UNIVERSE
[1] note
Hubble_ultra_deep_field_high_rez_edit1
is much larger [2] Hubble ultra deep
field high rez
edit1_small.jpg Deutsch: Das Hubble
Ultra Deep Field ist ein Bild einer
kleinen Himmelsregion aufgenommen vom
Hubble-Weltraumteleskop über einen
Zeitraum vom 3. September 2003 bis 16.
Januar 2004. Dabei wurde eine
Himmelsregion ausgewählt, die kaum
störende helle Sterne im Vordergrund
enthält. Man entschied sich für ein
Zielgebiet südwestlich von Orion im
Sternbild Chemischer Ofen. English:
The Hubble Ultra Deep Field, is an
image of a small region of space in the
constellation Fornax, composited from
Hubble Space Telescope data accumulated
over a period from September 3, 2003
through January 16, 2004. The patch of
sky in which the galaxies reside was
chosen because it had a low density of
bright stars in the
near-field. Español: El Campo Ultra
Profundo del Hubble, es una imagen de
una pequeña región del espacio en la
constelación Fornax, compuesta de
datos obtenidos por el telescopio
espacial Hubble durante el período
entre el 3 de Septiembre de 2003 y el
16 de Enero de 2004. Esta parte del
cielo fue escogida por su baja densidad
de estrellas brillantes en sus
proximidades. Français : Le champ
ultra profond de Hubble, une image
d'une petite portion du ciel dans la
constellation du Fourneau, prise par le
télescope spatial Hubble du 3
septembre 2003 au 16 juillet 2004. La
portion de ciel a été choisie car
elle possède peu d'étoiles brillantes
proches. Date 2003-09-03 -
2004-01-16 Source
http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/ar
chive/releases/2004/07/image/a/warn/ Au
thor NASA and the European Space
Agency. Edited by Noodle snacks PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0d/Hubble_ultra_deep_fie
ld_high_rez_edit1.jpg
[1] note
Hubble_ultra_deep_field_high_rez_edit1
is much larger [2] Hubble ultra deep
field high rez
edit1_small.jpg Deutsch: Das Hubble
Ultra Deep Field ist ein Bild einer
kleinen Himmelsregion aufgenommen vom
Hubble-Weltraumteleskop über einen
Zeitraum vom 3. September 2003 bis 16.
Januar 2004. Dabei wurde eine
Himmelsregion ausgewählt, die kaum
störende helle Sterne im Vordergrund
enthält. Man entschied sich für ein
Zielgebiet südwestlich von Orion im
Sternbild Chemischer Ofen. English:
The Hubble Ultra Deep Field, is an
image of a small region of space in the
constellation Fornax, composited from
Hubble Space Telescope data accumulated
over a period from September 3, 2003
through January 16, 2004. The patch of
sky in which the galaxies reside was
chosen because it had a low density of
bright stars in the
near-field. Español: El Campo Ultra
Profundo del Hubble, es una imagen de
una pequeña región del espacio en la
constelación Fornax, compuesta de
datos obtenidos por el telescopio
espacial Hubble durante el período
entre el 3 de Septiembre de 2003 y el
16 de Enero de 2004. Esta parte del
cielo fue escogida por su baja densidad
de estrellas brillantes en sus
proximidades. Français : Le champ
ultra profond de Hubble, une image
d'une petite portion du ciel dans la
constellation du Fourneau, prise par le
télescope spatial Hubble du 3
septembre 2003 au 16 juillet 2004. La
portion de ciel a été choisie car
elle possède peu d'étoiles brillantes
proches. Date 2003-09-03 -
2004-01-16 Source
http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/ar
chive/releases/2004/07/image/a/warn/ Au
thor NASA and the European Space
Agency. Edited by Noodle snacks PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0d/Hubble_ultra_deep_fie
ld_high_rez_edit1.jpg
[1] note
Hubble_ultra_deep_field_high_rez_edit1
is much larger [2] Hubble ultra deep
field high rez
edit1_small.jpg Deutsch: Das Hubble
Ultra Deep Field ist ein Bild einer
kleinen Himmelsregion aufgenommen vom
Hubble-Weltraumteleskop über einen
Zeitraum vom 3. September 2003 bis 16.
Januar 2004. Dabei wurde eine
Himmelsregion ausgewählt, die kaum
störende helle Sterne im Vordergrund
enthält. Man entschied sich für ein
Zielgebiet südwestlich von Orion im
Sternbild Chemischer Ofen. English:
The Hubble Ultra Deep Field, is an
image of a small region of space in the
constellation Fornax, composited from
Hubble Space Telescope data accumulated
over a period from September 3, 2003
through January 16, 2004. The patch of
sky in which the galaxies reside was
chosen because it had a low density of
bright stars in the
near-field. Español: El Campo Ultra
Profundo del Hubble, es una imagen de
una pequeña región del espacio en la
constelación Fornax, compuesta de
datos obtenidos por el telescopio
espacial Hubble durante el período
entre el 3 de Septiembre de 2003 y el
16 de Enero de 2004. Esta parte del
cielo fue escogida por su baja densidad
de estrellas brillantes en sus
proximidades. Français : Le champ
ultra profond de Hubble, une image
d'une petite portion du ciel dans la
constellation du Fourneau, prise par le
télescope spatial Hubble du 3
septembre 2003 au 16 juillet 2004. La
portion de ciel a été choisie car
elle possède peu d'étoiles brillantes
proches. Date 2003-09-03 -
2004-01-16 Source
http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/ar
chive/releases/2004/07/image/a/warn/ Au
thor NASA and the European Space
Agency. Edited by Noodle snacks PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0d/Hubble_ultra_deep_fie
ld_high_rez_edit1.jpg
[1] note
Hubble_ultra_deep_field_high_rez_edit1
is much larger [2] Hubble ultra deep
field high rez
edit1_small.jpg Deutsch: Das Hubble
Ultra Deep Field ist ein Bild einer
kleinen Himmelsregion aufgenommen vom
Hubble-Weltraumteleskop über einen
Zeitraum vom 3. September 2003 bis 16.
Januar 2004. Dabei wurde eine
Himmelsregion ausgewählt, die kaum
störende helle Sterne im Vordergrund
enthält. Man entschied sich für ein
Zielgebiet südwestlich von Orion im
Sternbild Chemischer Ofen. English:
The Hubble Ultra Deep Field, is an
image of a small region of space in the
constellation Fornax, composited from
Hubble Space Telescope data accumulated
over a period from September 3, 2003
through January 16, 2004. The patch of
sky in which the galaxies reside was
chosen because it had a low density of
bright stars in the
near-field. Español: El Campo Ultra
Profundo del Hubble, es una imagen de
una pequeña región del espacio en la
constelación Fornax, compuesta de
datos obtenidos por el telescopio
espacial Hubble durante el período
entre el 3 de Septiembre de 2003 y el
16 de Enero de 2004. Esta parte del
cielo fue escogida por su baja densidad
de estrellas brillantes en sus
proximidades. Français : Le champ
ultra profond de Hubble, une image
d'une petite portion du ciel dans la
constellation du Fourneau, prise par le
télescope spatial Hubble du 3
septembre 2003 au 16 juillet 2004. La
portion de ciel a été choisie car
elle possède peu d'étoiles brillantes
proches. Date 2003-09-03 -
2004-01-16 Source
http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/ar
chive/releases/2004/07/image/a/warn/ Au
thor NASA and the European Space
Agency. Edited by Noodle snacks PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0d/Hubble_ultra_deep_fie
ld_high_rez_edit1.jpg
[1] note
Hubble_ultra_deep_field_high_rez_edit1
is much larger [2] Hubble ultra deep
field high rez
edit1_small.jpg Deutsch: Das Hubble
Ultra Deep Field ist ein Bild einer
kleinen Himmelsregion aufgenommen vom
Hubble-Weltraumteleskop über einen
Zeitraum vom 3. September 2003 bis 16.
Januar 2004. Dabei wurde eine
Himmelsregion ausgewählt, die kaum
störende helle Sterne im Vordergrund
enthält. Man entschied sich für ein
Zielgebiet südwestlich von Orion im
Sternbild Chemischer Ofen. English:
The Hubble Ultra Deep Field, is an
image of a small region of space in the
constellation Fornax, composited from
Hubble Space Telescope data accumulated
over a period from September 3, 2003
through January 16, 2004. The patch of
sky in which the galaxies reside was
chosen because it had a low density of
bright stars in the
near-field. Español: El Campo Ultra
Profundo del Hubble, es una imagen de
una pequeña región del espacio en la
constelación Fornax, compuesta de
datos obtenidos por el telescopio
espacial Hubble durante el período
entre el 3 de Septiembre de 2003 y el
16 de Enero de 2004. Esta parte del
cielo fue escogida por su baja densidad
de estrellas brillantes en sus
proximidades. Français : Le champ
ultra profond de Hubble, une image
d'une petite portion du ciel dans la
constellation du Fourneau, prise par le
télescope spatial Hubble du 3
septembre 2003 au 16 juillet 2004. La
portion de ciel a été choisie car
elle possède peu d'étoiles brillantes
proches. Date 2003-09-03 -
2004-01-16 Source
http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/ar
chive/releases/2004/07/image/a/warn/ Au
thor NASA and the European Space
Agency. Edited by Noodle snacks PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0d/Hubble_ultra_deep_fie
ld_high_rez_edit1.jpg
each other and so form structures such
as protons, atoms, molecules, planets,
stars, galaxies, and clusters of
galaxies.
This forming of light particles into
atoms may be the result of particle
collision, gravitation (an attraction
of matter with itself) or a combination
of both.
[1] note
Hubble_ultra_deep_field_high_rez_edit1
is much larger [2] Hubble ultra deep
field high rez
edit1_small.jpg Deutsch: Das Hubble
Ultra Deep Field ist ein Bild einer
kleinen Himmelsregion aufgenommen vom
Hubble-Weltraumteleskop über einen
Zeitraum vom 3. September 2003 bis 16.
Januar 2004. Dabei wurde eine
Himmelsregion ausgewählt, die kaum
störende helle Sterne im Vordergrund
enthält. Man entschied sich für ein
Zielgebiet südwestlich von Orion im
Sternbild Chemischer Ofen. English:
The Hubble Ultra Deep Field, is an
image of a small region of space in the
constellation Fornax, composited from
Hubble Space Telescope data accumulated
over a period from September 3, 2003
through January 16, 2004. The patch of
sky in which the galaxies reside was
chosen because it had a low density of
bright stars in the
near-field. Español: El Campo Ultra
Profundo del Hubble, es una imagen de
una pequeña región del espacio en la
constelación Fornax, compuesta de
datos obtenidos por el telescopio
espacial Hubble durante el período
entre el 3 de Septiembre de 2003 y el
16 de Enero de 2004. Esta parte del
cielo fue escogida por su baja densidad
de estrellas brillantes en sus
proximidades. Français : Le champ
ultra profond de Hubble, une image
d'une petite portion du ciel dans la
constellation du Fourneau, prise par le
télescope spatial Hubble du 3
septembre 2003 au 16 juillet 2004. La
portion de ciel a été choisie car
elle possède peu d'étoiles brillantes
proches. Date 2003-09-03 -
2004-01-16 Source
http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/ar
chive/releases/2004/07/image/a/warn/ Au
thor NASA and the European Space
Agency. Edited by Noodle snacks PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0d/Hubble_ultra_deep_fie
ld_high_rez_edit1.jpg
see are only a tiny part of the
universe. We will never see most of the
universe because no light particles
from there can ever reach us.
Most galaxies are too far away for even
one particle of light they emit to be
going in the exact direction of our
tiny location, and all the light
particles they emit are captured by
atoms in between there and here.
One estimate has 70e21 (sextillion)
stars in only the universe we can see.
That is 10 times more stars than grains
of sand on all the earth.
As telescopes grow larger, the number
of galaxies we see will increase.
[1] note
Hubble_ultra_deep_field_high_rez_edit1
is much larger [2] Hubble ultra deep
field high rez
edit1_small.jpg Deutsch: Das Hubble
Ultra Deep Field ist ein Bild einer
kleinen Himmelsregion aufgenommen vom
Hubble-Weltraumteleskop über einen
Zeitraum vom 3. September 2003 bis 16.
Januar 2004. Dabei wurde eine
Himmelsregion ausgewählt, die kaum
störende helle Sterne im Vordergrund
enthält. Man entschied sich für ein
Zielgebiet südwestlich von Orion im
Sternbild Chemischer Ofen. English:
The Hubble Ultra Deep Field, is an
image of a small region of space in the
constellation Fornax, composited from
Hubble Space Telescope data accumulated
over a period from September 3, 2003
through January 16, 2004. The patch of
sky in which the galaxies reside was
chosen because it had a low density of
bright stars in the
near-field. Español: El Campo Ultra
Profundo del Hubble, es una imagen de
una pequeña región del espacio en la
constelación Fornax, compuesta de
datos obtenidos por el telescopio
espacial Hubble durante el período
entre el 3 de Septiembre de 2003 y el
16 de Enero de 2004. Esta parte del
cielo fue escogida por su baja densidad
de estrellas brillantes en sus
proximidades. Français : Le champ
ultra profond de Hubble, une image
d'une petite portion du ciel dans la
constellation du Fourneau, prise par le
télescope spatial Hubble du 3
septembre 2003 au 16 juillet 2004. La
portion de ciel a été choisie car
elle possède peu d'étoiles brillantes
proches. Date 2003-09-03 -
2004-01-16 Source
http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/ar
chive/releases/2004/07/image/a/warn/ Au
thor NASA and the European Space
Agency. Edited by Noodle snacks PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0d/Hubble_ultra_deep_fie
ld_high_rez_edit1.jpg
Light particles move from highly dense
volumes of space to volumes of less
density. In low density volumes, light
particles slowly accumulate to form
atoms of Hydrogen and Helium which
exist as gas clouds (like the
Magellanic Clouds or Orion nebula).
These gas clouds, called nebulae
continue to accumulate trapped light
particles. At points of high density
planets and stars form and the cloud is
eventually dense enough to become a
galaxy of stars. The stars emit light
particles back out to the rest of the
universe, where the light again becomes
trapped and forms new clouds. Around
each star are many planets and pieces
of matter. On many of the planets
rotating around stars, living objects
evolve that can copy themselves by
converting matter around them into more
of them. Living objects need matter to
replace matter lost from the constant
emitting of light particles (decay).
Like bacteria, these living objects
grow in number, with the most
successful organisms occupying and
moving around many stars. These
advanced organisms then move the groups
of stars they control, as a globular
cluster, away from the plane of the
spiral galaxy. As time continues, all
of the stars of a galaxy are occupied
by living objects who have organized
their stars into globular clusters, and
these globular clusters together, form
a globular galaxy. The globular galaxy
may then exist for a long time living
off the matter emitting from stars, in
addition to the accumulation of light
particles from external sources.
So free light particles are trapped
into volumes of space that grow in
density first forming atoms, then gas
clouds, then stars, a spiral galaxy,
and finally a globular galaxy.
Stars at our scale may be light
particles at a much larger scale, just
as light particles at our scale may be
stars at a much smaller scale. This
system may go on infinitely in both
larger and smaller scale.
For any given volume of space, there is
a ratio of light particles going in
versus light particles going out. If
more light particles are entering than
exiting the volume has a deficit of
light particles, and so acts as a
vacuum and grows in size, if more
particles are exiting than entering,
the volume is already very dense, has a
surplus of light particles, and is
losing density.
[1] note
Hubble_ultra_deep_field_high_rez_edit1
is much larger Hubble ultra deep
field high rez
edit1_small.jpg Deutsch: Das Hubble
Ultra Deep Field ist ein Bild einer
kleinen Himmelsregion aufgenommen vom
Hubble-Weltraumteleskop über einen
Zeitraum vom 3. September 2003 bis 16.
Januar 2004. Dabei wurde eine
Himmelsregion ausgewählt, die kaum
störende helle Sterne im Vordergrund
enthält. Man entschied sich für ein
Zielgebiet südwestlich von Orion im
Sternbild Chemischer Ofen. English:
The Hubble Ultra Deep Field, is an
image of a small region of space in the
constellation Fornax, composited from
Hubble Space Telescope data accumulated
over a period from September 3, 2003
through January 16, 2004. The patch of
sky in which the galaxies reside was
chosen because it had a low density of
bright stars in the
near-field. Español: El Campo Ultra
Profundo del Hubble, es una imagen de
una pequeña región del espacio en la
constelación Fornax, compuesta de
datos obtenidos por el telescopio
espacial Hubble durante el período
entre el 3 de Septiembre de 2003 y el
16 de Enero de 2004. Esta parte del
cielo fue escogida por su baja densidad
de estrellas brillantes en sus
proximidades. Français : Le champ
ultra profond de Hubble, une image
d'une petite portion du ciel dans la
constellation du Fourneau, prise par le
télescope spatial Hubble du 3
septembre 2003 au 16 juillet 2004. La
portion de ciel a été choisie car
elle possède peu d'étoiles brillantes
proches. Date 2003-09-03 -
2004-01-16 Source
http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/ar
chive/releases/2004/07/image/a/warn/ Au
thor NASA and the European Space
Agency. Edited by Noodle snacks PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0d/Hubble_ultra_deep_fie
ld_high_rez_edit1.jpg
[2] LDN 1622: Dark Nebula in
Orion Data: Digitized Sky Survey
(POSS-II), Color Composite: Noel
Carboni Explanation: The silhouette
of an intriguing dark nebula inhabits
this cosmic scene, based on images from
the Palomar Observatory Sky Survey.
Lynds' Dark Nebula (LDN) 1622 appears
against a faint background of glowing
hydrogen gas only easily seen in long
telescopic exposures of the region. LDN
1622 lies near the plane of our Milky
Way Galaxy, close on the sky to
Barnard's Loop - a large cloud
surrounding the rich complex of
emission nebulae found in the Belt and
Sword of Orion. But the obscuring dust
of LDN 1622 is thought to be much
closer than Orion's more famous
nebulae, perhaps only 500 light-years
away. At that distance, this 1 degree
wide field of view would span less than
10 light-years. PD
source: http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/image/
0705/ldn1622_carboni.jpg
to me. The supposed red-shifted calcium
absorption lines may be a mistaken
observation, for one reason because of
the different sizes of spectra as
clearly seen in the 1936 Humason image,
and because distance of light source
changes the position, but not the
frequency of spectra.
Beyond this, the claim of a "background
radiation" is probably simply low
frequencies of light particles from
light sources that are close enough to
be detected. Most light sources are too
far away for even one particle emitted
from them to reach us.
[1] Image of a spectral line shift from
a close and distant fluorescent
lamp. GNU
source: Ted Huntington
[2] The simple trigonometry that shows
that two light sources at different
distances cannot achieve the same angle
at the same location on a horizontal
diffraction grating. GNU
source: Ted Huntington
galaxies.
galaxies may be made by intelligent
life, and spiral galaxies formed
without the direct help of living
objects. The star types are almost all
long lived yellow stars, and there is
little or no Hydrogen or Helium "dust"
as there are in spiral galaxies. The
stars in elliptical galaxies are light
weeks apart, much closer together than
our star which is 4 light years to the
closest star system. Life orbiting any
star of a spiral galaxy probably would
leave the plane of the galaxy by going
up or down.
unknown. Perhaps simply from
gravitational attraction, or maybe
there need to be large groups of
photons to limit available spaces for
photons to move in (for example in
stars, or galactic centers, and or
supernovas.
at different scales from the smallest
forms in light, up to atoms, molecules,
molecule groups (like living objects),
planets, stars, galaxies, galactic
clusters and the visible universe is
the largest formation of photons we can
see.
LIFE
[1] Description This image is
mosaic of multiple shots on
large-format film. It comprises all 360
degrees of the galaxy from our vantage.
Photography was done in Ft. Davis,
Texas for the Northern hemisphere shots
and from Broken Hill, New South Wales,
Australia, for the southern portions.
Note the dust lanes, which obscure our
view of some features beyond them.
Infrared imaging reaches into these
regions, and radio astronomy can look
all the way through with less detail.
The very center, however, shows a
window to the farther side. In the
center, stars are mostly very old and
this causes the more yellow color. The
final file is 1.5GB, and resolves
details of less than one arcminute.
Faintest stars are magnitude 11. There
are 21 pixels of horizontal overlap at
the ends, with the right end slightly
brighter than the corresponding pixels
on the left. Date Source
http://www.digitalskyllc.com (The
image was uploaded to en.wiki at 17:16,
21 September 2006 by Twtunes. Author
Digital Sky LLC CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0a/Milkyway_pan1.jpg
[2] note
Hubble_ultra_deep_field_high_rez_edit1
is much larger [2] Hubble ultra deep
field high rez
edit1_small.jpg Deutsch: Das Hubble
Ultra Deep Field ist ein Bild einer
kleinen Himmelsregion aufgenommen vom
Hubble-Weltraumteleskop über einen
Zeitraum vom 3. September 2003 bis 16.
Januar 2004. Dabei wurde eine
Himmelsregion ausgewählt, die kaum
störende helle Sterne im Vordergrund
enthält. Man entschied sich für ein
Zielgebiet südwestlich von Orion im
Sternbild Chemischer Ofen. English:
The Hubble Ultra Deep Field, is an
image of a small region of space in the
constellation Fornax, composited from
Hubble Space Telescope data accumulated
over a period from September 3, 2003
through January 16, 2004. The patch of
sky in which the galaxies reside was
chosen because it had a low density of
bright stars in the
near-field. Español: El Campo Ultra
Profundo del Hubble, es una imagen de
una pequeña región del espacio en la
constelación Fornax, compuesta de
datos obtenidos por el telescopio
espacial Hubble durante el período
entre el 3 de Septiembre de 2003 y el
16 de Enero de 2004. Esta parte del
cielo fue escogida por su baja densidad
de estrellas brillantes en sus
proximidades. Français : Le champ
ultra profond de Hubble, une image
d'une petite portion du ciel dans la
constellation du Fourneau, prise par le
télescope spatial Hubble du 3
septembre 2003 au 16 juillet 2004. La
portion de ciel a été choisie car
elle possède peu d'étoiles brillantes
proches. Date 2003-09-03 -
2004-01-16 Source
http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/ar
chive/releases/2004/07/image/a/warn/ Au
thor NASA and the European Space
Agency. Edited by Noodle snacks PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0d/Hubble_ultra_deep_fie
ld_high_rez_edit1.jpg
[1] Description English: M8 Lagoon
Nebula in Sagittarius Date 26 June
2009 Source Own
work Author Hewholooks CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2f/M8HunterWilson.jpg
[2] NGC 7023: The Iris Nebula Credit
& Copyright: Daniel López,
IAC Explanation: Like delicate cosmic
petals, these clouds of interstellar
dust and gas have blossomed 1,300
light-years away in the fertile star
fields of the constellation Cepheus.
Sometimes called the Iris Nebula and
dutifully cataloged as NGC 7023, this
is not the only nebula in the sky to
evoke the imagery of flowers. Still,
this beautiful digital image shows off
the Iris Nebula's range of colors and
symmetries in impressive detail. Within
the Iris, dusty nebular material
surrounds a hot, young star. The
dominant color of the brighter
reflection nebula is blue,
characteristic of dust grains
reflecting starlight. Central filaments
of the dusty clouds glow with a faint
reddish photoluminesence as some dust
grains effectively convert the star's
invisible ultraviolet radiation to
visible red light. Infrared
observations indicate that this nebula
may contain complex carbon molecules
known as PAHs. As shown here, the
bright blue portion of the Iris Nebula
is about six light-years across. PD
source: http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/image/
1011/IRIS_IAC80_DLopez900c.jpg
[1] close up
of: Description English: M8 Lagoon
Nebula in Sagittarius Date 26 June
2009 Source Own
work Author Hewholooks CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2f/M8HunterWilson.jpg
[2] Description The photograph,
taken by NASA's Hubble Space Telescope,
captures a small region within M17, a
hotbed of star formation. M17, also
known as the Omega or Swan Nebula, is
located about 5500 light-years away in
the constellation Sagittarius. The
wave-like patterns of gas have been
sculpted and illuminated by a torrent
of ultraviolet radiation from young,
massive stars, which lie outside the
picture to the upper left. The glow of
these patterns accentuates the
three-dimensional structure of the
gases. The ultraviolet radiation is
carving and heating the surfaces of
cold hydrogen gas clouds. The warmed
surfaces glow orange and red in this
photograph. The intense heat and
pressure cause some material to stream
away from those surfaces, creating the
glowing veil of even hotter greenish
gas that masks background structures.
The pressure on the tips of the waves
may trigger new star formation within
them. The image, roughly 3
light-years across, was taken May
29-30, 1999, with the Wide Field
Planetary Camera 2. The colors in the
image represent various gases. Red
represents sulfur; green, hydrogen; and
blue, oxygen. Date 24 April
2003 Source
http://spacetelescope.org/images/html/he
ic0305a.html (direct link)
http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/archive
/releases/2003/13/image/a/ Author
NASA, ESA and J. Hester (ASU) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/72/Omega_Nebula.jpg
[1] Description The globular
cluster Omega Centauri — with as many
as ten million stars — is seen in all
its splendour in this image captured
with the WFI camera from ESO's La Silla
Observatory. The image shows only the
central part of the cluster — about
the size of the full moon on the sky
(half a degree). North is up, East is
to the left. This colour image is a
composite of B, V and I filtered
images. Note that because WFI is
equipped with a mosaic detector, there
are two small gaps in the image which
were filled with lower quality data
from the Digitized Sky Survey. Date
2008 Source
http://www.eso.org/public/outreach/
press-rel/pr-2008/phot-44-08.html Autho
r ESO CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Omega_Centauri_
by_ESO.jpg/638px-Omega_Centauri_by_ESO.j
pg
[2] Description This image is
mosaic of multiple shots on
large-format film. It comprises all 360
degrees of the galaxy from our vantage.
Photography was done in Ft. Davis,
Texas for the Northern hemisphere shots
and from Broken Hill, New South Wales,
Australia, for the southern portions.
Note the dust lanes, which obscure our
view of some features beyond them.
Infrared imaging reaches into these
regions, and radio astronomy can look
all the way through with less detail.
The very center, however, shows a
window to the farther side. In the
center, stars are mostly very old and
this causes the more yellow color. The
final file is 1.5GB, and resolves
details of less than one arcminute.
Faintest stars are magnitude 11. There
are 21 pixels of horizontal overlap at
the ends, with the right end slightly
brighter than the corresponding pixels
on the left. Date Source
http://www.digitalskyllc.com (The
image was uploaded to en.wiki at 17:16,
21 September 2006 by Twtunes. Author
Digital Sky LLC CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0a/Milkyway_pan1.jpg
[1] Description English: The Sun
photographed by the Atmospheric Imaging
Assembly (AIA 304) of NASA's Solar
Dynamics Observatory (SDO). This is
a false color image of the sun observed
in the extreme ultraviolet region of
the spectrum. For example,similar
image Français : Le soleil,
photographié depuis le Solar Dynamics
Observatory de la NASA. Date
2010-08-19T00:32:21Z (ISO
8601) Source NASA/SDO
(AIA). Author NASA/SDO (AIA). PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/The_Sun_by_the_
Atmospheric_Imaging_Assembly_of_NASAs_So
lar_Dynamics_Observatory_-_20100819.jpg/
628px-The_Sun_by_the_Atmospheric_Imaging
_Assembly_of_NASAs_Solar_Dynamics_Observ
atory_-_20100819.jpg
[2] Summary Description The star
formation region N11B in the LMC taken
by WFPC2 on the NASA/ESA Hubble Space
Telescope. Date Source
http://www.spacetelescope.org/image
s/html/heic0411a.html Author
NASA/ESA and the Hubble Heritage
Team
(AURA/STScI)/HEIC Permission (Reusing
this file) ESA Public Domain, as
per
http://www.spacetelescope.org/copyright.
html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6c/Heic0411a.jpg
gravitation, heavier masses move closer
to the center and lighter masses move
farther out.
[1] Distribution of mass from Newtonian
gravitation after 4
minutes: Blue=high mass Green=medium
mass Red=low mass GNU
source: Ted Huntington
[1] an 19, 2005 � For the past five
days, forecasters at the NOAA Space
Environment Center in Boulder, Colo.,
have observed all types of space
weather: radio blackouts, solar
radiation storms and geomagnetic
storms. Currently, space weather
forecasters are observing a moderate
geomagnetic storm (G-2 on the NOAA
Space Weather Scales) and a minor (S-1)
solar radiation storm. Earlier
Wednesday an X-class flare produced a
strong (R-3) radio blackout. (Click
image for larger view of the sun taken
on Jan. 19, 2005, at 2:19 p.m. EST.
Click here for high resolution version,
which is a large file. Please credit
European Space Agency-NASA.) PD
source: http://www.noaanews.noaa.gov/sto
ries2005/images/sun-soho011905-1919z.jpg
[1] Image of moon superimposed on
Venus PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/dd/Full_Moon_Luc_Viatour
.jpg
[2] an 19, 2005 � For the past five
days, forecasters at the NOAA Space
Environment Center in Boulder, Colo.,
have observed all types of space
weather: radio blackouts, solar
radiation storms and geomagnetic
storms. Currently, space weather
forecasters are observing a moderate
geomagnetic storm (G-2 on the NOAA
Space Weather Scales) and a minor (S-1)
solar radiation storm. Earlier
Wednesday an X-class flare produced a
strong (R-3) radio blackout. (Click
image for larger view of the sun taken
on Jan. 19, 2005, at 2:19 p.m. EST.
Click here for high resolution version,
which is a large file. Please credit
European Space Agency-NASA.) PD
source: http://www.noaanews.noaa.gov/sto
ries2005/images/sun-soho011905-1919z.jpg
[1] Geologic Time Scale 2009 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.geosociety.org/scienc
e/timescale/timescl.pdf
[1] The ''Zag'' meteorite fell to Earth
in 1988 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/t
ech/783048.stm
years old.
[1]
http://www.nasm.si.edu/exhibitions/attm/
atmimages/S73-15446.f.jpg
http://www.nasm.si.edu/exhibitions/attm/
nojs/wl.br.1.html
source:
[1] USGS Photo by Tim Orr Pahoehoe
lava breaks out of the crust along a
flow margin PD
source: http://www.nps.gov/havo/parkmgmt
/upload/havo_manage_usgs_20080304_tro381
7_x800.jpg
[2] English: Ultraviolet image of
Venus' clouds as seen by the Pioneer
Venus Orbiter (February 26, 1979). The
immense C- or Y-shaped features which
are visible only in these wavelengths
are individually short lived, but
reform often enough to be considered a
permanent feature of Venus' clouds. The
mechanism by which Venus' clouds absorb
ultraviolet is not well understood. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Venuspioneeruv.
jpg/953px-Venuspioneeruv.jpg
evidence that the crust and liquid
water are on the surface of earth. A
terrestrial zircon is not from a
meteorite. This zircon if from Gneiss
in West Australia that is 4.4 billion
years old.
[1]
http://www.geology.wisc.edu/zircon/Earli
est%20Piece/Images/8.jpg
source:
phosphates and sugars, the components
of living objects, form on Earth.
These molecules are made in the oceans,
fresh water, and atmosphere of earth
(and other planets) by lightning, light
particles with ultraviolet frequency
from the Sun, and from ocean floor
volcanoes.
[1] The two optical isomers of alanine,
D-Alanine and
L-Alanine D-glucose BOTH PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/65/D%2BL-Alanine.gif
and http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiped
ia/commons/thumb/5/5a/D-glucose-chain-3D
-balls.png/640px-D-glucose-chain-3D-ball
s.png
these RNA molecules may be the ancestor
of all of life on Earth, being part of
the series of copies that leads to all
later living objects on Earth.
Even if bacteria survived the journey
from a different star to this star and
seeded the earth, the chemical
evolution of the first cell is
necessary somewhere in the universe.
The initial building blocks of living
objects are very easy to produce, but
the next step is more difficult:
assembling the simple building blocks
into longer-chain molecules, or
polymers. Amino acids link up to form
longer polymers called proteins, simple
fatty acids plus alcohols link up to
form lipids (oils and fats), simple
sugars like glucose and sucrose link
together to form complex carbohydrates
and starches, and finally, the
nucleotide bases (plus phosphates and
sugars) link up to form nucleic acids,
the genetic code of organisms, known as
RNA and DNA.
How nucleic acids (polymers made of
nucleotides), proteins (polymers made
of amino acids), carbohydrates
(polymers made of sugars) and lipids
(glycerol attached to fatty acids)
evolved is not clearly known. Possibly
all proteins, carbohydrates and lipids
are strictly the products of living
objects.
Some proteins and nucleic acids have
been formed in labs by using clay which
can dehydrate and which provides long
linear crystal structures to build
proteins and nucleic acids on. Amino
acids join together to form
polypeptides when an H2O molecule is
formed from a Hydrogen (H) on 1 amino
acid and a hydroxyl (OH) on the
second.
Perhaps proteins, carbohydrates, lipids
and DNA are the products of living
objects, with RNA being made without
the help of living objects.
The most popular theory now has RNA
(and potentially lipids) evolving first
before any living objects. But perhaps
proteins evolved first, and a protein
linked together the first nucleic
acid.
A bacteria can survive the trip between
two stars, and possibly a eukaryote
cell could survive frozen and be waken
up again many years later, but it seems
unlikely that a multicellular
eukaryotic organism could survive and
be revived from one star to another.
Probably bacteria from a variety of
stars lands on all planets and
asteroids, and is revived on many where
the temperature allows them to copy.
There is still a large amount of
experiment, exploration and education
that needs to be done to understand the
origins of living objects on planet
earth.
[1] Ribonucleic acid (English
pronunciation:
/raɪbɵ.njuːˌkleɪ.ɨk ˈæsɪd/),
or RNA, is one of the three major
macromolecules (along with DNA and
proteins) that are essential for all
known forms of life. UNKNOWN
source: http://dna-rna.net/wp-content/up
loads/2011/07/rna.jpg
copy other RNA molecules.
Perhaps RNA molecules, called
"ribozymes" evolve which can make
copies of RNA, by connecting free
floating nucleotides that match a
nucleotide on the same or a different
RNA, much like tRNA do in assembling
amino acids into proteins. But until
such ribozyme RNA molecules are found,
the only molecule known to copy nucleic
acids are proteins called polymerases.
These early RNA molecules may have been
protected by liposomes (spheres of
lipids).
This process of RNA (and then later
DNA) duplication is the most basic
aspect of life on Earth, and for all
the diversity, the one common element
of all life is this constant process of
DNA duplication, which will later
evolve to include cell division. This
starts the unbroken thread of copying
and division that connects the earliest
ancestor, perhaps some RNA molecule, to
all life on earth that has ever lived.
This may be the start of the constant
conversion of other matter into nucleic
acids. This constant copying will
ultimately result in billions of living
objects on earth.
[1] Description Full-Length
Hammerhead Ribozyme color-coded so that
the 5'-end of each RNA strand is blue
and the 3'-end is red. The individual
nucleotides are represented as
toothpicks, and the phosphodiester
backbone as a narrow tube. From
Protein Data Bank ID 2GOZ. Date
17 June 2007 Source Own
work Author William G.
Scott GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/28/Full_length_hammerhea
d_ribozyme.png
Transfer RNA molecules evolve (tRNA),
and link amimo acids into proteins
using other RNA molecules (mRNA) as a
template.
For the first time, a nucleic acid
functions both as a template for
building other nucleic acid molecules,
and also as a template for building
proteins (with the help of tRNA
molecules).
This protein assembly system is the
main system responsible for all the
proteins on Earth.
Whether the first tRNA and protein
assembly evolved before or after the
evolution of the ribosome is currently
unknown.
Random mutations in the copying (and
perhaps even in the natural formation)
of RNA molecules probably creates a
number of the necessary tRNAs (tRNA,
are RNA molecules responsible for
matching free floating amino acid
molecules to three-nucleotide sequences
on other RNA molecules).
This is a precellular, pre-ribosome
protein assembly system, where tRNA
(transfer RNA) molecules build
polypeptide chains of amino acids by
linking directly to other RNA strands.
Part of each tRNA molecule bonds with a
specific amino acid, and a 3 nucleotide
sequence from a different part of the
tRNA molecule bonds with the opposite
matching 3 nucleotide sequence on an
mRNA molecule.
Since there are tRNA molecules for each
amino acid (although some tRNAs can
attach to more than one amino acid),
there must have been a slow
accumulation of various tRNA molecules
for each of the 20 amino acids used in
constructing polypeptides in cells
living now. Perhaps after the evolution
of the first tRNA, the first
polypeptides were chains of all the
same one amino acid. With the evolution
of a second tRNA polypeptides would
have more variety because now two amino
acids would be available to build
polypeptides.
This polypeptide assembly system may
exist freely in water, or within a
liposome. This system builds many more
proteins than would be built without
such a system. The mRNA with the code
to make copier RNA, now also contains
the code to produce various tRNA
molecules. These molecules function as
a unit, and proto-cell, with the rest
of the mRNA initially containing random
codes for random proteins.
[1] Source : ''Role of the
Ribosome'' University of Texas Medical
Branch UNKNOWN
source: http://ead.univ-angers.fr/~jaspa
rd/Page2/COURS/7RelStructFonction/2Bioch
imie/1SyntheseProteines/3Figures/4Organi
tes/2Ribosomes/6Polysome.gif
Ribosomal RNA (rRNA).
The ribosome may function as a
protocell, providing a platform for
more efficient protein production. A
single RNA may contain all the
instructions needed to make more
ribosomes.
Ribosomes are the cellular organelles
that carry out protein synthesis,
through a process called translation.
They are found in both prokaryotes and
eukaryotes. These molecular machines
are responsible for accurately
translating the linear genetic code on
the messenger RNA (mRNA), into a linear
sequence of amino acids to produce a
protein. All cells contain ribosomes
because growth requires the continued
synthesis of new proteins. Ribosomes
can exist in great numbers, ranging
from thousands in a bacterial cell to
hundreds of thousands in some human
cells and hundreds of millions in a
frog ovum. Ribosomes are also found in
mitochondria and chloroplasts.
This early ribosome may function as a
protocell, holding an mRNA molecule
which is used as a template by tRNA
molecules to assemble amino acids into
proteins. A single mRNA molecule may
contain the instructions for an RNA
polymerase and for all the necessary
rRNA, and tRNA molecules needed to make
more ribosomes.
This ribosomal RNA may serve as an
early ribosome. As time continues the
ribosome will grow to include two more
RNA molecules, some protein molecules,
and a second half that will make
polypeptide construction more
efficient.
The modern ribosome is a large
ribonucleoprotein (RNA-protein)
complex, roughly 20 to 30 nanometers in
diameter. It is formed from two
unequally sized subunits, referred to
as the small subunit and the large
subunit. The two subunits of the
ribosome must join together to become
active in protein synthesis. However,
they have distinguishable functions.
The small subunit is involved in
decoding the genetic information, while
the large subunit has the catalytic
activity responsible for peptide bond
formation (that is, the joining of new
amino acids to the growing protein
chain).
[1] Description English:
Illustration of tRNA building peptide
chain Date 1 March 2009 Source
Own work Author
Boumphreyfr CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0f/Peptide_syn.png
[2] Source : ''Role of the
Ribosome'' University of Texas Medical
Branch UNKNOWN
source: http://ead.univ-angers.fr/~jaspa
rd/Page2/COURS/7RelStructFonction/2Bioch
imie/1SyntheseProteines/3Figures/4Organi
tes/2Ribosomes/6Polysome.gif
protein is called an RNA polymerase,
and may be more efficient than RNA
itself, at copying other RNA molecules,
or may be the first molecule that can
copy RNA.
An RNA polymerase must have been one of
the first useful proteins to be
assembled by the early (presumably)
precellular protein production system.
Eventually an mRNA that codes for the
necessary tRNA, and RNA polymerase may
be copied many times.
[1] RNA is a versatile molecule. In its
most familiar role, RNA acts as an
intermediary, carrying genetic
information from the DNA to the
machinery of protein synthesis. RNA
also plays more active roles,
performing many of the catalytic and
recognition functions normally reserved
for proteins. In fact, most of the RNA
in cells is found in ribosomes--our
protein-synthesizing machines--and the
transfer RNA molecules used to add each
new amino acid to growing proteins. In
addition, countless small RNA molecules
are involved in regulating, processing
and disposing of the constant traffic
of messenger RNA. The enzyme RNA
polymerase carries the weighty
responsibility of creating all of these
different RNA molecules. The RNA
Factory RNA polymerase is a huge
factory with many moving parts. The one
shown here, from PDB entry 1i6h, is
from yeast cells. It is composed of a
dozen different proteins. Together,
they form a machine that surrounds DNA
strands, unwinds them, and builds an
RNA strand based on the information
held inside the DNA. Once the enzyme
gets started, RNA polymerase marches
confidently along the DNA copying RNA
strands thousands of nucleotides
long. Accuracy As you might expect,
RNA polymerase needs to be accurate in
its copying of genetic information. To
improve its accuracy, it performs a
simple proofreading step as it builds
an RNA strand. The active site is
designed to be able to remove
nucleotides as well as add them to the
growing strand. The enzyme tends to
hover around mismatched nucleotides
longer than properly added ones, giving
the enzyme time to remove them. This
process is somewhat wasteful, since
proper nucleotides are also
occasionally removed, but this is a
small price to pay for creating better
RNA transcripts. Overall, RNA
polymerase makes an error about once in
10,000 nucleotides added, or about once
per RNA strand created. Poisoning
Polymerase Since RNA polymerase is
absolutely essential for the life of
the cell, it is a sensitive target for
poisons and toxins. The most powerful
of these poisons is alpha-amanitin, a
small circular peptide created by the
death cap mushroom. Eating even one of
these mushrooms will lead to coma and
death in a manner of days, as the
poison attacks RNA polymerase
throughout the body. Surprisingly, it
binds on the back side of RNA
polymerase, away from the active site
and away from the binding site for the
DNA and RNA. It does not physically
block the active site, like most
inhibitors, but instead jams the
mechanism of the enzyme. RNA polymerase
is a highly mobile enzyme, that flexes
and changes shape as it performs the
sequential steps of binding to DNA,
unwinding it, and then building the RNA
strand. As seen in PDB entry 1k83, the
poison binds between two subunits of
the protein, gluing them together and
blocking these essential motions. PD
source: http://www.pdb.org/pdb/education
_discussion/molecule_of_the_month/images
/1i6h-composite.gif
(DNA) molecule. A protein evolves that
can assemble DNA from RNA.
This protein, built by a ribosome,
changes ribonucleotides into
deoxyribonucleotides, which allows the
first DNA molecule on Earth to be
assembled.
Ribonucleotide reductase may be the
molecule that allows DNA to be the
template for the line of cells that
survives to now.
If RNA and DNA evolved at the same or
different times is not clear yet.
Possibly RNA and DNA were created by
the same process.
[1] Description Crystallographic
structure of the ribonucleotide
reductase protein R1E from Salmonella
typhimurium. The protein is rainbow
colored (N-terminus = blue, C-terminus
= red) while deoxyadenosine
triphosphate is show as sticks and a
complexed magnesium ion as a grey
sphere.[1] ↑ PDB 1PEU; Uppsten M,
Färnegårdh M, Jordan A, Eliasson R,
Eklund H, Uhlin U (June 2003).
''Structure of the large subunit of
class Ib ribonucleotide reductase from
Salmonella typhimurium and its
complexes with allosteric effectors''.
J. Mol. Biol. 330 (1): 87–97. PMID
12818204. Date 28 February
2008 Source Own
work Author Boghog2 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/1PEU_R1E.png/10
24px-1PEU_R1E.png
[2] Description English: The
reaction mechanism of ribonucleotide
reductase Date 14 January 2006
(original upload
date) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia; transferred to Commons by
User:Michał Sobkowski using
CommonsHelper. Author Original
uploader was BorisTM at
en.wikipedia PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2c/RNR_reaction.png
a DNA polymerase.
[1] These simple DNA polymerases are
shaped roughly like a hand. Both are
from bacteria: on the left is the
enzyme from Escherichia coli, PDB entry
1kln, and on the right is the enzyme
from Thermus aquaticus, PDB entry 1tau.
A cleaved version of the E. coli enzyme
was studied: the missing part, which
you will not find in the PDB file, is
shown with a green outline. The space
between the ''fingers'' and the
''thumb'' is just the right size for a
DNA helix. But surprisingly, DNA
actually fits into the palm when the
enzyme is at work. In these pictures,
the template strand is colored purple
and the new strand is colored green.
The enzyme contains three separate
active sites. The polymerase site, near
the top in these pictures, synthesizes
the new strand by adding nucleotides.
The 3'-5' exonuclease site, near the
center in the E. coli polymerase,
proofreads the new additions. The
polymerase from Thermus aquaticus does
not have this proofreading
ability--perhaps the heat in which it
lives performs the same function. At
the bottom is the 5' exonuclease site
that later removes the small RNA
fragments that are used to prime DNA
replication. These illustrations were
created with RasMol. You can create
similar pictures by clicking on the
accession codes, and then hitting
''View Structure.'' PD
source: http://www.pdb.org/pdb/education
_discussion/molecule_of_the_month/images
/pol_active.gif
bacterium). DNA is surrounded by a
membrane of proteins made by ribosomes.
The first cytoplasm.
This cell may form in either fresh or
salt water, near the sunlit water
surface or near underwater volcanoes on
the ocean floor.
Binary fission evolves. A protein
duplicates DNA within the cell and then
the cell divides into two parts.
Procaryotes reproduce by binary
fission. The chromosome begins to
replicate at a specific place on the
chromosome called the "origin of
replication" producing two origins. As
the chromosome continues to replicate,
one origin moves rapidly toward to
opposite end of the cell. While the
chromosome is replicating, the cell
grows longer. When replication is
complete and the bacterium has reached
about twice its initial size, its
plasma membrane grows inward, dividing
the parent cell into two child cells,
each with a complete genome.
The DNA of this cell contains the
template for itself: a copying molecule
(DNA polymerase), and the necessary
mRNA, tRNA, and rRNA molecules needed
to build the cytoplasm. For the first
time, ribosomes and DNA build cell
structure. DNA protected by cytoplasm
is more likely to survive and be
copied. Copies of this cell also have
cytoplasm.
This cell structure forms the basis of
all future cells of every living object
on earth. These first cells are
probably anaerobic (do not require free
oxygen) and heterotrophic, meaning that
they do not make their own food: amino
acids, nucleotides, phosphates, and
sugars. These early bacteria depend on
obtaining external sources of these
molecules and light particles in the
form of heat to reproduce and grow.
Amino acids, nucleotides, water, and
other molecules enter and exit the
cytoplasm only because of a difference
in concentration from inside and
outside the cell (passive transport)
and represent the beginnings of the
first digestive system.
This membrane forms the first
protective barrier between for DNA and
the external universe, and serves as a
container to hold water.
Two important evolutionary steps
evolve: DNA duplication in cytoplasm,
and cell (DNA with cytoplasm) division.
Not only must the DNA copy and divide,
but the cell membrane must divide too.
A system of division may evolve which
attaches the original and newly
synthesized copy of DNA to the
cytoplasm, so that as the cell grows,
the two copies of DNA can be separated
and the first membraned cells can
divide into two cells.
The process of DNA duplication is
probably similar if not the same
process using the same proteins that
were used to duplicate DNA without
cytoplasm.
It is possible that bacteria could
arrive on Earth from some other star,
or even from a different galaxy and be
the ancestor of all life on Earth.
[1] Deutsch: Bild über den Reitenden
Urzwerg English: Image of Nanoarchaeum
equitans Date 2005-09-10 (original
upload date) Source Originally
from de.wikipedia; description page
is/was here. Author Original
uploader was Eber-Jimmy at
de.wikipedia Permission (Reusing
this file) This image is in the
public domain due to its
age. Licensing According to this
article, ''Es wurde von dem
Mikrobiologen Karl O. Stetter entdeckt.
Bildrechte: Public domain.'' PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/dc/Urzwerg.jpg
[2] Hydrogenobacter thermophilus
(strain TK-6) is an obligately
chemolithoautotrophic, extremely (and
strictly) thermophilic
hydrogen-oxidizing bacterium whose
optimal growth temperature is around 70
to 75°C and was isolated from hot
springs. UNKNOWN
source: http://standardsingenomics.org/i
ndex.php/sigen/article/viewFile/146/534/
4368
oils, waxes). Cells evolve that make
proteins that can assemble lipids.
[1] Figure1: Lipid accumulation in
differentiating 3T3-L1 pre-adipocyte
cell line (days in culture) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.emsdiasum.com/microsc
opy/products/sem/wet/images/lipid_accumu
lation.jpg
[2] Lipid Structures under the
microscope. Image by Alison North, The
Rockefeller University. UNKNOWN
source: http://selections.rockefeller.ed
u/cms/images/stories/2010/may/lipid.gif
[1] Figure 7.15 from: Campbell, Reece,
et al., ''Biology'', 8th Edition, 2008,
P135. COPYRIGHTED
source: Campbell, Reece, et al.,
"Biology", 8th Edition, 2008, P135.
[2] Figure 7.18 from: Campbell,
Reece, et al., ''Biology'', 8th
Edition, 2008, P137. COPYRIGHTED
source: Campbell, Reece, et al.,
"Biology", 8th Edition, 2008, P137.
[1] Description Electron
micrograph of Bacteriophages Date
Source
en:Image:Phage.jpg Author
en:User:GrahamColm PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/52/Phage.jpg
[1] Description English: Glycolysis
pathway overview. Date 3
September 2009 Source Own
work Author
WYassineMrabetTalk✉ Inkscape
Logo.svg This vector image was
created with
Inkscape. Permission (Reusing this
file) GFDL license (see below). GFDL
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Glycolysis.svg/
1024px-Glycolysis.svg.png
[2] Figure 9.6 from: Campbell, Reece,
et al, ''Biology'', 8th edition, 2008,
p166. COPYRIGHTED
source: Campbell, Reece, et al,
"Biology", 8th edition, 2008, p166.
[1] IUPAC
name[hide] 2-Hydroxypropanoic
acid Other names[hide] Milk
acid Description de: Struktur
von Milchsäure; en: Structure of
lactic acid Date 12 February
2007 Source Own work Author
NEUROtiker Permission (Reusing
this file) Own work, all rights
released (Public domain) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/59/Lactic-acid-3D-balls.
png
AND http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiped
ia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Lactic-acid-skelet
al.svg/1000px-Lactic-acid-skeletal.svg.p
ng
[1] Ethanol Full structural formula,
Ball and Stick Model, and Space-Filling
Model of Ethanol PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/37/Ethanol-2D-flat.png
AND http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiped
ia/commons/b/b0/Ethanol-3D-balls.png
AND http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiped
ia/commons/0/00/Ethanol-3D-vdW.png
[2] Description Fermenting
must. Date 20 March 2007 Source
English Wikipedia
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Mthom
ebrew_must.JPG Author
Agne27 GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d5/Mthomebrew_must.JPG
evolve in which both proteins and ATP
are used to transport molecules into
and out of the cytoplasm.
Active transport enabled a cell to
maintain internal concentrations of
small molecules that differ from the
cell's surroundings.
A transport protein that generates
voltage across a membrane is called an
"electrogenic pump". Proton pumps, the
main electrogenic pumps of plants,
fungi, and bacteria are proteins that
create an voltage across membranes.
Using ATP, a proton pump moves a
positive charge in the form of hydrogen
ions out of the cell.
Another example of active transport is
how Escherichia coli imports lactose
using an ion gradient-mediated active
transport. Lactose is transported
across the plasma membrane by a
membrane associated permease which is
coded for by a gene of the lac operon.
[1] Figure 7.18 from: Campbell, Reece,
et al., ''Biology'', 8th Edition, 2008,
P137. COPYRIGHTED
source: Campbell, Reece, et al.,
"Biology", 8th Edition, 2008, P137.
[2] Figure 7.15 from: Campbell,
Reece, et al., ''Biology'', 8th
Edition, 2008, P135. COPYRIGHTED
source: Campbell, Reece, et al.,
"Biology", 8th Edition, 2008, P135.
turning off the assembly of any
protein.
Operons, sequences of DNA that allow
certain proteins coded by DNA to not be
built, evolve. Proteins bind with these
DNA sequences to stop RNA polymerase
from building mRNA molecules which
would be translated into proteins.
Operons allow a bacterium to produce
certain proteins only when necessary.
Bacteria before now can only build a
constant stream of all proteins encoded
in their DNA.
[1] Figure 6 from: Jacob, F. & Monod,
J. Genetic regulatory mechanisms in the
synthesis of proteins. J. Mol. Biol. 3,
318–356 (1961)
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_
ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6WK7-4Y39HH7-B&_user
=4422&_coverDate=06%2F30%2F1961&_alid=17
23143833&_rdoc=1&_fmt=high&_orig=search&
_origin=search&_zone=rslt_list_item&_cdi
=6899&_sort=r&_st=13&_docanchor=&view=c&
_ct=5&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlVe
rsion=0&_userid=4422&md5=c2699b72c7c5bee
4e2c31224c6261556&searchtype=a {Jacob_F
rancois_19601228.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6WK7-4Y39HH7-B
&_user=4422&_coverDate=06%2F30%2F1961&_a
lid=1723143833&_rdoc=1&_fmt=high&_orig=s
earch&_origin=search&_zone=rslt_list_ite
m&_cdi=6899&_sort=r&_st=13&_docanchor=&v
iew=c&_ct=5&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&
_urlVersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=c2699b72c
7c5bee4e2c31224c6261556&searchtype=a {J
acob_Francois_19601228.pdf}
[2] Figure 3 from: Jacob, F. & Monod,
J. Genetic regulatory mechanisms in the
synthesis of proteins. J. Mol. Biol. 3,
318–356 (1961)
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_
ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6WK7-4Y39HH7-B&_user
=4422&_coverDate=06%2F30%2F1961&_alid=17
23143833&_rdoc=1&_fmt=high&_orig=search&
_origin=search&_zone=rslt_list_item&_cdi
=6899&_sort=r&_st=13&_docanchor=&view=c&
_ct=5&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlVe
rsion=0&_userid=4422&md5=c2699b72c7c5bee
4e2c31224c6261556&searchtype=a {Jacob_F
rancois_19601228.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6WK7-4Y39HH7-B
&_user=4422&_coverDate=06%2F30%2F1961&_a
lid=1723143833&_rdoc=1&_fmt=high&_orig=s
earch&_origin=search&_zone=rslt_list_ite
m&_cdi=6899&_sort=r&_st=13&_docanchor=&v
iew=c&_ct=5&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&
_urlVersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=c2699b72c
7c5bee4e2c31224c6261556&searchtype=a {J
acob_Francois_19601228.pdf}
Bacteria (except for those without a
cell wall, such as Mycoplasma).
Peptidoglycan is a long-chain polymer
of two repeating sugars
(N-acetylglucosamine and N-acetyl
muramic acid), in which adjacent sugar
chains are linked to one another by
peptide bridges that give the link
rigid stability. The nature of the
peptide bridges differs considerably
between species of bacteria.
Peptidoglycan synthesis is the target
of many useful antimicrobial agents,
including the β-lactam antibiotics
(e.g., penicillin) that block the
cross-linking of the peptide bridges.
Some of the proteins that animals
synthesize as natural antibacterial
defense factors attack the cell walls
of bacteria.
[1] Gram negative cell
wall http://www.arches.uga.edu/~kristen
c/cellwall.html COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.arches.uga.edu/~krist
enc/cellwall.html
[2] Gram positive cell
wall http://www.arches.uga.edu/~kristen
c/cellwall.html COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.arches.uga.edu/~krist
enc/cellwall.html
archaebacteria) evolve. Phylum
Nanoarcheota.
Eubacteria and Archaea are the two
major lines of Prokaryotes. Prokaryotes
are the most primitive living objects
ever found. Prokaryotes differ from the
later evolved eukaryotes in have a
circle of DNA located in their
cytoplasm (not chromosomes) and have no
nucleus. There are many widely varying
estimates of when the last common
ancestor between Eubacteria and Archaea
evolved. At least one genetic
comparison shows the common ancestor of
Eubacteria and Archaea evolving now.
[1] Deutsch: Bild über den Reitenden
Urzwerg English: Image of Nanoarchaeum
equitans Date 2005-09-10 (original
upload date) Source Originally
from de.wikipedia; description page
is/was here. Author Original
uploader was Eber-Jimmy at
de.wikipedia Permission (Reusing
this file) This image is in the
public domain due to its
age. Licensing According to this
article, ''Es wurde von dem
Mikrobiologen Karl O. Stetter entdeckt.
Bildrechte: Public domain.'' PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/dc/Urzwerg.jpg
[2] Figure 1) Changing views of the
tree and timescale of life. a) An
early-1990s view, with the tree
determined mostly from ribosomal RNA
(rRNA) sequence analysis. This tree
emphasizes vertical (as opposed to
horizontal) evolution and the close
relationship between eukaryotes and the
Archaebacteria. The deep branching
(>3.5 Giga (109) years ago, Gya) of
CYANOBACTERIA (Cy) and other Eubacteria
(purple), the shallow branching
(approx1 Gya) of plants (Pl), animals
(An) and fungi (Fu), and the early
origin of mitochondria (Mi), were based
on interpretations of the geochemical
and fossil record7, 8. Some deeply
branching amitochondriate (Am) species
were believed to have arisen before the
origin of mitochondria44. Major
symbiotic events (black dots) were
introduced to explain the origin of
eukaryotic organelles42, but were not
assumed to be associated with large
transfers of genes to the host nucleus.
They were: Eu, joining of an
archaebacterium host with a eubacterium
(presumably a SPIROCHAETE) to produce
an amitochondriate eukaryote; Mi,
joining of a eukaryote host with an
alpha-proteobacterium (Ap) symbiont,
leading to the origin of mitochondria,
and plastids (Ps), joining of a
eukaryote host with a cyanobacterium
symbiont, forming the origin of
plastids on the plant lineage and
possibly on other lineages. b) The
present view, based on extensive
genomic analysis. Eukaryotes are no
longer considered to be close relatives
of Archaebacteria, but are genomic
hybrids of Archaebacteria and
Eubacteria, owing to the transfer of
large numbers of genes from the
symbiont genome to the nucleus of the
host (indicated by coloured arrows).
Other new features, largely derived
from molecular-clock studies16, 39 (Box
1), include a relatively recent origin
of Cyanobacteria (approx2.6 Gya) and
mitochondria (approx1.8 Gya), an early
origin (approx1.5 Gya) of plants,
animals and fungi, and a close
relationship between animals and fungi.
Coloured dashed lines indicate
controversial aspects of the present
view: the existence of a
premitochondrial symbiotic event and of
living amitochondriate eukaryotes,
ancestors of which never had
mitochondria. c) The times of
divergence of selected model organisms
from humans, based on molecular clocks.
For the prokaryotes (red), because of
different possible origins through
symbiotic events, divergence times
depend on the gene of interest.
source: http://www.nature.com/nrg/journa
l/v3/n11/full/nrg929_fs.html
[1] A timescale of prokaryote
evolution. Letters indicate nodes
discussed in the text. The last common
ancestor was arbitrarily placed at 4.25
Ga in the tree, although this placement
was not part of the analyses. The grey
rectangle shows the time prior to the
initial rise in oxygen (presumably
anaerobic conditions). Mtb:
Methanothermobacter, Tab:
Thermoanaerobacter, Tsc:
Thermosynechococcus. Battistuzzi et
al. BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004 4:44
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-44 Table
1 Time estimates for selected nodes
in the tree of eubacteria (A-K) and
archaebacteria (L-P). Letters refer to
Fig. 3. Time (Ma)a CIb Node
A 102 57–176 Node
B 2508 2154–2928 Node
C 2800 2452–3223 Node
D 1039 702–1408 Node
E 2558 2310–2969 Node
F 2784 2490–3203 Node
G 2923 2587–3352 Node
H 3054 2697–3490 Node
I 3186 2801–3634 Node
J 3644 3172–4130 Node
K 3977 3434–4464 Node
L 233 118–386 Node
M 3085 2469–3514 Node
N 3566 2876–3948 Node
O 3781 3047–4163 Node
P 4112 3314–4486 a Averages of
the divergence times estimated using
the 2.3 Ga minimum constraint and the
five ingroup root constraints (nodes
A-K) and using the 1.198 ± 0.022 Ga
constraint and the five ingroup root
constraints (nodes L-P). b
Credibility interval (minimum and
maximum averages of the analyses under
the five ingroup root
constraints) Battistuzzi et al. BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004 4:44
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-44 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.biomedcentral.com/con
tent/figures/1471-2148-4-44-3-l.jpg
[2] Aquifex pyrophilus (platinum
shadowed). © K.O. Stetter & Reinhard
Rachel, University of Regensburg.
source: http://biology.kenyon.edu/Microb
ial_Biorealm/bacteria/aquifex/aquifex.ht
m
prokaryote flagellum would evolve in
proteobacteria because most prokaryotes
with a flagellum are in the
Proteobacteria domain. There is a unity
between pili, flagellum, and exchange
of DNA (sex), in particular, in the
proteobacterium E. Coli.)
[1] Aquifex pyrophilus (platinum
shadowed). © K.O. Stetter & Reinhard
Rachel, University of Regensburg.
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://biology.kenyon.edu/Microb
ial_Biorealm/bacteria/aquifex/aquifex.ht
m
evolves according to genetic
comparison.
This group, originally identified by
two environmental sample sequences from
the Obsidian Pool hot spring in
Yellowstone National Park, currently
includes only environmental DNA
sequences and no Korarchaeota have been
cultured yet.
[1] Description English: Each of
these six hot springs (clockwise from
top left: Uzon4, Uzon7, Uzon8, Uzon9,
Mut11, Mut13) in Kamchatka were found
to contain Korarchaeota. Date 22
August 2005 Source Own
work Author Tommy Auchtung GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/KamchatkaKorHot
Springs.jpg/1280px-KamchatkaKorHotSpring
s.jpg
[2] Figure 2 from: Elkins JG, Podar
M, Graham DE, Makarova KS, Wolf Y,
Randau L, Hedlund BP, Brochier-Armanet
C, Kunin V, Anderson I, Lapidus A,
Goltsman E, Barry K, Koonin EV,
Hugenholtz P, Kyrpides N, Wanner G,
Richardson P, Keller M, Stetter KO.
(July 2008). ''A korarchaeal genome
reveals insights into the evolution of
the Archaea''. Proc Natl Acad Sci 105
(1): 8805–6. Bibcode
2008PNAS..105.8102E.
doi:10.1073/pnas.0801980105. PMC
2430366. PMID
18535141. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/p
mc/articles/PMC2430366/?tool=pmcentrez
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/
articles/PMC2430366/pdf/zpq8102.pdf
{YRE-oR-KE-O-Tu} (methanogens,
halobacteria) evolve according to
genetic comparison.
Earliest cell response to light.
The Euryarchaeota {YRE-oR-KE-O-Tu} are
a major group of Archaea (or
Archaebacteria). They include the
methanogens, which produce methane and
are often found in intestines, the
halobacteria, which survive extreme
concentrations of salt, and some
extremely thermophilic aerobes and
anaerobes. They are separated from the
other archaeans based mainly on rRNA
sequences.
The Euryarchaeotes may be the living
object with the most primitive DNA
still found on earth (depending on the
accurate determination of the origin of
Eubacteria and Archaea).
Halophilic archaebacteria, such as
Halobacterium salinarum, use sensory
rhodopsins for phototaxis (positive or
negative movement along a light
gradient or vector).
[1] A timescale of prokaryote
evolution. Letters indicate nodes
discussed in the text. The last common
ancestor was arbitrarily placed at 4.25
Ga in the tree, although this placement
was not part of the analyses. The grey
rectangle shows the time prior to the
initial rise in oxygen (presumably
anaerobic conditions). Mtb:
Methanothermobacter, Tab:
Thermoanaerobacter, Tsc:
Thermosynechococcus. Battistuzzi et
al. BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004 4:44
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-44 Table
1 Time estimates for selected nodes
in the tree of eubacteria (A-K) and
archaebacteria (L-P). Letters refer to
Fig. 3. Time (Ma)a CIb Node
A 102 57–176 Node
B 2508 2154–2928 Node
C 2800 2452–3223 Node
D 1039 702–1408 Node
E 2558 2310–2969 Node
F 2784 2490–3203 Node
G 2923 2587–3352 Node
H 3054 2697–3490 Node
I 3186 2801–3634 Node
J 3644 3172–4130 Node
K 3977 3434–4464 Node
L 233 118–386 Node
M 3085 2469–3514 Node
N 3566 2876–3948 Node
O 3781 3047–4163 Node
P 4112 3314–4486 a Averages of
the divergence times estimated using
the 2.3 Ga minimum constraint and the
five ingroup root constraints (nodes
A-K) and using the 1.198 ± 0.022 Ga
constraint and the five ingroup root
constraints (nodes L-P). b
Credibility interval (minimum and
maximum averages of the analyses under
the five ingroup root
constraints) Battistuzzi et al. BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004 4:44
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-44 COPYRIGHTED
[1] tree of archaebacteria (archaea)
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.biomedcentral.com/con
tent/figures/1471-2148-4-44-3-l.jpg
[2] A phylogenetic tree of living
things, based on RNA data, showing the
separation of bacteria, archaea, and
eukaryotes. Trees constructed with
other genes are generally similar,
although they may place some
early-branching groups very
differently, thanks to long branch
attraction. The exact relationships of
the three domains are still being
debated, as is the position of the root
of the tree. It has also been suggested
that due to lateral gene transfer, a
tree may not be the best representation
of the genetic relationships of all
organisms. NASA
source: http://www.uni-giessen.de/~gf126
5/GROUPS/KLUG/Stammbaum.html
Archaea Phylum, Crenarchaeotes evolving
now.
The phylum Crenarchaeota, commonly
referred to as the Crenarchaea,
contains many extremely thermophilic
(hot-loving) and psychrophilic
(cold-loving) organisms. They were
originally separated from the other
archaeons based on rRNA sequences,
since then physiological features, such
as lack of histones have supported this
division. Until recently all cultured
crenarchaea have been thermophilic or
hyperthermophilic organisms, some of
which have the ability to grow up to
113 degrees C. These organisms stain
gram negative and are morphologically
diverse having rod, cocci, filamentous
and unusually shaped cells.
[1] A timescale of prokaryote
evolution. Letters indicate nodes
discussed in the text. The last common
ancestor was arbitrarily placed at 4.25
Ga in the tree, although this placement
was not part of the analyses. The grey
rectangle shows the time prior to the
initial rise in oxygen (presumably
anaerobic conditions). Mtb:
Methanothermobacter, Tab:
Thermoanaerobacter, Tsc:
Thermosynechococcus. Battistuzzi et
al. BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004 4:44
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-44 Table
1 Time estimates for selected nodes
in the tree of eubacteria (A-K) and
archaebacteria (L-P). Letters refer to
Fig. 3. Time (Ma)a CIb Node
A 102 57–176 Node
B 2508 2154–2928 Node
C 2800 2452–3223 Node
D 1039 702–1408 Node
E 2558 2310–2969 Node
F 2784 2490–3203 Node
G 2923 2587–3352 Node
H 3054 2697–3490 Node
I 3186 2801–3634 Node
J 3644 3172–4130 Node
K 3977 3434–4464 Node
L 233 118–386 Node
M 3085 2469–3514 Node
N 3566 2876–3948 Node
O 3781 3047–4163 Node
P 4112 3314–4486 a Averages of
the divergence times estimated using
the 2.3 Ga minimum constraint and the
five ingroup root constraints (nodes
A-K) and using the 1.198 ± 0.022 Ga
constraint and the five ingroup root
constraints (nodes L-P). b
Credibility interval (minimum and
maximum averages of the analyses under
the five ingroup root
constraints) Battistuzzi et al. BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004 4:44
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-44 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.biomedcentral.com/con
tent/figures/1471-2148-4-44-3-l.jpg
[2] tree of archaea ?
source: http://www.uni-giessen.de/~gf126
5/GROUPS/KLUG/Stammbaum.html
[1] Description Methanopyrus
kandleri Date July
2006 Source ms:Imej:Arkea.jpg Auth
or ms:User:PM Poon GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/aa/Arkea.jpg
[1] Chemiosmosis as it operates in
photophosphorylation within a
chloroplast. Images from Purves et al.,
Life: The Science of Biology, 4th
Edition, by Sinauer Associates
(www.sinauer.com) and WH Freeman
(www.whfreeman.com) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/facu
lty/farabee/biobk/0817_1.gif
[2] Chemiosmosis as it operates in
photophosphorylation within a
chloroplast. Images from Purves et al.,
Life: The Science of Biology, 4th
Edition, by Sinauer Associates
(www.sinauer.com) and WH Freeman
(www.whfreeman.com) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/facu
lty/farabee/biobk/0817_2.gif
[1]
http://www.regione.emilia-romagna.it/geo
logia/divulgazione/pianeta_terra/09_paes
aggio/img/app/c09_a01_01.jpg
source: http://www.regione.emilia-romagn
a.it/geologia/divulgazione/pianeta_terra
/09_paesaggio/img/app/c09_a01_01.jpg
[2] UNKNOWN
source: UNKNOWN
photosynthesis is: 6 H2O + 6 CO2 +
photons = C6H12O6 (glucose) + 6O2. The
detailed steps of photosynthesis are
called the "Calvin Cycle". Prokaryote
cells can now produce their own glucose
to store and be converted to ATP by
glycolysis and fermentation later.
Of the 5 phyla of eubacteria that can
photosynthesize, only 1, cyanobacteria,
produces oxygen.
[1] Chemiosmosis as it operates in
photophosphorylation within a
chloroplast. Images from Purves et al.,
Life: The Science of Biology, 4th
Edition, by Sinauer Associates
(www.sinauer.com) and WH Freeman
(www.whfreeman.com) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/facu
lty/farabee/biobk/0817_1.gif
[2] Chemiosmosis as it operates in
photophosphorylation within a
chloroplast. Images from Purves et al.,
Life: The Science of Biology, 4th
Edition, by Sinauer Associates
(www.sinauer.com) and WH Freeman
(www.whfreeman.com) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/facu
lty/farabee/biobk/0817_2.gif
[1] Geologic Time Scale 2009 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.geosociety.org/scienc
e/timescale/timescl.pdf
[1] Rickettsia prowazekii COPYRIGHTED
FAIR USE
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Rickettsia_prowazekii.jpg
[2] Rickettsia rickettsii in
endothelial cells of a blood vessel
from a patient with fatal RMSF (Rocky
Mounted Spotted Fever) CDC PD
source: http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dvrd/r
msf/Laboratory.htm
[1] Figure 1 from: Mojzsis, S. J. et
al. ''Evidence for Life on Earth Before
3,800 Million Years Ago.'' Nature
384.6604 (1996):
55–59. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v384/n6604/abs/384055a0.html COP
YRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v384/n6604/pdf/384055a0.pdf
[2] Figure 1 from: Mojzsis, S. J. et
al. ''Evidence for Life on Earth Before
3,800 Million Years Ago.'' Nature
384.6604 (1996):
55–59. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v384/n6604/abs/384055a0.html COP
YRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v384/n6604/pdf/384055a0.pdf
Formation begins.
Banded Iron Formation
is sedimentary rock that spans from 3.8
to 1.8 billion years ago, made of
iron-rich silicates (like silicon
dioxide SiO2) with alternating layers
of black colored ferrous (reduced) iron
and red colored ferric (oxidized) iron
and represents a seasonal cycle where
the quantity of free oxygen in the
ocean rises and falls, possibly linked
to photosynthetic organisms.
[1] image of BIF from Akilia from
Nature COPYRIGHTED
source: nature 11/7/96
[2] portion taken
from: Description English: This
image shows a 2.1 billion years old
rock containing black-banded ironstone,
which has a weight of about 8.5 tons.
The approximately two meter high, three
meter wide, and one meter thick block
of stone was found in North America and
belongs to the National Museum of
Mineralogy and Geology in Dresden,
Germany. The rock is located at
+51°2'34.84''
+13°45'26.67''. Deutsch: Dieses Bild
zeigt einen etwa 8,5 Tonnen schweren
und 2,1 Milliarden Jahre alten Block
mit Bändereisenerzen. Der etwa zwei
Meter hohe, drei Meter breite und einen
Meter tiefe Gesteinsblock wurde in
Nordamerika gefunden und gehört dem
Staatlichen Museum für Mineralogie und
Geologie Dresden. Der Block befindet
sich bei den Koordinaten +51°2'34.84''
+13°45'26.67''. Camera
data Camera Nikon D70 Lens Tamron
SP AF 90mm/2.8 Di Macro 1:1 Focal
length 90 mm Aperture f/2.8 Exposure
time 1/250 s Sensivity ISO 200 Please
help translating the description into
more languages. Thanks a lot! If
you want a license with the conditions
of your choice, please email me to
negotiate terms. best new
image Date 26 August
2005 Source Own
work Author André Karwath aka
Aka CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Black-band_iron
stone_%28aka%29.jpg/1280px-Black-band_ir
onstone_%28aka%29.jpg
Microstructures from Isua Banded iron
formation, Southerwest Greenland.
Because of the simple shape, the biotic
nature of these fossils is not certain.
[1] Fig. 5. (a) Carbonaceous
microstructure from Isua Banded iron
formation, SW-Greenland (ca 3.85 Ga).
(b) Laser mass spectrum (negative ions)
from similar specimen. Field of
measurement ca 1 μm
diameter. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://ars.sciencedirect.com/con
tent/image/1-s2.0-S0301926800001261-gr5.
jpg
[2] Fig. 5. (a) Carbonaceous
microstructure from Isua Banded iron
formation, SW-Greenland (ca 3.85 Ga).
(b) Laser mass spectrum (negative ions)
from similar specimen. Field of
measurement ca 1 small mu, Greekm
diameter. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=MiamiCaptionURL&_method=retriev
e&_udi=B6VBP-42G6M5T-7&_image=fig7&_ba=7
&_user=4422&_coverDate=02%2F01%2F2001&_f
mt=full&_orig=browse&_cdi=5932&view=c&_a
cct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&
_userid=4422&md5=fe1052cbc18dba545ec95c2
e7ff3090b
[1] English: Isopentenyl pyrophosphate;
IPP; isopentenyl diphosphate;
isopentenyl-ppi Deutsch:
Isopentenylpyrophosphat;
Isopentenyldiphosphat Date 24.
November Source Own
work Author Yikrazuul PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Isopentenyl_pyr
ophosphate.svg/1000px-Isopentenyl_pyroph
osphate.svg.png
[1] Fig. 1. (c) Close-up of the region
near the Stacey and Kramers growth
curve showing the intersection of the
errorchron defined by the metasediment
samples and an isochron defined by all
possible Pb compositions at 2800 Ma of
systems derived from the Stacey and
Kramers growth curve at 3700 Ma. This
intersection is the model initial
composition for the samples at 2800 Ma.
The position above the growth curve
indicates that the samples evolved with
high μ (238U/204Pb) values of 22
during the time span from 3700 to 2800
Ma. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://ars.sciencedirect.com/con
tent/image/1-s2.0-S0012821X03006095-gr1.
gif
[2] Fig. 1. (a) 207Pb/204Pb versus
206Pb/204Pb for eight samples of >3700
Ma pelagic sediment from Isua, West
Greenland, shown with open diamonds.
Analytical uncertainty is less than the
size of the symbols. The Stacey and
Kramers growth curve for average
crustal Pb [24] is shown for
comparison. The age of the errorchron
which has a MSWD=52 is calculated using
Isoplot [23]. The high MSWD value
indicates that the Pb isotopic
composition of the sample suite was not
perfectly homogeneous at 2800 Ma. (b)
Pb isotopic data for the whole rock
samples shown in panel a and their HCl
leachates and leach residues in the
range 206Pb/204Pb=0–75 and
207Pb/204Pb=10–25 (filled circles).
The full dataset is shown in the inset.
In open circles are data for banded
iron formation and metabasalt samples
from the same supracrustal segment as
the carbon-rich metasediments. These
samples plot along a parallel reference
isochron, but originate at the Stacey
and Kramers growth curve, which
indicates that they evolved with
‘normal’ μ (238U/204Pb) values
during the time span from 3700 to 2800
Ma. (c) Close-up of the region near the
Stacey and Kramers growth curve showing
the intersection of the errorchron
defined by the metasediment samples and
an isochron defined by all possible Pb
compositions at 2800 Ma of systems
derived from the Stacey and Kramers
growth curve at 3700 Ma. This
intersection is the model initial
composition for the samples at 2800 Ma.
The position above the growth curve
indicates that the samples evolved with
high μ (238U/204Pb) values of 22
during the time span from 3700 to 2800
Ma. (d) 206Pb/204Pb versus 208Pb/204Pb
for the sample suite. The samples show
some scatter about a regression line,
which passes to the right of the Stacey
and Kramers growth curve. This
indicates that the metasediments
evolved with low Th/U ratios. At the
initial 206Pb/204Pb composition derived
from panel b, the 208Pb/204Pb value at
the regression line is 31, which is
less radiogenic than the Stacey and
Kramers model value at 3700 Ma. This
indicates that the samples evolved with
virtually no Th during the early
Archaean. (e) 206Pb/204Pb versus
208Pb/204Pb for whole rock samples, HCl
leachates and residues. The residues
are highlighted in filled diamonds, and
are characterized by low thorogenic Pb
and a shallow array indicative of a low
Th/U ratio, while the leachates shown
in open circles are extremely
radiogenic, with high Th/U evolutions.
Whole rock samples are shown with
crosses. The model initial Pb
composition at 2769 Ma is shown as the
open square at the apex of the
fan-shaped data array to the right of
the Stacey and Kramers growth
curve. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://ars.sciencedirect.com/con
tent/image/1-s2.0-S0012821X03006095-gr1.
gif
in 3700+ million year old carbon grains
is consistent with biotic remains,
possibly the remains of planktonic
photosynthesizing organisms. These
carbon-13 "depleted" grains support
the earlier finding by Mojzsis et al of
carbon-13 to carbon-12 ratios that
imply living objects on Greenland
earlier than 3850 million years before
now.
[1] Figure 1. (A) Turbidite sedimentary
rocks from the Isua supracrustal belt,
west Greenland. The notebook is 17 cm
wide. (B) A close-up of finely
laminated slate representing pelagic
mud. The hammer is 70 cm long. (C)
Photomicrograph of sample 810213,
showing finely laminated pelagic mud.
The variation in color is mainly due to
variations in C abundance. (D)
Photomicrograph of C grains arranged
along a buckled stringer. (E)
Backscattered electron image of a
polished surface (sample 810213),
showing the distribution of C grains as
black areas. (F) Backscattered electron
image of a polished surface (sample
810213), showing the rounded shape of C
grains (black). COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/283/5402/674.full.pdf
[2] Figure 1. (A) Turbidite
sedimentary rocks from the Isua
supracrustal belt, west Greenland. The
notebook is 17 cm wide. (B) A close-up
of finely laminated slate representing
pelagic mud. The hammer is 70 cm long.
(C) Photomicrograph of sample 810213,
showing finely laminated pelagic mud.
The variation in color is mainly due to
variations in C abundance. (D)
Photomicrograph of C grains arranged
along a buckled stringer. (E)
Backscattered electron image of a
polished surface (sample 810213),
showing the distribution of C grains as
black areas. (F) Backscattered electron
image of a polished surface (sample
810213), showing the rounded shape of C
grains (black).
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/co
ntent/full/283/5402/674
[1] Microgram of filamentous bacteria
from flexible setae. (Courtesy
Zoosystema © 2005) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://bioweb.uwlax.edu/bio203/s
2009/decker_rour/images/yeti-crab-filame
ntous-bacteria.JPG
[2] Filamentous Bacteria Microthrix
Parvicella UNKNOWN
source: http://ebsbiowizard.com/wp-conte
nt/gallery/filamentous-bacteria-microthr
ix-parvicella/filamentous-bacteria-micro
thrix-parvicella.jpg
Tree Group, South Africa
[1] image on left is from swaziland
source: nature feb 6
[2]
source: 1986
Australia and Onverwacht Group,
Barberton Mountain Land, South
Africa
[1] Figure 1 Optical photomicrographs
showing carbonaceous (kerogenous)
filamentous microbial fossils in
petrographic thin sections of
Precambrian cherts. Scale in a
represents images in a and c-i; scale
in b represents image in b. All parts
show photomontages, which is
necessitated by the three-dimensional
preservation of the cylindrical sinuous
permineralized microbes. Squares in
each part indicate the areas for which
chemical data are presented in Figs 2
and 3. a, An unnamed cylindrical
prokaryotic filament, probably the
degraded cellular trichome or tubular
sheath of an oscillatoriacean
cyanobacterium, from the 770-Myr
Skillogalee Dolomite of South
Australia12. b, Gunflintia grandis, a
cellular probably oscillatoriacean
trichome, from the 2,100-Myr Gunflint
Formation of Ontario, Canada13. c, d,
Unnamed highly carbonized filamentous
prokaryotes from the 3,375-Myr Kromberg
Formation of South Africa14: the poorly
preserved cylindrical trichome of a
noncyanobacterial or oscillatoriacean
prokaryote (c); the disrupted,
originally cellular trichomic remnants
possibly of an Oscillatoria- or
Lyngbya-like cyanobacterium (d). e-i,
Cellular microbial filaments from the
3,465-Myr Apex chert of northwestern
Western Australia: Primaevifilum
amoenum4,5, from the collections of The
Natural History Museum (TNHM), London,
specimen V.63164[6] (e); P. amoenum4
(f); the holotype of P.
delicatulum4,5,15, TNHM V.63165[2] (g);
P. conicoterminatum5, TNHM V63164[9]
(h); the holotype of Eoleptonema apex5,
TNHM V.63729[1] (i).
source: Nature416
[2] Fig. 3 Filamentous microfossils:
a, cylindrical microfossil from
Hooggenoeg sample; b, threadlike and
tubular filaments extending between
laminae, Kromberg sample; c,d,e,
tubular filamnets oriented subparallel
to bedding, Kromberg sample; f,
threadlike filament flattened parallel
to bedding, Kromberg sample.
source: 73 - 76 (07 Mar 2002) Letters
to Nature
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v41
6/n6876/fig_tab/416073a_F1.html
[1] get larger image
source: file:///root/web/fossils_biomark
er_science_v67_i22_nov_15_2003.html#bib9
9
[1] a-c, 'Encrusting/domical
laminites'; d-f, 'small crested/conical
laminites'; g-i, 'cuspate swales'; j-l,
'large complex cones' (dashed lines in
k trace lamina shape and show outlines
of intraclast conglomerate piled
against the cone at two levels). m-o,
'Egg-carton laminites'; p, q, 'wavy
laminites'; r-t, 'iron-rich laminites'
(t is a cut slab). The scale card in b,
h and i is 18 cm. The scale card
increments in c, e, k, l, n and s are 1
cm. The scale bar in o is about 1 cm.
The scale bars in the remaining
pictures are about 5 cm. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v441/n7094/fig_tab/nature04764_F1.h
tml
[1] a, Dark carbonaceous laminations
draping an underlying coarse detrital
carbonaceous grain (a), showing
internal anastomosing and draping
character (b) and, at the top (c)
draping irregularities in underlying
carbonaceous laminations. b, Dark
carbonaceous laminations that have been
eroded and rolled up by currents. c,
Bundled filaments in the rolled
laminations in b [tp: they should
have clearly indicated that they are
saying that these filaments are
bacteria].
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v431/n7008/fig_tab/nature02888_F4.h
tml
{KoKOED} (spherical) bacteria from the
Kromberg Formation, Swaziland System,
South Africa.
South Africa
[1] Fig. 3. from: Hans D. Pflug,
Earliest organic evolution. Essay to
the memory of Bartholomew Nagy,
Precambrian Research, Volume 106,
Issues 1–2, 1 February 2001, Pages
79-91, ISSN 0301-9268,
10.1016/S0301-9268(00)00126-1. (http://
www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pi
i/S0301926800001261 (a,b) Organic
microstructures from Kromberg
Formation, Swaziland System, South
Africa (ca 3.4 Ga). TEM-micrographs of
demineralized specimens. (c) Portion of
organic microstructure from Bulawaya
stromatolite (see Fig. 2). (d) Portion
of the mucilagenous sheath of recent
Anabaena sp., cyanobacteria (Fig. d
after Leak, 1967). For magnification of
Fig. c see scale of Fig.
a. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence/article/pii/S0301926800001261
[2] Fig. 3. from: Hans D. Pflug,
Earliest organic evolution. Essay to
the memory of Bartholomew Nagy,
Precambrian Research, Volume 106,
Issues 1–2, 1 February 2001, Pages
79-91, ISSN 0301-9268,
10.1016/S0301-9268(00)00126-1. (http://
www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pi
i/S0301926800001261 (a,b) Organic
microstructures from Kromberg
Formation, Swaziland System, South
Africa (ca 3.4 Ga). TEM-micrographs of
demineralized specimens. (c) Portion of
organic microstructure from Bulawaya
stromatolite (see Fig. 2). (d) Portion
of the mucilagenous sheath of recent
Anabaena sp., cyanobacteria (Fig. d
after Leak, 1967). For magnification of
Fig. c see scale of Fig.
a. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=MiamiCaptionURL&_method=retriev
e&_udi=B6VBP-42G6M5T-7&_image=fig9&_ba=9
&_user=4422&_coverDate=02%2F01%2F2001&_f
mt=full&_orig=browse&_cdi=5932&view=c&_a
cct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&
_userid=4422&md5=27a45a0804747bb4b74eaac
305df2905
prokaryote reproduction by budding.
Fossils from Swartkoppie chert, South
Africa are oldest evidence of
procaryotes that reproduce by budding
and not binary fission.
Budding evolves in prokaryotes. Like
binary division, budding is a form of
asexual reproduction. However, with
budding a new individual develops from
a certain point of the parent organism.
The new individual may separate to
exist independently, or the buds may
remain attached, forming colonies.
Budding is characteristic of a few
unicellular organisms (certain
bacteria, yeasts, protozoans) but some
metazoan animals (certain cnidarian
species) regularly reproduce by
budding.
[1] Evolutionary relationships of model
organisms and bacteria that show
unusual reproductive strategies. This
phylogenetic tree (a) illustrates the
diversity of organisms that use the
alternative reproductive strategies
shown in (b). Bold type indicates
complete or ongoing genome projects.
Intracellular offspring are produced by
several low-GC Gram-positive bacteria
such as Metabacterium polyspora,
Epulopiscium spp. and the segmented
filamentous bacteria (SFB). Budding and
multiple fission are found in the
proteobacterial genera Hyphomonas and
Bdellovibrio, respectively. In the case
of the Cyanobacteria, Stanieria
produces baeocytes and Chamaesiphon
produces offspring by budding.
Actinoplanes produce dispersible
offspring by multiple fission of
filaments within the sporangium.
source: http://www.nature.com/nrmicro/jo
urnal/v3/n3/full/nrmicro1096_fs.html
(Nature Reviews Microbiology 3
[2] Electron micrograph of a Pirellula
bacterium from giant tiger prawn tissue
(Penaeus monodon). Notice the large
crateriform structures (C) on the cell
surface and flagella. From Fuerst et
al.
source: 214-224 (2005);
doi:10.1038/nrmicro1096)
Craton of Australia
[1] Photomicrographs of filaments from
the Sulphur Springs VMS deposit. Scale
bar, 10 µm. a-f, Straight, sinuous and
curved morphologies, some densely
intertwined. g, Filaments parallel to
the concentric layering. h, Filaments
oriented sub-perpendicular to
banding. Figure 3 from: Rasmussen,
Birger. ''Filamentous Microfossils in a
3,235-million-year-old Volcanogenic
Massive Sulphide Deposit.'' Nature
405.6787 (2000):
676–679. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v405/n6787/abs/405676a0.html C
OPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v405/n6787/abs/405676a0.html
[2] Photomicrographs of filaments from
the Sulphur Springs VMS deposit. Scale
bar, 10 µm. a-f, Straight, sinuous and
curved morphologies, some densely
intertwined. g, Filaments parallel to
the concentric layering. h, Filaments
oriented sub-perpendicular to
banding. Figure 3 from: Rasmussen,
Birger. ''Filamentous Microfossils in a
3,235-million-year-old Volcanogenic
Massive Sulphide Deposit.'' Nature
405.6787 (2000):
676–679. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v405/n6787/abs/405676a0.html C
OPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v405/n6787/abs/405676a0.html
(unicellular microfossils with
uncertain affinity). These acritarchs
are also the earliest possible
eukaryote fossils.
Organic-walled microfossils of large
size (50 micrometres or more) and of
uncertain biological affinities are
known as acritarchs. The oldest known
acritarchs are from rocks of the
Moodies Group of South Africa that date
to about 3.2 billion years ago, and are
almost twice as old as the next known
acritarchs which come from
mid-Proterozoic rocks that are about
1.8 billion years old.
Acritarchs, the name coined by Evitt in
1963 which means "of uncertain origin",
are an artificial group. The group
includes any small (most are between
20-150 microns across), organic-walled
microfossil which cannot be assigned to
a natural group. They are characterised
by varied sculpture, some being spiny
and others smooth. They are believed to
have algal affinities, probably the
cysts of planktonic eukaryotic algae.
They are valuable Proterozoic and
Palaeozoic biostratigraphic and
palaeoenvironmental tools.
Living spherical prokaryotic cells
rarely exceed 20 microns in diameter,
but eukaryotic cells are nearly always
larger than 60 microns. Although their
precise nature is uncertain, acritarchs
appear to be phytoplankton that grew
thick coverings during a resting stage
in their life cycle. Some resemble the
resting stage of modern marine algae
known as dinoflagellates (known from
the "red tides" that periodically
poison fish and other marine animals).
Chitinozoa are large (50-2000 microns)
flask-shaped palynomorphs which appear
dark, almost opaque when viewed using a
light microscope. They are important
Palaeozoic microfossils as
stratigraphic markers.
The oldest known Acritarchs are
recorded from shales of
Palaeoproterozoic (1900-1600 Ma) age in
the former Soviet Union. They are
stratigraphically useful in the Upper
Proterozoic through to the Permian.
From Devonian times onwards the
abundance of acritarchs appears to have
declined, whether this is a reflection
of their true abundance or the volume
of scientific research is difficult to
tell.
Although these acritarch fossils may be
from eukaryotes, they may also be from
ancestors of eukaryotes before a
nucleus existed which there may be some
genetic support for.
[1] Figure from: Javaux, Emmanuelle
J., Craig P. Marshall, and Andrey
Bekker. “Organic-walled microfossils
in 3.2-billion-year-old shallow-marine
siliciclastic deposits.” Nature
463.7283 (2010):
934-938. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v463/n7283/full/nature08793.html
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v463/n7283/full/nature08793.html
[2] Figure from: Javaux, Emmanuelle
J., Andrew H. Knoll, and Malcolm R.
Walter. “Morphological and ecological
complexity in early eukaryotic
ecosystems.” Nature 412.6842 (2001):
66-69. http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v412/n6842/abs/412066a0.html Figur
e 1 Protistan microfossils from the
Roper Group. a, c, Tappania plana,
showing asymmetrically distributed
processes and bulbous protrusions
(arrow in a). b, detail of a, showing
dichotomously branching process. d,
Valeria lophostriata. e, Dictyosphaera
sp. f, Satka favosa. The scale bar in a
is 35 µm for a and c; 10 µm for b;
100 µm for d; 15 µm for e; and 40 µm
for f.
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v412/n6842/abs/412066a0.html
evolves (low G+C {Guanine and Cytosine
count} Gram positive bacteria:
botulism, tetanus, anthrax).
[1] Listeria monocytogenes is a
Gram-positive bacterium, in the
division Firmicutes, named for Joseph
Lister. It is motile by means of
flagella. Some studies suggest that 1
to 10% of humans may carry L.
monocytogenes in their
intestines. Researchers have found L.
monocytogenes in at least 37 mammalian
species, both domesticated and feral,
as well as in at least 17 species of
birds and possibly in some species of
fish and shellfish. Laboratories can
isolate L. monocytogenes from soil,
silage, and other environmental
sources. L. monocytogenes is quite
hardy and resists the deleterious
effects of freezing, drying, and heat
remarkably well for a bacterium that
does not form spores. Most L.
monocytogenes are pathogenic to some
degree.
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Listeria.jpg
[2] These are bacteria (about 0.3 µm
in diameter) that do not have outer
walls, only cytoplasmic membranes.
However, they do have cytoskeletal
elements that give them a distinct
non-spherical shape. They look like
schmoos that are pulled along by their
heads. How they are able to glide is a
mystery.
source: http://webmac.rowland.org/labs/b
acteria/projects_glide.html
form endospores evolve in some
firmicutes. An endospore is a tough
reduced dry form of a bacterium
triggered by a lack of nutrients that
protects the bacterium, and allows it
to be revived after long periods of
time. Some 25 million year old spores
have been revived.
[1] Spore forming inside a bacterium.
Stahly, MicrobeLibrary COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.microbe.org/microbes/
spores.asp
[2] Listeria monocytogenes is a
Gram-positive bacterium, in the
division Firmicutes, named for Joseph
Lister. It is motile by means of
flagella. Some studies suggest that 1
to 10% of humans may carry L.
monocytogenes in their
intestines. Researchers have found L.
monocytogenes in at least 37 mammalian
species, both domesticated and feral,
as well as in at least 17 species of
birds and possibly in some species of
fish and shellfish. Laboratories can
isolate L. monocytogenes from soil,
silage, and other environmental
sources. L. monocytogenes is quite
hardy and resists the deleterious
effects of freezing, drying, and heat
remarkably well for a bacterium that
does not form spores. Most L.
monocytogenes are pathogenic to some
degree.
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Listeria.jpg
[1] Figure 1. Transmission electron
micrograph of the ELB agent in XTC-2
cells. The rickettsia are free in the
cytoplasm and surrounded by an electron
transparent halo. Original
magnification X 30,000. CDC PD
source: www.cdc.gov/ncidod/
eid/vol7no1/raoultG1.htm
[2] Caulobacter crescentus. From
http://sunflower.bio.indiana.edu/~ybrun/
L305.html COPYRIGHTED EDU was in wiki
but appears to be removed
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/4/42/Caulobacter.jpg
evolve in Escherichia Coli {esRriKEo
KOlE} bacteria. Conjugation is the
exchange of DNA (plasmids) by a donor
{male} bacterium through a pilus to a
recipient {female} bacterium. This may
be the process that evolves into
eukaryote sexual reproduction.
In addition to pili and conjugation,
proteins that can cut DNA and other
proteins that can connect two strands
of DNA together evolve.
Some protists (cilliates and some
algae) reproduce sexually by
conjugation.
So perhaps conjugation is related to
the transition from a single circle of
DNA to multiple linear chromosomes in
eukaryotes. If conjugation in
eukaryotes descends directly from a
proteobacteria then perhaps the
ancestor of all eukaryotes, or
certainly those that can conjugate was
a proteobacteria.
[1] the fertility factor or F factor is
a very large (94,500 bp) circular dsDNA
plasmid; it is generally independent of
the host chromosome. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.mun.ca/biochem/course
s/3107/images/Fplasmidmap.gif
[2] conjugation (via pilus)
COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://www.bio.miami.edu/dana/16
0/conjugation.jpg
[1] Electron micrographs of cells of
new Gemmata-like and Isosphaera-like
isolates. (A) Negatively stained cell
of the Gemmata-like strain JW11-2f5
showing crateriform structures
(arrowhead) and coccoid cell
morphology. Bar marker, 200 nm. (B)
Negatively stained budding cell of
Isosphaera-like strain CJuql1 showing
uniform crateriform structures
(arrowhead) on the mother cell and
coccoid cell morphology. Bar marker,
200 nm. (C) Thin section of
Gemmata-like cryosubstituted cell of
strain JW3-8s0 showing the
double-membrane-bounded nuclear body
(NB) and nucleoid (N) enclosed within
it. Bar marker, 200 nm. (D) Thin
section of Isosphaera-like strain C2-3
possessing a fibrillar nucleoid (N)
within a cytoplasmic compartment
bounded by a single membrane (M) only.
Bar marker, 200 nm. Appl Environ
Microbiol. 2002 January; 68(1):
417-422. doi:
10.1128/AEM.68.1.417-422.2002.
source: http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/art
iclerender.fcgi?tool=pubmed&pubmedid=117
72655
[2] Evolutionary distance tree derived
from comparative analysis of 16S rDNAs
from freshwater and soil isolates and
reference strains of the order
Planctomycetales. Database accession
numbers are shown in parentheses after
species, strain, or clone names.
Bootstrap values of greater than 70%
from 100 bootstrap resamplings from the
distance analysis are presented at
nodes. Thermotoga maritima was used as
an outgroup. Isolates from this study
and representative named species of the
planctomycetes are indicated in bold.
The scale bar represents 0.1 nucleotide
substitution per nucleotide
position. Appl Environ Microbiol.
2002 January; 68(1): 417-422. doi:
10.1128/AEM.68.1.417-422.2002.
source: http://florey.biosci.uq.edu.au/m
ypa/images/fuerst2.gif
Orders:
ORDER Acidimicrobiales
ORDER Actinobacteriales
ORDER Coriobacteriales
ORDER
Rubrobacteriales
ORDER Sphaerobacteriales
[1] Aerial mycelium and spore of
Streptomyces coelicolor. The mycelium
and the oval spores are about 1µm
wide, typical for bacteria and much
smaller than fungal hyphae and spores.
(Scanning electron micrograph, Mark
Buttner, Kim Findlay, John Innes
Centre). COPYRIGHT UK
source: http://www.sanger.ac.uk/Projects
/S_coelicolor/micro_image4.shtml
[2] Frankia is a genus of
nitrogen-fixing soil bacteria, which
possesses a set of features that are
unique amongst symbiotic
nitrogen-fixing microorganisms,
including rhizobia, making it an
attractive taxon to study. These
heterotrophic Gram-positive bacteria
which are able to induce symbiotic
nitrogen-fixing root nodules
(actinorhizas) in a wide range of
dicotyledonous species (actinorhizal
plants), have also the capacity to fix
atmospheric nitrogen in culture and
under aerobic conditions.
source: http://www.ibmc.up.pt/webpagesgr
upos/cam/Frankia.htm
Eubacteria Phylum, Spirochaetes
(Syphilis, Lyme disease) evolving now.
The spirochaetes (or spirochetes) are a
phylum of distinctive bacteria, which
have long, helically coiled cells. They
are distinguished by the presence of
flagella running lengthwise between the
cell membrane and cell wall, called
axial filaments. These cause a twisting
motion which allows the spirochaete to
move around. Most spirochaetes are
free-living and anaerobic, but there
are numerous exceptions.
Spirochaetes only have one order:
ORDER
Spirochaetales
and 3 families.
[1] Syphilis is a complex, sexually
transmitted disease (STD) with a highly
variable clinical course. The disease
is caused by the bacterium, Treponema
pallidum. In the United States, 32,871
cases of syphilis, including 432 cases
of congenital syphilis, were detected
by public health officials in 2002.
Eight of the ten states with the
highest rates of syphilis are located
in the southern region of the United
States.
source: http://www.cdc.gov/nchstp/od/tus
kegee/syphilis.htm
[2] unknown
source: http://uhavax.hartford.edu/bugl/
images/Treponema%20pallidum.jpg
[1] Bacteroides fragilis . From the
Zdravotni University
source: http://biology.kenyon.edu/Microb
ial_Biorealm/bacteria/bacteroidete_chlor
ob_group/bacteroides/bacteroides.htm
[2] Cross section of a Bacteroides
showing an outer membrane, a
peptidoglycan layer, and a cytoplasmic
membrane. From New-asthma
source: http://phil.cdc.gov/phil/details
.asp
involving two distinct forms. Infection
takes place by means of elementary
bodies (EB), which are metabolically
inactive. These are taken up within a
cellular vacuole, where they grow into
larger reticulate bodies (RB), which
reproduce. Ultimately new elementary
bodies are produced and expelled from
the cell.
Verrucomicrobia is a recently described
phylum of bacteria. This phylum
contains only a few described species
(Verrucomicrobia spinosum, is an
example, the phylum is named after
this). The species identified have been
isolated from fresh water and soil
environments and human feces. A number
of as-yet uncultivated species have
been identified in association with
eukaryotic hosts including extrusive
explosive ectosymbionts of protists and
endosymbionts of nematodes residing in
their gametes.
Evidence suggests that verrucomicrobia
are abundant within the environment,
and important (especially to soil
cultures). This phylum is considered to
have two sister phyla Chlamydiae and
Lentisphaera.
There are three main species of
chlamydiae that infect humans:
* Chlamydia trachomatis, which
causes the eye-disease trachoma and the
sexually transmitted infection
chlamydia;
* Chlamydophila pneumoniae, which
causes a form of pneumonia;
* Chlamydophila
psittaci, which causes psittacosis.
CLASS Chlamydiae
ORDER Chlamydiales
PHYLA Verrucomicrobia
ORDER Verrucomicrobiales
[1] Chlamydia trachomatis wiki, is
copyrighted
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chl
amydia_trachomatis
[2] wiki, public domain
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Chlamydophila_pneumoniae.jpg
[1] Description Deutsch: Grüne
Schwefelbakterien (Chlorobiaceae) im
unteren Bereich einer
Winogradsky-Säule Date
20.03.2007 (20 March 2007
(original upload date)) Source
Transferred from de.wikipedia;
transfer was stated to be made by
User:Jacopo Werther. (Original text :
Mikrobiologie Praktikum Universität
Kassel März 2007) Author
kOchstudiO. Original uploader was
KOchstudiO at
de.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) Released into the public
domain (by the author). (Original text
: uneingeschränkte Nutzung) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e7/Green_d_winogradsky.j
pg
described phylum of bacteria. This
phylum contains only a few described
species (Verrucomicrobia spinosum, is
an example, the phylum is named after
this). The species identified have been
isolated from fresh water and soil
environments and human feces. A number
of as-yet uncultivated species have
been identified in association with
eukaryotic hosts including extrusive
explosive ectosymbionts of protists and
endosymbionts of nematodes residing in
their gametes.
Evidence suggests that verrucomicrobia
are abundant within the environment,
and important (especially to soil
cultures). This phylum is considered to
have two sister phyla Chlamydiae and
Lentisphaera.
There are three main species of
chlamydiae that infect humans:
* Chlamydia trachomatis, which
causes the eye-disease trachoma and the
sexually transmitted infection
chlamydia;
* Chlamydophila pneumoniae, which
causes a form of pneumonia;
* Chlamydophila
psittaci, which causes psittacosis.
CLASS Chlamydiae
ORDER Chlamydiales
PHYLA Verrucomicrobia
ORDER Verrucomicrobiales
[1] Figure 1 Transmission electron
micrographs of high-pressure frozen and
cryosubstituted Verrucomicrobium
spinosum. A. Cell prepared by
high-pressure freezing and
cryosubstitution showing prostheca
(PT), paryphoplasm (P), and an
intracytoplasmic membrane (ICM)
enclosing a pirellulosome region
containing a condensed fibrillar
nucleoid (N). Inset: enlarged view of
area of cell outlined in the white box
showing cytoplasmic membrane (CM),
paryphoplasm and ICM. B.
freeze-fracture replica of cell showing
cross-fractured paryphoplasm (P) and
fracture faces of ICM and CM. Bar –
500 nm Lee et al. BMC Microbiology
2009 9:5
doi:10.1186/1471-2180-9-5 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.biomedcentral.com/con
tent/figures/1471-2180-9-5-1-l.jpg
[2] Figure 2 Transmission electron
micrograph of high-pressure frozen and
cryosubstituted Verrucomicrobium
spinosum. Cell prepared by
high-pressure freezing and
cryosubstitution showing prostheca
(PT), ribosome-free paryphoplasm (P),
and an intracytoplasmic membrane (ICM)
enclosing a pirellulosome region
containing a condensed fibrillar
nucleoid (N). Membrane-bounded
vesicle-like compartments within some
prosthecae extensions are also present
(see arrowheads). Bar – 1 μm Lee
et al. BMC Microbiology 2009 9:5
doi:10.1186/1471-2180-9-5 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.biomedcentral.com/con
tent/figures/1471-2180-9-5-2-l.jpg
[1] Endocytosis and Exocytosis: For
example, this electron micrograph is
showing the process of exocytosis . The
process begins by fusion of the
membranes at the peripheral pole of the
granule. Then an opening is created
which widens to look like an omicron
figure. This opening allows the
granular material to be released. The
membrane is now part of the plasma
membrane and any proteins carried with
it can be incorporated into the plasma
membrane. Note that there is no coating
on the membrane. This figure was taken
from Alberts et al, Molecular Biology
of the Cell, Garland Publishing Third
Edition, 1994 In contrast, this
micrograph shows a figure which looks
something like an omicron, however,
this view is showing receptor mediated
endocytosis of virus particles. In both
cases, the membrane is coated with
clathrin and these represent classical
receptor mediated endocytosis profiles.
Most ligands cannot be visualized by
themselves, like a virus particle.
Therefore, the cytochemist must attach
label to the ligand. Alternatively, the
cytochemist could immunocytochemically
detect the receptor with antibodies
that recognize the extracellular
domain. This figure was taken from
Endocytosis, Edited by Ira Pastan and
Mark C. Willingham, Plenum Press, N.Y.,
1985 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.cytochemistry.net/cel
l-biology/end7.jpg
[2] Pinocytosis In the process of
pinocytosis the plasma membrane froms
an invagination. What ever substance
is found within the area of
invagination is brought into the
cell. In general this material will
be dissolved in water and thus this
process is also refered to as
''cellular drinking'' to indicate that
liquids and material dissolved in
liquids are ingested by the
cell. This is opposed to the
ingestion of large particulate material
like bacteria or other cells or cell
debris.
source: http://academic.brooklyn.cuny.ed
u/biology/bio4fv/page/endocytb.htm
with a nucleus. The first protist. The
nucleus may develop from the infolding
of plasma membrane.
The word "Eukaryote" is from the Greek
"eu" which means "true" and "karyon"
which means "kernel", in this case
refering to the nucleus.
All cells have several basic features
in common: They are all bounded by a
selective barrier, called the plasma
membrane. Enclosed by the membrane is a
semifluid, jellylike substance called
cytosol, in which organelles and other
components are found. All cells contain
chromosomes, which carry genes in the
form of DNA. And all cells have
ribosomes, tiny bodies that make
proteins according to instructions from
the genes.
There are some difference between
prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells:
In
prokaryotic cells the DNA is
concentrated in a region that is not
membrane enclosed called the "nucleoid"
while in eukaryotic cells most of the
DNA is contained in a nucleus that is
bounded by a double membrane.
Eukaryotic cells are generally much
larger than prokaryotic cells. Typical
bacteria are between 1-5 um in
diameter, while eukaryotic cells are
typically 10-100 um in diameter. Unlike
prokaryotic cells, eukaryotic cells
have a cytoskeleton. The cytoskeleton
enables eukaryotic cells to change
their shape and to surround and engulf
other cells. Eukaryotic cells also have
internal structures that prokaryotic
cells lack such as mitochondria and
plastids. DNA in prokaryotic cells is
usually in the form of a single cicular
chromosome (sometimes with additional
small circles of DNA known as
plasmids), while DNA in the nucleus of
eukaryotes contains linear chromosomes
(some organelles in eukaryotes also
contain DNA, most mitochondrial and
chloroplast DNA is also circular
reflecting their prokaryote origin).
All protists, fungi, animals and plant
cells descend from this common
eukaryotic cell ancestor.
Like prokaryotes, this first eukaryote
cell is probably haploid, having only a
single unique DNA. Most later
eukaryotes will be diploid, having two
sets of DNA.
Other alternative theories are that the
nucleus may be a captured bacterium,
virus, or plasmid.
That a eukaryote cell survived the
journey from a different star or galaxy
cannot be ruled out.
[1] Campbell, Reece, et al,
''Biology'', 2008, p517. COPYRIGHTED
source: Campbell, Reece, et al,
"Biology", 2008, p517.
[2]
http://www.regx.de/m_organisms.php#planc
to
source: http://www.regx.de/m_organisms.p
hp#plancto
[1] Jochen J. Brocks, Graham A. Logan,
Roger Buick, Roger E. Summons,
''Archean Molecular Fossils and the
Early Rise of Eukaryotes'', Science,
Vol 285, Issue 5430, 13 August 1999,
p1033-1036.
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/285/
5430/1033.short
and http://www.jstor.org/stable/2898534
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/285/5430/1033.short
and http://www.jstor.org/stable/2898534
[1] Fig. 2. Organic microstructure from
the Bulawaya stromatolite, Zimbabwe (ca
2.7 Ga). (a) TEM-micrograph from
demineralized rock section. (b) Laser
mass spectrum from individual specimen
of the same population (negative ions).
Field of measurement ca 1 small mu,
Greekm diameter. Attribution of
signals: 12: C−, 13: CH−, 14:
CH−2, 16: O−, 17: OH−, 19: F−,
24: C−2, 25: C2H−, 26: CN−, 28:
Si−, 36: C−3, 37: C3H−, 40-42,
45: fragmental carbonaceous groups, 48:
C−4, 49: C4H−, 50: C4H−2, 60:
SiO−2, resp. C−5, 61: C5H−.
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=MiamiCaptionURL&_method=retriev
e&_udi=B6VBP-42G6M5T-7&_image=fig5&_ba=5
&_user=4422&_coverDate=02%2F01%2F2001&_f
mt=full&_orig=browse&_cdi=5932&view=c&_a
cct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&
_userid=4422&md5=d9195635e48bcf1f817c009
69102189f
[1] Figure 1 and Table 2 from: Jochen
J. Brocks, Graham A. Logan, Roger
Buick, Roger E. Summons, ''Archean
Molecular Fossils and the Early Rise of
Eukaryotes'', Science, Vol 285, Issue
5430, 1033-1036, 13 August 1999,
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/285/
5430/1033.abstract COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/285/5430/1033.abstract
[1] English: Endothelial cells under
the microscope. Nuclei are stained blue
with DAPI, microtubles are marked green
by an antibody bound to FITC and actin
filaments are labelled red with
phalloidin bound to TRITC. Bovine
pulmonary artery endothelial
cells http://rsb.info.nih.gov/ij/images
/ PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/09/FluorescentCells.jpg
[2] FIG. 7. In vitro polymerization
of cytoskeletal proteins of the
MinD/ParA superfamily. (A) Formation of
MinD filament bundles in the presence
of MinE, ATP, and phospholipid
vesicles. One end of the bundle is
markedly frayed because of the presence
of MinE. (Reprinted from reference 198
with permission of the publisher.
Copyright 2003 National Academy of
Sciences, U.S.A.) (B) Formation of a
ParApTP228(ParF) filament bundle in the
presence of ParBpTP228(ParG) and ATP.
ParBpTP228(ParG) stimulates formation
of the frayed end(s) of the
ParApTP228(ParF) bundle. (Reprinted
from reference 11 by permission from
Macmillan Publishers Ltd.) (C)
Formation of Soj filaments in the
presence of DNA and ATP. (Reprinted
from reference 116 by permission from
Macmillan Publishers Ltd.) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/
articles/PMC1594594/bin/zmr0030621350007
.jpg
[1] Cilia and flagella are projections
from the cell. They are made up of
microtubules , as shown in this cartoon
and are covered by an extension of the
plasma membrane. They are motile and
designed either to move the cell itself
or to move substances over or around
the cell. The primary purpose of cilia
in mammalian cells is to move fluid,
mucous, or cells over their surface.
Cilia and flagella have the same
internal structure. The major
difference is in their length. This
figure shows a cross section of a
cilium next to a longitudinal section.
Below, we will see how the microtubules
are organized in the core (shown in the
cartoon in this figure). Also shown is
the centriole or basal body that
organizes the formation and direction
of the cilia. COPYRIGHTED
source: Description Transmission
electron microscope image, showing an
example of green algae
(Chlorophyta). Chlamydomanas
reinhardtii is a unicellular flagellate
used as a model system in molecular
genetics work and flagellar motility
studies. This image is a
longitudinal section through the
flagella area. In the cell apex is the
basal body that is the anchoring site
for a flagella. Basal bodies originate
from and have a substructure similar to
that of centrioles, with nine
peripheral microtubule triplets(see
structure at bottom center of image).
The two inner microtubules of each
triplet in a basal body become the two
outer doublets in the flagella. This
image also shows the transition region,
with its fibers of the stellate
structure. The top of the image shows
the flagella passing through the cell
wall. Date 20 September
2007 Source Source and public domain
notice at
http://remf.dartmouth.edu/imagesindex.ht
ml Author Dartmouth Electron
Microscope Facility, Dartmouth
College PD
[2] This figure shows an electron
micrograph of a cross section of a
cilium. Note that you can see the
dynein arms and the nexin links. The
dynein arms have ATPase activity. In
the presence of ATP, they can move from
one tubulin to another. They enable the
tubules to slide along one another so
the cilium can bend. The dynein
bridges are regulated so that sliding
leads to synchronized bending. Because
of the nexin and radial spokes, the
doublets are held in place so sliding
is limited lengthwise. If nexin and the
radial spokes are subjected to enzyme
digestion, and exposed to ATP, the
doublets will continue to slide and
telescope up to 9X their length.
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Chlamydomonas_T
EM_09.jpg/1280px-Chlamydomonas_TEM_09.jp
g
chromosomes (instead of a circular
chromosome) evolve.
Perhaps the first eukaryote descended
from one of those prokaryotes with
linear DNA.
Some prokaryotes without a single
circular chromosome are: Agrobacterium
tumefaciens (Proteobacteria), Borrellia
burgdorferi (Spirochaete), Streptomyces
griseus (Actinobacteria).
Some prokaryotes do not have
just one circle of DNA. Brucella
melitensis has 2 circular chromosomes.
Agrobacterium tumefaciens has a
circular and a linear chromosome.
Streptomyces griseus can have one
linear chromosome. Borrelia
burgdorferi contains a linear
chromosome and a number of variable
circular and linear plasmids.
Chromosomes are linear in eukaryotic
nuclei, but circular in eukaryote
organelles except for the mitochondria
of most cnidarians and some other
forms.
[1] A DNA molecule is very long (a few
meters) but extremely thin (narrow;
measured in nanometers). Here is an
electron microscope photo of a DNA
strand: PD
source: http://rst.gsfc.nasa.gov/Sect20/
dna1.jpg
[2] [t Is this an accurate image? - Is
a chromosome made of a single wound
strand of DNA? update- no see image
8] Every cell in the human body
(except red blood cells) contains 23
pairs of chromosomes. (a) Each
chromosome is made up of a tightly
coiled strand of DNA. (b) DNA’s
uncoiled state reveals its familiar
double helix shape. If DNA is pictured
as a twisted ladder, its sides, made of
sugar and phosphate molecules, are
connected by (c) rungs made of
chemicals called bases. DNA has four
bases—adenine, thymine, guanine, and
cytosine—that form interlocking
pairs. The order of the bases along the
length of the ladder is the DNA
sequence. PD
source: https://www.llnl.gov/str/June03/
gifs/Stubbs1.gif
intermediate stages between cell
division and DNA synthesis.
In prokaryotes, DNA synthesis can take
place uninterrupted between cell
divisions, but eukaryotes duplicate
their DNA exactly once during a
discrete period between cell divisions.
This period is called the S (for
synthetic) phase. It is preceded by a
period called G1 (meaning "first gap")
and followed by a period called G2,
during which nuclear DNA synthesis does
not occur.
For the first time, a cell is not
constantly synthesizing DNA and then
having a division period (as is the
case for all known prokaryotes), but
this cell has a period in between cell
division and DNA synthesis where DNA
synthesis is not performed.
[1] Figure 14.1Phases of the cell
cycle The division cycle of most
eukaryotic cells is divided into four
discrete phases: M, G1, S, and G2. M
phase (mitosis) is usually followed by
cytokinesis. S phase is the period
during which DNA replication occurs.
The cell grows throughout interphase,
which includes G1, S, and G2. The
relative lengths of the cell cycle
phases shown here are typical of
rapidly replicating mammalian
cells. From: The Eukaryotic Cell
Cycle The Cell: A Molecular
Approach. 2nd edition. Cooper
GM. Sunderland (MA): Sinauer
Associates; 2000. Copyright © 2000,
Geoffrey M Cooper. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/book
s/NBK9876/bin/ch14f1.jpg
[2] The cell cycle. Image from Purves
et al., Life: The Science of Biology,
4th Edition, by Sinauer Associates
(www.sinauer.com) and WH Freeman
(www.whfreeman.com) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/facu
lty/farabee/biobk/cellcycle.gif
Mitosis is the process in eukaryotic
cell division in which the chromosomes
are separated and the nucleus divides
resulting in two new nuclei, each of
which contains a complete and identical
copy of the parental chromosomes.
Mitosis is usually immediately followed
by cytokinesis, the division of the
cytoplasm.
All eukaryote cells divide using the
same general plan. The cell division
cycle contains four stages, G1 ("first
gap"), S ("synthesis"), G2 ("second
gap"), and M ("mitotic phase". The
first three stages are called
"interphase" which alternates with the
mitotic phase. Interphase is a much
longer stage that often accounts for
90% of the cycle. During interphase the
cell grows and copies its chromosomes
in preparation for cell division. In
the mitotic phase, mitosis, division of
the nucleus is followed by
cytokinesis.
Mitosis is thought to have evolved
from prokaryote binary fission. That
some proteins involved in prokaryote
binary fission are related to
eukaryotic proteins that function in
mitosis supports the idea that mitosis
evolved from prokaryote binary fission.
Possible intermediate stages can be
seen in some protists. In
dinoflagellates, replicated chromosomes
are attached to the nuclear envelope
which remains in one piece during cell
division. Microtubules from outside the
nucleus pass through the nucleus inside
cytoplasmic tunnels. The nucleus then
divides in a process similar to
prokaryote binary fission. In diatoms
and yeasts the nuclear envelope also
reamins together during cell division,
but inthese eukaryotes the microtubules
form a spindle within the nucleus.
Microtubules separate the chromosomes
and the nucleus splits into two nuclei.
Finally, in most eukaryotes including
plant and animal cells, the spindle
forms outside the nucleus, and the
nuclear envelope breaks down during
mitosis. Microtubules separate the
chromosomes, and the nuclear envelope
then forms again.
[1] Mitosis divides genetic information
during cell division Source:
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/About/primer
/genetics_cell.html This image is
from the Science Primer, a work of the
National Center for Biotechnology
Information, part of the National
Institutes of Health. As a work of the
U.S. federal government, the image is
in the public domain.
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mit
osis
[2] Prophase: The two round objects
above the nucleus are the centrosomes.
Note the condensed chromatin. from
Gray's Anatomy. Unless stated
otherwise, it is from the online
edition of the 20th U.S. edition of
Gray's Anatomy of the Human Body,
originally published in 1918. Online
editions can be found on Bartleby and
also on Yahoo!
source: UNKNOWN
[1] Bacillus specie soil
bacteria. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.scharfphoto.com/fine_
art_prints/archives/199812-054-Soil-Bact
eria.jpg
[2] Description Deutsch: Myxococcus
xanthus bildet Fruchtkörper, ca.
50-fach vergrößert. English:
Starving colony of Myxococcus xanthus
forms fruiting bodies. Date
August 2006 Source own work
by Trance Gemini Author Trance
Gemini on
de.wikipedia.org Permission (Reusing
this file) GFDL Other versions from
de.wikipedia
http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bild:M._xan
thus_development.png 18:37, 22. Aug
2006 . . Trance Gemini . . 2088 x 1550
(4.365.260 Bytes) GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/42/M._xanthus_developmen
t.png
identical cells fuse (isogamy). First
diploid cell. First zygote. Increase in
genetic variety. Haplontic life cycle.
Eukaryotic sexual reproduction, which
is initially the fusion of two cells
and their nuclei, probably first occurs
in a single cell protist that usually
reproduces asexually by mitosis. Two
haploid eukaryote cells (cells with one
set of chromosomes each) merge and then
their nuclei merge (karyogamy) to form
the first diploid cell, a cell with two
sets of chromosomes, the first zygote.
This fusion of two haploid cells
results in the first diploid
single-celled organism, which then may
immediately divide (both nucleus and
cytoplasm by a single division) back to
two haploid cells.
Because of sex, two cells with
different DNA can mix providing more
genetic variety. Having two chromosome
sets also provides a backup copy of
important genes (sequences that code
for proteins, or nucleic acids) that
might be lost with only a set of single
chromosomes.
This first sexual eukaryote cell and
its descendants will have a life cycle
with two phases, alternating between
haploid and diploid.
Conjugation, the second major kind of
sexual phenomenon, which occurs in the
eukaryotes ciliates, involves the
fusion of gametic nuclei instead of
independent gamete cells.
"Syngamy" refers to gamete fusion and
"karyogamy" to nucleus fusion. In most
cases syngamy is immediately followed
by karyogamy, as a result, a fertilized
zygote is produced.
Note that gender (anisogamy) probably
evolves later, initially sex is
probably the fusion of two
indistinguishable cells (isogamy).
Some protists have diploid nuclei with
two chromosomes of each type, such as
those found in the somatic cells of
most higher animals and plants, and
other protists have haploid nuclei with
unpaired chromosomes, such as those
found in the gametes of higher animals
and plants; polyploid nuclei with
several sets of chromosomes also occur
in protists. Diploid nuclei in protists
may undergo a process of meiosis to
produce haploid nuclei (a reduciton
division), but more commonly both
haploid and diploid nuclei divide by
mitosis to produce two child nuclei
like the original parent cell.
Some of the genes related to the
process of meiosis occur in Giardia,
one of the most primitive living
protists, which is evidence that
meiosis may have evolved before the
evolution of all known eukaryotes.
Now, two cells with different DNA can
mix providing more chance of variety
and mutation. Two chromosome sets
provides a backup copy of important
genes (sequences that code for
proteins, or nucleic acids) that might
be lost with only a set of single
chromosomes.
This first sexual eukaryote cell and
its descendants will have two phases, a
gamophase (haploid until syngamy
becoming diploid), and a zygophase
(from diploid until meiosis becoming
haploid).
For sexual species there are 3 basic
life cycles:
1) Haploid (Haplontic) life cycle:
(zygotic meiosis) Life as haploid
cells, cell division immediately after
creation of zygote from fusion. (All
fungi, Some green algae, Many
protozoa)
2) Diploid (Diplontic) life cycle:
(gametic meiosis) Instead of immediate
cell division, zygote reproduces by
mitosis. Haploid gametes never copy by
mitosis. (animals, some brown algae)
3)
Haplodiploid (Haplodiplontic,
Diplohaplontic, Diplobiontic) life
cycle: (sporic meiosis) Diploid cell
(sporocyte) meiosis results in two
haploid sporophytes (gamonts), not two
haploid gametes. These haploid cells
then differentiate? or mitosis? to form
haploid gametes. Haplodiplontic
organisms have alternation of
generations, one generation involves
diploid spore-producing single or
multicellular sporophytes (makes
spores) and the other generation
involves haploid single or
multicellular gamete-producing
multicellular gametophytes (makes
gametes). (Plants and many algae)
These first sexual cells are haplontic,
with zygotic meiosis; they reproduce
asexually through mitosis as haploid
cells, fusing to a diploid cell without
mitosis, then dividing back into
haploid cells.
An important evolutionary step evolves
here in that now two cells can
completely merge into one cell. This
merge not only includes their nuclei,
but also their cytoplasm (although the
DNA do not merge). Before now, as far
as has ever been observed, no two cells
have ever completely merged, although,
through conjugation some prokaryotes
have been observed to exchange DNA.
This is the beginning of the label
"gamete" for haploid cells that can
merge to form a diploid zygote. In
addition, the label "gametocyte" or
"gamont" is any polyploid cell that
divides (meiosis) into haploid gamete
cells which can merge to form a
zygote.
The alternation of meiosis and
fertilization is common to all
organisms that reproduce sexually, but
there are three main different types of
life cycles; haplontic, haplodiplontic,
and diplontic. Haplontic organisms are
predominantly haploid; mitosis does not
occur in the diploid phase. In
Haplodiplontic organisms, mitosis
occurs in both the haploid and diploid
phases. Diplontic organisms are
predominantly diploid; mitosis does not
occur in the haploid phase. Most fungi
and some protists including some algae
have a "haplontic" life cycle where
after gametes fuse and form a diploid
zygote, meiosis occurs without a
multicellular diploid offspring
developing. Meiosis produces not
gametes but haploid cells that then
divide by mitosis and give rise to
either unicellular descendents or a
haploid multicellular adult organism.
The haploid oganism then carries out
further mitoses producing cells that
develop into gametes. The only diplod
stage found in these species is the
singe-celled zygote. Plants and some
algae have a second type of lifestyle
called "haplodiplontic" or "alternation
of generations". This type includes
both diploid and haploid stages that
are multicellular. The multicellular
diploid stage is called the
"sporophyte". Meiosis in the sporophyte
produces haploid cells called spores.
Unlike a gamete, a haploid spore
doesn't fuse with another cell but
divides mitotically, generating a
multicellular haploid stage called the
gametophyte. Cells of the gametophyte
give rise to gametes by mitosis. Fusion
of two haploid gametes at
fertilizations results in a diploid
zygote, which develops into the next
sporophyte generation. A third type of
sexual life cycle, "diplontic", occurs
in animals in which gametes are the
only haploid cells. Meiosis occurs in
germ cells producing haploid gametes
that no other cell division prior to
fertilization. After fertilization the
diploid zygote divides by mitosis
producing a multicellular organism that
is diploid.
[1] Theoretical first eukaryote
sex adapted from image of gametic
meiosis GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Zygotic_meiosis.jpg
[2] Zygotic Meiosis. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Zygotic_meiosis.png
2 haploid cells or two pronuclei fuse
into a diploid cell and a divide into 2
haploid cells).
Meiosis, which looks similar to
mitosis, is the process of cell
division in sexually reproducing
organisms that reduces the number of
chromosomes in reproductive cells from
diploid to haploid, leading to the
production of gametes in animals and
spores in plants.
Most protists divide by two-step
meiosis, and meiosis with only one cell
division is rare. Some view
one-divisional meiosis as having an
independent and secondary origin while
others view one-step meiosis as the
primitive meiotic process.
Without the reduction back to haploid,
genomes would double in size with every
generation.
Mitosis and one-step meiosis are the
same with the only exception that: in
meiosis two haploid cells join (or 2
pronuclei fuse) before cell division,
but in mitosis the DNA is duplicated
internally in the nucleus before cell
division.
Meiosis can be one step (one fusion and
then one cell division) or two step
(fusion, DNA duplication and then two
divisions). Probably one step meiosis
evolved first and two step meiosis
later. The Protists Pyrsonympha and
Dinenympha have up to a four step
meiosis.
Because meiosis is similar and complex
in detail in all species that do
meiosis, people think that meiosis only
evolved once, and was inherited by all
species that do meiosis.
[1] [t One-step zygotic meiosis (also
known as gametic meiosis)- gametes fuse
into 2n and then divide back into
1n] Drawn by self for Biological life
cycle Scan black/white/grey
outline Paint Shop Pro Reduce size
(by 20%) Brightness/contrast to get
rid of artifacts Copy-&-paste the
multicellular balls Fill-in
colours Labelling Re-fix details by
going back to Layer 1. Based on
Freeman & Worth's Biology of Plants (p.
171). GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/23/Gametic_meiosis.png
[2] GametoGenesis. COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://www.bio.miami.edu/dana/10
4/gametogenesis.jpg
[1] Description Different types of
en:anisogamy: A) Anisogamy of motile
gametes B) Oogamy (non-motile egg
cell, motile sperm cell) C) Anisogamy
of non-motile
gametes Date 2008-06-30 02:07
(UTC) Source Anisogamy.png Author
This SVG version by Qef
(talk) Anisogamy.png: Original
uploader was Tameeria at
en.wikipedia Later versions were
uploaded by Helix84 at
en.wikipedia. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Anisogamy.svg/1
000px-Anisogamy.svg.png
[2] Mixing of: Fig. 7. Isogamous
(left, Gymnodinium nolleri) and
anisogamous (right, Alexandrium
tamutum) gamete pairs. © Rosa I.
Figueroa and Fig. 8. Fusing gamete
pair in Gymnodinium catenatum (left)
and its nuclei in fusion process. ©
Rosa I. Figueroa COPYRIGHTED
source: http://tolweb.org/tree/ToLimages
/dinolifecyclefig.7.250a.jpg
and an unflagellated gamete evolves in
protists (oogamy {OoGomE}, a form of
anisogamy).
property (e.g. the Oxymonad Notilla,
Diatoms, Dasicladales {Acetabularia},
in many foraminiferans, and in
gregarines).
Gamontogamy may have evolved into
two-step meiosis.
The vast majority of eukaryotes living
now that reproduce sexually fuse
haploid cells. All "gametes" are
haploid cells that can merge, diploid
cells that can merge are gamonts.
Gamonts (Meiocytes) are cells that
produce gametes.
In theory this should be very similar
if not exactly like haploid cell
fusion, so perhaps this is not a major
evolutionary step.
[1] The Oxymonad, Notila (diploid
Pacific form) life cycle. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.zoology.ubc.ca/~redfi
eld/clevelan/notila.GIF
copies and then the cell divides twice
into four haploid cells).
Meiosis and mitosis are similar in
being nucleus and cell division, but
are different.
Differences between
meiosis and mitosis:
1) At least one crossover
per homologous pair happens in 2 step
meiosis but crossover usually does not
happen in mitosis. (explain crossover)
2) Two step
meiosis involves cell divisions that
happen one after the other, where the
cell division of mitosis only happens
after one DNA duplication (there are
never 2 mitosis divisions together
without a DNA duplication between them
to my knowledge).
The cell division in two step meiosis
that involves a separation of sister
chromatids (not homologous chromosome
pairs) is basically identical to
mitosis. For two step meiosis, this is
the second nucleus and cell division.
Later multistep meiosis evolves, where
there may be as many as 4 divisions
(for example in the protists
Pyrsonympha and Dinenympha).
(Determine if it can be said that
meiosis is simply a division after the
fusion of two nuclei while mitosis is a
division after an internucleus DNA
copy. Clearly the duplication of two
complete nuclei within a single
Eukaryote cell must include the inte
r-nucleus copying of DNA - and is
probably similar to a typical
prokaryote cell division. This process
just goes further in duplicating the
nuclear membrane too. Then the division
after the fusion of two nuclei must be
basically the same as a mitosis
division. So really, in this view, the
unique processes are: DNA, nucleus,
and/or cell copy, nucleus and/or cell
fusion, nucleus and/or cell division.)
[1] GametoGenesis. COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://www.bio.miami.edu/dana/10
4/gametogenesis.jpg
[2] Sexual cycle oxymonas, identical
to saccinobaculus, one step meiosis.
haploid. COPYRIGHTED CANADA
source: http://www.zoology.ubc.ca/~redfi
eld/clevelan/oxymonas.GIF
"Deinococcus-Thermus" evoles now
(includes Thermus Aquaticus {used in
PCR}, Deinococcus radiodurans {can
survive long exposure to radiation}).
The Deinococcus-Thermus are a small
group of bacteria comprised of cocci
highly resistant to environmental
hazards. There are two main groups. The
Deinococcales include a single genus,
Deinococcus, with several species that
are resistant to radiation; they have
become famous for their ability to eat
nuclear waste and other toxic
materials, survive in the vacuum of
space and survive extremes of heat and
cold. The Thermales include several
genera resistant to heat. Thermus
aquaticus was important in the
development of the polymerase chain
reaction where repeated cycles of
heating DNA to near boiling make it
advantageous to use a thermo-stable DNA
polymerase enzyme. These bacteria have
thick cell walls that give them
gram-positive stains, but they include
a second membrane and so are closer in
structure to those of gram-negative
bacteria.
PHYLUM Deinococcus-Thermus
CLASS Deinococci
ORDER Deinococcales
ORDER Thermales
[1] D. radiodurans growing on a
nutrient agar plate. The red color is
due to carotenoid pigment. Links to
816x711-pixel, 351KB JPG. Credit: M.
Daly, Uniformed Services University of
the Health Sciences NASA
source: http://science.nasa.gov/newhome/
headlines/images/conan/D_rad_dish.jpg
[2] Photomicrograph of Deinococcus
radiodurans, from
www.ornl.gov/ORNLReview/ v34 The Oak
Ridge National Laboratory United
States Federal Government This work
is in the public domain because it is a
work of the United States Federal
Government. This applies worldwide. See
Copyright.
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Deinococcus.jpg
[1] Oscillatoria COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://www.stcsc.edu/ecology/alg
ae/oscillatoria.jpg
[2] Lyngbya COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://www.stanford.edu/~bohanna
n/Media/LYNGB5.jpg
CLASS
Chloroflexi
CLASS Thermomicrobia
[1] Chloroflexus photomicrograph from
Doe Joint Genome Institute of US Dept
Energy PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Chlorofl.jpg
Proterozoic {PrOTReZOiK or ProTReZOiK}
Eon.
The Proterozoic spans from 2,500 to 542
million years ago, and represents 42%
of Earth's history.
[1] Geologic Time Scale 2009 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.geosociety.org/scienc
e/timescale/timescl.pdf
appear in many places.
[1] portion taken
from: Description English: This
image shows a 2.1 billion years old
rock containing black-banded ironstone,
which has a weight of about 8.5 tons.
The approximately two meter high, three
meter wide, and one meter thick block
of stone was found in North America and
belongs to the National Museum of
Mineralogy and Geology in Dresden,
Germany. The rock is located at
+51°2'34.84''
+13°45'26.67''. Deutsch: Dieses Bild
zeigt einen etwa 8,5 Tonnen schweren
und 2,1 Milliarden Jahre alten Block
mit Bändereisenerzen. Der etwa zwei
Meter hohe, drei Meter breite und einen
Meter tiefe Gesteinsblock wurde in
Nordamerika gefunden und gehört dem
Staatlichen Museum für Mineralogie und
Geologie Dresden. Der Block befindet
sich bei den Koordinaten +51°2'34.84''
+13°45'26.67''. Camera
data Camera Nikon D70 Lens Tamron
SP AF 90mm/2.8 Di Macro 1:1 Focal
length 90 mm Aperture f/2.8 Exposure
time 1/250 s Sensivity ISO 200 Please
help translating the description into
more languages. Thanks a lot! If
you want a license with the conditions
of your choice, please email me to
negotiate terms. best new
image Date 26 August
2005 Source Own
work Author André Karwath aka
Aka CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Black-band_iron
stone_%28aka%29.jpg/1280px-Black-band_ir
onstone_%28aka%29.jpg
[2] This rock resulted from
accumulations of ferrous Iron (Fe+2) in
oceans and lakes (which were more green
in color than today; ferrous iron can
produce that color as, for example, in
a Coca-Cola glass bottle). The Iron
readily combined with any available
oxygen, so that the latter was always
destined to be caught up in the iron
precipitates (Fe2O3) and thus didn't
remain in the atmosphere. While BIF is
a hallmark of sedimentary rock
formations during this extended period,
other rocks also formed (shales;
sandstones) but carbonates (limestones)
were much less commmon. Starting about
2.3 billion years ago, oxygen levels
and other factors led to common
production of ferric oxides (Hematite)
that made prominent red beds
periodically to the present. One
variety includes alternating chert
layers, some rich in iron PD
source: http://rst.gsfc.nasa.gov/Sect19/
2929573315_7bb69aeebb.jpg
[1] snowball Earth UNKNOWN
source: http://www.cosmosmagazine.com/fi
les/imagecache/feature/files/features/pr
int/20090528_snowball_earth.jpg
[2] Snowball Earth Snowball Earth
describes a theory that for millions of
years the Earth was entirely smothered
in ice, stretching from the poles to
the tropics. This freezing happened
over 650 million years ago in the
Pre-Cambrian, though it's now thought
that there may have been more than one
of these global glaciations. They
varied in duration and extent but
during a full-on snowball event, life
could only cling on in ice-free
refuges, or where sunlight managed to
penetrate through the ice to allow
photosynthesis. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/imag
es/ic/credit/640x395/s/sn/snowball_earth
/snowball_earth_1.jpg
example of a cell forming a spore.
Clearly forming a spore can be viewed
as cell differentiation. But clearly, a
cell changes form in small ways all the
time.)
Which cell differentiation is first is
unknown, between cells that form
spores, or cysts, and the cell
differentiation that is observed in
cyanobacterial filamentous cells.
Heterocysts are specialized
nitrogen-fixing cells formed by some
filamentous cyanobacteria, such as
Nostoc punctiforme and Anabaena
sperica, during nitrogen starvation.
They fix nitrogen from dinitrogen (N2)
in the air using the enzyme
nitrogenase, in order to provide the
cells in the filament with nitrogen for
biosynthesis. Nitrogenase is
inactivated by oxygen, so the
heterocyst must create a microanaerobic
environment. The heterocysts' unique
structure and physiology requires a
global change in gene expression. For
example, heterocysts:
* produce three additional cell
walls, including one of glycolipid that
forms a hydrophobic barrier to oxygen
*
produce nitrogenase and other proteins
involved in nitrogen fixation
* degrade
photosystem II, which produces oxygen
* up
regulate glycolytic enzymes, which use
up oxygen and provide energy for
nitrogenase
* produce proteins that scavenge
any remaining oxygen
Cyanobacteria usually obtain a fixed
carbon (carbohydrate) by
photosynthesis. The lack of photosystem
II prevents heterocysts from
photosynthesising, so the vegetative
cells provide them with carbohydrates,
which is thought to be sucrose. The
fixed carbon and nitrogen sources are
exchanged though channels between the
cells in the filament. Heterocysts
maintain photosystem I, allowing them
to generate ATP by cyclic
photophosphorylation.
Single heterocysts develop about every
9-15 cells, producing a one-dimensional
pattern along the filament. The
interval between heterocysts remains
approximately constant even though the
cells in the filament are dividing. The
bacterial filament can be seen as a
multicellular organism with two
distinct yet interdependent cell types.
Such behaviour is highly unusual in
prokaryotes and may have been the first
example of multicellular patterning in
evolution. Once a heterocyst has
formed, it cannot revert to a
vegetative cell, so this
differentiation can be seen as a form
of apoptosis. Certain
heterocyst-forming bacteria can
differentiate into spore-like cells
called akinetes or motile cells called
hormogonia, making them the most
phenotyptically versatile of all
prokaryotes.
The mechanism of controlling
heterocysts is thought to involve the
diffusion of an inhibitor of
differentiation called PatS. Heterocyst
formation is inhibited in the presence
of a fixed nitrogen source, such as
ammonium or nitrate. The bacteria may
also enter a symbiotic relationship
with certain plants. In such a
relationship, the bacteria do not
respond to the availability of
nitrogen, but to signals produced by
the plant. Up to 60% of the cells can
become heterocysts, providing fixed
nitrogen to the plant in return for
fixed carbon.
The cyanobacteria that form heterocysts
are divided into the orders Nostocales
and Stigonematales, which form simple
and branching filaments respectively.
Together they form a monophyletic
group, with very low genetic
variability.
[1] Adapted from: Anabaena smitthi
COPYRIGHTED FRANCE
source: http://www.ac-rennes.fr/pedagogi
e/svt/photo/microalg/anabaena.jpg
[2] Anabaena COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://home.manhattan.edu/~franc
es.cardillo/plants/monera/anabaena.gif
nitrogen compounds like ammonia from
Nitrogen gas.
Without bacteria that convert N2 into
nitrogen compounds, the supply of
nitrogen necessary for much of life
would be seriously limited and would
drastically slow evolution on earth.
Nitrogen
fixation is the process by which
nitrogen is taken from its relatively
inert molecular form (N2) in the
atmosphere and converted into nitrogen
compounds useful for other chemical
processes (such as, notably, ammonia,
nitrate and nitrogen dioxide).
Nitrogen fixation is performed
naturally by a number of different
prokaryotes, including bacteria, and
actinobacteria certain types of
anaerobic bacteria. Many higher plants,
and some animals (termites), have
formed associations with these
microorganisms.
The best-known are legumes (such as
clover, beans, alfalfa and peanuts,)
which contain symbiotic bacteria called
rhizobia within nodules in their root
systems, producing nitrogen compounds
that help the plant to grow and compete
with other plants. When the plant dies,
the nitrogen helps to fertilize the
soil. The great majority of legumes
have this association, but a few genera
(e.g., Styphnolobium) do not.
[1] Fig. 2. Modern cyanobacterial
akinetes and Archaeoellipsoides
fossils. (A) Three-month-old culture of
living A. cylindrica grown in a medium
without combined nitrogen. A, akinete;
H, heterocyst; V, vegetative cells.
(B–D) Shown are Archaeoellipsoides
fossils from 1,500-Ma Billyakh Group,
northern Siberia (B); 1,650-Ma McArthur
Group, northern Australia (C); and
2,100-Ma Franceville Group, Gabon (D).
(Scale bars, 10 μm.) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.pnas.org/content/103/
14/5442/F2.large.jpg
[2] Fig. 2. Modern cyanobacterial
akinetes and Archaeoellipsoides
fossils. (A) Three-month-old culture of
living A. cylindrica grown in a medium
without combined nitrogen. A, akinete;
H, heterocyst; V, vegetative cells.
(B–D) Shown are Archaeoellipsoides
fossils from 1,500-Ma Billyakh Group,
northern Siberia (B); 1,650-Ma McArthur
Group, northern Australia (C); and
2,100-Ma Franceville Group, Gabon (D).
(Scale bars, 10 μm.) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.pnas.org/content/103/
14/5442/F2.large.jpg
[1] Nucleolus, COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.eccentrix.com/members
/chempics/Slike/cell/Nucleolus.jpg
[2] With the combination of x-rays
from the Advanced Light Source and a
new protein-labeling technique,
scientists can see the distribution of
the nucleoli within the nucleus of a
mammary epithelial cell. USG PD
source: http://www.lbl.gov/Science-Artic
les/Archive/xray-inside-cells.html
[1] Figure 1 : Image of n, endoplasmic
reticulum and Golgi apparatus. (1)
Nucleus. (2) Nuclear pore. (3) Rough
endoplasmic reticulum (RER). (4) Smooth
endoplasmic reticulum (SER). (5)
Ribosome on the rough ER. (6) Proteins
that are transported. (7) Transport
vesicle. (8) Golgi apparatus. (9) Cis
face of the Golgi apparatus. (10) Trans
face of the Golgi apparatus. (11)
Cisternae of the Golgi apparatus. I
am the copyright holder of that image
(I might even have the CorelDraw file
around somewhere:-), and I hereby place
the image and all partial images
created from it in the public domain.
So, you are free to use it any way you
like. In fact, I am delighted that one
of my drawings makes it into
print! I can mail you the .cdr file,
if you like (and if I can find it), if
you need a better resolution for
printing. Yours, Magnus
Manske Source: See also User:Magnus
Manske
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Nucleus_ER_golgi.jpg
[2] Description English: The
elongation and membrane targeting
stages of eukaryotic translation. The
ribosome is green and yellow, the tRNAs
are dark blue, and the other proteins
involved are light blue. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3c/Translation.gif
(packages proteins and lipids into
vesicles for delivery to targeted
destinations).
A vesicle is a closed structure, found
only in eukaryotic cells, that is
completely surrounded by a membrane
but, unlike a vacuole, contains
material that is not in the liquid
state.
(Is this the only form of cellular
digestion?)
[1] Figure 1: Image of nucleus,
endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi
apparatus: (1) Nucleus, (2) Nuclear
pore, (3) Rough endoplasmic reticulum
(RER), (4) Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
(SER), (5) Ribosome on the rough ER,
(6) Proteins that are transported, (7)
Transport vesicle, (8) Golgi apparatus,
(9) Cis face of the Golgi apparatus,
(10) Trans face of the Golgi apparatus,
(11) Cisternae of the Golgi apparatus,
(12) Secretory vesicle, (13) Plasma
membrane, (14) Exocytosis, (15)
Cytoplasm, (16) Extracellular space.
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Nucleus_ER_golgi_ex.jpg
[2] no description UNKNOWN
source: http://sun.menloschool.org/~cwea
ver/cells/e/lysosomes/
accumulating in the air of Earth for
the first time, most recent uraninite
{YRANninIT}, a mineral that cannot
exist for much time if exposed to
oxygen.
formed on land, begin here, and are
also evidence of more free oxygen in
the air of Earth.
[1]
http://www.kgs.ukans.edu/Extension/redhi
lls/redhills.html
source: http://www.kgs.ukans.edu/Extensi
on/redhills/redhills.html
[2] In Archean rocks, metals tend to
occur in low oxidation states (for
example, Fe2+ instead of Fe3+)
indicating a high metal:oxygen ratio in
the oceans and atmosphere. The
sediments are essentially rust-free.
After the late Proterozoic,
sedimentary deposits often have reddish
colors and are called red beds due to
the presence of iron-oxide coatings
between sand grains. From the later
Proterozoic onward, enough free oxygen
has been available to oxidize iron in
sediments. A sandstone butte outside
of Sedona, Arizona. Public domain
image by Jon Sullivan. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/38/Butte_pdphoto_roadtri
p_24_bg_021604.jpg
related to Rickettsia prowazekii, an
aerobic proteobacteria, is engulfed by
an early eukaryote cell and over time a
symbiotic relationship evolves, where
the Rickettsia forms the mitochondria.
Mitochondria are membrane-bound
organelle found in the cytoplasm of
almost all eukaryotic cells where
cellular respiration occurs and most of
the ATP in a eukaryote cell is
produced. Mitochondria are typically
round to oval in shape and range in
size from 0.5 to 10 μm. The number of
mitochondria per cell varies widely;
for example, in humans, erythrocytes
(red blood cells) do not contain any
mitochondria, whereas liver cells and
muscle cells may contain hundreds or
even thousands. Mitochondria are unlike
other cellular organelles in that they
have two distinct membranes and a
unique genome and reproduce by binary
fission; these features indicate that
mitochondria share an evolutionary past
with prokaryotes.
In eukaryotes the mitochondria perform
the Citric Acid Cycle and Oxidative
phosphorylation using oxygen to
breakdown pyruvagte from glycolysis
into CO2 and H2O, and provide up 36 ATP
molecules.
This presumes that all known living
eukaryotes descend from a eukaryote
that had mitochondria, and that
eukaryotes without mitochondria, like
the metamonada, lost their mitochondria
secondarily.
[1] Figure from: Michael W. Gray, et
al, ''Genome structure and gene content
in protist mitochondrial DNAs'',
Nucl. Acids Res. (1998) 26(4):
865-878 doi:10.1093/nar/26.4.865
http://nar.oxfordjournals.org/content/
26/4/865.full Phylogenetic hypothesis
of the eukaryotic lineage based on
ultrastructural and molecular data.
Organisms are divided into three main
groups distinguished by mitochondrial
cristal shape (either discoidal,
flattened or tubular). Unbroken lines
indicate phylogenetic relationships
that are firmly supported by available
data; broken lines indicate
uncertainties in phylogenetic
placement, resolution of which will
require additional data. Color coding
of organismal genus names indicates
mitochondrial genomes that have been
completely (Table 1), almost completely
(Jakoba, Naegleria and
Thraustochytrium) or partially (*)
sequenced by the OGMP (red), the FMGP
(black) or other groups (green). Names
in blue indicate those species whose
mtDNAs are currently being sequenced by
the OGMP or are future candidates for
complete sequencing. Amitochondriate
retortamonads are positioned at the
base of the tree, with broken arrows
denoting the endosymbiotic origin(s) of
mitochondria from a Rickettsia-like
eubacterium. Macrophar.,
Macropharyngomonas.
source: http://nar.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/vol26/issue4/images/gkb18201.gif
[2] Figure 1 Phylogenetic tree of
eukaryotes based on ultrastructural and
molecular data. Organisms are
sub-divided into main groups as
discussed in the text. Only a few
representative species for which
complete (or almost complete) mtDNA
sequences are known are shown in each
lineage. In some cases, line drawings
or actual pictures of the organisms are
provided (Acanthamoeba, M. Nagata; URL:
http://protist.i.hosei.ac.jp/PDB/PCD3379
/htmls/21.html; Allomyces, Tom Volk;
URL:
http://botit.botany.wisc.edu/images/332/
Chytridiomycota/Allomyces_r_So_pa/A._arb
uscula_pit._sporangia_tjv.html;
Amoebidium, URL:
http://cgdc3.igmors.upsud.fr/microbiolog
ie/mesomycetozoaires.htm; Marchantia,
URL:
http://www.science.siu.edu/landplants/He
patophyta/images/March.female.JPEG
Scenedesmus, Entwisle et al.,
http://www.rbgsyd.gov.au/_data/page/1824
/Scenedesmus.gif). The color-coding of
the main groups (alternating between
dark and light blue) on the outer
circle corresponds to the color-coding
of the species names. Unbroken lines
indicate phylogenetic relationships
that are firmly supported by available
molecular data; broken lines indicate
uncertainties in phylogenetic
placement, resolution of which will
require additional sequence data. [t:
why not color code or add which type of
mito?]
source: http://arjournals.annualreviews.
org/doi/full/10.1146/annurev.genet.37.11
0801.142526
[1] {ULSF: Homeobox genes} Desajustes
en el modelo UNKNOWN
source: http://cnho.files.wordpress.com/
2010/07/hox_genes_illus.png
[2] {ULSF: Homeobox genes} UNKNOWN
source: http://cnho.files.wordpress.com/
2010/07/homeobox1.jpg
USA
[1]
file:/root/web/Grypania_spiralis_wmel000
0.htm
source: file:/root/web/Grypania_spiralis
_wmel0000.htm
[2]
http://www.peripatus.gen.nz/paleontology
/lrgGrypaniaspiralis.jpg
source: http://www.peripatus.gen.nz/pale
ontology/lrgGrypaniaspiralis.jpg
[1] Ted Huntington PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/62/MichiganBIF.jpg
[2] Ted Huntington PD
source: Ted Huntington
brown algae (and Stramenopiles) fossil.
These fossils help support a limit for
multicellular algal fossil (metaphyta)
of at least 1700 million years ago.
If eukaryote these would be the
earliest eukaryote fossils with both
filamentous multicellularity and cell
differentiation and also the earliest
algae fossil with leaf structures.
Knoll et al write in 2006 that:
"Examination of Tuanshanzi structures
in outcrop by one of us (A. H. Knoll)
suggests that the features in question
can alternatively be interpreted as
rare, fortuitously shaped fragments
deposited among many irregular mat
shards.".
North China
[1] Figure 4 from: Zhu Shixing and
Chen Huineng, ''Megascopic
Multicellular Organisms from the
1700-Million-Year-Old Tuanshanzi
Formation in the Jixian Area, North
China'', Science , New Series, Vol.
270, No. 5236 (Oct. 27, 1995), pp.
620-622. http://www.jstor.org/stable/28
88330 {Shixing_Huineng_19950331.pdf} C
OPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2888
330
[2] Figure 3 from: Zhu Shixing and
Chen Huineng, ''Megascopic
Multicellular Organisms from the
1700-Million-Year-Old Tuanshanzi
Formation in the Jixian Area, North
China'', Science , New Series, Vol.
270, No. 5236 (Oct. 27, 1995), pp.
620-622. http://www.jstor.org/stable/28
88330 {Shixing_Huineng_19950331.pdf} C
OPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2888
330
[1] Figure 1: Figure 1. Eukaryote
phylogeny integrating ultrastructure,
sequence trees, gene fusions and
molecular cladistic markers. The
unikont topology is established, but
the branching order of the six bikont
groups remains uncertain. The single
enslavement [12] of a red alga (R) to
create chromalveolates is supported by
a plastid glyceraldehyde phosphate
dehydrogenase (GAPDH) replacement [13].
Whether there was a single enslavement
of a green alga (G) to form cabozoa or
two separate enslavements (asterisks)
to form Cercozoa and Excavata is
uncertain [12], as is the position of
Heliozoa [14]. Polyubiquitin [15] and
EF-1α[16] insertions strongly support
the clades core Rhizaria and
opisthokonts. The inset shows the BamHI
restriction fragment from H.
cantabrigiensis that was sequenced and
analysed in this study, spanning the
DHFR and the amino terminus of the TS
gene (red, introns are green). The
length of the noncoding regions
upstream and downstream of the DHFR
gene from one of the clones is
indicated. Figure 1 from: Stechmann
A, Cavalier-Smith T, ''The root of the
eukaryote tree pinpointed.'', 2003,
Curr. Biol. 13, R665–R666.
doi:10.1016/S0960-9822(03)00602-X. http
://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article
/pii/S096098220300602X COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=MiamiCaptionURL&_method=retriev
e&_eid=1-s2.0-S096098220300602X&_image=1
-s2.0-S096098220300602X-gr1_lrg.jpg&_ba=
&_fmt=full&_orig=na&_issn=09609822&_pii=
S096098220300602X&_isHiQual=Y&_acct=C000
059600&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=
4422&md5=cec46b2161caca87740f4ff34545ab6
9
[2] cavalier-smith diagram COPYRIGHTED
source: cavalier_jmolevol_2003_56_540-56
3.pdf
Phylum Amoebozoa (also called
Ramicristates) which includes amoeba
and slime molds evolving now.
The Amoebozoa are a major group of
amoeboid protozoa, including the
majority that move by means of internal
cytoplasmic flow. Their pseudopodia are
characteristically blunt and
finger-like, called lobopodia. Most are
unicellular, and are common in soils
and aquatic habitats, with some found
as symbiotes of other organisms,
including several pathogens. The
Amoebozoa also include the slime
moulds, multinucleate or multicellular
forms that produce spores and are
usually visible to the unaided eye.
Mycetozoa are the slime molds.
4. Plasmodial
Slime Molds
a. Plasmodial
slime molds exist as a plasmodium. (the
earlier evolved acrasid cellular slime
molds exist as individual amoeboid
cells.)
b. This diploid
multinucleated cytoplasmic mass creeps
along, phagocytizing decaying plant
material.
c. Fan-shaped plasmodium
contains tubules of concentrated
cytoplasm in which liquefied cytoplasm
streams.
d. Under unfavorable
environmental conditions (e.g.,
drought), the plasmodium develops many
sporangia
that produce spores by
meiosis.
e. When mature, spores are
released and survive until more
favorable environmental conditions
return;
then each releases a
haploid flagellated cell or an amoeboid
cell.
f. Two flagellated or
amoeboid cells fuse to form diploid
zygote that produces a multi-nucleated
plasmodium.
Nuclear division in giant amoebas
(Peolobiont/Amoebozoa) is neither
mitosis nor binary fission, but
incorporates aspects of both (Fig.
3-7). Chromosomes are attached
permanently to the nuclear membrane by
their centromeres (MTOCs, microtubule
organizing centers), and the nuclear
membrane remains intact throughout
division. After DNA duplication
produces two chromatids, the point of
attachment, the MTOC duplicates or
divides, and microtubules are assembled
between the two resulting MTOCs.
Elongating microtubules form something
akin to a spindle within the nuclear
membrane that pushes the daughter
chromosomes apart and elongate the
membrane-bounded nucleus until it blebs
in half in something akin to binary
fission. Simple assembly of
microtubules accomplishes the
separation of daughter genomes in this
simple nuclear division. In typical
eukaryotic mitosis, the separation of
daughter chromosomes is accomplished by
a dual action, the disassembly of
spindle fibers connecting the daughter
chromosome to the polar MTOC, and
assembly of spindle fibers running pole
to pole.
Thomas Cavalier-Smith and Ema E. -Y.
Chao write: "Amoebozoa are a key
protozoan phylum because of the
possibility that they are ancestrally
uniciliate and unicentriolar
(Cavalier-Smith 2000a,b); present data
on the DHFR-TS gene fusion leaves open
the possibility that they might be the
earliest-diverging eukaryotes
(Stechmann and Cavalier-Smith 2002),
but they may be evolutionarily closer
to bikonts or even opisthokonts.
Amoebozoa comprise two subphyla
(Cavalier-Smith 1998a): Lobosa,
classical aerobic amoebae with broad
("lobose") pseudopods (including the
testate Arcellinida), and Conosa (slime
molds {Mycetozoa, e.g., Dictyostelium}
and amitochondrial-often
uniciliate-archamaebae {entamoebae,
mastigamoebae}). Contrary to early
analyses (Sogin 1991; Cavalier-Smith
1993a), there is no reason to regard
Amoebozoa as polyphyletic; the defects
of those classical uncorrected rRNA
trees are shown by trees using 123
proteins that robustly establish the
monophyly of both Archamoebae and
Conosa (Bapteste et al. 2002). Unless
the tree's root is within Conosa,
Dictyostelium and Entamoeba must have
evolved independently from aerobic
flagellates by ciliary losses. A recent
mitochondrial gene tree based on
concatenating six different proteins
grouped Dictyostelium with Physarum
(99% support) and both Mycetozoa as
sisters to Acanthamoeba (99% support),
thus providing strong evidence for the
monophyly of Mycetozoa and the grouping
of Lobosa and Conosa as Amoebozoa
(Forget et al. 2002)-the same tree also
strongly supports the idea based on
morphology that Allomyces should be
excluded from Chytridiomycetes (in the
separate class Allomycetes) and is
phylogenetically closer to zygomycetes
and higher fungi (Cavalier-Smith 1998a,
2000c). Furthermore, the derived gene
fusion between two cytochrome oxidase
genes, coxI and coxII (Lang et al.
1999), strongly supports the holophyly
of Mycetozoa. Since Archamoebae
secondarily lost mitochondria, the root
cannot lie among them either-although
anaerobiosis in Archamoebae is derived,
it is unjustified to conclude from this
that their simple ciliary root
organization, which was a key reason
for considering them early eukaryotes
(Cavalier-Smith 1991c), is also
secondarily derived (Edgcomb et al.
2002). Thus the root of the eukaryote
tree cannot lie within the Conosa.
As Mycetozoa and Archamoebae have very
long-branch rRNA sequences, Conosa were
excluded from the analysis in Fig. 1,
which includes only Lobosa. Although
the monophyly of Acanthamoebida (99%)
and of Euamoebida (85%) is well
supported, the basal branching of the
Lobosa is so poorly resolved that the
monophyly of Lobosa might appear open
to question. The four lobosan lineages
apparently diverged early. However, in
the 279- and 227-species trees, which
included Conosa, anaeromonads did not
intrude into the Amoebozoa as they do
in Fig. 1, and Amoebozoa were
monophyletic (low support) except for
the exclusion of M. invertens. M.
invertens is another wandering branch,
which in some taxon sample/methods
groups very weakly with other
Amoebozoa, but more often ends up in a
different place in each tree! We concur
with the judgment of Milyutina et al.
(2001)Edgcomb et al. (2002) that it
should not be regarded as a pelobiont
or Archamoeba, but as a lobosan that
independently became an anaerobe with
degenerate mitochondria. Its tendency
to drift around the tree, coupled with
its short branch, suggests that it may
be a particularly early-diverging
amoebozoan lineage. If so, its
unicentriolar condition would give
added support to the idea that
Amoebozoa are ancestrally uniciliate,
if it could be shown that Amoebozoa are
either holophyletic or not at the base
of the tree.
Most, if not all, amoebae evolved from
amoeboid zooflagellates by multiple
ciliary losses (Cavalier-Smith 2000a).
As the uniciliate condition is
widespread within Amoebozoa
(Cavalier-Smith 2000a, 2002b), it may
be their ancestral condition; if so,
ordinary nonciliate amoebozoan amoebae
arose several times independently.
Evolution of amoebae from
zooflagellates by ciliary loss also
occurred separately in Choanozoa to
produce Nuclearia and in several bikont
groups, notably Percolozoa
(heterolobosean amoebae, e.g.,
Vahlkampfia) and Cercozoa. However, we
cannot currently exclude the
possibility that the eukaryote tree is
rooted within the lobosan Amoebozoa, in
which case one of its nonciliate
lineages (Euamoebida or Vanellidae)
might be primitively nonciliate and the
earliest-diverging eukaryotic lineage.
However, as the idea that the nucleus
and a single centriole and cilium
coevolved in the ancestral eukaryote
(Cavalier-Smith 1987a) retains its
theoretical merits, we think it more
likely that all Amoebozoa are derived
from a uniciliate ancestor and that
crown Amoebozoa are a clade.".
Amoebozoa vary greatly in size. Many
are only 10-20 μm in size, but they
also include many of the larger
protozoa. The famous species Amoeba
proteus may reach 800 μm in length,
and partly on account of its size is
often studied as a representative cell.
Multinucleate amoebae like Chaos and
Pelomyxa may be several millimetres in
length, and some slime moulds cover
several square feet.
The cell is typically divided into a
granular central mass, called
endoplasm, and a clear outer layer,
called ectoplasm. During locomotion the
endoplasm flows forwards and the
ectoplasm runs backwards along the
outside of the cell. Many amoebae move
with a definite anterior and posterior;
in essence the cell functions as a
single pseudopod. They usually produce
numerous clear projections called
subpseudopodia (or determinate
pseudopodia), which have a defined
length and are not directly involved in
locomotion.
Other amoebozoans may form multiple
indeterminate pseudopodia, which are
more or less tubular and are mostly
filled with granular endoplasm. The
cell mass flows into a leading
pseudopod, and the others ultimately
retract unless it changes direction.
Subpseudopodia are usually absent. In
addition to a few naked forms like
Amoeba and Chaos, this includes most
amoebae that produce shells. These may
be composed of organic materials, as in
Arcella, or of collected particles
cemented together, as in Difflugia,
with a single opening through which the
pseudopodia emerge.
The primary mode of nutrition is by
phagocytosis: the cell surrounds
potential food particles, sealing them
into vacuoles where the may be digested
and absorbed. Some amoebae have a
posterior bulb called a uroid, which
may serve to accumulate waste,
periodically detaching from the rest of
the cell. When food is scarce, most
species can form cysts, which may be
carried aerially and introduce them to
new environments. In slime moulds,
these structures are called spores, and
form on stalked structures called
fruiting bodies or sporangia.
Most Amoebozoa lack flagella and more
generally do not form
microtubule-supported structures except
during mitosis. However, flagella occur
among the pelobionts, and many slime
moulds produce biflagellate gametes.
The flagella is generally anchored by a
cone of microtubules, suggesting a
close relationship to the opisthokonts.
The mitochondria characteristically
have branching tubular cristae, but
have been lost among pelobionts and the
parasitic entamoebids, collectively
referred to as archamoebae based on the
earlier assumption that the absence was
primitive.
Traditionally all amoebae with lobose
pseudopods were treated together as the
Lobosea, placed with other amoeboids in
the phylum Sarcodina or Rhizopoda, but
these were considered to be unnatural
groups. Structural and genetic studies
identified several independent groups:
the percolozoans, pelobionts, and
entamoebids. In phylogenies based on
rRNA their representatives were
separate from other amoebae, and
appeared to diverge near the base of
eukaryotic evolution, as did most slime
molds.
However, revised trees by
Cavalier-Smith and Chao in 1996
suggested that the remaining lobosans
do form a monophyletic group, and that
the archamoebae and Mycetozoa are
closely related to it, although the
percolozoans are not. Subsequently they
emended (to improve by editing) the
older phylum Amoebozoa to refer to this
supergroup. Studies based on other
genes have provided strong support for
the unity of this group. Patterson
treated most with the testate filose
amoebae as the ramicristates, based on
mitochondrial similarities, but the
latter are now removed to the Cercozoa.
Amoebae are difficult to classify, and
relationships within the phylum remain
confused. Originally it was divided
into the subphyla Conosa, comprising
the archamoebae and Mycetozoa, and
Lobosa, including the more typical
lobose amoebae. Molecular phylogenies
provide some support for this division
if the Lobosa are understood to be
paraphyletic. They also suggest the
morphological families of naked
lobosans may correspond at least partly
to natural groups:
* Leptomyxida
* Amoebidae
* Hartmannellidae
* Paramoebidae
*
Vannellidae
* Vexilliferidae
* Acanthamoebidae
* Stereomyxidae
However, many amoebae have not yet been
studied via molecular techniques,
including all those that produce shells
(Arcellinida).
PHYLUM Amoebozoa (Lühe, 1913 emend.)
Cavalier-Smith, 1998
CLASS
Breviatea
CLASS Variosea
CLASS Phalansterea (T. Cavalier-Smith,
2000)
SUBPHYLUM Lobosa (Carpenter,
1861) Cavalier-Smith, 1997 (lobose
amoebas)
CLASS Amoebaea
CLASS
Testacealobosea (includes shelled
lobosid amebas {testate amoebas})
CLASS
Holomastigea T. Cavalier-Smith, 1997
("1996-1997")
SUBPHYLUM Conosa
(Cavalier-Smith, 1998)
INTRAPHYLUM
Mycetozoa (De Bary, 1859)
Cavalier-Smith, 1998 (Slime Molds)
SUPERCLASS Eumyxa (Cavalier-Smith,
1993) Cavalier-Smith, 1998
CLASS
Protostelea (C.J. Alexopoulos & C.W.
Mims, 1979 orthog. emend.)
CLASS Myxogastrea (E.M. Fries, 1829
stat. nov. J. Feltgen, 1889 orthog.
emend.) (plasmodial slime molds)
SUPERCLASS Dictyostelia (Lister, 1909)
Cavalier-Smith, 1998
CLASS
Dictyostelea (D.L. Hawksworth et
al., 1983, orthog. emend.)
INTRAPHYLUM Archamoebae
(Cavalier-Smith, 1983) Cavalier-Smith,
1998
CLASS Pelobiontea (F.C. Page,
1976 stat. nov. T. Cavalier-Smith,
1981)
CLASS Entamoebea (T.
Cavalier-Smith, 1991)
SUBPHYLUM Lobosa
SUBPHYLUM Conosa
The Conosea unifies amoebae
which usually possess flagellate stages
or are amoeboflagellates. This clade
consists of two relatively solid groups
� the Mycetozoa and Archamoebae,
grouped by Cavalier-Smith (1998) in the
taxon Conosa, as well as a number of
independent lineages, including two
flagellates � Phalansterium
(Cavalier-Smith et al. 2004) and
Multicilia (Nikolaev et al. 2004), and
two gymnamoebae � Gephyramoeba and
Filamoeba (Amaral Zettler et al. 2000).
Because of large variations of the
substitution rates in SSU rRNA genes
within this clade, its internal
relationships are not resolved yet.
The Mycetozoa comprises two distinct
groups of "slime molds", the
Myxogastria and Protostelia (Dykstra
and Keller 2000). This is a
well-defined group of protists,
characterized by the ability to form
so-called "fruiting bodies". In some
lineages of Mycetozoa the fruiting body
is raised over the substratum on a
distinct stalk. Both groups possess
complex life cycles including an
aggregation of cells, however the
essential difference between them is
that in Protostelia, only a
pseudoplasmodium is formed (without
fusion of the cells constituting the
aggregate), while in Myxogastria a true
plasmodium is formed (the cells
completely fuse, forming a single
organism) (Olive 1975; Dykstra and
Keller 2000). The monophyly of
Mycetozoa was proposed based on
elongation factor 1-alpha gene
sequences (Baldauf and Doolittle 1997)
but it is not always recovered in SSU
rRNA trees (Cavalier-Smith et al. 2004;
Nikolaev et al. 2004).
The Archamoebae comprise amoeboid and
amoeboflagellate protists characterized
by a secondary absence of mitochondria
(mostly due to parasitism or life in
anoxic environments). This group
includes the free-living genera
Mastigamoeba, Mastigella, and Pelomyxa
(the pelobionts) and the parasitic
genera Entamoeba and Endolimax (the
entamoebids). The consistent grouping
of all these amitochondriate amoeboid
organisms in both SSU rRNA and actin
gene phylogenies (Fahrni et al. 2003)
suggests a single loss of the
mitochondria during the evolution of
Amoebozoa.
CLASS Amoebaea
ORDER Euamoebida Lepsi, 1960
FAMILY Amoebidae (Ehrenberg 1838)
The
Amoebidae are a family of amoebozoa,
including naked amoebae that produce
multiple pseudopodia of indeterminate
length. These are roughly cylindrical
in form, with a central stream of
granular endoplasm, and do not have
subpseudopodia. During locomotion one
pseudopod typically becomes dominant,
and the others are retracted as the
body flows into it. In some cases the
cell moves by "walking", with the
relatively permanent pseudopodia
serving as limbs.
The most important genera are Amoeba
and Chaos, which are set apart from the
others by longitudinal ridges. They
group together on molecular trees,
suggesting the Amoebidae are a natural
group. Shelled amoebozoans have not
been studied molecularly but produce
very similar pseudopodia, so although
they are traditionally classified
separately they may be closely related
to this group.
GENUS Amoeba (Bery de St. Vincent 1822)
Amoeba (also spelled ameba) is a genus
of protozoa that moves by means of
temporary projections called
pseudopods, and is well-known as a
representative unicellular organism.
The word amoeba is variously used to
refer to it and its close relatives,
now grouped as the Amoebozoa, or to all
protozoa that move using pseudopods,
otherwise termed amoeboids.
Amoeba itself is found in freshwater,
typically on decaying vegetation from
streams, but is not especially common
in nature. However, because of the ease
with which they may be obtained and
kept in the lab, they are common
objects of study, both as
representative protozoa and to
demonstrate cell structure and
function. The cells have several lobose
pseudopods, with one large tubular
pseudopod at the anterior and several
secondary ones branching to the sides.
The most famous species, Amoeba
proteus, is 700-800 μm in length, but
many others are much smaller. Each has
a single nucleus, and a simple
contractile vacuole which maintains its
osmotic pressure, as its most
recognizable features.
Early naturalists referred to Amoeba as
the Proteus animalcule, after a Greek
god who could change his shape. The
name "amibe" was given to it by Bery
St. Vincent, from the Greek amoibe,
meaning change.
A good method of collecting amoeba is
to lower a jar upside down until it is
just above the sediment surface. Then
one should slowly let the air escape so
the top layer will be sucked into the
jar. Deeper sediment should not be
allowed to get sucked in. It is
possible to slowly move the jar when
tilting it to collect from a larger
area. If no amoeba are found, one can
try introducing some rice grains into
the jar and waiting for them to start
to rot. The bacteria eating the rice
will be eaten by the amoeba, thus
increasing the population and making
them easier to find.
Family Hartmannellidae (Volkonsky
1931)
The Hartmannellidae are a common family
of amoebozoa, usually found in soils.
When active they tend to be roughly
cylindrical in shape, with a single
leading pseudopod and no
subpseudopodia. This form somewhat
resembles a slug, and as such they are
also called limax amoebae. Trees based
on rRNA show the Hartmannellidae are
paraphyletic to the Amoebidae and
Leptomyxida, which may adopt similar
forms.
FAMILY Vannellidae (Bovee 1970)
The
Vannellidae are a distinctive family of
amoebozoa. During locomotion they tend
to be flattened and fan-shaped,
although some are long and narrow, and
have a prominent clear margin at the
anterior. In most amoebae, the
endoplasm glides forwards through the
center of the cell, but in vannellids
the cell undergoes a sort of rolling
motion, with the outer membrane sliding
around like a tank tread.
These amoebae are usually 10-40 μm in
size, but some are smaller or larger.
The most common genus is Vannella,
found mainly in soils, but also in
freshwater and marine habitats. Trees
based on rRNA support the monophyly of
the family.
SUBPHYLUM Conosa Cavalier-Smith, 1998
INTRAPHYLUM Archamoebae
(Cavalier-Smith, 1983) Cavalier-Smith,
1998
CLASS Pelobiontea F.C. Page, 1976
stat. nov. T. Cavalier-Smith, 1981
ORDER Pelobiontida (Page 1976)
The pelobionts
are a small group of amoebozoa. The
most notable member is Pelomyxa, a
giant amoeba with multiple nuclei and
inconspicuous non-motile flagella. The
other genera, called mastigamoebae, are
often uninucleate, have a single
anterior flagellum used in swimming,
and produce numerous determinate
pseudopodia.
Pelobionts are closely related to the
entamoebids and like them have no
mitochondria; in addition, pelobionts
also do not have dictyosomes. At one
point these absences were considered
primitive. However, molecular trees
place the two groups with other lobose
amoebae in the phylum Amoebozoa, so
these are secondary losses.
SUBPHYLUM Conosa Cavalier-Smith, 1998
INTRAPHYLUM Archamoebae
(Cavalier-Smith, 1983) Cavalier-Smith,
1998
CLASS Entamoebea T. Cavalier-Smith,
1991
The entamoebids or entamoebae are a
group of amoebozoa found as internal
parasites or commensals of animals. The
cells are uninucleate small, typically
10-100 μm across, and usually have a
single lobose pseudopod taking the form
of a clear anterior bulge. There are
two major genera, Entamoeba and
Endolimax. They include several species
that are pathogenic in humans, most
notably Entamoeba histolytica, which
causes amoebic dysentery.
Entamoebids lack mitochondria. This is
a secondary loss, possibly associated
with their parasitic life-cycle.
Studies show they are close relatives
of the pelobionts, another group of
amitochondriate amoebae, but unlike
them entamoebids retain dictyosomes.
Both groups are now placed alongside
other lobose amoebae in the phylum
Amoebozoa.
Studying Entamoeba invadens, David
Biron of the Weizmann Institute of
Science and coworkers found that about
one third of the cells are unable to
separate unaided and recruit a
neighboring amoeba (dubbed the
"midwife") to complete the fission. He
writes:
"When an amoeba divides, the two
daughter cells stay attached by a
tubular tether which remains intact
unless mechanically severed. If called
upon, the neighbouring amoeba midwife
travels up to 200 μm towards the
dividing amoeba, usually advancing in a
straight trajectory with an average
velocity of about 0.5 μm/s. The
midwife then proceeds to rupture the
connection, after which all three
amoebae move on."
They also reported a similar behavior
in Dictyostelium.
Entamoeba coli is a non-pathogenic
species of entamoebid that is important
clinically in humans only because it
can be confused with Entamoeba
histolytica, which is pathogenic, on
microscopic examination of stained
stool specimens. A simple finding of
Entamoeba coli trophozoites or cysts in
a stool specimen requires no treatment.
Entamoeba histolytica is an anaerobic
parasitic protozoan, classified as an
entamoebid. It infects predominantly
humans and other primates. Diverse
mammals such as dogs and cats can
become infected but usually do not shed
cysts (the environmental survival form
of the organism) with their feces, thus
do not contribute significantly to
transmission. The active (trophozoite)
stage exists only in the host and in
fresh feces; cysts survive outside the
host in water and soils and on foods,
especially under moist conditions on
the latter. When swallowed they cause
infections by excysting (to the
trophozoite stage) in the digestive
tract.
Endolimax nana, a small entamoebid that
is a commensal of the human intestine,
causes no known disease. It is most
significant in medicine because it can
provide false positives for other
tests, such as for the related species
Entamoeba histolytica which causes
amoebic dysentery, and because its
presence indicates that the host once
consumed feces. It forms cysts with
four nuclei which excyst in the body
and become trophozoites. Endolimax nana
nuclei have a large endosome somewhat
off-center and small amounts of visible
chromatin or none at all.
Actinopod reproduction may involve
binary fission or the formation of
swarmer cells, and sexual processes
occur in some groups. Their
mitochondrial cristae are usually
tubular, but in some groups there are
vesicular or flattened, plate-like
cristae.
(Are amoeba haplodiploid?)
[1] SUBPHYLUM Lobosa CLASS Amoebaea
Chaos diffluens, an amoeba. Photo
released by Dr. Ralf Wagner.
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Chaos_diffluens.jpg
[2] CLASS Amoebaea Mayorella (may-or
-ell-a) a medium sized free-living
naked amoeba with conical pseudopodia.
Central body is the nucleus. Phase
contrast. This picture was taken by
David Patterson of material from
Limulus-ridden sediments at Plum Island
(Massachusetts USA) in spring and
summer, 2001. NONCOMMERCIAL USE
source: http://microscope.mbl.edu/script
s/microscope.php?func=imgDetail&imageID=
515
microfossils, "Tappania plana". If true
this would be the oldest eukaryote
fossil.
Neoproterozoic fossils of Tappania from
the Neoproterozoic (800-900 MY) have
fused branches, a process found in
higher fungi.
[1] a, c, Tappania plana, showing
asymmetrically distributed processes
and bulbous protrusions (arrow in a).
b, detail of a, showing dichotomously
branching process. d, Valeria
lophostriata. e, Dictyosphaera sp. f,
Satka favosa. The scale bar in a is 35
m for a and c; 10 m for b; 100 m for d;
15 m for e; and 40 m for f. Figure 1
from: Javaux, Emmanuelle J., Andrew H.
Knoll, and Malcolm R. Walter.
“Morphological and Ecological
Complexity in Early Eukaryotic
Ecosystems.” Nature 412.6842 (2001):
66–69.
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
412/n6842/abs/412066a0.html
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v412/n6842/images/412066aa.2.jpg
[2] Figure 2 from: JAVAUX, EMMANUELLE
J., ANDREW H. KNOLL, and MALCOLM R.
WALTER. “TEM Evidence for Eukaryotic
Diversity in mid-Proterozoic Oceans.”
Geobiology 2.3 (2004):
121–132. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.c
om/doi/10.1111/j.1472-4677.2004.00027.x/
full COPYRIGHTED
source: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/s
tore/10.1111/j.1472-4677.2004.00027.x/as
set/image_n/GBI_027_f2.gif?v=1&t=gyteims
d&s=6988e942a6736a4fd4f748f2cefcc1acfbd2
ea74
Fungi, Choanoflagellates and Animals).
Mitochondria with flattened christae.
[1] Parasite spore, SEM Z115/0073
Rights Managed Credit: EYE OF
SCIENCE/SCIENCE PHOTO
LIBRARY Caption: Parasite spore.
Coloured scanning electron micrograph
(SEM) of a microsporidian (Tubulinosema
ratisbonensis) spore cultured on human
lung fibroblast cells (brown).
Microsporidia are single-celled
parasites. T. ratisbonenesis is a
parasite of the fruit fly (Drosophila
melanogaster), but may also be able to
infect humans with weakened immune
systems. The spore is the infective
phase of the life cycle. It is excreted
by the old host and enters the gut of a
new host. The contents of the spore,
the sporoplasm, is injected into the
host's cell via the polar tubule. Once
in the cell the organism divides many
times with the resultant organisms
producing more spores. Magnification:
x10,000 at 10 centimetres
wide. Release details: Model and
property releases are not available
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.sciencephoto.com/imag
e/365473/large/Z1150073-Parasite_spore,_
SEM-SPL.jpg
[2] Parasite spore, SEM Z115/0073
Rights Managed Credit: EYE OF
SCIENCE/SCIENCE PHOTO
LIBRARY Caption: Parasite spore.
Coloured scanning electron micrograph
(SEM) of a microsporidian (Tubulinosema
ratisbonensis) spore cultured on human
lung fibroblast cells (brown).
Microsporidia are single-celled
parasites. T. ratisbonenesis is a
parasite of the fruit fly (Drosophila
melanogaster), but may also be able to
infect humans with weakened immune
systems. The spore is the infective
phase of the life cycle. It is excreted
by the old host and enters the gut of a
new host. The contents of the spore,
the sporoplasm, is injected into the
host's cell via the polar tubule. Once
in the cell the organism divides many
times with the resultant organisms
producing more spores. Magnification:
x10,000 at 10 centimetres
wide. Release details: Model and
property releases are not available
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.sciencephoto.com/imag
e/365473/large/Z1150073-Parasite_spore,_
SEM-SPL.jpg
Formation) Somerset Island, arctic
Canada
[1] Bodanella (bow-dan-ell-a)
lauterbornii, a branching filamentous
brown alga. Nearly all brown algae are
marine organisms, but this species is
found in the bottoms of freshwater
lakes. Bright field. data on this
strain. This image is of material
from Provasoli-Guillard National Center
for Culture of Marine Phytoplankton,
images taken by David Patterson and Bob
Andersen. Image copyright: Bob Andersen
and D. J. Patterson, image used under
license to MBL
(micro*scope). NONCOMMERCIAL USE ONLY
source: http://starcentral.mbl.edu/msr/r
awdata/files/bodonella_bgz.zip
[2] Bodanella (bow-dan-ell-a)
lauterbornii, a branching filamentous
brown alga. Nearly all brown algae are
marine organisms, but this species is
found in the bottoms of freshwater
lakes. Bright field. data on this
strain. This image is of material
from Provasoli-Guillard National Center
for Culture of Marine Phytoplankton,
images taken by David Patterson and Bob
Andersen. Image copyright: Bob Andersen
and D. J. Patterson, image used under
license to MBL
(micro*scope). NONCOMMERCIAL USE ONLY
source: http://starcentral.mbl.edu/msr/r
awdata/viewable/bodonella_bgw.jpg
form plastids (chloroplasts) through
symbiosis, within a eukaryote cell
(endosymbiosis). Like mitochondria,
these organelles copy themselves and
are not made by the cell DNA.
Chloroplasts use their green pigment to
trap light particles to synthesize
carbon compounds from carbon dioxide
and water supplied by the host plant.
This is a primary plastid
endosymbiosis, and genetic analysis
supports the theory that all green
plants, which are eukaryotes with
double membrane plastids, are descended
from a single common ancestor. All
primary plastids are surrounded by two
membranes, because the cyanobacteria
was enclosed in a vacuole. The inner
wall being that of the bacterium, the
outer wall that of the alga. Most
plastids contain a single, circular
chromosome of about 200 kilobases and
encode about 100-120 genes, while a
free-living cyanobacteria typically has
a genome of about 2500 Kilobases. The
genes that remain in the plastid are
primarily involved in photosynthesis,
transcription and translation of
plastid genes, and ATP synthesis. But,
most of the genes needed to maintain
the plastid are encoded in the cell
nucleus.
A secondary plastid endosymbiosis,
where an algae cell is captured instead
of a cyanobacteria, which results in a
plastid with more than two membranes,
has happened at least three times.
Euglenozoa and chlorarachniophytes
acquired plastids from green alga, and
the Chromalveolates (the most abundant
group with secondary plastids) acquired
them from a red alga.
A third (tertiary) plastid
endosymbiosis occurs when an alga
containing a plastid of secondary
endosymbiotic origin (for example a
chromist) is engulfed and reduced to a
photosynthetic organelle.
Dinoflagellates are the only group
currently known to have tertiary
plastids. Tertiary plastids in
dinoflagellates have been acquired from
haptophyte and prasinophyte algae and
from diatoms. Currently there are five
plastids known in dinoflagellates, each
with its own evolutionary history.
There are different kinds of plastids
including aleuroplasts, amyloplasts,
chloroplasts, chromoplasts,
elaioplasts, and etioplasts.
[1] Description Plagiomnium
affine, Laminazellen, Rostock Date
created 01.11.2006 Source
photographed by myself Author
Kristian Peters --
Fabelfroh Permission (Reusing this
file) GFDL
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/49/Plagiomnium_affine_la
minazellen.jpeg
[1] ? COPYRIGHTED
source: http://protist.i.hosei.ac.jp/PDB
3/PCD3711/htmls/86.html
[2] (See Image) COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). (c1500)
to 1 m) mostly free-living but some
parasitic or symbiotic, with
chloroplasts containing phycobilins.
Cell walls made of cellulose with
mucopolysaccharides penetrated in many
red algae by pores partially blocked by
proteins (complex referred to as pit
connections). Usually with separated
phases of vegetative growth and sexual
reproduction. Common and widespread,
ecologically important, economically
important (source of agar). No
flagella. Ultrastructural identity:
Mitochondria with flat cristae,
sometimes associated with forming faces
of dictyosomes. Thylakoids single, with
phycobilisomes, plastids with
peripheral thylakoid. During mitosis,
nuclear envelope mostly remains intact
but some microtubules of spindle extend
from noncentriolar polar bodies through
polar gaps in the nuclear envelope.
Synapomorphy: No clear-cut feature
available; possibly pit connections
Composition: About 4,000 species.
[1] Close-up of a red alga (Genus?
Laurencia), Class Florideophyceae,
Order=? a marine seaweed from Hawaii.
GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Laurencia.jpg
[2] Bangia atropurpurea Profile:
unbranched filaments in tufts. Often
forming dense fringes in the spalsh
zone. Uniseriate at base, multiseriate
above with protoplasts separate in a
firm gelatinous sheath. Stellate
chloroplasts. US NOAA PD
source: http://www.glerl.noaa.gov/seagra
nt/GLWL/Algae/Rhodophyta/Cards/Bangia.ht
ml
[1] A timescale of eukaryote evolution.
The times for each node are taken from
the summary times in Table 1, except
for nodes 1 (310 Ma), 2 (360 Ma), 3
(450 Ma), and 4 (520 Ma), which are
from the fossil record [25]; nodes 8
(1450 Ma) and 16 (1587 Ma) are
phylogenetically constrained and are
the midpoints between adjacent nodes.
Nodes 12–14 were similar in time and
therefore shown as a multifurcation at
1000 Ma; likewise, nodes 21–22 are
shown as a multifurcation at 1967 Ma.
The star indicates the occurrence of
red algae in the fossil record at 1200
Ma, the oldest taxonomically
identifiable eukaryote [12]. Hedges
et al. BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004
4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.biomedcentral.com/con
tent/figures/1471-2148-4-2-2.jpg
[2] Giardia lamblia, a parasitic
flagellate that causes giardiasis.
Image from public domain source at
http://www.nigms.nih.gov/news/releases/i
mages/para.jpg
source: http://www.nigms.nih.gov/news/re
leases/images/para.jpg
through endosymbiosis, becomes a
plastid in the ancestor of all
chromalveolates.
A secondary plastid endosymbiosis,
where an algae cell is captured instead
of a cyanobacteria, has happened at
least three times. A secondary plastid
symbiosis results in a plastid with
more than two membranes. Two groups
have acquired plastids from green algae
independently: the euglenozoa, which
are fresh-water algae, and the
chlorarachniophytes. The most abundant
groups with secondary plastids acquired
them from the red algae. Five algal
lineages have plastids of red algal
origin. These include the crytophytes,
the haptophytes, the Strameopiles,
which all together are the Chromista,
and the Alveolates apicomplexans and
dinoflagellates. The alveolate ciliates
are thought to have lost their plastid
and no traces of the organelle have yet
been found. The parasitic apicomplexans
have lost the ability to do
photosynthesis, probably because of
their intercellular lifestyle, but do
maintain a vestigial organelle derived
from a plastid called the apicoplast,
which is surrounded by four membranes
and has a small genome.
[1] Fig. 2. The tree of life based
on molecular, ultrastructural and
palaeontological evidence. Contrary to
widespread assumptions, the root is
among the eubacteria, probably within
the double-enveloped Negibacteria, not
between eubacteria and archaebacteria
(Cavalier-Smith, 2002b); it may lie
between Eobacteria and other
Negibacteria (Cavalier-Smith, 2002b).
The position of the eukaryotic root has
been nearly as controversial, but is
less hard to establish: it probably
lies between unikonts and bikonts (Lang
et al., 2002; Stechmann and
Cavalier-Smith, 2002, 2003). For
clarity the basal eukaryotic kingdom
Protozoa is not labelled; it comprises
four major groups (alveolates, cabozoa,
Amoebozoa and Choanozoa) plus the small
bikont phylum Apusozoa of unclear
precise position; whether Heliozoa are
protozoa as shown or chromists is
uncertain (Cavalier-Smith, 2003b).
Symbiogenetic cell enslavement occurred
four or five times: in the origin of
mitochondria and chloroplasts from
different negibacteria, of
chromalveolates by the enslaving of a
red alga (Cavalier-Smith, 1999, 2003;
Harper and Keeling, 2003) and in the
origin of the green plastids of
euglenoid (excavate) and chlorarachnean
(cercozoan) algae—a green algal cell
was enslaved either by the ancestral
cabozoan (arrow) or (less likely) twice
independently within excavates and
Cercozoa (asterisks) (Cavalier-Smith,
2003a). The upper thumbnail sketch
shows membrane topology in the
chimaeric cryptophytes (class
Cryptophyceae of the phylum Cryptista);
in the ancestral chromist the former
food vacuole membrane fused with the
rough endoplasmic reticulum placing the
enslaved cell within its lumen (red) to
yield the complex membrane topology
shown. The large host nucleus and the
tiny nucleomorph are shown in blue,
chloroplast green and mitochondrion
purple. In chlorarachneans (class
Chlorarachnea of phylum Cercozoa) the
former food vacuole membrane remained
topologically distinct from the ER to
become an epiplastid membrane and so
did not acquire ribosomes on its
surface, but their membrane topology is
otherwise similar to the cryptophytes.
The other sketches portray the four
major kinds of cell in the living world
and their membrane topology. The upper
ones show the contrasting ancestral
microtubular cytoskeleton (ciliary
roots, in red) of unikonts (a cone of
single microtubules attaching the
single centriole to the nucleus, blue)
and bikonts (two bands of microtubules
attached to the posterior centriole and
an anterior fan of microtubules
attached to the anterior centriole).
The lower ones show the single plasma
membrane of unibacteria (posibacteria
plus archaebacteria), which were
ancestral to eukaryotes and the double
envelope of negibacteria, which were
ancestral to mitochondria and
chloroplasts (which retained the outer
membrane, red). COPYRIGHTED
source: http://aob.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/95/1/147/F2.large.jpg
[2] Figure 3: Fig. 3. Schematic
representation of the evolutionary
relationships and divergence times for
the red, green, glaucophyte, and
chromist algae. These photosynthetic
groups are outgroup-rooted with the
Opisthokonta which putatively
ancestrally lacked a plastid. The
branches on which the cyanobacterial
(CB) primary and red algal chromist
secondary endosymbioses occurred are
shown Figure 3 from: Yoon, Hwan Su
et al. “A Molecular Timeline for the
Origin of Photosynthetic Eukaryotes.”
Molecular Biology and Evolution 21.5
(2004): 809 -818.
Print. http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/21/5/809.abstract COPYRIGHTED
source: http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/21/5/809/F3.large.jpg
eukaryote. Gamete (or spore) cells and
somatic cells. Unlike gamete cells,
somatic cells are asexual (non-fusing),
and are not omnipotent. Start of death
by aging.
Cell differentiation is how cells in a
multicellular organism become
specialized to perform specific
functions in a variety of tissues and
organs.
All cells of an organism, except the
sperm and egg cells, the cells from
which they arise (gametocytes) and
undifferentiated stem cells, are
somatic cells.
Although the DNA in each cell of a
multicellular organism is the same,
each differentiated cell type produces
a different set of specific proteins,
for example liver cells make albumin
while lens cells make crystallin.
Another early cell differentiation are
that only the cell at the tip of the
filament can divide while the older
cells below the tip do not divide.
[1] Volvoxcell differentiation. The
pathways leading to germ cells or
somatic cells are controlled by genes
that cause cells to follow one or the
other fate. Mutations can prevent the
formation of one of these lineages.
http://www.devbio.com/chap02/link0204.sh
tml Although all the volvocaceans,
like their unicellular relative
Chlamydomonas, reproduce predominantly
by asexual means, they are also capable
of sexual reproduction, which involves
the production and fusion of haploid
gametes. In many species of
Chlamydomonas, including the one
illustrated in Figure 2.10, sexual
reproduction is isogamous (“the same
gametes”), since the haploid gametes
that meet are similar in size,
structure, and motility. However, in
other species of Chlamydomonas—as
well as many species of colonial
volvocaceans—swimming gametes of very
different sizes are produced by the
different mating types. This pattern is
called heterogamy (“different
gametes”). But the larger
volvocaceans have evolved a specialized
form of heterogamy, called oogamy,
which involves the production of large,
relatively immotile eggs by one mating
type and small, motile sperm by the
other (see Sidelights and
Speculations) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/book
s/NBK10031/bin/ch2f12.jpg
[2] Description English: Four
Different Species of Volvocales Algae.
(A) Gonium pectorale, (B) Eudorina
elegans, (C) Pleodorina californica,
and (D) Volvox carteri. These are
unicellular organisms that live in
colonies and have both large and small
gametes. Date Published: June 15,
2004 Source Whitfield J:
Everything You Always Wanted to Know
about Sexes. PLoS Biol 2/6/2004: e183.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.0
020183 Author Photo courtesy of
Aurora M. Nedelcu, from the Volvocales
Information Project
(http://www.unbf.ca/vip/index.htm). Per
mission (Reusing this file) See
below. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c5/Volvocales.png
[1] S. Blair Hedges and Sudhir Kumar,
''The TimeTree of Life'', 2009,
p117-118. http://www.timetree.org/book.
php COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.timetree.org/book.php
[2] Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield
NJ, Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D,
''Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources and
timing of the major events.'', in:
Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors.
''Evolution of primary producers in the
sea.'', Elsevier; 2007, p120.
COPYRIGHTED
source: Hackett JD, Yoon HS,
Butterfield NJ, Sanderson MJ,
Bhattacharya D, "Plastid endosymbiosis:
Sources and timing of the major
events.", in: Falkowski P, Knoll A,
editors. "Evolution of primary
producers in the sea.", Elsevier; 2007,
p120.
arctic Canada
[1] Figure 4 from: Science 1990 vol
250 Butterfield N. J. A. H. Knoll K.
Swett 1990 A bangiophyte red alga from
the Proterozoic of Arctic Canada.
Science 250: 104-107
http://www.jstor.org/stable/2877905
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2877
905
[2] Figure 2 from: Science 1990 vol
250 Butterfield N. J. A. H. Knoll K.
Swett 1990 A bangiophyte red alga from
the Proterozoic of Arctic Canada.
Science 250: 104-107
http://www.jstor.org/stable/2877905
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2877
905
[1] Drawn by self for Biological life
cycle Based on Freeman & Worth's
Biology of Plants (p. 171). GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Sporic_meiosis.png
[2] Figure 23.1.Plants have
haplodiplontic life cycles that involve
mitotic divisions (resulting in
multicellularity) in both the haploid
and diploid generations (paths A and
D). Most animals are diplontic and
undergo mitosis only in the diploid
generation (paths B and D).
Multicellular organisms with haplontic
life cycles follow paths A and C.
COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://zygote.swarthmore.edu/pla
ntfig1.gif
[1] Microsporidia. Image from Sterling
Parasitology Microsporidia
Research. UNKNOWN
source: http://microbewiki.kenyon.edu/im
ages/3/37/Micro2.jpg
[2] Penicillium [t Note: Penecillium
is a multicellular fungi.] UNKNOWN
source: http://www.mold-help.org/pages/i
mages/Penicillium.jpg
Australia
[1] The oldest evidence of
multicellular animals to
date? COPYRIGHTED
source: http://news.bbc.co.uk/olmedia/19
75000/images/_1977935_worm300.jpg
[2] Figure 2 Trace-like fossils,
locality Barnett Peak, positive
hyporelief, UWA 114336. (A, C, and E)
Overviews of surfaces with
double-ridged trails. There is
low-angle lighting from the left, and
the samples are shown at the same
magnification. (B, D, and F) Drawings
showing the extent of ridges (blue).
Fractures and microfaults on the
surface are indicated in red, specimens
with a U-shaped ending are marked with
the letters “u” and “x,” and
arrows point to instances of apparent
crosscutting [black U-shaped ending
“x” in (F) is in concave
preservation]. (G and H) Close-ups of
specimens [compare positions in (B) and
(F)] with U-shaped and open expanding
ends. The specimens are coated with
ammonium chloride, and there is
low-angle lighting from the left.
Figure 2 from: Rasmussen, Birger et
al. “Discoidal Impressions and
Trace-Like Fossils More Than 1200
Million Years Old.” Science 296.5570
(2002): 1112 -1115.
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/296/
5570/1112.full COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/296/5570/1112/F2.large.jpg
{KriPTuFITu} (Cryptomonads
{KRiPToMunaDZ}).
[1] Fig. 1. A consensus phylogeny of
eukaryotes. The vast majority of
characterized eukaryotes, with the
notable exception of major subgroups of
amoebae, can now be assigned to one of
eight major groups. Opisthokonts (basal
flagellum) have a single basal
flagellum on reproductive cells and
flat mitochondrial cristae (most
eukaryotes have tubular ones).
Eukaryotic photosynthesis originated in
Plants; theirs are the only plastids
with just two outer membranes.
Heterokonts (different flagellae) have
a unique flagellum decorated with
hollow tripartite hairs (stramenopiles)
and, usually, a second plain one.
Cercozoans are amoebae with filose
pseudopodia, often living with in tests
(hard outer shells), some very
elaborate (foraminiferans). Amoebozoa
are mostly naked amoebae (lacking
tests), often with lobose pseudopodia
for at least part of their life cycle.
Alveolates have systems of cortical
alveoli directly beneath their plasma
membranes. Discicristates have discoid
mitochondrial cristae and, in some
cases, a deep (excavated) ventral
feeding groove. Amitochondrial
excavates lack substantial molecular
phylogenetic support, but most have an
excavated ventral feeding groove, and
all lack mitochondria. The tree shown
is based on a consensus of molecular
(1-4) and ultrastructural (16, 17) data
and includes a rough indication of new
ciPCR ''taxa'' (broken black lines)
(7-11). An asterisk preceding the taxon
name indicates probable paraphyletic
group COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/co
ntent/full/300/5626/1703
[2] Figure 1. Phylogenetic hypothesis
of the eukaryotic lineage based on
ultrastructural and molecular data.
Organisms are divided into three main
groups distinguished by mitochondrial
cristal shape (either discoidal,
flattened or tubular). Unbroken lines
indicate phylogenetic relationships
that are firmly supported by available
data; broken lines indicate
uncertainties in phylogenetic
placement, resolution of which will
require additional data. Color coding
of organismal genus names indicates
mitochondrial genomes that have been
completely (Table 1), almost completely
(Jakoba, Naegleria and
Thraustochytrium) or partially (*)
sequenced by the OGMP (red), the FMGP
(black) or other groups (green). Names
in blue indicate those species whose
mtDNAs are currently being sequenced by
the OGMP or are future candidates for
complete sequencing. Amitochondriate
retortamonads are positioned at the
base of the tree, with broken arrows
denoting the endosymbiotic origin(s) of
mitochondria from a Rickettsia-like
eubacterium. Macrophar.,
Macropharyngomonas. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nar.oxfordjournals.org/cg
i/content/full/26/4/865
[1]
Unknown http://www.genome.gov/Images/pr
ess_photos/highres/85-300.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Oxytricha_trifa
llax.jpg/1024px-Oxytricha_trifallax.jpg
[2] Description English: Unknown
species of cilliate in the last stages
of mitosis (cytokinesis), with cleavage
furrow visible. Date Source
Own work Author
TheAlphaWolf CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/55/Unk.cilliate.jpg
more ancient Heterokonts, brown algae
(Phaeophyta), and golden algae
(Chrysophyta) are not also plants, and
the oldest living plants. Perhaps
glaucophyta are the first green plants,
or perhaps that should be reserved for
multicellular species.)
[1] ? COPYRIGHTED
source: http://protist.i.hosei.ac.jp/PDB
3/PCD3711/htmls/86.html
[2] ? COPYRIGHTED
source: http://protist.i.hosei.ac.jp/PDB
/Images/Others/Glaucocystis/
according to genetic comparison. Green
Algae is composed of the two Phlya
Chlorophyta (volvox, sea lettuce) and
Charophyta (Spirogyra).
The first land plants most likely
evolved from green algae.
Cysts resembling modern
Micromonadophyceae cysts date from
about 1.2 billion years ago. Tasmanites
formed the Permian "white coal", or
tasmanite, deposits of Tasmania and
similar deposits in Alaska. Certain
Ulvophyceae fossils that date from
about one billion years ago are
abundant in Paleozoic rocks.
Knoll et al cite the earliest
recognized green algae fossil as
Proterocladus which dates to 750
million years ago.
[1] Micrograph of Volvox aureus.
Copyright held by Dr. Ralf Wagner,
uploaded to German Wikipedia under
GFDL. Permission is granted to copy,
distribute and/or modify this document
under the terms of the GNU Free
Documentation License, Version 1.2 or
any later version published by the Free
Software Foundation; with no Invariant
Sections, no Front-Cover Texts, and no
Back-Cover Texts. Subject to
disclaimers.
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vol
vox
[2] Photo of green algal growth
(Enteromorpha sp.) on rocky areas of
the ocean intertidal shore, indicating
a nearby nutrient source (in this case
land runoff). Photographed by Eric
Guinther near Kahuku, O'ahu,
Hawai'i. GFDL Permission is granted
to copy, distribute and/or modify this
document under the terms of the GNU
Free Documentation License, Version 1.2
or any later version published by the
Free Software Foundation; with no
Invariant Sections, no Front-Cover
Texts, and no Back-Cover Texts Subject
to disclaimers
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Intertidal_greenalgae.jpg
[1] Sporoblast of the Microsporidium
Fibrillanosema crangonycis. Electron
micrograph taken by Leon White. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Fibrillanosema_spore.jpg
[2] Spironema
multiciliatum Spironema:
Octosporoblastic sporogony producing
horseshoe-shaped monokaryotic spores in
sporophorous vesicles; monomorphic,
diplokaryotic and monokaryotic;
merogony - last generation merozoites
are diplokaryotic; sporogony - initial
division of the sporont nuclei is
meiotic as indicated by the occurrence
of synaptonemal complexes; spores are
horse-shoe-shaped, with swollen ends in
T. variabilis and have one elongate
nucleus; exospore with three layers,
endospore is of medium thickness;
polaroplast composed of two lamellar
parts, an anterior part of closely
packed lamellae and a posterior part of
wider compartments; polar tube is
isofilar and forms, in the posterior
quarter of the spore, 3-4 coils in a
single rank (T. variabilis) or 8-10
coils in a single rank (T. chironomi);
type species Toxoglugea vibrio in
adipose tissue of larvae of Ceratopogon
sp. (Diptera, Ceratopogonidae).
Spironema (spire-oh-knee-ma)
multiciliatum Klebs, 1893. Cells are
lanceolate, relatively flattened and
flexible. The cells have a spiral
groove, long kinetics and a tail, which
tapers posteriorly, and are about 15 -
21 microns without the tail. The
nucleus is located anteriorly or near
the centre of the cell. When the cells
are squashed, the cells are more
flexible. Food materials are seen under
the cell surface. Rarely observed.
This picture was taken by Won Je Lee
using conventional photographic film
using a Zeiss Axiophot microscope of
material collected in marine sediments
of Botany Bay (Sydney, Australia). The
image description refers to material
from Botany Bay. NONCOMMERCIAL USE
source: http://microscope.mbl.edu/script
s/microscope.php?func=imgDetail&imageID=
3928
[1] Part of figure 2 from: Moldowan,
J. Michael et al. “Chemostratigraphic
reconstruction of biofacies: Molecular
evidence linking cyst-forming
dinoflagellates with pre-Triassic
ancestors.” Geology 24.2 (1996): 159
-162.
http://geology.geoscienceworld.org/con
tent/24/2/159.abstract
AND http://geology.gsapubs.org/content/
24/2/159.full.pdf COPYRIGHTED
source: http://geology.gsapubs.org/conte
nt/24/2/159.full.pdf
{DiSKIKriSTATS}, ancestor of protists
which have mitochondria with discoidal
shaped cristae (includes euglenids,
leishmanias {lEsmaNEuZ}, trypanosomes
{TriPaNiSOMZ}, kinetoplastids
{KiNeTuPlaSTiDZ}, and acrasid {oKrASiD}
slime molds).
The discicristates include
photosynthetic flagellates, such as the
green Euglena, and parasitic ones, such
as Trypanosoma, which causes sleeping
sickness. There are also the acrasid
slime molds, which are not closely
related to the amoebozoan dictyostelid
and plasmodial slime molds.
Some euglenids exhibit colonialism and
have a cell covering ("pellicle").
In eukaryote mitochondria there are
three kinds of christae (the inner
membrane protrustions of mitochondria):
discoidal, tubular, and flattened.
Discoidal are found in kinetoplasts and
euglynoids, tubular christae are found
in diatoms, crysophyte algae, and
apicomplexans, and Flattened cristae
are found in opisthokonts (animals and
fungi) and both green and red algae.
[1] euglena
source: http://www.fcps.k12.va.us/Stratf
ordLandingES/Ecology/mpages/euglena.htm
[2] euglena
source: http://protist.i.hosei.ac.jp/PDB
/Images/Mastigophora/Euglena/genus1L.jpg
three-dimensional response to light.
Eyes evolve at least eight times
independently in eukaryotes.
The earliest eye probably evolves from
a plastid. The first proto eye is a
light sensitive area in a unicellular
eukaryote.
Eukaryotes are the first organisms to
evolve the ability to follow light
direction in three dimensions in open
water.
Halophilic archaebacteria, such as
Halobacterium salinarum, use sensory
rhodopsins (SRs) for phototaxis
(positive or negative movement along a
light gradient or vector), and some
cyanobacteria (e.g. Anabaena,
Synechocystis) can slowly orient along
a light vector.
Eukaryotes are the first organisms to
evolve the ability to follow light
direction in three dimensions in open
water. The eukaryotic sensory
integration, sensory processing and the
speed and mechanics of tactic responses
is fundamentally different from that
found in prokaryotes. Both
single-celled and multi-cellular
eukaryotic phototactic organisms have a
fixed shape, are polarized, swim in a
spiral and use cilia for swimming and
phototactic steering. Three-dimensional
phototaxis can be found in five out of
the six eukaryotic major groups
(opisthokonts, Amoebozoa, plants,
chromalveolates, excavates, rhizaria).
[1] Adapted from: Euglena is a
photosynthetic euglenoid with at least
150 described species. The cells are
cylindrical with a rounded anterior and
tapered posterior. The chloroplasts are
well-developed, bright green, and
sometimes have pyrenoids. ... Euglena
is a photosynthetic euglenoid with at
least 150 described species. The cells
are cylindrical with a rounded anterior
and tapered posterior. The chloroplasts
are well-developed, bright green, and
sometimes have pyrenoids. They are
often discoidal in shape but can also
be ovate, lobate, elongate, U-shaped,
or ribbon-shaped. Some researchers use
the structure and position of the
chloroplasts to divide the group into
three subgenera. Even though they are
able to photosynthesize, Euglena cells
also have a phagotrophic ingestion
apparatus. Euglena has one long,
protruding flagellum and a shorter
flagellum that is not usually
visible. The euglenoids can glide
and swim using their flagella, or can
ooze along a substrate with an
undulating, shape-changing, contraction
motion called metaboly. The cytoplasm
of Euglena and other euglenoids
contains many paramylon starch storage
granules. The euglenoid cells are
covered by a pellicle composed of
ribbonlike, woven strips of
proteinaceous material that cover the
cell in a helical arrangement from apex
to posterior. Freshwater euglenoids
have a contractile vacuole. Euglenoids
sense light using a red pigmented
eyespot or stigma and the paraflagellar
body located at the base of the
emergent flagella. The cytoplasm of
Euglena and other euglenoids contains
many paramylon starch storage granules.
The euglenoid cells are covered by a
pellicle composed of ribbonlike, woven
strips of proteinaceous material that
cover the cell in a helical arrangement
from apex to posterior. Freshwater
euglenoids have a contractile vacuole.
Euglenoids sense light using a red
pigmented eyespot or stigma and the
paraflagellar body located at the base
of the emergent flagella. UNKNOWN
source: http://silicasecchidisk.conncoll
.edu/Pics/Other%20Algae/Other_jpegs/Eugl
ena_Key225.jpg
[2] Figure 1. The distribution of
three-dimensional phototaxis in the
tree of eukaryotes. Red arrows indicate
the likely point of origin of
phototaxis in a given group. Question
marks indicate uncertainties regarding
independent or common origin. Figure
1 from: Jékely, Gáspár. ''Evolution
of phototaxis.'' Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society B:
Biological Sciences 364 (October
2009):
2795–2808. http://rstb.royalsocietypu
blishing.org/content/364/1531/2795.short
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://rstb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/364/1531/2795/F1.large.jp
g
[1] [t Note that this Chrysophytes
{golden algae} do not evolve
genetically until much later - but I
can't find colonial euglinas or
kinetoplasts- dinobryon look very
similar to euglenas however, even with
a red eyespot- which implies a close
relation.] [1] Dinobryon, a colony of
Chrysophytes showing flagella and red
eyespots UNKNOWN
source: http://www.microscopy-uk.org.uk/
mag//imagsmall/Dinobryonb.jpg
[2] [t Note that this CHrysophytes
{golden algae} do not evolve
genetically until much later - but I
can't find colonial euglinas or
kinetoplasts] [2] golden algae colony
(synura) Scanning EM showing the
colony of cells covered with scales By
Joel Mancuso UNKNOWN
source: http://farm1.staticflickr.com/38
/110623789_7d189c795b_b.jpg
[1] Phylum Stramenopiles COPYRIGHTED
source: Brusca and Brusca,
"Invertebrates", Second Edition, 2003,
p153-155.
[2] S. Blair Hedges and Sudhir Kumar,
''The TimeTree of Life'', 2009,
p117-118. http://www.timetree.org/book.
php COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.timetree.org/book.php
predominantly diploid, mitosis in the
haploid phase does not occur.
[1] Gametic Meiosis. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gametic_meiosis.png
[2] Mark Kirkpatrick, ''The evolution
of haploid-diploid life cycles'', 1994,
p10. http://books.google.com/books?id=X
sgoLnXLIswC&pg=PA10 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=XsgoLnXLIswC&pg=PA10
[1] Fig. 1. A consensus phylogeny of
eukaryotes. The vast majority of
characterized eukaryotes, with the
notable exception of major subgroups of
amoebae, can now be assigned to one of
eight major groups. Opisthokonts (basal
flagellum) have a single basal
flagellum on reproductive cells and
flat mitochondrial cristae (most
eukaryotes have tubular ones).
Eukaryotic photosynthesis originated in
Plants; theirs are the only plastids
with just two outer membranes.
Heterokonts (different flagellae) have
a unique flagellum decorated with
hollow tripartite hairs (stramenopiles)
and, usually, a second plain one.
Cercozoans are amoebae with filose
pseudopodia, often living with in tests
(hard outer shells), some very
elaborate (foraminiferans). Amoebozoa
are mostly naked amoebae (lacking
tests), often with lobose pseudopodia
for at least part of their life cycle.
Alveolates have systems of cortical
alveoli directly beneath their plasma
membranes. Discicristates have discoid
mitochondrial cristae and, in some
cases, a deep (excavated) ventral
feeding groove. Amitochondrial
excavates lack substantial molecular
phylogenetic support, but most have an
excavated ventral feeding groove, and
all lack mitochondria. The tree shown
is based on a consensus of molecular
(1-4) and ultrastructural (16, 17) data
and includes a rough indication of new
ciPCR ''taxa'' (broken black lines)
(7-11). An asterisk preceding the taxon
name indicates probable paraphyletic
group
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/co
ntent/full/300/5626/1703
[2] Emiliania huxleyi, a
coccolithophore. Photo courtesy Dr.
Markus Geisen - photographer, and The
Natural History Museum. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Emiliania_huxleyi_3.jpg
dinoflagelatta are under the title
alveolata because they have an alveolar
membrane system, which contains
flattened membrane-bound sacs (alveoli)
lying beneath the outer cell membrane.
In dinoflagellates, the chromosomes are
always visible and do not condense
prior to mitosis. The chromosomes are
attached to the nuclear envelope, which
persists during mitosis.
The main method of reproduction of the
dinoflagellates is by longitudinal cell
division, with each daughter cell
receiving one of the flagella and a
portion of the theca and then
constructing the missing parts in a
very intricate sequence. Some nonmotile
species form zoospores, which may be
colonial. A number of species reproduce
sexually, mostly by isogamy, but a few
species reproduce by anisogamy.
Dinoflagellate zygotes are similar to
some acritarchs (early eukaryote
fossils).
The earliest undisputed, structural
fossils of dinoflagellates are cysts
dating from the Triassic (251-201 Ma),
with a few likely Permian records. Some
Silurian (c410 Ma) fossils have been
attributed to the group but the
relation is uncertain. Acritarchs are
microfossils with no known affinity.
Some people have tried to link
acritarchs with dinoflagellates. Some
later acritarchs from the Jurassic and
Cretaceous, have been shown to be
dinoflagellate cysts and so are no
longer treated like acritarchs. A
correlation has been noted between the
presence of triaromatic dinosteroids
and acritarch abundance, implying that
these acritarchs may be the cysts of
ancestral dinoflagellates.
If acritachs are dinoflagellates, then
dinoflagellates may date back to at
least 1.8 billion years and perhaps
even 3.5 billion years to the earliest
known acritarchs.
Dinosterane, derived
from dinosterol produced by
dinoflagellates, occurs in the 1.1 Ga
Nonesuch Formation, in the United
States.
[1] dino4: Dinoflagellates have an
armor shell made of plates of cellulose
(the same material as in paper or a
cotton shirt)
source: dino4=http://www.mbari.org/staff
/oreilly/schoolPresentation/oceancolor/d
inoflagellates.html
[2] Fig. 1. A consensus phylogeny of
eukaryotes. The vast majority of
characterized eukaryotes, with the
notable exception of major subgroups of
amoebae, can now be assigned to one of
eight major groups. Opisthokonts (basal
flagellum) have a single basal
flagellum on reproductive cells and
flat mitochondrial cristae (most
eukaryotes have tubular ones).
Eukaryotic photosynthesis originated in
Plants; theirs are the only plastids
with just two outer membranes.
Heterokonts (different flagellae) have
a unique flagellum decorated with
hollow tripartite hairs (stramenopiles)
and, usually, a second plain one.
Cercozoans are amoebae with filose
pseudopodia, often living with in tests
(hard outer shells), some very
elaborate (foraminiferans). Amoebozoa
are mostly naked amoebae (lacking
tests), often with lobose pseudopodia
for at least part of their life cycle.
Alveolates have systems of cortical
alveoli directly beneath their plasma
membranes. Discicristates have discoid
mitochondrial cristae and, in some
cases, a deep (excavated) ventral
feeding groove. Amitochondrial
excavates lack substantial molecular
phylogenetic support, but most have an
excavated ventral feeding groove, and
all lack mitochondria. The tree shown
is based on a consensus of molecular
(1-4) and ultrastructural (16, 17) data
and includes a rough indication of new
ciPCR ''taxa'' (broken black lines)
(7-11). An asterisk preceding the taxon
name indicates probable paraphyletic
group COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/co
ntent/full/300/5626/1703
fossil a xanthophyte (or yellow-green
algae): "Palaeovaucheria".
[1] [t Apparently this is not
Paleovaucheria (f) Segmentothallus
asperus from the Lakhanda succession, a
large uniseriate filament; From: A.H
Knoll, E.J Javaux, D Hewitt, and P
Cohen, ''Eukaryotic organisms in
Proterozoic oceans'', Phil. Trans. R.
Soc. B June 29, 2006 361 (1470)
1023-1038;
doi:10.1098/rstb.2006.1843 http://rstb.
royalsocietypublishing.org/citmgr?gca=ro
yptb;361/1470/1023 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://rstb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/361/1470/1023/F3.large.jp
g
[2] Vaucheria has siphonaceous,
coenocytic filaments that can form
feltlike mats, earning it the nickname
''water felt''. Cytokinesis does not
usually follow mitosis, so the cells
retain multiple nuclei. The thallus has
cross walls only where gametes or
zoospores were produced, and may be
branched. The cytoplasm of Vaucheria
is pushed to the cell periphery by
large vacuoles, and contains many
nuclei and discoid plastids. The
plastids can change their orientation
in response to changes in light levels.
The large cells rely on cytoplasmic
streaming to move materials around as
needed. Researchers have found
fossils in one billion- year-old
Siberian deposits that are very similar
to Vaucheria, indicating that the genus
has been evolving for quite some time.
Over 70 species are known to
science. UNKNOWN
source: http://silicasecchidisk.conncoll
.edu/Pics/Other%20Algae/Other_jpegs/Vauc
heria_Key252.jpg
[1] Chytrids (Chytridiomycota): The
Primitive Fungi These fungi are
mostly aquatic, are notable for having
a flagella on the cells (a flagella is
a tail, somewhat like a tail on a sperm
or a pollywog), and are thought to be
the most primitive type of
fungi. actual photo comes
from: http://www.csupomona.edu/~jcclark
/classes/bot125/resource/graphics/chy_al
l_sph.html
source: http://www.davidlnelson.md/Cazad
ero/Fungi.htm
[2] Chytridiomycota - Blastocladiales
- zoospore of Allomyces (phase contrast
illumination) X 2000
source: http://www.mycolog.com/chapter2b
.htm
{me-ZO-mI-SE-TO-ZO-u} (also called
DRIPS).
Mesomycetozoea are in the protist
Phylum Choanozoa (which includes
Choanoflagellates). This phylum
contains the first protozoans
(Choanoflagellates), thought to be the
ancestor of sponges.
DRIP is an acronym for a small group of
parasites mostly of fish and other
freshwater animals.
[1] Ichthyophonus, a fungus-like
protistan that occurs in high
prevalence in Pacific Ocean perch
(Sebastes aultus) and yellowtail
rockfish (Sebastes flavedus). Note the
parasite forms branching hyphae-like
structures. Ichthyophonus hoferi has
caused massive mortalities in herring
in the Atlantic ocean, and has recently
been reported to cause disease in wild
Pacific herring from Washington through
Alaska. COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://oregonstate.edu/dept/salm
on/projects/images/16Ichthyophonus.jpg
[2] Microscopic appearence of the
organism is dependent on its stage of
development. The stages include (1)
spore at ''resting'' stage, (2)
germinating spore, (3) hyphal
stage. It is believed that there are
two forms of Ichthyophonus, both
belonging to one genus. One of them is
known as the ''salmon'' form, occuring
in freshwater and cold-preferring sea
fishes: this form is characterized by
its ability to produce long tubulose
germ hyphae. The other is called the
''aquarium fish'' form, typical of the
tropical freshwater fishes. This form
is completely devoid of hyphae.
Developmental cycle of Ichthyophonus
hoferi: 1-5 - development of
''daughter'' spores, 7-11 - development
of resting spore from the ''daughter''
spore, 12-19 - development of resting
spore by fragmentation. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.fao.org/docrep/field/
003/AC160E/AC160E02.htm
{Ou-mI-KO-Tu} evolves according to
genetic comparison, (includes the Class
Oomycetes) (Water molds).
Oomycetes (Water molds), with about 580
species, vary from unicellular, to
multicellular highly brached
filamentous forms.
Oomycetes have mitochondria with
tubular christae.
Oomycetes grow by closed (or nearly
closed) mitosis with pairs of
centrioles near the poles.
[1] Figure 2 from: Sandra L. Baldauf,
A. J. Roger, I. Wenk-Siefert, W. F.
Doolittle, ''A Kingdom-Level Phylogeny
of Eukaryotes Based on Combined Protein
Data'', Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p
972, (2000).
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/290/
5493/972.full Figure 2 Single-gene
phylogenies support subsets of the
combined protein tree. (A) A summary of
the tree in Fig. 1is shown with
supergroups indicated beside brackets
to the right. Multi-taxon represented
clusters are given as triangles, with
height proportional to number of taxa
and width proportional to averaged
overall branch length (1) compensated
for missing data (47). (B) Published
support for the numbered nodes in (A)
is shown for commonly used molecular
phylogenetic markers grouped as (a)
ribosomal RNAs, (b) proteins not used
in the current analysis, (c) proteins
used in the current analysis, and (d)
the combined data (Fig. 1). These
markers are, from left to right, SSU
[SSU rRNA (1–4)], LSU [LSU rRNA
(19)], LSU+SSU [combined LSU and SSU
rRNA (48)], EF-2 (10), V/A-ATPases
[vacuolar ATPases (49)], HSP70-cy
[cytosolic 70-kD heat shock protein
(50)], mito [combined mitochondrial
proteins (51)], RPB1 (52), actin (8,
16, 53), α-tubulin (8, 54), β-tubulin
(8, 54), EF-1α (15, 20), and combined
(Fig. 1). Rejected nodes are indicated
in pink and accepted nodes in green,
with checked circles indicating BP < 70% and solid circles indicating BP >
70%. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/290/5493/972/F2.large.jpg
[2] Fig. 1. A consensus phylogeny of
eukaryotes. The vast majority of
characterized eukaryotes, with the
notable exception of major subgroups of
amoebae, can now be assigned to one of
eight major groups. Opisthokonts (basal
flagellum) have a single basal
flagellum on reproductive cells and
flat mitochondrial cristae (most
eukaryotes have tubular ones).
Eukaryotic photosynthesis originated in
Plants; theirs are the only plastids
with just two outer membranes.
Heterokonts (different flagellae) have
a unique flagellum decorated with
hollow tripartite hairs (stramenopiles)
and, usually, a second plain one.
Cercozoans are amoebae with filose
pseudopodia, often living with in tests
(hard outer shells), some very
elaborate (foraminiferans). Amoebozoa
are mostly naked amoebae (lacking
tests), often with lobose pseudopodia
for at least part of their life cycle.
Alveolates have systems of cortical
alveoli directly beneath their plasma
membranes. Discicristates have discoid
mitochondrial cristae and, in some
cases, a deep (excavated) ventral
feeding groove. Amitochondrial
excavates lack substantial molecular
phylogenetic support, but most have an
excavated ventral feeding groove, and
all lack mitochondria. The tree shown
is based on a consensus of molecular
(1-4) and ultrastructural (16, 17) data
and includes a rough indication of new
ciPCR ''taxa'' (broken black lines)
(7-11). An asterisk preceding the taxon
name indicates probable paraphyletic
group COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/co
ntent/full/300/5626/1703
[1] Choanoflagellate single cell
(thecate) UNKNOWN
source: http://behance.vo.llnwd.net/prof
iles22/483113/projects/1558429/6ea555ab5
457e21432def0f2e6b83fe3.jpg
[2] Salpingoeca: Cells solitary or
colonial with a distinct and firm
sheath or theca usually as a cup either
sessile or with a pedicel; theca
colourless or amber; contractile
vacuoles posterior in freshwater
specie; in freshwater, brackish, and
marine habitats. Record information:
Salpingoeca (sal-ping-go-eek-a), a
collar flagellate (choanoflagellate) -
all of which have a single anterior
flagellum surrounded by a collar of
very fine pseudopodia (in cross-section
the collar seems like two arms, one on
either side of the flagellum). The
flagellum beats drawing water through
the collar and bacteria and other small
particles are trapped and then
ingested. Believed to be the source
group of the sponges and the metazoa.
Salpingoeca has an organic lorica.
Phase contrast. This picture was
taken by David Patterson, Linda Amaral
Zettler and Virginia Edgcomb of
material from the salt marsh at Little
Sippewissett (Massachusetts, USA) in
Autumn, 2000 and in Spring and summer,
2001. NONCOMMERCIAL USE
source: http://microscope.mbl.edu/script
s/microscope.php?func=imgDetail&imageID=
746
[1] Figure : Maximum likelihood
phylogeny of Rhizaria inferred from SSU
rRNA gene sequences using the GTR+G+I
model of evolution. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.unige.ch/sciences/bio
logie/biani/msg/Amoeboids/Rhizaria_large
.jpg
[2] Figure 1 from: Keeling, Patrick
J. et al. “The tree of eukaryotes.”
Trends in Ecology & Evolution 20.12
(2005):
670-676. http://www.sciencedirect.com/s
cience/article/pii/S0169534705003046
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/cac
he/MiamiImageURL/1-s2.0-S016953470500304
6-gr1.jpg/0?wchp=dGLbVBA-zSkWz
"totipotent", which means that every
cell is capable of becoming any of the
sponge's different cell types. Any
isolated cell is capable of growing an
entire new sponge. In sponges there is
no distinction between germ line and
soma.
Some people think that multicellular
organisms arose at least six times: in
animals, fungi and several groups of
algae.
[1] Sponge showing several choanocyte
chambers UNKNOWN
source: http://behance.vo.llnwd.net/prof
iles22/483113/projects/1558429/43a2a4c7e
127f66b7090ed679a8da30a.jpg
[2] Combination of: Saepicula and
Sphaeroeca NONCOMMERCIAL USE
source: http://microscope.mbl.edu/script
s/microscope.php?func=imgDetail&imageID=
3229
evolves (Porifera: sponges). Metazoans
are multicellular and have
differentiation (their cells perform
different functions). There are only
three major kinds of metazoans:
sponges, cnidarians, and bilaterians
(which include all insects and
vertebrates).
Sponges have a variety of different
cell types: cells that line surfaces
(pinacocytes, porocytes, choanocytes),
cells that secrete the skeleton
(collencytes, sclerocytes), contractile
cells (myocytes), archaeocytes
(amoeboid cells that play a major role
in digestion and food transport), and
several other cell types.
Sponges have many holes which is why
they are good at holding water in the
bath.
All sponge cells are totipotent and are
capable of regrowing a new sponge.
Mixtures of sponge cells of two species
reconstitute into the separate sponge
species. The process involves cell-cell
recognition, which is a basic attribute
for building and retaining a
multicellular body. The molecular
mechanisms that guide this process
involve many proteoglycans (compounds
made of 95% polysaccharide and 5%
protein) on the cell surface.
Sponges have no nerve cells or muscles.
Like plants their movement is at the
cellular level. Sponges live by passing
a constant current of water through
their body from which they filter food
particles.
The sponges have no obvious symmetry
while Cnidarians have radial symmetry,
and Ctenophores have biradial symmetry.
Porifera have a simple level of
cellular integration and are loosely
constructed, but all other later
animals including cnidarians and
ctenophores have cells which are
grouped together as tissues that are
arranged in layers.
All sponges are capable of sexual and
asexual reproduction. There is a large
diversity of sexual reproductive
sequences in sponges. Sperm are formed
from choanocytes, and eggs from
choanocytes or archaeocytes. Generally,
sperm are contained in spermatic cysts,
which are choanocyte chambers
transformed by spermatogenesis. Eggs
are distributed throughout the mesohyl.
Some sponges are oviparous (zygote
develops outside the body). Following
gamete release, fertilization and
development occur externally. Other
sponges are viviparous, with
fertilization and development both
occurring in the mesohyl.
Some sponges can live for over 1000
years.
[1] Summary Description English:
Marine sponge. Color adjusted (but not
color accurate) underwater photograph
taken by Dlloyd using a digital camera
at a depth of approximately 100 feet in
Cayman. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/62/SpongeColorCorrect.jp
g
[2]
source: http://www.museums.org.za/bio/me
tazoa.htm
[1] Figure 2. Zygomycota A: sporangia
of Mucor sp. B: whorl of sporangia of
Absidia sp. C: zygospore of
Zygorhynchus sp. D: sporangiophore and
sporangiola of Cunninghamella sp.
source: http://www.botany.utoronto.ca/Re
searchLabs/MallochLab/Malloch/Moulds/Cla
ssification.html
[2] Figure 3. Syncephalis, a member of
the Zygomycota parasitic on other
Zygomycota
source: http://www.botany.utoronto.ca/Re
searchLabs/MallochLab/Malloch/Moulds/Cla
ssification.html
[1] Oocyte (female egg) release from
sponge, sperm release from sponge,
FIgure from: D. T. Anderson,
''Invertebrate Zoology'', Oxford
University Press, Second Edition,
2001. COPYRIGHTED
source: D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001.
[2] Combination of image from: Brusca
and Brusca, ''Invertebrates'', Second
Edition, 2003,
http://www.oceanicresearch.org/sponges
.html and D. T. Anderson,
''Invertebrate Zoology'', Oxford
University Press, Second Edition,
2001. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.museums.org.za/bio/me
tazoa.htm
{rADEOlaREo} evolves now according to
genetic comparison. Radiolaria are
ocean protozoa, many with silica
shells.
Radiolarians are protists found in the
upper layers of all oceans.
Radiolarians, are mostly spherically
symmetrical, and known for their
complex and beautifully tiny skeletons,
called "tests". Tests are usually made
of silica. Pseudopodia extend through
the perforated skeleton. A chitinous
central capsule encloses the nuclei and
divides the cytoplasm into two zones.
The outer cytoplasm contains many
vacuoles that control the organism’s
buoyancy.
Asexual reproduction is by budding,
binary fission, or multiple fission.
Generally, the skeleton divides, and
each daughter cell regenerates the
missing half. In some cases, however,
one daughter cell escapes and develops
an entirely new shell, the other
daughter remaining within the parent
skeleton.
[1] FIG. 2. The tree of life based on
molecular, ultrastructural and
palaeontological evidence. Contrary to
widespread assumptions, the root is
among the eubacteria, probably within
the double-enveloped Negibacteria, not
between eubacteria and archaebacteria
(Cavalier-Smith, 2002b); it may lie
between Eobacteria and other
Negibacteria (Cavalier-Smith, 2002b).
The position of the eukaryotic root has
been nearly as controversial, but is
less hard to establish: it probably
lies between unikonts and bikonts (Lang
et al., 2002; Stechmann and
Cavalier-Smith, 2002, 2003). For
clarity the basal eukaryotic kingdom
Protozoa is not labelled; it comprises
four major groups (alveolates, cabozoa,
Amoebozoa and Choanozoa) plus the small
bikont phylum Apusozoa of unclear
precise position; whether Heliozoa are
protozoa as shown or chromists is
uncertain (Cavalier-Smith, 2003b).
Symbiogenetic cell enslavement occurred
four or five times: in the origin of
mitochondria and chloroplasts from
different negibacteria, of
chromalveolates by the enslaving of a
red alga (Cavalier-Smith, 1999, 2003;
Harper and Keeling, 2003) and in the
origin of the green plastids of
euglenoid (excavate) and chlorarachnean
(cercozoan) algae-a green algal cell
was enslaved either by the ancestral
cabozoan (arrow) or (less likely) twice
independently within excavates and
Cercozoa (asterisks) (Cavalier-Smith,
2003a). The upper thumbnail sketch
shows membrane topology in the
chimaeric cryptophytes (class
Cryptophyceae of the phylum Cryptista);
in the ancestral chromist the former
food vacuole membrane fused with the
rough endoplasmic reticulum placing the
enslaved cell within its lumen (red) to
yield the complex membrane topology
shown. The large host nucleus and the
tiny nucleomorph are shown in blue,
chloroplast green and mitochondrion
purple. In chlorarachneans (class
Chlorarachnea of phylum Cercozoa) the
former food vacuole membrane remained
topologically distinct from the ER to
become an epiplastid membrane and so
did not acquire ribosomes on its
surface, but their membrane topology is
otherwise similar to the cryptophytes.
The other sketches portray the four
major kinds of cell in the living world
and their membrane topology. The upper
ones show the contrasting ancestral
microtubular cytoskeleton (ciliary
roots, in red) of unikonts (a cone of
single microtubules attaching the
single centriole to the nucleus, blue)
and bikonts (two bands of microtubules
attached to the posterior centriole and
an anterior fan of microtubules
attached to the anterior centriole).
The lower ones show the single plasma
membrane of unibacteria (posibacteria
plus archaebacteria), which were
ancestral to eukaryotes and the double
envelope of negibacteria, which were
ancestral to mitochondria and
chloroplasts (which retained the outer
membrane, red).
source: http://aob.oxfordjournals.org/cg
i/content/full/95/1/147/FIG2
[2] Fig. 1. A consensus phylogeny of
eukaryotes. The vast majority of
characterized eukaryotes, with the
notable exception of major subgroups of
amoebae, can now be assigned to one of
eight major groups. Opisthokonts (basal
flagellum) have a single basal
flagellum on reproductive cells and
flat mitochondrial cristae (most
eukaryotes have tubular ones).
Eukaryotic photosynthesis originated in
Plants; theirs are the only plastids
with just two outer membranes.
Heterokonts (different flagellae) have
a unique flagellum decorated with
hollow tripartite hairs (stramenopiles)
and, usually, a second plain one.
Cercozoans are amoebae with filose
pseudopodia, often living with in tests
(hard outer shells), some very
elaborate (foraminiferans). Amoebozoa
are mostly naked amoebae (lacking
tests), often with lobose pseudopodia
for at least part of their life cycle.
Alveolates have systems of cortical
alveoli directly beneath their plasma
membranes. Discicristates have discoid
mitochondrial cristae and, in some
cases, a deep (excavated) ventral
feeding groove. Amitochondrial
excavates lack substantial molecular
phylogenetic support, but most have an
excavated ventral feeding groove, and
all lack mitochondria. The tree shown
is based on a consensus of molecular
(1-4) and ultrastructural (16, 17) data
and includes a rough indication of new
ciPCR ''taxa'' (broken black lines)
(7-11). An asterisk preceding the taxon
name indicates probable paraphyletic
group.
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/co
ntent/full/300/5626/1703
evolves now according to genetic
comparison.
Foraminifera (or "forams" for short),
are unicellular protists characterized
by long, fine pseudopodia that extend
from a uninucleated or multinucleated
cytoplasmic body encased within a test,
or shell. Shell sizes may be as large
as 5 cm in diameter and vary in shape
and chemical composition.
Foraminifera are the most diverse and
most widely studied of microfossils.
Forams are related to the amoeba but
unlike an amoeba they have a shell.
Forams secret skeletons of calcium
carbonate (the mineral calcite), which
is different than radiolarians which
secrete skeletons of silica. Most are
marine and live on or in the sea bottom
(are benthic) but one family,
Globigerinidae, are tiny and buoyant
and make up a major part of the marine
plankton.
Foraminifera, especially the calcareous
forms, have a fossil record stretching
back to the Early Cambrian, and are
especially important
biostratigraphically.
Much of the Earth's chalk, limestone,
and marble is composed largely of
foraminiferan tests.
[1] FIG. 2. The tree of life based on
molecular, ultrastructural and
palaeontological evidence. Contrary to
widespread assumptions, the root is
among the eubacteria, probably within
the double-enveloped Negibacteria, not
between eubacteria and archaebacteria
(Cavalier-Smith, 2002b); it may lie
between Eobacteria and other
Negibacteria (Cavalier-Smith, 2002b).
The position of the eukaryotic root has
been nearly as controversial, but is
less hard to establish: it probably
lies between unikonts and bikonts (Lang
et al., 2002; Stechmann and
Cavalier-Smith, 2002, 2003). For
clarity the basal eukaryotic kingdom
Protozoa is not labelled; it comprises
four major groups (alveolates, cabozoa,
Amoebozoa and Choanozoa) plus the small
bikont phylum Apusozoa of unclear
precise position; whether Heliozoa are
protozoa as shown or chromists is
uncertain (Cavalier-Smith, 2003b).
Symbiogenetic cell enslavement occurred
four or five times: in the origin of
mitochondria and chloroplasts from
different negibacteria, of
chromalveolates by the enslaving of a
red alga (Cavalier-Smith, 1999, 2003;
Harper and Keeling, 2003) and in the
origin of the green plastids of
euglenoid (excavate) and chlorarachnean
(cercozoan) algae-a green algal cell
was enslaved either by the ancestral
cabozoan (arrow) or (less likely) twice
independently within excavates and
Cercozoa (asterisks) (Cavalier-Smith,
2003a). The upper thumbnail sketch
shows membrane topology in the
chimaeric cryptophytes (class
Cryptophyceae of the phylum Cryptista);
in the ancestral chromist the former
food vacuole membrane fused with the
rough endoplasmic reticulum placing the
enslaved cell within its lumen (red) to
yield the complex membrane topology
shown. The large host nucleus and the
tiny nucleomorph are shown in blue,
chloroplast green and mitochondrion
purple. In chlorarachneans (class
Chlorarachnea of phylum Cercozoa) the
former food vacuole membrane remained
topologically distinct from the ER to
become an epiplastid membrane and so
did not acquire ribosomes on its
surface, but their membrane topology is
otherwise similar to the cryptophytes.
The other sketches portray the four
major kinds of cell in the living world
and their membrane topology. The upper
ones show the contrasting ancestral
microtubular cytoskeleton (ciliary
roots, in red) of unikonts (a cone of
single microtubules attaching the
single centriole to the nucleus, blue)
and bikonts (two bands of microtubules
attached to the posterior centriole and
an anterior fan of microtubules
attached to the anterior centriole).
The lower ones show the single plasma
membrane of unibacteria (posibacteria
plus archaebacteria), which were
ancestral to eukaryotes and the double
envelope of negibacteria, which were
ancestral to mitochondria and
chloroplasts (which retained the outer
membrane, red).
source: http://aob.oxfordjournals.org/cg
i/content/full/95/1/147/FIG2
[2] Fig. 1. A consensus phylogeny of
eukaryotes. The vast majority of
characterized eukaryotes, with the
notable exception of major subgroups of
amoebae, can now be assigned to one of
eight major groups. Opisthokonts (basal
flagellum) have a single basal
flagellum on reproductive cells and
flat mitochondrial cristae (most
eukaryotes have tubular ones).
Eukaryotic photosynthesis originated in
Plants; theirs are the only plastids
with just two outer membranes.
Heterokonts (different flagellae) have
a unique flagellum decorated with
hollow tripartite hairs (stramenopiles)
and, usually, a second plain one.
Cercozoans are amoebae with filose
pseudopodia, often living with in tests
(hard outer shells), some very
elaborate (foraminiferans). Amoebozoa
are mostly naked amoebae (lacking
tests), often with lobose pseudopodia
for at least part of their life cycle.
Alveolates have systems of cortical
alveoli directly beneath their plasma
membranes. Discicristates have discoid
mitochondrial cristae and, in some
cases, a deep (excavated) ventral
feeding groove. Amitochondrial
excavates lack substantial molecular
phylogenetic support, but most have an
excavated ventral feeding groove, and
all lack mitochondria. The tree shown
is based on a consensus of molecular
(1-4) and ultrastructural (16, 17) data
and includes a rough indication of new
ciPCR ''taxa'' (broken black lines)
(7-11). An asterisk preceding the taxon
name indicates probable paraphyletic
group.
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/co
ntent/full/300/5626/1703
evolves.
Placozoans look like amoebas but are
multicellular. The only known species
in this phylum is Trichoplax adhaerens.
Trichoplax lives in the sea and feeds
on single celled organisms, mostly
algae. Trichoplax has only 4 cell types
compared to the more than 200 cell
types in humans. Trichoplax has two
main cell layers, like a cnidarian or
ctenophore. Between these two layers
are a few contractile cells that are
similar to muscle cells, however
placozoans lack muscle and nerve cells
and have no symmetry or organs.
Trichoplax has only 1 hox gene
(Trox-2).
Possible eggs have been observed, but
they degrade at the 32-64 cell stage.
Neither embryonic development nor sperm
have been observed, however Trichoplax
genomes show evidence of sexual
reproduction.
[1] Description Trichoplax sp.
from Australia in light
microscopy Date February
2006 Source Oliver Voigt Author
Oliver Voigt CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c3/Trichoplax_mic.jpg
("Ciliates") evolves according to
genetic comparison (includes
parameceum). Earliest mitochondria with
tubular christae.
There are about 12,000 described
species of ciliates. Ciliates are very
common in benthic and planktonic
communities in both marine and fresh
water. Both sessile and free moving
types are known and many are ecto- or
endosymbionts, including some parasitic
species. Most are single celled, but
branching and linear colonies are known
in several species. Ciliates have a
fixed shape which is maintained by the
alveolar membrane system and underlying
fibrous layer. Ciliates use their cilia
for locomotion. Mitochondria in
ciliates have tubular cristae. Ciliates
have two distinct types of nuclei, a
hyperpolyploid macronucleus and a
diploid micronucleus. Ciliates
reproduce by asexual reproduction using
transverse binary fission, and by
sexual reproduction using conjugation:
a pair of ciliates fuse and exchange
micronuclei through a cytoplasmic
connection at a point of joining.
Ciliates include many different feeding
types. Some are filter feeders, others
capture and inject other protists or
small invertebrates, many eat algal
filaments or diatoms, some eat attached
bacteria, and a few are saprophytic
parasites (live on dead or decaying
organic matter). In almost all ciliates
feeding is restricted to a specialized
area containing the "cytostome or "cell
mouth". Food vacuoles are formed at the
cytosome and then circulated through
the cytoplasm as digestion occurs. A
few ciliates (for example Laboea, and
Stronbidium) contain photosynthetically
functional chloroplasts derived from
injested algae. The chloroplasts lie
free in the cytoplasm, beneath the
pellicle, where they actively
contribute to the ciliate's carbon
budget.
A few ciliates (for example
tintinnids), secrete external
skeletons, or loricae, which have been
found in the fossil record as early as
the Late Proterozoic in the Doushantuo
Formation (580 million years ago).
Biomarkers for ciliates have been found
dating back ever farther to 850 million
years ago.
[1] Summary Description English:
Scanning electron microscope view of
Oxytricha trifallax Español: Imagen
de microscopía electrónica de barrido
de Oxytricha trifallax Date Unknown
date Source http://www.genome.gov/I
mages/press_photos/highres/85-300.jpg
Author Unknown Permission (Reusin
g this file) See below. PD [1] Fig.
1. A consensus phylogeny of eukaryotes.
The vast majority of characterized
eukaryotes, with the notable exception
of major subgroups of amoebae, can now
be assigned to one of eight major
groups. Opisthokonts (basal flagellum)
have a single basal flagellum on
reproductive cells and flat
mitochondrial cristae (most eukaryotes
have tubular ones). Eukaryotic
photosynthesis originated in Plants;
theirs are the only plastids with just
two outer membranes. Heterokonts
(different flagellae) have a unique
flagellum decorated with hollow
tripartite hairs (stramenopiles) and,
usually, a second plain one. Cercozoans
are amoebae with filose pseudopodia,
often living with in tests (hard outer
shells), some very elaborate
(foraminiferans). Amoebozoa are mostly
naked amoebae (lacking tests), often
with lobose pseudopodia for at least
part of their life cycle. Alveolates
have systems of cortical alveoli
directly beneath their plasma
membranes. Discicristates have discoid
mitochondrial cristae and, in some
cases, a deep (excavated) ventral
feeding groove. Amitochondrial
excavates lack substantial molecular
phylogenetic support, but most have an
excavated ventral feeding groove, and
all lack mitochondria. The tree shown
is based on a consensus of molecular
(1-4) and ultrastructural (16, 17) data
and includes a rough indication of new
ciPCR ''taxa'' (broken black lines)
(7-11). An asterisk preceding the taxon
name indicates probable paraphyletic
group COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Oxytricha_trifa
llax.jpg/1024px-Oxytricha_trifallax.jpg
[2] 2 Ciliates conjugating UNKNOWN
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/co
ntent/full/300/5626/1703
[1] Description A thin-film Giemsa
stained micrograph of ring-forms, and
gametocytes of Plasmodium falciparum.
From
http://phil.cdc.gov/phil/home.asp Date
2006-11-16 (original upload
date) Source Originally from
en.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. Author Original uploader was
TimVickers at
en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3c/Plasmodium.jpg
[2] Fig. 1. A consensus phylogeny of
eukaryotes. The vast majority of
characterized eukaryotes, with the
notable exception of major subgroups of
amoebae, can now be assigned to one of
eight major groups. Opisthokonts (basal
flagellum) have a single basal
flagellum on reproductive cells and
flat mitochondrial cristae (most
eukaryotes have tubular ones).
Eukaryotic photosynthesis originated in
Plants; theirs are the only plastids
with just two outer membranes.
Heterokonts (different flagellae) have
a unique flagellum decorated with
hollow tripartite hairs (stramenopiles)
and, usually, a second plain one.
Cercozoans are amoebae with filose
pseudopodia, often living with in tests
(hard outer shells), some very
elaborate (foraminiferans). Amoebozoa
are mostly naked amoebae (lacking
tests), often with lobose pseudopodia
for at least part of their life cycle.
Alveolates have systems of cortical
alveoli directly beneath their plasma
membranes. Discicristates have discoid
mitochondrial cristae and, in some
cases, a deep (excavated) ventral
feeding groove. Amitochondrial
excavates lack substantial molecular
phylogenetic support, but most have an
excavated ventral feeding groove, and
all lack mitochondria. The tree shown
is based on a consensus of molecular
(1-4) and ultrastructural (16, 17) data
and includes a rough indication of new
ciPCR ''taxa'' (broken black lines)
(7-11). An asterisk preceding the taxon
name indicates probable paraphyletic
group COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/co
ntent/full/300/5626/1703
are arranged in layers evolve in
metazoans.
[1] Description This is an example
of a ctenophore, Bathocyroe fosteri,
which is a mesopelagic species. Date
Source Description This is
an example of a ctenophore, Bathocyroe
fosteri, which is a mesopelagic
species. Date Source
[1] Author Photo courtesy of
Marsh Youngbluth Author Photo
courtesy of Marsh Youngbluth PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/21/Bathocyroe_fosteri.jp
g
[2] Light diffracting along the comb
rows of a Mertensia ovum. The right
lower portion of the body is
regenerating from previous damage.
Source: NOAA Photo Gallery/ Photo by
Kevin Raskoff PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/42/LightRefractsOf_comb-
rows_of_ctenophore_Mertensia_ovum.jpg
nervous system evolves in the ancestor
of the Ctenophores and Cnidarians. This
leads to the first ganglion and brain.
Earliest touch and sound detection.
The most primitive extant organisms
that contain a neuron cell are the
ctenophora.
Simple and sessile cnidarians have no
sense organs, but they do have sensory
cells in both tissues that respond to
light, chemical or mechanical stimuli.
These sensory cells are often
structurally similar to those of
vertebrates. Each has a cilium that
protrudes into the water. The sensory
cells synapse (are closely spaced to)
with nerve cells, allowing the animal
to generally respond to stimuli at a
distance instead of responding at the
site of the stimulus.
Some Cnidarians have ganglia,
aggregations of nerve cells.
[1] English: Drawing of Purkinje cells
(A) and granule cells (B) from pigeon
cerebellum by Santiago Ramón y Cajal,
1899; Instituto Santiago Ramón y
Cajal, Madrid, Spain. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/15/PurkinjeCell.jpg
[2] figure from: D. T. Anderson,
''Invertebrate Zoology'', Oxford
University Press, Second Edition, 2001,
p39. COPYRIGHTED
source: D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p39.
[1] Figure from: D. T. Anderson,
''Invertebrate Zoology'', Oxford
University Press, Second Edition, 2001,
p39. COPYRIGHTED
source: D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p39.
(single celled nonphotosynthesizing
eukaryotes) and earliest fossil of a
testate amoeba.
This fossil indicates that the last
common ancestor of animals and fungi
appeared at least 750 million years
ago.
This fossil was found in the Grand
Canyon in Arizona.
Canyon, Arizona, USA
[1] Knoll, Life on a Young Planet
COPYRIGHTED
source: Knoll, Life on a Young Planet
[1] Description This is an example
of a ctenophore, Bathocyroe fosteri,
which is a mesopelagic species. Date
Source Description This is
an example of a ctenophore, Bathocyroe
fosteri, which is a mesopelagic
species. Date Source
[1] Author Photo courtesy of
Marsh Youngbluth Author Photo
courtesy of Marsh Youngbluth PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/21/Bathocyroe_fosteri.jp
g
[2] Light diffracting along the comb
rows of a Mertensia ovum. The right
lower portion of the body is
regenerating from previous damage.
Source: NOAA Photo Gallery/ Photo by
Kevin Raskoff PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/42/LightRefractsOf_comb-
rows_of_ctenophore_Mertensia_ovum.jpg
[1] Description This is an example
of a ctenophore, Bathocyroe fosteri,
which is a mesopelagic species. Date
Source Description This is
an example of a ctenophore, Bathocyroe
fosteri, which is a mesopelagic
species. Date Source
[1] Author Photo courtesy of
Marsh Youngbluth Author Photo
courtesy of Marsh Youngbluth PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/21/Bathocyroe_fosteri.jp
g
[2] Light diffracting along the comb
rows of a Mertensia ovum. The right
lower portion of the body is
regenerating from previous damage.
Source: NOAA Photo Gallery/ Photo by
Kevin Raskoff PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/42/LightRefractsOf_comb-
rows_of_ctenophore_Mertensia_ovum.jpg
(Arbuscular {oRBuSKYUlR} mycorrhizal
{MIKerIZL} fungi).
Glomeromycota {GlO-mi-rO-mI-KO-Tu} are
also know by their class name
Glomeromycetes {GlO-mi-rO-mI-SETS}
[1] Gigaspora margarita in association
with Lotus corniculatus Description
Lotus corniculatus var. japonicus
kolonisiert durch Gigaspora
margarita Date 18 September
2007 Source Own work Author
Mike Guether GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Gigaspora_marga
rita.JPG/1024px-Gigaspora_margarita.JPG
[2] germinating Gigaspora decipiens
source: http://pages.unibas.ch/bothebel/
people/redecker/ff/glomero.htm
evidence of animals (metazoans),
steranes associated with demosponges.
Demosponges comprise 85% of all extant
sponge species.
Basin, Oman
[1] Description Nederlands:
Tonspons Date Source Own
work Author Albert Kok GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Barrel6.jpg/123
6px-Barrel6.jpg
[2] Description English: Monanchora
arbuscula (Pink Lumpy
sponge) Français: Monanchora
arbuscula (éponge rose
grumeleuse) Date 12 September
2010 Source Own
work Author Nhobgood Nick
Hobgood GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Monanchora_ungu
ifera_%28Pink_Lumpy_sponge%29.jpg/1023px
-Monanchora_unguifera_%28Pink_Lumpy_spon
ge%29.jpg
{NIDAREeNS} evolve (sea anemones,
corals, jellyfish). Earliest animal
eye.
Cnidaria {NIDAREeo} are a phylum of
invertebrate animals composed of the
sea anemones, corals, jellyfish, and
hydroids. Cnidarians are radially
symmetrical. The mouth, located at the
center of one end of the body, opens
into a gastrovascular cavity, which is
used for digestion and distribution of
food, there is no anus. Cnidarians have
a body wall composed of three layers:
an outer epidermis, an inner
gastrodermis, and a middle mesogloea.
Tentacles encircle the mouth and are
used in part for food capture.
Specialized stinging structures, called
nematocysts, are a characteristic of
the phylum and are located in the
tentacles and often in other body
parts. These contain a coiled fiber
that can be extruded suddenly. Some
nematocysts contain toxic substances
and are defense mechanisms, while
others are adhesive, helping to anchor
the animal or to entangle prey.
Cnidarians have two alternate body
plans, the polyp and the medusa. A sea
anemone or Hydra is a typical polyp:
non-moving, mouth on top, bottom end
fixed to the ground like a plant. A
jellyfish is a typical medusa, swimming
through the open sea. Many cnidarians
have both polyp and medusa forms,
alternating them through life cycle,
like caterpillar and butterfly. Polyps
often reproduce by budding, like
plants. A new baby polyp grows on the
side of a freshwater Hydra, eventually
breaking off as a separate individual
clone of the parent. In many marine
relatives of Hydra, the clone doesn't
break off but stays attached, and
becomes a branch like a plant.
Sometimes more than one kind of polyp
grows on the same polyp tree,
specialized for different roles, such
as feeding, defense, or reproduction.
Cnidarians have a nervous system which
is a network, not centralized into a
brain, ganglia or major nerve trunks.
They also have muscles which are
contracted to propel them. Their
digestive organ is a single cavity with
only one opening which is both mouth
and anus. They have no circulatory
system. All cnidarians have cells
called cnidocytes, each with its own
cell-sized harpoon called a cnida. All
cnidarians have cnidae, and only
cnidarians have them. Once triggered
the harpoon cell cannot be used again,
but are constantly replaced.
Simple and sessile cnidarians have no
sense organs, but they do have sensory
cells in both tissues that respond to
light, chemical or mechanical stimuli.
These sensory cells are often
structurally similar to those of
vertebrates. Each has a cilium that
protrudes into the water. The sensory
cells and nerve cells are separated by
a small space (synapse), allowing the
animal to generally respond to stimuli
at a distance instead of responding at
the site of the stimulus. Medusae and
complex motile colonies of Cnidaria
have more complex sense organs: the
statocyts detect the degree of tilt of
the body, and the ocelli {OSeLlE or
OSeLlI} are light receptors. Cnidarian
ocelli range from patches of
photoreceptors alternating with pigment
cells, to complex structures in which
the light receptors have a cup shaped
shield of pigmented cells behind them
and are covered by a lens formed from
cytoplasmic extensions from neighboring
cells {see image}.
Cnidarians see in black or white,
because their eyes have only one
pigment, for color vision the eye must
have more than one pigment.
Porifera (sponges have no obvious
symmetry), while Cnidarians are
radially symmetrical and Ctenophores
are biradially symmetrical.
There are differences between Cnidaria
and Ctenophora. In Cnidaria, cells have
a single flagellum or cilium, while the
cells of Ctenophora have large numbers
of cilia. Stinging cells called
cnidocytes, are unique to cnidarians,
and adhesive cells called "coloblasts"
are unique to Ctenophora. Ctenophora
swim by using arrays of fused cilia
arranged in eight rows, while the
Cnidaria move by means of muscle
contraction of an epithelial cell.
Cnidarians lack true muscle cells. The
muscle fibers in Cnidaria are always
extensions of an epithelial cell.
Ctenophora have true muscles. Unlike
Cnidaria, Ctenophora have gonoducts and
gonopores by which gametes exit the
body.
Cnidaria do not have complex
reproductive organs; gonads develop in
the body wall or mesenteries by
differentiation of interstitial cells.
In many species the gonads are absorbed
again after spawning has occurred.
Gonads may be formed in the tissue and
gametes released directly into the
water or gonads may be endodermal and
the gametes released into the water
through breaks in the body wall or
through the mouth. Genders are usually
separate, but some species are
hermaphroditic (produce both ova and
sperm). Sperm are released into the
water and fertilization is usually
external. In species that brood their
eggs, fertilization occurs at the
brooding site, which may be in the
gastrovascular cavity or on the outside
of the body. Sperm are often attracted
to the eggs by highly specific
chemicals.
Digestion in Cnidarians starts in the
gastrovascular cavity, but once the
food is reduced to particles small
enough to enter the digestive cells of
the gastrodermis, digestion is
completed inside the cell
(intracellularly).
Cnidarians make the great barrier reef
which is more than 2,000 kilometers
long. The cnidarian, the box jellyfish,
is one of the most dangerously venomous
animals on earth.
[1] Octocorals Stylatula elongata –
White Sea Pen UNKNOWN
source: http://pt-lobos.com/cnidarianimg
/white_sea_pens.jpg
[2] Sea nettles, Chrysaora
quinquecirrha CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/36/Sea_nettles.jpg
"Basidiomycota" {Bo-SiDEO-mI-KO-Tu}
evolves now according to genetic
comparison (most mushrooms, rusts, club
fungi).
The Division Basidiomycota is a large
taxon within the Kingdom Fungi that
includes those species that produce
spores in a club-shaped structure
called a basidium. Essentially the
sibling group of the Ascomycota, it
contains some 30,000 species (37% of
the described fungi)
[1] Amanita muscaria
(Homobasidiomycetes)
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Agaricales.jpg
[2] Basidiomycete Life Cycle tjv
source: http://botit.botany.wisc.edu/ima
ges/332/Basidiomycota/General_basidio/Ba
sidiomycete_Life_Cycle_tjv.php?highres=t
rue
"Ascomycota" {aS-KO-mI-KO-Tu} evolves
now according to genetic comparison:
(yeasts, truffles, Penicillium, morels,
sac fungi).
There are 47,000 described Ascomycota
species.
[1] white truffle
cutted photographed by
myself GNU head Permission is
granted to copy, distribute and/or
modify this document under the terms of
the GNU Free Documentation License,
Version 1.2 or any later version
published by the Free Software
Foundation; with no Invariant Sections,
no Front-Cover Texts, and no Back-Cover
Texts. A copy of the license is
included in the section entitled ''Text
of the GNU Free Documentation
License.''
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/fd/Truffle_washed_and_cu
tted.jpg
[2] EColi-Scerevisiae.jpg (50KB, MIME
type: image/jpeg) Wikimedia Commons
logo This is a file from the Wikimedia
Commons. The description on its
description page there is shown
below. Escherichia coli (little
forms) & Saccharomyces cerevisiae (big
forms) by MEB Public domain This file
has been released into the public
domain by the copyright holder, its
copyright has expired, or it is
ineligible for copyright. This applies
worldwide. brewer's yeast/baker's
yeast
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:EColi-Scerevisiae.jpg
[1] From: Brusca and Brusca,
''Invertebrates'', Second Edition,
2003. COPYRIGHTED
source: Brusca and Brusca,
"Invertebrates", Second Edition, 2003
[2] Figure 3.8 Anthozoa. (a) Anemone
(Actiniaria), showing the pharynx,
mesenteries, mesenterial filamnets and
acontia. (b) Structure of a mesenterial
filament in transverse section. (c)
Scleractinian coral, showing calcareous
skeleton and coenenchyme. (d)
Gorgonian, showing skeleton made up of
a horny axial rod and spicules in the
mesogloea (after Pearse et al 1987).
(e) Alcyonarian soft coral, showing
spicular skeleton in the
mesogloea. From: D. T. Anderson,
''Invertebrate Zoology'', Oxford
University Press, Second Edition,
2001. COPYRIGHTED
source: D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001.
"Archaeascomycetes" (fission yeast,
pneumonia fungus) evolve.
Ice Age (650-590 mybn).
sided symmetry).
Earliest animal brain (ganglion,
memory). First triploblastic species
(third embryonic layer: the mesoderm).
In bilaterians food enters in one end
(the mouth) and waste exists at the
opposite end (the anus). There is an
advantage for sense organs: light,
sound, touch, smell, and taste
detection to be located on the head
near the mouth to help with catching
food.
Unlike the diploblastic Cnidaria and
Ctenophora, flatworms and all later
metazoans are triploblastic. A third
embryonic layer, the mesoderm, lies
between the ectoderm and endoderm. This
layer increases the options for the
development of organs with specific
functions, formed by the association of
tissues of various kinds.
The earliest brain (ganglion, memory)
develop in a bilaterian worm.
This begins the Animal Subkingdom
"Bilateria".
[1] Convoluta pulchra Smith and Bush
1991, a typical mud-inhabiting acoel
that feeds on diatoms
source: ?
[2] Figure from: Giribet, G. (2008).
Assembling the lophotrochozoan
(=spiralian) tree of life.
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society B: Biological Sciences , 363
(1496), 1513-1522. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2007.2241
http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/363/1496/1513 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://rstb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/363/1496/1513
Acoelomorpha (acoela flat worms and
nemertodermatida).
The phylum Acoelomorpha (acoela flat
worms and nemertodermatida) is the
oldest surviving bilaterian. This
begins the Subkingdom "Bilateria".
Acoelomorpha lack a digestive track,
anus and coelom.
Flatworms have no lungs or gills and
breathe through their skin. Flatworms
also have no circulating blood and so
their branched gut presumably
transports nutrients to all parts of
the body.
[1] Convoluta pulchra Smith and Bush
1991, a typical mud-inhabiting acoel
that feeds on diatoms
source: ?
[2] Figure from: Giribet, G. (2008).
Assembling the lophotrochozoan
(=spiralian) tree of life.
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society B: Biological Sciences , 363
(1496), 1513-1522. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2007.2241
http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/363/1496/1513 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://rstb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/363/1496/1513
[1] From: D. T. Anderson,
''Invertebrate Zoology'', Oxford
University Press, Second Edition,
2001. COPYRIGHTED
source: D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001.
[2] Convoluta pulchra Smith and Bush
1991, a typical mud-inhabiting acoel
that feeds on diatoms
source: ?
through-put of food evolves in a
bilaterian.
All bilaterally symmetrical metazoans
except the Phyla Acoelomorpha and
Platyhelminthes, have a tubular gut
with an anus, mouth, and through-put of
food. The Phyla Nemertea and Entoprocta
are the earliest bilaterians with an
anus.
[1] From: D. T. Anderson,
''Invertebrate Zoology'', Oxford
University Press, Second Edition,
2001. COPYRIGHTED
source: D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001.
[2] Convoluta pulchra Smith and Bush
1991, a typical mud-inhabiting acoel
that feeds on diatoms
source: ?
uterus evolve in a bilaterian.
[1] From: D. T. Anderson,
''Invertebrate Zoology'', Oxford
University Press, Second Edition,
2001. COPYRIGHTED
source: D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001.
[2] Convoluta pulchra Smith and Bush
1991, a typical mud-inhabiting acoel
that feeds on diatoms
source: ?
[1] From: Brusca and Brusca,
''Invertebrates'', Second Edition,
2003 COPYRIGHTED
source: Brusca and Brusca,
"Invertebrates", Second Edition, 2003
[2] From: Ruppert, Fox, Barnes,
''Invertebrate Zoology'',
2004. COPYRIGHTED
source: Ruppert, Fox, Barnes,
"Invertebrate Zoology", 2004.
[1] Clathrulina (cla-through-line-a),
showing head region and included
amoeboid cell. Differential
interference contrast. Some rights
reserved Supplier:
micro*scope Author: David Patterson
and Aimlee Laderman CC
source: http://content62.eol.org/content
/2008/12/10/21/61316_580_360.jpg
[2] Description Cercomonas sp. /
from Lake Yuniko, Nikko, Tochigi Pref.,
Japan / Microscope:Leica DMRD
(DIC) Date 2007/05/07 Source O
wn work Author ja:User:NEON /
commons:User:NEON_ja CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/ca/Cercomonas_sp.jpg
and gut walls separates potentially
harm-food food from mixing with and
damaging important mechanical, chemical
and other parts of the metazoan.)
[1] From NATURAL HISTORY
COLLECTIONS OF THE UNIVERSITY OF
EDINBURGH Formation of the coelom or
body cavity Acoelomates lack a
body cavity. In pseudocoelomates,
the coelom is formed from a persistent
embryonic cavity. In schizocoelous
coelomates, the coelom is formed by
splits in the embryonic mesoderm, the
middle layer of the body. In
enterocoelous coelomates, the coelom
forms within pouches of the gut
wall. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.nhc.ed.ac.uk/images/c
ollections/invertebrates/intros/LgCoelom
.jpg
Lesser Karatau Microcontinent,
Kazakhsta
[1] A general view of the life in the
time frame from about 605 to 542
million years ago (the Vendian), is
found at this New Zealand site which
concentrates on the Ediacaran epoch; it
mentions Australian and other
geographic localities where the
assemblages have been found. The fossil
life is represented entirely by
creatures with soft parts only. It is
suggested that these may be ancestral
to later phylla observed at the
beginning of the Paleozoic. Below is a
chart presenting typical Ediacaran
fauna, followed by an artist's
depiction of life on the sea floor at
that time, and beneath that is a layout
of some actual fossils: PD
source: http://rst.gsfc.nasa.gov/Sect20/
800pxlife_in_the_ediacaran_sea.jpg
[2] A more general view of the life in
the time frame from about 600+ to 542
million years ago (end of Proterozoic
and Precambrian into the oldest
Cambrian), known as the Ediacaran or
Vendian, is found at this New Zealand
site; it mentions Australian and other
geographic localities where the
assemblages have been found. The fossil
life represents entirely creatures with
soft parts only and suggestions that
these may be ancestral to later phylla
observed at the beginning of the
Paleozoic. Below is an artist's sketch
of some of these creatures: UNKNOWN
source: http://www.fas.org/irp/imint/doc
s/rst/Sect20/vendintro.jpg
[1] From: D. T. Anderson,
''Invertebrate Zoology'', Oxford
University Press, Second Edition,
2001 COPYRIGHTED
source: D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001
[2] From: D. T. Anderson,
''Invertebrate Zoology'', Oxford
University Press, Second Edition,
2001 COPYRIGHTED
source: D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001
Protostomes are divided into two major
groups: the Ecdysozoa {eK-DiS-u-ZOu}
and the Lophotrochozoa {LuFoTroKoZOu}.
The Ecdysozoa are animals that molt or
lose their outer skin as they grow, and
include Priapulids {PrIaPYUliDZ},
Nematodes, Tardigrades {ToRDiGRADZ},
Onychophorens {oniKoFereNS}, and the
arthropods {which is a large group
including all crustaceans and insects}.
The Lophotrochozoa, is subdivided into
the Platyzoa {PlaTiZOu}, which includes
rotifers, gastrotrics and
Platyhelminthes, and the Trochozoa,
which includes bryozoans
{BrI-u-ZO-iNZ}, Nemertea {ne-mR-TEu},
Phoronids {FerOniDZ}, brachiopods
{BrA-KE-O-PoDZ}, Entoprocts
{eNtoProKTS}, molluscs and annelids.
[1] English: This diagram is showing
the difference of the two major types
of coelomates: the protostomes
(molluscs, annelids, arthropods, ...)
and deuterostomes (echinoderms,
vertebrates, ...). These groups differ
in several characteristics of early
development; In deuterostomes blastula
devisions is called ''radial cleavage''
because it occurs parallel or
perpendicular to the major polar axis.
In protostomes the cleavage is called
''spirale'' because division planes are
oriented obliquely to the polar major
axis. During gastrulation, protostomes
embryos' mouth was given first by the
blastopore while the anus was formed
later and vis versa for the
deuterostomes. As examples :
Squids are protostomes. Sea
urchins are deuterostomes. Date
14 October 2009 Source Own
work Author WYassineMrabetTalk✉ CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Protovsdeuteros
tomes.svg/1000px-Protovsdeuterostomes.sv
g.png
[2] English: This diagram is showing
the difference of the two major types
of coelomates: the protostomes
(molluscs, annelids, arthropods, ...)
and deuterostomes (echinoderms,
vertebrates, ...). These groups differ
in several characteristics of early
development; In deuterostomes blastula
devisions is called ''radial cleavage''
because it occurs parallel or
perpendicular to the major polar axis.
In protostomes the cleavage is called
''spirale'' because division planes are
oriented obliquely to the polar major
axis. During gastrulation, protostomes
embryos' mouth was given first by the
blastopore while the anus was formed
later and vis versa for the
deuterostomes. As examples :
Squids are protostomes. Sea
urchins are deuterostomes. Date
14 October 2009 Source Own
work Author WYassineMrabetTalk✉ CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Protovsdeuteros
tomes.svg/1000px-Protovsdeuterostomes.sv
g.png
in unicellular protists.
The first known shell belongs to
unicellular protists ciliates called
the tintinnids. This shell is called a
lorica. These fossils are thought to be
in shallow marine waters, not far from
the coastline.
Similar modes of skeleton formation
have evolved independently in different
groups to fulfill similar needs.
These are also the earliest known
ciliate fossils.
Unfortunately there has been no
consistent terminology for coverings.
The terms lorica, shell, test, and case
are often used synonymously. Euglenozoa
have an outside covering which is
called a "pellicle". A pellicle usually
has openings for injestion, egestion,
and water expulsion. Some ciliates
(tintinnids) secrete an external
skeleton called a "lorica", which start
to appear in the fossil record around
500 million years ago. Foraminifera
secrete a heavy shell of silica or
calcium carbonate. The shape of
Dinoflagellates is maintained by
alveoli beneath the cell surface, and
by a layer of supporting microtubules.
In some, these alveoli are filled with
polysaccharides, typically cellulose,
and these dinoflagellates are said to
be "thecate", or "armored", while
dinoflagellates that have empty alveoli
are said to be "athecate", or "naked".
Diatoms secrete silicon in the form of
an internal test or frustule, that
contains two parts called valves.
Beneath the test is the cell membrane
enclosing the nucleus, chloroplasts and
cytoplasm. Some protists build a "test"
of sand grains or other particles
cemented together. Resistant covering
are sometime formed for brief parts of
the life cycle. This is especially true
for parasites, which usually pass from
one host to another as cysts or spores,
covered by a resistant membrane that
protects them while out of the host.
In addition to its supportive function,
the animal skeleton may provide
protection, facilitate movement, and
aid in certain sensory functions.
Support of the body is achieved in many
protozoans by a simple stiff,
translucent, nonliving envelope called
a pellicle. In nonmoving (sessile)
coelenterates, such as coral, whose
colonies attain great size, body
support is provided by non-living
structures, both internal and external,
which form supporting axes. In the many
groups of animals that can move, body
support is provided either by external
structures known as exoskeletons or by
internal structures known as
endoskeletons.
The skeleton may be on the body
surface, for example the lateral
sclerites of centipedes and the shell
of crabs. These structures carry no
muscle and form part of a protective
surface armor. Similarly, the scales of
fish, the projecting spines of
echinoderms (for example sea urchins),
the needle-like structures (spicules)
of sponges, and the tubes of hydroids,
raised from the body surface, all
provide protection. The bones of the
vertebrate skull protect the brain. In
the more advanced vertebrates and
invertebrates, many skeletal structures
provide a rigid base for the insertion
of muscles as well as providing
protection.
The skeleton assists movement in a
variety of ways, depending on the
nature of the animal. The bones of
vertebrates and the exoskeletal and
endoskeletal units of the cuticle of
arthropods (insects, spiders, crabs,
etc.) support opposing sets of muscles.
Guizhou Province, South China
[1] Figure 1 from: Li, C.-W.; et al.
(2007). ''Ciliated protozoans from the
Precambrian Doushantuo Formation,
Wengan, South China''. Geological
Society, London, Special Publications
286: 151–156.
doi:10.1144/SP286.11. http://dx.doi.org
/10.1144%2FSP286.11
{Ciliates_Fossils_Precambrian_Li_580my
bn.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://dx.doi.org/10.1144%2FSP28
6.11
AND {Ciliates_Fossils_Precambrian_Li_58
0mybn.pdf}
[2] Figure 1 from: Li, C.-W.; et al.
(2007). ''Ciliated protozoans from the
Precambrian Doushantuo Formation,
Wengan, South China''. Geological
Society, London, Special Publications
286: 151–156.
doi:10.1144/SP286.11. http://dx.doi.org
/10.1144%2FSP286.11
{Ciliates_Fossils_Precambrian_Li_580my
bn.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://dx.doi.org/10.1144%2FSP28
6.11
AND {Ciliates_Fossils_Precambrian_Li_58
0mybn.pdf}
Vernanimalcula, 178 um in length. First
fossil of organism with bilateral
symmetry, mouth, digestive track, gut
and anus.
[1] Fig. 2. Close-up images of
prominent anatomical features of
Vernanimalcula guizhouena. The scale
bar represents 18 µm in (A), 32 µm in
(B), 24 µm in (C), and 28 µm in (D).
SO, sensory organ, i.e., external pit;
LU, lumen; PH, pharynx; MO, mouth; CO,
coelomic lumen; CW, mesodermal coelomic
wall; GU, gut. (A) Detail of collared
mouth, multilayered pharynx, and one
anterior surface pit. In this image,
which is from the holotype specimen
(Fig. 1A), the floor of the pit can be
seen to be composed of a specialized
concave layer. Note the coelomic wall,
which here as elsewhere in these
specimens has a thickness of about 5 to
6 µm. (B) Mouth of a fourth specimen,
Q3105, displaying collared mouth and
pharynx, ventral view. (C) Lumen of
pharynx from a fifth specimen, X10419,
secondarily encrusted but revealing
morphology of opening of pharynx into
gut similar to that seen in the
specimens shown in Fig. 1. (D) Close-up
of spaced external pits, interpreted as
possible sensory organs, from the same
specimen as shown in Fig. 1B [compare
(A)].
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/co
ntent/full/sci;305/5681/218
[2] Fig. 1. Images of three different,
fairly well preserved specimens of the
bilaterally organized fossil animal
Vernanimalcula guizhouena. Left panels
show digitally recorded, transmitted
light images of sections about 50 µm
thick, which had been ground from
larger rock samples, mounted on slides,
and viewed through a light microscope.
Right panels show color-coded
representations of the images on the
left. These were prepared by digital
image overlay. Yellow, external
ectodermal layer; ochre, coelomic
mesodermal layer; red, surface pits;
mauve, pharynx; light tan, endodermal
wall of gut; gray-green, lumen of
mouth; dark gray, paired coelomic
cavities; lighter gray, lumen of gut;
brown, ''gland-like'' structures, with
central lumen (B); light green, mineral
inclusions (C). The scale bar
represents 40 µm in (A), 55 µm in
(B), and 46 µm in (C). (A) Holotype
specimen, X00305, slightly tilted,
almost complete ventral level coronal
section, passing through the ventrally
located mouth. (B) Coronal section of
second specimen, X08981, passing
through dorsal wall of pharynx and
displaying complete A-P length of
digestive tract, including posterior
end [not visible in (A)]. (C) Tilted
coronal section of third specimen,
X10475, possibly slightly squashed,
passing through dorsal wall of pharynx
and through the dorsal wall of the gut.
For dimensions, see Table 1.
source:
{eK-DiS-u-ZOu} evolves. Ecdysozoa are
animals that molt (lose their outer
skin) as they grow. This is the
ancestor of round worms, and arthropods
(which includes insects and crustaceans
{also known as "shell-fish"}).
[1] Dunn et al., CW; Hejnol, A; Matus,
DQ; Pang, K; Browne, WE; Smith, SA;
Seaver, E; Rouse, GW et al. (2008).
''Broad phylogenomic sampling improves
resolution of the animal tree of
life''. Nature 452 (7188): 745–749.
doi:10.1038/nature06614. PMID
18322464. http://www.nature.com/nature/
journal/v452/n7188/abs/nature06614.html
GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecd
ysozoa
[2] The figured topology and branch
lengths are for the sampled tree with
the highest likelihood (1,000 searches,
log likelihood = –796,399.2). Support
values are derived from 1,000 bootstrap
replicates. Leaf stabilities are shown
in blue above each branch. Taxa for
which we collected new data are shown
in green. from: Dunn et al., CW;
Hejnol, A; Matus, DQ; Pang, K; Browne,
WE; Smith, SA; Seaver, E; Rouse, GW et
al. (2008). ''Broad phylogenomic
sampling improves resolution of the
animal tree of life''. Nature 452
(7188): 745–749.
doi:10.1038/nature06614. PMID
18322464. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v452/n7188/images/nature06614-f1.2.
jpg
{Lu-Fo-Tro-Ku-ZO-u} evolve. Ancestor of
all brachiopods {BrA-KE-O-PoDZ},
bryozoans {BrI-u-ZO-iNZ}, and molluscs.
[1] A rotifer. The cilia around
this rotifer's mouth are unusually
long; they reach as far as the strand
of spirogyra to the right. 10×
objective, 15× eyepiece. The numbered
ticks on the scale are 122 µM apart.
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencephoto.com/imag
e/121893/530wm/C0058380-Rotifer_SEM-SPL.
jpg
[2] Description Clams Date
Source Own work Author
Marlith CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8f/Clams.JPG
These are fossil cnidarian embryos and
larvae from Doushantuo Formation in
China.
Cnidarians which possessed hard
skeletons, in particular the corals,
have left a significant fossil record
of their existence.
Guizhou Province, South China
[1] Figure 2 Putative cnidarian
embryos and larvae. (A) Oblique section
of a possible fossil anthozoan planula.
(B) Schematic view of a transverse
section of the late planula of the
anthozoan Euphyllia rugosa. The larval
stage represented in A and B is
constituted of an outer monocellular
layer, the ectoderm, within which is an
inner endodermal layer with various
mesenteric folds and immature septa.
This complicated bilayered structure is
typical of anthozoan late planula
larvae. Note the individual cells
visible in the ectodermal layer at
lower left in A, where it has separated
from the endodermal layer. (Scale bar,
100 μm.) (C and D) Putative fossil
gastrula of hydrozoan medusa; (C)
Bright field; (D) Polarized light.
Under polarized light (D), both layers
show the same crystal orientation at
arrows, as indicated by the same
colors. The modern hydrozoan embryo
shown in E is Liriope mucronata. B is
from Chevalier (47); E from Campbell
(48). (Scale bar in C is 50 μm.)
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.pnas.org/content/97/9
/4457/F2.large.jpg
[2] FIgure 3 Figure 3 Putative
fossil embryos that resemble bilaterian
gastrulae. (A–G) Fossils resembling
deuterostome embryos; (H) Modern
example (gastrulae of the sea urchin
Mespilia globulus, ref. 49) In A, C,
and E, the archenteron is bent to one
side, and in A and C displays bilobed
outpocketings; (A) The nearer
ectodermal layer is thicker compared
with the opposite one (possible oral
and aboral ectoderms, respectively;
compare H). (C) A section in the plane
indicated by the small arrowheads in A.
(B and D) Polarized light microscope
images, showing that the cells
comprising the outpocketings are
differently oriented, as they appear in
different colors from those
constituting the walls of the gut. In
A, part of the outer wall is deformed
(arrow) by a crystal grain visible in B
(light pink). (G), Another specimen
displaying invaginating archenteron at
early midgastrula stage. (H) Modern sea
urchin gastrulae (49). (I and J),
Fossils resembling modern spiralian
gastrulae; (K) Modern polychaete
embryos in which the dashed lines
indicate yolky endoderm cells and dots
represent mesoderm cells (Eupomatus,
left; Scoloplos, right, redrawn from
Anderson, ref. 50). In the fossils I
and J, the archenteron is thick-walled
(cf. cross section in C), and in J all
of the cells in the embryo, including
the ectodermal wall, are conspicuously
larger relative to the size of the
embryo. Note also the column of cells
along the archenteron in J. (Scale bars
represent 50 μm.) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.pnas.org/content/97/9
/4457/F3.large.jpg
("Charnia"). A member of the Cnidarnian
Anthozoans (sea pens, corals,
anemones).
Sea pens are grouped in the Class
"Pennatulacea".
Some people have suggested that a
fossil from China shows that the fronds
are ciliated which implies that these
fossil organisms are possibly more
closely related to Ctenophores than sea
pens.
Newfoundland
[1] Charnia wardi UNKNOWN
source: http://geol.queensu.ca/museum/im
ages/stories/calvert.jpg
[2] Figure 2 from: Guy M. Narbonne
and James G. Gehlin, ''Life after
snowball: The oldest complex Ediacaran
fossils'', Geology
2003;31;27-30 http://geology.gsapubs.or
g/content/31/1/27.full.pdf COPYRIGHTED
source: http://geology.gsapubs.org/conte
nt/31/1/27.full.pdf
{Lu-Fo-Tro-Ku-ZO-u} subgroup Trochozoa
evolve. Ancestor of all Bryozoans,
Nemerteans, Phoronids, Brachiopods
{BrA-KE-O-PoDZ}, Molluscs and Annelids.
[1] Figure from: Giribet, G. (2008).
Assembling the lophotrochozoan
(=spiralian) tree of life.
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society B: Biological Sciences , 363
(1496), 1513-1522. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2007.2241
http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/363/1496/1513 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://rstb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/363/1496/1513
[2] Timeline of phylogeny of animals,
figure 6 from: S. Blair Hedges, ''The
origin and evolution of model
organisms'', Nature Reviews Genetics 3,
838-849 (November
2002) http://www.nature.com/nrg/journal
/v3/n11/full/nrg929.html {Hedges_2002.p
df} a) The relationships and
divergence times (millions of years ago
(Mya) plusminus one standard error) of
selected model animals are shown, based
on recent multigene and multiprotein
studies51, 61, 84. The fossil
divergence time of birds and mammals
(310 Mya) was used to calibrate the
molecular clock. Branch lengths are not
proportional to time. b ) The
relationships and numbers of living
species, from a diversity of sources in
most of the main groups. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v452/n7188/images/nature06614-f1.2.
jpg
[1] a, Fertilized (?) egg with thick
membrane. b, Two-cell stage. c, d,
Four-cell stage, c and d show different
views of the same specimen,
illustrating the tetrahedral geometry.
e, Eight-cell stage. f, g, Later
cleavage stages showing faceted cell
geometry and, in g, the
three-dimensional distribution of
cells. h, i, Multicellular structures
that record later cleavage stages or,
especially possible for h, colonial
protists. Scale bar (in h): 200 mum for
a, e, f, g, h and i; 150 mum for b; and
240 mum for c and d. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v391/n6667/images/391553ae.tif.2.gi
f
This is the ancestor of all Echinoderms
(iKIniDRMS } (Phylum Echinodermata: sea
cucumbers, sea urchins, starfish),
hemichordates (Phylum Hemichordata:
acorn worms), and Chordates (Phylum
Chordata: all tunicates, fish,
amphibians, reptiles, mammals, and
birds).
[1] English: This diagram is showing
the difference of the two major types
of coelomates: the protostomes
(molluscs, annelids, arthropods, ...)
and deuterostomes (echinoderms,
vertebrates, ...). These groups differ
in several characteristics of early
development; In deuterostomes blastula
devisions is called ''radial cleavage''
because it occurs parallel or
perpendicular to the major polar axis.
In protostomes the cleavage is called
''spirale'' because division planes are
oriented obliquely to the polar major
axis. During gastrulation, protostomes
embryos' mouth was given first by the
blastopore while the anus was formed
later and vis versa for the
deuterostomes. As examples :
Squids are protostomes. Sea
urchins are deuterostomes. Date
14 October 2009 Source Own
work Author WYassineMrabetTalk✉ CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Protovsdeuteros
tomes.svg/1000px-Protovsdeuterostomes.sv
g.png
[2] English: This diagram is showing
the difference of the two major types
of coelomates: the protostomes
(molluscs, annelids, arthropods, ...)
and deuterostomes (echinoderms,
vertebrates, ...). These groups differ
in several characteristics of early
development; In deuterostomes blastula
devisions is called ''radial cleavage''
because it occurs parallel or
perpendicular to the major polar axis.
In protostomes the cleavage is called
''spirale'' because division planes are
oriented obliquely to the polar major
axis. During gastrulation, protostomes
embryos' mouth was given first by the
blastopore while the anus was formed
later and vis versa for the
deuterostomes. As examples :
Squids are protostomes. Sea
urchins are deuterostomes. Date
14 October 2009 Source Own
work Author WYassineMrabetTalk✉ CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Protovsdeuteros
tomes.svg/1000px-Protovsdeuterostomes.sv
g.png
{KE-ToG-nutu} evolve (Arrow Worms).
Earliest teeth. Animals start to eat
other animals.
The evolution of teeth and then of
animal predation starts an "arms race"
that rapidly transforms ecosystems
around the Earth. So in this sense hard
teeth evolve first and then the shell
evolves as an advantage to survival.
Chaetognaths are bilaterally
symmetrical enterocoelous animals, with
an elongated cylndrical body; they are
usually colourless, transparent or
slightly opaque. The body is divided in
three parts by internal partitioning:
head, trunk and tail. The head is
slightly rounded and separated from the
trunk by a constricted neck. Each side
of the head bears a group of curved
grasping hooks and one or two rows of
teeth, called the anterior and
posterior teeth; the hooks and teeth
are made of chitin. A pair of uniquely
arranged pigmented eyespots is
present.
The earliest Chaetognath fossil is from
around 520 mya.
The placement (phylogeny) of the
Chaetognatha within the Bilateria is
currently somewhat uncertain. Some
place them as protostomes, others as
deuterostomes. Some people group them
with the Ecdysozoa, others as
Lophotrochozoa, others as an
independent group in between Ecdysozoa
and Lophotrochozoa.
Chaetognatha appears close to the base
of the protostome tree in most studies
of their molecular phylogeny. This may
be evidence that protostomes descend
from a deuterostome ancestor, like a
chaetognath.
[1] Chaetognatha UNKNOWN
source: http://content5.eol.org/content/
2010/08/09/03/74200_large.jpg
[2] Description Chatognath
Spadella cephaloptera Date
Unkown Source Own
work Author
Zatelmar Permission (Reusing
this file) See below. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8e/Chaetoblack.png
{Lu-Fo-Tro-Ku-ZO-u} subgroup Platyzoa
{PlaT-i-ZO-u} evolves. Ancestor of
rotifers, gastrotrichs and
Platyhelminthes (flatworms).
Thomas Cavalier-Smith proposed the new
infrakingdom in 1998 for "ciliated
non-segmented acoelomates or
pseudocoelomates lacking vascular
system; gut (when present) straight,
with or without anus".
[1] Figure 1 from: Giribet, G. (2008).
Assembling the lophotrochozoan
(=spiralian) tree of life.
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society B: Biological Sciences , 363
(1496), 1513-1522. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2007.2241
Figure 1 Hypothesis of metazoan
relationships based on multiple sources
of morphology and molecules. This tree
has not been generated by a consensus
or other numerical technique and
reflects the views and biases of the
author. Protostomes are divided into
two sister clades, Ecdysozoa and
Lophotrochozoa, the latter divided into
Platyzoa and Trochozoa; affinities of
Chaetognatha and Cycliophora are left
unresolved. Boxed phyla are those for
which genomic or EST data are publicly
available (as of July 2007); note the
poor representation of lophotrochozoan
genomic data. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://rstb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/363/1496/1513/F1.large.jp
g
[2] Description English: Bedford's
Flatworm (Pseudobiceros bedfordi) in
Fihalhohi, Maldives. Date March
2006 Source photographed by Jan
Derk Author Jan
Derk Permission (Reusing this file)
PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/76/Bedford%27s_Flatworm.
jpg
[1] Description Eichelwurm, Exemplar
aus der Sammlung des Institutes für
Zoologie, FU Berlin. GNU
FDL Date Source Foto:
de:Benutzer:Necrophorus Author User
Necrophorus on
de.wikipedia Permission (Reusing
this file) Released under the GNU Free
Documentation License. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Eichelwurm.jpg/
1024px-Eichelwurm.jpg
[2] Pterobranchs Resembling slugs
with hairy, branching tentacles,
Pterobranchs filter food from the water
and form colonies of “clones,” much
like coral polyps, often secreting a
network of hard tubing. Individual
zooids can crawl about freely within
the colony, but are connected to one
another by thin “cables,” quickly
retracting if disturbed. What makes the
Pterobranchs even stranger than corals
is that these slimy, slithering weirdos
are “hemichordates,” closer to us
vertebrates than to invertebrates like
worms and jellyfish. Read more:
http://www.toptenz.net/top-10-colonial-o
rganisms.php#ixzz1lJRtH61S COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.toptenz.net/wp-conten
t/uploads/2011/10/Pterobranch-colonial-o
rganisms.jpg
("Echinoderms" (iKIniDRMS }) (sea
cucumbers, sea urchins, sand dollars,
star fish).
[1] Kachemak Bay National Estuarine
Research Reserve. A beautiful array of
starfish , sea urchins and mussel
shells in the rocky intertidal zone of
Kachemak Bay. Image ID: nerr0878,
NOAA National Estuarine Research
Reserve Collection from NOAA:
http://www.photolib.noaa.gov/nerr/nerr08
78.htm PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Nerr0878.jpg/10
24px-Nerr0878.jpg
[2] Description English: The first
in a sequence of three photos that show
a brittle star flipping itself
rightside-up. Date 1 May
2011 Source Own work Author
Alexcooper1 CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/A_brittle_star_
flipping_itself_rightside-up.jpg/1024px-
A_brittle_star_flipping_itself_rightside
-up.jpg
evolves. Chordates are a very large
group that include all tunicates
{TUNiKiTS}, fishes, amphibians,
reptiles, mammals, and birds. The most
primitive living chordate is the
tunicate. Chordates get their name from
the notochord, the cartilage rod that
runs along the back of the animal, in
the embryo if not in the adult.
Chordata is the highest phylum in the
animal kingdom, which includes the
lancelets or amphioxi
(Cephalochordata), the tunicates
(Urochordata), the acorn worms and
pterobranchs (Hemichordata), and the
vertebrates (Craniata) comprising the
lampreys, sharks and rays, bony fish,
amphibians, reptiles, birds, and
mammals. Members of the first three
groups, the lower chordates, are small
and strictly marine. The vertebrates
are free-living; the aquatic ones are
primitively fresh-water types with
marine groups being advanced; and the
members include animals of small and
medium size, as well as the largest of
all animals.
The typical chordate characteristics
are the notochord, the dorsal hollow
nerve cord, the pharyngeal slits, and a
postanal tail. The notochord appears in
the embryo as a slender, flexible rod
filled with gelatinous cells and
surrounded by a tough fibrous sheath,
and contains, at least in some forms,
transverse striated muscle fibers; it
lies above the primitive gut. In lower
chordates and the early groups of
vertebrates, the notochord persists as
the axial support for the body
throughout life, but it is surrounded
and gradually replaced by segmental
vertebrae in the higher fish.
[1] [t Note that this is a vertebrate -
not a pre-vertebrate chordate] Portion
of figure from: D.-G. Shu, S. Conway
Morris, J. Han, Z.-F. Zhang, K. Yasui,
P. Janvier, L. Chen, X.-L. Zhang, J.-N.
Liu, Y. Li and H.-Q. Liu, ''Head and
backbone of the Early Cambrian
vertebrate Haikouichthys'', Nature
421, 526-529(30 January
2003) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v421/n6922/full/nature01264.html CO
PYRIGHTED
source: https://nature.com/journal/v421/
n6922/images/nature01264-f1.2.jpg
[2] Figure from: D.-G. Shu, S. Conway
Morris, J. Han, Z.-F. Zhang, K. Yasui,
P. Janvier, L. Chen, X.-L. Zhang, J.-N.
Liu, Y. Li and H.-Q. Liu, ''Head and
backbone of the Early Cambrian
vertebrate Haikouichthys'', Nature
421, 526-529(30 January
2003) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v421/n6922/full/nature01264.html CO
PYRIGHTED
source: https://nature.com/journal/v421/
n6922/images/nature01264-f1.2.jpg
Tunicates {TUNiKiTS} evolve (sea
squirts).
[1] Description Clavelina
moluccensis, the bluebell
tunicate English: Tunicate colony.
(Clavelina moluccensis) Date
04/17/05 Source Own
work Author Nhobgood CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/98/Bluebell_tunicates_Ni
ck_Hobgood.jpg
[2] Timeline of phylogeny of animals,
figure 6 from: S. Blair Hedges, ''The
origin and evolution of model
organisms'', Nature Reviews Genetics 3,
838-849 (November
2002) http://www.nature.com/nrg/journal
/v3/n11/full/nrg929.html {Hedges_2002.p
df} a) The relationships and
divergence times (millions of years ago
(Mya) plusminus one standard error) of
selected model animals are shown, based
on recent multigene and multiprotein
studies51, 61, 84. The fossil
divergence time of birds and mammals
(310 Mya) was used to calibrate the
molecular clock. Branch lengths are not
proportional to time. b ) The
relationships and numbers of living
species, from a diversity of sources in
most of the main groups. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nrg/journa
l/v3/n11/images/nrg929-f6.jpg
cnidarian anthozoans).
These are fossil cnidarian coral
(tabulata) from Doushantuo Formation in
China.
The tabulata are an extinct Paleozoic
order of corals of the subclass
Zoantharia characterized by an
exclusively colonial mode of growth and
by secretion of a calcareous
exoskeleton of slender tubes.
Guizhou Province, South China
[1] Figure 3 Sinocyclocyclicus
guizhouensis, tabulate fossils
interpreted as possible stem
cnidarians. (A) SEM of branched tube
preserved as phosphatic internal molds
of tube chambers; note branching
pattern as well as wedge-shaped chamber
formed where an incomplete and complete
cross-wall meet (arrow). (B) SEM of
four clustered tubes. (C) SEM of curved
tube. (D and E) Cross and longitudinal
sections through this specimen. (F) An
enlarged SEM view of the surface,
showing cross-walls, phosphatic laminae
on the wall, and a longitudinal ridge
on the concave side. (G)
Saffordophyllum newcombae, an
Ordovician tabulate showing bending and
thickening of cross-walls where they
meet side walls, as well as apical
budding (reproduced with permission
from Ref. 36); compare with Figs.
Figs.22E and 3A. (The scale bar in A
represents 140 μm for A; 200 μm for
B; 150 μm for C; 80 μm for D and E;
30 μm for F; and 1 mm for
G.) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/core
/lw/2.0/html/tileshop_pmc/tileshop_pmc_i
nline.html?title=An%20external%20file%20
that%20holds%20a%20picture%2C%20illustra
tion%2C%20etc.%0AObject%20name%20is%20pq
2504916003.jpg%20%5BObject%20name%20is%2
0pq2504916003.jpg%5D&p=PMC3&id=17636_pq2
504916003.jpg
Adelaide) Australia
[1] from adelaide, australia
source: http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/t
ech/3208583.stm
[1] Lancelet (Branchiostoma
lanceolatum) Description
Branchiostoma lanceolatum (Pallas,
1774) English: Amphioxus from course
sandy sediments (600µm) on the Belgian
continental shelf. Length: ~22
mm. Geo-location not applicable as the
picture was taken in the
lab. Français : Branchiostoma
lanceolatum, un céphalochordé,
récolté dans des sédiments de sable
grossier (600µm) sur le Plateau
continental belge. Longueur totale: 22
mm environ. Date 1997 Source
Own work Author (Hans
Hillewaert) CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/47/Branchiostoma_lanceol
atum.jpg
{laNSleTS} (also called amphioxus
{aMFEoKSeS}).
Lancelets are the most primitive
chordates to have a liver and a kidney,
which are not found in hemichordates or
tunicates.
The Lancelet is a protochordate and not
a vertebrate. Lancelets have only a
nerve tube on the notochord and no
brain other than a small swelling at
the front end of the nerve tube. They
also have an eye-spot. There are gill
slits at the sides used for filter
feeding and not primarily for breathing
which would mean that gills for
breathing evolve later. The Lancelet is
not like a worm in not being
cylindrical, and swims like a fish
using its muscles with side-to-side
undulations.
[1] Lancelet (Branchiostoma
lanceolatum) Description
Branchiostoma lanceolatum (Pallas,
1774) English: Amphioxus from course
sandy sediments (600µm) on the Belgian
continental shelf. Length: ~22
mm. Geo-location not applicable as the
picture was taken in the
lab. Français : Branchiostoma
lanceolatum, un céphalochordé,
récolté dans des sédiments de sable
grossier (600µm) sur le Plateau
continental belge. Longueur totale: 22
mm environ. Date 1997 Source
Own work Author (Hans
Hillewaert) CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/47/Branchiostoma_lanceol
atum.jpg
[2] Lancelet COPYRIGHTED
source: http://kentsimmons.uwinnipeg.ca/
16cm05/1116/34-04b-Lancelet.jpg
[1] A complete specimen of
Odontogriphus omalus that shows the
overall shape of the fossil, the
position of the radula feeding
structure at the head end, and paired
salivary glands, the darker circular
structures on either side of the
radula. (Copyright Caron et. al,
Nature 2006) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.cbc.ca/gfx/images/new
s/photos/2006/07/12/ROM57720mod060712.jp
g
[2] Marianne Collins's reconstruction
of a colony of Odontogriphus omalus
grazing on cyanobacterium. (Copyright
Caron et. al, Nature
2006) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.cbc.ca/gfx/images/new
s/photos/2006/07/12/mariannecollins06071
2.jpg
skeleton).
Earliest evidence of animals eating
other animals (predation).
Appearance of the small
shelly fossils and deep burrows
correlated with a decline in
stromatolites possibly from feeding.
The earliest animal shells are made by
tiny organisms with simple tubelike
skeletons, such as Cloudina and
Sinotubulites in addition to sponge
skeleton fossils.
The shell of Cloudina is made of
Calcium carbonate (CaCO3), possibly
made by some kind of worm.
Predatory bore holes have been found in
Cloudina shells. This is the oldest
evidence of predation known.
The earliest animal shells are
agglutinated tubes built of foreign
objects by the animals inhabiting them,
an example being the worm Onuphionella,
with its collection of mica flakes
lining its shelter.
The appearance of the small shelly
fossils and deep burrows are correlated
with a decline in stromatolites. Before
the appearance of small invertebrate
animals, nothing fed on cyanobacterial
mats. Some small shelly fossils must be
primitive molluscs that graze on
stromatolites. Stromatolites survive
today only in environments that are
hostile to grazing invertebrates. Tehse
include lagoons too salty for grazing
snails like Shark Bay, Australia, and
shallow channels in the Bahamas where
currents are too strong for clinging
invertebrates.
The soft-bodied multicellular (but
non-skeletonized) Ediacaran fauna
appear starting around 600 mybn and may
represent the next logical step up from
single-celled life. The next stage is
the appearance of small mineralized
shells starting around 545 million
years ago. These small shells are
referred to as "small shelly fossils"
and were first reported by a team of
Soviet scientists headed by Alexi
Rozanov of the Paleontological
Institute in Moscow. Rozanov reports in
1966 that the oldest limestones of
Cambrian age contain many small and
unfamiliar skeletons, few larger than 1
cm (1/2 inch) long. These fossils are
referred to as "small shelly fossils".
At the time these are the earliest
known fossils of hard skeletons. Their
discovery rewrites the story of the
earliest Cambrian and sheds light on
the Cambrian radiation.
Most of the small shelly fossils are
made of calcium phosphate, the same
mineral that makes up the bones of
vertebrates, but today, most marine
invertebrate shells are made of calcium
carbonate (the minerals calcite and
aragonite). To some scientists this
suggests that the later appearance of
large calcified trilobites and other
fossils, represents a time when
atmospheric oxygen is abundant enough
to allow calcite skeletons to be
secreted.
There is evidence that seawater
chemistry favored aragonite
precipitation during the late
Precambrian and favored calcite
precipitation during the Tommotian, and
that carbonate skeletal mineralogy is
determined by the chemistry of seawater
at the time carbonate skeletons first
evolve in a clade.
Prokaryotic cyanobacteria also develop
the ability to secrete carbonate
skeletons around the same time.
Eventually, the expansion of infaunal
life destroys the widespread and vast
cyanobacterial mats in shallow regions
of the sea.
Ningqiang County, Shaanxi
Province
[1] Cloudina COPYRIGHTED
source: http://palaeos.com/proterozoic/n
eoproterozoic/ediacaran/images/Cloudina.
jpg
[2] Cloudina from: HONG HUA, BRIAN R.
PRATT, and LU-YI ZHANG, ''Borings in
Cloudina Shells: Complex Predator-Prey
Dynamics in the Terminal
Neoproterozoic'', PALAIOS, October
2003, v. 18, p. 454-459,
doi:10.1669/0883-1351(2003)018<0454:BICSCP>2.0.CO;2
http://palaios.geoscienceworld.org/citmg
r?gca=palaios;18/4-5/454 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://palaios.geoscienceworld.o
rg/content/vol18/issue4-5/images/large/i
0883-1351-018-04-0454-f03.jpeg
source: http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/ven
dian/cyclomedusa.gif
source: http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/ven
dian/kimberella.jpg
source: http://www.geology.ucdavis.edu/~
cowen/HistoryofLife/Kimberallie2.gif
source: http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/ven
dian/eoporpita.gif
source: http://geol.queensu.ca/museum/ex
hibits/ediac/helminth.jpg
[1] from ediacara of australia
source: http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/ven
dian/dickinsonia.html
[2] unknown
source: UNKNOWN
source: http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/ven
dian/pter.gif
[1] from white sea region in russia
source: http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/ven
dian/nemiana.gif
source: http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/ven
dian/tribrach.html
source: http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/ven
dian/arkarua.html
source:
"Aschelminthes" evolves. This includes
the 5 Phyla:
Kinorhyncha (kinorhynchs),
Loricifera (loriciferans),
Nematoda (round worms),
Nematomorpha
(horsehair worms),
Priapulida (priapulids).
[1] Description English: Priapulid
worm Priapulus caudatus in a Petry
dish. The specimen was found in the
intertidal of the Russian coast of the
Barents Sea. Русский:
Приапулида Priapulus caudatus
в чашке Петри. Особь
найдена в
приливно-отливной
зоне на российском
побережье Баренцева
моря. Date between 2005 and
2007 Source kindly granted by the
author Author Dmitry
Aristov Permission (Reusing this
file) See below. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/62/Priapulus_caudatus.jp
g
[2] Giribet, G. (2008). Assembling the
lophotrochozoan (=spiralian) tree of
life. Philosophical Transactions of the
Royal Society B: Biological Sciences ,
363 (1496), 1513-1522. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2007.2241
http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/363/1496/1513 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://rstb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/363/1496/1513
[1] A rotifer. The cilia around
this rotifer's mouth are unusually
long; they reach as far as the strand
of spirogyra to the right. 10×
objective, 15× eyepiece. The numbered
ticks on the scale are 122 µM apart.
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencephoto.com/imag
e/121893/530wm/C0058380-Rotifer_SEM-SPL.
jpg
[2] Figure from: Giribet, G. (2008).
Assembling the lophotrochozoan
(=spiralian) tree of life.
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society B: Biological Sciences , 363
(1496), 1513-1522. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2007.2241
http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/363/1496/1513 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/a/ad/20090917_013641_Rotifer.jp
g
Assemblage) Nilpena, South
Australia
[1] A reconstruction of what
Coronacollina acula may have looked
like. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://msnbcmedia1.msn.com/j/MSN
BC/Components/Photo/_new/120308-Oldest1P
hoto-hmed-0305.grid-6x2.jpg
[2] The ancient animal Coronacollina
acula, with the round depression in the
middle representing its body, while the
four lines radiating from it were its
needlelike ''spicules.'' (Scale bar is
in centimeters.) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://msnbcmedia2.msn.com/j/MSN
BC/Components/Photo/_new/120308-OldestPh
oto-hmed-0305.grid-6x2.jpg
(phoronids {FerOniDZ}).
[1] Description English: Phoronis
hippocrepis photographed in shallow
water in Italy. Photo by Maria Grazia
Montanucci. Date Source Own
work Author
Etrusko25 Permission (Reusing
this file) See below. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/52/Phoronis_Maria_Grazia
_Montanucci2.jpg
[2] Timeline of phylogeny of animals,
figure 6 from: S. Blair Hedges, ''The
origin and evolution of model
organisms'', Nature Reviews Genetics 3,
838-849 (November
2002) http://www.nature.com/nrg/journal
/v3/n11/full/nrg929.html {Hedges_2002.p
df} a) The relationships and
divergence times (millions of years ago
(Mya) plusminus one standard error) of
selected model animals are shown, based
on recent multigene and multiprotein
studies51, 61, 84. The fossil
divergence time of birds and mammals
(310 Mya) was used to calibrate the
molecular clock. Branch lengths are not
proportional to time. b ) The
relationships and numbers of living
species, from a diversity of sources in
most of the main groups. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://rstb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/363/1496/1513
(brachiopods {BrAKEOPoDZ}).
Brachiopods are marine invertebrates
that have bivalve dorsal and ventral
shells enclosing a pair of tentacled,
armlike structures that are used to
sweep minute food particles into the
mouth. Also called lampshells.
[1] Brachiopod UNKNOWN
source: http://paleo.cortland.edu/tutori
al/Brachiopods/Brachiopod%20Images/lingu
la.GIF
[2] Brachiopods (Glottidia
Albida) Photographic Print by Richard
Herrmann item #: 357011759A UNKNOWN
source: http://cache2.artprintimages.com
/lrg/38/3813/HHRIF00Z.jpg
Phylum Entoprocta (entoprocts).
[1] Barentsa discreta(Barentsiidae)
Japanese name:Suzukokemusi
Date;2007,05,18;Tanabe city, Wakayama
prefecture, Japan
Author;Keisotyo GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f9/Barentsa_discreta_suz
ukokemusi02.jpg
[2] Figure from: Giribet, G. (2008).
Assembling the lophotrochozoan
(=spiralian) tree of life.
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society B: Biological Sciences , 363
(1496), 1513-1522. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2007.2241
http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/363/1496/1513 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://rstb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/363/1496/1513
[1] Figure from: Martin Brasier, Owen
Green and Graham Shields, ''Ediacarian
sponge spicule clusters from
southwestern Mongolia and the origins
of the Cambrian fauna'', Geology
1997;25;303-306. http://geology.gsapubs
.org/content/25/4/303.full.pdf COPYRIGH
TED
source: http://geology.gsapubs.org/conte
nt/25/4/303.full.pdf
[2] Figure from: Zhe Chen, Jie Hu,
Chuanming Zhou, Shuhai Xiao and Xunlai
Yuan, ''Sponge fossil assemblage from
the Early Cambrian Hetang Formation in
southern Anhui'', Chinese Science
Bulletin Volume 49, Number 15, August
2004, 1625-1628. DOI:
10.1007/BF03184133 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/k88wv4712005683u/ COPYR
IGHTED
source: http://www.springerlink.com/cont
ent/k88wv4712005683u/
[1] Dikinsonia grew to a length of as
much as two feet (60 cm), which made it
one of the larger complex organisms of
the Vendian. It's body is segmented
with midline symmetry dividing it's
body. Its body may have been denser
than modern jellyfish or worms. [Atlas
of Prehistoric World, Discovery
Books Reconstruction of Dickinsonia,
based on images from Atlas of the
Prehistoric World, Discovery Channel
Books and Kingfisher Illustrated
Dinosaur Encyclopedia UNKNOWN
source: http://paleontology.edwardtbabin
ski.us/vendian/dickinsonia.jpg
[2] Spriggina Spriggina was
definitely a predator of the seas of
that time. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.museum.toulouse.fr/IM
G/jpg/spriginna_72dpi_680.jpg
Bryozoa (Bryozoans or moss animals).
[1] Freshwater bryozoan from a lake in
NC, USA. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b9/Freshwater_Bryozoan23
4.JPG
[2] Figure from: Giribet, G. (2008).
Assembling the lophotrochozoan
(=spiralian) tree of life.
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society B: Biological Sciences , 363
(1496), 1513-1522. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2007.2241
http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/363/1496/1513 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://rstb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/363/1496/1513
the Proterozoic and start of the
Phanerozoic {FaNReZOiK} Eon, and the
start of the Cambrian Period.
The term "Precambrian", was
traditionally used for the division of
time older than the Phanerozoic, and is
currently considered to be informal and
without specific stratigraphic rank.
[1] Geologic Time Scale 2009 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.geosociety.org/scienc
e/timescale/timescl.pdf
[1] Description thumb
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/4f/Spriggina_flounensi_C
.jpg
[2] left
source: http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/ven
dian/spriggina.gif
"Cambrian explosion"), the rapid
diversification of multicellular
animals between 542 and 530 million
years ago that results in the
appearance of many (between 20 and 35)
of the major phyla of animals. An
increase of animals with shells.
It was once thought that the Cambrian
rocks contained the first and oldest
fossil animals, but these are now to be
found in the earlier Ediacaran (or
Vendian) strata. Ediacaran animals are
soft-bodied and so are infrequently
preserved. When animals begin to
develop hard parts, their probability
of preservation greatly improves. The
first animals to develop hard parts are
small shelly fossils, like sponge
spicules, gastropods, and others with
uncertain affinity. Small shelly
fossils can be found back into the
Neoproterozoic.
Two fossil locations preserve this
period on Earth, the Burgess Shale in
British Columbia Canada, and the
Chengjiang in the Yunnan Province of
China. The Burgess Shale fossils were
discovered in 1909 by Charles D.
Wolcott (CE 1850-1927), and are shiny
black impressions on the shale bedding
planes. Many are the remains of animals
that lacked hard parts. Altogether
there are four major groups of
arthropods (trilobites, crustaceans,
and the groups that include scorpions
and insects), in addition to sponges,
onycophorans, crinoids, mollusks, three
phyla of worms, corals, chordates, and
many species that cannot be placed in
any known phylum. The Chengjiang Fauna
resemble that of the Burgess Shale, but
the Chengjiang fossils are older and
better preserved. The fossils include
many soft-bodied animals that are not
usually not preserved. For example
jellyfish show the detailed structure
of tentacles, radial canals, and
muscles, and on soft-bodies worms,
eyes, segmentation, digestive organs,
and patterns on the outer skin can be
recognized. The Chengjiang fossils
include the earliest fossil of a fish.
One theory is that the Cambrian
radiation is triggered by predation,
since the oldest traces of feeding
within the mud occur around this time
in addition to the various ways to
protect the body by secretion of a
mineral skeleton or building tubes by
collected mineral grains that are
developed by animals around this time.
[1] Artist drawing of the bottom of the
Cambrian shallow sea floor, showing
trilobites (imagine these crawling
around on the Cambrian sea floor at
Devil's Lake state park 550 m.y. ago!)
(above). UNKNOWN
source: http://www.geology.wisc.edu/home
pages/g100s2/public_html/Geologic_Time/L
3_Cambrian_Life_More.jpg
[2] Description English: Fossil
specimen of Opabinia regalis from the
Burgess shale on display at the
Smithsonian in Washington, DC. This
appears to be the exact specimen
pictured in Fig. 42 of 'The Crucible of
Creation: The Burgess Shale and the
Rise of Animals', by Simon Conway
Morris, Oxford University Press,
1998. Date 12 April 2009 (original
upload date) Source Transferred
from en.wikipedia; transferred to
Commons by User:FunkMonk using
CommonsHelper. Author Original
uploader was Jstuby at en.wikipedia PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/50/Opabinia_smithsonian.
JPG
[1]
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/porifera/ar
chaeo.html
source: http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/por
ifera/archaeo.html
[2]
http://www.geology.ucdavis.edu/~cowen/Hi
storyofLife/CH05images.html
source: http://www.geology.ucdavis.edu/~
cowen/HistoryofLife/CH05images.html
{PlaTEheLmiNtEZ} evolve (flatworms).
[1] Description English: The
flatworm Pseudoceros dimidiatus. North
Horn, Osprey Reef, Coral Sea. Date
August 9, 2005 Source
Flickr Author Richard
Ling CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1e/Pseudoceros_dimidiatu
s.jpg
[2] Two turbellarians mating by penis
fencing. Each has two penises, the
white spikes on the undersides of their
heads. Description English: Two
Individuals of Pseudobiceros bedfordi
about to have a Sperm Battle. –
Species of the flatworm genus
Pseudobiceros are hermaphroditic and
have two penises that are used to
inject sperm into the partner. P.
bedfordi is exceptional in that it
applies sperm onto the partner's skin
rather than injecting it. Deutsch:
Zwei Plattwürmer (Pseudobiceros
bedfordi) vor der Begattung. Der
doppelte Penis ist bei beiden
Individuen gut sichtbar. Date
Published: 2004-06-15 Source
Whitfield J: Everything You Always
Wanted to Know about Sexes. PLoS Biol
2/6/2004: e183.
doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0020183.g001,
photo page Author Photo courtesy
of Nico Michiels. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/38/Flatworm_sex.png
(Gastrotrichs {GaSTreTriKS}).
[1] Description English: Darkfield
photograph of a gastrotrich. Taken
through a 10x ocular and 10x objective
with a Pentax *ist DL at 1/180th with
an understage flash. Date 18
April 2006 Source
en:Image:Gastrotrich.jpg Author
Jasper Nance GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6d/Gastrotrich.jpg
[2] Figure from: Giribet, G. (2008).
Assembling the lophotrochozoan
(=spiralian) tree of life.
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society B: Biological Sciences , 363
(1496), 1513-1522. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2007.2241
http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/363/1496/1513 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://rstb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/363/1496/1513
(blood cells actively moved by muscle
contraction) evolves in bilaterians.
Circulatory systems can be divided into
two kinds, "open" and "closed", both
which contain a circulatory fluid or
blood. In an open circulatory system,
the blood and body cavity (hemocoelic)
fluid are one and the same; the blood,
often called hemolymph, empties from
vessels into the body cavity (hemocoel)
and directly bathes organs. In a closed
circulatory system blood is kept
separate from the coelomic {SElomiK}
fluid. Circulatory systems, open or
closed, generally have structural
mechanisms for pumping the blood and
maintaining adequate blood pressures.
Beyond the influence of general body
movements, most of these structures
fall into the categories: contractile
vessels (as in annelids); osiate hearts
(as in arthropods); and chambered
hearts (as in molluscs and
vertebrates). The method of initiating
contraction of these different pumps
(the pacemaker mechanism) may be
intrinsic (originating within the
muscles of the structure itself) or
extrinsic (originating from motor
nerves from outside the structure).
Nemerteans, cylindrical worms evolved
from an earlier ancestor, have a
network of blood channels in the
mesenchyme (undifferentiated tissue
between organs) but have no heart or
pumping vessel. This bilaterian, a
coelomate (the earliest of which are
the molluscs), like some surviving
coelomates, has a series of channels or
blood spaces outside the coelom tissue,
that form a circulatory system, often
with muscle cell contractible walls
connected to the larger vessels that
act as pumps to move the blood cells
through the channels.
[1] From: Ruppert, Fox, Barnes,
''Invertebrate Zoology'',
2004. COPYRIGHTED
source: Ruppert, Fox, Barnes,
"Invertebrate Zoology", 2004.
[2] From: Ruppert, Fox, Barnes,
''Invertebrate Zoology'',
2004. COPYRIGHTED
source: Ruppert, Fox, Barnes,
"Invertebrate Zoology", 2004.
[1] From: Ruppert, Fox, Barnes,
''Invertebrate Zoology'',
2004. COPYRIGHTED
source: Ruppert, Fox, Barnes,
"Invertebrate Zoology", 2004.
[2] From: Ruppert, Fox, Barnes,
''Invertebrate Zoology'',
2004. COPYRIGHTED
source: Ruppert, Fox, Barnes,
"Invertebrate Zoology", 2004.
Phylum Nemertea {ne-mR-TEu} (ribbon
worms).
[1] Description English: Basiodiscus
mexicanus was photographed at Los
Arcos, near Puerto Vallarta,
Mexico Date Source University
of California Museum of Paleology:
Introduction to the Nemertini Author
Chris Meyer and Allen
Collins Permission (Reusing this
file) See below. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/49/Nemertea_Basiodiscus_
mexicanus.png
[2] Timeline of phylogeny of animals,
figure 6 from: S. Blair Hedges, ''The
origin and evolution of model
organisms'', Nature Reviews Genetics 3,
838-849 (November
2002) http://www.nature.com/nrg/journal
/v3/n11/full/nrg929.html {Hedges_2002.p
df} a) The relationships and
divergence times (millions of years ago
(Mya) plusminus one standard error) of
selected model animals are shown, based
on recent multigene and multiprotein
studies51, 61, 84. The fossil
divergence time of birds and mammals
(310 Mya) was used to calibrate the
molecular clock. Branch lengths are not
proportional to time. b ) The
relationships and numbers of living
species, from a diversity of sources in
most of the main groups. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://rstb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/363/1496/1513
Sipuncula (peanut worms) evolve.
[1] English: A bucket of
deliciously-looking purple worms
(labeled 即劏北海沙虫 - '''Sand
worms' from Beihai, to be killed on
demand'') at a street vendor in
Guangzhou. At 48 yuan / 500 g (around
$7/lb), they look quite affordable...
The second character in the sign (劏,
in its simplified form), ''to slaughter
/ to butcher'', is peculiarly
Cantonese. GFDL
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f3/Sipuncula.jpg
The phylum name is derived from mollis,
meaning soft, referring to the soft
body within a hard calcareous shell.
Soft-bodied mollusks make extensive use
of ciliary and mucous mechanisms in
feeding, locomotion, and reproduction.
The Mollusca are a successful phylum
with probably over 110,000 living
species, more than double the number of
vertebrate species. More than 99% of
living molluscan species belong to two
classes: Gastropoda {GaSTroPeDu}
(snails) and Bivalvia (muscles and
clams). These two classes can make up a
dominant fraction of the animal biomass
in many natural communities, both
marine and fresh-water.
The haemocoel forms the major body
cavity of molluscs, usually in the form
of several large, connected sinuses.
Haemocyanin is the chief
oxygen-carrying blood pigment, although
a number of species have haemoglobin. A
heart of variable complexity is usually
present. A coelomic space is
represented by the pericardium, kidneys
and gonads.
Among the most primitive mollusks are
the Aplacophora which do not have
shells but their epidermis secretes
aragonite (calcareous) spicules and
their body has a repetition of
structures along their front-back
(antero-posterior) axis. Mollusks are
thought, by some, to be descended from
a segemented worm (annelid) because of
this segmented repetition of structure
which is lost in most of the other
later evolved mollusks. But others
think mollusks descend from a
nonsegmented ancestor.
An early Cambrian fossil mollusk named
Maikhanella, which has a shell made
from sclerites that are only loosely
fused together, implies that after
millions of years of evolution the
spines become more fused into a single,
rigid shell familiar in mollusks of the
present time.
Among the earliest fossil mollusks
known from the Cambrian are simple
cap-shaped shells, similar to an extant
mollusk named "Neopilina". Neopilina is
clearly a mollusk with a single
cap-shaped shell secreted by the
mantle, as well as a mouth, digestive
tract, anus, and gills. But unlike all
other known mollusks alive today,
Neopilina still retains the
segmentation of its worm-like
ancestors. Around the body are
segemented gills, kidneys, hearts,
gonads, and paired retractor muscles to
pull down the shell.
Beyond the difference in segmentation,
in terms of skeleton, some annelids
have chaetae which are tiny, spinelike
structures and are derived from single
epidermal cells, while mollusks are
covered by a thick sheet of skin called
a mantle which secretes a hard
calcareous (KaL-KAREuS} (calcium)
skeleton (aragonite or calcite), either
as tiny sclerites or as plates. A
sclerite {SKli-rIT} is a chitinous or
calcareous plate, spicule, or similar
part of an invertebrate, especially one
of the hard outer plates forming part
of the exoskeleton of an arthropod. In
addition annelids have a well developed
coelon and a closed circulatory system
while mollusks have a reduced coelon
and an open circulatory system.
[1] From: Ruppert, E.E., Fox, R.S.,
and Barnes, R.D. (2004). Invertebrate
Zoology (7 ed.). Brooks / Cole. pp.
284–291. ISBN 0030259827. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mol
lusca
[2] Description Clams Date
Source Own work Author
Marlith CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8f/Clams.JPG
"Arthropods" evolve (includes
crustaceans and insects).
Arthropods can be compared to a
segmented worm encased in a rigid
exoskeleton.
The phylum Arthropoda is the largest
phylum in the animal kingdom.
Arthropoda consists of more than one
million known invertebrate species in
four subphyla: Uniramia (includes
insects), Chelicerata (includes
arachnids and horseshoe crabs),
Crustacea (crustaceans), and Trilobita
(trilobites). All arthropods have a
segmented body with bilateral symmetry
covered by an exoskeleton containing
chitin, which serves as both armor and
as a surface for muscle attachment.
Each body segment may have pair of
jointed appendages. The phylum includes
carnivores, herbivores, omnivores,
detritus feeders, filter feeders, and
parasites in both aquatic and
terrestrial environments.
[1] Extinct and modern
arthropods English: Arthropoda
collage. From left to right and from
top to bottom: Kolihapeltis,
Stylonurus, Scorpion, Crab, Centipede,
Butterfly CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/80/Arthropoda.jpg
[2] Figure from: Giribet, G. (2008).
Assembling the lophotrochozoan
(=spiralian) tree of life.
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society B: Biological Sciences , 363
(1496), 1513-1522. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2007.2241
http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/363/1496/1513 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://rstb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/363/1496/1513
(onychophorans) evolves.
Onychophorans, know as "velvet worms",
are the living transitional form
between worms and arthropods. Although
they have segmented worm-like bodies,
they also have jointed appendages,
antennae, and shed their cuticle like
arthropods do.
[1] Euperipatoides kanangrensis on a
eucalyptus log, in which it normally
resides. Description English:
Cropped version of File:Euperipatoides
kanangrensis.jpg Date 13 October
2009 CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/67/Euperipatoides_kanang
rensis_crop.jpg
[2] Figure from: Giribet, G. (2008).
Assembling the lophotrochozoan
(=spiralian) tree of life.
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society B: Biological Sciences , 363
(1496), 1513-1522. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2007.2241
http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/363/1496/1513 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://rstb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/363/1496/1513
(tardigrades) evolves.
Tardigrades are slow-moving,
microscopic invertebrates, related to
the arthropods. Tardigrades have four
body segments, eight legs, and live in
water or damp moss. Tardigrades are
also called "water bears".
[1] Description Willow Gabriel and
Bob Goldstein,
http://tardigrades.bio.unc.edu/ Date
2007-05-20 (original upload
date) CC
source: http://28.media.tumblr.com/tumbl
r_limfh2NXtC1qc6j5yo1_400.jpg
[2] from Giribet 2007
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/65/Hypsibiusdujardini.jp
g
Phylum Annelida (segmented worms)
evolves.
Annelids are various worms or wormlike
animals, characterized by an elongated,
cylindrical, segmented body and
including the earthworm and leech.
[1] An earthworm's clitellum they have
a unique reproductive organ, the
ring-shaped clitellum (''pack saddle'')
round their bodies, which produces a
cocoon that stores and nourishes
fertilized eggs until they
hatch Description Regenwurm mit
Clitellum - (sattelförmige Verdickung
im vorderen Drittel).Das Sekret der
Clitellum-Drüsen dient u. a. zur
Bildung dieses Ei-Kokons. Français :
Ver de terre (Oligochaeta,
Lumbricina) Svenska: Daggmask
(Lumbricus spec.) Русский:
Дождевой червь (род
Лумбрикус) Date Source
first upload in de wikipedia on
09:58, 16. Feb 2005 by Michael
Linnenbach Author Michael
Linnenbach GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/30/Regenwurm1.jpg
[2] Figure from: Giribet, G. (2008).
Assembling the lophotrochozoan
(=spiralian) tree of life.
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society B: Biological Sciences , 363
(1496), 1513-1522. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2007.2241
http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/363/1496/1513 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://rstb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/363/1496/1513
Subphylum, Vertebrata, contains most
fishes, and all amphibians, reptiles,
mammals, and birds.
The characteristic features of the
Vertebrata are a vertebral column, or
backbone, and a cranium, which protects
the central nervous system (brain and
spinal cord) and major sense organs.
Vertebrates evolved from a lower
chordate similar to the present-day
Cephalochordata (lancelets).
Vertebrates originate in fresh water
and develop a kidney as their organ of
water balance. The main line of
evolution in the vertebrates which
leads to the tetrapods remains in fresh
waters, however, several vertebrate
lines invade the oceans.
[1] Description Lampetra
fluviatilis from the german
northsea Date 2004 Source
Germany Author
M.Buschmann Permission (Reusing
this file) Author is owner CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3f/Lampetra_fluviatilis.
jpg
[2] Description Clockwise,
starting from top left: 1. Fire
Salamander (Salamandra salamandra) 2.
Saltwater Crocodile (Crocodylus
porosus) 3. Southern Cassowary
(Casusarius casuarius) 4.
Black-and-rufus Giant Elephant Shrew
(Rhynchocyon petersi) 5. Ocean Sunfish
(Mola mola) Date CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/ec/Vertebrates.png
evolve.
Some extinct jawless fish, that lived
in the Devonian 'Age of Fish', such as
ostracoderms, had hard, bony armor
plating.
[1] Description Lampetra
fluviatilis from the german
northsea Date 2004 Source
Germany Author
M.Buschmann Permission (Reusing
this file) Author is owner CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3f/Lampetra_fluviatilis.
jpg
[2] Fossil Ostracoderms.
Representatives of three extinct
groups. The head armor is especially
well developed in Hemicyclaspis, an
ostracoderm of the ''Cephalapsis''
type, in which the head is flattened
and expanded into a large
filter-feeding basket. Ostracoderms
lacked the paired (pectoral and pelvic)
fins of more advanced fish. In some
cases, small spines were present at the
points where paired fins develop in
higher fishes. In Hemicyclaspis, one
sees a pair of anterior, flipper-like
structures in lieu of pectoral fins.
From Romer, A. S. 1964. The Vertebrate
Body. W. B. Saunders.
Philadelphia. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.blc.arizona.edu/cours
es/schaffer/182/Vertebrates/Ostracoderms
.jpg
fossil.
Haikouichthys ercaicunensis: About 25
mm in length.
China
[1] Figure 4 The Lower Cambrian
agnathan vertebrate Haikouichthys
ercaicunensis Luo, Hu & Shu gen. et sp.
nov. from Haikou, Yunnan. Specimen
HZ-f-12-127. a, Entire specimen,
anterior to the left; more posterior
region appears to fade out into
sediment, possibly representing decay
of body;attempts to excavate this area
were not successful. Scale bar
equivalent to 5 mm. b, Detail of
anterior to show putative gill bars,
possible elements of cranial
endoskeleton, and pericardic area;
scale bar equivalent to 5 mm. c,
Camera-lucida drawing of specimen to
show interpretation. Numbers 1-6
indicate units of the branchial basket
that are identified with some
confidence; ?A-?C refer to less secure
identifications. Two possible areas
representing the pericardic cavity are
indicated. To the anterior of ?C a
triangular area with patches of
diagenetic mineralization is one
possibility; a fainter region to the
posterior is the alternative location.
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v402/n6757/images/402042ad.tif.2.gi
f
[2] Reconstruction of the early
Cambrian craniate Myllokunmingia (12).
(Copyright 1999 John
Sibbick). COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v402/n6757/fig_tab/402042a0_F4.html
Pterobranch "graptolite".
Yunnan Province, China
[1] This is the detail of
525-million-year-old hemichordate.
(Credit: Professor Derek Siveter,
Oxford University) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.sciencedaily.com/2
011/03/110324153024-large.jpg
Canada, early Cambrian fossils (521
mybn).
source: http://www.palaeos.com/Paleozoic
/Cambrian/Sirius_Passet.html
Trilobites are numerous extinct marine
arthropods of the Paleozoic Era.
Trilobites have a segmented body
divided by grooves into three vertical
lobes and are found as fossils
throughout the world.
There is a transition, after the
soft-bodied (unshelled) organisms of
the Ediacaran are the earliest small
cylindrical shells of Cloudina and
Sinotubulites, later in the
Proterozoic, to the clam-like shells of
the brachiopods in the Tommotian (Early
Cambrian) to the segmented calcite and
chitin shells of the trilobites in the
Atdabianian.
One fossil arthropod, known as
aglaspids, may be related to both
trilobites and horseshoe crabs.
Horseshoe crabs are not true crabs, but
instead are members of the group known
as the Chelicerata- a group that
includes spiders and scorpions. True
crabs are a family within the
Crustacea, a different group entirely.
So horseshoe crabs may be descended
from trilobites.
The segmented shell of the trilobite,
which provides more movement then the
clam shell may have been a selective
advantage. (verify)
The largest known trilobite, Isotelus
rex, reached 72 centimeters in length.
[1] example of earliest trilobites
(e.g., Fallotaspis longa) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.trilobites.info/biost
ratfallon.jpg
[2] Niles Eldredge, ''Trilobites and
Evolutionary Patterns'', p305-332 in
Anthony Hallam, ''Patterns of evolution
as illustrated by the fossil record,
Volume 5'', 1977,
p322. http://books.google.com/books?id=
q7GjDIyyWegC COPYRIGHTED
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=q7GjDIyyWegC
Echinoderm fossils abundant all over
earth.
China, early Cambrian fossils (520 to
515 mybn).
source: http://www.palaeos.com/Paleozoic
/Cambrian/Chengjiang.html
lamprey-like and primitive hagfish
fossils found in Chengjiang.
source: http://www.nature.com/cgi-taf/Dy
naPage.taf?file=/nature/journal/v402/n67
57/full/402042a0_fs.html
source:
[1] A hexactinellid sponge from the
Hetang Formation. Reconstruction on the
left (scale bar = 5 cm). Photos
courtesy of Xunlai Yuan.
source: http://www.geol.vt.edu/paleo/Xia
o/
Chaetognath {KETOnat} (arrow worm).
The fossil is a member of the phylum
Chaetognatha (also called arrow worm),
with only about 100 living species, is
found in oceans throughout the world
and plays an important role in the food
web as primary predators
Kunming, China
[1] Figure 1 The Lower Cambrian arrow
wormEognathacantha ercainella gen. et
sp. nov., from the Maotianshan Shale,
near Ercai Village, Haikou, near
Kunming (South, China). (A) Ventral
view of the holotype (EC02001a). (B)
Enlargement of the head. Grasping
spines, white arrows; teeth, red
arrows. (C) Counterpart of holotype
(EC01001b). (D) Enlargement of (C).
Scale bar: 5 mm in (A) and (C); 2 mm in
(B) and (D). COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/298/5591/187/F1.large.jpg
[2] Description Chatognath
Spadella cephaloptera Date
Unkown Source Own
work Author
Zatelmar Permission (Reusing
this file) See below. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8e/Chaetoblack.png
fossils, Helicoplacus.
Helicoplacoids are stem group
echinoderms with spiral plating and
three ambulacra arranged radially
around a lateral mouth. They are the
most primitive echinoderms and the
first to show a radial arrangement of
the water vascular and ambulacral
systems. Unlike later echinoderms,
their skeleton shows no dorsal/ventral
(aboral/oral) differentiation. They
were probably sedentary suspension
feeders.
One theory is that Echinoderms evolved
from sessile filter feeding organisms
similar to Pterobranchs.
USA
[1] Description English: Helicoplacus
(Echinodermata:Helicoplacoidea) Date
1993 Source http://www.usna.edu/Users
/oceano/pguth/website/pl00001.htm Aut
hor Durham, J.W. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/de/Helicoplacus.jpg
[2] Figure from Prothero, ''Evolution
What the Fossils Say and Why It
Matters'', 2007, p203. COPYRIGHTED
source: Prothero, "Evolution What the
Fossils Say and Why It Matters", 2007,
p203.
Crustacea (shrimps, crabs, lobsters,
barnicles).
The earliest crustacean fossils are
from the early Cambrian (542-513 MYBN)
of Shropshire, England.
Molecular phylogenetics has suggested
to some that the subphylum Crustacea
may be paraphyletic including the
Hexapods within it, and so the Hexapoda
and Crustacea have been named
Pancrustacea. Not all experts agree
that Crustacea is paraphyletic, some
put hexapods as descended from the
Atelocerata, a hypothetical ancestor of
both myriapoda and hexapoda that split
from the crustaceans before the
Myriapod and Hexapod branching, citing
complex anatomical features shared by
Myriapod and Hexapod and not the
crustaceans that would need to be
independently evolved, in particular
the tentorium {internal head skeleton},
tracheae {fine respiratory tubules},
and Malpighian tubules of the Myriapods
and Hexapods).
England
[1] Canadaspis perfecta (ROM 61119) –
Part and counterpart. Complete specimen
showing phosphatized gut diverticulae
and posterior dark stain (probably
representing decay fluids), lateral
view. Left images, complete slab (part)
showing associated species; Yohoia
tenuis (bottom right), Waptia
fieldensis (left, partially covered by
a disarticulated carapace of
Canadaspis), Burgessia bella (far
left). Right images, details of the
counterpart. Specimen length = 72 mm.
Specimen dry – direct light (top
row), dry – polarized light (bottom
left), wet – polarized light (bottom
right). Walcott Quarry. © Royal
Ontario Museum. Photos: Jean-Bernard
Caron COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.burgess-shale.rom.on.
ca/images/zoomify/canadaspis-rom-61119.j
pg
[2] 3D model of Canadaspis
perfecta. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://burgess-shale.rom.on.ca/v
ideo/fossil-gallery/0b1-canadaspis-turnt
able.jpg
Canada, middle Cambrian fossils (507
mybn).
described as lobopod) fossil, from
Burgess shale.
source: 1 & 2
http://www.nmnh.si.edu/paleo/shale/paysh
ia.htm
source: 3
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/onychoph/on
ychophorafr.html
source: http://www.nmnh.si.edu/paleo/sha
le/pchoia.htm
source:
[1]
source: http://www.nmnh.si.edu/paleo/sha
le/pchoia.htm
[2]
source:
source: http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/ony
choph/onychophorafr.html
Shale.
[1] Ottoia, showing muscle bands and
gut. Ottoia is a priapulid worm found
commonly in the Burgess Shale. It was
carnivorous, and probably lived in a
burrow like modern priapulids. This
specimen has been wetted and oriented
to reflect the light, in order to show
a delicate irridescent film which
preserves details of muscle bands, the
gut, and even the small hooks at one
end of the worm (on the right --
unfortunately out of focus). Walcott
quarry.
source: http://www.geo.ucalgary.ca/~macr
ae/Burgess_Shale/Ottoia_muscle.gif
[2] Phylum
Priapulida Ottoia Priapulid worm.
Note the anterior proboscis (on the
left) and the dark trace of the
interior digestive tract. Ottoia was
carnivorous.
source: http://www.gpc.edu/~pgore/geolog
y/geo102/burgess/burgess.htm
source: http://www.nmnh.si.edu/paleo/sha
le/popabin.htm
source: http://www.nmnh.si.edu/paleo/sha
le/popabin.htm
Shale.
[1] diagram
source: http://www.nmnh.si.edu/paleo/sha
le/panomal.htm
[2] jaws
source: http://www.nmnh.si.edu/paleo/sha
le/panomal.htm
[1] diagram
source: http://www.nmnh.si.edu/paleo/sha
le/pmarella.htm
[2] fossil
source: http://www.nmnh.si.edu/paleo/sha
le/pmarella.htm
the process of moulting (ecdysis), the
soft-bodied arthropod Marrella
splendens.
Canada.
[1] a, Specimen of M. splendens (ROM
56781) emerging and pulling out the
flexible lateral spines from the old
exoskeleton (exuvia). b, Camera lucida
drawing of the same specimen. Scale bar
for a and b, 5 mm. c, Reconstruction of
Marrella (modified from ref.
8). COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v429/n6987/fig_tab/429040a_F1.html
Columbia
[1] Description English: Fossil
specimen of Pikaia from the Burgess
Shale on display at the Smithsonian in
Washington, DC. Image contrast
enhanced. Image is ~4cm across. Date
12 April 2009 (original upload
date) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia; transferred to Commons by
User:FunkMonk using
CommonsHelper. Author Original
uploader was Jstuby at
en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) Released into the public
domain (by the author). PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2c/Pikaia_Smithsonian.JP
G
[2] Description Pikaia gracilens,
the earliest known vertebrate ancestor,
from the Middle Cambrian of British
Columbia, digital Date 8 December
2007 Source Own work Author
Nobu Tamura
email:nobu.tamura@yahoo.com
www.palaeocritti.com Permission (Reusi
ng this file) See below. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/54/Pikaia_BW.jpg
{mEREaPeDu} (centipedes and
millipedes).
The earliest possible Myriapoda fossil
are marine fossils from the middle
Cambrian of Utah and the late Cambrian
(488-501 MYBN) of East Siberia, and the
earliest certain Myriapod fossils, are
land Myriapods from the late Silurian
(416 MYO) from Shropshire, England.
deposits)(Wheeler Formation) Utah, USA
and (Ust-Majan formation) East
Siberia|(earliest fossils) Shropshire,
England
[1] Description Lithobius
forficatus Deutsch: Steinläufer Date
9 August 2005 Source Own
work Author Darkone CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/79/Steinl%C3%A4ufer_%28L
ithobius_forficatus%29_3.jpg
[2] Description Tachypodoiulus
niger Date 2007-06-28 Source Own
work Author Stemonitis CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Tachypodoiulus_
niger_1.jpg/1280px-Tachypodoiulus_niger_
1.jpg
late Cambrian fossils (495 mybn).
mybn), and start of the Ordovician
{ORDiVisiN} (488.3-443.7 mybn) Period.
During the
Ordovician (488-444 million years ago),
the number of genera will quadruple.
[1] A second peak time in the abundance
of shell-surviving life forms was in
the Upper Ordovician (by this time
also, the first larger vertebrates,
fossil fish, had appeared). Below are
two illustrations: the first, an
artist' conception of marine
invertebrate life in the late
Ordovician; the second, a typical slab
of Ordovician limestone (from Indiana)
containing the fossil types listed in
its caption: PD
source: http://rst.gsfc.nasa.gov/Sect20/
ordovicsea.jpg
[2] A second peak time in the
abundance of shell-surviving life forms
was in the Upper Ordovician (by this
time also, the first larger
vertebrates, fossil fish, had
appeared). Below are two illustrations:
the first, an artist' conception of
marine invertebrate life in the late
Ordovician; the second, a typical slab
of Ordovician limestone (from Indiana)
containing the fossil types listed in
its caption: PD
source: http://rst.gsfc.nasa.gov/Sect20/
Or-03.jpg
(KeliSuroTo) (horseshoe crabs, mites,
spiders, scorpions).
Chelicerata probably appeared
during the Cambrian period. By the late
Cambrian there is evidence for both
Pycnogonida and Euchelicerata. The
earliest pycnogonid (sea spider)
fossils are larval sea spiders from the
Late Cambrian (488-501 MYO), Orsten of
Sweden.
Sweden
[1] Description English: Horseshoe
crab dorsal and ventral Italiano:
Limulus polyphemus dorsale e
ventrale Date 10 April 2009 Source
Own work Author Ricce PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Limulo_dorsale_
e_ventrale.jpg/1280px-Limulo_dorsale_e_v
entrale.jpg
[2] taken from en:Image:Horseshoe crab
female.jpg Dead female horseshoe crab
from NOAA Photo Library: Image ID:
line2632, America's Coastlines
Collection Location: Patuxent River,
Maryland Photo Date: 2002 August
17 Photographer: Mary Hollinger,
NESDIS/NODC biologist, NOAA PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1b/Horseshoe_crab_female
.jpg
Bryophyta, (ancestor of Liverworts,
Hornworts, Mosses).
The Bryophytes are the simplest land
plants, and reproduce with spores.
The Division Bryophyta contains green,
seedless land plants that contain at
least 18,000 species and are divided
into three classes: mosses, liverworts,
and hornworts. Bryophytes are
distinguished from vascular plants and
seed plants by the production of only
one spore-containing organ in their
spore-producing stage. Most bryophytes
are 2-5 cm (0.8-2 in.) tall. Bryophytes
are found throughout the surface of
earth, from polar regions to the
tropics, they are most abundant in
humid environments, though none is
marine. Bryophytes are extremely
tolerant of dry and freezing
conditions.
[1] English: A closeup shot of moss on
a rock in Beacon Hill Park, Victoria,
Canada. Sony Alpha A100 Date 25
March 2007 Source Own
work Author KirinX at
en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) CC-BY-SA-2.5. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1c/Moss_closeup.jpg
[2] Phaeoceros laevis (L.) Prosk. gnu
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Anthoceros_levis.jpg
lines separate.
[1] Description English: Petromyzon
marinus (Lamprey) mouth in Sala
Maremagnum of Aquarium Finisterrae
(House of the Fishes), in Corunna,
Galicia, Spain. Español: Boca de
Petromyzon marinus (lamprea) en la Sala
Maremagnum del Aquarium Finisterrae
(Casa de los Peces), en La Coruña,
Galicia, España. Galego: Boca de
Petromyzon marinus (lamprea) na Sala
Maremagnum do Aquarium Finisterrae
(Casa dos Peixes), na Coruña, Galicia,
España. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6f/Diversas_lampreas.1_-
_Aquarium_Finisterrae.JPG
[2] Pacific hagfish (Eptatretus
stoutii) resting on bottom 280m down,
collected from
http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/exploratio
ns/lewis_clark01/logs/jul08/jul08.html,
taken via ROV in Astoria Canyon off the
Oregon Coast in 2001. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/12/Pacific_hagfish_Myxin
e.jpg
fossil spores belonging to land plants.
These spores look like the spores of
living liverworts and Cooksonia.
Plants conquer land before animals do,
and like animals may move to land not
by sea but by freshwater.
[1] Gray, J., Massa, D., & Boucot, A.
J. Caradocian land plant microfossils
from libya. Geology , April 1982, 10
(4), 197-201. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1130/0091-7613(1982
)10<197:CLPMFL>2.0.CO;2 http://geology.gsapubs.org/
content/10/4/197.abstract?sid=dadb8801-c
fd4-4eb4-b70e-95cb217113e4 {Gray_Jane_1
98204xx.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://geology.gsapubs.org/conte
nt/10/4/197.abstract?sid=dadb8801-cfd4-4
eb4-b70e-95cb217113e4
arthropods Myriapoda (centipedes and
millipedes).
The earliest fossil land tracks are
from the Ordovician and are at least
472 MYO. The organism that produced
these fossil tracks is possibly an
Euthycarcinoidea, a rare arthropod
group thought to be descended from the
Myriapods.
Marine stem-group hexapods support the
theory that the invasion of the land
occurred independently by the Myriapoda
and Hexapoda. Adaptation to life on
land also occurred independently in the
Crustacea (Isopoda), Cheliceriformes
(Chelicerata), Tardigrada, and
Onychophhora.
Ontario, Canada
[1] Figure 4. Field photographs of
representative trackways. Scale bars
represent 5 cm. A: Trackway with
central drag and well-defined appendage
marks. Bottom surface. B: Trackway with
central drag and poorly defined
appendage marks. Top surface. Surface
dips to top of photograph; note downdip
offset of central drag. C: Robust
trackway with well-developed appendage
marks and no central drag. Note
push-ups of sand (arrows) associated
with appendage impressions. Figure 4
from: MacNaughton, Robert B., Jennifer
M. Cole, Robert W. Dalrymple, Simon J.
Braddy, Derek E.G. Briggs, and Terrence
D. Lukie. “First Steps on Land:
Arthropod Trackways in
Cambrian-Ordovician Eolian Sandstone,
Southeastern Ontario, Canada.”
Geology 30, no. 5 (May 2002): 391
–394. http://geology.geoscienceworld.
org/citmgr?gca=geology;30/5/391 COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://geology.geoscienceworld.o
rg/citmgr?gca=geology;30/5/391
[2] Figure 2 from: Heather M. Wilson
and Lyall I. Anderson, ''Morphology and
Taxonomy of Paleozoic Millipedes
(Diplopoda: Chilognatha: Archipolypoda)
from Scotland'', Journal of
Paleontology, Vol. 78, No. 1 (Jan.,
2004), pp.
169-184 http://www.jstor.org/stable/409
4847 {Anderson_Lyall_200401xx.pdf} COP
YRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/4094
847?&Search=yes&searchText=MILLIPEDES&se
archText=TAXONOMY&searchText=MORPHOLOGY&
searchText=PALEOZOIC&list=hide&searchUri
=%2Faction%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuery%3DMOR
PHOLOGY%2BAND%2BTAXONOMY%2BOF%2BPALEOZOI
C%2BMILLIPEDES%26acc%3Don%26wc%3Don&prev
Search=&item=2&ttl=43&returnArticleServi
ce=showFullText
[1] Phaeoceros laevis (L.) Prosk. gnu
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Anthoceros_levis.jpg
[2] Image of Phaeoceros (hornwort)
spores taken by J. Ziffer. public
domain
source: wiki
[1] Figure 1. (A to C and E to G)
Fossil hyphae and spores from the
Ordovician and (D and H) spores formed
by extant glomalean fungi. (A and B)
Overviews of the fossilized material.
(C, E, F, and G) Fossil spore details.
(C) Detail of (B). (D) A spore of
present-day Glomus sp. S328 with
layered wall structure. In (G), the
arrow shows walls of a subtending hypha
in connection with the spore wall. (H)
A spore of present-day Glomus
leptotichum, a member of the deeply
divergent glomalean lineages. Images
were obtained by light microscopy (28)
of the specimens in air (A, C, F, and
G), differential interference contrast
microscopy of the specimens in
polyvinylalcohol-lactoglycerol (D, E,
and H), and confocal laser scanning
microscopy with the autofluorescence of
the material (B). All scale bars are 50
µm.
source:
[1] A moss covered log. Photo by sannse
at Mistley, England. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mos
s
[2] life cycle of
moss ladyofhats public domain
source: same
Infraphylum Gnathostomata {no toST
omoTo}. This large group includes all
jawed fish, amphibians, reptiles,
mammals, and birds. First vertebrate
teeth.
The jaw evolves from parts of the gill
skeleton. The earliest jawed
vertebrates, have no bone, there
skeleton is made of cartilage. Humans
have cartilage too, for example, in the
lining of joints and the human skeleton
starts as flexible cartilage in the
embyro. Most of the human skeleton
becomes ossified when mineral crystals,
mostly calcium phosphate, become
integrated into the skeleton. Except
for teeth, the shark skeleton never
undergoes this mineral transformation.
Sharks lack the swim bladder of the
later bony fish, and many sharks have
to swim continuously to maintain their
desired level in the water. Sharks and
rays almost all live in the sea. Unlike
the bony fish, no sharks ever climb
onto land. Sharks have been the top of
the food chains of the sea for hundreds
of millions of years. The largest shark
known is the whale shark, Rhincodon
typus, which can be up to 12 meters
long and weigh 12 tons.
[1] Kardong, ''Vertebrates'', Third
Edition, 2002. COPYRIGHTED
source: Kardong, "Vertebrates", Third
Edition, 2002.
[2] Grey reef shark (Carcharhinus
amblyrhynchos) Description Un
gran tiburón surcando aguas
oceánicas. Date 14 March
2004 Source Original image:
Carcharhinus-amblyrynchos.jpg by
Fbattail at fr.wikipedia, March 14,
2004 cropped image:
Greyreefsharksmall.jpg by Chris huh at
en.wikipedia, August 29. 2006
Transfered to Commons by Harryemi,
September 21, 2008 Author
original author is Fbattail , the
image is cropped by Chris huh GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/bb/Tibur%C3%B3n.jpg
{KoN-DriK-tE-EZ} (Cartilaginous fishes:
ancestor of all sharks, rays, skates,
and sawfishes).
The fossil record of Chondrichthyans
dates to around 455 million years ago,
but the earliest Chondrichthyan fossil
dates to 409 million years ago.
[1] Richard Dawkins, ''The Ancestor's
Tale'', (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p360-363. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p360-363.
[2] Miller, Randall F., Richard
Cloutier, and Susan Turner. “The
Oldest Articulated Chondrichthyan from
the Early Devonian Period.” Nature
425.6957 (2003): 501–504. Web. 23 May
2012. http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v425/n6957/full/nature02001.html {M
iller_Chondrichthyans_2003.pdf} COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v425/n6957/full/nature02001.html {
Miller_Chondrichthyans_2003.pdf}
mybn), and start of the Silurian
(443.7-416) Period.
of all genera are observed extinct.
Many species go extinct, mostly
trilobites, echinoderms, corals,
nautiloids, brachiopods, graptolites,
conodonts, and acritarchs.
Tracheophytes).
Vascular plants are any plant that has
a specialized conducting system
consisting mostly of phloem
(food-conducting tissue) and xylem
(water-conducting tissue), collectively
called vascular tissue. The phloem
transports sugar and the xylem
transports water and salts. Ferns,
gymnosperms, and flowering plants are
all vascular plants. In contrast to the
nonvascular bryophytes, where the
gametophyte is the dominant phase, the
dominant phase among vascular plants is
the sporophyte. Because they have
vascular tissues, these plants have
true stems, leaves, and roots,
modifications of which enable species
of vascular plants to survive in a
variety of habitats under diverse, even
extreme, environmental conditions. This
ability to flourish in so many
different habitats is the primary
reason that vascular plants have become
dominant among terrestrial plants.
Earliest spores of vascular plants.
[1] Fig. 2. Chronogram showing
estimates of phylogenetic relationships
and divergence times among the major
groups of extant land plants. The
estimate of relationships is
synthesized from the following papers
in this issue: Burleigh and Mathews
(2004) , Pryer et al. (2004) , Shaw and
Renzaglia (2004) , and Soltis and
Soltis (2004) . Divergence time
estimates are mostly based on analyses
of molecular data with fossil
constraints (Wikström et al., 2001 ;
Pryer et al., 2004 ) and are augmented
by fossil evidence (Kenrick and Crane,
1997 ; Wellman et al., 2003 ).
Estimates of the number of species in
each group are from Judd et al. (2002)
and W. S. Judd (personal
communication). Groups covered by a
particular article in this special
issue are circled and connected to the
names of the article's authors. ''Other
conifers'' refers to the clade
consisting of all conifers except for
Pinaceae (see Burleigh and Mathews,
2004 ). ''Lepto. ferns'' refers to
leptosporangiate ferns fig 2
from: Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, ''The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view'', American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
http://www.amjbot.org/content/91/10/14
37.full {Chase_Mark_2004.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.amjbot.org/content/91
/10/1437/F2.large.jpg
[2] Lycopodiella cernua (L.) Pic.
Serm. plant from windward O'ahu
(Hawai'i) taken in December 2003 by
Eric Guinther and released under the
GNU Free Documentation License. gnu
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lyc
ophyte
Osteichthyes, Subclass Actinopterygii)
evolve. This is the fist bony fish
(Osteichthyes) which includes the
ray-finned, lobefin, and lung fishes.
Bony-fish have a skeleton at least
partly composed of true bone. Other
features include, in most species, a
swim bladder (an air-filled sac to give
buoyancy), gill covers over the gill
chamber, bony platelike scales, a skull
with sutures, and external
fertilization of eggs.
Most of the ray-finned fish are known
as teleosts. They exist in both salt
and freshwater. The name ray is because
their fins have a skeleton similar to a
handheld fan. The teleost fish are a
very successful evolutionary line, with
about 23,500 species, 30 times the
number of shark species.
Fish with a swim bladder use the
bladder to change their depth, to sink,
the fish absorbs some molecules of gas
from its swim bladder into the blood
which reduces the volume of the
bladder, to rise, the fish does the
reverse, releasing molecules of gas
from the blood into the swim bladder
increasing the volume of the bladder.
Some teleost fish can gulp air from the
surface, but still use their gills to
extract oxygen from the oxygenated gill
water. However, the lung does not
evolve from gills but from the swim
bladder. The swim bladder appears to
have evolved from a primitive lung, and
some surviving teleosts, for example
bowfins, gars and bichirs (BiCRZ),
still use the swim bladder for
breathing.
The Anabas and mudskipper are two
teleost fish that can walk over land.
The mudskipper can crawl on land using
its pectoral (arm) fin muscles which
can support its weight, and eats
insects and spiders.
[1] Adapted from: Richard Dawkins,
''The Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p339. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p339.
[2] A sturgeon
(pt:esturjāo). esturgeon noir
d'Amérique (Acipenser oxyrinchus
oxyrinchus) http://images.fws.gov/ PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c2/Sturgeon2.jpg
ray-finned fishes, from the swim
bladder. Some surviving teleosts, such
as bowfins, gars, and bichirs still use
their swim bladder for breathing. Fish
that breathe air through their gill
chamber evolved breathing through a
completely different route than those
fish that breathe with a lung.
Bichirs (BiCR) are among the most
primitive of the ray-finned fishes.
Instead of the swim bladder of most
ray-finned fishes, the bichir has a
pair of lungs, which enables it to
survive out of water for several hours.
[1] Earliest fish with lung in
existance?[t] Nile Bichir (Polypterus
bichir bichir) from Günther, A.C.L.G.,
1880. An introduction to the study of
fishes. Today & Tomorrow's Book Agency,
New Delhi. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e8/Nile_bichir.png
[2] Earliest fish with lung in
existance?[t] Nile Bichir (Polypterus
bichir bichir) from Günther, A.C.L.G.,
1880. An introduction to the study of
fishes. Today & Tomorrow's Book Agency,
New Delhi. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e8/Nile_bichir.png
evolve. Coelacanths. Lobefin fish have
a fleshy lobe at the base of each fin.
There
are 2 living species of coelacanths
known.
The Coelacanths are well known in the
fossil record, but were thought to have
gone extinct before the dinosaurs, but
are found to be still alive in 1938.
[1] Description Preserved
specimen of chalumnae (Also known as
Coelacanth [1]) in the Natural History
Museum, Vienna, Austria. Believed
to have been extinct for 70 million
years, this specimen was caught the 18
October of 1974, next to
Salimani/Selimani (Grande Comore,
Comoros Islands) 11°48′40.7″S
43°16′3.3″E Length: 170 cm -
Weight: 60 kg Obtained by stiching
3 HiRes images and removing the
background with image
post-processing. Date August
2007 Source Own work Author
Alberto Fernandez Fernandez GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/fa/Latimeria_Chalumnae_-
_Coelacanth_-_NHMW.jpg
(arthropods with six legs, includes all
insects).
The closest relative of the Hexapoda is
most likely the Branchiopoda, the brine
shrimps and their
allies.
The earliest hexapod fossils are 396
million years old and from the Rhynie
chert of Scotland. They are Rhyniella
praecursor and a pair of mandibles
described as Rhyniognatha hirsti.
The proturans, (class Protura), are any
of a group of about 150 species of
minute (0.5 to 2 mm), pale, wingless,
blind, primitive insects that live in
damp humus and soil and feed on
decaying organic matter. Proturans,
frequently known as telsontails,
include some of the most primitive
hexapods.
The first major division among hexapods
is between Entognatha and Ectognatha.
Ectognatha are more widely known as the
Insecta. In entognaths the mouthpart
appendages are recessed within a
gnathal pouch on the head capsule.
Ectognathy is more primitive and all
other hexapods have ectognathous
mouthparts.
[1] Description Protura specimen,
taken under stereo microscope (40x).
Acerentomon sp. Date 7 December 2008,
03:13 Source Protura Uploaded
by Richard001 Author Gregor
?nidar CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
_micrograph.jpg){kind=link}
pedia/commons/b/bc/Protura_specimen_(Ace
rentomon_species)_micrograph.jpg
[2] Description English: Campodea
staphylinus, a dipluran. Photo by
Michel Vuijlsteke. Taken on May 9, 2006
at 4.09pm CEST in Gent, Belgium. Date
2007-07-08 (original upload
date) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia Author Original uploader
was Mvuijlst at
en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2e/Diplura.jpg
There are only six species of lungfish
alive today. The Australian lungfish
has a single lung, the others have two.
The African and South American species
bury themselves in mud during the dry
season, breathing air through a little
breathing hole in the mud.
The earliest fossil lungfish dates to
around this time.
[1] Description English: Australian
lungfish (Neoceratodus forsteri) Date
Source Picure taken by Tannin
(from English wikipedia) Author
User:Tannin GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/61/Australian-Lungfish.j
pg
[2] Description English: Lateral
view of lungs of a dissected
Protopterus dolloi Date
2007ish (15 February 2009
(original upload date)) Source
Transferred from
en.wikipedia (Original text : Photo
from lab dissection at U. of
Cincinnati) Author Mokele (talk).
Original uploader was Mokele at
en.wikipedia GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/ae/Lungs_of_Protopterus_
dolloi.JPG
mybn), and start of the Devonian
{DiVONEiN} (416-359.2 mybn) Period.
Cooksonia. This is also the oldest
fossil of a vascular land plant.
Cooksonia is only a few centimeters
tall. It has slender, leafless branches
with Y shaped forks, topped by capsules
that relase microscopic spores. Some
fossils have a dark stripe in their
stems which may be the remains of
vascular tissue, used by plants to move
water.
They have been found in an area
stretching from Siberia to the Eastern
USA, and in Brazil. They are found
mostly in the area of Euramerica, and
most of the type specimens are from
Britain.
district of County Tipperary,
Ireland
[1] Cooksonia pertoni with three
sporangia. Height of the plant 2.5
cm Pridolian (Upper
Silurian) Shropshire, England.
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.xs4all.nl/~steurh/eng
cook/ecookwal.html
[2] Cooksonia pertoni, fossilised
plant COPYRIGHTED UK
source: http://owen.nhm.ac.uk/piclib/web
images/0/0/900/936_sml.jpg
are the order Archaeognatha, the
Bristletails, of which there are around
500 known species. The members of this
order are distinctive because their
mandibles connect with the head capsule
in only one place (monocondylic). The
mandibles of all other insects have two
points of articulation with the head
(dicondylic). Other ancestral features
of Archaeognatha include their method
of reproduction in which species do not
copulate and sperm transfer is indirect
even though fertilization is
internalized.
In the most primitive wingless insects
(apterygotes) such as the silverfish
Lepisma, there is almost no change in
form throughout growth to the adult.
These are known as ametabolous
insects.
Engel and Grimaldi write: "...By most
measures of evolutionary success,
insects are unmatched: the longevity of
their lineage, their species numbers,
the diversity of their adaptations,
their biomass, and their ecological
impact. ...".
The insects co-radiate with
angiosperms; 85% of the 250,000 species
of angiosperms are pollinated by
insects. The diversity of flowers is
due in large part to the insects lured
to them.
[1] Description Archaeognatha:
Machilidae, collected from Anglesey,
UK Date 2006-12-28 Source Own work
(own photo) Author
User:Stemonitis Permission (Reusing
this file) CC Attribution
ShareAlike 2.5 CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/42/Archaeognatha.jpg
[2] Description English: Collage
showing the diversity of insect
species. Insect species clockwise from
top to bottom left: 1. Long dance
fly (Empis livida) 2. Long Nosed
Weevil (Rhinotia hemistictus) 3.
Assassin bug in the family Reduviidae
sub-family Harpactocorinae 4. Mole
Cricket (Gryllotalpa brachyptera) 5.
Emperor gum moth (Opodiphthera
eucalypti) 6. European Wasp (Vespula
germanica) Date Source Derivative
from images uploaded by
Fir0002. Author Bugboy52.40 CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Insect_collage.
png/1052px-Insect_collage.png
trigonotarbids, spider-like arthropods
with lung-books, the typical breathing
organs of most of the larger recent
living Arachnids.
Unlike true spiders,
Pleophrynus lacks poison and silk
glands.
[1] {ULSF: Note that this is not a
fossil from Rhnie Chert} Pleophrynus
ensifer ISM 14873 Pleophrynus is a
member of an extinct group of arachnids
called trigonotarbids. These
spider-like animals probably lived on
land. This specimen is the
holotype. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.museum.state.il.us/ex
hibits/mazon_creek/images/pleophrynus1.j
pg AND
http://www.museum.state.il.us/exhibits
/mazon_creek/images/pleophrynus2.jpg
[2] Fig 1 from: M. F. Claridge & A.
G. Lyon (1961). ''Lung-books in the
Devonian Palæocharinidae
(Arachnida)''. Nature 191 (4794):
1190–1191.
doi:10.1038/1911190b0 http://www.nature
.com/nature/journal/v191/n4794/abs/19111
90b0.html COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v191/n4794/abs/1911190b0.html
which the mandible has two points of
articulation with the head instead of
one). Ancestor of Insects Zygentoma
(Silverfish). Silverfish and all
pterygota (winged insects) have
dicondylic mandibles. This second
articulation results in the movement of
the mandible being roughly confined to
a single plane of motion instead of the
rotating motion possible in
Archeognatha (bristletails) and
Entognatha (springtails and
relatives).
Silverfish have more in common with
insects than the more primitive
bristletails.
[1] Thysanura is an order of insects,
encompassing silverfish and
firebrats, Description
Silberfischchen, Lepisma
saccharina Date Source from the
http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bild:Silber
fischchen.jpg German wiki; taken with
Canon EOS 300D Author Sebastian
Stabinger GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/54/Silberfischchen.jpg
[2] Image from: David A. Grimaldi,
Michael S. Engel, ''Evolution of the
Insects'', 2005, p144. COPYRIGHTED
source: David A. Grimaldi, Michael S.
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p146
thought to be a winged insect.
The oldest known insect fossil for
which there is significant remaining
structure (head and thorax fragments)
is a bristletail (Archaeognatha),
estimated to be 390 to 392 million
years old.
Peninsula of Québec, Canada)
[1] Rhyniognatha hirsti. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nhm.ac.uk/nature-onli
ne/earth/fossils/article-oldest-insect-f
ossil/the-oldest-fossil-insect-in-the-wo
rld.html
[2] Figure 2 from:l Labandeira, C.
C., B. S. Beall, et al. 1988. Early
insect diversification: Evidence from a
Lower Devonian bristletail from
Québec. Science 242:
913-916. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/
1988Sci...242..913L
AND http://si-pddr.si.edu/dspace/bitstr
eam/10088/6562/1/Science_1988.pdf COPYR
IGHTED
source: http://si-pddr.si.edu/dspace/bit
stream/10088/6562/1/Science_1988.pdf
arthropod insect. Ancestor of all
winged insects (Pterygota {TARiGOTu})
(Mayflies, Dragonflies, Damselflies).
The most primitive living pterygotes
are the Ephemeroptera (Mayflies) and
the Odonata (Dragonflies and
damselflies). Unlike most other flying
insects both the Ephemeroptera and
Odonata have freshwater aquatic larvae,
presumed to be an ancestral habit.
Arthropods evolve flight 90 million
years before the first flight among
vertebrates.
Insect wings evolved only once, and all
winged insects descend from the first
winged insect.
How flight evolved in insects is still
debated. A terrestrial origin of
pterygotes is supported by the fact
that the most basal insects
(apterygotes), the Zygentoma and
Archeognatha are fully terrestrial. One
theory suggests that wings develop as
fixed extensions to the thoracic terga,
called paranotal lobes. The paranotal
lobes provide early insects with the
ability to glide, and eventually to
control the aerial descent of the
insect from perches of tall plants, and
from one Carbiniferous gymnosperm
sporangia (which are located on
branchlets) to another. Another theory
has the wing evolving like the movable
abdominal gills on aquatic naiads of
mayflies which look like tiny wings and
move in a similar way. The development
of wings may have helped early insects
to escape predators.
The earliest full body imprint fossil
of a flying insect is like a may-fly
(Ephemeropterida) that landed in soft
mud, during the late Carboniferous
(318-299 mybn) around a fresh water
habitat in Massachusetts. Some wing
impressions from the Czech Republic
date to 324 mybn.
The Pterygota is the larger of two
subclasses of Insecta. All have wings
in the adult stage or have lost their
wings secondarily.
Some interesting facts about Mayflies
are:
-The subimagos of mayflies are the only
insects that molt when they have
wings.
-Mayflies have paired genital openings.
During copulation, the two penes of the
male are inserted simultaneously into
the two openings of the female. Sperm
is transferred quickly (there is no
spermatophore) and eggs are fertilized
immediately.
-A few species of mayflies reproduce
parthenogenically -- no males have ever
been found.
-Although most mayflies are
herbivores, a few are predaceous.
-Adult mayflies
do not feed. Their digestive system is
filled with air, making them light
enough to float.
-Some mayfly species require
up to four years to complete
development. In that time they may molt
more than 20 times.
Massachusetts and Upper Silesian Basin,
Czech Republic
[1] English: A female subimago of March
Brown (Rhithrogena germanica) of family
Heptageniidae. Mayflies are insects
which belong to the Order Ephemeroptera
(from the Greek ephemeros, short-lived
and pteron, wing, referring to the
short life span of adults). They have
been placed into an ancient group of
insects termed the Paleoptera, which
also contains the dragonflies and
damselflies. They are aquatic insects
whose immature stage (called naiad or,
colloquially, nymph) usually lasts one
year in fresh water. The rests on Rough
Horsetail or Scouringrush Horsetail
(Equisetum hyemale) Date 8 January
2008 Source Own work Author Richard
Bartz, Munich aka Makro Freak
Image:MFB.jpg CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/49/Rhithrogena_germanica
_subimago_on_Equisetum_hyemale.jpg
[2] FIGURE 2—Preliminary hypothesis
of phylogenetic relationships among
major and interesting groups of living
and extinct hexapods and
basal pterygote Insecta. Numbers refer
to synapomorphies (see Table 1); empty
boxes are homoplasious synapomorphies.
Some significant fossils
are-CSCO-3h--F3.large denoted by
circled letters (see Table 2), but many
fossils are not listed for most groups.
Thick lines indicate the approximate
chronology of lineages. The number of
lineages depicted for paraphyletic
lineages
(‘‘Protodonata,’’‘‘Protortho
ptera,’’ Blattaria [Blattoptera])
are arbitrary, and simply indicate
multiple, unresolved lineages. The
names of orders with freshwater aquatic
larvae are shaded (a presumed ancestral
habit). Relationships are based on
Kristensen (1975, 1991, 1999), Willmann
(1997, 1999), Grimaldi (1997, for
Dictyoptera), Engel and Grimaldi (2000,
Zoraptera and related orders), and
others. Figure 2 from: Grimaldi, D.
2001. Insect evolutionary history from
Handlirsch to Hennig, and beyond.
Journal of Paleontology
75:1152-1160. http://jpaleontol.geoscie
nceworld.org/content/75/6/1152
AND www.online-keys.net/sciaroidea/2000
_/Grimaldi_2001_insect_evolution_history
.pdf COPYRIGHTED
source: www.online-keys.net/sciaroidea/2
000_/Grimaldi_2001_insect_evolution_hist
ory.pdf
{aTRKoPuS}).
These spiders represent the first use
of silk by animals.
[1] Fig. 1. Attercopus fimbriunguis,
Devonian of New York (localities: G,
Gilboa; SM, South Mountain), macerated
from matrix with HF and slide-mounted.
(A) First-described “spinneret,” G
334.1b.34; darkness of cuticle reflects
number of layers, so this fragment is
folded over twice. (B) Palpal femur, SM
1.11.12; arrow indicates patch of
distinctive spinules. (C) Piece of
cuticle from corner of opisthosomal
ventral plate showing setae, spigots,
and possible silk strand, SM 1.11.4.
(D) Close-up of E showing possible silk
strand emerging from spigot shaft, SM
1.11.4. (E) Flagellar structure with 12
segments (including possible
distalmost) from original Gilboa
locality; segments show distal collars
and setae, G 334.1a.4. (F) Close-up of
cheliceral fang showing a number of
holes (arrowed), the most distal of
which had been interpreted as a
venom-gland opening, G 329.22.9. (Scale
bars: 0.5 mm, except F, 0.25 mm.)
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.pnas.org/content/105/
52/20781/F1.large.jpg
[2] Permarachne novokshonovi, Permian
of Russia, from the Kungurian
c276mybn UNKNOWN
source: http://media.tumblr.com/tumblr_l
y6ahnZoxc1qgxyxw.jpg
trees fossils.
First progymnosperms (treelike plants).
[1] a, General view of the crown
portion, showing longitudinal ranks of
branch bases on the trunk proximally,
and attached branches with digitate
ramification and speckled surface
pattern distally. Scale bar, 20 cm. b,
Line drawing of the specimen as
recovered including trunk and crown;
the box shows the portion in a, and the
arrow indicates the branch in c. Scale
bar, 10 cm. c, Close-up of a distal
branch showing speckled texture and
lateral appendages. Scale bar, 20
mm. figure 1 from: William E. Stein1,
Frank Mannolini2, Linda VanAller
Hernick2, Ed Landing2 & Christopher M.
Berry3, ''Giant cladoxylopsid trees
resolve the enigma of the Earth's
earliest forest stumps at Gilboa'',
Nature 446, 904-907 (19 April
2007) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v446/n7138/full/nature05705.html CO
PYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v446/n7138/images/nature05705-f1.2.
jpg
[2] a, Composite image of large trunk
specimen, a cast with upper and lower
counterparts, NYSM 17040. Arrows at the
distal end (top) correspond to the
region in Fig. 3a; arrows at the
proximal end (bottom) correspond to the
region in Fig. 3b. b, Line drawing
showing the architecture of Wattieza
attached to Eospermatopteris. The
length of the trunk is not firmly
established, so the minimum tree height
is shown. Light branches right, also in
Fig. 1a right, appear in life position
but are not definitively attached.
Scale bar, 1 m for both panels. figure
2 from: William E. Stein1, Frank
Mannolini2, Linda VanAller Hernick2, Ed
Landing2 & Christopher M. Berry3,
''Giant cladoxylopsid trees resolve the
enigma of the Earth's earliest forest
stumps at Gilboa'', Nature 446, 904-907
(19 April
2007) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v446/n7138/full/nature05705.html CO
PYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v446/n7138/images/nature05705-f2.2.
jpg
an important transition between fish
and amphibian.
Canada
[1] A reconstruction of Tiktaalik
alongside a cast of its fossil, and a
map showing where the fossil was found,
on Ellesmere Island, Nunavut,
Canada. UNKNOWN
source: http://evolution.berkeley.edu/ev
olibrary/images/news/tiktaalik_reconstru
ction.jpg
[2] Description English: Life
restoration of Tiktaalik roseae, a
transitional fossil (''missing link'')
between sarcopterygian fishes and
tetrapods from the late Devonian period
of North America. Original description:
''Fossil fish bridges evolutionary gap
between animals of land and
sea.'' Deutsch: Lebendrekonstruktion
von Tiktaalik roseae, einer
Übergangsform („Missing Link“)
zwischen Muskelflosser-Fischen und
Landwirbeltieren aus dem Oberdevon von
Nordamerika. Polski: Artystyczna
próba rekonstrukcji sposobu życia
Tiktaalika roseae, przejściowej formy
kopalnej (tzw. “brakującego ogniwa
ewolucji”) pomiędzy rybami a
czworonożnymi płazami (późny Dewon,
Ameryka
Północna). Date Unknown Source
National Science
Foundation Author Zina Deretsky,
National Science Foundation (Courtesy:
National Science
Foundation) Permission (Reusing
this file) Images credited to the
National Science Foundation, a U. S.
federal agency, are in the public
domain. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Tiktaalik_rosea
e_life_restor.jpg/1280px-Tiktaalik_rosea
e_life_restor.jpg
with four feet), the amphibians evolve
in fresh water. The first vertebrate
limbs (arms and legs) and fingers.
Ancestor of caecillians, frogs, toads,
and salamanders.
Almost no amphibians live in sea
water.
The earliest fossil amphibian is
Elginerpeton, found in Scotland, dates
back 368 million years.The earliest
well known amphibians come from around
360 million years ago, and are
Acanthostega and Ichthyostega.
Acanthostega represents the most
primitive tetrapod that has hands and
feet for which there is a full
skeleton. Acanthostega has eight toes
per limb, no fin rays, a large
load-bearing pelvis and is thought to
have retained gills into adulthood.
Ichthyostega is a large carnivore,
ranging in size from 0.5 - 1.2 m. The
earliest known Ichthyostega comes from
363 million year old deposits in
Greenland (then on the equator).
Ichthyostega is largely aquatic but has
massive broad ribs that may be used for
support of internal organs while on
land.
equator)
[1] Timeline of phylogeny of animals,
figure 6 from: S. Blair Hedges, ''The
origin and evolution of model
organisms'', Nature Reviews Genetics 3,
838-849 (November
2002) http://www.nature.com/nrg/journal
/v3/n11/full/nrg929.html {Hedges_2002.p
df} a) The relationships and
divergence times (millions of years ago
(Mya) plusminus one standard error) of
selected model animals are shown, based
on recent multigene and multiprotein
studies51, 61, 84. The fossil
divergence time of birds and mammals
(310 Mya) was used to calibrate the
molecular clock. Branch lengths are not
proportional to time. b ) The
relationships and numbers of living
species, from a diversity of sources in
most of the main groups. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nrg/journa
l/v3/n11/images/nrg929-f6.jpg
[2] Reconstructions of (a)
Acanthostega and (b) Ichthyostega, from
Benton, 1997. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://palaeo.gly.bris.ac.uk/Pal
aeofiles/Fossilgroups/Amphibia/amphibpic
s/ichthyostega.jpg
SCIENCE
Canada
[1] Tiktaalik rosae, pencil drawing,
digital coloring Source
self-made Date Jan 22,
2007 Author ArthurWeasley GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Tiktaalik_BW.jpg
[2] Tiktaalik skull cast (Cast of
Tiktaalik skull (front view)),
photographed at Science Museum, London,
2006 Source
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Ti
k_skull_raw_2a.jpg Date
16.05.2006 Author photographed
by Richard G. Clegg, tweaked by dave
souza Permission (Reusing this image)
GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Tiktaalik_skull_front.jpg
fossil.
Tetrapods are four-limbed, vertebrate
animals (all vertebrates except fish).
[1] Figure 3 from: P. E. Ahlberg,
''Tetrapod or near-tetrapod fossils
from the Upper Devonian of Scotland'',
Nature 354, 298 - 301 (28 November
1991) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v354/n6351/abs/354298a0.html COPYRI
GHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v354/n6351/abs/354298a0.html
[2] [t Note that this drawing is not
from a known scholarly
source.] Description Elginerpeton
pancheni, an early tetrapod from the
Late devonian of Scotland, pencil
drawing Date 22 September
2007 Source Own work Author
Nobu Tamura
email:nobu.tamura@yahoo.com
www.palaeocritti.com GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/bf/Elginerpeton_BW.jpg
caused by ice age. 57% of all genera
are observed extinct.
70% of all species go extinct. This
include 3 of 5 trilobite orders, 90% of
brachiopod genera, and major loss of
reefs.
(amphibians).
equator)
[1] Timeline of phylogeny of animals,
figure 6 from: S. Blair Hedges, ''The
origin and evolution of model
organisms'', Nature Reviews Genetics 3,
838-849 (November
2002) http://www.nature.com/nrg/journal
/v3/n11/full/nrg929.html {Hedges_2002.p
df} a) The relationships and
divergence times (millions of years ago
(Mya) plusminus one standard error) of
selected model animals are shown, based
on recent multigene and multiprotein
studies51, 61, 84. The fossil
divergence time of birds and mammals
(310 Mya) was used to calibrate the
molecular clock. Branch lengths are not
proportional to time. b ) The
relationships and numbers of living
species, from a diversity of sources in
most of the main groups. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nrg/journa
l/v3/n11/images/nrg929-f6.jpg
[2] Reconstructions of (a)
Acanthostega and (b) Ichthyostega, from
Benton, 1997. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://palaeo.gly.bris.ac.uk/Pal
aeofiles/Fossilgroups/Amphibia/amphibpic
s/ichthyostega.jpg
Ferns are are flowerless, seedless
vascular plants having roots, stems,
and fronds (the leaf-like part of a
fern or leaf of a palm) and reproducing
by spores.
There are around 12,000 species of
Ferns (Plant division Pteridophyta),
which are nonflowering vascular plants
that have true roots, stems, and
complex leaves and reproduce by spores.
The life cycle is characterized by an
alternation of generations between the
mature, fronded form (the sporophyte)
familiar in greenhouses and gardens and
the form that strongly resembles a moss
or liverwort (the gametophyte).
[1] Fig. 2. Chronogram showing
estimates of phylogenetic relationships
and divergence times among the major
groups of extant land plants. The
estimate of relationships is
synthesized from the following papers
in this issue: Burleigh and Mathews
(2004) , Pryer et al. (2004) , Shaw and
Renzaglia (2004) , and Soltis and
Soltis (2004) . Divergence time
estimates are mostly based on analyses
of molecular data with fossil
constraints (Wikström et al., 2001 ;
Pryer et al., 2004 ) and are augmented
by fossil evidence (Kenrick and Crane,
1997 ; Wellman et al., 2003 ).
Estimates of the number of species in
each group are from Judd et al. (2002)
and W. S. Judd (personal
communication). Groups covered by a
particular article in this special
issue are circled and connected to the
names of the article's authors. ''Other
conifers'' refers to the clade
consisting of all conifers except for
Pinaceae (see Burleigh and Mathews,
2004 ). ''Lepto. ferns'' refers to
leptosporangiate ferns fig 2
from: Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, ''The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view'', American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
http://www.amjbot.org/content/91/10/14
37.full {Chase_Mark_2004.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.amjbot.org/content/91
/10/1437/F2.large.jpg
[2] The leaflike part of a fern; the
leaf of a palm. ''frond.'' Taylor's
Dictionary for Gardeners. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 1997. Answers.com 25
Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/frond COPY
RIGHTED
source: http://content.answcdn.com/main/
content/img/Gardeners/f0107.jpg
insects. Neoptera, means "new wing".
Ephemeroptera and Odonata, the most
primitive living pterygota, do not live
on the ground. It seems likely that
selective pressures on the first winged
insects heavily favor the development
of some mechanism for folding the wings
against the body after landing, making
them less conspicuous, less awkward,
and less susceptible to breakage. The
neoptera represent a remarkably
successful lineage and are the
ancestors of all "higher" orders of
insects.
Unfoldable wings appear in butterflies
and various moths, in many dipterans
and some hymenopterans.
Coseley Lagerstätte) Staffordshire,
UK
[1] Stonefly in the genus Dinotoperla.
Taken in Swifts Creek, Victoria in
November 2007 GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e6/Stonefly_-_dinotoperl
a.jpg
[2] Nymph of unidentified
stonefly Description Deutsch:
Steinfliegenlarve Date 16 June
2006 Source Own work Author
böhringer friedrich CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/SteinfliegenLar
ve2.JPG/1280px-SteinfliegenLarve2.JPG
mybn), and start of the Carboniferous
(359.2-299 mybn) Period.
[1] Henry N. Andrews, ''Early Seed
Plants'', Science, New Series, Vol.
142, No. 3594 (Nov. 15, 1963), pp.
925-931. http://www.jstor.org/stable/17
11577 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1711
577
[2] Fig. 2. Chronogram showing
estimates of phylogenetic relationships
and divergence times among the major
groups of extant land plants. The
estimate of relationships is
synthesized from the following papers
in this issue: Burleigh and Mathews
(2004) , Pryer et al. (2004) , Shaw and
Renzaglia (2004) , and Soltis and
Soltis (2004) . Divergence time
estimates are mostly based on analyses
of molecular data with fossil
constraints (Wikström et al., 2001 ;
Pryer et al., 2004 ) and are augmented
by fossil evidence (Kenrick and Crane,
1997 ; Wellman et al., 2003 ).
Estimates of the number of species in
each group are from Judd et al. (2002)
and W. S. Judd (personal
communication). Groups covered by a
particular article in this special
issue are circled and connected to the
names of the article's authors. ''Other
conifers'' refers to the clade
consisting of all conifers except for
Pinaceae (see Burleigh and Mathews,
2004 ). ''Lepto. ferns'' refers to
leptosporangiate ferns fig 2
from: Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, ''The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view'', American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
http://www.amjbot.org/content/91/10/14
37.full {Chase_Mark_2004.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.amjbot.org/content/91
/10/1437/F2.large.jpg
Sturgeons and Paddlefish.
[1] Adapted from: Richard Dawkins,
''The Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p339. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p339.
[2] A sturgeon
(pt:esturjāo). esturgeon noir
d'Amérique (Acipenser oxyrinchus
oxyrinchus) Source:
http://images.fws.gov/ via wiki.en PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c2/Sturgeon2.jpg
[1] Adapted from: Richard Dawkins,
''The Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p339. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p339.
[2] Nile Bichir (Polypterus bichir
bichir) from Günther, A.C.L.G., 1880.
An introduction to the study of fishes.
Today & Tomorrow's Book Agency, New
Delhi. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e8/Nile_bichir.png
{DiKTEoPTRu} (Cockroaches, Termites,
and Mantises).
Paleozoic "roachoids" are among the
most abundant animals that live in the
extensive coal swamps of the
Carboniferous. Earliest fossils are
from the early part of the Late
Carboniferous (around 320 MYBN).
[1] Figure 4.11. German Cockroaches,
Various Stages and Ages PD
source: http://www.cdc.gov/nceh/publicat
ions/books/housing/Graphics/chapter_04/F
igure4.11.jpg
[2] Figure 4.8. American, Oriental,
German, and Brown-banded
Cockroaches PD
source: http://www.cdc.gov/nceh/publicat
ions/books/housing/Graphics/chapter_04/F
igure4.08.jpg
Amniota {aMnEOtu} (ancestor of
reptiles, mammals and birds). The
hard-shell egg is waterproof. This is
the start of vertebrate internal
fertilization, because on land the egg
cannot be fertilized as most fishes and
amphibians do, by a male swimming near
the eggs and spraying them with sperm.
Amniote males and females must copulate
so that the sperm can reach the eggs
inside the female. Much of the
development of Amniote fetuses occurs
inside the female, not in the water.
Amniotes (reptiles, mammals, and birds)
are distinguished from non-amniote
tetrapods (amphibians) by the presence
of complex embryonic membranes. One of
these, the amnion, gives its name to
the group.
This group of tetropods, the Amniota,
will branch into Sauropsida
{SOR-roP-SiDu} (which includes reptiles
and birds) and Synapsida {Si-naP-Si-Du}
(which includes mammals).
All living amniotes (reptiles, birds,
and mammals) lay hard-shelled eggs,
except in most mammals and some snakes
and lizards, where egg laying has been
replaced by live birth.
The earliest known amniotes,
Westlothiana (~338 MY) and Hylonomus
(~300 MY), are also the earliest known
reptiles.
[1] Figure 2 from: [t Note that this
egg is only of Permian age: 299-251
mybn] Karl F. Hirsch, ''The Oldest
Vertebrate Egg?'', Journal of
Paleontology, Vol. 53, No. 5 (Sep.,
1979), pp.
1068-1084. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
1304086 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1304
086
[2] Prothero, ''Bringing Fossils To
Life'', 2004. COPYRIGHTED
source: Prothero, "Bringing Fossils To
Life", 2004. COPYRIGHTED
The next earliest amniote fossil is
Hylonomus, a small lizard-like reptile
that was trapped in the trunk of a
swamp tree in what is now Joggins, Nova
Scotia, Canada (~300 MYBN).
[1] T. R. Smithson, ''The earliest
known reptile'', Nature 342, 676 - 678
(07 December
1989). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v342/n6250/abs/342676a0.html COPYR
IGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v342/n6250/abs/342676a0.html
[2] from: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004), p262.
COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p262.
the Sauropsida {SOR-roP-SiDu} (which
includes reptiles and birds) and the
Synapsida {Si-naP-Si-Du} (which
includes mammals).
The Sauropsida include birds, dinosaurs
and modern reptiles. Sauropsids have
two major lineages: the Parareptilia
(turtles) and the Eureptilia
(dinosaurs, crocodiles and birds).
The Synapsida are a subclass of extinct
amniota from which mammals descend.
Synapsids are sometimes called
"mammal-like reptiles" but it is
incorrect to call them reptiles because
they diverge at the beginning of
amniote evolution, before the reptiles
do. There are two major groups of
synapsids: pelycosaurs (sail-backed)
and therapsids (mammal-like).
The earliest Sauropsid fossils, are
Lethiscus(~ 330 MYA) and Westlothiana
(~328 MY) from Scotland. The earliest
Synapsid fossil is Protoclepsydrops
(~314 MY) from Joggins, Nova Scotia,
although some people reject the
Protoclepsydrops fossil in favor the
next oldest possible synapsid fossils,
such as Echinerpeton and Archaeothyris
from Florence, Nova Scotia (~307 MY).
Cumberland group, Joggins formation.)
Joggins, Nova Scotia, Canada
[1] Prothero, ''Evolution What the
Fossils Say and Why It Matters'', 2007,
p232. COPYRIGHTED
source: Prothero, "Evolution What the
Fossils Say and Why It Matters", 2007,
p232.
[2] Prothero, ''Bringing Fossils To
Life'', 2004. COPYRIGHTED
source: Prothero, "Bringing Fossils To
Life", 2004. COPYRIGHTED
{PeLiKuSOREu} evolve (includes
Edaphosaurus {eDaFoSORuS},
Dimetrodon).
There are two main groups of synapsids:
pelycosaurs (sail-backed reptiles) and
therapsids (mammal-like reptiles).
Pelycosaurs arise in the
mid-Carboniferous from cotylosaurs and
soon enjoy an extensive radiation
through the early Permian, coming to
constitute about half of the known
amniote genera of the time. Some like
Edaphosaurus are herbivorous, however,
most are carnivores that prey on fish
and aquatic amphibians. Pelycosaurs
differ in size but not in design. The
most notable feature in some species is
a broad "sail" along the back
consisting of an extensive layer of
skin supported internally by a row of
fixed neural spines projecting from
successive vertebrae. If the sail is
brightly colored, it might have been
used in courtship or in bluff displays
with rivals, similar to ornamentations
in birds. The sail may be a sun light
collector: when turned broadside to the
sun, blood moving through the sail is
heated, then carried to the rest of the
body. Somewhat suddenly pelycosaurs
decline in numbers and are extinct by
the end of the Permian. Therapsides
evolve from them, and largely replace
the Pelycosauria for a time as the
dominant terrestrial vertebrates.
[1] Description This just might be
a depiction of Edaphosaurus pogonias,
to make a guess from the title. If you
know more about this image, please
place a good description here. Date
2007-04-30 (original upload
date) Source Originally from
ru.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. Author Original uploader
was ДиБгд at
ru.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) This image is in the public
domain; PD-ART. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/7d/Edaphosaurus_pogonias
.jpg
[2] Kardong, ''Vertebrates'',
2002. COPYRIGHTED
source: Kardong, "Vertebrates",
2002. COPYRIGHTED
[1] Description Eocaecilia
micropodia, an early caecilian from the
Lower Jurassic of Arizona, pencil
drawing Date 22 August
2007 Source Own work Author
Nobu Tamura
email:nobu.tamura@yahoo.com
www.palaeocritti.com Permission (Reusi
ng this file) See below. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/27/Eocaecilia_BW.jpg
[2] Figure 1 from: Roelants, K.,
Gower, D. J., Wilkinson, M., Loader, S.
P., Biju, S. D., Guillaume, K., Moriau,
L., & Bossuyt, F. (2007). Global
patterns of diversification in the
history of modern amphibians.
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences , 104 (3), 887-892. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.060837810
4 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0
608378104
Greek for "Naked Seed". Gymnosperms are
the earliest surviving seed plants,
Spermatophyta, and ancestor of all
Cycads, Ginkos and Conifers) evolve.
The most primitive extant Gymnosperms,
the Cycads evolve now.
The earliest known seed bearing plants
are the Pteridosperms, seed ferns known
only from the fossil record.
Gymnosperms are the most primitive seed
bearing plants still living.
A gymnosperm is any woody plant that
reproduces by means of a seed (or
ovule) in direct contact with the
environment, as opposed to an
angiosperm, or flowering plant, whose
seeds are enclosed by mature ovaries,
or fruits. The four surviving
gymnosperm divisions are Pinophyta
(conifers, the most widespread),
Cycadophyta (cycads), Ginkgophyta
(ginkos), and Gnetophyta (a small
division with only three genera). More
than half are trees; most of the rest
are shrubs. Those widely found in the
Northern Hemisphere are junipers, firs,
larches, spruces, and pines; in the
Southern Hemisphere, podocarps. The
wood of gymnosperms is often called
softwood to differentiate it from the
hardwood of angiosperms. Many timber
and pulp trees are also planted as
ornamentals. Gymnosperms also are a
minor source of food; of essential oils
used in soaps, air fresheners,
disinfectants, pharmaceuticals,
cosmetics, and perfumes; of tannin,
used for curing leather; and of
turpentines. Gymnosperms were a major
component in the vegetation that was
compressed over millions of years into
coal. Most are evergreen. They produce
male and female reproductive cells in
separate male and female strobili.
[1] Fig. 2. Chronogram showing
estimates of phylogenetic relationships
and divergence times among the major
groups of extant land plants. The
estimate of relationships is
synthesized from the following papers
in this issue: Burleigh and Mathews
(2004) , Pryer et al. (2004) , Shaw and
Renzaglia (2004) , and Soltis and
Soltis (2004) . Divergence time
estimates are mostly based on analyses
of molecular data with fossil
constraints (Wikström et al., 2001 ;
Pryer et al., 2004 ) and are augmented
by fossil evidence (Kenrick and Crane,
1997 ; Wellman et al., 2003 ).
Estimates of the number of species in
each group are from Judd et al. (2002)
and W. S. Judd (personal
communication). Groups covered by a
particular article in this special
issue are circled and connected to the
names of the article's authors. ''Other
conifers'' refers to the clade
consisting of all conifers except for
Pinaceae (see Burleigh and Mathews,
2004 ). ''Lepto. ferns'' refers to
leptosporangiate ferns fig 2
from: Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, ''The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view'', American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
http://www.amjbot.org/content/91/10/14
37.full {Chase_Mark_2004.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.amjbot.org/content/91
/10/1437/F2.large.jpg
[2] Leaves and female cone of Cycas
revoluta GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyc
ad
(Crickets, Grasshoppers, Locusts,
Walking sticks).
The Orthoptera and the later Hemiptera
are termed hemimetabolous, and are said
to undergo incomplete metamorphosis. In
incomplete metamorphosis, the general
form is constant until the final molt,
when the larva undergoes substantial
changes in body form to become a winged
adult with fully developed genitalia.
Many insects in the order Orthoptera
produce sound (known as a
"stridulation") by rubbing their wings
against each other or their legs, the
wings or legs containing rows of
corrugated bumps. The tympanum or ear
is located in the front tibia in
crickets, mole crickets, and katydids,
and on the first abdominal segment in
the grasshoppers and locusts.
One characteristic of Orthoptera are
jumping hind legs and a thick femur
packed with muscles. Orthopterans are
the most "vocal" of all the orders,
with calling behavior playing a major
role in the biolkogy and evolution of
the order. Mating calls are critical to
recognize many species. Males regularly
chorus on warm evenings for females.
Sound is produced wither by rubbing a
specialized area of the wing against a
corresponding area on the other,
overlapping forewing or by scraping the
legs against stiff edges of the
forewings. Scrapers of files are used
to create the rasping sounds which are
amplified by the specialized membranes
of the wings called "mirrors".
The earliest Orthoptera fossils are
from the Late Permian of France.
[1] African Field cricket Gryllus
bimaculatus at Bristol Zoo, Bristol,
England. Photographed by Adrian
Pingstone in February 2005 and released
to the public domain. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/2/27/African.field.c
ricket.arp.jpg/1200px-African.field.cric
ket.arp.jpg
[2] Description
grasshopper Source self
made Date unknown Author
Stephen Friedt PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/thumb/3/3c/Grasshopper_%2827%29
.JPG/1280px-Grasshopper_%2827%29.JPG
(Stoneflies, webspinners, and
zorapterans).
[1] Description Eusthenia sp.
(possibly E. costalis), Marriott Falls
Track, Mt Field National Park,
Tasmania, Australia Camera
data Camera Canon EOS 400D
Lens Tamron EF 180mm f3.5 1:1 Macro
Flash Umbrella Right Focal length
180 mm Aperture f/11 Exposure
time 1/200 s Sensivity ISO
400 Date 12/04/2009 Source Own
work Author JJ Harrison
(http://www.noodlesnacks.com/) GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/4c/Eusthenia_sp.jpg
[2] Stonefly in the genus Dinotoperla.
Taken in Swifts Creek, Victoria in
November 2007 GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e6/Stonefly_-_dinotoperl
a.jpg
(ancestor of all turtles, crocodiles,
pterosaurs, dinosaurs and birds).
The class Reptila contains
approximately 8,700 species and is a
group of air-breathing vertebrates that
have internal fertilization, and with
the exception of the birds, have a
scaly body, and are cold-blooded. Most
species have short legs (or none), long
tails, and lay eggs. Living reptiles
include the scaly reptiles (snakes and
lizards: Squamata), the crocodiles
(Crocodylia), the turtles (Testudines),
and the unique tuatara (Sphenodontida).
Being cold-blooded, reptiles are not
found in very cold regions; in regions
with cold winters, reptiles usually
hibernate. Reptiles range in size from
geckos that measure about 3 cm (1 in.)
long to the python, which grows to 9m
(30 ft); the largest turtle, the marine
leatherback, weighs about 1,500 lb (680
kg). Extinct reptiles include the
dinosaurs, the pterosaurs, and the
dolphin-like ichthyosaurs.
Canada
[1] from: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004), p262.
COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p262.
[2] Description English: Reptilia
(reptiles), based on:
File:Buberel cayman 3.jpg
File:Crotalus adamanteus (5).jpg
File:Karettschildkroete 01.jpg
File:Henry at Invercargill.jpg All
of them are either under a free licence
already in Wikicommons or in the public
domain Date 3/2/09 Source
Compilation made by myself Author
see respective profiles of
photos PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/67/Reptiles.jpg
result of the collision of Europe and
eastern North America.
Add other mountain range
origins too.
[1] This map shows the subdivisions of
the southern Appalachian Plateau as
defined by Bailey's ecoregions.[1] I,
Karl Musser, created it based on
USGS. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/36/Cumberlandplateaumap.
png
lice, true lice, thrips, and the
Hemiptera {HemiPTRu} who have
mouthparts adapted for piercing and
sucking: Cicadas, Aphids, and "true
bugs": such as Bed bugs, and Stink
bugs).
The evolutionary history of the
Paraneoptera is reflected in structure
and function of their mouthparts. There
is a general trend from the "picking"
mouthparts of bark lice with standard
insect mandibles, to the probing and
puncturing mouthparts of thrips and
anopluran lice, and the distinctive
piercing-sucking rostrum or beak of the
Hemiptera.
The Paraneopteran family tree splits
into two major branches, one with the
lice and the other with the thrips and
Hemiptera (aphids, cicadas and
Heteroptera: the true bugs). The
bark-lice and book lice are very basal
Paraneopterans.
Not long after the piercing and sucking
mouthparts evolve, Hemiptera divides
into two sister groups. In one group,
Homoptera, (leafhoppers, cicadas,
aphids, etc.) , the rostrum is
relatively short (1-3 segments) and
emerges from near the ventral posterior
margin of the head. In members of the
second group, Heteroptera, the rostrum
is relatively long (3-4 segments) and
arises near the front or lower front of
the head (prognathous or hypognathous).
These insects are known as the "true
bugs".
[1] Description Tibicen
linnei English: Annual cicada. Date
22 June 2003 Source Own work
http://www.cirrusimage.com/homoptera_cic
ada_T_linnei.htm Author Bruce
Marlin CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Tibicen_linnei.
jpg/1142px-Tibicen_linnei.jpg
[2] Description English: Pea aphids
extracting sap from the stem and leaves
of garden peas. Date February
2010 Source PLoS Biology, February
2010 direct link to the image
description Author Shipher Wu
(photograph) and Gee-way Lin (aphid
provision), National Taiwan
University CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/20/Acyrthosiphon_pisum_%
28pea_aphid%29-PLoS.jpg
Holometabola: Holometabolous insects
(beetles, bees, true flies, and
butterflies). Complete metamorphosis.
Neoptera Holometabola (also called
Endopterygota) are insects that have
complete metamorphosis (holometabolous
development), These insects have four
developmental stages in the life cycle:
egg, larva, pupa, and adult (imago).
Unlike hemimetabolous insects in which
the immature structures (legs, eyes,
antennae, etc.) must also serve the
adults, holometabolous insects have a
larval stage and acquire a completely
new body during the pupal stage. Start
of larvae.
The larva is a defining feature of
Holometabola. There are two theories
about how larva evolved. One is that
holometabolous larvae and
hemimetabolous nymphs are homologous
life stages, the other theory is that
the holometabolan larva is a protracted
version of the hemimetabolous pronymph-
that larvae are essentially free-living
embryos. The pronymph is a stage
between hatching and the first instar
nymph in hemimetabolous insects.
[1] Description wespenpoppen in
verschillende ontwikkelstadia Eigen
foto's Date 2005-06-13 (original
upload date) Source Originally from
nl.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. Author Original uploader was
Asaf at
nl.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) SELF2 GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/79/Ontwikkelstadia_wespe
npoppen.jpg
[2] Miomoptera- viewed by many as
stem-group Holometabola. UNKNOWN
source: http://wdict.net/img/miomoptera,
2.jpg
{PaNORPidu}, ancestor of all Mecoptera
(scorpionflies), Siphonaptera (fleas),
Diptera (true flies), Trichoptera
{TriKoPTRu} (caddis flies), and
Lepidoptera (moths and butterflies).
[1] Nannochorista holostigma TILL.,
male, (ca. x 11), in position of rest.
Order Mecoptera, Family
Nannochoristidae. (After TILLYARD,
1917) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.metafysica.nl/nature/
insect/tillyard1917_pl_17_5.jpg
[2] Grimaldi, Engel, ''Evolution of
the Insects'', 2005,
p469. COPYRIGHTED
source: Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of
the Insects", 2005, p469.
[1] Figure 1 from: Neil H. Shubin and
Farish A. Jenkins, Jr (7 September
1995). ''An Early Jurassic jumping
frog''. Nature 377 (6544): 49–52.
doi:10.1038/377049a0.http://www.nature.c
om/nature/journal/v377/n6544/full/377049
a0.html COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v377/n6544/full/377049a0.html
[2] Figure 3 from: Neil H. Shubin and
Farish A. Jenkins, Jr (7 September
1995). ''An Early Jurassic jumping
frog''. Nature 377 (6544): 49–52.
doi:10.1038/377049a0.http://www.nature.c
om/nature/journal/v377/n6544/full/377049
a0.html COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v377/n6544/full/377049a0.html
and Toads) evolve.
The order Anura, are tailless
amphibians that include all frogs and
toads.
[1] Richard Dawkins, ''The Ancestor's
Tale'', (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), 303. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), 303.
[2] Description English: A green
frog on a palm frond. Date 18
October 2003 Source Burning
Well Author Leon Brooks PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8d/Frog_on_palm_frond.jp
g
[1] Richard Dawkins, ''The Ancestor's
Tale'', (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), 303. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), 303.
[2] Description central
Pennsylvania Spotted Salamander
(Ambystoma maculatum) Source
self-made Date 25 March
2008 Author Camazine (talk) Scott
Camazine web.mac.com/camazine CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/b/b2/SpottedSalamander.jpg
Ancestor of Turtles, Tortoises and
Terrapins.
Testudines is the order of all turtles,
tortoises and terrapins. Testudines are
reptiles, most are aquatic or
semiaquatic, fresh water or marine, but
lay eggs on land. They have webbed feet
or flippers and their body is covered
by a horny shell from which only the
legs, head and neck, and tail protrude
when needed. The upper shell is called
the carapace and the undershell the
plastron.
Tortoises are any of various
terrestrial turtles, especially one of
the family Testudinidae,
characteristically having thick
clublike hind limbs and a high, rounded
carapace.
Terrapins are any of various North
American aquatic turtles of the family
Emydiolae, especially the genus
Malaclemys, which includes the
diamondback terrapin.
There are inconsistencies in
terminology. In the USA "turtle" is
used broadly for all reptiles with a
shell, "terrapin" applies to a large
family, Emydidae, and "tortoise" refers
to the slow moving terrestrial species
(the land turtles) that enter water
only to drink or soak. In Great Britain
and Australia "tortoise" is applied
generally to all members of the group
except the marine species with
paddle-shaped limbs which are called
"turtles".
DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes
KINGDOM Animalia
Linnaeus, 1758 - animals
SUBKINGDOM
Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888)
Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians
BRANCH
Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 -
deuterostomes
INFRAKINGDOM Chordonia
(Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998
PHYLUM Chordata Bateson, 1885 -
chordates
SUBPHYLUM Vertebrata
Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates
INFRAPHYLUM Gnathostomata auct. - jawed
vertebrates
SUPERCLASS Tetrapoda
Goodrich, 1930 - tetrapods
SERIES Amniota
CLASS
Sauropsida
SUBCLASS
Anapsida
ORDER Testudines
- turtles
[1] Richard Dawkins, ''The Ancestor's
Tale'', (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), 262. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), 262.
[2] English: Odontochelys
semitestacea, from the Late Triassic of
China, the oldest known turtle.
Digital. 中文(简体):
半甲齿龟，已知最为古老的乌
，于2007年在中国贵州境内发
。(三维模拟图) Date 4
December 2008 Source Own
work Author Nobu Tamura
email:nobu.tamura@yahoo.com
www.palaeocritti.com GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/39/Odontochelys_BW.jpg
(Chrysophyta {KriSoFiTu}).
[1] Description Dinobryon sp. / from
Shishitsuka Pond, Tsuchiura, Ibaraki
Pref., Japan / Microscope:Leica DMRD
(DIC) Date 20 May 2007 Source Own
work Author ja:User:NEON /
commons:User:NEON_ja CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/68/Dinobryon_sp.jpg
[2] Dinobryon, a colony of
Chrysophytes showing flagella and red
eyespots UNKNOWN
source: http://www.microscopy-uk.org.uk/
mag//imagsmall/Dinobryonb.jpg
(359.2-299 mybn), and start of the
Permian (299-251 mybn) Period.
{KOlEoPTRu} (Beetles).
The earliest fossil beetle, Adiphlebia
lacoana.
Coleoptera contains 350,000 named
species and is the largest order of
organisms and 40% of all insects.
Well known beetles are: Ladybugs,
Fireflies, Dung beetles, Japanese
beetles, weevils, and scarabs.
Some beetles have horns, in particular
the Scarabaeoidea (scarab related
families). The male usually has horns,
females very rarely do and they are
always small, which indicates that
horns are the product of sexual
selection, or intense competition among
males for mating. In many Scarabaeoidea
males fight to control access to
breeding sites and to females. Some
beetles secrete defensive fluids, and
are bioluminescent (like the familiar
Lampyridae more commonly called
"lightning bugs" or "fireflies"). Among
all bioluminescent insects the
mechanism of light emission involves a
luciferan in the presence of oxygen,
the enzyme luciferase, and ATP. The
reaction of these produces
oxyluciferin, CO2 and light.
Illinois, USA
[1] Figure 1. 1–7, Adiphlebia lacoana
Scudder, 1885. 1, 2, holotype specimen
(USNM 38143), reconstruction of the
wing venation (1), and photograph
(negative imprint, light-mirrored,
composite; 2); 3, specimen USNM 38140,
photograph (negative imprint,
light-mirrored, composite); 4,5,
specimen FMNH PE 3416, reconstruction
of the wing venation (forewings
separated; 4) and photograph (negative
imprint, composite; 5); 6, 7, specimen
FMNH PE 60291, reconstruction of the
wing venation (6) and photograph
(positive imprint; 7); 8, 9, details of
forewing main and intercalary veins
(black and white arrows, respectively)
in Adiphlabia lacoana (specimen FMNH PE
3416, right forewing; 8) and
Tetraphalerus bruchi Heller, 1913 (♀,
ventral view; 9). Abbreviations: LFW,
left forewing; RFW, right forewing;
ScP, posterior Subcosta; R, Radius; RA,
anterior Radius; RP, posterior Radius;
M, Media; CuA, anterior Cubitus; CuP,
posterior Cubitus; AA: anterior anal
vein. Color-coding: Subcosta, yellow;
Radius, blue; Media, red; Cubitus,
green; Analis, yellow. from Béthoux,
Olivier. “The Earliest Beetle
Identified.” Journal of Paleontology
83.6 (2009):
931–937. http://www.bioone.org/doi/ab
s/10.1666/08-158.1 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://jpaleontol.geoscienceworl
d.org/content/vol83/issue6/images/large/
i0022-3360-83-6-931-f01.jpeg
[2] {ULSF: Early Permian fossil
beetles see {Kukalová (1969), in
particular pl. 1; Ponomarenko (1969),
in particular figs. 16, 31, 32, 36, 40
41, 43, 44} and representatives of the
beetle sub-order Archostemata,
represented nowadays, exhibit
intercalary veins (Fig. 1.9) similar to
those exhibited by A.
lacoana} Archostemata is the smallest
suborder of beetles, consisting of
fewer than fifty known species
organized into five families.
Archostemata is an ancient lineage with
a number of primitive characteristics.
They are similar in morphology to the
first beetles, which appear in the
fossil record approximately 250 million
years ag Description
Tenomerga mucida (Chevrolat, 1829)
(Coleoptera: Cupedidae) - female.
Loc: Yokohama, kanagawa, japan.
ja: ナガヒラタムシ（鞘翅目:
ナガヒラタムシ科）のメス。
浜市内。産卵管をさかんに
し入れし、朽木の割れ目に挿
し込もうとしていたことから
産卵に来ていたものと思わ
る。 Date 13 July 2005 Source
my own file Author me PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/68/Tenomerga_mucida01.jp
g
(Ginkgos).
[1] * Description: Leaves of Ginkgo
biloba. * Source: picure taken by
Reinhard Kraasch in his own garden in
August 2003 (from German wikipedia)
* Licence: released per the GNU Free
Documentation License by the
photographer
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gin
kgo
[2] Name Ginkgo biloba Family
Ginkgoaceae Image no. 1 Permission
granted to use under GFDL by Kurt
Stueber GNU Ginkgo fruit and leaves
source: same
ants, and wasps).
The earliest fossil evidence of
Hymenoptera is the stem gall of
Pteridotorichnos stipitopteri in the
Late Carboniferous. A gall is an
abnormal swelling of plant tissue
caused by insects, microorganisms, or
external injury. But the earliest
definitive Hymenoptera, recognized by
the distinctive wing venation, are from
the Triassic.
The Hymenoptera are currently divided
into two suborders: "Symphyta"
(sawflies and wood wasps) and the
Apocrita (true wasps or parasitic
wasps) which includes the Aculeata
(ants, bees, and other stinging
wasps).
In all members of the Hymenoptera
order, females have two sets of
chromosomes (are diploid), being the
union of two gametes, but males are
produced from unfertilized eggs and so
have only a single copy of the genome
(are haploid), although diploid males
do sometimes occur. Hymenoptera are
well known as parasitoids. Parasitoids,
unlike parasites develop from nutrients
extracted from a single host, and they
kill the host as a direct result or
indirect result (a parasite, while
inflicting minimal to severe ill
effects, does not kill its host). The
host remains alive for the larger part
of the of the parasitoid's period of
feeding. Some larvae even change the
behavior of their host to the benefit
of the parasitoid. Some bees are
cleptoparasitic, instead of the adult
contructing and supplying her own nest,
females steal into the nest of a host
bee and deposit an egg into the brood
cell before escaping.
[1] {ULSF: Xyelidae saw flies are the
most primitive of the
hymenoptera} Hymenoptera, Xyelidae,
dorsal - Macroxyela ferruginea -
Female Ames - Tullamore, Story County,
Iowa, USA April 30, 2008 Size: 11
mm It's a big one. (11 mm includes the
ovipositor) Oak hickory maple basswood
woodland malaise, April 23-30,
2008. Photo - still floating in
alcohol. Copyright © 2008 MJ
Hatfield COPYRIGHTED Fig. 2
Placement of fossil evidence for the
earliest Holometabola within a
phylogenetic context. Geologic time
line at left is after Ogg, et al.
(2008); note that the Mississippian is
equivalent to the Early Carboniferous
and Pennsylvanian equivalent to the
Late Carboniferous. Earliest reliable
occurrences of taxa (solid dots,
followed by a thick black line) are
after various sources mentioned in the
text; major localities for the initial
diversification of the Holometabola
are: Elmo, Kansas, the “insect bed”
of the Wellington Formation from the
Artinskian Stage of the Early Permian;
Calhoun, the Calhoun Coal Member of the
Mattoon Formation, from the Kasimovian
Stage of the Late Pennsylvanian; Mazon
Creek of the Francis Creek Shale Member
of the Carbondale Formation, from the
Moscovian Stage of the Middle
Pennsylvanian; and the Terril Shale at
Pas-de-Calais, Bruay-la-Bussière,
France, from the Bashkirian Stage of
the Early Pennsylvanian. The horizontal
stippled bar at bottom represents the
initial diversification and the
earliest fossil occurrences of
holometabolan insects in the fossil
record. Labandeira, Conrad C.
“Evidence for an Earliest Late
Carboniferous Divergence Time and the
Early Larval Ecology and
Diversification of Major Holometabola
Lineages.” Entomologica Americana
117.1 & 2 (2011):
9–21. http://www.bioone.org/doi/abs/1
0.1664/10-RA-011.1 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://bugguide.net/images/raw/S
H8RHHPR0H7RDZHZULYLULRZ2LLZTLSZBLQZKH4RH
H7ZVL4RVL0ZALSZBLXZKH8RVLXZHHPRLHQRLH.jp
g
[2] Macroxyela ferruginea
Trusted Creative Commons Attribution
Non Commercial Share Alike 3.0 (CC
BY-NC-SA 3.0) ©
SusanneSchulmeister Source:
Morphbank Image Repository
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.bioone.org/na101/home
/literatum/publisher/bioone/journals/con
tent/nynt.1/2011/19475144-117.1/10-ra-01
1.1/production/images/large/i1947-5144-1
17-1-9-f02.jpeg
Antliophora (ancestor of Diptera: true
flies and Mecopterids: scorpionflies
and fleas).
[1] Cranefly Camera location 37°
47' 56'' N, 8° 40' 35'' W This and
other images at their locations on:
Google Maps - Google Earth -
OpenStreetMap (Info) Description
Nephrotoma appendiculata English:
Female Spotted Crane-Fly Français :
Un ''cousin'' femelle. Date April
2008 Source Own work Author
Alvesgaspar GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Tipulidae_April
_2008-2.jpg/1280px-Tipulidae_April_2008-
2.jpg
[2] Picture taken by myself: Tipula
leatherjacket (Emelt): GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Tipula_leatherj
acket_Emelt.jpg/1024px-Tipula_leatherjac
ket_Emelt.jpg
(Cynodonts).
Therapsids evolve from Pelycosaurs and
largely replace them for a time as the
dominant terrestrial vertebrates.
Therapsids appear in the late Permian
and prosper during the early Triassic.
The Therapsids are quadruperal and
their feet have five digits, but their
legs are more directly positioned under
the weight of their body. This reflects
a more efficient and active mode of
locomotion. Teeth are differentiated
into distinct types. Some herbivorous
therapsids become specialized for
rooting or grubbing, some for digging,
some for browsing. The overall
selection for more efficient
terrestrial locomotion and feeding
specializations results in greateer
diversity within therapsids. There is
some evidence that therapsids become
endothermic in parallel with their
archosaur (avian) contemporaries.
One particularly successful group of
therapsids are the cynodonts. Some are
herbivores but more are carnivores.
They arise in the late Permian and
become dominant land carnivores in the
early part of the Triassic, until
largely replaced by the terrestrial
sauropsids of the late Triassic.
Cynodonts have teeth specialized for
slicing together with muscular cheeck
that keep the food between tooth rows
that chew the food. The Cynodont limbs
are direectly under the body,
contributing to the ease and efficiency
of ative terrestrial locomotion. In
addition, extensive turbinals are
likely present in the nose. These are
thin, scrolled, and folded plates of
bone that warm and humidify the
incoming air (as well as hold the
olfactory epithelium). These
characteristics suggest that cynodonts
had an endothermic metabolism. During
their evolution the cynodonts decline
in body size from the size of a large
dog to slightly larger than a weasel.
By the Triassic, only one group of
cynodonts, the mammals, will remain and
eventually prosper after the great
dinosaur extinctions at the end of the
Cretaceous.
[1] Kardong, ''Vertebrates'',
2002. COPYRIGHTED
source: Description English:
Moschops capensis - Middle Permian of
South Africa. Based on skeleton from
AMNH. Русский: Moschops
capensis - средняя пермь
Южной Африки.
Основано на скелете
из Американского
музея Естественной
истории. Date 2008 Source
dmitrchel@mail.ru Author
Creator:Dmitry Bogdanov GNU
[2] Kardong, ''Vertebrates'',
2002. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Moschops11DB.jp
g/1024px-Moschops11DB.jpg
Neuropterida (Neuroptera: lacewings,
Raphidioptera: snakeflies, and
Megaloptera: alderflies and
dobsonflies).
[1] This image was moved from
File:Guldoeje.jpg En: Green
lacewing (Chrysoperla carnea). Da:
Guldøje (Chrysoperla carnea), der har
sat sig til overvintring på et
loft. Date: 18. august
2004. This file was made by Malene
Thyssen. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e0/Chrysoperla_carnea_Gu
ldoeje.jpg
[2] Description Mantispidae, Ditaxis
biseriata (det. Hauser, 2006),
Carnarvon National Park, Queensland,
Australia Date 9 October 2002 Source
Own work Author Fritz
Geller-Grimm Permission (Reusing this
file) CC-By-SA-2.5 CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Mantispidae_fg1
.jpg/1280px-Mantispidae_fg1.jpg
Mecopterids (ancestor of Mecoptera:
scorpionflies and Siphonaptera: fleas).
[1] Boreus is the main genus in the
family Boreidae, a holometabolous
insect family found in the northern
parts of Eurasia and North America.
Boreids are active during winter, when
they are found among patches of moss on
which they lay their eggs or on snow
drifts between mossy rocks. UNKNOWN
source: http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_VA6LeP
Z6KNY/S0rdKEWdlaI/AAAAAAAACBI/5ELa4U-reO
4/s400/Name+the+bug+11.jpg
[2] Description English: ''Boreus
hiemalis'' Česky: sněžnice matná,
''Boreus hiemalis'' Date 18 March
2006 Source Own work Author
I.Sáček, senior PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8e/Boreus_hiemalis3.jpg
Phaeophyta {FEoFiTu} (Brown Algae).
The Phaeophyta are a phylum (division)
of the kingdom Protista consisting of
those organisms commonly called brown
algae. Many of the Earth's familiar
seaweeds are members of Phaeophyta.
There are approximately 1,500 species.
Like the chrysophytes, brown algae
derive their color from the presence,
in the cell chloroplasts, of several
brownish carotenoid pigments, including
fucoxanthin, in addition to the
photosynthetic pigments chlorophyll a
and c. With only a few exceptions,
brown algae are marine, growing in the
colder oceans of the world, many in the
tidal zone, where they are subjected to
great stress from wave action; others
grow in deep water. Among the brown
algae are the largest of all algae, the
giant kelps, which may reach a length
of over 100 ft (30 m). Fucus
(rockweed), Sargassum (gulfweed), and
the simple filamentous Ectocarpus are
other examples of brown algae.
The cell wall of the brown algae
consists of a cellulose differing
chemically from that of plants. The
outside is covered with a series of
gelatinous pectic compounds,
generically called algin; this
substance, for which the large brown
algae, or kelps, of the Pacific coast
are harvested commercially, is used
industrially as a stabilizer in
emulsions and for other purposes. The
normal food reserve of the brown algal
cell is a soluble polysaccharide called
laminarin; mannitol and oil also occur
as storage products. The body, or
thallus, of the larger brown algae may
contain tissues differentiated for
different functions, with stemlike,
rootlike, and leaflike organs, the most
complex structures of all algae.
Some groups of brown algae have evolved
an interesting type of alternation of
generations, in which physiologically
independent haploid gametophyte plants
produce gametes, the fusion of which
initiates the diploid sporophyte
generation. The mature sporophyte plant
produces, through meiosis, haploid
spores, which develop into new
gametophytes. The two generations, or
phases, may be indistinguishable in
size and form, or they may differ
greatly. The genus Ectocarpus, for
example, is found growing attached to
larger algae. It has similar-looking
gametophyte and sporophyte plants. In
the kelps, however, the gametophyte is
only a microscopic filament, in
contrast to the occasionally tree-sized
sporophyte.
[1] Fig. 1. A consensus phylogeny of
eukaryotes. The vast majority of
characterized eukaryotes, with the
notable exception of major subgroups of
amoebae, can now be assigned to one of
eight major groups. Opisthokonts (basal
flagellum) have a single basal
flagellum on reproductive cells and
flat mitochondrial cristae (most
eukaryotes have tubular ones).
Eukaryotic photosynthesis originated in
Plants; theirs are the only plastids
with just two outer membranes.
Heterokonts (different flagellae) have
a unique flagellum decorated with
hollow tripartite hairs (stramenopiles)
and, usually, a second plain one.
Cercozoans are amoebae with filose
pseudopodia, often living with in tests
(hard outer shells), some very
elaborate (foraminiferans). Amoebozoa
are mostly naked amoebae (lacking
tests), often with lobose pseudopodia
for at least part of their life cycle.
Alveolates have systems of cortical
alveoli directly beneath their plasma
membranes. Discicristates have discoid
mitochondrial cristae and, in some
cases, a deep (excavated) ventral
feeding groove. Amitochondrial
excavates lack substantial molecular
phylogenetic support, but most have an
excavated ventral feeding groove, and
all lack mitochondria. The tree shown
is based on a consensus of molecular
(1-4) and ultrastructural (16, 17) data
and includes a rough indication of new
ciPCR ''taxa'' (broken black lines)
(7-11). An asterisk preceding the taxon
name indicates probable paraphyletic
group COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/co
ntent/full/300/5626/1703
[2] Pacific Rockweed (Fucus distichus)
in Olympic National Park Cropped from
PhotoCD image, from Kodak ISO 800 film,
taken by k.lee June 2004, hereby
released under GFDL.
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Pacific_rockweed%2C_Olympic_National_
Park%2C_USA.jpg
(Conifers: includes Pine, Fir, Spruce,
Redwood, Cedar, Juniper, Hemlock,
Larch, and Cypress).
The gymnosperms, are a division of seed
plants characterized as vascular plants
with roots, stems, and leaves, and with
seeds that are not enclosed in an ovary
but are borne on cone scales or exposed
at the end of a stalk.
[1] Closeup shot of a stem of needles
(perhaps Norway spruce?) by USFWS and
obtained from the GIMP photo
library. United States Federal
Government This work is in the
public domain because it is a work of
the United States Federal Government.
This applies worldwide. See
Copyright Close-up of pinophyte leaves
(needles): Norway Spruce (Picea abies)
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pin
ophyta
[2] Native Pinus sylvestris forest,
Scotland: Deeside, Mar Lodge, April
2005 GNU 1.2
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pin
aceae
Diatoms are microscopic one-celled or
colonial algae, having cell walls of
silica consisting of two interlocking
symmetrical valves.
The silica shell often has intricate
and beautiful sculpturing. Diatoms are
usually yellowish or brownish, and are
found in fresh and saltwater, in moist
soil, and on the moist surface of
plants. Diatoms carry chlorophylls a
and c and the carotenoid fucoxanthin
contained in plastids. They reproduce
asexually by cell division.
[1] Fig. 1. A consensus phylogeny of
eukaryotes. The vast majority of
characterized eukaryotes, with the
notable exception of major subgroups of
amoebae, can now be assigned to one of
eight major groups. Opisthokonts (basal
flagellum) have a single basal
flagellum on reproductive cells and
flat mitochondrial cristae (most
eukaryotes have tubular ones).
Eukaryotic photosynthesis originated in
Plants; theirs are the only plastids
with just two outer membranes.
Heterokonts (different flagellae) have
a unique flagellum decorated with
hollow tripartite hairs (stramenopiles)
and, usually, a second plain one.
Cercozoans are amoebae with filose
pseudopodia, often living with in tests
(hard outer shells), some very
elaborate (foraminiferans). Amoebozoa
are mostly naked amoebae (lacking
tests), often with lobose pseudopodia
for at least part of their life cycle.
Alveolates have systems of cortical
alveoli directly beneath their plasma
membranes. Discicristates have discoid
mitochondrial cristae and, in some
cases, a deep (excavated) ventral
feeding groove. Amitochondrial
excavates lack substantial molecular
phylogenetic support, but most have an
excavated ventral feeding groove, and
all lack mitochondria. The tree shown
is based on a consensus of molecular
(1-4) and ultrastructural (16, 17) data
and includes a rough indication of new
ciPCR ''taxa'' (broken black lines)
(7-11). An asterisk preceding the taxon
name indicates probable paraphyletic
group COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/co
ntent/full/300/5626/1703
[2] Figure 1. Phylogenetic hypothesis
of the eukaryotic lineage based on
ultrastructural and molecular data.
Organisms are divided into three main
groups distinguished by mitochondrial
cristal shape (either discoidal,
flattened or tubular). Unbroken lines
indicate phylogenetic relationships
that are firmly supported by available
data; broken lines indicate
uncertainties in phylogenetic
placement, resolution of which will
require additional data. Color coding
of organismal genus names indicates
mitochondrial genomes that have been
completely (Table 1), almost completely
(Jakoba, Naegleria and
Thraustochytrium) or partially (*)
sequenced by the OGMP (red), the FMGP
(black) or other groups (green). Names
in blue indicate those species whose
mtDNAs are currently being sequenced by
the OGMP or are future candidates for
complete sequencing. Amitochondriate
retortamonads are positioned at the
base of the tree, with broken arrows
denoting the endosymbiotic origin(s) of
mitochondria from a Rickettsia-like
eubacterium. Macrophar.,
Macropharyngomonas. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nar.oxfordjournals.org/cg
i/content/full/26/4/865
growing animal.
This is possibly a therocephalian
reptile..
Both birds and mammals are endothermic
(also called "warm blooded") as opposed
to other vertebrates which are
ectothermic (or "cold blooded) and
cannot internally generate heat.
Endothermy
is the physiological maintenance, by a
body, of a constant temperature
independent of the external
environmental temperature. Hair for
insulation is correlated to endothermy.
Endothermy allows birds and mammals to
maintain a high and relatively constant
body temperature, even at rest, during
a wide range of external environmental
conditions.
Respiratory conchae (or turbinates)
(small curved bones in the nasal
passage, some which reduce respiratory
water loss with rapid breathing), found
in the primitive therocephalian
Glanosuchus and in several cynodonts,
are the first reliable morphological
indicator of endothermy. Although the
actual nasal turbinal bones are rarely
preserved in fossils, their presence
can be deduced from characteristic
ridges on the walls of the nasal
cavity. Ridges probably associated with
respiratory turbinals first appear
among advanced therapsids, the
therocephalians and cynodonts. This
suggests that the evolution of the
higher oxygen consumption rates of
mammals may begin as early as the Late
Permian and develop in parallel in
therocephalians and cynodonts, with
full mammalian endothermy taking
perhaps 40 to 50 million more years to
develop.
The earliest fossil that has hair is a
Pterosaur fossil that is around 215
million years old, and some argue that
Pterosaurs are endothermic
(warm-blooded).
The common ancestor of monotremes is
180 MYBN, and all monotremes are
endothermic.
[1] Description English: Life
restoration of Purlovia maxima. Based
on figures 8-10 of ''Permian and
Triassic therocephals (Eutherapsida) of
Eastern Europe'' by M. F. Ivakhnenko
(Paleontological Journal 45 (9):
981-1144). Date 8 January
2012 Source Own
work Author Smokeybjb CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a5/Purlovia_maxima.jpg
[2] Description Bauria , a
therocephalian therapsid from the early
Middle Triassic of South Africa, pencil
drawing Date 20 February
2007 Source Own work Author
Nobu Tamura
email:nobu.tamura@yahoo.com
www.palaeocritti.com GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c0/Bauria_BW.jpg
[1] Adapted from: Richard Dawkins,
''The Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p339. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p339.
[2] Spotted gar (Lepisosteus
oculatus) Creator Montague,
Brian Source
WO2445-28 Publisher U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service Contributor
DIVISION OF PUBLIC AFFAIRS Rights
(public domain) Source: fws.gov PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d8/Lepisosteus_oculatus.
jpg
true flies, single pair of wings:
mosquito, gnat, fruit fly, house fly).
[1] Nymphomyia alba adult UNKNOWN
source: http://whyevolutionistrue.files.
wordpress.com/2011/03/nymphomyia-alba.jp
g
[2] Nymphomyia alba larva UNKNOWN
source: http://whyevolutionistrue.files.
wordpress.com/2011/03/nymphomyia.jpg
evolve.
The tuatara is a lizardlike reptile,
and is the last survivor of the
reptilian order Rhynchocephalia, which
flourishes in the early Mesozoic era
before the rise of the dinosaurs. Also
called sphenodon, it is found on
islands off the New Zealand coast and
in Karori Wildlife Sanctuary,
Wellington, New Zealand. The olive
colored, yellow-speckled tuatara
reaches a length of 60 cm (2 ft) or
more. It is very lizardlike in external
form, with a crest of spines down its
neck and back. However, its internal
anatomy, its scales, and the attachment
of its teeth are different from those
of lizards, and its body chemistry
allows it to function at temperatures
close to freezing. Like certain
lizards, tuataras have a vestigial
third eye (pineal eye) on top of their
head, but this organ is probably not
sensitive to light. Tuataras usually
inhabit the breeding burrows of certain
small petrels (sea birds). They feed on
small animals, especially insects, and
reproduce by laying eggs. Captive
tuataras mature in about 20 years, and
it appears that their life span may
exceed a century by several decades.
[1] Richard Dawkins, ''The Ancestor's
Tale'', (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p262. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p262.
[2] A male tuatara named Henry, living
at the Southland Museum and Art
Gallery, is still reproductively active
at 111 years of age. 111-Year-Old
Reptile Becomes a Dad After Tumor
Surgery Discover Magazine, 26 January
2009. Retrieved 20 March
2009. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disc
over_Magazine Description English:
Henry, the world's oldest Tuatara in
captivity at Invercargill, New
Zealand Date 22 November
2007 Source Own work Author
KeresH CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/96/Henry_at_Invercargill
.jpg
of all genera are observed extinct.
The Permian–Triassic extinction event
is the Earth's most severe extinction
event, with up to 96% of all marine
species and 70% of terrestrial
vertebrate species becoming extinct It
is the only known mass extinction of
insects.
The are 5 known major mass
extinctions.
Many organisms go extinct. Among
invertebrates: all fusulinid
forminifera, rugose and tabulate
corals, trilobites, eurypterids,
strophomenid brachiopods, and 5 orders
of insects go extinct. Among
vertebrates: two-thirds of amphibians,
reptiles, and therapsids go extinct.
[1] Description English:
Description: Illustration of an
en:impact event. Source Made by
Fredrik. Cloud texture from public
domain NASA image. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/cb/Impact_event.jpg
[2] Timeline of mass extinctions.
COPYRIGHTED Benjamin
Cummings. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://io.uwinnipeg.ca/~simmons/
16cm05/1116/16macro.htm
the Mesozoic Era, and the end of the
Permian (299-251 mybn) and start of the
Triassic (251-201.6 mybn) period.
[1] Geologic Time Scale 2009 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.geosociety.org/scienc
e/timescale/timescl.pdf
[1] In geologic terms, a plate is a
large, rigid slab of solid rock. The
word tectonics comes from the Greek
root ''to build.'' Putting these two
words together, we get the term plate
tectonics, which refers to how the
Earth's surface is built of plates. The
theory of plate tectonics states that
the Earth's outermost layer is
fragmented into a dozen or more large
and small plates that are moving
relative to one another as they ride
atop hotter, more mobile material.
Before the advent of plate tectonics,
however, some people already believed
that the present-day continents were
the fragmented pieces of preexisting
larger landmasses
(''supercontinents''). The diagrams
below show the break-up of the
supercontinent Pangaea (meaning ''all
lands'' in Greek), which figured
prominently in the theory of
continental drift -- the forerunner to
the theory of plate tectonics. PD
source: http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/dynamic
/graphics/Fig2-5globes.gif
[2] Description Pangea map, with
names of the continents. Image of
pangaea made by en:User:Kieff. Date
20 October 2009 GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Pangaea_contine
nts.svg/1000px-Pangaea_continents.svg.pn
g
[1] Figure 2 from: [t Note that this
egg is only of Permian age: 299-251
mybn] Karl F. Hirsch, ''The Oldest
Vertebrate Egg?'', Journal of
Paleontology, Vol. 53, No. 5 (Sep.,
1979), pp.
1068-1084. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
1304086 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1304
086
[2] Prothero, ''Bringing Fossils To
Life'', 2004. COPYRIGHTED
source: Prothero, "Bringing Fossils To
Life", 2004. COPYRIGHTED
Division "Gnetales".
Gnetophyta - Gnetum, Ephedra,
Welwitschia 80 species.
[1] Photo of a Welwitschia mirabilis,
taken in the Ugab River valley in
Namibia in October 2004 by Muriel
Gottrop. The photo shows a female
plant, recognizable by the oval shaped
seed pods. Creative Commons
License Creative Commons Attribution
iconCreative Commons Share Alike icon
This image is licensed under the
Creative Commons Attribution
ShareAlike License v.
1.0: http://creativecommons.org/license
s/by-sa/1.0/
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wel
witschia
[2] Wikimedia Commons logo This is a
file from the Wikimedia Commons. The
description on its description page
there is shown below. Genus
Welwitschia Gnetopsida Oroginally
uploaded by User:Roger_Zenner at the
German Wikipedia on 24 Sept. 2004.
Caption says it was photographed by
Freddy Weber for User:Robert_Zenner in
Auhust 2004 in Namibia. Info from
German Wikipedia: Lizenz: Gemeinfrei
(Public Domain), fotografiert von
Freddy Weber (für
Benutzer:Roger_Zenner) im August 2004
in Namibia. public domain
source: same
evolve.
Bowfins (Amiiformes) are a primitive
bony freshwater fish of central and
eastern North America, with a long
spineless dorsal fin.
[1] Adapted from: Richard Dawkins,
''The Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p339. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p339.
[2] Description English: Bowfin
(Amia calva) Deutsch: Kahlhecht Date
Source USFWS alt graphic A.svg
This image originates from the
National Digital Library of the United
States Fish and Wildlife Service at
this page This tag does not indicate
the copyright status of the attached
work. A normal copyright tag is still
required. See Commons:Licensing for
more information. See Category:Images
from the United States Fish and
Wildlife Service. Author Duane
Raver/U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5c/Amia_calva1.jpg
(Crocodiles, allegators, and caimans
{KAmeNS}) evolve.
[1] Richard Dawkins, ''The Ancestor's
Tale'', (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p262. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p262.
[2] Nile crocodile, taken at the Le
Bonheur Crocodile Farm near
Stellenbosch, South Africa. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/81/NileCrocodile.jpg
Moon, Ischigualasto Provinvial Park,
northwestern Argestina
[1] Figure 2 from: Sereno, Paul C. et
al. “Primitive dinosaur skeleton from
Argentina and the early evolution of
Dinosauria.” Nature 361.6407 (1993) :
64-66. http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v361/n6407/abs/361064a0.html COPYR
IGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v361/n6407/abs/361064a0.html
[2] Eoraptor was a genus of small,
slender theropod native to northwest
Argentina. It was quite possibly the
earliest theropod genus and has not
been classified in any family.
UNKNOWN
source: http://images.wikia.com/deadtime
s/images/a/a2/Eoraptor.jpg
lines: Ornithischians {ORnitiSKEiNZ}
(Bird-hipped dinosaurs) and
Saurischians {SoriSKEiNZ}
(Lizard-hipped dinosaurs). The
Ornithischians will evolve into both
bipedal and quadrupedal plant-eaters
(herbavores), and the Saurischians will
evolve into bipedal meat-eaters
(carnivores) and quadrupedal
plant-eaters.
[1] Harold Levine, ''The Earth Through
Time'', 2006, p417. COPYRIGHTED
source: Harold Levine, "The Earth
Through Time", 2006, p417.
[2] Harold Levine, ''The Earth Through
Time'', 2006, p418. COPYRIGHTED
source: Harold Levine, "The Earth
Through Time", 2006, p418.
split into two major lines: The
Sauropodomorpha (SoroPiDimORFu} and the
Therapoda {tiRoPiDu}.
Sauropodomorphs are divided into
prosauropods and sauropods, are mostly
plant-eating, and include the large,
long-necked dinosaurs like
Apatosaurus.
Theropod {tERePoD} dinosaurs are
bipedal and carnivorous and include
Allosaurus, Tyrannosaurus, and
Velociraptor. All birds descend from a
Therapod ancestor.
Moon, Ischigualasto Provinvial Park,
northwestern Argestina
[1] Figure 2 from: Sereno, Paul C. et
al. “Primitive dinosaur skeleton from
Argentina and the early evolution of
Dinosauria.” Nature 361.6407 (1993) :
64-66. http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v361/n6407/abs/361064a0.html COPYR
IGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v361/n6407/abs/361064a0.html
[2] Eoraptor was a genus of small,
slender theropod native to northwest
Argentina. It was quite possibly the
earliest theropod genus and has not
been classified in any family.
UNKNOWN
source: http://images.wikia.com/deadtime
s/images/a/a2/Eoraptor.jpg
Theropod Eoraptor.
This dinosaur is a cat-sized
meat eater.
Moon, Ischigualasto Provinvial Park,
northwestern Argestina
[1] Figure 2 from: Sereno, Paul C. et
al. “Primitive dinosaur skeleton from
Argentina and the early evolution of
Dinosauria.” Nature 361.6407 (1993) :
64-66. http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v361/n6407/abs/361064a0.html COPYR
IGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v361/n6407/abs/361064a0.html
[2] Eoraptor was a genus of small,
slender theropod native to northwest
Argentina. It was quite possibly the
earliest theropod genus and has not
been classified in any family.
UNKNOWN
source: http://images.wikia.com/deadtime
s/images/a/a2/Eoraptor.jpg
County, Texas, USA
[1] Figure 6 from: Spencer G. Lucas
and Zhexi Luo, ''Adelobasileus from the
Upper Triassic of West Texas: The
Oldest Mammal'', Journal of Vertebrate
Paleontology, Vol. 13, No. 3 (Sep. 23,
1993), pp. 309-334 Published by:
Taylor & Francis, Ltd. on behalf of The
Society of Vertebrate
Paleontology Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/4523514 COP
YRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/4523
514
[2] [t Note that this image is not
clearly from a scholarly
source] Description English:
Adelobasileus cromptoni, a mammaliaform
from the Late Triassic of Texas.
Digital. Date 9 September
2008 Source Own work Author
Nobu Tamura
email:nobu.tamura@yahoo.com
www.palaeocritti.com Permission (Reusi
ng this file) See below. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2f/Adelobasileus_BW.jpg
Tricoptera: Caddisflies. Caddisflies
are closely related to the Lepidoptera
(butterflies and moths).
[1] Description Original description
on website: ''Caddisfly adults resemble
moths, but the wings are covered with
fine hair instead of scales.
(Trichoptera = ''hair wing.'')
Caddisfly larvae are a favorite food of
many fish, including trout, and are
used as bait by sport fishermen. The
larvae are especially sensitive to
water pollution and their numbers can
be monitored over a period of time as a
good indicator of water quality. These
primitive flying insects are most
abundant near well-aerated streams and
fast-flowing water, but also frequent
lakes, ponds and marshes. This specimen
was found at the west branch of the
DuPage River, a fairly sluggish body of
water, home to both large and
smallmouth bass, walleye, and panfish
such as bluegills and sunfish.'' Date
27 May 2005 Source Own work
http://www.cirrusimage.com/Trichoptera_c
addisfly.htm Author Bruce Marlin CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d7/Trichoptera_caddisfly
_1.jpg
[2] Description Caddisfly larva with
pebble case in Thornton Creek, early
Summer 2007, Seattle, WA, USA. Date
20070623 Source Taken by Ashley Pond
V Author Ashley Pond V CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Caddisfly-larva
.jpg/1204px-Caddisfly-larva.jpg
(Adelobasileus).
This is a fingernail-sized skull found
in Texas.
County, Texas, USA
[1] Figure 6 from: Spencer G. Lucas
and Zhexi Luo, ''Adelobasileus from the
Upper Triassic of West Texas: The
Oldest Mammal'', Journal of Vertebrate
Paleontology, Vol. 13, No. 3 (Sep. 23,
1993), pp. 309-334 Published by:
Taylor & Francis, Ltd. on behalf of The
Society of Vertebrate
Paleontology Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/4523514 COP
YRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/4523
514
[2] [t Note that this image is not
clearly from a scholarly
source] Description English:
Adelobasileus cromptoni, a mammaliaform
from the Late Triassic of Texas.
Digital. Date 9 September
2008 Source Own work Author
Nobu Tamura
email:nobu.tamura@yahoo.com
www.palaeocritti.com Permission (Reusi
ng this file) See below. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2f/Adelobasileus_BW.jpg
(Pterosaur).
Oldest Pterosaur fossils (Preondactylus
and Eudimorphodon).
Pterosaurs have hair, and some argue
have endothermy (are warm-blooded) and
actively fly (contracting their wing
muscles to flap, as opposed to only
glide).
Bonde and Christiansen cite a report of
a juvenile Eudimorphon ranzii with skin
and 'hairy' impressions. However,
Benton only cites the pterosaur fossils
from the Upper Jurassic and that the
details of pterosaur hair are currently
disputed.
[1] Eudimorphon and Peteinosaurus
from: Wellnhofer, ''Pterosaurs'',
1991, p60-61. COPYRIGHTED
source: Wellnhofer, "Pterosaurs", 1991,
p60-61.
[2] Eudimorphon and Peteinosaurus
from: Wellnhofer, ''Pterosaurs'',
1991, p60-61. COPYRIGHTED
source: Wellnhofer, "Pterosaurs", 1991,
p60-61.
(ancestor of lizards and snakes).
[1] Description English: Desert
Iguana (Dipsosaurus dorsalis) near
Amboy Crater, Mojave Desert,
California. Date 19 March
2011 Source Own work Author
Wilson44691 http://www3.wooster.edu/ge
ology/MWilson.html Photograph taken by
Mark A. Wilson (Department of Geology,
The College of Wooster) CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/5/58/DesertIguana031
611.jpg/1280px-DesertIguana031611.jpg
[2] Richard Dawkins, ''The Ancestor's
Tale'', (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), 262. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), 262.
[1] Fig. 2. The single
most-parsimonious (MP) tree derived
from unweighted analysis of mitogenomic
data comprising concatenated nucleotide
sequences from 12 protein-coding
(excluding the ND6 gene and third codon
positions) and 22 transfer RNA (tRNA)
genes (stem regions only) from all 28
species examined. Tree length, 12,709
steps; consistency index, 0.355;
retention index, 0.471; and rescaled
consistency index, 0.167. Numbers above
and below internal branches indicate
jackknife values obtained for 500
replicates using the heuristic search
option in PAUP*4.0b10 (Swofford, 2002)
with 20 random-addition sequences being
performed in each replication and decay
indices, respectively. The scale
indicates 100 changes. from: Inoue,
JG, Miya, M, Tsukamoto, K, Nishida, M
(2003) ''Basal actinopterygian
relationships: A mitogenomic
perspective on the phylogeny of the
ldquoancient fish.rdquo'' Mol
Phylogenet Evol 26:
110-120 http://www.sciencedirect.com/sc
ience/article/pii/S1055790302003317 COP
YRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/cac
he/MiamiImageURL/B6WNH-475B9D7-6-1K/0?wc
hp=dGLbVlz-zSkzk
[2] Arapaima gigas at the Smithsonian
Zoo. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b1/Arapaima_gigas.jpg
(iguanas, chameleons, and spiny
lizards).
[1] Richard Dawkins, ''The Ancestor's
Tale'', (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), 262. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), 262.
[2] Description Iguana sp. Foto
tomada en el Zoo de Madrid. Date
Summer 2007 Source Own
work Author Manuel de Corselas
ARS SUMMUM, Centro para el Estudio y
Difusión Libres de la Historia del
Arte PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/57/AA_Iguana_Fot_Ars_Sum
mum.JPG
(snakes, skinks, and geckos).
[1] Richard Dawkins, ''The Ancestor's
Tale'', (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), 262. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), 262.
[2] Description Deutsch:
Versteinerung eines Archaeophis proavus
Massalongo - aus Monte Bolca. Museum
für Naturkunde (Berlin). English:
Fossil of a Archaeophis proavus
Massalongo, Monte Bolca. Museum für
Naturkunde (Berlin). Date 22 July
2007 Source Own work Author
Raymond - Raimond
Spekking Permission (Reusing this
file) See
below. Attribution (required by the
license) © Raimond Spekking /
CC-BY-SA-3.0 CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f1/Naturkundemuseum_Berl
in_-_Archaeophis_proavus_Massalongo_-_Mo
nte_Bolca.jpg
[1] Jaekel, Otto. “Die
Wirbeltierfunde aus dem Keuper von
Halberstadt.” Paläontologische
Zeitschrift 2.1 (1915) :
88-113-113. http://www.springerlink.com
/content/l58n565j5tu3k2r5/abstract/ PD
source: http://www.springerlink.com/cont
ent/l58n565j5tu3k2r5/abstract/
[2] Description Proganochelys
quenstedti, American Museum of Natural
History Date 2 April 2008,
18:07 Source Proganochelys
Quenstedti Author Claire Houck
from New York City, USA CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/dc/Proganochelys_Quenste
dti.jpg
Bonytongues.
Teleosts (Subdivision Teleostei) are a
large group of fishes with bony
skeletons, including most common
fishes, different from cartilaginous
fishes such as sharks and rays.
Teleosts will grow to include
(bonytongues, eels, herrings,
anchovies, carp, minnows, piranha,
salmon, trout, pike, perch, seahorse,
cod).
DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes
KINGDOM Animalia
Linnaeus, 1758 - animals
SUBKINGDOM
Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888)
Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians
BRANCH
Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 -
deuterostomes
INFRAKINGDOM Chordonia
(Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998
PHYLUM Chordata Bateson, 1885 -
chordates
SUBPHYLUM Vertebrata
Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates
INFRAPHYLUM Gnathostomata auct. - jawed
vertebrates
CLASS Osteichthyes
Huxley, 1880
SUBCLASS
Actinopterygii - ray-finned fishes
INFRACLASS Cladistia
INFRACLASS Actinopteri
SUPERDIVISION Neopterygii
DIVISION Halecostomi
SUBDIVISION Teleostei
[1] Fig. 2. The single
most-parsimonious (MP) tree derived
from unweighted analysis of mitogenomic
data comprising concatenated nucleotide
sequences from 12 protein-coding
(excluding the ND6 gene and third codon
positions) and 22 transfer RNA (tRNA)
genes (stem regions only) from all 28
species examined. Tree length, 12,709
steps; consistency index, 0.355;
retention index, 0.471; and rescaled
consistency index, 0.167. Numbers above
and below internal branches indicate
jackknife values obtained for 500
replicates using the heuristic search
option in PAUP*4.0b10 (Swofford, 2002)
with 20 random-addition sequences being
performed in each replication and decay
indices, respectively. The scale
indicates 100 changes. from: Inoue,
JG, Miya, M, Tsukamoto, K, Nishida, M
(2003) ''Basal actinopterygian
relationships: A mitogenomic
perspective on the phylogeny of the
ldquoancient fish.rdquo'' Mol
Phylogenet Evol 26:
110-120 http://www.sciencedirect.com/sc
ience/article/pii/S1055790302003317 COP
YRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/cac
he/MiamiImageURL/B6WNH-475B9D7-6-1K/0?wc
hp=dGLbVlz-zSkzk
[2] Arapaima gigas at the Smithsonian
Zoo. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b1/Arapaima_gigas.jpg
evolve.
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order:
Triconodonta
[1] [t May not be from scholarly
source] Description
Gobiconodon Date Source
Own Work by Pavel Riha (see also
the paleo-gallery by Pavel
Riha) Author Pavel Riha = user
Pavel.Riha.CB
(e-mail) Permission (Reusing this
file) See below. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2d/Gobiconodon.jpg
mybn), and start of the Jurassic
(201.6-145.5 mybn) Period.
[1] Description English: Global
paleogeographic reconstruction of the
Earth in the late Jurassic period 150
million years ago. Deutsch: Globale
paläogeografische Rekonstruktion der
Erde während des späten Jura vor 150
Millionen Jahren. Русский:
Глобальная
палеогеографическая
реконструкция Земли
в конце Юрского
периода, 150 миллионов
лет назад. Date 23 April
2008 Source
http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~rcb7/mollgl
obe.html Author Dr. Ron Blakey -
http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~rcb7/ CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/76/LateJurassicGlobal.jp
g
[1] Adapted from: Richard Dawkins,
''The Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p339. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p339.
[2] American eel (Anguilla
rostrata). CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/57/Anguillarostratakils.
jpg
[1] Figure 2 from: R. A. Fensome, R.
A. MacRae, J. M. Moldowan, F. J. R.
Taylor and G. L. Williams, ''The Early
Mesozoic Radiation of
Dinoflagellates'', Paleobiology , Vol.
22, No. 3 (Summer, 1996), pp.
329-338 Published by: Paleontological
Society Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/2401092 COP
YRIGHTED
source: R. A. Fensome, R. A. MacRae, J.
M. Moldowan, F. J. R. Taylor and G. L.
Williams, "The Early Mesozoic Radiation
of Dinoflagellates", Paleobiology ,
Vol. 22, No. 3 (Summer, 1996), pp.
329-338 Published by: Paleontological
Society Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/2401092
[2] Plate 1 from: Riding, et al, ''A
review of the chronostratigraphical
ages of Middle Triassic to Late
Jurassic dinoflagellate cyst biozones
of the North West Shelf of Australia'',
Review of Palaeobotany and
Palynology Volume 162, Issue 4,
November 2010, Pages 543-575
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/a
rticle/pii/S0034666710001570 COPYRIGHTE
D
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence/article/pii/S0034666710001570
{tIrEoFeru} evolve; ancestor of the
armored ankylosaurs {ANKilOSORZ} and
the plated stegosaurs {STeGeSORZ}.
One of the most primitive Thyreophorans
is Scutellosaurus which has rows of
armored plates along its body and tail.
[1] Description Scutellosaurus
lawleri, an ornithischian from the
Early Jurassic of North America, pencil
drawing, digital coloring Date
November 30, 2006, modified October
11, 2007 Source Own work Author
Nobu Tamura
(http://spinops.blogspot.com) GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/12/Scutellosaurus.jpg
[2] Description Scutellosaurus Date
Source Own Work by Pavel Riha (see
also the paleo-gallery by Pavel
Riha) Author Pavel Riha = user
Pavel.Riha.CB GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b0/Scutellosaurus1.jpg
ancestor of the large, long-necked
dinosaurs like Apatosaurus
{uPaTuSORuS}, Brachiosaurus
{BrAKEuSORuS}, and Diplodocus
{DiPloDiKuS}.
[1] [t may not be
scholarly] Description
Brachiosaurus altithorax Date
2007 Source Own work Author
Богданов
dmitrchel@mail.ru PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d9/Brachiosaurus_DB.jpg
[2] Description English: Bronze
Brachiosaurus mount outside of the
Field Museum of Natural History,
Chicago, IL. Date
10/12/2009 Source Own
work Author
AStrangerintheAlps CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/4b/FMNH_Brachiosaurus.JP
G
{ORnitoPiDu} evolve; the duck-billed
dinosaurs, ancestor of the Hadrosaurs.
One of the most primitive Ornithopods
is Heterodontosaurus.
[1] Heterodontosaurus UNKNOWN
source: http://www.wikidino.com/wp-conte
nt/uploads/Heterodontosaurus-Jan-Sovak.j
pg
[2] Harold Levine, ''The Earth Through
Time'', 2006, p417. COPYRIGHTED
source: Harold Levine, "The Earth
Through Time", 2006, p417.
{SKWAlEo} evolve, ancestor of all rays,
skates, and sawfishes.
[1] Richard Dawkins, ''The Ancestor's
Tale'', (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p361. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p361.
[2] Description Manta Ray (Manta
birostris) at Hin Daeng,
Thailand. Date 30 November
2005 Source Flickr Author
jon hanson from london, UK CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/df/Manta_birostris-Thail
and4.jpg
{GAlEu} evolve, (ancestor of all
sharks: includes great white,
hammerhead, mako, tiger and nurse
sharks).
[1] Richard Dawkins, ''The Ancestor's
Tale'', (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p361. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p361.
[2] Grey reef shark (Carcharhinus
amblyrhynchos) Description Un
gran tiburón surcando aguas
oceánicas. Date 14 March
2004 Source Original image:
Carcharhinus-amblyrynchos.jpg by
Fbattail at fr.wikipedia, March 14,
2004 cropped image:
Greyreefsharksmall.jpg by Chris huh at
en.wikipedia, August 29. 2006
Transfered to Commons by Harryemi,
September 21, 2008 Author
original author is Fbattail , the
image is cropped by Chris huh GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/bb/Tibur%C3%B3n.jpg
[1] Adapted from: Richard Dawkins,
''The Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p339. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p339.
[2] Description Northern
anchovies are important prey for marine
mammals and game fish Image ID:
nur00009, National Undersearch Research
Program (NURP) Collection Location:
Pacific Ocean. Credit: OAR/National
Undersea Research Program
(NURP) Downloaded from:
http://www.photolib.noaa.gov/htmls/nur00
009.htm Note: Another image from this
collection had fish described as
northern anchovies, with the scientific
name Engraulis mordax, or Californian
anchovy. The species may be
misidentified. Date 2006-12-08
(original upload date) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0f/Anchovy_closeup.jpg
[1] In geologic terms, a plate is a
large, rigid slab of solid rock. The
word tectonics comes from the Greek
root ''to build.'' Putting these two
words together, we get the term plate
tectonics, which refers to how the
Earth's surface is built of plates. The
theory of plate tectonics states that
the Earth's outermost layer is
fragmented into a dozen or more large
and small plates that are moving
relative to one another as they ride
atop hotter, more mobile material.
Before the advent of plate tectonics,
however, some people already believed
that the present-day continents were
the fragmented pieces of preexisting
larger landmasses
(''supercontinents''). The diagrams
below show the break-up of the
supercontinent Pangaea (meaning ''all
lands'' in Greek), which figured
prominently in the theory of
continental drift -- the forerunner to
the theory of plate tectonics. PD
source: http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/dynamic
/graphics/Fig2-5globes.gif
[2] Harold Levin, ''The Earth Through
Time'', Eighth Edition, 2006,
p176. COPYRIGHTED
source: Harold Levin, "The Earth
Through Time", Eighth Edition, 2006,
p176.
{lePiDoPTRu} evolve (moths,
butterflies, caterpillars).
The Lepidoptera comprise the largest
lineage of plant-feeding organisms. The
plant eating beetles form the other
largest group.
Butterflies are only about 6% of all
species the Lepidoptera, the rest being
moths. Because unlike the day flying
butterflies, moths are generally
smaller, night flying insects,
butterflies get all the attention.
The Leptidoptera, among all Orders of
insects, appears to have radiated most
recently.
[1] Description Photograph of a male
Monarch butterfly (Danaus plexippus en
). This butterfly was stationary on a
leaf with his wings outstretched in an
attempt to show off and attract a mate.
The picture was taken in the butterfly
house at the Tyler Arboretum. Camera
and Exposure Details: Camera: Nikon
D50 Lens: Nikon Nikkor ED AF-S DX
18-55mm f/3.5-5.6G Exposure: 55mm
(82.5mm in 35mm equivalent) f/9 @ 1/125
s. Date 9 September 2006 Source Own
work (Own Picture) Author Photo
(c)2006 Derek Ramsey
(Ram-Man) Permission (Reusing this
file) You may NOT use this image
on your own web site or anywhere else
unless you release this image and any
derivative works (which may include the
web page or other medium where this
image is used, if it is not considered
a ''collective work'') by following the
terms of the following license. Any
other use will be considered a breach
of copyright law. Please do not copy
this image illegally by ignoring the
terms of the license, as it is not in
the public domain. If you would like
special permission to use, license, or
purchase the image or prints of the
image, or for use in any other fashion
or would simply like a copy of the
original file, please contact me or
email me first to ask. Please see the
non-legalese usage guide for more
information. Note: While you are not
required to do so by the license,
please consider letting me know when
you reuse one of my photograph images,
as a courtesy. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Monarch_Butterf
ly_Showy_Male_3000px.jpg/1280px-Monarch_
Butterfly_Showy_Male_3000px.jpg
[2] Description Photograph of a
female Monarch Butterflyen (Danaus
plexippus en ) laying an egg on a
Mexican Milkweeden (Asclepias
curassavica en 'Silky Gold'). The
picture was taken in Aston Township,
Pennsylvania. Camera and Exposure
Details: Camera: Nikon D50 Lens:
Sigma 70mm f/2.8 EX DG Macro Exposure:
70mm (105mm in 35mm equivalent) f/8 @
1/160 s. (200 ISO) Date Friday,
August 8, 2008 Source Own
Picture. Author Photo by and (c)2009
Derek Ramsey
(Ram-Man) Permission (Reusing this
file) You may NOT use this image
on your own web site or anywhere else
unless you release this image and any
derivative works (which may include the
web page or other medium where this
image is used, if it is not considered
a ''collective work'') by following the
terms of the following license. Any
other use will be considered a breach
of copyright law. Please do not copy
this image illegally by ignoring the
terms of the license, as it is not in
the public domain. If you would like
special permission to use, license, or
purchase the image or prints of the
image, or for use in any other fashion
or would simply like a copy of the
original file, please contact me or
email me first to ask. Please see the
non-legalese usage guide for more
information. Note: While you are not
required to do so by the license,
please consider letting me know when
you reuse one of my photograph images,
as a courtesy. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Monarch_Butterf
ly_Danaus_plexippus_Laying_Eggs.jpg/1096
px-Monarch_Butterfly_Danaus_plexippus_La
ying_Eggs.jpg
source: http://www.nature.com/news/2003/
030217/images/diatom_180.jpg
source: http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/chr
omista/diatoms/diatomdiverse.jpg
Domain Eukaryota - eukaryotes
Kingdom
Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals
Subkingdom Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888)
Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians
Branch
Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 -
deuterostomes
Infrakingdom Chordonia
(Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998
Phylum Chordata Bateson, 1885 -
chordates
Subphylum Vertebrata
Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates
Infraphylum Gnathostomata auct. - jawed
vertebrates
Superclass Tetrapoda
Goodrich, 1930 - tetrapods
Series Amniota
Mammaliaformes Rowe, 1988
Class Mammalia Linnaeus, 1758 -
mammals
Subclass
Prototheria Gill, 1872:vi
Order Platypoda (Gill, 1872)
McKenna in Stucky & McKenna in Benton,
ed., 1993:740
Order
Tachyglossa (Gill, 1872) McKenna in
Stucky & McKenna in Benton, ed.,
1993:740
Guinea
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
239. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), 239.
[2] Description Photo: model of
Steropodon galmani at the Australian
Museum, Sydney. Date 20 April
2008 Source Own work Author
Matt Martyniuk
(Dinoguy2) Permission (Reusing this
file) See below. Other versions
Derivative works of this file:
Prototheria collage.png GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f8/Steropodon_model_aus.
jpg
KINGDOM
Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals
SUBKINGDOM Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888)
Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians
BRANCH
Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 -
deuterostomes
INFRAKINGDOM Chordonia
(Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998
PHYLUM Chordata Bateson, 1885 -
chordates
SUBPHYLUM Vertebrata
Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates
INFRAPHYLUM Gnathostomata auct. - jawed
vertebrates
CLASS Osteichthyes
Huxley, 1880
SUBCLASS
Actinopterygii - ray-finned fishes
INFRACLASS Cladistia
INFRACLASS Actinopteri
SUPERDIVISION Neopterygii
DIVISION Halecostomi
SUBDIVISION Teleostei
[1] Adapted from: Richard Dawkins,
''The Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p339. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p339.
[2] Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Commo
n_carp.jpg Common carp (Cyprinus
carpio). Public domain image from USFWS
National Image Library. Created by
Duane Raver. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a8/Common_carp.jpg
KINGDOM
Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals
SUBKINGDOM Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888)
Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians
BRANCH
Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 -
deuterostomes
INFRAKINGDOM Chordonia
(Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998
PHYLUM Chordata Bateson, 1885 -
chordates
SUBPHYLUM Vertebrata
Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates
INFRAPHYLUM Gnathostomata auct. - jawed
vertebrates
CLASS Osteichthyes
Huxley, 1880
SUBCLASS
Actinopterygii - ray-finned fishes
INFRACLASS Cladistia
INFRACLASS Actinopteri
SUPERDIVISION Neopterygii
DIVISION Halecostomi
SUBDIVISION Teleostei
[1] Adapted from: Richard Dawkins,
''The Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p339. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p339.
[2] Fig. 2. The single
most-parsimonious (MP) tree derived
from unweighted analysis of mitogenomic
data comprising concatenated nucleotide
sequences from 12 protein-coding
(excluding the ND6 gene and third codon
positions) and 22 transfer RNA (tRNA)
genes (stem regions only) from all 28
species examined. Tree length, 12,709
steps; consistency index, 0.355;
retention index, 0.471; and rescaled
consistency index, 0.167. Numbers above
and below internal branches indicate
jackknife values obtained for 500
replicates using the heuristic search
option in PAUP*4.0b10 (Swofford, 2002)
with 20 random-addition sequences being
performed in each replication and decay
indices, respectively. The scale
indicates 100 changes. from: Inoue,
JG, Miya, M, Tsukamoto, K, Nishida, M
(2003) ''Basal actinopterygian
relationships: A mitogenomic
perspective on the phylogeny of the
ldquoancient fish.rdquo'' Mol
Phylogenet Evol 26:
110-120 http://www.sciencedirect.com/sc
ience/article/pii/S1055790302003317 COP
YRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/cac
he/MiamiImageURL/B6WNH-475B9D7-6-1K/0?wc
hp=dGLbVlz-zSkzk
is the last common ancestor of Eutheria
(includes Placental) and Metatheria
(includes Marsupial) mammals.
Marsupium means pouch in Latin.
Marsupials are born as tiny embryos and
crawl through their mother's fur into
the pouch where they clamp their mouths
to a nipple (teat). The other main
group of mammals are called placentals
because they feed their embryos with a
placenta which allows the baby top be
born much later. The pouch is like an
external womb.
The earliest known marsupial is
Sinodelphys szalayi, which lived in
China around 125 million years ago
(mya).
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p231. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p231.
[2] Description English: Virginia
Opossum (Didelphis virginiana) in a
juniper tree in northeastern
Ohio. Date 27 December
2008 Source Own work Author
Wilson44691 Permission (Reusing
this file) See below. Other versions
PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6a/Possum122708.JPG
fleas.
The oldest flea fossils, which are much
larger than modern species date to this
time.
Ningcheng County, Inner Mongolia
[1] Huang, Diying et al. “Diverse
Transitional Giant Fleas from the
Mesozoic Era of China.” Nature
advance online publication (2012): n.
pag. http://www.nature.com/nature/journ
al/vaop/ncurrent/full/nature10839.html
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/vaop/ncurrent/full/nature10839.html
[2] Description English: Scanning
Electron Micrograph of a Flea. See
bellow for a colorized version of this
image. Fleas are known to carry a
number of diseases that are
transferable to human beings through
their bites. Included in this
infections is the plague, caused by the
bacterium Yersinia pestis. Français :
Une puce observée en microscopie
électronique. Les puces transmettent
de nombreuses maladies qu'elles peuvent
transmettre à l'homme par leur
morsures. Parmi ces maladies on trouve
la peste, causée par la bactérie
Yersinia pestis. Date Source
http://phil.cdc.gov/PHIL_Images/0507200
2/00001/PHIL_240_lores.jpg Author
Content Provider(s): Centers for
Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) /
Janice Carr PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/66/Scanning_Electron_Mic
rograph_of_a_Flea.jpg
Province, China
[1] Figure 1 from: Luo Z, Yuan C, Meng
Q & Ji Q (2011), ''A Jurassic eutherian
mammal and divergence of marsupials and
placentals'', Nature 476(7361): p.
42–45. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v476/n7361/full/nature10291.html
{nature10291.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nature.com/nature/journal
/v476/n7361/carousel/nature10291-f1.2.jp
g
[2] Adapted from Figure 3 from: Luo
Z, Yuan C, Meng Q & Ji Q (2011), ''A
Jurassic eutherian mammal and
divergence of marsupials and
placentals'', Nature 476(7361): p.
42–45. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v476/n7361/full/nature10291.html
{nature10291.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v476/n7361/carousel/nature10291-f3.
2.jpg
plant-eating Thyreophoran {tIRrEoFereN}
dinosaur lives around this time.
Stegosaurus has sharp spikes on its
tail and large bony plates on its back.
The plates may be used for display or
for controlling its body temperature.
[1] [t may not be
scholarly] Description
Stegosaurus stenops, a stegosaur
from the Late Jurassic of North
America, pencil drawing Date 6
May 2007 Source Own work Author
Nobu Tamura
email:nobu.tamura@yahoo.com
www.palaeocritti.com Permission (Reusi
ng this file) See below. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/70/Stegosaurus_BW.jpg
[2] Description Deutsch:
Rekonstruktion eines
Stegosaurus-Skeletts im Naturmuseum
Senckenberg in Frankfurt am
Main English: Reconstruction of a
Stegosaurus skeleton in the Senckenberg
Museum in Frankfurt am Main Date
2 September 2007 Source
EvaK Author EvaK GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6a/Stegosaurus_Senckenbe
rg.jpg
KINGDOM
Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals
SUBKINGDOM Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888)
Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians
BRANCH
Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 -
deuterostomes
INFRAKINGDOM Chordonia
(Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998
PHYLUM Chordata Bateson, 1885 -
chordates
SUBPHYLUM Vertebrata
Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates
INFRAPHYLUM Gnathostomata auct. - jawed
vertebrates
CLASS Osteichthyes
Huxley, 1880
SUBCLASS
Actinopterygii - ray-finned fishes
INFRACLASS Cladistia
INFRACLASS Actinopteri
SUPERDIVISION Neopterygii
DIVISION Halecostomi
SUBDIVISION Teleostei
[1] Adapted from: Richard Dawkins,
''The Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p339. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p339.
[2] Description English: This
deep-sea fish, Photostomias guernei,
has a built-in bioluminescent
''flashlight'' it uses to help it see
in the dark. Date 1999 Source
Photostomias.jpg Author
derivative work: Una Smith
Photostomias.jpg: Edith
Widder/HBOI PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/63/Photostomias2.jpg
[1] Richard Dawkins, ''The Ancestor's
Tale'', (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p262. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p262.
[2] Description English:
Archaeopteryx lithographica, specimen
displayed at the Museum für Naturkunde
in Berlin. (This image shows the
original fossil - not a
cast.) Deutsch: Archaeopteryx
lithographica, Exemplar im Museum für
Naturkunde in Berlin. (Dieses Bild
zeigt das Original-Fossil, keinen
Abguss.) Date 5 July 2009 Source
Own work Author H. Raab
(User:Vesta) CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/9d/Archaeopteryx_lithogr
aphica_%28Berlin_specimen%29.jpg
Archaeopteryx.
The Archaeopteryx fossil is from the
Solnhofen Limestone of the Upper
Jurassic of Germany.
John Ostrom describes the historical
background of the Archaeopteryx
fossils:
"...
Possibly no other zoological specimens,
fossil or Recent, are considered so
importa
nt as are those of Archeopteryx
lithographica (see Figs 1, 2 and 3).
Certain
ly few other specimens have generated
such widespread interest or
provoked as
much speculation and controversy. The
reasons are several: these
specimens are the
oldest (Tithonian = Late Jurassic)
known fossil bird remains;
they are extremely
rare, only five specimens (excluding
the solitary feather) are
known at present;
several of these preserve remarkably
detailed impressions of
feathers and an
extraordinary mixture of reptilian and
avian characters; and
most important of
all, because of the last fact, out of
all presently known fossil
and living
organisms, these specimens are widely
recognized as constituting the
best example
of an organism perfectly intermediate
between two higher
taxonomic
categories-representing an ideal
transitional stage between ancestral
and
descendant stocks. Archaeopteryx may
well be the most impressive fossil
evidence of
the fact of organic evolution.
...
The first still-verifiable evidence of
Jurassic birds is the imprint of a
solitary feather in a small slab of
these same Solnhofen limestones (Fig.
2A). This find was reported by von
Meyer
(1861a) in a letter to Professor H.
Bronn, published in Bronn’s Neues
Jahrbuch
fur Mineralogie (p. 561). Less than two
months later, von Meyer
(1861b) reported the
discovery in the same limestone strata
of a partial
skeleton associated with distinct
impressions of feathers. This find, the
now
well-known London specimen (Fig. 1A),
is currently in the British Museum
(Natural
History) in London. At first, some
scholars questioned the authenticity
of both
specimens, but von Meyer (1862)
established them as genuine.".
Some scientists view Archaeopteryx as
probably a flightless feathered
dinosaur.
[1] Archaeopteryx siemensii HMN
1880/81 (Berlin) COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://www.oucom.ohiou.edu/dbms-
witmer/dinoskulls02.htm
[2] Archaeopteryx sp. JM 2257
(Eichstätt) COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://www.oucom.ohiou.edu/dbms-
witmer/dinoskulls02.htm
"Tappania plana" with fused branches, a
process found in higher fungi.
northwestern Canada
[1] Figure 1 from: Nicholas J.
Butterfield, ''Probable Proterozoic
Fungi'', Paleobiology , Vol. 31, No. 1
(Winter, 2005), pp.
165-182. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40
96990 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/4096
990
[2] Figures from: “Primordial
Fungus.” Science 307.5707 (2005):
204. http://www.sciencemag.org/content/
307/5707/204.3.full?sid=46719958-9997-4c
91-bb89-5a8d33883c98 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/307/5707/204.3.full?sid=46719958-9997-
4c91-bb89-5a8d33883c98
large, long-necked dinosaurs like
Apatosaurus {uPaTuSORuS}, Brachiosaurus
{BrAKEuSORuS}, and Diplodocus
{DiPloDiKuS}.
[1] [t may not be
scholarly] Description
Brachiosaurus altithorax Date
2007 Source Own work Author
Богданов
dmitrchel@mail.ru PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d9/Brachiosaurus_DB.jpg
[2] Description English: Bronze
Brachiosaurus mount outside of the
Field Museum of Natural History,
Chicago, IL. Date
10/12/2009 Source Own
work Author
AStrangerintheAlps CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/4b/FMNH_Brachiosaurus.JP
G
branch of mammals) evolve.
[1] [t Note: image not clearly from
scholarly source] Description
Skull of Ptilodus, a paleocene
multituberculate, after Vaughan, 1986,
pencil drawing Date 13 November
2007 Source Own work Author
Nobu Tamura
email:nobu.tamura@yahoo.com
www.palaeocritti.com GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/19/Ptilodus_skull_BW.jpg
[2] Description Life restoration
of Ptilodus gracilis from W.B. Scott's
A History of Land Mammals in the
Western Hemisphere. New York: The
Macmillan Company. Date
1913 Source
http://www.archive.org/details/ahis
torylandmam00scotgoog Author
Robert Bruce Horsfall
(1869–1948); in a book by W. B. Scott
(1858–1947) Permission (Reusing
this file) See below. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d0/Ptilodus.jpg
(angiosperm).
Almost all grains, beans, nuts, fruits,
vegetables, herbs and spices come from
plants with flowers. Tea, coffee,
chocolate, wine, beer, tequila, and
cola all come from flowing plants. Much
of our clothing comes from flowering
plants too: cotton and linen are made
from "fibers" of flowering plants, as
are rope and burlap, and many
commercial dyes are extracted from
other flowering plants. Many drugs also
come from flowering plants including:
aspirin, digitalis, opium, cocaine,
marijuana, and tobacco.
Aside from primitive flowers like the
Magnoliids, most later angiosperms can
be divided into the more primitive
Monocotyledons (Monocots), flowering
plants that have a single cotyledon
(seed leaf) in the embryo, and the more
recent Dicotyledons (Dicots), which
have two cotyledons in the embryo. The
dicots contain two groups that account
for two-thirds of all angiosperm
species: the asterids, and the rosids.
The earliest fossil evidence of
angiosperms is pollen 130-140 MYO in
Israel, Morocco, Libya, and possibly
China. The earliest macrofossils are
leaves and flowers around 120-130 MYO.
Archaefructus, is an early angiosperm
fossil that dates to around 125 MYO
from northeastern China. Archaefrcutus
does not have petals or sepals, but
does have carpels and stamens which are
attached to an elongated stem with the
staminate (pollen-producing) flowers
below, and pistillate (fruit-producing)
flowers above. This ancient flower is
similar in some ways to Trithuria, a
genus of Nymphaeles (waterlilies).
Estimates of angiosperm origins based
on molecular divergence are typically
far older than those estimates based on
fossils. These rate estimates may be a
result of using living species in a
group where the basal branches of a
lineage have been extensively pruned by
extinction, which may be the case for
the angiosperm tree.
China
[1] Description
辽宁古果（Archaefructus
liaoningensis），为迄今发现的最
早的花（早白垩纪），于北京
然博物馆 Date 17:15, 18 October
2006 (UTC) Source Own work Author
Shizhao CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Archaefructus_l
iaoningensis.jpg/1280px-Archaefructus_li
aoningensis.jpg
[2] Figure 2 from: Sun, G. , Dilcher,
D. L. , Zheng, S.-L. & Zhou, Z.-K. In
search of the first flower: A Jurassic
angiosperm, Archaefructus, from
northeast China. Science 282,
1692–1695
(1998). http://www.sciencemag.org/conte
nt/282/5394/1692
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/2896858
COPYRIGHTED
source: Sun, G. , Dilcher, D. L. ,
Zheng, S.-L. & Zhou, Z.-K. In search of
the first flower: A Jurassic
angiosperm, Archaefructus, from
northeast China. Science 282,
1692–1695
(1998). http://www.sciencemag.org/conte
nt/282/5394/1692
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/2896858
Archaefructus, in China, a submerged
wetland plant.
northeastern China
[1] Archaefructus liaoningensis. The
leaf-like structures on the stem of
this 140 million year old fossil are
pods containing the seeds, a
characteristic unique to flowering
plants. Credit: University of Florida.
PD?
source: http://science.nasa.gov/headline
s/y2001/ast17apr_1.htm?list118443
[2] Archaefructus liaoningensis Sun,
Dilcher, Zheng et Zhou (Sun et al.,
1998). Fruiting axes and remains of two
subtending leaves (Photo courtesy of
David Dilcher). COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://www.flmnh.ufl.edu/deeptim
e/virtualfossilcollection/Archaeofructus
.html
mybn), and start of the Cretaceous
(145.5-65.5 mybn) Period.
(Angiosperm) "Amborella".
[1] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
''Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree'', Proc
Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/268/1482/2211.abstract COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://rspb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/268/1482/2211.abstract
[2] Photo of Amborella trichopoda
(Amborellaceae; photo © Sangtae Kim).
source: http://tolweb.org/tree?group=ang
iosperms
Angiosperms, the Water Lilies
("Nymphaeales").
70 species.
[1] Nymphaea alba Nymphaea alba -
image taken on 29 August 2004 in the
outdoor botanical garden of Technion -
Haifa, Israel public domain
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nym
phaeaceae
[2] Nymphaea colorata from
Africa presume is gnu or pd
source: same
[1] Austrobaileya scandens
(Austrobaileyaceae) mature
fruit Lamins Hill via Malanda,
Queensland date uncertain Larger
image (81K) Robust vine in rainforest
canopy. It is a single species in an
Australian endemic family. Its pollen
is the oldest recorded flowering plant
pollen in Australia. See reference
under Image 7-93. Mesophyll/notophyll
vine forest.
source: http://www.gu.edu.au/ins/collect
ions/webb/html/6-15.html
[2] Austrobaileya scandens C.T.
White * Query NCU-3e or IPNI
* Common Name: * Family:
Austrobaileyaceae (Croiz.) Croiz.
* Country of Origin: Australia -
Queensland * Habitat: Mesophyll /
notophyll vine forest *
Eco-region(s): o AA0117 -
Queensland tropical rain forests
* Description: Evergreen, woody vines
with loosely twining main stem and
straight, leafy lateral branches
endemic to the rainforests of northeast
Queensland, Australia. This species is
the only member of the genus and the
genus is the only member of the family,
Austrobaileyaceae. It is a very
primitive angiosperm family although it
is sometimes placed in the Magnoliales
(Cronquist) or Laurales. Cronquist
considers it an ''isolated small group,
not wholly compatible with the bulk of
either the Laurales or Magnoliales, but
not sufficiently distinctive to
constitute a family of its own.''
The flowers are rather large,
solitary in the axils of the leaves,
with a putrescent odor, probably
pollinated by flies. Its
pollen is the oldest recorded flowering
plant pollen in Australia.
source: http://florawww.eeb.uconn.edu/im
ages/byspecies/AUSTROBAILEYA_SCANDENS_01
.JPG
70 living species.
[1] Hedyosmum scaberrimum AB201a is
from arizona.edu
source: http://eebweb.arizona.edu/grads/
alice/Chloranthaceae/Hedyosmum%20scaberr
imum%20AB201a.html
[2] Scientific Name Chloranthus
japonicus Location Vityaz inlet,
Gamov Peninsula, Khasansky distr.,
Primorsky Territory (Russian
Federation) Acknowledgements courtesy
CalPhotos Copyright © 2001 Nick
Kurzenko
source: http://tolweb.org/tree?group=Chl
oranthaceae
evolve (early birds).
[1] Protopteryx fengningensis Name:
Protopteryx fengningensis Phylum:
Chordata; Subphylum Vertebrata; Class
Aves; Subclass
Enantiornithes Geological Time:
Early Cretaceous Size: 120 mm long
(tip of skull to tip of toes); Matrix:
85 mm by 141 mm Fossil Site: Yixian
Formation, Fengning County, Hebei
Province of China UNKNOWN
source: http://www.fossilmuseum.net/Foss
il-Pictures/Birds/Protopteryx/CF017A.jpg
[2] Sinornis santensis Artist: James
Reece COPYRIGHTED AUSTRALIA
source: http://www.amonline.net.au/chine
se_dinosaurs/feathered_dinosaurs/photo07
.htm
"Magnoliids" {maGnOlEiDZ} (nutmeg,
avocado, sassafras, cinnamon, black and
white pepper, camphor, bay (or laurel)
leaves, magnolias.).
There are 9,000 living species.
[1] Magnolia This photo is a part of
the Wikipedia:Plant photo collection
I. Downloaded URL:
http://tencent.homestead.com/files/magno
lia.jpg Warning sign This image has
no source information. Source
information must be provided so that
the copyright status can be verified by
others. Unless the copyright status is
provided and a source is given, the
image will be deleted seven days after
this template was added (see page
history). If you just added this
template, please use {{no source
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mag
noliales
[2] ~~~~~}} (to include the date
here). Please consider using {{no
source notified
source: same
(the largest lineage of flowers).
Eudicots are also called "tricolpates"
which refers to the structure of the
pollen.
The two main groups of the Eudicots are
the "rosids" and the "asterids".
[1] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
''Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree'', Proc
Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/268/1482/2211.abstract COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://rspb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/268/1482/2211.abstract
[2] Fig. 2. Chronogram showing
estimates of phylogenetic relationships
and divergence times among the major
groups of extant land plants. The
estimate of relationships is
synthesized from the following papers
in this issue: Burleigh and Mathews
(2004) , Pryer et al. (2004) , Shaw and
Renzaglia (2004) , and Soltis and
Soltis (2004) . Divergence time
estimates are mostly based on analyses
of molecular data with fossil
constraints (Wikström et al., 2001 ;
Pryer et al., 2004 ) and are augmented
by fossil evidence (Kenrick and Crane,
1997 ; Wellman et al., 2003 ).
Estimates of the number of species in
each group are from Judd et al. (2002)
and W. S. Judd (personal
communication). Groups covered by a
particular article in this special
issue are circled and connected to the
names of the article's authors. ''Other
conifers'' refers to the clade
consisting of all conifers except for
Pinaceae (see Burleigh and Mathews,
2004 ). ''Lepto. ferns'' refers to
leptosporangiate ferns fig 2
from: Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, ''The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view'', American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
http://www.amjbot.org/content/91/10/14
37.full {Chase_Mark_2004.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.amjbot.org/content/91
/10/1437/F2.large.jpg
[1] Hesperornis. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.savageancientseas.com
/images/labels/hesperornis.jpg
[2] Detail of a painting by Ely Kish,
Copyright © Ely Kish; used with
permission of Ely Kish (EMAIL)
Hesperornis regalis Hesperornis
(pronounced HES-per-OR-nis) means
''western bird''. Toothed marine birds
of the Late Cretaceous
seas COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.oceansofkansas.com/He
sperornis/kish-01.jpg
fish, pufferfish, barracuda.
[1] Adapted from: Richard Dawkins,
''The Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p339. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p339.
[2] Seahorse - Hippocampus
sp. Image ID reef2027, The
Coral Kingdom Collection Location
Gulf of Aqaba, Red Sea Photographer
Mr. Mohammed Al Momany, Aqaba,
Jordan Source
http://www.photolib.noaa.gov/htmls/reef2
027.htm PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/4b/Hippocampus.jpg
[1] Adapted from: Richard Dawkins,
''The Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p339. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p339.
[2] Fig. 2. The single
most-parsimonious (MP) tree derived
from unweighted analysis of mitogenomic
data comprising concatenated nucleotide
sequences from 12 protein-coding
(excluding the ND6 gene and third codon
positions) and 22 transfer RNA (tRNA)
genes (stem regions only) from all 28
species examined. Tree length, 12,709
steps; consistency index, 0.355;
retention index, 0.471; and rescaled
consistency index, 0.167. Numbers above
and below internal branches indicate
jackknife values obtained for 500
replicates using the heuristic search
option in PAUP*4.0b10 (Swofford, 2002)
with 20 random-addition sequences being
performed in each replication and decay
indices, respectively. The scale
indicates 100 changes. from: Inoue,
JG, Miya, M, Tsukamoto, K, Nishida, M
(2003) ''Basal actinopterygian
relationships: A mitogenomic
perspective on the phylogeny of the
ldquoancient fish.rdquo'' Mol
Phylogenet Evol 26:
110-120 http://www.sciencedirect.com/sc
ience/article/pii/S1055790302003317 COP
YRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/cf/Gadus_morhua-Cod-2-At
lanterhavsparken-Norway.JPG
fossils.
[1] The fossilized Microraptor specimen
from the Beijing Museum of Natural
History. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://graphics8.nytimes.com/ima
ges/2012/03/09/science/09dinosaur_span/0
9dinosaur_span-articleLarge.jpg
[2] Credit: Jason Brougham/University
of Texas; Mick Ellison
(inset) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://news.sciencemag.org/scien
cenow/assets/2012/03/08/sn-microraptor.j
pg
northeastern China
[1] Confuciusornis
source: http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/dia
psids/birds/confuciusornislg.jpg
[2] Description Confuciusornis
sanctus skeleton displayed in Hong Kong
Science Museum Date 30 June
2007 CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/78/Confuchisornis_sanctu
s.JPG
(modern birds: the most recent common
ancestor of all living birds).
Neornithes is the subclass of Aves that
contains all of the known birds other
than those placed in the
Archaeornithes. Neornithes includes
more than 30 orders, both fossil and
living, its members are characterized
by a bony, keeled sternum with fully
developed powers of flapping flight
(secondarily lost in a number of
groups); a short tail with fused
vertebrae to which all tail feathers
attach; a large fused pelvic girdle;
and a large brain and eyes contained
within a fused braincase. In addition
Neornithes have a fully-separated
four-chambered heart and typically
exhibit complex social behaviors.
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p262. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p262.
[2] Description English: Photo of
stuffed brown kiwi (Apteryx australis)
from Auckland Museum, New
Zealand. Dansk: Foto af udstoppet brun
kiwi (Apteryx australis) fra Auckland
Museum i New Zealand. Date 1999.
(2007-07-03, according to EXIF
data) Source See below Author
This file was made by Malene
Thyssen. Please credit this: Malene
Thyssen,
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:M
alene An email to malene at
mtfoto.dk would be appreciated
too. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5c/Kiwifugl.jpg
from the Late Cretaceous, but presumed
nests that date to 95 MYO indicate that
bees are older, perhaps as old as
around 120 MYO.
"Ceratophyllaceae".
Closest surviving relative of all
eudicots.
6 living species.
[1] Ceratophyllum
submersum Description: Ceratophyllum
submersum; an aquatic plant. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cer
atophyllaceae
[2] Ceratophyllum
demersum Ceratophyllum_demersum3.jpg
(78KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) Common
Hornwort (Ceratophyllum
demersum) usgs
source: same
"Monocots") evolve: Flowering plants
that have a single cotyledon (or seed
leaf) in the embryo.
Monocots are the second largest lineage
of flowers after the Eudicots (formally
Dicotyledons) with
70,000 living
species (20,000 species of orchids, and
15,000 species of grasses).
The two main orders of Monocots are
"Base Monocots" and "Commelinids".
[1] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
''Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree'', Proc
Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/268/1482/2211.abstract COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://rspb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/268/1482/2211.abstract
[2] Sweet Flag (Acorus calamus) -
spadix Spadix of Sweet Flag. usgs
public domain
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aco
rus
Steropodon galmani, the earliest
platypus-like species.
Earliest Monotreme
fossil, Steropodon galmani, the
earliest platypus-like species.
South Wales, Australia
[1] Description Photo: model of
Steropodon galmani at the Australian
Museum, Sydney. Date 20 April
2008 Source Own work Author
Matt Martyniuk (Dinoguy2) GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f8/Steropodon_model_aus.
jpg
[2] Description Steropodon galmani,
a platypus-like monotreme from the
Early Cretaceous of
Australia. Illustrator: Anne
Musser Rights: © Anne
Musser COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0e/Steropodon_BW.jpg
[1] [t Note: not clearly from scholarly
source] Description Sauroposeidon
was a sauropod from the Early
Cretaceous Period, related to the more
famous Brachiosaurus. The only specimen
to date is represented by four neck
vertebrae. It was the tallest dinosaur
known, estimated at 18 m (60 ft). Date
13 December 2006 Source i
made it myself Author
LadyofHats PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Sauroposeidon_d
inosaur.svg/1000px-Sauroposeidon_dinosau
r.svg.png
(buttercup, clematis, poppy (source of
opium and morphine), macadamia, lotus,
sycamore).
[1] Creeping butercup (Ranunculus
repens). GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Creeping_butercup_close_800.jpg
[2] Clematis hybrid from
http://www.ars.usda.gov/is/graphics/phot
os/ public domain
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cle
matis
(carnation, cactus, caper, buckwheat,
rhubarb, sundew, venus flytrap, old
world pitcher plants, beet, quinoa,
spinach, currant, sweet gum, peony,
witch-hazel, mistletoe, grape plants.).
[1] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
''Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree'', Proc
Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/268/1482/2211.abstract COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://rspb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/268/1482/2211.abstract
[2] Carnation in flower Beschreibung:
Gartennelke (Dianthus caryophyllus)
creative commons
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Car
nation
{oRJeNTiNuSORuS}, a long-neck
(sauropod) titanosaur from South
America, possibly the longest animal of
all time, at an estimated 130 to 140
feet length.
[1] Description
Argentinosaurus Deutsch:
Skelettrekonstruktion in einer
Sonderausstellung des Naturmuseums
Senckenberg English: Skeletal
reconstruktion in a special exhibition
of the Naturmuseum Senckenberg Date
6 August 2010 Source Eva
K. Author Eva K. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a9/Argentinosaurus_DSC_2
943.jpg
[2] [t May not be
scholarly] Description
Argentinosaurus huinculensis, a
titanosaur from the Middle Cretaceous
of Argentina, pencil drawing, digital
coloring Date 15 August
2007 Source Own work Author
Nobu Tamura
email:nobu.tamura@yahoo.com
www.palaeocritti.com GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e1/Argentinosaurus_BW.jp
g
Afrotheres evolves (elephants,
manatees, aardvarks).
Afrotheres originate in Africa and are
the earliest extant placental mammals.
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p225. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p225.
[2] Description Afrotheria Date
18 December 2007 Source
self-made, based on:
Image:Orycteropus afer.jpg
Image:Dugong.jpg Image:Elephant
Shrew.jpg Image:Manatee Looking at
the Camera.jpg Image:Taupe
doree.jpg Image:Klippschliefer
Suedafrika Hermanus.jpg
Image:Elefante Lake Manyara Park.jpg
Image:Tanrek.jpg Author
Esculapio GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f0/Afrotheria.jpg
[1] Description Česky: Model kostry
karnotaura v Chlupáčově muzeu v
Praze English: Carnotaurus in
Chlupáč museum in Prague Date
25 June 2009 Source Own
work Author Czech Wikipedia user
Packa CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2a/Carnotaurus%2C_Chlup%
C3%A1%C4%8D_Museum%2C_Prague.jpg
[1] Richard Dawkins, ''The Ancestor's
Tale'', (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p262. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p262.
[2] Phylum : Chordata - Class : Aves -
Order : Tinamiformes - Family :
Tinamidae - Species : Crypturellus
tataupa (Tataupa tinamou) Given to the
wikipedia by the owner, Marcos
Massarioli. Status GNU
source: http://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
gem:Crypturellus_tataupa.JPG
emu, cassowary {KaSOwaRE}, kiwis).
[1] Richard Dawkins, ''The Ancestor's
Tale'', (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p262. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p262.
[2] Description Various Ratite
birds (clockwise from top left): Brown
kiwi Apteryx mantelli, Greater rhea,
double-wattled cassowary Casuarius
casuarius, Haast's eagle attacking New
Zealand moa, Masai ostrich
(photographed in Nairobi National Park,
Kenya). Date 19 June 2007 Source
self-made from
Image:Brown_kiwi.jpg,
Image:Nandu-Portrait 2.jpg,
Image:Casuarius_casuarius_-_double-wattl
ed_cassowary.jpg,
Image:Giant_Haasts_eagle_attacking_New_Z
ealand_moa.jpg, Image:Masai ostrich.jpg
(see original images for copyright
information). Author
Richard001 GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/31/Ratites.PNG
monotreme.
{SPINuSORuS}, perhaps the largest
meat-eating dinosaur, estimated to have
been 45 to 50 feet long.
The only skeleton ever found was
destroyed during World War 2.
[1] Description Spinosaurus -
01 Date 6 November 2009,
11:18 Source Spinosaurus - 01
Uploaded by FunkMonk Author
Kabacchi CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/64/Spinosaurus_skeleton.
jpg
[2] [t May or may not be from
scholarly source] Description
Spinosaurus aegipticus with hands,
tail and skull fixed. Date 2003
(modified 6-May-2008) Source
dmitrchel@mail.ru Author
Bogdanov, modified by Matt
Martyniuk (User:Dinoguy2) and
User:FunkMonk. Jaw muscles taken
from[1] by User:Steveoc_86.
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2b/Spinosaurus1DBa.png
evolve (Sloths, Anteaters, Armadillos).
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p220. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p220.
[2] Description
0,DrawImage(''Chase_Angiosperms_fig2_20
011107.jpg'',CENTER,CENTER,1,1,0) 2158,
EraseImage(''Chase_Angiosperms_fig2_2001
1107.jpg'',CENTER,CENTER,1) 2158,DrawIm
age(''Asparagus_Tip.jpg'',CENTER,CENTER,
1,1,0) 2945,EraseImage(''Asparagus_Tip.
jpg'',CENTER,CENTER,1) 2945,DrawImage('
'Onion_set.JPG'',CENTER,CENTER,1,1,0) 3
398,EraseImage(''Onion_set.JPG'',CENTER,
CENTER,1) 3398,DrawImage(''garlic.jpg''
,CENTER,CENTER,1,1,0) 3895,EraseImage('
'garlic.jpg'',CENTER,CENTER,1) 3895,Dra
wImage(''agave.jpg'',CENTER,CENTER,1,1,0
) 4467,EraseImage(''agave.jpg'',CENTER,
CENTER,1) 4964,DrawImage(''Aloevera2web
.jpg'',CENTER,CENTER,1,1,0) 4964,EraseI
mage(''Aloevera2web.jpg'',CENTER,CENTER,
1) 4467,DrawImage(''Orchid.jpg'',CENTER
,CENTER,1,1,0) 5449,EraseImage(''Orchid
.jpg'',CENTER,CENTER,1) 5449,DrawImage(
''Tigerlilysmall.jpg'',CENTER,CENTER,1,1
,0) END,EraseImage(''Tigerlilysmall.jpg
'',CENTER,CENTER,1) Hoffmann's
Two-toed Sloth (Choloepus hoffmanni) in
Milwaukee County Zoological
Gardens Date 8 January
2006 Source Flickr Author
Woodsm CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b5/Choloepus_hoffmanni.j
pg
Rosids include: geranium, pomegranate,
myrtle, clove, guava, allspice, and
eucalyptus).
[1] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
''Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree'', Proc
Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/268/1482/2211.abstract COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://rspb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/268/1482/2211.abstract
[2] A photo of the tree Staphylea
colchica taken by me in Århus, Denmark
GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cro
ssosomatales
"Celastrales".
[1] Oriental Staff Vine Celastrus
orbiculatus US NPS public domain
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sta
ff_vine
[2] Northern Grass of Parnassus
(Parnassia palustris) GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Par
nassiaceae
Order "Fabales" {FoBAlEZ}.
Fabales include many beans (green,
lima, kidney, pinto, navy, black, mung,
fava, cow (or black-eyed), popping),
pea, peanut, soy {used in tofu, miso,
tempeh, and milk}, lentil, chick pea
(or garbonzo) {used in falafel}, lupin,
clover, alfalfa {used as sprouts},
cassia {Kasu}, jicama, Judas tree,
tamarind {TaMuriND}, acacia {uKAsYu},
mesquite.
[1] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
''Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree'', Proc
Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/268/1482/2211.abstract COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://rspb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/268/1482/2211.abstract
[2] Abrus precatorius (Black-eyed
Susan) USGS public domain
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abr
us
(vanilla, orchid, asparagus, onion,
garlic, agave, aloe, lily).
[1] Sweet Flag (Acorus calamus) -
spadix Spadix of Sweet Flag. usgs
public domain
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aco
rus
[2] Ivy Duckweed (Lemna
trisulca) Name Lemna
trisulca Family Lemnaceae
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ali
smatales
{KomelIniDZ} evolve (palms, coconut,
corn, rice, barley, oat, wheat, rye,
sugarcane, bamboo, grass, pineapple,
papyrus, turmeric {TRmRiK}, banana,
ginger).
[1] Manila dwarf coconut palm from
http://www.ars.usda.gov/is/graphics/phot
os/ Manila dwarf coconut palm
thumbnail A Manila dwarf coconut palm
on the grounds of the Tropical
Agriculture Research Station in
Mayaguez, Puerto Rico. dept of
ag public domain
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Are
cales
[2] coconut GOV public domain
source: http://www.nps.gov/kaho/KAHOckLs
/KAHOplnt/images/IMG_03957.jpg
Order "Zygophyllales" evolves.
[1] Bulnesia sarmientoi is a South
American tree species that inhabits the
north of Argentina as well as southern
Brazil and Paraguay. It is one of
several species known as palo santoin
Spanish. [1] Source: Libro del Árbol,
Tome II, edited by Celulosa Argentina
S. A., Buenos Aires, Argentina, October
1975. The visual material is not
explicitly copyrighted, but the editors
thank Mr. Jorge Vallmitjana for his
''photographic
contribution''. Argentina copyright
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Bulnesia_sarmientoi.jpg
[2] Fagonia, US NPS public domain
source: http://www.nps.gov/jotr/activiti
es/blooms/flwrpix/fagonia.jpg
Asterids". Earliest surviving Order
"Cornales" (dogwoods, tupelos, dove
tree).
[1] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
''Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree'', Proc
Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/268/1482/2211.abstract COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Aethionema_grandiflora0.jpg
[2] European Cornel (Cornus mas)
Paris, France, cc
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Cornus_mas_flowers.jpg
"Ericales" {AReKAlEZ} .
Ericales includes
kiwifruit (kiwi), Impatiens, ebony,
persimmon, heather, crowberry,
rhododendrons, azalias, cranberries,
blueberries, lingonberry, bilberry,
huckleberry, brazil nut, primrose,
sapodilla, mamey sapote (sapota),
chicle, balatá, canistel, new world
pitcher plants {carniverous}, tea
{Camellia sinensis}
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Aethionema_grandiflora0.jpg
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Actinidia_fruit.jpg
with earliest surviving order
"Garryales".
[1] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
''Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree'', Proc
Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/268/1482/2211.abstract COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://rspb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/268/1482/2211.abstract
[2] Garrya elliptica foliage and
catkins. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Garrya_elliptica.jpg
"Aquifoliales" (includes holly).
[1] English holly (female), GNU FDL.
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:English_holly.jpg
[2] Ilex aquifolium (L.) GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Acebo.jpg
"Apiales" {APEAlEZ} evolving now.
Apiales
includes dill, angelica, chervil
{CRViL}, celery, caraway, cumin, sea
holly, poison hemlock, coriander (or
cilantro), carrot, lovage {LuViJ},
parsnip, anise {aNiS}, fennel, cicely
{SiSelE}, parsley, ivy, ginseng.
[1] Variegated Ground-elder (Aegopodium
podagraria L.) in flower. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ground-elder_bloom.jpg
[2] An established spread of
variegated Ground-elder (Aegopodium
podagraria L.). GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ground-elder.jpg
"Asterales" {aSTRAlEZ} evolves.
Asterales includes burdock, tarragon,
daisy, marigold, safflower,
chrysanthemum (mums), chickory, endive,
artichoke, sunflower, sunroot
(Jerusalem artichoke), lettuce,
chamomile, black-eyed susan, salsify
{SoLSiFE}, dandelion, and zinnia.
[1] Ray floret, typical for flowers of
the family Asteraceae. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ray.floret01.jpg
[2] disc floret, typical part of a
flower of the family Asteraceae. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Disc_floret01.jpg
{maLPiGEAlEZ} evolves (includes
gamboge {GaM BOJ}, mangosteen
{mANGuSTEN}, coca {used in cocaine and
drinks}, rubber tree, cassava (or
manioc {maNEoK}) {used like a potato,
and in tapioca}, castor oil,
poinsettia, flax, acerola {aSorOlu}
(barbados cherry), willow, poplar,
aspen, and violet (or pansy).
[1] mangosteen public domain
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gar
cinia
[2] Mangosteen fruit public domain
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Man
gosteen
Order "Oxalidales" (fly-catcher plant,
wood sorrel family {leaves show "sleep
movements"}, oca {edible tuber}).
[1] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
''Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree'', Proc
Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/268/1482/2211.abstract COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://rspb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/268/1482/2211.abstract
[2] Oxalis regnellii atropurpurea
(Regnell's Sorrel) GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxa
lidaceae
evolves: the most primitive Order is
"Brassicales" {BraSiKAlEZ}.
Brassicales includes horseradish,
rapeseed, mustard {plain, brown, black,
indian, sarepta, asian}, rutabaga,
kale, Chinese broccoli (kai-lan {KI
laN}), cauliflower, collard greens,
cabbage (white and red {used in
coleslaw and sauerkraut}), Brussels
sprouts, kohlrabi {KOLroBE}, broccoli,
watercress, radish, wasabi, mignonette
{miNYuNeT}, and papaya.
[1] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
''Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree'', Proc
Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/268/1482/2211.abstract COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://rspb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/268/1482/2211.abstract
[2] Aethionema grandiflora, GFDL by
Kurt Stueber
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Aethionema_grandiflora0.jpg
"Rosales" {ROZAlEZ}.
Rosales includes hemp (cannibis,
marijuana) {used for rope, oil,
recreational drug}, hackberry, hop
{used in beer}, breadfruit, cempedak,
jackfruit, marang, paper mulberry, fig,
banyan, strawberry, rose, red
raspberry, black raspberry, blackberry,
cloudberry, loganberry, salmonberry,
thimbleberry, serviceberry, chokeberry,
quince, loquat, apple, crabapple, pear,
plum, cherry, peach, apricot, almond,
jujube, and elm.
[1] Filipendula ulmaria, GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fil
ipendula
[2] A display of different apples,
We've even worked on bashless
bagging-packaging systems that are used
by wholesalers to bring you apples
without bruises. US ARS public domain
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/App
le
"Gentianales" {JeNsinAlEZ} evolves.
Gent
ianales includes gentian, dogbane,
carissa (Natal plum), oleander,
logania, and coffee.
[1] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
''Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree'', Proc
Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/268/1482/2211.abstract COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://rspb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/268/1482/2211.abstract
[2] Anthocleista grandiflora. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Anthocleista_grandiflora.jpg
"Dipsacales".
Dipsacales includes Elderberry,
Honeysuckle, Teasel, Corn Salad.
[1] Adoxa moschatellina (L.). 2005
Vellefrey et Vellefrange (France). GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Adoxa_moschatellina01.jpg
[2] Danewort inflorescence. Sambucus
ebulus (L.). European Dwarf Elder. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Sambucus_nigra_flori_bgiu.jpg
"Solanales" {SOlanAlEZ} evolve.
Solanale
s includes deadly nightshade or
belladonna, capsicum (bell pepper,
paprika, Jalapeño, Pimento), cayenne
pepper {KI YeN}, datura, tomato,
mandrake, tobacco, petunia, tomatillo,
potato, eggplant, morning glory, sweet
potato, and water spinach.
[1] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
''Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree'', Proc
Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/268/1482/2211.abstract COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://rspb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/268/1482/2211.abstract
[2] Atropa belladonna. Deadly
nightshade. GFDL by Kurt Stueber
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Atropa_bella-donna1.jpg
"Cucurbitales" (KYUKRBiTAlEZ} evolve.
Cucurbital
es includes watermelon, musk,
cantaloupe, honeydew, casaba,
cucumbers, gourds, pumpkins, squashes
(acorn, buttercup, butternut, cushaw
{Kuso}, hubbard, pattypan, spaghetti),
zucchini, and begonia.
[1] White bryony (Bryonia dioica). GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:White_bryony_male_800.jpg
[2] watermelon public domain
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Vampire_watermelon.jpg
"Fagales" {FaGAlEZ} evolves.
Fagales includes
many flowers that produce edible nuts:
Birch, Hazel {nut}, Filbert {nut},
Chestnut, Beech {nut}, Oak {used for
wood, and cork}, Walnut, Pecan,
Hickory, and Bayberry.
[1] Alnus serrulata (Tag Alder) Male
catkins on right, mature female catkins
left Johnsonville, South Carolina GFDL
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Tagalder8139.jpg
[2] Speckled Alder (Alnus incana
subsp. rugosa) - leaves GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Alnus_incana_rugosa_leaves.jpg
evolve (Chicken, Turkey, Pheasant,
Peacock, Quail).
[1] Richard Dawkins, ''The Ancestor's
Tale'', (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p262. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p262.
[2] Description English: Meleagris
gallopavo (Wild Turkey) Date 30
July 2006 Source Own work Author
MONGO PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/69/Meleagris_gallopavo_W
ild_Turkey.jpg
evolve (waterfowl: ducks, geese,
swans).
The "Anseriformes" are an order of
birds, characterized by a broad, flat
bill and webbed feet.
[1] Richard Dawkins, ''The Ancestor's
Tale'', (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p262. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p262.
[2] Description English: Pair of
Wood Ducks Date 18 April
2007 Source
http://flickr.com/photos/sherseydc/
1623995158/ Author
http://www.flickr.com/people/sherse
ydc/ CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/08/Pair_of_Wood_Ducks.jp
g
"Laurasiatheres" evolves. This major
line of mammals includes the
Insectivora (shrews, moles, hedgehogs),
Chiroptera (bats), Cetartiodactyla
(camels, pigs, deer, sheep, hippos,
whales), Perissodactyla (horses,
rhinos), Carnivora (cats, dogs, bears,
seals, walruses) and Pholidota
(pangolins).
Laurasiatheres originate in the old
northern continent Laurasia.
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p200. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p200.
[2] Description Mamíferos
(mammals), based on:
Image:Giraffa camelopardalis angolensis
(head).jpg Image:Golden crowned
fruit bat.jpg
Image:Hedgehog-en.jpg Image:Lion
waiting in Nambia.jpg All of them
under a free licence already in
Wikicommons Date
11-01-2008 Source
Compilation made by myself,
Authors of the photos see
below. Author Hans Hillewaert
(Giraffe); (Bat) Original uploader was
Latorilla at en.wikipedia;
(Hedgehog-en) John Mittler at
777Life.com Free Image Archive; (Lion)
yaaaay CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a5/Mam%C3%ADferos.jpg
[1] A satellite image of Canada taken
in Summer. Snow cover is still
prominent in the Artic and on the Rocky
Mountains. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.virtualamericas.net/c
anada/maps/canada-satellite.jpg
[2] Description Aerial Photo of
Rocky Mountains, Canada. Date
Source Photo by Jacob
Grygowski. Author Jgrygowski CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c6/RockyMountainsAerial.
jpg
"Malvales" {moLVAlEZ} evolve.
Malvales includes
okra, marsh mallow {malO}, kola nut,
cotton, hibiscus, balsa, and cacao
{KoKoU} (used in chocolate).
[1] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
''Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree'', Proc
Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/268/1482/2211.abstract COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://rspb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/268/1482/2211.abstract
[2] Bixa orellana L., floro en Lavras,
Minas Gerais, Brazilo, GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Aethionema_grandiflora0.jpg
"Sapindales" {SaPiNDAlEZ} evolves.
Sapindales includes maple, buckeye,
horse chestnut, longan, lychee,
rambutan, guarana, bael, langsat (or
duku), mahogany, cashew, mango,
pistachio, sumac, peppertree,
poison-ivy, frankincense, and the
citris trees: orange, lemon,
grapefruit, lime, tangerine, pomelo,
and kumquat}.
[1] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
''Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree'', Proc
Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/268/1482/2211.abstract COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Aethionema_grandiflora0.jpg
[2] Field Maple foliage and flowers,
Acer campestre. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Acer-campestre.JPG
duck-billed dinosaurs.
Duck-billed dinosaurs (hadrosaurs) are
common. The Hadrosaurs Maiasaurs are
examples of dinosaurs from which fossil
nests, eggs, and baby dinosaurs have
been found.
[1] Description Parasaurolophus
cyrtocristatus skeleton, Field
Museum. Date 1 October 2006,
00:00 Source Field Museum
Dinosaur Author Lisa Andres from
Riverside, USA Permission (Reusing
this file) See below. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/14/Parasaurolophus_cyrto
cristatus.jpg
[2] Description English: A
clickable image of the
en:Hadrosauroidea. Illustration by
en:User:Debivort. The
en:Hadrosaurids comprise the dinosaurs
commonly known as ''duck-billed''
dinosaurs. They were common herbivores
during the en:Cretaceous period, and
prey to en:therapods such as
en:Tyrannosaurus. Spectacular fossils
of hadrosaurs have been found,
including mummified specimens in which
soft tissue was preserved, skin
impressions, tracks of footprints, and
nest sites that demonstrate the animals
had parental care of offspring. Animals
are shown to scale. A crisp diagram
showing the evolutionary relationships
between the tribes of the
Hadrosauroidea, with representative
individuals shown to scale. Conveys the
diversity of the group. Every dinosaur
shown has passed review for scientific
accuracy at en:Wikipedia:WikiProject
Dinosaurs/Image review. The
individual drawings are genera, and the
branches of the tree go down to tribe.
All these groups were alive in the late
Cretaceous, and are generally known
only from a single fossil
site en:Category:Approved
dinosaur images en:Category:Approved
dinosaur scale diagrams Date
2007-06-21 (first version);
2007-10-14 (last version) Source
Originally from en.wikipedia;
description page is/was here. Author
Original uploader was Debivort at
en.wikipedia GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/14/Hadrosaur-tree-v4.jpg
evolves (shrews, moles, hedgehogs).
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p200. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p200.
[2] Description Blarina
carolinensis Deutsch: Amerikanische
Kurzschwanzspitzmaus English: American
short-tailed shrew Date Source
work of the US government:
http://cars.er.usgs.gov/pics/paynesprair
ie/paynes/paynes_33.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d4/Southern_short-tailed
_shrew.jpg
"Boraginaceae" (includes
forget-me-not).
[1] Fiddleneck, species not determined.
in Claremont Canyon Regional Preserve,
Alameda County, California. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Fiddleneck.jpg
[2] Italian Bugloss (Anchusa azurea).
GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Anchusa_azurea_flores.jpg
dinosaurs evolve. Protoceratops, an
early shield-headed (ceratopsian)
dinosaur fossil.
This is the first dinosaur discovered
with fossil eggs. These eggs and nests
were found in Mongolia in the 1920's.
[1] Description Protoceratops
andrewsi skeleton at Carnegie Museum of
Natural History. Date 28 November
2009, 14:07 Source
http://www.flickr.com/photos/139061
48@N00/4168549790/ Uploaded by
FunkMonk Author Tadek Kurpaski
from London, Poland CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/7c/Andrewsi.jpg
[2] [t May or may not be
accurate] Description
Protoceratops andrewsi, a
ceratopsian from the Late Cretaceous of
Mongolia, pencil drawing, digital
coloring Date December 25, 2006,
updated October 23, 2007 Source
Own work Author Nobu Tamura
email:nobu.tamura@yahoo.com
www.palaeocritti.com GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/fc/Protoceratops_BW.jpg
{DrOmEoSORZ}: Raptor fossils.
Raptors (dromaeosaurs) are Cretaceous
dinosaurs, which have large, hook claws
on their feet. Velociraptor is one
example.
The most famous Velociraptor is a
skeleton preserved in combat with a
Protoceratops from Mongolia, China.
[1] Buitreraptor (foreground) and
Deinonychus (background) skeletons on
display at the Field Museum of Natural
History in Chicago, Illinois. Taken
August 2006 by my girlfriend, C.
Horwitz, and uploaded with permission
under the GFDL. —Steven G.
Johnson GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/29/Buitreraptor-Deinonyc
hus.jpg
[2] Description Digital +
graphite drawing of Velociraptor
mongoliensis Date 4 August
2006 Source image from
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Veloc
iraptor_dinoguy2.jpg Author Matt
Martyniuk GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/cd/Velociraptor_dinoguy2
.jpg
evolve (New World opossums).
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p231. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p231.
[2] Description English: North
American Opossum with winter
coat. Français : Opossum de Virginie
en livrée d'hiver. Deutsch: Ein
Nordopossum (Didelphis virginiana) im
Winterfell Date 21 February
2007 Source
Wikipedia:User:Cody.pope Author
Cody Pope CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/27/Opossum_2.jpg
"Megachiroptera" {KIroPTRu} (Old World
fruit bats) and "Microchiroptera"
(Echolocating Bats) evolve.
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p200. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p200.
[2] Description Livingstone’s
Fruit Bat Pteropus livingstonii in
Bristol Zoo, Bristol, England. An
alternative name is Livingstone's
Flying Fox. Lives in the Comoro
Islands near Madagascar in the Indian
Ocean. Eats fruit, leaves and
flowers. Wingspan 1.4 metres. Date
September 2005 Source
Photographed by Adrian
Pingstone PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/ca/Bristol.zoo.livfruitb
at.arp.jpg
{SiToRTEODaKTilu} evolve (ancestor of
all Artiodactyla {oRTEODaKTiLu} also
called "even-toed ungulates" {uNGYUlATS
or uNGYUliTS}: camels, pigs, ruminants
{includes deer, giraffe, cattle, sheep,
and antelope}, hippos, and all Cetacea
{SiTASEu or SiTAsEu}: Whales, and
Dolphins).
Hippos are the closest living relative
to whales.
Cetartiodactyla is an unranked
taxonomic group, equivalent to a
superorder, containing the orders
Artiodactyla and Cetacea. It is
proposed on the basis of molecular
evidence suggesting a close
evolutionary relationship between the
two orders.
The artiodactyla are an order
comprising the even-toed ungulates
(hoofed mammals). There are two main
radiations: the predominantly
omnivorous Bunodontia, including suoids
(such as pigs, peccaries, and hippos);
and the more herbivorous Selenodontia,
including camels and ruminants (such as
deer, giraffe, cattle, sheep, and
antelope). Artiodactyla contains about
213 living species, making it the fifth
most speciose order of mammals. First
known from the early Eocene,
artiodactyls have proliferated during
the last 55 million years to reach
great diversity (especially among the
family Bovidae). Their radiation is
often contrasted with that of the
odd-toed ungulates, or Perissodactyla
(horses, rhinos, and tapirs).
Artiodactyls are also important for
human economy and agriculture,
comprising most of the domestic
animals, providing milk, wool, and most
of the meat supply.
Ruminants are any of various hoofed,
even-toed, usually horned mammals of
the suborder Ruminantia, such as
cattle, sheep, goats, deer, and
giraffes, characteristically having a
stomach divided into four compartments
and chewing a cud consisting of
regurgitated, partially digested food.
Cetacea is an order or marine mammals
that includes the whales, dolphins, and
porpoises, characterized by a nearly
hairless body, anterior limbs modified
into broad flippers, vestigial
posterior limbs, and a flat notched
tail.
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p200. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p200.
[2] [t may or may not be
accurate] Description Pakicetus
inachus, a whale ancestor from the
Early Eocene of Pakistan, after
Nummelai et al., (2006), pencil
drawing, digital coloring Date 29
November 2007 Source Own
work Author Nobu Tamura
email:nobu.tamura@yahoo.com
www.palaeocritti.com GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/34/Pakicetus_BW.jpg
evolve (Shrew opossums).
The Marsupial Order Paucituberculata
contains 6 surviving species confined
to Andes mountains in South America.
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p231. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p231.
[2] English: Shrew opossum (Family:
Caenolestidae) Author: pl.wiki:
Dixi PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d5/Shrew_opossum_-_Caeno
lestidae.png
"Perissodactyla" {PeriSODaKTilu} evolve
(also called "odd-toed ungulates")
{uNGYUlATS or uNGYUliTS} (Horses,
Tapirs {TAPRZ }, Rhinos).
Perissodactyla is an order of
herbivorous, odd-toed, hoofed mammals,
including the living horses, zebras,
asses, tapirs, rhinoceroses, and their
extinct relatives. They are defined by
a number of unique specializations, but
the most diagnostic feature is their
feet. Most perissodactyls have either
one or three toes on each foot, and the
axis of symmetry of the foot runs
through the middle digit.
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p200. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p200.
[2] Description Two young Nokota
mares Date 2010-02-11 22:34
(UTC) Source
Nokota_Horses.jpg Author
Nokota_Horses.jpg: François Marchal
derivative work: Dana boomer
(talk) CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/de/Nokota_Horses_cropped
.jpg
(Monoclonius, Styrakosaurus,
Triceratops). Triceratops, is the
largest of its kind, reaching 30 feet
in length.
[1] Description Life restoration
of Monoclonius Date 1917 Source
http://digitallibrary.amnh.org/dspa
ce/bitstream/2246/1336/1/B037a10.pdf Au
thor Richard
Deckert Permission (Reusing this
file) See below. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1f/Monoclonius.jpg
[2] Description Monoclonius
nasicornis skeleton.[1] Date
1920 Source
http://www.copyrightexpired.com/ear
lyimage/bones/sharp/display_naturalhisto
ry1920_monoclonius.htm Author
BARNUM BROWN PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c4/Sharp_naturalhistory1
920_monoclonius.jpg
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p225. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p225.
[2] Description An aardvark at
Detroit Zoo Date 15 April
2008 Source Cropped from
File:Porcs formiguers (Orycteropus
afer).jpg Author MontageMan is
the author of the original image, I did
the crop Permission (Reusing this
file) See below. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8a/Porc_formiguer.JPG
(Cats, Dogs, Bears, Weasels, Hyenas,
Seals, Walruses).
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p200. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p200.
[2] Description English:
Two-spotted palm civet Nandinia
binotata mounted specimen in Manchester
Museum Date 2008-07-28 (original
upload date) (Original text : July
2008) GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5a/14-nandinia_binotata.
JPG
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p200. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p200.
[2] Description English: Pangolin,
Manis javanica Deutsch: Schuppentier,
Manis javanica Date May
2006 2007-03-12 (original upload
date) (Original text : mai
2006) Source photo taken by:
de:User:Piekfrosch Originally from
de.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. (Original text : selbst
fotografiert) Author Original
uploader was Piekfrosch at
de.wikipedia (Original text :
Piekfrosch
(Wikipedia-User)) Permission (Reusing
this file) Licensed under the GFDL
by the author. GFDL
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/42/Pangolin_borneo.jpg
"Lamiales" {lAmEAlEZ} evolves.
Lamiales includes lavender, mint,
peppermint, basil, marjoram {moRJ
uruM}, oregano, perilla, rosemary,
sage, savory, thyme, teak, sesame,
corkscrew plants, bladderwort,
snapdragon, olive, ash, lilac, and
jasmine.
[1] Common Bugle (Ajuga reptans) GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ajuga-reptans01.jpg
[2] Calamintha grandiflora. GFDL by
Kurt Stueber
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Calamintha_grandiflora2.jpg
Peramelemorphia evolves (Bandicoots and
Bilbies {BiLBEZ}).
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p231. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p231.
[2] Description Eastern Barred
Bandicoot (Perameles gunnii), Poimena
Reserve, Austin's Ferry, Tasmania,
Australia. The photo taken at night
with off camera flashes. Date 31
July 2010 Source Own work Author
Noodle snacks
(http://www.noodlesnacks.com/) CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8b/Perameles_gunni.jpg
dinosaurs known are common (both
Therapods {tERePoD}): Tyrannosaurus rex
is the top predator in North America
and Giganotosaurus is in South America.
[1] Description English: View of the
fossil/cast Tyranausaurus Rex at the
Royal Tyrell Museum in Alberta, Canada.
The image has been modified to remove
background persons and
objects. Français : Le fossile du
Tyranausaurus Rex dans le Royal Tyrell
Museum en Alberta au Canada. L'image a
été modifié pour enlever les
personnes et objets en arrière
plan. Date 27 June 2010 Source
Own work Author Pierre
Camateros CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a8/Fossil_Tyranausaurus_
Rex_at_the_Royal_Tyrell_Museum%2C_Albert
a%2C_Canada.jpg
[2] Description English: The
Wonderful Paleo Art of Heinrich Harder
- Illustrations for Die Wunder der
Urwelt 1912 Date 1912 Source
http://www.copyrightexpired.com/Hei
nrich_Harder/gigantosaurus_dwdu_1912.htm
l Author Heinrich Harder
(1858-1935) Permission (Reusing this
file) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/92/500_gigantosaurus_dwd
u1912cropped.jpg
ankylosaurs evolve (shield back and/or
clubbed tail dinosaurs) and are the
most heavily armored land-animals
known. These plant-eating dinosaurs are
low to the ground for optimal
protection. Many have spikes that stick
out from their bone-covered back.
Ankylosaurus even has bony plates on
its eyelids.
[1] Description the image shows an
edmontonia. a sort of dinosaur Date
5 July 2006 Source the image
i did myself based on the images found
here: [1], [2],[3] and [4] Author
Mariana Ruiz (aka:LadyofHats) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/92/Edmontonia_dinosaur.p
ng
[2] Fig 3.38 from Kardong,
''Vertebrates'', p116,
2002. COPYRIGHTED
source: Kardong, "Vertebrates", p116,
2002.
reptiles evolve.
[1] Description English: Mosasaurus
skeleton; Maastricht Natural History
Museum, The Netherlands. Date 9
August 2010 Source Own
work Author
Wilson44691 Permission (Reusing
this file) See
below. Photograph taken by Mark A.
Wilson (Department of Geology, The
College of Wooster). PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/06/MosasaurMaastricht080
910.JPG
[2] Restoration of Aigialosaurus
bucchichi, a basal
mosasaur Description Aigialosaurus
bucchichi Date 2009 Source Own
work Author FunkMonk (Michael B.
H.) CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Aigialosaurus_b
ucchichi.jpg/1280px-Aigialosaurus_bucchi
chi.jpg
{PoDiSiPeDeFORmEZ} (grebes {GreBS}).
[1] Fig. 4. Our phylogeny differs from
and agrees with previous
classifications. We merged
well-supported (>70% bootstrap values)
monophyletic clades at the tips with
the same ordinal designation across all
three classifications (e.g., 24 species
called Passerines). Only higher
relationships supported by bootstrap
values >50% are shown. Colors are as in
Fig. 2. Color bars to the right of the
tree show membership in three different
classifications: Peters' (25) (left),
Sibley and Monroe's (30) (middle), and
Livezey and Zusi's (13) (right). Black
text within the bars indicates
monophyletic orders in our phylogeny,
whereas white text within the bars
indicates nonmonophyletic orders.
Ordinal name codes: ANS (Anseriformes),
APO (Apodiformes), APT
(Apterygiformes), ARD (Ardeiformes),
BAL (Balaenicipitiformes), BUC
(Bucerotiformes), CAP
(Caprimulgiformes), CAS
(Casuariiformes), CHA
(Charadriiformes), CIC (Ciconiiformes),
CLM (Columbiformes), COL (Coliiformes),
COR (Coraciiformes), CRA (Craciformes),
CUC (Cuculiformes), FAL
(Falconiformes), GAL (Galliformes), GAV
(Gaviiformes), GLB (Galbuliformes), GRU
(Gruiformes), MUS (Musophagiformes),
OPI (Opisthocomiformes), PAS
(Passeriformes), PEL (Pelecaniformes),
PIC (Piciformes), POD
(Podicipediformes), PRO
(Procellariiformes), PSI
(Psittaciformes), RAL (Ralliformes),
RHE (Rheiformes), SPH
(Sphenisciformes), STH
(Struthioniformes), STR (Strigiformes),
TIN (Tinamiformes), TRC
(Trochiliformes), TRO (Trogoniformes),
TUR (Turniciformes), and UPU
(Upupiformes). Figure 4
from: Hackett, Shannon J. et al. “A
Phylogenomic Study of Birds Reveals
Their Evolutionary History.” Science
320.5884 (2008) : 1763 -1768.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763/F4.large.jpg
[2] Description Podiceps
nigricollis English: Black-necked
Grebe, Jan. 2007, Ibaraki
JAPAN 日本語:
ハジロカイツブリ 2007年1月
茨城県神栖市波崎
(投稿者自身による撮影) Date
5 January 2007 Source photo
taken by Maga-chan Author
Maga-chan CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/66/Podiceps_nigricollis_
001.jpg
moles.
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p225. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p225.
[2] Beschreibung/ description: Großer
Tenrek (Tenrec ecaudatus) Quelle/
source: selber fotografiert auf der
Insel La Réunion im Juni 2003/
selfmade on island La Réunion.
photo taken by de:User:Markus Fink
Fotograf oder Zeichner: Markus Fink
first upload: Dec 6, 2004 -
de:Wikipedia by the photographer GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p225. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p225.
[2] Description A picture of a
male Black and Rufous Elephant Shrew at
the National Zoo. The Elephant shrew is
part of the small mammals exhibit at
the zoo. Date 16 June
2007 Source Own work Author
ZeWrestler PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c5/Rhynchocyon_petersi_o
ne.JPG
"Lagomorpha": Rabbits, Hares, and Pikas
{PIKuZ}.
Rabbits were once classified as
rodents, because they also have very
prominent gnawing teeth at the front,
but were separated into their own order
called "Lagomorpha". Lagomorphs and
rodents are grouped together in a
cohort named "Glires".
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p187. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p187.
[2] Description English: A rabbit
(A cottontail, I think) posing on the
grounds of Pompeys Pillar National
Monument. Date 10 June
2008 Source © 2008 Larry D.
Moore Author Photograph created
by Larry D. Moore (Nv8200p on
en.wikipedia) using a Kodak P880
camera. Permission (Reusing this
file) Attribution Specification:
For any reuse or distribution of this
image, please attribute with at least
the photographer's name Larry D. Moore
along with the license information (I
recommend a Creative Commons (CC)
license) in a format of your choosing.
Examples: (CC) Larry D. Moore or GFDL
photo by Larry D. Moore or Image by
Larry D. Moore, used under a Creative
Commons ShareAlike License. Please
provide a link back to this page if at
all possible. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3b/Rabbit_in_montana.jpg
Colugos {KolUGOZ}.
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p182. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p182.
[2] Description English: Indian
Tree-shrew (Anathana ellioti) in
Yercaud, India. Date Taken on
film in the 1990s - scanned on
2005-09-26 (according to EXIF
data) Source Photographed by S.
Karthikeyan ( palmfly at gmail . com )
Please contact author for usage of any
higher resolution images. Author
S. Karthikeyan CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/78/Anathana_ellioti.jpg
Gigantoraptor.
[1] Alive, the beast is thought to have
been 8 metres long, 3.5 metres high at
the hip and 1,400 kilograms in weight -
35 times as heavy as its next largest
family members and 300 times the size
of smaller ones such as Caudiperyx. It
has been classified as a new species
and genus: Gigantoraptor erlianensis.
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/news/2007/
070611/full/070611-9.html
[2] Claro Cortes IV/Reuters A model
of the Gigantoraptor''s
head. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nytimes.com/2007/06/1
3/science/13cnd-dino.html?_r=1&hp&oref=s
login
flying animal ever known,
Quetzalcoatlus {KeTZLKWoTLuS}.
Quetzalcoatlus has a
wing span of 40 ft.
[1] Description English: fossil of
Quetzalcoatlus, an extinct
pterosaur Date June 2009 Source
Own work Author
Ghedoghedo GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/ab/Quetzalcoatlus_1.JPG
[2] Description Size comparison
of the azhdarchid pterosaurs
Quetzalcoatlus northropi and
Quetzalcoatlus unnamed species, with a
human. Modified from a diagram featured
in Witton and Naish (2008). Date
29 May 2008 Source Own
work Author Matt Martyniuk
(Dinoguy2), Mark Witton and Darren
Naish CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e5/Quetzscale1.png
the Cenozoic Era, and the end of the
Cretaceous (145.5-65.5 mybn), and start
of the Tertiary (65.5-1.8 mybn) Period.
[1] Geologic Time Scale 2009 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.geosociety.org/scienc
e/timescale/timescl.pdf
47% of all genera are observed
extinct.
Dinosaurs become extinct.
Also called the K-T
(Kretaceous-Tertiary) extinction.
Huge amounts of
lava erupted from India, and a comet or
meteor collided with the Earth in what
is now the Yucatan Peninsula of Mexico.
No large animals survived on land, in
the air, or in the sea.
Extinction of 60% of plant species, and
all dinosaurs, mosasaurs, pterodactyls,
plesiosaurs and pliosaurs.
[1] Cretaceous meteor impact.
COPYRIGHTED Benjamin Cummings.
source: http://io.uwinnipeg.ca/~simmons/
16cm05/1116/16macro.htm
[2] Timeline of mass extinctions.
COPYRIGHTED Benjamin Cummings.
source: http://io.uwinnipeg.ca/~simmons/
16cm05/1116/16macro.htm
species of fossil mammals after the
extinction of the dinosaurs.
Most early Cenozoic mammal fossils are
small.
evolve (cranes, rails, bustards).
[1] Fig. 4. Our phylogeny differs from
and agrees with previous
classifications. We merged
well-supported (>70% bootstrap values)
monophyletic clades at the tips with
the same ordinal designation across all
three classifications (e.g., 24 species
called Passerines). Only higher
relationships supported by bootstrap
values >50% are shown. Colors are as in
Fig. 2. Color bars to the right of the
tree show membership in three different
classifications: Peters' (25) (left),
Sibley and Monroe's (30) (middle), and
Livezey and Zusi's (13) (right). Black
text within the bars indicates
monophyletic orders in our phylogeny,
whereas white text within the bars
indicates nonmonophyletic orders.
Ordinal name codes: ANS (Anseriformes),
APO (Apodiformes), APT
(Apterygiformes), ARD (Ardeiformes),
BAL (Balaenicipitiformes), BUC
(Bucerotiformes), CAP
(Caprimulgiformes), CAS
(Casuariiformes), CHA
(Charadriiformes), CIC (Ciconiiformes),
CLM (Columbiformes), COL (Coliiformes),
COR (Coraciiformes), CRA (Craciformes),
CUC (Cuculiformes), FAL
(Falconiformes), GAL (Galliformes), GAV
(Gaviiformes), GLB (Galbuliformes), GRU
(Gruiformes), MUS (Musophagiformes),
OPI (Opisthocomiformes), PAS
(Passeriformes), PEL (Pelecaniformes),
PIC (Piciformes), POD
(Podicipediformes), PRO
(Procellariiformes), PSI
(Psittaciformes), RAL (Ralliformes),
RHE (Rheiformes), SPH
(Sphenisciformes), STH
(Struthioniformes), STR (Strigiformes),
TIN (Tinamiformes), TRC
(Trochiliformes), TRO (Trogoniformes),
TUR (Turniciformes), and UPU
(Upupiformes). Figure 4
from: Hackett, Shannon J. et al. “A
Phylogenomic Study of Birds Reveals
Their Evolutionary History.” Science
320.5884 (2008) : 1763 -1768.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763/F4.large.jpg
[2] By Aaron Logan, from
http://www.lightmatter.net/gallery/album
s.php w:en:Creative
Commons attribution CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8d/Grey_Crowned_Crane.jp
g
{STriJiFORmEZ} evolve (owls).
[1] Fig. 4. Our phylogeny differs from
and agrees with previous
classifications. We merged
well-supported (>70% bootstrap values)
monophyletic clades at the tips with
the same ordinal designation across all
three classifications (e.g., 24 species
called Passerines). Only higher
relationships supported by bootstrap
values >50% are shown. Colors are as in
Fig. 2. Color bars to the right of the
tree show membership in three different
classifications: Peters' (25) (left),
Sibley and Monroe's (30) (middle), and
Livezey and Zusi's (13) (right). Black
text within the bars indicates
monophyletic orders in our phylogeny,
whereas white text within the bars
indicates nonmonophyletic orders.
Ordinal name codes: ANS (Anseriformes),
APO (Apodiformes), APT
(Apterygiformes), ARD (Ardeiformes),
BAL (Balaenicipitiformes), BUC
(Bucerotiformes), CAP
(Caprimulgiformes), CAS
(Casuariiformes), CHA
(Charadriiformes), CIC (Ciconiiformes),
CLM (Columbiformes), COL (Coliiformes),
COR (Coraciiformes), CRA (Craciformes),
CUC (Cuculiformes), FAL
(Falconiformes), GAL (Galliformes), GAV
(Gaviiformes), GLB (Galbuliformes), GRU
(Gruiformes), MUS (Musophagiformes),
OPI (Opisthocomiformes), PAS
(Passeriformes), PEL (Pelecaniformes),
PIC (Piciformes), POD
(Podicipediformes), PRO
(Procellariiformes), PSI
(Psittaciformes), RAL (Ralliformes),
RHE (Rheiformes), SPH
(Sphenisciformes), STH
(Struthioniformes), STR (Strigiformes),
TIN (Tinamiformes), TRC
(Trochiliformes), TRO (Trogoniformes),
TUR (Turniciformes), and UPU
(Upupiformes). Figure 4
from: Hackett, Shannon J. et al. “A
Phylogenomic Study of Birds Reveals
Their Evolutionary History.” Science
320.5884 (2008) : 1763 -1768.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763/F4.large.jpg
[2] Description Athene
noctua English: Little owl Español:
Mochuelo Date 2011-02-27 07:27
(UTC) Source
Athene_noctua_(portrait).jpg Author
Athene_noctua_(portrait).jpg:
Trebol-a derivative work:
Stemonitis (talk) CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/39/Athene_noctua_%28crop
ped%29.jpg
"Notoryctemorphia" evolve (Marsupial
moles).
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p231. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p231.
[2] English: The southern marsupial
mole (Notoryctes typhlops). Date
Originally uploaded to
pl.wikipedia on 10 May 2006. Source
Own work; originally from
pl.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. Author Bartus.malec at
pl.wikipedia. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/4b/Notoryctes_typhlops.j
pg
"Dasyuromorphia" (Tasmanian Devil,
Numbat).
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p231. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p231.
[2] Description English: Quoll
imaged at a rescue park, Tasmania,
Austrailia, probably Tiger Quoll
(Dasyurus maculatus), indicated by
spots on tail Photographer's note.
This is a lucky through-the-fence shot
using an old Sony camera as the animal
was quite active. The small size of the
lens is a distinct advantage in this
case (my Canon xTi would not have been
able to get the
shot). Category:Dasyurus
maculatus Date Taken November 18,
2008, uploaded December 28, 2008 (28
December 2008 (original upload
date)) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia; transferred to Commons by
User:Berichard using CommonsHelper. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f6/Dasyurus_maculatus.jp
g
evolves (Monita Del Monte).
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p231. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p231.
[2] [t may or may not be
accurate] Description Dromiciops
gliroides Polski: Beztorbik bambusowy
- rysunek własny released by Dixi (c)
2004 under pl:GNU FDL Date
2004-05-19 (original upload
date) Source Transferred from
pl.wikipedia; Transfer was stated to be
made by User:Aroche. Author Drawn
by Dixi from pl.wikipedia GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b3/Dromiciops_gliroides.
jpg
"Diprotodontia" {DIPrOTODoNsEu} evolve
(Wombats, Kangeroos, Possums, Koalas).
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p231. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p231.
[2] Eastern Grey Kangaroo with
joey PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0d/Kangaroo_and_joey03.j
pg
"Rodentia".
Rodent suborder: "Myomorpha" {MIemORFu}
(rats, mice, gerbils, voles {VOLZ},
lemmings, hamsters).
Rodents are an order of mammals
characterized by a single pair of
ever-growing upper and lower incisors,
a maximum of five upper and four lower
cheek teeth on each side, and free
movement of the lower jaw in an
anteroposterior direction.
Rodents are the most diverse group of
mammals on Earth, consisting of over
2000 species, more than 40% of the
known species of mammals on Earth
today. Rodents range in size from mice,
weighing only a few grams, to the
Central American capybara, which is up
to 130 cm (4 ft) in length and weighs
up to 79 kg (170 lb). Rodents have been
found on every continent except
Antarctica. Rodents include the
semiaquatic swimming (beavers and
muskrats), gliding ("flying"
squirrels), burrowing (gophers and
African mole rats), arboreal (dormice
and tree squirrels), and hopping
(kangaroo rats and jerboas). Nearly all
rodents are herbivorous, with a few
exceptions that are partially
insectivorous to totally omnivorous,
such as the domestic rat. The great
adaptability and rapid evolution and
diversity of rodents are mainly due to
their short gestation periods (only 3
weeks in some mice) and rapid turnover
of generations. The most diagnostic
feature of the Rodentia is the presence
of two pair of ever-growing incisors
(one pair above and one below) at the
front of the jaws. These teeth have
enamel only on the front surface, which
allows them to wear into a chisellike
shape, giving rodents the ability to
gnaw.
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p187. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p187.
[2] Description Русский:
Мышь домовая Mus
musculus Date 24 November
2008 Source Own work Author
George Shuklin
(talk) Permission (Reusing this file)
See below. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0d/%D0%9C%D1%8B%D1%88%D1
%8C_2.jpg
Pocket mice and kangaroo rats evolve.
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p187. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p187.
[2] Description he was happily
sitting back and munching on something.
and munching, and munching... Date
4 July 2007, 12:55 Source
American Beaver Author Steve
from washington, dc,
usa Permission (Reusing this file)
See below. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6b/American_Beaver.jpg
splits from the Even-Toed Ungulates
line (Cetardiodactyla).
This is just after death of dinosaurs.
Both these ancestors are still small
and probably look like shrews.
[1] Fig. 2. Molecular time scale for
the orders of placental mammals based
on the 16,397-bp data set and maximum
likelihood tree of ref. 14 with an
opossum outgroup (data not shown), 13
fossil constraints (Materials and
Methods), and a mean prior of 105 mya
for the placental root. Ordinal
designations are listed above the
branches. Orange and green lines denote
orders with basal diversification
before or after the K/T boundary,
respectively. Black lines depict orders
for which only one taxon was available.
Asterisks denote placental taxa
included in the ''K/T body size'' taxon
set. The composition of chimeric taxa,
including caniform, caviomorph,
strepsirrhine, and sirenian, is
indicated elsewhere (14). Numbers for
internal nodes are cross-referenced in
the supporting information.
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.pnas.org/content/vol1
00/issue3/images/large/pq0334222002.jpeg
[2] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p200. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p200.
{SiTaS-iFORmEZ} (Parrots).
[1] Brown, Joseph, Joshua Rest, Jaime
G. Moreno, Michael Sorenson, and David
Mindell. ''Strong mitochondrial DNA
support for a Cretaceous origin of
modern avian lineages.'' BMC Biology 6
(January 2008):
6:6. http://www.biomedcentral.com/1741-
7007/6/6 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.biomedcentral.com/174
1-7007/6/6
[2] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p262. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p262.
Scaly-tailed Squirrels.
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p187. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p187.
[2] Description English: Captive
Springhare, Henry Doorly Zoo, Omaha
Nebraska. Date 2007-06-14
(original upload date) Source
Originally from en.wikipedia;
description page is/was here. Author
Original uploader was Devonpike at
en.wikipedia PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/63/Springharelg.jpg
Africa or the Indian subcontinent.
The order primates contains more than
300 species, including monkeys, apes,
and humans. The primates are one of the
most diverse orders of mammals on
Earth. They include the lemurs (more
than 70 species in six families), the
lorises (three or more species in one
subfamily), the tarsiers (six or more
species in one family), the New World
monkeys (almost 100 species in five
families), the Old World monkeys (more
than 100 species in one family), and
the apes and humans (about 20 species
in two families). The oldest known
fossil remains of primates are about 60
million years old.
Unlike most other mammalian orders, the
primates cannot be defined by a
diagnostic suite of specializations,
but are characterized by a combination
of primitive features and progressive
trends. These include: 1) Increased
dominance of vision over olfaction,
with eyes more frontally directed,
development of stereoscopic vision, and
reduction in the length of the snout.
2) Eye sockets of the skull completely
encircled by bone. 3) Loss of an
incisor and premolar from each half of
the upper and lower jaws with respect
to primitive placental mammals. 4)
Increased size and complexity of the
brain, especially those centers
involving vision, memory, and learning.
5) Development of grasping hands and
feet, with a tendency to use the hands
rather than the snout as the primary
exploratory and manipulative organ. 6)
Progressive elaboration of the placenta
in conjunction with longer gestation
period, small litter size (only one or
two infants), and precocial young. 7)
Increased period of infant dependency
and more intensive parenting.
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p168. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p168.
[2] Description English: Gray
slender loris (Loris lydekkerianus)
photographed at Dindigal in Tamil
Nadu. Date 27 June 2008 Source
Own work Author Kalyan Varma
(Kalyanvarma) GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8f/Slender_Loris.jpg
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p225. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p225.
[2] African Bush Elephant, Loxodonta
africana Description פיל
אפריקאי צילום מגיסטר
2003 Date 2005-04-01 (original
upload date) Source Originally
from he.wikipedia; description page
is/was here. Author Original
uploader was Magister at
he.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5d/AfricanElephant.jpg
mountains start to form.
[1] Andes, 70.30345W, 42.99203S NASA
World Wind screenshot. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2d/Andes_70.30345W_42.99
203S.jpg
Creodonts {KrEuDoNTS} like Oxyaena are
common.
Creodonts are the dominant predators
throughout the Eocene and Oligocene and
occupy many of the same niches as the
carnivores which eventually replace
them. There are two families of
Creodonts, Oxyaenidae and the more
widespread Hyaenodontidae which
includes Megistotherium one of the
largest land predators to have ever
lived.
The last creodont, Dissopsalis
carnifex, became extinct about 9
million years ago, giving the group a
more than 50-million-year history.
[1] Description Patriofelis
ferox Date 2000 Source
dmitrchel@mail.ru Author
[show]Dmitry Bogdanov Link back to
Creator infobox template GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Patriofelis22DB
.jpg/1114px-Patriofelis22DB.jpg
[2] Description Hyaenodon
cayluxi Date January 2007 Source
took the foto on the ''Muséum
national d'Histoire naturelle,
Paris'' Author Ghedo PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/db/Hyaenodon_cayluxi.JPG
The earliest primate fossils belong to
the primate order "Plesiadapiformes"
and are found near the start of the
Paleocene (~55 mybn). These include
Purgatorius from Montana, Plesiadapis,
and Dryomomys from Wyoming, and
Altiatlasius which appears in Africa
and is known from a handful of isolated
upper and lower teeth from Morocco.
During the early Cenozoic the Earth is
much warmer and more densely populated
with plants and trees, and there is a
large diversity of different early
primates, but the planet becomes cooler
and drier in the Oligocene and the
forests disappear and primates vanish
from North America and Europe and
become restricted to Southeast Asia and
Africa. During the Oligocene, one group
of primates, the New World Monkeys
(Cebidae) manage to cross the South
Atlantic Ocean and then radiate into
great diversity.
Clarks Fork Basin, Wyoming, USA), and
Montana, USA
[1] [t Note this is not a
reconstruction of the 60my old fossils
from Morocco but 55my fossils from
North America] Dryomomys 55 million
years ago We've now arrived at one of
your very earliest precursors,
Dryomomys. Something like this creature
begot something that begot something
that, after that eternity of time,
begot you—only time separates the two
of you. Now, imagine if you could erase
that intervening eternity for a moment
and meet your hugely distant forebear.
At a smidgen bigger than a mouse, this
nearly eldest of all your elders would
fit snugly in the palm of your
hand. Your Ancestor's
Profile Dryomomys is the most
primitive primate known from good
fossil material. (The first known
primate, Purgatorius, dating back as
far as 65 million years ago, is known
only from isolated teeth and jaw
fragments.) The animal most like
Dryomomys today is a wee being called
the pen-tailed tree shrew. Dryomomys
would have weighed about 1.3 ounces,
roughly akin to that of the smallest
living primates, the mouse lemurs of
Madagascar. Like its cousin, the
roughly contemporary but more advanced
Carpolestes, the Dryomomys skeleton
that the reconstruction is based on was
unearthed in Wyoming. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/sci
encenow/0303/images/02-mya-09.jpg
[2] Outline evolutionary history of
the Primates. Skulls of modern species
(top): Lemur catta, Cheirogaleus
medius, Galago senegalensis, Loris
tardigradus, Tarsius bancanus, Cebus
apella, Callithrix humeralifer, Maccaca
sylvanus, Pan troglodytes. Fossil
species (bottom): skull of Adapis
parisiensis, lower jaw of Microchoerus
erinaceus. Scale bars: 1 cm UNKNOWN
source: http://accessscience.com/loadBin
ary.aspx?aID=7335&filename=YB060330FG001
0.gif
[1] Description English: Original
description in the English Wikipedia:
''Andrewsarchus, autor -
Bogdanov,2006.'' - Andrewsarchus
mongoliensis from the Late Eocene of
Central Asia was the largest member of
the Mesonychia, a extinct group of
carnivorous hoofed mammals. Deutsch:
Andrewsarchus mongoliensis aus dem
späten Eozän von Innerasien war der
größte Vertreter der Mesonychia, eine
Gruppe fleischfressender huftragender
Säugetiere. Русский:
Реконструкция
эндрьюсарха Date 3
June 2007 (Upload date in the English
Wikipedia) Source English
Wikipedia Author w:en:User:DiBgd
(Богданов) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/98/Andrewsarchus_DB.jpg
[2] Description Size comparison
of several giant terrestrial predators
from various periods of geologic time.
Each grid segment = 1 square
meter. Date 17 December
2007 Source Own work Author
Dinoguy2 GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/bc/Giantpredatorsscale1.
png
the line that leads to the Ruminants
(cattle, goats, sheep, giraffes, bison,
buffalo, deer, wildebeast, antelope),
hippos, dolphins, and whales.
[1] Fig. 2. Molecular time scale for
the orders of placental mammals based
on the 16,397-bp data set and maximum
likelihood tree of ref. 14 with an
opossum outgroup (data not shown), 13
fossil constraints (Materials and
Methods), and a mean prior of 105 mya
for the placental root. Ordinal
designations are listed above the
branches. Orange and green lines denote
orders with basal diversification
before or after the K/T boundary,
respectively. Black lines depict orders
for which only one taxon was available.
Asterisks denote placental taxa
included in the ''K/T body size'' taxon
set. The composition of chimeric taxa,
including caniform, caviomorph,
strepsirrhine, and sirenian, is
indicated elsewhere (14). Numbers for
internal nodes are cross-referenced in
the supporting information.
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.pnas.org/content/vol1
00/issue3/images/large/pq0334222002.jpeg
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p225. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p225.
[2] Description English:
Yellow-spotted Hyrax (Heterohyrax
brucei), Serengeti NP, Tanzania Date
1 July 2009 Source Own
work Author D. Gordon E.
Robertson Permission (Reusing this
file) CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0c/Yellow-spotted_Rock_H
yrax.jpg
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p225. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p225.
[2] Description Trichechus
manatus English: This group of three
West Indian manatees (Trichechus
manatus) was photographed while feeding
on seagrass. Date Source from
http://www.csc.noaa.gov/benthic/resource
s/gallery/life/manatee.htm Author
PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/81/Manatee.jpg
Squirrels and Marmots {moRmuTS}.
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p187. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p187.
[2] Description Membres de la
famille des Suridés Date Source
Own work Author Chicoutimi
(montage) Montage 9 pictures.jpg
Karakal AndiW National Park
Service en:User:Markus Krötzsch
The Lilac Breasted Roller Nico
Conradie from Centurion, South Africa
Hans Hillewaert Sylvouille
National Park Service GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/68/Sciuridae.jpg
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p164. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p164.
[2] Description Tarsius syrichta
(Philippine Tarsier) Date
- Source
http://www.sxc.hu/photo/490924 Aut
hor Jasper Greek Golangco PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1d/Tarsius_Syrichta-GG.j
pg
Earliest
hooved mammal fossil.
primates.
Cantius and Teilhardina are the
earliest euprimates in North America,
followed quickly by Steinius and
others. Cantius and Teilhardina also
appear in Europe with Donrussellia.
[1] Smilodectes (lemur-like family
Adapidae from the Eocene Epoch)
COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://anthro.palomar.edu/earlyp
rimates/first_primates.htm
Uintatherium {YUiNTutEREuM} are the
largest land animals at this time.
[1] Description Uintatherium Date
1890s Source
http://www.copyrightexpired.com/earlyim
age/prehistoriclifeafterkt/uertatherium0
1.html Author Charles R. Knight PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/33/Uintatherium_C_R_Knig
ht.jpg
[2] Description Uintatherium
mirabile, AMNH. Date Pre-923. Source
http://www.copyrightexpired.com/earlyim
age/bones/display_osborn_uintatherium.ht
m Author Osborn. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3d/Uintatherium.jpg
Hyractotherium, about the size of a
dog).
[1] Description English: This
reproduction of a painting of an
undetermined species of Hyracotherium
was made to illustrate one card of a
set of 30 collector cards from ''Tiere
der Urwelt'' (Animals of the
Prehistoric World). From the Series
III. Deutsch: Diese Reproduktion eines
Gemäldes einer nicht näher
bezeichneten Art von Hyracotherium
wurde zur Illustration einer Karte aus
einem Set von 30 Sammelkarten mit dem
Titel „Tiere der Urwelt“
angefertigt. Aus der Serie III. Date
1920 (probably) Source The Wonderful
Paleo Art of Heinrich Harder Author
Heinrich Harder (1858-1935) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6e/Hyracotherium_Eohippu
s_hharder.jpg
[2] The artwork depicting horse
evolution is from Professor Donald
Levin's course in BioEvolution at the
University of Texas in Austin. This is
a brief, highly illustrated course with
many examples given of macroevolution.
Notice that the generalized branching
diagram in this illustration is less
twiggy than the more bushy branching
depicted at other resources mentioned
here. UNKNOWN
source: http://darwiniana.org/equid2t.gi
f
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p187. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p187.
[2] The picture shows a Gundi
Ctenodactylus The image is a variant
of Image:Gundi Ctenodactylus gundi
051117.jpg by user de:Benutzer:BS
Thurner Hof. He tagged the image as
PD. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/37/Gundi_Ctenodactylus_g
undi_051117_2.jpg
with Hippos, Dolphins and Whales.
[1] Fig. 2. Molecular time scale for
the orders of placental mammals based
on the 16,397-bp data set and maximum
likelihood tree of ref. 14 with an
opossum outgroup (data not shown), 13
fossil constraints (Materials and
Methods), and a mean prior of 105 mya
for the placental root. Ordinal
designations are listed above the
branches. Orange and green lines denote
orders with basal diversification
before or after the K/T boundary,
respectively. Black lines depict orders
for which only one taxon was available.
Asterisks denote placental taxa
included in the ''K/T body size'' taxon
set. The composition of chimeric taxa,
including caniform, caviomorph,
strepsirrhine, and sirenian, is
indicated elsewhere (14). Numbers for
internal nodes are cross-referenced in
the supporting information.
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.pnas.org/content/vol1
00/issue3/images/large/pq0334222002.jpeg
From the Hunan Province, China. Other
fossils from the same genus are found
in Europe.
The earliest euprimates can be
distinguished as Cantius, Donrussellia
and Teilhardina.
[1] Figure 3: Strict consensus of 33
equally parsimonious trees with the
optimization of activity patterns.
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v427/n6969/fig_tab/nature02126_F3.h
tml
[2] FIGURE 1. The skull of Teilhardina
asiatica sp. nov. (IVPP V12357). a,
Dorsal view of the skull. b,
Reconstruction of the skull based on
IVPP V12357, with grey shadow
indicating the missing parts. Scale
bar, 5 mm. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v427/n6969/fig_tab/nature02126_F1.h
tml
hippos with dolphins and whales.
[1] Fig. 2. Molecular time scale for
the orders of placental mammals based
on the 16,397-bp data set and maximum
likelihood tree of ref. 14 with an
opossum outgroup (data not shown), 13
fossil constraints (Materials and
Methods), and a mean prior of 105 mya
for the placental root. Ordinal
designations are listed above the
branches. Orange and green lines denote
orders with basal diversification
before or after the K/T boundary,
respectively. Black lines depict orders
for which only one taxon was available.
Asterisks denote placental taxa
included in the ''K/T body size'' taxon
set. The composition of chimeric taxa,
including caniform, caviomorph,
strepsirrhine, and sirenian, is
indicated elsewhere (14). Numbers for
internal nodes are cross-referenced in
the supporting information.
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.pnas.org/content/vol1
00/issue3/images/large/pq0334222002.jpeg
[2] Description Deutsch: Eine
Gruppe Flußpferde im Luangwa-Tal,
Sambia. English: Pod of Hippos
(Hippopotamus amphibius) in Luangwa
Valley, Zambia Français : Groupe
d'hippopotames (Hippopotamus amphibius)
dans la vallée du Luangua, en
Zambie Date 2005 Source Own
work Author Paul Maritz GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a3/Hippo_pod_edit.jpg
"Pakicetus".
[1] Fig. 2. Molecular time scale for
the orders of placental mammals based
on the 16,397-bp data set and maximum
likelihood tree of ref. 14 with an
opossum outgroup (data not shown), 13
fossil constraints (Materials and
Methods), and a mean prior of 105 mya
for the placental root. Ordinal
designations are listed above the
branches. Orange and green lines denote
orders with basal diversification
before or after the K/T boundary,
respectively. Black lines depict orders
for which only one taxon was available.
Asterisks denote placental taxa
included in the ''K/T body size'' taxon
set. The composition of chimeric taxa,
including caniform, caviomorph,
strepsirrhine, and sirenian, is
indicated elsewhere (14). Numbers for
internal nodes are cross-referenced in
the supporting information.
. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.pnas.org/content/vol1
00/issue3/images/large/pq0334222002.jpeg
[2] Illustration by Carl Buell, and
taken from
http://www.neoucom.edu/DEPTS/ANAT/Pakice
tid.html This image is copyrighted.
The copyright holder allows anyone to
use it for any purpose, provided that
this statement is added to its caption:
''Illustration by Carl Buell, and taken
from
http://www.neoucom.edu/Depts/Anat/Pakice
tid.html ''
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Pakicetus.jpg
(Icaronycteris and Onychonycteris).
[1] a, Skeleton in dorsal view. b,
Skull in ventral view. c, Sternum in
ventral view. Scale bars, 1 cm. All
elements are preserved on a single slab
with the skeleton exposed on one side,
and the skull and sternum on the
reverse. The counter-part slab (ROM
55351B, not shown) preserves
impressions of parts of the dorsal
aspect of the skeleton. Features
labelled: 1, calcar; 2, cranial tip of
stylohyal; 3, orbicular apophysis of
malleus; 4, keel on manubrium of
sternum. Figure 1 from: Simmons, N.
B., Seymour, K. L., Habersetzer, J. &
Gunnell, G. F. Primitive early Eocene
bat from Wyoming and the evolution of
flight and echolocation. Nature 451,
818–821 (2008)
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
451/n7180/full/nature06549.html COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v451/n7180/images/nature06549-f1.2.
jpg
[2] Figure from: Jepsen, G.L.;
MacPhee, R. D. E. (1966). ''Early
Eocene bat from Wyoming''. Science 154
(3754): 1333–1339.
doi:10.1126/science.154.3754.1333. PMID
17770307. http://www.sciencemag.org/con
tent/154/3754/1333
and http://www.jstor.org/stable/1720355
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1720
355
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p187. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p187.
[2] Photograph of a brush-tailed
porcupine in Berlin Zoologischer
Garten. Taken by Eloquence in July 2005
and released into the public
domain. Public domain PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/21/Brush_tailed_porcupin
e_Berlin_Zoo.jpg
fossil, an unnamed fossil from Algeria.
as India collides with Eurasia.
This
will continue for millions of years.
Bushbabies, Pottos {PoTTOZ}.
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p168. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p168.
[2] Description English: Gray
slender loris (Loris lydekkerianus)
photographed at Dindigal in Tamil
Nadu. Date 27 June 2008 Source
Own work Author Kalyan Varma
(Kalyanvarma) GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8f/Slender_Loris.jpg
whale) fossil.
[1] Ambulocetus natans in action. A
reconstruction of an early close cousin
of whales. by artist Carl
Buell. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.indiana.edu/~ensiweb/
images/whal.amb.jpeg
[2] Ambulocetus The name Ambulocetus
gives away its early ancestry. It means
'walking whale'. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.abc.net.au/beasts/evi
dence/prog1/images/evi_amulocetus_large.
jpg
animals of the Paleocene and Eocene
epochs were flightless birds, like
Diatryma from America, and Gastornis
from Europe.
[1] Diatryma The extinct Eocene bird
Diatryma was up to nine feet high. It
is shown here chasing down an oreodont
artiodactyl. (after Spinar 1972, from
Price 1996) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.mun.ca/biology/scarr/
Diatryma_giant_bird.gif
[2] Diatrymaby ~ministerart Digital
Art / 3-Dimensional Art / Characters /
Animals & Creatures ©2010-2012
~ministerart COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.deviantart.com/downlo
ad/154444542/Diatryma_by_ministerart.jpg
(nightjars, night hawks, potoos,
oilbirds).
[1] Fig. 4. Our phylogeny differs from
and agrees with previous
classifications. We merged
well-supported (>70% bootstrap values)
monophyletic clades at the tips with
the same ordinal designation across all
three classifications (e.g., 24 species
called Passerines). Only higher
relationships supported by bootstrap
values >50% are shown. Colors are as in
Fig. 2. Color bars to the right of the
tree show membership in three different
classifications: Peters' (25) (left),
Sibley and Monroe's (30) (middle), and
Livezey and Zusi's (13) (right). Black
text within the bars indicates
monophyletic orders in our phylogeny,
whereas white text within the bars
indicates nonmonophyletic orders.
Ordinal name codes: ANS (Anseriformes),
APO (Apodiformes), APT
(Apterygiformes), ARD (Ardeiformes),
BAL (Balaenicipitiformes), BUC
(Bucerotiformes), CAP
(Caprimulgiformes), CAS
(Casuariiformes), CHA
(Charadriiformes), CIC (Ciconiiformes),
CLM (Columbiformes), COL (Coliiformes),
COR (Coraciiformes), CRA (Craciformes),
CUC (Cuculiformes), FAL
(Falconiformes), GAL (Galliformes), GAV
(Gaviiformes), GLB (Galbuliformes), GRU
(Gruiformes), MUS (Musophagiformes),
OPI (Opisthocomiformes), PAS
(Passeriformes), PEL (Pelecaniformes),
PIC (Piciformes), POD
(Podicipediformes), PRO
(Procellariiformes), PSI
(Psittaciformes), RAL (Ralliformes),
RHE (Rheiformes), SPH
(Sphenisciformes), STH
(Struthioniformes), STR (Strigiformes),
TIN (Tinamiformes), TRC
(Trochiliformes), TRO (Trogoniformes),
TUR (Turniciformes), and UPU
(Upupiformes). Figure 4
from: Hackett, Shannon J. et al. “A
Phylogenomic Study of Birds Reveals
Their Evolutionary History.” Science
320.5884 (2008) : 1763 -1768.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763/F4.large.jpg
[2] Description A wild Tawny
Frogmouth, Podargus strigoides, image
taken at night hence the black
background. Taken in south east
Australia Date Source Own
work Author Benjamint444 GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/44/Tawny_frogmouth_whole
body444.jpg
{FaLKeNiFORmEZ} (falcons, hawks,
eagles, Old World vultures).
[1] Fig. 4. Our phylogeny differs from
and agrees with previous
classifications. We merged
well-supported (>70% bootstrap values)
monophyletic clades at the tips with
the same ordinal designation across all
three classifications (e.g., 24 species
called Passerines). Only higher
relationships supported by bootstrap
values >50% are shown. Colors are as in
Fig. 2. Color bars to the right of the
tree show membership in three different
classifications: Peters' (25) (left),
Sibley and Monroe's (30) (middle), and
Livezey and Zusi's (13) (right). Black
text within the bars indicates
monophyletic orders in our phylogeny,
whereas white text within the bars
indicates nonmonophyletic orders.
Ordinal name codes: ANS (Anseriformes),
APO (Apodiformes), APT
(Apterygiformes), ARD (Ardeiformes),
BAL (Balaenicipitiformes), BUC
(Bucerotiformes), CAP
(Caprimulgiformes), CAS
(Casuariiformes), CHA
(Charadriiformes), CIC (Ciconiiformes),
CLM (Columbiformes), COL (Coliiformes),
COR (Coraciiformes), CRA (Craciformes),
CUC (Cuculiformes), FAL
(Falconiformes), GAL (Galliformes), GAV
(Gaviiformes), GLB (Galbuliformes), GRU
(Gruiformes), MUS (Musophagiformes),
OPI (Opisthocomiformes), PAS
(Passeriformes), PEL (Pelecaniformes),
PIC (Piciformes), POD
(Podicipediformes), PRO
(Procellariiformes), PSI
(Psittaciformes), RAL (Ralliformes),
RHE (Rheiformes), SPH
(Sphenisciformes), STH
(Struthioniformes), STR (Strigiformes),
TIN (Tinamiformes), TRC
(Trochiliformes), TRO (Trogoniformes),
TUR (Turniciformes), and UPU
(Upupiformes). Figure 4
from: Hackett, Shannon J. et al. “A
Phylogenomic Study of Birds Reveals
Their Evolutionary History.” Science
320.5884 (2008) : 1763 -1768.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763/F4.large.jpg
[2] Description English: Bald Eagle
(Haliaeetus leucocephalus) in
Tree Date July 2005 Source
U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service Author Hillebrand,
Steve PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/69/Haliaeetus_leucocepha
lus-tree-USFWS.jpg
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p187. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p187.
[2] Description Petromus typicus,
''Noki'' Afrikaans: 'n Dassierot,
afgeneem by Twyfelfontein, in Kunene,
Namibië Deutsch: Eine Felsenratte,
aufgenommen in Twyfelfontein, Kunene,
Namibia English: A Dassie Rat, image
taken at Twyfelfontein, in Kunene,
Namibia Date 17 August
2010 Source Namibnat,
Flickr Author Vernon
Swanepoel CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b0/Petromus_typicus.jpg
guinea pigs, agoutis {uGUTEZ},
capybaras {KaPuBoRoZ}.
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p187. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p187.
[2] Description English: A North
American porcupine (Erethizon dorsatum)
rests in a tree in Montreal's
BioDome. Date 20 July
2004 Source self-made with a
Nikon D70 Author J. Glover CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/83/Porcupine-BioDome.jpg
whale).
[1] Painting of Rodhocetus here is by
John Klausmeyer, University of Michigan
Exhibit Museum. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.paleontology.lsa.umic
h.edu/images/Rodhocetus.gif
[2] Description Rodhocetus. Date
Source Own Work by Pavel Riha (see
also the paleo-gallery by Pavel
Riha) Author Pavel Riha = user
Pavel.Riha.CB (e-mail) GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1a/Rodhocetus.jpg
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p168. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p168.
[2] Description Aye-aye
(Daubentonia madagascariensis) Date
9 May 2003 Source Own
work Author Tom Junek CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/ba/Aye-aye_%28Daubentoni
a_madagascariensis%29.jpg
start to form.
[1] Screenshot from Worldwind
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c1/Alps_from_space.png
World Monkeys" (Sakis, Spider, Howler
and Squirrel monkeys, Capuchins {KaP YU
CiNZ}, Tamarins).
The ancestor of all New World monkeys
probably originates in Africa, but all
surviving descendants now live in the
Americas, which suggests that a small
group of New World monkeys got across
the early Atlantic Ocean to South
America, perhaps by rafting on fallen
trees over a chain of islands.
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p149. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p149.
[2] Description English: A
critically endangered Brown Spider
Monkey, Ateles hybridus, with uncommon
blue eyes. Shot in captivity in
Barquisimeto,
Venezuela Русский:
Паукообразная
обезьяна Ateles hybridus с
редко встречающимися
голубыми глазами.
Сфотографирована в
неволе в
Венесуэле. Date
September 2008 Source
Image:BrownSpiderMonkey.jpg Author
http://www.birdphotos.com edit by
Fir0002 Permission (Reusing this
file) See below. Attribution must
appear on same page as photo. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/dc/BrownSpiderMonkey_%28
edit2%29.jpg
(early whale).
Basilosaurus was renamed
"Zeuglodon" by Richard Owen because it
is a mammal not a reptile
(saurus=lizard).
[1] Balisaurus UNKNOWN
source: http://images.wikia.com/prehisto
ricearth/images/4/4e/Basilosaurus.jpg
[2] Balisaurus COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.bbc.co.uk/science/sea
monsters/factfiles/images/basilosaurus_c
loseup.jpg
weasel, Hesperocyon.
[1] Description Hesperocyon
gregarius 32 - 30 million years ago;
Early Oligocene; Oldest recognized
member of the dog family. Date 10
October 2008, 10:42 Source
Hesperocyon gregarius (Dog)
Uploaded by FunkMonk Author
Claire H. from New York City,
USA Permission (Reusing this file)
CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5f/Hesperocyon_Gregarius
.jpg
[2] Description Life restoration
of Hesperocyon (Cynodictis) gregarius
from W.B. Scott's A History of Land
Mammals in the Western Hemisphere. New
York: The Macmillan Company. Date
1913 Source
http://www.archive.org/details/ahis
torylandmam00scotgoog Author
Robert Bruce
Horsfall Permission (Reusing this
file) See below. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/69/Cynodictis.jpg
{oPoD-i-FORmEZ} (hummingbirds, swifts).
[1] Fig. 4. Our phylogeny differs from
and agrees with previous
classifications. We merged
well-supported (>70% bootstrap values)
monophyletic clades at the tips with
the same ordinal designation across all
three classifications (e.g., 24 species
called Passerines). Only higher
relationships supported by bootstrap
values >50% are shown. Colors are as in
Fig. 2. Color bars to the right of the
tree show membership in three different
classifications: Peters' (25) (left),
Sibley and Monroe's (30) (middle), and
Livezey and Zusi's (13) (right). Black
text within the bars indicates
monophyletic orders in our phylogeny,
whereas white text within the bars
indicates nonmonophyletic orders.
Ordinal name codes: ANS (Anseriformes),
APO (Apodiformes), APT
(Apterygiformes), ARD (Ardeiformes),
BAL (Balaenicipitiformes), BUC
(Bucerotiformes), CAP
(Caprimulgiformes), CAS
(Casuariiformes), CHA
(Charadriiformes), CIC (Ciconiiformes),
CLM (Columbiformes), COL (Coliiformes),
COR (Coraciiformes), CRA (Craciformes),
CUC (Cuculiformes), FAL
(Falconiformes), GAL (Galliformes), GAV
(Gaviiformes), GLB (Galbuliformes), GRU
(Gruiformes), MUS (Musophagiformes),
OPI (Opisthocomiformes), PAS
(Passeriformes), PEL (Pelecaniformes),
PIC (Piciformes), POD
(Podicipediformes), PRO
(Procellariiformes), PSI
(Psittaciformes), RAL (Ralliformes),
RHE (Rheiformes), SPH
(Sphenisciformes), STH
(Struthioniformes), STR (Strigiformes),
TIN (Tinamiformes), TRC
(Trochiliformes), TRO (Trogoniformes),
TUR (Turniciformes), and UPU
(Upupiformes). Figure 4
from: Hackett, Shannon J. et al. “A
Phylogenomic Study of Birds Reveals
Their Evolutionary History.” Science
320.5884 (2008) : 1763 -1768.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763/F4.large.jpg
[2] Description Ruby-throated
hummingbird public domain USFWA Date
11 February 2003 Source
Cropped from U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service Digital Library
System Author Steve Maslowski PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/87/Rubythroathummer65.jp
g
[1] Fig. 4. Our phylogeny differs from
and agrees with previous
classifications. We merged
well-supported (>70% bootstrap values)
monophyletic clades at the tips with
the same ordinal designation across all
three classifications (e.g., 24 species
called Passerines). Only higher
relationships supported by bootstrap
values >50% are shown. Colors are as in
Fig. 2. Color bars to the right of the
tree show membership in three different
classifications: Peters' (25) (left),
Sibley and Monroe's (30) (middle), and
Livezey and Zusi's (13) (right). Black
text within the bars indicates
monophyletic orders in our phylogeny,
whereas white text within the bars
indicates nonmonophyletic orders.
Ordinal name codes: ANS (Anseriformes),
APO (Apodiformes), APT
(Apterygiformes), ARD (Ardeiformes),
BAL (Balaenicipitiformes), BUC
(Bucerotiformes), CAP
(Caprimulgiformes), CAS
(Casuariiformes), CHA
(Charadriiformes), CIC (Ciconiiformes),
CLM (Columbiformes), COL (Coliiformes),
COR (Coraciiformes), CRA (Craciformes),
CUC (Cuculiformes), FAL
(Falconiformes), GAL (Galliformes), GAV
(Gaviiformes), GLB (Galbuliformes), GRU
(Gruiformes), MUS (Musophagiformes),
OPI (Opisthocomiformes), PAS
(Passeriformes), PEL (Pelecaniformes),
PIC (Piciformes), POD
(Podicipediformes), PRO
(Procellariiformes), PSI
(Psittaciformes), RAL (Ralliformes),
RHE (Rheiformes), SPH
(Sphenisciformes), STH
(Struthioniformes), STR (Strigiformes),
TIN (Tinamiformes), TRC
(Trochiliformes), TRO (Trogoniformes),
TUR (Turniciformes), and UPU
(Upupiformes). Figure 4
from: Hackett, Shannon J. et al. “A
Phylogenomic Study of Birds Reveals
Their Evolutionary History.” Science
320.5884 (2008) : 1763 -1768.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763/F4.large.jpg
[2] Description Speckled
Mousebird, Colius striatus, Sweetwaters
Game Reserve, Kenya Date 24 June
2007 Source Own work Author
JerryFriedman GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8c/Colius_striatus1.jpg
evolve (cuckoos, roadrunners).
[1] Fig. 4. Our phylogeny differs from
and agrees with previous
classifications. We merged
well-supported (>70% bootstrap values)
monophyletic clades at the tips with
the same ordinal designation across all
three classifications (e.g., 24 species
called Passerines). Only higher
relationships supported by bootstrap
values >50% are shown. Colors are as in
Fig. 2. Color bars to the right of the
tree show membership in three different
classifications: Peters' (25) (left),
Sibley and Monroe's (30) (middle), and
Livezey and Zusi's (13) (right). Black
text within the bars indicates
monophyletic orders in our phylogeny,
whereas white text within the bars
indicates nonmonophyletic orders.
Ordinal name codes: ANS (Anseriformes),
APO (Apodiformes), APT
(Apterygiformes), ARD (Ardeiformes),
BAL (Balaenicipitiformes), BUC
(Bucerotiformes), CAP
(Caprimulgiformes), CAS
(Casuariiformes), CHA
(Charadriiformes), CIC (Ciconiiformes),
CLM (Columbiformes), COL (Coliiformes),
COR (Coraciiformes), CRA (Craciformes),
CUC (Cuculiformes), FAL
(Falconiformes), GAL (Galliformes), GAV
(Gaviiformes), GLB (Galbuliformes), GRU
(Gruiformes), MUS (Musophagiformes),
OPI (Opisthocomiformes), PAS
(Passeriformes), PEL (Pelecaniformes),
PIC (Piciformes), POD
(Podicipediformes), PRO
(Procellariiformes), PSI
(Psittaciformes), RAL (Ralliformes),
RHE (Rheiformes), SPH
(Sphenisciformes), STH
(Struthioniformes), STR (Strigiformes),
TIN (Tinamiformes), TRC
(Trochiliformes), TRO (Trogoniformes),
TUR (Turniciformes), and UPU
(Upupiformes). Figure 4
from: Hackett, Shannon J. et al. “A
Phylogenomic Study of Birds Reveals
Their Evolutionary History.” Science
320.5884 (2008) : 1763 -1768.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763/F4.large.jpg
[2] Description English: Common
cuckoo Deutsch: Kuckuck Date
Source Own work Author
Vogelartinfo GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b0/Cuculus_canorus_vogel
artinfo_chris_romeiks_CHR0791.jpg
(woodpeckers, toucans).
[1] Fig. 4. Our phylogeny differs from
and agrees with previous
classifications. We merged
well-supported (>70% bootstrap values)
monophyletic clades at the tips with
the same ordinal designation across all
three classifications (e.g., 24 species
called Passerines). Only higher
relationships supported by bootstrap
values >50% are shown. Colors are as in
Fig. 2. Color bars to the right of the
tree show membership in three different
classifications: Peters' (25) (left),
Sibley and Monroe's (30) (middle), and
Livezey and Zusi's (13) (right). Black
text within the bars indicates
monophyletic orders in our phylogeny,
whereas white text within the bars
indicates nonmonophyletic orders.
Ordinal name codes: ANS (Anseriformes),
APO (Apodiformes), APT
(Apterygiformes), ARD (Ardeiformes),
BAL (Balaenicipitiformes), BUC
(Bucerotiformes), CAP
(Caprimulgiformes), CAS
(Casuariiformes), CHA
(Charadriiformes), CIC (Ciconiiformes),
CLM (Columbiformes), COL (Coliiformes),
COR (Coraciiformes), CRA (Craciformes),
CUC (Cuculiformes), FAL
(Falconiformes), GAL (Galliformes), GAV
(Gaviiformes), GLB (Galbuliformes), GRU
(Gruiformes), MUS (Musophagiformes),
OPI (Opisthocomiformes), PAS
(Passeriformes), PEL (Pelecaniformes),
PIC (Piciformes), POD
(Podicipediformes), PRO
(Procellariiformes), PSI
(Psittaciformes), RAL (Ralliformes),
RHE (Rheiformes), SPH
(Sphenisciformes), STH
(Struthioniformes), STR (Strigiformes),
TIN (Tinamiformes), TRC
(Trochiliformes), TRO (Trogoniformes),
TUR (Turniciformes), and UPU
(Upupiformes). Figure 4
from: Hackett, Shannon J. et al. “A
Phylogenomic Study of Birds Reveals
Their Evolutionary History.” Science
320.5884 (2008) : 1763 -1768.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763/F4.large.jpg
[2] Description Hispaniolan
Woodpecker / Melanerpes striatus Date
20 January 2004 Source
http://www.pbase.com/wwcsig/image/4
1280575 Author Wolfgang
Wander GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1b/Melanerpes_striatus00
1.jpg
and whales.
(Toothed and Baleen split.)
[1] The relations of early whales
(archaeocetes) to artiodactyls and the
two extant groups, odontoceti and
mysticeti. Tree by Felix G. Marx,
University of Bristol. Images of
cetacenas adapted from National
Geographic's The evolution of whales by
Douglas H. Chadwick, Shawn Gould and
Robert Clark Re-illustrated for public
access distribution by Sharon Mooney
©2006. Open source licence CC ASA
2.5 CC
source: http://palaeo.gly.bris.ac.uk/pal
aeofiles/whales/pictures/clad.jpg
[2] Prothero, ''Evolution What the
Fossils Say and Why It Matters'', 2007,
p298.
source: Prothero, "Evolution What the
Fossils Say and Why It Matters", 2007,
p298.
[1] Fig. 2. Molecular time scale for
the orders of placental mammals based
on the 16,397-bp data set and maximum
likelihood tree of ref. 14 with an
opossum outgroup (data not shown), 13
fossil constraints (Materials and
Methods), and a mean prior of 105 mya
for the placental root. Ordinal
designations are listed above the
branches. Orange and green lines denote
orders with basal diversification
before or after the K/T boundary,
respectively. Black lines depict orders
for which only one taxon was available.
Asterisks denote placental taxa
included in the ''K/T body size'' taxon
set. The composition of chimeric taxa,
including caniform, caviomorph,
strepsirrhine, and sirenian, is
indicated elsewhere (14). Numbers for
internal nodes are cross-referenced in
the supporting information.
. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.pnas.org/content/vol1
00/issue3/images/large/pq0334222002.jpeg
fossils, Janjucetus and Llanocetus.
[1] Llanocetus denticrenatus UNKNOWN
source: http://ocean.si.edu/sites/defaul
t/files/WhaleEv_04llanocetus.png?1259868
752
[2] Description Frontal view from
below of the skull of a Llanocetus
denticrenatus in the Sant Hall of
Oceans in the Smithsonian Museum of
Natural History in Washington, D.C. The
name is a tribute to Dr. George Llanos,
and is combined with the Latin name for
whale (''cetus''). ''Denticrenatus''
means ''small-toothed.'' It is an
intermediate form between toothed and
baleen whales. Llanocetus
denticrenatus is the oldest known
mysticete (or baleen whale). It was
discovered in the La Meseta Formation
on Seymour Island in Antarctica in
1989. Only the skull has been unearthed
so far; the skeleton has yet to be
fully unearthed and described. It
probably lived 34 to 35 million years
ago in colder seas near the Antarctic.
It had tiny peg-like teeth which jutted
out in a fan-like spread from a larger
tooth (which was covered over by the
gums). From these teeth grew primitive
baleen (stuff like your fingernails are
made of). These baleen-growing teeth
were very widely separated within the
jaw. The skull is long and narrow,
somewhat looking like a dolphin's. The
upper jaw is exceptionally slender
(more so than the lower jaw), and the
lower jaw is exceptionally wide at the
rear. It's not entirely clear what the
body looked like, but it probably
looked like a minke whale. It was about
30 feet long (9 m). Date 7 January
2012, 13:02 Source Llanocetus
denticrinatus skull 01 -
Smithsonian Uploaded by
FunkMonk Author Tim from
Washington, D.C., USA, United States of
America CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Llanocetus_dent
icrinatus.jpg/1280px-Llanocetus_denticri
natus.jpg
in East Africa.
[1] Figure 2. A synthetic hypothesis of
catarrhine primate evolution. The
branching order shown for the living
species is well-supported by numerous
molecular phylogenetic studies (for
example [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 18, 24
and 25]). We present the dates of
divergence calculated by Goodman and
colleagues [11], on the understanding
that these are still rough estimates
and more precise measurements are
needed, especially for the Old World
monkeys. The fossil species (genus
names in italics) were placed on this
tree by parsimony analyses of
relatively large morphological datasets
[4, 11, 14 and 15]. Known dates for
fossils [1, 2 and 21] are indicated by
the thicker lines; these lines are
attached to the tree as determined by
the parsimony analyses, although the
dates of the attachment points are our
best guesses. Species found in Africa
are in red and species found in Eurasia
are in black. The continental locations
of the ancestral lineages were inferred
by parsimony using the computer program
MacClade [30]. The intercontinental
dispersal events required, at a
minimum, to explain the distribution of
the living and fossil species are
indicated by the arrows. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4C4DVM4-D
&_user=4422&_handle=V-WA-A-W-WC-MsSAYVW-
UUW-U-AAVECYCCBC-AAVDAZZBBC-YCACYAZCV-WC
-U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=07%2F30%2F1998&_
rdoc=12&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236243
%231998%23999919983%23494082!&_cdi=6243&
view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlV
ersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=5558415c4ccd34
6c64e2e6be03c3865e
[2] i draw it on macromedia flash 26
oct 2005 Mateus Zica 14:30, 26 October
2005 (UTC) GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:AegpPte.png
known, the hornless Rhinoceros,
Paraceratherium lives at this time.
[1] Description Skelton of
Indricotherium transouralicum
in National Science Museum,
Tokyo. Date 8 November
2006 Source Photo by
CooZone Author CooZone GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d9/Indricotherium_skelto
n.jpg
[2] Description
Paraceratherium The
Paraceratherium (jr synonym=
Baluchitherium) was an early rhinoceros
which lived in Asia about 20 to 30
million years ago during the late
Oligocene (24 to 38 million years ago
)and early Miocene (5 to 24 million
years ago) Date All images on the
site are at least PD-US.[1] Source
http://www.50birds.com/extan/gextan
imals1.htm Author Unknown PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/9c/Paraceratherium_size.
jpg
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p168. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p168.
[2] Description English:
Ring-tailed Lemur (Lemur catta) at
Berenty Private Reserve in
Madagascar Date 4 October
2009 Source Own work Author
Alex Dunkel
(Visionholder) Permission (Reusing
this file) See below. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f5/Lemur_catta_001.jpg
{PaSRiFORmEZ} (perching songbirds)
evolve. This order includes many common
birds: crows, jays, sparrows, warblers,
mockingbirds, robins, orioles,
bluebirds, vireos {VEREOZ}, larks,
finches.
More than half of all species of bird
are passerines. Sometimes known as
perching birds or, less accurately, as
songbirds, the passerines are one of
the most spectacularly successful
vertebrate orders: with around 5,400
species, they are roughly twice as
diverse as the largest of the mammal
orders, the Rodentia.
[1] Fig. 4. Our phylogeny differs from
and agrees with previous
classifications. We merged
well-supported (>70% bootstrap values)
monophyletic clades at the tips with
the same ordinal designation across all
three classifications (e.g., 24 species
called Passerines). Only higher
relationships supported by bootstrap
values >50% are shown. Colors are as in
Fig. 2. Color bars to the right of the
tree show membership in three different
classifications: Peters' (25) (left),
Sibley and Monroe's (30) (middle), and
Livezey and Zusi's (13) (right). Black
text within the bars indicates
monophyletic orders in our phylogeny,
whereas white text within the bars
indicates nonmonophyletic orders.
Ordinal name codes: ANS (Anseriformes),
APO (Apodiformes), APT
(Apterygiformes), ARD (Ardeiformes),
BAL (Balaenicipitiformes), BUC
(Bucerotiformes), CAP
(Caprimulgiformes), CAS
(Casuariiformes), CHA
(Charadriiformes), CIC (Ciconiiformes),
CLM (Columbiformes), COL (Coliiformes),
COR (Coraciiformes), CRA (Craciformes),
CUC (Cuculiformes), FAL
(Falconiformes), GAL (Galliformes), GAV
(Gaviiformes), GLB (Galbuliformes), GRU
(Gruiformes), MUS (Musophagiformes),
OPI (Opisthocomiformes), PAS
(Passeriformes), PEL (Pelecaniformes),
PIC (Piciformes), POD
(Podicipediformes), PRO
(Procellariiformes), PSI
(Psittaciformes), RAL (Ralliformes),
RHE (Rheiformes), SPH
(Sphenisciformes), STH
(Struthioniformes), STR (Strigiformes),
TIN (Tinamiformes), TRC
(Trochiliformes), TRO (Trogoniformes),
TUR (Turniciformes), and UPU
(Upupiformes). Figure 4
from: Hackett, Shannon J. et al. “A
Phylogenomic Study of Birds Reveals
Their Evolutionary History.” Science
320.5884 (2008) : 1763 -1768.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763/F4.large.jpg
[2] Western Bluebirds (female on
left) Irvine, CA PD
source: http://tedhuntington.com/bluebir
ds.jpg
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p168. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p168.
[2] Description English: Indri
(Indri indri) in Madagascar Date
18 May 2009 Source
email Author Erik Patel CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/83/Indri_indri_001.jpg
[1] Proailurus Wikimedia
Commons Proailurus may or may not have
been a true feline; some experts place
it in the Feloidea family, which
includes not only cats, but also hyenas
and mongooses. Whatever the case,
Proailurus was a relatively small
carnivore, only a little bit bigger
than a modern tabby. GNU
source: http://0.tqn.com/d/dinosaurs/1/0
/e/6/-/-/proailurus.jpg
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p168. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p168.
[2] Description Zwerg-Mausmaki
(Microcebus myoxinus) Date
2008.02.10. Source Deutsch
wikipedia
http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bild:Microz
eb.jpg Author
User:Bikeadventure PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/93/Microcebus_myoxinus.j
pg
World Monkeys" (Macaques, Baboons,
Mandrills, Proboscis and Colobus
{KoLiBeS} monkeys).
This is also the last common ancestor
of the Old World monkeys and the
hominoids, the superfamily Hominoidea,
which includes apes and humans.
There are around 100 species of Old
World Monkey.
Africa
[1] From: Stewart, Caro-Beth, and Todd
R Disotell. “Primate evolution - in
and out of Africa.” Current Biology
8.16 (1998) :
R582-R588. http://www.sciencedirect.com
/science/article/pii/S0960982207003673
Figure 2. A synthetic hypothesis of
catarrhine primate evolution. The
branching order shown for the living
species is well-supported by numerous
molecular phylogenetic studies (for
example [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 18, 24
and 25]). We present the dates of
divergence calculated by Goodman and
colleagues [11], on the understanding
that these are still rough estimates
and more precise measurements are
needed, especially for the Old World
monkeys. The fossil species (genus
names in italics) were placed on this
tree by parsimony analyses of
relatively large morphological datasets
[4, 11, 14 and 15]. Known dates for
fossils [1, 2 and 21] are indicated by
the thicker lines; these lines are
attached to the tree as determined by
the parsimony analyses, although the
dates of the attachment points are our
best guesses. Species found in Africa
are in red and species found in Eurasia
are in black. The continental locations
of the ancestral lineages were inferred
by parsimony using the computer program
MacClade [30]. The intercontinental
dispersal events required, at a
minimum, to explain the distribution of
the living and fossil species are
indicated by the arrows. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4C4DVM4-D
&_user=4422&_handle=V-WA-A-W-WC-MsSAYVW-
UUW-U-AAVECYCCBC-AAVDAZZBBC-YCACYAZCV-WC
-U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=07%2F30%2F1998&_
rdoc=12&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236243
%231998%23999919983%23494082!&_cdi=6243&
view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlV
ersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=5558415c4ccd34
6c64e2e6be03c3865e
[2] Description Colobus
angolensis monkey Date 13 June
2007, 13:13 Source Angola Colobus
Monkey #6 Author Ryan E.
Poplin CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5a/Colobus_angolensis.jp
g
(Gibbons and Hominids) loses its tail.
This may be a genetic mutation or
because a tail might be an obstacle for
species like gibbons that swing from
branch to branch as opposed to more
ancient primates that leap from
branches.
[1] From: Stewart, Caro-Beth, and Todd
R Disotell. “Primate evolution - in
and out of Africa.” Current Biology
8.16 (1998) :
R582-R588. http://www.sciencedirect.com
/science/article/pii/S0960982207003673
Figure 2. A synthetic hypothesis of
catarrhine primate evolution. The
branching order shown for the living
species is well-supported by numerous
molecular phylogenetic studies (for
example [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 18, 24
and 25]). We present the dates of
divergence calculated by Goodman and
colleagues [11], on the understanding
that these are still rough estimates
and more precise measurements are
needed, especially for the Old World
monkeys. The fossil species (genus
names in italics) were placed on this
tree by parsimony analyses of
relatively large morphological datasets
[4, 11, 14 and 15]. Known dates for
fossils [1, 2 and 21] are indicated by
the thicker lines; these lines are
attached to the tree as determined by
the parsimony analyses, although the
dates of the attachment points are our
best guesses. Species found in Africa
are in red and species found in Eurasia
are in black. The continental locations
of the ancestral lineages were inferred
by parsimony using the computer program
MacClade [30]. The intercontinental
dispersal events required, at a
minimum, to explain the distribution of
the living and fossil species are
indicated by the arrows. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4C4DVM4-D
&_user=4422&_handle=V-WA-A-W-WC-MsSAYVW-
UUW-U-AAVECYCCBC-AAVDAZZBBC-YCACYAZCV-WC
-U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=07%2F30%2F1998&_
rdoc=12&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236243
%231998%23999919983%23494082!&_cdi=6243&
view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlV
ersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=5558415c4ccd34
6c64e2e6be03c3865e
[2] Gregoire: 62-year-old
chimpanzee Description English:
Chimpanzee named ''Gregoire'' born in
1944 (Jane Goodall sanctuary of
Tchimpounga in Congo Brazzaville) -
Picture taken the 9th of December
2006 Français : Chimpanzé nommé
''Grégoire'' né en 1944 (sanctuaire
Jane Goodall de Tchimpounga au Congo
Brazzaville) - Photo prise le 9
décembre 2006 Date 9 December
2006 Source Own work Author
Delphine
Bruyère Permission (Reusing this
file) Attribution : Delphine
Bruyere GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/ba/2006-12-09_Chimpanzee
_Gregoire_D_Bruyere.JPG
Guinea
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
239. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), 239.
[2] The echidna is one of a handful of
mammals to give birth to its offspring
by laying eggs. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3b/Long-beakedEchidna.jp
g
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
239. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), 239.
[2] Description Description
Swiming Platypus * Photographer Peter
Scheunis * Source self-made Date
September 2004 Location Broken
River-Queensland-Australia Date
2010-01-18 03:46 (UTC) Source
Platypus_BrokenRiver_QLD_Australia.jpg
Author
Platypus_BrokenRiver_QLD_Australia.jpg:
Peterdvv derivative work: Bobisbob
(talk) CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/12/Platypus_BrokenRiver_
QLD_Australia2.png
{WoKoREZ}, and Titis {TETEZ}.
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p149. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p149.
[2] Description White-faced Saki
(Pithecia pithecia) at the Oregon
Zoo Date 8-6-2006 Source This
file is lacking source
information. Please edit this file's
description and provide a
source. Author
User:Cacophony GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e6/WhiteFacedSaki.jpg
and Woolly monkeys.
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p149. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p149.
[2] Description these guys (well,
guy and lady friend) are unbelievably
loud. of course with a name like howler
monkey you'd have to be :) Date
16 June 2007, 08:29 Source
howler monkees doing their
thing Author Steve from
washington, dc, usa CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2f/Howler_monkey.jpg
{KaPYUCiN} and Squirrel monkeys.
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p149. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p149.
[2] Description Cebus apella
group. Capuchin Monkeys Sharing Date
Published: December 22,
2003 Source Powell K: Economy of
the Mind. PLoS Biol 1/3/2003: e77.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.0
000077 Author (Photo courtesy of
Frans de Waal.) CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/4e/Cebus_capucinus.png
This tree-dwelling ape had some
anatomical features in common with the
better-known Proconsul, and it also
seems to have been closely related to
Sivapithecus as well.
[1] Figure 2. A synthetic hypothesis of
catarrhine primate evolution. The
branching order shown for the living
species is well-supported by numerous
molecular phylogenetic studies (for
example [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 18, 24
and 25]). We present the dates of
divergence calculated by Goodman and
colleagues [11], on the understanding
that these are still rough estimates
and more precise measurements are
needed, especially for the Old World
monkeys. The fossil species (genus
names in italics) were placed on this
tree by parsimony analyses of
relatively large morphological datasets
[4, 11, 14 and 15]. Known dates for
fossils [1, 2 and 21] are indicated by
the thicker lines; these lines are
attached to the tree as determined by
the parsimony analyses, although the
dates of the attachment points are our
best guesses. Species found in Africa
are in red and species found in Eurasia
are in black. The continental locations
of the ancestral lineages were inferred
by parsimony using the computer program
MacClade [30]. The intercontinental
dispersal events required, at a
minimum, to explain the distribution of
the living and fossil species are
indicated by the arrows. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4C4DVM4-D
&_user=4422&_handle=V-WA-A-W-WC-MsSAYVW-
UUW-U-AAVECYCCBC-AAVDAZZBBC-YCACYAZCV-WC
-U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=07%2F30%2F1998&_
rdoc=12&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236243
%231998%23999919983%23494082!&_cdi=6243&
view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlV
ersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=5558415c4ccd34
6c64e2e6be03c3865e
[2] Afropithecus turkanensis cranium,
KNM-WK 16999 (type specimen) a:
Occlusal aspect b: Superior aspect c:''
Right lateral aspect d: Frontal aspect
e: Detail of glabella and frontal
region taken at right
angles. COPYRIGHTED
source: afropithecus.pdf
Africa.
[1] Figure 2. A synthetic hypothesis of
catarrhine primate evolution. The
branching order shown for the living
species is well-supported by numerous
molecular phylogenetic studies (for
example [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 18, 24
and 25]). We present the dates of
divergence calculated by Goodman and
colleagues [11], on the understanding
that these are still rough estimates
and more precise measurements are
needed, especially for the Old World
monkeys. The fossil species (genus
names in italics) were placed on this
tree by parsimony analyses of
relatively large morphological datasets
[4, 11, 14 and 15]. Known dates for
fossils [1, 2 and 21] are indicated by
the thicker lines; these lines are
attached to the tree as determined by
the parsimony analyses, although the
dates of the attachment points are our
best guesses. Species found in Africa
are in red and species found in Eurasia
are in black. The continental locations
of the ancestral lineages were inferred
by parsimony using the computer program
MacClade [30]. The intercontinental
dispersal events required, at a
minimum, to explain the distribution of
the living and fossil species are
indicated by the arrows. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4C4DVM4-D
&_user=4422&_handle=V-WA-A-W-WC-MsSAYVW-
UUW-U-AAVECYCCBC-AAVDAZZBBC-YCACYAZCV-WC
-U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=07%2F30%2F1998&_
rdoc=12&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236243
%231998%23999919983%23494082!&_cdi=6243&
view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlV
ersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=5558415c4ccd34
6c64e2e6be03c3865e
[2] Proconsul COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://www.andromeda.rutgers.edu
/~biosci/RutgersHumanEcology/Proconsul.j
pg
monkeys.
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p149. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p149.
[2] Description A Night Monkey
(Aotus lemurinus zonalis) in
Panama Date 18 March 2005,
12:00 Source night monkey Author
dsasso CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d7/Panamanian_night_monk
ey.jpg
{TaMariNZ} and Marmosets {moRmoSeTS}.
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p149. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p149.
[2] Description Emperor
Tamarin(Saguinus imperator) is a
tamarin allegedly named for its
similarity with the William II, German
Emperor.The name was first intended as
a joke, but has become the official
scientific name. This tamarin lives in
the southwest Amazon Basin, in east
Peru, north Bolivia and in the west
Brazilian states of Acre and Amazonas.
The males and females Emperor
Tamarinlook alike. Males are the ones,
who are carrying babies on their backs.
The image is of female Emperor Tamarin.
The image was taken in San Francisco
Zoo. Date 2007 Source Own
work Author Mila Zinkova, edited
by Fir0002, edited by Mbz1 GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/85/Tamarin_portrait_2_ed
it3.jpg
Africa.
[1] Figure 2. A synthetic hypothesis of
catarrhine primate evolution. The
branching order shown for the living
species is well-supported by numerous
molecular phylogenetic studies (for
example [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 18, 24
and 25]). We present the dates of
divergence calculated by Goodman and
colleagues [11], on the understanding
that these are still rough estimates
and more precise measurements are
needed, especially for the Old World
monkeys. The fossil species (genus
names in italics) were placed on this
tree by parsimony analyses of
relatively large morphological datasets
[4, 11, 14 and 15]. Known dates for
fossils [1, 2 and 21] are indicated by
the thicker lines; these lines are
attached to the tree as determined by
the parsimony analyses, although the
dates of the attachment points are our
best guesses. Species found in Africa
are in red and species found in Eurasia
are in black. The continental locations
of the ancestral lineages were inferred
by parsimony using the computer program
MacClade [30]. The intercontinental
dispersal events required, at a
minimum, to explain the distribution of
the living and fossil species are
indicated by the arrows. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4C4DVM4-D
&_user=4422&_handle=V-WA-A-W-WC-MsSAYVW-
UUW-U-AAVECYCCBC-AAVDAZZBBC-YCACYAZCV-WC
-U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=07%2F30%2F1998&_
rdoc=12&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236243
%231998%23999919983%23494082!&_cdi=6243&
view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlV
ersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=5558415c4ccd34
6c64e2e6be03c3865e
[2] Ape Evolution Branching
Diagram COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.ablongman.com/html/an
thro/phys/databank/fig5.24.html
move (over land) from Africa into
Eurasia.
An alternative theory has this ancestor
in Africa, with a large number of
Africa to Eurasia migrations by later
species.
[1] Figure 2. A synthetic hypothesis of
catarrhine primate evolution. The
branching order shown for the living
species is well-supported by numerous
molecular phylogenetic studies (for
example [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 18, 24
and 25]). We present the dates of
divergence calculated by Goodman and
colleagues [11], on the understanding
that these are still rough estimates
and more precise measurements are
needed, especially for the Old World
monkeys. The fossil species (genus
names in italics) were placed on this
tree by parsimony analyses of
relatively large morphological datasets
[4, 11, 14 and 15]. Known dates for
fossils [1, 2 and 21] are indicated by
the thicker lines; these lines are
attached to the tree as determined by
the parsimony analyses, although the
dates of the attachment points are our
best guesses. Species found in Africa
are in red and species found in Eurasia
are in black. The continental locations
of the ancestral lineages were inferred
by parsimony using the computer program
MacClade [30]. The intercontinental
dispersal events required, at a
minimum, to explain the distribution of
the living and fossil species are
indicated by the arrows. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4C4DVM4-D
&_user=4422&_handle=V-WA-A-W-WC-MsSAYVW-
UUW-U-AAVECYCCBC-AAVDAZZBBC-YCACYAZCV-WC
-U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=07%2F30%2F1998&_
rdoc=12&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236243
%231998%23999919983%23494082!&_cdi=6243&
view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlV
ersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=5558415c4ccd34
6c64e2e6be03c3865e
[2] Figure 1. Potential contacts
between Africa and Eurasia during the
past 40 million years, based upon
geological and faunal evidence (after
[28 and 29]). (a) Late Eocene,
approximately 40 million years ago. The
Tethys seaway prevents migration
between Africa and Eurasia. Uplifting
in the western region of the Arabian
peninsula coincides with the rifting of
the future Red Sea. (b) Early Miocene,
approximately 20 million years ago. The
Red Sea begins to form, while potential
land bridges exist between Africa and
Eurasia. (c) Late Miocene,
approximately 10 million years ago. The
Red Sea continues to grow, and
potential connections between Africa
and Eurasia exist along the Indian
Ocean margin. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4C4DVM4-D
&_user=4422&_handle=V-WA-A-W-WC-MsSAYVW-
UUW-U-AAVECYCCBC-AAVDAZZBBC-YCACYAZCV-WC
-U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=07%2F30%2F1998&_
rdoc=12&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236243
%231998%23999919983%23494082!&_cdi=6243&
view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlV
ersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=5558415c4ccd34
6c64e2e6be03c3865e
Gibbons are very sexual,
and polygamous.
There are 12 species of Gibbons.
[1] Figure 2. A synthetic hypothesis of
catarrhine primate evolution. The
branching order shown for the living
species is well-supported by numerous
molecular phylogenetic studies (for
example [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 18, 24
and 25]). We present the dates of
divergence calculated by Goodman and
colleagues [11], on the understanding
that these are still rough estimates
and more precise measurements are
needed, especially for the Old World
monkeys. The fossil species (genus
names in italics) were placed on this
tree by parsimony analyses of
relatively large morphological datasets
[4, 11, 14 and 15]. Known dates for
fossils [1, 2 and 21] are indicated by
the thicker lines; these lines are
attached to the tree as determined by
the parsimony analyses, although the
dates of the attachment points are our
best guesses. Species found in Africa
are in red and species found in Eurasia
are in black. The continental locations
of the ancestral lineages were inferred
by parsimony using the computer program
MacClade [30]. The intercontinental
dispersal events required, at a
minimum, to explain the distribution of
the living and fossil species are
indicated by the arrows. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4C4DVM4-D
&_user=4422&_handle=V-WA-A-W-WC-MsSAYVW-
UUW-U-AAVECYCCBC-AAVDAZZBBC-YCACYAZCV-WC
-U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=07%2F30%2F1998&_
rdoc=12&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236243
%231998%23999919983%23494082!&_cdi=6243&
view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlV
ersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=5558415c4ccd34
6c64e2e6be03c3865e
[2] Description Deutsch:
Weißhandgibbons Date 25 May
2006 Source Own work Author
User:MatthiasKabel GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/38/Hylobates_lar_pair_of
_white_and_black_01.jpg
[1] Figure 2. A synthetic hypothesis of
catarrhine primate evolution. The
branching order shown for the living
species is well-supported by numerous
molecular phylogenetic studies (for
example [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 18, 24
and 25]). We present the dates of
divergence calculated by Goodman and
colleagues [11], on the understanding
that these are still rough estimates
and more precise measurements are
needed, especially for the Old World
monkeys. The fossil species (genus
names in italics) were placed on this
tree by parsimony analyses of
relatively large morphological datasets
[4, 11, 14 and 15]. Known dates for
fossils [1, 2 and 21] are indicated by
the thicker lines; these lines are
attached to the tree as determined by
the parsimony analyses, although the
dates of the attachment points are our
best guesses. Species found in Africa
are in red and species found in Eurasia
are in black. The continental locations
of the ancestral lineages were inferred
by parsimony using the computer program
MacClade [30]. The intercontinental
dispersal events required, at a
minimum, to explain the distribution of
the living and fossil species are
indicated by the arrows. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4C4DVM4-D
&_user=4422&_handle=V-WA-A-W-WC-MsSAYVW-
UUW-U-AAVECYCCBC-AAVDAZZBBC-YCACYAZCV-WC
-U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=07%2F30%2F1998&_
rdoc=12&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236243
%231998%23999919983%23494082!&_cdi=6243&
view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlV
ersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=5558415c4ccd34
6c64e2e6be03c3865e
[2] Oreopithecus bambolii COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.gurche.com/content_re
cent_apes_504.htm
[1] Figure 2. A synthetic hypothesis of
catarrhine primate evolution. The
branching order shown for the living
species is well-supported by numerous
molecular phylogenetic studies (for
example [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 18, 24
and 25]). We present the dates of
divergence calculated by Goodman and
colleagues [11], on the understanding
that these are still rough estimates
and more precise measurements are
needed, especially for the Old World
monkeys. The fossil species (genus
names in italics) were placed on this
tree by parsimony analyses of
relatively large morphological datasets
[4, 11, 14 and 15]. Known dates for
fossils [1, 2 and 21] are indicated by
the thicker lines; these lines are
attached to the tree as determined by
the parsimony analyses, although the
dates of the attachment points are our
best guesses. Species found in Africa
are in red and species found in Eurasia
are in black. The continental locations
of the ancestral lineages were inferred
by parsimony using the computer program
MacClade [30]. The intercontinental
dispersal events required, at a
minimum, to explain the distribution of
the living and fossil species are
indicated by the arrows. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4C4DVM4-D
&_user=4422&_handle=V-WA-A-W-WC-MsSAYVW-
UUW-U-AAVECYCCBC-AAVDAZZBBC-YCACYAZCV-WC
-U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=07%2F30%2F1998&_
rdoc=12&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236243
%231998%23999919983%23494082!&_cdi=6243&
view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlV
ersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=5558415c4ccd34
6c64e2e6be03c3865e
[2] Lufengpithecus Skull The
original Lufengpithecus relic was
thought to be a variant of Sivapithecus
but was later classified on its own.
This fossil is described as having a
'characteristically broad, low face and
large interorbital distance.' However
the last feature in particular makes me
wonder about the reconstruction of the
skull. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.lamma.net/lufeng.htm
Orangutans.
[1] From: Stewart, Caro-Beth, and Todd
R Disotell. “Primate evolution - in
and out of Africa.” Current Biology
8.16 (1998) :
R582-R588. http://www.sciencedirect.com
/science/article/pii/S0960982207003673
Figure 2. A synthetic hypothesis of
catarrhine primate evolution. The
branching order shown for the living
species is well-supported by numerous
molecular phylogenetic studies (for
example [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 18, 24
and 25]). We present the dates of
divergence calculated by Goodman and
colleagues [11], on the understanding
that these are still rough estimates
and more precise measurements are
needed, especially for the Old World
monkeys. The fossil species (genus
names in italics) were placed on this
tree by parsimony analyses of
relatively large morphological datasets
[4, 11, 14 and 15]. Known dates for
fossils [1, 2 and 21] are indicated by
the thicker lines; these lines are
attached to the tree as determined by
the parsimony analyses, although the
dates of the attachment points are our
best guesses. Species found in Africa
are in red and species found in Eurasia
are in black. The continental locations
of the ancestral lineages were inferred
by parsimony using the computer program
MacClade [30]. The intercontinental
dispersal events required, at a
minimum, to explain the distribution of
the living and fossil species are
indicated by the arrows. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4C4DVM4-D
&_user=4422&_handle=V-WA-A-W-WC-MsSAYVW-
UUW-U-AAVECYCCBC-AAVDAZZBBC-YCACYAZCV-WC
-U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=07%2F30%2F1998&_
rdoc=12&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236243
%231998%23999919983%23494082!&_cdi=6243&
view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlV
ersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=5558415c4ccd34
6c64e2e6be03c3865e
[2] Taken from Wikipedia. Same
name. ''Orangutan image taken by Tom
Low at Camp Leakey, Tanjung Puting,
Kalimantan, Indonesia (2003).'' PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0b/Orangutan.jpg
[1] Image: John Gurche Dryopithecus
stage 1 reconstruction COPYRIGHTED
source: http://sciam.com/gallery.cfm?art
icleID=0006FD89-5BA7-1F18-B4FD80A84189EE
DF&seq_no=1
[2] Image: John Gurche Dryopithecus
final reconstruction COPYRIGHTED
source: http://sciam.com/gallery.cfm?art
icleID=0006FD89-5BA7-1F18-B4FD80A84189EE
DF&seq_no=3
ancestor of modern orangutan. The
animal was about the size of a
chimpanzee but had the facial
morphology of an orangutan; it ate soft
fruit (detected in the toothwear
pattern) and was probably mainly
arboreal.
India
[1] Figure 2. A synthetic hypothesis of
catarrhine primate evolution. The
branching order shown for the living
species is well-supported by numerous
molecular phylogenetic studies (for
example [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 18, 24
and 25]). We present the dates of
divergence calculated by Goodman and
colleagues [11], on the understanding
that these are still rough estimates
and more precise measurements are
needed, especially for the Old World
monkeys. The fossil species (genus
names in italics) were placed on this
tree by parsimony analyses of
relatively large morphological datasets
[4, 11, 14 and 15]. Known dates for
fossils [1, 2 and 21] are indicated by
the thicker lines; these lines are
attached to the tree as determined by
the parsimony analyses, although the
dates of the attachment points are our
best guesses. Species found in Africa
are in red and species found in Eurasia
are in black. The continental locations
of the ancestral lineages were inferred
by parsimony using the computer program
MacClade [30]. The intercontinental
dispersal events required, at a
minimum, to explain the distribution of
the living and fossil species are
indicated by the arrows. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4C4DVM4-D
&_user=4422&_handle=V-WA-A-W-WC-MsSAYVW-
UUW-U-AAVECYCCBC-AAVDAZZBBC-YCACYAZCV-WC
-U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=07%2F30%2F1998&_
rdoc=12&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236243
%231998%23999919983%23494082!&_cdi=6243&
view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlV
ersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=5558415c4ccd34
6c64e2e6be03c3865e
[2] Image #506 - Sivapithecus
indicus COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.gurche.com/content_re
cent_apes_506.htm
[1] Figure 2. A synthetic hypothesis of
catarrhine primate evolution. The
branching order shown for the living
species is well-supported by numerous
molecular phylogenetic studies (for
example [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 18, 24
and 25]). We present the dates of
divergence calculated by Goodman and
colleagues [11], on the understanding
that these are still rough estimates
and more precise measurements are
needed, especially for the Old World
monkeys. The fossil species (genus
names in italics) were placed on this
tree by parsimony analyses of
relatively large morphological datasets
[4, 11, 14 and 15]. Known dates for
fossils [1, 2 and 21] are indicated by
the thicker lines; these lines are
attached to the tree as determined by
the parsimony analyses, although the
dates of the attachment points are our
best guesses. Species found in Africa
are in red and species found in Eurasia
are in black. The continental locations
of the ancestral lineages were inferred
by parsimony using the computer program
MacClade [30]. The intercontinental
dispersal events required, at a
minimum, to explain the distribution of
the living and fossil species are
indicated by the arrows. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4C4DVM4-D
&_user=4422&_handle=V-WA-A-W-WC-MsSAYVW-
UUW-U-AAVECYCCBC-AAVDAZZBBC-YCACYAZCV-WC
-U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=07%2F30%2F1998&_
rdoc=12&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236243
%231998%23999919983%23494082!&_cdi=6243&
view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlV
ersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=5558415c4ccd34
6c64e2e6be03c3865e
[2] Description English: Photo of a
male White Cheeked Gibbon, holding a
child, taken at the Toledo Zoo. Date
24 September 2008 (15 March 2009
(original upload date)) Source
Transferred from en.wikipedia;
transferred to Commons by User:Albval
using CommonsHelper. (Original text :
I created this work entirely by
myself.) Author Ruby 1x2 (talk).
Original uploader was Ruby 1x2 at
en.wikipedia PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/13/White_Cheeked_Gibbon_
Male.jpg
{KoLiBeS} monkeys.
[1] From: Stewart, Caro-Beth, and Todd
R Disotell. “Primate evolution - in
and out of Africa.” Current Biology
8.16 (1998) :
R582-R588. http://www.sciencedirect.com
/science/article/pii/S0960982207003673
Figure 2. A synthetic hypothesis of
catarrhine primate evolution. The
branching order shown for the living
species is well-supported by numerous
molecular phylogenetic studies (for
example [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 18, 24
and 25]). We present the dates of
divergence calculated by Goodman and
colleagues [11], on the understanding
that these are still rough estimates
and more precise measurements are
needed, especially for the Old World
monkeys. The fossil species (genus
names in italics) were placed on this
tree by parsimony analyses of
relatively large morphological datasets
[4, 11, 14 and 15]. Known dates for
fossils [1, 2 and 21] are indicated by
the thicker lines; these lines are
attached to the tree as determined by
the parsimony analyses, although the
dates of the attachment points are our
best guesses. Species found in Africa
are in red and species found in Eurasia
are in black. The continental locations
of the ancestral lineages were inferred
by parsimony using the computer program
MacClade [30]. The intercontinental
dispersal events required, at a
minimum, to explain the distribution of
the living and fossil species are
indicated by the arrows. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4C4DVM4-D
&_user=4422&_handle=V-WA-A-W-WC-MsSAYVW-
UUW-U-AAVECYCCBC-AAVDAZZBBC-YCACYAZCV-WC
-U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=07%2F30%2F1998&_
rdoc=12&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236243
%231998%23999919983%23494082!&_cdi=6243&
view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlV
ersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=5558415c4ccd34
6c64e2e6be03c3865e
[2] Description Colobus
angolensis monkey Date 13 June
2007, 13:13 Source Angola Colobus
Monkey #6 Author Ryan E.
Poplin CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5a/Colobus_angolensis.jp
g
{LoNGURZ} and Proboscis monkeys.
[1] From: Stewart, Caro-Beth, and Todd
R Disotell. “Primate evolution - in
and out of Africa.” Current Biology
8.16 (1998) :
R582-R588. http://www.sciencedirect.com
/science/article/pii/S0960982207003673
Figure 2. A synthetic hypothesis of
catarrhine primate evolution. The
branching order shown for the living
species is well-supported by numerous
molecular phylogenetic studies (for
example [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 18, 24
and 25]). We present the dates of
divergence calculated by Goodman and
colleagues [11], on the understanding
that these are still rough estimates
and more precise measurements are
needed, especially for the Old World
monkeys. The fossil species (genus
names in italics) were placed on this
tree by parsimony analyses of
relatively large morphological datasets
[4, 11, 14 and 15]. Known dates for
fossils [1, 2 and 21] are indicated by
the thicker lines; these lines are
attached to the tree as determined by
the parsimony analyses, although the
dates of the attachment points are our
best guesses. Species found in Africa
are in red and species found in Eurasia
are in black. The continental locations
of the ancestral lineages were inferred
by parsimony using the computer program
MacClade [30]. The intercontinental
dispersal events required, at a
minimum, to explain the distribution of
the living and fossil species are
indicated by the arrows. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4C4DVM4-D
&_user=4422&_handle=V-WA-A-W-WC-MsSAYVW-
UUW-U-AAVECYCCBC-AAVDAZZBBC-YCACYAZCV-WC
-U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=07%2F30%2F1998&_
rdoc=12&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236243
%231998%23999919983%23494082!&_cdi=6243&
view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlV
ersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=5558415c4ccd34
6c64e2e6be03c3865e
[2] Description English: A dominant
male proboscis monkey at the Singapore
Zoo, one of few places where captive
animals of this species seem to
thrive. Date 9 November
2008 Source Own work by uploader,
http://bjornfree.com/galleries.html Aut
hor Bjørn Christian
Tørrissen Permission (Reusing this
file) CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/09/Portrait_of_a_Probosc
is_Monkey.jpg
{GenONZ}.
[1] From: Stewart, Caro-Beth, and Todd
R Disotell. “Primate evolution - in
and out of Africa.” Current Biology
8.16 (1998) :
R582-R588. http://www.sciencedirect.com
/science/article/pii/S0960982207003673
Figure 2. A synthetic hypothesis of
catarrhine primate evolution. The
branching order shown for the living
species is well-supported by numerous
molecular phylogenetic studies (for
example [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 18, 24
and 25]). We present the dates of
divergence calculated by Goodman and
colleagues [11], on the understanding
that these are still rough estimates
and more precise measurements are
needed, especially for the Old World
monkeys. The fossil species (genus
names in italics) were placed on this
tree by parsimony analyses of
relatively large morphological datasets
[4, 11, 14 and 15]. Known dates for
fossils [1, 2 and 21] are indicated by
the thicker lines; these lines are
attached to the tree as determined by
the parsimony analyses, although the
dates of the attachment points are our
best guesses. Species found in Africa
are in red and species found in Eurasia
are in black. The continental locations
of the ancestral lineages were inferred
by parsimony using the computer program
MacClade [30]. The intercontinental
dispersal events required, at a
minimum, to explain the distribution of
the living and fossil species are
indicated by the arrows. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4C4DVM4-D
&_user=4422&_handle=V-WA-A-W-WC-MsSAYVW-
UUW-U-AAVECYCCBC-AAVDAZZBBC-YCACYAZCV-WC
-U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=07%2F30%2F1998&_
rdoc=12&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236243
%231998%23999919983%23494082!&_cdi=6243&
view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlV
ersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=5558415c4ccd34
6c64e2e6be03c3865e
[2] Phylum: Chordata - Class: Mammalia
- Order: Primates - Family:
Cercopithecidae - Species:Cercopithecus
neglectus Description (De
Brazza's Monkey) taken at the Los
Angeles Zoo Date Source from
http://www.lightmatter.net/gallery/Anima
ls/guenon Author By Aaron
Logan CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e1/Lightmatter_guenon.jp
g
Africa.
The earliest possible Gorilla fossils,
are some teeth found in Ethiopia and
date to around 10 million years old and
a jaw from Kenya that is around 9.8
million years old.
[1] From: Stewart, Caro-Beth, and Todd
R Disotell. “Primate evolution - in
and out of Africa.” Current Biology
8.16 (1998) :
R582-R588. http://www.sciencedirect.com
/science/article/pii/S0960982207003673
Figure 2. A synthetic hypothesis of
catarrhine primate evolution. The
branching order shown for the living
species is well-supported by numerous
molecular phylogenetic studies (for
example [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 18, 24
and 25]). We present the dates of
divergence calculated by Goodman and
colleagues [11], on the understanding
that these are still rough estimates
and more precise measurements are
needed, especially for the Old World
monkeys. The fossil species (genus
names in italics) were placed on this
tree by parsimony analyses of
relatively large morphological datasets
[4, 11, 14 and 15]. Known dates for
fossils [1, 2 and 21] are indicated by
the thicker lines; these lines are
attached to the tree as determined by
the parsimony analyses, although the
dates of the attachment points are our
best guesses. Species found in Africa
are in red and species found in Eurasia
are in black. The continental locations
of the ancestral lineages were inferred
by parsimony using the computer program
MacClade [30]. The intercontinental
dispersal events required, at a
minimum, to explain the distribution of
the living and fossil species are
indicated by the arrows. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4C4DVM4-D
&_user=4422&_handle=V-WA-A-W-WC-MsSAYVW-
UUW-U-AAVECYCCBC-AAVDAZZBBC-YCACYAZCV-WC
-U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=07%2F30%2F1998&_
rdoc=12&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236243
%231998%23999919983%23494082!&_cdi=6243&
view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlV
ersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=5558415c4ccd34
6c64e2e6be03c3865e
[2] Description English: Male
silverback w:Gorilla, Gorilla gorilla
in SF zoo Date Source Own
work Author Mila
Zinkova Permission (Reusing this
file) See below. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/50/Male_gorilla_in_SF_zo
o.jpg
Chimpanzees, and archaic humans may
move over land from Eurasia back into
Africa.
Alternatively, this ancestor could have
evolved in Africa if many earlier
ancestors frequently migrated to
Eurasia.
[1] Figure 2. A synthetic hypothesis of
catarrhine primate evolution. The
branching order shown for the living
species is well-supported by numerous
molecular phylogenetic studies (for
example [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 18, 24
and 25]). We present the dates of
divergence calculated by Goodman and
colleagues [11], on the understanding
that these are still rough estimates
and more precise measurements are
needed, especially for the Old World
monkeys. The fossil species (genus
names in italics) were placed on this
tree by parsimony analyses of
relatively large morphological datasets
[4, 11, 14 and 15]. Known dates for
fossils [1, 2 and 21] are indicated by
the thicker lines; these lines are
attached to the tree as determined by
the parsimony analyses, although the
dates of the attachment points are our
best guesses. Species found in Africa
are in red and species found in Eurasia
are in black. The continental locations
of the ancestral lineages were inferred
by parsimony using the computer program
MacClade [30]. The intercontinental
dispersal events required, at a
minimum, to explain the distribution of
the living and fossil species are
indicated by the arrows. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4C4DVM4-D
&_user=4422&_handle=V-WA-A-W-WC-MsSAYVW-
UUW-U-AAVECYCCBC-AAVDAZZBBC-YCACYAZCV-WC
-U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=07%2F30%2F1998&_
rdoc=12&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236243
%231998%23999919983%23494082!&_cdi=6243&
view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlV
ersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=5558415c4ccd34
6c64e2e6be03c3865e
[2] Figure 1. Potential contacts
between Africa and Eurasia during the
past 40 million years, based upon
geological and faunal evidence (after
[28 and 29]). (a) Late Eocene,
approximately 40 million years ago. The
Tethys seaway prevents migration
between Africa and Eurasia. Uplifting
in the western region of the Arabian
peninsula coincides with the rifting of
the future Red Sea. (b) Early Miocene,
approximately 20 million years ago. The
Red Sea begins to form, while potential
land bridges exist between Africa and
Eurasia. (c) Late Miocene,
approximately 10 million years ago. The
Red Sea continues to grow, and
potential connections between Africa
and Eurasia exist along the Indian
Ocean margin. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4C4DVM4-D
&_user=4422&_handle=V-WA-A-W-WC-MsSAYVW-
UUW-U-AAVECYCCBC-AAVDAZZBBC-YCACYAZCV-WC
-U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=07%2F30%2F1998&_
rdoc=12&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236243
%231998%23999919983%23494082!&_cdi=6243&
view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlV
ersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=5558415c4ccd34
6c64e2e6be03c3865e
[1] Figure 2. A synthetic hypothesis of
catarrhine primate evolution. The
branching order shown for the living
species is well-supported by numerous
molecular phylogenetic studies (for
example [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 18, 24
and 25]). We present the dates of
divergence calculated by Goodman and
colleagues [11], on the understanding
that these are still rough estimates
and more precise measurements are
needed, especially for the Old World
monkeys. The fossil species (genus
names in italics) were placed on this
tree by parsimony analyses of
relatively large morphological datasets
[4, 11, 14 and 15]. Known dates for
fossils [1, 2 and 21] are indicated by
the thicker lines; these lines are
attached to the tree as determined by
the parsimony analyses, although the
dates of the attachment points are our
best guesses. Species found in Africa
are in red and species found in Eurasia
are in black. The continental locations
of the ancestral lineages were inferred
by parsimony using the computer program
MacClade [30]. The intercontinental
dispersal events required, at a
minimum, to explain the distribution of
the living and fossil species are
indicated by the arrows. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4C4DVM4-D
&_user=4422&_handle=V-WA-A-W-WC-MsSAYVW-
UUW-U-AAVECYCCBC-AAVDAZZBBC-YCACYAZCV-WC
-U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=07%2F30%2F1998&_
rdoc=12&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236243
%231998%23999919983%23494082!&_cdi=6243&
view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlV
ersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=5558415c4ccd34
6c64e2e6be03c3865e
.jpg)
[2] Description shout Date
28 January 2007 Source
http://www.flickr.com/photos/suneko
/373310729/ Author suneko CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a6/Suneko_-_shout_%28by%
29.jpg
[1] Figure 2. A synthetic hypothesis of
catarrhine primate evolution. The
branching order shown for the living
species is well-supported by numerous
molecular phylogenetic studies (for
example [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 18, 24
and 25]). We present the dates of
divergence calculated by Goodman and
colleagues [11], on the understanding
that these are still rough estimates
and more precise measurements are
needed, especially for the Old World
monkeys. The fossil species (genus
names in italics) were placed on this
tree by parsimony analyses of
relatively large morphological datasets
[4, 11, 14 and 15]. Known dates for
fossils [1, 2 and 21] are indicated by
the thicker lines; these lines are
attached to the tree as determined by
the parsimony analyses, although the
dates of the attachment points are our
best guesses. Species found in Africa
are in red and species found in Eurasia
are in black. The continental locations
of the ancestral lineages were inferred
by parsimony using the computer program
MacClade [30]. The intercontinental
dispersal events required, at a
minimum, to explain the distribution of
the living and fossil species are
indicated by the arrows. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4C4DVM4-D
&_user=4422&_handle=V-WA-A-W-WC-MsSAYVW-
UUW-U-AAVECYCCBC-AAVDAZZBBC-YCACYAZCV-WC
-U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=07%2F30%2F1998&_
rdoc=12&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236243
%231998%23999919983%23494082!&_cdi=6243&
view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlV
ersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=5558415c4ccd34
6c64e2e6be03c3865e
[2] Description Deutsch:
Weißhandgibbons Date 25 May
2006 Source Own work Author
User:MatthiasKabel GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/38/Hylobates_lar_pair_of
_white_and_black_01.jpg
[1] Figure 2. A synthetic hypothesis of
catarrhine primate evolution. The
branching order shown for the living
species is well-supported by numerous
molecular phylogenetic studies (for
example [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 18, 24
and 25]). We present the dates of
divergence calculated by Goodman and
colleagues [11], on the understanding
that these are still rough estimates
and more precise measurements are
needed, especially for the Old World
monkeys. The fossil species (genus
names in italics) were placed on this
tree by parsimony analyses of
relatively large morphological datasets
[4, 11, 14 and 15]. Known dates for
fossils [1, 2 and 21] are indicated by
the thicker lines; these lines are
attached to the tree as determined by
the parsimony analyses, although the
dates of the attachment points are our
best guesses. Species found in Africa
are in red and species found in Eurasia
are in black. The continental locations
of the ancestral lineages were inferred
by parsimony using the computer program
MacClade [30]. The intercontinental
dispersal events required, at a
minimum, to explain the distribution of
the living and fossil species are
indicated by the arrows. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4C4DVM4-D
&_user=4422&_handle=V-WA-A-W-WC-MsSAYVW-
UUW-U-AAVECYCCBC-AAVDAZZBBC-YCACYAZCV-WC
-U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=07%2F30%2F1998&_
rdoc=12&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236243
%231998%23999919983%23494082!&_cdi=6243&
view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlV
ersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=5558415c4ccd34
6c64e2e6be03c3865e
[2] Description English: Ulluk, or
Hoolock gibbon, from Shrimangal,
Sylhet, Bangladesh. Date 19 June
2007 Source Bhaskar
Chowdhury Author Bhaskar
Chowdhury CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e2/Ulluk-2.jpg
ancestor of chimpanzees and humans.
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p106. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p106.
[2] Gregoire: 62-year-old
chimpanzee Description English:
Chimpanzee named ''Gregoire'' born in
1944 (Jane Goodall sanctuary of
Tchimpounga in Congo Brazzaville) -
Picture taken the 9th of December
2006 Français : Chimpanzé nommé
''Grégoire'' né en 1944 (sanctuaire
Jane Goodall de Tchimpounga au Congo
Brazzaville) - Photo prise le 9
décembre 2006 Date 9 December
2006 Source Own work Author
Delphine
Bruyère Permission (Reusing this
file) Attribution : Delphine
Bruyere GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/ba/2006-12-09_Chimpanzee
_Gregoire_D_Bruyere.JPG
(Sahelanthropus), from Chad, central
Africa
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order:
Primates
Family: Hominidae
Subfamily: Homininae
Tribe: Hominini
Subtribe:
Hominina
Genus: Sahelanthropus (Brunet et al,
2002)
Species: S. tchadensis (Brunet et al,
2002)
[1] evolution of the first
hominids COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.portalciencia.net/ant
roevoerga.html
[2] Drzewo rodowe człowiekowatych
(hominidów). hominid
evolution COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.wiw.pl/Biologia/Ewolu
cjonizm/EwolucjaCzlowieka/BigImage.asp?c
p=1&ce=2
Kenya, east Africa.
[1] evolution of the first
hominids COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.portalciencia.net/ant
roevoerga.html
[2] Drzewo rodowe człowiekowatych
(hominidów). hominid
evolution COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.wiw.pl/Biologia/Ewolu
cjonizm/EwolucjaCzlowieka/BigImage.asp?c
p=1&ce=2
[1] Argentavis magnificens COPYRIGHTED
source: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/scien
ce/nature/6262740.stm#map
[2] This handout illustration recieved
courtesy of Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences (PNAS) shows
Argentavis magnificens, the world's
largest known flying bird with a
wingspan of 7 meters, (7.6 yds) about
the size of a Cessna 152 aircraft,
soaring across the Miocene skies of the
Argentinean Pampas six million years
ago. Like todayâs condors,
Argentavis was a lazy glider that
relied either on updrafts, in the rocky
Andes, or thermals, on the grassy
pampas, to provide lifting
power.(AFP/PNAS-HO/Jeff
Martz) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://news.yahoo.com/s/ap/20070
703/ap_on_sc/biggest_bird;_ylt=An2dhz0Fn
wfN7LIRXnKg7VfMWM0F
{JIGaNTOPitiKuS} evolves in China.
[1] Figure 2. A synthetic hypothesis of
catarrhine primate evolution. The
branching order shown for the living
species is well-supported by numerous
molecular phylogenetic studies (for
example [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 18, 24
and 25]). We present the dates of
divergence calculated by Goodman and
colleagues [11], on the understanding
that these are still rough estimates
and more precise measurements are
needed, especially for the Old World
monkeys. The fossil species (genus
names in italics) were placed on this
tree by parsimony analyses of
relatively large morphological datasets
[4, 11, 14 and 15]. Known dates for
fossils [1, 2 and 21] are indicated by
the thicker lines; these lines are
attached to the tree as determined by
the parsimony analyses, although the
dates of the attachment points are our
best guesses. Species found in Africa
are in red and species found in Eurasia
are in black. The continental locations
of the ancestral lineages were inferred
by parsimony using the computer program
MacClade [30]. The intercontinental
dispersal events required, at a
minimum, to explain the distribution of
the living and fossil species are
indicated by the arrows. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4C4DVM4-D
&_user=4422&_handle=V-WA-A-W-WC-MsSAYVW-
UUW-U-AAVECYCCBC-AAVDAZZBBC-YCACYAZCV-WC
-U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=07%2F30%2F1998&_
rdoc=12&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236243
%231998%23999919983%23494082!&_cdi=6243&
view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlV
ersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=5558415c4ccd34
6c64e2e6be03c3865e
[2] Bill Munns stands next to his
model of a Gigantopithecus male, a
quadrupedal, fist-walking creature that
also could have stood erect, as bears
do. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.uiowa.edu/~bioanth/gi
ganto.html
bipedal primate.
Some theories to explain why bipedalism
evolved are:
1) to carry food home, for
later use or for others (a leopard uses
its jaws)
2) using weapons is easier
3) walking may
be more efficient in traveling long
distances.
4) sexual selection
Primates walking upright on two legs
may signal that hominids have become
the top of the food chain on land,
which might be the result of the use of
tools, since other land animals cannot
defend themselves or attack others with
tools.
Africa
[1] Fig. 1. Orrorin tugenensis nov.
gen. nov. sp. A: BAR 1002′00, left
femur, posterior view; B: BAR
1002′00, left femur, anterior view;
C: BAR 1000′00, right mandibular
fragment with M3, buccal view; D: BAR
1000′00, left mandibular fragment
with M2–3, lingual view; E: BAR
1000′00, left mandibular fragment
with M2–3, occlusal view; F: BAR
1900′00, right M3, occlusal view; G:
BAR 1390′00, right P4, distal view;
H: BAR 1001′00, upper I1, labial
view; I: BAR 1425′00, right
Image , lingual view; J: BAR
1004′00, right distal humerus,
posterior view; K: BAR 1003′00,
proximal left femur, anterior view; L:
BAR 349′00, manual proximal phalanx,
superior view; M: BAR 1426′00, left
M3, distal view; N: BAR 1215′00,
fragmentary right proximal femur,
posterior view. Scale bars = 1
cm.Orrorin tugenensis nov. gen. nov.
sp. A : BAR 1002′00, fémur gauche,
vue postérieure ; B : BAR 1002′00,
fémur gauche, vue antérieure ; C :
BAR 1000′00, fragment mandibulaire
droit avec M3, vue buccale ; D : BAR
1000′00, fragment mandibulaire gauche
avec M2–3, vue linguale ; E : BAR
1000′00, fragment mandibulaire gauche
avec M2–3, vue occlusale ; F : BAR
1900′00, M3 droite, vue occlusale ; G
: BAR 1390′00, P4 droite, vue distale
; H : BAR 1001′00, I1, vue labiale ;
I : BAR 1425′00, Image droite, vue
linguale ; J : BAR 1004′00, humérus
distal droit, vue postérieure ; K :
BAR 1003′00, fémur proximal gauche,
vue antérieure ; L : BAR 349′00,
phalange proximale de la main, vue
supérieure ; M : BAR 1426′00, M3
gauche, vue distale ; N : BAR
1215′00, fémur proximal
fragmentaire, vue postérieure. Chaque
barre équivaut à 1 cm. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/cac
he/MiamiImageURL/B6VJ3-42FS9XV-9-1/0?wch
p=dGLzVlz-zSkzS
[2] Description Ardipithecus
ramidus specimen, nicknamed
?Ardi?. After Gen Suwa, Berhane
Asfaw, Reiko T. Kono, Daisuke Kubo, C.
Owen Lovejoy, Tim D. White (2009):
''The Ardipithecus ramidus Skull and
Its Implications for Hominid Origins.''
Science, 2 October 2009: Vol. 326. no.
5949, pp. 68e1-68e7, Fig. 2 Date
14 November 2009, 16:50 Source
Zanclean skull Uploaded by
FunkMonk Author T. Michael
Keesey Permission (Reusing this file)
CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e1/Ardi.jpg
(x-STrA-lO-PitiKuS}.
[1] Australopithecus squinted at the
blue African sky. He had never seen a
star in broad daylight before, but he
could see one today. White. Piercing.
Not as bright as the Sun, yet much more
than a full moon. Was it dangerous? He
stared for a long time, puzzled, but
nothing happened, and after a while he
strode across the savanna
unconcerned. Millions of years
later, we know better. ''That star
was a supernova, one of many that
exploded in our part of the galaxy
during the past 10 million years,''
says astronomer Mark Hurwitz of the
University of
California-Berkeley. Right: Human
ancestors, unconcerned by odd lights in
the daytime sky. This image is based on
a painting featured in The
Economist. PD
source: http://science.nasa.gov/headline
s/y2003/06jan_bubble.htm?list847478
[2] Image Source *
http://www.familie-rebmann.de/photo11.ht
m COPYRIGHTED CLAIMED FAIR USE
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Laetoliafar.jpg.jpg
{lITOlE}, thought to be made by
Australopithicus Afarensis.
Some analysts have noted that the
smaller of the two clearest trails
suggests that whoever left the prints
was burdened on one side - perhaps a
female carrying an infant on her hip.
[1] In 1976 during a fossil hunt lead
by Mary Leakey at a site called Laetoli
in Tanzania a palaeontologist called
Andrew Hill happened to look down and
notice some unusual dents in the
hardened ash that formed a dry stream
bed. Looking more closely these dents
appeared to be mammal
footprints. COPYRIGHTED UK
source: http://www.liv.ac.uk/premog/imag
es/laetoli_1.jpg
[2] Laetoli Footprints COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.modernhumanorigins.ne
t/laetolifoot.html
Earliest evidence of stone used as
tool.
[1] a, The exterior surface of
DIK-55-2, and the location of each of
the surface marks. The rib is oriented
such that the rib head (broken off)
would be to the left. Dashed rule,
4 cm. b, Marks A1 and A2
(high-confidence stone-tool cut marks)
under low-power optical magnification;
the yellow rectangle demarcates c.
Scale bar, 5 mm. c, ESEM image
showing microstriations indicative of
cutting with a stone tool. Scale bar,
100 μm. d, Mark B (high-confidence
stone-tool-inflicted mark) under
low-power optical magnification,
indicative of a cutting and scraping
action or percussion; the yellow
rectangle demarcates e. Scale bar,
5 mm. e, ESEM image showing
microstriations indicative of stone
tool action. Scale bar, 500 μm.
b–e, The direction of the rib head is
indicated by the black arrows. See
Supplementary Information for the
details of mark C. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v466/n7308/images/nature09248-f2.2.
jpg
"Lucy".
[1] Full replica of Lucy's
(Australopithecus afarensis) remains in
the Museo Nacional de Antropología at
Mexico City. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Lucy_Mexico.jpg
PuS}, a line of extinct early bipedal
hominids.
[1] Description Deutsch: plastische
wissenschaftliche Rekonstruktion eines
Paranthropus boisei English:
scientiffic reconstruction of a
Paranthropus boisei Date 25 March
2007 Source Photographed at
Westfälisches Museum für
Archäologie, Herne Author
Photographed by
User:Lillyundfreya Permission (Reusing
this file) own work GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6c/Paranthropus_boisei.J
PG
[2] Skull of Paranthropus
boisei. From Smithsonian Institute
website. COPYRIGHTED CLAIMED FAIR USE
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Zinj3.jpg
This begins the Paleolithic or "Stone
Age".
Other species have been observed to use
tools, including Chimpanzees using
sticks they sharpen with their teeth to
rouse pray.
[1] Figure 3 from: Semaw, S. et al.
2.5-million-year-old stone tools from
Gona, Ethiopia. Nature 385, 333–336
(1997)
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
385/n6614/abs/385333a0.html COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v385/n6614/abs/385333a0.html
[2] Early man lived on elephant meat,
so much they died out in the Middle
East 400,000 years ago Submitted by
Anonymous on Wed Dec 14 2011 17:23:00
GMT-0800 (Pacific Standard Time) -
Source: dailymail.co.uk Docile,
lumbering elephants were so perfect for
Homo erectus, that they provided up to
60 per cent of their diet - until
constant hunting wiped out elephants in
the Middle East. The disappearance
of elephants helped kill off Homo
erectus, and paved the way for Homo
sapiens - modern humans - to take
over. Findings from the University
of Tel Aviv reveal how important the
huge animals were to the diet of early
humans - researchers that elephants
provided 60 per cent of the meat eaten
by Homo erectus. UNKNOWN
source: http://i4.asntown.net/Mastodon-t
vfm.jpg
Africa (earliest member of the genus
"Homo").
This is when the human brain begins to
get bigger.
Homo habilis is thought to be the
ancestor of Homo ergaster.
As the habilis brain grows, habilis
gains a larger memory for storing
sensory information such as eye images,
sounds, pain, etc. and to play back
remembered images and sounds in
thought.
[1] KNM ER 1813 Homo habilis This
image is from the website of the
Smithsonian Institution [1] and may be
copyrighted. The Smithsonian
Institution explicitly considers the
use of its content for non-commercial
educational purposes to qualify as fair
use under United States copyright law,
if: 1. The author and source of the
content is clearly cited. 2. Any
additional copyright information about
the photograph from the Smithsonian
Institution website is included. 3.
None of the content is modified or
altered.
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:KNM_ER_1813.jpg
[2] red= Homo rudolfensis black=Homo
habilis COPYRIGHTED
source: http://sesha.net/eden/Eerste_men
sen.asp
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p106. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p106.
[2] Gregoire: 62-year-old
chimpanzee Description English:
Chimpanzee named ''Gregoire'' born in
1944 (Jane Goodall sanctuary of
Tchimpounga in Congo Brazzaville) -
Picture taken the 9th of December
2006 Français : Chimpanzé nommé
''Grégoire'' né en 1944 (sanctuaire
Jane Goodall de Tchimpounga au Congo
Brazzaville) - Photo prise le 9
décembre 2006 Date 9 December
2006 Source Own work Author
Delphine
Bruyère Permission (Reusing this
file) Attribution : Delphine
Bruyere GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/ba/2006-12-09_Chimpanzee
_Gregoire_D_Bruyere.JPG
(65-1.8 mybn), and start of the
Quaternary {KWoTRnARE or KWoTRNRE} (1.8
mybn-now) Period.
evolves.
Some people call Homo Erectus in
Africa, "Homo Ergaster", and think that
Ergaster leaves Africa and evolves into
Homo erectus in Asia, and into Homo
Neaderthalensis in Europe and western
Asia.
[1] Homo ergaster. Capacité
crânienne de 800 à 950
cm3 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://ma.prehistoire.free.fr/er
gaster.htm
[2] Turkana Boy COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.anthropology.at/virta
nth/evo_links/turkana%20boy.jpg
from Africa.
Homo sapiens have been around for only
200,000 years, but Homo erectus lived
for almost a million years before going
extinct.
[1] G. Philip Rightmire, ''The
Dispersal of Homo erectus from Africa
and the Emergence of More Modern
Humans'', Journal of Anthropological
Research, Vol. 47, No. 2, A Quarter
Century of Paleoanthropology: Views
from the U.S.A. (Summer, 1991), pp.
177-191 Published by: University of
New Mexico Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/3630324
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3630
324
[2] All statistically significant
inferences in Tables 1 and 2 are
incorporated into this single model.
Major expansions of human populations
are indicated by red arrows. Genetic
descent is indicated by vertical lines,
and gene flow by diagonal lines. The
timing of inferences lacking resolution
at the 5% level and/or not validated by
more than one locus are indicated by
question marks. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v416/n6876/images/416045a-f1.2.jpg
burned bones from Swartkrans cave in
South Africa.
This fire could have been made by
Australopithecus (or Paranthropus)
robustus and an early species of Homo,
possibly Homo erectus.
Africa
[1] Description English: A fire lit
using twigs and pine cones. Date
2008-03-27 (original upload
date) (Original text : 10:58, 27 March
2008 (UTC)) Source Transferred
from en.wikipedia (Original text :
http://waxingnonsensical.blogspot.com)
Author Original uploader was
Emeldil at en.wikipedia (Original text
: Pavan Srinath) Permission (Reusing
this file) CC-BY-SA-3.0. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Campfire_Pineco
ne.png/450px-Campfire_Pinecone.png
[2] Swartkrans Caves For any
picture requests, please email:
marketing@maropeng.co.za All photos
should be credited (© Maropeng),
unless otherwise stated in the caption.
UNKNOWN
source: http://maropeng.flowcommunicatio
.netdna-cdn.com/images/sized/images/medi
agallery/IMG_7223-600x450.JPG
This skull shows that Homo habilis and
Homo erectus both were living at this
time.
hair, except head hair, facial hair,
airpit, chest and groin areas.
This is thought to be driven by male
sexual selection of less haired
females, perhaps because less hair
means less body lice and so is more
desirable.
No other surviving apes have taken this
direction. Perhaps wearing furs and
other clothes for heat may have
eliminated the need for bodily hair.
[1] escription English: A diorama in
National Museum of Indonesia, Jakarta,
depicting the life size model of stone
equipped hunter, a Homo erectus family
living in Sangiran about 900,000 years
ago. Bahasa Indonesia: Sebuah diorama
di Museum Nasional Indonesia di Jakarta
menampilkan adegan pemburu dengan
alat-alat batu, sebuah keluarga Homo
erectus yang hidup di Sangiran sekitar
900.000 tahun yang lalu. Date 24
August 2010 Source Own
work Author Gunkarta Gunawan
Kartapranata CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Sangiran_Homo_e
rectus_Diorama.jpg/1280px-Sangiran_Homo_
erectus_Diorama.jpg
[1] This picture released by Fundacion
Atapeurca shows a human tooth found in
the Atapuerca Sierra, near Burgos.
Spanish researchers on Friday said they
had unearthed a human tooth more than
one million years old, which they
estimated to be the oldest human fossil
remain ever discovered in western
Europe.(AFP/FA-HO) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://news.yahoo.com/photo/0706
29/photos_od_afp/815788affc9d457a9223e39
1c7eea36a;_ylt=AsmNyfUR9BdumtPpp6IQZZPQO
rgF
That humans (Homo antecessor) wear
clothing at this time is implied by the
cold climate that occurred at the same
time that stone tools found in the area
were used.
The earliest genetic evidence of humans
wearing clothes, is based on the
differences of the head and body louse
and puts the change to around 80,000
years before now.
[1] Homo erectus, artwork C010/4389
Rights Managed Credit: JOSE ANTONIO
PEÑAS/SCIENCE PHOTO
LIBRARY Caption: Homo erectus.
Computer artwork of a Homo erectus man
standing in a prehistoric landscape.
Homo erectus is the most widespread and
longest-surviving of all the fossil
hominids. Its geographical spread
included north and east Africa, Europe,
Indonesia and China, where it lived
between 1 and 2 million years
ago. Release details: Model and
property releases are not available
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.sciencephoto.com/imag
e/417426/large/C0104389-Homo_erectus,_ar
twork-SPL.jpg
[2] Flint artefacts include
hard-hammer flakes, notches, retouched
flakes and cores (a–c, hard-hammer
flake; d, e, multiple notch; f,
hard-hammer flake; g, h, hard-hammer
flake, showing pronounced point of
percussion on plain butt).
Supplementary Information includes
micro-CT volume rendering of artefacts
(still example shown as a) with
three-dimensional animations (see
Supplementary Movies 1–10). i, Cone
of Pinus cf. sylvestris. j, Upper
second molar of Mammuthus cf.
meridionalis. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nature.com/nature/journal
/v466/n7303/images/nature09117-f2.2.jpg
[1] Fig. 2. Cross section of burned
Olea europaea subsp. oleaster (wild
olive) specimen. Wood is diffuse
porous; vessels are solitary and in
short radial multiples. Bar, 0.5
mm COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/co
ntent/full/304/5671/725/FIG2
[2] Fig. 3. Burned grain of Aegilops
cf. geniculata: dorsal view of a basal
fragment (this grain is also shown in
fig. S2). Parts of husk and embryo are
clearly seen. Bar, 1 mm. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/co
ntent/full/304/5671/725/FIG3
[1] Figure 3a from: Thieme, Hartmut,
‘Lower Palaeolithic Hunting Spears
from Germany’, Nature, 385 (1997),
807-810
v385/n6619/abs/385807a0.html {Thieme_19
970227.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v385/n6619/abs/385807a0.html
[2] The first Europeans - one million
years ago A few
crucial digs have given us a glimpse of
the everyday life of Homo
heidelbergensis. This early human was
developing a complex mind - once this
boundary had been reached, there was no
turning back. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.bbc.co.uk/sn/prehisto
ric_life/human/human_evolution/images/hu
man_evolution_article_big4.jpg
Africa.
The oldest Homo sapiens fossils (Omo I
and II) are from Ethiopia.
[1] Figure from: Day, M. H. ''Omo
human skeletal remains.'' Nature 222,
1135–1138 (1969)
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
222/n5199/pdf/2221135a0.pdf COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v222/n5199/pdf/2221135a0.pdf
[2] Figure 1 from: Tim D. White,
Berhane Asfaw, David DeGusta, Henry
Gilbert, Gary D. Richards, Gen Suwa &
F. Clark Howell, ''Pleistocene Homo
sapiens from Middle Awash, Ethiopia'',
Nature 423, 742-747 (12 June
2003) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v423/n6941/full/nature01669.html CO
PYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v423/n6941/images/nature01669-f1.2.
jpg
human language evolves in early Homo
species.
[1] Figure 2. A synthetic hypothesis of
catarrhine primate evolution. The
branching order shown for the living
species is well-supported by numerous
molecular phylogenetic studies (for
example [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 18, 24
and 25]). We present the dates of
divergence calculated by Goodman and
colleagues [11], on the understanding
that these are still rough estimates
and more precise measurements are
needed, especially for the Old World
monkeys. The fossil species (genus
names in italics) were placed on this
tree by parsimony analyses of
relatively large morphological datasets
[4, 11, 14 and 15]. Known dates for
fossils [1, 2 and 21] are indicated by
the thicker lines; these lines are
attached to the tree as determined by
the parsimony analyses, although the
dates of the attachment points are our
best guesses. Species found in Africa
are in red and species found in Eurasia
are in black. The continental locations
of the ancestral lineages were inferred
by parsimony using the computer program
MacClade [30]. The intercontinental
dispersal events required, at a
minimum, to explain the distribution of
the living and fossil species are
indicated by the arrows. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4C4DVM4-D
&_user=4422&_handle=V-WA-A-W-WC-MsSAYVW-
UUW-U-AAVECYCCBC-AAVDAZZBBC-YCACYAZCV-WC
-U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=07%2F30%2F1998&_
rdoc=12&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236243
%231998%23999919983%23494082!&_cdi=6243&
view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlV
ersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=5558415c4ccd34
6c64e2e6be03c3865e
sounds begins to develop. All words are
single syllable.
This is the beginning of the transition
from the verbal language of chimps and
monkeys, that will result in the
"staccato" (short sound duration)
language humans use now.
Either the majority of the 30 basic
sounds in human language (U, o, K, S,
etc.) were learned before humans moved
out of Africa, or after. That sapiens
of Eurasia, Australia and America do
not have unique base sounds is evidence
that the 30 plus base sounds of all
human language completely developed in
Africa before the sapiens movement from
Africa into Eurasia, Australia and the
Americas. In addition, that the native
humans of Eurasia, Australia and
America have different words, is
evidence that word of mouth, being not
adequate to spread words, was not
adequate to spread the base sounds
shared by all humans, after their move
out of Africa.
It is difficult to determine when but
probably early Homo sapiens in Africa
evolve a larger vocabulary of sound
combinations to label objects and
activities than the other more
primitive primates like the
chimpanzees.
These sounds eventually become
shortened and more finely controlled,
perhaps quicker communication being a
selective advantage, and ultimately
evolve to the 30 plus basic sounds used
to construct words in all human
languages. The vowel sounds may develop
before any consonants. Perhaps the
earliest vowels are: U (food), o
(mama), O (no), E (eat) and perhaps i
(big), e (bed), u (cup). (These sounds
are in use by the first Sumerian
writing.) For centuries early human
language may have been vowels only
until consonants attached to vowels are
added and in regular use.
The first consonants are probably (the
so-called "stop consonants") T and D,
then K and G, then perhaps B and P. But
it may be impossible to know the order,
and the number of years between the
three sound families.
Initially, this language may be very
simple, one sound applying to many
objects and situations. Some time near
here, words made of more than one sound
(compound words) evolves, then objects
and actions might have compound sounds,
although still one word.
Clearly many mammals and birds have a
vocabulary of remembered sounds, which
are used to label other species,
objects, and situations. Chimpanzees
use sounds that sound similar to sounds
humans make, for example the U (in
food), and perhaps "E", although not
sounded in short duration breaths.
Perhaps the development of language is
assisted by trading which requires
object name translation, because these
new sounds and words are remembered,
accepted, and included into the
language of both trading groups.
Clearly some less common vowel sounds
evolve later based on these main
sounds, for example "i" (big), "u"
(cup), "v" (food), "a" (cat), etc.
Perhaps there are some base (letter)
sounds that have been lost to the past.
[1] EARLY HUMANS SETTLED IN BRITAIN
800,000 YEARS AGO July 7, 2010 --
During the harsh winters, early humans
almost certainly relied on hunting
animals, as edible plants would have
been in very short supply, the study
says. UNKNOWN
source: http://news.discovery.com/archae
ology/2010/07/07/early-humans-zoom.jpg
[2] Phonetic Alphabet Symbols used by
Ted Huntington PD
source: http://tedhuntington.com/fonikal
f.jpg
G, K, P and T are in use.
The major sounds of language for any
species can be cataloged and sorted
into groups. Humans language has 30 or
so base sounds which can be grouped
into at least 4 major families, all of
which probably originated at different
times.
The short duration, "stop" family of
sounds (B,D,G,K,P,T) probably evolve
the earliest of all consonent sounds in
the language of sapiens. Initially,
these sounds may have formed
(naturally) before the long vowel sound
(for example a "B" sound when opening
the mouth to howl a vowel sound). This
language may be simply single syllable
consonant plus vowel words (for example
"GO", "Po", etc.) with short durations.
This is basically the form of language
all humans use today, short duration
(50 ms each) sounds from a family of
only 30 sounds, combined together to
form words used to describe objects and
activities (nouns), movements and
actions (verbs), and later a second
word added to further describe objects
(adjectives) and actions (adverbs).
This "short duration" language, means
communication must have been very
routine and optimized, which implies
that this happened through hunting or
perhaps through trading where language
is a selective advantage.
use (the sounds S, Z, s, H, F, V).
The "S" sounds may have been an
imitation of snakes, and may have
represented an early snake alarm signal
to others. The sound "s" may be related
to cause fear in others to signal to be
quiet.
skull, like the oldest in Ethiopia,
Africa.
[1] The oldest known fossil of modern
humans, dating back 160,000
years. Photo © 2000 David L. Brill,
Brill Atlanta) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.berkeley.edu/news/med
ia/releases/2003/06/11_idaltu.shtml
[2] Visualization of what sapien
looked like [t: notice hair is not
curly, but straight] Image © J.
Matternes
source: http://www.berkeley.edu/news/med
ia/releases/2003/06/11_idaltu.shtml
use.
The M and N family are called "Nasals",
and the L and R family are called
"Liquids".
Europe and Western Asia.
The oldest Neanderthal fossil is from
Croatia.
For decades, anthropologists treated
Neanderthals as a subspecies of Homo
sapiens, (Homo sapiens
Neaderthalensis), but recent work
suggests that they were a distinct
species and did not interbreed with or
give rise to Homo sapiens sapiens. The
best evidence for this comes from the
Skhul and Qafzeh caves in Israel, where
layers bearing Neaderthals remains are
interbedded and alternate with layers
containing early modern humans. In
addition, Neaderthals appear later than
the earliest archaic Homo sapiens, so
they can not be the ancestors of Homo
sapiens. Recently Neaderthal DNA has
been sequenced, and they are clearly
not Homo sapiens, and are now named
Homo Neaderthalensis.
Neanderthal mitochondrial DNA has been
compared to sapiens and a common
ancestor of the two is estimated to be
500,000, long before the oldest sapien
fossils in Africa, which supports the
idea that sapiens did not evolve or
interbreed with Neanderthals.
[1] Description Deutsch:
Rekonstruierter Neandertaler im
Neanderthal-Museum Date 2007 Source
Own
work Author Ökologix Permission
(Reusing this file) See below. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Neandertaler-im
-Museum.jpg/1024px-Neandertaler-im-Museu
m.jpg
[2] Description English: Homo
neanderthalensis. Skull discovered in
1908 at La Chapelle-aux-Saints
(France). Date October
2005 Source Own
work Author Luna04 GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e0/Homo_sapiens_neandert
halensis.jpg
(120,000-20,000 YBN), which connects a
land bridge between Asia and America.
[98000 BC]
The explanation that many phenomena in
the universe are controlled by objects
with human and animal bodies that have
supernatural powers is one of the
earliest theories that tries to explain
how the universe works.
This theory will last for all of
recorded history to the present time,
over 5000 years. Although polytheism
will fall in popularity to monotheism
which is introduced around 1300 BCE by
the Egyptian Pharoah Amenhotep IV.
The theory of gods is recorded in the
earliest recorded stories of history
4600 years before now.
The theory that a god or gods controls
the universe is perhaps the oldest
theory that is still believed by some
humans.
Perhaps by this time Humans have
created a word to mean "every thing"
like "universe" or "world".
[1] The following is taken from James
Shreeve's book The Neandertal Enigma:
solving the mystery of modern human
origins (William Morrow and Company,
New York, 1995.) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.mesacc.edu/dept/d10/a
sb/origins/hominid_journey/pictures/buri
al.jpeg
[2] Figure 1 from: Tim D. White,
Berhane Asfaw, David DeGusta, Henry
Gilbert, Gary D. Richards, Gen Suwa &
F. Clark Howell, ''Pleistocene Homo
sapiens from Middle Awash, Ethiopia'',
Nature 423, 742-747 (12 June
2003) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v423/n6941/full/nature01669.html CO
PYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v423/n6941/images/nature01669-f1.2.
jpg
[98000 BC]
Israel
[1] [t Note that this may not be the
actual 100,000 year burial.] This is a
burial site of a Homo sapiens
neaderthalensis young adult male who
lived about 50,000 years ago. The
burial site was found in the Kebara
cave in Israel. UKNOWN
source: http://www.mitchellteachers.net/
WorldHistory/MrMEarlyHumansProject/Trans
parencies/NeanderthalensisTrans.jpg
[2] Description Deutsch:
Rekonstruierter Neandertaler im
Neanderthal-Museum Date 2007 Source
Own
work Author Ökologix Permission
(Reusing this file) See below. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Neandertaler-im
-Museum.jpg/1024px-Neandertaler-im-Museu
m.jpg
[93000 BC]
[1] The northern route (along the
Danube) is represented by the 'classic'
Aurignacian technologies, while the
southern (Mediterranean) route is
represented by the 'proto-Aurignacian'
bladelet technologies (Fig. 3)-with
their inferred origins in the preceding
early Upper Palaeolithic technologies
in the Near East and southeastern
Europe. Dates (in thousands of years
bp) indicate the earliest radiocarbon
dates for these technologies in
different areas, expressed in thousands
of radiocarbon years before present
(bp). (These are likely to
underestimate the true (calendar) ages
of the sites by between 2,000 and 4,000
yr; see ref. 32). Dashed lines indicate
uncertain routes. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v432/n7016/fig_tab/nature03103_F1.h
tml
[2] The figure shows the geographical
and temporal distribution of hominid
populations, based on fossil finds,
using different taxonomic schemes. The
new finds from Herto4, 5 (H) represent
early Homo sapiens. a, This reflects
the view that both Neanderthals and
modern humans derived from a widespread
ancestral species called H.
heidelbergensis2. b, However, evidence
is growing that Neanderthal features
have deep roots in Europe2, 8, so H.
neanderthalensis might extend back over
400,000 years. The roots of H. sapiens
might be similarly deep in Africa, but
this figure represents the alternative
view that the ancestor was a separate
African species called H. rhodesiensis.
Different views of early human
evolution are also shown. Some workers
prefer to lump the earlier records
together and recognize only one
widespread species, H. erectus2 (shown
in a). Others recognize several
species, with H. ergaster and H.
antecessor (or H. mauritanicus) in the
West, and H. erectus only in the Far
East8 (shown in b). Adapted with
permission from refs 8, 11. 8.
Hublin, J.-J in Human Roots: Africa
and Asia in the Middle Pleistocene (eds
Barham, L. & Robson-Brown, K.) 99-121
(Western Academic & Specialist Press,
Bristol, 2001). 11. Rightmire, G. P.
in Human Roots: Africa and Asia in the
Middle Pleistocene (eds Barham, L. &
Robson-Brown, K.) 123-133 (Western
Academic & Specialist Press, Bristol,
2001). COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v423/n6941/fig_tab/423692a_F1.html
[90000 BC]
Africa, in Israel, the Jebel Qafzeh
skull.
[1] Figure 2: Three-quarter view of the
Mousterian cranium Qafzeh 9 from Jebel
Qafzeh in Israel, about 92,000 years
old. Photo: Tsila
Sagiv/IDAM. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.metmuseum.org/special
/Genesis/tattersall_lecture.asp?printFla
g=1&refPage=1
[2] Qafzeh Cave COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.hf.uio.no/iakh/forskn
ing/sarc/iakh/lithic/AmudNet/Asites2.htm
l
[58000 BC]
Americas, from a rock shelter in Pedra
Furada, Brazil.
The evidence is controversial.
Some people argue that the chipped
stones are geoartifacts, but the
artifact finders argue that the chips
are too regular to be made from falling
rocks.
[51300 BC]
Homo Erectus fossil in Southeast Asia
(Java).
This shows that Homo erectus lived at
the same time as Homo sapiens.
These ages are
20,000 to 400,000 years younger than
previous age estimates for these
hominids and indicate that H. erectus
may have survived on Java at least
250,000 years longer than on the Asian
mainland, and perhaps 1 million years
longer than in Africa.
[1] homo erectus cranium COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/a/ad/Ng6f.jpg
[44000 BC]
Sapiens from Southeast Asia reach
Australia by water ship.
Earliest sapians fossils Australia,
"Mungo man".
[1] Palmer, et al, ''Prehistoric
Life'', 2009, p470-471. COPYRIGHTED
source: Palmer, et al, "Prehistoric
Life", 2009, p470-471.
[2] World map of human migrations,
with the North Pole at center. Africa,
harboring the start of the migration,
is at the top left and South America at
the far right. Migration patterns are
based on studies of mitochondrial
(matrilinear) DNA. Numbers represent
thousand years before present. The
blue line represents area covered in
ice or tundra during the last great ice
age. The letters are the mitochondrial
DNA haplogroups (pure motherly
lineages); Haplogroups can be used to
define genetic populations and are
often geographically oriented. For
example, the following are common
divisions for mtDNA
haplogroups: African: L, L1, L2,
L3 Near Eastern: J, N Southern
European: J, K General European: H,
V Northern European: T, U, X Asian:
A, B, C, D, E, F, G (note: M is
composed of C, D, E, and G) Native
American: A, B, C, D, and sometimes
X [edit]Data
derivation Image:Northern icesheet
hg.png shows the region that was
covered by ice or tundra in the last
ice age All migration data based on
mitomap Geographic data from
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Last_
glacial_vegetation_map.png and adding
the following data
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Ice_A
ge_Temperature.png we get this
interesting result
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Human
-migration-temperature.jpg GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/37/Map-of-human-migratio
ns.jpg
[41000 BC]
in Swaziland, Africa is in use. At this
site, which by radiocarbon dating is
43,000 years old, paleolithic humans
mined for the iron-containing mineral
hematite, which they ground to produce
the red pigment ochre. Sites of a
similar age where Neanderthals may have
mined flint for weapons and tools have
been found in Hungary.
[01/01/38800 BC]
painting.
In El Castillo Cave in Spain, one of
several large red disks on the "Panel
de las Manos", made by using a blowing
technique, has a minimum age of 40.8
ky. This age is measured using
uranium-series disequilibrium of
calcite deposits overlying or
underlying the cave art. This implies
that depictions of the human hand are
among the oldest art known from Europe.
The cave art may have been created by
the first anatomically modern humans in
Europe or possibly by Neanderthals.
Cave, Spain|Southern France
[1] Drawings of horses from Chauvet
Cave GNU
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/336/6087/F5.large.jpg
[2] Fig 3 from: Pike, A. W. G. et al.
“U-Series Dating of Paleolithic Art
in 11 Caves in Spain.” Science
336.6087 (2012): 1409 –1413.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/336/6087/1409.abstract A time line
of the cave art dated. A single arrow
represents a minimum age, but, where
two dates are indicated, both maximum
and minimum ages have been obtained.
The error bars for O-21 reflect the
variation resulting from the two
different methods of detrital
correction (11). Larger versions of
these images showing sample locations
are available in the supplementary
materials, figs. S2 to
S12. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Chauvethorses.jpg
[38000 BC]
Europe from the Cro-Magnon site in
France
This time (40,000 YA) also marks the
decline of Neaderthal populations until
their extinction 10,000 years later.
[1] Front view of Cro-magnon 1
fossil COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/3/36/Cromagf.jpg
[38000 BC]
[1] Figure from: Sophie A. de Beaune
and Randall White, ''Ice Age Lamps'',
Scientific American, March
1993. http://halshs.archives-ouvertes.f
r/docs/00/42/17/69/PDF/Sc.Amer.1993.pdf
source: http://halshs.archives-ouvertes.
fr/docs/00/42/17/69/PDF/Sc.Amer.1993.pdf
[38000 BC]
instrument, a flute made from the wing
bone of a vulture.
[1] Prehistorian historian Nicholas
Conard presents the bone flute from
Hohle Fels to journalists COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.google.com/hostednews
/afp/media/ALeqM5hlF6Vh9FxCmW4OYCeiBOJqR
J3VgA?size=l
[2] Conard et al.1 have discovered the
oldest known flute, at Hohle Fels Cave
in Germany. The flute is made from bird
bone, and dates from the early
Aurignacian, 40,000 years ago. H.
JENSEN/UNIV. TÜBINGEN COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v460/n7256/images/460695a-f1.2.jpg
[37000 BC]
Earliest Homo sapiens fossil in China,
from the Zhoukoudian Cave in China.
China
[1] Fig. 1. Anterolateral oblique
view of the Tianyuan 1 mandible (lower
left), medial view of the right corpus
and ramus (upper left), and occlusal
view of the dentition and alveoli
(upper right). Views are not to the
same scale. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.pnas.org/content/104/
16/6573/F1.large.jpg
[36000 BC]
[1] Pendejo Cave from approximately
north. Several human figures near the
mouth give the scale. A. H. Harris
photo, 2 Feb 1991. COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://www.utep.edu/leb/paleo/si
te62.htm
[33000 BC]
[1] Photos by H. Jensen; copyright,
University of Tübingen.
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v459/n7244/images/nature07995-f1.2.
jpg
[33000 BC]
[30000 BC]
The earliest evidence of weaving are
32,000 year old flax fibers. Some of
the flax fibers are spun, dyed, and
knotted.
Other early evidence of weaving is from
textile and flexible basketry
impressions on burnt clay from Pavlov
in the Czech Republic which date to
between 27,000-25,000 ybn (see image).
The oldest woven cloth so far
discovered is made from flax, dates to
about 9000 ybn, and comes from
Çayönü, Turkey.
[1] Fig. 1 (1 to 7) Fibers from
Dzudzuana, Georgia, unit D. 1, twisted
flax fibers; 2 to 4, flax fibers; and 5
to 7, unraveled flax fibers. (8 to 12)
Fibers from Dzudzuana, unit C. 8 and 9,
twisted flax fibers; 10 and 12, flax
fibers; and 11, dyed flax fibers.
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/325/5946/-CSCO-3h--1359/-CSCO-3h--F1.l
arge.jpg
[2] On a lump of fired clay from the
Dolní Věstonice / Pavlov area were
found the impressions of substances
from plant fibres. The whole process of
picking nettles, crushing the dried
stem, preparation of tow, spinning the
thread and then weaving was tested and
shown to be possible using tools of the
time by M. Bunatova. Urbanová (ca
1999) http://www.donsmaps.com/dolnivpot
tery.html Dexterity of the First
Weavers A decade ago, experts did
not dare to think about people living
in the last ice age making
fabric. However, on a lump of fired
clay from the Dolní Věstonice /
Pavlov area were found the impressions
of substances from plant fibres. The
whole process of picking nettles,
crushing the dried stem, preparation of
tow, spinning the thread and then
weaving was tested and shown to be
possible using tools of the time by M.
Bunatova. Urbanová (ca
1999) Source: Display, Dolní
Věstonice Museum From Buňatová
(1999) and Sosna (2000): Buňatová,
M., 1999: Textilní produkce v mladém
paleolitu, experiment pro
dokumentární film ''Úsvit géniů'',
in: AR LI, Praha, 104 - 111. Sosna,
D., 2000: Počátky textilnictví. PhD.
Dissertation, Department of
Anthropology, Masaryk University, Brno.
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.ancient-wisdom.co.uk/
Images/countries/Czech%20pics/dolnifabri
c.jpg
[29700 BC]
domesticated). One theory supported by
evidence is that dog anatomy changes
abruptly from wolf anatomy as a result
of domestication by humans.
[1] Description Deutsch:
Europäischer Grauwolf (Canis
lupus) English: grey wolf Date
February 2009 Source Own
work (own photo) Author Gunnar
Ries Amphibol Permission (Reusing
this file) You must give the
original author credit. If you use my
pictures outside the wiki projects,
please let me know. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Grauwolf_P11302
75.jpg/1024px-Grauwolf_P1130275.jpg
[2] Description Español: Lobo en
el zoo de Kolmården (Suecia). Date
2010-12-23 18:10 (UTC) Source
Wolf_Kolmården.jpg Author
Wolf_Kolmården.jpg: Daniel
Mott from Stockholm, Sweden
derivative work:
Mariomassone Permission (Reusing
this file) See below. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5f/Kolm%C3%A5rden_Wolf.j
pg
[28000 BC]
migration to the Americas now.
[27000 BC]
Venus figurines.
The Venus figurines are created around
this time. The Venus of Dolní
Věstonice is the oldest of these
ceramic objects at 29,000 years old.
This figurine, together with a few
others from nearby locations, is the
oldest known ceramic in the world,
predating the earliest pottery of China
(18,000) by 11,000 years. Some of the
figurines appear to be wearing
clothing.
[1] Description Věstonická
venuše na výstavě Lovci mamutů v
Národním muzeu v Praze Date 2.
9. 2007 Source che Author
che (Please credit as ''Petr
Novák, Wikipedia'' in case you use
this outside WMF projects.) guidance:
Danny B. Permission (Reusing this
file) As they reached the Summit,
he said: “Thou shall take this
Snapshot and use it according to the
Code of License, and let your people
flourish all around the world.” They
brought the Snapshot to their homes and
there was much rejoicing. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b8/Vestonicka_venuse_edi
t.jpg
[2] Description Deutsch: Venus von
Willendorf Date 1 January
2007 Source Own work Author
User:MatthiasKabel Own work,
attribution required (Multi-license
with GFDL and Creative Commons CC-BY
2.5) GNU Figure 2 from: O. Soffer,
J. M. Adovasio, D. C. Hyland, ''The
“Venus” Figurines: Textiles,
Basketry, Gender, and Status in the
Upper Paleolithic'', Current
Anthropology, Vol. 41, No. 4
(August/October 2000), pp.
511-537 URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/3173
81 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/50/Venus_von_Willendorf_
01.jpg
[26000 BC]
Neanderthal fossil.
Genetic evidence suggests interbreeding
took place with Homo sapiens between
roughly 80,000 and 50,000 years ago in
the Middle East, resulting in 1–4% of
the genome of people from Eurasia
having been contributed by
Neanderthals.
[1] Description English: View of
Gorham's Cave, a sea cave in the east
face of the Rock of Gibraltar,
Gibraltar. Date 3 July
2007 Source Own work Author
Gibmetal77 CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Gorham%27s_Cave
.jpg/800px-Gorham%27s_Cave.jpg
[24000 BC]
and hardened by fire).
Republic
[1] On a lump of fired clay from the
Dolní Věstonice / Pavlov area were
found the impressions of substances
from plant fibres. The whole process of
picking nettles, crushing the dried
stem, preparation of tow, spinning the
thread and then weaving was tested and
shown to be possible using tools of the
time by M. Bunatova. Urbanová (ca
1999) http://www.donsmaps.com/dolnivpot
tery.html Dexterity of the First
Weavers A decade ago, experts did
not dare to think about people living
in the last ice age making
fabric. However, on a lump of fired
clay from the Dolní Věstonice /
Pavlov area were found the impressions
of substances from plant fibres. The
whole process of picking nettles,
crushing the dried stem, preparation of
tow, spinning the thread and then
weaving was tested and shown to be
possible using tools of the time by M.
Bunatova. Urbanová (ca
1999) Source: Display, Dolní
Věstonice Museum From Buňatová
(1999) and Sosna (2000): Buňatová,
M., 1999: Textilní produkce v mladém
paleolitu, experiment pro
dokumentární film ''Úsvit géniů'',
in: AR LI, Praha, 104 - 111. Sosna,
D., 2000: Počátky textilnictví. PhD.
Dissertation, Department of
Anthropology, Masaryk University, Brno.
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.ancient-wisdom.co.uk/
Images/countries/Czech%20pics/dolnifabri
c.jpg
[21000 BC]
stone wall. The oldest wall in Jericho,
also a stone wall dates to 8,000 BCE.
Greece
[1] Picture: Remains of the stone wall.
From the Greek Ministry of Culture.
UNKNOWN
source: http://blogs.discovery.com/files
/wall.jpg
[18000 BC]
migration to the Americas now.
[18000 BC]
Argolid, is a cave overlooking the
Argolic Gulf opposite the Greek village
of Koilada.
[17000 BC]
Lebanon, Israel, Iraq, Jordan, Saudi
Arabia)
[1] Description Česky:
Pšenice. Deutsch: Weizen. English:
Wheat. Español: Trigo. Français :
Blé. Magyar: Búza. Tiếng Việt:
Lúa mì. Date August
2005 Source Own work Author
User:Bluemoose GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Wheat_close-up.
JPG/800px-Wheat_close-up.JPG
[16000 BC]
The oldest known ceramic objects are
the "Venus" figurines which date back
to 29,000 years before present, 11,000
years earlier.
Province, China
[1] Pottery Fu (Cooking Vessel)-Shaped
Vessel Paleolithic Age to Neolithic
Age 12000 years ago Diameter at mouth
32.5cm height 29.8cm Restored on the
basis of unearthed pottery pieces at
Yuchanyan, Dao County in 1995 It is by
far the earliest pottery discovered, a
cooking vessel. [t Note that there
are apparently fragments of 2 or more
pottery vessels, and they are redated
in the article to 18000ybn: Elisabetta
Boaretto, Xiaohong Wu, Jiarong Yuan,
Ofer Bar-Yosef, Vikki Chu, Yan Pan,
Kexin Liu, David Cohen, Tianlong Jiao,
Shuicheng Li, Haibin Gu, Paul Goldberg,
and Steve Weiner, ''Radiocarbon dating
of charcoal and bone collagen
associated with early pottery at
Yuchanyan Cave, Hunan Province, China
PNAS 2009 106 (24) 9595-9600;''
published ahead of print June 1, 2009,
doi:10.1073/pnas.0900539106
http://www.pnas.org/content/106/24/959
5.full?sid=4a6f1743-94c2-4be8-b046-575b4
f27ab46]
source: http://www.hnmuseum.com/hnmuseum
/eng/whatson/exhibition/images/kg/2.jpg
[15000 BC]
of rope, only 7 or 8 mm in diameter.
[1] Remains of the rope. Fragments of
the first piece of clay (at left the
remains of the rope, at right, its
mark). Images from: LEROI-GOURHAN,
A., Lascaux Inconnu (A. LEROIGOURHAN &
J. ALLAIN, eds.), Xlle Suppl. à Gallia
Préhistoire, CNRS: Paris, 1979,
p183. COPYRIGHTED
source: LEROI-GOURHAN, A., Lascaux
Inconnu (A. LEROIGOURHAN & J. ALLAIN,
eds.), Xlle Suppl. à Gallia
Préhistoire, CNRS: Paris, 1979, p183.
[2] Figure 142. - Fragments of the
second piece of clay. The remains of
the cord appear on both sides. Images
from: LEROI-GOURHAN, A., Lascaux
Inconnu (A. LEROIGOURHAN & J. ALLAIN,
eds.), Xlle Suppl. à Gallia
Préhistoire, CNRS: Paris, 1979,
p183. COPYRIGHTED
source: LEROI-GOURHAN, A., Lascaux
Inconnu (A. LEROIGOURHAN & J. ALLAIN,
eds.), Xlle Suppl. à Gallia
Préhistoire, CNRS: Paris, 1979, p183.
[12000 BC]
[1] The oldest known map in the world,
discovered by archeologists, is from
12,000 B.C. and was found in Mezhirich,
Ukraine.
source: http://www.infoukes.com/history/
images/inventions/figure02.gif
[11000 BC]
bones in America.
The earliest bones of a human in the
Americas, a skull (Peñon woman) from
Mexico and bones from "Arlington
Springs" woman, in the California
Channel Islands date to now.
These three bones are discovered on the
Channel Islands, on a ridge called
Arlington, just off the California
coastline.
Santa Rosa Island, California,
USA
[1] Peñon Woman III see also a
different skull: Luzia Woman is the
name for the skeleton of a
(Paleo-Indian) woman found in a cave in
Brazil, South America. Some
archaeologists believe the young woman
may have been part of the first wave of
immigrants to South America. Nicknamed
Luzia (her name pays homage to the
famous African fossil ''Lucy'', who
lived 3.2 million years ago), the
11,500 year-old skeleton was found in
Lapa Vermelha, Brazil, in 1975 by
archaeologist Annette
Laming-Emperaire [1] The skull is
said to be 13,000 years
old COPYRIGHTED
source: http://news.bbc.co.uk/media/imag
es/38542000/jpg/_38542745_150concho1.jpg
[2] The bones were found 40 years ago
on an island off the coast of
California. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://edition.cnn.com/NATURE/99
06/08/ancient.woman/
[11000 BC]
[1] The bones were found 40 years ago
on an island off the coast of
California. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://edition.cnn.com/NATURE/99
06/08/ancient.woman/
[2] Skull wars:' Facial reconstruction
of the 'Spirit Cave Man,' based on
bones found in Spirit Cave, Churchill
County, Nevada (David Barry--Courtesy
Nevada State Museum; facial
reconstruction by Sharon Long)
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.abotech.com/Articles/
firstamericans.htm
[10500 BC]
southern Chile.
This date puts the possibility of
walking over the Being Straight in
doubt.
[1] Mastodon tusk fragment with
polished and probably worked edge (Tom
Dillehay) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.archaeology.org/onlin
e/features/clovis/
[2] Two lanceolate basalt points and a
slate perforator (Tom
Dillehay) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.archaeology.org/onlin
e/features/clovis/
[9500 BC]
Mexico.
[1] Fluted projectile points unearthed
in Clovis, New Mexico, provide the
earliest reliably dated evidence of
human habitation in North America. The
11,500-year-old artifacts have been
associated with small groups of people
believed to have descended from
Siberian ancestors who crossed an
ancient land mass that spanned Siberia
and Alaska. Some scientists are now
pondering whether other early peoples
arrived in the Americas by
boat. Photograph copyright David L.
Arnold, National Geographic Society
source: http://news.nationalgeographic.c
om/news/2003/11/1106_031106_firstamerica
ns.html
[9500 BC]
cultivation in China.
China
[1] Description English: Paddy in
West Bengal, India Date 18 October
2009 Source Own
work Author Amartyabag CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Paddy_West_Beng
al.jpg/1280px-Paddy_West_Bengal.jpg
[2] Description: Cambodia, Kratie: A
worker is removing the rice
seedlings. Capture date: August
2002 Photographer: Oliver Spalt
Published under CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/07/Rice_02.jpg
[9130 BC]
[1] Göbekli Tepe may hold first human
writings Prehistory specialist of
the German Archeological Institute in
Berlin announced the findings of a
South Eastern Turkish Excavation site
near Sanliurfa called Göbekli Tepe
(''Nabelberg'') . Klaus Schmidt claims
the 11 600 old stone markings of this
temple are the worlds earliest known
form of writing. ''The geometrical
forms and small animal reliefs are
surely more than just ornamentations.
Humans somewhat wanted to communicate
with future humans here '' he says in a
February 14, 2006 Berliner Morgenpost
article. Excavator Schmidt interprets
Goebekli Tepe as a center for a
complicated dead cult and adds, ''This
was monumental architecture, 6000 years
before the pyramids.'' The monoliths
were lower than the surrounding walls
indicating that the intention was not
architectural in erecting
them. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.lahana.org/blog/Gobek
litepe.htm
[2] None COPYRIGHTED
source: http://terraeantiqvae.blogia.com
/2006/061203-gobekli-tepe-turquia-.-en-b
usca-del-paraiso-de-adan-y-eva.php
[9000 BC]
Jericho is located in the West bank,
near the Jordan river (east of
Mediterranean).
Jericho is one of the earliest
continuous settlements on Earth,
starting from perhaps about 9000 bce.
This city provides evidence of the
first permanent settlements.
Palestine
[1] An aerial view of Jericho showing
the ruins of Tell
es-Sultan Description Italiano:
veduta aerea dell'area archeologica di
Gerico Date 2008-03-05 (original
upload date) Source Transferred
from it.wikipedia Author Original
uploader was Fullo88 at
it.wikipedia PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f4/Tell_es-sultan.jpg
[2] Plastered skulls figures
from: Kathleen Kenyon, ''Excavations
at Jericho'', 1981,
vol5. {Kenyon_Excavations_At_Jericho_19
81.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: Kenyon_Excavations_At_Jericho_19
81.pdf
[9000 BC]
A saddle quern consists simply of a
flat stone bed and a rounded stone to
be operated manually against it, to
grind grain into flour.
[1] (presumably the:) Quern stone used
for making flour 9,500–9,000
BC Abu Hureyra, Syria NONCOMMERCIAL
USE
source: http://www.britishmuseum.org/ima
ges/quern_l.jpg
[2] Setting where Quern stone was used
for making flour 9,500–9,000
BC Abu Hureyra, Syria NONCOMMERCIAL
USE
source: http://www.britishmuseum.org/ima
ges/quern_setting_l.jpg
[9000 BC]
killed for food.
Turkey (11,000 bp), and the Zagros
Mountains of Iran at Ganj Dareh
(10,000).
[1] Description Bezoar Ibex (Capra
aegagrus aegagrus) Deutsch:
Bezoarziege, fotografiert im Tierpark
Berlin Date January
2006 Source Uploaded first to de
wikipedia on 13:25, 19. Feb 2006 by Der
Irbis Author F. Spangenberg (Der
Irbis, own photo) GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f6/Bezoarziege.jpg
[2] Domestic goat kid, in field of
capeweed. Swifts Creek, Victoria,
September 2007 GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Domestic_goat_k
id_in_capeweed.jpg/1024px-Domestic_goat_
kid_in_capeweed.jpg
[9000 BC]
Province, northwest Thailand
[8700 BC]
Oldest copper
(and metal) artifact, from Northern
Iraq.
This starts the "Copper Age"
(Chalcolithic).
This is a copper ear ring.
Copper is the
first metal shaped by humans.
[8500 BC]
meat and dung (for fuel).
Anatolia|(Middle East) Eastern
Mediterranean
[1] Ovis canadensis Information from
en: Subject: Rocky Mountain Bighorn
Sheep Camera: Canon D60 Lens: Canon
100--400mm IS Originally uploaded to
en: by
Sunborn Source http://pdphoto.org/Pict
ureDetail.php?mat=pdef&pg=8208 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3a/Ovis_canadensis_2.jpg
[2] Description Fotografía tomada
en Brunete, Madrid,
España. Date 30 March 2008,
10:24 Source Black sheep . Do u
also feel different? // la Oveja negra.
Tambien te sientes
diferente? Uploaded by
Petronas Author Jesus Solana from
Madrid, Spain CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Black_sheep-1.j
pg/1024px-Black_sheep-1.jpg
[8350 BC]
[8000 BC]
Island South East Asia|southeastern
Anatolia
[1] Description English: A baby Wild
Boar (Sus scrofa) in a wildlife park in
the Netherlands Français : Marcassin
(Sus scrofa) dans une réserve faunique
au Pays-Bas Date 12 May 2010,
15:10 Source Frisling Author S
ander van der Wel CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Sus_scrofa_pigl
et.jpg/1024px-Sus_scrofa_piglet.jpg
[2] Edited version of Image:Wild Boar
Habbitat 2.jpg slightly cropped with
artifacts
removed. [edit]Summary Description
Deutsch: Das Wildschwein (Sus scrofa)
gehört zur Familie der altweltlichen
oder echten Schweine (Suidae) aus der
Ordnung der Paarhufer. Hier zu sehen in
seinem natürlichen Umfeld: Eine
Suhle English: The Wild Boar (Sus
scrofa) is the wild ancestor of the
domestic pig. As shown in his natural
habitat. Español: El jabalí salvaje
(Sus scrofa), ancestro del cerdo
doméstico, en su hábitat
natural. Français : Sanglier (Sus
scrofa) dans son habitat naturel. Le
sanglier est l'ancêtre sauvage du
porc. Grünvalder forst, Bavière
(Allemagne). Cymraeg: Baedd gwyllt
(Sus scrofa), hynafiad y mochyn
dof. Italiano: Il cinghiale (Sus
scrofa), è la forma ancestrale del
maiale domestico, ritratto nel suo
habitat naturale. Nederlands: Wild
zwijn (Sus scrofa) neemt een
modderbad Norsk (bokmål):
Villsvin (Sus scrofa) i sitt naturlige
miljø Português: Um javali da
espécie Sus scrofa, ancestral selvagem
do porco doméstico. Русский:
Кабан (Sus scrofa),
валяющийся в грязи;
предок домашней
свиньи. Svenska: Ett vildsvin
(Sus scrofa) i sin naturliga
miljö. Date 2007-05-22 Source O
wn work Author Richard Bartz,
Munich Makro Freak CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Wild_Boar_Habbi
tat_3.jpg/1024px-Wild_Boar_Habbitat_3.jp
g
[8000 BC]
The earliest potential arrow heads date
from about 64,000 ybn in the South
African Sibudu Cave.
The first actual bow fragments are the
Stellmoor bows from northern Germany.
[1] Stellmoor bows UNKNOWN
source: http://img.photobucket.com/album
s/v692/Rodsbucket/Primitive%20Bows/paste
dGraphic5.jpg
[8000 BC]
geometrical shapes are used for
counting in Sumer.
From the neolithic age (7000 BCE) on,
stone tokens used to represent counted
units, such as sheep or grain, are
gradually replaced by tokens of baked
clay. Clay has the advantage of being
formed into any desired shape. Clay
tokens are particularly popular in
stoneless Babylonia. Large quantities
of clay tokens found in various
geometric shapes such as spheres,
rhombuses, discs, and tetrahedrons are
thought to represent different specific
numerical values.
These tokens may initially be kept in
small bags of materials like cloth or
leather. But after 4000 BCE, tokens
will be kept inside clay bullas
(spherical clay sealed containers used
to protect the contents until broken).
Sumer (modern Iraq)|Babylonia|Syria,
Sumer and Highland Iran
[1] Pre-literate counting and
accounting MS 5067/1-8 NEOLITHIC
PLAIN COUNTING TOKENS POSSIBLY
REPRESENTING 1 MEASURE OF GRAIN, 1
ANIMAL AND 1 MAN OR 1 DAY'S LABOUR,
RESPECTIVELY ms5067/1-8Counting tokens
in clay, Syria/Sumer/Highland Iran, ca.
8000-3500 BC, 3 spheres: diam. 1,6, 1,7
and 1,9 cm , (D.S.-B 2:1); 3 discs:
diam. 1,0x0,4 cm, 1,1x0,4 cm and
1,0x0,5 cm (D.S.-B 3:1); 2
tetrahedrons: sides 1,4 cm and 1,7 cm
(D.S.-B 5:1). Exhibited: The
Norwegian Intitute of Palaeography and
Historical Philology (PHI), Oslo,
13.10.2003- COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.earth-history.com/_im
ages/ms5067.jpg
[2] MS 4631 BULLA-ENVELOPE WITH 11
PLAIN AND COMPLEX TOKENS INSIDE,
REPRESENTING AN ACCOUNT OR AGREEMENT,
TENTATIVELY OF WAGES FOR 4 DAYS' WORK,
4 MEASURES OF METAL, 1 LARGE MEASURE OF
BARLEY AND 2 SMALL MEASURES OF SOME
OTHER COMMODITY ms4631Bulla in clay,
Syria/Sumer/Highland Iran, ca.
3700-3200 BC, 1 spherical
bulla-envelope (complete), diam. ca.
6,5 cm, cylinder seal impressions of a
row of men walking left; and of a
predator attacking a deer, inside a
complete set of plain and complex
tokens: 4 tetrahedrons 0,9x1,0 cm
(D.S.-B.5:1), 4 triangles with 2
incised lines 2,0x0,9 (D.S.-B.(:14), 1
sphere diam. 1,7 cm (D.S.-B.2:2), 1
cylinder with 1 grove 2,0x0,3 cm
(D.S.-B.4:13), 1 bent paraboloid
1,3xdiam. 0,5 cm
(D.S.-B.8:14). Context: MSS 4631-4646
and 5114-5127are from the same archive.
Total number of bulla-envelopes
worldwide is ca. 165 intact and 70
fragmentary. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.earth-history.com/_im
ages/ms4631.jpg
[8000 BC]
[1] Figure from: Kathleen Kenyon,
''Excavations at Jericho'', 1981,
vol5. {Kenyon_Excavations_At_Jericho_19
81.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: Kenyon_Excavations_At_Jericho_19
81.pdf
[2] Figure from: Kathleen Kenyon,
''Excavations at Jericho'', 1981,
vol5. {Kenyon_Excavations_At_Jericho_19
81.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: Kenyon_Excavations_At_Jericho_19
81.pdf
[8000 BC]
for plowing.
[1] The aurochs ( /ˈaʊrɒks/ or
/ˈɔrɒks/; also urus, Bos
primigenius), the ancestor of domestic
cattle, were a type of large wild
cattle which inhabited Europe, Asia and
North Africa, but is now extinct; it
survived in Europe until
1627. Description Español: Uro
(Bos taurus primigenius), agriotipo de
las vacas y toros domésticos Original
caption: ''Augsburger Abbildung des Urs
(echten Auerochsen).'' Translation
(partly): ''Augsburg depiction of an
Auerochs.'' This painting is a copy of
the original that was present at a
merchant in Augsburg in the 19th
century. The original probably dates
from the 16th century. It is not known
if the original as well the copy still
exist somewhere (Van Vuure,
2003). Size: 5.0 x 3.1 in² (12.8 x
7.8 cm²) Date Brehms Tierleben,
Small Edition
1927 Source http://animalpicturesar
chive.com/ArchOLD-6/1188058432.jpg Au
thor Unkown PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Egyptian_Domest
icated_Animals.jpg/1024px-Egyptian_Domes
ticated_Animals.jpg
[2] Description English:
Cows Date Source Own
work Author Route11 Permission
(Reusing this file) Own Work CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Ur-painting.jpg
/1024px-Ur-painting.jpg
[7300 BC]
(Nevali Cori, Turkey)
[1] Description Česky:
Pšenice. Deutsch: Weizen. English:
Wheat. Español: Trigo. Français :
Blé. Magyar: Búza. Tiếng Việt:
Lúa mì. Date August
2005 Source Own work Author
User:Bluemoose GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Wheat_close-up.
JPG/800px-Wheat_close-up.JPG
[7240 BC]
Americas. Squash grown in Peru.
[1] Fig. 3. Close-up of two dark
brown squash seed (C. moschata)
fragments recovered from a buried house
floor at CA-09-27. from: Tom D.
Dillehay, Jack Rossen, Thomas C.
Andres, and David E. Williams,
''Preceramic Adoption of Peanut,
Squash, and Cotton in Northern Peru'',
Science 29 June 2007: 316 (5833),
1890-1893. http://www.sciencemag.org/co
ntent/316/5833/1890.abstract COPYRIGHTE
D
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/316/5833/1890/F3.large.jpg
[7000 BC]
cloth is made from flax, comes from
Çayönü, Turkey.
Weaving apparently precedes spinning of
yarn; woven fabrics probably originate
from basket weaving.
[7000 BC]
neolithic city begins now.
Mehrgarh is one of the most important
Neolithic (7000 BCE to 3200 BCE) sites
in archaeology. Mehrgarh lies on the
"Kachi plain of Baluchistan, Pakistan,
and is one of the earliest sites with
evidence of farming (wheat and barley)
and herding (cattle, sheep and goats)
in South Asia.
[1] Early farming village in Mehrgarh,
c. 7000 BCE, with houses built with mud
bricks. (Musée Guimet, Paris). The
image was downloaded from the website
of the Indus and Mehrgarh
archaeological mission, Musée Guimet,
by Fowler&fowler«Talk» 22:56, 6 March
2007 (UTC) COPYRIGHTED FAIRUSE
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Neolithic_mehrgarh.jpg
[2] A relief map of Pakistan showing
Mehrgarh This is an annotated version
of a relief map of Pakistan in the
public domain([1]). The map was
annotated by Fowler&fowler«Talk»
08:07, 7 March 2007 (UTC) and
rereleased to the public domain. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Mehrgarh_pakistan_rel96.JPG
[7000 BC]
[1] This map has been uploaded by
Electionworld from en.wikipedia.org to
enable the Wikimedia Atlas of the World
. Original uploader to en.wikipedia.org
was John D. Croft, known as John D.
Croft at en.wikipedia.org.
Electionworld is not the creator of
this map. Licensing information is
below. Self made map and text GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Sumer1.jpg
[6600 BC]
shell from a neolithic grave in China
may be the ancestors of Chinese
writing.
These symbols predate the earliest
recorded writings from Mesopotamia by
more than 2,000 years. The
archaeologists say they bear
similarities to written characters used
thousands of years later during the
Shang dynasty, which lasted from
1700-1100 BC.
This creates a space of about 5,000
years between these symbols and the
next oldest which may indicate that
they are not related.
Province
[1] This tortoise shell is over 8,000
years old and has inscribed symbols
similar to the Chinese character ''mu''
(meaning ''eye'') in oracle bone
inscriptions of the Shang Dynasty. This
may not be the evidence of the
existence of characters 8,000 years
ago, but one thing is for sure, that
the Chinese people had already begun to
express their thoughts through symbols
at that time. UNKNOWN
source: http://history.cultural-china.co
m/chinaWH/images/exbig_images/1439a64c77
7f51442934daf575c6bc7a.jpg
[2] First attempt at writing on a
tortoise shell. COPYRIGHTED but PD on
wiki
source: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/scien
ce/nature/2956925.stm
[6410 BC]
[1] t: might be newsweek
image COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.unl.edu/rhames/course
s/current/current2005.htm
[2] Kennewick reconstruction The face
of Kennewick Man, as reconstructed by
Jim Chatters and Thomas
McClelland. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/fir
st/kennewick.html
[6200 BC]
[1] City plan of Çatal Höyük. The
map is painted on a wall and measures
more than de 2,5 m long. Image courtesy
of Ali Turan in Turkey in maps
www.turkeyinmaps.com COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.infovis.net/printMag.
php?num=110&lang=2
[2] City plan of Çatal Höyük.
Recreation of the original plan, where
you can appreciates the structure of
the city. An erupting volcano also
appars. It's probably the Hasan Dag,
still visible from Çatal Höyük in
the present time. COPYRIGHTED
source: same
[6000 BC]
canoe, a dug-out boat.
[1] De boot van Pesse (Drenthe).
C14-dateringen geven aan dat dit object
uit het mesolithicum dateert (ca. 8600
voor Chr.). De lengte bedraagt iets
minder dan 3 meter. foto: Drents
Museum grotere afbeelding UNKNOWN
source: http://www.archeoforum.nl/images
/webboot.jpg
[2] Afb. 1 Mark Jan Dielemans
probeert een kopie van de kano van
Pesse uit in een ven bij
recreatiecentrum Witterzomer in
Assen foto: GPD grotere
afbeeldin UNKNOWN
source: http://www.archeoforum.nl/images
/Pesse10afb1.jpg
[6000 BC]
A sickle has a semicircular blade and
is used for cutting grain or tall
grass.
Oldest flint sickle.
A sickle has a semicircular blade and
is used for cutting grain or tall
grass.
[1] [t NOTE not- earliest sickle] [1]
Faucille néolithique danoise en silex
1/Danish Neolithic flint
sickle flint 105 UNKNOWN
source: http://idata.over-blog.com/4/25/
41/68/danois/flint-130.jpg
[2] [t NOTE not- earliest sickle]
Ancient Stone Age Neolithic Flint
Sickle Denmark UNKNOWN
source: http://www.artancient.com/ebay/2
50310/020412JSA010.jpg
[6000 BC]
[6000 BC]
source of flaxseed for linseed oil and
fiber for linen products.
[6000 BC]
[1] Hordeum-barley -
http://www.ars.usda.gov/is/graphics/ph
otos/k5141-4.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/55/Hordeum-barley.jpg
[6000 BC]
grown for its grains and as hay to feed
animals.
[1] Pearl millet developed by USDA-ARS
and grown at Tifton, GA.
Non-copyrightable image courtesy of the
USDA-ARS. (From the English
Wikipedia) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f0/Grain_millet%2C_early
_grain_fill%2C_Tifton%2C_7-3-02.jpg
[6000 BC]
KeToL HoYqK} in modern Turkey.
[1] Excavations at the South Area of
Çatal Höyük Çatal Höyük,
Turkey GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:CatalHoyukSouthArea.JPG
[2] On-site restoration of a typical
Çatal Höyük interior Inside a model
of a neolithic house at Catal
Hüyük GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Catal_H%C3%BCy%C3%BCk_Restauration_B.
JPG
[6000 BC]
are used in the temples of ancient
Sumer. Mesopotamian objects from about
3000 bce depict frame drums and small
cylindrical drums played horizontally
and vertically. Early Egyptian
artifacts (c. 4000 bce) show a drum
with skins stretched by a network of
thongs.
Mesopotamian art works show at least
four types of drums: 1) shallow or
frame drums of all sizes, 2) a small
cylindrical drum held in a horizontal
position, 3) a large drum played with
foot, and 4) a small drum with one
head, carried vertically on a belt and
struck with both hands.
[1] Curt Sachs, ''The History of
Musical Instruments'', 1940, p81. PD
source: Curt Sachs, "The History of
Musical Instruments", 1940, p81.
[5300 BC]
[1] This map has been uploaded by
Electionworld from en.wikipedia.org to
enable the Wikimedia Atlas of the World
. Original uploader to en.wikipedia.org
was John D. Croft, known as John D.
Croft at en.wikipedia.org.
Electionworld is not the creator of
this map. Licensing information is
below. Self made map and text GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Sumer1.jpg
[5000 BC]
modern southern Iraq).
Iraq)
[5000 BC]
[5000 BC]
[5000 BC]
and casting.
Moorey writes "Casting involves, at its
simplest, pouring liquid metal into a
suitably shaped mould of baked clay,
stone, metal, or sand. The earliest
moulds to survive in archaeological
contexts are one-piece, of clay or
stone. They remained usual for the
manufacture of simple tools, flat
weapons such as tanged arrowheads,
bar-ingots...and jewellery. Simple
jewellery moulds of stone are more
common in excavations than their more
complex relatives used for tools and
weapons. ...
Two-piece (bivalve) moulds,
probably of baked clay at first, were
introduced some time in the fourth
millenium, if not before, with core
pieces for sockets when required, as on
axe, adze- and hammer0heads. ...It was
probably common practice to cast the
simple tools in open moulds and
subsequently hammer them to the desired
shape. ...".
[1] Copper slag from Belovode (sample
No. 21). Figure 3 from: Miljana
Radivojević, Thilo Rehren, Ernst
Pernicka, Dušan Šljivar, Michael
Brauns, Dušan Borić, On the origins
of extractive metallurgy: new evidence
from Europe, Journal of Archaeological
Science, Volume 37, Issue 11, November
2010, Pages 2775-2787, ISSN 0305-4403,
10.1016/j.jas.2010.06.012. (http://www.
sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0
305440310001986) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence/article/pii/S0305440310001986
[5000 BC]
[5000 BC]
[1] Bitumin remains from older Kuwaiti
boat show rope impressions. Lawler,
Andrew (June 7, 2002). ''Report of
Oldest Boat Hints at Early Trade
Routes''. Science (AAAS) 296 (5574):
1791–1792.
doi:10.1126/science.296.5574.1791. PMID
12052936.
http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/
summary/296/5574/1791
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/3076918
COPYRIGHTED
source: Lawler, Andrew (June 7, 2002).
"Report of Oldest Boat Hints at Early
Trade Routes". Science (AAAS) 296
(5574): 1791–1792.
doi:10.1126/science.296.5574.1791. PMID
12052936.
http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/
summary/296/5574/1791
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/3076918
[2] Description Totora reed fishing
boats on the beach at Huanchaco,
Peru Date 13 October 2006,
15:26 Source Totora reed fishing
boats on the beach at Huanchaco,
Peru Author Roy & Danielle CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Peruvian_fishin
g_boats.jpg/768px-Peruvian_fishing_boats
.jpg
[5000 BC]
southern Babylonia. Uruk will last
until the 400s CE.
[1] Excavated walls at the site of
Uruk. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd
/uruk/hd_uruk.htm
[2] Kish (Sumer) localisation GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Meso2mil.JPG
[4900 BC]
[1] Scale 1/20 model of a Bronze Age
reed boat, as proposed by Tom Vosmer,
Model of a Third Millennium BC Reed
Boat Image from: Connan, Jacques et
al. “A comparative geochemical study
of bituminous boat remains from H3,
As-Sabiyah (Kuwait), and RJ-2, Ra’s
al-Jinz (Oman).” Arabian Archaeology
and Epigraphy 16.1 (2005):
21-66. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/d
oi/10.1111/j.1600-0471.2005.00041.x/abst
ract {Connan_Norman_200505xx.pdf} COPY
RIGHTED
source: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/d
oi/10.1111/j.1600-0471.2005.00041.x/abst
ract
[01/01/4500 BC]
(Serbia)
[1] Drawing of a clay vessel unearthed
near Vinca. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Vinca_vessel.png
[2] Amulets from the Vinca culture in
Tartania Balkan ca 4500 BCE
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://freepages.history.rootswe
b.com/~catshaman/121Indus/0iconogrph.htm
[4500 BC]
[1] A stone circle at Nabta Playa in
Egypt's Western Desert is thought to
act as a calendar and was constructed
around 7000 BC [t error is 6,500 years
old so 4,500 BCE] COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.touregypt.net/feature
stories/prehistory.htm
[2] None COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://hej3.as.utexas.edu/~www/w
heel/africa/blueprint.htm
[4250 BC]
grown in Mexico.
[1] Description Deutsch:
Maispflanzen (Zea mays) English: Maize
(Zea mays) plant with ears, the baby
corn growing level தமிழ்:
இளங்கதிர்கள்,
நன்கு
வளர்நிலையில்
இருக்கிறது. Date
2004 Source Own work Author
burgkirsch CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/32/Maispflanze.jpg
[4000 BC]
[4000 BC]
[4000 BC]
house.
Mud brick, dried in the sun, is one of
the first building materials. Before
sun-dried bricks, perhaps mud deposited
by a river could be used to shape into
huts or building units for protection
from the weather. In the ancient city
of Ur, in Mesopotamia (modern Iraq),
the first true arch of sun-baked brick
is made about 4000 BCE. The arch itself
has not survived, but a description of
it includes the first known reference
to mortars other than mud. A bitumen
mixture is used to bind the bricks
together. Burned brick can be produced
simply by containing a fire with mud
bricks.
The early Ubaid period settlement is
founded on marshy soil and may have
been a camping place, because no walls
exist at this level. A thick layer of
reed matting is the earliest sign of
occupation. Above that in later Ubaid
levels, walls are found to have been
built, first of pisé (Clay, earth, or
gravel beaten down until it is solid
and used as a building material for
floors and walls) and then mud-brick.
[1] The Royal Tombs (Cemetery) of Ur.
Courtesy Nathanm, Creative Commons. CC
source: http://popular-archaeology.com/u
pload/2697/urroyaltombs.jpg
[2] Pre-Historic Tell Uqair UNKNOWN
source: http://ancientneareast.tripod.co
m/IMAGES/Uqair.jpg
[3800 BC]
[1] Image of map from: Leo Bagrow,
''History of Cartography'', Second
Edition,
1985. {Bagrow_History_of_Cartography_19
85.pdf} PD
source: Leo Bagrow, "History of
Cartography", Second Edition,
1985. {Bagrow_History_of_Cartography_19
85.pdf}
[2] Redrawing with
interpretation UNKNOWN
source: http://www.henry-davis.com/MAPS/
Ancientimages/100E.JPEG
[3500 BC]
ground). Pictographs from Mesopotamia
show a beam-ard, a simple machine that
scratches a trench without turning the
soil.
[1] [t determine source of
drawing] Apparently mesopotamian
drawing of animal pulled plow. UNKNOWN
source: http://ed101.bu.edu/StudentDoc/A
rchives/ED101fa06/jtobz87/pic-3-2plow-lg
.png
[2] Akkadian plough with seeder c2200
BCE Peter Roger Stuart Moorey,
''Ancient Mesopotamian Materials and
Industries: The Archaeological
Evidence'', 1999,
p2. http://books.google.com/books?id=P_
Ixuott4doC&pg=PA3 UNKNOWN
source: Peter Roger Stuart Moorey,
"Ancient Mesopotamian Materials and
Industries: The Archaeological
Evidence", 1999,
p2. http://books.google.com/books?id=P_
Ixuott4doC&pg=PA3
[3500 BC]
water to land to maintain or increase
yields of food crops), in the "Middle
east" (eastern part of Mediterranean).
Mediterranean)
[1] Illustration 1. A shaduf was used
to raise water above the level of the
Nile. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.waterhistory.org/hist
ories/nile/shaduf.jpg
[2] This is a picture of how egyptians
could have used the Nile to plant their
crops. They are using an irrigation
method. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.amersol.edu.pe/class1
5/_15eescob/6th/humanities/images/nile_i
rrigation.jpg
[3500 BC]
transport.
Perhaps the donkey also provides food
in times of starvation.
[1] Artist Maler der Grabkammer
des Panehsi Title Deutsch:
Grabkammer des Panehsi, Priester,
Szene: Esel mit Bauern Date
Deutsch: um 1298-1235 v.
Chr. English: c. 1298-1235 BCE Medium
Deutsch: Wandbild Dimensions
Deutsch: 30 × 61 cm Current
location Deutsch: Grab des
Panehsi Deutsch:
Theben Source/Photographer The
Yorck Project: 10.000 Meisterwerke der
Malerei. DVD-ROM, 2002. ISBN
3936122202. Distributed by DIRECTMEDIA
Publishing
GmbH. http://mail.wikipedia.org/piperma
il/wikide-l/2005-April/012195.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Maler_der_Grabk
ammer_des_Panehsi_001.jpg/1024px-Maler_d
er_Grabkammer_des_Panehsi_001.jpg
[3500 BC]
of ancient Egyptian history consisted
of 12 months of 30 days each and 5
additional ("epagomenal") days at the
end.
[1] Egyptian Calendar UNKNOWN
source: http://analyzer.depaul.edu/paper
plate/2002%20vernal%20equinox/Egyptian_c
alendar_dark.jpg
[3500 BC]
[3500 BC]
pottery wheel, in Mesopotamia.
Sir Leonard Woolley who excavates Ur
(in modern Iraq) between 1922 and 1934,
writes "...Low down in this 'Uruk'
stratum we found a remarkable object, a
heavy disc of baked clay about 3 feet
in diameter with a central pivot-hole
and a small hole near the rim to take a
handle; it was a pooter's wheel as used
by the makers of the Uruk vases, the
earliest known example of that
invention whereby man passed from the
age of pure handicraft into the age of
machinery....".
Moorey writes "There are no certain
illustrations of potters' wheels from
Mesopotamia and the material evidence
is ... meagre... No certain example of
a tournette - a slowly turning wheel-
has yet been published from a
prehistoric context, though their use
has been assumed from the evidence of
the vessels produced on them.
Nissen...has postulated the emergence
of a 'pivoted working surface
(tournette)' towards the end of the
Halaf period {ULSF: 5500 BC}, largely
on the basis of changes in the type and
layout of painted patterns on pottery
at this time. By the end of the Ubaid
period {ULSF: 4000BC}, he argued, a
more sophisticated device had appeared
to be fully exploited for the first
time in the Uruk period: 'setting the
wheel's axle in bearings and hence the
creation of an actual potter's wheel.
It is possible that plano-convex disks
of gypsum from Tell Abada in the
Hamrin, where there is other evidence
for on-site pottery manufacture, may
have been pivoted for pot-building on
the upper flat surface...".
Another similar pottery wheel dates
back to the Protoliterate Period which
is approximately 3500BC-2900BC. The
piece was excavated at the site of
Choga Mish (Iran) and is one of a few
pieces to have survived the excavation
due to the destruction of the dig house
during the Iranian Revolution.
wheel from Choga Mish, Iran)
[1] These pots, found at al`Ubaid type
site itself are typical of last phase
of Ubaid pottery found throughout much
of Mesopotamia, including Uruk. London:
British Museum. [t Note that the
first and tihrd match figures in
Woolley's 1982 book.] PD
source: http://www.hartford-hwp.com/imag
e_archive/ue/pottery03.jpg
[2] 14. Pottery jar of Jemdat Nasr
type. It was found in the al`Ain region
of the United Arab Emirates, which
attests to contacts between Mesopotamia
and Oman peninsula—an important
source of copper. Ca. 3000 BC. London:
British Museum. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.hartford-hwp.com/imag
e_archive/ue/pottery02.jpg
[3500 BC]
numbers. First stamp (or seal).
The first writing begins as numbers on
clay tablets and stamped seals.
This system of writing on clay tablets
will evolve into modern written
language. Writing was first used to
solve simple accounting problems; for
example to count large numbers of sheep
or bales of hay. Writing may have
arisen out of the need for arithmetic
and storage of information, but will
grow to record and perpetuate stories,
songs, and most of what we know about
human history.
Iran)
[1] MS 3007 NUMBERS 10 AND 5 +4 + 4
+ 4 + 5 + 3 ms3007MS on clay,
Syria/Sumer/Highland Iran, ca.
3500-3200 BC, 1 elliptical tablet,
6,7x4,4x1,9 cm, 2+1 compartments, 2 of
which with 3 columns of single numbers
as small circular
depressions. Commentary:Numerical or
counting tablets with their more
complex combination of decimal and
sexagesimal numbers are a further step
from the tallies with the simplest form
of counting in one-to-one
correspondence. They were used parallel
with the bulla-envelopes with tokens.
The commodity counted was not indicated
in the beginning, but was gradually
imbedded in the numbers system or with
a seal or a pictograph of the commodity
added, i. e. development into
ideonumerographical tablets, the
forerunners to pictographic tablets.
There are only about 260 numerical
tablets known. Most of them are found
in Iran. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.earth-history.com/_im
ages/ms3007.jpg
[2] MS 4647 NUMBERS 3+4, POSSIBLY
REPRESENTING 3 MEASURES OF BARLEY AND 4
MEASURES OF SOME OTHER COMMODITY, IN
SEXAGESIMAL NOTATION ms4647MS on clay,
Syria/Sumer/Highland Iran, ca.
3500-3200 BC, 1 tablet, 4,4x5,0x2,3 cm,
2 lines with 3 small circular
depressions and 4 short
wedges. Numerical or counting
tablets with their more complex
combination of decimal and sexagesimal
numbers are a further step from the
tallies with the simplest form of
counting in one-to-one correspondence.
They were used parallel with the
bulla-envelopes with tokens. The
commodity counted was not indicated in
the beginning, but was gradually
imbedded in the numbers system or with
a seal or a pictograph of the commodity
added, i. e. development into
ideonumerographical tablets, the
forerunners to pictographic tablets.
There are only about 260 numerical
tablets known. Most of them are found
in Iran. Exhibited: The Norwegian
Intitute of Palaeography and Historical
Philology (PHI), Oslo,
13.10.2003- COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.earth-history.com/_im
ages/ms4647.jpg
[3500 BC]
an Indus Valley civilization.
[1] The fragments of pottery are about
5,500 years old COPYRIGHTED
source: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/scien
ce/nature/334517.stm
[3500 BC]
device. The first device for indicating
the time of day was probably the
gnomon, dating from about 3500 bc. The
gnomon is a vertical object and the
length of it's shadow indicates the
time of day. The earliest known sundial
still preserved is an Egyptian shadow
clock of green schist dating to the 8th
century BCE. The hour-glass, which uses
a fixed quantity of fine sand falling
through a small hole, is also invented
around this time..
[1] Stick in sand with shadow UNKNOWN
source: http://farm1.static.flickr.com/1
77/484077420_e01337d101.jpg
[2] Description English: Ancient
sundial from Marcianopolis, Museum of
Mosaicas, Devnya,
Bulgaria Български:
Слънчев часовник от
Марцианополис, Музей
на мозайките,
Девня Date 21 September
2010 Source Own work Author
Edal Anton Lefterov CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/ff/Sundial-from-Marciano
polis.jpg
[3490 BC]
[1] English: cotton plant, Texas, 1996,
after chemical haulm (topkilling
Chemical ; usually by the Monosodium
methyl arsenate used to quickly kill
the leaves that would interfere with
harvesting machines). This chemical is
a growing source of residual
contamination of soils by arsenic,
which is not degradable; Photo courtesy
of USDA Natural Resources Conservation
Service. http://photogallery.nrcs.usda.
gov/Index.asp This came from the
website PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/6/68/CottonPlant.JPG
/1024px-CottonPlant.JPG
[3400 BC]
[3310 BC]
Krakow Poland. This is the earliest
evidence for both animal pulled
vehicles and wheeled vehicles. The
earliest instance of a wheeled vehicle
is from the TRB (Funnel Beaker) culture
in Bronocice, in north-east Krakow
Poland and is a pot incised decoration
that has the repeated motif of a
schematically rendered four-wheeled
vehicle. Note the Y-junction with the
yoke.
Stuart and Piggot reject the claim that
the first wheeled vehicle originated in
Sumer, home of the earliest pottery
wheel, writing: "...The calibrated
range of date for phase III at
Bronocice, to which the cup with the
wagon representation belongs is c.
3530-3310 BC, but it would be improper
to compare this date with that of
3200-3100 BC assigned to Uruk IVa, in
which sledge-on-wheels pictographs
appear. ...".
Bronocice, Krakow, Poland
[1] Stuart and Piggott, ''The Earliest
Wheeled Transport'', 1983,
p40,62-63. COPYRIGHTED
source: Stuart and Piggott, "The
Earliest Wheeled Transport", 1983,
p40,62-63.
[2] According
to: http://www.britishmuseum.org/explor
e/highlights/highlight_objects/me/t/the_
standard_of_ur.aspx 2600-2400
BC According to:
http://sumerianshakespeare.com/687045.ht
ml this image is 4500 years old -
putting it at 2500bce - get more
evidence of age [1] Description
English: detail of the ''Standard of
Ur'', ca. 2500 BC. Date 2500
BC Source
http://www.alexandriaarchive.org/op
encontext/iraq_ghf/ur_standard/ur_standa
rd_8.jpg Author
Anonymous Permission (Reusing
this file) See below. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/7d/Ur_chariot.jpg
[3300 BC]
Now along with numbers on clay tablets
are symbols that represent the
commodity (such as cows, sheep, and
cereals). These symbols represent the
earliest record of what will become the
modern alphabet.
First training and industry of scribes.
This will ultimately evolve into the
modern school system. Writing will be
continuously taught eventually in all
major civilizations (even through the
Dark Ages) until now.
These tablets are all economic records,
used to keep a record of objects owned
or traded, and contain no stories.
Writing begins as a method for
increasing the human memory to keep
track of the many transactions of a
city, and not for the purpose of
recording or remembering stories.
The symbol for ox ("gud" in Sumerian,
later "aleph" in Egyptian) will become
the letter "A" (alpha), the symbol for
house, (/e/ in Sumerian and /bitum/ in
Akkadian ) will become "B" (beta).
These symbols are drawn with curved
lines which will later be replaced by
the easier and faster to draw straight
lines and later the wedges of
cuneiform. In Latin "Cuneus" means
"wedge".
Around 1200 symbols have been
identified in these ancient texts,
around 60 are numerals.
This writing is evidence that most of
the 30 or so basic sounds of humans
language were already in use by the
origin of writing.
One text from this time is a "titles
and professions", which is the most
popular list, copies of these lists
span over a thousand years. This list
describes titles and professions
probably arranged according to rank,
starting with the symbol for king, and
is evidence that the social order is
already well defined in a strict
hierarchy by the time writing is
invented.
This early writing shows that there is
a standardized system of measures in
place. Tablets describe quantities of
bread, jars of beer, silver, barley,
fish, cows, lambs, laborer-days, and
specific measures of land.
Among tablets found in the third
millenium BCE (2000-2999 BCE) are long
lists of names of trees, plants,
animals (including insects and birds),
countries, cities and villages, and of
stones and minerals. These lists
represent a familiarity with botany,
zoology, geography and mineralology.
Sumerian scholars also prepared
mathematical tables and detailed
mathematical problems with their
solutions.
From tablets dating to 2000 BCE,
scribes who identify themselves all
appear to be males indicating that few
if any females are formally taught to
be scribes. In addition the parents of
the scribes are all high ranking
wealthy people.
[1] MS 4551 Account of grain products,
bread, beer, butter oil. Sumer 32nd
century COPYRIGHTED?
source: http://www.earth-history.com/_im
ages/ms4551.jpg
[2] MS2963 Account of male and female
slaves Sumer
c3300-3200BCE COPYRIGHTED?
source: http://www.earth-history.com/_im
ages/ms2963.jpg
[3250 BC]
writing is smudged when writing in
columns) change from writing in columns
to writing left to right. Pictures are
also turned 90 degrees.
[3200 BC]
writing, at Uruk which is a large city
at this time. These are clay and stone
tablets that have names of humans
(thought to be wage lists), lists of
objects, plus receipts and memos.
Pictures are not drawn with pointed
reed, but drawn with (diagonally) cut
reed-stem pressed in to the wet clay to
make wedges. What were pictures (of
oxen, etc.) are changed to be made of
all single presses, not pictures drawn
freehand. This writing contains about
600 unique symbols.
[1] Description Cuneiform script
tablet from the Kirkor Minassian
collection in the Library of Congress.
From Year 6 in the reign from
Amar-Suena/Amar-Sin between 2041 and
2040 BC.
http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.amed/amcune.cf001
3 Date 2012-02-28 16:01 (UTC) Source
This file was derived from:
Cuneiform_script2.jpg Cuneiform
script2.jpg Author
Cuneiform_script2.jpg: derivative
work: Yjenith (talk) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/19/Cuneiform_script2.png
[3200 BC]
a group
ivory, bone and stone tags attached to
jugs, bags and boxes containing linens
and oils in the tomb of King Scorpian I
in Egypt.
Günter Dreyer, director of the German
Institute of Archaeology in Cairo,
found writing on a group ivory, bone
and stone tags attached to jugs, bags
and boxes containing linens and oils in
the tomb of King Scorpian I in Egypt
which date to around 3,400 to 3,200
BCE. The tags are thought to indicate
the quantity or size (on number tags)
and the origin location or institution
of the commodities.
Royal Cemetery of:) Abydos (modern:)
Umm el-Qa'ab
[1] Figure 1 from: Richard Mattessich
(2002). ''The oldest writings, and
inventory tags of Egypt''. Accounting
Historians Journal 29 (1): 195–208.
JSTOR
40698264 http://umiss.lib.olemiss.edu:8
2/articles/1033062.3758/1.PDF
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/4069826
4 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/4069
8264
[2] These insciptions show early
writing making the transition from
pictorial to phonetic
meaning. Courtesy Gunter Dreyer,
German Institute of Archaeology,
Cairo. Dreyer says the symbols for a
stork and a chair found on one label
''make no sense as symbols'' literally
interpreted. In subsequent
hieroglyphics, however, they would have
the phonetic significance of
''Ba-fet,'' a city on the Nile Delta.
Thus Dreyer concludes the symbols are
actually writing that inform us that
the commodity attached to the tag came
from Ba-fet. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://whyfiles.org/079writing/2
.html
[3100 BC]
[3100 BC]
[3100 BC]
hieroglyphic writing.
Narmer palette (tablet) carved with
pictures showing unification of Egypt
under king Narmer, who starts the first
Egyptian Dynasty of history (Dynasty
1). The top of the palette has two
faces of the cow-headed goddess Hathor.
Between the Hathor heads is name of
Narmer, a "n'r" fish and a "mr" chisel
(this is the oldest egyptian writing).
[1] Reverse and obverse sides of Narmer
Palette, this facsimile on display at
the Royal Ontario Museum in Toronto,
Canada Image:NarmerPalette ROM.jpg by
Captmondo, gamma adjusted to bring out
more detail at lower resolutions PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/NarmerPalette_R
OM-gamma.jpg/1280px-NarmerPalette_ROM-ga
mma.jpg
[3100 BC]
[3000 BC]
mixed with tin) melted, and casted.
Figurines of men and women from Tell
Judaidah, Turkey, are the oldest
examples of true bronze (combination of
copper and tin) known.
[1] Tell Judaidah bronze
figurines These figurines of men and
women from Tell Judaidah, Turkey, are
the oldest examples of true bronze
(combination of copper and tin) known.
They date to about 3000 B.C. The male
figures were originally equipped as
warriors, and the women were dressed
with accessories of precious metal.
They are the forerunners of later
figurines of gods who were ''dressed''
in gold and silver. Recently, the ore
content of the figurines was tested at
the Advanced Photon Source at Argonne
National Laboratory. UNKNOWN
source: http://www-news.uchicago.edu/rel
eases/05/050112.oi-3.jpg
[2] Female Figurine Amuq Valley Tell
Judaidah Turkey Amuq G Early Bronze Age
I (3400-2750 BCE)
Bronze Photographed at the Oriental
Institute of the University of Chicago,
Chicago, Illinois. UNKNOWN
source: http://farm3.staticflickr.com/26
18/3859375883_ccc6b90ec4_b.jpg
[3000 BC]
[3000 BC]
[3000 BC]
[3000 BC]
languages all use cuneiform writing.
[3000 BC]
[3000 BC]
[3000 BC]
[3000 BC]
[3000 BC]
[3000 BC]
[3000 BC]
[3000 BC]
[3000 BC]
[3000 BC]
[3000 BC]
[3000 BC]
metal casting.
[3000 BC]
words.
In the proto-cuneiform Sumarian script,
symbols are combined to form words
based on their sound.
Evidence of this is the sign /ti/, for
"arrow" that is now also defined as the
Sumarian word for "life" /til/ which
starts with the same sound. After this
phonetic abstraction, the introduction
of multi-symbol words, names and words
for which no symbols had existed can be
created. For example, the symbol
originally defined as the Summerian
verb "bal" (to dig) can also be spelled
with the syllabic signs "ba" + "al",
while the Akkadian word for dig
("heru") sounds differently.(show image
if possible)
The vast majority of Sumerian language
is made of one-syllable words. This
suggests that all earlier spoken
languages contained only
single-syllable words.
Sumerian contains syllabic symbols,
where a symbol represents a consonent
and a vowel together such as /Bo/
(ball), or /Bv/ (put), although some
vowel sounds have one symbol and are
true letters. This writing will later
be fully alphabetic when the consonents
are represented by one symbol and the
vowel at the end dropped.
Sumerian and the languages that follow
in the 3000 year history of cuneiform,
all have monophony (one sound has more
than one symbol), and polyphony (many
sounds may be represented by one
symbol).
[1] Source:
http://pandora.cii.wwu.edu/vajda/ling201
/writingsystems/sumeriancuneiform.htm U
NKNOWN
source: http://www.omniglot.com/images/w
riting/sumerian_glyphs.jpg
[2] Pre-literate counting and
accounting MS 5067/1-8 NEOLITHIC
PLAIN COUNTING TOKENS POSSIBLY
REPRESENTING 1 MEASURE OF GRAIN, 1
ANIMAL AND 1 MAN OR 1 DAY'S LABOUR,
RESPECTIVELY ms5067/1-8Counting tokens
in clay, Syria/Sumer/Highland Iran, ca.
8000-3500 BC, 3 spheres: diam. 1,6, 1,7
and 1,9 cm , (D.S.-B 2:1); 3 discs:
diam. 1,0x0,4 cm, 1,1x0,4 cm and
1,0x0,5 cm (D.S.-B 3:1); 2
tetrahedrons: sides 1,4 cm and 1,7 cm
(D.S.-B 5:1). Exhibited: The
Norwegian Intitute of Palaeography and
Historical Philology (PHI), Oslo,
13.10.2003- COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.earth-history.com/_im
ages/ms5067.jpg
[3000 BC]
[3000 BC]
instrument (lyre and harp). The lyre is
first depicted in Sumerian art works
around 3000 BC. Harps have the plane of
the strings vertical, not parallel, to
the soundboard. There are two main
types, the "arched harp" in which the
body is curved into an arch, and an
"angular harp", in which the body and
neck form an angle. Sumer has only
arched harps, which originate from the
bow. Arched harps are depicted on a
stone slab from Khafage that dates to
around 3000 BC.
[1] Bearded Harpists, detail from
Sumerian tablet in the Temple of Sin in
Khafage, Mesopotamia (presently Iraq) c
3000 BC. Reprinted by permission
from The Harp by Rajka
Dobronic-Mazzoni. Published by Graficki
Zavrod Hrvatske, OOUR, Izdavcka
djelatnost, Preobrazenska 4, Zagreb,
Croatia, 1989 PD
source: http://www.harpspectrum.org/time
line/images/mesopotamia_1.jpg
[2] Harp-player of Sumer, from a
plaque of Khafaje (After Heras, 1953,
p. 182). PD
source: http://www.hindunet.org/hindu_hi
story/sarasvati/html/HARPPL-1.jpg
[3000 BC]
The inclined plane is thought to be
older than any of the other basic
machines, and is based on the concept
that moving an object from a lower to
higher elevation is easier when pushed
up a flatter slope.
[1] Description A free body
diagram of a mass on an inclined
plane Date 27 May 2007 Source
Own work Author Mets501 CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Free_body.svg/1
000px-Free_body.svg.png
[3000 BC]
[1] Suanpan (the number represented in
the picture is 6,302,715,408). [t Note
that each place represents a decimal
place, and a bead on top at the bar
indicates +5, a bead on bottom at the
bar +1.] English: Abacus Scanned and
uploaded by Malcolm Farmer (englische
Wikipedia) Source: Article for
''abacus'', 9th edition Encyclopedia
Britannica, volume 1 (1875) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/af/Abacus_6.png
[2980 BC]
[1] Description English: The Pyramid
of Djoser in Saqqara, Egypt. Date
6 February 2010 Source Own
work Author Wknight94 talk GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Pyramid_of_Djos
er_2010.jpg/1280px-Pyramid_of_Djoser_201
0.jpg
[2925 BC]
of traditional Egyptian hieroglyphs
replaces traditional hieroglyphs.
Hieratic script was almost always
written in ink with a reed pen on
papyrus. The word 'hieratikos' means
'priestly' because by the Greco-Roman
period this writing was used only by
priest humans.
[2800 BC]
[2800 BC]
[2750 BC]
[1] [t Note that these are not the
oldest known saws, but more recent saws
from Minoa.] Figures from: Wells, H.
Bartlett, ''The Position of the Large
Bronze Saws of Minoan Crete in the
History of Tool Making'', Expedition,
16.4, 1974,
p2-8. http://www.penn.museum/expedition
-back-issues/114-volumes-11-20/560-exped
ition-volume-16-number-4-summer-1974.htm
l
source: http://www.penn.museum/expeditio
n-back-issues/114-volumes-11-20/560-expe
dition-volume-16-number-4-summer-1974.ht
ml
[2] Saws from: [1] Deshayes, Jean,
''Les outils de bronze, de l'Indus au
Danube (IVe au IIe millénaire)'',
Librairie orientaliste P.
Geuthner/Paris,
1960 {Deshayes_Les_Outils_1960.pdf} CO
PYRIGHTED
source: Deshayes, Jean, "Les outils de
bronze, de l'Indus au Danube (IVe au
IIe millénaire)", Librairie
orientaliste P. Geuthner/Paris,
1960 {Deshayes_Les_Outils_1960.pdf}
[2613 BC]
[01/01/2600 BC]
[2600 BC]
ruler on the Sumerian king list whose
name is attested directly from
archaeological remains, two alabaster
vase fragments with inscriptions about
him found at Nippur - where he is said
to have built the first temple
according to the Sumerian Tummal
chronicle.
Enmebaragesi is also mentioned in a
section of the Epic of Gilgamesh, which
places Gilgamesh as a historical king
of Uruk.
modern Bagdad
[2600 BC]
(or literature), the Sumerian flood
story, the "Ziusudra epic" is known
from a single fragmentary tablet,
writing in Sumerian. The name Ziusudra
means "found long life" or "life of
long days". The first part tells the
story of the creation of man, animals
and the first cities, Eridu, Badtibira,
Larak, Sippar, and Shuruppak. After a
missing section in the tablet, the
story describes how the gods send a
flood to destroy mankind. The god Enki
(lord of the underworld ocean of fresh
water and Sumerian equivalent of Ea)
warns Ziusudra of Shuruppak to build a
large boat (the passage describing the
directions for the boat is also lost).
When the tablet resumes, it tells about
a terrible storm that rages for seven
days. Then (the god) Utu (|vTv| or
|oTo| or |uTu|) (the sun) appears and
Ziusudra opens a window, prostrates
himself, and sacrifices an ox and a
sheep. After another break the text
resumes, the flood is apparently over,
and Ziusudra is prostrating himself
before An (|oN|) (the sky-god) and
Enlil (the chief of the gods), who give
him "breath eternal" and take him to
live in Dilmun. The rest of the poem is
lost.
More than 80% of all known Sumerian
literary compositions have been found
at Nippur.
The name Ziusudra also appears in the
WB-62 version of the Sumerian king list
as a king/chief of Shuruppak who
reigned for 10 (shar) years. Ziusudra
was preceded in this king list by his
father SU.KUR.LAM who was also king of
Shuruppak and ruled 8 (shar) years. On
the next line of the King List are the
sentences "The flood swept thereover.
After the flood swept thereover, ...
the kingship was in Kish." The city of
Kish flourished in the Early Dynastic
II period soon after an
archaeologically attested river flood
in Shuruppak that has been radio-carbon
dated about 2900 BC. Polychrome pottery
from below the flood deposit have be
dated to the Jemdet Nasr period that
immediately preceded the Early Dynastic
I period.
The importance of Ziusudra in the King
List is that it links the flood
mentioned in the Epics of Ziusudra,
Atrahasis, Utnapishtim, etc to river
flood sediments in Shuruppak, Uruk, and
Kish that have been radio carbon dated
as 2900 BCE. So scholars conclude that
the flood hero was king of Shuruppak at
the end of the Jemdet Nasr period
(3100-2900) which ended with the river
flood of 2900 BCE.
Ziusudra being king of Shuruppak is
supported in the Gilgamesh XI tablet by
the reference to Utnapishtim as "man of
Shuruppak" at line 23.
A Sumerian document known as "The
Instructions of Shuruppak" dated to
around 2500 BCE, refers in a later
version to Ziusudra indicating that
Ziusudra may have become a venerable
figure in the literary tradition by
2500 BCE.
Scholars have found many similarities
between the stories of Ziusudra,
Atrahasis, Utnapishtim and Noah.
At this time, the scribes learning in
the tablet houses must be transferring
their oral stories onto clay, in
addition to studying, copying and
imitating earlier texts. Works created
in these years are almost all poetic in
form, some extending to thousands of
lines. These texts are mainly myths and
epic tales in the form of narrative
poems celebrating the adventures of
Sumerian gods and heros, hymns to gods
and kings, lamentations of Sumerian
cities, wisdom compositions that
include proverbs, fables, and essays.
In the scribal schools, students attend
school from sunrise to sunset, and
teachers use a rod to inflict
discipline.
The Sumerians belief in a variety of
gods and goddesses, so already, by the
time of the invention of writing we see
the theory of gods and goddesses. This
inaccurate belief in a god theory will
continue into present times. The
Sumerians have around 50 gods and 50
goddesses so far counted. The view
expressed is the traditional view that
many of the gods have human form, many
are related, and they control various
objects such as the sky (the god Anu,
also god of heaven which indicates
belief in a heaven (but this may be
Christian misinterpretation, do dead
people go to sky/heaven in Sumerian
myths?)), the earth (the goddess Ki,
consort to Anu), the wind (the god
Ishkur), the sun (the god Utu), the
earth (the god Enki), grain (the
goddess Ashnan), venus (the goddess
Inanna), and many more.
Many of the gods will be renamed as
time continues, for example, the
Sumerian goddess "Inanna", the first
god known to be associated with the
planet Venus, is named "Ishtar" by the
Akkadians and Babylonians, "Isis" by
the Egyptians, "Aphrodite" by the
Greeks, "Turan" by the Etruscans, and
"Venus" by the Romans. The Sumerians
call Inanna the "Holy Virgin" and this
may indicate an early example of the
erroneous belief that a female that has
not had sex is somehow more pure.
It is possible that the Sumerian
influence through their invention of
writing is the origin of the idea of
human-like gods controlling nature, but
more likely this idea developed long
before writing and spread through oral
interaction only. Possibly the idea of
human-like gods was originated even
before humans left Africa. The
beginning of writing creates the first
memory of the past, where before
writing, any events of history have to
be passed on through talking which
vastly reduces the number of events
remembered by any generation of people.
[1] Photo of Creation and deluge tablet
- note I did not verify that this is
the earliest tablet of the earliest
written story[t] Arno Poebel,
''Historical and grammatical texts'',
vols 1-5, 1914. vol 1:
http://books.google.com/books?id=tg0TAAA
AYAAJ vol 4:
http://books.google.com/books?id=mxwYAAA
AYAAJ vol 5:
http://books.google.com/books?id=_A0TAAA
AYAAJ
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=_A0TAAAAYAAJ
[2500 BC]
[2500 BC]
[2500 BC]
coloring dyes.
[2500 BC]
Skandinavia.
[2500 BC]
[2500 BC]
[2500 BC]
[2500 BC]
[2500 BC]
for steering are documented from the
3rd millennium BCE in Ancient Egypt in
artwork, wooden models, and even
remnants of actual boats. These will
evolve into quarter rudders, which will
be used until the end of the Middle
Ages in Europe.
[2500 BC]
There is a claim of earlier dice and
boardgame from Iran (see image of dice
- but there is no image of the actual
board).
[1] The Royal Game of Ur From Ur,
southern Iraq, about 2600-2400
BC One of the most popular games of
the ancient world This game board is
one of several with a similar layout
found by Leonard Woolley in the Royal
Cemetery at Ur. The wood had decayed
but the inlay of shell, red limestone
and lapis lazuli survived in position
so that the original shape could be
restored. The board has twenty squares
made of shell: Five squares each have
flower rosettes, 'eyes', and circled
dots. The remaining five squares have
various designs of five dots. According
to references in ancient documents, two
players competed to race their pieces
from one end of the board to another.
Pieces were allowed on to the board at
the beginning only with specific throws
of the dice. We also know that rosette
spaces were lucky. The gaming pieces
for this particular board do not
survive. However, some sets of gaming
pieces of inlaid shale and shell were
excavated at Ur with their boards. The
boards appear to have been hollow with
the pieces stored inside. Dice, either
stick dice or tetrahedral in shape,
were also found. Examples of this
'Game of Twenty Squares' date from
about 3000 BC to the first millennium
AD and are found widely from the
eastern Mediterranean and Egypt to
India. A version of the Mesopotamian
game survived within the Jewish
community at Cochin, South India until
modern times. PD
source: http://www.britishmuseum.org/ima
ges/ps121289_l.jpg
[2] he oldest backgammon in the world
along with 60 pieces has been unearthed
beneath the rubbles of the legendary
Burnt City in Sistan-Baluchistan
province, southeastern Iran, Iranian
Cultural Heritage News Agency
reported. Iranian archeologists
working on the relics of the
5,000-year-old civilization argue this
backgammon is much older than the one
already discovered in Mesopotamia and
their evidence is strong enough to
claim the board game was first played
in the Burnt City and then transferred
to other civilizations. ''The
backgammon reveals intriguing clues to
the lifestyle of those people,'' said
Mansour Sajjadi, head of the research
team. ''The board is rectangular and
made of ebony, which did not grow in
Sistan and merchants used to import it
from India.'' He added the board
features an engraved serpent coiling
around itself for 20 times, thus
producing 20 slots for the game, more
affectionately known in Persian as
Nard. The engraving, artistically done,
indicates artisans in the Burnt City
were masters of the craft. ''The 60
pieces were also unearthed inside a
terracotta vessel beside the board.
They were made of common stones
quarried in the city, including agate
and turquoise,'' Sajjadi
added. Experts still wonder why they
played the game with 60 pieces and are
trying to discern its rules, but it at
least shows it is 100-200 years older
than the one discovered in Mesopotamia.
... PD
source: http://www.payvand.com/news/04/d
ec/dice-ancient.jpg
[2450 BC]
writing. After the use of leather, the
refined forms of leather parchment and
vellum (made from calf skins) are also
used.
[1] Image: A detail of the Ten
Commandments scroll. Credit:
DCI UNKNOWN
source: http://blogs.discovery.com/.a/6a
00d8341bf67c53ef0154384d333c970c-pi
[2400 BC]
[2400 BC]
[2345 BC]
[2345 BC]
Fibrous layers within the stem of the
papyrus plant are removed and placed
side by side. They are then crossed at
right angles with another set of
strips. The two layers form a sheet,
which is then dampened and pressed. The
gluelike sap of the plant acts as an
adhesive to join the layers together.
The sheet is finally hammered and dried
in the sun. These sheets are then
joined together with paste to form a
roll.
[1] Papyrus Prisse. Egyptien 189.
Enseignement de Ptahhotep(217-298)
UNKNOWN
source: http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148
/btv1b8304612b/f1.highres
[2300 BC]
glass beads.
The first human-made glass beads and
pendants are made around 4,300 years
ago (2300 BC) in
the area of modern Iraq
and northern Syria (Mesopotamia), with
the first strikingly colored
(coreformed) vessels appearing there in
the 16th/15th centuries BC.
[1] Figures 2b and 2a from: J.
Henderson, J. Evans and K. Nikita,
''ISOTOPIC EVIDENCE FOR THE PRIMARY
PRODUCTION, PROVENANCE AND TRADE OF
LATE BRONZE AGE GLASS IN THE
MEDITERRANEAN'', Mediterranean
Archaeology and Archaeometry, Vol. 10,
No. 1, pp. 1‐24.
2010. http://www.rhodes.aegean.gr/maa_j
ournal/Henderson%2010_1.pdf COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.rhodes.aegean.gr/maa_
journal/Henderson%2010_1.pdf
[2] Glass ingots (inset) from a Bronze
Age shipwreck near Turkey fit Egyptian
molds. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.toutankharton.com/IMG
/jpg/a6260_1449.jpg
[2300 BC]
[2234 BC]
[2200 BC]
[1] A giant carving of a frowning face
is among the sculptures found at what
experts say is the oldest known
astronomical observatory in the Western
Hemisphere. Structures at the site,
discovered near Lima, Peru, align with
the directions of sunrise and sunset at
critical points in the agricultural
calendar, including December 21, the
start of the Southern Hemisphere's
growing season, and June 21, the end of
harvest. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://news.nationalgeographic.c
om/news/bigphotos/66237588.html
[2181 BC]
[2160 BC]
[2134 BC]
[2134 BC]
[2130 BC]
musical instrument. Several
inscriptions of the Sumerian
priest-king Gudea mention an
instrument, si-im, alongside with the
temple drums, a-lal and balag. As si
(Akkadian qarnu) means 'horn,' and im
'wind,' there is little doubt that this
was a blowing horn. One of the
Carchemish reliefs, dating from about
1250 B.C. depicts a rather short and
thick horn played together with a large
frame drum which...corresponds either
to the a-lal or to the balag.
From Gudea's
time on (c2130 BCE), the si is
occasionally mentioned; some texts add
the metal determinative and some refer
to horns made of gold. ...".
The oldest survivng animal horn is from
around 2300 BC, from a deep bog in
Visnum, Sweden. It is a cow horn, dated
from the late Iron Age, and has five
finger holes. (verify)
A list of the presents offered by King
Tushratta to King Amenophis IV of Egypt
around 1400 BC contains a list of forty
horns, all covered with gold and some
studded with precious stones. Seventeen
of them are called ox horns. The rest
of the horns are probably not straight
trumpets since straight trumpets are
more often made of gold instead of
covered with gold.
The earliest specimen of a silver
trumpet is from the tomb of Tutankhamen
(1300s bce).
[1] [t Note that this is not evidence
of the earliest horn, but is from
around 1250BC or 700 BCE] Hittites:
Musical scene, Carchemish Height:
100 cm, 700 BC. Museum of Anatolian
Civilizations, Ankara Three men are
playing a drum, while on the left a man
is holding a horn-shaped instrument to
his mouth with both hands. PD
source: http://farm1.staticflickr.com/6/
10156251_017f473153_b.jpg
[2100 BC]
(medical) text, found in Nippur.
There are more than 10 remedies listed
on this clay tablet. Materials used are
mostly from plants, such as cassia,
myrtle, asafoetida, thyme, and from
trees such as the willow, pear, fir,
fig and date trees, but also include
sodium chloride (salt), potassium
nitrate (saltpeter), milk, snake skin,
and turtle shell. For mixtures taken
internally, beer, milk and or oil are
used to make the "medicine" more
palatable.
In this, the oldest medical text, there
are no references to any god, demon,
magic spell or incantation.
[2100 BC]
system, a sexagesimal (base 60) number
system. Fractional values such as 1/60
and 1/3600 are also in use.
This sexagesimal, base 60, number
system is still in use to measure time
(60 seconds, 60 minutes), and angles
(for example in astronomical and
geographic coordinates).
[1] Archaic Bookkeeping, Nissen, 1993,
pp145. COPYRIGHTED
source: Archaic Bookkeeping, Nissen,
1993, pp145.
[2] Archaic Bookkeeping, Nissen, 1993,
pp148. COPYRIGHTED
source: Archaic Bookkeeping, Nissen,
1993, pp148.
[2050 BC]
Ur-Nammu tablet. Ur-Nammu founded the
Third Dynasty of Ur. The laws are
written in Sumerian cuneiform and are
damaged so only a few have been
deciphered. One law involves a trial by
water, another describes the return of
a slave to their master. Other laws
describe monetary penalties for violent
crimes such as for cutting off a foot
or nose.
This tablet was found in Nippur.
[2040 BC]
[2000 BC]
[2000 BC]
[2000 BC]
[2000 BC]
[2000 BC]
tool.
[1] Illustration 1. A shaduf was used
to raise water above the level of the
Nile. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.waterhistory.org/hist
ories/nile/shaduf.jpg
[2] One man and his Shadoof. Kom Ombo,
Egypt. Photo taken by Hajor,
December 2001. Released under cc-by-sa
and/or GFDL. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a2/Egypt.KomOmbo.Shaduf.
01.jpg
[2000 BC]
of clay with spokes painted on and in
relief were made in the Harappan
civilization of the Indus Valley and
Northwestern India. Spokes make the
wheel lighter in weight.
[1] Fig. 4. Rakhigarhi: Terracotta
wheel. The painted lines radiating from
the central hub and reaching the
circumference clearly represent the
spokes of the wheel. Mature
Harappan. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.sksuman.110mb.com/ind
ex_files/image542.jpg
[2] Fig. 5. Banawali: Terracotta
wheels showing the spokes in low
relief. The specimen on the left
is worn out but the spokes may still
be seen. The specimen on the right,
though broken, shows the spokes very
clearly. Mature Harappan. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.sksuman.110mb.com/ind
ex_files/image620.jpg
[2000 BC]
palace of Khorsabad near Nineveh. The
lock is made of wood and uses a tumbler
design, similar to modern locks. This
kind of lock will be used widely in
Egypt.
[1] Ancient wooden lock and key from
Khorsabad (Much reduced) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.usgennet.org/usa/topi
c/preservation/science/inventions/chpt8.
htm
[2000 BC]
meteorites.
Oldest iron artifacts, made of iron
from meteorites, in Egypt.
Some might argue this is the beginning
of the Iron Age, but others would start
the Iron Age only at smelting and
casting of Iron.
[2000 BC]
[2000 BC]
now. This is the story of a scribal
student who is late for school and is
caned for various offenses such as
talking and because his copying is not
good enough. So the student invites a
teacher to his house for dinner. The
teacher is brought from school, seated
in the seat of honor and served dinner.
The father of the student dresses the
teacher in a new garment, gives him a
gift, and puts a ring on his hand.
After this the teacher praises the
student.
[2000 BC]
[1] PLATE II OLDEST LITERARY
CATALOGUE This plate illustrates a
literary catalogue compiled in
approximately 2000 B. C. (clay tablet
29.15.155 in the Nippur collection of
the University Museum). The upper part
represents the tablet itself; the lower
part, the author's hand copy of the
tablet. The titles of those
compositions whose actual contents we
can now reconstruct in large part are
as follows: 1. Hymn of King Shulgi
(approximately 2100 B. C.). 2. Hymn of
King Lipit-Ishtar (approximately 1950
B. C.). 3. Myth, ''The Creation of the
Pickax'' (see p. 51). 4. Hymn to
Inanna, queen of heaven. 5. Hymn to
Enlil, the air-god. 6. Hymn to the
temple of the mother-goddess Ninhursag
in the city of Kesh. 7. Epic tale,
''Gilgamesh, Enkidu, and the Nether
World'' (see p. 30). 8. Epic tale,
''Inanna and Ebih'' (see p. 82). 9.
Epic tale, ''Gilgamesh and
Huwawa.'' 10. Epic tale, ''Gilgamesh
and Agga.'' 11. Myth, ''Cattle and
Grain'' (see p. 53). 12. Lamentation
over the fall of Agade in the time of
Naram-Sin (approximately 2400 B.
C.). 13. Lamentation over the
destruction of Ur. This composition,
consisting of 436 lines, has been
almost completely reconstructed and
published by the author as
Assyriological Study No. 12 of the
Oriental Institute of the University of
Chicago. 14. Lamentation over the
destruction of Nippur. 15. Lamentation
over the destruction of Sumer. 16.
Epic tale, ''Lugalbanda and
Enmerkar.'' 17. Myth, ''Inanna's
Descent to the Nether World'' (see p.
83). 18. Perhaps a hymn to
Inanna. 19. Collection of short hymns
to all the important temples of
Sumer. 20. Wisdom compositions
describing the activities of a boy
training to be a scribe. 21. Wisdom
composition, ''Instructions of a
Peasant to His Son.'' 16 PD
source: http://www.sacred-texts.com/ane/
sum/img/pl02.jpg
[2000 BC]
the Gilgamesh (or Gish-gi(n)-mash)
story are written in Sumerian on clay
tablets.
[1] The Yale Tablet of the Gilgamesh
Epic License: The Project Gutenberg
eBook, An Old Babylonian Version of the
Gilgamesh Epic, by Anonymous, Edited by
Morris Jastrow, Translated by Albert T.
Clay This eBook is for the use of
anyone anywhere at no cost and
with almost no restrictions
whatsoever. You may copy it, give it
away or re-use it under the terms of
the Project Gutenberg License
included with this eBook or online at
www.gutenberg.org
source: http://www.gutenberg.org/files/1
1000/11000-h/11000-h.htm
[2000 BC]
composition.
(verify)
[2000 BC]
The use of metal for money can be
traced back to Babylonia more than 2000
years bc, but standardization in the
form of coins does not occur
systematically until the 7th century
bc. Historians generally ascribe the
first use of coined money to Croesus,
king of Lydia, a state in Anatolia. The
earliest coins are made of electrum, a
natural mixture of gold and silver, and
are bean-shaped ingots bearing a
primitive punch mark certifying to
either weight or fineness or both.
[1] Copper ingot from Zakros,
Crete Photo by Chris 73 GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/02/Copper_Ingot_Crete.jp
g
[1842 BC]
alphabet. Proto-semitic alphabet made
in turquoise mines probably by Semitic
humans. This alphabet is thought to
have replaced cuneiform, and may be
root of all other alphabets.
This first strictly phonetic alphabet
is in use until 1797 BCE.
Encyclopedia Britannica states that the
evolution of the alphabet involves two
important achievements. The first step
is the invention of an all-consonant
writing system. The second is the
invention of characters for
representing vowels which is made by
Greek people between 800 and 700 bce.
Around this time the Egyptians have a
large-scale project to search for
turquoise in the high mountains of
southern Sinai at a site today called
Serabit el-Khadem. In this mine an
alphabetic script, is found with has
far fewer signs than the Egyptian
hieroglyphic system. In 1916, Sir Alan
Gardiner, an English Egyptologist,
notices that a group of four signs are
frequently repeated in these
inscriptions. Gardiner correctly
identified the repetitive group as a
series of four letters in an alphabetic
script that represent a word in a
Canaanite language: b-‘-l-t,
vocalized as Baalat, "the Mistress".
Gardiner suggests that Baalat was the
Canaanite name for Hathor, the goddess
of the turquoise mines.
An important
key to the decipherment is a unique
bilingual inscription. It is inscribed
on a small sphinx from the temple and
features a short inscription in what
appears to be parallel texts in
Egyptian and in the new script.
The Egyptian
hieroglyphic inscription on the sphinx
reads:
"The beloved of Hathor, the mistress of
turquoise."
Each of the critical letters in the
word Baalat is a picture—a house, an
eye, an ox goad and a cross.
Gardiner
correctly recognizes that each
pictograph has a single phonic value:
The picture stands not for the depicted
word but only for its initial sound. So
the pictograph bêt, "house",
represents only the initial consonant
b.
This principle is at the root of all
of our alphabetic systems. Each sign in
this script stands for one consonant in
the language. (The representation of
vowels happens later).
The alphabet is
invented in this way by Canaanites at
Serabit in the Middle Bronze Age, in
the middle of the 19th century B.C.E.,
probably during the reign of Amenemhet
III of the XIIth Dynasty.
mines ) Serabit el-Khadem, Sinai
Peninsula
[1] Combination of 3 images: [1] Erich
Lessing THE RIDDLE OF THE SPHINX. This
10-inch-long sphinx fashioned from
sandstone proved to be the key to
deciphering the Proto-Sinaitic script.
It was discovered by Petrie amid the
ruins of Serabit’s Hathor temple and
includes dedicatory inscriptions on
both sides of the base (underlined in
yellow in the photo above) and on the
right shoulder. Both inscriptions on
the base are written in the
Proto-Sinaitic alphabetic script. The
inscription on the right shoulder is
written in Egyptian hieroglyphs, The
hieroglyphic text identifies the name
of the goddess to whom the sphinx is
dedicated as Hathor, “the mistress of
turquoise.” The famous Egyptologist
Alan Gardiner observed that each of the
signs in the Proto-Sinaitic texts
represented not an entire word, as in
hieroglyphic, but only its initial
sound. Four of these strange signs
(written left-to-right) spelled the
name Baalat, a Canaanite word also
meaning “the Mistress.” Thus was
Gardiner able to translate Baalat, the
first word deciphered in alphabetic
script. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.basarchive.org/bswb_g
raphics/BSBA/36/02/BSBA360204220L.jpg
[2] Erich Lessing THE RIDDLE OF THE
SPHINX. This 10-inch-long sphinx
fashioned from sandstone proved to be
the key to deciphering the
Proto-Sinaitic script. It was
discovered by Petrie amid the ruins of
Serabit’s Hathor temple and includes
dedicatory inscriptions on both sides
of the base (underlined in yellow in
the photo above) and on the right
shoulder. Both inscriptions on the base
are written in the Proto-Sinaitic
alphabetic script. The inscription on
the right shoulder is written in
Egyptian hieroglyphs, The hieroglyphic
text identifies the name of the goddess
to whom the sphinx is dedicated as
Hathor, “the mistress of
turquoise.” The famous Egyptologist
Alan Gardiner observed that each of the
signs in the Proto-Sinaitic texts
represented not an entire word, as in
hieroglyphic, but only its initial
sound. Four of these strange signs
(written left-to-right) spelled the
name Baalat, a Canaanite word also
meaning “the Mistress.” Thus was
Gardiner able to translate Baalat, the
first word deciphered in alphabetic
script. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.basarchive.org/bswb_g
raphics/BSBA/36/02/BSBA360204220L.jpg
[1800 BC]
[1800 BC]
[1800 BC]
[1786 BC]
[1700 BC]
[1700 BC]
[1700 BC]
[1650 BC]
[01/01/1635 BC]
in a priest's house in Tell ed-Der
dates to this time.
[1600 BC]
[01/01/1595 BC]
[1595 BC]
[1551 BC]
[1550 BC]
[1531 BC]
Evidence of this comes from the
so-called "Venus Tablet of
Ammi-saduqa", which is known only from
copies from the 600 BCE only. The Venus
Tablet records astronomical
observations placing Venus on the
horizon just before sunrise on the date
of the new moon for the 21 year reign
of Ammi-saduqa.
[1] Description English: Venus Tablet
of Ammisaduqa. Neo-Assyrian
period. Date 15 July 2010 Current
location [show]British
Museum Source/Photographer Fæ (Own
work) Permission (Reusing this
file) See below. British Museum
reference K.160 Detailed
description Upper part of a clay
tablet, 3 pieces, beginning of obverse
and the end of reverse are wanting,
astrological forecasts, a copy of the
so-called Venus Tablet of Ammisaduqa,
Neo-Assyrian. ~ Description extract
from BM record. Size Length: 17.14 cm
(6.75 in) Width: 9.2 cm (3.6 in)
Thickness: 2.22 cm (0.87
in) Location Room 55 CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/bb/Venus_Tablet_of_Ammis
aduqa.jpg
[1500 BC]
"burned brick").
A burned brick is a mud brick
that been baked in an oven (kiln) at an
elevated temperature to harden it, give
it mechanical strength, and improve its
resistance to moisture.
[1] [t Note that this is not the oldest
baked brick as far as I
know] Description العربية:
أنقاض مدينة أور
الأثرية في محافظة ذي
قار جنوب العراق English:
Ruins in the Town of Ur, Southern
Iraq Español: Ruinas de la ciuad de
Ur con el Zigurat de Ur-Nammu al fondo
a las afueras de Nasiriyah. Date 20
June 2006 Source Flickr Author
M.Lubinski from Iraq,USA. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Ur-Nassiriyah.j
pg/1280px-Ur-Nassiriyah.jpg
[1500 BC]
[1500 BC]
[1500 BC]
The oldest simple pulleys are used in
Assyria.
A pulley is a wheel that has a grooved
rim for carrying a rope or other line
and turning in a frame. The pulley
wheel is also called a "sheave".
One or more independently rotating
pulleys can be used to gain mechanical
advantage, especially for lifting
weights. The shafts around which the
pulleys turn may attach them to frames
or blocks, and a combination of
pulleys, blocks, and rope is called a
block and tackle. The pulley is
considered one of the five simple
machines.
[1] Part of a Bas-relief showing a
Pulley, and a Warrior originally in
the most ancient palace of
Nimroud. PD
source: http://www.ctesiphon.com/auction
s/Nineve-Remains-NY-1854-s-g.jpg
[1500 BC]
[1500 BC]
[1500 BC]
{KlePSiDru}).
The science of telling the time of day
(horology) began around 3500 BC with
the invention of the gnomon and
sundial, and the hour-glass. Around
1500 BC, the Egyptian clepsydra (water
clock) used dripping water between two
containers which were marked to
indicate the time.
In China, in the 100s CE, astronomer
Zhang Heng built a celestial globe
whose movement is regulated by
clepsydra. In the 700s Yi Xing and
Liang Lingzan added a mechanical clock.
[1] clepsydra Egyptian clepsydra An
Egyptian clepsydra Also known as a
water clock, an instrument in which the
discharge of water from a storage tank
is monitored in order to measure the
passing of time. Clepsydras were used
from ancient times until the
Renaissance. ''Clepsydra'' is Greek for
''water thief.'' UNKNOWN
source: http://www.daviddarling.info/ima
ges/Egyptian_clepsydra.jpg
[2] The Karnak clepsydra In 1904,
archaeological excavations within the
ancient temple complex of Karnak in
Egypt led to the recovery of fragments
of a large conical vessel. The presence
of an outlet near the base, plus
calibration scales on the interior
walls, showed the object to be a
classic example of an outflow
clepsydra. Figure 6: A full-size
reconstruction of the Karnak clepsydraA
full-size reconstruction (Fig. 6) may
be seen in the New Walk Museum, and
illustrates how it could act as a
timekeeper independent of the Sun. The
vessel is filled with water to a mark
near the rim, and then allowed to empty
via a narrow jet near the base. With a
cylindrical container the rate of flow
diminishes as the head of water within
the pot decreases, so the water surface
drops more slowly with time. The
ancient Egyptian designer (Amenhemhet,
about 1550 B.C.) has cleverly
compensated for this by employing a
conical vessel, and trials conducted
during the construction of this exhibit
have shown that the chosen angle gives
rise to an excellent approximation to a
linear descent of the water
surface. The hieroglyphics covering
the outside of the vessel (delineated
by Dr. Sarah Symons) do not explain how
the water clock was to be used: they
are simply traditional decorations in
praise of the gods. More information is
given alongside the exhibit. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.sundials.co.uk/leices
ter/fig06.jpg
[1500 BC]
[1] Nippur, Babylonia circa 1500 B.C.
— Earliest known map drawn to
scale PD
source: http://bookofjoe.typepad.com/.sh
ared/image.html?/photos/uncategorized/20
08/04/10/2ftftyfytf.jpg
[1358 BC]
succeeded briefly by Smenkhkare and
then by a second son-in-law,
Tutankhaton. Tutankhaton is forced to
change his name to Tutankhamen,
dropping the Aton and embracing Amon,
to abandon Amarna and move back to
Thebes, and to pay penance by giving
the old gods new riches and privileges.
A few years after the death of the
young king, Tutankhamen, the army takes
over the throne led by General
Horemheb. Horemheb institutes
counterreforms in order to restore the
old system fully.
As was done at the command of Akhenaten
years before, the new kings attempt to
erase all traces of the heretical
religion. Akhenaten's name and images
of the Aten sun disk are ordered
removed from monuments and official
king lists. Akhenaten's temples are
dismantled and the stone reused. Amarna
is left to crumble in the desert.
Inscriptions refer to Akhenaten only as
the heretic pharaoh of Akhetaten.
There is an
interesting similarity between "Aton"
and "Satan" being 3 of 4 sounds/letters
the same. It may be coincidence, but
perhaps Aton was given a negative
connotation to try to erase the history
of the origin of Judaism, or remove
suspicions of the monotheistic
theorists as copying Amenhotep. If the
name "Aton" is used, people will
recognize the ancient deity Aton,
however, by adding a letter, only a
subtle reference or connotation to the
ancient God, Aton remains. It is
interesting also the way Amon is viewed
against Aton as if rival gods with
Amenhotep switching to place his belief
in Aton.
There is a claim that followers of
Akhenaton's new monotheistic religion
ended each prayer with the name of
Amenhotep and that this is the origin
of the use of the word "amen" at the
end of Judean, Christian and Islamic
prayers.
What about the possible relation of the
word "Aton" to the Greek word "atom"?
[1] Antiquit� �gyptienne,
Akh�naton, Mus�e
�gyptien du Caire, (�gypte).
Statue of Akhenaten depicted in a
style typical of the Amarna period, on
display at the Museum of Egyptian
Antiquities, Cairo Reign 1353 BC
� 1336 BC[2] or 1352 BC �
1336 BC[3] or 1351�1334 BC[4] CC
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:GD-EG-Caire-Mus%C3%A9e061.JPG
[2] English: Amun and
Mut Nederlands: Amon en
Mut Source http://runeberg.org/nfba/04
95.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Amon_och_Mut%2C_Nordisk_familjebok.pn
g
[1310 BC]
[1300 BC]
[1300 BC]
[1200 BC]
[1200 BC]
[1200 BC]
[1200 BC]
[1200 BC]
[1200 BC]
[1198 BC]
[1180 BC]
[1087 BC]
[1000 BC]
[1000 BC]
[1000 BC]
[1000 BC]
[1000 BC]
[1000 BC]
of a pulley is multiplied by the number
of strands acting directly upon the
moving pulleys.
[1] Diagram 3a: A simple compound
pulley system—a movable pulley and a
fixed pulley lifting weight W, with an
additional pulley redirecting the
lifting force downward. The tension in
each line is W/3, yielding an advantage
of 3. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Pulley2a.svg/10
00px-Pulley2a.svg.png
[1000 BC]
[1000 BC]
[1000 BC]
[1000 BC]
[1000 BC]
lens (one side plane the other convex)
made from rock-crystal found in Nimrud,
a magnifying and burning glass.
Sir David Brewster described the lens
writing: "This lens is plano-convex,
and of a slightly oval form, its length
being 1 6/10 inch, and its breadth l
4/10 inch. It is about 9/10ths of an
inch thick, and a little thicker at one
side than the other. Its plane surface
is pretty even, though ill polished and
scratched. Its convex surface has not
been ground, or polished, on a
spherical concave disc, but has been
fashioned on a lapidary's wheel, or by
some method equally rude. The convex
side is tolerably well polished, and
though uneven from the mode in which it
has been ground, it gives a tolerably
distinct focus, at the distance of 4
1/2 inches from the plane side. There
are about twelve cavities in the lens,
that have been opened during the
process of grinding it: these cavities,
doubtless contained either naphtha, or
the same fluid which is discovered in
(opazi quartz, and other minerals. As
the lens does not show the polarised
rays at great obliquities, its plane
surface must be greatly inclined to the
axis of the hexagonal prism of quartz
from which it must have been taken. It
is obvious, from the shape and rude
cutting of the lens, that it could not
have been intended as an ornament; we
are entitled, therefore, to consider it
as intended to be used as a lens,
either for magnifying, or for
concentrating the rays of the sun,
which it does, however, very
imperfectly.".
Another, possibly 5th century BC, lens
was found in a sacred cave on Mount Ida
on Crete and is more powerful and of
far better quality than the Nimrud
lens. Aristophanes (c450-c388 bce),
Greek playwright, in his play "Clouds",
around 423 BCE, describes a crystal
lens used for burning. Also, Roman
writers Pliny and Seneca refer to a
lens used by an engraver in Pompeii.
[1] Description English: Photo of
the Nimrud lens in the british
museum Date feb 2011 Source
Photo by user:geni Author
Geni CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/65/Nimrud_lens_British_M
useum.jpg
[999 BC]
this millenium {narrow time}, brass
made with copper and clamine, a zinc
ore (instead of zinc metal, because
extracting zinc metal from ore will not
be understood until around 1781).
[945 BC]
[922 BC]
[910 BC]
are from Tell Hammeh (az-Zarqa), Jordan
and date to around 2800-2700 years ago,
but two charcoal samples from the same
site date to 2930-2910 years before
now.
This is the start of the Iron Age, as
iron becomes more popular because iron
is more abundant.
in Mesopotamia, Anatolia, and
Egypt.
It is possible, under certain
conditions, to produce iron when
smelting copper, and so it may be that
iron produced before the late Bronze
Age may have been produced in the
process of smelting copper, or possibly
lead. If iron oxide in any one of its
three forms (haematite; limonite;
magnetite) is accidentally or
deliberately added to the furnace
charge as a fluxing agent (a mineral
added to the metals in a furnace to
promote fusing or to prevent the
formation of oxides), in smelting
copper or lead, the iron will combine
with the silica in the ore to form slag
that will melt and eventually run off.
In circumstances of high temperature
and extreme reducing atmosphere, small
bits of relatively pure iron could have
been produced.
[1] Xander Veldhuijzen and Eveline van
der Steen, ''Iron Production Center
Found in the Jordan Valley'', Near
Eastern Archaeology, Vol. 62, No. 3
(Sep., 1999), pp. 195-199 Published
by: The American Schools of Oriental
Research Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/3210714 COP
YRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3210
714
[900 BC]
[850 BC]
[848 BC]
[819 BC]
[800 BC]
[800 BC]
(for example in the words "theater",
"fifth") and in use in Greece.
Theta (Θ) is the eighth letter of the
Greek alphabet, derived from the
Phoenician letter Teth.
The theta sound survives only in Greek
and later languages.
[1] From
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teth GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tet
h
[800 BC]
[800 BC]
[785 BC]
eclipses.
The reason there are not two eclipses a
month is because the orbit of the Moon
around the Earth is tilted 5 degrees
from the Earth's plane of rotation
around the Sun. This means that the
moon must be at or near the two points
in its orbit that intersects the
Earth's plane of rotation around the
Sun when the Moon is between the Earth
and Sun or behind them. This alignment
occurs at least twice a year, and at
most rarely 5 times a year.
Usually, if an
eclipse of the Sun occurs, an eclipse
of the Moon precedes of follows it by 2
weeks, because the Sun, Earth and Moon
are then in alignment with each other.
[1] by Ted Huntington PD
source: my own based on info from
http://www.britannica.com/eb/art-3466?ar
ticleTypeId=1 and
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/fac
tsheet/sunfact.html
[731 BC]
[728 BC]
[722 BC]
[716 BC]
[715 BC]
[700 BC]
[700 BC]
more than one sound. Letter "C" sounded
as "K" in addition to traditional "G"
sound.
Latin or Etruscan speaking people start
using the letter "C" (Gamma), not only
to represent it's traditional sound
"G", but also for the sound "K",
usually reserved for the letter "K"
(Kappa). This will add confusion to how
to pronounce a word, and violates a
more simple, logical system where one
letter equals only one sound.
At this time Latin speaking people
start replacing words with K with the
letter "C".
[688 BC]
[669 BC]
story of Gilgamesh: a wild-man Enkidu
is tamed by having sex with a woman,
Enkidu and Gilgamesh destroy Humbaba,
the beast-like guardian of the forest,
and a bull sent from Heaven, Enkidu is
killed as a punishment by the Gods, and
Gilgamesh visits him in the Underworld.
[668 BC]
[668 BC]
Ashurbanipal in Nineveh, an early
systematically organized library from
which 20,720 Assyrian tablets and
fragments have been preserved.
[1] Ashurbanipal on a Babylonian stela
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Assurbanipal_als_hogepriester.jpg
[2] Ashurbanipal hunting, a palace
relief from Nineveh PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Assurbanipal_op_jacht.jpg
[664 BC]
[660 BC]
replaces hieratic in most secular
writing, but hieratic continued to be
used by priests for several more
centuries.
The Demotic symbol set, is a short
hand, very rapid, abbreviated form of
hieratic, and looks like series of
"agitated commas". The word "demotic"
is from Greek meaning "of the people"
or "popular".
[651 BC]
eye clearly distinguished from stars
(Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and
Saturn) in Babylonia. The position of
these five planets compared to the
stars is found in a series of baked
clay tablet astronomical "diaries". The
earliest datable tablet, from 651 BCE
contains the names of all five planets.
[1] A. Sachs, ''Babylonian
Observational Astronomy'',
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London. Series A,
Mathematical and Physical Sciences ,
Vol. 276, No. 1257, The Place of
Astronomy in the Ancient World (May 2,
1974), pp.
43-50 http://www.jstor.org/stable/74273
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/7427
3
[650 BC]
aquaduct, a channel used to move water
from one place to another, is in
Assyria. This aquaduct is built of and
carries water across a valley to the
capital city, Nineveh.
[640 BC]
[624 BC]
[622 BC]
[622 BC]
Bible, The Ten Commandments, The Story
of Genesis).
The earliest record of the reading of a
“Torah book” is provided by the
narrative describing the reformation
instituted by King Josiah of Judah in
622 BCE following the fortuitous
discovery of a “book of the Torah”
during the renovation of the Temple.
[1]
http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/scrolls/imag
es/torah-b.jpg Miqsat Ma`ase
ha-Torah 4Q396(MMT[superscript]c) Parc
hment Copied late first century
B.C.E.-early first century C.E. The
Torah Precepts Scroll Translation of
the Torah Precepts Scroll Miqsat
Ma`ase
ha-Torah 4Q396(MMT[superscript]c) Parc
hment Copied late first century
B.C.E.-early first century
C.E. Fragment A: height 8 cm (3 1/8
in.), length 12.9 cm (5 in.) Fragment
B: height 4.3 cm (1 11/16 in.), length
7 cm (2 3/4 in.) Fragment C: height
9.1 cm (3 9/16 in.), length 17.4 cm (6
7/8 in.) Courtesy of the Israel
Antiquities Authority (8) The Torah
Precepts Scroll This scroll,
apparently in the form of a letter, is
unique in language, style, and content.
Using linguistic and theological
analysis, the original text has been
dated as one of the earliest works of
the Qumran sect. This sectarian
polemical document, of which six
incomplete manuscripts have been
discovered, is commonly referred to as
MMT, an abbreviation of its Hebrew
name, Miqsat Ma`ase ha-Torah. Together
the six fragments provide a composite
text of about 130 lines, which probably
cover about two-thirds of the original.
The initial part of the text is
completely missing. Apparently it
consisted of four sections: (1) the
opening formula, now lost; (2) a
calendar of 364 days; (3) a list of
more than twenty rulings in religious
law (Halakhot), most of which are
peculiar to the sect; and (4) an
epilogue that deals with the separation
of the sect from the multitude of the
people and attempts to persuade the
addressee to adopt the sect's legal
views. The ''halakhot,'' or religious
laws, form the core of the letter; the
remainder of the text is merely the
framework. The calendar, although a
separate section, was probably also
related to the sphere of ''halakhah.''
These ''halakhot'' deal chiefly with
the Temple and its ritual. The author
states that disagreement on these
matters caused the sect to secede from
Israel. References: Strugnell,
J., and E. Qimron. Discoveries in the
Judaean Desert, X. Oxford,
forthcoming. Sussman, Y. ''The
History of `Halakha' and the Dead Sea
Scrolls -- Preliminary Observations on
Miqsat Ma`ase Ha-Torah (4QMMT)'' (in
Hebrew), Tarbiz 59 (1990):11-76. PD
source: http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/scro
lls/images/torah-b.jpg
[621 BC]
[609 BC]
[609 BC]
[605 BC]
[600 BC]
Historians generally ascribe the first
use of coined money to Croesus, king of
Lydia, a state in Anatolia. The
earliest coins are made of electrum, a
natural mixture of gold and silver, and
are crude, bean-shaped ingots bearing a
primitive punch mark certifying to
either weight or fineness or both.
[1] King Kroisos period. Circa 561-546
BC. Kings of Lydia. Time of Kroisos.
Circa 561-546 BC. AV Stater (8.06
gm). Sardes mint. Light series.
Confronted foreparts of lion and
bull Two square incuse
punches of unequal size. Traité
pl. X, 2; BMC Lydia pg. 6, 31; SNG
Copenhagen Suppl. 362; Boston MFA 2073;
SNG von Aulock 2875. Choice
EF. From the Ronald Cohen
Collection. Ex Tkalec (18 February
2002), lot 81. Date Source
http://www.wildwinds.com/coins/gree
ce/lydia/kings/kroisos/BMC_31.jpg GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5c/Kroisos_BMC_31.jpg
[600 BC]
the first human of record to explain
the universe with out using any gods in
the explanation, claiming the universe
originated as water.
Thales explains that moon light is
reflected sun light.
Thales measures a pyramid by comparing
the pyramid shadow with the shadow from
a stick.
[1] Thales, one of the Seven Sages of
Greece From French Wikipedia:
fr:Image:Thales.jpg Original source:
http://www.phil-fak.uni-duesseldorf.de/p
hilo/galerie/antike/thales.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Thales.jpg
[600 BC]
[600 BC]
to be included in the Christian
religion, and coupled with the concept
of a Hell will work as a powerful myth
against science and free inquiry into
the scientific nature of the universe.
[590 BC]
have not yet begun to write history or
biography. It will not be until the
400s BCE that accounts of the life of
Solon and his works began to be put
together.
Before Solon's reforms, the Athenian
state is administered by nine archons
appointed or elected annually by the
Areopagus on the basis of noble birth
and wealth. The Areopagus is made of
former archons and therefore has, in
addition to the power of appointment, a
large amount of influence. The nine
archons take the oath of office while
ceremonially standing on a stone in the
agora, declaring their readiness to
dedicate a golden statue if they should
ever be found to have violated the
laws. There is an assembly of Athenian
citizens (the Ekklesia) but the lowest
class (the Thetes) are not admitted and
its deliberative procedures are
controlled by the nobles. There is no
method to control or punish an archon
who violates a law unless the Areopagus
decides to prosecute the archon.
According to Aristotle, Solon creates a
law to allow all citizens to be
admitted into the Ekklesia and for a
court (the Heliaia) to be formed from
all the citizens. The Heliaia appears
to have been the Ekklesia, or some
representative portion of it, sitting
as a jury. Ancient sources credit Solon
with the creation of a Council of Four
Hundred, drawn from the four Athenian
income groups to serve as a steering
committee for the enlarged Ekklesia.
Solon broadens the financial and social
qualifications required for election to
public office. The Solonian
constitution divides citizens into four
political classes defined according to
assessable property, a classification
that might previously have served the
state for military or taxation purposes
only. The standard unit for this
assessment is one medimnos
(approximately 12 gallons) of corn.
[1] This bust, titled 'Solon' (National
Museum, Naples) is technically more
sophisticated than anything produced in
Solon's own time. Ancient literary
sources, from which history largely
derives its knowledge of Solon, were
similarly constructed long after the
event. PD
source: http://www.usu.edu/markdamen/Cla
sDram/images/03/solon.jpg
[2] The Areopagus, as viewed from the
Acropolis, is a monolith where Athenian
aristocrats decided important matters
of state during Solon's time. CC
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Areopagus_from_the_Acropolis.jpg
[587 BC]
[05/08/585 BC]
[580 BC]
Αναξίμανδρος)
(Anaximandros) oNoKSEMoNDrOS or
ANAKSEmANDrOS? (BCE 610-546), friend
and student of Thales, describes an
Earth-centered Universe theory, and a
theory that humans evolved from fish,
the first recorded theory of evolution
in history..
Anaximander had a more abstract idea of
the universe than Thales. Anaximander
introduced the science of the ancient
east to Greece, made use of the sundial
(known for centuries in Egypt and
Babylonia), was the first to draw a map
of the entire known earth. Anaximander
recognized that the stars appeared to
orbit the pole star, and so viewed the
sky as a complete sphere (not just a
semisphere over the earth). This is
the first evidence for the idea of
spheres in astronomy. This would grow
to contribute to the complicated and
erroneus system of Ptolomy which will
dominate science until Copernicus and
Kepler. Anaximander thinks that the
earth is curved to explain the change
in position of the stars, thinking the
earth to be a cylinder. The first
papyrus by Anaximander is lost.
[580 BC]
well-known and greatly admired
throughout antiquity, has been lost,
but her immense reputation has
endured.
Because she writes love poems addressed
to both women and men, Sappho has long
been considered bisexual. The word
"lesbian" derives from the name of the
island of her birth, Lesbos.
Her homoerotica
should be placed in a 600s BCE Greece
context. The poems of Alcaeus and later
Pindar record similar romantic bonds
between the members of a given circle
Ancient
sources state that Sappho produced nine
volumes of poetry, but only a small
proportion of her work survives.
Papyrus fragments, such as those found
in the ancient rubbish heaps of
Oxyrhynchus, are an important source.
One substantial fragment is preserved
on a potsherd. The rest of what we know
of Sappho comes through citations in
other ancient writers, often made to
illustrate grammar, vocabulary, or
meter. There is a single complete poem,
Fragment 1, Hymn to Aphrodite.
The themes of Sappho's known writing
are primarily concerned with her
thiasos, the usual term (not actually
found in any of Sappho's surviving
writings) for the female community,
with a religious and educational
background, that meets under her
leadership. In her poems, Sappho
attacks other thiasoi directed by other
women.
The goal of the thiasos is the
education of young women, especially
for marriage. Aphrodite is the group's
tutelary divinity and inspiration.
Sappho is the intimate and servant of
the goddess and her intermediary with
the girls. In the ode to Aphrodite, the
poet invokes the goddess to appear, as
she has in the past, and to be her ally
in persuading a girl she desires to
love her. Frequent images in Sappho's
poetry include flowers, bright
garlands, naturalistic outdoor scenes,
altars smoking with incense, perfumed
unguents to sprinkle on the body and
bathe the hair-that is, all the
elements of Aphrodite's rituals. In the
thiasos the girls are educated and
initiated into grace and elegance for
seduction and love. Singing, dancing,
and poetry play a central role in this
educational process and other cultural
occasions. As is true for other female
contemporary communities, including the
Spartan, and for the corresponding
masculine institutions, the practice of
homoeroticism (allusions to same gender
physical love and sexuality) within the
thiasos plays a role in the context of
initiation and education. In Sappho's
poetry love is passion, an inescapable
power that moves at the will of the
goddess; it is desire and sensual
emotion; it is nostalgia and memory of
affections that are now distant, but
shared by the community of the thiasos.
There is a personal poetic dimension,
which is also collective because all
the girls of the group recognize
themselves in it. An important part of
Sappho's poetry is occupied by
epithalamia, or nuptial songs.
It is not known how her poems were
published and circulated in her own
lifetime and for the following three or
four centuries. In the era of
Alexandrian scholarship (3rd and 2nd
centuries BC), what survives of her
work will be collected and published in
a standard edition of nine books of
lyrical verse, divided according to
metre. This edition will not endure
beyond the early Middle Ages. By the
8th or 9th century CE Sappho wil be
represented only by quotations in other
authors. Only the ode to Aphrodite, 28
lines long, is complete. The next
longest fragment is 16 lines long.
Since 1898 these fragments have been
greatly increased by papyrus finds,
though, in the opinion of some
scholars, nothing equal in quality to
the two longer poems.
[1] Sappho of Lesbos, from a Pompeiian
fresco; in the National Archaeological
Museum, Naples. PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-16992/Sappho-of-Lesbos-from-a-Pompeiian
-fresco-in-the-National?articleTypeId=1
[575 BC]
[550 BC]
[1] The w:en:Duenos inscription is an
Old Latin inscription from a vase found
near the Quirinal Hill in
Rome. Source: John Edwin Sandys,
''Epigraphy'', in A Companion to Latin
Studies (ed. John Edwin Sandys),
Cambridge, Cambridge University Press,
1913; p. 733, plate 108. This, in
turn, credits Heinrich Dressel
(1845-1920), Annali, pl. 1, 1880.
Probably this means the Annali dell'
Instituto di Corrispondenza
Archeologica. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Duenos_inscription.jpg
[2] This is a turn-of-the-century
rubbing of the Forum inscription, which
dates to the 5th century BCE and is one
of the oldest known Latin
inscriptions. Source: John Edwin
Sandys, ''Epigraphy'', in A Companion
to Latin Studies (ed. John Edwin
Sandys), Cambridge, Cambridge
University Press, 1913; p. 732, plate
107. This, in turn, credits Domenico
Comparetti (1835-1927), Iscrizione
archaica del Foro Romano, Firenze,
1900. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Forum_inscription.jpg
[545 BC]
[545 BC]
the title "The Father of History" and
the word he uses for his achievement,
"historie", which previously had meant
simply "inquiry", will pass into Latin
and take its modern connotation of
"history" or "story". This nickname
will be given to him by Cicero (De
legibus I,5)
Herodotos writes that
doctors are very specialized in Egypt.
There are doctors for eyes, head,
teeth, stomach, and for "invisible
diseases", which may be disturbances of
the "nervous system". or perhaps
simply any disease without a clear
cause (incl bacteria, virus).
[540 BC]
[1] [t Find better image if possible,
perhaps writing of Anaximenes work or
about him.] Description English:
Anaximenes of Miletus, presocratic
philosopher. Français : Anaximène de
Milet, philosophe
présocratique. Date Source first
upload to de.wikipedia by Dr. Manuel on
10 Mar 2005, cropped from
http://www.sir-ray.com/Anaximenes.jpeg
and tagged as Public Domain PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2d/Anaximenes.jpg
[540 BC]
Greek philosopher, poet, social and
religious critic , learns from
Pythagoras, but leaves Ionia for
Southern Italy, (to a town named
"Elea"). Xenophanes is less mystical
than Pythagoras and writes about the
school of Pythagoras. Xenophanes did
not believe in transmigrartion of
souls, or in the primitive Greek Gods,
but instead in a monotheism rare to
Greek people. Xenophanes finds
seashells on mountain tops and reasons
that the earth changes over time, so
that mountains must have been in the
sea and then rose, therefore Xenophanes
is the first human in history to make a
contribution to the science of Geology.
Not until Hutton were any other
contributions to Geology made.
Our knowledge of his views comes from
his surviving poetry, all of which are
fragments passed down as quotations by
later Greek writers. His poetry
criticized and satirized a wide range
of ideas, including the belief in the
pantheon of human-like gods and the
Greek people's continued support of
athleticism.
Xenophanes rejected the idea that the
gods resembled humans in form. One
famous passage ridiculed the idea by
claiming that, if oxen were able to
imagine gods, then those gods would be
in the image of oxen. Because of his
development of the concept of a "one
god greatest among gods and men" that
is abstract, universal, unchanging,
immobile and always present, Xenophanes
is often seen as one of the first
monotheists.
This shows that there was a large
amount of tolerence of religious
criticism, without any serious
punishment.
[538 BC]
[530 BC]
mi west of athens), a Greek architect,
constructed for the tyrant Polycrates
of Samos a tunnel to bring water to the
city, passing the tunnel through a hill
for half a mile, starting at both ends,
meeting at the center and unaligned by
only a few inches.
[529 BC]
a sphere. "Pythagorean Theorem" (in a
right triangle: the square of the
lengths of the hypotenuse always equals
the sum of the square of the length of
the two other sides).
Pythagoras is credited with being the
first person to recognize that the
morning star (Phosphorus) and evening
star (Hesperus) are the same star,
after this time, the star is called
"Aphrodite" (this "star" is later
recognized to be planet Venus).
Pythagoras is the first to write that
the orbit of the earth moon is not in
the plane of the Earth equator but at
an angle to that plane. Pythagoras is
the first to teach that the Sun, Moon,
and planets do not follow the motion of
the stars, but have paths of their own.
This changes the star system theory
from the theory of Anaximander of a
single heavenly crystalline sphere, to
adding separate spheres for the
planets. This theory of the star system
will last until Kepler.
Pythagoras moves from Samos to Croton
in Southern Italy, to escape the harsh
rule of Polycrates, and starts a school
in Croton.
Pythagoras experiments with a
monochord, an instrument that has a
single string is stretched over a sound
box. The string is fixed at both ends
and a moveable bridge alters the pitch.
Pythagoras finds that strings of
musical instruments make higher pitch
sounds when made shorter, finding pitch
related to length. Pythagoras finds,
for example, twice the length equals 1
octave lower, a 3 to 2 ratio equals a
fifth, a 4 to 3 ratio equals a fourth.
Pythagoras finds that also increasing
tension raises pitch.
A Pythagorean named Hippasus is
credited with the proof that the square
root of 2 can not be expressed as a
ratio of two numbers (is irrational).
Pythagorian humans decide to keep
secret "irrational numbers".
Pythagoras mistakenly thinks that
vibrations from the crystaline spheres
rubbing together create a harmonious
"Music of the Spheres", which will last
for a long time.
[1] Description: Phytagoras, coin made
under emperor Decius Source:
Baumeister, Denkmäler des klassischen
Altertums. 1888. Band III., Seite
1429 s Roman Emperor from 249 to
251. PD
source: http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.
uk/~history/BigPictures/Pythagoras_4.jpe
g
[2] Bust of Pythagoras UNKNOWN
source: http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.
uk/~history/BigPictures/Pythagoras.jpeg
[525 BC]
[520 BC]
appears to be widespread and higly
tolerated in this time of history in
Ionia.
Hecataeus was one of the first
classical writers to mention the Celtic
people.
Some have credited Hecataeus with a
work entitled Ges Periodos ("Travels
round the Earth" or "World Survey'), in
two books each organized in the manner
of a periplus, a point-to-point coastal
survey. One on Europe, is essentially a
periplus of the Mediterranean,
describing each region in turn,
reaching as far north as Scythia. The
other book, on Asia, is arranged
similarly to the Periplus of the
Erythraean Sea of which a version of
the 1st century CE survives. Hecataeus
described the countries and inhabitants
of the known world, the account of
Egypt being particularly comprehensive;
the descriptive matter was accompanied
by a map, based upon Anaximander"s map
of the earth, which he corrected and
enlarged. The work only survives in
some 374 fragments, by far the majority
being quoted in the geographical
lexicon Ethnika compiled by Stephanus
of Byzantium.
The other known work of Hecataeus was
the Genealogiai, a rationally
systematized account of the traditions
and mythology of the Greeks, a break
with the epic myth-making tradition,
which survives in a few fragments, just
enough to show what we are missing.
Hecataeus' work, especially the
Genealogiai, shows a marked scepticism,
opening with "Hecataeus of Miletus thus
speaks: I write what I deem true; for
the stories of the Greeks are manifold
and seem to me ridiculous."1 Unlike his
contemporary Xenophanes, he did not
criticize the myths on their own terms;
his disbelief rather stems from his
broad exposure to the many
contradictory mythologies he
encountered in his travels.
An anecdote from Herodotus (II, 143),
of a visit to an Egyptian temple at
Thebes, is illustrative. It recounts
how the priests showed Herodotus a
series of statues in the temple's inner
sanctum, each one supposedly set up by
the high priest of each generation.
Hecataeus, says Herodotus, had seen the
same spectacle, after mentioning that
he traced his descent, through sixteen
generations, from a god. The Egyptians
compared his genealogy to their own, as
recorded by the statues; since the
generations of their high priests had
numbered three hundred and forty-five,
all entirely mortal, they refused to
believe Hecataeus's claim of descent
from a mythological figure. This
encounter with the immemorial antiquity
of Egypt has been identified as a
crucial influence on Hecataeus's
scepticism: the mythologized past of
the Hellenes shrank into insignificant
fancy next to the history of a
civilization that was already ancient
before Mycenae was built.
[03/12/515 BC]
[515 BC]
Iran)
[1] Behistun Inscription, with some
modern annotations Sketch: Fr.
Spiegel, Die altpers. Keilinschriften,
Leipzig 1881. Source:
http://titus.fkidg1.uni-frankfurt.de/did
act/idg/iran/apers/behistun.htm Copyrig
ht expired due to age of document PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:BehistunInscriptionSketch.jpg
[2] Darius I the Great's
inscription GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Darius_I_the_Great%27s_inscription.jp
g
[510 BC]
north of Miletus, ~540 bc - ~475 bc)
disagrees with Thales, Anaximander, and
Pythagorus about the nature of the
ultimate substance, thinking fire to be
a fundamental element of the universe.
Heraclitus claims that the nature of
everything is change itself. A
typically pessimistic view led to
Herkleitos being called the "weeping
philosopher". Only fragments of text by
Heraclitus have been found.
[1] Heraclitus, by Johannes Moreelse
(1602-1634) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/fa/Heraclitus%2C_Johanne
s_Moreelse.jpg
[510 BC]
Velia), Italy - ??) a student of
Ameinias, and pre-Socratic philosopher,
follows in the tradition of the Ionian
exiled Pythagorus and Xenophanes.
Parmenides opposed the view of
Heraclitus, claiming that one object
can not turn in to other object
fundamentally different. Parmenides
argued that creation (something from
nothing) and destruction (nothing from
something) is impossible. Parmenides
chose reason over senses, feeling
senses to be untrustworthy. Parmenides
founds school in Elea, the "Eliatic
School" based on this philosophy of
reason over senses. Zeno was the most
recognized person educated in the
school. Zeno, will use distrust of
senses to describe a set of paradoxes.
[508 BC]
[500 BC]
[500 BC]
[500 BC]
[499 BC]
[490 BC]
(a branch of the Phoenicians)
Navigator, sails 60 ships with 3000
people, down the coast of Africa in
order to start new settlements. Much of
what is learned about Hanno is from an
18 sentence travel-record, or
"Periplus" of this journey, from
Herodotus, and Pliny the Elder.
Herodotus will express doubts about the
accuracy of Hanno's story, because of a
report that in the far south the sun at
noon was in the nothern half of the
sky, which Herodotus will think is
impossible, but is in fact true for the
southern hemisphere of earth. This is
strong evidence, taken together with
the Periplus of Hanno's journey that
Hanno is the first Mediterranean human
to sail over the equator into the
Southern Hemisphere. Herodotus also
declares that Hanno claimed to have
circumnavigated Africa.
[1] Description Français : Carte du
trajet de Hannon English: Map in
French of Hanno the Navigator's
exploration Deutsch: Karte in
Franzosisch der Reiseroute von Hanno
dem Seefahrer Español: Zona explorada
por Hannón el Navegante en su famoso
Periplo, en francés Date 26 April
2009 Source travail personnel (own
work) + File:Africa topography map.png
(relief bitmap embedded in the svg) +
File:Periplo de Hannón.jpg
(data) Author Bourrichon GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Hannon_map-fr.s
vg/1000px-Hannon_map-fr.svg.png
[490 BC]
[470 BC]
mass of red-hot metal, that people live
on the Moon, and thinks that the
Universe is made of tiny bodies. The
contemporary prevailing belief is that
the Sun and the Moon are gods. Diogenes
Laerteus confirms that this is the
belief of the Egyptian people writing
(translated from Greek): "...They (the
Egyptians) say that the first principle
is matter then that the four elements
were formed out of matter and divided
and that some animals were created and
that the sun and moon are gods of whom
the former is called Osiris and the
latter Isis and they are symbolised
under the names of beetles and dragons
and hawks and other animals...".
Anaxagoras (BCE c500-c428) introduces
the Ionian science of Thales to Athens,
saying that the universe is not made by
a deity, but through the action of
infinite "seeds", which will later
develop into atomic theory under
Leucippos. Anaxagoras accurately
explains the phases of the earth moon,
and both eclipses of moon and sun in
terms of their movements.
Anaxagoras teaches in Athens for 30
years, and the school formed by
Anaxagoras starts the scholarly
tradition that lasts for 1000 years.
[1] Description English: Detail of
the right-hand facade fresco, showing
Anaxagoras. National and Kapodistrian
University of Athens. Date c.
1888 Source http://nibiryukov.narod.r
u/nb_pinacoteca/nbe_pinacoteca_artists_l
.htm Author Eduard Lebiedzki,
after a design by Carl Rahl PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2c/Anaxagoras_Lebiedzki_
Rahl.jpg
[470 BC]
[470 BC]
[468 BC]
[467 BC]
communication. The optical telegraph
(or semaphore)
An optical telegraph is an apparatus
for conveying information by using
visual signals, for example, using
towers with turnable blades or paddles,
shutters, or hand-held flags etc.
The Greek playwright, Aeschylus,
describes in the play "Agamemnon" how
news of the fall of Troy reaches the
city of Argos (600 km away) in only a
few hours by the use of fire signals.
Robert Hooke (CE 1635-1703) gives a
clear description of an optical
telegraph (or semaphore) using
telescopes to the Royal Society in
1684.
Claude Chappe in France will develop
one of the first practical optical
telegraphs in 1794.
[1] This image was moved from
Image:Image62.gif Description A
drawing of the lighthouse by German
archaeologist Prof. H. Thiersch
(1909). Date 2007-01-16 (original
upload date) Source Originally from
en.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. Author Original uploader
was Ragemanchoo at
en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2e/Lighthouse_-_Thiersch
.gif
[2] English: Mosaic Lighthouse of
Alexandria: was found in the Qasr Libya
in Libya, which was known by several
names including history and Olbia
Theodorias, This is a painting that was
left over to show the form of
lighthouse after the quake, which
destroyed the lighthouse. Qasr Libya
Museum PD
source: http://freespace.virgin.net/ric.
martin/vectis/hookeweb/roberthooke.htm
[460 BC]
[460 BC]
atoms.
Leukippos (Greek Λευκιππος )
(lEUKEPOS?) (BCE c490-???) is the first
person to support an atomic theory.
Leukippos theorizes that the universe
is made of two different elements,
which he calls "solid" and "empty", and
that matter is composed entirely of an
infinity of small indivisible particles
called atoms, which are constantly in
motion, and through their collisions
and regroupings form various
compounds.
The most famous among Leucippus' lost
works are titled "Megas Diakosmos"
("The Great Order of the Universe" or
"The great world-system") and "Peri
Nou" ("On mind").
The argument for indivisible atoms is
said to have been a response to Zeno's
argument about the absurdities that
follow if magnitudes are divisible to
infinity.
Leukippos represents the final part of
science and logic in Asia Minor before
the destruction of the coastal cities
by humans from Persia. Leukippos
teaches Democritos.
Leukippos is the first person
to say that every event has a natural
cause.
[1] Coin with the head of Leukippos on
it from around 330-320
BC.[t] Greece,Metapont
330-320BC,Leukkipos,1/3stater. Hammer
price 2002: CHF 12.000. UNKNOWN
source: http://numisbooks.dk/info/fotos/
romanphotos/leukippos330-320.jpg
[460 BC]
[460 BC]
[458 BC]
[454 BC]
[451 BC]
Πρωταγόρας) (c. 481-c. 420
BC) publishes an agnostic text.
Diogenes describes it this way
(translated from Greek): "...another of
his treatises he begins in this way:
"Concerning the Gods, I am not able to
know to a certainty whether they exist
or whether they do not. For there are
many things which prevent one from
knowing, especially the obscurity of
the subject, and the shortness of the
life of man.". And on account of this
beginning of his treatise he was
banished by the Athenians. And they
burnt his books in the market-place,
calling them in by the public crier,
and compelling all who possessed them
to surrender them.".
[1] [t Get better image- perhaps of
text.] Picture of Protagoras UNKNOWN
source: http://i2.listal.com/image/59712
8/600full-protagoras.jpg
[450 BC]
[450 BC]
[450 BC]
[450 BC]
[1] Grand Canal of China. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Kaiserkanal01.jpg
[438 BC]
[434 BC]
[432 BC]
months, 7 years of 13 months.
Greek astronomer Meton (c440BC Athens -
???) finds that 235 lunar months make
around 19 years, so 12 years of 12
months and 7 years of 13 months will
allow the lunar calendar to match the
seasons. The Greek calendar will be
based on the Metonic cycle until 46 BCE
when the Julian calendar will be made
by Julius Caesar with the help of
Sosigenes. This calendar is also in use
in Babylonia around the same time if
not earlier.
Greek astronomer Meton (~440BC
Athens - ???) finds that 235 lunar
months (moon rotations of earth) are
close to 19 earth years, so if there
are 12 years of 12 lunar months, and 7
years of 13 lunar months, every 19
years, the lunar calendar would match
the seasons. This will come to be
called the "Metonic cycle" (although
probably recognized by astonomers in
Babylonia before this time). The Greek
calendar will be based on the Metonic
cycle until 46 BCE when the Julian
calendar will be made by Julius Caesar
with the help of Sosigenes.
This cycle can be used to predict
eclipses, forms the basis of the Greek
and Jewish calendars, and is used to
determine the date for Easter each
year.
[431 BC]
[1] Mihintale, Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka
Mihintale and Missaka Pabatha is
situated near to Anuradhapura in Sri
Lanka GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Mihintale_missaka.jpg
[430 BC]
[430 BC]
[430 BC]
Hippocrates was born of a family in a
hereditary guild of magicians on the
Isle of Cos, described to be descended
from Asklepios, the Greek god of
medicine. Hippocrates visits Egypt
early in life, there studies medical
works credited to Imhotep. Some people
claim that he was a student of
Democritus. Hippocrates teaches in
Athens (and other places), before
opening his own school of health in
Cos.
Humans that graduate with a "medical"
degree must still repeat the oath
credited to Hippocrates (although
repeating oaths is stupid, and few if
any actually people actually follow
this advice of do no harm, in
particular in psychiatric hospitals).
[430 BC]
[424 BC]
Aristophanes paints Ionian science in a
bad light through a portrayal of
Socrates encouraging young people to
beat their parents. But perhaps even
then, people paid for such a message to
be read during a play (now newspapers,
magazines, television and movies accept
money for such messages), and money for
propaganda, a very old (albeit
secretive) system, may have influence
Aristophanes even then.
[1] Description English: Theatre of
Dionysus and the throne for the archon
eponymos (the throne is dedicated to a
Roman citizen, Marcus Ulpius, and to
his two sons, 3rd Century A.D., in
recognition of their charitable works
during a time of famine). Deutsch:
Dies ist die Ehrensitzreihe des
Dionysostheaters in Athen. Date 31
March 2008 Source Own
work Author DerHexer GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b2/Ehrentribuene_Dionyso
stheater_Athen.jpg
[2] Aristophanes - Project Gutenberg
eText 12788 The Project Gutenberg
EBook of Library Of The World's Best
Literature, Ancient And Modern, Vol. 2,
by Charles Dudley
Warner http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/1
2788 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Aristophanes_-_Project_Gutenberg_eTex
t_12788.png
[409 BC]
[408 BC]
Macedon)
[1] Fragmento em papiro com trecho
do coro de Orestes (Eurípides), ca.
200 a.C., transcrito em NAWM 1. * *
* UNKNOWN
source: http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_tS9ZBw
8iKyY/SMLKWhnAKhI/AAAAAAAAAVo/CCfi_POmD4
E/s400/euripides-orestes-papiro.jpg
[2] Description English: Bust of
Euripides. Marble, Roman copy after a
Greek original from ca. 330
BC. Français : Buste d'Euripide.
Marbre, copie romaine d'un original
grec de 330 av. J.-C. environ. Date
Current location [show]Vatican
MuseumsLink back to Institution infobox
template Museo Pio-Clementino, Sala
delle Muse Accession number Inv.
302 Source/Photographer Marie-Lan
Nguyen (2006) Permission (Reusing
this file) See below. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/4a/Euripides_Pio-Clement
ino_Inv302.jpg
[404 BC]
[399 BC]
[1] From
http://hypernews.ngdc.noaa.gov This
image is in the public domain because
its copyright has expired in the United
States and those countries with a
copyright term of life of the author
plus 100 years or less. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Socrates.png
[2] The Death of Socrates, by
Jacques-Louis David (1787) The
two-dimensional work of art depicted in
this image is in the public domain in
the United States and in those
countries with a copyright term of life
of the author plus 100 years. This
photograph of the work is also in the
public domain in the United States (see
Bridgeman Art Library v. Corel Corp.).
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Socratesdeath.jpg
[390 BC]
[387 BC]
Plato (Greek: Πλάτων, Plátōn,
"wide, broad-shouldered") (c427BC
Athens - 347 BC Athens) founds a school
in western Athens on a piece of land
once owned by a legendary Greek human
named "Academus", and so this school
comes to be called "The Academy", and
this word will eventually generally
apply to any school. The Academy will
be a center for science and education
for 900 years until 529 CE.
Plato is an Athethian aristocrat (of
the ruling class or nobility) whose
original name is "Aristocles", but he
gets the nick name "Platon" (meaning
"broad") because of his broad
shoulders. (Cicero also was a nick
name). Plato is in the "war service"
(tph military?) and is interested in
politics, but rejects Athenian
democracy.
In this year, Plato returned to Athens.
(on the way to Athens, Plato is
supposed to have been captured by
pirates and held for ransom).
The Academy has shrine to the muses
(mouseion) and is viewed as a religious
organisation by the government.
Plato stayed at the Academy for the
rest of his life, except for 2 years in
the 360s, when he visited Syracuse, the
main city of Greek Sicily, to tutor the
new king Dionysius II. Dionysius II
appeared brutal, and Plato returned
safely to Athens. Plato is supposed to
have died in his sleep at the age of 80
after attending a wedding feast of a
student. Writing credited to Plato are
consistently popular and are of a
series of dialogues between Socrates
and others. Most of what is known about
Socrates is from these texts. Like
Socrates, Plato was mainly interested
in moral philosophy and hated natural
philosophy (science). To Plato,
knowledge had no practical purpose.
Plato liked mathematics, perhaps
because the perfection of math, the
loftiest form of pure thought, was
different from the reality of the
universe (viewed as "gross" and
imperfect). Above the main doorway to
the academy were the words in Greek:
"Let no one ignorent of mathematics
enter here." Plato did think that math
could be applied to the universe. The
planets, he thought, exhibited perfect
geometric form. This is in Timaeus. He
describes the 5 and only 5 perfect
solids, those objects with equal faces,
lines and angles. (4 sided tetrahedron,
six sided hexahedron (or cube), 8 sided
octahedron, 12 sided dodecahedron, and
20 sided icosahedron. 4 of the 5
represented the 4 elements, while the
dodecahdron represented the whole
universe. These solids were first
discovered by the Pythagoreans. Plato
thought the planets were spheres and
moved in circles along the crystalline
spheres that held them in place. The
idea that the universe must reflect the
perfection of abstract mathematics was
most popular until Kepler, even though
compromises with reality had to be made
constantly, beginning after the death
of Plato with Eudoxus and Callippus.
In Timaeus, Plato invented a moralistic
story of a completely fictional land
called "Atlantis". This legend has had
unending popularity and has persisted
to now. One Aegean island exploded
vocanically in 1400 BC and this may
have given rise to this story. The
views of Plato had a strong influence
on Christian people until the 1200s
when Aristotle gained more popularity.
Carl Sagan states that:
"Plato and his
followers separated the earth from the
"heavens" (the rest of the universe),
Plato taught contempt for the real
world and disdain for the practical
application of science. Plato served
tyrants, and taught the separation of
the body from the mind, a natural
enough idea in a slave society."
and
that "{Plato} preferred the perfection
of these mathematical abstractions to
the imperfections of everyday life. He
believed that ideas were far more real
than the natural world. He advised the
astronomers not to waste their time
observing the stars and planets. It was
better, he believed, to just think
about them. Plato expressed hostility
to observation and experiment. He
taught contempt for the real world and
disdain for the practical application
of scientific knowledge. Plato's
followers succeeded in extinguishing
the light of science and experiment
that had been kindled by Democritus and
the other Ionians. Plato's unease with
the world as revealed by the senses was
to dominate and stifle Western
philosophy. Even as late as 1600,
Johannes Kepler was still struggling to
interpret the structure of the Cosmos
in terms of Pythagorean solids and
Platonic perfections." I am not sure
that we should fully blame Pythagoras
and Plato for the collapse of science,
as much as we should the tradition of
religion that came long before them.
But clearly the support of these
incorrect views by a majority of later
intellectuals shows large scale bad
judgement. The popularity of Plato is
a mystery since Plato did not make one
contribution to science. Sagan says
that this popularity is because the
views of Plato justify a corrupt social
order, where I think that this
popularity was simply a mistaken
belief. In addition the Academy served
as a center for science and education
until 529 CE.
In "The Republic", one of the earliest
and most influential books on political
theory, Plato presents a plan for the
ideal society and government. Plato
disliked Athenian democracy. It was the
leaders of the Athenian democracy that
had sentenced his teacher to die for
seeking truth and wisdom. Plato
preferred Sparta's model of government.
In Sparta, the needs of the state
(country) were put above the
individual. Serving the government was
more important than achieving personal
goals. Plato believed that too much
personal freedom led to disorder and
chaos. Athens was a primary example of
this disorder.
" Plato wanted only the most
intelligent and best-educated citizens
to participate in government. He
divided people into three classes:
workers to produce life's necessities,
soldiers to defend the people, and
specially trained leaders to govern the
state (country). The specially trained
leaders would be an elite class that
included both men and women. The wisest
of all would be a philosopher-king with
ultimate authority. The
philosopher-king would be well educated
to make decisions for the good of all
the people."
"Rather than being remembered for a
specific model of the Universe it was
his views on its nature, put forward in
his dialogue Timaeus, that were to so
strongly influence subsequent
generations. To Plato the Universe was
perfect and unchanging. Stars were
eternal and divine, embedded in an
outer sphere. All heavenly motions were
circular or spherical as the sphere was
the perfect shape. Such was his
influence that the concept of circular
paths was not challenged until Kepler,
after many years of painstaking
calculations, discovered the elliptical
orbits of planets nearly 2,000 years
later."
[1] Plato's Academy, Mosaic from Villa
of T. Siminius Stephanus, Pompeii
(photo courtesy of Branislav
Slantchev) PD
source: http://www.electrummagazine.com/
wp-content/uploads/2011/11/Platos_Academ
y_mosaic_T_Siminius_Stephanus_Pompeii.jp
g
[2] Description Academy of Athens
(modern) Source I (Dimboukas (talk))
created this work entirely by
myself. Date 19:53, 1 December 2009
(UTC) Author Dimboukas (talk) CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/thumb/8/82/Athens_academy.jpg/1
024px-Athens_academy.jpg
[384 BC]
[378 BC]
[1] A pupil of Plato, Eudoxus
elaborated a geocentric model composed
of crystalline spheres, incorporating
the Platonic ideal of uniform circular
motion. System of 27 Spheres:
* 1 for the fixed stars * 3 each
for the Sun and Moon * 4 each for
the 5 planets Spheres within
spheres in perfect circular motion
combine to give retrograde
motions. Spheres within
Spheres (Click on the image to
view at full scale [Size: 20Kb]) 4
Spheres for each planet: * One
was aligned with the celestial poles,
turning once a day to give rising &
setting. * Second was tilted
23.5º, rotated slowly in the opposite
direction to give the usual
west-to-east drift of the planets
relative to the fixed stars. *
Third & Fourth were introduced to
produce the periodic retrograde motions
of the planets. All were in uniform
circular motion about their axes.
COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://www-astronomy.mps.ohio-st
ate.edu/~pogge/Ast161/Unit3/greek.html
[378 BC]
[372 BC]
philosopher, born in Sinope (in modern
day Sinop, Turkey) about 412 BCE
(according to other sources 399 BCE),
and died in 323 BCE at Corinth.
Diogenes lives with no possessions in a
tub belonging to the temple of Cybele.
At the Isthmian Games he lectured to
large audiences, who turned to him from
his one-time teacher Antisthenes.
When Plato gave Socrates's definition
of man as "featherless bipeds" and was
much praised for the definition,
Diogenes plucked a cock and brought it
into Plato's school, and said, "This is
Plato's man." After this incident,
"with broad flat nails" was added to
Plato's definition.
The ideas of Diogenes of Sinope, as
well as most of the other Cynics,
arrive indirectly. No writings of
Diogenes survive even though he is
reported to have authored a number of
books.
Happiness, for Diogenes, was to be
found in radical autonomy. For Diogenes
and the other Cynics the best way to
achieve this autonomy was to minimize
one's dependence upon things and
people. The ascetic lifestyle that
Diogenes pursued--which involved
sleeping out of doors in cold weather
and eating whatever he could
obtain--was an expression of this
ideal, which also prepared the Cynic
for anything that might happen.
Nevertheless, it seems that Diogenes
was not against pleasure (as his
masturbation implies): when reproved
for walking out of a brothel (where
apparently he had been enjoying,
apparently for free, the services
offered) he replied that he should be
reproved for walking in rather than
walking out.
Diogenes maintained that all the
artificial growths of society were
incompatible with happiness and that
morality implies a return to the
simplicity of nature. So great was his
austerity and simplicity that the
Stoics would later claim him to be a
sage or "sophos", a perfect man. In his
words, "Man has complicated every
simple gift of the gods."
[370 BC]
[366 BC]
[1] Description 16th century painting
of Alexander the Great, lowered in a
glass diving bell Source NOAA Photo
Library, Image ID: nur09514, National
Undersearch Research Program (NURP)
Collection Date 2006-13-01
(upload) Author Credit: OAR/National
Undersea Research Program (NURP);
''Seas, Maps and Men'' PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Alexander_the_Great_diving_NOAA.jpg
[2] Description: Diving bell,
Marinmuseum (Naval museum), Karlskrona,
Sweden Source: Image taken by Henrik
Reinholdson CC
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:L-Taucherglocke.png
[357 BC]
[1] Ηράκλειτος (~544 - 483
π.Χ.) COPYRIGHTED GREECE
source: http://sfr.ee.teiath.gr/historia
/historia/important/html/images/Heraklit
.jpg
[347 BC]
[342 BC]
[341 BC]
[340 BC]
[336 BC]
[335 BC]
BCE-322 BCE) which Aristotle spends as
teacher of the Lyceum, he composes most
of his writings. Imitating Plato,
Aristotle writes "Dialogues" in which
his doctrines were expounded in
somewhat popular language. He also
composes the several treatises on
sciences, logic, metaphysics, and
ethics, in which the language is more
technical than in the Dialogues. These
writings succeeded in bringing together
the works of his predecessors in Greek
philosophy, and how he pursued, either
personally or through others, his
investigations in the realm of natural
phenomena. Pliny will claim that
Alexander placed under Aristotle's
orders all the hunters, fishermen, and
fowlers of the royal kingdom and all
the overseers of the royal forests,
lakes, ponds and cattle-ranges, and
Aristotle's works on zoology make this
statement believable. Aristotle was
fully informed about the doctrines of
his predecessors, and Strabo will
assert that he was the first to
accumulate a great library.
During the last years of Aristotle's
life the relations between him and
Alexander became very strained, owing
to the disgrace and punishment of
Callisthenes, whom Aristotle had
recommended to Alexander. Nevertheless,
Aristotle continued to be regarded at
Athens as a friend of Alexander and a
representative of Macedonia.
Consequently, when Alexander's death
became known in Athens, and the
outbreak occurred which led to the
Lamian war, Aristotle shared in the
general unpopularity of the
Macedonians. The charge of impiety,
which had been brought against
Anaxagoras and Socrates, was now
brought against Aristotle. He left the
city, saying, "I will not allow the
Athenians to sin twice against
philosophy" (Vita Marciana 41). He took
up residence at his country house at
Chalcis, in Euboea, and there he died
the following year, 322 BC. His death
was due to a disease, reportedly 'of
the stomach', from which he had long
suffered.
Aristotle's legacy also had a profound
influence on Islamic thought and
philosophy during the middle ages.
Muslim thinkers such as Avicenna,
Farabi, and Yaqub ibn Ishaq al-Kindi
were a few of the major proponents of
the Aristotelian school of thought
during the Golden Age of Islam.
Though we know that Aristotle wrote
many elegant treatises (Cicero
described his literary style as "a
river of gold"), the originals have
been lost in time. All that we have now
are the literary notes of his pupils,
which are often difficult to read (the
Nicomachean Ethics is a good example).
It is now believed that we have about
one fifth of his original works.
Aristotle underestimated the importance
of his written work for humanity. He
thus never published his books, only
his dialogues. The story of the
original manuscripts of his treatises
is described by Strabo in his Geography
and Plutarch in his "Parallel Lives,
Sulla": The manuscripts were left from
Aristotle to Theophrastus, from
Theophrastus to Neleus of Scepsis, from
Neleus to his heirs. Their descendants
sold them to Apellicon of Teos. When
Sulla occupied Athens in 86 BC, he
carried off the library of Appellicon
to Rome, where they were first
published in 60 BC from the grammarian
Tyrranion of Amisus and then by
philosopher Andronicus of Rhodes.
Aristotle did not like the idea of
atoms that Democritos had thought
about. If matter was made up of tiny
particles there must be spaces between
them, spaces that would have nothing in
them - a vacuum. Aristotle's refusal to
accept the possibility that a vacuum
could exist came from his ideas about
forces. He said that non-living objects
could have "natural" or "forced"
motion. The natural motion of earth and
water was downwards because they had
"gravity" while air and fire always
rose because they had "levity". An
object was given forced motion when it
was thrown into the air and Aristotle
concluded that the speed of an object
depended on the force acting on it - no
force, no speed.
Arostotle writes "History of Animals".
Though we know that Aristotle wrote
many elegant treatises (Cicero
described his literary style as "a
river of gold"), the originals have
been lost in time. All that we have now
are the literary notes of his pupils,
which are often difficult to read (the
Nicomachean Ethics is a good example).
It is now believed that we have about
one fifth of his original works.
Aristotle underestimates the importance
of his written work for humanity. He
thus never publishes his books, only
his dialogues. The story of the
original manuscripts of his treatises
is described by Strabo in his
"Geography" and Plutarch in his
"Parallel Lives, Sulla": The
manuscripts were left from Aristotle to
Theophrastos, from Theophrastos to
Neleus of Scepsis, from Neleus to his
heirs. One of Neleus' descendents (it
is unknown who), digs up the buried
scrolls and sells them for a large sum
in gold to a bibliophile, Apellicon of
Teos. Apellicon of Teos makes a
'botched up' edition titled the 'Lost
Texts of Aristotle'. When Sulla
occupies Athens in 86 BCE, he will
carry off the library of Appellicon to
Rome. The grammarian Tyrannion of
Amisus in Rome, friend of Atticus and
Cicero, obtains the scrolls on loan,
gives up on making his own compiled
edition and entrusts the project to
Andronicus of Rhodes, who subdivides
the treatises into books. The originals
are returned to Sulla's library. This
edition of the texts of Aristotle will
be published in 60 BCE.
Faustus is the son of the Emperor
Sulla, and Pompey's son-in-law. The
cultural elite go to Faustus' house to
consult these precious texts of
Aristotle. Cicero writes a letter to
Atticus about the delight of Faustus'
library. To pay off debts, Faustus
sells the scrolls of Aristotle, and
they have never been located since.
Much of this story comes from Strabo
who was presumably a pupil of Tyrannion
of Amisus.
[332 BC]
[332 BC]
(Mouseion) of Alexandria is built
starting now, and much of the city was
constructed by the time Ptolemy arrives
to rule 9 years later in 323 BCE.
[327 BC]
[325 BC]
[325 BC]
380-310) sails to Great Britain and
"Thule" (probably Norway or Iceland).
Pytheas is the first person to explain
tides as happening because of the
influence of the moon. Only 2000 years
later will Newton explain the
attraction of the Moon. Pytheas is also
the first person to show that the North
star is not exactly at the pole and
makes a small circle in a day. The
written history of Britain begins with
Pytheas.
[1] Description Statue de Pythéas
sur la façade du palais de la Bourse
à Marseille. Date 6 February
2008 Source Own
work Author Rvalette Permission
(Reusing this file) See below. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Pyth%C3%A9as.jp
g/639px-Pyth%C3%A9as.jpg
[06/10/323 BC]
[323 BC]
Aristotle choses Theofrastos
(Theophrastus) (Greek:
Θεόφραστος) (tEOFrASTOS?)
(BCE c372-287) to preside over the
Peripatetic school, which he does for
thirty-five years. The Lyceum maintains
it's highest quality under
Theophrastos. Theophrastos describes
over 500 species of plants and is the
founder of botony, the study of plants.
Theophrastus is charged with asebeia
(atheism) but acquitted by a jury in
Athens.
[323 BC]
been brought against Anaxagoras and
Socrates, was now brought against
Aristotle. He leaves Athens saying, "I
will not allow the Athenians to sin
twice against philosophy" (Vita
Marciana 41). He takes up residence at
his country house at Chalcis, where his
mother had lived, in Euboea, and there
he dies the following year, 322 BC. His
death was due to a disease, reportedly
'of the stomach', from which he had
long suffered.
After the death of Alexander, the
anti-Macedonian party accuses Aristotle
of impiety. With the example of
Socrates behind him, Aristotle escapes
to Chalcis in Euboea, where he dies in
the same year.
[323 BC]
[323 BC]
[03/07/322 BC]
[320 BC]
[317 BC]
[316 BC]
[311 BC]
but not able? Then He is not
omnipotent. Is He able but not willing?
Then He is malevolent. Is He both able
and willing? Then whence cometh evil?
Is He neither able nor willing? Then
why call Him God?"
Admiting of females
and slaves shocks and interests the
scholarly people of the time.
After the official approval of
Christianity by Constantine,
Epicureanism was repressed. Epicurus'
theory that the gods were unconcerned
with human affairs had always clashed
strongly with the Judeo-Christian God,
and the philosophies were essentially
irreconcilable. For example, the word
for a heretic in the Talmudic
literature is "Apikouros". Lactantius
criticizes Epicurus at several points
throughout his Divine Institutes. The
school endured a long period of
obscurity and decline. However, there
was a resurgance of atomism among
scientists in the 18th and 19th
Centuries, and in the late 20th
Century, the school was revived.
[310 BC]
Astronomical school in Sippar
(Babylonia), understands the precession
of equinoxes (a wobbling in the
orientation of Earth's axis with a
cycle of almost 26,000 years).
Hipparchus will make use of the
precession of the equinoxes as
documented by Kidinnu. Kidinnu makes a
complicated method of expressing
movement of the moon and planets,
differing from the view that these
objects must move at a constant
velocity.
Babylonia
[1] A Babylonian almanac, mentioning
future positions of the planets
(British Museum) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.livius.org/a/1/mesopo
tamia/babylonian_almanac.jpg
[310 BC]
[310 BC]
[307 BC]
[305 BC]
object to human dissection, thinking a
"soul" most important, and a dead body
just a group of flesh. In Egypt, human
dissection is a serious impiety. He is
particularly interested in the brain.
Se
veral of our sources speak of
Herophilus and Erasistratus undertaking
not merely dissections, but also
vivisections (dissections on living
bodies), on human subjects. The
Christian writer Tertullian (ca.
155-230) describes Herophilus as that
butcher who cut up innumerable corpses
in order to investigate nature and who
hated mankind for the sake of
knowledge" ("On the Soul", chap. 10).
However, Tertullian was totally opposed
to the scientific investigations of
pagan researchers and did everything he
could to defame them and their work.
Pli
ny and Rufus both refer in general
terms to the practice of human
dissection without specifying who first
undertook this. Another first century
CE source, the Roman medical writer
Celsus, both identifies the men
concerned and reports the arguments
that were used to justify this practice
and that of vivisection. In the
introduction (23 ff.) of his work "On
Medicine" Celsus writes as follows
concerning the group of doctors known
as the Dogmatists:
"Moreover since
pains and various kinds of diseases
arise in the internal parts, they hold
that no one who is ignorant about those
parts themselves can apply remedies to
them. Therefore it is necessary to cut
open the bodies of dead men and to
examine their viscera and intestines.
Herophilus and Erasistratus proceeded
in by far the best way, they cut open
living men-criminals they obtained out
of prison from the kings-and they
observed, while their subjects still
breathed, parts that nature had
previously hidden, their position,
colour, shape, size, arrangement,
hardness, softness, smoothness, points
of contact, and finally the processes
and recesses of each and whether any
part is inserted into another or
receives the part of another into
itself."
The Dogmatists wrote of the
advantages of vivisection over
dissection and defended this viewpoint
against the charge of inhumanity by
claiming that the good outweighed the
evil: nor is it cruel, as most people
state, to seek remedies for multitudes
of innocent men of all future ages by
means of the sacrifice of only a small
number of criminals."
Unlike Tertullian, Celsus
cannot be accused of malicious
distortion. He himself disagrees with
the Dogmatists. 'To cut open the bodies
of living men,' he says later in his
introduction (74 f), "is both cruel and
superfluous: to cut open the bodies of
the dead is necessary for medical
students. For they ought to know the
position and arrangement of parts-which
the dead body exhibits better than a
wounded living subject. As for the
rest, which can only be learnt from the
living, experience itself will
demonstrate it rather more slowly, but
much more mildly, in the course of
treating the wounded." The tone of his
whole account is restrained and we have
no good grounds for rejecting it. No
one can doubt that religious and moral
considerations inhibited the opening of
the human body, whether dead or alive,
in antiquity. But that is not to say
that such inhibitions could never,
under any circumstances, be overcome.
The situation at Alexandria in the
third century BCE was clearly an
exceptional one in the particular
combination of ambitious scientists and
patrons of science that existed there
at that time. For all the ancients'
respect for the dead, corpses were
desecrated often enough by people other
than scientists. Moreover, when we
reflect that the ancients regularly
tortured slaves in public in the law
courts in order to extract evidence
from them, and that Galen, for example,
records cases where new poisons were
tried out on convicts to test their
effects, it is not too difficult to
believe that the Ptolemies permitted
vivisection to be practised on
condemned criminals.
Before Herofilos, doctors were called
Asclepiadae, in the sense that they
were spiritual descendants of the Greek
God of healing, Asclepius. Much of this
new health research is done in
Alexandria and rival capital Antioch.
Herofilos and his students are
interested in direct knowledge and
precise terminology. Galen (129-200
CE),will praise Herofilos in relation
to the ovarian arteries and veins
observed by Herofilos in the womb,
writing "I have not seen this myself in
other animals except occasionally in
monkeys. But I do not disbelieve that
Herofilos observed them in women; for
he was efficient in other aspects of
his art and his knowledge of facts
acquired through anatomy was
exceedingly precise, and most of his
observations were made not, as is the
case with most of us, on brute beasts
but on human beings themselves." Some
of Herofilos' pupils form their own
schools. One such student is
Callimachus. According to Polybius
around 150 BCE, the medical profession
is dominated by two schools, the
Herophileans and the Callimacheans.
Another pupil of Herofilos, Philinus of
Cos, will form a rival school, refered
to as the Empiricists, who differed
from Herofilos in disregarding anatomy
and physiology, focusing mainly on
therapeutics, claiming that a disease
must be treated experimentally. They
based their school on experiment and
past history of success.
[305 BC]
[300 BC]
writes that priests teach children two
kinds of writing, sacred (hieratic) and
the more common (demotic), in addition
to geometry and arithmetic. Hecataeus
writes "they (Egyptians) have preserved
to this day the record concerning each
of the stars over an incredible number
of years...they have also observed with
great interest the motions, ... orbits
and stoppings of the planets".
[1] A reconstruction of the main hall
of the Museum of Alexandria used in the
series Cosmos by Carl Sagan. The wall
portraits show Alexander the Great
(left) and Serapis
(right). COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.thelivingmoon.com/43a
ncients/04images/Alexandria/Alexandria-C
osmosReconstruction1.jpg
[2] Credit:
s_davies@mail.utexas.edu The Library
of Alexandria was one of the best-known
of the libraries of the ancient world.
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.thelivingmoon.com/43a
ncients/04images/Alexandria/alexlibext.j
pg
[300 BC]
like a temple (it looks similar to
Dendera). The outside is decorated in
typical Late Period style, while the
outer court is decorated in a
Greek-style.
[1] find book this is from The
earliest picture of a lathe is one on
the wall of an Egyptian grave of the
third century B.C., shown here in a
line drawing. The man at left is
holding the cutting tool. The man at
the right is making the workpiece
rotate back and forth by pulling on a
cord or thong. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://homepages.tig.com.au/~dis
pater/turning.htm
[297 BC]
[297 BC]
Ptolemy I Soter (Πτολεμαίου
Σωτήρα) starts construction of
the Soma, in Alexandria, a mausoleum
where Alexander and subsequent kings
will be stored after death, the famous
Lighthouse of Pharos, the research
center known as the Mouseion (a temple
to the Muses, a "Mousaeion"
(Μουσείον also
Μουσείου, Museum: in actuality
a University and Library ) and the
Royal Library (which may have been a
separate building near the Mousaeion or
may have been inside the Mousaeion), in
the Royal Palaces area. The Mousaeion
will house the smartest scientists of
this time. This research center will
also include a zoo. Some of these
monuments will take more time to build
than 2 decades and will be completed
under the reign of Ptolemy II.
[1] A reconstruction of the main hall
of the Museum of Alexandria used in the
series Cosmos by Carl Sagan. The wall
portraits show Alexander the Great
(left) and Serapis
(right). COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.thelivingmoon.com/43a
ncients/04images/Alexandria/Alexandria-C
osmosReconstruction1.jpg
[2] Credit:
s_davies@mail.utexas.edu The Library
of Alexandria was one of the best-known
of the libraries of the ancient world.
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.thelivingmoon.com/43a
ncients/04images/Alexandria/alexlibext.j
pg
[297 BC]
[295 BC]
mathematics in Alexandria. Pappus of
Alexandria (fl. c320 CE) will write
that the Greek mathematician Apollonius
learned geometry from the students of
Euclid in Alexandria.
Eukleidis is a Greek mathematician, who
lived in Alexandria, Egypt during the
reign of Ptolemy I (323 BC283 BC), and
is often considered to be the "father
of geometry". His most popular work,
Elements, is the most successful
textbook in the history of mathematics.
Within it, the properties of
geometrical objects are deduced from a
small set of axioms, thereby founding
the axiomatic method of mathematics.
Although best-known for its geometric
results, the Elements also includes
various results in number theory, such
as the connection between perfect
numbers and Mersenne primes.
Euclid also wrote works on perspective,
conic sections, spherical geometry, and
possibly quadric surfaces. Neither the
year nor place of his birth have been
established, nor the circumstances of
his death.
Although many of the results in
Elements originated with earlier
mathematicians, one of Euclid's
accomplishments was to present them in
a single, logically coherent framework.
In addition to providing some missing
proofs, Euclid's text also includes
sections on number theory and
three-dimensional geometry. In
particular, Euclid's proof of the
infinitude of prime numbers is in Book
IX, Proposition 20.
The geometrical system described in
Elements was long known simply as the
only "geometry". Today, however, it is
often referred to as Euclidean geometry
to distinguish it from other so-called
non-Euclidean geometries which will be
found in the 1800s CE. These new
geometries will grow out of more than
2000 years of investigation into
Euclid's fifth postulate, one of the
most-studied axioms in all of
mathematics, known as the "parallel
postulate", the postulate that no two
angles in a triangle can be equal or
greater than 2 90 degree angles. This
postulate will be shown to only be true
for flat surfaces and not for the
surface of a sphere or hyperboloid.
One story about Euclid is from Stobaeus
and relates that one of Euclid's
students, when he had learned the first
proposition, asked his teacher, "But
what is the good of this and what shall
I get by learning these things?", to
which Euclid calls a slave and says,
"Give this fellow a penny, since he
must make gain from what he learns. "
[295 BC]
[290 BC]
the Museum of Alexandria) Alexandria,
Egypt
[1] A reconstruction of the main hall
of the Museum of Alexandria used in the
series Cosmos by Carl Sagan. The wall
portraits show Alexander the Great
(left) and Serapis
(right). COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.thelivingmoon.com/43a
ncients/04images/Alexandria/Alexandria-C
osmosReconstruction1.jpg
[2] Credit:
s_davies@mail.utexas.edu The Library
of Alexandria was one of the best-known
of the libraries of the ancient world.
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.thelivingmoon.com/43a
ncients/04images/Alexandria/alexlibext.j
pg
[03/07/288 BC]
[288 BC]
[288 BC]
[287 BC]
[1] Description English: Detail of
the right-hand facade fresco, showing
Aristotle, Theophrastus, and Strato of
Lampsacus. National and Kapodistrian
University of Athens. Date c.
1888 Source Aristotle_and_his_discipl
es_Lebiedzki_Rahl.jpg Author Aristotl
e_and_his_disciples_Lebiedzki_Rahl.jpg:
Eduard Lebiedzki, after a design by
Karl Rahl derivative work:
Singinglemon PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6a/Aristotle_Theophrastu
s_Strato_Lebiedzki_Rahl.jpg
[287 BC]
[285 BC]
(Greek Κτησίβιος), (fl. 285 -
222 BCE) starts the engineering
tradition in Alexandria. Ktesibius
invents several devices using
compressed air: a water organ, in which
air is forced through the organ pipes
by the weight of water, and an
air-powered catapult.
[1] Ktesibios water organ. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://alexandrias.tripod.com/ct
esibius.htm
[2] Ktesibios water pump. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://alexandrias.tripod.com/ct
esibius.htm
[283 BC]
[283 BC]
[281 BC]
[281 BC]
[06/10/280 BC]
[1] A reconstruction of the main hall
of the Museum of Alexandria used in the
series Cosmos by Carl Sagan. The wall
portraits show Alexander the Great
(left) and Serapis
(right). COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.thelivingmoon.com/43a
ncients/04images/Alexandria/Alexandria-C
osmosReconstruction1.jpg
[2] Credit:
s_davies@mail.utexas.edu The Library
of Alexandria was one of the best-known
of the libraries of the ancient world.
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.thelivingmoon.com/43a
ncients/04images/Alexandria/alexlibext.j
pg
[280 BC]
[1] Input torque is applied to the ring
gear, which turns the entire carrier
(all blue), providing torque to both
side gears (red and yellow), which in
turn may drive the left and right
wheels. If the resistance at both
wheels is equal, the pinion gear
(green) does not rotate, and both
wheels turn at the same rate. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Differential_free.png
[2] If the left side gear (red)
encounters resistance, the pinion gear
(green) rotates about the left side
gear, in turn applying extra rotation
to the right side gear (yellow). GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Differential_locked.png
[275 BC]
[1] Manetho's ''Aegyptiaca'' Extract
from a comprehensive History of Egypt,
written in the 2nd century B.C. by a
Greek-speaking priest of
Heliopolis. PD
source: http://www.und.edu/instruct/cjac
obs/Manetho1.JPG
[275 BC]
[275 BC]
[274 BC]
island of Chios in ancient Greece, to a
family with a history of doctors. His
father and brother are doctors, and his
mother is the sister of a doctor. He
studies health science in Athens and
then, around 280 B.C., enrolls in the
University of Cos, a center of the
medical school of Praxagoras.
Erisistratos then moves to Asia and is
court physician for Seleucus I, who
controls a major portion of what had
been the Persian Empire. Erasistratus
then moves to Alexandria, where he
teaches and is a practicing doctor,
continuing the work of Herophilus. In
his later years, he retires from being
a practice doctor and joins the
Alexandrian museum, where he devotes
himself to research. Although
Erasistratus writes extensively in a
number of health-related fields, none
of his works survive. He is best known
for his observations based on his
numerous dissections of human cadavers
(and rumored, his vivisections of
criminals, a practice allowed by the
Ptolemy rulers). Erasistratus
accurately describes the structure of
the brain, including the cavities and
membranes, and makes a distinction
between its cerebrum and cerebellum
(larger and smaller parts). He views
the brain, not the heart, as the seat
of intelligence. By comparing the
brains of humans and other animals,
Erasistratus correctly concludes that a
greater number of brain convolutions
results in greater intelligence. He
also accurately describes the structure
and function of the gastric (stomach)
muscles, and observes the difference
between motor and sensory nerves.
Erasistratus promotes hygiene, diet,
and exercise in health care.
In Alexandria, the view at the time is
that the nerves carry "nervous spirit",
arteries "animal spirit", and the veins
blood, however Erasistratos takes a
step backwards from Herofilos in
mistakenly thinking that arteries do
not carry blood. He thinks air is
carried from lungs to heart and changed
in to the "animal spirit" that is
carried in the arteries.
He is best known for curing Antiochos,
Seleucus's son. Erasistratus said that
Antiochos was in love with his
stepmother, and that that was what was
ailing him, so he let them marry.
[270 BC]
[265 BC]
1st century CE that Hermippus (Greek:
Ἕρμιππος) of Smyrna, a student
of Callimachus writes a commentary on
the versus of Zoroaster now. This
implies that these stories have been
translated from Iranian to Greek.
[1] Ionia, Smyrna AE 19mm. Circa
3rd-2nd Century BC, magistrate Pytheos.
Turreted head of Tyche right /
IMURNAIWN PYQEOS, Aphrodite standing
right, Nike before; magistrate
Pytheos. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.wildwinds.com/coins/g
reece/ionia/smyrna/SNGCop_1183cf.jpg
[260 BC]
The earliest remaining writings
regarding levers date from the 3rd
century BC and were provided by
Archimedes. "Give me a place to stand,
and I shall move the earth with a
lever" is a remark of Archimedes who
formally stated the correct
mathematical principle of levers
(quoted by Pappus of Alexandria).
It is assumed that in ancient Egypt,
constructors used the lever to move and
uplift obelisks weighting more than 100
tons.
[1] Description Español: Esta
imagen ilustra la ventaja mecánica de
la palanca. Deutsch: Illustration des
Hebelgesetzes. Copyright © 2004
César Rincón. Imagen creada para la
Wikipedia en Español. Date
2004-08-05 (first version);
2004-08-07 (last version) Source
Originally from es.wikipedia;
description page is/was here. Author
Original uploader was CR at
es.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) Released under the GNU Free
Documentation License. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f2/Palanca-ejemplo.jpg
[260 BC]
Archimedes (Greek: Αρχιμήδης )
(287-212 BCE) is usually credited with
with the concept of the spiral screw. A
spiral screw is an inclined plane
wrapped around a cylinder. The spiral
is called a "thread", and the distance
between adjacent edges is called the
"pitch" of the screw. The pitch is
equal to the distance that the screw
advances in one turn in a solid
medium.
Although Archimedes is credited with
inventing the screw in the 3rd century
BC, his screw is not the fastener kind
of screw, but actually is two other
screw-type devices. One is a kind of
water pump, still used today for
large-volume, low-lift, industrial
applications, the device is now called
the inclined screw conveyor or
"Archimedes screw". The second is the
"endless screw", which is the same as
the worm of a worm and gear set, one of
the five ancient devices for raising
heavy weights.
[1] Description Archimedes' screw.
Public domain, from Chambers's
Encyclopedia (Philadelphia: J. B.
Lippincott Company, 1875). Added to
illustrate article en:Archimedes. Date
2007-06-18 (original upload
date) Source Originally from
en.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. Author Original uploader
was Ianmacm at en.wikipedia PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/82/Archimedes_screw.JPG
[2] Description Deutsch: animierte
Prinzip einer Foerderschnecke oder auch
Archimedesche Spirale genannt, mit
einer Kugel zur Demonstration der
Foerderbewegung. Date published
06.Mai 2007 Source
File:Archimedes-screw_one-screw-thr
eads_with-ball_3D-view_animated.gif
created by Silberwolf Author
Silberwolf (size changed by:
Jahobr) Permission (Reusing this
file) Own work, share alike,
attribution required (Creative Commons
CC-BY-SA-2.5) CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/22/Archimedes-screw_one-
screw-threads_with-ball_3D-view_animated
_small.gif
[260 BC]
Earth rotates around the Sun each year
and that the earth rotates around its
own axis once a day.
In 450 BC, Philolaus had theorized that
the earth moves through space.
Aristarchus’s only extant work is "On
the Sizes and Distances of the Sun and
Moon". Aristarchus finds that as
observed during a lunar eclipse, the
diameter of Earth’s shadow is twice
the diameter of the Moon. Aristarchos
uses the observation that, at the time
when the Moon appears half-lit (quarter
Moon), the angular distance between the
Moon and the Sun is 87 degrees, to
determine that the Sun is between 18
and 20 times farther away from Earth
than the Moon is. (The actual ratio is
about 390.).
The Greek philosopher Cleanthes, the
Stoic, declares in his "Against
Aristarchus" that Aristarchus should be
indicted for impiety "for putting into
motion the hearth of the universe".
Aristarchus’s work on the motion of
Earth has not survived, but his ideas
are known from references by the Greek
mathematician Archimedes, the Greek
biographer Plutarch, and the Greek
philosopher Sextus Empiricus.
In his manuscript of "Six Books
Concerning the Revolutions of the
Heavenly Orbs" (1543), Copernicus will
cite Aristarchus as an ancient
authority who supported the motion of
Earth, but later crosses out the
reference.
Egpyt
[1] Aristarchus's 3rd century BC
calculations on the relative sizes of
from left the Sun, Earth and Moon, from
a 10th century CE Greek copy PD
source: http://www.thelivingmoon.com/43a
ncients/04images/Artifacts/Aristarchus_w
orking.jpg
[2] Statue of Aristarchus at Aristotle
University in Thessalonica,
Greece UNKNOWN
source: http://www.thelivingmoon.com/43a
ncients/04images/People/Aristarchos_Samo
s.png
[260 BC]
[257 BC]
known example of a geometric series
with the ratio 1/4 (see image).
He proves that
the ratio of a circle's perimeter to
its diameter is the same as the ratio
of the circle's area to the square of
the radius. He does not call this ratio
π but gives a procedure to approximate
it to arbitrary accuracy and gave an
approximation of it as between 3 +
10/71 (approximately 3.1408) and 3 +
1/7 (approximately 3.1429). He proves
that the area enclosed by a parabola
and a straight line is 4/3 the area of
a triangle with equal base and height.
(see image)
Archimedes is the first to identify the
concept of center of gravity, and he
found the centers of gravity of various
geometric figures, assuming uniform
density in their interiors, including
triangles, paraboloids, and
hemispheres.
Asimov calls Archimedes the greatest in
science and math before Newton.
Archimedes is a
Greek mathematician, physicist,
engineer, astronomer, and philosopher
born in the seaport colony of Syracuse,
Sicily.
It's possible that in a long duration
seige that even the burning of a landed
ship from a roof might be of value.
Cicero writes that the Roman consul
Marcellus brought two devices back to
Rome from the sacked city of Syracuse.
One device mapped the sky on a sphere
and the other predicted the motions of
the sun and the moon and the planets
(i.e., an orrery). He credits Thales
and Eudoxus for constructing these
devices. For some time this was assumed
to be a legend of doubtful nature, but
the discovery of the Antikythera
mechanism has changed the view of this
issue, and it is indeed probable that
Archimedes possessed and constructed
such devices. Pappus of Alexandria
writes that Archimedes had written a
practical book on the construction of
such spheres entitled On
Sphere-Making.
Archimedes' works were not widely
recognized, even in antiquity. He and
his contemporaries probably constitute
the peak of Greek mathematical rigour.
During the Middle Ages the
mathematicians who could understand
Archimedes' work were few and far
between. Many of his works were lost
when the library of Alexandria was
burnt (twice) and survived only in
Latin or Arabic translations. As a
result, his mechanical method was lost
until around 1900, after the
arithmetization of analysis had been
carried out successfully. We can only
speculate about the effect that the
"method" would have had on the
development of calculus had it been
known in the 16th and 17th centuries.
Archimedes requests that his tombstone
include a cylinder circumscribing a
sphere, accompanied by the inscription
of his amazing theorem that the sphere
is exactly two-thirds of the
circumscribing cylinder in both surface
area and volume.
Writings by Archimedes
* On the Equilibrium of
Planes (2 volumes)
This scroll explains the law
of the lever and uses it to calculate
the areas and centers of gravity of
various geometric figures.
* On Spirals
In this scroll, Archimedes defines
what is now called Archimedes' spiral.
This is the first mechanical curve
(i.e., traced by a moving point) ever
considered by a Greek mathematician.
* On the Sphere and The Cylinder
In this scroll
Archimedes obtains the result he was
most proud of: that the area and volume
of a sphere are in the same
relationship to the area and volume of
the circumscribed straight cylinder.
* On Conoids and Spheroids
In this scroll
Archimedes calculates the areas and
volumes of sections of cones, spheres
and paraboloids.
* On Floating Bodies (2 volumes)
In the first
part of this scroll, Archimedes spells
out the law of equilibrium of fluids,
and proves that water around a center
of gravity will adopt a spherical form.
This is probably an attempt at
explaining the observation made by
Greek astronomers that the Earth is
round. Note that his fluids are not
self-gravitating: he assumes the
existence of a point towards which all
things fall and derives the spherical
shape. One is led to wonder what he
would have done had he struck upon the
idea of universal gravitation.
In the second part, a
veritable tour-de-force, he calculates
the equilibrium positions of sections
of paraboloids. This was probably an
idealization of the shapes of ships'
hulls. Some of his sections float with
the base under water and the summit
above water, which is reminiscent of
the way icebergs float, although
Archimedes probably was not thinking of
this application.
* The Quadrature of the Parabola
In this scroll,
Archimedes calculates the area of a
segment of a parabola (the figure
delimited by a parabola and a secant
line not necessarily perpendicular to
the axis). The final answer is obtained
by triangulating the area and summing
the geometric series with ratio 1/4.
* Stomachion
This is a Greek puzzle similar to
Tangram. In this scroll, Archimedes
calculates the areas of the various
pieces. This may be the first reference
we have to this game. Recent
discoveries indicate that Archimedes
was attempting to determine how many
ways the strips of paper could be
assembled into the shape of a square.
This is possibly the first use of
combinatorics to solve a problem.
* Archimedes' Cattle Problem
Archimedes wrote a
letter to the scholars in the Library
of Alexandria, who apparently had
downplayed the importance of
Archimedes' works. In these letters, he
dares them to count the numbers of
cattle in the Herd of the Sun by
solving a number of simultaneous
Diophantine equations, some of them
quadratic (in the more complicated
version). This problem is one of the
famous problems solved with the aid of
a computer. The solution is a very
large number, approximately 7.760271 ×
10206544 (See the external links to the
Cattle Problem.)
* The Sand Reckoner
In this scroll, Archimedes
counts the number of grains of sand
fitting inside the universe. This book
mentions Aristarchus of Samos' theory
of the solar system (concluding that
"this is impossible"), contemporary
ideas about the size of the Earth and
the distance between various celestial
bodies. From the introductory letter we
also learn that Archimedes' father was
an astronomer.
* "The Method"
In this work, which was unknown
in the Middle Ages, but the importance
of which was realised after its
discovery, Archimedes pioneered the use
of infinitesimals, showing how breaking
up a figure in an infinite number of
infinitely small parts could be used to
determine its area or volume.
Archimedes did probably consider these
methods not mathematically precise, and
he used these methods to find at least
some of the areas or volumes he sought,
and then used the more traditional
method of exhaustion to prove them.
Some details can be found at how
Archimedes used infinitesimals.
What an interesting group of people and
interesting time it must have been for
the people at the university in
Alexandria, perhaps unknown to them, to
be with the smartest and most
interesting humans on earth like
Aristarchos, Archimedes, Eritosthenes,
etc.). All people eat together at the
university which must have made for
some very enlightened conversations.
Archimedes' father is an astronomer.
Archimedes learns in Alexandria, and
decides to move back to Syracuse (which
is rare for most people in Alexandria)
perhaps because he is related to the
King of Syracuse Hieron II.
Archimedes is
independently wealthy and does not
depend on the wealth of royal people in
Egypt.
Archimedes is asked by Hieron if a
crown from a gold smith was really all
gold, or if the crown had silver mixed
in. Archimedes is told that he cannot
damage the crown in the determination.
Archimedes can not think of how to
solve the problem until one time he
steps in a bath and notes that the
water overflows. Archimedes realizes
that the amount of water that falls out
is equal to the volume of his body. If
put in water, Archimedes could measure
the volume of the crown, then measure
the weight of the crown, and compare
this weight with an equal volume of
pure gold. The crown and the piece of
gold with the same volume should weight
the same. If the crown weighes more
than the pure gold with the same
volume, then the crown is not pure
gold. Archimedes, excited by this
realization, ran naked through the
streets of Syracuse (although people
were not as disturbed by nudity then)
yelling "eureka! eureka!" (or
'Heureka'; Greek ηὕρηκα; I have
found it). The crown is partly silver
and the goldsmith is executed.
Archimedes makes use of levers (Strato
was aware of the idea). Archimedes is
told to have said "give me a place to
stand and I can move the world". Hieron
is supposed to have challanged
Archimedes, and Archimedes said to have
lifted a ship from a harbor on to
shore.
[1] In the process, he calculated the
oldest known example of a geometric
series with the ratio 1/4 GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arc
himedes
[2] parabola and inscribed triangle.
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Parabola.png
[250 BC]
[1] In the process, he calculated the
oldest known example of a geometric
series with the ratio 1/4 GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arc
himedes
[2] parabola and inscribed triangle.
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Parabola.png
[250 BC]
[246 BC]
(Ἐρατοσθένης) (BCE 276-196)
is the first person to accurately
calculate the size of the earth.
On the day of summer solstace, the
longest day of the year, the Sun is
directly over head in Syene (now Aswan)
in southern Egypt, but at the same time
in Alexandria, the Sun is a few degrees
from the (perpendicular or) zenith in
Alexandria. The difference is because
the surface of the earth is curved and
not flat. Erastosthenes is aware that
Syene and Alexandria are almost on the
same line of longitude (or meridian)
and also knows the distance between
Syene and Alexandria (Erastothenes
hired a human to pace out the distance
between Alexandria and Syene ), and
uses this distance and the angle of the
Sun to calculate the diameter of the
planet earth. This result is in units
of measurement of space called
"stadia". Eratosthenes calculates a
distance between Alexandria and Syene
as 5,000 stadia, and calculates that
the angle of the Sun (in Alexandria at
noon on the longest day of the year) is
1/50th the circumference of a circle.
This puts the circumference
Eratosthenes measures at at 40,000 km
(25,000 miles) which is accurate (the
current estimate is 40,075.02 km). This
number is larger than most humans can
accept and so the smaller estimate of
Poseidonius is accepted. From this
large number compared to the "known"
earth, Eratosthenes thought the various
seas formed a single interconnected
ocean. Eratosthenes teaches that Africa
might be circumnavigated, and that
India can be reached by sailing
westwards from Spain.
Eratosthenes makes the "Sieve of
Eratosthenes", a system for determining
prime numbers. Eratosthenes makes a map
of the "known" earth which is better
than any before. In astronomy,
Eratosthenes measures the angle of the
earth's axis with the plane the sun
appears to move in, and gets an
accurate value. This value is called
the "obliquity of ecliptic".
Eratosthenes makes a star map of 675
stars.
Eratosthenes denounces those who divide
mankind into two groups, Greeks and
non-Greeks and advocates the Stoic
moral principles of virtue and vice as
a criterion for the division of men.
Eratosthenes is a friend of Archimedes.
[1] Eratosthenes experiment UNKNOWN
source: http://www.iucaa.ernet.in/~scipo
p/Obsetion/eratos/image008.jpg
[2] Eratosthenes (portrait) Copied
from w:es
Imagen:Eratostenes-retrato.png
(originally from Enciclopedia
Libre) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a2/Portrait_of_Eratosthe
nes.png
[246 BC]
[246 BC]
[245 BC]
[240 BC]
acropolis of buildings.
The Serapeum is away from the main
library in the south west corner of
Alexandria, the Egyptian quarter of
Rhakotis. The Serapeum is called the
"daughter library". In the bilingual
foundation plaques, the name Serapis is
rendered in the Egyptian form of
Osor-Hapi (the Egyptian name is
Osorapis). Two obelisks (a thin 4 sided
monument becoming thinner up to the top
with a pyramidal top), are said to have
stood there as well as two red granite
sphinxes which are still at the site. A
black granite Apis bull (an egyptian
god) now in the Alexandria museum was
also in the Serapeum. This shows how
the vision of the Ptolemies was to
combine the Egyptian and Greek
populations.
Ptolemy 3 creates a temple of Serapis
in the South-West part of Alexandria,
some distance from the royal quarters.
: The excavations by Alan Rowe and
others in 1943-1944 will find
foundation plaques that clearly bear
the name of Ptolemy 3 Euergetes, even
though medieval writers will attribute
the Serapeum to Ptolemy 2 At the
southern end are two long corridors
opening into small rooms, and in
particular a row of 19 uniform rooms,
each about 3 by 4 meters. The
excavators theorize that these rooms
were used to shelve the scrolls of the
Serapeum library, and that the scrolls
were consulted in the corridors.
One source has
the Serapeum started under Ptolemy I
Soter but finished under Ptolemy 3 as
the foundation plaques excavated in
1942 indicate.
In the east end is a huge statue of the
god Serapeus (who looks like Zeus),
made of wood and covered with ivory and
gold, the outstretched arms nearly
reach the two side-walls. In the left
hand is a sceptre and under the right
hand was an image of Cerberus, with a
triple head of lion, dog and wolf, with
a python coiled around he three heads.
An east window behind the statue is
arranged so that the first rays of the
rising sun light up the features of the
god.
Under the plateau are underground
passages and storerooms.
Aphthonios (a Greek sophist and
rhetorician living in the second half
of the 4th century CE), in his
"Progymnasmata", an introductory book
on different kinds of rhetoric (fable,
narration, comparison, etc.), gives a
sample for the style of writing titled
"Description" that describes the
Sarapeion. Aphthonios writes:
"Description: the
temple in Alexandria, together with the
acropolis
Citadels are established for the common
security of cities - for they are the
highest points of cities. They are not
walled round with buildings, so much as
they wall round the cities. The centre
of Athens held the Athenian acropolis;
but the citadel which Alexander
established for his own city is in fact
what he named it, and it is more
accurate to call this an acropolis than
that on which the Athenians pride
themselves. For it is somewhat as this
discourse shall describe.
A hill juts out of the ground, rising
to a great height, and called an
acropolis on both accounts, both
because it is raised up on high and
because it is placed in the high-point
of the city. There are two roads to it,
of dissimilar nature. One is a road,
the other a way of access. The roads
have different names according to their
nature. Here it is possible to approach
on foot and the road is shared also
with those who approach on a wagon;
there flights of steps have been cut
and there is no passage for wagons. For
flight after flight leads higher and
higher, not stopping until the
hundredth step; for the limit of their
number is one which produces a perfect
measure.
After the steps is a gateway, shut in
with grilled gates of moderate size.
And four massive columns rise up,
bringing four roads to one entrance. On
the columns rises a building with many
columns of moderate size in front, not
of one colour, but they are fixed to
the edifice as an ornament. The
building's roof is domed, and round the
dome is set a great image of the
universe.
As one enters the acropolis itself a
single space is marked out by four
sides; the plan of the arrangement is
that of a hollow rectangle. There is a
court in the centre, surrounded by a
colonnade. Other colonnades succeed the
court, colonnades divided by equal
columns, and their length could not be
exceeded. Each colonnade ends in
another at right angles, and a double
column divides each colonnade, ending
the one and starting the other.
Chambers are built within the
colonnades. Some are repositories for
the books, open to those who are
diligent in philosophy and stirring up
the whole city to mastery of wisdom.
Others are established in honour of the
ancient gods. The colonnades are
roofed, and the roof is made of gold,
and the capitals {tops} of the columns
are made of bronze overlaid with gold.
The decoration of the court is not
single. For different parts are
differently decorated, and one has the
exploits of Perseus. In the middle
there rises a column of great height,
making the place conspicuous (someone
on his way does not know where he is
going, unless he uses the pillar as a
sign of the direction) and makes the
acropolis stand out by land and sea.
The beginnings of the universe stand
round the capital of the column. Before
one comes to the middle of the court
there is set an edifice with many
entrances, which are named after the
ancient gods; and two stone obelisks
rise up, and a fountain better than
that of the Peisistratids. And the
marvel had an incredible number of
builders. As one was not sufficient for
the making, builders of the whole
acropolis were appointed to the number
of twelve {by the dozen}.
As one comes down from the acropolis,
here is a flat place resembling a
race-course, which is what the place is
called; and here there is another of
similar shape, but not equal in size.
The beauty is unspeakable. If anything
has been omitted, it has been bracketed
by amazement; what it was not possible
to describe has been omitted."
[1] Serapeum Temple which housed the
''daughter library'' of the Library of
Alexandria. Source
www.alexandrinelibrarian.blogspot.com U
NKNOWN
source: http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_KQyC59
HU4I0/SrRlFDYM2iI/AAAAAAAAAC4/fmxC6-MP49
U/s320/Serapis_Temple02.jpg
[2] Hypatia (Rachel Weisz) teaching at
the Serapeum UNKNOWN
source: http://dmkraig.net/page13/page5/
files/agora1.jpg
[240 BC]
Halley's comet as early as 2467 BCE.
[235 BC]
[235 BC]
[230 BC]
Latin alphabet in Rome. Before this the
letter "C" could be either the "K" or
"G" sound, now the letter "G" will have
the "G" sound and the letter "C" will
only have the "K" sound. A more logical
system would be to not add any letter
"G", and to use the letter "C" only as
"G", "K" for all "K" sounds, but this
simple one letter equals one sound only
system is not recognized. This
confusion about how to pronounce the
letter "C" will continue for thousands
of years, persisting even today. Later
the letter "C" will also take on an "S"
and "CH" sound and "G" will take on the
"J" sound, adding to a simple and
unnecessary confusion.
[1] The Latin alphabet was used for the
language of Latin - which was spoken by
the Romans. It was developed around 400
BCE. Since the Roman Empire covered a
good portion of Europe - the Latin
alphabet was spread throughout Europe -
and later around the world. UNKNOWN
source: http://i1.squidoocdn.com/resize/
squidoo_images/590/draft_lens19075914mod
ule156500317photo_1327177503latin_alphab
et.gif
[230 BC]
ruler of Ptolemaic Egypt and
contemporary of Ashoka, is recorded by
Pliny the Elder as sending an
ambassador named Dionysius to the
Mauryan court at Pataliputra in India:
"But {India} has been treated of by
several other Greek writers who resided
at the courts of Indian kings, such,
for instance, as Megasthenes, and by
Dionysius, who was sent thither by
Philadelphus, expressly for the
purpose: all of whom have enlarged upon
the power and vast resources of these
nations."
[1] Ashoka the Great Mauryan
emperor Modern reconstruction of
Ashoka's portrait. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ashoka2.jpg
[2] A poltical map of the Mauryan
Empire, including notable cities, such
as the capital Pataliputra, and site of
the Buddha's enlightenment. Dark blue
represents the extend of the Mauryan
Empire under Emperor Ashoka, light blue
represents possible tributary states,
vassals or allies. Green blue
represents notable rivers, black
represetns modern political borders,
and brown represents the border of
South Asia. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Mauryan_Empire_Map.gif
[212 BC]
[208 BC]
[205 BC]
[204 BC]
[204 BC]
[200 BC]
[196 BC]
[191 BC]
[189 BC]
[186 BC]
Chinese collection of writings on
mathematics approximately 7000
characters in length, written on 190
bamboo strips, recovered from a tomb
that appears to have been closed in 186
B.C. This anonymous collection is not a
single coherent book, but is made up of
approximately 69 independent sections
of text, which appear to have been
assembled from a variety of sources.
Problems treated range from elementary
calculations with fractions to
applications of the Rule of False
Position and finding the volumes of
various solid shapes.
China
[1] Fig. 1. Some of the bamboo strips
on which the Suàn shù shū was
written. Counting from the right, the
first strip shows the label Suàn shù
shū, “Writings on Reckoning,” that
described the contents of the original
bundle. The second, third, fourth, and
eighth strips show section titles above
the upper node of the bamboo, and the
second and fifth strips have the names
Wáng and Yáng below their lower
nodes. The ninth strip has the words
Yáng yıˇ chóu, “Checked by
Yáng,” below the lower node. In the
numbering system used for the
translation in [Cullen, 2004], the
strips shown here are numbered as 6
(reverse side shown here), 119, 148,
113, 102, 101, 134, 133, and 56.
Reproduced with permission from {Péng,
2001}. COPYRIGHTED [1] The Nine
Chapters on the Mathematical
Art Source:
http://www.chinapage.com/jiuzhang.gif P
D
source: http://ars.sciencedirect.com/con
tent/image/1-s2.0-S0315086005001084-gr00
2.jpg
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:%E4%B9%9D%E7%AB%A0%E7%AE%97%E8%A1%93.
gif
[175 BC]
[173 BC]
[09/??/164 BC]
[1] A Babylonian tablet recording
Halley's comet during an appearance in
164 BC. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Halleys_comet.jpg
[160 BC]
History", that Hipparchos compiled his
catalog of stars so that future
astronomers can detect changes in
positions and the possible appearance
of novae. Lucio Russo writes that
Edmund Halley, "probably without
realizing that he was completing an
experiment ... started two thousand
years earlier" will be the first to
notice this difference in 1718.
In the 2nd and 3rd centuries coins were
made in his honour in Bithynia that
bear his name and show him with a
globe; this confirms the tradition that
he was born there.
Hipparchus is believed to
have died on the island of Rhodes,
where he spent most of his later
life--Ptolemy attributes observations
to him from Rhodes in the period from
141 BC to 127 BC.
Hipparchus is recognized
as the originator and father of
scientific astronomy. He is believed to
be the greatest Greek astronomical
observer, and many regard him as the
greatest astronomer of ancient times,
although Cicero gave preferences to
Aristarchus of Samos. Some put in this
place also Ptolemy of Alexandria.
Hipparchus' writings had been mostly
superseded by those of Ptolemy, so
later copyists have not preserved them
for posterity.
Earlier Greek astronomers and
mathematicians were influenced by
Babylonian astronomy to a limited
extent, for instance the period
relations of the Metonic cycle and
Saros cycle may have come from
Babylonian sources. Hipparchus seems to
have been the first to exploit
Babylonian astronomical knowledge and
techniques systematically. He was the
first Greek known to divide the circle
in 360 degrees of 60 arc minutes
(Eratosthenes before him used a simpler
sexagesimal system dividing a circle
into 60 parts). He also used the
Babylonian unit pechus ("cubit") of
about 2° or 2½°.
Hipparchus also studied the motion of
the Moon and confirmed the accurate
values for some periods of its motion
that Chaldean astronomers had obtained
before him. The traditional value (from
Babylonian System B) for the mean
synodic month is 29 days;31,50,8,20
(sexagesimal) = 29.5305941... d.
Expressed as 29 days + 12 hours +
793/1080 hours this value has been used
later in the Hebrew calendar (possibly
from Babylonian sources). The Chaldeans
also knew that 251 synodic months = 269
anomalistic months. Hipparchus extended
this period by a factor of 17, because
after that interval the Moon also would
have a similar latitude, and it is
close to an integer number of years
(345). Therefore, eclipses would
reappear under almost identical
circumstances. The period is 126007
days 1 hour (rounded). Hipparchus could
confirm his computations by comparing
eclipses from his own time (presumably
27 January 141 BCE and 26 November 139
BCE according to {Toomer 1980}), with
eclipses from Babylonian records 345
years earlier (Almagest IV.2; {Jones
2001}).
Before Hipparchus, Meton, Euctemon, and
their pupils at Athens had made a
solstice observation (i.e., timed the
moment of the summer solstice) on June
27, 432 BC (proleptic Julian calendar).
Aristarchus of Samos is said to have
done so in 280 BC, and Hipparchus also
had an observation by Archimedes.
Hipparchus himself observed the summer
solstice in 135 BC, but he found
observations of the moment of equinox
more accurate, and he made many during
his lifetime. Ptolemy gives an
extensive discussion of Hipparchus'
work on the length of the year in the
Almagest III.1, and quotes many
observations that Hipparchus made or
used, spanning 162 BCE to 128 BCE. At
the end of his career, Hipparchus wrote
a book called Peri eniausíou
megéthous ("On the Length of the
Year") about his results.
Before Hipparchus the Chaldean
astronomers knew that the lengths of
the seasons are not equal. Hipparchus
made equinox and solstice observations,
and according to Ptolemy (Almagest
III.4) determined that spring (from
spring equinox to summer solstice)
lasted 94 + 1/2 days, and summer (from
summer solstice to autumn equinox) 92 +
1/2 days. This is an unexpected result
given a premise of the Sun moving
around the Earth in a circle at uniform
speed. Hipparchus' solution was to
place the Earth not at the center of
the Sun's motion, but at some distance
from the center. This model described
the apparent motion of the Sun fairly
well (of course today we know that the
planets like the Earth move in ellipses
around the Sun, but this was not
discovered until Johannes Kepler
published his first two laws of
planetary motion in 1609). It's not
clear if Hipparchos or Ptolemy found
these values.
Hipparchus also undertook to find
the distances and sizes of the Sun and
the Moon. He published his results in a
work of two books called Peri megethoon
kai 'apostèmátoon ("On Sizes and
Distances") by Pappus in his commentary
on the Almagest V.11; Theon of Smyrna
(2nd century) mentions the work with
the addition "of the Sun and Moon".
Hipparchus measured the apparent
diameters of the Sun and Moon with his
diopter. Like others before and after
him, he found that the Moon's size
varies as it moves on its (eccentric)
orbit, but he found no perceptible
variation in the apparent diameter of
the Sun. He found that at the mean
distance of the Moon, the Sun and Moon
had the same apparent diameter
Like others before and after him, he
also noticed that the Moon has a
noticeable parallax, i.e., that it
appears displaced from its calculated
position (compared to the Sun or
stars), and the difference is greater
when closer to the horizon. He knew
that this is because the Moon circles
the center of the Earth, but the
observer is at the surface - Moon,
Earth and observer form a triangle with
a sharp angle that changes all the
time. From the size of this parallax,
the distance of the Moon as measured in
Earth radii can be determined. For the
Sun however, there was no observable
parallax (we now know that it is about
8.8", more than ten times smaller than
the resolution of the unaided eye).
In the first book, Hipparchus assumes
that the parallax of the Sun is 0, as
if it is at infinite distance. He then
analyzed a solar eclipse, presumably
that of 14 March 190 BC. Alexandria and
Nicaea are on the same meridian.
Alexandria is at about 31° North, and
the region of the Hellespont at about
41° North; authors like Strabo and
Ptolemy had fairly decent values for
these geographical positions, and
presumably Hipparchus knew them too. So
Hipparchus could draw a triangle formed
by the two places and the Moon, and
from simple geometry was able to
establish a distance of the Moon,
expressed in Earth radii. Because the
eclipse occurred in the morning, the
Moon was not in the meridian, and as a
consequence the distance found by
Hipparchus was a lower limit. In any
case, according to Pappus, Hipparchus
found that the least distance is 71
(from this eclipse), and the greatest
81 Earth radii.
In the second book, Hipparchus starts
from the opposite extreme assumption:
he assigns a (minimum) distance to the
Sun of 470 Earth radii. This would
correspond to a parallax of 7', which
is apparently the greatest parallax
that Hipparchus thought would not be
noticed (for comparison: the typical
resolution of the human eye is about
2'. In this case, the shadow of the
Earth is a cone rather than a cylinder
as under the first assumption.
Hipparchus observed (at lunar eclipses)
that at the mean distance of the Moon,
the diameter of the shadow cone (of the
earth) is 2+½ lunar diameters. That
apparent diameter is, as he had
observed, 360/650 degrees (of the sky).
With these values and simple geometry,
Hipparchus could determine the mean
distance; because it was computed for a
minimum distance of the Sun, it is the
maximum average distance possible for
the Moon. With his value for the
eccentricity of the orbit, he could
compute the least and greatest
distances of the Moon too. According to
Pappus, he found a least distance of
62, a mean of 67+1/3, and consequently
a greatest distance of 72+2/3 Earth
radii. With this method, as the
parallax of the Sun decreases (i.e.,
its distance increases), the minimum
limit for the mean distance is 59 Earth
radii - exactly the mean distance that
Ptolemy will later derive.
Hipparchus therefore had the
problematic result that his minimum
distance (from book 1) was greater than
his maximum mean distance (from book
2). He was intellectually honest about
this discrepancy, and probably realized
that especially the first method is
very sensitive to the accuracy of the
observations and parameters (in fact,
modern calculations show that the size
of the solar eclipse at Alexandria must
have been closer to 9/10 than to the
reported 4/5).
Ptolemy later measured the lunar
parallax directly (Almagest V.13)
(presumable against the position of a
star?), and used the second method of
Hipparchus' with lunar eclipses to
compute the distance of the Sun
(Almagest V.15). He will criticize
Hipparchus for making contradictory
assumptions, and obtaining conflicting
results (Almagest V.11): but apparently
he will fail to understand Hipparchus'
strategy to establish limits consistent
with the observations, rather than a
single value for the distance.
Hipparchos' results are the best until
his time: the actual mean distance of
the Moon is 60.3 Earth radii, within
his limits from book 2.
Pliny (Naturalis Historia II.X) tells
us that Hipparchus demonstrated that
lunar eclipses can occur five months
apart, and solar eclipses seven months
(instead of the usual six months); and
the Sun can be hidden twice in thirty
days, but as seen by different nations.
Ptolemy discussed this a century later
at length in Almagest VI.6. The
geometry, and the limits of the
positions of Sun and Moon when a solar
or lunar eclipse is possible, are
explained in Almagest VI.5. Hipparchus
apparently made similar calculations.
The result that two solar eclipses can
occur one month apart is important,
because this can not be based on
observations: one is visible on the
northern and the other on the southern
hemisphere - as Pliny indicates -, and
the latter was inaccessible to the
Greek.
Prediction of a solar eclipse, i.e.,
exactly when and where it will be
visible, requires a solid lunar theory
and proper treatment of the lunar
parallax. Hipparchus must have been the
first to be able to do this. A rigorous
treatment requires spherical
trigonometry, but Hipparchus may have
made do with planar approximations. He
may have discussed these things in Peri
tes kata platos meniaias tes selenes
kineseoos ("On the monthly motion of
the Moon in latitude"), a work
mentioned in the Suda.
Hipparchus is credited with the
invention or improvement of several
astronomical instruments, which were
used for a long time for naked-eye
observations. According to Synesius of
Ptolemais (4th century) he made the
first astrolabion: this may have been
an armillary sphere (which Ptolemy
however says he constructed, in
Almagest V.1); or the predecessor of
the planar instrument called astrolabe
(also mentioned by Theon of
Alexandria). With an astrolabe
Hipparchus was the first to be able to
measure the geographical latitude and
time by observing stars. Previously
this was done at daytime by measuring
the shadow cast by a gnomon, or with
the portable instrument known as
scaphion.
Ptolemy mentions (Almagest V.14) that
he used a similar instrument as
Hipparchus, called dioptra, to measure
the apparent diameter of the Sun and
Moon. Pappus of Alexandria described it
(in his commentary on the Almagest of
that chapter), as did Proclus
(Hypotyposis IV). It was a 4-foot rod
with a scale, a sighting hole at one
end, and a wedge that could be moved
along the rod to exactly obscure the
disk of Sun or Moon.
Hipparchus also observed solar
equinoxes, which may be done with an
equatorial ring: its shadow falls on
itself when the Sun is on the equator
(i.e., in one of the equinoctial points
on the ecliptic), but the shadow falls
above or below the opposite side of the
ring when the Sun is south or north of
the equator. Ptolemy quotes (in
Almagest III.1 (H195)) a description by
Hipparchus of an equatorial ring in
Alexandria; a little further he
describes two such instruments present
in Alexandria in his own time.
Contributions to geography: Hipparchus
applied his knowledge of spherical
angles to the problem of denoting
locations on the Earth's surface.
Before him a grid system had been used
by Dicaearchus of Messana, but
Hipparchus was the first to apply
mathematical rigor to the determination
of the latitude and longitude of places
on the Earth. Hipparchus wrote a
critique in three books on the work of
the geographer Eratosthenes of Cyrene
(3rd century BC), called Pròs tèn
'Eratosthénous geografían ("Against
the Geography of Eratosthenes"). It is
known to us from Strabo of Amaseia, who
in his turn criticised Hipparchus in
his own Geografia. Hipparchus
apparently made many detailed
corrections to the locations and
distances mentioned by Eratosthenes. It
seems he did not introduce many
improvements in methods, but he did
propose a means to determine the
geographical longitudes of different
cities at lunar eclipses (Strabo
Geografia 7). A lunar eclipse is
visible simultaneously on half of the
Earth, and the difference in longitude
between places can be computed from the
difference in local time when the
eclipse is observed. His approach would
give accurate results if it were
correctly carried out but the
limitations of timekeeping accuracy in
his era made this method impractical.
Previously, Eudoxus of Cnidus in the
4th century B.C. had described the
stars and constellations in two books
called Phaenomena and Entropon. Aratus
wrote a poem called Phaenomena or
Arateia based on Eudoxus' work.
Hipparchus wrote a commentary on the
Arateia - his only preserved work -
which contains many stellar positions
and times for rising, culmination, and
setting of the constellations, and
these are likely to have been based on
his own measurements.
Hipparchus made his measurements with
an equatorial armillary sphere, and
obtained the positions of maybe about
850 stars. It is disputed which
coordinate system he used. Ptolemy's
catalogue in the Almagest, which is
derived from Hipparchus' catalogue, is
given in ecliptic coordinates.
Hipparchus' original catalogue has not
been preserved today. However, an
analysis of an ancient statue of Atlas
(the so-called Farnese Atlas) published
in 2005 shows stars at positions that
appear to have been determined using
Hipparchus' data..
As with most of his work, Hipparchus
star catalogue has been adopted and
expanded by Ptolemy. It has been
strongly disputed how much of the star
catalogue in the Almagest is due to
Hipparchus, and how much is original
work by Ptolemy. Statistical analysis
(e.g. by Bradly Schaeffer, and others)
shows that the classical star catalogue
has a complex origin. Ptolemy has even
been accused of fraud for stating that
he re-measured all stars: many of his
positions are wrong and it appears that
in most cases he used Hipparchus' data
and precessed them to his own epoch
three centuries later, but using an
erroneous (too small) precession
constant.
In any case the work started by
Hipparchus has had a lasting heritage,
and has been worked on much later by Al
Sufi (964), and by Ulugh Beg as late as
1437. It was superseded only by more
accurate observations after invention
of the telescope.
Hipparchus (is the first?) ranks stars
in six magnitude classes according to
their brightness: he assignes the value
of one to the twenty brightest stars,
to weaker ones a value of two, and so
forth to the stars with a class of six,
which can be barely seen with the naked
eye. A similar system is still used
today (perhaps a system based on number
of photons received/second will be
next).
Hipparchus is perhaps most famous for
having discovered the precession of the
equinoxes. His two books on precession,
On the Displacement of the Solsticial
and Equinoctial Points and On the
Length of the Year, are both mentioned
in the Almagest of Claudius Ptolemy.
According to Ptolemy, Hipparchus
measured the longitude of Spica and
other bright stars. Comparing his
measurements with data from his
predecessors, Timocharis and
Aristillus, he realized that Spica had
moved 2° relative to the autumnal
equinox. He also compared the lengths
of the tropical year (the time it takes
the Sun to return to an equinox) and
the sidereal year (the time it takes
the Sun to return to a fixed star), and
found a slight discrepancy. Hipparchus
concluded that the equinoxes were
moving ("precessing") through the
zodiac, and that the rate of precession
was not less than 1° in a century.
Ptolemy followed up on Hipparchus' work
in the 2nd century AD. He confirmed
that precession affected the entire
sphere of fixed stars (Hipparchus had
speculated that only the stars near the
zodiac were affected), and concluded
that 1° in 100 years was the correct
rate of precession. The modern value is
1° in 72 years.
As far as is known, Hipparchus never
wrote about astrology, i.e. the
application of astronomy to the
(fraudulent albeit nonviolent and
legal) practice of divination.
[1] image of Hipparchos from coin?
http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/hist
ory/Mathematicians/Hipparchus.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Hipparchos_1.jpeg
[2] hipparchos stamp UNKNOWN
source: http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac
.uk/history/PictDisplay/Hipparchus.html
[150 BC]
is probably called "Chaldean" or
"Babylonian", but was probably part
Greek, and lives during the same time
as Hipparchos.
Strabo will explain that
Seleukos understood the yearly changes
of the tides from season to season,
revealing the fact that tides show a
maximum change in height with each
consecutive high tide (diurnal
inequality) during the solstice, and
minimum change of height difference of
consecutive high tides during the
equinox. This phenomenon is explained
by the fact that the earth is tilted to
the sun, during the solstice, but is
not tilted to the sun during the
equinox {add image}, although this
could be explained with a tilted sun in
an earth-centered theory. This
phenomenon will not be understood again
until G. H. Darwin in 1898.
Plutarch writes: Was {Timaeus} giving
the earth motion ..., and should the
earth ... be understood to have been
designed not as confined and fixed but
as turning and revolving about, in the
way expounded later by Aristarchos and
Seleukos, the former assuming this as a
hypothesis and the latter proclaiming
it?"
Aetius will write, "Seleucus the
mathematician (also one of those who
think the earth moves) says that the
moon's revolution counteracts the
whirlpool motion of the earth".
Babylon
[1] from: Plutarch, ''Plutarch's
Morals, Volume 10'',
p438-439. http://books.google.com/books
?id=unNXAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA438
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=unNXAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA438
[145 BC]
[145 BC]
[143 BC]
House", which refers to how the school
was originally built.
[140 BC]
earliest paper artifact (although
without writing) is made of hemp fibers
and comes from a tomb in China.
Before this bamboo and silk are written
on in China.
The method of making paper by pouring
wood pulp mixed in water into a flat
mold and drying the sediment will take
over 1000 years to be understood in
Europe, although it will reach India in
the 600s CE.
Paper is considered one of the most
important inventions in history, since
it enables China to develop its
civilization much faster than with
earlier writing materials (primarily
bamboo), and it does the same with
Europe when it is introduced in the
12th century or the 13th century.
[1] Description Early Chinese hemp
fiber paper, used for wrapping not
writing, on display at the Shaanxi
history museum in Xi'An, China.
Excavated from the Han Tomb of Wu Di
(140-87 BC) at Baqiao, Xi'An. Photo by
Yannick Trottier, 2007 Date 22
June 2007 Source Own work Author
Ytrottier GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/7f/Chinese_hemp_paper_we
stern_han.jpg
[2] It's the earliest Paper in the
world : Western Han (140-87 BC)
source: http://www.amateras.com/trip/chi
na/12Sha-Paper360x240.jpg
[01/01/134 BC]
[127 BC]
[120 BC]
[01/01/105 BC]
philosopher, politician, astronomer,
geographer, historian, and teacher. He
is acclaimed as the greatest polymath
of his age. None of his vast body of
work can be read in its entirety today
as it exists only in fragments.
Like Pytheas, Poseidonios thinks that
the moon causes the tides, and goes
west to the Atlantic ocean to study
tides. Poseidonios uses Canopus in
place of the sun in order to calculate
the size of the earth, but his
measurement is too small (as described
by Strabo the only source for this
data). Ptolemy will accept this lower
number, instead of accurate calculation
made by Eratosthenes, and this will be
the accepted value of the Earth's
circumference for the next 1,500 years,
and may influence Christopher Columbus
that the earth can be circumnavigated.
Poseidonius supports the pseudoscience
of astrology.
He attempted to measure the distance
and size of the Sun. In about 90 BCE
Posidonius estimated the astronomical
unit to be a0/rE = 9893, which was
still too small by half. In measuring
the size of the Sun, however, he
reached a figure larger and more
accurate than those proposed by other
Greek astronomers and Aristarchus of
Samos.
Posidonius also calculated the size and
distance of the Moon.
Posidonius constructed an orrery,
possibly similar to the Antikythera
mechanism. Posidonius's orrery,
according to Cicero, exhibited the
diurnal motions of the sun, moon, and
the five known planets.
[100 BC]
[100 BC]
[100 BC]
[80 BC]
[80 BC]
[76 BC]
[75 BC]
The first use of
negative numbers is in the Chinese
mathematics book "The Nine Chapters on
the Mathematical Art" (Jiuˇ zhāng
suàn shù). Negative numbers are in
red and positive numbers in black.
The
Nine Chapters is a Chinese counterpart
to Euclid’s Elements, which dominates
Western mathematics in the same way the
Nine Chapters is the basis of ancient
Chinese mathematics for nearly two
millennia. Euclid’s text is uses an
axiomatic method while The Nine
Chapters, is a much more down-to-Earth
handbook for the solution of practical
problems.
[1] Digital text of the Nine Chapters
on the Mathematical Art. PD
source: http://science.math.ntnu.edu.tw/
ELME/GEO/files/001.jpg
[2] The Nine Chapters on the
Mathematical Art Source:
http://www.chinapage.com/jiuzhang.gif P
D
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:%E4%B9%9D%E7%AB%A0%E7%AE%97%E8%A1%93.
gif
[70 BC]
[60 BC]
[60 BC]
[56 BC]
light and heat as being made of tiny
atoms that move very fast.
Lucretius {LYUKREsEuS}, Titus Lucretius
Carus, Roman poet and philosopher,
writes "De Natura Rerum" (On the Nature
of things) which describes a mechanical
Epikourean view of universe in a
(longer than average) poem. Influenced
by Democritus, Lucretius supports the
idea that all things are made of atoms
including souls and even Gods. Like
Epikouros, Lucretius thinks that the
Gods are not concerned with the lives
of humans, and death is not to be
feared. In addition Lucretius thinks
that there is no after life, only
peaceful nothingness. Lucretius is the
first to divide human history in to the
stone age, bronze age, and iron age.
Lucretius is the boldest person of this
time to speak out against religion,
superstition and mysticism.
In "De rerum natura" Lucretius writes
(translated from Latin): "...the
velocity with which these images travel
is enormous: light things made of fine
atoms often travel very swiftly, as
sunlight; it is natural then that these
images should do the same; of which too
there is a constant succession one
following on the other like light or
heat from the sun. ...".
[1] Text copied from: [1] Titus Carus
Lucretius, ''T. Lucreti Cari De rerum
natura libri sex, Volume 1'', 1866,
lines 176-229,
p530 http://books.google.com/books?id=o
iUTAAAAQAAJ PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=oiUTAAAAQAAJ
[2] Lucretius, from
http://www.ironorchid.com/clipart/person
s/images/Lucretius.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/25/Lucretius.jpg
[08/??/55 BC]
[50 BC]
[48 BC]
Caesar may have burned only some
storehouses of books, or may have
partially or completely burned the
Royal Library too, but in any event,
the Royal Mouseion (which possibly
housed the Royal Library) and Sarapeion
survived undamaged.
[45 BC]
[45 BC]
[45 BC]
[1] Description: Büste des Gaius
Iulius Caesar PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Giulio-cesare-enhanced_1-800x1450.jpg
[2] Julius Caesar PD
source: http://www4.vjc.edu/ENG36002Sp02
/discuss/msgReader$35
[41 BC]
[40 BC]
(vertical lift).
In the first century BC Roman engineer
Vitruvius writes "De architectura",
known today as "The Ten Books of
Architecture", a treatise in Latin on
architecture, dedicated to the emperor
Augustus. It is the only surviving
major book on architecture from
classical antiquity.
In a section of "De architectura" that
describes machines rarely used,
Vitruvius describes the undershot water
wheel. Vitruvius also describes the
first geared vertical wheel for which
there is good evidence. This mill is
also of major significance because it
is the first application of gearing
which uses something besides muscle
power. This mill has an undershot wheel
which, unlike the breast or overshot
wheels, does not make use of the weight
of falling water. An "overshot"
waterwheel uses water from above to
move the wheel by filling buckets on
the wheel, while an "undershot"
waterwheel uses the force of the water
passing below to spin a paddle wheel. A
"breast" waterwheel uses the wheel
horizontally.
Vitruvius {ViTrUVEuS} describes lifting
platforms that use pulleys and capstans
(apparatus used for hoisting weights,
consisting of a vertical spool-shaped
cylinder that is rotated manually or by
machine and around which a cable is
wound), or windlasses (hauling or
lifting machines consisting of a
horizontal cylinder turned by a crank
or a motor so that a line attached to
the load is wound around the cylinder),
operated by human, animal, or water
power.
[1] Description Nederlands:
Repronegatief. Kintjir of
waterschepwiel in Djambi, Sumatra Date
1914-1921 Source
Tropenmuseum Author
Unknown Permission (Reusing this
file) See below. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c6/COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEU
M_Kintjir_of_waterschepwiel_in_Djambi_Su
matra_TMnr_10007886.jpg
[2] [t Notice that the oxen walk in
circles and there must be some 90
degree gear below deck - an animal
powered boat.] XVth century miniature
of an ox-powered paddle wheel boat from
the 4th century Roman military treatise
De Rebus Bellicis by Anonymous PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c0/De_Rebus_Bellicis%2C_
XVth_Century_Miniature.JPG
[08/01/33 BC]
[08/01/33 BC]
[33 BC]
family from Amaseia, which is in modern
Amasya, Turkey, within Pontus; which
had recently become part of the Roman
Empire. He studies under various
geographers and philosophers; first in
Nysa, later in Rome. He is
philosophically a Stoic and politically
a proponent of Roman imperialism. Later
he will make extensive travels to Egypt
and Ethiopia, among others. It is not
known when his Geography is written,
though comments within the work itself
place the finished version within the
reign of Emperor Tiberius. Some place
its first drafts at around 7 CE, others
around 18 CE. Mention is given to the
death in 23 CE of Juba, king of
Maurousia.
Strabo's History is nearly completely
lost. Although Strabo quotes it
himself, and other classical authors
mention that it existed, the only
surviving document is a fragment of
papyrus now in possession of the
University of Milan (renumbered
{Papyrus} 46).
Impressed by the size of the unmapped
parts of earth, Strabo suggests that
there are other continents.
Strabo wrongly accepts
Homer's geographic descriptions over
the more accurate data of Herodotus.
Strabo writes
about the Mouseion in Alexandria in
addition to the original papyri of
Aristotle's writing.
Strabo's conversion from a
sphere to plane in inaccurate.
Strabo's "Geography" is an important
source for information about the
Mouseion of Alexandria. In book 17,
Strabo writes: "The Museum is also a
part of the royal palaces; it has a
public walk, an Exedra {a semi-circular
room} with seats, and a large house, in
which is the common mess-hall of the
men of learning who share the Museum.
This group of men not only hold
property in common, but also have a
priest in charge of the Museum, who
formerly was appointed by the kings,
but is now appointed by Caesar."
Turkey}
[1] The Greek geographer Strabo in a
16th century engraving. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Strabo.jpg
[09/02/31 BC]
[1] The Battle of Actium, 2 September
31 BC, by Lorenzo A. Castro, painted
1672. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Castro%2C_Battle_of_Actium.jpg
[08/01/30 BC]
[08/01/30 BC]
[30 BC]
Aelius Stilo, the first systematic
student, critic and teacher of Latin
(language) and literature, and of the
antiquities of Rome and Italy. Varro
also studies at Athens, especially
under the philosopher Antiochus of
Ascalon, whose aim it is to lead back
the Academic school from the scepticism
of Arcesilaus and Carneades to the
tenets of the early Platonists, as he
understands them.
In 59 Varro wrote a political pamphlet
entitled "Trikaranos" ("The
Three-Headed") on the coalition of
Pompey, Julius Caesar, and Crassus.
Varro serves under Pompey in the civil
war. When he returns to Rome after the
Battle of Pharsalus in 48 BCE, Caesar,
the victor, pardons Varro and
commissions Varro to establish a public
library of Greek and Latin literature.
Varro then dedicates the second part of
his "Antiquitates rerum humanarum et
divinarum" ("Antiquities of Human and
Divine Things") to Julius Caesar. After
Julius Caesar is murdered in 44 BCE,
under the second triumvirate, Mark
Antony puts Varro's name on the list of
those considered to be enemies of the
state. Although his books are burned,
his villa plundered, and his library
destroyed, Varro escapes death through
the intervention of Octavian (later
Augustus). Thereafter, Varro spends his
remaining years in seclusion, reading
and writing.
Varro's distinct literary works are
numbered at 74 and the number of
separate "books" at about 620.
Varro writes on a wide variety of
subjects, including law, astronomy,
geography, education, and literary
history, as well as satires, poems,
orations, and letters. The only
complete work to survive is the "Res
rustica" ("Farm Topics"), which
contains instruction for plant and
animal farming.
Varro dedicates his "De lingua Latina"
("On the Latin Language") to Cicero.
This work contains 25 books, of which
only parts of books v to x are known,
in addition to other fragments.
Of Varro's "Saturae Menippeae", 90 of
the 150 books and nearly 600 fragments
still exist. These satires are humorous
medleys in mixed prose and verse in the
manner of the 200s BCE cynic
philosopher Menippus of Gadara.
According to biography, these writings
try to make serious logical discussion
palatable to the uneducated reader by
blending it with humorous treatment of
contemporary society. Two themes run
through the satires. One is the
absurdity of much of Greek philosophy;
the other, the contemporary
preoccupation with material luxury, in
contrast to the old days, when the
Romans were thrifty and self-denying.
Varro wrote "Portraits" which contains
brief biographical essays on some 700
famous Greeks and Romans, with
likenesses of each.
Of the 25 books of De lingua Latina,
books 5-10 survive, although even they
are incomplete. After an introduction
(book 1), the work is divided into
etymology (history of language) (2-7),
inflection (8-13), and syntax (14-25).
Cicero's praises Varro writing "When we
were foreigners and wanderers -
strangers, as it were, in our own land
- your books led us home and made it
possible for us at length to learn who
we were as Romans and where we
lived.".
Varro creates a chronology, although
the chronology of Livy is viewed as
more accurate. The Romans call their
years after the two supreme
magistrates, the consuls. With a list
of magistrates, all past events can be
dated.
[1] Marcus Varro PD/Corel
source: http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcr
op/history/lecture19/fig_19-03.jpg
[01/06/27 BC]
[1] Bust of Emperor Augustus. An old,
beginning of the 20th century photo
plate. Digitally cleaned up (both the
photo and the and slightly colored. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Aug11_01.jpg
[2] Description Portrait of Caesar
Augustus. Marble, head: ca. 30-20 BC,
body: middle of the 2nd century
CE. Dimensions H. 1.96 m (6 ft. 5
in.) Credit line Borghese Collection;
purchase, 1807 Accession number Ma
1278 (MR 99) Location Department of
Greek, Etruscan and Roman antiquities,
Denon wing, ground floor, room
23 Photographer/source English
Wikipedia, original upload 4 June 2004
by ChrisO under same filename PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Caesar_augustus.jpg
[27 BC]
[1] An image of Pantheon in Rome,
Italy. Image taken by Martin Olsson
(mnemo on wikipedia and commons,
martin@minimum.se), 2nd of May 2005.
GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Pantheon_rome_2005may.jpg
[19 BC]
[1] Pont du Gard, France, a Roman
aqueduct built circa 19 BC. It is one
of France's top tourist attractions and
a World Heritage Site. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Pont_du_gard.jpg
[08/01/10 BC]
[08/01/10 BC]
[8 BC]
China
[1960/0 AD]
Center) Los Angeles, California,
USA
[1] Figure 2 from: Oldendorf, W. H.,
''Isolated Flying Spot Detection of
Radiodensity
Dis-Continuities-Displaying the
Internal Structural Pattern of a
Complex Object'', Bio-Medical
Electronics, IRE Transactions on,
vol.8, no.1, pp.68-72, Jan. 1961 doi:
10.1109/TBMEL.1961.4322854 URL:
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.j
sp?tp=&arnumber=4322854&isnumber=4322838
{Oldendorf_William_H_19600830.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: URL:
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.j
sp?tp=&arnumber=4322854&isnumber=4322838
[2] William Henry Oldendorf, MD., 1925
- 1992 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.catscanman.net/blog/w
p-content/uploads/oldendorf.jpg
[0 AD]
plane.
[1] Drawing of Artificial Muscle
Flapping Plane ''Aves Planus'' by Ted
Huntington Other possible
names: Ptero-planus Muscle
Plane Ptero-soar GNU
source: Ted Huntington
[9 AD]
[08/01/20 AD]
[20 AD]
Celsus of the 2nd Century CE who will
write "The True Word", a book critical
of Christianity.
His only extant work, the De Medicina,
is the only surviving section of a much
larger encyclopedia, and is a primary
source on diet, pharmacy and surgery
and related fields. The lost portions
of his encyclopedia likely included
volumes on agriculture, law, rhetoric,
and military arts. Celsus' De Medicina
is one of the best sources on
Alexandrian medical knowledge.
In "Of Medicine", Celsus describes the
preparation of numerous ancient
medicinal remedies including the
preparation of opioids. In addition, he
describes many 1st century Roman
surgical procedures which include
treatment for bladder stones,
tonsillectormy, and the setting of
fractures.
Celsus is the first to discuss heart
attacks. Celsus writes on dentistry and
describes the use of a dental mirror.
He describes a "cataract", a condition
where the lens of the eye grows opaque,
in addition to a procedure for removing
the clouding. Asimov claims that Celsus
is the first to write about insanity
(although I think there must be
somebody before this), which is an
abstract label and is the source of
many human rights abuse and much
pseudoscience.
Celsus probably copied
much of his writings from the writings
of Hippocrates.
Celsus expresses his (in my view,
mistaken) belief in the ethicalness of
experimentation on humans, writing in
"De Medicina": "It is not cruel to
inflict on a few criminals sufferings
which may benefit multitudes of
innocent people through all
centuries."
Celsus' work was rediscovered by Pope
Nicholas V and published in 1478. His
work became famous for its elegant
Latin style.
France
[1] Celsus, Aulus Cornelius Medicinae
libri octo ... praefixa de Celsi vita
dissertatione : concinnavit ...
Eduardus Milligan. Edinburg : veneunt
apud Maclachlan et Stewart, 1826.
Despite the advent of Linnaean
classification Celsus was still being
retranslated and consulted in the
nineteenth century. PD
source: http://www.library.usyd.edu.au/l
ibraries/rare/medicine/CelsusMedicinae18
26tp.jpg
[20 AD]
existence of a person named Jesus,
explaining the similarities with
stories of past martyrs born on
December 25 and executed such as
Mithra.
The earliest images of Jesus
show Jesus without a beard.
[1] Mural painting from the catacomb of
Commodilla. Bust of Christ. This is one
of first bearded images of Christ,
during the 4th century Jesus was
beginning to be depicted as older and
bearded, in contrast to earlier
Christian art, which usually showed a
young and clean-shaven Jesus. *
Date: Late 4th century *
Commodilla catacombs Christ from
http://drwagnernet.com/40a/lecture-view.
cfm?lecture=5&image=10 Cristo barbato
(dettaglio), affresco 60x72, fine
IV-inizio V secolo, Catacombe di
Commodilla, Roma PD
source: http://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki
/Image:Christ_with_beard.jpg
[2] This image of what Jesus may have
looked like is on the cover of Popular
Mechanics this month. Israeli and
British forensic anthropologists and
computer programmers got together to
create the face featured in the
1.2-million circulation magazine [t
knowing the dishonesty of Popular
Mechanics' 9/11 ''debunking'', I have
serious doubts about anything they
funded, but I don't see a head like
this as being unlikely. Roman
depictions have no beard until later,
would beard not be
longer?] COPYRIGHTED
source: http://archives.cnn.com/2002/TEC
H/science/12/25/face.jesus/
[35 AD]
[40 AD]
[41 AD]
[43 AD]
[50 AD]
[50 AD]
Heron of Alexandria (Greek:
Ήρων ο Αλεξανδρεύς) (CE
c10-c70), a Greek engineer in
Alexandria, makes the first recorded
steam engine.
Heron invents an aeopile, which is a
hollow metal sphere that rotates from
the power of steam jets that escape
through open tubes on each side of the
sphere.
The potential of the steam engine will
not be understood until the late
1600s.
Heron describes the lever, pulley,
wheel, inclined plane, screw, and
wedge. Understands and uses syphons,
syringes and gears. Hero uses gears to
change the wheel rotations of a chariot
to the rotations of a pointer that
indicate the number of wheel rotations,
which is the first odometer (meter that
indicates distance traveled). Hero
writes a book on air, which shows that
air is a substance and will not enter a
container already filled with air,
unless air is allowed to escape and be
replaced. Hero also reasons that
because air can be compressed, air must
be made of particles separated by
space.
[1] Hero's aeolipile From Knight's
American Mechanical Dictionary, 1876.
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Aeolipile_illustration.JPG
[2] Heron's formula can also be
written this way. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Her
on%27s_formula
[50 AD]
[52 AD]
[62 AD]
[62 AD]
lunar eclipse (the shadow of the earth
on the moon) this year.
[66 AD]
[70 AD]
emperor, Vespasian makes Pliny the
Elder, who is a friend of Vespasian's,
procurator in Gallia Narbonensis (the
Roman representative of part of Gaul).
[1] Map of Gallia (58 BC) with
important Tribes, Towns, Rivers etc.
labeled Karte von Gallien (58 v. Chr.)
mit wichtigen gallischen Stämmen,
Städten etc. Created 15th January
2005 by Feitscherg. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Map_Gallia_Tribes_Towns.png
[73 AD]
Hispania Tarraconensis (Governor of a
part of Spain). During his stay in
Spain he became familiar with the
agriculture and the mines of the
country, in addition to visiting Africa
(vii.37)
[75 AD]
[77 AD]
"Historia naturalis" ("Natural
History").
Pliny the Elder, ("Gaius Plinius
Cecilius Secundus") (PlinE) (CE 23-79)
completes his major work titled
"Natural History" in 37 volumes.
"Natural History" is made from copying
text of 500 other earlier people and
contains astronomy, geology and
zoology. Pliny shows wisdom in
rejecting the idea of immortality.
In
addition to "Natural History", Pliny
writes a "History of his Times" in
thirty-one books, which has yet to be
found.
Historia naturalis serves as a major
source for other encyclopaedias for at
least the next 1,500 years. Even today
it is still an important record for
details of Roman sculpture and
painting.
[1] Contemporary laced limp parchment
wrapper made from a bifolium of a 14th
century [?] Italian missal, rubricated,
red and blue initials. Binding for:
Francesco Massari, … In nonum Plinii
de naturali historia librum
castigationes & annotationes. Basel:
Froben, 1537. (ExRockey) 2008-0021N •
Massari (fl. 1530), a Venetian
physician, comments on the ninth book
of the Natural History of Pliny (1st
cent. AD), covering fish and marine
life. The work’s editor, Beatus
Rhenanus (1485-1547), stated that
Massari’s comments were based on his
extensive voyages and observations in
the Mediterranean and Adriatic. PD
source: http://blogs.princeton.edu/rareb
ooks/Massari-wrapper.JPG
[2] MS1000 The Pliny of Saint James in
the March: Historia Naturalis Italy
c1400 PD
source: http://www.schoyencollection.com
/lexical_files/ms1000.jpg
[79 AD]
56, by poisonous gas when he goes
ashore to investigate the eruption of
Mount Vesuvius.
[80 AD]
and free from superstition.
[1] Dioscorides from www.nlm.nih.gov PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Dioscorides.jpg
[2] Dioscorides: Materia Medica.
(Arabic copy) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Arabic_herbal_medicine_guidebook.jpeg
[81 AD]
[83 AD]
The first reference to a magnetic
compass is from 83 CE, and describes a
"south-controlling spoon" which is
thrown on the ground and comes to rest
pointing to the south.
Another early reference to a specific
magnetic direction finder device is
recorded in a Song Dynasty book dated
to 1040-44. There is a description of
an iron "south-pointing fish" floating
in a bowl of water, aligning itself to
the south. The device is recommended as
a means of orientation "in the
obscurity of the night".
The Chinese developed both the floating
needle and pivoting needle compass. In
1187, English writer Alexander Neckam
(1157-1217) describes a "pointer
carried on board {a ship} which enables
a course to be followed even when the
Polar star is hidden by clouds.". The
"gyrocompass" is invented in 1905 in
the United States by Elmer Ambrose
Sperry (1860-1930). The gyrocompass
uses the angular momentum of a
gyroscope with the force produced by
the Earth's rotation to maintain a
north-south orientation of the spin
axis, therefore providing a stable
directional reference.
[1] Figure from: Joseph Needham,
''Science and Civilization in China'',
vol 4, part 1, 1962,
p230-268. {Needham_China_compass_1962.p
df} COPYRIGHTED
source: Joseph Needham, "Science and
Civilization in China", vol 4, part 1,
1962,
p230-268. {Needham_China_compass_1962.p
df}
[2] ''The south-pointing fish'' was
recorded in the documents of the
Northern Song Dynasty. Such
direction-pointing device is a thin
steel plate cut into the shape of a
fish magnetized in the geomagnetic
field. The tail of the fish is
magnetized in the geological direction
of the North Pole, thus the tail has
the south magnetic pole and the head of
the fish has the north magnetic pole.
When put into the water, the floating
fish has its head pointing to the
south. UNKNOWN
source: http://kaleidoscope.cultural-chi
na.com/chinaWH/images/exbig_images/3ee20
b9ad9430ca4fcd43b3165a315c5.jpg
[97 AD]
aquis (text and translation) has been
published by C. Herschel (Boston,
Mass., 1899). It contains numerous
illustrations; maps of the routes of
the ancient aqueducts and the city of
Rome in the time of Frontinus; a
photographic reproduction of the only
manuscript (the Monscassinensis);
several explanatory chapters, and a
concise bibliography, in which special
reference is made to P. de Tissot,
Etude sur Ia condition des agrimensores
(1879). There is a complete edition of
the works by A. Dederich (1855), and an
English translation of the Strategemata
by R. Scott (1816); more recent
editions include that of both the
Aqueducts and the Strategemata in the
Loeb Classical Library (1925).
[100 AD]
[1] Seikilos søjlen Seikilos Epitaph
(200 f.Kr.) οσον ζης,
φαίνου (oson zis,
fainou) μηδέν ‘ολως
συλυπού (miden olos
silittou) προς ολίγον
εσtί to ζην, (pros oligon esti to
zin,) το τέλος ο χρόνος
απαιτεί (to telos o chronos
apeti) Skjul ikke dit lys så længe
du lever, Sørg aldrig helt til
bunds, Livet løber kun en kort
stund, Tiden sætter en fast
fermin (Oversættelse, Carsten
Høeg) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.natmus.dk/graphics/Pr
essefoto/antik/seikilos.jpg
[2] Seiklos inscription UNKNOWN
source: http://www.geoffknorr.com/image/
images/Seikilos_Inscription.svg.png
[100 AD]
[1] Caption: Street Musicians.
Imperial Roman First Style mosaic,
“Street Musicians” by Dioskourides
of Samos from the Villa of Cicero,
Pompeii. Man with cymbals, woman with
double-flute, child, and man with
tambourine. Artist’s signature at top
left. H 43 cm. W 41 cm. Naples, Museo
Nazionale. weight: 8 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.laits.utexas.edu/moor
e/sites/laits.utexas.edu.moore/files/ima
ges/0002030207_1024.preview.jpg
[105 AD]
Kueiyang, Kweichow - c.118 CE) is
thought by many to have invented paper
from matter like tree bark, hemp, silk
and fishing net, but artifacts of paper
have been found that date to before Lun
by more than 100 years.
Tsai Lun is a eunuch person, usually a
male that is castrated (testicles are
removed) viewed as a safer (less
aggressive) servant for royal people.
[1] Cai Lun (traditional Chinese:
蔡倫; simplified Chinese: 蔡伦;
pinyin: Cài Lún; Wade-Giles: Ts'ai
Lun) (ca. AD 50-121), courtesy name
Jingzhong (敬仲), was a Chinese
eunuch, who is conventionally regarded
as the inventor of paper, in forms
recognizable in modern times as paper
(as opposed to Egyptian papyrus). PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Cai_Lun.jpg
[01/01/120 AD]
[122 AD]
Britain. Hadrian's Wall (Latin: Vallum
Hadriani) is a stone and turf
fortification built by the Roman
Emperor Hadrian (CE 76-138) across the
width of Great Britain to prevent
military raids by the tribes of
Scotland to the north, to improve
economic stability and provide peaceful
conditions in the Roman province of
Britannia to the south, to define the
frontier of the Empire physically, and
to separate the unruly Selgovae tribe
in the north from the Brigantes in the
south and discourage them from
uniting.
The wall is sometimes thought to serve
as a border between Scotland and
England, however for most of its length
the wall follows a line well south of
the modern border, and neither the
Scoti tribe nor the English lived in
Britain at the time of the wall's
construction.
[1] Hadrian's wall just east of
Greenhead Lough - October
2005 Location: Hadrian's wall,
Northumberland PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Hadrian%27s_wall_at_Greenhead_Lough.j
pg
[130 AD]
Ptolomy.
Ptolomy's "Almagest" describes an
Earth-centered universe.
Claudius Ptolemaeus (Klaudios
Ptolemaios) (Greek: Κλαύδιος
Πτολεμαῖος) (CE c100-c170)
writes a 13-volume "The Great
Treatise", later named "Almagest",
systematizes Alexandrian knowledge of
astronomy and catalogs a thousand
stars. Ptolemy creates a mathematical
system of epicycles to explain the
apparent motions of the stars and
planets based on the incorrect
earth-centered theory. This view
dominates Europe until the 1500s.
Alexandria
[1] Engraving of a crowned Ptolemy
being guided by the muse Astronomy,
from Margarita Philosophica by Gregor
Reisch, 1508. Although Abu Ma'shar
believed Ptolemy to be one of the
Ptolemies who ruled Egypt after the
conquest of Alexander the title ‘King
Ptolemy’ is generally viewed as a
mark of respect for Ptolemy's elevated
standing in science. Summary An
early Baroque artist's rendition of
Claudius Ptolemaeus (Greek:
Κλαύδιος Πτολεμαῖος
Klaúdios Ptolemaîos; c. AD 90 – c.
168), known in English as Ptolemy , was
a Roman citizen of Egypt who wrote in
Greek. He was a mathematician,
astronomer, geographer, astrologer and
a poet of a single epigram in the Greek
Anthology. He lived in Egypt under
Roman rule, and is believed to have
been born in the town of Ptolemais
Hermiou in the Thebaid. He died in
Alexandria around AD 168. Ptolemy was
the author of several scientific
treatises, at least three of which were
of continuing importance to later
Islamic and European science. The first
is the astronomical treatise now known
as the Almagest (in Greek, Ἡ
Μεγάλη Σύνταξις, ''The
Great Treatise'', originally
Μαθηματικὴ Σύνταξις,
''Mathematical Treatise''). The second
is the Geography, which is a thorough
discussion of the geographic knowledge
of the Greco-Roman world. The third is
the astrological treatise known
sometimes in Greek as the
Apotelesmatika
(Ἀποτελεσματικά), more
commonly in Greek as the Tetrabiblos
(Τετράβιβλος ''Four
books''), and in Latin as the
Quadripartitum (or four books) in which
he attempted to adapt horoscopic
astrology to the Aristotelian natural
philosophy of his day. Uploaded on
en:wiki by en:User:Tuckerresearch. It
is under public domain because it comes
from an old manuscript. PD
source: http://www.astronomie.de/typo3te
mp/pics/fa4e97de5a.jpg
[2] surviving works; only a few brief
and unsupported biographical statements
are made by much later sources.
'Claudius' suggests he held Roman
citizenship, 'Ptolemy' that he was of
Greek descent and lived in Egypt. The
astronomical observations that he
listed as having himself made cover the
period 127-141 AD, from which it may be
inferred that he was active in the
first and into the second half of the
second century AD, and all of those
observations are listed as made in
Alexandria, so it is likely that he
lived in or near that city, still a
great centre of learning at that time.
In the Middle Ages, before the twelfth
century, when his work was being
discovered and studied in detail by
Islamic scholars, little more than his
name was remembered in the Latin West;
as early as the Encyclopedia of Isidore
of Description English: Sixteenth
century engraving of Claudius Ptolemy
(AD c100-170) being guided by the muse
Astronomy - Margarita Philosophica by
Gregor Reisch, published in
1508. Date 28 June
2011 Source magazine Author Traditiona
L aSTROLOGER PD
source: http://www.hps.cam.ac.uk/starry/
ptolemylrg.jpg
[149 AD]
(modern-day Bergama, Turkey), the son
of Nicon, a wealthy architect. His
interests were diverse - agriculture,
architecture, astronomy, astrology,
philosophy - until he finally focuses
on medicine.
By the age of twenty he had become a
therapeutes ("attendant" or
"associate") of the god Asclepius in
the local temple for four years. It is
after his father's death in 148 or 149,
that he goes abroad to study in Smyrna,
Corinth and Alexandria.
[1] Claudius Galenus of Pergamum
(131-201 AD), better known as Galen,
was an ancient Greek physician. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Galen.jpg
[12/27/150 AD]
Christian chronicler of the early
Church who writes against heresies.
His works are lost, save some passages
quoted by Eusebius, who tells us that
he wrote Hypomnemata (Memoirs) in five
books, in the simplest style concerning
the tradition of the Apostolic
preaching. Hegesippus was also known to
Jerome. His work was written to refute
the new heresies of the Gnostics and of
Marcion. He appealed principally to
tradition as embodied in the teaching
which had been handed down through the
succession of bishops, thus providing
much information about the earliest
bishops that otherwise would have been
lost.
Eusebius says that Hegesippus was a
convert from Judaism, for he quoted
from the Hebrew, was acquainted with
the Gospel of the Hebrews and with a
Syriac Gospel, and he also cited
unwritten traditions of the Jews. He
seems to have lived in some part of the
East, possibly Palestine, in the time
of Pope Anicetus (155-166 A.D.) he
travelled to Corinth and Rome,
collecting on the spot the teachings of
the various churches which he visited,
and ascertaining their uniformity with
Rome, according to this excerpt:
"And the
Church of the Corinthians remained in
the true word until Primus was bishop
in Corinth; I made their acquaintance
in my journey to Rome, and remained
with the Corinthians many days, in
which we were refreshed with the true
word. And when I was in Rome, I made a
succession up to Anicetus, whose deacon
was Eleuterus. And in each succession
and in each city all is according to
the ordinances of the law and the
Prophets and the Lord" (quoted in
Eusebius, Hist. Eccles. IV, 22).
With great ingenuity J.B. Lightfoot, in
Clement of Rome (London, 1890), has
found traces of this list of popes in
Epiphanius of Cyprus, Haer., xxvii, 6,
which extends from St Peter to Anicetus
in the poem of Pseudo-Tertullian
against Marcion.
Eusebius quotes from Hegesippus a long
and perhaps legendary account of the
death of James the Just, "the brother
of the Lord", also the story of the
election of his successor Simeon, and
the summoning of the descendants of
Jude to Rome by Domitian. A list of
heresies against which Hegesippus wrote
is also cited. Dr. Lawlor has argued
(Hermathena, XI, 26, 1900, p. 10) that
all these passages cited by Eusebius
were connected in the original, and
were in the fifth book of Hegesippus.
He has also argued (Journal of
Theological Studies, April, 1907, VIII,
436) the likelihood that Eusebius got
from Hegesippus the statement that John
was exiled to Patmos by Domitian.
Hegesippus mentioned the letter of
Clement to the Corinthians, apparently
in connection with the persecution of
Domitian. It is very likely that the
dating of heretics according to papal
reigns in Irenaeus and Epiphanius --
e.g., that Marcion of Sinope's disciple
Cerdon and Valentinus came to Rome
under Anicetus -- was derived from
Hegesippus, and the same may be true of
the assertion that Hermas, author of
The Shepherd of Hermas, was the brother
of Pope Pius (as the Liberian
Catalogue, the poem against Marcion,
and the Muratorian fragment all
state).
The Church History of Hegesippus
appears in an inventory of books in the
Abbey of Corbie; the inventory is of
uncertain date, often called 12th
century. Zahn has shown that the work
of Hegesippus was still extant in the
sixteenth and seventeenth centuries in
three Eastern libraries. (Zeitschrift
für Kirchengeschichte, II (1877-8),
288, and in Theologisches
Litteraturblatt (1893), 495)
The Catholic Encyclopedia writes: "We
must lament the loss of other portions
of the Memoirs which were known to
exist in the seventeenth century."{1
Cath. Encyc. 1908 edition}
[150 AD]
[150 AD]
[150 AD]
[157 AD]
[1] Claudius Galenus of Pergamum
(131-201 AD), better known as Galen,
was an ancient Greek physician. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Galen.jpg
[162 AD]
pulse in solving a problem.
Galen also argues
that the mind is in the brain, not in
the heart as Aristotle claimed.
Galen does not
recognize blood circulation and wrongly
thinks that venous and arterial systems
are separate. Galen recpgnizes that
blood must get from one half of the
heart to the other half, and theorizes
that there are tiny holes too small to
see in the thick muscular wall
separating the two halves. This view
will not change until, 1500 years
later, with William Harvey's work in
the 17th century. Since most of his
knowledge of anatomy is based on
dissection of pigs, dogs, and Barbary
apes, he also presumes wrongly that
"rete mirabile", a blood vessel plexus
of ungulates (hooved animal and
whales), also existed in the human
body. He also resists the idea of
tourniquets to stop bleeding and
tragically vigorously spreads the
inaccurate opinion of blood letting as
a treatment.
Galen's authority will dominate health
science all the way to the 16th
century. With the rise of Christianity,
people will not experiment and studies
of physiology and anatomy will stop.
Blood letting becomes a standard
medical procedure. Vesalius
(1514-1564), more than 1300 years
later, will present the first serious
challenge to the dominance of Galen's
views.
Galen is attracted to Alexandria
because of the reputation of the health
profession there. Galen will be the
last great physician of this time.
Galen writes numerous works.
Interestingly, those who practice
healing through science and the temple
priests who practice the pseudoscience
of religious healing both coexist
together in the Serapeum.
Galen will be court
physician under emperor Marcus Aurelius
for some time.
According to Isaac Asimov, Galen's best
work is in anatomy. Dissection of
humans is viewed as bad in Rome and
Galen could only dissect other species,
including dogs, goats, pigs, and
monkeys. Galen is describes anatomy in
meticulous detail. Galen writes that
muscles work in groups. Galen cuts the
spinal cord of many species at various
levels and writes on the resulting
paralysis (loss of movement of the body
part). Galen uses the three fluid
theory of Erasistratus.
Galen regards wounds as "windows into
the body". Galen performed many
audacious operations that were not
again used for almost two millennia,
including brain and eye surgery. To
perform cataract surgery, Galen would
insert a long needle-like instrument
into the eye behind the lens. He would
then pull it back slightly and remove
the cataract. The slightest slip could
cause permanent blindness. Galen had
set the standard for modern medicine in
many different ways.
In Rome, Galen writes extensively,
lectures and publicly demonstrates his
knowledge of anatomy. Galen gains a
reputation as an experienced physician
and his practice had a widespread
clientèle. One of them is the consul
Flavius Boethius who introduces him to
the Imperial court where Galen becomes
a court physician to Emperor Marcus
Aurelius. Later he will also treat
Lucius Verus, Commodus and Septimius
Severus. Reputedly, he speaks mostly
Greek, which in the field of medicine
is a more highly respected language
than Latin at the time.
Galen spends the rest of his life in
the Imperial court, writing and
experimenting. He performs vivisections
of numerous animals to study the
function of the kidneys and the spinal
cord.
Galen transmitted Hippocratic medicine
all the way to the Renaissance. His "On
the Elements According to Hippocrates"
describes the philosopher's inaccurate
system of four bodily humours, blood,
yellow bile, black bile and phlegm,
which were mystically identified with
the four classical elements, and in
turn with the seasons. He created his
own theories from those principles, and
much of Galen's work can be seen as
building on the Hippocratic theories of
the body, rather than being new. Galen
mainly ignores the Latin writings of
Celsus, but accepts the ancient works
of Asclepiades.
Amongst Galen's own major works is a
seventeen-volume "On the Usefulness of
the Parts of the Human Body". Like
Pliny, Galen wrongly thinks that
everything in the universe is made by a
God for some purpose. He also writes
about philosophy and philology (the
study of words and language), as well
as extensively writing on anatomy. His
collected works total twenty-two
volumes, and he writes a line a day for
most of his life.
Galen's own theories, in accord with
Plato's, emphasizes purposeful creation
by a single Creator ( "Nature", in
Greek "phusis") - a major reason why
later Christian and Muslim scholars
will be able to accept his views and
will preserve his writings. His
fundamental principle of life was
pneuma (air, or breath) that later
writers will connect with the erronius
ancient idea of a "soul". These
writings on philosophy are a product of
Galen's well rounded education, and
throughout his life Galen is keen to
emphasise the philosophical element to
medicine. Galen maintained the
inaccurate opinions that "Pneuma
physicon" (animal spirit) in the brain
is responsible for movement,
perception, and senses, that "Pneuma
zoticon" (vital spirit) in the heart
controls blood and body temperature,
and that "Natural spirit" in the liver
handled nutrition and metabolism.
However, he correctly rejects the
Pneumatic theory that air passes
through the veins rather than blood.
Galen expands his knowledge partly by
experimenting with live animals (in a
way that is clearly painful to the
animal and which I vote against,
although science was advanced by such
experimentation). One of his methods is
to publicly dissect a living pig,
cutting its nerve bundles one at a
time. Eventually he cuts a laryngeal
nerve (now also known as Galen's Nerve)
and the pig stops squealing. He also
ties the ureters of living animals,
swelling the kidneys, therefore showing
that urine comes from the kidneys, and
severes spinal cords to demonstrate
paralysis. In addition to working with
pigs, Galen also experiments with
barbary apes and goats, but emphasizes
that he practises on pigs due to the
fact that, in some respects, they are
anatomically similar to humans. Public
dissections are also a highly valuable
way of disputing and disproving the
biological theories of others, and are
one of the main methods of academic
medical learning in Rome. It is quite
common for large numbers of medical
students to attend these public
gatherings, which will sometimes turn
into debates where learning is
increased.
Galen's books will be the standard book
of healing through science until
Vesalius.
It is very possible that Galen excelled
in part from use of the Pergamum public
library, a library second only to that
of Alexandria.{check in Galen
writings}
Galen, through his works, will transmit
the Greek knowledge of healing into the
future.
[1] Galen of Pergamon. Vasiliadis et
al. Scoliosis 2009 4:6
doi:10.1186/1748-7161-4-6 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.scoliosisjournal.com/
content/figures/1748-7161-4-6-11-l.jpg
[2] Description English: Claude
Galien. Lithograph by Pierre Roche
Vigneron. (Paris: Lith de Gregoire et
Deneux, ca.
1865). Date Source http://www.nlm.nih
.gov/hmd/greek/popup/images/galen_detail
.jpg Author NLM PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f5/Galen_detail.jpg
[162 AD]
Γαληνό`
2;) (c.130 CE Pergamum {now Bergama,
Turkey} - c.200 CE probably Sicily),
moves to Rome.
[1] Claudius Galenus of Pergamum
(131-201 AD), better known as Galen,
was an ancient Greek physician. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Galen.jpg
[03/31/173 AD]
[177 AD]
the author of an anti-Christian work
titled The True Word. This work is
lost, but we have Origen's account of
it in his writings.
Celsus, as a Platonist philosopher,
argues for monotheism against what he
sees as the Christians' dualism (of
Deity and Devil) writing "If one
accepts that all of nature, and
everything in the universe, operates
according to the will of God, and that
nothing works contrary to his purposes,
then one must also accept that the
angels and daimones, hereos - all
things in the universe - are subject to
the will of the one God who rules over
all." According to Elaine Pagels, many
Pagans in this time tend toward
monotheism, however believe in a unity
of all the gods and daimones in one
divine source. Celsus writes that the
Christians deviate from monotheism in
their "blasphemous" belief in the
devil. Of all the "impious errors" the
Christians make, Christians show their
greatest ignorance in "making up a
being opposed to God, and calling him
'devil,' or, in the Hebrew language,
'Satan."' According to Celsus, all such
ideas are nothing but human inventions,
and that "it is blasphemy...to say that
the greatest God...has an adversary who
constrains his capacity to do good."
Celsus expresses anger that the
Christians who claim to worship one
God, "impiously divide the kingdom of
God, creating a rebellion in it, as if
there were opposing factions within the
divine, including on e that is hostile
to God!" Celsus accuses Christians of
"inventing a rebellion" in heaven to
justify rebellion here on earth. The
concept of a devil or "Satan"
originated in the 500s BCE in Hebrew
writings. The earliest known reference
to a Satan appears in the Hebrew Bible
in the book of Numbers and in Job as
one of God's obedient servants, a
messenger, or angel that obstructs
human activity.
Celsus writes his only work of record
"True Discourse" (or, "True Reason")
against Christianity in approximately
178 CE. Celsus divides the work into
two sections, the first in which
objections are explained from a
fictional Jewish person and the other
in which Celsus speaks as the Pagan
philosopher that he is. Celsus
ridicules Christians because they
advocate blind faith instead of reason.
Around 60 years after it is first
published, the book written by Celsus
will inspire a rebuttle written by
Origen titled "Contra Celsum", which is
the only source for Celsus' book, who
will be later condemned along with
other critics of Christianity such as
Porphyry.
[03/31/180 AD]
[200 AD]
[200 AD]
[200 AD]
Chinese people put ink to Buddhist text
inscribed on marble pillars and apply
damp paper to the inscriptions to make
a copy of the text onto the paper. Also
around this time, religious seals are
used to transfer pictures and texts of
prayers to paper using ink. Ink of a
good consistency for printing is
developed in the 300s or 400s, and
around the 500s use of a wood block for
printing will appear. Movable type will
not be invented until around the years
1041-48.
[1] Rubbing of the top panel of the
Nestorial Tablet Dated 781 CE, Tang
dynasty Ink rubbing on paper 52.23 x
31.91 cm Acquisition numbers:
#92.78.1 Gift of James K.
Penfield Image from Seattle Art
Museum PD
source: http://depts.washington.edu/silk
road/exhibit/religion/nestorians/images/
92_78_1.jpg
[200 AD]
Coptic is the Egyptian language,
written with in alphabet almost
identical to the Greek alphabet, and
will be a valuable resource in
translating the Egyptian language for
later scholars because Egyptian written
with hieroglyphs, hieratic and demotic
symbols contain no vowels, but in
Coptic vowels are included. Coptic will
be the last script used for the
Egyptian language.
[1] Stone with Coptic
inscription Coptic writing circa third
century. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Coptic.jpg
[202 AD]
[03/07/203 AD]
[03/07/203 AD]
[215 AD]
[232 AD]
[245 AD]
[250 AD]
.1667x+0.083x+.1429x+.5x+9=x
.8926x+9=x x=84
So he grows a beard at 21,
gets married at 33, has a son at 38 who
lives for 42 years, and dies 4 years
before Diofantos dies at age 84.
[1] Work by Diophantus (died in about
280 B.C.), translated from Greek into
Latin by Claude Gaspard Bachet de
Méziriac. This edition of the book was
published in 1621. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Diophantus-cover.jpg
[2] Work by Diophantus (died in about
280 B.C.), with additions by Pierre de
Fermat (died in 1665). This edition of
the book was published in 1670. p. 61
contains Diophantus' problem II.VIII,
with the famous note added by Fermat
which became known as Fermat's last
theorem. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Diophantus-II-8-Fermat.jpg
[262 AD]
wiki)
Porphyry (c.232-c. 304 AD) was a
Neoplatonist philosopher. He was born
Malchus ("king") in Tyre, but his
teacher in Athens, Cassius Longinus,
gave him the name Porphyrius (clad in
purple), a punning allusion to the
color of the imperial robes. Under
Longinus he studied grammar and
rhetoric. In 262 he went to Rome,
attracted by the reputation of
Plotinus, and for six years devoted
himself to the study of Neoplatonism.
Having injured his health by overwork,
he went to live in Sicily for five
years. On his return to Rome, he
lectured on philosophy and completed an
edition of the writings of Plotinus
(who had died in the meantime) to
gether with a biogrpahy of his teacher.
Iamblichus is mentioned in ancient
Neoplatonic writings as his pupis, but
this most likely means only that he was
the dominant figure in the next
generation of philosophers. The two men
differed publicly on the issue of
theurgy. In his later years, he married
Marcella, a widow with seven children
and an enthusiastic student of
philosophy. Little more is known of his
life, and the date of his death is
uncertain.
Porphyry is best known for his
contributions to philosophy. Apart from
writing the Aids to the Study of the
Intelligibles, a basic summary of
Neoplatonism, he is especially
appreciated for his Introduction to
Categories (Introductio in
Praedicamenta), a commentary on
Aristotle's Categories. The
Introduction describes how qualities
attributed to things may be classified,
breaking down the philosophical concept
of substance as a relationship
genus/species.
As Porphyry's most influential
contribution to philosophy, the
Introduction to Categories incorporated
Aristotle's logic into Neoplatonism, in
particular the doctrine of the
categories interpreted in terms of
entities (in later philosophy,
"universal"). Boethius' Isagoge, a
Latin translation of the Introduction,
became a standard medieval textbook in
the schools and universities which set
the stage for medieval
philosophical-theological developments
of logic and the problem of universals.
In medieval textbooks, the
all-important Arbor porphyriana
("Porphyrian Tree") illustrates his
logical classification of substance. To
this day, taxonomists benefit from
Porphyry's Tree in classifying
everything from plants to animals to
insects to whales.
Porphyry is also known as a violent
opponent of Christianity and defender
of Paganism; of his Adversus
Christianos (Against the Christians) in
15 books, only fragments remain. He
famously said, "The Gods have
proclaimed Christ to have been most
pious, but the Christians are a
confused and vicious sect."
Counter-treatises were written by
Eusebius of Caesarea, Apollinarius (or
Apollinaris) of Laodicea, Methodius of
Olympus, and Macarius of Magnesia, but
all these are lost. Porphyry's
identification of the Book of Daniel as
the work of a writer in the time of
Antiochus Epiphanes, is given by
Jerome. There is no proof of the
assertion of Socrates, the
ecclesiastical historian, and
Augustine, that Porphyry was once a
Christian.
Porphyry was also opposed to the
theurgy of his disciple Iamblichus.
Much of Iamblichus' mysteries is
dedicated to the defense of mystic
theurgic divine possession against the
critiques of Porphyry.
Porphyry was, like Pythagoras, known as
an advocate of vegetarianism on
spiritual or ethical grounds. These two
philosophers are perhaps the most
famous vegetarians of classical
antiquity. He wrote the De Abstinentia
(On Abstinence) and also a De Non
Necandis ad Epulandum Animantibus
(roughly On the Impropriety of Killing
Living Beings for Food) in support of
abstinence from animal flesh, and is
cited with approval in vegetarian
literature up to the present day.
Porphyry also wrote widely on
astrology, religion, philosophy, and
musical theory; and produced a
biography of his teacher, Plotinus.
Another book of his on the life of
Pythagoras, named Vita Pythagorae or
Life of Pythagoras, is not to be
confused with the book of the same name
by Iamblichus.
In "On Abstinence from Animal Food",
Porfurios advocates rights for the
other species, saying "he who forbids
men to feed on animals, and thinks it
is unjust, will also say that it is not
just to kill them, and deprive them of
life". In this work, Porfurios also
argues against sacrificing animals,
writing: "Pythagoreans themselves did
not spare animals when they sacrificed
to the gods. ... I intend to oppose
these opinions, and those of the
multitude".
[265 AD]
[267 AD]
[272 AD]
by Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra, Emperor
Aurelian attacks in the royal quarter
result in so much destruction that
members of the Mouseion either flee the
country or take refuge in the
Serapeum.
Ammianus Marcellinus records: "But
Alexandria itself was extended, not
gradually, like other cities, but at
its very beginning, to great
dimensions, and for a long time was
exhausted with internal disputes, until
finally, after many years, when
Aurelian was emperor, the civic
quarrels escalated into deadly strife.
Its walls were torn down and it lost
the greater part of the area which was
called the Brucheion, and which had
long been the dwelling place of its
most distinguished men."
Possibly scrolls are
transfered to the Serapeum, Kaisareion
or Claudianum annexes.
Epiphanius will write
about the Brucheion a few years after
Ammianus, that where the library had
once been, "there is now a desert"
(Patrologia Graeca, 43, 252)
[1] Zenobia in the triumph of
Aurelius UNKNOWN
source: http://www.heritage-history.com/
books/horne/rome/zpage438.gif
[284 AD]
[290 AD]
[297 AD]
[303 AD]
[12/27/305 AD]
30, 339) (often called Eusebius
Pamphili, "Eusebius {the friend} of
Pamphilus") was a bishop of Caesarea in
Palestine and is often referred to as
the father of church history because of
his work in recording the history of
the early Christian church. An earlier
history by Hegesippus that he referred
to has not survived.
The two greatest historical works of
Eusebius are his Chronicle and his
Church History. The former (Greek,
Pantodape historia, "Universal
History") is divided into two parts.
The first part (Greek, Chronographia,
"Annals") purports to give an epitome
of universal history from the sources,
arranged according to nations. The
second part (Greek, Chronikoi kanones,
"Chronological Canons") attempts to
furnish a synchronism of the historical
material in parallel columns, the
equivalent of a parallel timeline.
In his Church History or Ecclesiastical
History (Historia Ecclesiastica),
Eusebius attempted according to his own
declaration (I.i.1) to present the
history of the Church from the apostles
to his own time, with special regard to
the following points:
(1) the successions
of bishops in the principal sees;
(2) the
history of Christian teachers;
(3) the
history of heresies;
(4) the history of the
Jews;
(5) the relations to the heathen;
(6)
the martyrdoms.
He grouped his material according
to the reigns of the emperors,
presenting it as he found it in his
sources. The contents are as follows:
* Book
i: detailed introduction on Jesus
Christ
* Book ii: The history of the
apostolic time to the destruction of
Jerusalem by Titus
* Book iii: The
following time to Trajan
* Books iv and v:
the second century
* Book vi: The time from
Septimius Severus to Decius
* Book vii:
extends to the outbreak of the
persecution under Diocletian
* Book viii: more
of this persecution
* Book ix: history to
Constantine's victory over Maxentius in
the West and over Maximinus in the
East
* Book x: The reëstablishment of
the churches and the rebellion and
conquest of Licinius.
Eusebius wrote other minor historical
works, a "Life of Constantine" (Vita
Constantini) which is a eulogy.
To the class of apologetic and dogmatic
works belong:
(1) the Apology for Origen,
the first five books of which,
according to the definite statement of
Photius, were written by Pamphilus in
prison, with the assistance of
Eusebius. Eusebius added the sixth book
after the death of Pamphilus. We
possess only a Latin translation of the
first book, made by Rufinus;
(2) a treatise
against Hierocles (a Roman governor and
Neoplatonic philosopher), in which
Eusebius combated the former's
glorification of Apollonius of Tyana in
a work entitled "A Truth-loving
Discourse" (Greek, Philalethes logos);
(3)
Praeparatio evangelica ('Preparation
for the Gospel'), commonly known by its
Latin title, which attempts to prove
the excellence of Christianity over
every pagan religion and philosophy.
The Praeparatio consists of fifteen
books which have been completely
preserved. Eusebius considered it an
introduction to Christianity for
pagans. But its value for many later
readers is more because Eusebius
studded this work with so many
fascinating and lively fragments from
historians and philosophers which are
nowhere else preserved. Here alone is
preserved a summary of the writings of
the Phoenician priest Sanchuniathon of
which the accuracy has been shown by
the mythological accounts found on the
Ugaritic tables, here alone is the
account from Diodorus Siculus's sixth
book of Euhemerus' wondrous voyage to
the island of Panchaea where Euhemerus
purports to have found his true history
of the gods, and here almost alone is
preserved writings of the neo-Platonist
philosopher Atticus along with so much
else.
(4) Demonstratio evangelica ('Proof
of the Gospel') is closely connected to
the Praeparatio and comprised
originally twenty books of which ten
have been completely preserved as well
as a fragment of the fifteenth. Here
Eusebius treats of the person of Jesus
Christ. The work was probably finished
before 311;
(5) another work which
originated in the time of the
persecution, entitled "Prophetic
Extracts" (Eklogai prophetikai). It
discusses in four books the Messianic
texts of Scripture. The work is merely
the surviving portion (books 6-9) of
the General elementary introduction to
the Christian faith, now lost.
(6) the
treatise "On Divine Manifestation"
(Peri theophaneias), dating from a much
later time. It treats of the
incarnation of the Divine Logos, and
its contents are in many cases
identical with the Demonstratio
evangelica. Only fragments are
preserved;
(7) the polemical treatise "Against
Marcellus," dating from about 337;
(8) a
supplement to the last-named work,
entitled "On the Theology of the
Church," in which he defended the
Nicene doctrine of the Logos against
the party of Athanasius.
A number of writings,
belonging in this category, have been
entirely lost.
A more comprehensive work of an
exegetical nature, preserved only in
fragments, is entitled "On the
Differences of the Gospels" and was
written for the purpose of harmonizing
the contradictions in the reports of
the different Evangelists.
Eusebius follows closely in the
footsteps of Origen. No point of this
doctrine is original with Eusebius, all
is traceable to his teacher Origen.
Eusebius echos the racist anti-Jewish
views associated with the early
Christian people. Eusebius mystically
blames the calamities which befell the
Jewish nation on the Jewish people's
role in the death of Jesus:
"that from
that time seditions and wars and
mischievous plots followed each other
in quick succession, and never ceased
in the city and in all Judea until
finally the siege of Vespasian
overwhelmed them. Thus the divine
vengeance overtook the Jews for the
crimes which they dared to commit
against Christ." (Hist. Eccles. II.6:
The Misfortunes which overwhelmed the
Jews after their Presumption against
Christ)
[1] Eusebius of Caesarea, church
historian. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Eusebius_of_Caesarea.jpg
[305 AD]
[315 AD]
[319 AD]
[320 AD]
theorems that are known by the generic
name Pappus's Theorem, attributing them
to Pappus of Alexandria. They include:
*
Pappus's centroid theorem,
* the Pappus
chain,
* Pappus's harmonic theorem, and
*
Pappus's hexagon theorem
In his "Synogogue", Pappus gives no
indication of the date of the authors
whose treatises he makes use of, or of
the time at which he himself writes. If
we had no other information than can be
derived from his work, we should only
know that he was later than Claudius
Ptolemy (c90-c168) whom he often
quotes. Suidas states that he was of
the same age as Theon of Alexandria,
(father of Hypatia) who will write
commentaries on Ptolemy's great work,
the "Syntaxis mathematica", and will
flourish in the reign of Theodosius I
(A.D. 372-395). Suidas says also that
Pappus wrote a commentary upon the same
work of Ptolemy. But it seems
unbelievable that two contemporaries
should have at the same time and in the
same style composed commentaries upon
one and the same work, and yet neither
should have been mentioned by the
other, whether as friend or opponent.
It is more probable that Pappus's
commentary was written long before
Theon's, and is largely included into
the work by Theon, and that Suidas,
through failure to disconnect the two
commentaries, assigned a like date to
both. There is a chronological table by
Theon of Alexandria which, when being
copied (in a 10th-century manuscript),
has had inserted next to the name of
Diocletian (who ruled 284 CE-305 CE)
"at that time wrote Pappus". Similar
insertions give the dates for Ptolemy,
Hipparchus and other mathematical
astronomers. Rome shows that it can be
deduced from Pappus's commentary on the
Almagest that Pappos observes the
eclipse of the sun in Alexandria which
takes place on 18 October 320. This
fixes clearly the date of 320 for
Pappus's commentary on Ptolemy's
Almagest.
Pappos is born and appears to have
lived in Alexandria all his life. He
dedicates works to Hermodorus,
Pandrosion and Megethion but other than
knowing that Hermodorus is Pappus's
son, nothing is known about these other
men. Pappus refers to a friend who is
also a philosopher, named Hierius, who
encourages Pappus to study certain
mathematical problems. A reference to
Pappos in Proclus's writings says that
he headed a school in Alexandria.
[321 AD]
[1] Description
Rome-Capitole-StatueConstantin.jpg S
tatue de Constantin Ier, Musée du
Capitole, Rome Date 3 August
2007(2007-08-03) Source Oeuvre
personnelle Author
Jean-Christophe BENOIST GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/ce/Rome-Capitole-StatueC
onstantin.jpg
[07/??/325 AD]
[331 AD]
[1] Description
Rome-Capitole-StatueConstantin.jpg S
tatue de Constantin Ier, Musée du
Capitole, Rome Date 3 August
2007(2007-08-03) Source Oeuvre
personnelle Author
Jean-Christophe BENOIST GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/ce/Rome-Capitole-StatueC
onstantin.jpg
[340 AD]
[340 AD]
[357 AD]
[362 AD]
[1] 10253. JULIAN II, AD 355-363. AE20.
Reverse: VOT V MVLT XX. VF. Much better
than photo. UNKNOWN
source: http://edgarlowen.com/julian-ii-
10253.jpg
[2] 7166. JULIAN II, 360-363. GOLD
SOLIDUS, EF. UNKNOWN
source: http://edgarlowen.com/n1/b7166.j
pg
[06/26/363 AD]
[363 AD]
[364 AD]
[364 AD]
[366 AD]
[370 AD]
[1] Archbishop of Caesarea in
Cappadocia PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:BASIL.jpg
[374 AD]
Bishop of Milan, attempts to codify the
growing repertory of chants. This body
of Milanese church music, therefore,
comes to be called "Ambrosian chant".
Ambrose also composes hymns, notably
"Aeterne rerum Conditor" ("Framer of
the earth and sky") and "Deus Creator
omnium" ("Maker of all things, God most
high").
As an example of the early anti-Jewish
views of the followers of Jesus (who
ironically was Jewish if he existed at
all), in 388 Ambrose criticizes the
emperor Theodosius for having punished
a bishop who had burnt a Jewish
synagogue.
[1] Description English: St Ambrose
converting Theodosius Date
1699-1749 Source
http://www.1st-art-gallery.com/Pier
re-Subleyras/St-Ambrose-Converting-Theod
osius.html Author [show]Pierre
Subleyras (1699–1749) Link back to
Creator infobox template PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a3/St_Ambrose.jpg
[375 AD]
[375 AD]
[380 AD]
[386 AD]
[387 AD]
anti-Jewish anger felt by many early
Christian fathers is shown clearly in
the writing of "Saint" John Chrysostom
(Greek
Ιωάννη`
2; ο
Χρυσόσ`
4;ομος) (347-407),
bishop of Constantinople, who writes
"The Jews sacrifice their children to
Satan"
[1] Portrait of Saint John Chrysostom
of Antioch (Hagios Ioannis
Chrysostomos). An early Byzantine
mosaic from the Cathedral of Hagia
Sophia in Constantinople (modern
Istanbul). The mosaic is approximately
1,000 years old. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Johnchrysostom.jpg
[2] John Chrysostom, Constantinople,
early or mid 11th c. A.D. Soapstone and
highlights of gold. Location: Louvre,
Department of Decorative
Arts Photographer: Jastrow (2005) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:John_Chrysostom_Louvre_OA3970.jpg
[389 AD]
[390 AD]
students around Hypatia is firmly
established.
[391 AD]
[391 AD]
Serapeion) destroyed.
The library in the Temple to Serapis
(the Serapeion) in Alexandria is
violently destroyed by Christian people
and the temple is converted to a
Christian church.
Historian Socrates Scholasticus writes
'At the request of Theophilus, Bishop
of Alexandria, the Emperor issued an
order at this time for the demolition
of the heathen temples in that city...'
and that 'Theophilus threw down the
temple of Serapis ...The temples were
overthrown, and the bronze statues
melted down to make domestic vessels.'.
Historian Eunapius (Ευνάπιος)
(CE 346-c414) wrote that 'they wrought
havoc with the Serapeum and made war on
its statues....The foundations alone
were not removed owing to the
difficulty in moving such huge blocks
of stone.' Historian Theodoret, writes,
'The sanctuaries of the idols were
uprooted from their foundations.'
Historian Sozomen (c400-c450) describes
the Christians as having
uninterruptedly occupied the Serapeum
from its capture by Theophilus to his
own time. Historian Rufinus (who dies
in 410 CE) writes that the exterior
range of buildings round the edge of
the plateau are practically uninjured,
though void of its former pagan
occupiers, but that the great temple of
Serapis and the colonnades around it
are levelled to the ground.". Much of
the Serapeum lasts as late as the 12th
century.
[1] Description Theophilus and the
Serapeum. Bishop Theophilus of
Alexandria, en:Gospel book in hand,
stands triumphantly atop the
en:Serapeum in en:391. The cult image
of en:Serapis, crowned with the
en:modius, is visible within the temple
at the bottom. Marginal illustration
from a chronicle written in Alexandria
in the early fifth century, thus
providing a nearly contemporary
portrait of Theophilus. P. Goleniscev 6
verso. (From A. Bauer and J.
Strygowski, ''Eine alexandrinische
Weltchronik,'' Denkschriften der
Kaiserlichen Akademie der
Wissenschaften: Wien 51.2 [en:1906]:
1-204, fig. 6 verso) Date 2002-11-10
(first version); 2004-05-14 (last
version) Source Originally from
en.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. Author Original uploader was
Eloquence at en.wikipedia Later
versions were uploaded by Hephaestos at
en.wikipedia. Permission (Reusing
this file) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/34/Theophil.jpg
[2] Serapeum Temple which housed the
''daughter library'' of the Library of
Alexandria. Source
www.alexandrinelibrarian.blogspot.com U
NKNOWN
source: http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_KQyC59
HU4I0/SrRlFDYM2iI/AAAAAAAAAC4/fmxC6-MP49
U/s320/Serapis_Temple02.jpg
[08/24/394 AD]
[400 AD]
[400 AD]
[400 AD]
[1] The Nine Chapters on the
Mathematical Art Source:
http://www.chinapage.com/jiuzhang.gif P
D
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:%E4%B9%9D%E7%AB%A0%E7%AE%97%E8%A1%93.
gif
[400 AD]
[1] Part of the Huexotzinco Codex,
printed on amatl Source URL:
http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/treasures/tr
t045.html Image made in 1531 by Nahua
Indians in legal case in Mexico and
Spain against Spanish administrators
who abused them. The Indians were part
of the Cortes estate. Cortes was a
co-plantiff against the administrators
who mismanaged his estate. Image taken
form a Library of Congress page. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Huex_codex_1a_loc.jpg
[402 AD]
reference to the Mouseion in
Alexandria. Synesios (Synesius)
(c370-413 CE), who studies under
Hypatia, describes the pictures of
philosophers in the Mouseion. There is
no later reference to the Mouseion's
existence in the fifth century.
This is in Chapter 6 of "A Eulogy of
Baldness", Synesios writes: "You may
look at the pictures in the Museum, I
mean those of Diogenes and Socrates,
and whomever you please of those who in
their age were wise, and your survey
would be an inspection of bald heads."
This is evidence that the Mouseion
survived intact after the destruction
of the Sarapeion in 391. Since Synesios
is thought to have died around 414, and
there are no other references after
Synesios, it is possible that the
Mouseion was destroyed a short time
before or after the murder of Hypatia.
[1] Mosaic from the Eastern Basilica,
Cyrene. PD
source: http://www.livius.org/a/libya/cy
rene/cyrene_eastern_basilica_museum_2.jp
g
[2] Bust of Arcadius. Forum of
Theodosius, Constantinople (Arkeoloji
Müzesi, İstanbul) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.livius.org/a/1/empero
rs/istanbul_forum_theodosius_arcadius_ia
m1.JPG
[10/15/412 AD]
[10/17/412 AD]
[412 AD]
[03/??/415 AD]
Ὑπατίας) (c360 - 415), a
popular female philosopher,
mathematician and astronomer in
Alexandria is murdered by Christian
people.
Many people cite this as the end of
ancient science. Clearly, the seed of
science survived, as science grows now,
in the time we live in.
Socrates of Scholasticus, a Christian
historian alive at the time of the
murder of Hypatia writes (translated
from Greek):
"Of Hypatia the Female
Philosopher.
There was a woman at Alexandria named
Hypatia, daughter of the philosopher
Theon, who made such attainments in
literature and science, as to far
surpass all the philosophers of her own
time. Having succeeded to the school of
Plato and Plotinus, she explained the
principles of philosophy to her
auditors, many of whom came from a
distance to receive her instructions.
On account of the self-possession and
ease of manner, which she had acquired
in consequence of the cultivation of
her mind, she not unfrequently appeared
in public in presence of the
magistrates. Neither did she feel
ashamed in coming to an assembly of
men. For all men on account of her
extraordinary dignity and virtue
admired her the more. Yet even she fell
a victim to the political jealousy
which at that time prevailed. For as
she had frequent interviews with
Orestes (the Roman Prefect or Governor
of Egypt at the time ), it was
slanderously reported among the
Christian populace, that it was she who
prevented Orestes from being reconciled
to the Bishop. Some of them therefore,
hurried away by a fierce and bigoted
zeal, whose ringleader was a reader
named Peter, waylaid her returning
home, and dragging her from her
carriage, they took her to the church
called Caesareum, where they completely
stripped her, and then murdered her
with tiles {the words are
οστράκοις ανείλον,
oyster shells, but this word was
applied to brick ceiling tiles}. After
tearing her body in pieces, they took
her mangled limbs to a place called
Cinaron, and there burnt them. This
affair brought disgrace not only upon
Cyril, but also upon the whole
Alexandrian church. And surely nothing
can be farther from the spirit of
Christianity than the allowance of
massacres, fights, and transactions of
that sort. This happened in the month
of March during Lent, in the fourth
year of Cyril's episcopate, under the
tenth consulate of Honorius, and the
sixth of Theodosius."
) Alexandria, Egypt
[1] Hypatia of Alexandria, aka the
''Pagan Scholar'' Cheered for
inventing the plane astrolabe, 1
Hypatia was slaughtered by Christian
monks in AD 415. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.dctc.edu/assets/pics/
spring-2010/hypatia.jpg
[2] Hypatia was a mathematician,
astronomer, teacher, editor, inventor,
musician, and author. In March, 415
A.D. she was murdered by a mob of
fanatics on the steps of a church
called The Caesarium in Alexandria,
Egypt. She has become a symbol of
martryed Reason, feminism, and
Classical paganism. UNKNOWN
source: http://cosmographica.com/alexand
ria/images/hypatia_portrait_large.jpg
[416 AD]
Paulus Orosius describes the temples in
Alexandria as having empty bookshelves,
the contents emptied "by men of our
time". Adding this together with the
Suda reference to Theon being a member,
and the last reference to the Mouseion
from Synesios in 409 with no mention of
any destruction before his death in
414, and no mention of any public
library in Alexandria by people writing
in the 5th and 6th century, it appears
probable that the Mouseion (including
any remaining library) may have been
completely and permanently destroyed by
415 or 416.
[423 AD]
[431 AD]
Porfurios' (and other) books against
Christianity to be burned (but does not
mention the emperor Julian's
anti-christian writings).
This is the first of 3 major book
burnings that will remove any and all
writings that criticize the Christian
religion. The result will be very
effective, leaving the only surviving
works so far found to be rebuttles of
these works by Christian writers.
Turkey
[439 AD]
[448 AD]
28, 450), Eastern Roman Emperor
(408-450) orders all non-Christian
books burned. In fighting the ancient
Hellenic tradition, or "Paganism" as it
would be later called, the Christian
people destroy much of the science
learned and recorded in books stored in
temples to the traditional Greek Gods.
No remains have ever been found from
the books critical of the Christian
religion written by Kelsos, Porfurios
and others, although some of these
writings are preserved in rebuttles by
Christian writers that have survived.
With this law, the anti-Christian
writings of Porfurios will be condemned
but those of Julian are ignored.
[1] Description English: Bust of
Byzantine Empreror Theodosius II
(reigned 408–450 AD). Marble, 5th
century AD. Français : Buste de
l'empereur byzantin Théodose II
(règne 408-450 ap. J.-C.). Marbre, Ve
siècle ap.
J.-C. Date Dimensions H. 29 cm (11
¼ in.) Current
location [show](Inventory)Louvre
Museum Département des Antiquités
grecques, étrusques et romaines,
Denon, ground floor, room 29 Accession
number Ma 1036 (OA 9056) Credit
line In the royal collections since
the 16th
century Source/Photographer Marie-Lan
Nguyen (User:Jastrow),
2009 Permission (Reusing this
file) See below. Other
versions P1080088 Louvre tête
empereur Téodose II Ma1036 rwk.JPG CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Theodosius_II_L
ouvre_Ma1036.jpg/768px-Theodosius_II_Lou
vre_Ma1036.jpg
[2] THEODOSIUS II, 402-450, (son of
Arcadius) 10616. THEODOSIUS II.
AD 402-450. AV Solidus (20mm, 4.42 g,
12h). Ravenna mint. Struck AD 423-425.
Pearl-diademed, draped, and cuirassed
bust right / Emperor standing right,
holding labarum and Victory on globe,
placing foot on captive on the ground
below; R-V//COMOB. RIC X 1801; Depeyrot
7/3. Good VF. Ex Peus 369 (31 October
2001), lot 899. UNKNOWN
source: http://edgarlowen.com/theodosius
-10616.jpg
[450 AD]
(his birth year is deduced from a
horoscope cast by a disciple, Marinus,
and hence is to a degree uncertain) in
Constantinople to a family of high
social status in Lycia- his father
Particius is a high legal official,
very important in the Byzantine
Empire's court system- and raised in
Xanthus, he studies rhetoric,
philosophy and mathematics in
Alexandria, Egypt, with the intent of
pursuing a judicial position like his
father. Proklos comes back to
Constantinople part-way through his
studies when his rector, his principal
instructor (one Leonas) has business
there, and is a successful praticing
lawyer for a period.
Actually experiencing the practice of
law makes Proclus realize that he truly
prefers philosophy, so he returns to
Alexandria, and begins studying the
works of Aristotle under Olympiodorus
the Elder (he also began studying
mathematics during this period as well
with a teacher named Heron {not Hero of
Alexandria}). Eventually, this gifted
student became dissatisfied with the
level of philosophical instruction
available in Alexandria, and went to
Athens, the preeminent philosophical
center of the day, in 431 to study at
the Neoplatonic successor of the famous
Academy founded 800 years before by
Plato (in 387 BCE); there he is taught
by Plutarch of Athens and Syrianus; he
succeeds Plutarch as head of the
Academy, and is in turn succeeded on
his death by Syrianus. He dies around
aged 73, and is buried near Mount
Lycabettus in a tomb.
He lives in Athens as an unmarried
vegetarian bachelor, prosperous and
generous to his friends, until the end
of his life, except for a voluntary one
year exile, which is designed to lessen
the pressure put on him by his
political-philosophical activity,
little appreciated by the Christian
rulers; he spends the exile travelling
and being initiated into various
mystery cults as befitted his
universalist approach to religion,
trying to become "a priest of the
entire universe."
In addition to his commentaries,
Proclus writes two major systematic
works. "The Elements of Theology" is a
singular work in the history of ancient
philosophy. It consists of 211
propositions, each followed by a proof,
beginning from the existence of the One
(the first principle of all things) and
ending with the descent of individual
souls into the material world. The
Platonic Theology is a systematisation
of material from Platonic dialogues,
showing from them the characteristics
of the divine orders, the part of the
universe which is closest to the One.
Three
small works have also survived, only in
Latin translation: "Ten doubts
concerning providence"; "On providence
and fate"; and "On the existence of
evils".
He also wrote a number of minor works.
Just as a brief summary of Proklos'
views, and Neoplatonism, which is very
abstract and have no relation to actual
science but simply for context:
There are three
basic concepts in Neoplatonism:
1) "The One" (to Hen)
is the first principle in Neoplatonism.
It is the principle which produces all
Being. This idea of "The One" is
compared by many to be similar to the
idea of a God, and may be related to
the popularity of the monotheism of
Christianity.
2) "Intellect" (Nous), is the principle
which is produced below the level of
the One.
3) "Soul" (Psuche) is produced by
Intellect, and so is the third
principle in the Neoplatonic system. It
is a mind, like Intellect, but it does
not grasp all of its own content as
once.
By far the greatest transmission of
Procline ideas will be through the
Pseudo-Dionysius. This 5th century
Christian Greek author wrote under the
pseudonym Dionysius the Areopagite, the
figure converted (from Paganism) by St.
Paul in Athens. Because of this
fiction, his writings were taken to
have almost apostolic authority. He is
an original thinker, and Christian
rather than Pagan, but in his writings
can be found a great number of Procline
metaphysical principles. Another
important source for Procline influence
on the Middle Ages is Boethius'
Consolation of Philosophy, which has a
number of Proclus principles and
motifs.
[09/04/476 AD]
[480 AD]
philosopher and one of the last of the
Neoplatonists. He lives in Athens and
Alexandria toward the end of the 5th
century CE. Isidore becomes head of the
school in Athens in succession to
Marinus, who followed Proclus. Isidore
is known mainly for teaching Damaskios
the last head of the Academy.
[489 AD]
Iran, not far from the Karun
river.)
[499 AD]
आर्यभट) (CE 476-550),
Indian astronomer and mathematician,
writes in his "Aryabhatiya" (c499),
that the apparent westward motion of
the stars is due to the spherical
Earth’s rotation about its axis.
Aryabhata also correctly explains the
luminosity of the Moon and planets to
reflected sunlight.
In the 600s the astronomer Brahmagupta
will severely criticize the view of
Aryabhata I that the Earth is a
spinning sphere, a view that will
widely disseminated by Brahmagupta’s
contemporary and rival Bhaskara I.
[1] Español: Estatua de Aryabhata en
India This image of a public statue in
IUCAA Pune was photographed in May 2006
by myself, and I release all
rights. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:2064_aryabhata-crp.jpg
[500 AD]
[500 AD]
[500 AD]
[01/01/520 AD]
generally placed around 480 CE, the
same year of birth as St. Benedict.
Boethius was born to a patrician family
which had been Christian for about a
century. His father's line included two
popes and both parents count Roman
emperors among their ancestors.
Boethius was born in Rome to an ancient
and important family which included the
emperor Olybrius and many consuls. His
father Fl. Manlius Boethius held that
position in 487 after Odoacer deposed
the last Western Roman Emperor.
Boethius holds the same position in 510
in the kingdom of the Ostrogoths.
It is unknown where Boethius received
his formidable education in Greek.
Boethius may have studied in Athens,
and perhaps Alexandria. Since a
Boethius is recorded as proctor of the
school in Alexandria circa AD 470,
perhaps the younger Boethius received
some grounding in the classics from his
father or a close relative. In any
case, his accomplishment in Greek,
though traditional for his class, was
remarkable given the reduced knowledge
which accompanies the end of the empire
in this time.
As a result of his increasingly
rare education and experience, Boethius
enters the service of Theodoric the
Great, who commissions the young
Boethius to perform many roles.
[1] Initial depicting Boethius teaching
his students from folio 4r of a
manuscript of the Consolation of
Philosophy (Italy?, 1385) MS Hunter
374 (V.1.11), Glasgow University
library Source URL:
http://special.lib.gla.ac.uk/exhibns/tre
asures/boethius.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Boethius_initial_consolation_philosop
hy.jpg
[2] Boethius: Consolation of
philosophy. This early printed book has
many hand-painted illustrations
depicting Lady Philosophy and scenes of
daily life in fifteenth-century Ghent
(1485). From English Wikipedia:
en:Image:Boethius.consolation.philosophy
.jpg Original sources:
http://www.loc.gov/rr/european/guide/hum
an.html and
http://www.loc.gov/rr/european/guide/ima
ges/eu025001.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Boethius.consolation.philosophy.jpg
[528 AD]
[1] Saint Sampson the
Hospitable COPYRIGHTED FAIR USE
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Saint_Samson_the_Hospitable.jpg
[529 AD]
483-565) closes the schools of
Alexandria and Athens (including
Plato's Academy).
The head of the Academy, Damascus and 6
other philosophers seek asylum in
Persia.
Justinian also decrees that all
anti-Christian books are to be burned
in this year {exact date}. None of the
'True Doctrine" of Kelsos in the second
century, the 15 books of Porfurios'
"Against the Christians" in the third
century, and Julian's "Against the
Galileans" of the fourth century have
ever been found, however some of their
writing remains in rebuttles by
Christian writers, for example Origen's
"Against Kelsos" quotes Kelsos,
Macarius Magnes may possibly preserve
some of Porfurios' writing for which
even 3 major Christian rebuttles have
never been found, and Kurillos (Cyril)
of Alexandria's "Pro Christiana
Religione" reveals some of Julian's
writings.
Alexandria,Egypt)
[1] Artist Meister von San Vitale in
Ravenna Title Justinian I , San
Vitale (Ravenna) Deutsch: Chormosaiken
in San Vitale in Ravenna, Szene: Kaiser
Justinian und Bischof Maximilianus und
sein Hof, Detail: Büste des
Justinian Italiano: Basilica di San
Vitale a Ravenna, L'imperatore
Giustiniano I e il suo seguito.
Dettaglio della decorazione a mosaico
bizantina, compiuta entro il 547.
Dettaglio: Giustiniano
I. Date Deutsch: vor 547 English:
before 547 Medium Deutsch:
Mosaik Current location San Vitale
in Ravenna. Ravenna. Notes Deutsch:
Ravennatische Schule,
italo-byzantinische Werkstatt,
Auftraggeber: Bischof Maximilian und
Bankier Julianus, Mosaik im
Chor Source/Photographer The Yorck
Project: 10.000 Meisterwerke der
Malerei. DVD-ROM, 2002. ISBN
3936122202. Distributed by DIRECTMEDIA
Publishing GmbH. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Meister_von_San
_Vitale_in_Ravenna.jpg/778px-Meister_von
_San_Vitale_in_Ravenna.jpg
[2] Description English: Basilica of
Sant'Apollinare Nuovo (mosaic of
Justinian I) Date 2008 Source Own
work Author Testus CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a2/Sant%27Apollinare_Nuo
vo_%28Justinian_I%29.jpg
[529 AD]
Christian institutions, the monastery
iwas constructed on top of an older
pagan site, a temple of Apollo that
crowned the hill, enclosed by a
fortifying wall above the small town of
Cassino, still largely pagan at the
time and recently devastated by the
Goths. Benedict's first act is to smash
the sculpture of Apollo and destroy the
altar. Benedict rededicats the site to
John the Baptist.
[1] Detail from fresco by Fra
Angelico c. 1437-1446 museum of san
marca, florence PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Fra_Angelico_031.jpg
[2] The restored Abbey at dusk. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Monte_Cassino_Opactwo_1.JPG
[529 AD]
[1] Mosaic of Justinian I, obtained
from the Macedonia FAQ website,
http://faq.Macedonia.org/ The mosiac
itself is in the San Vitale church in
en:Ravenna, Italy. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Justinian.jpg
[2] Alphabetical index on the Corpus
Juris (Index omnium legum et
paragraphorum quae in Pandectis, Codice
et Institutionibus continentur, per
literas digestus.), printed by Gulielmo
Rovillio, Lyon, 1571 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Digesto_01.jpg
[530 AD]
[533 AD]
[12/27/537 AD]
church that was built on the same site
during the 300s. Following the
destruction of the first church, a
second was built by Constantius, the
son of Constantine the Great, but was
burned down during the Nika riots of
532, before being rebuilt by
Justinian.
Hagia Sophia is one of the greatest
surviving examples of Byzantine
architecture. Of great artistic value
is its decorated interior with mosaics
and marble pillars and coverings. The
temple itself is so richly and
artistically decorated that Justinian
proclaimed "Solomon, I have surpassed
thee!"
(Νενίκη
54;ά σε
Σολομώ_
7;). Justinian himself oversees the
completion of the greatest cathedral
ever built up to that time, and it will
remain the largest cathedral for 1,000
years until the completion of the
cathedral in Seville.
The name comes from the Greek name
Αγία
Σοφία, a
contraction of Ναός
της
Αγίας
του
Θεού
Σοφίας
(Church of the Holy Wisdom of God).
The Eastern Orthodox church will be
converted to a mosque in 1453, and then
converted into a museum in 1935, the
Ayasofya Museum, in Istanbul, Turkey.
[1] Hagia Sophia GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Aya_sofya.jpg
[2] Interior of the Hagia Sophia, June
1994 [t being restored] GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Hagia-Sofia-Int-01s.jpg
[540 AD]
primary source of information for the
rule of the emperor Justinian.
Procopius was the author of a history
in eight books of the wars fought by
Justinian I, a panegyric (a formal
public speech delivered in high praise
of a person or thing) on Justinian's
public works throughout the empire, and
a book known as the Secret History
(Greek: Anekdota) that claims to report
the scandals that Procopius could not
include in his published history.
The first seven books of his History of
Justinian's Wars, which were published
as a unit, seem to have been largely
completed by 545.
The Secret History will be discovered
centuries later in the Vatican Library
and published in 1623, but its
existence is already known from the
Suda, which refers to it as the
Anekdota ("the unpublished
composition"). The Secret History
covers the same years as the seven
books of the History of Justinian's
Wars and appears to have been written
after they were published. Current
consensus generally dates it to 550, or
maybe as late as 562.
The De Aedificiis tells us nothing
further about Belisarius but it takes a
sharply different attitude towards
Justinian. He is presented as an
idealised Christian emperor who built
churches for the glory of God and
defenses for the safety of his subjects
and who showed particular concern for
the water supply. Theodora, who was
dead when this panegyric was written,
is mentioned only briefly but
Procopius' praise of her beauty is
fulsome. The panegyric is likely
written at Justinian's request,
however, and so it is doubtful if its
sentiments are sincere.
Procopius belongs to the school of late
antique secular historians who continue
the traditions of the Second Sophistic;
they write in Attic Greek, their models
are Herodotus and especially
Thucydides, and their subject matter is
secular history. They avoid vocabulary
unknown to Attic Greek and insert an
explanation when they have to use
contemporary words. Thus Procopius
explains to his readers that ekklesia,
meaning a Christian church, is the
equivalent of a temple or shrine and
that monks are "the most temperate of
Christians...whom men are accustomed to
call monks." (Wars 2.9.14; 1.7.22) In
classical Athens, monks were unknown
and an ekklesia was the assembly of
Athenian citizens which passed the
laws.
The secular historians dismiss the
history of the Christian church, which
they leave to ecclesiastical history-a
genre that was founded by Eusebius of
Caesarea. However, Averil Cameron has
argued convincingly that Procopius'
works reflect the tensions between the
classical and Christian models of
history in 6th century Byzantium.
Procopius indicates (Secret History
26.18) that he plans to write an
ecclesiastical history himself and, if
he had, he would probably have followed
the rules of that genre. But, as far as
we know, the ecclesiastical history
remained unwritten.
[1] Hagia Sophia GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Aya_sofya.jpg
[2] Interior of the Hagia Sophia, June
1994 [t being restored] GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Hagia-Sofia-Int-01s.jpg
[542 AD]
[1] Hospital Hôtel-Dieu : patio
interior
source: http://www.lyon.fr/vdl/sections/
es/tourisme/histoire/?aIndex=2
[589 AD]
[600 AD]
mast for a sail.
In this sense a keel refers
to a fin that projects from the bottom
of a ship that helps to keep the ship
balanced (Confusingly the word "keel"
may also refer to a structural beam
that serves as the foundation of a
ship).
[600 AD]
windmill uses a vertical shaft and
horizontal sails to grind grain.
[1] (Images via: Ullesthorpe,
BluePlanet, DeutschesMuseum and
WorldofEnergy) UNKNOWN
source: http://cdn.webecoist.com/wp-cont
ent/uploads/2009/01/ancient-persian-wind
mills.jpg
[600 AD]
(CE 768–814), will impose Gregorian
chant on his kingdom, where another
liturgical tradition—the Gallican
chant—is in common use. During the
700s and 800s, a process of
assimilation takes place between
Gallican and Gregorian chants; and the
chant in this evolved form is the what
has reached us in present times.
[1] A dedication miniature from the a
11th century manuscript of St.
Gregory's Moralia in Job (Bamberg,
Staatsbibliothek, MS Msc. Bibl. 84).
The miniature shows the scribe, Bebo of
Seeon Abbey, presenting the manuscript
to the Holy Roman Emperor, Henry II. In
the upper left the author is seen
writing the text under divine
inspiration. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/ec/BambergGregoryUnkFolD
edicationMin.jpg
[604 AD]
[1] Map of the Three Kingdoms of Korea,
at the end of the 5th century, with the
largest expansion of Goguryeo. Hanseong
was initially the capital of Baekje.
Note that the spellings of the
countries and cities may differ
significantly in different
sources. See also: Image:Three
Kingdoms of Korea blank.png for a blank
map. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Three_Kingdoms_of_Korea_Map.png
[613 AD]
Arabia)
[1] Muhammd solves a dispute over
lifting the black stone into position
at al-Ka'ba. Note from pp. 100-101 of
''The illustrations to the World
history of Rashid al-Din / David Talbot
Rice ; edited by Basil Gray. Edinburgh
: Edinburgh University Press, c1976.''
- In the center, Muhammad, with two
long hair plaits, places the stone on a
carpet held at the four corners by
representatives of the four tribes, so
that all have the honor of lifting it.
The carpet is a kelim from Central
Asia. Behind, two other men lift the
black curtain which conceals the doors
of the sancuary. This work may be
assigned to the Master of the Scenes
from the Life of the Prophet. Source
Jami' al-Tavarikh (''The Compendium of
Chronicles'' or ''The Universal
Histroy'') This illustration is in a
folio in the Oriental Manuscript
Section of the Edinburgh University
Library, Special Collections and
Archives Date 1315 Author Rashid
Al-Din The earliest surviving image
of Muhammad from Rashid al-Din's Jami'
al-Tawarikh, approximately 1315,
depicting the episode of the Black
Stone. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Mohammed_kaaba_1315.jpg
[633 AD]
Spain, to Severianus and Theodora, part
of an influential family who were
instrumental in the political-religious
maneuvering that converted the
Visigothic kings from Arianism to
Catholicism. Isidore receives his
elementary education in the Cathedral
school of Seville. In this institution,
which was the first of its kind in
Spain, the trivium (a theory of
education which teaches the three
subjects grammar, logic, and rhetoric)
and quadrivium (a secondary more
advanced education of the four
subjects: arithmetic, geometry, music,
and astronomy) were taught by a body of
learned men, among whom was the
archbishop, Leander. Isidore applies
himself with such diligence that he
learns Latin, Greek and Hebrew in a
short time. Shockingly the quadrivium
is considered preparatory work for the
serious study of philosophy and
theology, which are highly abstract and
largely fraudulent in my opinion.
Whether Isidore ever embraced monastic
life or not is not known, but though he
may never have been affiliated with any
of the religious orders, he esteems
them highly, on his elevation to the
episcopate (to bishop) he immediately
constitutes himself protector of the
monks and in 619 he pronounces anathema
(denouncement and excommunication)
against any ecclesiastic who should in
any way disturb the monasteries.
On the death of Leander, Isidore
succeeded to the See (the jurisdiction
of a bishop) of Seville.
His long incumbency in this office is
spent in a period of disintegration and
transition. The ancient institutions
and classic learning of the Roman
Empire are fast disappearing. In Spain
a new civilization is beginning to
evolve itself from the blending racial
elements that made up its population.
For almost two centuries the Goths had
been in full control of Spain, and
their uneducated manners and contempt
of learning threaten greatly to put
back the progress of civilization in
Spain.
Isidore supports the intolerant
single-minded view of Christianity and
works to end Arianism, the new heresy
of Acephales, and all other
interpretations of Christianity.
Isidore presides over the Second
Council of Seville, begun 13 November
619, in the reign of Sisebut. The
bishops of Gaul and Narbonne attend, as
well as the Spanish prelates. In the
Council's Acts the nature of Christ is
fully set forth, countering Arian
conceptions.
At the Fourth National Council of
Toledo, begun 5 December 633, all the
bishops of Spain are in attendance. St.
Isidore, though far advanced in years,
presides over its deliberations, and is
the originator of most of its
enactments. The position and deference
granted to the king is remarkable. The
church is free and independent, yet
bound in solemn allegiance to the
acknowledged king: nothing is said of
allegiance to the bishop of Rome.
[1] Holy Isidor of Sevilla,
bishop between 1628 and
1682 Bartolomé Esteban Murillo [t
perhaps important to note that no
paintings or drawings exist of Isadore
(to my knowledge and I haven't
searched) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Isidor_von_Sevilla.jpeg
[2] Statue of Isidore of Seville,
outside of the Biblioteca Nacional de
España, in Madrid. San Isidoro. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:SanIsidoroBibNac.JPG
[640 AD]
[640 AD]
fire was invented around 670 in
Constantinople by Kallinikos
(Callinicus), an architect from
Heliopolis in Syria (now Baalbek,
Lebanon). This is the first reported
use of a flame throwing weapon.
[1] Depiction of Greek fire in the
Madrid Skylitzes manuscript. Image
from an illuminated manuscript showing
greek fire in use. From the Skylitzes
manuscript in Madrid PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Greekfire-madridskylitzes1.jpg
[642 AD]
[642 AD]
[660 AD]
Île de la Cité, its original
location, and is now recognized for
extensive support for charities and for
the exceptional quality of doctors and
surgeons who have been residents at the
facility.
[1] Main entrance of the Hôtel-Dieu,
in 2007 GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Hotel_Dieu_Paris_P1200006.jpg
[680 AD]
[685 AD]
[713 AD]
scientific, historical and theological,
reflecting the range of his writings
from music and metrics to Scripture
commentaries. Bede quotes Pliny the
Elder, Virgil, Lucretius, Ovid, Horace
and other classical writers, but with
some disapproval. He knows some Greek,
but no Hebrew. Bede writes in Latin.
The most important and best known of
his works is the Historia ecclesiastica
gentis Anglorum, giving in five books
and 400 pages the history of England,
ecclesiastical and political, from the
time of Caesar to the date of its
completion (731). The first twenty-one
chapters, treating of the period before
the mission of Augustine of Canterbury,
are compiled from earlier writers such
as Orosius, Gildas, Prosper of
Aquitaine, the letters of Pope Gregory
I and others, with the insertion of
legends and traditions.
After 596, documentary sources, which
Bede took pains to obtain throughout
England and from Rome, are used, as
well as oral testimony, which he
employed with critical consideration of
its value. He cites his references and
is very concerned about the sources of
all his sources, which creates an
important historical chain.
The Historia, like other historical
writing from this period cannot be
expected to have the same degree of
objectivity as modern historical
writings. It was indeed a form of
literature, a mixture of fact, legend
and literature. For example, Bede took
liberties by making up fictional
quotations from people who were not his
contemporaries.
In Historia Ecclesiastica (I.2), he
creates a method of referring to years
prior to the Christian era (anno
Domini), which the monk Dionysius
Exiguus created in 525. He uses "ante
incarnationis dominicae tempus" (before
the time of the incarnation of the
Lord). This and similar Latin terms are
roughly equivalent to the English
before Christ.
The noted historian of science, George
Sarton, called the eighth century "The
Age of Bede;" clearly Bede must be
considered as an important scientific
figure, even though his actual
scientific contributions are minimal.
He writes several major works: a work
"On the Nature of Things", modeled in
part after the work of the same title
by Isidore of Seville; a work "On
Time", providing an introduction to the
principles of computing the correct
time for Easter; and a longer work on
the same subject; "On the Reckoning of
Time", which will become the
cornerstone of clerical scientific
education during the so-called
Carolingian renaissance of the ninth
century. He also writes several shorter
letters and essays discussing specific
aspects of computus and a treatise on
grammar and on figures of speech for
his pupils.
"The Reckoning of Time" includes an
introduction to the traditional ancient
and medieval view of the cosmos,
including an explanation of how the
spherical earth influences the changing
length of daylight, of how the seasonal
motion of the Sun and Moon influences
the changing appearance of the New Moon
at evening twilight, and a quantitative
relation between the changes of the
Tides at a given place and the daily
motion of the moon. (Wallis 2004, pp.
82-85, 307-312). Since the focus of his
book is calculation, Bede gives
instructions for computing the date of
Easter and the related time of the
Easter Full Moon, for calculating the
motion of the Sun and Moon through the
zodiac, and for many other calculations
related to the calendar.
For calendric purposes, Bede makes a
new calculation of the age of the world
since the Creation and begins the
practice of dividing the Christian era
into BC and AD. Due to his innovations
in computing the age of the world, he
is accused of heresy at the table of
Bishop Wilfred, his chronology being
contrary to accepted calculations. Once
informed of the accusations of these
"lewd rustics," Bede refutes them in
his Letter to Plegwin (Wallis 2004, pp.
xxx, 405-415).
[1] Depiction of the Venerable Bede
(CLVIIIv) from the Nuremberg Chronicle,
1493. From:
http://www.beloit.edu/~nurember/book/ima
ges/People/Early_Christian_Medieval/ PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Nuremberg_Chronicle_Venerable_Bede.jp
g
[2] ''The Venerable Bede Translates
John'' by J. D. Penrose PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Venbedes.jpg
[723 AD]
[751 AD]
(Arabic: جابر بن حيان) (CE
c721-c815), with Latinised name Geber,
is the first of the important Arab
alchemists and introduces the
experimental method into alchemy. Jabir
is credited with being the first to
prepare and identify sulfuric and other
acids.
Jabir gives accurate descriptions of
valuable chemical experiments. Jabir
describes ammonium chloride, shows how
to prepare white lead, prepares weak
nitric acid, and distills vinegar to
get strong acetic acid. Jabir also
works with dyes and metals, and
experiments with methods for refining
metals. Jabir writes numerous works on
alchemy, although many people will
later use his name.
[1] Portrait of Jabir ibn Hayyan
http://histoirechimie.free.fr/Lien/Geber
.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Geber.jpg
[2] alchemist Jabir ibn Hayyan, from a
15th c. European portrait of ''Geber'',
Codici Ashburnhamiani 1166, Biblioteca
Medicea Laurenziana, Florence, public
domain PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jabir_ibn_Hayyan.jpg
[760 AD]
[770 AD]
Diamond Sūtra.
[1] A page from the Diamond Sutra,
printed in the 9th year of Xiantong Era
of the Tang Dynasty, i.e. 868 CE.
Currently located in a museum in
London. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jingangjing.gif
[770 AD]
Possibly around the 500s CE, carved
wood block appears as a substitute to
pressing paper onto marble pillars and
seals covered with ink. First, all of
the text is written in ink on a sheet
of fine paper, then the written side of
the sheet is applied to the smooth
surface of a block of wood, coated with
a rice paste that retains the ink of
the text. Next, an engraver cuts away
the uninked areas so that the text
stands out in relief and in reverse. To
make a print, the wood block is then
inked with a paintbrush, a sheet of
paper spread on it, and the back of the
sheet rubbed with a brush. Only one
side of the sheet can be printed. The
oldest known printed works are made by
this technique. In Japan about
764–770, Buddhist incantations
ordered by Empress Shōtoku are printed
using this technique, and in China in
868, the first known book, the Diamond
Sūtra is printed using wood blocks.
[1]
http://specialcollections.wichita.edu/ex
hibits/aitchison/images/aitch05.jpg UNK
NOWN
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jingangjing.gif
[2] Printed sutra enclosed in a wood
pagoda Commissioned by the Empress
Shotoku-tenno in 764 AD (r.
765-769) Japan, Hyakumanto 19 cm x
10.3 cm pagoda and 7 x 45 cm scroll;
wood and paper UNKNOWN
source: http://specialcollections.wichit
a.edu/exhibits/aitchison/images/aitch05.
jpg
[781 AD]
Flaccus Albinus Alcuinus (Alcuin)
(oLKWiN) (c.732-May 19, 804) a scholar,
ecclesiastic, poet and teacher from
York, England, accepts an invitation
from Charlesmagne to be head of
education for Charlemagne's kingdom
which is most of Western Europe. In the
Palace School of Charlemagne, Alcuin
will revolutionize the educational
standards of the Palace School,
introducing Charlemagne to the liberal
arts and creates an atmosphere of
scholarship and learning. In Aachen,
Alcuin designs a method of writing
"Carolingian minuscule" to fit as much
text on the expensive parchment. This
symbol set is the ancestor of
lower-case letters. All writing before
this is done in capital (or majuscule)
letters.
In my opinion, while possibly saving
space on paper, lower case has
complicated language, and the most
simple and logical representation of
sound with symbols is a single
"one-letter-for-one-sound" phonetic
alphabet that can be used for all human
languages.
England
[1] Raban Maur (left), supported by
Alcuin (middle), dedicates his work to
Archbishop Otgar of Mainz
(Right) Hrabanus Maurus, von Alcuin
empfohlen, übergibt sein Werk dem
Erzbischof von Mainz,
Otgar Carolingian
Manuscript manuscriptum Fuldense ca.
831/40, Österreichische
Nationalbibliothek Wien PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Raban-Maur_Alcuin_Otgar.jpg
[2] Page of text (folio 160v) from a
Carolingian Gospel Book (British
Library, MS Add. 11848), written in
Carolingian minuscule. Taken from
http://www.bl.uk/catalogues/illuminatedm
anuscripts/record.asp?MSID=8614&CollID=2
7&NStart=11848 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:BritLibAddMS11848Fol160rText.jpg
[01/01/789 AD]
[1] No description from Charlemagne's
lifetime exists.[2] Charlemagne and
Pippin the Hunchback (Karl der Große
und Pippin der Bucklige) 10th
century copy of a lost original, which
was made back between 829 and 836 in
Fulda for Eberhard von Friaul PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Karl_der_Grosse_-_Pippin_der_Bucklige
.jpg
[2] A portrait of Charlemagne by
Albrecht Dürer that was painted
several centuries after Charlemagne's
death. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Charlemagne-by-Durer.jpg
[01/01/796 AD]
Tours where scribes are trained to
carefully copy manuscripts. The new
Carolingian miniscule alphabet letters
created by Alcuin will spread from text
copied here and ultimately develop into
the miniscule (or lower case) letters
used today.
[1] Raban Maur (left), supported by
Alcuin (middle), dedicates his work to
Archbishop Otgar of Mainz
(Right) Hrabanus Maurus, von Alcuin
empfohlen, übergibt sein Werk dem
Erzbischof von Mainz,
Otgar Carolingian
Manuscript manuscriptum Fuldense ca.
831/40, Österreichische
Nationalbibliothek Wien PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Raban-Maur_Alcuin_Otgar.jpg
[2] Page of text (folio 160v) from a
Carolingian Gospel Book (British
Library, MS Add. 11848), written in
Carolingian minuscule. Taken from
http://www.bl.uk/catalogues/illuminatedm
anuscripts/record.asp?MSID=8614&CollID=2
7&NStart=11848 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:BritLibAddMS11848Fol160rText.jpg
[800 AD]
in China.
[800 AD]
years after being invented in China.
[800 AD]
instrument. Plucking of stringed
instruments goes back at least 5000
years, but using a bow to play a
stringed instrument is a more recent
invention, dating to around the 800s
CE.
(Central Asia)
[1] Fig 1: Byzantine, ivory casket
c.1000 (from Museo Nazionale, Florence,
Coll. Carrand, No.26) - earliest
depiction of a rebec like instrument.
Has pear shaped body blending into long
narrow neck. There is a definite
anchorpoint at the base, with a kind of
fleur tailpiece, though the pegs appear
to be missing from the depiction (no
other anchorpoint is clearly
indicated). There are only two strings,
and the bow is very long and narrow
(though it may simply be the artist
trying the show that the bow is
perpendicular to the surface of the
strings, thus appearing flat when
viewed edge on). No sound holes are
shown, the soundboard seems to be a
distinct, attached piece (possibly a
skin covering much like in rababs).
This is the instrument in
transition. PD
source: http://crab.rutgers.edu/~pbutler
/ob09.jpg
[2] Fig 2: Spanish, Catalan Psalter,
c.1050. (''King David and musicians
tuning their instruments'' in
Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris, MS Lat.
11550, fol. 7v)- Shows a normal pear
body shape. Three distinct strings,
attached to a triangular tailpiece at
the base, and to vertically mounted
pegs at the other end. The pegbox is a
round disk that appears to be made of
the same piece as the neck/body,
suggesting that this is a unibody
construction. Again a little endpiece
or endpeg is indicated. There are two
round sound holes set far back on the
instrument. The bow is a simple curved
bow with end pressure grip (see below).
This image is also somewhat suspect
from the distortion of the left hand,
which has the fingers curling backwards
rather than forward as they actually
must. PD
source: http://crab.rutgers.edu/~pbutler
/ob25.jpg
[815 AD]
Wisdom).
Caliph al-Mamun founds the "Bayt
al-Hikma" (House of Wisdom) in Baghdad,
Iraq. (Some people argue that
al-Mamun's father al-Rashid founded the
Bayt al-Hikma). A library and
observatory are joined to this house.
In the House of Wisdom, many works will
be translated from Greek, Persian and
Indian into Arabic. Many original works
will be created here too. The House of
Wisdom recruits and supports the most
talented scholars.
[1] Harun al-Rashid: (ca: 763-809) was
the fifth and most famous Abbasid
Caliph. Ruling from 786 until 809, his
reign and the fabulous court over which
he held sway are immortalized in The
Book of One Thousand and One Nights PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Harun_Al-Rashid_and_the_World_of_the_
Thousand_and_One_Nights.jpg
[2] Julius Köckert's painting of
Harun al-Rashid receiving the
delegation of Charlemagne demonstrates
the latter's recognition of Hārūn
ar-Rashīd as the most powerful man of
his culture. The painting by Julius
Köckert (Koeckert) (1827-1918), dated
1864, is located at Maximilianeum
Foundation in Munich. It is Oil on
Canvas. This Image of the painting was
created and provided by Zereshk. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Harun-Charlemagne.jpg
[820 AD]
dates to here. This ship is a
clinker-built ship made of oak.
Norway
[1] The Oseberg longship (From the
Viking Ship Museum, Oslo, Norway) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Oseberg_longship.png
[2] Detail from Osebergskipet,
Vikingskipmuseet, Oslo CC
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Osebergskipet-Detail.jpg
[825 AD]
9), and decimal point notation.
Al-Khwārizmī (Arabic: محمد بن
موسى الخوارزمي)
(oLKWoriZmE), as a scholar in the House
of Wisdom in Baghdad, writes a book on
elementary algebra, "al-Kitāb
al-mukhtaṣar fī ḥisāb al-jabr
waʾl-muqābala" ("The Compendious Book
on Calculation by Completion and
Balancing"). When this book is
translated into Latin in the 1100s, the
word for transposition "al-jabr" will
come to represent the science started
by Diofantos (Latin: Diophantus),
"Algebra". Algebra is the branch of
mathematics that involves solving
equations by using methods such as
transposition and cancellation.
[1] A page from Al-Khwārizmī's
al-Kitāb al-mukhtaṣar fī ḥisāb
al-jabr wa-l-muqābala. Source John
L. Esposito. The Oxford History of
Islam. Oxford University Press. ISBN
0195107993. Date c. 830 Author
al-Khwarizmi PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Al-Kitab_al-mukhtasar_fi_hisab_al-jab
r_wa-l-muqabala.jpg
[2] Muḥammad ibn Mūsā
al-Ḵwārizmī. (He is on a Soviet
Union commemorative stamp, issued
September 6, 1983. The stamp bears his
name and says ''1200 years'', referring
to the approximate anniversary of his
birth). ПОЧТА СССР 1983
POČTA SSSR 1983 Soviet Post
1983 4к 4k 4 kopeks 1200 ЛЕТ
1200 LET 1200 years Мухаммед
аль·Хорезми Muxammed
al′·Xorezmi Muhammad
al-Khwarizmi Source:
http://jeff560.tripod.com/ specifically
http://jeff560.tripod.com/khowar.jpg
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Abu_Abdullah_Muhammad_bin_Musa_al-Khw
arizmi.jpg
[829 AD]
Mosul
[833 AD]
major work, his Kitāb ṣūrat
al-arḍ ("The Image of the Earth";
translated as "Geography"), which
presents the coordinates of localities
in the known world based, ultimately,
on those in the Geography of Ptolemy
(fl. CE 127–145) but with improved
values for the length of the
Mediterranean Sea and the location of
cities in Asia and Africa.
Al-Khwārizmī also assists in the
construction of a world map for
al-Maʾmūn and participates in a
project to determine the circumference
of the Earth by measuring the length of
a degree of a meridian through the
plain of Sinjār in Iraq.
Al-Khwarizmi overestimates the
circumference of earth as (40,000
miles, actual is 25,000 miles).(units)
Al-Khwārizmī also compiles a set of
astronomical tables (Zīj), based on a
variety of Hindu and Greek sources.
This work includes a table of sines,
evidently for a circle of radius 150
units.
[1] Muḥammad ibn Mūsā
al-Ḵwārizmī. (He is on a Soviet
Union commemorative stamp, issued
September 6, 1983. The stamp bears his
name and says ''1200 years'', referring
to the approximate anniversary of his
birth). ПОЧТА СССР 1983
POČTA SSSR 1983 Soviet Post
1983 4к 4k 4 kopeks 1200 ЛЕТ
1200 LET 1200 years Мухаммед
аль·Хорезми Muxammed
al′·Xorezmi Muhammad
al-Khwarizmi Source:
http://jeff560.tripod.com/ specifically
http://jeff560.tripod.com/khowar.jpg
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Abu_Abdullah_Muhammad_bin_Musa_al-Khw
arizmi.jpg
[2] Hubert Daunicht's reconstruction
of al-Khwārizmī's
planisphere COPYRIGHTED FAIR USE
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Al-Khwarizmi%27s_map.png
[841 AD]
his father was governor, and Kufa had
become a center of the sciences.
Al-Kindi becomes especially interested
in the philosophical sciences after
going to Baghdad. By this time a major
movement of translation (from Greek)
into Arabic had begun (in Baghdad).
al-Kindi's full name is:
Abu Yusuf Ya'qub
ibn Ishaq al-Kindi
Many Arabic names follow a
similarf pattern. "Abu Yusuf", abu is
"father of" and Yusef is Joseph, so
al-Kindi had a child named Yusef.
Ya'qub is the person's first name, in
this case "Jacob". "ibn Ishaq", "ibn"
is "son of", "Ishaq" is "Isaac", so
al-Kindi's father's name is Ishaq.
Finally, the last name is where they
are from or a profession associated
with their family, "al-Kindi" is from
the tribe of Kindah.
[1] Al-Kindi depicted in a Syrian Post
stamp. http://www.apprendre-en-ligne.ne
t/crypto/stat/Al-Kindi.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Al-Kindi.jpg
[2] Abū-Yūsuf Ya''qūb
ibn Ishāq
al-Kindī http://www.islamonline.co
m/cgi-bin/news_service/profile_story.asp
?service_id=982
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Al-kindi.jpeg
[850 AD]
The earliest Chinese records of
gunpowder indicate that it was a
byproduct of Taoist alchemical efforts
to develop an elixir of immortality. A
book dating from c. 850 CE called
"Classified Essentials of the
Mysterious Tao of the True Origin of
Things" warns of one elixir:
"Some have
heated together sulfur, realgar and
saltpeter with honey; smoke and flames
result, so that their hands and faces
have been burnt, and even the whole
house where they were working burned
down.".
The earliest gunpowder, black powder is
a mixture of saltpeter (potassium
nitrate), sulfur, and charcoal.
[1] Description The earliest known
written description of the formula for
gunpowder, from the Chinese Wujing
Zongyao military manuscript that was
compiled by 1044 during the Song
Dynasty of China. It was written and
compiled by the 11th century Song
scholars Zeng Gongliang (曾公亮),
Ding Du (丁度), and Yang Weide
(楊惟德). The entry for this
specific page is headed with the title
''method for making the fire-chemical''
(''huo yao fa''). This picture can
also be found on page 119 of Joseph
Needham's book Science and Civilization
in China: Volume 5, Part 7. Date
11 August 2007 Source Own
work (My book) Author
PericlesofAthens Permission (Reus
ing this file) See below. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c2/Chinese_Gunpowder_For
mula.JPG
[850 AD]
Caliph al-Mutawakkil to the post of
chief physician to the court, a
position that ibn Ishaq will hold for
the rest of his life. Hunayn travels to
Syria, Palestine, and Egypt to get
ancient Greek manuscripts. From his
translators' school in Baghdad, Ibn
Ishaq and his students will transmit
Arabic and (more frequently) Syriac
versions of classical Greek texts
throughout the Arabic population.
Ibn Ishaq means "son of Isaac".
[850 AD]
held no political or military positions
of importance but took a keen interest
in religious debates that had
far-reaching political importance.
[859 AD]
Qaraouine in Fès, Morocco. The oldest
University on Earth, however only
Muslims are admitted into the mosque.
[1] Fes
(Maroc) Mosquee_El_Qaraouiyyine
(porte) Auteur : Fabos
1/4/05 Interior of the Al Karaouine
Mosque and University PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Fes_Mosquee_El_Qaraouiyyine.jpg
[876 AD]
The Babylonians appear to have
developed a placeholder symbol that
functioned as a zero by the 3rd century
BC, but its precise meaning and use is
still uncertain.
There is no doubt that the symbol for
the number zero is invented in India,
but exactly how and for what purpose is
unclear.
The oldest symbol "0" in India that can
be assigned a definite date, is
inscribed on a temple in Gwalior.
[1] Bill Casselman (University of
British Columbia), American
Mathematical Society, ''All for
Nought'' http://www.ams.org/samplings/f
eature-column/fcarc-india-zero PERSONAL
USE OK UNKNOWN
source: http://www.ams.org/samplings/fea
ture-column/fcarc-india-zero
[2] The temple is dated to 876 A. D.
and is much older than the current
fort, whose construction was begun in
the late 15th century, although it was
built quite a while after the original
one constructed on the plateau. It is,
like many temples in India, monolithic
- that is to say, originally carved out
of one single chunk of stone. It was
dedicated to Vishnu, but is no longer
an active site of worship. PERSONAL
USE OK UNKNOWN
source: http://www.ams.org/featurecolumn
/images/february2007/temple3-small.jpg
[876 AD]
family settled in Harran (now in
Turkey), a city noted as the seat of a
Hellenized Semitic astronomical cult,
the Sabians, of which Thabit was a
member. By calling themselves Sabians,
after a group mentioned in the Qur'an,
the cult members established themselves
as "People of the Book" and therefore
were freed from the requirement of
conversion to Islam.
The Sabians of Harran, are a sect of
Hermetists, often confused with the
Mandaeans. As star-worshippers, Sabians
show a great interest in astronomy,
astrology, magic, and mathematics. This
religious cult is centered around the
symbolism of the planets, and is very
interested in the Pythagorean
mathematical and mystical tradition.
This sect lives will near the main
center of the Caliphate until 1258,
when the Mongols will destroy their
last shrine. During Muslim rule, they
are a protected minority, and around
the time of al-Mutawakkil's reign their
town will become a center for
philosophical, esoteric, and medical
learning. They are joined by the
descendants of pagan Greek scholars
who, having been persecuted in Europe,
settled in lands that became part of
the Abbasid caliphate. In this time the
Muslims are greatly interested in Greek
culture and science, collecting and
translating many ancient Greek works in
the fields of philosophy and
mathematics. Although they later became
Arabic speakers, in pre-Islamic times,
it was common for Sabians to speak
Greek.
Some sources describe Thabit as a money
changer in Harran, the sources give two
different accounts of his life.
Thabit and his pupils live in the midst
of the most intellectually vibrant, and
probably the largest, city of this
time, Baghdad. Ibn Qurra occupies
himself with mathematics, astronomy,
astrology, magic, mechanics, medicine,
and philosophy. His native language is
Syriac, which is the eastern dialect of
Aramaic (a semitic language) from
Edessa, and Thabit knows Greek well.
Only a few of Thabit's works are
preserved in their original form.
Through the influence of the
mathematician Muhammad ibn Musa ibn
Shakir (father of the three famous Banu
Musa mathematician brothers), late in
his life Thabit ibn Qurrah will become
court astronomer for the 'Abbasid
caliph al-Mu'tadid (reigns 892-902) and
become the Caliph's personal friend.
Several of Thabit ibn Qurrah's works
will be translated into Latin and
Hebrew and will prove to be influential
in the Latin West. A son, Sinan ibn
Thabit, will become a renowned
physician and director of a hospital in
Baghdad, and a grandson, Ibrahim ibn
Sinan, will win fame as an important
mathematician.
[1] None, COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.islam.org.br/Ibn_Qurr
a.gif
[2] None COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.renaissanceastrology.
com/thabit.html
[878 AD]
reconciling the long established laws
of the Christian kingdoms of Kent,
Mercia and Wessex. These formed
Alfred"s "Deemings" or Book of "Dooms"
(Book of Laws). The Doom Book, Code of
Alfred or Legal Code of Aelfred the
Great, was the code of laws (dooms,
laws, or judgments) compiled by Alfred
the Great from three prior Saxon codes,
to which he prefixed the Ten
Commandments of Moses, and incorporated
rules of life from the Mosaic Code and
the Christian code of ethics. The title
"Doom book" (originally dom-boc or
dom-boke) comes from dōm
(pronounced "doom") which is the
Anglo-Saxon word meaning "judgment", or
"law".
Apart from the lost Handboc or
Encheiridion, which seems to have been
only a commonplace book kept by the
king, the earliest work to be
translated is the "Dialogues" of
Gregory, a book that is very popular in
the Middle Ages. In this case the
translation is made by Alfred's great
friend Werferth, Bishop of Worcester,
the king providing a foreword. The next
work to be undertaken is Gregory's
"Pastoral Care", especially for the
benefit of the parish clergy. In this
translation Alfred keeps very close to
his original; but the introduction
Alfred writes for this book is one of
the most interesting documents of the
reign, or indeed of English history.
The next two works translated are
historical, the "Universal History" of
Orosius and Bede's "Ecclesiastical
History of the English People".
Probably Orosius was first. In the
Orosius translation, by omissions and
additions, Alfred so changes the
original as to produce an almost new
work; however in the Bede translation
the author's text closely follows the
original with no additions being made,
though most of the documents and some
other less interesting matters are
omitted.
One of the most interesting
translations by Alfred is his
translation of "The Consolation of
Philosophy" of Boethius, the most
popular philosophical handbook of the
Middle Ages. Here again Alfred deals
very freely with his original copy.
Many of the additions to the text can
be traced to the glosses and
commentaries Alfred uses and not to
Alfred himself. In the Boethius
translation is an often quoted
sentence: "My will was to live worthily
as long as I lived, and after my life
to leave to them that should come
after, my memory in good works." This
book has only survived in two
manuscripts. In one of these the
writing is prose, in the other a
combination of prose and alliterating
verse. The latter manuscript was
severely damaged in the 18th and 19th
centuries, and the authorship of the
verse has been much disputed; but
likely it also is by Alfred. In fact,
he writes in the prelude that he first
created a prose work and then used it
as the basis for his poem, the Lays of
Boethius, his crowning literary
achievement. Alfred spends a great deal
of time working on these books, and
explains that he gradually wrote
through the many stressful times of his
reign to refresh his mind.
The last of Alfred's works is one to
which he gave the name "Blostman",
i.e., "Blooms" or "Anthology". The
first half is based mainly on the
Soliloquies of St Augustine of Hippo,
the remainder is drawn from various
sources, and contains much that is
Alfred's own and highly characteristic
of him. The last words of it may be
quoted; they form a fitting epitaph for
the noblest of English kings.
"Therefore he seems to me a very
foolish man, and truly wretched, who
will not increase his understanding
while he is in the world, and ever wish
and long to reach that endless life
where all shall be made clear."
southwestern England.
[1] Alfred the
Great Corbis-Bettmann COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-8295?articleTypeId=1
[2] Statue of Alfred the Great,
Wantage, Oxfordshire GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:KingAlfredStatueWantage.jpg
[888 AD]
refines existing values for the length
of the year and of the seasons, for the
annual precession of the equinoxes, and
for the inclination of the ecliptic.
The inclination of the ecliptic is the
angle made between the plane the earth
rotates the sun in (the celestial
equator) and the plane the Earth
rotates itself in. The ecliptic is a
circle in the celestial sphere that is
the apparent path of the Sun among the
constellations in the course of a year.
The ecliptic intersects the plane of
the celestial equator at the vernal and
autumnal equinoxes.
This improved value for the length of
the year will be used 700 years later
in the Gregorian reform of the Julian
Calendar.
[1] Description Deutsch: Al-Battani
(850-926) Date 7 March 2009 (original
upload date) Source Transferred from
de.wikipedia; transferred to Commons by
User:Septembermorgen using
CommonsHelper. (Original text :
http://usuarios.lycos.es/Torbi/astronomi
aenelmundoarabe/albattani.htm) Author u
nbekannt. Original uploader was Dr.
Manuel at
de.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) This image is in the public
domain due to its age. Other
versions http://commons.wikimedia.org/
wiki/File:Al-Battani.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/ed/Albategnius.jpeg
[890 AD]
century clinker-built Viking ship found
in a ship burial beneath a burial mound
at Gokstad farm in Sandar, Sandefjord,
Vestfold, Norway. Dendrochronolgical
(tree ring) dating suggests that the
ship was built of timber that was
felled around 890 CE.
Norway
[890 AD]
southwestern England.
[1] The initial page of the
Peterborough Chronicle, marked
secondarily by the librarian of the
Laud collection. The manuscript is an
autograph of the monastic scribes of
Peterborough. The opening sections were
likely scribed around 1150. The section
displayed is prior to the First
Continuation. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Peterborough.Chronicle.firstpage.jpg
[2] A page from the C manuscript of
the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. It shows the
entry for the year 871. British
Library Cotton Tiberius B i. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:ASC_C_ms_871.jpg
[900 AD]
or the "Salerno Book of Health" from
this school will be first printed in
1484.
This school shows that the people of
Italy are very early in the development
of universities, education and women's
rights.
[1] A miniature depicting the Schola
Medica Salernitana from a copy of
Avicenna's Canons PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:ScuolaMedicaMiniatura.jpg
[2] Hand colored wood cut illustration
depicting the medical school at
Salerno. De conservanda bona
valetudine opusculum scholae
Salernitanae, 1554. Galter Medical
Rare Books 613 R26 1554 PD
source: http://www.galter.northwestern.e
du/library_notes/40/woodcut_full.jpg
[900 AD]
"Organum" (plural: Organa). The
earliest written form of polyphonic
music is found in the treatise "Musica
enchiriadis" (c. 900; "Musical
Handbook"), in which organum consists
of two melodic lines moving
simultaneously note against note. The
planchant melody is called the "vox
principalis" (principal voice), and the
additional voice is called the "vox
organalis" (the organal, or added,
voice). In the simplest parallel
organum, a single organal voice runs a
fourth or fifth below the principal
voice. Other examples include four
voices, with the principal voice
doubled an octave down and the organal
voice doubled an octave up. In some
instances, the two voices start in
unison, then move to wider intervals.
At this early stage, there are no
rhythmic signs beyond the words of the
chant in the "Musica Enchiriadis", but
the pitches are indicated precisely
through the daseian signs in the margin
at left. Adapted from grammatical
accent marks in ancient Greek, each of
these corresponds to a specific pitch.
empire|Possibly written in what is now
Eastern France
[1] Skildring Deutsch: Früheste
Darstellung eines Organums in einer
theoretischen Schrift, der ''Musica
enchiriades'' aus dem späten 9.
Jahrhundert Dato late 9th
century Kjelda Musica
enchiriadis, Bamberg, Staatsbibliothek,
Var. 1, fol 57r Opphavsperson
Unknown writer Løyve (Gjenbruk
av denne fila) Sjå under. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/9e/Musica_enchiriadis_Re
x_celi.png
[904 AD]
[1] A Mongol bomb thrown against a
charging Japanese samurai during the
Mongol Invasions of Japan,
1281. Suenaga facing Mongol arrows and
bombs. From MokoShuraiEkotoba
(蒙古襲来絵詞), circa 1293, 13th
century. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Mooko-Suenaga.jpg
[905 AD]
in place. Al-Razi {oL-rAZE} rejects
Islam and other religions.
Al-Razi {oL-rAZE} (full name Abū Bakr
Muhammad ibn Zakarīya al-Rāzi Latin:
Rhazes), a Persian physician and
chemist, is the first to prepare
"plaster of paris" and describes how it
can be used to hold broken bones in
place, to identify and distinguish
between smallpox and measles, is the
first of record to divide all
substances into animal, vegetable and
mineral, accepts the atom theory,
dismisses miracles and mysticism,
thinks religion harmful and the cause
of hatred and wars.
Al-Razi openly criticizes religions
including the new rising religion of
Islam describing the Koran as
(translated) "...a work which recounts
ancient myths, and which at the same
time is full of contradictions and does
not contain any useful information or
explanation.".
[1] Description English: Muhammad ibn
Zakariya ar-Razi Date before
1970 Source Iranian 2nd year of
Rahnamai textbook Author Unknown PD
source: http://www.hmc.org.qa/hmc/qmj/ju
ne2002/biography/BIO3.HTM
[2] Al-Razi from a book cover
COPYRIGHTED FAIR USE
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Rhazes.jpg
[910 AD]
and composes music. Some of al-Farabi's
compositions have survived in the rites
of the Sufi brotherhoods, in particular
those in Anatolia.
Al-Farabi is a practicing
Sufi.
Al-Farabi had great influence on
science and philosophy for several
centuries, and was widely regarded to
be second only to Aristotle in
knowledge (alluded to by his title of
"the Second Teacher"). His work, aimed
at synthesis of philosophy and Sufism,
paved the way for Ibn Sina's work.
The major part of al-Farabi's writings
are directed to the problem of the
correct ordering of the state.
Al-Farabi's views are similar to
Plato's "Republic" in the elitist
undemocratic belief that, just as God
rules the universe, so should the
philosopher, as the most perfect kind
of man, rule the state; al-Farabi
therefore relates the political
upheavals of his time to the separation
of the philosopher from government.
[1] Al-Farabi's imagined face appears
on the currency of the Republic of
Kazakhstan COPYRIGHTED
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:200TengeNote.jpg
[920 AD]
America.
In 1961 (verify) Helge Ingstad, finds
in Northern Newfoundland a site that
establishes the presence of European
settlers in North America prior to
Columbus. For seven successive summers
expeditions excavate this site under
the leadership of Anne Stine Ingstad, a
trained archaeologist. They excavate
seven house sites, a smithy, and four
"boat sheds," as well as some open-air
hearths and a charcoal kiln.
All of the walls
were built of turf, now largely
decomposed, and nearly
all of the rooms were
equipped with simple hearths. The
artifacts collected
number in the hundreds, but
most of them are
small iron objects (rivets
and nails), slag and bog-ore, stone
implements,
charcoal, and brittle-burned stones;
there are two unquestionably Norse
pieces of
handicraft, a soapstone spindle whorl,
and a ring-headed pin
of bronze (thought to
be a belt pin). Bones were found of a
pig, a whale, and a seal.
[1] Figure from: Helge Ingstad, ''The
Viking Discovery of America: The
Excavation of a Norse Settlement in
L'Anse aux Meadows, Newfoundland'',
2001. COPYRIGHTED
source: Helge Ingstad, "The Viking
Discovery of America: The Excavation of
a Norse Settlement in L'Anse aux
Meadows, Newfoundland", 2001.
[2] Figure 24 from: Helge Ingstad,
''The Viking Discovery of America: The
Excavation of a Norse Settlement in
L'Anse aux Meadows, Newfoundland'',
2001. COPYRIGHTED
source: Helge Ingstad, "The Viking
Discovery of America: The Excavation of
a Norse Settlement in L'Anse aux
Meadows, Newfoundland", 2001.
[936 AD]
"Herodotus of the Arabs".
[960 AD]
These are gun-powder rockets probably
in hollow bamboo tubes.
Fire-arrow technology is described in
the "Complete Compendium of Military
Classics" (960 CE), which provides
evidence that Emperor Tseng Kung-Liang
had a group of rocketeers equipped to
make and fire powder rockets in
combat.
Certainly by the year 1045 CE, the use
of gunpowder and rockets forms an
integral aspect of Chinese military
tactics.
[1] Description Drawing of an
early Chinese soldier lighting a
rocket Date 2007 Source
http://history.msfc.nasa.gov/rocket
ry/03.html Author
NASA Permission (Reusing this
file) NASA still images, audio
files and video generally are not
copyrighted. You may use NASA imagery,
video and audio material for
educational or informational purposes,
including photo collections, textbooks,
public exhibits and Internet Web
pages. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/63/Chinese_rocket.gif
[2] Widely reputed as the world's
first ''astronaut'', Wan Hu was a minor
Chinese official of the Ming Dynasty
(1368-1644). Early in the 16th century,
Wan Hu decided to take advantage of
China's advanced power and fireworks
technology to launch himself into outer
space. He had a chair built with 47
''rockets'' attached. On the day of
lift-off, Wan climbed into his rocket
chair and held one enormous kite in
each hand. The ignition of the 47 fuses
caused a huge explosion and sent him
into the sky. But unfortunately, he
failed to go into orbit and his body
smashed into pieces on the ground.
UNKNOWN
source: http://images.china.cn/images1/2
00710/410673.jpg
[964 AD]
(modern Iran)
[1] Persian Astronomer Al Sufi PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Al_Sufi.jpg
[2] The constellation Centaurus from
The Depiction of Celestial
Constellations. An image of Al Sufi
from the 'Depiction of Celestial
Constellations' PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Book_Al_Sufi.jpg
[970 AD]
from 969 CE, the year in which its
foundation is laid. Studies will begin
in Al-Azhar in Ramadan by October 975
CE, when Chief Justice Abul Hasan Ali
ibn Al-No'man starts teaching the book
"Al-Ikhtisar", on the Shiite
Jurisprudence.
Al-Azhar University is the leading
institution for Sunni learning in the
Islamic world.
[1] Description English: Al-Azhar
Mosque and Al Azhar University,
Cairo. Date June 2006 Source Own
work Author Tentoila PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Al-Azhar_2006.j
pg/1280px-Al-Azhar_2006.jpg
[2] Al-Azhar Mosque in Cairo
Egypt GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Al-Azhar_Mosque_.jpg
[975 AD]
[976 AD]
[1] The first Arabic numerals in a
Western manuscript, AD 976. From Codex
Vigilanus PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:1st_Arabic_numerals_in_West.jpg
[979 AD]
[981 AD]
after Emir 'Adud al-Daula. The hospital
will be destroyed in 1258 by the Mongol
invasion.
[982 AD]
Greenland, which they find uninhabited.
They establish three settlements near
the very southwestern tip of the
island, where they will live for about
450 years.
[985 AD]
first French Pope as Sylvester II.
In a
letter of 984, Gerbert asks Lupitus of
Barcelona for a translation of an
Arabic astronomical treatise.
Gerbert may have
been the author of a description of the
astrolabe that will be edited by
Hermannus Contractus around 50 years
later.
[1] Impression of Sylvester II. Artist
unknown. immediate source:
italycyberguide.com [1] [2], marked
''© Copyright 1999-2004 Riccardo
Cigola'' PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Silvester_II.JPG
[2] Pope Silvester II. and the
Devil Illustration from Cod. Pal.
germ. 137, Folio 216v Martinus
Oppaviensis, Chronicon pontificum et
imperatorum ~1460 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Silvester_II._and_the_Devil_Cod._Pal.
_germ._137_f216v.jpg
[1000 AD]
encyclopedias is compiled, credited to
a person named Suidas.
Suda, or Suidas, breaks with tradition
by adopting alphabetical order for its
contents.
There is evidence that the Suda is
compiled in the latter part of the
900s. Passages referring to Michael
Psellus (end of 11th century) are
considered later interpolations. The
lexicon is arranged alphabetically with
some slight deviations; letters and
combinations of letters having the same
sound being placed together. The Suda
is both a dictionary and encyclopedia.
The Suda includes numerous quotations
from ancient writers; the scholiasts
(commentary on the margin of a
manuscript) on Aristophanes, Homer,
Sophocles and Thucydides are also used
often. The biographical notices, the
author explains, are condensed from the
"Onomatologion" or "Pinax" of Hesychius
of Miletus; other sources were the
excerpts of Constantine
Porphyrogenitus, the chronicle of
Georgius Monachus, the biographies of
Diogenes Laertius and the works of
Athenaeus and Philostratus.
Most of the Suda was lost during the
crusader sacking of Constantinople and
the Ottoman pillage of the city in
1453.
The lexicon is arranged, not quite
alphabetically, but according to a
system (formerly common in many
lagnauges) called antistoichia; namely
the letters follow phonetically, in
order of sound (in the pronunciation of
Suida's time, which is the same as
modern Greek, and serves as a key to
the authentic pronunciation of each
letter, letter group and word).
Most of the
Alexandrian librarians are listed with
more details in the Suda.
[1] English First page (AA-AB) from an
early printed edition of the Suda. The
column headings read ''Beginning of
letter A/A standing alone'' and ''A
with B''. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e2/Suda.jpg
[1000 AD]
The first use of paper money occurred
in China more than 1,000 years ago.
Initially paper money represents
promises to pay specified amounts of
metal coin money (gold and silver) for
which carrying in large quantities is
inconvenient and a risk for loss or
theft. These promises are initially
issued by individuals or companies as
banknotes or as the transferable book
entries that come to be called
deposits. Although deposits and
banknotes begin as claims to gold or
silver on deposit at a bank or with a
merchant, this later changes. Knowing
that everyone will not claim their
balance at once, bankers and merchants
start to issue more claims to the gold
and silver than the amount they
actually hold. In periods of distress,
however, when borrowers did not repay
their loans or in case of overissue,
the banks could fail. So gradually,
governments assume a supervisory role.
Later paper money—promises to pay in
gold or silver are replaced by
Governments with "fiat" paper money—
notes that are legal tender but are not
promises to pay something else like
gold or silver.
[1] English: Early paper money, China,
Song Dynasty scan from
《社会历史博物馆》 ISBN
7-5347-1397-8 北宋交子 jiaozi,
w:Northern Song Dynasty The text
reads:
除四川外許於諸路州縣公私從
主管並同見錢七百七十陌流
行使, which essentially means that
except in w:Sichuan, the bill may be
used in the stead of 77,000 wen of
metal coinage. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d9/Jiao_zi.jpg
[2] scan from
《社会历史博物馆》 ISBN
7-5347-1397-8 会子 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6a/Hui_zi.jpg
[1000 AD]
Europe at this time.
[1000 AD]
constructed. Many were built in Britain
and France in the 11th and 12th
centuries, especially in England
following the Norman Conquest of 1066.
The motte is a raised earth mound, like
a small hill, usually assembled and
topped with a wooden or stone structure
known as a keep. The earth for the
mound would be taken from a ditch, dug
around the motte or around the whole
castle. The outer surface of the mound
could be covered with clay or
strengthened with wooden supports.
The bailey is an enclosed courtyard,
typically surrounded by a wooden fence
and overlooked by the motte. A castle
could have more than one bailey,
sometimes an inner and an outer.
[1] Model of a motte-and-bailey Museum
of Bayeux, model of castle / Personal
Picture taken bu user Urban, February
2005 GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Tapisserie_motte_maquette.jpg
[2] The remains of a large Norman
motte-and-bailey castle at Brinklow in
Warwickshire, England. At one time a
wooden fort would have stood on top of
the mound which measures 13 metres (40
feet) high. The castle at Brinklow is
especially well preserved, and has been
declared an Ancient Monument. This
one is believed to be built upon the
site of an ancient burial mound, which
pre-dated the Norman invasion, although
this has not been proved. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Brinklow_castle_mound.jpg
[1010 AD]
that can recite the Quran and many
Persian poems at age 10.
Ibn Sina wrongly
believes that transmutation (changing
of atoms from one kind to the other) to
be impossible (although only achieved
in the 1900s in particle physics by
Rutherford, Fermi and others).
Ibn Sina turnes his attention to health
at age 16, and achieves full status as
a physician at age 18, Ibn Sina writes
that "Medicine is no hard and thorny
science, like mathematics and
metaphysics, so I soon made great
progress; I became an excellent doctor
and began to treat patients, using
approved remedies." The youthful
physician's popularity spreads quickly,
and he treats many patients without
asking for payment.
In Hamadan, Ibn Sina is even raised to
the office of vizier (a high ranking
advisor to an Arab monarch such as a
Caliph, Amir, Malik (king) or Sultan)
in Hamadan.
Ibn Sin'a book ØÙ٠ت
٠شرÙÙÙ
(hikmat-al-mashriqqiyya, in Latin
"Philosophia Orientalis"), which Roger
Bacon will mention, is now lost.
According to Averroes this book is
pantheistic in tone.
Ibn Sina is, like all his countrymen,
ample in the enumeration of symptoms,
and is said to be inferior to Ali in
practical medicine and surgery. Ibn
Sina introduces into medical theory the
four causes of the Peripatetic system.
The Canon will still be used as a
textbook in the universities of Leuven
and Montpellier up to around the year
1650.
In the museum at Bukhara, there are
displays showing many of Ibn Sina's
writings, surgical instruments from the
period and paintings of patients
undergoing treatment. Ibn Sina was
interested in the effect of the mind on
the body, and writes a great deal on
psychology, likely influencing Ibn
Tufayl and Ibn Bajjah.
Some of Ibn Sina's books are dictated
from horseback while accompanying a
ruler to some battle.
Ibn Sina writes extensively on the
subjects of philosophy, logic, ethics,
metaphysics and other disciplines. Most
of his works were written in Arabic,
and some are written in the Persian
language. Of linguistic significance
even to this day are a few books that
Ibn Sina writes in nearly pure Persian
language (particularly the
Danishnamah-yi 'Ala', Philosophy for
Ala' ad-Dawla'). Avicenna's
commentaries on Aristotle often correct
the philosopher, encouraging a lively
debate in the spirit of ijtihad, (a
technical term of Islamic law that
describes the process of making a legal
decision by independent interpretation
of the legal sources, the Qur'an and
the Sunnah).
[1] Source:
http://www.cais-soas.com/CAIS/Science/ir
an_sience.htm - Permission granted by
CAIS. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Avicenna_Persian_Physician.jpg
[2] Ibn Sina - w:Avicenna, as
appearing on a Polish stamp PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Avicenna2.jpg
[1025 AD]
the construction by thirds of a system
of four lines, or staff, and the use of
letters as clefs. The red F-line and
the yellow C-line were already in use,
but Guido adds a black line between the
F and the C and another black line
above the C. The neumes (notational
signs used in the Middle Ages that
represented specific kinds of melodic
motion and manners of performance) can
now be placed on the lines and spaces
between and a definite pitch
relationship established. With this
system it is no longer necessary to
learn melodies by memory, and Guido
declares that his system reduces the 10
years normally required to become an
ecclesiastical singer to one year.
A well-developed "solmization" (a
system of designating musical notes by
syllable names) exists in the music of
India, using the syllables ṣa, ṛi,
ga, ma, pa, dha, ni; and similar
systems occur in, for example, Chinese,
Southeast Asian, and ancient Greek
music. The system that predominates in
European music is introduced by the
Italian monk, Guido of Arezzo, who
derives it from the Latin hymn, "Ut
queant laxis".
During the half century after Guido’s
death (CE 1050-1100), developments
occur more rapidly as the plainsong
chant becomes the lower rather than the
upper voice. Then the organal part, vox
organalis is freed. The peak of this
freedom is reached in the organums of
the monastery of Saint-Martial in
Limoges, France, where the plainsong
part is reduced to the role of
sustaining each tone while the organal
part performs in free melismata (groups
of notes sung to a single syllable),
either improvised or composed. This new
style is called organum purum.
[1] The 11th century Benedictine monk
Guido d’Arezzo invented a mnemonic
system using parts of the hand to
indicate pitches for singers. The note
names ut, re, mi, fa, sol and la were
also placed on horizontal lines to
notate pitch. These inventions evolved
into solfeggio (do re mi fa sol la ti
do) and staff notation as used today.
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.designwritingresearch
.org/music/images/3.jpg
[2] Statue of Guido of Arezzo, Arezzo,
Italy (photo taken by Wilson Delgado,
March 30, 2003) Author:
en:User:Wilson Delgado Source:
en:Image:Guido of arezzo.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2b/Statue_of_Guido_of_Ar
ezzo.jpg
[1030 AD]
Muhammad ibn Ahmad al-Biruni) (CE
973-c1051), a Persian scholar, writes
about the movement of the Earth
relative to the Sun, and that all
astronomical appearances can be
explained if the Earth rotates each
day, and notes "the attraction of all
things towards the centre of the
earth".
[1] Biruni on a 1973 post stamp
commemorating his one thousandth
anniversary PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Abu-Rayhan_Biruni_1973_Afghanistan_po
st_stamp.jpg
[2] An illustration from Beruni's
Persian book. It shows different phases
of the moon. Illustration by Al-Biruni
(973-1048) of different phases of the
moon, from Kitab al-tafhim (in
Persian). Source Scanned from:
Seyyed Hossein Nasr (1976). Islamic
Science: An Illustrated Study, World of
Islam Festival Publishing Company. ISBN
090503502X PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Lunar_eclipse_al-Biruni.jpg
[1038 AD]
obscura). Ibn al-Haytham {iBN oL HIteM}
(Full Name: Abu 'Ali al-Hasan ibn
al-Haytham) (Arabic and Persian: ابو
علی، حسن بن حسن بن
هيثم) (Latinized: Alhazen
(oLHoZeN)) (CE c965-1039), builds the
first recorded pin-hole camera (camera
obscura).
Ibn al-Haytham's optical work "Ṣūrat
al-kusūf" ("On the Shape of the
Eclipse") includes a discussion of the
camera obscura).
Al-Haytham is the first of record to
understand that light comes from the
Sun and reflects off objects into the
eyes contradicting the theory of Euclid
and Ptolemy that rays of light emit
from the eye.
Al-Haytham constructs parabolic mirrors
(now used in telescopes to better focus
light than a spherical mirror).
Al-Haytham studies the focusing of
light.
Like Ptolemy, al-Haytham thinks that
the atmosphere has a finite height, and
estimates this height as 10 miles.
(actual units)
Al-Haytham's "Optics" will have a major
influence not only on 13th-century
thinkers such as Roger Bacon but also
on later scientists such as the
astronomer Johannes Kepler
(1571–1630), who after 600 years will
be the first to improve on the science
of optics..
[1] Figure 2. The concept of the
camera obscura as perceived a thousand
years ago by Alhazen (Ibn al-Haytham),
who coined the term (see text). Note
the formation of the inverted image
through a ray diagram. Adapted from
Al-Hassani et al. (2006). from: Ahmed
H. Zewail, Micrographia of the
twenty-first century: from camera
obscura to 4D microscopy Phil. Trans.
R. Soc. A March 13, 2010 368 (1914)
1191-1204;
doi:10.1098/rsta.2009.0265 http://rsta.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/368/1
914/1191.abstract COPYRIGHTED
source: http://rsta.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/368/1914/1191/F2.large.jp
g
[2] [t Portrait of al-Hazen on paper
money] UNKNOWN
source: http://robbani.net78.net/wp/wp-c
ontent/uploads/2012/01/haisam5.jpg
[1041 AD]
system for printing using ceramic
materials was created in China around
1040 AD by Pi Sheng (990–1051). As
described by a contemporary account of
Shen Kua (1031–1095):
"During the reign of Chhing-li
{1041-48} Pi Sheng, a man of unofficial
position, made moveable type. His
method was as follows: he took sticky
clay and cut in it characters as thin
as the edge of a coin. Each character
formed, as it were, a single type. He
baked them in the fire to make them
hard. He had previously prepared an
iron plate and he had covered his plate
with a mixture of pine resin, wax, and
paper ashes. When he wished to print,
he took an iron frame and set it on the
iron plate. In this he placed the
types, set close together. When the
frame was full, the whole made one
solid block of type. He then placed it
near the fire to warm it. When the
paste {at the back} was slightly
melted, he took a smooth board and
pressed it over the surface, so that
the block of type became as even as a
whetstone.
If one were to print only two or
three copies, this method would be
neither simple not easy. But for
printing hundreds or thousands of
copies, it was marvelously quick. As a
rule he kept two formes going. While
the impression was being made from the
one forme, the type was being put in
place on the other. When the printing
of the one forme was finished, the
other was then ready. In this way the
two formed alternated and the printing
was done with great rapidity.
For each
character there were several types, and
for certain common characters there
were twenty or more types each, in
order to be prepared for the repetition
of characters on the same page. When
the characters were not in use, he had
them arranged with paper labels, one
label for words of each rhyme-group,
and kept them in wooden cases. If any
rare characters appeared that had not
been prepared in advance, it was cut as
needed and baked with a fire of straw.
In a moment it was finished.
The reason why he
did not use wood is because the tissue
of wood is sometimes coarse and
sometimes fine, and wood also absorbs
moisture, so that the forme when set up
would be uneven. Also the wood would
have stuck in the paste and could not
readily have been pulled out. So it was
better to use burnt earthenware. When
the printing was finished, the forme
was again brought near the fire to
allow the paste to melt, and then
cleansed with the hand, so that the
types fell off of themselves and were
not in the least soiled.
When Pi Sheng died,
his font of type passed into the
possession of my nephews, and up to
this time it has been kept as a
precious possession.".
In about 1313 a magistrate named Wang
Chen will have a craftsman carve more
than 60,000 characters on movable
wooden blocks so that a treatise on the
history of technology can be published.
Chen is also credited with the
invention of horizontal compartmented
cases that revolve around a vertical
axis to allow easier handling of the
type. But Wang Chen’s innovation,
like that of Pi Sheng, is not followed
up in China. However, in Korea,
typography is extensively developed
under the stimulus of King Htai Tjong,
who, in 1403, orders the first set of
100,000 pieces of type to be cast in
bronze. Nine other fonts followed from
then to 1516; two of them were made in
1420 and 1434, before Europe discovers
typography.
Johannes Gutenberg is generally
credited in 1435 with the earliest
printing press in Europe.
One explanation for the fact that
printing develops in Europe in the
1400s instead of in the Far East, even
though the principle of printing was
known in the Orient long before is that
European writing is based on an
alphabet made of a limited number of
symbols. This simplifies the problems
involved in developing techniques for
the use of movable type. However,
Chinese handwriting, has some 80,000
symbols, which is not as well fitted to
typography.
The development of printing gives
impetus to the growth and accumulation
of knowledge, for example from
Diderot’s encyclopaedia to the many
publications currently printed
throughout the Earth.
[1] Figure 1138. Earliest extant
edition of the ''Meng Chhi Pi Than'',
printed in the + 14th century. The
passage rearranged into one double-leaf
above records the first use of the
earthenware movable type printing by Pi
Sheng in the middle of the + 11th
century. Copy preserved at the National
Library of China. Joseph Needham,
''Science and Civilisation in China'',
Tsien, v5,part 1, Paper and Printing.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
1985.
{Needham_printing_China_1985.pdf} PD
source: Joseph Needham, "Science and
Civilisation in China", Tsien, v5,part
1, Paper and Printing. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1985.
{Needham_printing_China_1985.pdf}
[2] Fig 1141. Earthenware types of
Chai Chin-Sheng, c +1844, discovered in
1962 in Hui-chou, Anhui province. Above
are four different sizes of the type
and below are the printed characters
from the large size of the
type. Courtesy of the Institute of
History of Science, Academia Sinica,
Peking. Joseph Needham, ''Science and
Civilisation in China'', Tsien, v5,part
1, Paper and Printing. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1985.
{Needham_printing_China_1985.pdf} PD
source: Joseph Needham, "Science and
Civilisation in China", Tsien, v5,part
1, Paper and Printing. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1985.
{Needham_printing_China_1985.pdf}
[1041 AD]
the knights") is built.
[1064 AD]
Khayyam is funded
by the Vizier of the Seljuk Sultan Alp
Arsian and then his successor Malik
Shah.
[1] Statue of Khayyam at his Mausoleum
in Neyshabur Omar Chayyām aus:
http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/hist
ory/PictDisplay/Khayyam.html http://de.
wikipedia.org/wiki/Bild:Omar_Chayyam.jpe
g PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Omar_Chayyam.jpg
[2] Omar Khayam's tomb, Neishapur,
which is a city in Iran (Neishapur was
a city of Eastern Seljuk Turkish
Empire). This Photo by user
zereshk. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Khayam.jpg
[1066 AD]
boy in 989, Eilmer of Malmesbury
declares: "You've come, have
you?...You've c-ome, you source of
tears to many mothers, you evil. I hate
you! It is long since I saw you; but as
I see you now you are much more
terrible, for I see you brandishing the
downfall of my country. I hate you!".
[1] Bayeux Tapestry - King Harold and
Halley's Comet PD
source: http://www.udel.edu/ArtHistory/C
ourseGallery/pages/Btcomet.html
[2] Halley's Comet appears and the
news is brought to Harold, Bayeux
Tapestry PD
source: http://www.cornellcollege.edu/me
ms/
[1068 AD]
[1070 AD]
[1] Statue of Khayyam at his Mausoleum
in Neyshabur Omar Chayyām aus:
http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/hist
ory/PictDisplay/Khayyam.html http://de.
wikipedia.org/wiki/Bild:Omar_Chayyam.jpe
g PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Omar_Chayyam.jpg
[2] Omar Khayam's tomb, Neishapur,
which is a city in Iran (Neishapur was
a city of Eastern Seljuk Turkish
Empire). This Photo by user
zereshk. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Khayam.jpg
[1073 AD]
[1] Statue of Khayyam at his Mausoleum
in Neyshabur Omar Chayyām aus:
http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/hist
ory/PictDisplay/Khayyam.html http://de.
wikipedia.org/wiki/Bild:Omar_Chayyam.jpe
g PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Omar_Chayyam.jpg
[2] Omar Khayam's tomb, Neishapur,
which is a city in Iran (Neishapur was
a city of Eastern Seljuk Turkish
Empire). This Photo by user
zereshk. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Khayam.jpg
[1077 AD]
[1] Statue of Khayyam at his Mausoleum
in Neyshabur Omar Chayyām aus:
http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/hist
ory/PictDisplay/Khayyam.html http://de.
wikipedia.org/wiki/Bild:Omar_Chayyam.jpe
g PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Omar_Chayyam.jpg
[2] Omar Khayam's tomb, Neishapur,
which is a city in Iran (Neishapur was
a city of Eastern Seljuk Turkish
Empire). This Photo by user
zereshk. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Khayam.jpg
[03/15/1079 AD]
Saljuqi (1072-92) puts Omar Kyayyam's
corrected calendar into effect.
[1] Statue of Khayyam at his Mausoleum
in Neyshabur Omar Chayyām aus:
http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/hist
ory/PictDisplay/Khayyam.html http://de.
wikipedia.org/wiki/Bild:Omar_Chayyam.jpe
g PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Omar_Chayyam.jpg
[2] Omar Khayam's tomb, Neishapur,
which is a city in Iran (Neishapur was
a city of Eastern Seljuk Turkish
Empire). This Photo by user
zereshk. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Khayam.jpg
[1081 AD]
(Spanish and Italian: Azarquiel), (In
Arabic أبو أسحاق ابراهيم
بن يحيى الزرقالي ),(full
name: Abū Isḥāqibrāhīm Ibn
Yaḥyā Al-Naqqāsh) (CE ?-1100),
describes the orbit of Mercury as being
oval instead of circular.
In Al-Zarqali's text "Tratado de la
lamina de los siete planetas"
("Treatise on the sheets of the seven
planets") contains one of the most
debated passages in medieval astronomy.
In the graphic representation included
in the Castilian translation ordered by
Alfonso X (The Wise) the orbit of
Mercury is not circular. On this basis
it has been alleged that al–ZarqāĪi
anticipated Kepler in stating that
orbits–the orbit of Mercury in this
case–are elliptical. Although the
Arabic text merely states that an orbit
is baydi ("oval").
Al-Zarqali also invents the apparatus
called the azafea (Arabic: al-safiha),
which is widely used by navigators
until the 1500s.
Al-Zarqali is also credited with the
explicit proof of the motion of the
aphelion (of the earth or apogee of the
sun) with respect to the fixed stars.
Working
in an observatory in Toledo, Al-Zarqali
edits the famous "Tables of Toledo"
(Toledan Zij) {Zij?}, a compilation of
astronomical data which are among the
most accurate of the Islamic period.
These tables are composed with the help
of several other Muslim and Jewish
scientists and will be widely used by
both Latin and Muslim astronomers in
later centuries.
[1] Spain 1986. Al-Zarqali (dead 1100).
Astronomer. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://worldheritage.heindorffhu
s.dk/frame-SpainCordoba.htm
[2] None, but next to text about
al-Zarqali COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/
issue/200407/science.in.al-andalus-.comp
ilation..htm
[1086 AD]
[1088 AD]
[1] A scale model of Su Song's
Astronomical Clock Tower, built in 11th
century Kaifeng, China. It was driven
by a large waterwheel, chain drive, and
escapement mechanism. Su Song's Water
Clock (蘇頌鐘). This
picture is a scaled model of Su Song's
water-powered clock tower. The
original clock tower was 35 feet tall.
It was a 3 story tower with an
armillary sphere on the roof, and a
celestial globe on the third
floor. This picture was taken in
July 2004 from an exhibition at Chabot
Space & Science Center in Oakland,
California. The quality of the picture
is not ideal because flash photography
was not allowed. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:SuSongClock1.JPG
[1088 AD]
(Italian: Alma Mater Studiorum
Università di Bologna, UNIBO) is
founded, and is one of the oldest and
most famous universities in Europe.
[1] Description Il Palazzo dei notai
(a sin.) e Palazzo d'Accursio, in
Piazza Maggiore a Bologna,
Italia. Date 2006-27-03 Source
Flickr Author Gaspa Reviewer
Mac9 CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/11/Bologna-vista02.jpg
[2] English: The Collegio di Spagna, a
historic university college, originally
founded to support Spanish students in
Bologna, Italy. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Collegio-spagna
3.jpg/1280px-Collegio-spagna3.jpg
[1095 AD]
[1] Pope Urban II at the Council of
Clermont, painting from c. 1490 Pope
Urban II at the Council of Clermont,
where he preached an impassioned sermon
to take back the Holy Land. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:CouncilofClermont.jpg
[2] Jewish people, identifiable by
their Judenhuts, are being killed by
Crusaders, from a 1250 French Bible PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:FirstCrusade.jpg
[1099 AD]
the centuries as the St. John's
Ambulance Corps.
[1] grand master & senior knights
hospitaller after 1307 move to rhodes
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Knights_hospitaller.JPG
[2] Hospital of the Knights of St.
John, Jerusalem, c. 1959. The hospital
was founded in 1069 to care for
pilgrims to the Holy Land and run by a
small group of monks. After the capture
of Jerusalem in 1099, the monks became
a regular religious order called the
Knights of St. John, or the
Hospitallers. Major, ''The Knights of
St. John of Jerusalem,'' Ralph Major
vertical file. COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://clendening.kumc.edu/dc/rm
/m_07p.jpg
[1100 AD]
[1100 AD]
Europe. Post mills are the earliest
type of windmill and have the fan
connected to a single post which can be
turned in the direction of the wind.
[1] Pitstone Windmill. Photograph taken
by Michael Reeve, 1 September 2002.
GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Pitstone-windmill.600px.jpg
[1100 AD]
issued upon the ascension of King Henry
I to the throne in 1100. It binds the
king to certain laws regarding the
treatment of church officials and
nobles. The document addressea certain
abuses of royal power by his
predecessor, his brother William Rufus,
specifically the over-taxation of the
barons.
Henry Beauclerc (meaning: Good Scholar)
is the youngest and considered to be
the ablest of William I the Conqueror's
sons.
[1] Henry I of England PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Henry1.jpg
[1100 AD]
[1100 AD]
France)
[1] [t Image of troubador] PD
source: http://heathergoodman.us/files/i
mages/F_002_13thcTroubadour.jpg
[2] 03-08-01/20 ROMANESQUE MANUSCRIPT,
ILLUMINATED 12TH King David
playing the harp surrounded by his
musicians. Psalter, 12th century.
Municipial Library, Mantua,
Italy UNKNOWN
source: http://www.lessing-photo.com/p3/
030801/03080120.jpg
[1106 AD]
to go to the court of Nizam al-Mulk,
the powerful vizier of the Seljuq
sultans. The vizier was so impressed by
al-Ghazali's scholarship that in 1091
he appointed him chief professor in the
Nizamiyah college in Baghdad. While
lecturing to more than 300 students,
al-Ghazali was also mastering and
criticizing the Neoplatonist
philosophies of al-Farabi and Avicenna
(Ibn Sina). He passed through a
spiritual crisis that rendered him
physically incapable of lecturing for a
time. In November 1095 he abandoned his
career and left Baghdad on the pretext
of going on pilgrimage to Mecca. Making
arrangements for his family, he
disposed of his wealth and adopted the
life of a poor Sufi, or mystic. After
some time in Damascus and Jerusalem,
with a visit to Mecca in November 1096,
al-Ghazali settled in Tus, where Sufi
disciples joined him in a virtually
monastic communal life. In 1106 he was
persuaded to return to teaching at the
Nizamiyah college at Nishapur.
[1] Portrait of Ghazali in his late
years by an Iraqi artist Name:
Al-Ghazali (Algazel) Birth: 1058 CE
(450 AH) Death: 1111 CE (505
AH) School/tradition: Sufism, Sunnite
(Shafi'ite), Asharite Main interests:
Sufism, Theology (Kalam), Philosophy,
Logic, Islamic
Jurisprudence Influenced: Fakhruddin
Razi, Maimonides[1], Thomas Aquinas,
Raymund Martin, Nicholas of Autrecourt,
Shah Waliullah, Abdul-Qader Bedil PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ghazali.gif
[2] Haruniyah stucture in Tus, Iran,
named after Harun al-Rashid, the
mausoleum of Al-Ghazali is expected to
be situated on the entrance of this
monument Haruniyeh, Razavi Khorasan.
Sufis used to hang out here during the
Middle Ages. Iran GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Haruniyeh.JPG
[1120 AD]
dedicating to making paper) in Europe.
Europe
[1120 AD]
school at Paris, Melun, Corbeil, and
elsewhere. In 1113 or 1114 he goes
north to Laon to study theology under
Anselm of Laon, the leading biblical
scholar of the day. He quickly
developed a strong contempt for
Anselm's teaching, which he finds
vacuous, and returns to Paris.
Abelard teaches
openly (publicly?) in Paris but is also
given as a private pupil, the young
Héloïse, niece of one of the clergy
of the cathedral of Paris, Canon
Fulbert. Abelard and Héloïse fall in
love and have a son whom they called
Astrolabe. They then marry secretly. To
escape her uncle's wrath Héloïse
withdraws into the convent of
Argenteuil outside Paris. Heloise's
uncle Fulbert, the powerful canon of
Notre Dame, finds out about their
relationship and hires people to
castrate Abelard in 1121 (at the age of
42). I have found no record of any
identity or arrest of anybody for this
vicious first degree assault and
battery. In shame Ableard embraces the
monastic life, becoming a monk at the
royal abbey of Saint-Denis near Paris
and makes the unwilling Héloïse
become a nun at Argenteuil.
Abelard will write "Dialogue of a
Philosopher with a Jew and a
Christian".
In the early 1130s Pierre and Héloïse
will compose a collection of their own
love letters and religious
correspondence.
Later in life Pierre Abelard will write
an autobiography "Historia Calamitatum"
in Latin. This book is in the form of a
letter, and is clearly influenced by
Augustine of Hippo's "Confessions". The
"Historia" is exceptionally readable,
and presents a remarkably honest
self-portrait of a man who could be
arrogant and often felt persecuted. It
provides a clear and fascinating
picture of intellectual life in Paris
before the formalization of the
University, of the intellectual
excitement of the period, of monastic
life, and of his affair with Heloise,
one of history's most famous love
stories.
Paris, France
[1] Abélard and Héloïse depicted in
a 14th century manuscript Abelard,
with Heloise, miniature portrait by
Jean de Meun, 14th century; in the
Musee Conde, Chantilly, Fr.[3] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Abelard_and_Heloise.jpeg
[2] ''Abaelardus and Heloïse
surprised by Master Fulbert'', by
Romanticist painter Jean Vignaud
(1819) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Helo%C3%AFse_et_d%27Ab%C3%A9lard.jpg
[1126 AD]
[1] Geological strata giving rise to an
Artesian well. CC
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Artesian_Well.png
[2] An roadside artesian well with a
pipe for filling bottles or jugs.
Copyright as if PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Artesianwell.jpg
[1130 AD]
[1] Bernard of Clairvaux, as shown in
the church of Heiligenkreuz Abbey near
Baden bei Wien, Lower Austria. Portrait
(1700) with the true effigy of the
Saint by Georg Andreas Wasshuber
(1650-1732), (painted after a statue in
Clairvaux with the true effigy of the
saint) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Heiligenkreuz.Bernard_of_Clervaux.jpg
.jpg)
[2] Bernhard of Clairvaux Initial B
from a 13th century illuminated
illuminated manuscript PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Bernhard_von_Clairvaux_%28Initiale-B%
29.jpg
[1130 AD]
King Henry II. During a period of seven
years Adelard travels through Greece,
Asia Minor, and North Africa. Adelard
learns arabic.
[1] Detail of a scene in the bowl of
the letter 'P' with a woman with a
set-square and dividers; using a
compass to measure distances on a
diagram. In her left hand she holds a
square, an implement for testing or
drawing right angles. She is watched by
a group of students. In the Middle
Ages, it is unusual to see women
represented as teachers, in particular
when the students appear to be monks.
She may be the personification of
Geometry. * Illustration at the
beginning of Euclid's Elementa, in the
translation attributed to Adelard of
Bath. * Date: 1309 - 1316 *
Location: France (Paris). Copyright:
The British Library. * original
from
http://www.bl.uk/services/learning/curri
culum/medrealms/t2womantask2.html
* second version adapted from
http://prodigi.bl.uk/illcat/ILLUMIN.ASP?
Size=mid&IllID=2756 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Woman_teaching_geometry.jpg
[1132 AD]
In Buddhist caves of Western China, a
temple in Ta-tsu in Szechuan Province
shows the earliest depiction of a gun.
One relief depicts a small demon with
two horns showing flames and a ball
being shot from a handheld cannon. A
second relief shows a devil holding a
grenade.
[1] Figure 2 from: Gwei-Djen, Lu,
Joseph Needham, and Phan Chi-Hsing.
“The Oldest Representation of a
Bombard.” Technology and Culture 29.3
(1988): 594–605.
Print. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3105
275 {Gwei-Djen_1988.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: Gwei-Djen, Lu, Joseph Needham,
and Phan Chi-Hsing. “The Oldest
Representation of a Bombard.”
Technology and Culture 29.3 (1988):
594–605.
Print. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3105
275 {Gwei-Djen_1988.pdf}
[2] Figure 3 from: Gwei-Djen, Lu,
Joseph Needham, and Phan Chi-Hsing.
“The Oldest Representation of a
Bombard.” Technology and Culture 29.3
(1988): 594–605.
Print. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3105
275 {Gwei-Djen_1988.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: Gwei-Djen, Lu, Joseph Needham,
and Phan Chi-Hsing. “The Oldest
Representation of a Bombard.”
Technology and Culture 29.3 (1988):
594–605.
Print. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3105
275 {Gwei-Djen_1988.pdf}
[1135 AD]
France
[1] Abélard and Héloïse depicted in
a 14th century manuscript Abelard,
with Heloise, miniature portrait by
Jean de Meun, 14th century; in the
Musee Conde, Chantilly, Fr.[3] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Abelard_and_Heloise.jpeg
[2] ''Abaelardus and Heloïse
surprised by Master Fulbert'', by
Romanticist painter Jean Vignaud
(1819) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Helo%C3%AFse_et_d%27Ab%C3%A9lard.jpg
[1136 AD]
is considered to be the first major
structure built in the gothic style.
Con
struction of the church began in 1136
by the Abbot Suger (1081-1155), but the
major construction will not be complete
until the end of the 13th century.
All but three
of the monarchs of France from the 10th
century until 1789 have their remains
here.
[1] Front of Saint Denis Basilica (July
2002) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:SaintDenisExterior.jpg
[2] Interior Photo of Saint Denis
Church in north Paris. As shot of the
northeast nave with the sun coming in
from the south. If you look carefully,
one of the plates of glass is actually
plywood. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:SaintDenisInterior.jpg
[1140 AD]
[1] Abélard and Héloïse depicted in
a 14th century manuscript Abelard,
with Heloise, miniature portrait by
Jean de Meun, 14th century; in the
Musee Conde, Chantilly, Fr.[3] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Abelard_and_Heloise.jpeg
[2] ''Abaelardus and Heloïse
surprised by Master Fulbert'', by
Romanticist painter Jean Vignaud
(1819) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Helo%C3%AFse_et_d%27Ab%C3%A9lard.jpg
[1144 AD]
and all Jewish people are blamed. In
many cities, Jewish humans are
sentenced to death for child
sacrificing.
[1150 AD]
Europe. Cog-built vessels (Cogs). They
are characterized by flush-laid flat
bottom at midships but gradually
shifted to overlapped strakes near the
posts. They have full lapstrake
planking covering the sides.
[1] Reconstructed excavated cog from
1380 GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Hansekogge_Bremerhaven_uf.jpg
[1150 AD]
(polyphonic or "many-voiced" style)
evolves at the abbeys of Santiago de
Compostela, Spain (c. 1137), and
Saint-Martial of Limoges, France (c.
1150), in which a highly florid melody
(duplum) is added above the plainchant
"tenor".
Saint-Martial of Limoges, France
[1150 AD]
[1] Description Hildegard von
Bingen empfängt eine göttliche
Inspiration.
en:Image:Hildegard.jpg Date Source
Miniatur aus dem Rupertsberger
Codex des Liber Scivias. Author
Original uploader was
RobertLechner at
de.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) PD-OLD. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/ee/Hildegard.jpg
[1150 AD]
[1] Two Elders of the Apocolypse plying
an organistrum in the Portico de la
Gloria, completed in 1188, of Santiago
de Compostela Cathedral. Santiago de
Compostela, Spain GFDL
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6b/Organistrumsantiago20
060414.jpg
[1154 AD]
[1] Ptolemy, Almagest In
Latin Translated by Gerard of
Cremona Parchment Thirteenth
century The most important medieval
Latin translation of the Almagest,
which is found in many manuscripts, was
made from the Arabic in Spain in 1175
by Gerard of Cremona, the most prolific
of all medieval translators from Arabic
into Latin. PD
source: http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/vati
can/images/math11a.jpg
[2] w opisie obrazka było ''A
midwife and an assistant stand by at
the birth of twins. Miniature from
Chururgia, by Gerard of Cremona,
twelfth century, Codex Series Nova
2641, fol 41 r. Osterreichische
Nationalbibliothek, Vienna.'' PD
source: http://www.freha.pl/lofiversion/
index.php?t8228.html
[1166 AD]
philosopher Ibn Tufayl, Averro's
succeeded him as personal physician to
the caliphs Abu Ya'qub Yusuf in 1182
and his son Abu Yusuf Ya'qub in 1184.
[1] Averroes, detail of the
fourteenth-century Florentine artist
Andrea Bonaiuto's Triunfo de Santo
Tomás. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:AverroesColor.jpg
[2] Averroes, a closeup of The School
of Athens, a fresco by Raffaello
Sanzio, 1509. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Averroes_closeup.jpg
[1167 AD]
Kingdom)
[1] All Souls College quad COPYRIGHTED
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Oxford_University_Colleges-All_Souls_
quad.jpg
[2] Oxford's 'Dreaming Spires' at
sunset View of All Souls College and
the Radcliffe Camera, Oxford,
England COPYRIGHTED
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Oxfordskylinedawn.jpg
[1170 AD]
The University of Paris is founded
around this time growing out of the
cathedral schools of Notre-Dame.
The university was originally divided
into four faculties: three
“superior,” theology, canon law,
and medicine; and one “inferior,”
arts. In the faculty of arts, the
trivium (grammar, rhetoric, and
dialectic) and the quadrivium
(arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, and
music) were taught together with
general scientific, literary, and
general culture. Each faculty was
headed by a dean, and the dean of the
faculty of arts had by the 14th century
become the head of the collective
university under the title of rector.
Many colleges were built to accommodate
the students. The most celebrated was
the Sorbonne, founded by the theologian
Robert de Sorbon about 1257.
[1] The Sorbonne, Paris, in a 17th
century engraving PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Sorbonne_17thc.jpg
[1170 AD]
France
[1] Two-voice conductus ''Presul
nostri,'' from Magnus liber organi.
Holsinger, 174. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.echo.ucla.edu/volume4
-issue2/reviews-media/grier1.jpg
[1175 AD]
is translated to Latin.
[1175 AD]
Emilia-Romagna, Italy
[1] The see in Reggio Emilia PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Reggio_emilia_foro_boario_uni.jpg
[1176 AD]
composed in Arabic at the age of 16, is
the "Millot ha-Higgayon" ("Treatise on
Logical Terminology"), a study of
various technical terms that were
employed in logic and metaphysics.
Another early work, also in Arabic, is
the "Essay on the Calendar" (Hebrew
title: "Ma'amar ha'ibur").
Maimon's Greek name is Moses
Maimonides, which literally means,
"Moses, son of Maimon".
When the Almohads (Arabic:
al-Muwahhidun, "the Unitarians"), who
are a fanatically Islamic people,
capture Córdoba in 1148, Jewish people
are forced to submnit to Islam or leave
the city. The Maimon family dresses in
Islamic clothes but secretly practices
Judaism in their house.
In Fez, Morroco Moses studies at the
University of Al Karaouine. During this
time Maimonides' writes his first major
work, begun at the age of 23 and
completed at age 33, his commentary on
the Mishna, "Kitab al-Siraj", written
in Arabic. The Mishna is a summary of
decisions in Jewish law that dates from
earliest times to the 3rd century (CE).
While living in Fez, in 1165, Rabbi
Judah ibn Shoshan, with whom Moses had
studied, was arrested as a Jewish
person practicing Judism, was found
guilty and then executed. After this
the Maimon family moves to Palestine
briefly and then to Egypt.
In Egypt, unlike other nations under
Islam, Jewish people are free to
practice Judaism openly, but any Jewish
human who had once accepted Islam might
be put to death if they go back to
Judaism. Moses himself is at one time
accused of being a reconverted Muslim,
but is able to prove that he had never
actually accepted Islam.
In Egypt, Maimonides is influenced by
Arabic writers such as Ibn Rushd and
Al-Ghazali.
After his commentary on the Mishna,
Maimon spends ten years writing "Mishne
Torah" ("The Torah Reviewed"), the code
of Jewish law written in a clear Hebrew
style. This code offers a brilliant
systematization of all Jewish law and
doctrine. Maimon also writes two minor
works on Jewish law: the "Sefer
ha-mitzwot" (Book of Precepts), a
digest of law for average people,
written in Arabic; and the "Hilkhot
ha-Yerushalmi" ("Laws of Jerusalem"), a
digest of the laws in the Palestinian
Talmud, written in Hebrew.
After practicing as a physician,
Miamon's popularity grows. Maimon is
the physician to Saladin (who opposes
Richard the Lion-Heart in the 3rd
crusade). Maimon rejects Richard the
Lion-Heart's invitation to live in
England choosing Egypt (which Asimov
described as the more civilized at this
time).
In 1233, Rabbi Solomon, a religious
zelot of Montpellier, in southern
France, gets church authorities to burn
"The Guide for the Perplexed" as a
dangerously heretical book. Maimonides
will come to be recognized as a (wise)
Jewish philosopher.
Maimonides' philosophic work, when
translated into Latin, will influence
medieval Scholastic writers, and even
later people, such as Benedict de
Spinoza and G.W. Leibniz. Maimonides'
health writings are part of the hisory
of health science.
[1] Commonly used image indicating one
artist's conception of Maimonides's
appearance Moses Maimonides, portrait,
19th century. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Maimonides-2.jpg
[2] Statue of Maimonides in Córdoba,
Spain GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Maimonides-Statue.jpg
[1180 AD]
europe. The oldest known depiction of a
stern-mounted rudder can be found on
church carvings that date to around
1180. As the size of ships and the
height of the freeboards increased (a
vessel's side between waterline and
gunwale), quarter-rudders became less
satisfactory and were replaced in
Europe by the more sturdy stern-mounted
rudders with pintle (pin or bolt) and
gudgeon (circular metal fitting
attached to a rudder so that the rudder
can rotate) attachment from the 12th
century.
[1180 AD]
Abbot of Circencester.
[1180 AD]
France
[1] Perotin: Alleluia
nativitas Source: Historical
Background of Early Polyphony at the
Internet Archive PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/12/Perotin_-_Alleluia_na
tivitas.jpg
[11/??/1184 AD]
The Inquisition starts when Pope Lucius
III holds a synod at Verona, Italy,
creating the shockingly brutal law that
burning is to be the official
punishment for heresy.
Pope Lucius II starts the medieval
Inquisition to repress and punish
people for heresy (heretics).
At the Synod of
Verona in 1184, Pope Lucius III, in
agreement with the Holy Roman emperor
Frederick I Barbarossa, initiates the
"Inquisition", by declaring the
excommunication of heretics and their
protectors. This requires bishops to
make a judicial inquiry or inquisition,
for heresy in their dioceses. After
ecclesiastical trial, heretics who
refuse to recant are to be transferred
to civil authorities for
punishment—usually death by burning.
The Inquisition will brutally try to
enforce belief in religion and slow
progress in science for centuries,
murdering many thousands of people, in
particular science and truth loving
people, before ending.
The Inquisition lasts until the 1800s.
[1] St Dominic (1170-1221[3]) presiding
over an auto de fe, Spanish,
1475 Representation of an Auto de fe,
(1475). [t I think this is a dubious
claim, that people didn't stay
around...they quickly leave when time
for the burning...I doubt it:] Many
artistic representations depict torture
and the burning at the stake as
occurring during the auto da fe.
Actually, burning at the stake usually
occurred after, not during the
ceremonies. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Inquisition2.jpg
[2] English: The burning of the knight
of Hohenberg with his servant before
the walls of Zürich, for sodomy,
1482. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5c/Burning_of_Sodomites.
jpg
[1195 AD]
[1] Averroes, detail of the
fourteenth-century Florentine artist
Andrea Bonaiuto's Triunfo de Santo
Tomás. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:AverroesColor.jpg
[2] Averroes, a closeup of The School
of Athens, a fresco by Raffaello
Sanzio, 1509. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Averroes_closeup.jpg
[1202 AD]
Fibonacci. Leonardo's father,
Guglielmo, a Pisan merchant, was
appointed consul over the community of
Pisan merchants in the North African
port of Bugia (now Bejaïa, Algeria)
and Leonardo was sent to study
calculation with an Arab master.
Leonardo later went to Egypt, Syria,
Greece, Sicily, and Provence, where he
studied different numerical systems and
methods of calculation.
The first seven chapters of "Liber
Abaci" explain the principle of place
value, how the position of a figure
determines whether it is a unit, 10,
100, etc., and demonstrating the use of
the numerals in arithmetical
operations. The techniques are then
applied to practical problems such as
profit margin, barter, money changing,
conversion of weights and measures,
partnerships, and interest. Most of the
work is devoted to speculative
mathematics-proportion (represented by
such popular medieval techniques as the
Rule of Three and the Rule of Five,
which are rule-of-thumb methods of
finding proportions), the Rule of False
Position (a method by which a problem
is worked out by a false assumption,
then corrected by proportion),
extraction of roots, and the properties
of numbers, concluding with some
geometry and algebra.
French-born mathematician Albert Girard
will represent this series with a
formula in 1634: un + 2 = un + 1 + un,
in which u represents the term and the
subscript its rank in the sequence.
The
mathematician Robert Simson at the
University of Glasgow in 1753 will note
that the as the numbers increase, the
ratio between succeeding numbers
approaches the number a, the golden
ratio, 1.6180. The golden ratio is
defined as the ratio that results when
a line is divided so that the whole
line has the same ratio to the larger
segment as the larger segment has to
the smaller segment. Expressed
algebraically, normalising the larger
part to unit length, it is the positive
solution of the equation:
x 1
- = ---
1 x-1
or equivalently x2-x-1=0,
1 + √5
which is
equal to φ = ------ =
1.618033988749894848204586834366...
2
In the 1800s scientists will find
Fibonacci-type sequences in nature; for
example, in the spirals of sunflower
heads, in pine cones, in the regular
descent (genealogy) of the male bee, in
the related logarithmic (equiangular)
spiral in snail shells, in the
arrangement of leaf buds on a stem, and
in animal horns.
Asimov describes Fibonacci as the first
great Western mathematician after the
end of Greek science.
Fibonacci will be
presented to Holy Roman Emperor
Federick II in 1225, because Fibonacci
is recognized for learning.
For several years
Leonardo corresponded with Frederick II
and his scholars, exchanging problems
with them.
[1] Leonardo Pisano Fibonacci [t nice
to find source an date of image] PD
source: http://www.mathekiste.de/fibonac
ci/fibonacci.jpg
[2] Leonardo da Pisa, detto Fibonacci
(1170 -1250) PD
source: http://alpha01.dm.unito.it/perso
nalpages/cerruti/primi/primigrandi/fibon
acci.html
[1209 AD]
long history of competition with each
other.
[1] The town centre of Cambridge with
the University Church (Great St Mary's)
on the right, the Senate House of
Cambridge University on the left, and
Gonville and Caius College in the
middle at the back. CC
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:CambridgeTownCentre.jpg
[2] Photograph of Cambridge colleges
seen from St Johns College Chapel PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Cam_colls_from_johns.jpg
[1212 AD]
region of Castile-Leon,in northern
Spain.
[1] Statue of Cervantes in the
University Square, opposite to the
Faculty of Law. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Cervantes_Valladolid_lou.jpg
[06/15/1215 AD]
racist prejudice of Christian people in
this time is evident in clause 11, "And
if anyone dies indebted to the Jews,
his wife shall have her dower and pay
nothing of that debt..."
In addition, the reality of slavory is
evident in clause 27, "If any free man
dies without leaving a will, his
chattels shall be distributed by his
nearest kinsfolk and friends under the
supervision of the church...".
However, some rights are gained by
women, for example clause 8, "No widow
shall be forced to marry so long as she
wishes to live without a husband..."
[1] # Magna Carta. This is not the
original charter signed by John of
England, which has been lost (though
four copies survive), but the version
issued in 1225 by Henry III of England
and preserved in the UK's National
Archives. # Quelle:
http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/pathw
ays/citizenship/images/citizen_subject/m
agna_carta.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Magna_Carta.jpg
[2] John of England signs Magna
Carta Image from Cassell's History of
England - Century Edition - published
circa 1902 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:King_John_of_England_signs_the_Magna_
Carta_-_Illustration_from_Cassell%27s_Hi
story_of_England_-_Century_Edition_-_pub
lished_circa_1902.jpg
[1215 AD]
[1218 AD]
[1] Plateresque facade of the
University GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:University_of_Salamanca.jpg
[1220 AD]
région of the south of France.
[1] The University of Montpellier is
one of the oldest in France, having
been granted a charter in 1220 by
Cardinal Conrad von Urach and confirmed
by Pope Nicholas IV in a papal bull of
1289. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.bbc.co.uk/herefordand
worcester/content/image_galleries/montpe
llier_photo_gallery.shtml?17
[1220 AD]
[1] Leonardo Pisano Fibonacci [t nice
to find source an date of image] PD
source: http://www.mathekiste.de/fibonac
ci/fibonacci.jpg
[2] Leonardo da Pisa, detto Fibonacci
(1170 -1250) PD
source: http://alpha01.dm.unito.it/perso
nalpages/cerruti/primi/primigrandi/fibon
acci.html
[1220 AD]
in myriads on the young shoots, and,
inserting their long proboscides into
the bark, draw their nutriment from the
sap of the plant. The insects begin at
once to exude the resinous secretion
over their entire bodies; this forms in
effect a cocoon. A continuous hard
resinous layer regularly honeycombed
with small cavities is deposited over
and around the twig. From this living
tomb the female insects, which form the
great bulk of the group, never escape.
After their impregnation, which takes
place on the liberation of the males,
about three months from their first
appearance, the females develop into a
singular amorphous organism consisting
in its main features of a large smooth
shining crimson-colored sac - the ovary
- with a beak stuck into the bark, and
a few papillary (pipillae are small
nipplelike projections) processes
projected above the resinous surface.
The red fluid in the ovary is the
substance which forms the lac dye of
commerce. To obtain the largest amount
of both resin and dye-stuff it is
necessary to gather the twigs with
their living inhabitants in or near
June and November. Lac encrusting the
twigs as gathered is known in commerce
as "stick lac"; the resin crushed to
small fragments and washed in hot water
to free it from coloring matter is
"seed lac"; and this, when melted,
strained through thick canvas, and
spread out into thin layers, is known
as "shellac", and is the form in which
the resin is usually brought to
European markets. Shellac varies in
color from a dark amber to an almost
pure black.
[1] Blond shellac sample PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e5/Schellak.jpg
[1222 AD]
[1] Ornate ceiling in the conference
auditorium. University of Padua, Padua,
Italy, January 31, 2003 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.big6.com/showarticle.
php?id=342
[2] University of Padua, anatomical
theater, from Jacob Tomasini''s
Gymnasium Patavinum, 1654. Major, 327,
347 PD
source: http://clendening.kumc.edu/dc/rm
/major_17th.htm
[06/05/1224 AD]
[1] Main building, university of
Naples, Federico II PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Uninap.JPG
[1225 AD]
entirely to Diophantine equations of
the second degree (equations that
contain squares). The "Liber
quadratorum" is considered Leonardo's
masterpiece. "Liber quadratorum" is a
systematically arranged collection of
theorems, many invented by Fibonacci,
who used his own proofs to work out
general solutions.
Although the "Liber
abaci" will be more influential and of
wider scope, "Liber quadratorum" alone
ranks Leonardo as the major contributor
to number theory between Diophantus and
the 1600s French mathematician Pierre
de Fermat.
[1] Leonardo Pisano Fibonacci [t nice
to find source an date of image] PD
source: http://www.mathekiste.de/fibonac
ci/fibonacci.jpg
[2] Leonardo da Pisa, detto Fibonacci
(1170 -1250) PD
source: http://alpha01.dm.unito.it/perso
nalpages/cerruti/primi/primigrandi/fibon
acci.html
[1227 AD]
works on astrology.
[1228 AD]
light published by Robert Grosseteste
(GrOSTeST), (CE c1175-1253)
In "De Luce", Grossteste writes "Lux
est ergo prima forma corporalis.",
"Light is therefore the first corporeal
(material) form".
Grossetest brings in scholars from the
Byzantine Empire to translate works
from the original Greek.
Interested in optics, Grosseteste
performs experiments with mirrors and
lenses using al-Haytham's (Alhazen's)
writings as a guide.
In "De Iride" ("On the rainbow")
Grosseteste writes:
"This part of optics,
when well understood, shows us how we
may make things a very long distance
off appear as if placed very close, and
large near things appear very small,
and how we may make small things placed
at a distance appear any size we want,
so that it may be possible for us to
read the smallest letters at incredible
distances, or to count sand, or seed,
or any sort or minute objects."
Gresseteste's work in optics will be
continued by his student Roger Bacon.
In "De Luce" Grosseteste reveals his
awareness of atomic theory writing:
"It
is my opinion that this was the meaning
of the theory of those philosophers who
held that everything is composed of
atoms, and said that bodies are
composed of surfaces, and surfaces of
lines, and lines of points."
Grossetest introduces Aristotle to
Europe.
written)
[1] Portrait of Robert Grosseteste,
Bishop of Lincoln, seated with mitre
and crozier; his right hand raised in
blessing. Produced in England - 13th
century Record Number:
c6400-05 Shelfmark: Harley
3860 Page Folio Number:
f.48 Description: [Detail] Portrait
of Robert Grosseteste, Bishop of
Lincoln, seated with mitre and crozier;
his right hand raised in blessing. The
Articles of the Christian Faith
according to Bishop Grosseteste, in
French verse Title of Work:
- Author: Grosseteste,
Robert Illustrator: - Production:
England; 13th
century Language/Script: Latin and
French / - [t notice the crossed eyes,
perhaps reputation as insane for
proscience views?] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Grosseteste_bishop.jpg
[2] Record Number: 19885 Shelfmark:
Royal 6 E. V Page Folio Number:
f.6 Description: [Miniature only]
Initial 'A', portrait of Robert
Grosseteste, Bishop of Lincoln. The
beginning of one of the bishop's
sermons Title of Work: Works of
Robert Grosseteste, Bishop of
Lincoln Author: Grosseteste,
Robert Illustrator: - Production:
England; 15th
century Language/Script: Latin /
- PD
source: http://www.imagesonline.bl.uk/br
itishlibrary/controller/textsearch?text=
grosseteste&y=0&x=0&startid=31330&width=
4&height=2&idx=2
[1229 AD]
[1] Toulouse, le Capitole COPYRIGHTED
FRANCE
source: http://w3.univ-tlse2.fr/pac/iclc
e.toulouse/photos/index.1.jpg
[1230 AD]
killing of witches.
[1] Pope Gregory IX painted in glory
while excomunicating. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:B_Gregor_IX2.jpg
[2] Pope Gregory orders the Talmud to
be put on trial and burned A.D. 1239.
Panel by Berruguete, 15th century. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Talmudtrial.jpg
[1233 AD]
wealthy German lord. After his early
schooling, he went to the University of
Padua, where he studied the liberal
arts. He joined the Dominican order at
Padua in 1223. He continued his studies
at Padua and Bologna and in Germany and
then taught theology at several
convents throughout Germany, lastly at
Cologne.
Because of his learning, Albertus is
suspected of wizardry.
Albertus is called "the
Bishop with the Boots" and the "Ape of
Aristotle".
Albertus is the bishop of Regensburg
from 1260-1262.
In the summer of 1248, Albertus will be
sent to Cologne to organize the first
Dominican studium generale ("general
house of studies") in Germany. Albertus
will preside over this house until 1254
and devote himself to a full schedule
of studying, teaching, and writing.
During this period Albertus' main
disciple will be Thomas Aquinas, who
will return to Paris in 1252. The two
men maintain a close relationship even
though doctrinal differences exist.
In 1277 he traveled to Paris to uphold
the recently condemned good name and
writings of Thomas Aquinas, who had
died a few years before, and to defend
certain Aristotelian doctrines that
both he and Thomas held to be true.
Albertus, like most humans in this time
have many flaws including, most likely
believing in a diety, believing most of
the lies of the Christian religion,
believing astrology, and that stones
have occult properties (in "De
mineralibus").
[1] Albertus Magnus (fresco, 1352,
Treviso, Italy) by Tommaso da Modena
(1326-1379) 1352 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:AlbertusMagnus.jpg
[2] Painting by Joos (Justus) van
Gent, Urbino, ~ 1475 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Albertus_Magnus_Painting_by_Joos_van_
Gent.jpeg
[1234 AD]
[1] English: Jikji or ''Selected
Teachings of Buddhist Sages and Seon
Masters'', published in 1377, Korea
during the Goryeo Dynasty. It is the
earliest known book printed with
movable metal type. 한국어:
백운화상초록불조직지심체요
(白雲和尙抄錄佛祖直指心體
節, 간단히
불조직지심체요절,
직지심체요절, 직지)은
백운화상 경한이 선(禪)의
요체를 깨닫는 데에 필요한
내용을 뽑아 1372년에 펴낸
불교 서적으로, 상·하권으로
이루어져 있다. 원나라에서
받아온 불조직지심체요절의
내용을 대폭 늘려 상·하
2권으로 엮은 것이다. 전
세계에 남아 있는 금속
활자로 인쇄된 책 중에서
가장 오래된 것으로, 2001년
9월 4일 《승정원일기》와
함께 유네스코
세계기록유산에 등재되었다.
현존하는 것은 하권 1책
뿐인데, 1900년대 말 콜랭 드
프랑시 주한 프랑스 공사가
프랑스로 가지고 갔으며 현재
프랑스 국립도서관에
소장되어 있다. 이는 독일
구텐베르크의 활자보다 78년
이상 앞서 편찬되었다. Date
1377 Source Bibliotheque
Nationale de France. Source Author
English: Authored by Baegun Hwaseng
(1289-1374), a master of Seon Buddhism
in Korea, and published by his
students, Seokchan and Daljam in
1377. 한국어: 선종의 대가인
백운화상 (1289년-1374)이 지은
책을 그의 제자인 석찬과
달잠이 1377년에
출판하였다. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/9f/Korean_book-Jikji-Sel
ected_Teachings_of_Buddhist_Sages_and_Se
on_Masters-1377.jpg
[1234 AD]
Frederick prefers to live in Sicily.
At age
fourteen Frederick marries a
twenty-five-year-old widow named
Constance, the daughter of the king of
Aragon. Both seem to have been happy
with the arrangement, and Constance
bears Frederick a son, Henry.
Instead of
killing the Saracens of Sicily,
Frederick allows them to settle on the
mainland and build mosques. Frederick
also enlists them in his Christian army
and even into his personal bodyguards.
As Muslim soldiers, they have the
advantage of immunity from papal
excommunication. For these reasons,
among others, Frederick II will be
listed as a representative member of
the sixth region of Dante's Inferno,
The Heretics who are burned in tombs.
Frederick
writes poetry and is a patron of the
Sicilian School of poetry. Frederick's
royal court in Palermo, from around
1220 to his death, sees the first use
of a literary form of an Italo-Romance
language, Sicilian. The school and its
poetry will be well known to Dante and
his peers and will have a significant
influence on the literary form of what
was eventually to become the modern
Italian language.
Pope Gregory IX, excommunicates
Frederick II for failing to carry out a
crusade to Jerusalem. Frederick
obtained Jerusalem, Bethlehem, and
Nazareth from the Sultan al-Kamil of
Egypt nonviolently through negociation.
[1] * Frederick II and his falcon.
* From his book De arte venandi cum
avibus (''The art of hunting with
birds). From a manuscript in Biblioteca
Vaticana, Pal. lat 1071), late 13th
century PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Frederick_II_and_eagle.jpg
[2] L'Islam in Italia, DeAgostini -
Rizzoli periodici An image from an old
copy of De arte venandi cum avibus PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:De_Venandi_com_Avibus.jpg
[1240 AD]
[1] University of Siena COPYRIGHTED
ITALY
source: http://www.elet.polimi.it/confer
ences/siena2003/home2.html
[1242 AD]
[1] Roger Bacon Library of
Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/roger%20b
acon
[2] Statue of Roger Bacon in the
Oxford University Museum of Natural
History. 2004 GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Roger-bacon-statue.jpg
[1243 AD]
stake by Christian humans for "host
nailing", that is the Jewish humans are
accused of hammering nails through the
"host" or wafer given to Christian
people to eat during a Christian
service as a symbol of Jesus.
[1248 AD]
[1] Albertus Magnus (fresco, 1352,
Treviso, Italy) by Tommaso da Modena
(1326-1379) 1352 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:AlbertusMagnus.jpg
[2] Painting by Joos (Justus) van
Gent, Urbino, ~ 1475 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Albertus_Magnus_Painting_by_Joos_van_
Gent.jpeg
[05/15/1252 AD]
torture. "Ad exstirpanda" is the the
opening line designating a papal bull
(a public letter in legal form) issued
on May 15, 1252, by Pope Innocent IV,
which will be confirmed by Pope
Alexander IV in 1259, and by Pope
Clement IV in 1265. This papl bull
explicitly authorizes the use of
torture for eliciting confessions from
heretics during the Inquisition and
explicitly condones the practice of
executing relapsed heretics by burning
them alive. The bull gives to the State
a portion of the property to be
confiscated from convicted heretics.
The State in return assumes the burden
of carrying out the penalty.
[1252 AD]
accurate compilation of
astronomical/astrological data
(ephemeris) ever seen in Europe at this
time. The Tables were partly the work
of Al-Zarqali, known to the West as
Arzachel, a mathematician and
astronomer/astrologer who flourished in
Cordoba in the 1000s. Gerard of Cremona
(1114â"1187) edited the Tables of
Toledo for Latin readers.
The tables will not be widely known
until a Latin version is prepared in
Paris in the 1320s. Copies will rapidly
spread throughout Europe, and for more
than two centuries the Alfonsine Tables
will be the best astronomical tables
available. First printed in 1483, the
Alfonsine Tables will be an important
source of information for the young
Nicolaus Copernicus before his own work
superseded them in the 1550s.
Alfonso X commissioned or co-authored
numerous works during his reign. These
works included Cantigas d'escarnio e
maldicer, General Estoria and the Libro
de los juegos ("Book of Games").
[1] Español: Alfonso X el
Sabio Alfonso X el Sabio (Toledo
1221-Sevilla 1284), rey de Castilla y
de León (en la actual España)
(1252-1284). From en.wiki: *
Alfonso X of Castile from the Libro des
Juegas. Scanned from Four Gothic
Kings, Elizabeth Hallam ed. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:LibroDesJuegasAlfonXAndCourt.jpg
_01.jpg)
[2] Statue of Alfonso X of Castile
(1221â''1284) at the entrance
staircase of the National Library of
Spain, in Madrid. Sculpted by José
Alcoverro y Amorós (1835â''1910) in
1892. 2006 CC
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Alfonso_X_el_Sabio_%28Jos%C3%A9_Alcov
erro%29_01.jpg
[1255 AD]
tortured and hanged for sacrificing
children.
[1259 AD]
[1] Stamp issued in 1956 by Iran
picturing Nasir al-Din Tusi,
astronomer Source scan of stamp 30
May 2006 Date issued 1956 Author
Iran PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Nasir_al-Din_Tusi.jpg
[2] Tusi couple - 13th century CE
sketch by Nasir al-Din Tusi. Generates
a linear motion as a sum of two
circular motions. Invented for Tusi's
planetary model. Online source:
Pearson Prentice Hall Companion Website
for Astronomy Today Original source:
Library of Congress Vatican Exhibit
(Vat. Arabic ms 319, fol. 28 verso) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Tusi_couple.jpg
[1261 AD]
[1] Yang Hui triangle (Pascal's
triangle) using rod numerals, as
depicted in a publication of Zhu Shijie
in 1303 AD. Drawing of Pascal's
Triangle published in 1303 by Zhu
Shijie (1260-1320), in his Si Yuan Yu
Jian. It was called Yanghui Triangle by
the Chinese, after the mathematician
Yang Hui. The fourth entry from the
left in the second row from the bottom
appears to be a typo (34 instead of 35,
correctly given in the fifth entry in
the same row). PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Yanghui_triangle.gif
[1263 AD]
Honorius IV.
Alderotti studies in Bologna
(which, according to Asimov has one of
the best health schools (medical
school) in western Europe) and in
lectures there in 1260.
Dante mentions
him in The Divine Comedy as a
Hippocratist, or follower of
Hippocrates.
[1] Taddeo Alderotti PD
source: http://www3.unibo.it/avl/english
/biogr/bio2.htm
[2] Biografie di medici medievali [t
Biography of medieval medicine, it
looks just like a contemporary image of
some physicians, maybe at a health
school?] PD
source: http://www.accademiajr.it/medweb
/biografie.html
[01/20/1265 AD]
followers will be killed a few months
later on Aug. 4, 1265, by Edward I,
Kind Henry III's son and future king of
England.
[1] Relief of Simon de Montfort, by
Gaetano Cecere (1950), in United States
House of Representatives Chamber.
Agency: Architect of the Capitol PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Demontfort.jpg
[1265 AD]
University of Naples, recently founded
by the emperor, where he first
encountered the scientific and
philosophical works that were being
translated from Greek and Arabic. In
this setting Thomas decided to join the
Friars Preachers, or Dominicans, a new
religious order founded 30 years
earlier, which departed from the
traditional paternalistic form of
government for monks to the more
democratic form of the mendicant friars
(religious orders whose poverty made it
necessary for them to beg alms) and
from the monastic life of prayer and
manual labour to a more active life of
preaching and teaching.
In 1245 Aquinas studied at the
University of Paris, the most
prestigious and turbulent university of
the time. Aquinas went to Paris to the
convent of Saint-Jacques, the great
university centre of the Dominicans,
and there studied under Albertus
Magnus, a tremendous scholar with a
wide range of intellectual interests.
The logic of Aquinas's position
regarding faith and reason requires
that the fundamental consistency of
nature be recognized. In the universe
or nature there are laws that describe
its operation. Recognizing this fact
permits the construction of a science
according to a logos (ârational
structureâ). Opponents under the
influence of Augustine's doctrines
assert the necessity and power of grace
for a nature polluted by sin. This new
view therefore upsets them. This idea
that the universe is controlled by laws
of nature leaves the question of where
a diety might be located and involved.
For many modern people a diety is
everywhere influencing everything
either obeying or disobeying the laws
of nature, for others a diety is only
responsible for the creation of the
universe, for some there are many
dieties, and of course some people
reject the theory that any gods exist.
In January 1274 Thomas Aquinas is be
personally summoned by Gregory X to the
second Council of Lyons, which is an
attempt to repair the schism between
the Latin and Greek churches. On his
way Aquinas is stricken by illness; he
stops at the Cistercian abbey of
Fossanova, where he died on March 7. In
1277 the masters of Paris, the highest
theological jurisdiction in the church,
condemn a series of 219 propositions;
12 of these propositions are theses of
Aquinas. This is the most serious
condemnation possible in the Middle
Ages and its repercussions are felt in
the development of science for several
centuries.
Thomas Aquinas will be canonized a
saint in 1323.
Aquinas' philosophical treatistes are:
"De
ente et essentia" (before 1256; On
Being and Essence, 1949); "Contra
impugnantes Dei cultum et religionem"
(1256; An Apology for the Religious
Orders, 1902); "De regno" (De regimine
principum) "ad regem Cypri" (1266; On
Kingship, 1949); "De perfectione vitae
spiritualis" (1269â"70); "De unitate
intellectus contra Averroistas" (1270;
The Unicity of the Intellect, 1946);
"De aeternitate mundi contra
murmurantes" (1270â"72); "De
substantiis separatis, seu de angelorum
natura" (undated; Treatise on Separate
Substances, 1959).
[1] Depiction of St. Thomas Aquinas
from the Demidoff Altarpiece by Carlo
Crivelli. [t bald head is shaved or
naturally like this?] Depiction of St.
Thomas Aquinas from The Demidoff
Altarpiece by Carlo Crivelli Name:
Thomas Aquinas Birth: ca. 1225
(Castle of Roccasecca, near Aquino,
Italy) Death: 7 March 1274 (Fossanova
Abbey, Lazio, Italy) School/tradition:
Scholasticism, Founder of
Thomism Main interests: Metaphysics
(incl. Theology), Logic, Mind,
Epistemology, Ethics, Politics Notable
ideas: Five Proofs for God's
Existence, Principle of double
effect Influences: Aristotle,
Albertus Magnus, Boethius, Eriugena,
Anselm, Averroes, Maimonides, St.
Augustine,Al-Ghazzali Influenced:
Giles of Rome, Godfrey of Fontaines,
Jacques Maritain, G. E. M. Anscombe,
John Locke, Dante PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:St-thomas-aquinas.jpg
[2] St. Thomas Aquinas, by Fra
Angelico Title: ''Saint Thomas
Aquinas'' Artist: Fra Angelico (1395
â'' 1455) Description: During the
13th century, Saint Thomas Aquinas
sought to reconcile Aristotelian
philosophy with Augustinian theology.
Aquinas employed both reason and faith
in the study of metaphysics, moral
philosophy, and religion. While Aquinas
accepted the existence of God on faith,
he offered five proofs of Godâs
existence to support such a
belief. Source:
http://www.cptryon.org/prayer/special/gu
idaquin.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Saint_Thomas_Aquinas.jpg
[1267 AD]
family. His parents are employed by
King Henry III. Bacon was well-versed
in the classics and enjoyed the
advantages of an early training in
geometry, arithmetic, music, and
astronomy.
Bacon studied and later became a Master
at Oxford, lecturing on Aristotle.
Sometime
between 1237 and 1245, Bacon starts to
lecture at the University of Paris, the
center of intellectual life in Europe
at this time.
Bacon obtains a Master of arts
degree, at the university of Paris by
1241 and resigns in 1247 to devote
himself to research. This new interest
in science and experiment is probably
caused by his return to Oxford and the
influence there of the great scholar
Robert Grosseteste, a leader in
introducing Greek learning to the West,
and Grosseteste's student Adam de
Marisco, and Thomas Wallensis, the
bishop of St. David's.
Around 1256 Bacon becomes a Friar in
the Franciscan Order. As a Franciscan
Friar, Bacon no longer holds a teaching
post and after 1260, his activities are
further restricted by a Franciscan
statute forbidding Friars from
publishing books or pamphlets without
specific approval.
Bacon circumvents this
restriction through his acquaintance
with Cardinal Guy le Gros de Foulques,
who becomes Pope Clement IV in 1265.
The new Pope issues a mandate ordering
Bacon to write him concerning the place
of philosophy within theology. As a
result Bacon sends the Pope his "Opus
maius", which presents Bacon's views on
how the philosophy of Aristotle and the
new science can be incorporated into a
new Theology. Besides the "Opus maius"
Bacon also sends his "Opus minus", "De
multiplicatione specierum", and,
perhaps, other works on alchemy and
astrology.
[1] Roger Bacon Library of
Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/roger%20b
acon
[2] Statue of Roger Bacon in the
Oxford University Museum of Natural
History. 2004 GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Roger-bacon-statue.jpg
[1268 AD]
[1] A Mongol bomb thrown against a
charging Japanese samurai during the
Mongol Invasions of Japan,
1281. Suenaga facing Mongol arrows and
bombs. From MokoShuraiEkotoba
(蒙古襲来絵
;詞), circa 1293, 13th
century. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Mooko-Suenaga.jpg
[08/08/1269 AD]
Bacon.
Peregrinus is an engineer in army of
Louis IX.
Peregrinus thinks that the
compass needle points to the celestial
sphere, the outermost spheres in
Ptolemy's erroneous system.
People initially
did not connect magnetism and
electricity, giving each word a
different suffix instead of the same:
"magnetity" or "electrism".
Peter's magnetic experiments and
instruments in his letter apparently
date to a time period twenty years
earlier, judging by references in
several works of Bacon.
The name Peregrinus ("pilgrim")
suggests that Peregrinus may have also
been a crusader.
Peregrinus' disciple, Roger Bacon, pays
the highest tribute to Peregrinus as an
experimenter and technician in his
"Opus tertium" and other works (in
which Peter is called "Petrus de
Maharncuria Picardus"). According to
Bacon, Peregrinus is a recluse who
devotes himself to the study of nature,
is able to work metals, invents armour
and provides assistance more valuable
to Louis IX of France than the king's
entire army.
"De magnete" will became a very popular
work from the Middle Ages onwards. In
1326, Thomas Bradwardine will quote it
in his "Tractatus de proportionibus".
Scholars at Oxford University will make
frequent use of it. The first edition
of the letter will be issued at
Augsburg, in 1558, by Achilles Gasser.
William Gilbert will acknowledge his
debt to Peter of Maricourt and
incorporates this 1200s scientist's
experiments on magnetism into his own
treatise, called "De magnete".
Here we see the major centers for the
earliest European scientific progress
are Italy, France and England as the
transition from the Arab nations
leading in science happens.
[1] Pivoting compass needle in a 14th
century handcopy of Peter's Epistola de
magnete (1269) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Epistola-de-magnete.jpg
[12/??/1270 AD]
clear and official censorship of free
speech, and free thought in addition to
the censorship of scientific and other
writings.
[1275 AD]
Greek.
Villanova is given a castle and a
professorship at the University of
Montpellier in France as a result of
treating royal people.
Villanova is probably of
Catalan origin, and studied chemistry,
medicine, physics, and also Arabic
philosophy. After having lived at the
court of Aragon, he goes to Paris,
where he gains a considerable
reputation; but angers the
ecclesiastics and is forced to move,
which he does to Sicily. About 1313 he
was summoned to Avignon by Pope Clement
V, who was ill, but Villanova dies on
the voyage.
[1] Arnaldus de Villanova PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Arnaldus_de_Villanova.jpeg
[1277 AD]
great) (1193-1280) In 1277 he travels
to Paris to uphold the recently
condemned good name and writings of
Thomas Aquinas, who had died a few
years before, and to defend certain
Aristotelian doctrines that both he and
Thomas held to be true.
[1] Albertus Magnus (fresco, 1352,
Treviso, Italy) by Tommaso da Modena
(1326-1379) 1352 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:AlbertusMagnus.jpg
[2] Painting by Joos (Justus) van
Gent, Urbino, ~ 1475 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Albertus_Magnus_Painting_by_Joos_van_
Gent.jpeg
[1277 AD]
[1] Roger Bacon Library of
Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/roger%20b
acon
[2] Statue of Roger Bacon in the
Oxford University Museum of Natural
History. 2004 GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Roger-bacon-statue.jpg
[1277 AD]
[1280 AD]
[1280 AD]
[1] Detail of a portrait of Hugh de
Provence, painted by Tomaso da Modena
in 1352 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Hugh_specs.jpg
[1281 AD]
[1] Photo taken from medieval
manuscript by Qotbeddin Shirazi. The
image depicts an epicyclic planetary
model. Name: Title: Birth:
1236CE death: 1311CE Maddhab:
Sufi Main interests: Mathematics,
Astronomy, medicine, science and
philosophy works: Almagest, The Royal
Present ,Pearly Crown, etc Influences:
Nasir al-Din Tusi, Ibn al-Haytham and
Suhrawardi Picture taken by Zereshk
from old manuscript of Qotbeddin
Shirazi's treatise. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ghotb2.jpg
[1284 AD]
plays "Jau de Robin et de Marion" is
written around this time by Adam de le
Halle (CE c1250-c1306), the last and
greatest of the trouveres, a poet,
musician and innovator of the earliest
French secular theatre. "Jeu de Robin
et de Marion" ("A game of Robin and of
Marion") is a dramatization of the
pastoral theme of a knight’s wooing
of a pretty shepherdess, with dances
and peasants’ dialogue.
[1] Folio 1 Mariage de Robin et de
Marote Marote chante PD
source: http://toisondor.byu.edu/dscript
orium/aix166/fol1.jpg
[2] escription English: Adam de la
Halle. Miniature in musical
codex. Español: Adam de la Halle.
Miniatura en un códice musical. Date
s. XIII Source
http://picsdigger.com/image/cfd4783
c/ Author Unknown PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/ed/Adam_de_la_halle.jpg
[1285 AD]
burned {to death} after being accused
of bleeding a Christian child to death.
[1290 AD]
[1] The tower of the University of
Coimbra (left) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Coimbra_University_Tower_2.jpg
[1297 AD]
Paris, where he was promoted to the
degrees of Doctor in philosophy and
physics. D'Abano's fees as a physician
are reported to be very high.
D'Abano meets Marco Polo.
D'Abano believes in
astrology and is suspected of magical
practices, in particular by competing
physicians.
After his death, D'Abano is found
guilty and his body is ordered to be
exhumed and burned, but a friend
secretly removes it, and the
Inquisition has to content itself with
the public proclamation of its sentence
and the burning of Abano in effigy as a
bundle of straw representing his person
publicly burnt at Padua.
There is a long history of the
shockingly brutal execution by fire.
There are reports of Roman authorities
murdering Christian martyrs by burning,
and the Roman Emperor Justinian orders
death by fire as a punishment for
heresy against Christianity. The
burning the D'Abano in effigy is an
early report of the increased efforts
to stop the advance of freethinking
being nutured in the Universities in
Europe from the reading of ancient
Greek and Arabic texts.
[1] Pietro d'Abano PD
source: http://www.filosofico.net/pietro
abano.htm
[2] Pietro D'Abano A Rural
Dalliance Illustration from an
illuminated manuscript of his
Commentary on Aristotle's Problems,
1315 PD
source: http://www.androphile.org/previe
w/Museum/Europe/pietro_abano-dalliance.h
tml
[05/15/1298 AD]
are killed (including scholar Mordecai
ben Hillel) because of a rumor of host
nailing.
[1298 AD]
invented in Europe. A Tower Mill is a
type of windmill which consists of a
brick or stone tower, on top of which
sits a roof or cap which can be turned
to bring the sails into the wind.
[1298 AD]
Chinese, he did speak some of the many
languages then used in East Asia- most
probably Turkish (in its Coman dialect)
as spoken among the Mongols, Arabized
Persian, Uighur (Uygur), and perhaps
Mongol. He was noticed very favourably
by Kublai, who took great delight in
hearing of strange countries and
repeatedly sent him on fact-finding
missions to distant parts of the
empire.
According to Marco's travel account,
the Polos ask several times for
permission to return to Europe but the
Khan will not agree to their departure.
Sometime around 1292, a Mongol princess
is to be sent to Persia to become the
consort of Arghun Khan, and the Polos
offer to accompany her. Marco writes
that Kublai had been unwilling to let
them go but finally granted permission.
They are eager to leave, in part,
because Kublai is nearly 80, and his
death (and the consequent change in
regime) might be dangerous for a small
group of isolated foreigners. The Polos
also wanted to see their native Venice
and their families again.
The princess, with some 600 courtiers
and sailors, and the Polos board 14
ships, which leave the port of Quanzhou
and sail southward. On the island of
Sumatra ("Lesser Giaua") Polo is
impressed by the fact that the North
Star appears to have dipped below the
horizon. The fleet follows the west
coast of India and finally anchored at
Hormuz. The expedition then proceeds to
Khorasan, handing over the princess not
to Arghun, who had died, but to his son
Mahmud Ghazan.
The Polos then depart for Europe and
eventually returned to Venice. Soon
after his return to Venice, Polo is
taken prisoner by the Genoese, rivals
of the Venetians at sea, during a
battle in the Mediterranean. He was
then imprisoned in Genoa. In prison,
Marco Polo dictates his adventures to a
prisoner from Pisa, Rustichello, who
writes the story in Franco-Italian, a
composite tongue fashionable during the
1200 and 1300s. The original title of
the book is "Divisament dou monde"
("Description of the World"). Polo is
soon freed and returns to Venice.
"Il milione" is an instant success, "In
a few months it spread throughout
Italy," Giovanni Battista Ramusio, the
16th-century Italian geographer will
write. There are around 140 different
manuscript versions of the text, in
three manuscript groups, in a dozen
different languages and dialects.
[1] Marco Polo in Tatar attire. The
Granger Collection, New York PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-13534?articleTypeId=1
[2] Marco Polo leaving Venice on his
way to China (Platt 97) PD
source: http://www.susqu.edu/history/med
trav/MarcoPolo/images.htm
[1300 AD]
Time keeping began around 3500 BC with
the invention of the gnomon and
sundial, and the hourglass.
The first mechanical clocks in Europe
work based on a simple principle. A
weight is suspended from a cord wrapped
many times around a driving shaft. As
the weight descends the shaft turns and
the movement is transmitted to the
hands, or in many cases just a single
hour hand. To regulate the movement so
that the hands rotate at a fixed rate,
using an escapement which consists of a
pair of oscillating vanes mounted on a
vertical spindle carrying a protruding
pallet that engages with the teeth of a
crown wheel. Some regulation of the
rate of oscillation of the vanes is
possible through a series of sliding
weights on each arm. One of the oldest
surviving examples of this kind of
clock is that from Salisbury Cathedral,
which dates to 1386, but does not have
its original escapement. These are
weigh-driven clocks. Spring driven
clocks do not appear until the middle
of the 1400s.In the 1600s Christiaan
Huygens will invent the pendulum
escapement (1657) for weight-driven
clocks and the balance spring (1675)
for spring-driven clocks. Only then
will putting a minute hand on a clock
be useful.
The first publicly known battery
electric clock is invented in 1840.
This clock is driven by a spring and
pendulum and uses an electrical impulse
to operate a number of dials. Not until
1906 is the first self-contained
battery-driven clock invented and made
public.
[1] By Jason Hopwood CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/01/Salisbury_02.jpg
[2] The striking train of the
Salisbury cathedral clock CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/8/8a/Salisbury_striking_train.j
pg
[1300 AD]
[1] Francesco Landini. Uncopyrighted
14th-century portrait; from the
Squarcialupi Codex PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/49/Landini.jpg
[1303 AD]
[1] Church of Sant'Ivo alla Sapienza,
by Borromini, originally a chapel of
the La Sapienza see. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Borromini_SantIvo.jpg
[2] The statue of Minerva in la
Sapienza University, Rome PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:MinervaSapienza.JPG
[09/08/1308 AD]
[1] Logo for U of Perudia COPYRIGHTED
EDU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Unipg.gif
[2] ''Perugia is a poetic, university
city, one of the beautiful, learned
cities of old Italy.'' George Sand,
1855. COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://www.sbu.edu/images/pics_g
allery_2.jpg
[10/24/1310 AD]
[1] Description Deutsch: de:William
Byrd English: en:William Byrd -
c.1540-1623. Date not provided by
uploader Source
http://www.renaissancemusic.pe.kr/m
usician_p/william%20byrd.htm Author
Vandergucht (Michael van der Gucht
??) Permission (Reusing this file)
guessed, creator of the picture is
most likely dead for more than 70 years
(Byrd lived during 16th/17th
century) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/bf/William_Byrd.jpg
[2] 1807 engraving of camera lucida in
use Obtained from the university
website
http://www.usc.edu/schools/annenberg/asc
/projects/comm544/library/
images/448.jpg, image edited for size
and clarity. I emailed the contact at
that site and said >
http://www.usc.edu/schools/annenberg/asc
/projects/comm544/library/
images/448.jpg > is described as an
1807 picture of a camera lucida. Can
you confirm > that it isn't under
copyright? Is it OK with you if I use
it in a > Wikipedia (free Internet
encyclopedia) article on the camera
lucida? I got this
reply Daniel, This work is not
copyrighted, so far as I know--and
after 196 years, I'm quite certain any
original copyright would have long ago
expired, don't you think? Your own use
is entirely up to you--I wish you every
success. -- Jim Beniger PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=W
[10/24/1310 AD]
[1] 1807 engraving of camera lucida in
use Obtained from the university
website
http://www.usc.edu/schools/annenberg/asc
/projects/comm544/library/
images/448.jpg, image edited for size
and clarity. I emailed the contact at
that site and said >
http://www.usc.edu/schools/annenberg/asc
/projects/comm544/library/
images/448.jpg > is described as an
1807 picture of a camera lucida. Can
you confirm > that it isn't under
copyright? Is it OK with you if I use
it in a > Wikipedia (free Internet
encyclopedia) article on the camera
lucida? I got this
reply Daniel, This work is not
copyrighted, so far as I know--and
after 196 years, I'm quite certain any
original copyright would have long ago
expired, don't you think? Your own use
is entirely up to you--I wish you every
success. -- Jim Beniger PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=W
[2] Optics of Wollaston camera
lucida From W. H. C. Bartlett,
Elements of Natural Philosophy, 1852,
A. S. Barnes and Company. Photocopy
kindly provided by Tom Greenslade,
Department of Physics, Kenyon College.
This image was scanned from the
photocopy and cleaned up by Daniel P.
B. Smith. This version is licensed by
Daniel P. B. Smith under the terms of
the Wikipedia Copyright. PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=W
[10/24/1310 AD]
[1310 AD]
[1310 AD]
Spain. (Arab person?).
False-Jabir wrongly assumes that all
metals are composed of sulfur and
mercury and gives detailed descriptions
of metallic properties in those terms.
False-Jabir also explains the use of an
elixir in transmuting base metals into
gold.
[1310 AD]
[1312 AD]
[1312 AD]
[1316 AD]
College of Medicine of the University
of Bologna in 1290 and also is known to
have studied in the College of
Philosophy.
De' Luzzi lectures while
actively practicing health and
surgery.
De' Luzzi studies at the health
(medical) school in Bologna under
Alderotti, graduates in 1290 and starts
teaching there in 1306.
The first such recorded anatomical
exploration occurred for legal reasons
at Bologna in 1302, but it is generally
believed that academic dissections had
been performed previously. In any
event, Mondino reports that in January
1315 he conducted such a procedure on
the body of a woman, giving him the
opportunity to examine and study human
uterine anatomy.
Asimov writes that the 1300s are a
turning point between a focus on
religion and the afterlife to an
interest in humans and the earth, which
is called "humanism" and is the
beginning of the Renaissance.
[1] Mondino da Luzzi supervising an
autopsy Johannes de Ketham
Fasciculo di Medicina, Venice, 1493,
engraving National Library of
Medicine, USA PD
source: http://www.afip.org/Departments/
HepGastr_dept/sobin/chap2.htm
[2] Autopsy with prosector and
physician Anathomia, Mondino da
Luzzi, 1495 engraving National
Library of Medicine, USA PD
source: http://www.afip.org/Departments/
HepGastr_dept/sobin/chap3.htm
[1317 AD]
Acquinas' view that logic and religion
can coexist, arguing that religion is a
matter of faith.
Ockham studies at Oxford and
lectures there from 1315-1319.
Ockham was young
when he entered the Franciscan order.
At the
University of Oxford Ockham apparently
between 1317 and 1319 lectures on the
Sentences of Peter Lombard, a 1100s
theologian whose work was the official
textbook of theology in the
universities until the 1500s. Ockham's
lectures are also set down in written
commentaries, of which the commentary
on Book I of the Sentences (a
commentary known as "Ordinatio") was
actually written by Ockham himself.
Ockham's
opinions aroused strong opposition from
members of the theological faculty of
Oxford and Ockham left the university
without obtaining his master's degree
in theology. Ockham therefore remains,
academically speaking, an
undergraduate, known as an "inceptor"
("beginner") in Oxonian language or, to
use a Parisian equivalent, a
"baccalaureus formatus".
In 1327 The
Franciscan General Michael of Cesena is
summoned to Avignon to answer charges
of heresy, and asks Ockham to review
arguments surrounding Apostolic
poverty. The Franciscan order believed
that Jesus and his apostles owned no
personal property, and survived by
begging and accepting the gifts of
others. This clashes directly with the
beliefs of Pope John XXII.
On May 26, 1328,
the Franciscan General Michael of
Cesena flees from Avignon accompanied
by Bonagratia and William Ockham. The
three Franciscans stay in Pisa under
the protection of Emperor Louis IV the
Bavarian, who had been excommunicated
in 1324 and proclaimed by John XXII to
have forfeited all rights to the
empire. Because of this Ockham is
excommunicated.
In Munich in 1330 and thereafter Ockham
writes fervently against the papacy in
defense of the strict Franciscan notion
of poverty.
[1] William of Ockham (also Occam or
any of several other spellings) (ca.
1285â''1349) was an English
Franciscan friar and philosopher, from
Ockham, a small village in Surrey, near
East Horsley. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Occam.jpg
[2] Sketch labelled 'frater Occham
iste', from a manuscipt of Ockham's
'Summa Logicae', 1341 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:William_of_Ockham_-_Logica_-_1341.jpg
[1320 AD]
(verify)
[1] Philippe de Vitry Vitriaco ;
Vittriaco ; Philippus
Vitriacus 1291-1361 Chapitre XVI,
La mesure : Ainsi pour indiquer un
temps parfait, on met un petit cercle,
parce que la forme ronde est parfaite;
il arrive aussi, selon certains, qu'on
mette trois petits traits obliques,
cela revient au même : le temps est
parfait puisqu'essentiellement divisé
en trois parties égales. Tableau de
solmisation M s. Barb. lat. 307, Roma,
Biblioteca Vaticana UNKNOWN
source: http://www.musicologie.org/Biogr
aphies/p/vitry_c.gif
[1325 AD]
UK
[1] Description Fol. 44r from
''Robertsbridge Codex'' with
transcription of the beginning of
''Tribum, quem non abhorruit'' Date
Ms.: Appendix with this Folio
written about 1350, Transsription:
2006 Source British Museum Ms.
add. 28550, Transscription by
Wetwassermann Author Ms.:
unknown, Transcription:
Wetwassermann Permission (Reusing
this file) PD (Ms.) and GFDL
(Transcription) GFDL
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2a/Robertsbridgecodex_fo
l44r.jpg
[1327 AD]
University for 6 years and becomes a
monk at St Albans Abbey in
Hertfordshire before 9 years further
study at Oxford. In 1326, he becomes
the abbot of St Albans.
Wallingford's design of
an astronomical clock is described in
"Tractatus Horologii Astronomici", in
1327. The clock will be completed in
1356 about 20 years after his death by
William of Walsham, but will be
apparently destroyed during Henry
VIII's reformation and dissolution of
St Albans Abbey in 1539.
Richard also designs
and constructs a calculation device
known as an equatorium, which he calls
an Albion. This can be used for
astronomical calculations such as
lunar, solar and planetary longitudes
and can predict eclipses. This is
described in "Tractatus Albionis". He
publishes other works on trigonometry,
celestial coordinates, astrology and
various religious works.
He suffers from what is then thought to
be leprosy (though it may be syphilis,
scrofula or tuberculosis) apparently
contracted when he goes to have his
position confirmed by the Pope at
Avignon. He dies at St Albans.
[1] Miniature of Richard of
Wallingford, Abbot of St. Albans,
mathematician and inventor of a
mechanical astronomical clock. He is
shown seated at his desk measuring with
a pair of compasses. * Title of
the book: History of the abbots of St
Albans. * Author: Thomas of
Walsingham * Date: 14th century
* Language: Latin The first version
is a lossless adaptation from:
http://www.imagesonline.bl.uk/britishlib
rary/controller/textsearch?text=richard+
wallingford&y=0&x=0&&idx=1&startid=3173
The current version was digitally
changed for better visualization. From
The British Library; Record Number -
c3919-08; Shelfmark - Cotton Claudius
E. IV; Page Folio Number - f.201. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Richard_of_Wallingford.jpg
[2] The miniature represents Richard
of Wallingford, Abbot of St Albans. He
is pointing to a clock, referring to
his gift to the abbey, and his face is
disfigured by leprosy * Title of
Work: Golden Book of St Albans *
Author: Walsingham, Thomas; Wylum,
William de, scribe * Illustrator:
Strayler, Alan * Production:
England [St Albans]; 1380 *
Language: Latin Losslessly adaptated
from:
http://www.imagesonline.bl.uk/britishlib
rary/controller/subjectidsearch?id=8403&
&idx=1&startid=11211 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Abbot_Richard_Wallingford.jpg
[1327 AD]
[1] Doors of the Sankore Madrash WIKI
COMMONS (GNU)
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Medersa_Sankore.jpg
[1335 AD]
Ramón y Cajal, often considered to be
the Father of Neurosciences, will be
taught at the University of Zaragosa.
[1] The building of the Ancient Faculty
of Medicine and Sciences in Zaragoza,
now called Paraninfo. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Zaragoza_-_Antigua_Facultad_de_Medici
na_-_Fachada.JPG
[2] Coat of arms of the University of
Zaragoza COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Unizar.gif
[1335 AD]
the University of Paris under William
of Ockham, Buridan is appointed
professor of philosophy there. Buridan
serves as university rector in 1328 and
in 1340, the year in which he condemns
Ockham's views, an act that is
sometimes called the first seed of
theological skepticism. Buridan's own
works will be condemned and placed on
the Index of Forbidden Books from 1474
to 1481 by partisans of Ockham.
In addition to commentaries on
Aristotle's "Organon", "Physics", "De
anima", "Metaphysics", and "Economics",
Buridan's works include "Summula de
dialecta" (1487) and "Consequentie"
(1493).
Buridan remains a secular cleric,
rather than joining a religious order.
[1] The Index Librorum Prohibitorum
(''List of Prohibited Books'') is a
list of publications which the Catholic
Church censored for being a danger to
itself and its members. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Index_Librorum_Prohibitorum_1.jpg
[2] Jean Buridan (1300-1358) âO
dinheiro, portanto, é um bem do
mercado, e o valor desse dinheiro, como
nos outros casos de bens do mercado,
deve ser mensurado pela necessidade
humana. Os valores dos bens de troca
são proporcionados pela necessidade
humanaâ. PD
source: http://www.cieep.org.br/images/b
uridanbio.jpg
[1336 AD]
[1] aerial image of U of
Camerino COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://www.unicam.it/discichi/cr
istalliteam/camerino-01.bmp
[2] U of Camerino COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://www.unicam.it/discichi/cr
istalliteam/dove.htm
[09/03/1343 AD]
study in Pisa, becoming professor of
Mathematics at the Pisan Studium in
1589.
[1] The Tower of Pisa. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lea
ning_Tower_of_Pisa
[2] Miracoli? COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://krasnow.gmu.edu/L-Neuron/
ascoli/miracoli.jpg
[04/07/1348 AD]
[1] Seal of the Charles University of
Prague. Source:
http://www.evropa.wz.cz/Czech_rep/pages/
mesta/imagescr/pecet.u.karlovy.jpg COPY
RIGHTED EDU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Seal_of_Charles_University_of_Prague.
png
[2] Monument to the founder of the
university, Emperor Charles IV GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Charles_IV._2003-12-24.jpg
[1348 AD]
true cause of the bubonic plague,
accuse Jewish people of poisoning the
wells, and thousands of innocent Jewish
people are killed. For example, in
Speyer, Germany Jewish bodies are piled
into huge wine casks and sent floating
down the Rhine. In Basal, Switzerland,
600 Jewish people are burned for well
poisoning.
Bubonic plague is caused by the
enterobacteria Yersinia pestis.
Switzerland
[1350 AD]
builds an astronomical clock in Padua.
Dondi's
clock is a seven-sided construction
showing the positions of the known
planets as well. Both these clocks, and
others like them, are probably less
accurate than their designers wanted:
the gear ratios may be exquisitely
calculated, but the realities of
friction and limitations of manufacture
would prevent them from being accurate
and reliable.
[1350 AD]
[1] The Santa Maria at anchor by
Andries van Eertvelt, painted c. 1628
shows the famous carrack of Christopher
Columbus. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Eertvelt%2C_Santa_Maria.jpg
[2] A Portuguese ''Nanban'' carrack in
Nagasaki, Japan, 17th century. [t: I
think these are Portuguese people
trading with China, as drawn by Chinese
people] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:NanbanCarrack.jpg
[1350 AD]
[1352 AD]
[1] Detail of a portrait of Hugh de
Provence, painted by Tomaso da Modena
in 1352 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Hugh_specs.jpg
[1355 AD]
[1] Nicole Oresme Miniature of Nicole
Oresmes Traité de l''espere,
Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris, France,
fonds français 565, fol. 1r. from:
http://www.math.uqam.ca/_charbonneau/GRM
S04/RepresentBasMA.htm Portrait of
Nicole Oresme: Miniature of Nicole
Oresme's Traité de l''espere,
Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris, France,
fonds français 565, fol. 1r. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Oresme-Nicole.jpg
[2] Nicole Oresme Miniature of Nicole
Oresmes Traité de l''espere,
Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris, France,
fonds français 565, fol. 1r. PD
source: http://www.nicole-oresme.com/sei
ten/chronology.html
[1360 AD]
royally sponsored and subsidized
College of Navarre, an institution for
students too poor to pay their expenses
while studying at the University of
Paris, makes it probable that Oresme
comes from a peasant family.
Oresme studies arts in Paris (before
1342), together with Jean Buridan (the
so-called founder of the French school
of natural philosophy), Albert of
Saxony and perhaps Marsilius of Inghen,
and there receives the Magister Artium.
A recently discovered papal letter of
provision granting Oresme an
expectation of a benefice establishes
that he was already a regent master in
arts by 1342. This early dating of
Oresme's arts degree places him at
Paris during the crisis over William of
Ockham's natural philosophy.
Oresme is a determined opponent of
astrology, which he criticizes on
religious and scientific grounds.
[1] Nicole Oresme Miniature of Nicole
Oresmes Traité de l''espere,
Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris, France,
fonds français 565, fol. 1r. from:
http://www.math.uqam.ca/_charbonneau/GRM
S04/RepresentBasMA.htm Portrait of
Nicole Oresme: Miniature of Nicole
Oresme's Traité de l''espere,
Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris, France,
fonds français 565, fol. 1r. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Oresme-Nicole.jpg
[2] Nicole Oresme Miniature of Nicole
Oresmes Traité de l''espere,
Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris, France,
fonds français 565, fol. 1r. PD
source: http://www.nicole-oresme.com/sei
ten/chronology.html
[1361 AD]
[1] Box 1
source: http://www.nature.com/nrm/journa
l/v2/n10/slideshow/nrm1001-776a_bx1.html
[1364 AD]
this university.
[1] Monument to Nicolaus Copernicus
next to the Jagiellonian University's
Collegium Novum (New College) in
Kraków CC
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Kopernikus_nikolaus_krakau.jpg
[2] The Jagiellonian University in
the south of Poland is a modern
university. The city of Crakow
attracts many young people, especially
the main square is a popular meeting
place COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.phlinz.at/typo3/filea
dmin/paedak_upload/technik/Crakow.jpg
[1364 AD]
c1300-1377), one of the leading French
composers of the Ars Nova musical style
of the 1300s, composes "La Messe De
Notre Dame", one of the earliest
masses, and best known composition of
the age.
[1] Guillaume de Machaut as shown in a
French miniature of the fourteenth
century, ''An allegorical scene in
which Nature offers Machaut three of
her children - Sense, Rhetoric, and
Music.'' Quoted description from
http://www.nvcc.edu/home/jwulff/machaut/
M2.JPG, image itself from
http://w3.rz-berlin.mpg.de/cmp/machaut_p
ic.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0a/Machaut_1.jpg
[03/12/1365 AD]
[1] The University of Vienna main
building at the Ringstraße in
Vienna CC
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Universit%C3%A4t_Vienna_June_2006_164
.jpg
[2] Interior view of the main library
reading hall (Hauptlesesaal) of the
University of Vienna PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Uni_Wien_Bibliothek%2C_Vienna_2.jpg
[03/12/1367 AD]
[1] Humanities building at University
of P�cs COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://www.fredonia.edu/departme
nt/communication/schwalbe/hungary.htm
[1370 AD]
[1] Nicole Oresme Miniature of Nicole
Oresmes Traité de l''espere,
Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris, France,
fonds français 565, fol. 1r. from:
http://www.math.uqam.ca/_charbonneau/GRM
S04/RepresentBasMA.htm Portrait of
Nicole Oresme: Miniature of Nicole
Oresme's Traité de l''espere,
Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris, France,
fonds français 565, fol. 1r. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Oresme-Nicole.jpg
[2] Nicole Oresme Miniature of Nicole
Oresmes Traité de l''espere,
Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris, France,
fonds français 565, fol. 1r. PD
source: http://www.nicole-oresme.com/sei
ten/chronology.html
[1377 AD]
London, which was built in 1247
originally as a priory (or monastary)
for those in the "order of the Star of
Bethlehem", starts imprisoning people
thought to be mentally ill this year in
1377, and is the earth's first
psychiatric hospital. The word "bedlam"
meaning a scene of uproar or confusion,
will derive from Bethlem.
In some way this
begins the separation of the legal and
the psychiatric prison systems. This
duality will result in those jailed in
psychiatric hospitals being subjected
to physical restraint, torture, violent
and nonviolent people being mixed
together indiscriminately, unprotected
by the writ of habeus corpus, the right
to trial, to finite sentence and other
legal guarantees granted to people
jailed in the legal prison system. The
origin of this dual system is from the
belief in unusual (even many times
lawful) behavior requiring treatment,
belief in many of the abstract
erroneous theories of psychology, in
addition to the power of tradition
behind the belief in the punishment
those with unorthodox views or behavior
(even as is many times the case, when
those unorthodox views, for example
belief in the heliocentric system or
atheism, are the more accurate and
healthy although unpopular). In
addition, psychiatric hospitals will
come to serve as a primative (albeit
brutal and unconsensual) social
program, where a bed and food are
provided for people without a room of
their own (so called "homeless
people").
This hospital-prison will become
infamous for it's brutal treatment of
those imprisoned there. In the 1700s
people will pay a penny to see the
inmates and are permitted to bring long
sticks to poke the inmates with.
Prisoners are "treated" with bleedings,
and nausia inducing substances (like
mercury) because the pain replaces the
focus of the "insane" thoughts. Mustard
powders are put on the shaved head of
prisoners causing blisters to cause
pain and discomfort, and also fear in
the prisoners.
[1] Bethlem Hospital in St George's
Fields by Thomas Shepherd (c.1830). PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Bethlem_Hospital_in_St_George%27s_Fie
lds_by_Thomas_Shepherd.jpg
[2] Scene of Bethlem Hospital from the
final plate of William Hogarth's A
Rake's Progress. ''The Interior of
Bedlam,'' from A Rake's Progress by
William Hogarth, 1763. (McCormick
Library, Northwestern
University). Retrieved from
http://www.sos.mo.gov/archives/exhibits/
quest/treatment/1840.asp. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:The_Rake%27s_Progress_8.jpg
[1377 AD]
[1] Nicole Oresme Miniature of Nicole
Oresmes Traité de l''espere,
Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris, France,
fonds français 565, fol. 1r. from:
http://www.math.uqam.ca/_charbonneau/GRM
S04/RepresentBasMA.htm Portrait of
Nicole Oresme: Miniature of Nicole
Oresme's Traité de l''espere,
Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris, France,
fonds français 565, fol. 1r. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Oresme-Nicole.jpg
[2] Nicole Oresme Miniature of Nicole
Oresmes Traité de l''espere,
Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris, France,
fonds français 565, fol. 1r. PD
source: http://www.nicole-oresme.com/sei
ten/chronology.html
[1379 AD]
what is now the town of Frenda,
Algeria
[1] Ibn Khaldun on a Tunisian postage
stamp Name: Ibn Khaldun Birth: 27
May, 1332/732 AH Death: 19 March
1406/808 AH School/tradition: Main
interests: History, Historiography,
Demography, Economics, Philosophy of
History, Sociology Notable ideas:
Asabiyah Influences: Influenced:
Al-Maqrizi PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Khaldun.jpg
[2] Statue of Ibn Khaldoun in
Tunis 2004 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ibn_Khaldoun.jpg
[1386 AD]
[1] University of Heidelberg Institute
for Physics COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.flickr.com/photos/rai
nerebert/523892158/in/set-72157600292990
475/
[2] University of Heidelberg
University Library COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.flickr.com/photos/rai
nerebert/523890448/in/set-72157600292990
475/
[03/04/1391 AD]
[1] COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://www.unife.it/ateneo/unife
_si_presenta
[1397 AD]
[1] Description English: Harpsichord
in the Flemish style with the
inscription SINE SCIENTIA ARS NIHIL EST
(Latin ''without knowledge, skill is
nothing'') and DUM VIXI TACUI MORTUA
DULCE CANO (Latin ''while I lived, I
was mute, dead, I sweetly
sing''). Deutsch: Cembalo im
flämischen Stil, mit der Inschrift
SINE SCIENTIA ARS NIHIL EST (''Kunst
ist nichts ohne Wissen'') und DUM VIXI
TACUI MORTUA DULCE CANO (''Während ich
lebte, schwieg ich, tot, singe ich
süß''). Français : Clavecin de
style flamand Italiano: Clavicembalo
di stile fiammingo recante le
iscrizioni: SINE SCIENTIA ARS NIHIL EST
(''Senza la conoscenza, l'arte è
nulla'') e DUM VIXI TACUI MORTUA DULCE
CANO (''Ho vissuto tacendo, nella morte
canto dolcemente'') Íslenska :
Semball í flæmskum stíl. Á því
stendur SINE SCIENTIA ARS NIHIL EST
(latína „engin er færni án
þekkingar“) og DUM VIXI TACUI MORTUA
DULCE CANO (latína „er ég lifði
orðvana var, en liðinn sing ég
blítt“). Date 1 June
2004 Source Own work Author
Ratigan (instrument et
photo) Permission (Reusing this file)
GFDL
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c5/Clavecin_flamand.png
[03/04/1398 AD]
Seoul and Suwon, South Korea
[1] Sign for the 600th Anniversary Hall
on Sungkyunkwan University's Seoul
campus. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Sungkyunkwan_600.jpg
[2] Official logo of Sungkyunkwan
University, South Korea. Retrieved Oct
12, 2005 from university website.
Background transparent
version. COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Skku_logo.png
[1400 AD]
[1400 AD]
the state of the art in later medieval
shipbuilding, there were purposes for
which it is not appropriate. Initially
carracks are used for exploration by
the Portuguese venturing out along the
west African coast and into the
Atlantic Ocean. But large, full-rigged
ships can not always be sailed with the
precision necessary for inshore
surveying in unknown waters. The
explorers soon come to prefer smaller
carracks of around 100 tons, or the
light three-masted Mediterranean
lateen-rigged vessels known as
caravels.
Because of its smaller size the caravel
is able to explore up river in shallow
coastal waters. With the lateen sails
(triangular sails) affixed it is able
to go speedily over shallow water and
take deep wind, while with the square
Atlantic-type sails attached, the
caravel is very fast. Its economy,
speed, agility, and power makes the
caravel esteemed as the best sailing
vessel of this time. It generally
carried two or three masts with lateen
sails, while later types will have four
masts.
Christopher Columbus will set out on
his famous expedition in 1492 with the
Santa Maria, a small carrack which will
serve as the mother ship, and the Pinta
and the Niña which are caravels.
Switzerland
[1] Caravela Latina / Latin
Caravel Description Caravel Boa
Esperança of Portugal Source photo
taken by Brazillian Navy NO COPYRIGHT
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Caravel_Boa_Esperanca_Portugal.jpg
[2] Description Caravel Espírito
Santo of Brazil Source photo taken
by Brazillian Navy NO COPYRIGHT PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Caravel_Espirito_Santo_Brazil.jpg
[1400 AD]
[1] from:
http://www.heritage-images.com/Preview/P
reviewPage.aspx?id=1226199&licenseType=R
M&from=search&back=1226199 Benedictine
(or Dominican) nuns in a choir,
c1400-1420. From the Psalter of Henry
VI. (France, c1400-1420). UNKNOWN
source: http://www.historyfish.net/image
s/monastics/eight_2_100.jpg
[2] Dominican nuns in a choir,
c1400-1420. From the Psalter of Henry
VI. (France, c1400-1420). (other
source has Benedictine Nuns in
Choir.) UNKNOWN
source: http://photos3.fotosearch.com/bt
humb/IST/IST528/1222553.jpg
[1400 AD]
composes music.
[1] unknown work on same page
as: Johannes Ciconia (c. 1335 -
1411) UNKNOWN
source: http://t0.gstatic.com/images?q=t
bn:ANd9GcTGyzDBh9k8WKd_4nCZGvw9gU6BYZj9x
stwCjgDft0HyC-opS7fZw&t=1
[1410 AD]
[1] St Salvator's Chapel, by Malcolm
McFadyen GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:St_Salvator%27s_Chapel.JPG
[1417 AD]
"De Rerum Natura" (On the Nature of
Things), by Lucretius (c94 BCE- c49
BCE) is found. This is the only
surviving copy so far from from
Lucretius' writings.
[1420 AD]
John I of Portugal, and great grandson
of Edward III of England.
Henry's designed a
strategy where Christian Europe would
outflank Islam by establishing contact
with Africa south of the Sahara and
with Asia. This strategy will not be
brought to fulfillment until after his
death.
In 1420, at the age of 26, Henry is
made grand master of the Order of
Christ, the supreme order sponsored by
the pope, which had replaced the
crusading order of the Templars in
Portugal. While this did not oblige him
to take religious vows, it did oblige
him to dedicate himself to a chaste and
ascetic life. Henry did not always
refrain from worldly pleasures; as a
young man he had fathered a daughter
without marriage (so-called
illegitimate). The funds made available
through the order largely finance
Henry's enterprise of discovery, which
also seeks to convert Pagans to
Christianity, and for this reason all
of Henry's ships have a red cross on
their sails.
From Italy Henry's older brother Prince
Pedro brings home to Portugal, in 1428,
a copy of Marco Polo's travels that he
had translated for Prince Henry's
benefit.
The voyages were made in very small
ships, mostly the caravel, a light and
maneuverable vessel that used the
lateen sail of the Arabs. Most of the
voyages sent out by Henry consisted of
one or two ships that navigated by
following the coast, stopping at night
to tie up along some shore.
One of his
immediate aims was to find an African
gold supply to strengthen the
Portuguese economy and to make the
voyages pay for themselves.
Nuno
Tristão and Antão Gonçalves reach
Cape Blanco in 1441. The Portuguese
sight the Bay of Arguin in 1443 and
build an important fort there around
the year 1448. Dinis Dias soon comes
across the Senegal River and rounds the
peninsula of Cap-Vert in 1444. By this
stage the explorers have passed the
southern boundary of the desert, and
from then on Henry had one of his
wishes fulfilled: the Portuguese had
circumvented the Muslim land-based
trade routes across the western Sahara
Desert, and slaves and gold begin
arriving in Portugal. By 1452, the
influx of gold permits the minting of
Portugal's first gold cruzado coins. A
cruzado is equal to 400 reis at the
time. From 1444 to 1446, as many as
forty vessels sail from Lagos on
Henry's behalf, and the first private
mercantile expeditions begin.
This return of slaves and gold silences
the growing criticism that Henry was
wasting money on a profitless
enterprise. Afonso V, the King of
Protugal, gives Henry the sole right to
send ships to visit and trade with the
Guinea coast of Africa.
Henry's investment in exploration was
so large that, despite his great
revenues, Henry will die heavily in
debt.
Henry remains single to the end of his
life.
The surname Navigator will be applied
to the Prince by the English, though
seldom by Portuguese writers. Henry
himself never embarks on voyages of
discovery, but funded navigators, and
for this Henry is regarded as the
initiator of the great age of discovery
and the European thrust towards world
domination. Henry the Navigator is one
of the first few humans to have the
actual day of their birth and death
recorded and therefore remembered.
[1] Prince Henry the Navigator PD
source: http://www.etsu.edu/cas/history/
resources/Private/Faculty/Fac_To1877Chap
terDocFiles/ChapterImages/Ch2PrinceHenry
theNavigator.jpg
[2] Henry the Navigator PD
source: http://www.nndb.com/people/995/0
00094713/
[1420 AD]
Mongol warrier Tamerlane, the last of
the barbarian conquerers, succeeds to
throne (of?) in 1447
Beg is the only
important scientist of the Mongol
people.
Beg is killed by his son in 1449, and
Ulugh's observatory will be destroyed
by 1500, its remains will be found in
1908.
The name "Ulugh Beg" is a nick-name
loosely translated as "Great Ruler".
[1] Ulugh Beg PD
source: http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/
~history/BigPictures/Ulugh_Beg.jpeg
[2] Mirzo Ulubek (Ulugh Beg), Statue
in Riga, Latvia. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ulugbek.statue.riga.jpg
[1420 AD]
composes music that represents the
transition between late medieval and
early Renaissance music. Dunstable’s
influence on European music is seen in
his flowing, gently asymmetrical
rhythms and, above all, in his
harmonies. Dunstable represents a
culmination of the English tradition of
full, sonorous harmonies based on the
third and sixth that persists through
the 1300s alongside the more stark and
dissonant style of music on the
European continent.
[1] John Dunstable [t verify] UNKNOWN
source: http://t.artist.youmix.co.uk/130
01.jpg
[1424 AD]
[1] Ulugh Beg PD
source: http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/
~history/BigPictures/Ulugh_Beg.jpeg
[2] Mirzo Ulubek (Ulugh Beg), Statue
in Riga, Latvia. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ulugbek.statue.riga.jpg
[1425 AD]
[1] Castle Arenberg, part of the
Katholieke Universiteit Leuven,
Belgium. 2004 GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Castle_Arenberg%2C_Katholieke_Univers
iteit_Leuven_adj.jpg
[1426 AD]
8 books of an encyclopedia describing
past Greek learning written in Latin by
Celsus (25 BCE - 50 CE) is found.
[1430 AD]
French composer, creates church and
secular music at this time.
(guess)
[1] Guillaume Dufay (left) and Gilles
Binchois (right), Martin le Franc,
''Champion des Dames'', Arras 1451 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/4f/DufayBinchois.jpg
[1430 AD]
French composer, creates church and
secular music at this time.
Burgundy, France (guess)
[1] Guillaume Dufay (left) and Gilles
Binchois (right), Martin le Franc,
''Champion des Dames'', Arras 1451 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/4f/DufayBinchois.jpg
[1435 AD]
unmarried.
When younger Guttenberg had acquired
skill in metalwork.
Exiled from Mainz in the
course of a bitter struggle between the
guilds of that city and the patricians,
Gutenberg moves to Strassburg (now
Strasbourg, France) probably between
1428 and 1430. Records put his presence
there from 1434 to 1444. Gutenberg is
involved in such crafts as gem cutting,
and also teaches crafts to a number of
pupils.
In March 1434, a letter by him
indicates that Guttenberg was living in
Strasbourg, where he had some relatives
on his mother's side. He also appears
to have been a goldsmith member
enrolled in the Strasbourg militia. In
1437, there is evidence that he was
instructing a wealthy tradesman on
polishing gems, but where he had
acquired this knowledge is unknown. In
1436/37 Gutenberg's name also comes up
in court in connection with a broken
promise of marriage to a woman from
Strasbourg, Ennelin. Whether the
marriage actually took place is not
recorded.
In 1438 a five-year contract is drawn
up between Gutenberg and three other
men: Hans Riffe, Andreas Dritzehn, and
Andreas Heilmann. When Andreas Dritzehn
dies at Christmas 1438, his heirs,
trying to circumvent the terms of the
contract, began a lawsuit against
Gutenberg in which they demanded to be
made partners. They lose the suit, but
the trial reveals that Gutenberg is
working on a new invention. Witnesses
testify that a carpenter named Conrad
Saspach had advanced sums to Andreas
Dritzehn for the building of a wooden
press, and Hans Dünne, a goldsmith,
declared that he had sold to Gutenberg,
as early as 1436, 100 guilders' worth
of printing materials. Gutenberg,
apparently well along the way to
completing his invention, wants to keep
secret the nature of the enterprise.
In October 1448 Gutenberg is back in
Mainz to borrow more money, which he
receives from a relative. By 1450
Gutenberg's printing experiments must
have reached a considerable degree of
refinement, because Gutenberg is able
to persuade Johann Fust, a wealthy
financier, to lend him 800 guilders, a
very large amount for which the tools
and equipment for printing are to act
as securities. Two years later Fust
makes another investment of 800
guilders for a partnership in the
enterprise. Fust and Gutenberg have a
disagreement, Fust, apparently, wants a
safe and quick return on his
investment, while Gutenberg wants
perfection instead of a quick return.
On November 6. 1455, the
Helmaspergersches Notariatsinstrument
(the Helmasperger notarial instrument)
records that Fust won a suit against
Guttenberg. This record is now in the
library of the University of
Göttingen. Gutenberg was ordered to
pay Fust the total sum of the two loans
and compound interest (probably
totaling 2,020 guilders). The
traditional belief is that this
settlement ruined Gutenberg, but more
recent examination suggests that the
decision favored Gutenberg, allowing
him to operate a printing shop through
the 1450s and maybe into the 1460s.
The record of trial refers to the
printing of books (werck der bucher),
that probably refer to the
Forty-two-Line Bible That Gutenberg
had probably already printed by then.
The sale of the Forty-two-Line Bible
alone is estimated to have produced
many times over the sum owed Fust by
Gutenberg, and there is no other
explanation as to why the books are not
counted among Gutenberg's property at
the trial, except that Gutenberg sold
the books.
After winning his suit, Fust gains
control of the type (each page is kept
together with the blocks?) for the
Bible and for Gutenberg's second
masterpiece, a Psalter (Psalms), and at
least some of Gutenberg's other
printing equipment. Fust continues to
print, using Gutenberg's materials,
with the assistance of Peter Schöffer,
Fust's son-in-law, who had been
Gutenberg's most skilled employee and a
witness against Gutenberg in the 1455
trial. The first printed book in Europe
to bear the name of its printer is a
very nicely designed "Psalter"
completed in Mainz on August 14, 1457,
which lists Johann Fust and Peter
Schöffer.
In January 1465 the archbishop of Mainz
will pension Gutenberg, giving
Gutenberg an annual measure of grain,
wine, and clothing and exempting
Gutenberg from certain taxes, so in his
last years, Gutenberg was probably not
destitute.
France)
[1] Johannes Gutenberg, engraving,
1584. Science Source/Photo
Researchers, Inc. PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-15524?articleTypeId=1
[2] Johannes Gensfleisch zur Laden
zum Gutenberg made after his
death http://www.sru.edu/depts/cisba/co
mpsci/dailey/217students/sgm8660/Final/
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gutenberg.jpg
[1435 AD]
organist, writes trajedies in Latin,
and is a mathematician.
Alberti designs some notable
churches in Mantua and Romini.
Alberti is
educated in law at the University of
Bologna.
Alberti writes in both Latin and the
vernacular.
In Florence Alberti is friends with the
sculptor Donatello, cosmographer Paolo
Toscanelli and the architect
Brunelleschi.
Some time between 1435 and 1444.
Alberti writes "Libri della famiglia"
("Book on the Family")-which discusses
education, marriage, household
management, and money-in the Tuscan
dialect. The work is not printed until
1843. Like Erasmus decades later,
Alberti stresses the need for a reform
in education. He notes that "the care
of very young children is women's work,
for nurses or the mother," and that at
the earliest possible age children
should be taught the alphabet. With
great hopes, he gave the work to his
family to read, but in his
autobiography Alberti confesses that
"he could hardly avoid feeling rage,
when he saw some of his relatives
openly ridiculing the work."
Alberti writes a short autobiography
around 1438 in Latin and in the third
person, (many but not all scholars
consider this work to be an
autobiography) in which he makes
unlikely claims such as being capable
of "standing with his feet together,
and springing over a man's head." The
autobiography survives thanks to a
1700s transcription by Antonio
Muratori. Alberti also claims that he
"excelled in all bodily exercises;
could, with feet tied, leap over a
standing man; could in the great
cathedral, throw a coin far up to ring
against the vault; amused himself by
taming wild horses and climbing
mountains." This may be explained in
part because many in the Renaissance
promote themselves in various ways.
Alberti writes "Momus", between 1443
and 1450, which is a misogynist
(anti-women) comedy about the Olympian
gods. Jupiter has been identified in
some sources as Pope Eugenius IV and
Pope Nicholas V. Alberti borrows many
of its characters from Lucian, one of
his favorite Greek writers. The name of
its hero, Momus, refers to the Greek
word for blame or criticism. After
being expelled from heaven, Momus, the
god of mockery, is eventually
castrated. Jupiter and the other gods
come down to earth also, but they
return to heaven after Jupiter breaks
his nose in a great storm.
Towards the end of his life, Alberti
writes "De iciarchia" ("On the Man of
Excellence and Ruler of His Family")
which represents in full flower the
public-spirited Humanism"
[1] Late statue of Leon Battista
Alberti. Courtyard of the Uffizi
Gallery, Florence GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Leon_Battista_Alberti.jpg
[2] Leon Battista Alberti,
self-portrait plaque, bronze, c. 1435;
in the National Gallery of Art,
Washington, D.C. Courtesy of the
National Gallery of Art, Washington,
D.C., Samuel H. Kress
Collection COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-8247?articleTypeId=1
[1437 AD]
[1] Ulugh Beg PD
source: http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/
~history/BigPictures/Ulugh_Beg.jpeg
[2] Mirzo Ulubek (Ulugh Beg), Statue
in Riga, Latvia. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ulugbek.statue.riga.jpg
[02/12/1440 AD]
(CE 1401-1464) describes space as
infinite in size and that other stars
may be inhabited.
The relevant translated text from "De
Docta Ignorantia" Book 2 is:
"And so, {the
universe is} unbounded; for it is not
the case that anything actually greater
than it, in relation to which it would
be bounded, is positable."
Cusa suggests that stars may be distant
Suns when he states that the Earth
would look like a star from a distance.
Cusa writes: "Hence, if someone were
outside the region of fire, then
through the medium of the fire our
earth, which is on the circumference of
{this} region, would appear to be a
bright star-just as to us, who are on
the circumference of the region of the
sun, the sun appears to be very
bright."
On life of other stars:
"Therefore, the
inhabitants of other stars-of whatever
sort these inhabitants might be-bear no
comparative relationship to the
inhabitants of the Earth."
On the motion of
the earth Cusa writes:
"It has already become
evident to us that the earth is indeed
moved, even though we do not perceive
this to be the case. For we apprehend
motion only through a certain
comparison with something fixed. For
example, if someone did not know that a
body of water was flowing and did not
see the shore while he was on a ship in
the middle of the water, how would he
recognize that the ship was being
moved?...".
On the Sun being larger than the
Earth:
"And although the Earth is smaller than
the Sun-as we know from the Earth's
shadow and from eclipses-we do not know
to what extent the region of the Sun is
larger or smaller than the region of
the Earth"
Cusa also compares planets to stars (a
good case can be made that planets are
very dim stars), and that the planets
move writting:
"Therefore, consider carefully the
fact that just as in the eighth sphere
the stars are {moved} around
conjectural poles, so the earth, the
moon, and the planets-as stars-are
moved at a distance and with a
difference around a pole {which} we
conjecture to be where the center is
believed to be. Hence, although the
earth-as star-is nearer to the central
pole, nevertheless it is moved and, in
its motion, does not describe a minimum
circle, as was indicated."
Instead of Cusa getting in trouble, he
is appointed cardinal in 1448, Giordano
Bruno will be murdered for sharing many
of these same views in only 152 years.
Cusa builds spectacles (glasses) with
concave lenses where earlier glasses
used the easier to make convex lenses
that served only the far-sighted (those
who cannot see close objects), these
glasses serve the near-sighted (who
cannot see far objects).
Cusa advocates the counting of pulse as
a diagnostic aid in healing.
[1] Picture of Nicholas of
Cusa English: Nicholas of Cusa Source
from a painting by Meister des
Marienlebens, located in the hospital
at Kues (Germany) Date ca. 1480 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Nicholas_of_Cusa.jpg
[2] Nicholas of Cusa (Nicholas
Krebs) Library of Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/topic/nic
holas-of-cusa?cat=technology
[1443 AD]
directed against George of Trebizond, a
vigorous Aristotelian who had written a
polemic against Plato, which was
entitled "In Calumniatorem Platonis"
("Against the Slanderer of Plato").
Bessarion, though a Platonist, is not
so thoroughgoing in his admiration of
Plato as Gemistus Pletho is, and
strives instead to reconcile the two
philosophies.
Pope Eugenius IV makes
Bessarion a cardinal in 1439.
[1] Basilius Bessarion Source
http://www.telemachos.hu-berlin.de/bi
lder/gudeman/gudeman.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Basilius_Bessarion.JPG
[1450 AD]
[1450 AD]
Italy
[1452 AD]
[1] Late statue of Leon Battista
Alberti. Courtyard of the Uffizi
Gallery, Florence GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Leon_Battista_Alberti.jpg
[2] Leon Battista Alberti,
self-portrait plaque, bronze, c. 1435;
in the National Gallery of Art,
Washington, D.C. Courtesy of the
National Gallery of Art, Washington,
D.C., Samuel H. Kress
Collection COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-8247?articleTypeId=1
[05/29/1453 AD]
[1] The Siege of Constantinople.
Painted in
1499. http://www.greece.org/Romiosini/f
all.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Siege_of_Constantinople.jpg
[2] Siege of Constantinople, by Jean
Chartier Source Bibliothèque
nationale de France Manuscript
Français 2691 folio CCXLVI v
[1] http://visualiseur.bnf.fr/Visualise
ur?Destination=Mandragore&O=07841452&E=1
&I=42603&M=imageseule Date 3rd
quarter of the 15th century Author
jean Chartier, Chronique
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Siege_constantinople_bnf_fr2691.jpg
[1454 AD]
referred to as the Mazarin Bible
because the first copy described by
bibliographers was located in the Paris
library of Cardinal Mazarin.
[1] Johannes Gutenberg, engraving,
1584. Science Source/Photo
Researchers, Inc. PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-15524?articleTypeId=1
[2] Johannes Gensfleisch zur Laden zum
Gutenberg made after his
death http://www.sru.edu/depts/cisba/co
mpsci/dailey/217students/sgm8660/Final/
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gutenberg.jpg
[1460 AD]
[1] The Astronomical Institute of the
University of Basel was founded in
1894. Since 1995 it is part of the
Department of Physics and Astronomy,
together with the Institute of Physics
of the University of Basel COPYRIGHTED
EDU
source: http://www.astro.unibas.ch/infos
/AIUB_semifront_small.jpg
[2] Opening Pageant of the University
of Basel, Basel Minster, 4 April
1460. Title miniature of the Rector''s
register, Basel University
Library. PD
source: http://www.unibas.ch/index.cfm?u
uid=911241CC0F0BC853812D75DEECDB0824&&IR
ACER_AUTOLINK&&&o_lang_id=2
[1462 AD]
Mountain," which is what the Latinized
version of his name, Joannes de Regio
monte or Regiomontanus, also means.
In 1475 Regiomontanus is summoned to
Rome by Pope Sixtus IV to help reform
the Julian calendar, but Regiomontanus
dies in Rome of the plague before
completing the project, and it will
wait another century to be corrected.
Regiomontanus
is admitted to the University of
Leipzig at age 11, has a Bachelor's
Degree at 1452, but university
regulations force him to wait until he
turns 21 to receive his master's
degree. Regiomontanus is teaching in
1457.
Regiomontanus lectures on Virgil and
Cicero.
Regiomontanus eventually collaborates
with his teacher, the
mathematician-astronomer Georg von
Peuerbach, on various astronomical and
astrological projects, including
observations of eclipses and comets,
the manufacture of astronomical
instruments, and the casting of
horoscopes for the court of the Holy
Roman Emperor Frederick III.
Regiomontanus
is conservative in outlook and writes
at length arguing how earth cannot
move, citing how birds would be blown
away, clouds left behind, building
would tumble.
Regiomontanus strongly believes
in astrology, and publishes a book in
astrology.
[1] Regiomontanus (1436-1476) German
mathematician, astronomer and
astrologer. Quelle: *
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollections
/hst/scientific-identity/explore.htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Johannes_Regiomontanus.jpg
[1470 AD]
(verify)
[1] Beschreibung Français :
Buxheimer Orgelbuch conservé à
Munich, Bayerische Staatsbibliothek,
Cim. 352b, folio 169 recto. Datum
1470 Quelle
http://www.bsb-muenchen.de/index.ph
p?id=625&uid=3302&picid=1&page_id=Musikh
andschriften.1728+M5e34df5a01a.0.html U
rheber Conrad
Paumann Genehmigung (Weiternutzung
dieser Datei) Siehe unten PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c8/Buxheimer_Orgelbuch_%
28f%C2%B0169r%29.jpg
[1472 AD]
University of Vienna, moves to Italy,
which Asimov describes as an
intellectual center at this time and
there studies under Nicholas of Cusa
before becoming professor of
mathematics and astronomy at the
University of Vienna in 1453.
Peurbach is appointed astrologer to
King Ladislas V of Hungary and later to
Emperor Frederick III.
[1] Georg von Peuerbach: Theoricarum
novarum planetarum testus, Paris
1515 PD
source: http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bil
d:Peuerbach-Theoricarum-1515.png
[2] Georg von Peuerbach PD
source: http://www.astronomie.at/burgenl
and/archiv/peuerbach/start.htm
[1472 AD]
Germany
[1] Regiomontanus (1436-1476) German
mathematician, astronomer and
astrologer. Quelle: *
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollections
/hst/scientific-identity/explore.htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Johannes_Regiomontanus.jpg
[1472 AD]
at the time of his birth.
Leonardo grows up on
his father's family's estate, where he
was treated as a "legitimate" son and
receives the usual elementary education
of that day: reading, writing, and
arithmetic. Leonardo does not seriously
study Latin, the key language of
traditional learning, until much later,
when he acquires a working knowledge of
it on his own. He also does not apply
himself to higher mathematics-advanced
geometry and arithmetic-until he is 30
years old, when he begins to study it
with diligent tenacity.
Leonardo's artistic
inclinations must have appeared early.
When Leonardo is about 15, his father,
apprentices Leonardo to artist Andrea
del Verrocchio. In Verrocchio's
renowned workshop Leonardo receives a
multifaceted training that includes
painting, sculpture and
technical-mechanical arts. Leonardo
also works in the next-door workshop of
artist Antonio Pollaiuolo. In 1472
Leonardo is accepted into the painters'
guild of Florence, but he remains in
his teacher's workshop for five more
years, after which time he works
independently in Florence until 1481.
Many of the surviving pen and pencil
drawings from this period, including
many technical sketches (for example of
pumps, military weapons, etc) are
evidence of Leonardo's interest in and
knowledge of technical matters very
early in his career.
In 1482 Leonardo moved to
Milan to work in the service of Duke
Ludovico Sforza rejecting two projects
offered to him in Florence.
Leonardo spends 17
years in Milan, until Ludovico's fall
from power in 1499. Leonardo is listed
in the register of the royal household
as "pictor et ingeniarius ducalis"
("painter and engineer of the duke").
Da Vinci
is highly esteemed and is constantly
kept busy as a painter and sculptor and
as a designer of court festivals. Da
Vince is also frequently consulted as a
technical adviser in the fields of
architecture, fortifications, and
military matters, and he serves as a
hydraulic and mechanical engineer.
Leonardo keeps a series of journals in
which he writes almost daily, as well
as separate notes and sheets of
observations, comments and plans which
were left to various pupils and were
later bound. Many of the journals have
survived to illustrate Leonardo's
studies, discoveries and inventions. Da
Vinci write backwards in mirror-script
in voluminous notebooks, which can be
easily read with a mirror as his
contemporaries testify. Leonardo is
left handed so writing backwards is
more easily done. Leonardo's notebooks
add up to thousands of closely written
pages abundantly illustrated with
sketches-the most voluminous literary
legacy any painter has ever left
behind.
Da Vinci paints famous
realistic-appearing paintings such as
"Mona Lisa", and "The Last Supper".
Da Vinci
knows neither Greek or Latin.
The funders of
Da Vinci include Cesare Borgia, son of
Pope Alexander VI, Louis XII of France,
Giulio de Medici, brother of Pope Leo
X, and Francis I of France.
[1] # Self-portrait of Leonardo da
Vinci, circa 1512-1515 # Location:
Royal Library, Turin # Technique: Red
chalk # Dimensions: 13 x 8.5'' (33 x
21.6 cm) Source:
http://www.vivoscuola.it/us/ic-villalaga
rina/Ipertesti/caritro/images/Leonardo_a
utorutratto.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Leonardo_self.jpg
[2] Verrocchio, Florence, 15thC,
''David'' bronze statue. The model is
thought to have been Leonardo da
Vinci Source WGA Date
1467 Author Verrocchio PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Verrocchio_David.jpg
[1473 AD]
1452-1519) draws a study of a Tuscan
landscape. This is Da Vinci's earliest
dated drawing. The drawing is of the
valley of the Arno River, where Da
Vinci lives.
[1] Study of a Tuscan Landscape (c.
1473) is a drawing by Leonardo da
Vinci. Source:
http://www.visi.com/~reuteler/leonardo.h
tml PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Study_of_a_Tuscan_Landscape.jpg
[1473 AD]
1436–1511), publishes "Terminorum
musicae diffinitorium" ("Dictionary of
Musical Terms, Naples, 1473), which is
the earliest printed dictionary of
musical terms.
[1474 AD]
painstakingly calculates their orbits.
Among these will be Halley's comet in
1456.
Toscanelli is the son of the physician
Dominic Toscanelli. Educated in
mathematics at the University of Padua,
Toscanelli leaves in 1424 with the
title of a doctor of medicine.
Toscanelli is a
friend of Nicholaus of Cusa.
[1] Paolo dal Pozzo Toscanelli (1397-10
May,1482) From: H.F. Helmolt (ed.):
History of the World. New York,
1901. Copied from University of Texas
Portrait
Gallery http://www.lib.utexas.edu/photo
draw/portraits/ PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Hw-columbus.jpg
[2] La carte de Toscanelli et,
ci-dessous, son tracé superposé avec
celui d'une carte actuelle. PD
source: http://www.stephan-selle.de/Lese
fruchte/Kolumbus/kolumbus.html
[1474 AD]
[1] Paolo dal Pozzo Toscanelli (1397-10
May,1482) From: H.F. Helmolt (ed.):
History of the World. New York,
1901. Copied from University of Texas
Portrait
Gallery http://www.lib.utexas.edu/photo
draw/portraits/ PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Hw-columbus.jpg
[2] La carte de Toscanelli et,
ci-dessous, son tracé superposé avec
celui d'une carte actuelle. PD
source: http://www.stephan-selle.de/Lese
fruchte/Kolumbus/kolumbus.html
[1475 AD]
have to wear pointed hats as an
identifying badge. The humans in the
Catholic church force all Jewish humans
to wear these pointed hats, as shown in
an image carved into wood (a German
woodcut) {get image}. These Jewish
people were burned, charged with
sacrificing Christian children.
[1477 AD]
will be professors at Uppsala.
[1] 18th century engraving of
Riddartorget in Uppsala, with the later
demolished Academia Carolina (the old
chapter house) to the left (by the
Cathedral which is just outside the
picture). To the right is the
Oxenstierna Palace, the former
residence of w:Bengt Gabrielsson
Oxenstierna. The latter was then used
for the ''Royal Academy [=University]
Hospital'' (''Kgl Academi Sjukhus''),
and is now the main building for the
Faculty of Law. In the middle one can
see a part of the Skytteanum, where the
Professor Skytteanus has his residence
and office and parts of the Department
of Government are still
located. Engraving by F. Akrelius in:
J. B. Busser, Beskrifning om Upsala
(1769). PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Academia_Carolina_Uppsala.jpg
[2] Engraving by Fredrik Akrel
(Akrelius). Source: From: Johan
Benedict Busser, Utkast till
beskrifning om Upsala. Upsala, tryckt
hos Joh. Edman, kongl. acad. boktr.
1-2. 1769-73. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Exercise_yard_-_from_Busser%2C_Om_Ups
ala_Stad_etc.jpg
[1478 AD]
1484) authorizes Ferdinandand Isabella
to revive the Inquisition to hunt
"secret Jews" and Muslim people (at
least 2000 humans are eventually killed
by the Inquisition).
Sixtus IV issues a bull this year that
established an Inquisitor in Seville,
under political pressure from Ferdinand
of Aragon, who threatened to withhold
military support from his kingdom of
Sicily if he did not.(verify)
He founds the Sistine Chapel where the
team of artists he brings together
introduce the Early Renaissance to Rome
with the first masterpiece of the
city's new artistic age (Michelangelo's
frescoes will be added in a later
phase).
[1] Pope Sixtus IV PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Sixtus_IV.PNG
[2] Pope Sixtus IV appoints Platina
as Prefect of the Library, by Melozzo
da Forlì PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Melozzo_da_Forl%C3%AC_001.jpg
[1479 AD]
in Denmark are free for citizens to
attend.
Major contributors to science that will
graduate from the University of
Coperhagen include: Tycho Brahe, Ole
Rømer, Hans Christian Ørsted, and
Niels Bohr among others.
[1] The University of Copenhagen old
building in the inner city. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:KU_inner_city_1.jpg
[2] The Rundetårn (round tower) was
used in the 17th century as an
observatory by Ole Rømer CC
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Copenhagen_Rundet%C3%A5rn_street_left
.jpg
[1480 AD]
[1] Machine for Storming Walls a 1480
drawing by Leonardo da Vinci for a ware
machine PD
source: http://inventors.about.com/od/ds
tartinventors/ig/Inventions-of-Leonardo-
DaVinci/Machine-for-Storming-Walls.htm
[1480 AD]
composes music. Des Prez makes use of
the technique of "pervading imitation",
in which a series of musical ideas are
stated imitatively in all voices
throughout an entire work, or section
of a work. The first music printer,
Ottaviano Petrucci, devoted an entire
volume to Josquin's works, an honor
given to no other composer. According
to the Oxford Grove Music Encyclopedia
Josquin is the greatest composer of the
high Renaissance.
(presumably)
[1] Description English: a facsimile
copy of the famous woodcut from Petrus
Opmeer's Opvs chronographicvm orbis
vniversi a mvndi exordio vsqve ad annvm
M.DC.XI. (Antwerp, 1611). Date 22
July 2003 (original upload
date) Source Originally from
en.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. Author Original uploader
was Clattuc at
en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) PD-ART PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/26/DESPREZ.jpg
[1480 AD]
composes sacred and secular music, and
is one of the great masters of the
Franco-Flemish style that dominates
European music of the Renaissance.
Ockeghem makes use of the musical
"canon" and "counterpoint" techniques.
Canon is in the strict sense, technique
in which polyphony is derived from a
single line that is imitated at fixed
or (less often) variable intervals of
pitch and time, for example in the song
"Three Blind Mice" and "Frère
Jacques". Starting with the 1500s, the
term "canon" is used for the work
itself. Counterpoint in music is
defined as melodic material that is
added above or below an existing
melody, and the technique of combining
two or more melodic lines in such a way
that they establish a harmonic
relationship while retaining their
linear individuality and also the use
of contrasting elements in a work of
art.
(guess)
[1] Description Codex Chigi Date
2008 Source
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:
Chigi_codex.jpg Author
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:M
icrotonal PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6d/Chigi_codex.jpg
[2] Johannes Ockeghem wearing
eyeglasses (not new but still fairly
rare at the time), leads his choristers
in singing from a large choir book. The
practice of singing from a single
source reflects the expense of
preparing menuscripts by hand. (c.1410
- 1497) PD
source: http://www.hoasm.org/IIID/Ockegh
em.jpg
[05/01/1484 AD]
Domenico Colombo, a Genoese wool worker
and merchant, and Susanna Fontanarossa,
his wife. His career as a seaman begins
effectively in the Portuguese merchant
marine. After surviving a shipwreck off
Cape St. Vincent at the southwestern
point of Portugal in 1476, he bases
himself in Lisbon, together with his
brother Bartholomew. Both are employed
as chart makers, but Columbus is
principally a seagoing entrepreneur. In
1477 he sails to Iceland and Ireland
with the merchant marine, and in 1478
he buys sugar in Madeira as an agent
for the Genoese firm of Centurioni. In
1479 he meets and married Felipa
Perestrello e Moniz, a member of an
impoverished noble Portuguese family.
Their son, Diego, is born in 1480.
Between 1482 and 1485 Columbus trades
along the Guinea and Gold coasts of
tropical West Africa and made at least
one voyage to the Portuguese fortress
of São Jorge da Mina there, gaining
knowledge of Portuguese navigation and
the Atlantic wind systems along the
way. Felipa dies in 1485, and Columbus
takes as his mistress Beatriz Enríquez
de Harana of Córdoba, by whom he has
his second son, Ferdinand.
Columbus always writes
in Spanish, or Spanish-influenced
Latin.
[1] Portrait of Christopher Columbus
from the painting Virgen de los
Navegantes (in the Sala de los
Almirantes, Royal Alcazar, Seville). A
painting by Alejo Fernández between
1505 and 1536. It is the only state
sponsored portrait of the First Admiral
of the Indias. Photo by a Columbus
historian, Manuel Rosa. More info
http://www.UnmaskingColumbus.com PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Christopher_Columbus_Face.jpg
[2] Christopher Columbus, conjectural
image by Sebastiano del Piombo in the
Gallery of Illustrious Men (Corridoio
Vasariano), Uffizi, Florence but
yet: Christophorus Columbus/Cristobal
Colon, pictue by Sebastiano del Piombo
from the XVI (15th century) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:CristobalColon.jpg
[1485 AD]
[1] Designs for a Boat is part of a
series of (1485 - 1487) drawings by
Leonardo da Vinci. PD
source: http://inventors.about.com/od/ds
tartinventors/ig/Inventions-of-Leonardo-
DaVinci/Designs-for-a-Boat-.htm
[2] Drawing of giant crossbow by
Leonardo da Vinci circa 1485 to
1487. PD
source: http://inventors.about.com/od/ds
tartinventors/ig/Inventions-of-Leonardo-
DaVinci/Giant-Crossbow.htm
[1485 AD]
1452-1519), draws the "Virtuvian Man".
[1] Vitruvian Man by Leonardo da
Vinci (1485-1490, Venise, Galleria
dell' Accademia) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Vitruvian.jpg
[1487 AD]
[1] Armoured Car a pen drawing dated
1487 by Leonardo Da Vinci PD
source: http://inventors.about.com/od/ds
tartinventors/ig/Inventions-of-Leonardo-
DaVinci/Armoured-Car.htm
[1487 AD]
[1] An Artillery Park is a 1487 drawing
by Leonardo da Vinci. PD
source: http://inventors.about.com/od/ds
tartinventors/ig/Inventions-of-Leonardo-
DaVinci/Artillery-Park.htm
[1487 AD]
[1] The Ornithopter Flying Machine
Designed and Drawn by Leonardo da
Vinci The ornithopter flying machine
was never actually created. It was a
design that Leonardo DaVinci made to
show how man could fly. Some experts
say that the modern day helicopter was
inspired by this design. [t this is
not an ornithopter because it has no
flapping wings] PD
source: http://inventors.about.com/od/ds
tartinventors/ig/Inventions-of-Leonardo-
DaVinci/Ornithopter-Flying-Machine.htm
[1488 AD]
[1] Design for a Flying Machine is a
1488 drawing by Leonardo da Vinci. PD
source: http://inventors.about.com/od/ds
tartinventors/ig/Inventions-of-Leonardo-
DaVinci/Design-for-a-Flying-Machine-2.ht
m
[2] Design for a Flying Machine (c.
1488) is a drawing by Leonardo da
Vinci. Source:
http://www.visi.com/~reuteler/leonardo.h
tml PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Design_for_a_Flying_Machine.jpg
[1490 AD]
c1470-c1535) and Marchetto Cara
(C1470-1525) compose music in the style
called "frottola". For most of the
1400s, French chanson dominates the
music performed in Italy until around
1480 when native composers set their
texts into their own language again, in
a style known as "frottola". Frottola
poetry tends to be more lighthearted
than the courtly love of chanson texts.
Musically, frottola avoids imitation
and counterpoint in contrast to
contemporary chansons. Frottole are
characterized by chordal textures and
lively, dance-like rhythms. Frottole
can be performed entirely by
instruments, or by any combination of
voices and instruments. Frottole are
arranged for solo voice and lute, or
for keyboard alone and are in popular
demand at the time.
[1] painting by Lorenzo Costa of a
frottola - [t note that this is not a
portrait of Tromboncino or Cara] dates
from 1485-1495 The logo of IACMA
represent a famous painting (Concerto)
of Lorenzo Costa (Ferrara, 1460 -
Mantua, 1535), an Italian painter who
operated mainly in Bologna. The
painting (now conserved at National
Gallery, London) represents a typical
performance in an Italian city. At that
time, Lorenzo Costa was active in
different Countries in Italy and in
Europe, and he worked a lot in towns
that nowadays are in the Emilia-Romagna
region. If you wish to see a larger
image of the painting, click on the
picture on the left, or in the corner
in the top. PD
source: http://www.iacma.it/bologn1.jpg
[1490 AD]
German organist and composer, composes
instrumental music for lute. Schlick's
"Spiegel der Orgelmacher und
Organisten" (1511) is the first German
treatise on organ building and organ
playing. Some of Schlick's organ pieces
are published in his "Tabulaturen
etlicher lobgesang" (1512), the first
printed German organ tablatures.
[1] Description Arnolt Schlick,
Spiegel der Orgelmacher und Organisten,
1511, Titelholzschnitt Date 12
January 2008 Source Spiegel der
Orgelmacher und Organisten PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a1/Schlick_spiegel.jpg
[1491 AD]
by the Holy Inquisition were made to
"confess" to killing a child in a town
called "La Guardia".
[1491 AD]
theses he had drawn from diverse Greek,
Hebrew, Arabic, and Latin writers, Pico
invites scholars from all of Europe to
Rome for a public disputation. For the
occasion he composes his celebrated
"Oration on the Dignity of Man" (1486).
A papal commission, however, denounces
13 of the theses as heretical, and the
assembly is prohibited by Pope Innocent
VIII. Despite his ensuing "Apologia"
for the theses, Pico thinks it prudent
to flee to France but is arrested
there. After a brief imprisonment he
settles in Florence, where he became
associated with the Platonic Academy,
under the protection of the Florentine
prince Lorenzo de' Medici. Except for
short trips to Ferrara, Pico spends the
rest of his life there. Pico is
absolved from the charge of heresy by
Pope Alexander VI in 1492.
"Disputations..." will not be published
until after Mirandola's death.
Bologna, Italy
[1] Pico della Mirandola. Portrait by
an unknown artist, in the Uffizi,
Florence. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Pico_della_mirandola.jpg
[01/??/1492 AD]
Europeans referred to as the Great Khan
of the Golden Horde-was himself held to
be interested in Christianity, and
Columbus carefully carries a letter of
friendship addressed to him by the
Spanish monarchs.
In the letter that prefaces his journal
of the first voyage, Columbus explains
his excitement about his journey, and
reveals a racist and vicious religious
fervor (in a war against the
"infidels", basically all those not in
the cult of Jesus) typical of people in
this time:
"...and Your Highnesses, as
Catholic Christians took thought to
send me, Christopher Columbus, to the
said parts of India, to see those
princes and peoples and lands and the
manner which should be used to bring
about their conversion to our holy
faith, and ordained that I should not
go by land to the eastward, by which
way it was the custom to go, but by way
of the west, by which down to this day
we do not know certainly that anyone
has passed; therefore, having driven
out all the Jews from your realms and
lordships in the same month of January,
Your Highnesses commanded me that, with
a sufficient fleet, I should go to the
said parts of India, and for this
accorded me great rewards and ennobled
me so that from that time henceforth I
might style myself "Don" and be high
admiral of the Ocean Sea and viceroy
and perpetual Governor of the islands
and continent which I should
discover and that my eldest son should
succeed to the same position, and so on
from generation to generation forever."
[1] Portrait of Christopher Columbus
from the painting Virgen de los
Navegantes (in the Sala de los
Almirantes, Royal Alcazar, Seville). A
painting by Alejo Fernández between
1505 and 1536. It is the only state
sponsored portrait of the First Admiral
of the Indias. Photo by a Columbus
historian, Manuel Rosa. More info
http://www.UnmaskingColumbus.com PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Christopher_Columbus_Face.jpg
[2] Christopher Columbus, conjectural
image by Sebastiano del Piombo in the
Gallery of Illustrious Men (Corridoio
Vasariano), Uffizi, Florence but
yet: Christophorus Columbus/Cristobal
Colon, pictue by Sebastiano del Piombo
from the XVI (15th century) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:CristobalColon.jpg
[08/03/1492 AD]
[1] Portrait of Christopher Columbus
from the painting Virgen de los
Navegantes (in the Sala de los
Almirantes, Royal Alcazar, Seville). A
painting by Alejo Fernández between
1505 and 1536. It is the only state
sponsored portrait of the First Admiral
of the Indias. Photo by a Columbus
historian, Manuel Rosa. More info
http://www.UnmaskingColumbus.com PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Christopher_Columbus_Face.jpg
[2] Christopher Columbus, conjectural
image by Sebastiano del Piombo in the
Gallery of Illustrious Men (Corridoio
Vasariano), Uffizi, Florence but
yet: Christophorus Columbus/Cristobal
Colon, pictue by Sebastiano del Piombo
from the XVI (15th century) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:CristobalColon.jpg
[09/13/1492 AD]
[1] Portrait of Christopher Columbus
from the painting Virgen de los
Navegantes (in the Sala de los
Almirantes, Royal Alcazar, Seville). A
painting by Alejo Fernández between
1505 and 1536. It is the only state
sponsored portrait of the First Admiral
of the Indias. Photo by a Columbus
historian, Manuel Rosa. More info
http://www.UnmaskingColumbus.com PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Christopher_Columbus_Face.jpg
[2] Christopher Columbus, conjectural
image by Sebastiano del Piombo in the
Gallery of Illustrious Men (Corridoio
Vasariano), Uffizi, Florence but
yet: Christophorus Columbus/Cristobal
Colon, pictue by Sebastiano del Piombo
from the XVI (15th century) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:CristobalColon.jpg
[10/12/1492 AD]
Americas by crossing the Atlantic
Ocean.
Christopher Columbus (CE 1451-1506)
lands on a small island (probably San
Salvador) in America.
In America Columbus explores, finds a
new race of people, new plants, and
many other new phenomena.
Vikings such as Leif Eriksson had
visited North America five centuries
earlier.
In the next 10 years Columbus will
makes 3 journeys to the "Indies".
Because of this mistaken belief that
Columbus had reached India, the
Carribean will be called the West
Indies even up to the present time.
That Native American people are
sometimes still referred to as
"Indians" shows that this mistaken view
of America being India is still
uncorrected.
Beyond planting the royal banner,
Columbus spends little time on San
Salvador, being anxious to press on to
what he thinks will be Cipango (Japan).
[1] Portrait of Christopher Columbus
from the painting Virgen de los
Navegantes (in the Sala de los
Almirantes, Royal Alcazar, Seville). A
painting by Alejo Fernández between
1505 and 1536. It is the only state
sponsored portrait of the First Admiral
of the Indias. Photo by a Columbus
historian, Manuel Rosa. More info
http://www.UnmaskingColumbus.com PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Christopher_Columbus_Face.jpg
[2] Christopher Columbus, conjectural
image by Sebastiano del Piombo in the
Gallery of Illustrious Men (Corridoio
Vasariano), Uffizi, Florence but
yet: Christophorus Columbus/Cristobal
Colon, pictue by Sebastiano del Piombo
from the XVI (15th century) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:CristobalColon.jpg
[10/28/1492 AD]
[1] Portrait of Christopher Columbus
from the painting Virgen de los
Navegantes (in the Sala de los
Almirantes, Royal Alcazar, Seville). A
painting by Alejo Fernández between
1505 and 1536. It is the only state
sponsored portrait of the First Admiral
of the Indias. Photo by a Columbus
historian, Manuel Rosa. More info
http://www.UnmaskingColumbus.com PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Christopher_Columbus_Face.jpg
[2] Christopher Columbus, conjectural
image by Sebastiano del Piombo in the
Gallery of Illustrious Men (Corridoio
Vasariano), Uffizi, Florence but
yet: Christophorus Columbus/Cristobal
Colon, pictue by Sebastiano del Piombo
from the XVI (15th century) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:CristobalColon.jpg
[12/05/1492 AD]
[1] Portrait of Christopher Columbus
from the painting Virgen de los
Navegantes (in the Sala de los
Almirantes, Royal Alcazar, Seville). A
painting by Alejo Fernández between
1505 and 1536. It is the only state
sponsored portrait of the First Admiral
of the Indias. Photo by a Columbus
historian, Manuel Rosa. More info
http://www.UnmaskingColumbus.com PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Christopher_Columbus_Face.jpg
[2] Christopher Columbus, conjectural
image by Sebastiano del Piombo in the
Gallery of Illustrious Men (Corridoio
Vasariano), Uffizi, Florence but
yet: Christophorus Columbus/Cristobal
Colon, pictue by Sebastiano del Piombo
from the XVI (15th century) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:CristobalColon.jpg
[1492 AD]
Spain for "racial purification".
[01/16/1493 AD]
[1] Portrait of Christopher Columbus
from the painting Virgen de los
Navegantes (in the Sala de los
Almirantes, Royal Alcazar, Seville). A
painting by Alejo Fernández between
1505 and 1536. It is the only state
sponsored portrait of the First Admiral
of the Indias. Photo by a Columbus
historian, Manuel Rosa. More info
http://www.UnmaskingColumbus.com PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Christopher_Columbus_Face.jpg
[2] Christopher Columbus, conjectural
image by Sebastiano del Piombo in the
Gallery of Illustrious Men (Corridoio
Vasariano), Uffizi, Florence but
yet: Christophorus Columbus/Cristobal
Colon, pictue by Sebastiano del Piombo
from the XVI (15th century) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:CristobalColon.jpg
[02/26/1493 AD]
[1] Portrait of Christopher Columbus
from the painting Virgen de los
Navegantes (in the Sala de los
Almirantes, Royal Alcazar, Seville). A
painting by Alejo Fernández between
1505 and 1536. It is the only state
sponsored portrait of the First Admiral
of the Indias. Photo by a Columbus
historian, Manuel Rosa. More info
http://www.UnmaskingColumbus.com PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Christopher_Columbus_Face.jpg
[2] Christopher Columbus, conjectural
image by Sebastiano del Piombo in the
Gallery of Illustrious Men (Corridoio
Vasariano), Uffizi, Florence but
yet: Christophorus Columbus/Cristobal
Colon, pictue by Sebastiano del Piombo
from the XVI (15th century) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:CristobalColon.jpg
[02/26/1493 AD]
[1] Portrait of Christopher Columbus
from the painting Virgen de los
Navegantes (in the Sala de los
Almirantes, Royal Alcazar, Seville). A
painting by Alejo Fernández between
1505 and 1536. It is the only state
sponsored portrait of the First Admiral
of the Indias. Photo by a Columbus
historian, Manuel Rosa. More info
http://www.UnmaskingColumbus.com PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Christopher_Columbus_Face.jpg
[2] Christopher Columbus, conjectural
image by Sebastiano del Piombo in the
Gallery of Illustrious Men (Corridoio
Vasariano), Uffizi, Florence but
yet: Christophorus Columbus/Cristobal
Colon, pictue by Sebastiano del Piombo
from the XVI (15th century) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:CristobalColon.jpg
[03/15/1493 AD]
America, Columbus, stranded with his
crew on the island of Jamaica,
correctly predicts an eclipse of the
Moon from his astronomical tables,
which frightens and tricks the local
peoples into providing food for them.
[1] Portrait of Christopher Columbus
from the painting Virgen de los
Navegantes (in the Sala de los
Almirantes, Royal Alcazar, Seville). A
painting by Alejo Fernández between
1505 and 1536. It is the only state
sponsored portrait of the First Admiral
of the Indias. Photo by a Columbus
historian, Manuel Rosa. More info
http://www.UnmaskingColumbus.com PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Christopher_Columbus_Face.jpg
[2] Christopher Columbus, conjectural
image by Sebastiano del Piombo in the
Gallery of Illustrious Men (Corridoio
Vasariano), Uffizi, Florence but
yet: Christophorus Columbus/Cristobal
Colon, pictue by Sebastiano del Piombo
from the XVI (15th century) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:CristobalColon.jpg
[06/07/1494 AD]
province, Spain)
[1] Cantino planisphere of 1502
depicting the meridian designated by
the treaty. Cantino planisphere. Image
found at
http://www.ac-creteil.fr/portugais/PPCAN
TINO2.jpg. In public domain due to the
image's age. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Cantino_Planisphere.jpg
[1494 AD]
Friar around 1470.
Pacioli teaches math at
universities at Perugia, Naples and
Rome.
Pacioli meets Leonardo da Vinci at the
court of the Duke of Milan, Ludovico
Sforza. In exchange for lessons in
math, Leonardo illustrates one of
Pacioli's books.
[1] Ritratto di Frà Luca Pacioli
(1495). Luca Pacioli (1445 - 1517) is
the central figure in this painting
exhibited in the Museo e Gallerie di
Capodimonte in Napoli (Italy). The
painter is unknown, although some
people are convinced the painter is
Jacopo de' Barbari (1440-1515). Table
is filled with geomerical tools: slate,
chalk, compas, a dodecahedron model and
a rhombicuboctahedron half-filed with
water is hanging in the air. Pacioli is
demonstrating a theorem by Euclid. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Pacioli.jpg
[2] The first ever printed version of
the Rhombicuboctahedron was by Leonardo
da Vinci, as appeared in the Divina
Proportione by Luca Pacioli 1509,
Venise PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Leonardo_polyhedra.png
[1495 AD]
1452-1519), paints "the Last Supper".
_-_The_Last_Supper_(1495-1498).jpg)
[1] Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) - The
Last Supper (1495-1498) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Leonardo_da_Vinci_%281452-1519%29_-_T
he_Last_Supper_%281495-1498%29.jpg
[1496 AD]
[1] Ritratto di Frà Luca Pacioli
(1495). Luca Pacioli (1445 - 1517) is
the central figure in this painting
exhibited in the Museo e Gallerie di
Capodimonte in Napoli (Italy). The
painter is unknown, although some
people are convinced the painter is
Jacopo de' Barbari (1440-1515). Table
is filled with geomerical tools: slate,
chalk, compas, a dodecahedron model and
a rhombicuboctahedron half-filed with
water is hanging in the air. Pacioli is
demonstrating a theorem by Euclid. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Pacioli.jpg
[2] The first ever printed version of
the Rhombicuboctahedron was by Leonardo
da Vinci, as appeared in the Divina
Proportione by Luca Pacioli 1509,
Venise PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Leonardo_polyhedra.png
[1496 AD]
manuscript have survived, one in the
Biblioteca Ambrosiana in Milan, the
other in the Bibliothèque Publique et
Universitaire in Geneva.
[1] Ritratto di Frà Luca Pacioli
(1495). Luca Pacioli (1445 - 1517) is
the central figure in this painting
exhibited in the Museo e Gallerie di
Capodimonte in Napoli (Italy). The
painter is unknown, although some
people are convinced the painter is
Jacopo de' Barbari (1440-1515). Table
is filled with geomerical tools: slate,
chalk, compas, a dodecahedron model and
a rhombicuboctahedron half-filed with
water is hanging in the air. Pacioli is
demonstrating a theorem by Euclid. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Pacioli.jpg
[2] The first ever printed version of
the Rhombicuboctahedron was by Leonardo
da Vinci, as appeared in the Divina
Proportione by Luca Pacioli 1509,
Venise PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Leonardo_polyhedra.png
[1500 AD]
his self portrait. This strikingly
realistic painting is an early
representation of the realism that will
evolve in Renaissance era paintings.
[1] Autorretrato (1500) Albrecht Durer
- Self-Portrait at 28 * Image
copiée sur le site WebMuseum *
http://www.ibiblio.org/wm/ Self-Portrai
t (1500) by Albrecht Dürer, oil on
board, Alte PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Durer_self_portarit_28.jpg
[1502 AD]
[1] Cantino planisphere of 1502
depicting the meridian designated by
the treaty. Cantino planisphere. Image
found at
http://www.ac-creteil.fr/portugais/PPCAN
TINO2.jpg. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Cantino_Planisphere.jpg
[1503 AD]
1452-1519), paints the Mona Lisa.
[1] Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) -
Mona Lisa (1503-1507) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Mona_Lisa.jpeg
[1504 AD]
the end of Columbus' life and the two
are friendly to each other.
Perhaps had
Columbus recognized that he had landed
on a new continent America would be
called "Columbia", or "North and South
Christica".
[1] Amerigo Vespucci From Amerigo
Vespucci by Frederick A. Ober - Project
Gutenberg eText
19997 http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/19
997 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Amerigo_Vespucci_-_Project_Gutenberg_
etext_19997.jpg
[2] Statue at the Uffizi,
Florence. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Amerigo_Vespucci01.jpg
[1507 AD]
[1] The Principle Organs and Vascular
and Urino-Genital Systems of a Woman
(c. 1507) is a drawing by Leonardo da
Vinci. Source:
http://www.visi.com/~reuteler/leonardo.h
tml PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:The_Principle_Organs_and_Vascular_and
_Urino-Genital_Systems_of_a_Woman.jpg
[1507 AD]
long time, but a copy is found in a
castle at Wolfegg in southern Germany
by Joseph Fischer in 1901. This is the
only known copy of the map.
Some hold that the "Cosmographiae" was
written by Matthias Ringmann instead,
or that it was a joint effort.
[1] Le cartographe allemand Martin
Waldseemüller (portrait peint par
Gaston Save pour décorer l'ancien
théâtre de Saint-Dié-des-Vosges,
aujourd'hui disparu) Source Catalogue
de l'exposition ''America, L'Amérique
est née à Saint-Dié-des Vosges en
1507'' (1992) Date 19ème
siècle Author Gaston Save
(1844-1901) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:MartinWaldseem%C3%BCller.jpg
[2] Gerlinde Brandenburger-Eisele
holds the oldest map showing
''America'' in the Ritterhausmuseum
(Museum of the Knight) in Offenburg,
southern Germany. The map was drawn in
1507 by cartographer Martin
Waldseemueller. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.usatoday.com/news/nat
ion/2007-04-24-america-turns-500_N.htm?c
sp=34
[1509 AD]
[1] Ritratto di Frà Luca Pacioli
(1495). Luca Pacioli (1445 - 1517) is
the central figure in this painting
exhibited in the Museo e Gallerie di
Capodimonte in Napoli (Italy). The
painter is unknown, although some
people are convinced the painter is
Jacopo de' Barbari (1440-1515). Table
is filled with geomerical tools: slate,
chalk, compas, a dodecahedron model and
a rhombicuboctahedron half-filed with
water is hanging in the air. Pacioli is
demonstrating a theorem by Euclid. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Pacioli.jpg
[2] The first ever printed version of
the Rhombicuboctahedron was by Leonardo
da Vinci, as appeared in the Divina
Proportione by Luca Pacioli 1509,
Venise PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Leonardo_polyhedra.png
[1509 AD]
poet and Meistersinger, composes music
and plays around this time. Wagner
makes Sachs a leading character in his
opera "Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg"
(1868) uses Sachs.
[1510 AD]
[1] Studies of Embryos by Leonardo da
Vinci * Date: circa 1510-1513
* Technique: Pen over red chalk *
Dimensions: 12 x 8'' (30.5 × 20 cm)
* Location: Royal Library, Windsor
Castle Source:
http://www.theartgallery.com.au/ArtEduca
tion/greatartists/DaVinci/14_Studies_of_
Embryos/index.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Leonardo_da_Vinci_Studies_of_Embryos.
jpg
[2] Studies of the Arm showing the
Movements made by Biceps (c. 1510) is a
drawing by Leonardo da Vinci. Source:
http://www.visi.com/~reuteler/leonardo.h
tml PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Studies_of_the_Arm_showing_the_Moveme
nts_made_by_the_Biceps.jpg
[1511 AD]
instrumentum" printed in Basel, which
is a heavily annotated edition of the
New Testament placing texts in Greek
and revised Latin side by side. Erasmus
is therefore, the first editor of the
New Testament.
Erasmus dedicates "In Praise of
Folly" to his friend, Thomas More,
author of the famous and controversial
book "Utopia".
This work will influence the
French satirist Rabelais.
Erasmus studies at the
University of Paris and teaches for
some time at Cambridge University.
[1] The Dutch philosopher Desiderius
Erasmus. By Hans Holbein the
younger. Source:
http://www.wga.hu/art/h/holbein/hans_y/1
525/08erasmu.jpg Creator/Artist Name
Holbein d. J., Hans Date of
birth/death 1497/98
1543-11-29 Location of birth/death
Deutsch: Augsburg Deutsch:
London Work location Deutsch:
Basel, London PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Holbein-erasmus.jpg
[2] Deutsch: Porträt des Erasmus von
Rotterdam am Schreibpult Artist
Holbein d. J., Hans Year
1523 Technique Deutsch: Tempera
auf Holz Dimensions Deutsch: 43 ×
33 cm Current location Deutsch:
Musée du Louvre Deutsch:
Paris Source The Yorck Project:
10.000 Meisterwerke der Malerei.
DVD-ROM, 2002. ISBN 3936122202.
Distributed by DIRECTMEDIA Publishing
GmbH. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Hans_Holbein_d._J._047.jpg
[1512 AD]
painting at Cracow (Asimov writes that
Cracow is the intellectual center of
Poland at this time and will be for
many years after).
Copernicus studies health
(medicine) and canon law in Italy for
10 years.
After reading Regiomontanus
Copernicus becomes interested in
Astronomy.
In 1497 Copernicus' uncle is ordained
Bishop of Warmia, and Copernicus is
named a canon at Frombork Cathedral.
In 1505
Copernicus returns to Poland where he
serves as canon under his uncle at the
cathedral at Frombork (Frauenberg, in
German), but never becomes a priest and
never marries.
Copernicus serves as his uncle's
doctor.
[1] Nicolaus Copernicus (portrait from
Toruń - beginning of the 16th
century), from
http://www.frombork.art.pl/Ang10.htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Nikolaus_Kopernikus.jpg
[2] Nicolaus Copernicus PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Copernicus.jpg
[09/25/1513 AD]
America.
Balboa settles in Hispaniola in 1502,
where he resides for several years as a
planter and pig farmer. In 1509,
wanting to escape his creditors in
Santo Domingo, Balboa sets sail as a
stowaway.
In December 1511 King Ferdinand II
sends orders that name Balboa interim
governor and captain general of
Darién.
The Spaniards are told by Native
Americans that to the south lay a sea
and a province infinitely rich in gold,
a reference to the Pacific and perhaps
to the Inca Empire. The Native people
tell the Spainards that the conquest of
that land would require 1,000 men.
Balboa quickly sends messengers to
Spain to request reinforcements. The
news creates much excitement in Spain,
and a large expedition is promptly
organized. But Balboa is not given
command because charges brought against
Balboa by his enemies had turned King
Ferdinand II against him, and, as
commander of the armada and governor of
Darién, the King sends out the
elderly, powerful nobleman Pedro Arias
Dávila (usually called Pedrarias). The
expedition, numbering 2,000 persons,
leaves Spain in April 1514.
In his own explorations Balboa manages
to collect a great deal of gold, much
of it from the ornaments worn by the
native women, and the rest obtained by
violence.
At the end of 1512 and the first months
of 1513, Balboa arrives in a region
dominated by the cacique Careta, whom
he easily defeats and then befriends.
Careta is baptized and becomes one of
Balboa's chief allies; Careta ensures
the survival of the settlers by
promising to supply the Spaniards with
food. Balboa then proceeds on his
journey, arriving in the lands of
Careta's neighbour and rival, cacique
Ponca, who flees to the mountains with
his people, leaving his village open to
the plundering of the Spaniards and
Careta's men. Days later, the
expedition arrives in the lands of
cacique Comagre, fertile but reportedly
dangerous terrain. However, Balboa is
received peacefully and even invited to
a feast in his honor; Comagre, like
Careta, is then baptized.
It is in Comagre's lands that Balboa
first hears of "the other sea". It
starts with a squabble among the
Spaniards, unsatisfied by the meagre
amounts of gold they are being
allotted. Comagre's eldest son,
Panquiaco, angered by the Spaniards'
avarice, knocks over the scales used to
measure gold and exclaims: "If you are
so hungry for gold that you leave your
lands to cause strife in those of
others, I shall show you a province
where you can quell this hunger".
Panquiaco tells them about a kingdom to
the south, where people are so rich
that they eat and drink from plates and
goblets made of gold, but that the
conquerors will need at least a
thousand men to defeat the tribes
living inland and those on the coast of
"the other sea". How the native
speaking people and Spanish speaking
people communicate is a very
interesting puzzle, since neither had
any experience at all with the others
language. Individual people must have
had to spend months translating and
learning nouns and verbs before any
detailed talk can happen.
The announcement of balboa finding the
"South Sea," restores Balboa to royal
favor and Balboa is named "adelantado"
(governor) of the Mar del Sur and of
the provinces of Panamá and Coiba.
Pedrarias, the head of the Spanish
expedition summons Balboa home on the
pretext that Pedrarias wishes to
discuss matters of common concern. Upon
returning Balboa is seized and charged
with rebellion, high treason, and
mistreatment of Indians, among other
misdeeds. After a farcical trial
presided over by Gaspar de Espinosa,
Pedrarias' chief justice, Balboa is
found guilty, condemned to death, and
beheaded with four alleged accomplices
in January 1519.
[1] Vasco Núñez de Balboa PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Vascon%C3%BA%C3%B1ezdebalboa.jpeg
[2] Vasco Núñez de Balboa executing
Native Americans for same-sex
love. New York Public Library, Rare
Book Room, De Bry Collection, New
York http://www.androphile.org/preview/
Museum/New_World/Panama_Two-SpiritA.html
Théodore De
Bry (1528-1598) Balboa setting his
dogs upon Indian practitioners of male
love (1594) The Spanish invader Vasco
Núñez de Balboa (1475-1519) shown in
Central America with his troops,
presiding over the execution of
Indians, whom he ordered eaten alive by
the war dogs for having practiced male
love. New York Public Library, Rare
Book Room, De Bry Collection, New
York. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Balboamurder.jpg
[1514 AD]
1538), an English judge, writes the
first systematic attempt to provide a
summary of English law, known as La
Graunde Abridgement in 1514, and among
others "The Boke of Husbandire", a book
on agriculture.
[1] La Graunde Abridgement was a
collection of cases compiled out of the
Year Books and published by Sir Anthony
Fitzherbert; this edition was printed
in 1577. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Graunde-abridgement.jpg
[1515 AD]
Catholic priest, but later abandons
priesthood and becomes a Lutheran.
Schöner is a
professor of mathematics at the
University of Nuremberg.
In 1540, Rheticus will
dedicate the first report "Narratio
prima" (an introduction to Copernicus'
"De Revolutionibus") to Schöner.
[1] Johannes Schöner, (1477-1547)
Astronomer. Original Picture was
obtained from this
(http://www.uni-mannheim.de/mateo/desbil
lons/aport/seite181.html) site, PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Johannes_Sch%C3%B6ner_Astronomer_01.j
pg
[2] Cranach, Lucas Portrait des
Magdeburger Theologen Dr. Johannes
Schoener Renaissance Diese
Bilder-Vorlage Portrait des Magdeburger
Theologen Dr. Johannes Schoener Von
Cranach, Lucas als hochwertiges,
handgemaltes Gem�lde. Wir malen
Ihr �lgem�lde nach Ihrer
Vorlage. PD
source: http://www.oel-bild.de/bilder/67
92M.jpg
[1515 AD]
[1516 AD]
"Utopia" when he and Erasmus jointly
translate some of Lucian's works from
Greek into Latin. Among these
dialogues, is the story of Menippus,
the Greek playwright, descending into
the underworld and describing what he
finds there. The other significant
influence is Plato's "Republic", which
is a far more politically motivated
work about imaginary lands and is
referred to several times in "Utopia".
More will be beheaded in 1535 for
refusing to accept King Henry VIII as
head of the Church of England.
[1] Deutsch: Porträt des Thomas
Morus Artist Holbein d. J.,
Hans Year 1527 Technique Deutsch:
Tempera auf Holz Dimensions
Deutsch: 74,2 × 59 cm Current
location Deutsch: Frick
Collection Deutsch: New York Source
The Yorck Project: 10.000 Meisterwerke
der Malerei. DVD-ROM, 2002. ISBN
3936122202. Distributed by DIRECTMEDIA
Publishing GmbH. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Hans_Holbein_d._J._065.jpg
[2] English: Woodcut by Ambrosius
Holbein for the 1518 edition of Thomas
More's Utopia Deutsch: Holzschnitt von
Ambrosius Holbein für die Ausgabe von
1518 von Thomas Morus' Buch
Utopia Source
http://www.accd.edu/sac/english/baile
y/utopia.htm Date 1518 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Utopia.jpg
[10/20/1517 AD]
[1] An anonymous portrait of Ferdinand
Magellan, 16th or 17th century (The
Mariner's Museum Collection, Newport
News, VA) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ferdinand_Magellan.jpg
[2] Map of Ferdinand Magellans voyage
around the world GFDL
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Magellan%27s_voyage_EN.svg
[10/31/1517 AD]
[1] Luther in 1529 by Lucas
Cranach Painting by Lucas Cranach the
Elder. Uffizi gallery. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Luther46c.jpg
[08/10/1519 AD]
[1] An anonymous portrait of Ferdinand
Magellan, 16th or 17th century (The
Mariner's Museum Collection, Newport
News, VA) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ferdinand_Magellan.jpg
[2] Map of Ferdinand Magellans voyage
around the world GFDL
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Magellan%27s_voyage_EN.svg
[09/20/1519 AD]
(c1480-1521), Portuguese explorer, sets
sail to circumnavigate the earth.
Magellan
leaves for America with 5 ships in
order to find a way to the Spice
Islands of Indonesia. This is the
voyage to circumnavigate the earth that
Columbus had intended.
[1] An anonymous portrait of Ferdinand
Magellan, 16th or 17th century (The
Mariner's Museum Collection, Newport
News, VA) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ferdinand_Magellan.jpg
[2] Map of Ferdinand Magellans voyage
around the world GFDL
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Magellan%27s_voyage_EN.svg
[04/08/1520 AD]
[1] An anonymous portrait of Ferdinand
Magellan, 16th or 17th century (The
Mariner's Museum Collection, Newport
News, VA) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ferdinand_Magellan.jpg
[2] Map of Ferdinand Magellans voyage
around the world GFDL
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Magellan%27s_voyage_EN.svg
[10/21/1520 AD]
Ocean is not actually more passive than
the Atlantic Ocean.
[1] An anonymous portrait of Ferdinand
Magellan, 16th or 17th century (The
Mariner's Museum Collection, Newport
News, VA) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ferdinand_Magellan.jpg
[2] Map of Ferdinand Magellans voyage
around the world GFDL
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Magellan%27s_voyage_EN.svg
[12/13/1520 AD]
[1] An anonymous portrait of Ferdinand
Magellan, 16th or 17th century (The
Mariner's Museum Collection, Newport
News, VA) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ferdinand_Magellan.jpg
[2] Map of Ferdinand Magellans voyage
around the world GFDL
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Magellan%27s_voyage_EN.svg
[1520 AD]
[1] Johannes Schöner, (1477-1547)
Astronomer. Original Picture was
obtained from this
(http://www.uni-mannheim.de/mateo/desbil
lons/aport/seite181.html) site, PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Johannes_Sch%C3%B6ner_Astronomer_01.j
pg
[2] Johannes Schöner globe, made in
1520. Shows the Americas, Antarctica
before (european) official discovery.
Based on other older maps and globes.
Original picture was obtained from this
site, then it was scaled down to a
lower resolution. Globe maker died more
than 200 hundred years ago. This image
is to be used in Johannes Schöner
globe article under fair use as : This
photo is only being used for
informational purposes. This photo
helps only to show the globe. As this
picture is also (commonly) used in
other sites, it helps to recognize the
globe quickly. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Johannes_Sch%C3%B6ner_globe_1520_m01.
jpg
[03/06/1521 AD]
the ships sail near the Chilean coast
until Decemeber 18 when Magellan takes
a course northwestward. Not until
January 24, 1521, is land sighted,
probably Pukapuka in the Tuamotu
Archipelago.
[1] An anonymous portrait of Ferdinand
Magellan, 16th or 17th century (The
Mariner's Museum Collection, Newport
News, VA) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ferdinand_Magellan.jpg
[2] Map of Ferdinand Magellans voyage
around the world GFDL
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Magellan%27s_voyage_EN.svg
[03/16/1521 AD]
first alliance in the Pacific for
Spain.
Antonio Pigafetta, a wealthy tourist
who paid to be on the Magellan voyage,
provides the only extant eyewitness
account of the events culminating in
Magellan's death, as follows:
"When morning
came, forty-nine of us leaped into the
water up to our thighs, and walked
through water for more than two
cross-bow flights before we could reach
the shore. The boats could not approach
nearer because of certain rocks in the
water. The other eleven men remained
behind to guard the boats. When we
reached land, {the natives} had formed
in three divisions to the number of
more than one thousand five hundred
people. When they saw us, they charged
down upon us with exceeding loud
cries... The musketeers and
crossbow-men shot from a distance for
about a half-hour, but uselessly...
Recognising the captain, so many turned
upon him that they knocked his helmet
off his head twice... A native hurled a
bamboo spear into the captain's face,
but the latter immediately killed him
with his lance, which he left in the
native's body. Then, trying to lay hand
on sword, he could draw it out but
halfway, because he had been wounded in
the arm with a bamboo spear. When the
natives saw that, they all hurled
themselves upon him. One of them
wounded him on the left leg with a
large cutlass, which resembles a
scimitar, only being larger. That
caused the captain to fall face
downward, when immediately they rushed
upon him with iron and bamboo spears
and with their cutlasses, until they
killed our mirror, our light, our
comfort, and our true guide. When they
wounded him, he turned back many times
to see whether we were all in the
boats. Thereupon, beholding him dead,
we, wounded, retreated, as best we
could, to the boats, which were already
pulling off."
[1] An anonymous portrait of Ferdinand
Magellan, 16th or 17th century (The
Mariner's Museum Collection, Newport
News, VA) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ferdinand_Magellan.jpg
[2] Map of Ferdinand Magellans voyage
around the world GFDL
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Magellan%27s_voyage_EN.svg
[11/06/1521 AD]
Magellan's now under the leadership of
Cano, reach the Maluku Islands (the
Spice Islands) with 115 men left. They
manage to trade with the Sultan of
Tidore, a rival of the Sultan of
Ternate, who is the ally of the
Portuguese.
The two remaining ships, laden with
valuable spices, attempt to return to
Spain by sailing west. As they leave
the Moluccas, however, Trinidad is
found to be taking on water. The crew
tries to discover and repair the leak,
but fails. They conclude that Trinidad
will need to spend considerable time
being overhauled. The small Victoria
was not large enough to accommodate all
the surviving crew. As a result,
Victoria with some of the crew sails
west through the Indian Ocean for
Spain. Several weeks later, Trinidad
left the Moluccas to attempt to return
to Spain via the Pacific route. This
attempt fails; the ship is captured by
the Portuguese, and is eventually
wrecked in a storm while at anchor
under Portuguese control.
Four crewmen of the original fifty-five
on the Trinidad will finally returned
to Spain in 1525. Fifty-one of them had
died in war or from disease.
[1] An anonymous portrait of Ferdinand
Magellan, 16th or 17th century (The
Mariner's Museum Collection, Newport
News, VA) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ferdinand_Magellan.jpg
[2] Map of Ferdinand Magellans voyage
around the world GFDL
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Magellan%27s_voyage_EN.svg
[05/06/1522 AD]
commanded by Juan Sebastián Elcano,
rounds the Cape of Good Hope, with only
rice for rations. Twenty crewmen die of
starvation before Elcano reaches the
Cape Verde Islands, a Portuguese
holding, where he abandons 13 more
crewmembers on July 9 in fear of losing
his cargo of 26 tons of spices (cloves
and cinnamon).
[1] An anonymous portrait of Ferdinand
Magellan, 16th or 17th century (The
Mariner's Museum Collection, Newport
News, VA) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ferdinand_Magellan.jpg
[2] Map of Ferdinand Magellans voyage
around the world GFDL
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Magellan%27s_voyage_EN.svg
[09/08/1522 AD]
circumnavigate the earth..
Juan Sebastian del Cano (KonO)
(c1460-1525), Spanish Navigator,
returns in a single remaining ship
originally lead by Magellan to Seville,
Spain with a crew that is the first to
circumnavigate the earth.
This voyage lasts 3 years and cost 4
ships, but the spices and other
merchendice brought back more than
compensate for the loss. This voyage
proves that Eratosthenes estimate of
the size of the Earth is correct, and
that of Poseidoinius and Ptolemy wrong,
and that a single ocean covers the
earth.
[1] An anonymous portrait of Ferdinand
Magellan, 16th or 17th century (The
Mariner's Museum Collection, Newport
News, VA) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ferdinand_Magellan.jpg
[2] Juan Sebastián
Elcano Litografía de J. Donon en
Historia de la Marina Real Española.
Madrid,
1854 http://marenostrum.org/bibliotecad
elmar/historia/pacifico/ PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Elcano.jpg
[1523 AD]
Germany(presumably)
[1] Johannes Schöner, (1477-1547)
Astronomer. Original Picture was
obtained from this
(http://www.uni-mannheim.de/mateo/desbil
lons/aport/seite181.html) site, PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Johannes_Sch%C3%B6ner_Astronomer_01.j
pg
[2] Facsimile globe gores of Johannes
Schöner's Globe of 1523 [t is not
actual map?] PD
source: http://www.henry-davis.com/MAPS/
Ren/Ren1/348.html
[1523 AD]
(c1490-c1570), Italian composer,
publishes "Recerchari, motetti,
canzoni, Libro I" (Venice, 1523), the
first set of independently composed
keyboard music ever published. Much of
these compositions are astonishingly
mature for the time, featuring parallel
5ths and octaves and harsh dissonance,
demonstrating a clear independence from
vocal music.
Italy
[1524 AD]
[1] This is the first and longest
serving hospital constructed on the
American continent, which has been
serving the needs of the sick and
ailing since 1524. Originally called
the Hospital de la Purísima
Concepción de Nuestra Señora
(Hospital of Our Lady of the Purest
Conception), it was built with the
economic support of conquistador Hernan
Cortes, so as to serve the needs of
poor Spanish soldiers and Native
Americans. New installations were added
in the mid-twentieth century, of a
different architectural appearance, but
using the same materials as the
original construction. It is worth
visiting for its sixteenth century
stone arches and the mural by Orozco
that depicts the encounter between the
Spaniards and Native
Americans. Information by
Wcities COPYRIGHTED
source: http://travel.yahoo.com/p-travel
guide-2739035-hospital_de_jesus_nazareno
_hershey-i
[1524 AD]
Peter Bienewitz or Bennewitz
(pā'tər
bē'nəvĭts,
bĕn'əvĭts).
Apian is a professor of mathematics at
the University of Ingolstadt.
In 1527, Peter Apian is called to the
University of Ingolstadt as a
mathematician and printer. His print
shop starts small. Among the first
books he prints are the writings of
Johann Eck, Martin Luther's antagonist.
Later, Apian's print shop will become
well-known for its high-quality
editions of geographic and cartographic
works.
[1] Petrus Apianus. From Icones sive
imagines virorum literis illustrium,
Frankfurt 1719. Image source:
http://www.math.uni-hamburg.de/math/ig
n/xyz/ca00-v5.htm#tth_sEc3 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Peter_Apian.png
[2] A page from Petrus Apianus'
Astronomicum Caesareum (1540). Img src:
Library of
Congress. http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/w
orld/world-object.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Astronomicum_Caesareum.jpg
[07/??/1525 AD]
c1494-1536) translates and prints the
New Testament and Pentateuch into
English.
After church authorities in England
prevent Tyndale from translating the
Bible there, Tyndale goes to Germany in
1524, receiving financial support from
wealthy London merchants. Tyndale's New
Testament translation is completed in
July 1525 and printed at Cologne.
Interrupted by an injunction, Tyndale
has the edition completed at Worms. By
April 1526 an octavo edition is being
sold in London. When copies enter
England, they are denounced by the
bishops and suppressed (1526); Cardinal
Wolsey orders Tyndale seized at Worms.
In November all available copies are
burned at St. Paul's Cross. (To me this
shows clearly an interest in keeping
the public uninformed and uneducated,
that information about the actual
substance of the religion is to be kept
only for an elite few. In addition,
possibly to obscure and keep abstract
the facts surrounding the religion,
since people cannot criticize what they
know nothing of. A similar occurrence
has happened in science with the truth
about Michael Pupin, the theory of time
dilation, and much of the history of
science. Apparently, the less the
public knows, the less they can
criticize and uncover dishonesty and
error.)
In 1535 while revising his
translations, Tyndale is seized in
Antwerp and confined in Vilvoorde
Castle, near Brussels. Tyndale's trial
ends in condemnation for heresy, and
Tyndale is strangled at the stake
before his body is burned.
Tyndale's Bible is the first English
translation to draw directly from
Hebrew and Greek texts, and the first
to take advantage of the new medium of
print, which allows for its wide
distribution.
Tyndale is educated at the University
of Oxford and becomes an instructor at
the University of Cambridge.
In 1521, while at
Cambridge, Tyndale is friends with a
group of humanist scholars meeting at
the White Horse Inn.
Tyndale becomes
convinced that the Bible alone should
determine the practices and doctrines
of the church and that every believer
should be able to read the Bible in
their own language.
In 1528 Tyndale publishes the "The
Obedience of a Christian Man" (1528),
which replaces papal authority by royal
authority and is heartily approved by
King Henry VIII and "The Parable of the
Wicked Mammon" (1528) dealing with
Luther's teaching concerning
justification by faith. Both these
works are denounced by Sir Thomas More.
The Practice of Prelates (1530),
condemning the divorce of Henry VIII
(with Catherine of Aragon), draws the
wrath of the king.
[1] From:Foxe's Book of
Martyrs http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fo
xe%27s_Book_of_Martyrs PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:William_Tyndale.jpg
[2] William Tyndale is burnt at the
stake in Belgium; he cries, ''Lord ope
the king of England's eies.'' From an
Elizabethan edition of Foxe's
Martyrs. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Tyndale-martyrdom.png
[1525 AD]
Durer is
court painter to emperor Maximillian I
and successor Charles V.
It is clear from
his writings that Dürer is highly
sympathetic to Martin Luther, and he
may be influential in the City Council
declaring for Luther in 1525. However,
Durer dies before religious divisions
had hardened into different churches,
and may well have regarded himself as a
reform-minded Catholic to the end.
The most
striking painting illustrating Dürer's
growth toward the Renaissance spirit is
a self-portrait, painted in 1498
(Prado, Madrid).
Dürer achieves an
international reputation as an artist
by 1515, when he exchanges works with
the illustrious High Renaissance
painter Raphael.
Druerer's work on fortification
is published in 1527, and his work on
human proportion is brought out in four
volumes shortly after his death at the
age of fifty-six, in 1528.
[1] Autorretrato (1500) Albrecht Durer
- Self-Portrait at 28 * Image
copiée sur le site WebMuseum *
http://www.ibiblio.org/wm/ Self-Portrai
t (1500) by Albrecht Dürer, oil on
board, Alte PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Durer_self_portarit_28.jpg
[2] The earliest painted Self-Portrait
(1493) by Albrecht Dürer, oil,
originally on vellum Louvre, Paris La
bildo estas kopiita de wikipedia:lt. La
originala priskribo estas: Albrech
Dürer, Selbstportät mit Blume,
1493 Autoportretas su
gėlėmis, tapyta apiejumi ant
drobės, 57 x 45 cm, laikoma Luvre,
Paryiuje. altinis:
http://www.louvre.fr/img/photos/collec/p
eint/grande/rf2382.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Albrecht-self.jpg
[1526 AD]
[1] Presumed portrait of Paracelsus,
attributed to the school of Quentin
Matsys source :
http://euromin.w3sites.net/Nouveau_site/
mineralogiste/biographies/pic/paracelse.
htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Paracelsus.jpg
[2] Monument for Paracelsus in
Beratzhausen, Bavaria. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:300704_beratzhausen-oberpfalz-paracel
sus-denkmal_1-480x640.jpg
[1530 AD]
the Bergschule, founded by the wealthy
Fugger family of merchant bankers of
Augsburg, where his father teaches
chemical theory and practice. Young
people are trained at the Bergschule as
overseers and analysts for mining
operations in gold, tin, and mercury,
as well as iron, alum, and
copper-sulfate ores.
The young Paracelsus
learns about minerals from miners
talking about metals that "grow" in the
earth.
Hohenheim enters at University of Basil
in 1510, later moving to the University
of Vienna.
Paracelsus is said to have graduated
from the University of Vienna with the
baccalaureate in medicine in 1510, when
he was 17.
At Ferrara Hohenheim is free to
express his rejection of the prevailing
view that the stars and planets control
all the parts of the human body.
Hohenheim is thought to have begun
using the name "para-Celsus" (above or
beyond Celsus) around this time,
regarding himself as even greater than
Celsus, the renowned 1st-century Roman
physician known for his tract on health
and medicine.
Paracelsus travels widely seeking
out alchemists and physicians to learn
from.
Paracelsus is appointed town physician
and lecturer in medicine at the
University of Basel. Students from all
parts of Europe begin to flock into the
city. Paracelsus pins a program of his
upcoming lectures to the notice board
of the university on June 5, 1527,
inviting not only students but
everybody.
Three weeks later, on June 24, 1527,
surrounded by a crowd of cheering
students, Paracelsus burns the books of
Ibn Sina (Avicenna), the Arab "Prince
of Physicians," and those of the Greek
physician Galen, in front of the
university. Luther, just six and a half
years before at the Elster Gate of
Wittenberg on Dec. 10, 1520, had burned
a papal bull that threatened
excommunication. Paracelsus seemingly
remains a Catholic to his death,
although it has been said that his
books were placed on the Index
Expurgatorius.
Paracelsus denounces the theory of
humors.
Like Luther, Paracelsus lectures and
writes in German rather than Latin.
Paracelsus'
lecture hall is always crowded to
overflowing. He stresses the healing
power of nature and rages against those
methods of treating wounds, such as
padding with moss or dried dung, that
prevent natural draining. The wounds
must drain, he insists, saying "If you
prevent infection, Nature will heal the
wound all by herself." Paracelsus
attacks many other medical frauds of
his time including worthless pills,
salves, infusions, balsams,
electuaries, fumigants, and drenches.
In the
spring of 1528, in fear Paracelsus
flees Basel in the middle of the
night.
Shortly before the flight from Basel,
Paracelsus completes the most important
of his earlier works, "Nine Books of
Archidoxus", a reference manual on
secret remedies. Between 1530 and 1534
Paracelsus writes his bestknown works,
the "Paragranum" and the "Paramirum",
both dealing with cosmology. Paracelsus
returns to medical writing with the
"Books of the Greater Surgery" in
editions of 1536 and 1537; this is
Paracelsus' only work that is a
publishing success. The "Astronomia
magna", done between 1537 and 1539, is
said to show his most mature thinking
about nature and humans.
Paracelsus uses mercury and antimony
even after practice had shown them to
be toxic.
Paracelsus believes in the 4 element
theory of the Greek people and the 3
principles of the Arab people (mercury,
sulfur and salt). During all his
travels, Paracelsus spreads the
anti-Aristotelian position that the
four elements (earth, air, fire, and
water) are composed of primary
principles: a fireproducing principle
(sulfur), a principle of liquidity
(mercury), and a principle of solidity
(salt).
Paracelsus rejects the magic theories
of Agrippa and Flamel. Paracelsus does
not think of himself as a magician and
scorns those who do, though he is a
practicing astrologer, as were are, if
not all of the university-trained
physicians working at this time in
Europe. So Paracelsus wrongly believes
in astrology and the influence of the
stars on disease.
Kind of a funny story is that
Paracelsus is said to have cured many
people in the plague-stricken town of
Stertzing in the summer of 1534 by
administering orally a pill made of
bread containing a minute amount of the
patient's excreta he had removed on a
needle point. Probably not an effective
cure, and very dangerous because of
bacterial (in particular E Coli)
infection.
[1] Presumed portrait of Paracelsus,
attributed to the school of Quentin
Matsys source :
http://euromin.w3sites.net/Nouveau_site/
mineralogiste/biographies/pic/paracelse.
htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Paracelsus.jpg
[2] Monument for Paracelsus in
Beratzhausen, Bavaria. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:300704_beratzhausen-oberpfalz-paracel
sus-denkmal_1-480x640.jpg
[1530 AD]
Fracastoro is a colleague of the
astronomer Copernicus.
As a physician,
Fracastoro maintains a private practice
in Verona.
villa at Incaffi)
[1] Girolamo Fracastoro. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a1/Fracastoro.jpg
[1530 AD]
Spanish musician, composes instrumental
music for lute.
[1531 AD]
view of his friend Fuchs.
Servetus believes
and lectures on astrology.
This is during the
Protestant reformation, and Servetus
has the view of a Unitarian (the belief
that Jesus was not God, that God is
only one thing not a trinity which
includes Jesus and the so-called Holy
Spirit).
Servetus studies medicine in Paris and
meets John Calvin, one of the early and
most powerful Protestants there.
[1] Miguel Servet, (Villanueva de
Sigena 1511- Genevra 1553) Spanish
scientist and theologist of the
Renaissance. Artist : Christian
Fritzsch (author) born in about 1660,
Mittweida, Bautzen, Sachsen,
Germany. Source:
http://mcgovern.library.tmc.edu/data/www
/html/people/osler/MS/P000d.htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Michael_Servetus.jpg
[2] Servetus, detail from an engraving
by Carl Sichem Courtesy of the
National Library of Medicine, Bethesda,
Md. PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-14212/Servetus-detail-from-an-engraving
-by-Carl-Sichem?articleTypeId=1
[1533 AD]
Germany(presumably)
[1] Johannes Schöner, (1477-1547)
Astronomer. Original Picture was
obtained from this
(http://www.uni-mannheim.de/mateo/desbil
lons/aport/seite181.html) site, PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Johannes_Sch%C3%B6ner_Astronomer_01.j
pg
[2] Johannes Schöner Weimer Globe
(1533). Made in 1533. Who died more
than 200 years ago. This modified
picture is used here for informational
purposes only, thus constitute a fair
use also. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Johannes_Sch%C3%B6ner_globe_1533_f_m0
2.png
[1533 AD]
Netherlands)
[1] English: Gemma Frisius, 1508-1555,
cartographer and mathematician Source
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollection
s/hst/scientific-identity/fullsize/SIL14
-G002-05a.jpg Date 17th
century Author Esme de Boulonois PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gemma_frisius_dockumensis.jpg
[2] Triangulation can be used to find
the coordinates and sometimes distance
from the shore to the ship. The
observer at A measures the angle α
between the shore and the ship, and the
observer at B does likewise for β
. If the length l or the coordinates of
A and B are known, then the law of
sines can be applied to find the
coordinates of the ship at C and the
distance d Determination of a distance
using triangle properties. Source
Own work, based on PNG version by
Regis Lachaume GFDL
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Distance_by_triangulation.svg
[1534 AD]
to traditional Christianity is a
progressive step towards atheism, Henry
the VIII is a brutal person who orders
the execution of many nonviolent people
such as those who refuse to take an
oath of loyalty such as humanist author
of the book "Utopia", Thomas More.
Henry VIII has his own his second wife,
Anne Boleyn (c1501/1507-1536) executed.
[1] Portrait of Henry VIII by Hans
Holbein the Younger. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Henry-VIII-kingofengland_1491-1547.jp
g
[2] An official portrait of Catherine
of Aragon whilst Queen consort, painted
from life around 1525 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Catherine_aragon.jpg
[1536 AD]
extends, the excellent reputation
Paracelsus had earned at Basel in his
prime. Paracelsus becomes wealthy and
is sought after by royalty.
[1] Presumed portrait of Paracelsus,
attributed to the school of Quentin
Matsys source :
http://euromin.w3sites.net/Nouveau_site/
mineralogiste/biographies/pic/paracelse.
htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Paracelsus.jpg
[2] Monument for Paracelsus in
Beratzhausen, Bavaria. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:300704_beratzhausen-oberpfalz-paracel
sus-denkmal_1-480x640.jpg
[1537 AD]
poverty and was largely self
educated.
Fontana was nicknamed "Tartaglia",
which means "studderer", because during
the French sack of Brescia in 1512,
Fontana's face was slashed by a French
soldier, leaving him with a speech
defect. Tartgalia chose to adopt the
name.
Fontana teaches mathematics in various
universities in northern Italy, and
settles in Venice in 1534 to teach
mathematics.
[1] Niccolò Fontana Tartaglia PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Niccol%C3%B2_Tartaglia.jpg
[2] (Tartaglia's formula) for the
volume of a tetrahedron (incl. any
irregular tetrahedra) presumed GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nic
col%C3%B2_Fontana_Tartaglia
[10/28/1538 AD]
[1] La Universidad de Santo Domingo fue
creada mediante la Bula In Apostolatus
Culmine, expedida el 28 de octubre de
1538, por el Papa Paulo III, la cual
elevó a esa categoría el Estudio
General que los dominicos regenteaban
desde el 1518, en Santo Domingo, sede
virreinal de la colonización y el más
viejo establecimiento colonial del
Nuevo Mundo. COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://www.uasd.edu.do/principal
es/general.html
[1538 AD]
[1] Portrait of Vesalius from his De
humani corporis fabrica (1543). PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Vesalius_Fabrica_portrait.jpg
[2] Image from Andreas Vesalius's De
humani corporis fabrica (1543), page
190. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Vesalius_Fabrica_p190.jpg
[1538 AD]
villa at Incaffi)
[1] Girolamo Fracastoro. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a1/Fracastoro.jpg
[1540 AD]
[1] Nicolaus Copernicus (portrait from
Toruń - beginning of the 16th
century), from
http://www.frombork.art.pl/Ang10.htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Nikolaus_Kopernikus.jpg
[2] Nicolaus Copernicus PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Copernicus.jpg
[1540 AD]
[1] Petrus Apianus. From Icones sive
imagines virorum literis illustrium,
Frankfurt 1719. Image source:
http://www.math.uni-hamburg.de/math/ig
n/xyz/ca00-v5.htm#tth_sEc3 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Peter_Apian.png
[2] A page from Petrus Apianus'
Astronomicum Caesareum (1540). Img src:
Library of
Congress. http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/w
orld/world-object.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Astronomicum_Caesareum.jpg
[1541 AD]
[1] Conrad Gessner (1516-1565), Swiss
naturalist. Source Galerie des
naturalistes de J. Pizzetta, Ed.
Hennuyer, 1893 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gessner_Conrad_1516-1565.jpg
[2] Conrad Gesner. Historiae
Animalium. (Zurich, 1551ff).
http://www.nlm.nih.gov/exhibition/histor
icalanatomies/Images/1200_pixels/porcupi
ne_33.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Porcupine_33.jpg
[1542 AD]
abstract, one dictionary defines
pathology as "the science or the study
of the origin, nature, and course of
diseases" which might just as easily be
covered by the science of "health".
"Pathology" relates to the path or
course a disease routinely takes. The
word "physiology", also somewhat
abstract, is defined by one dictionary
as "the branch of biology dealing with
the functions and activities of living
organisms and their parts, including
all physical and chemical processes".
Physiology deals with the actual
physical processes of any part of a
living body.
Fernel rejects astrology as
being relevant to healing (medicine).
How the word "medicine" became
associated with "healing" I do not
know, however, in my opinion, the word
"health" more accurately covers what a
physician does. Perhaps a distinction
between the fraudulent religious
"healers" and formally educated
"healers" needed to be clearly
expressed.
Frenel graduates from the University of
Paris 1519, gets a medical degree in
1530, and in 1534 is a professor of
"medicine" at University of Paris.
Frenel is
the physician to Henry II of France.
[1] Scientist: Fernel, Jean François
(1497 - 1558) Discipline(s):
Medicine Print Artist: Nicolas de
Larmessin Medium: Woodcut Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 16.9 x 13.3 cm /
Sheet: 19 x 14.2 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/by_d
iscipline_display_results.cfm?Research_D
iscipline_1=Medicine
[1542 AD]
Fuchs, and the name Fuchs is also the
origin or the word for the color
"Fuscia" (a bluish red).
Fuchs receives a
medical (physician) degree at the
University of Ingolstadt in 1524.
In 1535
Fuchs is professor of medicine (health)
at the University of Tübingen.
Fuchs is an active
supporter of Vesalius.
[1] Leonhart Fuchs, German botanist and
author, 16th century Portrait,
unbekannter Künstler, o.D. source:
http://www.tu-darmstadt.de/fb/bio/bot/fu
chsien/ PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Leonhart.fuchs.farbig.jpg
[2] Description Leonard Fuchs Source
L C Miall. The History of Biology.
Watts and Co. Date 1911 Author L C
Miall PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:LeonardFuchsMiall.png
[1543 AD]
[1543 AD]
revived. Copernicus' (1473-1543) book
supporting a sun centered theory is
published.
A few hundred copies of Nicolaus
Copernicus' (1473-1543) book, "De
revolutionibus orbium coelestium libri
vi" ("Six Books Concerning the
Revolutions of the Heavenly Orbs"), are
printed (200 copies still exist). The
original hand written draft exists and
shows that Copernicus crossed out an
original reference to Aristarchos.
Rheticus gives the manuscript to
Andreas Osiander (1498–1552), a
theologian and strong follower of
Luther, who ads an unsigned “letter
to the reader” directly after the
title page, which states that the
hypotheses contained within made no
pretense to truth and that, in any
case, astronomy is incapable of finding
the causes of heavenly phenomena. In
addition, the title of the work is
changed from the manuscript’s "On the
Revolutions of the Orbs of the World"
to "Six Books Concerning the
Revolutions of the Heavenly Orbs", a
change that appears to lessen the
book's claim to describe the real
universe. These changes by Osiander are
not known until Kepler reveals this in
his "Astronomia Nova" (New Astronomy)
in 1609.
East Prussia now:)Frombork, Poland;
(printed in)Nuremberg, Germany
[1] Nicolaus Copernicus (portrait from
Toruń - beginning of the 16th
century), from
http://www.frombork.art.pl/Ang10.htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Nikolaus_Kopernikus.jpg
[2] Nicolaus Copernicus PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Copernicus.jpg
[1543 AD]
pharmacist to Emperor Charles V.
Vesalius
is from long line of physicians and
pharmacists in Wesel, and this is where
the name Vesalius comes from.
Vesalius
studies in Louvain (now Belgium)
(1529-1533), and medical (health)
school of the University of Paris
(1533-1536) both conservative centers
supporting Galen, and so even as late
as 1538 Vesalius publishes material
largely based on Galen. At the
University of Paris, Vesalius learned
to dissect animals, has the opportunity
to dissect human cadavers, and devotes
much of his time to a study of human
bones, at that time easily available in
the Paris cemeteries.
In 1536 Vesalius returns to his native
Brabant to spend another year at the
University of Louvain, where the
influence of Arab medicine (health
science) is still dominant. At Louvain,
Vesalius writes his graduate
dissertation on the 900s Arab physician
al-Razi (Rhazes).
In 1537, Vesalius then goes to the
University of Padua, a progressive
university with a strong tradition of
anatomical dissection. On receiving the
M.D. degree the same year, he is
appointed a lecturer in surgery with
the responsibility of giving anatomical
demonstrations. Since Vesalius dissects
many cadavers, and insisted on doing
them himself, instead of relying on
untrained assistants.
Vesalius teaches anatomy at
various universities in Italy.
After
publishing this book, Vesalius quits
research and becomes the court
physician to Charles V, and his son the
Spanish king Phillip II.
When Henry II is
fatally wounded at a tournament
(jousting?) in 1559 Vesalius attends to
him taking precedence over Paré.
Asimov
claims that Vesalius is accused of
heresy, body snatching, and dissection,
and is apparently charged but his royal
connections help him, and his sentence
is a trip to the Holy land, but other
sources say that Vesalius made a
pilgrimage to Jerusalem.
On the way back the ship
he is on is battered by storms, but
does reach Zante where Vesalius dies.
[1] Portrait of Vesalius from his De
humani corporis fabrica (1543). PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Vesalius_Fabrica_portrait.jpg
[2] Image from Andreas Vesalius's De
humani corporis fabrica (1543), page
190. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Vesalius_Fabrica_p190.jpg
[01/24/1544 AD]
[1] Reinerus Gemma-Frisius's
illustration (left) of the solar
eclipse he observed in Louvain on
January 24, 1544. PD/Corel
source: http://www.acmi.net.au/AIC/CAM_O
BS_LOUVAIN_1544.GIF
[2] English: Gemma Frisius, 1508-1555,
cartographer and mathematician Source
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollection
s/hst/scientific-identity/fullsize/SIL14
-G002-05a.jpg Date 17th
century Author Esme de Boulonois PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gemma_frisius_dockumensis.jpg
[1544 AD]
translated in to Latin.
[1545 AD]
Leonardo da Vinci.
Cardano becomes professor
of medicine at the University of Pavia
in 1546.
Cardano believes in astrology.
Cardano is
jailed for some time for casting the
horoscope of Jesus.
In 1539 Tartaglia showed
Cardano a method of solving cubic
equations six years after Cardano
promised to keep the solution a secret.
[1] Girolamo Cardano, coloured woodcut
on the cover of his Practica
arithmetica (1539). The Granger
Collection, New York PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-15447/Girolamo-Cardano-coloured-woodcut
-on-the-cover-of-his-Practica?articleTyp
eId=1
[2] wikipedia contributor typed: I
found this picture at the library the
other day and haven't ever seen it
online before and thought it would make
a great addition to the Cardano page.
The author was marked as unknown. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:CardanoPortrait.jpg
[1545 AD]
French instead of Latin because he had
no formal education, and is looked down
upon by the arrogant educated
establishment for this.
In 1565 Pare proves
that the Bezoar Stone does not cure all
poisonings.
At this time and for 200 more years
surgery is viewed as menial labor and
done by barbers, {shockingly and
illogically} people who cut hair also
perform operations.
In 1536, Pare attains the rank
of master barber-surgeon.
Pare works as a
barber-surgeon in the French army.
Pare is
the surgeon to a series of four kings,
Henry II and his 3 sons.
[1] Ambroise Paré (ca. 1510-1590),
famous French surgeon Posthumous
(fantasy) portrait by William Holl
(1807-1871) Source:
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollections
/hst/scientific-identity/CF/by_name_disp
lay_results.cfm?scientist=Par%C3%A9,%20A
mbroise PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ambroise_Par%C3%A9.jpg
[2] Paré, detail of an engraving,
1582 PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-13373/Pare-detail-of-an-engraving-1582?
articleTypeId=1
[1546 AD]
published: Basel, Switzerland
[1] The ''Father of Mineralogy'',
Georgius Agricola. URL:
http://kanitz.onlinehome.de/agricolagymn
asium/agrigale.htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Georgius_Agricola.jpg
[2] Georgius Agricola, portrait from
Icones veterum aliquot ac recentium
medicorum philosophorumque (1574) by
Joannes Sambucus, printed in
Antwerp. Courtesy of the Museum
National d'Histoire Naturelle,
Paris[2] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Georg_Agricola.jpg
[1546 AD]
published: Basel, Switzerland
[1] The ''Father of Mineralogy'',
Georgius Agricola. URL:
http://kanitz.onlinehome.de/agricolagymn
asium/agrigale.htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Georgius_Agricola.jpg
[2] Georgius Agricola, portrait from
Icones veterum aliquot ac recentium
medicorum philosophorumque (1574) by
Joannes Sambucus, printed in
Antwerp. Courtesy of the Museum
National d'Histoire Naturelle,
Paris[2] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Georg_Agricola.jpg
[1546 AD]
[1] Girolamo Fracastoro. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a1/Fracastoro.jpg
[1549 AD]
[1] Conrad Gessner (1516-1565), Swiss
naturalist. Source Galerie des
naturalistes de J. Pizzetta, Ed.
Hennuyer, 1893 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gessner_Conrad_1516-1565.jpg
[2] Conrad Gesner. Historiae
Animalium. (Zurich, 1551ff).
http://www.nlm.nih.gov/exhibition/histor
icalanatomies/Images/1200_pixels/porcupi
ne_33.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Porcupine_33.jpg
[1550 AD]
iron and charcoal. It uses one or more
long stone pots inside a furnace. Iron
bars and charcoal are packed in
alternating layers, with a top layer of
charcoal and then refractory matter to
make the pot or 'coffin' air tight.
Some manufacturers used a mix of
powdered charcoal, soot and mineral
salts, called cement powder, which gave
the process its name. The pots are then
heated from below for a week or more.
Bars are regularly examined and when
the correct condition is reached the
heat is withdrawn and the pots are left
until cool, usually around fourteen
days. The iron gains a little over 1%
in mass from the carbon in the
charcoal, and becomes hetrogenous bars
of blister steel. The bars are then
shortened, bound, heated and hammered,
pressed or rolled to become shear
steel.
[1550 AD]
[1] Wednesday, 5 April, 2000, 12:24 GMT
13:24 UK Did the Vikings make a
telescope? Dr Olaf Schmidt The lenses
must have been made by trial and
error. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/t
ech/702478.stm
[2] Visby'' lenses were initially
thought to be ornaments COPYRIGHTED
source: http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/t
ech/702478.stm
[1550 AD]
classics, philosophy, and philology at
the University of Leipzig, which had
recently been exposed to the humanist
revival. Following the custom of the
times, he Latinizes his name to
Georgius Agricola (Bauer meaning
"farmer"). After teaching Latin and
Greek from 1518 to 1522 in a school in
Zwickau, Agricola returns to Leipzig to
begin the study of medicine but finds
the university in disarray because of
theological quarrels. A lifelong
Catholic, he leaves in 1523 for more
comfortable surroundings in Italy. He
studies medicine, natural science, and
philosophy in Bologna and Padua,
finishing with clinical studies in
Venice.
For two years Agricola works at the
Aldine Press in Venice, principally in
preparing an edition of Galen's works
on medicine (which will be published in
1525).
From 1527 to 1533 Agricola is town
physician in Joachimsthal, a mining
town in the richest metal-mining
district of Europe. Partly in the hope
of finding new drugs among the ores and
minerals Agricola visits mines and
smelting plants, talking to the
better-educated miners, and reading
Classical authors on mining. These
years provide the material for most of
his books, beginning with "Bermannus;
sive, de re metallica" (1530), a
treatise on the Ore Mountains
(Erzgebirge) mining district.
In 1533 Agricola is appointed the town
physician of Chemnitz where he remains
for the rest of his life.
[1] The ''Father of Mineralogy'',
Georgius Agricola. URL:
http://kanitz.onlinehome.de/agricolagymn
asium/agrigale.htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Georgius_Agricola.jpg
[2] Georgius Agricola, portrait from
Icones veterum aliquot ac recentium
medicorum philosophorumque (1574) by
Joannes Sambucus, printed in
Antwerp. Courtesy of the Museum
National d'Histoire Naturelle,
Paris[2] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Georg_Agricola.jpg
[1551 AD]
mathematics at the University of
Wittenberg
[1] Reinhold, Prutenic Tables (1585),
title page. [t must be later
edition] PD
source: http://hsci.cas.ou.edu/images/jp
g-100dpi-5in/16thCentury/Reinhold/1585/R
einhold-1585-000tp.jpg
[2] Reinhold, Prutenic Tables (1585),
133v. PD
source: http://hsci.cas.ou.edu/exhibits/
exhibit.php?exbgrp=9&exbid=52&exbpg=25
[1551 AD]
(physician/health) degree from the
University of Paris. King Frances I is
one of the patrons of Belon. Belon is
killed by robbers in Paris while
picking herbs.
[1] Subject : Pierre Belon
(1517-1564) French zoologist PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Belon_Pierre_1517-1564.jpg
[2] Birds and Humans skeleton
comparison from 1555 Source History
of Biology Date 1911 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:BelonBirdSkel.jpg
[1551 AD]
composes music in the form of
madrigals, chansons, masses and motets.
The madrigal of this time, the name
borrowed from the 1300s form, has no
resemblance in poetic or musical
structure to the 1300 madrigal.
Compared to the frottola, the earliest
Renaissance madrigals, dating from
about 1530, are characterized by quiet
and restrained expression, usually
written for three or four voices,
mostly homophonic (melody supported by
chords) with occasional bits of
imitation.
[1] Philippe de Monte PD
source: http://www.musicacontexta.com/ph
ilippe_monte.jpg-for-web.jpg
[1552 AD]
(health science) in the Collogio della
Sapienza in Rome (later the University
of Rome) until his death.
The fact that his
book became a bestseller more than a
century after his death shows the
extent of the religious restrictions on
anatomists all through the Renaissance.
[1] Description Portrait of
Bartolomeus Eustachius, the
anatomist. Source Plate from A
History of dentistry from the most
ancient times until the end of the
eighteenth century, by Vincenzo
Guerini. Scanned by Google Book
Search. Date Plate published 1909;
possibly much earlier. Author Unknown
(not specified); possibly from one of
Eustachius' books. Permission Public
domain due to age. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Bartolomeus_Eustachius.jpg
[2] Portrait of Eustachius Eustachi,
Bartholomeo (d. 1574) - Tabulae
anatomicae. Tabulae anatomicae (Rome,
1783) Title page PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Eustachi01.jpg
[10/27/1553 AD]
Brittanica, the execution of Michael
Servetus will produce a Protestant
controversy on imposing the death
penalty for heresy, draws severe
criticism upon John Calvin, and
influences Laelius Socinus, a founder
of modern unitarian views.
[1] Miguel Servet, (Villanueva de
Sigena 1511- Genevra 1553) Spanish
scientist and theologist of the
Renaissance. Artist : Christian
Fritzsch (author) born in about 1660,
Mittweida, Bautzen, Sachsen,
Germany. Source:
http://mcgovern.library.tmc.edu/data/www
/html/people/osler/MS/P000d.htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Michael_Servetus.jpg
[2] Servetus, detail from an engraving
by Carl Sichem Courtesy of the
National Library of Medicine, Bethesda,
Md. PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-14212/Servetus-detail-from-an-engraving
-by-Carl-Sichem?articleTypeId=1
[1553 AD]
(health/physician/doctor) degree from
Louvain.
Netherlands)
[1] English: Gemma Frisius, 1508-1555,
cartographer and mathematician Source
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollection
s/hst/scientific-identity/fullsize/SIL14
-G002-05a.jpg Date 17th
century Author Esme de Boulonois PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gemma_frisius_dockumensis.jpg
[1553 AD]
[1] Miguel Servet, (Villanueva de
Sigena 1511- Genevra 1553) Spanish
scientist and theologist of the
Renaissance. Artist : Christian
Fritzsch (author) born in about 1660,
Mittweida, Bautzen, Sachsen,
Germany. Source:
http://mcgovern.library.tmc.edu/data/www
/html/people/osler/MS/P000d.htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Michael_Servetus.jpg
[2] Servetus, detail from an engraving
by Carl Sichem Courtesy of the
National Library of Medicine, Bethesda,
Md. PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-14212/Servetus-detail-from-an-engraving
-by-Carl-Sichem?articleTypeId=1
[1553 AD]
English composer, composes music.
(Note how similar the Latin word
"Gaude" (rejoice) is to the word "God"
Determine when the transition from
"Deus" to "God" happened in England and
Germany.)
[1] Thomas Tallis PD
source: http://www.personal.psu.edu/mrp5
074/Thomas%20Tallis.jpg
[1555 AD]
[1] Conrad Gessner (1516-1565), Swiss
naturalist. Source Galerie des
naturalistes de J. Pizzetta, Ed.
Hennuyer, 1893 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gessner_Conrad_1516-1565.jpg
[2] Conrad Gesner. Historiae
Animalium. (Zurich, 1551ff).
http://www.nlm.nih.gov/exhibition/histor
icalanatomies/Images/1200_pixels/porcupi
ne_33.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Porcupine_33.jpg
[1555 AD]
[1] Conrad Gessner (1516-1565), Swiss
naturalist. Source Galerie des
naturalistes de J. Pizzetta, Ed.
Hennuyer, 1893 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gessner_Conrad_1516-1565.jpg
[2] Conrad Gesner. Historiae
Animalium. (Zurich, 1551ff).
http://www.nlm.nih.gov/exhibition/histor
icalanatomies/Images/1200_pixels/porcupi
ne_33.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Porcupine_33.jpg
[1555 AD]
[1] Subject : Pierre Belon
(1517-1564) French zoologist PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Belon_Pierre_1517-1564.jpg
[2] Birds and Humans skeleton
comparison from 1555 Source History
of Biology Date 1911 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:BelonBirdSkel.jpg
[1555 AD]
[1] Nicola Vicentino (1511 -
1576) PD
source: http://www.hoasm.org/IVO/Vicenti
no.html
[1558 AD]
[1] Conrad Gessner (1516-1565), Swiss
naturalist. Source Galerie des
naturalistes de J. Pizzetta, Ed.
Hennuyer, 1893 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gessner_Conrad_1516-1565.jpg
[2] Conrad Gesner. Historiae
Animalium. (Zurich, 1551ff).
http://www.nlm.nih.gov/exhibition/histor
icalanatomies/Images/1200_pixels/porcupi
ne_33.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Porcupine_33.jpg
[1559 AD]
(physician) degree in 1541 from the
University of Padua.
Columbo replaces Vesalius
as anatomy professor.
Columbo goes to Rome to ask
Michelangelo to illustrate a book of
anatomy that will surpass Vesalius, but
Michelangelo is in his 70s and refuses
the job.
Columbo is the papal surgeon in
Rome until his death.
Columbo is a critic of
the new anatomy of Vesalius.
"De re anatomica" is
Colombo's only formal written work.
[1] Matteo colombo, anatomista del
s.XVI. Óleo de autor anónimo. Matteo
Realdo Colombo. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Matteocolombo.jpg
[1560 AD]
[1] Girolamo Cardano, coloured woodcut
on the cover of his Practica
arithmetica (1539). The Granger
Collection, New York PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-15447/Girolamo-Cardano-coloured-woodcut
-on-the-cover-of-his-Practica?articleTyp
eId=1
[2] wikipedia contributor typed: I
found this picture at the library the
other day and haven't ever seen it
online before and thought it would make
a great addition to the Cardano page.
The author was marked as unknown. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:CardanoPortrait.jpg
[1560 AD]
magic, and wrongly believes that magic
is a real phenomenon.
[1] Giambattista della Porta PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Dellaporta.jpg
[1560 AD]
Franco-Flemish composer, composes music
around this time.
Bavaria) Munich, Bavaria (now
Germany)
[1] English: Orlando di Lasso
(1530/1532-1594), Public Domain Walon:
Orland d' Lassus (1532-1594), on rlomé
compôzeu walon del Rinexhance
(poitrait da di Lassus so on vî vî
eplaidaedje d' amon l' veve Balârd -
17inme sieke) Source: modified
from
http://www.lasso.badw.de/lleben.htm PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f0/Orlando_di_Lasso.png
[2] cropped version from
http://www.alamire-prints.com/images_inh
alte/miniatures/s20_13_413x550.jpg of
Orlando de Lassus directing a chamber
ensemble by Hans Mielich
(1516-1573) Hans Muelich (1516–1573)
Link back to Creator infobox
template PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/4b/Orlando_de_Lassus2.jp
g
[1561 AD]
cathedral of Modena and then turned to
the study of medicine (health science)
at the University of Ferrara, where he
becomes a teacher of anatomy. Fallopius
then holds positions at the University
of Pisa (1548-51) and at Padua
(1551-62).
Fallopius dies of
tuberculosis before age 40.
[1] 16th century portrait by unknown
artist Retrieved from
http://www.peoples.ru/science/professor/
gabriello/ PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gabriele_Falloppio.jpg
[2] Gabriel Fallopius, coloured copper
engraving, 17th century. The Granger
Collection, New York PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-15449/Gabriel-Fallopius-coloured-copper
-engraving-17th-century?articleTypeId=1
[1561 AD]
(CE 1525/1526-1594) composes music in
the Renaissance era. His most famous
mass, "Missa Papae Marcelli" ("Mass of
Pope Marcellus") is composed around
this time (c1561).
(It's interesting to know that this is
the music that surrounded the time and
life of Galileo, Descartes and other
people making significant contributions
to science.)
Italy
[1] Giovanni Pierluigi da
Palestrina Source:
http://xoomer.virgilio.it/senesino/Dei/P
alestrina.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/18/Giovanni_Pierluigi_da
_Palestrina.jpg
[1563 AD]
father of Galileo Galilei (CE
1564-1642), composes music for Lute
around this time.
[1567 AD]
[1] Scientist: Fernel, Jean François
(1497 - 1558) Discipline(s):
Medicine Print Artist: Nicolas de
Larmessin Medium: Woodcut Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 16.9 x 13.3 cm /
Sheet: 19 x 14.2 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/by_d
iscipline_display_results.cfm?Research_D
iscipline_1=Medicine
[1569 AD]
"merchant".
Mercator's actual name is Gerhard
Kremer, but he Latinizes his name as is
1500s fad.
Mercator gets a Masters degree
from the University of Louvain in 1532
(at age 20).
Mercator makes instruments for
Emperor Charles V.
In 1544 Mercator is
arrested and imprisoned on a charge of
heresy. His inclination to
Protestantism, and frequent absences
from Louvain to gather information for
his maps, had aroused suspicions.
Mercator is one of 43 citizens charged.
But the university authorities stand
behind Mercator, and he is released
after seven months and resumes his
former way of life. Mercator obtains a
privilege to print and publish books
continues his scientific studies.
Mercator
studies under Gemma Frisius (the person
that recognized that an accurate time
piece is needed to know longitude).
By age 24, Mercator is a skillful
engraver, calligrapher,
scientific-instrument maker. In 1535-36
Mercator works with Gaspar à Myrica,
(an engraver and goldsmith) and Frisius
in constructing a terrestrial globe and
in 1537 a celestial globe.
In 1552 Mercator
moves permanently to Duisburg in the
Duchy of Cleve and becomes well-known.
Mercator assists the duke in
establishing a grammar school by
helping to design its curriculum. After
establishing a cartographic workshop
and employing engravers, Mercator
returns to his main interest.
(presumably)
[1] Portrait of en:Gerardus
Mercator Source Originally from
en.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. (Original text :
http://www.nmm.ac.uk/collections/prints/
viewRepro.cfm?reproID=PU2381) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Mercator.jpg
[2] Gerardus Mercator, Atlas sive
Cosmographicae Meditationes de Fabrica
Mundi et Fabricati Figura, Duisburg,
1595. from
http://octavo.com/collections/projects/m
crats/index.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Mercator_World_Map.jpg
[1569 AD]
(presumably)
[1] Portrait of en:Gerardus
Mercator Source Originally from
en.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. (Original text :
http://www.nmm.ac.uk/collections/prints/
viewRepro.cfm?reproID=PU2381) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Mercator.jpg
[2] Gerardus Mercator, Atlas sive
Cosmographicae Meditationes de Fabrica
Mundi et Fabricati Figura, Duisburg,
1595. from
http://octavo.com/collections/projects/m
crats/index.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Mercator_World_Map.jpg
[1569 AD]
describes this wok as the most
teachable and systematic treatment of
algebra that appears in Italy up to
this time.
[1] Rafael Bombelli Source
unknown contemporary? PD?
COPYRIGHTED?
source: http://www-history.mcs.st-andrew
s.ac.uk/PictDisplay/Bombelli.html
[1570 AD]
measuring both horizontal and vertical
angles, as used in triangulation
networks. It is a key tool in surveying
and engineering work, but theodolites
have been adapted for other specialized
purposes in fields like meteorology and
rocket launch technology.
[1] An optical theodolite, manufactured
in the Soviet Union in 1958 and used
for topographic surveying. Soviet
Union theodolite manufactured in 1958.
GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:SovietTheodolite.jpg
[2] The axes and circles of a
theodolite. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Theodolite_vermeer.png
[1570 AD]
[1] Girolamo Cardano, coloured woodcut
on the cover of his Practica
arithmetica (1539). The Granger
Collection, New York PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-15447/Girolamo-Cardano-coloured-woodcut
-on-the-cover-of-his-Practica?articleTyp
eId=1
[2] wikipedia contributor typed: I
found this picture at the library the
other day and haven't ever seen it
online before and thought it would make
a great addition to the Cardano page.
The author was marked as unknown. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:CardanoPortrait.jpg
[11/11/1572 AD]
version of the Danish "Tyge".
Brahe's wealthy
and childless uncle abducted Tycho at a
very early age and raised him at his
castle in Tostrup, Scania, also
financing Tycho's education.
Brahe enters the
University of Copenhagen at age 13 and
studies law and philosophy.
When Brahe observes the
predicted eclipse of the sun on August
21, 1560, he changes his mind from
politics to astronomy and mathematics.
Brahe
believes astrology and casts
horoscopes, Asimov comments that
astrology is far more lucrative than
astronomy in this time.
In 1565 at age 19,
Brahe gets in a dual over a point of
mathematics and his nose is cut off, so
Tycho wears a false nose of metal for
the rest of his life.
In August 1563,
when Brahe makes his first recorded
observation, a conjunction, or
overlapping, of Jupiter and Saturn, he
finds that the existing almanacs and
ephemerides, which record stellar and
planetary positions, are very
inaccurate. The Copernican tables are
several days off in predicting this
event. At that point in his youth,
Tycho decides to devote his life to the
accumulation of accurate observations
of stars (the so-called heavens), and
buys instruments in order to make his
own tables in order to correct the
existing tables.
The is a rumor of Brahe making
astronomical observations in court
dress.
In 1573, Brahe marries a peasant girl
whom he loves and spends his life
with.
In 1588 Frederick II dies, and his
successor Christian IV ends funding for
Tycho.
In 1597 Tycho accepts the invitation of
Emperor Rudolf II and goes to Germany.
In his new headquarters in Prague,
Brahe finds Johann Kepler as an
assistant.
Brahe corresponds with Galileo.
On his death
bed, perhaps from a ruptured bladder,
Tycho moans "Oh, that it may not appear
I have lived in vain".
Tycho gives Kepler his
observation data and Kepler prepares
the tables of planetary motions. Sagan
explains that Tycho delays giving
Kepler all of his data. Maybe there is
some relation between Tycho's
realization that the comet had an
non-circular orbit and Kepler
recognizing the true orbit (at least in
two dimensions) of a ellipse for
planets.
Brahe is the last naked eye astronomer.
[1] The astronomer Tycho Brahe Source
http://measure.igpp.ucla.edu/solar-terr
estrial-luminaries/brahe.JPG PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Tycho_Brahe.JPG
[2] Tycho Brahe, engraving by Hendrik
Goltzius of a drawing by an unknown
artist, c. 1586. Courtesy of Det
Nationalhistoriske Museum på
Frederiksborg, Den. PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-9034/Tycho-Brahe-engraving-by-Hendrik-G
oltzius-of-a-drawing-by?articleTypeId=1
[1573 AD]
to produce and bind his manuscripts,
imports Augsburg craftsmen to construct
the finest astronomical instruments,
gets Italian and Dutch artists and
architects to design and decorate his
observatory, and invents a pressure
system to provide the then uncommon
convenience of lavatory facilities.
But
Frederick II will die in 1588, and
under his son, Christian IV, most of
Tycho's income will be stopped, partly
because of the increasing needs of the
state for money.
Ljungbyhed, Scania, Denmark (now
Sweden)
[1] The astronomer Tycho Brahe Source
http://measure.igpp.ucla.edu/solar-terr
estrial-luminaries/brahe.JPG PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Tycho_Brahe.JPG
[2] Tycho Brahe, engraving by Hendrik
Goltzius of a drawing by an unknown
artist, c. 1586. Courtesy of Det
Nationalhistoriske Museum på
Frederiksborg, Den. PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-9034/Tycho-Brahe-engraving-by-Hendrik-G
oltzius-of-a-drawing-by?articleTypeId=1
[1573 AD]
mechanica" published in 1598 contains
his autobiography and a description of
his instruments.
Tycho will leave Denmark in 1587 and
move to Prague, carrying along the
records of his observations and most of
his instruments. In 1600 Johannes
Kepler will join him as his assistant.
After Tycho's death in 1601, Kepler
will prepare Tycho's astronomical
studies for publication in "Astronomiae
instauratae progymnasmata" (1602-1603).
Kepler is then free to use the valuable
data to create his own system, (where
the planets have elliptical orbits)
which will lay the foundations for
Newton's gravitational astronomy.
[1] The astronomer Tycho Brahe Source
http://measure.igpp.ucla.edu/solar-terr
estrial-luminaries/brahe.JPG PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Tycho_Brahe.JPG
[2] Tycho Brahe, engraving by Hendrik
Goltzius of a drawing by an unknown
artist, c. 1586. Courtesy of Det
Nationalhistoriske Museum på
Frederiksborg, Den. PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-9034/Tycho-Brahe-engraving-by-Hendrik-G
oltzius-of-a-drawing-by?articleTypeId=1
[1574 AD]
English composer, and one of the
leading keyboard virtuosos of this time
composes music. Bull graduates from
Cambridge (1589) and Oxford (1592).
(Is it correct to say that the
harpsichord finds popularity in England
before Germany and Italy?)
(John Bull is an example of a somewhat
radical change to a much more technical
and faster playing style that Vivaldi
will also display. This style is
extremely different from the Gregorian
chants and may represent a radical
change in technology and education - in
particular the possible birth of neuron
reading.)
[1] Description John Bull (1563
– 1626). UNKNOWN
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e3/Johnbullcomposer.jpg
[1579 AD]
deciphering codes. A Huguenot
sympathizer, Vieta deciphers a complex
cipher of more than 500 characters used
by King Philip II of Spain in his war
to defend Roman Catholicism from the
Huguenots. When Philip, assuming that
the cipher could not be broken,
discovered that the French were aware
of his military plans, he complained to
the pope that black magic was being
employed against his country.
Vieta occupies a high administrative
office under Henry IV.
Vieta is the father
of modern algebra.
Vieta prefers the word
"analysis" to "algebra".
[1] François Viète. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Francois_Viete.jpg
[1580 AD]
[1] External view, showing the cock and
frizzen rotated back. Description
English: A snaphance lock, cocked,
showing the outside of the
mechanism Date 19 June
2010 Source Own work Author
Hatchetfish CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Snaphance_Lock%
2C_External_View%2C_Cocked.png/1280px-Sn
aphance_Lock%2C_External_View%2C_Cocked.
png
[2] Internal view, showing the flash
pan cover closed and the lateral sear
engaged. Description English: A
snaphance lock, cocked, showing the
internal mechanism Date 19 June
2010 Source Own work Author
Hatchetfish CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Snaphance_Lock%
2C_Internal_View%2C_Cocked.png/1280px-Sn
aphance_Lock%2C_Internal_View%2C_Cocked.
png
[1581 AD]
[1581 AD]
Vincenzo Galilei, a musician who made
important contributions to the theory
and practice of music and who may
perform some experiments with Galileo
in 1588-89 on the relationship between
pitch and the tension of strings.
A Tuscan
tradition is that the oldest son gets a
variation of the family last name for
first name, and this is why Galileo
received his first name.
Galileo studies to be a physician at
the University of Pisa, but after
reading Archimedes, whom Galileo
greatly admires, Galileo talks his
reluctant father from allowing Galileo
to go into mathematics and science.
In 1585
Galileo leaves the university without
obtaining a degree, and for several
years he gives private lessons in the
mathematical subjects in Florence and
Siena.
Ironically, Galileo recognizes that
inaccurate time keeping is a major
problem, and Huygens will later use the
principle of the pendulum found by
Galileo to regulate a clock solving the
problem of accurate time keeping that
Galileo has.
(square-cube law I am doubting
and am going to ignore for now)
Galileo's
work makes him unpopular in Pisa and he
moves to Padua (in Venetian territory,
which according to Asimov is a region
of considerable intellectual freedom at
this time), his new job pays 3 times
his previous salary, although Asimov
paints Galileo as always in debt from
living gaily and generously, always in
trouble, and unpopular with influential
people.
Galileo does not wear academic robes,
although this costs him several fines.
Galileo
is a popular lecturer and students
flock to hear him, coming in numbers as
high as 2000 (although this may be from
an exaggerated report).
Galileo's studies of the
sun damage his eyes, and he goes blind
in his old age.
After the telescope, both
Venice and Florence offer him lucrative
positions. To the annoyance of the
Venetians Galileo choses to move to
Florence.
1611 Galileo visits Rome where he is
greeted with honor and delight.
Galileo is
refused burial in consecrated (blessed
by religious human?/church property?)
ground.
Galileo's "Dialogue" is not removed
from the the Roman Catholic Index of
prohibited books until 1825.
In 1965 Pope
Paul VI will speak highly of Galileo.
Galileo
will not be officially forgiven until
the 1960s...um...a little late.
Galileo (wrote) "By denying scientific
principles, one may maintain any
paradox.".
[1] Galileo Galilei. Portrait in crayon
by Leoni Source: French WP
(Utilisateur:Kelson via
http://iafosun.ifsi.rm.cnr.it/~iafolla/h
ome/homegrsp.html) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Galilee.jpg
[2] Original portrait of Galileo
Galilei by Justus Sustermans painted in
1636. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Galileo.arp.300pix.jpg
[1582 AD]
November 23, 1616), a writer in
England, writes a book "Voyages..."
that describes America.
[1582 AD]
Collegio Romano in Rome and stays there
for the rest of his life.
Clavius is the last
diehard opponent of the sun-centered
theory revived by Copernicus.
Many Protestant
nations and people object to the
calendar reform.
[1] Christopher Clavius (1538-1612),
German mathematician and
astronomer. Immediate source:
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollections
/hst/scientific-identity/fullsize/SIL14-
C4-02a.jpg Ultimate source: A 16th
century engraving after a painting by
Francisco Villamena. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Christopher_Clavius.jpg
[1583 AD]
in 1559 moves to Paris to study Greek
and Latin and then begins to teach
himself Hebrew, Arabic, Syrian,
Persian, and the principal modern
languages.
In 1562 Scaliger converts to
Protestantism.
Scaliger leaves France for Geneva in
1572 just before St Bartholomew's Day
massacre of Protestant people.
In 1593 Scaliger
teaches at Univeristy of Leiden (a
Protestant university).
[1] Joseph Justus Scaliger source:
http://www.telemachos.hu-berlin.de/bilde
r/gudeman/gudeman.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Joseph_Justus_Scaliger.JPG
[2] Joseph Justus Scaliger, oil
painting by an unknown French artist,
17th century; in the Musée de
Versailles Cliche Musees Nationaux
PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-14115/Joseph-Justus-Scaliger-oil-painti
ng-by-an-unknown-French-artist?articleTy
peId=1
[1584 AD]
Italian philosopher, writes 6 Italian
Dialogs in which he explains his belief
in the infinity of space, that the
Earth goes around the sun (heliocentric
theory), and the atom theory.
[1] Giordano Bruno PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Giordano_Bruno.jpg
[2] Statue of Giordano Bruno in Campo
de Fiori, Rome, Italy. This monument
was erected in 1889, by Italian Masonic
circles, in the site where he was
burned alive for opposing the Catholic
church authority. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Brunostatue.jpg
[1585 AD]
note that Stevinus was from so-called
illegitimate birth, from parents who
were not married.
Stevinus marries at 64 and has
4 children.
Stevin is also known as Stevinus, the
Latinized form of his name.
Stevin
helps to popularize the practice of
writing scientific works in modern
languages (in his case Dutch) rather
than Latin, which for so long had been
the traditional European language of
learning.
[1] Simon Stevin, from English
wikipedia. Older than 100 years, so
it's Public Domain for countries with a
copyright term of life of the author
plus 100 years from en: Portrait by an
unknown artist, library of University
of Leiden. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Simon-stevin.jpeg
[2] Image made by user:Branko. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Stevin-decimal_notation.png
[1586 AD]
religious scholar as the "shaikh
al-islam", the chief relgious authority
in the country of Isfahan, the Safavid
capital. Al-Amili's tomb, like that of
Nasir al-Din is visited by people who
flock regularly to the Shiite shrine
cities, such as Meshed and Kazimain.
[1586 AD]
Netherlands
[1] Simon Stevin, from English
wikipedia. Older than 100 years, so
it's Public Domain for countries with a
copyright term of life of the author
plus 100 years from en: Portrait by an
unknown artist, library of University
of Leiden. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Simon-stevin.jpeg
[1586 AD]
[1] Simon Stevin, from English
wikipedia. Older than 100 years, so
it's Public Domain for countries with a
copyright term of life of the author
plus 100 years from en: Portrait by an
unknown artist, library of University
of Leiden. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Simon-stevin.jpeg
[1586 AD]
[1] Galileo Galilei. Portrait in crayon
by Leoni Source: French WP
(Utilisateur:Kelson via
http://iafosun.ifsi.rm.cnr.it/~iafolla/h
ome/homegrsp.html) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Galilee.jpg
[2] Original portrait of Galileo
Galilei by Justus Sustermans painted in
1636. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Galileo.arp.300pix.jpg
[1588 AD]
contemporary mathematicians and
philosophers. At Helmstedt, Germany, in
January 1589 Bruno will be he was
excommunicated by the local Lutheran
Church.
[1] Giordano Bruno PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Giordano_Bruno.jpg
[2] Statue of Giordano Bruno in Campo
de Fiori, Rome, Italy. This monument
was erected in 1889, by Italian Masonic
circles, in the site where he was
burned alive for opposing the Catholic
church authority. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Brunostatue.jpg
[1589 AD]
before the water closet is popularized.
[1] Portrait of Sir John Harrington PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Sirjharrington.gif
[2] Diagram of Harrington's toilet.
[t: says Cummings Closet..is really
Harington's?]
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:CummingsCloset.gif
[1589 AD]
[1] Description Deutsch: de:William
Byrd English: en:William Byrd -
c.1540-1623. Date not provided by
uploader Source
http://www.renaissancemusic.pe.kr/m
usician_p/william%20byrd.htm Author
Vandergucht (Michael van der Gucht
??) Permission (Reusing this file)
guessed, creator of the picture is
most likely dead for more than 70 years
(Byrd lived during 16th/17th
century) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/bf/William_Byrd.jpg
[1589 AD]
the Renaissance. One of the most
comprehensive and popular dance manuals
of the Renaissance is Thoinot Arbeau's
"Orchesographie" (1589). In this work
Arbeau explains the social necessity of
dance to his student Capriol
(translated from French):
"Capriol: I much
enjoyed fencing and tennis, and this
placed me upon friendly terms with
ypoung men. But, without knowledge of
dancing, I could not please the
damsels, upon whom, it seems to me, the
entire reputation of an eligible young
man depends.
Arbeau: You are quite right, as
naturally the male and female seek one
another, and nothing does more to
stimulate a man to acts of courtesy,
honor, and generosity than love. And if
you desire to marry you must realize
that a mistress is won by the good
temper and grace displayed while
dancing, because ladies do not like to
be present at fencing or tennis, lest a
splintered sword or a blow from a
tennis ball cause them injury...".
[1590 AD]
[1] Giordano Bruno PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Giordano_Bruno.jpg
[2] Statue of Giordano Bruno in Campo
de Fiori, Rome, Italy. This monument
was erected in 1889, by Italian Masonic
circles, in the site where he was
burned alive for opposing the Catholic
church authority. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Brunostatue.jpg
[1591 AD]
deciphering codes. A Huguenot
sympathizer, Vieta deciphers a complex
cipher of more than 500 characters used
by King Philip II of Spain in his war
to defend Roman Catholicism from the
Huguenots. When Philip, assuming that
the cipher could not be broken,
discovered that the French were aware
of his military plans, he complained to
the pope that black magic was being
employed against his country.
Vieta occupies a high administrative
office under Henry IV.
Vieta is the father
of modern algebra.
Vieta prefers the word
"analysis" to "algebra".
[1] François Viète. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Francois_Viete.jpg
[1592 AD]
degree from the University of Padua,
and is a professor of Botany there in
1593.
[1] Prospero Alpini PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Prospero_Alpini.jpg
[2] Alpini, engraving Courtesy of the
Ashmolean Museum, Oxford PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-8320/Alpini-engraving?articleTypeId=1
[1592 AD]
The invention of the thermometer is
generally credited to the Italian
mathematician-physicist Galileo Galilei
(1564–1642). Galilei calls this
device a thermoscope.
In Galilei's thermometer, the changing
temperature of an inverted glass vessel
produces an expansion or contraction of
the air within it, which in turn
changed the level of the liquid with
which the vessel's long, open-mouthed
neck is partially filled.
This device is very inaccurate (because
of the changing air pressure on earth)
and Amontons 100 years later will
improve the design.
This general principle will be
perfected in succeeding years by
experimenting with liquids such as
mercury and by providing a scale to
measure the expansion and contraction
brought about in such liquids by rising
and falling temperatures.
[1] Fig. 1. Galileo’s
thermoscope. from: David Sherry,
Thermoscopes, thermometers, and the
foundations of measurement, Studies In
History and Philosophy of Science Part
A, Volume 42, Issue 4, December 2011,
Pages 509-524, ISSN 0039-3681,
10.1016/j.shpsa.2011.07.001. (http://ww
w.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/
S0039368111000616) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/cac
he/MiamiImageURL/1-s2.0-S003936811100061
6-gr1.jpg/0?wchp=dGLzVBA-zSkzS
[2] Thermoscope Instrument to
measure heat and cold invented by
Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) during his
stay in Padua. Santorio Santorio
(1561-1636) made a similar instrument
in Venice in 1612. A precursor of the
modern thermometer, the thermoscope
consists of a glass vessel with a long
neck. The vessel was heated with the
hands and partially immersed, in an
upright position, in a container full
of water. When the heat of the hands
was taken away, the water was observed
to rise in the thermoscope neck. The
experiment showed the changes in air
density produced by variations in
temperature. UNKNOWN
source: http://catalogue.museogalileo.it
/images/cat/approfondimenti_944/AF0020-5
1000_944.jpg
[1592 AD]
1562-1621), Netherlands composer.
Netherlands
[1] Jan Pieterszoon Sweelinck One of
the two surviving portraits of
Sweelinck, this one dates from 1606. It
is attributed to Gerrit Pietersz
Sweelink, the composer's
brother. http://www.orgelkunst.be/tijds
chrift/tijdschrift.Dirksen.Sweeli.html
PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/27/Jan_Pieterszoon_Sweel
inck.png
[1595 AD]
.jpg)
[1] Painting of John Napier PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:John_Napier_%28Painting%29.jpeg
[2] John Napier PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:John_Napier.JPG
[08/??/1596 AD]
Brahe, and Kepler.
Fabricius is murdered by one
of his parisheners, who Fabricius had
threatened to expose for theft. Another
story relates that after denouncing a
local goose thief from the pulpit, the
accused man struck David Fabricius in
the head with a shovel and killed him.
and northeast Netherlands)
(guess)
[1] David Fabricius
(1564-1617) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.tayabeixo.org/biograf
ias/mar_1q.htm
[1596 AD]
the first flush toilet, writes a book
called "A New Discourse upon a Stale
Subject: The Metamorphosis of Ajax"
about his invention. He publishes the
book under the pseudonym of Misacmos.
The book makes political allusions to
the Earl of Leicester that anger Queen
Elizabeth I, and he will be again
banished from the court. The Queen's
mixed feelings for him may be the only
thing that saves Harrington from being
tried at Star Chamber.
[1] Portrait of Sir John Harrington PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Sirjharrington.gif
[2] Diagram of Harrington's toilet.
[t: says Cummings Closet..is really
Harington's?]
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:CummingsCloset.gif
[1596 AD]
physician who was beheaded for sorcery
when Rheticus was age 14.
Rheticus studies
at Zürich where he meets Paracelsus,
and Gesner is a schoolmate.
Rheticus gets a masters
degree and teaches Mathematics at the
University of Wittenberg.
Asimov describes Rheticus
as "Copernicus' first disciple".
[1596 AD]
arrangement of polygons that fits known
astronomical observations (even with
extra planets added to the system),
Kepler begins experimenting with
3-dimensional polyhedra. He finds that
each of the five Platonic solids can be
uniquely inscribed and circumscribed by
spherical orbs; nesting these solids,
each encased in a sphere, within one
another would produce six layers,
corresponding to the six known
planets-Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars,
Jupiter, and Saturn. By ordering the
solids correctly-octahedron,
icosahedron, dodecahedron, tetrahedron,
cube-Kepler finds that the spheres can
be placed at intervals corresponding
(within the accuracy limits of
available astronomical observations) to
the relative sizes of each planet"s
path, assuming the planets circle the
Sun. Kepler also finds a formula
relating the size of each planet"s orb
to the length of its orbital period:
from inner to outer planets, the ratio
of increase in orbital period is twice
the difference in orb radius. However,
Kepler later rejected this formula,
because it is not precise enough.
As Kepler indicates in the title, he
thinks that he has revealed God"s
geometrical plan for the universe. Much
of Kepler"s enthusiasm for the
Copernican system stems from his
theological convictions about the
connection between the physical and the
spiritual; the universe itself is an
image of God, with the Sun
corresponding to the Father, the
stellar sphere to the Son, and the
intervening space between to the Holy
Spirit. His first manuscript of
Mysterium contains an extensive chapter
reconciling heliocentrism with biblical
passages that seem to support
geocentrism.
[1] model of the Solar system from
Mysterium Cosmographicum (1596). from
http://phoenixandturtle.net/images/keple
r.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Kepler-solar-system-1.png
[2] Kepler's Platonic solid model of
the Solar system from Mysterium
Cosmographicum (1596). From:
http://www.georgehart.com/virtual-polyhe
dra/figs/kepler-spheres-2.jpg included
in the page:
http://www.georgehart.com/virtual-polyhe
dra/kepler.html (scroll to the
bottom) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Kepler-solar-system-2.png
[1597 AD]
[1] Galileo Galilei. Portrait in crayon
by Leoni Source: French WP
(Utilisateur:Kelson via
http://iafosun.ifsi.rm.cnr.it/~iafolla/h
ome/homegrsp.html) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Galilee.jpg
[2] Original portrait of Galileo
Galilei by Justus Sustermans painted in
1636. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Galileo.arp.300pix.jpg
[1597 AD]
English composer, composes music for
voice and lute. Downland graduated from
Oxford (1588). In the best of his 84
ayres for voice and lute (published
mainly in 4 vols., 1597, 1600, 1603,
1612), Dowland raises the level of
English song, matching perfectly in
music the mood and emotion of the
verse.
[1] John Dowland PD
source: http://www.classical-composers.o
rg/img/dowland.jpg
[1597 AD]
c1553-1612), Italian composer, composes
music around this time and represents
the highest point of the High
Renaissance Venetian school. This work
"In Ecclesiis" is a good example of the
"grand concerto", a genre that combines
vocal soloists with choral and
instrumental ensembles.
Italy
[1] Giovanni Gabrieli (1556-1612) PD
source: http://www.hoasm.org/IVN/Gabriel
iGiovanni.jpg
[02/17/1600 AD]
Italian philosopher, is burned alive at
the stake after a seven year trial.
Bruno might have lived had he recanted
as Galileo will, but Bruno chooses not
to.
On Feb. 8, 1600, when the death
sentence is formally read to Bruno, he
addresses his judges, saying: "Perhaps
your fear in passing judgment on me is
greater than mine in receiving it."
Bruno is brought to the Campo de'
Fiori, his tongue in a gag, and burned
alive.
One witness, Friar Celestino reports
that Bruno stated that (translated)
"That there are many worlds, and all
the stars are worlds, and believing
that this is the only world is supreme
ignorance.". The sentence states that
Bruno said that it is "...a great
blasphemy to say that bread
transubstantiates into flesh". Eight of
Bruno's heresies are identified,
although this document has not been
found, but if drawn from the original
accusation then they probably included
the claim of belief in multiple
worlds.
Bruno refuses to accept the cross held
out to him at the last moment.
Some victims, such as a Scottish
person, in 1595 are burned in a shirt
of pitch which is put over their naked
body so that they will not die as
quickly, and so the burning before
death can be as painful as possible.
Imagine what a painful, tortuous,
cruel, and terrible death, being burned
alive must be. Only the most
criminally, vicious, violent and
sadistic human could support inflicting
that on a fellow human or any species,
in particular a nonviolent human, no
matter how bad they might be.
This punishment may influence Galileo's
actions before the Inquisition.
All of Giordano Bruno's works are
placed on the "Index Librorum
Prohibitorum" in 1603.
[1] Giordano Bruno PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Giordano_Bruno.jpg
[2] Statue of Giordano Bruno in Campo
de Fiori, Rome, Italy. This monument
was erected in 1889, by Italian Masonic
circles, in the site where he was
burned alive for opposing the Catholic
church authority. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Brunostatue.jpg
[1600 AD]
study of chick(en) embyro.
In 1559, Fabricius
gets a medical (physician) at Padua.
In 1565,
Fabricius is a professor at Padua.
Fabricius
is a pupil of Fallopius.
The English anatomist
William Harvey is Fabricius' pupil.
[1] Girolamo Fabrizi d'Acquapendente
(1537-1619) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Girolamo_Fabrizi_d%27Acquapendente.jp
g
[2] Fabricius ab Aquapendente, oil
painting by an unknown
artist Alinari-Art Resource/EB Inc.
PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-10511/Fabricius-ab-Aquapendente-oil-pai
nting-by-an-unknown-artist?articleTypeId
=1
[1600 AD]
degree from Cambridge in 1569.
Gilbert is the
president of the college of physicians
in London in 1600.
In 1601 Gilbert is
appointed court physician to Queen
Elizabeth I at 100 pounds/year.
Gilbert follows the
work of Peter Peregrinus.
[1] Paiting of William Gilbert (1544 -
1603) Source
http://physics.ship.edu/~mrc/pfs/110/in
side_out/vu1/Galileo/Images/Port/gilbert
.gif Date Author Unknown, after
title page of De Magnete (1600) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:William_Gilbert.jpg
[2] Drawing in Gilbert's book showing
the downward slant of the magnetic
force. PD
source: http://istp.gsfc.nasa.gov/earthm
ag/upto1600.htm
[1602 AD]
Santorio.
Sanctorius earns a medical Degree from
the University of Padua in 1582.
Sanctorius
is the physician to King Sigismund III
of Poland for 14 years
In 1611 Sanctorius
teaches at the University of Padua.
(thought
about 80,000 different possible
diseases?)
[1] Engraving of Sanctorius of
Padua PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Sanctorius.jpg
[2] Santorio, marble portrait
bust Alinari/Art Resource, New York
PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-14072/Santorio-marble-portrait-bust?art
icleTypeId=1
[1602 AD]
Italian composer and singer composes
operas.
[1] Description Caccini - le nuove
musiche PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/01/Caccini_-_le_nuove_mu
siche.jpg
[1602 AD]
[1603 AD]
suggested that coal might be charred in
a manner analogous to the way charcoal
is produced from wood. This will
eventually lead to the use of coke in a
less costly production of steel that
does not depend on wood. Coke is a
solid carbonaceous residue derived from
low-ash, low-sulfur bituminous coal.
Bituminous coal is a relatively hard
coal containing a tar-like substance
called bitumen. Bituminous coal is an
organic sedimentary rock formed by
diagenetic and submetamorphic
compression of peat bog material.
In order to be
used for industrial processes,
bituminous coal must first be "coked"
to remove volatile components. Coking
is achieved by heating the coal in the
absence of oxygen, which drives off
volatile hydrocarbons such as propane,
benzene and other aromatic
hydrocarbons, and some sulfur gases.
This also drives off a considerable
amount of the water contained in the
bituminous coal. Coking coal will be
blended with uncoked coal for power
generation. The primary use for coking
coal will be in the manufacture of
steel, where carbon must be as volatile
and ash free as possible.
[1603 AD]