London 1986, ISBN
0-8419-0977-6, nach Seite 138 Urheber
bzw. Nutzungsrechtinhaber
unbekannt Datum
1878 Genehmigung
Bild-PD-alt-100 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/de/3/3a/Curie%2C_Jacques_und_Pierr
e_mit_Eltern.jpg

[2] Pierre Curie UNKNOWN
source: http://www.espci.fr/esp/MUSE/ima
ge002.gif
105 YBN
[03/26/1895 AD] 		4141) The element (and inert gas)
helium is identified on Earth by
William Ramsay (raMZE).

Ramsay liberates an inert gas from
Uraninite by dissolving it in sulfuric
acid and finds that the spectral lines
from the gas are lines that are the
same as those observed emitting from
the Sun earlier by Jannsen which
Lockyer had named Helium.
(University College) London,
England 
[1] Figure 1 from Rayleigh 1893 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d2/William_Ramsay_workin
g.jpg

[2] William Ramsay PD
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/chemistry/laureates/1904/ramsay.jpg
105 YBN
[04/??/1895 AD] 		4032) A motion picture film projector
is demonstrated publicly.
New York City, NY, USA
(presumably) 
[1] Panoptikon (Woodville
Latham) Primitive projector, in
which the two-inch film moved
continuously. The first to be used for
commercial film shows in 1895. Later
(as the Eidoloscope) an intermittent
mechanism was added PD
source: http://www.victorian-cinema.net/
panoptikon.jpg

[2] Major Woodville Latham PD
source: http://www.precinemahistory.net/
images/woodvillelatham_photo.jpg
105 YBN
[05/29/1895 AD] 		3820) A cooling feedback loop is
invented. Cooled gas is reused to cool
incoming gas even more. This process
allows larger quantities of liquid gas
to be produced.
(Munich Thermal Testing Station)
Munich, Germany 
[1] Image from 1895 patent PD
source: http://patft.uspto.gov/netacgi/n
ph-Parser?patentnumber=727650

[2] Sketch of the first air
liquefaction plant of 1895 PD
(presumably)
source: http://www.linde.com/internation
al/web/linde/like35lindecom.nsf/reposito
rybyalias/pdf_ch_chronicle/$file/chronic
le_e%5B1%5D.pdf
105 YBN
[11/05/1895 AD] 		3936) X-rays are discovered by Wilhelm
Konrad Röntgen (ruNTGeN) (rNTGeN).

Roentgen finds that radiation from a
cathode ray tube can pass through very
thick paper and even thin layers of
metal to cause luminescence in a paper
covered with barium platinocyanide.
Roentgen goes on to find that the rays
cannot be bent by even a strong
magnetic field like cathode rays, but
yet do not refract, polarize or
interfere like visible light does.
Roentgen also finds that these rays are
absorbed by air less than cathode rays.
Roentgen calls these rays "X-rays" and
captures the first X-ray photographs,
of the interiors of metal objects and
of the bones in his wife's hand.

X rays are extremely useful as a new
tool in health sciences to see inside
bodies.
(University of Würzburg) Würzburg,
Germany 
[1] English: Photo of Wilhelm Conrad
Röntgen. Cleaned up version of
http://images.google.com/hosted/life/l?i
mgurl=6b3da250c6b5560f Source
unknown source Date 1900 PD
AND Anna Berthe Roentgen.gif Print
of Wilhelm Röntgen's (1845-1923) first
x-ray, the hand of his wife Anna taken
on 1895-12-22, presented to Professor
Ludwig Zehnder of the Physik Institut,
University of Freiburg, on 1 January
1896. Source
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:An
na_Berthe_Roentgen.gif Date 22
December 1895 (1895-12-22) Author
Wilhelm Röntgen PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/71/Roentgen2.jpg AND
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/co
mmons/6/6e/Anna_Berthe_Roentgen.gif

[2] English: Photo of Wilhelm Conrad
Röntgen. Cleaned up version of
http://images.google.com/hosted/life/l?i
mgurl=6b3da250c6b5560f Source
unknown source Date 1900 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/71/Roentgen2.jpg
105 YBN
[12/28/1895 AD] 		4031) The first commercial moving
picture film projector.
Paris, France (presumably) 
[1] Several Seconds Of “L'Arrivée
d'un Train en Gare de la Ciotat”
(Arrival Of A Train At La Ciotat
Station) from 1895 PD
source: http://www.precinemahistory.net/
images/ciotat_animation_small.gif

[2] Auguste Lumière (left) and Louis
Lumière (right) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/93/Fratelli_Lumiere.jpg
105 YBN
[1895 AD] 		3991) The thyroid gland is found to
have a large amount of iodine.
(University of Freiberg) Freiberg,
Germany 
[1] Beschreibung Eugen Baumann
(1846 - 1896), deutscher
Chemiker Quelle
Bioanalytical.com Urheber
bzw. Nutzungsrechtinhaber
Unbekannter Fotograf Datum
vor 1896 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/de/e/e5/Eugen_Baumann.jpg

[2] Eugen Baumann PD
source: http://clendening.kumc.edu/dc/pc
/Baumann.jpg
105 YBN
[1895 AD] 		4302) The inner boundary of Saturn's
rings are shown to rotate more quickly
than the outer boundary, by using the
Doppler shift of the spectral lines
from the rings of Saturn. This is
evidence that Saturn's rings are not
solid but are made of individual
objects.
(Allegheny Observatory) Pittsburgh,
Pennsylvania, USA 
[1] Figure 1 from Keeler's 1895
paper {ULSF: Apparently you need to
rotate this image 90 degrees to see
that the blue shift may be due to the
left part of saturn being toward the
blue side (a right side node) and the
right side being toward the red side.-
But I think it would be diagonally in
the other direction- it might be
possible to observe with a amateur
telescope- but the spectrum would
probably need to be large or
magnified.} PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=ExzOAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA416&dq=A+Spectroscopi
c+Proof+of+the+Meteoric+Constitution+of+
Saturn%27s+Rings&lr=&as_drrb_is=b&as_min
m_is=0&as_miny_is=1895&as_maxm_is=0&as_m
axy_is=1895&as_brr=0&cd=1#v=onepage&q=A%
20Spectroscopic%20Proof%20of%20the%20Met
eoric%20Constitution%20of%20Saturn%27s%2
0Rings&f=false

[2] This is a file from the Wikimedia
Commons Description Keeler
James.jpg American astronomer James
Keeler Date 1903(1903) Source
Biographical Memoirs of the
National Academy of Sciences Author
Charles S. Hastings PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/18/Keeler_James.jpg
105 YBN
[1895 AD] 		4703) Two components of blood serum are
found to be responsible for breaking
bacterial cell walls (bacteriolysis):
one is a heat-stable antibody found
only in animals already immune to the
bacterium; the other is a
heat-sensitive substance found in all
animals and is named "alexin" (and is
now called "complement").
(Pasteur Institute) Paris, France 
[1] Jules Bordet UNKNOWN
source: http://de.academic.ru/pictures/d
ewiki/74/Jules_bordet.jpg
105 YBN
[1895 AD] 		4717) That cathode rays aimed at an
isolated metal cylinder give the
cylinder a negative charge, and when
the current is reversed positive rays
give the cylinder a positive charge is
found by Jean Perrin {Pe-raN}. This
charge can be stopped by putting the
vacuum-tube between the poles of an
electromagnet to deflect the rays.
Perrin concludes that molecules of
residual gas around the cathode are
separated into positive and negative
ions that move in opposite directions,
and so are not like light vibrations of
the ether.
(École Normale) Paris, France 
[1] Figure from J. Perrin, ''Nouvelles
proprietes des rayons
cathodiques.'',Comptes Rendus, V121,
1895, p1130. PD
source: http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148
/bpt6k3077p.image.f1130.langEN

[2] Jean Baptiste Perrin UNKNOWN
source: http://www.scientific-web.com/en
/Physics/Biographies/images/Jean_Baptist
e_Perrin.jpg
105 YBN
[1895 AD] 		4810) A lecture on photographing the
images of thought is given.
(Sorbonne) Paris, France  
105 YBN
[1895 AD] 		4826) A radio signal is sent and
received over 2.4 km (1.5 miles) by
Guglielmo Marconi.
(father’s estate) Bologna,
Italy 
[1] Marconi, Guglielmo, Marchese
(1874-1937), Italian electrical
engineer and Nobel laureate, known as
the inventor of the first practical
radio-signalling system. PD
source: http://www.greatitalians.com/Ima
ges/Marconi.jpg

[2] Guglielmo Marconi.jpg Guglielmo
Marconi, portrait, head and shoulders,
facing left. Date Copyright
1908 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0d/Guglielmo_Marconi.jpg

104 YBN
[01/24/1896 AD] 		3941) X-rays are detected from an
electric arc.
(City and Guilds Technical College)
Finsbury, England 		 
104 YBN
[01/26/1896 AD] 		3939) That x-rays can be reflected by a
brass parabolic mirror but not by a
glass mirror is shown.
(Reale Istituto Veneto di science)
Veneto, Italy 		 
104 YBN
[02/22/1896 AD] 		3940) X-rays are detected in sunlight.
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
(presumably) 		 
104 YBN
[03/02/1896 AD] 		4151) Radioactivity is discovered:
invisible rays are detected from a
uranium salt by Antoine Henri Becquerel
(Be KreL).

Becquerel theorizes that a fluorescent
material may emit X-rays, and finds
that the fluorescent chemical,
potassium uranyl sulfate, emits X-rays
(which appear on a photographic plate
wrapped in black paper placed
underneath it) even without being made
fluorescent by sunlight.

This identification of X-rays emitting
from potassium uranyl sulfate, implies
that atoms are composed of smaller
particles.
(École Polytechnique) Paris,
France 
[1] Photographic plate made by Henri
Becquerel showing effects of exposure
to radioactivity. Image of
Becquerel's photographic plate which
has been fogged by exposure to
radiation from a uranium salt. The
shadow of a metal Maltese Cross placed
between the plate and the uranium salt
is clearly visible. Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Becqu
erel_plate.jpg PD AND Antoine-Henri
Becquerel (1852-1908) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1e/Becquerel_plate.jpg
AND
http://nautilus.fis.uc.pt/wwwqui/figur
as/quimicos/img/becquerel.jpg

[2] Photographic plate made by Henri
Becquerel showing effects of exposure
to radioactivity. Image of
Becquerel's photographic plate which
has been fogged by exposure to
radiation from a uranium salt. The
shadow of a metal Maltese Cross placed
between the plate and the uranium salt
is clearly visible. Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Becqu
erel_plate.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1e/Becquerel_plate.jpg
104 YBN
[03/03/1896 AD] 		4535) X-rays are found to greatly
increase the number of drops formed
when a gas is expanded beyond that
necessary to produce condensation.
(Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge
University) Cambridge, England 
[1] FIGURE 1. Wilson’s 1895
apparatus. The gas to be expanded is in
the glass vessel A, which itself is
placed inside a glass bottle B, which
is partially filled with water so as to
trap the gas in the inner vessel. The
air above the water in the bottle is
connected with an evacuated vessel F by
tubes D and G, to which are fitted
valves E and K, the latter of which is
normally closed When this valve is
quickly opened, the air at the top of
the bottle B rushes into the evacuated
vessel F and the water in B rises until
it fills the top of the bottle, and by
doing so, closes the valve E, so
stopping further expansion of the gas
in A. By suitably adjusting the initial
volume of the gas in A and the amount
of water in B, the relative expansion
of the gasin Acan be precisely
controlled. UNKNOWN
source: http://callisto.ggsrv.com/imgsrv
/Fetch?recordID=dsb_0001_0014_0_img2645&
contentSet=SCRB&banner=4c40dee8&digest=8
5a2a174d1c79377e98bdee5ed122bd7

[2] Charles Thomson Rees
Wilson Born: 14 February 1869,
Glencorse, Scotland Died: 15
November 1959, Carlops,
Scotland Affiliation at the time of
the award: University of Cambridge,
Cambridge, United Kingdom Prize
motivation: ''for his method of making
the paths of electrically charged
particles visible by condensation of
vapour'' UNKNOWN
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/physics/laureates/1927/wilson_postcar
d.jpg
104 YBN
[03/18/1896 AD] 		4276) The theory that x-rays are made
of material particles.
(Private Lab) New York City, NY, USA
(presumably) 
[1] Image from Tesla's 1897 patent
#65576 System of Transmission of
Electric Energy PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=8DFBAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&
f=false

[2] Description Tesla
young.jpg English: The image of
en:Nikola Tesla (1856-1943) at age
23. Date image dated: circa
1878 original upload date:
2005-12-02 transfer date: 17:03, 29
July 2008 (UTC) Source Original
downloaded from
http://www.tesla-symp06.org/nikola_tesla
.htm Author Original uploader was
Antidote at en.wikipedia Transferred
from en.wikipedia by
User:emerson7. Permission (Reusing
this file) This image is in the public
domain PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/60/Tesla_young.jpg
104 YBN
[03/25/1896 AD] 		4152) The radiation emitted from
uranium salts is found to be deeply
penetrating and to discharge a charged
electroscope in only a few minutes by
Antoine Henri Becquerel. In addition,
other uranium salts, although not
phosphorescent, nor fluorescent, are
also found to affect photographic
plates.
(École Polytechnique) Paris,
France 
[1] Photographic plate made by Henri
Becquerel showing effects of exposure
to radioactivity. Image of
Becquerel's photographic plate which
has been fogged by exposure to
radiation from a uranium salt. The
shadow of a metal Maltese Cross placed
between the plate and the uranium salt
is clearly visible. Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Becqu
erel_plate.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1e/Becquerel_plate.jpg

[2] Antoine-Henri Becquerel
(1852-1908) PD
source: http://nautilus.fis.uc.pt/wwwqui
/figuras/quimicos/img/becquerel.jpg
104 YBN
[04/06/1896 AD] 		4335) That all substances struck by
X-rays emit secondary X-ray radiation
is discovered.
(Columbia University) New York City,
NY, USA 
[1] Image of Pupin on Serbian
dollar COPYRIGHTED - FAIR USE
source: http://www.tedhuntington.com/pup
in_money2.jpg

[2] Michael Idvorsky
Pupin.jpg Photo of Mihajlo Idvorski
Pupin, a Serbian born American
physicist PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/4d/Michael_Idvorsky_Pupi
n.jpg
104 YBN
[05/06/1896 AD] 		3717) A steam engine plane achieves
sustained flight.
Potomac River, Washington DC, USA 
[1] English: Category:Samuel Pierpont
Langley's steam engine powered aircraft
''Aërodrome No. 5'' in flight on 1896
May 6.[1] An instantaneous photograph
by Alexander Graham Bell.[1] (3 March
1847 – 2 August 1922). Source
Page 4 from Aërial Locomotion:
With a Few Notes Date printed
1907 Author Alexander Graham
Bell PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/19/Samuel_Pierpont_Langl
ey%27s_steam_A%C3%ABrodrome_No._5_in_fli
ght.png

[2] Samuel Pierpont Langley, pioneer
aviator and 3rd Secretary of the
Smithsonian Institute. This picture is
undated but from the Smithsonian, so it
was probably taken during his tenure
there (1887-1906). It is in the public
domain as produced by the United States
Government, and also because published
before 1923. From
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Samue
l_Pierpont_Langley.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/97/Samuel_Pierpont_Langl
ey.jpg
104 YBN
[05/12/1896 AD] 		4340) The fluoscope: a fluorescent
screen that is illuminated in real-time
by x-ray beams.
New York City, NY, USA
(presumably) 
[1] Description Normaler Schluckakt in
der Barium-Breischluck-Untersuchung.
Eine mit der Maus interaktiv
blätterbare Version gibt es
hier. Date 2011-05-28 20:03
(UTC) Source 34 files:
Normaler_Schluck-00.jpg […]
Normaler_Schluck-33.jpg Author
Normaler_Schluck-00.jpg (and
others): Hellerhoff derivative
work: Anka Friedrich (talk) CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/80/Normal_barium_swallow
_animation.gif

[2] Frames from early experimental
attempt to create sound motion pictures
by the Edison Manufacturing Company.
W.K.L. Dickson plays the violin in
front of a horn connected to a cylinder
recording machine. PD
source: http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/edht
ml/dancemp.jpg
104 YBN
[05/19/1896 AD] 		4715) The electric fluorescent lamp.
Llewellyn Park, New Jersey, USA  
[1] Figure from US patent #865,367,
''Fluorescent Electric Lamp''. PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=rqFOAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f
=false

[2] Original Edison Tin Foil
Phonograph. Photo courtesy of U.S.
Department of the Interior, National
Park Service, Edison National Historic
Site. source:
http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/edhtml/edcyl
dr.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/b/bb/Thomas_Edison%2C_1878.jpg
104 YBN
[06/02/1896 AD] 		4337) The wavelength (or interval) of
radio waves is determined using a
diffraction grating.
(Presidency College) Calcutta,
India 
[1] source :
http://www.setileague.org/photos/wghorn.
htm PD AND Jagadis Chunder Bose,
''On the Determination of the
Wave-Length of Electric Radiation by
Diffraction Grating'', Proc. R. Soc.
Lond. January 1, 1896 60:167-178;
doi:10.1098/rspl.1896.0031. http://book
s.google.com/books?id=AGRDAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA
167 http://rspl.royalsocietypublishing.
org/content/60/359-367/167.full.pdf+html
{Bose_Jagadis_18960602.pdf} PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/56/J.C.Bose.JPG
AND http://books.google.com/books?id=
AGRDAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA174

[2] fig 1 from Bose book: Sir Jagadis
Chandra Bose, ''Response in the living
and non-living'', 1902, 1910,
1922. http://books.google.com/books?id=
wp0-AAAAYAAJ&pg=PA1&dq=Response+in+the+L
iving+and+Nonliving&cd=1#v=onepage&q&f=f
alse PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=wp0-AAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source
=gbs_v2_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=fa
lse
104 YBN
[11/??/1896 AD] 		4165) A companion of Procyon is
observed.
(Lick Observatory) Mt. Hamilton,
California, USA 
[1] The position of Alpha Canis Minoris
(Procyon; Elgomaisa; Algomeysa;
Antecanis) By Zwergelstern Thanks
for the help of Patrick Chevalley PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b4/Position_Alpha_Cmi.pn
g

[2] John Martin Schaeberle
(1853–1924), German-American
astronomer. Date Source
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollec
tions/hst/scientific-identity/fullsize/S
IL14-S002-02a.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b0/John_Martin_Schaeberl
e.jpg
104 YBN
[11/??/1896 AD] 		4259) That x-rays ionize gases (cause
gases to become electrical conductors)
is found by Joseph John Thomson and
Ernest Rutherford and offers a more
convenient method to produce gas ions
than an electric spark.
(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England 
[1] Figure From On the Passage of
Electricity through Gases exposed to
Rontgen Rays. By J. J. THOMSON, M.A.,
F.R.S., Cavendish Professor of
Experimental Physics, Cambridge. with
Ernest Rutherford 11/1896 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=cbRw3OxLhUcC&printsec=frontcover&dq=edi
tions:UOM39015024088687&lr=#v=onepage&q=
thomson&f=false

[2] English: J. J. Thomson published
in 1896. Deutsch: Joseph John Thomson
(1856–1940). Ein ursprünglich 1896
veröffentlichter Stahlstich. [edit]
Source From Oliver Heaviside: Sage
in Solitude (ISBN 0-87942-238-6), p.
120. This is a reproduction of a steel
engraving originally published in The
Electrician, 1896. It was scanned on an
Epson Perfection 1250 at 400dpi,
cleaned up (some text was showing
through the back) in Photoshop, reduced
to grayscale, and saved as JPG using
the 'Save for Web' optimizer.. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5e/JJ_Thomson.jpg
104 YBN
[12/10/1896 AD] 		3698) The Nobel prize is created.
(dies at) San Remo, Italy|(will, and
awards are in)Stockholm, Sweden 
[1] Description: Front side (obverse)
of one of the Nobel Prize medals in
Physiology or Medicine awarded in 1950
to researchers at the Mayo Clinic in
Rochester, Minnesota. [edit] Source
of this work Photographer:
Jonathunder (2008-11-01) Design of
the medal: Nobel Foundation Sculptor
and engraver: Erik Lindberg
(1902) English: Alfred Nobels last
will dated November 27th, 1895 GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/c/c2/NobelPrize.JPG

[2] The medal design itself is in the
public domain in the United States,
because it was published before 1923.
It may not be public domain in some
other nations. The design may be
subject to Nobel Foundation
trademarks. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f7/Alfred_Nobels_will-No
vember_25th%2C_1895.jpg
104 YBN
[12/12/1896 AD] 		3444) The distance spectral lines of
illuminated elements shift depending on
the pressure is measured.
(Johns Hopkins University) Baltimore,
Maryland, U.S.A. 
[1] [t Spectroscope pressure chamber
device used to measure change in
spectral lines because of
pressure] PD/Corel
source: Humphrey_Mohler_1896.pdf

[2] [t The shift of spectral lines
from various elements Y axis is
pressure in atmospheres X axis is
shift in thousandths of an Angstrom
unit (.1nm)] PD/Corel
source: Humphrey_Mohler_1896.pdf
104 YBN
[12/29/1896 AD] 		4759) X-rays are used to visualize
gastrointestinal movements using a
drink made with bismuth which is opaque
to x-rays.
(Harvard Medical School) Cambridge,
Massachusetts, USA 
[1] Description Normaler Schluckakt in
der Barium-Breischluck-Untersuchung.
Eine mit der Maus interaktiv
blätterbare Version gibt es
hier. Date 2011-05-28 20:03
(UTC) Source 34 files:
Normaler_Schluck-00.jpg […]
Normaler_Schluck-33.jpg Author
Normaler_Schluck-00.jpg (and
others): Hellerhoff derivative
work: Anka Friedrich (talk) CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/80/Normal_barium_swallow
_animation.gif

[2] Walter Bradford Cannon, MA, MD
(1871– 1945), circa 1908. Photo by J.
E. Purdue & Co, Boston, Mass. Source.
Prints and Photographs Collection,
History of Medicine Division, National
Library of Medicine. PD
source: http://ajph.aphapublications.org
/content/vol92/issue10/images/large/B418
3-02-0580-joe.jpeg
104 YBN
[1896 AD] 		4328) The disease "beriberi" is shown
to be caused by poor diet. This leads
to the discovery of vitamins and
"beriberi" will be the first known
"dietary-deficiency disease".
Javanese Medical School in Batavia (now
Jakarta) (presumably) 
[1] English: Christiaan Eijkman
(1858-1930) Date Unknown Source
http://www.kb.nl/hkc/nobel/eijkman/
eijkman.html Author
Unknown Permission (Reusing this
file) Copyright is by Museum
Boerhaave,
http://www.museumboerhaave.nl/contact/pe
rs2a.html, their website states '(vrij
beschikbaar voor publicatie)' ='(freely
available for publication)' PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/ac/Christiaan_Eijkman.jp
g
103 YBN
[04/30/1897 AD] 		4260) Electricity is shown to be made
of particles (the electron) by Joseph
John Thomson. This is the first
particle (besides light) known to be
smaller than an atom.

Thomson compares the deflection of
cathode-ray particles by using a static
electricity field and an
electromagnetic field and measures the
ratio of mass to electric charge to be
1000 times smaller than the mass to
electric charge of an ion of hydrogen
from electrolysis. Thomson adapts
Prout's hypothesis that all elements
are made of hydrogen atoms by
substituting hydrogen with some unknown
corpuscle, and concludes that cathode
rays are made of small negatively
charged particles which are a part of
all atoms.

Thomson also finds that the velocity of
cathode ray corpuscles is variable
depending on the potential-difference
(the voltage) between the cathode and
anode, which is a function of the
pressure of the gas - the velocity
increases as the exhaustion improves.
(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England 
[1] Figure 1 From Thomson, J.J.,
''Cathode-rays.'', Phil. Mag. 44,
08/07/1897,
269. http://books.google.com/books?id=Z
l0wAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editi
ons:UCALB3728216&lr=#v=onepage&q=thomson
&f=false PD AND J.J. Thomson was
Cavendish Professor and head of the
Cavendish Laboratory from 1894 to 1919.
J.J. is best known for his work on the
electron. Credit: Cambridge
University, Cavendish Laboratory. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=Zl0wAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edi
tions:UCALB3728216&lr=#v=onepage&q=thoms
on&f=false
AND http://www.aip.org/history/exhibi
ts/rutherford/images/sectionpics/slide1_
thomson_big.jpg

[2] Figure 1 From Thomson, J.J.,
''Cathode-rays.'', Phil. Mag. 44,
08/07/1897,
269. http://books.google.com/books?id=Z
l0wAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editi
ons:UCALB3728216&lr=#v=onepage&q=thomson
&f=false PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=Zl0wAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edi
tions:UCALB3728216&lr=#v=onepage&q=thoms
on&f=false
103 YBN
[05/27/1897 AD] 		3437) That more spectral emission lines
of calcium appear when a larger
quantity (and density) of calcium is
illuminated is demonstrated.
(Tulse Hill)London, England 
[1] Spark Spectra Shewing effect of
density on the relative intensities of
the lines of calcium PD/Corel
source: Huggins_Calcium_1897.pdf

[2] William Huggins PD/Corel
source: https://eee.uci.edu/clients/bjbe
cker/ExploringtheCosmos/hugginsport.jpg
103 YBN
[06/04/1897 AD] 		6611) A strong electromagnetic field on
a spark between cadmium electrodes is
shown to cause an emission line to be
split into two or three components)
(University of Leiden) Amsterdam,
Netherlands 
[1] Image from: Thomas Preston,
''Radiation Phenomena in the Magnetic
Field.'', Philosophical Magazine, S5,
V45, N275, April 1898, p325. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=kpQOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA325&lpg=PA325&dq=Thom
as+Preston+zeeman&source=bl&ots=34SE5113
uy&sig=A-JeUa9Iwa6iuCWj9K6e4KGSwf8&hl=en
&ei=gcMjTKGmDYOinQfW_Ogm&sa=X&oi=book_re
sult&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CB4Q6AEwAg#
v=onepage&q=Thomas%20Preston%20zeeman&f=
false

[2] Description Pieter
Zeeman.jpg Pieter Zeeman Date
ca. 1920(1920) Source
http://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:
Zeeman.jpg Author This file is
lacking author
information. Permission (Reusing this
file) PD by age Other versions
Digital Library, Proceedings of the
Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and
Sciences (KNAW) Emilio Segrè Visual
Archives http://www.knaw.nl/cfdata/digi
tal_library/output/proceedings/biography
.cfm?RecordId=39 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a2/Pieter_Zeeman.jpg
103 YBN
[08/20/1897 AD] 		4296) That a mosquito transmits the
protist that causes malaria
(Plasmodium) is proven when the protist
is found in the gastrointestinal tract
of the Anopheles mosquito.
 
[1] Images from 1897 British medical
Journal report PD
source: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/
articles/PMC2408186/pdf/brmedj08748-0014
.pdf

[2] English: Ronald Ross, winner of
Nobel Prize in Medicine Deutsch: Der
Medizin-Nobelpreisträger Ronald
Ross Date Source
http://ihm.nlm.nih.gov/images/B2280
3 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/76/Ronald_Ross.jpg
103 YBN
[1897 AD] 		3912) The bacteria that causes the
bubonic plague is shown to be
transmitted by a flea that infests
rats.
Calcutta, India 
[1] Robert Koch Library of
Congress PD
source: "Chamberlin, Thomas Chrowder",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p494 (Library
of Congress)

[2] Robert Koch. Courtesy of the
Nobelstiftelsen, Stockholm Since Koch
died in 1910: PD
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
21045&rendTypeId=4
103 YBN
[1897 AD] 		4088) The first electronic display (the
oscilloscope) is invented by Karl Braun
(BroUN).

Braun uses a cathode ray tube with a
mica screen inside. The screen is
coated with fluorescent material so
that the electron beam causes a
luminous spot of light on the screen.
Braun then uses varying currents in
electromagnets to deflect the beam of
electrons in proportion to the current
which in turn moves the spot of green
light on the screen so that the small
variation in electric currents can be
observed. This "Braun tube" is a step
toward the invention of the television
and computer display.
(Physikal Institute) Strassburg,
France 
[1] Figure 1 from Braun's 1897
paper. PD AND Ferdinand Braun PD
source: Ferdinand Braun, "Ueber ein
Verfahren zur Demonstration und zum
Studium des zeitlichen Verlaufes
variabler Ströme", Annalen der Physik
und Chemie, vol. lx., 1897, p.
552-559. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/121
48/bpt6k15301j.image.f558.langFR {Braun
_Ferdinand_oscilloscope_1897.pdf} Engli
sh translation: Ferdinand Braun, "A
Method of Demonstrating and Studying
the Time-relations of Variable
Currents.", Minutes of proceedings of
the Institution of Civil Engineers,
Volume 129, 1897,
p464. http://books.google.com/books?id=
rXgMAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA464&lpg=PA464&dq=A+Met
hod+of+Demonstrating+and+Studying+the+Ti
me-relations+of+Variable+Currents.+Ferdi
nand+Braun.&source=bl&ots=CY1GqwE3Ku&sig
=7-zDHHHs-PeoCHn_veDdZXebryM&hl=en&ei=O0
bOSoKvC5L0sgPulqm2Dg&sa=X&oi=book_result
&ct=result&resnum=1#v=onepage&q=A%20Meth
od%20of%20Demonstrating%20and%20Studying
%20the%20Time-relations%20of%20Variable%
20Currents.%20Ferdinand%20Braun.&f=false
PD
AND http://www.lecad.fs.uni-lj.si/tmc
e2006/2012/pics/venue_html_68645264.jpg

[2] Figure 1 from Braun's 1897
paper. PD
source: Ferdinand Braun, "Ueber ein
Verfahren zur Demonstration und zum
Studium des zeitlichen Verlaufes
variabler Ströme", Annalen der Physik
und Chemie, vol. lx., 1897, p.
552-559. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/121
48/bpt6k15301j.image.f558.langFR {Braun
_Ferdinand_oscilloscope_1897.pdf} Engli
sh translation: Ferdinand Braun, "A
Method of Demonstrating and Studying
the Time-relations of Variable
Currents.", Minutes of proceedings of
the Institution of Civil Engineers,
Volume 129, 1897,
p464. http://books.google.com/books?id=
rXgMAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA464&lpg=PA464&dq=A+Met
hod+of+Demonstrating+and+Studying+the+Ti
me-relations+of+Variable+Currents.+Ferdi
nand+Braun.&source=bl&ots=CY1GqwE3Ku&sig
=7-zDHHHs-PeoCHn_veDdZXebryM&hl=en&ei=O0
bOSoKvC5L0sgPulqm2Dg&sa=X&oi=book_result
&ct=result&resnum=1#v=onepage&q=A%20Meth
od%20of%20Demonstrating%20and%20Studying
%20the%20Time-relations%20of%20Variable%
20Currents.%20Ferdinand%20Braun.&f=false
PD
103 YBN
[1897 AD] 		4093) Radio is shown to exhibit the
phenomena of double refraction and
absorption.
(Institute of Physics, University of
Bologna) Bologna, Italy 
[1] Figure from German translation of
Righi's 1897 work PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=H5cIAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Aug
usto+Righi&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f=false


[2] [t what is the black rectangle for
or covering?] Italiano: Fotografia di
Augusto Righi scattata oltre 70 anni
fa, quindi di pubblico dominio. (Fonte:
Sito del Museo di Fisica di
Bologna) Date 2007-11-30
(original upload date) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/ef/Augusto_Righi.jpg
103 YBN
[1897 AD] 		4222) "Nickel catalysis" is discovered:
the metal Nickel serves as a catalyst
to add hydrogen to various molecules
which makes possible the formation of
edible fats such as margarine and
shortening from plant oils in large
quantities at low cost.
(University of Toulouse) Toulouse,
France 
[1] Ethylene PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eth
ylene

[2] Ethane PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eth
ane
103 YBN
[1897 AD] 		4367) The fermentation of alcohol is
shown to happen even with torn apart
dead yeast cells.
(University of Tübingen) Tübingen,
Germany 
[1] Description
Eduardbuchner.jpg Eduard
Buchner Date 1907(1907) Source
Les Prix Nobel, 1907[1] Author
Nobel Foundation PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b2/Eduardbuchner.jpg
103 YBN
[1897 AD] 		4503) The composition of isoprene is
determined and isoprene is synthesized.
Isoprene is a hydrocarbon and the basic
unit (the monomer) of the rubber
molecule.
(University of Munich?) Munich,
Germany 
[1] Isoprene molecule GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iso
prene

[2] Химик Владимир
Ипатьев Photograph from Guver
archives
http://www-hoover.stanford.edu/hila/rusc
ollection/ipat_br.htm PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/ru/b/bc/Ipatieff1.jpg
103 YBN
[1897 AD] 		4793) The theory that x-rays might be
used for telepathy.
(private lab) London,
England(presumably) 
[1] Description: Scan of a picture of
William Crookes Source: A History of
Science (vol. 5, facing page
106) Date: 1904 Author: Henry Smith
Williams PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1e/Crookes_William.jpg

[2] Sir William Crookes Library of
Congress PD
source: http://content.answers.com/main/
content/img/scitech/HSsirwil.jpg
102 YBN
[01/21/1898 AD] 		4436) Positive rays are shown to be
made of positively charged particles
with a mass to charge ratio similar to
a hydrogen ion by Wilhelm Wien (VEN).
These positive particles will later be
called protons. Wien determines the
speed of these particles to be around
1000 times slower than the speed of
light.
(Wurzburg University) Wurzburg,
Germany 
[1] * Author: anonymous or
pseudonymous, per EU Copyright
Directive (1993), Article 1, §§1-4
* This image was published not later
than 1911 in conjunction with the Nobel
Prize in Physics. * Source:
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1911/wien-bio.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/1/10/WilhelmWien1911.jpg
102 YBN
[04/04/1898 AD] 		6626) Polymethylene is synthesized, a
polymer that is very similar to
polyethylene, the largest single class
of plastics.
(University of Munchen) Munich,
Germany 
[1] Description English: German
chemist Hans von Pechmann (1850 -
1902) Date Certainly before
1902 Source
http://www.uni-tuebingen.de/ziegler/his
tory/hans_von_pechmann/hans_pechmann.htm
Author Unknown PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/93/Hans_von_Pechmann.jpg


[2]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethylene A
ND http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyeth
ylene GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eth
ylene AND http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki
/Polyethylene
102 YBN
[04/12/1898 AD] 		4352) Thorium is found to give off
"uranium rays".
(École de Physique et Chimie Sorbonne)
Paris, France 
[1] Description
Mariecurie.jpg Portrait of Marie
Skłodowska-Curie (November 7, 1867 –
July 4, 1934), sometime prior to 1907.
Curie and her husband Pierre shared a
Nobel Prize in Physics in 1903. Working
together, she and her husband isolated
Polonium. Pierre died in 1907, but
Marie continued her work, namely with
Radium, and received a Nobel Prize in
Chemistry in 1911. Her death is mainly
attributed to excess exposure to
radiation. Date ca. 1898 Source
http://www.mlahanas.de/Physics/Bios
/MarieCurie.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d9/Mariecurie.jpg

[2] Beschreibung Jacques Curie
(1856-1941, links) mit seinem Bruder
Pierre Curie (1859-1906) und seinen
Eltern Eugène Curie (1827-1910) und
Sophie-Claire Depouilly
(1832-1897) Quelle Françoise
Giroud: Marie Curie. A Life. Holmes &
Meier, New York London 1986, ISBN
0-8419-0977-6, nach Seite 138 Urheber
bzw. Nutzungsrechtinhaber
unbekannt Datum
1878 Genehmigung
Bild-PD-alt-100 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/de/3/3a/Curie%2C_Jacques_und_Pierr
e_mit_Eltern.jpg
102 YBN
[04/??/1898 AD] 		3868) The Golgi apparatus is
identified.
(University of Pavia) Pavia,
Italy 
[1] Golgi's drawings of the ''internal
reticular apparatus'' that he observed
in spinal ganglia (the different
drawings illustrate the variety of
features Golgi observed with his metal
impregnation, from Opera Omnia). This
intracellular structure is universally
known nowadays as ''Golgi
apparatus''. PD/Corel
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/articles/golgi/images/12.jpg


[2] Secretory pathway diagram,
including nucleus, endoplasmic
reticulum and Golgi apparatus. 1.
Nuclear membrane 2. Nuclear pore
3. Rough endoplasmic reticulum (rER)
4. Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
(sER) 5. Ribosome attached to rER
6. Macromolecules 7. Transport
vesicles 8. Golgi apparatus 9.
Cis face of Golgi apparatus 10.
Trans face of Golgi apparatus 11.
Cisternae of Golgi apparatus PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/25/Nucleus_ER_golgi.jpg
102 YBN
[05/02/1898 AD] 		4380) Thermite, the explosive mixture
of a metal oxide and aluminum powder is
discovered.
(Business: TH. Goldschmidt)
Essen-on-the-Ruhr, Germany 
[1] A thermite reaction using iron(III)
oxide English: A thermite reaction
using Ferric Oxide. Date
2007-05-12 (original upload
date) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia; transferred to Commons by
User:Choij using CommonsHelper. Author
Original uploader was
CaesiumFluoride at en.wikipedia GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6f/ThermiteFe2O3.JPG

[2] Hans Goldschmidt UNKNOWN
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0a/Thermite_mix.jpg
102 YBN
[05/10/1898 AD] 		3824) Hydrogen is liquefied by James
Dewar (DYUR).

Dewar measures the boiling point of
hydrogen as -238° C.
(Royal Institution) London, England
(presumably) 
[1] Picture taken from page 230 of T.
O’Connor Sloane's Liquid Air and the
Liquefaction of Gases, second edition,
published by Norman W. Henley and Co.,
New York, 1900. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/8/89/Dewar_James.jpg

[2] English: Picture of Sir James
Dewar, the scientist Source Page 98
of History of Chemistry (book) Date
1910 Author Thomas Thorpe PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2c/Dewar_James_flask.jpg

102 YBN
[06/03/1898 AD] 		4142) The element and inert gas
Krypton.
(University College) London,
England 
[1] Krypton element 36 from Periodic
Table GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kry
pton

[2] Figure 1 from Rayleigh 1893 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d2/William_Ramsay_workin
g.jpg
102 YBN
[06/13/1898 AD] 		4143) The element and inert gas Neon.
(University College) London,
England 
[1] Neon, element 10 on the Periodic
Table GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neo
n

[2] Figure 1 from Rayleigh 1893 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d2/William_Ramsay_workin
g.jpg
102 YBN
[07/01/1898 AD] 		4255) The first radio controlled
vehicle; a remotely controlled boat.
(Tesla's private lab) New York City,
NY, USA 
[1] Interior of Tesla's
remote-controlled boat. PD
source: http://www.pbs.org/tesla/ins/ima
ges/rcimg02.jpg

[2] Image from Tesla's 07/01/1898
patent PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=T1VrAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&
f=false
102 YBN
[07/18/1898 AD] 		4353) The radioactive element Polonium
is identified.
(École de Physique et Chimie Sorbonne)
Paris, France 
[1] Polonium foil [t verify] UNKNOWN
source: http://periodictable.com/Samples
/084.8/s12s.JPG

[2] Description
Mariecurie.jpg Portrait of Marie
Skłodowska-Curie (November 7, 1867 –
July 4, 1934), sometime prior to 1907.
Curie and her husband Pierre shared a
Nobel Prize in Physics in 1903. Working
together, she and her husband isolated
Polonium. Pierre died in 1907, but
Marie continued her work, namely with
Radium, and received a Nobel Prize in
Chemistry in 1911. Her death is mainly
attributed to excess exposure to
radiation. Date ca. 1898 Source
http://www.mlahanas.de/Physics/Bios
/MarieCurie.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d9/Mariecurie.jpg
102 YBN
[07/18/1898 AD] 		4354) The radioactive element Radium.
(École de Physique et Chimie Sorbonne)
Paris, France 
[1] Pierre and Marie Curie discovered
radioactivity in the elements polonium
and radium. Working in a stable, Marie
purified 0.1 gram of radium from
several tons of ore. Image: National
Library of Medicine PD
source: http://whyfiles.org/020radiation
/images/curies_experiment.jpg

[2] Description
Mariecurie.jpg Portrait of Marie
Skłodowska-Curie (November 7, 1867 –
July 4, 1934), sometime prior to 1907.
Curie and her husband Pierre shared a
Nobel Prize in Physics in 1903. Working
together, she and her husband isolated
Polonium. Pierre died in 1907, but
Marie continued her work, namely with
Radium, and received a Nobel Prize in
Chemistry in 1911. Her death is mainly
attributed to excess exposure to
radiation. Date ca. 1898 Source
http://www.mlahanas.de/Physics/Bios
/MarieCurie.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d9/Mariecurie.jpg
102 YBN
[09/01/1898 AD] 		4731) Uranium is found to emit at least
two kinds of radiation, one which is
quickly absorbed that is named "alpha"
radiation, and a second which has more
penetrative power that is named "beta"
radiation.
(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England  
[1] Fig 1 from Rutherford, ''Uranium
Radiation and the Electrical Conduction
Produced by It'', Phil Mag ser 5 xlvii
109-163 1899. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=ipMOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA110&dq=Uranium+Radiat
ion+and+the+Electrical+Conduction+Produc
ed+by+It&hl=en&ei=TctpTKKkOZO8sAObsu2mBw
&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&
ved=0CDgQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=Uranium
Radiation and the Electrical Conduction
Produced by It&f=false

[2] Fig 2 from Rutherford, ''Uranium
Radiation and the Electrical Conduction
Produced by It'', Phil Mag ser 5 xlvii
109-163 1899. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=ipMOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA110&dq=Uranium+Radiat
ion+and+the+Electrical+Conduction+Produc
ed+by+It&hl=en&ei=TctpTKKkOZO8sAObsu2mBw
&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&
ved=0CDgQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=Uranium
Radiation and the Electrical Conduction
Produced by It&f=false
102 YBN
[09/08/1898 AD] 		4144) The element and inert gas Xenon.
(University College) London,
England 
[1] Xenon on the Periodic table GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xen
on

[2] Xenon on the Periodic table GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xen
on
102 YBN
[12/??/1898 AD] 		4261) The average electric charge of
the ions produced in different gases by
x-rays is shown to be equal to the
average electric charge of hydrogen
ions, which implies that electric
charge is constant for all elements
with no regard to mass.
(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England 
[1] Figure from Thomson's 12/1898
paper Thomson, J. J., ''On the Charge
of Electricity carried by the Ions
produced by Rontgen Rays'', Phil. Mag,
S 5, V 46, N 283, Dec 1898, p528. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=wFUwAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA154&dq=thomson+date:1
898-1898+intitle:philosophical&as_brr=1&
cd=1#v=onepage&q=thomson&f=false

[2] English: J. J. Thomson published
in 1896. Deutsch: Joseph John Thomson
(1856–1940). Ein ursprünglich 1896
veröffentlichter Stahlstich. [edit]
Source From Oliver Heaviside: Sage
in Solitude (ISBN 0-87942-238-6), p.
120. This is a reproduction of a steel
engraving originally published in The
Electrician, 1896. It was scanned on an
Epson Perfection 1250 at 400dpi,
cleaned up (some text was showing
through the back) in Photoshop, reduced
to grayscale, and saved as JPG using
the 'Save for Web' optimizer.. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5e/JJ_Thomson.jpg
102 YBN
[1898 AD] 		4109) The causal agent of tobacco
mosaic disease is recognized as a
completely new type of infectious
agent, smaller and different than
bacteria, which is named a "virus".
(Dutch Yeast and Spirit Factory) Delft,
Netherlands 
[1] Table 2 from Beijerinck's 1898
paper PD
source: http://www.google.com/url?sa=t&s
ource=web&ct=res&cd=1&ved=0CAcQFjAA&url=
http%3A%2F%2Fwww.apsnet.org%2Fonline%2Ff
eature%2FTobacco%2FBeijerinck1898.pdf&ei
=pbPTSrS1I4j2sQPZ7anWCg&rct=j&q=Beijerin
ck+1898&usg=AFQjCNGDnguGRlFxH0cXq_iEhbVs
YxIE8Q

[2] Martinus Beijerinck in his
laboratory. Date 12 May
1921(1921-05-12) Source Delft
School of Microbiology Archives PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d2/Mwb_in_lab.JPG
102 YBN
[1898 AD] 		4133) Hoof-and-mouth disease is shown
to be caused by a virus; the first
disease of an animal to be caused by a
virus.
(University of Greifswald) Greifswald,
Germany 
[1] Friedrich Loeffler Date
created 22. Jan. 2006 Source
http://www.fli.bund.de/fileadmin/us
er_upload/Abbildungen/Historie/Prof._Fri
edrich_Loeffler_1852-1915_.jpg Author
Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut,
uploaded by Michael Ottenbruch PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/ad/Friedrich_Loeffler.jp
g
102 YBN
[1898 AD] 		4228) The theory that radioactivity
originates within the atom because
external effects like differences in
pressure and gravity do not influence
the intensity of the radiation.
(Herzoglich Gymnasium) Wolfenbüttel,
Germany 
[1] Elster (left) and Geitel
(right) PD (presumably)
source: http://www.elster-geitel.de/medi
en/baustelle_01.jpg
102 YBN
[1898 AD] 		4698) Electromagnetic writing and
reading of data by Valdemar Poulsen
(PoULSiN). Sound is recorded by varying
the magnetization of tiny parts of a
single wound wire sequentially in
direct proportion to the electric
current produced by the sound. When
each part is moved past an
electromagnet the sound is played out
loud again in a telephone receiver.
This will lead to video tapes and hard
disks..
(Copenhagen Telephone Company)
Copenhagen, Denmark 
[1] Description Telegrafon
8154.jpg Magyar: Valdemar Poulsen
mágneses hangrögzítő készüléke
1898-ból. A Brede Værk ipari
múzeumban látható a dániai
Lingbyben. Saját felvétel. Dansk:
Valdemar Poulsen opfandt i i 1898 af en
magnetisk optageenhed der kaldes en
Telegrafon English: Magnetic wire
recorder, invented by Valdemar Poulsen,
1898. It is exhibited at Brede works
Industrial Museum, Lingby,
Danmark. Date 25 October
2009(2009-10-25) (original upload
date) Source Transferred from
hu.wikipedia; transferred to Commons by
User:Nico-dk using
CommonsHelper. Author Original
uploader was Bitman at
hu.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) CC-BY-SA-2.5; Released under
the GNU Free Documentation
License. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f9/Telegrafon_8154.jpg

[2] 1 Valdemar Poulsen (1869-1942),
der Erfinder der magnetischen
Schallaufzeichnung UNKNOWN
source: http://www.theimann.com/Analog/H
istory/100_Jahre/Bild1.jpg
102 YBN
[1898 AD] 		4704) Red blood cells from one animal
species that are injected into another
species are found to be destroyed
through a process (hemolysis) analogous
to bacteriolysis.
(Pasteur Institute) Paris, France 
[1] Jules Bordet UNKNOWN
source: http://de.academic.ru/pictures/d
ewiki/74/Jules_bordet.jpg
101 YBN
[03/03/1899 AD] 		4900) The first life is saved by
wireless communication from a stranded
steamship.
(Marconi Company) London, England
(verify) 
[1] St. John's Newfoundland kite which
received the famous signal 1901 PD
source: B. L. Jacot de Boinod and D. M.
B. Collier, "Marconi: Master of Space"
(1935)

[2] Marconi Station at Poldhu,
Cornwall, from which first
transatlantic signals were transmitted.
Contrasted with top picture, the
Bridgewater Beam transmitting
station. PD
source: B. L. Jacot de Boinod and D. M.
B. Collier, "Marconi: Master of Space"
(1935)
101 YBN
[03/17/1899 AD] 		4319) Phoebe {FE-BE}, the ninth
satellite of Saturn is identified. This
is the first satellite with retrograde
motion to be observed.
(Harvard College Observatory)
Cambridge, Massachussetts, USA 
[1] English: Phoebe, as imaged by the
Cassini probe. Français : Mosaïque
de deux images de Phoebé prises par la
sonde Cassini. Date 11 June
2004(2004-06-11) Source
jpl.nasa.gov, image reference:
PIA06064.jpg Author Image Credit:
NASA/JPL/Space Science Institute PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/32/Phoebe_cassini.jpg

[2] Edited image of American
Astronomer William Henry Pickering
(1858-1938) TITLE: Prof. W.H.
Pickering, portr. bust CALL NUMBER:
LC-B2- 550-7[P&P] REPRODUCTION NUMBER:
LC-DIG-ggbain-02598 (digital file from
original neg.) No known restrictions on
publication. MEDIUM: 1 negative :
glass ; 5 x 7 in. or
smaller. CREATED/PUBLISHED:
10/16/09. NOTES: Forms part of:
George Grantham Bain Collection
(Library of Congress). Title from
unverified data provided by the Bain
News Service on the negatives or
caption cards. Temp. note: Batch one
loaded. FORMAT: Glass
negatives. REPOSITORY: Library of
Congress Prints and Photographs
Division Washington, D.C. 20540
USA DIGITAL ID: (digital file from
original neg.) ggbain 02598 original
found at
http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/h?
pp/PPALL:@field(NUMBER+@1(ggbain+02598))
PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/4/46/William_Henry_Pickering_02
598r.jpg
101 YBN
[04/18/1899 AD] 		4089) An inductively linked radio
antenna increases the distance radio
can be sent.
(Physics institute at Strasbourg)
Strasbourg, France 
[1] Image from Braun's 1899 patent PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=yiRLAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4#v
=onepage&q=&f=false

[2] Ferdinand Braun (1850-1918), Nobel
laureate 1909. (in
Physics) http://www.cathodique.net/FB
raun.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/55/Ferdinand_Braun.jpg
101 YBN
[05/11/1899 AD] 		4690) Negative ions are found to
require a much smaller quantity of
water vapor to cause condensation than
positively charged ions do.
(Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge
University) Cambridge, England 
[1] from:
http://books.google.com/books?id=GFFGAAA
AMAAJ&pg=PA265&dq=CTR+Wilson&hl=en&ei=Eu
9ATInoDI_ksQPC2OiZDQ&sa=X&oi=book_result
&ct=result&resnum=4&ved=0CDUQ6AEwAw#v=on
epage&q=CTR%20Wilson&f=false FIGURE
1. Wilson’s 1895 apparatus. The gas
to be expanded is in the glass vessel
A, which itself is placed inside a
glass bottle B, which is partially
filled with water so as to trap the gas
in the inner vessel. The air above the
water in the bottle is connected with
an evacuated vessel F by tubes D and G,
to which are fitted valves E and K, the
latter of which is normally closed When
this valve is quickly opened, the air
at the top of the bottle B rushes into
the evacuated vessel F and the water in
B rises until it fills the top of the
bottle, and by doing so, closes the
valve E, so stopping further expansion
of the gas in A. By suitably adjusting
the initial volume of the gas in A and
the amount of water in B, the relative
expansion of the gasin Acan be
precisely controlled. UNKNOWN
source: http://callisto.ggsrv.com/imgsrv
/Fetch?recordID=dsb_0001_0014_0_img2645&
contentSet=SCRB&banner=4c40dee8&digest=8
5a2a174d1c79377e98bdee5ed122bd7

[2] Charles Thomson Rees
Wilson Born: 14 February 1869,
Glencorse, Scotland Died: 15
November 1959, Carlops,
Scotland Affiliation at the time of
the award: University of Cambridge,
Cambridge, United Kingdom Prize
motivation: ''for his method of making
the paths of electrically charged
particles visible by condensation of
vapour'' PD
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/physics/laureates/1927/wilson_postcar
d.jpg
101 YBN
[09/13/1899 AD] 		4732) That a gas is emitted from
Thorium is recognized. This gas will
later be shown to be Radon. All
substances touched by the positive ions
created by this gas are shown to
exhibit radioactivity that lasts for
several days.
(McGill University) Montreal, Canada
 
[1] Figure from Rutherford, ''A
Radioactive Substance emitted from
Thorium Compound'', Phil Mag ser 5 xlix
1-14 1900. PD
source: Rutherford, "A Radioactive
Substance emitted from Thorium
Compound", Phil Mag ser 5 xlix 1-14
1900.

[2] Figure from Rutherford, ''A
Radioactive Substance emitted from
Thorium Compound'', Phil Mag ser 5 xlix
1-14 1900. PD
source: Rutherford, "A Radioactive
Substance emitted from Thorium
Compound", Phil Mag ser 5 xlix 1-14
1900.
101 YBN
[09/??/1899 AD] 		4739) That rays from radium cause
radioactivity in all objects placed
near them is discovered.
(École de Physique et Chimie Sorbonne)
Paris, France 
[1] Polonium foil [t verify] UNKNOWN
source: http://periodictable.com/Samples
/084.8/s12s.JPG

[2] Description
Mariecurie.jpg Portrait of Marie
Skłodowska-Curie (November 7, 1867 –
July 4, 1934), sometime prior to 1907.
Curie and her husband Pierre shared a
Nobel Prize in Physics in 1903. Working
together, she and her husband isolated
Polonium. Pierre died in 1907, but
Marie continued her work, namely with
Radium, and received a Nobel Prize in
Chemistry in 1911. Her death is mainly
attributed to excess exposure to
radiation. Date ca. 1898 Source
http://www.mlahanas.de/Physics/Bios
/MarieCurie.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d9/Mariecurie.jpg
101 YBN
[12/11/1899 AD] 		4374) Radium rays are shown to be
deflected by a magnetic field. These
will be shown to be electrons (Beta
rays).
(École Polytechnique) Paris,
France 
[1] Antoine-Henri Becquerel
(1852-1908) PD
source: http://nautilus.fis.uc.pt/wwwqui
/figuras/quimicos/img/becquerel.jpg

[2] Description Becquerel Henri
photograph.jpg English: Picture of
Henri Becquerel, the French
physicist Date 1918(1918) Source
Opposite page 229 of Moore's A
History of Chemistry Author F. J.
Moore Permission (Reusing this image)
See below. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/70/Becquerel_Henri_photo
graph.jpg
101 YBN
[12/??/1899 AD] 		4265) The negative ion is found to have
the same mass and charge for all gases.
(British Association Meeting) Dover,
England  
[1] English: J. J. Thomson published in
1896. Deutsch: Joseph John Thomson
(1856–1940). Ein ursprünglich 1896
veröffentlichter Stahlstich. [edit]
Source From Oliver Heaviside: Sage
in Solitude (ISBN 0-87942-238-6), p.
120. This is a reproduction of a steel
engraving originally published in The
Electrician, 1896. It was scanned on an
Epson Perfection 1250 at 400dpi,
cleaned up (some text was showing
through the back) in Photoshop, reduced
to grayscale, and saved as JPG using
the 'Save for Web' optimizer.. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5e/JJ_Thomson.jpg

[2] J. J. Thomson in earlier days. PD

source: http://www.chemheritage.org/clas
sroom/chemach/images/lgfotos/05atomic/th
omson1.jpg
101 YBN
[1899 AD] 		3825) Hydrogen is solidified.
(Royal Institution) London, England
(presumably) 
[1] Figures from Chemical News article
by James Dewar ''Solid Hydrogen'' PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=958EAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PT49&dq=chemical+ne
ws+dewar+solidification+date:1899-1899&e
i=ZcdnSaXOJYrUkwSazf0m#PRA1-PT129,M1

[2] Picture taken from page 230 of T.
O’Connor Sloane's Liquid Air and the
Liquefaction of Gases, second edition,
published by Norman W. Henley and Co.,
New York, 1900. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/8/89/Dewar_James.jpg
101 YBN
[1899 AD] 		4154) That radiation from barium
chloride can be deflected by a magnetic
field is shown.
(École Polytechnique) Paris,
France 
[1] Photographic plate made by Henri
Becquerel showing effects of exposure
to radioactivity. Image of
Becquerel's photographic plate which
has been fogged by exposure to
radiation from a uranium salt. The
shadow of a metal Maltese Cross placed
between the plate and the uranium salt
is clearly visible. Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Becqu
erel_plate.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1e/Becquerel_plate.jpg

[2] Antoine-Henri Becquerel
(1852-1908) PD
source: http://nautilus.fis.uc.pt/wwwqui
/figuras/quimicos/img/becquerel.jpg
101 YBN
[1899 AD] 		4177) The theory that mass and time
change for a body depending on the
motion of the body relative to the
speed of light by Hendrik Lorentz
{HeN-DriK oN-TON lO-reNTS}.

Lorentz introduces the theory of
"time", and "mass" dilation and
contraction, and what will be called
the Lorentz transformations. In
addition, Lorentz puts forward the
theory that no matter can travel faster
than the speed of light.
(University of Leiden) Leiden,
Netherlands 
[1] UNKNOWN
source: UNKNOWN

[2] UNKNOWN
source: UNKNOWN
101 YBN
[1899 AD] 		4391) 1,628 previously unknown binary
stars from the southern hemisphere are
identified.
(Cape Observatory) South Africa 
[1] Description Robert Thorburn Ayton
Innes00.jpg Robert Thorburn Ayton
Innes (1861-1933, Scottish-South
African astronomer Date
unknown Source
http://www.klima-luft.de/steinicke/
ngcic/persons/innes.htm Author
Unknown Permission (Reusing this
file) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c7/Robert_Thorburn_Ayton
_Innes00.jpg
101 YBN
[1899 AD] 		4472) The pressure exerted by light is
measured using very light mirrors in a
vacuum.
(Moscow State University) Moscow,
Russia 
[1] Description Lebedev petr
nikolaevich.jpg English: Pyotr Lebedev
(1866—1912) Русский:
Лебедев, Пётр
Николаевич
(1866—1912) Date Before
1912 Source
http://slovari.yandex.ru/dict/bse/a
rticle/00041/42200.htm?text=%D0%9F%D0%B5
%D1%82%D1%80%20%D0%9D%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BE%
D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%87%20%D
0%9B%D0%B5%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%B2
&stpar1=1.1.3 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a0/Lebedev_petr_nikolaev
ich.jpg
101 YBN
[1899 AD] 		4473) The mechanical pressure light
exerts on gas molecules is measured.
(Moscow State University) Moscow,
Russia 
[1] Description Lebedev petr
nikolaevich.jpg English: Pyotr Lebedev
(1866—1912) Русский:
Лебедев, Пётр
Николаевич
(1866—1912) Date Before
1912 Source
http://slovari.yandex.ru/dict/bse/a
rticle/00041/42200.htm?text=%D0%9F%D0%B5
%D1%82%D1%80%20%D0%9D%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BE%
D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%87%20%D
0%9B%D0%B5%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%B2
&stpar1=1.1.3 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a0/Lebedev_petr_nikolaev
ich.jpg
101 YBN
[1899 AD] 		4836) The radioactive element Actinium
{aKTiNEuM}.
(Sorbonne) Paris, France 
[1] Presumably actinium, a soft,
silvery-white metal which glows in the
dark. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.rsc.org/chemsoc/visua
lelements/pages/data/graphic/ac_data.jpg


[2] Actinium on periodic table GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Act
inium
100 YBN
[01/29/1900 AD] 		4155) Beta rays identified as electrons
by Henri Becquerel (Be KreL). Becquerel
shows that the radiation from barium
chloride can be deflected by both an
electric and a magnetic field, measures
the charge to mass ratio, and shows
that the beta particle is the same as
J. J. Thomson's recently identified
electron.
(École Polytechnique) Paris,
France 
[1] Photographic plate made by Henri
Becquerel showing effects of exposure
to radioactivity. Image of
Becquerel's photographic plate which
has been fogged by exposure to
radiation from a uranium salt. The
shadow of a metal Maltese Cross placed
between the plate and the uranium salt
is clearly visible. Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Becqu
erel_plate.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1e/Becquerel_plate.jpg

[2] Antoine-Henri Becquerel
(1852-1908) PD
source: http://nautilus.fis.uc.pt/wwwqui
/figuras/quimicos/img/becquerel.jpg
100 YBN
[03/26/1900 AD] 		4375) The velocity of the electrons of
beta rays is found to be more than half
the speed of light, much higher than
the electrons in cathode rays.
(École Polytechnique) Paris,
France 
[1] Antoine-Henri Becquerel
(1852-1908) PD
source: http://nautilus.fis.uc.pt/wwwqui
/figuras/quimicos/img/becquerel.jpg

[2] Description Becquerel Henri
photograph.jpg English: Picture of
Henri Becquerel, the French
physicist Date 1918(1918) Source
Opposite page 229 of Moore's A
History of Chemistry Author F. J.
Moore Permission (Reusing this image)
See below. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/70/Becquerel_Henri_photo
graph.jpg
100 YBN
[05/14/1900 AD] 		4725) The first "Grignard reagent"
{rE-A-JeNT} (a reagent is a substance
that, because of the reactions it
causes, is used in analysis and
synthesis). A Grignard reagent is an
organo-metallic halide (where magnesium
is the metal and the halogen is usually
chlorine, bromine, or iodine) dissolved
in a nonreactive solvent (typically dry
ethyl ether) and is an extremely
reactive compound.
(University of Lyons) Lyons,
France 
[1] From; Grignard, ''Sur quelques
nouvelles combinaions
organométatliques du magnésium et
leur application è des synthéses
d’alcools et d’hydrocarbures'',
Comptes rendus de l’Académie des
sciences, 130 (1900),
1322. {Grignard_Victor_1900.pdf} PD
source: Grignard, "Sur quelques
nouvelles combinaions
organométatliques du magnésium et
leur application è des synthéses
d’alcools et d’hydrocarbures",
Comptes rendus de l’Académie des
sciences, 130 (1900),
1322. {Grignard_Victor_1900.pdf}

[2] Description
Viktor-grignard.jpg English: Victor
Grignard Date 1912(1912) Source
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/
chemistry/laureates/1912/grignard-bio.ht
ml Author Nobel Foundation PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c4/Viktor-grignard.jpg
100 YBN
[05/18/1900 AD] 		4371) A non-deflected radiation more
penetrative than x-rays is identified
from radium which will later be named
"gamma" rays.
(chemistry laboratory of the École
Normale) Paris, France 
[1] Paul, Ulrich Villard, UNKNOWN
source: http://www.hilliontchernobyl.com
/Images/Villard1.jpg

[2] Paul, Ulrich Villard, UNKNOWN
source: http://www.springerlink.com/cont
ent/cvuhkrat5a8db2yf/fulltext.pdf
100 YBN
[07/02/1900 AD] 		3784) The first flight of a
motor-driven gas-filled airship, an
aluminum blimp.
Lake Constance, Germany 
[1] Count Ferdinand von Zeppelin begins
the construction of his 1st airship. He
flies for the 1st time during the
summer, above the lake Constance in
Friedrichshafen, in 1900. He was
getting ready to enter the contest for
the Deutsch Prize Picture Source:
U.S. Centennial of Flight
Commission PD
source: http://aboutfacts.net/History/Hi
story13/Zeppelin1900.jpg

[2] Ferdinand Adolf August Heinrich
Graf von Zeppelin
(1838-1917). PD/Corel
source: http://www.centennialofflight.go
v/essay/Dictionary/Zeppelin/DI48G1_hi.jp
g
100 YBN
[10/19/1900 AD] 		4327) "Quantum theory", the theory that
all energy exists in discrete units by
Max Planck.
(University of Berlin) Berlin,
Germany 
[1] Max Planck PD (presumably
source: From Henry Crew, "The Rise of
Modern Physics", Williams and Wilkens,
1928, edition 1, p372.

[2] Max Planck from wp-de and
http://clendening.kumc.edu/dc/: It is
not necessary to request permission to
use any of the images as available on
the web site. However, we do request
that you include the following credit
line: Courtesy of the Clendening
History of Medicine Library, University
of Kansas Medical Center. File history
in de wikipedia: * 20:17, 15. Apr 2005
by Stern 236 x 351 (15.836 Byte) (aus
der ursprünglichen Bildversion
extrahierter Teilbereich.
Nachbearbeitet. Lizenz unverändert.) *
15:00, 14. Jul 2004 by Necrophorus 302
x 574 (20.286 Byte) Date
2009-12-17 21:00 (UTC) Source
* Max_planck.jpg Author
Courtesy of the Clendening History
of Medicine Library, University of
Kansas Medical
Center. Permission (Reusing this
file) see below PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/32/Max_Planck.png
100 YBN
[1900 AD] 		4058) Radium is shown to emit a gas
that is radioactive (later identified
as radon).
(University of Halle) Halle,
Germany 
[1] Friedrich Ernst Dorn PD
(presumably)
source: http://www.fisicanet.com.ar/biog
rafias/cientificos/d/img/dorn.jpg
100 YBN
[1900 AD] 		4303) Around 120,000 galaxies (at the
time called nebulae) are identified and
photographed. Before this only 15,000
galaxies had been identified. This
shows that spiral galaxies out number
all other celestial objects in the
visible universe.
(Lick Observatory) Mount Hamilton, CA,
USA 
[1] Image of photograph of galaxy from
James Edward Keeler , ''Photographs
of nebulae and clusters made with the
Crossley reflector'',
1908. http://openlibrary.org/b/OL724344
3M/Photographs_of_nebulae_and_clusters_m
ade_with_the_Crossley_reflector PD
source: http://www.archive.org/stream/ph
otographsofneb00keelrich#page/n53/mode/2
up

[2] This is a file from the Wikimedia
Commons Description Keeler
James.jpg American astronomer James
Keeler Date 1903(1903) Source
Biographical Memoirs of the
National Academy of Sciences Author
Charles S. Hastings PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/18/Keeler_James.jpg
100 YBN
[1900 AD] 		4465) The cause of the disease
"kala-azar" (leishmaniasis, also known
as "dumdum fever") is identified as a
protist (Leishmania).
(Army Medical School) Netley,
England 
[1] Description Leishmania tropica
7.jpg Under the acellular culture
condition, the protozoa transforms into
the form of promastigote, a flagellated
and elongated morphology seen in the
mid-gut of the vector. Cutaneous
leishmaniasis is a benign,
self-limiting infection caused by
leishmanian parasites. Regarding the
visceral leishmaniasis (kala azar),
refer to case 50. Date Source
http://info.fujita-hu.ac.jp/~tsutsu
mi/photo/photo176-7.htm Author
Pathology of infectious
diseases http://info.fujita-hu.ac.jp/
~tsutsumi/index.html# PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/70/Leishmania_tropica_7.
jpg

[2] Description
Leishman1.jpg Italiano: courtesy of
london school of higiene and tropical
medicine Date 2007-06-09
(original upload date) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/29/Leishman1.jpg
100 YBN
[1900 AD] 		4470) The first known free radical,
triphenylmethyl is prepared.
(University of Michigan) Ann Arbor,
Michigan 
[1] Discovery of Persistent
Radicals GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mos
es_Gomberg#cite_ref-3

[2] Description Picture of Moses
Gomberg Source Bentley Historical
Library GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/a/a5/MGyoung.JPG
99 YBN
[01/01/1901 AD] 		4252) The theory that gender is
determined by the unpaired "accessory"
chromosome (later called the "X"
chromosome).
(University of Kansas) Kansas,
USA 
[1] McClung. From Shor, p. 147. PD
source: http://www.nceas.ucsb.edu/~alroy
/lefa/McClung.gif

[2] Description
Wilson1900Fig1.jpg English: Original
figure legend: ''A portion of the
epidermis of a larval salamander
(Amblystoma) as seen in slightly
oblique horizontal section, enlarged
550 diameters. Most of the cells are
polygonal in form, contain large
nuclei, and are connected by delicate
protoplasmic bridges. Above x is a
branched, dark pigment-cell that has
crept up from the deeper layers and
lies between the epidermal cells. Three
of the latter are undergoing division,
the earliest stage (spireme) at a, a
later stage (mitotic figure in the
anaphase) at b, showing the
chromosomes, and a final stage
(telophase), showing fission of the
cell-body, to the right.'' Deutsch:
Übersetzung nach der
Originalabbildungslegende: „Teil der
Epidermis eines larvalen Salamanders.
Die meisten Zellen sind polygonal,
enthalten große Kerne und sind durch
feine protoplasmatische Brücken
verbunden. Über x ist eine verzweigte,
dunkle Pigmentzelle, die aus tieferen
Schichten nach oben gekrochen ist. Drei
der Epidermiszellen befinden sich in
Teilung, das früheste Stadium (Spirem)
bei a, ein späteres Stadium
(mitotische Figur der Anaphase) bei b,
die Chromosomen sichtbar, und rechts
ein finales Stadium (Telophase, mit
Teilung des Zellkörpers.“ Date
1900(1900) Source Figure 1
of: Wilson, Edmund B. (1900). The cell
in Development and Inheritance, second
edition, New York: The Macmillan
Company. Author Edmund Beecher
Wilson PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/08/Wilson1900Fig1.jpg
99 YBN
[02/07/1901 AD] 		4119) That yellow fever is caused by
the bite of an infected mosquito and
can also be transmitted by injecting
blood drawn from a person suffering
from yellow fever is shown.
(Pan American Medical Congress) Habana,
Cuba 
[1] Walter Reed (1851-1902) American
physician Source :
en:Image:WalterReed.jpeg Walter Reed
at rank of major (19th century
photograph) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/4e/WalterReed.jpeg
99 YBN
[02/14/1901 AD] 		6342) X-rays are shown to kill Guinea
pigs by William Rollins.
Boston, Massachusetts, USA 
[1] William Rollins, ''X-Light Kills'',
Boston Medical and Surgical Journal,
February 14, 1901,
p173. http://books.google.com/books?id=
0sUEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA173 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=0sUEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA173

[2] William Herbert Rollins PD
source: http://harvardmedicine.hms.harva
rd.edu/bulletin/spring2008/images/rollin
s.2.jpg
99 YBN
[10/10/1901 AD] 		4148) The first synthetic protein is
created when two amino acid molecules
are condensed into dipeptides.
(University of Berlin) Berlin,
Germany 
[1] Fischer, Emil, and Ernest Fourneau.
''Ueber einige Derivate des
Glykocolls.'' Berichte der deutschen
chemischen Gesellschaft 34.2 (1901):
2868-2877. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.c
om/doi/10.1002/cber.190103402249/abstrac
t {Fischer_19011010.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/d
oi/10.1002/cber.190103402249/abstract {
Fischer_19011010.pdf}

[2] Fischer, Emil, and Ernest
Fourneau. ''Ueber einige Derivate des
Glykocolls.'' Berichte der deutschen
chemischen Gesellschaft 34.2 (1901):
2868-2877. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.c
om/doi/10.1002/cber.190103402249/abstrac
t {Fischer_19011010.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/d
oi/10.1002/cber.190103402249/abstract {
Fischer_19011010.pdf}
99 YBN
[12/12/1901 AD] 		4832) The first radio message is sent
over the Atlantic Ocean.
Poldhu, Cornwall, England to St.
John’s, Newfoundland 
[1] St. John's Newfoundland kite which
received the famous signal 1901 PD
source: B. L. Jacot de Boinod and D. M.
B. Collier, "Marconi: Master of Space"
(1935)

[2] Marconi Station at Poldhu,
Cornwall, from which first
transatlantic signals were transmitted.
Contrasted with top picture, the
Bridgewater Beam transmitting
station. PD
source: B. L. Jacot de Boinod and D. M.
B. Collier, "Marconi: Master of Space"
(1935)
99 YBN
[12/31/1901 AD] 		4120) Yellow fever is shown to be
caused by a virus by Walter Reed.
Yellow fever is the first disease found
in humans to be attributed to a virus.
(Society of American Bacteriologists)
Chicago, Illinois, USA 
[1] Walter Reed (1851-1902) American
physician Source :
en:Image:WalterReed.jpeg Walter Reed
at rank of major (19th century
photograph) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/4e/WalterReed.jpeg
99 YBN
[1901 AD] 		4054) The theory that new species can
arise as a result of mutation.
(University of Amsterdam) Amsterdam,
Netherlands 
[1] Image from English translation of
1991 work , p218 Die Mutationstheorie:
bd. Die Entstehung der Arten durch
Mutation PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=cdOhB5p3HkIC&printsec=frontcover&source
=gbs_v2_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=larm
arkiana&f=false

[2] Image from English translation of
1991 work PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=cdOhB5p3HkIC&printsec=frontcover&source
=gbs_v2_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&f=f
alse
99 YBN
[1901 AD] 		4124) The lanthanide element Europium
is identified and isolated.
(personal lab) Paris, France 
[1] europium CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/ab/EU5P17G-crop.jpg

[2] Eugène Anatole DEMARCAY (1852 -
1904) PD
source: http://histoirechimie.free.fr/Li
en/Demarcay.jpg
99 YBN
[1901 AD] 		4156) The element uranium is identified
as the radioactive portion of uranium
compounds.
(École Polytechnique) Paris,
France 
[1] Photographic plate made by Henri
Becquerel showing effects of exposure
to radioactivity. Image of
Becquerel's photographic plate which
has been fogged by exposure to
radiation from a uranium salt. The
shadow of a metal Maltese Cross placed
between the plate and the uranium salt
is clearly visible. Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Becqu
erel_plate.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1e/Becquerel_plate.jpg

[2] Antoine-Henri Becquerel
(1852-1908) PD
source: http://nautilus.fis.uc.pt/wwwqui
/figuras/quimicos/img/becquerel.jpg
99 YBN
[1901 AD] 		4221) The first pure hormone adrenalin
(epinephrine) is isolated.
(his private laboratory) Clifton, New
Jersey, USA 
[1] Jokichi Takamine.jpg English:
Jokichi Takamine Polski: Jokichi
Takamine Date circa 1920 Source
http://ihm.nlm.nih.gov/luna/servlet/v
iew/search?q=208204&search=Search IHM
Author
anonymous Permission (Reusing
this file) The National Library of
Medicine believes this item to be in
the public domain. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c4/Jokichi_Takamine.jpg

[2] Jokichi Takamine, founder of the
Nippon Club in New York 100 years ago,
is the subject of an ongoing exhibition
depicting the life of the chemist and
industrialist. PHOTO COURTESY OF THE
GREAT PEOPLE OF KANAZAWA MEMORIAL
MUSEUM VIA THE NIPPON CLUB/KYODO PD
source: http://www.japantimes.co.jp/imag
es/photos2005/nn20050402f2a.jpg
99 YBN
[1901 AD] 		4426) Silicones are synthesized.
(University College, Nottingham, now
Nottingham University) Nottingham,
England 		 
99 YBN
[1901 AD] 		4515) That there are different blood
types is recognized and the ABO blood
group system is created.
(Pathological-Anatomical Institute)
Vienna 
[1] Image extracted from Biographical
Memoirs of the National Academy of
Sciences, vol. 40. Associated: Karl
Landsteiner Date: 1920s Genre:
illustrations ID:
portrait-landsteiner UNKNOWN
source: http://osulibrary.oregonstate.ed
u/specialcollections/coll/nonspcoll/cata
logue/portrait-landsteiner-600w.jpg
99 YBN
[1901 AD] 		4705) That compliment is necessary for
the antibody antigen reaction is proven
because when an antibody reacts with an
antigen compliment is found to be used
up.
(Institut Antirabique et
Bacteriologique, in 1903 the Institut
Pasteur du Brabant) Brussells,
Belgium 
[1] Jules Bordet UNKNOWN
source: http://de.academic.ru/pictures/d
ewiki/74/Jules_bordet.jpg
99 YBN
[1901 AD] 		5510) The theory that the mass of an
electron increases with velocity.
(University of Göttingen) Göttingen,
Germany 
[1] Figure 34-2 from: Kaufmann, ''Die
magnetische und elektrische
Ablenkbarkeit der Becquerelstrahlen und
die scheinbare Masse der Elektronen''
(Göttingen Nachrichten 8, S.
143—155. 1901). (Nachrichten der
Akademie der Wissenschaften in
Göttingen: Mathematisch-Physikalische
Klasse ) English: Translated as
''Magnetic and Electric Deflectiability
of the Becquerel Rays and the Apparent
Mass of the Electron'' in: Boorse and
Motz, ''The World of the Atom'', 1966,
v1,
p506. {Kaufmann_Walther_1901xxxx.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: {Kaufmann_Walther_1901xxxx.pdf}

[2] Description Walter
kaufmann.png English: Walter Kaufmann
(1871-1947) Date ca.
1905(1905) Source
Niedersächsische Staats- und
Universitätsbibliothek,
Göttingen Author Walter
Kaufmann PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1d/Walter_kaufmann.png
99 YBN
[1901 AD] 		6253) The first vacuum cleaner that
uses an electric motor.
 
[1] On August 30th 1901 Hubert Cecil
Booth, a British engineer, received a
British patent for a vacuum cleaner. It
took the form of a large, horse-drawn,
petrol-driven unit which was parked
outside the building to be cleaned with
long hoses being fed through the
windows. Until then vacuum cleaners
blew the dust away, but Booth came up
with the idea of sucking away dust,
instead of blowing. Furthermore Booth
equipped his cleaner with a filter,
which kept the dust in the machine. All
modern vacuum cleaners are based on
Booth's principle. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.morclean.co.uk/catego
ries/images/first-vacuum-cleaner.jpg

[2] Description Hubert Cecil
Booth Source
http://www.scienceandsociety.co.uk/
results.asp?image=10300549 Article
Hubert Cecil Booth COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/c/c9/Hubert_Cecil_Booth.jpg
98 YBN
[03/17/1902 AD] 		4398) The electron velocity (and
electric potential) created by the
photoelectric effect is shown to depend
only on the frequency of light.
(University of Kiel) Kiel,
Germany 
[1] Figure from March 1902 Lenard paper
- presumably the important paper on the
photoelectric effect PD
source: http://www3.interscience.wiley.c
om/cgi-bin/fulltext/112485664/PDFSTART

[2] Description Phillipp Lenard in
1900.jpg German physicist Phillipp
Lenard Date According this
source, picture is taked in
1900 Source Encyclopaedia
Britannica. Original source AIP Emilio
Segrè Visual Archives, American
Institute of Physics. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1d/Phillipp_Lenard_in_19
00.jpg
98 YBN
[03/28/1902 AD] 		4857) The theory of the "cubic atom" by
Gilbert Lewis: that atoms can be built
up as cubes, which explains the cycle
of 8 elements on the periodic table.
All 8 vertices being occupied is
thought to be the most stable form of
the inert gases.
(Harvard University) Cambridge,
Massachussets, USA 
[1] Figure 2 from: GN Lewis, ''THE
ATOM AND THE MOLECULE.'', Journal of
the American Chemical Society, 1916 -
ACS
Publications http://pubs.acs.org/doi/ab
s/10.1021/ja02261a002 {Lewis_Gilbert_19
160126.pdf} PD
source: http://pubs.acs.org/doi/pdf/10.1
021/ja02261a002

[2] [t Notice the similarity to
Rutherford] Gilbert Newton
Lewis 1875-1946 UNKNOWN
source: http://www2.chemistry.msu.edu/Po
rtraits/images/lewisc.jpg
98 YBN
[03/??/1902 AD] 		4734) Radioactivity is recognized as
atomic decay in which one atom decays
into another kind (also known as
transmutation) by Ernest Rutherford and
Frederick Soddy.
(McGill University) Montreal, Canada
 
[1] Description Ernest
Rutherford2.jpg English: Cropped
Image:Ernest_Rutherford.jpg Date
2007-01-26 (original upload
date) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia Author Original
uploader was Sadi Carnot at
en.wikipedia GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/57/Ernest_Rutherford2.jp
g

[2] Ernest Rutherford (young) Image
courtesy of www.odt.co.nz UNKNOWN
source: https://thescienceclassroom.wiki
spaces.com/file/view/ernest_rutherford_1
122022732.jpg/103032081
98 YBN
[04/28/1902 AD] 		4235) The Earth atmosphere is found to
be divided into two layers. Temperature
drops linearly from sea level to around
11 km (7 miles), and then remains
constant up to the highest point a
balloon can reach.
(Observatoire de météorologie
dynamique {Dynamic Meteorology
Observatory})Trappes, France 
[1] Description Léon Teisserenc de
Bort.jpg French meteorologist Léon
Teisserenc de Bort (1855-1913) Date
Before 1913 Source
[1] Author
Unknown Permission (Reusing this
file) PD because of age PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d2/L%C3%A9on_Teisserenc_
de_Bort.jpg
98 YBN
[10/17/1902 AD] 		4253) That paternal and maternal
chromosomes are pairs, and are the
physical basis of the Mendelian laws of
heredity is shown.
(Columbia University) New York City,
NY, USA 
[1] From Sutton 1902 paper see
captions PD
source: http://www.esp.org/foundations/g
enetics/classical/wss-02.pdf

[2] Description Walter
sutton.jpg English: A portrait of
Walter S. Sutton taken prior to
1916. Date prior to
1916 Source
http://www.genomenewsnetwork.org/re
sources/timeline/1902_Boveri_Sutton.jpg
Author
Unknown Permission (Reusing this
file) See below. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/43/Walter_sutton.jpg
98 YBN
[10/27/1902 AD] 		3983) The speed of x-rays is shown to
be the same as the speed of light.
University of Nancy, Nancy, France
(presumably) 
[1] Figure 1, Blondlot's apparatus for
comparing the speed of x-rays to those
of visible light. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=iV0DAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=int
itle:COMPTES+intitle:RENDUS+date:1902-19
02#v=onepage&q=blondlot&f=false

[2] René Blondlot (1849-1930)
source: http://nsa02.casimages.com/img/2
008/06/02/0806020221453517545.jpg
98 YBN
[11/10/1902 AD] 		4736) Alpha rays are found to be
deflectable by strong magnetic and
electric fields in the opposite
direction of cathode rays and so are
positively charged bodies.
(McGill University) Montreal, Canada
 
[1] Figure 4 from Ernest Rutherford,
''The Magnetic and Electric Deviation
of the Easily Absorbed Rays from
Radium'', Phil. Mag., S6, V 4, Feb
1903, pp177-187. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=EFQwAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA177&lpg=PA177&dq=The+
Magnetic+and+Electric+Deviation+of+the+E
asily+Absorbed+Rays+from+Radium&source=b
l&ots=hd6YYVJA6n&sig=jXFrc1rH_POEoKypoND
mYkoHIHw&hl=en&ei=4b9tTJmFI5OisQPYo7H5Cg
&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&
ved=0CBIQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=The%20Magnet
ic%20and%20Electric%20Deviation%20of%20t
he%20Easily%20Absorbed%20Rays%20from%20R
adium&f=false

[2] Description Ernest
Rutherford2.jpg English: Cropped
Image:Ernest_Rutherford.jpg Date
2007-01-26 (original upload
date) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia Author Original
uploader was Sadi Carnot at
en.wikipedia GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/57/Ernest_Rutherford2.jp
g
98 YBN
[11/19/1902 AD] 		4738) Thorium and radium "emanation"
(later shown to be isotopes of radon)
are condensed at low temperatures to
prove that the emanation is a gas.
(McGill University) Montreal, Canada
 
[1] Description Ernest
Rutherford2.jpg English: Cropped
Image:Ernest_Rutherford.jpg Date
2007-01-26 (original upload
date) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia Author Original
uploader was Sadi Carnot at
en.wikipedia GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/57/Ernest_Rutherford2.jp
g

[2] Ernest Rutherford (young) Image
courtesy of www.odt.co.nz UNKNOWN
source: https://thescienceclassroom.wiki
spaces.com/file/view/ernest_rutherford_1
122022732.jpg/103032081
98 YBN
[1902 AD] 		3821) A method of separating liquid
oxygen from liquid air on a large scale
is developed.
(Munich Thermal Testing Station)
Munich, Germany (presumably) 
[1] Carl Linde patent Apparatus for
producing pure nitrogen and pure
oxygen PD
source: http://patft.uspto.gov/netacgi/n
ph-Parser?patentnumber=795525

[2] Sketch of the first air
liquefaction plant of 1895 PD
(presumably)
source: http://www.linde.com/internation
al/web/linde/like35lindecom.nsf/reposito
rybyalias/pdf_ch_chronicle/$file/chronic
le_e%5B1%5D.pdf
98 YBN
[1902 AD] 		4480) The heterodyne principle of
converting high-frequency wireless
signals to a lower frequency that is
more easily controlled and amplified.
(National Electric Signalling Company)
Brant Rock, Massachusetts, USA 
[1] Reginald Fessenden PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/01/Fessenden.JPG

[2] Reginald Aubrey Fessenden UNKNOWN

source: http://www.modestoradiomuseum.or
g/images/fessenden.jpg
98 YBN
[1902 AD] 		4714) The neon lamp is developed for
use in lighting and signs.
(Compagnie Francaise Houston-Thomson)
Paris, France (presumably) 
[1] Georges Claude in his laboratory,
1913. Claude, Georges. Photograph.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Web. 4
Aug. 2010 . PD
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
68471&rendTypeId=4

[2] George Claude UNKNOWN
source: http://www.quanthomme.info/energ
ieencore/carnetphotos/cr13claudegeorges.
jpg
98 YBN
[1902 AD] 		4721) Optically active compounds are
prepared that are centered on
asymmetric atoms of sulfur, selenium,
and tin.
(Municipal School of Technology)
Manchester, England 
[1] Sir William Jackson Pope
(1870-1939) President of the Chemical
Society 1917 to 1919 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.rsc.org/images/Willia
mPope_tcm18-75113.jpg
98 YBN
[1902 AD] 		4784) A method of sewing together
(suturing) the ends of blood vessels is
developed.
(University of Lyons) Lyons,
France 
[1] Description Alexis Carrel
02.jpg French surgeon and biologist
Alexis Carrel (1873-1944) Date
Unknown Source
US-LibraryOfCongress-BookLogo.svg
This image is available from the
United States Library of Congress's
Prints and Photographs division under
the digital ID ggbain.34418. This tag
does not indicate the copyright status
of the attached work. A normal
copyright tag is still required. See
Commons:Licensing for more
information. العربية
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/9e/Alexis_Carrel_02.jpg
97 YBN
[03/17/1903 AD] 		3676) The phosphor, zinc sulfide is
found to emit visible light when near
radioactive material, so a zinc sulfide
screen can be used in darkness to see
particle emissions.
(private lab) London,
England(presumably) 
[1] Un spinthariscope bon marché
contenu dans un jeu éducatif de chimie
des années 50 ''Atomic energy'' de
Chemcraft Source
http://www.theodoregray.com/Periodi
cTable Date 5 Mars 2007 Author
Theodore
Gray Permission (Reusing this image)
Creative Commons license Creative
Commons Attribution This file is
licensed under Creative Commons
Attribution 1.0 license Deutsch
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f3/Spinthariscope.jpg

[2] English
source: http://home.frognet.net/~ejcov/w
c1850.jpg
97 YBN
[03/23/1903 AD] 		4492) The steerable glider with
controls that allow the pilot to
control all three axes of the airplane.
Dayton, Ohio 
[1] Image frmo Wright Brothers patent
821393 PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=h5NWAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f
=false

[2] * Description: Wilbur
Wright Background notes: Wright
brothers English: Early Wright
brother’s airplanes explored basic
principles of flight. The Wright
brothers are widely credited with
engineering the first aircraft capable
of sustained powered
flight. Commons-emblem-notice.svg
Wright brothers Wikipedia:
Asturianu Bosanski Català
Čeština Dansk Deutsch English
Esperanto Español Euskara Suomi
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inventors *** Smithsonian Stories of
the Wright flights *** National Park
Service, Wright Brothers' Memorial ***
PBS Nova: The Wright Brothers' Flying
Machines * Source:
http://lcweb2.loc.gov/pp/wrihtml/wribac.
html * Photographer: unknwon PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/77/Wilbur_Wright.jpg
97 YBN
[03/23/1903 AD] 		4493) The airplane. The first powered,
sustained, and controlled airplane
flight by Wilbur and Orville Wright.

The Wright brothers construct a
gasoline engine powered airplane which
makes four successful fights, the
final, longest flight lasts for
fifty-nine seconds and covers about
half a mile through the air.

For the first time in history, a
heavier-than-air machine completes
powered and sustained flight under the
complete control of the pilot.
Kill Devil Hills, North Carolina,
USA 
[1] Description First
flight2.jpg English: First successful
flight of the Wright Flyer, by the
Wright brothers. The machine traveled
120 ft (36.6 m) in 12 seconds at 10:35
a.m. at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina.
Orville Wright was at the controls of
the machine, lying prone on the lower
wing with his hips in the cradle which
operated the wing-warping mechanism.
Wilbur Wright ran alongside to balance
the machine, and just released his hold
on the forward upright of the right
wing in the photo. The starting rail,
the wing-rest, a coil box, and other
items needed for flight preparation are
visible behind the machine. This was
considered ''the first sustained and
controlled heavier-than-air, powered
flight'' by the Fédération
Aéronautique
Internationale. Français : L’un des
premier vols habités de l’histoire
dans un aéronef plus lourd que l’air
(36.6 mètres en 12 secondes), par les
frères Wright le 17 décembre 1903 à
10h35 sur la plage de Kitty Hawk en
Caroline du Nord. Orville est aux
commandes, allongé sur le ventre sur
l’aile basse et les hanches dans la
nacelle qui servait à contrôler le
mouvement des ailes ; Wilbur court le
long de l’appareil et vient de lacher
l’aile droite. Le rail de lancement,
des étais et d’autres équipements
nécessaires pour la préparation du
vol sont visibles. 日本語:
1903年12月17日、ライト兄弟が
類初の動力飛行機での有人飛
行に成功した時の写真。 Date
17 December 1903 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/86/First_flight2.jpg

[2] * Description: Wilbur
Wright Background notes: Wright
brothers English: Early Wright
brother’s airplanes explored basic
principles of flight. The Wright
brothers are widely credited with
engineering the first aircraft capable
of sustained powered
flight. Commons-emblem-notice.svg
Wright brothers Wikipedia:
Asturianu Bosanski Català
Čeština Dansk Deutsch English
Esperanto Español Euskara Suomi
Français עברית Magyar Bahasa
Indonesia Italiano 日本語
한국어 Latina Lietuvių
Nederlands Norsk (Bokmål) Polski
Português Русский Slovenčina
Slovenščina Српски / Srpski
Svenska ไทย Türkçe Tiếng
Việt 中文 Other links: US
inventors *** Smithsonian Stories of
the Wright flights *** National Park
Service, Wright Brothers' Memorial ***
PBS Nova: The Wright Brothers' Flying
Machines * Source:
http://lcweb2.loc.gov/pp/wrihtml/wribac.
html * Photographer: unknwon PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/77/Wilbur_Wright.jpg
97 YBN
[05/14/1903 AD] 		4263) A model of the atom as a sphere
composed only of pairs of negatively
charged corpuscles and positive
charges.
(Yale University) New Haven,
Connecticut, USA  
[1] Figures 15 and 16 from Thomson's
Yale lecture paper of 1903 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=qtoEAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=ele
ctricity+and+matter+date:1904-1904&cd=1#
v=onepage&q=&f=false

[2] Figure 17 from Thomson's Yale
lecture paper of 1903 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=qtoEAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=ele
ctricity+and+matter+date:1904-1904&cd=1#
v=onepage&q=&f=false
97 YBN
[05/28/1903 AD] 		3677) The radiation from radium is
shown to be less when colder.
(private lab) London,
England(presumably) 
[1]
source:

[2] 1856 at the age of 24 PD
source: http://home.frognet.net/~ejcov/w
c1850.jpg
97 YBN
[06/??/1903 AD] 		4893) The scattering of x-rays by gases
is shown to depend on the molecular
weight of the gas.
(University College) Liverpool,
England 
[1] Figure 3 from Charles G. Barkla,
''Secondary radiation from gases
subject to X-rays'', Phil. Mag.,S6, V5,
N30, June 1903, p685 – 698. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=otXPAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA685&dq=Secondary+radi
ation+from+gases+subject+to+X-Rays&hl=en
&ei=urb-TLaEO4ausAOu6YywCw&sa=X&oi=book_
result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CDIQ6AEwA
A#v=onepage&q=Secondary%20radiation%20fr
om%20gases%20subject%20to%20X-Rays&f=fal
se

[2] Description Charles Glover
Barkla.jpg English: Charles Glover
Barkla Date 1917(1917) Source
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/
physics/laureates/1917/barkla-bio.html
Author Nobel
Foundation Permission (Reusing this
file) Public domainPublic
domainfalsefalse Public domain This
Swedish photograph is free to use
either of these cases: * For
photographic works (fotografiska verk),
the image is public domain:
a) if the photographer died before
January 1, 1944, or b) if the
photographer is not known, and cannot
be traced, and the image was created
before January 1, 1944. * For
photographic pictures (fotografiska
bilder), such as images of the press,
the image is public domain if created
before January 1, 1969 (transitional
regulations 1994). PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/81/Charles_Glover_Barkla
.jpg
97 YBN
[07/28/1903 AD] 		4145) That helium is emitted from
radium is shown spectroscopically.
(University College) London,
England 
[1] Xenon on the Periodic table GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xen
on

[2] Figure 1 from Rayleigh 1893 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d2/William_Ramsay_workin
g.jpg
97 YBN
[11/23/1903 AD] 		4264) Gold metal leaves exposed to
x-rays are shown to acquire positive
and lose negative electricity.
(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England  
[1] English: J. J. Thomson published in
1896. Deutsch: Joseph John Thomson
(1856–1940). Ein ursprünglich 1896
veröffentlichter Stahlstich. [edit]
Source From Oliver Heaviside: Sage
in Solitude (ISBN 0-87942-238-6), p.
120. This is a reproduction of a steel
engraving originally published in The
Electrician, 1896. It was scanned on an
Epson Perfection 1250 at 400dpi,
cleaned up (some text was showing
through the back) in Photoshop, reduced
to grayscale, and saved as JPG using
the 'Save for Web' optimizer.. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5e/JJ_Thomson.jpg

[2] J. J. Thomson in earlier days. PD

source: http://www.chemheritage.org/clas
sroom/chemach/images/lgfotos/05atomic/th
omson1.jpg
97 YBN
[12/05/1903 AD] 		4462) The Saturnian {Sa-TR-nE-iN} model
of the atom (negatively charged
electrons rotate around a large mass
positively charged particle) by Hantaro
Nagaoka.
(Tokyo University) Tokyo, Japan 
[1] Hantaro Nagaoka PD AND
Proceedings of the Tokyo
Mathematico-Physieal Society, 2nd ser.,
2 (1904), 92–107; and H. Nagaoka,
''Kinetics of a System of Particles
illustrating the Line and the Band
Spectrum and the Phenomena of
Radioactivity.'', Philosophical
Magazine, 6th ser., 7 (1904),
445–455.
http://books.google.com/books?id=mNbPA
AAAMAAJ&pg=PA445#v=onepage&q&f=false PD

source: http://www.riken.go.jp/r-world/i
nfo/release/riken88/text/image/06/hantar
o.jpg AND http://books.google.com/book
s?id=mNbPAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA445

[2] Hantaro Nagaoka PD
source: http://www.riken.go.jp/r-world/i
nfo/release/riken88/text/image/06/hantar
o.jpg
97 YBN
[1903 AD] 		4075) Untrained and trained reflexes
are demonstrated.
(Military Medical Academy), St.
Petersburg, Russia 
[1] circa 1900: Ivan Petrovich Pavlov
(1849 - 1936) the Russian physiologist,
awarded the Nobel prize for Medicine in
1904. (Photo by Hulton Archive/Getty
Images) PD
source: http://content.answers.com/main/
content/img/getty/8/5/3274685.jpg

[2] * Official Nobel Prize photo
(1904), from nobel.se website. PD
because of age. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/56/Ivan_Pavlov_%28Nobel%
29.png
97 YBN
[1903 AD] 		4768) Chromatography is invented: a
method where different substances in a
liquid pigment mixture move through a
column of absorptive material at
different rates because of their
absorptive properties and are therefore
separated into colored bands on the
column.
(University of Warsaw) Warsaw,
Poland 
[1] Description Tswett
01.jpg English: Mikhail Semyonovich
Tsvet in 1901 Deutsch: Michail
Semjonowitsch Tswett,
1901 Русский: Михаил
Семенович Цвет Date
1901(1901) Source ISBN
3-9801965-0-X PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/bc/Tswett_01.jpg
96 YBN
[02/14/1904 AD] 		4837) Actinium, like radium, is found
to emit helium.
(Sorbonne) Paris, France
(presumably) 
[1] André Louis Debierne: French
chemist. 1874 - August 1949. Debierne
discovered actinium in a precipitate of
rare earths caused by adding ammonia to
dissolved pitchblende. Debierne was a
good friend of the Curies. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.chemeddl.org/collecti
ons/ptl/ptl/chemists/debierne.jpeg
96 YBN
[03/17/1904 AD] 		4894) The intensity of x-rays scattered
by low atomic mass solids is found to
be proportional to their atomic mass.
(University of Liverpool) Liverpool,
England 
[1] Figure 1 from 01/21/1905
paper: Polarized Röntgen radiation.
Phil. Trans. A, 204, 1905,
p467-479. http://books.google.com/books
?id=x01GAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA467&dq=intitle:Phi
losophical+intitle:transactions+Barkla&h
l=en&ei=9hgATZ7tI8bCngeJwtDlDQ&sa=X&oi=b
ook_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCMQ6
AEwAA#v=onepage&q=intitle%3APhilosophica
l%20intitle%3Atransactions%20Barkla&f=fa
lse PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=x01GAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA467&dq=intitle:Philos
ophical+intitle:transactions+Barkla&hl=e
n&ei=9hgATZ7tI8bCngeJwtDlDQ&sa=X&oi=book
_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCMQ6AEw
AA#v=onepage&q=intitle%3APhilosophical%2
0intitle%3Atransactions%20Barkla&f=false


[2] Description Charles Glover
Barkla.jpg English: Charles Glover
Barkla Date 1917(1917) Source
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/
physics/laureates/1917/barkla-bio.html
Author Nobel
Foundation Permission (Reusing this
file) Public domainPublic
domainfalsefalse Public domain This
Swedish photograph is free to use
either of these cases: * For
photographic works (fotografiska verk),
the image is public domain:
a) if the photographer died before
January 1, 1944, or b) if the
photographer is not known, and cannot
be traced, and the image was created
before January 1, 1944. * For
photographic pictures (fotografiska
bilder), such as images of the press,
the image is public domain if created
before January 1, 1969 (transitional
regulations 1994). PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/81/Charles_Glover_Barkla
.jpg
96 YBN
[06/29/1904 AD] 		4707) The amount of inert gas emitted
by radium is found to be directly
proportional to the amount of uranium
in any given sample, which is evidence
that uranium decays into radium.
(Mining Engineering and Chemistry
company) New Haven, Conneticut, USA
 
[1] Title Bertram Borden Boltwood,
Sheffield Scientific School Class of
1892. Image
Number 1047 Creator Unknown Date of
Creation 1917 Original
Material Photographic print Copyright
Holder Copyright status for this item
is unknown. Description Yale professor
of physics and radiochemistry.
Published in Ybc 892, v. 2
(1917). Record Unit Name Photographs
of Yale affiliated individuals
maintained by the Office of Public
Affairs, Yale University, 1879-1989
(inclusive). Collection
ID mssa.ru.0686 Box Number 8 Folder
Number 302 File
Name 001047.jpg Credit
Line Photographs of Yale affiliated
individuals maintained by the Office of
Public Affairs, Yale University,
1879-1989 (inclusive). Manuscripts &
Archives, Yale University PD
source: http://images.library.yale.edu/m
adid_size3/22593/001047.jpg
96 YBN
[09/08/1904 AD] 		4401) Alpha particles (helium nuclei)
emitted from radium are shown to have
several sharply delineated distance
ranges.
(University of Adelaide) Adelaide,
Australia 
[1] Figure from: Bragg, “On the
Absorption of X-rays, and on the
Classification of the X-rays of
Radium,” in Philosophical Magazine,
6th ser., 8 (Dec. 1904), 719–725; PD

source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=9k8EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA719&dq=On+the+Absorpt
ion+of+X-rays,+and+on+the+Classification
+of+the+X-rays+of+Radium&hl=en&ei=VOQGTL
L9BIH48AaElfCRDA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=
result&resnum=5&ved=0CDwQ6AEwBA#v=onepag
e&q&f=false

[2] Description William Henry Bragg
2.jpg William H. Bragg Date
Source
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiped
ia/commons/archive/9/95/20081225183229!W
illiam_Henry_Bragg.jpg Author
uploaded by User:Emerson7 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/83/William_Henry_Bragg_2
.jpg
96 YBN
[12/03/1904 AD] 		4501) The sixth satellite of Jupiter
Himalia (HimoLYo) is identified.
(Lick Observatory) Mount Hamilton,
California, USA 
[1] Description
Himalia.png Nederlands: Afbeelding
van de maan Himalia genomen door de
Cassini ruimtesonde op 19 december
2000. Meer informatie:
http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog
/PIA02881 Date 31 March
2004(2004-03-31) (original upload
date) Source Transferred from
nl.wikipedia; transferred to Commons by
User:Koektrommel using
CommonsHelper. Author Original
uploader was Danielm at
nl.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/fd/Himalia.png

[2] Descripción
Perrine.JPG Español: Dr. Charles
Dillon Perrine Fecha Fuente
Observatorio Astronómico Córdoba
- Museo Astronómico Autor
Observatorio Nacional
Argentino Permiso (Reutilizando este
archivo) Mirar abajo. COPYLEFT
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c1/Perrine.JPG
96 YBN
[1904 AD] 		3647) The first practical color
photograph is created by using very
small grains of potato starch stained
red, green, and blue which only allow
those particular colors to reach the
light sensitive silver compound.
France 
[1] This Color Photograph was made in
1907 in France. Today some of the most
beautiful color photographs are the
oldest: produced by the the Autochrome
Process. The emulsion was made with
dried potato dust. PD/Corel
source: http://www.worldisround.com/phot
os/0/11/18_o.jpg

[2] Auguste and Louis Lumière,
inventors of the movie camera,
three-color screen photography, and
first movie producers. Photo Blanc &
Demilly PD/Corel
source: http://www.marillier.nom.fr/coll
odions/PGH/pics/photowasborn08.jpg
96 YBN
[1904 AD] 		4077) The vacuum tube diode (or
"rectifier", which can "rectify"
alternating current into direct
current).
(University College) London,
England 
[1] Fleming's US Patent filed
04/19/1905 PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=WRFjAAAAEBAJ&printsec=drawing&zoom=4#v=
onepage&q=&f=false

[2] Description Sir John Ambrose
Fleming PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/1/16/Sir_John_Ambrose_Fleming.j
pg
96 YBN
[1904 AD] 		4102) That the stars move in one of two
directions in two large star streams is
found which leads to the recognition of
the shape of the Milky Way Galaxy.
(announced at:) St. Louis World
Exhibition|(working at:)(University of
Groningen) Groningen, Netherlands 
[1] Jacobus Cornelius Kapteyn PD
source: http://t0.gstatic.com/images?q=t
bn:LDTcedwtzAnhaM:http://www.scientific-
web.com/en/Astronomy/Biographies/images/
JacobusCorneliusKapteyn01.jpg

[2] Jacobus Cornelius Kapteyn PD
source: http://www.scientific-web.com/en
/Astronomy/Biographies/images/JacobusCor
neliusKapteyn02.jpg
96 YBN
[1904 AD] 		4198) A stain, trypan red, is found to
destroy the protists trypanosomes
curing a trypanosome infection in mice.
(Serum Institute) Frankfurt,
Germany 
[1] Paul Ehrlich PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/45/Paul_Ehrlich.png

[2] Paul Ehrlich, 1915 (Wellcome Trust
Photographic Library) PD
source: http://www.rpsgb.org.uk/informat
ionresources/museum/exhibitions/exhibiti
on04/images/paul_ehrlich.jpg
96 YBN
[1904 AD] 		4366) The word "hormone" is coined for
substances released from the endocrine
gland that are carried by the
bloodstream to other parts of the body
where is extremely small amounts they
are capable of profoundly influencing
the function of those parts.
(University College) London,
England 
[1] Starling, Ernest Henry. Photograph.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Web.
25 May 2010 . PD
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
40331&rendTypeId=4

[2] Source: Physiology Society [1]
(pdf) Description: Professor William
Bayliss of University College, London
(died 1924) In the event that the
image was taken after 1923, fair use is
claimed, because there is no
free-licence equivalent, and its use by
Wikipedia will not affect its monetary
value, assuming it has any. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/7/74/WilliamBayliss1.jpg
96 YBN
[1904 AD] 		4400) Carbon is shown to not always
have a valence of 4 but sometimes to
have a valence of 2, and this shows
that an atom's valence can be variable.
(University of Chicago) Chicago,
illinois, USA 
[1] John Ulric Nef 1862-1915
UNKNOWN
source: http://www2.chemistry.msu.edu/Po
rtraits/images/nefc.jpg
96 YBN
[1904 AD] 		4447) Calcium absorption lines are
found to not share in the periodic
displacements of the other spectral
lines caused by the orbital motion of a
binary star and this is evidence of
calcium in between the stars that
absorbs the light.
(Potsdam Observatory) Potsdam,
Getmany 
[1] [t Note I don't see the calcium
lines for the star that are
shifted] Photo from: Hartmann,
Johannes, ''Untersuchungen uber das 80
cm-Objektiv des Potsdamer Refraktors'',
Publikationen des Astrophysikalischen
Observatoriums zu Potsdam ; 15. Bd., 2.
Stuck = Nr. 46; Publicationen des
Astrophysikalischen Observatoriums zu
Potsdam ; 15. Bd., 2. Stuck., Potsdam :
Astrophysikalisches Observatorium zu
Potsdam : In, 106 p., 6 leaves of
plates : ill. ; 29 cm. PD
source: Hartmann, Johannes,
"Untersuchungen uber das 80 cm-Objektiv
des Potsdamer Refraktors",
Publikationen des Astrophysikalischen
Observatoriums zu Potsdam ; 15. Bd., 2.
Stuck = Nr. 46; Publicationen des
Astrophysikalischen Observatoriums zu
Potsdam ; 15. Bd., 2. Stuck., Potsdam :
Astrophysikalisches Observatorium zu
Potsdam : In, 106 p., 6 leaves of
plates : ill. ; 29 cm.

[2] Description
Hartmann.jpg English: Johannes Franz
Hartmann (1865 – 1936) Date ca
1915 Source
http://www.aip.de/image_archive/Insti
tute.Portraits.html Author PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8b/Hartmann.jpg
96 YBN
[1904 AD] 		4463) The first of what will be called
"co-enzymes" is discovered: a small
molecule which is not a protein but is
necessary to the correct functioning of
an enzyme, which is a protein.
(Lister Institute of Preventive
Medicine) London, England  
[1] ArthurHarden.jpg English: Arthur
Harden, recipent of the Nobel Prize in
Chemistry 1929 Date
1929(1929) Source
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/
chemistry/laureates/1929/harden-bio.html
Author Nobel Foundation PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/ff/ArthurHarden.jpg
96 YBN
[1904 AD] 		5099) Radar: Radio light is used to
determine the location of distant
objects by Christian Hülsmeyer.
Düsselsorf, Germany (presumably) 
[1] Figure 1: Hülsmeyer’s German
165,546 (1904) telemobileoscope PD
source: http://www.q-track.com/Files/fil
es/Schantz-RF%20since%20WWII.pdf

[2] Christian Huelsmeyer UNKNOWN
source: http://www.radarworld.org/images
/scans/Hulsmeyer.jpg
96 YBN
[1904 AD] 		5779) Fraunhofer's grating equation is
adapted so that the grating spacing and
deflected wavelength is connected to
the angle of incidence of light instead
of the angle of deflected light by
Arthur Schuster. This slight change
shows that the distance of the source
light changes the position of a
spectral line relative to the center
node.
(University of Manchester) Machester,
England 
[1] Description Schuster Arthur
signature.jpg English: Picture of Sir
Arthur Schuster, the British
physicist. Date
1906(1906) Source
Frontispiece of The Physical
Laboratories of the University of
Manchester Author None given PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2a/Schuster_Arthur_signa
ture.jpg
95 YBN
[03/17/1905 AD] 		4928) The theory that light is made of
units of energy (light quanta) is
established and used to mathematically
connect the frequency of light to the
photoelectric voltage produced.
Bern, Switzerland 
[1] Description German-born
theoretical physicist Albert
Einstein. Source Cropped from
original at the Historical Museum of
Berne. Date 1904[1] Author
Lucien Chavan [1] (1868 - 1942), a
friend of Einstein's when he was living
in Berne. Permission (Reusing this
file) An uncropped version
available at NASA's ''Astronomy Picture
of the Day''. According to the NASA
site: PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/a/a0/Einstein_patentoffice.jpg

[2] Albert Einstein, Nobel Prize in
Physics 1921 photograph. Description
Albert Einstein (Nobel).png English:
Albert Einstein, official 1921 Nobel
Prize in Physics photograph. Français
: Albert Einstein, photographie
officielle du Prix Nobel de Physique
1921. Date 1921(1921) Source
Official 1921 Nobel Prize in
Physics photograph Author PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/50/Albert_Einstein_%28No
bel%29.png
95 YBN
[03/30/1905 AD] 		4502) The seventh satellite of Jupiter,
Elara is identified.
(Lick Observatory) Mount Hamilton,
California, USA 
[1] Description
Elara2-LB1-mag17.jpg English: 2
minute exposure of Jupiter's moon Elara
with a 24'' telescope. Elara is
apparent magnitude 16.8 in this image
taken at 2009-10-21 03:00 UT. The glow
at the bottom of the image is from
Jupiter (which is not in the
photo). Date 21 October
2009(2009-10-21) Source This
image was taken by Kevin Heider using
LB-001 at LightBuckets in Rodeo,
NM Raw image from telescope (aimed at
21 19 26.65 -16 20 00.0 to prevent
Jupiter from blowing out the
photo) Use Wikisky and enter
coordinates 21 19 26.65 -16 24 09.1 to
locate this region of the sky. Skyview
(NASA Virtual Telescope) website /
Skyview image (centered on where the
moon Elara is) Click here to see
Elara's location on 2009-10-22. Author
Kevin Heider @ LightBuckets CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0c/Elara2-LB1-mag17.jpg

[2] Descripción
Perrine.JPG Español: Dr. Charles
Dillon Perrine Fecha Fuente
Observatorio Astronómico Córdoba
- Museo Astronómico Autor
Observatorio Nacional
Argentino Permiso (Reutilizando este
archivo) Mirar abajo. COPYLEFT
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c1/Perrine.JPG
95 YBN
[05/01/1905 AD] 		4740) A single gram of radium is
estimated to emit over a billion Alpha
and a billion Beta particles each
second.
(McGill University) Montreal, Canada
 
[1] Description Ernest
Rutherford2.jpg English: Cropped
Image:Ernest_Rutherford.jpg Date
2007-01-26 (original upload
date) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia Author Original
uploader was Sadi Carnot at
en.wikipedia GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/57/Ernest_Rutherford2.jp
g

[2] Ernest Rutherford (young) Image
courtesy of www.odt.co.nz UNKNOWN
source: https://thescienceclassroom.wiki
spaces.com/file/view/ernest_rutherford_1
122022732.jpg/103032081
95 YBN
[05/01/1905 AD] 		4741) The theory that gamma rays may be
electrons with velocities that approach
the speed of light, and that this high
velocity may account for why they are
not deflected in an electric or
magnetic field.
(McGill University) Montreal, Canada
 
[1] Description Ernest
Rutherford2.jpg English: Cropped
Image:Ernest_Rutherford.jpg Date
2007-01-26 (original upload
date) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia Author Original
uploader was Sadi Carnot at
en.wikipedia GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/57/Ernest_Rutherford2.jp
g

[2] Ernest Rutherford (young) Image
courtesy of www.odt.co.nz UNKNOWN
source: https://thescienceclassroom.wiki
spaces.com/file/view/ernest_rutherford_1
122022732.jpg/103032081
95 YBN
[06/30/1905 AD] 		4929) The special theory of relativity
by Albert Einstein.

Einstein theorizes that the speed of
light is constant independently of the
motion of all other objects, accepting
the theory of Lorentz that mass and
time depends on motion relative to an
aether, but rejecting the theory of an
aether as being unnecessary.
Bern, Switzerland 
[1] Description German-born
theoretical physicist Albert
Einstein. Source Cropped from
original at the Historical Museum of
Berne. Date 1904[1] Author
Lucien Chavan [1] (1868 - 1942), a
friend of Einstein's when he was living
in Berne. Permission (Reusing this
file) An uncropped version
available at NASA's ''Astronomy Picture
of the Day''. According to the NASA
site: PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/a/a0/Einstein_patentoffice.jpg

[2] Albert Einstein, Nobel Prize in
Physics 1921 photograph. Description
Albert Einstein (Nobel).png English:
Albert Einstein, official 1921 Nobel
Prize in Physics photograph. Français
: Albert Einstein, photographie
officielle du Prix Nobel de Physique
1921. Date 1921(1921) Source
Official 1921 Nobel Prize in
Physics photograph Author PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/50/Albert_Einstein_%28No
bel%29.png
95 YBN
[09/27/1905 AD] 		4930) The theory that the intrinsic
energy of all matter is dependent on
the speed of light, and the famous
equation E=mc2 (originally m=L/c2).

One possible problem with this theory
is that motion may not be a quantity
that is intrinsic to matter, but
instead a quantity that can be passed
from one piece of matter to another.
Bern, Switzerland 
[1] Description German-born
theoretical physicist Albert
Einstein. Source Cropped from
original at the Historical Museum of
Berne. Date 1904[1] Author
Lucien Chavan [1] (1868 - 1942), a
friend of Einstein's when he was living
in Berne. Permission (Reusing this
file) An uncropped version
available at NASA's ''Astronomy Picture
of the Day''. According to the NASA
site: PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/a/a0/Einstein_patentoffice.jpg

[2] Albert Einstein, Nobel Prize in
Physics 1921 photograph. Description
Albert Einstein (Nobel).png English:
Albert Einstein, official 1921 Nobel
Prize in Physics photograph. Français
: Albert Einstein, photographie
officielle du Prix Nobel de Physique
1921. Date 1921(1921) Source
Official 1921 Nobel Prize in
Physics photograph Author PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/50/Albert_Einstein_%28No
bel%29.png
95 YBN
[11/05/1905 AD] 		4823) The velocity of positive rays
from Hydrogen are determined to be 500
times slower than light using Doppler
shift.
(University of Göttingen) Göttingen,
Germany 
[1] translated from German: above: the
spectrum normal to the channel
rays. below: the spectrum parallel to
the channel rays. Figure from: Stark,
''Der DopplerEffekt bei den
kanalstrahlen Und die Spektra der
positiven Atomionen'', Physikalische
Zeitschrift, 6 (1905), 892–897.
http://books.google.com/books?id=k1xMA
AAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:
FwS0eOnTtwYC&hl=en&ei=Ooy3TOG3FpKosQPF0d
WbCQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnu
m=5&ved=0CEAQ6AEwBA#v=onepage&q&f=false
PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=k1xMAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edi
tions:FwS0eOnTtwYC&hl=en&ei=Ooy3TOG3FpKo
sQPF0dWbCQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result
&resnum=5&ved=0CEAQ6AEwBA#v=onepage&q&f=
false

[2] Portrait of Johannes Stark, Nobel
Prize in Physics winner from
1919. [edit] Licensing Original
source:
http://concise.britannica.com/ebc/art-14
492/Johannes-Stark Because of age
(published in 1919), should be PD in at
least the United States, and likely
elsewhere. Slightly edited. Public
domain PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1d/Johannes_Stark.jpg
95 YBN
[12/22/1905 AD] 		4796) That the color of a star is
related to its size is recognized, the
relative brightness of a star is
determined by scaling its apparent
brightness by its distance, and the
theory of stellar evolution: that stars
lose brightness over time changing
color in the direction of blue to red.
In addition, red and yellow stars are
thought to be divided into two groups,
one with high brightness and the other
with low brightness.
(University of Copenhagen, and at the
Urania Observatory in Frederiksberg)
Copenhagen, Denmark (verify) 
[1] Hertzsprung, ''Zur Strahlung der
Sterne'', Zeitschrift für
wissenschaftliche Photographie, 3
(1905),
p429-422. http://books.google.com/books
?id=J8zNAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA429 partial
translation in: Harlow Shapley,
''Source book in astronomy'',
1900-1950 http://books.google.com/books
?id=S9pt_DRjngUC&pg=PA248 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=J8zNAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA431

[2] Hertzsprung, ''Zur Strahlung der
Sterne'', Zeitschrift für
wissenschaftliche Photographie, 3
(1905),
p429-422. http://books.google.com/books
?id=J8zNAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA429 partial
translation in: Harlow Shapley,
''Source book in astronomy'',
1900-1950 http://books.google.com/books
?id=S9pt_DRjngUC&pg=PA248 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=J8zNAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA431
95 YBN
[1905 AD] 		4034) The color motion film camera and
projector.
(private studio) Brighton, England
(presumably) 
[1] Picture taken on a single film.
Each half og which was taken through a
separate color filter. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=Dp4EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA296&dq=friese-greene+
color&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=friese-greene
%20color&f=false

[2] Diagram showing how the color
scheme of Friese-Greene's color camera
works. {ULSF: There are two images
side by side on the film, each
capturing light of a different
color} PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=Dp4EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA296&dq=friese-greene+
color&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=friese-greene
%20color&f=false
95 YBN
[1905 AD] 		4758) The bacteria that causes syphilis
is discovered.
(Institute for Protozoology at the
Imperial Ministry of Health) Berlin,
Germany 
[1] Description Fritz Richard
Schaudinn.png English: German
zoologist Fritz Schaudinn (1871-1906),
co-discoverer of Spirochaeta pallida,
the causative agent of
syphilis Deutsch: Der deutsche Zoologe
Fritz Schaudinn (1871-1906),
Mitentdecker des Syphilis-Erregers
Spirochaeta pallida Date vor
1907 Source Fritz Schaudinns,
Verlag Leopold Voss, Hamburg und
Leipzig 1911 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/44/Fritz_Richard_Schaudi
nn.png
95 YBN
[1905 AD] 		4771) The first ship to sail through
the Northwest Passage (from the
Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean
along the Arctic coast of North
America).
Herschel Island, Yukon 
[1] Description Nlc
amundsen.jpg English: Roald
Amundsen Date Source Roald
Amundsen's The North West Passage:
Being a Record of a Voyage of
Exploration of the ship Gjøa,
1903-1907; Roald Amundsen. New York:
Dutton, 1908. National Library of
Canada Author [show]Ludwik
Szacinski (1844–1894) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/7d/Nlc_amundsen.jpg
95 YBN
[1905 AD] 		4815) That elements and compounds
absorb characteristic and specific
wavelengths of infrared light is shown.
(National Bureau of Standards)
Washington D.C., USA 
[1] From Coblentz, ''Investigations of
infra-red spectra'', 1905, p136. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=4LnvAAAAMAAJ&pg=RA1-PA1&dq=William+W.+C
oblentz&hl=en&ei=UUSmTLjeFYeonQfG8vSPAQ&
sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&v
ed=0CCgQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=William W.
Coblentz&f=false

[2] ''Large spectrometer with Nernst
heater, h, to the right, and
radiometer, r, to the left. The
gas-cell holder and glass cells are
shown at g; Geissler pump in the rear.
Photograph taken through doorway of
inner room.'' Photograph scanned from
Fig. 1A of William W. Coblentz's 1905
publication, Investigations of
Infra-Red Spectra, facing page 16. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/f/fd/Coblentz-IR.jpg
94 YBN
[01/13/1906 AD] 		5502) The theory of "radiative
equilibrium": that the atmosphere of a
star above its surface is made of gas
which follows the known gas laws,
countered by the force of gravity.
(University of Göttingen) Göttingen,
Germany (presumably) 
[1] Karl Schwarzschild UNKNOWN
source: http://www.odec.ca/projects/2007
/joch7c2/images/Schwarzschild.jpg

[2] Karl Schwarzschild, german
physicist Date Not
mentioned Source
http://www.aip.de/image_archive/ima
ges/karl_schwarzschild.jpg Author
Not mentioned PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/4a/Karl_schwarzschild.jp
g
94 YBN
[02/09/1906 AD] 		4901) That absorption of secondary
x-rays emitted from a material is
proportional to the atomic mass of the
secondary emitter is proven for heavier
atoms too.
(University of Liverpool) Liverpool,
England 
[1] Description Charles Glover
Barkla.jpg English: Charles Glover
Barkla Date 1917(1917) Source
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/
physics/laureates/1917/barkla-bio.html
Author Nobel
Foundation Permission (Reusing this
file) Public domainPublic
domainfalsefalse Public domain This
Swedish photograph is free to use
either of these cases: * For
photographic works (fotografiska verk),
the image is public domain:
a) if the photographer died before
January 1, 1944, or b) if the
photographer is not known, and cannot
be traced, and the image was created
before January 1, 1944. * For
photographic pictures (fotografiska
bilder), such as images of the press,
the image is public domain if created
before January 1, 1969 (transitional
regulations 1994). PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/81/Charles_Glover_Barkla
.jpg
94 YBN
[06/??/1906 AD] 		4268) The theory that the number of
corpuscles in an atom is on the same
order as the atomic mass, and that
there are 25 corpuscles in each
molecule of air (which is near the
diatomic mass of nitrogen, 28).
(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England  
[1] Figure 1 From Thomson, J.J.,
''Cathode-rays.'', Phil. Mag. 44,
08/07/1897,
269. http://books.google.com/books?id=Z
l0wAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editi
ons:UCALB3728216&lr=#v=onepage&q=thomson
&f=false PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=Zl0wAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edi
tions:UCALB3728216&lr=#v=onepage&q=thoms
on&f=false

[2] Figure 2 From Thomson, J.J.,
''Cathode-rays.'', Phil. Mag. 44,
08/07/1897,
269. http://books.google.com/books?id=Z
l0wAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editi
ons:UCALB3728216&lr=#v=onepage&q=thomson
&f=false PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=Zl0wAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edi
tions:UCALB3728216&lr=#v=onepage&q=thoms
on&f=false
94 YBN
[07/20/1906 AD] 		4743) The charge to mass ratio of alpha
particles is found to be near 1/2 that
for Hydrogen and are identified as
helium.
(McGill University) Montreal, Canada
 
[1] Description Ernest
Rutherford2.jpg English: Cropped
Image:Ernest_Rutherford.jpg Date
2007-01-26 (original upload
date) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia Author Original
uploader was Sadi Carnot at
en.wikipedia GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/57/Ernest_Rutherford2.jp
g

[2] Ernest Rutherford (young) Image
courtesy of www.odt.co.nz UNKNOWN
source: https://thescienceclassroom.wiki
spaces.com/file/view/ernest_rutherford_1
122022732.jpg/103032081
94 YBN
[12/21/1906 AD] 		4788) The electric switch and vacuum
tube amplifier is invented by Lee De
Forest.

De Forest invents the first electric
switch and amplifier by inserting a
third element (called "the grid") into
a diode, which makes the device a
triode (having three electrodes). The
stream of electrons moves from the
filament to the anode plate at a rate
that varies with the charge placed on
the grid, so a varying very weak
voltage on the grid can be converted
into a similarly varying but much
stronger electron flow from the
filament to the plate, making the
triode an electric amplified, and also
an electric switch since current can be
stopped altogether electronically.
(De Forest Radio Telephone Company) New
York City, New York, USA 
[1] From De Forest 1907 Patent: Lee De
Forest, ''Space Telegraphy'', Patent
number: 879532, Filing date: Jan 29,
1907, Issue date: Feb 18,
1908 http://www.google.com/patents?id=6
i1vAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&sou
rce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=f
alse PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=6i1vAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f
=false

[2] Description Lee De
Forest.jpg en:Lee De Forest,
published in the February 1904 issue of
The Electrical Age. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/65/Lee_De_Forest.jpg
94 YBN
[12/24/1906 AD] 		4479) The first amplitude modulation
sound signal is sent and received using
radio.
(National Electric Signaling Company
and General Electric?) Brant Rock,
Massachusetts, USA 
[1] Reginald Fessenden PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/01/Fessenden.JPG

[2] Reginald Aubrey Fessenden UNKNOWN

source: http://www.modestoradiomuseum.or
g/images/fessenden.jpg
94 YBN
[12/27/1906 AD] 		4710) Radioactivity is used to
determine the age of rocks. From the
quantity of lead in uranium ores and
the known rate of uranium
disintegration, some rocks are found to
be at least 2.2 billion years old.
(Yale University) New Haven,
Connecticut, USA  
[1] Title Bertram Borden Boltwood,
Sheffield Scientific School Class of
1892. Image
Number 1047 Creator Unknown Date of
Creation 1917 Original
Material Photographic print Copyright
Holder Copyright status for this item
is unknown. Description Yale professor
of physics and radiochemistry.
Published in Ybc 892, v. 2
(1917). Record Unit Name Photographs
of Yale affiliated individuals
maintained by the Office of Public
Affairs, Yale University, 1879-1989
(inclusive). Collection
ID mssa.ru.0686 Box Number 8 Folder
Number 302 File
Name 001047.jpg Credit
Line Photographs of Yale affiliated
individuals maintained by the Office of
Public Affairs, Yale University,
1879-1989 (inclusive). Manuscripts &
Archives, Yale University PD
source: http://images.library.yale.edu/m
adid_size3/22593/001047.jpg
94 YBN
[1906 AD] 		4314) The nociceptor is identified; the
pain receptor ending on sensory nerve
fibers responsible for the sensation of
pain.
(Yale University) New Haven,
Connecticut, USA  
[1] From Sherrington's 1906 work, fig.
349. the receptive neurone fig. 39 B,
L, noci-ceptrive, frmo the foot to the
spinal segment, (ii) the motor neurone
fig 39 B, FC to the flexor muscle, e.g.
of hip - a short intraspinal
neuirone. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=MioSAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA328&dq=Sherrington+no
ciceptor+1906&hl=en&ei=vFPbS4-gJYrOsgOL3
dRP&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum
=5&ved=0CEwQ6AEwBA#v=onepage&q=nocicepti
ve&f=false

[2] Charles Scott Sherrington Source
: http://wwwihm.nlm.nih.gov/ Courtesy
of the National Library of
Medicine. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/7/79/Charles_Scott_Sherrington1
.jpg
94 YBN
[1906 AD] 		4385) Mice are shown to stop growing,
even if fed enough, because some amino
acids required by a body cannot be
manufactured in the body and have to
come from food.
(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England  
[1] Frederick Gowland Hopkins PD
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1929/hopkins.jpg
94 YBN
[1906 AD] 		4419) The first of the "Trojan
asteroids" is recognized: two groups of
asteroids that move around the Sun in
Jupiter's orbit: one group 60° ahead
of Jupiter, the other 60° behind.
(University of Heidelberg) Heidelberg,
Germany 
[1] Description Max
Wolf.jpg Maximilian Franz Joseph
Cornelius Wolf (June 21, 1863–October
3, 1932), German astronomer Date
Source Archiv fur Kunst und
Geschichte,
Berlin http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
icle-9077333/Max-Wolf PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e0/Max_Wolf.jpg
94 YBN
[1906 AD] 		4471) A diagnostic test for syphilis is
created.
(Robert Koch Institute for Infectious
Diseases) Berlin, Germany 
[1] Treponema pallidum.jpg English:
Electron micrograph of Treponema
pallidum on cultures of cotton-tail
rabbit epithelium cells (Sf1Ep).
Treponema pallidum is the causative
agent of syphilis. In the United
States, over 35,600 cases of syphilis
were reported by health officials in
1999. Français : Le tréponème
pâle, agent de la syphilis. Polski:
Krętki blade. Magyar: A
kórokozó. עברית: חיידקים
גורמי עגבת. חיידקים
גורמי עגבת. Hrvatski:
Spiroheta Treponema pallidum koja
izaziva sifilis. Bosanski: Treponema
pallidum, uzročnik sifilisa. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/29/Treponema_pallidum.jp
g

[2] Description August
Wassermann.jpg English: August
Wassermann Polski: August
Wassermann Date before
1925 Source IHM Author
anonymous/unknown Permission (Reu
sing this file) The National
Library of Medicine believes this item
to be in the public domain. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/fa/August_Wassermann.jpg

93 YBN
[04/03/1907 AD] 		4763) The theory that the heat emitted
when atoms break into smaller forms may
allow the Sun to produce heat for a
much longer time than previously
thought.
(McGill University) Montreal, Canada
 
[1] Description Ernest
Rutherford2.jpg English: Cropped
Image:Ernest_Rutherford.jpg Date
2007-01-26 (original upload
date) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia Author Original
uploader was Sadi Carnot at
en.wikipedia GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/57/Ernest_Rutherford2.jp
g

[2] Ernest Rutherford (young) Image
courtesy of www.odt.co.nz UNKNOWN
source: https://thescienceclassroom.wiki
spaces.com/file/view/ernest_rutherford_1
122022732.jpg/103032081
93 YBN
[05/??/1907 AD] 		4269) The mass spectrometer, a device
that can separate atoms with an
electric charge (ions) by their mass is
invented by J. J. Thomson.

Thomson deflects the positive rays
found by Goldstein (Kanelstrahlen) by
magnetic and electric fields so that
ions of different ratios of charge to
mass strike different parts of a
phosphorescent screen. Thomson also
recommends the name "positive rays"
instead of Goldstein's name
"Kanalstrahlen" (or "channel rays").
(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England  
[1] fig 2 from: Thomson, J. J., ''On
Rays of Positive Electricity'', Phil.
Mag., S6, V13, N77, May 1907, p561. PD
AND figs 10-12 from: Thomson, J.
J., ''On Rays of Positive
Electricity'', Phil. Mag., S6, V13,
N77, May 1907, p561. PD AND [10]
figures 2-15 from: # Bakerian Lecture:
Rays of Positive Electricity # J. J.
Thomson # Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London. Series A, Containing
Papers of a Mathematical and Physical
Character, Vol. 89, No. 607 (Aug. 1,
1913), pp. 1-20 PD AND English
physicist J J Thomson Date GWS -
The Great War: The Standard History of
the All Europe Conflict (volume four)
edited by H. W. Wilson and J. A.
Hammerton (Amalgamated Press, London
1915) (So, it is taken before
1915) Source
http://www.firstworldwar.com/photos/g
raphics/gws_thomson_01.jpg First World
War.com PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=vVjKOdktZhsC&printsec=frontcover&dq=edi
tions:UOM39015024088414#v=onepage&q=&f=f
alse AND
http://www.jstor.org/stable/93452?&Searc
h=yes&term=electricity&term=positive&ter
m=rays&list=hide&searchUri=%2Faction%2Fd
oBasicSearch%3FQuery%3Drays%2Bof%2Bposit
ive%2Belectricity%26jc%3Dj100836%26wc%3D
on%26Search.x%3D0%26Search.y%3D0%26Searc
h%3DSearch&item=1&ttl=262&returnArticleS
ervice=showArticle
AND http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikip
edia/commons/c/c1/J.J_Thomson.jpg

[2] fig 2 from: Thomson, J. J., ''On
Rays of Positive Electricity'', Phil.
Mag., S6, V13, N77, May 1907, p561. PD

source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=vVjKOdktZhsC&printsec=frontcover&dq=edi
tions:UOM39015024088414#v=onepage&q=&f=f
alse
93 YBN
[06/13/1907 AD] 		4897) The velocity of electrons emitted
by x-rays colliding with various metals
is found to be directly related to the
velocity of the electrons that created
the x-rays in the cathode ray tube.
(Trinity College) Cambridge,
England 
[1] Figures 3 and 4 from: P. D.
Innes, ''On the Velocity of the Cathode
Particles emitted by Various Metals
under the Influence of Röntgen Rays,
and its Bearing on the Theory of Atomic
Disintegration.'', Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London. Series A,
Containing Papers of a Mathematical and
Physical Character, Vol. 79, No. 532
(Aug. 2, 1907), recd 06/13/1907, pp.
442-462. PD
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/9266
0

[2] Figure 109 from: William Henry
Bragg, ''Universe of Light'', Dover
edition, 1933, 1959,
p262. COPYRIGHTED
source: William Henry Bragg, "Universe
of Light", Dover edition, 1933, 1959,
p262.
93 YBN
[09/14/1907 AD] 		6254) The practical home vacuum
cleaner.
Canton, Ohio, USA 
[1] Figure from: Spangler, U.S. Patent
889,823, ''Carpet Sweeper and
Cleaner'' http://www.google.com/patents
?id=GD9OAAAAEBAJ PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=GD9OAAAAEBAJ

[2] James Murray Spangler (verify) PD

source: http://www.ereplacementparts.com
/blog/wp-content/uploads/2010/06/JMS.jpg

93 YBN
[11/13/1907 AD] 		354) The helicopter. A helicopter built
by Paul Cornu achieves free flight
while carrying a passenger for about 20
seconds, reaching a height of one foot
(or 30 cm).
 
[1] Paul Cornu's helicopter was the
first to achieve free flight while
carrying a passenger (1907). Credits
-National Air and Space
Museum, Smithsonian Institution (SI
Neg. No. 93-640) The French bicycle
maker and engineer Paul Cornu, born in
1881 in Lisieux, France, was the first
person to design and build a helicopter
that achieved free flight while
carrying a passenger. His twin-rotor
craft flew for about 20 seconds on
November 13, 1907, rising about one
foot (0.3 meter) off the ground. A
24-horsepower (18-kilowatt) engine
powered the helicopter, which had
counter-rotating rotors. The helicopter
had no effective means of control and
was abandoned after a few
flights. Cornu died in 1944. PD
source: http://www.centennialofflight.go
v/essay/Dictionary/Cornu/DI18G1.jpg

[2] Paul Cornu in his first helicopter
in 1907. Note that he is sitting
between the two rotors, which rotated
in opposite directions to cancel
torque. This helicopter was the first
flying machine to have risen from the
ground using rotor blades instead of
wings. Credits - © 2001 Smithsonian
Institution, National Air and Space
Museum, Videodisc. 2B 5847 PD
source: http://www.centennialofflight.go
v/essay/Rotary/early_20th_century/HE2G13
.jpg
93 YBN
[11/26/1907 AD] 		6263) An image is displayed on a
Cathode-Ray Tube.
Petrograd, Russia 
[1] Figure from: Boris Rosing, ''Art
of Electric Telescopy'', Patent number:
1161734, Filing date: Apr 5, 1911,
Issue date: Nov 23,
1915 http://www.google.com/patents?id=I
KRQAAAAEBAJ PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=IKRQAAAAEBAJ&pg=PA12

[2] Description Boris
Rozing Date 2010-07-03
10:15:57(UTC) (Original uploaded at
2008-07-28 23:55:26) Source
Original uploaded on
ru.wikipedia Author Original
uploaded by Vlas (Transfered by
Ravit) Description Русский:
Борис Розинг (,
советский физик Date
до 1920-х Source
http://www.tvcom.kherson.ua/cikavo.
files/istoriya_tv/istoriya_tv.files/rozi
ng.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/4b/Boris_Rozing.jpg
93 YBN
[12/04/1907 AD] 		4931) That the acceleration caused by
gravitation is equivalent to an
inertial acceleration is recognized.
(Moskau Ingenieure-Hochschule {Moscow
Engineering School}) Moscow, Russia?
(verify) 
[1] Description German-born
theoretical physicist Albert
Einstein. Source Cropped from
original at the Historical Museum of
Berne. Date 1904[1] Author
Lucien Chavan [1] (1868 - 1942), a
friend of Einstein's when he was living
in Berne. Permission (Reusing this
file) An uncropped version
available at NASA's ''Astronomy Picture
of the Day''. According to the NASA
site: PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/a/a0/Einstein_patentoffice.jpg

[2] Albert Einstein, Nobel Prize in
Physics 1921 photograph. Description
Albert Einstein (Nobel).png English:
Albert Einstein, official 1921 Nobel
Prize in Physics photograph. Français
: Albert Einstein, photographie
officielle du Prix Nobel de Physique
1921. Date 1921(1921) Source
Official 1921 Nobel Prize in
Physics photograph Author PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/50/Albert_Einstein_%28No
bel%29.png
93 YBN
[1907 AD] 		4149) A protein molecule (polypeptide)
eighteen amino acids long is assembled,
and digestive enzymes are shown to
break the protein into pieces just as
they do natually occurring proteins.
(University of Berlin) Berlin,
Germany 
[1] Description Hermann Emil
Fischer.jpg Hermann Emil
Fischer Date 1902(1902) Source
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/
chemistry/laureates/1902/fischer-bio.htm
l Author Nobel Foundation PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/39/Hermann_Emil_Fischer.
jpg

[2] Hermann Emil Fischer (1852-1919)
in his lab PRESUMABLY COPYRIGHTED
source: http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/histor
y/tafel_fischer1.jpg
93 YBN
[1907 AD] 		4438) The theory of space and time as a
four dimensional structure called
"space-time" by Hermann Minkowski
(miNKuFSKE).
(University of Göttingen) Göttingen,
Germany 
[1] Description De Raum Zeit Minkowski
012.jpg Deutsch: Dies ist ein Scan des
historischen Buches: English: This is
a scan of the historical
document: Title: Raum und Zeit
(Jahresberichte der Deutschen
Mathematiker- Vereinigung, Leipzig,
1909.) Date 1909 Source
Deutsch: Der Scan wurde anhand einer
orginal Buchvorlage
vorgenommen English: scan from
original book Author Hermann
Minkowski Permission (Reusing this
file) Out of copyright as author
died more than 70 years ago PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/97/De_Raum_Zeit_Minkowsk
i_012.jpg

[2] Description De Raum zeit
Minkowski Bild.jpg Deutsch: Dies ist
ein Auszug der Seite 5 des
Buches: English: This is a detail of
page 5 of the historical
document: Title: Raum und Zeit
(Jahresberichte der Deutschen
Mathematiker- Vereinigung, Leipzig,
1909.) Date 1909 Source
Deutsch: Der Scan wurde anhand einer
orginal Buchvorlage
vorgenommen English: scan from
original book Author Hermann
Minkowski PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c5/De_Raum_zeit_Minkowsk
i_Bild.jpg
93 YBN
[1907 AD] 		4764) The element Lutetium {lUTEsEuM}.
(Sorbonne) Paris, France 
[1] Lutetium Metal COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.americanelements.com/
ingot.jpg

[2] Georges Urbain UNKNOWN
source: http://er.uqam.ca/nobel/c3410/im
age041.png
92 YBN
[03/26/1908 AD] 		5881) The theory that an electron is a
chemical element.
(University College) London, England
(presumably) 
[1] Figure 1 from Rayleigh 1893 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d2/William_Ramsay_workin
g.jpg

[2] William Ramsay PD
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/chemistry/laureates/1904/ramsay.jpg
92 YBN
[05/30/1908 AD] 		4902) Secondary x-ray radiation from
objects bombarded with x-rays is found
to be homogeneous (has a constant
absorption depth which is interpreted
as the radiation being monochromatic)
with no regard to the intensity of the
primary x-ray beam by Charles Barkla.
(University of Liverpool) Liverpool,
England 
[1] C. G. Barkla and C. A. Sadler,
''Homogeneous secondary Röntgen
Radiations''. Philosophical Magazine
Series 6 16.94 (1908):
550–584;557. books.google.com/books?i
d=NLBJAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA557 PD
source: books.google.com/books?id=NLBJAA
AAYAAJ&pg=PA557

[2] Description Charles Glover
Barkla.jpg English: Charles Glover
Barkla Date 1917(1917) Source
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/
physics/laureates/1917/barkla-bio.html
Author Nobel
Foundation Permission (Reusing this
file) Public domainPublic
domainfalsefalse Public domain This
Swedish photograph is free to use
either of these cases: * For
photographic works (fotografiska verk),
the image is public domain:
a) if the photographer died before
January 1, 1944, or b) if the
photographer is not known, and cannot
be traced, and the image was created
before January 1, 1944. * For
photographic pictures (fotografiska
bilder), such as images of the press,
the image is public domain if created
before January 1, 1969 (transitional
regulations 1994). PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/81/Charles_Glover_Barkla
.jpg
92 YBN
[06/06/1908 AD] 		3616) The first images are sent and
received using radio; by Hans Knudsen.


The images are scanned from a photo and
the receiver uses a needle to mark a
smoked glass plate.
London, England 
[1] From top to bottom, left to
right Top: Plan View of Receiver
Showing Negative Received. Middle:
Plan View of Transmitter Showing
Traveling Carriage Carrying
Picture. Bottom Left: The Transmitting
Apparatus Bottom Middle: Photograph of
Edward VII. Transmitted by Wireless
Telegraphy. Bottom Right: The Receiver
Showing Relay to Which Recording Needle
is Connected. PD/Corel
source: KNUDSEN'S PROCESS OF
TRANSMITTING PICTURES BY WIRELESS
TELEGRAPHY. BY THE ENGLISH
CORREESPONDENT OF THE SCIENTIFIC
AMERICAN.. Scientific American
(1845-1908). New York: Jun 6, 1908.
Vol. Vol. XCVIII., Iss. No. 23.; p. 412
(1 page)
92 YBN
[06/20/1908 AD] 		4523) The theory that sunspots are due
to strong magnetic fields on the Sun.
(Mount Wilson Observatory) Pasadena,
California, USA 
[1] Description George Ellery Hale
1905.jpg American astronomer George
Ellery Hale (1868-1938) in his office
at Mount Wilson Observatory, about
1905. Date 1905(1905) Source
From
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Georg
e_Ellery_Hale_1905.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f4/George_Ellery_Hale_19
05.jpg

[2] George Ellery Hale UNKNOWN
source: http://www.astro.ucla.edu/~obs/i
mages/hale1.jpg
92 YBN
[06/27/1908 AD] 		4190) Helium is liquefied. Helium is
the last known gas to be liquefied and
the gas that requires the lowest
temperature for liquefaction at 4
degrees above absolute zero.
(Leiden University) Leiden,
Netherlands 
[1] Plate 2 from Kamerlingh Onnes 1908
paper PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=bYfNAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edi
tions:0TAagV5ZkvksJU62wD#v=onepage&q=hel
ium&f=false

[2] * Author: anonymous or
pseudonymous, per EU Copyright
Directive (1993), Article 1, §§1-4
* This image was published not later
than 1913 in conjunction with the Nobel
Prize in Physics. * Sources:
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1913/onnes-bio.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/94/Kamerlingh_portret.jp
g
92 YBN
[07/28/1908 AD] 		5034) The theory that the quantity of
helium in some mineral which
accumulates from radio-active atomic
decay, can be used to determine
geological age of the mineral.
 
[1] English: Physicist Robert Strutt,
4th Baron Rayleigh, 1934 at London
(International Conference on
Physics) Deutsch: Physiker Robert
Strutt, Lord Rayleigh, 1934 in London
(International Conference on
Physics) Date 1934(1934) Source
Own work Author GFHund GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d5/Strutt%2CRobert%2C4th
_Baron_Rayleigh_1934_London.jpg
92 YBN
[1908 AD] 		4238) Cellophane (a clear, flexible
film made from cellulose).
Paris, France (presumably) 
[1] Dr. J. E. Brandenberger PD
source: http://www.stiftungbrandenberger
.ch/images/drbrand.JPG
92 YBN
[1908 AD] 		4344) The theory that bacterial spores
can survive the the cold and empty
space between the stars for indefinite
periods of time, and that life on Earth
started when living spores reached the
Earth.
(Nobel Institute for Physical
Chemistry) Stockholm, Sweden 
[1] Svante August
Arrhenius 1859-1927 Portrait:
3 Location - Floor: First - Zone: Room
138 - Wall: South - Sequence:
6 Source: Chemical Heritage
Foundation Sponsor: Kris A.
Berglund UNKNOWN
source: http://www2.chemistry.msu.edu/Po
rtraits/images/arrhenc.jpg

[2] Svante Arrhenius from German
Wikipedia: 19:30, 11. Sep 2004 . .
de:User:Matthias Bock (7044 Byte)
(Svante Arrhenius) Public Domain da
vor dem 1. Jan. 1923
veröffentlicht PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6c/Arrhenius2.jpg
92 YBN
[1908 AD] 		4424) The "assembly line" method of
product production.
(Detroit Automobile Company) Detroit,
Michigan, USA 
[1] 1910Ford-T.jpg English: 1910 Model
T Ford, SLC, UT Date
1910(1910) Source Commercial
photo for advertisement, published
1910. PhotographerShipler Commercial
Photographers; Shipler, Harry URL:
http://content.lib.utah.edu/cdm4/item_vi
ewer.php?CISOROOT=/USHS_Shipler&CISOPTR=
2629&CISOBOX=1&REC=2 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/74/1910Ford-T.jpg

[2] Henry Ford 1888 source:
http://www.gpschools.org/ci/depts/eng/k5
/third/fordpic.htm PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a9/Henry_Ford_1888.jpg
92 YBN
[1908 AD] 		4517) That a virus is responsible for
poliomyelitis is determined.
(Royal-Imperial Wilhelminen Hospital)
Vienna 
[1] Image extracted from Biographical
Memoirs of the National Academy of
Sciences, vol. 40. Associated: Karl
Landsteiner Date: 1920s Genre:
illustrations ID:
portrait-landsteiner UNKNOWN
source: http://osulibrary.oregonstate.ed
u/specialcollections/coll/nonspcoll/cata
logue/portrait-landsteiner-600w.jpg
92 YBN
[1908 AD] 		4531) Atmospheric nitrogen is converted
into ammonia (NH3 by combining nitrogen
and hydrogen under pressure using iron
as a catalyst.
(Fridericiana Technische Hochschule)
Karlsruhe, Germany 
[1] Haber's experimental converter for
ammonia synthesis 1909. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?hl
=en&lr=&id=G9FljcEASycC&oi=fnd&pg=PR11&d
q=haber+1908&ots=qMZ_PGXSSJ&sig=9NbLXBWW
gbSxyzUoNwpJXj5370U#v=onepage&q=haber%20
1908&f=false

[2] Fritz Haber. Fritz Haber, November
26, 1919. HULTON ARCHIVE/GETTY
IMAGES. PD
source: http://callisto.ggsrv.com/imgsrv
/Fetch?recordID=dsb_0001_0021_0_img4740&
contentSet=SCRB&banner=4c3f8e43&digest=9
de3dd036d11af1ee6fa07424825d7d0
91 YBN
[02/08/1909 AD] 		4428) The first thermosetting plastic,
a plastic that does not soften when
heated.
(announced at: American Chemical
Society lecture) New York City, NY, USA
(presumably) 
[1] Description English: Picture of
Bakelite radio. Taken in September 2007
by Robert Neild (Robneild) at the
Bakelite Museum, Orchard Mill,
Williton, Somerset, UK.Ŗ Date
2007-09-12 (original upload
date) Source Transfered from
en.wikipedia Transfer was stated to be
made by User:Storkk. Author Original
uploader was Robneild at
en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) CC-BY-SA-3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0;
Released under the GNU Free
Documentation License. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Bakelite_radio.
jpg/768px-Bakelite_radio.jpg

[2] Leo Baekeland UNKNOWN
source: http://juliensart.be/bakeliet/Le
o%20Hendrik%20Baekeland.jpg
91 YBN
[04/06/1909 AD] 		4244) Humans reach the North Pole of
Earth.
Greenland 
[1] Matthew Henson (centre) and other
members of Robert E. Peary's North Pole
expedition, April 1909. Robert
Peary—Hulton Archive/Getty Images
Henson, Matthew Alexander.
Photograph. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Web. 18 Feb. 2010
. 04/1909 PD
source: http://cache.eb.com/new-multimed
ia/bigimages/polexp002.jpg

[2] Description Robert Edwin
Peary.jpg English: Robert Edwin Peary
(1856 - 1920), polar explorer, on the
main deck of steamship Roosevelt Date
c 1909; first upload: Nov 16, 2004
- de:Wikipedia Source Library of
Congress, Prints and Photographs
Division: LC-USZ62-8234;
LC-USZC4-7507 http://www.loc.gov/rr/pri
nt/list/235_pop.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/21/Robert_Edwin_Peary.jp
g
91 YBN
[05/??/1909 AD] 		4903) Two groups of homogeneous x-rays
are distinguished from each heavy
element which will be labeled L and K.
In addition Stokes’s law of
fluorescence is established: that these
two radiations can only be excited by
exposing the element to x-rays harder
(more penetrating) than its own
characteristic x-rays.
(University of Liverpool) Liverpool,
England 
[1] Description Charles Glover
Barkla.jpg English: Charles Glover
Barkla Date 1917(1917) Source
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/
physics/laureates/1917/barkla-bio.html
Author Nobel
Foundation Permission (Reusing this
file) Public domainPublic
domainfalsefalse Public domain This
Swedish photograph is free to use
either of these cases: * For
photographic works (fotografiska verk),
the image is public domain:
a) if the photographer died before
January 1, 1944, or b) if the
photographer is not known, and cannot
be traced, and the image was created
before January 1, 1944. * For
photographic pictures (fotografiska
bilder), such as images of the press,
the image is public domain if created
before January 1, 1969 (transitional
regulations 1994). PD
source: Barkla_Charles_190905xx.pdf

[2] Figures from: Barkla and Sadler,
''The Absorption of Röntgen Rays'',
Phil. Mag., 17 (May 1909), 739–760;
{Barkla_Charles_190905xx.pdf} PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/81/Charles_Glover_Barkla
.jpg
91 YBN
[07/12/1909 AD] 		4475) That typhus is transmitted by the
body louse is recognized.
(Pasteur Institute in Tunis) Tunis,
Tunisia 
[1] Description Body
lice.jpg English: This 2006 photograph
depicted a dorsal view of a male body
louse, Pediculus humanus var. corporis.
Some of the external morphologic
features displayed by members of the
genus Pediculus include an elongated
abdominal region without any processes,
and three pairs of legs, all equal in
length and width. The distal tip of the
male’s abdomen is rounded, whereas,
the female’s (PHIL# 9202) is concave.
Body lice are parasitic insects that
live on the body, and in the clothing
or bedding of infested humans.
Infestation is common, found worldwide,
and affects people of all races. Body
lice infestations spread rapidly under
crowded conditions where hygiene is
poor, and there is frequent contact
among people. Note the sensorial setae,
or hairs that cover the louse’s body,
which pick up, and transmit information
to the insect about changes in its
environment such as temperature, and
chemical queues. The dark mass inside
the abdomen is a previously ingested
blood meal. Janice Harney Carr Date
2006(2006) Source US CDC
logo.svg This media comes from the
Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention's Public Health Image
Library (PHIL), with identification
number #9217. Note: PHIL pages
cannot be bookmarked; instead enter
9217 into the ID search page. Not all
PHIL images are public domain; be sure
to check copyright status and credit
authors and content providers. Author
Janice Harney Carr, Center for
Disease Control PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/92/Body_lice.jpg

[2] Description Charles Nicolle at
microscope.jpg Français : La photo la
plus connue de Charles Nicolle. Cet
exemplaire est dédicacé à Henri
Roussel. English: The most famous
photo of Charles Nicolle. This copy is
inscribed to Henri Roussel. Date
27 January
2008(2008-01-27) Source Personal
collection Author Roland
Huet PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/26/Charles_Nicolle_at_mi
croscope.jpg
91 YBN
[09/??/1909 AD] 		4729) The mass and size of an electron
is determined by Jean Baptiste Perrin
(PeroN).

Perrin determines the mass to be
0.805x10-27 grams and the size to be
0.33 x 10-12 cm.
(École Normale, University of Paris)
Paris, France 
[1] Jean Baptiste Perrin UNKNOWN
source: http://www.scientific-web.com/en
/Physics/Biographies/images/Jean_Baptist
e_Perrin.jpg

[2] Description Jean Baptiste
Perrin.jpg * Author: anonymous
or pseudonymous, per EU Copyright
Directive (1993), Article 1, §§1-4
* This image was published not later
than 1925 in conjunction with the Nobel
Prize in Physics. If anyone has
information that the author's name was
publicly disclosed in connection with
this photograph, please make a note on
this page and indicate where the
author's name was seen to be publicly
disclosed in connection with this
image. * A search of the US
Copyright renewals throughout the 1950s
shows no record of copyright renewal,
as would be required to extend
copyright protection beyond the year
1953. If anyone has information that
would document a copyright renewal in
the U.S., please cite it on this page
by clicking on ''Edit this page''.
* Source:
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1926/perrin-bio.html Dat
e 1926(1926) Source
Originally from en.wikipedia;
description page is/was
here. http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prize
s/physics/laureates/1926/perrin-bio.html
PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5f/Jean_Baptiste_Perrin.
jpg
91 YBN
[1909 AD] 		4694) The carbohydrate present in yeast
nucleic acid is identified as the
pentose (5 carbon) sugar ribose.
(Rockefeller Institute for Medical
Research) New York City, New York,
USA 
[1] Phoebus Aaron Theodor Levene,
1915. CC
source: http://www.dnalc.org/content/c16
/16345/16345_18.jpg

[2] n Levene.jpg English: en:Phoebus
Levene Polski: pl:Phoebus Levene Date
Unknown Source [1] Author
author of photograph
unknown Permission (Reusing this
file) ''The National Library of
Medicine believes this item to be in
the public
domain'' http://ihm.nlm.nih.gov/luna/se
rvlet/detail/NLMNLM~1~1~101421672~177086
:-Dr--Phoebus-A--Levene-?qvq=q:Phoebus+L
evene;lc:NLMNLM~1~1&mi=0&trs=2 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/34/Levene.jpg
91 YBN
[1909 AD] 		4899) A wireless telephone is publicly
demonstrated by Guglielmo Marconi.

But not until 1983, 74 years later,
will wireless radio "cell" phones reach
the public.
(Marconi Company) London, England
(verify) 
[1] St. John's Newfoundland kite which
received the famous signal 1901 PD
source: B. L. Jacot de Boinod and D. M.
B. Collier, "Marconi: Master of Space"
(1935)

[2] Marconi Station at Poldhu,
Cornwall, from which first
transatlantic signals were transmitted.
Contrasted with top picture, the
Bridgewater Beam transmitting
station. PD
source: B. L. Jacot de Boinod and D. M.
B. Collier, "Marconi: Master of Space"
(1935)
90 YBN
[04/??/1910 AD] 		4199) A synthetic molecule that cures
syphilis by efficiently killing
spirochetes (the bacteria which causes
syphilis) is found.
(announced at the Congress for
International Medicine, Wiesbaden,
Germany, but work performed at Serum
Institute) Frankfurt, Germany 
[1] Description: German Dr Paul Ehrlich
and Japanese Dr Hata Sahachiro Source:
Hata Memorial Museum, Shimane This
photographic image was published before
December 31st 1956, or photographed
before 1946 and not published for 10
years thereafter, under jurisdiction of
the Government of Japan. Thus this
photographic image is considered to be
public domain according to article 23
of old copyright law of Japan and
article 2 of supplemental provision of
copyright law of Japan. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f0/Elrich_and_Hata.jpg

[2]
Dihydroxydiamino-arsenobenzene-dihydroch
loride (Salvarsan,
Arsphenamine) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://callisto.ggsrv.com/imgsrv
/Fetch?recordID=dsb_0001_0004_0_img0600&
contentSet=SCRB&banner=4b579b89&digest=4
b973311866acd4f0fce46003d66a7d3
90 YBN
[08/??/1910 AD] 		4320) The theory that space and time
are infinite is revived.
(Harvard College Observatory)
Cambridge, Massachussetts, USA
(presumably) 
[1] Edited image of American Astronomer
William Henry Pickering
(1858-1938) TITLE: Prof. W.H.
Pickering, portr. bust CALL NUMBER:
LC-B2- 550-7[P&P] REPRODUCTION NUMBER:
LC-DIG-ggbain-02598 (digital file from
original neg.) No known restrictions on
publication. MEDIUM: 1 negative :
glass ; 5 x 7 in. or
smaller. CREATED/PUBLISHED:
10/16/09. NOTES: Forms part of:
George Grantham Bain Collection
(Library of Congress). Title from
unverified data provided by the Bain
News Service on the negatives or
caption cards. Temp. note: Batch one
loaded. FORMAT: Glass
negatives. REPOSITORY: Library of
Congress Prints and Photographs
Division Washington, D.C. 20540
USA DIGITAL ID: (digital file from
original neg.) ggbain 02598 original
found at
http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/h?
pp/PPALL:@field(NUMBER+@1(ggbain+02598))
PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/4/46/William_Henry_Pickering_02
598r.jpg

[2] Pickering, William Henry.
Photograph. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Web. 12 May 2010 . PUBLIC
DOMAIN (PRESUMABLY)
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
39096&rendTypeId=4
90 YBN
[12/29/1910 AD] 		6613) "Crossing-over" is recognized:
that a trait can cross-over from one
homologous chromosome to another. A
homologous chromosome is one of a pair
of chromosomes, one from the female
parent and one from the male parent,
that have genes for the same traits in
the same positions.
(Columbia University) New York City,
NY, USA 
[1] Description Thomas Hunt
Morgan.jpg English: This image is one
of several created for the 1891 Johns
Hopkins yearbook of 1891, see Shine and
Hobel. 1976. Thomas Hunt Morgan. The
University Press of Kentucky ISBN
081319995X for other examples of photos
from the same sitting. Date
1891(1891) Source
http://wwwihm.nlm.nih.gov/ Author
Unknown PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8f/Thomas_Hunt_Morgan.jp
g

[2] Thomas Hunt Morgan Library of
Congress PD
source: http://content.answcdn.com/main/
content/img/scitech/HSthomah.jpg
90 YBN
[1910 AD] 		4281) The theory that there is a
boundary between the outer layer of the
Earth (later called the crust) and an
inner layer (later called the mantle)
because seismic waves are found to
arrive at certain detecting stations
sooner than anticipated.
(University of Zagreb) Zagreb,
Croatia 
[1] Picture of Andrija Mohorovičić, a
Croatian geophysicist. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2c/Andrija_Mohorovicic.g
if
90 YBN
[1910 AD] 		4476) That hereditary characters can be
linked to gender (the character is
passed on to one gender only), and are
located on a specific chromosome is
recognized.
(Columbia University) New York City,
NY, USA 
[1] Description Thomas Hunt
Morgan.jpg English: This image is one
of several created for the 1891 Johns
Hopkins yearbook of 1891, see Shine and
Hobel. 1976. Thomas Hunt Morgan. The
University Press of Kentucky ISBN
081319995X for other examples of photos
from the same sitting. Date
1891(1891) Source
http://wwwihm.nlm.nih.gov/ Author
Unknown PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8f/Thomas_Hunt_Morgan.jp
g

[2] Thomas Hunt Morgan Library of
Congress PD
source: http://content.answcdn.com/main/
content/img/scitech/HSthomah.jpg
90 YBN
[1910 AD] 		4961) A pressure of 20,000 atmospheres
is obtained.
(Harvard University) Cambridge,
Massachussets, USA 
[1] Figure 1 from: P. W. Bridgman,
''The Measurement of High Hydrostatic
Pressure. I. A Simple Primary Gauge'',
Proceedings of the American Academy of
Arts and Sciences, Vol. 44, No. 8
(Feb., 1909), pp.
201-217. http://www.jstor.org/stable/20
022420 {Bridgman_Percy_19081209.pdf}
PD
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2002
2420?&Search=yes&searchText=j50000063&se
archText=j50000062&searchText=bridgman&l
ist=hide&searchUri=%2Faction%2FdoBasicRe
sults%3Fhp%3D25%26la%3D%26so%3Dold%26wc%
3Don%26acc%3Don%26gw%3Djtx%26jcpsi%3D1%2
6artsi%3D1%26Query%3D%2528bridgman%2529%
2BAND%2Bjid%253A%2528j50000063%2BOR%2Bj5
0000062%2529%26sbq%3D%2528bridgman%2529%
2BAND%2Bjid%253A%2528j50000063%2BOR%2Bj5
0000062%2529%26prq%3D%2528p.w.%2Bbridgma
n%2529%2BAND%2Bjid%253A%2528j50000063%2B
OR%2Bj50000062%2529%26si%3D26%26jtxsi%3D
26&prevSearch=&item=43&ttl=927&returnArt
icleService=showFullText

[2] Description The image of
American physicist and Nobel laureate
Percy Williams Bridgman
(1882–1961) Source This image
has been downloaded
http://www.nndb.com/people/740/000099443
/ Date uploaded: 03:02, 26
December 2008 (UTC) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/4/43/Percy_Williams_Bridgman.jp
g
89 YBN
[01/??/1911 AD] 		4321) The theory that most of human
thinking is of images.
Boston, Massachusetts, USA
(presumably) 
[1] Ames, C. H., ''Are Space and Time
Infinite? The Affirmative Answer'',
Popular Astronomy, vol. 19, 01/1911,
pp.31-35. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs
/1911PA.....19...31A PD
source: http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/19
11PA.....19...31A

[2] Edited image of American
Astronomer William Henry Pickering
(1858-1938) TITLE: Prof. W.H.
Pickering, portr. bust CALL NUMBER:
LC-B2- 550-7[P&P] REPRODUCTION NUMBER:
LC-DIG-ggbain-02598 (digital file from
original neg.) No known restrictions on
publication. MEDIUM: 1 negative :
glass ; 5 x 7 in. or
smaller. CREATED/PUBLISHED:
10/16/09. NOTES: Forms part of:
George Grantham Bain Collection
(Library of Congress). Title from
unverified data provided by the Bain
News Service on the negatives or
caption cards. Temp. note: Batch one
loaded. FORMAT: Glass
negatives. REPOSITORY: Library of
Congress Prints and Photographs
Division Washington, D.C. 20540
USA DIGITAL ID: (digital file from
original neg.) ggbain 02598 original
found at
http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/h?
pp/PPALL:@field(NUMBER+@1(ggbain+02598))
PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/4/46/William_Henry_Pickering_02
598r.jpg
89 YBN
[04/19/1911 AD] 		4691) The paths of ionizing rays (for
example those made by α and β
particles) are captured
photographically using a cloud chamber
(a device that expands gas).
(Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge
University) Cambridge, England 
[1] Figure 1 from Wilson's 1911
paper: C. T. R. Wilson, ''On a Method
of Making Visible the Paths of Ionising
Particles through a Gas', Proceedings
of the Royal Society of London. Series
A, Containing Papers of a Mathematical
and Physical Character, Vol. 85, No.
578 (Jun. 9, 1911), pp. 285-288 PD
source: http://rspa.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/85/578/285

[2] Figure 2 from Wilson's 1911
paper: C. T. R. Wilson, ''On a Method
of Making Visible the Paths of Ionising
Particles through a Gas', Proceedings
of the Royal Society of London. Series
A, Containing Papers of a Mathematical
and Physical Character, Vol. 85, No.
578 (Jun. 9, 1911), pp. 285-288 PD
source: http://rspa.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/85/578/285
89 YBN
[04/28/1911 AD] 		4192) Electrical superconductivity at
low temperatures is recognized.
(Leiden University) Leiden,
Netherlands 
[1] Plate 2 from Kamerlingh Onnes 1908
paper PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=bYfNAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edi
tions:0TAagV5ZkvksJU62wD#v=onepage&q=hel
ium&f=false

[2] * Author: anonymous or
pseudonymous, per EU Copyright
Directive (1993), Article 1, §§1-4
* This image was published not later
than 1913 in conjunction with the Nobel
Prize in Physics. * Sources:
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1913/onnes-bio.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/94/Kamerlingh_portret.jp
g
89 YBN
[04/??/1911 AD] 		4746) The Rutherford atomic model and
the atomic nucleus theory: that all
atoms have a very small positively
charged sphere (or "nucleus") in their
center which is very small compared to
the sphere of influence of the atom.
The size of an atom is estimated to be
around 100 pm.
(University of Manchester) Manchester,
England  
[1] Figure 1 from Rutherford, ''''The
Scattering of the α and β Rays and
the Structure of the Atom'',
Proceedings of the Manchester Literary
and Philosophical Society, 4, 55, May
1911, pp669-88. PD
source: http://www.chemteam.info/Chem-Hi
story/Rutherford-1911/Rutherford-1911-fi
g1.GIF

[2] Description Ernest
Rutherford2.jpg English: Cropped
Image:Ernest_Rutherford.jpg Date
2007-01-26 (original upload
date) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia Author Original
uploader was Sadi Carnot at
en.wikipedia GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/57/Ernest_Rutherford2.jp
g
89 YBN
[06/12/1911 AD] 		3977) Magnetic fields are found to
change the orientation of liquid
crystals.
Sorbonne, University of Paris, Paris,
France 
[1] Charles-Victor
Mauguin COPYRIGHTED?
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=iMEMAuxrhFcC&pg=PA55&lpg=PA55&dq="On+Az
oxyphenol+Ethers"&source=bl&ots=F3j9kWDX
0W&sig=PO4CB1jRovw4mMJq_zfAC8LGF5M&hl=en
&ei=DOCWSpieLZGqswOzzpXDDA&sa=X&oi=book_
result&ct=result&resnum=1#v=onepage&q="O
n Azoxyphenol Ethers"&f=false
89 YBN
[06/15/1911 AD] 		4874) An electric starter for a car
engine is invented and will replace the
hand crank method.
(Dayton Engineering Laboratories Co)
Dayton, Ohio, USA 
[1] Image from Google Patents US Patent
#1150523, filed June 15,
1911 http://www.google.com/patents?id=7
TllAAAAEBAJ&dq=Charles+Kettering&as_psrg
=1 PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=7TllAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f
=false

[2] Charles Franklin
Kettering UNKNOWN
source: http://www.mcohio.org/services/e
d/images/charles_kettering.jpg
89 YBN
[06/??/1911 AD] 		3944) The theory that a machine could
record the sounds of thought, and could
also write sounds back to the brain
which are heard in thought.
New York City, NY  
[1] Image from: Hugo Gernsback,
''Ralph 124C 41 +'', ''Modern
Electrics'', Modern Electrics
Publication, New York, Vol. 4, No. 3,
June 1911. Taken from ''Modern
Electrics'', Volume 3-4, Jan-Dec 1911,
p164-165. {inoldentimes001.pdf} PD
source: Hugo Gernsback, "Ralph 124C 41
+", "Modern Electrics", Modern
Electrics Publication, New York, Vol.
4, No. 3, June 1911. Taken from "Modern
Electrics", Volume 3-4, Jan-Dec 1911,
p164-165. {inoldentimes001.pdf}

[2] Image from: Hugo Gernsback,
''Ralph 124C 41 +'', ''Modern
Electrics'', Modern Electrics
Publication, New York, Vol. 4, No. 3,
June 1911. Taken from ''Modern
Electrics'', Volume 3-4, Jan-Dec 1911,
p164-165.
{Gernsback_Modern_Electrics_1911.pdf}
PD
source: Hugo Gernsback, "Ralph 124C 41
+", "Modern Electrics", Modern
Electrics Publication, New York, Vol.
4, No. 3, June 1911. Taken from "Modern
Electrics", Volume 3-4, Jan-Dec 1911,
p164-165.
{Gernsback_Modern_Electrics_1911.pdf}
89 YBN
[11/13/1911 AD] 		4270) The products of chemical
reactions are detected using an mass
spectrometer.
(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England  
[1] figure 1 from: # Bakerian Lecture:
Rays of Positive Electricity # J. J.
Thomson # Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London. Series A, Containing
Papers of a Mathematical and Physical
Character, Vol. 89, No. 607 (Aug. 1,
1913), pp. 1-20 PD
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/9345
2?&Search=yes&term=electricity&term=posi
tive&term=rays&list=hide&searchUri=%2Fac
tion%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuery%3Drays%2Bof
%2Bpositive%2Belectricity%26jc%3Dj100836
%26wc%3Don%26Search.x%3D0%26Search.y%3D0
%26Search%3DSearch&item=1&ttl=262&return
ArticleService=showArticle

[2] figure 4 from: # Bakerian
Lecture: Rays of Positive
Electricity # J. J. Thomson #
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London. Series A, Containing Papers of
a Mathematical and Physical Character,
Vol. 89, No. 607 (Aug. 1, 1913), pp.
1-20 PD
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/9345
2?&Search=yes&term=electricity&term=posi
tive&term=rays&list=hide&searchUri=%2Fac
tion%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuery%3Drays%2Bof
%2Bpositive%2Belectricity%26jc%3Dj100836
%26wc%3Don%26Search.x%3D0%26Search.y%3D0
%26Search%3DSearch&item=1&ttl=262&return
ArticleService=showArticle
89 YBN
[12/14/1911 AD] 		4772) Humans reach the South Pole.
South Pole 
[1] Description Nlc
amundsen.jpg English: Roald
Amundsen Date Source Roald
Amundsen's The North West Passage:
Being a Record of a Voyage of
Exploration of the ship Gjøa,
1903-1907; Roald Amundsen. New York:
Dutton, 1908. National Library of
Canada Author [show]Ludwik
Szacinski (1844–1894) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/7d/Nlc_amundsen.jpg
89 YBN
[1911 AD] 		4477) The start of chromosome mapping:
mapping the position of traits on the
chromosomes.
(Columbia University) New York City,
NY, USA 
[1] Figures from Morgan's 1911
paper PD
source: http://www3.interscience.wiley.c
om/cgi-bin/fulltext/110480881/PDFSTART

[2] Description Thomas Hunt
Morgan.jpg English: This image is one
of several created for the 1891 Johns
Hopkins yearbook of 1891, see Shine and
Hobel. 1976. Thomas Hunt Morgan. The
University Press of Kentucky ISBN
081319995X for other examples of photos
from the same sitting. Date
1891(1891) Source
http://wwwihm.nlm.nih.gov/ Author
Unknown PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8f/Thomas_Hunt_Morgan.jp
g
89 YBN
[1911 AD] 		4846) The industrial use of bacteria to
produce useful products: a specific
species of bacteria is used to produce
large quantities of acetone and butyl
alcohol.
Pasteur Institute and (University of
Manchester) Manchester, England  
[1] Chaim Weizmann UNKNOWN
source: http://cojs.org/cojswiki/images/
2/2f/Chaim_Weizmann.jpg

[2] Description
ChaimWeizmann1948.jpg English: Chaim
Weizmann. Date 2006-09-24
(original upload date) Source
Crop of Image:Weizmann Truman
1948.jpg Author Original uploader
was SlimVirgin at
en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) PD-USGOV. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/91/ChaimWeizmann1948.jpg

89 YBN
[1911 AD] 		4890) The first known nitrogen free
radicals are identified.
(University of Munich) Munich,
Germany 
[1] Copyright © The Nobel Foundation
1927 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1927/wiela
nd_postcard.jpg
89 YBN
[1911 AD] 		4908) The theory of atomic isotopes is
created by Frederick Soddy. An isotope
is an element that can have a different
atomic mass, but the same position on
the periodic table.

Soddy also recognizes that the emission
of a helium nucleus (alpha particle)
reduces the initial element to a
different element two less in number on
the Periodic Table.
(University of Glasgow) Glasgow,
Scotland 
[1] Figure from: Frederick Soddy,
''The chemistry of mesothorium'', J.
Chem. Soc., Trans., 1911, 99,
72-83. http://pubs.rsc.org/en/Content/A
rticleLanding/1911/CT/ct9119900072
and http://pubs.rsc.org/en/Content/Arti
clePDF/1911/CT/CT9119900072?page=Search
{Soddy_Frederick_mesothorium_1911.pdf}
PD
source: Soddy_Frederick_mesothorium_1911
.pdf

[2] Frederick Soddy UNKNOWN
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1921/soddy
_postcard.jpg
89 YBN
[1911 AD] 		4936) That electrons are emitted from
hot metal and not from the surrounding
air is proven.
(Princeton University) Princeton, New
Jersey, USA 
[1] Niels Bohr (up), Owen Willans
Richardson (down) Solvay Conference
1927 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3e/Niels_BohrUpOwenWilla
nsRichardsonDownSolvay1927.JPG
89 YBN
[1911 AD] 		4937) The first cancer causing virus is
discovered.
(Rockefeller Institute, now called
Rockefeller University) New York City,
New York, USA 
[1] Francis Peyton Rous
(1879-1970) PD
source: http://www.historiadelamedicina.
org/imagenes/ro.jpg
89 YBN
[1911 AD] 		4986) Electroscopes are found to record
more charge with altitude and this is
thought to be due to radiation from
outer space.
Victor Franz Hess|(CE 1883-1964) 
[1] Victor Hess Source:
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1936/hess-bio.html COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/cc/Hess.jpg
89 YBN
[1911 AD] 		5093) A neutral molecular particle beam
is created by heating a metal inside an
evacuated container; molecules in the
vapor then diffuse through a small hole
in an internal wall.
(Faculté des Sciences de Paris -
University of Paris) Paris,
France 
[1] Figure 1 from: L. Dunoyer, ''Sur
la réalisation d’un rayonnement
matériel d’origine purement
thermique. Cinétique
expérimentale'' ''On realization of a
material radiation of purely thermal
origin. Experimental kinetics'', Le
Radium,
1911. http://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/d
ocs/00/24/24/64/PDF/ajp-radium_1911_8_4_
142_1.pdf PD
source: http://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/
docs/00/24/24/64/PDF/ajp-radium_1911_8_4
_142_1.pdf
88 YBN
[01/05/1912 AD] 		5301) Electrophoresis (electricity is
used to separate particles in liquids).
Frankfort-on-the-Main, Germany 
[1] Figure 1 from; Botho Schwerin,
''Patent number: 1229203, Filing date:
Jan 5, 1912, Issue date: Jun
1917 http://www.google.com/patents?id=C
pBAAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&sou
rce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=f
alse PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=CpBAAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f
=false
88 YBN
[03/03/1912 AD] 		4528) The brightness of Cepheid
variable stars (variable stars with
short and regular periods of
luminosity) in the Small Magellanic
Cloud is shown to decrease linearly
with the logarithm of their period of
variation; so the brighter the star,
the longer the period. Because the
stars in the Small Magellanic Cloud are
located at nearly the same distance
from Earth, by comparing the intrinsic
brightness from the period of variation
to the apparent brightness, the
distance to the variable star can be
calculated.
(Harvard College Observatory)
Cambridge, Massachussetts, USA 
[1] Table 1 from: Leavitt, H. S. &
Pickering, E. C., ''Periods of 25
Variable Stars in the Small Magellanic
Cloud.'', Harvard College Observatory
Circular, vol. 173,
pp.1-3. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/
1912HarCi.173....1L
and http://books.google.com/books?id=z7
4RAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA173&dq=%22The+following+
statement+regarding+the+periods+of+25+va
riable+stars%22&hl=en&ei=0VM_TMG8BYXGsAO
CzK32CA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&re
snum=1&ved=0CCsQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22Th
e%20following%20statement%20regarding%20
the%20periods%20of%2025%20variable%20sta
rs%22&f=false PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=z74RAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA173&dq=%22The+followi
ng+statement+regarding+the+periods+of+25
+variable+stars%22&hl=en&ei=0VM_TMG8BYXG
sAOCzK32CA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result
&resnum=1&ved=0CCsQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%2
2The%20following%20statement%20regarding
%20the%20periods%20of%2025%20variable%20
stars%22&f=false

[2] Henrietta Swan Leavitt in other
words what she basically made her so
important was because she made a kind
of mesurment used to show that there is
a relationship between the variable
stars and their period. COPYRIGHT BUT
FREE TO USE FOR ANY PURPOSE
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/3/3b/Leavitt_aavso.jpg
88 YBN
[04/20/1912 AD] 		4918) The terms "giant" and "dwarf" are
introduced to describe two kinds of
stars with the same spectrum but
different luminosity and the first
"white dwarf" star is described.
(Princeton University) Princeton, New
Jersey, USA. 
[1] Figure 1 from Henry Norris
Russell, ''Relations Between the
Spectra and Other Characteristics of
the Stars.'', Popular Astronomy, V22,
May 1914, V22, N5, WN215,
p275. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/19
14PA.....22..275R http://books.google.c
om/books?id=4QryAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA286&dq=%22
the+single+apparent+exception+is+the+fai
nt%22&hl=en&ei=iSDnTP63MoWglAe-96SkCQ&sa
=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&sqi
=2&ved=0CC4Q6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=%22the%20
single%20apparent%20exception%20is%20the
%20faint%22&f=false continued
at: http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1914
PA.....22..331R PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=4QryAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA286&dq=%22the+single+
apparent+exception+is+the+faint%22&hl=en
&ei=iSDnTP63MoWglAe-96SkCQ&sa=X&oi=book_
result&ct=result&resnum=3&sqi=2&ved=0CC4
Q6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=%22the%20single%20ap
parent%20exception%20is%20the%20faint%22
&f=false

[2] Henry Norris Russell UNKNOWN
source: http://www.optcorp.com/images2/a
rticles/full-russell.jpg
88 YBN
[05/04/1912 AD] 		4939) The diffraction of X-ray light by
atomic planes in a crystal of zinc
sulfide is discovered by Max Laue
(lOu). The wavelength (or particle
interval) of x-rays is determined to be
around 10 picometers which is smaller
than ultraviolet light, and this
suggests that x-rays are very high
frequency light.
(University of Munich) Munich,
Germany 
[1] From W. Friedrich, P. Knipping,
M. Laue, ''Interferenzerscheinungen bei
Röntgenstrahlen'', Annalen der Physik,
Volume 346, Issue 10, pages 971–988,
1913. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/do
i/10.1002/andp.19133461004/abstract {La
ue_Max_19130315.pdf} PD
source: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/d
oi/10.1002/andp.19133461004/pdf

[2] X-ray photograph of Zinc
blende PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0e/Max_von_Laue.jpg
88 YBN
[07/01/1912 AD] 		4861) The rotation period of Uranus is
calculated by measuring the Doppler
shift of the spectral lines at the edge
of the disk of Uranus.
(Percival Lowell's observatory)
Flagstaff, Arizona, USA 
[1] Vesto Melvin Slipher (11/11/1875 -
08/11/1969) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.phys-astro.sonoma.edu
/BruceMedalists/Slipher/slipher.jpg
88 YBN
[07/16/1912 AD] 		5203) Cathode rays are shown to
disintegrate molecules and atoms.
Calcium
fluoride in a little oxygen, when
heated to bright redness and bombarded
with cathode rays turns purple and
silicon fluoride, and carbon monoxide
are evolved.
This could be arguably the first
proven atomic fission.
(University College) London,
England 
[1] Xenon on the Periodic table GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xen
on

[2] Figure 1 from Rayleigh 1893 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d2/William_Ramsay_workin
g.jpg
88 YBN
[08/??/1912 AD] 		4274) That elements can hold different
electric charges is shown. Atoms of
Mercury are shown to hold a variety of
charges from 1 to 7 times the unit of
electric charge.
(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England  
[1] figure 1 from: # Bakerian Lecture:
Rays of Positive Electricity # J. J.
Thomson # Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London. Series A, Containing
Papers of a Mathematical and Physical
Character, Vol. 89, No. 607 (Aug. 1,
1913), pp. 1-20 PD
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/9345
2?&Search=yes&term=electricity&term=posi
tive&term=rays&list=hide&searchUri=%2Fac
tion%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuery%3Drays%2Bof
%2Bpositive%2Belectricity%26jc%3Dj100836
%26wc%3Don%26Search.x%3D0%26Search.y%3D0
%26Search%3DSearch&item=1&ttl=262&return
ArticleService=showArticle

[2] figure 12 from: # Bakerian
Lecture: Rays of Positive
Electricity # J. J. Thomson #
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London. Series A, Containing Papers of
a Mathematical and Physical Character,
Vol. 89, No. 607 (Aug. 1, 1913), pp.
1-20 PD
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/9345
2?&Search=yes&term=electricity&term=posi
tive&term=rays&list=hide&searchUri=%2Fac
tion%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuery%3Drays%2Bof
%2Bpositive%2Belectricity%26jc%3Dj100836
%26wc%3Don%26Search.x%3D0%26Search.y%3D0
%26Search%3DSearch&item=1&ttl=262&return
ArticleService=showArticle
88 YBN
[10/??/1912 AD] 		4912) That beta decay (the emission of
a high-speed electron) results in an
atom moving up one place on the
periodic table is recognized.
(University of Glasgow) Glasgow,
Scotland (verify) 
[1] Table from: Alexander Russell,
''The Periodic System and the
Radio-Elements.'', The Chemical News,
V107, N2775, 01/31/1913,
p49-52. {Russell_Alexander_19130131.pdf
} PD
source: Russell_Alexander_19130131.pdf
88 YBN
[11/11/1912 AD] 		4404) Diffraction is explained as
particle reflection by William Lawrence
Bragg. The dispersion of light by a
crystal (grating, or prism) into a
spectrum of increasing frequencies is
given a corpuscular explanation: that
particles of the same spacing as planes
of atoms in a crystal (or grating
grooves in a grating), at a specific
angle of incidence, all reflect in the
same direction.

Bragg applies the grating equation of
Schuster (now called the Bragg
equation) to the phenomenon of X-ray
diffraction by crystals and uses this
to make accurate determinations of the
wavelengths (or particle intervals) of
X-rays.
(Cavindish Laboratory, Cambridge
University) Cambridge, England 
[1] Bragg, W.L. The Diffraction of
Short Electromagnetic Waves by a
Crystal. Proceedings of the Cambridge
Philosophical Society, 1913: 17, pp.
43-57. http://tedhuntington.com/ulsf/do
cs_pd/Bragg_William_Lawrence_19121111.pd
f PD
source: Bragg, W.L. The Diffraction of
Short Electromagnetic Waves by a
Crystal. Proceedings of the Cambridge
Philosophical Society, 1913: 17, pp.
43-57. http://tedhuntington.com/ulsf/do
cs_pd/Bragg_William_Lawrence_19121111.pd
f

[2] Figure 2 from: Bragg, W.L. The
Diffraction of Short Electromagnetic
Waves by a Crystal. Proceedings of the
Cambridge Philosophical Society, 1913:
17, pp.
43-57. {Bragg_William_Lawrence_19121111
.pdf} PD
source: Bragg_William_Lawrence_19121111.
pdf
88 YBN
[1912 AD] 		4298) The first "artificial kidney".
(Johns Hopkins University) Baltimore,
Maryland, USA 
[1] John Jacob Abel PD
source: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/hmd/breat
h/breath_exhibit/Cures/transforming/tran
sforming_images/adrenal/VAx1.gif
88 YBN
[1912 AD] 		4789) Multiple vacuum tube amplifiers
(triodes) are connected together in
series which multiplies the
amplification of high-frequency
electrical radio oscillations far more
than simply raising the voltage on a
single tube can, and which when
connected to an antenna is far more
powerful than existing radio
transmitters.
(De Forest Radio Telephone Company) New
York City, New York, USA
(presumably) 
[1] Description Lee De
Forest.jpg en:Lee De Forest,
published in the February 1904 issue of
The Electrical Age. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/65/Lee_De_Forest.jpg

[2] Lee de Forest 1873 -
1961 UNKNOWN
source: http://washington.uwc.edu/about/
mech.johnson/mech4gen/images/deForest.JP
G
88 YBN
[1912 AD] 		4941) The theory that the continents
were originally a single mass which is
named "Pangaea" is created based on
changes in the measurements of
longitude of various cities over time.
Greenland 
[1] Photograph of Alfred Wegener, the
scientist Date 1915, 1920, 1922,
1929 Source Frontispiece of The
Origin of Continents and Oceans Author
Alfred Wegener Permission PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/36/Wegener_Alfred_signat
ure.jpg
88 YBN
[1912 AD] 		4993) The name "vitamine" is suggested
for substances needed by the body in
small amounts.
(Lister Institute of Preventive
Medicine) London, England  
[1] Image of Casimir Funk to illustrate
the article on his life , Uploaded from
http://www.homepages.hetnet.nl/~b1beukem
a/vitaminen.html UNKNOWN
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/6/6e/Casimir_Funk.gif
88 YBN
[1912 AD] 		4994) The measurement of dipole
moments: the effect of an electrical
field on the orientation of molecules
that have a positive electrical charge
on one part and a negative change on
another provides a method to determine
the geometry of molecules.
(University of Göttingen) Göttingen,
Germany 
[1] Description Debye100.jpg Petrus
Josephus Wilhelmus Debije
(1884-1966) Date
1912(1912) Source
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/~eugeniik
/history/debye.html Author PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/62/Debye100.jpg
88 YBN
[1912 AD] 		5001) A method is discovered of
treating coal or heavy oil under high
pressure with hydrogen in the presence
of catalysts, which produces
lower-molecular-weight hydrocarbons
like gasoline.
(his own private lab) Hannover,
Germany 
[1] Commons is a freely licensed media
file repository. You can help. This is
a file from the Wikimedia
Commons Description
Bergius.jpg Friedrich Bergius Date
1931(1931) Source
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/
chemistry/laureates/1931/bergius-bio.htm
l Author Nobel
Foundation UNKNOWN
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/bc/Bergius.jpg
88 YBN
[1912 AD] 		6262) The first radio broadcast: the
singing of Enrico Caruso from the
Metropolitan Opera House in New York
City.
(Metropolitan Opera House) New York
City, New York, USA 
[1] Description Lee De
Forest.jpg en:Lee De Forest,
published in the February 1904 issue of
The Electrical Age. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/65/Lee_De_Forest.jpg

[2] Lee de Forest 1873 -
1961 UNKNOWN
source: http://washington.uwc.edu/about/
mech.johnson/mech4gen/images/deForest.JP
G
87 YBN
[01/27/1913 AD] 		4272) The theory of isotopes is
experimentally confirmed. Different
isotopes of neon are deflected onto
different parts of a photograph using a
mass spectrometer.
(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England  
[1] figure 1 from: # Bakerian Lecture:
Rays of Positive Electricity # J. J.
Thomson # Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London. Series A, Containing
Papers of a Mathematical and Physical
Character, Vol. 89, No. 607 (Aug. 1,
1913), pp. 1-20 PD
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/9345
2?&Search=yes&term=electricity&term=posi
tive&term=rays&list=hide&searchUri=%2Fac
tion%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuery%3Drays%2Bof
%2Bpositive%2Belectricity%26jc%3Dj100836
%26wc%3Don%26Search.x%3D0%26Search.y%3D0
%26Search%3DSearch&item=1&ttl=262&return
ArticleService=showArticle

[2] figure 12 from: # Bakerian
Lecture: Rays of Positive
Electricity # J. J. Thomson #
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London. Series A, Containing Papers of
a Mathematical and Physical Character,
Vol. 89, No. 607 (Aug. 1, 1913), pp.
1-20 PD
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/9345
2?&Search=yes&term=electricity&term=posi
tive&term=rays&list=hide&searchUri=%2Fac
tion%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuery%3Drays%2Bof
%2Bpositive%2Belectricity%26jc%3Dj100836
%26wc%3Don%26Search.x%3D0%26Search.y%3D0
%26Search%3DSearch&item=1&ttl=262&return
ArticleService=showArticle
87 YBN
[02/18/1913 AD] 		4909) All known atomic radioactive
disintegration series' are accounted
for.
(University of Glasgow) Glasgow,
Scotland 
[1] Figure from Frederick Soddy, ''The
Radio-elements and the Periodic Law'',
Chemical News 107, p97
(1913) http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/s
oddycn.html
{Soddy_Frederick_19130218.pdf} PD
source: Frederick Soddy, "The
Radio-elements and the Periodic Law",
Chemical News 107, p97
(1913) http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/s
oddycn.html
{Soddy_Frederick_19130218.pdf}

[2] Frederick Soddy UNKNOWN
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1921/soddy
_postcard.jpg
87 YBN
[04/05/1913 AD] 		5005) The atomic model of Niels Bohr:
that electrons move in fixed circular
orbits around a stationary positive
nucleus with momentum=h/2pi (h is
Planck's constant), and give off or
absorb fixed amounts of energy (quanta)
by moving from one orbit to another.
(University of Manchester) Machester,
England 
[1] Immediate source:
http://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Billede:Nie
ls_Bohr.jpg Ultimate source: Niels
Bohr's Nobel Prize biography, from
1922. Status: Public domain in US at
least because of age, probably
elsewhere. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6d/Niels_Bohr.jpg
87 YBN
[04/07/1913 AD] 		4406) An x-ray spectrometer is invented
which uses a crystal of known atomic
cube size to determine the wavelength
(or interval) of x-rays using the
grating equation.
(University of Leeds) Leeds,
England 
[1] Figure 1 from: W. H. Bragg and W.
L. Bragg, “The Reflection of X-rays
by Crystals,” in Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London, 88A (1 July
1913), 428–438, received 7 April
1913;
http://rspa.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/88/605/428 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/9350
1

[2] Figures 2 and 3 from: W. H. Bragg
and W. L. Bragg, “The Reflection of
X-rays by Crystals,” in Proceedings
of the Royal Society of London, 88A (1
July 1913), 428–438, received 7 April
1913;
http://rspa.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/88/605/428 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/9350
1
87 YBN
[04/07/1913 AD] 		6245) The first home refrigerator which
will replace the "ice box".
Chicago, Illinois, USA 
[1] Fred Wolf, Patent number: 1126605,
Filing date: Apr 7, 1913, Issue date:
Jan 26,
1915 http://www.google.com/patents?id=4
f9TAAAAEBAJ PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=4f9TAAAAEBAJ

[2] Fred Wolf Patent number: 1337175,
Filing date: Dec 23, 1913, Issue date:
Apr 13,
1920 http://www.google.com/patents?id=h
jQTAAAAEBAJ PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=hjQTAAAAEBAJ
87 YBN
[05/28/1913 AD] 		4932) The general theory of relativity
by Albert Einstein and Marcel
Grossmann.

Einstein and Grossman restrict space
and time to a "non-Euclidean" curved
surface geometry, which replaces the
view of unrestricted infinite space and
time.
(Federal Institute of Technology)
Zurich, Switzerland 
[1] Description German-born
theoretical physicist Albert
Einstein. Source Cropped from
original at the Historical Museum of
Berne. Date 1904[1] Author
Lucien Chavan [1] (1868 - 1942), a
friend of Einstein's when he was living
in Berne. Permission (Reusing this
file) An uncropped version
available at NASA's ''Astronomy Picture
of the Day''. According to the NASA
site: PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/a/a0/Einstein_patentoffice.jpg

[2] Albert Einstein, Nobel Prize in
Physics 1921 photograph. Description
Albert Einstein (Nobel).png English:
Albert Einstein, official 1921 Nobel
Prize in Physics photograph. Français
: Albert Einstein, photographie
officielle du Prix Nobel de Physique
1921. Date 1921(1921) Source
Official 1921 Nobel Prize in
Physics photograph Author PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/50/Albert_Einstein_%28No
bel%29.png
87 YBN
[07/18/1913 AD] 		4800) Cepheid variable stars are used
to estimate the distances to stars.
Potsdam, Germany 
[1] Ejnar Hertzsprung, 1873 -
1967. Foto fra Urania Observatoriets
bibliotek UNKNOWN
source: http://www.nafa.dk/Historie/Bill
eder/Hertzsprung%20ung.jpg

[2] Hertzsprung-Russell diagram. A
plot of luminosity (absolute magnitude)
against the colour of the stars ranging
from the high-temperature blue-white
stars on the left side of the diagram
to the low temperature red stars on the
right side. ''This diagram below is a
plot of 22000 stars from the Hipparcos
Catalogue together with 1000
low-luminosity stars (red and white
dwarfs) from the Gliese Catalogue of
Nearby Stars. The ordinary
hydrogen-burning dwarf stars like the
Sun are found in a band running from
top-left to bottom-right called the
Main Sequence. Giant stars form their
own clump on the upper-right side of
the diagram. Above them lie the much
rarer bright giants and supergiants. At
the lower-left is the band of white
dwarfs - these are the dead cores of
old stars which have no internal energy
source and over billions of years
slowly cool down towards the
bottom-right of the diagram.''
Converted to png and compressed with
pngcrush. Date Source The
Hertzsprung Russell Diagram Author
Richard PowellHertzsprung-Russell
diagram. A plot of luminosity (absolute
magnitude) against the colour of the
stars ranging from the high-temperature
blue-white stars on the left side of
the diagram to the low temperature red
stars on the right side. ''This diagram
below is a plot of 22000 stars from the
Hipparcos Catalogue together with 1000
low-luminosity stars (red and white
dwarfs) from the Gliese Catalogue of
Nearby Stars. The ordinary
hydrogen-burning dwarf stars like the
Sun are found in a band running from
top-left to bottom-right called the
Main Sequence. Giant stars form their
own clump on the upper-right side of
the diagram. Above them lie the much
rarer bright giants and supergiants. At
the lower-left is the band of white
dwarfs - these are the dead cores of
old stars which have no internal energy
source and over billions of years
slowly cool down towards the
bottom-right of the diagram.''
Converted to png and compressed with
pngcrush. Date Source The
Hertzsprung Russell Diagram Author
Richard Powell CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6b/HRDiagram.png
87 YBN
[07/30/1913 AD] 		4407) A monochromatic x-ray beam of
known wavelength is used to determine
the distance between parallel crystal
planes that reflect the particles in
the beam. This is the beginning of
using x-ray "diffraction" to determine
the shape and the position of each atom
in a molecule.
(University of Leeds) Leeds,
England 
[1] Description William Henry Bragg
2.jpg William H. Bragg Date
Source
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiped
ia/commons/archive/9/95/20081225183229!W
illiam_Henry_Bragg.jpg Author
uploaded by User:Emerson7 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/83/William_Henry_Bragg_2
.jpg

[2] Description
Wl-bragg.jpg English: Lawrence
Bragg Date 1915(1915) Source
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/
physics/laureates/1915/wl-bragg-bio.html
Author Nobel foundation PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1d/Wl-bragg.jpg
87 YBN
[10/20/1913 AD] 		4863) The Andromeda galaxy is claimed
to have a very high velocity relative
to the Earth by Vesto Melvin Slipher
(SlIFR).

Slipher compares the position of
absorption lines in the spectrum of the
Andromeda galaxy to those of Saturn and
finds that Andromeda is moving towards
the Earth with an average radial
velocity of 300 km/s, 1/100th the speed
of light, the highest velocity ever
observed.
(Percival Lowell's observatory)
Flagstaff, Arizona, USA 
[1] Vesto Melvin Slipher (11/11/1875 -
08/11/1969) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.phys-astro.sonoma.edu
/BruceMedalists/Slipher/slipher.jpg
87 YBN
[11/05/1913 AD] 		4824) A strong static electric field is
shown to cause a multiplication in
spectral emission lines of Hydrogen and
Helium.
(Physical Institute of Technology)
Aachen, Germany 
[1] Figure 1 from: J. Stark,
''Beobachtungen über den Effekt des
elektrischen Feldes auf Spektrallinien.
I-VI'', Annalen der Physik, 4th ser.,
43 (1914), 965-1047, and 48 (1915),
193–235. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.c
om/doi/10.1002/andp.19143480702/abstract
{Stark_Johannes_19131105.pdf} PD
source: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/d
oi/10.1002/andp.19143480702/pdf

[2] Portrait of Johannes Stark, Nobel
Prize in Physics winner from
1919. [edit] Licensing Original
source:
http://concise.britannica.com/ebc/art-14
492/Johannes-Stark Because of age
(published in 1919), should be PD in at
least the United States, and likely
elsewhere. Slightly edited. Public
domain PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1d/Johannes_Stark.jpg
87 YBN
[11/27/1913 AD] 		4911) The theory that there must be
electrons in the nucleus to compensate
for the positive charge of the alpha
particles, and that successive places
in the periodic table correspond to
unit differences in the net
intra-atomic charge.
 
[1] Antonius Van Der Broek UNKNOWN
source: http://www.inghist.nl/Onderzoek/
Projecten/BWN/lemmata/bwn1/images/BROEKA
J.jpg
87 YBN
[12/04/1913 AD] 		4910) The name "isotope" is created for
elements that are chemically
inseparable but have different atomic
mass by Frederick Soddy. In addition
Soddy explains that because the
electrons of beta decay originate from
the nucleus and not the outer ring,
there must be negative charge in the
nucleus.
(University of Glasgow) Glasgow,
Scotland 
[1] Frederick Soddy UNKNOWN
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1921/soddy
_postcard.jpg

[2] Frederick Soddy COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.rsc.org/images/Soddy%
20HiRes_180h_tcm18-136506.jpg
87 YBN
[12/??/1913 AD] 		5039) The high frequency spectra of
elements are mapped and the frequency
of secondary x-rays emitted from atoms
is shown to increase with atomic mass
by Henry Moseley.
(University of Manchester) Machester,
England 
[1] Plate from: H Moseley, ''The
high-frequency spectra of the
elements'', Phil. Mag, V26, p1024-1034,
1913 http://www.chemistry.co.nz/henry_m
oseley_article.htm {Moseley_Henry_19131
2xx.pdf} PD
source: Moseley_Henry_191312xx.pdf

[2] Henry Moseley, British physicist.
from en. Died in 1915. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/dd/Henry_Moseley.jpg
87 YBN
[1913 AD] 		4361) Vitamins A and B, and their
importance in the growth process are
discovered.
(University of Wisconsin) Wisconsin,
USA 
[1] Description Elmer
McCollum.jpg English: Elmer
McCollum Date 2008-03-03
(original upload date) (Original text
: 1896) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia; transferred to Commons by
User:Magnus Manske using
CommonsHelper. (Original text : Elmer
McCollum.com) Author Journal of
Nutrition Original uploader was
Sparrowman980 at en.wikipedia PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/ee/Elmer_McCollum.jpg
87 YBN
[1913 AD] 		4811) Thought-photographs are produced
by placing a photographic plate onto
the forehead for half an hour.
Paris, France 
[1] Quote: The idea is a brilliant and
creative, almost material force, the
Fiat lux of the Bible .... During the
process of thinking, the soul the brain
atoms vibrate, and gives the phosphorus
in the brain to light up. The luminous
rays are cast outside. If you
concentrate his mind on any object with
simple outlines, such as a bottle, it
enters the fluid that picture out
through the eyes and impressed by his
rays, the photographic plate, so that a
recording thereof. (1911) PD
source: http://www.wgsebald.de/lex/darge
t2.jpg

[2] Portrait of Louis Darget in
1899 PD
source: http://www.evp-experiments.nl/im
ages/darget.jpg
87 YBN
[1913 AD] 		4942) A tungsten filament in an
incandescent electric bulb filled with
inert gases nitrogen and argon is shown
to last longer than a tungsten filament
in a vacuum.
(General Electric Company) Schenectady,
New York, USA 
[1] Summary URL:
http://www.geocities.com/bioelectrochemi
stry/langmuir.htm Date: c. 1900 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/9/96/Langmuir-sitting.jpg
87 YBN
[1913 AD] 		4963) The "Geiger counter"; which
detects high velocity subatomic
particles is invented.

A cylinder contains a gas under high
electric potential just low enough to
not overcome the resistance of the gas.
A high-velocity sub-atomic particle
enters and ionizes one of the gas
molecules which creates an avalanche of
ionization that conducts a brief
electric current that causes a speaker
to make a click sound.
(Physikalisch-Technische Reichsanstalt)
Berlin, Germany 
[1] Figure 1: Rutherford-Geiger alpha
particle counter design Figure 2:
Geiger 1912 design UNKNOWN
source: http://go.galegroup.com/ps/retri
eve.do?sgHitCountType=None&sort=RELEVANC
E&inPS=true&prodId=GVRL&userGroupName=un
ivca20&tabID=T003&searchId=R1&resultList
Type=RESULT_LIST&contentSegment=&searchT
ype=AdvancedSearchForm¤tPosition=1&cont
entSet=GALE

[2] Description Geiger,Hans
1928.jpg English: Physicist Hans
Geiger, 1928 Deutsch: Physiker Hans
Geiger, 1928 Date 1928 Source
Own work Author GFHund GNU
source: CX2830901600&&docId=GALE
87 YBN
[1913 AD] 		5019) That heat is produced and oxygen
is consumed after the muscle is done
contracting, not during the contraction
is determined using thermocouples which
record changes in heat.
(University of Cambridge) Cambridge,
England 
[1] English: Photograph of Archibald V.
Hill (1886-1977) Date Unknown, but
prior to 1923 (associated with Nobel
Prize granted in 1922) (28 May
2008(2008-05-28) (first version); 31
July 2006(2006-07-31) (last
version)) UNKNOWN
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c9/Archibald_Vivian_Hill
.jpg
87 YBN
[1913 AD] 		5083) That γ Rays are emitted when α
Rays collide with matter is shown.
(University of Manchester) Manchester,
England 
[1] J Chadwick, ''The excitation of
γ rays by α rays'', Philosophical
Magazine Series 6, V25 (1913), 193.
{Chadwick_Gamma_191301xx.pdf} PD
source: {Chadwick_Gamma_191301xx.pdf}

[2] Description
Chadwick.jpg en:James
Chadwick Date ~1935 (original
photograph), 2007-08-11 (original
upload date) Source Transfered
from en.wikipedia. Original source:
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1935/chadwick-bio.html COP
YRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c2/Chadwick.jpg
87 YBN
[1913 AD] 		6614) That a rocket with an initial
mass of 200 pounds can achieve a
velocity high enough for a 1-pound mass
to escape the Earth if the propellant
is gun cotton at 50 percent efficiency
or greater is determined.
(Clark University) Worcester,
Massachusetts, USA (presumably) 
[1] English: Dr. Robert Hutchings
Goddard (1882-1945). Dr. Goddard has
been recognized as the father of
American rocketry and as one of the
pioneers in the theoretical exploration
of space. Robert Hutchings Goddard,
born in Worcester, Massachusetts, on
October 5, 1882, was theoretical
scientist as well as a practical
engineer. His dream was the conquest of
the upper atmosphere and ultimately
space through the use of rocket
propulsion. Dr. Goddard, died in 1945,
but was probably as responsible for the
dawning of the Space Age as the Wrights
were for the beginning of the Air Age.
Yet his work attracted little serious
attention during his lifetime. However,
when the United States began to prepare
for the conquest of space in the
1950's, American rocket scientists
began to recognize the debt owed to the
New England professor. They discovered
that it was virtually impossible to
construct a rocket or launch a
satellite without acknowledging the
work of Dr. Goddard. More than 200
patents, many of which were issued
after his death, covered this great
legacy. Date 0 Unknown date
0000(0000-00-00) Source Great
Images in NASA
Description http://dayton.hq.nasa.gov/I
MAGES/LARGE/GPN-2002-000131.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3f/Dr._Robert_H._Goddard
_-_GPN-2002-000131.jpg

[2] English: Dr. Robert H. Goddard and
a liquid oxygen-gasoline rocket in the
frame from which it was fired on March
16, 1926, at Auburn, Massachusetts.
From 1930 to 1941, Dr. Goddard made
substantial progress in the development
of progressively larger rockets, which
attained altitudes of 2400 meters, and
refined his equipment for guidance and
control, his techniques of welding, and
his insulation, pumps and other
associated equipment. In many respects,
Dr. Goddard laid the essential
foundations of practical rocket
technology. He is considered one of the
fathers of rocketry along with
Konstantin Tsiolovsky (1857-1935) and
Hermann Oberth (1894-1989). Date
16 March 1926(1926-03-16) Source
http://grin.hq.nasa.gov/ABSTRACTS/G
PN-2002-000132.html Author PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/7c/Goddard_and_Rocket.jp
g
86 YBN
[04/14/1914 AD] 		4510) Einstein's photoelectric equation
for the maximum energy emission of a
negative electron under the influence
of ultra-violet light is verified
experimentally.
(paper read at Physical Society
Meeting) Washington DC (work done at
University of Chicago) Chicago,
illinois, USA 
[1] Figure from Millikan, R.A.;
''Einstein's Photoelectric Equation and
Contact Electromotive Force'', Phys.
Rev. 7 (1916) 18;
http://web.ihep.su/owa/dbserv/hw.part2
?s_c=MILLIKAN+1916 {Millikan_Robert_Pho
toelectric_1916.pdf} PD
source: http://web.ihep.su/owa/dbserv/hw
.part2?s_c=MILLIKAN+1916

[2] Robert Andrews
Millikan USA California Institute of
Technology (Caltech) Pasadena, CA,
USA b. 1868 d. 1953 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.ebeijing.gov.cn/featu
re_2/Nobel_Prize_Forum_2007/List_of_All_
Laureates_2007/Prize_in_Chemistry/W02008
0114542388774103.jpg
86 YBN
[04/??/1914 AD] 		5107) The high-frequency (x-ray)
spectra for more than 30 elements is
published.
(University of Oxford) Oxford,
England 
[1] Figure 3 from: H Moseley, ''The
high-frequency spectra of the elements
part II'', Philosophical Magazine
Series 6, Volume 27, Issue 160 April
1914 , pages 703 - 713.
http://web.mit.edu/8.13/www/pdf_files/
moseley-1913-high-freq-spectra-elements-
part2.pdf {Moseley_Henry_191404xx.pdf}
PD
source: http://web.mit.edu/8.13/www/pdf_
files/moseley-1913-high-freq-spectra-ele
ments-part2.pdf

[2] Henry Moseley, British physicist.
from en. Died in 1915. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/dd/Henry_Moseley.jpg
86 YBN
[05/??/1914 AD] 		5085) Gamma rays from radioactivity are
found to have wavelengths in the X-ray
region by Ernest Rutherford and Edward
Andrade.

This is the first determination of the
particle intervals (or wavelengths) of
gamma rays.
(University of Manchester) Manchester,
England 
[1] Figures from: [1] E. Rutherford,
''The Wavelength of the Soft Gamma Rays
from Radium B.'', Philosophical
Magazine 27, 1914, 854–868;
{Rutherford_Ernest_191405xx.pdf} PD
source: Rutherford_Ernest_191405xx.pdf

[2] Description Ernest
Rutherford2.jpg English: Cropped
Image:Ernest_Rutherford.jpg Date
2007-01-26 (original upload
date) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia Author Original
uploader was Sadi Carnot at
en.wikipedia GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/57/Ernest_Rutherford2.jp
g
86 YBN
[05/??/1914 AD] 		5879) The x-ray spectrum of Radium B
and lead are found to be identical
which confirms that they are isotopes.
(University of Manchester) Manchester,
England 
[1] Figures from: E. Rutherford, E. N.
DA C. Andrade, ''The Spectrum of the
Penetrating γ Rays from Radium B and
Radium C.'', Philosophical Magazine S6,
V28, 1914, 263-273.
{Rutherford_Ernest_191408xx.pdf} PD
source: Rutherford_Ernest_191408xx.pdf

[2] Description Ernest
Rutherford2.jpg English: Cropped
Image:Ernest_Rutherford.jpg Date
2007-01-26 (original upload
date) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia Author Original
uploader was Sadi Carnot at
en.wikipedia GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/57/Ernest_Rutherford2.jp
g
86 YBN
[07/28/1914 AD] 		4792) Sound is recorded and played back
with motion pictures on plastic film by
Eric Tigerstedt.
Berlin, Germany (verify) 
[1] Eric Tigerstedts ljudfilmspatent
nummer 309.536 från 28/7 1914 PD
source: http://www.filmsoundsweden.se/vo
xbilder/filmhist/tigerstedt.jpg

[2] Sound in Movies (Eric
Tigerstedt) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/fi/thumb/f/f3/Eric_Tigerstedt_1915
.jpg/250px-Eric_Tigerstedt_1915.jpg
86 YBN
[07/??/1914 AD] 		4879) The intensity of certain spectral
lines is used to determine a star's
absolute magnitude (the magnitude of a
star as it would appear at a distance
of 10 parsecs or 32.6 light-years) from
it's apparent magnitude, and the method
of "spectral parallax": by comparing
the intensity of spectral lines between
a star with another star with the same
spectrum of known distance, the
distance to the other star can be
determined.

Hydrogen emission lines are much
stronger in stars of the same spectral
type with small proper motion (more
distant) than in those with a large
proper motion (closer), and this forms
the basis for the difference between
giant and dwarf stars of the same
spectral type.
(Mount Wilson Observatory) Pasadena,
California, USA 
[1] Adams, W. S. and Kohlschutter, A.,
''Some spectral criteria for the
determination of absolute stellar
magnitudes.'', Contrib. Mt. Wilson
Solar Obs., No. 89; Astrophys. J., 40,
385-398
(1914). http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/
1914ApJ....40..385A PD
source: http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?db_key=AST
&bibcode=1914ApJ....40..385A&letter=.&cl
assic=YES&defaultprint=YES&whole_paper=Y
ES&page=385&epage=385&send=Send+PDF&file
type=.pdf

[2] Adams, W. S. and Kohlschutter, A.,
''Some spectral criteria for the
determination of absolute stellar
magnitudes.'', Contrib. Mt. Wilson
Solar Obs., No. 89; Astrophys. J., 40,
385-398
(1914). http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/
1914ApJ....40..385A PD
source: http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?db_key=AST
&bibcode=1914ApJ....40..385A&letter=.&cl
assic=YES&defaultprint=YES&whole_paper=Y
ES&page=385&epage=385&send=Send+PDF&file
type=.pdf
86 YBN
[07/??/1914 AD] 		4973) The first multistage rocket.
(Princeton University) Princeton, New
Jersey, USA (verify) 
[1] Fig. 8 from: Goddard, “A Method
of Reaching Extreme Altitudes”,
Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections,
71, no. 2 (1919). Reprinted
in: Goddard, ''Rockets'' (New York,
1946). {Goddard_Robert_1946.pdf} PD
source: Goddard_Robert_1946.pdf

[2] English: Dr. Robert Hutchings
Goddard (1882-1945). Dr. Goddard has
been recognized as the father of
American rocketry and as one of the
pioneers in the theoretical exploration
of space. Robert Hutchings Goddard,
born in Worcester, Massachusetts, on
October 5, 1882, was theoretical
scientist as well as a practical
engineer. His dream was the conquest of
the upper atmosphere and ultimately
space through the use of rocket
propulsion. Dr. Goddard, died in 1945,
but was probably as responsible for the
dawning of the Space Age as the Wrights
were for the beginning of the Air Age.
Yet his work attracted little serious
attention during his lifetime. However,
when the United States began to prepare
for the conquest of space in the
1950's, American rocket scientists
began to recognize the debt owed to the
New England professor. They discovered
that it was virtually impossible to
construct a rocket or launch a
satellite without acknowledging the
work of Dr. Goddard. More than 200
patents, many of which were issued
after his death, covered this great
legacy. Date 0 Unknown date
0000(0000-00-00) Source Great
Images in NASA
Description http://dayton.hq.nasa.gov/I
MAGES/LARGE/GPN-2002-000131.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3f/Dr._Robert_H._Goddard
_-_GPN-2002-000131.jpg
86 YBN
[1914 AD] 		4497) The Doppler effect for light is
confirmed experimentally using an
interferometer to measure the
difference in position of the sets of
rings produced by light from the two
ends of a rotating white disk.
(Mareseilles University) Mareseilles,
France 
[1] Author: User:Stigmatella
aurantiaca Source: Own drawing,
created with Inkscape and exported to
PNG. Low and high-finesse images were
created using online webMathematica
software ''Multiple beam interference
fringes'' available at
http://wyant.optics.arizona.edu/webMathe
matica/myprograms/MultipleBeamInterferen
ce/multBeamInt.jsp using mirror
reflectivities of 0.04 (corresponding
to unsilvered plates) and
0.95. Description: The heart of the
Fabry–Pérot interferometer are a
pair of partially silvered glass
optical flats spaced several
millimeters to centimeters apart with
the silvered surfaces facing each
other. (Alternatively, a Fabry–Pérot
etalon uses a transparent plate with
two reflecting surfaces.) The flats are
often made in a wedge shape to prevent
the rear surfaces from producing
interference fringes; alternatively,
the rear surfaces will be given an
anti-reflective coating. Illumination
is via a diffuse source set at the
focal plane of a collimating lens. A
focusing lens produces what would be an
inverted image of the source if the
paired flats were not present; i.e. in
the absence of the paired flats, all
light emitted from point A passing
through the optical system would be
focused at point A'. In the
accompanying illustration, only one ray
emitted from point A on the source is
traced. As the ray passes through the
paired flats, it is multiply reflected
to produce multiple transmitted rays
which are collected by the focusing
lens and brought to point A' on the
screen. The complete interference
pattern takes the appearance of a set
of concentric rings. The sharpness of
the rings depends on the reflectivity
of the flats. If the reflectivity is
high, resulting in a high Q factor
(i.e. high finesse), monochromatic
light produces a set of narrow bright
rings against a dark background. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/5/56/Fabry_Perot_Interferometer
_-_diagram.png

[2] English: French physicist Charles
Fabry (1867-1945) Date
Unrecorded Source
US-LibraryOfCongress-BookLogo.svg
This image is available from the
United States Library of Congress's
Prints and Photographs Division under
the digital ID ggbain.37539 This tag
does not indicate the copyright status
of the attached work. A normal
copyright tag is still required. See
Commons:Licensing for more
information. العربية
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/75/Charles_Fabry.jpg
86 YBN
[1914 AD] 		4785) The first successful heart
surgery; on a dog.
(The Rockefeller Institute for Medical
Research) New York City, New York,
USA 
[1] Description Alexis Carrel
02.jpg French surgeon and biologist
Alexis Carrel (1873-1944) Date
Unknown Source
US-LibraryOfCongress-BookLogo.svg
This image is available from the
United States Library of Congress's
Prints and Photographs division under
the digital ID ggbain.34418. This tag
does not indicate the copyright status
of the attached work. A normal
copyright tag is still required. See
Commons:Licensing for more
information. العربية
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/9e/Alexis_Carrel_02.jpg
86 YBN
[1914 AD] 		4962) An electron beam bombarding gases
and vapors is shown to require a
certain minimum energy to cause a full
quantum of energy to be absorbed and
light to be emitted.
(University of Berlin) Berlin,
Germany 
[1] Photograph of the physicist James
Franck. Source: National Archives and
Records Administration of the United
States PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6c/James_Franck.jpg

[2] Gustav Ludwig Hertz Nobel
photo UNKNOWN
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/physics/laureates/1925/hertz.jpg
86 YBN
[1914 AD] 		4965) Experimental rockets are
developed.
(Clark University) Worcester,
Massachusetts, USA 
[1] English: Dr. Robert Hutchings
Goddard (1882-1945). Dr. Goddard has
been recognized as the father of
American rocketry and as one of the
pioneers in the theoretical exploration
of space. Robert Hutchings Goddard,
born in Worcester, Massachusetts, on
October 5, 1882, was theoretical
scientist as well as a practical
engineer. His dream was the conquest of
the upper atmosphere and ultimately
space through the use of rocket
propulsion. Dr. Goddard, died in 1945,
but was probably as responsible for the
dawning of the Space Age as the Wrights
were for the beginning of the Air Age.
Yet his work attracted little serious
attention during his lifetime. However,
when the United States began to prepare
for the conquest of space in the
1950's, American rocket scientists
began to recognize the debt owed to the
New England professor. They discovered
that it was virtually impossible to
construct a rocket or launch a
satellite without acknowledging the
work of Dr. Goddard. More than 200
patents, many of which were issued
after his death, covered this great
legacy. Date 0 Unknown date
0000(0000-00-00) Source Great
Images in NASA
Description http://dayton.hq.nasa.gov/I
MAGES/LARGE/GPN-2002-000131.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3f/Dr._Robert_H._Goddard
_-_GPN-2002-000131.jpg

[2] English: Dr. Robert H. Goddard and
a liquid oxygen-gasoline rocket in the
frame from which it was fired on March
16, 1926, at Auburn, Massachusetts.
From 1930 to 1941, Dr. Goddard made
substantial progress in the development
of progressively larger rockets, which
attained altitudes of 2400 meters, and
refined his equipment for guidance and
control, his techniques of welding, and
his insulation, pumps and other
associated equipment. In many respects,
Dr. Goddard laid the essential
foundations of practical rocket
technology. He is considered one of the
fathers of rocketry along with
Konstantin Tsiolovsky (1857-1935) and
Hermann Oberth (1894-1989). Date
16 March 1926(1926-03-16) Source
http://grin.hq.nasa.gov/ABSTRACTS/G
PN-2002-000132.html Author PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/7c/Goddard_and_Rocket.jp
g
86 YBN
[1914 AD] 		4977) The theory that spiral "nebulae"
are other galaxies by Arthur Eddington.
(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England  
[1] Description Arthur Stanley
Eddington.jpg English: English
astrophysicist Sir Arthur Stanley
Eddington (1882–1944) Date
Unrecorded Source
US-LibraryOfCongress-BookLogo.svg
This image is available from the
United States Library of Congress's
Prints and Photographs division under
the digital ID ggbain.38064. This tag
does not indicate the copyright status
of the attached work. A normal
copyright tag is still required. See
Commons:Licensing for more
information. العربية
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/24/Arthur_Stanley_Edding
ton.jpg
86 YBN
[1914 AD] 		5040) Mendel's genetic laws are used to
create strains of wheat that are
resistant to various wheat diseases.
(Agricultural Higher School) Moscow,
Russia 
[1] Nikolai Vavilov
NYWTS.jpg Nikolai Vavilov, Russian
botanist and geneticist Date
1933(1933) Source Library of
Congress. New York World-Telegram & Sun
Collection.
http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/cph.3c18109
Author World Telegram staff
photographer Permission (Reusing this
file) ''No copyright restriction
known. Staff photographer reproduction
rights transferred to Library of
Congress through Instrument of Gift.''
See also
http://www.loc.gov/rr/print/res/076_nyw.
html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/bd/Nikolai_Vavilov_NYWTS
.jpg
86 YBN
[1914 AD] 		5088) The ninth satellite of Jupiter
(Sinope) is identified (and is probably
a captured asteroid).
(Lick Observatory) Mount Hamilton,
California, USA 
[1] Nicholson, Seth Barnes
(1891–1963) UNKNOWN
source: http://t1.gstatic.com/images?q=t
bn:GpER9gy6nTub5M:http://www.daviddarlin
g.info/images/Nicholson.jpg&t=1
86 YBN
[1914 AD] 		5179) A voltage-doubling circuit.
(University of Zurich) Zurich,
Switzerland 
[1] Heinrich Greinacher (1880–1974)
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.electrosuisse.ch/imag
es/database/Portrait/all/Greinacher.jpg

[2] Sir John Douglas
Cockcroft COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/physics/laureates/1951/cockcro
ft_postcard.jpg
86 YBN
[1914 AD] 		6620) That the refraction of x-rays
must be taken into account when using
the Bragg equation to determine atomic
spacing.
(University of Manchester) Manchester,
England 
[1] Source
US-LibraryOfCongress-BookLogo.svg
This image is available from the
United States Library of Congress's
Prints and Photographs division under
the digital ID ggbain.39219. This tag
does not indicate the copyright status
of the attached work. A normal
copyright tag is still required. See
Commons:Licensing for more
information. العربية
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Charles_G._Darw
in%2C_Bain_News_Service_photo_portrait.j
pg/774px-Charles_G._Darwin%2C_Bain_News_
Service_photo_portrait.jpg
85 YBN
[01/25/1915 AD] 		4043) The first transcontinental
telephone line is opened between New
York City and San Francisco.
New York City and San Francisco,
USA 
[1] Alexander Graham Bell speaking into
a prototype telephone PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/85/1876_Bell_Speaking_in
to_Telephone.jpg

[2] Figures 6 and 7 from Bell's
02/14/1876 patent PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=crhRAAAAEBAJ&pg=PA2&source=gbs_selected
_pages&cad=1#v=onepage&q=&f=false
85 YBN
[01/??/1915 AD] 		4864) From Doppler shift, fifteen
galaxies (at the time called "nebulae")
are all are measured to be moving away
from the Earth with an average velocity
of 400 km/s. In addition, a spiral
galaxy is found to rotate at 100 km/s,
about 8 times the edge of Jupiter.
(Percival Lowell's observatory)
Flagstaff, Arizona, USA 
[1] Table from [1] Vesto Melvin
Slipher (11/11/1875 -
08/11/1969) UNKNOWN
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=XgryAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA21&dq=%22During+the+l
ast+two+years,+the+spectrographic+work%2
2&hl=en&ei=iSDTTKiCNYL0tgPoopy7Dg&sa=X&o
i=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CD
YQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=%22During%20the%20l
ast%20two%20years%2C%20the%20spectrograp
hic%20work%22&f=false

[2] Slipher, V. M., ''Spectrographic
Observations of Nebulae'', Popular
Astronomy, vol. 23,
pp.21-24. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/ful
l/1915PA.....23Q..21S http://books.goog
le.com/books?id=XgryAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA21&dq=
%22During+the+last+two+years,+the+spectr
ographic+work%22&hl=en&ei=iSDTTKiCNYL0tg
Poopy7Dg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&r
esnum=3&ved=0CDYQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=%22D
uring%20the%20last%20two%20years%2C%20th
e%20spectrographic%20work%22&f=false PD

source: http://www.phys-astro.sonoma.edu
/BruceMedalists/Slipher/slipher.jpg
85 YBN
[04/13/1915 AD] 		4817) The theory of a "packing
fraction"; that about 0.77% of the mass
of Hydrogen is lost when it is packed
together to form larger atoms, that the
atomic nucleus is made of combinations
of Hydrogen and helium atoms, and that
the heavier elements deeper inside
stars are formed from elements of
smaller atomic mass farther outside.
(Kent Chemical Laboratory, University
of Chicago) Chicago, Illinois,
USA 
[1] Harkins, William D., and Ernest D.
Wilson. ''The Structure of Complex
Atoms and the Changes of Mass and
Weight Involved in Their Formation.''
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences of the United States of
America 1.5 (1915):
276. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/ar
ticles/PMC1090802/ PD
source: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/
articles/PMC1090802/

[2] Harkins, William D., and Ernest D.
Wilson. ''The Structure of Complex
Atoms and the Changes of Mass and
Weight Involved in Their Formation.''
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences of the United States of
America 1.5 (1915):
276. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/ar
ticles/PMC1090802/ PD
source: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/
articles/PMC1090802/
85 YBN
[10/12/1915 AD] 		4392) The star Proxima Centauri is
seen, ("proxima" is Latin for
"nearest").
Proxima Centauri, is
currently the nearest known star to our
star and is 4.3 light years away.
(Cape Observatory) South Africa 
[1] Description English: Proxima
Centauri, the closest star to Earth
other than the Sun, as seen by
2MASS. Date August 28,
2002–September 3, 2002 (26 September
2010 (original upload date)) Source
2MASS Picture of the Week Archive -
Page 36 (right-hand image) Transferred
from en.wikipedia; transfer was stated
to be made by User:Lucien
leGrey. (Original text : Derivative
work of [1]. Image cropped to remove
text and logos.) Author The Two
Micron All Sky Survey at IPAC, a
collaboration between the University of
Massachusetts and the Infrared
Processing and Analysis Center, part of
the Jet Propulsion Laboratory at the
California Institute of Technology.
Derivative work by –Grondemar.
Original uploader was Grondemar at
en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) PD-AUTHOR;
PD-RETOUCHED-USER. (Original text :
Per [2]: “ The images and image
mosaics in the various Galleries are
released into the public domain. If any
image or images are redisplayed or
reproduced, please accompany the image
or images with the following
acknowledgment: ''Atlas Image (or Atlas
Image mosaic) obtained as part of the
Two Micron All Sky Survey (2MASS), a
joint project of the University of
Massachusetts and the Infrared
Processing and Analysis
Center/California Institute of
Technology, funded by the National
Aeronautics and Space Administration
and the National Science Foundation.''
If pressed for space, this
acknowledgment could be shortened to,
e.g., ''Atlas Image [or Atlas Image
mosaic] courtesy of
2MASS/UMass/IPAC-Caltech/NASA/NSF.''
However, all or part of the full
acknowledgment is preferred. This is
the stated policy of 2MASS. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/ac/Proxima_Centauri_2MAS
S_Atlas.jpg

[2] Description Alpha centauri
size.png English: This diagram
illustrates, from left to right, the
relative size of the Sun, α Centauri
A, α Centauri B and Proxima
Centauri. Date 26 June
2008(2008-06-26) Source Own work
by uploader. This illustration was
generated using Paint Shop Pro. Author
RJHall Permission (Reusing this
file) See below. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/43/Alpha_centauri_size.p
ng
85 YBN
[11/25/1915 AD] 		4934) Einstein publishes his field
equations for his "general relativity"
theory.
(Berlin's Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for
Physics) Berlin, Germany 
[1] Description German-born
theoretical physicist Albert
Einstein. Source Cropped from
original at the Historical Museum of
Berne. Date 1904[1] Author
Lucien Chavan [1] (1868 - 1942), a
friend of Einstein's when he was living
in Berne. Permission (Reusing this
file) An uncropped version
available at NASA's ''Astronomy Picture
of the Day''. According to the NASA
site: PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/a/a0/Einstein_patentoffice.jpg

[2] Albert Einstein, Nobel Prize in
Physics 1921 photograph. Description
Albert Einstein (Nobel).png English:
Albert Einstein, official 1921 Nobel
Prize in Physics photograph. Français
: Albert Einstein, photographie
officielle du Prix Nobel de Physique
1921. Date 1921(1921) Source
Official 1921 Nobel Prize in
Physics photograph Author PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/50/Albert_Einstein_%28No
bel%29.png
85 YBN
[11/??/1915 AD] 		4840) The disease Pellagra is
demonstrated to be a dietary deficiency
disease.
(US Public Health Service) Washington,
DC, USA (verify) 
[1] This image was copied from
wikipedia:en. The original description
was: Portrait of epidemiologist and
member of the U.S. w:en:Public Health
Service, Dr. w:en:Joseph
Goldberger. Obtained from the CDC
Public Health Image
Library. http://phil.cdc.gov/phil/home.
asp Image credit: CDC (PHIL
#8164). PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/72/Joseph_Goldberger_01.
jpg
85 YBN
[12/01/1915 AD] 		4881) The spectrum of the companion of
Sirius (Sirius B) is found to be the
same as Sirius except that the
ultraviolet part of the companion
spectrum fades out sooner.
(Mount Wilson Observatory) Pasadena,
California, USA 
[1] Description: middle age ;
three-quarter view ; suit Date:
Unknown Credit: AIP Emilio Segre
Visual Archives, Gallery of Member
Society Presidents Names: Adams,
Walter Sydney UNKNOWN
source: https://photos.aip.org/history/T
humbnails/adams_walter_a2.jpg

[2] Description Walter Sydney
Adams.jpg Creator/Photographer:
Unidentified photographer Medium:
Medium unknown Date:
1931 Persistent URL:
http://photography.si.edu/SearchImage.as
px?t=5&id=3459&q=SIL14-E1-10 Reposito
ry: Smithsonian Institution
Libraries Collection: Scientific
Identity: Portraits from the Dibner
Library of the History of Science and
Technology - As a supplement to the
Dibner Library for the History of
Science and Technology's collection of
written works by scientists, engineers,
natural philosophers, and inventors,
the library also has a collection of
thousands of portraits of these
individuals. The portraits come in a
variety of formats: drawings, woodcuts,
engravings, paintings, and photographs,
all collected by donor Bern Dibner.
Presented here are a few photos from
the collection, from the late 19th and
early 20th century. Accession
number: SIL14-E1-10 Date 20 May
2008(2008-05-20), 19:08:53 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6d/Walter_Sydney_Adams.j
pg
85 YBN
[12/03/1915 AD] 		4995) That monochromatic X-ray beams
can also be used to analyze powdered
solids, which are mixtures of tiny
crystals, oriented in all possible
directions (provided the electrons show
some regularity of arrangement in the
atom) is shown.
(University of Göttingen) Göttingen,
Germany 
[1] Peter Josef William Debye, ''The
collected papers of Peter J.W. Debye'',
1954, p55. UNKNOWN
source: Peter Josef William Debye, "The
collected papers of Peter J.W. Debye",
1954, p55.

[2] Debye, P., and Scherrer, P..
''Interferenzen an regellos
orientierten Teilchen im Röntgenlicht.
I..'' Nachrichten von der Gesellschaft
der Wissenschaften zu Göttingen,
Mathematisch-Physikalische Klasse 1916
(1916): 1-15.
. {Debye_Peter_19151204.pdf} English
translation: ''X-ray Interference
Patterns of Particles Oriented at
Random'' in Peter Josef William Debye,
''The collected papers of Peter J.W.
Debye'', 1954, p51. PD
source: http://www.digizeitschriften.de/
main/dms/img/#navi
85 YBN
[12/04/1915 AD] 		4917) Bacteriophages are identified;
viruses that can infect and kill
bacteria.
(Brown Institution) London,
England 
[1] Description Twort.jpg Frederick
Twort ca 1900 Date Source
Obituary Notices of Fellows of the
Royal Society, Vol. 7, No. 20. (Nov.,
1951), pp. 504-517. Found on
http://en.citizendium.org/wiki/Image:Two
rt.JPG PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/90/Twort.jpg

[2] Félix d'Herelle. Scanned from
the book ''Gesund durch Viren'' by
Thomas Häusler. The book states it was
taken around 1910, putting it into the
en:public domain. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/df/Felix_d%27Herelle.png

85 YBN
[12/17/1915 AD] 		4933) Albert Einstein claims that the
general theory of relativity more
accurately explains the anomalous
precession of the perihelion of planet
Mercury than Newton's law of gravity
does.
( Berlin’s Kaiser Wilhelm Institute
for Physics) Berlin, Germany 
[1] Description German-born
theoretical physicist Albert
Einstein. Source Cropped from
original at the Historical Museum of
Berne. Date 1904[1] Author
Lucien Chavan [1] (1868 - 1942), a
friend of Einstein's when he was living
in Berne. Permission (Reusing this
file) An uncropped version
available at NASA's ''Astronomy Picture
of the Day''. According to the NASA
site: PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/a/a0/Einstein_patentoffice.jpg

[2] Albert Einstein, Nobel Prize in
Physics 1921 photograph. Description
Albert Einstein (Nobel).png English:
Albert Einstein, official 1921 Nobel
Prize in Physics photograph. Français
: Albert Einstein, photographie
officielle du Prix Nobel de Physique
1921. Date 1921(1921) Source
Official 1921 Nobel Prize in
Physics photograph Author PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/50/Albert_Einstein_%28No
bel%29.png
85 YBN
[1915 AD] 		4970) That thrust and propulsion can
take place in a vacuum, needing no air
to push against is proven.
(Clark University) Worcester,
Massachusetts, USA 
[1] Plate from: Goddard,
“Liquid-Propellant Rocket
Development,” Smithsonian
Miscellaneous Collections, 95, no. 3
(1936) Reprinted in: Goddard,
''Rockets'' (New York, 1946).
{Goddard_Robert_1946.pdf} UNKNOWN
source: Goddard_Robert_1946.pdf

[2] English: Dr. Robert Hutchings
Goddard (1882-1945). Dr. Goddard has
been recognized as the father of
American rocketry and as one of the
pioneers in the theoretical exploration
of space. Robert Hutchings Goddard,
born in Worcester, Massachusetts, on
October 5, 1882, was theoretical
scientist as well as a practical
engineer. His dream was the conquest of
the upper atmosphere and ultimately
space through the use of rocket
propulsion. Dr. Goddard, died in 1945,
but was probably as responsible for the
dawning of the Space Age as the Wrights
were for the beginning of the Air Age.
Yet his work attracted little serious
attention during his lifetime. However,
when the United States began to prepare
for the conquest of space in the
1950's, American rocket scientists
began to recognize the debt owed to the
New England professor. They discovered
that it was virtually impossible to
construct a rocket or launch a
satellite without acknowledging the
work of Dr. Goddard. More than 200
patents, many of which were issued
after his death, covered this great
legacy. Date 0 Unknown date
0000(0000-00-00) Source Great
Images in NASA
Description http://dayton.hq.nasa.gov/I
MAGES/LARGE/GPN-2002-000131.jpg PD
source: Goddard_Robert_1946.pdf
84 YBN
[01/26/1916 AD] 		4855) The theory of a "covalent bond",
in which the chemical combination
between two atoms is the result of the
sharing of a pair of electrons, with
one electron contributed by each atom.
(University of California at Berkeley)
Berkeley, California, USA 
[1] Figure 2 from: GN Lewis, ''THE
ATOM AND THE MOLECULE.'', Journal of
the American Chemical Society, 1916 -
ACS
Publications http://pubs.acs.org/doi/ab
s/10.1021/ja02261a002 {Lewis_Gilbert_19
160126.pdf} PD
source: http://pubs.acs.org/doi/pdf/10.1
021/ja02261a002

[2] [t Notice the similarity to
Rutherford] Gilbert Newton
Lewis 1875-1946 UNKNOWN
source: http://www2.chemistry.msu.edu/Po
rtraits/images/lewisc.jpg
84 YBN
[02/08/1916 AD] 		4880) The existence of two kinds of M
spectral type (red) stars, giants and
dwarfs, is confirmed by comparing
spectral lines using parallax to
determine distance.
(Mount Wilson Observatory) Pasadena,
California, USA 
[1] Figure 1 from part 1 of Walter S.
Adams, ''Investigations in Stellar
Spectroscopy.'', Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences, V2,
02/08/1916,
p143. http://books.google.com/books?id=
eu8SAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA147&dq=A+Spectroscopic
+Method+of+Determining+Parallaxes&hl=en&
ei=JejZTPLHDpK2sAOp-6X5Bw&sa=X&oi=book_r
esult&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CCoQ6AEwAQ
#v=onepage&q=A%20Spectroscopic%20Method%
20of%20Determining%20Parallaxes&f=false
{Adams_Walter_19160208.pdf} PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=eu8SAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA147&dq=A+Spectroscopi
c+Method+of+Determining+Parallaxes&hl=en
&ei=JejZTPLHDpK2sAOp-6X5Bw&sa=X&oi=book_
result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CCoQ6AEwA
Q#v=onepage&q=A Spectroscopic Method of
Determining Parallaxes&f=false

[2] Description: middle age ;
three-quarter view ; suit Date:
Unknown Credit: AIP Emilio Segre
Visual Archives, Gallery of Member
Society Presidents Names: Adams,
Walter Sydney UNKNOWN
source: https://photos.aip.org/history/T
humbnails/adams_walter_a2.jpg
84 YBN
[02/24/1916 AD] 		4809) The theory of a mass so dense
that no material object can escape the
mass's gravitational attraction is
re-examined and interpreted in terms of
the General Theory of Relativity.
Berlin, Germany (published), Russia
(written) 
[1] Karl Schwarzschild UNKNOWN
source: http://www.odec.ca/projects/2007
/joch7c2/images/Schwarzschild.jpg

[2] Karl Schwarzschild, german
physicist Date Not
mentioned Source
http://www.aip.de/image_archive/ima
ges/karl_schwarzschild.jpg Author
Not mentioned PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/4a/Karl_schwarzschild.jp
g
84 YBN
[11/??/1916 AD] 		4982) The theory of "radiative
equilibrium of the stars" first
introduced by Karl Schwarzschild in
which stars are viewed as being
composed of gas and so follow the laws
of a perfect gas is developed more by
Arthur Eddington. In this view the
radiation-pressure from the high
temperature of the gas is balanced by
the force of gravity pulling it back to
the center.
(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England  
[1] Description Arthur Stanley
Eddington.jpg English: English
astrophysicist Sir Arthur Stanley
Eddington (1882–1944) Date
Unrecorded Source
US-LibraryOfCongress-BookLogo.svg
This image is available from the
United States Library of Congress's
Prints and Photographs division under
the digital ID ggbain.38064. This tag
does not indicate the copyright status
of the attached work. A normal
copyright tag is still required. See
Commons:Licensing for more
information. العربية
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/24/Arthur_Stanley_Edding
ton.jpg
84 YBN
[1916 AD] 		4317) The star "Barnard's star" is
identified and found to have the
largest known proper motion (10 seconds
of arc per year) until 1968. Barnard's
star is one of the closest stars to us,
and is a red dwarf star.
(Yerkes Observatory University of
Chicago) Williams Bay, Wisconsin,
USA 
[1] Description
Barnardstar2006.jpg Barnard's
star Date 21 May
2006(2006-05-21) Source
http://www.hwy.com.au/~sjquirk/imag
es/film/barnard.html Author Steve
Quirk Permission (Reusing this file)
http://www.hwy.com.au/~sjquirk/imag
es/film/barnard.html (see bottom) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/18/Barnardstar2006.jpg

[2] Edward Emerson Barnard Photo from
Mary Lea Shane Archives, Lick
Observatory 16 December 1857 1917
Bruce Medalist PD
source: http://www.phys-astro.sonoma.edu
/BruceMedalists/Barnard/barnard.jpg
84 YBN
[1916 AD] 		4511) Planck's constant (h) is verified
experimentally by using Einstein's
equation for the photoelectric effect
to relate frequency of light to induced
voltage.
(University of Chicago) Chicago,
illinois, USA 
[1] Figures from Millikan, R. A., ''A
Direct Photoelectric Determination of
Planck's ''h'''', Phys. Rev. 7,
355–388
(1916) http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v7/i3/p355_1 {Millikan_Robert_Plancks_
constant_1916.pdf} PD
source: http://prola.aps.org/pdf/PR/v7/i
3/p355_1

[2] Robert Andrews
Millikan USA California Institute of
Technology (Caltech) Pasadena, CA,
USA b. 1868 d. 1953 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.ebeijing.gov.cn/featu
re_2/Nobel_Prize_Forum_2007/List_of_All_
Laureates_2007/Prize_in_Chemistry/W02008
0114542388774103.jpg
84 YBN
[1916 AD] 		4530) Bohr's theory is modified to
allow electrons to have elliptical
orbits too.
 
[1] Description
Sommerfeld1897.gif Foto des
Physikers und Mathematikers Arnold
Sommerfeld Date
1897(1897) Source
http://www.lrz-muenchen.de/~Sommerf
eld/Bilder/as97_01.gif PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/74/Sommerfeld1897.gif
84 YBN
[1916 AD] 		5023) A third electron shell, the "M"
shell, is discovered using x-ray
spectra.
(University of Lund) Lund, Sweden 
[1] The image of Swedish physicist, and
Nobel laureate Manne Siegbahn
(1886-1978) Source This image has
been downloaded
http://www.nndb.com/people/559/000099262
/ Date circa 1924. uploaded:
19:27, 25 December 2008
(UTC) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/e/ec/Manne_Siegbahn.jpg
84 YBN
[1916 AD] 		6615) The two x-ray spectral lines are
interpreted using Niels Bohr’s new
atomic model.
 
[1] Description English: Bunsen
congress 1928: Hund, v. Miller, Kossel,
Fajans, Mittasch, Simon, Vohlsen,
Debye, London (siehe Fußnote unter
Bild). Deutsch: Bunsentagung 1928:
Hund, v. Miller, Kossel, Fajans,
Mittasch, Simon, Vohlsen, Debye, London
(see footnote under photo). Date
1928 Source Own work Author
GFHund GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/ae/Bunsen-Tagung_1928_Au
sschnitt.jpg

[2] Description English: Bunsen
congress 1928: Hund, v. Miller, Kossel,
Fajans, Mittasch, Simon, Vohlsen,
Debye, London (siehe Fußnote unter
Bild). Deutsch: Bunsentagung 1928:
Hund, v. Miller, Kossel, Fajans,
Mittasch, Simon, Vohlsen, Debye, London
(see footnote under photo). Date
1928 Source Own work Author
GFHund GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/ae/Bunsen-Tagung_1928_Au
sschnitt.jpg
84 YBN
[1916 AD] 		6616) The theory that the number of
electrons in the outermost shell of an
atom determines the chemical properties
of the atom.
 
[1] Description English: Bunsen
congress 1928: Hund, v. Miller, Kossel,
Fajans, Mittasch, Simon, Vohlsen,
Debye, London (siehe Fußnote unter
Bild). Deutsch: Bunsentagung 1928:
Hund, v. Miller, Kossel, Fajans,
Mittasch, Simon, Vohlsen, Debye, London
(see footnote under photo). Date
1928 Source Own work Author
GFHund GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/ae/Bunsen-Tagung_1928_Au
sschnitt.jpg

[2] Description English: Bunsen
congress 1928: Hund, v. Miller, Kossel,
Fajans, Mittasch, Simon, Vohlsen,
Debye, London (siehe Fußnote unter
Bild). Deutsch: Bunsentagung 1928:
Hund, v. Miller, Kossel, Fajans,
Mittasch, Simon, Vohlsen, Debye, London
(see footnote under photo). Date
1928 Source Own work Author
GFHund GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/ae/Bunsen-Tagung_1928_Au
sschnitt.jpg
83 YBN
[06/??/1917 AD] 		4702) A stronger permanent magnet is
produced by adding colbalt to tungsten
steel.
(Tokyo Imperial University) Tokyo,
Japan 
[1] Honda, Kotaro * Photo no.1 :
Chuzo Gijutsu * b&w ; 14.5x10.6
cm UNKNOWN
source: http://www.ndl.go.jp/portrait/JP
EG_L/759-16/s0132l.jpg

[2] Honda, Kotaro * Photo no.2 :
Kindai Nihon no Kagakusha vol.2 *
b&w ; 8.9x7.5 cm UNKNOWN
source: http://www.ndl.go.jp/portrait/JP
EG_R/769-183/s0133r.jpg
83 YBN
[10/04/1917 AD] 		6508) The electric propulsion engine is
invented by Robert Goddard.
Worcester, Massachusetts, USA
(presumably) 
[1] Goddard, R. H., ''Method and Means
for Producing Electrified Jets of
Gas'', U.S. Patent No. 1,363,037,
application filed Oct. 1917, granted
Dec. 1920. http://www.google.com/paten
ts/US1363037 PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents/US
1363037

[2] English: Dr. Robert Hutchings
Goddard (1882-1945). Dr. Goddard has
been recognized as the father of
American rocketry and as one of the
pioneers in the theoretical exploration
of space. Robert Hutchings Goddard,
born in Worcester, Massachusetts, on
October 5, 1882, was theoretical
scientist as well as a practical
engineer. His dream was the conquest of
the upper atmosphere and ultimately
space through the use of rocket
propulsion. Dr. Goddard, died in 1945,
but was probably as responsible for the
dawning of the Space Age as the Wrights
were for the beginning of the Air Age.
Yet his work attracted little serious
attention during his lifetime. However,
when the United States began to prepare
for the conquest of space in the
1950's, American rocket scientists
began to recognize the debt owed to the
New England professor. They discovered
that it was virtually impossible to
construct a rocket or launch a
satellite without acknowledging the
work of Dr. Goddard. More than 200
patents, many of which were issued
after his death, covered this great
legacy. Date 0 Unknown date
0000(0000-00-00) Source Great
Images in NASA
Description http://dayton.hq.nasa.gov/I
MAGES/LARGE/GPN-2002-000131.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3f/Dr._Robert_H._Goddard
_-_GPN-2002-000131.jpg
83 YBN
[10/18/1917 AD] 		5025) The H and K calcium absorption
lines are found to not share in the
periodic shift of the spectral emission
lines of 25 spectroscopic binary stars
which casts doubts on the claim that
other galaxies are moving rapidly away.
(Lick Observatory) Mount Hamilton,
California, USA 
[1] Heber Curtis UNKNOWN
source: http://astronomy.nmsu.edu/nicole
/teaching/astr110/lectures/lecture27/pic
s/curtis_asp.jpg

[2] Heber Doust Curtis (1872-1942)..
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.ccvalg.pt/astronomia/
galaxias/descoberta_galaxias/heber_curti
s.jpg
83 YBN
[1917 AD] 		4761) Ultrasonic sound (sound with a
frequency too high to be heard by the
human ear, for example greater than
20khz) is produced by piezoelectricity
and is used to determine the location
of objects using reflection (sonar) by
Paul Langevin (loNZVoN).

Sonar will be used to detect objects in
air, but is mostly used in water (for
example to visualize a fetus inside the
womb, submarines, the ocean bottom, and
schools of fishes).
(Collège de France) Paris, France
(presumably) 
[1] Description Paul
Langevin.jpg Paul Langevin Date
2007-02-13 (original upload
date) Unknown - before 1946 (original
picture) Source Originally from
en.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. Original source:
http://www.nndb.com/people/085/000099785
/paul-langevin-1-sized.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/65/Paul_Langevin.jpg
83 YBN
[1917 AD] 		4765) The theory that the universe is
expanding by Willem de Sitter.
(University of Leiden) Leiden,
Netherlands 
[1] SITTER, Willem de
(1872-1934) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.inghist.nl/Onderzoek/
Projecten/BWN/lemmata/bwn2/images/SITTER
.jpg

[2] Description
DeSitter.jpg Willem de Sitter (1872
– 1934) Date Source
http://www.phys-astro.sonoma.edu/Bruc
eMedalists/deSitter/index.html Author
Yerkes Observatory, University of
Chicago PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/94/DeSitter.jpg
83 YBN
[1917 AD] 		5026) That chimpanzees can put two
sticks together, and stack boxes, in
order to get a banana is proven.
(Prussian Academy of Sciences at
Tenerife) Canary Islands 
[1] Wolfgang Kohler UNKNOWN
source: http://wkprc.eva.mpg.de/images/K
ohler.jpg

[2] Wolfgang Kohler UNKNOWN
source: http://wkprc.eva.mpg.de/images/k
oehler04.jpg
82 YBN
[03/16/1918 AD] 		4923) Element 91, the radioactive
element Protactinium.
(Institut für Chemie in Berlin-Dahlem)
Berlin, Germany 
[1] Protactinium on Periodic table CC
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pro
tactinium

[2] Otto Hahn and Lise
Meitner UNKNOWN
source: http://www.aip.org/history/newsl
etter/spring2003/images/17306_hahn_meitn
er-lg.jpg
82 YBN
[04/??/1918 AD] 		5008) The Sun is determined to be in
the outer part of our galaxy by Harlow
Shapley.

Shapley uses the (Cepheid)
variable-star method to determine the
distance of variable stars within each
globular cluster and finds that the
clusters are distributed roughly in the
shape of a sphere around a center in
Sagittarius, which he calculates to be
50,000 light years away.
(Mount Wilson Solar Observatory) Mount
Wilson, California, USA 
[1] Figure 1 from: Shapley, ''Remarks
on the Arrangement of the Sidereal
Universe'', Astrophysical Journal, 49
(1919), 311–336.
http://books.google.com/books?id=wX4OA
AAAIAAJ&pg=PA311&lpg=PA311&dq=Remarks+on
+the+Arrangement+of+the+Sidereal+Univers
e&source=bl&ots=Akurl3Ntg9&sig=CIY6NgmTy
xBZqKK3RXWo3MWIr2U&hl=en&ei=hmMcTaKJK5So
sAPG2ZDSAg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result
&resnum=2&ved=0CBoQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=Re
marks%20on%20the%20Arrangement%20of%20th
e%20Sidereal%20Universe&f=false PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=wX4OAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA311&lpg=PA311&dq=Rema
rks+on+the+Arrangement+of+the+Sidereal+U
niverse&source=bl&ots=Akurl3Ntg9&sig=CIY
6NgmTyxBZqKK3RXWo3MWIr2U&hl=en&ei=hmMcTa
KJK5SosAPG2ZDSAg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=
result&resnum=2&ved=0CBoQ6AEwAQ#v=onepag
e&q=Remarks%20on%20the%20Arrangement%20o
f%20the%20Sidereal%20Universe&f=false

[2] * Harlow Shapley's observations
placed the Sun about 25,000 light years
from the center of our home Galaxy.
* Photo credit: National
Academies UNKNOWN
source: http://www.cosmotography.com/ima
ges/dark_matter_gallery/HarlowShapley.jp
g
82 YBN
[06/21/1918 AD] 		6199) The first electronic read and
write memory is invented by William
Eccles and Frank Jordan.

Unlike other forms of information
storage, with electronic memory the
only moving parts are electric current.
(City and Guilds Technical College)
London, UK 
[1] Image from: William Henry Eccles
and Frank Wilfred Jordan,
''Improvements in ionic relays''
British patent number: GB 148582
(filed: 21 June 1918; published: 5
August 1920).
http://worldwide.espacenet.com/publica
tionDetails/originalDocument?CC=GB&NR=14
8582&KC=&FT=E {Eccles_William_Henry_ele
ctronic_memory_GB148582A_19180621.pdf}
PD
source: http://worldwide.espacenet.com/p
ublicationDetails/originalDocument?CC=GB
&NR=148582&KC=&FT=E

[2] A simple yet powerful animation of
how an R-S flip-flop works. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f4/R-S.gif
82 YBN
[10/??/1918 AD] 		5880) "Isobares" (in modern terms
"isobars") are defined as elements with
the same atomic mass but different
positions on the periodic table.
(University of Glasgow) Glasgow,
Scotland 
[1] Figure 1 from: Alfred W. Stewart,
''Atomic Structure from the
Physico-Chemical Standpoint.'', Phil
Mag, 36, 326, 1918
{Stewart_Alfred_W_191810xx.pdf} PD
source: Stewart_Alfred_W_191810xx.pdf

[2] Image from: ''Alfred Walter
Stewart'', Journal of Chemical
Education 1941 18 (10),
492 http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021
/ed018p492 {Stewart_Alfred_Walter.jpg}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1
021/ed018p492
82 YBN
[1918 AD] 		4443) The explosion of the mixture of
hydrogen and chlorine gases on exposure
to light is explained as a chain
reaction in which light breaks a
chlorine molecule into two chlorine
atoms which then bond with a Hydrogen
atom breaking the Hydrogen molecule
into two Hydrogen atoms, which bond
with and break a Chlorine molecule, and
this cycle repeats itself.
( University of Berlin) Berlin,
Germany 
[1] * Title: Walther Nernst *
Year: unknown * Source:
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollections
/hst/scientific-identity/explore.htm
(reworked) * Licence: Public
Domain PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/71/Walther_Nernst.jpg

[2] Walther Nernst in his laboratory,
1921. PD
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
21001&rendTypeId=4
82 YBN
[1918 AD] 		4978) Cepheid variable stars are
explained as stars that pulsate as
opposed to being binary stars.
(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England  
[1] Description Arthur Stanley
Eddington.jpg English: English
astrophysicist Sir Arthur Stanley
Eddington (1882–1944) Date
Unrecorded Source
US-LibraryOfCongress-BookLogo.svg
This image is available from the
United States Library of Congress's
Prints and Photographs division under
the digital ID ggbain.38064. This tag
does not indicate the copyright status
of the attached work. A normal
copyright tag is still required. See
Commons:Licensing for more
information. العربية
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/24/Arthur_Stanley_Edding
ton.jpg
82 YBN
[1918 AD] 		4979) The first complete account of
general relativity in English.
(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England  
[1] Description Arthur Stanley
Eddington.jpg English: English
astrophysicist Sir Arthur Stanley
Eddington (1882–1944) Date
Unrecorded Source
US-LibraryOfCongress-BookLogo.svg
This image is available from the
United States Library of Congress's
Prints and Photographs division under
the digital ID ggbain.38064. This tag
does not indicate the copyright status
of the attached work. A normal
copyright tag is still required. See
Commons:Licensing for more
information. العربية
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/24/Arthur_Stanley_Edding
ton.jpg
82 YBN
[1918 AD] 		5002) The first radioactive "tracer". A
radioactive isotope of lead is used to
determine the solubility of lead salts.
(University of Budapest) Budapest,
Hungary 
[1] This is a file from the Wikimedia
Commons Description George de
Hevesy.jpg English: Source:
http://www.oeaw.ac.at/smi/bilder/photo/H
evesy.JPG Public domain: photographer
died >70yrs ago. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b4/George_de_Hevesy.jpg
81 YBN
[02/08/1919 AD] 		5068) The superheterodyne circuit: the
high-frequency current produced by
incoming radio oscillations is combined
with a predetermined lower ultrasonic
intermediate frequency giving a beat
(or heterodyne) frequency that is the
difference between the original
combined frequencies. This combined
signal is more easily amplified before
being applied to the detector. This
allows a receiver to easily tune into
different frequencies being broadcast.

The superheterodyne principle is used
in 98 percent of all radio, radar, and
television reception systems.
Paris, France 
[1] Figures 1-4 from: Armstrong, E.
H., U.S. Patent 1,342,885, Method of
receiving high frequency oscillation,
1922. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
EZpBAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=
false PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=EZpBAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f
=false

[2] Edwin Howard Armstrong, Radio
Engineer COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.todaysengineer.org/20
08/Dec/images/history-pic.jpg
81 YBN
[04/??/1919 AD] 		4750) Atomic transmutation and atomic
fusion. Atoms of Nitrogen are changed
into atoms of Oxygen by high speed
alpha particles colliding with Nitrogen
gas by Ernest Rutherford.

When a high speed Alpha particle from
Radium collides with an atom of
nitrogen gas, a proton is knocked lose
from the nitrogen atom which causes a
point of light to appear (a
scintillation) on a zinc sulfate
screen. In losing a proton, the
nitrogen atom is converted into an
oxygen atom. This is the first time one
element is changed into another, which
was a dream of the alchemists. This is
also the first "nuclear" reaction and
the first atomic fusion; a larger atom
being made from smaller atoms.

By 1924 Rutherford will have knocked
protons out of the nuclei of most of
the lighter elements.

Transmutation is a major requirement to
convert the common atoms of moons and
planets such as silicon, aluminum, and
iron into more useful atoms such as
hydrogen and oxygen which can be used
for fuel, air, and water.
(University of Manchester) Manchester,
England 
[1] Rutherford, Collision of α
Particles with Light Atoms, Phil. Mag.
June 1919, s6, 37, pp537-61. from:
Ernest Rutherford, ''The Collected
Papers of Lord Rutherford of Nelson'',
Vol 2, 1963,
p551. http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/ru
therford.html {Rutherford_191904xx.pdf}
PD
source: Rutherford, Collision of α
Particles with Light Atoms, Phil. Mag.
June 1919, s6, 37, pp537-61. from:
Ernest Rutherford, "The Collected
Papers of Lord Rutherford of Nelson",
Vol 2, 1963, p551.

[2] Figure 1 from: Rutherford,
Collision of α Particles with Light
Atoms, Phil. Mag. June 1919, s6, 37,
pp537-61.
http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/rutherf
ord.html {Rutherford_191904xx.pdf}
PD
source: Rutherford_191306xx003.pdf
81 YBN
[05/29/1919 AD] 		4980) That light is deflected by the
Sun during a solar eclipse is evidence
that light is subject to gravity just
like ordinary matter, but is found to
more accurately confirm the theory of
general relativity as opposed to the
theory of Newtonian gravity.
 Príncipe Island, West Africa 
[1] F. W. Dyson, A. S. Eddington and C.
Davidson, ''A Determination of the
Deflection of Light by the Sun's
Gravitational Field, from Observations
Made at the Total Eclipse of May 29,
1919'', Philosophical Transactions of
the Royal Society of London. Series A,
Containing Papers of a Mathematical or
Physical Character, Vol. 220, (1920),
pp.
291-333. http://www.jstor.org/stable/91
137 {Eddington_Arthur_19191030.pdf} CO
PYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/9113
7

[2] F. W. Dyson, A. S. Eddington and
C. Davidson, ''A Determination of the
Deflection of Light by the Sun's
Gravitational Field, from Observations
Made at the Total Eclipse of May 29,
1919'', Philosophical Transactions of
the Royal Society of London. Series A,
Containing Papers of a Mathematical or
Physical Character, Vol. 220, (1920),
pp.
291-333. http://www.jstor.org/stable/91
137 {Eddington_Arthur_19191030.pdf} CO
PYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/9113
7
81 YBN
[08/??/1919 AD] 		4905) The start of an effort that will
result in the identification of 212 of
the 287 naturally occurring stable
isotopes by using a mass spectrometer.
(Cavendish Laboratory, Cambridge
University) Cambridge, England 
[1] Figures 1-4 from: F. W. Aston, ''A
positive ray spectrograph'',
Philosophical Magazine Series 6,
1941-5990, Volume 38, Issue 228, 1919,
Pages 707 –
714 http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/ft
interface~db=all~content=a910332967~full
text=713240928
{Aston_Francis_191908xx.pdf}
source: Aston_Francis_191908xx.pdf

[2] Francis Aston PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c6/Francis_William_Aston
.jpg
81 YBN
[12/30/1919 AD] 		6095) Radioactive lead is used to prove
the theory of electrolytic
dissociation.
(University of Budapest) Budapest,
Hungary 
[1] This is a file from the Wikimedia
Commons Description George de
Hevesy.jpg English: Source:
http://www.oeaw.ac.at/smi/bilder/photo/H
evesy.JPG Public domain: photographer
died >70yrs ago. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b4/George_de_Hevesy.jpg
81 YBN
[1919 AD] 		4906) The theory that fractional atomic
weights are due to mixing of isotopes,
and so the elements are to be defined
physically by their atomic numbers,
instead of in terms of the mass of
their isotopic mixtures.
(Cavendish Laboratory, Cambridge
University) Cambridge, England 
[1] Francis Aston PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c6/Francis_William_Aston
.jpg
81 YBN
[1919 AD] 		4997) That working muscle does
"anaerobic glycolysis", converts
glycogen to lactic acid without the use
of oxygen, and that the lactic acid is
reconverted to glycogen through
oxidation by molecular oxygen, during
muscle rest is shown.
(University of Kiel) Kiel,
Germany 
[1] Otto Fritz Meyerhof UNKNOWN
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/medicine/laureates/1922/meyerh
of_postcard.jpg
81 YBN
[1919 AD] 		5071) Increase in temperature is shown
to increase the number of genetic
mutations in fruit flies.
(Rice Institute) Houston, Texas  
[1] Hermann Joseph Muller The Nobel
Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1946
was awarded to Hermann J. Muller ''for
the discovery of the production of
mutations by means of X-ray
irradiation''. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/medicine/laureates/1946/muller
.jpg
80 YBN
[06/03/1920 AD] 		4751) The transmutation of solid
nitrogen compounds, carbon, aluminum,
and silicon by alpha particles and the
theory of what will be called a
neutron: that an electron can bind more
closely with a single Hydrogen nucleus
to form a neutral atom of mass 1 with
different properties than a neutral
hydrogen atom in which the electron is
more distant from the nucleus.
(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England  
[1] Ernest Rutherford, ''Nuclear
Constitution of Atoms Bakerian
Lecture'', The Proceedings of the Royal
Society, A, 97, 1920, pp374-400. from
The Collected Papers of Lord Rutherford
of Nelson, Vol 3, 1965,
p14. COPYRIGHTED
source: Ernest Rutherford, "Nuclear
Constitution of Atoms Bakerian
Lecture", The Proceedings of the Royal
Society, A, 97, 1920, pp374-400. from
The Collected Papers of Lord Rutherford
of Nelson, Vol 3, 1965, p14.

[2] Ernest Rutherford, ''Nuclear
Constitution of Atoms Bakerian
Lecture'', The Proceedings of the Royal
Society, A, 97, 1920, pp374-400. from
The Collected Papers of Lord Rutherford
of Nelson, Vol 3, 1965,
p14. COPYRIGHTED
source: Ernest Rutherford, "Nuclear
Constitution of Atoms Bakerian
Lecture", The Proceedings of the Royal
Society, A, 97, 1920, pp374-400. from
The Collected Papers of Lord Rutherford
of Nelson, Vol 3, 1965, p14.
80 YBN
[08/??/1920 AD] 		4411) A list of the size of all atomic
radii is published based on x-ray
dispersion (or "diffraction").
(University of Manchester) Manchester,
England 
[1] W. L Bragg, ''The Arrangement of
Atoms in Crystals'', Philosophical
Magazine. 6th ser., 40 (1920).
169-189. http://www.informaworld.com/sm
pp/570391933-20948816/content~db=all~con
tent=a910337868
{Bragg_192008xx.pdf} PD
source: {Bragg_192008xx.pdf}

[2] W. L Bragg, ''The Arrangement of
Atoms in Crystals'', Philosophical
Magazine. 6th ser., 40 (1920).
169-189. http://www.informaworld.com/sm
pp/570391933-20948816/content~db=all~con
tent=a910337868
{Bragg_192008xx.pdf} PD
source: {Bragg_192008xx.pdf}
80 YBN
[10/30/1920 AD] 		5119) The asteroid Hidalgo is
discovered, and shown to have an orbit
that extends to the orbit of Saturn.
(University of Hamburg's Bergedorf
Observatory) Hamburg, Germany 
[1] From Huntington Library, San
Marino, California. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.astrosociety.org/pubs
/mercury/31_04/images/baade.jpg
80 YBN
[1920 AD] 		4921) The polymerization of acetylene
creates the precursor to the first
commercially successful synthetic
rubber.
(Notre Dame University) Notre Dame,
Indiana, USA 
[1] Julius Arthur Nieuwland UNKNOWN
source: http://www.biografiasyvidas.com/
biografia/n/fotos/nieuwland_julius.jpg
80 YBN
[1920 AD] 		4922) Liver as a dietary factor is
found to greatly increase hemoglobin
regeneration in dogs. This leads to the
successful treatment of pernicious
anemia.
(University of California) San
Francisco, California, USA 
[1] George Hoyt Whipple UNKNOWN
source: http://jameslogancourier.org/med
ia/quotes/20080828-WhippleGeorge.jpg
80 YBN
[1920 AD] 		5041) The theory that the planetary
region of greatest diversity of a
species of plant represents its center
of origin is created and eventually 13
world centers of plant origin are
proposed.
(University of Saratov) Saratov, Russia
(presumably) 
[1] Nikolai Vavilov
NYWTS.jpg Nikolai Vavilov, Russian
botanist and geneticist Date
1933(1933) Source Library of
Congress. New York World-Telegram & Sun
Collection.
http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/cph.3c18109
Author World Telegram staff
photographer Permission (Reusing this
file) ''No copyright restriction
known. Staff photographer reproduction
rights transferred to Library of
Congress through Instrument of Gift.''
See also
http://www.loc.gov/rr/print/res/076_nyw.
html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/bd/Nikolai_Vavilov_NYWTS
.jpg
80 YBN
[1920 AD] 		5044) A beam of neutral silver atoms is
observed to split into two separate
beams when passed through a nonuniform
magnetic field proving that that silver
atoms can have only two orientations in
an external field.
(University of Frankfurt) Frankfurt,
Germany 
[1] Figures 2 & 3 from: Walther
Gerlach and Otto Stern, ''Der
experimentelle Nachweis der
Richtungsquantelung im Magnetfeld'',
Zeitschrift für Physik A Hadrons and
Nuclei, Volume 9, Number 1,
349-352. http://www.springerlink.com/co
ntent/p72218361287275g/ {Stern_Otto_192
20301.pdf} ''The experimental proof of
the direction of quantization in the
magnetic field'' COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.springerlink.com/cont
ent/p72218361287275g/fulltext.pdf

[2] The image of German physicist and
Nobel laureate Otto Stern
(1888–1969) Source This image
has been downloaded
http://www.nndb.com/people/740/000099443
/ Date uploaded: 02:21, 26
December 2008 (UTC) Author not
known UNKNOWN
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/0/0a/OttoStern.jpg
80 YBN
[1920 AD] 		5045) Neutral molecular beams of
Hydrogen and Helium are "diffracted"
(reflected into their spectrum of
different frequencies) using a Lithium
Fluoride crystal.
(University of Frankfurt) Frankfurt,
Germany 
[1] Figures 1,2 and 3 from: I.
Estermann and O. Stern, ''Beugung von
Molekularstrahlen'', Zeitschrift für
Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei, 1930,
Volume 61, Numbers 1-2,
95-125. http://www.springerlink.com/con
tent/u60q0jn868011015/ {Stern_Otto_1929
1214.pdf} ''Diffraction of molecular
beams'' UNKNOWN
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/0/0a/OttoStern.jpg

[2] The image of German physicist and
Nobel laureate Otto Stern
(1888–1969) Source This image
has been downloaded
http://www.nndb.com/people/740/000099443
/ Date uploaded: 02:21, 26
December 2008 (UTC) Author not
known UNKNOWN
source: http://www.springerlink.com/cont
ent/u60q0jn868011015/
79 YBN
[01/21/1921 AD] 		4924) Nuclear isomers are discovered,
atoms that have identical nuclei but
have different half-lives.

Two protactinium isotopes are found to
have different half-lives.
(Kaiser-Wilhelm-Instute fur Chemie)
Berlin, Germany 
[1] Figure from paper: Otto Hahn,
''Über ein neues radioaktives
Zerfallsprodukt im Uran'',
Naturwissenschaften, Volume 9, Number
5, 84, DOI:
10.1007/BF01491321 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/uhukv60t536j7486/ {Hahn
_Otto_19210121.pdf}
source: http://www.springerlink.com/cont
ent/uhukv60t536j7486/fulltext.pdf

[2] Otto Hahn and Lise
Meitner UNKNOWN
source: http://www.aip.org/history/newsl
etter/spring2003/images/17306_hahn_meitn
er-lg.jpg
79 YBN
[02/??/1921 AD] 		4162) The diameter of the star
Betelgeuse is determined to be nearly
the size of the orbit of Mars using an
interferometer and parallax.
(Mount Wilson Observatory) Pasadena,
California, USA 
[1] Michelson's Vertical interferometer
from 1920 paper PD
source: Images from Michelson's 1920
paper PD

[2] Description Albert Abraham
Michelson2.jpg Photograph of Nobel
Laureate Albert Abraham
Michelson. Date 2006-09-27
(original upload date) Source
Photograph is a higher quality
version of the public domain image
available from
AstroLab http://astro-canada.ca/_en/pho
to690.php?a4313_michelson1 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=vY0RAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PA54&dq=betelgeuse+
astrophysical+journal+date:1920-1921&out
put=text#c_top
79 YBN
[04/26/1921 AD] 		5239) The Crab nebula is found to be
expanding from photographs spanning 8
years.
(Mount Wilson) Mount Wilson,
California, USA 
[1] John C. Duncan, ''Changes Observed
in the Crab Nebula in Taurus'',
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences of the United States of
America, Vol. 7, No. 6 (Jun. 15, 1921),
pp.
179-180. http://intl.pnas.org/content/7
/6/179.full.pdf+html
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/84292
PD
source: http://intl.pnas.org/content/7/6
/179.full.pdf+html
79 YBN
[07/??/1921 AD] 		4866) The atmosphere of Venus is found
to have no oxygen or water vapor
because those absorption lines are not
found in the spectrum of Venus.
(Percival Lowell's observatory)
Flagstaff, Arizona, USA 
[1] Vesto Melvin Slipher (11/11/1875 -
08/11/1969) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.phys-astro.sonoma.edu
/BruceMedalists/Slipher/slipher.jpg
79 YBN
[09/26/1921 AD] 		5051) The theory that the color of the
sea is from molecular scattering of
light in water. as opposed to a
reflection of the color of the sky.
(University of Calcutta) Calcutta,
India 
[1] Description The image of
Indian physicist C. V. Raman
(1888-1970). Source This image
has been downloaded from
http://www.nndb.com/people/724/000099427
/. Date uploaded: 15:58, 7 August
2007 (UTC) Author
prabhnoor COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/c/c1/CVRaman.jpg
79 YBN
[09/??/1921 AD] 		4783) Neurotransmitters are discovered.
Neurotransmitters are chemicals that
transmit nerve impulses across a
synapse. A fluid (named "Vagusstoff")
is released when a frog's vagus nerve
is stimulated and this chemical can
stimulate another heart directly.
(University of Graz) Graz,
Austria 
[1] Otto Loewi COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1936/loewi.jpg
79 YBN
[11/14/1921 AD] 		5092) Insulin is isolated.
(University of Toronto) Toronto,
Canada 
[1] Description Fredrick
banting.jpg English: Frederick Banting
ca. 1920–1925 in Toronto,
Ontario Date ca. between
1920(1920) and 1925(1925) Source
Library and Archives of Canada -
PA-123481 Author Arthur S. Goss
(1881–1940) Permission (Reusing
this file) See below. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/05/Fredrick_banting.jpg

[2] Portraits of Banting, Macleod,
Best and Collip
source: http://1.bp.blogspot.com/_DZH2cm
Coois/Sa7kWJAwZJI/AAAAAAAAJRk/R4SGOczX1r
8/s400/Nobel_Laureates_1923_Banting_Macl
eod.bmp
79 YBN
[1921 AD] 		4387) The first coenzyme. The
tripeptide glutathione (GlUTutION) is
isolated, and shown to have two
interchangeable forms: a reduced form
and an oxidized form: the oxidized form
acts as a hydrogen acceptor in being
reduced and then passing on the
hydrogen to oxygen during its
spontaneous reoxidation.
(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England  
[1] Frederick Gowland Hopkins PD
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1929/hopkins.jpg
79 YBN
[1921 AD] 		4518) The system of antigens and
antibodies is recognized. An antigen is
a substance that when introduced into
the body stimulates the production of
an antibody. Antigens include toxins,
bacteria, foreign blood cells, and the
cells of transplanted organs.
(The Hague) Netherlands 
[1] Image extracted from Biographical
Memoirs of the National Academy of
Sciences, vol. 40. Associated: Karl
Landsteiner Date: 1920s Genre:
illustrations ID:
portrait-landsteiner UNKNOWN
source: http://osulibrary.oregonstate.ed
u/specialcollections/coll/nonspcoll/cata
logue/portrait-landsteiner-600w.jpg
79 YBN
[1921 AD] 		4854) That calcium and phosphorus are
both needed by a body, and that rickets
can be caused by a low-phosphorus diet
is proven.
(Columbia University) New York City,
NY, USA 
[1] Henry Clapp
Sherman (1875-1955) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.mc.vanderbilt.edu/bio
lib/hc/americansociety/images/ShermanHen
ry.jpg
79 YBN
[1921 AD] 		4955) Lysozyme, an enzyme that destroys
bacteria is identified.
(St Mary's Hospital) London,
England 
[1] Alexander Fleming UNKNOWN
source: http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_4gF6Yu
GUwVM/TIpSqGwOklI/AAAAAAAAPRw/NNK_SagRmJ
0/s1600/alexander_fleming.jpg

[2] Sir Alexander Fleming UNKNOWN
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/medicine/laureates/1945/flemin
g_postcard.jpg
78 YBN
[01/26/1922 AD] 		5103) Light is described as being made
of "atoms of light" all having the same
"very low mass", and the equations E=hv
(by Planck) and E=mc2 (by Einstein) are
equated to solve for the mass of the
atom of light.
(brother Maurice's lab) Paris, France
(verify) 
[1] Description Broglie
Big.jpg Louis de Broglie Date
1929(1929) Source
http://www.physics.umd.edu/courses/
Phys420/Spring2002/Parra_Spring2002/HTMP
ages/whoswho.htm Author
Unknown Permission (Reusing this
file) the MacTutor website states the
following: ''We believe that most of
the images are in the public domain and
that provided you use them on a website
you are unlikely to encounter any
difficulty.'' Other versions
Derivative works of this file:
* 10 Quantum Mechanics Masters.jpg

http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/
history/PictDisplay/Broglie.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d2/Broglie_Big.jpg
78 YBN
[02/06/1922 AD] 		4323) Objections and criticisms of the
three astronomical proofs of the theory
of relativity are published.
Luxor, Egpyt 
[1] Pickering, William H., ''Shall We
Accept Relativity?'', Popular
Astronomy, Volume 30, 1922,
p199. http://books.google.com/books?id=
7MkzAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA199 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=7MkzAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA199

[2] Edited image of American
Astronomer William Henry Pickering
(1858-1938) TITLE: Prof. W.H.
Pickering, portr. bust CALL NUMBER:
LC-B2- 550-7[P&P] REPRODUCTION NUMBER:
LC-DIG-ggbain-02598 (digital file from
original neg.) No known restrictions on
publication. MEDIUM: 1 negative :
glass ; 5 x 7 in. or
smaller. CREATED/PUBLISHED:
10/16/09. NOTES: Forms part of:
George Grantham Bain Collection
(Library of Congress). Title from
unverified data provided by the Bain
News Service on the negatives or
caption cards. Temp. note: Batch one
loaded. FORMAT: Glass
negatives. REPOSITORY: Library of
Congress Prints and Photographs
Division Washington, D.C. 20540
USA DIGITAL ID: (digital file from
original neg.) ggbain 02598 original
found at
http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/h?
pp/PPALL:@field(NUMBER+@1(ggbain+02598))
PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/4/46/William_Henry_Pickering_02
598r.jpg
78 YBN
[03/01/1922 AD] 		5163) Separating isotopes by
evaporative centrifuging is suggested,
where a material is heated into a
vapour and separated by atomic mass in
a rapidly rotating tube.
(University of Chicago) Chicago,
Illinois, USA 
[1] Description Mulliken,Robert 1929
Chicago.jpg English: Robert Mulliken,
1929 at Chicago Deutsch: Robert
Mulliken, 1929 in Chicago Date
1929(1929) Source Own
work Author GFHund GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6a/Mulliken%2CRobert_192
9_Chicago.jpg
78 YBN
[03/03/1922 AD] 		4324) The theory of an all-inertial
universe where gravity is explained as
a result of particle collision.
Menton, France 
[1] Edited image of American Astronomer
William Henry Pickering
(1858-1938) TITLE: Prof. W.H.
Pickering, portr. bust CALL NUMBER:
LC-B2- 550-7[P&P] REPRODUCTION NUMBER:
LC-DIG-ggbain-02598 (digital file from
original neg.) No known restrictions on
publication. MEDIUM: 1 negative :
glass ; 5 x 7 in. or
smaller. CREATED/PUBLISHED:
10/16/09. NOTES: Forms part of:
George Grantham Bain Collection
(Library of Congress). Title from
unverified data provided by the Bain
News Service on the negatives or
caption cards. Temp. note: Batch one
loaded. FORMAT: Glass
negatives. REPOSITORY: Library of
Congress Prints and Photographs
Division Washington, D.C. 20540
USA DIGITAL ID: (digital file from
original neg.) ggbain 02598 original
found at
http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/h?
pp/PPALL:@field(NUMBER+@1(ggbain+02598))
PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/4/46/William_Henry_Pickering_02
598r.jpg

[2] Pickering, William Henry.
Photograph. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Web. 12 May 2010 . PUBLIC
DOMAIN (PRESUMABLY)
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
39096&rendTypeId=4
78 YBN
[05/19/1922 AD] 		3612) A gray-scale still image is sent
and received using radio.
Washington, D.C., USA.  
[1] Charles Jenkins, ''Transmitting
Pictures by Wireless'', Patent number:
1544156, Filing date: Mar 13, 1922,
Issue date: Jun 30,
1925 http://www.google.com/patents?id=C
NRRAAAAEBAJ PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=CNRRAAAAEBAJ

[2] C. Francis JENKINS, ''Transmitting
Pictures by Electricity'', The
Electrical Engineer, 25 July
1894. PD/Corel
source: http://histv2.free.fr/jenkins/je
nkins1894a.JPG
78 YBN
[05/27/1922 AD] 		5197) The theory of "polar fronts":
that the atmosphere of Earth is made of
air masses that are either warm
tropical air or cold polar air, and the
sharp boundaries between them are
called "fronts" (similar to battle
lines in war).
(Geophysical Institute) Bergen,
Norway 
[1] Figure 1 from: [2] J. Bjerknes,
''Life cycle of cyclones and the polar
front theory of atmospheric
circulation'',
1922. http://meteora.ucsd.edu/~jnorris/
sio217B/bjerknes.pdf {Bjerknes_Jacob_19
220527.pdf} PD
source: http://meteora.ucsd.edu/~jnorris
/sio217B/bjerknes.pdf

[2] American Geophysical Union, from
AIP Emilio Segrè Visual
Archives COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.aip.org/history/acap/
images/bios/bjerknesj.jpg
78 YBN
[08/01/1922 AD] 		4820) The electric currents in nerve
fibers are visualized.
(Washington University) Saint Louis,
Missouri, USA 
[1] Figure 1 from: Erlanger, J., and
H. S. Gasser, ''a study of the action
currents of nerve with the cathode ray
oscillograph'', American Journal of
Physiology., 62, 496-524. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=Q31NAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA496&lpg=PA496&dq=%22a
+study+of+the+action+currents+of+nerve+w
ith+%22&source=bl&ots=Pgt4Y1cGMz&sig=3B9
IvtaeBqRyV7RnSbH_cZ0qjMs&hl=en&ei=4ju2TO
PQBIegnQfE2fXrDw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=
result&resnum=1&ved=0CBIQ6AEwAA#v=onepag
e&q=%22a%20study%20of%20the%20action%20c
urrents%20of%20nerve%20with%20%22&f=fals
e

[2] Figure 5 from: Erlanger, J., and
H. S. Gasser, ''a study of the action
currents of nerve with the cathode ray
oscillograph'', American Journal of
Physiology., 62, 496-524. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=Q31NAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA496&lpg=PA496&dq=%22a
+study+of+the+action+currents+of+nerve+w
ith+%22&source=bl&ots=Pgt4Y1cGMz&sig=3B9
IvtaeBqRyV7RnSbH_cZ0qjMs&hl=en&ei=4ju2TO
PQBIegnQfE2fXrDw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=
result&resnum=1&ved=0CBIQ6AEwAA#v=onepag
e&q=%22a%20study%20of%20the%20action%20c
urrents%20of%20nerve%20with%20%22&f=fals
e
78 YBN
[12/09/1922 AD] 		5111) The index of refraction of glass,
lacquer, and silver for x-rays is
determined experimentally by measuring
the angle of total reflection using
x-rays.
(Washington University) Saint Louis,
Missouri, USA 
[1] A. Compton, ''The total reflexion
of X-rays'', Philosophical Magazine
Series 6, 1941-5990, Volume 45, Issue
270, 1923, Pages 1121 –
1131. {Compton_Arthur_19221209.pdf}
PD
source: {Compton_Arthur_19221209.pdf}

[2] Figure 3 from: A. Compton, ''A
Quantum Theory of the Scattering of
X-rays by Light Elements'', Phys. Rev.
21, 483–502 (1923)
http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v21/i
5/p483_1 {Compton_Arthur_19221213.pdf}
PD
source: http://prola.aps.org/pdf/PR/v21/
i5/p483_1
78 YBN
[12/13/1922 AD] 		5108) The "Compton effect": x-rays are
found to have a lower frequency after
being reflected which implies that a
light quantum has momentum which is
lost to an electron from the collision.
(Washington University) Saint Louis,
Missouri, USA 
[1] Figure 3 from: A. Compton, ''A
Quantum Theory of the Scattering of
X-rays by Light Elements'', Phys. Rev.
21, 483–502 (1923)
http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v21/i
5/p483_1 {Compton_Arthur_19221213.pdf}
PD
source: http://prola.aps.org/pdf/PR/v21/
i5/p483_1

[2] Arthur Holly Compton COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/physics/laureates/1927/compton.jpg
78 YBN
[1922 AD] 		4362) Vitamin D is identified;
important in calcium metabolism in
animals to form strong bones and teeth
and prevent rickets and osteoporosis.
(Johns Hopkins University) Baltimore,
Maryland, USA 
[1] Description Elmer
McCollum.jpg English: Elmer
McCollum Date 2008-03-03
(original upload date) (Original text
: 1896) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia; transferred to Commons by
User:Magnus Manske using
CommonsHelper. (Original text : Elmer
McCollum.com) Author Journal of
Nutrition Original uploader was
Sparrowman980 at en.wikipedia PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/ee/Elmer_McCollum.jpg
78 YBN
[1922 AD] 		4444) An electric piano.
( University of Berlin) Berlin,
Germany 
[1] * Title: Walther Nernst *
Year: unknown * Source:
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollections
/hst/scientific-identity/explore.htm
(reworked) * Licence: Public
Domain PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/71/Walther_Nernst.jpg

[2] Walther Nernst in his laboratory,
1921. PD
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
21001&rendTypeId=4
78 YBN
[1922 AD] 		4490) Alternative explanations in
opposition to the experimental evidence
thought to support the theory of
relativity are published including that
the motion of the perihelion of
Mercury's orbit is due in part to the
non-spherical shape of the Sun and
other unaccounted for matter.
(Johns Hopkins University), Baltimore,
Maryland, USA 		 
78 YBN
[1922 AD] 		4951) The theory that polymers are
actually giant molecules
(macromolecules) that are held together
by normal covalent bonds.
 
[1] Hermann Staudinger 1917 in
Zürich PD
source: http://www.ethistory.ethz.ch/bil
der/Portr_14413016AL_Staudinger.jpg/imag
e
78 YBN
[1922 AD] 		5047) The "cosmological term" is
removed from Einstein's general theory
of relativity and the first
mathematical analysis of an expanding
universe.
(Academy of Sciences) Petrograd,
Russia 
[1] Description Aleksandr
Fridman.png Russian mathematician
and physicists Alexander Frieadmann (in
Finnish Aleksandr Fridman) Date
Unkwnown Source Cropped From
http://assets.cambridge.org/97805210/258
81/frontmatter/9780521025881_frontmatter
.pdf UNKNOWN
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/62/Aleksandr_Fridman.png

77 YBN
[01/02/1923 AD] 		5003) Element 72, hafnium is identified
by it's secondary x-ray spectrum.
(University of Copenhagen) Copenhagen,
Denmark 
[1] Properties and image of
Hafnium GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haf
nium

[2] This is a file from the Wikimedia
Commons Description George de
Hevesy.jpg English: Source:
http://www.oeaw.ac.at/smi/bilder/photo/H
evesy.JPG Public domain: photographer
died >70yrs ago. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b4/George_de_Hevesy.jpg
77 YBN
[05/04/1923 AD] 		5004) Radioactive lead dissolved in
water allows the absorption and
distribution of the lead in plants to
be followed.
(University of Copenhagen) Copenhagen,
Denmark 
[1] This is a file from the Wikimedia
Commons Description George de
Hevesy.jpg English: Source:
http://www.oeaw.ac.at/smi/bilder/photo/H
evesy.JPG Public domain: photographer
died >70yrs ago. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b4/George_de_Hevesy.jpg
77 YBN
[06/14/1923 AD] 		3613) Electronic moving images are
transmitted and received using radio by
Charles Jenkins.
Washington, D.C., USA.  
[1] Motion Pictures by Ether Waves -
August 1925 ''Popular Radio''
Article (Courtesy John
Hauser) PD/Corel
source: http://www.tvhistory.tv/1925-Aug
-Popular-Radio-P107a.JPG

[2] From ''Animated Pictures'' By
Charles Francis Jenkins Charles
Francis Jenkins PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=uJYFAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA138&dq=C+Francis+Jenk
ins&as_brr=1&ei=tjLdSLjvOJfStQPK2rGRCg#P
PP6,M1
77 YBN
[09/03/1923 AD] 		4860) The definition of acids and bases
are broadened by defining acids as
substances that lose a hydrogen ion in
solution and bases as substances that
accept a hydrogen ion in solution.
(University of Copenhagen) Copenhagen,
Denmark 
[1] Johannes Nicolaus Brønsted,
''Einige Bemerkungen über den Begriff
der Säuren und Basen.'', Recueil des
travaux chimiques des Pays-Bas et de la
Belgique, 42 (1923), p718–728.
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.
1002/recl.19230420815/abstract COPYRIGH
TED
source: Johannes Nicolaus Brønsted,
"Einige Bemerkungen über den Begriff
der Säuren und Basen.", Recueil des
travaux chimiques des Pays-Bas et de la
Belgique, 42 (1923), p718–728.
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.
1002/recl.19230420815/abstract

[2] Brønsted, Johannes
Nicolaus Courtesy of the Royal Danish
Embassy; photograph, Elfelt,
Copenhagen UNKNOWN
source: http://media-2.web.britannica.co
m/eb-media/07/6907-004-FB988F4E.jpg
77 YBN
[09/10/1923 AD] 		5104) The mass of a light particle (or
"atom of light") is calculated to be
less than 10-50 grams, and the theory
that the "phase wave" of an electron in
Bohr's model of the atom must be in
tune with the length of the closed path
to be stable.
(brother Maurice's lab) Paris, France
(verify) 
[1] Description Broglie
Big.jpg Louis de Broglie Date
1929(1929) Source
http://www.physics.umd.edu/courses/
Phys420/Spring2002/Parra_Spring2002/HTMP
ages/whoswho.htm Author
Unknown Permission (Reusing this
file) the MacTutor website states the
following: ''We believe that most of
the images are in the public domain and
that provided you use them on a website
you are unlikely to encounter any
difficulty.'' Other versions
Derivative works of this file:
* 10 Quantum Mechanics Masters.jpg

http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/
history/PictDisplay/Broglie.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d2/Broglie_Big.jpg
77 YBN
[12/29/1923 AD] 		5058) A scanning electronic camera by
Vladimir Zworykin (ZWoURi-KiN).
(for Westinghouse Electric Corporation,
Pittsberg, PA, USA) Haddenfield, New
Jersey, USA 
[1] Drawing from Zworykin's 1923 patent
application Television
System. Vladimir K. Zworykin's patent
1923 Source
http://www.google.com/patents/about
?id=bdYBAAAAEBAJ Date
1923 Author Vladimir K.
Zworykin Permission (Reusing this
file) See below. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/8/84/Zworykin_patent_%281923%29
.jpg

[2] Screenshot of Vladimir K. Zworykin
from the documentary film the Story of
Television Date 1956 and
later Source Screenshot from the
Story of Television from the Prelinger
Archives in the Internet
Archive Author Produced by Ganz
(William J.) Co. and Radio Corporation
of America (RCA) Film is in the Public
Domain PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/30/Zworykin_docgrab.jpg
77 YBN
[1923 AD] 		4216) The consumer movie camera.
(Eastman Kodak Company) NJ, USA 
[1] George Eastman PD
source: http://www.born-today.com/btpix/
eastman_george.jpg

[2] * Photo of en:George Eastman from
the en:United States Library of
Congress * Digital ID:
http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/ggbain.29290
*
http://memory.loc.gov/service/pnp/ggbain
/29200/29290v.jpg Licensing:
* From Loc: ''No known copyright
restrictions''. Part of Bain News
Service collection. * Given
subjects death in 1932 it seems likely
that it's pre-1923. Or if not then it
seems extremely unlikely its copyright
was renewed. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/ec/GeorgeEastman2.jpg
77 YBN
[1923 AD] 		4927) An electronic theory of acids and
bases: an acid is defined as an
electron-pair acceptor and a base as an
electron-pair donor.
(University of California at Berkeley)
Berkeley, California, USA 
[1] Lewis, ''Valence and the structure
of atoms and molecules'', 1923,
p142. http://books.google.com/books?id=
36zQAAAAMAAJ
AND http://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?
id=uc1.b35072;view=1up;seq=5 {Lewis_Val
ence_1923.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: Lewis, "Valence and the
structure of atoms and molecules",
1923,
p142. http://books.google.com/books?id=
36zQAAAAMAAJ
AND http://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?
id=uc1.b35072;view=1up;seq=5 {Lewis_Val
ence_1923.pdf}

[2] [t Notice the similarity to
Rutherford] Gilbert Newton
Lewis 1875-1946 UNKNOWN
source: http://www2.chemistry.msu.edu/Po
rtraits/images/lewisc.jpg
77 YBN
[1923 AD] 		4987) The absorption of oxygen by
respiring cells is measured by the
decrease of pressure in a small flask.
(Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Biology)
Berlin, Germany 
[1] Title: Otto Heinrich Warburg
People in the image: *
Warburg, Otto Heinrich Prof. Dr.:
Direktor des Kaiser-Wilhelm-Institutes
für Zellphysiologie in Berlin-Dahlem,
Nobelpreis für Physiologie und Medizin
1931, Bundesrepublik Deutschland (PND
118629158) October
1931(1931-10) Source Deutsches
Bundesarchiv (German Federal Archive),
Bild 102-12525 Author
Unknown Permission (Reusing this
file) Commons:Bundesarchiv CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/66/Otto_Heinrich_Warburg
_%28cropped%29.jpg
77 YBN
[1923 AD] 		4989) Removal of the pituitary gland is
shown to result in the stopping of
growth and the atrophy of other
endocrine glands such as the thyroid,
adrenal cortex and reproductive glands.
(University of California at Berkeley)
Berkeley, California, USA 
[1] Edited a public domain image found
on
wikimedia:LocationOfHypothalamus.jpg.
Removed clutter and added an arrow
pointing to the pituitary gland.
Editing done by Jim Thomas using The
Gimp. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6a/Pituitary_gland.png

[2] Public domain This faithful
reproduction of a lithograph plate from
Gray's Anatomy, a two-dimensional work
of art, is not copyrightable in the
U.S. as per Bridgeman Art Library v.
Corel Corp.; the same is also true in
many other countries, including
Germany. Unless stated otherwise, it is
from the 20th U.S. edition of Gray's
Anatomy of the Human Body, originally
published in 1918 and therefore lapsed
into the public domain. Other copies of
Gray's Anatomy can be found on Bartleby
and also on Yahoo!. This image is
in the public domain because its
copyright has expired. This applies
worldwide. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d7/Gray715.png
77 YBN
[1923 AD] 		5000) An ultracentrifuge is invented. A
centrifuge can force colloidal
particles to settle out of a liquid,
and can be used to determine molecule
size and mass.
(University of Uppsala) Upsala,
Sweden 
[1] Theodor Svedberg Older than 70
years PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/92/The-svedberg-1.jpg
76 YBN
[06/07/1924 AD] 		5075) The "coincidence method" of
detecting electrons from x-rays: x-rays
that pass through two adjacent Geiger
tubes at almost the same time cause
electron emissions that are recorded as
a coincidental event.
(University of Giessen) Giessen,
Germany (presumably) 
[1] Figure 1 from: W Bothe, H Geiger,
''Ein Weg zur experimentellen
Nachprüfung der Theorie von Bohr,
Kramers, und Slater'', Zeitschrift für
Physik, 26
(1924). http://www.springerlink.com/ind
ex/U432385Q72826470.pdf {Bothe_Walther_
19240607.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.springerlink.com/cont
ent/u432385q72826470/fulltext.pdf

[2] The Nobel Prize in Physics 1954
was divided equally between Max Born
''for his fundamental research in
quantum mechanics, especially for his
statistical interpretation of the
wavefunction'' and Walther Bothe ''for
the coincidence method and his
discoveries made
therewith''. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/physics/laureates/1954/bothe.jpg
76 YBN
[06/07/1924 AD] 		5076) That cosmic rays may be particles
is demonstrated.
(University of Giessen) Giessen,
Germany (presumably) 
[1] The Nobel Prize in Physics 1954 was
divided equally between Max Born ''for
his fundamental research in quantum
mechanics, especially for his
statistical interpretation of the
wavefunction'' and Walther Bothe ''for
the coincidence method and his
discoveries made
therewith''. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/physics/laureates/1954/bothe.jpg
76 YBN
[06/13/1924 AD] 		4975) The term "quantum mechanics" is
introduced.
(University of Göttingen) Göttingen,
Germany 
[1] # Beschreibung: Max Born # Quelle:
http://www.owlnet.rice.edu/~mishat/1933-
5.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f7/Max_Born.jpg
76 YBN
[07/18/1924 AD] 		6622) Gold is obtained from mercury by
the prolonged action of a high-voltage
electric current on it.
(Technical High School) Charlottenburg,
Berlin, Germany 
[1] ''The Reported Transmutation of
Mercury Into Gold'', Nature,
N2858,V114, p197 doi:10.1038/113459a0
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
114/n2858/pdf/114197a0.pdf {Nature_1924
0809.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v114/n2858/pdf/114197a0.pdf

[2] Adolf Miethe around 1905,
photographed by Nicola
Perscheid. Description Deutsch:
Porträt des Photochemikers Adolf
Miethe. Date circa 1905 Source
Odette M. Appel-Heyne: Dokumente der
Photographie 1. Perscheid, Benda,
Madame d'Ora. Museum für Kunst und
Gewerbe, Hamburg 1980. Author
Nicola Perscheid (1864–1930) Link
back to Creator infobox template
wikidata:Q65610 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/83/Nicola_Perscheid_-_Ad
olf_Miethe_um_1905.jpg
76 YBN
[08/??/1924 AD] 		4753) For the lighter elements even
atomic number elements are found to be
more stable than odd number elements.
(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England  
[1] Figure from: Ernest Rutherford,
''Further Experiments on the Artificial
Disintegration of the Elements'',
Proceedings of the Physical Society,
August 1924, 36, pp417-22.
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://iopscience.iop.org/1478-7
814/36/1/347/pdf/prv36i1p417.pdf

[2] Description Ernest
Rutherford2.jpg English: Cropped
Image:Ernest_Rutherford.jpg Date
2007-01-26 (original upload
date) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia Author Original
uploader was Sadi Carnot at
en.wikipedia GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/57/Ernest_Rutherford2.jp
g
76 YBN
[08/??/1924 AD] 		4896) A light ray device that can
disable vehicles and burn people.
Chicago, Illinois, USA 
[1] Barwell, Ernest H. G. The Death Ray
Man: The Biography of Grindell
Matthews, Inventor and Pioneer. London:
Hutchinson, 1943. Print. COPYRIGHTED
source: Barwell, Ernest H. G. The Death
Ray Man: The Biography of Grindell
Matthews, Inventor and Pioneer. London:
Hutchinson, 1943. Print.

[2] Image from '' ''Death Ray'' is
Carried by Shafts of Light'', Popular
Mechanics, Aug 1924, p189. COPYRIGHTED

source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=4toDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA189&lpg=PA189&dq=popu
lar+mechanics+death+ray&source=bl&ots=_k
8o3ZPfp0&sig=FBRNsl5KMsn40BSmKmNKNqmLLWU
&hl=en&ei=2DEBTZO9DoK-sQOjz-25Ag&sa=X&oi
=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&sqi=2&ve
d=0CCYQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q&f=false
76 YBN
[12/17/1924 AD] 		5199) The first photographs of a
nuclear reaction; cloud chamber tracks
show an alpha particle collision with a
nitrogen atom.
(University of Cambridge) Cambridge,
England 
[1] The Normal Forks (Plate 6). Each
photograph shows the fork due to the
elastic collision between an
alphaparticle and a nucleus of
hydrogen, helium or nitrogen.* Symbols
used in the description of the
photographs b. The angle of deflection
of the alpha-particle. 0. The angle
between the initial track of the
alpha-particle and the track of the
nucleus with which it has collided.
Angles in brackets have only been
measured roughly. m/M. The ratio of
the masses of the colliding particles,
calcuLlated from equation
(1 Photograph. Type of atom struck
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/pdfp
lus/94255.pdf?acceptTC=true

[2] ca.m/ by alpha-particle. cale.
tthhe/Mor y. 1 Hydrogen 80 27' 680 0'
0-253 0-2520 2 ,, 80 39' 660 23' 0-241
0 2520 3 Helium 380 34' 500 53' 0-981
1*000 4 Nitrogen* (450) - - 5 ,
(510) 6 '' (320) - -- 7 ,, (1210)
- 8 , 1280 44' 200 10' 4-1t 350 9 .
980 51' 330 39' 4- 1j {400 10 --
(110?) . - * A few of these collisions
are probably due to collision with
oxygen rather than nitrogen nuclei. t
The probable error of these
determiniations of m/M for N and 0 is
large, of the order of 0 -6, so that
these collisions may still be with N
atoms. Nos. 1, 2 and 3 are all due to
alpha-particleso f range greatert han 7
cm. The calculated values of m/M show
that the collisions are
approximately elastic,a resulto f
importancein view of the very intimaten
atureo f the collisions. The serieso f
photographs4 to 10 showe xampleso f
elasticc ollisionso f varying angles
between alpha-particles and nitrogen
atoms. They emphasise the marked
contrast between the elastic and the
inelastic collisions (Plate 7). The
track of the nitrogena tom itself in
Nos. 6 and 10 makesa fork for which 0
+ +b 90?. These are clearly due to the
collision of one nitrogen atom with
another. The short isolated length of
track in No. 8, which nearly passes
through the divide of the fork, is due
to '' contamination,'' that is, to an
alpha-particle emitted by some
radioactive body that has strayed into
the chamber itself. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencephoto.com/imag
es/download_wm_image.html/H402377-Patric
k_Blackett-SPL.jpg?id=724020377
76 YBN
[1924 AD] 		3614) Photographs are sent over the
phone wire.
Cleveland, OH, (to NYC, NY), USA  
76 YBN
[1924 AD] 		4696) Tissue taken from one amphibian
embryo and grafted onto another part is
shown to assume the character of the
host, losing its original nature.
(University of Freiburg) Breisgau,
Germany 
[1] Hans Spemann [t verify] UNKNOWN
source: http://www.nndb.com/people/309/0
00127925/hans-spemann.jpg

[2] Hans Spemann UNKNOWN
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1935/spemann.jpg
76 YBN
[1924 AD] 		4981) The absolute magnitude of a star
is related to its mass.
(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England  
[1] Eddington, A. S., ''On the relation
between the masses and luminosities of
the stars'', Monthly Notices of the
Royal Astronomical Society, Vol. 84,
p.308-332. {Eddington_Arthur_1924.pdf}
27 http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1924M
NRAS..84..308E PD
source: {Eddington_Arthur_1924.pdf}
27 http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1924M
NRAS..84..308E

[2] Description Arthur Stanley
Eddington.jpg English: English
astrophysicist Sir Arthur Stanley
Eddington (1882–1944) Date
Unrecorded Source
US-LibraryOfCongress-BookLogo.svg
This image is available from the
United States Library of Congress's
Prints and Photographs division under
the digital ID ggbain.38064. This tag
does not indicate the copyright status
of the attached work. A normal
copyright tag is still required. See
Commons:Licensing for more
information. العربية
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/24/Arthur_Stanley_Edding
ton.jpg
76 YBN
[1924 AD] 		5010) People with pernicious anemia are
treated by feeding them liver to raise
the number of their red blood cells.
(Collis P. Huntington Memorial
Hospital, Harvard University)
Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
(presumably) 
[1] George Richards Minot UNKNOWN
source: http://assets.bolohealth.com/ass
ets/images/1815/George_Richards_Minot.jp
g
76 YBN
[1924 AD] 		5118) The first Australopithecus skull
is found.
(University of Witwatersrand)
Johannesburg, South Africa 
[1] Figure 3 from: Raymond Dart,
''Australopithecus africanus The
Man-Ape of South Africa'', nature 115,
195-199 (07 February
1925) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v115/n2884/abs/115195a0.html {Dart_
Raymond_19250207.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v115/n2884/pdf/115195a0.pdf

[2] Raymond A Dart holding Taung
skull, 1925 (Dart Collection,
photographer unknown) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://web.wits.ac.za/NR/rdonlyr
es/7756F53B-42E2-4C04-A016-692D30A5F138/
0/dart1925.jpg
75 YBN
[01/01/1925 AD] 		5060) Spiral nebulae are proven to be
other galaxies containing stars and to
be very far away by Edwin Hubble.

Hubble, using the largest telescope at
this time, a 100-inch telescope on
Mount Wilson, shows that M31 (the
Andromeda galaxy) contains stars, and
uses the period of a Cepheid variable
star in M31 to show that it is very far
away (930,000 light-years).
(Mount Wilson) Mount Wilson,
California, USA 
[1] The first image of H335H shows the
glass side of the photographic plate,
on which Hubble marked novae and,
eventually, the first Cepheid in ink.
The next two images show the emulsion
side of the plate at two contrasts,
with Hubble's writing of plate
information at the top (Plate ID, M31,
45 min exposure on plate of type Seed
30, seeing of 3+ on Mt Wilson scale,
date, and hour angle of 2 hr 8 min East
at the end of the
exposure). NONCOMMERCIAL USE
source: http://obs.carnegiescience.edu/s
ites/obs.carnegiescience.edu/files/pictu
res/H335H_glass_0670_27_wm.jpg

[2] Hubble's Famous M31 VAR!
plate On the night of October 5-6,
1923, Carnegie astronomer Edwin P.
Hubble took a plate of the Andromeda
Galaxy (Messier 31) with the Hooker
100-inch telescope of the Mount Wilson
Observatory. This plate, with
identification number H335H (''Hooker
plate 335 by Hubble''), is famous for
having led to his discovery of the
first Cepheid variable star in M31,
which established beyond any doubt that
M31 was a separate galaxy from our
own. Shown here are three images of
Plate H335H as well as three images of
a similar plate, H331H, which Hubble
took the night before. The letters N
on Plate H335H mark Novae, stars marked
by Hubble as new when compared with
earlier plates. The first Cepheid
variable discovered has its letter N
crossed out and is marked ''VAR!'',
showing that Hubble originally thought
it was a nova, but eventually
discovered that it varied in brightness
like a Cepheid. The first image of
H335H shows the glass side of the
photographic plate, on which Hubble
marked novae and, eventually, the first
Cepheid in ink. The next two images
show the emulsion side of the plate at
two contrasts, with Hubble's writing of
plate information at the top (Plate ID,
M31, 45 min exposure on plate of type
Seed 30, seeing of 3+ on Mt Wilson
scale, date, and hour angle of 2 hr 8
min East at the end of the
exposure). The first image of H335H
shows the glass side of the
photographic plate, on which Hubble
marked novae and, eventually, the first
Cepheid in ink. The next two images
show the emulsion side of the plate at
two contrasts, with Hubble's writing of
plate information at the top (Plate ID,
M31, 45 min exposure on plate of type
Seed 30, seeing of 3+ on Mt Wilson
scale, date, and hour angle of 2 hr 8
min East at the end of the
exposure). COPYRIGHT: The above
images are all copyright protected.
Downloads for inspection, scientific
and historical work are free. However,
any reproduction in commercial products
(including books) must be licensed by
Carnegie Observatories and will be
assessed a permission fee. For
permission to use any of these images
in a commercial product, please contact
John Grula NONCOMMERICAL USE
source: http://obs.carnegiescience.edu/s
ites/obs.carnegiescience.edu/files/pictu
res/H335H_emuls_0681_38_wm.jpg
75 YBN
[01/16/1925 AD] 		5233) The "exclusion principle": that
in any particular energy level, two and
only two electrons are permitted, one
spinning clockwise and one spinning
counterclockwise. This adds a fourth
"quantum number".
(Institute fur Theoretische Physik)
Hamburg, Germany 
[1] Wolfgang Pauli UNKNOWN
source: http://osulibrary.oregonstate.ed
u/specialcollections/coll/pauling/bond/p
ictures/people/people-portrait-pauli.jpg

75 YBN
[02/21/1925 AD] 		5105) That radio is reflected from an
ionized layer 96km (or 60 miles) up in
the Earth atmosphere is established.
(King's College) London, England 
[1] Edward Victor Appleton UNKNOWN
source: http://www.ukssdc.ac.uk/ionosond
es/history/evappleton.gif
75 YBN
[04/04/1925 AD] 		4754) Hydrogen nuclei are called
"protons".
(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England  
[1] Description Ernest
Rutherford2.jpg English: Cropped
Image:Ernest_Rutherford.jpg Date
2007-01-26 (original upload
date) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia Author Original
uploader was Sadi Carnot at
en.wikipedia GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/57/Ernest_Rutherford2.jp
g

[2] Ernest Rutherford (young) Image
courtesy of www.odt.co.nz UNKNOWN
source: https://thescienceclassroom.wiki
spaces.com/file/view/ernest_rutherford_1
122022732.jpg/103032081
75 YBN
[05/12/1925 AD] 		5027) Absorption lines from the muscles
of the horse botfly are explained as
being due to a respiratory enzyme
(given the name cytochrome) within
cells that absorbs oxygen, and
catalyzes the combination of oxygen
with other substances.
(University of Cambridge) Cambridge,
England 
[1] David Keilin UNKNOWN
source: http://biology.ucsd.edu/~msaier/
transport/petermitchell/DK.jpg
75 YBN
[05/18/1925 AD] 		4882) An average displacement to the
red of the spectral lines of the
companion of Sirius (Sirius B) of 21
km/sec is found which is claimed to
confirm the theory that Sirius B is a
white dwarf star 2000 times denser than
platinum and to confirm the general
theory of relativity.
(Mount Wilson Observatory) Pasadena,
California, USA 
[1] Table from: Adams, ''The
Relativity Displacement of the Spectral
Lines in the companion of Sirius'',
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences, v11, issue7, (1925),
p382–387.
http://www.pnas.org/content/11/7/382
{Adams_Walter_19250518.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.pnas.org/content/11/7
/382

[2] Description: middle age ;
three-quarter view ; suit Date:
Unknown Credit: AIP Emilio Segre
Visual Archives, Gallery of Member
Society Presidents Names: Adams,
Walter Sydney UNKNOWN
source: https://photos.aip.org/history/T
humbnails/adams_walter_a2.jpg
75 YBN
[06/06/1925 AD] 		5024) The refraction of x-rays in glass
is proven visually.
(University of Uppsala) Uppsala,
Sweden 
[1] Figures 2 and 3: M Siegbahn, ''La
réflexion et la réfraction des rayons
X'', Journal de Physique et le Radium,
1925. http://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/j
pa-00205211/en/ {Siegbahn_Manne_ajp-jph
ysrad_1925_6_7_228_0_19250606.pdf} http
://jphysrad.journaldephysique.org/index.
php?option=com_article&access=standard&I
temid=129&url=/articles/jphysrad/abs/192
5/07/jphysrad_1925__6_7_228_0/jphysrad_1
925__6_7_228_0.html
source: http://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/
docs/00/20/52/11/PDF/ajp-jphysrad_1925_6
_7_228_0.pdf

[2] The image of Swedish physicist,
and Nobel laureate Manne Siegbahn
(1886-1978) Source This image has
been downloaded
http://www.nndb.com/people/559/000099262
/ Date circa 1924. uploaded:
19:27, 25 December 2008
(UTC) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/e/ec/Manne_Siegbahn.jpg
75 YBN
[07/13/1925 AD] 		5059) A color image electronic scanning
camera by Vladimir Zworykin
(ZWoURiKiN).
(Westinghouse Electric Corporation)
 
[1] Figure from Zworykin 1925
patent PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=mZ9KAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f
=false

[2] Screenshot of Vladimir K. Zworykin
from the documentary film the Story of
Television Date 1956 and
later Source Screenshot from the
Story of Television from the Prelinger
Archives in the Internet
Archive Author Produced by Ganz
(William J.) Co. and Radio Corporation
of America (RCA) Film is in the Public
Domain PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/30/Zworykin_docgrab.jpg
75 YBN
[09/05/1925 AD] 		5112) X-rays spectra are obtained using
a metal grating.
(University of Chicago) Chicago,
Illinois, USA 
[1] Figures 2-5 from: A. H. Compton
and R. L. Doan, ''X-Ray Spectra from a
Ruled Reflection Grating'', PNAS 1925
V11 (I10)
p598-601. http://www.pnas.org/content/1
1/10/598.full.pdf+html?sid=b32d2ed9-9fe5
-47ce-93b4-6e4248df2927
{Compton_Arthur_19250905.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.pnas.org/content/11/1
0/598.full.pdf+html?sid=b32d2ed9-9fe5-47
ce-93b4-6e4248df2927

[2] Arthur Compton and his assistant
Richard Doan headed the Metallurgical
Laboratory at the University of
Chicago. Compton made Doan research
director at Clinton Laboratories in
1943. PD
source: http://www.ornl.gov/info/ornlrev
iew/rev25-34/1-1314.jpg
75 YBN
[10/22/1925 AD] 		5292) The transistor or solid-state
electronic switch and amplifier is
invented by Julius Lilienfeld.

Lilienfeld patents the first publicly
known non-vacuum tube (solid state)
electronic switch and amplifier, also
known as a "field-effect transistor".

This is the first public millimeter
size electronic switch.
Brooklyn, New York City, New York,
USA 
[1] Figure 1 from: Julius Lilienfeld,
Patent number: 1745175, ''METHOD AND
APPARATUS FOR CONTROLLING ELECTRIC
CURRENTS'', US Filing date: Oct 8,
1926, Canada filing date: October 22,
1925, Issue date: Jan 28,
1930. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
uBFMAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=
false PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=uBFMAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f
=false

[2] Source: scanned passport
photo Rationale: Photographer died
>70yrs ago. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/5/59/Julius_Edgar_Lilienfeld_%2
81881-1963%29.jpg
75 YBN
[11/16/1925 AD] 		5282) "Matrix mechanics", a new form of
quantum mechanics.
(University of Göttingen) Göttingen,
Germany 
[1] Werner Karl Heisenberg Library of
Congress There are some photos of
Heisenberg with unusual looking hair
style, which is characteristic of
theoretical math and physics people. it
goes back into the 1800s if not
earlier. Perhaps it is some kind of
gimmick to attract attention, or
perhaps just simply an expression of a
creative non-conformist mind.[t] PD
source: http://content.answcdn.com/main/
content/img/scitech/HSwerner.jpg
75 YBN
[11/20/1925 AD] 		5254) The concept of electron spin is
proposed.
(Instituut voor Theoretische
Natuurkunde) Leyden, Netherlands 
[1] Figure 1 from: Uhlenbeck, G. E.;
Goudsmit, S., ''Spinning Electrons and
the Structure of Spectra'', Nature,
Volume 117, Issue 2938, pp. 264-265
(1926).
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
117/n2938/index.html {Uhlenbeck_George_
192512xx.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v117/n2938/pdf/117264a0.pdf

[2] George Uhlenbeck, Hendrik Kramers,
and Samuel Goudsmit around 1928 in Ann
Arbor. Uhlenbeck and Goudsmit proposed
the idea of electron spins three years
earlier when they were studying in
Leiden with Paul Ehrenfest. A high
resolution picture may be obtained from
AIP's Emilio Sergè Visual
Archives source:
http://th.physik.uni-frankfurt.de/~jr/ph
yslist.html
http://th.physik.uni-frankfurt.de/~jr/
gif/phys/uhkrgo.jpg alternative:
http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/
PictDisplay/Kramers.html
http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.u
k/PictDisplay/Uhlenbeck.html
According to MacTutor: We believe
that most of the images are in the
public domain and that provided you use
them on a website you are unlikely to
encounter any difficulty. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/4/48/UhlenbeckKramer
sGoudsmit.jpg/300px-UhlenbeckKramersGoud
smit.jpg
75 YBN
[12/24/1925 AD] 		4512) Rays detected from outer space
are called "cosmic rays".
(California Institute of Technology)
Pasadena, California, USA 
[1] Robert Andrews
Millikan USA California Institute of
Technology (Caltech) Pasadena, CA,
USA b. 1868 d. 1953 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.ebeijing.gov.cn/featu
re_2/Nobel_Prize_Forum_2007/List_of_All_
Laureates_2007/Prize_in_Chemistry/W02008
0114542388774103.jpg

[2] Description Robert Andrews
Millikan.jpg English: A picture on the
inside cover of the book listed
below. Date 2008-09-13 (original
upload date) Source Transferred
from en.wikipedia; transferred to
Commons by User:Odie5533 using
CommonsHelper. (Original text : The
Electron: Its Isolation and
Measurements and the Determination of
Some of its Properties, Robert Andrews
Millikan, 1917) Author Robert
Andrews Millikan Original uploader was
Chhe at en.wikipedia PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/88/Robert_Andrews_Millik
an.jpg
75 YBN
[1925 AD] 		4299) The protein insulin in prepared
in crystalline form.
(Johns Hopkins University) Baltimore,
Maryland, USA 
[1] John Jacob Abel PD
source: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/hmd/breat
h/breath_exhibit/Cures/transforming/tran
sforming_images/adrenal/VAx1.gif
75 YBN
[1925 AD] 		4990) The first dinosaur eggs are
found.
Central Asia 
[1] Roy Chapman Andrews 50488r.jpg Roy
Chapman Andrews English: TITLE: Roy
Cha[p]man Andrews en:Roy Chapman
Andrews CALL NUMBER: LC-B2-
5348-13[P&P] REPRODUCTION NUMBER:
LC-DIG-ggbain-50489 (digital file from
original negative) No known
restrictions on publication. MEDIUM:
1 negative : glass ; 5 x 7 in. or
smaller. CREATED/PUBLISHED: [no date
recorded on caption
card] NOTES: Title from
unverified data provided by the Bain
News Service on the negatives or
caption cards. Forms part of: George
Grantham Bain Collection (Library of
Congress). Temp. note: Batch eight
loaded. FORMAT: Glass
negatives. REPOSITORY: en:Library of
Congress Prints and Photographs
Division Washington, D.C. 20540
USA DIGITAL ID: (digital file from
original neg.) ggbain 50489 Original
found at: [1] CARD #:
ggb2006014905 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/ce/Roy_Chapman_Andrews_5
0488r.jpg
75 YBN
[1925 AD] 		5017) The structure of the alkaloid
morphine is determined (except for one
atom).
(University of Oxford) Oxford,
England 
[1] Sir Robert Robinson (September 13,
1886 – February 8, 1975), English
organic chemist Source
http://images.nobelprize.org/nobel_
prizes/chemistry/laureates/1947/robinson
_postcard.jpg Article Robert
Robinson (organic chemist) Portion
used UNKNOWN
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/9/93/Robert_Robinson_organic_ch
emist.jpg
75 YBN
[1925 AD] 		5065) The first mechanical computer
that can solve differential equations.
Differential equations are equations
that contain one or more derivatives
and express a relationship involving
the rates of change of continuously
changing quantities.
(Massachusetts Institute of Technology)
Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA 
[1] Vannevar Bush's Differential
Analyzer, 1931 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.acmi.net.au/AIC/diff_
ann_31.gif

[2] Vannevar Bush with his
Differential Analyzer in
1945 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.acmi.net.au/AIC/vbush
_45.gif
74 YBN
[01/26/1926 AD] 		6264) A system of television is
demonstrated publicly.
(Royal Institution) London,
England 
[1] Description John Logie Baird
working on his transmitting station in
his laboratory. Source Hulton
Getty. Copy from Eye of the World Date
c 1926 Author
Unknown COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/c/c6/John_Logie_Baird%2C_Appara
tus.jpg

[2] John Logie Baird UNKNOWN
source: http://www.helensburghheroes.com
/files/baird.jpg
74 YBN
[03/06/1926 AD] 		5165) The concept of molecular orbitals
is introduced to determine the
electronic structure of molecules and
chemical bond formation. In this view
the atomic orbitals of isolated atoms
become molecular orbitals, extending
over two or more atoms in the molecule.
(University of Göttingen) Göttingen,
Germany 
[1] Description Hund,Friedrich 1920er
Göttingen.jpg English: Friedrich
Hund, Göttingen in the
twenties Deutsch: Friedrich Hund,
Göttingen in den 20er Jahren Date
1920er Jahre Source Own
work Author GFHund GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b7/Hund%2CFriedrich_1920
er_G%C3%B6ttingen.jpg

[2] Description Mulliken Hund 1929
Chicago.jpg English: Robert Mulliken
and Friedrich Hund, 1929 at
Chicago Deutsch: Robert Mulliken und
Friedrich Hund, 1929 in Chicago Date
1929(1929) Source Own
work Author GFHund GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/9e/Mulliken_Hund_1929_Ch
icago.jpg
74 YBN
[03/16/1926 AD] 		4968) The first flight of a liquid fuel
rocket engine.
(Aunt Effie's Farm) Auburn,
Massachusetts, USA 
[1] Plate from: Goddard,
“Liquid-Propellant Rocket
Development,” Smithsonian
Miscellaneous Collections, 95, no. 3
(1936) Reprinted in: Goddard,
''Rockets'' (New York, 1946).
{Goddard_Robert_1946.pdf} UNKNOWN
source: Goddard_Robert_1946.pdf

[2] English: Dr. Robert Hutchings
Goddard (1882-1945). Dr. Goddard has
been recognized as the father of
American rocketry and as one of the
pioneers in the theoretical exploration
of space. Robert Hutchings Goddard,
born in Worcester, Massachusetts, on
October 5, 1882, was theoretical
scientist as well as a practical
engineer. His dream was the conquest of
the upper atmosphere and ultimately
space through the use of rocket
propulsion. Dr. Goddard, died in 1945,
but was probably as responsible for the
dawning of the Space Age as the Wrights
were for the beginning of the Air Age.
Yet his work attracted little serious
attention during his lifetime. However,
when the United States began to prepare
for the conquest of space in the
1950's, American rocket scientists
began to recognize the debt owed to the
New England professor. They discovered
that it was virtually impossible to
construct a rocket or launch a
satellite without acknowledging the
work of Dr. Goddard. More than 200
patents, many of which were issued
after his death, covered this great
legacy. Date 0 Unknown date
0000(0000-00-00) Source Great
Images in NASA
Description http://dayton.hq.nasa.gov/I
MAGES/LARGE/GPN-2002-000131.jpg PD
source: Goddard_Robert_1946.pdf
74 YBN
[03/18/1926 AD] 		5063) The voltage of a single nerve
fiber is measured; responses to stimuli
are found to be only a few millivolts.
(University of Cambridge) Cambridge,
England 
[1] Figure 5,6,7 from: ED Adrian,
''The impulses produced by sensory
nerve endings'', The Journal of
physiology, March 18, 1926 The Journal
of Physiology, V61, 49-72.
http://jp.physoc.org/content/61/1/49.f
ull.pdf
{Adrian_Edgar_19260318.pdf} COPYRIGHT
ED [1] Figure 1 from: ED Adrian,
''The impulses produced by sensory
nerve endings'', The Journal of
physiology, March 18, 1926 The Journal
of Physiology, V61, 49-72.
http://jp.physoc.org/content/61/1/49.f
ull.pdf
{Adrian_Edgar_19260318.pdf} COPYRIGHT
ED
source: http://jp.physoc.org/content/61/
1/49.full.pdf

[2] Edgar Douglas Adrian Nobel Prize
Image COPYRIGHTED
source: http://jp.physoc.org/content/61/
1/49.full.pdf
74 YBN
[06/02/1926 AD] 		5038) The first enzyme to be prepared
in crystalline form, and shown clearly
to be a protein "urease" is isolated
and named.
(Cornell University) Ithaca, New York,
USA 
[1] James Batcheller Sumner Nobel
Prize photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1946/sumne
r_postcard.jpg
74 YBN
[06/26/1926 AD] 		5131) Element 75, Rhenium {rEnEuM}.
(University of Berlin) Berlin,
Germany 
[1] Description Rhenium single crystal
bar and 1cm3 cube.jpg Deutsch: Ein
hochreiner (99,999 % = 5N)
Rhenium-Einkristall, hergestellt nach
dem Zonenschmelzverfahren, ein
elektronenstrahlgeschmolzener (99,995 %
= 4N5) Rheniumbarren, sowie für den
Größenvergleich ein reiner (99,99 % =
4N) 1 cm3 Rhenium-Würfel. English: A
high purity (99.999 %) rhenium single
crystal made by the floating zone
process, an ebeam remelted (99.995 %)
rhenium bar and as well as a high
purity (99.99 % = 4N) 1 cm3 rhenium
cube for comparison. Date 25
September 2010(2010-09-25) Source
Own work Author Alchemist-hp
(talk)
(www.pse-mendelejew.de) Permission CC

source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/71/Rhenium_single_crysta
l_bar_and_1cm3_cube.jpg

[2] Walter Noddack 1893 -
1960 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.ptb.de/cms/uploads/RT
EmagicC_82fb10ee7d.png.png
74 YBN
[08/02/1926 AD] 		5267) Atoms are ionized by electron
impact from a thermionic cathode which
shows that light quanta and electrons
obey the same general laws in processes
involving the ionization of atoms and
molecules.
(Sloan Laboratory, Yale University) New
Haven, Connecticut, USA 
[1] Ernest Orlando Lawrence UNKNOWN
source: http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_Uhse4P
aiRAY/TF7dj-zaM1I/AAAAAAAAAGw/6lxKVLTfhs
M/s320/Ernest_Orlando_Lawrence.jpg

[2] young Ernest Orlando Lawrence
portrait credit: Lawrence Berkeley
Nat'l Lab XBD200008-01247.TIF
UNKNOWN
source: http://farm4.static.flickr.com/3
576/3522995029_d0ac347864.jpg
74 YBN
[12/14/1926 AD] 		5146) The "adiabatic demagnetization"
method is created to cool helium to
lower a temperature than ever reached.
The work of demagnetizing a
magnetically aligned sample causes a
decrease in the temperature.
(University of California) Berkeley,
California, USA 
[1] William Francis Giauque UNKNOWN
source: http://photos.aip.org/history/Th
umbnails/giauque_william_a1.jpg
74 YBN
[1926 AD] 		4309) The concept of satellites and
space stations.
Kaluga, Russia (presumably) 
[1] From Konstantin Tsiolkovsky’s
1933 paper “Album of Space Travel”,
drawings of cosmonauts on a spacewalk.
It looks like they’re attached with
phone cords. UNKNOWN
source: http://enigmaland.tumblr.com/ima
ge/5771967930

[2] {ULSF: Note that this is from a
later work of 1933} Konstantin
Tsiolkovsky’s drawing of an astronaut
in a space suit using an airlock. From
his 1933 paper “Album of Space
Travel” UNKNOWN
source: http://fyeahcosmonauts.tumblr.co
m/image/5181057859
74 YBN
[1926 AD] 		4871) Helium is solidified.
(University of Leiden) Leiden,
Netherlands 
[1] Willem Hendrik Keesom
(1876-1956) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.knaw.nl/waals/images/
Keesom_portret.jpg
74 YBN
[1926 AD] 		5032) The Schrödinger (srOEDiNGR)
model of the atom: material points are
wave-systems, and electrons can be in
any orbit in which its matter waves can
extend in an exact number of
wavelengths.
(University of Zürich) Zürich,
Switzerland 
[1] * Beschreibung: Erwin Schrödinger
*Quelle:
http://www.owlnet.rice.edu/~mishat/1933-
5.html *Lizenzstatus: Public
Domain English: * Description
: Erwin Schrödinger, Austrian
physicist * Source :
http://www.owlnet.rice.edu/~mishat/1933-
5.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/26/Erwin_Schr%C3%B6dinge
r.jpg
74 YBN
[1926 AD] 		5072) X-rays are found to greatly
increase the rate of genetic mutation.
(University of Texas) Austin, Texas,
USA 
[1] Hermann Joseph Muller The Nobel
Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1946
was awarded to Hermann J. Muller ''for
the discovery of the production of
mutations by means of X-ray
irradiation''. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/medicine/laureates/1946/muller
.jpg
74 YBN
[1926 AD] 		5156) The outer parts of the Milky Way
galaxy are shown to rotate more slowly
around the center of the galaxy and the
inner stars to rotate faster, and the
theory that the galactic system is
rotating around a distant center.
(Uppsala University) Uppsala,
Sweden 
[1] Bertil Lindblad UNKNOWN
source: http://www.gothard.hu/astronomy/
astronomers/images/Bertil_Lindblad.1895-
1965.jpg
74 YBN
[1926 AD] 		6625) Plasticized PVC is produced
(which is responsible for the
commercial success of PVC).
(B. F. Goodrich Company) Akron,
Ohio 		 
73 YBN
[03/03/1927 AD] 		4957) Electron beams are "diffracted"
using a single crystal of nickel.
Electron beam particle intervals are
found to be equivalent to x-rays (100
pm).
(Bell Telephone Laboratories) New York
City, New York, USA 
[1] Clinton Davisson.jpg English:
Clinton Davisson Date
1937(1937) Source
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/
physics/laureates/1937/davisson-bio.html
Author Nobel
foundation Permission (Reusing this
file) Public domainPublic
domainfalsefalse Public domain PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/00/Clinton_Davisson.jpg

[2] Image of page 1 of article: C.
DAVISSON & L. H. GERMER, ''The
Scattering of Electrons by a Single
Crystal of Nickel'', Nature 119,
558-560 (16 April 1927)
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
119/n2998/abs/119558a0.html {Davisson_C
linton_19270416.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v119/n2998/pdf/119558a0.pdf
73 YBN
[03/28/1927 AD] 		5284) The "uncertainty principle" which
states that making an exact
simultaneous measurement of both the
position and the momentum (mass times
velocity) of any body is impossible.
(University of Copenhagen) Copenhagen,
Denmark 
[1] Werner Karl Heisenberg Library of
Congress There are some photos of
Heisenberg with unusual looking hair
style, which is characteristic of
theoretical math and physics people. it
goes back into the 1800s if not
earlier. Perhaps it is some kind of
gimmick to attract attention, or
perhaps just simply an expression of a
creative non-conformist mind.[t] PD
source: http://content.answcdn.com/main/
content/img/scitech/HSwerner.jpg
73 YBN
[04/14/1927 AD] 		5236) The distance of the Sun to the
center of the galaxy is estimated as
16,618 light years.
(Observatory) Leiden, Netherlands 
[1] Jan Hendrik Oort UNKNOWN
source: http://www.biografiasyvidas.com/
biografia/o/fotos/oort.jpg
73 YBN
[04/19/1927 AD] 		4946) An atomic (as opposed to
molecular) hydrogen blowtorch: hydrogen
gas passes hot tungsten wires, this
separates the hydrogen molecule into
individual atoms, which then recombine
producing a temperature near 6000°C
(almost as hot as the surface of the
Sun).
(General Electric Company) Schenectady,
New York, USA 
[1] Figure 3 from: Irving Langmuir,
''Flames of Atomic Hydrogen'', Ind.
Eng. Chem., 1927, 19 (6), pp
667–674. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/
10.1021/ie50210a009 {Langmuir_Irving_19
270419.pdf}
source: http://pubs.acs.org/doi/pdf/10.1
021/ie50210a009

[2] Summary URL:
http://www.geocities.com/bioelectrochemi
stry/langmuir.htm Date: c. 1900 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/9/96/Langmuir-sitting.jpg
73 YBN
[05/05/1927 AD] 		5306) The theory of the conservation of
atomic "parity": that whether the sign
of the variables in the Schrödinger
wave function Ψ(x,y,z) change or stay
the same must always be the same for
any reaction.
(Institute fur Theoretische Physik)
Berlin, Germany 
[1] Wigner's similarity in appearance
to Carl Sagan is interesting. Wigner
uses the word ''Sagen'' (say) in a 1927
paper.[t]
source: http://www.nassauchurch.org/ceme
tery/images/eugene_paul_wigner.jpg
73 YBN
[05/21/1927 AD] 		5291) A person in a motorized plane
crosses the Atlantic Ocean (in 33 1/2
hours).
 
[1] Description
LindberghStLouis.jpg Charles
Lindbergh, with Spirit of St. Louis in
background Date 31 May
1927(1927-05-31) Source
US-LibraryOfCongress-BookLogo.svg
This image is available from the
United States Library of Congress's
Prints and Photographs division under
the digital ID cph.3a23920. This tag
does not indicate the copyright status
of the attached work. A normal
copyright tag is still required. See
Commons:Licensing for more
information. العربية
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/38/LindberghStLouis.jpg
73 YBN
[05/24/1927 AD] 		5100) The first image of the
"diffraction" of an electron beam.
(University of Aberdeen) Aberdeen,
Scotland 
[1] {ULSF: presumably the farther from
the center represents lower frequencies
of electrons} Figure 1 from: G. P.
Thomson, ''Diffraction of Cathode Rays
by a Thin Film.'', Nature, (June 18,
1927),
p890. http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v119/n3007/pdf/119890a0.pdf {Thomso
n_George_Paget_19270524.pdf} COPYRIGH
TED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v119/n3007/pdf/119890a0.pdf

[2] George Paget Thomson Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/physics/laureates/1937/thomson.jpg
73 YBN
[06/16/1927 AD] 		4907) Aston's theory of "packing
fraction": that the greater the mass
lost to packing fraction, the more
tightly the component charges are bound
together and the more stable the
nucleus formed is.
(Cavendish Laboratory, Cambridge
University) Cambridge, England 
[1] Figure 1 from: Aston, ''A new
mass-spectrograph and the whole number
rule.'' (Bakerian lecture.) Proc. Roy.
Soc. A, 115, 1927,
p487. http://rspa.royalsocietypublishin
g.org/content/115/772/487.full.pdf+html
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://rspa.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/115/772/487.full.pdf

[2] Mass spectrogragh of 1917 [1]
Francis Aston PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c6/Francis_William_Aston
.jpg
73 YBN
[08/01/1927 AD] 		5114) The space between ultra-violet
and x-ray spectral lines (4-20 nm) is
bridged.
(University of Chicago) Chicago,
Illinois, USA 
[1] Figure 3 from: A. Compton, ''A
Quantum Theory of the Scattering of
X-rays by Light Elements'', Phys. Rev.
21, 483–502 (1923)
http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v21/i
5/p483_1 {Compton_Arthur_19221213.pdf}
PD
source: http://prola.aps.org/pdf/PR/v21/
i5/p483_1

[2] Arthur Holly Compton COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/physics/laureates/1927/compton.jpg
73 YBN
[08/26/1927 AD] 		5756) The first known bacterial
"transformation" is observed, how DNA
in the environment can enter a
bacteria.
(Ministry of Health) London, England
(verify this is in London at the
time) 
[1] Description portrait Source
courtesy Dr. Maclyn McCarty,
contributed by Dr. Steven
Lehrer Article Frederick
Griffith Portion used original
photo appears to have been cropped Low
resolution? yes, image quality
poor Purpose of use photo of
subject Replaceable?
irreplaceable, very difficult to
find image of this individual Other
information date of photo,
photographer, and copyright holder, if
any, unknown UNKNOWN
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/f/f4/Griffithm.jpg
73 YBN
[09/03/1927 AD] 		5106) Evidence for more than one
ionized layer in the Earth atmosphere
is found.
(King's College) London, England 
[1] Edward Victor Appleton UNKNOWN
source: http://www.ukssdc.ac.uk/ionosond
es/history/evappleton.gif
73 YBN
[11/04/1927 AD] 		5101) Photos of an electron beam
diffracted (that is reflected off
atomic structure) through various thin
solid materials (celluloid, gold,
aluminum).
(University of Aberdeen) Aberdeen,
Scotland 
[1] Figures from: G. P. Thomson,
''Experiments on the Diffraction of
Cathode Rays.'', Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London. Series A,
Containing Papers of a Mathematical and
Physical Character Vol. 117, No. 778
(Feb. 1, 1928), pp. 600-609
{Thomson_George_P_19271104.pdf} COP
YRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/9498
0

[2] George Paget Thomson Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/physics/laureates/1937/thomson.jpg
73 YBN
[12/12/1927 AD] 		5113) The name "photon" is suggested
for the light quantum.
(University of Chicago) Chicago,
Illinois, USA 
[1] Figure 3 from: A. Compton, ''A
Quantum Theory of the Scattering of
X-rays by Light Elements'', Phys. Rev.
21, 483–502 (1923)
http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v21/i
5/p483_1 {Compton_Arthur_19221213.pdf}
PD
source: http://prola.aps.org/pdf/PR/v21/
i5/p483_1

[2] Arthur Holly Compton COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/physics/laureates/1927/compton.jpg
73 YBN
[1927 AD] 		4520) The rhesus (Rh) factor is
identified in human blood.
(Rockefeller Institute, now called
Rockefeller University) New York City,
New York, USA 
[1] Image extracted from Biographical
Memoirs of the National Academy of
Sciences, vol. 40. Associated: Karl
Landsteiner Date: 1920s Genre:
illustrations ID:
portrait-landsteiner UNKNOWN
source: http://osulibrary.oregonstate.ed
u/specialcollections/coll/nonspcoll/cata
logue/portrait-landsteiner-600w.jpg
73 YBN
[1927 AD] 		4821) Different nerve fibers are found
to require a stimulus of different
intensity to create an impulse.
(Washington University) Saint Louis,
Missouri, USA 
[1] oseph Erlanger, M.D.
(1874-1965) Professor and Head of
Physiology, 1910-1946 Professor of
Physiology, 1946-1965 UNKNOWN
source: http://beckerexhibits.wustl.edu/
wusm-hist/images1/ErlangerJ_large.jpg

[2] Herbert S. Gasser, M.D.
(1888-1963) Assistant and Associate
Professor of Physiology,
1916-1921 Professor and Head of
Pharmacology, 1921-1931 UNKNOWN
source: http://beckerexhibits.wustl.edu/
wusm-hist/images1/GasserHS_large.jpg
73 YBN
[1927 AD] 		4847) Cerebral angiography (or
arteriography), a method of making
visible the blood vessels of the brain
by injecting into the carotid artery
substances that are opaque to X rays is
introduced.
(University of Lisbon) Lisbon,
Portugal 
[1] This is a file from the Wikimedia
Commons Description Cerebral
angiography, arteria vertebralis
sinister injection.JPG Cerebral
angiography, injection in the left
vertebral artery, with retrograde flow
in the contralateral vertebral artery,
the basilar artery and the posterior
communicating artery. The posterior
cerebral circulation can be seen,
including the posterior part of the
arterial circle of Willis. Date
Source From my {ULSF: unknown
author} own practice Author This
file is lacking author
information. Permission (Reusing this
file) Public domain PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/30/Cerebral_angiography%
2C_arteria_vertebralis_sinister_injectio
n.JPG

[2] Description Moniz.jpg English:
Nobel prize winner Egas Moniz Date
before 1955(1955) Source
nobelprize.org Author
Unknown Permission (Reusing this
file) PD-Sweden-photo PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c2/Moniz.jpg
73 YBN
[1927 AD] 		4947) Sleep is induced in cats using
electrodes directly connected to the
brain.
(University of Zurich), Zurich,
Switzerland 
[1] Walter Rudolf Hess (March 17, 1881
– August 12, 1973), Swiss
physiologist who won the Nobel Prize in
Physiology or Medicine in 1949 for
mapping the areas of the brain involved
in the control of internal
organs Source
http://www.nndb.com/people/271/0001
28884/walter-hess.jpg Article
Walter Rudolf Hess Portion used
Entire Low resolution?
Yes Purpose of use It is
only being used to illustrate the
article in question UNKNOWN
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/2/27/Walter_Rudolf_Hess.jpg
73 YBN
[1927 AD] 		5089) The surface temperature of the
moon is shown to drop 200 Centigrade
degrees when in the shadow of the Earth
during a lunar eclipse by using a
thermopile.
(Mount Wilson) Mount Wilson,
California, USA 
[1] Nicholson, Seth Barnes
(1891–1963) UNKNOWN
source: http://t1.gstatic.com/images?q=t
bn:GpER9gy6nTub5M:http://www.daviddarlin
g.info/images/Nicholson.jpg&t=1
73 YBN
[1927 AD] 		5143) An expanding universe theory
based on the general theory of
relativity.
(University of Louvain) Louvain,
Belgium 
[1] Georges Lemaître, docerend aan de
Katholieke Universiteit Leuven. Circa
1933. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/52/Lemaitre.jpg

[2] Georges Lemaître between Robert
Millikan and Albert Einstein,
California Institute of Technology,
Pasadena, January 10th 1933 Photo:
Archives Lemaitre UNKNOWN
source: http://www.cism.ucl.ac.be/Images
/c001-003.jpg
73 YBN
[1927 AD] 		5185) The hydrogen oxygen combustion
chain reaction is shown to be stopped
at the walls of the vessel before it
has a chance to reach explosive rates
below a critical temperature.
(Electronic Phenomena Laboratory of the
Petrograd Physical-Technical
Radiological Institute) (Petrograd now)
Leningrad, Russia (presumably) 
[1] Nikolay Nikolaevich
Semenov COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1956/semen
ov_postcard.jpg

[2] Sir Cyril Hinshelwood UNKNOWN
source: http://www.nndb.com/people/540/0
00100240/cyril-hinshelwood-1.jpg
72 YBN
[02/16/1928 AD] 		5052) The "Raman effect": that light
with visible frequencies reflected (or
scattered) off of some substances can
change frequency.
(University of Calcutta) Calcutta,
India 
[1] C. V. RAMAN & K. S. KRISHNAN,
''The optical analogue of the Compton
effect'', Nature 121, p711 (05 May
1928) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v121/n3053/abs/121711a0.html {Raman
_Chandrasekhara_19280322.pdf} COPYRIGHT
ED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v121/n3053/pdf/121711a0.pdf

[2] Figure 1 from: [1]
Description The image of Indian
physicist C. V. Raman
(1888-1970). Source This image
has been downloaded from
http://www.nndb.com/people/724/000099427
/. Date uploaded: 15:58, 7 August
2007 (UTC) Author
prabhnoor COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/c/c1/CVRaman.jpg
72 YBN
[03/28/1928 AD] 		5293) The electrolytic capacitor.
Brooklyn, New York City, New York,
USA 
[1] Source: scanned passport
photo Rationale: Photographer died
>70yrs ago. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/5/59/Julius_Edgar_Lilienfeld_%2
81881-1963%29.jpg
72 YBN
[06/11/1928 AD] 		5789) The first rocket powered plane.
Wasserkuppe (one of the Rhone
mountains), Germany 
[1] Description RRG Raketen-Ente
Deutsches Segelflugmuseum 02
2009-05-31.jpg Deutsch: RRG
Raketen-Ente: Frontansicht Date
Source Own work Author
Martin.bergner Permission (Reusin
g this file) See below. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/04/RRG_Raketen-Ente_Deut
sches_Segelflugmuseum_02_2009-05-31.jpg

[2] Alexander Lippisch in
''Life'' COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.rexresearch.com/lippi
sch/50505022.jpg
72 YBN
[07/22/1928 AD] 		5830) The first scientific pregnancy
test.
(Aus der Universitats-Frauenklinik der
Charite zu Berlin) Berlin,
Germany 
[1] S. Aschheim and Bernhard Zondek,
''Die Schwangerschaftsdiagnose aus dem
Harn Durch Nachweis des
Hypophysenvorderlappenhormons'',
Journal of Molecular Medicine, Volume
7, Number 30, 1404-1411, DOI:
10.1007/BF01749963 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/k44141013t594541/ Engli
sh: ''The solubility of lead sulfide
and lead chromate, the diagnosis of
pregnancy from the urine detectable by
the anterior
pituitary'' {Zondek_Bernhard_19280722.p
df} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.springerlink.com/cont
ent/k44141013t594541/ {Zondek_Bernhard_
19280722.pdf}
72 YBN
[1928 AD] 		4956) Penicillin is identified: a fungi
that kills some types of bacteria but
does not kill human white blood cells.
(St Mary's Hospital) London,
England 
[1] Alexander Fleming UNKNOWN
source: http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_4gF6Yu
GUwVM/TIpSqGwOklI/AAAAAAAAPRw/NNK_SagRmJ
0/s1600/alexander_fleming.jpg

[2] Penicillin core [t not entire
molecule?] Penicillin
core.svg English: chemical structure
of the Penicillin core Deutsch:
gemeinsame Struktur von
Penicilinen Date 20 July
2009(2009-07-20) Source Own
work Author Yikrazuul PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Penicillin_core
.svg/2000px-Penicillin_core.svg.png
72 YBN
[1928 AD] 		5709) The cartoon characters "Mickey
and Minnie Mouse" are shown to the
public, and may hint about the secret
use of technology that allows the image
the eyes see and the image of thought
to be displayed as two circular windows
over a head.
Manhattan, New York, New York City,
USA 
[1] [t Notice Mickey taking off the hat
- perhaps to show the then 100+ year
secret of the eye and thought screen
circular windows.] Description
Screenshot from the Mickey Mouse
cartoon Steamboat Willie (1928). Film
© 1928 Walt Disney Productions Source
Screenshot from Mickey Mouse in
Black and White Volume 1. (Timecode
00:00:04 of main feature). DVD issued
by Walt Disney Home Entertainment,
December 2003. DVD © Disney. Film
copyright MCMXXIX (1929)
DISNEY. Article Steamboat
Willie Portion used Entire
frame COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/2/23/Steamboat-willie-title2.jp
g

[2] ''Mickey Mouse'' is shown
publicly. This is clear evidence for
neuron reading and writing as early as
1928. These two or three circles or
oval represent a direct-to-brain front
microcamera+eye screen+thought screen
configuration - this is the standard
picture that many neuron-addicted
consumers see when looking at other
humans. Seeing these two circles in
their most common position - as if
looking at a black haired main with
thought and eye screen - must have give
relief to those in the know - those
neuron consumers. They must have
thought, after WW1 and all the neuron
abuse and lies they saw - ''now here is
some hope - seeing eyes and ears will
probably go public within 10
years...''. But how wrong and
inaccurate that false hope has proven
to be. Ownership of neuron writing,
perhaps by its nature, has caused a
shocking stagnation that persists -
like religious myths - for possibly
thousands of years. Note that ''MM''
has a lot of significance as an
abbreviation for ''mass murder'',
''muscle mover'', ''muscle
molestation'', the upside-down WW of
''William Wollaston''. PD
source: http://www.tedhuntington.com/Mic
key_Mouse_eyes_thought_screens.jpg
72 YBN
[1928 AD] 		6265) The infrared (or heat) movie
camera. This camera can see through
fog and make visible images of heat.
London, England (verify) 
[1] Sheldon and Grisewood, ''Television
To-Day and To-Morrow'',
1930. {Television_To-Day_And_To-Morrow_
1930.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: Sheldon and Grisewood,
"Television To-Day and To-Morrow",
1930. {Television_To-Day_And_To-Morrow_
1930.pdf}

[2] Description John Logie Baird
working on his transmitting station in
his laboratory. Source Hulton
Getty. Copy from Eye of the World Date
c 1926 Author
Unknown COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/c/c6/John_Logie_Baird%2C_Appara
tus.jpg
72 YBN
[1928 AD] 		6266) The first regular television
broadcasts.
(General Electric, WGY) Schenectady,
New York, USA  
[1] Television 1927 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.ge.com/innovation/tim
eline/index.html
72 YBN
[1928 AD] 		6267) A color television system.
London, England (verify) 
[1] Sheldon and Grisewood, ''Television
To-Day and To-Morrow'',
1930. {Television_To-Day_And_To-Morrow_
1930.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: Sheldon and Grisewood,
"Television To-Day and To-Morrow",
1930. {Television_To-Day_And_To-Morrow_
1930.pdf}

[2] Description John Logie Baird
working on his transmitting station in
his laboratory. Source Hulton
Getty. Copy from Eye of the World Date
c 1926 Author
Unknown COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/c/c6/John_Logie_Baird%2C_Appara
tus.jpg
71 YBN
[01/14/1929 AD] 		5147) Oxygen is found to be a mixture
of 3 isotopes.
(University of California) Berkeley,
California, USA 
[1] William Francis Giauque UNKNOWN
source: http://photos.aip.org/history/Th
umbnails/giauque_william_a1.jpg
71 YBN
[01/17/1929 AD] 		5061) The radial velocities of other
galaxies based on the shift of spectral
lines thought to be due to Doppler
shift are found to be linearly related
to distance of the galaxies; the more
distant the galaxy, the higher the
radial velocity.
(Mount Wilson) Mount Wilson,
California, USA 
[1] [t Notice how the ''hump'' or
''bell'' of the spectrum, the region of
most intensity, of the galacitc
spectra, appears to stay centered for
each galaxy- it doesn't shift in either
direction - in my mind, the phenomenon
appears to be more of a scaling or
magnifying back of emission lines not a
shifting right or left.] From Edwin
Hubble, ''The Realm of the Nebulae'',
1936. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du/full/1931ApJ....74...43H

[2] Figure 1 from: E Hubble, ''A
relation between distance and radial
velocity among extra-galactic
nebulae'', Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A.
1929 March 15; 15(3): 168–173.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC522427/ {Hubble_Edwin_19290117.pd
f} COPYRIGHTED
source: Edwin Hubble, "The Realm of the
Nebulae", 1936.
71 YBN
[01/31/1929 AD] 		4958) Electron beams are found to be
not polarized by reflection.
(Bell Telephone Laboratories) New York
City, New York, USA 
[1] Clinton Davisson.jpg English:
Clinton Davisson Date
1937(1937) Source
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/
physics/laureates/1937/davisson-bio.html
Author Nobel
foundation Permission (Reusing this
file) Public domainPublic
domainfalsefalse Public domain PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/00/Clinton_Davisson.jpg

[2] Image of page 1 of article: C.
DAVISSON & L. H. GERMER, ''The
Scattering of Electrons by a Single
Crystal of Nickel'', Nature 119,
558-560 (16 April 1927)
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
119/n2998/abs/119558a0.html {Davisson_C
linton_19270416.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v119/n2998/pdf/119558a0.pdf
71 YBN
[02/23/1929 AD] 		5383) Cloud tracks of cosmic ray
particles are observed.
(Phys.-Techn. und Polytechn. Institut)
Leningrad, (Soviet Union, now)
Russia 
[1] Table 1 from: [2] Skobelzyn,
D.V., ''Über eine neue Art sehr
schneller b-Strahlen'' Z. Phys. 54
(1929)
686. http://www.springerlink.com/conten
t/w03541353308h810/ {Skobeltzyn_Dmitri_
V_19290223.pdf} English: ''A New Type
of Very Fast Beta Rays'', Selected
Papers of Soviet Physicists, Usp. Fiz.
Nauk 93 (1967) 331.
http://web.ihep.su/owa/dbserv/hw.move?
s_c=DIRAC+1928B&m=2 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.springerlink.com/cont
ent/w03541353308h810/

[2] Dmitri V. Skobeltsyn UNKNOWN
source: http://www.sinp.msu.ru/eng/maini
nc/skob.gif
71 YBN
[04/22/1929 AD] 		4781) The electroencephalograph (or
EEG). Oscillations of the electric
potential on the surface of the head
are recognized and displayed
graphically.

In addition voluntary muscle movements
are detected from associated changes in
electric potential on the surface of
the head.
(University of Jena) Jena,
Germany 
[1] Figure 4 from: Berger, ''Über das
Elektroenkephalogramm des Menschen.'',
Archiv für Psychiatrie und
Nervenkrankheiten, 1929, 87:
527-570. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.springerlink.com/cont
ent/u1r1122ww6x285w6/fulltext.pdf

[2] Hans Berger UNKNOWN
source: http://www.psychiatrie.uniklinik
um-jena.de/img/Psychiatrie_/Startseite/G
eschichte/Personen/640/UKJ_Psy_Hist_Pers
_Berger-Hans_07.jpg
71 YBN
[04/26/1929 AD] 		5476) Plastic polarizer sheet.
(Norwich Research, Inc.) Norwich,
Connecticut, USA 
[1] Edwin H. Land and Joseph S.
Friedman, ''Polarizing Refracting
Bodies'', Patent number: 1918848,
Filing date: Apr 26, 1929, Issue date:
Jul 18,
1933 http://www.google.com/patents?id=s
3JaAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&sou
rce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=f
alse PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=s3JaAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f
=false

[2] Edwin H. Land UNKNOWN
source: http://www.kipnotes.com/land.jpg

71 YBN
[05/10/1929 AD] 		5445) The electron lens; an
electromagnetic field is used to focus
a beam of electrons.
(Technischen Hochschule/Technical
University) Berlin, Germany 
[1] Ernst Ruska, ''Über eine
Berechnungsmethode des
Kathodenstrahloszillographen auf Grund
der experimentell gefundenen
Abhängigkeit des
Schreibfleckdurchmessers von der
Stellung der Konzentrierspule.'',
Studienarbeit Technische Hochschule
Berlin, Lehrstuhl für
Hochspannungstechnik, eingereicht am
10.5.1929. http://ernstruska.digilibrar
y.de/bibliographie/q001/q001.html {Rusk
a_Ernst_work1_19290510.pdf} UNKNOWN
source: http://ernstruska.digilibrary.de
/bibliographie/q001/q001.html

[2] Ernst Ruska, 1939 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.siemens.com/history/p
ool/perseunlichkeiten/wissenschaftler/ru
ska_1939.jpg
71 YBN
[06/17/1929 AD] 		4695) The carbohydrate in nucleic acid,
deoxyribose, is identified.
Because of
this nucleic acids will be divided into
ribonucleic acids (abbreviated RNA) and
deoxyribonucleic acids (abbreviated
DNA) based on the sugar they contain.
(Rockefeller Institute for Medical
Research) New York City, New York,
USA 
[1] Phoebus Aaron Theodor Levene,
1915. CC
source: http://www.dnalc.org/content/c16
/16345/16345_18.jpg

[2] n Levene.jpg English: en:Phoebus
Levene Polski: pl:Phoebus Levene Date
Unknown Source [1] Author
author of photograph
unknown Permission (Reusing this
file) ''The National Library of
Medicine believes this item to be in
the public
domain'' http://ihm.nlm.nih.gov/luna/se
rvlet/detail/NLMNLM~1~1~101421672~177086
:-Dr--Phoebus-A--Levene-?qvq=q:Phoebus+L
evene;lc:NLMNLM~1~1&mi=0&trs=2 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/34/Levene.jpg
71 YBN
[07/??/1929 AD] 		4969) The first instrument carrying
rocket. A rocket carries a barometer,
thermometer and a small camera.
Worchester, Massachusetts, USA 
[1] Plate from: Goddard,
“Liquid-Propellant Rocket
Development,” Smithsonian
Miscellaneous Collections, 95, no. 3
(1936) Reprinted in: Goddard,
''Rockets'' (New York, 1946).
{Goddard_Robert_1946.pdf} UNKNOWN
source: Goddard_Robert_1946.pdf

[2] English: Dr. Robert Hutchings
Goddard (1882-1945). Dr. Goddard has
been recognized as the father of
American rocketry and as one of the
pioneers in the theoretical exploration
of space. Robert Hutchings Goddard,
born in Worcester, Massachusetts, on
October 5, 1882, was theoretical
scientist as well as a practical
engineer. His dream was the conquest of
the upper atmosphere and ultimately
space through the use of rocket
propulsion. Dr. Goddard, died in 1945,
but was probably as responsible for the
dawning of the Space Age as the Wrights
were for the beginning of the Air Age.
Yet his work attracted little serious
attention during his lifetime. However,
when the United States began to prepare
for the conquest of space in the
1950's, American rocket scientists
began to recognize the debt owed to the
New England professor. They discovered
that it was virtually impossible to
construct a rocket or launch a
satellite without acknowledging the
work of Dr. Goddard. More than 200
patents, many of which were issued
after his death, covered this great
legacy. Date 0 Unknown date
0000(0000-00-00) Source Great
Images in NASA
Description http://dayton.hq.nasa.gov/I
MAGES/LARGE/GPN-2002-000131.jpg PD
source: Goddard_Robert_1946.pdf
71 YBN
[07/??/1929 AD] 		4972) The first rocket to move faster
than the speed of sound.
Worchester, Massachusetts, USA 
[1] Plate from: Goddard,
“Liquid-Propellant Rocket
Development,” Smithsonian
Miscellaneous Collections, 95, no. 3
(1936) Reprinted in: Goddard,
''Rockets'' (New York, 1946).
{Goddard_Robert_1946.pdf} UNKNOWN
source: Goddard_Robert_1946.pdf

[2] English: Dr. Robert Hutchings
Goddard (1882-1945). Dr. Goddard has
been recognized as the father of
American rocketry and as one of the
pioneers in the theoretical exploration
of space. Robert Hutchings Goddard,
born in Worcester, Massachusetts, on
October 5, 1882, was theoretical
scientist as well as a practical
engineer. His dream was the conquest of
the upper atmosphere and ultimately
space through the use of rocket
propulsion. Dr. Goddard, died in 1945,
but was probably as responsible for the
dawning of the Space Age as the Wrights
were for the beginning of the Air Age.
Yet his work attracted little serious
attention during his lifetime. However,
when the United States began to prepare
for the conquest of space in the
1950's, American rocket scientists
began to recognize the debt owed to the
New England professor. They discovered
that it was virtually impossible to
construct a rocket or launch a
satellite without acknowledging the
work of Dr. Goddard. More than 200
patents, many of which were issued
after his death, covered this great
legacy. Date 0 Unknown date
0000(0000-00-00) Source Great
Images in NASA
Description http://dayton.hq.nasa.gov/I
MAGES/LARGE/GPN-2002-000131.jpg PD
source: Goddard_Robert_1946.pdf
71 YBN
[08/23/1929 AD] 		6500) Direct neuron writing to the eye
screen; a point on the occipital region
of the human brain is electrically
stimulated and the human sees a small
spot of light.
 
[1] (translated from German) Location
and extent of sclerotic scar in case 2
on the Konvexitiit. •. • 19 points
of the field, from the en eye movement
to the right and Flammenskotome were
achieved. · - · - · - · - ·
Exzisionslinie. [1] FOERSTER,
0tfrid. (1929). Beiträge zur
Pathophysiologie der Sehbahn und der
Sehsphare. J. Journal für
Psychologie und Neurologie, Leipzig.
39, 463-485.
http://books.google.com/books?id=PSXlA
AAAMAAJ {Foerster_19290823.pdf} COPYRI
GHTED
source: {Foerster_19290823.pdf}

[2] (translated from German) Shrapnel
injury of the left occipital lobe [2]
FOERSTER, 0tfrid. (1929). Beiträge
zur Pathophysiologie der Sehbahn und
der Sehsphare. J. Journal für
Psychologie und Neurologie, Leipzig.
39, 463-485.
http://books.google.com/books?id=PSXlA
AAAMAAJ {Foerster_19290823.pdf} COPYRI
GHTED
source: {Foerster_19290823.pdf}
71 YBN
[08/??/1929 AD] 		5136) The female sex hormone estrone is
isolated in crystalline form.
(St. Louis University) St. Louis,
Missouri, USA 
[1] Description The image of
American Nobel laureate Edward Adelbert
Doisy (1893-1986). Source This
image has been downloaded from
http://www.nndb.com/people/859/000128475
/ Date uploaded: 18:39, 23 July
2008 (UTC) Author not
known COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/7/71/Edward_A._Doisy.jpg
71 YBN
[09/13/1929 AD] 		5358) The method of cardiac
catheterization is introduced. A
catheter (plastic tube) enters a vein
in the elbow and is pushes directly
into the right atrium of the heart.
This removes the need to directly
inject drugs into the heart in an
emergency.
(Chirurgischen Abteilung des Augusta
Viktoria-Heims zu Eberswalde) 
[1] Figure from: Werner Forssmann,
''Die Sondierung des Rechten Herzens'',
(''THE SOUNDING OF THE RIGHT HEART'')
Journal of Molecular Medicine, Volume
8, Number 45,
2085-2087. http://www.springerlink.com/
content/m3748762541316x5/ {Forssmann_We
rner_19290913.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.springerlink.com/cont
ent/m3748762541316x5/

[2] Werner Theodor Otto
Forssmann COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1956/forssmann.jpg

71 YBN
[1929 AD] 		4919) The theory that the light of the
Sun is mostly from hydrogen.
(Mount Wilson Observatory) Pasadena,
California, USA 
[1] Figure from: Russell, H. N., ''On
the Composition of the Sun's
Atmosphere'', Astrophysical Journal,
vol. 70,
p.11. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/19
29ApJ....70...11R {Russell_Henry_Norris
_1929.pdf} UNKNOWN
source: http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?db_key=AST
&bibcode=1929ApJ....70...11R&letter=0&cl
assic=YES&defaultprint=YES&whole_paper=Y
ES&page=11&epage=11&send=Send+PDF&filety
pe=.pdf

[2] Henry Norris Russell UNKNOWN
source: http://www.optcorp.com/images2/a
rticles/full-russell.jpg
71 YBN
[1929 AD] 		4935) The Schmidt telescope, which
allows viewing of large areas of the
sky.
(Hamburg Observatory) Bergedorf,
Germany 
[1] Description Schmidt telescope
(PSF).png Line art of Schmidt
telescope. Date Source Pearson
Scott Foresman, donated to the
Wikimedia Foundation Author
Pearson Scott Foresman PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/7e/Schmidt_telescope_%28
PSF%29.png

[2] Bernhard Voldemar
Schmidt UNKNOWN
source: http://www.google.com/imgres?img
url=http://www.todayinsci.com/S/Schmidt_
Bernhard/SchmidtBernhardThm.jpg&imgrefur
l=http://www.todayinsci.com/12/12_01.htm
&usg=__2_ju5ndP13wCKOezz4swDGHz1hM=&h=12
5&w=100&sz=4&hl=en&start=0&zoom=1&tbnid=
ONZznw5W3VGZTM:&tbnh=100&tbnw=80&prev=/i
mages%3Fq%3DBernhard%2BVoldemar%2BSchmid
t%2Btelescope%26um%3D1%26hl%3Den%26safe%
3Doff%26biw%3D968%26bih%3D568%26tbs%3Dis
ch:1&um=1&itbs=1&iact=rc&dur=346&ei=KGkY
TarIF4qisAPJtIGICg&oei=KGkYTarIF4qisAPJt
IGICg&esq=1&page=1&ndsp=15&ved=1t:429,r:
0,s:0&tx=47&ty=23
71 YBN
[1929 AD] 		5371) Two parallel counters surrounded
by thick shielding of lead and iron and
separated by several centimeters in a
vertical plane are found to
occasionally discharge in coincidence
by the passage of a charged particle
through the shield and the two
counters.
(University of Giessen) Giessen,
Germany (presumably) 
[1] The Nobel Prize in Physics 1954 was
divided equally between Max Born ''for
his fundamental research in quantum
mechanics, especially for his
statistical interpretation of the
wavefunction'' and Walther Bothe ''for
the coincidence method and his
discoveries made
therewith''. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/physics/laureates/1954/bothe.jpg
70 YBN
[01/??/1930 AD] 		5178) Protons subjected to 25kV are
collided with a copper target and no
radiation is found from the proton
impacts.
(Cornell University) Ithaca, New York,
USA 
[1] Description: middle age; full-face;
eyeglasses, mustache, suit Date:
Unknown Credit: AIP Emilio Segre
Visual Archives, Physics Today
Collection Names: Barton, Henry
Askew COPYRIGHTED
source: http://photos.aip.org/history/Th
umbnails/barton_henry_a1.jpg

[2] Sir John Douglas
Cockcroft COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/physics/laureates/1951/cockcro
ft_postcard.jpg
70 YBN
[02/18/1930 AD] 		4795) The two characteristic electrical
oscillations measured with electrodes
placed on the head are named "alpha"
and "beta".
(University of Jena) Jena,
Germany 
[1] Figure from: Berger, ''Über das
Elektroenkephalogramm des Menschen.'',
Archiv für Psychiatrie und
Nervenkrankheiten, 1930, 40:
160-179. tr: Hans Berger, tr: Pierre
Gloor, ''Hans Berger on the
Electroencephalogram of Man'', 1969.
COPYRIGHTED
source: Berger, "Über das
Elektroenkephalogramm des Menschen.",
Archiv für Psychiatrie und
Nervenkrankheiten, 1930, 40:
160-179. tr: Hans Berger, tr: Pierre
Gloor, "Hans Berger on the
Electroencephalogram of Man", 1969.

[2] Hans Berger UNKNOWN
source: http://www.psychiatrie.uniklinik
um-jena.de/img/Psychiatrie_/Startseite/G
eschichte/Personen/640/UKJ_Psy_Hist_Pers
_Berger-Hans_07.jpg
70 YBN
[02/18/1930 AD] 		5398) The dwarf planet Pluto is
identified.
(Lowell Observatory) Flagstaff,
Arizona, USA 
[1] Figure from: V. M. Slipher and
Clyde W. Tombaugh, ''The Sun's New
Trans-Neptunian Planet'', Science
news-letter, Slipher (1930) volume:
17 issue: 467 page:
179 http://www.jstor.org/openurl?volume
=17&date=1930&spage=179&issn=00964018&is
sue=467 {Tombaugh_Clyde_19300322.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/openurl?vol
ume=17&date=1930&spage=179&issn=00964018
&issue=467

[2] Clyde Tombaugh UNKNOWN
source: http://api.ning.com/files/OmULmJ
2J69frI92xQHLcSDuSdotFnlp5vrU83Zy5Ou1VGm
P8uNw7L9f1oAqu0CpZ*J6MKCCs00aW-p6dKhG2oW
oSGlRfeMRp/ClydeTombaugh.jpg
70 YBN
[02/??/1930 AD] 		5009) The suggestion that
"extragalactic nebulae" be called
"galaxies", recognizing that our own
galaxy is only one of many. Before this
the word "galaxy" had only referred to
our galaxy, that is the group of stars
within the radius of the globular
clusters.
(Harvard College Observatory)
Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA 
[1] * Harlow Shapley's observations
placed the Sun about 25,000 light years
from the center of our home Galaxy.
* Photo credit: National
Academies UNKNOWN
source: http://www.cosmotography.com/ima
ges/dark_matter_gallery/HarlowShapley.jp
g
70 YBN
[04/04/1930 AD] 		5220) The first vaccine against yellow
fever.
(Harvard University) Cambridge,
Massachusetts, USA  
[1] Description Portrait of Max
Theiler Source
http://www.nndb.com/people/561/0001
29174/ Article Max
Theiler Portion used No Low
resolution? Yes COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/e/e0/Max_Theiler00.jpg
70 YBN
[07/19/1930 AD] 		5020) The presence throughout the
galactic plane of interstellar matter
that absorbs light and decreases the
apparent brightness of distant star
clusters is demonstrated.
(Mount Hamilton) Santa Clara County,
California, USA 
[1] Robert Julius Trumpler UNKNOWN
source: http://thienvanhoc.org/news/imag
es/stories/Image/chuyenmuc/ngaynaynamxua
/rtrumpler.JPG

[2] Note how the absorption lines
associated with the element calcium in
older stars shift to redder wavelengths
as a galaxy's distance increases...
[t But not how the emission spectral
lines don't shift in any way
whatsoever. Given the above explanation
that the calcium absorption lines are
due to interstellar matter, it may be
that the calcium frequency photons are
absorbed quickly near the star, and
then UNKNOWN
source: http://atropos.as.arizona.edu/ai
z/teaching/a204/images/hubble_law.gif
70 YBN
[08/19/1930 AD] 		5177) Artificial radiation is induced
by protons and molecules with a voltage
of 280 kV.

Protons and molecules are collided at
voltages up to 280 kV with a lead and a
beryllium salt target which results in
radiation emitted from the targets.
(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England 
[1] Sir John Douglas
Cockcroft COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/physics/laureates/1951/cockcro
ft_postcard.jpg

[2] Ernest Thomas Sinton
Walton COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/physics/laureates/1951/walton_
postcard.jpg
70 YBN
[10/10/1930 AD] 		5268) The circular particle accelerator
(the cyclotron) in which an
electromagnetic field accelerates and
deflects the path of ions into circles
by Ernest Lawrence.
(University of California) Berkeley,
California, USA 
[1] Figures 1-4 from: Ernest O.
Lawrence, METHOD AND APPARATUS FOR THE
ACCELERATION OF IONS, Patent 1948384,
Filed:
01/26/1932. http://www.google.com/paten
ts?hl=en&lr=&vid=USPAT1948384&id=egdOAAA
AEBAJ&oi=fnd&dq=EO+Lawrence&printsec=abs
tract#v=onepage&q&f=false
{Lawrence_Ernest_19320126.pdf} UNKNOW
N
source: http://www.google.com/patents?hl
=en&lr=&vid=USPAT1948384&id=egdOAAAAEBAJ
&oi=fnd&dq=EO+Lawrence&printsec=abstract
#v=onepage&q&f=false

[2] Ernest Orlando Lawrence UNKNOWN
source: http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_Uhse4P
aiRAY/TF7dj-zaM1I/AAAAAAAAAGw/6lxKVLTfhs
M/s320/Ernest_Orlando_Lawrence.jpg
70 YBN
[10/10/1930 AD] 		5269) Neutron rays are shown to be
nearly 10 times as effective as x-rays
in lowering the total number of
lymphocytes in blood.
(University of California) Berkeley,
California, USA 
[1] Figures 1-4 from: Ernest O.
Lawrence, METHOD AND APPARATUS FOR THE
ACCELERATION OF IONS, Patent 1948384,
Filed:
01/26/1932. http://www.google.com/paten
ts?hl=en&lr=&vid=USPAT1948384&id=egdOAAA
AEBAJ&oi=fnd&dq=EO+Lawrence&printsec=abs
tract#v=onepage&q&f=false
{Lawrence_Ernest_19320126.pdf} UNKNOW
N
source: http://www.google.com/patents?hl
=en&lr=&vid=USPAT1948384&id=egdOAAAAEBAJ
&oi=fnd&dq=EO+Lawrence&printsec=abstract
#v=onepage&q&f=false

[2] Ernest Orlando Lawrence UNKNOWN
source: http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_Uhse4P
aiRAY/TF7dj-zaM1I/AAAAAAAAAGw/6lxKVLTfhs
M/s320/Ernest_Orlando_Lawrence.jpg
70 YBN
[10/23/1930 AD] 		5077) Very penetrating radiation is
found to be emitted from beryllium
bombarded with alpha particles, which
will be shown later to be neutrons.
(University of Berlin) Berlin,
Germany 
[1] W. Bothe,H. Becker, “Kunstliche
Erregung von Kern-γ-Strahlen”,
Zertschrift für Physik, 66 (1930),
289–306 ''Artificial excitation of
nuclear
γ-rays'' http://www.springerlink.com/i
ndex/r3g8x8558826u77j.pdf {Bothe_Walthe
r_19301023.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.springerlink.com/cont
ent/r3g8x8558826u77j/fulltext.pdf

[2] Figures 4 and 5 from: The Nobel
Prize in Physics 1954 was divided
equally between Max Born ''for his
fundamental research in quantum
mechanics, especially for his
statistical interpretation of the
wavefunction'' and Walther Bothe ''for
the coincidence method and his
discoveries made
therewith''. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/physics/laureates/1954/bothe.jpg
70 YBN
[12/04/1930 AD] 		5234) An unnamed particle is proposed
to account for the apparent violation
of the law of conservation of energy in
beta decay which will later be named a
"neutrino".
(Physical Institute of the Federal
Institute of Technology) Zürich,
Switzerland 
[1] Wolfgang Pauli UNKNOWN
source: http://osulibrary.oregonstate.ed
u/specialcollections/coll/pauling/bond/p
ictures/people/people-portrait-pauli.jpg

70 YBN
[1930 AD] 		5031) A hormone is isolated from the
pituitary gland that has the reverse
effect of insulin, and so can increase
the amount of sugar in the blood.
(University of Buenos Aires School of
Medicine) Buenos Aires, Argentina 		 
70 YBN
[1930 AD] 		5079) Pepsin is crystallized; the
protein-splitting digestive enzyme in
gastric secretions.
(Rockefeller Institute of Medical
Research) New York City, New York,
USA 
[1] The image of American chemist and
Nobel laureate John Howard Northrop
(1891-1987) Source This image has
been downloaded from
http://www.nndb.com/people/479/000100179
/ Date 16:12, 14 December 2008
(UTC) UNKNOWN
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/3/3a/John_Howard_Northrop.jpg
70 YBN
[1930 AD] 		6578) Women gain the right to vote in
most major nations.
 
[1] Description English: Rose
Sanderson Women's suffragists
demonstrate in February 1913. The
triangular pennants read ''VOTES FOR
WOMEN''. The negative is labeled ''ROSE
SANDERSON'', the woman holding the
trumpet. An adjacent photograph in the
series (LC-DIG-ggbain-12482) contains a
flyer labeled ''COME AND WATCH SUFFRAGE
SPREAD'' that identifies the event as
one sponsored by the National Suffrage
Association. MEDIUM: 1 negative :
glass ; 5 × 7 in. or
smaller. Русский: Роуз
Сандерсон
Демонстрация
суфражисток в
феврале 1913 г. На
треугольном вымпеле
читается надпись
«ГОЛОСОВАНИЕ -
ЖЕНЩИНАМ». Негатив
снимка помечен
словами «Роуз
Сандерсон», это имя
женщины, держащей
трубу. Date 10 February
1913 Source Library of Congress,
Prints & Photographs Division,
LC-DIG-ggbain-12483 (digital file from
original negative), archival TIFF
version (23 MiB), color level (pick
white point), cropped, and converted to
JPEG with the GIMP 2.6.1, image quality
88. Author Bain News Service.
Photographer unknown. Permission No
known restrictions on publication. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Rose-Sanderson-
Votes-for-Women.jpeg/1280px-Rose-Sanders
on-Votes-for-Women.jpeg

[2] {ULSF: Women protesting} PD
source: http://politic365.com/wp-content
/blogs.dir/1/files/2010/08/bellinghamsuf
fragists-1024x738.jpg
69 YBN
[05/29/1931 AD] 		5299) The theory that an anti-electron,
and anti-proton may exist with the same
mass, but opposite charge as an
electron and proton, respectively, and
that a light particle is a sphere that
can collide with other light particles.


This view of antimatter will later be
adapted or misinterpreted to claim that
anti-particles are non-material.
 
[1] Opis Dirac 3.jpg Paul
Dirac Data circa 1930 Źródło
http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.a
c.uk/PictDisplay/Dirac.html Autor
Cambridge University, Cavendish
Laboratory [1] Licencja (Ponowne
użycie tego pliku) patrz
poniżej. UNKNOWN
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/7d/Dirac_3.jpg
69 YBN
[09/10/1931 AD] 		5446) The electron microscope is
invented by Ernst Ruska and Max Knoll,
using magnetic fields to focus electron
beams similar to how a lens focuses
light beams.

This microscope can only magnify an
object 16x.

This microscope is a "transmission
electron microscope" (or TEM) which
transmits electrons through the
specimen.
(Technischen Hochschule/Technical
University) Berlin, Germany 
[1] Figure 2 from: M. Knoll und E.
Ruska, ''Beitrag zur geometrischen
Elektronenoptik.'', Ann. Physik 12
(1932) 607-661, eingegangen am
10.9.1931. http://ernstruska.digilibrar
y.de/bibliographie/q004/q004.html {Rusk
a_Ernst_q004_19310910.pdf} UNKNOWN
source: http://ernstruska.digilibrary.de
/bibliographie/q004/q004.html

[2] Ernst Ruska, 1939 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.siemens.com/history/p
ool/perseunlichkeiten/wissenschaftler/ru
ska_1939.jpg
69 YBN
[10/03/1931 AD] 		5161) The first synthetic rubber:
neoprene.
( E.I. du Pont de Nemours & Company)
Wilmington, Delaware, USA 
[1] Wallace Carothers. Carothers
demonstrating a piece of his new
synthetic rubber in laboratory. AP
IMAGES. Wallace
Carothers COPYRIGHTED
source: http://listverse.files.wordpress
.com/2007/10/carothers.jpg
69 YBN
[10/13/1931 AD] 		5319) The male sex hormone
"androsterone" is isolated.
(University of Göttingen) Göttingen,
Germany 
[1] Description Adolf Friedrich Johann
Butenandt 1939.jpg Adolf Beutenand,
Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1939 Date
1939(1939) Source
http://nobelprize.org/ Author
Nobel Foundation PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/11/Adolf_Friedrich_Johan
n_Butenandt_1939.jpg
69 YBN
[11/29/1931 AD] 		5213) The structure of the crystal
lattice of cellulose is determined
using x-rays.
(University of Leeds) Leeds,
England 
[1] Figure 1 from: W. T. ASTBURY &
THOBA C. MARWICK, ''Structure of the
Crystal Lattice of Cellulose'', Nature
127, 12-13 (03 January
1931). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v127/n3192/abs/127012a0.html {Astb
ury_William_19311129.pdf} COPYRIGHTED

source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v127/n3192/pdf/127012a0.pdf

[2] William T.
Astbury 1950s 1898-1961 UNKNOWN
source: http://osulibrary.oregonstate.ed
u/specialcollections/coll/nonspcoll/cata
logue/portrait-astbury-150w.jpg
69 YBN
[12/05/1931 AD] 		5125) Deuterium is isolated: an isotope
of hydrogen with a neutron and proton
instead of just a proton, also known as
"heavy hydrogen".
(Bureau of Standards) Washington, D. C.
(and Columbia University) New York
City, New York, USA 
[1] Harold Clayton Urey The Nobel
Prize in Chemistry 1934 was awarded to
Harold C. Urey ''for his discovery of
heavy hydrogen''. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1934/urey.
jpg
69 YBN
[12/16/1931 AD] 		5370) That cosmic particles can
penetrate through a meter of solid lead
is demonstrated.
(University of Florence) Florence,
Italy 
[1] Bruno Benedetto Rossi April 13,
1905 — November 21, 1993 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.nap.edu/html/biomems/
photo/brossi.JPG
69 YBN
[12/19/1931 AD] 		5288) A high-voltage electrostatic
generator (the Van de Graaff
generator).
(Princeton University) Princeton, New
Jersey, USA 
[1] Figure 1 from Robert Jemison Van
De Graaff, ''Electrostatic Generator'',
Patent number: 1991236, Filing date:
Dec 16, 1931, Issue date: Feb 12,
1935 http://www.google.com/patents?id=i
NN5AAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&sou
rce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=f
alse PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=iNN5AAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f
=false

[2] Description Robert J. Van de
Graaff.jpg Polski: Robert J.Van de
Graaff. Date ok. 1935 Source
http://wwwnt.if.pwr.wroc.pl/kwazar/
mtk2/fizycy/126165/images/images5.jpg A
uthor Minęło 70 lat od śmierci
autora. Permission (Reusing this
file) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/bd/Robert_J._Van_de_Graa
ff.jpg
69 YBN
[12/28/1931 AD] 		5188) That gamma rays are emitted by
the bombardment of boron by alpha
particles is determined.
(Radium Institute) Paris, France
(presumably) 
[1] Irène Joliot-Curie Library of
Congress PD
source: http://content.answcdn.com/main/
content/img/scitech/HSirenej.jpg

[2] Joliot-curie.jpg Irène
Curie Date 1935(1935) Source
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/
chemistry/laureates/1935/joliot-curie-bi
o.html Author Nobel
Foundation PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/79/Joliot-curie.jpg
69 YBN
[1931 AD] 		4964) Cosmic ray showers are detected
when counters placed in separate rooms
record simultaneous detections.
(University of Tübingen) Tübingen,
Germany 
[1] Figure 1: Rutherford-Geiger alpha
particle counter design Figure 2:
Geiger 1912 design UNKNOWN
source: http://go.galegroup.com/ps/retri
eve.do?sgHitCountType=None&sort=RELEVANC
E&inPS=true&prodId=GVRL&userGroupName=un
ivca20&tabID=T003&searchId=R1&resultList
Type=RESULT_LIST&contentSegment=&searchT
ype=AdvancedSearchForm¤tPosition=1&cont
entSet=GALE

[2] Description Geiger,Hans
1928.jpg English: Physicist Hans
Geiger, 1928 Deutsch: Physiker Hans
Geiger, 1928 Date 1928 Source
Own work Author GFHund GNU
source: CX2830901600&&docId=GALE
69 YBN
[1931 AD] 		4991) A pressurized air-tight air
vehicle cabin.
Augsburg, Germany 
[1] Description
AugustePiccardandPaulKipfer.jpg Englis
h: Paul Kipfer and August Piccard
prepare to enter the stratosphere in a
pressurized gondola lifted by a
hydrogen filled balloon on May 27th,
1931. Date May 27th, 1931.
2007-10-24 (original upload
date) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia; transferred to Commons by
User:Storkk using CommonsHelper. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/17/AugustePiccardandPaul
Kipfer.jpg

[2] Title: Auguste Piccard People
in the image: * Piccard, Auguste
Prof.: Physiker, Ballonfahrer,
Stratosphären- und Tiefseeforscher,
Schweiz August 1932(1932-08) Source
Deutsches Bundesarchiv (German
Federal Archive), Bild
102-13738 Author Unknown CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a0/Bundesarchiv_Bild_102
-13738%2C_Auguste_Piccard.jpg
69 YBN
[1931 AD] 		5054) Vitamin A is synthesized.
(Chemical Institute) Zürich,
Switzerland 
[1] Description Paul Karrer (21
April 1889 – 18 June 1971), Swiss
organic chemist. Photograph taken
August 7, 1933. Source
Bettmann/CORBIS Article Paul
Karrer Portion used Entire Low
resolution? Yes COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/4/43/Paul_Karrer.jpg
68 YBN
[02/17/1932 AD] 		5086) The neutron is identified and
distinguished from a hydrogen atom by
James Chadwick.

Chadwick identifies a neutral particle
he names a "neutron", which can be
supposed to "consist of a proton and an
electron in close combination" with a
mass "slightly less than the mass of
the hydrogen atom".
(Cavendish Lab University of Cambridge)
Cambridge, England 
[1] Figure 1 from: J. Chadwick, ''The
Existence of a Neutron'', Proceedings
of the Royal Society of London. Series
A, Containing Papers of a Mathematical
and Physical Character, Vol. 136, No.
830 (Jun. 1, 1932), pp.
692-708. http://www.jstor.org/stable/95
816 {Chadwick_James_19320510.pdf}
{full report: 05/10/1932} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/pdfp
lus/95816.pdf?acceptTC=true

[2] Description
Chadwick.jpg en:James
Chadwick Date ~1935 (original
photograph), 2007-08-11 (original
upload date) Source Transfered
from en.wikipedia. Original source:
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1935/chadwick-bio.html COP
YRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c2/Chadwick.jpg
68 YBN
[02/??/1932 AD] 		5062) The globular clusters around the
Andromeda galaxy are found to be
distributed around the galactic center,
which supports the observed positions
of globular clusters of this galaxy.
(Mount Wilson) Mount Wilson,
California, USA 
[1] Hubble, E., ''Nebulous Objects in
Messier 31 Provisionally Identified as
Globular Clusters'', Astrophysical
Journal, vol. 76,
p.44. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/19
32ApJ....76...44H {Hubble_Edwin_193202x
x.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
932ApJ....76...44H

[2] Edwin Hubble (with pipe)
Photograph of famous deceased scientist
Edwin Hubble for use in the appropriate
encyclopedia article. Original
Source: Edwin Hubble Biography at
Western Washington University
Planetarium:
http://www.wwu.edu/depts/skywise/hubble.
html UNKNOWN
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/6/64/Hubble.jpg
68 YBN
[03/01/1932 AD] 		5342) The electric potential created in
a single neuron in the eye of a
horse-shoe crab when light contacts the
retina is measured; around 0.5
millivolts.
(University of Pennsylvania)
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA 
[1] Figure 1 from: H. KEFFER HARTLINE
AND C. H. GRAHAM, ''NERVE IMPULSES FROM
SINGLE RECEPTORS IN THE EYE'', JOURNAL
OF CELLULAR AND COMPARATIVE PHYSIOLOGY,
V1, Num 2, 1932. Reprinted
in: American Journal of Physiology,
January 1938 vol. 121 no. 2
400-415. http://ajplegacy.physiology.or
g/content/121/2/400.full.pdf+html {Hart
line_Haldan_19320301.pdf} COPYRIGHTED

source: http://ajplegacy.physiology.org/
content/121/2/400.full.pdf+html

[2] Haldan Keffer Hartline Nobel
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1967/hartline.jpg
68 YBN
[04/16/1932 AD] 		5182) Atomic fission and the first
nuclear transformation by protons:
Lithium atoms are split by protons
under 125 kilovolts into two Helium
atoms.
(Cavendish Laboratory, Cambridge
University) Cambridge, England 
[1] Sir John Douglas
Cockcroft COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/physics/laureates/1951/cockcro
ft_postcard.jpg

[2] Ernest Thomas Sinton
Walton COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/physics/laureates/1951/walton_
postcard.jpg
68 YBN
[04/23/1932 AD] 		5053) Light is scattered using
ultrasound.
(Massachusetts Institute of Technology)
 
[1] Description Debye100.jpg Petrus
Josephus Wilhelmus Debije
(1884-1966) Date
1912(1912) Source
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/~eugeniik
/history/debye.html Author PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/62/Debye100.jpg
68 YBN
[04/29/1932 AD] 		5385) That thunderstorms produce radio
light is shown.
(Bell Telephone Laboratories) New York
City, New York, USA 
[1] [t Note that the image with the
oval shape is somewhat deceptive in my
opinion, because the shape is probably
more like a rectangle that extends
infront of the antenna out to
infinity.] Figure from: Jansky, Karl
G., ''Directional Studies of
Atmospherics at High
Frequencies'', Proceedings of the
Institute of Radio Engineers, 1932,
V20,
p1920. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du/full/2005ASPC..345....3J {Jansky_Kar
l_19320429.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du/full/2005ASPC..345....3J

[2] Karl Jansky c1933 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.nrao.edu/whatisra/ima
ges/jansky4.jpg
68 YBN
[04/30/1932 AD] 		5244) The "urea cycle" is described:
amino acids (the monomers of proteins)
lose their nitrogen in the form of
urea, which is excreted in urine.
(University of Freiburg) Freiburg,
Germany 
[1] Diagrams from: Hans Adolf Krebs
and Kurt Henseleit, ''Untersuchungen
über die Harnstoffbildung im
Tierkörper'', (''Studies on the
formation of urea in the body''),
Journal of Molecular Medicine, Volume
11, Number 18,
757-759. http://www.springerlink.com/co
ntent/vx83193475454683/ {Krebs_Hans_193
20430.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.springerlink.com/cont
ent/vx83193475454683/

[2] Description The image of
German-British physician Hans Adolf
Krebs (1922-2000) Source This
image has been downloaded from
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1953/ Date 13:51,
27 November 2008 (UTC) Author not
known COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/b/ba/Hans_Adolf_Krebs.jpg
68 YBN
[05/08/1932 AD] 		5386) A radio light source from outside
the solar system is detected.
(Bell Telephone Laboratories) New York
City, New York, USA 
[1] figure 1 from: Jansky, KG,
''Electrical phenomena that apparently
are of interstellar origin.'', Popular
Astronomy, 41, 548-55. (1935)
http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi
-bin/nph-journal_query?volume=41&plate_s
elect=NO&page=548&plate=&cover=&journal=
PA... {Jansky_Karl_19330914.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du/cgi-bin/nph-journal_query?volume=41&p
late_select=NO&page=548&plate=&cover=&jo
urnal=PA...

[2] He built an antenna, pictured
here, designed to receive radio waves
at a frequency of 20.5 MHz (wavelength
about 14.5 meters). It was mounted on
a turntable that allowed it to rotate
in any direction, earning it the name
''Jansky's merry-go-round''. By
rotating the antenna, one could find
what the direction was to any radio
signal. After recording signals
from all directions for several months,
Jansky identified three types of
static: 1. nearby thunderstorms, 2.
distant thunderstorms, and 3. a faint
steady hiss of unknown origin. Jansky
spent over a year investigating the
third type of static. It rose and fell
once a day, leading Jansky to think at
first that he was seeing radiation from
the Sun. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.nrao.edu/whatisra/ima
ges/jansky1.gif
68 YBN
[05/09/1932 AD] 		5167) Vitamin C is isolated.
(University of Pittsburgh) Pittsburgh,
Pennsylvania, USA 
[1] Charles Glen King COPYRIGHTED
source: http://files.pittsburghlive.com/
photos/2008-09-20/0921-pitthist-b.jpg
68 YBN
[06/07/1932 AD] 		5286) The theory that protons and
neutrons are held together in an atomic
nucleus by exchanging electrons which
will come to be known as the "strong"
force. In addition a quantum number
which distinguishes between a proton
and a neutron is introduced.
(University of Leipsig) Leipsig,
Germany 
[1] Werner Karl Heisenberg Library of
Congress There are some photos of
Heisenberg with unusual looking hair
style, which is characteristic of
theoretical math and physics people. it
goes back into the 1800s if not
earlier. Perhaps it is some kind of
gimmick to attract attention, or
perhaps just simply an expression of a
creative non-conformist mind.[t] PD
source: http://content.answcdn.com/main/
content/img/scitech/HSwerner.jpg
68 YBN
[06/15/1932 AD] 		5183) A variety of elements are
disintegrated using high-speed protons,
for example Fluorine into Oxygen and
Sodium into Neon.
(Cavendish Laboratory, Cambridge
University) Cambridge, England 
[1] Figure 1 from: [2] J. D. Cockcroft
and E. T. S. Walton, ''Experiments with
High Velocity Positive Ions. II. The
Disintegration of Elements by High
Velocity Protons'', Proc. R. Soc. Lond.
A July 1, 1932 137:229-242;
doi:10.1098/rspa.1932.0133 http://rspa.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/137/8
31/229.full.pdf+html?sid=e2be827d-e445-4
270-a941-c4c2aaa2a385
{Cockcroft_John_19320615.pdf}
source: http://rspa.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/137/831/229.full.pdf+html
?sid=e2be827d-e445-4270-a941-c4c2aaa2a38
5

[2] Sir John Douglas
Cockcroft COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/physics/laureates/1951/cockcro
ft_postcard.jpg
68 YBN
[08/02/1932 AD] 		5381) The positive electron (the
positron) is identified by Carl
Anderson who captures photos of
positive electrons using a cloud
chamber.
(California Institute of Technology)
Pasadena, California 
[1] Figure 1: Carl D. Anderson, ''The
Positive Electron'', Phys. Rev. 43, 491
(1933). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v43/i6/p491_1 {Anderson_Carl_19330228
.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v43/i6/p491_1

[2] Carl David Anderson searching for
mesons. From LBNL archives, dated 1937.
from en:Image:Carl anderson.1937.jpeg
2005-10-28 04:46:20 . . Salsb PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/9e/Carl_anderson.1937.jp
g
68 YBN
[10/23/1932 AD] 		5377) Absorption lines for ammonia and
methane are recognized in the spectra
of Jupiter and the outer giant planets.
This is evidence that the outermost
atmosphere of Jupiter must be under
1000º Kelvin (726º C/1340º F).
(University of Göttingen) Göttingen,
Germany 
[1] Rupert Wildt (1905-76) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.tayabeixo.org/biograf
ias/images/Wildt.jpg
68 YBN
[1932 AD] 		4971) Gyroscopes and deflector vanes
are used to stabilize and guide
rockets.
(Clark University) Worchester,
Massachusetts, USA 
[1] Plate from: Goddard,
“Liquid-Propellant Rocket
Development,” Smithsonian
Miscellaneous Collections, 95, no. 3
(1936) Reprinted in: Goddard,
''Rockets'' (New York, 1946).
{Goddard_Robert_1946.pdf} UNKNOWN
source: Goddard_Robert_1946.pdf

[2] English: Dr. Robert Hutchings
Goddard (1882-1945). Dr. Goddard has
been recognized as the father of
American rocketry and as one of the
pioneers in the theoretical exploration
of space. Robert Hutchings Goddard,
born in Worcester, Massachusetts, on
October 5, 1882, was theoretical
scientist as well as a practical
engineer. His dream was the conquest of
the upper atmosphere and ultimately
space through the use of rocket
propulsion. Dr. Goddard, died in 1945,
but was probably as responsible for the
dawning of the Space Age as the Wrights
were for the beginning of the Air Age.
Yet his work attracted little serious
attention during his lifetime. However,
when the United States began to prepare
for the conquest of space in the
1950's, American rocket scientists
began to recognize the debt owed to the
New England professor. They discovered
that it was virtually impossible to
construct a rocket or launch a
satellite without acknowledging the
work of Dr. Goddard. More than 200
patents, many of which were issued
after his death, covered this great
legacy. Date 0 Unknown date
0000(0000-00-00) Source Great
Images in NASA
Description http://dayton.hq.nasa.gov/I
MAGES/LARGE/GPN-2002-000131.jpg PD
source: Goddard_Robert_1946.pdf
68 YBN
[1932 AD] 		5080) Trypsin is crystallized; a
protein-splitting enzyme of the
pancreatic secretions.
(Rockefeller Institute of Medical
Research) New York City, New York,
USA 
[1] The image of American chemist and
Nobel laureate John Howard Northrop
(1891-1987) Source This image has
been downloaded from
http://www.nndb.com/people/479/000100179
/ Date 16:12, 14 December 2008
(UTC) UNKNOWN
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/3/3a/John_Howard_Northrop.jpg
68 YBN
[1932 AD] 		5155) An orange-red dye with the trade
name "Prontosil" is found to have a
powerful effect on streptococcus
infections in mice.
(I. G. Farbenindustrie)
Wuppertal-Elberfeld, Germany 
[1] Gerhard DomagkGerhard Johannes Paul
Domagk COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1939/domagk.jpg
68 YBN
[1932 AD] 		6261) The first plastic-backed magnetic
recording tape is produced.
(BASF) Ludwigshafen, Germany 
[1] Sensation at the 1935 Berlin Radio
Fair: The magnetophone developed by AEG
with the new magnetic tape from
Ludwigshafen. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.basf.com/group/corpor
ate/en/function/conversions:/publish/con
tent/about-basf/history/1925-1944/images
/Magnetophon.jpg

[2] English: German Radio Station
TORN.FU.G. Approx. 1939. Together
with tape recorder Ton Sb, it formed a
basic radio station of the regimental
control link. Transmitter power was 2
watts, wavelength range 85 - 120 meters
(2.5 to 3.5 MHz). As Red Army radio
stations (RAF, RB, RCB etc.) operated
in this frequency band also, in
combination with multifunction tape
unit it was used for radio intelligence
and spreading of false
information. Military History Museum
of Artillery, Engineers and Signal
Corps, Saint Petersburg. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/%D0%93%D0%95%D0
%A0%D0%9C%D0%90%D0%9D%D0%A1%D0%9A%D0%90%
D0%AF_%D0%A0%D0%90%D0%94%D0%98%D0%9E%D0%
A1%D0%A2%D0%90%D0%9D%D0%A6%D0%98%D0%AF_T
ORN.FU.G._%28%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%85%29
.jpg/1252px-%D0%93%D0%95%D0%A0%D0%9C%D0%
90%D0%9D%D0%A1%D0%9A%D0%90%D0%AF_%D0%A0%
D0%90%D0%94%D0%98%D0%9E%D0%A1%D0%A2%D0%9
0%D0%9D%D0%A6%D0%98%D0%AF_TORN.FU.G._%28
%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%85%29.jpg
67 YBN
[02/08/1933 AD] 		5247) That light can not only
stimulates but can also inhibit
impulses along the optic nerve is
shown.
(Oxford Univerity) Oxford,
England 
[1] Granit R., ''The components of the
retinal action potential in mammals and
their relation to the discharge in the
optic nerve.'', J Physiol. 1933 Feb
8;77(3):207-39. http://jp.physoc.org/co
ntent/77/3/207.long {Granit_Ragnar_1933
0208.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://jp.physoc.org/content/77/
3/207.long

[2] Description Ragnar Arthur
Granit (October 30, 1900 – March 12,
1991), Finnish/Swedish
neuroscientist Source
http://images.nobelprize.org/nobel_pr
izes/medicine/laureates/1967/granit_post
card.jpg Article Ragnar
Granit Portion used Entire Low
resolution? Yes Purpose of use
It is only being used to
illustrate the article in
question COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/6/63/Ragnar_Granit.jpg
67 YBN
[03/27/1933 AD] 		5201) Positive electron tracks are
detected from collisions of neutrons
and gamma rays with lead.
(Cavendish Laboratory, University of
Cambridge) Cambridge, England 
[1] Description
Blackett-large.jpg English: Patrick
Blackett, Baron Blackett, ca.
1950 Date PD
source: http://www.sciencephoto.com/imag
es/download_wm_image.html/H402377-Patric
k_Blackett-SPL.jpg?id=724020377

[2] Patrick Blackett Nobel
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c3/Blackett-large.jpg
67 YBN
[03/??/1933 AD] 		4164) The speed of light in a vacuum is
measured and found to have an average
of 299,774 km/s (186,271 miles a
second).
Irvine, CA, USA 
[1] Figure from 1935 paper in
Astrophysical Journal COPYRIGHTED
source: http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du/cache/seri/ApJ../0082/600/0000029.000
.gif

[2] from 1933 Popular
Science COPYRIGHTED
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=GSgDAAAAMBAJ&printsec=frontcover&source
=gbs_navlinks_s#v=onepage&q=&f=false
67 YBN
[04/10/1933 AD] 		5189) In addition to neutrons, and
gamma rays, positive electrons are
detected from bombarding Beryllium with
alpha particles.
(Radium Institute) Paris, France
(presumably) 
[1] Irène Joliot-Curie Library of
Congress PD
source: http://content.answcdn.com/main/
content/img/scitech/HSirenej.jpg

[2] Joliot-curie.jpg Irène
Curie Date 1935(1935) Source
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/
chemistry/laureates/1935/joliot-curie-bi
o.html Author Nobel
Foundation PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/79/Joliot-curie.jpg
67 YBN
[05/22/1933 AD] 		5190) The theory that a quantum of
gamma rays can transform into a
positive and negative electron.
(Radium Institute) Paris, France
(presumably) 
[1] Irène Joliot-Curie Library of
Congress PD
source: http://content.answcdn.com/main/
content/img/scitech/HSirenej.jpg

[2] Joliot-curie.jpg Irène
Curie Date 1935(1935) Source
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/
chemistry/laureates/1935/joliot-curie-bi
o.html Author Nobel
Foundation PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/79/Joliot-curie.jpg
67 YBN
[06/16/1933 AD] 		5278) High-speed protons cause
transmutation in Lithium and Boron.
(Cavendish Lab University of Cambridge)
Cambridge, England 
[1] Description Sir Mark
Oliphant.jpg English: Photograph of
Sir Mark Oliphant AC KBE Date
1939(1939) Source
http://www.portrait.gov.au/static/c
oll_741Sir+Mark+Oliphant.php Author
Bassano Ltd Permission (Reusing
this file) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/34/Sir_Mark_Oliphant.jpg

67 YBN
[07/30/1933 AD] 		5069) Frequency modulation (FM) of
radio is invented, which eliminates the
problem of static from amplitude
modulation (AM).
New York City, New York, USA 
[1] Figure 1 from: Armstrong, E. H.,
U.S. Patent 1,941,066,
1933 http://www.google.com/patents/abou
t?id=uyFoAAAAEBAJ&dq=1941066 PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents/ab
out?id=uyFoAAAAEBAJ&output=text

[2] Edwin Howard Armstrong, Radio
Engineer COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.todaysengineer.org/20
08/Dec/images/history-pic.jpg
67 YBN
[08/01/1933 AD] 		4985) Vitamin C is synthesized and
named ascorbic acid.
(Federal Institute of Technology)
Zurich, Switzerland and (Birmingham
University) Birmingham, England 
[1] Description Thadeus Reichstein
ETH-Bib Portr 10137.jpg Deutsch:
Porträt von Tadeus Reichstein Date
Unknown Source
ETH-Bibliothek Zürich,
Bildarchiv Author ETH Zürich CC

source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/4d/Thadeus_Reichstein_ET
H-Bib_Portr_10137.jpg

[2] English: Walter Norman
Haworth Date 1937(1937) Source
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/
chemistry/laureates/1937/haworth-bio.htm
l Author Nobel
Foundation COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/31/Norman_Haworth.jpg
67 YBN
[09/10/1933 AD] 		4812) A method to photograph images of
thought is proposed.
(Tesla's private lab) New York City,
NY, USA (verify) 
[1] Carol Bird, ''Tremendous New Power
Soon to Be Unleashed'', Kansas City
Journal-Post, 09/10/1933, in Solutions,
pp101-102.
http://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=
336&dat=19330909&id=0KVOAAAAIBAJ&sjid=9b
UDAAAAIBAJ&pg=6908,2324471 UNKNOWN
source: http://news.google.com/newspaper
s?nid=336&dat=19330909&id=0KVOAAAAIBAJ&s
jid=9bUDAAAAIBAJ&pg=6908,2324471

[2] Carol Bird, ''Tremendous New Power
Soon to Be Unleashed'', Kansas City
Journal-Post, 09/10/1933, in Solutions,
pp101-102.
http://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=
336&dat=19330909&id=0KVOAAAAIBAJ&sjid=9b
UDAAAAIBAJ&pg=6908,2324471 UNKNOWN
source: http://news.google.com/newspaper
s?nid=336&dat=19330909&id=0KVOAAAAIBAJ&s
jid=9bUDAAAAIBAJ&pg=6908,2324471
67 YBN
[10/07/1933 AD] 		5474) Neutrons caused by cosmic ray
collisions in Argon gas are detected
using a cloud chamber.
(Bartol Research Foundation of the
Franklin Institute, University of
Delaware) Newark, Delaware, USA 
[1] Figure 7 from: Gordon L. Locher,
''Neutrons from Cosmic-Ray Stösse'',
Phys. Rev. 44, 779–781
(1933). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v44/i9/p779_2 {Locher_Gordon_19331007
.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v44/i9/p779_2
67 YBN
[12/12/1933 AD] 		5447) An electron microscope that
magnifies objects more than any light
microscope (12,000x).
(Technischen Hochschule/Technical
University) Berlin, Germany 
[1] E. Ruska, ''Über Fortschritte im
Bau und in der Leistung des
magnetischen Elektronenmikroskops.'',
Z. Phys. 87 (1934) 580-602. eingegangen
am
12.12.1933. http://ernstruska.digilibra
ry.de/bibliographie/q013/q013.html {Rus
ka_Ernst_q013_19331212.pdf} UNKNOWN
source: http://ernstruska.digilibrary.de
/bibliographie/q013/q013.html

[2] Ernst Ruska, 1939 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.siemens.com/history/p
ool/perseunlichkeiten/wissenschaftler/ru
ska_1939.jpg
67 YBN
[1933 AD] 		4822) Nerve fibers are found to conduct
impulses at different rates, depending
on the thickness of the fiber (impulses
traveling faster the thicker the
fiber), and different fibers are found
to transmit different kinds of
impulses, represented by different
types of waves.
(Washington University) Saint Louis,
Missouri, USA 
[1] oseph Erlanger, M.D.
(1874-1965) Professor and Head of
Physiology, 1910-1946 Professor of
Physiology, 1946-1965 UNKNOWN
source: http://beckerexhibits.wustl.edu/
wusm-hist/images1/ErlangerJ_large.jpg

[2] Herbert S. Gasser, M.D.
(1888-1963) Assistant and Associate
Professor of Physiology,
1916-1921 Professor and Head of
Pharmacology, 1921-1931 UNKNOWN
source: http://beckerexhibits.wustl.edu/
wusm-hist/images1/GasserHS_large.jpg
67 YBN
[1933 AD] 		4859) A sample of water is prepared in
which all the hydrogen atoms are
"deuterium". This water is called
"heavy water".
(University of California at Berkeley)
Berkeley, California, USA 
[1] [t Notice the similarity to
Rutherford] Gilbert Newton
Lewis 1875-1946 UNKNOWN
source: http://www2.chemistry.msu.edu/Po
rtraits/images/lewisc.jpg
67 YBN
[1933 AD] 		5273) The theory of the existence of a
"weak interaction" (or force) is
created to explain beta decay which
includes the "neutrino".
(University of Rome) Rome, Italy
(presumably) 
[1] E. Fermi, E. Amaldi, B. Pontecorvo,
E. Rasetti and E. Segré, ''Tentativo
di una Teoria Dei Raggi β'', La
Ricerca Scientifica, 2, No. 12, p491;
1933.
{Fermi_Enrico_neutrino_1933xxxx.pdf}
Reprinted in Enrico Fermi, ''Enrico
Fermi, Collected Papers'', v1, 1962,
p559.
source: Fermi_Enrico_neutrino_1933xxxx.p
df

[2] E. Fermi, E. Amaldi, B.
Pontecorvo, E. Rasetti and E. Segré,
''Tentativo di una Teoria Dei Raggi
β'', La Ricerca Scientifica, 2, No.
12, p491; 1933.
{Fermi_Enrico_neutrino_1933xxxx.pdf}
Reprinted in Enrico Fermi, ''Enrico
Fermi, Collected Papers'', v1, 1962,
p559.
source: Fermi_Enrico_neutrino_1933xxxx.p
df
66 YBN
[01/15/1934 AD] 		5191) Atoms of aluminum are converted
into a radioactive isotope of
phosphorus by alpha particles from
Polonium.
(Radium Institute) Paris, France
(presumably) 
[1] Figure from: I. Curie, F. Joliot,
''Un nouveau type de radioactivé'',
Comptes rendus, V198 (1934),
p254. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/
bpt6k31506/f254.image {Curie_Irene_Joli
ot_Frederic_19340115.pdf}
source: http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148
/bpt6k31506/f254.image

[2] Chemical equation from; I.
Curie, F. Joliot, ''Un nouveau type de
radioactivé'', Comptes rendus, V198
(1934),
p254. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/
bpt6k31506/f254.image {Curie_Irene_Joli
ot_Frederic_19340115.pdf}
source: http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148
/bpt6k31506/f254.image
66 YBN
[01/22/1934 AD] 		5413) The amino acid lysergic acid is
isolated and named. Later workers will
prepare the dimethyl amide of this acid
and find that the compound, lysergic
acid diethylamide, LSD, has
considerable physiological effects.
(Rockefeller Institute of Medical
Research) New York City, New York,
USA 
[1] Lyman C. Craig. Photo from the
National Library of Medicine. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.jbc.org/content/280/7
/e4/F1.large.jpg
66 YBN
[01/29/1934 AD] 		5192) The first chemical proof of
atomic transmutation and atomic
fusion.

Boron and Aluminum are irradiated with
alpha particles from Polonium. Nitrogen
is then chemically separated from
irradiated Boron, and Phosphorus from
irradiated Aluminum, and shown to have
the same chemical properties as
non-radioactive Nitrogen and
Phosphorus.
(Radium Institute) Paris, France 
[1] Figure from: I. Curie, F. Joliot,
''Un nouveau type de radioactivé'',
Comptes rendus, V198 (1934),
p254. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/
bpt6k31506/f254.image {Curie_Irene_Joli
ot_Frederic_19340115.pdf}
source: http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148
/bpt6k31506/f254.image

[2] Chemical equation from; I.
Curie, F. Joliot, ''Un nouveau type de
radioactivé'', Comptes rendus, V198
(1934),
p254. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/
bpt6k31506/f254.image {Curie_Irene_Joli
ot_Frederic_19340115.pdf}
source: http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148
/bpt6k31506/f254.image
66 YBN
[02/10/1934 AD] 		5202) Electron and positron emission is
detected from gamma ray collision with
lead.
(Cavendish Laboratory, University of
Cambridge) Cambridge, England
(presumably) 
[1] Figures 3 and 4 from: [6] J.
Chadwick, P. M. S. Blackett and G. P.
S. Occhialini, ''Some Experiments on
the Production of Positive Electrons'',
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London. Series A, Containing Papers of
a Mathematical and Physical Character,
Vol. 144, No. 851 (Mar. 1, 1934), pp.
235-249. http://www.jstor.org/stable/29
35587 {Blackett_Patrick_19340210.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/pdfp
lus/2935587.pdf?acceptTC=true

[2] Description
Blackett-large.jpg English: Patrick
Blackett, Baron Blackett, ca.
1950 Date PD
source: http://www.sciencephoto.com/imag
es/download_wm_image.html/H402377-Patric
k_Blackett-SPL.jpg?id=724020377
66 YBN
[02/24/1934 AD] 		5184) Radioactivity is induced by
bombarding Carbon in graphite with high
velocity Protons and Diplons (a proton
with a neutron) at 600 kv, which
produces the unstable isotope N13 by
the addition of a proton to C12.
(Cavendish Laboratory, Cambridge
University) Cambridge, England 
[1] Sir John Douglas
Cockcroft COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/physics/laureates/1951/cockcro
ft_postcard.jpg

[2] Ernest Thomas Sinton
Walton COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/physics/laureates/1951/walton_
postcard.jpg
66 YBN
[03/09/1934 AD] 		4755) The atomic fusion of two Hydrogen
atoms into a Helium atom.

Compounds with deuterium are bombarded
with deuterons (a deuterium nucleus).
This reaction also produces tritium
(hydrogen-3, an isotope of hydrogen
having an atomic weight of three).
(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England  
[1] Figures 4, 5 and 6 from Oliphant,
Harteck, Rutherford, ''Transmutation
Effects observed with Heavy Hydrogen'',
Proceedings of the Royal Society, A,
144, 1934, pp692-703. COPYRIGHTED
source: Oliphant, Harteck, Rutherford,
"Transmutation Effects observed with
Heavy Hydrogen", Proceedings of the
Royal Society, A, 144, 1934, pp692-703.

[2] Description Ernest
Rutherford2.jpg English: Cropped
Image:Ernest_Rutherford.jpg Date
2007-01-26 (original upload
date) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia Author Original
uploader was Sadi Carnot at
en.wikipedia GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/57/Ernest_Rutherford2.jp
g
66 YBN
[03/19/1934 AD] 		5210) Supernovas are distinguished from
ordinary novas.
(Mount Wilson Observatory) Mount
Wilson, California, USA 
[1] Fritz Zwicky The picture appears
on the website of the Fritz Zwicky
Stiftung (the Swiss Fritz Zwicky
Foundation at:
http://www.zwicky-stiftung.ch/), but I
do not believe it is in fact
copyrighted by any specific
organisation. I have been allowed to
have it on my scientific,
non-commercial site at www.swemorph.com
for some years. There is no commercial
interest involved here. Pictures of
Zwicky are generally allowed for
scientific, non-commercial use. Source
http://www.zwicky-stiftung.c COPYR
IGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/7/7d/Zwicky1.png

[2] From Huntington Library, San
Marino, California. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.astrosociety.org/pubs
/mercury/31_04/images/baade.jpg
66 YBN
[03/25/1934 AD] 		5274) Artificial radiation is induced
by neutron bombardment.
(University of Rome) Rome, Italy
(presumably) 
[1] Enrico Fermi from Argonne
National Laboratory PD
source: http://www.osti.gov/accomplishme
nts/images/08.gif

[2] Enrico Fermi Nobel
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/physics/laureates/1938/fermi.jpg
66 YBN
[04/11/1934 AD] 		5320) "Progesterone" is isolated, a
female hormone a hormone that prepares
the uterus for the fertilized ovum and
maintains pregnancy.
(Institute der Technische Hochschule)
Danzig-Langfuhr, Germany
(Austria) 
[1] Description Adolf Friedrich Johann
Butenandt 1939.jpg Adolf Beutenand,
Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1939 Date
1939(1939) Source
http://nobelprize.org/ Author
Nobel Foundation PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/11/Adolf_Friedrich_Johan
n_Butenandt_1939.jpg
66 YBN
[05/??/1934 AD] 		5275) Atomic fission of uranium by
neutrons.

Bombarding uranium with neutrons
results in an unknown element with a 13
minute half life which will later be
shown to be Barium (atomic number 56),
a product of atomic fission.
(University of Rome) Rome, Italy 
[1] Enrico Fermi Nobel
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://publishing.cdlib.org/ucpr
essebooks/data/13030/rb/ft700007rb/figur
es/ft700007rb_00009.jpg

[2] Enrico Fermi from Argonne
National Laboratory PD
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/physics/laureates/1938/fermi.jpg
66 YBN
[06/07/1934 AD] 		4853) "Vagusstoff", the molecules
released at nerve endings, is
identified as acetlycholine.
(National Institute For Medicine)
Hampstead, London 
[1] Henry Hallett Dale UNKNOWN
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1936/dale.jpg

[2] Sir Henry Hallett Dale (1875 -
1968) and Otto Loewi (1873 - 1961)
UNKNOWN
source: http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_DZH2cm
Coois/SW5ML7DC4mI/AAAAAAAAIqw/ys3TSoyw94
w/s400/Nobel_Laureates_1936_Dale_and_Loe
wi.bmp
66 YBN
[06/28/1934 AD] 		5205) The possibility of a
self-sustained neutron driven atomic
chain reaction is recognized.
(Claremont Haynes & Co) London,
England 
[1] Figure 2 from: L. Szilárd,
''Improvements in or relating to the
transmutation of chemical elements,''
British patent number: GB630726 (filed:
28 June 1934; published: 30 March
1936).http://v3.espacenet.com/publicatio
nDetails/originalDocument;jsessionid=8B2
86F84EEDA7D654C9A04127F25CBA9.espacenet_
levelx_prod_5?CC=GB&NR=630726A&KC=A&FT=D
&date=19360330&DB=&locale= {Szilard_Leo
_19340628.pdf} PD
source: http://v3.espacenet.com/publicat
ionDetails/originalDocument;jsessionid=8
B286F84EEDA7D654C9A04127F25CBA9.espacene
t_levelx_prod_5?CC=GB&NR=630726A&KC=A&FT
=D&date=19360330&DB=&locale=

[2] Leo Szilard (1898 - 1964)
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.atomicarchive.com/Ima
ges/bio/B56.jpg
66 YBN
[07/11/1934 AD] 		4248) The theory of particle beams as
weapons that can destroy planes and
kill millions of people without a trace
in an instant.
(Hotel New Yorker) New York City, NY,
USA 
[1] ''Tesla, at 78, Bares New
'Death-Beam''', New York Times, July
11, 1934, p. 18, c.
1 http://www.tesla-coil-builder.com/Art
icles/jul_11_1934a.htm {Tesla_articles.
pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://static.neatorama.com/imag
es/2010-03/tesla-death-beam.jpg

[2] Image from Tesla's 1891 patent
#454622 System of Electric Lighting PD

source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=wmBOAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&
f=false
66 YBN
[08/09/1934 AD] 		4867) That the methane molecule is a
major part of the atmosphere of the
planets Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and
Neptune is recognized from the
absorption spectra.
(Percival Lowell's observatory)
Flagstaff, Arizona, USA 
[1] Figure 2 from: Arthur Adel, V. M.
Slipher, ''The Constitution of the
Atmopsheres of the Giant Planets'',
Phys. Rev. 46, Issue 10, p902–906
(1934).
http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v46/i
10/p902_1 {Slipher_Vesto_Melvin_1934080
9.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v46/i10/p902_1

[2] Vesto Melvin Slipher (11/11/1875 -
08/11/1969) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.phys-astro.sonoma.edu
/BruceMedalists/Slipher/slipher.jpg
66 YBN
[08/18/1934 AD] 		5087) The first atomic fission caused
by light particles: Gamma rays
disintegrate a deuterium atom (an
isotope of hydrogen containing one
proton and one neutron). From this the
mass of a neutron is estimated to be
around 1.008 mass units, more massive
than a hydrogen atom.
(Cavendish Lab University of Cambridge)
Cambridge, England 
[1] Description
Chadwick.jpg en:James
Chadwick Date ~1935 (original
photograph), 2007-08-11 (original
upload date) Source Transfered
from en.wikipedia. Original source:
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1935/chadwick-bio.html COP
YRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c2/Chadwick.jpg

[2] Description Goldhaber,Maurice
1937.jpg English: Maurice Goldhaber,
probable 1937 on the occasion of an
colloquy with Nobel Price
winners. Deutsch: Maurice Goldhaber,
vermutlich 1937 anläßlich eines
Kolloquims mit
Nobelpreisträgern. Date
1937(1937) Source Own
work Author GFHund GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/48/Goldhaber%2CMaurice_1
937.jpg
66 YBN
[09/17/1934 AD] 		5206) Neutrons are produced from
beryllium using gamma ray irradiation
from radium.
(St. Bartholmew's Hospital) London,
England 
[1] Leo Szilard (1898 - 1964) UNKNOWN

source: http://www.atomicarchive.com/Ima
ges/bio/B56.jpg

[2] Leo Szilard, near Oxford, spring
1936. (Copyright U.C. Regents; used by
permission. Contact Mandeville Special
Collections Library, U.C. San Diego,
for information on obtaining Szilard
images.) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.dannen.com/images/szi
lard1.gif
66 YBN
[09/17/1934 AD] 		5388) Two new "white dwarf" stars are
identified.
 
[1] Caption: The Dutch-American
astronomer Gerard Peter Kuiper
(1905-1973). Kuiper studied at the
University of Leiden, Holland, where he
obtained his PhD in 1933. In the same
year he emigrated to America where he
worked in several universities and
observatories. Kuiper's main research
was on the solar system. He discovered
two new satellites: Miranda, the fifth
satellite of Uranus, in 1948 and
Nereid, the second satellite of
Neptune, in 1949. He proposed in 1951
that the short-period comets come from
a flattened ring of comets, the
Kuiper's belt, found beyond Neptune. He
was involved in some of the early space
missions including the Ranger and
Mariner missions. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.sciencephoto.com/imag
es/download_wm_image.html/H411054-The_Du
tch-American_astronomer_Gerard_Peter_Kui
per-SPL.jpg?id=724110054

[2] Image from
http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4210/pages/Ch
_15.htm PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0b/GerardKuiper.jpg
66 YBN
[11/14/1934 AD] 		5196) Many atomic transmutation
reactions are summarized and displayed
on a table for all known elements.
(Radium Institute) Paris, France 
[1] Table from: F. Joliot, ''Les
nouveaux radioéléments. Preuves
chimiques des transmutations'', Journal
de chimie physique, 31 (1934), 611.
{Joliot_Frederic_19341114.pdf}
source: Joliot_Frederic_19341114.pdf

[2] Irène Joliot-Curie Library of
Congress PD
source: http://content.answcdn.com/main/
content/img/scitech/HSirenej.jpg
66 YBN
[11/17/1934 AD] 		5452) The theory of a nuclear field,
analogous to the electromagnetic field,
but with a quantum that has 200 times
the mass of an electron, and the same
electric charge, either positive or
negative of the electron, that is
responsible for the conversion of
protons to neutrons and neutrons to
protons. This force will become known
as the "strong interaction" or "strong
force".
(Osaka Imperial University) Osaka,
Japan 
[1] Hideki Yukawa Nobel
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/physics/laureates/1949/yukawa_
postcard.jpg

[2] Hideki Yukawa UNKNOWN
source: http://philsci-archive.pitt.edu/
585/1/yukawa.jpg
66 YBN
[11/26/1934 AD] 		5207) Neutrons are produced from X-ray
irradiation of beryllium; the neutrons
making bromine radiaoactive.
(St. Bartholmew's Hospital) London,
England 
[1] Leo Szilard (1898 - 1964) UNKNOWN

source: http://www.atomicarchive.com/Ima
ges/bio/B56.jpg

[2] Leo Szilard, near Oxford, spring
1936. (Copyright U.C. Regents; used by
permission. Contact Mandeville Special
Collections Library, U.C. San Diego,
for information on obtaining Szilard
images.) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.dannen.com/images/szi
lard1.gif
66 YBN
[12/04/1934 AD] 		5126) That a heavier isotope tends to
react more slowly than a lighter
isotope is used to build up quantities
of rare isotopes.
(Columbia University) New York City,
New York, USA 
[1] Harold Clayton Urey The Nobel
Prize in Chemistry 1934 was awarded to
Harold C. Urey ''for his discovery of
heavy hydrogen''. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1934/urey.
jpg
66 YBN
[1934 AD] 		4904) Humans descend to almost a km
(over half a mile) into the Ocean.
 
[1] Description WCS Beebe Barton
600.jpg Charles William (''Will'')
Beebe (1877–1962) (pictured left) and
Frederick Otis Barton, Jr.
(1899–1992) was standing next to the
bathysphere, a Date between
1930(1930) and 1932(1932) Source
http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/explo
rations/05stepstones/logs/aug15/aug15.ht
ml Author U.S. Federal Government
(National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e4/WCS_Beebe_Barton_600.
jpg
66 YBN
[1934 AD] 		5011) Thiamin is isolated, the vitamin
whose absence causes beriberi.
(Columbia University) New York City,
New York, USA 		 
66 YBN
[1934 AD] 		5276) Neutrons that pass through
hydrogen substances are found to
increase the radioactivity produced by
many elements and this is interpreted
as being due to a slowing down of
neutrons.
(University of Rome) Rome, Italy
(presumably) 
[1] Table of transmutations from: [3]
E. Amaldi, O. D'Agostino, E. Fermi, B.
Pontecorvo, F. Rasetti and E. Segrè,
''Artificial Radioactivity Produced by
Neutron Bombardment. II'', Proceedings
of the Royal Society of London. Series
A, Mathematical and Physical
Sciences Vol. 149, No. 868 (Apr. 10,
1935), pp.
522-558 http://www.jstor.org/stable/963
79 {Fermi_Enrico_19350215.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/9637
9

[2] Enrico Fermi from Argonne
National Laboratory PD
source: http://www.osti.gov/accomplishme
nts/images/08.gif
66 YBN
[1934 AD] 		5356) Cherenkov radiation: blue light
is found emitted by various liquids
bombarded by gamma rays.
(Lebedev Institute of Physics) Moscow,
(Soviet Union now) Russia 
[1] English: Pavel A.
Cherenkov Русский: Павел
Алексеевич
Черенков Date
1958(1958) Source
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/
physics/laureates/1958/cerenkov-bio.html
Author Nobel foundation PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Cerenkov.jpg/22
0px-Cerenkov.jpg
65 YBN
[01/01/1935 AD] 		5492) The theory that there is a
mass-radius relation for collapsed
stars which puts limits on the largest
mass and radius possible for stars.
This leads to what is known as the
"Chandrasekhar limit", which is a
theoretical limiting mass of about 1.44
solar masses above which a white dwarf
cannot exist in a stable configuration.
(University of Cambridge) Cambridge,
England 
[1] Figure 2 from: Chandrasekhar, S.,
''The highly collapsed configurations
of a stellar mass (Second paper)'',
Monthly Notices of the Royal
Astronomical Society, Vol. 95,
p.207-225. http://articles.adsabs.harva
rd.edu//full/1935MNRAS..95..207C/0000207
.000.html {Chandrasekhar_Subrahmanyan_1
9350101.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du//full/1935MNRAS..95..207C/0000207.000
.html

[2] 2. Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar The
Advanced X-ray Astrophysics Facility
was renamed the Chandra X-ray
Observatory in December of 1998 to
honor the late Indian-American Nobel
laureate, Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar.
(Photo: Univ. of Chicago) UNKNOWN
source: http://chandra.harvard.edu/graph
ics/resources/illustrations/chandraYoung
-72.jpg
65 YBN
[01/26/1935 AD] 		5133) Succinic, fumaric and malic acid
are found to be oxidised by muscle
cells.
(University of Szeged) Szeged,
Hungary 
[1] Albert von Szent-Györgyi
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1937/szent-gyorgyi
.jpg
65 YBN
[02/??/1935 AD] 		5162) The artificial silk: nylon.
(E.I. du Pont de Nemours & Company)
Wilmington, Delaware, USA 
[1] Wallace Carothers. Carothers
demonstrating a piece of his new
synthetic rubber in laboratory. AP
IMAGES. Wallace
Carothers COPYRIGHTED
source: http://listverse.files.wordpress
.com/2007/10/carothers.jpg
65 YBN
[04/08/1935 AD] 		5145) Vitamin K, is identified and
named, without which causes slowing of
blood clotting in baby chickens.
(University of Copenhagen) Copenhagen,
Denmark 
[1] (Carl Peter) Henrik Dam
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1943/dam.jpg
65 YBN
[05/16/1935 AD] 		5374) An x-ray microscope is proposed.
(National Physical Laboratory)
Teddington, Middlesex, England 		 
65 YBN
[06/26/1935 AD] 		5215) Using radioactive molecules
("tracers"), fat molecules with
radioactive deuterium are found to be
rapidly absorbed by laboratory animals.
(Columbia University) New York City,
New York, USA 
[1] Rudolf Schoenheimer in his
laboratory at Columbia University.
source: http://www.jbc.org/content/277/4
3/F1.medium.gif
65 YBN
[07/12/1935 AD] 		5016) The isotope uranium-235 is
identified using a mass spectrograph.
(University of Chicago) Chicago,
Illinois, USA 
[1] Description Dempster Mass
Spectrometer.gif Arthur Dempster's
1918 mass spectrometer Date April
1918(1918-04) Source
http://link.aps.org/abstract/PR/v11
/p316 Author Arthur Jeffrey
Dempster Permission (Reusing this
file) Public Domain PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f5/Dempster_Mass_Spectro
meter.gif

[2] canadian physicist Arthur Jeffrey
Dempster (1886-1950) who discovered
isotope U-235 of uranium later used for
atomic bomb c. 1947... Caption:
UNSPECIFIED - APRIL 05: canadian
physicist Arthur Jeffrey Dempster
(1886-1950) who discovered isotope
U-235 of uranium later used for atomic
bomb c. 1947 (Photo by Apic/Getty
Images) Date created: 01 Jan 1947
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://cache3.asset-cache.net/xc
/89858305.jpg?v=1&c=NewsMaker&k=2&d=77BF
BA49EF878921CC759DF4EBAC47D0AC0863BBF1D7
5F7368CACE8D45A7D1EF863AA9E5F332AFC4
65 YBN
[07/28/1935 AD] 		5357) A virus is crystalized (the
tobacco mosaic virus).
(The Rockefeller Institute for Medical
Research) Princeton, New Jersey,
USA 
[1] Wendell Meredith Stanley (16 August
1904 – 15 June 1971), American
biochemist, virologist and Nobel
laureate Source
http://www.gpaulbishop.com/GPB%20Hi
story/GPB%20Archive/Section%20-%205/M.%2
0Stanley/stanley_w_01.JPG Article
Wendell Meredith Stanley Portion
used Entire COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/5/53/Wendell_Meredith_Stanley.j
pg
65 YBN
[08/28/1935 AD] 		5507) Lithium, Boron and Nitrogen are
transmuted with slow neutrons.
(Cavendish Lab University of Cambridge)
Cambridge, England 
[1] Description
Chadwick.jpg en:James
Chadwick Date ~1935 (original
photograph), 2007-08-11 (original
upload date) Source Transfered
from en.wikipedia. Original source:
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1935/chadwick-bio.html COP
YRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c2/Chadwick.jpg

[2] Description Goldhaber,Maurice
1937.jpg English: Maurice Goldhaber,
probable 1937 on the occasion of an
colloquy with Nobel Price
winners. Deutsch: Maurice Goldhaber,
vermutlich 1937 anläßlich eines
Kolloquims mit
Nobelpreisträgern. Date
1937(1937) Source Own
work Author GFHund GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/48/Goldhaber%2CMaurice_1
937.jpg
65 YBN
[08/28/1935 AD] 		5509) Beryllium is found to slow fast
neutrons to slower speeds (is a neutron
"moderator").
(Cavendish Lab University of Cambridge)
Cambridge, England 
[1] Description
Chadwick.jpg en:James
Chadwick Date ~1935 (original
photograph), 2007-08-11 (original
upload date) Source Transfered
from en.wikipedia. Original source:
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1935/chadwick-bio.html COP
YRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c2/Chadwick.jpg

[2] Description Goldhaber,Maurice
1937.jpg English: Maurice Goldhaber,
probable 1937 on the occasion of an
colloquy with Nobel Price
winners. Deutsch: Maurice Goldhaber,
vermutlich 1937 anläßlich eines
Kolloquims mit
Nobelpreisträgern. Date
1937(1937) Source Own
work Author GFHund GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/48/Goldhaber%2CMaurice_1
937.jpg
65 YBN
[10/22/1935 AD] 		5451) The scanning electron microscope
(SEM), a device that moves a focused
electron beam in rows and columns over
the surface of an object, and receives
both the electrons scattered
(reflected) by the object and the
secondary electrons produced by it.
(Technischen Hochschule/Technical
University) Berlin, Germany
(presumably) 
[1] Knoll, Max, ''Aufladepotentiel und
Sekundäremission elektronenbestrahlter
Körper''. Zeitschrift für technische
Physik 1935, 16: 467–475.
{Knoll_Max_19351022.pdf} English: ''
Charging potential and secondary
emission of bodies under electron
irradiation'' COPYRIGHTED
source: {Knoll_Max_19351022.pdf}

[2] Max Knoll (1897-1969) UNKNOWN
source: http://ernst.ruska.de/daten_d/pe
rsonen/personen_archiv/knoll_max/_grafik
en/img.knoll1967.gif
65 YBN
[10/28/1935 AD] 		5095) A lithium or boron coated
ionization chamber is found to be a
very sensitive detector for slow
neutrons.
(Gonville and Caius College University
of Cambridge) Cambridge, England 
[1] Description
Chadwick.jpg en:James
Chadwick Date ~1935 (original
photograph), 2007-08-11 (original
upload date) Source Transfered
from en.wikipedia. Original source:
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1935/chadwick-bio.html COP
YRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c2/Chadwick.jpg

[2] Description Goldhaber,Maurice
1937.jpg English: Maurice Goldhaber,
probable 1937 on the occasion of an
colloquy with Nobel Price
winners. Deutsch: Maurice Goldhaber,
vermutlich 1937 anläßlich eines
Kolloquims mit
Nobelpreisträgern. Date
1937(1937) Source Own
work Author GFHund GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/48/Goldhaber%2CMaurice_1
937.jpg
65 YBN
[11/19/1935 AD] 		5498) The theory that when an electric
current is passed into a nerve, an
electric potential increases until a
threshold voltage is reached, and
"excitation" occurs. When the current
is withdrawn, the nerve returns to its
original electric potential.
(University College) London,
England 
[1] Figure 1 from: A. V. Hill,
''Excitation and Accommodation in
Nerve'', Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London. Series B, Biological
Sciences, Vol. 119, No. 814 (Feb. 1,
1936), pp.
305-355. http://www.jstor.org/stable/81
869 {Hill_Archibald_Vivian_19351119.pdf
} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/8186
9

[2] Figure 2 from: A. V. Hill,
''Excitation and Accommodation in
Nerve'', Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London. Series B, Biological
Sciences, Vol. 119, No. 814 (Feb. 1,
1936), pp.
305-355. http://www.jstor.org/stable/81
869 {Hill_Archibald_Vivian_19351119.pdf
} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/8186
9
65 YBN
[11/23/1935 AD] 		5456) Sulfanilamide is shown to be the
part of Prontosil that is effective
against streptococci.
(Pasteur Institute) Paris, France 
[1] Figure from: J. Tréfouël, J.
Tréfouël, F. Nitti and D. Bovet,
Activite du p-aminophenylsulfamide sur
les infections streptococciques,
Comptes Rendus Séances de la Societe
de Biologie, 120 (1935), pp.
756–762.
{Bovet_Daniel_19351123.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: Bovet_Daniel_19351123.pdf

[2] Daniel Bovet (1907-1992)
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.pasteur.fr/infosci/ar
chives/im/bov.jpg
65 YBN
[1935 AD] 		4786) An artificial heart that is used
during heart surgery.
(The Rockefeller Institute for Medical
Research) New York City, New York,
USA 
[1] Description Alexis Carrel
02.jpg French surgeon and biologist
Alexis Carrel (1873-1944) Date
Unknown Source
US-LibraryOfCongress-BookLogo.svg
This image is available from the
United States Library of Congress's
Prints and Photographs division under
the digital ID ggbain.34418. This tag
does not indicate the copyright status
of the attached work. A normal
copyright tag is still required. See
Commons:Licensing for more
information. العربية
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/9e/Alexis_Carrel_02.jpg
65 YBN
[1935 AD] 		5014) The steroid hormone cortisone is
isolated.
(Mayo Foundation) Rochester, Minnesota,
USA 
[1] Edward Calvin Kendall UNKNOWN
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1950/kendall.jpg
65 YBN
[1935 AD] 		5055) Vitamin B2 (riboflavin) is
synthesized.
(Chemical Institute) Zürich,
Switzerland 
[1] Description Paul Karrer (21
April 1889 – 18 June 1971), Swiss
organic chemist. Photograph taken
August 7, 1933. Source
Bettmann/CORBIS Article Paul
Karrer Portion used Entire Low
resolution? Yes COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/4/43/Paul_Karrer.jpg
65 YBN
[1935 AD] 		5094) The first aluminized mirrors.
(Institut d’Optique) Paris,
France 		 
65 YBN
[1935 AD] 		6627) Polyethylene is synthesized; the
most widely used plastic in the world.
Polyethylene is made into products like
clear food wrap, shopping bags,
detergent bottles, fuel tanks, fabric
fibers, and synthetic rubbers.
 
[1]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethylene A
ND http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyeth
ylene GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eth
ylene AND http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki
/Polyethylene

[2] Description English: Photo of a
pillbox made from the first pound of
polythene made and then presented to
Frank Bebbington in 1936 Date June
2011 Source Photo by
user:geni Author
Geni Permission (Reusing this file)
GFDL CC-BY-SA GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/fb/First_polythene_pillb
ox.JPG
64 YBN
[01/??/1936 AD] 		6319) The first photo of red-shifted
calcium absorption lines of galaxies
claimed to be the result of Doppler
shift from the galaxy having extremely
high relative radial velocity are
published.
A problem with comparing different size
spectra is clearly seen.
(Mount Wilson) Mount Wilson,
California, USA 
[1] The infamous Plate III of 1936
from: Humason, M. L., ''The Apparent
Radial Velocities of 100 Extra-Galactic
Nebulae'', Astrophysical Journal, vol.
83, p.10, Jan
1936. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.ed
u//full/1936ApJ....83...10H/0000011.000.
html {Humason_193510xx.pdf} COPYRIGHTE
D
source: {Humason_193510xx.pdf}

[2] The infamous Plate III of 1936
from: Humason, M. L., ''The Apparent
Radial Velocities of 100 Extra-Galactic
Nebulae'', Astrophysical Journal, vol.
83, p.10, Jan
1936. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.ed
u//full/1936ApJ....83...10H/0000011.000.
html {Humason_193510xx.pdf} COPYRIGHTE
D
source: {Humason_193510xx.pdf}
64 YBN
[02/13/1936 AD] 		5457) Antihistamines are identified;
compounds that neutralize some of the
unpleasant symptoms of allergies such
as stuffed-up or runny nose..
(Pasteur Institute) Paris, France 
[1] Figure from: [1] Bovet D., Staub
A., ''Action protectrice des éthers
phénoliques au cours de
l’intoxication histaminique.'' C. R.
Seances Soc. Biol. Fil. (1936),
124:547–549. {Bovet_Daniele_19360213.
pdf} English: ''Protective action of
phenolic ethers in histamine
poisoning.'' COPYRIGHTED
source: Bovet_Daniele_19360213.pdf

[2] Daniel Bovet (1907-1992)
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.pasteur.fr/infosci/ar
chives/im/bov.jpg
64 YBN
[03/11/1936 AD] 		5496) Muscle contraction (in crabs) can
be varied and controlled by the
frequency of electrical current pulses
on the nerve connected to the muscle,
which allows a muscle to have a strong
contraction or a small contraction when
needed. In addition, a small quantity
of potassium applied to the
neuron-muscle junction causes the
muscle to contract and a similar
quantity of magnesium causes an
opposite curare-like blocking effect on
the neuron-muscle junction.
(University College) London,
England 
[1] Bernard Katz Nobel Prize
photograph COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1970/katz.jpg
64 YBN
[07/23/1936 AD] 		5270) Neutron rays are shown to be much
more effective at killing mice than
x-rays in addition to mouse tissue
cells.
(University of California) Berkeley,
California, USA 
[1] Figures 4 and 5 from: John H.
Lawrence, Paul C. Aebersold, and Ernest
O. Lawrence, ''Comparative Effects of
X-Rays and Neutrons on Normal and Tumor
Tissue'', Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A.
1936 September; 22(9): 543–557.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1076813/ {Lawrence_Ernest_1936072
3.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/
articles/PMC1076813/

[2] Ernest Orlando Lawrence UNKNOWN
source: http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_Uhse4P
aiRAY/TF7dj-zaM1I/AAAAAAAAAGw/6lxKVLTfhs
M/s320/Ernest_Orlando_Lawrence.jpg
64 YBN
[08/08/1936 AD] 		5479) The location of cerebral tumors
are located using
electro-encephalography.
(The Central Pathological Laboratory
and the Hospital for Epilepsy and
Paralysis) Maida Vale, United
Kingdom 
[1] Dr. W. Grey Walter UNKNOWN
source: http://cyberneticzoo.com/wp-cont
ent/uploads/2009/09/ELMER-p1-825x1024.jp
g
64 YBN
[08/10/1936 AD] 		5540) The "isotopic spin formalism",
which is a system that uses 5 quantum
numbers to describe a particle: 3 for
the particle's position, 1 for its
spin, and another to distinguish
between a neutron and proton.
(Princeton University) Princeton, New
Jersey, USA 		 
64 YBN
[08/17/1936 AD] 		5336) The "diffraction" (also called
"Bragg reflection") of neutrons with
crystals of Magnesium oxide. A neutron
beam is shown to have a wavelength of
1.6A (160 pm, similar to x-rays).
(Columbia University) New York City,
New York, USA 		 
64 YBN
[1936 AD] 		5012) Thiamin (vitamin B1) is
synthesized.
(Columbia University) New York City,
New York, USA 		 
64 YBN
[1936 AD] 		5116) A map of the X chromosome which
shows the positions of the genes
causing color blindness, severe light
sensitivity of the skin, a particular
skin disease, and other traits.
(University College) London,
England 
[1] English: J.B.S. Haldane, in Oxford
UK, 1914. Image downloaded from
http://students.washington.edu/gw0/moder
nsynthesis/images/haldane.png and
converted to JPG. Date 2006-12-11
(first version); 2006-07-17 (last
version) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia; transferred to Commons by
User:Richard001 using
CommonsHelper. Author Original
uploader was Bunzil at en.wikipedia.
Later version(s) were uploaded by
Isoar4jc, Lloyd Wood at
en.wikipedia. Permission (Reusing
this file) PD-US. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3b/J._B._S._Haldane.jpg
64 YBN
[1936 AD] 		5117) The first estimate of the rate of
mutation of a human gene.
(University College) London,
England 
[1] English: J.B.S. Haldane, in Oxford
UK, 1914. Image downloaded from
http://students.washington.edu/gw0/moder
nsynthesis/images/haldane.png and
converted to JPG. Date 2006-12-11
(first version); 2006-07-17 (last
version) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia; transferred to Commons by
User:Richard001 using
CommonsHelper. Author Original
uploader was Bunzil at en.wikipedia.
Later version(s) were uploaded by
Isoar4jc, Lloyd Wood at
en.wikipedia. Permission (Reusing
this file) PD-US. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3b/J._B._S._Haldane.jpg
64 YBN
[1936 AD] 		5422) The poliomyelitis virus is
cultered in vitro in human embryonic
nervous tissue.
(Rockefeller Institute of Medical
Research) New York City, New York,
USA 
[1] Albert Bruce Sabin UNKNOWN
source: http://www.sciencephoto.com/imag
es/showFullWatermarked.html/H419079-Albe
rt_Bruce_Sabin-SPL.jpg?id=724190079
63 YBN
[03/01/1937 AD] 		5245) The basic structure of what will
be called the "Citric-Acid"
("tricarboxylic acid" or "Krebs")
cycle: the cycle of oxidation of all
food and ATP production in living
cells.
(University of Sheffield) Sheffield,
England 
[1] Chemical equations from: Hans
Adolf Krebs and William Arthur Johnson,
''Metabolism of ketonic acids in animal
tissues'', Biochem J. 1937 April;
31(4):
645–660. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
pmc/articles/PMC1266984/ {Krebs_Hans_19
370301.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/
articles/PMC1266984/

[2] Description The image of
German-British physician Hans Adolf
Krebs (1922-2000) Source This
image has been downloaded from
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1953/ Date 13:51,
27 November 2008 (UTC) Author not
known COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/b/ba/Hans_Adolf_Krebs.jpg
63 YBN
[03/17/1937 AD] 		5471) Ribonucleic acid (RNA) is
identified and detected in a virus.
(Rothamsted Experimental Station)
Harpenden, Hertfordshire, England 
[1] * Buy a print of this image *
License this image Sir Frederick
Charles Bawden by Walter
Bird bromide print, 1967 8 1/8 in. x
6 1/8 in. (205 mm x 156 mm) NPG
x163955 UNKNOWN
source: http://images.npg.org.uk/790_500
/6/8/mw109368.jpg
63 YBN
[04/??/1937 AD] 		6268) The turbo jet engine: an
internal-combustion engine that propels
air vehicles by means of the rearward
discharge of a jet of fluid, usually
hot exhaust gases generated by burning
fuel with air drawn in from the
atmosphere.
(British Thomson-Houston works) Rugby,
England 
[1] Whittle W2/700 Engine. Frank
Whittle developed the first turbojet
engine with enough operating thrust to
power an aircraft in 1939. The W2
was the second, more powerful, version
of a flight-ready turbojet engine
developed by Whittle. The W2/700
engine flew in the Gloster E.28/39, the
first British aircraft to fly with a
turbojet engine, and the Gloster
Meteor. Photographed Farnborough,
22-Jan-06. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/fc/Whittle_Jet_Engine_W2
-700.JPG

[2] Description Frank Whittle
adjusts a slide rule while seated at
his desk at the Ministry of Aircraft
Production. Date 30 December
1943 Source IWMLondonThumbnail.jpg
This is photograph No. CH 11867 from
the Imperial War Museum Collections.
Flag of the United Kingdom.svg Author
British Government PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/df/Frank_Whittle_CH_0118
67.jpg
63 YBN
[05/14/1937 AD] 		5548) The first transuranium elements.
Elements 93 through 96 (Neptunium,
Plutonium, Americium {aMurisEuM}, and
Curium) are identified by Lise Meitner,
Otto Hahn, and Fritz Strassmann, from
the collision of neutrons with uranium.
(Kaiser-Wilhelm-Instute fur Chemie in
Berlin-Dahlem) Berlin, Germany 
[1] Lise Meitner UNKNOWN
source: http://www3.findagrave.com/photo
s/2007/278/15166236_119171400954.jpg

[2] Otto Hahn UNKNOWN
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/chemistry/laureates/1944/hahn.jpg
63 YBN
[05/22/1937 AD] 		5515) The first image of individual
atoms is captured by Erwin Müller (CE
1911-1977). Atoms are confirmed to be
about 0.1 nm in size.

Müller invents the field-emission
electron microscope (FEEM) which
magnifies the tip of a tungsten needle
200,000 times.
(Siemens and Halske) Berlin,
Germany 
[1] Figures 2-4 from: ''Fig 2.
Tungsten cathode (filament) [011] -
Direction in the middle. Fig 3.
Tungsten cathode [211] - Direction,
almost in the middle. Fig 4. Sphere
model with the lattice directions of a
cube-based emission tungsten cathode,
field of view as Fig 3.'' [2] Erwin W.
Müller, ''Elektronenmikroskopische
Beobachtungen von Feldkathoden'',
Zeitschrift für Physik A Hadrons and
Nuclei, Volume 106, Numbers 9-10,
541-550, DOI:
10.1007/BF01339895 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/h425u71vqh66w886/ {Mull
er_Erwin_W_19370522.pdf}
English: ''Electron microscopic
observations of field cathode''
source: http://www.springerlink.com/cont
ent/h425u71vqh66w886/

[2] COPYRIGHTED
source: http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/opti
cs/timeline/people/antiqueimages/mueller
.jpg
63 YBN
[06/30/1937 AD] 		5364) Element 43, the first completely
artificial element, the radioactive
metal technetium {TeKnEsEuM} is created
by particle collision and identified by
Emilio Segrè (SAGrA) and Carlo Perrier
using chemical analysis.

Technetium has no stable isotopes.
(Royal University) Polermo, Italy 
[1] Description
Tc,43.jpg Technetium Date
Uploaded 2005-06-01 on af: Source
Lapp, Ralph E. and the Editors of
Life (1965). Matter: Life Science
Library. New York: TIME
Incorporated. Author Attributed
as a U.S. government image in scanning
source PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/40/Tc%2C43.jpg

[2] This is a file from the Wikimedia
Commons Los Alamos wartime badge
photo: Emilio Segrè Source: Los
Alamos National Laboratory,
http://www.lanl.gov/history/wartime/staf
f.shtml PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/71/Emilio_Segre_ID_badge
.png
63 YBN
[07/09/1937 AD] 		5046) A magnetic moment for protons is
measured by deflecting neutral
molecules of Hydrogen and Deuterium.
(Carnegie institute of Technology)
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA 
[1] Figure 2 from: I. Estermann and O.
Stern, ''Beugung von
Molekularstrahlen'', Zeitschrift für
Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei, 1930,
Volume 61, Numbers 1-2,
95-125. http://www.springerlink.com/con
tent/u60q0jn868011015/ {Stern_Otto_1929
1214.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.springerlink.com/cont
ent/u60q0jn868011015/

[2] The image of German physicist and
Nobel laureate Otto Stern
(1888–1969) Source This image
has been downloaded
http://www.nndb.com/people/740/000099443
/ Date uploaded: 02:21, 26
December 2008 (UTC) Author not
known UNKNOWN
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/0/0a/OttoStern.jpg
63 YBN
[09/??/1937 AD] 		5449) The theory that H2 and N2,
formerly undetectable in planetary and
stellar spectra, can be detected from
their "rotation-vibration" spectrum,
not by their "dipole moment", but by
their "quadrupole moment".
(University of Saskatchewan) Saskatoon,
Saskatchewan, Canada 
[1] Gerhard Herzberg. University of
Saskatchewan Archives A-3234 UNKNOWN
source: http://esask.uregina.ca/manageme
nt/app/assets/img/enc2/selectedbig/51BF7
9A5-1560-95DA-43235FE05D4925A6.jpg
63 YBN
[09/??/1937 AD] 		5525) The first radio telescope that
has a reflector or radio dish.
Wheaton, Illinois, USA 
[1] Figure 3: The first ''dish'' radio
telescope. Source: Estate of G
Reber UNKNOWN
source: http://www.atnf.csiro.au/news/ne
wsletter/jun05/Reber_ORIGDISHa.jpg

[2] Figure 2: Grote Reber as a young
man. This picture is copied from ''A
Play Entitled the Beginning of Radio
Astronomy'', by Grote Reber, in The
Journal of the Royal Astronomical
Society of Canada, Vol.82, No.3, June
1988, page 93. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.atnf.csiro.au/news/ne
wsletter/jun05/Reber_YOUNGMAN.jpg
63 YBN
[1937 AD] 		3622) The process of xerography (or
electrophotography), which uses
electrostatic charges and heat to copy
documents. Xerography is the basis of
photocopiers and laser printers.
New York City NY, USA  
[1] Astoria 10-22-38 (The first
xerographic image) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.xerox.com/images/usa/
en/p/pa_firstimage.jpg

[2] Schematic drawing of the
xeroxgraphic photocopying process.
Vectorization of the image. Original
image made by 'Wschneider' on the
German wikipedia. 1. Charging:
The surface of a cylindrical drum is
given an electrostatic charge by either
a high voltage wire called a corona
wire or a charge roller. The drum is
coated with a photoconductive material.
A is a semiconductor that becomes
conductive when exposed to light.
2. Exposure: A bright lamp illuminates
the original document, and the white
areas of the original document reflect
the light onto the surface of the
photoconductive drum. The areas of the
drum that are exposed to light (those
areas that correspond to white areas of
the original document) become
conductive and therefore discharge to
ground. The area of the drum not
exposed to light (those areas that
correspond to black portions of the
original document) remain negatively
charged. The result is a latent
electrical image on the surface of the
drum. 3. Developing: The toner is
positively charged. When it is applied
to the drum to develop the image, it is
attracted and sticks to the areas that
are negatively charged (black areas),
just as paper sticks to a toy balloon
with a static charge. 4. Transfer:
The resulting toner image on the
surface of the drum is transferred from
the drum onto a piece of paper with a
higher negative charge than the
drum. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Xerographic_pho
tocopy_process_en.svg/309px-Xerographic_
photocopy_process_en.svg.png
63 YBN
[1937 AD] 		4843) The alkaloid "colchicine", from
the autumn crocus (a flower), is found
to produce mutations in plants, causing
the chromosomes in a cell to double in
number without allowing the cell to
divide. In addition, increasing the
chromosome number is found to creates
an identical increase in flower petals.
(Carnegie Institution of Washington)
Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y., USA 
[1] Figure 11 from Blakeslee,
''Methods of inducing doubling of
chromosomes in plants: by treatment
with colchicine'', The Journal of
Heredity {0022-1503} Blakeslee (1937)
volume: 28 issue: 12 page:
393 http://jhered.oxfordjournals.org/cg
i/reprint/28/12/393.pdf
{Blakeslee_Albert_Francis_1937.pdf}
source: http://jhered.oxfordjournals.org
/content/28/12/393.full.pdf

[2] COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b4/Illustration_Colchicu
m_autumnale0.jpg
63 YBN
[1937 AD] 		5029) Of the twenty plus amino acids
that are present in nearly every
protein molecule, only 10 are found to
be essential to rats, otherwise their
body will not be able to produce
protein.
(University of Illinois) Urbana,
Illinois 
[1] WILLIAM CUMMING ROSE UNKNOWN
source: http://www.nap.edu/html/biomems/
photo/wrose.GIF
63 YBN
[1937 AD] 		5151) Cherenkov radiation is explained
as being the result of radiation from
an electron in a medium moving faster
than the speed of light in that medium,
analogous to the creation of a sonic
boom when an object exceeds the speed
of sound in a medium.
(Moscow University) Moscow, (Soviet
Union) Russia 
[1] Photo of Igor Tamm from the
official web site of the Russian
Academy of Sciences:
http://www.ras.ru/win/db/show_per.asp?P=
.id-52317.ln-en COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/5/50/Tamm.jpg

[2] Il'ja Mikhailovich
Frank COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/physics/laureates/1958/frank_p
ostcard.jpg
63 YBN
[1937 AD] 		5223) That cell oxidation will not
proceed without the addition of some
phosphate is found.
(Carlsberg Foundation) Copenhagen,
Denmark 
[1] Fritz Albert Lipmann COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/medicine/laureates/1953/lipman
n_postcard.jpg
63 YBN
[1937 AD] 		5229) That species have large genetic
variability is shown.
(California Institute of Technology)
Pasadena, California 
[1] Theodosius Dobzhansky UNKNOWN
source: http://bp0.blogger.com/_c6wsrQ9x
mjg/Rtt-gMwrH1I/AAAAAAAAAPs/x5CJ36yU5IA/
s1600-h/Young+Theodosius+Dobzhansky.jpg
63 YBN
[1937 AD] 		5266) Nicotinic acid is found to be a
vitamin and the cure to the disease
pellagra.
(University of Wisconsin) Madison,
Wisconsin, USA 
[1] Conrad Arnold Elvehjem President,
1958-1962 UNKNOWN
source: http://archives.library.wisc.edu
/uw-archives/chancellors/images/Elvehjem
.jpg
63 YBN
[1937 AD] 		5348) The basis for the theory of a
neutron star: that in sufficiently
massive stars after all thermonuclear
sources of energy for the central
material of a star have been exhausted,
a condensed neutron core is formed.
(George Washington University)
Washington, D.C., USA
(presumably) 
[1] Description GamovGA
1930.jpg English: George Gamow
(1904—1968) — Russian-born
theoretical physicist and
cosmologist. Русский:
Георгий Гамов (1904—1968)
— советский и
американский
физик-теоретик,
астрофизик и
популяризатор
науки. Date
2010(2010) Source
http://www.peoples.ru/science/physi
cs/gamow/photo0_1.html Author
Serge Lachinov (обработка
для wiki) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/67/GamovGA_1930.jpg

[2] GEORGE GAMOW UNKNOWN
source: http://ffden-2.phys.uaf.edu/103_
fall2003.web.dir/Heidi_Arts/Pictures/gam
scan2.jpg
62 YBN
[04/12/1938 AD] 		4794) The theory that alpha and beta
brain waves might be detected remotely.
(University of Jena) Jena,
Germany 
[1] Figure 4 from: Berger, ''Über das
Elektroenkephalogramm des Menschen.'',
Archiv für Psychiatrie und
Nervenkrankheiten, 1929, 87:
527-570. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.springerlink.com/cont
ent/u1r1122ww6x285w6/fulltext.pdf

[2] Hans Berger UNKNOWN
source: http://www.psychiatrie.uniklinik
um-jena.de/img/Psychiatrie_/Startseite/G
eschichte/Personen/640/UKJ_Psy_Hist_Pers
_Berger-Hans_07.jpg
62 YBN
[04/??/1938 AD] 		6271) Teflon is invented.
(E. I. duPont de Nemours & Company)
Wilmington, Delaware, USA 
[1] Freshly cooked frozen w:blintzes in
a frying pan. Photo taken by me, in the
kitchen of my house. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/9/90/100_0783.JPG/12
80px-100_0783.JPG

[2] Polytetrafluoroethylene GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tef
lon
62 YBN
[06/01/1938 AD] 		5544) Two new iodine isotopes are
identified by bombarding tellurium with
deuterons: iodine-126 with a 13-day
half-life, and iodine-131 with a
half-life of 8 days. Iodine-131 is now
used in the diagnosis and treatment of
thyroid disorders.
(University of California) Berkeley,
California, USA 
[1] Glenn Seaborg (1912 -
1999) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.atomicarchive.com/Ima
ges/bio/B51.jpg

[2] Glenn Theodore Seaborg Nobel
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/chemistry/laureates/1951/seaborg.jpg
62 YBN
[06/16/1938 AD] 		5382) Charged particles with masses in
between an electron and proton are
recognized by Carl Anderson and Seth
Neddermeyer.

Anderson and Neddermeyer identify (from
cosmic rays) both positively and
negatively charged particles with a
mass in between that of an electron and
proton (120-400 electron masses), which
they name a "mesotron", but which will
later be called "meson" {meZoN}, and
currently a "mu" meson or "muon".
(California Institute of Technology)
Pasadena, California 
[1] Figure 1 from: Seth H. Neddermeyer
and Carl D. Anderson, ''Cosmic-Ray
Particles of Intermediate Mass'', Phys.
Rev. 54, 88
(1938). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v54/i1/p88_2 {Anderson_Carl_D_1938061
6.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v54/i1/p88_2

[2] Carl David Anderson searching for
mesons. From LBNL archives, dated 1937.
from en:Image:Carl anderson.1937.jpeg
2005-10-28 04:46:20 . . Salsb PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/9e/Carl_anderson.1937.jp
g
62 YBN
[06/22/1938 AD] 		5448) The first image of a virus is
captured by brothers Ernst and Helmut
Ruska.

Viruses are confirmed to be about 150
nm in size.
(Berliner Medizinischen
Gesellschaft/Berlin Medical Society)
Berlin, Germany 
[1] (ubermikroskop) Ultramicroscope
image of the virus of ectromelia in the
point mouse. Infectious material from
the lymph of an infected paw. magnified
20,000x. Figure 1 from: B. v.
Borries, E. Ruska und H. Ruska,
''Bakterien und Virus in
übermikroskopischer
Aufnahme.'', Klin. Wochenschrift 17
(1938)
921-925. http://ernstruska.digilibrary.
de/bibliographie/q021/q021.html {Ruska_
Ernst_19380622.pdf} UNKNOWN
source: http://ernstruska.digilibrary.de
/bibliographie/q021/q021.html

[2] Ernst Ruska, 1939 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.siemens.com/history/p
ool/perseunlichkeiten/wissenschaftler/ru
ska_1939.jpg
62 YBN
[09/01/1938 AD] 		5355) The theory that if a star is
massive enough it will contract
indefinitely.
(University of California) Berkeley,
California, USA 
[1] Description
JROppenheimer-LosAlamos.jpg English:
Official portrait of J. Robert
Oppenheimer, first director of Los
Alamos National Laboratory. Français
: Le portrait officiel de Robert
Oppenheimer, alors premier directeur du
Laboratoire national de Los
Alamos. Date ca.
1944(1944) Source Taken from a
Los Alamos publication (Los Alamos:
Beginning of an era, 1943-1945, Los
Alamos Scientific Laboratory,
1986.). Author Department of
Energy, Office of Public
Affairs Permission (Reusing this
file) See below. Other versions This
version was apparently scanned from a
book; there's a slightly lower-quality
version at ARC with ID 558579. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/03/JROppenheimer-LosAlam
os.jpg
62 YBN
[09/07/1938 AD] 		5418) The theory that a nuclear
reaction powers stars by fusing
hydrogen atoms into a helium atom, the
remaining mass being released as
energy.
(Kaiser Wilhelm Institute) Berlin,
Germany (and Cornell University)
Ithaca, New York, USA 
[1] Description Carl Friedrich von
Weizsaecker.jpg Carl Friedrich von
Weizsäcker, Göttingen DPI Date
1993 (picture taken) Source
Modified version of Image:Friedric
Hund1.jpg, showing only the person on
the left. Author Ian Howard (of
the original
picture) Permission (Reusing this
file) Released under the GNU Free
Documentation License. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f0/Carl_Friedrich_von_We
izsaecker.jpg

[2] Description Hans
Bethe.jpg Hans Bethe Date Source
http://www.cfo.doe.gov/me70/manhatt
an/images/Bethe.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5f/Hans_Bethe.jpg
62 YBN
[10/25/1938 AD] 		5352) The theory that the Earth's
magnetic field is caused by the Earth's
rotation, which creates eddy currents
in the liquid core. An eddy current is
an electric current induced within the
body of a conductor when that conductor
either moves through a nonuniform
magnetic field or is in a region where
there is a change in magnetic flux.
(California Institute of Technology)
Pasadena, California 
[1] Walter Maurice Elsasser
(1904–1991) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.yalosabes.com/images/
/elsasser_walter_maurice.gif
62 YBN
[11/24/1938 AD] 		5464) The physiologically active
substance of the plant cannabis indica
(marijuana) is isolated, later named
tetrahydrocannabinol (THC).
(Lister Institute) London,
England 
[1] Sir Alexander Robertus Todd
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/chemistry/laureates/1957/todd.jpg
62 YBN
[12/22/1938 AD] 		4926) Barium (atomic number 56) is
found in products of uranium bombarded
by neutrons.
(Kaiser-Wilhelm-Instute fur Chemie in
Berlin-Dahlem) Berlin, Germany 
[1] Otto Hahn UNKNOWN
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/chemistry/laureates/1944/hahn.jpg

[2] Fritz Strassmann (1902 -
1980) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.atomicarchive.com/Ima
ges/bio/B62.jpg
61 YBN
[01/06/1939 AD] 		5484) A high frequency electronic
oscillator and amplifier, the
"klystron".
(Stanford University) Stanford,
California, USA 		 
61 YBN
[01/16/1939 AD] 		4925) The atomic fission of uranium by
neutrons is first recognized.
(Academy of Sciences) Stockholm, Sweden
(Meitner), (University of Copenhagen),
Copenhagen, Denmark (Frisch) 
[1] Otto Frisch Los Alamos wartime
badge photo: Otto R. Frisch Source:
Los Alamos National Laboratory,
http://www.lanl.gov/history/wartime/staf
f.shtml PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/20/Otto_Frisch_ID_badge.
png

[2] Lise Meitner UNKNOWN
source: http://www3.findagrave.com/photo
s/2007/278/15166236_119171400954.jpg
61 YBN
[03/20/1939 AD] 		5347) The theory that a red giant star
forms when a star has no hydrogen fuel
remaining in its core to use and so
expands in size, and this also includes
a theory of stellar explosions (novas).
(George Washington University)
Washington, D.C., USA 
[1] Figure 8 from: [4] G. Gamow and G.
Keller, ''A Shell Source Model for Red
Giant Stars'', Rev. Mod. Phys. 17,
125–137
(1945). http://rmp.aps.org/abstract/RMP
/v17/i2-3/p125_1 {Gamow_George_1945xxxx
.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://rmp.aps.org/abstract/RMP/
v17/i2-3/p125_1

[2] Figure 1 from: G. Gamow and E.
Teller, ''Energy Production in Red
Giants'', Phys. Rev. 55, 791–791
(1939). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v55/i8/p791_1 {Gamow_George_19390320.
pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prola.aps.org/pdf/PR/v55/
i8/p791_1
61 YBN
[04/07/1939 AD] 		5195) That the fission of a uranium
atom induced by one neutron, produces,
on the average, an emission of several
neutrons is shown.
(Laboratoire de Chimie Nucleaire,
College de France) Paris, France 
[1] Irène Joliot-Curie Library of
Congress PD
source: http://content.answcdn.com/main/
content/img/scitech/HSirenej.jpg

[2] Joliot-curie.jpg Irène
Curie Date 1935(1935) Source
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/
chemistry/laureates/1935/joliot-curie-bi
o.html Author Nobel
Foundation PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/79/Joliot-curie.jpg
61 YBN
[04/30/1939 AD] 		5835) The bipedal (or two leg walking)
robot, "Elektro" by Westinghouse.
(Westinghouse Electric Corporation)
Mansfield, Ohio, USA 
[1] Elektro at the 1939 World's
Fair UNKNOWN
source: http://img.youtube.com/vi/T35A3g
_GvSg/0.jpg

[2] Inside working of Westinghouse
Elektro walking robot UNKNOWN
source: http://davidszondy.com/future/ro
bot/elektro-interior.jpg
61 YBN
[06/28/1939 AD] 		5006) The theory that the particular
isotope uranium-235 is the atom that
undergoes fission.
(Princeton University) Princeton, New
Jersey, USA 
[1] Immediate source:
http://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Billede:Nie
ls_Bohr.jpg Ultimate source: Niels
Bohr's Nobel Prize biography, from
1922. Status: Public domain in US at
least because of age, probably
elsewhere. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6d/Niels_Bohr.jpg
61 YBN
[07/15/1939 AD] 		5461) Element 91, Protactinium is
fissioned with fast neutrons.
(Columbia University) New York City,
New York, USA 
[1] Description: middle age, three
quarter view, suit Date:
Unknown Credit: AIP Emilio Segre
Visual Archives Names: Dunning, John
Ray UNKNOWN
source: http://photos.aip.org/history/Th
umbnails/dunning_john_a2.jpg
61 YBN
[07/31/1939 AD] 		5511) He3 is produced, an isotope of
Helium that contains 2 protons and 1
neutron.
(University of California) Berkeley,
California, USA 
[1] Description LWA Picture
Final.jpg English: Head Photo of Luis
W Alvarez Date 1968(1968) Source
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/
physics/laureates/1968/alvarez.html Aut
hor Nobel Foundation PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6e/LWA_Picture_Final.jpg

61 YBN
[08/27/1939 AD] 		6269) The first jet aircraft flight.
Marienehe, Germany 
[1] Español: El Henkel He 178 fue el
primer caza de reacción en entrar en
servicio. Description: Heinkel
He 178 Source: USAF PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1e/Ohain_USAF_He_178_pag
e61.jpg
61 YBN
[10/30/1939 AD] 		5387) The magnetic moment of a neutron
is measured, and the deuteron magnetic
moment is found to equal the sum of the
magnetic moments of the neutron and the
proton.
(Stanford University) Stanford,
California, USA 
[1] Figure 3 from: Luis W. Alvarez and
F. Bloch, ''A Quantitative
Determination of the Neutron Moment in
Absolute Nuclear Magnetons'', Phys.
Rev. 57, 111 (1940).
http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v57/i
2/p111_1 {Bloch_Felix_19391030.pdf}
source: http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v57/i2/p111_1

[2] Felix Bloch Nobel
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/physics/laureates/1952/bloch.jpg
61 YBN
[1939 AD] 		5219) DDT is found to be a highly
effective poison against several
arthropods.

In modern times, the use of DDT is
restricted or banned as a potential
pollutant.
(Laboratory of the J.R. Geigy
Dye-Factory Co.) Basel,
Switzerland 
[1] Paul Hermann Müller COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/thumb/2/23/Hermann_Paul_M%C3%BC
ller.jpg/150px-Hermann_Paul_M%C3%BCller.
jpg
61 YBN
[1939 AD] 		5248) That some single nerve fibers
respond only to a narrow band of light
frequencies (colors) is shown.
(The Caroline Institute) Stockholm,
Sweden (presumably) 
[1] Note image is from 1942 not 1939
paper. Figure 8 from: R Granit,
''Colour Receptors of the Frog's
Retina'', Acta Physiologica
Scandinavica, Volume 3, Issue 2, pages
137–151, October 1942.
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.11
11/j.1748-1716.1942.tb01047.x/abstract
{Granit_Ragnar_19410926.pdf} COPYRIGHTE
D
source: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/d
oi/10.1111/j.1748-1716.1942.tb01047.x/ab
stract

[2] Description Ragnar Arthur
Granit (October 30, 1900 – March 12,
1991), Finnish/Swedish
neuroscientist Source
http://images.nobelprize.org/nobel_pr
izes/medicine/laureates/1967/granit_post
card.jpg Article Ragnar
Granit Portion used Entire Low
resolution? Yes Purpose of use
It is only being used to
illustrate the article in
question COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/6/63/Ragnar_Granit.jpg
60 YBN
[02/01/1940 AD] 		5246) The "Citric-Acid" cycle is
further developed. This cycle describes
how lactic acid (broken down from
carbohydrates) is separated further
into carbon dioxide and water in animal
tissues.
(University of Sheffield) Sheffield,
England 
[1] Chemical equations from: Hans
Adolf Krebs and William Arthur Johnson,
''Metabolism of ketonic acids in animal
tissues'', Biochem J. 1937 April;
31(4):
645–660. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
pmc/articles/PMC1266984/ {Krebs_Hans_19
370301.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/
articles/PMC1266984/

[2] Description The image of
German-British physician Hans Adolf
Krebs (1922-2000) Source This
image has been downloaded from
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1953/ Date 13:51,
27 November 2008 (UTC) Author not
known COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/b/ba/Hans_Adolf_Krebs.jpg
60 YBN
[02/29/1940 AD] 		5579) Carbon-14 is isolated and found
to have a long half-life; in years. The
modern estimate is 5,700 years.
(University of California) Berkeley,
California, USA 
[1] Dr. Martin Kamen - Scientist who
discovered radioactive carbon-14 which
revolutionized archeology (carbon-14
dating) and laid a foundation for
deciphering the chemical processes in
plants and animals, but who spent many
years ostracized on suspicion that he
was a Russian spy (later exonerated),
died at age 89. UNKNOWN
source: http://lifeinlegacy.com/2002/090
7/KamenMartin.jpg
60 YBN
[03/03/1940 AD] 		5462) That uranium-235 produces far
more fissions per minute than
uranium-238 is demonstrated.
(Columbia University) New York City,
New York, USA 
[1] Description: middle age, three
quarter view, suit Date:
Unknown Credit: AIP Emilio Segre
Visual Archives Names: Dunning, John
Ray UNKNOWN
source: http://photos.aip.org/history/Th
umbnails/dunning_john_a2.jpg
60 YBN
[05/28/1940 AD] 		5285) Uranium and thorium are fissioned
by γ-rays.

This is the first fissioning of large
atoms with light particles.
(Westinghouse Research Laboratories)
East Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania,
USA 		 
60 YBN
[06/14/1940 AD] 		5568) The spontaneous fission of
uranium is observed.
(Physico Technical Institute and Radium
Institute) Leningrad, (U.S.S.R. now)
Russia 
[1] Georgy Nikolaevich FLEROV
source: http://159.93.28.88/flnr/history
/flerov.jpg
60 YBN
[06/21/1940 AD] 		5554) Carbon ions are accelerated in a
cyclotron.
(University of California) Berkeley,
California, USA 
[1] Description LWA Picture
Final.jpg English: Head Photo of Luis
W Alvarez Date 1968(1968) Source
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/
physics/laureates/1968/alvarez.html Aut
hor Nobel Foundation PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6e/LWA_Picture_Final.jpg

60 YBN
[07/16/1940 AD] 		5365) Element 85, astatine is created
and identified.
Astatine has a half life of 7.5
hours, and like technetium has no
stable isotopes.
(University of California) Berkeley,
California, USA 
[1] Figure 1 from: Corson, D. R.;
MacKenzie, K. R.; Segrè, E.
''Artificially Radioactive Element
85''. Phys. Rev. 1940, 58: 672–678.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRev.58
.672 {Segre_Emilio_19400716.pdf} COPYR
IGHTED
source: http://dx.doi.org/10.1103%2FPhys
Rev.58.672

[2] This is a file from the Wikimedia
Commons Los Alamos wartime badge
photo: Emilio Segrè Source: Los
Alamos National Laboratory,
http://www.lanl.gov/history/wartime/staf
f.shtml PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/71/Emilio_Segre_ID_badge
.png
60 YBN
[08/24/1940 AD] 		5217) An anti-bacterial form of the
fungus Penicillin is isolated and
purified and found to be effective
against at least three kinds of
bacteria in mice.
(University of Oxford) Oxford,
England 
[1] Table from: E Chain, HW Florey,
AD Gardner, NG Heatley, ''Penicillin as
a Chemotherapeutic agent'', Lancet,
1940
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_
ob=MImg&_imagekey=B6T1B-49N2V2F-MY-1&_cd
i=4886&_user=4422&_pii=S0140673601087281
&_origin=search&_zone=rslt_list_item&_co
verDate=08%2F24%2F1940&_sk=997633895&wch
p=dGLzVtb-zSkzS&md5=77efee12aba47b15f2f4
b87566fdacd3&ie=/sdarticle.pdf {Florey_
Howard_19400824.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=MImg&_imagekey=B6T1B-49N2V2F-MY
-1&_cdi=4886&_user=4422&_pii=S0140673601
087281&_origin=search&_zone=rslt_list_it
em&_coverDate=08%2F24%2F1940&_sk=9976338
95&wchp=dGLzVtb-zSkzS&md5=77efee12aba47b
15f2f4b87566fdacd3&ie=/sdarticle.pdf

[2] Description Howard Florey,
Baron Florey Source
http://nobelprize.org/medicine/laur
eates/1945/florey-bio.html Article
Howard Florey, Baron
Florey Portion used Entire
photo Low resolution?
Yes Purpose of use To
identify and illustrate Howard Florey
in the article Howard Florey, Baron
Florey Replaceable? No; Howard
Florey died in 1968. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/a/a7/Howard_Florey.png
60 YBN
[11/13/1940 AD] 		5524) A circular electron accelerator
(betatron) is built which creates
artificial gamma rays.
(General Electric Company) Scotia, New
York, USA 
[1] Figure 4 from: D. W. Kerst, ''The
Acceleration of Electrons by Magnetic
Induction'', Phys. Rev. 60, 47–53
(1941). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v60/i1/p47_1 {Kerst_Donald_William_19
410418.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v60/i1/p47_1

[2] Donald W. Kerst (on left) UNKNOWN

source: http://sprott.physics.wisc.edu/p
hotos/kerst2.jpg
60 YBN
[12/02/1940 AD] 		5439) The first color television images
are broadcast.
(Columbia Broadcasting System, Inc.)
New York City, New York, USA 
[1] CBS-Columbia 12CC2 Field Sequential
Color Receiver (1951) front
view UNKNOWN
source: http://novia.net/~ereitan/images
/CBS-Columbia_set.gif

[2] Peter Carl Goldmark 2004 Upper
Deck The History of the United States
Inventors and Inventions No.
II46 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.jandjcards.com/store/
images/Peter%20Goldmark%20Ud.jpg
60 YBN
[12/05/1940 AD] 		5416) Penicillinase is identified, an
enzyme that catalyzes the destruction
of penicillin.
(Oxford Univerity) Oxford,
England 		 
60 YBN
[1940 AD] 		5463) The gas-diffusion method of
separating uranium isotopes is
developed, where uranium hexafluoride
(UF6) gas is passed through filters to
separate the lighter U-235 from U-238.
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA 
[1] This image was moved to Wikimedia
Commons from en.wikipedia using a bot
script. All source information is still
present. It requires review.
Additionally, there may be errors in
any or all of the information fields;
information on this image should not be
considered reliable and the image
should not be used until it has been
reviewed and any needed corrections
have been made. Once the review has
been completed, this template should be
removed. For details about this image,
see below. Check now! Afrikaans
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e5/Philip_Hauge_Abelson.
jpg

[2] Alemannisch
source: http://photos.aip.org/history/Th
umbnails/dunning_john_a2.jpg
59 YBN
[01/23/1941 AD] 		5580) That the oxygen liberated in
photosynthesis comes from the water
molecule and not from carbon dioxide is
proven by using oxygen-18, a stable but
rare oxygen isotope.
(University of California) Berkeley,
California, USA 
[1] Dr. Martin Kamen - Scientist who
discovered radioactive carbon-14 which
revolutionized archeology (carbon-14
dating) and laid a foundation for
deciphering the chemical processes in
plants and animals, but who spent many
years ostracized on suspicion that he
was a Russian spy (later exonerated),
died at age 89. UNKNOWN
source: http://lifeinlegacy.com/2002/090
7/KamenMartin.jpg
59 YBN
[02/24/1941 AD] 		5283) Uranium is fissioned by
Alpha-Particles under 32 Mev.
(University of California) Berkeley,
California, USA 
[1] Enrico Fermi from Argonne
National Laboratory PD
source: http://www.osti.gov/accomplishme
nts/images/08.gif

[2] Enrico Fermi Nobel
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/physics/laureates/1938/fermi.jpg
59 YBN
[03/22/1941 AD] 		5271) That using estrogen to block male
hormones can slow the growth of
prostate cancer, and that removing the
ovaries and adrenal glands, which
produce estrogen, can reverse tumor
growth in some breast cancers is found.
(University of Chicago) Chicago,
Illinois, USA 
[1] Charles Brenton
Huggins COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/medicine/laureates/1966/huggin
s_postcard.jpg
59 YBN
[05/28/1941 AD] 		5477) A three-dimensional
(stereoscopic) image is produced using
light polarization (or planarization)
by superimposing two offset images, one
projected with light polarized in the
x-plane and the other with light
polarized in the y-plane, as seen when
one eye has an x-plane polarizer and
the other eye has a y-plane polarizer.
(Polaroid Corporation) Cambridge,
Massachusetts, USA 
[1] Figures from: Edwin H. Land,
''Process For Forming Light-Polarizing
Images'', Patent number:
2315373, Filing date: May 28, 1941,
Issue date: Mar 30,
1943. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
wNNwAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=
false PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=wNNwAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f
=false

[2] Edwin H. Land UNKNOWN
source: http://www.kipnotes.com/land.jpg

59 YBN
[10/08/1941 AD] 		5331) That a gene controls the
production of a particular enzyme is
shown by using x-rays to create a
genetic mutation in the fungus
Neurospora (bread mold) which results
in the Neurospora failing to synthesize
vitamin B6 and other molecules. In
addition this mutation is shown to be
inherited.
(Stanford University) Stanford,
California, USA 
[1] George Beadle Nobel
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1958/beadle.jpg

[2] Edward Lawrie Tatum Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1958/tatum.jpg
59 YBN
[1941 AD] 		5066) From the parallax of the asteroid
Eros, the distance from the Earth to
the Sun is calculated to be
approximately 149 million km (93
million miles).
(Royal Observatory in Greenwich)
Greenwich, England 
[1] Spencer Jones UNKNOWN
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/lb/thumb/5/52/Spencer_jones.jpg/30
0px-Spencer_jones.jpg
59 YBN
[1941 AD] 		5149) Supernovas are divided into two
kinds based on their spectra.
(Mount Wilson) Mount Wilson,
California, USA 
[1] Figures 2 and 3 from: [12]
Minkowski, R., ''The Spectra of the
Supernovae in IC 4182 and in NGC
1003.'', Astrophysical Journal, vol.
89,
p.156. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du//full/1939ApJ....89..156M/0000165.000
.html {Minkowski_Rudolph_193810xx.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?db_key=AST
&bibcode=1939ApJ....89..156M&letter=0&cl
assic=YES&defaultprint=YES&whole_paper=Y
ES&page=156&epage=156&send=Send+PDF&file
type=.pdf

[2] on Minkowski,Rudolph 1934
London.jpg English: Physicist Rudolph
Minkowski, 1934 at London
(International Conference on
Physics) Deutsch: Physiker Rudolph
Minkowski, 1934 in London
(International Conference on
Physics) Date 1934(1934) Source
Own work Author GFHund GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/9e/Minkowski%2CRudolph_1
934_London.jpg
59 YBN
[1941 AD] 		6648) The first polyester plastic,
"Terylene".
(Calico Printers' Association, Ltd.)
England 
[1] Description English: A close-up
of a 100% Polyester shirt. I took this
picture myself just moments ago. Date
30 August 2004 (original upload
date) Source Transferred from
ronhjones to Commons by
ronhjones. Author Damieng at
en.wikipedia GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/92/Polyester_Shirt%2C_cl
ose-up.jpg

[2] Description English:
Resin-identification-code-1-PETE Date
23 April 2007 (original upload
date) Source Own work (Original text:
“TotoBaggins (talk) (Uploads)”) -
Self made from PNG. Author
TotoBaggins at en.wikipedia PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Resin-identific
ation-code-1-PETE.svg/1000px-Resin-ident
ification-code-1-PETE.svg.png
58 YBN
[03/12/1942 AD] 		5428) The first detailed image of a
virus is captured.
(RCA Research Laboratories) Camden,
New Jersey, USA 
[1] Plate 1 from: S. E. Luria and
Thomas F. Anderson, ''The
Identification and Characterization of
Bacteriophages with the Electron
Microscope'', Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the
United States of America, Vol. 28, No.
4 (Apr. 15, 1942), pp.
127-130. http://www.jstor.org/stable/87
648 {Luria_Salvador_Edward_19420312.pdf
} EXPLANATION OF PLATE PLATE I 1.
Electron micrograph of particles from a
high titer suspension of
bacteriophage anti-coli PC. X
38,000. 2. Particles from a high titer
suspension of bacteriophage anti-coli
PC. X 84,000. 3. Escherichia coli from
suspension in distilled water. X
17,000. 4. Escherichia coli in
suspension of bacteriophage anti-coli
PC for ten minutes. X
17,500. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/8764
8

[2] Salvador Edward Luria Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1969/luria.jpg
58 YBN
[05/08/1942 AD] 		5526) The first radio maps of the
visible universe.
Wheaton, Illinois, USA 
[1] Figure 13 from: Grote Reber.
''Cosmic Static.'' Proc. IRE, 30, 367,
1942. http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/search
/srchabstract.jsp?tp=&arnumber=1694527&s
earchWithin%3DAuthors%3A.QT.Reber%2C+G..
QT.%26openedRefinements%3D*%26sortType%3
Dasc_Publication+Year%26searchField%3DSe
arch+All {Reber_Grote_19420508.pdf} CO
PYRIGHTED
source: http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/searc
h/srchabstract.jsp?tp=&arnumber=1694527&
searchWithin%3DAuthors%3A.QT.Reber%2C+G.
.QT.%26openedRefinements%3D*%26sortType%
3Dasc_Publication+Year%26searchField%3DS
earch+All

[2] Figure 2: Grote Reber as a young
man. This picture is copied from ''A
Play Entitled the Beginning of Radio
Astronomy'', by Grote Reber, in The
Journal of the Royal Astronomical
Society of Canada, Vol.82, No.3, June
1988, page 93. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.atnf.csiro.au/news/ne
wsletter/jun05/Reber_YOUNGMAN.jpg
58 YBN
[07/??/1942 AD] 		5363) CH2, (methylene) is detected in
the emission spectrum of comets.
(University of Saskatchewan) Saskatoon,
Saskatchewan, Canada 
[1] Gerhard Herzberg. University of
Saskatchewan Archives A-3234 UNKNOWN
source: http://esask.uregina.ca/manageme
nt/app/assets/img/enc2/selectedbig/51BF7
9A5-1560-95DA-43235FE05D4925A6.jpg
58 YBN
[07/??/1942 AD] 		5378) The theory, based on planet
densities and atmospheric composition,
that Jupiter and the other giant
planets have a deep and dense
atmosphere, with a thick shell of ice
on top of an interior of rock and
metal.
(Princeton University) Princeton, New
Jersey, USA 
[1] Rupert Wildt (1905-76) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.tayabeixo.org/biograf
ias/images/Wildt.jpg
58 YBN
[10/20/1942 AD] 		5546) The isotope uranium-233 is
isolated. Uranium-233 can be prepared
from thorium, and like uranium-235 can
undergo fission, and so is a valuable
nuclear fuel. So thorium can be added
to uranium as a potential fuel.
(University of California) Berkeley,
California, USA 
[1] Glenn Seaborg (1912 -
1999) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.atomicarchive.com/Ima
ges/bio/B51.jpg

[2] Glenn Theodore Seaborg Nobel
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/chemistry/laureates/1951/seaborg.jpg
58 YBN
[10/??/1942 AD] 		5534) Liquid fuel missiles.
Peenemünde, Germany 
[1] Description Fusée
V2.jpg English: V2-Rocket in the
Peenemünde Museum Deutsch: V2-Rakete
im Peenemünde Museum Français :
Musée de Peenemünde. Date 24
August 2004(2004-08-24) Source
Uploaded as thumbnail on 16:49, 26
Dec 2004 by User:Mschlindwein.
Re-uploaded with original size and
correct name on 13.06.2005 by
User:Avatar. Author AElfwine GNU

source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6d/Fus%C3%A9e_V2.jpg

[2] Description Wernher von Braun
crop.jpg Dr. von Braun became
Director of the NASA Marshall Space
Flight Center on July 1,
1960. Français : Le Dr. Von Braun,
directeur du centre de vol spatial de
la NASA, mai 1964 Date
1964-05 NOTE: DESCRIPTION
DATES CONTRADICT EACHOTHER Source
NASA More
specifically? Author NASA PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5e/Wernher_von_Braun_cro
p.jpg
58 YBN
[11/04/1942 AD] 		5289) The first explicit claim that a
planet of a different star is detected.
From small changes in the relative
movement of the star 61 Cygni observed
on photographic plates, a planet
estimated to be 1/60th the mass of the
Sun, and sixteen times more massive
than Jupiter, a mass too low to be a
star.
(Sproul Observatory, Swartmore
University), Swarthmore, Pennsylvania,
USA 
[1] Figure 1 from: Strand, K. A., ''61
Cygni as a Triple System'',
Publications of the Astronomical
Society of the Pacific, Vol. 55, No.
322,
p.29-32. http://articles.adsabs.harvard
.edu/full/seri/PASP./0055//0000030.000.h
tml {Strand_K_A_19421104.pdf}
UNKNOWN
source: http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du/full/seri/PASP./0055//0000030.000.htm
l

[2] Description
KajStrand.jpg English: Kaj Aage
Gunnar Strand (27 February 1907 - 31
October 2000) was director of the U.S.
Naval Observatory from 1963 to 1977. He
specialized in astrometry, especially
work on double stars and stellar
distances. Date
2000(2000) Source
http://ad.usno.navy.mil/wds/history
/strand.html Author
U.S.Navy Permission (Reusing
this file) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/59/KajStrand.jpg
58 YBN
[11/04/1942 AD] 		5290) The influence of a planet 8 times
the mass of Jupiter is detected around
the small star Lalande 21185.
(Sproul Observatory, Swartmore
University), Swarthmore, Pennsylvania,
USA 
[1] Sarah Lee Lippincott 1975
Swarthmore College faculty
photograph UNKNOWN
source: http://www.swarthmore77.org/eHal
cyon/1977f/Astro-Lippincott.jpg

[2] Peter van de Kamp UNKNOWN
source: http://theperfectsilence.com/wp-
content/uploads/2010/01/van_de_Kamp.jpg
58 YBN
[12/02/1942 AD] 		5277) A self-sustained uranium fission
reaction.

Cadmium rods are slowly withdrawn from
a pile of graphite blocks with uranium
inside, and the first uranium fission
chain reaction becomes self-sustaining
driven only by neutrons spontaneously
emitted by uranium.
(University of Chicago) Chicago,
Illinois, USA 
[1] Figure 5 from: ''Experimental
production of a Divergent Chain
Reaction'', American Journal of
Physics, 20, 1952,
536-558. http://ajp.aapt.org/resource/1
/ajpias/v20/i9/p536_s1 {Fermi_Enrico_19
520627.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://ajp.aapt.org/resource/1/a
jpias/v20/i9/p536_s1

[2] Enrico Fermi from Argonne
National Laboratory PD
source: http://www.osti.gov/accomplishme
nts/images/08.gif
58 YBN
[1942 AD] 		5441) The roots, leaves and juice of
the "Rauwolfia serpentina" plant in
India is found to lowers blood
pressure. This leads to the first
tranquilizer drugs.
(K. E. M. Medical College) Lucknow,
India 		 
57 YBN
[05/14/1943 AD] 		5264) The molecule biotin is
synthesized.
(Merck and Company, Inc.) Rahway, New
Jersey, USA 
[1] Karl August Folkers September 1,
1906–December 9, 1997 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.nap.edu/html/biomems/
photo/kfolkers.JPG

[2] Vincent du Vigneaud COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/chemistry/laureates/1955/vigneaud.jpg

57 YBN
[05/25/1943 AD] 		5578) Changes in light absorption
spectral lines are used to determine
that molecular changes have occurred.
(University of Pennsylvania)
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA 
[1] Figure 1 from: Britton Chance,
''The kinetics of the enzyme-substrate
compound of peroxidase'', Journal of
biological chemistry, (1943) volume:
151 issue: 2 page: 553.
http://www.jbc.org/content/151/2/553.f
ull.pdf+html?sid=d94bc504-c1d4-4a2e-b594
-e33b2c903bf6 {Chance_Britton_19430526.
pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jbc.org/content/151/2
/553.full.pdf+html?sid=d94bc504-c1d4-4a2
e-b594-e33b2c903bf6

[2] Britton Chance
(1913-2010) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.archives.upenn.edu/im
g/20060628001bchance200.jpg
57 YBN
[09/??/1943 AD] 		5280) The synchrotron accelerator;
stable circulating particle orbits are
increased in energy by a resonant
acceleration that results from a
variation of the magnetic field, of the
frequency of the accelerating electric
field, or of both.
(University of Birmingham) Birmingham,
England 
[1] Figure 2 from: M L Oliphant, J S
Gooden and G S Hide, ''The acceleration
of charged particles to very high
energies'', Proc. Phys. Soc. 59
666. http://iopscience.iop.org/0959-530
9/59/4/314/ {Oliphant_Marcus_19470321.p
df} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://iopscience.iop.org/0959-5
309/59/4/314/

[2] Description Sir Mark
Oliphant.jpg English: Photograph of
Sir Mark Oliphant AC KBE Date
1939(1939) Source
http://www.portrait.gov.au/static/c
oll_741Sir+Mark+Oliphant.php Author
Bassano Ltd Permission (Reusing
this file) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/34/Sir_Mark_Oliphant.jpg

57 YBN
[11/01/1943 AD] 		4916) The DNA molecule is recognized as
being responsible for the creation and
inheritance of structural changes in a
body by Avery, MacLeod, and McCarty.
That DNA can cause structural changes
to a bacterium which are then passed
onto later generations is proven.
(Rockefeller Institute, now called
Rockefeller University) New York City,
New York, USA 
[1] EXPLANATION OF PLATE The
photograph was made by Mr. Joseph B.
Haulenbeek. FIG. 1. Colonies of the R
variant (R36A) derived from
Pneumococcus Type n. Plated on blood
agar from a culture grown in serum
broth in the absence of
the transforming substance. X
3.5. FIO. 2. Colonies on blood agar of
the same cells after induction of
transformation during growth in the
same medium with the addition of active
transforming principle isolated from
Type nI pneumococci. The smooth,
glistening, mucoid colonies shown are
characteristic of Pneumococcus Type In
and readily distinguishable from the
small, rough colonies of the parent R
strain illustrated in Fig. 1.
X3.5. Downloaded from jem.rupress.org
on December 24, 2010 Published
February 1, 1944 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://jem.rupress.org/content/7
9/2/137.full.pdf

[2] Description Oswald T. Avery
portrait 1937.jpg Portrait of Oswald
T. Avery, cropped from a Rockefeller
Institute for Medical Research staff
photograph. Date
1937(1937) Source
http://profiles.nlm.nih.gov/CC/A/A/
L/P/_/ccaalp_.jpg Author
Unknown Permission (Reusing this
file) Reproduced with permission
of the Rockefeller Archive Center. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/eb/Oswald_T._Avery_portr
ait_1937.jpg
57 YBN
[1943 AD] 		4949) That direct electrical
stimulation to the brain with metal
electrodes can cause cats to become
enraged or scared is shown.
(University of Zurich), Zurich,
Switzerland 
[1] From Hess, 1943 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://docserver.ingentaconnect.
com/deliver/connect/tandf/0964704x/v8n3/
s4.pdf?expires=1293515670&id=60427856&ti
tleid=10598&accname=University+of+Califo
rnia&checksum=AD47147550DF109FC08950558A
18A9D3

[2] Walter Rudolf Hess (March 17, 1881
– August 12, 1973), Swiss
physiologist who won the Nobel Prize in
Physiology or Medicine in 1949 for
mapping the areas of the brain involved
in the control of internal
organs Source
http://www.nndb.com/people/271/0001
28884/walter-hess.jpg Article
Walter Rudolf Hess Portion used
Entire Low resolution?
Yes Purpose of use It is
only being used to illustrate the
article in question UNKNOWN
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/2/27/Walter_Rudolf_Hess.jpg
57 YBN
[1943 AD] 		5050) An antibiotic is isolated that is
effective against gram-negative
bacteria (penicillin only kills
gram-positive bacteria) from a
streptomyces mold and is named
streptomycin.
(Rutgers University) New Brunswick, New
Jersey, USA 
[1] This is a file from the Wikimedia
Commons Description Selman Waksman
NYWTS.jpg Dr. Selman Waksman,
half-length portrait, facing left at
work in the laboratory / World Telegram
& Sun photo by Roger Higgins. Date
1953(1953) Source Library of
Congress Prints and Photographs
Division. New York World-Telegram and
the Sun Newspaper Photograph
Collection.
http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/cph.3c19821
Author New York World-Telegram and
the Sun staff photographer: Higgins,
Roger, photographer. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/33/Selman_Waksman_NYWTS.
jpg
57 YBN
[1943 AD] 		5399) The theory of Quantum
electrodynamics (QED), which seeks to
include Einstein's theory of relativity
to the Bohr-Schroedinger model of the
atom as described by quantum mechanics.
(Tokyo Bunrika University) Tokyo,
Japan 
[1] Description Tomonaga.jpg English:
Sin-Itiro Tomonaga Date
1965(1965) Source
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/
physics/laureates/1965/tomonaga-bio.html
Author Nobel
foundation COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3a/Tomonaga.jpg

[2] Description Feynman at Los
Alamos.jpg Richard Feynman (center)
and Robert Oppenheimer (to viewer's
right of Feynman) at Los Alamos
National Laboratory during the
Manhattan Project. Original source from
http://www.lanl.gov/worldview/welcome/hi
story/12_oppie-arrives.html Date
2010-12-02 07:59 (UTC) Source
*
Feynman_and_Oppenheimer_at_Los_Alamos.jp
g Author *
Feynman_and_Oppenheimer_at_Los_Alamos.jp
g: unknown * derivative work:
Materialscientist (talk) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/aa/Feynman_at_Los_Alamos
.jpg
57 YBN
[1943 AD] 		5488) The first fully automatic
compressed-air Aqua-Lung (a device that
allows for breathing underwater) is
developed.
Paris, France 
[1] Image from: Emile Gagnon, Jacques
Yves Cousteau, ''Compressed Gas
Container With Reducing Valve and
Auxillary Opening Means Therefor'',
Patent number: 2598248, Filing date:
Dec 11, 1946, Issue date: May 27, 1952.
Filing Date in France
12/15/1945. http://www.google.com/paten
ts?id=L9RnAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoo
m=4&source=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepag
e&q&f=false PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=L9RnAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f
=false

[2] Jacques-Yves Cousteau UNKNOWN
source: http://www.neo-planete.com/wp-co
ntent/uploads/2009/02/jacques-yves-coust
eau.jpg
56 YBN
[04/27/1944 AD] 		5121) The theory that stars can be
divided in two types: type I stars,
like the highly luminous O and B type
stars and those of open clusters, and
type II stars, like the short-period
Cepheids and globular clusters.
(Mount Wilson Observatory) Mount
Wilson, California, USA 
[1] Figure 1 from: Baade, W., ''The
Resolution of Messier 32, NGC 205, and
the Central Region of the Andromeda
Nebula.'', Astrophysical Journal, vol.
100,
p.137. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
944ApJ...100..137B
{Baade_Walter_19440427.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: Baade_Walter_fig1_19440427.jpg

[2] From Huntington Library, San
Marino, California. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.astrosociety.org/pubs
/mercury/31_04/images/baade.jpg
56 YBN
[05/13/1944 AD] 		5481) Paper partition chromatography is
invented, which allows the
identification of the number and type
of amino acids in protein molecules.
(Wool Industries Research Association)
Torridon, Headingley, Leeds, UK 
[1] Plate from: R. Consden, A. H.
Gordon, and A. J. P. Martin,
''Qualitative analysis of proteins: a
partition chromatographic method using
paper'', Biochem J. 1944; 38(3):
224–232.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1258072/ {Martin_Archer_19440513.
pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/
articles/PMC1258072/

[2] Archer John Porter Martin Nobel
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1952/marti
n_postcard.jpg
56 YBN
[07/08/1944 AD] 		5429) Spontaneous mutations are found
to occur in both bacteriophages and the
bacteria cells they invade.
(Indiana University) Bloomington,
Indiana, USA 
[1] Salvador Edward Luria Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1969/luria.jpg

[2] Alfred Day Hershey COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/medicine/laureates/1969/hershe
y_postcard.jpg
56 YBN
[07/17/1944 AD] 		5186) A thin film of metal is sprayed
from the side over objects in an
electron microscope field, which forms
a metal-free area behind each object
and creates a three-dimensional image
in the electron microscope.
(University of Michigan) Ann Arbor,
Michigan, USA 
[1] Ralph Walter Graystone Wyckoff
UNKNOWN
source: http://0.tqn.com/d/chemistry/1/0
/m/-/1/Ralph_Wyckoff.jpg
56 YBN
[08/21/1944 AD] 		5389) Titan, a moon of Saturn is found
to have an atmosphere, and from
infrared absorption lines both Titan
and Saturn are shown to contain
methane, and possibly ammonia.
(McDonald Observatory, Mount Locke)
Fort Davis, Texas, USA 
[1] Plate from: Kuiper, G. P.,
''Titan: a Satellite with an
Atmosphere.'', Astrophysical Journal,
vol. 100,
p.378. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du//full/1944ApJ...100..378K/0999999P019
.html
{Kuiper_Gerard_19440821.pdf} UNKNOWN

source: http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du//full/1944ApJ...100..378K/0999999P019
.html

[2] Caption: The Dutch-American
astronomer Gerard Peter Kuiper
(1905-1973). Kuiper studied at the
University of Leiden, Holland, where he
obtained his PhD in 1933. In the same
year he emigrated to America where he
worked in several universities and
observatories. Kuiper's main research
was on the solar system. He discovered
two new satellites: Miranda, the fifth
satellite of Uranus, in 1948 and
Nereid, the second satellite of
Neptune, in 1949. He proposed in 1951
that the short-period comets come from
a flattened ring of comets, the
Kuiper's belt, found beyond Neptune. He
was involved in some of the early space
missions including the Ranger and
Mariner missions. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.sciencephoto.com/imag
es/download_wm_image.html/H411054-The_Du
tch-American_astronomer_Gerard_Peter_Kui
per-SPL.jpg?id=724110054
56 YBN
[11/08/1944 AD] 		5675) The alkaloid quinine is
synthesized.
(Harvard University) Cambridge,
Massachusetts, USA  
[1] Robert Burns Woodward Nobel Prize
Photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/chemistry/laureates/1965/woodward.jpg

56 YBN
[11/11/1944 AD] 		5227) The endoplasmic reticulum is
identified (in chick embryo cells)
using an electron microscope.
(Rockefeller Institute of Medical
Research) New York City, New York,
USA 
[1] Figure 2 from: KR Porter, A
Claude, Ernest Fullam, ''A study of
tissue culture cells by electron
microscopy'', The Journal of
Experimental Medicine,
03/01/1945. http://jem.rupress.org/cont
ent/81/3/233.abstract {Claude_Albert_19
441111.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://jem.rupress.org/content/8
1/3/233.abstract

[2] Albert Claude COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1974/claude.jpg
56 YBN
[1944 AD] 		5405) A low-velocity sound channel in
the ocean at a depth of 700–1,300
meters is found and called the SOFAR
(Sound Fixing and Ranging) channel. At
this depth the sound from the explosion
of a small charge dropped off the west
coast of Africa can be detected as far
away as the Bahamas.
(Columbia University) New York City,
New York, USA 
[1] William Maurice Ewing UNKNOWN
source: http://lh4.ggpht.com/_gNIHS1PHL1
Q/SO941XFj4CI/AAAAAAAAATk/tMf7NRc0kIU/50
0.jpg
55 YBN
[04/15/1945 AD] 		5303) Chemicals are separated by
ion-exchange chromatography. in which a
mineral or resin absorbs one kind of
ion while releasing another kind of
ion. Using this method lanthanoids can
be obtained in substantial quantities
for the first time.
(Iowa State College) Iowa, USA 
[1] Niels Bohr and Frank H. Spedding
Iowa State University, courtesy AIP
Emilio Segre Visual Archives PD
source: http://www.ornl.gov/~jxz/ALNS_hi
story/ALNS_photos/ALNS_photos-Images/0.j
pg
55 YBN
[06/30/1945 AD] 		5334) The EDVAC (Electronic Discrete
Variable Computer) is designed.
(Princeton University) Princeton, New
Jersey, USA 
[1] Schematic of the von Neumann
architecture. The Control Unit and
Arithmetic Logic Unit form the main
components of the Central Processing
Unit (CPU) GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Von_Neumann_arc
hitecture.svg/1000px-Von_Neumann_archite
cture.svg.png

[2] John von Neumann & the
EDSAC--1949 The EDSAC (Electronic
Delay Storage Automatic Computer) had
3,000 vacuum tubes and the programs
were input using paper tapes. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.ptc.dcs.edu:16080/Moo
dy/comphistory/Von_Neumann_5.jpeg
55 YBN
[06/??/1945 AD] 		5699) The theory that 21-cm radio waves
are produced by interstellar hydrogen
atoms.
(University of Utrecht) Utrecht,
Netherlands 
[1] Figure 1 from: [13] Bakker, CJ,
and van de Hulst, HC, 1945.
''Radiogolven uit de wereldruimte.'',
Nederlands Tijdschrift voor
Natuurkunde, 11 ,
201-221. {Hulst_Hendrik_Christoffell_Va
n_de_194506xx.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: Hulst_Hendrik_Christoffell_Van_d
e_194506xx.pdf

[2] Description
Henk-van-de-hulst.jpg English: Dutch
astronomer Henk van de Hulst at the
Nederlandse Astronomenconferentie,
Dalfsen, May 1967. Date
1967-05-00 Source Own
work Author
http://www.astro.uu.nl/~rutten/Rob_s_
astronomer_shots.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/06/Henk-van-de-hulst.jpg

55 YBN
[07/13/1945 AD] 		5426) Numerous members of the
streptomycin group of antibiotics
(including Waksman's streptomycin) are
synthesized.
(Merck and Company, Inc) Rahway, New
Jersey, USA 
[1] Karl August Folkers September 1,
1906–December 9, 1997 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.nap.edu/html/biomems/
photo/kfolkers.JPG
55 YBN
[07/16/1945 AD] 		5311) The first atomic fission bomb is
exploded.

The first atomic fission bomb exploded
is a plutonium bomb that compares to
about 21,000 tons of TNT.
(Alamogordo Test Range) Jornada del
Muerto (Journey of Death) desert, New
Mexico, USA 
[1] The fully assembled Gadget. PD
source: http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/
Usa/Tests/GadgetB1024c10.jpg

[2] First uranium-fission explosion
''trinity'' 16 ms after detonation. PD

source: http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/
Usa/Tests/Trin2.jpg
55 YBN
[08/31/1945 AD] 		5692) A molecule
2,4-dinitrofluorobenzene (Sanger's
reagent) is found to attach itself to
one end of a chain of amino acids but
not the other, and this is used to
determine the order of amino acids in
the insulin molecule.
(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England 
[1] Frederick Sanger Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/chemistry/laureates/1958/sanger.jpg
55 YBN
[10/08/1945 AD] 		6272) The microwave oven.

High-frequency radio light is found to
penetrate and excite certain types of
molecules, such as those found in food.
Microwave light is strong enough to
cook food but not strong enough to
alter its genetic structure or to make
it radioactive.
(Raytheon Manufacturing Company)
Newton, Massachusetts, USA 
[1] Figure from: [1] US patent
2495429, Spencer, Percy L., ''Method of
treating foodstuffs'', issued
1950-January-24 www.google.com/patents?
id=x_tuAAAAEBAJ
and http://worldwide.espacenet.com/text
doc?DB=EPODOC&IDX=US2495429 PD
source: www.google.com/patents?id=x_tuAA
AAEBAJ

[2] Spencer, Percy with
Magnetron UNKNOWN
source: http://www.raytheon.com/newsroom
/photogal/photos/percywithmagnetron_l.jp
g
55 YBN
[11/20/1945 AD] 		5368) Norepinephrin (noradreneline) is
discovered and shown, like epinephrin
(adrenelin) to raise heart rate,
blood-pressure, and is also a
neurotransmitter.
(Karolinischen Institues) Stockholm,
Sweden 
[1] Ulf S. von Euler Nobel
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/medicine/laureates/1970/euler_
postcard.jpg

[2] Description Ulf Svante von
Euler (7 February 1905 – 9 March
1983), Swedish physiologist and
pharmacologist Source
Bettmann/CORBIS Article Ulf
von Euler Portion used
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/b/bc/Ulf_von_Euler.jpg
55 YBN
[1945 AD] 		5312) Neutrons are reflected off
mirrors at very small incidence angles.
(Argonne Laboratory) Argonne,
Illinois 
[1] Enrico Fermi from Argonne
National Laboratory PD
source: http://www.osti.gov/accomplishme
nts/images/08.gif

[2] Enrico Fermi Nobel
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/physics/laureates/1938/fermi.jpg
55 YBN
[1945 AD] 		5410) Sonar is used to measure the
oceans to the deepest depth to date,
about seven miles (11 km) deep.
(Princeton University) Princeton, New
Jersey, USA 
[1] Princeton University
Archives Harry Hammond Hess
*32 UNKNOWN
source: http://paw.princeton.edu/issues/
2010/02/03/pages/6388/Hess.jpg
54 YBN
[01/10/1946 AD] 		5528) Radio light is reflected off the
moon and received back on Earth.
Fort Monmouth, New Jersey, USA 
[1] Figure 13 from: Dewitt, J.H., Jr.;
Stodola, E.K.;, ''Detection of Radio
Signals Reflected from the Moon'',
Proceedings of the IRE, March 1949,
Volume: 37 Issue:3, p229 -
242. http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpls/ab
s_all.jsp?arnumber=1697973&tag=1 {Dewit
t_John_H_19480311.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpls/
abs_all.jsp?arnumber=1697973&tag=1

[2] Figure 6 from: Dewitt, J.H., Jr.;
Stodola, E.K.;, ''Detection of Radio
Signals Reflected from the Moon'',
Proceedings of the IRE, March 1949,
Volume: 37 Issue:3, p229 -
242. http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpls/ab
s_all.jsp?arnumber=1697973&tag=1 {Dewit
t_John_H_19480311.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpls/
abs_all.jsp?arnumber=1697973&tag=1
54 YBN
[02/??/1946 AD] 		5459) ENIAC, the first programmable
general-purpose electronic digital
computer is completed.
(University of Pennsylvania)
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA 
[1] Description Eniac.jpg en:ENIAC
in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Glen
Beck (background) and Betty Snyder
(foreground) program the ENIAC in BRL
building 328 Date c. 1947 to
1955 Source U.S. Army
Photo http://ftp.arl.mil/ftp/historic-c
omputers PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/4e/Eniac.jpg

[2]
http://www.fcet.staffs.ac.uk/jdw1/sucfm/
19071980mauchlyjohnwilliam.jpg UNKNOWN

source: http://www.fcet.staffs.ac.uk/jdw
1/sucfm/19071980mauchlyjohnwilliam.jpg
54 YBN
[05/27/1946 AD] 		5411) Hundreds of flat-topped mountains
are discovered on the Pacific floor,
which are named "guyots" (GEOS), their
tops are eroded, but they are 2
kilometers under water.
(Princeton University) Princeton, New
Jersey, USA 
[1] Figure 2A from: Harry Hammond
Hess, ''Drowned ancient islands of the
Pacific Basin'', American Journal of
Science, Vol. 244, November 1946,
P.772-791;
doi:10.2475/ajs.244.11.772. http://www.
ajsonline.org/cgi/content/abstract/244/1
1/772 {Hess_Harry_Hammond_19460527.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.ajsonline.org/cgi/con
tent/abstract/244/11/772

[2] Princeton University
Archives Harry Hammond Hess
*32 UNKNOWN
source: http://paw.princeton.edu/issues/
2010/02/03/pages/6388/Hess.jpg
54 YBN
[06/01/1946 AD] 		5472) Radio-carbon dating. That the
isotopes H3 (tritium), He3, and C14,
produced by cosmic-ray neutrons, can be
used to determine the age of the
Earth's atmosphere, surface, and living
matter is recognized.
(University of Chicago) Chicago,
Illinois, USA 
[1] Description Willard Frank
Libby (December 17, 1908 – September
8, 1980), American physical
chemist Source
http://www.nndb.com/people/470/000100
170/willard-libby-1-sized.jpg Article
Willard Libby Nobel
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/6/66/Willard_Libby.jpg
54 YBN
[06/24/1946 AD] 		5430) That the genetic material of
different viruses can be combined to
form a new and different virus is
found.
(Washington University) Saint Louis,
Missouri, USA 
[1] Alfred Day Hershey COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/medicine/laureates/1969/hershe
y_postcard.jpg

[2] Max Delbrück Nobel
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/medicine/laureates/1969/delbru
ck_postcard.jpg
54 YBN
[07/15/1946 AD] 		5373) Cosmic rays are measured above
the Earth's atmosphere by a rocket with
coincidence counters.
(U. S. Naval Research Laboratory)
Washington, D. C., USA 
[1] Figure 1 from: S. E. Golian, E. H.
Krause, and G. J. Perlow, ''Cosmic
Radiation Above 40 Miles'', Physical
review, (1946) volume: 70 issue: 3-4
page:
223. http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v
70/i3-4/p223_1 {Golian_Sergei_19460715.
pdf}
source: http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v70/i3-4/p223_1
54 YBN
[08/22/1946 AD] 		5697) Multiple telescopes are used in
parallel to observe a larger area.

This technique is called
"interferometry" being thought to be
analogous to Michelson's method for
determining stellar diameter.
(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England 
[1] Figures 1 and 2 from: M. RYLE &
D. D. VONBERG, ''Solar Radiation on 175
Mc./s'', Nature 158, 339-340 (07
September 1946),
doi:10.1038/158339b0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v158/n4010/abs/158339
b0.html {Ryle_Martin_19460822.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v158/n4010/abs/158339b0.html

[2] Sir Martin Ryle. Harry Todd—Fox
Photos/Archive Photos/Getty
Images COPYRIGHTED
source: http://media-1.web.britannica.co
m/eb-media/56/20956-004-D0293979.jpg
54 YBN
[08/??/1946 AD] 		5314) The electric potential of a
single frog nerve cell (neuron) is
measured to be 62 mV.
(University of Chicago) Chicago,
illinois, USA 
[1] Judith Graham, R. W. Gerard,
''Membrane potentials and excitation of
impaled single muscle fibers'', Journal
of Cellular and Comparative Physiology,
Volume 28, Issue 1, pages
99–117, August
1946 http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi
/10.1002/jcp.1030280106/abstract
{Graham_Judith_194608xx.pdf} PD
source: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/d
oi/10.1002/jcp.1030280106/abstract
{Graham_Judith_194608xx.pdf}
54 YBN
[09/13/1946 AD] 		5349) The theory that the elements were
formed in the early stages of an
expanding universe.
(George Washington University)
Washington, D.C., USA 
[1] Description GamovGA
1930.jpg English: George Gamow
(1904—1968) — Russian-born
theoretical physicist and
cosmologist. Русский:
Георгий Гамов (1904—1968)
— советский и
американский
физик-теоретик,
астрофизик и
популяризатор
науки. Date
2010(2010) Source
http://www.peoples.ru/science/physi
cs/gamow/photo0_1.html Author
Serge Lachinov (обработка
для wiki) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/67/GamovGA_1930.jpg

[2] GEORGE GAMOW UNKNOWN
source: http://ffden-2.phys.uaf.edu/103_
fall2003.web.dir/Heidi_Arts/Pictures/gam
scan2.jpg
54 YBN
[09/17/1946 AD] 		5742) Sexual reproduction (conjugation)
is found in bacteria (E. Coli).
(Yale University) New Haven,
Connecticut, USA 
[1] Joshua Lederberg UNKNOWN
source: http://t3.gstatic.com/images?q=t
bn:ANd9GcTip9U51ETe5PA23tMz7X9VOE3pFURQn
PV-AHXSb4--tMcozbbL&t=1

[2] Edward Lawrie Tatum Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1958/tatum.jpg
54 YBN
[10/10/1946 AD] 		3848) The first solar spectrum is
captured from the upper atmosphere by a
rocket. This spectrum confirms that the
atmosphere of Earth absorbs light with
ultraviolet frequency.
(White Sands proving area) New Mexico,
USA 
[1] Solar spectra from the V-2 rocket
flight of October 10, 1946. PD?
source: http://www.opticsinfobase.org/Di
rectPDFAccess/1F0674EE-BDB9-137E-C7FE1A8
E4EC33A4E_77185.pdf?da=1&id=77185&seq=0&
CFID=25437192&CFTOKEN=60659010

[2] Tenatively assumed
temperature-height curves. The short
curve was derived from the V-2 pressure
data of October 10, 1946. PD?
source: http://www.opticsinfobase.org/Di
rectPDFAccess/1F0674EE-BDB9-137E-C7FE1A8
E4EC33A4E_77185.pdf?da=1&id=77185&seq=0&
CFID=25437192&CFTOKEN=60659010
54 YBN
[11/13/1946 AD] 		5419) Human-made falling snow and
photomicrographs of ice crystals are
captured.
(General Electric Research Laboratory)
Schenectady, New York, USA 
[1] Figure 5 from: Vincent J.
Schaefer, ''The Formation of Ice
Crystals in the Laboratory and the
Atmosphere.'', Chem. Rev., 1949, 44
(2), pp
291–320. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/
10.1021/cr60138a004 {Schaefer_Vincent_1
9481018.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1
021/cr60138a004

[2] Scientist Vincent J. Schaefer
Conducting Weather Experiments at
General Electric UNKNOWN
source: http://cache2.allpostersimages.c
om/p/LRG/37/3797/WDJIF00Z/posters/scient
ist-vincent-j-schaefer-conducting-weathe
r-experiments-at-general-electric.jpg
54 YBN
[12/21/1946 AD] 		5537) The negative mesotron is shown
not to react with the atomic nucleus
which casts doubt on the theory that
the mesotron is related to a
theoretical nuclear force.
(University of Rome) Rome, Italy  
53 YBN
[01/08/1947 AD] 		5340) An image of the track of a meson
(which will be called a pi-meson, or
"pion").
(Imperial College of Science and
Technology) London, England 
[1] Figures from: D. H. PERKINS,
''Nuclear Disintegration by Meson
Capture'', Nature 159, 126-127 (25
January
1947). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v159/n4030/abs/159126a0.html {Perk
ins_Donald_H_19470108.pdf} COPYRIGHTED

source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v159/n4030/abs/159126a0.html

[2] Donald H. Perkins UNKNOWN
source: http://pi.physik.uni-bonn.de/wpa
ul/wp_perkins.jpg
53 YBN
[01/09/1947 AD] 		5443) A "breeder" atomic fission
chain-reaction reactor; a reactor that
produces more fuel than it consumes by
surrounding the core with atoms like
Thorium-232 and Uranium-238, so that
neutrons from the core convert these to
Uranium-233 and Plutonium-239,
respectively, which can be used as
fission fuel.
Chicago, Illinois, USA 
[1] W. H. ZINN, ''FAST NEUTRON REACTION
SYSTEM'', Patent number: 2975117,
Filing date: Jan 9, 1947, Issue date:
Mar 14,
1961. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
xJhUAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=
false PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=xJhUAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f
=false

[2] Descripción Walter Henry
Zinn.png Fotografía del físico
Walter Henry Zinn. Fecha Fuente
Propio, recorte de
http://www.anl.gov/Science_and_Technolog
y/History/fermizinn.html Autor Este
archivo carece de información acerca
del autor. Permiso (Reutilizando este
archivo) Mirar abajo. Otras versiones
Image:Enrico Fermi and Henry Walter
Zinn.gif PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e0/Walter_Henry_Zinn.png

53 YBN
[01/10/1947 AD] 		5404) Small, round, dense, and dark
nebulae with diameters between 10,000
and 35,000 A.U. are observed in M8 (the
Lagoon Nebula) which are thought to
represent the evolutionary stage just
before the formation of a star.
(Harvard University) Cambridge,
Massachusetts, USA  
[1] Description English: M8 Lagoon
Nebula in Sagittarius Date 26 June
2009 Source Own work Author
Hewholooks CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2f/M8HunterWilson.jpg

[2] Bok, Bart Jan Bart Jan
Bok UNKNOWN
source: http://www.optcorp.com/images2/a
rticles/full-bok.jpg
53 YBN
[01/10/1947 AD] 		5581) That radar (a radio echo) can be
used to see meteor showers, and that
meteors can even be seen with radar
during daylight is shown.
(University of Manchester: Jodrell
Bank) Cheshire, England 
[1] Figure 3 from: Prentice, J. P. M.,
Lovell, A. C. B., & Banwell, C. J.,
''Radio echo observations of meteors'',
Monthly Notices of the Royal
Astronomical Society, Vol. 107,
p.155. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
947MNRAS.107..155P {Lovell_Bernard_1947
0110.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
947MNRAS.107..155P

[2] Description
BernardLovell.jpg English: Sir
Bernard Lovell Date
Unknown Source
http://www.jb.man.ac.uk/gallery/Berna
rdLovell.jpg [1] Author
Unknown Permission (Reusing this
file) ''They are copyright free
although we would like credit to be
assigned to Jodrell Bank, University of
Manchester, if possible
somewhere!'' PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b1/BernardLovell.jpg
53 YBN
[01/27/1947 AD] 		5335) Neutron beams of a single
frequency (monochromatic) are made by
using a mechanical filter and found to
follow Bragg's law when scatter from
crystals.
(Argonne Laboratory) Argonne, Illinois,
USA 
[1] Figure 1 from: E. Fermi, W. J.
Sturm, and R. G. Sachs, ''The
Transmission of Slow Neutrons through
Microcrystalline Materials'', Phys.
Rev. 71, 589–594
(1947). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v71/i9/p589_1 {Fermi_Enrico_19470127.
pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v71/i9/p589_1

[2] Enrico Fermi from Argonne
National Laboratory PD
source: http://www.osti.gov/accomplishme
nts/images/08.gif
53 YBN
[02/07/1947 AD] 		5337) Interference effects are produced
with neutron beams.
(Argonne Laboratory) Argonne,
Illinois 
[1] Figure 2 from: [12] E. Fermi and
L. Marshall, ''Interference Phenomena
of Slow Neutrons'', Phys. Rev. 71,
666–677
(1947). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v71/i10/p666_1 {Fermi_Enrico_19470207
.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v71/i10/p666_1

[2] Enrico Fermi from Argonne
National Laboratory PD
source: http://www.osti.gov/accomplishme
nts/images/08.gif
53 YBN
[02/17/1947 AD] 		5478) An "instant" camera, which
produces developed photographs shortly
after they are taken.
(Polaroid Corporation) Cambridge,
Massachusetts, USA 
[1] Figures from patent: Edwin H.
Land, ''Film Forming image Transfer
Composition'', Patent number: 2603565,
Filing date: Feb 17, 1947, Issue date:
Jul 15,
1952. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
W21HAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=
false PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=W21HAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f
=false

[2] image from Polaroid Land Camera
instructions UNKNOWN
source: http://www.copweb.be/UsersManual
/plcam07.jpg
53 YBN
[03/17/1947 AD] 		5588) That seeding clouds with silver
iodide crystals can also cause rain is
discovered.
(General Electric Research Laboratory)
Schenectady, New York, USA 
[1] Bernard Vonnegut In 1997
Vonnegut was awarded (posthumously) the
Ig Nobel Prize in Meteorology
for his revealing report, ''Chicken
Plucking as Measure of Tornado Wind
Speed.'' [Published
in ''Weatherwise,'' October 1975, p.
217.] UNKNOWN
source: http://www.atmos.albany.edu/deas
/bvonn/BV_THphoto.jpg
53 YBN
[06/18/1947 AD] 		5402) Two electron states (or shells)
of the hydrogen atom are measured to
have different resonant electron
frequencies, and this contradicts the
theory of Paul Dirac that presumes
these two states to have the same
energy. This is called the "Lamb
shift".
(Columbia University) New York City,
New York, USA 
[1] Description Willis Lamb.jpg Willis
Lamb English: Rationale: photographer
died >70yrs ago Source:
http://www.tamu-commerce.edu/physics/lin
ks/lamb.jpg Date 2008-04-19
(original upload date) Source
Transferred from en.wikipedia;
Transfer was stated to be made by
User:Soulkeeper. Author Original
uploader was MessinaRagazza at
en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) Released under the GNU Free
Documentation License; PD-OLD-70. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2b/Willis_Lamb.jpg

[2] Willis Eugene Lamb jr.
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/physics/laureates/1955/lamb_po
stcard.jpg
53 YBN
[06/26/1947 AD] 		5550) Elements 73 (tantalum) through 83
(bismuth) are fissioned with deuterons,
helium ions or neutrons in a 184-inch
(14 foot) frequency-modulated cyclotron
with energies up to 400 Mev. Fission is
determined by chemical identification
of radioactive fission products.
(University of California) Berkeley,
California, USA 
[1] I. Perlman, R. H. Goeckermann, D.
H. Templeton, and J. J. Howland,
''Fission of Bismuth, Lead, Thallium,
Platinum, and Tantalum with High Energy
Particles'', Phys. Rev. 72,
352–352
(1947). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v72/i4/p352_1 {Howland_J_J_19470626.p
df} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v72/i4/p352_1
53 YBN
[08/31/1947 AD] 		5582) Radio echos are captured off of
an Aurora Borealis.
(University of Manchester: Jodrell
Bank) Cheshire, England 
[1] Figure 3 from: Prentice, J. P. M.,
Lovell, A. C. B., & Banwell, C. J.,
''Radio echo observations of meteors'',
Monthly Notices of the Royal
Astronomical Society, Vol. 107,
p.155. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
947MNRAS.107..155P {Lovell_Bernard_1947
0110.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
947MNRAS.107..155P

[2] Description
BernardLovell.jpg English: Sir
Bernard Lovell Date
Unknown Source
http://www.jb.man.ac.uk/gallery/Berna
rdLovell.jpg [1] Author
Unknown Permission (Reusing this
file) ''They are copyright free
although we would like credit to be
assigned to Jodrell Bank, University of
Manchester, if possible
somewhere!'' PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b1/BernardLovell.jpg
53 YBN
[08/31/1947 AD] 		5583) A radio interferometer is used to
determine that some extra-terrestrial
radio sources are no more than 6
seconds of arc in diameter.
(University of Manchester: Jodrell
Bank) Cheshire, England 
[1] The Lovell Telescope. Credit:
Anthony Holloway, Jodrell
Bank COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jodrellbank.mancheste
r.ac.uk//multimedia/images/library/Lovel
l9_1024x768.jpg
53 YBN
[10/14/1947 AD] 		5603) An airplane moves faster than the
speed of sound in air.
(over Rogers Dry Lake) Edwards,
California, USA 
[1] Description X-1.jpg English:
Under the X1. Date 17:34, 13 July
2010 (UTC) (21 August 2006(2006-08-21)
(first version); 13 July
2010(2010-07-13) (last
version)) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia; transferred to Commons by
User:Logan using
CommonsHelper. (Original text : I
(350z33 (talk)) created this work
entirely by myself.) Author
350z33 (talk). Original uploader
was LWF at en.wikipedia. Later
version(s) were uploaded by 350z33 at
en.wikipedia. Permission (Reusing
this file) CC-BY-SA-3.0; Released
under the GNU Free Documentation
License. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5f/X-1.jpg

[2] Description Chuck
Yeager.jpg en:Chuck Yeager with
en:Bell X-1. Date 2004-02-09
(first version); 2005-04-18 (last
version) Source Originally from
en.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. Author Original uploader
was Hephaestos at en.wikipedia Later
versions were uploaded by Triddle at
en.wikipedia. Permission (Reusing
this file) PD-USGOV-MILITARY. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/7a/Chuck_Yeager.jpg
53 YBN
[10/16/1947 AD] 		5589) The intensity of cosmic rays is
found to be constant after 55 km (34
miles) altitude.
(Johns Hopkins University) Silver
Spring, Maryland, USA  
[1] Figure 4 from: J. A. Van Allen and
H. E. Tatel, ''The Cosmic-Ray Counting
Rate of a Single Geiger Counter from
Ground Level to 161 Kilometers
Altitude'', Phys. Rev. 73, 245
(1948). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v73/i3/p245_1 {Van_Allen_James_Alfred
_19471016.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v73/i3/p245_1

[2] James Alfred Van Allen PD
source: http://content.answcdn.com/main/
content/img/scitech/HSjamesa.jpg
53 YBN
[12/20/1947 AD] 		5543) The K meson is identified, the
first "strange" particle.
(University of Manchester) Manchester,
England 
[1] Figure 1 from: By Dr. G. D.
Rochester & Dr. C. C. Butler,
''Evidence for the existence of new
unstable elementary particles'', Nature
160, 855-857
(1947). http://www.nature.com/physics/l
ooking-back/rochester/index.html#f1 {Bu
tler_C_C_19471220.pdf} Stereoscopic
photographs showing an unusual fork (a
b) in the gas. The direction of the
magnetic field is such that a positive
particle coming downwards is deviated
in an anticlockwise
direction. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/physics/lo
oking-back/rochester/fig1.jpg
53 YBN
[1947 AD] 		5241) A holographic image; a beam of
monochromatic light is split in two,
one part reflects off an object with
all the irregularities of the object,
but the second is reflected from a
mirror and the two parts then meet at
the photograph and the parts of the two
beams in phase are amplified. Light
shown through the film produces a three
dimensional image.
(Research Laboratory, British
Thomson-Houston Co., Ltd.) Rugby,
England 
[1] Figure 1 from: Dr. D. Gabor, ''A
New Microscopic Principle'', Nature
161, 777-778
(1948). http://www.nature.com/physics/l
ooking-back/gabor/index.html#f2 {Gabor_
Dennis_19480515.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v161/n4098/pdf/161777a0.pdf

[2] Dennis Gabor COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/physics/laureates/1971/gabor_p
ostcard.jpg
53 YBN
[1947 AD] 		5390) Carbon dioxide is detected as a
major component of the atmosphere of
Mars and the polar caps are found to
consist of water frost.
(McDonald Observatory, Mount Locke)
Fort Davis, Texas, USA 
[1] Caption: The Dutch-American
astronomer Gerard Peter Kuiper
(1905-1973). Kuiper studied at the
University of Leiden, Holland, where he
obtained his PhD in 1933. In the same
year he emigrated to America where he
worked in several universities and
observatories. Kuiper's main research
was on the solar system. He discovered
two new satellites: Miranda, the fifth
satellite of Uranus, in 1948 and
Nereid, the second satellite of
Neptune, in 1949. He proposed in 1951
that the short-period comets come from
a flattened ring of comets, the
Kuiper's belt, found beyond Neptune. He
was involved in some of the early space
missions including the Ranger and
Mariner missions. UNKNOWN
source: North Polar region of Mars;
http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog
/PIA00161 Original Caption Released
with Image: Mars digital-image mosaic
merged with color of the MC-1
quadrangle, Mare Boreum region of Mars.
The central part is covered by a
residual ice cap that is cut by
spiral-patterned troughs exposing
layered terrain. The cap is surrounded
by broad flat plains and large dune
fields. Latitude range 65 to 90,
longitude range -180 to
180. Composed of Viking-1 Orbiter
images JPL Image Policy Credit
line: "Courtesy
NASA/JPL-Caltech." All NASA pictures
are free of copyright. PD

[2] Image from
http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4210/pages/Ch
_15.htm PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/62/Mars_NPArea-PIA00161_
modest.jpg
53 YBN
[1947 AD] 		5465) Adenosine diphosphate (ADP) is
sythesized.
(University of Cambridge) Cambridge,
England 
[1] Sir Alexander Robertus Todd
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/chemistry/laureates/1957/todd.jpg
52 YBN
[01/15/1948 AD] 		5500) Sodium and potassium ions are
shown to move into and out of nerve and
muscle cells to create and remove
electrical potentials.
(University of Cambridge) Cambridge,
England 
[1] Image of apparatus and axon
from: A. L. Hodgkin, B. Katz, ''The
effect of sodium ions on the electrical
activity of the giant axon of the
squid'', The Journal of Physiology,
Vol. 108, No. 1. (1 March 1949), pp.
37-77. http://jp.physoc.org/content/108
/1/37.full {Katz_Bernhard_19480115.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://jp.physoc.org/content/108
/1/37.full

[2] Bernard Katz Nobel Prize
photograph COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1970/katz.jpg
52 YBN
[02/16/1948 AD] 		5391) The fifth satellite of Uranus is
identified and named "Miranda".
(McDonald Observatory, Mount Locke)
Fort Davis, Texas, USA 
[1] * From de.wiki (NASA image) *
Primary Source: Keele Astrophysics
Group * NASA Secondary Sources:
PIA 01490 (rotate to the right 90
degrees and enhance details), PIA 00042
and PIA 02217 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d0/Miranda.jpg

[2] Caption: The Dutch-American
astronomer Gerard Peter Kuiper
(1905-1973). Kuiper studied at the
University of Leiden, Holland, where he
obtained his PhD in 1933. In the same
year he emigrated to America where he
worked in several universities and
observatories. Kuiper's main research
was on the solar system. He discovered
two new satellites: Miranda, the fifth
satellite of Uranus, in 1948 and
Nereid, the second satellite of
Neptune, in 1949. He proposed in 1951
that the short-period comets come from
a flattened ring of comets, the
Kuiper's belt, found beyond Neptune. He
was involved in some of the early space
missions including the Ranger and
Mariner missions. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.sciencephoto.com/imag
es/download_wm_image.html/H411054-The_Du
tch-American_astronomer_Gerard_Peter_Kui
per-SPL.jpg?id=724110054
52 YBN
[03/10/1948 AD] 		3337) An electric spark is shown to
develop, in the same way as lightning
does, in two stages, a pilot (lighted
stream) followed by a leader (a larger
lighted stream).
(Associated Electrical Industries)
Aldermaston, Berkshire, England 
[1] Photographic paper (lichtenberg
figure) that records the corona at the
negative high voltage point electrode
(-500kV.) and at the grounded point
electrode; the bright streamers from
both electrodes (negative and positive
leader-strokes) are both
evident. COPYRIGHTED NATURE 1948
source: Allibone_T_E_Spark_Discharge_161
970a0.pdf
52 YBN
[03/12/1948 AD] 		5538) Pi Mesons (pions) are produced by
a particle accelerator.
(University of California) Berkeley,
California, USA 		 
52 YBN
[04/16/1948 AD] 		5417) The theory that the atomic
nucleus consists of protons and
neutrons arranged in shells, similarly
to the way electrons are arranged in
the outer atom, and this theory makes
it possible to explain why some nuclei
are more stable than others, and why
some elements are rich in isotopes.
(Argonne Laboratory) Argonne,
Illinois 
[1] Figure 1 from Maria G. Mayer, ''On
Closed Shells in Nuclei.'', Physical
Review, 2nd ser., 74 (1948),
p235–239. http://prola.aps.org/abstra
ct/PR/v74/i3/p235_1 {Goeppert-Mayer_Mar
ia_19480801.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v74/i3/p235_1

[2] Description Maria
Goeppert-Mayer.gif English: Maria
Goeppert-Mayer, Nobel laureates in
Physics Date Source
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:
Maria_Goeppert-Mayer.gif Author
This file is lacking author
information. Permission (Reusing this
file) PD-old PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/43/Maria_Goeppert-Mayer.
gif
52 YBN
[04/16/1948 AD] 		5427) Vitamin B12 is isolated and shown
to have a strongly positive response to
pernicious anemia.
(Merck and Company, Inc) Rahway, New
Jersey, USA 
[1] Karl August Folkers September 1,
1906–December 9, 1997 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.nap.edu/html/biomems/
photo/kfolkers.JPG
52 YBN
[06/17/1948 AD] 		5295) The semiconductor transistor (or
solid-state electric switch and
amplifier) by US physicists Walter
Brattain and John Bardeen.
(Bell Telephone Laboratories) Murray
Hill, New Jersey, USA 
[1] Figures from: John Bardeen, Walter
H. Brattain, ''Three-Electrode Circuit
Element Utilizing Semiconductive
Materials'', Patent number: 2524035,
Filing date: Jun 17, 1948, Issue date:
Oct
1950. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
FDhnAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=
false PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=FDhnAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f
=false

[2] Description
Brattain.jpg English: Walter H.
Brattain Date 1956(1956) Source
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/
physics/laureates/1956/brattain-bio.html
Author Nobel
foundation Permission (Reusing this
file) Public domainPublic
domainfalsefalse Public domain This
Swedish photograph is free to use
either of these cases: * For
photographic works (fotografiska verk),
the image is public domain:
a) if the photographer died before
January 1, 1944, or b) if the
photographer is not known, and cannot
be traced, and the image was created
before January 1, 1944. * For
photographic pictures (fotografiska
bilder), such as images of the press,
the image is public domain if created
before January 1, 1969 (transitional
regulations 1994). The
photographer, if known, should always
be attributed.
Always provide source information. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c4/Brattain.jpg
52 YBN
[06/18/1948 AD] 		5440) Long-playing (LP), 33 rotations
per minute phonographic records are
sold to the public.
(Columbia Broadcasting System, Inc.)
New York City, New York, USA 
[1] Description Vinyl record LP
10inch.JPG 10インチのLPレコー
。キングレコード（日本）
テレフンケンレーベル。セン
ター付近の白い線は書き込み
はなく、ラベルのキズがス
ロボで反射している。 Date
6/16 Source Own work
(本人撮影) Author
能無しさん Permission (Reusi
ng this file) GFDL
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b1/Vinyl_record_LP_10inc
h.JPG

[2] Peter Carl Goldmark 2004 Upper
Deck The History of the United States
Inventors and Inventions No.
II46 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.jandjcards.com/store/
images/Peter%20Goldmark%20Ud.jpg
52 YBN
[06/21/1948 AD] 		6551) The first computer to run a
stored program.
(Electrical Engineering Laboratories at
the University of Manchester)
Manchester, England 

source:
52 YBN
[07/13/1948 AD] 		5704) The "steady-state" theory of the
universe, in which the universe expands
but new matter is created to balance
the expansion.
(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England 
[1] Professor Sir Hermann Bondi when he
was younger. The Steady State Theory of
the Universe was originated by Fred,
Sir Hermann, and Professor Thomas Gold.
Unfortunately, Tommy Gold was unable to
join us at the conference. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.robert-temple.com/ima
ges/general/fredHoyleConference/profSirH
ermannBondiYoung.jpg

[2] THOMAS GOLD UNKNOWN
source: http://www.aro.org/announcements
/TGold_1963_-for_ARO.gif
52 YBN
[09/27/1948 AD] 		5645) The theory that both protons and
neutrons are made of a central core of
positively charged matter surrounded by
two shells of mesonic matter. In the
proton the meson shells are both
positively charged, and in the neutron
the shells are negatively charged so
that the overall charge is zero.
(Stanford University) Stanford,
California, USA 
[1] Figure 1 from: Robert Hofstadter,
Robert Herman, ''Electric and Magnetic
Structure of the Proton and Neutron'',
Phys. Rev. Lett. 6, 293–296
(1961). http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL
/v6/i6/p293_1 {Hofstadter_Robert_196102
15.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/
v6/i6/p293_1

[2] Description Robert
Hofstadter.jpg English: Robert
Hofstadter Date
1961(1961) Source
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/
physics/laureates/1961/hofstadter-bio.ht
ml Author Nobel
foundation COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/bf/Robert_Hofstadter.jpg

52 YBN
[1948 AD] 		4774) Aureomycin is discovered, the
first of the tetracycline antibiotics,
a family of antibiotics that after
penicillin represent the most useful
and least dangerous of the antibiotics.
(American Cyanamid Company) Ontario,
Canada (presumably) 
[1] Standard Rights Managed
(RM) U1093472INP Dr. Benjamin Duggar
Looking at Petri Dish Original
caption: 7/29/1948-Pearl River, NY- A
new drug, which promises to conquer
diseases that cannot be treated with
penicillin or streptomycin, has been
made fr... IMAGE: ©
Bettmann/CORBIS DATE
PHOTOGRAPHED July 29,
1948 LOCATION Pearl River, New York,
USA COLLECTION Bettmann COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.corbisimages.com/imag
es/67/B0818B11-78D1-4798-B734-E63AC84F2D
8F/U1093472INP.jpg
52 YBN
[1948 AD] 		5015) The hormone cortisone is
successfully applied to treat
rheumatoid arthritis.
(Mayo Foundation) Rochester, Minnesota,
USA 
[1] Edward Calvin Kendall UNKNOWN
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1950/kendall.jpg

[2] Philip Showalter Hench from Nobel
prize COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1950/hench.jpg
52 YBN
[1948 AD] 		5168) The mumps virus is successfully
cultured by using penicillin to stop
bacteria growth.
(Boston Children's Hospital) Boston,
Massachusetts, USA 
[1] John Franklin Enders Nobel prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1954/enders.jpg

[2] Thomas Huckle Weller Nobel prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/medicine/laureates/1954/weller
_postcard.jpg
52 YBN
[1948 AD] 		6273) The hook and loop fastener
(Velcro).
Nyon, Switzerland 
[1] Figure from: De Mestral,
''Separable Fastening Device'', Patent
number: 3009235, Filing date: May 9,
1958, Issue date: Nov 21,
1961 http://www.google.com/patents?id=m
vJkAAAAEBAJ PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=mvJkAAAAEBAJ

[2] Description English: Velcro
hooks. Deutsch: Klettband
(Haken). Date 7 March
2010 Source Own work Author
Alexander Klink CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Velcro_Hooks.jp
g/1280px-Velcro_Hooks.jpg
51 YBN
[01/28/1949 AD] 		5169) The polio virus is successfully
cultured.
(Boston Children's Hospital) Boston,
Massachusetts, USA 
[1] John Franklin Enders Nobel prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1954/enders.jpg

[2] Thomas Huckle Weller Nobel prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/medicine/laureates/1954/weller
_postcard.jpg
51 YBN
[02/02/1949 AD] 		5494) The average life span of a
circulating red blood cell is found to
be around 100 days.
(Columbia University) New York City,
New York, USA 
[1] David Shemin UNKNOWN
source: http://www.jbc.org/content/281/3
4/e28/F1.large.jpg
51 YBN
[03/??/1949 AD] 		5375) The x-ray microscope.
(Stanford University) Stanford,
California, USA 
[1] Paul Kirkpatrick Photo Credit: AIP
Emilio Segrè Visual Archives, Physics
Today Collection COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.aip.org/history/acap/
images/bios/kirkpatrickp.jpg
51 YBN
[05/01/1949 AD] 		5392) A second satellite of Neptune is
identified and named "Nereid".
(McDonald Observatory, Mount Locke)
Fort Davis, Texas, USA 
[1] Description
Nereid-Voyager2.jpg Nereid, the
last satellite of Neptune to be
discovered before Voyager's recent
discoveries, was first seen by Gerard
Kuiper in 1949. Until this Voyager 2
image was obtained, all that was known
about Nereid was its orbital parameters
and intrinsic brightness. This Voyager
view of Nereid was obtained on Aug. 24,
1989 at a distance of 4.7 million
kilometers (2.9 million miles). With a
resolution of 43 kilometers (26.6
miles) per pixel, this image has
sufficient detail to show the overall
size and albedo. Nereid is about 170
kilometers (105 miles) across and
reflects about 12 percent of the
incident light. The Voyager Mission is
conducted by JPL for NASA's Office of
Space Science and
Applications. 日本語:
衛星ネレイド、ボイジャー2号
の撮影 Date Source
http://www.nasa.gov/ PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b0/Nereid-Voyager2.jpg

[2] Caption: The Dutch-American
astronomer Gerard Peter Kuiper
(1905-1973). Kuiper studied at the
University of Leiden, Holland, where he
obtained his PhD in 1933. In the same
year he emigrated to America where he
worked in several universities and
observatories. Kuiper's main research
was on the solar system. He discovered
two new satellites: Miranda, the fifth
satellite of Uranus, in 1948 and
Nereid, the second satellite of
Neptune, in 1949. He proposed in 1951
that the short-period comets come from
a flattened ring of comets, the
Kuiper's belt, found beyond Neptune. He
was involved in some of the early space
missions including the Ranger and
Mariner missions. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.sciencephoto.com/imag
es/download_wm_image.html/H411054-The_Du
tch-American_astronomer_Gerard_Peter_Kui
per-SPL.jpg?id=724110054
51 YBN
[06/26/1949 AD] 		5122) The asteroid "Icarus" is
identified. Icarus is the innermost
asteroid known; closer to the Sun than
Mercury.
(Mount Wilson Observatory) Mount
Wilson, California, USA 
[1] Figure 1: Richardson, R. S., ''A
New Asteroid with Smallest Known Mean
Distance'', Publications of the
Astronomical Society of the Pacific,
Vol. 61, No. 361,
p.162. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du//full/1949PASP...61..162R/0000162.000
.html
{Baade_Walter_19490626.pdf} COPYRIGHT
ED
source: http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?db_key=AST
&bibcode=1949PASP...61..162R&letter=0&cl
assic=YES&defaultprint=YES&whole_paper=Y
ES&page=162&epage=162&send=Send+PDF&file
type=.pdf

[2] From Huntington Library, San
Marino, California. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.astrosociety.org/pubs
/mercury/31_04/images/baade.jpg
51 YBN
[07/27/1949 AD] 		6270) The first large passenger jet
airplane (or jetliner) flies.
Hatfield, England 
[1] Description en:De Havilland
Comet, ATP 18376C. Source
Imperial War Museum online
collection Source by Bzuk 26 November
2010. Date 4 October 1949 Author
Photographer: De Havilland
photographer for Ministry of Aircraft
Production Permission (Reusing this
file) British Government Copyright
expired (50 years) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/7/77/Comet_Prototype_at_Hatfiel
d.jpg

[2] Whittle W2/700 Engine. Frank
Whittle developed the first turbojet
engine with enough operating thrust to
power an aircraft in 1939. The W2
was the second, more powerful, version
of a flight-ready turbojet engine
developed by Whittle. The W2/700
engine flew in the Gloster E.28/39, the
first British aircraft to fly with a
turbojet engine, and the Gloster
Meteor. Photographed Farnborough,
22-Jan-06. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/fc/Whittle_Jet_Engine_W2
-700.JPG
51 YBN
[08/01/1949 AD] 		5406) That the Earth's crust below the
oceans is only about 3–5 miles
(5–8 km) thick while the
corresponding continental crust
averages 25 miles (40 km) thick is
established by using the seismic
reflection of explosives.
(Columbia University) New York City,
New York, USA 
[1] William Maurice Ewing UNKNOWN
source: http://lh4.ggpht.com/_gNIHS1PHL1
Q/SO941XFj4CI/AAAAAAAAATk/tMf7NRc0kIU/50
0.jpg
51 YBN
[08/06/1949 AD] 		5198) The technique of "flash
photolysis" and "kinetic spectroscopy"
is developed to study the intermediate
stages involved in extremely rapid
chemical reactions.
(University of Cambridge) Cambridge,
England 
[1] Ronald George Wreyford Norrish (9
November 1897 – 7 June 1978), British
chemist Source
http://images.nobelprize.org/nobel_
prizes/chemistry/laureates/1967/norrish_
postcard.jpg Article Ronald
George Wreyford Norrish COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/4/44/Ronald_George_Wreyford_Nor
rish.jpg

[2] George Porter Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/chemistry/laureates/1967/porter.jpg
51 YBN
[10/10/1949 AD] 		5539) A neutral Meson is identified.
(University of Rochester) Rochester,
New York, USA 		 
51 YBN
[11/17/1949 AD] 		5495) Carbon-14 is used as a biological
tracer to work out the details of how
the heme molecule, the iron-containing
molecule that gives blood its red
color, is synthesized by the red blood
cell, and combines with a protein
globin, the entire molecule being
called hemoglobin, which carries oxygen
from the lungs to tissue cells.
(Columbia University) New York City,
New York, USA 
[1] David Shemin UNKNOWN
source: http://www.jbc.org/content/281/3
4/e28/F1.large.jpg
51 YBN
[11/23/1949 AD] 		5434) A new comet model in which the
nucleus is a combination of ices such
as H2O, NH3, CH4, CO2, or CO, (C2N2)
and other materials combined with
meteoric materials. Vaporization of the
ices by solar radiation leaves an outer
layer of nonvolatile insulating
meteoric material, vaporized ices being
emitted away from the comet's motion
causing a loss in mass.
(Harvard University) Cambridge,
Massachusetts, USA  
[1] Description Fred Whipple
1927.jpg Fred Lawrence Whipple,
1927 Date 1927(1927) Source
UCLA Yearbook Author
UCLA Permission (Reusing this
file) PD-US Other versions n/a PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Fred_Whipple_19
27.jpg/220px-Fred_Whipple_1927.jpg
51 YBN
[11/24/1949 AD] 		5228) That antibodies are only formed
after birth is demonstrated.
(Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of
Medical Research) Melbourne,
Australia 
[1] Description Burnet 2jpg.jpg Sir
Frank Macfarlance Burnet, cropped Date
1945(1945) Source Own work
by uploader, cropped from
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Imag
e:Burnet_in_1945.jpg Author
Machocarioca Permission (Reusing
this file) See below. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/13/Burnet_2jpg.jpg
51 YBN
[11/25/1949 AD] 		5258) The particular defect in
hemoglobin’s structure that is
responsible for sickle-cell anemia is
identified making sickle-cell anemia
the first "molecular disease" to be
discovered.
(California Institute of Technology)
Pasadena, California 
[1] 1901-1994 Portrait:
92a Location - Floor: First - Zone:
Elevator area - Wall: East - Sequence:
1 Source: Chemical Heritage
Foundation Sponsor: Mercouri G.
Kanatzidis UNKNOWN
source: http://www2.chemistry.msu.edu/Po
rtraits/images/paulingc.jpg
51 YBN
[12/23/1949 AD] 		5475) Radioactive carbon-14 dating is
shown to produce similar results to
other methods of age estimation.
(University of Chicago) Chicago,
Illinois, USA 
[1] Figure 1 from: J. R. Arnold and W.
F. Libby, ''Age Determinations by
Radiocarbon Content: Checks with
Samples of Known Age'', Science, New
Series, Vol. 110, No. 2869 (Dec. 23,
1949), pp.
678-680. http://www.jstor.org/stable/16
77049 {Libby_Willard_Frank_19491223.pdf
} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1677
049

[2] Description Willard Frank
Libby (December 17, 1908 – September
8, 1980), American physical
chemist Source
http://www.nndb.com/people/470/000100
170/willard-libby-1-sized.jpg Article
Willard Libby Nobel
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/6/66/Willard_Libby.jpg
51 YBN
[1949 AD] 		5458) Succinylcholine is shown to
produce neuromuscular blocking action
which prevents a person from
contracting a muscle.
(Istituto Superiore di Sanita/Superior
Institute of Health) Rome, Italy 
[1] Daniel Bovet (1907-1992) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.pasteur.fr/infosci/ar
chives/im/bov.jpg
51 YBN
[1949 AD] 		5466) Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is
synthesized.
(University of Cambridge) Cambridge,
England 
[1] Sir Alexander Robertus Todd
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/chemistry/laureates/1957/todd.jpg
51 YBN
[1949 AD] 		5467) The molecular structure of
penicillin is determined using
monochromatic x-ray reflection (also
called x-ray "diffraction").
(Oxford University) Oxford,
England 
[1] Figure 2 from: DC Hodgkin, ''The
X-ray analysis of the structure of
penicillin.'', The Advancement of
science, (1949) volume: 6 issue: 22
page: 85
-9. {Hodgkin_Dorothy_Crowfoot_1949xxxx.
pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: {Hodgkin_Dorothy_Crowfoot_1949xx
xx.pdf}

[2] Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin Nobel
Photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1964/hodgk
in_postcard.jpg
50 YBN
[01/13/1950 AD] 		5237) The theory that there is a cloud
of about 100 billion comets with a
radius between 50,000 and 150,000
Astronomical Units (or A.U.; the
average distance between the Sun and
Earth) based on the observation of
long-period comets. This is almost to
the nearest star around 275,000 AU,
Neptune being only around 31 AU.
(Observatory at Leiden) Leiden,
Netherlands 
[1] Jan Hendrik Oort UNKNOWN
source: http://www.biografiasyvidas.com/
biografia/o/fotos/oort.jpg
50 YBN
[01/23/1950 AD] 		5551) Element 97, berkelium is created
and identified by colliding helium ions
with americium-241 in a 60-inch
cyclotron.
(University of California) Berkeley,
California, USA 
[1] Description Berkeley 60-inch
cyclotron.gif English: Photograph
shows the 60-inch cyclotron at the
University of California Lawrence
Radiation Laboratory, Berkeley, in
August, 1939. The machine was the most
powerful atom-smasher in the world at
the time. It had started operating
early in the year. During the period of
the photograph Dr. Edwin M. McMillan
was doing the work which led to the
discovery of neptunium (element 93) a
year later. The instrument was used
later by Dr. Glenn T. Seaborg and his
colleagues for the discovery of element
94 (plutonium) early in 1941.
Subsequently, other transuranium
elements were discovered with the
machine, as well as many radioisotopes,
including carbon-14. For their work,
Drs. Seaborg and McMillan shared the
Nobel Prize in 1951. The machine was
used for the ''long bombardments''
which produced the first weighable and
visible quantities of plutonium, which
was used at Chicago by Seaborg and his
colleagues to work out the method for
separating plutonium on an industrial
scale at the Hanford, Washington,
plutonium pro... Русский:
Фотография
показывает
60-дюймовый циклотрон
в университете
Лаборатории California
Lawrence Radiation, Беркли, в
августе 1939. Машина
была самым сильным
ускорителем частиц в
мире в то время. Date
1939(1939) Source National
Archives logo.svg This image is
available from the Archival Research
Catalog of the National Archives and
Records Administration under the ARC
Identifier 558594. This tag does not
indicate the copyright status of the
attached work. A normal copyright tag
is still required. See
Commons:Licensing for more information.
US-NARA-ARC-Logo.svg Author
Department of Energy. Office of
Public Affairs PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/72/Berkeley_60-inch_cycl
otron.gif

[2] Glenn Seaborg (1912 -
1999) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.atomicarchive.com/Ima
ges/bio/B51.jpg
50 YBN
[03/07/1950 AD] 		5127) That the abundance of the O18
isotope in calcium carbonate varies
with the temperature at which it is
deposited from water and so can be used
to create a temperature history of the
past is recognized.
(University of Chicago) Chicago,
Illinois, USA 
[1] Plate 1 from: H. C UREY, H. A
LOWENSTAM, S EPSTEIN and C. R McKINNEY,
''MEASUREMENT OF PALEOTEMPERATURES AND
TEMPERATURES OF THE UPPER CRETACEOUS OF
ENGLAND, DENMARK, AND THE SOUTHEASTERN
UNITED STATES'', BULLETIN OF THE
GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA, VOL. 62.
PP. 399-416, 1 FIG- 1 PL. APRIL
1951. http://gsabulletin.gsapubs.org/co
ntent/62/4/399.full.pdf+html {Urey_Haro
ld_19500307.pdf} UNKNOWN
source: http://gsabulletin.gsapubs.org/c
ontent/62/4/399.full.pdf

[2] Harold Clayton Urey The Nobel
Prize in Chemistry 1934 was awarded to
Harold C. Urey ''for his discovery of
heavy hydrogen''. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1934/urey.
jpg
50 YBN
[03/15/1950 AD] 		5552) Element 98, californium is
created and identified by colliding
35-Mev helium ions with curium-242 in a
60-inch cyclotron.
(University of California) Berkeley,
California, USA 
[1] Description Berkeley 60-inch
cyclotron.gif English: Photograph
shows the 60-inch cyclotron at the
University of California Lawrence
Radiation Laboratory, Berkeley, in
August, 1939. The machine was the most
powerful atom-smasher in the world at
the time. It had started operating
early in the year. During the period of
the photograph Dr. Edwin M. McMillan
was doing the work which led to the
discovery of neptunium (element 93) a
year later. The instrument was used
later by Dr. Glenn T. Seaborg and his
colleagues for the discovery of element
94 (plutonium) early in 1941.
Subsequently, other transuranium
elements were discovered with the
machine, as well as many radioisotopes,
including carbon-14. For their work,
Drs. Seaborg and McMillan shared the
Nobel Prize in 1951. The machine was
used for the ''long bombardments''
which produced the first weighable and
visible quantities of plutonium, which
was used at Chicago by Seaborg and his
colleagues to work out the method for
separating plutonium on an industrial
scale at the Hanford, Washington,
plutonium pro... Русский:
Фотография
показывает
60-дюймовый циклотрон
в университете
Лаборатории California
Lawrence Radiation, Беркли, в
августе 1939. Машина
была самым сильным
ускорителем частиц в
мире в то время. Date
1939(1939) Source National
Archives logo.svg This image is
available from the Archival Research
Catalog of the National Archives and
Records Administration under the ARC
Identifier 558594. This tag does not
indicate the copyright status of the
attached work. A normal copyright tag
is still required. See
Commons:Licensing for more information.
US-NARA-ARC-Logo.svg Author
Department of Energy. Office of
Public Affairs PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/72/Berkeley_60-inch_cycl
otron.gif

[2] Glenn Seaborg (1912 -
1999) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.atomicarchive.com/Ima
ges/bio/B51.jpg
50 YBN
[03/15/1950 AD] 		5553) The fission of medium atomic mass
elements.
Medium atomic mass elements (copper,
bromine, silver, and tin) are fissioned
by 70 million electron-volt protons
into atoms with approximately half the
mass of the original particle.
Identification is made through chemical
separation, measurement of half-life
with a Geiger counter, and observation
of the sign of the beta-particles with
a simple beta-ray spectrometer.
(University of California) Berkeley,
California, USA 
[1] Description Berkeley 60-inch
cyclotron.gif English: Photograph
shows the 60-inch cyclotron at the
University of California Lawrence
Radiation Laboratory, Berkeley, in
August, 1939. The machine was the most
powerful atom-smasher in the world at
the time. It had started operating
early in the year. During the period of
the photograph Dr. Edwin M. McMillan
was doing the work which led to the
discovery of neptunium (element 93) a
year later. The instrument was used
later by Dr. Glenn T. Seaborg and his
colleagues for the discovery of element
94 (plutonium) early in 1941.
Subsequently, other transuranium
elements were discovered with the
machine, as well as many radioisotopes,
including carbon-14. For their work,
Drs. Seaborg and McMillan shared the
Nobel Prize in 1951. The machine was
used for the ''long bombardments''
which produced the first weighable and
visible quantities of plutonium, which
was used at Chicago by Seaborg and his
colleagues to work out the method for
separating plutonium on an industrial
scale at the Hanford, Washington,
plutonium pro... Русский:
Фотография
показывает
60-дюймовый циклотрон
в университете
Лаборатории California
Lawrence Radiation, Беркли, в
августе 1939. Машина
была самым сильным
ускорителем частиц в
мире в то время. Date
1939(1939) Source National
Archives logo.svg This image is
available from the Archival Research
Catalog of the National Archives and
Records Administration under the ARC
Identifier 558594. This tag does not
indicate the copyright status of the
attached work. A normal copyright tag
is still required. See
Commons:Licensing for more information.
US-NARA-ARC-Logo.svg Author
Department of Energy. Office of
Public Affairs PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/72/Berkeley_60-inch_cycl
otron.gif

[2] Description Berkeley 60-inch
cyclotron.gif English: Photograph
shows the 60-inch cyclotron at the
University of California Lawrence
Radiation Laboratory, Berkeley, in
August, 1939. The machine was the most
powerful atom-smasher in the world at
the time. It had started operating
early in the year. During the period of
the photograph Dr. Edwin M. McMillan
was doing the work which led to the
discovery of neptunium (element 93) a
year later. The instrument was used
later by Dr. Glenn T. Seaborg and his
colleagues for the discovery of element
94 (plutonium) early in 1941.
Subsequently, other transuranium
elements were discovered with the
machine, as well as many radioisotopes,
including carbon-14. For their work,
Drs. Seaborg and McMillan shared the
Nobel Prize in 1951. The machine was
used for the ''long bombardments''
which produced the first weighable and
visible quantities of plutonium, which
was used at Chicago by Seaborg and his
colleagues to work out the method for
separating plutonium on an industrial
scale at the Hanford, Washington,
plutonium pro... Русский:
Фотография
показывает
60-дюймовый циклотрон
в университете
Лаборатории California
Lawrence Radiation, Беркли, в
августе 1939. Машина
была самым сильным
ускорителем частиц в
мире в то время. Date
1939(1939) Source National
Archives logo.svg This image is
available from the Archival Research
Catalog of the National Archives and
Records Administration under the ARC
Identifier 558594. This tag does not
indicate the copyright status of the
attached work. A normal copyright tag
is still required. See
Commons:Licensing for more information.
US-NARA-ARC-Logo.svg Author
Department of Energy. Office of
Public Affairs PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/72/Berkeley_60-inch_cycl
otron.gif
50 YBN
[04/21/1950 AD] 		5592) The intensity of cosmic rays
above the Earth's atmosphere are mapped
from 0-70° degree latitude, which
shows that the intensity increases from
the equator (0°) to the higher
latitudes.
(Johns Hopkins University) Silver
Spring, Maryland, USA  
[1] Figure 1 from: J. A. Van Allen and
S. F. Singer, ''On the Primary
Cosmic-Ray Spectrum'', Phys. Rev. 78,
819
(1950) http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v78/i6/p819_1 {Van_Allen_James_Alfred_
19500421.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v78/i6/p819_1

[2] James Alfred Van Allen PD
source: http://content.answcdn.com/main/
content/img/scitech/HSjamesa.jpg
50 YBN
[04/26/1950 AD] 		5542) Slow negative pi mesons are shown
to cause nuclear reactions. Pi mesons
colliding with carbon and nitrogen
nuclei cause the ejection of neutrons,
and an excited nucleus which then
disintegrates, and in a few cases, the
collision causes a total disruption of
the nucleus and the ejection of fast
alpha-particles.
(University of Bristol) Bristol,
England 		 
50 YBN
[08/02/1950 AD] 		5773) The resonant method of precise
frequency detection: a gamma ray source
of radioactive Mercury-198 is rotated
quickly which Doppler shifts the
emitted gamma rays increasing the
frequency just enough to allow the
gamma rays to be resonantly scattered
by a receiver that is also Mercury-198,
because the increased frequency
compensates for energy lost in the
recoil of the fluorescing atomic
nucleus.
(University of Birmingham) Birmingham,
England 
[1] Figure 1 from: P B Moon,
''Resonant Nuclear Scattering of
Gamma-Rays: Theory and Preliminary
Experiments'', Proceedings of the
Physical Society. Section A Volume 64
Number 1,
p76. http://iopscience.iop.org/0370-129
8/64/1/311 {Moon_Philip_Burton_19500802
.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source:

[2] Figure 2 from: P B Moon,
''Resonant Nuclear Scattering of
Gamma-Rays: Theory and Preliminary
Experiments'', Proceedings of the
Physical Society. Section A Volume 64
Number 1,
p76. http://iopscience.iop.org/0370-129
8/64/1/311 {Moon_Philip_Burton_19500802
.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source:
50 YBN
[09/11/1950 AD] 		5555) The atomic fusion of large
atoms.

Accelerated carbon-12 ions are collided
and fused with Aluminum-27 to produce
Chlorine-34, and with Gold-197 produce
Astatine-205 by Rossi et al.
(University of California) Berkeley,
California, USA 
[1] J. F. Miller, J. G. Hamilton, T. M.
Putnam, H. R. Haymond, and G. B. Rossi,
''Acceleration of Stripped C12 and C13
Nuclei in the Cyclotron'', Phys. Rev.
80, 486–486
(1950). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v80/i3/p486_1 {Rossi_G_B_19500911.pdf
} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v80/i3/p486_1 {Rossi_G_B_19500911.pdf}


[2] Description LWA Picture
Final.jpg English: Head Photo of Luis
W Alvarez Date 1968(1968) Source
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/
physics/laureates/1968/alvarez.html Aut
hor Nobel Foundation PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6e/LWA_Picture_Final.jpg

50 YBN
[10/12/1950 AD] 		5395) The theory that planets are
formed by condensation of gaseous
"protoplanets", the satellites being
independent condensations, that planet
formation is a special case of the
process of binary star formation, and
the number of stars with planets in the
Milky Way is estimated to be 1 billion.
(Yerkes Observatory, University of
Chicago) Williams Bay, Wisconsin,
USA 
[1] Caption: The Dutch-American
astronomer Gerard Peter Kuiper
(1905-1973). Kuiper studied at the
University of Leiden, Holland, where he
obtained his PhD in 1933. In the same
year he emigrated to America where he
worked in several universities and
observatories. Kuiper's main research
was on the solar system. He discovered
two new satellites: Miranda, the fifth
satellite of Uranus, in 1948 and
Nereid, the second satellite of
Neptune, in 1949. He proposed in 1951
that the short-period comets come from
a flattened ring of comets, the
Kuiper's belt, found beyond Neptune. He
was involved in some of the early space
missions including the Ranger and
Mariner missions. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.sciencephoto.com/imag
es/download_wm_image.html/H411054-The_Du
tch-American_astronomer_Gerard_Peter_Kui
per-SPL.jpg?id=724110054

[2] Image from
http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4210/pages/Ch
_15.htm PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0b/GerardKuiper.jpg
50 YBN
[10/16/1950 AD] 		5259) That some proteins have a helix
(or spiral) structure is determined.
(California Institute of Technology)
Pasadena, California 
[1] 1901-1994 Portrait:
92a Location - Floor: First - Zone:
Elevator area - Wall: East - Sequence:
1 Source: Chemical Heritage
Foundation Sponsor: Mercouri G.
Kanatzidis UNKNOWN
source: http://www2.chemistry.msu.edu/Po
rtraits/images/paulingc.jpg
50 YBN
[10/??/1950 AD] 		5564) The "Turing test" is created, in
which a person must decide if they are
talking with a human or machine.
(University of Manchester) Manchester,
England 
[1] Description Alan
Turing Source
http://www.ieee.org/portal/cms_docs
_sscs/sscs/08Spring/KFig6_turing.jpg Ar
ticle Alan Turing Portion used
All Low resolution?
Yes Purpose of use To show
how he looks like Replaceable? No
free photographic replacement
found COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/c/c8/Alan_Turing_photo.jpg
50 YBN
[1950 AD] 		5297) A system of "optical pumping" is
discovered where atoms of a gas or
atomic beam are illuminated with
"resonance radiation" (wavelengths of
light which they are capable of
absorbing). The atoms absorb the light
and heat up momentarily reaching a high
energy state and then emit the light
again.
(Ecole Normale Superieure) Paris,
France 
[1] Figure 5 from: Alfred Kastler,
''Optical Methods for Studying Hertzian
Resonances'', Science, New Series, Vol.
158, No. 3798 (Oct. 13, 1967), pp.
214-221. http://www.jstor.org/stable/17
22420 {Kastler_Alfred_19671013.pdf} CO
PYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/158/3798/214

[2] Description Kastler.jpg English:
Alfred Kastler Date
1966(1966) Source
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/
physics/laureates/1966/kastler-bio.html
Author Nobel foundation PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b6/Kastler.jpg
50 YBN
[1950 AD] 		5298) That viruses can be coded in
bacteria DNA and that ultraviolet light
can change a non-lethal virus into a
lethal virus that multiplies viruses
and destroys the bacterium host cell is
shown.
(Institut Pasteur) Paris, France 
[1] André Michel Lwoff Nobel photo
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1965/lwoff.jpg
50 YBN
[1950 AD] 		5379) Paper chromatography is used to
show that, in DNA, the number of purine
bases (adenine and guanine) is always
equal to the number of pyrimidine bases
(cytosine and thymine), and also that
the number of adenine bases is equal to
the number of thymine bases, and the
number of guanine bases equal to the
number of cytosine bases.
(Columbia University) New York City,
New York, USA 
[1] Table from: Erwin Chargaff,
''Chemical specificity of nucleic acids
and mechanism of their enzymatic
degradation'', Experientia, 1950,
Volume 6, Number 6, 201-209, DOI:
10.1007/BF02173653 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/p562475u36101146/ {Char
gaff_Erwin_1950xxxx.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.springerlink.com/cont
ent/p562475u36101146/

[2] Photograph of Erwin
Chargaff. Erwin Chargaff. UNKNOWN
source: http://history.nih.gov/exhibits/
nirenberg/images/photos/03_chargaff_pu2.
jpg
50 YBN
[1950 AD] 		5394) The theory that the asteroids
between Mars and Jupiter are the result
of the collision of two or more
planets.
(Yerkes Observatory) Williams Bay,
Wisconsin, USA 
[1] Caption: The Dutch-American
astronomer Gerard Peter Kuiper
(1905-1973). Kuiper studied at the
University of Leiden, Holland, where he
obtained his PhD in 1933. In the same
year he emigrated to America where he
worked in several universities and
observatories. Kuiper's main research
was on the solar system. He discovered
two new satellites: Miranda, the fifth
satellite of Uranus, in 1948 and
Nereid, the second satellite of
Neptune, in 1949. He proposed in 1951
that the short-period comets come from
a flattened ring of comets, the
Kuiper's belt, found beyond Neptune. He
was involved in some of the early space
missions including the Ranger and
Mariner missions. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.sciencephoto.com/imag
es/download_wm_image.html/H411054-The_Du
tch-American_astronomer_Gerard_Peter_Kui
per-SPL.jpg?id=724110054

[2] Image from
http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4210/pages/Ch
_15.htm PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0b/GerardKuiper.jpg
49 YBN
[03/??/1951 AD] 		5460) UNIVAC I, the first computer to
read and write data to and from
magnetic tape, and one of the earliest
commercial computers is complete.
(Remington Rand) Philadelphia,
Pennsylvania, USA 
[1] Photo by U. S. Navy Electronics
Supply Office as part of the Report
Department of the Army, Ballistic
Research Laboratories - Maryland, A
third survey of domestic electronic
digital computing systems, Report No
1115, 1961, The UNIVAC
II http://ed-thelen.org/comp-hist/BRL61
-u4.html#UNIVAC-II PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/9c/Univac-I-Navy-Electro
nics-Supply-Office-BRL61-0992.jpg

[2]
http://www.fcet.staffs.ac.uk/jdw1/sucfm/
19071980mauchlyjohnwilliam.jpg UNKNOWN

source: http://www.fcet.staffs.ac.uk/jdw
1/sucfm/19071980mauchlyjohnwilliam.jpg
49 YBN
[05/05/1951 AD] 		5664) That the quantity of x-rays from
the Sun increases with altitude is
determined by using a rocket.
(U. S. Naval Research Laboratory)
Washington, D. C., USA 
[1] H. Friedman, S. W. Lichtman, and E.
T. Byram, ''Photon Counter Measurements
of Solar X-Rays and Extreme Ultraviolet
Light'', Phys. Rev. 83, 1025–1030
(1951). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v83/i5/p1025_1 {Friedman_Herbert_1951
0510.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v83/i5/p1025_1

[2] FRIEDMAN (Herbert)(1916-2000)
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.aip.org/history/newsl
etter/spring2001/images/friedman_lg.jpg
49 YBN
[05/08/1951 AD] 		5097) A map of the fourth and smallest
of the fruit fly chromosomes.
(California Institute of Technology)
Pasadena, California 
[1] Alfred Henry Sturtevant UNKNOWN
source: http://www.dnaftb.org/dnaftb/ima
ges/11abio.gif

[2] Alfred Henry Sturtevant UNKNOWN
source: http://www.nature.com/ng/journal
/v34/n3/images/ng0703-242-I1.jpg
49 YBN
[06/05/1951 AD] 		5482) Gas-liquid partition
chromatography is developed: the
compressibility of a gas is used to
separate molecules in a vapor from a
heated liquid as the gas carries the
molecules from the gas-liquid partition
down a long thin column.
(National Institute for Medical
Research) Mill Hill, London, UK 
[1] Plate from: R. Consden, A. H.
Gordon, and A. J. P. Martin,
''Qualitative analysis of proteins: a
partition chromatographic method using
paper'', Biochem J. 1944; 38(3):
224–232.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1258072/ {Martin_Archer_19440513.
pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/
articles/PMC1258072/

[2] Archer John Porter Martin Nobel
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1952/marti
n_postcard.jpg
49 YBN
[06/14/1951 AD] 		5566) The predicted 21-centimeter
(1,420 MHz) microwave emission of
neutral hydrogen atoms in interstellar
space are detected.
(Harvard University) Cambridge,
Massachusetts, USA  
[1] Edward Mills Purcell Nobel
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/physics/laureates/1952/purcell
_postcard.jpg
49 YBN
[08/27/1951 AD] 		5516) The Field-Ion Microscope (FIM).
The polarity of the Field Emission
microscope is reversed, so the needle
in this microscope is at a positive
potential in low pressure inert gas.
(Kaiser-Wilhelm Institute for Physical
Chemistry and Electrochemistry)
Berlin-Dahlem, Germany 
[1] ''Fig 2. Electron image of single
crystalline tungsten tip cap. Tip
radius of 940 A, in the Middle of the
110 surface. Fig 3. Ion image of the
same point with elevated resolving
power'' Figures 2 and 3 from: EW
Müller, ''Das Feldionenmikroskop'',
Zeitschrift für Physik A Hadrons and
Nuclei, Volume 131, Number 1, 1951,
p136-142. http://www.springerlink.com/c
ontent/g1047036xth03316/ {Mueller_Erwin
_W_19510827.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.springerlink.com/cont
ent/g1047036xth03316/

[2] Erwin
Müller (1911-1977) UNKNOWN
source: http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/opti
cs/timeline/people/antiqueimages/mueller
.jpg
49 YBN
[10/??/1951 AD] 		5505) The "fatty acid cycle" is
recognized; how fatty acids are broken
down in digestion.
(University of Munich {Munchen})
Munich, Germany (presumably) 
[1] Figure 1 from (note this is from
1954): F. LYNEN, ''Participation of
Coenzyme a in the Oxidation of Fat'',
Nature 174, 962 - 965 (20 November
1954);
doi:10.1038/174962a0. http://www.nature
.com/nature/journal/v174/n4438/abs/17496
2a0.html {Lynen_Feodor_19541120.pdf} C
OPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v174/n4438/abs/174962a0.html

[2] Feodor Lynen Nobel
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1964/lynen.jpg
49 YBN
[11/11/1951 AD] 		6274) The first demonstration of moving
images recorded on magnetic tape
(videotape).
Los Angeles, California, USA  
49 YBN
[11/29/1951 AD] 		5610) The first underground nuclear
explosive test.
(US Department of Energy Nevada Proving
Grounds) Nye County, Nevada, USA 
[1] This is a photograph of the
Buster-Jangle Uncle nuclear test, in
November 1951. The original image was
taken from this Dod document, and
should thus be public domain. Cropped
and digitally enhanced by
User:Jakew. http://www.dtra.mil/rd/prog
rams/nuclear_personnel/docs%5CT24299.PDF
PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/4/44/UncleNuclearTest1951.jpg
49 YBN
[12/20/1951 AD] 		5444) The first atomic fission reactor
to produce electricity.
The heat from uranium
fission heats water to make steam which
drives an electrical generator.
(Experimental Breeder Reactor-1) Arco,
Idaho (verify) 
[1] The first production of usable
nuclear electricity in Idaho National
Laboratory occured in December 20,
1951, when four light bulbs were lit
with electricity generated from the
EBR-1 reactor. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/ac/First_four_nuclear_li
t_bulbs.jpeg

[2] Description
Ebr-1.zdv.jpg Photo of Experimental
Breeder Reactor Number One
(EBR-1). Date Source
http://www.inel.gov/featurestories/
images/ebr-1.jpg Author PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/43/Ebr-1.zdv.jpg
49 YBN
[1951 AD] 		3338) A high speed photograph of the
spark "pilot streamer", (the first
stream of light that connects two
electrodes) is captured.
 
[1] Figure 10: Streamer or glow
formation between rods spaced 200
inches during negative polarity impulse
test at 3,000-kv. Line electrode
(negative) on left (photographed
through quartz lens) Figure 11: Same
condition as for Figure 10. The glow is
further developed and bridges the whole
gap. Note bright streamer from ground
electrode. COPYRIGHTED
source: Hagenguth_1952.pdf
49 YBN
[1951 AD] 		5152) The idea of holding hot plasma
(electrically charged atom fragments)
in place by a magnetic field to try to
use hydrogen to helium atomic fusion
for electricity production.
Volga region, (Soviet Union)
Russia 
[1] Photo of Igor Tamm from the
official web site of the Russian
Academy of Sciences:
http://www.ras.ru/win/db/show_per.asp?P=
.id-52317.ln-en COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/5/50/Tamm.jpg

[2] Andrei Sakharov COPYRIGHTED
source: Sakharov_Andrei.jpg
49 YBN
[1951 AD] 		5302) An electronic computer is used to
estimate the location of the five outer
planets from 1653 to 2060.
 
[1] Dirk Brouwer A leader in the
field of celestial mechanics. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.nmspacemuseum.org/hal
loffame/images/large/brouwer.jpg
49 YBN
[1951 AD] 		5876) That some genes are "controlling
genes" that can activate or or turn off
another gene, and that can control the
rate at which a gene is switched on and
off is discovered.
(Carnegie Institute of Washington) Cold
Spring Harbor, New York, USA 
[1] McClintock,
Barbara Portrait Born: 1902 AD Died:
1992 AD, at 90 years of age. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.s9.com/images/portrai
ts/19876_McClintock-Barbara.jpg
48 YBN
[03/10/1952 AD] 		5584) The "sodium pump" mechanism of a
nerve impulse transmission: when a
nerve impulse passes, sodium ions flood
into the cell and potassium ions move
out, and once the nerve impulse has
past, sodium ions are pumped out of the
cell and potassium ions move back into
the cell.
(University of Cambridge) Cambridge,
England 
[1] Figure 1 from: A. L. Hodgkin, A.
F. Huxley, ''A quantitative description
of membrane current and its application
to conduction and excitation in
nerve'', Journal of physiology, (1952)
volume: 117 issue: 4 page:
500 http://jp.physoc.org/content/117/4/
500.full {Hodgkin_Alan_Lloyd_19520310.p
df} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://jp.physoc.org/content/117
/4/500.full

[2] Alan Lloyd Hodgkin Nobel
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/medicine/laureates/1963/hodgki
n_postcard.jpg
48 YBN
[03/21/1952 AD] 		5655) Infrared light with a sharply
peaked frequency is produced by
"carrier injection" (applying an
electric current) to germanium or to
silicon. This will lead to the first
semiconductor laser.
(Bell Telephone Laboratories) Murray
Hill, New Jersey, USA (presumably in
New Jersey) 
[1] Note that this image is from the
Nobel prize lecture of Charles Hard
Townes and is not in the original paper
of Herriot, et al.[t] Figure 4
from: ''Charles H. Townes - Nobel
Lecture''. Nobelprize.org. 4 Apr 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1964/townes-lecture.html {
Townes_Charles_Hard_19641211.pdf}
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/physics/laureates/1964/townes-lecture
.html
48 YBN
[04/02/1952 AD] 		5743) Gender is found in a bacteria (E.
Coli).
(University of Wisconsin) Madison,
Wisconsin, USA and (Istituto
Sicroterapico Milanese) Milan,
Italy 
[1] Joshua Lederberg UNKNOWN
source: http://t3.gstatic.com/images?q=t
bn:ANd9GcTip9U51ETe5PA23tMz7X9VOE3pFURQn
PV-AHXSb4--tMcozbbL&t=1

[2] Two bacterial cells caught in the
act of plasmid-mediated conjugation.
Many plasmids are able to transfer
horizontally from an infected donor
(top) to an uninfected recipient
(bottom) via conjugation. Conjugation
is initiated by contact between donor
and recipient cells via a
plasmid-encoded protein appendage
called a sex pilus. Conjugation results
in the one-way transfer of a copy of
the plasmid genome from donor to
recipient. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.yale.edu/turner/graph
ics/Fig4.jpg
48 YBN
[04/04/1952 AD] 		5677) The first non-aromatic steriod is
synthesized which allows the synthesis
of many steroids including cholesterol
and cortisone.
(Harvard University) Cambridge,
Massachusetts, USA  
[1] Robert Burns Woodward Nobel Prize
Photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/chemistry/laureates/1965/woodward.jpg

48 YBN
[04/09/1952 AD] 		5431) That the nucleic acids of a
bacteriophage that enter the bacterium
cell carry the genetic message, and not
the protein associated with the
bacteriophage is shown.
(Carnegie Institute of Washington) Cold
Spring Harbor, Long Island, New York,
USA 
[1] Alfred Day Hershey COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/medicine/laureates/1969/hershe
y_postcard.jpg

[2] Max Delbrück Nobel
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/medicine/laureates/1969/delbru
ck_postcard.jpg
48 YBN
[04/14/1952 AD] 		5541) That "spin" for nuclear particles
is a useful and valid quantum number is
experimentally confirmed when examining
the results of the scattering and
capture of pions in liquid hydrogen.
This finding will be referred to as the
"pion-nucleon resonance".
(University of Chicago) Chicago,
Illinois, USA 		 
48 YBN
[05/19/1952 AD] 		5218) The plastic polyethylene is
improved by using organometallic
catalysts which prevent branching in
the polyethylene molecule making it a
much stronger plastic with a higher
melting point allowing it to be soaked
in hot water without softening.
(Max-Planck-Institute for Coal
Research), Mulheim-Ruhr, Germany 
[1] chemical drawings from: Dr. E. h.
Karl Ziegler, ''Aluminium-organische
Synthese im Bereich olefinischer
Kohlenwasserstoffe'', Angewandte
Chemie, Volume 64, Issue 12, pages
323–329, 21. Juni
1952 http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi
/10.1002/ange.19520641202/abstract {Zie
gler_Karl_19520519.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/d
oi/10.1002/ange.19520641202/pdf

[2] Karl Ziegler COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/chemistry/laureates/1963/ziegler.jpg
48 YBN
[06/12/1952 AD] 		5757) A bubble-chamber particle
detector is invented; similar to a
cloud-chamber but with a liquid.
(University of Michigan) Ann Arbor,
Michigan, USA 
[1] Donald Arthur Glaser Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/physics/laureates/1960/glaser_
postcard.jpg

[2] Donald Arthur Glasser UNKNOWN
source: http://sciencephoto.com/images/d
ownload_wm_image.html/H407214-Donald_Gla
ser,_American_physicist-SPL.jpg?id=72407
0214
48 YBN
[07/16/1952 AD] 		5693) The order of amino acids in
(bovine) insulin is determined.
(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England 
[1] Figure 1 from: F. Sanger and E. O.
P. Thompson, ''The amino-acid sequence
in the glycyl chain of insulin. 2. The
investigation of peptides from enzymic
hydrolysates'', Biochem J. 1953
February; 53(3): 366–374.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1198158/ {Sanger_Frederick_2_1952
0716.pdf} {07/16/1952} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/
articles/PMC1198158/

[2] Frederick Sanger Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/chemistry/laureates/1958/sanger.jpg
48 YBN
[07/19/1952 AD] 		5442) A crystalline alkaloid is
isolated from the roots of the plant
Rauwolfia serpentina Benth and named
"reserpine". This is the first of the
tranquilizers.
(Ciba Aktiengesellschaft) Basel,
Switzerland 
[1] Robert W. Wilkins, M.D.
(1906-2003) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.bu.edu/cms/www.bumc.b
u.edu/academies/files/Images/Wilkins.JPG


[2] Robert W. Wilkins, M.D.
(1906-2003) UNKNOWN
source: http://imgtn1.ask.com/ts?t=59720
67495585107664&pid=23104&ppid=19
48 YBN
[08/??/1952 AD] 		5591) Rockets are launched from high
altitude balloons.
(Coast Guard Cutter ship  
[1] Rockoon Credit: NASA PD
source: http://www.astronautix.com/graph
ics/w/wrockoon.jpg

[2] James Alfred Van Allen PD
source: http://content.answcdn.com/main/
content/img/scitech/HSjamesa.jpg
48 YBN
[11/01/1952 AD] 		5470) The first hydrogen fusion bomb is
exploded.
(Elugelab Island in the Enewatak Atoll
of the) Marshall Islands, Pacific
Ocean 
[1] The MIKE test PD
source: http://www.atomicarchive.com/His
tory/hbomb/images/mike_test_s.jpg

[2] Edward Teller UNKNOWN
source: http://www.atomicarchive.com/His
tory/coldwar/images/teller_edward_s.jpg
48 YBN
[12/01/1952 AD] 		5782) The first "hyperon" particle is
identified, the Λ0 particle. Hyperons
are particles more massive than protons
or neutrons and hold together for a
trillionth of a second.
(University of Warsaw) Warsaw,
Poland 
[1] Plate 13 from: M. Danysz, J.
Pniewski, Delayed Disintegration of a
Heavy Nuclear Fragment I, Phil. Mag.
44, 348
(1953). {Pniewski_Jerzy_19521201.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: Pniewski_Jerzy_19521201.pdf
48 YBN
[1952 AD] 		5123) The most distant galaxies are
estimated to be 5 to 6 billion light
years away.
(Mount Wilson Observatory) Mount
Wilson, California, USA 
[1] From Huntington Library, San
Marino, California. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.astrosociety.org/pubs
/mercury/31_04/images/baade.jpg
48 YBN
[1952 AD] 		5407) The theory that submarine canyons
(deep rifts in the continental shelf,
or relatively shallow ocean area around
the perimeter of the continents) are
formed by turbulent undersea flows of
mud and sediment, and not by rivers
running at a time when the sea was much
lower.
(Columbia University) New York City,
New York, USA 
[1] William Maurice Ewing UNKNOWN
source: http://lh4.ggpht.com/_gNIHS1PHL1
Q/SO941XFj4CI/AAAAAAAAATk/tMf7NRc0kIU/50
0.jpg
48 YBN
[1952 AD] 		5670) Antibodies are identified that
cause the agglutination (clumping
together) of white blood cells from
other people but are inactive on a
person's own white blood cells.
(Centre National de Transfusion
Sanguine) Paris, France.
(presumably) 
[1] Jean Dausset Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1980/dausset.jpg


source:
47 YBN
[02/13/1953 AD] 		5786) Amino acids are synthesized by
circulating methane, ammonia, water and
hydrogen past an electric discharge to
simulate the early atmosphere of Earth.
(University of Chicago) Chicago,
Illinois, USA 
[1] Figure 2 from: Stanley L. Miller,
''A Production of Amino Acids under
Possible Primitive Earth Conditions'',
Science, New Series, Vol. 117, No. 3046
(May 15, 1953), pp.
528-529 http://www.jstor.org/stable/168
0569 {Miller_Stanley_Lloyd_19530213.pdf
} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://cdn.worldfreenews.com/wp-
content/uploads/2011/03/stanley-miller.j
pg

[2] Stanley Llyod Miller UNKNOWN
source: http://www.kunskapsfakta.se/bild
evolution/stanley_millers_experiment.jpg

47 YBN
[02/26/1953 AD] 		5397) The Perseus, Orion, and
Sagittarius arms of the Milky Way
Galaxy are identified, by searching for
clouds of hydrogen ionized by O and B
stars. This provides good evidence for
the spiral structure of our galaxy.
(Yerkes Observatory, University of
Chicago) Williams Bay, Wisconsin,
USA 
[1] William Wilson Morgan January 3,
1906 — June 21, 1994 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.nap.edu/html/biomems/
photo/wmorgan.JPG
47 YBN
[04/02/1953 AD] 		5660) The double helix structure of DNA
is understood by Francis Crick and
James Watson.

The DNA molecule is a double helix made
of a sugar-phosphate backbone, with the
connected nitrogenous bases (adenine,
thymine, cytosine or guanine) extending
toward the center of the helix from
each of the two backbones. The double
helix form requires that an adenine can
only pair with a thymine, and a
cytosine can only pair with a guanine.
The process of replication can now be
explained as the two strands of the
double helix being unwound, and each
single helix then serves as a model for
its complement.
(Cavendish Laboratory, University of
Cambridge) Cambridge, England 
[1] Figure 1 from: J. D. WATSON & F.
H. C. CRICK, ''Molecular structure of
nucleic acids; a structure for
deoxyribose nucleic acid'', Nature,
(1953) volume: 171 issue: 4356 page:
737. http://www.nature.com/nature/journ
al/v171/n4356/abs/171737a0.html {Crick_
Francis_Harry_Compton_19530402.pdf} COP
YRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v171/n4356/abs/171737a0.html

[2] Francis Harry Compton Crick
UNKNOWN
source: http://scientistshowtell.wikispa
ces.com/file/view/FrancisHarryComptonCri
ck2.jpg/39149552/FrancisHarryComptonCric
k2.jpg
47 YBN
[05/29/1953 AD] 		5700) A human reaches the top of Mount
Everest, the highest point of Earth
(29,035 feet) (8,850 meters).
Mount Everest, border between Nepal and
the Tibet Autonomous Region of
China. 
[1] Title: Tenzing Norgay on the
summit Date: May 29,
1953 Origin: Edmund
Hillary
Information: Tenzing Norgay
on the summit of Mount Everest at 11.30
am. Tenzing waves his ice-axe on which
are strung the flags of the United
Nations, Britain, India and
Nepal. TenzingonSummit.jpg‎ (300 ×
443 pixels, file size: 116 KB, MIME
type: image/jpeg) Tenzing Norgay
achieves the summit of Mt. Everest, May
29, 1953. Photograph taken by Edmund
Hillary. Copyright Royal Geographic
Society and taken from
http://www.unlockingthearchives.rgs.org/
themes/everest/gallery/resource/?id=216
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.unlockingthearchives.
rgs.org/resources/images/ten-on-summit-e
nlarged.jpg

[2] Sir Edmund Hillary was a famous
mountain climber from Auckland. After
climbing Mount Everest he helped build
schools in Nepal. UNKNOWN
source: http://ourkiwirolemodels.wikispa
ces.com/file/view/3797.jpg/163780247/379
7.jpg
47 YBN
[06/19/1953 AD] 		5124) A radio source in the
constellation of Cygnus is shown to be
from a distant galaxy.
(Mount Wilson Observatory) Mount
Wilson, California, USA 
[1] Figure 1 from: Baade, W. and
Minkowski, R., ''On the Indentification
of Radio Sources.'', Astrophysical
Journal, vol. 119,
p.215. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du//full/1954ApJ...119..215B/0000215.000
.html UNKNOWN
source: http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?bibcode=19
54ApJ...119..215B&db_key=AST&page_ind=6&
data_type=GIF&type=SCREEN_VIEW&classic=Y
ES

[2] From Huntington Library, San
Marino, California. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.astrosociety.org/pubs
/mercury/31_04/images/baade.jpg
47 YBN
[07/09/1953 AD] 		5690) A neutrino is detected.
(Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory,
University of California) Los Alamos,
New Mexico, USA 
[1] Fred Reines and Clyde Cowan at the
Control Center of the Hanford
Experiment (1953) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.ps.uci.edu/physics/Im
ages/nobel/reinescontrols.jpg

[2] Frederick Reines FNAL photo PD
source: http://www.fnal.gov/pub/inquirin
g/physics/neutrino/discovery/photos/rein
es_large.jpg
47 YBN
[07/12/1953 AD] 		5781) Subatomic particles are
categorized by mass.
(Cosmic ray conference) Bagneres de
Bigorre, France 		 
47 YBN
[09/30/1953 AD] 		5671) A test to detect the white blood
cell agglutinating properties of blood
serum is developed.
(Centre National de Transfusion
Sanguine) Paris, France. 
[1] Jean Dausset Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1980/dausset.jpg


source:
47 YBN
[10/03/1953 AD] 		5646) Animals and birds are found to
have "actively acquired tolerance" of
foreign cells (for example, will not
reject a skin graft) if the animal or
bird is exposed to the foreign cells
early enough in their life.
(University College, University of
London) London, England 
[1] Peter Brian Medawar Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1960/medawar.jpg
47 YBN
[1953 AD] 		5172) The varicella-zoster virus is
isolated from cases of chickenpox and
zoster and the same virus shown to be
the responsible for both diseases.
(Harvard University) Cambridge,
Massachusetts, USA (presumably) 
[1] John Franklin Enders Nobel prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1954/enders.jpg

[2] Thomas Huckle Weller Nobel prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/medicine/laureates/1954/weller
_postcard.jpg
46 YBN
[01/21/1954 AD] 		5230) The first nuclear powered
submarine is launched.
The fuel supply
of uranium lasts for months without the
need to surface to recharge batteries.
Thames River, Connecticut, USA 
[1] Nautilus in NYC UNKNOWN
source: http://www.subguru.com/nautilus/
Nautilus_in_NYC.jpg

[2] Cross section of USS
Nautilus UNKNOWN
source: http://www.subguru.com/nautilus/
nautilus_cross-section.gif
46 YBN
[03/05/1954 AD] 		5586) Attaching a heavy atom to a
molecule makes the x-ray reflection
pattern easier to interpret.
(Cavendish Laboratory, University of
Cambridge) Cambridge, England 
[1] Max Ferdinand Perutz Nobel prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/chemistry/laureates/1962/perutz.jpg
46 YBN
[04/28/1954 AD] 		5265) The first naturally occurring
protein and hormone is synthesized,
oxytocin.
(Cornell University Medical College)
New York City, New York, USA 
[1] Chemical structure diagram
from: Vincent du Vigneaud, Charlotte
Ressler, John M. Swan, Carleton W.
Roberts, Panayotis G. Katsoyannis,
''The Synthesis of Oxytocin'', J. Am.
Chem. Soc., 1954, 76 (12), pp
3115–3121 http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs
/10.1021/ja01641a004 {Du_Vigneaud_Vince
nt_19540428.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1
021/ja01641a004

[2] Vincent du Vigneaud COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/chemistry/laureates/1955/vigneaud.jpg

46 YBN
[04/28/1954 AD] 		5577) Amino acids are found still
intact in 365 million year old fossils.
(Carnegie Institute of Washington)
Washington, D. C, USA 
[1] This image was moved to Wikimedia
Commons from en.wikipedia using a bot
script. All source information is still
present. It requires review.
Additionally, there may be errors in
any or all of the information fields;
information on this image should not be
considered reliable and the image
should not be used until it has been
reviewed and any needed corrections
have been made. Once the review has
been completed, this template should be
removed. For details about this image,
see below. Check now! Afrikaans
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e5/Philip_Hauge_Abelson.
jpg
46 YBN
[05/05/1954 AD] 		5649) The maser ("microwave
amplification by stimulated emission of
radiation") is invented by Gordon,
Zeiger, and Townes and independently by
Soviet physicists Basov and Prokhorov.

A beam of ammonia molecules emerges
through a hole, passes through an
electrostatic field made by four
electrodes, which puts their electrons
into an upper state as they enter into
a cavity. An electric potential of
varying frequency is transmitted
through the cavity and at the molecular
transition frequency an emission line
is seen. This beam can induce the
transition to light emission in the
molecules entering the cavity and cause
self-sustained oscillations with a very
stable frequency. So the MASER can be
used as a very stable oscillator (or
atomic clock), as an amplifier of
microwaves near a molecular resonance,
and as a microwave spectrometer.
(Columbia University) New York City,
New York, USA 
[1] Figures 1 and 2 from: J. P.
Gordon, H. J. Zeiger, and C. H. Townes,
''Molecular Microwave Oscillator and
New Hyperfine Structure in the
Microwave Spectrum of NH3'', Phys. Rev.
95, 282–284
(1954). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v95/i1/p282_1 {Townes_Charles_Hard_19
540505.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v95/i1/p282_1

[2] Charles Hard Townes Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/physics/laureates/1964/townes.jpg
46 YBN
[06/10/1954 AD] 		5691) The highest known temperature of
superconductivity (18.05° K) is found
in in an alloy of nobium and tin
(Nb3Sn).
(Bell Telephone Laboratories) Murray
Hill, New Jersey, USA 
[1] Figure 1 from: B. T. Matthias, T.
H. Geballe, S. Geller, and E.
Corenzwit, ''Superconductivity of
Nb3Sn'', Phys. Rev. 95, 1435–1435
(1954). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v95/i6/p1435_1 {Matthias_Bernd_Teo_19
540610.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v95/i6/p1435_1
46 YBN
[06/27/1954 AD] 		5310) The first uranium fission
electric station for civilian use.
Obninsk, Russia (Soviet
Union)(verify) 
[1] Modern view inside Obninsk uranium
fission electricity generating
plant UNKNOWN
source: http://media.englishrussia.com/f
irst_nuclear/1_031.jpg

[2] Igor Kurchatov UNKNOWN
source: http://www.tamu-commerce.edu/phy
sics/links/kurchatov.jpg
46 YBN
[07/06/1954 AD] 		5520) The complete structure of the
enzyme ribonuclease is determined.
(The Rockefeller Institute for Medical
Research) New York City, New York,
USA 
[1] William Howard Stein Nobel prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1972/stein
_postcard.jpg

[2] Stanford Moore Nobel
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1972/moore
_postcard.jpg
46 YBN
[08/17/1954 AD] 		5594) Radiation made of electrons
emitting from aurora borealis is
detected by with geiger counters in
rockets.
(University of Iowa) Iowa City, Iowa,
USA 
[1] Summary ''Technicians lower
Explorer 1, the first American
satellite, onto the launch vehicle's
fourth stage motor. This photo was
taken in the gantry at Launch Complex
26 at Cape Canaveral, Florida.'' PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/14/Explorer1_preparation
s.jpg

[2] Name of Image: Launch of
Jupiter-C/Explorer 1 MIX #:
0100074 NIX #: MSFC-0100074 Date of
Image: 1958-01-31 Category: Early
Rockets Full Description: Launch
of Jupiter-C/Explorer 1 at Cape
Canaveral, Florida on January 31, 1958.
After the Russian Sputnik 1 was
launched in October 1957, the launching
of an American satellite assumed much
greater importance. After the Vanguard
rocket exploded on the pad in December
1957, the ability to orbit a satellite
became a matter of national prestige.
On January 31, 1958, slightly more than
four weeks after the launch of
Sputnik.The ABMA (Army Ballistic
Missile Agency) in Redstone Arsenal,
Huntsville, Alabama, in cooperation
with the Jet Propulsion Laboratory,
launched a Jupiter from Cape Canaveral,
Florida. The rocket consisted of a
modified version of the Redstone
rocket's first stage and two upper
stages of clustered Baby Sergeant
rockets developed by the Jet Propulsion
Laboratory and later designated as Juno
boosters for space launches (MRPO)
MRD/SPD Discipline(s): n/a (MRPO)
Subject Type: n/a Keywords: Launch,
Jupiter-C, Explorer 1 MSFC Negative
Number: 0100074 Reference Number:
MSFC-75-SA-4105-2C n/a n/a NASA
Copyright
Notification:http://mix.msfc.nasa.gov/co
pyright.html source:http://mix.msfc.n
asa.gov/abstracts.php?p=877 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/7f/Launch_of_Jupiter_C_w
ith_Explorer_1.jpg
46 YBN
[08/23/1954 AD] 		5678) The complicated and poisonous
alkaloid strychnine is synthesized.
(Harvard University) Cambridge,
Massachusetts, USA  
[1] Robert Burns Woodward Nobel Prize
Photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/chemistry/laureates/1965/woodward.jpg

46 YBN
[08/23/1954 AD] 		5679) Lysergic acid (found to influence
neurological function) is synthesized.
(Harvard University) Cambridge,
Massachusetts, USA  
[1] Robert Burns Woodward Nobel Prize
Photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/chemistry/laureates/1965/woodward.jpg

46 YBN
[10/21/1954 AD] 		5250) A single neuron is made to fire
by electrical stimulation (direct
neuron writing).
(Kyoto University) Kyoto, Japan 
[1] Figure 1 from: ARAKI, T. & OTANI,
T. (1955). ''Response of single
motoneurons to direct stimulation
in toad's spinal cord.'' J.
Neurophysiol. 18,
472-485. http://jn.physiology.org/conte
nt/18/5/472.full.pdf+html?sid=0ddda869-c
8ac-4438-b023-aabdae748ef4 {Araki_Tatsu
nosuke_19541021.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://jn.physiology.org/content
/18/5/472.full.pdf+html?sid=0ddda869-c8a
c-4438-b023-aabdae748ef4

[2] Figure 2 from: ARAKI, T. & OTANI,
T. (1955). ''Response of single
motoneurons to direct stimulation
in toad's spinal cord.'' J.
Neurophysiol. 18,
472-485. http://jn.physiology.org/conte
nt/18/5/472.full.pdf+html?sid=0ddda869-c
8ac-4438-b023-aabdae748ef4 {Araki_Tatsu
nosuke_19541021.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://jn.physiology.org/content
/18/5/472.full.pdf+html?sid=0ddda869-c8a
c-4438-b023-aabdae748ef4
46 YBN
[12/10/1954 AD] 		5315) Polypropene (also known as
polypropene) is synthesized. Polyproene
is a synthetic thermoplastic resin made
by the polymerization of propylene that
is molded, extruded, or spun into many
plastic products.
(Polytechnic of Milan) Milan,
Italy 
[1] Collage
from: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikip
edia/commons/thumb/2/23/Polypropene_migr
ograph.png/1280px-Polypropene_migrograph
.png
AND http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polypr
opene
AND http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propen
e
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Polypropene_mig
rograph.png/1280px-Polypropene_migrograp
h.png
AND http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polypr
opene
AND http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propen
e

[2] GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Red_Polypropyle
ne_Chair_with_Stainless_Steel_Structure.
JPG/682px-Red_Polypropylene_Chair_with_S
tainless_Steel_Structure.JPG
46 YBN
[1954 AD] 		5170) The virus that causes measles is
cultured.
(Boston Children's Hospital) Boston,
Massachusetts, USA (presumably) 
[1] John Franklin Enders Nobel prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1954/enders.jpg

[2] Thomas Huckle Weller Nobel prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/medicine/laureates/1954/weller
_postcard.jpg
46 YBN
[1954 AD] 		5322) The first known insect hormone,
"ecdysone", is crystallized and found,
like human hormones, to be a derivative
of cholesterol.
(Max Planck Institute) Munich,
Germany 
[1] Description Adolf Friedrich Johann
Butenandt 1939.jpg Adolf Beutenand,
Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1939 Date
1939(1939) Source
http://nobelprize.org/ Author
Nobel Foundation PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/11/Adolf_Friedrich_Johan
n_Butenandt_1939.jpg
46 YBN
[1954 AD] 		5323) Progesterone and related
compounds are found to prevent
ovulation (discharge of an ovum or
ovule from the ovary) in humans. This
leads to the first birth control pill
for humans.
(Worchester Foundation for Experimental
Biology) Shrewsbury, Massachusetts,
USA 
[1] Gregory Pincus (1903-1967)
performed studies in animals to confirm
the contraceptive effects of
norethinodrel. His data were used to
justify human research using the same
chemical. He collaborated closely with
the obstetrician John Rock, and was
supported financially and politically
by Katherine Dexter McCormick, Margaret
Sanger and other birth control
activists. [t 1967 seems a very early
death - probably galvanized by violent
antipleasurists.] UNKNOWN
source: http://www.br-online.de/bildung/
databrd/ms26.htm/ms26b11.jpg
45 YBN
[02/18/1955 AD] 		5686) The "lysosome" is identified, an
organelle within cells which contains
digestive enzymes.
(University of Louvain) Louvain,
Belgium 
[1] Figure from: Alex B. Novikoff, H.
Beaufay, and C. de Duve, ''ELECTRON
MICROSCOPY OF LYSOSOME-RICH FRACTIONS
FROM RAT LIVER'', J Biophys Biochem
Cytol. 1956 July 25; 2(4): 179–184.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC2229688/ {De_Duve_Christian_Rene_
19560725.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/
articles/PMC2229688/

[2] Christian Rene de Duve Nobel
Prize photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.belgiumtheplaceto.be/
photos/duve_035.jpg
45 YBN
[02/26/1955 AD] 		5661) The nucleic acid molecule in the
tobacco mosaic virus is shown to exist
inside a helical array of repeated
protein units on the outside.
(Birkbeck College) London,
England 
[1] Fig 3 from: ROSALIND E. FRANKLIN,
''Structure of Tobacco Mosaic Virus'',
Nature 175, 379 - 381 (26 February
1955);
doi:10.1038/175379a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v175/n4452/abs/175379
a0.html {Franklin_Rosalind_Elsie_195502
26.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v175/n4452/abs/175379a0.html

[2] Rosalind Franklin UNKNOWN
source: http://sciencecomm.wikispaces.co
m/file/view/3441067.jpg/96607078/3441067
.jpg
45 YBN
[04/07/1955 AD] 		5384) An enzyme that can synthesize and
breakdown polynucleotides is discovered
and named "polynucleotide
phophorylase".
(New York University) New York City,
New York, USA 
[1] Figure 1 from: Marianne
Grunberg-Manago, Severo Ochoa,
''ENZYMATIC SYNTHESIS AND BREAKDOWN OF
POLYNUCLEOTIDES; POLYNUCLEOTIDE
PHOSPHORYLASE'', J. Am. Chem. Soc.,
1955, 77 (11), pp 3165–3166. DOI:
10.1021/ja01616a093 http://pubs.acs.org
/doi/abs/10.1021/ja01616a093
{Ochoa_Severo_19550407.pdf} COPYRIGHT
ED
source: http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1
021/ja01616a093

[2] Severo Ochoa UNKNOWN
source: http://cienciaaldia.files.wordpr
ess.com/2009/09/ochoa.jpg
45 YBN
[04/15/1955 AD] 		5727) Jupiter is found to emit light
with radio frequencies.
(Carnegie Institute of Washington)
Washington, D. C., USA 
[1] Figure 2 from: B. F. Burke, K. L.
Franklin, ''OBSERVATIONS OF A VARIABLE
RADIO SOURCE ASSOCIATED WITH THE PLANET
JUPITER'', JOURNAL OF GEOPHYSICAL
RESEARCH, VOL. 60, NO. 2, PP. 213-217,
1955 doi:10.1029/JZ060i002p00213
http://www.agu.org/journals/ABS/1955/J
Z060i002p00213.shtml {Franklin_Kenneth_
Linn_19550415.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.agu.org/journals/ABS/
1955/JZ060i002p00213.shtml

[2] Figure 1 from: Rao, Joe; Degrasse
Tyson, Neil, ''Obituary: Kenneth L.
Franklin, 1923-2007'', Bulletin of the
American Astronomical Society, v.39,
no. 4,
p.1058. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.
edu/full/2007BAAS...39.1058R
source: http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du/full/2007BAAS...39.1058R
45 YBN
[04/18/1955 AD] 		5558) Element 101, mendelevium is
synthesized.
(University of California) Berkeley,
California, USA 
[1] Description Berkeley 60-inch
cyclotron.gif English: Photograph
shows the 60-inch cyclotron at the
University of California Lawrence
Radiation Laboratory, Berkeley, in
August, 1939. The machine was the most
powerful atom-smasher in the world at
the time. It had started operating
early in the year. During the period of
the photograph Dr. Edwin M. McMillan
was doing the work which led to the
discovery of neptunium (element 93) a
year later. The instrument was used
later by Dr. Glenn T. Seaborg and his
colleagues for the discovery of element
94 (plutonium) early in 1941.
Subsequently, other transuranium
elements were discovered with the
machine, as well as many radioisotopes,
including carbon-14. For their work,
Drs. Seaborg and McMillan shared the
Nobel Prize in 1951. The machine was
used for the ''long bombardments''
which produced the first weighable and
visible quantities of plutonium, which
was used at Chicago by Seaborg and his
colleagues to work out the method for
separating plutonium on an industrial
scale at the Hanford, Washington,
plutonium pro... Русский:
Фотография
показывает
60-дюймовый циклотрон
в университете
Лаборатории California
Lawrence Radiation, Беркли, в
августе 1939. Машина
была самым сильным
ускорителем частиц в
мире в то время. Date
1939(1939) Source National
Archives logo.svg This image is
available from the Archival Research
Catalog of the National Archives and
Records Administration under the ARC
Identifier 558594. This tag does not
indicate the copyright status of the
attached work. A normal copyright tag
is still required. See
Commons:Licensing for more information.
US-NARA-ARC-Logo.svg Author
Department of Energy. Office of
Public Affairs PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/72/Berkeley_60-inch_cycl
otron.gif

[2] Glenn Seaborg (1912 -
1999) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.atomicarchive.com/Ima
ges/bio/B51.jpg
45 YBN
[06/17/1955 AD] 		5491) The tobacco mosaic virus is
broken into its noninfectious protein
and its nearly noninfectious nucleic
acid components and, the two parts are
recombined to make the fully infective
virus.
(University of California) Berkeley,
California, USA 
[1] Description
Fraenkel-Conrat.jpg (en) photograph
of German-American virologist Heinz
Fraenkel-Conrat (de) Fotografie des
deutsch-amerikanischen Virologen Heinz
Fraenkel-Conrat Date
2-7-2006 Source U.S.
National Library of Medicine Author
unknown (uploaded by user
Furfur) Permission (Reusing this
file) The NLM states that
''Government information at NLM Web
sites is in the public domain. Public
domain information may be freely
distributed and copied, but it is
requested that in any subsequent use
the National Library of Medicine (NLM)
be given appropriate acknowledgement
([1]), such as ''Courtesy of the
National Library of Medicine.'' PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/09/Fraenkel-Conrat.jpg
45 YBN
[06/20/1955 AD] 		5557) The elements 99 "einsteinium" and
100 "fermium".
(University of California) Berkeley,
California, USA 
[1] Description Berkeley 60-inch
cyclotron.gif English: Photograph
shows the 60-inch cyclotron at the
University of California Lawrence
Radiation Laboratory, Berkeley, in
August, 1939. The machine was the most
powerful atom-smasher in the world at
the time. It had started operating
early in the year. During the period of
the photograph Dr. Edwin M. McMillan
was doing the work which led to the
discovery of neptunium (element 93) a
year later. The instrument was used
later by Dr. Glenn T. Seaborg and his
colleagues for the discovery of element
94 (plutonium) early in 1941.
Subsequently, other transuranium
elements were discovered with the
machine, as well as many radioisotopes,
including carbon-14. For their work,
Drs. Seaborg and McMillan shared the
Nobel Prize in 1951. The machine was
used for the ''long bombardments''
which produced the first weighable and
visible quantities of plutonium, which
was used at Chicago by Seaborg and his
colleagues to work out the method for
separating plutonium on an industrial
scale at the Hanford, Washington,
plutonium pro... Русский:
Фотография
показывает
60-дюймовый циклотрон
в университете
Лаборатории California
Lawrence Radiation, Беркли, в
августе 1939. Машина
была самым сильным
ускорителем частиц в
мире в то время. Date
1939(1939) Source National
Archives logo.svg This image is
available from the Archival Research
Catalog of the National Archives and
Records Administration under the ARC
Identifier 558594. This tag does not
indicate the copyright status of the
attached work. A normal copyright tag
is still required. See
Commons:Licensing for more information.
US-NARA-ARC-Logo.svg Author
Department of Energy. Office of
Public Affairs PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/72/Berkeley_60-inch_cycl
otron.gif

[2] Glenn Seaborg (1912 -
1999) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.atomicarchive.com/Ima
ges/bio/B51.jpg
45 YBN
[06/24/1955 AD] 		5304) Ion-exchange is used to separate
different isotopes of the same element,
producing almost pure nitrogen-15 by
the hundreds of grams.
(Iowa State College) Iowa, USA 
[1] Niels Bohr and Frank H. Spedding
Iowa State University, courtesy AIP
Emilio Segre Visual Archives PD
source: http://www.ornl.gov/~jxz/ALNS_hi
story/ALNS_photos/ALNS_photos-Images/0.j
pg
45 YBN
[08/20/1955 AD] 		5468) The structure of vitamin B12 is
determined by using monochromatic x-ray
reflection.
(Oxford University) Oxford,
England 
[1] Figure 1 from: DOROTHY CROWFOOT
HODGKIN, JENNY PICKWORTH, JOHN H.
ROBERTSON, KENNETH N. TRUEBLOOD,
RICHARD J. PROSEN & JOHN G. WHITE,
''The Crystal Structure of the
Hexacarboxylic Acid derived from B12
and the Molecular Structure of the
Vitamin '', Nature, 20 August 1955 Vol
176 No 4477
pp319-364 http://www.nature.com/nature/
journal/v176/n4477/ {Hodgkin_Dorothy_Cr
owfoot_19550820.pdf} COPYRIGHTED}
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v176/n4477/

[2] Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin Nobel
Photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1964/hodgk
in_postcard.jpg
45 YBN
[08/22/1955 AD] 		5710) The principle of radioimmunoassay
(RIA) is discovered: an extremely
sensitive technique for measuring
minute quantities of biologically
active substances, such as a hormone or
a drug, by comparing the quantity of
binding, or the inhibition of binding,
of a radiolabeled substance to an
antibody.
(Veterans Administration Hospital)
Bronx, New York, USA 
[1] Figure 4 from: ''Rosalyn Yalow -
Nobel Lecture''. Nobelprize.org. 24 Apr
2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1977/yalow-lecture.html {
Yalow_Rosalyn_19771208.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1977/yalow-lecture
.html

[2] Rosalyn Yalow preparing the
''atomic cocktail,'' a radio-iodine
mixture used in thyroid diagnostic
procedures, 1948, source: Radioisotope
Unit, Veterans Administration Hospital,
Bronx, New York. UNKNOWN
source: http://timeline.aps.org/images/p
osters/55_2a.jpg
45 YBN
[10/24/1955 AD] 		5366) The antiproton is identified by
Emilio Segrè (SAGrA) with Owen
Chamberlain by the impact of very high
speed protons on copper atoms.
(University of California) Berkeley,
California, USA 
[1] Figure 1 from: Owen Chamberlain,
Emilio Segrè, Clyde Wiegand, and
Thomas Ypsilantis, ''Observation of
Antiprotons'', Phys. Rev. 100,
947–950
(1955). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v100/i3/p947_1 {Segre_Emilio_19551024
.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v100/i3/p947_1

[2] Description Segre.jpg English:
Emilio Segrè Date
1959(1959) Source
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/
physics/laureates/1959/segre-bio.html A
uthor Nobel foundation PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/41/Segre.jpg
45 YBN
[11/15/1955 AD] 		5567) Microsomes, cell bodies thought
to be fragments of mitochondria, are
shown to have a high ribonucleic acid
(RNA) content. Because of this
microsomes will be named "ribosomes".
(Rockefeller Institute of Medical
Research) New York City, New York,
USA 
[1] Plate 28 from: G. E. Palade and P.
Siekevitz, ''AN INTEGRATED
MORPHOLOGICAL AND BIOCHEMICAL STUDY'',
Journal of BNiophysical and Biochemical
Cytology, vol. 2 no. 2
171-200. http://jcb.rupress.org/content
/2/2/171.abstract {Palade_George_Emil_1
9551115.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://jcb.rupress.org/content/2
/2/171.abstract

[2] George Emil Palade Nobel
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/medicine/laureates/1974/palade
_postcard.jpg
44 YBN
[01/23/1956 AD] 		5762) The idea of colliding similarly
charged accelerated particles into each
other, as opposed to into a fixed
target is published.
(University of Illinois) Champaign,
Illinois, USA 
[1] Figure 1 from: D. W. Kerst, F. T.
Cole, H. R. Crane, L. W. Jones, L. J.
Laslett, T. Ohkawa, A. M.
Sessler††, K. R. Symon, K. M.
Terwilliger, and Nils Vogt Nilsena,
''Attainment of Very High Energy by
Means of Intersecting Beams of
Particles'', Phys. Rev. 102, 590–591
(1956)
http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v102/
i2/p590_1 {Nilsen_Nils_Vogt_19560123.pd
f} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v102/i2/p590_1

[2] Donald W. Kerst (on left) UNKNOWN

source: http://sprott.physics.wisc.edu/p
hotos/kerst2.jpg
44 YBN
[02/18/1956 AD] 		5760) The theory that some molecule
must function in between each amino
acid and a nucleic acid in protein
synthesis. This molecule will later be
shown to be T-RNA.
(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England 
[1] Francis Harry Compton Crick
UNKNOWN
source: http://scientistshowtell.wikispa
ces.com/file/view/FrancisHarryComptonCri
ck2.jpg/39149552/FrancisHarryComptonCric
k2.jpg
44 YBN
[03/??/1956 AD] 		5688) A bacteria enzyme is found to
synthesize DNA molecules using
nucleotides and ATP. This enzyme will
be isolated and named "polymerase" a
year later in 1957.
(Washington University) Saint Louis,
Missouri, USA 
[1] Arthur Kornberg Nobel Prize
photograph COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1959/kornberg.jpg
44 YBN
[04/10/1956 AD] 		5680) Reserpine is synthesized; the
first of the tranquilizing drugs.
(Harvard University) Cambridge,
Massachusetts, USA  
[1] Robert Burns Woodward Nobel Prize
Photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/chemistry/laureates/1965/woodward.jpg

44 YBN
[04/23/1956 AD] 		5761) The idea of particle "storage
rings" to temporarily store moving
charged particles, and also to raise
two groups of similarly charged
particles to high velocities and then
collide them in head-on collisions at a
point where the two rings intersect.
(Princeton University) Princeton, New
Jersey, USA 
[1] Figure 1 from: Gerard K. O'Neill,
''Storage-Ring Synchrotron: Device for
High-Energy Physics Research'', Phys.
Rev. 102, 1418–1419
(1956). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v102/i5/p1418_1 {ONeil_Gerard_Kitchen
_19560423.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v102/i5/p1418_1

[2] Description Gerard Kitchen
ONeill.GIF English: Photo of Gerard K.
O'Neill Date 2007-02-20 (original
upload date) Source Transferred
from en.wikipedia; transfered to
Commons by User:Magnus Manske using
CommonsHelper. Brand, Stewart. 1977.
Space Colonies. Whole Earth
Catalog NASA Mirror of Space
Colonies Image on NASA site PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3a/Gerard_Kitchen_ONeill
.GIF
44 YBN
[04/??/1956 AD] 		5082) The Hubble constant, a ratio
expressing the rate of the apparent
expansion of the universe, equal to the
radial velocity of a galaxy divided by
its distance from Earth, is determined
to be 180 km/sec.

In addition, the second image of the
supposed shifted H and K calcium
absorption lines is released to the
public.
(Mount Wilson) Mount Wilson,
California, USA 
[1] The infamous Plate III from: ML
Humason, NU Mayall, AR Sandage,
''Redshifts and magnitudes of
extragalactic nebulae.'', The
Astronomical Journal, 61, p97-162
(1956) http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
956AJ.....61...97H COPYRIGHTED
source: http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du/cgi-bin/t2png?bg=%23FFFFFF&/seri/AJ..
./0061/600/0000114P003&db_key=AST&bits=4
&res=100&filetype=.jpg

[2] [t Note that I can't really see
the absorption lines clearly in these
photos. And this paper does not contain
the Cosmos and Internet classic photo
of the calcium line shifting for
various galaxies - the source of which
is still unknown.] Plate IV from: ML
Humason, NU Mayall, AR Sandage,
''Redshifts and magnitudes of
extragalactic nebulae.'', The
Astronomical Journal, 61, p97-162
(1956) http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
956AJ.....61...97H {Humason_Milton_1956
04xx.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du//full/1956AJ.....61...97H/0000116P004
.html
44 YBN
[04/??/1956 AD] 		5777) The concept of "strangeness" is
introduced, which can explain the
unexpected long life of certain mesons,
and a new quantum variable "S" is
introduced for the property of
"strangeness".
(Institute for Advanced Study)
Princeton, New Jersey, USA 
[1] Murray Gell-Mann Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/physics/laureates/1969/gell-mann.jpg
44 YBN
[04/??/1956 AD] 		6275) The first practical magnetic
videotape recorder is sold to the
public.
(Ampex) San Carlos, California, USA
(presumably) 
[1] Description First Video
Recorder. Ampex videotape recorder,
type VR1000A, serial number 329, c
1950s. Credit: Science Museum
Inventory No.:
1970-0173_(0001) Date 19 April
2006, 17:21 Source First Video
Recorder. Uploaded by
shoulder-synth Author Karl
Baron from Lund, Sweden CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Ampex_VR1000A_%
28serial_329%29.jpg/1280px-Ampex_VR1000A
_%28serial_329%29.jpg

[2] An early type of video recorder.
The text on the sign says:
Videorecorder Ampex VR 1000-B
Ampex Corporation, Redwood City,
Californa, 1961 Photo taken at the
Museum of Communication in
Frankfurt. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Ampex_VR_1000-B
.JPG/1280px-Ampex_VR_1000-B.JPG
44 YBN
[06/22/1956 AD] 		5723) The theory that "parity", the
symmetry between physical phenomena
occurring in right-handed and
left-handed coordinate systems, is
violated when certain elementary
particles decay.
(Columbia University) New York City,
New York, USA and (Brookhaven National
Laboratory) Upton, New York, USA 
[1] Chen Ning Yang Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/physics/laureates/1957/yang_po
stcard.jpg

[2] Tsung-Dao (T.D.) Lee Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/physics/laureates/1957/lee_pos
tcard.jpg
44 YBN
[07/06/1956 AD] 		5702) The design of a three-level
(continuous) solid-state maser. The
early maser of Townes could only work
intermittently: once the electrons in
the higher energy level have been
stimulated they fall down to the lower
energy level and nothing further can
happen until they are raised to the
higher level again. In the three-level
maser, electrons are pumped to the
highest level and stimulated. They
consequently emit microwave radiation
and fall down to the middle level where
they can once more be stimulated and
emit energy of a lower frequency. At
the same time more electrons are being
pumped from the lowest to the highest
level making the process continuous.
(Harvard University) Cambridge,
Massachusetts, USA  
[1] Nicolaas Bloembergen Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/physics/laureates/1981/bloembergen.jp
g
44 YBN
[10/25/1956 AD] 		5424) Vaccines which are effective
against 3 different kinds of
poliomyletis virus are created and
tested.
( University of Cincinnati) Cincinnati,
Ohio, USA 
[1] Albert Bruce Sabin UNKNOWN
source: http://www.sciencephoto.com/imag
es/showFullWatermarked.html/H419079-Albe
rt_Bruce_Sabin-SPL.jpg?id=724190079
44 YBN
[11/16/1956 AD] 		5573) Human growth hormone
(somatotropin) is isolated and its
structure is shown to be different from
the growth hormone of other species.
(University of California) Berkeley,
California, USA 
[1] Choh Hao Li This image is now in
the public domain because its term of
copyright has expired in China.
According to copyright laws of the
People's Republic of China (with legal
jurisdiction in the mainland only,
excluding Hong Kong and Macao) and the
Republic of China (currently with
jurisdiction in Taiwan, the Pescadores,
Quemoy, Matsu, etc.), all photographs
enter the public domain 50 years after
they were first published, or if
unpublished 50 years from creation, and
all non-photographic works enter the
public domain fifty years after the
death of the creator. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/b/b0/Choh.jpg
44 YBN
[12/03/1956 AD] 		5703) The first solid maser (also the
first multi-level and continuous
maser).
(Bell Telephone Laboratories) Murray
Hill, New Jersey, USA 
[1] Figure 1 from: H. E. D. Scovil, G.
Feher, and H. Seidel, ''Operation of a
Solid State Maser'', Phys. Rev. 105,
762–763
(1957). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v105/i2/p762_1 {Seidel_Harold_1956120
3.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v105/i2/p762_1

[2] Figure 2 from: H. E. D. Scovil,
G. Feher, and H. Seidel, ''Operation of
a Solid State Maser'', Phys. Rev. 105,
762–763
(1957). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v105/i2/p762_1 {Seidel_Harold_1956120
3.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v105/i2/p762_1
44 YBN
[1956 AD] 		5317) Humans are divided into thirteen
groups based on blood-type.
(University of Boston) Boston,
Massachusetts, USA 
[1] William Clouser Boyd
(verify[t]) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.dadamo.com/wiki/boyd.
jpg
44 YBN
[1956 AD] 		5408) Sound reflection is used to show
that the mid-Atlantic ridge is a
mountain range extending throughout the
oceans of the world and is some
64,000 km (40,000 miles) long.
(Columbia University) New York City,
New York, USA 
[1] William Maurice Ewing UNKNOWN
source: http://lh4.ggpht.com/_gNIHS1PHL1
Q/SO941XFj4CI/AAAAAAAAATk/tMf7NRc0kIU/50
0.jpg
44 YBN
[1956 AD] 		6248) The compound Ibuprofin is
synthesized which reduces pain, fever,
and inflammation.
(The Boots Company) England 
[1] Description Deutsch: Struktur
von Ibuprofen English: Structure of
ibuprofen Date 9 July
2008 Source Own work Author
NEUROtiker (talk) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Ibuprofen2.svg/
1000px-Ibuprofen2.svg.png

[2] Description Coated 200 mg
ibuprofen tablets, CareOne brand,
distributed by American Sales Company
of Lancaster, New York Date 9
February 2008 Source Own
work Author Ragesoss GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b0/200mg_ibuprofen_table
ts.jpg
43 YBN
[01/15/1957 AD] 		5724) Evidence that parity is not
conserved in the so-called
weak-interaction (atomic "decay") is
provided by observing the electron
(beta decay) emission angles from
oriented Co60.
(Columbia University) New York City,
New York, USA and (National Bureau of
Standards) Washington, D. C., USA 
[1] Figure 2 from C. S. Wu, E. Ambler,
R. W. Hayward, D. D. Hoppes, and R. P.
Hudson, ''Experimental Test of Parity
Conservation in Beta Decay'', Phys.
Rev. 105, 1413–1415 (1957)
http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v105/
i4/p1413_1 {Wu_Shiung_19570115.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/bc/Wu_Chien-Shiung.gif

[2] Description Wu
Chien-Shiung.gif English: a photo of
Wu Chien-Shiung when young Date
Source on many websites Author
a photo
taker Permission (Reusing this file)
See below. PD
source: http://media-2.web.britannica.co
m/eb-media/56/21456-004-12CC2900.jpg
43 YBN
[01/16/1957 AD] 		5711) Transfer RNA is identified
(T-RNA); small RNA molecules in cells
that carry amino acids to ribosomes
where the amino acids are linked into
proteins.
(Harvard University, Massachusetts
General Hospital) Boston,
Massachusetts, USA  
[1] Mahlon B. Hoagland, Mary Louise
Stephenson, Jesse F. Scott, Liselotte
I. Hecht, and Paul C. Zamecnikm ''A
SOLUBLE RIBONUCLEIC ACID INTERMEDIATE
IN PROTEIN SYNTHESIS'', J. Biol. Chem.
1958 231: 241-257.
http://intl.jbc.org/content/231/1 {Ho
agland_Mahlon_Bush_19570927.pdf} COPYRI
GHTED
source: http://intl.jbc.org/content/231/
1 {Hoagland_Mahlon_Bush_19570927.pdf}

[2] Description Peptide
syn.png English: illustration of tRNA
building peptide chain Date 1
March 2009(2009-03-01) Source Own
work Author
Boumphreyfr Permission (Reusing
this file) See below. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0f/Peptide_syn.png
43 YBN
[04/05/1957 AD] 		5517) The low temperature Field-Ion
Microscope in which the needle is
cooled in liquid hydrogen.
(Pennsylvania State University)
University park, Pennsylvania,
USA 
[1] Figure 1 from: Erwin W. Müller,
''Betriebsbedingungen des
Tieftemperatur-Feldionenmikroskopes'',
Annalen der Physik, Volume 455, Issue
1-6, pages 315–321,
1957. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/do
i/10.1002/andp.19574550132/abstract {Mu
eller_Erwin_W_19570405.pdf} COPYRIGHTED

source: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/d
oi/10.1002/andp.19574550132/abstract

[2] Erwin
Müller (1911-1977) UNKNOWN
source: http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/opti
cs/timeline/people/antiqueimages/mueller
.jpg
43 YBN
[04/24/1957 AD] 		5668) An X-ray emission is observed
from a solar flare using a rocket.
(U. S. Naval Research Laboratory)
Washington, D. C., USA 
[1] Figure 1 from: Chubb, T. A., H.
Friedman, R. W. Kreplin, and J. E.
Kupperian Jr. (1957), LYMAN ALPHA AND
X-RAY EMISSIONS DURING A SMALL SOLAR
FLARE, J. Geophys. Res., 62(3),
389–398, doi:10.1029/JZ062i003p00389.
{Friedman_Herbert_19570424.pdf} COPYR
IGHTED
source: http://www.agu.org/journals/ABS/
1957/JZ062i003p00389.shtml

[2] FRIEDMAN (Herbert)(1916-2000)
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.aip.org/history/newsl
etter/spring2001/images/friedman_lg.jpg
43 YBN
[07/08/1957 AD] 		5296) A theory of superconductivity
which involves the action of pairs of
electrons.
(University of Illinois) Urbana,
Illinois, USA 
[1] Description Bardeen.jpg English:
John Bardeen Date
1956(1956) Source
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/
physics/laureates/1956/bardeen-bio.html
Author Nobel
foundation Permission (Reusing this
file) Public domainPublic
domainfalsefalse Public domain This
Swedish photograph is free to use
either of these cases: * For
photographic works (fotografiska verk),
the image is public domain:
a) if the photographer died before
January 1, 1944, or b) if the
photographer is not known, and cannot
be traced, and the image was created
before January 1, 1944. * For
photographic pictures (fotografiska
bilder), such as images of the press,
the image is public domain if created
before January 1, 1969 (transitional
regulations 1994). The
photographer, if known, should always
be attributed.
Always provide source
information. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/4a/Bardeen.jpg

[2] Leon Neil Cooper Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/physics/laureates/1972/cooper_
postcard.jpg
43 YBN
[09/19/1957 AD] 		5611) The first completely contained
underground nuclear explosive test.
(US Department of Energy Nevada Proving
Grounds) Nye County, Nevada,
USA|Nevada, USA 
[1] Description Plumbbob Rainier
001.jpg PLUMBBOB/RAINIER - September
19, 1957 - NEVADA TEST SITE -- RAINIER
Event - Dust was raised both by a shock
wave traveling to the surface on the
side of the detonation and was also
raised by rolling rocks. Heat-created
air currents raised the dust several
hundred feet into the air. Date
19 September
1957(1957-09-19) Source
http://www.nv.doe.gov/library/Photo
Library/57-106.jpg Author Photo
courtesy of National Nuclear Security
Administration / Nevada Site Office PD

source: http://www.nv.doe.gov/library/Ph
otoLibrary/57-106.jpg

[2] Gerald W. Johnson, ''Nuclear
Explosions in Science and Technology'',
Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, May
1960,
p155-;p156. http://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=wwkAAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA156 COPYRIGHTED

source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=wwkAAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA156
43 YBN
[10/04/1957 AD] 		5486) The first human-made satellite,
Sputnik 1 {SPUT-niK Russian:
SPUT-nYiK}.

Sputnik 1, is an 83-kg (184-pound)
aluminum sphere that carries four
antennas that reaches an Earth orbit
with an apogee (farthest point from
Earth) of 940 km (584 miles) and a
perigee (nearest point) of 230 km (143
miles), circling Earth every 96
minutes.
(Baikonur Cosmodrome at Tyuratam, 370
km southwest of the small town of
Baikonur) Kazakhstan (, Soviet
Union) 
[1] Description Sputnik
asm.jpg English: A replica of Sputnik
1, the first artificial satellite in
the world to be put into outer space:
the replica is stored in the National
Air and Space Museum. فارسی:
مدل ماهواره
اسپوتنیک-۱، نخستین
ماهواره فضایی
جهان Suomi: Sputnik 1:n, maailman
ensimmäinen ihmisen laukaiseman Maata
kiertävän keinotekoisen satelliittin,
jäljennös. Date
2004(2004) Source
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/database
/MasterCatalog?sc=1957-001B Author
NSSDC, NASA PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/be/Sputnik_asm.jpg
43 YBN
[10/10/1957 AD] 		5689) The enzyme "polymerase", which
synthesizes DNA molecules from
nucleotides, is isolated and named.
(Washington University) Saint Louis,
Missouri, USA 
[1] Figure from: Lehman, I. R., M. J.
Bessman, E. S. Simms, and A. Kornberg,
''Enzymatic Synthesis of
Deoxyribonucleic Acid: I. PREPARATION
OF SUBSTRATES AND PARTIAL PURIFICATION
OF AN ENZYME FROM ESCHERICHIA COLI '',
J. Biol. Chem., 233, 163,
(1958). http://www.jbc.org/content/233/
1.toc {Kornberg_Authur_19571010.pdf} C
OPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jbc.org/content/233/1
.toc

[2] Arthur Kornberg Nobel Prize
photograph COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1959/kornberg.jpg
43 YBN
[10/11/1957 AD] 		5740) The electron "Tunnel" effect is
identified; electrons can "tunnel"
through barriers of perhaps 100 atoms
thick and this is used to make an
electronic switch called a tunnel diode
which are very fast and small diodes.
(Tokyo Tsushin Kogyo, Limited)
Shinagawa, Tokyo, Japan 
[1] Figure 1 from: Leo Esaki, ''New
Phenomenon in Narrow Germanium p-n
Junctions'', Phys. Rev. 109, 603–604
(1958) http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v109/i2/p603_1 {Esaki_Leo_19571011.pdf
} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v109/i2/p603_1

[2] Leo Esaki Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/physics/laureates/1973/esaki.jpg
43 YBN
[10/23/1957 AD] 		5432) The process in which glycogen is
synthesized from glucose is understood.
(INSTITUTIO DE INVESTIGACIONES
BIOQUIMICAS) Buenos Aires, Argentina,
South America 
[1] Image from Leloir's Biography at
the Houssay's page. Mariano 09:37, 8
May 2006 (UTC) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/7d/Luis_Federico_Leloir_
-_young.jpg
43 YBN
[10/23/1957 AD] 		5659) Cyclic adenosine monophosphate
(cyclic AMP), an intermediate in the
formation of ATP is identified and
isolated.
(Western Reserve University) Cleveland,
Ohio, USA 
[1] Earl W. Sutherland, Jr. Nobel
Prize photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/medicine/laureates/1971/suther
land_postcard.jpg
43 YBN
[11/03/1957 AD] 		5487) The first animal to orbit Earth;
the dog "Laika" in the Soviet
spacecraft Sputnik 2.
(Baikonur Cosmodrome) Tyuratam,
Kazakhstan (, Soviet Union) 
[1] Sputnik 2 PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image
/spacecraft/sputnik2_vsm.jpg
43 YBN
[12/??/1957 AD] 		4895) The prediction that blindness and
deafness will be cured by technology
that transmits images and sounds to the
brain, and that as one result vision
and hearing can be strengthened to
allow humans to see in total darkness.
Chicago, Illinois, USA 
[1] John G. Hubbell, ''Honeywell's
House of Magic'', Popular Mechanics,
Dec 1957,
p100,260. http://books.google.com/books
?id=JuEDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA260 UNKNOWN
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=JuEDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA260
43 YBN
[1957 AD] 		5409) The mid-Atlantic Ocean ridge is
shown to be divided by a central rift,
which in places is twice as deep and
wide as the Grand Canyon.
(Columbia University) New York City,
New York, USA 
[1] William Maurice Ewing UNKNOWN
source: http://lh4.ggpht.com/_gNIHS1PHL1
Q/SO941XFj4CI/AAAAAAAAATk/tMf7NRc0kIU/50
0.jpg
43 YBN
[1957 AD] 		5506) The radioactive tracer carbon-14
in carbon dioxide is used to determine
the molecular steps in the cycle of
photosynthetic reactions (known as the
Calvin cycle), and to show how this
cycle is partly related to the known
cycle of cell respiration.
(University of California) Berkeley,
California, USA 
[1] Figure 3 from: Bassham and Calvin,
''The path of carbon in
photosynthesis'', (1957). COPYRIGHTED
source: Bassham and Calvin, "The path
of carbon in photosynthesis", (1957).

[2] Courtesy of
http://www.lbl.gov Description Melvin
Calvin.jpg Dr. Melvin Calvin, Nobel
Laureate, professor of physics, and
Director of the Chemical Biodynamics
Laboratory at Lawrence Berkeley
Laboratory, works in his photosynthesis
laboratory. Dr. Calvin was awarded the
Nobel Prize in 1961 for elucidating the
chemistry of the photosynthetic
process. Date 1962 (according to
link ''more_tags'') Source LBL
Collection http://imglib.lbl.gov/ImgLib
/COLLECTIONS/BERKELEY-LAB/PEOPLE/NOBEL-L
AUREATES/index/96703551.html Author
''Photolab'' Permission (Reusing
this file) Public domainPublic
domainfalsefalse PD-icon.svg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/04/Melvin_Calvin.jpg
43 YBN
[1957 AD] 		6502) Direct neuron writing to hearing
using an implanted electric device; the
first cochlear implants.
 
[1] Figure 1. Intraorbital X-ray of
bilateral cochlear implants in a
child. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence/article/pii/S0957583906000789#gr1

[2] Illustration of cochlear implant
from the National Institute on Deafness
and Other Communication Disorders at
the National Institutes of Health. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/cb/Cochlear_implant.jpg
42 YBN
[01/09/1958 AD] 		5772) The "Mössbauer effect": how when
atomic nuclei are in a crystalline
lattice, the lattice prevents the
nuclei from recoiling, and so the
nuclei can emit and absorb gamma
radiation of the same exact frequency
(resonantly). This phenomenon allows
highly precise measurements of
frequency.
(Institut fur Physik im
Max-Planck-Institut fur medizinische
Forschung {Institute of Physics at the
Max Planck Institute for Medical
Research}) Heidelberg, Germany 
[1] Description
Mossbauer.jpg English: Rudolf
Mössbauer Date
1961(1961) Source
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/
physics/laureates/1961/mossbauer-bio.htm
l Author Nobel
foundation COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e2/Mossbauer.jpg
42 YBN
[04/28/1958 AD] 		5607) The first high altitude atomic
explosive test.
(85 nm NE of) Enewetak Atoll, Marshall
Islands, Pacific Ocean 
[1] Hardtack Yucca test PD
source: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=I
5T05YoVcAk
42 YBN
[05/01/1958 AD] 		5608) A high intensity of corpuscular
radiation temporarily trapped in the
Earth's magnetic field is discovered.
These layers will come to be called the
magnetosphere and the "Van Allen"
radiation belts.
(National Academy of Science and
American Physical Society joint
meeting) Washington, D. C., USA 
[1] Figure 5 from: JAMES A. VAN ALLEN,
LOUIS A. FRANK, ''Radiation Around the
Earth to a Radial Distance of 107,400
km.'', Nature 183, 430-434 (14 February
1959)
doi:10.1038/183430a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v183/n4659/pdf/183430
a0.pdf
{Van_Allen_James_Alfred_19590214.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v183/n4659/pdf/183430a0.pdf

[2] Figure 4 from: J. A. Van Allen
and H. E. Tatel, ''The Cosmic-Ray
Counting Rate of a Single Geiger
Counter from Ground Level to 161
Kilometers Altitude'', Phys. Rev. 73,
245
(1948). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v73/i3/p245_1 {Van_Allen_James_Alfred
_19471016.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v78/i6/p819_1
42 YBN
[05/??/1958 AD] 		5321) The name "pheromones" is proposed
for substances that are secreted by an
animal to the outside and cause a
specific reaction in a receiving
individual of the same species.
(Max Planck Institute) Munich,
Germany 
[1] Description Adolf Friedrich Johann
Butenandt 1939.jpg Adolf Beutenand,
Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1939 Date
1939(1939) Source
http://nobelprize.org/ Author
Nobel Foundation PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/11/Adolf_Friedrich_Johan
n_Butenandt_1939.jpg
42 YBN
[06/06/1958 AD] 		5559) Element 102 (Nobelium) is
created.
(University of California) Berkeley,
California, USA 
[1] Figure 1 from: A. Ghiorso, B. G.
Harvey, G. R. Choppin, S. G. Thompson,
and G. T. Seaborg, ''New Element
Mendelevium, Atomic Number 101'', Phys.
Rev. 98, 1518–1519
(1955). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v98/i5/p1518_1 {Seaborg_Glenn_T_19550
418.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v98/i5/p1518_1

[2] Glenn Seaborg (1912 -
1999) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.atomicarchive.com/Ima
ges/bio/B51.jpg
42 YBN
[08/01/1958 AD] 		5606) The first atomic explosion in
empty space and first rocket launched
atomic explosion.
(Johnson Island) Pacific Ocean 
[1] Hardtack Teak test PD
source: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=P
BxpHNCDfZQ
42 YBN
[08/03/1958 AD] 		5231) The first submarine to cross
under the North Pole.
North Pole 
[1] Nautilus in NYC UNKNOWN
source: http://www.subguru.com/nautilus/
Nautilus_in_NYC.jpg

[2] Cross section of USS
Nautilus UNKNOWN
source: http://www.subguru.com/nautilus/
nautilus_cross-section.gif
42 YBN
[10/08/1958 AD] 		195) The first fully internal
pacemaker.
(Elema-Sch�nander) Sweden 
[1] Description English: Rune
Elmqvist made the first pacemaker and
Åke Senning implanted it. Senning
trained under Clarence Crafoord. They
all worked closely together in
Stockholm. From left to right, you can
see Senning, Elmqvist & Crafoord. The
picture was taken in 1954. It was
published in Ann Thorac Surg. 2004
Jun;77(6):2250-8. Date 2 June
2004 Source Professor Marko Turina,
University Hospital, Zurich Author
Professor Marko Turina, University
Hospital, Zurich CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/4a/Senning%2C_Elmqvist_%
26_Crafoord_1954.jpg

[2] ''Pioneers of Cardiology: Rune
Elmqvist, MD'', Circulation, June 5,
2007. http://circ.ahajournals.org/conte
nt/115/22/f109.full.pdf COPYRIGHTED
source: http://circ.ahajournals.org/cont
ent/115/22/f109.full.pdf
42 YBN
[11/14/1958 AD] 		5535) Amino acid polymers are created
which are called "proteinoids".
(Florida State University) Tallahassee,
Florida, USA 
[1] Description SidneyWFox
.jpg Portrait of Sidney W. Fox, US
Scientist and Chemist, Author of
important experiments on the early
origin of life. Date Source
Kindly provided in a personal
email by Ron Fox, Son of Sidney W.
Fox Author PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3d/SidneyWFox_.jpg
42 YBN
[1958 AD] 		6550) The integrated circuit (or IC);
very thin paths of metal allow an
entire circuit on a single piece of
solid material.
(Texas Instruments and Fairchild
Semiconductor) 
[1] First Integrated Circuit - Jack
Kilby invented the integrated circuit
at Texas Instruments in 1958. Comprised
of only a transistor and other
components on a slice of germanium,
Kilby's invention, 7/16-by-1/16-inches
in size, revolutionized the electronics
industry. The roots of almost every
electronic device we take for granted
today can be traced back to Dallas more
than 40 years ago.
source: http://www.ti.com/corp/graphics/
press/image/print/co1034.tif
41 YBN
[01/03/1959 AD] 		5596) The first ship to pass the moon.
(Baikonur Cosmodrome) Tyuratam,
Kazakhstan (was Soviet Union) 
[1] Luna 1 PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image
/spacecraft/luna1_vsm.jpg

[2] Luna 1 Spacecraft PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/plane
tary/image/luna-1.jpg
41 YBN
[01/27/1959 AD] 		5672) From the motion of a 3 pound
satellite the Earth is found to be
slightly pear shaped, because the
southern half of the equatorial bulge
is up to fifty feet farther from the
center of the Earth than the northern
part, and that sea level at the North
Pole is one hundred feet farther from
the center than sea level at the South
Pole is.
 
[1] Vanguard 1 satellite PD
source: http://ecoble.com/wp-content/upl
oads/2008/04/vanguard1_nasm_lg.jpg

[2] O'Keefe John Aloysius UNKNOWN
source: http://www.spacefacts.de/bios/po
rtraits/candidates/okeefe_john.jpg
41 YBN
[02/14/1959 AD] 		5595) The existence of a second high
intensity radiation belt outside of the
first layer is found using coincidence
counters in a spacecraft.
(State University of Iowa) Iowa City,
Iowa, USA 
[1] Figure 5 from: JAMES A. VAN ALLEN,
LOUIS A. FRANK, ''Radiation Around the
Earth to a Radial Distance of 107,400
km.'', Nature 183, 430-434 (14 February
1959)
doi:10.1038/183430a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v183/n4659/pdf/183430
a0.pdf
{Van_Allen_James_Alfred_19590214.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v183/n4659/pdf/183430a0.pdf

[2] Figure 4 from: J. A. Van Allen
and H. E. Tatel, ''The Cosmic-Ray
Counting Rate of a Single Geiger
Counter from Ground Level to 161
Kilometers Altitude'', Phys. Rev. 73,
245
(1948). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v73/i3/p245_1 {Van_Allen_James_Alfred
_19471016.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v78/i6/p819_1
41 YBN
[04/??/1959 AD] 		5787) Signals from life of other stars
are searched for.
(National Radio Astronomy Observatory)
Green Bank, West Virginia, USA 
[1] Frank Drake UNKNOWN
source: http://www.bigear.org/CSMO/Image
s/CS09/cs09p09s.jpg
41 YBN
[05/01/1959 AD] 		5536) Cell-like spheres are created by
boiling proteinoids in sea water.
(Florida State University) Tallahassee,
Florida, USA 
[1] Figure 1 from: Sidney W. Fox,
Kaoru Harada and Jean Kendrick,
''Production of Spherules from
Synthetic Proteinoid and Hot Water'',
Science, New Series, Vol. 129, No. 3357
(May 1, 1959), pp.
1221-1223 http://www.jstor.org/stable/1
756935 {Fox_Sydney_W_19590501.pdf} COP
YRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1756
935

[2] Description SidneyWFox
.jpg Portrait of Sidney W. Fox, US
Scientist and Chemist, Author of
important experiments on the early
origin of life. Date Source
Kindly provided in a personal
email by Ron Fox, Son of Sidney W.
Fox Author PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3d/SidneyWFox_.jpg
41 YBN
[07/17/1959 AD] 		5327) Fossils of Paranthropus are
found.
Olduvai Gorge, Tanganyika Territory,
Africa 
[1] Figure 1 from: Leakey, ''A New
Fossil Skull From Olduvai'', Nature
(1959) volume: 184 issue: 4685 page:
491 http://www.nature.com/openurl?volum
e=184&issn=0028-0836&spage=491&issue=468
5&genre=article {Leakey_Louis_19590815.
pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/openurl?vo
lume=184&issn=0028-0836&spage=491&issue=
4685&genre=article

[2] Dr. Louis Leakey and his wife Mary
Leakey display the skull of a human
ancestor, Zinjanthropus, in 1959.
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.britannica.com/EBchec
ked/topic/333880/Louis-SB-Leakey
41 YBN
[09/14/1959 AD] 		5597) A ship impacts the moon of Earth;
the Soviet "Luna 2".

The moon is shown to have no
significant magnetic field or radiation
belts.
(Baikonur Cosmodrome) Tyuratam,
Kazakhstan (was Soviet Union) 
[1] Luna 2 PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/plane
tary/image/luna_2.jpg

[2] Luna 1 PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image
/spacecraft/luna1_vsm.jpg
41 YBN
[10/18/1959 AD] 		5598) The first pictures of the
far-side of the moon of Earth.
(Baikonur Cosmodrome) Tyuratam,
Kazakhstan (was Soviet Union) 
[1] First image of the far side of the
Moon Earth's Moon The Luna 3
spacecraft returned the first views
ever of the far side of the Moon. The
first image was taken at 03:30 UT on 7
October at a distance of 63,500 km
after Luna 3 had passed the Moon and
looked back at the sunlit far side. The
last image was taken 40 minutes later
from 66,700 km. A total of 29
photographs were taken, covering 70% of
the far side. The photographs were very
noisy and of low resolution, but many
features could be recognized. This is
the first image returned by Luna 3,
taken by the wide-angle lens, it showed
the far side of the Moon was very
different from the near side, most
noticeably in its lack of lunar maria
(the dark areas). The right
three-quarters of the disk are the far
side. The dark spot at upper right is
Mare Moscoviense, the dark area at
lower left is Mare Smythii. The small
dark circle at lower right with the
white dot in the center is the crater
Tsiolkovskiy and its central peak. The
Moon is 3475 km in diameter and north
is up in this image. (Luna 3-1) PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/imgca
t/hires/lu3_1.gif

[2] Luna 3 PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image
/spacecraft/luna_3.jpg
41 YBN
[11/05/1959 AD] 		191) The first remote neuron writing
and the first device inside the body
that is controlled remotely by an
external device. An artificial heart
pacemaker is remotely controlled with
radio.
(Yale University School of Medicine)
New Haven, New Jersey, USA 
[1] Figure 3 from: Glenn WWL, Mauro A,
Longo E, Lavietes PH, MacKay FJ The
Radiofrequency Cardiac Pacemaker.
Remote stimulation of the heart by
radiofrequency transmission. Clinical
application to a patient with
Stoke-Adams Syndrome. New Engl J Med
1959:262;948-951 http://www.nejm.org/do
i/pdf/10.1056/NEJM195911052611905 COPYR
IGHTED
source: http://www.nejm.org/doi/pdf/10.1
056/NEJM195911052611905

[2] Figure 1 from: Glenn WWL, Mauro
A, Longo E, Lavietes PH, MacKay FJ The
Radiofrequency Cardiac Pacemaker.
Remote stimulation of the heart by
radiofrequency transmission. Clinical
application to a patient with
Stoke-Adams Syndrome. New Engl J Med
1959:262;948-951 http://www.nejm.org/do
i/pdf/10.1056/NEJM195911052611905 COPYR
IGHTED
source: http://www.nejm.org/doi/pdf/10.1
056/NEJM195911052611905
41 YBN
[12/07/1959 AD] 		5372) An X-ray telescope.
(Massachusetts Institute of Technology)
Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA 
[1] Figure 1 from: RICCARDO GIACCONI
and BRUNO ROSSI, ''A 'Telescope' for
Soft X-Ray Astronomy'', Journal of
Geophysical Research, V65, N2, Feb
1960,
http://www.agu.org/pubs/crossref/1960/
JZ065i002p00773.shtml {Rossi_Bruno_1959
1207.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.agu.org/pubs/crossref
/1960/JZ065i002p00773.shtml

[2] Bruno Benedetto Rossi April 13,
1905 — November 21, 1993 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.nap.edu/html/biomems/
photo/brossi.JPG
40 YBN
[01/23/1960 AD] 		4992) Humans reach 35,800 feet (6 3/4
miles 10.91km) below sea level.
Marianas Trench of the Pacific
Ocean 
[1] Español: Batiscafo
Trieste. from en wikipedia. The
Bathyscaphe Trieste is hoisted out of
the water in a tropical port, circa
1958-59, soon after her purchase by
the Navy. Photography was released by
the U.S. Navy Electronics Laboratory,
San Diego, California. (U.S. Naval
Historical Center Photograph.) Photo
#NH 96801: U.S. Navy Bathyscaphe
Trieste (1958-1963). Source : U.S.
Naval Historical Center PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/36/Bathyscaphe_Trieste.j
pg

[2] Description
AugustePiccardandPaulKipfer.jpg Englis
h: Paul Kipfer and August Piccard
prepare to enter the stratosphere in a
pressurized gondola lifted by a
hydrogen filled balloon on May 27th,
1931. Date May 27th, 1931.
2007-10-24 (original upload
date) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia; transferred to Commons by
User:Storkk using CommonsHelper. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/17/AugustePiccardandPaul
Kipfer.jpg
40 YBN
[02/13/1960 AD] 		5587) The structure of the haemolglobin
molecule is determined by monochromatic
x-ray reflection.
(Cavendish Laboratory, University of
Cambridge) Cambridge, England 
[1] Figure 8 from: M. F. PERUTZ, M. G.
ROSSMANN, ANN F. CULLIS, HILARY
MUIRHEAD, GEORG WILL & A. C. T. NORTH,
''Structure of Hæmoglobin: A
Three-Dimensional Fourier Synthesis at
5.5-Å. Resolution, Obtained by X-Ray
Analysis'', Nature 185, 416 - 422 (13
February 1960);
doi:10.1038/185416a0. http://www.nature
.com/nature/journal/v185/n4711/abs/18541
6a0.html {Perutz_Max_Ferdinand_19600213
.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v185/n4711/abs/185416a0.html

[2] Max Ferdinand Perutz Nobel prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/chemistry/laureates/1962/perutz.jpg
40 YBN
[03/09/1960 AD] 		5774) Light are proven to have mass.
Gravity is shown to change the
frequency of light proving that the
speed of light is not constant by
Cranshaw, Schiffer and Whitehead in
England, and independently by Pound and
Rebka in the USA.

The Mössbauer effect is used (with
radioactive Iron-57) to show that the
wavelength of a beam of photons with
gamma wavelength is increased (or
red-shifted) as the beam is sent from
the top floor of a tower to the
basement because of the stronger
gravity field at the basement which is
closer to the center of the Earth. This
change in wavelength is measured by the
decrease in absorption of a crystal of
the same kind as the crystal that emits
the gamma rays.

This proves that the speed of light is
not constant as Einstein's theories of
relativity require, but that Einstein's
prediction that the frequency of light
is changed by gravity is true.
(Harvard University) Cambridge,
Massachusetts, USA  
[1] [t Note that this is from Hay, et
al, and not from Pound and
Rebka] Figure 1 from: H. J. Hay, J.
P. Schiffer*, T. E. Cranshaw, and P. A.
Egelstaff, ''Measurement of the Red
Shift in an Accelerated System Using
the Mössbauer Effect in Fe57'', Phys.
Rev. Lett. 4, 165–166 (1960)
http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v4/i4/
p165_1 {Whitehead_A_B_2_19600127.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/
v4/i4/p165_1

[2] Catalog #: Rebka Glen C1 Rebka,
Glen A. Jr.; Pound, Robert
Vivian Date: circa 1965 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://photos.aip.org/history/Th
umbnails/rebka_glen_c1.jpg
40 YBN
[04/19/1960 AD] 		5665) An x-ray photograph of the Sun.
(U. S. Naval Research Laboratory)
Washington, D. C., USA 
[1] Figure 4 from: Blake, R. L.,
Chubb, T. A., Friedman, H., & Unzicker,
A. E., ''Interpretation of X-Ray
Photograph of the Sun.'', Astrophysical
Journal, vol. 137,
p.3. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu
//full/1963ApJ...137....3B/0000003.000.h
tml
{Friedman_Herbert_19620829.pdf} COPYR
IGHTED
source: http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du//full/1963ApJ...137....3B/0000003.000
.html

[2] FRIEDMAN (Herbert)(1916-2000)
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.aip.org/history/newsl
etter/spring2001/images/friedman_lg.jpg
40 YBN
[04/22/1960 AD] 		5768) The laser (which stands for
"light amplification by stimulated
emission of radiation") is invented by
Theodore Maiman who makes use of the
three-level principle and designs a
ruby cylinder with its ends carefully
polished flat and parallel and covered
with silver coatings. Light is fed into
the ruby cylinder from a flash lamp and
the ruby emits light that is
monochromatic (single frequency) and
coherent (all the beams in a single
direction). These coherent beams of
light can travel thousands of miles
without spreading very far apart.
(Hughes Research Laboratories) Malibu,
California 
[1] Figure 1 from: Theodore H.
Mainman, ''Ruby Laser Systems'', Patent
number: 3353115, Filing date: Apr 13,
1961, Issue date: Nov 14,
1967 http://www.google.com/patents?id=b
-lUAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&sou
rce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=f
alse
{Maimon_Theodore_Harold_19610413.pdf}
PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=b-lUAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f
=false

[2] Description Ted Maiman Holding
First Laser.jpg English: Theodore
Maiman holding his invention of the
world's first laser (invented May 16,
1960) Date 16 May
1983(1983-05-16) Source
Template:TRW Author
Kathleenfmaiman Permission (Reusi
ng this file) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/df/Ted_Maiman_Holding_Fi
rst_Laser.jpg
40 YBN
[04/??/1960 AD] 		5073) A logical contradiction in
Einstein's theory of relativity and the
FitzGerald-Lorentz theory of space and
time dilation is identified in that
time appears different depending on
which of two clocks is viewed as
stationary, and the first recognition
that spectral line position changes as
a result of a change in light source
distance.
(University of London) London,
England 
[1] H. Dingle, ''Relativity and
Electromagnetism: An Epistemological
Appraisal'', Philosophy of Science, 27,
p233-253 (1960).
http://www.jstor.org/stable/185967 [D
ingle_Herbert_196004xx.pdf} COPYRIGHTED

source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1859
67 [Dingle_Herbert_196004xx.pdf}

[2] H. Dingle, ''Relativity and
Electromagnetism: An Epistemological
Appraisal'', Philosophy of Science, 27,
p233-253 (1960).
http://www.jstor.org/stable/185967 [D
ingle_Herbert_196004xx.pdf} COPYRIGHTED

source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1859
67 [Dingle_Herbert_196004xx.pdf}
40 YBN
[06/29/1960 AD] 		5681) The green plant pigment
chlorophyll is synthesized.
(Harvard University) Cambridge,
Massachusetts, USA  
[1] Robert Burns Woodward Nobel Prize
Photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/chemistry/laureates/1965/woodward.jpg

40 YBN
[08/12/1960 AD] 		5485) The first passive communication
satellite, Echo, is launched. Stations
on the surface of Earth send and
receive data from the satellite, a
mylar polyester balloon.
(Launchpad 17) Cape Canaveral, Florida,
USA 
[1] The Echo I satellite. PD
source: http://www.centennialofflight.go
v/essay/Dictionary/Echo/DI55G1.jpg

[2] Description John Robinson
Pierce.jpg English: John Robinson
Pierce, the former director of research
at AT&T Bell Telephone Laboratories.
Born in Des Moines, Iowa in 1910,
Pierce was the first to evaluate the
various technical options in satellite
communications and assess the financial
prospects. In 1952, he published an
article in Astounding Science Fiction
in which he discussed the potential
benefits of satellite communications.
Coined the term ''transistor'',
instrumental in the development of
Telstar 1, and wrote science fiction
under the nom de plume J.J. Coupling. A
few years later, Pierce greatly
assisted in the creation of the first
artificial communication satellite,
ECHO. Pierce died from pneumonia
complications on April 2, 2002 at the
age of 92. Date Unknown Source
Great Images in NASA
Description Author
NASA Permission (Reusing this
file) See below. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/ed/John_Robinson_Pierce.
jpg
40 YBN
[08/30/1960 AD] 		5737) The principle of "Computerized
axial tomography" (CAT) is described: a
thin line of x-rays is used to
determine the density of the inside of
objects by measuring the difference in
x-ray absorption from many angles
around an object.
(University of California Medical
Center) Los Angeles, California,
USA 
[1] Figure 2 from: Oldendorf, W. H.,
''Isolated Flying Spot Detection of
Radiodensity
Dis-Continuities-Displaying the
Internal Structural Pattern of a
Complex Object'', Bio-Medical
Electronics, IRE Transactions on,
vol.8, no.1, pp.68-72, Jan. 1961 doi:
10.1109/TBMEL.1961.4322854 URL:
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.j
sp?tp=&arnumber=4322854&isnumber=4322838
{Oldendorf_William_H_19600830.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: URL:
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.j
sp?tp=&arnumber=4322854&isnumber=4322838


[2] William Henry Oldendorf, MD., 1925
- 1992 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.catscanman.net/blog/w
p-content/uploads/oldendorf.jpg
40 YBN
[09/09/1960 AD] 		5747) A theory unifying weak nuclear
and electromagnetic interactions (the
"electro-weak" theory).
(University of Copenhagen) Copenhagen,
Denmark 
[1] Sheldon Lee Glashow Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/physics/laureates/1979/glashow
_postcard.jpg

[2] Abdus Salam Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/physics/laureates/1979/salam.jpg
40 YBN
[09/15/1960 AD] 		5798) The theory that the high surface
temperature of planet Venus is because
visible light collides with the
surface, increasing its temperature,
but infrared light emitted by the
surface is absorbed in the gas of the
atmosphere of Venus and so does not
easily escape to space.
(Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California
Institute of Technology) Pasadena,
California 
[1] Carl Sagan Description Carl Sagan
Planetary Society.JPG Part of
Image:Planetary society.jpg Original
caption: ''Founding of the Planetary
Society Carl Sagan, Bruce Murray and
Louis Friedman, the founders of The
Planetary Society at the time of
signing the papers formally
incorporating the organization. The
fourth person is Harry Ashmore, an
advisor, who greatly helped in the
founding of the Society. Ashmore was a
Pulitizer Prize winning journalist and
leader in the Civil Rights movement in
the 1960s and 70s.'' Date Source
Image:Planetary society.jpg
*
http://technology.jpl.nasa.gov/gallery/i
ndex.cfm?page=imageDetail&ItemID=43&catI
d=9 *
http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/technology/imag
es_videos/iv_pages/P22626ac.html also
here Author
NASA/JPL Permission (Reusing
this file) See below. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/be/Carl_Sagan_Planetary_
Society.JPG

[2] Carl Sagan COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www-astro.physics.ox.ac.u
k/~garret/personal/carl.jpg
40 YBN
[09/16/1960 AD] 		5652) An atomic hydrogen maser.
(Harvard University) Cambridge,
Massachusetts, USA 		 
40 YBN
[09/??/1960 AD] 		5707) A theory of electron-transport
phosphorylation (how ADP is converted
back to ATP) in which hydrogen ions
(H+, protons) and Hydroxy ions (OH-)
are exchanged through a mitochondrion
membrane.
(University of Edinburgh) Edinburgh,
Scotland, U.K. 
[1] Description Peter Dennis
Mitchell (29 September 1920–10 April
1992), British biochemist Source
http://images.nobelprize.org/nobel_pr
izes/chemistry/laureates/1978/mitchell_p
ostcard.jpg Article Peter D.
Mitchell COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/c/cd/Peter_Dennis_Mitchell.jpg
40 YBN
[10/24/1960 AD] 		5415) Parathormone is isolated; the
active molecule of the parathyroid
gland.
(Rockefeller Institute of Medical
Research) New York City, New York,
USA 
[1] Lyman C. Craig. Photo from the
National Library of Medicine. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.jbc.org/content/280/7
/e4/F1.large.jpg
40 YBN
[12/28/1960 AD] 		5705) Messenger RNA and the system that
regulates protein synthesis in the cell
(regulatory genes called "operons") are
identified by François Jacob (ZoKoB)
and Jacques Monod (mOnO).

Jacob and Monod propose the existence
of "messenger-RNA" that carry the DNA
blueprint from the nucleus to ribosomes
which are the site of protein assembly
in the cytoplasm.

In addition Jacob and Monod describe
the regulatory mechanism of the lac
operon of Escherichia coli, a system
that allows the bacterium to repress
the production of enzymes involved in
lactose metabolism when lactose is not
available.

Without regulator genes DNA would
continuously produce proteins which are
not needed.
(Pasteur Institute) Paris, France 
[1] François Jacob, b. 1920 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.pasteurfoundation.org
/images/Jacob.jpg

[2] Jacques Monod, b. 1910 d.
1976 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.pasteurfoundation.org
/images/Monod.jpg
40 YBN
[12/30/1960 AD] 		5769) The first gas laser (using a
helium and neon mixture).
(Bell Telephone Laboratories) Murray
Hill, New Jersey, USA 
[1] Figure 1 from: William R. Bennett
jr, Ali Javan, ''GAS OPTICAL MASER'',
Patent number: 3149290, Filing date:
Dec 28, 1960, Issue date: Sep 15,
1964 http://www.google.com/patents?id=r
2pmAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&sou
rce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=f
alse PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=r2pmAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f
=false

[2] William R. Bennett jr
(verify) UNKNOWN
source: http://1.bp.blogspot.com/_IoU3bE
FUwWc/SHH6tjvzGpI/AAAAAAAACWs/MjwSujRgKG
w/s400/William%2BR.%2BBennett.jpeg
40 YBN
[12/??/1960 AD] 		5412) The "seafloor spreading
hypothesis": that continents are
carried passively on top of the
spreading seafloor. This explains how
continents can move without breaking
apart, the formation of Guyots, and why
ocean floor sediments are no older than
the Cretaceous period.
(Princeton University) Princeton, New
Jersey, USA 
[1] Princeton University
Archives Harry Hammond Hess
*32 UNKNOWN
source: http://paw.princeton.edu/issues/
2010/02/03/pages/6388/Hess.jpg
40 YBN
[1960 AD] 		5685) The steps involved in the
biosynthesis of cholesterol from acetic
acid are described.
(National Institute for Medical
Research) Mill Hill, London, UK 
[1] John Warcup Cornforth Nobel Prize
photo PD
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1975/cornf
orth_postcard.jpg
39 YBN
[02/13/1961 AD] 		5741) A method of grouping particles
into logical families is created ("The
Eight-Fold Way").
(Imperial College) London, England and
(California Institute of Technology)
Pasadena, California, USA 
[1] Equations from: Y. Ne'eman,
''Derivation of strong interactions
from a gauge invariance'', Nuclear
Physics, Volume 26, Issue 2, August
1961, Pages
222-229. http://www.sciencedirect.com/s
cience/article/B73DR-470WMP9-XR/2/410bc7
867581f4f1677804d7bb750951 {Neeman_Yuva
l_19610213.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence/article/B73DR-470WMP9-XR/2/410bc786
7581f4f1677804d7bb750951

[2] Description Yuval
Ne'eman Source
http://www.knesset.gov.il/mk/eng/Sh
owPic_eng.asp?mk_individual_id_t=515 Da
te 17.09.2009 Author Israeli
Kneeset Permission (Reusing this
file) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/1/17/Neman_yuval.jpg
39 YBN
[04/12/1961 AD] 		5601) The first human to orbit the
Earth; Yury Gagarin in the Soviet ship
Vostok 1.
Saratovskaya oblast, Russia (was
U.S.S.R.) 
[1] The Vostok 1 capsule as recovered
after landing. Currently on display at
the RKK Energiya museum in Korolyov CC

source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/7/70/Vostok_1_after_landing.jpg


[2] Description Yuri Gagarin in
Vostok 1 Source Mission
photography Portion used
Sufficient to show the face of
Gagarin in his spacesuit within the
capsule Low resolution?
yes COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/b/b1/Vostok1.jpg
39 YBN
[04/13/1961 AD] 		5560) Element 103, Lawrencium is
created.
(University of California) Berkeley,
California, USA 
[1] Lawrencium on the periodic
table GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law
rencium
39 YBN
[05/19/1961 AD] 		5612) The first ship from Earth to pass
Venus, the Soviet Venera 1.
Planet Venus 
[1] Venera 1 PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image
/spacecraft/venera1_vsm.jpg

[2] Venera 1 Spacecraft PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/plane
tary/image/venera_1.jpg
39 YBN
[05/20/1961 AD] 		5673) The three-dimensional structure
of the muscle protein myoglobin is
determined.
(Cavendish Laboratory, University of
Cambridge) Cambridge, England (and the
Royal Instutition, London) 
[1] Figure 2 from'': J. C. KENDREW, H.
C. WATSON, B. E. STRANDBERG, R. E.
DICKERSON, D. C. PHILLIPS & V. C.
SHORE, ''A Partial Determination by
X-ray Methods, and its Correlation with
Chemical Data'', Nature, 20 May 1961
Vol 190 No 4777,
p666. doi:10.1038/190666a0 http://www.
nature.com/nature/journal/v190/n4777/ind
ex.html {Kendrew_John_Cowdery_19610520.
pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v190/n4777/index.html

[2] John Cowdery Kendrew Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1962/kendr
ew_postcard.jpg
39 YBN
[08/03/1961 AD] 		5765) The first nucleic acid nucleotide
is connected to a specific amino acid.
A synthetic RNA molecule is made of a
single repeating nucleotide, uridylic
acid, which is found to produce a
protein containing only the amino acid
phenylalanine, and so the uridylic acid
must code for the amino acid
phenylalanine.
(National Institutes of Health)
Bethesda, Maryland, USA 
[1] Marshall W. Nirenberg and J.
Heinrich Matthaei, ''The Dependence of
Cell-Free Protein Synthesis in E. Coli
upon Naturally Occurring or Synthetic
Polyribonucleotides'', Proc Natl Acad
Sci U S A. 1961 October; 47(10):
1588–1602.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC223178/ {Nirenberg_Marshall_W_196
10803.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/
articles/PMC223178/

[2] Marshall Warren Nirenberg Nobel
Prize photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1968/nirenberg.jpg

39 YBN
[10/16/1961 AD] 		5242) A hologram is produced using
laser light.
(University of Michigan) Ann Arbor,
Michigan, USA 
[1] Figure 4 from: EMMETT N. LEITH and
JURIS UPATNIEKS, ''Reconstructed
Wavefronts and Communication Theory'',
JOSA, Vol. 52, Issue 10, pp. 1123-1128
(1962). http://www.opticsinfobase.org/a
bstract.cfm?URI=josa-52-10-1123 {Leith_
Emmet_19611016.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.opticsinfobase.org/ab
stract.cfm?URI=josa-52-10-1123

[2] Figure 1 from: EMMETT N. LEITH
and JURIS UPATNIEKS, ''Wavefront
Reconstruction with Diffused
Illumination and Three-Dimensional
Objects'', JOSA, Vol. 54, Issue 11, pp.
1295-1301. http://www.opticsinfobase.or
g/abstract.cfm?URI=josa-54-11-1295 {Lei
th_Emmett_19640612.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.opticsinfobase.org/ab
stract.cfm?URI=josa-54-11-1295
39 YBN
[10/16/1961 AD] 		5718) Three kinds of kinds of T-RNA
molecules are isolated.
(Cornell University) Ithaca, New York,
USA 
[1] ARS scientist Robert Holley won the
Nobel Prize in 1968 for leading the
team that determined the molecular
structure of transfer RNA from
concentrated yeast cells. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.ars.usda.gov/is/pr/20
08/holley080512.jpg
39 YBN
[12/30/1961 AD] 		5663) That three DNA nucleotides code
for one amino acid in a protein is
understood.
(Cavendish Lab University of Cambridge)
Cambridge, England 
[1] Figure 1 from: F. H. C. CRICK,
LESLIE BARNETT, S. BRENNER & R. J.
WATTS-TOBIN, ''General Nature of the
Genetic Code for Proteins'', Nature
192, 1227 - 1232 (30 December 1961);
doi:10.1038/1921227a0 http://www.nature
.com/nature/journal/v192/n4809/abs/19212
27a0.html
{Crick_Francis_Harry_Compton_19611230.
pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v192/n4809/abs/1921227a0.html

[2] Francis Harry Compton Crick
UNKNOWN
source: http://scientistshowtell.wikispa
ces.com/file/view/FrancisHarryComptonCri
ck2.jpg/39149552/FrancisHarryComptonCric
k2.jpg
39 YBN
[1961 AD] 		5706) The Bacteria Escherichia Coli is
shown to have a single chromosome,
which is in the shape of a circle.
(Pasteur Institute) Paris, France 
[1] Figure 1 from: François Jacob,
Nadine Peyrieras, Michel Morange,
''Travaux scientifiques de François
Jacob'', Odile Jacob, 2002,
p573. http://books.google.com/books?id=
0bTvkp5QvwsC&pg=PA537#v=onepage&q&f=fals
e COPYRIGHTED
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=0bTvkp5QvwsC&pg=PA537#v=onepage&q&f=fal
se

[2] François Jacob, b. 1920 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.pasteurfoundation.org
/images/Jacob.jpg
39 YBN
[1961 AD] 		5788) The "Drake Equation", a simple
equation to estimate how many advanced
civilizations may exist in a galaxy.
(SETI conference) Green Bank, West
Virginia, USA 
[1] Frank Drake UNKNOWN
source: http://www.bigear.org/CSMO/Image
s/CS09/cs09p09s.jpg
38 YBN
[01/05/1962 AD] 		5792) Removing the thymus gland at an
early age is shown to cause a young
animal to be unable to develop antibody
resistance to foreign molecules.
(Chester Beatty Research Institute,
Institute of Cancer Research: Royal
Cancer Hospital) London, England 
[1] Thymus
gland http://training.seer.cancer.gov/m
odule_anatomy/unit8_2_lymph_compo4_thymu
s.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/cf/Illu_thymus.jpg

[2] Jacques Francis Albert Pierre
Miller 1966 (source) Born 2 Apr
1931 French-Australian physician who,
in 1962, demonstrated the importance of
the thymus gland in organizing the
immunity of animals. land is prominent
in young animals, but withers away in
adults. If the thymus gland is removed
at a sufficiently early stage, a young
animal is unable to develop antibody
resistance to foreign moelcules. Thus,
the thymus, located high in the chest,
is essential for the immune response.
This is because the thymus makes T
lymphocytes or T cells (T = thymus)
from the stem cells which migrate into
the organ from bone marrow. The thymus
could be regarded as the university of
the immune system - it is here that the
T cells learn to recognise foreign
antigens and to ignore the myriad
''self'' antigens present in the body's
own tissues. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.todayinsci.com/M/Mill
er_Jacques/MillerJacquesThm.jpg
38 YBN
[05/04/1962 AD] 		5796) The first molecule is created
that reacts with an inert gas.
(University of British Columbia)
Vancouver, British Columbia,
Canada 
[1] Neil Bartlett UNKNOWN
source: http://berkeley.edu/news/media/r
eleases/2008/08/images/bartlett-neil.jpg

38 YBN
[06/16/1962 AD] 		5662) That RNA has a helical structure
is understood by using monochromatic
x-ray reflection.

RNA is usually single-stranded, but can
fold back on itself to form a double
helix as is the case for transfer and
ribosomal RNA.
(King's College) London, England 
[1] figure 7 from: M. SPENCER, W.
FULLER, M. H. F. WILKINS & G. L. BROWN,
''Determination of the Helical
Configuration of Ribonucleic Acid
Molecules by X-Ray Diffraction Study of
Crystalline Amino-Acid–transfer
Ribonucleic Acid'', Nature 194, 1014 -
1020 (16 June 1962);
doi:10.1038/1941014a0 http://www.nature
.com/nature/journal/v194/n4833/abs/19410
14a0.html
{Wilkins_Maurice_Hugh_Frederick_196206
16.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v194/n4833/abs/1941014a0.html

[2] Maurice Hugh Frederick Wilkins
Nobel Prize photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/medicine/laureates/1962/wilkin
s_postcard.jpg
38 YBN
[06/30/1962 AD] 		5682) The antibiotic tetracycline is
synthesized.
(Harvard University) Cambridge,
Massachusetts, USA (and CHAS. PFIZER
AND CO., INC, Groton, Connecticut, USA)
 
[1] Robert Burns Woodward Nobel Prize
Photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/chemistry/laureates/1965/woodward.jpg

38 YBN
[09/24/1962 AD] 		5656) The semiconductor laser. A
forward biased Gallium-Arsenide p-n
junction emits a monochromatic
microwave light.
(General Electric Research Laboratory)
Schenectady, New York, USA 
[1] Figure 2 from: Hall, Fenner,
Kingsley, Soltys and Carlson,
''Coherent Light Emission From GaAs
Junctions'', Phys. Rev. Letters, 9
(1962) 366.
http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v9/i9/
p366_1 {Carlson_R_O_19620924.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/
v9/i9/p366_1

[2] Note that this image is from the
Nobel prize lecture of Charles Hard
Townes and is not in the original paper
of Hall, et al.[t] Figure 5
from: ''Charles H. Townes - Nobel
Lecture''. Nobelprize.org. 4 Apr 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1964/townes-lecture.html {
Townes_Charles_Hard_19641211.pdf}
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/physics/laureates/1964/townes-lecture
.html
38 YBN
[10/12/1962 AD] 		5376) X-ray sources from outside the
solar system are observed.
(Massachusetts Institute of Technology)
Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA 
[1] Figure 1 from: RICCARDO GIACCONI
and BRUNO ROSSI, ''A 'Telescope' for
Soft X-Ray Astronomy'', Journal of
Geophysical Research, V65, N2, Feb
1960,
http://www.agu.org/pubs/crossref/1960/
JZ065i002p00773.shtml {Rossi_Bruno_1959
1207.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.agu.org/pubs/crossref
/1960/JZ065i002p00773.shtml

[2] Bruno Benedetto Rossi April 13,
1905 — November 21, 1993 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.nap.edu/html/biomems/
photo/brossi.JPG
38 YBN
[10/26/1962 AD] 		6201) Laser writing and reading of
data. Data is written and read from
plastic film. Reading data with light
particles is better than reading data
mechanically, like using the arm of a
phonograph player, because only light
particles touch the recorded surface.
(Winston Research Corporation) Los
Angeles, California, USA 
[1] From: Wayne R. Johnson, ''High
Speed, High Density, Optical Recording
System'', Patent number:
3154370 Filing date: Oct 26, 1962,
Issue date: Oct 27,
1964 http://www.google.com/patents?id=H
9x0AAAAEBAJ
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=H9x0AAAAEBAJ
38 YBN
[1962 AD] 		5171) The rubella virus (the cause of
German measles) is cultured.
(Harvard University) Cambridge,
Massachusetts, USA 
[1] John Franklin Enders Nobel prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1954/enders.jpg

[2] Thomas Huckle Weller Nobel prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/medicine/laureates/1954/weller
_postcard.jpg
38 YBN
[1962 AD] 		5490) An undersea station where humans
live for prolonged periods of time.
(off coast of) Marseilles, France 
[1] ConShelf 2 UNKNOWN
source: http://blog.sellsiusrealestate.c
om/wp-content/conshelf2.jpg

[2] ConShelf 2 UNKNOWN
source: http://farm4.static.flickr.com/3
556/3470838604_a4cfb0e0eb.jpg
38 YBN
[1962 AD] 		5794) Electrophoresis is used to
separate nucleic acid molecules into
distinct fractions.
(Biochemical Research Laboratory,
Bulgarian Academy of Sciences) Sofia,
Bulgaria (verify) 
[1] NOTE: this is not from 1962 paper
but from 1964 paper.[t] Figure 1
from; Radoslav Bachvaroff and Philip
R. B. McMaster, ''Separation of
Microsomal RNA into Five Bands during
Agar Electrophoresis'', Science, New
Series, Vol. 143, No. 3611 (Mar. 13,
1964), pp.
1177-1179 http://www.jstor.org/stable/1
712683 {Bachvaroff_Radoslav_19640114.pd
f} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1712
683
38 YBN
[1962 AD] 		6628) That charged particles are
emitted by the Sun in all directions
following the lines of force of the
Sun's magnetic field is confirmed by
the Mariner 2 Venus probe.
 
[1] Description English: Mariner 2
was the world's first successful
interplanetary spacecraft. Launched
August 27, 1962, on an Atlas-Agena
rocket, Mariner 2 passed within about
34,000 kilometers (21,000 miles) of
Venus, sending back valuable new
information about interplanetary space
and the Venusian atmosphere. Mariner 2
recorded the temperature at Venus for
the first time, revealing the planet's
very hot atmosphere of about 500
degrees Celsius (900 degrees
Fahrenheit). The spacecraft's solar
wind experiment measured for the first
time the density, velocity, composition
and variation over time of the solar
wind. Date - Source
http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalo
g/PIA04594 Author NASA Jet Propulsion
Laboratory (NASA-JPL) Image ID :
PIA04594 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Mariner_2_in_sp
ace.jpg/1274px-Mariner_2_in_space.jpg
37 YBN
[03/04/1963 AD] 		5750) Quasars (quasi-stellar radio
sources) are identified. Quasars are
extragalactic objects, starlike in
appearance and having spectra with
characteristically large redshifts,
that are thought to be the most distant
and most luminous objects in the
universe.
(Wilson and Palomar Observatories,
Carnegie institute of Washington and
California Institute of Technology)
Pasadena, California, USA 
[1] Figure 2 from: Matthews, T. A. &
Sandage, A. R., ''Optical
Identification of 3c 48, 3c 196, and 3c
286 with Stellar Objects.'',
Astrophysical Journal, vol. 138, p.30,
1963ApJ...138...30M http://adsabs.harva
rd.edu/full/1963ApJ...138...30M {Sandag
e_Allan_Rex_19630304.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
963ApJ...138...30M

[2] Allan Rex Sandage UNKNOWN
source: http://www.phys-astro.sonoma.edu
/brucemedalists/sandage/sandage.jpg
37 YBN
[03/16/1963 AD] 		5785) The spectrum of the first known
quasar is found to be shifted very far
into the red implying that the light
source is very far away.
(California Institute of Technology)
Pasadena, California 
[1] Figure 1 from: Greenstein, J. L. &
Schmidt, M., ''The Quasi-Stellar Radio
Sources 3c 48 and 3c 273.'',
Astrophysical Journal, vol. 140,
p.1 http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/
/full/1964ApJ...140....1G/0000004I001.ht
ml {Schmidt_Maarten_19640701.pdf} COPY
RIGHTED
source: http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du//full/1964ApJ...140....1G/0000004I001
.html

[2] Maarten Schmidt by TIME Magazine.
Size 8.00 X 10.00 Art Poster
Print UNKNOWN
source: http://ecx.images-amazon.com/ima
ges/I/61DF8Ecn3UL._SL500_AA300_.jpg
37 YBN
[04/26/1963 AD] 		5736) The positron emission topography
(or PET) scan is developed, which is
like a CAT scan but which uses a
positron beam instead of x-rays.
(Tufts University) Medford,
Massachusetts, USA 
[1] Figure 1 from: A. M. Cormack,
''Representation of a Function by Its
Line Integrals, with Some Radiological
Applications'', J. Appl. Phys. 34, 2722
(1963);
doi:10.1063/1.1729798. http://jap.aip.o
rg/resource/1/japiau/v34/i9/p2722_s1 {C
ormack_Allan_MacLeod_19630426.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://jap.aip.org/resource/1/ja
piau/v34/i9/p2722_s1

[2] Allan MacLeod Cormack UNKNOWN
source: http://ecx.images-amazon.com/ima
ges/I/41N9IM6vX7L.jpg
37 YBN
[06/16/1963 AD] 		5602) The first woman to orbit the
Earth.
(Baikonur Cosmodrome) Tyuratam,
Kazakhstan (was Soviet Union) 
[1] English: 1963 Soviet Union 10
kopeks stamp. Valentina
Tereshkova. Русский:
Марка, Советский
Союз, 10 копеек, 1963.
Валентина
Терешкова. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/7f/Soviet_Union-1963-Sta
mp-0.10._Valentina_Tereshkova.jpg
37 YBN
[07/20/1963 AD] 		5730) ATP and ADP are synthesized by
ultra-violet irradiation of dilute
solutions of purine or pyrimidine
bases, pentose sugars, and phosphorus
compounds.
(NASA Ames Research Center) Moffett
Field, California, USA and (Stanford
University) Palo Alto, California,
USA 
[1] CYRIL PONNAMPERUMA, CARL SAGAN,
RUTH MARINER, ''Synthesis of Adenosine
Triphosphate Under Possible Primitive
Earth Conditions'', Nature 199,
222-226 (20 July 1963)
doi:10.1038/199222a0. http://www.nature
.com/nature/journal/v199/n4890/pdf/19922
2a0.pdf {Ponnamperuma_Cyril_19630720.pd
f} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v199/n4890/pdf/199222a0.pdf

[2] Description Cyril Ponnamperuma
analyzing a moon sample.jpg Dr.
Cyril Ponnamperuma analyzing a moon
sample - Principal investigator for the
chemical studies is Dr. Cyril
Ponnamperuma, Chief of the Ames
Chemical Evolution Branch at
NASA. Date Source
http://www.nasa.gov/centers/ames/im
ages/content/76422main_A-42526-79F.jpg
Author
Unknown Permission (Reusing this
file) Courtesy NASA PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/36/Cyril_Ponnamperuma_an
alyzing_a_moon_sample.jpg
37 YBN
[08/05/1963 AD] 		5609) The nuclear test ban treaty
prohibits the testing of nuclear
weapons in the atmosphere, underwater,
or in outer space but allows for
underground testing.
Moscow, (Soviet Union) Russia 
[1] KN-C30095 07 October 1963 President
Kennedy signs the Limited Nuclear Test
Ban Treaty. L-R: William Hopkins, Sen.
Mike Mansfield, John J. McCloy, Adrian
S. Fisher, Sen. John Pastore, W.
Averell Harriman, Sen. George Smathers,
Sen. J.W. Fulbright, Sec. of State Dean
Rusk, Sen. George Aiken, President
Kennedy, Sen. Hubert H. Humphrey, Sen.
Everett Dirksen, William C. Foster,
Sen. Howard W. Cannon, Sen. Leverett
Saltonstall, Sen. Thomas H. Kuchel,
Vice President Johnson. White House,
Treaty Room. Photograph by Robert
Knudsen, White House, in the John F.
Kennedy Presidential Library and
Museum, Boston. Date: October 07,
1963 Creator: Photograph by Robert
Knudsen, White House, in the John F.
Kennedy Presidential Library and
Museum, Boston. Copyright: Public
Domain PD
source: http://www.jfklibrary.org/~/medi
a/assets/Education%20and%20Public%20Prog
rams/Education/For%20Teachers%20Manual%2
0Upload/JFKSignsTestBanTreaty.jpg
37 YBN
[12/??/1963 AD] 		5694) Sheep insulin is synthesized.
(Deutsches Wollforschungsinstitut -
German Wool Research Institute) Aachen,
Germany and (University of Pittsburgh)
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA 
[1] Image from: ''First Man-made
Protein in History'', Life, May 8,
1964. http://books.google.com/books?id=
lkEEAAAAMBAJ&lpg=PA47&vq=insulin&pg=PA47
&hl=en#v=onepage&q=insulin&f=false COPY
RIGHTED
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=lkEEAAAAMBAJ&lpg=PA47&vq=insulin&pg=PA4
7&hl=en#v=onepage&q=insulin&f=false
36 YBN
[01/04/1964 AD] 		5780) The concept of non-integral
values for electromagnetic charge and
the theory of "quarks" which are
thought to be fundamental particles is
created.
(California Institute of Technology)
Pasadena, California 
[1] Murray Gell-Mann Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/physics/laureates/1969/gell-mann.jpg
36 YBN
[02/26/1964 AD] 		5437) The three kinds of cone on the
human retina responsible for human
color vision are identified;
blue-sensitive, green-sensitive, and
red-sensitive.
(Harvard University) Cambridge,
Massachusetts, USA 
[1] Paul K. Brown and George Wald,
''Visual Pigments in Single Rods and
Cones of the Human Retina'', Science,
New Series, Vol. 144, No. 3614 (Apr. 3,
1964), pp.
45-46+51-52. http://www.jstor.org/stabl
e/1713534 {Wald_George_19640226.pdf} C
OPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1713
534

[2] George Wald Harvard
University UNKNOWN
source: http://www.laskerfoundation.org/
awards/images/1953_basic_wald.jpg
36 YBN
[04/04/1964 AD] 		5330) The first fossil bones of a "Homo
habilis".
Olduvai Gorge, Africa 
[1] Figures from: L. S. B. LEAKEY & M.
D. LEAKEY , ''Recent Discoveries of
Fossil Hominids in Tanganyika : At
Olduvai and Near Lake Natron'',
Nature, (1964), v202, issue:4927
p5. http://www.nature.com/nature/journa
l/v202/n4927/index.html {Leaky_Louis_p5
_19640404.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v202/n4927/pdf/202005a0.pdf

[2] Dr. Louis Leakey and his wife Mary
Leakey display the skull of a human
ancestor, Zinjanthropus, in 1959.
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.britannica.com/EBchec
ked/topic/333880/Louis-SB-Leakey
36 YBN
[06/19/1964 AD] 		5749) A new quantum number "charm" is
created.
(University of Copenhagen) Copenhagen,
Denmark 
[1] Table 1 from: B.J. Bjorken, S.L.
Glashow, ''Elementary particles and
SU(4)'', Physics Letters, Volume 11,
Issue 3, 1 August 1964, Pages 255-257,
ISSN 0031-9163, DOI:
10.1016/0031-9163(64)90433-0. (http://w
ww.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6X
44-46MV26R-7P/2/20ad907a7339d4254bde3770
bbe15dcd) {Glashow_Sheldon_L_19640619.p
df} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence/article/B6X44-46MV26R-7P/2/20ad907a
7339d4254bde3770bbe15dcd

[2] Sheldon Lee Glashow Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/physics/laureates/1979/glashow
_postcard.jpg
36 YBN
[07/15/1964 AD] 		5770) A carbon dioxide laser is
invented; the most powerful commercial
gas laser.
(Bell Telephone Laboratories) Murray
Hill, New Jersey, USA 
[1] Fig 1 from: W. L. Faust, R. A.
McFarlane, C. K. N. Patel, and C. G. B.
Garrett, ''Noble Gas Optical Maser
Lines at Wavelengths between 2 and 35
μ'', Phys. Rev. 133, A1476
(1964) http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v133/i6A/pA1476_1 {Patel_C_Kumar_N_196
30820.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v133/i6A/pA1476_1

[2] C Kumar N Patel UNKNOWN
source: http://www.research.ucla.edu/web
icons/patel.gif
36 YBN
[09/24/1964 AD] 		5746) The theory of hypothetical "W"
and "Z" particles, which are thought to
unify a weak nuclear force and
electromagnetism.
(Imperial College) London,
England 
[1] Abdus Salam Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/physics/laureates/1979/salam.jpg

[2] Sheldon Lee Glashow Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/physics/laureates/1979/glashow
_postcard.jpg
36 YBN
[10/08/1964 AD] 		5569) Element 104 is identified
("Rutherfordium").
(Joint Institute for Nuclear Research,
Laboratory of Nuclear Reactions)
Moscow, (U.S.S.R. now) Russia 
[1] Figure 1 from: G.N. Flerov, Yu.Ts.
Oganesyan, Yu.V. Lobanov, V.I.
Kuznetsov, V.A. Druin, V.P. Perelygin,
K.A. Gavrilov, S.P. Tretiakova, V.M.
Plotko, ''Synthesis and physical
identification of the isotope of
element 104 with mass number 260'',
Physics Letters, Volume 13, Issue 1, 1
November 1964, Pages 73-75, ISSN
0031-9163, DOI:
10.1016/0031-9163(64)90313-0. http://ww
w.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6X4
4-46M7GWT-DM/2/d343ea63b0ce878c4dcd550b2
f8d8d22 {Flerov_Georgii_Nikolaevich_196
41008.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence/article/B6X44-46M7GWT-DM/2/d343ea63
b0ce878c4dcd550b2f8d8d22

[2] Georgy Nikolaevich FLEROV
UNKNOWN
source: http://159.93.28.88/flnr/history
/flerov.jpg
36 YBN
[12/17/1964 AD] 		5585) That the polyoma virus inserts
its DNA into the DNA of the host cell,
which is then transformed into a cancer
cell that reproduces the viral DNA
along with its own DNA producing more
cancer cells is shown.
(The Salk Institute For Biological
Studies) San Diego, California,
USA 
[1] Renato Dulbecco Nobel prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1975/dulbecco.jpg
36 YBN
[12/??/1964 AD] 		5497) The first topographical map of
relative electric voltages measured on
the surface of the head (using EEG)
caused by evoked external stimulus.
(La Salpetriere), Paris, France 
[1] Figure 4 from: Remond, A. and
Lesevre, N. Distribution topographique
des potentials evoques occipitaux chez
l'homme normal. Rev. Neurol., 1965,
112: 317-330. {Remond_196512xx.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: Remond_196512xx.pdf

[2] Figure 5 from: Remond, A. and
Lesevre, N. Distribution topographique
des potentials evoques occipitaux chez
l'homme normal. Rev. Neurol., 1965,
112: 317-330. {Remond_196512xx.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: Remond_196512xx.pdf
36 YBN
[1964 AD] 		3980) The liquid crystal display (LCD);
a DC voltage of several volts is used
to change the color of a liquid crystal
cell.

An LCD uses less electricity, weighs
less, and is thinner than a Cathode Ray
Tube display.
RCA Labs, Princeton, New Jersey,
USA 
[1] George Heilmeier with
LCD 1967 COPYRIGHTED FAIR USE
source: http://www.wired.com/images_blog
s/gadgetlab/2009/05/heilmeier_with-lcd1.
jpg and H Kawamoto, "The history
of liquid-crystal displays",
Proceedings of the IEEE [0018-9219]
Kawamoto (2002) volume: 90 issue: 4
page: 460.
{kawamoto-history_of_lcds-procieee-200
2.pdf} and George H. Heilmeier,
"Liquid crystal displays: An experiment
in interdisciplinary research that
worked", vol 23, Num 7, July
1976. http://ucelinks.cdlib.org:8888/sf
x_local?sid=google&auinit=GH&aulast=Heil
meier&atitle=Liquid+crystal+displays:+An
+experiment+in+interdisciplinary+researc
h+that+worked&title=IEEE+transactions+on
+electron+devices&volume=23&issue=7&date
=1976&spage=780&issn=0018-9383 {Heilmei
er_George_LCD_1976.pdf}

[2] George Heilmeier COPYRIGHTED ON
INTERNET
source: http://www.invent.org/2009induct
ion/images/George_Heilmeier.jpg
35 YBN
[01/08/1965 AD] 		5719) The first sequence of nucleotides
in a nucleic acid are determined; an
alanine T-RNA molecule.
(Cornell University) Ithaca, New York,
USA 
[1] Figure 2 from: Robert W. Holley,
Jean Apgar, George A. Everett, James T.
Madison, Mark Marquisee, Susan H.
Merrill, John Robert Penswick and Ada
Zamir, ''Structure of a Ribonucleic
Acid'', Science, New Series, Vol. 147,
No. 3664 (Mar. 19, 1965), pp.
1462-1465. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
1715055
{Holley_Robert_William_19650108.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1715
055

[2] ARS scientist Robert Holley won
the Nobel Prize in 1968 for leading the
team that determined the molecular
structure of transfer RNA from
concentrated yeast cells. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.ars.usda.gov/is/pr/20
08/holley080512.jpg
35 YBN
[03/29/1965 AD] 		5731) The five nucleotides present in
RNA and DNA are formed under conditions
considered to be abiotic and that could
have existed on the primitive Earth.
(NASA Ames Research Center) Moffett
Field, California, USA 
[1] Description Cyril Ponnamperuma
analyzing a moon sample.jpg Dr.
Cyril Ponnamperuma analyzing a moon
sample - Principal investigator for the
chemical studies is Dr. Cyril
Ponnamperuma, Chief of the Ames
Chemical Evolution Branch at
NASA. Date Source
http://www.nasa.gov/centers/ames/im
ages/content/76422main_A-42526-79F.jpg
Author
Unknown Permission (Reusing this
file) Courtesy NASA PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/36/Cyril_Ponnamperuma_an
alyzing_a_moon_sample.jpg

[2] Description Nucleotides
1.svg English: The major
nucleotides Date November 04,
2005 (UTC) Source
en:Image:Nucleotides.png Author
Boris (PNG), SVG by
Sjef Permission (Reusing this file)
Public domain PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Nucleotides_1.s
vg/1000px-Nucleotides_1.svg.png
35 YBN
[05/13/1965 AD] 		5797) The finding of "background
radiation" and the claim that this
supports the "Big Bang" expanding
universe theory.
(Bell Telephone Laboratories, Inc.)
Crawford Hill, Holmdel, New Jersey,
USA 
[1] [t Note that this is from the
Dicke, et al, paper and not from the
Penzias and Wilson paper which contains
no figures.] Figure 1 from: Dicke, R.
H., Peebles, P. J. E., Roll, P. G., &
Wilkinson, D. T., ''Cosmic Black-Body
Radiation.'', Astrophysical Journal,
vol. 142,
p.414-419. http://articles.adsabs.harva
rd.edu/full/1965ApJ...142..414D {Dicke_
Robert_H_19650507.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.newgenevacenter.org/0
9_Biography/penzias-wilson.jpg

[2] Arno Penzias 1933- /Robert Wilson
1936- UNKNOWN
source: http://www.nap.edu/html/biomems/
photo/rdicke.JPG
35 YBN
[06/05/1965 AD] 		5714) Two "termination" codons (UAG and
UAA) are identified as signals in
messenger RNA for terminating a
polypeptide chain.
(Yale University) New Haven,
Connecticut, USA and (Cambridge
University) Cambridge, England 		 
35 YBN
[07/14/1965 AD] 		5615) The first ship to reach Mars and
to return images of the surface, the US
Mariner 4.

These represent the first images of
another planet ever returned from deep
space.
Planet Mars 
[1] Mariner 4 image 8E
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/plane
tary/image/mariner4_8e.gif
35 YBN
[09/02/1965 AD] 		5713) All of the 64 possible
ribotrinucleotides are synthesized.
(University of Wisconsin) Madison,
Wisconsin, USA 
[1] Har Gobind Khorana Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1968/khorana.jpg
35 YBN
[1965 AD] 		6276) A head-mounted computer display
(for virtual reality).
 
[1] Sutherland's head-mounted display
earned the nickname the sword of
Damocles due to the mass of hardware
that was supported from the ceiling
above the user's head. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.zakros.com/ucb/histS9
9/Notes/Class6/SutherlandHMD2.jpeg

[2] Description Ivan Sutherland,
at the celebration of his 70th birthday
at the Computer History Museum Date
22 May 2008 Source personal
camera Author Dick
Lyon Permission (Reusing this file)
sa-by-sa-3.0 GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5c/Ivan_Sutherland_at_CH
M.jpg
34 YBN
[01/27/1966 AD] 		5648) Fossils of microorganisms that
are 3 billion years old are found.
(Harvard University) Cambridge,
Massachusetts, USA  
[1] Figures 1-9: Negative prints of
electron micrographs of platinum-carbon
surface replicas of chert from the Fig
Tree Series showing Eobacterium
islatum, n. gen., n. sp., [reserved
both organically and as imprints in the
rock surface; line in each figure
represents one micron. Figures 1-9
from: Elso S. Barghoorn and J. William
Schopf, ''Microorganisms Three Billion
Years Old from the Precambrian of South
Africa'', Science, New Series, Vol.
152, No. 3723 (May 6, 1966), pp.
758-763. http://www.jstor.org/stable/17
18104
{Barghoorn_Elso_19660127.pdf} COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1718
104

[2] Image from: Andrew H. Knoll,
''Elso Sterrenberg Barghoorn, Jr. (June
15, 1915-January 22, 1984)'',
Proceedings of the American
Philosophical Society, Vol. 135, No. 1
(Mar., 1991), pp.
86-90. http://www.jstor.org/stable/9871
52 {Barghoorn_Elso_199103xx.pdf} COPYR
IGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/9871
52
34 YBN
[02/03/1966 AD] 		5616) The first ship from Earth to make
a soft landing on another world (the
Moon), and the first ship to return
images from the surface of another
world.
Moon of Earth 
[1] Apparently panorama from Luna 9 PD

source: http://www.zarya.info/images/Lun
a9pan.jpg

[2] Luna 9 PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image
/spacecraft/luna-9.jpg
34 YBN
[02/19/1966 AD] 		5728) A slow-acting virus is
identified; a virus that does not show
effects until 18 to 21 months after
infection.
(National Institute of Health)
Bethesda, Maryland, USA 
[1] Daniel Carleton Gajdusek Nobel
Prize photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1976/gajdusek.jpg
34 YBN
[03/01/1966 AD] 		5613) The first ship to impact a
different planet, the Soviet "Venera 3"
impacts the surface of Venus.
Planet Venus 
[1] Venera 3 PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/plane
tary/image/venera_3.jpg
34 YBN
[04/04/1966 AD] 		5599) The first ship to orbit a body
beyond the Earth, the Soviet Luna 10
orbits the Moon.

Luna 10 turns around at a distance of
8000 km (5000 miles) from the Moon and
fires its rockets to slow down and
enters lunar orbit, transmitting data
for 56 days.
(Baikonur Cosmodrome) Tyuratam,
Kazakhstan (was Soviet Union) 
[1] Luna 10 PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image
/spacecraft/luna10.jpg

[2] First image of the far side of the
Moon Earth's Moon The Luna 3
spacecraft returned the first views
ever of the far side of the Moon. The
first image was taken at 03:30 UT on 7
October at a distance of 63,500 km
after Luna 3 had passed the Moon and
looked back at the sunlit far side. The
last image was taken 40 minutes later
from 66,700 km. A total of 29
photographs were taken, covering 70% of
the far side. The photographs were very
noisy and of low resolution, but many
features could be recognized. This is
the first image returned by Luna 3,
taken by the wide-angle lens, it showed
the far side of the Moon was very
different from the near side, most
noticeably in its lack of lunar maria
(the dark areas). The right
three-quarters of the disk are the far
side. The dark spot at upper right is
Mare Moscoviense, the dark area at
lower left is Mare Smythii. The small
dark circle at lower right with the
white dot in the center is the crater
Tsiolkovskiy and its central peak. The
Moon is 3475 km in diameter and north
is up in this image. (Luna 3-1) PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/imgca
t/hires/lu3_1.gif
34 YBN
[10/24/1966 AD] 		5793) The first known "repressor" is
isolated; the "Lac" repressor, which is
a protein made by the control gene for
the lac operon (the cluster of genes
responsible for metabolizing the sugar
lactose).
(Harvard University) Cambridge,
Massachusetts, USA  
[1] Walter Gilbert, source:
http://www.nlm.nih.gov/visibleproofs/med
ia/gallery/vi_a_209.jpg from
http://www.nlm.nih.gov/visibleproofs/gal
leries/technologies/dna_image_9.html PD

source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/ce/WalterGilbert2.jpg
33 YBN
[02/24/1967 AD] 		5715) That the direction of reading of
messenger RNA by a ribosome is from the
5' end to the 3' end of the RNA is
proven. The numbers 5' and 3' represent
the position in the ring of the ribose
molecule which is linked to the
phosphate part of the nucleic acid
backbone.
(University of Wisconsin) Madison,
Wisconsin, USA 
[1] Har Gobind Khorana Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1968/khorana.jpg

[2] Griffiths, A.J.F. 2002Modern
Genetic Analysis: Integrating Genes and
Genomes. W. H. Freeman. 2002.
p58. http://books.google.com/books?id=g
IGyZHHmK98C&pg=PA58 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=gIGyZHHmK98C&pg=PA58
33 YBN
[04/03/1967 AD] 		6202) Laser writing to a disk.
(Gauss Electrophysics, Inc), Santa
Monica, California, USA 
[1] Figure from: David Paul Gregg,
''TRANSPARENT RECORDING DISC'', Patent
number: 3430966, Filing date: Apr 3,
1967, Issue date: Mar 4,
1969. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
H6JnAAAAEBAJ PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=H6JnAAAAEBAJ
33 YBN
[12/03/1967 AD] 		5725) The first successful heart
transplant.
(University of Cape Town and Groote
Schuur Hospital) Cape Town, South
Africa 
[1] Description: Image of
Christiaan Barnard . Source:
http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=295
13&rendTypeId=4 Rationale for use on
wikipedia: 1.No free equivalent
exists that would effectively identify
the article's subject - no free images
have been allocated for this
person. 2.The image does not in any
way limit the ability of the copyright
owners to market or sell their
product. 3.The image is only used once
and is rendered in low resolution to
avoid piracy. 4.The image has been
published outside Wikipedia; see source
above. 5.The image meets general
Wikipedia content requirements and is
encyclopedic. 6.The image meets
Wikipedia's media-specific
policy. 7.The image is used in the
article wiki-linked in the section
title. 8.No free images have been
allocated for this person 9.The image
is needed to identify the person for
educational purposes in an encyclopedia
entry and significantly improves the
quality of the article. 10.The image
has a brief description that identifies
the image, notes the source, and
provides attribution to the copyright
holder. 11.A replaceable free image
for this person is impossible as he/she
is deceased COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/1/1d/Christiaan_Barnard.jpg
33 YBN
[1967 AD] 		3982) Liquid crystal display devices
are sold to consumers (the first
digital LCD clock).
RCA Labs, Princeton, New Jersey,
USA 
[1] The first all-electronic digital
clock with liquid crystal read-out
(1967). COPYRIGHTED FAIR USE
source: George H. Heilmeier, "Liquid
crystal displays: An experiment in
interdisciplinary research that
worked", vol 23, Num 7, July
1976. http://ucelinks.cdlib.org:8888/sf
x_local?sid=google&auinit=GH&aulast=Heil
meier&atitle=Liquid+crystal+displays:+An
+experiment+in+interdisciplinary+researc
h+that+worked&title=IEEE+transactions+on
+electron+devices&volume=23&issue=7&date
=1976&spage=780&issn=0018-9383 {Heilmei
er_George_LCD_1976.pdf}

[2] An early liquid crystal numeric
display 1967 COPYRIGHTED FAIR USE
source: George H. Heilmeier, "Liquid
crystal displays: An experiment in
interdisciplinary research that
worked", vol 23, Num 7, July
1976. http://ucelinks.cdlib.org:8888/sf
x_local?sid=google&auinit=GH&aulast=Heil
meier&atitle=Liquid+crystal+displays:+An
+experiment+in+interdisciplinary+researc
h+that+worked&title=IEEE+transactions+on
+electron+devices&volume=23&issue=7&date
=1976&spage=780&issn=0018-9383 {Heilmei
er_George_LCD_1976.pdf}
33 YBN
[1967 AD] 		4558) Artificial muscles that use
compressed air.
unknown 
[1] Before Injection of Compressed Air
(1968) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.humanoid.waseda.ac.jp
/booklet/photo/RubberArtificialMuscle1-1
968.jpg

[2] After Injection of Compressed Air
(1968) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.humanoid.waseda.ac.jp
/booklet/photo/RubberArtificialMuscle2-1
968.jpg
33 YBN
[1967 AD] 		5341) Tissue compatibility is found to
be determined by specific genes.
(Oak Ridge National Laboratory) Oak
Ridge, Tennessee, USA 
[1] George Davis Snell COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1980/snell.jpg
33 YBN
[1967 AD] 		5845) The first handheld calculator.
(Texas Instruments) Dallas, Texas,
USA 
[1] TI-2500 ''Datamath'', 1st.
version. The first version of the
Datamath can be distinguished by the
combined CE/D key, which is used to
Clear the last Entry and to refresh the
Display, which extinguishes, except for
the first digit, after the calculator
has not been used for about 15
seconds. This version is also the
only one which has 6 AA rechargeable
cells, see photograph below. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.vintagecalculators.co
m/assets/images/TI25001_1.JPG
33 YBN
[1967 AD] 		6344) The theory that a chip inside the
body could enable radio communication
of sound to and from thought.
 
[1] ''The Cerebrum Communicator''
from:
source: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u
Ua3np4CKC4&feature=player_embedded#!
32 YBN
[01/25/1968 AD] 		5755) A restriction enzyme is shown to
break only those DNA molecules that
contain a certain sequence of
nucleotides characteristic of
bacteriophages.
(University of Geneva) Geneva,
Switzerland 
[1] Werner Arber Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/medicine/laureates/1978/arber_
postcard.jpg
32 YBN
[01/29/1968 AD] 		6501) Direct neuron writing to the eye
screen using an implanted electronic
device.
(Physiological Laboratory, University
of Cambridge and the Department of
Neurological Surgery and
Neurology, United Cambridge Hospitals)
Cambridge, England 
[1] G. Brindley, W. Lewin (1968). ''The
sensation produced by electrical
stimulation of the visual cortex''.
Journal of Physiology 196:
479–93. http://jp.physoc.org/content/
196/2/479.full.pdf UNKNOWN
source: G. Brindley, W. Lewin (1968).
"The sensation produced by electrical
stimulation of the visual cortex".
Journal of Physiology 196:
479–93. http://jp.physoc.org/content/
196/2/479.full.pdf
32 YBN
[02/09/1968 AD] 		5739) Pulsars, stars that emit
regularly timed bursts of radio light
with a small interval, are identified
by Jocelyn Bell.
(Cavendish Laboratory, University of
Cambridge) Cambridge, England 
[1] Figure 1 from: A. HEWISH, S. J.
BELL, J. D. H. PILKINGTON, P. F. SCOTT,
R. A. COLLINS, ''Observation of a
Rapidly Pulsating Radio Source'',
Nature 217, 709-713 (24 February 1968)
doi:10.1038/217709a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v217/n5130/abs/217709
a0.html {Hewish_Antony_19680209.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v217/n5130/abs/217709a0.html

[2] Antony Hewish Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/physics/laureates/1974/hewish.jpg
32 YBN
[02/27/1968 AD] 		5759) A multi-wire solid-state particle
detector increases the speed of
particle detection.
(CERN) Geneva, Switzerland 
[1] Georges Charpak Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/physics/laureates/1992/charpak
_postcard.jpg
32 YBN
[03/11/1968 AD] 		5754) A DNA restriction enzyme from E.
coli is isolated; a protein in the
bacterium E. coli that cuts foreign
DNA.
(Harvard University) Cambridge,
Massachusetts, USA  		 
32 YBN
[11/16/1968 AD] 		5808) The artificial sweetener
Asparatame is discovered.
(G. D. Searle and Co.) Skokie,
Illinois, USA 		 
32 YBN
[12/24/1968 AD] 		5604) The first humans to orbit the
moon.
Moon of Earth  
32 YBN
[1968 AD] 		6641) The first direct evidence for
internal structure within protons and
neutrons and for quarks; based on
analysis of the scattering patterns
observed when high-velocity electrons
from the Stanford linear accelerator
strike liquid hydrogen.
(Stanford University Linear
Accelerator) Stanford, California,
USA 		 
31 YBN
[03/21/1969 AD] 		5776) The first known structure of an
antibody is determined: the amino acid
sequence in the γG human
immunoglobulin protein molecule.
(The Rockefeller University) New York
City, New York, USA 
[1] Figure 1 from: [4] Gerald M.
Edelman, Bruce A. Cunningham, W. Einar
Gall, Paul D. Gottlieb, Urs
Rutishauser, and Myron J. Waxdal, ''THE
COVALENT STRUCTURE OF AN ENTIRE γG
IMMUNOGLOBULIN MOLECULE'', PNAS May 1,
1969 vol. 63 no. 1 78-85
http://www.pnas.org/content/63/1/78.sh
ort {Edelman_Gerald
Maurice_19690321.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.pnas.org/content/63/1
/78.short

[2] Gerald Maurice Edelman Nobel
Prize photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1972/edelman.jpg
31 YBN
[04/??/1969 AD] 		5576) Changes in electric potential on
the surface of the skull evoked from
auditory and visual stimulus are
recorded.
(Albert Einstein College of Medicine)
Bronx, New York, USA 
[1] Herbert Vaughan, ''The Relationship
of Brain Activity to Scalp Recordings
of Event-Related Potentials'' in the
book Emmanuel Donchin, ''Average Evoked
Potentials Methods, Results and
Evaluations'', NASA, 1969,
p45. {evoked002.pdf} PD
source: evoked002.pdf

[2] Herbert Vaughan, ''The
Relationship of Brain Activity to Scalp
Recordings of Event-Related
Potentials'' in the book Emmanuel
Donchin, ''Average Evoked Potentials
Methods, Results and Evaluations'',
NASA, 1969, p45. {evoked002.pdf} PD
source: evoked002.pdf
31 YBN
[07/21/1969 AD] 		655) Humans land and walk on the
surface of the moon of Earth; the US
"Apollo 11".

The Apollo 11 Lunar Module "Eagle" is
the first crewed vehicle to land on the
Moon. It carries Neil Armstrong and
Edwin Aldrin Jr. who spend about 21
hours on the moon and return 8 days
after lift off.
Moon of Earth 
[1] ''That's one small step for man,
one giant leap for mankind.'' At 10:56
p.m. EDT on July 20, 1969, Neil
Armstrong became the first human to set
foot on the Moon. This image was taken
from the telecast of the event, watched
by over half a billion people around
the world. Armstrong composed the quote
after landing on the Moon, he had meant
to say, ''That's one small step for
aman ...''. The pictures were taken by
the Apollo lunar surface camera,
mounted on one of the LM legs. The
black bar running through the center of
the picture is an anomaly in the
Goldstone ground data system. (NASA
photo ID S69-42583) PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/plane
tary/lunar/images/a11tvarm.jpg

[2] Here Aldrin is unloading the
passive seismometer of the Early Apollo
Scientific Experiments Package (EASEP)
from the lunar module equipment bay.
The white apparatus in the foreground
is the 35 mm stereo close-up camera.
Beyond the right leg is the solar wind
experiment, and beyond that the lunar
surface TV camera. The LM legs are
wrapped in foil to provide thermal
insulation. There is a split rock in
the lower right of the frame which is
presumably ejecta from a nearby impact
crater. (NASA photo ID
AS11-40-5931) PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/plane
tary/lunar/images/as11_40_5931.jpg
31 YBN
[07/28/1969 AD] 		5795) That the sequence from a
messenger RNA corresponds to the
sequence of amino-acids in the protein
that the RNA codes for is proven using
gel electrophoresis to determine the
nucleotide sequence in RNA.
(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England 
[1] Figure 8 from: J. M. ADAMS, P. G.
N. JEPPESEN, F. SANGER & B. G. BARRELL,
''Nucleotide Sequence from the Coat
Protein Cistron of R17 Bacteriophage
RNA'', Nature 223, 1009 - 1014 (06
September 1969);
doi:10.1038/2231009a0 http://www.nature
.com/nature/journal/v223/n5210/abs/22310
09a0.html {Sanger_Frederick_19690728.pd
f} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v223/n5210/abs/2231009a0.html

[2] Frederick Sanger Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/chemistry/laureates/1958/sanger.jpg
31 YBN
[09/15/1969 AD] 		5753) A DNA molecule is broken with an
enzyme by Smith and Welcox;
("restriction enzymes").

Smith and Welcox use a restriction
enzyme from the bacterium Hemophilus
influenzae to break a DNA molecule.
(Johns Hopkins University, School of
Medicine) Baltimore, Maryland,
USA 
[1] Hamilton O. Smith, K. W. Welcox, A
Restriction enzyme from Hemophilus
influenzae : I. Purification and
general properties, Journal of
Molecular Biology, Volume 51, Issue 2,
28 July 1970, Pages 379-391, ISSN
0022-2836, DOI:
10.1016/0022-2836(70)90149-X. (http://w
ww.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6W
K7-4DM0XG8-4B/2/8311e74ce9394a10f0307ba6
aac6f0d1) {Smith_Hamilton_O_19690915.pd
f} COPYRIGHTED
source: (http://www.sciencedirect.com/sc
ience/article/B6WK7-4DM0XG8-4B/2/8311e74
ce9394a10f0307ba6aac6f0d1) {Smith_Hamil
ton_O_19690915.pdf}

[2] Hamilton O. Smith Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/medicine/laureates/1978/smith_
postcard.jpg
31 YBN
[10/10/1969 AD] 		5469) The molecular structure of
insulin is determined using
monochromatic X-ray reflection).
(Oxford University) Oxford,
England 
[1] Figure 2 from: M. J. ADAMS, T. L.
BLUNDELL, E. J. DODSON, G. G. DODSON,
M. VIJAYAN, E. N. BAKER, M. M. HARDING,
D. C. HODGKIN, B. RIMMER & S. SHEAT,
''Structure of Rhombohedral 2 Zinc
Insulin Crystals'', Nature 224, 491 -
495 (01 November 1969);
doi:10.1038/224491a0. http://www.nature
.com/nature/journal/v224/n5218/abs/22449
1a0.html {Hodgkin_Dorothy_Crowfoot_1969
1010.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v224/n5218/abs/224491a0.html

[2] Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin Nobel
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1964/hodgk
in_postcard.jpg
31 YBN
[10/29/1969 AD] 		5733) That the hypothalamus (an area of
the brain) controls and regulates the
secretion of other glands is proven.
(Baylor University) Houston, Texas,
USA 
[1] Location of Hypothalamus Found in
the url :
http://arbl.cvmbs.colostate.edu/hbooks/p
athphys/endocrine/hypopit/anatomy.html
It is one of the books written by
Professors in Colorado State
University. It is free public domain
image. Is based on an image taken
from a project of the NIH to create
public domain anatomy images. PD
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/medicine/laureates/1977/guille
min_postcard.jpg

[2] Roger Guillemin Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b2/Illu_diencephalon_.jp
g
31 YBN
[1969 AD] 		5840) A walking robot that uses
pneumatic (air-filled) rubber
artificial muscles.
(Waseda Univerity) Tokyo, Japan 
[1] Introduction of Artificial Muscle
Made of Rubber: WAP-1 (1969) The
anthropomorphic pneumatically-activated
pedipulator WAP-1 was developed. In it,
artificial muscles made of rubber were
attached as actuators. Planar biped
locomotion was realized by
teaching-playback control of its
artificial muscles. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.humanoid.waseda.ac.jp
/booklet/photo/WAP-1-1969.jpg
31 YBN
[1969 AD] 		5841) "Bubble memory" devices store
information even when the computer is
turned off, unlike conventional
electronic memory devices.
  
31 YBN
[1969 AD] 		5851) The Internet (people use
computers to communicate over the
telephone wire network).

The ARPAnet (Advanced Research Projects
Agency NETwork) which will grow into
the Internet, is started with four
sites: two University of California
campuses (Santa Barbara and Los
Angeles), the Stanford Research
Institute, and the University of Utah.
(University of California at Los
Angeles) Los Angeles, California, USA
and (Stanford Research Institute)
Stanford, California, USA and
(University of California Santa
Barbara) Santa Barbara, California,
USA, and (University of Utah) Salt Lake
City, Utah, USA 
[1] Map of ARPANET nodes (1970).
UNKNOWN
source: http://cla.calpoly.edu/~lcall/20
4/8-10/ARPANET-map.jpg

[2] Diagram of the first 2 nodes on
the ARPANET
source: http://www.computerhistory.org/i
nternet_history/full_size_images/1969_2-
node_map.gif
30 YBN
[01/29/1970 AD] 		5836) The digital electronic camera.

The Charged Coupled Device (CCD), an
electronic memory that can be charged
by light is invented. This will lead to
the first digital cameras.
(Bell Telephone Laboratories) Murray
Hill, New Jersey, USA 
[1] Figure 7 from: ''George E. Smith -
Nobel Lecture''. Nobelprize.org. 29 May
2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/2009/smith-lecture.html {S
mith_George_E_20091208.pdf} COPYRIGHTED

source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/physics/laureates/2009/smith-lecture.
html

[2] Willard Boyle (Property of AT&T
Archives) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.casca.ca/ecass/issues
/2006-me/features/boyle/boyle_files/imag
e001.jpg
30 YBN
[06/02/1970 AD] 		5801) Reverse transcriptase is
identified, an enzyme in RNA tumor
viruses that synthesizes DNA from an
RNA template. This shows that the
classical process of information
transfer from DNA to RNA can be
reversed.
(Massachusetts Institute of Technology)
Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA and
(University of Wisconsin) Madison,
Wisconsin, USA 
[1] Howard Martin Temin Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1975/temin.jpg

[2] David Baltimore Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/medicine/laureates/1975/baltim
ore_postcard.jpg
30 YBN
[06/16/1970 AD] 		5716) Two DNA molecules are combined
using an enzyme (ligase). The first
artificial gene is synthesized by Har
Khorana and team who use kinase and
ligase to create the gene for a tRNA
molecule from DNA segments.
(University of Wisconsin) Madison,
Wisconsin, USA 
[1] Figure 1 from: K. L. AGARWAL, H.
BÜCHI, M. H. CARUTHERS, N. GUPTA, H.
G. KHORANA, K. KLEPPE, A. KUMAR, E.
OHTSUKA, U. L. RAJBHANDARY, J. H. VAN
DE SANDE, V. SGARAMELLA, H. WEBER & T.
YAMADA , ''Total synthesis of the gene
for an alanine transfer ribonucleic
acid from yeast'', Nature 227, 27 - 34
(04 July 1970);
doi:10.1038/227027a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v227/n5253/abs/227027
a0.html {Khorana_Har_Gobind_19700616.pd
f} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v227/n5253/abs/227027a0.html

[2] Har Gobind Khorana Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1968/khorana.jpg
30 YBN
[09/08/1970 AD] 		5574) A protein with the same amino
acid sequence as the human growth
hormone (HGH or somatotropin) is
synthesized that displays
growth-promoting activity.
(University of California) San
Francisco, California, USA 
[1] Choh Hao Li This image is now in
the public domain because its term of
copyright has expired in China.
According to copyright laws of the
People's Republic of China (with legal
jurisdiction in the mainland only,
excluding Hong Kong and Macao) and the
Republic of China (currently with
jurisdiction in Taiwan, the Pescadores,
Quemoy, Matsu, etc.), all photographs
enter the public domain 50 years after
they were first published, or if
unpublished 50 years from creation, and
all non-photographic works enter the
public domain fifty years after the
death of the creator. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/b/b0/Choh.jpg
30 YBN
[09/24/1970 AD] 		5600) A robotic ship from Earth returns
samples from another body (the moon of
Earth).
(80 km SE of the city of) Dzhezkazgan,
Kazakhstan (was U.S.S.R.) 
[1] Luna 10 PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image
/spacecraft/luna10.jpg

[2] First image of the far side of the
Moon Earth's Moon The Luna 3
spacecraft returned the first views
ever of the far side of the Moon. The
first image was taken at 03:30 UT on 7
October at a distance of 63,500 km
after Luna 3 had passed the Moon and
looked back at the sunlit far side. The
last image was taken 40 minutes later
from 66,700 km. A total of 29
photographs were taken, covering 70% of
the far side. The photographs were very
noisy and of low resolution, but many
features could be recognized. This is
the first image returned by Luna 3,
taken by the wide-angle lens, it showed
the far side of the Moon was very
different from the near side, most
noticeably in its lack of lunar maria
(the dark areas). The right
three-quarters of the disk are the far
side. The dark spot at upper right is
Mare Moscoviense, the dark area at
lower left is Mare Smythii. The small
dark circle at lower right with the
white dot in the center is the crater
Tsiolkovskiy and its central peak. The
Moon is 3475 km in diameter and north
is up in this image. (Luna 3-1) PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/imgca
t/hires/lu3_1.gif
30 YBN
[12/15/1970 AD] 		5617) The first ship to soft land on
another planet (Venus) and the first to
transmit data after landing; the Soviet
Venera 7.
Planet Venus 
[1] Venera 7
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/plane
tary/image/venera_7_capsule.jpg
30 YBN
[1970 AD] 		5842) The "floppy disk" is introduced
for storing data.
  
29 YBN
[01/01/1971 AD] 		5519) A field ion shadow projection
microscope is used to view large
biomolecules.
(Pennsylvania State University)
University Park, Pennsylvania,
USA 
[1] Figure 1 from: Erwin W. Müller,
''The atom-probe field ion
microscope'', Naturwissenschaften,
1970, Volume 57, Number 5, Pages
222-230. http://www.springerlink.com/co
ntent/h341686765366r77/ {Muller_Erwin_W
_19700202.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.springerlink.com/cont
ent/h341686765366r77/

[2] Erwin
Müller (1911-1977) UNKNOWN
source: http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/opti
cs/timeline/people/antiqueimages/mueller
.jpg
29 YBN
[01/??/1971 AD] 		5523) The term "black hole" is created
for a mass that collapses to a point
(or "singularity"), with a gravity so
large that nothing including even light
particles can escape it.
(Princeton University) Princeton, New
Jersey, USA 
[1] Remo Ruffini and John A. Wheeler,
''Introducing the black hole'',
Physics Today, Jan,
1971. http://scitation.aip.org/getabs/s
ervlet/GetabsServlet?prog=normal&id=PHTO
AD000024000001000030000001&idtype=cvips&
gifs=yes&ref=no {Wheeler_John_Archibald
_197101xx.pdf} COPYRIGHTED John
Archibald Wheeler, 1911-2008 UNKNOWN
source: http://scitation.aip.org/getabs/
servlet/GetabsServlet?prog=normal&id=PHT
OAD000024000001000030000001&idtype=cvips
&gifs=yes&ref=no


source: http://planetarium.lambuth.edu/w
p-content/uploads/2008/04/wheeler.jpg
29 YBN
[04/19/1971 AD] 		5667) The first orbiting ("space")
station; the Soviet "Salyut 1".
(Baikonur Cosmodrome) Tyuratam,
Kazakhstan (was Soviet Union)
(verify) 
[1] Description An extremely rare
view of the world's first space
station, the Soviet Salyut 1, as seen
from the departing Soyuz 11. Source
http://www.astronautix.com/graphics
/s/sal1foto.jpg Date 30 June
1971 Author Viktor
Patsayev COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/c/cc/Salyut_1.jpg

[2] Description A view of the
Soviet space station Salyut 1, shown
with a docked Soyuz 7KT-OK
spacecraft. Source
http://rst.gsfc.nasa.gov/Intro/saly
ut1.jpg (http://rst.gsfc.nasa.gov/Intro
/Part2_26g.html) Date 19 April
1971 Author TsKBEM PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/d/d5/Salyut1_with_docked_Soyuz_
spacecraft.jpg
29 YBN
[05/06/1971 AD] 		5735) GHRH (growth hormone-releasing
hormone), which causes the pituitary
gland to release gonadotropin is
isolated and synthesized. This proves
that the hypothalamus releases hormones
that regulate the pituitary gland.
(V.A. Hospital and Tulane University
School of Medicine) New Orleans,
Louisiana, USA 
[1] Roger Guillemin Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/medicine/laureates/1977/guille
min_postcard.jpg

[2] Andrew Victor Schally Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/medicine/laureates/1977/schall
y_postcard.jpg
29 YBN
[07/15/1971 AD] 		5421) The first natural compound found
to contain boron is identified:
boromycin, an antibiotic produced by a
species of Streptomyces bacteria.
(Eidgenossische Technische Hochschule)
Zurich, Switzerland 
[1] Figure of boromycin from: J. D.
Dunitz, D. M. Hawley, D. Mikloš, D. N.
J. White, Yu. Berlin, R. Marušić, V.
Prelog, ''Structure of boromycin'',
Helvetica chimica acta, (1971) volume:
54 issue: 6 page:
1709. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/do
i/10.1002/hlca.19710540624/abstract {Pr
elog_Vladimir_19710715.pdf} COPYRIGHTED

source: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/d
oi/10.1002/hlca.19710540624/abstract

[2] Vladimir Prelog [t Notice no neck
tie, may indicate progressive
view.] Nobel photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1975/prelo
g_postcard.jpg
29 YBN
[11/09/1971 AD] 		5838) Light particle communication
using liquid filled glass fiber (fiber
optic communication).
(Bell Telephone Laboratories) Holmdel,
New Jersey, USA 		 
29 YBN
[11/14/1971 AD] 		5618) The first ship to orbit another
planet. The US "Mariner 9" orbits
planet Mars.

The Mariner 9 mission results in a
global mapping of the surface of Mars,
including the first detailed views of
the martian volcanoes, Mariner Valley,
the polar caps, dust storms, and the
satellites Phobos and Deimos.
Planet Mars 
[1] Mariner 9 PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image
/spacecraft/mariner09.jpg

[2] Mariner 9 imagery of Olympus Mons
volcano on Mars compared to the eight
principal Hawaiian islands at the same
scale. (Mariner 9 image mosaic,
NASA/JPL) PD
source: http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/volc/fi
g38.gif
29 YBN
[11/27/1971 AD] 		5619) A ship impacts Mars (the Soviet
"Mars 2").
Planet Mars 
[1] Mars 3 Lander PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image
/spacecraft/mars3_lander_vsm.jpg

[2] Description Mars3
iki.jpg English: The Mars 3
spacecraft Date Source
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image/sp
acecraft/mars3_iki.jpg Author
NASA PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/13/Mars3_iki.jpg
29 YBN
[11/??/1971 AD] 		5844) The first microprocessor and
central processing unit (CPU); an
integrated circuit which contains 2,300
transistors with a clock rate of 740
kHz, has 46 instructions, and uses
external RAM and ROM.
(Intel Corporation) Santa Clara,
California, USA 
[1] Description Intel
4004.jpg Italiano: Primo
microprocessore Intel, l'it:Intel
4004. Date 2005-12-07 (original
upload date) Source Transfered
from it.wikipedia Author Original
uploader was LucaDetomi at
it.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) Released under the GNU Free
Documentation License. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/52/Intel_4004.jpg

[2] Description
C4004.JPG.jpg Intel 4004 Date
11/06/2006 (upload
commons) Source
en.wikipedia.org Author
Photo by John Pilge. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/27/C4004.JPG.jpg
29 YBN
[12/02/1971 AD] 		5620) The first ship to soft land on
planet Mars and return data: the Soviet
"Mars 3".
Planet Mars 
[1] Signal from mars-3 Lander UNKNOWN

source: http://www.mentallandscape.com/C
_Mars03_lander.jpg

[2] Mars 3 Lander PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image
/spacecraft/mars3_lander_vsm.jpg
29 YBN
[1971 AD] 		5852) The first e-mail (electronic
mail) program.
(Bolt, Beranek, and Newman engineering)
Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA 
[1] Fue creado por Ray Tomlinson en
1971, aunque no lo consideró un
invento importante. Su gran difusión
promueve servicios para chequear una
cuenta POP desde cualquier
navegador. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.icesi.edu.co/blogs_es
tudiantes/jazminmercadeo/files/2012/01/D
ibujo1.png

[2] Principal Engineer Ray Tomlinson
Inducted into Internet Hall of
Fame UNKNOWN
source: http://www.bbn.com/resources/img
/2009-tomlinson.jpg
28 YBN
[01/21/1972 AD] 		5708) "Immune Reponse" (Ir) genes which
control the formation of specific
immune responses are identified.
(Harvard University) Cambridge,
Massachusetts, USA  
[1] Table 1 from: Baruj Benacerraf and
Hugh O. McDevitt,
''Histocompatibility-Linked Immune
Response Genes'', Science, New Series,
Vol. 175, No. 4019 (Jan. 21, 1972), pp.
273-279 http://www.jstor.org/stable/173
3481 {Benacerraf_Beruj_19720121.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED Baruj Benacerraf Nobel
Prize photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1733
481

[2] Figure 1 from: Baruj Benacerraf
and Hugh O. McDevitt,
''Histocompatibility-Linked Immune
Response Genes'', Science, New Series,
Vol. 175, No. 4019 (Jan. 21, 1972), pp.
273-279 http://www.jstor.org/stable/173
3481 {Benacerraf_Beruj_19720121.pdf}
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/medicine/laureates/1980/benace
rraf_postcard.jpg
28 YBN
[07/15/1972 AD] 		5621) The first ship from Earth to pass
the meteor belt between Mars and
Jupiter; the U.S. Pioneer 10.
Planet Mars 
[1] Pioneer 10 PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image
/spacecraft/pioneer10-11.jpg
28 YBN
[07/31/1972 AD] 		5751) Proteins are synthesized by using
a virus to add DNA into bacteria by
Paul Berg and team.

This is the beginning of genetic
engineering.

One of the earliest practical results
of this "recombinant" technology is the
development of a strain of bacteria
containing the gene for producing the
mammalian hormone insulin.
(Stanford University Medical Center)
Stanford, California, USA 
[1] Figure 1 from: David A. Jackson,
Robert H. Symons, and Paul Berg,
''Biochemical Method for Inserting New
Genetic Information into DNA of Simian
Virus 40: Circular SV40 DNA Molecules
Containing Lambda Phage Genes and the
Galactose Operon of Escherichia coli'',
PNAS October 1, 1972 vol. 69 no. 10
2904-2909
http://www.pnas.org/content/69/10/2904
.short {Berg_Paul_19720731.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.pnas.org/content/69/1
0/2904.short

[2] Description Paul Berg in
1980.jpg Paul Berg - 1980 Albert
Lasker Basic Medical Research Award
Winner Date 1980(1980) Source
http://profiles.nlm.nih.gov/CD/B/B/
L/L/ Author
Unknown Permission (Reusing this
file) Courtesy of the National
Library of Medicine. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/88/Paul_Berg_in_1980.jpg

28 YBN
[1972 AD] 		5074) A logical inconsistency is found
in the famous "twin-paradox" of
Einstein's theory of relativity in
which one twin ages faster because they
travel faster: the impossibility of two
twins traveling at different velocities
relative to each other.
(University of London) London, England
(presumably) 
[1] Herbert Dingle UNKNOWN
source: http://www.relativ-kritisch.net/
forum/images/wiki/4/41/HerbertDingle.jpg

28 YBN
[1972 AD] 		5790) The first pair of electron
storage rings are constructed in which
two streams of high-velocity electrons
can collide head on, and an
electron-positron collider is
constructed and starts operating.
(Stanford University Stanford Linear
Accelerator Center {SLAC}) Stanford,
California, USA 
[1] SLAC National Accelerator
Laboratory is home to a two-mile linear
accelerator—the longest in the world.
Originally a particle physics research
center, SLAC is now a multipurpose
laboratory for astrophysics, photon
science, accelerator and particle
physics research. Six scientists have
been awarded the Nobel Prize for work
carried out at SLAC and the future of
the laboratory promises to be just as
extraordinary. UNKNOWN
source: http://www6.slac.stanford.edu/we
bimages/slac-aerial.jpg

[2] Burton Richter Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/physics/laureates/1976/richter
_postcard.jpg
27 YBN
[12/03/1973 AD] 		5622) A ship reaches Jupiter and sends
the first close-up images of Jupiter;
the US "Pioneer 10".

Pioneer 10 also charts the giant
planet's intense radiation belts, and
locates the planet's magnetic field.
Planet Jupiter 
[1] Description
http://history.nasa.gov/SP-349/p142.jpg
English: Pioneer 10 Jupiter
encounter. Date Source
http://history.nasa.gov/SP-349/ch8.
htm Author
NASA Permission (Reusing this
file) PD
source: http://history.nasa.gov/SP-349/p
142.jpg

[2] Pioneer 10 PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image
/spacecraft/pioneer10-11.jpg
27 YBN
[1973 AD] 		5684) Coenzyme vitamin B-12
(cyanocobalamin) is synthesized.
(Harvard University) Cambridge,
Massachusetts, USA (and Federal
Institute of Technology in Zürich,
Switzerland) 
[1] Robert Burns Woodward Nobel Prize
Photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/chemistry/laureates/1965/woodward.jpg

26 YBN
[03/29/1974 AD] 		5614) The first ship to reach Mercury,
to return close images of planet
Mercury, and to use the gravitational
pull of one planet (Venus) to reach
another planet (Mercury); the U.S.
"Mariner 10".
Planet Mercury 
[1] This mosaic of Mercury was taken by
the Mariner 10 spacecraft during its
approach on 29 March 1974. The mosaic
consists of 18 images taken at 42 s
intervals during a 13 minute period
when the spacecraft was 200,000 km
(about 6 hours prior to closest
approach) from the planet. source
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/photo_gallery
/photogallery-mercury.html,
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image/planeta
ry/mercury/mercuryglobe1.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/22/Mercuryglobe1.jpg

[2] Artist impression of the Mariner
10 mission. Gravitational slingshot -
Mariner 10 was the first spacecraft to
make use of a ''gravitational
slingshot'' maneuver, using Venus to
bend its flight path and bring its
perihelion down to the level of
Mercury's orbit. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/1/16/Mariner_10_gravitational_s
lingshot.jpg
26 YBN
[06/??/1974 AD] 		5561) The element 106, Seaborgium is
created and identified, by bombarding
lead atoms with chromium ions.
(Joint Institute for Nuclear Research)
Dubna, Soviet Union and (University of
California) Berkeley, California,
USA 
[1] Description Berkeley 60-inch
cyclotron.gif English: Photograph
shows the 60-inch cyclotron at the
University of California Lawrence
Radiation Laboratory, Berkeley, in
August, 1939. The machine was the most
powerful atom-smasher in the world at
the time. It had started operating
early in the year. During the period of
the photograph Dr. Edwin M. McMillan
was doing the work which led to the
discovery of neptunium (element 93) a
year later. The instrument was used
later by Dr. Glenn T. Seaborg and his
colleagues for the discovery of element
94 (plutonium) early in 1941.
Subsequently, other transuranium
elements were discovered with the
machine, as well as many radioisotopes,
including carbon-14. For their work,
Drs. Seaborg and McMillan shared the
Nobel Prize in 1951. The machine was
used for the ''long bombardments''
which produced the first weighable and
visible quantities of plutonium, which
was used at Chicago by Seaborg and his
colleagues to work out the method for
separating plutonium on an industrial
scale at the Hanford, Washington,
plutonium pro... Русский:
Фотография
показывает
60-дюймовый циклотрон
в университете
Лаборатории California
Lawrence Radiation, Беркли, в
августе 1939. Машина
была самым сильным
ускорителем частиц в
мире в то время. Date
1939(1939) Source National
Archives logo.svg This image is
available from the Archival Research
Catalog of the National Archives and
Records Administration under the ARC
Identifier 558594. This tag does not
indicate the copyright status of the
attached work. A normal copyright tag
is still required. See
Commons:Licensing for more information.
US-NARA-ARC-Logo.svg Author
Department of Energy. Office of
Public Affairs PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/72/Berkeley_60-inch_cycl
otron.gif

[2] Glenn Seaborg (1912 -
1999) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.atomicarchive.com/Ima
ges/bio/B51.jpg
26 YBN
[1974 AD] 		5846) The personal computer; the
"Altair 8800".
(Micro Instrumentation and Telemetry
Systems) Albuquerque, New Mexico, USA
(verify) 
[1] Description Altair 8800
Computer.jpg Altair 8800 Computer
with 8 inch floppy disk
system. Circuit boards - left to
right 1. Seals 8K Static RAM
board 2. MITS floppy disk
controller (2 board set) 3. MITS
floppy disk controller 4. MITS 16K
Dynamic RAM board 5. MITS 16K
Dynamic RAM board 6. MITS SIO-2
Dual serial port board 7. Solid
State Music PROM board 8. MITS 8080
CPU board Photo taken at the Vintage
Computer Festival 7.0 held at the
Computer History Museum, Mountain View
California. November 6-7, 2004
[1] This was one of Altair systems
exhibited by Erik Klein [2] Photo by
Michael Holley, November 2004 Nikon
E3200 with on camera flash. Touched up
in Adobe Photoshop Elements 3.0. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/01/Altair_8800_Computer.
jpg
26 YBN
[1974 AD] 		5896) A multi-window computer program
with moveable windows; Xerox's
SmallTalk.
(Xerox Palo Alto Research Center) Palo
Alto, California, USA 
[1] SmallTalk software UNKNOWN
source: http://media.arstechnica.com/ima
ges/gui/7-AltoST.jpg
25 YBN
[03/19/1975 AD] 		5717) The first artificial gene capable
of functioning in a living cell is
synthesized.
(Massachusetts Institute of Technology)
Cambridge, MAssachusetts, USA and
(University of Wisconsin) Madison,
Wisconsin, USA 
[1] Figure 1 from: Khorana, H. G.,
Agarwal, K. L., Besmer, P., Büchi, H.,
Caruthers, M. H., Cashion, P. J.,
Fridkin, M., Jay, E., Kleppe, K.,
Kleppe, R., Kumar, A., Loewen, P. C.,
Miller, R. C., Minamoto, K., Panet, A.,
RajBhandary, U. L., Ramamoorthy, B.,
Sekiya, T., Takeya, T., and van de
Sande, J. H. (1976) Total synthesis of
the structural gene for the precursor
of a tyrosine suppressor transfer RNA
from Escherichia coli. 1. General
introduction. J. Biol. Chem. 251
565–570.
http://www.jbc.org/content/251/3/565.l
ong {Khorana_Har_Gobind_19750319.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jbc.org/content/251/3
/565.long

[2] Har Gobind Khorana Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1968/khorana.jpg
25 YBN
[10/20/1975 AD] 		5623) The first ship to orbit and land
on Venus, and transmit the first image
from the surface of another planet (the
Soviet "Venera 9").

The lander transmits data from Venus'
surface for 53 minutes. Temperature at
the surface is found to be 460°C
(860°F); atmospheric pressure is 90
times that at the surface of Earth.
Planet Venus 
[1] Image of the surface of Venus from
Venera 9 PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/imgca
t/hires/v09_lander.gif

[2] Venera 9 Descent Craft PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/plane
tary/image/venera_9_lander.jpg
25 YBN
[1975 AD] 		6371) An external object is moved by
thought (electricity in the brain).
 
[1] todo: change to video from National
Geographic ''The Incredible Human
Machine'' video Adapted from picture
of EEG electrodes and toy train View
of EEG electrodes on a model phrenology
head M400/0123 Rights
Managed Credit: JAMES
KING-HOLMES/SCIENCE PHOTO
LIBRARY COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencephoto.com/imag
e/271056/large/M4000123-View_of_EEG_elec
trodes_on_a_model_phrenology_head-SPL.jp
g AND
http://howtobuildamodeltrain.com/wp-co
ntent/uploads/2011/12/howtobuildamodeltr
ain1.jpg

[2] ''The Incredible Human Machine'',
National Geographic
(1975) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://ecx.images-amazon.com/ima
ges/I/51PVRJGKR8L._SL500_AA300_.jpg
24 YBN
[03/10/1976 AD] 		1122) The lithium ion battery.
(Exxon Research and Engineering
Company) Linden, New Jersey, USA 
[1] Chemical equation from: M Stanley
Whittingham, ''Electrical Energy
Storage and Intercalation Chemistry'',
Science, New Series, Vol. 192, No. 4244
(Jun. 11, 1976), pp.
1126-1127 http://www.sciencemag.org/con
tent/192/4244/1126 AND
http://www.jstor.org/stable/1742909
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1742
909

[2] Description Deutsch:
Lithium-Ionen-Akkumulator von Varta,
Museum Autovision, Altlußheim,
Deutschland English: Lithium ion
battery by Varta (Museum Autovision
Altlußheim, Germany) Date January
2008 Source Own work Author Claus
Ableiter GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Lithium-Ionen-A
ccumulator.jpg/1024px-Lithium-Ionen-Accu
mulator.jpg
24 YBN
[03/??/1976 AD] 		5763) Colliding accelerated protons and
antiprotons (oppositely charged
particles) head-on is proposed.
(Harvard University) Cambridge,
Massachusetts, USA and (University of
Wisconsin) Madison, Wisconsin, USA
 
[1] Figure 1 from: Cline, McIntyre,
and Rubbia, ''Producing Massive Neutral
Intermediate Vector Bosons with
Existing Accelerators,''In Proceedings
of International Neutrino Conference,
Aachen 1976, ed. H. Faissner, H.
Reithler, and P. Zerwas (Braunschweig:
Vieweg, 1976), pp.
683-687. http://lss.fnal.gov/conf/C7803
272/p175.pdf {Rubbia_Carlo_197603xx.pdf
} PD
source: http://lss.fnal.gov/conf/C780327
2/p175.pdf

[2] Carlo Rubbia Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/physics/laureates/1984/rubbia_
postcard.jpg
24 YBN
[07/20/1976 AD] 		5624) The first images and soil samples
from the surface of Mars.

The two Viking orbiters transmit images
of the surface and complete over 700
orbits of Mars. The two Viking Landers
transmit over 1400 images images of the
surface, take surface samples and
analyze them for composition and signs
of life, study atmospheric composition
and weather, and deploy seismometers.
Planet Mars 
[1] First Mars Surface Photo Viking 1
first image Collection: NASA Great
Images in Nasa
Collection Title: First Mars Surface
Photo Full Description: The image
above is the first photograph ever
taken from the surface of Mars. It was
taken by the Viking 1 lander shortly
after it touched down on Mars on July
20, 1976. Part of footpad #2 can be
seen in the lower right corner, with
sand and dust in the center of it,
probably deposited during landing. The
next day, color photographs were also
taken on the Martian surface. The
primary objectives of the Viking
missions, which was composed of two
spacecraft, were to obtain
high-resolution images of the Martian
surface, characterize the structure and
composition of the atmosphere and
surface, and search for evidence of
life on Mars. Date: 07/20/1976 NASA
Center: Jet Propulsion
Laboratory Subject
Category: Planet-Mars Subject
Category: Viking-Pathfinder-So
journer Keywords: Laboratory Keywords
: Jet Keywords: Propulsion Keywords:
Viking Keywords: Mars Keywords: P-
17053 Audience: General
Public facet_what: Mars facet_what:
Viking facet_what: Viking 1
Lander facet_where: Jet Propulsion
Laboratory facet_where: Mars facet_wh
ere: Jet Propulsion Laboratory
(JPL) facet_when: July 20,
1976 facet_when: 07-20-1976 facet_whe
n_year: 1976 Image
#: MarsSurface original_url: http://g
rin.hq.nasa… UID: SPD-GRIN-GPN-2003-
00 061 Center: JPL Center
Number: MarsSurface GRIN DataBase
Number: GPN-2003-00061 Creator-Photogr
apher: NASA Original
Source: NASA Image
ID: 127274 Resolution
Size: 5 Format: JP2 Media
Type: Image File
Name: GPN-2003-00061.jp2 Width: 2973
Height: 1228 PD
source: http://www.nasaimages.org/downlo
ad.php?mid=nasaNAS~5~5~23140~127274&file
=GPN-2003-00061.jpg&src=http%3A%2F%2Fmm0
4.nasaimages.org%2FMediaManager%2Fsrvr%3
Fmediafile%3D%2FSize3%2FnasaNAS-5-NA%2F2
5256%2FGPN-2003-00061.jpg

[2] Description Mars Viking
11d128.png Original Caption Released
with NASA image: The Viking 1 Lander
sampling arm created a number of deep
trenches as part of the surface
composition and biology experiments on
Mars. The digging tool on the sampling
arm (at lower center) could scoop up
samples of material and deposit them
into the appropriate experiment. Some
holes were dug deeper to study soil
which was not affected by solar
radiation and weathering. The trenches
in this ESE looking image are in the
''Sandy Flats'' area of the landing
site at Chryse Planitia. The boom
holding the meteorology sensors is at
left. More information can be found at
Viking Lander Image 11D128.BLU, Viking
Lander Image 11D128.GRN and Viking
Lander Image 11D128.RED. Date
2009-01-26; original photos were
taken 1977-05-26. Source Own work
based on images in the NASA Viking
image archive Author ''Roel van
der Hoorn (Van der
Hoorn)'' Permission (Reusing this
file) I used the original 11d128.blu,
11d128.grn and 11d128.red images from
the NASA Viking image archive,
converted them to .png, manually
removed the noise and finally merged
them into one image (almost matching
true color; see here for the channel
mixing process). Except for the
conversion, this was all done in Adobe
Photoshop CS2. The original files by
NASA are in the public domain, and so
is this new one. Other versions I
created this image as a replacement for
the image Viking1mars.jpg (see also:
here) It was created by NASA, but the
quality is not very high. Using the
original pictures from the lander
archive resulted in a higher quality
image. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1b/Mars_Viking_11d128.pn
g
24 YBN
[11/30/1976 AD] 		5695) The complete DNA sequence of a
virus is determined by Frederick Sanger
and team.

This is the first complete genome to be
sequenced.

The genome is of a small virus with
5,375 nucleotide pairs which codes the
production of nine different proteins.
(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England 
[1] Figure 1 from: Sanger, F., Air,
G.M., Barrell, B.G., Brown, N.L.,
Coulson, A.R., Fiddes, J.C., Hutchison
III, C.A., Slocombe, P.M. and Smith,
M., 1977. Nature (London) 265, pp.
687–695. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v265/n5596/abs/265687a0.html {
Sanger_Frederick_19761130.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v265/n5596/abs/265687a0.html

[2] Frederick Sanger Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/chemistry/laureates/1958/sanger.jpg
24 YBN
[1976 AD] 		5329) Footprints of a pair of hominids
walking upright together that are
between 2.6 to 3 million years old are
found.
Laetoli, Tanzania, Africa 
[1] Figures from: M. D. Leakey, R. L.
Hay, ''Pliocene footprints in the
Laetolil Beds at Laetoli, northern
Tanzania'', Nature 278, 317-323 (22
March
1979). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v278/n5702/pdf/278317a0.pdf {Leake
y_Mary_19780928.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/openurl?vo
lume=184&issn=0028-0836&spage=491&issue=
4685&genre=article

[2] Dr. Louis Leakey and his wife Mary
Leakey display the skull of a human
ancestor, Zinjanthropus, in 1959.
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.britannica.com/EBchec
ked/topic/333880/Louis-SB-Leakey
23 YBN
[01/??/1977 AD] 		5847) The first successfully mass
marketed personal computer, the
Commodore PET is sold to the public.
(Commodore International) West Chester,
Pennsylvania, USA (verify) 
[1] Description Commodore
PET2001.jpg English: Commodore PET
2001 Series Personal Computer
(1977) Date 4 August
2009(2009-08-04) Source
http://www.flickr.com/photos/tomisl
avmedak/3803230853/ Author
Photographer: Tomislav Medak from
Flickr / Editing: Bill Bertram
(Pixel8) CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/57/Commodore_PET2001.jpg

23 YBN
[05/19/1977 AD] 		5771) The first x-ray laser.
(P. N. Lebedev Physics Institute, USSR
Academy of Sciences) Moscow, USSR (now
Russia) 
[1] Figure 4 from: Ilyukhin, A. A.,
Peregudov, G. V., Ragozin, E. N.,
Sobslman, 1.1, and Chirkov, V. A.,
''Concerning the problem of lasers for
the far ultraviolet λ ~500-700 A'',
1977, Journal of Experimental and
Theoretical Physics Letters, 95,
536. http://www.jetpletters.ac.ru/ps/14
16/article_21489.shtml {Ilyukhin_A_A_19
770519.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jetpletters.ac.ru/ps/
1416/article_21489.shtml
23 YBN
[1977 AD] 		5738) The first comprehensive map of
the ocean floor of Earth.
 
[1] [t Interesting that this map is not
public domain by a US government
source] Map of the ocean floor From
''World Ocean Floor Panorama'', Authors
Marie Tharp and Bruce C. Heezen, 1977.
Copyright by Marie Tharp 1977/2003.
Reproduced by permission of Marie Tharp
Maps, LLC , 8 Edward Street, Sparkill,
New York 10976. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://earthguide.ucsd.edu/eoc/t
eachers/t_tectonics/images/HeezenTharp_7
00.jpg

[2] Description Photograph of
Marie Tharp & Bruce Heezen, no
date Source
http://www.flickr.com/photos/mariet
harpmaps/537480113/ Article Marie
Tharp Portion used all Low
resolution? yes Purpose of use
illustrates an educational article
about the deceased person that the
photograph represents. Replaceable?
As the subject is deceased, the
photograph is not replaceable with an
uncopyrighted or freely copyrighted
image of comparable educational
value. Other information
Copyright Marie Tharp Maps,
http://marietharp.com/ COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/8/84/Tharp_%26_Heezen.jpg
23 YBN
[1977 AD] 		6277) An electronic glove that monitors
bodily movement.
(University of Illinois at Chicago)
Chicago, Illinois, USA 
[1] Sayre Glove From: Sturman, D.J.,
Zeltzer, D. (January 1994). ''A survey
of glove-based input''. IEEE Computer
Graphics and Applications 14 (1):
30–39. doi:10.1109/38.250916
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp
.jsp?tp=&arnumber=250916
{Virtual_Reality_1994.pdf} COPYRIGHTE
D
source: http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp
/stamp.jsp?tp=&arnumber=250916
{Virtual_Reality_1994.pdf}

[2] CyberGlove From: Sturman, D.J.,
Zeltzer, D. (January 1994). ''A survey
of glove-based input''. IEEE Computer
Graphics and Applications 14 (1):
30–39. doi:10.1109/38.250916
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp
.jsp?tp=&arnumber=250916
{Virtual_Reality_1994.pdf} COPYRIGHTE
D
source: http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp
/stamp.jsp?tp=&arnumber=250916
{Virtual_Reality_1994.pdf}
23 YBN
[1977 AD] 		6312) A self-driving car.

A car that can follow roads for up to
50 meters at speeds up to 30 km/h.
(Tsukuba Mechanical Engineering Lab)
Japan 
[1] Fig. 2. The vision-based automated
vehicle during 1970’s (left) and the
image processing: a road scene (right
top) and the guard rail detected in
the field of view (right
bottom). Figure 2 from: Sadayuki
Tsugawa, ''A History of Automated
Highway Systems in Japan and Future
Issues'', Proceedings of the 2008 IEEE
International Conference on Vehicular
Electronics and Safety Columbus, OH,
USA. September 22-24,
2008 http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/s
tamp.jsp?arnumber=04640914 COPYRIGHTED

source: http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp
/stamp.jsp?arnumber=04640914
22 YBN
[05/15/1978 AD] 		5831) Retinoic acid is found to induce
embryonic stem cells to differentiate
(change into a different kind of cell).
(The Rockefeller University) New York
City, New York, USA 
[1] Figure 1 from: Sidney Strickland
and Vijak Mahdavi, ''The induction of
differentiation in teratocarcinoma stem
cells by retinoic acid'', Cell, Volume
15, Issue 2, October 1978, Pages
393-403. http://www.sciencedirect.com/s
cience/article/pii/0092867478900089 {Ma
hdavi_Vijak_19780515.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence/article/pii/0092867478900089
22 YBN
[07/25/1978 AD] 		5810) The successful birth of a human
baby after being transferred from in
vitro fertilization.
(General Hostpial) Oldham, UK  
21 YBN
[01/15/1979 AD] 		6203) A practical laser disk.
Eindhoven, Netherlands 
[1] From: Bulthuis, et al, “Ten
billion bits on a disk,” IEEE
Spectrum,vol.26 (Aug.
1979). www.ieee.be/files/1979-August-IE
EE-Spectrum.pdf COPYRIGHTED
source: Bulthuis_IEEE-Spectrum_197908xx.
pdf

[2] Figures from: Jan van der Veen et
al, ''Optical recording medium and
method of optically recording
information thereon'', Patent number:
4298975, Filing date: Mar 19, 1979,
Issue date: Nov 3,
1981 http://www.google.com/patents?hl=e
n&lr=&vid=USPAT4298975&id=IRcCAAAAEBAJ&o
i=fnd&dq=laser+recording+philips&printse
c=abstract#v=onepage&q=laser%20recording
%20philips&f=false PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?hl
=en&lr=&vid=USPAT4298975&id=IRcCAAAAEBAJ
&oi=fnd&dq=laser+recording+philips&print
sec=abstract#v=onepage&q=laser%20recordi
ng%20philips&f=false
21 YBN
[03/05/1979 AD] 		5630) The first close-up images of the
moons of Jupiter; by the U.S. ship
Voyager 1.
Planet Jupiter 
[1] Original Caption Released with
Image: VOLCANIC EXPLOSION ON IO:
Voyager 1 acquired this image of Io on
March 4 at 5:30 p.m. (PST) about 11
hours before closest approach to the
Jupiter moon. The distance to Io was
about 490,000 kilometers (304,000
miles). An enormous volcanic explosion
can be seen silhouetted against dark
space over Io's bright limb. The
brightness of the plume has been
increased by the computer as it is
normally extremely faint, whereas the
relative color of the plume (greenish
white) has been preserved. At this time
solid material had been thrown up to an
altitude of about 100 miles. This
requires an ejection velocity from the
volcanic vent of about 1200 miles per
hour, material reaching the crest of
the fountain in several minutes. The
vent area is a complex circular
structure consisting of a bright ring
about 300 kilometers in diameter and a
central region of irregular dark and
light patterns. Volcanic explosions
similar to this occur on the Earth when
magmatic gases expand explosively as
material is vented. On Earth water is
the major gas driving the explosion.
Because Io is thought to be extremely
dry, scientists are searching for other
gases to explain the explosion. JPL
manages and controls the Voyager
Project for NASA's Office of Space
Science. source:http://photojournal.j
pl.nasa.gov/catalog/?IDNumber=PIA01971
TIFF
verion:http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/
tiff/PIA01971.tif PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e3/Vulcanic_Explosion_on
_Io.jpg

[2] Description
Voyager.jpg Voyager 1 / Voyager
2 English: NASA photograph of one of
the two identical Voyager space probes
Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 launched in
1977. The 3.7 metre diameter
high-gain antenna (HGA) is attached to
the hollow ten-sided polygonal body
housing the electronics, here seen in
profile. The Voyager Golden Record is
attached to one of the bus
sides. The angled square panel below
is the optical calibration target and
excess heat radiator. The three
radioisotope thermoelectric generators
(RTGs) are mounted end-to-end on the
left-extending boom. One of the two
planetary radio and plasma wave antenna
extends diagonally left and down, the
other extends to the rear, mostly
hidden here. The compact structure
between the RTGs and the HGA are the
high-field and low-field magnetometers
(MAG) in their stowed state; after
launch an Astromast boom extended to 13
metres to distance the low-field
magnetometers. The instrument boom
extending to the right holds, from left
to right: the cosmic ray subsystem
(CRS) above and Low-Energy Charged
Particle (LECP) detector below; the
Plasma Spectrometer (PLS) above; and
the scan platform that rotates about a
vertical axis. The scan platform
comprises: the Infrared Interferometer
Spectrometer (IRIS) (largest camera at
right); the Ultraviolet Spectrometer
(UVS) to the right of the UVS; the two
Imaging Science Subsystem (ISS) vidicon
cameras to the left of the UVS; and the
Photopolarimeter System (PPS) barely
visible under the ISS. Suggested for
English Wikipedia:alternative text for
images: A space probe with squat
cylindrical body topped by a large
parabolic radio antenna dish pointing
upwards, a three-element radioisotope
thermoelectric generator on a boom
extending left, and scientific
instruments on a boom extending right.
A golden disk is fixed to the
body. Date Source NASA
website http://voyager.jpl.nasa.gov/ima
ge/images/spacecraft/Voyager.jpg Author
NASA Permission (Reusing this
file) PD-NASA PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d2/Voyager.jpg
21 YBN
[09/01/1979 AD] 		388) A ship reaches Saturn and sends
the first close-up images (the U.S.
"Pioneer 11").

Pioneer 11 flies to within 13,000 miles
(21,000 km) of Saturn, locates two
unknown small moons, an additional
ring, charts Saturn's magnetosphere (a
region in which charged particles are
trapped), magnetic field, heat, and
determine that Titan is too cold for
life.
Planet Saturn 
[1] Pioneer 11 Image of Saturn and Its
Moon Titan {ULSF: Titan is at the upper
left} The Pioneer 11 spacecraft
launched from Cape Canaveral forty
years ago, on April 5, 1973. Pioneer
11's path through Saturn's outer rings
took it within 21,000 km of the planet,
where it discovered two new moons
(almost smacking into one of them in
September 1979) and a new ''F'' ring.
The spacecraft also discovered and
charted the magnetosphere, magnetic
field and mapped the general structure
of Saturn's interior. The spacecraft's
instruments measured the heat radiation
from Saturn's interior and found that
its planet-sized moon, Titan, was too
cold to support life. This image
from Pioneer 11 shows Saturn and its
moon Titan. The irregularities in ring
silhouette and shadow are due to
technical anomalies in the preliminary
data later corrected. At the time this
image was taken, Pioneer was 2,846,000
km (1,768,422 miles) from
Saturn. › NASA Celebrates Four
Decades of Plucky Pioneer 11 Image
credit: NASA Ames PD
source: http://www.nasa.gov/images/conte
nt/739507main_739460main_AC79-9107.3_160
0-1200.jpg

[2] Pioneer 10 PD
source: http://quest.nasa.gov/sso/cool/p
ioneer10/graphics/lasher/slide4.jpg
20 YBN
[09/12/1980 AD] 		6189) The Scanning Tunneling
Microscope. Individual atoms and
molecules of many kinds can be seen.
(IBM Zurich Research Laboratory)
Ruschlikon, Zurich, Switzerland
(presumably) 
[1] G. Binnig, H. Rohrer, ''Scanning
tunneling microscope'', Patent number:
4343993, Filing date: Sep 12, 1980,
Issue date: Aug 10,
1982. http://www.google.com/patents?hl=
en&lr=&vid=USPAT4343993 PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=GzgwAAAAEBAJ

[2] Figures 2 and 3 from: G. Binnig,
H. Rohrer, Ch. Gerber, and E. Weibel,
''Surface Studies by Scanning Tunneling
Microscopy'', Phys. Rev. Lett. 49,
57–61
(1982). http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL
/v49/i1/p57_1 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/
v49/i1/p57_1
20 YBN
[11/12/1980 AD] 		5631) The first close-up images of the
moons of Saturn; by the U.S. "Voyager
1".
Planet Saturn 
[1] English: Original Caption Released
with Image: Titan's thick haze layer is
shown in this enhanced Voyager 1 image
taken Nov. 12, 1980 at a distance of
435,000 kilometers (270,000 miles).
Voyager images of Saturn's largest moon
show Titan completely enveloped by haze
that merges with a darker ''hood'' or
cloud layer over the north pole. Such a
mantle is not present at the south
pole. At Voyager's closest approach to
Titan on Nov. 11, 1980, spacecraft
instruments found that the moon has a
substantial atmosphere, far denser than
that of Mars and possibly denser than
Earth's. The Voyager Project is managed
for NASA by the Jet Propulsion
Laboratory, Pasadena, Calif. Deutsch:
Titans Atmosphäre. Fotografiert aus
einer Entfernung von 435.000 Kilometern
durch Voyager 1, 1980. source:
http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/jpeg/PI
A02238.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c7/Titan%27s_thick_haze_
layer-picture_from_voyager1.jpg

[2] Description Voyager 1 - view of
Saturn's moon Mimas.jpg English:
Original Caption Released with Image:
The cratered surface Saturn's moon
Mimas is seen in this image taken by
Voyager 1 on Nov. 12, 1980 from a range
of 425,000 kilometers (264,000 miles).
Impact craters made by the infall of
cosmic debris are shown; the largest is
more than 100 kilometers (62 miles) in
diameter and displays a prominent
central peak. The smaller craters are
abundant and indicate an ancient age
for Mimas's surface. The Voyager
Project is managed for NASA by the Jet
Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena,
Calif. Date 12 November
1980(1980-11-12) Source
http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/ca
talog/PIA01968 Author
NASA/JPL PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/ea/Voyager_1_-_view_of_S
aturn%27s_moon_Mimas.jpg
19 YBN
[04/??/1981 AD] 		6649) Beams of protons and antiprotons
are collided head on.
CERN (Conseil Europenne pour la
Recherche Nuclaire), Geneva,
Switzerland 
[1] Christine Sutton, ''CERN pushes
open the door to a new physics'', New
Scientist,
04/16/1981. http://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=41GAXuhHkK8C&pg=PA139 COPYRIGHTED

source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=41GAXuhHkK8C&pg=PA139
19 YBN
[11/12/1981 AD] 		5805) The first reuse of a space craft;
the U.S. space shuttle "Columbia".
(Launch Pad 39A) Merritt Island,
Florida, USA 
[1] NASA Photo ID: S81-39548
File Name: 10060481.jpg Film Type:
70mm Date Taken:
11/15/81 Title: Space Shuttle Columbia
OV (101) launching from pad 39A
begining STS-2 Description: View of
the Space Shuttle Orbiter Columbia from
across the water lifting off from
Launch Pad 39A to begin STS-2 (39548);
Framed by Florida vegtation, the
Columbia lifts off from its launch pad
(39549). PD
source: http://www.ksc.nasa.gov/mirrors/
images/images/pao/STS2/10060481.jpg

[2] Description English: Deepcold
dyna final 240, author: Dan Roam,
source: http://www.deepcold.com Date
12 August 2006 (original upload
date) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia; transferred to Commons by
User:Sreejithk2000 using
CommonsHelper. Author Original
uploader was Djroam at
en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) Released into the public
domain (by the author). PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/76/Deepcold_dyna_final_2
40.jpg
18 YBN
[03/01/1982 AD] 		5626) The first Venus soil samples and
sound recording of another planet; the
Soviet "Venera 13".
Planet Venus 
[1] Venera 13 Lander image of the
surface of Venus at 7.5 S, 303. E, east
of Phoebe Regio. Venera 13 survived on
the surface for 2 hours, 7 minutes,
long enough to obtain 14 images on 1
March, 1982. This color 170 degree
panorama was produced using dark blue,
green and red filters and has a
resolution of 4 to 5 min. Part of the
spacecraft is at the bottom of the
image. Flat rock slabs and soil are
visible. The true color is difficult to
judge because the Venerian atmosphere
filters out blue light. The surface
composition is similar to terrestrial
basalt. On the ground in foreground is
a camera lens cover. (Venera 13 Lander,
VG00261,262) PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/imgca
t/hires/v13_vg261_262.gif

[2] * Venera 13 / 14 lander *
image source:
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/database/Mast
erCatalog?sc=1981-106D PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c7/Venera_13_lander.gif
18 YBN
[04/09/1982 AD] 		5729) Prions, proteins that cause
disease are identified.
(University of California) San
Francisco, California, USA 
[1] Figure 3 from: ''Stanley B.
Prusiner - Nobel Lecture''.
Nobelprize.org. 25 Apr 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1997/prusiner-lecture.html
{Prusiner_Stanley_B_19971208.pdf} COP
YRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1997/prusiner-lect
ure.html

[2] Stanley B. Prusiner Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/medicine/laureates/1997/prusin
er.jpg
18 YBN
[10/01/1982 AD] 		5806) Compact disk players are sold to
the public.
(Sony Corporation) Japan
(presumably) 		 
18 YBN
[10/08/1982 AD] 		5807) Element 109 is created;
Meitnerium {mIT-nR-EuM}.
(Institut fur Kernphysik, Technische
Hochschule Darmstadt) Darmstadt,
Federal Republic of Germany (now
Germany) 
[1] Figure 1 from: G. Münzenberg, P.
Armbruster, F. P. Heßberger, S.
Hofmann, K. Poppensieker, W. Reisdorf,
J. H. R. Schneider, W. F. W. Schneider,
K. -H. Schmidt and C. -C. Sahm, et al.,
''Observation of one correlatedα-decay
in the reaction58Fe on209Bi→267109
'', Zeitschrift für Physik A Hadrons
and Nuclei Volume 309, Number 1,
89-90, DOI:
10.1007/BF01420157 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/q4p6m31747740541/
{Munzenberg_G_19821008.pdf}
source: http://www.springerlink.com/cont
ent/q4p6m31747740541/
18 YBN
[1982 AD] 		5853) TCP/IP is made the standard
protocol of the ARPAnet.
  
18 YBN
[1982 AD] 		6629) A safe and effective vaccine for
hepatitis B is made available.
USA 
[1] Figure 2 from: MANFRED E. BAYER,
BARUCH S. BLUMBERG & BARBARA WERNER,
''Particles associated with Australia
Antigen in the Sera of Patients with
Leukaemia, Down's Syndrome and
Hepatitis'', Nature 218, 1057 - 1059
(15 June 1968);
doi:10.1038/2181057a0 http://www.nature
.com/nature/journal/v218/n5146/abs/21810
57a0.html {Blumberg_Baruch_S_19680416.p
df} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v218/n5146/abs/2181057a0.html

[2] Baruch S. Blumberg Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1976/blumberg.jpg
17 YBN
[06/13/1983 AD] 		5627) The first ship from Earth to fly
farther than all known planets of this
star system; the U.S. "Pioneer 10".
Planet Neptune 
[1] Pioneer 10 PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image
/spacecraft/pioneer10-11.jpg
17 YBN
[10/25/1983 AD] 		5811) Humans are shown to be
genetically closer to chimpanzees than
gorillas, orangutans, or Old World
monkeys.
(Yale University) New Haven,
Connecticut, USA 
[1] Figure 6 from: [1] Charles G.
Sibley and Jon E. Ahlquist, '' The
phylogeny of the hominoid primates, as
indicated by DNA-DNA hybridization'',
Journal of Molecular Evolution, Volume
20, Number 1, 2-15, DOI:
10.1007/BF02101980 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/g3020651ml536640/ {Ahlq
uist_Jon_E_19831025.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.springerlink.com/cont
ent/g3020651ml536640/
17 YBN
[1983 AD] 		5764) The charged W+ and W- particles
and neutral Z particle are identified,
which are the predicted carriers of the
weak force according to the electroweak
theory which unifies the weak force
with electric charge.
(CERN) Geneva, Switzerland 
[1] Figure 7 from: UA1 Collaboration
CERN, Geneva, Switzerland, G. Arnison,
A. Astbury, B. Aubert, C. Bacci, G.
Bauer, A. Bezaguet, R. Bock, T. J. V.
Bowcock, M. Calvetti, T. Carroll, P.
Catz, P. Cennini, S. Centro, F.
Ceradini, S. Cittolin, D. Cline, C.
Cochet, J. Colas, M. Corden, D.
Dallman, M. DeBeer, M. Della Negra, M.
Demoulin, D. Denegri, A. Di Ciaccio, D.
DiBitonto, L. Dobrzynski, J. D. Dowell,
M. Edwards, K. Eggert, E. Eisenhandler,
N. Ellis, P. Erhard, H. Faissner, G.
Fontaine, R. Frey, R. Fruhwirth, J.
Garvey, S. Geer, C. Ghesquiere, P.
Ghez, K. L. Giboni, W. R. Gibson, Y.
Giraud-Heraud, A. Givernaud, A.
Gonidec, G. Grayer, P. Gutierrez, T.
Hansl-Kozanecka, W. J. Haynes, L. O.
Hertzberger, C. Hodges, D. Hoffmann, H.
Hoffmann, D. J. Holthuizen, R. J.
Homer, A. Honma, W. Jank, G. Jorat, P.
I. P. Kalmus, V. Karimaki, R. Keeler,
I. Kenyon, A. Kernan, R. Kinnunen, H.
Kowalski, W. Kozanecki, D. Kryn, F.
Lacava, J. -P. Laugier, J. -P. Lees, H.
Lehmann, K. Leuchs, A. Leveque, E.
Linglin, E. Locci, M. Loret, J. -J.
Malosse, T. Markiewicz, G. Maurin, T.
McMahon, J. -P. Mendiburu, M. -N.
Minard, M. Moricca, H. Muirhead, F.
Muller, A. K. Nandi, L. Naumann, A.
Norton, A. Orkin-Lecourtois, L.
Paoluzi, G. Petrucci, G. Piano Mortari,
M. Pimia, A. Placci, E. Radermacher, J.
Ransdell, H. Reithler, J. -P. Revol, J.
Rich, M. Rijssenbeek, C. Roberts, J.
Rohlf, P. Rossi, C. Rubbia, B.
Sadoulet, G. Sajot, G. Salvi, J.
Salvini, J. Sass, A. Saudraix, A.
Savoy-Navarro, D. Schinzel, W. Scott,
T. P. Shah, M. Spiro, J. Strauss, K.
Sumorok, F. Szoncso, D. Smith, C. Tao,
G. Thompson, J. Timmer, E. Tscheslog,
J. Tuominiemi, S. Van der Meer, J. -P.
Vialle, J. Vrana, V. Vuillemin, H. D.
Wahl, P. Watkins, J. Wilson, Y. G. Xie,
M. Yvert, E. Zurfluh, Experimental
observation of isolated large
transverse energy electrons with
associated missing energy at , Physics
Letters B, Volume 122, Issue 1, 24
February 1983, Pages 103-116, ISSN
0370-2693, DOI:
10.1016/0370-2693(83)91177-2. (http://w
ww.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6T
VN-47GDP3P-6N/2/6ea909b64f35a17972423a8e
93ba39ce) {Rubbia_Carlo_19830123.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://lss.fnal.gov/conf/C780327
2/p175.pdf

[2] Carlo Rubbia Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/physics/laureates/1984/rubbia_
postcard.jpg
16 YBN
[01/12/1984 AD] 		5809) The homeobox is discovered. The
homeobox is a short DNA sequence (180
base pairs, 60 amino acids) that is
present in genes that are involved in
orchestrating the development of a wide
range of organisms.
(University of Basel) Basel,
Switzerland and (Indiana University)
Bloomington, Indiana, USA 		 
16 YBN
[03/10/1984 AD] 		5814) A multicellular organism is
"cloned" (genetically identical copies
are made) by Drs. Willadsen and Godke.

An embryo is split into separate cells,
each nucleus is then put into ova with
nucleus removed from a different animal
and reimplanted to produce genetically
identical animals (sheep).
(AFRC Institute of Animal Physiology)
Cambridge, UK 
[1] Figure 3 from: SM Willadsen and RA
Godke, ''A simple procedure for the
production of identical sheep twins'',
Veterinary Record 1984;114:240-243
doi:10.1136/vr.114.10.240
http://veterinaryrecord.bmj.com/conten
t/114/10/240.abstract
{Willadsen_Steen_M_19840310.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: {Willadsen_Steen_M_19840310.pdf}

16 YBN
[06/25/1984 AD] 		5815) Copies are made of DNA sequences
from an extinct species; the quagga, an
extinct member of the horse family.
(University of California) Berkeley,
California, USA 
[1] Description Quagga (Equus quagga
quagga) is an extinct sub-species of
zebra. Mare, London, Regent's Park
ZOO. Date
1870 http://books.google.dk/books?id=1
5AsyQ8O2qoC&pg=PA148&dq=london+sondaica+
tigris&hl=da&ei=SlmxTsyqMMHa4QSasv3OAQ&s
a=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=5&ve
d=0CE0Q6AEwBA#v=onepage&q=london%20sonda
ica%20tigris&f=false Source
Scan Author F. York
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d2/Quagga_photo.jpg
16 YBN
[08/31/1984 AD] 		6190) A DNA molecule is imaged at the
atomic scale using a Scanning Tunneling
Microscope.
(IBM Zurich Research Laboratory,
Switzerland, presented in) Prague,
Czechoslovakia 
[1] Figure 7 from: G. Binnig and H.
Rohrer, ''Scanning Tunnelling
Microscopy'' in Janta, J. Trends In
Physics, 1984 :: Proceedings of the 6th
General Conference of the European
Physical Society : 27-31 August 1984,
Prague, Czechoslovakia. Prague: Union
of Czechoslovak Mathematicians and
Physicists, 1984, p38.
http://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/0
08933716/Home
{Binnig_Rohrer_19840831001.pdf} COPYR
IGHTED
source: {Binnig_Rohrer_19840831001.pdf}

[2] Note these images are from
1990[t] Driscoll, Robert J., Michael
G. Youngquist, and John D.
Baldeschwieler. “Atomic-scale imaging
of DNA using scanning tunnelling
microscopy.” Nature 346.6281 (1990) :
294-296. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v346/n6281/abs/346294a0.html COP
YRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v346/n6281/abs/346294a0.html
16 YBN
[10/04/1984 AD] 		5812) An image of a planetary disk
around a star.
(University of Arizona) Tuscon,
Arizona, USA and (Jet Propulsion
Laboratory) Pasadena, California,
USA 
[1] Figure 1 from: Bradford A. Smith
and Richard J. Terrile, ''A
Circumstellar Disk around β
Pictoris'', Science, New Series, Vol.
226, No. 4681 (Dec. 21, 1984), pp.
1421-1424 http://www.jstor.org/stable/1
693911 {Terrile_Richard_J_19841004.pdf}

source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1693
911
16 YBN
[11/16/1984 AD] 		5813) The technique of "genetic
fingerprinting" is identified, how
certain sequences of DNA that are
unique to each person can be used to
identify individual organisms and also
to determine family relationships.
(University of Leicester) Leicester,
UK 
[1] Figure 5 from: Alec J. Jeffreys,
Victoria Wilson & Swee Lay Thein,
''Hypervariable 'minisatellite' regions
in human DNA'', Nature 314, 67 - 73 (07
March 1985);
doi:10.1038/314067a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v314/n6006/abs/314067
a0.html {Jeffreys_Alec_J_19841116.pdf}

source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v314/n6006/abs/314067a0.html

[2] Professor Sir Alec Jeffreys at the
University of Leicester. UNKNOWN
source: http://www2.le.ac.uk/departments
/emfpu/genetics/explained/images/AlecJef
frey.jpg
16 YBN
[1984 AD] 		5854) The domain name addressing system
is introduced on the ARPAnet.
  
15 YBN
[01/28/1985 AD] 		5825) RU 486 (the "morning after pill")
is tested and found to be useful for
fertility control.
(Service d'Endocrinologie et des
Maladies de la Reproductio)
Bicetre,France and (INSERM U 3 Hôpital
de Bicêtre) Bicêtre, France and (CNRS
105), Paris , France 
[1] Etienne-Emile Baulieu
biography UNKNOWN
source: http://img1.browsebiography.com/
images/gal/1261_Etienne_Emile_Baulieu_ph
oto.jpg
15 YBN
[02/18/1985 AD] 		5821) The neutron microscope.
(Technische Universitat Munchen)
Garching, Germany and (Institut
Laue-Langevin) Grenoble, France 
[1] Figure 1 from: P. Herrmann, K. -A.
Steinhauser, R. Gähler, and A.
Steyerl, W. Mampe, ''Neutron
Microscope'', Phys. Rev. Lett. 54,
1969–1972 (1985)
http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v54/i1
8/p1969_1 {Mampe_W_19850218.pdf} COPYR
IGHTED
source: http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/
v54/i18/p1969_1
15 YBN
[09/20/1985 AD] 		5804) Polymerase {PoL-u-mu-rAS} chain
reaction (PCR), a simple technique that
allows a specific segment of DNA to be
copied billions of times in a few hours
is invented by Kary Mullis.
(Cetus Corporation) Emeryville,
California, USA 
[1] Figure 2 from: K. B. Mullis and F.
A. Faloona, ''Specific synthesis of DNA
in vitro via a polymerase-catalyzed
chain reaction'', Methods Enzymol. 155,
335 (1987).
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/a
rticle/pii/0076687987550236 {Mullis_Kar
y_Banks_1987xxxx.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence/article/pii/0076687987550236

[2] Kary Banks Mullis Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1993/mulli
s_postcard.jpg
15 YBN
[12/06/1985 AD] 		5816) Lanxides, materials that are
crosses between ceramics and metals are
created.
(Lanxide Technology Corporation)
Newark, Delaware, USA 		 
14 YBN
[01/24/1986 AD] 		5628) A ship reaches Uranus and sends
the first close-up images of the
planet, its moons, and its rings; the
U.S. "Voyager 2".
Planet Uranus 
[1] Description Uranus.jpg English:
NASA photo of Uranus taken by Voyager
2. Caption: This pictures of Uranus was
compiled from images recorded by
Voyager 2 on January 10, 1986, when the
NASA spacecraft was 18 million
kilometers (11 million miles) from the
planet. The images were obtained by
Voyager's narrow-angle camera; the view
is toward the planet's pole of
rotation, which lies just left of
center. The picture has been processed
to show Uranus as human eyes would see
it from the vantage point of the
spacecraft. The dark shading of the
upper right edge of the disk is the
terminator, or day-night boundary. The
blue-green appearance of Uranus results
from methane in the atmosphere; this
gas absorbs red wavelengths from the
incoming sunlight, leaving the
predominant bluish color seen here.
Images shuttered through different
color filters were added and
manipulated by computer, greatly
enhancing the low-contrast details in
the original images. The planet reveals
a dark polar hood surrounded by a
series of progressively lighter
convective bands. The banded structure
is real, though exaggerated here. The
Voyager project is managed for NASA by
the Jet Propulsion Laboratory. Date
January 1986(1986-01) Source
http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/ca
talog/PIA01360 Author NASA PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/bb/Uranus.jpg

[2] Description
Voyager.jpg Voyager 1 / Voyager
2 English: NASA photograph of one of
the two identical Voyager space probes
Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 launched in
1977. The 3.7 metre diameter
high-gain antenna (HGA) is attached to
the hollow ten-sided polygonal body
housing the electronics, here seen in
profile. The Voyager Golden Record is
attached to one of the bus
sides. The angled square panel below
is the optical calibration target and
excess heat radiator. The three
radioisotope thermoelectric generators
(RTGs) are mounted end-to-end on the
left-extending boom. One of the two
planetary radio and plasma wave antenna
extends diagonally left and down, the
other extends to the rear, mostly
hidden here. The compact structure
between the RTGs and the HGA are the
high-field and low-field magnetometers
(MAG) in their stowed state; after
launch an Astromast boom extended to 13
metres to distance the low-field
magnetometers. The instrument boom
extending to the right holds, from left
to right: the cosmic ray subsystem
(CRS) above and Low-Energy Charged
Particle (LECP) detector below; the
Plasma Spectrometer (PLS) above; and
the scan platform that rotates about a
vertical axis. The scan platform
comprises: the Infrared Interferometer
Spectrometer (IRIS) (largest camera at
right); the Ultraviolet Spectrometer
(UVS) to the right of the UVS; the two
Imaging Science Subsystem (ISS) vidicon
cameras to the left of the UVS; and the
Photopolarimeter System (PPS) barely
visible under the ISS. Suggested for
English Wikipedia:alternative text for
images: A space probe with squat
cylindrical body topped by a large
parabolic radio antenna dish pointing
upwards, a three-element radioisotope
thermoelectric generator on a boom
extending left, and scientific
instruments on a boom extending right.
A golden disk is fixed to the
body. Date Source NASA
website http://voyager.jpl.nasa.gov/ima
ge/images/spacecraft/Voyager.jpg Author
NASA Permission (Reusing this
file) PD-NASA PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d2/Voyager.jpg
14 YBN
[1986 AD] 		5818) An increase in the growth rate is
found in goldfish that have genes that
code for human growth hormone injected
into them.
(Peking University) Perking, China
(presumably) 
[1] Zuoyan Zhu, Ph.D. Professor,
School of Life Science, Peking
University Academician UNKNOWN
source: http://www.bio.pku.edu.cn/facult
y/zhuzy/photo.jpg
13 YBN
[02/06/1987 AD] 		5819) A material that is
superconducting at 93 K (-180°C) which
is warm enough for the use of liquid
nitrogen (78 K -195°C) which is much
less expensive than liquid helium.
(University of Alabama) Huntsville,
Alabama, USA and (University of
Houston) Houston, Texas, USA 
[1] Figure 1 from: M. K. Wu, J. R.
Ashburn, and C. J. Torng, P. H. Hor, R.
L. Meng, L. Gao, Z. J. Huang, Y. Q.
Wang, and C. W. Chu,
''Superconductivity at 93 K in a new
mixed-phase Y-Ba-Cu-O compound system
at ambient pressure'', Phys. Rev. Lett.
58, 908–910 (1987)
http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v58/i9
/p908_1 {Chu_Ching-Wu_19870206.pdf} CO
PYRIGHTED
source: http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/
v58/i9/p908_1

[2] Paul Chu (Ching-Wu
Chu).jpg English: Paul Chu, former
President of Hong Kong University of
Science and Technology and T.L.L.
Temple Chair of Science in the College
of Natural Sciences and Mathematics at
the University of Houston. Date
Unknown Source Paul Chu
standing with unidentfied machines,
Courtesy of Special Collections,
University of Houston
Libraries. Author University of
Houston PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0f/Paul_Chu_%28Ching-Wu_
Chu%29.jpg
13 YBN
[07/14/1987 AD] 		5820) A positron microscope.
(University of Michigan) Ann Arbor,
Michigan, USA 
[1] Figure 1 from: James Van House and
Arthur Rich, ''First Results of a
Positron Microscope'', Phys. Rev. Lett.
60, 169–172 (1988)
http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v60/i3
/p169_1 {Rich_Arthur_19870714.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source:

[2] Figure 3 from: James Van House
and Arthur Rich, ''First Results of a
Positron Microscope'', Phys. Rev. Lett.
60, 169–172 (1988)
http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v60/i3
/p169_1 {Rich_Arthur_19870714.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source:
12 YBN
[12/14/1988 AD] 		6194) A microscopic electric motor by
Fan, Tai and Muller.
(University of California at Berkeley),
Berkeley, California, USA 
[1] Figures 1 from: Long-Sheng Fan;
Yu-Chong Tai; R.S. Muller; ,
''IC-processed electrostatic
micro-motors,'' Electron Devices
Meeting, 1988. IEDM '88. Technical
Digest., International , vol., no.,
pp.666-669, 1988 doi:
10.1109/IEDM.1988.32901 URL:
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.j
sp?tp=&arnumber=32901&isnumber=1415 COP
YRIGHTED
source: URL:
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.j
sp?tp=&arnumber=32901&isnumber=1415

[2] Figures 2 from: Long-Sheng Fan;
Yu-Chong Tai; R.S. Muller; ,
''IC-processed electrostatic
micro-motors,'' Electron Devices
Meeting, 1988. IEDM '88. Technical
Digest., International , vol., no.,
pp.666-669, 1988 doi:
10.1109/IEDM.1988.32901 URL:
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.j
sp?tp=&arnumber=32901&isnumber=1415 COP
YRIGHTED
source: URL:
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.j
sp?tp=&arnumber=32901&isnumber=1415
12 YBN
[1988 AD] 		5856) Real-time text conversation over
the telephone wires becomes possible
with the development of Internet Relay
Chat protocols.
  
11 YBN
[01/18/1989 AD] 		6205) An RNA molecule is imaged at the
atomic scale with an STM.
(University of Minnesota) Minneapolis,
Minnesota, USA 
[1] Gil Lee, Patricia G. Arscott,
Victor A. Bloomfield, D. Fennell Evans,
''Scanning Tunneling Microscopy of
Nucleic Acids'', Science, New Series,
Vol. 244, No. 4903 (Apr. 28, 1989), pp.
475-477 Published by: American
Association for the Advancement of
Science Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/1703098 {Le
e_Evans_RNA_molecule_19890118.pdf} COPY
RIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1703
098
11 YBN
[08/25/1989 AD] 		5629) A ship reaches Neptune and sends
the first close-up images of the
planet, its moons and rings; the U.S.
"Voyager 2".
Planet Neptune 
[1] A picture of Neptune taken by
Voyager 2, showing off the Great Dark
Spot which has since disappeared from
the planet's surface. Original
Caption Released with Image: During
August 16 and 17, 1989, the Voyager 2
narrow-angle camera was used to
photograph Neptune almost continuously,
recording approximately two and
one-half rotations of the planet. These
images represent the most complete set
of full disk Neptune images that the
spacecraft will acquire. This picture
from the sequence shows two of the four
cloud features which have been tracked
by the Voyager cameras during the past
two months. The large dark oval near
the western limb (the left edge) is at
a latitude of 22 degrees south and
circuits Neptune every 18.3 hours. The
bright clouds immediately to the south
and east of this oval are seen to
substantially change their appearances
in periods as short as four hours. The
second dark spot, at 54 degrees south
latitude near the terminator (lower
right edge), circuits Neptune every
16.1 hours. This image has been
processed to enhance the visibility of
small features, at some sacrifice of
color fidelity. The Voyager Mission is
conducted by JPL for NASA's Office of
Space Science and
Applications. Source:
http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog
/PIA00046 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/06/Neptune.jpg

[2] Description
Voyager.jpg Voyager 1 / Voyager
2 English: NASA photograph of one of
the two identical Voyager space probes
Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 launched in
1977. The 3.7 metre diameter
high-gain antenna (HGA) is attached to
the hollow ten-sided polygonal body
housing the electronics, here seen in
profile. The Voyager Golden Record is
attached to one of the bus
sides. The angled square panel below
is the optical calibration target and
excess heat radiator. The three
radioisotope thermoelectric generators
(RTGs) are mounted end-to-end on the
left-extending boom. One of the two
planetary radio and plasma wave antenna
extends diagonally left and down, the
other extends to the rear, mostly
hidden here. The compact structure
between the RTGs and the HGA are the
high-field and low-field magnetometers
(MAG) in their stowed state; after
launch an Astromast boom extended to 13
metres to distance the low-field
magnetometers. The instrument boom
extending to the right holds, from left
to right: the cosmic ray subsystem
(CRS) above and Low-Energy Charged
Particle (LECP) detector below; the
Plasma Spectrometer (PLS) above; and
the scan platform that rotates about a
vertical axis. The scan platform
comprises: the Infrared Interferometer
Spectrometer (IRIS) (largest camera at
right); the Ultraviolet Spectrometer
(UVS) to the right of the UVS; the two
Imaging Science Subsystem (ISS) vidicon
cameras to the left of the UVS; and the
Photopolarimeter System (PPS) barely
visible under the ISS. Suggested for
English Wikipedia:alternative text for
images: A space probe with squat
cylindrical body topped by a large
parabolic radio antenna dish pointing
upwards, a three-element radioisotope
thermoelectric generator on a boom
extending left, and scientific
instruments on a boom extending right.
A golden disk is fixed to the
body. Date Source NASA
website http://voyager.jpl.nasa.gov/ima
ge/images/spacecraft/Voyager.jpg Author
NASA Permission (Reusing this
file) PD-NASA PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d2/Voyager.jpg
10 YBN
[01/17/1990 AD] 		6191) Individual atoms are moved by
Eigler and Schweizer who use an STM at
low temperatures to move individual
atoms to form the letters "IBM" in
xenon atoms.
(IBM Research Division, Almaden
Research Center) San Jose, California,
USA 
[1] Figures 1 and 2 from: D. M. Eigler
& E. K. Schweizer, ''Positioning single
atoms with a scanning tunnelling
microscope'', Nature 344, 524 - 526 (05
April 1990);
doi:10.1038/344524a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v344/n6266/abs/344524
a0.html COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v344/n6266/abs/344524a0.html

[2] Figure 3 from: D. M. Eigler & E.
K. Schweizer, ''Positioning single
atoms with a scanning tunnelling
microscope'', Nature 344, 524 - 526 (05
April 1990);
doi:10.1038/344524a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v344/n6266/abs/344524
a0.html COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v344/n6266/abs/344524a0.html
10 YBN
[01/29/1990 AD] 		6278) A light particle (optical)
computer processor.
(AT&T Bell Labs) Holmdel, New Jersey,
United States 
[1] Figure 3. An array of surface
emitting microlasers. From: Ames,
Karyn R., and Alan Brenner, editors
Frontiers of Supercomputing II: A
National Reassessment. Berkeley:
University of California Press, c1994
1994.
http://ark.cdlib.org/ark:/13030/ft0f59n7
3z/
AND http://publishing.cdlib.org/ucpress
ebooks/view?docId=ft0f59n73z;chunk.id=d0
e2589;doc.view=print UNKNOWN
source: http://publishing.cdlib.org/ucpr
essebooks/data/13030/3z/ft0f59n73z/figur
es/ft0f59n73z_00014.jpg

[2] Figure 1. One thousand
twenty-four optical connections
contained within the same area as one
electronic connection. From: Ames,
Karyn R., and Alan Brenner, editors
Frontiers of Supercomputing II: A
National Reassessment. Berkeley:
University of California Press, c1994
1994.
http://ark.cdlib.org/ark:/13030/ft0f59n7
3z/
AND http://publishing.cdlib.org/ucpress
ebooks/view?docId=ft0f59n73z;chunk.id=d0
e2589;doc.view=print UNKNOWN
source: http://publishing.cdlib.org/ucpr
essebooks/data/13030/3z/ft0f59n73z/figur
es/ft0f59n73z_00012.jpg
10 YBN
[02/14/1990 AD] 		5632) The first ship to capture an
image of the entire star system (Sun
and all planets) in one picture; the
U.S. "Voyager 1".
Outside star system 
[1] Description Family portrait
(Voyager 1).png English: The ''family
portrait'' of the Solar System taken by
Voyager 1. This picture consists of 60
frames taken through the Wide Angle and
Narrow Angle cameras using the Methane,
Violet, Blue, Green, and Clear
Filters. Suggested for English
Wikipedia:alternative text for images:
a set of grey squares trace roughly
left to right. A few are labeled with
single letters associated with a nearby
coloured square. J is near to a square
labeled Jupiter; E to Earth; V to
Venus; S to Saturn; U to Uranus; N to
Neptune. A small spot appears at the
centre of each coloured
square English: Original Caption
Released with Image: The cameras of
Voyager 1 on Feb. 14, 1990, pointed
back toward the sun and took a series
of pictures of the sun and the planets,
making the first ever ''portrait'' of
our solar system as seen from the
outside. In the course of taking this
mosaic consisting of a total of 60
frames, Voyager 1 made several images
of the inner solar system from a
distance of approximately 4 billion
miles and about 32 degrees above the
ecliptic plane. Thirty-nine wide angle
frames link together six of the planets
of our solar system in this mosaic.
Outermost Neptune is 30 times further
from the sun than Earth. Our sun is
seen as the bright object in the center
of the circle of frames. The wide-angle
image of the sun was taken with the
camera's darkest filter (a methane
absorption band) and the shortest
possible exposure (1/125 second) to
avoid saturating the camera's vidicon
tube with scattered sunlight. The sun
is not large as seen from Voyager, only
about one-fortieth of the diameter as
seen from Earth, but is still almost 8
million times brighter than the
brightest star in Earth's sky, Sirius.
The result of this great brightness is
an image with multiple reflections from
the optics in the camera. Wide-angle
images surrounding the sun also show
many artifacts attributable to
scattered light in the optics. These
were taken through the clear filter
with one second exposures. The insets
show the planets magnified many times.
Narrow-angle images of Earth, Venus,
Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune
were acquired as the spacecraft built
the wide-angle mosaic. Jupiter is
larger than a narrow-angle pixel and is
clearly resolved, as is Saturn with its
rings. Uranus and Neptune appear larger
than they really are because of image
smear due to spacecraft motion during
the long (15 second) exposures. From
Voyager's great distance Earth and
Venus are mere points of light, less
than the size of a picture element even
in the narrow-angle camera. Earth was a
crescent only 0.12 pixel in size.
Coincidentally, Earth lies right in the
center of one of the scattered light
rays resulting from taking the image so
close to the sun. Date 14
February 1990(1990-02-14) Source
Visible Earth * source:
http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog
/PIA00451 o TIFF version:
http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/tiff/PI
A00451.tif Author NASA, Voyager
1 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3f/Family_portrait_%28Vo
yager_1%29.png

[2] Description Family portrait
(Voyager 1).png English: The ''family
portrait'' of the Solar System taken by
Voyager 1. This picture consists of 60
frames taken through the Wide Angle and
Narrow Angle cameras using the Methane,
Violet, Blue, Green, and Clear
Filters. Suggested for English
Wikipedia:alternative text for images:
a set of grey squares trace roughly
left to right. A few are labeled with
single letters associated with a nearby
coloured square. J is near to a square
labeled Jupiter; E to Earth; V to
Venus; S to Saturn; U to Uranus; N to
Neptune. A small spot appears at the
centre of each coloured
square English: Original Caption
Released with Image: The cameras of
Voyager 1 on Feb. 14, 1990, pointed
back toward the sun and took a series
of pictures of the sun and the planets,
making the first ever ''portrait'' of
our solar system as seen from the
outside. In the course of taking this
mosaic consisting of a total of 60
frames, Voyager 1 made several images
of the inner solar system from a
distance of approximately 4 billion
miles and about 32 degrees above the
ecliptic plane. Thirty-nine wide angle
frames link together six of the planets
of our solar system in this mosaic.
Outermost Neptune is 30 times further
from the sun than Earth. Our sun is
seen as the bright object in the center
of the circle of frames. The wide-angle
image of the sun was taken with the
camera's darkest filter (a methane
absorption band) and the shortest
possible exposure (1/125 second) to
avoid saturating the camera's vidicon
tube with scattered sunlight. The sun
is not large as seen from Voyager, only
about one-fortieth of the diameter as
seen from Earth, but is still almost 8
million times brighter than the
brightest star in Earth's sky, Sirius.
The result of this great brightness is
an image with multiple reflections from
the optics in the camera. Wide-angle
images surrounding the sun also show
many artifacts attributable to
scattered light in the optics. These
were taken through the clear filter
with one second exposures. The insets
show the planets magnified many times.
Narrow-angle images of Earth, Venus,
Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune
were acquired as the spacecraft built
the wide-angle mosaic. Jupiter is
larger than a narrow-angle pixel and is
clearly resolved, as is Saturn with its
rings. Uranus and Neptune appear larger
than they really are because of image
smear due to spacecraft motion during
the long (15 second) exposures. From
Voyager's great distance Earth and
Venus are mere points of light, less
than the size of a picture element even
in the narrow-angle camera. Earth was a
crescent only 0.12 pixel in size.
Coincidentally, Earth lies right in the
center of one of the scattered light
rays resulting from taking the image so
close to the sun. Date 14
February 1990(1990-02-14) Source
Visible Earth * source:
http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog
/PIA00451 o TIFF version:
http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/tiff/PI
A00451.tif Author NASA, Voyager
1 PD
source:
10 YBN
[04/25/1990 AD] 		5828) A telescope is placed in Earth
orbit.
Earth Orbit (Launched from Launch Pad
39B) Merritt Island, Florida, USA 
[1] Description HST-SM4.jpeg English:
The Hubble Space Telescope as seen from
the departing Space Shuttle Atlantis,
flying STS-125, HST Servicing Mission
4. Date 19 May
2009(2009-05-19) Source
http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/gallery
/images/shuttle/sts-119/hires/s125e01184
8.jpg Author Ruffnax (Crew of
STS-125) Permission (Reusing this
file) See below. Other versions
Derivative works of this file:
* HST-SM4.png PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3f/HST-SM4.jpeg

[2] note
Hubble_ultra_deep_field_high_rez_edit1
is much larger [2] Hubble ultra deep
field high rez
edit1_small.jpg Deutsch: Das Hubble
Ultra Deep Field ist ein Bild einer
kleinen Himmelsregion aufgenommen vom
Hubble-Weltraumteleskop über einen
Zeitraum vom 3. September 2003 bis 16.
Januar 2004. Dabei wurde eine
Himmelsregion ausgewählt, die kaum
störende helle Sterne im Vordergrund
enthält. Man entschied sich für ein
Zielgebiet südwestlich von Orion im
Sternbild Chemischer Ofen. English:
The Hubble Ultra Deep Field, is an
image of a small region of space in the
constellation Fornax, composited from
Hubble Space Telescope data accumulated
over a period from September 3, 2003
through January 16, 2004. The patch of
sky in which the galaxies reside was
chosen because it had a low density of
bright stars in the
near-field. Español: El Campo Ultra
Profundo del Hubble, es una imagen de
una pequeña región del espacio en la
constelación Fornax, compuesta de
datos obtenidos por el telescopio
espacial Hubble durante el período
entre el 3 de Septiembre de 2003 y el
16 de Enero de 2004. Esta parte del
cielo fue escogida por su baja densidad
de estrellas brillantes en sus
proximidades. Français : Le champ
ultra profond de Hubble, une image
d'une petite portion du ciel dans la
constellation du Fourneau, prise par le
télescope spatial Hubble du 3
septembre 2003 au 16 juillet 2004. La
portion de ciel a été choisie car
elle possède peu d'étoiles brillantes
proches. Date 2003-09-03 -
2004-01-16 Source
http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/ar
chive/releases/2004/07/image/a/warn/ Au
thor NASA and the European Space
Agency. Edited by Noodle snacks PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0d/Hubble_ultra_deep_fie
ld_high_rez_edit1.jpg
10 YBN
[06/11/1990 AD] 		5826) The gene on the Y chromosome that
determines gender in mammals is
identified.
(Human Molecular Genetics Laboratory,
Imperial Cancer Research Fund) London,
UK (and two other locations) 
[1] Figure 3 from: Andrew H. Sinclair,
Philippe Berta*, Mark S. Palmer, J.
Ross Hawkins, Beatrice L. Griffiths,
Matthijs J. Smith, Jamie W. Foster*,
Anna-Maria Frischauf, Robin
Lovell-Badge† & Peter N. Goodfellow,
''A gene from the human sex-determining
region encodes a protein with homology
to a conserved DNA-binding motif'',
Nature 346, 240 - 244 (19 July 1990);
doi:10.1038/346240a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v346/n6281/abs/346240
a0.html {Goodfellow_Peter_N_19900611.pd
f} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v346/n6281/abs/346240a0.html
10 YBN
[1990 AD] 		5849) The first digital camera is sold
to the public.
(Dycam Inc) Ventura Blvd, Woodland
Hillsa, California, USA (verify) 		 
9 YBN
[10/29/1991 AD] 		5635) A ship reaches and sends the
first close-up images of an asteroid.

The U.S. ship "Galileo" flies by the
asteroid "Gaspra".
Asteroid Gaspra (Ida encounter must
occur later) 
[1] Description English: Asteroid
en:951 Gaspra. Calvin J. Hamilton's
website View of the Solar System
describes this image as follows:
''This picture Gaspra is a combination
of the highest-resolution images and
color information obtained by the
Galileo spacecraft. The Sun is shining
from the right. The subtle color
variations on Gaspra's surface have
been exaggerated. en:Albedo and color
variations are associated with surface
en:topography. The bluish areas are
regions of slightly higher albedo and
tend to be associated with some of the
crisper craters and with ridges. The
slightly reddish areas, apparently
concentrated in low areas, represent
regions of somewhat lower albedo. In
general, such patterns can be explained
in terms of greater exposure of fresher
rock in the brighter bluish areas and
the accumulation of some en:regolith
materials in the darker reddish areas.
(Courtesy USGS/NASA/JPL)''
[1] Ελληνικά: Ο 951 Gaspra,
ο πρώτος αστεροειδής
που φωτογραφήθηκε
από κοντά. Date 8 June
1992 Source English: Cropped from
TIFF image from
[http://www.solarviews.com/cap/ast/gaspr
a3.htm Solarviews.com Author
English: NASA PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/81/951_Gaspra.jpg

[2] The Asteroid 243 Ida and Its Moon
Dactyl This color picture is made
from images taken from the Galileo
spacecraft about 14 minutes before its
closest approach to asteroid 243 Ida on
August 28, 1993. The range from the
spacecraft was about 10,500 kilometers
(6,500 miles). The images used are from
the sequence in which Ida's moon was
originally discovered; the tiny moon is
visible to the right of the asteroid.
The color is ''enhanced'' in the sense
that the CCD camera is sensitive to
near infrared wavelengths of light
beyond human vision; a ''natural''
color picture of this asteroid would
appear mostly gray. PD
source: http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/gali
leo/gallery/images/top10-03.jpg
9 YBN
[1991 AD] 		5857) The World Wide Web is released to
the public by way of FTP.
  
8 YBN
[1992 AD] 		5859) The first free videophone
program.
  
7 YBN
[08/28/1993 AD] 		5636) A ship discovers the first known
moon of an asteroid.

The U.S. ship Galileo is the first ship
to discover a moon of an asteroid
(Ida's satellite Dactyl).
Asteroid Ida 
[1] The Asteroid 243 Ida and Its Moon
Dactyl This color picture is made
from images taken from the Galileo
spacecraft about 14 minutes before its
closest approach to asteroid 243 Ida on
August 28, 1993. The range from the
spacecraft was about 10,500 kilometers
(6,500 miles). The images used are from
the sequence in which Ida's moon was
originally discovered; the tiny moon is
visible to the right of the asteroid.
The color is ''enhanced'' in the sense
that the CCD camera is sensitive to
near infrared wavelengths of light
beyond human vision; a ''natural''
color picture of this asteroid would
appear mostly gray. PD
source: http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/gali
leo/gallery/images/top10-03.jpg

[2] Description English: Asteroid
en:951 Gaspra. Calvin J. Hamilton's
website View of the Solar System
describes this image as follows:
''This picture Gaspra is a combination
of the highest-resolution images and
color information obtained by the
Galileo spacecraft. The Sun is shining
from the right. The subtle color
variations on Gaspra's surface have
been exaggerated. en:Albedo and color
variations are associated with surface
en:topography. The bluish areas are
regions of slightly higher albedo and
tend to be associated with some of the
crisper craters and with ridges. The
slightly reddish areas, apparently
concentrated in low areas, represent
regions of somewhat lower albedo. In
general, such patterns can be explained
in terms of greater exposure of fresher
rock in the brighter bluish areas and
the accumulation of some en:regolith
materials in the darker reddish areas.
(Courtesy USGS/NASA/JPL)''
[1] Ελληνικά: Ο 951 Gaspra,
ο πρώτος αστεροειδής
που φωτογραφήθηκε
από κοντά. Date 8 June
1992 Source English: Cropped from
TIFF image from
[http://www.solarviews.com/cap/ast/gaspr
a3.htm Solarviews.com Author
English: NASA PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/81/951_Gaspra.jpg
7 YBN
[1993 AD] 		5858) The first Internet browser.
  
5 YBN
[02/24/1995 AD] 		5822) The top quark is observed with a
mass around 200 Gev/c2.
(Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory)
Batavia, Illinois, USA 
[1] Figures 2 and 3 from: F. Abe et
al. CDF Collaboration, ''Observation of
Top Quark Production in p̅ p
Collisions with the Collider Detector
at Fermilab'', Phys. Rev. Lett. 74,
2626–2631 (1995)
http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v74/i1
4/p2626_1
{CDF_Collaboration_19950224.pdf} COPY
RIGHTED
source: http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/
v74/i14/p2626_1

[2] Figures 1 and 2 from: S. Abachi
et al. D0 Collaboration, ''Observation
of the Top Quark'', Phys. Rev. Lett.
74, 2632–2637 (1995)
http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v74/i1
4/p2632_1 {D0_Collaboration_19950224.pd
f} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/
v74/i14/p2632_1
5 YBN
[12/07/1995 AD] 		396) The first ship to orbit Jupiter,
the U.S. ship "Galileo".
Jupiter 
[1] Drifting Galileo Date: 18 Oct
1989 Galileo spacecraft atop the
inertial upper stage drifts into the
blackness of space after deployment
from the Space Shuttle Atlantis payload
bay during mission STS-34 in October
1989. Image Credit: NASA Credit:
NASA PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/ea/Galileo_encounter_wit
h_Io.gif

[2] The Asteroid 243 Ida and Its Moon
Dactyl This color picture is made
from images taken from the Galileo
spacecraft about 14 minutes before its
closest approach to asteroid 243 Ida on
August 28, 1993. The range from the
spacecraft was about 10,500 kilometers
(6,500 miles). The images used are from
the sequence in which Ida's moon was
originally discovered; the tiny moon is
visible to the right of the asteroid.
The color is ''enhanced'' in the sense
that the CCD camera is sensitive to
near infrared wavelengths of light
beyond human vision; a ''natural''
color picture of this asteroid would
appear mostly gray. PD
source: http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/mult
imedia/gallery/STS34_10063774-browse.jpg

5 YBN
[12/07/1995 AD] 		5637) A ship enters the atmosphere of
planet Jupiter; the U.S. "Galileo"
Probe and descends 200km (124 miles)
reaching 22 times the atmosphere at the
surface of Earth and 150 C (300 F).
Planet Jupiter 
[1] Gallileo Probe shortly after
Parachute deployment, descent through
the Jupiter atmosphere source:
http://spaceprojects.arc.nasa.gov/Space_
Projects/galileo_probe/htmls/probe_space
craft.html Public domain This file is
in the public domain because it was
solely created by NASA. NASA copyright
policy states that ''NASA material is
not protected by copyright unless
noted''. (See Template:PD-USGov, NASA
copyright policy page or JPL Image Use
Policy.) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Parachute_deplo
yment.jpeg/1280px-Parachute_deployment.j
peg

[2] Description Galileo Preparations
- GPN-2000-000672.jpg English: In the
Vertical Processing Facility (VPF), the
spacecraft Galileo is prepared for
mating with the Inertial Upper Stage
booster. Galileo will be launched
aboard the Orbiter Atlantis on Space
Shuttle mission STS-34, October 12,
1989 and sent to the planet Jupiter, a
journey which will take more than six
years to complete. Date 3 August
1989(1989-08-03) Source Great
Images in NASA Description Author
NASA PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1d/Galileo_Preparations_
-_GPN-2000-000672.jpg
4 YBN
[05/15/1996 AD] 		5827) The drug "Viagra" (Sildenafil) is
found to enhance duration and rigidity
of an erect penis.
(Pfizer Central Research) Sandwich,
Kent, UK (verify earliest date) 		 
4 YBN
[11/25/1996 AD] 		186) An animal is cloned from an adult
somatic cell by Wilmut et al (the sheep
"Dolly"). The nucleus of a sheep ovum
is replaced with the nucleus of a
mammary cell from an adult sheep,
stimulated with electric pulses to
start dividing, and reimplanted to
develop into an identical sheep as the
mammary cell donor.
This confirms that
differentiation of the adult mammary
gland cell does not involve an
irreversible modification of genetic
material in order for the embryo to
develop to birth.
(University of Edinburgh, Roslin
Institute), Roslin Midlothian, UK 
[1] Figre 2 from: I. Wilmut, A. E.
Schnieke*, J. McWhir, A. J. Kind* & K.
H. S. Campbell, ''Viable offspring
derived from fetal and adult mammalian
cells'', Nature 385, 810 - 813 (27
February 1997);
doi:10.1038/385810a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v385/n6619/abs/385810
a0.html {Wilmut_Ian_19961125.pdf}
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v385/n6619/abs/385810a0.html

[2] Description English: Modified
version of Commons
image en:Category:Animal
testing Date 2008-02-22 (original
upload date) (Original text : 22 Feb
08) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia (Original text :
Image:Dollyscotland.JPG) Author Origina
l uploader was TimVickers at
en.wikipedia (Original text :
User:Llull on English
Wikipedia) Permission (Reusing this
file) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Dollyscotland_%
28crop%29.jpg/1280px-Dollyscotland_%28cr
op%29.jpg
1 YBN
[09/15/1999 AD] 		3887) The first images read directly
from neurons.
(University of California, Berkeley)
Berkeley, CA, USA 
[1] Figure 2. Reconstruction of
natural scenes from the responses of a
population of neurons. a, Receptive
fields of 177 cells used in the
reconstruction. Each receptive field
was fitted with a two-dimensional
Gaussian function. Each ellipse
represents the contour at one SD from
the center of the Gaussian fit. Note
that the actual receptive fields
(including surround) are considerably
larger than these ellipses. Red, On
center. Blue, Off center. An area of 32
× 32 pixels (0.2°/pixel) where movie
signals were reconstructed is outlined
in white. The grid inside the white
square delineates the pixels. b,
Comparison between the actual and the
reconstructed images in an area of 6.4
× 6.4° (a, white square). Each panel
shows four consecutive frames
(interframe interval, 31.1 msec) of the
actual (top) and the reconstructed
(bottom) movies. Top panel, Scenes in
the woods, with two trunks of trees as
the most prominent objects. Middle
panel, Scenes in the woods, with
smaller tree branches. Bottom panel, A
face at slightly different
displacements on the screen. c,
Quantitative comparison between the
reconstructed and the actual movie
signals. Top, Histogram of temporal
correlation coefficients between the
actual and the reconstructed signals
(both as functions of time) at each
pixel. The histogram was generated from
1024 (32 × 32) pixels in the white
square. Bottom, Histogram of spatial
correlation coefficients between the
actual and the reconstructed signals
(both as functions of spatial position)
at each frame. The histogram was
generated from 4096 frames (512 frames
per movie; 8 movies). COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jneurosci.org/content
/vol19/issue18/images/large/ns1893409002
.jpeg

[2] Video from Yang Dan UNKNOWN
source: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=t
FdZ9eGTG5A
1 YBN
[09/20/1999 AD] 		5833) Embryonic stem cells transplanted
onto spinal cord tissue, are shown to
differentiate, integrate with, and
promote recovery in the spinal cord of
injured rats.
(Washington University School of
Medicine) St. Louis, Missouri,
USA 		 
0 YAN
[01/01/0 AD] 		150)
  
0 YAN
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0 YAN
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0 YAN
[01/01/0 AD] 		831)
  
0 YAN
[01/01/0 AD] 		913)
  
0 YAN
[01/01/0 AD] 		968)
  
0 YAN
[01/01/0 AD] 		1145)
  
0 YAN
[01/01/0 AD] 		1203)
  
0 YAN
[01/01/0 AD] 		1265)
  
0 YAN
[01/01/0 AD] 		1284)
  
0 YAN
[01/01/0 AD] 		1286)
  
0 YAN
[01/01/0 AD] 		1465)
  
0 YAN
[01/01/0 AD] 		1468)
  
0 YAN
[01/01/0 AD] 		1487)
  
0 YAN
[01/01/0 AD] 		1635)
  
0 YAN
[01/01/0 AD] 		1647)
  
0 YAN
[01/01/0 AD] 		1750)
  
0 YAN
[01/01/0 AD] 		1798)
  
0 YAN
[01/01/0 AD] 		1930)
  
0 YAN
[01/01/0 AD] 		4246)
  
0 YAN
[01/01/0 AD] 		4626)
  
0 YAN
[01/01/0 AD] 		4670)
  
0 YAN
[01/01/0 AD] 		5380)
  
0 YAN
[01/01/0 AD] 		5961)
  
0 YAN
[01/01/0 AD] 		6219)
  
0 YAN
[01/01/0 AD] 		6398)
  
0 YAN
[01/01/0 AD] 		6459)
  
0 YAN
[01/01/0 AD] 		6543)
  
0 YAN
[02/14/2000 AD] 		5638) A ship orbits an asteroid; the
U.S. "NEAR Shoemaker".
Asteroid Eros 
[1] Description
WholeEros.jpg English: False color
view of
http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog
/PIA02923 Original caption from
NASA's Astronomy picture of the
day...: Asteroid Eros
Reconstructed Credit: NEAR
Project, NLR, JHUAPL, Goddard SVS,
NASA Explanation: Orbiting the Sun
between Mars and Earth, asteroid 433
Eros was visited by the robot
spacecraft NEAR-Shoemaker in 2000
February. High-resolution surface
images and measurements made by NEAR's
Laser Rangefinder (NLR) have been
combined into the above visualization
based on the derived 3D model of the
tumbling space rock. NEAR allowed
scientists to discover that Eros is a
single solid body, that its composition
is nearly uniform, and that it formed
during the early years of our Solar
System. Mysteries remain, however,
including why some rocks on the surface
have disintegrated. On 2001 February
12, the NEAR mission drew to a dramatic
close as it was crash landed onto the
asteroid's surface, surviving well
enough to return an analysis of the
composition of the surface regolith. In
December of 2002, NASA made an
unsuccessful attempt to communicate
with the spacecraft after it spent 22
months resting on the asteroid's
surface. NEAR will likely remain on the
asteroid for billions of years as a
monument to human ingenuity at the turn
of the third millennium. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/25/WholeEros.jpg

[2] Description Near
Shoemaker.jpg Artist's conception of
the NEAR Shoenmaker spacecraft.
Originally from the NSSDC website:
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/tmp/1996-
008A.html Date 2007-07-12
(original upload date) Source
Originally from en.wikipedia;
description page is/was here. Author
Original uploader was Andy120290
at en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing
this file) PD-LAYOUT;
PD-USGOV-NASA. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/27/Near_Shoemaker.jpg
0 YAN
[12/05/2000 AD] 		5823) The human genome is sequenced.
(Celera Genomics) Rockville, Maryland,
USA (and 13 other locations) 
[1] Figure 1 from: J. Craig Venter, et
al, ''The Sequence of the Human
Genome'', Science, New Series, Vol.
291, No. 5507 (Feb. 16, 2001), pp.
1304-1351 http://www.jstor.org/stable/3
083494 {Venter_J_Craig_20001205.pdf} C
OPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8f/Craigventer2.jpg

[2] Description
Craigventer2.jpg J. Craig
Venter Date published September
4, 2007 Source A New Human Genome
Sequence Paves the Way for
Individualized Genomics Gross L PLoS
Biology Vol. 5, No. 10, e266
doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0050266 http
://biology.plosjournals.org/perlserv/?re
quest=slideshow&type=figure&doi=10.1371/
journal.pbio.0050266&id=85043 Author
Article by Liza Gross, but no
photo credit given CC
source:
0 YAN
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0 YAN
[0 AD] 		229)
  
0 YAN
[0 AD] 		230)
  
0 YAN
[0 AD] 		231)
  
0 YAN
[0 AD] 		273)
  
0 YAN
[0 AD] 		325)
  
0 YAN
[0 AD] 		427)
  
0 YAN
[0 AD] 		536)
  
0 YAN
[0 AD] 		595)
  
0 YAN
[0 AD] 		618)
  
0 YAN
[0 AD] 		623)
  
0 YAN
[0 AD] 		674)
  
0 YAN
[0 AD] 		689)
  
0 YAN
[0 AD] 		690)
  
0 YAN
[0 AD] 		707)
  
0 YAN
[0 AD] 		740)
  
0 YAN
[0 AD] 		799)
  
0 YAN
[0 AD] 		1069)
  
0 YAN
[0 AD] 		1260)
  
0 YAN
[0 AD] 		1297)
  
0 YAN
[0 AD] 		1585)
  
0 YAN
[0 AD] 		5473) The number of neutrons in the
Earth atmosphere is measured as one
thermal neutron for every 16 ionizing
cosmic rays.
  
0 YAN
[0 AD] 		6311)
  
1 YAN
[02/12/2001 AD] 		5639) The first ship to land on an
asteroid; the U.S. "NEAR Shoemaker".
Asteroid Eros 
[1] Description
Erosregolith.jpg One of the last
photos taken by the NEAR Shoemaker
spacecraft as it landed on the asteroid
433Eros Date 2003(2003) Source
NASA Author
NASA Permission (Reusing this
file) public domain PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a6/Erosregolith.jpg

[2] Description
WholeEros.jpg English: False color
view of
http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog
/PIA02923 Original caption from
NASA's Astronomy picture of the
day...: Asteroid Eros
Reconstructed Credit: NEAR
Project, NLR, JHUAPL, Goddard SVS,
NASA Explanation: Orbiting the Sun
between Mars and Earth, asteroid 433
Eros was visited by the robot
spacecraft NEAR-Shoemaker in 2000
February. High-resolution surface
images and measurements made by NEAR's
Laser Rangefinder (NLR) have been
combined into the above visualization
based on the derived 3D model of the
tumbling space rock. NEAR allowed
scientists to discover that Eros is a
single solid body, that its composition
is nearly uniform, and that it formed
during the early years of our Solar
System. Mysteries remain, however,
including why some rocks on the surface
have disintegrated. On 2001 February
12, the NEAR mission drew to a dramatic
close as it was crash landed onto the
asteroid's surface, surviving well
enough to return an analysis of the
composition of the surface regolith. In
December of 2002, NASA made an
unsuccessful attempt to communicate
with the spacecraft after it spent 22
months resting on the asteroid's
surface. NEAR will likely remain on the
asteroid for billions of years as a
monument to human ingenuity at the turn
of the third millennium. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/25/WholeEros.jpg
1 YAN
[06/28/2001 AD] 		6192) A microscopic radio chip (or RFID
chip) by Hitachi.

These chips measure 400x400 µm.
(Hitachi) Japan 
[1] Hitachi Develops a New RFID with
Embedded Antenna µ-Chip --Makes
Possible Wireless Links that Work Using
Nothing More Than a 0.4mm X 0.4mm Chip,
One of the World's Smallest ICs-- A
New RFID with Embedded Antenna
MU-Chip Tokyo, September 2,
2003-Hitachi, Ltd. (TSE: 6501) today
announced that it has developed a new
version of its RFID µ-Chip embedding
an antenna. When using Hitachi's
original µ-Chip, one of the world's
smallest RFID ICs measuring only 0.4mm
X 0.4mm, an external antenna must be
attached to the chip to allow external
devices to read the 128-bit ID number
stored in its ROM (Read-Only-Memory).
This newly developed version, however,
features an internal antenna, enabling
chips to employ the energy of incoming
electrical waves to wirelessly transmit
its ID number to a reader. The 0.4mm X
0.4mm chip can thus operate entirely on
its own, making it possible to use
µ-Chip as RFID IC tags without the
need to attach external devices. This
breakthrough opens the door to using
µ-Chips as RFID IC tags in extremely
minute and precise applications that
had been impractical until now. For
example, the new µ-Chip can be easily
embedded in bank notes, gift
certificates, documents and whole paper
media etc. The µ-Chip, announced by
Hitachi in July 2001, is one of the
world's smallest IC chips at 0.4mm X
0.4mm. The chip data is recorded in
read-only memory during the
semiconductor production process, and
therefore cannot be rewritten, thus
guaranteeing its authenticity.
Applications of the µ-Chip include a
system for managing the SCM materials
on sites, and entrance tickets for Expo
2005 Aichi Japan which opens on March
25, 2005. The primary features of
this revolutionary µ-Chip are as
follows. (1) A RFID IC chip measuring
only 0.4mm X 0.4mm with built-in
antenna Despite its extremely small
size, this µ-Chip has a built-in
antenna to permit contactless
communications (at very close
proximity) with other devices without
using an external antenna. (2) No need
for special manufacturing
equipment The antenna is formed using
bump-metalization technology (used to
create the electrical contacts of an
IC), a process already widely used by
semiconductor manufacturers, thus
eliminating any need for specialized
equipment. (3) Complete compatibility
with conventional µ-Chip With ID
numbers and support systems that are
fully compatible with those of existing
µ-Chip, the new chip is fully
compatible with all systems that use
current µ-Chip technology. Hitachi
plans to develop numerous markets for
this chip that take full advantage of
its outstanding features. Embedding the
chip in securities, identification and
other valuable documents such as
vouchers offers a highly sophisticated
means of preventing counterfeiting.
Another high-potential application is
agricultural products, where the chips
can help ensure the safety of food by
providing traceability of ingredients.
Additionally, the chips can be embedded
in business forms to automate logistics
systems and many other business
processes. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.hitachi.com/New/cnews
/030902_030902.jpg

[2] The world's smallest radio
frequency identification tags have been
unveiled by Japanese electronics firm
Hitachi. The minute devices measure
just 0.05mm by 0.05mm (0.002x0.002in)
and to the naked eye look like spots of
powder. Here the tiny tags can be
seen next to a human hair UNKNOWN
source: http://newsimg.bbc.co.uk/media/i
mages/42606000/jpg/_42606003_tag_203.jpg

1 YAN
[07/27/2001 AD] 		6200) A millimeter scale rotational
wing flying device.
(University of Tokyo) Tokyo,
Japan 
[1] Figure from: Miki, N.; Shimoyama,
I.; , ''Dynamics of a microflight
mechanism with magnetic rotational
wings in an alternating magnetic
field,'' Microelectromechanical
Systems, Journal of , vol.11, no.5, pp.
584- 591, Oct 2002 doi:
10.1109/JMEMS.2002.803287 URL:
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.j
sp?tp=&arnumber=1038854&isnumber=22266
COPYRIGHTED
source:

[2] Portraits of authors from: Miki,
N.; Shimoyama, I.; , ''Dynamics of a
microflight mechanism with magnetic
rotational wings in an alternating
magnetic field,''
Microelectromechanical Systems, Journal
of , vol.11, no.5, pp. 584- 591, Oct
2002 doi:
10.1109/JMEMS.2002.803287 URL:
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.j
sp?tp=&arnumber=1038854&isnumber=22266
COPYRIGHTED
source:
2 YAN
[02/16/2002 AD] 		6332) A remote control device emits
drugs inside a human body.
(CCBR-SYNARC) Denmark 
[1] Plate 1 figures A-C Farra, Robert
et al. “First-in-Human Testing of a
Wirelessly Controlled Drug Delivery
Microchip.” Science Translational
Medicine (2012): n.
pag. http://stm.sciencemag.org/content/
early/2012/02/15/scitranslmed.3003276 C
OPYRIGHTED
source: Farra, Robert et al.
“First-in-Human Testing of a
Wirelessly Controlled Drug Delivery
Microchip.” Science Translational
Medicine (2012): n.
pag. http://stm.sciencemag.org/content/
early/2012/02/15/scitranslmed.3003276

[2] Plate 4 figures A-H Farra, Robert
et al. “First-in-Human Testing of a
Wirelessly Controlled Drug Delivery
Microchip.” Science Translational
Medicine (2012): n.
pag. http://stm.sciencemag.org/content/
early/2012/02/15/scitranslmed.3003276 C
OPYRIGHTED
source:
3 YAN
[04/04/2003 AD] 		6195) A nanometer scale electric motor
by Zettl and team.
(University of California at Berkeley),
Berkeley, California, USA 
[1] Credit: Zettl Research Group LBNL,
University of California,
Berkley Electric Drives - Special
Purpose Motors (Description and
Applications) Motor
Construction Special purpose designs
have been developed to solve a wide
range of drive problems. Some common
examples are included here.
Integrated Starter Generator
(ISG) The electronically controlled
integrated starter generator used in
mild hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs)
combines the automotive starter and
alternator into a single machine. The
conventional starter is a low speed,
high current DC machine, while the
alternator is a variable speed 3 phase
AC machine. The ISG has four
important functions in a hybrid vehicle
application It enables the
''start-stop'' function, turning off
the engine when the vehicle is
stationary saving fuel. It
generates the electrical energy to
power all the electrical ancillaries.
It provides a power boost to assist
the engine when required, permitting
smaller engines for similar
performance. In some
configurations it recuperates energy
from regenerative braking. In a
typical implementation (below), the ISG
is a short axis, large diameter
''pancake'' shaped switched reluctance
machine mounted directly on the end of
the engine crankshaft between the
engine and the clutch in the gearbox
bell housing. Image source Long,
Schofield, Howe, Piron &
McClelland ''Design of a Switched
Reluctance Machine for Extended Speed
Operation'' IMEDC June 2003 The ISG
is a bi-directional energy converter
acting as a motor when powered by the
battery or a generator when driven by
the engine. The system voltage in a
mild HEV is 42 Volts which means that,
for the same cranking power as a 12
Volt machine, the starter current can
be reduced. Typical power throughput is
between 5kW and 15 kW with a possible
peak power of 70 kW for cold
cranking.. The brushless ISG design
eliminates one rotating machine
completely as well as the associated
commutator and brushes from the DC
machine and the sliprings and brushes
from the AC machine. The starter
solenoid, the Bendix ring (starter
gear) and the pulley or gear drive to
the alternator are also no longer
needed and because of the higher system
voltage, the diameter and weight of the
copper cabling is also reduced
substantially. The savings however
come at a cost. The system must be
integrated with several subsystems as
follows An AC/DC converter to
rectify the generator output voltage.
A DC/DC converter to supply the
vehicle's electrical power system
voltages. Power electronics and
software to control the ISG current,
voltage, speed, torque and temperature
as appropriate. An overall energy
management system integrated with the
vehicle's engine, battery and
brakes. Larger versions of this
construction are also used in full
hybrid electric vehicles. The
switched reluctance machine with its
simple rotor of inert iron is very
robust, able to operate at high speed
and to withstand the harsh operating
conditions in the engine
compartment. History
Outer Rotor Motors There are many
designs using this construction, mostly
for small sizes. Two examples of low
power motors are shown below. High
power versions are used for ''in
wheel'' automotive applications.
Inside Out Motor These are
permanent magnet motors with the moving
magnets arranged around the periphery
of a multi pole fixed stator carrying
the field windings.
Used for automotive drive
systems including in-wheel motors. Low
power versions used in small cooling
fans and direct drive record player
turntables. Toroidal Coil
Motor This is an ''inside out''
brushless permanent magnet motor with a
toroidal wound stator covered by a cup
shaped permanent magnet outer
rotor. Because
of the low inertia and friction free
rotor, the toroidal motor is capable of
speeds up to 25,000 RPM. Suitable for
low power applications it is used for
example to drive the polygonal rotating
mirrors which are mounted directly on
the rotor in laser printers.
Linear Motors In most cases the
linear motor can be considered as a
conventional rotary motor with both the
stator and the rotor split and rolled
out flat. The same electromagnetic
forces apply and these have been
employed in similar classes of AC and
DC machines. Except for traction motors
the travel of the motor armature is
usually quite short. Linear
Stepping Motors The most common
application is the stepping motor.
Stator poles are laid out along the
track and excited by windings fed from
a pulsed DC source. Permanent magnets
forming the armature are held in the
carriage. The carriage moves along the
track in response to pulses sent to the
the stator windings in much the same
way as the rotor turns in a brushless
DC motor. Closed loop control is
possible by mounting a position sensor
on the carriage. Despite the
elegance of the linear motor, linear
motion is more often provided by the
less expensive and more mundane method
of using a rotary stepping motor
driving a lead screw. Maglev
Traction Motors The principle of
the linear induction motor is used to
propel high speed Maglev (Magnetic
Levitation) trains which float on a
magnetic field created by
electromagnets in the trackbed under
the train . A separate set of trackside
guidance magnets is used to control the
lateral position of the train relative
to the track. Thus the maglev train
uses electromagnetic forces for three
different tasks, to suspend, to guide
and to propel the train. Maglev
trains have been developed in several
countries of the world using a variety
of configurations. Examples of the
essential features are described
below. Propulsion
The train has no onboard motor.
Electromagnets in the trackbed are
excited in sequence creating a linear
rather than a rotating field. By
transformer action, the trackbed coils
induce currents in coils on board the
train which are used to energise
powerful electromagnets. The Lorentz
force between the trackbed currents and
the the onboard electromagnets causes
the magnets to be propelled along by
the moving field. The
principles involved are very similar to
those of the induction motor but with
the static and moving parts
interchanged. See diagram below.
For illustrative
purposes the track can be likened to a
ladder formed by the unrolled squirrel
cage rotor of the induction motor. In
this case however it is fixed and it
supplies the moving field. Currents are
induced in the train's electromagnets
which are equivalent to the stator
poles of the induction motor but in
this case the magnets are free to move.
In practical designs the trackbed
currents are actually provided in a
series of individual coils laid along
the track. Levitation
Various levitation schemes are used.
The force holding the train aloft can
be created by the magnetic repulsion
between the same electromagnets on the
track and the onboard electromagnets in
the train which are used for
propulsion. The train's levitating
magnets are powered by direct current
supplied by a battery which is kept
charged by an induction generator
taking its power from the currents
induced by the trackbed coils in the
onboard generator coils. In
the diagram above, when the magnet is
directly above the current carrying
conductor as shown, the magnetic forces
(north and south poles) from the two
adjacent current loops cancel out and
there is no lift. If however the magnet
is moving very quickly over the coils,
it will reach a position over like,
repulsive, poles (north poles in the
diagram) which are displaced from the
attractive south poles so that the net
effect is a force repelling the magnet
away from the track. This is only
possible because the current in the
trackbed magnets lags the voltage due
to the inductance of the windings,
creating a delay in the build up of the
balanced field by which time the magnet
has moved into the adjacent region
where there is a net repulsive force.
This effect only happens when the
magnet on the train is moving at high
speed across the trackbed magnets. Thus
the train needs to be in motion for
this system to work and the train needs
wheels for support as it accelerates
from rest and when it is slowing to a
halt. Alternatively
levitation can be provided by separate
windings. The train's levitation
magnets protrude from the side of the
train and run between pairs of
vertically separated electromagnets in
guideways at each side of the train,
rather than in the trackbed. This
arrangement creates an attractive force
above the train's magnets combined with
a repulsive force beneath the train's
magnets to provide the levitating
force. Guidance For
guidance the train uses magnetic fields
provided by a separate set of weaker
magnets along each side of the train.
Similar in principle to the levitation
magnets they are used to control the
lateral position of the train relative
to the track.
Excitation of the trackside magnets is
arranged such that only the section
under the train is active. As the train
moves along the track between sections
the current to the previous section is
switched off and the current to the
next section is switched on pulling the
train along. This serves the dual
purpose of avoiding losses by
energising only the section of track
directly under the train and at the
same time, since the power to the rest
of the track is switched off, it
provides security against electric
shock to anybody near to the track and
avoids the possibility of accidentally
short circuiting the system by dropping
rubbish onto live conductors.
Very high armature currents of
thousands of amps or more are involved
and some designs use high temperature
superconductors ( HTS ) in the onboard
magnets, cooled with liquid nitrogen or
helium to minimise the resistive
losses. As might be expected some
sophisticated control systems are
needed to keep everything on track.
History Axial Field
Motors Axial field motors have been
developed for applications which
require short, flat, ''pancake''
construction. Printed Circuit
(PCB) or ''Pancake'' Motor The
printed circuit motor is an example of
an ironless or coreless motor with
several unique features. The pancake
construction uses an axial magnetic
field to achieve the short flat
construction. Radial field PCB motors
are also possible.
Construction The rotor windings
are printed, stamped or welded onto a
thin, disc shaped glass fibre circuit
board which rotates in the air gap
between pairs of permanent magnets
arranged around the periphery of the
disk. The windings fan out in a series
of radial loops around the surface of
the disk. The magnets are arranged
alternatively north and south so that
the magnetic fields in the air gaps of
adjacent magnet pairs are in opposite
directions. The magnets are held in
place by two iron end caps in a compact
''pancake'' shaped block to complete
the magnetic circuit. Current is fed to
the rotor windings via brushes through
precious metal commutator segments
printed on the disc. Operating
Principle Traditional electric
motors have a radial magnetic field or
flux with the rotor current flowing
axially along the length of the rotor.
In typical printed circuit motors the
construction is reversed. The magnetic
field is axial (oriented along the axis
of the machine) and the current flows
radially from the axis to the edge of
the disc and back again. A tangential
force on the disk is created by the
current passing through the magnetic
fields in the air gaps between the pole
pairs of the permanent magnets. So that
the return current does not cancel out
the effect of the outgoing current, the
return wire is physically separated or
displaced to one side from the outgoing
wire by the width of the magnet. In
this way it interacts with the magnetic
field of the adjacent magnet which is
in the opposite direction and thus
reinforces the tangential force on the
disk. In many ways it is similar
to Faraday's 1831disk or homopolar
motor which used a single magnet and
was driven by a unidirectional current
fed by brushes at the centre and on the
periphery of the disk.
Applications The printed circuit
motor is a very compact and light
weight design making it useful in
confined spaces. Since the rotor does
not have drag a lump of iron around, it
has very low inertia and can run up to
speed very quickly. Because of the many
commutator segments and the low current
capability of the windings, the PCB
motor is only suitable for low power
applications and is not suitable for
continuous operation. It is however
ideal for servo systems and industrial
controls and automotive applications
such as electric window winders.
Micro-motors
(Micro-ElectroMechanical Systems -
MEMS) Electrostatic Motor
The motor shown below is an example of
semiconductor manufacturing technology
used to fabricate very small mechanical
components. It measures 100 microns
across, or about the width of a human
hair. Similar in principle to a
reluctance motor, it depends on
electrostatic attraction, rather than
magnetic attraction, between the stator
and rotor poles. Because the dimensions
are so tiny, very high electric fields
can be built up with only a few volts
between the motor poles.
Fan Long-Shen, Tai Yu-Chong
and Richard S. Muller 1989
IC-processed electrostatic
micromotors Sensors Actuators 20
41-7 Fan L-S, Tai Y-C and R S
Muller 1988 Integrated moveable
micromechanical structures for sensors
and actuators IEEE Trans. Electron
Devices The motor is
not assembled from individual
components. Instead the components are
built up on a semiconductor substrate
by masking and etching and a mask-less
post-processing release step is
performed to etch away sacrificial
layers, allowing the structural layers
to move and rotate.
Micromachined micromotors can be
monolithically integrated together with
the necessary CMOS drive circuits,
containing oscillators, frequency
dividers and counters, and transistors
for the drive circuit all on one
silicon chip. Common uses
include defense/munitions applications,
computer hard drives, optics, sensors
and actuators.
History Nano-motors
(Nano-ElectroMechanical Systems -
NEMS) Electrostatic Motor
Even smaller motors have been made
using nanotechnology. An example is
shown below. It consists of a tiny gold
slab rotor, about 100 nm square,
mounted on concentric carbon nanotubes.
The outer tube carries the rotor,
driven by electrostatic electrodes,
rotating around an inner tube which
acts as a supporting shaft. By applying
voltage pulses of up to 5 Volts between
the rotor plate and stators, the
position, speed and direction of
rotation of the rotor can be
controlled. It measures about 500
nanometers across, 300 times smaller
than the diameter of a human hair.
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.mpoweruk.com/images/n
ems.gif

[2] Credit: Zettl Research
Group LBNL, University of California,
Berkley Electric Drives - Special
Purpose Motors (Description and
Applications) Motor
Construction Special purpose designs
have been developed to solve a wide
range of drive problems. Some common
examples are included here.
Integrated Starter Generator
(ISG) The electronically controlled
integrated starter generator used in
mild hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs)
combines the automotive starter and
alternator into a single machine. The
conventional starter is a low speed,
high current DC machine, while the
alternator is a variable speed 3 phase
AC machine. The ISG has four
important functions in a hybrid vehicle
application It enables the
''start-stop'' function, turning off
the engine when the vehicle is
stationary saving fuel. It
generates the electrical energy to
power all the electrical ancillaries.
It provides a power boost to assist
the engine when required, permitting
smaller engines for similar
performance. In some
configurations it recuperates energy
from regenerative braking. In a
typical implementation (below), the ISG
is a short axis, large diameter
''pancake'' shaped switched reluctance
machine mounted directly on the end of
the engine crankshaft between the
engine and the clutch in the gearbox
bell housing. Image source Long,
Schofield, Howe, Piron &
McClelland ''Design of a Switched
Reluctance Machine for Extended Speed
Operation'' IMEDC June 2003 The ISG
is a bi-directional energy converter
acting as a motor when powered by the
battery or a generator when driven by
the engine. The system voltage in a
mild HEV is 42 Volts which means that,
for the same cranking power as a 12
Volt machine, the starter current can
be reduced. Typical power throughput is
between 5kW and 15 kW with a possible
peak power of 70 kW for cold
cranking.. The brushless ISG design
eliminates one rotating machine
completely as well as the associated
commutator and brushes from the DC
machine and the sliprings and brushes
from the AC machine. The starter
solenoid, the Bendix ring (starter
gear) and the pulley or gear drive to
the alternator are also no longer
needed and because of the higher system
voltage, the diameter and weight of the
copper cabling is also reduced
substantially. The savings however
come at a cost. The system must be
integrated with several subsystems as
follows An AC/DC converter to
rectify the generator output voltage.
A DC/DC converter to supply the
vehicle's electrical power system
voltages. Power electronics and
software to control the ISG current,
voltage, speed, torque and temperature
as appropriate. An overall energy
management system integrated with the
vehicle's engine, battery and
brakes. Larger versions of this
construction are also used in full
hybrid electric vehicles. The
switched reluctance machine with its
simple rotor of inert iron is very
robust, able to operate at high speed
and to withstand the harsh operating
conditions in the engine
compartment. History
Outer Rotor Motors There are many
designs using this construction, mostly
for small sizes. Two examples of low
power motors are shown below. High
power versions are used for ''in
wheel'' automotive applications.
Inside Out Motor These are
permanent magnet motors with the moving
magnets arranged around the periphery
of a multi pole fixed stator carrying
the field windings.
Used for automotive drive
systems including in-wheel motors. Low
power versions used in small cooling
fans and direct drive record player
turntables. Toroidal Coil
Motor This is an ''inside out''
brushless permanent magnet motor with a
toroidal wound stator covered by a cup
shaped permanent magnet outer
rotor. Because
of the low inertia and friction free
rotor, the toroidal motor is capable of
speeds up to 25,000 RPM. Suitable for
low power applications it is used for
example to drive the polygonal rotating
mirrors which are mounted directly on
the rotor in laser printers.
Linear Motors In most cases the
linear motor can be considered as a
conventional rotary motor with both the
stator and the rotor split and rolled
out flat. The same electromagnetic
forces apply and these have been
employed in similar classes of AC and
DC machines. Except for traction motors
the travel of the motor armature is
usually quite short. Linear
Stepping Motors The most common
application is the stepping motor.
Stator poles are laid out along the
track and excited by windings fed from
a pulsed DC source. Permanent magnets
forming the armature are held in the
carriage. The carriage moves along the
track in response to pulses sent to the
the stator windings in much the same
way as the rotor turns in a brushless
DC motor. Closed loop control is
possible by mounting a position sensor
on the carriage. Despite the
elegance of the linear motor, linear
motion is more often provided by the
less expensive and more mundane method
of using a rotary stepping motor
driving a lead screw. Maglev
Traction Motors The principle of
the linear induction motor is used to
propel high speed Maglev (Magnetic
Levitation) trains which float on a
magnetic field created by
electromagnets in the trackbed under
the train . A separate set of trackside
guidance magnets is used to control the
lateral position of the train relative
to the track. Thus the maglev train
uses electromagnetic forces for three
different tasks, to suspend, to guide
and to propel the train. Maglev
trains have been developed in several
countries of the world using a variety
of configurations. Examples of the
essential features are described
below. Propulsion
The train has no onboard motor.
Electromagnets in the trackbed are
excited in sequence creating a linear
rather than a rotating field. By
transformer action, the trackbed coils
induce currents in coils on board the
train which are used to energise
powerful electromagnets. The Lorentz
force between the trackbed currents and
the the onboard electromagnets causes
the magnets to be propelled along by
the moving field. The
principles involved are very similar to
those of the induction motor but with
the static and moving parts
interchanged. See diagram below.
For illustrative
purposes the track can be likened to a
ladder formed by the unrolled squirrel
cage rotor of the induction motor. In
this case however it is fixed and it
supplies the moving field. Currents are
induced in the train's electromagnets
which are equivalent to the stator
poles of the induction motor but in
this case the magnets are free to move.
In practical designs the trackbed
currents are actually provided in a
series of individual coils laid along
the track. Levitation
Various levitation schemes are used.
The force holding the train aloft can
be created by the magnetic repulsion
between the same electromagnets on the
track and the onboard electromagnets in
the train which are used for
propulsion. The train's levitating
magnets are powered by direct current
supplied by a battery which is kept
charged by an induction generator
taking its power from the currents
induced by the trackbed coils in the
onboard generator coils. In
the diagram above, when the magnet is
directly above the current carrying
conductor as shown, the magnetic forces
(north and south poles) from the two
adjacent current loops cancel out and
there is no lift. If however the magnet
is moving very quickly over the coils,
it will reach a position over like,
repulsive, poles (north poles in the
diagram) which are displaced from the
attractive south poles so that the net
effect is a force repelling the magnet
away from the track. This is only
possible because the current in the
trackbed magnets lags the voltage due
to the inductance of the windings,
creating a delay in the build up of the
balanced field by which time the magnet
has moved into the adjacent region
where there is a net repulsive force.
This effect only happens when the
magnet on the train is moving at high
speed across the trackbed magnets. Thus
the train needs to be in motion for
this system to work and the train needs
wheels for support as it accelerates
from rest and when it is slowing to a
halt. Alternatively
levitation can be provided by separate
windings. The train's levitation
magnets protrude from the side of the
train and run between pairs of
vertically separated electromagnets in
guideways at each side of the train,
rather than in the trackbed. This
arrangement creates an attractive force
above the train's magnets combined with
a repulsive force beneath the train's
magnets to provide the levitating
force. Guidance For
guidance the train uses magnetic fields
provided by a separate set of weaker
magnets along each side of the train.
Similar in principle to the levitation
magnets they are used to control the
lateral position of the train relative
to the track.
Excitation of the trackside magnets is
arranged such that only the section
under the train is active. As the train
moves along the track between sections
the current to the previous section is
switched off and the current to the
next section is switched on pulling the
train along. This serves the dual
purpose of avoiding losses by
energising only the section of track
directly under the train and at the
same time, since the power to the rest
of the track is switched off, it
provides security against electric
shock to anybody near to the track and
avoids the possibility of accidentally
short circuiting the system by dropping
rubbish onto live conductors.
Very high armature currents of
thousands of amps or more are involved
and some designs use high temperature
superconductors ( HTS ) in the onboard
magnets, cooled with liquid nitrogen or
helium to minimise the resistive
losses. As might be expected some
sophisticated control systems are
needed to keep everything on track.
History Axial Field
Motors Axial field motors have been
developed for applications which
require short, flat, ''pancake''
construction. Printed Circuit
(PCB) or ''Pancake'' Motor The
printed circuit motor is an example of
an ironless or coreless motor with
several unique features. The pancake
construction uses an axial magnetic
field to achieve the short flat
construction. Radial field PCB motors
are also possible.
Construction The rotor windings
are printed, stamped or welded onto a
thin, disc shaped glass fibre circuit
board which rotates in the air gap
between pairs of permanent magnets
arranged around the periphery of the
disk. The windings fan out in a series
of radial loops around the surface of
the disk. The magnets are arranged
alternatively north and south so that
the magnetic fields in the air gaps of
adjacent magnet pairs are in opposite
directions. The magnets are held in
place by two iron end caps in a compact
''pancake'' shaped block to complete
the magnetic circuit. Current is fed to
the rotor windings via brushes through
precious metal commutator segments
printed on the disc. Operating
Principle Traditional electric
motors have a radial magnetic field or
flux with the rotor current flowing
axially along the length of the rotor.
In typical printed circuit motors the
construction is reversed. The magnetic
field is axial (oriented along the axis
of the machine) and the current flows
radially from the axis to the edge of
the disc and back again. A tangential
force on the disk is created by the
current passing through the magnetic
fields in the air gaps between the pole
pairs of the permanent magnets. So that
the return current does not cancel out
the effect of the outgoing current, the
return wire is physically separated or
displaced to one side from the outgoing
wire by the width of the magnet. In
this way it interacts with the magnetic
field of the adjacent magnet which is
in the opposite direction and thus
reinforces the tangential force on the
disk. In many ways it is similar
to Faraday's 1831disk or homopolar
motor which used a single magnet and
was driven by a unidirectional current
fed by brushes at the centre and on the
periphery of the disk.
Applications The printed circuit
motor is a very compact and light
weight design making it useful in
confined spaces. Since the rotor does
not have drag a lump of iron around, it
has very low inertia and can run up to
speed very quickly. Because of the many
commutator segments and the low current
capability of the windings, the PCB
motor is only suitable for low power
applications and is not suitable for
continuous operation. It is however
ideal for servo systems and industrial
controls and automotive applications
such as electric window winders.
Micro-motors
(Micro-ElectroMechanical Systems -
MEMS) Electrostatic Motor
The motor shown below is an example of
semiconductor manufacturing technology
used to fabricate very small mechanical
components. It measures 100 microns
across, or about the width of a human
hair. Similar in principle to a
reluctance motor, it depends on
electrostatic attraction, rather than
magnetic attraction, between the stator
and rotor poles. Because the dimensions
are so tiny, very high electric fields
can be built up with only a few volts
between the motor poles.
Fan Long-Shen, Tai Yu-Chong
and Richard S. Muller 1989
IC-processed electrostatic
micromotors Sensors Actuators 20
41-7 Fan L-S, Tai Y-C and R S
Muller 1988 Integrated moveable
micromechanical structures for sensors
and actuators IEEE Trans. Electron
Devices The motor is
not assembled from individual
components. Instead the components are
built up on a semiconductor substrate
by masking and etching and a mask-less
post-processing release step is
performed to etch away sacrificial
layers, allowing the structural layers
to move and rotate.
Micromachined micromotors can be
monolithically integrated together with
the necessary CMOS drive circuits,
containing oscillators, frequency
dividers and counters, and transistors
for the drive circuit all on one
silicon chip. Common uses
include defense/munitions applications,
computer hard drives, optics, sensors
and actuators.
History Nano-motors
(Nano-ElectroMechanical Systems -
NEMS) Electrostatic Motor
Even smaller motors have been made
using nanotechnology. An example is
shown below. It consists of a tiny gold
slab rotor, about 100 nm square,
mounted on concentric carbon nanotubes.
The outer tube carries the rotor,
driven by electrostatic electrodes,
rotating around an inner tube which
acts as a supporting shaft. By applying
voltage pulses of up to 5 Volts between
the rotor plate and stators, the
position, speed and direction of
rotation of the rotor can be
controlled. It measures about 500
nanometers across, 300 times smaller
than the diameter of a human hair.
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.mpoweruk.com/images/n
ems.gif
4 YAN
[01/15/2004 AD] 		5640) A vehicle from Earth moves around
on the surface of planet Mars; the U.S.
"Spirit rover".
Planet Mars 
[1] * original description: This
synthetic image of the Spirit Mars
Exploration Rover in the ''Columbia
Hills'' was produced using ''Virtual
Presence in Space'' technology.
Developed at NASA's Jet Propulsion
Laboratory, Pasadena, Calif., in
cooperation with Maas Digital LLC, this
technology combines visualization and
image-processing tools with
Hollywood-style special effects. The
image was created using a
photorealistic model of the rover and
an image taken by the Spirit navigation
camera during the rover's 438th Martian
day, or sol (March 27, 2005); see
PIA07829). The size of the rover in the
image is approximately correct and was
based on the size of the rover tracks
in the navigation-camera
image. Credits: Rover Model: D. Maas
- Synthetic Image: Z. Gorjian, K.
Kuramura, M. Stetson, E. De Jong.
* source:
http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog
/PIA03230 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/19/Spirit_PIA03230.jpg

[2] Mars Exploration Rover ''Spirit''
took this mosaic on 16th sol. It shows
now useless lander left on the landing
site. To the right are, about 3
kilometers away, the Columbia Hills,
significant targets for exploration
reached by Spirit later in its
mission. Source:
http://marsrover.nasa.gov/gallery/press/
spirit/20040121a.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a5/MER_Spirit_Lander_Pan
_Sol16-A18R1_br2.jpg
4 YAN
[06/17/2004 AD] 		6204) A camera that is made of fabric
(optoelectronic fibres).
(Massachusetts Institute of Technology)
Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA 
[1] a, SEM micrograph of the
cross-section of the hybrid fibre with
800-microm hollow core, omnidirectional
mirror layers, metallic filament array
and polymer cladding. The inset shows
eight pairs of quarter-wave As2Se3/PEI
multilayers and one of the metallic, Sn
filaments in the ring that is
surrounding the mirror layers. b,
Photograph of a 1-mm-thick, 1-m-long
hybrid fibre. The fibre appears green
to the eye by virtue of reflection from
the third-order photonic band gap of
the omnidirectional mirror, located at
550 nm. c, Normalized transmission
spectra of three different fibres,
having outer diameters of 980, 1,030
and 1,090 microm. The primary and
second-order photonic bandgaps are
located at 1.62 and 0.8 microm for the
980-microm-thick fibre, and are shifted
to longer wavelengths as the fibre
diameter increases. d, Measured
electrical current along the
980-microm-thick, 15-cm-long fibre as a
function of applied bias
voltage. Figure from: Bayindir,
Mehmet et al.
“Metal-insulator-semiconductor
optoelectronic fibres.” Nature
431.7010 (2004) :
826-829. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v431/n7010/full/nature02937.html
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v431/n7010/images/nature02937-f1.2.
jpg

[2] Researchers display the new light
sensitive fabric they have created,
fibers of which are in front of Yoel
Fink's face in frame. From left to
right are physics professor John
Joannopoulos, material science
professor Yoel Fink, post-doc Mehmet
Bayindir, graduate student Fabien Sorin
and post-doc Ayman Abouraddy. Photo /
Donna Coveney UNKNOWN
source: http://img.mit.edu/newsoffice/im
ages/article_images/200908311112003221.j
pg
4 YAN
[07/01/2004 AD] 		5641) The first ship to orbit Saturn;
the U.S. "Cassini".
Planet Saturn 
[1] * original caption: Jet Propulsion
Laboratory (JPL) workers use a
borescope to verify pressure relief
device bellows integrity on a
radioisotope thermoelectric generator
(RTG) which has been installed on the
Cassini spacecraft in the Payload
Hazardous Servicing Facility. The
activity is part of the mechanical and
electrical verification testing of RTGs
during prelaunch processing. RTGs use
heat from the natural decay of
plutonium to generate electric power.
The three RTGs on Cassini will enable
the spacecraft to operate far from the
Sun where solar power systems are not
feasible. They will provide electrical
power to Cassini on its 6.7-year trip
to the Saturnian system and during its
four-year mission at Saturn. The
Cassini mission is scheduled for an
Oct. 6 launch aboard a Titan
IVB/Centaur expendable launch vehicle.
Cassini is built and managed for NASA
by JPL. * date: 18. Dec 1997
* image ID: KSC-97PC-1070 *
source:
http://nix.ksc.nasa.gov/info;jsessionid=
1tplxxjif20rp?id=KSC-97PC-1070&orgid=5
PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/61/Cassini_assembly.jpg

[2] Original Caption Released with
Image: This is an artists concept of
Cassini during the Saturn Orbit
Insertion (SOI) maneuver, just after
the main engine has begun firing. The
spacecraft is moving out of the plane
of the page and to the right (firing to
reduce its spacecraft velocity with
respect to Saturn) and has just crossed
the ring plane. The SOI maneuver,
which is approximately 90 minutes long,
will allow Cassini to be captured by
Saturn's gravity into a five-month
orbit. Cassini's close proximity to the
planet after the maneuver offers a
unique opportunity to observe Saturn
and its rings at extremely high
resolution. Source:
http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog
/PIA03883 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b2/Cassini_Saturn_Orbit_
Insertion.jpg
4 YAN
[07/22/2004 AD] 		6655) The first image of a planet of a
different star; captured in infrared
light.
(European Southern Observatory)
Santiago, Chili 
[1] Figure 1: Composite image of brown
dwarf 2M1207 and its GPCC in H (blue),
$K_{rm s}$ (green) and $L~!'$ (red).
The companion appears clearly
distinguishable in comparison to the
color of the brown dwarf
2M1207. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.aanda.org/articles/aa
/full/2004/38/aagg222/img11.gif

[2] Description Foto subida en
remplazo de
Imagen:First_Exoplanet_picture.jpg,
subida en fecha 9 oct, 2004,
accidentalmente borrada. Licencia de
uso libre con atribución al European
Southern Observatory: ESO Press
Photos may be reproduced, if credit is
given to the European Southern
Observatory. Fuente:
http://www.eso.org/outreach/press-rel/pr
-2004/pr-23-04.html es:Categoría:Imág
enes con condiciones de uso Date
2005-05-01 (original upload
date) Source Originally from
es.wikipedia; description page is/was
here (original source). Author
Original uploader was Ascánder at
es.wikipedia CC
source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wik
ipedia/commons/1/12/Primera_foto_planeta
_extrasolar_ESO.jpg
4 YAN
[10/27/2004 AD] 		6639) The theory that at some distance,
not one light particle from another
star can be moving in the direction of
Earth is revived and clearly stated.
(University of California) Irvine,
California, USA 
[1] Ted Huntington,''Is the Universe
Much, Much Older Than 15 Billion Years
Old?'',
10/27/2004. http://tedhuntington.com/pa
per_maps.htm GNU
source: http://tedhuntington.com/paper_m
aps.htm
4 YAN
[11/29/2004 AD] 		5832) Stem cells are used to repair
damaged nerves, allowing a paralyzed
human to walk.

A South Korean woman paralyzed for 20
years walks again after her damaged
spine is repaired using stem cells
derived from umbilical cord blood.
(Chosun University) Kwangju, South
Korea 
[1] Figure 2 The atrophied spinal
cord is expanded after stem cell
administration with total laminectomy
on pre-contrast axial CT films (b). The
lowermost portion of the atrophied
spinal cord is enlarged, along with
thinning and interruption of the
calcified pia mater at the T12–L1
level on pre-contrast axial CT films
(d). Sagittal T2 weighted SE MRI reveal
regenerating spinal cord at the injured
level (arrow, f) and some of the cauda
equina below it (arrow heads, f). CT
images before cell transplantation (a,
c) and MRI image before cell
transplantation (e). Fig 2
from: Kang KS, Kim SW, Oh YH, et al.
(2005). ''A 37-year-old spinal
cord-injured female patient,
transplanted of multipotent stem cells
from human UC blood, with improved
sensory perception and mobility, both
functionally and morphologically: a
case study''. Cytotherapy 7 (4):
368–73.
DOI:10.1080/14653240500238160. PMID
16162459. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://informahealthcare.com/na1
01/home/literatum/publisher/ashley/journ
als/content/cyt/2005/cyt.2005.7.issue-4/
14653240500238160/production/images/larg
e/14653240500238160fig002.jpeg
5 YAN
[01/14/2005 AD] 		5642) A ship lands on a moon of Saturn
(Titan).

The European Space Agency (E.S.A.)
"Huygens" Titan probe is the first ship
to soft-land on a moon of a planet
besides Earth
Planet Saturn, moon Titan 
[1] Description Huygens on
Titan.jpg English: This artist's
impression is based on images from
Huygens landing on Titan. In the
foreground, sits the car-sized lander
that sent back images for more than 90
minutes before running out of battery
power. The parachute that slowed
Huygen's re-entry is seen in the
background, still attached to the
lander. Smooth stones, possibly
containing water-ice, are strewn about
the landscape. Analyses of Huygen's
images and data show that Titan's
surface today has intriguing
similarities to the surface of the
early Earth. Date 8 March
2010(2010-03-08) Source NASA
Image of the Day Author ESA PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/bc/Huygens_on_Titan.jpg

[2] English: Image of Titan's surface
taken by the Huygens probe on 14
January 2005. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/bc/Huygens_surface_color
.jpg
6 YAN
[08/25/2006 AD] 		6645) Differentiated adult cells are
reprogrammed into pluripotent stem
cells by injecting them with only four
proteins. These cells are now called
"induced pluripotent stem cells" (or
iPSCs).
Japan. 
[1] Figure 6 from: Takahashi,
Kazutoshi, and Shinya Yamanaka.
“Induction of Pluripotent Stem Cells
from Mouse Embryonic and Adult
Fibroblast Cultures by Defined
Factors.” Cell 126.4 (2006):
663–676. http://www.sciencedirect.com
/science/article/pii/S0092867406009767
{Takahasi_Yamanaka_20060825.pdf} COPYRI
GHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence/article/pii/S0092867406009767 {Tak
ahasi_Yamanaka_20060825.pdf}
7 YAN
[10/31/2007 AD] 		6187) A carbon nanotube radio.
(University of California) Berkeley,
California, USA 
[1] Figure 2 (a) Schematic of the
nanotube radio. Radio transmissions
tuned to the nanotube's resonance
frequency force the charged nanotube to
vibrate. Field emission of electrons
from the tip of the nanotube is used to
detect the vibrations and also amplify
and demodulate the signal. A current
measuring device, such as a sensitive
speaker, monitors the output of the
radio. (b) Transmission electron
micrographs of a nanotube radio off and
on resonance during a radio
transmission. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://pubs.acs.org/appl/literat
um/publisher/achs/journals/content/nalef
d/2007/nalefd.2007.7.issue-11/nl0721113/
production/images/large/nl0721113f00002.
jpeg
8 YAN
[06/10/2008 AD] 		6582) That mass and motion cannot be
converted into each other is
recognized.
(UC Irvine) Irvine, CA, USA 
[1]
http://www.tedhuntington.com/paper_mass_
velocity.htm
source: Ted Huntington, "Mass is
Conserved, and Velocity is Conserved,
but can Mass and Velocity be
Exchanged?",
06/10/2008. http://www.tedhuntington.co
m/paper_mass_velocity.htm
8 YAN
[12/10/2008 AD] 		3886) Remote neuron reading. An image
of what the eyes are seeing is captured
remotely by Kamatani and team using
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI).

They also distinguish between different
syllables of thought-audio remotely.
(Collaboration between researchers at
two Japanese Universities, two research
Institutes, and ATR Computational
Neuroscience Laboratories) Kyoto,
Japan 
[1] Image from 12/10/2008 ''Neuron''
paper COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.cell.com/neuron/image
/S0896-6273(08)00958-6?imageId=gr2&image
Type=large

[2] Image from 12/10/2008 ''Neuron''
paper COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.cell.com/neuron/image
/S0896-6273(08)00958-6?imageId=gr1&image
Type=large
9 YAN
[10/12/2009 AD] 		6207) A laser is microscopic in two
dimensions.
(Institute for Quantum Electronics)
Zurich, Switzerland 
[1] The centerpiece of the new
microlaser is the electric resonator,
consisting of two semi-circular
capacitors that are connected via an
inductor (here, a scanning electron
microscope image). The color intensity
represents the strength of the
electrical field; the color itself, the
respective polarity. (Credit: Photo:
ETH Zurich) UNKNOWN
source: http://images.sciencedaily.com/2
010/04/100405132251-large.jpg

[2] Figure from: Christoph Walther et
al, ''Microcavity Laser Oscillating in
a Circuit-Based Resonator'', Science 19
March 2010: 327 (5972),
1495-1497. http://www.sciencemag.org/co
ntent/327/5972/1495.full Fig.
1 (A) Schematic of the LC laser.
Formula is the alternating current in
the resonator, Formula is the induced
magnetic field, and Formula is the
electric field. The active gain medium
is biased by the voltage source VDC.
(B) Scanning electron micrograph
picture of the LC laser device. (C)
Schematic cross section through the
device along the symmetry axis. The red
layer is undoped Al0.5Ga0.5As and
prevents current injection into the
active region below the bonding pad. (D
and E) Finite-element simulations of
the electromagnetic field in the
resonator showing the dominating
electric field component Ez and the
norm of the magnetic field Formula. (F)
Measured reflectivity at 10 K of an
array of 400 identical LC resonators,
shown in the inset and designed for a
frequency of 1.45 THz, without gain
medium and without electrical
connection. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/327/5972/1495/F1.large.jpg
11 YAN
[05/02/2011 AD] 		6196) A camera is microscopic in
two-dimensions.
(Medigus Ltd. and Tower Semiconductor
Ltd) Omer, Israel 
[1] Apparently image of .9mm
camera from ''Yaron Silberman'' in
reply to camera@medigus.com UNKNOWN
source: camera@medigus.com

[2] Figure from: Patrick Robert Gill,
Changhyuk Lee, Dhon-Gue Lee, Albert
Wang, and Alyosha Molnar, ''A
microscale camera using direct
Fourier-domain scene capture'', Optics
Letters, Vol. 36, Issue 15, pp.
2949-2951 (2011)
doi:10.1364/OL.36.002949 http://www.opt
icsinfobase.org/ol/abstract.cfm?URI=ol-3
6-15-2949 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.opticsinfobase.org/ol
/abstract.cfm?URI=ol-36-15-2949
11 YAN
[07/08/2011 AD] 		255) A solar cell is made on paper.
(Massachusetts Institute of Technology)
Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA 
[1] Figure 3. Large-area monolithic
photovoltaic arrays. (a) Printing
schematic for 250-cell,
series-integrated monolithic arrays.
The photographs show the printed PEDOT
(∼50-nm thick) pattern (left) and a
completed array (right) on tracing
paper. (b) Current-voltage performance
curves for series-integrated
photovoltaic arrays with
vapor-patterned oCVD electrodes on
paper (red) and glass (black) under
illumination (AM1.5, 80 mW·cm−2)
(bold) and in the dark (thin). (c)
Spatial map of individual cell
open-circuit voltages across the
respective ∼50 cm2 arrays. The lower
insets show the cumulative fraction of
devices producing at or below a given
voltage. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/s
tore/10.1002/adma.201101263/asset/image_
n/nfig003.jpg?v=1&t=gqoj29jo&s=a427a556a
f2915bf1be66514900c777207a34fc3
11 YAN
[09/22/2011 AD] 		6211) Movies of remotely read eye
images are published.
(University of California) Berkeley,
California, USA 
[1] Figure 4 from: [1] Shinji
Nishimoto, An T. Vu, Thomas Naselaris,
Yuval Benjamini, Bin Yu, Jack L.
Gallant, Reconstructing Visual
Experiences from Brain Activity Evoked
by Natural Movies, Current Biology,
Available online 22 September 2011,
ISSN 0960-9822,
10.1016/j.cub.2011.08.031. http://www.s
ciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S09
60982211009377 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=MiamiCaptionURL&_method=retriev
e&_eid=1-s2.0-S0960982211009377&_image=1
-s2.0-S0960982211009377-gr4_lrg.jpg&_ba=
&_fmt=full&_orig=na&_issn=09609822&_pii=
S0960982211009377&_isHiQual=Y&_acct=C000
059600&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=
4422&md5=8e67845bce6fecd1ff02f8a2a27c3a9
8

[2] This set of paired images provided
by Shinji Nishimoto of the University
of California, Berkeley on Wednesday,
Sept. 21, 2011 shows original video
images, upper row, and those images
reconstructed by computer from brain
scans. While volunteers watched movie
clips, a scanner watched their brains.
And from their brain activity, a
computer made rough reconstructions of
what they viewed. Scientists reported
that result Thursday, Sept. 22, 2011
and speculated such an approach might
be able to reveal dreams and
hallucinations someday. In the future,
it might help stroke victims or others
who have no other way to communicate,
said Jack Gallant, a neuroscientist at
the University of California, Berkeley,
and co-author of the paper. (AP
Photo/University of California,
Berkeley, Shinji
Nishimoto) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://l.yimg.com/bt/api/res/1.2
/941dkMje4.Ad79M1d1pC2g--/YXBwaWQ9eW5ld3
M7Zmk9aW5zZXQ7aD0yMTQ7cT04NTt3PTUxMg--/h
ttp://media.zenfs.com/en_us/News/ap_webf
eeds/c39fa951569e8115f90e6a706700c8cb.jp
g
12 YAN
[01/31/2012 AD] 		276) Sound a brain hears is recorded
directly from the brain.
(University of California at Berkeley)
Berkeley, CA, USA 
[1] Figure 1. Experiment
paradigm. Participants listened to
words (acoustic waveform, top left),
while neural signals were recorded from
cortical surface electrode arrays (top
right, red circles) implanted over
superior and middle temporal gyrus
(STG, MTG). Speech-induced cortical
field potentials (bottom right, gray
curves) recorded at multiple electrode
sites were used to fit multi-input,
multi-output models for offline
decoding. The models take as input
time-varying neural signals at multiple
electrodes and output a spectrogram
consisting of time-varying spectral
power across a range of acoustic
frequencies (180–7,000 Hz, bottom
left). To assess decoding accuracy, the
reconstructed spectrogram is compared
to the spectrogram of the original
acoustic
waveform. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.1001
251.g001 CC
source: http://www.plosbiology.org/artic
le/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pbio.1001251
.g001/largerimage

[2] Figure 2. Spectrogram
reconstruction. (A) Top: spectrogram
of six isolated words (deep, jazz,
cause) and pseudowords (fook, ors, nim)
presented aurally to an individual
participant. Bottom: spectrogram-based
reconstruction of the same speech
segment, linearly decoded from a set of
electrodes. Purple and green bars
denote vowels and fricative consonants,
respectively, and the spectrogram is
normalized within each frequency
channel for display. (B) Single trial
high gamma band power (70–150 Hz,
gray curves) induced by the speech
segment in (A). Recordings are from
four different STG sites used in the
reconstruction. The high gamma response
at each site is z-scored and plotted in
standard deviation (SD) units. Right
panel: frequency tuning curves (dark
black) for each of the four electrode
sites, sorted by peak frequency and
normalized by maximum amplitude. Red
bars overlay each peak frequency and
indicate SEM of the parameter estimate.
Frequency tuning was computed from
spectro-temporal receptive fields
(STRFs) measured at each individual
electrode site. Tuning curves exhibit a
range of functional forms including
multiple frequency peaks (Figures S1B
and S2B). (C) The anatomical
distribution of fitted weights in the
reconstruction model. Dashed box
denotes the extent of the electrode
grid (shown in Figure 1). Weight
magnitudes are averaged over all time
lags and spectrogram frequencies and
spatially smoothed for display. Nonzero
weights are largely focal to STG
electrode sites. Scale bar is 10
mm. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.1001251.g0
02 CC
source: http://www.plosbiology.org/artic
le/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pbio.1001251
.g002/largerimage
13 YAN
[03/23/2013 AD] 		6640) The theory that globular clusters
are the inevitable result of highly
adapted living objects by Ted
Huntington.
(University of California) Irvine,
California, USA 
[1] Description This Hubble Space
Telescope (HST) image of a dense swarm
of stars shows the central region of
the globular cluster NGC 2808 and its 3
generations of stars. Date 2 May
2007 Source
http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/archiv
e/releases/2007/2007/18/image/a/
(direct link) Author NASA, ESA, A.
Sarajedini (University of Florida) and
G. Piotto (University of Padua
(Padova)) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/3/38/NGC_2808_HST.jp
g/1022px-NGC_2808_HST.jpg
13 YAN
[05/15/2013 AD] 		6647) Stem cells are created by
replacing the nucleus of an ovum with
the nucleus of a skin cell. This method
allows people to be their own stem cell
donor.
(Oregon Health & Science University),
Oregon, USA 
[1] Cytoplasm of human oocytes
reprograms transplanted somatic cell
nuclei to pluripotency NT-ESCs can be
efficiently derived from high-quality
human oocytes Human NT-ESCs are
similar to ESCs derived from fertilized
embryos COPYRIGHTED
source: http://download.cell.com/images/
journalimages/0092-8674/PIIS009286741300
5710.fx1.lrg.jpg

[2] Oregon Health & Science
University Researchers at Oregon
Health & Science University have
successfully developed a method for
converting human skin cells into
embryonic stem cells. UNKNOWN
source: http://msnbcmedia.msn.com/j/MSNB
C/Components/Photo/_new/130515-stem-cell
-graphic-vmed-915a.photoblog500.jpg
FUTURE
15 YAN
[2015 AD] 		332) Sound a brain hears is recorded
remotely and played out loud.
 
[1] Image by Ted Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington

[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
15 YAN
[2015 AD] 		6394) A microscopic radio (or particle
transmitter and receiver).

These devices are smaller than 1
millimeter and can send and receive
particle signals.
 
[1] The Scale of Things - Nanometers
and More the scale of things
graphic Chart also available in
Powerpoint file at:
http://science.energy.gov/bes/news-and-r
esources/scale-of-things-chart/. PD
source: http://science.energy.gov/~/medi
a/bes/images/scale-of-things-26may06.jpg

18 YAN
[2018 AD] 		6208) A radio device functions inside a
cell. The first human-made cell
organelle. This is the first public
demonstration of a device like a
microscopic RFID chip that exists
inside an individual cell and can send
and receive information with a remote
external device.
 
[1] Adapted from: Description
English: Drawing illustrating the
process of synaptic transmission in
neurons, cropped from original in an
NIA brochure. Date 2009-12-30,
first publication of original
unknown Source
http://www.nia.nih.gov/Alzheimers/P
ublications/UnravelingtheMystery/ Autho
r user:Looie496 created file, US
National Institutes of Health, National
Institute on Aging created
original Permission (Reusing this
file)
http://www.nia.nih.gov/Policies.htm Ot
her versions
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Chemi
cal_synapse_schema.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/30/Chemical_synapse_sche
ma_cropped.jpg

[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington PD
source: Ted Huntington
20 YAN
[2020 AD] 		4559) Walking robots are produced in
mass quantity, and are available for
the public to buy.

This is the start of the "robot
revolution"; how robots replace humans
in most manual labor tasks, greatly
increasing the quantity of food
produced and the population of humans.
unknown  
20 YAN
[2020 AD] 		4573) Humans synthesize artificial milk
and cheese.
unknown  
20 YAN
[2020 AD] 		6197) The first remote control
microscopic flying device.
 
[1] Drive Gear Side View Side view
of a microengine drive gear meshed with
another gear. PD
source: http://mems.sandia.gov/gallery/i
mages/rs1563_9.jpg

[2] Imaginary microscopic flying
camera on top of salt crystals Ted
Huntington PD
source: http://tedhuntington.com/saltcry
stal_127um.jpg
20 YAN
[2020 AD] 		6632) Humans move an asteroid by
capturing the asteroid inside a
container.
unknown 
[1] Image of proposed plan to capture
an asteroid in 2025 From NASA PD
source: http://images.nationalgeographic
.com/wpf/media-live/photos/000/661/cache
/asteroid-recovery-mission-details_66158
_600x450.jpg

[2] Adapted from: The Missing Craters
of Asteroid Itokawa Credit &
Copyright: ISAS, JAXA Explanation:
Where are the craters on asteroid
Itokawa? No one knows. The Japanese
robot probe Hayabusa recently
approached the Earth-crossing asteroid
and is returning pictures showing a
surface unlike any other Solar System
body yet photographed -- a surface
possibly devoid of craters. One
possibility for the lack of common
circular indentations is that asteroid
Itokawa is a rubble pile -- a bunch of
rocks and ice chunks only loosely held
together by a small amount of gravity.
If so, craters might be filled in
whenever the asteroid gets jiggled by a
passing planet -- Earth in this case.
Alternatively, surface particles may
become electrically charged by the Sun,
levitate in the microgravity field, and
move to fill in craters. Over the
weekend, Hayabusa lowered itself to the
surface of the strange asteroid in an
effort to study the unusual body and
collect surface samples that could be
returned to Earth in 2007. PD
source: http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/image/
0511/itokawa05_hayabusa.jpg
20 YAN
[2020 AD] 		6633) Electronic current is visualized.
  
23 YAN
[2023 AD] 		6552) The first wireless microscopic
microphone. The "micro-mic".
 
[1] SEM (scanning electron micrograph)
of the device, with scale bar at bottom
representing 10 microns. The top
grating layer is suspended by 4 springs
and actuated by two side comb drives.
The second, fixed grating layer is
hidden below the first. The area of the
grating itself is 10 microns x 10
microns. PD
source: http://www.sandia.gov/news-cente
r/news-releases/2004/images/jpg/grating.
jpg

[2] Torsional Ratcheting Actuator A
high torque rotary electrostatic
actuator PD
source: http://www.mems.sandia.gov/image
s/mems5.jpg
25 YAN
[2025 AD] 		337) Remote neuron writing using
microscopic devices in neurons.
Microscopic devices enter the human
body by the lung, enter the blood
circulation which connects directly to
all cells, and position themselves as
organelles inside each neuron. External
devices communicate with the
intracellular devices to read the
voltage and to remotely make the neuron
cell fire.

Sounds, images, smells, touches,
emotions, and muscle contractions can
now be remotely activated in a brain by
sending light particles to
intracellular devices.
 
[1] Image of Remote neuron writing by
Ted Huntington PD
source: Ted Huntington

[2] Image of Remote neuron writing by
Ted Huntington PD
source: Ted Huntington
25 YAN
[2025 AD] 		6193) A wireless microscopic camera.
The "micro-cam".
 
[1] Torsional Ratcheting Actuator A
high torque rotary electrostatic
actuator PD
source: http://www.mems.sandia.gov/image
s/mems5.jpg

[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington PD
source: Ted Huntington
25 YAN
[2025 AD] 		6198) A remotely controlled flying
microscopic camera.
 
[1] Imaginary microscopic flying camera
on top of salt crystals Ted
Huntington PD
source: http://tedhuntington.com/saltcry
stal_127um.jpg

[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington PD
source: Ted Huntington
25 YAN
[2025 AD] 		6375) The wireless microscopic maser.
 
[1] Silicon Mirror Assembly
Close-up Close-up view of previous
device; detail of rails and hinges is
visible. PD
source: http://mems.sandia.gov/gallery/i
mages/m26.jpg

[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington PD
source: Ted Huntington
25 YAN
[2025 AD] 		6395) The wireless nanometer scale
radio transmitter and receiver (the
nano-radio).
 
[1] The Scale of Things - Nanometers
and More the scale of things
graphic Chart also available in
Powerpoint file at:
http://science.energy.gov/bes/news-and-r
esources/scale-of-things-chart/. PD
source: http://science.energy.gov/~/medi
a/bes/images/scale-of-things-26may06.jpg

30 YAN
[2030 AD] 		365) The first thought-audio is
recorded. Thought-audio is recorded
using remote neuron reading and played
out loud publicly. The first recorded
thought audio may sound like this: "1 2
3". Humans start to communicate by
thought-image and thought-sound only.
 
[1] Hearing Thought by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington

[2] Image of Direct-to-brain windows
by Ted Huntington GNU
source: http://www.tedhuntington.com/Mic
key_Mouse_eyes_thought_screens.jpg
30 YAN
[2030 AD] 		366) The first artificial muscle
bipedal robots. These robots are
lighter and more electrically
efficient, than motor robots.
unknown 
[1] Muscular system P150/0098 Rights
Managed Credit: PASIEKA/SCIENCE
PHOTO LIBRARY Caption: Muscular
system. Computer artwork of a male
runner demonstrating the human muscular
system. These muscles, making up one of
the outer layers of the body, are
skeletal muscles, which are under the
conscious control of the brain. They
account for around 45% of the weight of
the body. Muscles are mainly composed
of proteins; in particular, the
proteins actin and myosin are involved
in making muscles contract. The muscles
then pull on tendons that are attached
to the bones of the skeleton, producing
movements such as running. Skin and fat
cover the muscles, while the internal
organs and bones lie
underneath. Release details: Model
and property releases are not available
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.sciencephoto.com/imag
e/302911/large/P1500098-Muscular_system-
SPL.jpg

[2] Muscular system P150/0098
Rights Managed Credit:
PASIEKA/SCIENCE PHOTO
LIBRARY Caption: Muscular system.
Computer artwork of a male runner
demonstrating the human muscular
system. These muscles, making up one of
the outer layers of the body, are
skeletal muscles, which are under the
conscious control of the brain. They
account for around 45% of the weight of
the body. Muscles are mainly composed
of proteins; in particular, the
proteins actin and myosin are involved
in making muscles contract. The muscles
then pull on tendons that are attached
to the bones of the skeleton, producing
movements such as running. Skin and fat
cover the muscles, while the internal
organs and bones lie
underneath. Release details: Model
and property releases are not available
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.sciencephoto.com/imag
e/302911/large/P1500098-Muscular_system-
SPL.jpg
30 YAN
[2030 AD] 		680) The first images of thought are
seen. Thought-images are recorded
remotely using remote neuron reading
and shown publicly.

The first thought-image may be the
image of a triangle.
 
[1] Image of seeing thought by Ted
Huntington. PD
source: Ted Huntington

[2] Image of seeing thought by Ted
Huntington. Image of person
from: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikip
edia/commons/3/30/Cassatt_Mary_Portrait_
of_a_Elderly_Lady_1883.jpg Title:
Portrait of a Elderly Lady Date:
1883 Mary Cassatt (1845–1926) Link
back to Creator infobox
template PD [1] Image of
Direct-to-brain windows by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
AND http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiped
ia/commons/3/30/Cassatt_Mary_Portrait_of
_a_Elderly_Lady_1883.jpg
30 YAN
[2030 AD] 		791) Bipedal robots start replacing
humans in most low-skill jobs (for
example as walking security cameras, in
fast-food, and fruit picking).
 
[1] Description English: TOPIO
(''TOSY Ping Pong Playing Robot'') is a
bipedal humanoid robot designed to play
table tennis against a human being.
TOPIO version 3.0 at Tokyo
International Robot Exhibition, Nov
2009 Date 27 November 2009 Source
Own work Author Humanrobo CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/9/92/TOPIO_3.jpg/128
0px-TOPIO_3.jpg

[2] Humanoid robot UNKNOWN
source: http://embeddedfortheevil.files.
wordpress.com/2010/06/humanoid-robot-pic
-getty-image-1-449939772.jpg
30 YAN
[2030 AD] 		6391) A nanometer scale wireless
camera. The "nano-cam".

This camera is under a micrometer in
size, is powered by light particles,
and also transmits images using light
particles.
 
[1] The Scale of Things - Nanometers
and More the scale of things
graphic Chart also available in
Powerpoint file at:
http://science.energy.gov/bes/news-and-r
esources/scale-of-things-chart/. PD
source: http://science.energy.gov/~/medi
a/bes/images/scale-of-things-26may06.jpg


[2] The space between two carbon atoms
within a molecule is about one-tenth of
a nanometer. The DNA double helix has a
diameter of about two nanometers. The
smallest bacteria, on the other hand,
are much bigger: a few hundred
nanometers in length. PD
source: http://publications.nigms.nih.go
v/chemhealth/images/ch4_size.jpg
40 YAN
[2040 AD] 		4561) Walking robots can wash dishes,
clothes, clean and do most other simple
household tasks.
unknown  
40 YAN
[2040 AD] 		6206) A microscopic wing-flapping
flying device.
  
40 YAN
[2040 AD] 		6553) The first use of remote writing
to motor neurons to stop an act of
violence.
  
45 YAN
[2045 AD] 		6630) Obesity is cured with microscopic
devices.
  
50 YAN
[2050 AD] 		790) Humans walk around with robot
servants. These robots perform tasks
like carrying objects and protection.
 
[1] Ted Huntington image of two humans
walking with robot servants. GNU
source: Ted Huntington

[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
50 YAN
[2050 AD] 		4564) An artificial muscle robot can
fly by flapping wings.
unknown 
[1] Flying Robot by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
50 YAN
[2050 AD] 		4566) The first air highway, for
autopiloted flying cars, is
established.

Flying cars are mass produced. Most use
a propeller design like a helicopter.
The flying cars are extremely safe with
emergency parachutes, airbags,
emergency landing thrusters, and have
complete auto-navigation.
unknown 
[1] Description English: Zoom in of
the highway 401/402 interchange looking
west from the Wellington Road overpass
in London, Ontario. Date 17 June
2010 Source Own work Author
Haljackey Camera location 42°
55′ 20.60″ N, 81° 12′ 45.89″
W mixed with rendered helicopters by
Ted Huntington PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Highway_401_at_
Highway_402.jpg/1280px-Highway_401_at_Hi
ghway_402.jpg and Ted Huntington
50 YAN
[2050 AD] 		6298) An artificial muscle wing
flapping plane.
 
[1] Drawing of Artificial Muscle
Flapping Plane ''Aves Planus'' by Ted
Huntington Other possible
names: Ptero-planus Muscle
Plane Ptero-soar GNU
source: Ted Huntington

[2] Drawing of Artificial Muscle
Flapping Plane ''Aves Planus'' by Ted
Huntington Other possible
names: Ptero-planus Muscle
Plane Ptero-soar GNU
source: Ted Huntington
50 YAN
[2050 AD] 		6300) Bacteria are identified and
destroyed by microscopic devices inside
an animal body.
unknown 
[1] Adapted from: Electron microscopy
image of several E. coli cells,
including two pairs of dividing
cells PD
source: http://www.bnl.gov/bnlweb/pubaf/
pr/photos/2009/10/eColi-350px.jpg

[2] Figure 2. Phagocytosis Coloured
scanning electron micrograph of a white
blood cell (orange) caught in the act
of engulfing bacteria (blue rods). As
Ilya Metchikov observed, wandering
cells called phagocytes migrate to
areas of tissue damage or infection to
engulf and digest any harmful foreign
particles, bacteria, and dead/dying
cells. Credit: Dr Kari Lounatmaa /
Science Photo Library. The photo was
kindly provided by Dr Kari Lounatmaa /
Science Photo Library. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nobelprize.org/educat
ional/medicine/immuneresponses/overview/
images/fig_02.jpg
51 YAN
[2051 AD] 		6520) There are 10 billion humans on
Earth.
 
[1] Parker, G. Compact History of the
World. Barnes & Noble, 2001,
p17. COPYRIGHTED
source: Parker, G. Compact History of
the World. Barnes & Noble, 2001, p17.
55 YAN
[2055 AD] 		6302) Cancer cell growth is stopped by
microscopic devices.
unknown 
[1] Adapted from: Pictured is a breast
cancer cell, photographed by a scanning
electron microscope. This picture shows
the overall shape of the cell's surface
at a very high magnification. Cancer
cells are best identified by internal
details, but research with a scanning
electron microscope can show how cells
respond in changing environments and
can show mapping distribution of
binding sites of hormones and other
biological molecules. (National Cancer
Institute) UNKNOWN
source: http://cache.boston.com/universa
l/site_graphics/blogs/bigpicture/micro_1
1_14/m31_3b.jpg

[2] Lung Cancer Cells This image of
warped lung cancer cells is in stark
contrast to the healthy lung. UNKNOWN
source: http://1.bp.blogspot.com/_kGhJLc
78v60/TCytjueY3wI/AAAAAAAAA00/F8-TCWOsNq
4/s1600/Lung+cancer+cellsl.jpg
58 YAN
[2058 AD] 		6303) That microscopic particle devices
inside an animal body can purposely
create cancer is proven.
unknown  
60 YAN
[2060 AD] 		6301) A virus is identified and
destroyed by microscopic devices inside
an animal body.
unknown 
[1] Image taken from cover of CalIT
Interface Winter 2011 magazine UNKNOWN

source: http://www.calit2.uci.edu/calit2
-newsroom/itemdetail.aspx?cguid=a01325cf
-2548-43fc-a2c4-0b9161f6cf84

[2] Artificial Nano “T4
Bacteriophage” Description: “T4
Bacteriophage” is a virus like the
robot in the living body. Artificial
nano “T4 Bacteriophage” was
fabricated by FIB-CVD on Si surface.
Size of the artificial nano “T4
Bacteriophage” is about ten times as
large as the real virus. It is made of
Diamond-like Carbon. It is likely to
begin to walk in the nano space!!
Magnification: 25,000X Instrument: SII
NanoTechnology Inc. / SMI2050MS2
Submitted by: Reo Kometani & Shinji
Matsui (University of Hyogo) UNKNOWN
source: http://cache.gizmodo.com/assets/
images/4/2009/11/t4bacteriophage.jpg
75 YAN
[2075 AD] 		6445) Humans stop unwanted weather (for
example tornadoes and hurricanes), by
changing air temperature using millions
of distributed remote control nanometer
sized devices.
 
[1] Adapted by Ted Huntington
from: Description English: Category
F5 tornado (upgraded from initial
estimate of F4) viewed from the
southeast as it approached Elie,
Manitoba on Friday, June 22nd,
2007. Date 22 June 2007 Source
Transferred from en.wikipedia;
transferred to Commons by User:Gump
Stump using CommonsHelper. Author
Justin Hobson (Justin1569 at
en.wikipedia) GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/9/98/F5_tornado_Elie
_Manitoba_2007.jpg/1280px-F5_tornado_Eli
e_Manitoba_2007.jpg
80 YAN
[2080 AD] 		6392) Accelerated nanocamera ships
reach another planet and return closeup
images.
 
[1] Adapted by Ted Huntington
from: This Viking 1 orbiter image
shows the thin atmosphere of Mars. The
2001 Mars Odyssey spacecraft will
repeatedly brush the top of the
atmosphere to lower and circularize its
orbit around Mars. PD
source: http://marsmobile.jpl.nasa.gov/i
mages/risks02_lg-full.jpg

[2] Adapted by Ted Huntington
from: Sunset over Western South
America April 25, 2011 PD
source: http://eoimages.gsfc.nasa.gov/im
ages/imagerecords/50000/50205/ISS027-E-0
12224_lrg.jpg
100 YAN
[2100 AD] 		367) Most humans communicate only by
images and sounds of thought.
 
[1] Image of Direct-to-brain windows by
Ted Huntington GNU
source: http://www.tedhuntington.com/Mic
key_Mouse_eyes_thought_screens.jpg

[2] Image of Direct-to-brain windows
by Ted Huntington GNU
source: http://www.tedhuntington.com/dir
ect-to-brain_windows_002.jpg
100 YAN
[2100 AD] 		793) Helicopter-cars form a second line
of traffic above the streets. Flying
cars travel over the already exiting
roads because of the sound level.

Flying cars are a popular alternative
to ground cars because of improvements
to safety, street-level roads are
overcrowded, and the cost is only a
little more than a regular car.
 
[1] Image of single helicopter highway
by Ted Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington

[2] Image of double helicopter highway
by Ted Huntington Note that
helicopters are moving in wrong
way. GNU
source: Ted Huntington
100 YAN
[2100 AD] 		794) 100 ships with humans orbit Earth.
Eventually, Earth orbit will be filled
with single family house ships,
grocery, fuel, and garbage ships. Many
stores on Earth will also have stores
in orbit.
 
[1] Three TDRS satellites, the
International Space Station (ISS) and
Hubble Space Telescope orbit a
blue-green Earth in this artist's
concept. The TDRS network facilitates
around the clock communication access
between ground stations and other
satellites and the ISS. Credit:
NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center ›
Larger image PD
source: http://www.nasa.gov/images/conte
nt/605410main_tdrsPlus.jpg

[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
100 YAN
[2100 AD] 		4569) Most vehicles are machine
controlled. Humans only determine the
destination.
unknown 
[1] Title: Society Hill Towers is a
three-building condominium development
located in the Society Hill
neighborhood of Philadelphia,
Pennsylvania Creator(s): Highsmith,
Carol M., 1946-, photographer Date
Created/Published: [between 1980 and
2006] Medium: 1 transparency : color ;
4 x 5 in. or smaller. Reproduction
Number: LC-DIG-highsm-13394 (digital
file from original) LC-HS503-2139
(color film transparency) Rights
Advisory: No known restrictions on
publication. Call Number: LC-HS503-
2139 (ONLINE) [P&P] Repository:
Library of Congress Prints and
Photographs Division Washington, D.C.
20540 USA
http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/pp.print Not
es: The complex contains three
31-story skyscraper buildings on a
5-acre site. The towers, originally
apartment buildings, were designed by
I.M. Pei and Associates and were
completed in 1963. Title, date,
and keywords provided by the
photographer. Credit line:
Photographs in the Carol M. Highsmith
Archive, Library of Congress, Prints
and Photographs Division. Gift and
purchase; Carol M. Highsmith; 2011;
(DLC/PP-2011:124). Forms part of
the Carol M. Highsmith Archive. PD
source: http://lcweb2.loc.gov/service/pn
p/highsm/13300/13394v.jpg
100 YAN
[2100 AD] 		4575) Robots walk on the moon of Earth
and build buildings.
unknown 
[1] From ''Moon Zero Two'',
1969 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.youtube.com/watch?fea
ture=player_embedded&v=hM1lsDhSjD8

[2] Pole Colony PD
source: http://artcontest.larc.nasa.gov/
images/2008_win/Pole_Colony.jpg
100 YAN
[2100 AD] 		4613) Humans conquer all bacteria and
viruses. Nanoscale devices can identify
and destroy all known bacteria and
viruses anywhere inside or outside of
the body.
unknown 
[1] Conference on nanotechnology in
animal health UNKNOWN
source: http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-mFYS8z
kMHXg/T4wFLpl8biI/AAAAAAAAILw/CJQi432-3Y
E/s1600/nanotechnology.jpg

[2] Image taken from cover of CalIT
Interface Winter 2011 magazine UNKNOWN

source: http://www.calit2.uci.edu/calit2
-newsroom/itemdetail.aspx?cguid=a01325cf
-2548-43fc-a2c4-0b9161f6cf84
120 YAN
[2120 AD] 		4583) Robots land and walk on an
asteroid.
unknown 
[1] Image right: This is an artist's
concept of a small lunar outpost.
Someday, larger lunar outposts may
serve as a backup for civilization in
case of a global catastrophe, like an
asteroid impact or a pandemic. Credit:
NASA Print-resolution copy PD
source: http://www.nasa.gov/centers/godd
ard/images/content/208291main_lunar_outp
ost.jpg

[2] Ship landing on asteroid UNKNOWN
source: http://www.popsci.com/files/imag
ecache/article_image_large/articles/2009
0204_hayabusa.jpg
120 YAN
[2120 AD] 		4584) Robots walk and build buildings
on Mars.
unknown 
[1] Once built and populated, a colony
with excellent recycling will need only
a few materials to replace leaks and
losses. However, a great deal of
materials will be needed to build a
space colony, particularly shielding.
If a colony expands, builds new
colonies, or builds solar power
satellites or other export products, a
lot of material will be necessary.
There are several sources of materials
to consider: Earth, the Moon,
asteroids, other planets, and other
moons. All the materials necessary for
space colonies are available on Earth.
In addition, manufacturing facilities
to provide finished products are
readily available. PD
source: http://settlement.arc.nasa.gov/d
esigner/mars.gif

[2] Future Mars Base 2030 STANDARD
YOUTUBE LICENSE
source: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F
fVny-TnxZo
140 YAN
[2140 AD] 		687) Large scale transmutation: Humans
can convert most common atoms (like
Silicon, Aluminum, Iron, and Calcium)
into much more useful atoms (like
Hydrogen, Oxygen, and Nitrogen). This
allows many humans to live
independently of Earth, in ships, and
on planets and moons without air or
water, because they can produce all the
air, fuel, water and food they need
from the common atoms of planets and
moons.

Because of large scale transmutation
large self-sufficient cities of humans
can be created on waterless planets and
moons.
 
[1] Image of Large Scale Atomic
Transmutation by Ted Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington

[2] Image of Large Scale Atomic
Transmutation by Ted Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
140 YAN
[2140 AD] 		6377) Robots build buildings on an
asteroid.
 
[1] Asteroid Colony (Close View) by
Hannu Parviainen Category: Asteroid
Settlements Description: The
asteroid in the picture is very similar
to 433 Eros, a close cousin one might
say, with major axis of 30 kilometers
and minor axes of 10 kilometers. The
asteroid has been moved to the cislunar
system, and the Moon is shown in the
background. A colony is build inside a
great crater, born from a huge impact
in the early stages of the solar
system. While most of the
infrastructure of the colony is
hollowed inside the asteroid, the low
gravity combined with advanced
materials allow for the construction of
a main dome with radius of half a
kilometer. Medium/Tools Used: The
asteroid, colony and Moon were modeled
and textured using Blender.
Modifications were made to include the
Lommel-Seeliger diffuse scattering
model to the Blender-renderer. This was
necessary to allow for more realistic
rendering of dusty asteroid surfaces.
Different aspects of the picture
(shadows, ambient occlusion, etc.) were
rendered on separate layers and put
together with Celestia-made starry
background using Gimp. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nss.org/settlement/ca
lendar/asteroid_colony_2-650.jpg
150 YAN
[2150 AD] 		659) The first major nation to be fully
and constantly democratic, where the
people vote directly on the laws. From
this will grow a planetary and
ultimately an interstellar electronic
voting system where votes are placed by
thought or by muscle movement.
 
[1] Description English: A map of
the world colored in to reflect the
latest Democracy Index report from The
Economist. Date 22 December
2011 Source Own work Author
48Lugur CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/87/Democracy_Index_2011_
red_and_green.png
150 YAN
[2150 AD] 		4592) The first humans land on Mars.
unknown 
[1] Artist's concept of possible
colonies on future mars missions. PD
source: http://www.nasa.gov/centers/ames
/images/content/135855main_marsconcept-1
.jpg

[2] Future Mars Base 2030 STANDARD
YOUTUBE LICENSE
source: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F
fVny-TnxZo
150 YAN
[2150 AD] 		6223) The first "Moon colony". Humans
permanently live on the Moon of Earth.
 
[1] Description This artist's concept
of a lunar base and extra-base activity
was created during a 1984 NASA Summer
Study at the California Space Institute
(CalSpace), Scripps Institute of
Oceanography, University of California,
San Diego. A lunar rover vehicle
similar to the one used on three Apollo
missions is depicted in the
foreground. Date May 1984 Source
http://spaceflight1.nasa.gov/gallery/im
ages/exploration/lunarexploration/html/s
86_27256.html Author NASA/Dennis M.
Davidson PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Moon_colony_wit
h_rover.jpeg/1024px-Moon_colony_with_rov
er.jpeg
150 YAN
[2150 AD] 		6304) Nucleic Acids are changed by
remote control nanoscale devices. This
will lead to making physical changes to
the shape of a body that originate at
the cellular level.
unknown 
[1] Microscopic laser-machined particle
communication devices identify and
change nucleotides in a DNA molecule as
seen with an scanning tunneling
microscope.[t] Adapted from: F/col
STM image of DNA G110/0150 Rights
Managed Credit: LAWRENCE LIVERMORE
LABORATORY/SCIENCE PHOTO
LIBRARY Caption: False-colour scanning
tunnelling micrograph (STM) of DNA. A
sample of uncoated, double-stranded DNA
was dissolved in a salt solution &
deposited on graphite prior to being
imaged in air by the STM. An STM image
is formed by scanning a fine point just
above the specimen surface &
electronically recording the height of
the point as it moves. The main feature
of this image is a right-handed,
double-stranded DNA molecule (a DNA
duplex), which appears as the row of
orange/yellow peaks at centre-left.
These peaks correspond to the ridges of
the DNA double helix. Magnification:
x1,600,000 at 6x7cm size. Release
details: Model and property releases
are not available UNKNOWN
source: http://www.sciencephoto.com/imag
e/209654/large/G1100150-F_col_STM_image_
of_DNA-SPL.jpg

[2] Microscopic devices change
DNA[t] Adapted from Unlinked DNA
under electron microscope UNKNOWN
source: http://www.fidelitysystems.com/u
nlinked_DNA_EM_1.JPG
160 YAN
[2160 AD] 		4590) Robots land and walk on planet
Mercury.
unknown  
160 YAN
[2160 AD] 		4591) Robots land and walk on a moon of
Jupiter.
unknown  
160 YAN
[2160 AD] 		6642) Humans orbit Venus.
Venus 
[1] Adapted by Ted Huntington
from: http://www.giss.nasa.gov/research
/features/200711_temptracker/venus_cloud
s_mariner10_lrg.jpg The dense carbon
dioxide atmosphere of Venus shrouds the
planet in a thick layer of clouds—and
heats the surface to a scorching 460°
C (860° F). Jim Hansen's research on
Venus' greenhouse effect eventually led
him to the study of carbon dioxide and
the greenhouse effect on Earth. (Image
© 2005 Mattias Malmer.) PD
source: http://www.giss.nasa.gov/researc
h/features/200711_temptracker/venus_clou
ds_mariner10_lrg.jpg AND Ted
Huntington

[2] Adapted by Ted Huntington
from: http://www.giss.nasa.gov/research
/features/200711_temptracker/venus_cloud
s_mariner10_lrg.jpg The dense carbon
dioxide atmosphere of Venus shrouds the
planet in a thick layer of clouds—and
heats the surface to a scorching 460°
C (860° F). Jim Hansen's research on
Venus' greenhouse effect eventually led
him to the study of carbon dioxide and
the greenhouse effect on Earth. (Image
© 2005 Mattias Malmer.) PD
source: http://www.giss.nasa.gov/researc
h/features/200711_temptracker/venus_clou
ds_mariner10_lrg.jpg AND Ted
Huntington
180 YAN
[2180 AD] 		4593) Robots land and walk on the
surface Saturn and its moons.
Titan of Saturn 
[1] Adapted by Ted (only text was
changed) from: This image rendered as
PNG in other widths: 200px, 500px,
1000px, 2000px. Description
English: Interior of Saturn Date
2011-04-24 17:35 (UTC) Source
Interior_of_Saturn.jpg
Saturn_01.svg Author
Interior_of_Saturn.jpg: Mungany
Saturn_01.svg: Dan Gerhards
derivative work: Urutseg (talk) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Interior_of_Sat
urn.svg/1000px-Interior_of_Saturn.svg.pn
g
180 YAN
[2180 AD] 		4594) Humans live permanently on Mars.
The first Mars colony. The first city
of another planet.
unknown 
[1] Adapted from: Spirit's
Destination This image, cropped from
a larger panoramic image mosaic taken
by the Mars Exploration Rover Spirit
panoramic camera, shows the rover's
destination toward the hills nicknamed
the ''Columbia Hills.'' The rover is
currently positioned outside the view
of this image, on the right. This image
was taken on sols 68 and 69 of Spirit's
mission (March 12 and 13, 2004) from
the location the rover first reached on
the western rim of the crater. The
image is in approximate true color,
based on a scaling of data from the
red, green and blue (750 nanometers,
530 nanometers, and 480 nanometers)
filters. Image credit:
NASA/JPL/Cornell PD
source: http://marsrover.nasa.gov/galler
y/press/spirit/20040318a/10-JG-04-hills-
A074R1.jpg

[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
190 YAN
[2190 AD] 		4578) The first multistory building is
built on the moon of Earth.
unknown  
190 YAN
[2190 AD] 		4606) Humans land on Mercury.
unknown 
[1] AS17-147-22526 (11 Dec. 1972) ---
Astronaut Eugene A. Cernan, commander,
makes a short checkout of the Lunar
Roving Vehicle (LRV) during the early
part of the first Apollo 17
extravehicular activity (EVA) at the
Taurus-Littrow landing site. This view
of the ''stripped down'' LRV is prior
to loading up. Equipment later loaded
onto the LRV included the
ground-controlled television assembly,
the lunar communications relay unit,
hi-gain antenna, low-gain antenna, aft
tool pallet, lunar tools and scientific
gear. This photograph was taken by
scientist-astronaut Harrison H.
Schmitt, lunar module pilot. The
mountain in the right background is the
east end of South Massif. While
astronauts Cernan and Schmitt descended
in the Lunar Module (LM) ''Challenger''
to explore the moon, astronaut Ronald
E. Evans, command module pilot,
remained with the Command and Service
Modules (CSM) ''America'' in lunar
orbit. PD
source: http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/gall
ery/images/apollo/apollo17/hires/as17-14
7-22526.jpg

[2] Adapted
from: http://www.nasa.gov/images/conten
t/208698main_merc_horizon.jpg PD
source: http://www.nasa.gov/images/conte
nt/208698main_merc_horizon.jpg
200 YAN
[2200 AD] 		792) Robots and other machines have
replaced humans in most manual labor
tasks (driving, cleaning, and food
planting, harvesting, preparing and
serving). Robots also do the most
dangerous parts of military, police,
and fire fighting.
 
[1] Robots pick
oranges Viroids orange
trees Development of HRP-4, a Research
and Development Platform for Working
Humanoid Robots - Supply to external
research organizations from January
2011 - UNKNOWN and Orange
trees: Viroid diseases are
responsible for significant losses of
food and fiber. Our research goals are
to obtain fundamental knowledge about
the molecular interactions between
viroids and their host, to apply this
knowledge to the control of viroid
diseases, and to develop and test
viroid-induced dwarfing strategies to
increase citrus production efficiency.
Robert A. Owens PD UNKNOWN
source: http://www.aist.go.jp/aist_e/lat
est_research/2010/20101108/fig1.jpg
AND http://www.ars.usda.gov/sp2UserFile
s/Place/12752500/research/images/citrus.
jpg

[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
200 YAN
[2200 AD] 		795) 1000 human-filled ships orbit
Earth.
 
[1] Image adapted from from
http://www.nasa.gov/externalflash/gemini
_gallery/hi-resjpgs/10.jpg Cape
Canaveral, site of NASA's Kennedy Space
Center, from the Gemini V ... PD
source: http://www.nasa.gov/externalflas
h/gemini_gallery/hi-resjpgs/10.jpg AND
Ted Huntington

[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
200 YAN
[2200 AD] 		4562) Hugging, kissing, sleeping
together, and other non-sexual forms of
pleasure for money are decriminalized
for adults in most developed nations.
unknown  
200 YAN
[2200 AD] 		4607) The first Mercury colony: humans
live permanently under and on the
surface of Mercury.
unknown 
[1] Adapted from image from NASA
Messenger ship PD
source: http://1.bp.blogspot.com/_qcuftp
B9Hx8/TJOQmeFucWI/AAAAAAAACwg/Bl0M9a2_M1
0/s1600/Planet-Mercury.jpg
200 YAN
[2200 AD] 		6305) Microscopic devices repair,
regrow, and reshape damaged cells.
 
[1] Skin cells, SEM C001/7939 Rights
Managed Credit: SCIENCE PHOTO
LIBRARY Caption: Skin cells.
Coloured scanning electron micrograph
(SEM) of squamous cells from the
surface of the skin. These are flat,
keratinised, dead cells that are
continuously sloughed off and replaced
with new cells from
below. AND Researchers are
developing a new class of tiny
mechanical devices containing
vibrating, hair-thin structures that
could be used to filter electronic
signals in cell phones and for other
more exotic applications. The work is
done inside a vacuum chamber sitting on
top of a special vibration-absorbing
platform critical to making the precise
measurements. A tiny prototype, roughly
comparable in size to a grain of sand,
is pictured on the monitor at right.
The device is an example of a
microelectromechanical system, or a
MEMS, which contains tiny moving parts.
(Birck Nanotechnology Center, Purdue
University) A publication-quality
photo is available at
http://news.uns.purdue.edu/images/+2009/
rhoads-mems2.jpg [1] A scanning
electron microscope (SEM) image of
nanowire-alginate composite scaffolds.
Star-shaped clusters of nanowires can
be seen in these images. Image
courtesy of the Disease Biophysics
Group, Harvard University UNKNOWN
source: http://www.sciencephoto.com/imag
e/82340/large/C0017939-Skin_cells,_SEM-S
PL.jpg
AND http://news.uns.purdue.edu/images/+
2009/rhoads-mems2.jpg

[2] Skin cells, SEM C001/7939
Rights Managed Credit: SCIENCE PHOTO
LIBRARY Caption: Skin cells.
Coloured scanning electron micrograph
(SEM) of squamous cells from the
surface of the skin. These are flat,
keratinised, dead cells that are
continuously sloughed off and replaced
with new cells from
below. AND Researchers are
developing a new class of tiny
mechanical devices containing
vibrating, hair-thin structures that
could be used to filter electronic
signals in cell phones and for other
more exotic applications. The work is
done inside a vacuum chamber sitting on
top of a special vibration-absorbing
platform critical to making the precise
measurements. A tiny prototype, roughly
comparable in size to a grain of sand,
is pictured on the monitor at right.
The device is an example of a
microelectromechanical system, or a
MEMS, which contains tiny moving parts.
(Birck Nanotechnology Center, Purdue
University) A publication-quality
photo is available at
http://news.uns.purdue.edu/images/+2009/
rhoads-mems2.jpg [1] A scanning
electron microscope (SEM) image of
nanowire-alginate composite scaffolds.
Star-shaped clusters of nanowires can
be seen in these images. Image
courtesy of the Disease Biophysics
Group, Harvard University UNKNOWN
source: http://www.sciencephoto.com/imag
e/82340/large/C0017939-Skin_cells,_SEM-S
PL.jpg
AND http://news.uns.purdue.edu/images/+
2009/rhoads-mems2.jpg
210 YAN
[2210 AD] 		4585) Humans land and walk on an
asteroid.
 
[1] Humans on Asteroid UNKNOWN
source: http://blogs.discovery.com/.a/6a
00d8341bf67c53ef0133f505f772970b-800wi
220 YAN
[2220 AD] 		4596) Robots land and walk on Uranus
and its moons.
unknown 
[1] Description Uranus interior
with English legend. The original image
of Uranus was cut from Commons (from
Frederik Beuk Opengewerkte
ijsreuzen.jpg). Date 2011-03-13 11:11
(UTC) Source
Uranus-intern-de.png Author
Uranus-intern-de.png: FrancescoA
derivative work: WolfmanSF
(talk) Other versions
Derivative works of this file:
Uranus-intern-ar.png PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/fe/Uranus-intern-en.png
250 YAN
[2250 AD] 		4567) The end of all arrests for
information-sharing results in total
freedom of all information in most
developed nations on Earth, although
many secrets still remain.
unknown  
250 YAN
[2250 AD] 		4586) Humans live permanently on an
asteroid.
unknown 
[1] Asteroid Colony (Close View) by
Hannu Parviainen Category: Asteroid
Settlements Description: The
asteroid in the picture is very similar
to 433 Eros, a close cousin one might
say, with major axis of 30 kilometers
and minor axes of 10 kilometers. The
asteroid has been moved to the cislunar
system, and the Moon is shown in the
background. A colony is build inside a
great crater, born from a huge impact
in the early stages of the solar
system. While most of the
infrastructure of the colony is
hollowed inside the asteroid, the low
gravity combined with advanced
materials allow for the construction of
a main dome with radius of half a
kilometer. Medium/Tools Used: The
asteroid, colony and Moon were modeled
and textured using Blender.
Modifications were made to include the
Lommel-Seeliger diffuse scattering
model to the Blender-renderer. This was
necessary to allow for more realistic
rendering of dusty asteroid surfaces.
Different aspects of the picture
(shadows, ambient occlusion, etc.) were
rendered on separate layers and put
together with Celestia-made starry
background using Gimp. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nss.org/settlement/ca
lendar/asteroid_colony_2-650.jpg

[2] Gaspra Mining Settlement by
Bill
Wright http://ourworld.compuserve.com/h
omepages/billwright5/ Category:
Asteroid Settlements Description:
The Gaspra mining settlement on a close
approach to the planet
Mars. Medium/Tools Used:
Photoshop. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nss.org/settlement/ca
lendar/2009/BillWright-AsteroidColonyA-6
50.jpg
250 YAN
[2250 AD] 		4589) The end of arrests for
recreational drug possession in most
major nations.
unknown  
250 YAN
[2250 AD] 		4611) Humans reach Jupiter and land on
a moon.
Europa, Jupiter 
[1] The image show the Lander Falcon
skimming over one of the many ice
cravas of Jupiter’s moon Europa
looking for a suitable landing
place. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://api.ning.com/files/s7oIN4
97UMEE6dpA1xd*IhqzsZkYEn1zbiUE5*qsj*mBXD
EV7F1lGV*Qngn1qBdiZSdmNBsHbXquTTpGfoIHib
xxEsocyNr-/BB131FalconoverEuropaNR.jpg?w
idth=737&height=400

[2] Ganymede: Global Color View PD
source: http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/mult
imedia/gallery/gg1.jpg
260 YAN
[2260 AD] 		4601) Robots land and walk on a moon of
Neptune.
Triton, Neptune 
[1] Adapted by Ted Huntington (added
text) from: English: Diagram of the
planet Neptune. Upper
atmosphere, top clouds. Atmosphere
consisting of hydrogen, helium, and
methane gas. Mantle consisting of
water, ammonia, and methane ices.
Core consisting of rock (silicates and
nickel-iron). 06:17, 8 October 2008
(UTC) Source
http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/multimedia/
gallery/Neptune_Int-browse.jpg, which
is in the public domain Author NASA;
Pbroks13 (redraw) CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Neptune_diagram
.svg/1000px-Neptune_diagram.svg.png
275 YAN
[2275 AD] 		661) Most humans are not religious.
 
[1] UNKNOWN
source: UNKNOWN
280 YAN
[2280 AD] 		4595) All money is electronic.
unknown  
280 YAN
[2280 AD] 		4598) Humans live permanently in a ship
that orbits the Sun.
unknown 
[1] The Solar Probe Plus spacecraft
with solar panels folded into the
shadows of its protective shield,
gathers data on its approach to the
Sun. Credit: JHU/APL PD
source: http://www.nasa.gov/images/conte
nt/479540main_SPPObservingSun.jpg
280 YAN
[2280 AD] 		4620) Humans land on Saturn and its
moons.
unknown 
[1] Saturn from the surface of
Dione. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://spaceart1.ning.com/photo/
saturn-from-dione/next?context=user
AND http://microgravity.grc.nasa.gov/Ad
vanced/Capabilities/ETDP/images/lunarlan
der.jpg

[2] Artist concept of Cassini at
Saturn. Image credit: NASA/JPL ›
Larger image PD
source: http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/images/c
assini/20090202/pia03883-full.jpg
283 YAN
[2283 AD] 		6521) There are 100 billion humans.
 
[1] Parker, G. Compact History of the
World. Barnes & Noble, 2001,
p17. COPYRIGHTED
source: Parker, G. Compact History of
the World. Barnes & Noble, 2001, p17.
290 YAN
[2290 AD] 		4599) The first ships that regularly
transport humans from Earth to the moon
of Earth.
unknown  
300 YAN
[2300 AD] 		4581) The end of arrests for nudity in
public.
unknown  
350 YAN
[2350 AD] 		4609) Humans switch to a single time
system for all places in the universe.
This time may be set relative to a
fixed time of the past. So no matter
what part of a planet or moon a person
is on, they will all use the same
single time.
unknown 
[1] world time zone map. PD
source: http://www.time.gov/images/world
zones.gif
350 YAN
[2350 AD] 		6393) The first microscopic ships to
reach another star (Alpha Centauri) and
return the first closeup images of the
planets around another star. These
nanocamera ships are very small, 100 nm
thick containing only a billion atoms,
and are accelerated to very high
speeds, perhaps even half the speed of
light. They can reach another star in
less than 100 years. There need to be
many ships in order that a relay of
radio frequency particle signals can be
sent over long distances.

Possibly similar small nanocamera ships
may work together to assemble larger
structures and machines from the atoms
around other stars.
 
[1] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington AND
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/co
mmons/0/08/Planet-alphacen1.png

[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington AND
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/co
mmons/0/08/Planet-alphacen1.png
370 YAN
[2370 AD] 		6209) Living objects on planets of a
different star are identified (bacteria
made of DNA on planets around
Centauri).
Alpha Centauri 
[1] Descripción English:
Filamentous cyanobacterium of a genus
Lyngbya, as collected in Baja
California, Mexico Česky: Vláknitá
sinice rodu Lyngbya; Baja California,
Mexico Fecha Fuente
http://microbes.arc.nasa.gov/images/con
tent/gallery/lightms/publication/lyngbya
.jpg Autor NASA PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Lyngbya.jpg/128
0px-Lyngbya.jpg

[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
400 YAN
[2400 AD] 		4587) The end of arrests for consensual
adult fondling and masturbation for
money in most major nations.
unknown  
400 YAN
[2400 AD] 		4612) Humans send ships with robots to
the stars of Alpha Centauri.

The first large-size interstellar ships
will probably use light particle
propulsion from splitting apart atoms,
in addition to gravitational
acceleration from the Sun and/or
Jupiter. If this ship can reach a
velocity of 1% the speed of light
(3,000 km/s) the ship would take around
400 years to go the 4 light years to
Alpha Centauri.
unknown  
400 YAN
[2400 AD] 		6656) The first ships that regularly
transport humans from Earth to Mars.
unknown  
420 YAN
[2420 AD] 		779) Most humans in developed nations
reject the theory of gods.
 
[1] Artist [show]Raphael
(1483–1520) Link back to Creator
infobox template wikidata:Q5597 Title
English: The Council of Gods Date
between 1517 and 1518 Medium
fresco Current location Villa
FarnesinaLink back to Institution
infobox template PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/08/Raffaello%2C_concilio
_degli_dei_02.jpg

[2] Artist [show]Giovanni Lanfranco
(1582–1647) Link back to Creator
infobox template
wikidata:Q447730 Title The Council of
Gods Date between 1624 and
1625 Medium fresco Dimensions
Unknown Current location Galleria
BorgheseLink back to Institution
infobox template Rome Notes
http://www.wga.hu/html/l/lanfranc/counc
il.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0a/Lanfranco%2C_Giovanni
_-The_Council_of_Gods_-_1624-25.jpg
500 YAN
[2500 AD] 		683) The removal and conversion of the
Venus atmosphere is started.

This is the first major "conversion of
gas atmosphere" engineering work of
humans.

After most of the gas is removed, and
the surface of the planet cools down,
Oxygen and nitrogen gas will be
released to create a new atmosphere.

Atoms in the atmosphere are removed and
converted into hydrogen and oxygen
which are used for fuel, air, and
water. This process may be done by
thousands of surface (and/or low orbit)
machines working in parallel. There is
so much gas on Venus, that this may
take 1000 years or more.
 
[1] Description Image of Venus in
real color processed from the clear and
blue filters (colors are probably
enhanced). Date 2006-09-16
(original upload
date) Source http://astrosurf.com/n
unes/explor/explor_m10.htm Author N
ASA/Ricardo Nunes PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/51/Venus-real.jpg

[2] Adapted from: A rover that could
survive the intense heat of Venus, seen
here in an artist's impression, could
revolutionise our understanding of the
planet. Cooled by a Stirling Cooler
with electronics at 200 °C and
external radiator at 500 °C. Since the
Venusian atmosphere is 'only' 450 °C
the radiator will lose
energy. Geoffrey Landis and Kenneth
Mellott from NASA's Glenn Research
Center in Ohio. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/15/Venus_Rover.jpg
500 YAN
[2500 AD] 		686) The end of death by aging.
Using genetic
editing, humans grow and develop to age
20, and then hold that body shape
indefinitely, dying only from physical
destruction. Humans now live for
thousands of years. This causes the
human population to grow at an
extremely fast rate.

This end of the physical effects of
aging, may create a new existence of
finite resources and careful monitoring
of human reproduction, in particular if
humans fail to quickly collect other
stars.

This also includes the ability to
reverse the developmental direction of
aging, so that a body can be made to
take the shape coded for an earlier
stage in the growth cycle.
 
[1] Adapted by Ted Huntington
from: Solution structure of a
trans-opened (10S)-dA adduct of
+)-(7S,8R,9S,10R)-7,8-dihydroxy-9,10-epo
xy-7,8,9,10-tetrahydrobenzo[a]pyrene in
a DNA duplex. GNU AND Multiple Gear
Speed Reduction Unit Top view of
gear reduction unit. PD PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d8/Benzopyrene_DNA_adduc
t_1JDG.png
AND http://mems.sandia.gov/gallery/imag
es/tg8.jpg AND Ted Huntington

[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
500 YAN
[2500 AD] 		4588) The end of arrests for
prostitution in most major nations.
This includes all forms of trading
money for physical pleasure.
unknown  
500 YAN
[2500 AD] 		6546) Microscopic ships reach Barnard's
star, the second closest star, 6 light
years away, and send back the first
images of the planets there.
 
[1] Adapted
from: Description English: Artist's
conception of a the red dwarf star CHRX
73 A and its companion object CHRX 73
B. The companion object is around 12
Jupiter masses, and may either be a
planet, a failed star or a brown
dwarf Date 2006-09-02 Source Sel
f-made JPEG version of original TIFF
image at Hubble
website Author NASA, ESA and G.
Bacon (STScI) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/6/68/RedDwarfPlanet.
jpg/800px-RedDwarfPlanet.jpg

[2] Adapted
from: Description English: Artist's
conception of a the red dwarf star CHRX
73 A and its companion object CHRX 73
B. The companion object is around 12
Jupiter masses, and may either be a
planet, a failed star or a brown
dwarf Date 2006-09-02 Source Sel
f-made JPEG version of original TIFF
image at Hubble
website Author NASA, ESA and G.
Bacon (STScI) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/6/68/RedDwarfPlanet.
jpg/800px-RedDwarfPlanet.jpg AND
http://aetd.gsfc.nasa.gov/code540/540/ne
w_images/MLAS.jpg
500 YAN
[2500 AD] 		6554) The end of homicide, by remote
neuron writing.
  
600 YAN
[2600 AD] 		4603) The end of arrests for sex in
public.
unknown  
600 YAN
[2600 AD] 		4617) An asteroid is moved by
propulsion, either by cables or by
embedded engines.
unknown  
600 YAN
[2600 AD] 		6547) Microscopic ships reach Sirius, 8
light years away, and send back the
first images of the planets there.
 
[1] {ULSF: adapted by Ted Huntington
from below:} Description This
picture is an artist's impression
showing how the binary star system of
Sirius A and its diminutive blue
companion, Sirius B, might appear to an
interstellar visitor. The large,
bluish-white star Sirius A dominates
the scene, while Sirius B is the small
but very hot and blue white-dwarf star
on the right. The two stars revolve
around each other every 50 years. White
dwarfs are the leftover remnants of
stars similar to our Sun. The Sirius
system, only 8.6 light-years from
Earth, is the fifth closest stellar
system known. Sirius B is faint because
of its tiny size. Its diameter is only
7,500 miles (about 12 thousand
kilometres), slightly smaller than the
size of our Earth. The Sirius system is
so close to Earth that most of the
familiar constellations would have
nearly the same appearance as in our
own sky. In this rendition, we see in
the background the three bright stars
that make up the Summer Triangle:
Altair, Deneb, and Vega. Altair is the
white dot above Sirius A; Deneb is the
dot to the upper right; and Vega lies
below Sirius B. But there is one
unfamiliar addition to the
constellations: our own Sun is the
second-magnitude star, shown as a small
dot just below and to the right of
Sirius
A. Date Source http://www.spacete
lescope.org/images/html/heic0516b.html
Author NASA, ESA Credit: G. Bacon
(STScI) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c9/Sirius_A_and_B_artwor
k.jpg

[2] Adapted from: Description This
picture is an artist's impression
showing how the binary star system of
Sirius A and its diminutive blue
companion, Sirius B, might appear to an
interstellar visitor. The large,
bluish-white star Sirius A dominates
the scene, while Sirius B is the small
but very hot and blue white-dwarf star
on the right. The two stars revolve
around each other every 50 years. White
dwarfs are the leftover remnants of
stars similar to our Sun. The Sirius
system, only 8.6 light-years from
Earth, is the fifth closest stellar
system known. Sirius B is faint because
of its tiny size. Its diameter is only
7,500 miles (about 12 thousand
kilometres), slightly smaller than the
size of our Earth. The Sirius system is
so close to Earth that most of the
familiar constellations would have
nearly the same appearance as in our
own sky. In this rendition, we see in
the background the three bright stars
that make up the Summer Triangle:
Altair, Deneb, and Vega. Altair is the
white dot above Sirius A; Deneb is the
dot to the upper right; and Vega lies
below Sirius B. But there is one
unfamiliar addition to the
constellations: our own Sun is the
second-magnitude star, shown as a small
dot just below and to the right of
Sirius
A. Date Source http://www.spacete
lescope.org/images/html/heic0516b.html
Author NASA, ESA Credit: G. Bacon
(STScI) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c9/Sirius_A_and_B_artwor
k.jpg
AND http://aetd.gsfc.nasa.gov/code540/5
40/new_images/MLAS.jpg
650 YAN
[2650 AD] 		4619) Humans create atoms from light
particles. Photon fusion: the reverse
of separating atoms into light
particles.

This process may involve focusing light
particles to form larger particles,
like electrons, mesons, and protons,
that are then collided together to form
larger atoms.
unknown 
[1] Humans create atoms from light
particles Ted Huntington PD
source: Ted Huntington

[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
650 YAN
[2650 AD] 		6555) The first images of large living
objects on a planet of another star are
seen. Large organisms may be recognized
living in water first, or perhaps large
land species will be seen first.
Alpha Centauri 
[1] English: Hydra vulgaris, a
hydrozoan cnidarian. Light microscope,
40x 날짜 2008년 6월 6일 출처
자작 만든이 Corvana GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2f/Hydravulgaris.jpg

[2] Descripción English:
Filamentous cyanobacterium of a genus
Lyngbya, as collected in Baja
California, Mexico Česky: Vláknitá
sinice rodu Lyngbya; Baja California,
Mexico Fecha Fuente
http://microbes.arc.nasa.gov/images/con
tent/gallery/lightms/publication/lyngbya
.jpg Autor NASA PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Lyngbya.jpg/128
0px-Lyngbya.jpg
700 YAN
[2700 AD] 		4605) Robots land and walk on Venus.
unknown  
750 YAN
[2750 AD] 		4622) The first large ship to reach a
different star (Alpha Centauri).

Smaller robot ships land on all the
planets and moons of Centauri.

Robots start mining and building to
prepare for the many millions of humans
that will eventually arrive.

Some ships will return matter from
Centauri back to Earth.
unknown 
[1] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington

[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
800 YAN
[2800 AD] 		24) Humans consume an asteroid.
 
[1] Adapted from: The Missing Craters
of Asteroid Itokawa Credit &
Copyright: ISAS, JAXA Explanation:
Where are the craters on asteroid
Itokawa? No one knows. The Japanese
robot probe Hayabusa recently
approached the Earth-crossing asteroid
and is returning pictures showing a
surface unlike any other Solar System
body yet photographed -- a surface
possibly devoid of craters. One
possibility for the lack of common
circular indentations is that asteroid
Itokawa is a rubble pile -- a bunch of
rocks and ice chunks only loosely held
together by a small amount of gravity.
If so, craters might be filled in
whenever the asteroid gets jiggled by a
passing planet -- Earth in this case.
Alternatively, surface particles may
become electrically charged by the Sun,
levitate in the microgravity field, and
move to fill in craters. Over the
weekend, Hayabusa lowered itself to the
surface of the strange asteroid in an
effort to study the unusual body and
collect surface samples that could be
returned to Earth in 2007. PD
source: http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/image/
0511/itokawa05_hayabusa.jpg
800 YAN
[2800 AD] 		4615) Humans live on Venus. The first
Venus colony.
Humans live on and under the
surface of Venus in cooled buildings.
unknown 
[1] Summary A rover that could
survive the intense heat of Venus, seen
here in an artist's impression, could
revolutionise our understanding of the
planet. Cooled by a Stirling Cooler
with electronics at 200 °C and
external radiator at 500 °C. Since the
Venusian atmosphere is 'only' 450 °C
the radiator will lose
energy. Geoffrey Landis and Kenneth
Mellott from NASA's Glenn Research
Center in Ohio. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/15/Venus_Rover.jpg

[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
800 YAN
[2800 AD] 		4624) Ships containing humans leave for
the stars of Alpha Centauri and will
arrive successfully perhaps 400 years
later. This begins the colonization of
other stars. Like many early human
settlers, humans may leave for more
space and freedom. The initial living
conditions around the other stars will
not be as developed as those of the
home they are leaving.
unknown  
800 YAN
[2800 AD] 		4625) Ships containing robots leave for
Barnard's star, 6 light years away, and
will arrive successfully, perhaps 350
years later.
unknown  
800 YAN
[2800 AD] 		4627) Humans land on Uranus and its
moons.
unknown 
[1] Adapted from: Uranus seen from
Oberon UNKNOWN
source: http://api.ning.com/files/DzXL-l
W6TdpjPVXja-k32xq4*PiPHvNiITlxVu5JoQ*XRl
Z72k*OlXD710b-zT2jIomp7im9tEUk0AzJ4HNiph
MGf2J-UCLg/Oberon.jpg?width=737&height=5
69 AND
http://microgravity.grc.nasa.gov/Advan
ced/Capabilities/ETDP/images/lunarlander
.jpg
800 YAN
[2800 AD] 		4628) Humans change the motion of a
moon; perhaps a moon of Jupiter or
Mars.
unknown 
[1] A map of Io This map of Io was
created by taking three relatively low
resolution Voyager 2 maps of Io and
composing them into a color map. These
maps were taken from this FTP site.
Each of the three original maps was
created from images taken through
differently colored filters. I then
replaced the luminosity channel of the
color map with a very high resolution
grayscale map from the above site. That
map was created from Voyager 1 photos.
The result was impressive despite the
fact that Io changed somewhat between
the two Voyager flybys (it is after all
the most volcanically active body in
the solar system !). I then removed the
most prominent seams and color
discontinuities. Some seams still
remain (I was more lazy when creating
this map than e.g. the Europa map ;)
but remarkably they are usually not
visible in 3D renderings except for
renderings showing Io from a close
range. I may remove these defects some
day. Finally I replaced small, black
areas near the poles (where no imagery
is available) with fictional data
created by cloning adjacent
areas. This map is aesthetically
better than the ones at David Seal's
site and also of higher resolution but
the color is probably less realistic
than in his ''yellowish'' map. His maps
are also more realistic in the sense
that there is no fictional data at the
poles, they are simply blank. Click
the map below to view the 2880x1440
pixel (442 KB JPG) full size map.
Actually my original map is 5760x2880
pixels but I do not have space for such
a monster here. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.mmedia.is/~bjj/data/i
o/io.jpg

[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
840 YAN
[2840 AD] 		6556) Humans change the motion of the
moon of Earth.
unknown 
[1] Image of ships surrounding Earth in
the future by Ted Huntington Source of
Texture map for Earth unknown GNU
source: Ted Huntington

[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
850 YAN
[2850 AD] 		4580) Humans change the motion of a
planet (planet Earth). The large
quantity of ships in orbit causes the
motion of Earth to be carefully
monitored and periodically changed
using organized ship movements. By this
time the Earth and Moon are visibly
surrounded by millions of orbiting
ships.
unknown 
[1] Image of ships surrounding Earth in
the future by Ted Huntington Source of
Texture map for Earth unknown GNU
source: Ted Huntington

[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
900 YAN
[2900 AD] 		29) A ship impacts the surface of
Jupiter. The first image of the surface
of Jupiter is captured. The solid and
liquid body of Jupiter is confirmed to
be 6 times the diameter of Earth.
The
surface of Jupiter may appear to be
molten liquid like the surface of the
Sun and the interior of the other
planets.
unknown 
[1] Ted Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington

[2] This close-up of the northwestern
region of the Sun shows a filament
erupting. Credit: NASA/SDO PD
source: http://www.nasa.gov/images/conte
nt/480276main_20100904-fulldisk.jpg
900 YAN
[2900 AD] 		775) A ship from Centauri leaves for
Earth carrying matter from Centauri.
This is part of a long term project of
bringing back matter from around
Centauri to be used around the star
Earth orbits where consumable atoms are
in great demand.
unknown  
900 YAN
[2900 AD] 		4629) Human anatomical changes start to
become apparent as a result of living
many generations in low gravity. Humans
may start to look like ocean organisms
which do not walk but instead move by
pushing the surrounding medium using
their appendages. Humans may develop
both gender, more, and larger
sex-related organs.
unknown 
[1] Ted Huntington AND Description A
meteor and galactic center of Milky Way
galaxy. The image was taken in Hawaii
Volcanoes National Park. Date
9/21/08 Source Own work Author
Brocken Inaglory GNU
source: Ted Huntington and
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/e/e5/Milky_Way_Galaxy_and_a_mete
or.jpg

[2] Ted Huntington AND Description A
meteor and galactic center of Milky Way
galaxy. The image was taken in Hawaii
Volcanoes National Park. Date
9/21/08 Source Own work Author
Brocken Inaglory GNU
source: Ted Huntington and
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/e/e5/Milky_Way_Galaxy_and_a_mete
or.jpg
900 YAN
[2900 AD] 		4630) Humans land on Neptune and its
moons.
unknown 
[1] Intrepid-over-Proteus Neptune's
Moon Proteus The Lander Intrepid skims
the heavily cratered moon Proteus in
search for a landing area. Proteus is a
relatively large moon, similar in size
to Saturn’s moon Mimas, but was not
discovered until Voyager 2 flew by
because it is very dark and orbits very
close to Neptune. Like Mimas, it is
irregular in shape, heavily cratered,
and has no sign of internally generated
geologic activity in its
past. UNKNOWN
source: http://api.ning.com/files/n*cJoC
Qsunpuu6EpNQKC3KHkTJPnAZoABx8opILfQ7o_/I
ntrepidoverProteus.jpg?width=737&height=
469
900 YAN
[2900 AD] 		4632) Ships containing walking robots
leave for the stars of Sirius, 8 light
years away and will arrive
successfully, perhaps 450 years later.
unknown  
1,000 YAN
[3000 AD] 		4631) The start of the removal of the
Jupiter atmosphere. Many humans may
fear bad consequences of changing the
mass of the planets by removing their
gas atmospheres and cooling their
surfaces. The removal of the atmosphere
is a natural result of ships "feeding"
on the matter of Jupiter; the lost mass
is replaced by added ships and people.
unknown 
[1] PIA01369: Jupiter from Voyager
2 PD
source: http://ppj-web-1.jpl.nasa.gov/jp
eg/PIA01369.jpg
1,150 YAN
[3150 AD] 		4638) Ships with robots reach the
second closest star, Barnard's star.

The ships containing walking robots
arrive at Barnard's star, 6 light years
away. Ships land on all the planets,
and build buildings. Humans now have
large ships orbiting 2 different star
systems.
unknown 
[1] Adapted
from: Description English: Artist's
conception of a the red dwarf star CHRX
73 A and its companion object CHRX 73
B. The companion object is around 12
Jupiter masses, and may either be a
planet, a failed star or a brown
dwarf Date 2006-09-02 Source Sel
f-made JPEG version of original TIFF
image at Hubble
website Author NASA, ESA and G.
Bacon (STScI) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/6/68/RedDwarfPlanet.
jpg/800px-RedDwarfPlanet.jpg AND
http://aetd.gsfc.nasa.gov/code540/540/ne
w_images/MLAS.jpg
1,200 YAN
[3200 AD] 		4614) A ship from Centauri reaches
Earth and returns the first objects
from a different star. Robots around
Centauri build ships to go to other
stars and pull them closer.
Neptune 
[1] Ship from Centauri reaches
Earth PD
source: Ted Huntington

[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
1,200 YAN
[3200 AD] 		4637) Humans reach a different star
(Alpha Centauri). Humans now live
around two star systems and so the
chance of extinction is greatly
decreased. Humans will start to
reproduce at an exponential rate around
the three stars of Centauri.
unknown 
[1] Humans reach Alpha
Centauri adapted by Ted Huntington
from: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikip
edia/commons/0/08/Planet-alphacen1.png
CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/08/Planet-alphacen1.png

[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
1,200 YAN
[3200 AD] 		4639) Humans completely control the
motion of planet Mercury.
unknown  
1,300 YAN
[3300 AD] 		777) The end of major religions
(Christianity, Islam, Judaism,
Buddhism, Hinduism).
Most humans belong to no
major religion.
 
[1] Images representing 5 major
religions UNKNOWN
source: UNKNOWN
1,350 YAN
[3350 AD] 		4640) Ships with robots reach Sirius.
Humans now have large ships at 3
external star systems.
unknown 
[1] Adapted from: Description This
picture is an artist's impression
showing how the binary star system of
Sirius A and its diminutive blue
companion, Sirius B, might appear to an
interstellar visitor. The large,
bluish-white star Sirius A dominates
the scene, while Sirius B is the small
but very hot and blue white-dwarf star
on the right. The two stars revolve
around each other every 50 years. White
dwarfs are the leftover remnants of
stars similar to our Sun. The Sirius
system, only 8.6 light-years from
Earth, is the fifth closest stellar
system known. Sirius B is faint because
of its tiny size. Its diameter is only
7,500 miles (about 12 thousand
kilometres), slightly smaller than the
size of our Earth. The Sirius system is
so close to Earth that most of the
familiar constellations would have
nearly the same appearance as in our
own sky. In this rendition, we see in
the background the three bright stars
that make up the Summer Triangle:
Altair, Deneb, and Vega. Altair is the
white dot above Sirius A; Deneb is the
dot to the upper right; and Vega lies
below Sirius B. But there is one
unfamiliar addition to the
constellations: our own Sun is the
second-magnitude star, shown as a small
dot just below and to the right of
Sirius
A. Date Source http://www.spacete
lescope.org/images/html/heic0516b.html
Author NASA, ESA Credit: G. Bacon
(STScI) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c9/Sirius_A_and_B_artwor
k.jpg
AND http://aetd.gsfc.nasa.gov/code540/5
40/new_images/MLAS.jpg
1,400 YAN
[3400 AD] 		4643) Humans control the motion of
Mars.
unknown 
[1] Ship surround planet Mars in the
far future. Maps map source: Currently
unknown Ted Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington

[2] Nighttime city lights of Europe
from the ISS: London is on the lower
left and Paris is in the
middle UNKNOWN
source: http://www.tamaratemple.com/wp-c
ontent/uploads/2011/08/ISS028-E-024360_l
rg.jpg
1,400 YAN
[3400 AD] 		6568) Humans reach Barnard's star.
unknown 
[1] Adapted
from: Description English: Artist's
conception of a the red dwarf star CHRX
73 A and its companion object CHRX 73
B. The companion object is around 12
Jupiter masses, and may either be a
planet, a failed star or a brown
dwarf Date 2006-09-02 Source Sel
f-made JPEG version of original TIFF
image at Hubble
website Author NASA, ESA and G.
Bacon (STScI) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/6/68/RedDwarfPlanet.
jpg/800px-RedDwarfPlanet.jpg AND
http://aetd.gsfc.nasa.gov/code540/540/ne
w_images/MLAS.jpg
1,500 YAN
[3500 AD] 		684) Much of the Atmosphere of Venus is
removed and the surface has cooled
down. Nitrogen and oxygen gases are now
released into the atmosphere.
 
[1] Atmosphere of Venus completely
removed adapted by Ted Huntington
from: Summary A rover that could
survive the intense heat of Venus, seen
here in an artist's impression, could
revolutionise our understanding of the
planet. Cooled by a Stirling Cooler
with electronics at 200 °C and
external radiator at 500 °C. Since the
Venusian atmosphere is 'only' 450 °C
the radiator will lose
energy. Geoffrey Landis and Kenneth
Mellott from NASA's Glenn Research
Center in Ohio. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/15/Venus_Rover.jpg

[2] Venus with no atmosphere adapted
from Mars texture map UNKNOWN
source:
1,500 YAN
[3500 AD] 		4642) Humans evolve a brain with more
and smaller neurons. For many centuries
there will be at least two clear lines
of human evolution, those that live
with large gravity on planets and
moons, and those that live in low
gravity in ships.
unknown  
1,600 YAN
[3600 AD] 		4623) Humans have total control over
the molecular content of the air on
Earth using air purifiers. The quantity
of oxygen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide,
etc. is under complete control by
humans.
unknown  
1,600 YAN
[3600 AD] 		4641) The motion of Venus is controlled
by orbiting ships.
unknown  
1,600 YAN
[3600 AD] 		6569) Humans reach Sirius.
unknown 
[1] Adapted from: Description This
picture is an artist's impression
showing how the binary star system of
Sirius A and its diminutive blue
companion, Sirius B, might appear to an
interstellar visitor. The large,
bluish-white star Sirius A dominates
the scene, while Sirius B is the small
but very hot and blue white-dwarf star
on the right. The two stars revolve
around each other every 50 years. White
dwarfs are the leftover remnants of
stars similar to our Sun. The Sirius
system, only 8.6 light-years from
Earth, is the fifth closest stellar
system known. Sirius B is faint because
of its tiny size. Its diameter is only
7,500 miles (about 12 thousand
kilometres), slightly smaller than the
size of our Earth. The Sirius system is
so close to Earth that most of the
familiar constellations would have
nearly the same appearance as in our
own sky. In this rendition, we see in
the background the three bright stars
that make up the Summer Triangle:
Altair, Deneb, and Vega. Altair is the
white dot above Sirius A; Deneb is the
dot to the upper right; and Vega lies
below Sirius B. But there is one
unfamiliar addition to the
constellations: our own Sun is the
second-magnitude star, shown as a small
dot just below and to the right of
Sirius
A. Date Source http://www.spacete
lescope.org/images/html/heic0516b.html
Author NASA, ESA Credit: G. Bacon
(STScI) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c9/Sirius_A_and_B_artwor
k.jpg
AND http://aetd.gsfc.nasa.gov/code540/5
40/new_images/MLAS.jpg
1,800 YAN
[3800 AD] 		4645) The motion of Jupiter is
controlled by orbiting ships.
unknown 
[1] Ships surround Jupiter inj the far
future. by Ted Huntington, Jupiter map
from unknown source. GNU
source: Ted Huntington
2,000 YAN
[4000 AD] 		4644) The atmosphere of Jupiter is
completely removed. This greatly
reduces the surface temperature, which
may solidify and be more easily mined.
Humans may release oxygen and nitrogen
at the surface to create an open-air
breathing environment for those living
on the surface of Jupiter, or Jupiter
may just be mined for matter, most of
which is exported to humans living in
stellar and Jupiter orbit.
Jupiter 
[1] Jupiter after atmosphere is
consumed. By Ted Huntington, adapted
from: http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/Imgs/Jp
g/Photoglossary/aa_large.jpg GNU
source: http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/Imgs/J
pg/Photoglossary/aa_large.jpg

[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
2,000 YAN
[4000 AD] 		4646) Humans have robot ships at 10
different stars.
unknown 
[1] Description English: Praesepe:
the open cluster Messier 44 Date
Source 2MASS Atlas Image Gallery:
The Messier Catalog Author Two Micron
All Sky Survey (2MASS), a joint project
of the University of Massachusetts and
the Infrared Processing and Analysis
Center/California Institute of
Technology, funded by the National
Aeronautics and Space Administration
and the National Science
Foundation. Licensing Public domain
This image is from the Two Micron All
Sky Survey (2MASS) project. The images
from this project have been released
into the public domain. 2MASS kindly
requests acknowledgement in one of the
following forms, the longer of which is
preferred. Atlas Image [or Atlas
Image mosaic] obtained as part of the
Two Micron All Sky Survey (2MASS), a
joint project of the University of
Massachusetts and the Infrared
Processing and Analysis
Center/California Institute of
Technology, funded by the National
Aeronautics and Space Administration
and the National Science Foundation.
Atlas Image [or Atlas Image mosaic]
courtesy of
2MASS/UMass/IPAC-Caltech/NASA/NSF. PD

source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3a/Messier_044_2MASS.jpg


[2] Description English: Praesepe:
the open cluster Messier 44 Date
Source 2MASS Atlas Image Gallery:
The Messier Catalog Author Two Micron
All Sky Survey (2MASS), a joint project
of the University of Massachusetts and
the Infrared Processing and Analysis
Center/California Institute of
Technology, funded by the National
Aeronautics and Space Administration
and the National Science
Foundation. Licensing Public domain
This image is from the Two Micron All
Sky Survey (2MASS) project. The images
from this project have been released
into the public domain. 2MASS kindly
requests acknowledgement in one of the
following forms, the longer of which is
preferred. Atlas Image [or Atlas
Image mosaic] obtained as part of the
Two Micron All Sky Survey (2MASS), a
joint project of the University of
Massachusetts and the Infrared
Processing and Analysis
Center/California Institute of
Technology, funded by the National
Aeronautics and Space Administration
and the National Science Foundation.
Atlas Image [or Atlas Image mosaic]
courtesy of
2MASS/UMass/IPAC-Caltech/NASA/NSF. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3a/Messier_044_2MASS.jpg

2,100 YAN
[4100 AD] 		4650) The start of the removal of the
atmosphere of Saturn.
unknown  
2,200 YAN
[4200 AD] 		4651) The rings of Saturn are consumed
by humans living there.
unknown 
[1] Saturn surrounded by ships in the
far future. by Ted Huntington using
texture map of Saturn from:
http://www.mmedia.is/~bjj/data/saturn/sa
turn.jpg UNKNOWN
source: http://www.mmedia.is/~bjj/data/s
aturn/saturn.jpg AND Ted Huntington
2,200 YAN
[4200 AD] 		4653) Humans start to consume the
atmosphere of Uranus.
unknown  
2,300 YAN
[4300 AD] 		4657) Humans start to consume the
atmosphere of Neptune.
unknown  
2,300 YAN
[4300 AD] 		6379) Humans land on the surface of
Jupiter.
unknown 
[1] by Ted Huntington adapted
from: http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/Imgs/Jp
g/Photoglossary/aa_large.jpg PD
source: http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/Imgs/J
pg/Photoglossary/aa_large.jpg

[2] by Ted Huntington adapted
from: http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/Imgs/Jp
g/Photoglossary/aa_large.jpg PD
source: http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/Imgs/J
pg/Photoglossary/aa_large.jpg
2,500 YAN
[4500 AD] 		4579) The Venus atmosphere is like the
atmosphere of Earth.

The Conversion of the Venus atmosphere
project is completed. Venus becomes a
second Earth (although without oceans
and much more efficiently organized).
 
[1] International Space Station crew
members are trained to observe and
document dynamic events on the
Earth’s surface, such as hurricanes,
forest fires, and volcanic eruptions.
Their observations provide scientists
and the general public a different
perspective on these events. Earlier
this week, astronauts in the crew of
the ISS-5 mission were able to observe
Mt. Etna’s spectacular eruption, and
photograph the details of the eruption
plume as well as smoke from fires
triggered by the lava as it flowed down
the 11,000-foot mountain. This image is
looking obliquely to the southeast over
the island of Sicily. A wider view
(ISS005-E-19016) shows the ash plume
curving out toward the horizon, caught
first by low-level winds blowing to the
southeast, and to the south toward
Africa at higher altitudes. Ashfall was
reported in Libya, more than 350 miles
away. The lighter-colored plumes
downslope and north of the summit (see
detailed view, ISS005-E-19024) are
produced by gas emissions from a line
of vents on the mountain’s north
flank. The detailed image provides a
three-dimensional profile of the
eruption plume. This was one of
Etna’s most vigorous eruptions in
years. The eruption was triggered by a
series of earthquakes on October 27.
These images were taken on October 30,
2002. Sicilans have learned to live
with Etna’s eruptions. Although
schools were closed and air traffic was
diverted because of the ash, no towns
or villages were threatened by the lava
flow. Astronaut photographs
ISS005-E-19016 and ISS005-E-19024 were
taken on October 30, 2002, at about
11:30 GMT and are provided by the Earth
Sciences and Image Analysis Laboratory
at Johnson Space Center. Additional
images taken by astronauts and
cosmonauts can be viewed at the
NASA-JSC Gateway to Astronaut
Photography of Earth. Instrument:
ISS - Digital Camera PD
source: http://eoimages.gsfc.nasa.gov/im
ages/imagerecords/2000/2923/etna2_ISS200
2303_lrg.jpg
2,500 YAN
[4500 AD] 		4652) The first ships to hold an orbit
above or below the planetary plane.
Ships can get closer to the Sun by
occupying an orbit above or below the
planetary plane. These ships may hold a
horizontal orbit by thrusting against
the y component of the Sun's gravity.
Alternatively they may maintain a
thrustless orbit that crosses the
planetary plane.
unknown 
[1] Star with many ships around
it. Adapted from: English: The Sun
photographed by the Atmospheric Imaging
Assembly (AIA 304) of NASA's Solar
Dynamics Observatory (SDO). This is a
false color image of the sun observed
in the extreme ultraviolet region of
the spectrum. For example, similar
image. Date 2010-08-19T00:32:21Z
(ISO 8601) Source NASA/SDO
(AIA). Author NASA/SDO (AIA). PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/The_Sun_by_the_
Atmospheric_Imaging_Assembly_of_NASA%27s
_Solar_Dynamics_Observatory_-_20100819.j
pg/628px-The_Sun_by_the_Atmospheric_Imag
ing_Assembly_of_NASA%27s_Solar_Dynamics_
Observatory_-_20100819.jpg

[2] Star with many ships around
it. Adapted from: English: The Sun
photographed by the Atmospheric Imaging
Assembly (AIA 304) of NASA's Solar
Dynamics Observatory (SDO). This is a
false color image of the sun observed
in the extreme ultraviolet region of
the spectrum. For example, similar
image. Date 2010-08-19T00:32:21Z
(ISO 8601) Source NASA/SDO
(AIA). Author NASA/SDO (AIA). PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/The_Sun_by_the_
Atmospheric_Imaging_Assembly_of_NASA%27s
_Solar_Dynamics_Observatory_-_20100819.j
pg/628px-The_Sun_by_the_Atmospheric_Imag
ing_Assembly_of_NASA%27s_Solar_Dynamics_
Observatory_-_20100819.jpg
2,500 YAN
[4500 AD] 		4654) Humans have robot ships at 20
different stars.
unknown 
[1] Description English: A spatial
representation of every star within 14
light-years of Sol. There are 32 known
stars in this region, including Sol.
The stars are coloured according to the
spectral type, which may not reflect
the actual colour. Please see this
Wikipedia article for the listing of
stars. If a star is double or triple
the stars are shown stacked vertically:
the actual position is the star closest
to the centre plane. The stars on this
map may not all be visible to the naked
eye, as many are dwarf stars. Some of
this information may be preliminary and
not entirely accurate as a result. The
coordinate system is right ascension
and declination. Hours of RA are
marked, as well as distance in
multiples of 5 light-years. Date
06/04/2008 Source self-made,
Mathematica, Inkscape. See also:
http://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedi
a/S/starsnearest.html Author
Inductiveload PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/ff/Nearby_Stars_%2814ly_
Radius%29.svg
2,500 YAN
[4500 AD] 		4655) Humans live on the surface of
Jupiter.
Jupiter 
[1] Lava flows on Krafla in
Iceland Licensing: This image
was created by Chris 73. The image is
licensed under a dual license; please
choose either of the two licenses below
as desired. Attribution to Wikipedia or
another project of the Wikimedia
foundation is required for both
licenses if the image is used outside
of projects of the Wikimedia
foundation. Attribution to me is not
required. GNU head Es ist erlaubt,
die Datei unter den Bedingungen der
GNU-Lizenz für freie Dokumentation,
Version 1.3 oder einer späteren
Version, veröffentlicht von der Free
Software Foundation, zu kopieren, zu
verbreiten und/oder zu modifizieren; es
gibt keine unveränderlichen
Abschnitte, keinen vorderen und keinen
hinteren Umschlagtext. Der
vollständige Text der Lizenz ist im
Kapitel GNU-Lizenz für freie
Dokumentation verfügbar. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d6/Lava_at_Vulkan_Krafla
_Iceland_1.JPG

[2] Volle resolusie ‎(3 888 × 2 592
pixels, lêergrootte: 5,96 MG, MIME
type: image/jpeg) Hierdie lêer kom
vanaf Wikimedia Commons en kan ook in
ander projekte gebruik word. Die
beskrywing op die lêer se
inligtingsblad word hieronder
weergegee. Beskrywing English: Lava
flow at The Big Island of Hawaii. The
lava flow is due to July 21 fissure
eruption. The picture was taken from a
helicopter. Datum 09/10/07 Bron
Created and originally uploaded to the
English Wikipedia by Brocken
Inaglory. Outeur Brocken
Inaglory Toestemming (Hergebruik van
die lêer)
CC-BY-SA-3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0; Released
under the GNU Free Documentation
License. Kameraligging 19°
23' 11.0'' N, 155° 6' 18.0''
W Hierdie en ander beelde in: Google
Maps - Google Earth - OpenStreetMa CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/62/Hawaiian_lava_flow.jp
g
2,500 YAN
[4500 AD] 		4662) The motions of all the planets
are under human control.
unknown 
[1] Various planetary texture maps and
public domain lava texture map mapped
onto 3D sphere and rendered two spheres
of ships added by Ted Huntington PD
source: Various planetary texture maps
and public domain lava texture map
mapped onto 3D sphere and rendered two
spheres of ships added by Ted
Huntington

[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
2,800 YAN
[4800 AD] 		4669) Jupiter is the most populated
planet, overtaking the Earth in number
of humans living in, on, and in orbit
of it.
unknown  
3,000 YAN
[5000 AD] 		4656) The atmosphere of Jupiter is now
Nitrogen and Oxygen, and heated to stay
gaseous.
Jupiter  
3,000 YAN
[5000 AD] 		4666) More humans live in ships than
live in and on the surface of all the
planets, moons and asteroids.
unknown  
3,000 YAN
[5000 AD] 		4668) Humans have robot ships at 50
different stars.
unknown 
[1] Description English: A spatial
representation of every star within 14
light-years of Sol. There are 32 known
stars in this region, including Sol.
The stars are coloured according to the
spectral type, which may not reflect
the actual colour. Please see this
Wikipedia article for the listing of
stars. If a star is double or triple
the stars are shown stacked vertically:
the actual position is the star closest
to the centre plane. The stars on this
map may not all be visible to the naked
eye, as many are dwarf stars. Some of
this information may be preliminary and
not entirely accurate as a result. The
coordinate system is right ascension
and declination. Hours of RA are
marked, as well as distance in
multiples of 5 light-years. Date
06/04/2008 Source self-made,
Mathematica, Inkscape. See also:
http://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedi
a/S/starsnearest.html Author
Inductiveload PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/ff/Nearby_Stars_%2814ly_
Radius%29.svg
3,100 YAN
[5100 AD] 		4671) The first image of advanced
living objects that evolved around a
different star. Their scientific
technologies, constructions, and highly
adapted anatomies are of great
interest. Obtaining this image is part
of a process that all advanced life
must participate in; sending probe
ships to other stars and capturing
images of any life that has evolved
there.
unknown 
[1] Life of another star by Ted
Huntington with background
image: 说明 English: Open Star
Cluster NGC663 in Cassiopeia 日期
2010年11月9日 来源
自己的作品 作者
Hewholooks CC
source: Ted Huntington
AND http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiped
ia/commons/1/12/NGC663HunterWilson.jpg

[2] Living object from other star by
Ted Huntington with image in
background: Description English:
This impressive image of the open
cluster known as Trumpler 14 was
obtained with the Multi-conjugate
Adaptive optics Demonstrator (MAD)
mounted on ESO’s Very Large
Telescope. The cluster, which is found
to be only 500 000 years old — a
blink of an eye in the Universe’s
history — resides at the outskirts of
the central region of the Carina
Nebula, located some 8000 light-years
away towards the constellation of
Carina (the Keel). Trumpler 14 is not
only the youngest, but also one of the
most populous clusters within the
nebula. Astronomers counted about 2000
stars in the very central parts of this
cluster. The MAD instrument allows
astronomers to obtain very sharp images
over a wide area and this image is the
adaptive optics image that so far
covers the widest area on the sky. The
field of view is about 2 arcminutes
across and the image is based on data
obtained through two different filters
(K and H). Date 03-12-2009 Source
http://www.eso.org/public/images/eso094
7a/ Author ESO/H. Sana CC
source: Ted Huntington
AND http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiped
ia/commons/5/57/ESO-Trumpler14-cluster.j
pg
3,100 YAN
[5100 AD] 		6643) The air of Saturn is completely
converted into nitrogen and oxygen
heated to stay gaseous.
  
3,200 YAN
[5200 AD] 		4664) The air of Uranus is completely
converted into nitrogen and oxygen
heated to stay gaseous.
Uranus  
3,200 YAN
[5200 AD] 		4673) Humans inhabit 10 stars and have
robot ships around 100 stars.
unknown 
[1] Description English: A spatial
representation of every star within 14
light-years of Sol. There are 32 known
stars in this region, including Sol.
The stars are coloured according to the
spectral type, which may not reflect
the actual colour. Please see this
Wikipedia article for the listing of
stars. If a star is double or triple
the stars are shown stacked vertically:
the actual position is the star closest
to the centre plane. The stars on this
map may not all be visible to the naked
eye, as many are dwarf stars. Some of
this information may be preliminary and
not entirely accurate as a result. The
coordinate system is right ascension
and declination. Hours of RA are
marked, as well as distance in
multiples of 5 light-years. Date
06/04/2008 Source self-made,
Mathematica, Inkscape. See also:
http://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedi
a/S/starsnearest.html Author
Inductiveload PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/ff/Nearby_Stars_%2814ly_
Radius%29.svg
3,300 YAN
[5300 AD] 		6173) The air of Neptune is completely
converted into nitrogen and oxygen
heated to stay gaseous.
Neptune  
3,500 YAN
[5500 AD] 		6176) The position of the Sun is under
human control and is moved in the
direction of Centauri.

Although humans completely control the
position of the Sun, the Sun still
rotates.
Mars 
[1] Humans move star by Ted
Huntington PD
source: Ted Huntington

[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
4,000 YAN
[6000 AD] 		4674) The stars of Centauri are moved
towards the Sun. This will make travel,
communication, and trading of matter
between the two stars faster.
Centauri 
[1] Ships move Alpha Centauri A by Ted
Huntington PD
source: Ted Huntington

[2] Ships move Alpha Centauri A by
Ted Huntington PD
source: Ted Huntington
4,000 YAN
[6000 AD] 		4675) Humans touch advanced living
objects that evolved around a different
star. This will cause a large amount of
excitement for the many billions of
organisms of both star systems.
unknown 
[1] Humans touch advanced life of
another star by Ted Huntington with
background image of: Double Cluster
in Perseus Credit & Copyright: Roth
Ritter (Dark
Atmospheres) Explanation: Some 7,000
light-years away, this pair of open or
galactic star clusters is an easy
binocular target, a lovely starfield in
the northern constellation Perseus.
Also visible to the unaided eye from
dark sky areas, it was cataloged in 130
BC by Greek astronomer Hipparchus. Now
known as h and chi Persei, or NGC
869(above right) and NGC 884, the
clusters themselves are separated by
only a few hundred light-years and
contain stars much younger and hotter
than the Sun. In addition to being
physically close together, the
clusters' ages based on their
individual stars are similar - evidence
that both clusters were likely a
product of the same star-forming
region. PD
source: Ted Huntington
AND http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/image/090
1/clusters_2_ritter.jpg

[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
4,500 YAN
[6500 AD] 		4676) Humans form a cluster of 4 stars
(the Sun and the three stars of
Centauri) and start to look like an
"open cluster".

Each star is within 1 light year from
each other.
unknown 
[1] Open Star Cluster M38 Credit &
Copyright: NOAO, AURA,
NSF Explanation: Open cluster M38
can be seen with binoculars toward the
constellation of Auriga. M38 is
considered an intermediately rich open
cluster of stars, each of which is
about 200 million years old. Located in
the disk of our Milky Way galaxy, M38
is still young enough to house many
bright blue stars, although it's
brightest star is a yellow giant
shining 900 times brighter than our
Sun. The cluster spans roughly 25
light-years and lies about 4000
light-years away. M38, pictured above,
is found only about 2.5 degrees
northwest of open cluster M36. Loosely
bound by gravity, open clusters spread
out over time as they orbit the
galactic center and their member stars
slowly escape. PD
source: http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/image/
0301/m38_noao.jpg
5,000 YAN
[7000 AD] 		678) One trillion humans.
 
[1] Image summarizing population of
humans around planets and stars by Ted
Huntington PD
source: Ted Huntington

[2] Image summarizing population of
humans around planets and stars by Ted
Huntington PD
source: Ted Huntington
9,000 YAN
[11000 AD] 		4680) Genetic engineering may produce
humans that use photosynthesis, only
needing water, oxygen, and light.
unknown 
[1] Stomata UNKNOWN
source: http://25.media.tumblr.com/tumbl
r_lw2kg9XyIi1qg1up7o1_1280.jpg

[2] Magnified 1000 X UNKNOWN
source: http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-e92BaY
WkdLQ/TZRgIdtDT-I/AAAAAAAAANA/YCjudgxn9n
I/s1600/1000%2BX%2BElodea.JPG
10,000 YAN
[12000 AD] 		4681) Humans may genetically remove the
requirement to urinate, defecate,
sleep, and reproduce sexually.
unknown 
[1] Chromsomes UNKNOWN
source: http://www.ocf.berkeley.edu/~edy
/genome/chromosomes.jpg

[2] Ted Huntington AND Description A
meteor and galactic center of Milky Way
galaxy. The image was taken in Hawaii
Volcanoes National Park. Date
9/21/08 Source Own work Author
Brocken Inaglory GNU
source: Ted Huntington and
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/e/e5/Milky_Way_Galaxy_and_a_mete
or.jpg
11,000 YAN
[13000 AD] 		4682) Humans may genetically remove the
need for a constant supply of oxygen or
water.
unknown  
12,000 YAN
[14000 AD] 		679) One quadrillion humans (1015).
 
[1] Image summarizing population of
humans around planets and stars by Ted
Huntington PD
source: Ted Huntington

[2] Image summarizing population of
humans around planets and stars by Ted
Huntington PD
source: Ted Huntington
12,000 YAN
[14000 AD] 		4683) Our descendents probably will
look very different from humans now,
adapted for efficiency and to low
gravity space.
unknown 
[1] Ted Huntington AND Description A
meteor and galactic center of Milky Way
galaxy. The image was taken in Hawaii
Volcanoes National Park. Date
9/21/08 Source Own work Author
Brocken Inaglory GNU
source: Ted Huntington and
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/e/e5/Milky_Way_Galaxy_and_a_mete
or.jpg

[2] Ted Huntington AND Description A
meteor and galactic center of Milky Way
galaxy. The image was taken in Hawaii
Volcanoes National Park. Date
9/21/08 Source Own work Author
Brocken Inaglory GNU
source: Ted Huntington and
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/e/e5/Milky_Way_Galaxy_and_a_mete
or.jpg
15,000 YAN
[17000 AD] 		6570) More humans live around other
stars than live around the Sun.
 
[1] Open Star Cluster M38 Credit &
Copyright: NOAO, AURA,
NSF Explanation: Open cluster M38
can be seen with binoculars toward the
constellation of Auriga. M38 is
considered an intermediately rich open
cluster of stars, each of which is
about 200 million years old. Located in
the disk of our Milky Way galaxy, M38
is still young enough to house many
bright blue stars, although it's
brightest star is a yellow giant
shining 900 times brighter than our
Sun. The cluster spans roughly 25
light-years and lies about 4000
light-years away. M38, pictured above,
is found only about 2.5 degrees
northwest of open cluster M36. Loosely
bound by gravity, open clusters spread
out over time as they orbit the
galactic center and their member stars
slowly escape. PD
source: http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/image/
0301/m38_noao.jpg

[2] Image summarizing population of
humans around planets and stars by Ted
Huntington PD
source: Ted Huntington
19,000 YAN
[21000 AD] 		6548) One quintillion humans (1018).
 
[1] Image summarizing population of
humans around planets and stars by Ted
Huntington PD
source: Ted Huntington

[2] Image adapted from from
http://www.nasa.gov/externalflash/gemini
_gallery/hi-resjpgs/10.jpg Cape
Canaveral, site of NASA's Kennedy Space
Center, from the Gemini V ... PD
source: http://www.nasa.gov/externalflas
h/gemini_gallery/hi-resjpgs/10.jpg AND
Ted Huntington Ted Huntington
25,000 YAN
[27000 AD] 		4677) Humans have robot ships around
1000 stars, inhabit 100 stars, and form
an open cluster of 10 stars.
unknown 
[1] Hyades for the Holidays Image
Credit & Copyright: Jerry Lodriguss
(Catching the Light) Explanation:
Recognized since antiquity and depicted
on the shield of Achilles according to
Homer, stars of the Hyades cluster form
the head of the constellation Taurus
the Bull. Their general V-shape is
anchored by Aldebaran, the eye of the
Bull and by far the constellation's
brightest star. Yellowish in
appearance, red giant Aldebaran is not
a Hyades cluster member, though. Modern
astronomy puts the Hyades cluster 151
light-years away making it the nearest
established open star cluster, while
Aldebaran lies at less than half that
distance, along the same line-of-sight.
Along with colorful Hyades stars, this
stellar holiday portrait locates
Aldebaran just below center, as well as
another open star cluster in Taurus,
NGC 1647 at the left, some 2,000
light-years or more in the background.
Just slide your cursor over the image
to identify the stars. The central
Hyades stars are spread out over about
15 light-years. Formed some 800 million
years ago, the Hyades star cluster may
share a common origin with M44
(Praesepe), a naked-eye open star
cluster in Cancer, based on M44's
motion through space and remarkably
similar age. UNKNOWN
source: http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/image/
1212/HyadesLodriguss.jpg

[2] Hyades for the Holidays Image
Credit & Copyright: Jerry Lodriguss
(Catching the Light) Explanation:
Recognized since antiquity and depicted
on the shield of Achilles according to
Homer, stars of the Hyades cluster form
the head of the constellation Taurus
the Bull. Their general V-shape is
anchored by Aldebaran, the eye of the
Bull and by far the constellation's
brightest star. Yellowish in
appearance, red giant Aldebaran is not
a Hyades cluster member, though. Modern
astronomy puts the Hyades cluster 151
light-years away making it the nearest
established open star cluster, while
Aldebaran lies at less than half that
distance, along the same line-of-sight.
Along with colorful Hyades stars, this
stellar holiday portrait locates
Aldebaran just below center, as well as
another open star cluster in Taurus,
NGC 1647 at the left, some 2,000
light-years or more in the background.
Just slide your cursor over the image
to identify the stars. The central
Hyades stars are spread out over about
15 light-years. Formed some 800 million
years ago, the Hyades star cluster may
share a common origin with M44
(Praesepe), a naked-eye open star
cluster in Cancer, based on M44's
motion through space and remarkably
similar age. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.cfht.hawaii.edu/Scien
ce/Astros/Imageofweek/ciw-image/050600-2
.jpg
45,000 YAN
[47000 AD] 		4679) Humans have robot ships around
10,000 stars, inhabit 1000 stars and
form a cluster of 100 stars.
unknown 
[1] The CFHT Open Cluster Survey : NGC
2099 Credit: Image courtesy of
Harvey Richer1, Patrick Durrell1,
Gregory Fahlman2, J. Kalirai1, F.
D'Antona3 & G. Marconi3 1 University
of British Columbia, Vancouver,
Canada 2 Canada-France-Hawaii
Telescope Corporation, Hawaii, USA 3
Osservatorio Astronomico di Roma, Italy
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.cfht.hawaii.edu/Scien
ce/Astros/Imageofweek/ciw-image/050600-2
.jpg

[2] Hyades for the Holidays Image
Credit & Copyright: Jerry Lodriguss
(Catching the Light) Explanation:
Recognized since antiquity and depicted
on the shield of Achilles according to
Homer, stars of the Hyades cluster form
the head of the constellation Taurus
the Bull. Their general V-shape is
anchored by Aldebaran, the eye of the
Bull and by far the constellation's
brightest star. Yellowish in
appearance, red giant Aldebaran is not
a Hyades cluster member, though. Modern
astronomy puts the Hyades cluster 151
light-years away making it the nearest
established open star cluster, while
Aldebaran lies at less than half that
distance, along the same line-of-sight.
Along with colorful Hyades stars, this
stellar holiday portrait locates
Aldebaran just below center, as well as
another open star cluster in Taurus,
NGC 1647 at the left, some 2,000
light-years or more in the background.
Just slide your cursor over the image
to identify the stars. The central
Hyades stars are spread out over about
15 light-years. Formed some 800 million
years ago, the Hyades star cluster may
share a common origin with M44
(Praesepe), a naked-eye open star
cluster in Cancer, based on M44's
motion through space and remarkably
similar age. UNKNOWN
source: http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/image/
1212/HyadesLodriguss.jpg
50,000 YAN
[52000 AD] 		4658) All asteroids are consumed.
 
[1] Adapted from: The Missing Craters
of Asteroid Itokawa Credit &
Copyright: ISAS, JAXA Explanation:
Where are the craters on asteroid
Itokawa? No one knows. The Japanese
robot probe Hayabusa recently
approached the Earth-crossing asteroid
and is returning pictures showing a
surface unlike any other Solar System
body yet photographed -- a surface
possibly devoid of craters. One
possibility for the lack of common
circular indentations is that asteroid
Itokawa is a rubble pile -- a bunch of
rocks and ice chunks only loosely held
together by a small amount of gravity.
If so, craters might be filled in
whenever the asteroid gets jiggled by a
passing planet -- Earth in this case.
Alternatively, surface particles may
become electrically charged by the Sun,
levitate in the microgravity field, and
move to fill in craters. Over the
weekend, Hayabusa lowered itself to the
surface of the strange asteroid in an
effort to study the unusual body and
collect surface samples that could be
returned to Earth in 2007. PD
source: http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/image/
0511/itokawa05_hayabusa.jpg
63,000 YAN
[65000 AD] 		6171) Humans reach the center of the
Earth.
 
[1] by Ted Huntington PD
source: Ted Huntington

[2] Adapted from: The Death Star is
the size of a small moon. See more Star
Wars pictures. Photo courtesy ©
Lucasfilm Ltd. & TM. All Rights
Reserved. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://static.ddmcdn.com/gif/dea
th-star-1.jpg
65,000 YAN
[67000 AD] 		6174) Earth is completely filled with
living objects, and has a population of
10 quintillion {KWiNTiLYeN} (1019)
humans.

The Earth is the first major body of
the Star System to become completely
populated.

There is no more molten material inside
the Earth. All the molten compressed
matter was extracted, cooled and
consumed, mostly as building materials,
fuel, and food. Earth is completely
filled with tunnels, rooms, and living
objects.

Alternatively, life may exist mostly in
ships, with the planets devoid of life
and mostly mined for matter.
Earth 
[1] Earth is completely filled by Ted
Huntington PD
source: Ted Huntington

[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
70,000 YAN
[72000 AD] 		4684) Humans have robot ships at
100,000 stars, inhabit 10,000 stars,
and form a cluster of 1,000 stars.

Alternatively, the cluster of stars our
descendents make may be consumed by or
integrated with one or more other
larger star clusters, for example the
Hyades or M13.
unknown 
[1] M15 Second attempt for a star
cluster. L 12x2min, RGB each 5x2min,
Dark no Flat. 1 click on the picture
(1024x690, 115 KB) Distance: 35000
Ly UNKNOWN
source: http://www.luluobservatorium.de/
Big%20Pictures/M15.jpg

[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
90,000 YAN
[92000 AD] 		6210) Humans make a globular cluster of
10,000 stars. This cluster starts to
leave the plane of the Milky Way
Galaxy.

The human population is now around 50
sextillion (50 x 1021).
unknown 
[1] M31 with some globular clusters
marked [t Note that each globular
cluster can be imagined to be formed by
some intelligent living
objects.] Image by Peter
Kennett UNKNOWN
source: http://www.petesastrophotography
.com/m31globs.jpg

[2] M31, Southwest Arm, NGC
206 copyright Robert Gendler
2005 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.robgendlerastropics.c
om/M31NMmosaicSW.jpg
100,000 YAN
6558) An object made by humans touches
the surface of the Sun. By this time
the surface of the Sun is much colder
and less bright. Matter of the Sun
continues to be extracted for food,
fuel and building materials.
  
121,000 YAN
681) The Moon of Earth population
reaches the maximum possible (200
quadrillion, 200 x 1015 ).
 
[1] Ships surround Moon of Earth in the
future. Source of Moon Texture Map:
unknown Ted Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
125,500 YAN
4672) Planet Mercury is completely
filled with living objects and has a
population of 600 quadrillion (600 x
1015). Mercury now functions as a
massive ship. Mercury may even
eventually divide into many smaller
ships.
unknown 
[1] Mercury at maximum population
adapted by Ted Huntington
from: http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/
Features/CitiesAtNight/images/ISS007-E-1
6525_night.jpg GNU
source: http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov
/Features/CitiesAtNight/images/ISS007-E-
16525_night.jpg
127,000 YAN
682) The population of humans on planet
Mars reaches a physical maximum of 1
quintillion (1 x 1018) humans.
 
[1] Ship surround planet Mars in the
far future. Maps map source: Currently
unknown Ted Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
135,000 YAN
685) The population of Venus reaches
the physical maximum of 9 quintillion
humans (9 x 1018).
 
[1] Venus at maximum population adapted
by Ted Huntington
from: http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/
Features/CitiesAtNight/images/ISS007-E-1
6525_night.jpg GNU
source: http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov
/Features/CitiesAtNight/images/ISS007-E-
16525_night.jpg
138,000 YAN
4678) All the planets of the Sun are
consumed.

All that remains are ships that orbit
the Sun; most matter must now be taken
from the Sun and other stars.
unknown 
[1] Star with many ships around
it. Adapted from: English: The Sun
photographed by the Atmospheric Imaging
Assembly (AIA 304) of NASA's Solar
Dynamics Observatory (SDO). This is a
false color image of the sun observed
in the extreme ultraviolet region of
the spectrum. For example, similar
image. Date 2010-08-19T00:32:21Z
(ISO 8601) Source NASA/SDO
(AIA). Author NASA/SDO (AIA). PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/The_Sun_by_the_
Atmospheric_Imaging_Assembly_of_NASA%27s
_Solar_Dynamics_Observatory_-_20100819.j
pg/628px-The_Sun_by_the_Atmospheric_Imag
ing_Assembly_of_NASA%27s_Solar_Dynamics_
Observatory_-_20100819.jpg

[2] Globular Star Cluster 47
Tuc Image Credit & Copyright: Dieter
Willasch
(Astro-Cabinet) Explanation:
Globular star cluster 47 Tucanae is a
jewel of the southern sky. Also known
as NGC 104, it roams the halo of our
Milky Way Galaxy along with some 200
other globular star clusters. The
second brightest globular cluster
(after Omega Centauri) as seen from
planet Earth, it lies about 13,000
light-years away and can be spotted
naked-eye near the Small Magellanic
Cloud in the constellation of the
Toucan. The dense cluster is made up of
several million stars in a volume only
about 120 light-years across. Red giant
stars on the outskirts of the cluster
are easy to pick out as yellowish stars
in this sharp telescopic portrait.
Globular cluster 47 Tuc is also home to
exotic x-ray binary star systems. PD
source: http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/image/
1101/47Tuc_DW.jpg
148,000 YAN
100) The Sun is consumed.

That the planets and Sun will probably
be consumed is evidence that a globular
cluster is made by an advanced organism
that goes out and brings back other
stars to consume, the matter being
converted into more of their species,
ships, food, and fuel.
 
[1] Star with many ships around
it. Adapted from: English: The Sun
photographed by the Atmospheric Imaging
Assembly (AIA 304) of NASA's Solar
Dynamics Observatory (SDO). This is a
false color image of the sun observed
in the extreme ultraviolet region of
the spectrum. For example, similar
image. Date 2010-08-19T00:32:21Z
(ISO 8601) Source NASA/SDO
(AIA). Author NASA/SDO (AIA). PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/The_Sun_by_the_
Atmospheric_Imaging_Assembly_of_NASA%27s
_Solar_Dynamics_Observatory_-_20100819.j
pg/628px-The_Sun_by_the_Atmospheric_Imag
ing_Assembly_of_NASA%27s_Solar_Dynamics_
Observatory_-_20100819.jpg

[2] Globular Star Cluster 47
Tuc Image Credit & Copyright: Dieter
Willasch
(Astro-Cabinet) Explanation:
Globular star cluster 47 Tucanae is a
jewel of the southern sky. Also known
as NGC 104, it roams the halo of our
Milky Way Galaxy along with some 200
other globular star clusters. The
second brightest globular cluster
(after Omega Centauri) as seen from
planet Earth, it lies about 13,000
light-years away and can be spotted
naked-eye near the Small Magellanic
Cloud in the constellation of the
Toucan. The dense cluster is made up of
several million stars in a volume only
about 120 light-years across. Red giant
stars on the outskirts of the cluster
are easy to pick out as yellowish stars
in this sharp telescopic portrait.
Globular cluster 47 Tuc is also home to
exotic x-ray binary star systems. PD
source: http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/image/
1101/47Tuc_DW.jpg
185,000 YAN
6178) All the planets of Sirius are
consumed.
Sirius 
[1] Adapted from: Description This
picture is an artist's impression
showing how the binary star system of
Sirius A and its diminutive blue
companion, Sirius B, might appear to an
interstellar visitor. The large,
bluish-white star Sirius A dominates
the scene, while Sirius B is the small
but very hot and blue white-dwarf star
on the right. The two stars revolve
around each other every 50 years. White
dwarfs are the leftover remnants of
stars similar to our Sun. The Sirius
system, only 8.6 light-years from
Earth, is the fifth closest stellar
system known. Sirius B is faint because
of its tiny size. Its diameter is only
7,500 miles (about 12 thousand
kilometres), slightly smaller than the
size of our Earth. The Sirius system is
so close to Earth that most of the
familiar constellations would have
nearly the same appearance as in our
own sky. In this rendition, we see in
the background the three bright stars
that make up the Summer Triangle:
Altair, Deneb, and Vega. Altair is the
white dot above Sirius A; Deneb is the
dot to the upper right; and Vega lies
below Sirius B. But there is one
unfamiliar addition to the
constellations: our own Sun is the
second-magnitude star, shown as a small
dot just below and to the right of
Sirius
A. Date Source http://www.spacete
lescope.org/images/html/heic0516b.html
Author NASA, ESA Credit: G. Bacon
(STScI) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Sirius_A_and_B_
artwork.jpg/800px-Sirius_A_and_B_artwork
.jpg

[2] Adapted from: Description This
picture is an artist's impression
showing how the binary star system of
Sirius A and its diminutive blue
companion, Sirius B, might appear to an
interstellar visitor. The large,
bluish-white star Sirius A dominates
the scene, while Sirius B is the small
but very hot and blue white-dwarf star
on the right. The two stars revolve
around each other every 50 years. White
dwarfs are the leftover remnants of
stars similar to our Sun. The Sirius
system, only 8.6 light-years from
Earth, is the fifth closest stellar
system known. Sirius B is faint because
of its tiny size. Its diameter is only
7,500 miles (about 12 thousand
kilometres), slightly smaller than the
size of our Earth. The Sirius system is
so close to Earth that most of the
familiar constellations would have
nearly the same appearance as in our
own sky. In this rendition, we see in
the background the three bright stars
that make up the Summer Triangle:
Altair, Deneb, and Vega. Altair is the
white dot above Sirius A; Deneb is the
dot to the upper right; and Vega lies
below Sirius B. But there is one
unfamiliar addition to the
constellations: our own Sun is the
second-magnitude star, shown as a small
dot just below and to the right of
Sirius
A. Date Source http://www.spacete
lescope.org/images/html/heic0516b.html
Author NASA, ESA Credit: G. Bacon
(STScI) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Sirius_A_and_B_
artwork.jpg/800px-Sirius_A_and_B_artwork
.jpg
205,000 YAN
6317) Sirius is consumed.
Sirius 
[1] Adapted from: Description This
picture is an artist's impression
showing how the binary star system of
Sirius A and its diminutive blue
companion, Sirius B, might appear to an
interstellar visitor. The large,
bluish-white star Sirius A dominates
the scene, while Sirius B is the small
but very hot and blue white-dwarf star
on the right. The two stars revolve
around each other every 50 years. White
dwarfs are the leftover remnants of
stars similar to our Sun. The Sirius
system, only 8.6 light-years from
Earth, is the fifth closest stellar
system known. Sirius B is faint because
of its tiny size. Its diameter is only
7,500 miles (about 12 thousand
kilometres), slightly smaller than the
size of our Earth. The Sirius system is
so close to Earth that most of the
familiar constellations would have
nearly the same appearance as in our
own sky. In this rendition, we see in
the background the three bright stars
that make up the Summer Triangle:
Altair, Deneb, and Vega. Altair is the
white dot above Sirius A; Deneb is the
dot to the upper right; and Vega lies
below Sirius B. But there is one
unfamiliar addition to the
constellations: our own Sun is the
second-magnitude star, shown as a small
dot just below and to the right of
Sirius
A. Date Source http://www.spacete
lescope.org/images/html/heic0516b.html
Author NASA, ESA Credit: G. Bacon
(STScI) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Sirius_A_and_B_
artwork.jpg/800px-Sirius_A_and_B_artwork
.jpg

[2] Adapted from: Description This
picture is an artist's impression
showing how the binary star system of
Sirius A and its diminutive blue
companion, Sirius B, might appear to an
interstellar visitor. The large,
bluish-white star Sirius A dominates
the scene, while Sirius B is the small
but very hot and blue white-dwarf star
on the right. The two stars revolve
around each other every 50 years. White
dwarfs are the leftover remnants of
stars similar to our Sun. The Sirius
system, only 8.6 light-years from
Earth, is the fifth closest stellar
system known. Sirius B is faint because
of its tiny size. Its diameter is only
7,500 miles (about 12 thousand
kilometres), slightly smaller than the
size of our Earth. The Sirius system is
so close to Earth that most of the
familiar constellations would have
nearly the same appearance as in our
own sky. In this rendition, we see in
the background the three bright stars
that make up the Summer Triangle:
Altair, Deneb, and Vega. Altair is the
white dot above Sirius A; Deneb is the
dot to the upper right; and Vega lies
below Sirius B. But there is one
unfamiliar addition to the
constellations: our own Sun is the
second-magnitude star, shown as a small
dot just below and to the right of
Sirius
A. Date Source http://www.spacete
lescope.org/images/html/heic0516b.html
Author NASA, ESA Credit: G. Bacon
(STScI) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Sirius_A_and_B_
artwork.jpg/800px-Sirius_A_and_B_artwork
.jpg
630,000 YAN
106) Ten to the power 100 humans.
 
[1] Globular Star Cluster 47 Tuc Image
Credit & Copyright: Dieter Willasch
(Astro-Cabinet) Explanation:
Globular star cluster 47 Tucanae is a
jewel of the southern sky. Also known
as NGC 104, it roams the halo of our
Milky Way Galaxy along with some 200
other globular star clusters. The
second brightest globular cluster
(after Omega Centauri) as seen from
planet Earth, it lies about 13,000
light-years away and can be spotted
naked-eye near the Small Magellanic
Cloud in the constellation of the
Toucan. The dense cluster is made up of
several million stars in a volume only
about 120 light-years across. Red giant
stars on the outskirts of the cluster
are easy to pick out as yellowish stars
in this sharp telescopic portrait.
Globular cluster 47 Tuc is also home to
exotic x-ray binary star systems. PD
source: http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/image/
1101/47Tuc_DW.jpg

[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
1,000,000,000 YAN
4685) All the stars in the Milky Way
Galaxy belong to a globular cluster.
The Milky Way is now an elliptical
galaxy.
unknown 
[1] Designation NGC 3115, Bennett 42,
Caldwell 53, the Spindle
Galaxy Object type Type S(0)
lenticular galaxy Coordinates 10 h 05
min - 07° 43' Sextans
(Sex) Description NGC 3115 is also
known as the ''Spindle Galaxy.'' It is
a lenticular, a ''spiral galaxy without
spiral structure'', i.e. a smooth disk
galaxy, where stellar formation has
stopped because the interstellar matter
was used up. From their appearance and
stellar contents, they can often hardly
be distinguished from ellipticals
observationally. Dreyer calls this
lenticular galaxy very bright (mag
9.7), large (8.3'x3.2'), very much
elongated (P.A. 46°), and brightening
sharply to a brightened, elongated
nucleus. It lies 4.8° north of Lambda
Hydrae. North is to the right in the
15 x 10 arcmin field of view.
Exposure LRGB 60:20:20:20 min @
-15°C, all exposures unbinned Camera
SBIG ST-10XE selfguided + CFW8 with
Astrodon LRGB filterset Optics RCOS
14.5'' Ritchey-Chrétien @ f/9 (prime
focus) Mount Astro-Physics
AP1200GTO Software MaxIm DL/CCD,
Adobe Photoshop CS Location - Date -
Time San Esteban (Chile) - 10Apr05 @
00:30 UTC Conditions Transparency 7,
Seeing 5, Temperature +10°C UNKNOWN

source: http://astrosurf.com/antilhue/NG
C3115-LRGB.jpg

[2] All stars in the Milky Way belong
to a globular cluster. Adapted
from: http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/image/0
506/m22_cfht_big.jpg Globular Cluster
M22 from CFHT Credit & Copyright:
Jean-Charles Cuillandre (CFHT),
Hawaiian Starlight,
CFHT Explanation: The globular
cluster M22, pictured above, contains
over 100,000 stars. These stars formed
together and are gravitationally bound.
Stars orbit the center of the cluster,
and the cluster orbits the center of
our Galaxy. So far, about 140 globular
clusters are known to exist in a
roughly spherical halo around the
Galactic center. Globular clusters do
not appear spherically distributed as
viewed from the Earth, and this fact
was a key point in the determination
that our Sun is not at the center of
our Galaxy. Globular clusters are very
old. There is a straightforward method
of determining their age, and this
nearly matches the 13.7 billion-year
age of our entire universe. PD
source: http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/image/
0506/m22_cfht_big.jpg
25,000,000,000 YAN
4686) The star clusters in the outer
areas are pulled closer to the center
making the galaxy more spherical, and
the galaxy develops a massive
propulsion system in order to go get
more matter to consume. The Milky Way
is now a spherical globular galaxy.

The matter thrown away as fuel probably
is less popular and less important
matter; although all matter is probably
important to a globular cluster.

The galaxy may try to position itself
behind another galaxy to consume its
emitted exhaust.
unknown 
[1] Description English: Messier
object 87 by Hubble space
telescope Date 18 August
2009 Source
http://wikisky.org/snapshot?img_siz
e=&img_res=&ra=12.5138&de=12.3896&angle=
0.0293&projection=tan&rotation=0.0&surve
y=astrophoto&img_id=905632&width=2160&he
ight=2160&img_borders=&interpolation=bic
ubic&jpeg_quality=0.8 Author
en:NASA, en:STScI,
en:WikiSky Permission (Reusing this
file) PD-HUBBLE PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/07/Messier_87_Hubble_Wik
iSky.jpg

[2] Description Hubble
Illuminates Cluster of Diverse Galaxies
(Abell S740), cropped to ESO
325-G004. Date January
2007 Source
http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/ar
chive/releases/galaxy/elliptical/2007/08
/image/a/warn/ Author J.
Blakeslee (Washington State
University) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d3/Abell_S740%2C_cropped
_to_ESO_325-G004.jpg
30,000,000,000 YAN
4687) The Milky Way Globular Galaxy
integrates the matter of the two
Magellanic Cloud galaxies.
unknown 
[1] Elliptical Galaxy Centaurus A from
CFHT Credit & Copyright: Jean-Charles
Cuillandre (CFHT) & Giovanni Anselmi
(Coelum Astronomia), Hawaiian
Starlight Explanation: Why is
peculiar galaxy Centaurus A so dusty?
Dramatic dust lanes that run across the
galaxy's center mark Cen A. These dust
lanes are so thick they almost
completely obscure the galaxy's center
in visible light. This is particularly
unusual as Cen A's red stars and round
shape are characteristic of a giant
elliptical galaxy, a galaxy type
usually low in dark dust. Cen A, also
known as NGC 5128, is also unusual
compared to an average elliptical
galaxy because it contains a higher
proportion of young blue stars and is a
very strong source of radio emission.
Evidence indicates that Cen A is likely
the result of the collision of two
normal galaxies. During the collision,
many young stars were formed, but
details of the creation of Cen A's
unusual dust belts are still being
researched. Cen A lies only 13 million
light years away, making it the closest
active galaxy. Cen A, pictured above,
spans 60,000 light years and can be
seen with binoculars toward the
constellation of Centaurus. PD
source: http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/image/
0607/cenA_cfht.jpg

[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
40,000,000,000 YAN
4688) The Andromeda and Milky Way
globular galaxies may merge into a
single larger galaxy, which then
resumes the search for a smaller galaxy
to consume. Natural selection must also
create a large scale "eat or be eaten",
"predator-prey" existence for galaxies
similar to that on Earth. The Milky Way
may seek to consume galaxies that are
smaller, while trying to move away from
galaxies that are larger.
unknown 
[1] See Explanation. Clicking on the
picture will download the highest
resolution version available. In the
Center of the Virgo Cluster Credit &
Copyright: Jean-Charles Cuillandre
(CFHT), Hawaiian Starlight,
CFHT Explanation: The Virgo Cluster
of Galaxies is the closest cluster of
galaxies to our Milky Way Galaxy. The
Virgo Cluster is so close that it spans
more than 5 degrees on the sky - about
10 times the angle made by a full Moon.
It contains over 100 galaxies of many
types - including spiral, elliptical,
and irregular galaxies. The Virgo
Cluster is so massive that it is
noticeably pulling our Galaxy toward
it. The cluster contains not only
galaxies filled with stars but also gas
so hot it glows in X-rays. Motions of
galaxies in and around clusters
indicate that they contain more dark
matter than any visible matter we can
see. Pictured above, the center of the
Virgo cluster might appear to some as a
human face, and includes bright Messier
galaxies M86 at the top, M84 on the far
right, NGC 4388 at the bottom, and NGC
4387 in the middle. PD
source: http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/image/
0308/virgocenter_cfht.jpg

[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
"Universe, Life, Science, Future" is published under the GNU license, except where otherwise indicated or determined to be fair use, copyrighted, public domain, CC, GDFL or other license.
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