TIMEEVENT DESCRIPTIONLOCATIONIMAGES

UNIVERSE
1,000,000,000,000 YBN
1) We are a tiny part of a universe
that is made of an infinite amount of
space, matter and time.
 
[1] note
Hubble_ultra_deep_field_high_rez_edit1
is much larger [2] Hubble ultra deep
field high rez
edit1_small.jpg Deutsch: Das Hubble
Ultra Deep Field ist ein Bild einer
kleinen Himmelsregion aufgenommen vom
Hubble-Weltraumteleskop über einen
Zeitraum vom 3. September 2003 bis 16.
Januar 2004. Dabei wurde eine
Himmelsregion ausgewählt, die kaum
störende helle Sterne im Vordergrund
enthält. Man entschied sich für ein
Zielgebiet südwestlich von Orion im
Sternbild Chemischer Ofen. English:
The Hubble Ultra Deep Field, is an
image of a small region of space in the
constellation Fornax, composited from
Hubble Space Telescope data accumulated
over a period from September 3, 2003
through January 16, 2004. The patch of
sky in which the galaxies reside was
chosen because it had a low density of
bright stars in the
near-field. Español: El Campo Ultra
Profundo del Hubble, es una imagen de
una pequeña región del espacio en la
constelación Fornax, compuesta de
datos obtenidos por el telescopio
espacial Hubble durante el período
entre el 3 de Septiembre de 2003 y el
16 de Enero de 2004. Esta parte del
cielo fue escogida por su baja densidad
de estrellas brillantes en sus
proximidades. Français : Le champ
ultra profond de Hubble, une image
d'une petite portion du ciel dans la
constellation du Fourneau, prise par le
télescope spatial Hubble du 3
septembre 2003 au 16 juillet 2004. La
portion de ciel a été choisie car
elle possède peu d'étoiles brillantes
proches. Date 2003-09-03 -
2004-01-16 Source
http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/ar
chive/releases/2004/07/image/a/warn/ Au
thor NASA and the European Space
Agency. Edited by Noodle snacks PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0d/Hubble_ultra_deep_fie
ld_high_rez_edit1.jpg
990,000,000,000 YBN
2) There is more space than matter.

MORE INFO
[1]
 
[1] note
Hubble_ultra_deep_field_high_rez_edit1
is much larger [2] Hubble ultra deep
field high rez
edit1_small.jpg Deutsch: Das Hubble
Ultra Deep Field ist ein Bild einer
kleinen Himmelsregion aufgenommen vom
Hubble-Weltraumteleskop über einen
Zeitraum vom 3. September 2003 bis 16.
Januar 2004. Dabei wurde eine
Himmelsregion ausgewählt, die kaum
störende helle Sterne im Vordergrund
enthält. Man entschied sich für ein
Zielgebiet südwestlich von Orion im
Sternbild Chemischer Ofen. English:
The Hubble Ultra Deep Field, is an
image of a small region of space in the
constellation Fornax, composited from
Hubble Space Telescope data accumulated
over a period from September 3, 2003
through January 16, 2004. The patch of
sky in which the galaxies reside was
chosen because it had a low density of
bright stars in the
near-field. Español: El Campo Ultra
Profundo del Hubble, es una imagen de
una pequeña región del espacio en la
constelación Fornax, compuesta de
datos obtenidos por el telescopio
espacial Hubble durante el período
entre el 3 de Septiembre de 2003 y el
16 de Enero de 2004. Esta parte del
cielo fue escogida por su baja densidad
de estrellas brillantes en sus
proximidades. Français : Le champ
ultra profond de Hubble, une image
d'une petite portion du ciel dans la
constellation du Fourneau, prise par le
télescope spatial Hubble du 3
septembre 2003 au 16 juillet 2004. La
portion de ciel a été choisie car
elle possède peu d'étoiles brillantes
proches. Date 2003-09-03 -
2004-01-16 Source
http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/ar
chive/releases/2004/07/image/a/warn/ Au
thor NASA and the European Space
Agency. Edited by Noodle snacks PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0d/Hubble_ultra_deep_fie
ld_high_rez_edit1.jpg
980,000,000,000 YBN
3) All matter is made of particles of
light.6 Light particles are the base
unit of all matter from the tiniest
particles to the largest galaxies.7 In
this sense light particles are the most
basic atoms.8

The basic order of matter from smaller
to larger is light particles, electrons
and positrons, muons, protons and
antiprotons, atoms, molecules, living
objects, planets, stars, globular
clusters, galaxies, and then galactic
clusters.9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted
Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
 
[1] note
Hubble_ultra_deep_field_high_rez_edit1
is much larger [2] Hubble ultra deep
field high rez
edit1_small.jpg Deutsch: Das Hubble
Ultra Deep Field ist ein Bild einer
kleinen Himmelsregion aufgenommen vom
Hubble-Weltraumteleskop über einen
Zeitraum vom 3. September 2003 bis 16.
Januar 2004. Dabei wurde eine
Himmelsregion ausgewählt, die kaum
störende helle Sterne im Vordergrund
enthält. Man entschied sich für ein
Zielgebiet südwestlich von Orion im
Sternbild Chemischer Ofen. English:
The Hubble Ultra Deep Field, is an
image of a small region of space in the
constellation Fornax, composited from
Hubble Space Telescope data accumulated
over a period from September 3, 2003
through January 16, 2004. The patch of
sky in which the galaxies reside was
chosen because it had a low density of
bright stars in the
near-field. Español: El Campo Ultra
Profundo del Hubble, es una imagen de
una pequeña región del espacio en la
constelación Fornax, compuesta de
datos obtenidos por el telescopio
espacial Hubble durante el período
entre el 3 de Septiembre de 2003 y el
16 de Enero de 2004. Esta parte del
cielo fue escogida por su baja densidad
de estrellas brillantes en sus
proximidades. Français : Le champ
ultra profond de Hubble, une image
d'une petite portion du ciel dans la
constellation du Fourneau, prise par le
télescope spatial Hubble du 3
septembre 2003 au 16 juillet 2004. La
portion de ciel a été choisie car
elle possède peu d'étoiles brillantes
proches. Date 2003-09-03 -
2004-01-16 Source
http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/ar
chive/releases/2004/07/image/a/warn/ Au
thor NASA and the European Space
Agency. Edited by Noodle snacks PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0d/Hubble_ultra_deep_fie
ld_high_rez_edit1.jpg
970,000,000,000 YBN
11) The universe has no start or end.
The same light particles that have
always been, continue to move in the
space that has always been.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
 
[1] note
Hubble_ultra_deep_field_high_rez_edit1
is much larger [2] Hubble ultra deep
field high rez
edit1_small.jpg Deutsch: Das Hubble
Ultra Deep Field ist ein Bild einer
kleinen Himmelsregion aufgenommen vom
Hubble-Weltraumteleskop über einen
Zeitraum vom 3. September 2003 bis 16.
Januar 2004. Dabei wurde eine
Himmelsregion ausgewählt, die kaum
störende helle Sterne im Vordergrund
enthält. Man entschied sich für ein
Zielgebiet südwestlich von Orion im
Sternbild Chemischer Ofen. English:
The Hubble Ultra Deep Field, is an
image of a small region of space in the
constellation Fornax, composited from
Hubble Space Telescope data accumulated
over a period from September 3, 2003
through January 16, 2004. The patch of
sky in which the galaxies reside was
chosen because it had a low density of
bright stars in the
near-field. Español: El Campo Ultra
Profundo del Hubble, es una imagen de
una pequeña región del espacio en la
constelación Fornax, compuesta de
datos obtenidos por el telescopio
espacial Hubble durante el período
entre el 3 de Septiembre de 2003 y el
16 de Enero de 2004. Esta parte del
cielo fue escogida por su baja densidad
de estrellas brillantes en sus
proximidades. Français : Le champ
ultra profond de Hubble, une image
d'une petite portion du ciel dans la
constellation du Fourneau, prise par le
télescope spatial Hubble du 3
septembre 2003 au 16 juillet 2004. La
portion de ciel a été choisie car
elle possède peu d'étoiles brillantes
proches. Date 2003-09-03 -
2004-01-16 Source
http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/ar
chive/releases/2004/07/image/a/warn/ Au
thor NASA and the European Space
Agency. Edited by Noodle snacks PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0d/Hubble_ultra_deep_fie
ld_high_rez_edit1.jpg
960,000,000,001 YBN
5) Matter and motion can never be
created or destroyed. Matter can never
be converted into motion, and motion
can never be converted into matter.4
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
 
[1] note
Hubble_ultra_deep_field_high_rez_edit1
is much larger [2] Hubble ultra deep
field high rez
edit1_small.jpg Deutsch: Das Hubble
Ultra Deep Field ist ein Bild einer
kleinen Himmelsregion aufgenommen vom
Hubble-Weltraumteleskop über einen
Zeitraum vom 3. September 2003 bis 16.
Januar 2004. Dabei wurde eine
Himmelsregion ausgewählt, die kaum
störende helle Sterne im Vordergrund
enthält. Man entschied sich für ein
Zielgebiet südwestlich von Orion im
Sternbild Chemischer Ofen. English:
The Hubble Ultra Deep Field, is an
image of a small region of space in the
constellation Fornax, composited from
Hubble Space Telescope data accumulated
over a period from September 3, 2003
through January 16, 2004. The patch of
sky in which the galaxies reside was
chosen because it had a low density of
bright stars in the
near-field. Español: El Campo Ultra
Profundo del Hubble, es una imagen de
una pequeña región del espacio en la
constelación Fornax, compuesta de
datos obtenidos por el telescopio
espacial Hubble durante el período
entre el 3 de Septiembre de 2003 y el
16 de Enero de 2004. Esta parte del
cielo fue escogida por su baja densidad
de estrellas brillantes en sus
proximidades. Français : Le champ
ultra profond de Hubble, une image
d'une petite portion du ciel dans la
constellation du Fourneau, prise par le
télescope spatial Hubble du 3
septembre 2003 au 16 juillet 2004. La
portion de ciel a été choisie car
elle possède peu d'étoiles brillantes
proches. Date 2003-09-03 -
2004-01-16 Source
http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/ar
chive/releases/2004/07/image/a/warn/ Au
thor NASA and the European Space
Agency. Edited by Noodle snacks PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0d/Hubble_ultra_deep_fie
ld_high_rez_edit1.jpg
950,000,000,000 YBN
6) Light particles become trapped with
each other and so form structures such
as protons, atoms, molecules, planets,
stars, galaxies, and clusters of
galaxies.4

This accumulation of light particles
into atoms may be the result of
particle collision, gravitation, or a
combination of both.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington
 
[1] note
Hubble_ultra_deep_field_high_rez_edit1
is much larger [2] Hubble ultra deep
field high rez
edit1_small.jpg Deutsch: Das Hubble
Ultra Deep Field ist ein Bild einer
kleinen Himmelsregion aufgenommen vom
Hubble-Weltraumteleskop über einen
Zeitraum vom 3. September 2003 bis 16.
Januar 2004. Dabei wurde eine
Himmelsregion ausgewählt, die kaum
störende helle Sterne im Vordergrund
enthält. Man entschied sich für ein
Zielgebiet südwestlich von Orion im
Sternbild Chemischer Ofen. English:
The Hubble Ultra Deep Field, is an
image of a small region of space in the
constellation Fornax, composited from
Hubble Space Telescope data accumulated
over a period from September 3, 2003
through January 16, 2004. The patch of
sky in which the galaxies reside was
chosen because it had a low density of
bright stars in the
near-field. Español: El Campo Ultra
Profundo del Hubble, es una imagen de
una pequeña región del espacio en la
constelación Fornax, compuesta de
datos obtenidos por el telescopio
espacial Hubble durante el período
entre el 3 de Septiembre de 2003 y el
16 de Enero de 2004. Esta parte del
cielo fue escogida por su baja densidad
de estrellas brillantes en sus
proximidades. Français : Le champ
ultra profond de Hubble, une image
d'une petite portion du ciel dans la
constellation du Fourneau, prise par le
télescope spatial Hubble du 3
septembre 2003 au 16 juillet 2004. La
portion de ciel a été choisie car
elle possède peu d'étoiles brillantes
proches. Date 2003-09-03 -
2004-01-16 Source
http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/ar
chive/releases/2004/07/image/a/warn/ Au
thor NASA and the European Space
Agency. Edited by Noodle snacks PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0d/Hubble_ultra_deep_fie
ld_high_rez_edit1.jpg
940,000,000,000 YBN
7) All of the billions of galaxies we
see are only a tiny part of the
universe. We will never see most of the
universe because no light particles
from there can ever reach us.4

Most galaxies are too far away for even
one particle of light they emit to be
going in the exact direction of our
tiny location, and all the light
particles they emit are captured by
atoms in between there and here.5
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington
2. ^ Ted Huntington
3. ^ Ted Huntington
4. ^ Ted
Huntington
5. ^ Ted Huntington.

MORE INFO
[1] Carl Sagan, "Cosmos", Carl
Sagan Productions, KCET Los Angeles,
(1980). (estimate of how many galaxies)
 
[1] note
Hubble_ultra_deep_field_high_rez_edit1
is much larger [2] Hubble ultra deep
field high rez
edit1_small.jpg Deutsch: Das Hubble
Ultra Deep Field ist ein Bild einer
kleinen Himmelsregion aufgenommen vom
Hubble-Weltraumteleskop über einen
Zeitraum vom 3. September 2003 bis 16.
Januar 2004. Dabei wurde eine
Himmelsregion ausgewählt, die kaum
störende helle Sterne im Vordergrund
enthält. Man entschied sich für ein
Zielgebiet südwestlich von Orion im
Sternbild Chemischer Ofen. English:
The Hubble Ultra Deep Field, is an
image of a small region of space in the
constellation Fornax, composited from
Hubble Space Telescope data accumulated
over a period from September 3, 2003
through January 16, 2004. The patch of
sky in which the galaxies reside was
chosen because it had a low density of
bright stars in the
near-field. Español: El Campo Ultra
Profundo del Hubble, es una imagen de
una pequeña región del espacio en la
constelación Fornax, compuesta de
datos obtenidos por el telescopio
espacial Hubble durante el período
entre el 3 de Septiembre de 2003 y el
16 de Enero de 2004. Esta parte del
cielo fue escogida por su baja densidad
de estrellas brillantes en sus
proximidades. Français : Le champ
ultra profond de Hubble, une image
d'une petite portion du ciel dans la
constellation du Fourneau, prise par le
télescope spatial Hubble du 3
septembre 2003 au 16 juillet 2004. La
portion de ciel a été choisie car
elle possède peu d'étoiles brillantes
proches. Date 2003-09-03 -
2004-01-16 Source
http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/ar
chive/releases/2004/07/image/a/warn/ Au
thor NASA and the European Space
Agency. Edited by Noodle snacks PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0d/Hubble_ultra_deep_fie
ld_high_rez_edit1.jpg
935,000,000,000 YBN
4) There is a pattern in the universe.
Light particles move from highly dense
volumes of space to volumes of less
density. In low density volumes, light
particles slowly accumulate to form
atoms of Hydrogen and Helium which
exist as gas clouds (like the
Magellanic Clouds or Orion nebula).
These gas clouds, called nebulae
continue to accumulate trapped light
particles. At points of high density
planets and stars form and the cloud is
eventually dense enough to become a
galaxy of stars. The stars emit light
particles back out to the rest of the
universe, where the light again becomes
trapped and forms new clouds. Around
each star are many planets and pieces
of matter. On many of the planets
rotating around stars, living objects
evolve that can copy themselves by
converting matter around them into more
of them. Living objects need matter to
replace matter lost from the constant
emitting of light particles (decay).
Like bacteria, these living objects
grow in number, with the most
successful organisms occupying and
moving around many stars. These
advanced organisms then move the groups
of stars they control, as a globular
cluster, away from the plane of the
spiral galaxy. As time continues, all
of the stars of a galaxy are occupied
by living objects who have organized
their stars into globular clusters.
These globular clusters together form
an elliptical galaxy, and then finally
a globular galaxy. The globular galaxy
may then exist for a long time living
off the matter in stars, in addition to
matter from external sources.

So free light particles are trapped
into volumes of space that grow in
density first forming atoms, then gas
clouds, then stars, a spiral galaxy, an
elliptical galaxy, and finally a
globular galaxy.4

Globular galaxies at our scale may be
light particles at a much larger scale,
just as light particles at our scale
may be globular galaxies at a much
smaller scale. This system may go on
infinitely in both larger and smaller
scale.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
 
[1] note
Hubble_ultra_deep_field_high_rez_edit1
is much larger Hubble ultra deep
field high rez
edit1_small.jpg Deutsch: Das Hubble
Ultra Deep Field ist ein Bild einer
kleinen Himmelsregion aufgenommen vom
Hubble-Weltraumteleskop über einen
Zeitraum vom 3. September 2003 bis 16.
Januar 2004. Dabei wurde eine
Himmelsregion ausgewählt, die kaum
störende helle Sterne im Vordergrund
enthält. Man entschied sich für ein
Zielgebiet südwestlich von Orion im
Sternbild Chemischer Ofen. English:
The Hubble Ultra Deep Field, is an
image of a small region of space in the
constellation Fornax, composited from
Hubble Space Telescope data accumulated
over a period from September 3, 2003
through January 16, 2004. The patch of
sky in which the galaxies reside was
chosen because it had a low density of
bright stars in the
near-field. Español: El Campo Ultra
Profundo del Hubble, es una imagen de
una pequeña región del espacio en la
constelación Fornax, compuesta de
datos obtenidos por el telescopio
espacial Hubble durante el período
entre el 3 de Septiembre de 2003 y el
16 de Enero de 2004. Esta parte del
cielo fue escogida por su baja densidad
de estrellas brillantes en sus
proximidades. Français : Le champ
ultra profond de Hubble, une image
d'une petite portion du ciel dans la
constellation du Fourneau, prise par le
télescope spatial Hubble du 3
septembre 2003 au 16 juillet 2004. La
portion de ciel a été choisie car
elle possède peu d'étoiles brillantes
proches. Date 2003-09-03 -
2004-01-16 Source
http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/ar
chive/releases/2004/07/image/a/warn/ Au
thor NASA and the European Space
Agency. Edited by Noodle snacks PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0d/Hubble_ultra_deep_fie
ld_high_rez_edit1.jpg

[2] LDN 1622: Dark Nebula in
Orion Data: Digitized Sky Survey
(POSS-II), Color Composite: Noel
Carboni Explanation: The silhouette
of an intriguing dark nebula inhabits
this cosmic scene, based on images from
the Palomar Observatory Sky Survey.
Lynds' Dark Nebula (LDN) 1622 appears
against a faint background of glowing
hydrogen gas only easily seen in long
telescopic exposures of the region. LDN
1622 lies near the plane of our Milky
Way Galaxy, close on the sky to
Barnard's Loop - a large cloud
surrounding the rich complex of
emission nebulae found in the Belt and
Sword of Orion. But the obscuring dust
of LDN 1622 is thought to be much
closer than Orion's more famous
nebulae, perhaps only 500 light-years
away. At that distance, this 1 degree
wide field of view would span less than
10 light-years. PD
source: http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/image/
0705/ldn1622_carboni.jpg
930,000,000,000 YBN
8) An expanding universe seems unlikely
to me. The supposed red-shifted calcium
absorption lines may be a mistaken
observation, for one reason because
spectrum size changes the position of
spectral lines (as clearly shown in the
1936 Humason photo)3 , and because the
distance of a light source changes the
position, but not the frequency of
spectral lines4 .
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Humason, M. L., "The Apparent
Radial Velocities of 100 Extra-Galactic
Nebulae", Astrophysical Journal, vol.
83, p.10, Jan
1936. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.ed
u//full/1936ApJ....83...10H/0000010.000.
html
2. ^ Ted Huntington, "Spectral line
position depends on distance of light
source - Bragg Equation Effect",
04/03/2012. http://tedhuntington.com/pa
per_Bragg.htm
3. ^ Humason, M. L., "The Apparent
Radial Velocities of 100 Extra-Galactic
Nebulae", Astrophysical Journal, vol.
83, p.10, Jan
1936. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.ed
u//full/1936ApJ....83...10H/0000010.000.
html
4. ^ Ted Huntington, "Spectral line
position depends on distance of light
source - Bragg Equation Effect",
04/03/2012. http://tedhuntington.com/pa
per_Bragg.htm
 
[1] Image of a spectral line shift from
a close and distant fluorescent
lamp. GNU
source: Ted Huntington

[2] The simple trigonometry that shows
that two light sources at different
distances cannot achieve the same angle
at the same location on a horizontal
diffraction grating. GNU
source: Ted Huntington

LIFE
165,000,000,000 YBN
13) The Milky Way Nebula starts to
form.4

Galaxies may form from accumulation of
light particles or from the collision
of two or more galaxies.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
 
[1] Description This image is
mosaic of multiple shots on
large-format film. It comprises all 360
degrees of the galaxy from our vantage.
Photography was done in Ft. Davis,
Texas for the Northern hemisphere shots
and from Broken Hill, New South Wales,
Australia, for the southern portions.
Note the dust lanes, which obscure our
view of some features beyond them.
Infrared imaging reaches into these
regions, and radio astronomy can look
all the way through with less detail.
The very center, however, shows a
window to the farther side. In the
center, stars are mostly very old and
this causes the more yellow color. The
final file is 1.5GB, and resolves
details of less than one arcminute.
Faintest stars are magnitude 11. There
are 21 pixels of horizontal overlap at
the ends, with the right end slightly
brighter than the corresponding pixels
on the left. Date Source
http://www.digitalskyllc.com (The
image was uploaded to en.wiki at 17:16,
21 September 2006 by Twtunes. Author
Digital Sky LLC CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0a/Milkyway_pan1.jpg

[2] note
Hubble_ultra_deep_field_high_rez_edit1
is much larger [2] Hubble ultra deep
field high rez
edit1_small.jpg Deutsch: Das Hubble
Ultra Deep Field ist ein Bild einer
kleinen Himmelsregion aufgenommen vom
Hubble-Weltraumteleskop über einen
Zeitraum vom 3. September 2003 bis 16.
Januar 2004. Dabei wurde eine
Himmelsregion ausgewählt, die kaum
störende helle Sterne im Vordergrund
enthält. Man entschied sich für ein
Zielgebiet südwestlich von Orion im
Sternbild Chemischer Ofen. English:
The Hubble Ultra Deep Field, is an
image of a small region of space in the
constellation Fornax, composited from
Hubble Space Telescope data accumulated
over a period from September 3, 2003
through January 16, 2004. The patch of
sky in which the galaxies reside was
chosen because it had a low density of
bright stars in the
near-field. Español: El Campo Ultra
Profundo del Hubble, es una imagen de
una pequeña región del espacio en la
constelación Fornax, compuesta de
datos obtenidos por el telescopio
espacial Hubble durante el período
entre el 3 de Septiembre de 2003 y el
16 de Enero de 2004. Esta parte del
cielo fue escogida por su baja densidad
de estrellas brillantes en sus
proximidades. Français : Le champ
ultra profond de Hubble, une image
d'une petite portion du ciel dans la
constellation du Fourneau, prise par le
télescope spatial Hubble du 3
septembre 2003 au 16 juillet 2004. La
portion de ciel a été choisie car
elle possède peu d'étoiles brillantes
proches. Date 2003-09-03 -
2004-01-16 Source
http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/ar
chive/releases/2004/07/image/a/warn/ Au
thor NASA and the European Space
Agency. Edited by Noodle snacks PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0d/Hubble_ultra_deep_fie
ld_high_rez_edit1.jpg
33,000,000,000 YBN
6180) The first star in the Milky Way
Galaxy forms.5

Stars may form from the accumulation of
matter or from collisions of two or
more large bodies. As less collisions
occur over time, most smaller objects
are absorbed by the larger star and
planets.6

Stars and planets may have centers of
densely packed unmoving light
particles. Atoms may form in the less
dense space near the surface of planets
and stars where there are less
collisions.7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
 
[1] Description English: M8 Lagoon
Nebula in Sagittarius Date 26 June
2009 Source Own
work Author Hewholooks CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2f/M8HunterWilson.jpg

[2] NGC 7023: The Iris Nebula Credit
& Copyright: Daniel López,
IAC Explanation: Like delicate cosmic
petals, these clouds of interstellar
dust and gas have blossomed 1,300
light-years away in the fertile star
fields of the constellation Cepheus.
Sometimes called the Iris Nebula and
dutifully cataloged as NGC 7023, this
is not the only nebula in the sky to
evoke the imagery of flowers. Still,
this beautiful digital image shows off
the Iris Nebula's range of colors and
symmetries in impressive detail. Within
the Iris, dusty nebular material
surrounds a hot, young star. The
dominant color of the brighter
reflection nebula is blue,
characteristic of dust grains
reflecting starlight. Central filaments
of the dusty clouds glow with a faint
reddish photoluminesence as some dust
grains effectively convert the star's
invisible ultraviolet radiation to
visible red light. Infrared
observations indicate that this nebula
may contain complex carbon molecules
known as PAHs. As shown here, the
bright blue portion of the Iris Nebula
is about six light-years across. PD
source: http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/image/
1011/IRIS_IAC80_DLopez900c.jpg
22,000,000,000 YBN
6181) Living objects in the Milky Way
Galaxy reach another star using a
ship.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
 
[1] close up
of: Description English: M8 Lagoon
Nebula in Sagittarius Date 26 June
2009 Source Own
work Author Hewholooks CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2f/M8HunterWilson.jpg

[2] Description The photograph,
taken by NASA's Hubble Space Telescope,
captures a small region within M17, a
hotbed of star formation. M17, also
known as the Omega or Swan Nebula, is
located about 5500 light-years away in
the constellation Sagittarius. The
wave-like patterns of gas have been
sculpted and illuminated by a torrent
of ultraviolet radiation from young,
massive stars, which lie outside the
picture to the upper left. The glow of
these patterns accentuates the
three-dimensional structure of the
gases. The ultraviolet radiation is
carving and heating the surfaces of
cold hydrogen gas clouds. The warmed
surfaces glow orange and red in this
photograph. The intense heat and
pressure cause some material to stream
away from those surfaces, creating the
glowing veil of even hotter greenish
gas that masks background structures.
The pressure on the tips of the waves
may trigger new star formation within
them. The image, roughly 3
light-years across, was taken May
29-30, 1999, with the Wide Field
Planetary Camera 2. The colors in the
image represent various gases. Red
represents sulfur; green, hydrogen; and
blue, oxygen. Date 24 April
2003 Source
http://spacetelescope.org/images/html/he
ic0305a.html (direct link)
http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/archive
/releases/2003/13/image/a/ Author
NASA, ESA and J. Hester (ASU) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/72/Omega_Nebula.jpg
10,000,000,000 YBN
6182) The first globular cluster of
100,000 stars in the Milky Way Galaxy.4

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
 
[1] Description The globular
cluster Omega Centauri — with as many
as ten million stars — is seen in all
its splendour in this image captured
with the WFI camera from ESO's La Silla
Observatory. The image shows only the
central part of the cluster — about
the size of the full moon on the sky
(half a degree). North is up, East is
to the left. This colour image is a
composite of B, V and I filtered
images. Note that because WFI is
equipped with a mosaic detector, there
are two small gaps in the image which
were filled with lower quality data
from the Digitized Sky Survey. Date
2008 Source
http://www.eso.org/public/outreach/
press-rel/pr-2008/phot-44-08.html Autho
r ESO CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Omega_Centauri_
by_ESO.jpg/638px-Omega_Centauri_by_ESO.j
pg

[2] Description This image is
mosaic of multiple shots on
large-format film. It comprises all 360
degrees of the galaxy from our vantage.
Photography was done in Ft. Davis,
Texas for the Northern hemisphere shots
and from Broken Hill, New South Wales,
Australia, for the southern portions.
Note the dust lanes, which obscure our
view of some features beyond them.
Infrared imaging reaches into these
regions, and radio astronomy can look
all the way through with less detail.
The very center, however, shows a
window to the farther side. In the
center, stars are mostly very old and
this causes the more yellow color. The
final file is 1.5GB, and resolves
details of less than one arcminute.
Faintest stars are magnitude 11. There
are 21 pixels of horizontal overlap at
the ends, with the right end slightly
brighter than the corresponding pixels
on the left. Date Source
http://www.digitalskyllc.com (The
image was uploaded to en.wiki at 17:16,
21 September 2006 by Twtunes. Author
Digital Sky LLC CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0a/Milkyway_pan1.jpg
5,500,000,000 YBN
5 		16) The star Earth orbits forms.4
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington
2. ^ Ted Huntington
3. ^ Ted Huntington
4. ^ Ted
Huntington
5. ^ Ted Huntington, guess

MORE INFO
[1]
http://zebu.uoregon.edu/~imamura/208/mar
1/nucleo.html (with image of onion
skin layers)
[2] another person declares star
inside to be similar to planets: iron,
oxygen, nickel, etc. do not support
standard solar
model. star_inside_iron.pdf
 
[1] Description English: The Sun
photographed by the Atmospheric Imaging
Assembly (AIA 304) of NASA's Solar
Dynamics Observatory (SDO). This is
a false color image of the sun observed
in the extreme ultraviolet region of
the spectrum. For example,similar
image Français : Le soleil,
photographié depuis le Solar Dynamics
Observatory de la NASA. Date
2010-08-19T00:32:21Z (ISO
8601) Source NASA/SDO
(AIA). Author NASA/SDO (AIA). PD

source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/The_Sun_by_the_
Atmospheric_Imaging_Assembly_of_NASAs_So
lar_Dynamics_Observatory_-_20100819.jpg/
628px-The_Sun_by_the_Atmospheric_Imaging
_Assembly_of_NASAs_Solar_Dynamics_Observ
atory_-_20100819.jpg

[2] Summary Description The star
formation region N11B in the LMC taken
by WFPC2 on the NASA/ESA Hubble Space
Telescope. Date Source
http://www.spacetelescope.org/image
s/html/heic0411a.html Author
NASA/ESA and the Hubble Heritage
Team
(AURA/STScI)/HEIC Permission (Reusing
this file) ESA Public Domain, as
per
http://www.spacetelescope.org/copyright.
html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6c/Heic0411a.jpg
5,500,000,000 YBN
6 		17) Planets form around our star from
many collisions. Like the star, they
are red hot with liquid rock and metals
on the surface. Lighter atoms move to
the surface of the planets. Larger
planets are surrounded by gas.4

As the number of collisions decreases,
and smaller objects are absorbed by the
star and planets, the average
temperature of the star system is
lowered. As the temperature of the
planets and moons decreases, water and
other molecules condense at the
surface.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
 
[1] an 19, 2005 � For the past five
days, forecasters at the NOAA Space
Environment Center in Boulder, Colo.,
have observed all types of space
weather: radio blackouts, solar
radiation storms and geomagnetic
storms. Currently, space weather
forecasters are observing a moderate
geomagnetic storm (G-2 on the NOAA
Space Weather Scales) and a minor (S-1)
solar radiation storm. Earlier
Wednesday an X-class flare produced a
strong (R-3) radio blackout. (Click
image for larger view of the sun taken
on Jan. 19, 2005, at 2:19 p.m. EST.
Click here for high resolution version,
which is a large file. Please credit
European Space Agency-NASA.) PD
source: http://www.noaanews.noaa.gov/sto
ries2005/images/sun-soho011905-1919z.jpg


[2] This artist’s impression shows
the disk of gas and cosmic dust around
the young star HD 142527. Astronomers
using the Atacama Large
Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA)
telescope have seen vast streams of gas
flowing across the gap in the disc
UNKNOWN
source: http://l2.yimg.com/bt/api/res/1.
2/kB0xEBWbOe3fUGcRF7Y3RA--/YXBwaWQ9eW5ld
3M7Zmk9aW5zZXQ7aD00MDg7cT03OTt3PTU3NQ--/
http://media.zenfs.com/en_US/News/SPACE.
com/Never-Before-Seen_Stage_of_Planet_Bi
rth-893372caafae611ec5e71458c2f79fb8
4,600,000,000 YBN
21) The moon of Earth is captured.3
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
 
[1] Image of moon superimposed on
Venus PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/dd/Full_Moon_Luc_Viatour
.jpg

[2] an 19, 2005 � For the past five
days, forecasters at the NOAA Space
Environment Center in Boulder, Colo.,
have observed all types of space
weather: radio blackouts, solar
radiation storms and geomagnetic
storms. Currently, space weather
forecasters are observing a moderate
geomagnetic storm (G-2 on the NOAA
Space Weather Scales) and a minor (S-1)
solar radiation storm. Earlier
Wednesday an X-class flare produced a
strong (R-3) radio blackout. (Click
image for larger view of the sun taken
on Jan. 19, 2005, at 2:19 p.m. EST.
Click here for high resolution version,
which is a large file. Please credit
European Space Agency-NASA.) PD
source: http://www.noaanews.noaa.gov/sto
ries2005/images/sun-soho011905-1919z.jpg

4,600,000,000 YBN
5 6 		30) Planet Earth cools. Molten liquid
rock turns into a solid thin crust.
Water condenses and falls to the
surface, filling the lowest parts of
the land to make the first Earth
oceans, lakes, and rivers.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ part about rain and streams going
to bottom of land:
http://www.ersdac.or.jp/Others/geoessay_
htm/geoessay_e/geo_text_09_e.htm
2. ^ part about rain and streams going
to bottom of land:
http://www.ersdac.or.jp/Others/geoessay_
htm/geoessay_e/geo_text_09_e.htm
3. ^ part about rain and streams going
to bottom of land:
http://www.ersdac.or.jp/Others/geoessay_
htm/geoessay_e/geo_text_09_e.htm
4. ^ part about rain and streams going
to bottom of land:
http://www.ersdac.or.jp/Others/geoessay_
htm/geoessay_e/geo_text_09_e.htm
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
 
[1] USGS Photo by Tim Orr Pahoehoe
lava breaks out of the crust along a
flow margin PD
source: http://www.nps.gov/havo/parkmgmt
/upload/havo_manage_usgs_20080304_tro381
7_x800.jpg

[2] English: Ultraviolet image of
Venus' clouds as seen by the Pioneer
Venus Orbiter (February 26, 1979). The
immense C- or Y-shaped features which
are visible only in these wavelengths
are individually short lived, but
reform often enough to be considered a
permanent feature of Venus' clouds. The
mechanism by which Venus' clouds absorb
ultraviolet is not well understood. PD

source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Venuspioneeruv.
jpg/953px-Venuspioneeruv.jpg
4,600,000,000 YBN
5 		50) Start of the "Precambrian". The
Hadean {HA DEen3 } Eon.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Hadean Time." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 03
Mar. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hadean-time

2. ^
http://www.geosociety.org/science/timesc
ale/
3. ^ "Hadean Time." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 03
Mar. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hadean-time

4. ^
http://www.geosociety.org/science/timesc
ale/
5. ^ "Divisions of Geologic Time",
2010,
USGS http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2010/3059/
pdf/FS10-3059.pdf
 
[1] Geologic Time Scale 2009 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.geosociety.org/scienc
e/timescale/timescl.pdf
4,571,000,000 YBN
5 6 		31) The oldest meteorite yet found on
Earth: 4.5 billion years old.3 4
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^
http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/fu
ll/288/5472/1819?maxtoshow=&HITS=10&hits
=10&RESULTFORMAT=&fulltext=zag+morocco&s
earchid=1129920472874_9236&stored_search
=&FIRSTINDEX=0#RF2
2. ^
http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/7830
48.stm
3. ^
http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/fu
ll/288/5472/1819?maxtoshow=&HITS=10&hits
=10&RESULTFORMAT=&fulltext=zag+morocco&s
earchid=1129920472874_9236&stored_search
=&FIRSTINDEX=0#RF2
4. ^
http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/7830
48.stm
5. ^
http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/fu
ll/288/5472/1819?maxtoshow=&HITS=10&hits
=10&RESULTFORMAT=&fulltext=zag+morocco&s
earchid=1129920472874_9236&stored_search
=&FIRSTINDEX=0#RF2 (4.7 +- .2 billion
years)
6. ^ sci has 4.7 +- .2 by where did
4.571 come from?
 
[1] The ''Zag'' meteorite fell to Earth
in 1988 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/t
ech/783048.stm
4,530,000,000 YBN
33) The oldest Moon rock.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.nasm.si.edu/exhibitions/attm/
atmimages/S73-15446.f.jpg
http://www.nasm.si.edu/exhibitions/attm/
nojs/wl.br.1.html
2. ^
http://www.nasm.si.edu/exhibitions/attm/
atmimages/S73-15446.f.jpg
http://www.nasm.si.edu/exhibitions/attm/
nojs/wl.br.1.html
 
[1]
http://www.nasm.si.edu/exhibitions/attm/
atmimages/S73-15446.f.jpg
http://www.nasm.si.edu/exhibitions/attm/
nojs/wl.br.1.html
source:
4,404,000,000 YBN
34) The oldest "terrestrial" zircon;
evidence that the crust and liquid
water are on the surface of Earth. A
terrestrial zircon is not from a
meteorite.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.nature.com/nature/links/01011
1/010111-1.html
2. ^
http://www.nature.com/nature/links/01011
1/010111-1.html
 
[1]
http://www.geology.wisc.edu/zircon/Earli
est%20Piece/Images/8.jpg
source:
4,400,000,000 YBN
18) Larger molecules form on Earth,
like amino acids, phosphates, and
sugars, the components of living
objects.6

These molecules are made in the oceans,
fresh water, and atmosphere of Earth
(and other planets) by lightning, from
light particles with high frequency
from the Sun, and around ocean floor
volcanoes.7

The initial building blocks of living
objects are easily formed, but
assembling them into longer-chain
molecules, or polymers, is more
difficult. Amino acids link up to form
polymers called proteins, simple fatty
acids plus alcohols link up to form
lipids (oils and fats), simple sugars
like glucose and sucrose link together
to form complex carbohydrates and
starches, and finally, the nucleotide
bases (plus phosphates and sugars) link
up to form nucleic acids, the genetic
code of organisms, known as RNA and
DNA.8

Possibly all proteins, carbohydrates
and lipids are strictly the products of
living objects.9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Donald
Prothero, "Evolution What the Fossils
Say and Why It Matters", 2007, p150.
5. ^ Ted
Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Donald Prothero,
"Evolution What the Fossils Say and Why
It Matters", 2007, p150.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
 
[1] The two optical isomers of alanine,
D-Alanine and
L-Alanine D-glucose BOTH PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/65/D%2BL-Alanine.gif
and http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiped
ia/commons/thumb/5/5a/D-glucose-chain-3D
-balls.png/640px-D-glucose-chain-3D-ball
s.png
4,395,000,000 YBN
19) Nucleic acids form on Earth.
Ribonucleic acid (RNA) may be the first
nucleic acid to form. One of these RNA
molecules may be the ancestor of all of
life on Earth.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
 
[1] Ribonucleic acid (English
pronunciation:
/raɪbɵ.njuːˌkleɪ.ɨk ˈæsɪd/),
or RNA, is one of the three major
macromolecules (along with DNA and
proteins) that are essential for all
known forms of life. UNKNOWN
source: http://dna-rna.net/wp-content/up
loads/2011/07/rna.jpg
4,385,000,000 YBN
167) The first proteins on Earth.
Transfer RNA molecules evolve (tRNA),
and link amino acids into proteins
using other RNA molecules ("messenger"
or mRNA molecules), as a template.

This protein assembly system is the
main system responsible for all the
proteins on Earth.4

Part of each tRNA molecule bonds with a
specific amino acid, and another part
of the tRNA molecule bonds with an
opposite matching 3 nucleotide sequence
on an mRNA molecule.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
 
[1] Description English:
Illustration of tRNA building peptide
chain Date 1 March 2009 Source
Own work Author
Boumphreyfr CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0f/Peptide_syn.png

[2] Source : ''Role of the
Ribosome'' University of Texas Medical
Branch UNKNOWN
source: http://ead.univ-angers.fr/~jaspa
rd/Page2/COURS/7RelStructFonction/2Bioch
imie/1SyntheseProteines/3Figures/4Organi
tes/2Ribosomes/6Polysome.gif
4,380,000,000 YBN
40) A protein can copy RNA. This
protein is called an RNA polymerase
{PoL-u-mu-rAS3 }.

For the first time, a nucleic acid
functions both as a template for
building proteins (with the help of
tRNA molecules) and also as a template
for building other nucleic acid
molecules.4

Eventually an mRNA that codes for the
necessary tRNA, and RNA polymerase may
be copied many times.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Polymerase." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 26 Jan.
2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/P
olymerase>.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ "Polymerase."
Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random
House, Inc. 26 Jan. 2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/P
olymerase>.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.

MORE INFO
[1] Schuppli, Daniel et al.
“Altered 3′-terminal RNA Structure
in Phage Qβ Adapted to Host
Factor-less Escherichia Coli.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences 94.19 (1997): 10239 –10242.
Print. http://www.pnas.org/content/94/1
9/10239.abstract
 
[1] RNA is a versatile molecule. In its
most familiar role, RNA acts as an
intermediary, carrying genetic
information from the DNA to the
machinery of protein synthesis. RNA
also plays more active roles,
performing many of the catalytic and
recognition functions normally reserved
for proteins. In fact, most of the RNA
in cells is found in ribosomes--our
protein-synthesizing machines--and the
transfer RNA molecules used to add each
new amino acid to growing proteins. In
addition, countless small RNA molecules
are involved in regulating, processing
and disposing of the constant traffic
of messenger RNA. The enzyme RNA
polymerase carries the weighty
responsibility of creating all of these
different RNA molecules. The RNA
Factory RNA polymerase is a huge
factory with many moving parts. The one
shown here, from PDB entry 1i6h, is
from yeast cells. It is composed of a
dozen different proteins. Together,
they form a machine that surrounds DNA
strands, unwinds them, and builds an
RNA strand based on the information
held inside the DNA. Once the enzyme
gets started, RNA polymerase marches
confidently along the DNA copying RNA
strands thousands of nucleotides
long. Accuracy As you might expect,
RNA polymerase needs to be accurate in
its copying of genetic information. To
improve its accuracy, it performs a
simple proofreading step as it builds
an RNA strand. The active site is
designed to be able to remove
nucleotides as well as add them to the
growing strand. The enzyme tends to
hover around mismatched nucleotides
longer than properly added ones, giving
the enzyme time to remove them. This
process is somewhat wasteful, since
proper nucleotides are also
occasionally removed, but this is a
small price to pay for creating better
RNA transcripts. Overall, RNA
polymerase makes an error about once in
10,000 nucleotides added, or about once
per RNA strand created. Poisoning
Polymerase Since RNA polymerase is
absolutely essential for the life of
the cell, it is a sensitive target for
poisons and toxins. The most powerful
of these poisons is alpha-amanitin, a
small circular peptide created by the
death cap mushroom. Eating even one of
these mushrooms will lead to coma and
death in a manner of days, as the
poison attacks RNA polymerase
throughout the body. Surprisingly, it
binds on the back side of RNA
polymerase, away from the active site
and away from the binding site for the
DNA and RNA. It does not physically
block the active site, like most
inhibitors, but instead jams the
mechanism of the enzyme. RNA polymerase
is a highly mobile enzyme, that flexes
and changes shape as it performs the
sequential steps of binding to DNA,
unwinding it, and then building the RNA
strand. As seen in PDB entry 1k83, the
poison binds between two subunits of
the protein, gluing them together and
blocking these essential motions. PD
source: http://www.pdb.org/pdb/education
_discussion/molecule_of_the_month/images
/1i6h-composite.gif

[2] [t Notice that many RNA molecules
are being produced all in sequence,
with each RNA molecule getting longer
as each protein reaches the end of the
DNA molecule.] Micrograph of gene
transcription of ribosomal RNA
illustrating the growing primary
transcripts. ''Begin'' indicates the 5'
end of the coding strand of DNA, where
new RNA synthesis begins; ''end''
indicates the 3' end, where the primary
transcripts are almost
complete. This is an alternate
version of
Image:RibosomaleTranskriptionsEinheit.jp
g, original author identified as Dr.
Hans-Heinrich Trepte, labeled in
German. This version with English
labels is from en:Image:Transcription
label fromcommons.jpg, by
en:UserOpabinia regalis, licensed under
GFDL. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/43/Transcription_label_e
n.jpg
4,370,000,000 YBN
168) The ribosome evolves. The first
Ribosomal RNA (rRNA).

The ribosome may function as a
protocell, providing a platform for
more efficient protein production. A
single RNA may contain all the
instructions needed to make more
ribosomes.

All cells contain ribosomes.2
Ribosomes are the cellular organelles
that carry out protein synthesis,
through a process called translation.
These molecular machines are
responsible for accurately translating
the linear genetic code on the
messenger RNA (mRNA), into a linear
sequence of amino acids to produce a
protein.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "ribosome." Genetics. The Gale
Group, Inc, 2003. Answers.com 28 Nov.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ribosome
2. ^ Campbell, Reece, et al, "Biology",
2008, p98.
3. ^ "ribosome." Genetics. The
Gale Group, Inc, 2003. Answers.com 28
Nov. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ribosome
 
[1] Description English:
Illustration of tRNA building peptide
chain Date 1 March 2009 Source
Own work Author
Boumphreyfr CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0f/Peptide_syn.png

[2] Source : ''Role of the
Ribosome'' University of Texas Medical
Branch UNKNOWN
source: http://ead.univ-angers.fr/~jaspa
rd/Page2/COURS/7RelStructFonction/2Bioch
imie/1SyntheseProteines/3Figures/4Organi
tes/2Ribosomes/6Polysome.gif
4,365,000,000 YBN
166) The first Deoxyribonucleic acid
(DNA) molecule. A protein evolves that
allows the assembly of DNA from RNA; a
ribonucleotide reductase.3

This protein changes ribonucleotides
into deoxyribonucleotides, which allows
the first DNA molecule on Earth to be
assembled.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Elledge SJ, Zhou Z, Allen JB
(March 1992). "Ribonucleotide
reductase: regulation, regulation,
regulation". Trends Biochem. Sci. 17
(3): 119–23.
DOI:10.1016/0968-0004(92)90249-9. PMID
1412696.
2. ^ Elledge SJ, Zhou Z, Allen JB
(March 1992). "Ribonucleotide
reductase: regulation, regulation,
regulation". Trends Biochem. Sci. 17
(3): 119–23.
DOI:10.1016/0968-0004(92)90249-9. PMID
1412696.
3. ^ Elledge SJ, Zhou Z, Allen JB
(March 1992). "Ribonucleotide
reductase: regulation, regulation,
regulation". Trends Biochem. Sci. 17
(3): 119–23.
DOI:10.1016/0968-0004(92)90249-9. PMID
1412696.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
 
[1] Description Crystallographic
structure of the ribonucleotide
reductase protein R1E from Salmonella
typhimurium. The protein is rainbow
colored (N-terminus = blue, C-terminus
= red) while deoxyadenosine
triphosphate is show as sticks and a
complexed magnesium ion as a grey
sphere.[1] ↑ PDB 1PEU; Uppsten M,
Färnegårdh M, Jordan A, Eliasson R,
Eklund H, Uhlin U (June 2003).
''Structure of the large subunit of
class Ib ribonucleotide reductase from
Salmonella typhimurium and its
complexes with allosteric effectors''.
J. Mol. Biol. 330 (1): 87–97. PMID
12818204. Date 28 February
2008 Source Own
work Author Boghog2 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/1PEU_R1E.png/10
24px-1PEU_R1E.png

[2] Description English: The
reaction mechanism of ribonucleotide
reductase Date 14 January 2006
(original upload
date) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia; transferred to Commons by
User:Michał Sobkowski using
CommonsHelper. Author Original
uploader was BorisTM at
en.wikipedia PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2c/RNR_reaction.png
4,360,000,000 YBN
212) A protein can copy DNA molecules,
a DNA polymerase {PoL-u-mu-rAS4 }.5
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ "DNA polymerase." Genetics. The
Gale Group, Inc, 2003. Answers.com 04
Aug. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/dna-polymer
ase
2. ^ "Polymerase." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 26 Jan.
2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/P
olymerase>.
3. ^ "DNA polymerase." Genetics. The
Gale Group, Inc, 2003. Answers.com 04
Aug. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/dna-polymer
ase
4. ^ "Polymerase." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 26 Jan.
2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/P
olymerase>.
5. ^ "DNA polymerase." Genetics. The
Gale Group, Inc, 2003. Answers.com 04
Aug. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/dna-polymer
ase
 
[1] A look at DNA replication, with the
inset showing a larger and general
view. ''Pol'' stands for polymerase, a
key enzyme. Note how each enzyme works
in a 'biochemical team' to complete the
process efficiently COPYRIGHTED
source: http://genmed.yolasite.com/resou
rces/DNA20replication.jpg

[2] Description Diagram of DNA
polymerase extending a DNA strand and
proof-reading. Date Source Own
work Author Madprime GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6f/DNA_polymerase.svg
4,360,000,000 YBN
6409) Transcription. A protein
assembles RNA from DNA.
 
[1] Transcription: DNA-> RNA In E. coli
it is possible to see the strands of
RNA transcripts under the electron
microscope. Relate the image seen under
an electron microscope with the drawing
in your book in Figure 13-3. Why do you
not see any protein strands coming from
the mRNA in the electron microscope
image? UNKNOWN
source: http://www.utexas.edu/courses/zo
o325/13-4.gif

[2] RNA is a versatile molecule. In
its most familiar role, RNA acts as an
intermediary, carrying genetic
information from the DNA to the
machinery of protein synthesis. RNA
also plays more active roles,
performing many of the catalytic and
recognition functions normally reserved
for proteins. In fact, most of the RNA
in cells is found in ribosomes--our
protein-synthesizing machines--and the
transfer RNA molecules used to add each
new amino acid to growing proteins. In
addition, countless small RNA molecules
are involved in regulating, processing
and disposing of the constant traffic
of messenger RNA. The enzyme RNA
polymerase carries the weighty
responsibility of creating all of these
different RNA molecules. The RNA
Factory RNA polymerase is a huge
factory with many moving parts. The one
shown here, from PDB entry 1i6h, is
from yeast cells. It is composed of a
dozen different proteins. Together,
they form a machine that surrounds DNA
strands, unwinds them, and builds an
RNA strand based on the information
held inside the DNA. Once the enzyme
gets started, RNA polymerase marches
confidently along the DNA copying RNA
strands thousands of nucleotides
long. Accuracy As you might expect,
RNA polymerase needs to be accurate in
its copying of genetic information. To
improve its accuracy, it performs a
simple proofreading step as it builds
an RNA strand. The active site is
designed to be able to remove
nucleotides as well as add them to the
growing strand. The enzyme tends to
hover around mismatched nucleotides
longer than properly added ones, giving
the enzyme time to remove them. This
process is somewhat wasteful, since
proper nucleotides are also
occasionally removed, but this is a
small price to pay for creating better
RNA transcripts. Overall, RNA
polymerase makes an error about once in
10,000 nucleotides added, or about once
per RNA strand created. Poisoning
Polymerase Since RNA polymerase is
absolutely essential for the life of
the cell, it is a sensitive target for
poisons and toxins. The most powerful
of these poisons is alpha-amanitin, a
small circular peptide created by the
death cap mushroom. Eating even one of
these mushrooms will lead to coma and
death in a manner of days, as the
poison attacks RNA polymerase
throughout the body. Surprisingly, it
binds on the back side of RNA
polymerase, away from the active site
and away from the binding site for the
DNA and RNA. It does not physically
block the active site, like most
inhibitors, but instead jams the
mechanism of the enzyme. RNA polymerase
is a highly mobile enzyme, that flexes
and changes shape as it performs the
sequential steps of binding to DNA,
unwinding it, and then building the RNA
strand. As seen in PDB entry 1k83, the
poison binds between two subunits of
the protein, gluing them together and
blocking these essential motions. PD
source: http://www.pdb.org/pdb/education
_discussion/molecule_of_the_month/images
/1i6h-composite.gif
4,355,000,000 YBN
20) The first cell on Earth evolves.
This is the first prokaryotic cell and
first bacterium. DNA is surrounded by a
membrane of proteins made by ribosomes;
the first cytoplasm.9

This cell may form in either fresh or
salt water, near the sunlit water
surface or near underwater volcanoes on
the ocean floor.10

The DNA of this cell is a template
containing the code for a copying
molecule (DNA polymerase
{PoL-u-mu-rAS11 }), and the necessary
mRNA, tRNA, and rRNA molecules needed
to build the cytoplasm. For the first
time, ribosomes and DNA build cell
structure. DNA protected by cytoplasm
is more likely to survive and be
copied.12

This is the start of binary cell
division. A protein duplicates DNA
within the cell and then the cell
divides into two parts.13

This is also the start of passive
transport: molecules enter and exit the
cytoplasm only because of a difference
in concentration and represent the
beginnings of the first digestive
system.

This cell structure forms the basis of
all future cells of every living object
on Earth.14
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Prothero,
"Evolution: What the Fossils Say and
Why It Matters", 2007, p145-154.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
5. ^ Prothero, "Evolution: What the
Fossils Say and Why It Matters", 2007,
p145-154.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted
Huntington.
10. ^ Prothero, "Evolution: What the
Fossils Say and Why It Matters", 2007,
p145-154.
11. ^ "Polymerase." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 26 Jan.
2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/P
olymerase>.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Ted
Huntington.
 
[1] Deutsch: Bild über den Reitenden
Urzwerg English: Image of Nanoarchaeum
equitans Date 2005-09-10 (original
upload date) Source Originally
from de.wikipedia; description page
is/was here. Author Original
uploader was Eber-Jimmy at
de.wikipedia Permission (Reusing
this file) This image is in the
public domain due to its
age. Licensing According to this
article, ''Es wurde von dem
Mikrobiologen Karl O. Stetter entdeckt.
Bildrechte: Public domain.'' PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/dc/Urzwerg.jpg

[2] Hydrogenobacter thermophilus
(strain TK-6) is an obligately
chemolithoautotrophic, extremely (and
strictly) thermophilic
hydrogen-oxidizing bacterium whose
optimal growth temperature is around 70
to 75°C and was isolated from hot
springs. UNKNOWN
source: http://standardsingenomics.org/i
ndex.php/sigen/article/viewFile/146/534/
4368
4,350,000,000 YBN
8 		183) Cells make the first lipids on
Earth; (fats, oils, waxes6 ).7
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^ find biomarker evidence
2. ^ "lipid." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 28 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/lipid
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "lipid." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 28
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/lipid
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "lipid." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 28
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/lipid
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
 
[1] Figure1: Lipid accumulation in
differentiating 3T3-L1 pre-adipocyte
cell line (days in culture) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.emsdiasum.com/microsc
opy/products/sem/wet/images/lipid_accumu
lation.jpg

[2] Lipid Structures under the
microscope. Image by Alison North, The
Rockefeller University. UNKNOWN
source: http://selections.rockefeller.ed
u/cms/images/stories/2010/may/lipid.gif
4,345,000,000 YBN
27) A phospholipid bilayer evolves
around the cell, providing added
protection from the external
environment.2 All extant cells have
this phospholipid bilayer.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Campbell, N.A.,
and J.B. Reece. Biology. Pearson
Benjamin Cummings, 2008. Alternative
eText Formats Series, p76-77.
 
[1] Campbell, N.A., and J.B. Reece.
Biology. Pearson Benjamin Cummings,
2008. Alternative eText Formats Series,
p77. COPYRIGHTED
source: Campbell, N.A., and J.B. Reece.
Biology. Pearson Benjamin Cummings,
2008. Alternative eText Formats Series,
p77.

[2] Gram negative cell
wall http://www.arches.uga.edu/~kristen
c/cellwall.html COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.arches.uga.edu/~krist
enc/cellwall.html
4,340,000,000 YBN
64) Operons evolve. Operons are
sequences of DNA that allow a bacterium
to produce certain proteins only when
necessary. Bacteria before now can only
build a constant stream of all proteins
encoded in their DNA.5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://info.bio.cmu.edu/Courses/03441/Te
rmPapers/99TermPapers/GenEvo/operon.html

2. ^
http://web.indstate.edu/thcme/mwking/gen
e-regulation.html#table
3. ^
http://info.bio.cmu.edu/Courses/03441/Te
rmPapers/99TermPapers/GenEvo/operon.html

4. ^
http://web.indstate.edu/thcme/mwking/gen
e-regulation.html#table
5. ^
http://info.bio.cmu.edu/Courses/03441/Te
rmPapers/99TermPapers/GenEvo/operon.html

6. ^
http://web.indstate.edu/thcme/mwking/gen
e-regulation.html#table
 
[1] Figure 6 from: Jacob, F. & Monod,
J. Genetic regulatory mechanisms in the
synthesis of proteins. J. Mol. Biol. 3,
318–356 (1961)
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_
ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6WK7-4Y39HH7-B&_user
=4422&_coverDate=06%2F30%2F1961&_alid=17
23143833&_rdoc=1&_fmt=high&_orig=search&
_origin=search&_zone=rslt_list_item&_cdi
=6899&_sort=r&_st=13&_docanchor=&view=c&
_ct=5&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlVe
rsion=0&_userid=4422&md5=c2699b72c7c5bee
4e2c31224c6261556&searchtype=a {Jacob_F
rancois_19601228.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6WK7-4Y39HH7-B
&_user=4422&_coverDate=06%2F30%2F1961&_a
lid=1723143833&_rdoc=1&_fmt=high&_orig=s
earch&_origin=search&_zone=rslt_list_ite
m&_cdi=6899&_sort=r&_st=13&_docanchor=&v
iew=c&_ct=5&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&
_urlVersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=c2699b72c
7c5bee4e2c31224c6261556&searchtype=a

[2] Figure 3 from: Jacob, F. & Monod,
J. Genetic regulatory mechanisms in the
synthesis of proteins. J. Mol. Biol. 3,
318–356 (1961)
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_
ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6WK7-4Y39HH7-B&_user
=4422&_coverDate=06%2F30%2F1961&_alid=17
23143833&_rdoc=1&_fmt=high&_orig=search&
_origin=search&_zone=rslt_list_item&_cdi
=6899&_sort=r&_st=13&_docanchor=&view=c&
_ct=5&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlVe
rsion=0&_userid=4422&md5=c2699b72c7c5bee
4e2c31224c6261556&searchtype=a {Jacob_F
rancois_19601228.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6WK7-4Y39HH7-B
&_user=4422&_coverDate=06%2F30%2F1961&_a
lid=1723143833&_rdoc=1&_fmt=high&_orig=s
earch&_origin=search&_zone=rslt_list_ite
m&_cdi=6899&_sort=r&_st=13&_docanchor=&v
iew=c&_ct=5&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&
_urlVersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=c2699b72c
7c5bee4e2c31224c6261556&searchtype=a
4,340,000,000 YBN
6340) Facilitated diffusion. Proteins
in the cell membrane allow only certain
molecules to enter the cell.2
FOOTNOTES

1. ^ Daniel V. Lim, "Microbiology",
2002,
p101. http://books.google.com/books?id=
CKEgLmqfbRQC&pg=PA101
2. ^ Daniel V. Lim, "Microbiology",
2002,
p101. http://books.google.com/books?id=
CKEgLmqfbRQC&pg=PA101
 
[1] Figure 7.15 from: Campbell, Reece,
et al., ''Biology'', 8th Edition, 2008,
P135. COPYRIGHTED
source: Campbell, Reece, et al.,
"Biology", 8th Edition, 2008, P135.

[2] Figure 7.18 from: Campbell,
Reece, et al., ''Biology'', 8th
Edition, 2008, P137. COPYRIGHTED
source: Campbell, Reece, et al.,
"Biology", 8th Edition, 2008, P137.
4,335,000,000 YBN
28) Cellular respiration. Glycolysis
evolves in the cytoplasm. Cells can
make ATP (adenosine {oDeNoSEN4 }
triphosphate) by converting glucose
into pyruvate {PIrUVAT5 }. This is the
beginning of cellular respiration, how
cells convert food into ATP and waste
products.6

ATP is the molecule that drives most
cellular work.7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Campbell, Reece, et al,
"Biology", 8th edition, 2008, p162.
2. ^
Campbell, Reece, et al, "Biology", 8th
edition, 2008, p162.
3. ^ Campbell, Reece, et
al, "Biology", 8th edition, 2008, p162.
4. ^
"adenosine." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 29 Dec.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/adenosine
5. ^ "pyruvate." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 29
Dec. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pyruvate
6. ^ Campbell, Reece, et al, "Biology",
8th edition, 2008, p162.
7. ^ Campbell,
Reece, et al, "Biology", 8th edition,
2008, p162.
 
[1] Description English: Glycolysis
pathway overview. Date 3
September 2009 Source Own
work Author
WYassineMrabetTalk✉ Inkscape
Logo.svg This vector image was
created with
Inkscape. Permission (Reusing this
file) GFDL license (see below). GFDL
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Glycolysis.svg/
1024px-Glycolysis.svg.png

[2] Figure 9.6 from: Campbell, Reece,
et al, ''Biology'', 8th edition, 2008,
p166. COPYRIGHTED
source: Campbell, Reece, et al,
"Biology", 8th edition, 2008, p166.
4,330,000,000 YBN
44) Fermentation evolves in the cell
cytoplasm. Cells can make lactic acid.3

FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://216.239.63.104/search?q=cache:3s2
stckAJoMJ:www.nmc.edu/~ftank/115f04/Ch%2
5209%2520Notes.pdf+cellular+respiration+
oldest&hl=en
2. ^
http://216.239.63.104/search?q=cache:3s2
stckAJoMJ:www.nmc.edu/~ftank/115f04/Ch%2
5209%2520Notes.pdf+cellular+respiration+
oldest&hl=en
3. ^
http://216.239.63.104/search?q=cache:3s2
stckAJoMJ:www.nmc.edu/~ftank/115f04/Ch%2
5209%2520Notes.pdf+cellular+respiration+
oldest&hl=en
 
[1] Campbell, Reece, et al,
''Biology'', 8th edition, 2008,
p178. COPYRIGHTED
source: Campbell, Reece, et al,
"Biology", 8th edition, 2008, p178.

[2] IUPAC
name[hide] 2-Hydroxypropanoic
acid Other names[hide] Milk
acid Description de: Struktur
von Milchsäure; en: Structure of
lactic acid Date 12 February
2007 Source Own work Author
NEUROtiker Permission (Reusing
this file) Own work, all rights
released (Public domain) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/59/Lactic-acid-3D-balls.
pnghttp://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia
/commons/thumb/d/d3/Lactic-acid-skeletal
.svg/1000px-Lactic-acid-skeletal.svg.png

4,325,000,000 YBN
213) A second kind of fermentation
evolves in the cytoplasm. Cells (all
anaerobic) can now convert pyruvate
(the final product of glycolysis) into
ethanol.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Campbell, Reece, et al,
"Biology", 8th edition, 2008, p162-184.
2. ^
Campbell, Reece, et al, "Biology", 8th
edition, 2008, p162-184.
3. ^ Campbell, Reece, et
al, "Biology", 8th edition, 2008,
p162-184.
 
[1] Campbell, Reece, et al,
''Biology'', 8th edition, 2008,
p178. COPYRIGHTED
source: Campbell, Reece, et al,
"Biology", 8th edition, 2008, p178.

[2] Ethanol Full structural
formula, Ball and Stick Model, and
Space-Filling Model of Ethanol PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/37/Ethanol-2D-flat.pnght
tp://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/comm
ons/b/b0/Ethanol-3D-balls.pnghttp://uplo
ad.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/00/
Ethanol-3D-vdW.png
4,315,000,000 YBN
196) Active transport evolves. Proteins
and ATP are used to transport molecules
into and out of the cytoplasm.4 5 6
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^
http://www.cat.cc.md.us/~gkaiser/biotuto
rials/eustruct/cmeu.html
2. ^ "active transport." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 10
Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/active-tran
sport
3. ^ "active transport." The Oxford
Dictionary of Sports Science . Oxford
University Press, 1998, 2006, 2007.
Answers.com 10 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/active-tran
sport
4. ^
http://www.cat.cc.md.us/~gkaiser/biotuto
rials/eustruct/cmeu.html
5. ^ "active transport." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 10
Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/active-tran
sport
6. ^ "active transport." The Oxford
Dictionary of Sports Science . Oxford
University Press, 1998, 2006, 2007.
Answers.com 10 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/active-tran
sport
 
[1] Figure 7.18 from: Campbell, Reece,
et al., ''Biology'', 8th Edition, 2008,
P137. COPYRIGHTED
source: Campbell, Reece, et al.,
"Biology", 8th Edition, 2008, P137.

[2] Figure 7.15 from: Campbell,
Reece, et al., ''Biology'', 8th
Edition, 2008, P135. COPYRIGHTED
source: Campbell, Reece, et al.,
"Biology", 8th Edition, 2008, P135.
4,200,000,000 YBN
4 5 		292) The prokaryote flagellum evolves.3

Prokaryotic cells now have more
mobility, and can make more choices
about their location.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ conjugation in protists, flagella
in eukaryotes: Michael Sleigh,
"Protozoa and Other Protists", (London;
New York: Edward Arnold, 1989).
2. ^
conjugation in protists, flagella in
eukaryotes: Michael Sleigh, "Protozoa
and Other Protists", (London; New York:
Edward Arnold, 1989).
3. ^ conjugation in
protists, flagella in eukaryotes:
Michael Sleigh, "Protozoa and Other
Protists", (London; New York: Edward
Arnold, 1989).
4. ^ S. Blair Hedges and Sudhir
Kumar, "The Timetree of Life", 2009,
p107-110. http://www.timetree.org/book.
php
5. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004). {2800000000 YBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Pallen MJ, Matzke NJ (October
2006). "From The Origin of Species to
the origin of bacterial flagella".
Nature Reviews. Microbiology 4 (10):
784–90. doi:10.1038/nrmicro1493. PMID
16953248. http://www.nature.com/nrmicro
/journal/v4/n10/full/nrmicro1493.html
[2] Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004)
[3] Tree of life,
http://tolweb.org/tree/
[4] David moreira, Purificacion
Lopez-Garcia, "Symbiosis Between
methanogenic Archaea and
delta-Proteobacteria as the Origin of
Eukaryotes: The Synthreophic
Hypothesis", J Mol Evol (1998)
47:517-530. eukorig6_jmol.pdf
[5] JOSHUA LEDERBERG, E. L.
TATUM, "Gene Recombination in
Escherichia Coli", Nature 158, 558-558
(19 October 1946) doi:10.1038/158558a0
Letter
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
158/n4016/abs/158558a0.html
[6] "conjugation." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 01 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/132820/conjugation>
 
[1] Aquifex pyrophilus (platinum
shadowed). © K.O. Stetter & Reinhard
Rachel, University of Regensburg.
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://biology.kenyon.edu/Microb
ial_Biorealm/bacteria/aquifex/aquifex.ht
m

[2] Description English: A
Gram-negative bacterial flagellum. A
flagellum (plural: flagella) is a long,
slender projection from the cell body,
whose function is to propel a
unicellular or small multicellular
organism. The depicted type of
flagellum is found in bacteria such as
E. coli and Salmonella, and rotates
like a propeller when the bacterium
swims. The bacterial movement can be
divided in 2 kinds: run, resulting from
a counterclockwise rotation of the
flagellum, and tumbling, from a
clockwise rotation of the
flagellum. Français : Flagelle de
bactérie Gram-négative. Le flagelle
est une projection longue et fine hors
du corps cellulaire, dont la fonction
est de propulser l'organisme. Ce type
de flagelle est présent dans des
bactéries comme Escherichia coli et
Salmonella, et tourne comme une hélice
quand la bactérie se déplace. Le
flagelle peut provoquer deux types de
déplacement selon son sens de
rotation. Date November 2007 Source
self-made References: [1],[2], [3]
(main 3), [4], [5] (propeller
rotation), PMID 17142059
(bend). Author LadyofHats PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Flagellum_base_
diagram_en.svg/1000px-Flagellum_base_dia
gram_en.svg.png
4,193,000,000 YBN
13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 		77) Archaea (also called
archaebacteria) evolve according to
genetic comparison.3 The Phylum
Nanoarcheota.4 5

Eubacteria and Archaea are the two
major lines of Prokaryotes.6 7 8 9 10
11 12
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The Origin and
Evolution of Model Organisms", Nature
Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
http://www.nature.com/nrg/journal/v3/n
11/full/nrg929.html
2. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The Origin and
Evolution of Model Organisms", Nature
Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
http://www.nature.com/nrg/journal/v3/n
11/full/nrg929.html
3. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The Origin and
Evolution of Model Organisms", Nature
Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
http://www.nature.com/nrg/journal/v3/n
11/full/nrg929.html
4. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "TimeTree of
Life", 2009,
p102. http://timetree.org/pdf/Battistuz
zi2009Chap06.pdf
5. ^ Huber, H., Hohn, M.J., Rachel, R.,
Fuchs, T., Wimmer, V.C., and Stetter,
K.O. "A new phylum of Archaea
represented by a nanosized
hyperthermophilic symbiont." Nature
(2002)
417:63-67. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v417/n6884/full/417063a.html
6. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The Origin and
Evolution of Model Organisms", Nature
Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
http://www.nature.com/nrg/journal/v3/n
11/full/nrg929.html
7. ^ Russell F. Doolittle, Da-Fei Feng,
Simon Tsang, Glen Cho, Elizabeth
Little, "Determining Divergence Times
of the Major Kingdoms of Living
Organisms with a Protein Clock",
Science, (1996). 2142-1873my
8. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). 2300my
9. ^
Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A Genomic
timescale of prokaryote evolution:
insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004). 4100my (has arche b4
eu)
10. ^ Osawa, S., Honjo, "Archaebacteria
vs Metabacteria : Phylogenetic tree of
organisms indicated by comparison of 5S
ribosomal RNA sequences.", (Tokyo:
Springer, Tokyo/ Berlin eds.:"Evolution
of Life", pp. 325-336,, 1991). 1800my
11. ^ S.
Blair Hedges, "The Origin and Evolution
of Model Organisms", Nature Reviews
Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
http://www.nature.com/nrg/journal/v3/n
11/full/nrg929.html {4000my}
12. ^ S. Blair
Hedges and Sudhir Kumar, "Genomic
clocks and evolutionary timescales",
Trends in Genetics Volume 19, Issue 4 ,
April 2003, Pages 200-206, (2003).
3970my
13. ^ S. Blair Hedges and Sudhir Kumar,
"The Timetree of Life", 2009,
p102-103. http://www.timetree.org/book.
php
14. ^ S. Blair Hedges and Sudhir Kumar,
"TimeTree of Life",
p102-103. http://www.timetree.org/pdf/H
edges2009Chap05.pdf
15. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The Origin and
Evolution of Model Organisms", Nature
Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
http://www.nature.com/nrg/journal/v3/n
11/full/nrg929.html
16. ^ Russell F. Doolittle, Da-Fei
Feng, Simon Tsang, Glen Cho, Elizabeth
Little, "Determining Divergence Times
of the Major Kingdoms of Living
Organisms with a Protein Clock",
Science, (1996). 2142-1873my
(2142-1873my)
17. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). 2300my (2300my)
18. ^
Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A Genomic
timescale of prokaryote evolution:
insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004). 4100my (has arche b4
eu) (4100my)
19. ^ Osawa, S., Honjo,
"Archaebacteria vs Metabacteria :
Phylogenetic tree of organisms
indicated by comparison of 5S ribosomal
RNA sequences.", (Tokyo: Springer,
Tokyo/ Berlin eds.:"Evolution of Life",
pp. 325-336,, 1991). 1800my (1800my)
20. ^ S.
Blair Hedges, "The Origin and Evolution
of Model Organisms", Nature Reviews
Genetics 3, 838-849 (2002);
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002). 4000my
(4000my)
21. ^ S. Blair Hedges and Sudhir Kumar,
"Genomic clocks and evolutionary
timescales", Trends in Genetics
Volume 19, Issue 4 , April 2003, Pages
200-206, (2003). 3970my (3970my)
 
[1] Deutsch: Bild über den Reitenden
Urzwerg English: Image of Nanoarchaeum
equitans Date 2005-09-10 (original
upload date) Source Originally
from de.wikipedia; description page
is/was here. Author Original
uploader was Eber-Jimmy at
de.wikipedia Permission (Reusing
this file) This image is in the
public domain due to its
age. Licensing According to this
article, ''Es wurde von dem
Mikrobiologen Karl O. Stetter entdeckt.
Bildrechte: Public domain.'' PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/dc/Urzwerg.jpg

[2] Figure 1) Changing views of the
tree and timescale of life. a) An
early-1990s view, with the tree
determined mostly from ribosomal RNA
(rRNA) sequence analysis. This tree
emphasizes vertical (as opposed to
horizontal) evolution and the close
relationship between eukaryotes and the
Archaebacteria. The deep branching
(>3.5 Giga (109) years ago, Gya) of
CYANOBACTERIA (Cy) and other Eubacteria
(purple), the shallow branching
(approx1 Gya) of plants (Pl), animals
(An) and fungi (Fu), and the early
origin of mitochondria (Mi), were based
on interpretations of the geochemical
and fossil record7, 8. Some deeply
branching amitochondriate (Am) species
were believed to have arisen before the
origin of mitochondria44. Major
symbiotic events (black dots) were
introduced to explain the origin of
eukaryotic organelles42, but were not
assumed to be associated with large
transfers of genes to the host nucleus.
They were: Eu, joining of an
archaebacterium host with a eubacterium
(presumably a SPIROCHAETE) to produce
an amitochondriate eukaryote; Mi,
joining of a eukaryote host with an
alpha-proteobacterium (Ap) symbiont,
leading to the origin of mitochondria,
and plastids (Ps), joining of a
eukaryote host with a cyanobacterium
symbiont, forming the origin of
plastids on the plant lineage and
possibly on other lineages. b) The
present view, based on extensive
genomic analysis. Eukaryotes are no
longer considered to be close relatives
of Archaebacteria, but are genomic
hybrids of Archaebacteria and
Eubacteria, owing to the transfer of
large numbers of genes from the
symbiont genome to the nucleus of the
host (indicated by coloured arrows).
Other new features, largely derived
from molecular-clock studies16, 39 (Box
1), include a relatively recent origin
of Cyanobacteria (approx2.6 Gya) and
mitochondria (approx1.8 Gya), an early
origin (approx1.5 Gya) of plants,
animals and fungi, and a close
relationship between animals and fungi.
Coloured dashed lines indicate
controversial aspects of the present
view: the existence of a
premitochondrial symbiotic event and of
living amitochondriate eukaryotes,
ancestors of which never had
mitochondria. c) The times of
divergence of selected model organisms
from humans, based on molecular clocks.
For the prokaryotes (red), because of
different possible origins through
symbiotic events, divergence times
depend on the gene of interest.
source: http://www.nature.com/nrg/journa
l/v3/n11/full/nrg929_fs.html
4,189,000,000 YBN
7 8 		193) The Eubacteria "Hyperthermophiles"
evolve (the ancestor of Aquifex and
Thermotoga).5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
2. ^ Brocks, Buick, "A
reconstruction of Archean biological
diversity based on", Geochimica et
cosmochimica acta, (2003).
3. ^ Battistuzzi,
Feijao, Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of
prokaryote evolution: insights into
the origin of methanogenesis,
phototrophy, and the colonization of
land", BMC Evolutionary Biology,
(2004).
4. ^ Brocks, Buick, "A reconstruction
of Archean biological diversity based
on", Geochimica et cosmochimica acta,
(2003).
5. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
6. ^ Brocks, Buick, "A
reconstruction of Archean biological
diversity based on", Geochimica et
cosmochimica acta, (2003).
7. ^ S. Blair Hedges
and Sudhir Kumar, "The Timetree of
Life", 2009,
p107-110. http://www.timetree.org/book.
php
8. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
 
[1] A timescale of prokaryote
evolution. Letters indicate nodes
discussed in the text. The last common
ancestor was arbitrarily placed at 4.25
Ga in the tree, although this placement
was not part of the analyses. The grey
rectangle shows the time prior to the
initial rise in oxygen (presumably
anaerobic conditions). Mtb:
Methanothermobacter, Tab:
Thermoanaerobacter, Tsc:
Thermosynechococcus. Battistuzzi et
al. BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004 4:44
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-44 Table
1 Time estimates for selected nodes
in the tree of eubacteria (A-K) and
archaebacteria (L-P). Letters refer to
Fig. 3. Time (Ma)a CIb Node
A 102 57–176 Node
B 2508 2154–2928 Node
C 2800 2452–3223 Node
D 1039 702–1408 Node
E 2558 2310–2969 Node
F 2784 2490–3203 Node
G 2923 2587–3352 Node
H 3054 2697–3490 Node
I 3186 2801–3634 Node
J 3644 3172–4130 Node
K 3977 3434–4464 Node
L 233 118–386 Node
M 3085 2469–3514 Node
N 3566 2876–3948 Node
O 3781 3047–4163 Node
P 4112 3314–4486 a Averages of
the divergence times estimated using
the 2.3 Ga minimum constraint and the
five ingroup root constraints (nodes
A-K) and using the 1.198 ± 0.022 Ga
constraint and the five ingroup root
constraints (nodes L-P). b
Credibility interval (minimum and
maximum averages of the analyses under
the five ingroup root
constraints) Battistuzzi et al. BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004 4:44
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-44 COPYRIGHTED

source: http://www.biomedcentral.com/con
tent/figures/1471-2148-4-44-3-l.jpg

[2] Aquifex pyrophilus (platinum
shadowed). © K.O. Stetter & Reinhard
Rachel, University of Regensburg.
source: http://biology.kenyon.edu/Microb
ial_Biorealm/bacteria/aquifex/aquifex.ht
m
4,187,000,000 YBN
7 8 		180) The Archaea Phylum: Crenarchaeota
(the ancestor of Sulfolobus).5 6
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao,
Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of
prokaryote evolution: insights into
the origin of methanogenesis,
phototrophy, and the colonization of
land", BMC Evolutionary Biology,
(2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
4. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao,
Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of
prokaryote evolution: insights into
the origin of methanogenesis,
phototrophy, and the colonization of
land", BMC Evolutionary Biology,
(2004).
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
6. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao,
Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of
prokaryote evolution: insights into
the origin of methanogenesis,
phototrophy, and the colonization of
land", BMC Evolutionary Biology,
(2004).
7. ^ S. Blair Hedges and Sudhir Kumar,
"The Timetree of Life", 2009,
p102-103. http://www.timetree.org/book.
php
8. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
 
[1] A timescale of prokaryote
evolution. Letters indicate nodes
discussed in the text. The last common
ancestor was arbitrarily placed at 4.25
Ga in the tree, although this placement
was not part of the analyses. The grey
rectangle shows the time prior to the
initial rise in oxygen (presumably
anaerobic conditions). Mtb:
Methanothermobacter, Tab:
Thermoanaerobacter, Tsc:
Thermosynechococcus. Battistuzzi et
al. BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004 4:44
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-44 Table
1 Time estimates for selected nodes
in the tree of eubacteria (A-K) and
archaebacteria (L-P). Letters refer to
Fig. 3. Time (Ma)a CIb Node
A 102 57–176 Node
B 2508 2154–2928 Node
C 2800 2452–3223 Node
D 1039 702–1408 Node
E 2558 2310–2969 Node
F 2784 2490–3203 Node
G 2923 2587–3352 Node
H 3054 2697–3490 Node
I 3186 2801–3634 Node
J 3644 3172–4130 Node
K 3977 3434–4464 Node
L 233 118–386 Node
M 3085 2469–3514 Node
N 3566 2876–3948 Node
O 3781 3047–4163 Node
P 4112 3314–4486 a Averages of
the divergence times estimated using
the 2.3 Ga minimum constraint and the
five ingroup root constraints (nodes
A-K) and using the 1.198 ± 0.022 Ga
constraint and the five ingroup root
constraints (nodes L-P). b
Credibility interval (minimum and
maximum averages of the analyses under
the five ingroup root
constraints) Battistuzzi et al. BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004 4:44
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-44 COPYRIGHTED

source: http://www.biomedcentral.com/con
tent/figures/1471-2148-4-44-3-l.jpg

[2] tree of archaea ?
source: http://www.uni-giessen.de/~gf126
5/GROUPS/KLUG/Stammbaum.html
4,187,000,000 YBN
14 15 		181) The Archaea Phylum: Euryarchaeota
{YRE-oR-KE-O-Tu10 } evolve (the
ancestor of methanogens and
halobacteria).11 12

The earliest cell response to light.13

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Jékely, Gáspár. "Evolution of
phototaxis." Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society B:
Biological Sciences 364 (October
2009):
2795–2808. http://rstb.royalsocietypu
blishing.org/content/364/1531/2795.short

2. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=euryar
chaeota&submit=Submit
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
4. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao,
Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of
prokaryote evolution: insights into
the origin of methanogenesis,
phototrophy, and the colonization of
land", BMC Evolutionary Biology,
(2004).
http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148
/4/44
5. ^ Jékely, Gáspár. "Evolution of
phototaxis." Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society B:
Biological Sciences 364 (October
2009):
2795–2808. http://rstb.royalsocietypu
blishing.org/content/364/1531/2795.short

6. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=euryar
chaeota&submit=Submit
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
8. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao,
Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of
prokaryote evolution: insights into
the origin of methanogenesis,
phototrophy, and the colonization of
land", BMC Evolutionary Biology,
(2004).
http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148
/4/44
9. ^ Jékely, Gáspár. "Evolution of
phototaxis." Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society B:
Biological Sciences 364 (October
2009):
2795–2808. http://rstb.royalsocietypu
blishing.org/content/364/1531/2795.short

10. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=euryar
chaeota&submit=Submit
11. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
12. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao,
Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of
prokaryote evolution: insights into
the origin of methanogenesis,
phototrophy, and the colonization of
land", BMC Evolutionary Biology,
(2004).
http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148
/4/44
13. ^ Jékely, Gáspár. "Evolution of
phototaxis." Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society B:
Biological Sciences 364 (October
2009):
2795–2808. http://rstb.royalsocietypu
blishing.org/content/364/1531/2795.short

14. ^ S. Blair Hedges and Sudhir Kumar,
"The Timetree of Life", 2009,
p102-103. http://www.timetree.org/book.
php
15. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology,
(2004). http://www.biomedcentral.com/14
71-2148/4/44

MORE INFO
[1] S. Blair Hedges, "The origin
and evolution of model organisms",
Nature Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849
(November 2002),
doi:10.1038/nrg929 http://www.nature.co
m/nrg/journal/v3/n11/full/nrg929.html#to
p
 
[1] A timescale of prokaryote
evolution. Letters indicate nodes
discussed in the text. The last common
ancestor was arbitrarily placed at 4.25
Ga in the tree, although this placement
was not part of the analyses. The grey
rectangle shows the time prior to the
initial rise in oxygen (presumably
anaerobic conditions). Mtb:
Methanothermobacter, Tab:
Thermoanaerobacter, Tsc:
Thermosynechococcus. Battistuzzi et
al. BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004 4:44
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-44 Table
1 Time estimates for selected nodes
in the tree of eubacteria (A-K) and
archaebacteria (L-P). Letters refer to
Fig. 3. Time (Ma)a CIb Node
A 102 57–176 Node
B 2508 2154–2928 Node
C 2800 2452–3223 Node
D 1039 702–1408 Node
E 2558 2310–2969 Node
F 2784 2490–3203 Node
G 2923 2587–3352 Node
H 3054 2697–3490 Node
I 3186 2801–3634 Node
J 3644 3172–4130 Node
K 3977 3434–4464 Node
L 233 118–386 Node
M 3085 2469–3514 Node
N 3566 2876–3948 Node
O 3781 3047–4163 Node
P 4112 3314–4486 a Averages of
the divergence times estimated using
the 2.3 Ga minimum constraint and the
five ingroup root constraints (nodes
A-K) and using the 1.198 ± 0.022 Ga
constraint and the five ingroup root
constraints (nodes L-P). b
Credibility interval (minimum and
maximum averages of the analyses under
the five ingroup root
constraints) Battistuzzi et al. BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004 4:44
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-44 COPYRIGHTED

source: http://www.biomedcentral.com/con
tent/figures/1471-2148-4-44-3-l.jpg

[2] tree of archaebacteria (archaea)
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.uni-giessen.de/~gf126
5/GROUPS/KLUG/Stammbaum.html
4,112,000,000 YBN
5 		58) The first autotrophic cells; cells
that can produce some of their own
food.3

Autotrophs produce their own sugars,
lipids, and amino acids.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
2. ^ Richard
Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA:
Blackwell, 2005).
3. ^ Richard Cowen, "History
of Life", (Malden, MA: Blackwell,
2005).
4. ^ "autotroph." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2012.
Answers.com 06 Jan. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/autotroph
5. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology,
(2004). http://www.biomedcentral.com/14
71-2148/4/44
 
[1] Description Methanopyrus
kandleri Date July
2006 Source ms:Imej:Arkea.jpg Auth
or ms:User:PM Poon GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/aa/Arkea.jpg
4,100,000,000 YBN
12 		49) Photosynthesis.6

Bacteria use light particles to convert
carbon dioxide gas and an electron
donor7 (also called a reductant), like
Hydrogen sulfide, into glucose, water,
and sulfur.8 This process of moving
carbon from carbon dioxide gas to the
hydrocarbon molecule glucose is called
carbon fixation.9

This is the ancestor of Photosystem
I.10

This system of photosynthesis does not
liberate oxygen.11
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
2. ^ "reductant."Answers.com
14 Jul. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/reductant
3. ^ Frank H. Shu, "The Physical
Universe: An Introduction to
Astronomy", 1982,
p537. http://books.google.com/books?id=
v_6PbAfapSAC&pg=PA537
4. ^ "carbon fixation>.".
Dictionary.com Unabridged (v 1.1).
Random House, Inc. "carbon
fixation." The American Heritage®
Science Dictionary. Houghton Mifflin
Company. 14 Jul. 2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/c
arbon fixation>.
5. ^ Lockau, Wolfgang, Wolfgang
Nitschke (1993). "Photosystem I and its
Bacterial Counterparts". Physiologia
Plantarum 88 (2): 372–381.
DOI:10.1111/j.1399-3054.1993.tb05512.x.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1399-3054
.1993.tb05512.x
6. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
7. ^ "reductant."Answers.com
14 Jul. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/reductant
8. ^ Frank H. Shu, "The Physical
Universe: An Introduction to
Astronomy", 1982,
p537. http://books.google.com/books?id=
v_6PbAfapSAC&pg=PA537
9. ^ "carbon fixation>.".
Dictionary.com Unabridged (v 1.1).
Random House, Inc. "carbon
fixation." The American Heritage®
Science Dictionary. Houghton Mifflin
Company. 14 Jul. 2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/c
arbon fixation>.
10. ^ Lockau, Wolfgang, Wolfgang
Nitschke (1993). "Photosystem I and its
Bacterial Counterparts". Physiologia
Plantarum 88 (2): 372–381.
DOI:10.1111/j.1399-3054.1993.tb05512.x.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1399-3054
.1993.tb05512.x
11. ^ Olson JM (May 2006).
"Photosynthesis in the Archean era".
Photosyn. Res. 88 (2): 109–17.
doi:10.1007/s11120-006-9040-5. PMID
16453059. http://www.springerlink.com/c
ontent/g6n805154602432w/?MUD=MP {Olson_
2006.pdf}
12. ^ Olson JM (May 2006).
"Photosynthesis in the Archean era".
Photosyn. Res. 88 (2): 109–17.
doi:10.1007/s11120-006-9040-5. PMID
16453059. http://www.springerlink.com/c
ontent/g6n805154602432w/?MUD=MP {Olson_
2006.pdf}

MORE INFO
[1] Campbell, Reece, "Biology",
2009, 190-198
 
[1] Chemiosmosis as it operates in
photophosphorylation within a
chloroplast. Images from Purves et al.,
Life: The Science of Biology, 4th
Edition, by Sinauer Associates
(www.sinauer.com) and WH Freeman
(www.whfreeman.com) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/facu
lty/farabee/biobk/0817_1.gif

[2] Chemiosmosis as it operates in
photophosphorylation within a
chloroplast. Images from Purves et al.,
Life: The Science of Biology, 4th
Edition, by Sinauer Associates
(www.sinauer.com) and WH Freeman
(www.whfreeman.com) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/facu
lty/farabee/biobk/0817_2.gif
4,000,000,000 YBN
12 		43) Photosynthesis Photosystem II
evolves. Cells emit free Oxygen.8

Bacteria use light particles to convert
carbon dioxide gas and water into
glucose, releasing oxygen gas in the
process.9 10

This is the main system responsible for
producing the Oxygen now in the air of
Earth.11
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/fara
bee/BIOBK/BioBookPS.html http://www.ebi
.ac.uk/interpro/potm/2004_11/Page1.htm3
2. ^
http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/fara
bee/BIOBK/BioBookPS.html http://www.ebi
.ac.uk/interpro/potm/2004_11/Page1.htm3
3. ^ "photosynthesis". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 14 Jul.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/458172/photosynthesis>.
4. ^
http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/fara
bee/BIOBK/BioBookPS.html http://www.ebi
.ac.uk/interpro/potm/2004_11/Page1.htm3
5. ^ "photosynthesis". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 14 Jul.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/458172/photosynthesis>.
6. ^ Frank H. Shu, "The Physical
Universe: An Introduction to
Astronomy", 1982,
p537. http://books.google.com/books?id=
v_6PbAfapSAC&pg=PA537
7. ^ "photosynthesis". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 14 Jul.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/458172/photosynthesis>.
8. ^
http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/fara
bee/BIOBK/BioBookPS.html http://www.ebi
.ac.uk/interpro/potm/2004_11/Page1.htm3
9. ^ "photosynthesis". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 14 Jul.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/458172/photosynthesis>.
10. ^ Frank H. Shu, "The Physical
Universe: An Introduction to
Astronomy", 1982,
p537. http://books.google.com/books?id=
v_6PbAfapSAC&pg=PA537
11. ^ "photosynthesis". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 14 Jul.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/458172/photosynthesis>.
12. ^ Olson JM (May 2006).
"Photosynthesis in the Archean era".
Photosyn. Res. 88 (2): 109–17.
doi:10.1007/s11120-006-9040-5. PMID
16453059.

MORE INFO
[1] Campbell, Reece, "Biology",
2009, 190-198
 
[1] Chemiosmosis as it operates in
photophosphorylation within a
chloroplast. Images from Purves et al.,
Life: The Science of Biology, 4th
Edition, by Sinauer Associates
(www.sinauer.com) and WH Freeman
(www.whfreeman.com) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/facu
lty/farabee/biobk/0817_1.gif

[2] Chemiosmosis as it operates in
photophosphorylation within a
chloroplast. Images from Purves et al.,
Life: The Science of Biology, 4th
Edition, by Sinauer Associates
(www.sinauer.com) and WH Freeman
(www.whfreeman.com) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/facu
lty/farabee/biobk/0817_2.gif
4,000,000,000 YBN
7 		51) The end of the Hadean {HADEiN4 }
and start of the Archean {oRKEiN5 }
Eon.6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Hadean Time." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 30
Dec. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hadean-time

2. ^ "Archean." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 30 Dec.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/archaean
3. ^
http://www.geosociety.org/science/timesc
ale/
4. ^ "Hadean Time." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 30
Dec. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hadean-time

5. ^ "Archean." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 30 Dec.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/archaean
6. ^
http://www.geosociety.org/science/timesc
ale/
7. ^ "Divisions of Geologic Time",
2010,
USGS http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2010/3059/
pdf/FS10-3059.pdf
 
[1] Geologic Time Scale 2009 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.geosociety.org/scienc
e/timescale/timescl.pdf
3,950,000,000 YBN
7 8 9 		37) (Filamentous) multicellularity
evolves in prokaryotes. Photosynthetic
bacteria grow in filaments. Cells stay
fastened together after cell division.4


Multicellularity appears to have
evolved independently multiple times in
the history of life on Earth.5 6
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ Bonner J. T. 1998 The origins of
multicellularity. Integr. Biol. 1,
27–36.
(doi:10.1002/(SICI)1520-6602(1998)1:1<27::AID-INBI4>3.0
.CO;2-6)
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.
1002/(SICI)1520-6602(1998)1:1%3C27::AID-
INBI4%3E3.0.CO;2-6/abstract;jsessionid=D
EEFA3C8E4647CC2CECE51E3692EAF4B.d01t03
2. ^ Bonner J. T. 1998 The origins of
multicellularity. Integr. Biol. 1,
27–36.
(doi:10.1002/(SICI)1520-6602(1998)1:1<27::AID-INBI4>3.0
.CO;2-6)
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.
1002/(SICI)1520-6602(1998)1:1%3C27::AID-
INBI4%3E3.0.CO;2-6/abstract;jsessionid=D
EEFA3C8E4647CC2CECE51E3692EAF4B.d01t03
3. ^ Bonner J. T. 1998 The origins of
multicellularity. Integr. Biol. 1,
27–36.
(doi:10.1002/(SICI)1520-6602(1998)1:1<27::AID-INBI4>3.0
.CO;2-6)
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.
1002/(SICI)1520-6602(1998)1:1%3C27::AID-
INBI4%3E3.0.CO;2-6/abstract;jsessionid=D
EEFA3C8E4647CC2CECE51E3692EAF4B.d01t03
4. ^ Bonner J. T. 1998 The origins of
multicellularity. Integr. Biol. 1,
27–36.
(doi:10.1002/(SICI)1520-6602(1998)1:1<27::AID-INBI4>3.0
.CO;2-6)
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.
1002/(SICI)1520-6602(1998)1:1%3C27::AID-
INBI4%3E3.0.CO;2-6/abstract;jsessionid=D
EEFA3C8E4647CC2CECE51E3692EAF4B.d01t03
5. ^ Inaki Ruiz-Trillo, Gertraud
Burger, Peter W.H. Holland, Nicole
King, B. Franz Lang, Andrew J. Roger,
Michael W. Gray, The origins of
multicellularity: a multi-taxon genome
initiative, Trends in Genetics, Volume
23, Issue 3, March 2007, Pages 113-118,
ISSN 0168-9525, DOI:
10.1016/j.tig.2007.01.005. (http://www.
sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0
168952507000236)
6. ^ Knoll, Andrew H. “The Multiple
Origins of Complex Multicellularity.”
Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. 39.1
(2011):
217-239. http://www.annualreviews.org/d
oi/abs/10.1146/annurev.earth.031208.1002
09
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Bonner J. T. 1998 The
origins of multicellularity. Integr.
Biol. 1, 27–36.
(doi:10.1002/(SICI)1520-6602(1998)1:1<27::AID-INBI4>3.0
.CO;2-6)
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.
1002/(SICI)1520-6602(1998)1:1%3C27::AID-
INBI4%3E3.0.CO;2-6/abstract;jsessionid=D
EEFA3C8E4647CC2CECE51E3692EAF4B.d01t03
9. ^ Ted Huntington.

MORE INFO
[1] Grosberg R. K., Strathmann R.
R. 2007 The evolution of
multicellularity: a minor major
transition? Ann. Rev. Ecol. Evol. Syst.
38, 621–654.
(doi:10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.36.102403.1
14735)
http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/1
0.1146/annurev.ecolsys.36.102403.114735
[2] Rokas A. 2008 The origins of
multicellularity and the early history
of the genetic toolkit for animal
development. Ann. Rev. Genet. 42,
235–251.
(doi:10.1146/annurev.genet.42.110807.091
513) http://apps.webofknowledge.com/Inb
oundService.do?UT=000261767000011&IsProd
uctCode=Yes&mode=FullRecord&product=WOS&
SID=1EHDdbNiNf4NO8nC299&smartRedirect=ye
s&SrcApp=CR&DestFail=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.we
bofknowledge.com%3FDestApp%3DCEL%26DestP
arams%3D%253Faction%253Dretrieve%2526mod
e%253DFullRecord%2526product%253DCEL%252
6UT%253D000261767000011%2526customersID%
253DHighwire%26e%3DQZIAIzGgKoYbxc_i_WNam
laqQ0.s968BNEwQvqhM9p.770dFYju0AbJCFAAcj
orA%26SrcApp%3DHighwire%26SrcAuth%3DHigh
wire&action=retrieve&Init=Yes&SrcAuth=Hi
ghwire&customersID=Highwire&Func=Frame
 
[1] Microgram of filamentous bacteria
from flexible setae. (Courtesy
Zoosystema © 2005) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://bioweb.uwlax.edu/bio203/s
2009/decker_rour/images/yeti-crab-filame
ntous-bacteria.JPG

[2] Filamentous Bacteria Microthrix
Parvicella UNKNOWN
source: http://ebsbiowizard.com/wp-conte
nt/gallery/filamentous-bacteria-microthr
ix-parvicella/filamentous-bacteria-micro
thrix-parvicella.jpg
3,950,000,000 YBN
4 5 6 		316) Cell differentiation evolves in
filamentous prokaryotes, creating
organisms with different kinds of
cells.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Tomitani, Akiko et al. “The
Evolutionary Diversification of
Cyanobacteria: Molecular–phylogenetic
and Paleontological Perspectives.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences 103.14 (2006): 5442
–5447. http://www.pnas.org/content/10
3/14/5442.full
2. ^ Tomitani, Akiko et al. “The
Evolutionary Diversification of
Cyanobacteria: Molecular–phylogenetic
and Paleontological Perspectives.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences 103.14 (2006): 5442
–5447. http://www.pnas.org/content/10
3/14/5442.full
3. ^ Tomitani, Akiko et al. “The
Evolutionary Diversification of
Cyanobacteria: Molecular–phylogenetic
and Paleontological Perspectives.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences 103.14 (2006): 5442
–5447. http://www.pnas.org/content/10
3/14/5442.full
4. ^ Tomitani, Akiko et al. “The
Evolutionary Diversification of
Cyanobacteria: Molecular–phylogenetic
and Paleontological Perspectives.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences 103.14 (2006): 5442
–5447. http://www.pnas.org/content/10
3/14/5442.full
5. ^ N. G. Carr, B. A. Whitton, "The
biology of blue-green algae", p238.
http://books.google.com/books?id=fSRPg-D
0Jk0C&pg=PA238&lpg=PA238
6. ^ GOLUBIC, STJEPKO, VLADIMIR N.
SERGEEV, and ANDREW H. KNOLL.
“Mesoproterozoic Archaeoellipsoidès:
Akinetes of Heterocystous
Cyanobacteria.” Lethaia 28.4 (1995):
285–298. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.c
om/doi/10.1111/j.1502-3931.1995.tb01817.
x/abstract

MORE INFO
[1] Bonner J. T. 1998 The origins
of multicellularity. Integr. Biol. 1,
27–36.
(doi:10.1002/(SICI)1520-6602(1998)1:1<27::AID-INBI4>3.0
.CO;2-6)
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.
1002/(SICI)1520-6602(1998)1:1%3C27::AID-
INBI4%3E3.0.CO;2-6/abstract;jsessionid=D
EEFA3C8E4647CC2CECE51E3692EAF4B.d01t03
 
[1] Adapted from: Anabaena smitthi
COPYRIGHTED FRANCE
source: http://www.ac-rennes.fr/pedagogi
e/svt/photo/microalg/anabaena.jpg

[2] Anabaena COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://home.manhattan.edu/~franc
es.cardillo/plants/monera/anabaena.gif
3,950,000,000 YBN
8 9 10 		322) Nitrogen fixation evolves. Cells
can make nitrogen compounds like
ammonia from Nitrogen gas in the air.5
6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Nitrogen fixation". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrogen_fi
xation
2. ^ Tomitani, Akiko et al. “The
Evolutionary Diversification of
Cyanobacteria: Molecular–phylogenetic
and Paleontological Perspectives.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences 103.14 (2006): 5442
–5447. http://www.pnas.org/content/10
3/14/5442.full
3. ^ "Nitrogen fixation". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrogen_fi
xation
4. ^ Tomitani, Akiko et al. “The
Evolutionary Diversification of
Cyanobacteria: Molecular–phylogenetic
and Paleontological Perspectives.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences 103.14 (2006): 5442
–5447. http://www.pnas.org/content/10
3/14/5442.full
5. ^ "Nitrogen fixation". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrogen_fi
xation
6. ^ Tomitani, Akiko et al. “The
Evolutionary Diversification of
Cyanobacteria: Molecular–phylogenetic
and Paleontological Perspectives.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences 103.14 (2006): 5442
–5447. http://www.pnas.org/content/10
3/14/5442.full
7. ^ Tomitani, Akiko et al. “The
Evolutionary Diversification of
Cyanobacteria: Molecular–phylogenetic
and Paleontological Perspectives.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences 103.14 (2006): 5442
–5447. http://www.pnas.org/content/10
3/14/5442.full
8. ^ Tomitani, Akiko et al. “The
Evolutionary Diversification of
Cyanobacteria: Molecular–phylogenetic
and Paleontological Perspectives.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences 103.14 (2006): 5442
–5447. http://www.pnas.org/content/10
3/14/5442.full
9. ^ N. G. Carr, B. A. Whitton, "The
biology of blue-green algae", p238.
http://books.google.com/books?id=fSRPg-D
0Jk0C&pg=PA238&lpg=PA238
10. ^ GOLUBIC, STJEPKO, VLADIMIR N.
SERGEEV, and ANDREW H. KNOLL.
“Mesoproterozoic Archaeoellipsoidès:
Akinetes of Heterocystous
Cyanobacteria.” Lethaia 28.4 (1995):
285–298. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.c
om/doi/10.1111/j.1502-3931.1995.tb01817.
x/abstract
West Africa7  
[1] Fig. 2. Modern cyanobacterial
akinetes and Archaeoellipsoides
fossils. (A) Three-month-old culture of
living A. cylindrica grown in a medium
without combined nitrogen. A, akinete;
H, heterocyst; V, vegetative cells.
(B–D) Shown are Archaeoellipsoides
fossils from 1,500-Ma Billyakh Group,
northern Siberia (B); 1,650-Ma McArthur
Group, northern Australia (C); and
2,100-Ma Franceville Group, Gabon (D).
(Scale bars, 10 μm.) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.pnas.org/content/103/
14/5442/F2.large.jpg

[2] Fig. 2. Modern cyanobacterial
akinetes and Archaeoellipsoides
fossils. (A) Three-month-old culture of
living A. cylindrica grown in a medium
without combined nitrogen. A, akinete;
H, heterocyst; V, vegetative cells.
(B–D) Shown are Archaeoellipsoides
fossils from 1,500-Ma Billyakh Group,
northern Siberia (B); 1,650-Ma McArthur
Group, northern Australia (C); and
2,100-Ma Franceville Group, Gabon (D).
(Scale bars, 10 μm.) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.pnas.org/content/103/
14/5442/F2.large.jpg
3,900,000,000 YBN
57) Aerobic cellular respiration. The
first aerobic (or "oxygenic") cell.
These cells use oxygen to convert
glucose into carbon dioxide, water, and
ATP.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Campbell, Reece, et al,
"Biology", 8th edition, 2008, p162-184.
2. ^
Campbell, Reece, et al, "Biology", 8th
edition, 2008, p162-184.
3. ^ Campbell, Reece, et
al, "Biology", 8th edition, 2008,
p162-184.
4. ^ Campbell, Reece, et al, "Biology",
8th edition, 2008, p162-184.
 
[1] purple aerobic bacteria UNKNOWN
source: http://endosymbiotichypothesis.f
iles.wordpress.com/2010/09/rain-bacteria
.jpg

[2] Organisms of Rickettsia conorii
(r), a close relative of R. rickettsii,
in a cultured human endothelial cell
are located free in the cytosol. One
rickettsia is dividing by binary
fission (arrowhead). (B) These
rickettsiae can move inside the
cytoplasm of the host cell because of
the propulsive force created by the
''tail'' of host cell actin filaments
(arrow). Bars = 0.5 µm. Photo and
text courtesy of David H. Walker -
http://gsbs.utmb.edu/microbook/ch038.htm
UNKNOWN AND Rickettsia prowazekii
(image with Rickettsia outside of
cell) COPYRIGHTED [1] Rickettsia
prowazekii COPYRIGHTED FAIR USE
source: http://www.bio.davidson.edu/peop
le/sosarafova/Assets/Bio307/liwoeste/Pic
tures/Walker%203%5B1%5D.jpghttp://web.ms
t.edu/~microbio/bio221_2001/Image9.jpg
3,850,000,000 YBN
18 		36) The oldest physical evidence for
life: the ratio of carbon-13 to
carbon-12 in grains of ancient apetite
{aPeTIT10 } (which are calcium
phosphate minerals).11 12 13

Life uses the lighter Carbon-12 isotope
and so the ratio of carbon-12 to
carbon-13 is different from a nonliving
source (such as calcium carbonate or
limestone).14 15
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Mojzsis, S. J. et al. "Evidence
for Life on Earth Before 3,800 Million
Years Ago." Nature 384.6604 (1996):
55–59. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v384/n6604/abs/384055a0.html AND
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
384/n6604/pdf/384055a0.pdf
2. ^
http://jersey.uoregon.edu/~mstrick/Rogue
ComCollege/RCC_Lectures/Banded_Iron.html

3. ^ Mojzsis, S. J. et al. "Evidence
for Life on Earth Before 3,800 Million
Years Ago." Nature 384.6604 (1996):
55–59. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v384/n6604/abs/384055a0.html
4. ^
http://jersey.uoregon.edu/~mstrick/Rogue
ComCollege/RCC_Lectures/Banded_Iron.html

5. ^ Mojzsis, S. J. et al. "Evidence
for Life on Earth Before 3,800 Million
Years Ago." Nature 384.6604 (1996):
55–59. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v384/n6604/abs/384055a0.html
6. ^
http://jersey.uoregon.edu/~mstrick/Rogue
ComCollege/RCC_Lectures/Banded_Iron.html

7. ^ "apatite." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 04 Mar.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/apatite
8. ^ Mojzsis, S. J. et al. "Evidence
for Life on Earth Before 3,800 Million
Years Ago." Nature 384.6604 (1996):
55–59. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v384/n6604/abs/384055a0.html
9. ^
http://jersey.uoregon.edu/~mstrick/Rogue
ComCollege/RCC_Lectures/Banded_Iron.html

10. ^ "apatite." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 04
Mar. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/apatite
11. ^ Mojzsis, S. J. et al. "Evidence
for Life on Earth Before 3,800 Million
Years Ago." Nature 384.6604 (1996):
55–59. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v384/n6604/abs/384055a0.html
12. ^
http://jersey.uoregon.edu/~mstrick/Rogue
ComCollege/RCC_Lectures/Banded_Iron.html

13. ^ "apatite." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 04 Mar.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/apatite
14. ^ Mojzsis, S. J. et al. "Evidence
for Life on Earth Before 3,800 Million
Years Ago." Nature 384.6604 (1996):
55–59. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v384/n6604/abs/384055a0.html
15. ^
http://jersey.uoregon.edu/~mstrick/Rogue
ComCollege/RCC_Lectures/Banded_Iron.html

16. ^ Mojzsis, S. J. et al. "Evidence
for Life on Earth Before 3,800 Million
Years Ago." Nature 384.6604 (1996):
55–59. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v384/n6604/abs/384055a0.html
17. ^
http://jersey.uoregon.edu/~mstrick/Rogue
ComCollege/RCC_Lectures/Banded_Iron.html

18. ^ Mojzsis, S. J. et al. "Evidence
for Life on Earth Before 3,800 Million
Years Ago." Nature 384.6604 (1996):
55–59. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v384/n6604/abs/384055a0.html AND
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
384/n6604/pdf/384055a0.pdf

MORE INFO
[1] "Banded iron formation."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 11
Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/banded-iron
-formation
[2] Mojzsis, S. J. et al. "Evidence for
Life on Earth Before 3,800 Million
Years Ago." Nature 384.6604 (1996):
55–59. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v384/n6604/abs/384055a0.html
AND http://www.nature.com/nature/journa
l/v384/n6604/pdf/384055a0.pdf
Akilia Island, Western Greenland16 17
 
[1] Figure 1 from: Mojzsis, S. J. et
al. ''Evidence for Life on Earth Before
3,800 Million Years Ago.'' Nature
384.6604 (1996):
55–59. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v384/n6604/abs/384055a0.html COP
YRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v384/n6604/pdf/384055a0.pdf

[2] Figure 1 from: Mojzsis, S. J. et
al. ''Evidence for Life on Earth Before
3,800 Million Years Ago.'' Nature
384.6604 (1996):
55–59. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v384/n6604/abs/384055a0.html COP
YRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v384/n6604/pdf/384055a0.pdf
3,850,000,000 YBN
18 		45) The oldest sediment, the Banded
Iron Formation begins.12
Banded Iron
Formation is sedimentary rock that
spans from 3.8 to 1.8 billion years
ago, made of iron-rich silicates (like
silicon dioxide SiO2) with alternating
layers of black colored reduced or
ferrous iron and red colored oxidized
or ferric iron.13 14 These alternating
layers represent a seasonal cycle where
the quantity of free oxygen in the
ocean rises and falls, possibly linked
to photosynthetic organisms.15 16

The atmosphere of Earth still has only
small amounts of oxygen at this time.
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ Mojzsis, et al. nature nov 7,
1996
http://www.nature.com/cgi-taf/DynaPage.t
af?file=/nature/journal/v384/n6604/index
.html, 2:102,
2. ^ Mojzsis, et al. nature nov
7, 1996
http://www.nature.com/cgi-taf/DynaPage.t
af?file=/nature/journal/v384/n6604/index
.html, 2:102,
3. ^ Cesare Emiliani, Plant
Earth 1992:407f, and Tjeerd van Andel,
New Views on an Old Planet 2nd ed.
1994:303-05. http://books.google.com/bo
oks?id=R6b3skeNXrgC
4. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
5. ^ Konhauser,
Kurt O. et al. “Could Bacteria Have
Formed the Precambrian Banded Iron
Formations?” Geology 30.12 (2002):
1079 -1082.
Print. http://geology.geoscienceworld.o
rg/content/30/12/1079.abstract
6. ^ Kappler, Andreas et al.
“Deposition of Banded Iron Formations
by Anoxygenic Phototrophic
Fe(II)-oxidizing Bacteria.” Geology
33.11 (2005): 865 -868.
Print. http://geology.geoscienceworld.o
rg/content/33/11/865.abstract
7. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
8. ^ Cesare
Emiliani, Plant Earth 1992:407f, and
Tjeerd van Andel, New Views on an Old
Planet 2nd ed.
1994:303-05. http://books.google.com/bo
oks?id=R6b3skeNXrgC
9. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
10. ^
Konhauser, Kurt O. et al. “Could
Bacteria Have Formed the Precambrian
Banded Iron Formations?” Geology
30.12 (2002): 1079 -1082.
Print. http://geology.geoscienceworld.o
rg/content/30/12/1079.abstract
11. ^ Kappler, Andreas et al.
“Deposition of Banded Iron Formations
by Anoxygenic Phototrophic
Fe(II)-oxidizing Bacteria.” Geology
33.11 (2005): 865 -868.
Print. http://geology.geoscienceworld.o
rg/content/33/11/865.abstract
12. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
13. ^ Cesare
Emiliani, Plant Earth 1992:407f, and
Tjeerd van Andel, New Views on an Old
Planet 2nd ed.
1994:303-05. http://books.google.com/bo
oks?id=R6b3skeNXrgC
14. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
15. ^
Konhauser, Kurt O. et al. “Could
Bacteria Have Formed the Precambrian
Banded Iron Formations?” Geology
30.12 (2002): 1079 -1082.
Print. http://geology.geoscienceworld.o
rg/content/30/12/1079.abstract
16. ^ Kappler, Andreas et al.
“Deposition of Banded Iron Formations
by Anoxygenic Phototrophic
Fe(II)-oxidizing Bacteria.” Geology
33.11 (2005): 865 -868.
Print. http://geology.geoscienceworld.o
rg/content/33/11/865.abstract
17. ^ Mojzsis, et al. nature nov 7,
1996
http://www.nature.com/cgi-taf/DynaPage.t
af?file=/nature/journal/v384/n6604/index
.html, 2:102,
18. ^ Mojzsis, et al. nature nov
7, 1996
http://www.nature.com/cgi-taf/DynaPage.t
af?file=/nature/journal/v384/n6604/index
.html, 2:102, {3850 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Roger Lewin, "Thread of
Life", (New York: Smithsonian Books,
1982). p102
[2]
http://jersey.uoregon.edu/~mstrick/Rogue
ComCollege/RCC_Lectures/Banded_Iron.html

[3] "Banded iron formation". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Banded_iron
_formation
Akilia Island, Western Greenland17
 
[1] image of BIF from Akilia from
Nature COPYRIGHTED
source: nature 11/7/96

[2] portion taken
from: Description English: This
image shows a 2.1 billion years old
rock containing black-banded ironstone,
which has a weight of about 8.5 tons.
The approximately two meter high, three
meter wide, and one meter thick block
of stone was found in North America and
belongs to the National Museum of
Mineralogy and Geology in Dresden,
Germany. The rock is located at
+51°2'34.84''
+13°45'26.67''. Deutsch: Dieses Bild
zeigt einen etwa 8,5 Tonnen schweren
und 2,1 Milliarden Jahre alten Block
mit Bändereisenerzen. Der etwa zwei
Meter hohe, drei Meter breite und einen
Meter tiefe Gesteinsblock wurde in
Nordamerika gefunden und gehört dem
Staatlichen Museum für Mineralogie und
Geologie Dresden. Der Block befindet
sich bei den Koordinaten +51°2'34.84''
+13°45'26.67''. Camera
data Camera Nikon D70 Lens Tamron
SP AF 90mm/2.8 Di Macro 1:1 Focal
length 90 mm Aperture f/2.8 Exposure
time 1/250 s Sensivity ISO 200 Please
help translating the description into
more languages. Thanks a lot! If
you want a license with the conditions
of your choice, please email me to
negotiate terms. best new
image Date 26 August
2005 Source Own
work Author André Karwath aka
Aka CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Black-band_iron
stone_%28aka%29.jpg/1280px-Black-band_ir
onstone_%28aka%29.jpg
3,500,000,000 YBN
11 12 		39) The oldest fossil evidence of life:
stromatolites.7 8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Byerly, Gary R., Donald R. Lower,
and Maud M. Walsh. "Stromatolites from
the 3,300-3,500-Myr Swaziland
Supergroup, Barberton Mountain Land,
South Africa." Nature 319.6053 (1986):
489–491. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v319/n6053/abs/319489a0.html
2. ^ Walter, M. R., R. Buick, and J. S.
R. Dunlop. "Stromatolites 3,400-3,500
Myr Old from the North Pole Area,
Western Australia." Nature 284.5755
(1980):
443–445. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v284/n5755/abs/284441a0.html
3. ^ Byerly, Gary R., Donald R. Lower,
and Maud M. Walsh. "Stromatolites from
the 3,300-3,500-Myr Swaziland
Supergroup, Barberton Mountain Land,
South Africa." Nature 319.6053 (1986):
489–491. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v319/n6053/abs/319489a0.html
4. ^ Walter, M. R., R. Buick, and J. S.
R. Dunlop. "Stromatolites 3,400-3,500
Myr Old from the North Pole Area,
Western Australia." Nature 284.5755
(1980):
443–445. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v284/n5755/abs/284441a0.html
5. ^ Byerly, Gary R., Donald R. Lower,
and Maud M. Walsh. "Stromatolites from
the 3,300-3,500-Myr Swaziland
Supergroup, Barberton Mountain Land,
South Africa." Nature 319.6053 (1986):
489–491. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v319/n6053/abs/319489a0.html
6. ^ Walter, M. R., R. Buick, and J. S.
R. Dunlop. "Stromatolites 3,400-3,500
Myr Old from the North Pole Area,
Western Australia." Nature 284.5755
(1980):
443–445. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v284/n5755/abs/284441a0.html
7. ^ Byerly, Gary R., Donald R. Lower,
and Maud M. Walsh. "Stromatolites from
the 3,300-3,500-Myr Swaziland
Supergroup, Barberton Mountain Land,
South Africa." Nature 319.6053 (1986):
489–491. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v319/n6053/abs/319489a0.html
8. ^ Walter, M. R., R. Buick, and J. S.
R. Dunlop. "Stromatolites 3,400-3,500
Myr Old from the North Pole Area,
Western Australia." Nature 284.5755
(1980):
443–445. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v284/n5755/abs/284441a0.html
9. ^ Byerly, Gary R., Donald R. Lower,
and Maud M. Walsh. "Stromatolites from
the 3,300-3,500-Myr Swaziland
Supergroup, Barberton Mountain Land,
South Africa." Nature 319.6053 (1986):
489–491. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v319/n6053/abs/319489a0.html
10. ^ Walter, M. R., R. Buick, and J.
S. R. Dunlop. "Stromatolites
3,400-3,500 Myr Old from the North Pole
Area, Western Australia." Nature
284.5755 (1980):
443–445. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v284/n5755/abs/284441a0.html
11. ^ Walter, M. R., R. Buick, and J.
S. R. Dunlop. "Stromatolites
3,400-3,500 Myr Old from the North Pole
Area, Western Australia." Nature
284.5755 (1980):
443–445. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v284/n5755/abs/284441a0.html
12. ^ Byerly, Gary R., Donald R. Lower,
and Maud M. Walsh. "Stromatolites from
the 3,300-3,500-Myr Swaziland
Supergroup, Barberton Mountain Land,
South Africa." Nature 319.6053 (1986):
489–491. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v319/n6053/abs/319489a0.html
Warrawoona, Western Australia, and, Fig
Tree Group, South Africa9 10  
[1] image on left is from swaziland
source: nature feb 6

[2]
source: 1986
3,500,000,000 YBN
21 22 23 24 		287) The oldest fossils of an organism.
The organism is similar to
cyanobacteria {SIe-NO-BaK-TERE-u12 },
and is found in the 3,500 million year
old chert, sedimentary rock made of
silica13 , in Australia14 15 and South
Africa.16

2.8 billion years will pass before the
first animal evolves.17 18
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Schopf, J. W. Microfossils of the
Early Archean Apex chert: new evidence
of the antiquity of life. Science 260,
640−646
(1993). http://www.sciencemag.org/conte
nt/260/5108/640
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/2881249

2. ^ Schopf, J. William et al.
"Laser-Raman Imagery of Earth’s
Earliest Fossils." Nature 416.6876
(2002):
73–76. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v416/n6876/abs/416073a.html
3. ^ Schopf, J. W. Microfossils of the
Early Archean Apex chert: new evidence
of the antiquity of life. Science 260,
640−646
(1993). http://www.sciencemag.org/conte
nt/260/5108/640
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/2881249

4. ^ Schopf, J. William et al.
"Laser-Raman Imagery of Earth’s
Earliest Fossils." Nature 416.6876
(2002):
73–76. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v416/n6876/abs/416073a.html
5. ^ Peterson, Kevin J., and Nicholas
J. Butterfield. “Origin of the
Eumetazoa: Testing Ecological
Predictions of Molecular Clocks Against
the Proterozoic Fossil Record.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences of the United States of
America 102.27 (2005):
9547–9552. http://www.pnas.org/conten
t/102/27/9547.full.pdf+html
6. ^ Record ID81. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
7. ^
"cyanobacterium." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 28
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cyanobacter
ia
8. ^ Schopf, J. W. Microfossils of the
Early Archean Apex chert: new evidence
of the antiquity of life. Science 260,
640−646
(1993). http://www.sciencemag.org/conte
nt/260/5108/640
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/2881249

9. ^ Schopf, J. William et al.
"Laser-Raman Imagery of Earth’s
Earliest Fossils." Nature 416.6876
(2002):
73–76. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v416/n6876/abs/416073a.html
10. ^ Peterson, Kevin J., and Nicholas
J. Butterfield. “Origin of the
Eumetazoa: Testing Ecological
Predictions of Molecular Clocks Against
the Proterozoic Fossil Record.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences of the United States of
America 102.27 (2005):
9547–9552. http://www.pnas.org/conten
t/102/27/9547.full.pdf+html
11. ^ Record ID81. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
12. ^
"cyanobacterium." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 28
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cyanobacter
ia
13. ^ "chert." McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia
of Science and Technology. The
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 30 Dec. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/chert
14. ^ Schopf, J. W. Microfossils of the
Early Archean Apex chert: new evidence
of the antiquity of life. Science 260,
640−646
(1993). http://www.sciencemag.org/conte
nt/260/5108/640
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/2881249

15. ^ Schopf, J. William et al.
"Laser-Raman Imagery of Earth’s
Earliest Fossils." Nature 416.6876
(2002):
73–76. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v416/n6876/abs/416073a.html
16. ^ Walsh, Maud M., and Donald R.
Lowe. "Filamentous Microfossils from
the 3,500-Myr-old Onverwacht Group,
Barberton Mountain Land, South Africa."
Nature 314.6011 (1985):
530–532. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v314/n6011/abs/314530a0.html
17. ^ Peterson, Kevin J., and Nicholas
J. Butterfield. “Origin of the
Eumetazoa: Testing Ecological
Predictions of Molecular Clocks Against
the Proterozoic Fossil Record.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences of the United States of
America 102.27 (2005):
9547–9552. http://www.pnas.org/conten
t/102/27/9547.full.pdf+html
18. ^ Record ID81. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
19. ^ Schopf, J.
William et al. "Laser-Raman Imagery of
Earth’s Earliest Fossils." Nature
416.6876 (2002):
73–76. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v416/n6876/abs/416073a.html
20. ^ Walsh, Maud M., and Donald R.
Lowe. "Filamentous Microfossils from
the 3,500-Myr-old Onverwacht Group,
Barberton Mountain Land, South Africa."
Nature 314.6011 (1985):
530–532. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v314/n6011/abs/314530a0.html
21. ^ Walsh, Maud M., and Donald R.
Lowe. "Filamentous Microfossils from
the 3,500-Myr-old Onverwacht Group,
Barberton Mountain Land, South Africa."
Nature 314.6011 (1985):
530–532. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v314/n6011/abs/314530a0.html
22. ^ Schopf, J. W. Microfossils of the
Early Archean Apex chert: new evidence
of the antiquity of life. Science 260,
640−646
(1993). http://www.sciencemag.org/conte
nt/260/5108/640
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/2881249

23. ^ Schopf, J. W. Microfossils of the
Early Archean Apex chert: new evidence
of the antiquity of life. Science 260,
640−646
(1993). http://www.sciencemag.org/conte
nt/260/5108/640
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/2881249

24. ^ Schopf, J. William et al.
"Laser-Raman Imagery of Earth’s
Earliest Fossils." Nature 416.6876
(2002):
73–76. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v416/n6876/abs/416073a.html

MORE INFO
[1] BIO415 (Author? University?)
Multicelluarity.pdf (t3:
multicellularity of cyanobacteria)
[2] t3:
http://www.mansfield.ohio-state.edu/~sab
edon/biol3018.htm multicellularity.
"Some cyanobacteria species exist in a
truly, though primitive, multicellular
form in which cellular differentiation
occurs."
Warrawoona, northwestern Western
Australia19 and Onverwacht Group,
Barberton Mountain Land, South Africa20
 
[1] Figure 1 Optical photomicrographs
showing carbonaceous (kerogenous)
filamentous microbial fossils in
petrographic thin sections of
Precambrian cherts. Scale in a
represents images in a and c-i; scale
in b represents image in b. All parts
show photomontages, which is
necessitated by the three-dimensional
preservation of the cylindrical sinuous
permineralized microbes. Squares in
each part indicate the areas for which
chemical data are presented in Figs 2
and 3. a, An unnamed cylindrical
prokaryotic filament, probably the
degraded cellular trichome or tubular
sheath of an oscillatoriacean
cyanobacterium, from the 770-Myr
Skillogalee Dolomite of South
Australia12. b, Gunflintia grandis, a
cellular probably oscillatoriacean
trichome, from the 2,100-Myr Gunflint
Formation of Ontario, Canada13. c, d,
Unnamed highly carbonized filamentous
prokaryotes from the 3,375-Myr Kromberg
Formation of South Africa14: the poorly
preserved cylindrical trichome of a
noncyanobacterial or oscillatoriacean
prokaryote (c); the disrupted,
originally cellular trichomic remnants
possibly of an Oscillatoria- or
Lyngbya-like cyanobacterium (d). e-i,
Cellular microbial filaments from the
3,465-Myr Apex chert of northwestern
Western Australia: Primaevifilum
amoenum4,5, from the collections of The
Natural History Museum (TNHM), London,
specimen V.63164[6] (e); P. amoenum4
(f); the holotype of P.
delicatulum4,5,15, TNHM V.63165[2] (g);
P. conicoterminatum5, TNHM V63164[9]
(h); the holotype of Eoleptonema apex5,
TNHM V.63729[1] (i).
source: Nature416

[2] Fig. 3 Filamentous microfossils:
a, cylindrical microfossil from
Hooggenoeg sample; b, threadlike and
tubular filaments extending between
laminae, Kromberg sample; c,d,e,
tubular filamnets oriented subparallel
to bedding, Kromberg sample; f,
threadlike filament flattened parallel
to bedding, Kromberg sample.
source: 73 - 76 (07 Mar 2002) Letters
to Nature
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v41
6/n6876/fig_tab/416073a_F1.html
3,400,000,000 YBN
6 		190) The earliest fossils of coccoid
{KoKOED3 } (spherical) bacteria.4
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^ "coccoid." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 04
Mar. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/coccoid
2. ^ Hans D. Pflug, Earliest organic
evolution. Essay to the memory of
Bartholomew Nagy, Precambrian Research,
Volume 106, Issues 1–2, 1 February
2001, Pages 79-91, ISSN 0301-9268,
10.1016/S0301-9268(00)00126-1. (http://
www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pi
i/S0301926800001261)
3. ^ "coccoid." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 04 Mar.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/coccoid
4. ^ Hans D. Pflug, Earliest organic
evolution. Essay to the memory of
Bartholomew Nagy, Precambrian Research,
Volume 106, Issues 1–2, 1 February
2001, Pages 79-91, ISSN 0301-9268,
10.1016/S0301-9268(00)00126-1. (http://
www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pi
i/S0301926800001261)
5. ^ Hans D. Pflug, Earliest organic
evolution. Essay to the memory of
Bartholomew Nagy, Precambrian Research,
Volume 106, Issues 1–2, 1 February
2001, Pages 79-91, ISSN 0301-9268,
10.1016/S0301-9268(00)00126-1. (http://
www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pi
i/S0301926800001261)
6. ^ Hans D. Pflug, Earliest organic
evolution. Essay to the memory of
Bartholomew Nagy, Precambrian Research,
Volume 106, Issues 1–2, 1 February
2001, Pages 79-91, ISSN 0301-9268,
10.1016/S0301-9268(00)00126-1. (http://
www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pi
i/S0301926800001261)

MORE INFO
[1] maybe evidence: Nagy, B. and
Nagy, L.A., 1969. Early Precambrian
microstructures: possibly the oldest
fossils on Earth?. Nature 223, pp.
1226-1229.?
Kromberg Formation, Swaziland System,
South Africa5  
[1] Fig. 3. from: Hans D. Pflug,
Earliest organic evolution. Essay to
the memory of Bartholomew Nagy,
Precambrian Research, Volume 106,
Issues 1–2, 1 February 2001, Pages
79-91, ISSN 0301-9268,
10.1016/S0301-9268(00)00126-1. (http://
www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pi
i/S0301926800001261 (a,b) Organic
microstructures from Kromberg
Formation, Swaziland System, South
Africa (ca 3.4 Ga). TEM-micrographs of
demineralized specimens. (c) Portion of
organic microstructure from Bulawaya
stromatolite (see Fig. 2). (d) Portion
of the mucilagenous sheath of recent
Anabaena sp., cyanobacteria (Fig. d
after Leak, 1967). For magnification of
Fig. c see scale of Fig.
a. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence/article/pii/S0301926800001261

[2] Fig. 3. from: Hans D. Pflug,
Earliest organic evolution. Essay to
the memory of Bartholomew Nagy,
Precambrian Research, Volume 106,
Issues 1–2, 1 February 2001, Pages
79-91, ISSN 0301-9268,
10.1016/S0301-9268(00)00126-1. (http://
www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pi
i/S0301926800001261 (a,b) Organic
microstructures from Kromberg
Formation, Swaziland System, South
Africa (ca 3.4 Ga). TEM-micrographs of
demineralized specimens. (c) Portion of
organic microstructure from Bulawaya
stromatolite (see Fig. 2). (d) Portion
of the mucilagenous sheath of recent
Anabaena sp., cyanobacteria (Fig. d
after Leak, 1967). For magnification of
Fig. c see scale of Fig.
a. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=MiamiCaptionURL&_method=retriev
e&_udi=B6VBP-42G6M5T-7&_image=fig9&_ba=9
&_user=4422&_coverDate=02%2F01%2F2001&_f
mt=full&_orig=browse&_cdi=5932&view=c&_a
cct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&
_userid=4422&md5=27a45a0804747bb4b74eaac
305df2905
3,260,000,000 YBN
5 		71) Prokaryote reproduction by
budding.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Hans D. Pflug, Earliest organic
evolution. Essay to the memory of
Bartholomew Nagy, Precambrian Research,
Volume 106, Issues 1–2, 1 February
2001, Pages 79-91, ISSN 0301-9268,
10.1016/S0301-9268(00)00126-1. (http://
www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pi
i/S0301926800001261)
2. ^ Hans D. Pflug, Earliest organic
evolution. Essay to the memory of
Bartholomew Nagy, Precambrian Research,
Volume 106, Issues 1–2, 1 February
2001, Pages 79-91, ISSN 0301-9268,
10.1016/S0301-9268(00)00126-1. (http://
www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pi
i/S0301926800001261)
3. ^ Hans D. Pflug, Earliest organic
evolution. Essay to the memory of
Bartholomew Nagy, Precambrian Research,
Volume 106, Issues 1–2, 1 February
2001, Pages 79-91, ISSN 0301-9268,
10.1016/S0301-9268(00)00126-1. (http://
www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pi
i/S0301926800001261)
4. ^ Hans D. Pflug, Earliest organic
evolution. Essay to the memory of
Bartholomew Nagy, Precambrian Research,
Volume 106, Issues 1–2, 1 February
2001, Pages 79-91, ISSN 0301-9268,
10.1016/S0301-9268(00)00126-1. (http://
www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pi
i/S0301926800001261)
5. ^ Hans D. Pflug, Earliest organic
evolution. Essay to the memory of
Bartholomew Nagy, Precambrian Research,
Volume 106, Issues 1–2, 1 February
2001, Pages 79-91, ISSN 0301-9268,
10.1016/S0301-9268(00)00126-1. (http://
www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pi
i/S0301926800001261)
Swartkoppie, South Africa4  
[1] Evolutionary relationships of model
organisms and bacteria that show
unusual reproductive strategies. This
phylogenetic tree (a) illustrates the
diversity of organisms that use the
alternative reproductive strategies
shown in (b). Bold type indicates
complete or ongoing genome projects.
Intracellular offspring are produced by
several low-GC Gram-positive bacteria
such as Metabacterium polyspora,
Epulopiscium spp. and the segmented
filamentous bacteria (SFB). Budding and
multiple fission are found in the
proteobacterial genera Hyphomonas and
Bdellovibrio, respectively. In the case
of the Cyanobacteria, Stanieria
produces baeocytes and Chamaesiphon
produces offspring by budding.
Actinoplanes produce dispersible
offspring by multiple fission of
filaments within the sporangium.
source: http://www.nature.com/nrmicro/jo
urnal/v3/n3/full/nrmicro1096_fs.html
(Nature Reviews Microbiology 3

[2] Electron micrograph of a Pirellula
bacterium from giant tiger prawn tissue
(Penaeus monodon). Notice the large
crateriform structures (C) on the cell
surface and flagella. From Fuerst et
al.
source: 214-224 (2005);
doi:10.1038/nrmicro1096)
3,200,000,000 YBN
14 15 16 17 18 		66) The earliest acritarch fossils
(unicellular microfossils with
uncertain affinity9 10 ). These
acritarchs are also the earliest
possible eukaryote fossils.11 12
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ "Acritarch." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 24 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/acritarch
2. ^ Delwiche, Charles F., "The Origin
and Evolution of Dinoflagellates", in:
Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors.
"Evolution of primary producers in the
sea.", Elsevier; 2007, p194.
3. ^
http://www.ucl.ac.uk/GeolSci/micropal/ac
ritarch.html
4. ^ Knoll AH (1992) The early
evolution of eukaryotes: a
geological perspective. Science 256:
622-627
5. ^ "Acritarch." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 24 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/acritarch
6. ^ Delwiche, Charles F., "The Origin
and Evolution of Dinoflagellates", in:
Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors.
"Evolution of primary producers in the
sea.", Elsevier; 2007, p194.
7. ^
http://www.ucl.ac.uk/GeolSci/micropal/ac
ritarch.html
8. ^ Knoll AH (1992) The early
evolution of eukaryotes: a
geological perspective. Science 256:
622-627
9. ^ "Acritarch." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 24 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/acritarch
10. ^ Delwiche, Charles F., "The Origin
and Evolution of Dinoflagellates", in:
Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors.
"Evolution of primary producers in the
sea.", Elsevier; 2007, p194.
11. ^
http://www.ucl.ac.uk/GeolSci/micropal/ac
ritarch.html
12. ^ Knoll AH (1992) The early
evolution of eukaryotes: a
geological perspective. Science 256:
622-627
13. ^ Javaux, Emmanuelle J., Craig P.
Marshall, and Andrey Bekker.
“Organic-walled microfossils in
3.2-billion-year-old shallow-marine
siliciclastic deposits.” Nature
463.7283 (2010):
934-938. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v463/n7283/full/nature08793.html
14. ^ Javaux, Emmanuelle J., Craig P.
Marshall, and Andrey Bekker.
“Organic-walled microfossils in
3.2-billion-year-old shallow-marine
siliciclastic deposits.” Nature
463.7283 (2010):
934-938. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v463/n7283/full/nature08793.html
{3.2 bybn}
15. ^ A. H. Knoll, E. J. Javaux,
D. Hewitt and P. Cohen, "Eukaryotic
Organisms in Proterozoic Oceans",
Philosophical Transactions: Biological
Sciences , Vol. 361, No. 1470, Major
Steps in Cell Evolution:
Palaeontological, Molecular and
Cellular Evidence of Their Timing and
Global Effects (Jun. 29, 2006), pp.
1023-1038 http://www.jstor.org/stable/2
0209698 {1.8 bybn}
16. ^
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/protista/di
noflagfr.html {1.8 bybn}
17. ^
http://www.ucl.ac.uk/GeolSci/micropal/ac
ritarch.html {1900-1600 mybn}
18. ^ Harold
Levin, "The Earth Through Time", 8th
ed., 2006, p257. {1.6 bybn}

MORE INFO
[1] Javaux, Emmanuelle J., Knoll,
Andrew H., Walter, Malcolm,
"Recognizing and Interpreting the
Fossils of Early Eukaryotes", Origins
of Life and Evolution of Biospheres,
2003-02-01, Springer Netherlands,
Vol33, Iss1,
p75-94. http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:102
3992712071
[2] Jochen J. Brocks, Graham A. Logan,
Roger Buick, Roger E. Summons, "Archean
Molecular Fossils and the Early Rise of
Eukaryotes", Science, Vol 285, Issue
5430, 13 August 1999, p1033-1036.
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/285/
5430/1033.short
and http://www.jstor.org/stable/2898534

[3] Cédric Berney and Jan Pawlowski,
"A Molecular Time-Scale for Eukaryote
Evolution Recalibrated with the
Continuous Microfossil Record",
Proceedings: Biological Sciences , Vol.
273, No. 1596 (Aug. 7, 2006), pp.
1867-1872 http://www.jstor.org/stable/2
5223537
[4] Javaux, Emmanuelle J., Andrew H.
Knoll, and Malcolm R. Walter.
“Morphological and ecological
complexity in early eukaryotic
ecosystems.” Nature 412.6842 (2001):
66-69. http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v412/n6842/abs/412066a0.html
(Moodies Group) South Africa13  
[1] Figure from: Javaux, Emmanuelle
J., Craig P. Marshall, and Andrey
Bekker. “Organic-walled microfossils
in 3.2-billion-year-old shallow-marine
siliciclastic deposits.” Nature
463.7283 (2010):
934-938. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v463/n7283/full/nature08793.html
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v463/n7283/full/nature08793.html

[2] Figure from: Javaux, Emmanuelle
J., Andrew H. Knoll, and Malcolm R.
Walter. “Morphological and ecological
complexity in early eukaryotic
ecosystems.” Nature 412.6842 (2001):
66-69. http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v412/n6842/abs/412066a0.html Figur
e 1 Protistan microfossils from the
Roper Group. a, c, Tappania plana,
showing asymmetrically distributed
processes and bulbous protrusions
(arrow in a). b, detail of a, showing
dichotomously branching process. d,
Valeria lophostriata. e, Dictyosphaera
sp. f, Satka favosa. The scale bar in a
is 35 µm for a and c; 10 µm for b;
100 µm for d; 15 µm for e; and 40 µm
for f.
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v412/n6842/abs/412066a0.html
2,923,000,000 YBN
14 		178) The Eubacteria Phylum Firmicutes
(FiRmiKYUTEZ10 ) evolves (Gram positive
bacteria: the cause of botulism,
tetanus, and anthrax).11 12 13
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=fi
rmicutes&submit=Submit
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^ Nature v417 n6886 (not
TOL)
4. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
5. ^ C.Michael Hogan. 2010.
Bacteria. Encyclopedia of Earth. eds.
Sidney Draggan and C.J.Cleveland,
National Council for Science and the
Environment, Washington
DC http://www.eoearth.org/article/Bacte
ria?topic=49480
6. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=fi
rmicutes&submit=Submit
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
8. ^ Nature v417 n6886 (not
TOL)
9. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
10. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=fi
rmicutes&submit=Submit
11. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
12. ^ Nature v417 n6886 (not
TOL)
13. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
14. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao,
Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of
prokaryote evolution: insights into
the origin of methanogenesis,
phototrophy, and the colonization of
land", BMC Evolutionary Biology,
(2004).

MORE INFO
[1]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peptidoglyc
an
[2] firmicutes only bacteria to make
endospores
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endospore
[3]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Firmicutes
[4]
http://www.earthlife.net/prokaryotes/fir
micutes.html
 
[1] Listeria monocytogenes is a
Gram-positive bacterium, in the
division Firmicutes, named for Joseph
Lister. It is motile by means of
flagella. Some studies suggest that 1
to 10% of humans may carry L.
monocytogenes in their
intestines. Researchers have found L.
monocytogenes in at least 37 mammalian
species, both domesticated and feral,
as well as in at least 17 species of
birds and possibly in some species of
fish and shellfish. Laboratories can
isolate L. monocytogenes from soil,
silage, and other environmental
sources. L. monocytogenes is quite
hardy and resists the deleterious
effects of freezing, drying, and heat
remarkably well for a bacterium that
does not form spores. Most L.
monocytogenes are pathogenic to some
degree.
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Listeria.jpg

[2] These are bacteria (about 0.3 µm
in diameter) that do not have outer
walls, only cytoplasmic membranes.
However, they do have cytoskeletal
elements that give them a distinct
non-spherical shape. They look like
schmoos that are pulled along by their
heads. How they are able to glide is a
mystery.
source: http://webmac.rowland.org/labs/b
acteria/projects_glide.html
2,920,000,000 YBN
3 		288) The first endospores evolve; in
firmicutes. An endospore is a tough
reduced dry form of a bacterium,
triggered by a lack of nutrients, that
protects the bacterium, and allows it
to be revived after long periods of
time.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ C.Michael Hogan. 2010. Bacteria.
Encyclopedia of Earth. eds. Sidney
Draggan and C.J. Cleveland, National
Council for Science and the
Environment, Washington DC
http://www.eoearth.org/article/Bacteri
a?topic=49480
2. ^ C.Michael Hogan. 2010. Bacteria.
Encyclopedia of Earth. eds. Sidney
Draggan and C.J. Cleveland, National
Council for Science and the
Environment, Washington DC
http://www.eoearth.org/article/Bacteri
a?topic=49480
3. ^ Ted Huntington, a total guess my
friends

MORE INFO
[1] "Endospore". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endospore
 
[1] Spore forming inside a bacterium.
Stahly, MicrobeLibrary COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.microbe.org/microbes/
spores.asp

[2] Listeria monocytogenes is a
Gram-positive bacterium, in the
division Firmicutes, named for Joseph
Lister. It is motile by means of
flagella. Some studies suggest that 1
to 10% of humans may carry L.
monocytogenes in their
intestines. Researchers have found L.
monocytogenes in at least 37 mammalian
species, both domesticated and feral,
as well as in at least 17 species of
birds and possibly in some species of
fish and shellfish. Laboratories can
isolate L. monocytogenes from soil,
silage, and other environmental
sources. L. monocytogenes is quite
hardy and resists the deleterious
effects of freezing, drying, and heat
remarkably well for a bacterium that
does not form spores. Most L.
monocytogenes are pathogenic to some
degree.
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Listeria.jpg
2,800,000,000 YBN
16 		76) The Eubacteria Phylum
Proteobacteria evolves (includes
Rickettsia {the ancestor of all
mitochondria}, gonorrhea, Salmonella,
and Escherichia coli {esRriKEo KOlI9 }
or E coli {E KOlI10 }).11 12 13 14 15
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Tree of life,
http://tolweb.org/tree/
4. ^ David moreira, Purificacion
Lopez-Garcia, "Symbiosis Between
methanogenic Archaea and
delta-Proteobacteria as the Origin of
Eukaryotes: The Synthreophic
Hypothesis", J Mol Evol (1998)
47:517-530. eukorig6_jmol.pdf
5. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao,
Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of
prokaryote evolution: insights into
the origin of methanogenesis,
phototrophy, and the colonization of
land", BMC Evolutionary Biology,
(2004).
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
7. ^ Tree of life,
http://tolweb.org/tree/
8. ^ David moreira, Purificacion
Lopez-Garcia, "Symbiosis Between
methanogenic Archaea and
delta-Proteobacteria as the Origin of
Eukaryotes: The Synthreophic
Hypothesis", J Mol Evol (1998)
47:517-530. eukorig6_jmol.pdf
9. ^ "Escherichia coli."
Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random
House, Inc. 30 Dec. 2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/E
scherichia coli>.
10. ^ "E. coli." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 30 Dec. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/escherichia
-coli
11. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
12. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
13. ^ Tree of life,
http://tolweb.org/tree/
14. ^ David moreira, Purificacion
Lopez-Garcia, "Symbiosis Between
methanogenic Archaea and
delta-Proteobacteria as the Origin of
Eukaryotes: The Synthreophic
Hypothesis", J Mol Evol (1998)
47:517-530. eukorig6_jmol.pdf
15. ^
http://taxonomicon.taxonomy.nl/TaxonTree
.aspx?id=71320
16. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004). {2800000000 YBN}

MORE INFO
[1] multicellularity.
http://www.mansfield.ohio-state.edu/~sab
edon/biol3018.htm multicellularity.
Multicellularity.pdf
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Escherichia
_coli
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proteobacte
ria
[2] JOSHUA LEDERBERG, E. L. TATUM,
"Gene Recombination in Escherichia
Coli", Nature 158, 558-558 (19 October
1946) doi:10.1038/158558a0 Letter
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
158/n4016/abs/158558a0.html
[3] "conjugation." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 01 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/132820/conjugation>
[4] conjugation in protists, flagella
in eukaryotes: Michael Sleigh,
"Protozoa and Other Protists", (London;
New York: Edward Arnold, 1989)
[5] prokaryote
pili and archaea flagella related:
http://www.queens-pfd.ca/people/index.cf
m?meds=profile&profile=12
[6] Stackebrandt et al. Proteobacteria
classis nov., a name for the
phylogenetic taxon that includes the
"purple bacteria and their relatives".
Int. J. Syst. Bacteriol., 1988, 38,
321–325. http://ijs.sgmjournals.org/c
ontent/38/3/321.full.pdf
 
[1] Figure 1. Transmission electron
micrograph of the ELB agent in XTC-2
cells. The rickettsia are free in the
cytoplasm and surrounded by an electron
transparent halo. Original
magnification X 30,000. CDC PD
source: www.cdc.gov/ncidod/
eid/vol7no1/raoultG1.htm

[2] Caulobacter crescentus. From
http://sunflower.bio.indiana.edu/~ybrun/
L305.html COPYRIGHTED EDU was in wiki
but appears to be removed
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/4/42/Caulobacter.jpg
2,800,000,000 YBN
29 		177) Gender and sex (conjugation)
evolve in Escherichia Coli {esRriKEo
KOlI21 } bacteria. Conjugation is the
exchange of DNA (plasmids) by a donor
{male} bacterium through a pilus to a
recipient {female} bacterium.22 23 24
25 26 27

In addition to pili and conjugation,
proteins that can cut DNA, and other
proteins that can connect two strands
of DNA evolve.28
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ JOSHUA LEDERBERG, E. L. TATUM,
"Gene Recombination in Escherichia
Coli", Nature 158, 558-558 (19 October
1946) doi:10.1038/158558a0 Letter
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
158/n4016/abs/158558a0.html {Lederberg_
Joshua_19460917.pdf}
2. ^ "conjugation." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 01 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/132820/conjugation>.
3. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
5. ^ Tree of life,
http://tolweb.org/tree/
6. ^ David moreira, Purificacion
Lopez-Garcia, "Symbiosis Between
methanogenic Archaea and
delta-Proteobacteria as the Origin of
Eukaryotes: The Synthreophic
Hypothesis", J Mol Evol (1998)
47:517-530. eukorig6_jmol.pdf
7. ^ JOSHUA LEDERBERG, E.
L. TATUM, "Gene Recombination in
Escherichia Coli", Nature 158, 558-558
(19 October 1946) doi:10.1038/158558a0
Letter
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
158/n4016/abs/158558a0.html {Lederberg_
Joshua_19460917.pdf}
8. ^ "conjugation." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 01 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/132820/conjugation>.
9. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
10. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
11. ^ Tree of life,
http://tolweb.org/tree/
12. ^ David moreira, Purificacion
Lopez-Garcia, "Symbiosis Between
methanogenic Archaea and
delta-Proteobacteria as the Origin of
Eukaryotes: The Synthreophic
Hypothesis", J Mol Evol (1998)
47:517-530. eukorig6_jmol.pdf
13. ^ "Escherichia coli."
Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random
House, Inc. 30 Dec. 2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/E
scherichia coli>.
14. ^ JOSHUA LEDERBERG, E.
L. TATUM, "Gene Recombination in
Escherichia Coli", Nature 158, 558-558
(19 October 1946) doi:10.1038/158558a0
Letter
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
158/n4016/abs/158558a0.html {Lederberg_
Joshua_19460917.pdf}
15. ^ "conjugation." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 01 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/132820/conjugation>.
16. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
17. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
18. ^ Tree of life,
http://tolweb.org/tree/
19. ^ David moreira, Purificacion
Lopez-Garcia, "Symbiosis Between
methanogenic Archaea and
delta-Proteobacteria as the Origin of
Eukaryotes: The Synthreophic
Hypothesis", J Mol Evol (1998)
47:517-530. eukorig6_jmol.pdf
20. ^ prokaryote pili and
archaea flagella related:
http://www.queens-pfd.ca/people/index.cf
m?meds=profile&profile=12
21. ^ "Escherichia coli."
Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random
House, Inc. 30 Dec. 2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/E
scherichia coli>.
22. ^ JOSHUA LEDERBERG, E.
L. TATUM, "Gene Recombination in
Escherichia Coli", Nature 158, 558-558
(19 October 1946) doi:10.1038/158558a0
Letter
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
158/n4016/abs/158558a0.html {Lederberg_
Joshua_19460917.pdf}
23. ^ "conjugation." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 01 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/132820/conjugation>.
24. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
25. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
26. ^ Tree of life,
http://tolweb.org/tree/
27. ^ David moreira, Purificacion
Lopez-Garcia, "Symbiosis Between
methanogenic Archaea and
delta-Proteobacteria as the Origin of
Eukaryotes: The Synthreophic
Hypothesis", J Mol Evol (1998)
47:517-530. eukorig6_jmol.pdf
28. ^ prokaryote pili and
archaea flagella related:
http://www.queens-pfd.ca/people/index.cf
m?meds=profile&profile=12
29. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004). {2800000000 YBN}
 
[1] the fertility factor or F factor is
a very large (94,500 bp) circular dsDNA
plasmid; it is generally independent of
the host chromosome. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.mun.ca/biochem/course
s/3107/images/Fplasmidmap.gif

[2] conjugation (via pilus)
COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://www.bio.miami.edu/dana/16
0/conjugation.jpg
2,795,000,000 YBN
23) The first virus evolves.5

These cells depend on the DNA
duplicating and protein producing
systems of other cells to reproduce
themselves. The first viruses may be
made from bacteria, or may be bacteria
initially.6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://cellbio.utmb.edu/cellbio/rer2.htm

2. ^
http://cellbio.utmb.edu/cellbio/rer2.htm

3. ^
http://cellbio.utmb.edu/cellbio/rer2.htm

4. ^
http://cellbio.utmb.edu/cellbio/rer2.htm

5. ^
http://cellbio.utmb.edu/cellbio/rer2.htm

6. ^
http://cellbio.utmb.edu/cellbio/rer2.htm

 
[1] Description Electron
micrograph of Bacteriophages Date
Source
en:Image:Phage.jpg Author
en:User:GrahamColm PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/52/Phage.jpg
2,784,000,000 YBN
7 		176) The Eubacteria Phylum,
Planctomycetes {PlaNK-TO-mI-SETS5 }
(also known as Planctobacteria)
evolves.6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=planct
omycetes&submit=Submit
2. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
3. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=planct
omycetes&submit=Submit
4. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
5. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=planct
omycetes&submit=Submit
6. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
7. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao,
Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of
prokaryote evolution: insights into
the origin of methanogenesis,
phototrophy, and the colonization of
land", BMC Evolutionary Biology,
(2004).

MORE INFO
[1] s10
http://ijs.sgmjournals.org/cgi/reprint/5
0/6/1965
[2]
http://genomebiology.com/2002/3/6/resear
ch/0031
[3]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planctomyce
tes
[4] Lee, Kuo-Chang, Rick Webb, and John
Fuerst. “The Cell Cycle of the
Planctomycete Gemmata Obscuriglobus
with Respect to Cell
Compartmentalization.” BMC Cell
Biology 10.1 (2009):
4. http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-21
21/10/4/
 
[1] Electron micrographs of cells of
new Gemmata-like and Isosphaera-like
isolates. (A) Negatively stained cell
of the Gemmata-like strain JW11-2f5
showing crateriform structures
(arrowhead) and coccoid cell
morphology. Bar marker, 200 nm. (B)
Negatively stained budding cell of
Isosphaera-like strain CJuql1 showing
uniform crateriform structures
(arrowhead) on the mother cell and
coccoid cell morphology. Bar marker,
200 nm. (C) Thin section of
Gemmata-like cryosubstituted cell of
strain JW3-8s0 showing the
double-membrane-bounded nuclear body
(NB) and nucleoid (N) enclosed within
it. Bar marker, 200 nm. (D) Thin
section of Isosphaera-like strain C2-3
possessing a fibrillar nucleoid (N)
within a cytoplasmic compartment
bounded by a single membrane (M) only.
Bar marker, 200 nm. Appl Environ
Microbiol. 2002 January; 68(1):
417-422. doi:
10.1128/AEM.68.1.417-422.2002.
source: http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/art
iclerender.fcgi?tool=pubmed&pubmedid=117
72655

[2] Evolutionary distance tree derived
from comparative analysis of 16S rDNAs
from freshwater and soil isolates and
reference strains of the order
Planctomycetales. Database accession
numbers are shown in parentheses after
species, strain, or clone names.
Bootstrap values of greater than 70%
from 100 bootstrap resamplings from the
distance analysis are presented at
nodes. Thermotoga maritima was used as
an outgroup. Isolates from this study
and representative named species of the
planctomycetes are indicated in bold.
The scale bar represents 0.1 nucleotide
substitution per nucleotide
position. Appl Environ Microbiol.
2002 January; 68(1): 417-422. doi:
10.1128/AEM.68.1.417-422.2002.
source: http://florey.biosci.uq.edu.au/m
ypa/images/fuerst2.gif
2,784,000,000 YBN
20 		179) The Eubacteria Phylum,
Actinobacteria {aKTinO-BaK-TER-Eu13 }
evolves (the source of streptomycin and
the cause of tuberculosis and leprosy14
).15 16 17 18 19
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=ac
tinobacteria&submit=Submit
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^ Nature v417 n6886, not
TOL
4. ^ "Actinobacteria". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actinobacte
ria
5. ^
http://asylumeclectica.com/malady/archiv
es/leprosy.htm
6. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
7. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=ac
tinobacteria&submit=Submit
8. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
9. ^ Nature v417 n6886, not
TOL
10. ^ "Actinobacteria". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actinobacte
ria
11. ^
http://asylumeclectica.com/malady/archiv
es/leprosy.htm
12. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
13. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=ac
tinobacteria&submit=Submit
14. ^ Schaechter, M. Desk Encyclopedia
of Microbiology. Academic Press, 2009.
Academic Press,
p1-2. http://books.google.com/books?id=
vO0oU4z36DIC&pg=PA1
15. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
16. ^ Nature v417 n6886, not
TOL
17. ^ "Actinobacteria". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actinobacte
ria
18. ^
http://asylumeclectica.com/malady/archiv
es/leprosy.htm
19. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
20. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao,
Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of
prokaryote evolution: insights into
the origin of methanogenesis,
phototrophy, and the colonization of
land", BMC Evolutionary Biology,
(2004).

MORE INFO
[1] "streptomyces." Britannica
Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia
Britannica, Inc., 1994-2010.
Answers.com 04 Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/streptomyce
s
 
[1] Aerial mycelium and spore of
Streptomyces coelicolor. The mycelium
and the oval spores are about 1µm
wide, typical for bacteria and much
smaller than fungal hyphae and spores.
(Scanning electron micrograph, Mark
Buttner, Kim Findlay, John Innes
Centre). COPYRIGHT UK
source: http://www.sanger.ac.uk/Projects
/S_coelicolor/micro_image4.shtml

[2] Frankia is a genus of
nitrogen-fixing soil bacteria, which
possesses a set of features that are
unique amongst symbiotic
nitrogen-fixing microorganisms,
including rhizobia, making it an
attractive taxon to study. These
heterotrophic Gram-positive bacteria
which are able to induce symbiotic
nitrogen-fixing root nodules
(actinorhizas) in a wide range of
dicotyledonous species (actinorhizal
plants), have also the capacity to fix
atmospheric nitrogen in culture and
under aerobic conditions.
source: http://www.ibmc.up.pt/webpagesgr
upos/cam/Frankia.htm
2,775,000,000 YBN
7 		174) The Eubacteria Phylum,
Spirochaetes (SPIrOKETEZ5 ) evolves
(the cause of Syphilis, and Lyme
disease).6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
www.d.umn.edu/~rhicks1/diversity/Pronunc
iation%20Guide.pdf
2. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
3. ^
www.d.umn.edu/~rhicks1/diversity/Pronunc
iation%20Guide.pdf
4. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
5. ^
www.d.umn.edu/~rhicks1/diversity/Pronunc
iation%20Guide.pdf
6. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
7. ^ estimated from
Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A Genomic
timescale of prokaryote evolution:
insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).

MORE INFO
[1] Tree of Life.
http://tolweb.org/tree/
[2] Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004)
[3] "spirochete." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 30
Dec. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/spirochete
 
[1] Syphilis is a complex, sexually
transmitted disease (STD) with a highly
variable clinical course. The disease
is caused by the bacterium, Treponema
pallidum. In the United States, 32,871
cases of syphilis, including 432 cases
of congenital syphilis, were detected
by public health officials in 2002.
Eight of the ten states with the
highest rates of syphilis are located
in the southern region of the United
States.
source: http://www.cdc.gov/nchstp/od/tus
kegee/syphilis.htm

[2] unknown
source: http://uhavax.hartford.edu/bugl/
images/Treponema%20pallidum.jpg
2,775,000,000 YBN
10 11 		175) The Eubacteria Phylum
Bacteroidetes {BaKTRrOEDiTEZ7 }
evolves.8 9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=ba
cteroidetes+&submit=Submit
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao,
Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of
prokaryote evolution: insights into
the origin of methanogenesis,
phototrophy, and the colonization of
land", BMC Evolutionary Biology,
(2004).. ^
4. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=ba
cteroidetes+&submit=Submit
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
6. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao,
Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of
prokaryote evolution: insights into
the origin of methanogenesis,
phototrophy, and the colonization of
land", BMC Evolutionary Biology,
(2004).. ^
7. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=ba
cteroidetes+&submit=Submit
8. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
9. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao,
Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of
prokaryote evolution: insights into
the origin of methanogenesis,
phototrophy, and the colonization of
land", BMC Evolutionary Biology,
(2004).. ^
10. ^ estimate from Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
11. ^ estimate from Battistuzzi,
Feijao, Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of
prokaryote evolution: insights into
the origin of methanogenesis,
phototrophy, and the colonization of
land", BMC Evolutionary Biology,
(2004).

MORE INFO
[1] Tree of Life
[2]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteroidet
es
[3]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chlorobi
 
[1] Description Bacteroides
biacutis—one of many en:commensal
anaerobic en:Bacteroides spp. in the
en:gastrointestinal tract—cultured in
blood agar medium for 48
hours. Obtained from the CDC Public
Health Image Library. Image credit:
CDC/Dr. V.R. Dowell, Jr. (PHIL #3087),
1972. Date 2006-03-11 (original
upload date) Source Originally from
en.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. Author Original uploader was
MarcoTolo at
en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) PD-USGOV-HHS-CDC. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Bacteroides_bia
cutis_01.jpg/1280px-Bacteroides_biacutis
_01.jpg

[2] Bacteroides fragilis . From the
Zdravotni University
source: http://biology.kenyon.edu/Microb
ial_Biorealm/bacteria/bacteroidete_chlor
ob_group/bacteroides/bacteroides.htm
2,775,000,000 YBN
7 		217) The Eubacteria Phylum Chlamydiae
{Klo-mi-DE-I or Klo-mi-DE-E5 }
evolves.6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=ch
lamydiae&submit=Submit
2. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
3. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=ch
lamydiae&submit=Submit
4. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
5. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=ch
lamydiae&submit=Submit
6. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
7. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao,
Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of
prokaryote evolution: insights into
the origin of methanogenesis,
phototrophy, and the colonization of
land", BMC Evolutionary Biology,
(2004).

MORE INFO
[1] Tree of Life.
http://tolweb.org/tree/
[2] Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004)
[3]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chlamydiae
[4]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verrucomicr
obia
 
[1] cell infected with Chlamydia The
Bavoil laboratory studies the
pathogenesis of the obligate
intracellular pathogen, Chlamydia, and
its bacteriophages. Specific research
areas include the role of Chlamydia
type III secretion in pathogenesis and
development, the impact of Chlamydia
phage infection on disease, the role of
the polymorphic membrane protein family
of C. trachomatis in infection and
disease and comparative genomics within
the Chlamydiaceae. [1] Chlamydia
trachomatis wiki, is copyrighted
source: http://www.dental.umaryland.edu/
sebin/p/o/chlamydia_infected_cell2.jpg

[2] wiki, public domain
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chl
amydia_trachomatis
2,775,000,000 YBN
7 8 		6309) The Eubacteria Phylum Chlorobi
{KlOROBE} evolves (green sulphur
bacteria).5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao,
Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of
prokaryote evolution: insights into
the origin of methanogenesis,
phototrophy, and the colonization of
land", BMC Evolutionary Biology,
(2004).. ^
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^ Battistuzzi,
Feijao, Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of
prokaryote evolution: insights into
the origin of methanogenesis,
phototrophy, and the colonization of
land", BMC Evolutionary Biology,
(2004).. ^
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
6. ^ Battistuzzi,
Feijao, Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of
prokaryote evolution: insights into
the origin of methanogenesis,
phototrophy, and the colonization of
land", BMC Evolutionary Biology,
(2004).. ^
7. ^ estimate from Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
8. ^ estimate from Battistuzzi, Feijao,
Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of
prokaryote evolution: insights into
the origin of methanogenesis,
phototrophy, and the colonization of
land", BMC Evolutionary Biology,
(2004).

MORE INFO
[1] Tree of Life
[2]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteroidet
es
[3]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chlorobi
 
[1] Description Deutsch: Grüne
Schwefelbakterien (Chlorobiaceae) im
unteren Bereich einer
Winogradsky-Säule Date
20.03.2007 (20 March 2007
(original upload date)) Source
Transferred from de.wikipedia;
transfer was stated to be made by
User:Jacopo Werther. (Original text :
Mikrobiologie Praktikum Universität
Kassel März 2007) Author
kOchstudiO. Original uploader was
KOchstudiO at
de.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) Released into the public
domain (by the author). (Original text
: uneingeschränkte Nutzung) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e7/Green_d_winogradsky.j
pg

[2] Campbell, N.A., and J.B. Reece.
Biology. Pearson Benjamin Cummings,
2008. Alternative eText Formats Series,
p194. COPYRIGHTED
source: Campbell, N.A., and J.B. Reece.
Biology. Pearson Benjamin Cummings,
2008. Alternative eText Formats Series,
p194.
2,775,000,000 YBN
7 		6310) The Eubacteria Phylum
Verrucomicrobia (VeR-rUKO-mI-KrO-BEo5 )
evolves.6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=ve
rrucomicrobia&submit=Submit
2. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
3. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=ve
rrucomicrobia&submit=Submit
4. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
5. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=ve
rrucomicrobia&submit=Submit
6. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
7. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao,
Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of
prokaryote evolution: insights into
the origin of methanogenesis,
phototrophy, and the colonization of
land", BMC Evolutionary Biology,
(2004).

MORE INFO
[1] Tree of Life.
http://tolweb.org/tree/
[2] Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004)
[3]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chlamydiae
[4]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verrucomicr
obia
 
[1] Figure 1 Transmission electron
micrographs of high-pressure frozen and
cryosubstituted Verrucomicrobium
spinosum. A. Cell prepared by
high-pressure freezing and
cryosubstitution showing prostheca
(PT), paryphoplasm (P), and an
intracytoplasmic membrane (ICM)
enclosing a pirellulosome region
containing a condensed fibrillar
nucleoid (N). Inset: enlarged view of
area of cell outlined in the white box
showing cytoplasmic membrane (CM),
paryphoplasm and ICM. B.
freeze-fracture replica of cell showing
cross-fractured paryphoplasm (P) and
fracture faces of ICM and CM. Bar –
500 nm Lee et al. BMC Microbiology
2009 9:5
doi:10.1186/1471-2180-9-5 CC
source: http://www.biomedcentral.com/con
tent/figures/1471-2180-9-5-1-l.jpg

[2] Figure 2 Transmission electron
micrograph of high-pressure frozen and
cryosubstituted Verrucomicrobium
spinosum. Cell prepared by
high-pressure freezing and
cryosubstitution showing prostheca
(PT), ribosome-free paryphoplasm (P),
and an intracytoplasmic membrane (ICM)
enclosing a pirellulosome region
containing a condensed fibrillar
nucleoid (N). Membrane-bounded
vesicle-like compartments within some
prosthecae extensions are also present
(see arrowheads). Bar – 1 μm Lee
et al. BMC Microbiology 2009 9:5
doi:10.1186/1471-2180-9-5 CC
source: http://www.biomedcentral.com/con
tent/figures/1471-2180-9-5-2-l.jpg
2,730,000,000 YBN
5 6 		80) Endo and exocytosis evolve. Cells
can now eat other cells.

In endocytosis the plasma membrane
folds inward to bring substances into
the cell.3

In Exocytosis substances contained in
vesicles are released from the cell.4
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^ "endocytosis." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 07
Mar. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/endocytosis

2. ^ "exocytosis." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 07
Mar. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/exocytosis
3. ^ "endocytosis." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 07
Mar. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/endocytosis

4. ^ "exocytosis." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 07
Mar. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/exocytosis
5. ^ S Blair Hedges, Hsiong Chen,
Sudhir Kumar, Daniel YC Wang, Amanda S
Thompson and Hidemi Wa, "A genomic
timescale for the origin of
eukaryotes", BMC Evolutionary Biology
2001, 1:4
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-1-4,
(2001). http://www.biomedcentral.com/14
71-2148/1/4 {Nucleus 2700 +30mybn guess
and }
6. ^ guess based on Cavalier-Smith
stating that endocytosis occurs before
a cytoskeleton {Nucleus 2700 +30mybn
guess and}
 
[1] Endocytosis and Exocytosis: For
example, this electron micrograph is
showing the process of exocytosis . The
process begins by fusion of the
membranes at the peripheral pole of the
granule. Then an opening is created
which widens to look like an omicron
figure. This opening allows the
granular material to be released. The
membrane is now part of the plasma
membrane and any proteins carried with
it can be incorporated into the plasma
membrane. Note that there is no coating
on the membrane. This figure was taken
from Alberts et al, Molecular Biology
of the Cell, Garland Publishing Third
Edition, 1994 In contrast, this
micrograph shows a figure which looks
something like an omicron, however,
this view is showing receptor mediated
endocytosis of virus particles. In both
cases, the membrane is coated with
clathrin and these represent classical
receptor mediated endocytosis profiles.
Most ligands cannot be visualized by
themselves, like a virus particle.
Therefore, the cytochemist must attach
label to the ligand. Alternatively, the
cytochemist could immunocytochemically
detect the receptor with antibodies
that recognize the extracellular
domain. This figure was taken from
Endocytosis, Edited by Ira Pastan and
Mark C. Willingham, Plenum Press, N.Y.,
1985 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.cytochemistry.net/cel
l-biology/end7.jpg

[2] Pinocytosis In the process of
pinocytosis the plasma membrane froms
an invagination. What ever substance
is found within the area of
invagination is brought into the
cell. In general this material will
be dissolved in water and thus this
process is also refered to as
''cellular drinking'' to indicate that
liquids and material dissolved in
liquids are ingested by the
cell. This is opposed to the
ingestion of large particulate material
like bacteria or other cells or cell
debris. UNKNOWN
source: http://academic.brooklyn.cuny.ed
u/biology/bio4fv/page/endocytb.htm
2,700,000,000 YBN
21 		60) The eukaryotic cell evolves. The
first cell with a nucleus. The first
protist. The nucleus may develop from
the infolding of plasma membrane.12

There are some differences between
prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells:
In
prokaryotic cells the DNA is
concentrated in a region that is not
membrane enclosed called the "nucleoid"
while in eukaryotic cells most of the
DNA is contained in a nucleus that is
bounded by a double membrane.
Eukaryotic cells are generally much
larger than prokaryotic cells. Typical
bacteria are between 1-5 um in
diameter, while eukaryotic cells are
typically 10-100 um in diameter.13
Unlike prokaryotic cells, eukaryotic
cells have a cytoskeleton. The
cytoskeleton enables eukaryotic cells
to change their shape and to surround
and engulf other cells. Eukaryotic
cells also have internal structures
that prokaryotic cells lack such as
mitochondria and plastids.14 DNA in
prokaryotic cells is usually in the
form of a single circular chromosome,
while DNA in the nucleus of eukaryotes
contains linear chromosomes.15

Like prokaryotes, this cell is probably
haploid (has a single unique DNA), most
eukaryotes are diploid (having two sets
of DNA).16 17 18 19

All protists, fungi, animals and plant
cells descend from this common
eukaryotic cell.20
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Campbell, Reece, et al,
"Biology", 2008, p516-517.
2. ^ Campbell, Reece,
et al, "Biology", 2008, p516-517.
3. ^ Campbell,
Reece, et al, "Biology", 2008,
p516-517.
4. ^ Campbell, Reece, et al, "Biology",
2008, p98.
5. ^ Campbell, Reece, et al,
"Biology", 2008, p516-517.
6. ^ Jill Saffrey,
"Biology: uniformity & diversity. Core
of life, Book 3, Volume 2", 2001,
p353. http://books.google.com/books?id=
43yiLI1DvwAC&pg=PA353
7. ^ Montgomery Slatkin, "Exploring
evolutionary biology: readings from
American scientist", 1995,
p161. http://books.google.com/books?ei=
AAVdT77TFMiiiQKB8a24Cw
8. ^ Andrew Wallace Hayes, "Principles
and methods of toxicology", 2007,
p1181. http://books.google.com/books?id
=vgHXTId8rnYC&pg=PA1181
9. ^ N. A. Kolchanov, Hwa A. Lim,
"Computer analysis of genetic
macromolecules: structure, function,
and evolution", 1994,
p2. http://books.google.com/books?id=cr
ip5tRcF0YC&pg=PA2
10. ^ "diploid", Oxford Dictionary of
Biochemistry http://www.answers.com/top
ic/diploid
11. ^ Campbell, Reece, et al,
"Biology", 2008, p98.
12. ^ Campbell, Reece,
et al, "Biology", 2008, p516-517.
13. ^ Campbell,
Reece, et al, "Biology", 2008, p98.
14. ^
Campbell, Reece, et al, "Biology",
2008, p516-517.
15. ^ Jill Saffrey, "Biology:
uniformity & diversity. Core of life,
Book 3, Volume 2", 2001,
p353. http://books.google.com/books?id=
43yiLI1DvwAC&pg=PA353
16. ^ Montgomery Slatkin, "Exploring
evolutionary biology: readings from
American scientist", 1995,
p161. http://books.google.com/books?ei=
AAVdT77TFMiiiQKB8a24Cw
17. ^ Andrew Wallace Hayes, "Principles
and methods of toxicology", 2007,
p1181. http://books.google.com/books?id
=vgHXTId8rnYC&pg=PA1181
18. ^ N. A. Kolchanov, Hwa A. Lim,
"Computer analysis of genetic
macromolecules: structure, function,
and evolution", 1994,
p2. http://books.google.com/books?id=cr
ip5tRcF0YC&pg=PA2
19. ^ "diploid", Oxford Dictionary of
Biochemistry http://www.answers.com/top
ic/diploid
20. ^ Campbell, Reece, et al,
"Biology", 2008, p98.
21. ^ S Blair Hedges,
Hsiong Chen, Sudhir Kumar, Daniel YC
Wang, Amanda S Thompson and Hidemi Wa,
"A genomic timescale for the origin of
eukaryotes", BMC Evolutionary Biology
2001, 1:4
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-1-4,
(2001). http://www.biomedcentral.com/14
71-2148/1/4 {split of archae and
eukaryote at c4.0 bybn, but eukaryote
{with nucleus?} at) 2.7 bybn}

MORE INFO
[1] Harold Levin, "The Earth
Through Time", 8th ed., 2006, p256
[2]
Jochen J. Brocks, Graham A. Logan,
Roger Buick, Roger E. Summons, "Archean
Molecular Fossils and the Early Rise of
Eukaryotes", Science, Vol 285, Issue
5430, 13 August 1999, p1033-1036.
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/285/
5430/1033.short
and http://www.jstor.org/stable/2898534

[3] Alexey S. Kondrashov, "EVOLUTIONARY
GENETICS OF LIFE CYCLES", Annual Review
of Ecology and Systematics Vol. 28:
391-435 (Volume publication date
November 1997)
http://arjournals.annualreviews.org/do
i/full/10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.28.1.391;
jsessionid=npo4ogeI2anbnHbeKO
 
[1] Campbell, Reece, et al,
''Biology'', 2008, p517. COPYRIGHTED
source: Campbell, Reece, et al,
"Biology", 2008, p517.

[2]
http://www.regx.de/m_organisms.php#planc
to
source: http://www.regx.de/m_organisms.p
hp#plancto
2,700,000,000 YBN
62) The earliest molecular fossil
evidence of eukaryotes (sterane
{STiRAN7 } molecules).8 9 Steranes are
formed from sterols {STeRoLZ10 },
molecules made by mitochondria.11 12
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ "sterane." McGraw-Hill Dictionary
of Scientific and Technical Terms.
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003.
Answers.com 30 Dec. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sterane
2. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
3. ^ Jochen J.
Brocks, Graham A. Logan, Roger Buick,
Roger E. Summons, "Archean Molecular
Fossils and the Early Rise of
Eukaryotes", Science, Vol 285, Issue
5430, 13 August 1999, p1033-1036.
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/285/
5430/1033.short
and http://www.jstor.org/stable/2898534

4. ^ "sterane." McGraw-Hill Dictionary
of Scientific and Technical Terms.
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003.
Answers.com 30 Dec. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sterane
5. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
6. ^ Jochen J.
Brocks, Graham A. Logan, Roger Buick,
Roger E. Summons, "Archean Molecular
Fossils and the Early Rise of
Eukaryotes", Science, Vol 285, Issue
5430, 13 August 1999, p1033-1036.
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/285/
5430/1033.short
and http://www.jstor.org/stable/2898534

7. ^ "sterane." McGraw-Hill Dictionary
of Scientific and Technical Terms.
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003.
Answers.com 30 Dec. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sterane
8. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
9. ^ Jochen J.
Brocks, Graham A. Logan, Roger Buick,
Roger E. Summons, "Archean Molecular
Fossils and the Early Rise of
Eukaryotes", Science, Vol 285, Issue
5430, 13 August 1999, p1033-1036.
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/285/
5430/1033.short
and http://www.jstor.org/stable/2898534

10. ^ "sterol." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 30 Dec.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sterol
11. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
12. ^ Jochen J.
Brocks, Graham A. Logan, Roger Buick,
Roger E. Summons, "Archean Molecular
Fossils and the Early Rise of
Eukaryotes", Science, Vol 285, Issue
5430, 13 August 1999, p1033-1036.
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/285/
5430/1033.short
and http://www.jstor.org/stable/2898534

13. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
14. ^ Science,
Vol 285, Issue 5430, 1033-1036 , 13
August 1999 Archean Molecular Fossils
and the Early Rise of
Eukaryotes Jochen J. Brocks, 1,2*
Graham A. Logan, 2 Roger Buick, 1 Roger
E. Summons 2
Northwestern Australia13 14  
[1] Jochen J. Brocks, Graham A. Logan,
Roger Buick, Roger E. Summons,
''Archean Molecular Fossils and the
Early Rise of Eukaryotes'', Science,
Vol 285, Issue 5430, 13 August 1999,
p1033-1036.
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/285/
5430/1033.short
and http://www.jstor.org/stable/2898534
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/285/5430/1033.short
and http://www.jstor.org/stable/2898534

2,700,000,000 YBN
198) The endoplasmic reticulum evolves
in a eukaryotic cell. The endoplasmic
reticulum is a membrane system that
extends from the nucleus, important in
the synthesis of proteins and lipids.3

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "endoplasmic reticulum."
Britannica Concise Encyclopedia.
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.,
1994-2010. Answers.com 28 Nov. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/endoplasmic
-reticulum
2. ^ "endoplasmic reticulum."
Britannica Concise Encyclopedia.
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.,
1994-2010. Answers.com 28 Nov. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/endoplasmic
-reticulum
3. ^ "endoplasmic reticulum."
Britannica Concise Encyclopedia.
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.,
1994-2010. Answers.com 28 Nov. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/endoplasmic
-reticulum
 
[1] Figure 1 : Image of n, endoplasmic
reticulum and Golgi apparatus. (1)
Nucleus. (2) Nuclear pore. (3) Rough
endoplasmic reticulum (RER). (4) Smooth
endoplasmic reticulum (SER). (5)
Ribosome on the rough ER. (6) Proteins
that are transported. (7) Transport
vesicle. (8) Golgi apparatus. (9) Cis
face of the Golgi apparatus. (10) Trans
face of the Golgi apparatus. (11)
Cisternae of the Golgi apparatus. I
am the copyright holder of that image
(I might even have the CorelDraw file
around somewhere:-), and I hereby place
the image and all partial images
created from it in the public domain.
So, you are free to use it any way you
like. In fact, I am delighted that one
of my drawings makes it into
print! I can mail you the .cdr file,
if you like (and if I can find it), if
you need a better resolution for
printing. Yours, Magnus
Manske Source: See also User:Magnus
Manske
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Nucleus_ER_golgi.jpg

[2] Description English: The
elongation and membrane targeting
stages of eukaryotic translation. The
ribosome is green and yellow, the tRNAs
are dark blue, and the other proteins
involved are light blue. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3c/Translation.gif
2,690,000,000 YBN
13 14 		207) The cytoskeleton {SI-Te-SKeL-i-TN9
} forms in the eukaryote cytoplasm.10
11 12
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "cytoskeleton." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 12
Feb. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cytoskeleto
n
2. ^ Cavalier-Smith, annals of Botony
2005 vol95 issue 1
3. ^ Margulis, L.
1998. Symbiotic Planet: A New Look at
Evolution. Science Masters: Brockman
Inc, New York. Margulis, L., Dolan,
M., Guerrero, R. 2000. The Chimaeric
eukaryote: Origin of the nucleus from
the karyomastigont in amitochondriate
protists. Colloquium. 97: 6954-6959.
4. ^
Symbiosis in cell evolution : microbial
communities in the Archean and
Proterozoic eons / Lynn Margulis. 1993
second edition
5. ^ "cytoskeleton." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 12 Feb. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cytoskeleto
n
6. ^ Cavalier-Smith, annals of Botony
2005 vol95 issue 1
7. ^ Margulis, L.
1998. Symbiotic Planet: A New Look at
Evolution. Science Masters: Brockman
Inc, New York. Margulis, L., Dolan,
M., Guerrero, R. 2000. The Chimaeric
eukaryote: Origin of the nucleus from
the karyomastigont in amitochondriate
protists. Colloquium. 97: 6954-6959.
8. ^
Symbiosis in cell evolution : microbial
communities in the Archean and
Proterozoic eons / Lynn Margulis. 1993
second edition
9. ^ "cytoskeleton." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 12 Feb. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cytoskeleto
n
10. ^ Cavalier-Smith, annals of Botony
2005 vol95 issue 1
11. ^ Margulis, L.
1998. Symbiotic Planet: A New Look at
Evolution. Science Masters: Brockman
Inc, New York. Margulis, L., Dolan,
M., Guerrero, R. 2000. The Chimaeric
eukaryote: Origin of the nucleus from
the karyomastigont in amitochondriate
protists. Colloquium. 97: 6954-6959.
12. ^
Symbiosis in cell evolution : microbial
communities in the Archean and
Proterozoic eons / Lynn Margulis. 1993
second edition
13. ^ S Blair Hedges, Hsiong
Chen, Sudhir Kumar, Daniel YC Wang,
Amanda S Thompson and Hidemi Wa, "A
genomic timescale for the origin of
eukaryotes", BMC Evolutionary Biology
2001, 1:4
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-1-4,
(2001). http://www.biomedcentral.com/14
71-2148/1/4 {Nucleus 2700 +10mybn guess
and }
14. ^ guess based on ER and golgi
made of same material as cytoskeleton,
and after first eukaryote cell {Nucleus
2700 +10mybn guess and}
 
[1] English: Endothelial cells under
the microscope. Nuclei are stained blue
with DAPI, microtubles are marked green
by an antibody bound to FITC and actin
filaments are labelled red with
phalloidin bound to TRITC. Bovine
pulmonary artery endothelial
cells http://rsb.info.nih.gov/ij/images
/ PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/09/FluorescentCells.jpg

[2] FIG. 7. In vitro polymerization
of cytoskeletal proteins of the
MinD/ParA superfamily. (A) Formation of
MinD filament bundles in the presence
of MinE, ATP, and phospholipid
vesicles. One end of the bundle is
markedly frayed because of the presence
of MinE. (Reprinted from reference 198
with permission of the publisher.
Copyright 2003 National Academy of
Sciences, U.S.A.) (B) Formation of a
ParApTP228(ParF) filament bundle in the
presence of ParBpTP228(ParG) and ATP.
ParBpTP228(ParG) stimulates formation
of the frayed end(s) of the
ParApTP228(ParF) bundle. (Reprinted
from reference 11 by permission from
Macmillan Publishers Ltd.) (C)
Formation of Soj filaments in the
presence of DNA and ATP. (Reprinted
from reference 116 by permission from
Macmillan Publishers Ltd.) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/
articles/PMC1594594/bin/zmr0030621350007
.jpg
2,690,000,000 YBN
5 		208) The eukaryote flagellum and cilia
evolve.

The eukaryote flagellum and cilia are
structurally the same1 but are very
different from the prokaryote
flagellum. The eukaryote flagellum is
composed of a characteristic "9+2"
arrangement of microtubules
{mIKrO-TUB-YU-LZ2 }. Unlike the
prokaryote flagella that rotate, the
flagella and cilia of eukaryotic cells
undulate in a wave-like motion to
propel the cell.3

The sperm cells of algae, animals, and
some plants have flagella.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Campbell, Reece, et al.,
"Biology", Eighth Edition, 2008, p114.
2. ^
"microtubule." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 03 May.
2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/m
icrotubule>.
3. ^ Dr. P.D. Sharma, "Microbiology &
Plant Pathology", 2007,
p86. http://books.google.com/books?id=B
yDwOIWXp4MC&pg=PA86
4. ^ Campbell, Reece, et al.,
"Biology", Eighth Edition, 2008, p114.
5. ^ S
Blair Hedges, Hsiong Chen, Sudhir
Kumar, Daniel YC Wang, Amanda S
Thompson and Hidemi Wa, "A genomic
timescale for the origin of
eukaryotes", BMC Evolutionary Biology
2001, 1:4
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-1-4,
(2001). http://www.biomedcentral.com/14
71-2148/1/4 {Nucleus 2700 -10mybn
guess}
 
[1] Cilia and flagella are projections
from the cell. They are made up of
microtubules , as shown in this cartoon
and are covered by an extension of the
plasma membrane. They are motile and
designed either to move the cell itself
or to move substances over or around
the cell. The primary purpose of cilia
in mammalian cells is to move fluid,
mucous, or cells over their surface.
Cilia and flagella have the same
internal structure. The major
difference is in their length. This
figure shows a cross section of a
cilium next to a longitudinal section.
Below, we will see how the microtubules
are organized in the core (shown in the
cartoon in this figure). Also shown is
the centriole or basal body that
organizes the formation and direction
of the cilia. COPYRIGHTED
source: Description Transmission
electron microscope image, showing an
example of green algae
(Chlorophyta). Chlamydomanas
reinhardtii is a unicellular flagellate
used as a model system in molecular
genetics work and flagellar motility
studies. This image is a
longitudinal section through the
flagella area. In the cell apex is the
basal body that is the anchoring site
for a flagella. Basal bodies originate
from and have a substructure similar to
that of centrioles, with nine
peripheral microtubule triplets(see
structure at bottom center of image).
The two inner microtubules of each
triplet in a basal body become the two
outer doublets in the flagella. This
image also shows the transition region,
with its fibers of the stellate
structure. The top of the image shows
the flagella passing through the cell
wall. Date 20 September
2007 Source Source and public domain
notice at
http://remf.dartmouth.edu/imagesindex.ht
ml Author Dartmouth Electron
Microscope Facility, Dartmouth
College PD

[2] This figure shows an electron
micrograph of a cross section of a
cilium. Note that you can see the
dynein arms and the nexin links. The
dynein arms have ATPase activity. In
the presence of ATP, they can move from
one tubulin to another. They enable the
tubules to slide along one another so
the cilium can bend. The dynein
bridges are regulated so that sliding
leads to synchronized bending. Because
of the nexin and radial spokes, the
doublets are held in place so sliding
is limited lengthwise. If nexin and the
radial spokes are subjected to enzyme
digestion, and exposed to ATP, the
doublets will continue to slide and
telescope up to 9X their length.
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Chlamydomonas_T
EM_09.jpg/1280px-Chlamydomonas_TEM_09.jp
g
2,680,000,000 YBN
5 		65) The circular chromosome in the
eukaryote nucleus changes into linear
chromosomes.3

Although the eukaryotic cell may have
descended from a prokaryote that
already had linear DNA.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
5. ^ S Blair Hedges, Hsiong Chen,
Sudhir Kumar, Daniel YC Wang, Amanda S
Thompson and Hidemi Wa, "A genomic
timescale for the origin of
eukaryotes", BMC Evolutionary Biology
2001, 1:4
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-1-4,
(2001). http://www.biomedcentral.com/14
71-2148/1/4 {Nucleus 2700 +20mybn
guess}

MORE INFO
[1] not all prokaryotes have
circle of
DNA: http://arjournals.annualreviews.or
g/doi/full/10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.28.1.
391;jsessionid=npo4ogeI2anbnHbeKO
[2] Jumas-Bilak E, Maugard C,
Michaux-Charachon S, Allardet-Servent
A, Perrin A, et al. 1995. Study of the
organization of the genomes of
Escherichia coli, Brucella melitensis
and Agrobacterium tumefaciens by
insertion of a unique restriction site.
Microbiology 141:2425-32 (Medline)
[3] Lezhava A,
Kameoka D, Sugino H, Goshi K, Shinkawa
H, et al. 1997. Chromosomal deletions
in Streptomyces griseus that remove the
afsA locus. Mol. Gen. Genet. 253:478-83
[4]
Marconi RT, Casjens S, Munderloh UG,
Samuels DS. 1996. Analysis of linear
plasmid dimers in Borrelia burgdorferi
sensu lato isolates: implications
concerning the potential mechanisms of
linear plasmid replication. J. Bact.
178:3357-61
 
[1] A DNA molecule is very long (a few
meters) but extremely thin (narrow;
measured in nanometers). Here is an
electron microscope photo of a DNA
strand: PD
source: http://rst.gsfc.nasa.gov/Sect20/
dna1.jpg

[2] [t Is this an accurate image? - Is
a chromosome made of a single wound
strand of DNA? update- no see image
8] Every cell in the human body
(except red blood cells) contains 23
pairs of chromosomes. (a) Each
chromosome is made up of a tightly
coiled strand of DNA. (b) DNA’s
uncoiled state reveals its familiar
double helix shape. If DNA is pictured
as a twisted ladder, its sides, made of
sugar and phosphate molecules, are
connected by (c) rungs made of
chemicals called bases. DNA has four
bases—adenine, thymine, guanine, and
cytosine—that form interlocking
pairs. The order of the bases along the
length of the ladder is the DNA
sequence. PD
source: https://www.llnl.gov/str/June03/
gifs/Stubbs1.gif
2,680,000,000 YBN
216) Histones evolve. Histones are
proteins found in all eukaryotic cell
nuclei that package and order a single
continuous DNA molecule into structural
units called nucleosomes {nUKlEuSOMZ1
}.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "nucleosome." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 30
Dec. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/nucleosome
 Read more:
http://www.answers.com/main/cite_this_an
swer.jsp#ixzz2Ga2DeYfP
2. ^ Nelson, D.L., and M.M. Cox.
Lehninger Principles of Biochemistry.
W. H. Freeman, 2008. Lehninger
Principles of Biochemistry,
p963. http://books.google.com/books?id=
5Ek9J4p3NfkC
 
[1] Campbell, N.A., and J.B. Reece.
Biology. Pearson Benjamin Cummings,
2008. Alternative eText Formats
Series. COPYRIGHTED
source: Campbell, N.A., and J.B. Reece.
Biology. Pearson Benjamin Cummings,
2008. Alternative eText Formats Series.

[2] Description Schematic
representation of the assembly of the
core histones into the nucleosome Date
15 November 2005 Source English
Wikipedia Author Richard Wheeler
(Zephyris) GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8a/Nucleosome_structure.
png
2,680,000,000 YBN
3 		291) The eukaryote cell evolves two
intermediate stages between cell
division and DNA synthesis.1

In prokaryotes, DNA synthesis can take
place uninterrupted between cell
divisions, but eukaryotes duplicate
their DNA exactly once during a
discrete period between cell
divisions.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Michael Sleigh, "Protozoa and
Other Protists", (London; New York:
Edward Arnold, 1989).: p45
2. ^ "cell."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 11 Mar.
2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/101396/cell>.
3. ^ S Blair Hedges, Hsiong Chen,
Sudhir Kumar, Daniel YC Wang, Amanda S
Thompson and Hidemi Wa, "A genomic
timescale for the origin of
eukaryotes", BMC Evolutionary Biology
2001, 1:4
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-1-4,
(2001). http://www.biomedcentral.com/14
71-2148/1/4 {Nucleus 2700 -20mybn
guess}

MORE INFO
[1] Cooper GM (2000). "Chapter
14: The Eukaryotic Cell Cycle". The
cell: a molecular approach (2nd ed.).
Washington, D.C: ASM Press. ISBN
0-87893-106-6. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.
gov/books/NBK9876/
[2] Campbell, Reece, et al, "Biology",
8th Edition, 2008, p228-245
 
[1] Figure 14.1Phases of the cell
cycle The division cycle of most
eukaryotic cells is divided into four
discrete phases: M, G1, S, and G2. M
phase (mitosis) is usually followed by
cytokinesis. S phase is the period
during which DNA replication occurs.
The cell grows throughout interphase,
which includes G1, S, and G2. The
relative lengths of the cell cycle
phases shown here are typical of
rapidly replicating mammalian
cells. From: The Eukaryotic Cell
Cycle The Cell: A Molecular
Approach. 2nd edition. Cooper
GM. Sunderland (MA): Sinauer
Associates; 2000. Copyright © 2000,
Geoffrey M Cooper. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/book
s/NBK9876/bin/ch14f1.jpg

[2] The cell cycle. Image from Purves
et al., Life: The Science of Biology,
4th Edition, by Sinauer Associates
(www.sinauer.com) and WH Freeman
(www.whfreeman.com) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/facu
lty/farabee/biobk/cellcycle.gif
2,670,000,000 YBN
199) The Eukaryote Golgi Apparatus
evolves. The Golgi apparatus packages
proteins and lipids into vesicles for
delivery to targeted destinations.3
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ "Golgi apparatus." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2011. Web. 28 Dec. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/238044/Golgi-apparatus>.
2. ^ "Golgi apparatus." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2011. Web. 28 Dec. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/238044/Golgi-apparatus>.
3. ^ "Golgi apparatus." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2011. Web. 28 Dec. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/238044/Golgi-apparatus>.

MORE INFO
[1] "Endosome." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 28 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/endosome
 
[1] Figure 1: Image of nucleus,
endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi
apparatus: (1) Nucleus, (2) Nuclear
pore, (3) Rough endoplasmic reticulum
(RER), (4) Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
(SER), (5) Ribosome on the rough ER,
(6) Proteins that are transported, (7)
Transport vesicle, (8) Golgi apparatus,
(9) Cis face of the Golgi apparatus,
(10) Trans face of the Golgi apparatus,
(11) Cisternae of the Golgi apparatus,
(12) Secretory vesicle, (13) Plasma
membrane, (14) Exocytosis, (15)
Cytoplasm, (16) Extracellular space.
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Nucleus_ER_golgi_ex.jpg

[2] no description UNKNOWN
source: http://sun.menloschool.org/~cwea
ver/cells/e/lysosomes/
2,670,000,000 YBN
4 		290) The nucleolus evolves. The
nucleolus is a sphere in the nucleus
that makes ribosomal RNA.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Michael Sleigh, "Protozoa and
Other Protists", (London; New York:
Edward Arnold, 1989).: p48 nucleolus
divides
2. ^ Michael Sleigh, "Protozoa and
Other Protists", (London; New York:
Edward Arnold, 1989).: p48 nucleolus
divides
3. ^ Michael Sleigh, "Protozoa and
Other Protists", (London; New York:
Edward Arnold, 1989).: p48 nucleolus
divides
4. ^ Ted Huntington guess

MORE INFO
[1] Oxford Dictionary of
Biochemistry Oxford University Press.
Oxford Dictionary of Biochemistry and
Molecular Biology © 1997, 2000, 2006
All rights
reserved. http://www.answers.com/topic/
nucleolus#ixzz2VAspF99U
 
[1] Nucleolus, COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.eccentrix.com/members
/chempics/Slike/cell/Nucleolus.jpg

[2] With the combination of x-rays
from the Advanced Light Source and a
new protein-labeling technique,
scientists can see the distribution of
the nucleoli within the nucleus of a
mammary epithelial cell. USG PD
source: http://www.lbl.gov/Science-Artic
les/Archive/xray-inside-cells.html
2,660,000,000 YBN
11 		72) Mitosis evolves in Eukaryote
cells.7 8

Mitosis is the process in eukaryotic
cell division in which the duplicated
chromosomes are separated and the
nucleus divides resulting in two new
nuclei, each of which contains an
identical copy of the parental
chromosomes. Mitosis is usually
immediately followed by cytokinesis,
the division of the cytoplasm.9 10
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ Michael Sleigh, "Protozoa and
Other Protists", (London; New York:
Edward Arnold, 1989).: types of
mitosis, evolution of mitosis.
2. ^ Brusca and
Brusca, "Invertebrates", 2003,
p128-129. {BruscaCh05.pdf}
3. ^ Michael Sleigh, "Protozoa and
Other Protists", (London; New York:
Edward Arnold, 1989).: types of
mitosis, evolution of mitosis.
4. ^ Brusca and
Brusca, "Invertebrates", 2003,
p128-129. {BruscaCh05.pdf}
5. ^ "mitosis." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 12 Mar.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/mitosis
6. ^ Campbell, Reece, et al, "Biology",
8th Edition, 2008, p230-233.
7. ^ Michael Sleigh,
"Protozoa and Other Protists", (London;
New York: Edward Arnold, 1989).: types
of mitosis, evolution of mitosis.
8. ^ Brusca
and Brusca, "Invertebrates", 2003,
p128-129. {BruscaCh05.pdf}
9. ^ "mitosis." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 12 Mar.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/mitosis
10. ^ Campbell, Reece, et al,
"Biology", 8th Edition, 2008, p230-233.
11. ^ S
Blair Hedges, Hsiong Chen, Sudhir
Kumar, Daniel YC Wang, Amanda S
Thompson and Hidemi Wa, "A genomic
timescale for the origin of
eukaryotes", BMC Evolutionary Biology
2001, 1:4
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-1-4,
(2001). http://www.biomedcentral.com/14
71-2148/1/4 {Nucleus 2700 -40mybn
guess}
 
[1] Mitosis divides genetic information
during cell division Source:
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/About/primer
/genetics_cell.html This image is
from the Science Primer, a work of the
National Center for Biotechnology
Information, part of the National
Institutes of Health. As a work of the
U.S. federal government, the image is
in the public domain.
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mit
osis

[2] Prophase: The two round objects
above the nucleus are the centrosomes.
Note the condensed chromatin. from
Gray's Anatomy. Unless stated
otherwise, it is from the online
edition of the 20th U.S. edition of
Gray's Anatomy of the Human Body,
originally published in 1918. Online
editions can be found on Bartleby and
also on Yahoo!
source: UNKNOWN
2,640,000,000 YBN
29 		73) Eukaryote sex evolves. This is the
first diploid cell and the first
zygote.18 19

Because of sex, two cells with
different DNA can mix providing more
genetic variety. Having two chromosome
sets also provides a backup copy of
important genes.20 21

All sexual species alternate between
haploid and diploid. There are three
main different types of sexual life
cycles; haplontic, haplodiplontic, and
diplontic.22 23

This begins the haplontic life cycle:
in the entire life cycle mitosis only
occurs in the haploid phase; the only
diploid cell is the zygote24 .25 26

This fusion of two haploid cells
results in the first diploid
single-celled organism, which may then
immediately divide back to two haploid
cells.

Initially sex may be the fusion of two
indistinguishable cells (isogamy) with
gender (anisogamy) only evolving
later.27 Although possibly eukaryote
cell fusion and gender is directly
descended from prokaryote
conjugation.28
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Sir Gavin De Beer, "Atlas of
Evolution", (London: Nelson, 1964).
2. ^
Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
3. ^ Campbell,
Reece, et al, "Biology", Eigth Edition,
2008, p258.
4. ^ Sir Gavin De Beer, "Atlas of
Evolution", (London: Nelson, 1964).
5. ^
Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
6. ^ Campbell,
Reece, et al, "Biology", Eigth Edition,
2008, p258.
7. ^ Karen Arms, Pamela S. Camp,
"Biology", Third Edition, 1987,
p398. http://books.google.com/books?ei=
fjtmT96tDqPQiAKP2qyiDw&id=ga_uAAAAMAAJ
8. ^ Sir Gavin De Beer, "Atlas of
Evolution", (London: Nelson, 1964).
9. ^
Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
10. ^ Campbell,
Reece, et al, "Biology", Eigth Edition,
2008, p258.
11. ^ Glenn E. Croston, "Kaplan
AP biology", 2000,
p98. http://books.google.com/books?id=P
WsKAQAAMAAJ
12. ^ Janette B. Benson, Marshall M.
Haith, "Diseases and Disorders in
Infancy and Early Childhood", 2009,
p203.
13. ^ Campbell, Reece, et al,
"Biology", Eigth Edition, 2008, p252.
14. ^
John Ringo, "Fundamental Genetics",
2004, p201.
15. ^ Rowoand, M.D. Bath Advanced
Science - Biology. Thomas Nelson &
Sons, Limited, 1992. Bath Science 16-19
Series,
p503. http://books.google.com/books?id=
j9cEEouPBogC&pg=PA503
16. ^ John Ringo, "Fundamental
Genetics", 2004, p201.
17. ^ Mark
Kirkpatrick, "The evolution of
haploid-diploid life cycles", 1994,
p10. http://books.google.com/books?id=X
sgoLnXLIswC&pg=PA10
18. ^ Sir Gavin De Beer, "Atlas of
Evolution", (London: Nelson, 1964).
19. ^
Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
20. ^ Glenn E.
Croston, "Kaplan AP biology", 2000,
p98. http://books.google.com/books?id=P
WsKAQAAMAAJ
21. ^ Janette B. Benson, Marshall M.
Haith, "Diseases and Disorders in
Infancy and Early Childhood", 2009,
p203.
22. ^ Campbell, Reece, et al,
"Biology", Eigth Edition, 2008, p252.
23. ^
John Ringo, "Fundamental Genetics",
2004, p201.
24. ^ Rowoand, M.D. Bath Advanced
Science - Biology. Thomas Nelson &
Sons, Limited, 1992. Bath Science 16-19
Series,
p503. http://books.google.com/books?id=
j9cEEouPBogC&pg=PA503
25. ^ John Ringo, "Fundamental
Genetics", 2004, p201.
26. ^ Mark
Kirkpatrick, "The evolution of
haploid-diploid life cycles", 1994,
p10. http://books.google.com/books?id=X
sgoLnXLIswC&pg=PA10
27. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestors
Tail", 2004, p626.
28. ^ Ted Huntington.
29. ^ estimate
based on diplomonads having sex repro,
and origin of euk being (is now)
{Nucleus 2700 -60mybn guess)(was
2710mybn}

MORE INFO
[1] J. William Schopf, "Major
Events in the History of Life",
(Boston, MA: Jones and Bartlett
Publishers, 1992).p57 (was)
 
[1] Theoretical first eukaryote
sex adapted from image of gametic
meiosis GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Zygotic_meiosis.jpg

[2] Theoretical first eukaryote
sex adapted from image of gametic
meiosis GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Zygotic_meiosis.jpg
2,640,000,000 YBN
12 		206) Meiosis evolves (one-step meiosis:
a single cell division of a diploid
cell into two haploid cells).7 8

Meiosis, which looks similar to
mitosis9 , is the process of cell
division in sexually reproducing
organisms that reduces the number of
chromosomes in reproductive cells from
diploid to haploid, leading to the
production of gametes in animals and
spores in plants.10

Without the reduction back to haploid,
genomes would double in size with every
generation.11
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.zoology.ubc.ca/~redfield/rese
arch/clevelan.html
2. ^ Michael Sleigh, "Protozoa and
Other Protists", (London; New York:
Edward Arnold, 1989)., no cross over in
one-division
3. ^
http://www.zoology.ubc.ca/~redfield/rese
arch/clevelan.html
4. ^ Michael Sleigh, "Protozoa and
Other Protists", (London; New York:
Edward Arnold, 1989)., no cross over in
one-division
5. ^ Campbell, Reece, et al, "Biology",
Eigth Edition, 2008, p253.
6. ^ "meiosis."
The American Heritage® Dictionary of
the English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 12 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/meiosis
7. ^
http://www.zoology.ubc.ca/~redfield/rese
arch/clevelan.html
8. ^ Michael Sleigh, "Protozoa and
Other Protists", (London; New York:
Edward Arnold, 1989)., no cross over in
one-division
9. ^ Campbell, Reece, et al, "Biology",
Eigth Edition, 2008, p253.
10. ^ "meiosis."
The American Heritage® Dictionary of
the English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 12 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/meiosis
11. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestors
Tail", 2004, p627.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.

MORE INFO
[1] S Blair Hedges, Hsiong Chen,
Sudhir Kumar, Daniel YC Wang, Amanda S
Thompson and Hidemi Wa, "A genomic
timescale for the origin of
eukaryotes", BMC Evolutionary Biology
2001, 1:4
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-1-4,
(2001). http://www.biomedcentral.com/14
71-2148/1/4
 
[1] Theoretical first eukaryote
sex adapted from image of gametic
meiosis GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Zygotic_meiosis.jpg

[2] Theoretical first eukaryote
sex adapted from image of gametic
meiosis GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Zygotic_meiosis.jpg
2,610,000,000 YBN
17 		296) Gender in eukaryotes evolves.12
Anisogamy {aNISoGomE13 14 }, sex (cell
and nucleus fusion) between two cells
that are different in size or shape.15
16
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Michael Sleigh, "Protozoa and
Other Protists", (London; New York:
Edward Arnold, 1989).
2. ^ Michael Sleigh,
"Protozoa and Other Protists", (London;
New York: Edward Arnold, 1989).
3. ^
"anisogamy." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 29 May.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/anisogamy
4. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=anisog
amy&submit=Submit
5. ^ Michael Sleigh, "Protozoa and
Other Protists", (London; New York:
Edward Arnold, 1989).
6. ^ "anisogamy." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 18 Mar. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/anisogamy
7. ^ Michael Sleigh, "Protozoa and
Other Protists", (London; New York:
Edward Arnold, 1989).
8. ^ "anisogamy." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 29 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/anisogamy
9. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=anisog
amy&submit=Submit
10. ^ Michael Sleigh, "Protozoa and
Other Protists", (London; New York:
Edward Arnold, 1989).
11. ^ "anisogamy." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 18 Mar. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/anisogamy
12. ^ Michael Sleigh, "Protozoa and
Other Protists", (London; New York:
Edward Arnold, 1989).
13. ^ "anisogamy." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 29 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/anisogamy
14. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=anisog
amy&submit=Submit
15. ^ Michael Sleigh, "Protozoa and
Other Protists", (London; New York:
Edward Arnold, 1989).
16. ^ "anisogamy." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 18 Mar. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/anisogamy
17. ^ S Blair Hedges, Hsiong Chen,
Sudhir Kumar, Daniel YC Wang, Amanda S
Thompson and Hidemi Wa, "A genomic
timescale for the origin of
eukaryotes", BMC Evolutionary Biology
2001, 1:4
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-1-4,
(2001). http://www.biomedcentral.com/14
71-2148/1/4 {Nucleus 2700 -90mybn
guess}
 
[1] Combination of images: Description
English: Different types of
isogamy: A) Isogamy of motile
cells B) Isogamy of non-motile
cells C) Conjugation of
gametangia Date 30 July
2008 Source Vectorised SVG version of
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Isoga
my.png Author Original bitmap version
by Tameeria, SVG version by Qef Other
versions
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:
Isogamy.png PD AND Description
Different types of en:anisogamy:
A) Anisogamy of motile gametes B)
Oogamy (non-motile egg cell, motile
sperm cell) C) Anisogamy of
non-motile gametes Date 2008-06-30
02:07 (UTC) Source
Anisogamy.png Author This
SVG version by Qef (talk)
Anisogamy.png: Original uploader was
Tameeria at en.wikipedia Later
versions were uploaded by Helix84 at
en.wikipedia. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d5/Isogamy.svghttp://upl
oad.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a7
/Anisogamy.svg

[2] Description Different types of
en:anisogamy: A) Anisogamy of motile
gametes B) Oogamy (non-motile egg
cell, motile sperm cell) C) Anisogamy
of non-motile
gametes Date 2008-06-30 02:07
(UTC) Source Anisogamy.png Author
This SVG version by Qef
(talk) Anisogamy.png: Original
uploader was Tameeria at
en.wikipedia Later versions were
uploaded by Helix84 at
en.wikipedia. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Anisogamy.svg/1
000px-Anisogamy.svg.png
2,590,000,000 YBN
5 		298) Oogamy {O-oG-omE3 }, a form of
anisogamy, evolves in protists: sex
between a flagellated gamete and an
unflagellated gamete.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=oogamy
&submit=Submit
2. ^ Michael Sleigh, "Protozoa and
Other Protists", (London; New York:
Edward Arnold, 1989).
3. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=oogamy
&submit=Submit
4. ^ Michael Sleigh, "Protozoa and
Other Protists", (London; New York:
Edward Arnold, 1989).
5. ^ S Blair Hedges,
Hsiong Chen, Sudhir Kumar, Daniel YC
Wang, Amanda S Thompson and Hidemi Wa,
"A genomic timescale for the origin of
eukaryotes", BMC Evolutionary Biology
2001, 1:4
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-1-4,
(2001). http://www.biomedcentral.com/14
71-2148/1/4 {Nucleus 2700 -110mybn
guess}
 
[1] Combination of images: Description
English: Different types of
isogamy: A) Isogamy of motile
cells B) Isogamy of non-motile
cells C) Conjugation of
gametangia Date 30 July
2008 Source Vectorised SVG version of
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Isoga
my.png Author Original bitmap version
by Tameeria, SVG version by Qef Other
versions
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:
Isogamy.png PD AND Description
Different types of en:anisogamy:
A) Anisogamy of motile gametes B)
Oogamy (non-motile egg cell, motile
sperm cell) C) Anisogamy of
non-motile gametes Date 2008-06-30
02:07 (UTC) Source
Anisogamy.png Author This
SVG version by Qef (talk)
Anisogamy.png: Original uploader was
Tameeria at en.wikipedia Later
versions were uploaded by Helix84 at
en.wikipedia. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d5/Isogamy.svghttp://upl
oad.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a7
/Anisogamy.svg

[2] Description English: A sperm
cell fertilizing an egg cell Date
Source
http://www.pdimages.com/web9.htm Autho
r Unknown Permission (Reusing this
file)
http://www.pdimages.com/web9.htm P
D
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/86/Sperm-egg.jpg
2,570,000,000 YBN
6 		295) Two-step meiosis (diploid DNA
copies and then the cell divides twice
into four haploid cells).3

Most protists divide by two-step
meiosis, and one-step meiosis is rare.4
5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.zoology.ubc.ca/~redfield/rese
arch/clevelan.html
2. ^
http://www.zoology.ubc.ca/~redfield/rese
arch/clevelan.html
3. ^
http://www.zoology.ubc.ca/~redfield/rese
arch/clevelan.html
4. ^ Michael Sleigh, "Protozoa and
Other Protists", (London; New York:
Edward Arnold, 1989) p71.
5. ^ Igor B.
Raikov, Meiosis in protists: Recent
advances and persisting problems,
European Journal of Protistology,
Volume 31, Issue 1, 15 March 1995,
Pages 1-7, ISSN 0932-4739,
10.1016/S0932-4739(11)80349-4. (http://
www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pi
i/S0932473911803494)
6. ^ S Blair Hedges, Hsiong Chen,
Sudhir Kumar, Daniel YC Wang, Amanda S
Thompson and Hidemi Wa, "A genomic
timescale for the origin of
eukaryotes", BMC Evolutionary Biology
2001, 1:4
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-1-4,
(2001). http://www.biomedcentral.com/14
71-2148/1/4 {Nucleus 2700 -130mybn
guess}
 
[1] GametoGenesis. COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://www.bio.miami.edu/dana/10
4/gametogenesis.jpg

[2] Sexual cycle oxymonas, identical
to saccinobaculus, one step meiosis.
haploid. COPYRIGHTED CANADA
source: http://www.zoology.ubc.ca/~redfi
eld/clevelan/oxymonas.GIF
2,558,000,000 YBN
4 		171) The Eubacteria phylum
"Deinococcus-Thermus" evolves (includes
Thermus Aquaticus {used in PCR}, and
Deinococcus radiodurans {which can
survive long exposure to radiation}).3

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
2. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao,
Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of
prokaryote evolution: insights into
the origin of methanogenesis,
phototrophy, and the colonization of
land", BMC Evolutionary Biology,
(2004).
3. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
4. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao,
Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of
prokaryote evolution: insights into
the origin of methanogenesis,
phototrophy, and the colonization of
land", BMC Evolutionary Biology,
(2004).

MORE INFO
[1] Tree of Life.
http://tolweb.org/tree/
[2] Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004)
 
[1] D. radiodurans growing on a
nutrient agar plate. The red color is
due to carotenoid pigment. Links to
816x711-pixel, 351KB JPG. Credit: M.
Daly, Uniformed Services University of
the Health Sciences NASA
source: http://science.nasa.gov/newhome/
headlines/images/conan/D_rad_dish.jpg

[2] Photomicrograph of Deinococcus
radiodurans, from
www.ornl.gov/ORNLReview/ v34 The Oak
Ridge National Laboratory United
States Federal Government This work
is in the public domain because it is a
work of the United States Federal
Government. This applies worldwide. See
Copyright.
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Deinococcus.jpg
2,558,000,000 YBN
11 12 		172) The Eubacteria phylum,
Cyanobacteria {SIe-NO-BaK-TERE-u7 }
evolves.

Cyanobacteria are the only prokaryotes
with oxygen-producing photosynthesis,8
and are the ancestor of all eukaryote
plastids (for example chloroplasts).9
10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "cyanobacterium." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 28
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cyanobacter
ia
2. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
3. ^ S. Blair Hedges and
Sudhir Kumar, "Genomic clocks and
evolutionary timescales", Trends in
Genetics Volume 19, Issue 4 , April
2003, Pages 200-206, (2003).
4. ^
"cyanobacterium." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 28
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cyanobacter
ia
5. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
6. ^ S. Blair Hedges and
Sudhir Kumar, "Genomic clocks and
evolutionary timescales", Trends in
Genetics Volume 19, Issue 4 , April
2003, Pages 200-206, (2003).
7. ^
"cyanobacterium." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 28
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cyanobacter
ia
8. ^ Campbell, N.A., and J.B. Reece.
Biology. Pearson Benjamin Cummings,
2008. Alternative eText Formats Series,
p569.
9. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
10. ^ S. Blair Hedges and
Sudhir Kumar, "Genomic clocks and
evolutionary timescales", Trends in
Genetics Volume 19, Issue 4 , April
2003, Pages 200-206, (2003).
11. ^ Battistuzzi,
Feijao, Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of
prokaryote evolution: insights into
the origin of methanogenesis,
phototrophy, and the colonization of
land", BMC Evolutionary Biology,
(2004).
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC533871/ {2558 mybn}
12. ^ S. Blair
Hedges and Sudhir Kumar, "Genomic
clocks and evolutionary timescales",
Trends in Genetics Volume 19, Issue 4 ,
April 2003, Pages 200-206, (2003).
{2558 mybn}

MORE INFO
[1] Tree of Life.
http://tolweb.org/tree/
[2] Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004)
[3] Journal of Molecular
Evolution Publisher: Springer-Verlag
New York ISSN: 0022-2844 (Paper)
1432-1432 (Online) Issue: Volume 42,
Number 2 Date: February 1996 Pages:
194 - 200
[4] Phylogenetic Relationships of
Nonaxenic Filamentous Cyanobacterial
Strains Based on 16S rRNA Sequence
Analysis jme_42_2_1996.pdf
[5]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyanobacter
ia
[6] S Blair Hedges, Hsiong Chen, Sudhir
Kumar, Daniel YC Wang, Amanda S
Thompson and Hidemi Wa, "A genomic
timescale for the origin of
eukaryotes", BMC Evolutionary Biology
2001, 1:4
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-1-4,
(2001). http://www.biomedcentral.com/14
71-2148/1/4
 
[1] Oscillatoria COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://www.stcsc.edu/ecology/alg
ae/oscillatoria.jpg

[2] Lyngbya COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://www.stanford.edu/~bohanna
n/Media/LYNGB5.jpg
2,558,000,000 YBN
4 		315) The Eubacteria Phylum Chloroflexi
evolves; (Green Non-Sulphur bacteria).3

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
2. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao,
Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of
prokaryote evolution: insights into
the origin of methanogenesis,
phototrophy, and the colonization of
land", BMC Evolutionary Biology,
(2004).
3. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
4. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao,
Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of
prokaryote evolution: insights into
the origin of methanogenesis,
phototrophy, and the colonization of
land", BMC Evolutionary Biology,
(2004).

MORE INFO
[1] Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004)
[2] Tree of Life
http://tolweb.org/tree/
 
[1] Chloroflexus photomicrograph from
Doe Joint Genome Institute of US Dept
Energy PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Chlorofl.jpg
2,500,000,000 YBN
52) The end of the Archean and start of
the Proterozoic {PrOTReZOiK or
ProTReZOiK6 7 } Eon.8

The Proterozoic spans from 2,500 to 542
million years ago, and represents 42%
of Earth's history.9 10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Proterozoic." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 05
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/proterozoic

2. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=proter
ozoic&submit=Submit
3. ^
http://www.geosociety.org/science/timesc
ale/
4. ^
http://www.geosociety.org/science/timesc
ale/
5. ^ Harold Levin, "The Earth Through
Time", 8th Edition, 2006, p243.
6. ^
"Proterozoic." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 05 Jun.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/proterozoic

7. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=proter
ozoic&submit=Submit
8. ^
http://www.geosociety.org/science/timesc
ale/
9. ^
http://www.geosociety.org/science/timesc
ale/
10. ^ Harold Levin, "The Earth Through
Time", 8th Edition, 2006, p243.
 
[1] Geologic Time Scale 2009 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.geosociety.org/scienc
e/timescale/timescl.pdf
2,480,000,000 YBN
13 14 15 16 17 18 		170) Bacteria live on land.10 11 12
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ Kurt O. Konhauser, Stefan V.
Lalonde, Noah J. Planavsky, Ernesto
Pecoits, Timothy W. Lyons, Stephen J.
Mojzsis, Olivier J. Rouxel, Mark E.
Barley, Carlos Rosìere, Phillip W.
Fralick, Lee R. Kump, Andrey Bekker.
Aerobic bacterial pyrite oxidation and
acid rock drainage during the Great
Oxidation Event. Nature, 2011; 478
(7369): 369 DOI:
10.1038/nature10511 http://dx.doi.org/1
0.1038/nature10511
2. ^ University of Alberta. "New
evidence for the oldest
oxygen-breathing life on land."
ScienceDaily, 19 Oct. 2011. Web. 14
Jul. 2012.
3. ^ Brian Murphy, "Let there be
life", October 20,
2011. http://www.news.ualberta.ca/artic
le.aspx?id=3F6A39F722E14A6BA792EBCA6F989
604
4. ^ Kurt O. Konhauser, Stefan V.
Lalonde, Noah J. Planavsky, Ernesto
Pecoits, Timothy W. Lyons, Stephen J.
Mojzsis, Olivier J. Rouxel, Mark E.
Barley, Carlos Rosìere, Phillip W.
Fralick, Lee R. Kump, Andrey Bekker.
Aerobic bacterial pyrite oxidation and
acid rock drainage during the Great
Oxidation Event. Nature, 2011; 478
(7369): 369 DOI:
10.1038/nature10511 http://dx.doi.org/1
0.1038/nature10511
5. ^ University of Alberta. "New
evidence for the oldest
oxygen-breathing life on land."
ScienceDaily, 19 Oct. 2011. Web. 14
Jul. 2012.
6. ^ Brian Murphy, "Let there be
life", October 20,
2011. http://www.news.ualberta.ca/artic
le.aspx?id=3F6A39F722E14A6BA792EBCA6F989
604
7. ^ Kurt O. Konhauser, Stefan V.
Lalonde, Noah J. Planavsky, Ernesto
Pecoits, Timothy W. Lyons, Stephen J.
Mojzsis, Olivier J. Rouxel, Mark E.
Barley, Carlos Rosìere, Phillip W.
Fralick, Lee R. Kump, Andrey Bekker.
Aerobic bacterial pyrite oxidation and
acid rock drainage during the Great
Oxidation Event. Nature, 2011; 478
(7369): 369 DOI:
10.1038/nature10511 http://dx.doi.org/1
0.1038/nature10511
8. ^ University of Alberta. "New
evidence for the oldest
oxygen-breathing life on land."
ScienceDaily, 19 Oct. 2011. Web. 14
Jul. 2012.
9. ^ Brian Murphy, "Let there be
life", October 20,
2011. http://www.news.ualberta.ca/artic
le.aspx?id=3F6A39F722E14A6BA792EBCA6F989
604
10. ^ Kurt O. Konhauser, Stefan V.
Lalonde, Noah J. Planavsky, Ernesto
Pecoits, Timothy W. Lyons, Stephen J.
Mojzsis, Olivier J. Rouxel, Mark E.
Barley, Carlos Rosìere, Phillip W.
Fralick, Lee R. Kump, Andrey Bekker.
Aerobic bacterial pyrite oxidation and
acid rock drainage during the Great
Oxidation Event. Nature, 2011; 478
(7369): 369 DOI:
10.1038/nature10511 http://dx.doi.org/1
0.1038/nature10511
11. ^ University of Alberta. "New
evidence for the oldest
oxygen-breathing life on land."
ScienceDaily, 19 Oct. 2011. Web. 14
Jul. 2012.
12. ^ Brian Murphy, "Let there be
life", October 20,
2011. http://www.news.ualberta.ca/artic
le.aspx?id=3F6A39F722E14A6BA792EBCA6F989
604
13. ^ Kurt O. Konhauser, Stefan V.
Lalonde, Noah J. Planavsky, Ernesto
Pecoits, Timothy W. Lyons, Stephen J.
Mojzsis, Olivier J. Rouxel, Mark E.
Barley, Carlos Rosìere, Phillip W.
Fralick, Lee R. Kump, Andrey Bekker.
Aerobic bacterial pyrite oxidation and
acid rock drainage during the Great
Oxidation Event. Nature, 2011; 478
(7369): 369 DOI:
10.1038/nature10511 http://dx.doi.org/1
0.1038/nature10511
14. ^ University of Alberta. "New
evidence for the oldest
oxygen-breathing life on land."
ScienceDaily, 19 Oct. 2011. Web. 14
Jul. 2012.
15. ^ Brian Murphy, "Let there be
life", October 20,
2011. http://www.news.ualberta.ca/artic
le.aspx?id=3F6A39F722E14A6BA792EBCA6F989
604
16. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004). (2600-2700my)
17. ^ University of
Tennessee at Knoxville. "Bacteria's
move from sea to land may have occurred
much later than thought." ScienceDaily,
22 Dec. 2011. Web. 14 Jul.
2012. http://www.sciencedaily.com/relea
ses/2011/12/111222195017.htm
18. ^ Florence Wisniewski-Dyé, Kirill
Borziak, Gurusahai Khalsa-Moyers,
Gladys Alexandre, Leonid O.
Sukharnikov, Kristin Wuichet, Gregory
B. Hurst, W. Hayes McDonald, Jon S.
Robertson, Valérie Barbe, Alexandra
Calteau, Zoé Rouy, Sophie Mangenot,
Claire Prigent-Combaret, Philippe
Normand, Mickaël Boyer, Patricia
Siguier, Yves Dessaux, Claudine
Elmerich, Guy Condemine, Ganisan
Krishnen, Ivan Kennedy, Andrew H.
Paterson, Victor González, Patrick
Mavingui, Igor B. Zhulin. Azospirillum
Genomes Reveal Transition of Bacteria
from Aquatic to Terrestrial
Environments. PLoS Genetics, 2011; 7
(12): e1002430 DOI:
10.1371/journal.pgen.1002430

MORE INFO
[1] "pyrite." The American
Heritage� Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 02
May. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pyrite
 
[1] Acidic waste water from a modern
mining site supports the same oxygen
using bacterial life that appeared on
Earth 2.48 billion years ago. UNKNOWN

source: http://media.news.ualberta.ca/~/
media/University%20of%20Alberta/Administ
ration/External%20Relations/ExpressNews/
Images/2011/10/111020-RocksBanner-cw.jpg


[2] Bacillus specie soil
bacteria. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.scharfphoto.com/fine_
art_prints/archives/199812-054-Soil-Bact
eria.jpg
2,400,000,000 YBN
59) Start of a 200 million year ice
age.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
2. ^ Richard
Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA:
Blackwell, 2005).
3. ^ Richard Cowen, "History
of Life", (Malden, MA: Blackwell,
2005).
 
[1] snowball Earth UNKNOWN
source: http://www.cosmosmagazine.com/fi
les/imagecache/feature/files/features/pr
int/20090528_snowball_earth.jpg

[2] Snowball Earth Snowball Earth
describes a theory that for millions of
years the Earth was entirely smothered
in ice, stretching from the poles to
the tropics. This freezing happened
over 650 million years ago in the
Pre-Cambrian, though it's now thought
that there may have been more than one
of these global glaciations. They
varied in duration and extent but
during a full-on snowball event, life
could only cling on in ice-free
refuges, or where sunlight managed to
penetrate through the ice to allow
photosynthesis. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/imag
es/ic/credit/640x395/s/sn/snowball_earth
/snowball_earth_1.jpg
2,300,000,000 YBN
48) The oldest "Red Beds", iron oxide
formed on land, begin here, and are
also evidence of more free oxygen in
the air of Earth.7 8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
2. ^
http://www.es.ucsc.edu/~pkoch/lectures/l
ecture5.html
3. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
4. ^
http://www.es.ucsc.edu/~pkoch/lectures/l
ecture5.html
5. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
6. ^
http://www.es.ucsc.edu/~pkoch/lectures/l
ecture5.html
7. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
8. ^
http://www.es.ucsc.edu/~pkoch/lectures/l
ecture5.html
 
[1]
http://www.kgs.ukans.edu/Extension/redhi
lls/redhills.html
source: http://www.kgs.ukans.edu/Extensi
on/redhills/redhills.html

[2] In Archean rocks, metals tend to
occur in low oxidation states (for
example, Fe2+ instead of Fe3+)
indicating a high metal:oxygen ratio in
the oceans and atmosphere. The
sediments are essentially rust-free.
After the late Proterozoic,
sedimentary deposits often have reddish
colors and are called red beds due to
the presence of iron-oxide coatings
between sand grains. From the later
Proterozoic onward, enough free oxygen
has been available to oxidize iron in
sediments. A sandstone butte outside
of Sedona, Arizona. Public domain
image by Jon Sullivan. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/38/Butte_pdphoto_roadtri
p_24_bg_021604.jpg
2,000,000,000 YBN
7 8 9 		63) A parasitic bacterium, closely
related to Rickettsia prowazekii, an
aerobic proteobacteria, is engulfed by
an early eukaryotic cell. Over time a
symbiotic relationship evolves within
the eukaryotic cell (an endosymbiosis)
where the Rickettsia become
mitochondria.

Mitochondria are membrane-bound
organelles found in the cytoplasm of
almost all eukaryotic cells, and are
where cellular respiration occurs
producing most of the ATP in a
eukaryotic cell.6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ S Blair Hedges, Hsiong Chen,
Sudhir Kumar, Daniel YC Wang, Amanda S
Thompson and Hidemi Wa, "A genomic
timescale for the origin of
eukaryotes", BMC Evolutionary Biology
2001, 1:4
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-1-4,
(2001). http://www.biomedcentral.com/14
71-2148/1/4
2. ^ S Blair Hedges, Hsiong Chen,
Sudhir Kumar, Daniel YC Wang, Amanda S
Thompson and Hidemi Wa, "A genomic
timescale for the origin of
eukaryotes", BMC Evolutionary Biology
2001, 1:4
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-1-4,
(2001). http://www.biomedcentral.com/14
71-2148/1/4
3. ^ S Blair Hedges, Hsiong Chen,
Sudhir Kumar, Daniel YC Wang, Amanda S
Thompson and Hidemi Wa, "A genomic
timescale for the origin of
eukaryotes", BMC Evolutionary Biology
2001, 1:4
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-1-4,
(2001). http://www.biomedcentral.com/14
71-2148/1/4
4. ^ "mitochondrion." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2011. Web. 23 Dec. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/386130/mitochondrion>.
5. ^ Campbell, Reece, et al, "Biology",
Eigth Edition, 2008, p100.
6. ^
"mitochondrion." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2011. Web. 23 Dec. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/386130/mitochondrion>.
7. ^ B. Franz Lang, Michael W. Gray,
and Gertraud Burger, "Mitochondrial
Genome Evolution and the Origin of
Eukaryotes", Annu. Rev. Genet., V33,
p351-397, p385. 1999. {2 BYBN}
8. ^ S. Blair
Hedges, "The Origin and Evolution of
Model Organisms", Nature Reviews
Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
http://www.nature.com/nrg/journal/v3/n
11/full/nrg929.html {average of)
2230-1840 bybn} {earliest of) 2350-1640
bybn} {average of 1995my) 2350-1640
mybn}
9. ^ S Blair Hedges, Hsiong Chen,
Sudhir Kumar, Daniel YC Wang, Amanda S
Thompson and Hidemi Wa, "A genomic
timescale for the origin of
eukaryotes", BMC Evolutionary Biology
2001, 1:4
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-1-4,
(2001). http://www.biomedcentral.com/14
71-2148/1/4 {1.8 bybn}

MORE INFO
[1] Michael W. Gray, et al,
"Genome structure and gene content in
protist mitochondrial DNAs", Nucl.
Acids Res. (1998) 26(4): 865-878
doi:10.1093/nar/26.4.865
http://nar.oxfordjournals.org/content/
26/4/865.full
 
[1] Figure from: Michael W. Gray, et
al, ''Genome structure and gene content
in protist mitochondrial DNAs'',
Nucl. Acids Res. (1998) 26(4):
865-878 doi:10.1093/nar/26.4.865
http://nar.oxfordjournals.org/content/
26/4/865.full Phylogenetic hypothesis
of the eukaryotic lineage based on
ultrastructural and molecular data.
Organisms are divided into three main
groups distinguished by mitochondrial
cristal shape (either discoidal,
flattened or tubular). Unbroken lines
indicate phylogenetic relationships
that are firmly supported by available
data; broken lines indicate
uncertainties in phylogenetic
placement, resolution of which will
require additional data. Color coding
of organismal genus names indicates
mitochondrial genomes that have been
completely (Table 1), almost completely
(Jakoba, Naegleria and
Thraustochytrium) or partially (*)
sequenced by the OGMP (red), the FMGP
(black) or other groups (green). Names
in blue indicate those species whose
mtDNAs are currently being sequenced by
the OGMP or are future candidates for
complete sequencing. Amitochondriate
retortamonads are positioned at the
base of the tree, with broken arrows
denoting the endosymbiotic origin(s) of
mitochondria from a Rickettsia-like
eubacterium. Macrophar.,
Macropharyngomonas.
source: http://nar.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/vol26/issue4/images/gkb18201.gif

[2] Figure 1 Phylogenetic tree of
eukaryotes based on ultrastructural and
molecular data. Organisms are
sub-divided into main groups as
discussed in the text. Only a few
representative species for which
complete (or almost complete) mtDNA
sequences are known are shown in each
lineage. In some cases, line drawings
or actual pictures of the organisms are
provided (Acanthamoeba, M. Nagata; URL:
http://protist.i.hosei.ac.jp/PDB/PCD3379
/htmls/21.html; Allomyces, Tom Volk;
URL:
http://botit.botany.wisc.edu/images/332/
Chytridiomycota/Allomyces_r_So_pa/A._arb
uscula_pit._sporangia_tjv.html;
Amoebidium, URL:
http://cgdc3.igmors.upsud.fr/microbiolog
ie/mesomycetozoaires.htm; Marchantia,
URL:
http://www.science.siu.edu/landplants/He
patophyta/images/March.female.JPEG
Scenedesmus, Entwisle et al.,
http://www.rbgsyd.gov.au/_data/page/1824
/Scenedesmus.gif). The color-coding of
the main groups (alternating between
dark and light blue) on the outer
circle corresponds to the color-coding
of the species names. Unbroken lines
indicate phylogenetic relationships
that are firmly supported by available
molecular data; broken lines indicate
uncertainties in phylogenetic
placement, resolution of which will
require additional sequence data. [t:
why not color code or add which type of
mito?]
source: http://arjournals.annualreviews.
org/doi/full/10.1146/annurev.genet.37.11
0801.142526
1,874,000,000 YBN
15 		61) The earliest large filamentous
fossil (Grypania).8 9 Grypania
spiralis is about 10 cm long, and is
thought to be either a green alga or
large cyanobacterium.10 11 If
eukaryote, Grypania would be the
earliest eukaryote fossil.12
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Han and Runnegar 1992. T.-M. Han
and B. Runnegar, Megascopic eukaryotic
algae from the 2.1-billion-year-old
Negaunee Iron-Formation, Michigan.
Science 257 (1992), pp.
232-235 http://www.sciencemag.org/conte
nt/257/5067/232
AND www.jstor.org/discover/10.2307/2877
532 {Han_Runnegar_Grypania_19920710.pdf
}
2. ^ Schneider et al 2002. D.A.
Schneider, M.E. Bickford, W.F. Cannon,
K.J. Schulz and M.A. Hamilton, Age of
volcanic rocks and syndepositional iron
formations, Marquette Range Supergroup;
implications for the tectonic setting
of Paleoproterozoic iron formations of
the Lake Superior region. Can. J. Earth
Sci. 39 6 (2002), pp. 999-1012.
3. ^ Han and
Runnegar 1992. T.-M. Han and B.
Runnegar, Megascopic eukaryotic algae
from the 2.1-billion-year-old Negaunee
Iron-Formation, Michigan. Science 257
(1992), pp.
232-235 http://www.sciencemag.org/conte
nt/257/5067/232
AND www.jstor.org/discover/10.2307/2877
532 {Han_Runnegar_Grypania_19920710.pdf
}
4. ^ Schneider et al 2002. D.A.
Schneider, M.E. Bickford, W.F. Cannon,
K.J. Schulz and M.A. Hamilton, Age of
volcanic rocks and syndepositional iron
formations, Marquette Range Supergroup;
implications for the tectonic setting
of Paleoproterozoic iron formations of
the Lake Superior region. Can. J. Earth
Sci. 39 6 (2002), pp. 999-1012.
5. ^ Han and
Runnegar 1992. T.-M. Han and B.
Runnegar, Megascopic eukaryotic algae
from the 2.1-billion-year-old Negaunee
Iron-Formation, Michigan. Science 257
(1992), pp.
232-235 http://www.sciencemag.org/conte
nt/257/5067/232
AND www.jstor.org/discover/10.2307/2877
532 {Han_Runnegar_Grypania_19920710.pdf
}
6. ^ Schneider et al 2002. D.A.
Schneider, M.E. Bickford, W.F. Cannon,
K.J. Schulz and M.A. Hamilton, Age of
volcanic rocks and syndepositional iron
formations, Marquette Range Supergroup;
implications for the tectonic setting
of Paleoproterozoic iron formations of
the Lake Superior region. Can. J. Earth
Sci. 39 6 (2002), pp. 999-1012.
7. ^ Zhu Shixing
and Chen Huineng, "Megascopic
Multicellular Organisms from the
1700-Million-Year-Old Tuanshanzi
Formation in the Jixian Area, North
China", Science , New Series, Vol. 270,
No. 5236 (Oct. 27, 1995), pp.
620-622. http://www.jstor.org/stable/28
88330 {Shixing_Huineng_19950331.pdf}
8. ^ Han and Runnegar 1992. T.-M. Han
and B. Runnegar, Megascopic eukaryotic
algae from the 2.1-billion-year-old
Negaunee Iron-Formation, Michigan.
Science 257 (1992), pp.
232-235 http://www.sciencemag.org/conte
nt/257/5067/232
AND www.jstor.org/discover/10.2307/2877
532 {Han_Runnegar_Grypania_19920710.pdf
}
9. ^ Schneider et al 2002. D.A.
Schneider, M.E. Bickford, W.F. Cannon,
K.J. Schulz and M.A. Hamilton, Age of
volcanic rocks and syndepositional iron
formations, Marquette Range Supergroup;
implications for the tectonic setting
of Paleoproterozoic iron formations of
the Lake Superior region. Can. J. Earth
Sci. 39 6 (2002), pp. 999-1012.
10. ^ Han and
Runnegar 1992. T.-M. Han and B.
Runnegar, Megascopic eukaryotic algae
from the 2.1-billion-year-old Negaunee
Iron-Formation, Michigan. Science 257
(1992), pp.
232-235 http://www.sciencemag.org/conte
nt/257/5067/232
AND www.jstor.org/discover/10.2307/2877
532 {Han_Runnegar_Grypania_19920710.pdf
}
11. ^ Schneider et al 2002. D.A.
Schneider, M.E. Bickford, W.F. Cannon,
K.J. Schulz and M.A. Hamilton, Age of
volcanic rocks and syndepositional iron
formations, Marquette Range Supergroup;
implications for the tectonic setting
of Paleoproterozoic iron formations of
the Lake Superior region. Can. J. Earth
Sci. 39 6 (2002), pp. 999-1012.
12. ^ Zhu Shixing
and Chen Huineng, "Megascopic
Multicellular Organisms from the
1700-Million-Year-Old Tuanshanzi
Formation in the Jixian Area, North
China", Science , New Series, Vol. 270,
No. 5236 (Oct. 27, 1995), pp.
620-622. http://www.jstor.org/stable/28
88330 {Shixing_Huineng_19950331.pdf}
13. ^ Han and Runnegar 1992. T.-M. Han
and B. Runnegar, Megascopic eukaryotic
algae from the 2.1-billion-year-old
Negaunee Iron-Formation, Michigan.
Science 257 (1992), pp.
232-235 http://www.sciencemag.org/conte
nt/257/5067/232
AND www.jstor.org/discover/10.2307/2877
532 {Han_Runnegar_Grypania_19920710.pdf
}
14. ^ Schneider et al 2002. D.A.
Schneider, M.E. Bickford, W.F. Cannon,
K.J. Schulz and M.A. Hamilton, Age of
volcanic rocks and syndepositional iron
formations, Marquette Range Supergroup;
implications for the tectonic setting
of Paleoproterozoic iron formations of
the Lake Superior region. Can. J. Earth
Sci. 39 6 (2002), pp. 999-1012.
15. ^ Schneider
et al 2002. D.A. Schneider, M.E.
Bickford, W.F. Cannon, K.J. Schulz and
M.A. Hamilton, Age of volcanic rocks
and syndepositional iron formations,
Marquette Range Supergroup;
implications for the tectonic setting
of Paleoproterozoic iron formations of
the Lake Superior region. Can. J. Earth
Sci. 39 6 (2002), pp. 999-1012. {1874
mybn}

MORE INFO
[1] Samuelsson, Joakim, Peter R
Dawes, and Gonzalo Vidal.
“Organic-walled Microfossils from the
Proterozoic Thule Supergroup, Northwest
Greenland.” Precambrian Research
96.1–2 (1999):
1–23. http://www.sciencedirect.com/sc
ience/article/pii/S0301926898001235
[2] Jacques Dumais, Kyle Serikawa and
Dina F Mandoli, "Acetabularia: A
Unicellular Model for Understanding
Subcellular Localization and
Morphogenesis during Development",
Journal of Plant Growth
Regulation Volume 19, Number 3 (2000),
253-264, DOI:
10.1007/s003440000035 http://www.oeb.ha
rvard.edu/faculty/dumais/Publications/JP
GR2000.2.pdf
(Banded Iron Formation) Michigan, USA13
14  
[1]
file:/root/web/Grypania_spiralis_wmel000
0.htm
source: file:/root/web/Grypania_spiralis
_wmel0000.htm

[2]
http://www.peripatus.gen.nz/paleontology
/lrgGrypaniaspiralis.jpg
source: http://www.peripatus.gen.nz/pale
ontology/lrgGrypaniaspiralis.jpg
1,800,000,000 YBN
46) The end of the Banded Iron
Formation.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
2. ^ Richard
Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA:
Blackwell, 2005).
3. ^ Richard Cowen, "History
of Life", (Malden, MA: Blackwell,
2005).
4. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
 
[1] Ted Huntington PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/62/MichiganBIF.jpg

[2] Ted Huntington PD
source: Ted Huntington
1,570,000,000 YBN
13 14 15 		99) The first homeobox genes evolve.
These genes regulate the building of
major body parts in algae, plants,
fungi and animals.7 8 9 10

For example, when a homeobox gene
responsible for growing a mouse eye is
added to the cell of a fruit-fly embryo
that is destined to be a leg, an extra
fruit fly eye is built on the leg.11 12

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p425,434.
2. ^ Richard Cowen,
"History of Life", (Malden, MA:
Blackwell, 2005).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p425,434.
4. ^ Richard
Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA:
Blackwell, 2005).
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p425,434.
6. ^ Richard
Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA:
Blackwell, 2005).
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p425,434.
8. ^ Richard
Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA:
Blackwell, 2005).
9. ^ Thomas R. Bürglin,
"Analysis of TALE superclass homeobox
genes (MEIS, PBC, KNOX, Iroquois, TGIF)
reveals a novel domain conserved
between plants and animals", Nucl.
Acids Res. (1997) 25(21): 4173-4180
doi:10.1093/nar/25.21.4173
http://nar.oxfordjournals.org/content/
25/21/4173.abstract
10. ^ Mukherjee, Krishanu, Luciano
Brocchieri, and Thomas R. Bürglin.
“A Comprehensive Classification and
Evolutionary Analysis of Plant Homeobox
Genes.” Molecular Biology and
Evolution 26.12 (2009): 2775
-2794. http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/26/12/2775.short
11. ^ Halder, G, P Callaerts, and WJ
Gehring. “Induction of ectopic eyes
by targeted expression of the eyeless
gene in Drosophila.” Science 267.5205
(1995) : 1788 -1792.
http://www.sciencemag.org/citmgr?gca=s
ci;267/5205/1788
12. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p399.
13. ^ Mukherjee K,
Bürglin TR, "MEKHLA, a novel domain
with similarity to PAS domains, is
fused to plant homeodomain-leucine
zipper III proteins.", Plant Physiol
2006;140:1142-1150. http://www.plantphy
siol.org/content/140/4/1142.full
14. ^ Mukherjee, Krishanu, Luciano
Brocchieri, and Thomas R. Bürglin.
“A Comprehensive Classification and
Evolutionary Analysis of Plant Homeobox
Genes.” Molecular Biology and
Evolution 26.12 (2009): 2775
-2794. http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/26/12/2775.short {1982 mybn (at
acrasid slime molds, before brown
algae}
15. ^ Jongmin Nam, Claude W.
dePamphilis, Hong Ma, and Masatoshi
Nei, "Antiquity and Evolution of the
MADS-Box Gene Family Controlling Flower
Development in Plants", Mol Biol Evol
(2003) 20(9): 1435-1447 first published
online May 30, 2003
doi:10.1093/molbev/msg152
http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/content/
20/9/1435.abstract {1982 mybn (at
acrasid slime molds, before brown
algae}
 
[1] {ULSF: Homeobox genes} Desajustes
en el modelo UNKNOWN
source: http://cnho.files.wordpress.com/
2010/07/hox_genes_illus.png

[2] {ULSF: Homeobox genes} UNKNOWN
source: http://cnho.files.wordpress.com/
2010/07/homeobox1.jpg
1,570,000,000 YBN
10 11 		197) The ancestor of all living
eukaryotes divides into bikont and
unikont descendants. Bikonts lead to
all Chromalveolates, Excavates,
Rhizaria, and Plants. Unikonts lead to
all Amoebozoa, Animals and Fungi.7 8 9

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Stechmann A, Cavalier-Smith T,
"The root of the eukaryote tree
pinpointed.", 2003, Curr. Biol. 13,
R665–R666.
doi:10.1016/S0960-9822(03)00602-X. http
://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article
/pii/S096098220300602X
2. ^ Cédric Berney and Jan Pawlowski,
"A molecular time-scale for eukaryote
evolution recalibrated with the
continuous microfossil record", Proc.
R. Soc. B August 7, 2006 273:1867-1872;
doi:10.1098/rspb.2006.3537 http://rspb.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/273/1
596/1867.short
{Berney_Eukaryote_phylogeny_2006.pdf}
3. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield
NJ, Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D,
"Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources and
timing of the major events.", in:
Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors.
"Evolution of primary producers in the
sea.", Elsevier; 2007, p119.
4. ^ Stechmann
A, Cavalier-Smith T, "The root of the
eukaryote tree pinpointed.", 2003,
Curr. Biol. 13, R665–R666.
doi:10.1016/S0960-9822(03)00602-X. http
://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article
/pii/S096098220300602X
5. ^ Cédric Berney and Jan Pawlowski,
"A molecular time-scale for eukaryote
evolution recalibrated with the
continuous microfossil record", Proc.
R. Soc. B August 7, 2006 273:1867-1872;
doi:10.1098/rspb.2006.3537 http://rspb.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/273/1
596/1867.short
{Berney_Eukaryote_phylogeny_2006.pdf}
6. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield
NJ, Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D,
"Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources and
timing of the major events.", in:
Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors.
"Evolution of primary producers in the
sea.", Elsevier; 2007, p119.
7. ^ Stechmann
A, Cavalier-Smith T, "The root of the
eukaryote tree pinpointed.", 2003,
Curr. Biol. 13, R665–R666.
doi:10.1016/S0960-9822(03)00602-X. http
://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article
/pii/S096098220300602X
8. ^ Cédric Berney and Jan Pawlowski,
"A molecular time-scale for eukaryote
evolution recalibrated with the
continuous microfossil record", Proc.
R. Soc. B August 7, 2006 273:1867-1872;
doi:10.1098/rspb.2006.3537 http://rspb.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/273/1
596/1867.short
{Berney_Eukaryote_phylogeny_2006.pdf}
9. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield
NJ, Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D,
"Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources and
timing of the major events.", in:
Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors.
"Evolution of primary producers in the
sea.", Elsevier; 2007, p119.
10. ^ Cédric
Berney and Jan Pawlowski, "A molecular
time-scale for eukaryote evolution
recalibrated with the continuous
microfossil record", Proc. R. Soc. B
August 7, 2006 273:1867-1872;
doi:10.1098/rspb.2006.3537 http://rspb.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/273/1
596/1867.short
{Berney_Eukaryote_phylogeny_2006.pdf}
{problem with 1250 my bangia red algae
fossils)1126 mybn}
11. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS,
Butterfield NJ, Sanderson MJ,
Bhattacharya D, "Plastid endosymbiosis:
Sources and timing of the major
events.", in: Falkowski P, Knoll A,
editors. "Evolution of primary
producers in the sea.", Elsevier; 2007,
p119. {1570 mybn}

MORE INFO
[1] Thomas Cavalier-Smith, Ema
E.-Y. Chao, "Phylogeny of Choanozoa,
Apusozoa, and Other Protozoa and Early
Eukaryote Megaevolution", J Mol Evol
(2003) 56:540 563
[2] J Mol Evol (2003)
56:540 563 Phylogeny of Choanozoa,
Apusozoa, and Other Protozoa and Early
Eukaryote Megaevolution Thomas
Cavalier-Smith, Ema E.-Y. Chao
 
[1] Figure 1: Figure 1. Eukaryote
phylogeny integrating ultrastructure,
sequence trees, gene fusions and
molecular cladistic markers. The
unikont topology is established, but
the branching order of the six bikont
groups remains uncertain. The single
enslavement [12] of a red alga (R) to
create chromalveolates is supported by
a plastid glyceraldehyde phosphate
dehydrogenase (GAPDH) replacement [13].
Whether there was a single enslavement
of a green alga (G) to form cabozoa or
two separate enslavements (asterisks)
to form Cercozoa and Excavata is
uncertain [12], as is the position of
Heliozoa [14]. Polyubiquitin [15] and
EF-1α[16] insertions strongly support
the clades core Rhizaria and
opisthokonts. The inset shows the BamHI
restriction fragment from H.
cantabrigiensis that was sequenced and
analysed in this study, spanning the
DHFR and the amino terminus of the TS
gene (red, introns are green). The
length of the noncoding regions
upstream and downstream of the DHFR
gene from one of the clones is
indicated. Figure 1 from: Stechmann
A, Cavalier-Smith T, ''The root of the
eukaryote tree pinpointed.'', 2003,
Curr. Biol. 13, R665–R666.
doi:10.1016/S0960-9822(03)00602-X. http
://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article
/pii/S096098220300602X COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=MiamiCaptionURL&_method=retriev
e&_eid=1-s2.0-S096098220300602X&_image=1
-s2.0-S096098220300602X-gr1_lrg.jpg&_ba=
&_fmt=full&_orig=na&_issn=09609822&_pii=
S096098220300602X&_isHiQual=Y&_acct=C000
059600&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=
4422&md5=cec46b2161caca87740f4ff34545ab6
9

[2] cavalier-smith diagram COPYRIGHTED

source: cavalier_jmolevol_2003_56_540-56
3.pdf
1,520,000,000 YBN
10 11 12 13 14 		202) The Protist Phylum Amoebozoa
evolves (amoebas, slime molds).7 8
Feeding using pseudopods evolves.9
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
2. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p515.
4. ^ S Blair Hedges,
Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi and
Jason L Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
5. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p515.
7. ^ S Blair Hedges,
Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi and
Jason L Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
8. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
9. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p515.
10. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon
HS, Butterfield NJ, Sanderson MJ,
Bhattacharya D, "Plastid endosymbiosis:
Sources and timing of the major
events.", in: Falkowski P, Knoll A,
editors. "Evolution of primary
producers in the sea.", Elsevier; 2007,
p119. {1520 mybn}
11. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS,
Butterfield NJ, Sanderson MJ,
Bhattacharya D, "Plastid endosymbiosis:
Sources and timing of the major
events.", in: Falkowski P, Knoll A,
editors. "Evolution of primary
producers in the sea.", Elsevier; 2007,
p120. {1400 my}
12. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime
E Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L
Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
(1587mybn)
13. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (c1400) {c1220}
14. ^ Cédric
Berney and Jan Pawlowski, "A molecular
time-scale for eukaryote evolution
recalibrated with the continuous
microfossil record", Proc. R. Soc. B
August 7, 2006 273:1867-1872;
doi:10.1098/rspb.2006.3537 http://rspb.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/273/1
596/1867.short {c1090}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.unige.ch/sciences/biologie/bi
ani/msg/Amoeboids/Amoebozoa/Conosea.html

 
[1] SUBPHYLUM Lobosa CLASS Amoebaea
Chaos diffluens, an amoeba. Photo
released by Dr. Ralf Wagner.
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Chaos_diffluens.jpg

[2] CLASS Amoebaea Mayorella (may-or
-ell-a) a medium sized free-living
naked amoeba with conical pseudopodia.
Central body is the nucleus. Phase
contrast. This picture was taken by
David Patterson of material from
Limulus-ridden sediments at Plum Island
(Massachusetts USA) in spring and
summer, 2001. NONCOMMERCIAL USE
source: http://microscope.mbl.edu/script
s/microscope.php?func=imgDetail&imageID=
515
1,520,000,000 YBN
3 4 5 6 7 8 		203) Colonialism (where cells form a
colony2 ) evolves for the first time in
Eukaryotes.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "colonial." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 02
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/colonial
2. ^ "colonial." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 02
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/colonial
3. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield
NJ, Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D,
"Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources and
timing of the major events.", in:
Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors.
"Evolution of primary producers in the
sea.", Elsevier; 2007, p119. {1080
mybn}
4. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield
NJ, Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D,
"Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources and
timing of the major events.", in:
Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors.
"Evolution of primary producers in the
sea.", Elsevier; 2007, p119. {1080
mybn}
5. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
{1956 mybn}
6. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS,
Butterfield NJ, Sanderson MJ,
Bhattacharya D, "Plastid endosymbiosis:
Sources and timing of the major
events.", in: Falkowski P, Knoll A,
editors. "Evolution of primary
producers in the sea.", Elsevier; 2007,
p120. {1999 mybn}
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). (1600mybn)
8. ^ Russell F.
Doolittle, Da-Fei Feng, Simon Tsang,
Glen Cho, Elizabeth Little,
"Determining Divergence Times of the
Major Kingdoms of Living Organisms with
a Protein Clock", Science, (1996).
(1800-1900 for eukaryote/prokaryote
separation)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://biology.kenyon.edu/Microbial_Bior
ealm/eukaryotes/euglenozoa/euglenozoa.ht
m
[2]
http://www.sirinet.net/~jgjohnso/apbio30
.html
 
[1] [t Note that this Chrysophytes
{golden algae} do not evolve
genetically until much later - but I
can't find colonial euglinas or
kinetoplasts- dinobryon look very
similar to euglenas however, even with
a red eyespot- which implies a close
relation.] [1] Dinobryon, a colony of
Chrysophytes showing flagella and red
eyespots UNKNOWN
source: http://www.microscopy-uk.org.uk/
mag//imagsmall/Dinobryonb.jpg

[2] [t Note that this CHrysophytes
{golden algae} do not evolve
genetically until much later - but I
can't find colonial euglinas or
kinetoplasts] [2] golden algae colony
(synura) Scanning EM showing the
colony of cells covered with scales By
Joel Mancuso UNKNOWN
source: http://farm1.staticflickr.com/38
/110623789_7d189c795b_b.jpg
1,500,000,000 YBN
6 7 8 9 10 11 12 		15) The first "plastids" evolve.
Cyanobacteria form plastids through
endosymbiosis within a eukaryotic cell.
Like mitochondria, these organelles
copy themselves and are not made by the
cell DNA.4

Plastids provide the eukaryotic cell
with food from photosynthesis and gain
protection by living within the cell.5

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The Origin and
Evolution of Model Organisms", Nature
Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
2. ^ S. Blair
Hedges, "The Origin and Evolution of
Model Organisms", Nature Reviews
Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
3. ^ S. Blair
Hedges, "The Origin and Evolution of
Model Organisms", Nature Reviews
Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
4. ^ S. Blair
Hedges, "The Origin and Evolution of
Model Organisms", Nature Reviews
Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
5. ^ Lee, R.E.
Phycology. Cambridge University Press,
2008,
p85. http://books.google.com/books?id=g
foIAFHgusgC&pg=PA85
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon
HS, Butterfield NJ, Sanderson MJ,
Bhattacharya D, "Plastid endosymbiosis:
Sources and timing of the major
events.", in: Falkowski P, Knoll A,
editors. "Evolution of primary
producers in the sea.", Elsevier; 2007,
p119. {1300 mybn}
9. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS,
Butterfield NJ, Sanderson MJ,
Bhattacharya D, "Plastid endosymbiosis:
Sources and timing of the major
events.", in: Falkowski P, Knoll A,
editors. "Evolution of primary
producers in the sea.", Elsevier; 2007,
p120. {c1600 my}
10. ^ S. Blair Hedges,
"The Origin and Evolution of Model
Organisms", Nature Reviews Genetics 3,
838-849; doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).,
see comments {1576 MYBN}
11. ^ Knoll A,
Summons R, Waldbauer J, Zumberge J,
"The Geological Succession of Primary
Producers in the Oceans", in: Falkowski
P, Knoll A, editors. "Evolution of
primary producers in the sea.",
Elsevier; 2007, p152. {no later than)
1200 my}
12. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The Origin
and Evolution of Model Organisms",
Nature Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002)., see
comments {1576 MYBN} {needs to be at
least as old as Euglenozoa since many
have plastids)1956} {Euglenozoa)1956}

MORE INFO
[1] "Plastid". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastid
[2] Butterfield N. J. A. H. Knoll K.
Swett, "A bangiophyte red alga from the
Proterozoic of Arctic Canada.", Science
1990 vol 250 1990,
p104-107. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2
877905
 
[1] Description Plagiomnium
affine, Laminazellen, Rostock Date
created 01.11.2006 Source
photographed by myself Author
Kristian Peters --
Fabelfroh Permission (Reusing this
file) GFDL
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/49/Plagiomnium_affine_la
minazellen.jpeg
1,500,000,000 YBN
32 33 34 35 36 37 38 		86) The first plant (ancestor of all
green and red algae and land plants).21
22 23 24 25

This begins the plant kingdom. The
first plant is probably unicellular,
similar to the glaucophytes
{GlxKoFITS26 }.27 28 29 30 31
FOOTNOTES

1. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148
/4/2
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^ Seung Yeo Moon-van der
Staay, Rupert De Wachter, Daniel
Vaulot, "Oceanic 18S rDNA sequences
from picoplankton reveal unsuspected
eukaryotic diversity", Nature, (2001).
4. ^
Elizabeth Pennisi, "Drafting a Tree",
Science, (2003).
5. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The
Origin and Evolution of Model
Organisms", Nature Reviews Genetics 3,
838-849; doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
http://www.nature.com/nrg/journal/v3/n
11/abs/nrg929.html
6. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148
/4/2
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
8. ^ Seung Yeo Moon-van der
Staay, Rupert De Wachter, Daniel
Vaulot, "Oceanic 18S rDNA sequences
from picoplankton reveal unsuspected
eukaryotic diversity", Nature, (2001).
9. ^
Elizabeth Pennisi, "Drafting a Tree",
Science, (2003).
10. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The
Origin and Evolution of Model
Organisms", Nature Reviews Genetics 3,
838-849; doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
http://www.nature.com/nrg/journal/v3/n
11/abs/nrg929.html
11. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148
/4/2
12. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
13. ^ Seung Yeo Moon-van der
Staay, Rupert De Wachter, Daniel
Vaulot, "Oceanic 18S rDNA sequences
from picoplankton reveal unsuspected
eukaryotic diversity", Nature, (2001).
14. ^
Elizabeth Pennisi, "Drafting a Tree",
Science, (2003).
15. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The
Origin and Evolution of Model
Organisms", Nature Reviews Genetics 3,
838-849; doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
http://www.nature.com/nrg/journal/v3/n
11/abs/nrg929.html
16. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148
/4/2
17. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
18. ^ Seung Yeo Moon-van der
Staay, Rupert De Wachter, Daniel
Vaulot, "Oceanic 18S rDNA sequences
from picoplankton reveal unsuspected
eukaryotic diversity", Nature, (2001).
19. ^
Elizabeth Pennisi, "Drafting a Tree",
Science, (2003).
20. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The
Origin and Evolution of Model
Organisms", Nature Reviews Genetics 3,
838-849; doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
http://www.nature.com/nrg/journal/v3/n
11/abs/nrg929.html
21. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148
/4/2
22. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
23. ^ Seung Yeo Moon-van der
Staay, Rupert De Wachter, Daniel
Vaulot, "Oceanic 18S rDNA sequences
from picoplankton reveal unsuspected
eukaryotic diversity", Nature, (2001).
24. ^
Elizabeth Pennisi, "Drafting a Tree",
Science, (2003).
25. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The
Origin and Evolution of Model
Organisms", Nature Reviews Genetics 3,
838-849; doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
http://www.nature.com/nrg/journal/v3/n
11/abs/nrg929.html
26. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=glauco
phytes&submit=Submit
27. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148
/4/2
28. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
29. ^ Seung Yeo Moon-van der
Staay, Rupert De Wachter, Daniel
Vaulot, "Oceanic 18S rDNA sequences
from picoplankton reveal unsuspected
eukaryotic diversity", Nature, (2001).
30. ^
Elizabeth Pennisi, "Drafting a Tree",
Science, (2003).
31. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The
Origin and Evolution of Model
Organisms", Nature Reviews Genetics 3,
838-849; doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
http://www.nature.com/nrg/journal/v3/n
11/abs/nrg929.html
32. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (c1500)
33. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon
HS, Butterfield NJ, Sanderson MJ,
Bhattacharya D, "Plastid endosymbiosis:
Sources and timing of the major
events.", in: Falkowski P, Knoll A,
editors. "Evolution of primary
producers in the sea.", Elsevier; 2007,
p119. {first plastid) 1300mybn}
34. ^ Hackett JD,
Yoon HS, Butterfield NJ, Sanderson MJ,
Bhattacharya D, "Plastid endosymbiosis:
Sources and timing of the major
events.", in: Falkowski P, Knoll A,
editors. "Evolution of primary
producers in the sea.", Elsevier; 2007.
{first plastid) c1600}
35. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon
HS, Butterfield NJ, Sanderson MJ,
Bhattacharya D, "Plastid endosymbiosis:
Sources and timing of the major
events.", in: Falkowski P, Knoll A,
editors. "Evolution of primary
producers in the sea.", Elsevier; 2007,
p120. {1550 mybn}
36. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime
E Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L
Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148
/4/2 (1609 mybn)
37. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The
Origin and Evolution of Model
Organisms", Nature Reviews Genetics 3,
838-849; doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
{1580} http://www.nature.com/nrg/journa
l/v3/n11/abs/nrg929.html
38. ^ Han and Runnegar 1992. T.-M. Han
and B. Runnegar, Megascopic eukaryotic
algae from the 2.1-billion-year-old
Negaunee Iron-Formation, Michigan.
Science 257 (1992), pp.
232-235 science_2100_han_runnegar_algal
_cysts.pdf {fossil Grypania) 1874my}

MORE INFO
[1] Thomas Cavalier-Smith and Ema
E. -Y. Chao, "Phylogeny of Choanozoa,
Apusozoa, and Other Protozoa and Early
Eukaryote Megaevolution", Springer New
York,
(2003). file:///home/ted/ulsf/docs/cav-
smith_apusozoa_fulltext.html
 
[1] ? COPYRIGHTED
source: http://protist.i.hosei.ac.jp/PDB
3/PCD3711/htmls/86.html

[2] (See Image) COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). (c1500)
1,500,000,000 YBN
7 8 9 10 11 		220) Protists Opisthokonts (ancestor of
Fungi, Choanoflagellates and Animals).5
6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield
NJ, Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D,
"Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources and
timing of the major events.", in:
Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors.
"Evolution of primary producers in the
sea.", Elsevier; 2007.
2. ^ S. Blair Hedges
and Sudhir Kumar, "The TimeTree of
Life", 2009,
p117-118. http://www.timetree.org/book.
php
3. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield
NJ, Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D,
"Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources and
timing of the major events.", in:
Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors.
"Evolution of primary producers in the
sea.", Elsevier; 2007.
4. ^ S. Blair Hedges
and Sudhir Kumar, "The TimeTree of
Life", 2009,
p117-118. http://www.timetree.org/book.
php
5. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield
NJ, Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D,
"Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources and
timing of the major events.", in:
Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors.
"Evolution of primary producers in the
sea.", Elsevier; 2007.
6. ^ S. Blair Hedges
and Sudhir Kumar, "The TimeTree of
Life", 2009,
p117-118. http://www.timetree.org/book.
php
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS,
Butterfield NJ, Sanderson MJ,
Bhattacharya D, "Plastid endosymbiosis:
Sources and timing of the major
events.", in: Falkowski P, Knoll A,
editors. "Evolution of primary
producers in the sea.", Elsevier; 2007,
p119. {1380 mybn}
9. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS,
Butterfield NJ, Sanderson MJ,
Bhattacharya D, "Plastid endosymbiosis:
Sources and timing of the major
events.", in: Falkowski P, Knoll A,
editors. "Evolution of primary
producers in the sea.", Elsevier; 2007,
p120. {1400mybn}
10. ^ S. Blair Hedges and Sudhir
Kumar, "The TimeTree of Life", 2009,
p117-118. http://www.timetree.org/book.
php {1600 mybn}
11. ^ Cédric Berney and Jan
Pawlowski, "A molecular time-scale for
eukaryote evolution recalibrated with
the continuous microfossil record",
Proc. R. Soc. B August 7, 2006
273:1867-1872;
doi:10.1098/rspb.2006.3537 http://rspb.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/273/1
596/1867.short {960 mybn}
 
[1] Parasite spore, SEM Z115/0073
Rights Managed Credit: EYE OF
SCIENCE/SCIENCE PHOTO
LIBRARY Caption: Parasite spore.
Coloured scanning electron micrograph
(SEM) of a microsporidian (Tubulinosema
ratisbonensis) spore cultured on human
lung fibroblast cells (brown).
Microsporidia are single-celled
parasites. T. ratisbonenesis is a
parasite of the fruit fly (Drosophila
melanogaster), but may also be able to
infect humans with weakened immune
systems. The spore is the infective
phase of the life cycle. It is excreted
by the old host and enters the gut of a
new host. The contents of the spore,
the sporoplasm, is injected into the
host's cell via the polar tubule. Once
in the cell the organism divides many
times with the resultant organisms
producing more spores. Magnification:
x10,000 at 10 centimetres
wide. Release details: Model and
property releases are not available
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.sciencephoto.com/imag
e/365473/large/Z1150073-Parasite_spore,_
SEM-SPL.jpg

[2] Parasite spore, SEM Z115/0073
Rights Managed Credit: EYE OF
SCIENCE/SCIENCE PHOTO
LIBRARY Caption: Parasite spore.
Coloured scanning electron micrograph
(SEM) of a microsporidian (Tubulinosema
ratisbonensis) spore cultured on human
lung fibroblast cells (brown).
Microsporidia are single-celled
parasites. T. ratisbonenesis is a
parasite of the fruit fly (Drosophila
melanogaster), but may also be able to
infect humans with weakened immune
systems. The spore is the infective
phase of the life cycle. It is excreted
by the old host and enters the gut of a
new host. The contents of the spore,
the sporoplasm, is injected into the
host's cell via the polar tubule. Once
in the cell the organism divides many
times with the resultant organisms
producing more spores. Magnification:
x10,000 at 10 centimetres
wide. Release details: Model and
property releases are not available
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.sciencephoto.com/imag
e/365473/large/Z1150073-Parasite_spore,_
SEM-SPL.jpg
1,400,000,000 YBN
14 15 16 17 18 19 20 		209) The earliest extant plant:
Glaucophyta {GlxKoFITu9 }.10 11 12

Glaucophytes are unicellular algae
found in freshwater.13
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=glauco
phytes&submit=Submit
2. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The Origin and
Evolution of Model Organisms", Nature
Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
3. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
4. ^ Hwan Su Yoon, Jeremiah D. Hackett,
Claudia Ciniglia, Gabriele Pinto and
Debashish, "A Molecular Timeline for
the Origin of Photosynthetic
Eukaryotes", Molecular Biology and
Evolution, (2004).
5. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=glauco
phytes&submit=Submit
6. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The Origin and
Evolution of Model Organisms", Nature
Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
7. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
8. ^ Hwan Su Yoon, Jeremiah D. Hackett,
Claudia Ciniglia, Gabriele Pinto and
Debashish, "A Molecular Timeline for
the Origin of Photosynthetic
Eukaryotes", Molecular Biology and
Evolution, (2004).
9. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=glauco
phytes&submit=Submit
10. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The Origin and
Evolution of Model Organisms", Nature
Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
11. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
12. ^ Hwan Su Yoon, Jeremiah D.
Hackett, Claudia Ciniglia, Gabriele
Pinto and Debashish, "A Molecular
Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution, (2004).
13. ^ Lee, R.E.
Phycology. Cambridge University Press,
2008,
p85. http://books.google.com/books?id=g
foIAFHgusgC&pg=PA85
14. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (c1400)
15. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon
HS, Butterfield NJ, Sanderson MJ,
Bhattacharya D, "Plastid endosymbiosis:
Sources and timing of the major
events.", in: Falkowski P, Knoll A,
editors. "Evolution of primary
producers in the sea.", Elsevier; 2007,
p119.
16. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield
NJ, Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D,
"Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources and
timing of the major events.", in:
Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors.
"Evolution of primary producers in the
sea.", Elsevier; 2007, p119. {1150
mybn}
17. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield
NJ, Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D,
"Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources and
timing of the major events.", in:
Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors.
"Evolution of primary producers in the
sea.", Elsevier; 2007. {c1290 mybn}
18. ^ S.
Blair Hedges and Sudhir Kumar, "The
TimeTree of Life", 2009,
p117-118. http://www.timetree.org/book.
php {1225 mybn}
19. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The
Origin and Evolution of Model
Organisms", Nature Reviews Genetics 3,
838-849 (2002); doi:10.1038/nrg929,
(2002). (c1500my)
20. ^ Hwan Su Yoon, Jeremiah D.
Hackett, Claudia Ciniglia, Gabriele
Pinto and Debashish, "A Molecular
Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution, (2004). (1558my)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://microscope.mbl.edu/scripts/protis
t.php?func=integrate&myID=P6064
 
[1] ? COPYRIGHTED
source: http://protist.i.hosei.ac.jp/PDB
3/PCD3711/htmls/86.html

[2] ? COPYRIGHTED
source: http://protist.i.hosei.ac.jp/PDB
/Images/Others/Glaucocystis/
1,300,000,000 YBN
20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 		188) The Plant Phylum Chlorophyta
{KlORoFiTu12 } evolves, Green Algae:
(ancestor of Volvox, Sea lettuce,
Spirogyra, and Stoneworts).13 14 15 16
17

The first land plants most likely
evolve from green algae.18 19
FOOTNOTES

1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E
Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L
Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
3. ^ Daniel
S. Heckman,1 David M. Geiser,2 Brooke
R. Eidell,1 Rebecca L. Stauffer,1
Natalie L. Kardos, "Molecular Evidence
for the Early Colonization of Land by
Fungi and Plants", Science 10 August
2001: Vol. 293. no. 5532, pp. 1129 -
1133 DOI: 10.1126/science.1061457,
(2001).
4. ^ M. J. Benton, "The Fossil Record
2", (London; New York: Chapman & Hall,
1993). fr2b
5. ^
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/greenalgae/
greenalgae.html
6. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=chloro
phyta&submit=Submit
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
8. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E
Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L
Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
9. ^ Daniel
S. Heckman,1 David M. Geiser,2 Brooke
R. Eidell,1 Rebecca L. Stauffer,1
Natalie L. Kardos, "Molecular Evidence
for the Early Colonization of Land by
Fungi and Plants", Science 10 August
2001: Vol. 293. no. 5532, pp. 1129 -
1133 DOI: 10.1126/science.1061457,
(2001).
10. ^ M. J. Benton, "The Fossil Record
2", (London; New York: Chapman & Hall,
1993). fr2b
11. ^
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/greenalgae/
greenalgae.html
12. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=chloro
phyta&submit=Submit
13. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
14. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E
Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L
Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
15. ^ Daniel
S. Heckman,1 David M. Geiser,2 Brooke
R. Eidell,1 Rebecca L. Stauffer,1
Natalie L. Kardos, "Molecular Evidence
for the Early Colonization of Land by
Fungi and Plants", Science 10 August
2001: Vol. 293. no. 5532, pp. 1129 -
1133 DOI: 10.1126/science.1061457,
(2001).
16. ^ M. J. Benton, "The Fossil Record
2", (London; New York: Chapman & Hall,
1993). fr2b
17. ^
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/greenalgae/
greenalgae.html
18. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
19. ^ Taylor, Taylor, Krings,
"Paleobotany: The Biology and Evolution
of Fossil Plants", 2009, p133-134.
20. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004). (1300mybn)
21. ^ "algae." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2011. Web. 18 Dec. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/14828/algae>.
22. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield
NJ, Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D,
"Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources and
timing of the major events.", in:
Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors.
"Evolution of primary producers in the
sea.", Elsevier; 2007, p119. {1150
mybn}
23. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield
NJ, Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D,
"Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources and
timing of the major events.", in:
Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors.
"Evolution of primary producers in the
sea.", Elsevier; 2007, p120. {1450mybn}
24. ^ S
Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L
Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A molecular
timescale of eukaryote evolution and
the rise of complex multicellular
life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004,
4:2 doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2,
(2004). (968mybn)
25. ^ Daniel S. Heckman,1
David M. Geiser,2 Brooke R. Eidell,1
Rebecca L. Stauffer,1 Natalie L.
Kardos, "Molecular Evidence for the
Early Colonization of Land by Fungi and
Plants", Science 10 August 2001: Vol.
293. no. 5532, pp. 1129 - 1133 DOI:
10.1126/science.1061457, (2001).
(1061?)
26. ^ M. J. Benton, "The Fossil Record
2", (London; New York: Chapman & Hall,
1993). fr2b (1650-800mybn)
27. ^
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/greenalgae/
greenalgae.html (1000my)
28. ^ Herman N,
"Organic World One Billion Years Ago",
Nauka, Leningrad, 1990.
29. ^ Knoll A,
Summons R, Waldbauer J, Zumberge J,
"The Geological Succession of Primary
Producers in the Oceans", in: Falkowski
P, Knoll A, editors. "Evolution of
primary producers in the sea.",
Elsevier; 2007, p150.
 
[1] Description Flagellar pit of
Pyramimonas sp. / from Nigaku-Ike of
University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Ibaraki
Pref., Japan / SEM:JEOL JSM-6330F /
scale bar = 1.0μm Date 2009-05-04
18:30 (UTC) Source
Pyramimonas_sp.jpg Author
Pyramimonas_sp.jpg: ja:User:NEON /
User:NEON_ja derivative work:
Addicted04 (talk) CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/cb/Pyramimonas_sp_color.
jpg

[2] Micrograph of Volvox aureus.
Copyright held by Dr. Ralf Wagner,
uploaded to German Wikipedia under
GFDL. Permission is granted to copy,
distribute and/or modify this document
under the terms of the GNU Free
Documentation License, Version 1.2 or
any later version published by the Free
Software Foundation; with no Invariant
Sections, no Front-Cover Texts, and no
Back-Cover Texts. Subject to
disclaimers.
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vol
vox
1,300,000,000 YBN
10 11 12 13 		219) The plant Phylum Rhodophyta
{rODOFITu7 } evolves (Red Algae).8 9
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=rhodop
hyta&submit=Submit
2. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
3. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
4. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=rhodop
hyta&submit=Submit
5. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
6. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
7. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=rhodop
hyta&submit=Submit
8. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
9. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
10. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (1300mybn)
11. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon
HS, Butterfield NJ, Sanderson MJ,
Bhattacharya D, "Plastid endosymbiosis:
Sources and timing of the major
events.", in: Falkowski P, Knoll A,
editors. "Evolution of primary
producers in the sea.", Elsevier; 2007,
p120. {1450 mybn}
12. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime
E Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L
Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
(1428mybn)
13. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield
NJ, Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D,
"Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources and
timing of the major events.", in:
Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors.
"Evolution of primary producers in the
sea.", Elsevier; 2007, p119.

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.sirinet.net/~jgjohnso/apbio30
.html
 
[1] Close-up of a red alga (Genus?
Laurencia), Class Florideophyceae,
Order=? a marine seaweed from Hawaii.
GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Laurencia.jpg

[2] Bangia atropurpurea Profile:
unbranched filaments in tufts. Often
forming dense fringes in the spalsh
zone. Uniseriate at base, multiseriate
above with protoplasts separate in a
firm gelatinous sheath. Stellate
chloroplasts. US NOAA PD
source: http://www.glerl.noaa.gov/seagra
nt/GLWL/Algae/Rhodophyta/Cards/Bangia.ht
ml
1,300,000,000 YBN
17 18 19 20 21 22 23 		323) The Protists Excavates: includes
Parabasalids {PaRu-BAS-a-liDS11 }, and
Diplomonads {DiP-lO-mO-naDZ12 } {like
Giardia {JE-oR-DE-u13 }).14 15 16
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=giardi
a&submit=Submit
2. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148
/4/2
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
4. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The
Origin and Evolution of Model
Organisms", Nature Reviews Genetics 3,
838-849; doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
5. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=paraba
salid&submit=Submit
6. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=diplom
onads&submit=Submit
7. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=giardi
a&submit=Submit
8. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148
/4/2
9. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
10. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The
Origin and Evolution of Model
Organisms", Nature Reviews Genetics 3,
838-849; doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
11. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=paraba
salid&submit=Submit
12. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=diplom
onads&submit=Submit
13. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=giardi
a&submit=Submit
14. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148
/4/2
15. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
16. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The
Origin and Evolution of Model
Organisms", Nature Reviews Genetics 3,
838-849; doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
17. ^
Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield NJ,
Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D, "Plastid
endosymbiosis: Sources and timing of
the major events.", in: Falkowski P,
Knoll A, editors. "Evolution of primary
producers in the sea.", Elsevier; 2007,
p119. {1300 mybn}
18. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS,
Butterfield NJ, Sanderson MJ,
Bhattacharya D, "Plastid endosymbiosis:
Sources and timing of the major
events.", in: Falkowski P, Knoll A,
editors. "Evolution of primary
producers in the sea.", Elsevier; 2007,
p120. {2000 my}
19. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime
E Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L
Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
{2291} {2291 my}
20. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). {1600}
{1600 my}
21. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The
Origin and Evolution of Model
Organisms", Nature Reviews Genetics 3,
838-849; doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
{2230} {2230 my}
22. ^ S. Blair Hedges and
Sudhir Kumar, "The TimeTree of Life",
2009,
p117-118. http://www.timetree.org/book.
php {1594 my}
23. ^ Cédric Berney and Jan
Pawlowski, "A molecular time-scale for
eukaryote evolution recalibrated with
the continuous microfossil record",
Proc. R. Soc. B August 7, 2006
273:1867-1872;
doi:10.1098/rspb.2006.3537 http://rspb.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/273/1
596/1867.short {1030 mybn}

MORE INFO
[1] "Heterokonts". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heterokonts

[2] http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/
 
[1] A timescale of eukaryote evolution.
The times for each node are taken from
the summary times in Table 1, except
for nodes 1 (310 Ma), 2 (360 Ma), 3
(450 Ma), and 4 (520 Ma), which are
from the fossil record [25]; nodes 8
(1450 Ma) and 16 (1587 Ma) are
phylogenetically constrained and are
the midpoints between adjacent nodes.
Nodes 12–14 were similar in time and
therefore shown as a multifurcation at
1000 Ma; likewise, nodes 21–22 are
shown as a multifurcation at 1967 Ma.
The star indicates the occurrence of
red algae in the fossil record at 1200
Ma, the oldest taxonomically
identifiable eukaryote [12]. Hedges
et al. BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004
4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.biomedcentral.com/con
tent/figures/1471-2148-4-2-2.jpg

[2] Giardia lamblia, a parasitic
flagellate that causes giardiasis.
Image from public domain source at
http://www.nigms.nih.gov/news/releases/i
mages/para.jpg
source: http://www.nigms.nih.gov/news/re
leases/images/para.jpg
1,280,000,000 YBN
11 12 13 14 15 16 		38) (Filamentous) multicellularity in
Eukaryotes evolves.7 8

In this organism, unlike single cell
eukaryotes, cells stay fastened
together after cell division.

Multicellularity seems to have arisen
multiple times independently in
eukaryotes.9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Schneider et al 2002. D.A.
Schneider, M.E. Bickford, W.F. Cannon,
K.J. Schulz and M.A. Hamilton, Age of
volcanic rocks and syndepositional iron
formations, Marquette Range Supergroup;
implications for the tectonic setting
of Paleoproterozoic iron formations of
the Lake Superior region. Can. J. Earth
Sci. 39 6 (2002), pp. 999-1012.
2. ^ Han and
Runnegar 1992. T.-M. Han and B.
Runnegar, Megascopic eukaryotic algae
from the 2.1-billion-year-old Negaunee
Iron-Formation, Michigan. Science 257
(1992), pp.
232-235 science_2100_han_runnegar_algal
_cysts.pdf
3. ^ Schneider et al 2002. D.A.
Schneider, M.E. Bickford, W.F. Cannon,
K.J. Schulz and M.A. Hamilton, Age of
volcanic rocks and syndepositional iron
formations, Marquette Range Supergroup;
implications for the tectonic setting
of Paleoproterozoic iron formations of
the Lake Superior region. Can. J. Earth
Sci. 39 6 (2002), pp. 999-1012.
4. ^ Han and
Runnegar 1992. T.-M. Han and B.
Runnegar, Megascopic eukaryotic algae
from the 2.1-billion-year-old Negaunee
Iron-Formation, Michigan. Science 257
(1992), pp.
232-235 science_2100_han_runnegar_algal
_cysts.pdf
5. ^ Schneider et al 2002. D.A.
Schneider, M.E. Bickford, W.F. Cannon,
K.J. Schulz and M.A. Hamilton, Age of
volcanic rocks and syndepositional iron
formations, Marquette Range Supergroup;
implications for the tectonic setting
of Paleoproterozoic iron formations of
the Lake Superior region. Can. J. Earth
Sci. 39 6 (2002), pp. 999-1012.
6. ^ Han and
Runnegar 1992. T.-M. Han and B.
Runnegar, Megascopic eukaryotic algae
from the 2.1-billion-year-old Negaunee
Iron-Formation, Michigan. Science 257
(1992), pp.
232-235 science_2100_han_runnegar_algal
_cysts.pdf
7. ^ Schneider et al 2002. D.A.
Schneider, M.E. Bickford, W.F. Cannon,
K.J. Schulz and M.A. Hamilton, Age of
volcanic rocks and syndepositional iron
formations, Marquette Range Supergroup;
implications for the tectonic setting
of Paleoproterozoic iron formations of
the Lake Superior region. Can. J. Earth
Sci. 39 6 (2002), pp. 999-1012.
8. ^ Han and
Runnegar 1992. T.-M. Han and B.
Runnegar, Megascopic eukaryotic algae
from the 2.1-billion-year-old Negaunee
Iron-Formation, Michigan. Science 257
(1992), pp.
232-235 science_2100_han_runnegar_algal
_cysts.pdf
9. ^ Nicholas H. Barton, "Evolution",
2007,
p225-226. http://books.google.com/books
?id=mMDFQ32oMI8C&pg=PA225
10. ^ Butterfield N. J. A. H. Knoll K.
Swett, "A bangiophyte red alga from the
Proterozoic of Arctic Canada.", Science
1990 vol 250 1990,
p104-107. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2
877905
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Butterfield N. J. A. H.
Knoll K. Swett, "A bangiophyte red alga
from the Proterozoic of Arctic
Canada.", Science 1990 vol 250 1990,
p104-107. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2
877905 {Bangia) 1250 mybn}
13. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
14. ^ Schneider et al 2002. D.A.
Schneider, M.E. Bickford, W.F. Cannon,
K.J. Schulz and M.A. Hamilton, Age of
volcanic rocks and syndepositional iron
formations, Marquette Range Supergroup;
implications for the tectonic setting
of Paleoproterozoic iron formations of
the Lake Superior region. Can. J. Earth
Sci. 39 6 (2002), pp. 999-1012. {1874
mybn} {Grypania)1874 mybn}
15. ^ Han and
Runnegar 1992. T.-M. Han and B.
Runnegar, Megascopic eukaryotic algae
from the 2.1-billion-year-old Negaunee
Iron-Formation, Michigan. Science 257
(1992), pp.
232-235 science_2100_han_runnegar_algal
_cysts.pdf {1874 mybn} {Grypania)1874
mybn}
16. ^ Campbell, Reece, et al,
"Biology", Eigth Edition, 2009, p517.

MORE INFO
[1] Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p497-506.
(c850my)
[2] S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
(1351my)
[3] Ted huntington, Estimate based on
origin of brown algae around
1,973,000,000
(earlest red alga fossils:) (Hunting
Formation) Somerset Island, arctic
Canada10  
[1] Bodanella (bow-dan-ell-a)
lauterbornii, a branching filamentous
brown alga. Nearly all brown algae are
marine organisms, but this species is
found in the bottoms of freshwater
lakes. Bright field. data on this
strain. This image is of material
from Provasoli-Guillard National Center
for Culture of Marine Phytoplankton,
images taken by David Patterson and Bob
Andersen. Image copyright: Bob Andersen
and D. J. Patterson, image used under
license to MBL
(micro*scope). NONCOMMERCIAL USE ONLY
source: http://starcentral.mbl.edu/msr/r
awdata/files/bodonella_bgz.zip

[2] Bodanella (bow-dan-ell-a)
lauterbornii, a branching filamentous
brown alga. Nearly all brown algae are
marine organisms, but this species is
found in the bottoms of freshwater
lakes. Bright field. data on this
strain. This image is of material
from Provasoli-Guillard National Center
for Culture of Marine Phytoplankton,
images taken by David Patterson and Bob
Andersen. Image copyright: Bob Andersen
and D. J. Patterson, image used under
license to MBL
(micro*scope). NONCOMMERCIAL USE ONLY
source: http://starcentral.mbl.edu/msr/r
awdata/viewable/bodonella_bgw.jpg
1,280,000,000 YBN
2 3 4 		85) Differentiation in a multicellular
eukaryote evolves. In addition to
gamete (or spore) cells, there are
somatic cells. Unlike gamete cells,
somatic cells are asexual (non-fusing).
This is the start of death by aging.

Cell differentiation is how cells in a
multicellular organism become
specialized to perform specific
functions in a variety of tissues and
organs.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "cell differentiation."
McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Science and
Technology. The McGraw-Hill Companies,
Inc., 2005. Answers.com 25 Mar. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cell-differ
entiation
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Butterfield N. J. A. H.
Knoll K. Swett, "A bangiophyte red alga
from the Proterozoic of Arctic
Canada.", Science 1990 vol 250 1990,
p104-107. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2
877905 {Bangia) 1250 mybn}
4. ^ Butterfield
N. J. A. H. Knoll K. Swett, "A
bangiophyte red alga from the
Proterozoic of Arctic Canada.", Science
1990 vol 250 1990,
p104-107. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2
877905 {Bangia) 1250 mybn}
 
[1] Volvoxcell differentiation. The
pathways leading to germ cells or
somatic cells are controlled by genes
that cause cells to follow one or the
other fate. Mutations can prevent the
formation of one of these lineages.
http://www.devbio.com/chap02/link0204.sh
tml Although all the volvocaceans,
like their unicellular relative
Chlamydomonas, reproduce predominantly
by asexual means, they are also capable
of sexual reproduction, which involves
the production and fusion of haploid
gametes. In many species of
Chlamydomonas, including the one
illustrated in Figure 2.10, sexual
reproduction is isogamous (“the same
gametes”), since the haploid gametes
that meet are similar in size,
structure, and motility. However, in
other species of Chlamydomonas—as
well as many species of colonial
volvocaceans—swimming gametes of very
different sizes are produced by the
different mating types. This pattern is
called heterogamy (“different
gametes”). But the larger
volvocaceans have evolved a specialized
form of heterogamy, called oogamy,
which involves the production of large,
relatively immotile eggs by one mating
type and small, motile sperm by the
other (see Sidelights and
Speculations) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/book
s/NBK10031/bin/ch2f12.jpg

[2] Description English: Four
Different Species of Volvocales Algae.
(A) Gonium pectorale, (B) Eudorina
elegans, (C) Pleodorina californica,
and (D) Volvox carteri. These are
unicellular organisms that live in
colonies and have both large and small
gametes. Date Published: June 15,
2004 Source Whitfield J:
Everything You Always Wanted to Know
about Sexes. PLoS Biol 2/6/2004: e183.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.0
020183 Author Photo courtesy of
Aurora M. Nedelcu, from the Volvocales
Information Project
(http://www.unbf.ca/vip/index.htm). Per
mission (Reusing this file) See
below. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c5/Volvocales.png
1,280,000,000 YBN
1 2 3 		210) Mitosis of diploid cells evolves.
FOOTNOTES

1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Butterfield N. J. A. H.
Knoll K. Swett, "A bangiophyte red alga
from the Proterozoic of Arctic
Canada.", Science 1990 vol 250 1990,
p104-107. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2
877905
3. ^ S Blair Hedges, Hsiong Chen,
Sudhir Kumar, Daniel YC Wang, Amanda S
Thompson and Hidemi Wa, "A genomic
timescale for the origin of
eukaryotes", BMC Evolutionary Biology
2001, 1:4
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-1-4,
(2001). http://www.biomedcentral.com/14
71-2148/1/4 {Nucleus 2700 -80mybn
guess}
 
[1] Mitosis divides genetic information
during cell division Source:
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/About/primer
/genetics_cell.html This image is
from the Science Primer, a work of the
National Center for Biotechnology
Information, part of the National
Institutes of Health. As a work of the
U.S. federal government, the image is
in the public domain.
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mit
osis

[2] Prophase: The two round objects
above the nucleus are the centrosomes.
Note the condensed chromatin. from
Gray's Anatomy. Unless stated
otherwise, it is from the online
edition of the 20th U.S. edition of
Gray's Anatomy of the Human Body,
originally published in 1918. Online
editions can be found on Bartleby and
also on Yahoo!
source: UNKNOWN
1,280,000,000 YBN
4 5 6 		301) The haplodiplontic life cycle
evolves (mitosis occurs in both haploid
and diploid life stages).3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ John Ringo, "Fundamental
Genetics", 2004, p201.
2. ^ John Ringo,
"Fundamental Genetics", 2004, p201.
3. ^ John
Ringo, "Fundamental Genetics", 2004,
p201.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
6. ^ Butterfield N. J.
A. H. Knoll K. Swett, "A bangiophyte
red alga from the Proterozoic of Arctic
Canada.", Science 1990 vol 250 1990,
p104-107. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2
877905

MORE INFO
[1] Mark Kirkpatrick, "The
evolution of haploid-diploid life
cycles", 1994,
p10. http://books.google.com/books?id=X
sgoLnXLIswC&pg=PA10
 
[1] Drawn by self for Biological life
cycle Based on Freeman & Worth's
Biology of Plants (p. 171). GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Sporic_meiosis.png

[2] Drawn by self for Biological life
cycle Based on Freeman & Worth's
Biology of Plants (p. 171). GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Sporic_meiosis.png
1,274,000,000 YBN
11 12 		187) A captured red alga, through
endosymbiosis, becomes a plastid in the
ancestor of all chromalveolates.7 8 9

This is a secondary plastid
endosymbiosis, where an algae cell is
captured instead of a cyanobacterium.10

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ CAVALIER-SMITH, THOMAS.
“Economy, Speed and Size Matter:
Evolutionary Forces Driving Nuclear
Genome Miniaturization and
Expansion.” Annals of Botany 95.1
(2005) : 147 -175.
Print. http://aob.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/95/1/147.short
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
4. ^ CAVALIER-SMITH, THOMAS.
“Economy, Speed and Size Matter:
Evolutionary Forces Driving Nuclear
Genome Miniaturization and
Expansion.” Annals of Botany 95.1
(2005) : 147 -175.
Print. http://aob.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/95/1/147.short
5. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield
NJ, Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D,
"Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources and
timing of the major events.", in:
Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors.
"Evolution of primary producers in the
sea.", Elsevier; 2007.
6. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon
HS, Butterfield NJ, Sanderson MJ,
Bhattacharya D, "Plastid endosymbiosis:
Sources and timing of the major
events.", in: Falkowski P, Knoll A,
editors. "Evolution of primary
producers in the sea.", Elsevier; 2007.
7. ^
Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
8. ^ CAVALIER-SMITH, THOMAS.
“Economy, Speed and Size Matter:
Evolutionary Forces Driving Nuclear
Genome Miniaturization and
Expansion.” Annals of Botany 95.1
(2005) : 147 -175.
Print. http://aob.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/95/1/147.short
9. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield
NJ, Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D,
"Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources and
timing of the major events.", in:
Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors.
"Evolution of primary producers in the
sea.", Elsevier; 2007.
10. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon
HS, Butterfield NJ, Sanderson MJ,
Bhattacharya D, "Plastid endosymbiosis:
Sources and timing of the major
events.", in: Falkowski P, Knoll A,
editors. "Evolution of primary
producers in the sea.", Elsevier; 2007.
11. ^
Yoon, Hwan Su et al. “A Molecular
Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes.” Molecular
Biology and Evolution 21.5 (2004): 809
-818.
Print. http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/21/5/809.abstract {1274 mybn}
12. ^
Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004). {1280mybn}
 
[1] Fig. 2. The tree of life based
on molecular, ultrastructural and
palaeontological evidence. Contrary to
widespread assumptions, the root is
among the eubacteria, probably within
the double-enveloped Negibacteria, not
between eubacteria and archaebacteria
(Cavalier-Smith, 2002b); it may lie
between Eobacteria and other
Negibacteria (Cavalier-Smith, 2002b).
The position of the eukaryotic root has
been nearly as controversial, but is
less hard to establish: it probably
lies between unikonts and bikonts (Lang
et al., 2002; Stechmann and
Cavalier-Smith, 2002, 2003). For
clarity the basal eukaryotic kingdom
Protozoa is not labelled; it comprises
four major groups (alveolates, cabozoa,
Amoebozoa and Choanozoa) plus the small
bikont phylum Apusozoa of unclear
precise position; whether Heliozoa are
protozoa as shown or chromists is
uncertain (Cavalier-Smith, 2003b).
Symbiogenetic cell enslavement occurred
four or five times: in the origin of
mitochondria and chloroplasts from
different negibacteria, of
chromalveolates by the enslaving of a
red alga (Cavalier-Smith, 1999, 2003;
Harper and Keeling, 2003) and in the
origin of the green plastids of
euglenoid (excavate) and chlorarachnean
(cercozoan) algae—a green algal cell
was enslaved either by the ancestral
cabozoan (arrow) or (less likely) twice
independently within excavates and
Cercozoa (asterisks) (Cavalier-Smith,
2003a). The upper thumbnail sketch
shows membrane topology in the
chimaeric cryptophytes (class
Cryptophyceae of the phylum Cryptista);
in the ancestral chromist the former
food vacuole membrane fused with the
rough endoplasmic reticulum placing the
enslaved cell within its lumen (red) to
yield the complex membrane topology
shown. The large host nucleus and the
tiny nucleomorph are shown in blue,
chloroplast green and mitochondrion
purple. In chlorarachneans (class
Chlorarachnea of phylum Cercozoa) the
former food vacuole membrane remained
topologically distinct from the ER to
become an epiplastid membrane and so
did not acquire ribosomes on its
surface, but their membrane topology is
otherwise similar to the cryptophytes.
The other sketches portray the four
major kinds of cell in the living world
and their membrane topology. The upper
ones show the contrasting ancestral
microtubular cytoskeleton (ciliary
roots, in red) of unikonts (a cone of
single microtubules attaching the
single centriole to the nucleus, blue)
and bikonts (two bands of microtubules
attached to the posterior centriole and
an anterior fan of microtubules
attached to the anterior centriole).
The lower ones show the single plasma
membrane of unibacteria (posibacteria
plus archaebacteria), which were
ancestral to eukaryotes and the double
envelope of negibacteria, which were
ancestral to mitochondria and
chloroplasts (which retained the outer
membrane, red). COPYRIGHTED
source: http://aob.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/95/1/147/F2.large.jpg

[2] Figure 3: Fig. 3. Schematic
representation of the evolutionary
relationships and divergence times for
the red, green, glaucophyte, and
chromist algae. These photosynthetic
groups are outgroup-rooted with the
Opisthokonta which putatively
ancestrally lacked a plastid. The
branches on which the cyanobacterial
(CB) primary and red algal chromist
secondary endosymbioses occurred are
shown Figure 3 from: Yoon, Hwan Su
et al. “A Molecular Timeline for the
Origin of Photosynthetic Eukaryotes.”
Molecular Biology and Evolution 21.5
(2004): 809 -818.
Print. http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/21/5/809.abstract COPYRIGHTED
source: http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/21/5/809/F3.large.jpg
1,250,000,000 YBN
22 23 24 25 26 27 		88) The Protists "Chromalveolates"
{KrOM-aL-VEO-leTS15 } evolve (ancestor
of the Chromista {Cryptophytes,
Haptophytes, and Stramenopiles
{STro-meN-o-Pi-lEZ16 }} and Alveolates
{aL-VEO-leTS17 }).18 19 20 21
FOOTNOTES

1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=chroma
lveolates&submit=Submit
2. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=st
ramenopiles
3. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=al
veolates&submit=Submit
4. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2,
(2004). http://www.biomedcentral.com/14
71-2148/4/2
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004),p540.
6. ^ Sandra L. Baldauf, A. J.
Roger, I. Wenk-Siefert, W. F.
Doolittle, "A Kingdom-Level Phylogeny
of Eukaryotes Based on Combined Protein
Data", Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p
972, (2000).
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/290/
5493/972.full
7. ^ Baldauf, S. L. “The Deep Roots
of Eukaryotes.” Science 300.5626
(2003) : 1703
-1706. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/300/5626/1703.short
8. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=chroma
lveolates&submit=Submit
9. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=st
ramenopiles
10. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=al
veolates&submit=Submit
11. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2,
(2004). http://www.biomedcentral.com/14
71-2148/4/2
12. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004),p540.
13. ^ Sandra L. Baldauf, A. J.
Roger, I. Wenk-Siefert, W. F.
Doolittle, "A Kingdom-Level Phylogeny
of Eukaryotes Based on Combined Protein
Data", Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p
972, (2000).
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/290/
5493/972.full
14. ^ Baldauf, S. L. “The Deep Roots
of Eukaryotes.” Science 300.5626
(2003) : 1703
-1706. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/300/5626/1703.short
15. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=chroma
lveolates&submit=Submit
16. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=st
ramenopiles
17. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=al
veolates&submit=Submit
18. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2,
(2004). http://www.biomedcentral.com/14
71-2148/4/2
19. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004),p540.
20. ^ Sandra L. Baldauf, A. J.
Roger, I. Wenk-Siefert, W. F.
Doolittle, "A Kingdom-Level Phylogeny
of Eukaryotes Based on Combined Protein
Data", Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p
972, (2000).
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/290/
5493/972.full
21. ^ Baldauf, S. L. “The Deep Roots
of Eukaryotes.” Science 300.5626
(2003) : 1703
-1706. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/300/5626/1703.short
22. ^ Yoon, Hwan Su et al. “A
Molecular Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes.” Molecular
Biology and Evolution 21.5 (2004): 809
-818.
Print. http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/21/5/809.abstract {c1250 mybn}
23. ^
Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield NJ,
Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D, "Plastid
endosymbiosis: Sources and timing of
the major events.", in: Falkowski P,
Knoll A, editors. "Evolution of primary
producers in the sea.", Elsevier; 2007,
p119. {1300 mybn}
24. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS,
Butterfield NJ, Sanderson MJ,
Bhattacharya D, "Plastid endosymbiosis:
Sources and timing of the major
events.", in: Falkowski P, Knoll A,
editors. "Evolution of primary
producers in the sea.", Elsevier; 2007,
p120. {1665 mybn}
25. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime
E Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L
Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148
/4/2 (1973mybn)
26. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (1600mybn)
27. ^ S. Blair Hedges
and Sudhir Kumar, "The TimeTree of
Life", 2009,
p117-118. http://www.timetree.org/book.
php {1600mybn}

MORE INFO
[1] "Brown alga". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brown_alga
[2] Sandra L. Baldauf, A. J. Roger, I.
Wenk-Siefert, W. F. Doolittle, "A
Kingdom-Level Phylogeny of Eukaryotes
Based on Combined Protein Data",
Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p 972,
(2000). http://www.sciencemag.org/conte
nt/290/5493/972.full has heterkonts
before ciliophora and apicomplexa
branch
 
[1] S. Blair Hedges and Sudhir Kumar,
''The TimeTree of Life'', 2009,
p117-118. http://www.timetree.org/book.
php COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.timetree.org/book.php


[2] Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield
NJ, Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D,
''Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources and
timing of the major events.'', in:
Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors.
''Evolution of primary producers in the
sea.'', Elsevier; 2007, p120.
COPYRIGHTED
source: Hackett JD, Yoon HS,
Butterfield NJ, Sanderson MJ,
Bhattacharya D, "Plastid endosymbiosis:
Sources and timing of the major
events.", in: Falkowski P, Knoll A,
editors. "Evolution of primary
producers in the sea.", Elsevier; 2007,
p120.
1,250,000,000 YBN
12 		201) The earliest certain eukaryote
fossils and eukaryote filamentous
multicellularity: Rhodophyta (red
algae) fossils.7 8 9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Butterfield N. J. A. H. Knoll K.
Swett, "A bangiophyte red alga from the
Proterozoic of Arctic Canada.", Science
1990 vol 250 1990,
p104-107. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2
877905
2. ^ Paleobiology Volume 26, Issue 3
(September
2000) http://www.bioone.org/perlserv/?r
equest=get-document&doi=10.1666%2F0094-8
373%282000%29026%3C0386%3ABPNGNS%3E2.0.C
O%3B2
3. ^ Knoll, Summons, Waldbauer,
Zumberge, "The Geological Succession of
Primary Producers in the Oceans", in:
Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors.
"Evolution of primary producers in the
sea.", Elsevier; 2007, p149-150.
4. ^ Butterfield
N. J. A. H. Knoll K. Swett, "A
bangiophyte red alga from the
Proterozoic of Arctic Canada.", Science
1990 vol 250 1990,
p104-107. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2
877905
5. ^ Paleobiology Volume 26, Issue 3
(September
2000) http://www.bioone.org/perlserv/?r
equest=get-document&doi=10.1666%2F0094-8
373%282000%29026%3C0386%3ABPNGNS%3E2.0.C
O%3B2
6. ^ Knoll, Summons, Waldbauer,
Zumberge, "The Geological Succession of
Primary Producers in the Oceans", in:
Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors.
"Evolution of primary producers in the
sea.", Elsevier; 2007, p149-150.
7. ^ Butterfield
N. J. A. H. Knoll K. Swett, "A
bangiophyte red alga from the
Proterozoic of Arctic Canada.", Science
1990 vol 250 1990,
p104-107. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2
877905
8. ^ Paleobiology Volume 26, Issue 3
(September
2000) http://www.bioone.org/perlserv/?r
equest=get-document&doi=10.1666%2F0094-8
373%282000%29026%3C0386%3ABPNGNS%3E2.0.C
O%3B2
9. ^ Knoll, Summons, Waldbauer,
Zumberge, "The Geological Succession of
Primary Producers in the Oceans", in:
Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors.
"Evolution of primary producers in the
sea.", Elsevier; 2007, p149-150.
10. ^ Science
1990 vol 250 Butterfield N. J. A. H.
Knoll K. Swett 1990 A bangiophyte red
alga from the Proterozoic of Arctic
Canada. Science 250: 104-107
http://www.jstor.org/stable/2877905
11. ^ Paleobiology Volume 26, Issue 3
(September
2000) http://www.bioone.org/perlserv/?r
equest=get-document&doi=10.1666%2F0094-8
373%282000%29026%3C0386%3ABPNGNS%3E2.0.C
O%3B2
12. ^ Science 1990 vol 250 Butterfield
N. J. A. H. Knoll K. Swett 1990 A
bangiophyte red alga from the
Proterozoic of Arctic Canada. Science
250: 104-107
http://www.jstor.org/stable/2877905
{1250 mybn}
(Hunting Formation) Somerset Island,
arctic Canada10 11  
[1] Figure 4 from: Science 1990 vol
250 Butterfield N. J. A. H. Knoll K.
Swett 1990 A bangiophyte red alga from
the Proterozoic of Arctic Canada.
Science 250: 104-107
http://www.jstor.org/stable/2877905
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2877
905

[2] Figure 2 from: Science 1990 vol
250 Butterfield N. J. A. H. Knoll K.
Swett 1990 A bangiophyte red alga from
the Proterozoic of Arctic Canada.
Science 250: 104-107
http://www.jstor.org/stable/2877905
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2877
905
1,200,000,000 YBN
14 15 16 17 		221) The first fungi. This begins the
Fungi Kingdom.8 9

Like animals, fungi are heterotrophic
(unable to build structural materials
by photosynthesis) and so must feed on
other living things.10

Fungi live on organic material and are
therefore generally parasitic (live or
feed on another organism to the
detriment of the host organism11 ) or
are saprophytic (live on dead or
decaying organic matter12 ). Some types
of fungi, however, form symbioses with
plants.13
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148
/4/2
{Hedges_Venturi_Shoe_20031110.pdf}
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E
Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L
Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148
/4/2
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
5. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E
Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L
Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148
/4/2
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
7. ^
http://www.abdn.ac.uk/rhynie/fungi.htm
8. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148
/4/2
9. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
10. ^
http://www.abdn.ac.uk/rhynie/fungi.htm
11. ^ "parasitic." Encyclopedia of Food
and Culture. The Gale Group, Inc, 2003.
Answers.com 27 Dec. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/parasitic
12. ^ "saprophytic." Grzimek's Animal
Life Encyclopedia. The Gale Group, Inc,
2005. Answers.com 27 Dec. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/saprophytic
-zoology
13. ^
http://www.abdn.ac.uk/rhynie/fungi.htm
14. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield
NJ, Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D,
"Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources and
timing of the major events.", in:
Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors.
"Evolution of primary producers in the
sea.", Elsevier; 2007. {c1200 mybn}
15. ^ S.
Blair Hedges and Sudhir Kumar, "The
TimeTree of Life", 2009,
p117-118. http://www.timetree.org/book.
php {1368 mybn}
16. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E
Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L
Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148
/4/2 (1513mybn) {1513 mybn}
17. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004). (c1200) {c1100} {c1100 mybn}
 
[1] Microsporidia. Image from Sterling
Parasitology Microsporidia
Research. UNKNOWN
source: http://microbewiki.kenyon.edu/im
ages/3/37/Micro2.jpg

[2] Penicillium [t Note: Penecillium
is a multicellular fungi.] UNKNOWN
source: http://www.mold-help.org/pages/i
mages/Penicillium.jpg
1,180,000,000 YBN
16 17 18 19 20 21 22 		6280) The Protists Alveolates
{aL-VEO-leTS11 } (ancestor of all
Ciliates, Apicomplexans, and
Dinoflagellates {DInOFlaJeleTS12 }).13
14 15
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=al
veolates&submit=Submit
2. ^ "dinoflagellate." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 28
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/dinoflagell
ate
3. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2,
(2004).http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471
-2148/4/2 {Hedges_Venturi_Shoe_20031110
.pdf}
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p538.
5. ^ Brusca and Brusca,
"Invertebrates", Second Edition, 2003,
p135.
6. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=al
veolates&submit=Submit
7. ^ "dinoflagellate." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 28
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/dinoflagell
ate
8. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2,
(2004). http://www.biomedcentral.com/14
71-2148/4/2 {Hedges_Venturi_Shoe_200311
10.pdf}
9. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p538.
10. ^ Brusca and
Brusca, "Invertebrates", Second
Edition, 2003, p135.
11. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=al
veolates&submit=Submit
12. ^ "dinoflagellate." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 28
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/dinoflagell
ate
13. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2,
(2004). http://www.biomedcentral.com/14
71-2148/4/2 {Hedges_Venturi_Shoe_200311
10.pdf}
14. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p538.
15. ^ Brusca and
Brusca, "Invertebrates", Second
Edition, 2003, p135.
16. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon
HS, Butterfield NJ, Sanderson MJ,
Bhattacharya D, "Plastid endosymbiosis:
Sources and timing of the major
events.", in: Falkowski P, Knoll A,
editors. "Evolution of primary
producers in the sea.", Elsevier; 2007,
p119. {1180 mybn}
17. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS,
Butterfield NJ, Sanderson MJ,
Bhattacharya D, "Plastid endosymbiosis:
Sources and timing of the major
events.", in: Falkowski P, Knoll A,
editors. "Evolution of primary
producers in the sea.", Elsevier; 2007,
p120. {1480 my}
18. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime
E Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L
Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2,
(2004). http://www.biomedcentral.com/14
71-2148/4/2 {Hedges_Venturi_Shoe_200311
10.pdf} {1956 my}
19. ^ S. Blair Hedges and
Sudhir Kumar, "The TimeTree of Life",
2009,
p117-118. http://www.timetree.org/book.
php {1345 my}
20. ^ Emmanuelle J. Javaux,
Andrew H. Knoll and Malcolm Walter,
"Recognizing and Interpreting the
Fossils of Early Eukaryotes", Origins
of Life and Evolution of Biospheres,
Volume 33, Number 1, 75-94, DOI:
10.1023/A:1023992712071 http://www.spri
ngerlink.com/content/j1nn04342607n57m/ex
port-citation/ {1000 my}
21. ^ Cédric
Berney and Jan Pawlowski, "A molecular
time-scale for eukaryote evolution
recalibrated with the continuous
microfossil record", Proc. R. Soc. B
August 7, 2006 273:1867-1872;
doi:10.1098/rspb.2006.3537 http://rspb.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/273/1
596/1867.short {c820 my}
22. ^ S. Blair
Hedges and Sudhir Kumar, "The TimeTree
of Life", 2009,
p117-118. http://www.timetree.org/book.
php {1628}
 
[1]
Unknown http://www.genome.gov/Images/pr
ess_photos/highres/85-300.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Oxytricha_trifa
llax.jpg/1024px-Oxytricha_trifallax.jpg

[2] Description English: Unknown
species of cilliate in the last stages
of mitosis (cytokinesis), with cleavage
furrow visible. Date Source
Own work Author
TheAlphaWolf CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/55/Unk.cilliate.jpg
1,100,000,000 YBN
9 10 		75) The oldest extant fungi phylum
"Microsporidia" evolves.5 6

Microsporidia are obligate (survive
only as7 ) intracellular parasites of
eukaryotes.8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The Origin and
Evolution of Model Organisms", Nature
Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
2. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
3. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The Origin and
Evolution of Model Organisms", Nature
Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
4. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
5. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The Origin and
Evolution of Model Organisms", Nature
Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
6. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
7. ^ "obligate." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 25
Mar. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/obligate
8. ^ Murray Wittner, Louis M. Weiss,
"The microsporidia and
microsporidiosis", 1999,
p2. http://books.google.com/books?ei=Sq
NvT_O5JKbTiAKf8PDuAg
9. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The Origin and
Evolution of Model Organisms", Nature
Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849 (2002);
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002). (>1460mybn)
10. ^
Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004). (c1100mybn)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=93911
[2] Sandra L. Baldauf, A. J. Roger, I.
Wenk-Siefert, W. F. Doolittle, "A
Kingdom-Level Phylogeny of Eukaryotes
Based on Combined Protein Data",
Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p 972,
(2000). http://www.sciencemag.org/conte
nt/290/5493/972.full
 
[1] Sporoblast of the Microsporidium
Fibrillanosema crangonycis. Electron
micrograph taken by Leon White. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Fibrillanosema_spore.jpg

[2] Spironema
multiciliatum Spironema:
Octosporoblastic sporogony producing
horseshoe-shaped monokaryotic spores in
sporophorous vesicles; monomorphic,
diplokaryotic and monokaryotic;
merogony - last generation merozoites
are diplokaryotic; sporogony - initial
division of the sporont nuclei is
meiotic as indicated by the occurrence
of synaptonemal complexes; spores are
horse-shoe-shaped, with swollen ends in
T. variabilis and have one elongate
nucleus; exospore with three layers,
endospore is of medium thickness;
polaroplast composed of two lamellar
parts, an anterior part of closely
packed lamellae and a posterior part of
wider compartments; polar tube is
isofilar and forms, in the posterior
quarter of the spore, 3-4 coils in a
single rank (T. variabilis) or 8-10
coils in a single rank (T. chironomi);
type species Toxoglugea vibrio in
adipose tissue of larvae of Ceratopogon
sp. (Diptera, Ceratopogonidae).
Spironema (spire-oh-knee-ma)
multiciliatum Klebs, 1893. Cells are
lanceolate, relatively flattened and
flexible. The cells have a spiral
groove, long kinetics and a tail, which
tapers posteriorly, and are about 15 -
21 microns without the tail. The
nucleus is located anteriorly or near
the centre of the cell. When the cells
are squashed, the cells are more
flexible. Food materials are seen under
the cell surface. Rarely observed.
This picture was taken by Won Je Lee
using conventional photographic film
using a Zeiss Axiophot microscope of
material collected in marine sediments
of Botany Bay (Sydney, Australia). The
image description refers to material
from Botany Bay. NONCOMMERCIAL USE
source: http://microscope.mbl.edu/script
s/microscope.php?func=imgDetail&imageID=
3928
1,100,000,000 YBN
13 14 15 16 17 		313) The Protist Phylum
"Dinoflagellata" evolves (the
Dinoflagellates {DI-nO-Fla-Je-leTS9
}).10 11 12
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=dinofl
agellates&submit=Submit
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^ Sandra L. Baldauf, A. J.
Roger, I. Wenk-Siefert, W. F.
Doolittle, "A Kingdom-Level Phylogeny
of Eukaryotes Based on Combined Protein
Data", Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p
972, (2000). has heterkonts before
ciliophora and apicomplexa branch
4. ^ S Blair
Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi
and Jason L Shoe, "A molecular
timescale of eukaryote evolution and
the rise of complex multicellular
life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004,
4:2 doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2,
(2004). http://www.biomedcentral.com/14
71-2148/4/2 {Hedges_Venturi_Shoe_200311
10.pdf}
5. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=dinofl
agellates&submit=Submit
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
7. ^ Sandra L. Baldauf, A. J.
Roger, I. Wenk-Siefert, W. F.
Doolittle, "A Kingdom-Level Phylogeny
of Eukaryotes Based on Combined Protein
Data", Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p
972, (2000). has heterkonts before
ciliophora and apicomplexa branch
8. ^ S Blair
Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi
and Jason L Shoe, "A molecular
timescale of eukaryote evolution and
the rise of complex multicellular
life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004,
4:2 doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2,
(2004). http://www.biomedcentral.com/14
71-2148/4/2 {Hedges_Venturi_Shoe_200311
10.pdf}
9. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=dinofl
agellates&submit=Submit
10. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
11. ^ Sandra L. Baldauf, A. J.
Roger, I. Wenk-Siefert, W. F.
Doolittle, "A Kingdom-Level Phylogeny
of Eukaryotes Based on Combined Protein
Data", Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p
972, (2000). has heterkonts before
ciliophora and apicomplexa branch
12. ^ S
Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L
Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A molecular
timescale of eukaryote evolution and
the rise of complex multicellular
life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004,
4:2 doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2,
(2004). http://www.biomedcentral.com/14
71-2148/4/2 {Hedges_Venturi_Shoe_200311
10.pdf}
13. ^ Emmanuelle J. Javaux, Andrew H.
Knoll and Malcolm Walter, "Recognizing
and Interpreting the Fossils of Early
Eukaryotes", Origins of Life and
Evolution of Biospheres, Volume 33,
Number 1, 75-94, DOI:
10.1023/A:1023992712071 http://www.spri
ngerlink.com/content/j1nn04342607n57m/ex
port-citation/ {Dinosterane molecular
fossils)1100 my}
14. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS,
Butterfield NJ, Sanderson MJ,
Bhattacharya D, "Plastid endosymbiosis:
Sources and timing of the major
events.", in: Falkowski P, Knoll A,
editors. "Evolution of primary
producers in the sea.", Elsevier; 2007.
{DNA)1040 mybn}
15. ^ A. H. Knoll, E. J.
Javaux, D. Hewitt and P. Cohen,
"Eukaryotic Organisms in Proterozoic
Oceans", Philosophical Transactions:
Biological Sciences , Vol. 361, No.
1470, Major Steps in Cell Evolution:
Palaeontological, Molecular and
Cellular Evidence of Their Timing and
Global Effects (Jun. 29, 2006), pp.
1023-1038 http://www.jstor.org/stable/2
0209698 {1.8 bybn} {Dinosterane
molecular fossils)1100 my}
16. ^ S. Blair
Hedges and Sudhir Kumar, "The TimeTree
of Life", 2009,
p117-118. http://www.timetree.org/book.
php {940 mybn}
17. ^ Cédric Berney and Jan
Pawlowski, "A molecular time-scale for
eukaryote evolution recalibrated with
the continuous microfossil record",
Proc. R. Soc. B August 7, 2006
273:1867-1872;
doi:10.1098/rspb.2006.3537 http://rspb.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/273/1
596/1867.short {430 my}

MORE INFO
[1] Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). (1973mybn)
[2] Sandra L.
Baldauf, A. J. Roger, I. Wenk-Siefert,
W. F. Doolittle, "A Kingdom-Level
Phylogeny of Eukaryotes Based on
Combined Protein Data", Science, Vol
290, num 5493, p 972, (2000). has
heterkonts before ciliophora and
apicomplexa branch (1600mybn)
[3] Pratt, L. M.,
Summons, R. E. and Hieshima, G. B.:
1991, Sterane and Triterpane Biomarkers
in the Precambrian Nonesuch Formation,
North American Midcontinent Rift,
Geochem. Cosmochim. Acta 55, 911–916
[4] J.J.
Brocks, R.E. Summons, 8.03 -
Sedimentary Hydrocarbons, Biomarkers
for Early Life, In: Editors-in-Chief:
Heinrich D. Holland and Karl K.
Turekian, Editor(s)-in-Chief, Treatise
on Geochemistry, Pergamon, Oxford,
2003, Pages 63-115, ISBN 9780080437514,
10.1016/B0-08-043751-6/08127-5. (http:/
/www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/p
ii/B0080437516081275)
[5] Moldowan, J. Michael et al.
“Chemostratigraphic reconstruction of
biofacies: Molecular evidence linking
cyst-forming dinoflagellates with
pre-Triassic ancestors.” Geology 24.2
(1996): 159 -162.
http://geology.geoscienceworld.org/con
tent/24/2/159.abstract
AND http://geology.gsapubs.org/content/
24/2/159.full.pdf
[6] Raven, Evert, Eichhorn, "Biology of
Plants", (New York: Worth Publishers,
1992). p98-99
[7] "coenocyte." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 23
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/coenocyte
 
[1] Dinoflagellate Ceratium
sp. Phylum Dinoflagellata Upper
Newport Bay, Orange County, CA.
9/22/12. © Peter J.
Bryant COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nathistoc.bio.uci.edu/Din
oflagellates/DSC_6886b.jpg

[2] Model of Pyrodinium bahamense, a
dinoflagellate species, in the American
Museum of Natural History Credit:
Life’s Little Mysteries Fire
water Have you ever seen glowing ocean
water, like the bright blue surf
pictured in the intro slide? The neon
water is brimming with dinoflagellates,
single-celled plankton with tails that
slosh around together in vast numbers.
These creatures have been highlighting
Earth’s coastlines for 1.2 billion
years, and for the past few millennia,
they’ve puzzled humans, who used to
attribute the glow of some ocean water
to magic or the gods.Dinoflagellates
still puzzle us; we know how they glow,
but not why. They might have evolved
bioluminescence as a way of frightening
predators, or to reveal those
predators’ locations by flashing when
touched. Alternatively, their
bioluminescence may just be a fancy way
of ridding themselves of oxygen
radicals (because the chemical reaction
requires oxygen). Whatever the answer,
they certainly make for a nice holiday
in the Bahamas. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.lifeslittlemysteries.
com/images/i/1651/original/dinoflagellat
e.jpg
1,080,000,000 YBN
18 19 20 21 22 		87) The Excavates Discicristates
{DiSKIKriSTATS}; the ancestor of
protists which have mitochondria with
discoidal shaped cristae (includes
euglenids, leishmanias {lEsmaNEuZ11 },
trypanosomes {TriPaNiSOMZ12 }, and
acrasid {oKrASiD13 } slime molds).14 15
16 17
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
2. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
3. ^ Russell F. Doolittle, Da-Fei Feng,
Simon Tsang, Glen Cho, Elizabeth
Little, "Determining Divergence Times
of the Major Kingdoms of Living
Organisms with a Protein Clock",
Science, (1996).
4. ^ "leishmanias."
Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random
House, Inc. 08 Jun. 2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/l
eishmanias>.
5. ^ "trypanosome." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 08 Jun.
2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/t
rypanosome>.
6. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=ac
rasiomycetes&submit=Submit
7. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
8. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
9. ^ Russell F. Doolittle, Da-Fei Feng,
Simon Tsang, Glen Cho, Elizabeth
Little, "Determining Divergence Times
of the Major Kingdoms of Living
Organisms with a Protein Clock",
Science, (1996).
10. ^ Baldauf, "An overview of
the phylogeny and diversity of
eukaryotes", Journal of Systematics and
Evolution 46 (3): 263–273
(2008). http://www.plantsystematics.com
/qikan/manage/wenzhang/jse08060.pdf
11. ^ "leishmanias." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 08 Jun.
2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/l
eishmanias>.
12. ^ "trypanosome." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 08 Jun.
2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/t
rypanosome>.
13. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=ac
rasiomycetes&submit=Submit
14. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
15. ^
Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
16. ^ Russell F. Doolittle, Da-Fei
Feng, Simon Tsang, Glen Cho, Elizabeth
Little, "Determining Divergence Times
of the Major Kingdoms of Living
Organisms with a Protein Clock",
Science, (1996).
17. ^ Baldauf, "An overview of
the phylogeny and diversity of
eukaryotes", Journal of Systematics and
Evolution 46 (3): 263–273
(2008). http://www.plantsystematics.com
/qikan/manage/wenzhang/jse08060.pdf
18. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield
NJ, Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D,
"Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources and
timing of the major events.", in:
Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors.
"Evolution of primary producers in the
sea.", Elsevier; 2007, p119. {1080
mybn}
19. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
{1956 mybn}
20. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS,
Butterfield NJ, Sanderson MJ,
Bhattacharya D, "Plastid endosymbiosis:
Sources and timing of the major
events.", in: Falkowski P, Knoll A,
editors. "Evolution of primary
producers in the sea.", Elsevier; 2007,
p120. {1999 mybn}
21. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). (1600mybn)
22. ^ Russell
F. Doolittle, Da-Fei Feng, Simon Tsang,
Glen Cho, Elizabeth Little,
"Determining Divergence Times of the
Major Kingdoms of Living Organisms with
a Protein Clock", Science, (1996).
(1800-1900 for eukaryote/prokaryote
separation)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://biology.kenyon.edu/Microbial_Bior
ealm/eukaryotes/euglenozoa/euglenozoa.ht
m
[2]
http://www.sirinet.net/~jgjohnso/apbio30
.html
 
[1] euglena
source: http://www.fcps.k12.va.us/Stratf
ordLandingES/Ecology/mpages/euglena.htm

[2] euglena
source: http://protist.i.hosei.ac.jp/PDB
/Images/Mastigophora/Euglena/genus1L.jpg

1,080,000,000 YBN
18 19 20 21 		97) A eukaryote eye evolves; the first
three-dimensional response to light.12
13 14

The earliest eye probably evolves from
a plastid. The first proto eye is a
light sensitive area in a unicellular
eukaryote.15 16

Eukaryotes are the first organisms to
evolve the ability to follow light
direction in three dimensions in open
water.17
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Jékely, Gáspár. "Evolution of
phototaxis." Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society B:
Biological Sciences 364 (October
2009):
2795–2808. http://rstb.royalsocietypu
blishing.org/content/364/1531/2795.short

2. ^
http://www.sidwell.edu/us/science/vlb5/L
abs/Classification_Lab/Eukarya/Protista/
Euglenozoa/
3. ^ THOMAS CAVALIER-SMITH, "Economy,
Speed and Size Matter: Evolutionary
Forces Driving Nuclear Genome
Miniaturization and Expansion", *
Oxford Journals * Life Sciences
* Annals of Botany * Volume 95,
Number 1 *, (2005).
http://aob.oxfordjournals.org/content/
95/1/147.abstract
4. ^ Jékely, Gáspár. "Evolution of
phototaxis." Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society B:
Biological Sciences 364 (October
2009):
2795–2808. http://rstb.royalsocietypu
blishing.org/content/364/1531/2795.short

5. ^
http://www.sidwell.edu/us/science/vlb5/L
abs/Classification_Lab/Eukarya/Protista/
Euglenozoa/
6. ^ THOMAS CAVALIER-SMITH, "Economy,
Speed and Size Matter: Evolutionary
Forces Driving Nuclear Genome
Miniaturization and Expansion", *
Oxford Journals * Life Sciences
* Annals of Botany * Volume 95,
Number 1 *, (2005).
http://aob.oxfordjournals.org/content/
95/1/147.abstract
7. ^ Jékely, Gáspár. "Evolution of
phototaxis." Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society B:
Biological Sciences 364 (October
2009):
2795–2808. http://rstb.royalsocietypu
blishing.org/content/364/1531/2795.short

8. ^
http://www.sidwell.edu/us/science/vlb5/L
abs/Classification_Lab/Eukarya/Protista/
Euglenozoa/
9. ^ THOMAS CAVALIER-SMITH, "Economy,
Speed and Size Matter: Evolutionary
Forces Driving Nuclear Genome
Miniaturization and Expansion", *
Oxford Journals * Life Sciences
* Annals of Botany * Volume 95,
Number 1 *, (2005).
http://aob.oxfordjournals.org/content/
95/1/147.abstract
10. ^
http://www.sidwell.edu/us/science/vlb5/L
abs/Classification_Lab/Eukarya/Protista/
Euglenozoa/
11. ^ THOMAS CAVALIER-SMITH, "Economy,
Speed and Size Matter: Evolutionary
Forces Driving Nuclear Genome
Miniaturization and Expansion", *
Oxford Journals * Life Sciences
* Annals of Botany * Volume 95,
Number 1 *, (2005).
http://aob.oxfordjournals.org/content/
95/1/147.abstract
12. ^ Jékely, Gáspár. "Evolution of
phototaxis." Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society B:
Biological Sciences 364 (October
2009):
2795–2808. http://rstb.royalsocietypu
blishing.org/content/364/1531/2795.short

13. ^
http://www.sidwell.edu/us/science/vlb5/L
abs/Classification_Lab/Eukarya/Protista/
Euglenozoa/
14. ^ THOMAS CAVALIER-SMITH, "Economy,
Speed and Size Matter: Evolutionary
Forces Driving Nuclear Genome
Miniaturization and Expansion", *
Oxford Journals * Life Sciences
* Annals of Botany * Volume 95,
Number 1 *, (2005).
http://aob.oxfordjournals.org/content/
95/1/147.abstract
15. ^
http://www.sidwell.edu/us/science/vlb5/L
abs/Classification_Lab/Eukarya/Protista/
Euglenozoa/
16. ^ THOMAS CAVALIER-SMITH, "Economy,
Speed and Size Matter: Evolutionary
Forces Driving Nuclear Genome
Miniaturization and Expansion", *
Oxford Journals * Life Sciences
* Annals of Botany * Volume 95,
Number 1 *, (2005).
http://aob.oxfordjournals.org/content/
95/1/147.abstract
17. ^ Jékely, Gáspár. "Evolution of
phototaxis." Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society B:
Biological Sciences 364 (October
2009):
2795–2808. http://rstb.royalsocietypu
blishing.org/content/364/1531/2795.short

18. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield
NJ, Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D,
"Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources and
timing of the major events.", in:
Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors.
"Evolution of primary producers in the
sea.", Elsevier; 2007, p119.
19. ^ Yoon, Hwan
Su et al. “A Molecular Timeline for
the Origin of Photosynthetic
Eukaryotes.” Molecular Biology and
Evolution 21.5 (2004): 809 -818.
Print. http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/21/5/809.abstract {guess based on
earliest secondary plastid 1274 my and
euglena at 1410 mybn}
20. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon
HS, Butterfield NJ, Sanderson MJ,
Bhattacharya D, "Plastid endosymbiosis:
Sources and timing of the major
events.", in: Falkowski P, Knoll A,
editors. "Evolution of primary
producers in the sea.", Elsevier; 2007.
{guess based on earliest secondary
plastid 1274 my and euglena at 1410
mybn}
21. ^ my own estimate based on where
euglenozoa genetically appear to evolve
{guess based on earliest secondary
plastid 1274 my and euglena at 1410
mybn}

MORE INFO
[1] Peter Hegemann, "Algal
Sensory Photoreceptors", Annual Review
of Plant Biology, Vol. 59: 167 -189
(Volume publication date June 2008)
http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/full/
10.1146/annurev.arplant.59.032607.092847
%40recept.2009.1.issue-1
[2] Trevor D. Lamb, Detlev Arendt, and
Shaun P. Collin, "The evolution of
phototransduction and eyes", Phil.
Trans. R. Soc. B October 12, 2009
364:2791-2793;
doi:10.1098/rstb.2009.0106 http://rstb.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/364/1
531/2791.full
[3] Kreimer, G. (2009) The green algal
eyespot apparatus: a primordial visual
system and more? Current Genetics
55:19-43 doi:10.007/s00294-008-0224-8
PMID
19107486 http://www.springerlink.com/co
ntent/v54v124mxg52r091/
 
[1] Adapted from: Euglena is a
photosynthetic euglenoid with at least
150 described species. The cells are
cylindrical with a rounded anterior and
tapered posterior. The chloroplasts are
well-developed, bright green, and
sometimes have pyrenoids. ... Euglena
is a photosynthetic euglenoid with at
least 150 described species. The cells
are cylindrical with a rounded anterior
and tapered posterior. The chloroplasts
are well-developed, bright green, and
sometimes have pyrenoids. They are
often discoidal in shape but can also
be ovate, lobate, elongate, U-shaped,
or ribbon-shaped. Some researchers use
the structure and position of the
chloroplasts to divide the group into
three subgenera. Even though they are
able to photosynthesize, Euglena cells
also have a phagotrophic ingestion
apparatus. Euglena has one long,
protruding flagellum and a shorter
flagellum that is not usually
visible. The euglenoids can glide
and swim using their flagella, or can
ooze along a substrate with an
undulating, shape-changing, contraction
motion called metaboly. The cytoplasm
of Euglena and other euglenoids
contains many paramylon starch storage
granules. The euglenoid cells are
covered by a pellicle composed of
ribbonlike, woven strips of
proteinaceous material that cover the
cell in a helical arrangement from apex
to posterior. Freshwater euglenoids
have a contractile vacuole. Euglenoids
sense light using a red pigmented
eyespot or stigma and the paraflagellar
body located at the base of the
emergent flagella. The cytoplasm of
Euglena and other euglenoids contains
many paramylon starch storage granules.
The euglenoid cells are covered by a
pellicle composed of ribbonlike, woven
strips of proteinaceous material that
cover the cell in a helical arrangement
from apex to posterior. Freshwater
euglenoids have a contractile vacuole.
Euglenoids sense light using a red
pigmented eyespot or stigma and the
paraflagellar body located at the base
of the emergent flagella. UNKNOWN
source: http://silicasecchidisk.conncoll
.edu/Pics/Other%20Algae/Other_jpegs/Eugl
ena_Key225.jpg

[2] Figure 1. The distribution of
three-dimensional phototaxis in the
tree of eukaryotes. Red arrows indicate
the likely point of origin of
phototaxis in a given group. Question
marks indicate uncertainties regarding
independent or common origin. Figure
1 from: Jékely, Gáspár. ''Evolution
of phototaxis.'' Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society B:
Biological Sciences 364 (October
2009):
2795–2808. http://rstb.royalsocietypu
blishing.org/content/364/1531/2795.short
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://rstb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/364/1531/2795/F1.large.jp
g
1,050,000,000 YBN
13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 		169) The Protists Stramenopiles
{STro-meN-o-Pi-lEZ9 } (also called
Heterokonts) evolve (ancestor of all
brown algae, golden algae, diatoms, and
oomycota {Ou-mI-KO-Tu10 )).11 12
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=st
ramenopiles
2. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=oo
mycota&submit=Submit
3. ^ Brusca and Brusca,
"Invertebrates", Second Edition, 2003,
p153-155.
4. ^ S. Blair Hedges and Sudhir Kumar,
"The TimeTree of Life", 2009,
p117-118. http://www.timetree.org/book.
php
5. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=st
ramenopiles
6. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=oo
mycota&submit=Submit
7. ^ Brusca and Brusca,
"Invertebrates", Second Edition, 2003,
p153-155.
8. ^ S. Blair Hedges and Sudhir Kumar,
"The TimeTree of Life", 2009,
p117-118. http://www.timetree.org/book.
php
9. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=st
ramenopiles
10. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=oo
mycota&submit=Submit
11. ^ Brusca and Brusca,
"Invertebrates", Second Edition, 2003,
p153-155.
12. ^ S. Blair Hedges and Sudhir Kumar,
"The TimeTree of Life", 2009,
p117-118. http://www.timetree.org/book.
php
13. ^ Yoon, Hwan Su et al. “A
Molecular Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes.” Molecular
Biology and Evolution 21.5 (2004): 809
-818.
Print. http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/21/5/809.abstract {1050 mybn}
14. ^
Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield NJ,
Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D, "Plastid
endosymbiosis: Sources and timing of
the major events.", in: Falkowski P,
Knoll A, editors. "Evolution of primary
producers in the sea.", Elsevier; 2007,
p119. {1180 mybn}
15. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS,
Butterfield NJ, Sanderson MJ,
Bhattacharya D, "Plastid endosymbiosis:
Sources and timing of the major
events.", in: Falkowski P, Knoll A,
editors. "Evolution of primary
producers in the sea.", Elsevier; 2007,
p120. {1480my}
16. ^ S. Blair Hedges and Sudhir
Kumar, "The TimeTree of Life", 2009,
p117-118. http://www.timetree.org/book.
php {1345 my}
17. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E
Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L
Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2,
(2004). http://www.biomedcentral.com/14
71-2148/4/2 {Hedges_Venturi_Shoe_200311
10.pdf} {1956my} {Alveolates and Plant
split)1956my}
18. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). {1600 my}
{Chromalveolates)1600 my}
19. ^ Cédric
Berney and Jan Pawlowski, "A molecular
time-scale for eukaryote evolution
recalibrated with the continuous
microfossil record", Proc. R. Soc. B
August 7, 2006 273:1867-1872;
doi:10.1098/rspb.2006.3537 http://rspb.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/273/1
596/1867.short
{Berney_Eukaryote_phylogeny_2006.pdf}
{c775my} {c754my}
20. ^ Emmanuelle J. Javaux,
Andrew H. Knoll and Malcolm Walter,
"Recognizing and Interpreting the
Fossils of Early Eukaryotes", Origins
of Life and Evolution of Biospheres,
Volume 33, Number 1, 75-94, DOI:
10.1023/A:1023992712071 http://www.spri
ngerlink.com/content/j1nn04342607n57m/ex
port-citation/ {c1000my}
21. ^ Emmanuel J. P.
Douzery, Elizabeth A. Snell, Eric
Bapteste, Frédéric Delsuc, and Hervé
Philippe, "The timing of eukaryotic
evolution: Does a relaxed molecular
clock reconcile proteins and fossils?",
Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2004 October
26; 101(43):
15386–15391. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.
gov/pmc/articles/PMC524432/?report=abstr
act {872 my}
 
[1] Phylum Stramenopiles COPYRIGHTED
source: Brusca and Brusca,
"Invertebrates", Second Edition, 2003,
p153-155.

[2] S. Blair Hedges and Sudhir Kumar,
''The TimeTree of Life'', 2009,
p117-118. http://www.timetree.org/book.
php COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.timetree.org/book.php

1,000,000,000 YBN
7 		324) The Protists Mesomycetozoea
{me-ZO-mI-SE-TO-ZO-u5 } evolve (also
called DRIPS).6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=mesomy
cetozoea&submit=Submit
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=mesomy
cetozoea&submit=Submit
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
5. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=mesomy
cetozoea&submit=Submit
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). {1000 MYBN (end
of Mesoproterozoic}

MORE INFO
[1] Shalchian-Tabrizi K, Minge
MA, Espelund M, Orr R, Ruden T, et al.
2008 Multigene Phylogeny of Choanozoa
and the Origin of Animals. PLoS ONE
3(5): e2098.
doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0002098
[2] Leonel Mendoza, John W. Taylor, and
Libero Ajello, "THE CLASS
MESOMYCETOZOEA: A Heterogeneous Group
of Microorganisms at the Animal-Fungal
Boundary", Annual Review of
Microbiology October 2002, Vol. 56:
315-344. http://www.annualreviews.org/d
oi/full/10.1146/annurev.micro.56.012302.
160950
 
[1] Ichthyophonus, a fungus-like
protistan that occurs in high
prevalence in Pacific Ocean perch
(Sebastes aultus) and yellowtail
rockfish (Sebastes flavedus). Note the
parasite forms branching hyphae-like
structures. Ichthyophonus hoferi has
caused massive mortalities in herring
in the Atlantic ocean, and has recently
been reported to cause disease in wild
Pacific herring from Washington through
Alaska. COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://oregonstate.edu/dept/salm
on/projects/images/16Ichthyophonus.jpg

[2] Microscopic appearence of the
organism is dependent on its stage of
development. The stages include (1)
spore at ''resting'' stage, (2)
germinating spore, (3) hyphal
stage. It is believed that there are
two forms of Ichthyophonus, both
belonging to one genus. One of them is
known as the ''salmon'' form, occuring
in freshwater and cold-preferring sea
fishes: this form is characterized by
its ability to produce long tubulose
germ hyphae. The other is called the
''aquarium fish'' form, typical of the
tropical freshwater fishes. This form
is completely devoid of hyphae.
Developmental cycle of Ichthyophonus
hoferi: 1-5 - development of
''daughter'' spores, 7-11 - development
of resting spore from the ''daughter''
spore, 12-19 - development of resting
spore by fragmentation. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.fao.org/docrep/field/
003/AC160E/AC160E02.htm
985,000,000 YBN
17 18 19 		309) The Protist Phylum Oomycota
{Ou-mI-KO-Tu11 } evolves (ancestor of
the Oomycetes12 ; water molds).13 14 15
16
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=oomyco
ta&submit=Submit
2. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
3. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
4. ^ Sandra L. Baldauf, A. J. Roger, I.
Wenk-Siefert, W. F. Doolittle, "A
Kingdom-Level Phylogeny of Eukaryotes
Based on Combined Protein Data",
Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p 972,
(2000).
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/290/
5493/972.full
5. ^ http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/
6. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=oomyco
ta&submit=Submit
7. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
8. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
9. ^ Sandra L. Baldauf, A. J. Roger, I.
Wenk-Siefert, W. F. Doolittle, "A
Kingdom-Level Phylogeny of Eukaryotes
Based on Combined Protein Data",
Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p 972,
(2000). has heterkonts before
ciliophora and apicomplexa branch
10. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/
11. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=oomyco
ta&submit=Submit
12. ^ S. Blair Hedges and Sudhir Kumar,
"The TimeTree of Life",
2009. http://www.timetree.org/book.php
13. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
14. ^
Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
15. ^ Sandra L. Baldauf, A. J. Roger,
I. Wenk-Siefert, W. F. Doolittle, "A
Kingdom-Level Phylogeny of Eukaryotes
Based on Combined Protein Data",
Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p 972,
(2000). has heterkonts before
ciliophora and apicomplexa branch
16. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/
17. ^ S. Blair Hedges and Sudhir Kumar,
"The TimeTree of Life", 2009,
p117-118. http://www.timetree.org/book.
php {985}
18. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E
Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L
Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
(1973mybn)
19. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (1600mybn)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.ilmyco.gen.chicago.il.us/Term
s/coeno128.html#coeno128
[2] "Coenocyte". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coenocyte
[3]
http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultrane
t/BiologyPages/P/Protists.html#Water_Mol
ds
[4]
http://kentsimmons.uwinnipeg.ca/16cm05/1
116/16protists.htm
 
[1] Figure 2 from: Sandra L. Baldauf,
A. J. Roger, I. Wenk-Siefert, W. F.
Doolittle, ''A Kingdom-Level Phylogeny
of Eukaryotes Based on Combined Protein
Data'', Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p
972, (2000).
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/290/
5493/972.full Figure 2 Single-gene
phylogenies support subsets of the
combined protein tree. (A) A summary of
the tree in Fig. 1is shown with
supergroups indicated beside brackets
to the right. Multi-taxon represented
clusters are given as triangles, with
height proportional to number of taxa
and width proportional to averaged
overall branch length (1) compensated
for missing data (47). (B) Published
support for the numbered nodes in (A)
is shown for commonly used molecular
phylogenetic markers grouped as (a)
ribosomal RNAs, (b) proteins not used
in the current analysis, (c) proteins
used in the current analysis, and (d)
the combined data (Fig. 1). These
markers are, from left to right, SSU
[SSU rRNA (1–4)], LSU [LSU rRNA
(19)], LSU+SSU [combined LSU and SSU
rRNA (48)], EF-2 (10), V/A-ATPases
[vacuolar ATPases (49)], HSP70-cy
[cytosolic 70-kD heat shock protein
(50)], mito [combined mitochondrial
proteins (51)], RPB1 (52), actin (8,
16, 53), α-tubulin (8, 54), β-tubulin
(8, 54), EF-1α (15, 20), and combined
(Fig. 1). Rejected nodes are indicated
in pink and accepted nodes in green,
with checked circles indicating BP < 70% and solid circles indicating BP >
70%. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/290/5493/972/F2.large.jpg

[2] Fig. 1. A consensus phylogeny of
eukaryotes. The vast majority of
characterized eukaryotes, with the
notable exception of major subgroups of
amoebae, can now be assigned to one of
eight major groups. Opisthokonts (basal
flagellum) have a single basal
flagellum on reproductive cells and
flat mitochondrial cristae (most
eukaryotes have tubular ones).
Eukaryotic photosynthesis originated in
Plants; theirs are the only plastids
with just two outer membranes.
Heterokonts (different flagellae) have
a unique flagellum decorated with
hollow tripartite hairs (stramenopiles)
and, usually, a second plain one.
Cercozoans are amoebae with filose
pseudopodia, often living with in tests
(hard outer shells), some very
elaborate (foraminiferans). Amoebozoa
are mostly naked amoebae (lacking
tests), often with lobose pseudopodia
for at least part of their life cycle.
Alveolates have systems of cortical
alveoli directly beneath their plasma
membranes. Discicristates have discoid
mitochondrial cristae and, in some
cases, a deep (excavated) ventral
feeding groove. Amitochondrial
excavates lack substantial molecular
phylogenetic support, but most have an
excavated ventral feeding groove, and
all lack mitochondria. The tree shown
is based on a consensus of molecular
(1-4) and ultrastructural (16, 17) data
and includes a rough indication of new
ciPCR ''taxa'' (broken black lines)
(7-11). An asterisk preceding the taxon
name indicates probable paraphyletic
group COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/co
ntent/full/300/5626/1703
900,000,000 YBN
7 8 9 10 		6281) The Protists Rhizaria
{rI-ZaR-E-u5 } evolve (ancestor of all
Radiolaria, Foraminifera and
Cercozoa).6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=rh
izaria&submit=Submit
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=rh
izaria&submit=Submit
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
5. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=rh
izaria&submit=Submit
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
7. ^ Medlin, L. , Kooistra, W.
, Potter, D. , Saanders, G. and
Wandersen, R. (1997): Phylogenetic
relationships of the 'golden algae'
(haptophytes, heterokont chromophytes)
and their plastids , The origin of the
algae and their plastids (D
Bhattacharya, ed ) Plant systematics
and evolution (Suppl
) http://epic.awi.de/2100/
AND http://epic.awi.de/2100/1/Med1997c.
pdf {900 my}
8. ^
http://www.timetree.org/index.php?taxon_
a=rhizaria&taxon_b=haptophyta&submit=Sea
rch {900 my}
9. ^ Cédric Berney and Jan
Pawlowski, "A molecular time-scale for
eukaryote evolution recalibrated with
the continuous microfossil record",
Proc. R. Soc. B August 7, 2006
273:1867-1872;
doi:10.1098/rspb.2006.3537 http://rspb.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/273/1
596/1867.short {804 my} {754 my}
10. ^
Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004). {1600 my}

MORE INFO
[1] Moreira D, von der Heyden S,
Bass D, López-García P, Chao E,
Cavalier-Smith T (July 2007). "Global
eukaryote phylogeny: Combined small-
and large-subunit ribosomal DNA trees
support monophyly of Rhizaria, Retaria
and Excavata". Mol. Phylogenet. Evol.
44 (1): 255–66.
http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retriev
e/pii/S1055-7903(06)00433-7
[2]
http://www.timetree.org/index.php?taxon_
a=rhizaria&taxon_b=alveolates&submit=Sea
rch
[3] Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield
NJ, Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D,
"Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources and
timing of the major events.", in:
Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors.
"Evolution of primary producers in the
sea.", Elsevier; 2007, p120
 
[1] Figure : Maximum likelihood
phylogeny of Rhizaria inferred from SSU
rRNA gene sequences using the GTR+G+I
model of evolution. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.unige.ch/sciences/bio
logie/biani/msg/Amoeboids/Rhizaria_large
.jpg

[2] Figure 1 from: Keeling, Patrick
J. et al. “The tree of eukaryotes.”
Trends in Ecology & Evolution 20.12
(2005):
670-676. http://www.sciencedirect.com/s
cience/article/pii/S0169534705003046
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/cac
he/MiamiImageURL/1-s2.0-S016953470500304
6-gr1.jpg/0?wchp=dGLbVBA-zSkWz
850,000,000 YBN
13 14 15 16 		224) The Fungi "Zygomycota" evolves
(ancestor of the bread molds, and pin
molds).9 10 11 12
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
2. ^ Daniel
S. Heckman,1 David M. Geiser,2 Brooke
R. Eidell,1 Rebecca L. Stauffer,1
Natalie L. Kardos, "Molecular Evidence
for the Early Colonization of Land by
Fungi and Plants", Science 10 August
2001: Vol. 293. no. 5532, pp. 1129 -
1133 DOI: 10.1126/science.1061457,
(2001).
3. ^ S. Blair Hedges and Sudhir Kumar,
"Genomic clocks and evolutionary
timescales", Trends in Genetics
Volume 19, Issue 4 , April 2003, Pages
200-206, (2003).
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
5. ^ S Blair Hedges,
Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi and
Jason L Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
6. ^ Daniel
S. Heckman,1 David M. Geiser,2 Brooke
R. Eidell,1 Rebecca L. Stauffer,1
Natalie L. Kardos, "Molecular Evidence
for the Early Colonization of Land by
Fungi and Plants", Science 10 August
2001: Vol. 293. no. 5532, pp. 1129 -
1133 DOI: 10.1126/science.1061457,
(2001).
7. ^ S. Blair Hedges and Sudhir Kumar,
"Genomic clocks and evolutionary
timescales", Trends in Genetics
Volume 19, Issue 4 , April 2003, Pages
200-206, (2003).
8. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
9. ^ S Blair Hedges,
Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi and
Jason L Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
10. ^ Daniel
S. Heckman,1 David M. Geiser,2 Brooke
R. Eidell,1 Rebecca L. Stauffer,1
Natalie L. Kardos, "Molecular Evidence
for the Early Colonization of Land by
Fungi and Plants", Science 10 August
2001: Vol. 293. no. 5532, pp. 1129 -
1133 DOI: 10.1126/science.1061457,
(2001).
11. ^ S. Blair Hedges and Sudhir Kumar,
"Genomic clocks and evolutionary
timescales", Trends in Genetics
Volume 19, Issue 4 , April 2003, Pages
200-206, (2003).
12. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
13. ^ S Blair Hedges,
Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi and
Jason L Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
(1250mybn)
14. ^ Daniel S. Heckman,1 David M.
Geiser,2 Brooke R. Eidell,1 Rebecca
L. Stauffer,1 Natalie L. Kardos,
"Molecular Evidence for the Early
Colonization of Land by Fungi and
Plants", Science 10 August 2001: Vol.
293. no. 5532, pp. 1129 - 1133 DOI:
10.1126/science.1061457, (2001).
(1107mybn)
15. ^ S. Blair Hedges and Sudhir Kumar,
"Genomic clocks and evolutionary
timescales", Trends in Genetics
Volume 19, Issue 4 , April 2003, Pages
200-206, (2003). (1107mybn)
16. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
(c850m)
 
[1] Figure 2. Zygomycota A: sporangia
of Mucor sp. B: whorl of sporangia of
Absidia sp. C: zygospore of
Zygorhynchus sp. D: sporangiophore and
sporangiola of Cunninghamella sp.
source: http://www.botany.utoronto.ca/Re
searchLabs/MallochLab/Malloch/Moulds/Cla
ssification.html

[2] Figure 3. Syncephalis, a member of
the Zygomycota parasitic on other
Zygomycota
source: http://www.botany.utoronto.ca/Re
searchLabs/MallochLab/Malloch/Moulds/Cla
ssification.html
767,000,000 YBN
11 12 13 		312) The Protist Phylum "Ciliophora"
{SiL-E-oF-R-u7 } evolves (the
"Ciliates") (ancestor of the
paramecium).8 9 10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
2. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
3. ^ Sandra L. Baldauf, A. J. Roger, I.
Wenk-Siefert, W. F. Doolittle, "A
Kingdom-Level Phylogeny of Eukaryotes
Based on Combined Protein Data",
Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p 972,
(2000). has heterkonts before
ciliophora and apicomplexa branch
4. ^ S Blair
Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi
and Jason L Shoe, "A molecular
timescale of eukaryote evolution and
the rise of complex multicellular
life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004,
4:2 doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2,
(2004).
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
6. ^ Sandra L. Baldauf, A. J.
Roger, I. Wenk-Siefert, W. F.
Doolittle, "A Kingdom-Level Phylogeny
of Eukaryotes Based on Combined Protein
Data", Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p
972, (2000). has heterkonts before
ciliophora and apicomplexa branch
7. ^
"ciliophora." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 03 Jun.
2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/c
iliophora>.
8. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
9. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
10. ^ Sandra L. Baldauf, A. J. Roger,
I. Wenk-Siefert, W. F. Doolittle, "A
Kingdom-Level Phylogeny of Eukaryotes
Based on Combined Protein Data",
Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p 972,
(2000). has heterkonts before
ciliophora and apicomplexa branch
11. ^
Emmanuelle J. Javaux, Andrew H. Knoll
and Malcolm Walter, "Recognizing and
Interpreting the Fossils of Early
Eukaryotes", Origins of Life and
Evolution of Biospheres, Volume 33,
Number 1, 75-94, DOI:
10.1023/A:1023992712071 http://www.spri
ngerlink.com/content/j1nn04342607n57m/ex
port-citation/ {750 my}
12. ^ Emmanuel J.
P. Douzery, Elizabeth A. Snell, Eric
Bapteste, Frédéric Delsuc, and Hervé
Philippe, "The timing of eukaryotic
evolution: Does a relaxed molecular
clock reconcile proteins and fossils?",
Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2004 October
26; 101(43):
15386–15391. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.
gov/pmc/articles/PMC524432/?report=abstr
act {767 my}
13. ^ Cédric Berney and Jan
Pawlowski, "A molecular time-scale for
eukaryote evolution recalibrated with
the continuous microfossil record",
Proc. R. Soc. B August 7, 2006
273:1867-1872;
doi:10.1098/rspb.2006.3537 http://rspb.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/273/1
596/1867.short {620 my}

MORE INFO
[1] S Blair Hedges, Jaime E
Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L
Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
(1973mybn)
[2] Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (1600mybn)
[3] Sandra L. Baldauf,
A. J. Roger, I. Wenk-Siefert, W. F.
Doolittle, "A Kingdom-Level Phylogeny
of Eukaryotes Based on Combined Protein
Data", Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p
972, (2000).
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/290/
5493/972.full has heterkonts before
ciliophora and apicomplexa branch
 
[1] Paramecium protozoan,
SEM C001/0068 Rights Managed Credit:
STEVE GSCHMEISSNER/SCIENCE PHOTO
LIBRARY Caption: Paramecium protozoan,
coloured scanning electron micrograph
(SEM). Paramecia are a group of
unicellular ciliate protozoa. They
inhabit fresh water, and feed mainly on
bacteria and smaller protozoa.
Paramecia range from about 50 to 350
micrometres in length, depending on
species. Simple cilia, which cover the
body, are moved in a synchronous motion
to allow the cell to move.
Magnification: x825 when printed at 10
centimetres wide. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nonlocal.com/hbar/par
amecium.gif

[2] Summary Description English:
Scanning electron microscope view of
Oxytricha trifallax Español: Imagen
de microscopía electrónica de barrido
de Oxytricha trifallax Date Unknown
date Source http://www.genome.gov/I
mages/press_photos/highres/85-300.jpg
Author Unknown Permission (Reusin
g this file) See below. PD [1] Fig.
1. A consensus phylogeny of eukaryotes.
The vast majority of characterized
eukaryotes, with the notable exception
of major subgroups of amoebae, can now
be assigned to one of eight major
groups. Opisthokonts (basal flagellum)
have a single basal flagellum on
reproductive cells and flat
mitochondrial cristae (most eukaryotes
have tubular ones). Eukaryotic
photosynthesis originated in Plants;
theirs are the only plastids with just
two outer membranes. Heterokonts
(different flagellae) have a unique
flagellum decorated with hollow
tripartite hairs (stramenopiles) and,
usually, a second plain one. Cercozoans
are amoebae with filose pseudopodia,
often living with in tests (hard outer
shells), some very elaborate
(foraminiferans). Amoebozoa are mostly
naked amoebae (lacking tests), often
with lobose pseudopodia for at least
part of their life cycle. Alveolates
have systems of cortical alveoli
directly beneath their plasma
membranes. Discicristates have discoid
mitochondrial cristae and, in some
cases, a deep (excavated) ventral
feeding groove. Amitochondrial
excavates lack substantial molecular
phylogenetic support, but most have an
excavated ventral feeding groove, and
all lack mitochondria. The tree shown
is based on a consensus of molecular
(1-4) and ultrastructural (16, 17) data
and includes a rough indication of new
ciPCR ''taxa'' (broken black lines)
(7-11). An asterisk preceding the taxon
name indicates probable paraphyletic
group COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Oxytricha_trifa
llax.jpg/1024px-Oxytricha_trifallax.jpg
767,000,000 YBN
13 14 15 		314) The Protist Phylum "Apicomplexa"
{a-PE-KoM-PleK-Su9 } evolves (includes
Malaria and Toxoplasmosis).10 11 12
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=apicom
plexa&submit=Submit
2. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
3. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
4. ^ Sandra L. Baldauf, A. J. Roger, I.
Wenk-Siefert, W. F. Doolittle, "A
Kingdom-Level Phylogeny of Eukaryotes
Based on Combined Protein Data",
Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p 972,
(2000). has heterkonts before
ciliophora and apicomplexa branch
5. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=apicom
plexa&submit=Submit
6. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
7. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
8. ^ Sandra L. Baldauf, A. J. Roger, I.
Wenk-Siefert, W. F. Doolittle, "A
Kingdom-Level Phylogeny of Eukaryotes
Based on Combined Protein Data",
Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p 972,
(2000). has heterkonts before
ciliophora and apicomplexa branch
9. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=apicom
plexa&submit=Submit
10. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
11. ^
Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
12. ^ Sandra L. Baldauf, A. J. Roger,
I. Wenk-Siefert, W. F. Doolittle, "A
Kingdom-Level Phylogeny of Eukaryotes
Based on Combined Protein Data",
Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p 972,
(2000). has heterkonts before
ciliophora and apicomplexa branch
13. ^
Emmanuel J. P. Douzery, Elizabeth A.
Snell, Eric Bapteste, Frédéric
Delsuc, and Hervé Philippe, "The
timing of eukaryotic evolution: Does a
relaxed molecular clock reconcile
proteins and fossils?", Proc Natl Acad
Sci U S A. 2004 October 26; 101(43):
15386–15391. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.
gov/pmc/articles/PMC524432/?report=abstr
act {767 my}
14. ^ Cédric Berney and Jan
Pawlowski, "A molecular time-scale for
eukaryote evolution recalibrated with
the continuous microfossil record",
Proc. R. Soc. B August 7, 2006
273:1867-1872;
doi:10.1098/rspb.2006.3537 http://rspb.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/273/1
596/1867.short {620 my}
15. ^ Emmanuelle J.
Javaux, Andrew H. Knoll and Malcolm
Walter, "Recognizing and Interpreting
the Fossils of Early Eukaryotes",
Origins of Life and Evolution of
Biospheres, Volume 33, Number 1, 75-94,
DOI:
10.1023/A:1023992712071 http://www.spri
ngerlink.com/content/j1nn04342607n57m/ex
port-citation/ {api+dino and ciliate
split)1100 my}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.sirinet.net/~jgjohnso/apbio30
.html
[2] S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
(1973mybn)
[3] Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (1600mybn)
[4] Brusca and Brusca,
"Invertebrates", Second Edition, 2003,
p135
 
[1] Description A thin-film Giemsa
stained micrograph of ring-forms, and
gametocytes of Plasmodium falciparum.
From
http://phil.cdc.gov/phil/home.asp Date
2006-11-16 (original upload
date) Source Originally from
en.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. Author Original uploader was
TimVickers at
en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3c/Plasmodium.jpg

[2] Fig. 1. A consensus phylogeny of
eukaryotes. The vast majority of
characterized eukaryotes, with the
notable exception of major subgroups of
amoebae, can now be assigned to one of
eight major groups. Opisthokonts (basal
flagellum) have a single basal
flagellum on reproductive cells and
flat mitochondrial cristae (most
eukaryotes have tubular ones).
Eukaryotic photosynthesis originated in
Plants; theirs are the only plastids
with just two outer membranes.
Heterokonts (different flagellae) have
a unique flagellum decorated with
hollow tripartite hairs (stramenopiles)
and, usually, a second plain one.
Cercozoans are amoebae with filose
pseudopodia, often living with in tests
(hard outer shells), some very
elaborate (foraminiferans). Amoebozoa
are mostly naked amoebae (lacking
tests), often with lobose pseudopodia
for at least part of their life cycle.
Alveolates have systems of cortical
alveoli directly beneath their plasma
membranes. Discicristates have discoid
mitochondrial cristae and, in some
cases, a deep (excavated) ventral
feeding groove. Amitochondrial
excavates lack substantial molecular
phylogenetic support, but most have an
excavated ventral feeding groove, and
all lack mitochondria. The tree shown
is based on a consensus of molecular
(1-4) and ultrastructural (16, 17) data
and includes a rough indication of new
ciPCR ''taxa'' (broken black lines)
(7-11). An asterisk preceding the taxon
name indicates probable paraphyletic
group COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/co
ntent/full/300/5626/1703
680,000,000 YBN
25 26 27 28 29 		326) The Protists "Choanoflagellates"
{KO-e-nO-FlaJ-e-lATS16 } evolve.17 18
19 20 21 22
Choanoflagellates are the
closest relatives to the animals and
may be direct ancestors of sponges.23

There are about 140 species of
choanoflagellates. Some are
free-swimming, propelling themselves
with a flagellum. Others are attached
by a stalk, sometimes with several
together in a colony.24
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=choano
flagellate&submit=Submit
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=114293
4. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
5. ^
http://microscope.mbl.edu/scripts/protis
t.php?func=integrate&myID=P2691&chinese_
flag=&system=&version=&documentID=&exclu
deNonLinkedIn=&imagesOnly=
6. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
(1513 (drips?) and 1450 choano)
7. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004). (1000 drips and 900 choano)
8. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=choano
flagellate&submit=Submit
9. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
10. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=114293
11. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
12. ^
http://microscope.mbl.edu/scripts/protis
t.php?func=integrate&myID=P2691&chinese_
flag=&system=&version=&documentID=&exclu
deNonLinkedIn=&imagesOnly=
13. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
(1513 (drips?) and 1450 choano)
14. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004). (1000 drips and 900 choano)
15. ^
Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004), p502.
16. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=choano
flagellate&submit=Submit
17. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
18. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=114293
19. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
20. ^
http://microscope.mbl.edu/scripts/protis
t.php?func=integrate&myID=P2691&chinese_
flag=&system=&version=&documentID=&exclu
deNonLinkedIn=&imagesOnly=
21. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
(1513 (drips?) and 1450 choano)
22. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004). (1000 drips and 900 choano)
23. ^
Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004), p502.
24. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p502.
25. ^ Peterson,
Kevin J., and Nicholas J. Butterfield.
“Origin of the Eumetazoa: Testing
Ecological Predictions of Molecular
Clocks Against the Proterozoic Fossil
Record.” Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences of the United
States of America 102.27 (2005):
9547–9552. http://www.pnas.org/conten
t/102/27/9547.full.pdf+html
26. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (1000 drips and 900
choano) {900 MYBN}
27. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS,
Butterfield NJ, Sanderson MJ,
Bhattacharya D, "Plastid endosymbiosis:
Sources and timing of the major
events.", in: Falkowski P, Knoll A,
editors. "Evolution of primary
producers in the sea.", Elsevier; 2007.
{900 MYBN}
28. ^ S. Blair Hedges and Sudhir
Kumar, "The TimeTree of Life", 2009,
p117-118. http://www.timetree.org/book.
php {1020 mybn}
29. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E
Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L
Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
(1513 (drips?) and 1450 choano) {1450
mybn}

MORE INFO
[1] Elizabeth Pennisi, "Drafting
a Tree", Science, (2003)
[2] "Ichthyosporea".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://species.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ichthy
osporea
 
[1] Choanoflagellate single cell
(thecate) UNKNOWN
source: http://behance.vo.llnwd.net/prof
iles22/483113/projects/1558429/6ea555ab5
457e21432def0f2e6b83fe3.jpg

[2] Salpingoeca: Cells solitary or
colonial with a distinct and firm
sheath or theca usually as a cup either
sessile or with a pedicel; theca
colourless or amber; contractile
vacuoles posterior in freshwater
specie; in freshwater, brackish, and
marine habitats. Record information:
Salpingoeca (sal-ping-go-eek-a), a
collar flagellate (choanoflagellate) -
all of which have a single anterior
flagellum surrounded by a collar of
very fine pseudopodia (in cross-section
the collar seems like two arms, one on
either side of the flagellum). The
flagellum beats drawing water through
the collar and bacteria and other small
particles are trapped and then
ingested. Believed to be the source
group of the sponges and the metazoa.
Salpingoeca has an organic lorica.
Phase contrast. This picture was
taken by David Patterson, Linda Amaral
Zettler and Virginia Edgcomb of
material from the salt marsh at Little
Sippewissett (Massachusetts, USA) in
Autumn, 2000 and in Spring and summer,
2001. NONCOMMERCIAL USE
source: http://microscope.mbl.edu/script
s/microscope.php?func=imgDetail&imageID=
746
670,000,000 YBN
15 16 17 		286) Multicellularity evolves in a free
moving Protist.10 11 This allows
larger free moving organisms to
evolve.12

This multicellularity is thought to be
independently evolved, and not related
to the earlier filamentous
multicellularity of prokaryotes like
cyanobacteria, and eukaryotes like
algae.13 14
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p497-506.
2. ^ S Blair Hedges,
Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi and
Jason L Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
3. ^ Richard
Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA:
Blackwell, 2005).
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p497-506.
5. ^ S Blair
Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi
and Jason L Shoe, "A molecular
timescale of eukaryote evolution and
the rise of complex multicellular
life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004,
4:2 doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2,
(2004).
6. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
7. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004), p497-506.
8. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E
Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L
Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
9. ^ Richard
Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA:
Blackwell, 2005).
10. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p497-506.
11. ^ S Blair
Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi
and Jason L Shoe, "A molecular
timescale of eukaryote evolution and
the rise of complex multicellular
life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004,
4:2 doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2,
(2004).
12. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
13. ^ Shuhai
Xiao, Yun Zhang, Andrew H. Knoll,
"Three-dimensional preservation of
algae and animal embryos in a
Neoproterozoic phosphorite", Nature
391, 553-558 (5 February
1998) http://www.nature.com/cgi-taf/Dyn
aPage.taf?file=/nature/journal/v391/n666
7/full/391553a0_fs.html
14. ^ Buss, L. W. The Evolution of
Individuality (Princeton Univ. Press,
NJ, 1987).
15. ^ Peterson, Kevin J., and
Nicholas J. Butterfield. “Origin of
the Eumetazoa: Testing Ecological
Predictions of Molecular Clocks Against
the Proterozoic Fossil Record.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences of the United States of
America 102.27 (2005):
9547–9552. http://www.pnas.org/conten
t/102/27/9547.full.pdf+html
16. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p497-506. (c850my)
17. ^ S Blair
Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi
and Jason L Shoe, "A molecular
timescale of eukaryote evolution and
the rise of complex multicellular
life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004,
4:2 doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2,
(2004). (1351my)

MORE INFO
[1] Nicholas H. Barton,
"Evolution", 2007,
p225-226. http://books.google.com/books
?id=mMDFQ32oMI8C&pg=PA225
[2] Brusca and Brusca, "Invertebrates",
2003, 188-191
 
[1] Sponge showing several choanocyte
chambers UNKNOWN
source: http://behance.vo.llnwd.net/prof
iles22/483113/projects/1558429/43a2a4c7e
127f66b7090ed679a8da30a.jpg

[2] Combination of: Saepicula and
Sphaeroeca NONCOMMERCIAL USE
source: http://microscope.mbl.edu/script
s/microscope.php?func=imgDetail&imageID=
3229
670,000,000 YBN
297) The diplontic life cycle evolves;
this organism is predominantly diploid,
mitosis in the haploid phase does not
occur.3 4

All animals are diplontic, and descend
from this multicellular organism.5
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ John Ringo, "Fundamental
Genetics", 2004, p201.
2. ^ Mark Kirkpatrick,
"The evolution of haploid-diploid life
cycles", 1994,
p10. http://books.google.com/books?id=X
sgoLnXLIswC&pg=PA10
3. ^ John Ringo, "Fundamental
Genetics", 2004, p201.
4. ^ Mark Kirkpatrick,
"The evolution of haploid-diploid life
cycles", 1994,
p10. http://books.google.com/books?id=X
sgoLnXLIswC&pg=PA10
5. ^ Campbell, Reece, et al, "Biology",
Eigth Edition, 2008, p252.
 
[1] Gametic Meiosis. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gametic_meiosis.png

[2] Gametic Meiosis. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gametic_meiosis.png
660,000,000 YBN
35 36 37 38 39 		81) The first animal and first
metazoan, the sponge evolves. This
begins the Animal Kingdom, and the
Phylum Porifera; the sponges. There are
only three major kinds of metazoans:
sponges, cnidarians, and bilaterians.15
16 17

The word "porifera" means "pore
bearing" in Latin18 , and water
continuously flows through the pores in
sponges19 .

Metazoans are multicellular and have
differentiation (their cells perform
different functions). Sponges have
cells that form a body wall, cells that
secrete the skeleton, contractile
{KunTraKTL20 } cells, cells that digest
food, and other kinds of cell types.21
22 23 24

All sponge cells are totipotent and so
are capable of regrowing a new
sponge.25

Sponges have two layers, each a single
cell thick. The outer surface is called
the pinacoderm {PiN-o-KO-DRM26 } and is
made of cells called pinacocytes
{PiN-o-KO-SITS27 }. On the inner
surface is the choanoderm {KOenO-DRM or
KO-aNo-DRM28 } which is made of
flagellated cells called choanocytes
{KOenO-SITS29 or KO-aNo-SITS30 }.
Between these two thin cellular sheets
is the jellylike31 mesohyl {mASuHIL32
}33

Some sponges can live for over 1000
years.34
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
2. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004), p497-501.
3. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E
Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L
Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
4. ^ Richard
Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA:
Blackwell, 2005).
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p497-501.
6. ^ S Blair
Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi
and Jason L Shoe, "A molecular
timescale of eukaryote evolution and
the rise of complex multicellular
life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004,
4:2 doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2,
(2004).
7. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
8. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004), p497-501.
9. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E
Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L
Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
10. ^
Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
11. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
12. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
13. ^ Brusca
and Brusca, "Invertebrates", 2003,
188-191.
14. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
15. ^ Richard
Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA:
Blackwell, 2005).
16. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p497-501.
17. ^ S Blair
Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi
and Jason L Shoe, "A molecular
timescale of eukaryote evolution and
the rise of complex multicellular
life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004,
4:2 doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2,
(2004).
18. ^
http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition
/english/Porifera
19. ^ Harold Levin, "The Earth Through
Time", 2006, p335.
20. ^ "contractile."
Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random
House, Inc. 31 Dec. 2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/c
ontractile>.
21. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
22. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
23. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
24. ^ Brusca
and Brusca, "Invertebrates", 2003,
188-191.
25. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
26. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=pinaco
derm&submit=Submit
27. ^ "pinacocyte." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 27 Dec. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pinacocyte
28. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=choano
derm&submit=Submit
29. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=choano
cyte&submit=Submit
30. ^ "choanocyte." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 27
Dec. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/choanocyte
31. ^ Meglitsch, P.A., and F.R. Schram.
Invertebrate Zoology. Oxford University
Press, USA, 1991, p56.
32. ^
http://visual.merriam-webster.com/pronun
ciation.php?id=animal-kingdom/simple-org
anisms-echinoderms/29852&title=mesohyl
33. ^ Brusca and Brusca,
"Invertebrates", 2003, p183.
34. ^ Palmer, et
al., "Prehistoric Life", 2009, p101.
35. ^
Peterson, Kevin J., and Nicholas J.
Butterfield. “Origin of the
Eumetazoa: Testing Ecological
Predictions of Molecular Clocks Against
the Proterozoic Fossil Record.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences of the United States of
America 102.27 (2005):
9547–9552. http://www.pnas.org/conten
t/102/27/9547.full.pdf+html
36. ^ S. Blair Hedges and Sudhir Kumar,
"The TimeTree of Life", 2009,
p224-229. http://www.timetree.org/book.
php
37. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (c850my) {c800my}
38. ^ S Blair
Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi
and Jason L Shoe, "A molecular
timescale of eukaryote evolution and
the rise of complex multicellular
life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004,
4:2 doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2,
(2004). (1351my)
39. ^ Richard Cowen, "History
of Life", (Malden, MA: Blackwell,
2005). (600?)

MORE INFO
[1] Müller, Werner E. G. “The
Origin of Metazoan Complexity: Porifera
as Integrated Animals.” Integrative
and Comparative Biology 43.1 (2003):
3–10. http://www.jstor.org/stable/388
4834
 
[1] Summary Description English:
Marine sponge. Color adjusted (but not
color accurate) underwater photograph
taken by Dlloyd using a digital camera
at a depth of approximately 100 feet in
Cayman. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/62/SpongeColorCorrect.jp
g

[2]
source: http://www.museums.org.za/bio/me
tazoa.htm
660,000,000 YBN
10 11 12 13 		517) The male gonad (testis {TeSTiS5 }
or testicle) evolves in a sponge.6 In
sponges sperm are contained in
spermatic cysts, which are choanocyte
chambers transformed by the formation
of sperm7 (spermatogenesis), but ova
are distributed throughout the mesohyl
{mASuHIL8 } (or middle layer).9
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p20.
2. ^ D. T.
Anderson, "Invertebrate Zoology",
Oxford University Press, Second
Edition, 2001, p20.
3. ^ "testis." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 21 Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/testis
4. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p20.
5. ^ "testis."
The American Heritage® Dictionary of
the English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 21 Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/testis
6. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p20.
7. ^
"spermatogenesis." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 26 Dec.
2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/s
permatogenesis>.
8. ^
http://visual.merriam-webster.com/pronun
ciation.php?id=animal-kingdom/simple-org
anisms-echinoderms/29852&title=mesohyl
9. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p20.
10. ^ Peterson,
Kevin J., and Nicholas J. Butterfield.
“Origin of the Eumetazoa: Testing
Ecological Predictions of Molecular
Clocks Against the Proterozoic Fossil
Record.” Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences of the United
States of America 102.27 (2005):
9547–9552. http://www.pnas.org/conten
t/102/27/9547.full.pdf+html
11. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (c850my) {based on
evolution of sponge) c850my}
12. ^ S Blair
Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi
and Jason L Shoe, "A molecular
timescale of eukaryote evolution and
the rise of complex multicellular
life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004,
4:2 doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2,
(2004). (1351my)
13. ^ Richard Cowen, "History
of Life", (Malden, MA: Blackwell,
2005). (600?)

MORE INFO
[1] "Proteoglycan." The Oxford
Dictionary of Sports Science . Oxford
University Press, 1998, 2006, 2007.
Answers.com 12 Aug. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/proteoglyca
n
[2] D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p18-19
[3] D. T.
Anderson, "Invertebrate Zoology",
Oxford University Press, Second
Edition, 2001, p17
 
[1] Oocyte (female egg) release from
sponge, sperm release from sponge,
FIgure from: D. T. Anderson,
''Invertebrate Zoology'', Oxford
University Press, Second Edition,
2001. COPYRIGHTED
source: D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001.

[2] Combination of image from: Brusca
and Brusca, ''Invertebrates'', Second
Edition, 2003,
http://www.oceanicresearch.org/sponges
.html and D. T. Anderson,
''Invertebrate Zoology'', Oxford
University Press, Second Edition,
2001. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.museums.org.za/bio/me
tazoa.htm
650,000,000 YBN
41) Start of the 60 million year
(Varanger) Ice Age (650-590 mybn).2
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ Proc. Ntl. Acad. Sci. USA Vol
91, pp 6743-6750, July
1994 "Proterozoic and Early Cambrian
protists: Evidence for accelerating
evolutionary tempo" Andrew H Knoll
2. ^
Proc. Ntl. Acad. Sci. USA Vol 91, pp
6743-6750, July 1994 "Proterozoic and
Early Cambrian protists: Evidence for
accelerating evolutionary
tempo" Andrew H Knoll
 
[1] Snowball Earth 600 to 750 million
years ago Earth was incased in ice for
prolong periods of time and each global
glacial event ended under severe
greenhouse conditions. This late
Precambrian planet-wide glaciation is
known as “Snowball Earth” and is an
extension on Sturtian- Varangian
glaciation. UNKNOWN
source: http://geology.fullerton.edu/whe
nderson/Fal201L2005/snowballearth/images
/snoballearth.jpg

[2] Snowball Earth Begins UNKNOWN
source: http://www.gambassa.com/gambassa
files/images/images/1310/20090528_snowba
ll_earth_v1.jpg
650,000,000 YBN
7 8 9 		69) Cells that group as tissues that
are arranged in layers evolve in
metazoans.4

Unlike the Porifera, in the Placozoa
and all later metazoans, cells group as
tissues.5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p2-3.
2. ^ D. T.
Anderson, "Invertebrate Zoology",
Oxford University Press, Second
Edition, 2001, p2-3.
3. ^ D. T. Anderson,
"Invertebrate Zoology", Oxford
University Press, Second Edition, 2001,
p2-3.
4. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p2-3.
5. ^ D. T.
Anderson, "Invertebrate Zoology",
Oxford University Press, Second
Edition, 2001, p2-3.
6. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004), p494.
7. ^
Peterson, Kevin J., and Nicholas J.
Butterfield. “Origin of the
Eumetazoa: Testing Ecological
Predictions of Molecular Clocks Against
the Proterozoic Fossil Record.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences of the United States of
America 102.27 (2005):
9547–9552. http://www.pnas.org/conten
t/102/27/9547.full.pdf+html
8. ^ Peterson, Kevin J., and Nicholas
J. Butterfield. “Origin of the
Eumetazoa: Testing Ecological
Predictions of Molecular Clocks Against
the Proterozoic Fossil Record.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences of the United States of
America 102.27 (2005):
9547–9552. http://www.pnas.org/conten
t/102/27/9547.full.pdf+html
9. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p491-493. (c750)
{c750MYBN (Ctenophores are first
metazoans with tissues}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=12289&tree=0.1
 
[1] Description This is an example
of a ctenophore, Bathocyroe fosteri,
which is a mesopelagic species. Date
Source Description This is
an example of a ctenophore, Bathocyroe
fosteri, which is a mesopelagic
species. Date Source
[1] Author Photo courtesy of
Marsh Youngbluth Author Photo
courtesy of Marsh Youngbluth PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/21/Bathocyroe_fosteri.jp
g

[2] Light diffracting along the comb
rows of a Mertensia ovum. The right
lower portion of the body is
regenerating from previous damage.
Source: NOAA Photo Gallery/ Photo by
Kevin Raskoff PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/42/LightRefractsOf_comb-
rows_of_ctenophore_Mertensia_ovum.jpg
650,000,000 YBN
12 13 		79) The Metazoan Phylum "Placozoa"
evolves.5 6

Placozoans look like amoebas but are
multicellular.7 The only known species
is Trichoplax adhaerens {TriKOPlaKS8
aDHEReNZ}. Trichoplax lives in the sea
and feeds on single celled organisms,
mostly algae. There are only 4 cell
types in Trichoplax compared to the
more than 200 cell types in humans.
Trichoplax has two main cell layers,
like a cnidarian or ctenophore. Between
these two layers are a few contractile
cells that are similar to muscle cells9
, however placozoans have no muscle or
nerve cells10 11 .
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=11212&tree=0.1
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
4. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=11212&tree=0.1
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
6. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=11212&tree=0.1
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
8. ^ based on "Trichomonas."
The American Heritage Stedman's Medical
Dictionary. Houghton Mifflin Company,
2002. Answers.com 27 Dec. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/trichomonas

9. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p494.
10. ^ Grell, K.G.,
Gruner, H.E., Kilian, E.F., 1980.
Einfu¨hrung. In: Graner, H.E. (Ed.),
Lehrbuch der speziellen Zoologie, Vol.
1: Wirbellose Tiere: I. Einfu¨hrung
Protozoa, Placozoa, Porifera. Fischer,
Stuttgart.
11. ^ Katja Seipel, Volker Schmid,
Evolution of striated muscle: Jellyfish
and the origin of triploblasty,
Developmental Biology, Volume 282,
Issue 1, 1 June 2005, Pages 14-26, ISSN
0012-1606, DOI:
10.1016/j.ydbio.2005.03.032. (http://ww
w.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/
S0012160605002095) {Schmid_20050309.pdf
}
12. ^ Peterson, Kevin J., and Nicholas
J. Butterfield. “Origin of the
Eumetazoa: Testing Ecological
Predictions of Molecular Clocks Against
the Proterozoic Fossil Record.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences of the United States of
America 102.27 (2005):
9547–9552. http://www.pnas.org/conten
t/102/27/9547.full.pdf+html
13. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). {780 mybn}

MORE INFO
[1] Srivastava, Mansi et al.
“The Trichoplax genome and the nature
of placozoans.” Nature 454.7207
(2008) :
955-960. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v454/n7207/abs/nature07191.html
[2] Dellaporta, Stephen L. et al.
“Mitochondrial genome of Trichoplax
adhaerens supports Placozoa as the
basal lower metazoan phylum.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences 103.23 (2006) : 8751 -8756.
Print. http://www.pnas.org/content/103/
23/8751.full
 
[1] Description Trichoplax sp.
from Australia in light
microscopy Date February
2006 Source Oliver Voigt Author
Oliver Voigt CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c3/Trichoplax_mic.jpg

[2] from ediacara of australia
source: http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/ven
dian/dickinsonia.html
650,000,000 YBN
13 14 15 		223) The Fungi "Chytridiomycota"
{KI-TriDEO-mI-KO-Tu) evolves (includes
all Chytridiomycetes
{KI-TriDEO-mI-SE-TEZ}7 )).8 9 10

The chytrids are primitive fungi and
are mostly saprobic (feed on dead
species, decomposing chitin and
keratin). Many chytrids are aquatic
(mostly found in freshwater).11
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The Origin and
Evolution of Model Organisms", Nature
Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
2. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
3. ^ "Chytridiomycetes." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 24 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/chytridiomy
cetes-1
4. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The Origin and
Evolution of Model Organisms", Nature
Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
5. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
6. ^
http://www.catalogueoflife.org/annual-ch
ecklist/2008/browse_taxa.php?path=0,5597
&selected_taxon=5597
7. ^ "Chytridiomycetes." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 24 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/chytridiomy
cetes-1
8. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The Origin and
Evolution of Model Organisms", Nature
Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
9. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
10. ^
http://www.catalogueoflife.org/annual-ch
ecklist/2008/browse_taxa.php?path=0,5597
&selected_taxon=5597
11. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The Origin and
Evolution of Model Organisms", Nature
Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
12. ^
http://www.abdn.ac.uk/rhynie/fungi.htm
13. ^
http://www.abdn.ac.uk/rhynie/fungi.htm
14. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The Origin and
Evolution of Model Organisms", Nature
Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849 (2002);
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002). (1460mybn)
15. ^
Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004). (1000mybn)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=71577&tree=0.1
[2]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chytridiomy
cota
[3]
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=chytri
diomycetes&submit=Submit
[4] Kirk, et al., "Dictionary of
Fungi", 2008, p142
Northern Russia12  
[1] Chytrids (Chytridiomycota): The
Primitive Fungi These fungi are
mostly aquatic, are notable for having
a flagella on the cells (a flagella is
a tail, somewhat like a tail on a sperm
or a pollywog), and are thought to be
the most primitive type of
fungi. actual photo comes
from: http://www.csupomona.edu/~jcclark
/classes/bot125/resource/graphics/chy_al
l_sph.html
source: http://www.davidlnelson.md/Cazad
ero/Fungi.htm

[2] Chytridiomycota - Blastocladiales
- zoospore of Allomyces (phase contrast
illumination) X 2000
source: http://www.mycolog.com/chapter2b
.htm
640,000,000 YBN
14 15 16 17 18 		83) The first nerve cell (or neuron),
and nervous system evolves in the
ancestor of the Ctenophores and
Cnidarians.9 10 This leads to the
first ganglion and brain.11 This is
the earliest touch and sound detection,
and memory.12

As time continues in the evolution of
the metazoans, the number of neurons
increases while the size of neurons
decreases, just like transistors as
computers improve.13
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
(presumably)
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Richard Cowen, "History
of Life", (Malden, MA: Blackwell,
2005). (presumably)
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Richard Cowen,
"History of Life", (Malden, MA:
Blackwell, 2005). (presumably)
6. ^ D. T. Anderson,
"Invertebrate Zoology", Oxford
University Press, Second Edition, 2001,
p2,30.
7. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
(presumably)
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Richard Cowen, "History
of Life", (Malden, MA: Blackwell,
2005). (presumably)
10. ^ D. T. Anderson,
"Invertebrate Zoology", Oxford
University Press, Second Edition, 2001,
p2,30.
11. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
(presumably)
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Peterson,
Kevin J., and Nicholas J. Butterfield.
“Origin of the Eumetazoa: Testing
Ecological Predictions of Molecular
Clocks Against the Proterozoic Fossil
Record.” Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences of the United
States of America 102.27 (2005):
9547–9552. http://www.pnas.org/conten
t/102/27/9547.full.pdf+html
15. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
(presumably) {775 MYBN (estimate based
on Ctenophora as first with nerve and
muscle and Ctenophora evolving
c750mybn)(before c700MYBN} {750 MYBN
(estimate based on Ctenophora as first
with nerve and muscle and Ctenophora
evolving c750mybn}
16. ^ S OOta and N Saitou,
"Phylogenetic relationship of muscle
tissues deduced from superimposition of
gene trees.", Mol Biol Evol (1999)
16(6):
856-867. http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/
content/16/6/856.abstract {Saitou_1999.
pdf} {775 MYBN (estimate based on
Ctenophora as first with nerve and
muscle and Ctenophora evolving
c750mybn)(before c700MYBN} {775 MYBN
(estimate based on Ctenophora as first
with nerve and muscle and Ctenophora
evolving c750mybn)(before
c700MYBN)(before c700MYBN}
17. ^ Richard Cowen,
"History of Life", (Malden, MA:
Blackwell, 2005). (presumably) {775
MYBN (estimate based on Ctenophora as
first with nerve and muscle and
Ctenophora evolving c750mybn)(before
c700MYBN}
18. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
(presumably) {574mybn}

MORE INFO
[1] Ghysen, A. (2003). The origin
and evolution of the nervous system.
The International journal of
developmental biology , 47 (7-8),
555-562. http://view.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/p
ubmed/14756331
[2] Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p491-493. (c750mybn)
 
[1] English: Drawing of Purkinje cells
(A) and granule cells (B) from pigeon
cerebellum by Santiago Ramón y Cajal,
1899; Instituto Santiago Ramón y
Cajal, Madrid, Spain. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/15/PurkinjeCell.jpg

[2] figure from: D. T. Anderson,
''Invertebrate Zoology'', Oxford
University Press, Second Edition, 2001,
p39. COPYRIGHTED
source: D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p39.
640,000,000 YBN
7 8 9 10 		96) Muscle cells evolve in the ancestor
of the Ctenophores and Cnidarians.5
Both the earliest known muscle and
nerve cells are found in Ctenophores
and Cnidarians.6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Katja Seipel, Volker Schmid,
Evolution of striated muscle: Jellyfish
and the origin of triploblasty,
Developmental Biology, Volume 282,
Issue 1, 1 June 2005, Pages 14-26, ISSN
0012-1606, DOI:
10.1016/j.ydbio.2005.03.032. (http://ww
w.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/
S0012160605002095) {Schmid_20050309.pdf
}
2. ^ Katja Seipel, Volker Schmid,
Evolution of striated muscle: Jellyfish
and the origin of triploblasty,
Developmental Biology, Volume 282,
Issue 1, 1 June 2005, Pages 14-26, ISSN
0012-1606, DOI:
10.1016/j.ydbio.2005.03.032. (http://ww
w.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/
S0012160605002095) {Schmid_20050309.pdf
}
3. ^ Katja Seipel, Volker Schmid,
Evolution of striated muscle: Jellyfish
and the origin of triploblasty,
Developmental Biology, Volume 282,
Issue 1, 1 June 2005, Pages 14-26, ISSN
0012-1606, DOI:
10.1016/j.ydbio.2005.03.032. (http://ww
w.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/
S0012160605002095) {Schmid_20050309.pdf
}
4. ^ Katja Seipel, Volker Schmid,
Evolution of striated muscle: Jellyfish
and the origin of triploblasty,
Developmental Biology, Volume 282,
Issue 1, 1 June 2005, Pages 14-26, ISSN
0012-1606, DOI:
10.1016/j.ydbio.2005.03.032. (http://ww
w.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/
S0012160605002095) {Schmid_20050309.pdf
}
5. ^ Katja Seipel, Volker Schmid,
Evolution of striated muscle: Jellyfish
and the origin of triploblasty,
Developmental Biology, Volume 282,
Issue 1, 1 June 2005, Pages 14-26, ISSN
0012-1606, DOI:
10.1016/j.ydbio.2005.03.032. (http://ww
w.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/
S0012160605002095) {Schmid_20050309.pdf
}
6. ^ Katja Seipel, Volker Schmid,
Evolution of striated muscle: Jellyfish
and the origin of triploblasty,
Developmental Biology, Volume 282,
Issue 1, 1 June 2005, Pages 14-26, ISSN
0012-1606, DOI:
10.1016/j.ydbio.2005.03.032. (http://ww
w.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/
S0012160605002095) {Schmid_20050309.pdf
}
7. ^ Peterson, Kevin J., and Nicholas
J. Butterfield. “Origin of the
Eumetazoa: Testing Ecological
Predictions of Molecular Clocks Against
the Proterozoic Fossil Record.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences of the United States of
America 102.27 (2005):
9547–9552. http://www.pnas.org/conten
t/102/27/9547.full.pdf+html
8. ^ Katja Seipel, Volker Schmid,
Evolution of striated muscle: Jellyfish
and the origin of triploblasty,
Developmental Biology, Volume 282,
Issue 1, 1 June 2005, Pages 14-26, ISSN
0012-1606, DOI:
10.1016/j.ydbio.2005.03.032. (http://ww
w.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/
S0012160605002095) {Schmid_20050309.pdf
} {775 MYBN (estimate based on
Ctenophora as first with nerve and
muscle and Ctenophora evolving
c750mybn)(before c700MYBN} {750 MYBN
(estimate based on Ctenophora as first
with nerve and muscle and Ctenophora
evolving c750mybn}
9. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p491-493.
(c750mybn) {775 MYBN (estimate based on
Ctenophora as first with nerve and
muscle and Ctenophora evolving
c750mybn)(before c700MYBN} {775 MYBN
(estimate based on Ctenophora as first
with nerve and muscle and Ctenophora
evolving c750mybn)(before
c700MYBN)(before c700MYBN}
10. ^ S OOta and N
Saitou, "Phylogenetic relationship of
muscle tissues deduced from
superimposition of gene trees.", Mol
Biol Evol (1999) 16(6):
856-867. http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/
content/16/6/856.abstract {Saitou_1999.
pdf} {775 MYBN (estimate based on
Ctenophora as first with nerve and
muscle and Ctenophora evolving
c750mybn)(before c700MYBN}
 
[1] Figure from: D. T. Anderson,
''Invertebrate Zoology'', Oxford
University Press, Second Edition, 2001,
p39. COPYRIGHTED
source: D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p39.

[2] Derek E. G. Briggs and Richard A.
Fortey, ''Wonderful Strife:
Systematics, Stem Groups, and the
Phylogenetic Signal of the Cambrian
Radiation'', Paleobiology , Vol. 31,
No. 2, Supplement. Macroevolution:
Diversity, Disparity, Contingency:
Essays in Honor of Stephen Jay Gould
(Spring, 2005), pp.
94-112 http://www.jstor.org/stable/2548
2671 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2548
2671
640,000,000 YBN
4 5 6 		225) A closeable mouth evolves in the
ancestor of all ctenophores and
cnidarians.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p2-3.
2. ^ D. T.
Anderson, "Invertebrate Zoology",
Oxford University Press, Second
Edition, 2001, p2-3.
3. ^ D. T. Anderson,
"Invertebrate Zoology", Oxford
University Press, Second Edition, 2001,
p2-3.
4. ^ Peterson, Kevin J., and Nicholas
J. Butterfield. “Origin of the
Eumetazoa: Testing Ecological
Predictions of Molecular Clocks Against
the Proterozoic Fossil Record.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences of the United States of
America 102.27 (2005):
9547–9552. http://www.pnas.org/conten
t/102/27/9547.full.pdf+html
5. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p2-3. {c750MYBN
(all metazoans but sponges have a
closable mouth}
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p491-493.
(c750) {c750MYBN (all metazoans but
sponges have a closable mouth}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=12289&tree=0.1
 
[1] Description This is an example
of a ctenophore, Bathocyroe fosteri,
which is a mesopelagic species. Date
Source Description This is
an example of a ctenophore, Bathocyroe
fosteri, which is a mesopelagic
species. Date Source
[1] Author Photo courtesy of
Marsh Youngbluth Author Photo
courtesy of Marsh Youngbluth PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/21/Bathocyroe_fosteri.jp
g

[2] Light diffracting along the comb
rows of a Mertensia ovum. The right
lower portion of the body is
regenerating from previous damage.
Source: NOAA Photo Gallery/ Photo by
Kevin Raskoff PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/42/LightRefractsOf_comb-
rows_of_ctenophore_Mertensia_ovum.jpg
640,000,000 YBN
9 10 11 12 13 		414) The female gonad (the first ovary)
evolves in the ancestor of Ctenophores
and Cnidarians.7 8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p48.
2. ^
http://species-identification.org/specie
s.php?species_group=zsao&id=589&menuentr
y=groepen
3. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p48.
4. ^
http://species-identification.org/specie
s.php?species_group=zsao&id=589&menuentr
y=groepen
5. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p48.
6. ^
http://species-identification.org/specie
s.php?species_group=zsao&id=589&menuentr
y=groepen
7. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p48.
8. ^
http://species-identification.org/specie
s.php?species_group=zsao&id=589&menuentr
y=groepen
9. ^ Peterson, Kevin J., and Nicholas
J. Butterfield. “Origin of the
Eumetazoa: Testing Ecological
Predictions of Molecular Clocks Against
the Proterozoic Fossil Record.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences of the United States of
America 102.27 (2005):
9547–9552. http://www.pnas.org/conten
t/102/27/9547.full.pdf+html
10. ^ Peterson, Kevin J., and Nicholas
J. Butterfield. “Origin of the
Eumetazoa: Testing Ecological
Predictions of Molecular Clocks Against
the Proterozoic Fossil Record.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences of the United States of
America 102.27 (2005):
9547–9552. http://www.pnas.org/conten
t/102/27/9547.full.pdf+html
11. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005). (580my)
{based on evolution of cnidaria) 580my}
12. ^
Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004), p477-490. (c700my)
13. ^ S Blair Hedges,
Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi and
Jason L Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
(1298my)

MORE INFO
[1] "Proteoglycan." The Oxford
Dictionary of Sports Science . Oxford
University Press, 1998, 2006, 2007.
Answers.com 12 Aug. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/proteoglyca
n
[2] D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p18-19
[3] D. T.
Anderson, "Invertebrate Zoology",
Oxford University Press, Second
Edition, 2001, p17
[4] Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
(c850my)
[5] S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
(1351my)
[6] Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005). (600?)
 
[1] From: Brusca and Brusca,
''Invertebrates'', Second Edition,
2003. COPYRIGHTED
source: Brusca and Brusca,
"Invertebrates", Second Edition, 2003

[2] Figure 3.8 Anthozoa. (a) Anemone
(Actiniaria), showing the pharynx,
mesenteries, mesenterial filamnets and
acontia. (b) Structure of a mesenterial
filament in transverse section. (c)
Scleractinian coral, showing calcareous
skeleton and coenenchyme. (d)
Gorgonian, showing skeleton made up of
a horny axial rod and spicules in the
mesogloea (after Pearse et al 1987).
(e) Alcyonarian soft coral, showing
spicular skeleton in the
mesogloea. From: D. T. Anderson,
''Invertebrate Zoology'', Oxford
University Press, Second Edition,
2001. COPYRIGHTED
source: D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001.
640,000,000 YBN
12 13 		523) The animal Phylum Ctenophora
{Ti-noF-R-u5 } evolves (comb jellies).6

Like the Cnidarians, the Ctenophores
are diploblastic; they have two
embryonic germ layers- the ectoderm
{EKTeDRM7 } and the endoderm {eNDeDRM8
} which become the adult epidermis and
gastrodermis, respectively. The middle
mesenchyme {meSeNKIM9 }, a watery
gelatinous fluid, never produces the
complex organs seen in triploblastic
Metazoa.10

The main body cavity of the
ctenophores is also the digestive
chamber, and they have a simple nerve
net.11
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "ctenophore." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 02 May.
2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/c
tenophore>.
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p491-493.
3. ^ "ctenophore."
Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random
House, Inc. 02 May. 2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/c
tenophore>.
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p491-493.
5. ^ "ctenophora."
Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random
House, Inc. 02 May. 2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/c
tenophora>.
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p491-493.
7. ^ "ectoderm." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 01 Jan. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ectoderm
8. ^ "endoderm." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 01
Jan. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/endoderm
9. ^ "mesenchyme." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 31 Dec.
2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/m
esenchyme>.
10. ^ {ULSF: Note that this info is
taken from cnidaria, but is the same
for ctenophora} Brusca and Brusca,
"Invertebrates", 2003, p225,274.
11. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004), p491-493.
12. ^ Peterson, Kevin J., and
Nicholas J. Butterfield. “Origin of
the Eumetazoa: Testing Ecological
Predictions of Molecular Clocks Against
the Proterozoic Fossil Record.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences of the United States of
America 102.27 (2005):
9547–9552. http://www.pnas.org/conten
t/102/27/9547.full.pdf+html
13. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p491-493. (c750)
 
[1] Description This is an example
of a ctenophore, Bathocyroe fosteri,
which is a mesopelagic species. Date
Source Description This is
an example of a ctenophore, Bathocyroe
fosteri, which is a mesopelagic
species. Date Source
[1] Author Photo courtesy of
Marsh Youngbluth Author Photo
courtesy of Marsh Youngbluth PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/21/Bathocyroe_fosteri.jp
g

[2] Light diffracting along the comb
rows of a Mertensia ovum. The right
lower portion of the body is
regenerating from previous damage.
Source: NOAA Photo Gallery/ Photo by
Kevin Raskoff PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/42/LightRefractsOf_comb-
rows_of_ctenophore_Mertensia_ovum.jpg
635,000,000 YBN
2 		6413) The start of the Ediacaran
Period.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Knoll, Andrew H. et al. “A New
Period for the Geologic Time Scale.”
Science 305.5684 (2004): 621 –622.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/305/5684/621.short
2. ^ Knoll, Andrew H. et al. “A New
Period for the Geologic Time Scale.”
Science 305.5684 (2004): 621 –622.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/305/5684/621.short
 
[1] Description English: The 'golden
spike' marking the Global Boundary
Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP) at
the base of the Ediacaran Period Date
16 August 2008 Source Own work
Original filename =
DSC07914.JPG Author Bahudhara CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Ediacaran_GSSP_
-_closeup.JPG/1280px-Ediacaran_GSSP_-_cl
oseup.JPG

[2] Geologic Time Scale 2009 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.geosociety.org/scienc
e/timescale/timescl.pdf
630,000,000 YBN
33 34 35 36 		82) The Animal Phylum Cnidaria
{NIDAREeo} evolves (the ancestor of sea
anemones, sea pens, corals, and
jellyfish).19 20 21 22 Cnidaria also
evolve the earliest animal eye.23 24

Cnidaria are primarily radially
symmetrical animals with tentacles,
have a single body cavity with only one
opening to take in food and to release
wastes, and have specialized stinging
cells.25

Cnidarians have two alternate body
plans, the polyp and the medusa
{miDUSe26 }.27 A sea anemone is an
example of a polyp: fixed to the ground
with mouth on top.28 A coral is a
polyp that secretes a skeleton29 which
it lives inside of30 . The medusa form
is upside down compared to the polyp
form31 , and is free swimming. A
jellyfish has a typical medusa form.32

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
2. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004), p477-490.
3. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E
Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L
Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
4. ^
"Cnidaria." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2011. Answers.com 22
Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cnidaria
5. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p41.
6. ^ Megan
O'Connor, Anders Garm, Dan-E Nilsson,
"Structure and optics of the eyes of
the box jellyfish Chiropsella
bronzie.", Journal Of Comparative
Physiology A Neuroethology Sensory
Neural And Behavioral Physiology
(2009), Volume: 195, Issue: 6, Pages:
557-569. http://www.mendeley.com/resear
ch/structure-and-optics-of-the-eyes-of-t
he-box-jellyfish-chiropsella-bronzie/
7. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
8. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004), p477-490.
9. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E
Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L
Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
10. ^
"Cnidaria." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2011. Answers.com 22
Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cnidaria
11. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p41.
12. ^ Megan
O'Connor, Anders Garm, Dan-E Nilsson,
"Structure and optics of the eyes of
the box jellyfish Chiropsella
bronzie.", Journal Of Comparative
Physiology A Neuroethology Sensory
Neural And Behavioral Physiology
(2009), Volume: 195, Issue: 6, Pages:
557-569. http://www.mendeley.com/resear
ch/structure-and-optics-of-the-eyes-of-t
he-box-jellyfish-chiropsella-bronzie/
13. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
14. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004), p477-490.
15. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E
Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L
Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
16. ^
"Cnidaria." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2011. Answers.com 22
Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cnidaria
17. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p41.
18. ^ Megan
O'Connor, Anders Garm, Dan-E Nilsson,
"Structure and optics of the eyes of
the box jellyfish Chiropsella
bronzie.", Journal Of Comparative
Physiology A Neuroethology Sensory
Neural And Behavioral Physiology
(2009), Volume: 195, Issue: 6, Pages:
557-569. http://www.mendeley.com/resear
ch/structure-and-optics-of-the-eyes-of-t
he-box-jellyfish-chiropsella-bronzie/
19. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
20. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004), p477-490.
21. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E
Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L
Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
22. ^
"Cnidaria." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2011. Answers.com 22
Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cnidaria
23. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p41.
24. ^ Megan
O'Connor, Anders Garm, Dan-E Nilsson,
"Structure and optics of the eyes of
the box jellyfish Chiropsella
bronzie.", Journal Of Comparative
Physiology A Neuroethology Sensory
Neural And Behavioral Physiology
(2009), Volume: 195, Issue: 6, Pages:
557-569. http://www.mendeley.com/resear
ch/structure-and-optics-of-the-eyes-of-t
he-box-jellyfish-chiropsella-bronzie/
25. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p31.
26. ^ "medusa."
The American Heritage® Dictionary of
the English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 01 Jan. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/medusa
27. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p477-490.
28. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p477-490.
29. ^ "coral." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 23 Sep.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/coral
30. ^ Levine, "The Earth Through Time",
2006, p338.
31. ^ Levine, "The Earth Through
Time", 2006, p338.
32. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p477-490.
33. ^ Peterson, Kevin J., and Nicholas
J. Butterfield. “Origin of the
Eumetazoa: Testing Ecological
Predictions of Molecular Clocks Against
the Proterozoic Fossil Record.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences of the United States of
America 102.27 (2005):
9547–9552. http://www.pnas.org/conten
t/102/27/9547.full.pdf+html
34. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p477-490. (c700my)
35. ^ Richard
Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA:
Blackwell, 2005). (580my)
36. ^ S Blair Hedges,
Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi and
Jason L Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
(1298my)

MORE INFO
[1] Collins, A.G. (2002).
"Phylogeny of Medusozoa and the
Evolution of Cnidarian Life Cycles"
(PDF). Journal of Evolutionary Biology
15 (3): 418–432.
doi:10.1046/j.1420-9101.2002.00403.x. h
ttp://cima.uprm.edu/~n_schizas/CMOB_8676
/Collins2002.pdf
[2] Philippe, H. (April 2009).
"Phylogenomics Revives Traditional
Views on Deep Animal Relationships".
Current Biology 19: 706–712.
doi:10.1016/j.cub.2009.02.052. PMID
19345102. http://www.sciencedirect.com/
science/article/pii/S0960982209008057
[3] doi:10.1038/4631003b; Published
online 24 February
2010 http://www.nature.com/nature/journ
al/v463/n7284/full/4631003b.html
 
[1] Octocorals Stylatula elongata –
White Sea Pen UNKNOWN
source: http://pt-lobos.com/cnidarianimg
/white_sea_pens.jpg

[2] Sea nettles, Chrysaora
quinquecirrha CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/36/Sea_nettles.jpg
600,000,000 YBN
13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 		91) The start of the Ediacaran
{EDEoKRiN6 } soft-bodied invertebrate
fossils.7

The sudden appearance of Ediacaran
fossils may relate to the accumulation
of free oxygen in the atmosphere and
sea, which may permit an oxidative
metabolism.8

Because the Ediacaran animals are
soft-bodied, they are infrequently
preserved.9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Ediacaran." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 28
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ediacaran
2. ^ Harold Levin, "The Earth Through
Time", Eighth Edition, 2006,
p258-264,329.
3. ^ "Ediacaran." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 28
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ediacaran
4. ^ Harold Levin, "The Earth Through
Time", Eighth Edition, 2006,
p258-264,329.
5. ^ Harold Levin, "The Earth Through
Time", Eighth Edition, 2006,
p258-264,329.
6. ^ "Ediacaran." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 28
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ediacaran
7. ^ Harold Levin, "The Earth Through
Time", Eighth Edition, 2006,
p258-264,329.
8. ^ Harold Levin, "The Earth Through
Time", Eighth Edition, 2006,
p258-264,329.
9. ^ Harold Levin, "The Earth Through
Time", Eighth Edition, 2006,
p258-264,329.
10. ^ McMenamin, M. A. S. (1996).
"Ediacaran biota from Sonora, Mexico".
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences (USA) 93:
4990–4993. http://www.pnas.org/conten
t/93/10/4990.full.pdf
11. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
12. ^ Meert, J.
G.; Gibsher, A. S.; Levashova, N. M.;
Grice, W. C.; Kamenov, G. D.; Rybanin,
A. (2010). "Glaciation and ~770 Ma
Ediacara (?) Fossils from the Lesser
Karatau Microcontinent, Kazakhstan".
Gondwana Research 19 (4): 867–880.
doi:10.1016/j.gr.2010.11.008. http://ww
w.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/
S1342937X10002005
13. ^ McMenamin, M. A. S. (1996).
"Ediacaran biota from Sonora, Mexico".
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences (USA) 93:
4990–4993. http://www.pnas.org/conten
t/93/10/4990.full.pdf
14. ^ Ben Waggoner, "The Ediacaran
Biotas in Space and Time", Integrative
and Comparative Biology , Vol. 43, No.
1 (Feb., 2003), pp.
104-113. http://www.jstor.org/stable/38
84845 {Waggoner_200302xx.pdf}
15. ^ H. J. Hofmann, G. M. Narbonne and
J. D. Aitken, "Ediacaran remains from
intertillite beds in northwestern
Canada", Geology, December, 1990, v.
18, p.
1199-1202. http://geology.gsapubs.org/c
ontent/18/12/1199.abstract {Hofmann_Edi
acaran_Fossils_1990.pdf}
16. ^ Knoll, Andrew H. et al. “A New
Period for the Geologic Time Scale.”
Science 305.5684 (2004): 621 –622.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/305/5684/621.short
17. ^ Knoll, Andrew H. et al. “A New
Period for the Geologic Time Scale.”
Science 305.5684 (2004): 621 –622.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/305/5684/621.short
18. ^ Harold Levin, "The Earth Through
Time", Eighth Edition, 2006,
p258-264,329. {630 mybn}
19. ^ Richard Cowen,
"History of Life", (Malden, MA:
Blackwell, 2005). {575 mybn}
20. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm {670 mybn}
21. ^ Meert, J. G.;
Gibsher, A. S.; Levashova, N. M.;
Grice, W. C.; Kamenov, G. D.; Rybanin,
A. (2010). "Glaciation and ~770 Ma
Ediacara (?) Fossils from the Lesser
Karatau Microcontinent, Kazakhstan".
Gondwana Research 19 (4): 867–880.
doi:10.1016/j.gr.2010.11.008. http://ww
w.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/
S1342937X10002005

MORE INFO
[1] Ivantsov, A. Yu (2004). "New
Proarticulata from the Vendian of the
Arkhangel'sk Region" (PDF).
Paleontological Journal 38 (3):
247–253
[2] Peterson, Kevin J., and Nicholas J.
Butterfield. “Origin of the
Eumetazoa: Testing Ecological
Predictions of Molecular Clocks Against
the Proterozoic Fossil Record.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences of the United States of
America 102.27 (2005):
9547–9552. http://www.pnas.org/conten
t/102/27/9547.short
Sonora, Mexico10 |Adelaide, Australia11
| Lesser Karatau Microcontinent,
Kazakhsta12  
[1] A general view of the life in the
time frame from about 605 to 542
million years ago (the Vendian), is
found at this New Zealand site which
concentrates on the Ediacaran epoch; it
mentions Australian and other
geographic localities where the
assemblages have been found. The fossil
life is represented entirely by
creatures with soft parts only. It is
suggested that these may be ancestral
to later phylla observed at the
beginning of the Paleozoic. Below is a
chart presenting typical Ediacaran
fauna, followed by an artist's
depiction of life on the sea floor at
that time, and beneath that is a layout
of some actual fossils: PD
source: http://rst.gsfc.nasa.gov/Sect20/
800pxlife_in_the_ediacaran_sea.jpg

[2] A more general view of the life in
the time frame from about 600+ to 542
million years ago (end of Proterozoic
and Precambrian into the oldest
Cambrian), known as the Ediacaran or
Vendian, is found at this New Zealand
site; it mentions Australian and other
geographic localities where the
assemblages have been found. The fossil
life represents entirely creatures with
soft parts only and suggestions that
these may be ancestral to later phylla
observed at the beginning of the
Paleozoic. Below is an artist's sketch
of some of these creatures: UNKNOWN
source: http://www.fas.org/irp/imint/doc
s/rst/Sect20/vendintro.jpg
600,000,000 YBN
33 34 35 		107) The Animals Bilaterians evolve
(metazoans with two sided symmetry).23
24 25
This is the first triploblastic
animal; an animal with a third
embryonic layer, the mesoderm
{meZuDRM26 }.27 This is also the
earliest animal brain.28

In most bilaterians food enters in one
end (the mouth) and waste exits at the
opposite end (the anus). There is an
advantage for sense organs like light,
sound, touch, smell, and taste
detection to be located on the head
near the mouth to help with getting
food.29

The earliest brain (ganglion and
memory) develop in a bilaterian worm.30
31

This begins the Animal Subkingdom
"Bilateria".32
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p472-476.
2. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=201049&tree=0.1
3. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
4. ^ D. T.
Anderson, "Invertebrate Zoology",
Oxford University Press, Second
Edition, 2001, p69.
5. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p396-400.
6. ^ "mesoderm." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 27
Dec. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/mesoderm
7. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p59.
8. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004), p472-476.
9. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=201049&tree=0.1
10. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
11. ^ D. T.
Anderson, "Invertebrate Zoology",
Oxford University Press, Second
Edition, 2001, p69.
12. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p396-400.
13. ^ "mesoderm." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 27
Dec. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/mesoderm
14. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p59.
15. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004), p472-476.
16. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=201049&tree=0.1
17. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
18. ^ D. T.
Anderson, "Invertebrate Zoology",
Oxford University Press, Second
Edition, 2001, p69.
19. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p396-400.
20. ^ "mesoderm." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 27
Dec. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/mesoderm
21. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p59.
22. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004), p396.
23. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p472-476.
24. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=201049&tree=0.1
25. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
26. ^
"mesoderm." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 27 Dec.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/mesoderm
27. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p59.
28. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004), p396-400.
29. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p396.
30. ^ D. T.
Anderson, "Invertebrate Zoology",
Oxford University Press, Second
Edition, 2001, p69.
31. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p396-400.
32. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=201049&tree=0.1
33. ^ Peterson, Kevin J., and Nicholas
J. Butterfield. “Origin of the
Eumetazoa: Testing Ecological
Predictions of Molecular Clocks Against
the Proterozoic Fossil Record.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences of the United States of
America 102.27 (2005):
9547–9552. http://www.pnas.org/conten
t/102/27/9547.full.pdf+html
34. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p472-476. (630my)
35. ^ Richard
Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA:
Blackwell, 2005). (575 (fossil is
older)
 
[1] Convoluta pulchra Smith and Bush
1991, a typical mud-inhabiting acoel
that feeds on diatoms
source: ?

[2] Figure from: Giribet, G. (2008).
Assembling the lophotrochozoan
(=spiralian) tree of life.
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society B: Biological Sciences , 363
(1496), 1513-1522. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2007.2241
http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/363/1496/1513 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://rstb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/363/1496/1513
600,000,000 YBN
15 16 17 		403) The earliest extant bilaterian:
Acoelomorpha (ancestor of acoela flat
worms and nemertodermatida).9 10 11

The Acoelomorpha lack a digestive
track, anus and coelom.12 13

Flatworms have no lungs or gills and
breathe through their skin. With no
circulating blood, their branched gut
presumably transports nutrients to all
parts of the body.14
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p472-476.
2. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=201049&tree=0.1
3. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
4. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004), p472-476.
5. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=201049&tree=0.1
6. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
7. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
8. ^ "Acoelomorpha". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acoelomorph
a
9. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p472-476.
10. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=201049&tree=0.1
11. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
12. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
13. ^ "Acoelomorpha". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acoelomorph
a
14. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p472-476.
15. ^ Peterson, Kevin
J., and Nicholas J. Butterfield.
“Origin of the Eumetazoa: Testing
Ecological Predictions of Molecular
Clocks Against the Proterozoic Fossil
Record.” Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences of the United
States of America 102.27 (2005):
9547–9552. http://www.pnas.org/conten
t/102/27/9547.full.pdf+html
16. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p472-476. (630my)
17. ^ Richard
Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA:
Blackwell, 2005). (575 (fossil is
older)

MORE INFO
[1] Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p396
 
[1] Convoluta pulchra Smith and Bush
1991, a typical mud-inhabiting acoel
that feeds on diatoms
source: ?

[2] Figure from: Giribet, G. (2008).
Assembling the lophotrochozoan
(=spiralian) tree of life.
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society B: Biological Sciences , 363
(1496), 1513-1522. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2007.2241
http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/363/1496/1513 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://rstb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/363/1496/1513
600,000,000 YBN
5 6 7 		459) An intestine evolves in a
bilaterian. Since the gut of this
organism has no anus, undigested food
must be regurgitated through the
mouth.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p61,66-67.
2. ^ D. T.
Anderson, "Invertebrate Zoology",
Oxford University Press, Second
Edition, 2001, p61,66-67.
3. ^ D. T. Anderson,
"Invertebrate Zoology", Oxford
University Press, Second Edition, 2001,
p61,66-67.
4. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p61,66-67.
5. ^ Peterson,
Kevin J., and Nicholas J. Butterfield.
“Origin of the Eumetazoa: Testing
Ecological Predictions of Molecular
Clocks Against the Proterozoic Fossil
Record.” Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences of the United
States of America 102.27 (2005):
9547–9552. http://www.pnas.org/conten
t/102/27/9547.full.pdf+html
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p472-476. (630my)
7. ^ Richard
Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA:
Blackwell, 2005). (575 (fossil is
older)
 
[1] From: D. T. Anderson,
''Invertebrate Zoology'', Oxford
University Press, Second Edition,
2001. COPYRIGHTED
source: D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001.

[2] Convoluta pulchra Smith and Bush
1991, a typical mud-inhabiting acoel
that feeds on diatoms
source: ?
600,000,000 YBN
9 10 11 		532) A cylindrical gut, anus, and
through-put of food evolves in a
bilaterian;6 found in all bilaterians
except Acoelomorpha7 and
Platyhelminthes.8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p4.
2. ^ D. T.
Anderson, "Invertebrate Zoology",
Oxford University Press, Second
Edition, 2001, p4.
3. ^ D. T. Anderson,
"Invertebrate Zoology", Oxford
University Press, Second Edition, 2001,
p4.
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p472-476.
5. ^ D. T. Anderson,
"Invertebrate Zoology", Oxford
University Press, Second Edition, 2001,
p4.
6. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p4.
7. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004), p472-476.
8. ^ D. T. Anderson,
"Invertebrate Zoology", Oxford
University Press, Second Edition, 2001,
p4.
9. ^ Peterson, Kevin J., and Nicholas
J. Butterfield. “Origin of the
Eumetazoa: Testing Ecological
Predictions of Molecular Clocks Against
the Proterozoic Fossil Record.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences of the United States of
America 102.27 (2005):
9547–9552. http://www.pnas.org/conten
t/102/27/9547.full.pdf+html
10. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p472-476. (630my)
{630my (first bilateral
species-acoelomates}
11. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005). (575
(fossil is older) {575 (first bilateral
species-acoelomates)(fossil record is
older}
 
[1] From: D. T. Anderson,
''Invertebrate Zoology'', Oxford
University Press, Second Edition,
2001. COPYRIGHTED
source: D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001.

[2] Convoluta pulchra Smith and Bush
1991, a typical mud-inhabiting acoel
that feeds on diatoms
source: ?
600,000,000 YBN
5 6 7 		593) The genital pore, vagina, and
uterus evolve in a bilaterian.4
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p58-79.
2. ^ D. T.
Anderson, "Invertebrate Zoology",
Oxford University Press, Second
Edition, 2001, p58-79.
3. ^ D. T. Anderson,
"Invertebrate Zoology", Oxford
University Press, Second Edition, 2001,
p58-79.
4. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p58-79.
5. ^ Peterson,
Kevin J., and Nicholas J. Butterfield.
“Origin of the Eumetazoa: Testing
Ecological Predictions of Molecular
Clocks Against the Proterozoic Fossil
Record.” Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences of the United
States of America 102.27 (2005):
9547–9552. http://www.pnas.org/conten
t/102/27/9547.full.pdf+html
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p472-476. (630my)
7. ^ Richard
Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA:
Blackwell, 2005). (575 (fossil is
older)
 
[1] From: D. T. Anderson,
''Invertebrate Zoology'', Oxford
University Press, Second Edition,
2001. COPYRIGHTED
source: D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001.

[2] Convoluta pulchra Smith and Bush
1991, a typical mud-inhabiting acoel
that feeds on diatoms
source: ?
600,000,000 YBN
5 6 7 		660) The penis evolves in a
bilaterian.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ruppert, Fox, Barnes,
"Invertebrate Zoology", 2004.
2. ^ Ruppert,
Fox, Barnes, "Invertebrate Zoology",
2004.
3. ^ Ruppert, Fox, Barnes,
"Invertebrate Zoology", 2004.
4. ^ Ruppert,
Fox, Barnes, "Invertebrate Zoology",
2004.
5. ^ Peterson, Kevin J., and Nicholas
J. Butterfield. “Origin of the
Eumetazoa: Testing Ecological
Predictions of Molecular Clocks Against
the Proterozoic Fossil Record.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences of the United States of
America 102.27 (2005):
9547–9552. http://www.pnas.org/conten
t/102/27/9547.full.pdf+html
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p472-476. (630my)
{based on some Platyhelminthes have a
penis) 630my}
7. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of
Life", (Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
(575 (fossil is older)

MORE INFO
[1] D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001
 
[1] From: Brusca and Brusca,
''Invertebrates'', Second Edition,
2003 COPYRIGHTED
source: Brusca and Brusca,
"Invertebrates", Second Edition, 2003

[2] From: Ruppert, Fox, Barnes,
''Invertebrate Zoology'',
2004. COPYRIGHTED
source: Ruppert, Fox, Barnes,
"Invertebrate Zoology", 2004.
590,000,000 YBN
70) The end of the Varanger Ice Age
(650-590 mybn).2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Proc. Ntl. Acad. Sci. USA Vol
91, pp 6743-6750, July
1994 "Proterozoic and Early Cambrian
protists: Evidence for accelerating
evolutionary tempo" Andrew H Knoll
2. ^
Proc. Ntl. Acad. Sci. USA Vol 91, pp
6743-6750, July 1994 "Proterozoic and
Early Cambrian protists: Evidence for
accelerating evolutionary
tempo" Andrew H Knoll
 
[1] Precambrian Earth from the South
Pole 600MYBN UNKNOWN
source: http://cpgeosystems.com/gallery.
html
590,000,000 YBN
7 8 		95) The coelom (SEleM) evolves in a
bilaterian.3

The coelem is a fluid filled cavity
that forms within the mesoderm and
exists between the gut and body wall4
in most triploblastic animals5 .

The advantage of a coelem is that it
allows the body wall and gut wall to
act independently, and also that other
organ systems can be developed in the
fluid-filled space. In addition, the
fluid in the cavity can act as a
deformable skeleton.6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
2. ^ Richard
Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA:
Blackwell, 2005).
3. ^ Richard Cowen, "History
of Life", (Malden, MA: Blackwell,
2005).
4. ^ Brusca and Brusca,
"Invertebrates", 2003, p48.
5. ^ Valentine,
J.W. On the Origin of Phyla. University
of Chicago Press, 2004. American
Politics and Political Economy Series,
p60. http://books.google.com/books?id=D
MBkmHm5fe4C&pg=PA60
6. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p4-5.
7. ^ Peterson,
Kevin J., and Nicholas J. Butterfield.
“Origin of the Eumetazoa: Testing
Ecological Predictions of Molecular
Clocks Against the Proterozoic Fossil
Record.” Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences of the United
States of America 102.27 (2005):
9547–9552. http://www.pnas.org/conten
t/102/27/9547.full.pdf+html
8. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). {estimate based on
coelom being before
protostome-deutostome division, after
acoelomorph) 630-590 mybn}

MORE INFO
[1] "coelom." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 24
Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/body-cavity

 
[1] Example of the coleom's from 3
organisms UNKNOWN
source: http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_5DLPaU
qdg2g/TBBz3rcLDOI/AAAAAAAAAGA/Z34_-_usSc
w/s1600/3927715.jpg

[2] From NATURAL HISTORY
COLLECTIONS OF THE UNIVERSITY OF
EDINBURGH Formation of the coelom or
body cavity Acoelomates lack a
body cavity. In pseudocoelomates,
the coelom is formed from a persistent
embryonic cavity. In schizocoelous
coelomates, the coelom is formed by
splits in the embryonic mesoderm, the
middle layer of the body. In
enterocoelous coelomates, the coelom
forms within pouches of the gut
wall. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.nhc.ed.ac.uk/images/c
ollections/invertebrates/intros/LgCoelom
.jpg
590,000,000 YBN
16 17 		98) The first circulatory system
evolves; blood vessels, and blood
evolve in a bilaterian.9 The first
blood cells.10 Cnidarians and
flatworms are at most two sheets of
tissue thick and so allow gas exchange
and nutrient distribution by diffusion,
but larger animals with thicker tissues
require a circulatory system to
distribute materials.11 12 13

The circulatory system transports
molecules like gases, food, and waste
to and from individual cells.14 15
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
2. ^ D. T.
Anderson, "Invertebrate Zoology",
Oxford University Press, Second
Edition, 2001, p4.
3. ^ D. T. Anderson,
"Invertebrate Zoology", Oxford
University Press, Second Edition, 2001,
p81.
4. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p81.
5. ^ Brusca and
Brusca, "Invertebrates", 2003, p327.
6. ^
Solomon, E., L. Berg, and D.W. Martin.
Biology. Cengage Learning, 2010.
Available Titles CourseMate Series,
p938-939. http://books.google.com/books
?id=itHVNZicPgwC
7. ^ Brusca and Brusca,
"Invertebrates", 2003, p299.
8. ^ Cowen, R.
History of Life. John Wiley & Sons,
2009,
p46. http://books.google.com/books?id=Z
-Tam4XuXLkC&pg=PA46
9. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p81.
10. ^ Brusca and
Brusca, "Invertebrates", 2003, p327.
11. ^
Solomon, E., L. Berg, and D.W. Martin.
Biology. Cengage Learning, 2010.
Available Titles CourseMate Series,
p938-939. http://books.google.com/books
?id=itHVNZicPgwC
12. ^ Brusca and Brusca,
"Invertebrates", 2003, p299.
13. ^ Cowen, R.
History of Life. John Wiley & Sons,
2009,
p46. http://books.google.com/books?id=Z
-Tam4XuXLkC&pg=PA46
14. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
15. ^ D. T.
Anderson, "Invertebrate Zoology",
Oxford University Press, Second
Edition, 2001, p4.
16. ^ Peterson, Kevin
J., and Nicholas J. Butterfield.
“Origin of the Eumetazoa: Testing
Ecological Predictions of Molecular
Clocks Against the Proterozoic Fossil
Record.” Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences of the United
States of America 102.27 (2005):
9547–9552. http://www.pnas.org/conten
t/102/27/9547.full.pdf+html
17. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). {based on}
 
[1] D. T. Anderson, ''Invertebrate
Zoology'', Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001 AND Fig 11.1G
from: Brusca and Brusca,
''Invertebrates'', 2003,
p320. COPYRIGHTED
source: D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001Brusca and Brusca,
"Invertebrates", 2003, p320.

[2] From: D. T. Anderson,
''Invertebrate Zoology'', Oxford
University Press, Second Edition,
2001 COPYRIGHTED
source: D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001
580,000,000 YBN
31 32 33 34 		93) The Bilaterians Protostomes
evolve.21 22 The ancestor of all
Ecdysozoa {eK-DiS-u-ZOu23 } and
Lophotrochozoa {LuFoTroKoZOu24 }.25 26
27 28

The difference between protostomes and
deutrostomes arises during embryonic
development. In protostomes, the first
indentation of the gastrula (an early
stage of the embryo29 ) develops into
the mouth and the second indentation
develops into the anus. The reverse is
true for the deuterostomes.30
FOOTNOTES

1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=198701
3. ^ Dunn et al., CW; Hejnol, A; Matus,
DQ; Pang, K; Browne, WE; Smith, SA;
Seaver, E; Rouse, GW et al. (2008).
"Broad phylogenomic sampling improves
resolution of the animal tree of life".
Nature 452 (7188): 745–749.
doi:10.1038/nature06614. PMID
18322464. http://www.nature.com/nature/
journal/v452/n7188/abs/nature06614.html
4. ^ Giribet, G. (2008). Assembling the
lophotrochozoan (=spiralian) tree of
life. Philosophical Transactions of the
Royal Society B: Biological Sciences ,
363 (1496), 1513-1522. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2007.2241
 http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/363/1496/1513
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
6. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=198701
7. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=ecdyso
zoa&submit=Submit
8. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=lophot
rochozoa&submit=Submit
9. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
10. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=198701
11. ^ Dunn et al., CW; Hejnol, A;
Matus, DQ; Pang, K; Browne, WE; Smith,
SA; Seaver, E; Rouse, GW et al. (2008).
"Broad phylogenomic sampling improves
resolution of the animal tree of life".
Nature 452 (7188): 745–749.
doi:10.1038/nature06614. PMID
18322464. http://www.nature.com/nature/
journal/v452/n7188/abs/nature06614.html
12. ^ Giribet, G. (2008). Assembling
the lophotrochozoan (=spiralian) tree
of life. Philosophical Transactions of
the Royal Society B: Biological
Sciences , 363 (1496), 1513-1522. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2007.2241
 http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/363/1496/1513
13. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
14. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=198701
15. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=ecdyso
zoa&submit=Submit
16. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=lophot
rochozoa&submit=Submit
17. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
18. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=198701
19. ^ Dunn et al., CW; Hejnol, A;
Matus, DQ; Pang, K; Browne, WE; Smith,
SA; Seaver, E; Rouse, GW et al. (2008).
"Broad phylogenomic sampling improves
resolution of the animal tree of life".
Nature 452 (7188): 745–749.
doi:10.1038/nature06614. PMID
18322464. http://www.nature.com/nature/
journal/v452/n7188/abs/nature06614.html
20. ^ Giribet, G. (2008). Assembling
the lophotrochozoan (=spiralian) tree
of life. Philosophical Transactions of
the Royal Society B: Biological
Sciences , 363 (1496), 1513-1522. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2007.2241
 http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/363/1496/1513
21. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
22. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=198701
23. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=ecdyso
zoa&submit=Submit
24. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=lophot
rochozoa&submit=Submit
25. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
26. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=198701
27. ^ Dunn et al., CW; Hejnol, A;
Matus, DQ; Pang, K; Browne, WE; Smith,
SA; Seaver, E; Rouse, GW et al. (2008).
"Broad phylogenomic sampling improves
resolution of the animal tree of life".
Nature 452 (7188): 745–749.
doi:10.1038/nature06614. PMID
18322464. http://www.nature.com/nature/
journal/v452/n7188/abs/nature06614.html
28. ^ Giribet, G. (2008). Assembling
the lophotrochozoan (=spiralian) tree
of life. Philosophical Transactions of
the Royal Society B: Biological
Sciences , 363 (1496), 1513-1522. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2007.2241
 http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/363/1496/1513
29. ^ "gastrula." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 01 Jan.
2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/g
astrula>.
30. ^ Alters, S. Biology: Understanding
Life. Jones & Bartlett Learning, 2000.
Human and Introductory Biology Series,
p511. http://books.google.com/books?id=
GRDUIbQwGc8C&pg=PA511
31. ^ Peterson, Kevin J., and Nicholas
J. Butterfield. “Origin of the
Eumetazoa: Testing Ecological
Predictions of Molecular Clocks Against
the Proterozoic Fossil Record.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences of the United States of
America 102.27 (2005):
9547–9552. http://www.pnas.org/conten
t/102/27/9547.full.pdf+html
32. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (590my) {590 mybn}
33. ^
Cartwright, Paulyn, and Allen Collins.
“Fossils and phylogenies: integrating
multiple lines of evidence to
investigate the origin of early major
metazoan lineages.” Integrative and
Comparative Biology 47.5 (2007): 744
-751.
Print. http://icb.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/47/5/744.full {543 mybn}
34. ^ S. Blair
Hedges and Sudhir Kumar, "The TimeTree
of Life", 2009,
p224-225. http://www.timetree.org/book.
php {910 mybn}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=priapu
lids
[2] Kevin J Peterson, James A Cotton,
James G Gehling, and Davide Pisani,
"The Ediacaran emergence of
bilaterians: congruence between the
genetic and the geological fossil
records", Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B April
27, 2008 363 (1496) 1435-1443;
doi:10.1098/rstb.2007.2233 http://rstb.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/363/1
496/1435.short
 
[1] English: This diagram is showing
the difference of the two major types
of coelomates: the protostomes
(molluscs, annelids, arthropods, ...)
and deuterostomes (echinoderms,
vertebrates, ...). These groups differ
in several characteristics of early
development; In deuterostomes blastula
devisions is called ''radial cleavage''
because it occurs parallel or
perpendicular to the major polar axis.
In protostomes the cleavage is called
''spirale'' because division planes are
oriented obliquely to the polar major
axis. During gastrulation, protostomes
embryos' mouth was given first by the
blastopore while the anus was formed
later and vis versa for the
deuterostomes. As examples :
Squids are protostomes. Sea
urchins are deuterostomes. Date
14 October 2009 Source Own
work Author WYassineMrabetTalk✉ CC

source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Protovsdeuteros
tomes.svg/1000px-Protovsdeuterostomes.sv
g.png

[2] English: This diagram is showing
the difference of the two major types
of coelomates: the protostomes
(molluscs, annelids, arthropods, ...)
and deuterostomes (echinoderms,
vertebrates, ...). These groups differ
in several characteristics of early
development; In deuterostomes blastula
devisions is called ''radial cleavage''
because it occurs parallel or
perpendicular to the major polar axis.
In protostomes the cleavage is called
''spirale'' because division planes are
oriented obliquely to the polar major
axis. During gastrulation, protostomes
embryos' mouth was given first by the
blastopore while the anus was formed
later and vis versa for the
deuterostomes. As examples :
Squids are protostomes. Sea
urchins are deuterostomes. Date
14 October 2009 Source Own
work Author WYassineMrabetTalk✉ CC

source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Protovsdeuteros
tomes.svg/1000px-Protovsdeuterostomes.sv
g.png
580,000,000 YBN
12 13 14 15 16 		105) The Bilaterians Deuterostomes
evolve; the ancestor of all Echinoderms
(iKIniDRMS 9 }, Hemichordates, and
Chordates.10 11
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/
3. ^ "echinoderm." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 29
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/echinoderm
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
5. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/
6. ^ "echinoderm." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 29
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/echinoderm
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
8. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/
9. ^ "echinoderm." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 29
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/echinoderm
10. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
11. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/
12. ^ Peterson, Kevin J., and Nicholas
J. Butterfield. “Origin of the
Eumetazoa: Testing Ecological
Predictions of Molecular Clocks Against
the Proterozoic Fossil Record.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences of the United States of
America 102.27 (2005):
9547–9552. http://www.pnas.org/conten
t/102/27/9547.full.pdf+html
13. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). {570 mybn}
14. ^ S. Blair
Hedges and Sudhir Kumar, "The TimeTree
of Life", 2009,
p224-225. http://www.timetree.org/book.
php {910 mybn}
15. ^ Cartwright, Paulyn, and
Allen Collins. “Fossils and
phylogenies: integrating multiple lines
of evidence to investigate the origin
of early major metazoan lineages.”
Integrative and Comparative Biology
47.5 (2007): 744 -751.
Print. http://icb.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/47/5/744.full {367 mybn}
16. ^ Jun-Yuan
Chen, David J. Bottjer, Paola
Oliveri,Stephen Q. Dornbos, Feng Gao,
Seth Ruffins, Huimei Chi, Chia-Wei Li,
Eric H. Davidson, "Small Bilaterian
Fossils from 40 to 55 Million Years
Before the Cambrian", Science, Vol 305,
Issue 5681, 218-222, 9 July
2004 http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/cont
ent/full/sci;305/5681/218

MORE INFO
[1] Kevin J Peterson, James A
Cotton, James G Gehling, and Davide
Pisani, "The Ediacaran emergence of
bilaterians: congruence between the
genetic and the geological fossil
records", Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B April
27, 2008 363 (1496) 1435-1443;
doi:10.1098/rstb.2007.2233 http://rstb.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/363/1
496/1435.short
 
[1] English: This diagram is showing
the difference of the two major types
of coelomates: the protostomes
(molluscs, annelids, arthropods, ...)
and deuterostomes (echinoderms,
vertebrates, ...). These groups differ
in several characteristics of early
development; In deuterostomes blastula
devisions is called ''radial cleavage''
because it occurs parallel or
perpendicular to the major polar axis.
In protostomes the cleavage is called
''spirale'' because division planes are
oriented obliquely to the polar major
axis. During gastrulation, protostomes
embryos' mouth was given first by the
blastopore while the anus was formed
later and vis versa for the
deuterostomes. As examples :
Squids are protostomes. Sea
urchins are deuterostomes. Date
14 October 2009 Source Own
work Author WYassineMrabetTalk✉ CC

source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Protovsdeuteros
tomes.svg/1000px-Protovsdeuterostomes.sv
g.png

[2] English: This diagram is showing
the difference of the two major types
of coelomates: the protostomes
(molluscs, annelids, arthropods, ...)
and deuterostomes (echinoderms,
vertebrates, ...). These groups differ
in several characteristics of early
development; In deuterostomes blastula
devisions is called ''radial cleavage''
because it occurs parallel or
perpendicular to the major polar axis.
In protostomes the cleavage is called
''spirale'' because division planes are
oriented obliquely to the polar major
axis. During gastrulation, protostomes
embryos' mouth was given first by the
blastopore while the anus was formed
later and vis versa for the
deuterostomes. As examples :
Squids are protostomes. Sea
urchins are deuterostomes. Date
14 October 2009 Source Own
work Author WYassineMrabetTalk✉ CC

source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Protovsdeuteros
tomes.svg/1000px-Protovsdeuterostomes.sv
g.png
580,000,000 YBN
8 9 		131) The first shell (or skeleton)
evolves. The first known shell belongs
to a group of ciliates called
tintinnids.5 Skeletons evolve
independently in different groups of
organisms.6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Li, C.-W.; et al. (2007).
"Ciliated protozoans from the
Precambrian Doushantuo Formation,
Wengan, South China". Geological
Society, London, Special Publications
286: 151–156.
doi:10.1144/SP286.11. http://dx.doi.org
/10.1144/SP286.11
{Ciliates_Fossils_Precambrian_Li_580my
bn.pdf}
2. ^ Li, C.-W.; et al. (2007).
"Ciliated protozoans from the
Precambrian Doushantuo Formation,
Wengan, South China". Geological
Society, London, Special Publications
286: 151–156.
doi:10.1144/SP286.11. http://dx.doi.org
/10.1144/SP286.11
{Ciliates_Fossils_Precambrian_Li_580my
bn.pdf}
3. ^ Li, C.-W.; et al. (2007).
"Ciliated protozoans from the
Precambrian Doushantuo Formation,
Wengan, South China". Geological
Society, London, Special Publications
286: 151–156.
doi:10.1144/SP286.11. http://dx.doi.org
/10.1144/SP286.11
{Ciliates_Fossils_Precambrian_Li_580my
bn.pdf}
4. ^ "skeleton." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2011. Web. 25 Dec. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/547371/skeleton>.
5. ^ Li, C.-W.; et al. (2007).
"Ciliated protozoans from the
Precambrian Doushantuo Formation,
Wengan, South China". Geological
Society, London, Special Publications
286: 151–156.
doi:10.1144/SP286.11. http://dx.doi.org
/10.1144/SP286.11
{Ciliates_Fossils_Precambrian_Li_580my
bn.pdf}
6. ^ "skeleton." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2011. Web. 25 Dec. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/547371/skeleton>.
7. ^ Li, C.-W.; et al. (2007).
"Ciliated protozoans from the
Precambrian Doushantuo Formation,
Wengan, South China". Geological
Society, London, Special Publications
286: 151–156.
doi:10.1144/SP286.11. http://dx.doi.org
/10.1144/SP286.11
{Ciliates_Fossils_Precambrian_Li_580my
bn.pdf}
8. ^ Li, C.-W.; et al. (2007).
"Ciliated protozoans from the
Precambrian Doushantuo Formation,
Wengan, South China". Geological
Society, London, Special Publications
286: 151–156.
doi:10.1144/SP286.11. http://dx.doi.org
/10.1144/SP286.11
{Ciliates_Fossils_Precambrian_Li_580my
bn.pdf} {earliest hard shell fossil -
ciliate) 580 mybn}
9. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime
E Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L
Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
{Euglenozoa -pellicle) 1956 mybn}

MORE INFO
[1] Hamm, Smetacek, "Armor: Why,
When, and How", in Falkowski, Knoll,
"Evolution of Primary Producers in the
Sea", 2007, p311-332, p323
[2] Bengtson, S.
(2004), Early skeletal fossils, in
Lipps, J.H., and Waggoner, B.M.,
"Neoproterozoic- Cambrian Biological
Revolutions" (PDF), Paleontological
Society Papers 10: 67–78, retrieved
2008-07-18 http://www.nrm.se/download/1
8.4e32c81078a8d9249800021554/Bengtson200
4ESF.pdf
(Doushantuo Formation) Beidoushan,
Guizhou Province, South China7  
[1] Figure 1 from: Li, C.-W.; et al.
(2007). ''Ciliated protozoans from the
Precambrian Doushantuo Formation,
Wengan, South China''. Geological
Society, London, Special Publications
286: 151–156.
doi:10.1144/SP286.11. http://dx.doi.org
/10.1144/SP286.11
{Ciliates_Fossils_Precambrian_Li_580my
bn.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://dx.doi.org/10.1144/SP286.
11

[2] Figure 1 from: Li, C.-W.; et al.
(2007). ''Ciliated protozoans from the
Precambrian Doushantuo Formation,
Wengan, South China''. Geological
Society, London, Special Publications
286: 151–156.
doi:10.1144/SP286.11. http://dx.doi.org
/10.1144/SP286.11
{Ciliates_Fossils_Precambrian_Li_580my
bn.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://dx.doi.org/10.1144/SP286.
11
570,000,000 YBN
21 22 23 24 		311) The Bilaterians Chaetognatha
{KE-ToG-nutu14 15 } evolve (Arrow
Worms).16

The earliest teeth evolve. Animals
start to eat other animals.17 18

The evolution of teeth and animal
predation starts an "arms race" that
rapidly transforms ecosystems around
the Earth.19 Teeth and shells evolve
as advantages to survival.20
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Douglas Palmer, "Prehistoric
Life", 2009, p68.
2. ^ Vannier, J.; Steiner,
M.; Renvoise, E.; Hu, S.-X.; Casanova,
J.-P. (2007). "Early Cambrian origin of
modern food webs: evidence from
predator arrow worms". Proceedings of
the Royal Society B 274 (1610):
627–633. doi:10.1098/rspb.2006.3761.
PMC 2197202. PMID 17254986.
http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/article
render.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=2197202
.
3. ^ "arrow worm." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2012.
Answers.com 21 Jan. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/chaetognath
a
4. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=chaeto
gnatha&submit=Submit
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
6. ^ Douglas Palmer,
"Prehistoric Life", 2009, p68.
7. ^ Vannier,
J.; Steiner, M.; Renvoise, E.; Hu,
S.-X.; Casanova, J.-P. (2007). "Early
Cambrian origin of modern food webs:
evidence from predator arrow worms".
Proceedings of the Royal Society B 274
(1610): 627–633.
doi:10.1098/rspb.2006.3761. PMC
2197202. PMID 17254986.
http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/article
render.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=2197202
.
8. ^ "arrow worm." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2012.
Answers.com 21 Jan. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/chaetognath
a
9. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=chaeto
gnatha&submit=Submit
10. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
11. ^ Douglas Palmer,
"Prehistoric Life", 2009, p68.
12. ^
Vannier, J.; Steiner, M.; Renvoise, E.;
Hu, S.-X.; Casanova, J.-P. (2007).
"Early Cambrian origin of modern food
webs: evidence from predator arrow
worms". Proceedings of the Royal
Society B 274 (1610): 627–633.
doi:10.1098/rspb.2006.3761. PMC
2197202. PMID 17254986.
http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/article
render.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=2197202
.
13. ^ Douglas Palmer, "Prehistoric
Life", 2009, p68.
14. ^ "arrow worm." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2012. Answers.com 21 Jan. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/chaetognath
a
15. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=chaeto
gnatha&submit=Submit
16. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
17. ^ Douglas Palmer,
"Prehistoric Life", 2009, p68.
18. ^
Vannier, J.; Steiner, M.; Renvoise, E.;
Hu, S.-X.; Casanova, J.-P. (2007).
"Early Cambrian origin of modern food
webs: evidence from predator arrow
worms". Proceedings of the Royal
Society B 274 (1610): 627–633.
doi:10.1098/rspb.2006.3761. PMC
2197202. PMID 17254986.
http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/article
render.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=2197202
.
19. ^ Douglas Palmer, "Prehistoric
Life", 2009, p68.
20. ^ Ted Huntington.
21. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004). (570)
22. ^ Chen, J.-Y.; Huang, D.-Y.
(2002). "A possible Lower Cambrian
chaetognath (arrow worm)". Science 298
(5591): 187.
doi:10.1126/science.1075059. PMID
12364798.
23. ^ Peterson, Kevin J., and Nicholas
J. Butterfield. “Origin of the
Eumetazoa: Testing Ecological
Predictions of Molecular Clocks Against
the Proterozoic Fossil Record.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences of the United States of
America 102.27 (2005):
9547–9552. http://www.pnas.org/conten
t/102/27/9547.full.pdf+html
24. ^ S. Blair Hedges and Sudhir Kumar,
"TimeTree of Life", Oxford University
Press, New York., 2009, Chap 24,
p224-225. http://timetree.org/book.php

MORE INFO
[1] Gonzalo Giribet, Daniel L.
Distel, Martin Polz, Wolfgang Sterrer,
and Ward C. Wheeler Triploblastic
Relationships with Emphasis on the
Acoelomates and the Position of
Gnathostomulida, Cycliophora,
Plathelminthes, and Chaetognatha: A
Combined Approach of 18S rDNA Sequences
and Morphology Syst Biol (2000) 49(3):
539-562 doi:10.1080/10635159950127385
[2] Martin Helmkampf, Iris
Bruchhaus, Bernhard Hausdorf, Multigene
analysis of lophophorate and
chaetognath phylogenetic relationships,
Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution,
Volume 46, Issue 1, January 2008, Pages
206-214, ISSN 1055-7903,
10.1016/j.ympev.2007.09.004. (http://ww
w.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/
S105579030700317X)
[3] S. Blair Hedges, "The origin and
evolution of model organisms", Nature
Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849 (November
2002) http://www.nature.com/nrg/journal
/v3/n11/full/nrg929.html
[4] Brusca and Brusca, "Invertebrates",
2002, p844
 
[1] Chaetognatha UNKNOWN
source: http://content5.eol.org/content/
2010/08/09/03/74200_large.jpg

[2] Description Chatognath
Spadella cephaloptera Date
Unkown Source Own
work Author
Zatelmar Permission (Reusing
this file) See below. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8e/Chaetoblack.png
565,000,000 YBN
13 14 15 		345) The Deuterostome Phylum
Hemichordata evolves; The
"Hemichordates", the ancestor of
pterobranchs {TARuBrANKS9 }10 and
acorn worms).11

Adult Pterobranchs are sessile,
fastening to solid structures, but the
younger (or larval) form is free
swimming, and is thought to have
retained this form before evolving into
tunicates and then the first fish.12
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=pterob
ranchs&submit=Submit
2. ^ Prothero, "Evolution What the
Fossils Say and Why It Matters", 2007,
p201.
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
4. ^ Prothero, "Evolution What
the Fossils Say and Why It Matters",
2007, p203.
5. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=pterob
ranchs&submit=Submit
6. ^ Prothero, "Evolution What the
Fossils Say and Why It Matters", 2007,
p201.
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
8. ^ Prothero, "Evolution What
the Fossils Say and Why It Matters",
2007, p203.
9. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=pterob
ranchs&submit=Submit
10. ^ Prothero, "Evolution What the
Fossils Say and Why It Matters", 2007,
p201.
11. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
12. ^ Prothero, "Evolution
What the Fossils Say and Why It
Matters", 2007, p203.
13. ^ Peterson, Kevin
J., and Nicholas J. Butterfield.
“Origin of the Eumetazoa: Testing
Ecological Predictions of Molecular
Clocks Against the Proterozoic Fossil
Record.” Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences of the United
States of America 102.27 (2005):
9547–9552. http://www.pnas.org/conten
t/102/27/9547.full.pdf+html
14. ^ Xian-guang Hou, Richard J.
Aldridge, David J. Siveter, Derek J.
Siveter, Mark Williams, Jan
Zalasiewicz, Xiao-ya Ma. A pterobranch
hemichordate zooid from the lower
Cambrian. Current Biology, 24 March
2011 DOI:
10.1016/j.cub.2011.03.005 http://www.sc
iencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S096
0982211002776
15. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p383.

MORE INFO
[1]
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=126698
 
[1] Description Eichelwurm, Exemplar
aus der Sammlung des Institutes für
Zoologie, FU Berlin. GNU
FDL Date Source Foto:
de:Benutzer:Necrophorus Author User
Necrophorus on
de.wikipedia Permission (Reusing
this file) Released under the GNU Free
Documentation License. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Eichelwurm.jpg/
1024px-Eichelwurm.jpg

[2] Pterobranchs Resembling slugs
with hairy, branching tentacles,
Pterobranchs filter food from the water
and form colonies of “clones,” much
like coral polyps, often secreting a
network of hard tubing. Individual
zooids can crawl about freely within
the colony, but are connected to one
another by thin “cables,” quickly
retracting if disturbed. What makes the
Pterobranchs even stranger than corals
is that these slimy, slithering weirdos
are “hemichordates,” closer to us
vertebrates than to invertebrates like
worms and jellyfish. Read more:
http://www.toptenz.net/top-10-colonial-o
rganisms.php#ixzz1lJRtH61S COPYRIGHTED

source: http://www.toptenz.net/wp-conten
t/uploads/2011/10/Pterobranch-colonial-o
rganisms.jpg
565,000,000 YBN
22 23 		347) The Deuterostome Phylum Chordata
evolves. Chordates are a very large
group that include all tunicates
{TUNiKiTS}, fishes, amphibians,
reptiles, mammals, and birds.15 16
Chordates get their name from the
notochord {nOTe-KORD17 }, the cartilage
rod that runs along the back of the
animal, in the embryo if not in the
adult.18

The ancestor of all chordates evolves
"upside-down": unlike earlier
invertebrates who have a ventral nerve
cord (near the belly19 ) and a dorsal
heart (near the back20 ), this ancestor
and all later vertebrates have a dorsal
nerve cord and a ventral heart.21
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). p368-p381.
2. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
p368-p381.
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). p368-p381.
4. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
p368-p381.
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). p399-400.
6. ^
"ventral."Answers.com 01 Apr. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ventral
7. ^ "dorsal." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 01 Apr.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/dorsal
8. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). p368-p381.
9. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
p368-p381.
10. ^ "notochord." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 04
Jun. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/notochord
11. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). p368-p381.
12. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
p399-400.
13. ^ "ventral."Answers.com 01 Apr.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ventral
14. ^ "dorsal." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 01 Apr.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/dorsal
15. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). p368-p381.
16. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
p368-p381.
17. ^ "notochord." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 04
Jun. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/notochord
18. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). p368-p381.
19. ^
"ventral."Answers.com 01 Apr. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ventral
20. ^ "dorsal." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 01 Apr.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/dorsal
21. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). p399-400.
22. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
p368-p381. {565 MYBN}
23. ^
http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/3208
583.stm

MORE INFO
[1] Douzery, E. J. P., Snell, E.
A., Bapteste, E., Delsuc, F., &
Philippe, H. (2004). The timing of
eukaryotic evolution: Does a relaxed
molecular clock reconcile proteins and
fossils? Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences of the United
States of America , 101 (43),
15386-15391. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.040398410
1
[2] Russell F. Doolittle, Da-Fei Feng,
Simon Tsang, Glen Cho and Elizabeth
Little, "Determining Divergence Times
of the Major Kingdoms of Living
Organisms with a Protein Clock",
Science New Series, Vol. 271, No. 5248
(Jan. 26, 1996), pp.
470-477. http://www.jstor.org/stable/28
90144
[3] Pennisi, Elizabeth. “Drafting a
Tree.” Science 300.5626 (2003) :
1694.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/300/5626/1694.summary
[4] Philip C. J. Donoghue and Mark A.
Purnell, "The Evolutionary Emergence of
Vertebrates From Among Their Spineless
Relatives", EVOLUTION: EDUCATION AND
OUTREACH, Volume 2, Number 2, 204-212,
DOI:
10.1007/s12052-009-0134-3 http://www.sp
ringerlink.com/content/l48138g81qv4m18k/
export-citation/
[5]
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=41451
 
[1] from adelaide, australia UNKNOWN
source: http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/t
ech/3208583.stm

[2] [t Note that this is a vertebrate
- not a pre-vertebrate
chordate] Portion of figure
from: D.-G. Shu, S. Conway Morris, J.
Han, Z.-F. Zhang, K. Yasui, P. Janvier,
L. Chen, X.-L. Zhang, J.-N. Liu, Y. Li
and H.-Q. Liu, ''Head and backbone of
the Early Cambrian vertebrate
Haikouichthys'', Nature 421,
526-529(30 January
2003) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v421/n6922/full/nature01264.html CO
PYRIGHTED
source: https://nature.com/journal/v421/
n6922/images/nature01264-f1.2.jpg
565,000,000 YBN
5 6 		348) The earliest extant chordate:
Tunicates {TUNiKiTS} evolve (also
called sea squirts).4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004),p377-381.
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004),p377-381.
3. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004),p377-381.
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004),p377-381.
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004),p377-381. {565
mybn}
6. ^ Chen, Jun-Yuan et al. “The First
Tunicate from the Early Cambrian of
South China.” Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences 100.14
(2003): 8314 –8318.
Print. http://www.pnas.org/content/100/
14/8314.full
 
[1] Description Clavelina
moluccensis, the bluebell
tunicate English: Tunicate colony.
(Clavelina moluccensis) Date
04/17/05 Source Own
work Author Nhobgood CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/98/Bluebell_tunicates_Ni
ck_Hobgood.jpg

[2] Timeline of phylogeny of animals,
figure 6 from: S. Blair Hedges, ''The
origin and evolution of model
organisms'', Nature Reviews Genetics 3,
838-849 (November
2002) http://www.nature.com/nrg/journal
/v3/n11/full/nrg929.html {Hedges_2002.p
df} a) The relationships and
divergence times (millions of years ago
(Mya) plusminus one standard error) of
selected model animals are shown, based
on recent multigene and multiprotein
studies51, 61, 84. The fossil
divergence time of birds and mammals
(310 Mya) was used to calibrate the
molecular clock. Branch lengths are not
proportional to time. b ) The
relationships and numbers of living
species, from a diversity of sources in
most of the main groups. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nrg/journa
l/v3/n11/images/nrg929-f6.jpg
560,000,000 YBN
19 20 21 22 23 24 		117) The earliest animal shell (or
skeleton) evolves.6
This is the
earliest evidence of animals eating
other animals (predation).7 8
This
begins the appearance of small shelly
fossils and deep burrows correlated
with a decline in stromatolites,
possibly from feeding.9

The earliest animal shells are made by
tiny organisms with simple tubelike
skeletons, such as Cloudina and
Sinotubulites10 11 in addition to
sponge skeleton fossils.12

The shell of Cloudina is made of
Calcium carbonate (CaCO3)13 , and are
possibly made by some kind of worm.14

Predatory bore holes have been found in
Cloudina shells. This is the oldest
evidence of predation known.15 16
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^ Dott and Prothero, "Evolution of
the Earth", sixth edition, 2002, p210.
2. ^
Dzik, J (2007), "The Verdun Syndrome:
simultaneous origin of protective
armour and infaunal shelters at the
Precambrian–Cambrian transition", in
Vickers-Rich, Patricia; Komarower,
Patricia, The Rise and Fall of the
Ediacaran Biota, Special publications,
286, London: Geological Society, pp.
405–414, doi:10.1144/SP286.30, ISBN
9781862392335, OCLC 191881597 156823511
191881597
http://www.paleo.pan.pl/people/Dzik/Pu
blications/Verdun.pdf
3. ^ Bengtson, S. and Zhao, Y. (17 July
1992). "Predatorial Borings in Late
Precambrian Mineralized Exoskeletons"
(abstract). Science 257 (5068): 367.
doi:10.1126/science.257.5068.367. PMID
17832833.
http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/
abstract/257/5068/367
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/2877345

4. ^ HONG HUA, BRIAN R. PRATT, and
LU-YI ZHANG, "Borings in Cloudina
Shells: Complex Predator-Prey Dynamics
in the Terminal Neoproterozoic",
PALAIOS, October 2003, v. 18, p.
454-459,
doi:10.1669/0883-1351(2003)018<0454:BICSCP>2.0.CO;2
http://palaios.geoscienceworld.org/citmg
r?gca=palaios;18/4-5/454
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/3515782

5. ^ Dott and Prothero, "Evolution of
the Earth", sixth edition, 2002, p210.
6. ^
Dzik, J (2007), "The Verdun Syndrome:
simultaneous origin of protective
armour and infaunal shelters at the
Precambrian–Cambrian transition", in
Vickers-Rich, Patricia; Komarower,
Patricia, The Rise and Fall of the
Ediacaran Biota, Special publications,
286, London: Geological Society, pp.
405–414, doi:10.1144/SP286.30, ISBN
9781862392335, OCLC 191881597 156823511
191881597
http://www.paleo.pan.pl/people/Dzik/Pu
blications/Verdun.pdf
7. ^ Bengtson, S. and Zhao, Y. (17 July
1992). "Predatorial Borings in Late
Precambrian Mineralized Exoskeletons"
(abstract). Science 257 (5068): 367.
doi:10.1126/science.257.5068.367. PMID
17832833.
http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/
abstract/257/5068/367
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/2877345

8. ^ HONG HUA, BRIAN R. PRATT, and
LU-YI ZHANG, "Borings in Cloudina
Shells: Complex Predator-Prey Dynamics
in the Terminal Neoproterozoic",
PALAIOS, October 2003, v. 18, p.
454-459,
doi:10.1669/0883-1351(2003)018<0454:BICSCP>2.0.CO;2
http://palaios.geoscienceworld.org/citmg
r?gca=palaios;18/4-5/454
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/3515782

9. ^ Dott and Prothero, "Evolution of
the Earth", sixth edition, 2002, p210.
10. ^
Dott, Prothero, "Evolution of the
Earth", 6th edition 2002, p212.
11. ^ Donald
Prothero, "Evolution What the Fossils
Say and Why It Matters", 2007, p168.
12. ^
Clites, Erica C., Mary L. Droser, and
James G. Gehling. “The Advent of
Hard-part Structural Support Among the
Ediacara Biota: Ediacaran Harbinger of
a Cambrian Mode of Body
Construction.” Geology (2012): n.
pag. http://geology.gsapubs.org/content
/early/2012/02/13/G32828.1
13. ^ Bengtson, S. and Zhao, Y. (17
July 1992). "Predatorial Borings in
Late Precambrian Mineralized
Exoskeletons" (abstract). Science 257
(5068): 367.
doi:10.1126/science.257.5068.367. PMID
17832833.
http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/
abstract/257/5068/367
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/2877345

14. ^ Donald Prothero, "Evolution What
the Fossils Say and Why It Matters",
2007, p166.
15. ^ Bengtson, S. and Zhao, Y.
(17 July 1992). "Predatorial Borings in
Late Precambrian Mineralized
Exoskeletons" (abstract). Science 257
(5068): 367.
doi:10.1126/science.257.5068.367. PMID
17832833.
http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/
abstract/257/5068/367
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/2877345

16. ^ HONG HUA, BRIAN R. PRATT, and
LU-YI ZHANG, "Borings in Cloudina
Shells: Complex Predator-Prey Dynamics
in the Terminal Neoproterozoic",
PALAIOS, October 2003, v. 18, p.
454-459,
doi:10.1669/0883-1351(2003)018<0454:BICSCP>2.0.CO;2
http://palaios.geoscienceworld.org/citmg
r?gca=palaios;18/4-5/454
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/3515782

17. ^ SW Grant, "Shell structure and
distribution of Cloudina, a potential
index fossil for the terminal
Proterozoic.", Source: American journal
of science (1990) volume: 290-A
(Special volume) page: 261
-94 http://earth.geology.yale.edu/~ajs/
1990/11.1990.10SpecialConway.pdf
18. ^ HONG HUA, BRIAN R. PRATT, and
LU-YI ZHANG, "Borings in Cloudina
Shells: Complex Predator-Prey Dynamics
in the Terminal Neoproterozoic",
PALAIOS, October 2003, v. 18, p.
454-459,
doi:10.1669/0883-1351(2003)018<0454:BICSCP>2.0.CO;2
http://palaios.geoscienceworld.org/citmg
r?gca=palaios;18/4-5/454
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/3515782

19. ^ Donald Prothero, "Evolution What
the Fossils Say and Why It Matters",
2007, p163-170.
20. ^ Dott, Prothero, "Evolution
of the Earth", 6th edition 2002, p212.
21. ^
Adam C. Maloof, Susannah M. Porter,
John L. Moore, Frank Ö. Dudás, Samuel
A. Bowring, John A. Higgins, David A.
Fike, and Michael P. Eddy, "The
earliest Cambrian record of animals and
ocean geochemical change", Geological
Society of America Bulletin, November
2010, v. 122, p. 1731-1774,
doi:10.1130/B30346.1 http://gsabulletin
.gsapubs.org/content/122/11-12/1731.full

22. ^ SW Grant, "Shell structure and
distribution of Cloudina, a potential
index fossil for the terminal
Proterozoic.", Source: American journal
of science (1990) volume: 290-A
(Special volume) page: 261
-94 http://earth.geology.yale.edu/~ajs/
1990/11.1990.10SpecialConway.pdf
23. ^
http://palaeos.com/proterozoic/neoproter
ozoic/ediacaran/ediacaran2.htm
24. ^ HONG HUA, BRIAN R. PRATT, and
LU-YI ZHANG, "Borings in Cloudina
Shells: Complex Predator-Prey Dynamics
in the Terminal Neoproterozoic",
PALAIOS, October 2003, v. 18, p.
454-459,
doi:10.1669/0883-1351(2003)018<0454:BICSCP>2.0.CO;2
http://palaios.geoscienceworld.org/citmg
r?gca=palaios;18/4-5/454
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/3515782


MORE INFO
[1] Philip W. Signor and Mark A.
S. McMenamin "The Early Cambrian Worm
Tube Onuphionella from California and
Nevada", Journal of Paleontology , Vol.
62, No. 2 (Mar., 1988), pp.
233-240 Published by: Paleontological
Society Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/1305228
[2] MATTHEWS, S. C., AND V. V.
MISSARZHEVSKY. 1975. "Small shelly
fossils of late Precambrian and early
Cambrian age: a review of recent work."
Journal of the Geological Society,
131:289-304 http://jgs.geoscienceworld.
org/content/131/3/289.abstract
[3] GRANT, S. W. F. 1990. "Shell
structure and distribution of Cloudina,
a potential index fossil for the
terminal Proterozoic." American Journal
of Science, 290(A):261-294
(Ara Formation) Oman17 |Lijiagou,
Ningqiang County, Shaanxi Province18
 
[1] Cloudina COPYRIGHTED
source: http://palaeos.com/proterozoic/n
eoproterozoic/ediacaran/images/Cloudina.
jpg

[2] Cloudina from: HONG HUA, BRIAN R.
PRATT, and LU-YI ZHANG, ''Borings in
Cloudina Shells: Complex Predator-Prey
Dynamics in the Terminal
Neoproterozoic'', PALAIOS, October
2003, v. 18, p. 454-459,
doi:10.1669/0883-1351(2003)018<0454:BICSCP>2.0.CO;2
http://palaios.geoscienceworld.org/citmg
r?gca=palaios;18/4-5/454 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://palaios.geoscienceworld.o
rg/content/vol18/issue4-5/images/large/i
0883-1351-018-04-0454-f03.jpeg
560,000,000 YBN
12 13 14 15 16 		318) The Protostomes Ecdysozoa
{eK-DiS-u-ZOu8 } evolve. Ecdysozoa are
animals that molt (lose their outer
skin) as they grow.9 10 This is the
ancestor of round worms, and arthropods
(which includes insects and crustaceans
{also known as "shell-fish"}).11
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=ecdyso
zoa&submit=Submit
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Cowen, "History
of Life", (Malden, MA: Blackwell,
2005),p390-394.
4. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=ecdyso
zoa&submit=Submit
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
6. ^ Richard Cowen, "History
of Life", (Malden, MA: Blackwell,
2005),p390-394.
7. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=198710
8. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=ecdyso
zoa&submit=Submit
9. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
10. ^ Richard Cowen, "History
of Life", (Malden, MA: Blackwell,
2005),p390-394.
11. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=198710
12. ^ Peterson, Kevin J., and Nicholas
J. Butterfield. “Origin of the
Eumetazoa: Testing Ecological
Predictions of Molecular Clocks Against
the Proterozoic Fossil Record.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences of the United States of
America 102.27 (2005):
9547–9552. http://www.pnas.org/conten
t/102/27/9547.full.pdf+html
13. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (c580) {c580 mybn}
14. ^
Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005),p388-394.
(560) {560 mybn}
15. ^ S. Blair Hedges and
Sudhir Kumar, "The TimeTree of Life",
2009,
p224-225. http://www.timetree.org/book.
php {790 mybn}
16. ^ Cartwright, Paulyn, and
Allen Collins. “Fossils and
phylogenies: integrating multiple lines
of evidence to investigate the origin
of early major metazoan lineages.”
Integrative and Comparative Biology
47.5 (2007): 744 -751.
Print. http://icb.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/47/5/744.full {530 mybn}

MORE INFO
[1] Dunn et al., CW; Hejnol, A;
Matus, DQ; Pang, K; Browne, WE; Smith,
SA; Seaver, E; Rouse, GW et al. (2008).
"Broad phylogenomic sampling improves
resolution of the animal tree of life".
Nature 452 (7188): 745–749.
doi:10.1038/nature06614. PMID
18322464. http://www.nature.com/nature/
journal/v452/n7188/abs/nature06614.html
[2] Giribet, G. (2008). Assembling the
lophotrochozoan (=spiralian) tree of
life. Philosophical Transactions of the
Royal Society B: Biological Sciences ,
363 (1496), 1513-1522. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2007.2241
 http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/363/1496/1513
[3] Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004),p390-394
[4] Telford, Maximilian J et
al. “The Evolution of the
Ecdysozoa.” Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society B:
Biological Sciences 363.1496 (2008):
1529 –1537.
Print. http://rstb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/363/1496/1529.long
 
[1] Description English: Life
restoration of Ottoia in natural
environment with nearby
Haplophrentis. Date 11-29-08 Source
Own work Author Smokeybjb GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/10/Ottoia_burrowing.jpg

[2] Description
en:category:Caenorhabditis
elegans Date 2006-09-06 (original
upload date) (Original text :
09/05/2006) Source Originally from
en.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. (Original text : Donated by
Zeynep F. Altun) Author Original
uploader was Kbradnam at
en.wikipedia (Original text : Zeynep
F. Altun, Editor of
www.wormatlas.org) Permission (Reusing
this file) CC-BY-SA-2.5. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Adult_Caenorhab
ditis_elegans.jpg/1280px-Adult_Caenorhab
ditis_elegans.jpg
560,000,000 YBN
16 17 18 19 20 		331) The Protostomes Lophotrochozoa
{Lu-Fo-Tro-Ku-ZO-u10 } evolve. Ancestor
of rotifers, phoronids, brachiopods
{BrA-KE-O-PoDZ11 }, entoprocts
{eNTuProKS12 }, bryozoans
{BrI-u-ZO-iNZ13 }, platyhelminthes,
gastrotrichs, nemertea, molluscs and
annelids.14 15
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=lophot
rochozoa&submit=Submit
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^ Elizabeth Pennisi,
"Drafting a Tree", Science, (2003).
4. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=lophot
rochozoa&submit=Submit
5. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=brachi
opods&submit=Submit
6. ^ "entoproct?s=t". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.

http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/e
ntoproct?s=t
7. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=bryozo
ans&submit=Submit
8. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
9. ^ Elizabeth Pennisi,
"Drafting a Tree", Science, (2003).
10. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=lophot
rochozoa&submit=Submit
11. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=brachi
opods&submit=Submit
12. ^ "entoproct?s=t". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.

http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/e
ntoproct?s=t
13. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=bryozo
ans&submit=Submit
14. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
15. ^ Elizabeth Pennisi,
"Drafting a Tree", Science, (2003).
16. ^
Peterson, Kevin J., and Nicholas J.
Butterfield. “Origin of the
Eumetazoa: Testing Ecological
Predictions of Molecular Clocks Against
the Proterozoic Fossil Record.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences of the United States of
America 102.27 (2005):
9547–9552. http://www.pnas.org/conten
t/102/27/9547.full.pdf+html
17. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (c547) {c580 mybn}
18. ^
Elizabeth Pennisi, "Drafting a Tree",
Science, (2003). (550) {550 mybn}
19. ^ S.
Blair Hedges and Sudhir Kumar, "The
TimeTree of Life", 2009,
p224-225. http://www.timetree.org/book.
php {790 mybn}
20. ^ Cartwright, Paulyn, and
Allen Collins. “Fossils and
phylogenies: integrating multiple lines
of evidence to investigate the origin
of early major metazoan lineages.”
Integrative and Comparative Biology
47.5 (2007): 744 -751.
Print. http://icb.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/47/5/744.full {538 mybn}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=202032
 
[1] A rotifer. The cilia around
this rotifer's mouth are unusually
long; they reach as far as the strand
of spirogyra to the right. 10×
objective, 15× eyepiece. The numbered
ticks on the scale are 122 µM apart.
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencephoto.com/imag
e/121893/530wm/C0058380-Rotifer_SEM-SPL.
jpg

[2] Description Clams Date
Source Own work Author
Marlith CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8f/Clams.JPG
560,000,000 YBN
349) The first fish evolves.4
FOOTNOTES

1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004),p372-376.
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004),p372-376.
3. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004),p372-376.
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004),p372-376.

MORE INFO
[1]
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=41451
 
[1] Lancelet (Branchiostoma
lanceolatum) Description
Branchiostoma lanceolatum (Pallas,
1774) English: Amphioxus from course
sandy sediments (600µm) on the Belgian
continental shelf. Length: ~22
mm. Geo-location not applicable as the
picture was taken in the
lab. Français : Branchiostoma
lanceolatum, un céphalochordé,
récolté dans des sédiments de sable
grossier (600µm) sur le Plateau
continental belge. Longueur totale: 22
mm environ. Date 1997 Source
Own work Author (Hans
Hillewaert) CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/47/Branchiostoma_lanceol
atum.jpg
560,000,000 YBN
6290) The earliest extant fish, the
Chordates Lancelets {laNSleTS7 } (also
called amphioxus {aMFEoKSiS8 }9 ).10
This is also the first liver and
kidney.11
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "lancelet." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 11
Feb. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/lancelet
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004),p372-376.
3. ^ Prothero, "Evolution What
the Fossils Say and Why It Matters",
2007, p205.
4. ^ "lancelet." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 11
Feb. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/lancelet
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004),p372-376.
6. ^ Prothero, "Evolution What
the Fossils Say and Why It Matters",
2007, p205.
7. ^ "lancelet." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 11
Feb. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/lancelet
8. ^ "amphioxus." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 01 Jan.
2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/a
mphioxus>.
9. ^ Prothero, "Evolution What the
Fossils Say and Why It Matters", 2007,
p202.
10. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004),p372-376.
11. ^ Prothero, "Evolution
What the Fossils Say and Why It
Matters", 2007, p205.

MORE INFO
[1] Philip C. J. Donoghue and
Mark A. Purnell, "The Evolutionary
Emergence of Vertebrates From Among
Their Spineless Relatives", EVOLUTION:
EDUCATION AND OUTREACH, Volume 2,
Number 2, 204-212, DOI:
10.1007/s12052-009-0134-3 http://www.sp
ringerlink.com/content/l48138g81qv4m18k/
export-citation/
[2]
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=41451
 
[1] Lancelet (Branchiostoma
lanceolatum) Description
Branchiostoma lanceolatum (Pallas,
1774) English: Amphioxus from course
sandy sediments (600µm) on the Belgian
continental shelf. Length: ~22
mm. Geo-location not applicable as the
picture was taken in the
lab. Français : Branchiostoma
lanceolatum, un céphalochordé,
récolté dans des sédiments de sable
grossier (600µm) sur le Plateau
continental belge. Longueur totale: 22
mm environ. Date 1997 Source
Own work Author (Hans
Hillewaert) CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/47/Branchiostoma_lanceol
atum.jpg

[2] Lancelet COPYRIGHTED
source: http://kentsimmons.uwinnipeg.ca/
16cm05/1116/34-04b-Lancelet.jpg
550,000,000 YBN
11 		328) The Ecdysozoa Aschelminthes
{aSKHeLmiNtEZ7 8 } evolves; the
ancestor of the worms nematodes and
priapulids.9 10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=126691
3. ^ "Aschelminthes." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 22 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/aschelminth
es
4. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=aschel
minthes
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
6. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=126691
7. ^ "Aschelminthes." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 22 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/aschelminth
es
8. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=aschel
minthes
9. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
10. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=126691
11. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (c550)
 
[1] Description English: Priapulid
worm Priapulus caudatus in a Petry
dish. The specimen was found in the
intertidal of the Russian coast of the
Barents Sea. Русский:
Приапулида Priapulus caudatus
в чашке Петри. Особь
найдена в
приливно-отливной
зоне на российском
побережье Баренцева
моря. Date between 2005 and
2007 Source kindly granted by the
author Author Dmitry
Aristov Permission (Reusing this
file) See below. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/62/Priapulus_caudatus.jp
g

[2] Giribet, G. (2008). Assembling the
lophotrochozoan (=spiralian) tree of
life. Philosophical Transactions of the
Royal Society B: Biological Sciences ,
363 (1496), 1513-1522. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2007.2241
http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/363/1496/1513 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://rstb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/363/1496/1513
547,000,000 YBN
5 		334) The Lophotrochozoa Phylum
Brachiopoda {BrAKEoPiDu2 } evolves (the
brachiopods {BrAKEOPoDZ}).3

The Brachiopods are marine
invertebrates that have bivalve dorsal
and ventral shells enclosing a pair of
tentacled, armlike structures that are
used to sweep minute food particles
into their mouth.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ "Brachiopoda." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2013. Answers.com 01 Jan. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/brachiopoda

3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
4. ^ "brachiopod." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 18 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/brachiopod
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (c547)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=202032
 
[1] Brachiopod UNKNOWN
source: http://paleo.cortland.edu/tutori
al/Brachiopods/Brachiopod%20Images/lingu
la.GIF

[2] Brachiopods (Glottidia
Albida) Photographic Print by Richard
Herrmann item #: 357011759A UNKNOWN
source: http://cache2.artprintimages.com
/lrg/38/3813/HHRIF00Z.jpg
543,000,000 YBN
11 		101) Segmentation evolves (body parts
are repeated serially, for example
vertebrae).7 8

Some think that segmentation evolved
independently in annelid worms,
arthropods, and vertebrates. But the
universality of Homeobox genes, evolved
over a billion years earlier9 , implies
that all segmented species may share a
common segmented ancestor.10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
2. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004),p622-624.
3. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
4. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004),p622-624.
5. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
6. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004),p622-624.
7. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
8. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004),p622-624.
9. ^ Mukherjee K, Bürglin TR, "MEKHLA,
a novel domain with similarity to PAS
domains, is fused to plant
homeodomain-leucine zipper III
proteins.", Plant Physiol
2006;140:1142-1150. http://www.plantphy
siol.org/content/140/4/1142.full
10. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004),p622-624.
11. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). {537 MYBN
(based on Annaleda - segmented worns}
{543 MYBN (based on arthropods,
annelids - segmented worns=537}
 
[1] Dikinsonia grew to a length of as
much as two feet (60 cm), which made it
one of the larger complex organisms of
the Vendian. It's body is segmented
with midline symmetry dividing it's
body. Its body may have been denser
than modern jellyfish or worms. [Atlas
of Prehistoric World, Discovery
Books Reconstruction of Dickinsonia,
based on images from Atlas of the
Prehistoric World, Discovery Channel
Books and Kingfisher Illustrated
Dinosaur Encyclopedia UNKNOWN
source: http://paleontology.edwardtbabin
ski.us/vendian/dickinsonia.jpg

[2] Spriggina Spriggina was
definitely a predator of the seas of
that time. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.museum.toulouse.fr/IM
G/jpg/spriginna_72dpi_680.jpg
542,000,000 YBN
9 		53) The end of the "Precambrian". The
end of the Proterozoic and start of the
Phanerozoic {FaNReZOiK5 } Eon. The end
of the Neoproterozoic and start of the
Paleozoic {PAlEuZOiK6 } Era, and the
end of the Ediacaran and start of the
Cambrian Period.7 8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Phanerozoic." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 09
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/phanerozoic

2. ^ "Paleozoic." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 09 Mar.
2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/P
aleozoic>.
3. ^
http://www.geosociety.org/science/timesc
ale/
4. ^ USGS "Divisions of Geologic
Time— Major Chronostratigraphic and
Geochronologic Units", July
2010. http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2010/3059
/pdf/FS10-3059.pdf
5. ^ "Phanerozoic." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 09
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/phanerozoic

6. ^ "Paleozoic." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 09 Mar.
2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/P
aleozoic>.
7. ^
http://www.geosociety.org/science/timesc
ale/
8. ^ USGS "Divisions of Geologic
Time— Major Chronostratigraphic and
Geochronologic Units", July
2010. http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2010/3059
/pdf/FS10-3059.pdf
9. ^ USGS "Divisions of Geologic
Time— Major Chronostratigraphic and
Geochronologic Units", July
2010. http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2010/3059
/pdf/FS10-3059.pdf

MORE INFO
[1] Knoll, Andrew H. et al. “A
New Period for the Geologic Time
Scale.” Science 305.5684 (2004): 621
–622.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/305/5684/621.short
 
[1] Geologic Time Scale 2009 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.geosociety.org/scienc
e/timescale/timescl.pdf

[2] Description English: Global
pareconstruction of the Earth in the
early Cambrian period 540 million years
ago. Deutsch: Globale
paläogeografische Rekonstruktion der
Erde während des frühen Kambriums vor
540 Millionen Jahren. русский:
Глобальная
палеогеографическая
реконструкция Земли
в начале
Кембрийского периода
540 миллионов лет тому
назад. українська:
Глобальная
палеогеографічна
реконструкція Землі
на початку
Кембрійського
періоду 540 мільйонів
років тому назад. Date
23 April 2008 Source
http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~rcb7/mollglobe.
html Author Dr. Ron Blakey -
http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~rcb7/ CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d6/EarlyCambrianGlobal.j
pg
542,000,000 YBN
15 16 		6297) The Cambrian radiation, (or
"Cambrian explosion"), the rapid
diversification of multicellular
animals between 542 and 530 million
years ago that results in the
appearance of many (between 20 and 35)
of the major phyla of animals.9 10 11
An increase of animals with shells.12

The Cambrian metazoan radiation may be
the result of a major increase in
atmospheric oxygen13 , and animal
predation14 .
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Cambrian Explosion." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 26 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cambrian-ex
plosion
2. ^ Harold Levin, "The Earth Through
Time", Eighth edition, 2006, p329-333.
3. ^
"Cambrian explosion." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2011. Web. 26 Dec. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/90620/Cambrian-explosion>.
4. ^ Harold Levin, "The Earth Through
Time", Eighth edition, 2006, p329-333.
5. ^
"Cambrian Explosion." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 26
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cambrian-ex
plosion
6. ^ Harold Levin, "The Earth Through
Time", Eighth edition, 2006, p329-333.
7. ^
"Cambrian explosion." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2011. Web. 26 Dec. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/90620/Cambrian-explosion>.
8. ^ Harold Levin, "The Earth Through
Time", Eighth edition, 2006, p329-333.
9. ^
"Cambrian Explosion." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 26
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cambrian-ex
plosion
10. ^ Harold Levin, "The Earth Through
Time", Eighth edition, 2006, p329-333.
11. ^
"Cambrian explosion." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2011. Web. 26 Dec. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/90620/Cambrian-explosion>.
12. ^ Harold Levin, "The Earth Through
Time", Eighth edition, 2006, p329-333.
13. ^
Dott, Prothero, "Evolution of the
Earth", 6th edition 2002, p209.
14. ^ Dzik, J
(2007), "The Verdun Syndrome:
simultaneous origin of protective
armour and infaunal shelters at the
Precambrian–Cambrian transition", in
Vickers-Rich, Patricia; Komarower,
Patricia, The Rise and Fall of the
Ediacaran Biota, Special publications,
286, London: Geological Society, pp.
405–414, doi:10.1144/SP286.30, ISBN
9781862392335, OCLC 191881597 156823511
191881597 http://www.paleo.pan.pl/peopl
e/Dzik/Publications/Verdun.pdf
15. ^ "Cambrian explosion."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 26 Dec.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/90620/Cambrian-explosion>. {542-530
mybn}
16. ^ Harold Levin, "The Earth Through
Time", Eighth edition, 2006, p329-333.
{535 mybn}

MORE INFO
[1] Derek E. G. Briggs and
Richard A. Fortey, "Wonderful Strife:
Systematics, Stem Groups, and the
Phylogenetic Signal of the Cambrian
Radiation", Paleobiology , Vol. 31, No.
2, Supplement. Macroevolution:
Diversity, Disparity, Contingency:
Essays in Honor of Stephen Jay Gould
(Spring, 2005), pp.
94-112 http://www.jstor.org/stable/2548
2671
 
[1] Artist drawing of the bottom of the
Cambrian shallow sea floor, showing
trilobites (imagine these crawling
around on the Cambrian sea floor at
Devil's Lake state park 550 m.y. ago!)
(above). UNKNOWN
source: http://www.geology.wisc.edu/home
pages/g100s2/public_html/Geologic_Time/L
3_Cambrian_Life_More.jpg

[2] Description English: Fossil
specimen of Opabinia regalis from the
Burgess shale on display at the
Smithsonian in Washington, DC. This
appears to be the exact specimen
pictured in Fig. 42 of 'The Crucible of
Creation: The Burgess Shale and the
Rise of Animals', by Simon Conway
Morris, Oxford University Press,
1998. Date 12 April 2009 (original
upload date) Source Transferred
from en.wikipedia; transferred to
Commons by User:FunkMonk using
CommonsHelper. Author Original
uploader was Jstuby at en.wikipedia PD

source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/50/Opabinia_smithsonian.
JPG
540,000,000 YBN
7 8 9 		104) The Lophotrochozoa
{Lu-Fo-Tro-Ku-ZO-u5 } Phylum
Platyhelminthes {PlaTEheLmiNtEZ}
evolves (flatworms).6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=lophot
rochozoa&submit=Submit
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=lophot
rochozoa&submit=Submit
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
5. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=lophot
rochozoa&submit=Submit
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). (c543)
8. ^ Douzery,
Emmanuel J. P. et al. “The Timing of
Eukaryotic Evolution: Does a Relaxed
Molecular Clock Reconcile Proteins and
Fossils?” Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences of the United
States of America 101.43 (2004): 15386
-15391.
Print. http://www.pnas.org/content/101/
43/15386
9. ^ Peterson, Kevin J et al. “The
Ediacaran Emergence of Bilaterians:
Congruence Between the Genetic and the
Geological Fossil Records.”
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society B: Biological Sciences 363.1496
(2008): 1435 -1443.
Print. http://rstb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/363/1496/1435.full
 
[1] Description English: The
flatworm Pseudoceros dimidiatus. North
Horn, Osprey Reef, Coral Sea. Date
August 9, 2005 Source
Flickr Author Richard
Ling CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1e/Pseudoceros_dimidiatu
s.jpg

[2] Two turbellarians mating by penis
fencing. Each has two penises, the
white spikes on the undersides of their
heads. Description English: Two
Individuals of Pseudobiceros bedfordi
about to have a Sperm Battle. –
Species of the flatworm genus
Pseudobiceros are hermaphroditic and
have two penises that are used to
inject sperm into the partner. P.
bedfordi is exceptional in that it
applies sperm onto the partner's skin
rather than injecting it. Deutsch:
Zwei Plattwürmer (Pseudobiceros
bedfordi) vor der Begattung. Der
doppelte Penis ist bei beiden
Individuen gut sichtbar. Date
Published: 2004-06-15 Source
Whitfield J: Everything You Always
Wanted to Know about Sexes. PLoS Biol
2/6/2004: e183.
doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0020183.g001,
photo page Author Photo courtesy
of Nico Michiels. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/38/Flatworm_sex.png
540,000,000 YBN
11 12 13 		319) The Protist Phylum "Radiolaria"
{rADEOlaREo7 } (ocean protists, many
with silica shells8 ).9 10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Radiolaria." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Mar. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/radiolaria-
2
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). 1600mybn for excavates,
discricristales, rhizaria,
chromalveolates
3. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
4. ^
"Radiolaria." McGraw-Hill Dictionary of
Scientific and Technical Terms.
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003.
Answers.com 30 Mar. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/radiolaria-
2
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). 1600mybn for excavates,
discricristales, rhizaria,
chromalveolates
6. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
7. ^
"Radiolaria." McGraw-Hill Dictionary of
Scientific and Technical Terms.
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003.
Answers.com 30 Mar. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/radiolaria-
2
8. ^ "radiolarian." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 10 Aug. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/489175/radiolarian>.
9. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). 1600mybn for excavates,
discricristales, rhizaria,
chromalveolates
10. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
11. ^ A.
Braun, J. Chen, D. Waloszek and A.
Maas, "First Early Cambrian
Radiolaria", Geological Society,
London, Special Publications 2007, v.
286, p.
143-149. http://sp.lyellcollection.org/
content/286/1/143.short
and http://www.core-orsten-research.de/
Publications/PDF_Paper/ulm_team/2007b_Br
aun_etal.pdf {Earliest radiolaria
fossils) 540 mybn}
12. ^ Cédric Berney and
Jan Pawlowski, "A molecular time-scale
for eukaryote evolution recalibrated
with the continuous microfossil
record", Proc. R. Soc. B August 7, 2006
273:1867-1872;
doi:10.1098/rspb.2006.3537 http://rspb.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/273/1
596/1867.short {804 my}
13. ^
http://www.timetree.org/index.php?found_
taxon_a=65574 {804 my}

MORE INFO
[1] Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). 1600mybn for
excavates, discricristales, rhizaria,
chromalveolates (1600my)
[2] Keeling, Patrick J.
et al. "The tree of eukaryotes." Trends
in Ecology & Evolution 20.12 (2005):
670-676. http://www.sciencedirect.com/s
cience/article/pii/S0169534705003046
[3] Delsuc, Frederic, Henner Brinkmann,
and Herve Philippe. "Phylogenomics and
the reconstruction of the tree of
life." Nat Rev Genet 6.5 (2005):
361-375. http://www.nature.com/nrg/jour
nal/v6/n5/abs/nrg1603.html
[4]
http://www.bio.georgiasouthern.edu/Bio-h
ome/Pratt/boo305.htm
[5]
http://www.sirinet.net/~jgjohnso/apbio30
.html
[6]
http://www.ucl.ac.uk/GeolSci/micropal/ra
diolaria.html
[7] "Polycystine". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polycystine

 
[1] FIG. 2. The tree of life based on
molecular, ultrastructural and
palaeontological evidence. Contrary to
widespread assumptions, the root is
among the eubacteria, probably within
the double-enveloped Negibacteria, not
between eubacteria and archaebacteria
(Cavalier-Smith, 2002b); it may lie
between Eobacteria and other
Negibacteria (Cavalier-Smith, 2002b).
The position of the eukaryotic root has
been nearly as controversial, but is
less hard to establish: it probably
lies between unikonts and bikonts (Lang
et al., 2002; Stechmann and
Cavalier-Smith, 2002, 2003). For
clarity the basal eukaryotic kingdom
Protozoa is not labelled; it comprises
four major groups (alveolates, cabozoa,
Amoebozoa and Choanozoa) plus the small
bikont phylum Apusozoa of unclear
precise position; whether Heliozoa are
protozoa as shown or chromists is
uncertain (Cavalier-Smith, 2003b).
Symbiogenetic cell enslavement occurred
four or five times: in the origin of
mitochondria and chloroplasts from
different negibacteria, of
chromalveolates by the enslaving of a
red alga (Cavalier-Smith, 1999, 2003;
Harper and Keeling, 2003) and in the
origin of the green plastids of
euglenoid (excavate) and chlorarachnean
(cercozoan) algae-a green algal cell
was enslaved either by the ancestral
cabozoan (arrow) or (less likely) twice
independently within excavates and
Cercozoa (asterisks) (Cavalier-Smith,
2003a). The upper thumbnail sketch
shows membrane topology in the
chimaeric cryptophytes (class
Cryptophyceae of the phylum Cryptista);
in the ancestral chromist the former
food vacuole membrane fused with the
rough endoplasmic reticulum placing the
enslaved cell within its lumen (red) to
yield the complex membrane topology
shown. The large host nucleus and the
tiny nucleomorph are shown in blue,
chloroplast green and mitochondrion
purple. In chlorarachneans (class
Chlorarachnea of phylum Cercozoa) the
former food vacuole membrane remained
topologically distinct from the ER to
become an epiplastid membrane and so
did not acquire ribosomes on its
surface, but their membrane topology is
otherwise similar to the cryptophytes.
The other sketches portray the four
major kinds of cell in the living world
and their membrane topology. The upper
ones show the contrasting ancestral
microtubular cytoskeleton (ciliary
roots, in red) of unikonts (a cone of
single microtubules attaching the
single centriole to the nucleus, blue)
and bikonts (two bands of microtubules
attached to the posterior centriole and
an anterior fan of microtubules
attached to the anterior centriole).
The lower ones show the single plasma
membrane of unibacteria (posibacteria
plus archaebacteria), which were
ancestral to eukaryotes and the double
envelope of negibacteria, which were
ancestral to mitochondria and
chloroplasts (which retained the outer
membrane, red).
source: http://aob.oxfordjournals.org/cg
i/content/full/95/1/147/FIG2

[2] Fig. 1. A consensus phylogeny of
eukaryotes. The vast majority of
characterized eukaryotes, with the
notable exception of major subgroups of
amoebae, can now be assigned to one of
eight major groups. Opisthokonts (basal
flagellum) have a single basal
flagellum on reproductive cells and
flat mitochondrial cristae (most
eukaryotes have tubular ones).
Eukaryotic photosynthesis originated in
Plants; theirs are the only plastids
with just two outer membranes.
Heterokonts (different flagellae) have
a unique flagellum decorated with
hollow tripartite hairs (stramenopiles)
and, usually, a second plain one.
Cercozoans are amoebae with filose
pseudopodia, often living with in tests
(hard outer shells), some very
elaborate (foraminiferans). Amoebozoa
are mostly naked amoebae (lacking
tests), often with lobose pseudopodia
for at least part of their life cycle.
Alveolates have systems of cortical
alveoli directly beneath their plasma
membranes. Discicristates have discoid
mitochondrial cristae and, in some
cases, a deep (excavated) ventral
feeding groove. Amitochondrial
excavates lack substantial molecular
phylogenetic support, but most have an
excavated ventral feeding groove, and
all lack mitochondria. The tree shown
is based on a consensus of molecular
(1-4) and ultrastructural (16, 17) data
and includes a rough indication of new
ciPCR ''taxa'' (broken black lines)
(7-11). An asterisk preceding the taxon
name indicates probable paraphyletic
group.
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/co
ntent/full/300/5626/1703
540,000,000 YBN
12 13 14 15 16 		321) The Protist Phylum "Foraminifera"
{FOraMiniFRu7 } evolves, (unicellular
protists with fine pseudopods that
extend from a cytoplasm body encased
within a calcium carbonate shell8 9
).10 11
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=forami
nifera&submit=Submit
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). has 1600mybn for
excavates, discricristales, rhizaria,
chromalveolates
3. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
4. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=forami
nifera&submit=Submit
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). has 1600mybn for
excavates, discricristales, rhizaria,
chromalveolates
6. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
7. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=forami
nifera&submit=Submit
8. ^ "foraminiferan." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 30 Mar. 2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/212983/foraminiferan>.
9. ^ Prothero, "Evolution: What the
Fossils Say and Why It Matters", 2007,
p175.
10. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). has 1600mybn for
excavates, discricristales, rhizaria,
chromalveolates
11. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
12. ^ Brusca
and Brusca, "Invertebrates", Second
Edition, 2003, p165-167. {earliest
fossils, lower Cambrian) c540 my}
13. ^
Culver, S. J. (1991) Science 254,
689–691.
http://www.pnas.org/cgi/ijlink?linkTyp
e=ABST&journalCode=sci&resid=254/5032/68
9
and http://www.sciencemag.org/content/2
54/5032/689.full.pdf {earliest fossils,
lower Cambrian) c540 my}
14. ^ Culver, S.
J. (1994) J. Foraminiferal Res. 24,
191–202. http://www.pnas.org/cgi/ijli
nk?linkType=ABST&journalCode=gsjfr&resid
=24/3/191 {earliest fossils, lower
Cambrian) c540 my}
15. ^ Cédric Berney and
Jan Pawlowski, "A molecular time-scale
for eukaryote evolution recalibrated
with the continuous microfossil
record", Proc. R. Soc. B August 7, 2006
273:1867-1872;
doi:10.1098/rspb.2006.3537 http://rspb.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/273/1
596/1867.short {804 my}
16. ^
http://www.timetree.org/index.php?found_
taxon_a=65574 {804 my}

MORE INFO
[1] Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). has 1600mybn
for excavates, discricristales,
rhizaria, chromalveolates (1600mybn)
[2]
http://www.sirinet.net/~jgjohnso/apbio30
.html
[3]
http://www.ucl.ac.uk/GeolSci/micropal/fo
ram.html
[4] "Allogromiida". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allogromiid
a
[5] "Fusulinid". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fusulinid
[6] "Globigerinida". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Globigerini
da
[7] "Miliolid". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miliolid
[8] "Rotaliida". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotaliida
[9] "Textulariida". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Textulariid
a
[10]
http://microscope.mbl.edu/scripts/protis
t.php?func=integrate&myID=P4356&chinese_
flag=&system=&version=&documentID=&exclu
deNonLinkedIn=&imagesOnly=
[11]
http://microscope.mbl.edu/scripts/protis
t.php?func=integrate&myID=P2007&chinese_
flag=&system=&version=&documentID=&exclu
deNonLinkedIn=&imagesOnly=
 
[1] FIG. 2. The tree of life based on
molecular, ultrastructural and
palaeontological evidence. Contrary to
widespread assumptions, the root is
among the eubacteria, probably within
the double-enveloped Negibacteria, not
between eubacteria and archaebacteria
(Cavalier-Smith, 2002b); it may lie
between Eobacteria and other
Negibacteria (Cavalier-Smith, 2002b).
The position of the eukaryotic root has
been nearly as controversial, but is
less hard to establish: it probably
lies between unikonts and bikonts (Lang
et al., 2002; Stechmann and
Cavalier-Smith, 2002, 2003). For
clarity the basal eukaryotic kingdom
Protozoa is not labelled; it comprises
four major groups (alveolates, cabozoa,
Amoebozoa and Choanozoa) plus the small
bikont phylum Apusozoa of unclear
precise position; whether Heliozoa are
protozoa as shown or chromists is
uncertain (Cavalier-Smith, 2003b).
Symbiogenetic cell enslavement occurred
four or five times: in the origin of
mitochondria and chloroplasts from
different negibacteria, of
chromalveolates by the enslaving of a
red alga (Cavalier-Smith, 1999, 2003;
Harper and Keeling, 2003) and in the
origin of the green plastids of
euglenoid (excavate) and chlorarachnean
(cercozoan) algae-a green algal cell
was enslaved either by the ancestral
cabozoan (arrow) or (less likely) twice
independently within excavates and
Cercozoa (asterisks) (Cavalier-Smith,
2003a). The upper thumbnail sketch
shows membrane topology in the
chimaeric cryptophytes (class
Cryptophyceae of the phylum Cryptista);
in the ancestral chromist the former
food vacuole membrane fused with the
rough endoplasmic reticulum placing the
enslaved cell within its lumen (red) to
yield the complex membrane topology
shown. The large host nucleus and the
tiny nucleomorph are shown in blue,
chloroplast green and mitochondrion
purple. In chlorarachneans (class
Chlorarachnea of phylum Cercozoa) the
former food vacuole membrane remained
topologically distinct from the ER to
become an epiplastid membrane and so
did not acquire ribosomes on its
surface, but their membrane topology is
otherwise similar to the cryptophytes.
The other sketches portray the four
major kinds of cell in the living world
and their membrane topology. The upper
ones show the contrasting ancestral
microtubular cytoskeleton (ciliary
roots, in red) of unikonts (a cone of
single microtubules attaching the
single centriole to the nucleus, blue)
and bikonts (two bands of microtubules
attached to the posterior centriole and
an anterior fan of microtubules
attached to the anterior centriole).
The lower ones show the single plasma
membrane of unibacteria (posibacteria
plus archaebacteria), which were
ancestral to eukaryotes and the double
envelope of negibacteria, which were
ancestral to mitochondria and
chloroplasts (which retained the outer
membrane, red).
source: http://aob.oxfordjournals.org/cg
i/content/full/95/1/147/FIG2

[2] Fig. 1. A consensus phylogeny of
eukaryotes. The vast majority of
characterized eukaryotes, with the
notable exception of major subgroups of
amoebae, can now be assigned to one of
eight major groups. Opisthokonts (basal
flagellum) have a single basal
flagellum on reproductive cells and
flat mitochondrial cristae (most
eukaryotes have tubular ones).
Eukaryotic photosynthesis originated in
Plants; theirs are the only plastids
with just two outer membranes.
Heterokonts (different flagellae) have
a unique flagellum decorated with
hollow tripartite hairs (stramenopiles)
and, usually, a second plain one.
Cercozoans are amoebae with filose
pseudopodia, often living with in tests
(hard outer shells), some very
elaborate (foraminiferans). Amoebozoa
are mostly naked amoebae (lacking
tests), often with lobose pseudopodia
for at least part of their life cycle.
Alveolates have systems of cortical
alveoli directly beneath their plasma
membranes. Discicristates have discoid
mitochondrial cristae and, in some
cases, a deep (excavated) ventral
feeding groove. Amitochondrial
excavates lack substantial molecular
phylogenetic support, but most have an
excavated ventral feeding groove, and
all lack mitochondria. The tree shown
is based on a consensus of molecular
(1-4) and ultrastructural (16, 17) data
and includes a rough indication of new
ciPCR ''taxa'' (broken black lines)
(7-11). An asterisk preceding the taxon
name indicates probable paraphyletic
group.
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/co
ntent/full/300/5626/1703
540,000,000 YBN
7 		340) The Lophotrochozoa Phylum Nemertea
{ne-mR-TEu5 } evolves (ribbon worms).6

FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=nemert
ea&submit=Submit
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=nemert
ea&submit=Submit
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
5. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=nemert
ea&submit=Submit
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). (c541)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=201563
 
[1] Description English: Basiodiscus
mexicanus was photographed at Los
Arcos, near Puerto Vallarta,
Mexico Date Source University
of California Museum of Paleology:
Introduction to the Nemertini Author
Chris Meyer and Allen
Collins Permission (Reusing this
file) See below. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/49/Nemertea_Basiodiscus_
mexicanus.png

[2] Timeline of phylogeny of animals,
figure 6 from: S. Blair Hedges, ''The
origin and evolution of model
organisms'', Nature Reviews Genetics 3,
838-849 (November
2002) http://www.nature.com/nrg/journal
/v3/n11/full/nrg929.html {Hedges_2002.p
df} a) The relationships and
divergence times (millions of years ago
(Mya) plusminus one standard error) of
selected model animals are shown, based
on recent multigene and multiprotein
studies51, 61, 84. The fossil
divergence time of birds and mammals
(310 Mya) was used to calibrate the
molecular clock. Branch lengths are not
proportional to time. b ) The
relationships and numbers of living
species, from a diversity of sources in
most of the main groups. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://rstb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/363/1496/1513
540,000,000 YBN
7 		341) The Ecdysozoa Phylum Tardigrada
{ToRDiGRiDe5 } evolves (tardigrades).6

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "tardigrade." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 05
Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/tardigrade
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^ "tardigrade." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 05 Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/tardigrade
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
5. ^ "Tardigrada." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 01 Jan. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/tardigrada-
2
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). (c543)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?pos=0
 
[1] Description Willow Gabriel and
Bob Goldstein,
http://tardigrades.bio.unc.edu/ Date
2007-05-20 (original upload
date) CC
source: http://28.media.tumblr.com/tumbl
r_limfh2NXtC1qc6j5yo1_400.jpg

[2] from Giribet 2007
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/65/Hypsibiusdujardini.jp
g
540,000,000 YBN
8 		342) The Ecdysozoa Phylum Onychophora
evolves.6 Onychophorans are a
transition between worms and
arthropods: they have segmented
worm-like bodies but they also have
jointed appendages, antennae, and shed
their cuticle like arthropods do.7
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ "onychophoran." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 05
Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/velvet-worm

2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^ "onychophoran." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 05 Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/velvet-worm

4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
5. ^ Donald Prothero,
"Evolution: What the Fossils Say and
Why It Matters", 2007, p193.
6. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
7. ^ Donald Prothero, "Evolution: What
the Fossils Say and Why It Matters",
2007, p193.
8. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). (c543)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?pos=0
 
[1] Euperipatoides kanangrensis on a
eucalyptus log, in which it normally
resides. Description English:
Cropped version of File:Euperipatoides
kanangrensis.jpg Date 13 October
2009 CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/67/Euperipatoides_kanang
rensis_crop.jpg

[2] Figure from: Giribet, G. (2008).
Assembling the lophotrochozoan
(=spiralian) tree of life.
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society B: Biological Sciences , 363
(1496), 1513-1522. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2007.2241
http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/363/1496/1513 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://rstb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/363/1496/1513
535,000,000 YBN
7 8 9 10 		114) The first heart evolves in
bilaterians.4

Muscles for pumping blood and for
maintaining adequate blood pressure can
be divided into three groups:
contractile blood vessels (found in
nemerteans and annelids), ostiate
{oSTEAT5 } hearts (found in
arthropods), and chambered hearts
(found in molluscs and vertebrates).6
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p124-125.
2. ^ D. T.
Anderson, "Invertebrate Zoology",
Oxford University Press, Second
Edition, 2001, p124-125.
3. ^ D. T. Anderson,
"Invertebrate Zoology", Oxford
University Press, Second Edition, 2001,
p124-125.
4. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p124-125.
5. ^ "ostium."
Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random
House, Inc. 01 Jan. 2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/o
stium>.
6. ^ Brusca and Brusca,
"Invertebrates", 2003, p73, 327.
7. ^ Brusca
and Brusca, "Invertebrates", 2003, p
73.
8. ^ Palmer, et. al., "Prehistoric
Life", p66.
9. ^ Peterson, Kevin J., and
Nicholas J. Butterfield. “Origin of
the Eumetazoa: Testing Ecological
Predictions of Molecular Clocks Against
the Proterozoic Fossil Record.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences of the United States of
America 102.27 (2005):
9547–9552. http://www.pnas.org/conten
t/102/27/9547.full.pdf+html
10. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). {based on} {539 MYBN
(based on mollusca}
 
[1] From: Ruppert, Fox, Barnes,
''Invertebrate Zoology'',
2004. COPYRIGHTED
source: Ruppert, Fox, Barnes,
"Invertebrate Zoology", 2004.

[2] From: Ruppert, Fox, Barnes,
''Invertebrate Zoology'',
2004. COPYRIGHTED
source: Ruppert, Fox, Barnes,
"Invertebrate Zoology", 2004.
533,000,000 YBN
11 12 13 		343) The Lophotrochozoa Phylum Mollusca
evolves; Mollusks.7

The phylum Mollusca is the second
largest animal phylum after the
arthropods, and is divided into seven
classes, three of which (Gastropoda
{GaSTroPeDu8 } (snails), Bivalvia
(clams and muscles), and Cephalopoda
{SeFeloPeDu9 } (squids and octupuses)
are of major importance.10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=gastro
poda&submit=Submit
5. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=cephal
opoda&submit=Submit
6. ^ "Mollusca." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 18 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/mollusca
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
8. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=gastro
poda&submit=Submit
9. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=cephal
opoda&submit=Submit
10. ^ "Mollusca." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 18 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/mollusca
11. ^ S. Blair Hedges and Sudhir Kumar,
"The TimeTree of Life", 2009,
p224-229. http://www.timetree.org/book.
php
12. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (c539)
13. ^ Caron,
Jean-Bernard et al. "A soft-bodied
mollusc with radula from the Middle
Cambrian Burgess Shale." Nature
442.7099 (2006):
159-163. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v442/n7099/full/nature04894.html

MORE INFO
[1]
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=201563
 
[1] From: Ruppert, E.E., Fox, R.S.,
and Barnes, R.D. (2004). Invertebrate
Zoology (7 ed.). Brooks / Cole. pp.
284–291. ISBN 0030259827. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mol
lusca

[2] Description Clams Date
Source Own work Author
Marlith CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8f/Clams.JPG
530,000,000 YBN
5 		338) The Lophotrochozoa Phylum Annelida
evolves; segmented worms.3

Annelids are various worms or wormlike
animals, characterized by an elongated,
cylindrical, segmented body and
includes the earthworm and leech.4
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^
"annelid." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 18 Jul.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/annelid
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (c537)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=201563
 
[1] An earthworm's clitellum they have
a unique reproductive organ, the
ring-shaped clitellum (''pack saddle'')
round their bodies, which produces a
cocoon that stores and nourishes
fertilized eggs until they
hatch Description Regenwurm mit
Clitellum - (sattelförmige Verdickung
im vorderen Drittel).Das Sekret der
Clitellum-Drüsen dient u. a. zur
Bildung dieses Ei-Kokons. Français :
Ver de terre (Oligochaeta,
Lumbricina) Svenska: Daggmask
(Lumbricus spec.) Русский:
Дождевой червь (род
Лумбрикус) Date Source
first upload in de wikipedia on
09:58, 16. Feb 2005 by Michael
Linnenbach Author Michael
Linnenbach GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/30/Regenwurm1.jpg

[2] Figure from: Giribet, G. (2008).
Assembling the lophotrochozoan
(=spiralian) tree of life.
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society B: Biological Sciences , 363
(1496), 1513-1522. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2007.2241
http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/363/1496/1513 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://rstb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/363/1496/1513
530,000,000 YBN
11 12 		339) The Ecdysozoa Phylum Arthropoda
evolves; the "Arthropods".7

Arthropods can be compared to a
segmented worm encased in a rigid
exoskeleton.8

The phylum Arthropoda is the largest
phylum in the animal kingdom.
Arthropods include the trilobites, the
crustaceans (shrimps, crabs, and
lobsters), the Myriapoda (centipedes
and millipedes), the Chelicerata
(arachnids and horseshoe crabs) and the
insects.9 All arthropods have a
segmented body covered by an
exoskeleton containing chitin, which
serves as both armor and as a surface
for muscle attachment.10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^ Brusca
and Brusca, "Invertebrates", 2003,
p476.
5. ^ Hedges and Kumar, Time Tree, 2009,
p251. http://timetree.org/pdf/Pisani200
9Chap29.pdf
6. ^ "arthropod." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 22 May.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/arthropod
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
8. ^ Brusca and Brusca,
"Invertebrates", 2003, p476.
9. ^ Hedges and
Kumar, Time Tree, 2009,
p251. http://timetree.org/pdf/Pisani200
9Chap29.pdf
10. ^ "arthropod." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 22 May.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/arthropod
11. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (c543)
12. ^ Palmer, et. al.,
"Prehistoric Life", p66.

MORE INFO
[1]
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?pos=0
 
[1] Extinct and modern
arthropods English: Arthropoda
collage. From left to right and from
top to bottom: Kolihapeltis,
Stylonurus, Scorpion, Crab, Centipede,
Butterfly CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/80/Arthropoda.jpg

[2] Figure from: Giribet, G. (2008).
Assembling the lophotrochozoan
(=spiralian) tree of life.
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society B: Biological Sciences , 363
(1496), 1513-1522. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2007.2241
http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/363/1496/1513 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://rstb.royalsociorg/content
/363/1496/1513
530,000,000 YBN
350) The Chordata Vertebrates evolve.4
This Subphylum, Vertabrata, contains
most fishes, and all amphibians,
reptiles, mammals, and birds.

The characteristic features of the
Vertebrata are a vertebral column, or
backbone, and a cranium, which protects
the central nervous system (brain and
spinal cord) and major sense organs.5
This earliest vertebrate skeleton is
made completely of cartilage.6
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
5. ^ "Vertebrata." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 18 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/vertebrata
6. ^ Palmer, D. The Marshall
Illustrated Encyclopedia of Dinosaurs &
Prehistoric Animals: A Comprehensive
Color Guide to Over 500 Species. New
Line Books, 2002, p22.

MORE INFO
[1]
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=41579
 
[1] Description Lampetra
fluviatilis from the german
northsea Date 2004 Source
Germany Author
M.Buschmann Permission (Reusing
this file) Author is owner CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3f/Lampetra_fluviatilis.
jpg

[2] Description Clockwise,
starting from top left: 1. Fire
Salamander (Salamandra salamandra) 2.
Saltwater Crocodile (Crocodylus
porosus) 3. Southern Cassowary
(Casusarius casuarius) 4.
Black-and-rufus Giant Elephant Shrew
(Rhynchocyon petersi) 5. Ocean Sunfish
(Mola mola) Date CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/ec/Vertebrates.png
530,000,000 YBN
5 		6637) The Vertebrates Jawless fishes
evolve (agnatha).3

The earliest extant jawless fishes, the
hagfishes evolve now.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p364-371.
2. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p364-371.
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p364-371.
4. ^ Kardong,
"Vertebrates", 2002, p85.
5. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004), p364-371.

MORE INFO
[1] William Patten, "New
Ostracoderms from Oesel", Science, New
Series, Vol. 73, No. 1903 (Jun. 19,
1931), pp.
671-673 http://www.jstor.org/stable/165
5241
[2]
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=41579
 
[1] Description English: Pacific
hagfish (Eptatretus stoutii) in a hole
at 150 meters depth. Latitude 37 58 N.,
Longitude 123 27 W. Location:
California, Cordell Bank National
Marine Sanctuary. Date Last Updated:
September 30, 2009. Source
http://www.photolib.noaa.gov/htmls/sanc
1692.htm
http://www.photolib.noaa.gov/bigs/sanc16
92.jpg Author Linda Snook, National
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
(NOAA) / Cordell Bank National Marine
Sanctuary (CBNMS) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Eptatretus_stou
tii.jpg/1280px-Eptatretus_stoutii.jpg

[2] Description Lampetra
fluviatilis from the german
northsea Date 2004 Source
Germany Author
M.Buschmann Permission (Reusing
this file) Author is owner CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3f/Lampetra_fluviatilis.
jpg
520,000,000 YBN
10 11 12 13 		133) The Arthropods Chelicerata
(KeliSuroTo6 ) evolve (eight legs,
ancestor of the horseshoe crabs, sea
spiders, and the Arachnids: mites,
spiders, and scorpions).7 8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=chelic
erata&submit=Submit
2. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "TimeTree of
Life", 2009, p251-253.
3. ^ J. W. Shultz (2007).
"A phylogenetic analysis of the
arachnid orders based on morphological
characters". Zoological Journal of the
Linnean Society 150: 221–265.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1096-364
2.2007.00284.x
4. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=chelic
erata&submit=Submit
5. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "TimeTree of
Life", 2009, p251-253.
6. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=chelic
erata&submit=Submit
7. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "TimeTree of
Life", 2009, p251-253.
8. ^
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Taxonomy/Bro
wser/wwwtax.cgi?mode=Undef&id=6843&lvl=3
&lin=f&keep=1&srchmode=1&unlock
9. ^ D. Waloszek, J.A. Dunlop, "A
larval sea spider (Arthropoda:
Pycnogonida) from the Upper Cambrian
‘Orsten’ of Sweden and the
phylogenetic position of pycnogonids",
Palaeontology, 45 (2002), pp.
421–446 http://onlinelibrary.wiley.co
m/doi/10.1111/1475-4983.00244/abstract
10. ^ Prothero, "Evolution What the
Fossils Say and Why It Matters", 2007,
p168.
11. ^ Dott and Prothero, "Evolution of
the Earth", sixth edition, 2002,
p210-211.
12. ^ Palmer, et al., "Prehistoric
Life", 2009, p66-67.
13. ^ Hedges and Kumar,
"TimeTree of Life", 2009, p251-253.

MORE INFO
[1] Charbonnier, S, J Vannier,
and B Riou. “New Sea Spiders from the
Jurassic La Voulte-sur-Rhône
Lagerstätte.” Proceedings of the
Royal Society B: Biological Sciences
274, no. 1625 (October 22, 2007): 2555
–2561. http://rspb.royalsocietypublis
hing.org/content/274/1625/2555.full
[2] Dunlop and Seldon, "The Early
History and Phylogeny of the
Chelicerates", in Fortey and Thomas,
"Arthropod Relatioinships", 1997, p231
earliest (sea spider) fossils: Orsten,
Sweden9  
[1] Description English: Horseshoe
crab dorsal and ventral Italiano:
Limulus polyphemus dorsale e
ventrale Date 10 April 2009 Source
Own work Author Ricce PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Limulo_dorsale_
e_ventrale.jpg/1280px-Limulo_dorsale_e_v
entrale.jpg

[2] taken from en:Image:Horseshoe crab
female.jpg Dead female horseshoe crab
from NOAA Photo Library: Image ID:
line2632, America's Coastlines
Collection Location: Patuxent River,
Maryland Photo Date: 2002 August
17 Photographer: Mary Hollinger,
NESDIS/NODC biologist, NOAA PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1b/Horseshoe_crab_female
.jpg
520,000,000 YBN
3 4 		148) The earliest color vision evolves
in arthropods.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Koyanagi, M.; Nagata, T.; Katoh,
K.; Yamashita, S.; Tokunaga, F. (2008).
"Molecular Evolution of Arthropod Color
Vision Deduced from Multiple Opsin
Genes of Jumping Spiders". Journal of
Molecular Evolution 66 (2): 130–137.
DOI:10.1007/s00239-008-9065-9. PMID
18217181. http://www.springerlink.com/c
ontent/e67h525378645572/?MUD=MP
2. ^ Koyanagi, M.; Nagata, T.; Katoh,
K.; Yamashita, S.; Tokunaga, F. (2008).
"Molecular Evolution of Arthropod Color
Vision Deduced from Multiple Opsin
Genes of Jumping Spiders". Journal of
Molecular Evolution 66 (2): 130–137.
DOI:10.1007/s00239-008-9065-9. PMID
18217181. http://www.springerlink.com/c
ontent/e67h525378645572/?MUD=MP
3. ^ Prothero, "Evolution What the
Fossils Say and Why It Matters", 2007,
p168.
4. ^ Dott and Prothero, "Evolution of
the Earth", sixth edition, 2002,
p210-211.

MORE INFO
[1] Yokoyama, S., and B. F.
Radlwimmer. 2001. The molecular
genetics and evolution of red and green
color vision in vertebrates. Genetics
Society of America. 158: 1697-1710
[2] Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004)
 
[1] Microphotograph of the multiple eye
of the trilobite Phacops, showing the
calcite lenses in the eye. PD
source: http://disc.sci.gsfc.nasa.gov/ed
ucation-and-outreach/additional/science-
focus/images/phacops_eye.jpg

[2] Description English: A
schizochroal [eye] of the trilobite
Phacops rana, eye dimensions 8mm across
by 5.5mm high, found near Sylvania,
Ohio, USA, from the Devonian Date 15
October 2011 Source Own work Author
Dwergenpaartje CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0f/Phacops_rana_crassitu
berculata_eye_3.jpg
520,000,000 YBN
7 8 9 10 11 		346) The Deuterostome Phylum
Echinodermata evolves; the
"Echinoderms" (iKIniDRMS 5 }, the
ancestor of the sea cucumbers, sea
urchins, sand dollars, and star
fishes.6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "echinoderm." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 29
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/echinoderm
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^ "echinoderm." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 29 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/echinoderm
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
5. ^ "echinoderm." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 29 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/echinoderm
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
7. ^ Adam M. English, Loren E.
Babcock, Census of the Indian Springs
Lagerstätte, Poleta Formation
(Cambrian), western Nevada, USA,
Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology,
Palaeoecology, Volume 295, Issues
1–2, 1 September 2010, Pages 236-244,
ISSN 0031-0182,
10.1016/j.palaeo.2010.05.041. (http://w
ww.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii
/S0031018210003287)
8. ^ J. Wyatt Durham, "Notes on the
Helicoplacoidea and Early Echinoderms",
Journal of Paleontology , Vol. 41, No.
1 (Jan., 1967), pp.
97-102 http://www.jstor.org/stable/1301
905
9. ^ Palmer et al, "Prehistoric Life",
2009, p66.
10. ^ Peterson, Kevin J., and
Nicholas J. Butterfield. “Origin of
the Eumetazoa: Testing Ecological
Predictions of Molecular Clocks Against
the Proterozoic Fossil Record.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences of the United States of
America 102.27 (2005):
9547–9552. http://www.pnas.org/conten
t/102/27/9547.full.pdf+html
11. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p384.

MORE INFO
[1]
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=126698
 
[1] Kachemak Bay National Estuarine
Research Reserve. A beautiful array of
starfish , sea urchins and mussel
shells in the rocky intertidal zone of
Kachemak Bay. Image ID: nerr0878,
NOAA National Estuarine Research
Reserve Collection from NOAA:
http://www.photolib.noaa.gov/nerr/nerr08
78.htm PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Nerr0878.jpg/10
24px-Nerr0878.jpg

[2] Description English: The first
in a sequence of three photos that show
a brittle star flipping itself
rightside-up. Date 1 May
2011 Source Own work Author
Alexcooper1 CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/A_brittle_star_
flipping_itself_rightside-up.jpg/1024px-
A_brittle_star_flipping_itself_rightside
-up.jpg
520,000,000 YBN
15 16 17 18 		6349) The arthropods trilobites
evolve.9 10 11 12

Trilobites have a segmented body that
is divided into three vertical lobes.13


There is a transition from soft-bodied
organisms, to the clam-like shell
organisms, to the segmented calcite and
chitin shells of the trilobites.14
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ Xiao, S., Yang, Z. & Knoll, A. H.
Nature 391, 553-558 (1998). Article
ISI ChemPort
http://www.nature.com/cgi-taf/DynaPage
.taf?file=/nature/journal/v391/n6667/ful
l/391553a0_fs.html (not clear that
these are trilobite...this needs to be
checked)
2. ^
http://www.nature.com0/nature/journal/v4
27/n6971/full/427205a.html (here it is
claimed they are trilobite embryos)
3. ^ Patel,
N.H. (1994). Developmental evolution:
insights from studies of insect
segmentation. Science 266(5185):
581--590. http://www.sciencemag.org/con
tent/266/5185/581.abstract {science_266
_5185_oldest_trilo.pdf}
AND http://patelweb.berkeley.edu/Nipam%
27s%20Own%20Articles.PDFs/Patel1994A.pdf
has 510my
4. ^
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/arthropoda/
trilobita/trilobitafr.html
5. ^ Xiao, S., Yang, Z. & Knoll, A. H.
Nature 391, 553-558 (1998). Article
ISI ChemPort
http://www.nature.com/cgi-taf/DynaPage
.taf?file=/nature/journal/v391/n6667/ful
l/391553a0_fs.html (not clear that
these are trilobite...this needs to be
checked)
6. ^
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v42
7/n6971/full/427205a.html (here it is
claimed they are trilobite embryos)
7. ^ Patel,
N.H. (1994). Developmental evolution:
insights from studies of insect
segmentation. Science 266(5185):
581--590. http://www.sciencemag.org/con
tent/266/5185/581.abstract {science_266
_5185_oldest_trilo.pdf}
AND http://patelweb.berkeley.edu/Nipam%
27s%20Own%20Articles.PDFs/Patel1994A.pdf
has 510my
8. ^
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/arthropoda/
trilobita/trilobitafr.html
9. ^ Xiao, S., Yang, Z. & Knoll, A. H.
Nature 391, 553-558 (1998). Article
ISI ChemPort
http://www.nature.com/cgi-taf/DynaPage
.taf?file=/nature/journal/v391/n6667/ful
l/391553a0_fs.html (not clear that
these are trilobite...this needs to be
checked)
10. ^
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v42
7/n6971/full/427205a.html (here it is
claimed they are trilobite embryos)
11. ^ Patel,
N.H. (1994). Developmental evolution:
insights from studies of insect
segmentation. Science 266(5185):
581--590. http://www.sciencemag.org/con
tent/266/5185/581.abstract {science_266
_5185_oldest_trilo.pdf}
AND http://patelweb.berkeley.edu/Nipam%
27s%20Own%20Articles.PDFs/Patel1994A.pdf
has 510my
12. ^
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/arthropoda/
trilobita/trilobitafr.html
13. ^ "trilobite." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 25
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/trilobite
14. ^ Dott and Prothero, "Evolution of
the Earth", sixth edition, 2002,
p209-213.
15. ^ Prothero, "Evolution What the
Fossils Say and Why It Matters", 2007,
p168.
16. ^ Dott and Prothero, "Evolution of
the Earth", sixth edition, 2002,
p210-211.
17. ^ Patel, N.H. (1994). Developmental
evolution: insights from studies of
insect segmentation. Science 266(5185):
581--590. http://www.sciencemag.org/con
tent/266/5185/581.abstract {science_266
_5185_oldest_trilo.pdf}
AND http://patelweb.berkeley.edu/Nipam%
27s%20Own%20Articles.PDFs/Patel1994A.pdf
has 510my {510 mybn}
18. ^
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/arthropoda/
trilobita/trilobitafr.html {540 mybn}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.trilobites.info/biostratigrap
hy.htm
[2]
http://www.trilobites.info/origins.htm
[3] Babcock, L.E., S Peng, G. Geyer, &
J.H. Shergold. 2005. Changing
perspectives on Cambrian
chronostratigraphy and progress toward
subdivision of the Cambrian System.
Geosci. Journal
9(2):101-6. http://www.springerlink.com
/content/t7062n5744462260/
[4] Niles Eldredge, "Trilobites and
Evolutionary Patterns", p305-332 in
Anthony Hallam, "Patterns of evolution
as illustrated by the fossil record,
Volume 5", 1977,
p322. http://books.google.com/books?id=
q7GjDIyyWegC
[5] Hughes, N. 2007. The evolution of
trilobite body patterning. Annu. Rev.
Earth Planet. Sci. 2007.
35:401–34. http://www.annualreviews.o
rg/doi/pdf/10.1146/annurev.earth.35.0313
06.140258
[6] Richard A. Fortey "Trilobite
Systematics: The Last 75 Years",
Journal of Paleontology , Vol. 75, No.
6, 75th Anniversary Issue (Nov., 2001),
pp.
1141-1151 http://www.jstor.org/stable/1
307082
[7]
http://www.palaeos.org/Cambrian_Stage_3
 
[1] example of earliest trilobites
(e.g., Fallotaspis longa) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.trilobites.info/biost
ratfallon.jpg

[2] Niles Eldredge, ''Trilobites and
Evolutionary Patterns'', p305-332 in
Anthony Hallam, ''Patterns of evolution
as illustrated by the fossil record,
Volume 5'', 1977,
p322. http://books.google.com/books?id=
q7GjDIyyWegC COPYRIGHTED
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=q7GjDIyyWegC
513,000,000 YBN
6 7 8 9 10 		6351) The Arthropods Crustaceans evolve
(the ancestor of all shrimps, crabs,
lobsters, and barnicles).3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "TimeTree of
Life", 2009, p251-253.
2. ^ Hedges and Kumar,
"TimeTree of Life", 2009, p251-253.
3. ^ Hedges
and Kumar, "TimeTree of Life", 2009,
p251-253.
4. ^ David J. Siveter, Mark Williams,
and Dieter Waloszek, "An early Cambrian
phosphatocopid crustacean with
three-dimensionally preserved soft
parts from Shropshire, England",
Special Papers in Paleontology, 70,
2003
5. ^ Siveter, David J., Mark Williams,
and Dieter Waloszek. “A
Phosphatocopid Crustacean with
Appendages from the Lower Cambrian.”
Science 293, no. 5529 (July 20, 2001):
479
–481. http://www.sciencemag.org/conte
nt/293/5529/479.abstract
6. ^ David J. Siveter, Mark Williams,
and Dieter Waloszek, "An early Cambrian
phosphatocopid crustacean with
three-dimensionally preserved soft
parts from Shropshire, England",
Special Papers in Paleontology, 70,
2003
7. ^ Siveter, David J., Mark Williams,
and Dieter Waloszek. “A
Phosphatocopid Crustacean with
Appendages from the Lower Cambrian.”
Science 293, no. 5529 (July 20, 2001):
479
–481. http://www.sciencemag.org/conte
nt/293/5529/479.abstract
8. ^ Palmer, "Primitive Life", 2009,
p66-67.
9. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "TimeTree of
Life", 2009, p251-253.
10. ^ Regier, et al,
"Pancrustacean phylogeny: hexapods are
terrestrial crustaceans and maxillopods
are not monophyletic", Proc Biol Sci.
2005 February 22; 272(1561): 395–401.
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/272/1561/395

MORE INFO
[1]
http://palaeo.gly.bris.ac.uk/Palaeofiles
/Fossilgroups/Crustacea/fossils.html
[2]
http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/
2001/07/0719_crustacean.html
earliest fossils: Shropshire, England4
5  
[1] Canadaspis perfecta (ROM 61119) –
Part and counterpart. Complete specimen
showing phosphatized gut diverticulae
and posterior dark stain (probably
representing decay fluids), lateral
view. Left images, complete slab (part)
showing associated species; Yohoia
tenuis (bottom right), Waptia
fieldensis (left, partially covered by
a disarticulated carapace of
Canadaspis), Burgessia bella (far
left). Right images, details of the
counterpart. Specimen length = 72 mm.
Specimen dry – direct light (top
row), dry – polarized light (bottom
left), wet – polarized light (bottom
right). Walcott Quarry. © Royal
Ontario Museum. Photos: Jean-Bernard
Caron COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.burgess-shale.rom.on.
ca/images/zoomify/canadaspis-rom-61119.j
pg

[2] 3D model of Canadaspis
perfecta. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://burgess-shale.rom.on.ca/v
ideo/fossil-gallery/0b1-canadaspis-turnt
able.jpg
501,000,000 YBN
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 		6348) The Arthropods Myriapoda
{mEREaPeDu5 } evolve; the ancestor of
all centipedes and millipedes.6
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ "Myriapoda." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 05 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/myriapoda-1

2. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "TimeTree of
Life", 2009, p251-253.
3. ^ "Myriapoda."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 05
May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/myriapoda-1

4. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "TimeTree of
Life", 2009, p251-253.
5. ^ "Myriapoda."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 05
May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/myriapoda-1

6. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "TimeTree of
Life", 2009, p251-253.
7. ^ Robison, Richard A.
“Earliest-known Uniramous
Arthropod.” Nature 343.6254 (1990):
163–164.
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
343/n6254/abs/343163a0.html
{Robison_19900111.pdf}
8. ^ Fortey and Thomas, "Arthropod
Relationships", 1998, p212-213.
9. ^ Budd, G.E.,
Högström, A.E.S., and Gogin, I.,
2001, A myriapod-like arthropod from
the Upper Cambrian of East Siberia:
Paläontologische Zeitschrift, v. 75p.
37-41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF0302
2596 {Budd_2001.pdf}
10. ^ Jeram, Andrew J., Paul A.
Selden, and Dianne Edwards. “Land
Animals in the Silurian: Arachnids and
Myriapods from Shropshire, England.”
Science 250, no. 4981 (November 2,
1990): 658
–661. http://www.sciencemag.org/citmg
r?gca=sci;250/4981/658
11. ^ Robison, Richard A.
“Earliest-known Uniramous
Arthropod.” Nature 343.6254 (1990):
163–164.
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
343/n6254/abs/343163a0.html
{Robison_19900111.pdf}
12. ^ Fortey and Thomas, "Arthropod
Relationships", 1998, p212-213.
13. ^ Budd, G.E.,
Högström, A.E.S., and Gogin, I.,
2001, A myriapod-like arthropod from
the Upper Cambrian of East Siberia:
Paläontologische Zeitschrift, v. 75p.
37-41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF0302
2596 {Budd_2001.pdf}
14. ^ MacNaughton, Robert B.,
Jennifer M. Cole, Robert W. Dalrymple,
Simon J. Braddy, Derek E.G. Briggs, and
Terrence D. Lukie. “First Steps on
Land: Arthropod Trackways in
Cambrian-Ordovician Eolian Sandstone,
Southeastern Ontario, Canada.”
Geology 30, no. 5 (May 2002): 391
–394. http://geology.geoscienceworld.
org/citmgr?gca=geology;30/5/391
15. ^ Budd, G.E., Högström, A.E.S.,
and Gogin, I., 2001, A myriapod-like
arthropod from the Upper Cambrian of
East Siberia: Paläontologische
Zeitschrift, v. 75p.
37-41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF0302
2596
16. ^ MacNaughton, Robert B., Jennifer
M. Cole, Robert W. Dalrymple, Simon J.
Braddy, Derek E.G. Briggs, and Terrence
D. Lukie. “First Steps on Land:
Arthropod Trackways in
Cambrian-Ordovician Eolian Sandstone,
Southeastern Ontario, Canada.”
Geology 30, no. 5 (May 2002): 391
–394. http://geology.geoscienceworld.
org/citmgr?gca=geology;30/5/391
17. ^ Jeram, Andrew J., Paul A. Selden,
and Dianne Edwards. “Land Animals in
the Silurian: Arachnids and Myriapods
from Shropshire, England.” Science
250, no. 4981 (November 2, 1990): 658
–661. http://www.sciencemag.org/citmg
r?gca=sci;250/4981/658
18. ^
http://www.geosociety.org/science/timesc
ale/
19. ^ William A Shear, Andrew J Jeram
and Paul Selden, "Centiped legs
(Arthropoda,
Chilopoda, Scutigeromorpha) from the
Silurian and Devonian of Britain and
the Devonian of North America.",
American Museum novitates 3231:1-16
(1998)
http://biostor.org/reference/30111
20. ^ Grimaldi, Engels, "Evolution of
the Insects", 2005, p107-108.
21. ^ Hedges and
Kumar, "TimeTree of Life", 2009,
p251-253.
22. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive
Life", 2009, p111.
earliest possible fossils: (Marine
deposits)(Wheeler Formation) Utah, USA7
8 and (Ust-Majan formation) East
Siberia9 |(earliest fossils)
Shropshire, England10  
[1] Description Lithobius
forficatus Deutsch: Steinläufer Date
9 August 2005 Source Own
work Author Darkone CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/79/Steinl%C3%A4ufer_%28L
ithobius_forficatus%29_3.jpg

[2] Description Tachypodoiulus
niger Date 2007-06-28 Source Own
work Author Stemonitis CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Tachypodoiulus_
niger_1.jpg/1280px-Tachypodoiulus_niger_
1.jpg
488,300,000 YBN
5 		121) The end of the Cambrian (542-488.3
mybn), and start of the Ordovician
{ORDiVisiN3 } (488.3-443.7 mybn)
Period.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Ordovician." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 10
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ordovician
2. ^ USGS "Divisions of Geologic
Time— Major Chronostratigraphic and
Geochronologic Units", July
2010. http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2010/3059
/pdf/FS10-3059.pdf
3. ^ "Ordovician." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 10
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ordovician
4. ^ USGS "Divisions of Geologic
Time— Major Chronostratigraphic and
Geochronologic Units", July
2010. http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2010/3059
/pdf/FS10-3059.pdf
5. ^ USGS "Divisions of Geologic
Time— Major Chronostratigraphic and
Geochronologic Units", July
2010. http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2010/3059
/pdf/FS10-3059.pdf
 
[1] Geologic Time Scale 2009 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.geosociety.org/scienc
e/timescale/timescl.pdf

[2] 500 Ma - Late Cambrian UNKNOWN
source: http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~rcb7/500
_Camb_2globes.jpg
488,000,000 YBN
10 		6314) The Ordovician (ORDeVisiN7 }
radiation. During the Ordovician the
number of genera {JeN-R-u8 } will
quadruple.9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Ordovician." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 30
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ordovician
2. ^ "genera." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 05 Aug.
2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/g
enera>.
3. ^ "Ordovician radiation."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 30 Dec.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/1312376/Ordovician-radiation>.
4. ^ "Ordovician." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 30
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ordovician
5. ^ "genera." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 05 Aug.
2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/g
enera>.
6. ^ "Ordovician radiation."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 30 Dec.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/1312376/Ordovician-radiation>.
7. ^ "Ordovician." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 30
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ordovician
8. ^ "genera." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 05 Aug.
2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/g
enera>.
9. ^ "Ordovician radiation."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 30 Dec.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/1312376/Ordovician-radiation>.
10. ^ "Ordovician radiation."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 30 Dec.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/1312376/Ordovician-radiation>.

MORE INFO
[1] Harold Levine, "The Eath
Through Time", 2006, p333
 
[1] Recreation of life during the
Ordovician UNKNOWN
source: http://ferrebeekeeper.files.word
press.com/2010/11/ordovician.jpg

[2] A second peak time in the
abundance of shell-surviving life forms
was in the Upper Ordovician (by this
time also, the first larger
vertebrates, fossil fish, had
appeared). Below are two illustrations:
the first, an artist' conception of
marine invertebrate life in the late
Ordovician; the second, a typical slab
of Ordovician limestone (from Indiana)
containing the fossil types listed in
its caption: PD
source: http://rst.gsfc.nasa.gov/Sect20/
ordovicsea.jpg
475,000,000 YBN
16 17 18 		244) The non-vascular plants evolve,
Bryophyta {BrIoFiTo11 }, (the ancestor
of the Liverworts, Hornworts, and
Mosses).12 13

The Bryophytes are the simplest land
plants, and reproduce with spores.14 15

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
2. ^ Hwan
Su Yoon, Jeremiah D. Hackett, Claudia
Ciniglia, Gabriele Pinto and Debashish,
"A Molecular Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution, (2004).
3. ^
"Bryophyta." Webster's Revised
Unabridged Dictionary. MICRA, Inc. 01
Jan. 2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/B
ryophyta>.
4. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
5. ^ Hwan
Su Yoon, Jeremiah D. Hackett, Claudia
Ciniglia, Gabriele Pinto and Debashish,
"A Molecular Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution, (2004).
6. ^
"Bryophyta." Webster's Revised
Unabridged Dictionary. MICRA, Inc. 01
Jan. 2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/B
ryophyta>.
7. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
8. ^ Hwan
Su Yoon, Jeremiah D. Hackett, Claudia
Ciniglia, Gabriele Pinto and Debashish,
"A Molecular Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution, (2004).
9. ^ Peter
Robert Bell, Alan R. Hemsley, "Green
Plants: Their Origin and Diversity",
2000,
p102. http://books.google.com/books?id=
HYkTvGq_RccC&pg=PA102
10. ^ Diego Fontaneto, "Biogeography of
Microscopic Organisms: Is Everything
Small Everywhere?", 2011,
p211. http://books.google.com/books?id=
QdcLHCPgG-wC&pg=PA211
11. ^ "Bryophyta." Webster's Revised
Unabridged Dictionary. MICRA, Inc. 01
Jan. 2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/B
ryophyta>.
12. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
13. ^ Hwan
Su Yoon, Jeremiah D. Hackett, Claudia
Ciniglia, Gabriele Pinto and Debashish,
"A Molecular Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution, (2004).
14. ^ Peter
Robert Bell, Alan R. Hemsley, "Green
Plants: Their Origin and Diversity",
2000,
p102. http://books.google.com/books?id=
HYkTvGq_RccC&pg=PA102
15. ^ Diego Fontaneto, "Biogeography of
Microscopic Organisms: Is Everything
Small Everywhere?", 2011,
p211. http://books.google.com/books?id=
QdcLHCPgG-wC&pg=PA211
16. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p82.
17. ^ S26 (c475)
18. ^ S15 (c475)

MORE INFO
[1] "Bryophyte". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bryophyte
[2] "Bryophyta." McGraw-Hill Dictionary
of Scientific and Technical Terms.
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003.
Answers.com 22 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/bryophyta-1

 
[1] Phaeoceros laevis (L.) Prosk. gnu
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Anthoceros_levis.jpg

[2] English: A closeup shot of moss on
a rock in Beacon Hill Park, Victoria,
Canada. Sony Alpha A100 Date 25
March 2007 Source Own
work Author KirinX at
en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) CC-BY-SA-2.5. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1c/Moss_closeup.jpg
475,000,000 YBN
15 16 		398) Plants live on land. The earliest
fossil spores belonging to land
plants.10 11 12

Plants conquer land before animals do,
and like animals may move to land not
by sea but by freshwater.13
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Gray, J., Massa, D., & Boucot, A.
J. Caradocian land plant microfossils
from libya. Geology , April 1982, 10
(4), 197-201. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1130/0091-7613(1982
)10<197:CLPMFL>2.0.CO;2 http://geology.gsapubs.org
/content/10/4/197.abstract?sid=dadb8801-
cfd4-4eb4-b70e-95cb217113e4 {Gray_Jane_
198204xx.pdf}
2. ^ Wellman, Charles H., Peter L.
Osterloff, and Uzma Mohiuddin.
“Fragments of the earliest land
plants.” Nature 425.6955 (2003) :
282-285. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v425/n6955/full/nature01884.html
3. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
4. ^ Gray, J.,
Massa, D., & Boucot, A. J. Caradocian
land plant microfossils from libya.
Geology , April 1982, 10 (4),
197-201. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1130/0091-7613(1982
)10<197:CLPMFL>2.0.CO;2 http://geology.gsapubs.org
/content/10/4/197.abstract?sid=dadb8801-
cfd4-4eb4-b70e-95cb217113e4 {Gray_Jane_
198204xx.pdf}
5. ^ Wellman, Charles H., Peter L.
Osterloff, and Uzma Mohiuddin.
“Fragments of the earliest land
plants.” Nature 425.6955 (2003) :
282-285. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v425/n6955/full/nature01884.html
6. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
7. ^ Gray, J.,
Massa, D., & Boucot, A. J. Caradocian
land plant microfossils from libya.
Geology , April 1982, 10 (4),
197-201. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1130/0091-7613(1982
)10<197:CLPMFL>2.0.CO;2 http://geology.gsapubs.org
/content/10/4/197.abstract?sid=dadb8801-
cfd4-4eb4-b70e-95cb217113e4 {Gray_Jane_
198204xx.pdf}
8. ^ Wellman, Charles H., Peter L.
Osterloff, and Uzma Mohiuddin.
“Fragments of the earliest land
plants.” Nature 425.6955 (2003) :
282-285. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v425/n6955/full/nature01884.html
9. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
10. ^ Gray, J.,
Massa, D., & Boucot, A. J. Caradocian
land plant microfossils from libya.
Geology , April 1982, 10 (4),
197-201. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1130/0091-7613(1982
)10<197:CLPMFL>2.0.CO;2 http://geology.gsapubs.org
/content/10/4/197.abstract?sid=dadb8801-
cfd4-4eb4-b70e-95cb217113e4 {Gray_Jane_
198204xx.pdf}
11. ^ Wellman, Charles H., Peter L.
Osterloff, and Uzma Mohiuddin.
“Fragments of the earliest land
plants.” Nature 425.6955 (2003) :
282-285. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v425/n6955/full/nature01884.html
12. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
13. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004), p520-521.
14. ^ Gray, J., Massa, D., &
Boucot, A. J. Caradocian land plant
microfossils from libya. Geology ,
April 1982, 10 (4), 197-201. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1130/0091-7613(1982
)10<197:CLPMFL>2.0.CO;2 http://geology.gsapubs.org
/content/10/4/197.abstract?sid=dadb8801-
cfd4-4eb4-b70e-95cb217113e4 {Gray_Jane_
198204xx.pdf}
15. ^ Wellman, Charles H., Peter L.
Osterloff, and Uzma Mohiuddin.
“Fragments of the earliest land
plants.” Nature 425.6955 (2003) :
282-285. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v425/n6955/full/nature01884.html
{475 MYBN}
16. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive
Life", 2009, p82.
earliest fossils: Caradoc, Libya14
 
[1] Gray, J., Massa, D., & Boucot, A.
J. Caradocian land plant microfossils
from libya. Geology , April 1982, 10
(4), 197-201. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1130/0091-7613(1982
)10<197:CLPMFL>2.0.CO;2 http://geology.gsapubs.org/
content/10/4/197.abstract?sid=dadb8801-c
fd4-4eb4-b70e-95cb217113e4 {Gray_Jane_1
98204xx.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://geology.gsapubs.org/conte
nt/10/4/197.abstract?sid=dadb8801-cfd4-4
eb4-b70e-95cb217113e4

[2] Phaeoceros laevis (L.) Prosk. gnu

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Anthoceros_levis.jpg
472,000,000 YBN
14 15 16 		402) The first animals live on land,
the arthropods Myriapoda (centipedes
and millipedes).10 11 12
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ MacNaughton, Robert B., Jennifer
M. Cole, Robert W. Dalrymple, Simon J.
Braddy, Derek E.G. Briggs, and Terrence
D. Lukie. “First Steps on Land:
Arthropod Trackways in
Cambrian-Ordovician Eolian Sandstone,
Southeastern Ontario, Canada.”
Geology 30, no. 5 (May 2002): 391
–394. http://geology.geoscienceworld.
org/citmgr?gca=geology;30/5/391
2. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of the
Insects", 2005, p109-110.
3. ^ Heather M. Wilson
and Lyall I. Anderson, "Morphology and
Taxonomy of Paleozoic Millipedes
(Diplopoda: Chilognatha: Archipolypoda)
from Scotland", Journal of
Paleontology, Vol. 78, No. 1 (Jan.,
2004), pp.
169-184 http://www.jstor.org/stable/409
4847 {Anderson_Lyall_200401xx.pdf}
4. ^ MacNaughton, Robert B., Jennifer
M. Cole, Robert W. Dalrymple, Simon J.
Braddy, Derek E.G. Briggs, and Terrence
D. Lukie. “First Steps on Land:
Arthropod Trackways in
Cambrian-Ordovician Eolian Sandstone,
Southeastern Ontario, Canada.”
Geology 30, no. 5 (May 2002): 391
–394. http://geology.geoscienceworld.
org/citmgr?gca=geology;30/5/391
5. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of the
Insects", 2005, p109-110.
6. ^ Heather M. Wilson
and Lyall I. Anderson, "Morphology and
Taxonomy of Paleozoic Millipedes
(Diplopoda: Chilognatha: Archipolypoda)
from Scotland", Journal of
Paleontology, Vol. 78, No. 1 (Jan.,
2004), pp.
169-184 http://www.jstor.org/stable/409
4847 {Anderson_Lyall_200401xx.pdf}
7. ^ MacNaughton, Robert B., Jennifer
M. Cole, Robert W. Dalrymple, Simon J.
Braddy, Derek E.G. Briggs, and Terrence
D. Lukie. “First Steps on Land:
Arthropod Trackways in
Cambrian-Ordovician Eolian Sandstone,
Southeastern Ontario, Canada.”
Geology 30, no. 5 (May 2002): 391
–394. http://geology.geoscienceworld.
org/citmgr?gca=geology;30/5/391
8. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of the
Insects", 2005, p109-110.
9. ^ Heather M. Wilson
and Lyall I. Anderson, "Morphology and
Taxonomy of Paleozoic Millipedes
(Diplopoda: Chilognatha: Archipolypoda)
from Scotland", Journal of
Paleontology, Vol. 78, No. 1 (Jan.,
2004), pp.
169-184 http://www.jstor.org/stable/409
4847 {Anderson_Lyall_200401xx.pdf}
10. ^ MacNaughton, Robert B., Jennifer
M. Cole, Robert W. Dalrymple, Simon J.
Braddy, Derek E.G. Briggs, and Terrence
D. Lukie. “First Steps on Land:
Arthropod Trackways in
Cambrian-Ordovician Eolian Sandstone,
Southeastern Ontario, Canada.”
Geology 30, no. 5 (May 2002): 391
–394. http://geology.geoscienceworld.
org/citmgr?gca=geology;30/5/391
11. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of
the Insects", 2005, p109-110.
12. ^ Heather M.
Wilson and Lyall I. Anderson,
"Morphology and Taxonomy of Paleozoic
Millipedes (Diplopoda: Chilognatha:
Archipolypoda) from Scotland", Journal
of Paleontology, Vol. 78, No. 1 (Jan.,
2004), pp.
169-184 http://www.jstor.org/stable/409
4847 {Anderson_Lyall_200401xx.pdf}
13. ^ MacNaughton, Robert B., Jennifer
M. Cole, Robert W. Dalrymple, Simon J.
Braddy, Derek E.G. Briggs, and Terrence
D. Lukie. “First Steps on Land:
Arthropod Trackways in
Cambrian-Ordovician Eolian Sandstone,
Southeastern Ontario, Canada.”
Geology 30, no. 5 (May 2002): 391
–394. http://geology.geoscienceworld.
org/citmgr?gca=geology;30/5/391
14. ^ MacNaughton, Robert B., Jennifer
M. Cole, Robert W. Dalrymple, Simon J.
Braddy, Derek E.G. Briggs, and Terrence
D. Lukie. “First Steps on Land:
Arthropod Trackways in
Cambrian-Ordovician Eolian Sandstone,
Southeastern Ontario, Canada.”
Geology 30, no. 5 (May 2002): 391
–394. http://geology.geoscienceworld.
org/citmgr?gca=geology;30/5/391
15. ^ Heather M. Wilson and Lyall I.
Anderson, "Morphology and Taxonomy of
Paleozoic Millipedes (Diplopoda:
Chilognatha: Archipolypoda) from
Scotland", Journal of Paleontology,
Vol. 78, No. 1 (Jan., 2004), pp.
169-184 http://www.jstor.org/stable/409
4847 {Anderson_Lyall_200401xx.pdf}
16. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive
Life", 2009, p67.
earliest arthropod tracks: Kingston,
Ontario, Canada13  
[1] Figure 4. Field photographs of
representative trackways. Scale bars
represent 5 cm. A: Trackway with
central drag and well-defined appendage
marks. Bottom surface. B: Trackway with
central drag and poorly defined
appendage marks. Top surface. Surface
dips to top of photograph; note downdip
offset of central drag. C: Robust
trackway with well-developed appendage
marks and no central drag. Note
push-ups of sand (arrows) associated
with appendage impressions. Figure 4
from: MacNaughton, Robert B., Jennifer
M. Cole, Robert W. Dalrymple, Simon J.
Braddy, Derek E.G. Briggs, and Terrence
D. Lukie. “First Steps on Land:
Arthropod Trackways in
Cambrian-Ordovician Eolian Sandstone,
Southeastern Ontario, Canada.”
Geology 30, no. 5 (May 2002): 391
–394. http://geology.geoscienceworld.
org/citmgr?gca=geology;30/5/391 COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://geology.geoscienceworld.o
rg/citmgr?gca=geology;30/5/391

[2] Figure 2 from: Heather M. Wilson
and Lyall I. Anderson, ''Morphology and
Taxonomy of Paleozoic Millipedes
(Diplopoda: Chilognatha: Archipolypoda)
from Scotland'', Journal of
Paleontology, Vol. 78, No. 1 (Jan.,
2004), pp.
169-184 http://www.jstor.org/stable/409
4847 {Anderson_Lyall_200401xx.pdf} COP
YRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/4094
847?&Search=yes&searchText=MILLIPEDES&se
archText=TAXONOMY&searchText=MORPHOLOGY&
searchText=PALEOZOIC&list=hide&searchUri
=%2Faction%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuery%3DMOR
PHOLOGY%2BAND%2BTAXONOMY%2BOF%2BPALEOZOI
C%2BMILLIPEDES%26acc%3Don%26wc%3Don&prev
Search=&item=2&ttl=43&returnArticleServi
ce=showFullText
465,000,000 YBN
5 		6636) The Jawless fishes lamprays
evolve.3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p364-371.
2. ^ Prothero,
"Evolution. What the Fossils Have to
Say and Why It Matters", 2007, p198.
3. ^
Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004), p364-371.
4. ^ Prothero, "Evolution. What
the Fossils Have to Say and Why It
Matters", 2007, p198.
5. ^ Prothero,
"Evolution. What the Fossils Have to
Say and Why It Matters", 2007, p198.

MORE INFO
[1] William Patten, "New
Ostracoderms from Oesel", Science, New
Series, Vol. 73, No. 1903 (Jun. 19,
1931), pp.
671-673 http://www.jstor.org/stable/165
5241
[2]
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=41579
[3] "ostracoderm." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 01
Jan. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ostracoderm

 
[1] Description Lampetra
fluviatilis from the german
northsea Date 2004 Source
Germany Author
M.Buschmann Permission (Reusing
this file) Author is owner CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3f/Lampetra_fluviatilis.
jpg

[2] Fossil Ostracoderms.
Representatives of three extinct
groups. The head armor is especially
well developed in Hemicyclaspis, an
ostracoderm of the ''Cephalapsis''
type, in which the head is flattened
and expanded into a large
filter-feeding basket. Ostracoderms
lacked the paired (pectoral and pelvic)
fins of more advanced fish. In some
cases, small spines were present at the
points where paired fins develop in
higher fishes. In Hemicyclaspis, one
sees a pair of anterior, flipper-like
structures in lieu of pectoral fins.
From Romer, A. S. 1964. The Vertebrate
Body. W. B. Saunders.
Philadelphia. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.blc.arizona.edu/cours
es/schaffer/182/Vertebrates/Ostracoderms
.jpg
460,000,000 YBN
13 		353) Jawed vertebrates evolve,
Gnathostomata {no toST omoTo8 }.9 This
large group includes all jawed fishes,
amphibians, reptiles, mammals, and
birds. The first vertebrate teeth.10

The jaw evolves from parts of the gill
skeleton.11
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p360-363.
2. ^ "Gnathostomata."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 29
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gnathostoma
ta-1
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p360-363.
4. ^ "Gnathostomata."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 29
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gnathostoma
ta-1
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p360-363.
6. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p360-363.
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p360-363.
8. ^ "Gnathostomata."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 29
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gnathostoma
ta-1
9. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p360-363.
10. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p360-363.
11. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p360-363.
12. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p360-363.
13. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p360-363. {460 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Douglas Palmer, "Prehistoric
Life", 2009, p106,110
[2]
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl
Oceans12  
[1] Image from: Palmer, D. The
Marshall Illustrated Encyclopedia of
Dinosaurs & Prehistoric Animals: A
Comprehensive Color Guide to Over 500
Species. New Line Books,
2002. COPYRIGHTED
source: Palmer, D. The Marshall
Illustrated Encyclopedia of Dinosaurs &
Prehistoric Animals: A Comprehensive
Color Guide to Over 500 Species. New
Line Books, 2002.

[2] Kardong, ''Vertebrates'', Third
Edition, 2002. COPYRIGHTED
source: Kardong, "Vertebrates", Third
Edition, 2002.
460,000,000 YBN
6 7 		404) The Jawed fishes Chondrichthyes
{KoN-DriK-tE-EZ4 } (Cartilaginous
fishes: ancestor of all sharks, rays,
skates, and sawfishes).5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p360-363.
2. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=chondr
ichthyes&submit=Submit
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p360-363.
4. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=chondr
ichthyes&submit=Submit
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p360-363.
6. ^ Miller, Randall
F., Richard Cloutier, and Susan Turner.
“The Oldest Articulated
Chondrichthyan from the Early Devonian
Period.” Nature 425.6957 (2003):
501–504. Web. 23 May
2012. http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v425/n6957/full/nature02001.html {M
iller_Chondrichthyans_2003.pdf}
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p360-363.
 
[1] Richard Dawkins, ''The Ancestor's
Tale'', (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p360-363. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p360-363.

[2] Miller, Randall F., Richard
Cloutier, and Susan Turner. “The
Oldest Articulated Chondrichthyan from
the Early Devonian Period.” Nature
425.6957 (2003): 501–504. Web. 23 May
2012. http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v425/n6957/full/nature02001.html {M
iller_Chondrichthyans_2003.pdf} COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v425/n6957/full/nature02001.html
460,000,000 YBN
4 5 		458) The earliest fungi on land. The
ancestor of all terrestrial fungi (the
Glomeromycota, Ascomycota, and
Basidiomycota).3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Redecker D, Kodner R, Graham LE.
(2000). "Glomalean fungi from the
Ordovician". Science 289 (5486):
1920–21. Bibcode 2000Sci...289.1920R.
doi:10.1126/science.289.5486.1920. PMID
10988069. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3
077684
2. ^ Redecker D, Kodner R, Graham LE.
(2000). "Glomalean fungi from the
Ordovician". Science 289 (5486):
1920–21. Bibcode 2000Sci...289.1920R.
doi:10.1126/science.289.5486.1920. PMID
10988069. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3
077684
3. ^ Redecker D, Kodner R, Graham LE.
(2000). "Glomalean fungi from the
Ordovician". Science 289 (5486):
1920–21. Bibcode 2000Sci...289.1920R.
doi:10.1126/science.289.5486.1920. PMID
10988069. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3
077684
4. ^ Redecker D, Kodner R, Graham LE.
(2000). "Glomalean fungi from the
Ordovician". Science 289 (5486):
1920–21. Bibcode 2000Sci...289.1920R.
doi:10.1126/science.289.5486.1920. PMID
10988069. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3
077684
5. ^ Redecker D, Kodner R, Graham LE.
(2000). "Glomalean fungi from the
Ordovician". Science 289 (5486):
1920–21. Bibcode 2000Sci...289.1920R.
doi:10.1126/science.289.5486.1920. PMID
10988069. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3
077684
 
[1] Earliest Glomerales fossil fig 1
from: Redecker D, Kodner R, Graham LE.
(2000). ''Glomalean fungi from the
Ordovician''. Science 289 (5486):
1920–21. Bibcode 2000Sci...289.1920R.
doi:10.1126/science.289.5486.1920. PMID
10988069. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3
077684 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3077
684

[2] Phylogenetic tree from: Richard
Dawkins, ''The Ancestor's Tale'',
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004), p511. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p511.
460,000,000 YBN
18 19 20 21 		6414) The Fungi Phylum "Glomeromycota"
{GlO-mi-rO-mI-KO-Tu11 } evolves
(arbuscular {oRBuSKYUlR12 } mycorrhizal
{MIKerIZL13 } fungi).14 15 16
FOOTNOTES

1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=glomer
omycota&submit=Submit
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The
Origin and Evolution of Model
Organisms", Nature Reviews Genetics 3,
838-849; doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
4. ^ S
Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L
Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A molecular
timescale of eukaryote evolution and
the rise of complex multicellular
life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004,
4:2 doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2,
(2004).
5. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=glomer
omycota&submit=Submit
6. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=arbusc
ular&submit=Submit
7. ^ "mycorrhiza." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 09
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/mycorrhiza
8. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
9. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The
Origin and Evolution of Model
Organisms", Nature Reviews Genetics 3,
838-849; doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
10. ^ S
Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L
Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A molecular
timescale of eukaryote evolution and
the rise of complex multicellular
life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004,
4:2 doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2,
(2004).
11. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=glomer
omycota&submit=Submit
12. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=arbusc
ular&submit=Submit
13. ^ "mycorrhiza." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 09
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/mycorrhiza
14. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
15. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The
Origin and Evolution of Model
Organisms", Nature Reviews Genetics 3,
838-849; doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
16. ^ S
Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L
Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A molecular
timescale of eukaryote evolution and
the rise of complex multicellular
life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004,
4:2 doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2,
(2004).
17. ^ Redecker D, Kodner R, Graham LE.
(2000). "Glomalean fungi from the
Ordovician". Science 289 (5486):
1920–21. Bibcode 2000Sci...289.1920R.
doi:10.1126/science.289.5486.1920. PMID
10988069. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3
077684
18. ^ Redecker D, Kodner R, Graham LE.
(2000). "Glomalean fungi from the
Ordovician". Science 289 (5486):
1920–21. Bibcode 2000Sci...289.1920R.
doi:10.1126/science.289.5486.1920. PMID
10988069. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3
077684
19. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (c750mybn)
20. ^ S. Blair Hedges,
"The Origin and Evolution of Model
Organisms", Nature Reviews Genetics 3,
838-849 (2002); doi:10.1038/nrg929,
(2002). (c1460 to 1210mybn)
21. ^ S Blair Hedges,
Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi and
Jason L Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
(estimate that between 947 and 968)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=glomer
omycetes&submit=Submit
[2] Kirk, et al., "Dictionary of
Fungi", 2008, p142
[3] Redecker, Dirk, and
Philipp Raab. "Phylogeny of the
Glomeromycota (arbuscular Mycorrhizal
Fungi): Recent Developments and New
Gene Markers." Mycologia 98.6
(November): 2006, p885
–895. http://www.mycologia.org/conten
t/98/6/885.abstract
earliest fossils: Wisconsin, USA17
 
[1] Gigaspora margarita in association
with Lotus corniculatus Description
Lotus corniculatus var. japonicus
kolonisiert durch Gigaspora
margarita Date 18 September
2007 Source Own work Author
Mike Guether GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Gigaspora_marga
rita.JPG/1024px-Gigaspora_margarita.JPG

[2] germinating Gigaspora decipiens
source: http://pages.unibas.ch/bothebel/
people/redecker/ff/glomero.htm
445,000,000 YBN
6 7 		90) The end-Ordovician mass extinction.
This is caused by an ice age.3 4

This is the first of five mass
extinctions in the Phanerozoic.5
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ David Jablonski and W. G.
Chaloner,"Extinctions in the Fossil
Record (and Discussion)", Philosophical
Transactions: Biological Sciences, Vol.
344, No. 1307, Estimating Extinction
Rates: Sir Joseph Banks Anniversary
Meeting (Apr. 29, 1994), pp.
11-17. http://www.jstor.org/stable/5614
8
2. ^ THE LATE ORDOVICIAN MASS
EXTINCTION - Annual Review of Earth and
Planetary Sciences, 29(1):331 -
Abstract".
Arjournals.annualreviews.org.
2003-11-28.
http://arjournals.annualreviews.org/do
i/abs/10.1146/annurev.earth.29.1.331?jou
rnalCode=earth
3. ^ David Jablonski and W. G.
Chaloner,"Extinctions in the Fossil
Record (and Discussion)", Philosophical
Transactions: Biological Sciences, Vol.
344, No. 1307, Estimating Extinction
Rates: Sir Joseph Banks Anniversary
Meeting (Apr. 29, 1994), pp.
11-17. http://www.jstor.org/stable/5614
8
4. ^ THE LATE ORDOVICIAN MASS
EXTINCTION - Annual Review of Earth and
Planetary Sciences, 29(1):331 -
Abstract".
Arjournals.annualreviews.org.
2003-11-28.
http://arjournals.annualreviews.org/do
i/abs/10.1146/annurev.earth.29.1.331?jou
rnalCode=earth
5. ^ THE LATE ORDOVICIAN MASS
EXTINCTION - Annual Review of Earth and
Planetary Sciences, 29(1):331 -
Abstract".
Arjournals.annualreviews.org.
2003-11-28.
http://arjournals.annualreviews.org/do
i/abs/10.1146/annurev.earth.29.1.331?jou
rnalCode=earth
6. ^ Palmer, et al, "Primitive Life",
2009, p83.
7. ^ David Jablonski and W. G.
Chaloner,"Extinctions in the Fossil
Record (and Discussion)", Philosophical
Transactions: Biological Sciences, Vol.
344, No. 1307, Estimating Extinction
Rates: Sir Joseph Banks Anniversary
Meeting (Apr. 29, 1994), pp.
11-17. http://www.jstor.org/stable/5614
8 {439 mybn}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
[2] David Jablonski, "Lessons from the
Past: Evolutionary Impacts of Mass
Extinctions", Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the
United States of America, Vol. 98, No.
10 (May 8, 2001), pp.
5393-5398. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
3055638
 
[1] NOAA Photo Library Image -
corp1440 Flying over a huge glacier
on the way to McMurdo Station
Image ID: corp1440, NOAA At The Ends of
the Earth Collection Location:
Antarctica Photographer: Mr. Fred
Walton, NOAA Category:
Antarctica/McMurdo/Glacier/ PD
source: http://www.photolib.noaa.gov/big
s/corp1440.jpg

[2] Image of object impact with
Earth UNKNOWN
source: http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-u1aaDd
JP2M0/Tj0QtfwPQQI/AAAAAAAAAbk/3SpkL8NCec
w/s1600/asteroid-impact.jpg
443,700,000 YBN
3 		122) The end of the Ordovician
(488.3-443.7 mybn), and the start of
the Silurian (443.7-416) Period.2
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^ USGS "Divisions of Geologic
Time— Major Chronostratigraphic and
Geochronologic Units", July
2010. http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2010/3059
/pdf/FS10-3059.pdf
2. ^ USGS "Divisions of Geologic
Time— Major Chronostratigraphic and
Geochronologic Units", July
2010. http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2010/3059
/pdf/FS10-3059.pdf
3. ^ USGS "Divisions of Geologic
Time— Major Chronostratigraphic and
Geochronologic Units", July
2010. http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2010/3059
/pdf/FS10-3059.pdf
 
[1] Geologic Time Scale 2009 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.geosociety.org/scienc
e/timescale/timescl.pdf

[2] 450 Ma - Late Ordovician UNKNOWN
source: http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~rcb7/450
_Ord_3globes.jpg
440,000,000 YBN
15 16 17 		236) The Vascular plants evolve, the
Phylum Tracheophyta {TrAKEoFiTu9 }.10
11 12 13

Vascular plants have a specialized
conducting system consisting mostly of
phloem (food-conducting tissue) and
xylem (water-conducting tissue),
collectively called vascular tissue.14

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
http://www.amjbot.org/content/91/10/14
37.full {Chase_Mark_2004.pdf}
2. ^ Hwan Su Yoon, Jeremiah D.
Hackett, Claudia Ciniglia, Gabriele
Pinto and Debashish, "A Molecular
Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution, (2004).
3. ^ Jeffrey D.
Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W.
Chase, "The plant tree of life: an
overview and some points of view",
American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
http://www.amjbot.org/content/91/10/14
37.full {Chase_Mark_2004.pdf}
4. ^ Hwan Su Yoon, Jeremiah D.
Hackett, Claudia Ciniglia, Gabriele
Pinto and Debashish, "A Molecular
Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution, (2004).
5. ^ Jeffrey D.
Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W.
Chase, "The plant tree of life: an
overview and some points of view",
American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
http://www.amjbot.org/content/91/10/14
37.full {Chase_Mark_2004.pdf}
6. ^ Hwan Su Yoon, Jeremiah D.
Hackett, Claudia Ciniglia, Gabriele
Pinto and Debashish, "A Molecular
Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution, (2004).
7. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/
8. ^ McElwain, Jenny C.; Willis, K. G.;
Willis, Kathy; McElwain, J. C. (2002).
The evolution of plants. Oxford
Oxfordshire. ^: Oxford University
Press. ISBN 0-19-850065-3.
9. ^ "Tracheophyta."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 02
Jan. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/tracheophyt
a-botany
10. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
http://www.amjbot.org/content/91/10/14
37.full {Chase_Mark_2004.pdf}
11. ^ Hwan Su Yoon, Jeremiah D.
Hackett, Claudia Ciniglia, Gabriele
Pinto and Debashish, "A Molecular
Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution, (2004).
12. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/
13. ^ McElwain, Jenny C.; Willis, K.
G.; Willis, Kathy; McElwain, J. C.
(2002). The evolution of plants. Oxford
Oxfordshire. ^: Oxford University
Press. ISBN 0-19-850065-3.
14. ^ "vascular plant."
Britannica Concise Encyclopedia.
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.,
1994-2010. Answers.com 25 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/vascular-pl
ant
15. ^ Palmer et al, "Primitive Life",
2009, p96.
16. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas
E. Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
(c400)
http://www.amjbot.org/content/91/10/14
37.full {Chase_Mark_2004.pdf}
17. ^ Hwan Su Yoon, Jeremiah D.
Hackett, Claudia Ciniglia, Gabriele
Pinto and Debashish, "A Molecular
Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution, (2004). (c390)
 
[1] Description Equisetum telmateia
(Equisetopsida) at Cambridge Botanic
Garden Date 18 May 2008 Source Own
work Author Rror Other versions
Derivative works of this file:
species on earth.jpg GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/7c/Equisetopsida.jpg

[2] Fig. 2. Chronogram showing
estimates of phylogenetic relationships
and divergence times among the major
groups of extant land plants. The
estimate of relationships is
synthesized from the following papers
in this issue: Burleigh and Mathews
(2004) , Pryer et al. (2004) , Shaw and
Renzaglia (2004) , and Soltis and
Soltis (2004) . Divergence time
estimates are mostly based on analyses
of molecular data with fossil
constraints (Wikström et al., 2001 ;
Pryer et al., 2004 ) and are augmented
by fossil evidence (Kenrick and Crane,
1997 ; Wellman et al., 2003 ).
Estimates of the number of species in
each group are from Judd et al. (2002)
and W. S. Judd (personal
communication). Groups covered by a
particular article in this special
issue are circled and connected to the
names of the article's authors. ''Other
conifers'' refers to the clade
consisting of all conifers except for
Pinaceae (see Burleigh and Mathews,
2004 ). ''Lepto. ferns'' refers to
leptosporangiate ferns fig 2
from: Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, ''The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view'', American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
http://www.amjbot.org/content/91/10/14
37.full {Chase_Mark_2004.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.amjbot.org/content/91
/10/1437/F2.large.jpg
440,000,000 YBN
12 13 		360) The Jawed fishes, Bony fishes
evolve; Osteichthyes {oS TE iK tE EZ3
}), the ancestor of the ray-finned,
lobefin, and lung fishes.4

Bony-fishes have a skeleton that is at
least partly ossified or made of bone.5
6

The bony fishes are the ancestors of
the tetrapods who will ultimately move
onto land.7

The earliest bony fishes are the
ray-finned fishes.8 9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p338-363.
2. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p338-363.
3. ^ "Osteichthyes." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 27 Dec.
2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/O
steichthyes>.
4. ^"bony fish." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 25 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/osteichthye
s
5. ^ "bony fish." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 25 Jul.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/osteichthye
s
6. ^ Palmer, D. The Marshall
Illustrated Encyclopedia of Dinosaurs &
Prehistoric Animals: A Comprehensive
Color Guide to Over 500 Species. New
Line Books, 2002, p34.
7. ^ Palmer, D. The
Marshall Illustrated Encyclopedia of
Dinosaurs & Prehistoric Animals: A
Comprehensive Color Guide to Over 500
Species. New Line Books, 2002, p34.
8. ^
Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004), p338-363.
9. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=42391
10. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p338-363.
11. ^ "bony fish."
Britannica Concise Encyclopedia.
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.,
1994-2010. Answers.com 25 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/osteichthye
s
12. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p338-363. {440 MYBN}
13. ^
Palmet et al, "Primitive Life", 2009,
p97.

MORE INFO
[1] "teleost." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 26
Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/teleost
Ocean and fresh water10 11  
[1] Adapted from: Richard Dawkins,
''The Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p339. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p339.

[2] A sturgeon
(pt:esturjāo). esturgeon noir
d'Amérique (Acipenser oxyrinchus
oxyrinchus) http://images.fws.gov/ PD

source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c2/Sturgeon2.jpg
440,000,000 YBN
6 		6172) The first lung evolves from the
swim bladder in ray-finned fishes. Some
teleosts still use their swim bladder
for breathing out of water.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p338-363.
2. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p338-363.
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p338-363.
4. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p338-363.
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p338-363.
6. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p338-363. {440 MYBN (guess based on
ray-finned fish evolving}

MORE INFO
[1] Farmer, C.G. 1999. The
evolution of the vertebrate
cardio-pulmonary system. Annual Review
of Physiology
61:573-592 http://biologylabs.utah.edu/
farmer/publications%20pdf/1999%20AnnuRev
Physiol61.pdf
Ocean (presumably)5  
[1] Image from: Palmer, D. The
Marshall Illustrated Encyclopedia of
Dinosaurs & Prehistoric Animals: A
Comprehensive Color Guide to Over 500
Species. New Line Books,
2002. COPYRIGHTED
source: Palmer, D. The Marshall
Illustrated Encyclopedia of Dinosaurs &
Prehistoric Animals: A Comprehensive
Color Guide to Over 500 Species. New
Line Books, 2002.

[2] Earliest fish with lung in
existance?[t] Nile Bichir (Polypterus
bichir bichir) from Günther, A.C.L.G.,
1880. An introduction to the study of
fishes. Today & Tomorrow's Book Agency,
New Delhi. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e8/Nile_bichir.png
425,000,000 YBN
5 		377) The Jawed fishes, Lobe-fin fishes
evolve. Lobe-fin fishes have a fleshy
lobe at the base of each fin.3 The
earliest extant Lobe-fin fishes, the
coelacanths evolve now.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p335-338.
2. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p335-338.
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p335-338.
4. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p335-338.
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p335-338.

MORE INFO
[1]
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=89942
[2]
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=42376
 
[1] Description Preserved
specimen of chalumnae (Also known as
Coelacanth [1]) in the Natural History
Museum, Vienna, Austria. Believed
to have been extinct for 70 million
years, this specimen was caught the 18
October of 1974, next to
Salimani/Selimani (Grande Comore,
Comoros Islands) 11°48′40.7″S
43°16′3.3″E Length: 170 cm -
Weight: 60 kg Obtained by stiching
3 HiRes images and removing the
background with image
post-processing. Date August
2007 Source Own work Author
Alberto Fernandez Fernandez GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/fa/Latimeria_Chalumnae_-
_Coelacanth_-_NHMW.jpg
420,000,000 YBN
8 9 10 11 		6350) The Arthropods Hexapods
(arthropods with six legs {3 pairs},
the ancestor of all insects).5 6
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ Timothy Duane Schowalter, "Insect
Ecology: An Ecosystem Approach", 2006,
p781. http://books.google.com/books?id=
LQqHWCtj0F0C&pg=PA781
2. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "TimeTree of
Life", 2009, p251-253.
3. ^ Timothy Duane
Schowalter, "Insect Ecology: An
Ecosystem Approach", 2006,
p781. http://books.google.com/books?id=
LQqHWCtj0F0C&pg=PA781
4. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "TimeTree of
Life", 2009, p251-253.
5. ^ Timothy Duane
Schowalter, "Insect Ecology: An
Ecosystem Approach", 2006,
p781. http://books.google.com/books?id=
LQqHWCtj0F0C&pg=PA781
6. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "TimeTree of
Life", 2009, p251-253.
7. ^ Grimaldi, Engel,
Evolution of the Insects, 2005,
p66,116.
8. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, Evolution of the
Insects, 2005, p146.
9. ^ Grimaldi, Engel,
Evolution of the Insects, 2005,
p66,116.
10. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "TimeTree of
Life", 2009, p251-253.
11. ^ Regier, et al,
"Pancrustacean phylogeny: hexapods are
terrestrial crustaceans and maxillopods
are not monophyletic", Proc Biol Sci.
2005 February 22; 272(1561): 395–401.
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/272/1561/395

MORE INFO
[1] Blaxter, Mark.
“Evolutionary Biology: Sum of the
Arthropod Parts.” Nature 413.6852
(2001):
121–122. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v413/n6852/full/413121a0.html
earliest fossils: (Rhynie chert)
Scotland7  
[1] Description Protura specimen,
taken under stereo microscope (40x).
Acerentomon sp. Date 7 December 2008,
03:13 Source Protura Uploaded
by Richard001 Author Gregor
?nidar CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/bc/Protura_specimen_(Ace
rentomon_species)_micrograph.jpg

[2] Description English: Campodea
staphylinus, a dipluran. Photo by
Michel Vuijlsteke. Taken on May 9, 2006
at 4.09pm CEST in Gent, Belgium. Date
2007-07-08 (original upload
date) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia Author Original uploader
was Mvuijlst at
en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2e/Diplura.jpg
418,000,000 YBN
4 		6431) The Chelicerata Arachnids evolve
(the ancestor of all scorpions,
spiders, mites and ticks1 ).2
FOOTNOTES

1. ^
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Taxonomy/Bro
wser/wwwtax.cgi?mode=Undef&id=6843&lvl=3
&lin=f&keep=1&srchmode=1&unlock
2. ^ DUNLOP, JASON A., O. ERIK TETLIE,
and LORENZO PRENDINI. 2008.
�REINTERPRETATION OF THE SILURIAN
SCORPION PROSCORPIUS OSBORNI
(WHITFIELD): INTEGRATING DATA FROM
PALAEOZOIC AND RECENT SCORPIONS.�
Palaeontology 51 (2): 303�320.
doi:10.1111/j.1475-4983.2007.00749.x. h
ttp://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.111
1/j.1475-4983.2007.00749.x/full
3. ^ DUNLOP, JASON A., O. ERIK TETLIE,
and LORENZO PRENDINI. 2008.
�REINTERPRETATION OF THE SILURIAN
SCORPION PROSCORPIUS OSBORNI
(WHITFIELD): INTEGRATING DATA FROM
PALAEOZOIC AND RECENT SCORPIONS.�
Palaeontology 51 (2): 303�320.
doi:10.1111/j.1475-4983.2007.00749.x. h
ttp://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.111
1/j.1475-4983.2007.00749.x/full
4. ^ DUNLOP, JASON A., O. ERIK TETLIE,
and LORENZO PRENDINI. 2008.
�REINTERPRETATION OF THE SILURIAN
SCORPION PROSCORPIUS OSBORNI
(WHITFIELD): INTEGRATING DATA FROM
PALAEOZOIC AND RECENT SCORPIONS.�
Palaeontology 51 (2): 303�320.
doi:10.1111/j.1475-4983.2007.00749.x. h
ttp://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.111
1/j.1475-4983.2007.00749.x/full

MORE INFO
[1] Shear, W. A. 2000.
Gigantocharinus szatmaryi, a new
trigonotarbid arachnid from the Late
Devonian of North America (Chelicerata,
Arachinida, Trigonotarbida). J.
Paleont. 74(1): 25-31
[2] Parry, S.F.; Noble
S.R., Crowley Q.G. & Wellman C.H.
(2011). "A high-precision U–Pb age
constraint on the Rhynie Chert
Konservat-Lagerstätte: time scale and
other implications". Journal of the
Geological Society (London: Geological
Society) 168 (4): 863–872.
doi:10.1144/​0016-76492010-043. http:
//jgs.lyellcollection.org/content/168/4/
863.abstract
[3] Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p96-97
earliest fossils: ("Bertie Waterlime"
of) NY, USA3  
[1] Description Proscorpius osborni
fossil. The Eurypterida of New York.
Volume 2. New York State Museum Memoir
14, plate 88 Date 1912 Source
California/Google Books Author John
Mason Clarke (1857-1925) and Rudolf
Ruedemann (1864-1956) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/15/The_Eurypterida_of_Ne
w_York_plate_88.jpg

[2] Description The Eurypterida of
New York. Volume 1. New York State
Museum Memoir 14, figure 81-83 Date
1912 Source Google Books Author
John Mason Clarke (1857-1925) and
Rudolf Ruedemann (1864-1956) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/ef/The_Eurypterida_of_Ne
w_York_figure_81-83.jpg
417,000,000 YBN
3 4 		378) The Lobefin fishes, Lungfishes
evolve.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm

MORE INFO
[1]
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=42316&tree=0.1
 
[1] Description English: Australian
lungfish (Neoceratodus forsteri) Date
Source Picure taken by Tannin
(from English wikipedia) Author
User:Tannin GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/61/Australian-Lungfish.j
pg

[2] Description English: Lateral
view of lungs of a dissected
Protopterus dolloi Date
2007ish (15 February 2009
(original upload date)) Source
Transferred from
en.wikipedia (Original text : Photo
from lab dissection at U. of
Cincinnati) Author Mokele (talk).
Original uploader was Mokele at
en.wikipedia GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/ae/Lungs_of_Protopterus_
dolloi.JPG
416,000,000 YBN
5 		123) The end of the Silurian (443.7-416
mybn), and start of the Devonian
{DiVONEiN3 } (416-359.2 mybn) Period.4

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Devonian." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 10
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/devonian
2. ^ USGS "Divisions of Geologic
Time— Major Chronostratigraphic and
Geochronologic Units", July
2010. http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2010/3059
/pdf/FS10-3059.pdf
3. ^ "Devonian." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 10
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/devonian
4. ^ USGS "Divisions of Geologic
Time— Major Chronostratigraphic and
Geochronologic Units", July
2010. http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2010/3059
/pdf/FS10-3059.pdf
5. ^ USGS "Divisions of Geologic
Time— Major Chronostratigraphic and
Geochronologic Units", July
2010. http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2010/3059
/pdf/FS10-3059.pdf
 
[1] Geologic Time Scale 2009 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.geosociety.org/scienc
e/timescale/timescl.pdf

[2] 430 Ma - Early Silurian UNKNOWN
source: http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~rcb7/430
_Silurian_2globes.jpg
416,000,000 YBN
10 11 12 13 		6352) The Hexapods: insects evolve.7 8


The most primitive extant insects, the
Bristletails evolve now.9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, Evolution of the
Insects, 2005, p146.
2. ^ Regier, et al,
"Pancrustacean phylogeny: hexapods are
terrestrial crustaceans and maxillopods
are not monophyletic", Proc Biol Sci.
2005 February 22; 272(1561): 395–401.
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/272/1561/395
3. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, Evolution of the
Insects, 2005, p146.
4. ^ Grimaldi, Engel,
Evolution of the Insects, 2005, p146.
5. ^
Regier, et al, "Pancrustacean
phylogeny: hexapods are terrestrial
crustaceans and maxillopods are not
monophyletic", Proc Biol Sci. 2005
February 22; 272(1561): 395–401.
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/272/1561/395
6. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, Evolution of the
Insects, 2005, p146.
7. ^ Grimaldi, Engel,
Evolution of the Insects, 2005, p146.
8. ^
Regier, et al, "Pancrustacean
phylogeny: hexapods are terrestrial
crustaceans and maxillopods are not
monophyletic", Proc Biol Sci. 2005
February 22; 272(1561): 395–401.
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/272/1561/395
9. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, Evolution of the
Insects, 2005, p146.
10. ^ Grimaldi, Engel,
Evolution of the Insects, 2005, p146.
11. ^
Regier, et al, "Pancrustacean
phylogeny: hexapods are terrestrial
crustaceans and maxillopods are not
monophyletic", Proc Biol Sci. 2005
February 22; 272(1561): 395–401.
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/272/1561/395
12. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "Time Tree of
Life", 2009, p250-254.
13. ^ David A. Grimaldi,
Michael S. Engel, "Evolution of the
Insects", 2005,
p1. http://books.google.com/books?id=Ql
6Jl6wKb88C&pg=PA1
 
[1] Description Français : Groupe
de Petrobius maritimus sur falaise
supralittorale, Toull ar C'Hrabanoù,
Goulien, Finistère, Bretagne,
France Date 2 June 2010 Source Own
work Author Jymm PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a4/Petrobius_maritimus_2
010-06-02.jpg

[2] Description Archaeognatha:
Machilidae, collected from Anglesey,
UK Date 2006-12-28 Source Own work
(own photo) Author
User:Stemonitis Permission (Reusing
this file) CC Attribution
ShareAlike 2.5 CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/42/Archaeognatha.jpg
410,000,000 YBN
2 		6363) The Insects Silverfish.1
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of
the Insects", 2005, p146,150-151,154
2. ^ Grimaldi,
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p146,150-151,154
 
[1] Thysanura is an order of insects,
encompassing silverfish and
firebrats, Description
Silberfischchen, Lepisma
saccharina Date Source from the
http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bild:Silber
fischchen.jpg German wiki; taken with
Canon EOS 300D Author Sebastian
Stabinger GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/54/Silberfischchen.jpg

[2] Image from: David A. Grimaldi,
Michael S. Engel, ''Evolution of the
Insects'', 2005, p144. COPYRIGHTED
source: David A. Grimaldi, Michael S.
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p146
400,000,000 YBN
17 18 19 20 21 		227) The largest Fungi phylum
"Ascomycota" {aS-KO-mI-KO-Tu11 }
evolves (the ancestor of yeasts,
truffles, Penicillium, and morels
{mu-reLZ12 }).13 14 15
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=ascomy
cota&submit=Submit
2. ^ "morel." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 01 Jul.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/morel
3. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
4. ^ S.
Blair Hedges, "The Origin and Evolution
of Model Organisms", Nature Reviews
Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
5. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
6. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=ascomy
cota&submit=Submit
7. ^ "morel." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 01 Jul.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/morel
8. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
9. ^ S.
Blair Hedges, "The Origin and Evolution
of Model Organisms", Nature Reviews
Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
10. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
11. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=ascomy
cota&submit=Submit
12. ^ "morel." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 01 Jul.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/morel
13. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
14. ^ S.
Blair Hedges, "The Origin and Evolution
of Model Organisms", Nature Reviews
Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
15. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
16. ^ T. N. Taylor, H. Hass & H. Kerp,
"The oldest fossil ascomycetes", Nature
399, 648 (17 June 1999),
doi:10.1038/21349 http://www.nature.com
/nature/journal/v399/n6737/full/399648a0
.html
17. ^ T. N. Taylor, H. Hass & H. Kerp,
"The oldest fossil ascomycetes", Nature
399, 648 (17 June 1999),
doi:10.1038/21349 http://www.nature.com
/nature/journal/v399/n6737/full/399648a0
.html
18. ^ Redecker D, Kodner R, Graham LE.
(2000). "Glomalean fungi from the
Ordovician". Science 289 (5486):
1920–21. Bibcode 2000Sci...289.1920R.
doi:10.1126/science.289.5486.1920. PMID
10988069. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3
077684
19. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
(1009my)
20. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The Origin and
Evolution of Model Organisms", Nature
Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849 (2002);
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002). (1140my)
21. ^
Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004). (700my)

MORE INFO
[1] Kirk, et al., "Dictionary of
Fungi", 2008, p142
earliest fossils: (Rhynie chert)
Aberdeenshire, Scotland16  
[1] white truffle
cutted photographed by
myself GNU head Permission is
granted to copy, distribute and/or
modify this document under the terms of
the GNU Free Documentation License,
Version 1.2 or any later version
published by the Free Software
Foundation; with no Invariant Sections,
no Front-Cover Texts, and no Back-Cover
Texts. A copy of the license is
included in the section entitled ''Text
of the GNU Free Documentation
License.''
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/fd/Truffle_washed_and_cu
tted.jpg

[2] EColi-Scerevisiae.jpg (50KB, MIME
type: image/jpeg) Wikimedia Commons
logo This is a file from the Wikimedia
Commons. The description on its
description page there is shown
below. Escherichia coli (little
forms) & Saccharomyces cerevisiae (big
forms) by MEB Public domain This file
has been released into the public
domain by the copyright holder, its
copyright has expired, or it is
ineligible for copyright. This applies
worldwide. brewer's yeast/baker's
yeast
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:EColi-Scerevisiae.jpg
400,000,000 YBN
6 7 8 9 		237) The Vascular plants ferns evolve
(the ancestor of club mosses, ferns and
horsetails).3

Ferns are flowerless, seedless vascular
plants that have roots, stems, and
fronds (the leaf-like part of a fern4
), and reproduce by spores.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
http://www.amjbot.org/content/91/10/14
37.full {Chase_Mark_2004.pdf}
2. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas
E. Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
http://www.amjbot.org/content/91/10/14
37.full {Chase_Mark_2004.pdf}
3. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas
E. Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
http://www.amjbot.org/content/91/10/14
37.full {Chase_Mark_2004.pdf}
4. ^ "frond." Taylor's
Dictionary for Gardeners. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 1997. Answers.com 25
Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/frond
5. ^ "fern." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 25 Jul.
2011. http://www.answers.com/topic/fern
6. ^ Palmer et al, "Prehistoric
Life", 2009, p110.
7. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer,
Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W. Chase,
"The plant tree of life: an overview
and some points of view", American
Journal of Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445.,
(2004). (c390 (360 for living species)
8. ^ Hwan
Su Yoon, Jeremiah D. Hackett, Claudia
Ciniglia, Gabriele Pinto and Debashish,
"A Molecular Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution, (2004). (c390)
9. ^
Taylor, Thomas N.; Edith L. Taylor.
(1993). The Biology and Evolution of
Fossil Plants. Englewood Cliffs, NJ:
Prentice Hall. pp. 332–334. ISBN
0-13-651589-4.

MORE INFO
[1] Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
http://www.amjbot.org/content/91/10/14
37.full (318mybn)
[2] Hwan Su Yoon, Jeremiah
D. Hackett, Claudia Ciniglia, Gabriele
Pinto and Debashish, "A Molecular
Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution, (2004).
(350mybn)
 
[1] Fig. 2. Chronogram showing
estimates of phylogenetic relationships
and divergence times among the major
groups of extant land plants. The
estimate of relationships is
synthesized from the following papers
in this issue: Burleigh and Mathews
(2004) , Pryer et al. (2004) , Shaw and
Renzaglia (2004) , and Soltis and
Soltis (2004) . Divergence time
estimates are mostly based on analyses
of molecular data with fossil
constraints (Wikström et al., 2001 ;
Pryer et al., 2004 ) and are augmented
by fossil evidence (Kenrick and Crane,
1997 ; Wellman et al., 2003 ).
Estimates of the number of species in
each group are from Judd et al. (2002)
and W. S. Judd (personal
communication). Groups covered by a
particular article in this special
issue are circled and connected to the
names of the article's authors. ''Other
conifers'' refers to the clade
consisting of all conifers except for
Pinaceae (see Burleigh and Mathews,
2004 ). ''Lepto. ferns'' refers to
leptosporangiate ferns fig 2
from: Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, ''The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view'', American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
http://www.amjbot.org/content/91/10/14
37.full {Chase_Mark_2004.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.amjbot.org/content/91
/10/1437/F2.large.jpg

[2] Fig. 2. Chronogram showing
estimates of phylogenetic relationships
and divergence times among the major
groups of extant land plants. The
estimate of relationships is
synthesized from the following papers
in this issue: Burleigh and Mathews
(2004) , Pryer et al. (2004) , Shaw and
Renzaglia (2004) , and Soltis and
Soltis (2004) . Divergence time
estimates are mostly based on analyses
of molecular data with fossil
constraints (Wikström et al., 2001 ;
Pryer et al., 2004 ) and are augmented
by fossil evidence (Kenrick and Crane,
1997 ; Wellman et al., 2003 ).
Estimates of the number of species in
each group are from Judd et al. (2002)
and W. S. Judd (personal
communication). Groups covered by a
particular article in this special
issue are circled and connected to the
names of the article's authors. ''Other
conifers'' refers to the clade
consisting of all conifers except for
Pinaceae (see Burleigh and Mathews,
2004 ). ''Lepto. ferns'' refers to
leptosporangiate ferns fig 2
from: Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, ''The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view'', American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
http://www.amjbot.org/content/91/10/14
37.full {Chase_Mark_2004.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.amjbot.org/content/91
/10/1437/F2.large.jpg
400,000,000 YBN
4 		436) The Cartilaginous fishes Subclass:
"Elasmobranchii" {elaZmOBrANKEE or I1 2
} evolves, (the ancestor of sharks,
dogfishes, skates and rays).3
FOOTNOTES

1. ^ "Elasmobranchii." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 07 Oct. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/elasmobranc
hii-1
2. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=elasmo
branchii&submit=Submit
3. ^ Palmer, D. The Marshall
Illustrated Encyclopedia of Dinosaurs &
Prehistoric Animals: A Comprehensive
Color Guide to Over 500 Species. New
Line Books, 2002, p26-29.
4. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004), p361.

MORE INFO
[1] "Sharks". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sharks
[2] Prothero, D.R., and C.D. Buell.
Evolution: What the Fossils Say and Why
It Matters. Columbia University Press,
2007
 
[1] Richard Dawkins, ''The Ancestor's
Tale'', (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p361. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p361.

[2] Grey reef shark (Carcharhinus
amblyrhynchos) Description Un
gran tiburón surcando aguas
oceánicas. Date 14 March
2004 Source Original image:
Carcharhinus-amblyrynchos.jpg by
Fbattail at fr.wikipedia, March 14,
2004 cropped image:
Greyreefsharksmall.jpg by Chris huh at
en.wikipedia, August 29. 2006
Transfered to Commons by Harryemi,
September 21, 2008 Author
original author is Fbattail , the
image is cropped by Chris huh GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/bb/Tibur%C3%B3n.jpg
395,000,000 YBN
2 		6429) The Green Algae Charophytes
evolve (Stoneworts).1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Palmer et al, "Prehistoric Life",
2009, p110.
2. ^ Palmer et al, "Prehistoric
Life", 2009, p110.
 
[1] Description English: The
stoneworts alga Chara globularis (Syn.:
Chara fragilis; Characeae). Deutsch:
Habitus der Zerbrechlichen
Armleuchteralge (Chara globularis;
Syn.: Chara fragilis). Bild mit
Flachbettscanner angefertigt. Date
October 2005 Source Own work.
Location: North-eastern Lower Saxony,
Germany. Author Christian Fischer CC

source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/cf/CharaFragilis.jpg

[2] Description English: The
stoneworts alga Chara globularis (Syn.:
Chara fragilis; Characeae). Deutsch:
Habitus der Zerbrechlichen
Armleuchteralge (Chara globularis;
Syn.: Chara fragilis); drapiert in
einem mit Wasser gefüllten Teller und
senkrecht von oben fotografiert. Diese
Art ist die wohl häufigste
Armleuchteralge in Deutschland (bei
regionalen Unterschieden) – die
meisten anderen Arten stehen auf der
Roten Liste, einige sind extrem
selten. Date 2 July 2011 Source Own
work. Location: North-eastern Lower
Saxony, Germany. Author Christian
Fischer CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/CharaGlobularis
.jpg/833px-CharaGlobularis.jpg
395,000,000 YBN
6 7 		6430) The earliest fungi lichen {lIKiN1
}.2

A lichen is a fungus, usually of the
class Ascomycetes {aSKOmISETS3 }, that
grows symbiotically with algae and
cyanobacteria4 , resulting in a
composite organism that
characteristically forms a crustlike or
branching growth on rocks or tree
trunks.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "lichen." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2012. Answers.com 08
Oct. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/lichen
2. ^ Palmer et al, "Prehistoric Life",
2009, p110.
3. ^ "Ascomycetes."
Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random
House, Inc. 01 Jan. 2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/A
scomycetes>.
4. ^ Willis and McElwain, "The
Evolution of Plants", 2002, p45.
5. ^
"lichen." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 08 Oct.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/lichen
6. ^ Palmer et al, "Prehistoric Life",
2009, p110.
7. ^ Taylor, T. N. et al. “The
Oldest Fossil Lichen.” Nature
378.6554 (1995):
244–244. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v378/n6554/abs/378244a0.html

MORE INFO
[1] "lichen." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 27 Dec.
2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/l
ichen>
 
[1] Xanthoparmelia cf. lavicola, a
foliose lichen, on basalt.
Photograph of lichen on basalt taken at
Ulupo, Kailua, O'ahu, Hawai'i by Eric
Guinther (Marshman at en.wikipedia) and
released under the GNU Free
Documentation License. first
upload en.wikipedia 23:52, 23 September
2003 . . Marshman (185124 bytes)
(Lichen photograph) GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2c/Lichen_squamulose.jpg


[2] Fig 1 from: Taylor, T. N. et al.
“The Oldest Fossil Lichen.” Nature
378.6554 (1995):
244–244. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v378/n6554/abs/378244a0.html C
OPYRIGHTED
source: Taylor, T. N. et al. “The
Oldest Fossil Lichen.” Nature
378.6554 (1995):
244–244. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v378/n6554/abs/378244a0.html
392,000,000 YBN
7 8 		359) The Cartilaginous fishes
"Selachii" {SelAKEE4 or I5 } evolve,
(the ancestor of all sharks: includes
great white, hammerhead, mako, tiger
and nurse sharks).6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=selach
ii&submit=Submit
2. ^ "Selachii." McGraw-Hill Dictionary
of Scientific and Technical Terms.
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003.
Answers.com 26 Aug. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/selachii-2
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
4. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=selach
ii&submit=Submit
5. ^ "Selachii." McGraw-Hill Dictionary
of Scientific and Technical Terms.
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003.
Answers.com 26 Aug. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/selachii-2
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
7. ^ Prothero, D.R., and C.D.
Buell. Evolution: What the Fossils Say
and Why It Matters. Columbia University
Press, 2007, p198.
8. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). {190 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=selach
imorpha&submit=Submit
 
[1] Richard Dawkins, ''The Ancestor's
Tale'', (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p361. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p361.

[2] Grey reef shark (Carcharhinus
amblyrhynchos) Description Un
gran tiburón surcando aguas
oceánicas. Date 14 March
2004 Source Original image:
Carcharhinus-amblyrynchos.jpg by
Fbattail at fr.wikipedia, March 14,
2004 cropped image:
Greyreefsharksmall.jpg by Chris huh at
en.wikipedia, August 29. 2006
Transfered to Commons by Harryemi,
September 21, 2008 Author
original author is Fbattail , the
image is cropped by Chris huh GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/bb/Tibur%C3%B3n.jpg
392,000,000 YBN
4 		437) The Cartilaginous fishes:
"Holocephali" {HoloSeFolE or I1 }
evolve, (the ancestor of the chimaeras
{KiMERoZ2 } also called rabbit-fishes
or ratfishes).3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=holoce
phali&submit=Submit
2. ^ "chimaera." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 01 Jan.
2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/c
himaera>.
3. ^ Palmer, D. The Marshall
Illustrated Encyclopedia of Dinosaurs &
Prehistoric Animals: A Comprehensive
Color Guide to Over 500 Species. New
Line Books, 2002, p26-29.
4. ^ Prothero, D.R.,
and C.D. Buell. Evolution: What the
Fossils Say and Why It Matters.
Columbia University Press, 2007, p198.

MORE INFO
[1] "Sharks". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sharks
[2] Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p361
[3] "Holocephali."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 07
Oct. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/holocephali
-2
 
[1] Description Spotted ratfish
(Hydrolagus colliei) observed off Pt
Pinos during a sanctuary seafloor
monitoring survey using the Delta
submersible. Date 13 August
2004 Source
http://www.mbnms-simon.org/other/photos
/photo_info.php?photoID=1307 Author
Linda Snook /
MBNMS Permission (Reusing this file)
All SIMoN photos and video are in
the public domain and CANNOT be
copyrighted. Although at present, no
fee is charged for using the media.
Credit MUST be given to the
photographer or other source as stated
with the photo metadata. [1] PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f9/Hydrolagus_colliei.jp
g

[2] Richard Dawkins, ''The Ancestor's
Tale'', (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p361. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p361.
385,000,000 YBN
10 11 12 		405) The first forests. The earliest
large tree fossils.7 8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ William E. Stein1, Frank
Mannolini2, Linda VanAller Hernick2, Ed
Landing2 & Christopher M. Berry3,
"Giant cladoxylopsid trees resolve the
enigma of the Earth's earliest forest
stumps at Gilboa", Nature 446, 904-907
(19 April
2007) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v446/n7138/full/nature05705.html
2. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
3. ^ William E. Stein1, Frank
Mannolini2, Linda VanAller Hernick2, Ed
Landing2 & Christopher M. Berry3,
"Giant cladoxylopsid trees resolve the
enigma of the Earth's earliest forest
stumps at Gilboa", Nature 446, 904-907
(19 April
2007) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v446/n7138/full/nature05705.html
4. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
5. ^ William E. Stein1, Frank
Mannolini2, Linda VanAller Hernick2, Ed
Landing2 & Christopher M. Berry3,
"Giant cladoxylopsid trees resolve the
enigma of the Earth's earliest forest
stumps at Gilboa", Nature 446, 904-907
(19 April
2007) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v446/n7138/full/nature05705.html
6. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
7. ^ William E. Stein1, Frank
Mannolini2, Linda VanAller Hernick2, Ed
Landing2 & Christopher M. Berry3,
"Giant cladoxylopsid trees resolve the
enigma of the Earth's earliest forest
stumps at Gilboa", Nature 446, 904-907
(19 April
2007) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v446/n7138/full/nature05705.html
8. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
9. ^ William E. Stein1, Frank
Mannolini2, Linda VanAller Hernick2, Ed
Landing2 & Christopher M. Berry3,
"Giant cladoxylopsid trees resolve the
enigma of the Earth's earliest forest
stumps at Gilboa", Nature 446, 904-907
(19 April
2007) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v446/n7138/full/nature05705.html
10. ^ William E. Stein1, Frank
Mannolini2, Linda VanAller Hernick2, Ed
Landing2 & Christopher M. Berry3,
"Giant cladoxylopsid trees resolve the
enigma of the Earth's earliest forest
stumps at Gilboa", Nature 446, 904-907
(19 April
2007) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v446/n7138/full/nature05705.html
{385 mybn}
11. ^ Palmet et al, "Primitive
Life", 2009, p111.
12. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm {380mybn}
earliest fossils: Gilboa, New York,
USA9  
[1] a, General view of the crown
portion, showing longitudinal ranks of
branch bases on the trunk proximally,
and attached branches with digitate
ramification and speckled surface
pattern distally. Scale bar, 20 cm. b,
Line drawing of the specimen as
recovered including trunk and crown;
the box shows the portion in a, and the
arrow indicates the branch in c. Scale
bar, 10 cm. c, Close-up of a distal
branch showing speckled texture and
lateral appendages. Scale bar, 20
mm. figure 1 from: William E. Stein1,
Frank Mannolini2, Linda VanAller
Hernick2, Ed Landing2 & Christopher M.
Berry3, ''Giant cladoxylopsid trees
resolve the enigma of the Earth's
earliest forest stumps at Gilboa'',
Nature 446, 904-907 (19 April
2007) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v446/n7138/full/nature05705.html CO
PYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v446/n7138/images/nature05705-f1.2.
jpg

[2] a, Composite image of large trunk
specimen, a cast with upper and lower
counterparts, NYSM 17040. Arrows at the
distal end (top) correspond to the
region in Fig. 3a; arrows at the
proximal end (bottom) correspond to the
region in Fig. 3b. b, Line drawing
showing the architecture of Wattieza
attached to Eospermatopteris. The
length of the trunk is not firmly
established, so the minimum tree height
is shown. Light branches right, also in
Fig. 1a right, appear in life position
but are not definitively attached.
Scale bar, 1 m for both panels. figure
2 from: William E. Stein1, Frank
Mannolini2, Linda VanAller Hernick2, Ed
Landing2 & Christopher M. Berry3,
''Giant cladoxylopsid trees resolve the
enigma of the Earth's earliest forest
stumps at Gilboa'', Nature 446, 904-907
(19 April
2007) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v446/n7138/full/nature05705.html CO
PYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v446/n7138/images/nature05705-f2.2.
jpg
385,000,000 YBN
24 25 26 27 28 29 30 		411) The first flying animal, an
arthropod insect, the ancestor of all
winged insects (Pterygota {TARiGOTu12
}). The earliest extant winged insects
are the Ephemeroptera {eFeMeroPTRo13 }:
Mayflies, and the Odonata {ODenoDo14 }:
Dragonflies and Damselflies.15 16 17

Insect wings evolve only once, and all
winged insects descend from the first
winged insect.18 19

The development of wings may have
helped early insects to escape
predators20 and to move over larger
distances to find new habitats21 .
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael S.
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005,
p148. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Ql6Jl6wKb88C&pg=PA157
2. ^ Grimaldi, D. 2001. Insect
evolutionary history from Handlirsch to
Hennig, and beyond. Journal of
Paleontology
75:1152-1160. http://jpaleontol.geoscie
nceworld.org/content/75/6/1152
AND www.online-keys.net/sciaroidea/2000
_/Grimaldi_2001_insect_evolution_history
.pdf
3. ^ Regier, et al, "Pancrustacean
phylogeny: hexapods are terrestrial
crustaceans and maxillopods are not
monophyletic", Proc Biol Sci. 2005
February 22; 272(1561): 395–401.
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/272/1561/395
4. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=pteryg
ota&submit=Submit
5. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael S.
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005,
p148. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Ql6Jl6wKb88C&pg=PA157
6. ^ Grimaldi, D. 2001. Insect
evolutionary history from Handlirsch to
Hennig, and beyond. Journal of
Paleontology
75:1152-1160. http://jpaleontol.geoscie
nceworld.org/content/75/6/1152
AND www.online-keys.net/sciaroidea/2000
_/Grimaldi_2001_insect_evolution_history
.pdf
7. ^ Regier, et al, "Pancrustacean
phylogeny: hexapods are terrestrial
crustaceans and maxillopods are not
monophyletic", Proc Biol Sci. 2005
February 22; 272(1561): 395–401.
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/272/1561/395
8. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=pteryg
ota&submit=Submit
9. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael S.
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005,
p148. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Ql6Jl6wKb88C&pg=PA157
10. ^ Grimaldi, D. 2001. Insect
evolutionary history from Handlirsch to
Hennig, and beyond. Journal of
Paleontology
75:1152-1160. http://jpaleontol.geoscie
nceworld.org/content/75/6/1152
AND www.online-keys.net/sciaroidea/2000
_/Grimaldi_2001_insect_evolution_history
.pdf
11. ^ Regier, et al, "Pancrustacean
phylogeny: hexapods are terrestrial
crustaceans and maxillopods are not
monophyletic", Proc Biol Sci. 2005
February 22; 272(1561): 395–401.
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/272/1561/395
12. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=pteryg
ota&submit=Submit
13. ^ "Ephemeroptera." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 02 Jan. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ephemeropte
ra-1
14. ^ "Odonata." McGraw-Hill Dictionary
of Scientific and Technical Terms.
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003.
Answers.com 02 Jan. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/odonata-1
15. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael S.
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005,
p148-148. http://books.google.com/books
?id=Ql6Jl6wKb88C&pg=PA157
16. ^ Grimaldi, D. 2001. Insect
evolutionary history from Handlirsch to
Hennig, and beyond. Journal of
Paleontology
75:1152-1160. http://jpaleontol.geoscie
nceworld.org/content/75/6/1152
AND www.online-keys.net/sciaroidea/2000
_/Grimaldi_2001_insect_evolution_history
.pdf
17. ^ Regier, et al, "Pancrustacean
phylogeny: hexapods are terrestrial
crustaceans and maxillopods are not
monophyletic", Proc Biol Sci. 2005
February 22; 272(1561): 395–401.
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/272/1561/395
18. ^
http://www.cals.ncsu.edu/course/ent425/t
ext02/pterygota.html
19. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael S.
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005,
p148. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Ql6Jl6wKb88C&pg=PA157
20. ^ Belayeva, "History of Insects"
2002, p81.
21. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael
S. Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005,
p155. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Ql6Jl6wKb88C&pg=PA155
22. ^ Knecht, R. J., Engel, M. S., &
Benner, J. S. (2011). Late
carboniferous paleoichnology reveals
the oldest full-body impression of a
flying insect. Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences , 108
(16),
6515-6519. http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pn
as.1015948108
23. ^ Prokop J, Nel A, Hoch I (2005)
Discovery of the oldest known Pterygota
in the Lower Carboniferous of the
Upper Silesian Basin in the Czech
Republic (Insecta:
Archaeorthoptera). Geobios
38:383–387. http://www.sciencedirect.
com/science/article/pii/S001669950500028
8
24. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of
the Insects", 2005, p146
25. ^ David A.
Grimaldi, Michael S. Engel, "Evolution
of the Insects", 2005,
p163. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Ql6Jl6wKb88C&pg=PA163
26. ^ Palmer, et al., "Prehistoric
Life", 2009, p142.
27. ^ Prokop J, Nel A,
Hoch I (2005) Discovery of the oldest
known Pterygota in the
Lower Carboniferous of the Upper
Silesian Basin in the Czech Republic
(Insecta: Archaeorthoptera). Geobios
38:383–387. http://www.sciencedirect.
com/science/article/pii/S001669950500028
8 {324 MYBN}
28. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm {315 MYBN}
29. ^ Regier, et al,
"Pancrustacean phylogeny: hexapods are
terrestrial crustaceans and maxillopods
are not monophyletic", Proc Biol Sci.
2005 February 22; 272(1561): 395–401.
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/272/1561/395
30. ^ Palmer, et al., "Prehistoric
Life", 2009, p142.

MORE INFO
[1] Engel MS, Grimaldi DA (2004)
New light shed on the oldest insect.
Nature 427: 627–630
[2] Grimaldi D, Engel MS (2005)
Evolution of the Insects (Cambridge
Univ. Press, Cambridge)
[3] Prokop J, Nel A, Hoch I
(2005) Discovery of the oldest known
Pterygota in the Lower Carboniferous
of the Upper Silesian Basin in the
Czech Republic (Insecta:
Archoaeorthoptera). Geobios
38:383–387. http://www.sciencedirect.
com/science/article/pii/S001669950500028
8
[4] "Orthoptera." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 27 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/orthoptera-
1
[5] David A. Grimaldi, Michael S.
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005,
p159. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Ql6Jl6wKb88C&pg=PA159
earliest fossils: (Wamsutta Formation)
southeastern Massachusetts22 and Upper
Silesian Basin, Czech Republic23  
[1] English: A female subimago of March
Brown (Rhithrogena germanica) of family
Heptageniidae. Mayflies are insects
which belong to the Order Ephemeroptera
(from the Greek ephemeros, short-lived
and pteron, wing, referring to the
short life span of adults). They have
been placed into an ancient group of
insects termed the Paleoptera, which
also contains the dragonflies and
damselflies. They are aquatic insects
whose immature stage (called naiad or,
colloquially, nymph) usually lasts one
year in fresh water. The rests on Rough
Horsetail or Scouringrush Horsetail
(Equisetum hyemale) Date 8 January
2008 Source Own work Author Richard
Bartz, Munich aka Makro Freak
Image:MFB.jpg CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/49/Rhithrogena_germanica
_subimago_on_Equisetum_hyemale.jpg

[2] FIGURE 2—Preliminary hypothesis
of phylogenetic relationships among
major and interesting groups of living
and extinct hexapods and
basal pterygote Insecta. Numbers refer
to synapomorphies (see Table 1); empty
boxes are homoplasious synapomorphies.
Some significant fossils
are-CSCO-3h--F3.large denoted by
circled letters (see Table 2), but many
fossils are not listed for most groups.
Thick lines indicate the approximate
chronology of lineages. The number of
lineages depicted for paraphyletic
lineages
(‘‘Protodonata,’’‘‘Protortho
ptera,’’ Blattaria [Blattoptera])
are arbitrary, and simply indicate
multiple, unresolved lineages. The
names of orders with freshwater aquatic
larvae are shaded (a presumed ancestral
habit). Relationships are based on
Kristensen (1975, 1991, 1999), Willmann
(1997, 1999), Grimaldi (1997, for
Dictyoptera), Engel and Grimaldi (2000,
Zoraptera and related orders), and
others. Figure 2 from: Grimaldi, D.
2001. Insect evolutionary history from
Handlirsch to Hennig, and beyond.
Journal of Paleontology
75:1152-1160. http://jpaleontol.geoscie
nceworld.org/content/75/6/1152
AND www.online-keys.net/sciaroidea/2000
_/Grimaldi_2001_insect_evolution_history
.pdf COPYRIGHTED
source: www.online-keys.net/sciaroidea/2
000_/Grimaldi_2001_insect_evolution_hist
ory.pdf
375,000,000 YBN
12 13 14 15 16 		380) The first tetrapods (Vertebrates
with four feet) evolve in fresh water.8
 These are the first vertebrate limbs
(arms and legs) and fingers.9 This is
also the first amphibian, the ancestor
of caecillians, frogs, toads, and
salamanders.10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p302-329.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004), p302-329.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p302-329.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p302-329.
8. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004), p302-329.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p302-329.
11. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p302-329.
12. ^ S. Blair Hedges,
"The origin and evolution of model
organisms", Nature Reviews Genetics 3,
838-849 (November
2002) http://www.nature.com/nrg/journal
/v3/n11/full/nrg929.html {Hedges_2002.p
df} {375(360+-15) mybn}
13. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004), p302-329. {340 mybn}
14. ^ P. E.
Ahlberg, "Tetrapod or near-tetrapod
fossils from the Upper Devonian of
Scotland", Nature 354, 298 - 301 (28
November
1991) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v354/n6351/abs/354298a0.html {368
mybn (fossil}
15. ^
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/vertebrates
/tetrapods/amphibfr.html {368 mybn
(fossil}
16. ^
http://palaeo.gly.bris.ac.uk/Palaeofiles
/Fossilgroups/Amphibia/fossilrecord.html
 {368 mybn (fossil}
Fresh water, Greenland (on the
equator)11  
[1] Timeline of phylogeny of animals,
figure 6 from: S. Blair Hedges, ''The
origin and evolution of model
organisms'', Nature Reviews Genetics 3,
838-849 (November
2002) http://www.nature.com/nrg/journal
/v3/n11/full/nrg929.html {Hedges_2002.p
df} a) The relationships and
divergence times (millions of years ago
(Mya) plusminus one standard error) of
selected model animals are shown, based
on recent multigene and multiprotein
studies51, 61, 84. The fossil
divergence time of birds and mammals
(310 Mya) was used to calibrate the
molecular clock. Branch lengths are not
proportional to time. b ) The
relationships and numbers of living
species, from a diversity of sources in
most of the main groups. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nrg/journa
l/v3/n11/images/nrg929-f6.jpg

[2] Reconstructions of (a)
Acanthostega and (b) Ichthyostega, from
Benton, 1997. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://palaeo.gly.bris.ac.uk/Pal
aeofiles/Fossilgroups/Amphibia/amphibpic
s/ichthyostega.jpg
367,000,000 YBN
3 4 		408) The late Devonian mass extinction
caused by an ice age.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
2. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
3. ^ David Jablonski and W. G.
Chaloner,"Extinctions in the Fossil
Record (and Discussion)", Philosophical
Transactions: Biological Sciences, Vol.
344, No. 1307, Estimating Extinction
Rates: Sir Joseph Banks Anniversary
Meeting (Apr. 29, 1994), pp.
11-17. http://www.jstor.org/stable/5614
8 {367 mybn}
4. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm {360 mybn}

MORE INFO
[1] David Jablonski, "Lessons
from the Past: Evolutionary Impacts of
Mass Extinctions", Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the
United States of America, Vol. 98, No.
10 (May 8, 2001), pp.
5393-5398. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
3055638
 
[1] Description English: Antarctica:
The blue ice covering Lake Fryxell, in
the Transantarctic Mountains, comes
from glacial meltwater from the Canada
Glacier and other smaller glaciers. The
freshwater stays on top of the lake and
freezes, sealing in briny water
below. http://photolibrary.usap.gov/Por
tscripts/PortWeb.dll?query&field1=Filena
me&op1=matches&value=LakeFryxell.jpg&cat
alog=Antarctica&template=ShowMidThumbs
Français : Antarctique: La glace bleue
couvrant le Lac Fryxell, dans la
Chaîne Transantarctique, vient des
eaux de fonte du Glacier Canada et
d'autres glaciers plus petits. L'eau
fraîche se trouve au sommet du lac et
gèle, scellant une eau saumâtre
située en-dessous. Date 10 December
2002 Source From Antarctic Photo
Library: LAKEFRYXELL.JPG Author Joe
Mastroianni, National Science
Foundation PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Fryxellsee_Opt.
jpg/1280px-Fryxellsee_Opt.jpg

[2] Description Deutsch: Der Vulkan
Mount Erebus, Antarktika. English:
Mount Erebus, Ross Island,
Antarctica. Español: Monte Erebus,
Isla Ross,Antártida Français : Le
mont Erebus, île de Ross,
Antarctique. Türkçe: Erebus Dağı,
Antarktika Русский:
Вулкан Эребус,
Антарктида Date
1972 Source U.S. Geological Survey
(USGS) Author Richard Waitt, U.S.
Geological Survey Permission (Reusing
this file) PD-US Other versions
Image:Mt Erebus (original).jpg PD

source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/4e/Mt_erebus.jpg
363,000,000 YBN
6 7 		379) The first vertebrates live on land
(an amphibian).4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p302-329.
2. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p302-329.
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p302-329.
4. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p302-329.
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p302-329.
6. ^
http://palaeo.gly.bris.ac.uk/Palaeofiles
/Fossilgroups/Amphibia/fossilrecord.html
 {363mybn}
7. ^
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/vertebrates
/tetrapods/tetrafr.html {360mybn}

MORE INFO
[1] P. E. Ahlberg, "Tetrapod or
near-tetrapod fossils from the Upper
Devonian of Scotland", Nature 354, 298
- 301 (28 November
1991) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v354/n6351/abs/354298a0.html
[2]
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/vertebrates
/tetrapods/amphibfr.html
Fresh water, Greenland (on the
equator)5  
[1] Yes, it's time for the Palaeozoic
scenes of Life before Man. Or some of
them, anyway - if you really want to
see a load of trilobites, you're
probably Richard Fortey, and I will
ignore any comments that claim
otherwise. (Also, I can't include
everything - otherwise we'd have to
rename this blog Love in the Time of
Burian, which sounds a bit rubbish.) My
bias is most definitely towards
vertebrates and, in particular,
tetrapods, and the below scene -
featuring Ichthyostega - marks their
first appearance in the book. This
painting is perhaps unique in this book
as it combines the elements of the
animal-free landscapes with, well, some
animals. Burian's skill is in making
this scene, filled as it is with flora
so utterly different to what we are
accustomed to seeing today, look as if
he just took a casual stroll out into
the country to paint it. UNKNOWN
source: http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-Zdvegv
1Fny4/UCk-Z929irI/AAAAAAAABM8/_7c21BO7T1
s/s1600/Ichthyostega.jpg

[2] Timeline of phylogeny of animals,
figure 6 from: S. Blair Hedges, ''The
origin and evolution of model
organisms'', Nature Reviews Genetics 3,
838-849 (November
2002) http://www.nature.com/nrg/journal
/v3/n11/full/nrg929.html {Hedges_2002.p
df} a) The relationships and
divergence times (millions of years ago
(Mya) plusminus one standard error) of
selected model animals are shown, based
on recent multigene and multiprotein
studies51, 61, 84. The fossil
divergence time of birds and mammals
(310 Mya) was used to calibrate the
molecular clock. Branch lengths are not
proportional to time. b ) The
relationships and numbers of living
species, from a diversity of sources in
most of the main groups. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nrg/journa
l/v3/n11/images/nrg929-f6.jpg
360,000,000 YBN
26 27 28 29 30 		226) The second largest Fungi phylum,
"Basidiomycota" {Bo-SiDEO-mI-KO-Tu15 }
evolves (the ancestor of many
mushrooms: button, chanterelle
{saNTRreL16 }, cremini {KremENE17 },
enoki {inoKE18 }, fly agaric {uGaRiK19
}, oyster, porcino {PORCEnO 20 },
portabella, psilocybe, puffball,
shiitake {sEToKE21 }, woodear, rusts,
and club fungi).22 23 24
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=basidi
omycota&submit=Submit
2. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
3. ^ S.
Blair Hedges, "The Origin and Evolution
of Model Organisms", Nature Reviews
Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
4. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
5. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=basidi
omycota&submit=Submit
6. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=chante
relle&submit=Submit
7. ^ "cremini." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 04 Jan.
2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cremini
8. ^ "enoki?s=t". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.

http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/e
noki?s=t
9. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=agaric
&submit=Submit
10. ^ "porcino." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 04
Jan. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/porcino
11. ^ "shiitake." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 04
Jan. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/shiitake
12. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
13. ^ S.
Blair Hedges, "The Origin and Evolution
of Model Organisms", Nature Reviews
Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
14. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
15. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=basidi
omycota&submit=Submit
16. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=chante
relle&submit=Submit
17. ^ "cremini." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 04
Jan. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cremini
18. ^ "enoki?s=t". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.

http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/e
noki?s=t
19. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=agaric
&submit=Submit
20. ^ "porcino." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 04
Jan. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/porcino
21. ^ "shiitake." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 04
Jan. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/shiitake
22. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
23. ^ S.
Blair Hedges, "The Origin and Evolution
of Model Organisms", Nature Reviews
Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
24. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
25. ^ Stubblefield SP, Taylor TN, Beck
CB (1985) Studies of Paleozoic fungi.
V. Wood-decaying fungi in Callixylon
newberryi from the Upper Devonian. Am
J Bot
72:1765–1774 http://paleobotany.bio.k
u.edu/taylorPDFs%5C%5B1985%5D%20Stubblef
ield%20et%20al.-Wood%20decaying%20fungi%
20in%20Callixylon%20newberryi%20from%20t
he%20Upper%20Devonian.pdf
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/2443734

26. ^ Stubblefield SP, Taylor TN, Beck
CB (1985) Studies of Paleozoic fungi.
V. Wood-decaying fungi in Callixylon
newberryi from the Upper Devonian. Am
J Bot
72:1765–1774 http://paleobotany.bio.k
u.edu/taylorPDFs%5C%5B1985%5D%20Stubblef
ield%20et%20al.-Wood%20decaying%20fungi%
20in%20Callixylon%20newberryi%20from%20t
he%20Upper%20Devonian.pdf
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/2443734

27. ^ Michael Krings, Nora Dotzler,
Jean Galtier and Thomas N. Taylor,
"Oldest fossil basidiomycete clamp
connections", Mycoscience, Volume 52,
Number 1 (2011), 18-23, DOI:
10.1007/s10267-010-0065-4 http://www.sp
ringerlink.com/content/725614321xj0604w/

28. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
(968my)
29. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The Origin and
Evolution of Model Organisms", Nature
Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849 (2002);
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002). (1210my)
30. ^
Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004). (700my)

MORE INFO
[1] "Basidiomycota". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basidiomyco
ta
[2] McLAUGHLIN, DAVID J., ALAN BECKETT,
and KWON S. YOON. “Ultrastructure and
Evolution of Ballistosporic
Basidiospores.” Botanical Journal of
the Linnean Society 91.1-2 (1985):
253–271. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.c
om/doi/10.1111/j.1095-8339.1985.tb01149.
x/abstract
earliest fossils: Indiana25  
[1] Amanita muscaria
(Homobasidiomycetes)
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Agaricales.jpg

[2] Basidiomycete Life Cycle tjv
source: http://botit.botany.wisc.edu/ima
ges/332/Basidiomycota/General_basidio/Ba
sidiomycete_Life_Cycle_tjv.php?highres=t
rue
360,000,000 YBN
7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 		6353) The Neoptera, folding wing
insects evolve.3

A mechanism to fold the wings against
the body after landing has a selective
advantage by making the wings less
conspicuous, awkward, and susceptible
to breakage.4

All "higher" orders of insects evolve
from the neoptera.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Grimaldi, D. 2001. Insect
evolutionary history from Handlirsch to
Hennig, and beyond. Journal of
Paleontology
75:1152-1160. http://jpaleontol.geoscie
nceworld.org/content/75/6/1152
AND www.online-keys.net/sciaroidea/2000
_/Grimaldi_2001_insect_evolution_history
.pdf
2. ^ Grimaldi, D. 2001. Insect
evolutionary history from Handlirsch to
Hennig, and beyond. Journal of
Paleontology
75:1152-1160. http://jpaleontol.geoscie
nceworld.org/content/75/6/1152
AND www.online-keys.net/sciaroidea/2000
_/Grimaldi_2001_insect_evolution_history
.pdf
3. ^ Grimaldi, D. 2001. Insect
evolutionary history from Handlirsch to
Hennig, and beyond. Journal of
Paleontology
75:1152-1160. http://jpaleontol.geoscie
nceworld.org/content/75/6/1152
AND www.online-keys.net/sciaroidea/2000
_/Grimaldi_2001_insect_evolution_history
.pdf
4. ^
http://www.cals.ncsu.edu/course/ent425/t
ext02/pterygota.html
5. ^
http://www.cals.ncsu.edu/course/ent425/t
ext02/pterygota.html
6. ^ Garwood, Russell, and Mark Sutton.
“X-ray Micro-tomography of
Carboniferous stem-Dictyoptera: New
Insights into Early Insects.” Biology
Letters 6.5 (2010): 699 –702.
Print. http://rsbl.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/6/5/699.full
7. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of the
Insects", 2005, p146.
8. ^ David A.
Grimaldi, Michael S. Engel, "Evolution
of the Insects", 2005,
p191. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Ql6Jl6wKb88C&pg=PA191
9. ^ Gaunt et al., "An insect molecular
clock dates the origin of the insects
and accords with palaeontological and
biogeographic landmarks.", Mol Biol
Evol,
2002. http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/con
tent/19/5/748.full.pdf {Gaunt_Insects_2
002.pdf}
10. ^ Palmer, et al, "Prehistoric
Life", 2009, p143.
11. ^ Prokop J, Nel A,
Hoch I (2005) Discovery of the oldest
known Pterygota in the
Lower Carboniferous of the Upper
Silesian Basin in the Czech Republic
(Insecta: Archaeorthoptera). Geobios
38:383–387. http://www.sciencedirect.
com/science/article/pii/S001669950500028
8 {324 MYBN}
12. ^ Grimaldi, D. 2001. Insect
evolutionary history from Handlirsch to
Hennig, and beyond. Journal of
Paleontology
75:1152-1160. http://jpaleontol.geoscie
nceworld.org/content/75/6/1152
AND www.online-keys.net/sciaroidea/2000
_/Grimaldi_2001_insect_evolution_history
.pdf
13. ^ Regier, et al, "Pancrustacean
phylogeny: hexapods are terrestrial
crustaceans and maxillopods are not
monophyletic", Proc Biol Sci. 2005
February 22; 272(1561): 395–401.
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/272/1561/395
14. ^ Garwood, Russell, and Mark
Sutton. “X-ray Micro-tomography of
Carboniferous stem-Dictyoptera: New
Insights into Early Insects.” Biology
Letters 6.5 (2010): 699 –702.
Print. http://rsbl.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/6/5/699.full

MORE INFO
[1] Video: Virtual fossil of
Archimylacris eggintoni,
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yR-_nq2
UsOc
earliest fossils: (Archimylacris
eggintoni, Coseley Lagerstätte)
Staffordshire, UK6  
[1] Stonefly in the genus Dinotoperla.
Taken in Swifts Creek, Victoria in
November 2007 GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e6/Stonefly_-_dinotoperl
a.jpg

[2] Nymph of unidentified
stonefly Description Deutsch:
Steinfliegenlarve Date 16 June
2006 Source Own work Author
böhringer friedrich CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/SteinfliegenLar
ve2.JPG/1280px-SteinfliegenLarve2.JPG
359,200,000 YBN
3 		124) The end of the Devonian (416-359.2
mybn), and start of the Carboniferous
(359.2-299 mybn) Period.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ USGS "Divisions of Geologic
Time— Major Chronostratigraphic and
Geochronologic Units", July
2010. http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2010/3059
/pdf/FS10-3059.pdf
2. ^ USGS "Divisions of Geologic
Time— Major Chronostratigraphic and
Geochronologic Units", July
2010. http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2010/3059
/pdf/FS10-3059.pdf
3. ^ USGS "Divisions of Geologic
Time— Major Chronostratigraphic and
Geochronologic Units", July
2010. http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2010/3059
/pdf/FS10-3059.pdf
 
[1] Geologic Time Scale 2009 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.geosociety.org/scienc
e/timescale/timescl.pdf

[2] 370 Ma Middle Devonian UNKNOWN
source: http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~rcb7/370
_Devonian_2globes.jpg
359,000,000 YBN
30 31 		243) The first plant seed evolves; the
ancestor of all seed plants.18 19 20 21


The earliest fossil seed is from a seed
fern (Pteridosperm {TARiDOSPRM22 }).23
24 25 26

Fossils indicate that the first seed
evolves from an enclosing ring of
vegetative lobes that fuse together.27

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Gillespie, William H., Gar W.
Rothwell, and Stephen E. Scheckler.
“The earliest seeds.” Nature
293.5832 (1981) :
462-464. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v293/n5832/abs/293462a0.html
2. ^ Henry N. Andrews, "Early Seed
Plants", Science, New Series, Vol. 142,
No. 3594 (Nov. 15, 1963), pp.
925-931. http://www.jstor.org/stable/17
11577
3. ^ A. G. Long, Trans. Royal Soc.
Edinburgh V64, 29, 201, 261 (1960);
ibid, V64, 281 (1961), V64, 401.
4. ^
"Pteridosperms." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 27 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pteridosper
ms
5. ^ Gillespie, William H., Gar W.
Rothwell, and Stephen E. Scheckler.
“The earliest seeds.” Nature
293.5832 (1981) :
462-464. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v293/n5832/abs/293462a0.html
6. ^ Henry N. Andrews, "Early Seed
Plants", Science, New Series, Vol. 142,
No. 3594 (Nov. 15, 1963), pp.
925-931. http://www.jstor.org/stable/17
11577
7. ^ A. G. Long, Trans. Royal Soc.
Edinburgh V64, 29, 201, 261 (1960);
ibid, V64, 281 (1961), V64, 401.
8. ^
"Pteridosperms." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 27 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pteridosper
ms
9. ^ Gillespie, William H., Gar W.
Rothwell, and Stephen E. Scheckler.
“The earliest seeds.” Nature
293.5832 (1981) :
462-464. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v293/n5832/abs/293462a0.html
10. ^ Henry N. Andrews, "Early Seed
Plants", Science, New Series, Vol. 142,
No. 3594 (Nov. 15, 1963), pp.
925-931. http://www.jstor.org/stable/17
11577
11. ^ A. G. Long, Trans. Royal Soc.
Edinburgh V64, 29, 201, 261 (1960);
ibid, V64, 281 (1961), V64, 401.
12. ^
"Pteridosperms." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 27 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pteridosper
ms
13. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=pterid
ospermae
14. ^ Gillespie, William H., Gar W.
Rothwell, and Stephen E. Scheckler.
“The earliest seeds.” Nature
293.5832 (1981) :
462-464. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v293/n5832/abs/293462a0.html
15. ^ Henry N. Andrews, "Early Seed
Plants", Science, New Series, Vol. 142,
No. 3594 (Nov. 15, 1963), pp.
925-931. http://www.jstor.org/stable/17
11577
16. ^ A. G. Long, Trans. Royal Soc.
Edinburgh V64, 29, 201, 261 (1960);
ibid, V64, 281 (1961), V64, 401.
17. ^
"Pteridosperms." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 27 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pteridosper
ms
18. ^ Gillespie, William H., Gar W.
Rothwell, and Stephen E. Scheckler.
“The earliest seeds.” Nature
293.5832 (1981) :
462-464. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v293/n5832/abs/293462a0.html
19. ^ Henry N. Andrews, "Early Seed
Plants", Science, New Series, Vol. 142,
No. 3594 (Nov. 15, 1963), pp.
925-931. http://www.jstor.org/stable/17
11577
20. ^ A. G. Long, Trans. Royal Soc.
Edinburgh V64, 29, 201, 261 (1960);
ibid, V64, 281 (1961), V64, 401.
21. ^
"Pteridosperms." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 27 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pteridosper
ms
22. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=pterid
ospermae
23. ^ Gillespie, William H., Gar W.
Rothwell, and Stephen E. Scheckler.
“The earliest seeds.” Nature
293.5832 (1981) :
462-464. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v293/n5832/abs/293462a0.html
24. ^ Henry N. Andrews, "Early Seed
Plants", Science, New Series, Vol. 142,
No. 3594 (Nov. 15, 1963), pp.
925-931. http://www.jstor.org/stable/17
11577
25. ^ A. G. Long, Trans. Royal Soc.
Edinburgh V64, 29, 201, 261 (1960);
ibid, V64, 281 (1961), V64, 401.
26. ^
"Pteridosperms." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 27 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pteridosper
ms
27. ^ Henry N. Andrews, "Early Seed
Plants", Science, New Series, Vol. 142,
No. 3594 (Nov. 15, 1963), pp.
925-931. http://www.jstor.org/stable/17
11577
28. ^ Henry N. Andrews, "Early Seed
Plants", Science, New Series, Vol. 142,
No. 3594 (Nov. 15, 1963), pp.
925-931. http://www.jstor.org/stable/17
11577
29. ^ "Genomosperma kidstonii."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online Academic Edition.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 27
Jul. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/229254/Genomosperma-kidstonii>.
30. ^ Henry N. Andrews, "Early Seed
Plants", Science, New Series, Vol. 142,
No. 3594 (Nov. 15, 1963), pp.
925-931. http://www.jstor.org/stable/17
11577 {359 MYBN (Lower Carboniferous}
31. ^
"Genomosperma kidstonii." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 27 Jul. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/229254/Genomosperma-kidstonii>. {359
MYBN (Lower Carboniferous}

MORE INFO
[1] "Gymnosperms". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gymnosperms

[2] Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445.,
(2004). http://www.jstor.org/stable/412
3845
[3] Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
http://www.jstor.org/stable/4123845
(c320 (360 for living species)
[4] Hwan Su
Yoon, Jeremiah D. Hackett, Claudia
Ciniglia, Gabriele Pinto and Debashish,
"A Molecular Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution, (2004). (c350
(300 for radiation)
[5] Dr. Singh, Dr. Pande & Dr.
Jain, "Diversity and Systematics of
Seed Plants",
2005. http://books.google.com/books?id=
GTUgfghg80gC
[6] Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445.,
(2004). http://www.jstor.org/stable/412
3845
earliest fossils: Scotland28 29  
[1] Henry N. Andrews, ''Early Seed
Plants'', Science, New Series, Vol.
142, No. 3594 (Nov. 15, 1963), pp.
925-931. http://www.jstor.org/stable/17
11577 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1711
577

[2] Fig. 2. Chronogram showing
estimates of phylogenetic relationships
and divergence times among the major
groups of extant land plants. The
estimate of relationships is
synthesized from the following papers
in this issue: Burleigh and Mathews
(2004) , Pryer et al. (2004) , Shaw and
Renzaglia (2004) , and Soltis and
Soltis (2004) . Divergence time
estimates are mostly based on analyses
of molecular data with fossil
constraints (Wikström et al., 2001 ;
Pryer et al., 2004 ) and are augmented
by fossil evidence (Kenrick and Crane,
1997 ; Wellman et al., 2003 ).
Estimates of the number of species in
each group are from Judd et al. (2002)
and W. S. Judd (personal
communication). Groups covered by a
particular article in this special
issue are circled and connected to the
names of the article's authors. ''Other
conifers'' refers to the clade
consisting of all conifers except for
Pinaceae (see Burleigh and Mathews,
2004 ). ''Lepto. ferns'' refers to
leptosporangiate ferns fig 2
from: Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, ''The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view'', American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
http://www.amjbot.org/content/91/10/14
37.full {Chase_Mark_2004.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.amjbot.org/content/91
/10/1437/F2.large.jpg
355,000,000 YBN
2 3 		6410) Hearing in Amphibians adapts to
sounds transmitted through the air.
This is the beginning of vertebrates
making vocal sounds.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ E G Wever and C Gans, "The
caecilian ear: further observations",
PNAS 1976 73 (10)
3744-3746. http://www.pnas.org/content/
73/10/3744.abstract
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). {325 MYBN}
3. ^ Roelants, K.,
Gower, D. J., Wilkinson, M., Loader, S.
P., Biju, S. D., Guillaume, K., Moriau,
L., & Bossuyt, F. (2007). Global
patterns of diversification in the
history of modern amphibians.
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences , 104 (3), 887-892. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.060837810
4 {370 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Andrea E. Feller, S. Blair
Hedges, Molecular Evidence for the
Early History of Living Amphibians,
Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution,
Volume 9, Issue 3, June 1998, Pages
509-516, ISSN 1055-7903, DOI:
10.1006/mpev.1998.0500. (http://www.sci
encedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1055
790398905000)
[2]
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=47210
[3] Peter M. Narins, Albert S. Feng,
Richard R. Fay and Arthur N. Popper,
"Hearing and Sound Communication in
Amphibians", Springer Handbook of
Auditory Research, Volume 28, 2006,
DOI:
10.1007/978-0-387-47796-1 http://www.sp
ringer.com/life+sciences/animal+sciences
/book/978-0-387-32521-7
 
[1] Figure 6.2 from: Peter M. Narins,
Albert S. Feng, Richard R. Fay and
Arthur N. Popper, ''Hearing and Sound
Communication in Amphibians'', Springer
Handbook of Auditory Research, Volume
28, 2006, DOI:
10.1007/978-0-387-47796-1 http://www.sp
ringerlink.com/content/l637813537l70704/
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.springerlink.com/cont
ent/l637813537l70704/

[2] Description Eocaecilia
micropodia, an early caecilian from the
Lower Jurassic of Arizona, pencil
drawing Date 22 August
2007 Source Own work Author
Nobu Tamura
email:nobu.tamura@yahoo.com
www.palaeocritti.com Permission (Reusi
ng this file) See below. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/27/Eocaecilia_BW.jpg
350,000,000 YBN
4 		361) The Ray-finned fishes, Sturgeons
and Paddlefish evolve.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004). {350 MYBN}
 
[1] Adapted from: Richard Dawkins,
''The Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p339. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p339.

[2] Adapted from: Richard Dawkins,
''The Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p339. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p339.
350,000,000 YBN
10 11 12 13 14 15 		6355) The Neoptera: Dictyoptera
{DiKTEoPTRu7 } evolve (the ancestor of
Cockroaches, Termites, and Mantises).8
9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=dictyo
ptera&submit=Submit
2. ^ Palmer, et al, "Prehistoric Life",
2009, p143.
3. ^ Grimaldi, D. 2001. Insect
evolutionary history from Handlirsch to
Hennig, and beyond. Journal of
Paleontology
75:1152-1160. http://jpaleontol.geoscie
nceworld.org/content/75/6/1152
AND www.online-keys.net/sciaroidea/2000
_/Grimaldi_2001_insect_evolution_history
.pdf
4. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=dictyo
ptera&submit=Submit
5. ^ Palmer, et al, "Prehistoric Life",
2009, p143.
6. ^ Grimaldi, D. 2001. Insect
evolutionary history from Handlirsch to
Hennig, and beyond. Journal of
Paleontology
75:1152-1160. http://jpaleontol.geoscie
nceworld.org/content/75/6/1152
AND www.online-keys.net/sciaroidea/2000
_/Grimaldi_2001_insect_evolution_history
.pdf
7. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=dictyo
ptera&submit=Submit
8. ^ Palmer, et al, "Prehistoric Life",
2009, p143.
9. ^ Grimaldi, D. 2001. Insect
evolutionary history from Handlirsch to
Hennig, and beyond. Journal of
Paleontology
75:1152-1160. http://jpaleontol.geoscie
nceworld.org/content/75/6/1152
AND www.online-keys.net/sciaroidea/2000
_/Grimaldi_2001_insect_evolution_history
.pdf
10. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of
the Insects", 2005, p146.
11. ^ David A.
Grimaldi, Michael S. Engel, "Evolution
of the Insects", 2005,
p191. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Ql6Jl6wKb88C&pg=PA191
12. ^ Palmer, et al, "Prehistoric
Life", 2009, p143.
13. ^ Prokop J, Nel A,
Hoch I (2005) Discovery of the oldest
known Pterygota in the
Lower Carboniferous of the Upper
Silesian Basin in the Czech Republic
(Insecta: Archaeorthoptera). Geobios
38:383–387. http://www.sciencedirect.
com/science/article/pii/S001669950500028
8 {324 MYBN}
14. ^ Gaunt et al., "An insect
molecular clock dates the origin of the
insects and accords with
palaeontological and biogeographic
landmarks.", Mol Biol Evol,
2002. http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/con
tent/19/5/748.full.pdf {Gaunt_Insects_2
002.pdf}
15. ^ Palmer, et al, "Prehistoric
Life", 2009, p283.

MORE INFO
[1] "orthopteran". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 06 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/433540/orthopteran/39576/Evoluti
on-and-paleontology>
 
[1] Description English: Juvenile,
Madagascar hissing cockroach at the
Atlanta Botanical Garden. Taken
9/23/2007. Date 25 September 2007
(original upload date) Source
Transferred from en.wikipedia;
transferred to Commons by
User:Sreejithk2000 using
CommonsHelper. Author Original
uploader was Almabes at
en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) Released into the public
domain (by the author). Other versions
Derivative works of this file:
Female Madagascar hissing
cockroach2.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/46/Female_Madagascar_his
sing_cockroach.JPG

[2] Figure 4.11. German Cockroaches,
Various Stages and Ages PD
source: http://www.cdc.gov/nceh/publicat
ions/books/housing/Graphics/chapter_04/F
igure4.11.jpg
340,000,000 YBN
24 25 26 27 28 29 30 		384) The first hard-shell egg.14 The
Tetrapods Amniota {aMnEOtu15 } evolve;
the ancestor of all reptiles, mammals
and birds and the first hard-shell
egg.16 The hard-shell egg is
waterproof.17 This is the start of
vertebrate internal fertilization,
because on land the egg cannot be
fertilized as most fishes and
amphibians do, by a male swimming near
the eggs and spraying them with sperm.
Amniote males and females must copulate
{KoPYelAT18 } so that the sperm can
reach the eggs inside the female.19

All living amniotes lay hard-shelled
eggs, except most mammals and some
snakes and lizards, where egg laying
has been replaced by live birth.20

The egg shell of amniotes may be
flexible (like the eggs of many
lizards) or mineralized and hard (like
the eggs of birds).21
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=am
niota&submit=Submit
3. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=50568&tree=0.1
4. ^ Prothero, "Evolution What the
Fossils Say and Why It Matters", 2007,
p234.
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
6. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=am
niota&submit=Submit
7. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=50568&tree=0.1
8. ^ Prothero, "Evolution What the
Fossils Say and Why It Matters", 2007,
p234.
9. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
10. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=am
niota&submit=Submit
11. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=50568&tree=0.1
12. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
13. ^ Prothero, "Evolution
What the Fossils Say and Why It
Matters", 2007, p234.
14. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
15. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=am
niota&submit=Submit
16. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=50568&tree=0.1
17. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
18. ^ "copulate." The American
Heritage� Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 03
Jan. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/copulate
19. ^ Prothero, "Evolution What the
Fossils Say and Why It Matters", 2007,
p234.
20. ^ Benton MJ, 2010 Studying Function
and Behavior in the Fossil Record. PLoS
Biol 8(3): e1000321.
doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.1000321
21. ^ Palmer et al, "Primitive Life",
2009, p163.
22. ^ T. R. Smithson, "The
earliest known reptile", Nature 342,
676 - 678 (07 December
1989). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v342/n6250/abs/342676a0.html
23. ^ JOHN NOBLE WILFORD, "Oldest
Reptile Fossil Reported Found in
Scotland", NY Times, Nov 17,
1988. http://www.nytimes.com/1988/11/17
/us/oldest-reptile-fossil-reported-found
-in-scotland.html
24. ^ Prothero, "Evolution What the
Fossils Say and Why It Matters", 2007,
p232.
25. ^ T. R. Smithson, "The earliest
known reptile", Nature 342, 676 - 678
(07 December
1989). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v342/n6250/abs/342676a0.html {338
MYBN (oldest reptil fossil}
26. ^ JOHN NOBLE
WILFORD, "Oldest Reptile Fossil
Reported Found in Scotland", NY Times,
Nov 17,
1988. http://www.nytimes.com/1988/11/17
/us/oldest-reptile-fossil-reported-found
-in-scotland.html {338 MYBN (oldest
reptil fossil}
27. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). {310 MYBN}
28. ^
"Eryops". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eryops
{295 MYBN (verify}
29. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "Time
Tree", 2009.
30. ^ Benton, Michael J., and
Philip C. J. Donoghue.
“Paleontological Evidence to Date the
Tree of Life.” Molecular Biology and
Evolution 24.1 (2007): 26 -53.
Print. http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/24/1/26.abstract

MORE INFO
[1] Romer, Alfred Sherwood,
Price, Llewellyn Ivor, "The oldest
vertebrate egg", Am J Sci 1939 237:
826-829. http://www.ajsonline.org/cgi/c
ontent/abstract/237/11/826?maxtoshow=&hi
ts=10&RESULTFORMAT=1&title=The+oldest+ve
rtebrate+egg&andorexacttitle=and&andorex
acttitleabs=and&andorexactfulltext=and&s
earchid=1&FIRSTINDEX=0&sortspec=relevanc
e&resourcetype=HWCIT
[2] Karl F. Hirsch, "The Oldest
Vertebrate Egg?", Journal of
Paleontology, Vol. 53, No. 5 (Sep.,
1979), pp.
1068-1084. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
1304086
[3] Robert R. Reisz, Johannes Müller,
Molecular timescales and the fossil
record: a paleontological perspective,
Trends in Genetics, Volume 20, Issue 5,
1 May 2004, Pages 237-241, ISSN
0168-9525,
10.1016/j.tig.2004.03.007. (http://www.
sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0
168952504000757)
[4] "fenestrae." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 08 Jul.
2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/f
enestrae>
[5] "orbit." Dictionary.com Unabridged.
Random House, Inc. 08 Jul. 2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/o
rbit>
earliest fossils: Bathgate, West
Lothian, Scotland22 23  
[1] Figure 2 from: [t Note that this
egg is only of Permian age: 299-251
mybn] Karl F. Hirsch, ''The Oldest
Vertebrate Egg?'', Journal of
Paleontology, Vol. 53, No. 5 (Sep.,
1979), pp.
1068-1084. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
1304086 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1304
086

[2] Prothero, ''Bringing Fossils To
Life'', 2004. COPYRIGHTED
source: Prothero, "Bringing Fossils To
Life", 2004. COPYRIGHTED
335,000,000 YBN
15 16 		6331) The Amniota divide into the
Sauropsida {SOR-roP-SiDu9 } and the
Synapsida {Si-naP-Si-Du10 }.11

The Sauropsids have two major lineages:
the Parareptilia (turtles) and the
Eureptilia (dinosaurs, crocodiles and
birds).12 The Synapsids also have two
major lineages: the pelycosaurs (which
are sail-backed amniotes) and the
therapsids (which are mammal-like
amniotes).13
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=saurop
sida&submit=Submit
2. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=synaps
ida&submit=Submit
3. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002,
p108.
4. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=saurop
sida&submit=Submit
5. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=synaps
ida&submit=Submit
6. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002,
p108.
7. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002,
p108-109.
8. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002,
p119.
9. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=saurop
sida&submit=Submit
10. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=synaps
ida&submit=Submit
11. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002,
p108.
12. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002,
p108-109.
13. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002,
p119.
14. ^ Carroll, R.L., 1964, The ear1iest
reptiles: Jour. Linn. Soc (Zool.), v.
45, p.
61-83. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/d
oi/10.1111/j.1096-3642.1964.tb00488.x/ab
stract
15. ^ Prothero, "Evolution What the
Fossils Say and Why It Matters", 2007,
p232.
16. ^ Benton, Michael J., and Philip C.
J. Donoghue. “Paleontological
Evidence to Date the Tree of Life.”
Molecular Biology and Evolution 24.1
(2007): 26 -53.
Print. http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/24/1/26.abstract

MORE INFO
[1] Prothero, "Evolution What the
Fossils Say and Why It Matters", 2007,
p271
[2] Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p263
[3] Reisz RR.
Pelycosaurian reptiles from the Middle
Pennsylvanian of North America. Bull
Mus Comp Zool Harv
1972;144:27-62. http://digitool.library
.mcgill.ca/R/?func=dbin-jump-full&object
_id=47789&local_base=GEN01-MCG02
[4] "reptile." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 27 Jul.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/reptile
earliest possible Synapsid fossils:
(Cumberland group, Joggins formation)
Joggins, Nova Scotia, Canada14  
[1] Prothero, ''Evolution What the
Fossils Say and Why It Matters'', 2007,
p232. COPYRIGHTED
source: Prothero, "Evolution What the
Fossils Say and Why It Matters", 2007,
p232.

[2] Prothero, ''Bringing Fossils To
Life'', 2004. COPYRIGHTED
source: Prothero, "Bringing Fossils To
Life", 2004. COPYRIGHTED
330,000,000 YBN
7 		6307) The Synapsids Pelycosauria
{PeLiKuSOREu4 } evolve (the ancestor of
Edaphosaurus {eDaFoSORuS5 } and
Dimetrodon).6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Pelycosaur." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 10 Jun.
2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/P
elycosaur>.
2. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=edapho
saurus&submit=Submit
3. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002,
p119-122.
4. ^ "Pelycosaur." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 10 Jun.
2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/P
elycosaur>.
5. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=edapho
saurus&submit=Submit
6. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002,
p119-122.
7. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002,
p119-122.
 
[1] Description This just might be
a depiction of Edaphosaurus pogonias,
to make a guess from the title. If you
know more about this image, please
place a good description here. Date
2007-04-30 (original upload
date) Source Originally from
ru.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. Author Original uploader
was ДиБгд at
ru.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) This image is in the public
domain; PD-ART. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/7d/Edaphosaurus_pogonias
.jpg

[2] Kardong, ''Vertebrates'',
2002. COPYRIGHTED
source: Kardong, "Vertebrates",
2002. COPYRIGHTED
325,000,000 YBN
4 5 		381) The earliest extant Amphibians:
Caecilians evolve.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p302-329.
2. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p302-329.
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p302-329.
4. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). {325
MYBN}
5. ^ Roelants, K., Gower, D. J.,
Wilkinson, M., Loader, S. P., Biju, S.
D., Guillaume, K., Moriau, L., &
Bossuyt, F. (2007). Global patterns of
diversification in the history of
modern amphibians. Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences , 104 (3),
887-892. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.060837810
4 {370 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Andrea E. Feller, S. Blair
Hedges, Molecular Evidence for the
Early History of Living Amphibians,
Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution,
Volume 9, Issue 3, June 1998, Pages
509-516, ISSN 1055-7903, DOI:
10.1006/mpev.1998.0500. (http://www.sci
encedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1055
790398905000)
 
[1] Description Eocaecilia
micropodia, an early caecilian from the
Lower Jurassic of Arizona, pencil
drawing Date 22 August
2007 Source Own work Author
Nobu Tamura
email:nobu.tamura@yahoo.com
www.palaeocritti.com Permission (Reusi
ng this file) See below. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/27/Eocaecilia_BW.jpg

[2] Figure 1 from: Roelants, K.,
Gower, D. J., Wilkinson, M., Loader, S.
P., Biju, S. D., Guillaume, K., Moriau,
L., & Bossuyt, F. (2007). Global
patterns of diversification in the
history of modern amphibians.
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences , 104 (3), 887-892. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.060837810
4 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0
608378104
320,000,000 YBN
19 20 21 22 23 		238) The seed plants: Gymnosperms
evolve.10 Gymnosperms are the most
primitive extant seed plants, and
ancestor of all Cycads, Ginkgos and the
Conifers11 12 ).13 14

The most primitive extant Gymnosperms,
the Cycads evolve now.15

Gymnosperm is Greek for "Naked Seed".16
 A gymnosperm reproduces by a seed that
is in direct contact with the
environment, as opposed to an
angiosperm whose seeds are enclosed by
fruits.17 18
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "conifer." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 23 May.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/conifer
2. ^ "Pinophyta." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2012.
Answers.com 23 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pinophyta
3. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445.,
(2004). http://www.jstor.org/stable/412
3845 {Chase_Mark_2004.pdf}
4. ^ Hwan Su Yoon, Jeremiah D. Hackett,
Claudia Ciniglia, Gabriele Pinto and
Debashish, "A Molecular Timeline for
the Origin of Photosynthetic
Eukaryotes", Molecular Biology and
Evolution, (2004).
5. ^ "conifer." Britannica
Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia
Britannica, Inc., 1994-2010.
Answers.com 23 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/conifer
6. ^ "Pinophyta." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2012.
Answers.com 23 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pinophyta
7. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445.,
(2004). http://www.jstor.org/stable/412
3845 {Chase_Mark_2004.pdf}
8. ^ Hwan Su Yoon, Jeremiah D. Hackett,
Claudia Ciniglia, Gabriele Pinto and
Debashish, "A Molecular Timeline for
the Origin of Photosynthetic
Eukaryotes", Molecular Biology and
Evolution, (2004).
9. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer,
Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W. Chase,
"The plant tree of life: an overview
and some points of view", American
Journal of Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445.,
(2004). http://www.jstor.org/stable/412
3845 {Chase_Mark_2004.pdf}
10. ^ "gymnosperm." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 27
Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gymnosperm
11. ^ "spermatophyte." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 27
Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/spermatophy
te-1
12. ^ "Pteridosperms." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 27 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pteridosper
ms
13. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
http://www.jstor.org/stable/4123845 {
Chase_Mark_2004.pdf}
14. ^ Hwan Su Yoon, Jeremiah D.
Hackett, Claudia Ciniglia, Gabriele
Pinto and Debashish, "A Molecular
Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution, (2004).
15. ^ Jeffrey D.
Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W.
Chase, "The plant tree of life: an
overview and some points of view",
American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445.,
(2004). http://www.jstor.org/stable/412
3845 {Chase_Mark_2004.pdf}
16. ^ "gymnosperm." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 27
Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gymnosperm
17. ^ "gymnosperm." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 27 Jul.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gymnosperm
18. ^ "Pinophyta." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2012.
Answers.com 23 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pinophyta
19. ^ Taylor, E.L., T.N. Taylor, and M.
Krings. Paleobotany: The Biology and
Evolution of Fossil Plants. Elsevier
Science, 2008.
20. ^ Norstog K, Nicholls TJ.
1997.The biology of cycads. Ithaca, NY:
Cornell University Press.
21. ^ Pant, D.D., R.
Osborne, and Birbal Sahni Institute of
Palaeobotany. An Introduction to
Gymnosperms, Cycas, and Cycadales.
Birbal Sahni Institute of Palaeobotany,
2002. BSIP
Monograph. http://books.google.com/book
s?ei=twN6UJqpA5D2qQGvhYHoAQ
22. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
http://www.jstor.org/stable/4123845 {
Chase_Mark_2004.pdf} (c320 (360 for
living species)
23. ^ Hwan Su Yoon, Jeremiah D.
Hackett, Claudia Ciniglia, Gabriele
Pinto and Debashish, "A Molecular
Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution, (2004). (c350
(300 for radiation)

MORE INFO
[1] "Gymnosperms". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gymnosperms

[2] Gillespie, William H., Gar W.
Rothwell, and Stephen E. Scheckler.
“The earliest seeds.” Nature
293.5832 (1981) :
462-464. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v293/n5832/abs/293462a0.html
[3] Henry N. Andrews, "Early Seed
Plants", Science, New Series, Vol. 142,
No. 3594 (Nov. 15, 1963), pp.
925-931. http://www.jstor.org/stable/17
11577
[4]
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Main/Overview/
3213.htm
 
[1] Fig. 2. Chronogram showing
estimates of phylogenetic relationships
and divergence times among the major
groups of extant land plants. The
estimate of relationships is
synthesized from the following papers
in this issue: Burleigh and Mathews
(2004) , Pryer et al. (2004) , Shaw and
Renzaglia (2004) , and Soltis and
Soltis (2004) . Divergence time
estimates are mostly based on analyses
of molecular data with fossil
constraints (Wikström et al., 2001 ;
Pryer et al., 2004 ) and are augmented
by fossil evidence (Kenrick and Crane,
1997 ; Wellman et al., 2003 ).
Estimates of the number of species in
each group are from Judd et al. (2002)
and W. S. Judd (personal
communication). Groups covered by a
particular article in this special
issue are circled and connected to the
names of the article's authors. ''Other
conifers'' refers to the clade
consisting of all conifers except for
Pinaceae (see Burleigh and Mathews,
2004 ). ''Lepto. ferns'' refers to
leptosporangiate ferns fig 2
from: Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, ''The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view'', American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
http://www.amjbot.org/content/91/10/14
37.full {Chase_Mark_2004.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.amjbot.org/content/91
/10/1437/F2.large.jpg

[2] Fig. 2. Chronogram showing
estimates of phylogenetic relationships
and divergence times among the major
groups of extant land plants. The
estimate of relationships is
synthesized from the following papers
in this issue: Burleigh and Mathews
(2004) , Pryer et al. (2004) , Shaw and
Renzaglia (2004) , and Soltis and
Soltis (2004) . Divergence time
estimates are mostly based on analyses
of molecular data with fossil
constraints (Wikström et al., 2001 ;
Pryer et al., 2004 ) and are augmented
by fossil evidence (Kenrick and Crane,
1997 ; Wellman et al., 2003 ).
Estimates of the number of species in
each group are from Judd et al. (2002)
and W. S. Judd (personal
communication). Groups covered by a
particular article in this special
issue are circled and connected to the
names of the article's authors. ''Other
conifers'' refers to the clade
consisting of all conifers except for
Pinaceae (see Burleigh and Mathews,
2004 ). ''Lepto. ferns'' refers to
leptosporangiate ferns fig 2
from: Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, ''The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view'', American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
http://www.amjbot.org/content/91/10/14
37.full {Chase_Mark_2004.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.amjbot.org/content/91
/10/1437/F2.large.jpg
320,000,000 YBN
4 5 6 		6356) The Neoptera: Orthoptera evolve
(the ancestor of crickets,
grasshoppers, locusts, and walking
sticks).3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael S.
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005,
p191. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Ql6Jl6wKb88C&pg=PA191
2. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael S.
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005,
p191. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Ql6Jl6wKb88C&pg=PA191
3. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael S.
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005,
p191. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Ql6Jl6wKb88C&pg=PA191
4. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael S.
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005,
p191. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Ql6Jl6wKb88C&pg=PA191
5. ^ Gaunt et al., "An insect molecular
clock dates the origin of the insects
and accords with palaeontological and
biogeographic landmarks.", Mol Biol
Evol,
2002. http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/con
tent/19/5/748.full.pdf {Gaunt_Insects_2
002.pdf}
6. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael S.
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p208.

MORE INFO
[1] "orthopteran". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 06 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/433540/orthopteran/39576/Evoluti
on-and-paleontology>
[2]
http://www.cals.ncsu.edu/course/ent425/t
ext02/orthopteroids.html#A
 
[1] African Field cricket Gryllus
bimaculatus at Bristol Zoo, Bristol,
England. Photographed by Adrian
Pingstone in February 2005 and released
to the public domain. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/2/27/African.field.c
ricket.arp.jpg/1200px-African.field.cric
ket.arp.jpg

[2] Description
grasshopper Source self
made Date unknown Author
Stephen Friedt PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/thumb/3/3c/Grasshopper_%2827%29
.JPG/1280px-Grasshopper_%2827%29.JPG
317,000,000 YBN
22 23 24 25 26 		385) The Sauropsids Reptilia
{reP-TiL-E-u10 } evolve, the Reptiles;
the ancestor of all turtles,
crocodiles, pterosaurs, dinosaurs and
birds11 .12 13

Reptiles are a group of air-breathing
amniotes with internal fertilization
and scales covering part or all of
their body.14 15 16 All reptiles are
cold-blooded, except for birds17 , and
possibly some or all pterosaurs18 and
dinosaurs19 .20
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Kardong,
"Vertebrates", 2002, p108.
4. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
5. ^ Benton, Michael J., and Philip C.
J. Donoghue. “Paleontological
Evidence to Date the Tree of Life.”
Molecular Biology and Evolution 24.1
(2007): 26 -53.
Print. http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/24/1/26.abstract
6. ^ "reptile". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 21 Jul.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/498684/reptile>.
7. ^ "reptile." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 27 Jul.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/reptile
8. ^ Palmer et al, "Primitive Life",
2009, p163.
9. ^ Douglas Palmer, "The
Marshall Illustrated Encyclopedia of
Dinosaurs and Prehistoric Animals",
1999, p59.
10. ^ "reptilia." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 30 May.
2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/r
eptilia>.
11. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002,
p108.
12. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
13. ^ Benton, Michael J., and
Philip C. J. Donoghue.
“Paleontological Evidence to Date the
Tree of Life.” Molecular Biology and
Evolution 24.1 (2007): 26 -53.
Print. http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/24/1/26.abstract
14. ^ "reptile". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 21 Jul.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/498684/reptile>.
15. ^ "reptile." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 27 Jul.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/reptile
16. ^ Palmer et al, "Primitive Life",
2009, p163.
17. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates",
2002, p110-111.
18. ^ Peter Wellnhofer,
"Pterosaurs", 1991, p163-164.
19. ^ Robert
Bakker, "The Dinosaur Heresies", 1986.
20. ^
"reptile." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 27 Jul.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/reptile
21. ^ Benton, Michael J., and Philip C.
J. Donoghue. “Paleontological
Evidence to Date the Tree of Life.”
Molecular Biology and Evolution 24.1
(2007): 26 -53.
Print. http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/24/1/26.abstract
22. ^ Prothero, "Evolution What The
Fossils Say and Why It Matters", 2009,
p232.
23. ^ T. R. Smithson, "The earliest
known reptile", Nature 342, 676 - 678
(07 December
1989). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v342/n6250/abs/342676a0.html
{338MYBN (oldest reptile fossil}
24. ^ JOHN
NOBLE WILFORD, "Oldest Reptile Fossil
Reported Found in Scotland", NY Times,
Nov 17,
1988. http://www.nytimes.com/1988/11/17
/us/oldest-reptile-fossil-reported-found
-in-scotland.html {338MYBN (oldest
reptile fossil}
25. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). {310 MYBN}
26. ^
Benton, Michael J., and Philip C. J.
Donoghue. “Paleontological Evidence
to Date the Tree of Life.” Molecular
Biology and Evolution 24.1 (2007): 26
-53.
Print. http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/24/1/26.abstract
earliest fossils: (Joggins Formation)
Nova Scotia, Canada21  
[1] from: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004), p262.
COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p262.

[2] Description English: Reptilia
(reptiles), based on:
File:Buberel cayman 3.jpg
File:Crotalus adamanteus (5).jpg
File:Karettschildkroete 01.jpg
File:Henry at Invercargill.jpg All
of them are either under a free licence
already in Wikicommons or in the public
domain Date 3/2/09 Source
Compilation made by myself Author
see respective profiles of
photos PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/67/Reptiles.jpg
314,000,000 YBN
13 14 15 16 17 		240) The Gymnosperms Pinophyta
{PInoFiTu6 } evolve (the ancestor of
the Conifers: includes Pine, Fir,
Spruce, Redwood, Cedar, Juniper,
Hemlock, Larch, Yew, and Cypress.7 8
).9 10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=pinoph
yta&submit=Submit
2. ^ "conifer." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 23 May.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/conifer
3. ^ "Pinophyta." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2012.
Answers.com 23 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pinophyta
4. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
5. ^ Hwan
Su Yoon, Jeremiah D. Hackett, Claudia
Ciniglia, Gabriele Pinto and Debashish,
"A Molecular Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution, (2004).
6. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=pinoph
yta&submit=Submit
7. ^ "conifer." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 23 May.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/conifer
8. ^ "Pinophyta." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2012.
Answers.com 23 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pinophyta
9. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
10. ^ Hwan
Su Yoon, Jeremiah D. Hackett, Claudia
Ciniglia, Gabriele Pinto and Debashish,
"A Molecular Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution, (2004).
11. ^ SCOTT,
ANDREW. “The Earliest Conifer.”
Nature 251.5477 (1974):
707–708. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v251/n5477/abs/251707a0.html
12. ^ Taylor, E.L., T.N. Taylor, and M.
Krings. Paleobotany: The Biology and
Evolution of Fossil Plants. Elsevier
Science, 2008, p806.
13. ^ SCOTT, ANDREW.
“The Earliest Conifer.” Nature
251.5477 (1974):
707–708. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v251/n5477/abs/251707a0.html
14. ^ Lyons, Paul C. et al.
“Radiometric Ages of the Fire Clay
Tonstein Pennsylvanian (Upper
Carboniferous), Westphalian,
Duckmantian. ^: A Comparison of U–Pb
Zircon Single-crystal Ages and
40Ar/39Ar Sanidine Single-crystal
Plateau Ages.” International Journal
of Coal Geology 67.4 (2006):
259–266. http://www.sciencedirect.com
/science/article/pii/S0166516206000140
15. ^ Taylor, E.L., T.N. Taylor, and M.
Krings. Paleobotany: The Biology and
Evolution of Fossil Plants. Elsevier
Science, 2008, p806.
16. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer,
Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W. Chase,
"The plant tree of life: an overview
and some points of view", American
Journal of Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445.,
(2004). http://www.amjbot.org/content/9
1/10/1437.abstract (c270 (290 for
living species)
17. ^ Hwan Su Yoon, Jeremiah D.
Hackett, Claudia Ciniglia, Gabriele
Pinto and Debashish, "A Molecular
Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution, (2004). (c350
(300 for radiation)

MORE INFO
[1] Burleigh J. G. S. Mathews
2004 Phylogenetic signal in nucleotide
data from seed plants: implications for
resolving the seed plant tree of life.
American Journal of Botany 91:
1599-1613 http://www.amjbot.org/content
/91/10/1599.abstract?ijkey=b60985db66551
09e270893676c522743d400bc1e&keytype2=tf_
ipsecsha
earliest fossils: Wakefield, Yorkshire,
England11 12  
[1] Closeup shot of a stem of needles
(perhaps Norway spruce?) by USFWS and
obtained from the GIMP photo
library. United States Federal
Government This work is in the
public domain because it is a work of
the United States Federal Government.
This applies worldwide. See
Copyright Close-up of pinophyte leaves
(needles): Norway Spruce (Picea abies)

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pin
ophyta

[2] Native Pinus sylvestris forest,
Scotland: Deeside, Mar Lodge, April
2005 GNU 1.2
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pin
aceae
310,000,000 YBN
9 10 11 12 13 14 		6357) The Neoptera: Paraneoptera evolve
(the ancestor of bark lice, true lice,
thrips, and the Hemiptera {HemiPTRu5 }.
The Hemiptera have mouthparts adapted
for piercing and sucking and include:6
Cicadas, Aphids, and "true bugs": such
as Bed bugs, and Stink bugs).7 8
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^
http://www.cals.ncsu.edu/course/ent425/t
ext02/hemipteroids.html
2. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=hemipt
era&submit=Submit
3. ^
http://www.cals.ncsu.edu/course/ent425/t
ext02/hemipteroids.html
4. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of the
Insects", 2005, p261.
5. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=hemipt
era&submit=Submit
6. ^ "true bug." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 06 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/true-bug
7. ^
http://www.cals.ncsu.edu/course/ent425/t
ext02/hemipteroids.html
8. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of the
Insects", 2005, p261.
9. ^ David A. Grimaldi,
Michael S. Engel, "Evolution of the
Insects", 2005, p146.
10. ^ Labandeira,
Conrad C. “Evidence for an Earliest
Late Carboniferous Divergence Time and
the Early Larval Ecology and
Diversification of Major Holometabola
Lineages.” Entomologica Americana
117.1 & 2 (2011):
9–21. http://www.bioone.org/doi/abs/1
0.1664/10-RA-011.1
11. ^
http://www.cals.ncsu.edu/course/ent425/t
ext02/hemipteroids.html
12. ^ Gaunt et al., "An insect
molecular clock dates the origin of the
insects and accords with
palaeontological and biogeographic
landmarks.", Mol Biol Evol,
2002. http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/con
tent/19/5/748.full.pdf {Gaunt_Insects_2
002.pdf}
13. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of
the Insects", 2005, p286.
14. ^ Grimaldi,
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p321.
 
[1] Description Tibicen
linnei English: Annual cicada. Date
22 June 2003 Source Own work
http://www.cirrusimage.com/homoptera_cic
ada_T_linnei.htm Author Bruce
Marlin CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Tibicen_linnei.
jpg/1142px-Tibicen_linnei.jpg

[2] Description English: Pea aphids
extracting sap from the stem and leaves
of garden peas. Date February
2010 Source PLoS Biology, February
2010 direct link to the image
description Author Shipher Wu
(photograph) and Gee-way Lin (aphid
provision), National Taiwan
University CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/20/Acyrthosiphon_pisum_%
28pea_aphid%29-PLoS.jpg
310,000,000 YBN
13 14 15 16 		6359) The Neoptera Holometabola
{HoLomeTaBolu or HOlOmeTABolu7 8 }
evolve: Holometabolous insects:
(insects that undergo complete
metamorphosis, the ancestor of beetles,
bees, true flies, and butterflies).9

The holometabolous insects account for
nearly 85% of all insects.10

The Holometabola are insects that have
complete metamorphosis (or
holometabolous development). Unlike
hemimetabolous insects in which the
immature structures (legs, eyes,
antennae, etc.) must also serve the
adults, holometabolous insects have a
morphologically reduced larval stage11
and acquire a completely new body
during the pupal stage.12
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "holometabolous." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 05 Jan.
2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/h
olometabolous>.
2. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=holome
tabolous+&submit=Submit
3. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael S.
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p146,331.
4. ^ "holometabolous."
Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random
House, Inc. 05 Jan. 2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/h
olometabolous>.
5. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=holome
tabolous+&submit=Submit
6. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael S.
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p146,331.
7. ^ "holometabolous."
Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random
House, Inc. 05 Jan. 2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/h
olometabolous>.
8. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=holome
tabolous+&submit=Submit
9. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael S.
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p146,331.
10. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael
S. Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p331.
11. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael
S. Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p331.
12. ^
http://www.cals.ncsu.edu/course/ent425/t
ext02/holometabola.html
13. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael S.
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p146.
14. ^
http://www.cals.ncsu.edu/course/ent425/t
ext02/holometabola.html
15. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "Time Tree of
Life", 2009, p260-263.
16. ^ Labandeira, Conrad
C. “Evidence for an Earliest Late
Carboniferous Divergence Time and the
Early Larval Ecology and
Diversification of Major Holometabola
Lineages.” Entomologica Americana
117.1 & 2 (2011):
9–21. http://www.bioone.org/doi/abs/1
0.1664/10-RA-011.1
 
[1] Description wespenpoppen in
verschillende ontwikkelstadia Eigen
foto's Date 2005-06-13 (original
upload date) Source Originally from
nl.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. Author Original uploader was
Asaf at
nl.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) SELF2 GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/79/Ontwikkelstadia_wespe
npoppen.jpg

[2] Miomoptera- viewed by many as
stem-group Holometabola. UNKNOWN
source: http://wdict.net/img/miomoptera,
2.jpg
305,000,000 YBN
8 		242) The Amphibians: Anura {unRu5 }
evolve (the ancestor of all Frogs and
Toads).6 7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=anura&
submit=Submit
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
4. ^ "frog." Britannica
Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia
Britannica, Inc., 1994-2010.
Answers.com 10 Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/frog
5. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=anura&
submit=Submit
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
7. ^ "frog." Britannica
Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia
Britannica, Inc., 1994-2010.
Answers.com 10 Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/frog
8. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). {305 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Neil H. Shubin and Farish A.
Jenkins, Jr (7 September 1995). "An
Early Jurassic jumping frog". Nature
377 (6544): 49–52.
doi:10.1038/377049a0.http://www.nature.c
om/nature/journal/v377/n6544/full/377049
a0.html
[2] "Pliensbachian Stage."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online Academic Edition.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 27
Jul. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/464801/Pliensbachian-Stage>
 
[1] Richard Dawkins, ''The Ancestor's
Tale'', (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), 303. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), 303.

[2] Description English: A green
frog on a palm frond. Date 18
October 2003 Source Burning
Well Author Leon Brooks PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8d/Frog_on_palm_frond.jp
g
300,000,000 YBN
5 6 		1310) The Stramenopiles Chrysophyta
{KriSoFiTu3 } evolve (Golden algae).4
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=chryso
phyta&submit=Submit
2. ^ Brown JW, Sorhannus U (2010) A
Molecular Genetic Timescale for the
Diversification of Autotrophic
Stramenopiles (Ochrophyta): Substantive
Underestimation of Putative Fossil
Ages. PLoS ONE 5(9): e12759.
doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0012759
3. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=chryso
phyta&submit=Submit
4. ^ Brown JW, Sorhannus U (2010) A
Molecular Genetic Timescale for the
Diversification of Autotrophic
Stramenopiles (Ochrophyta): Substantive
Underestimation of Putative Fossil
Ages. PLoS ONE 5(9): e12759.
doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0012759
5. ^ Brown JW, Sorhannus U (2010) A
Molecular Genetic Timescale for the
Diversification of Autotrophic
Stramenopiles (Ochrophyta): Substantive
Underestimation of Putative Fossil
Ages. PLoS ONE 5(9): e12759.
doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0012759
6. ^
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/chromista/c
hrysophyta.html
 
[1] Description Dinobryon sp. / from
Shishitsuka Pond, Tsuchiura, Ibaraki
Pref., Japan / Microscope:Leica DMRD
(DIC) Date 20 May 2007 Source Own
work Author ja:User:NEON /
commons:User:NEON_ja CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/68/Dinobryon_sp.jpg

[2] Dinobryon, a colony of
Chrysophytes showing flagella and red
eyespots UNKNOWN
source: http://www.microscopy-uk.org.uk/
mag//imagsmall/Dinobryonb.jpg
299,000,000 YBN
3 		125) The end of the Carboniferous
(359.2-299 mybn), and start of the
Permian (299-251 mybn) Period.2
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ The geological Society of America
2009 Time
Scale http://www.geosociety.org/science
/timescale/timescl.pdf
2. ^ The geological Society of America
2009 Time
Scale http://www.geosociety.org/science
/timescale/timescl.pdf
3. ^ USGS "Divisions of Geologic
Time— Major Chronostratigraphic and
Geochronologic Units", July
2010. http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2010/3059
/pdf/FS10-3059.pdf
 
[1] Geologic Time Scale 2009 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.geosociety.org/scienc
e/timescale/timescl.pdf

[2] 300 Ma Late
Pennsylvanian UNKNOWN
source: http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~rcb7/300
_Penn_2globes.jpg
299,000,000 YBN
11 12 13 14 		6360) The Holometabola: Coleoptera
{KOlEoPTRu7 8 } evolve (the ancestor of
the Beetles).9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Coleoptera." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 07 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/coleoptera-
2
2. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=coleop
tera&submit=Submit
3. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "Time Tree of
Life", 2009, p260-263.
4. ^ "Coleoptera."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 07
May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/coleoptera-
2
5. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=coleop
tera&submit=Submit
6. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "Time Tree of
Life", 2009, p260-263.
7. ^ "Coleoptera."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 07
May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/coleoptera-
2
8. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=coleop
tera&submit=Submit
9. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "Time Tree of
Life", 2009, p260-263.
10. ^ Béthoux, Olivier.
“The Earliest Beetle Identified.”
Journal of Paleontology 83.6 (2009):
931–937. http://www.bioone.org/doi/ab
s/10.1666/08-158.1
11. ^ Labandeira, Conrad C. “Evidence
for an Earliest Late Carboniferous
Divergence Time and the Early Larval
Ecology and Diversification of Major
Holometabola Lineages.” Entomologica
Americana 117.1 & 2 (2011):
9–21. http://www.bioone.org/doi/abs/1
0.1664/10-RA-011.1
12. ^ Béthoux, Olivier. “The
Earliest Beetle Identified.” Journal
of Paleontology 83.6 (2009):
931–937. http://www.bioone.org/doi/ab
s/10.1666/08-158.1
13. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael S.
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p146.
14. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "Time
Tree of Life", 2009, p260-263.
earliest fossils: (Pennsylvanian
deposit) Mazon Creek, Illinois, USA10
 
[1] Figure 1. 1–7, Adiphlebia lacoana
Scudder, 1885. 1, 2, holotype specimen
(USNM 38143), reconstruction of the
wing venation (1), and photograph
(negative imprint, light-mirrored,
composite; 2); 3, specimen USNM 38140,
photograph (negative imprint,
light-mirrored, composite); 4,5,
specimen FMNH PE 3416, reconstruction
of the wing venation (forewings
separated; 4) and photograph (negative
imprint, composite; 5); 6, 7, specimen
FMNH PE 60291, reconstruction of the
wing venation (6) and photograph
(positive imprint; 7); 8, 9, details of
forewing main and intercalary veins
(black and white arrows, respectively)
in Adiphlabia lacoana (specimen FMNH PE
3416, right forewing; 8) and
Tetraphalerus bruchi Heller, 1913 (♀,
ventral view; 9). Abbreviations: LFW,
left forewing; RFW, right forewing;
ScP, posterior Subcosta; R, Radius; RA,
anterior Radius; RP, posterior Radius;
M, Media; CuA, anterior Cubitus; CuP,
posterior Cubitus; AA: anterior anal
vein. Color-coding: Subcosta, yellow;
Radius, blue; Media, red; Cubitus,
green; Analis, yellow. from Béthoux,
Olivier. “The Earliest Beetle
Identified.” Journal of Paleontology
83.6 (2009):
931–937. http://www.bioone.org/doi/ab
s/10.1666/08-158.1 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://jpaleontol.geoscienceworl
d.org/content/vol83/issue6/images/large/
i0022-3360-83-6-931-f01.jpeg

[2] {ULSF: Early Permian fossil
beetles see {Kukalová (1969), in
particular pl. 1; Ponomarenko (1969),
in particular figs. 16, 31, 32, 36, 40
41, 43, 44} and representatives of the
beetle sub-order Archostemata,
represented nowadays, exhibit
intercalary veins (Fig. 1.9) similar to
those exhibited by A.
lacoana} Archostemata is the smallest
suborder of beetles, consisting of
fewer than fifty known species
organized into five families.
Archostemata is an ancient lineage with
a number of primitive characteristics.
They are similar in morphology to the
first beetles, which appear in the
fossil record approximately 250 million
years ag Description
Tenomerga mucida (Chevrolat, 1829)
(Coleoptera: Cupedidae) - female.
Loc: Yokohama, kanagawa, japan.
ja: ナガヒラタムシ（鞘翅目:
ナガヒラタムシ科）のメス。
浜市内。産卵管をさかんに
し入れし、朽木の割れ目に挿
し込もうとしていたことから
産卵に来ていたものと思わ
る。 Date 13 July 2005 Source
my own file Author me PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/68/Tenomerga_mucida01.jp
g
290,000,000 YBN
5 6 		239) The Gymnosperms: Ginkgos evolve.3
4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
2. ^ Hwan
Su Yoon, Jeremiah D. Hackett, Claudia
Ciniglia, Gabriele Pinto and Debashish,
"A Molecular Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution, (2004).
3. ^ Jeffrey D.
Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W.
Chase, "The plant tree of life: an
overview and some points of view",
American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
4. ^ Hwan Su Yoon,
Jeremiah D. Hackett, Claudia Ciniglia,
Gabriele Pinto and Debashish, "A
Molecular Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution, (2004).
5. ^ Jeffrey D.
Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W.
Chase, "The plant tree of life: an
overview and some points of view",
American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004). (c290 (300
for living species)
6. ^ Hwan Su Yoon, Jeremiah
D. Hackett, Claudia Ciniglia, Gabriele
Pinto and Debashish, "A Molecular
Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution, (2004). (c350
(300 for radiation)
 
[1] * Description: Leaves of Ginkgo
biloba. * Source: picure taken by
Reinhard Kraasch in his own garden in
August 2003 (from German wikipedia)
* Licence: released per the GNU Free
Documentation License by the
photographer
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gin
kgo

[2] Name Ginkgo biloba Family
Ginkgoaceae Image no. 1 Permission
granted to use under GFDL by Kurt
Stueber GNU Ginkgo fruit and leaves
source: same
290,000,000 YBN
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 		6358) The Holometabola: Hymenoptera
evolve (the ancestor of all bees, ants,
and wasps).3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "Time Tree of
Life", 2009, p260-263.
2. ^ Hedges and Kumar,
"Time Tree of Life", 2009, p260-263.
3. ^ Hedges
and Kumar, "Time Tree of Life", 2009,
p260-263.
4. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael S.
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p146.
5. ^ Labandeira, Conrad C.
“Evidence for an Earliest Late
Carboniferous Divergence Time and the
Early Larval Ecology and
Diversification of Major Holometabola
Lineages.” Entomologica Americana
117.1 & 2 (2011):
9–21. http://www.bioone.org/doi/abs/1
0.1664/10-RA-011.1
6. ^
http://www.cals.ncsu.edu/course/ent425/t
ext02/holometabola.html
7. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "Time Tree of
Life", 2009, p260-263.
8. ^ Palmer, et al.,
"Prehistoric Life", 2009, p283.
9. ^ Palmer,
et al., "Prehistoric Life", 2009, p283.
10. ^
http://www.cals.ncsu.edu/course/ent425/t
ext02/holometabola.html
 
[1] {ULSF: Xyelidae saw flies are the
most primitive of the
hymenoptera} Hymenoptera, Xyelidae,
dorsal - Macroxyela ferruginea -
Female Ames - Tullamore, Story County,
Iowa, USA April 30, 2008 Size: 11
mm It's a big one. (11 mm includes the
ovipositor) Oak hickory maple basswood
woodland malaise, April 23-30,
2008. Photo - still floating in
alcohol. Copyright © 2008 MJ
Hatfield COPYRIGHTED Fig. 2
Placement of fossil evidence for the
earliest Holometabola within a
phylogenetic context. Geologic time
line at left is after Ogg, et al.
(2008); note that the Mississippian is
equivalent to the Early Carboniferous
and Pennsylvanian equivalent to the
Late Carboniferous. Earliest reliable
occurrences of taxa (solid dots,
followed by a thick black line) are
after various sources mentioned in the
text; major localities for the initial
diversification of the Holometabola
are: Elmo, Kansas, the “insect bed”
of the Wellington Formation from the
Artinskian Stage of the Early Permian;
Calhoun, the Calhoun Coal Member of the
Mattoon Formation, from the Kasimovian
Stage of the Late Pennsylvanian; Mazon
Creek of the Francis Creek Shale Member
of the Carbondale Formation, from the
Moscovian Stage of the Middle
Pennsylvanian; and the Terril Shale at
Pas-de-Calais, Bruay-la-Bussière,
France, from the Bashkirian Stage of
the Early Pennsylvanian. The horizontal
stippled bar at bottom represents the
initial diversification and the
earliest fossil occurrences of
holometabolan insects in the fossil
record. Labandeira, Conrad C.
“Evidence for an Earliest Late
Carboniferous Divergence Time and the
Early Larval Ecology and
Diversification of Major Holometabola
Lineages.” Entomologica Americana
117.1 & 2 (2011):
9–21. http://www.bioone.org/doi/abs/1
0.1664/10-RA-011.1 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://bugguide.net/images/raw/S
H8RHHPR0H7RDZHZULYLULRZ2LLZTLSZBLQZKH4RH
H7ZVL4RVL0ZALSZBLXZKH8RVLXZHHPRLHQRLH.jp
g

[2] Macroxyela ferruginea
Trusted Creative Commons Attribution
Non Commercial Share Alike 3.0 (CC
BY-NC-SA 3.0) ©
SusanneSchulmeister Source:
Morphbank Image Repository
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.bioone.org/na101/home
/literatum/publisher/bioone/journals/con
tent/nynt.1/2011/19475144-117.1/10-ra-01
1.1/production/images/large/i1947-5144-1
17-1-9-f02.jpeg
287,000,000 YBN
1 		6308) The Synapsid Therapsids evolve
(Cynodonts).[2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002,
p119-122.
 
[1] Kardong, ''Vertebrates'',
2002. COPYRIGHTED
source: Description English:
Moschops capensis - Middle Permian of
South Africa. Based on skeleton from
AMNH. Русский: Moschops
capensis - средняя пермь
Южной Африки.
Основано на скелете
из Американского
музея Естественной
истории. Date 2008 Source
dmitrchel@mail.ru Author
Creator:Dmitry Bogdanov GNU

[2] Kardong, ''Vertebrates'',
2002. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Moschops11DB.jp
g/1024px-Moschops11DB.jpg
274,000,000 YBN
15 16 17 18 19 20 		307) The Stramenopiles: Phaeophyta
{FEoFiTu9 } evolve (the ancestor of all
Brown Algae, includes many seaweeds
like the giant kelps10 ).11 12 13

Note that brown algae are not plants
but are protists.14
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2,
(2004). http://www.biomedcentral.com/14
71-2148/4/2{Hedges_Venturi_Shoe_20031110
.pdf}
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^ Sandra L. Baldauf, A. J.
Roger, I. Wenk-Siefert, W. F.
Doolittle, "A Kingdom-Level Phylogeny
of Eukaryotes Based on Combined Protein
Data", Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p
972, (2000).
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/290/
5493/972.full {Baldauf_Doolittle_199911
17.pdf} has heterkonts before
ciliophora and apicomplexa branch
4. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=phaeop
hyta&submit=Submit
5. ^ "Phaeophyta." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2011.
Answers.com 12 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/phaeophyta
6. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2,
(2004). http://www.biomedcentral.com/14
71-2148/4/2 {Hedges_Venturi_Shoe_200311
10.pdf}
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
8. ^ Sandra L. Baldauf, A. J.
Roger, I. Wenk-Siefert, W. F.
Doolittle, "A Kingdom-Level Phylogeny
of Eukaryotes Based on Combined Protein
Data", Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p
972, (2000).
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/290/
5493/972.full {Baldauf_Doolittle_199911
17.pdf} has heterkonts before
ciliophora and apicomplexa branch
9. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=phaeop
hyta&submit=Submit
10. ^ "Phaeophyta." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2011.
Answers.com 12 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/phaeophyta
11. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2,
(2004). http://www.biomedcentral.com/14
71-2148/4/2 {Hedges_Venturi_Shoe_200311
10.pdf}
12. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
13. ^ Sandra L. Baldauf, A. J.
Roger, I. Wenk-Siefert, W. F.
Doolittle, "A Kingdom-Level Phylogeny
of Eukaryotes Based on Combined Protein
Data", Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p
972, (2000).
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/290/
5493/972.full {Baldauf_Doolittle_199911
17.pdf} has heterkonts before
ciliophora and apicomplexa branch
14. ^ Hedges
and Kumar, "Time Tree of Life", 2009,
p117. timetree.org
15. ^ Linda Medlin, et al, "Phylogenic
relationships of the 'golden algae'
(haptophytes, heterokont chromophytes)
and their plastids", Plant Systematics
and Evolution (Supplement), v11, 1997,
p187-219. http://epic.awi.de/2100/1/Med
1997c.pdf {genetic) 274 mybn}
16. ^ Cédric
Berney and Jan Pawlowski, "A molecular
time-scale for eukaryote evolution
recalibrated with the continuous
microfossil record", Proc. R. Soc. B
August 7, 2006 273:1867-1872;
doi:10.1098/rspb.2006.3537 http://rspb.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/273/1
596/1867.short {genetic) 200 mybn}
17. ^ Zhu
Shixing and Chen Huineng, "Megascopic
Multicellular Organisms from the
1700-Million-Year-Old Tuanshanzi
Formation in the Jixian Area, North
China", Science , New Series, Vol. 270,
No. 5236 (Oct. 27, 1995), pp.
620-622. http://www.jstor.org/stable/28
88330 {Shixing_Huineng_19950331.pdf}
{Fossil) 1600-1800 mybn}
18. ^ S Blair
Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi
and Jason L Shoe, "A molecular
timescale of eukaryote evolution and
the rise of complex multicellular
life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004,
4:2 doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2,
(2004). {Alveolates) 1956mybn}
{Alveolates and Plants) 1956mybn}
19. ^ S. Blair
Hedges and Sudhir Kumar, "The TimeTree
of Life", 2009.
http://www.timetree.org/book.php
{1345 my}
20. ^ Cécile Gueidan,
Constantino Ruibal, G.S. de Hoog,
Harald Schneider, Rock-inhabiting fungi
originated during periods of dry
climate in the late Devonian and middle
Triassic, Fungal Biology, Volume 115,
Issue 10, October 2011, Pages 987-996,
ISSN 1878-6146,
10.1016/j.funbio.2011.04.002. (http://w
ww.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii
/S1878614611000675) {822.5 my}

MORE INFO
[1] Sandra L. Baldauf, A. J.
Roger, I. Wenk-Siefert, W. F.
Doolittle, "A Kingdom-Level Phylogeny
of Eukaryotes Based on Combined Protein
Data", Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p
972,
(2000). http://www.sciencemag.org/conte
nt/290/5493/972.full has heterkonts
before ciliophora and apicomplexa
branch
[2] Douzery, Emmanuel J. P. et al.
“The timing of eukaryotic evolution:
Does a relaxed molecular clock
reconcile proteins and fossils?”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences of the United States of
America 101.43 (2004): 15386
-15391. http://www.pnas.org/content/101
/43/15386.long
[3] Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (1600mybn)
[4] Hackett JD, Yoon
HS, Butterfield NJ, Sanderson MJ,
Bhattacharya D, "Plastid endosymbiosis:
Sources and timing of the major
events.", in: Falkowski P, Knoll A,
editors. "Evolution of primary
producers in the sea.", Elsevier; 2007,
p120
[5] "Phaeophyta". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phaeophyta
[6] Michael Sleigh, "Protozoa and Other
Protists", (London; New York: Edward
Arnold, 1989)
[7] "Brown algae". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brown_algae

[8]
http://www.sirinet.net/~jgjohnso/apbio30
.html
 
[1] Fig. 1. A consensus phylogeny of
eukaryotes. The vast majority of
characterized eukaryotes, with the
notable exception of major subgroups of
amoebae, can now be assigned to one of
eight major groups. Opisthokonts (basal
flagellum) have a single basal
flagellum on reproductive cells and
flat mitochondrial cristae (most
eukaryotes have tubular ones).
Eukaryotic photosynthesis originated in
Plants; theirs are the only plastids
with just two outer membranes.
Heterokonts (different flagellae) have
a unique flagellum decorated with
hollow tripartite hairs (stramenopiles)
and, usually, a second plain one.
Cercozoans are amoebae with filose
pseudopodia, often living with in tests
(hard outer shells), some very
elaborate (foraminiferans). Amoebozoa
are mostly naked amoebae (lacking
tests), often with lobose pseudopodia
for at least part of their life cycle.
Alveolates have systems of cortical
alveoli directly beneath their plasma
membranes. Discicristates have discoid
mitochondrial cristae and, in some
cases, a deep (excavated) ventral
feeding groove. Amitochondrial
excavates lack substantial molecular
phylogenetic support, but most have an
excavated ventral feeding groove, and
all lack mitochondria. The tree shown
is based on a consensus of molecular
(1-4) and ultrastructural (16, 17) data
and includes a rough indication of new
ciPCR ''taxa'' (broken black lines)
(7-11). An asterisk preceding the taxon
name indicates probable paraphyletic
group COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/co
ntent/full/300/5626/1703

[2] Pacific Rockweed (Fucus distichus)
in Olympic National Park Cropped from
PhotoCD image, from Kodak ISO 800 film,
taken by k.lee June 2004, hereby
released under GFDL.
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Pacific_rockweed%2C_Olympic_National_
Park%2C_USA.jpg
266,000,000 YBN
4 5 6 		308) The Stramenopiles: Diatoms
evolve.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Kooistra, W. H. C. F. and Medlin,
L. K. (1996). Evolution of the diatoms
(Bacillariophyta) : IV. A
reconstruction of their age from small
subunit rRNA coding regions and the
fossil record. Mol. Phylogenet. Evol.
6, 391-407.
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/a
rticle/pii/S1055790396900883
2. ^ Kooistra, W. H. C. F. and Medlin,
L. K. (1996). Evolution of the diatoms
(Bacillariophyta) : IV. A
reconstruction of their age from small
subunit rRNA coding regions and the
fossil record. Mol. Phylogenet. Evol.
6, 391-407.
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/a
rticle/pii/S1055790396900883
3. ^ Kooistra, W. H. C. F. and Medlin,
L. K. (1996). Evolution of the diatoms
(Bacillariophyta) : IV. A
reconstruction of their age from small
subunit rRNA coding regions and the
fossil record. Mol. Phylogenet. Evol.
6, 391-407.
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/a
rticle/pii/S1055790396900883
4. ^ Kooistra, W. H. C. F. and Medlin,
L. K. (1996). Evolution of the diatoms
(Bacillariophyta) : IV. A
reconstruction of their age from small
subunit rRNA coding regions and the
fossil record. Mol. Phylogenet. Evol.
6, 391-407.
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/a
rticle/pii/S1055790396900883 {no
earlier than) 266 MYBN}
5. ^ S Blair Hedges,
Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi and
Jason L Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
{Hedges_Venturi_Shoe_20031110.pdf} (1
973mybn) {Alveolates) 1956mybn}
6. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004). (1600mybn)

MORE INFO
[1] S Blair Hedges, Jaime E
Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L
Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2,
(2004). http://www.biomedcentral.com/14
71-2148/4/2
 
[1] Fig. 1. A consensus phylogeny of
eukaryotes. The vast majority of
characterized eukaryotes, with the
notable exception of major subgroups of
amoebae, can now be assigned to one of
eight major groups. Opisthokonts (basal
flagellum) have a single basal
flagellum on reproductive cells and
flat mitochondrial cristae (most
eukaryotes have tubular ones).
Eukaryotic photosynthesis originated in
Plants; theirs are the only plastids
with just two outer membranes.
Heterokonts (different flagellae) have
a unique flagellum decorated with
hollow tripartite hairs (stramenopiles)
and, usually, a second plain one.
Cercozoans are amoebae with filose
pseudopodia, often living with in tests
(hard outer shells), some very
elaborate (foraminiferans). Amoebozoa
are mostly naked amoebae (lacking
tests), often with lobose pseudopodia
for at least part of their life cycle.
Alveolates have systems of cortical
alveoli directly beneath their plasma
membranes. Discicristates have discoid
mitochondrial cristae and, in some
cases, a deep (excavated) ventral
feeding groove. Amitochondrial
excavates lack substantial molecular
phylogenetic support, but most have an
excavated ventral feeding groove, and
all lack mitochondria. The tree shown
is based on a consensus of molecular
(1-4) and ultrastructural (16, 17) data
and includes a rough indication of new
ciPCR ''taxa'' (broken black lines)
(7-11). An asterisk preceding the taxon
name indicates probable paraphyletic
group COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/co
ntent/full/300/5626/1703

[2] Figure 1. Phylogenetic hypothesis
of the eukaryotic lineage based on
ultrastructural and molecular data.
Organisms are divided into three main
groups distinguished by mitochondrial
cristal shape (either discoidal,
flattened or tubular). Unbroken lines
indicate phylogenetic relationships
that are firmly supported by available
data; broken lines indicate
uncertainties in phylogenetic
placement, resolution of which will
require additional data. Color coding
of organismal genus names indicates
mitochondrial genomes that have been
completely (Table 1), almost completely
(Jakoba, Naegleria and
Thraustochytrium) or partially (*)
sequenced by the OGMP (red), the FMGP
(black) or other groups (green). Names
in blue indicate those species whose
mtDNAs are currently being sequenced by
the OGMP or are future candidates for
complete sequencing. Amitochondriate
retortamonads are positioned at the
base of the tree, with broken arrows
denoting the endosymbiotic origin(s) of
mitochondria from a Rickettsia-like
eubacterium. Macrophar.,
Macropharyngomonas. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nar.oxfordjournals.org/cg
i/content/full/26/4/865
260,000,000 YBN
13 14 15 		232) The earliest endothermic (or
"warm-blooded") and hair growing
animal, a therapsid.7 8

Endothermy is the physiological
maintenance, by a body, of a constant
temperature independent of the external
environmental temperature. Hair for
insulation is correlated to
endothermy.9

Both birds and mammals are endothermic
(also called "warm blooded") as opposed
to other vertebrates (like amphibians
and crocodiles10 ) which are
ectothermic (or "cold blooded") and
cannot internally generate heat.11

Endothermy allows birds and mammals to
maintain a high and relatively constant
body temperature, even at rest, during
a wide range of external environmental
conditions.12
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ruben J.A. 1995. The evolution of
endothermy in mammals and birds: from
physiology to fossils. Ann Rev Physiol
57:69–95. http://www.annualreviews.or
g/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev.ph.57.030195.0
00441
2. ^ Ruben J.A. 1995. The evolution of
endothermy in mammals and birds: from
physiology to fossils. Ann Rev Physiol
57:69–95. http://www.annualreviews.or
g/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev.ph.57.030195.0
00441
3. ^ Ruben J.A. 1995. The evolution of
endothermy in mammals and birds: from
physiology to fossils. Ann Rev Physiol
57:69–95. http://www.annualreviews.or
g/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev.ph.57.030195.0
00441
4. ^ Willem J. Hillenius, "Turbinates
in Therapsids: Evidence for Late
Permian Origins of Mammalian
Endothermy", Evolution, Vol. 48, No. 2
(Apr., 1994), pp. 207-229. Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/2410089
5. ^ "mammal." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 07 Feb. 2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/360838/mammal>.
6. ^ Willem J. Hillenius, "Turbinates
in Therapsids: Evidence for Late
Permian Origins of Mammalian
Endothermy", Evolution, Vol. 48, No. 2
(Apr., 1994), pp. 207-229. Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/2410089
7. ^ Ruben J.A. 1995. The evolution of
endothermy in mammals and birds: from
physiology to fossils. Ann Rev Physiol
57:69–95. http://www.annualreviews.or
g/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev.ph.57.030195.0
00441
8. ^ Willem J. Hillenius, "Turbinates
in Therapsids: Evidence for Late
Permian Origins of Mammalian
Endothermy", Evolution, Vol. 48, No. 2
(Apr., 1994), pp. 207-229. Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/2410089
9. ^ "mammal." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 07 Feb. 2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/360838/mammal>.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Willem J. Hillenius,
"Turbinates in Therapsids: Evidence for
Late Permian Origins of Mammalian
Endothermy", Evolution, Vol. 48, No. 2
(Apr., 1994), pp. 207-229. Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/2410089
12. ^ Willem J. Hillenius, "Turbinates
in Therapsids: Evidence for Late
Permian Origins of Mammalian
Endothermy", Evolution, Vol. 48, No. 2
(Apr., 1994), pp. 207-229. Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/2410089
13. ^ Willem J. Hillenius, "Turbinates
in Therapsids: Evidence for Late
Permian Origins of Mammalian
Endothermy", Evolution, Vol. 48, No. 2
(Apr., 1994), pp. 207-229. Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/2410089
14. ^ Ruben J.A. 1995. The evolution of
endothermy in mammals and birds: from
physiology to fossils. Ann Rev Physiol
57:69–95. http://www.annualreviews.or
g/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev.ph.57.030195.0
00441 {c250 MYBN (Late Permian}
15. ^ Ted
Huntington. {230 MYBN (between
crocodilia 240mybn and pterosaur
220mybn}

MORE INFO
[1] Schweitzer, Mary Higby, and
Cynthia Lee Marshall. “A molecular
model for the evolution of endothermy
in the theropod-bird lineage.”
Journal of Experimental Zoology 291.4
(2001) :
317-338. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com
/doi/10.1002/jez.1132/abstract
 
[1] Description English: Life
restoration of Purlovia maxima. Based
on figures 8-10 of ''Permian and
Triassic therocephals (Eutherapsida) of
Eastern Europe'' by M. F. Ivakhnenko
(Paleontological Journal 45 (9):
981-1144). Date 8 January
2012 Source Own
work Author Smokeybjb CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a5/Purlovia_maxima.jpg

[2] Description Bauria , a
therocephalian therapsid from the early
Middle Triassic of South Africa, pencil
drawing Date 20 February
2007 Source Own work Author
Nobu Tamura
email:nobu.tamura@yahoo.com
www.palaeocritti.com GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c0/Bauria_BW.jpg
256,000,000 YBN
10 11 12 13 14 		6362) The Holometabola: Diptera7
{DiPTRe8 } evolve, true flies, having a
single pair of wings: the ancestor of
the mosquito, gnat, fruit fly, and
house fly)9 .
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "Time Tree of
Life", 2009, p260-263.
2. ^ "Diptera."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 07
May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/diptera
3. ^ "Diptera." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 07 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/diptera
4. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "Time Tree of
Life", 2009, p260-263.
5. ^ "Diptera."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 07
May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/diptera
6. ^ "Diptera." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 07 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/diptera
7. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "Time Tree of
Life", 2009, p260-263.
8. ^ "Diptera."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 07
May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/diptera
9. ^ "Diptera." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 07 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/diptera
10. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "Time Tree of
Life", 2009, p260-263.
11. ^ Labandeira, Conrad
C. “Evidence for an Earliest Late
Carboniferous Divergence Time and the
Early Larval Ecology and
Diversification of Major Holometabola
Lineages.” Entomologica Americana
117.1 & 2 (2011):
9–21. http://www.bioone.org/doi/abs/1
0.1664/10-RA-011.1
12. ^ "Diptera." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 07 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/diptera
13. ^ Wiegmann, Brian M. et al.
“Episodic Radiations in the Fly Tree
of Life.” Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences (2011): n.
pag. http://www.pnas.org/content/early/
2011/03/15/1012675108.full.pdf+html
14. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of
the Insects", 2005, p469.

MORE INFO
[1] Palmer, et al, "Primitive
Life", 2009, p197
 
[1] Nymphomyia alba adult UNKNOWN
source: http://whyevolutionistrue.files.
wordpress.com/2011/03/nymphomyia-alba.jp
g

[2] Nymphomyia alba larva UNKNOWN
source: http://whyevolutionistrue.files.
wordpress.com/2011/03/nymphomyia.jpg
251,400,000 YBN
4 5 6 		102) The largest mass extinction of
history, the End-Permian mass
extinction. 82% of all genera are
observed extinct.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ David Jablonski and W. G.
Chaloner,"Extinctions in the Fossil
Record (and Discussion)", Philosophical
Transactions: Biological Sciences, Vol.
344, No. 1307, Estimating Extinction
Rates: Sir Joseph Banks Anniversary
Meeting (Apr. 29, 1994), pp.
11-17. http://www.jstor.org/stable/5614
8
2. ^ David Jablonski and W. G.
Chaloner,"Extinctions in the Fossil
Record (and Discussion)", Philosophical
Transactions: Biological Sciences, Vol.
344, No. 1307, Estimating Extinction
Rates: Sir Joseph Banks Anniversary
Meeting (Apr. 29, 1994), pp.
11-17. http://www.jstor.org/stable/5614
8
3. ^ David Jablonski and W. G.
Chaloner,"Extinctions in the Fossil
Record (and Discussion)", Philosophical
Transactions: Biological Sciences, Vol.
344, No. 1307, Estimating Extinction
Rates: Sir Joseph Banks Anniversary
Meeting (Apr. 29, 1994), pp.
11-17. http://www.jstor.org/stable/5614
8
4. ^ Jin YG, Wang Y, Wang W, Shang QH,
Cao CQ, Erwin DH (2000). "Pattern of
Marine Mass Extinction Near the
Permian–Triassic Boundary in South
China". Science 289 (5478): 432–436.
Bibcode 2000Sci...289..432J.
doi:10.1126/science.289.5478.432. PMID
10903200. {251.4 MYBN}
5. ^ Bowring SA, Erwin
DH, Jin YG, Martin MW, Davidek K, Wang
W (1998). "U/Pb Zircon Geochronology
and Tempo of the End-Permian Mass
Extinction". Science 280 (5366):
1039–1045.
doi:10.1126/science.280.5366.1039.
{251.4 MYBN}
6. ^ David Jablonski and W. G.
Chaloner,"Extinctions in the Fossil
Record (and Discussion)", Philosophical
Transactions: Biological Sciences, Vol.
344, No. 1307, Estimating Extinction
Rates: Sir Joseph Banks Anniversary
Meeting (Apr. 29, 1994), pp.
11-17. http://www.jstor.org/stable/5614
8 {245 mybn}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
[2]
http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/200
6/06/060601174729.htm
[3]
http://www.ia.ucsb.edu/pa/display.aspx?p
key=1073
 
[1] Description English:
Description: Illustration of an
en:impact event. Source Made by
Fredrik. Cloud texture from public
domain NASA image. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/cb/Impact_event.jpg

[2] Timeline of mass extinctions.
COPYRIGHTED Benjamin
Cummings. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://io.uwinnipeg.ca/~simmons/
16cm05/1116/16macro.htm
251,000,000 YBN
3 		54) The end of the Paleozoic and start
of the Mesozoic Era, and the end of the
Permian (299-251 mybn) and start of the
Triassic (251-201.6 mybn) period.2
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ The geological Society of America
2009 Time
Scale http://www.geosociety.org/science
/timescale/timescl.pdf
2. ^ The geological Society of America
2009 Time
Scale http://www.geosociety.org/science
/timescale/timescl.pdf
3. ^ USGS "Divisions of Geologic
Time— Major Chronostratigraphic and
Geochronologic Units", July
2010. http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2010/3059
/pdf/FS10-3059.pdf
 
[1] Geologic Time Scale 2009 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.geosociety.org/scienc
e/timescale/timescl.pdf

[2] 260 Ma Late Permian UNKNOWN
source: http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~rcb7/260
_Permian_2globes.jpg
251,000,000 YBN
452) The supercontinent Pangea (PaNJEe)
forms.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
2. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
3. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
 
[1] 260 Ma Late Permian UNKNOWN
source: http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~rcb7/260
_Permian_2globes.jpg

[2] In geologic terms, a plate is a
large, rigid slab of solid rock. The
word tectonics comes from the Greek
root ''to build.'' Putting these two
words together, we get the term plate
tectonics, which refers to how the
Earth's surface is built of plates. The
theory of plate tectonics states that
the Earth's outermost layer is
fragmented into a dozen or more large
and small plates that are moving
relative to one another as they ride
atop hotter, more mobile material.
Before the advent of plate tectonics,
however, some people already believed
that the present-day continents were
the fragmented pieces of preexisting
larger landmasses
(''supercontinents''). The diagrams
below show the break-up of the
supercontinent Pangaea (meaning ''all
lands'' in Greek), which figured
prominently in the theory of
continental drift -- the forerunner to
the theory of plate tectonics. PD
source: http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/dynamic
/graphics/Fig2-5globes.gif
235,000,000 YBN
16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 		304) The Protist Phlyum "Haptophyta"
{HaPTuFITu11 } evolves, the
Coccolithophores {KoK-o-lit-u-FORZ12
}.13 14 15
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=haptop
hyta&submit=Submit
2. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=co
ccolithophores&submit=Submit
3. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
4. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
5. ^ Sandra L. Baldauf, A. J. Roger, I.
Wenk-Siefert, W. F. Doolittle, "A
Kingdom-Level Phylogeny of Eukaryotes
Based on Combined Protein Data",
Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p 972,
(2000).has heterkonts before ciliophora
and apicomplexa branch
6. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=haptop
hyta&submit=Submit
7. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=co
ccolithophores&submit=Submit
8. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
9. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
10. ^ Sandra L. Baldauf, A. J. Roger,
I. Wenk-Siefert, W. F. Doolittle, "A
Kingdom-Level Phylogeny of Eukaryotes
Based on Combined Protein Data",
Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p 972,
(2000).has heterkonts before ciliophora
and apicomplexa branch
11. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=haptop
hyta&submit=Submit
12. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=co
ccolithophores&submit=Submit
13. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
14. ^
Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
15. ^ Sandra L. Baldauf, A. J. Roger,
I. Wenk-Siefert, W. F. Doolittle, "A
Kingdom-Level Phylogeny of Eukaryotes
Based on Combined Protein Data",
Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p 972,
(2000).has heterkonts before ciliophora
and apicomplexa branch
16. ^ Taylor, E.L.,
T.N. Taylor, and M. Krings.
Paleobotany: The Biology and Evolution
of Fossil Plants. Elsevier Science,
2008,
p145. http://books.google.com/books?id=
_29tNNeQKeMC
17. ^ Yoon, Hwan Su et al. “A
Molecular Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes.” Molecular
Biology and Evolution 21.5 (2004): 809
-818.
Print. http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/21/5/809.abstract {c1050 mybn}
18. ^
Cédric Berney and Jan Pawlowski, "A
molecular time-scale for eukaryote
evolution recalibrated with the
continuous microfossil record", Proc.
R. Soc. B August 7, 2006 273:1867-1872;
doi:10.1098/rspb.2006.3537 http://rspb.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/273/1
596/1867.short {920 mybn}
19. ^ S. Blair
Hedges and Sudhir Kumar, "The TimeTree
of Life", 2009,
p117-118. http://www.timetree.org/book.
php {genetic)1382 mybn}
20. ^ De Vargas,
Aubry, Probert, Young, "Origin and
Evolution of Cocolithophores: From
Coastal Hunters to Oceanic Farmers",
Chapter 12, p251. in: Paul G.
Falkowski, Andrew H. Knoll, "Evolution
of primary producers in the sea",
2007. http://books.google.com/books?id=
5tRSAr1JMhwC {DNA)1900mybn}
{genetic)1900mybn}
21. ^ Linda Medlin, et al, "Phylogenic
relationships of the 'golden algae'
(haptophytes, heterokont chromophytes)
and their plastids", Plant Systematics
and Evolution (Supplement), v11, 1997,
p187-219. http://epic.awi.de/2100/1/Med
1997c.pdf {DNA)1750 mybn} {genetic)1750
mybn}
22. ^
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/chromista/p
rymnesiophyta.html {possible fossil)
318mybn}
23. ^ Cédric Berney and Jan Pawlowski,
"A molecular time-scale for eukaryote
evolution recalibrated with the
continuous microfossil record", Proc.
R. Soc. B August 7, 2006 273:1867-1872;
doi:10.1098/rspb.2006.3537 http://rspb.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/273/1
596/1867.short {genetic) 920 mybn}
24. ^
http://www.geosociety.org/science/timesc
ale/ {possible fossil) 318mybn}
25. ^
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/chromista/p
rymnesiophyta.html {certain fossil)
201mybn}
26. ^
http://www.geosociety.org/science/timesc
ale/ {certain fossil) 201mybn}

MORE INFO
[1] S Blair Hedges, Jaime E
Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L
Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
(1973mybn)
[2] Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (1600mybn)
[3] Sandra L. Baldauf,
A. J. Roger, I. Wenk-Siefert, W. F.
Doolittle, "A Kingdom-Level Phylogeny
of Eukaryotes Based on Combined Protein
Data", Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p
972, (2000). (has heterkonts before
ciliophora and apicomplexa branch)
[4]
http://www.life.umd.edu/labs/delwiche/PS
life/lectures/Haptophyta.html
 
[1] Fig. 1. A consensus phylogeny of
eukaryotes. The vast majority of
characterized eukaryotes, with the
notable exception of major subgroups of
amoebae, can now be assigned to one of
eight major groups. Opisthokonts (basal
flagellum) have a single basal
flagellum on reproductive cells and
flat mitochondrial cristae (most
eukaryotes have tubular ones).
Eukaryotic photosynthesis originated in
Plants; theirs are the only plastids
with just two outer membranes.
Heterokonts (different flagellae) have
a unique flagellum decorated with
hollow tripartite hairs (stramenopiles)
and, usually, a second plain one.
Cercozoans are amoebae with filose
pseudopodia, often living with in tests
(hard outer shells), some very
elaborate (foraminiferans). Amoebozoa
are mostly naked amoebae (lacking
tests), often with lobose pseudopodia
for at least part of their life cycle.
Alveolates have systems of cortical
alveoli directly beneath their plasma
membranes. Discicristates have discoid
mitochondrial cristae and, in some
cases, a deep (excavated) ventral
feeding groove. Amitochondrial
excavates lack substantial molecular
phylogenetic support, but most have an
excavated ventral feeding groove, and
all lack mitochondria. The tree shown
is based on a consensus of molecular
(1-4) and ultrastructural (16, 17) data
and includes a rough indication of new
ciPCR ''taxa'' (broken black lines)
(7-11). An asterisk preceding the taxon
name indicates probable paraphyletic
group
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/co
ntent/full/300/5626/1703

[2] Emiliania huxleyi, a
coccolithophore. Photo courtesy Dr.
Markus Geisen - photographer, and The
Natural History Museum. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Emiliania_huxleyi_3.jpg
228,000,000 YBN
18 19 20 		412) The Reptiles: Dinosaurs evolve.12
13 14 15
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Benton, "Vertebrate
Paleontology", 2005, p154.
2. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
3. ^ Sereno, Paul C. et al.
“Primitive dinosaur skeleton from
Argentina and the early evolution of
Dinosauria.” Nature 361.6407 (1993) :
64-66. http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v361/n6407/abs/361064a0.html
4. ^ Benton, "Vertebrate Paleontology",
2005, p154.
5. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
6. ^ "dinosaur." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 25 Dec.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/dinosaur
7. ^ Sereno, Paul C. et al.
“Primitive dinosaur skeleton from
Argentina and the early evolution of
Dinosauria.” Nature 361.6407 (1993) :
64-66. http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v361/n6407/abs/361064a0.html
8. ^ Benton, "Vertebrate Paleontology",
2005, p154.
9. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
10. ^ "dinosaur." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 25 Dec.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/dinosaur
11. ^ Sereno, Paul C. et al.
“Primitive dinosaur skeleton from
Argentina and the early evolution of
Dinosauria.” Nature 361.6407 (1993) :
64-66. http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v361/n6407/abs/361064a0.html
12. ^ Benton, "Vertebrate
Paleontology", 2005, p154.
13. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
14. ^ "dinosaur." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 25 Dec.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/dinosaur
15. ^ Sereno, Paul C. et al.
“Primitive dinosaur skeleton from
Argentina and the early evolution of
Dinosauria.” Nature 361.6407 (1993) :
64-66. http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v361/n6407/abs/361064a0.html
16. ^ Sereno, Paul C. et al.
“Primitive dinosaur skeleton from
Argentina and the early evolution of
Dinosauria.” Nature 361.6407 (1993) :
64-66. http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v361/n6407/abs/361064a0.html
17. ^ Benton, "Vertebrate
Paleontology", 2005, p154.
18. ^ Sereno, Paul
C. et al. “Primitive dinosaur
skeleton from Argentina and the early
evolution of Dinosauria.” Nature
361.6407 (1993) :
64-66. http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v361/n6407/abs/361064a0.html {228
MYBN}
19. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm {228 MYBN}
20. ^ Benton, "Vertebrate
Paleontology", 2005, p154. {230-220
MYBN}
earliest fossils: (Ischigualasto
Formation) Valley of the Moon,
Ischigualasto Provinvial Park,
northwestern Argestina16 17  
[1] Figure 2 from: Sereno, Paul C. et
al. “Primitive dinosaur skeleton from
Argentina and the early evolution of
Dinosauria.” Nature 361.6407 (1993) :
64-66. http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v361/n6407/abs/361064a0.html COPYR
IGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v361/n6407/abs/361064a0.html

[2] Eoraptor was a genus of small,
slender theropod native to northwest
Argentina. It was quite possibly the
earliest theropod genus and has not
been classified in any family.
UNKNOWN
source: http://images.wikia.com/deadtime
s/images/a/a2/Eoraptor.jpg
228,000,000 YBN
9 		6282) Dinosaurs divide into two major
lines: the Ornithischians
{ORnitiSKEiNZ5 } (Bird-hipped
dinosaurs) and the Saurischians
{SoriSKEiNZ6 } (Lizard-hipped
dinosaurs).7 8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "ornithischian." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 10 Jun.
2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/o
rnithischian>.
2. ^ "saurischian." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 10
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/saurischian

3. ^ James O. Farlow, M. K.
Brett-Surman, "The Complete Dinosaur",
1999,
p210. http://books.google.com/books?hl=
en&lr=&id=FOViD-lDPy0C
4. ^ Harold Levine, "The Earth Through
Time", 2006, p417.
5. ^ "ornithischian."
Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random
House, Inc. 10 Jun. 2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/o
rnithischian>.
6. ^ "saurischian." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 10
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/saurischian

7. ^ James O. Farlow, M. K.
Brett-Surman, "The Complete Dinosaur",
1999,
p210. http://books.google.com/books?hl=
en&lr=&id=FOViD-lDPy0C
8. ^ Harold Levine, "The Earth Through
Time", 2006, p417.
9. ^ James O. Farlow, M.
K. Brett-Surman, "The Complete
Dinosaur", 1999,
p210. http://books.google.com/books?hl=
en&lr=&id=FOViD-lDPy0C {Carnian:
average of) 235-228 mybn}
 
[1] Harold Levine, ''The Earth Through
Time'', 2006, p417. COPYRIGHTED
source: Harold Levine, "The Earth
Through Time", 2006, p417.

[2] Harold Levine, ''The Earth Through
Time'', 2006, p418. COPYRIGHTED
source: Harold Levine, "The Earth
Through Time", 2006, p418.
228,000,000 YBN
19 20 21 		6283) The Saurischian {SoriSKEiN9 }
Dinosaurs split into two major lines:
The Sauropodomorpha (SoroPiDimORFu10 }
and the Therapoda {tiRoPiDu11 }.12

The Sauropodomorphs are divided into
prosauropods and sauropods, are mostly
plant-eating, and include the large,
long-necked dinosaurs like
Apatosaurus.13

The Theropod {tERePoD14 } dinosaurs are
bipedal and carnivorous and include
Allosaurus, Tyrannosaurus, and
Velociraptor. All birds descend from a
Therapod ancestor.15 16
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "saurischian." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 10
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/saurischian

2. ^ "sauropod." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 15
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sauropod
3. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=therop
oda
4. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002,
p115-116.
5. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002,
p115-116.
6. ^ "theropod." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 15
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/theropod
7. ^ "theropod." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 15 Jun.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/theropod
8. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002,
p115-116.
9. ^ "saurischian." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 10
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/saurischian

10. ^ "sauropod." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 15
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sauropod
11. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=therop
oda
12. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002,
p115-116.
13. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002,
p115-116.
14. ^ "theropod." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 15
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/theropod
15. ^ "theropod." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 15 Jun.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/theropod
16. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002,
p115-116.
17. ^ Sereno, Paul C. et al.
“Primitive dinosaur skeleton from
Argentina and the early evolution of
Dinosauria.” Nature 361.6407 (1993) :
64-66. http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v361/n6407/abs/361064a0.html
18. ^ Benton, "Vertebrate
Paleontology", 2005, p154.
19. ^ Sereno, Paul
C. et al. “Primitive dinosaur
skeleton from Argentina and the early
evolution of Dinosauria.” Nature
361.6407 (1993) :
64-66. http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v361/n6407/abs/361064a0.html {228
MYBN}
20. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm {228 MYBN}
21. ^ Benton, "Vertebrate
Paleontology", 2005, p154. {230-220
MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=saurop
odomorpha&submit=Submit
earliest fossils: (Ischigualasto
Formation) Valley of the Moon,
Ischigualasto Provinvial Park,
northwestern Argestina17 18  
[1] Fig 3.38 from Kardong,
''Vertebrates'', p116,
2002. COPYRIGHTED
source: Kardong, "Vertebrates", p116,
2002.

[2] Figure 2 from: Sereno, Paul C. et
al. “Primitive dinosaur skeleton from
Argentina and the early evolution of
Dinosauria.” Nature 361.6407 (1993) :
64-66. http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v361/n6407/abs/361064a0.html COPYR
IGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v361/n6407/abs/361064a0.html
225,000,000 YBN
9 10 11 		126) The Synapsids Mammals evolve.6
The first mammary gland.7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Spencer G. Lucas and Zhexi Luo,
"Adelobasileus from the Upper Triassic
of West Texas: The Oldest Mammal",
Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology,
Vol. 13, No. 3 (Sep. 23, 1993), pp.
309-334 Published by: Taylor &
Francis, Ltd. on behalf of The Society
of Vertebrate Paleontology Article
Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/4523514
2. ^ Spencer G. Lucas and Zhexi Luo,
"Adelobasileus from the Upper Triassic
of West Texas: The Oldest Mammal",
Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology,
Vol. 13, No. 3 (Sep. 23, 1993), pp.
309-334 Published by: Taylor &
Francis, Ltd. on behalf of The Society
of Vertebrate Paleontology Article
Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/4523514
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Spencer G. Lucas and
Zhexi Luo, "Adelobasileus from the
Upper Triassic of West Texas: The
Oldest Mammal", Journal of Vertebrate
Paleontology, Vol. 13, No. 3 (Sep. 23,
1993), pp. 309-334 Published by:
Taylor & Francis, Ltd. on behalf of The
Society of Vertebrate
Paleontology Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/4523514
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Spencer G. Lucas and
Zhexi Luo, "Adelobasileus from the
Upper Triassic of West Texas: The
Oldest Mammal", Journal of Vertebrate
Paleontology, Vol. 13, No. 3 (Sep. 23,
1993), pp. 309-334 Published by:
Taylor & Francis, Ltd. on behalf of The
Society of Vertebrate
Paleontology Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/4523514
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Spencer G. Lucas and
Zhexi Luo, "Adelobasileus from the
Upper Triassic of West Texas: The
Oldest Mammal", Journal of Vertebrate
Paleontology, Vol. 13, No. 3 (Sep. 23,
1993), pp. 309-334 Published by:
Taylor & Francis, Ltd. on behalf of The
Society of Vertebrate
Paleontology Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/4523514
9. ^ Spencer G. Lucas and Zhexi Luo,
"Adelobasileus from the Upper Triassic
of West Texas: The Oldest Mammal",
Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology,
Vol. 13, No. 3 (Sep. 23, 1993), pp.
309-334 Published by: Taylor &
Francis, Ltd. on behalf of The Society
of Vertebrate Paleontology Article
Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/4523514
{225 MYBN}
10. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive
Life", 2009, p197.
11. ^ Palmer, Tree of
Life,
2009. http://timetree.org/pdf/Shedlock2
009Chap52.pdf

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.abqtrib.com/albq/nw_science/a
rticle/0,2668,ALBQ_21236_4546322,00.html

earliest fossils: (Dockum Formation)
Kalgary, Crosby County, Texas, USA8
 
[1] Figure 6 from: Spencer G. Lucas
and Zhexi Luo, ''Adelobasileus from the
Upper Triassic of West Texas: The
Oldest Mammal'', Journal of Vertebrate
Paleontology, Vol. 13, No. 3 (Sep. 23,
1993), pp. 309-334 Published by:
Taylor & Francis, Ltd. on behalf of The
Society of Vertebrate
Paleontology Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/4523514 COP
YRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/4523
514

[2] [t Note that this image is not
clearly from a scholarly
source] Description English:
Adelobasileus cromptoni, a mammaliaform
from the Late Triassic of Texas.
Digital. Date 9 September
2008 Source Own work Author
Nobu Tamura
email:nobu.tamura@yahoo.com
www.palaeocritti.com Permission (Reusi
ng this file) See below. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2f/Adelobasileus_BW.jpg
225,000,000 YBN
6 7 		369) The Ray-Finned Fishes Teleost
(TeLEoST) fishes evolve.3

Teleosts are a large group of fishes
with bony skeletons, including most
common fishes.4 5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
5. ^ "teleost." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 26 Jul.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/teleost
6. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p197.
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).

MORE INFO
[1] Inoue, JG, Miya, M,
Tsukamoto, K, Nishida, M (2003) "Basal
actinopterygian relationships: A
mitogenomic perspective on the
phylogeny of the ldquoancient
fish.rdquo" Mol Phylogenet Evol 26:
110-120 http://www.sciencedirect.com/sc
ience/article/pii/S1055790302003317
 
[1] Fig. 2. The single
most-parsimonious (MP) tree derived
from unweighted analysis of mitogenomic
data comprising concatenated nucleotide
sequences from 12 protein-coding
(excluding the ND6 gene and third codon
positions) and 22 transfer RNA (tRNA)
genes (stem regions only) from all 28
species examined. Tree length, 12,709
steps; consistency index, 0.355;
retention index, 0.471; and rescaled
consistency index, 0.167. Numbers above
and below internal branches indicate
jackknife values obtained for 500
replicates using the heuristic search
option in PAUP*4.0b10 (Swofford, 2002)
with 20 random-addition sequences being
performed in each replication and decay
indices, respectively. The scale
indicates 100 changes. from: Inoue,
JG, Miya, M, Tsukamoto, K, Nishida, M
(2003) ''Basal actinopterygian
relationships: A mitogenomic
perspective on the phylogeny of the
ldquoancient fish.rdquo'' Mol
Phylogenet Evol 26:
110-120 http://www.sciencedirect.com/sc
ience/article/pii/S1055790302003317 COP
YRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/cac
he/MiamiImageURL/B6WNH-475B9D7-6-1K/0?wc
hp=dGLbVlz-zSkzk

[2] Arapaima gigas at the Smithsonian
Zoo. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b1/Arapaima_gigas.jpg
220,000,000 YBN
9 10 		387) The most primitive extant
reptiles5 , the Testudines {TeSTUDinEZ6
} evolve: the ancestor of all Turtles,
Tortoises and Terrapins.7 8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p261-301.
2. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=testud
ines&submit=Submit
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p261-301.
4. ^ "turtle."
Britannica Concise Encyclopedia.
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.,
1994-2010. Answers.com 10 Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/turtle
5. ^ Cracraft, J., and M.J. Donoghue.
Assembling the Tree of Life. Oxford
University Press, USA, 2004. Nueva
Colecci�n Labor,
p452. http://books.google.com/books?id=
6lXTP0YU6_kC&pg=PA452
6. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=testud
ines&submit=Submit
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p261-301.
8. ^ "turtle."
Britannica Concise Encyclopedia.
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.,
1994-2010. Answers.com 10 Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/turtle
9. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p196.
10. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p262. {300
MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] "terrapin." Britannica
Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia
Britannica, Inc., 1994-2010.
Answers.com 27 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/terrapin
 
[1] Richard Dawkins, ''The Ancestor's
Tale'', (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), 262. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), 262.

[2] English: Odontochelys
semitestacea, from the Late Triassic of
China, the oldest known turtle.
Digital. ‪中文(简体)‬:
半甲齿龟，已知最为古老的乌
，于2007年在中国贵州境内发
。(三维模拟图) Date 4
December 2008 Source Own
work Author Nobu Tamura
email:nobu.tamura@yahoo.com
www.palaeocritti.com GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/39/Odontochelys_BW.jpg
220,000,000 YBN
4 5 6 		389) The reptiles: Tuataras {TUeToRoZ}
evolve.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p261-301.
2. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p261-301.
3. ^ "tuatara." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2011. Answers.com 27
Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/tuatara
4. ^ "tuatara." Encyclop�dia
Britannica. Encyclop�dia Britannica
Online. Encyclop�dia Britannica Inc.,
2013. Web. 29 Jan. 2013.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/608113/tuatara>.
5. ^ Cracraft, J., and M.J. Donoghue.
Assembling the Tree of Life. Oxford
University Press, USA, 2004. Nueva
Colecci�n Labor,
p452. http://books.google.com/books?id=
6lXTP0YU6_kC&pg=PA452
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p261-301. {255 MYBN}
(Islands of) New Zealand3  
[1] Richard Dawkins, ''The Ancestor's
Tale'', (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p262. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p262.

[2] A male tuatara named Henry, living
at the Southland Museum and Art
Gallery, is still reproductively active
at 111 years of age. 111-Year-Old
Reptile Becomes a Dad After Tumor
Surgery Discover Magazine, 26 January
2009. Retrieved 20 March
2009. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disc
over_Magazine Description English:
Henry, the world's oldest Tuatara in
captivity at Invercargill, New
Zealand Date 22 November
2007 Source Own work Author
KeresH CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/96/Henry_at_Invercargill
.jpg
220,000,000 YBN
11 12 		428) The first flying vertebrate, the
Reptiles Pterosaurs evolve.9 10
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ Éric Buffetaut, "Evolution and
palaeobiology of pterosaurs",
Geological Society, 2003,
p107. http://books.google.com/books?id=
8CKYxcylOycC
2. ^ Steven M. Stanley, "Earth System
History", Third edition, 2009, p390.
3. ^
Unwin, David M. “Pterosaurs: back to
the traditional model?” Trends in
Ecology & Evolution 14.7 (1999) :
263-268. http://www.sciencedirect.com/s
cience/article/pii/S0169534799016055
4. ^ Éric Buffetaut, "Evolution and
palaeobiology of pterosaurs",
Geological Society, 2003,
p107. http://books.google.com/books?id=
8CKYxcylOycC
5. ^ Steven M. Stanley, "Earth System
History", Third edition, 2009, p390.
6. ^
Unwin, David M. “Pterosaurs: back to
the traditional model?” Trends in
Ecology & Evolution 14.7 (1999) :
263-268. http://www.sciencedirect.com/s
cience/article/pii/S0169534799016055
7. ^ Éric Buffetaut, "Evolution and
palaeobiology of pterosaurs",
Geological Society, 2003,
p107. http://books.google.com/books?id=
8CKYxcylOycC
8. ^ Steven M. Stanley, "Earth System
History", Third edition, 2009, p390.
9. ^
Éric Buffetaut, "Evolution and
palaeobiology of pterosaurs",
Geological Society, 2003,
p107. http://books.google.com/books?id=
8CKYxcylOycC
10. ^ Steven M. Stanley, "Earth System
History", Third edition, 2009, p390.
11. ^
Peter Wellnhofer, "Pterosaurs", 1991,
p59-60,166. {220MYBN}
12. ^
http://www.dinodata.net/DNM/dallav.htm
{215 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://dipbsf.uninsubria.it/paleo/dvecch
ia.htm
[2] Eberhard Frey, Helmut Tischlinger,
Marie-Céline Buchy, and David M.
Martill, "New specimens of Pterosauria
(Reptilia) with soft parts with
implications for pterosaurian anatomy
and locomotion ", Geological Society,
London, Special Publications 2003,
217:233-266;
doi:10.1144/GSL.SP.2003.217.01.14
 
[1] Eudimorphon and Peteinosaurus
from: Wellnhofer, ''Pterosaurs'',
1991, p60-61. COPYRIGHTED
source: Wellnhofer, "Pterosaurs", 1991,
p60-61.

[2] Eudimorphon and Peteinosaurus
from: Wellnhofer, ''Pterosaurs'',
1991, p60-61. COPYRIGHTED
source: Wellnhofer, "Pterosaurs", 1991,
p60-61.
210,000,000 YBN
4 		390) The Reptiles Iguania evolve: (the
ancestor of iguanas, chameleons, and
spiny lizards).3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p261-301.
2. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p261-301.
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p261-301.
4. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p261-301. {210 MYBN}
 
[1] Richard Dawkins, ''The Ancestor's
Tale'', (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), 262. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), 262.

[2] Description Iguana sp. Foto
tomada en el Zoo de Madrid. Date
Summer 2007 Source Own
work Author Manuel de Corselas
ARS SUMMUM, Centro para el Estudio y
Difusión Libres de la Historia del
Arte PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/57/AA_Iguana_Fot_Ars_Sum
mum.JPG
210,000,000 YBN
4 		391) The Reptiles: Scleroglossa evolve
(the ancestor of snakes, skinks, and
geckos).3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004). {210 MYBN}
 
[1] Richard Dawkins, ''The Ancestor's
Tale'', (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), 262. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), 262.

[2] Description Deutsch:
Versteinerung eines Archaeophis proavus
Massalongo - aus Monte Bolca. Museum
für Naturkunde (Berlin). English:
Fossil of a Archaeophis proavus
Massalongo, Monte Bolca. Museum für
Naturkunde (Berlin). Date 22 July
2007 Source Own work Author
Raymond - Raimond
Spekking Permission (Reusing this
file) See
below. Attribution (required by the
license) © Raimond Spekking /
CC-BY-SA-3.0 CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f1/Naturkundemuseum_Berl
in_-_Archaeophis_proavus_Massalongo_-_Mo
nte_Bolca.jpg
210,000,000 YBN
3 		6313) The earliest extant Teleosts:
Bonytongues evolve.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).

MORE INFO
[1] Inoue, JG, Miya, M,
Tsukamoto, K, Nishida, M (2003) "Basal
actinopterygian relationships: A
mitogenomic perspective on the
phylogeny of the ldquoancient
fish.rdquo" Mol Phylogenet Evol 26:
110-120 http://www.sciencedirect.com/sc
ience/article/pii/S1055790302003317
 
[1] Fig. 2. The single
most-parsimonious (MP) tree derived
from unweighted analysis of mitogenomic
data comprising concatenated nucleotide
sequences from 12 protein-coding
(excluding the ND6 gene and third codon
positions) and 22 transfer RNA (tRNA)
genes (stem regions only) from all 28
species examined. Tree length, 12,709
steps; consistency index, 0.355;
retention index, 0.471; and rescaled
consistency index, 0.167. Numbers above
and below internal branches indicate
jackknife values obtained for 500
replicates using the heuristic search
option in PAUP*4.0b10 (Swofford, 2002)
with 20 random-addition sequences being
performed in each replication and decay
indices, respectively. The scale
indicates 100 changes. from: Inoue,
JG, Miya, M, Tsukamoto, K, Nishida, M
(2003) ''Basal actinopterygian
relationships: A mitogenomic
perspective on the phylogeny of the
ldquoancient fish.rdquo'' Mol
Phylogenet Evol 26:
110-120 http://www.sciencedirect.com/sc
ience/article/pii/S1055790302003317 COP
YRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/cac
he/MiamiImageURL/B6WNH-475B9D7-6-1K/0?wc
hp=dGLbVlz-zSkzk

[2] Arapaima gigas at the Smithsonian
Zoo. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b1/Arapaima_gigas.jpg
201,600,000 YBN
4 5 6 		127) The End-Triassic mass extinction.
53% of all genera are observed
extinct.2

Many terrestrial vertebrates and large
amphibians go extinct.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ David Jablonski and W. G.
Chaloner,"Extinctions in the Fossil
Record (and Discussion)", Philosophical
Transactions: Biological Sciences, Vol.
344, No. 1307, Estimating Extinction
Rates: Sir Joseph Banks Anniversary
Meeting (Apr. 29, 1994), pp.
11-17. http://www.jstor.org/stable/5614
8
2. ^ David Jablonski and W. G.
Chaloner,"Extinctions in the Fossil
Record (and Discussion)", Philosophical
Transactions: Biological Sciences, Vol.
344, No. 1307, Estimating Extinction
Rates: Sir Joseph Banks Anniversary
Meeting (Apr. 29, 1994), pp.
11-17. http://www.jstor.org/stable/5614
8
3. ^ Palmer, et, al., "Primitive Life"
2009, p197.
4. ^ The geological Society of
America 2009 Time
Scale http://www.geosociety.org/science
/timescale/timescl.pdf
5. ^ Whiteside, Jessica H.; Paul E.
Olsen, Timothy Eglinton, Michael E.
Brookfield, and Raymond N. Sambrotto
(March 22, 2010). "Compound-specific
carbon isotopes from Earth's largest
flood basalt eruptions directly linked
to the end-Triassic mass extinction".
PNAS 107 (15): 6721–5.
doi:10.1073/pnas.1001706107. PMC
2872409. PMID 20308590. {201.4 MYBN}
6. ^
David Jablonski and W. G.
Chaloner,"Extinctions in the Fossil
Record (and Discussion)", Philosophical
Transactions: Biological Sciences, Vol.
344, No. 1307, Estimating Extinction
Rates: Sir Joseph Banks Anniversary
Meeting (Apr. 29, 1994), pp.
11-17. http://www.jstor.org/stable/5614
8 {208 mybn}

MORE INFO
[1] David Jablonski, "Lessons
from the Past: Evolutionary Impacts of
Mass Extinctions", Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the
United States of America, Vol. 98, No.
10 (May 8, 2001), pp.
5393-5398. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
3055638
 
[1] A modified version of
Image:Extinction
Intensity.svg. Changes: Time
runs from left to right Periods
are coloured as per the Paris system -
see w:Template:Period color for full
explanation Text removed so
wikilinks can be floated over. See
w:Template:Annotated image/Extinction
for implementation. Cubic
polynomial removed as this doesn't
convey any useful information and is
mainly an artefact. The caption on
the original file is: Marine Genus
Biodiversity: Extinction
Intensity GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/06/Extinction_intensity.
svg

[2] Hawaii Volcanoes National Park.
May 1954 eruption of Kilauea Volcano.
Halemaumau fountains. Photo by J.P.
Eaton, May 31, 1954. Image file:
/htmllib/batch37/batch37j/batch37z/batch
37/hvo00014.jpg PD
source: http://libraryphoto.cr.usgs.gov/
htmllib/batch37/batch37j/batch37z/batch3
7/hvo00014.jpg
201,600,000 YBN
3 		228) The end of the Triassic (251-201.6
mybn), and start of the Jurassic
(201.6-145.5 mybn) Period.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ The geological Society of America
2009 Time
Scale http://www.geosociety.org/science
/timescale/timescl.pdf
2. ^ The geological Society of America
2009 Time
Scale http://www.geosociety.org/science
/timescale/timescl.pdf
3. ^ The geological Society of America
2009 Time
Scale http://www.geosociety.org/science
/timescale/timescl.pdf

MORE INFO
[1] USGS "Divisions of Geologic
Time— Major Chronostratigraphic and
Geochronologic Units", July
2010. http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2010/3059
/pdf/FS10-3059.pdf
 
[1] Description English: Global
paleogeographic reconstruction of the
Earth in the late Jurassic period 150
million years ago. Deutsch: Globale
paläogeografische Rekonstruktion der
Erde während des späten Jura vor 150
Millionen Jahren. Русский:
Глобальная
палеогеографическая
реконструкция Земли
в конце Юрского
периода, 150 миллионов
лет назад. Date 23 April
2008 Source
http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~rcb7/mollgl
obe.html Author Dr. Ron Blakey -
http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~rcb7/ CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/76/LateJurassicGlobal.jp
g

[2] Geologic Time Scale 2009 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.geosociety.org/scienc
e/timescale/timescl.pdf
201,600,000 YBN
10 11 		6372) The Ornithischians Thyreophora
{tIrEoFeru5 } evolve; the ancestor of
the armored ankylosaurs {ANKilOSORZ6 }
and the plated stegosaurs {STeGeSORZ7
}.8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=thyreo
phora&submit=Submit
2. ^ "ankylosaur." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 16
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ankylosauru
s
3. ^ "stegosaur." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 16
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/stegosaur
4. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p271.
5. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=thyreo
phora&submit=Submit
6. ^ "ankylosaur." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 16
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ankylosauru
s
7. ^ "stegosaur." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 16
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/stegosaur
8. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p271.
9. ^ Colbert, "A primitive
ornithischian dinosaur from the Kayenta
Formation of Arizona", Bulletin (Museum
of Northern Arizona), No 53, 1981.
10. ^
Colbert, "A primitive ornithischian
dinosaur from the Kayenta Formation of
Arizona", Bulletin (Museum of Northern
Arizona), No 53, 1981, p56-57.
11. ^ Palmer, et
al., "Primitive Life", 2009, p224.

MORE INFO
[1] Palmer, D., ed. (1999). The
Marshall Illustrated Encyclopedia of
Dinosaurs and Prehistoric Animals.
London: Marshall Editions. pp.
134–135. ISBN 1-84028-152-9
(Kayenta Formation) Arizona, USA9
 
[1] Description Scutellosaurus
lawleri, an ornithischian from the
Early Jurassic of North America, pencil
drawing, digital coloring Date
November 30, 2006, modified October
11, 2007 Source Own work Author
Nobu Tamura
(http://spinops.blogspot.com) GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/12/Scutellosaurus.jpg

[2] Description Scutellosaurus Date
Source Own Work by Pavel Riha (see
also the paleo-gallery by Pavel
Riha) Author Pavel Riha = user
Pavel.Riha.CB GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b0/Scutellosaurus1.jpg
200,000,000 YBN
4 		370) The Teleosts: eels and tarpons
evolve.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004). {200 MYBN}
 
[1] Adapted from: Richard Dawkins,
''The Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p339. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p339.

[2] Adapted from: Richard Dawkins,
''The Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p339. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p339.
200,000,000 YBN
6 7 8 		392) The Reptiles: Crocodilia
{KroKoDiLEu4 } evolve (the ancestor of
Crocodiles, allegators, and caimans
{KAmeNS}).5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p261-301.
2. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=crocod
ilia&submit=Submit
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p261-301.
4. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=crocod
ilia&submit=Submit
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p261-301.
6. ^ "crocodile."
Encyclop�dia Britannica.
Encyclop�dia Britannica Online.
Encyclop�dia Britannica Inc., 2013.
Web. 29 Jan. 2013.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/143679/crocodile>.
7. ^ Cracraft, J., and M.J. Donoghue.
Assembling the Tree of Life. Oxford
University Press, USA, 2004. Nueva
Colecci�n Labor,
p452. http://books.google.com/books?id=
6lXTP0YU6_kC&pg=PA452
8. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p261-301. {245 MYBN}
 
[1] Richard Dawkins, ''The Ancestor's
Tale'', (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p262. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p262.

[2] Nile crocodile, taken at the Le
Bonheur Crocodile Farm near
Stellenbosch, South Africa. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/81/NileCrocodile.jpg
195,000,000 YBN
17 18 		246) The Saurischian {SoriSKEiN8 }
Sauropods {SoRuPoDZ9 } evolve; the
ancestor of the large, long-necked
dinosaurs like Apatosaurus
{uPaTuSORuS10 }, Brachiosaurus
{BrAKEuSORuS11 }, and Diplodocus
{DiPloDiKuS12 }.13 14 15
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Sauropod." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 14 Jun.
2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/S
auropod>.
2. ^ "apatosaur." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 11
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/apatosaurus

3. ^ "brachiosaur." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 11
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/brachiosaur
us
4. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=diplod
ocus&submit=Submit
5. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
6. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", p115-116,
2002.
7. ^ Palmer et al, "Primative Life",
2009, p224.
8. ^ "saurischian." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 10
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/saurischian

9. ^ "Sauropod." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 14 Jun.
2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/S
auropod>.
10. ^ "apatosaur." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 11
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/apatosaurus

11. ^ "brachiosaur." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 11
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/brachiosaur
us
12. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=diplod
ocus&submit=Submit
13. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
14. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", p115-116,
2002.
15. ^ Palmer et al, "Primative Life",
2009, p224.
16. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
17. ^ Palmer et al, "Primative Life",
2009, p224.
18. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm {150 MYBN}
western USA16  
[1] [t may not be
scholarly] Description
Brachiosaurus altithorax Date
2007 Source Own work Author
Богданов
dmitrchel@mail.ru PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d9/Brachiosaurus_DB.jpg

[2] Description English: Bronze
Brachiosaurus mount outside of the
Field Museum of Natural History,
Chicago, IL. Date
10/12/2009 Source Own
work Author
AStrangerintheAlps CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/4b/FMNH_Brachiosaurus.JP
G
195,000,000 YBN
7 		6373) The Ornithischian Ornithopoda
{ORnitoPiDu4 } evolve; the duck-billed
dinosaurs, ancestor of the Hadrosaurs.5
6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=ornith
opoda
2. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p224.
3. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates",
p115-116, 2002.
4. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=ornith
opoda
5. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p224.
6. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates",
p115-116, 2002.
7. ^ Palmer, et al.,
"Primitive Life", 2009, p224.
 
[1] Heterodontosaurus UNKNOWN
source: http://www.wikidino.com/wp-conte
nt/uploads/Heterodontosaurus-Jan-Sovak.j
pg

[2] Harold Levine, ''The Earth Through
Time'', 2006, p417. COPYRIGHTED
source: Harold Levine, "The Earth
Through Time", 2006, p417.
190,000,000 YBN
4 		371) The Teleosts: herrings and
anchovies evolve.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004). {190 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=201773&tree=0.1
 
[1] Adapted from: Richard Dawkins,
''The Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p339. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p339.

[2] Description Northern
anchovies are important prey for marine
mammals and game fish Image ID:
nur00009, National Undersearch Research
Program (NURP) Collection Location:
Pacific Ocean. Credit: OAR/National
Undersea Research Program
(NURP) Downloaded from:
http://www.photolib.noaa.gov/htmls/nur00
009.htm Note: Another image from this
collection had fish described as
northern anchovies, with the scientific
name Engraulis mordax, or Californian
anchovy. The species may be
misidentified. Date 2006-12-08
(original upload date) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0f/Anchovy_closeup.jpg
190,000,000 YBN
5 		6289) The Supercontinent Pangea splits
into Laurasia and Gondwana. The
northern part, Laurasia will form North
America and Europe. The southern part,
Gondwana will form South America and
Africa.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Harold Levin, "The Earth Through
Time", Eighth Edition, 2006, p176,375.
2. ^
Harold Levin, "The Earth Through Time",
Eighth Edition, 2006, p176,375.
3. ^ Harold
Levin, "The Earth Through Time", Eighth
Edition, 2006, p176,375.
4. ^ Harold Levin, "The
Earth Through Time", Eighth Edition,
2006, p176,375.
5. ^ Harold Levin, "The Earth
Through Time", Eighth Edition, 2006,
p176,375. {190 mybn}
Pangea4  
[1] 200 Ma Early Jurassic UNKNOWN
source: http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~rcb7/200
_Jurassic_2globes.jpg

[2] In geologic terms, a plate is a
large, rigid slab of solid rock. The
word tectonics comes from the Greek
root ''to build.'' Putting these two
words together, we get the term plate
tectonics, which refers to how the
Earth's surface is built of plates. The
theory of plate tectonics states that
the Earth's outermost layer is
fragmented into a dozen or more large
and small plates that are moving
relative to one another as they ride
atop hotter, more mobile material.
Before the advent of plate tectonics,
however, some people already believed
that the present-day continents were
the fragmented pieces of preexisting
larger landmasses
(''supercontinents''). The diagrams
below show the break-up of the
supercontinent Pangaea (meaning ''all
lands'' in Greek), which figured
prominently in the theory of
continental drift -- the forerunner to
the theory of plate tectonics. PD
source: http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/dynamic
/graphics/Fig2-5globes.gif
190,000,000 YBN
11 12 13 14 15 16 		6347) The Holometabola Lepidoptera
{lePiDoPTRu7 } evolve (the ancestor of
moths, butterflies, and caterpillars).8
9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=lepido
ptera&submit=Submit
2. ^ Gaunt et al., "An insect molecular
clock dates the origin of the insects
and accords with palaeontological and
biogeographic landmarks.", Mol Biol
Evol,
2002. http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/con
tent/19/5/748.full.pdf {Gaunt_Insects_2
002.pdf}
3. ^ Douzery et al., "The timing of
eukaryotic evolution: does a relaxed
molecular clock reconcile proteins and
fossils?", Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A,
2004. http://www.pnas.org/content/101/4
3/15386.abstract
4. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=lepido
ptera&submit=Submit
5. ^ Gaunt et al., "An insect molecular
clock dates the origin of the insects
and accords with palaeontological and
biogeographic landmarks.", Mol Biol
Evol,
2002. http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/con
tent/19/5/748.full.pdf {Gaunt_Insects_2
002.pdf}
6. ^ Douzery et al., "The timing of
eukaryotic evolution: does a relaxed
molecular clock reconcile proteins and
fossils?", Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A,
2004. http://www.pnas.org/content/101/4
3/15386.abstract
7. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=lepido
ptera&submit=Submit
8. ^ Gaunt et al., "An insect molecular
clock dates the origin of the insects
and accords with palaeontological and
biogeographic landmarks.", Mol Biol
Evol,
2002. http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/con
tent/19/5/748.full.pdf {Gaunt_Insects_2
002.pdf}
9. ^ Douzery et al., "The timing of
eukaryotic evolution: does a relaxed
molecular clock reconcile proteins and
fossils?", Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A,
2004. http://www.pnas.org/content/101/4
3/15386.abstract
10. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of
the Insects", 2005, p556.
11. ^ Palmer, et
al, "Prehistoric Life", 2009, p224.
12. ^
Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of the
Insects", 2005, p556.
13. ^ Grimaldi, Engel,
"Evolution of the Insects", 2005, p469.
14. ^
Hedges and Kumar, "TimeTree of Life",
2009, p262.
15. ^ Douzery et al., "The timing
of eukaryotic evolution: does a relaxed
molecular clock reconcile proteins and
fossils?", Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A,
2004. http://www.pnas.org/content/101/4
3/15386.abstract
16. ^ Gaunt et al., "An insect
molecular clock dates the origin of the
insects and accords with
palaeontological and biogeographic
landmarks.", Mol Biol Evol,
2002. http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/con
tent/19/5/748.full.pdf {Gaunt_Insects_2
002.pdf}
earliest fossils: Dorset, England10
 
[1] Description Photograph of a male
Monarch butterfly (Danaus plexippus en
). This butterfly was stationary on a
leaf with his wings outstretched in an
attempt to show off and attract a mate.
The picture was taken in the butterfly
house at the Tyler Arboretum. Camera
and Exposure Details: Camera: Nikon
D50 Lens: Nikon Nikkor ED AF-S DX
18-55mm f/3.5-5.6G Exposure: 55mm
(82.5mm in 35mm equivalent) f/9 @ 1/125
s. Date 9 September 2006 Source Own
work (Own Picture) Author Photo
(c)2006 Derek Ramsey
(Ram-Man) Permission (Reusing this
file) You may NOT use this image
on your own web site or anywhere else
unless you release this image and any
derivative works (which may include the
web page or other medium where this
image is used, if it is not considered
a ''collective work'') by following the
terms of the following license. Any
other use will be considered a breach
of copyright law. Please do not copy
this image illegally by ignoring the
terms of the license, as it is not in
the public domain. If you would like
special permission to use, license, or
purchase the image or prints of the
image, or for use in any other fashion
or would simply like a copy of the
original file, please contact me or
email me first to ask. Please see the
non-legalese usage guide for more
information. Note: While you are not
required to do so by the license,
please consider letting me know when
you reuse one of my photograph images,
as a courtesy. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Monarch_Butterf
ly_Showy_Male_3000px.jpg/1280px-Monarch_
Butterfly_Showy_Male_3000px.jpg

[2] Description Photograph of a
female Monarch Butterflyen (Danaus
plexippus en ) laying an egg on a
Mexican Milkweeden (Asclepias
curassavica en 'Silky Gold'). The
picture was taken in Aston Township,
Pennsylvania. Camera and Exposure
Details: Camera: Nikon D50 Lens:
Sigma 70mm f/2.8 EX DG Macro Exposure:
70mm (105mm in 35mm equivalent) f/8 @
1/160 s. (200 ISO) Date Friday,
August 8, 2008 Source Own
Picture. Author Photo by and (c)2009
Derek Ramsey
(Ram-Man) Permission (Reusing this
file) You may NOT use this image
on your own web site or anywhere else
unless you release this image and any
derivative works (which may include the
web page or other medium where this
image is used, if it is not considered
a ''collective work'') by following the
terms of the following license. Any
other use will be considered a breach
of copyright law. Please do not copy
this image illegally by ignoring the
terms of the license, as it is not in
the public domain. If you would like
special permission to use, license, or
purchase the image or prints of the
image, or for use in any other fashion
or would simply like a copy of the
original file, please contact me or
email me first to ask. Please see the
non-legalese usage guide for more
information. Note: While you are not
required to do so by the license,
please consider letting me know when
you reuse one of my photograph images,
as a courtesy. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Monarch_Butterf
ly_Danaus_plexippus_Laying_Eggs.jpg/1096
px-Monarch_Butterfly_Danaus_plexippus_La
ying_Eggs.jpg
180,000,000 YBN
11 12 13 		456) The earliest extant mammals,
Monotremes {moNeTrEMZ5 } evolve.6

Monotremes are an order of primitive
egg-laying mammals restricted to
Australia, Tasmania and New Guinea. The
Monotremes consist of only the platypus
and the echidna.7 8

Monotremes are also the most primitive
extant warm blooded and hair growing
species.9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "monotreme." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 06
Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/monotreme
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), 238-260.
3. ^ "monotreme." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 06 Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/monotreme
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), 238-260.
5. ^ "monotreme." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 06 Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/monotreme
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), 238-260.
7. ^ "monotreme." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 28 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/monotreme
8. ^ "monotreme." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 28 Jul.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/monotreme
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ "monotreme." Britannica
Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia
Britannica, Inc., 1994-2010.
Answers.com 28 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/monotreme
11. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). {180 MYBN}
12. ^ Palmer, et
al., "Primitive Life", 2009, p282.
13. ^
Hedges, Tree of Life,
2009 http://timetree.org/pdf/Madsen2009
Chap68.pdf

MORE INFO
[1] "Monotremata". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monotremata

Australia, Tasmania and New Guinea10
 
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
239. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), 239.

[2] Description Photo: model of
Steropodon galmani at the Australian
Museum, Sydney. Date 20 April
2008 Source Own work Author
Matt Martyniuk
(Dinoguy2) Permission (Reusing this
file) See below. Other versions
Derivative works of this file:
Prototheria collage.png GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f8/Steropodon_model_aus.
jpg
170,000,000 YBN
4 		372) The Teleosts: carp, minnows, and
piranhas evolve.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004). {170 MYBN}
 
[1] Adapted from: Richard Dawkins,
''The Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p339. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p339.

[2] Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Commo
n_carp.jpg Common carp (Cyprinus
carpio). Public domain image from USFWS
National Image Library. Created by
Duane Raver. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a8/Common_carp.jpg
170,000,000 YBN
4 		373) The Teleosts: salmon, trout, and
pike evolve.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
 
[1] Adapted from: Richard Dawkins,
''The Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p339. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p339.

[2] Fig. 2. The single
most-parsimonious (MP) tree derived
from unweighted analysis of mitogenomic
data comprising concatenated nucleotide
sequences from 12 protein-coding
(excluding the ND6 gene and third codon
positions) and 22 transfer RNA (tRNA)
genes (stem regions only) from all 28
species examined. Tree length, 12,709
steps; consistency index, 0.355;
retention index, 0.471; and rescaled
consistency index, 0.167. Numbers above
and below internal branches indicate
jackknife values obtained for 500
replicates using the heuristic search
option in PAUP*4.0b10 (Swofford, 2002)
with 20 random-addition sequences being
performed in each replication and decay
indices, respectively. The scale
indicates 100 changes. from: Inoue,
JG, Miya, M, Tsukamoto, K, Nishida, M
(2003) ''Basal actinopterygian
relationships: A mitogenomic
perspective on the phylogeny of the
ldquoancient fish.rdquo'' Mol
Phylogenet Evol 26:
110-120 http://www.sciencedirect.com/sc
ience/article/pii/S1055790302003317 COP
YRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/cac
he/MiamiImageURL/B6WNH-475B9D7-6-1K/0?wc
hp=dGLbVlz-zSkzk
170,000,000 YBN
4 5 		383) The Amphibians: Salamanders
evolve.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^ Palmer,
et al., "Primitive Life", 2009, p225.
5. ^
Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004). {305 MYBN}
 
[1] Richard Dawkins, ''The Ancestor's
Tale'', (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), 303. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), 303.

[2] Description central
Pennsylvania Spotted Salamander
(Ambystoma maculatum) Source
self-made Date 25 March
2008 Author Camazine (talk) Scott
Camazine web.mac.com/camazine CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/b/b2/SpottedSalamander.jpg
165,000,000 YBN
9 10 		358) The Cartilaginous fishes: batoidea
{BuTOEDEu5 } evolve, the ancestor of
all rays, skates, and sawfishes.6 7 8
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=batoid
ea&submit=Submit
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p360-363.
3. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl
4. ^ Douady, Christophe J. et al.
“Molecular Phylogenetic Evidence
Refuting the Hypothesis of Batoidea
(rays and Skates) as Derived Sharks.”
Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution
26.2 (2003):
215–221. http://www.sciencedirect.com
/science/article/pii/S1055790302003330
5. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=batoid
ea&submit=Submit
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p360-363.
7. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl
8. ^ Douady, Christophe J. et al.
“Molecular Phylogenetic Evidence
Refuting the Hypothesis of Batoidea
(rays and Skates) as Derived Sharks.”
Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution
26.2 (2003):
215–221. http://www.sciencedirect.com
/science/article/pii/S1055790302003330
9. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p282.
10. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p360-363. {190
MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Taxonomy/Bro
wser/wwwtax.cgi?name=Elasmobranchii
 
[1] Richard Dawkins, ''The Ancestor's
Tale'', (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p361. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p361.

[2] Description Manta Ray (Manta
birostris) at Hin Daeng,
Thailand. Date 30 November
2005 Source Flickr Author
jon hanson from london, UK CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/df/Manta_birostris-Thail
and4.jpg
150,000,000 YBN
5 6 		330) Stegosaurus, an armored,
plant-eating Thyreophoran {tIRrEoFereN1
} dinosaur lives around this time.2 3
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=thyreo
phora&submit=Submit
2. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
3. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002,
p115-116.
4. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
5. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm {150 MYBN}
6. ^ Palmer, et al.,
"Primitive Life", 2009, p225.
western USA4  
[1] [t may not be
scholarly] Description
Stegosaurus stenops, a stegosaur
from the Late Jurassic of North
America, pencil drawing Date 6
May 2007 Source Own work Author
Nobu Tamura
email:nobu.tamura@yahoo.com
www.palaeocritti.com Permission (Reusi
ng this file) See below. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/70/Stegosaurus_BW.jpg

[2] Description Deutsch:
Rekonstruktion eines
Stegosaurus-Skeletts im Naturmuseum
Senckenberg in Frankfurt am
Main English: Reconstruction of a
Stegosaurus skeleton in the Senckenberg
Museum in Frankfurt am Main Date
2 September 2007 Source
EvaK Author EvaK GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6a/Stegosaurus_Senckenbe
rg.jpg
150,000,000 YBN
4 		374) The Teleosts: Lightfish and
Dragonfish evolve.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004). {150 MYBN}
 
[1] Adapted from: Richard Dawkins,
''The Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p339. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p339.

[2] Description English: This
deep-sea fish, Photostomias guernei,
has a built-in bioluminescent
''flashlight'' it uses to help it see
in the dark. Date 1999 Source
Photostomias.jpg Author
derivative work: Una Smith
Photostomias.jpg: Edith
Widder/HBOI PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/63/Photostomias2.jpg
150,000,000 YBN
10 		393) The Therapods {tERePoDZ4 } Birds
evolve. The first feather.5

Fossils of therapod dinosaurs from
China indicate that feathers may have
originally evolved on non-flying
reptiles for insulation (or courting6 )
and not for flight.7

At least one known feathered dinosaur
can probably glide, which suggests that
flapping flight evolves as an extension
of gliding from trees.8 9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^
"theropod." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 15 Jun.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/theropod
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
6. ^ Sumida, Stuart S, and
Christopher A Brochu. “Phylogenetic
Context for the Origin of Feathers.”
American Zoologist 40.4 (2000) :
486-503.
Print. http://icb.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/40/4/486.abstract
7. ^ Ji, Q., P. J. Currie, M. A.
Norell, and S.-A. Ji. 1998. Two
feathered dinosaurs from northeastern
China. Nature,
393753-761. http://www.nature.com/natur
e/journal/v393/n6687/full/393753a0.html
8. ^ Xu, Xing et al. “Four-winged
dinosaurs from China.” Nature
421.6921 (2003) :
335-340. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v421/n6921/abs/nature01342.html
9. ^ Smith, Patrick E. et al. “Dates
and rates in ancient lakes: 40Ar–39Ar
evidence for an Early Cretaceous age
for the Jehol Group, northeast
China.” Can. J. Earth Sci. 32.9
(2011) :
1426-1431. http://www.nrcresearchpress.
com/action/showCitFormats?doi=10.1139%2F
e95-115
10. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). {245 MYBN} {245 MYBN
(bird and croc split}

MORE INFO
[1] Xu, X., Z. Tang, and X. Wang.
1999a. A therizinosauroid dinosaur with
integumentary structures from China.
Nature, 399350-354
[2] LIVEZEY, BRADLEY C., and
RICHARD L. ZUSI. “Higher-order
phylogeny of modern birds (Theropoda,
Aves: Neornithes) based on comparative
anatomy. II. Analysis and
discussion.” Zoological Journal of
the Linnean Society 149.1 (2007) :
1-95. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/do
i/10.1111/j.1096-3642.2006.00293.x/full
[3] Hackett, Shannon J. et al. “A
Phylogenomic Study of Birds Reveals
Their Evolutionary History.” Science
320.5884 (2008) : 1763 -1768.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763
[4] Hedges, S. Blair et al.
“Continental breakup and the ordinal
diversification of birds and
mammals.” Nature 381.6579 (1996) :
226-229. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v381/n6579/abs/381226a0.html
[5] Ivanov, M., Hrdlickova, S. &
Gregorova, R. (2001) The Complete
Encyclopedia of Fossils. Rebo
Publishers, Netherlands. pp. 312
[6] Zhang,
Z., Gao, C., Meng, Q., Liu, J., Hou,
L., & Zheng, G. (2009). Diversification
in an early cretaceous avian genus:
evidence from a new species of
Confuciusornis from china. Journal of
Ornithology , 150 (4), 783-790. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10336-009-039
9-x
[7] Hou L, Zhou Z, Gu Y, Zhang H
(1995a) Confuciusornis sanctus, a new
Late Jurassic sauriurine bird from
China. Chin Sci Bull 40:1545–1551
 
[1] Richard Dawkins, ''The Ancestor's
Tale'', (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p262. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p262.

[2] Description English:
Archaeopteryx lithographica, specimen
displayed at the Museum für Naturkunde
in Berlin. (This image shows the
original fossil - not a
cast.) Deutsch: Archaeopteryx
lithographica, Exemplar im Museum für
Naturkunde in Berlin. (Dieses Bild
zeigt das Original-Fossil, keinen
Abguss.) Date 5 July 2009 Source
Own work Author H. Raab
(User:Vesta) CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/9d/Archaeopteryx_lithogr
aphica_%28Berlin_specimen%29.jpg
145,000,000 YBN
21 22 23 24 25 		245) The Seed plants angiosperms
evolve. The first flowering plant.15 16
17

Almost all grains, beans, nuts, fruits,
vegetables, herbs and spices come from
plants with flowers. Much of our
clothing comes from flowering plants
too, for example: cotton and linen are
made from "fibers" of flowering plants,
as are rope and burlap. Many commercial
dyes and drugs also come from flowering
plants.18

Angiosperms represent approximately 80
percent of all the known green plants
now living. The angiosperms are
vascular seed plants in which the ovule
(or egg) is fertilized and develops
into a seed in an enclosed hollow
ovary. The ovary is usually enclosed in
a flower, the part of the angiosperm
that contains the male or female
reproductive organs or both.19 The
fruit is the ovary of a plant which
encloses seeds.20
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445.,
(2004). http://www.amjbot.org/content/9
1/10/1437.short
2. ^ Hwan Su Yoon, Jeremiah D. Hackett,
Claudia Ciniglia, Gabriele Pinto and
Debashish, "A Molecular Timeline for
the Origin of Photosynthetic
Eukaryotes", Molecular Biology and
Evolution, (2004).
3. ^ N Wikstrom, V
Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the
angiosperms: calibrating the family
tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001). http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc
/articles/PMC1088868/
4. ^
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/anthophyta/
anthophyta.html
5. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
6. ^ Hwan
Su Yoon, Jeremiah D. Hackett, Claudia
Ciniglia, Gabriele Pinto and Debashish,
"A Molecular Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution, (2004).
7. ^ N Wikstrom,
V Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of
the angiosperms: calibrating the family
tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
8. ^
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/anthophyta/
anthophyta.html
9. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
10. ^ Hwan
Su Yoon, Jeremiah D. Hackett, Claudia
Ciniglia, Gabriele Pinto and Debashish,
"A Molecular Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution, (2004).
11. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
12. ^
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/anthophyta/
anthophyta.html
13. ^ "Article". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online. "angiosperm",
Encyclopedia Britannica 2012.
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/to
pic/24667/angiosperm/24667main/Article
14. ^ "fruit". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
"fruit", Encyclopedia Britannica,
2012. http://www.britannica.com/EBcheck
ed/topic/221056/fruit
15. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
16. ^ Hwan
Su Yoon, Jeremiah D. Hackett, Claudia
Ciniglia, Gabriele Pinto and Debashish,
"A Molecular Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution, (2004).
17. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
18. ^
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/anthophyta/
anthophyta.html
19. ^ "Article". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online. "angiosperm",
Encyclopedia Britannica 2012.
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/to
pic/24667/angiosperm/24667main/Article
20. ^ "Article". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online. "angiosperm",
Encyclopedia Britannica 2012.
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/to
pic/24667/angiosperm/24667main/Article
21. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of
the Insects", 2005, p607-613.
22. ^ Palmer, et
al., "Primitive Life", 2009, p282.
23. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
http://www.amjbot.org/content/91/10/14
37.short (175mybn) {Gymno-angio spilt)
320 mybn (radiation at 180my}
24. ^ Hwan Su
Yoon, Jeremiah D. Hackett, Claudia
Ciniglia, Gabriele Pinto and Debashish,
"A Molecular Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution,
(2004). http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/c
ontent/21/5/809.abstract (c100mybn)
{320-290 mybn (radiation at 100 mybn}
25. ^
Kumar and Hedges, "Time Tree", 2009,
p135. http://timetree.org/pdf/Magallon2
009Chap11.pdf

MORE INFO
[1] "Fruit". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fruit
[2] THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP.
“An Update of the Angiosperm
Phylogeny Group Classification for the
Orders and Families of Flowering
Plants: APG III.” Botanical Journal
of the Linnean Society 161.2 (2009):
105–121. doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339
[3] Kumar, Hedges, "Time Tree of Life",
2009. http://timetree.org/book.php
Israel, Morocco, Libya, and possibly
China 
[1] Description
辽宁古果（Archaefructus
liaoningensis），为迄今发现的最
早的花（早白垩纪），于北京
然博物馆 Date 17:15, 18 October
2006 (UTC) Source Own work Author
Shizhao CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Archaefructus_l
iaoningensis.jpg/1280px-Archaefructus_li
aoningensis.jpg

[2] Figure 2 from: Sun, G. , Dilcher,
D. L. , Zheng, S.-L. & Zhou, Z.-K. In
search of the first flower: A Jurassic
angiosperm, Archaefructus, from
northeast China. Science 282,
1692–1695
(1998). http://www.sciencemag.org/conte
nt/282/5394/1692
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/2896858
COPYRIGHTED
source: Sun, G. , Dilcher, D. L. ,
Zheng, S.-L. & Zhou, Z.-K. In search of
the first flower: A Jurassic
angiosperm, Archaefructus, from
northeast China. Science 282,
1692–1695
(1998). http://www.sciencemag.org/conte
nt/282/5394/1692http://www.jstor.org/sta
ble/2896858
144,000,000 YBN
128) The end of the Jurassic
(201.6-145.5 mybn), and start of the
Cretaceous (145.5-65.5 mybn) Period.2
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^ The geological Society of America
2009 Time
Scale http://www.geosociety.org/science
/timescale/timescl.pdf
2. ^ The geological Society of America
2009 Time
Scale http://www.geosociety.org/science
/timescale/timescl.pdf
 
[1] Geologic Time Scale 2009 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.geosociety.org/scienc
e/timescale/timescl.pdf

[2] 150 Ma Late Jurassic UNKNOWN
source: http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~rcb7/150
_Jurassic_2globes.jpg
143,000,000 YBN
13 14 15 16 17 		6288) The earliest extant Angiosperm
"Amborella".9 10 11 12
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
2. ^ Hwan
Su Yoon, Jeremiah D. Hackett, Claudia
Ciniglia, Gabriele Pinto and Debashish,
"A Molecular Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution, (2004).
3. ^ N Wikstrom,
V Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of
the angiosperms: calibrating the family
tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
4. ^ Grimaldi,
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p612.
5. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas
E. Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
6. ^ Hwan
Su Yoon, Jeremiah D. Hackett, Claudia
Ciniglia, Gabriele Pinto and Debashish,
"A Molecular Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution, (2004).
7. ^ N Wikstrom,
V Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of
the angiosperms: calibrating the family
tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
8. ^ Grimaldi,
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p612.
9. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas
E. Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
10. ^ Hwan
Su Yoon, Jeremiah D. Hackett, Claudia
Ciniglia, Gabriele Pinto and Debashish,
"A Molecular Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution, (2004).
11. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
12. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of
the Insects", 2005, p612.
13. ^ Grimaldi,
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p612.
14. ^ Kumar and Hedges, "Time
Tree", 2009.
http://timetree.org/book.php
15. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001). (175mybn) {179mybn}
16. ^ Jeffrey D.
Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W.
Chase, "The plant tree of life: an
overview and some points of view",
American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004). (175mybn)
17. ^ Hwan
Su Yoon, Jeremiah D. Hackett, Claudia
Ciniglia, Gabriele Pinto and Debashish,
"A Molecular Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution, (2004).
(c100mybn)

MORE INFO
[1] "Fruit". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fruit
[2] Sun, G. , Dilcher, D. L. , Zheng,
S.-L. & Zhou, Z.-K. In search of the
first flower: A Jurassic angiosperm,
Archaefructus, from northeast China.
Science 282, 1692–1695
(1998). http://www.sciencemag.org/conte
nt/282/5394/1692
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/2896858

 
[1] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
''Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree'', Proc
Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/268/1482/2211.abstract COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://rspb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/268/1482/2211.abstract

[2] Photo of Amborella trichopoda
(Amborellaceae; photo © Sangtae Kim).
source: http://tolweb.org/tree?group=ang
iosperms
140,000,000 YBN
10 11 12 13 		247) The Angiosperms Nymphaeales
{niM-FE-A-lEZ7 } evolve, the Water
Lilies.8 9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ based on:
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=nympha
eaceae
2. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
3. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
4. ^ based on:
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=nympha
eaceae
5. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
6. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
7. ^ based on:
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=nympha
eaceae
8. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
9. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
10. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of
the Insects", 2005, p612.
11. ^ Kumar and
Hedges, "Time Tree", 2009.
http://timetree.org/book.php
12. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001). (171mybn)
13. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer,
Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W. Chase,
"The plant tree of life: an overview
and some points of view", American
Journal of Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445.,
(2004). (165mybn)
 
[1] Nymphaea alba Nymphaea alba -
image taken on 29 August 2004 in the
outdoor botanical garden of Technion -
Haifa, Israel public domain
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nym
phaeaceae

[2] Nymphaea colorata from
Africa presume is gnu or pd
source: same
140,000,000 YBN
6 7 		421) The Ornithiscian3 Ceratopsian
dinosaurs evolve (the ancestor of
Triceratops).4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", p116,
2002.
2. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p282.
3. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates",
p116, 2002.
4. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive
Life", 2009, p282.
5. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
6. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p282.
7. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm {80 MYBN}
Mongolia, China5  
[1] Psittacosaurus Palmer, ''The
Marshall Illustrated Encyclopedia of
Dinosaurs & Prehistoric Animals'',
1999, p162-163. COPYRIGHTED
source: Palmer, "The Marshall
Illustrated Encyclopedia of Dinosaurs &
Prehistoric Animals", 1999, p162-163.

[2] Description Protoceratops
andrewsi skeleton at Carnegie Museum of
Natural History. Date 28 November
2009, 14:07 Source
http://www.flickr.com/photos/139061
48@N00/4168549790/ Uploaded by
FunkMonk Author Tadek Kurpaski
from London, Poland CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/7c/Andrewsi.jpg
140,000,000 YBN
15 16 17 18 19 20 		457) The Mammals Marsupials evolve.9
The first nipple and breast.10 11
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p230-237.
2. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p230-237.
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p230-237.
4. ^ Williams, W.R. A
Monograph on Diseases of the Breast:
Their Pathology and Treatment, with
Special Reference to Cancer. Bale,
1894,
p9. http://books.google.com/books?id=QB
01AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA9
5. ^ Loke, Y.W. Life�s Vital Link:
The Astonishing Role of the Placenta.
OUP Oxford,
2013. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ELoP_omQfkoC&pg=PP34
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p230-237.
7. ^ Williams, W.R. A
Monograph on Diseases of the Breast:
Their Pathology and Treatment, with
Special Reference to Cancer. Bale,
1894,
p9. http://books.google.com/books?id=QB
01AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA9
8. ^ Loke, Y.W. Life�s Vital Link:
The Astonishing Role of the Placenta.
OUP Oxford,
2013. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ELoP_omQfkoC&pg=PP34
9. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p230-237.
10. ^ Williams, W.R. A
Monograph on Diseases of the Breast:
Their Pathology and Treatment, with
Special Reference to Cancer. Bale,
1894,
p9. http://books.google.com/books?id=QB
01AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA9
11. ^ Loke, Y.W. Life�s Vital Link:
The Astonishing Role of the Placenta.
OUP Oxford,
2013. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ELoP_omQfkoC&pg=PP34
12. ^ Rincon, Paul (2003-12-12).
"Rincon, P., Oldest Marsupial Ancestor
Found, BBC, Dec 2003". BBC News.
Retrieved
2010-03-16. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/
science/nature/3311911.stm
13. ^ "Pickrell, J., Oldest Marsupial
Fossil Found in China, National
Geographic, December 2003".
News.nationalgeographic.com. Retrieved
2010-03-16.
http://news.nationalgeographic.com/new
s/2003/12/1215_031215_oldestmarsupial.ht
ml
14. ^ "Vertebrate Paleontology:
Sinodelphys szalayi". Carnegie Museum
of Natural History. Retrieved
2010-10-21. http://www.carnegiemnh.org/
vp/sinodelphys.html
15. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p230-237. {140 MYBN}
16. ^
Luo Z, Yuan C, Meng Q & Ji Q (2011), "A
Jurassic eutherian mammal and
divergence of marsupials and
placentals", Nature 476(7361): p.
42–45. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v476/n7361/full/nature10291.html
 {nature10291.pdf} {165MYBN}
17. ^ Hedges, Tree
of Life,
2009 http://timetree.org/pdf/Madsen2009
Chap68.pdf
18. ^ van Rheede, T. et al. The
platypus is in its place: nuclear genes
and Indels confirm the sister group
relation of monotremes and therians.
Mol. Biol. Evol. 23, 587–597 (2006).
{143-178MYBN}
19. ^ Phillips, M. J., Bennett, T. H. &
Lee, M. S. Y. Molecules, morphology,
and ecology indicate a recent,
amphibious ancestry for echidnas. Proc.
Natl Acad. Sci. USA 106, 17089–17094
(2009). {193-186}
20. ^ Palmer, et al.,
"Primitive Life", 2009, p282.
China12 13 14  
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p231. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p231.

[2] Description English: Virginia
Opossum (Didelphis virginiana) in a
juniper tree in northeastern
Ohio. Date 27 December
2008 Source Own work Author
Wilson44691 Permission (Reusing
this file) See below. Other versions
PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6a/Possum122708.JPG
136,000,000 YBN
5 		460) The Birds Enantiornithes
{iNaNTEORNitEZ3 } evolve.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=enanti
ornithes&submit=Submit
2. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/350Aves/350.500.html#Enantiornithes
3. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=enanti
ornithes&submit=Submit
4. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/350Aves/350.500.html#Enantiornithes
5. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/350Aves/350.500.html#Enantiornithes
{136 MYBN (estimate from}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.fossilmuseum.net/Fossil-Pictu
res/Birds/Protopteryx/Protopteryx-fengni
ngensis.htm
 
[1] Protopteryx fengningensis Name:
Protopteryx fengningensis Phylum:
Chordata; Subphylum Vertebrata; Class
Aves; Subclass
Enantiornithes Geological Time:
Early Cretaceous Size: 120 mm long
(tip of skull to tip of toes); Matrix:
85 mm by 141 mm Fossil Site: Yixian
Formation, Fengning County, Hebei
Province of China UNKNOWN
source: http://www.fossilmuseum.net/Foss
il-Pictures/Birds/Protopteryx/CF017A.jpg


[2] Sinornis santensis Artist: James
Reece COPYRIGHTED AUSTRALIA
source: http://www.amonline.net.au/chine
se_dinosaurs/feathered_dinosaurs/photo07
.htm
134,000,000 YBN
14 15 16 		250) The Angiosperms: "Magnoliids"
{maGnOlEiDZ9 } evolve (the ancestor of
nutmeg, avocado, sassafras, cinnamon,
black and white pepper, camphor, bay
(or laurel) tree, and magnolia.10 11
).12 13
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "magnoliid>.". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
"magnoliid." The American Heritage®
Science Dictionary. Houghton Mifflin
Company. 20 May. 2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/m
agnoliid>.
2. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
http://www.amjbot.org/content/91/10/14
37.short
3. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1088868/
4. ^ "magnoliid>.". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
"magnoliid." The American Heritage®
Science Dictionary. Houghton Mifflin
Company. 20 May. 2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/m
agnoliid>.
5. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1088868/
6. ^ "Magnoliid". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnoliid
7. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
8. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001). entire group is called
magnoliids
9. ^ "magnoliid>.". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
"magnoliid." The American Heritage®
Science Dictionary. Houghton Mifflin
Company. 20 May. 2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/m
agnoliid>.
10. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1088868/
11. ^ "Magnoliid". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnoliid
12. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
13. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001). entire group is called
magnoliids
14. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of
the Insects", 2005, p612.
15. ^ Kumar and
Hedges, "Time Tree", 2009.
http://timetree.org/book.php
16. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001). entire group is called
magnoliids {179 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
(128mybn)
 
[1] Magnolia This photo is a part of
the Wikipedia:Plant photo collection
I. Downloaded URL:
http://tencent.homestead.com/files/magno
lia.jpg Warning sign This image has
no source information. Source
information must be provided so that
the copyright status can be verified by
others. Unless the copyright status is
provided and a source is given, the
image will be deleted seven days after
this template was added (see page
history). If you just added this
template, please use {{no source
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mag
noliales

[2] ~~~~~}} (to include the date
here). Please consider using
source: same
133,000,000 YBN
13 14 15 		253) The Angiosperms Eudicots
{YUDIKoTS8 } evolve (the largest
lineage of flowers).9 10

The two main groups of the Eudicots are
the "rosids" and the "asterids".11

Eudicots are also called "tricolpates"
which refers to the structure of the
pollen.12
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "eudicot>.". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
"eudicot." The American Heritage®
Science Dictionary. Houghton Mifflin
Company. 29 Dec. 2011.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/e
udicot>.
2. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
3. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
4. ^ "eudicot>.". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
"eudicot." The American Heritage®
Science Dictionary. Houghton Mifflin
Company. 29 Dec. 2011.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/e
udicot>.
5. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
6. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
7. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
8. ^
"eudicot>.". Dictionary.com Unabridged
(v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
"eudicot." The American Heritage®
Science Dictionary. Houghton Mifflin
Company. 29 Dec. 2011.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/e
udicot>.
9. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
10. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
11. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
12. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
13. ^ Grimaldi,
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p612.
14. ^ Kumar and Hedges, "Time
Tree", 2009.
http://timetree.org/book.php
15. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001). (153mybn) {155 mybn}

MORE INFO
[1] Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
(128mybn)
[2]
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=eudico
t&submit=Submit
 
[1] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
''Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree'', Proc
Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/268/1482/2211.abstract COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://rspb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/268/1482/2211.abstract

[2] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, ''Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree'', Proc
Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/268/1482/2211.abstract COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://rspb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/268/1482/2211.abstract
132,000,000 YBN
3 		462) The Birds Hesperornithiformes
{HeS-Pe-rOR-nit-e-FOR-mEZ1 } evolve.2
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^ "Hesperornithiformes."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 04
Jan. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hesperornit
hiformes
2. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/350Aves/350.500.html#Hesperornithiforme
s (estimate from)
3. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/350Aves/350.500.html#Hesperornithiforme
s (estimate from)
 
[1] Hesperornis. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.savageancientseas.com
/images/labels/hesperornis.jpg

[2] Detail of a painting by Ely Kish,
Copyright © Ely Kish; used with
permission of Ely Kish (EMAIL)
Hesperornis regalis Hesperornis
(pronounced HES-per-OR-nis) means
''western bird''. Toothed marine birds
of the Late Cretaceous
seas COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.oceansofkansas.com/He
sperornis/kish-01.jpg
130,000,000 YBN
7 		375) The Teleosts: Perch, seahorses,
flying fish, pufferfish, and barracuda
evolve.5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=44719&tree=0.1
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
4. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=44719&tree=0.1
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
6. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=44719&tree=0.1
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). {130 MYBN}
 
[1] Adapted from: Richard Dawkins,
''The Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p339. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p339.

[2] Seahorse - Hippocampus
sp. Image ID reef2027, The
Coral Kingdom Collection Location
Gulf of Aqaba, Red Sea Photographer
Mr. Mohammed Al Momany, Aqaba,
Jordan Source
http://www.photolib.noaa.gov/htmls/reef2
027.htm PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/4b/Hippocampus.jpg
130,000,000 YBN
4 		376) The Teleosts: cod and anglerfish
evolve.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004). {130 MYBN}
 
[1] Adapted from: Richard Dawkins,
''The Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p339. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p339.

[2] Fig. 2. The single
most-parsimonious (MP) tree derived
from unweighted analysis of mitogenomic
data comprising concatenated nucleotide
sequences from 12 protein-coding
(excluding the ND6 gene and third codon
positions) and 22 transfer RNA (tRNA)
genes (stem regions only) from all 28
species examined. Tree length, 12,709
steps; consistency index, 0.355;
retention index, 0.471; and rescaled
consistency index, 0.167. Numbers above
and below internal branches indicate
jackknife values obtained for 500
replicates using the heuristic search
option in PAUP*4.0b10 (Swofford, 2002)
with 20 random-addition sequences being
performed in each replication and decay
indices, respectively. The scale
indicates 100 changes. from: Inoue,
JG, Miya, M, Tsukamoto, K, Nishida, M
(2003) ''Basal actinopterygian
relationships: A mitogenomic
perspective on the phylogeny of the
ldquoancient fish.rdquo'' Mol
Phylogenet Evol 26:
110-120 http://www.sciencedirect.com/sc
ience/article/pii/S1055790302003317 COP
YRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/cf/Gadus_morhua-Cod-2-At
lanterhavsparken-Norway.JPG
125,000,000 YBN
9 10 11 12 		163) The Mammals Eutheria evolve:
Placental mammals.4

The Eutheria are mammals that have a
placenta. The placenta is an organ that
forms in the uterus to aid in the
exchange of food and wastes between the
blood of the mother and fetus through
an umbilical cord.5 6

Placental mammals include all living
mammals except marsupials and
monotremes. The placenta allows for a
longer developmental period within the
womb which may give the placentals a
selective advantage.7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Russell F. Doolittle, Da-Fei
Feng, Simon Tsang, Glen Cho, Elizabeth
Little, "Determining Divergence Times
of the Major Kingdoms of Living
Organisms with a Protein Clock",
Science, (1996).
2. ^ Russell F. Doolittle,
Da-Fei Feng, Simon Tsang, Glen Cho,
Elizabeth Little, "Determining
Divergence Times of the Major Kingdoms
of Living Organisms with a Protein
Clock", Science, (1996).
3. ^ Russell F.
Doolittle, Da-Fei Feng, Simon Tsang,
Glen Cho, Elizabeth Little,
"Determining Divergence Times of the
Major Kingdoms of Living Organisms with
a Protein Clock", Science, (1996).
4. ^ Russell
F. Doolittle, Da-Fei Feng, Simon Tsang,
Glen Cho, Elizabeth Little,
"Determining Divergence Times of the
Major Kingdoms of Living Organisms with
a Protein Clock", Science, (1996).
5. ^
"placental mammal". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 24 Oct.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/462577/placental-mammal>.
6. ^ "placenta." The New Dictionary of
Cultural Literacy, Third Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2002.
Answers.com 25 Oct. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/placenta
7. ^ "placental mammal". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 24 Oct.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/462577/placental-mammal>.
8. ^ Luo Z, Yuan C, Meng Q & Ji Q
(2011), "A Jurassic eutherian mammal
and divergence of marsupials and
placentals", Nature 476(7361): p.
42–45. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v476/n7361/full/nature10291.html
 {nature10291.pdf}
9. ^ Luo Z, Yuan C, Meng Q & Ji Q
(2011), "A Jurassic eutherian mammal
and divergence of marsupials and
placentals", Nature 476(7361): p.
42–45. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v476/n7361/full/nature10291.html
 {nature10291.pdf} {160MYBN}
10. ^ Russell F.
Doolittle, Da-Fei Feng, Simon Tsang,
Glen Cho, Elizabeth Little,
"Determining Divergence Times of the
Major Kingdoms of Living Organisms with
a Protein Clock", Science, (1996).
{130MYBN}
11. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p282.
12. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p225.

MORE INFO
[1] Nature. "Ji, Q., et al., The
Earliest Known Eutherian Mammal,
Nature, 416, Pages 816-822, Apr 2002".
Nature.com.
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
416/n6883/full/416816a.html
earliest fossils: (Daxigou) Jianchang
County, Liaoning Province, China8
 
[1] Description English:
Juramaia Date 30 April 2012 Source
Own work Author Nobu Tamura
http://paleoexhibit.blogspot.com/
http://spinops.blogspot.com/
http://www.palaeocritti.com CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/15/Juramaia_NT.jpg

[2] Figure 1 from: Luo Z, Yuan C,
Meng Q & Ji Q (2011), ''A Jurassic
eutherian mammal and divergence of
marsupials and placentals'', Nature
476(7361): p.
42–45. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v476/n7361/full/nature10291.html
{nature10291.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nature.com/nature/journal
/v476/n7361/carousel/nature10291-f1.2.jp
g
125,000,000 YBN
5 6 7 		395) The bird beak evolves.1 2 3
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ Hou L, Zhou Z, Gu Y, Zhang H
(1995a) Confuciusornis sanctus, a new
Late Jurassic sauriurine bird from
China. Chin Sci Bull 40:1545–1551
2. ^ Swisher, Carl C.,
Wang, Yuan-qing, Wang, Xiao-lin, Xu,
Xing, Wang, Yuan. (1999). "Creatceous
age for the feathered dinosaurs of
Liaoning, China". Nature 400:58–61 1
July 1999.
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
400/n6739/abs/400058a0.html
3. ^
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/diapsids/bi
rds/birdfr.html
4. ^ Swisher, Carl C., Wang, Yuan-qing,
Wang, Xiao-lin, Xu, Xing, Wang, Yuan.
(1999). "Creatceous age for the
feathered dinosaurs of Liaoning,
China". Nature 400:58–61 1 July 1999.
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
400/n6739/abs/400058a0.html
5. ^ Swisher, Carl C., Wang, Yuan-qing,
Wang, Xiao-lin, Xu, Xing, Wang, Yuan.
(1999). "Creatceous age for the
feathered dinosaurs of Liaoning,
China". Nature 400:58–61 1 July 1999.
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
400/n6739/abs/400058a0.html {125 MYBN}
6. ^
Smith, Patrick E. et al. “Dates and
rates in ancient lakes: 40Ar–39Ar
evidence for an Early Cretaceous age
for the Jehol Group, northeast
China.” Can. J. Earth Sci. 32.9
(2011) :
1426-1431. http://www.nrcresearchpress.
com/action/showCitFormats?doi=10.1139%2F
e95-115 {145 MYBN}
7. ^ "Jurassic."
McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Science and
Technology. The McGraw-Hill Companies,
Inc., 2005. Answers.com 28 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/jurassic
{145 MYBN}
earliest fossils: (Yixian Formation)
Liaoning Province, northeastern China4
 
[1] Confuciusornis
source: http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/dia
psids/birds/confuciusornislg.jpg

[2] Description Confuciusornis
sanctus skeleton displayed in Hong Kong
Science Museum Date 30 June
2007 CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/78/Confuchisornis_sanctu
s.JPG
120,000,000 YBN
7 		463) The birds Neornithes {nEORnitEZ5 }
evolve (modern birds: the most recent
common ancestor of all extant birds).6

FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=ne
ornithes&submit=Submit
2. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/350Aves/350.800.html#Neornithes
3. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=ne
ornithes&submit=Submit
4. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/350Aves/350.800.html#Neornithes
5. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=ne
ornithes&submit=Submit
6. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/350Aves/350.800.html#Neornithes
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (estimate from) {120
MYBN (estimate from}

MORE INFO
[1] LIVEZEY, BRADLEY C., and
RICHARD L. ZUSI. “Higher-order
phylogeny of modern birds (Theropoda,
Aves: Neornithes) based on comparative
anatomy. II. Analysis and
discussion.” Zoological Journal of
the Linnean Society 149.1 (2007) :
1-95. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/do
i/10.1111/j.1096-3642.2006.00293.x/full
[2] Hackett, Shannon J. et al. “A
Phylogenomic Study of Birds Reveals
Their Evolutionary History.” Science
320.5884 (2008) : 1763 -1768.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763
[3] Brown, Joseph, Joshua Rest, Jaime
G. Moreno, Michael Sorenson, and David
Mindell. "Strong mitochondrial DNA
support for a Cretaceous origin of
modern avian lineages." BMC Biology 6
(January 2008):
6:6. http://www.biomedcentral.com/1741-
7007/6/6
 
[1] aepyornis The same image appears
in: Palmer, The Marshall Illustrated
Encyclopedia of Dinosaurs and
Prehistoric Animals, 1999,
p176. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://photo.starnet.ru/Thematic
_Wallpapers/Zhizn/Dikie_zhivotnye/dinosa
urs_fossils/images/aepyornis.jpg

[2] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p262. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p262.
112,000,000 YBN
15 16 17 		252) The Angiosperms Monocotyledons (or
"Monocots") evolve: Flowering plants
that have a single cotyledon (or seed
leaf) in the embryo.9 10 11

Monocots are the second largest lineage
of flowers after the Eudicots, and
include lilies, palms, orchids, and
grasses.12 13

The two main orders of Monocots are
"Base Monocots" and "Commelinids".14
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
2. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
3. ^ "Monocotyledon", Oxford Dictionary
of Biochemistry,
http://www.answers.com/topic/monocotyled
on
4. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
5. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
6. ^ "Monocotyledon", Oxford Dictionary
of Biochemistry,
http://www.answers.com/topic/monocotyled
on
7. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
8. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
9. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
10. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
11. ^ "Monocotyledon", Oxford
Dictionary of Biochemistry,
http://www.answers.com/topic/monocotyled
on
12. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
13. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
14. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
15. ^
Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of the
Insects", 2005, p612.
16. ^ Kumar and Hedges,
"Time Tree", 2009.
http://timetree.org/book.php
17. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001). (154mybn)

MORE INFO
[1] Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
(128mybn)
 
[1] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
''Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree'', Proc
Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/268/1482/2211.abstract COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://rspb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/268/1482/2211.abstract

[2] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, ''Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree'', Proc
Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/268/1482/2211.abstract COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://rspb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/268/1482/2211.abstract
108,000,000 YBN
13 14 15 		254) The Basal Eudicots evolve (the
ancestor of the buttercup, clematis,
poppy, macadamia, lotus, and
sycamore).9 10 11 12
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
2. ^ S.
Blair Hedges, "The Origin and Evolution
of Model Organisms", Nature Reviews
Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
3. ^ N Wikstrom, V
Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the
angiosperms: calibrating the family
tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
4. ^ Jeffrey D.
Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W.
Chase, "The plant tree of life: an
overview and some points of view",
American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
5. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM
PHYLOGENY GROUP*, "An update of the
Angiosperm Phylogeny Group
classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
6. ^ S.
Blair Hedges, "The Origin and Evolution
of Model Organisms", Nature Reviews
Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
7. ^ N Wikstrom, V
Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the
angiosperms: calibrating the family
tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
8. ^ Jeffrey D.
Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W.
Chase, "The plant tree of life: an
overview and some points of view",
American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
9. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM
PHYLOGENY GROUP*, "An update of the
Angiosperm Phylogeny Group
classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
10. ^ S.
Blair Hedges, "The Origin and Evolution
of Model Organisms", Nature Reviews
Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
11. ^ N Wikstrom, V
Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the
angiosperms: calibrating the family
tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
12. ^ Jeffrey D.
Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W.
Chase, "The plant tree of life: an
overview and some points of view",
American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
13. ^ Grimaldi,
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p612.
14. ^ Kumar and Hedges, "Time
Tree", 2009.
http://timetree.org/book.php
15. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001). (145mybn) {147 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
(128mybn)
[2] wiki
 
[1] Creeping butercup (Ranunculus
repens). GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Creeping_butercup_close_800.jpg

[2] Clematis hybrid from
http://www.ars.usda.gov/is/graphics/phot
os/ public domain
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cle
matis
106,000,000 YBN
16 17 		267) The "Core Eudicots" evolve (the
ancestor of the cactus, caper,
buckwheat, rhubarb, venus flytrap, old
world pitcher plants, beet, quinoa,
spinach, and grape plants).11 12 13 14
15
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
2. ^ S.
Blair Hedges, "The Origin and Evolution
of Model Organisms", Nature Reviews
Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
3. ^ N Wikstrom, V
Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the
angiosperms: calibrating the family
tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/268/1482/2211.abstract
4. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
http://www.jstor.org/stable/4123845
5. ^ wiki
6. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY
GROUP*, "An update of the Angiosperm
Phylogeny Group classification for the
orders and families of flowering
plants: APG II", Botanical Journal of
the Linnean Society Volume 141 Page
399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
7. ^ S.
Blair Hedges, "The Origin and Evolution
of Model Organisms", Nature Reviews
Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
8. ^ N Wikstrom, V
Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the
angiosperms: calibrating the family
tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/268/1482/2211.abstract
9. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
http://www.jstor.org/stable/4123845
10. ^ wiki
11. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY
GROUP*, "An update of the Angiosperm
Phylogeny Group classification for the
orders and families of flowering
plants: APG II", Botanical Journal of
the Linnean Society Volume 141 Page
399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
12. ^ S.
Blair Hedges, "The Origin and Evolution
of Model Organisms", Nature Reviews
Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
13. ^ N Wikstrom, V
Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the
angiosperms: calibrating the family
tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/268/1482/2211.abstract
14. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
http://www.jstor.org/stable/4123845
15. ^ wiki
16. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution
of the Insects", 2005, p612.
17. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/268/1482/2211.abstract (145my)
{124 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
http://www.jstor.org/stable/4123845 (
128mybn)
 
[1] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
''Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree'', Proc
Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/268/1482/2211.abstract COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://rspb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/268/1482/2211.abstract

[2] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, ''Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree'', Proc
Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/268/1482/2211.abstract COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://rspb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/268/1482/2211.abstract
105,000,000 YBN
8 9 10 		491) The Eutheria Afrotheres evolve.5

Afrotheres originate in Africa and are
the earliest extant placental mammals.6

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p224-229.
2. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p224-229.
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p224-229.
4. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p224-229.
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p224-229.
6. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p224-229.
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p224-229.
8. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p224-229. {105 MYBN}
9. ^ Mark S. Springer,
William J. Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and
Stephen J. O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003).
10. ^ Michael J. Benton and Francisco
J. Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003).
Africa7  
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p225. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p225.

[2] Description Afrotheria Date
18 December 2007 Source
self-made, based on:
Image:Orycteropus afer.jpg
Image:Dugong.jpg Image:Elephant
Shrew.jpg Image:Manatee Looking at
the Camera.jpg Image:Taupe
doree.jpg Image:Klippschliefer
Suedafrika Hermanus.jpg
Image:Elefante Lake Manyara Park.jpg
Image:Tanrek.jpg Author
Esculapio GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f0/Afrotheria.jpg
100,000,000 YBN
7 		465) The Birds "Ratites" evolve (the
ancestor of the ostrich, emu, cassowary
{KaSOwaRE5 }, and kiwi).6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=ca
ssowary&submit=Submit
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (estimate from)
3. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=ca
ssowary&submit=Submit
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (estimate from)
5. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=ca
ssowary&submit=Submit
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (estimate from)
7. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004). (estimate from) {100 MYBN
(estimate from}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/350Aves/350.900.html#Ratites
[2] LIVEZEY, BRADLEY C., and RICHARD L.
ZUSI. “Higher-order phylogeny of
modern birds (Theropoda, Aves:
Neornithes) based on comparative
anatomy. II. Analysis and
discussion.” Zoological Journal of
the Linnean Society 149.1 (2007) :
1-95. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/do
i/10.1111/j.1096-3642.2006.00293.x/full
[3] Hackett, Shannon J. et al. “A
Phylogenomic Study of Birds Reveals
Their Evolutionary History.” Science
320.5884 (2008) : 1763 -1768.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763
 
[1] Richard Dawkins, ''The Ancestor's
Tale'', (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p262. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p262.

[2] Description Various Ratite
birds (clockwise from top left): Brown
kiwi Apteryx mantelli, Greater rhea,
double-wattled cassowary Casuarius
casuarius, Haast's eagle attacking New
Zealand moa, Masai ostrich
(photographed in Nairobi National Park,
Kenya). Date 19 June 2007 Source
self-made from
Image:Brown_kiwi.jpg,
Image:Nandu-Portrait 2.jpg,
Image:Casuarius_casuarius_-_double-wattl
ed_cassowary.jpg,
Image:Giant_Haasts_eagle_attacking_New_Z
ealand_moa.jpg, Image:Masai ostrich.jpg
(see original images for copyright
information). Author
Richard001 GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/31/Ratites.PNG
95,000,000 YBN
14 15 16 		498) The Eutheria "Xenarthrans"
{ZeNoRtreNZ9 } evolve (the ancestor of
Sloths, Anteaters, and Armadillos).10
11 12
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=xenart
hran
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p219-223.
3. ^ Mark S. Springer,
William J. Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and
Stephen J. O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003).
4. ^ Michael J. Benton and Francisco J.
Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003).
5. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=xenart
hran
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p219-223.
7. ^ Mark S. Springer,
William J. Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and
Stephen J. O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003).
8. ^ Michael J. Benton and Francisco J.
Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003).
9. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=xenart
hran
10. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p219-223.
11. ^ Mark S. Springer,
William J. Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and
Stephen J. O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003).
12. ^ Michael J. Benton and Francisco
J. Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003).
13. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p219-223.
14. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004),219-223. {95 MYBN}
15. ^ Mark S.
Springer, William J. Murphy, Eduardo
Eizirik, and Stephen J. O'Brien,
"Placental mammal diversification and
the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003).
16. ^ Michael J. Benton and Francisco
J. Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003).

MORE INFO
[1] Cornelis, Guillaume et al.
“Ancestral Capture of syncytin-Car1,
a Fusogenic Endogenous Retroviral
Envelope Gene Involved in Placentation
and Conserved in Carnivora.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences 109.7 (2012):
E432–E441. http://www.pnas.org/conten
t/109/7/E432.abstract
[2] Delsuc, Frédéric et al.
“Molecular Phylogenetics Unveils the
Ancient Evolutionary Origins of the
Enigmatic Fairy Armadillos.”
Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution
62.2 (2012):
673–680. http://www.sciencedirect.com
/science/article/pii/S1055790311004799
[3] Shattuck, Milena R., and Scott A.
Williams. “Arboreality Has Allowed
for the Evolution of Increased
Longevity in Mammals.” Proceedings of
the National Academy of Sciences 107.10
(2010): 4635–4639.
Print. http://www.pnas.org/content/107/
10/4635.abstract
South America13  
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p220. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p220.

[2] Description Hoffmann's Two-toed
Sloth (Choloepus hoffmanni) in
Milwaukee County Zoological
Gardens Date 8 January
2006 Source Flickr Author
Woodsm CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b5/Choloepus_hoffmanni.j
pg
93,000,000 YBN
10 11 12 		256) The Angiosperms: "Rosids" evolve
(Basal Rosids include: the pomegranate,
clove, guava, allspice, and
eucalyptus).7 8 9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
2. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
3. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
4. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
5. ^ N Wikstrom, V
Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the
angiosperms: calibrating the family
tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
6. ^ THE
ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*, "An update
of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group
classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
7. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
8. ^ N Wikstrom, V
Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the
angiosperms: calibrating the family
tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
9. ^ THE
ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*, "An update
of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group
classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
10. ^
Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of the
Insects", 2005, p612.
11. ^ Grimaldi, Engel,
"Evolution of the Insects", 2005, p612.
12. ^
N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001). (122mybn) {117} {109}

MORE INFO
[1] Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
(128mybn)
 
[1] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
''Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree'', Proc
Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/268/1482/2211.abstract COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://rspb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/268/1482/2211.abstract

[2] A photo of the tree Staphylea
colchica taken by me in Århus, Denmark
GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cro
ssosomatales
93,000,000 YBN
13 14 		261) The Rosids "Fabales" {FoBAlEZ9 }
evolve (the ancestor of beans, pea,
peanut, soy, and lentil).10 11 12
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=fabace
ae
2. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
3. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
4. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
5. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=fabace
ae
6. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
7. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
8. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
9. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=fabace
ae
10. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
11. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
12. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
13. ^ Grimaldi,
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p612.
14. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen,
MW Chase, "Evolution of the
angiosperms: calibrating the family
tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001). {94 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
(128mybn)
[2] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001). (102mybn)
 
[1] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
''Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree'', Proc
Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/268/1482/2211.abstract COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://rspb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/268/1482/2211.abstract

[2] Abrus precatorius (Black-eyed
Susan) USGS public domain
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abr
us
93,000,000 YBN
7 8 9 10 		265) The Monocots "Base Monocots"
evolve (the ancestor of vanilla,
orchid, asparagus, onion, garlic,
agave, aloe, and lily).5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
2. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
3. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
4. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
5. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
6. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
7. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of the
Insects", 2005, p612.
8. ^ Grimaldi, Engel,
"Evolution of the Insects", 2005, p612.
9. ^
Kumar and Hedges, "Time Tree", 2009.
http://timetree.org/book.php
10. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001). (153my) {141 MYBN} {154 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
(128mybn)
[2] Stevens, P.F. (2001 onwards),
Angiosperm Phylogeny
Website. http://www.mobot.org/MOBOT/res
earch/APweb/welcome.html
 
[1] Sweet Flag (Acorus calamus) -
spadix Spadix of Sweet Flag. usgs
public domain
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aco
rus

[2] Ivy Duckweed (Lemna
trisulca) Name Lemna
trisulca Family Lemnaceae
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ali
smatales
93,000,000 YBN
13 14 		266) The Monocots "Commelinids"
{KomelIniDZ9 } evolve (the ancestor of
palms, coconut, corn, rice, barley,
oat, wheat, rye, sugarcane, bamboo,
grass, pineapple, papyrus, turmeric
{TRmRiK10 }, banana, and ginger).11 12

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Commelinidae." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/commelinida
e
2. ^ "turmeric." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 06
Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/turmeric
3. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
4. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
5. ^ "Commelinidae." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/commelinida
e
6. ^ "turmeric." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 06
Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/turmeric
7. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
8. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
9. ^ "Commelinidae." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/commelinida
e
10. ^ "turmeric." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 06
Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/turmeric
11. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
12. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
13. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of
the Insects", 2005, p612.
14. ^ N Wikstrom, V
Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the
angiosperms: calibrating the family
tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001). (153my)
{94 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
(128mybn)
 
[1] Manila dwarf coconut palm from
http://www.ars.usda.gov/is/graphics/phot
os/ Manila dwarf coconut palm
thumbnail A Manila dwarf coconut palm
on the grounds of the Tropical
Agriculture Research Station in
Mayaguez, Puerto Rico. dept of
ag public domain
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Are
cales

[2] coconut GOV public domain
source: http://www.nps.gov/kaho/KAHOckLs
/KAHOplnt/images/IMG_03957.jpg
93,000,000 YBN
16 17 		275) The Basal Asterids "Ericales"
{AReKAlEZ11 12 } evolve (the ancestor
of the kiwifruit, ebony, persimmon,
blueberry, cranberry, brazil nut, new
world pitcher plant, and tea).13 14 15

FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=ericac
eae&submit=Submit
2. ^ "Ericales." McGraw-Hill Dictionary
of Scientific and Technical Terms.
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003.
Answers.com 02 Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ericales-1
3. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
4. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
5. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
6. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=ericac
eae&submit=Submit
7. ^ "Ericales." McGraw-Hill Dictionary
of Scientific and Technical Terms.
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003.
Answers.com 02 Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ericales-1
8. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
9. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
10. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
11. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=ericac
eae&submit=Submit
12. ^ "Ericales." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 02 Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ericales-1
13. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
14. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
15. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
16. ^ Grimaldi,
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p612.
17. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen,
MW Chase, "Evolution of the
angiosperms: calibrating the family
tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001). {113
MYBN} {100 MYBN} {114 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
(128mybn)
[2] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001). (102mybn)
 
[1] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
''Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree'', Proc
Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/268/1482/2211.abstract COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://rspb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/268/1482/2211.abstract

[2] Actinidia fruit. kiwifruit. public
domain
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Aethionema_grandiflora0.jpg
93,000,000 YBN
13 14 		283) The Asterids "Apiales" {APEAlEZ9 }
evolve (the ancestor of dill, celery,
cilantro, carrot, parsnip, fennel,
parsley, and ivy).10 11 12
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=apiace
ae+&submit=Submit
2. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
3. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
4. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
5. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=apiace
ae+&submit=Submit
6. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
7. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
8. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
9. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=apiace
ae+&submit=Submit
10. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
11. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
12. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
13. ^ Grimaldi,
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p612.
14. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen,
MW Chase, "Evolution of the
angiosperms: calibrating the family
tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001). (102mybn)
{95 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
(128mybn)
 
[1] Variegated Ground-elder (Aegopodium
podagraria L.) in flower. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ground-elder_bloom.jpg

[2] An established spread of
variegated Ground-elder (Aegopodium
podagraria L.). GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ground-elder.jpg
93,000,000 YBN
13 14 		285) The Asterids "Asterales"
{aSTRAlEZ9 } evolve (the ancestor of
tarragon, daisy, artichoke, sunflower,
lettuce, and dandelion).10 11 12
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ "Asterales." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/asterales
2. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
3. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
4. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
5. ^ "Asterales."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 30
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/asterales
6. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
7. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
8. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
9. ^ "Asterales."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 30
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/asterales
10. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
11. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
12. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
13. ^ Grimaldi,
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p612.
14. ^ wiki

MORE INFO
[1] Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
(128mybn)
[2] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001). (102mybn)
 
[1] Ray floret, typical for flowers of
the family Asteraceae. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ray.floret01.jpg

[2] disc floret, typical part of a
flower of the family Asteraceae. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Disc_floret01.jpg
91,000,000 YBN
15 16 		259) The Rosids: "Malpighiales"
{maLPiGEAlEZ10 } evolve 11 12 13 (the
ancestor of coca, rubber tree, cassava,
poinsettia, willow, poplar, and
aspen).14
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Malpighiaceae." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/malpighiace
ae-1
2. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
3. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
4. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
5. ^
"Malpighiaceae." McGraw-Hill Dictionary
of Scientific and Technical Terms.
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003.
Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/malpighiace
ae-1
6. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
7. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
8. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
9. ^ wiki
10. ^
"Malpighiaceae." McGraw-Hill Dictionary
of Scientific and Technical Terms.
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003.
Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/malpighiace
ae-1
11. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
12. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
13. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
14. ^ wiki
15. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001). {90 MYBN} {81 MYBN} {91 MYBN}
16. ^
Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of the
Insects", 2005, p612.

MORE INFO
[1] Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
(128mybn)
[2] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001). (102mybn)
 
[1] mangosteen public domain
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gar
cinia

[2] Mangosteen fruit public domain
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Man
gosteen
90,000,000 YBN
16 		270) The Rosids "Brassicales"
{BraSiKAlEZ11 } evolve (the ancestor of
horseradish, mustard, cabbage,
broccoli, radish, and papaya).12 13 14
15
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=brassi
cacea
2. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
3. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
4. ^
wiki
5. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
6. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=brassi
cacea
7. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
8. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
9. ^
wiki
10. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
11. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=brassi
cacea
12. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
13. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
14. ^
wiki
15. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
16. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001). {88 MYBN} {90 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
(128mybn)
[2] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001). (102my)
 
[1] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
''Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree'', Proc
Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/268/1482/2211.abstract COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://rspb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/268/1482/2211.abstract

[2] Aethionema grandiflora, GFDL by
Kurt Stueber
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Aethionema_grandiflora0.jpg
89,000,000 YBN
13 14 		262) The Rosids "Rosales" {ROZAlEZ9 }
evolve (the ancestor of hemp, hop,
jackfruit, fig, strawberry, rose,
raspberry, apple, pear, plum, cherry,
peach, and almond).10 11 12
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Rosales." McGraw-Hill Dictionary
of Scientific and Technical Terms.
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003.
Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/rosales-1
2. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
3. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
4. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
5. ^ "Rosales."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 30
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/rosales-1
6. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
7. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
8. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
9. ^ "Rosales."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 30
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/rosales-1
10. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
11. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
12. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
13. ^ N Wikstrom, V
Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the
angiosperms: calibrating the family
tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001). {87 MYBN}
{76 MYBN} {89 MYBN}
14. ^ Grimaldi, Engel,
"Evolution of the Insects", 2005, p612.

MORE INFO
[1] Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
(128mybn)
[2] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001). (102mybn)
 
[1] Filipendula ulmaria, GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fil
ipendula

[2] A display of different apples,
We've even worked on bashless
bagging-packaging systems that are used
by wholesalers to bring you apples
without bruises. US ARS public domain
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/App
le
89,000,000 YBN
14 		279) The Asterids "Gentianales"
{JeNsinAlEZ9 } evolve10 11 12 (the
ancestor of oleander, and coffee).13
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ "Gentianales." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gentianales
-1
2. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
3. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
4. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
5. ^ "Gentianales."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 30
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gentianales
-1
6. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
7. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
8. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
9. ^ "Gentianales."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 30
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gentianales
-1
10. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
11. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
12. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
13. ^ wiki
14. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001). {87 MYBN} {89 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
(128mybn)
[2] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001). (102mybn)
 
[1] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
''Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree'', Proc
Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/268/1482/2211.abstract COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://rspb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/268/1482/2211.abstract

[2] Anthocleista grandiflora. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Anthocleista_grandiflora.jpg
86,000,000 YBN
13 		278) The Asterids "Solanales"
{SOlanAlEZ9 } evolve (the ancestor of
bell pepper, tomato, tobacco, potato,
and eggplant).10 11 12
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=solana
cea
2. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
3. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
4. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
5. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=solana
cea
6. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
7. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
8. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
9. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=solana
cea
10. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
11. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
12. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
13. ^ N Wikstrom, V
Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the
angiosperms: calibrating the family
tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001). {87 MYBN}
{86 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
(128mybn)
[2] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001). (102mybn)
Americas 
[1] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
''Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree'', Proc
Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/268/1482/2211.abstract COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://rspb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/268/1482/2211.abstract

[2] Atropa belladonna. Deadly
nightshade. GFDL by Kurt Stueber
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Atropa_bella-donna1.jpg
85,000,000 YBN
13 14 		263) The Rosids "Cucurbitales"
(KYUKRBiTAlEZ9 } evolve (the ancestor
of melon, cucumber, pumpkin, squash,
and zucchini).10 11 12
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "cucurbit." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 30
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cucurbit
2. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
3. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
4. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
5. ^ "cucurbit."
The American Heritage® Dictionary of
the English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cucurbit
6. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
7. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
8. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
9. ^ "cucurbit."
The American Heritage® Dictionary of
the English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cucurbit
10. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
11. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
12. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
13. ^ N Wikstrom, V
Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the
angiosperms: calibrating the family
tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001). {85 MYBN}
{65 MYBN}
14. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution
of the Insects", 2005, p612.

MORE INFO
[1] Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
(128mybn)
[2] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001). (102mybn)
Americas 
[1] White bryony (Bryonia dioica). GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:White_bryony_male_800.jpg

[2] watermelon public domain
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Vampire_watermelon.jpg
85,000,000 YBN
15 16 		264) The Rosids "Fagales" {FaGAlEZ10 }
evolve (the ancestor of many flowers
that produce edible nuts: for example
Birch, Hazel {nut}, Chestnut, Beech
{nut}, Oak, Walnut, Pecan {PEKoN11 },
and Hickory).12 13 14
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Fagales." McGraw-Hill Dictionary
of Scientific and Technical Terms.
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003.
Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/fagales-1
2. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
3. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
4. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
5. ^
"Fagales." McGraw-Hill Dictionary of
Scientific and Technical Terms.
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003.
Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/fagales-1
6. ^ "pecan." The American Heritage�
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 04 Jan.
2013. http://www.answers.com/topic/peca
7. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas
E. Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
8. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
9. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
10. ^
"Fagales." McGraw-Hill Dictionary of
Scientific and Technical Terms.
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003.
Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/fagales-1
11. ^ "pecan." The American Heritage�
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 04 Jan.
2013. http://www.answers.com/topic/peca
12. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas
E. Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
13. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
14. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
15. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004). {85 MYBN}
{61 MYBN}
16. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution
of the Insects", 2005, p612.

MORE INFO
[1] Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
(128mybn)
[2] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001). (102my)
 
[1] Alnus serrulata (Tag Alder) Male
catkins on right, mature female catkins
left Johnsonville, South Carolina GFDL
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Tagalder8139.jpg

[2] Speckled Alder (Alnus incana
subsp. rugosa) - leaves GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Alnus_incana_rugosa_leaves.jpg
85,000,000 YBN
7 		466) The Birds "Galliformes"
{GaLliFORmEZ5 } evolve (the ancestor of
the Chicken, Turkey, Pheasant, Peacock,
and Quail).6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=gallif
ormes&submit=Submit
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=gallif
ormes&submit=Submit
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
5. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=gallif
ormes&submit=Submit
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). {85 MYBN
(estimate from}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/360Galloanserae/360.100.html#Galloanser
ae
 
[1] Richard Dawkins, ''The Ancestor's
Tale'', (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p262. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p262.

[2] Description English: Meleagris
gallopavo (Wild Turkey) Date 30
July 2006 Source Own work Author
MONGO PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/69/Meleagris_gallopavo_W
ild_Turkey.jpg
85,000,000 YBN
7 		467) The Birds "Anseriformes"
{aNSRiFORmEZ5 } evolve (the ancestor of
ducks, geese, and swans).6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Anseriformes." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/anseriforme
s-1 and
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=anse
riformes&submit=Submit
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^ "Anseriformes."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 30
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/anseriforme
s-1 and
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=anse
riformes&submit=Submit
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
5. ^ "Anseriformes."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 30
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/anseriforme
s-1 and
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=anse
riformes&submit=Submit
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). {85 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/360Galloanserae/360.500.html#Anseriform
es
 
[1] Richard Dawkins, ''The Ancestor's
Tale'', (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p262. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p262.

[2] Description English: Pair of
Wood Ducks Date 18 April
2007 Source
http://flickr.com/photos/sherseydc/
1623995158/ Author
http://www.flickr.com/people/sherse
ydc/ CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/08/Pair_of_Wood_Ducks.jp
g
85,000,000 YBN
8 9 		499) The Eutheria "Laurasiatheres"
evolve.4

The Laurasiatheres are a major line of
placental mammals5 that originate in
the northern continent Laurasia.6
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p199-218.
2. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p199-218.
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p199-218.
4. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p199-218.
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p199-218.
6. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p199-218.
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p199-218.
8. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004), p200.
{85 MYBN}
9. ^ Michael J. Benton and
Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the Tree of
Life", Science, (2003).

MORE INFO
[1] Mark S. Springer, William J.
Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003)
Laurasia7  
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p200. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p200.

[2] Description Mamíferos
(mammals), based on:
Image:Giraffa camelopardalis angolensis
(head).jpg Image:Golden crowned
fruit bat.jpg
Image:Hedgehog-en.jpg Image:Lion
waiting in Nambia.jpg All of them
under a free licence already in
Wikicommons Date
11-01-2008 Source
Compilation made by myself,
Authors of the photos see
below. Author Hans Hillewaert
(Giraffe); (Bat) Original uploader was
Latorilla at en.wikipedia;
(Hedgehog-en) John Mittler at
777Life.com Free Image Archive; (Lion)
yaaaay CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a5/Mam%C3%ADferos.jpg
84,000,000 YBN
454) The Rocky mountains start to
form.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
2. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
 
[1] 90 Ma Late Cretaceous UNKNOWN
source: http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~rcb7/090
_Cretaceous_3globes.jpg

[2] A satellite image of Canada taken
in Summer. Snow cover is still
prominent in the Artic and on the Rocky
Mountains. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.virtualamericas.net/c
anada/maps/canada-satellite.jpg
82,000,000 YBN
20 		271) The Rosids "Malvales" {moLVAlEZ13
} evolve (the ancestor of okra, marsh
mallow {malO14 }, durian {DUREiN15 },
cotton, balsa, and cacao {KoKoU16 }.17
18 19
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Malvales." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/malvales-1
2. ^ "cacao." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 06 Sep.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cacao
3. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
4. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
5. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
6. ^ "Malvales."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 30
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/malvales-1
7. ^ "mallow." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 13 Jun.
2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/m
allow>.
8. ^ "Durian", The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia Copyright ©
2004. Licensed from Columbia
University Press
http://www.reference.com/browse/Durian
?s=ts
9. ^ "cacao." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 06 Sep.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cacao
10. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
11. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
12. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
13. ^ "Malvales."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 30
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/malvales-1
14. ^ "mallow." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 13 Jun.
2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/m
allow>.
15. ^ "Durian", The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia Copyright ©
2004. Licensed from Columbia
University Press
http://www.reference.com/browse/Durian
?s=ts
16. ^ "cacao." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 06 Sep.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cacao
17. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
18. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
19. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
20. ^ N Wikstrom, V
Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the
angiosperms: calibrating the family
tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001). {83 MYBN}
{68 MYBN} {82 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
(128mybn)
[2] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001). (102my)
[3] wiki
Americas 
[1] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
''Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree'', Proc
Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/268/1482/2211.abstract COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://rspb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/268/1482/2211.abstract

[2] Bixa orellana L., floro en Lavras,
Minas Gerais, Brazilo, GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Aethionema_grandiflora0.jpg
82,000,000 YBN
16 		272) The Rosids "Sapindales"
{SaPiNDAlEZ11 } evolve (the ancestor of
the maple, lychee, mahogany, cashew,
mango, pistachio, and the citrus trees:
orange, lemon, and grapefruit).12 13 14
15
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Sapindales." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sapindales-
1
and http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=s
apindaceae
2. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
3. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
4. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
5. ^ wiki
6. ^
"Sapindales." McGraw-Hill Dictionary of
Scientific and Technical Terms.
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003.
Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sapindales-
1
and http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=s
apindaceae
7. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
8. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
9. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
10. ^ wiki
11. ^
"Sapindales." McGraw-Hill Dictionary of
Scientific and Technical Terms.
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003.
Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sapindales-
1
and http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=s
apindaceae
12. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
13. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
14. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
15. ^ wiki
16. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001). {80 MYBN} {61 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
(128mybn)
[2] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001). (102mybn)
Americas 
[1] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
''Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree'', Proc
Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/268/1482/2211.abstract COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Aethionema_grandiflora0.jpg

[2] Field Maple foliage and flowers,
Acer campestre. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Acer-campestre.JPG
82,000,000 YBN
420) The Ornithopods {ORnitePoDZ3 }
Hadrosaurs evolve; the duck-billed
dinosaurs.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "ornithopod." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 16
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ornithopod
2. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
3. ^ "ornithopod." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 16
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ornithopod
4. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
 
[1] Description Parasaurolophus
cyrtocristatus skeleton, Field
Museum. Date 1 October 2006,
00:00 Source Field Museum
Dinosaur Author Lisa Andres from
Riverside, USA Permission (Reusing
this file) See below. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/14/Parasaurolophus_cyrto
cristatus.jpg

[2] Description English: A
clickable image of the
en:Hadrosauroidea. Illustration by
en:User:Debivort. The
en:Hadrosaurids comprise the dinosaurs
commonly known as ''duck-billed''
dinosaurs. They were common herbivores
during the en:Cretaceous period, and
prey to en:therapods such as
en:Tyrannosaurus. Spectacular fossils
of hadrosaurs have been found,
including mummified specimens in which
soft tissue was preserved, skin
impressions, tracks of footprints, and
nest sites that demonstrate the animals
had parental care of offspring. Animals
are shown to scale. A crisp diagram
showing the evolutionary relationships
between the tribes of the
Hadrosauroidea, with representative
individuals shown to scale. Conveys the
diversity of the group. Every dinosaur
shown has passed review for scientific
accuracy at en:Wikipedia:WikiProject
Dinosaurs/Image review. The
individual drawings are genera, and the
branches of the tree go down to tribe.
All these groups were alive in the late
Cretaceous, and are generally known
only from a single fossil
site en:Category:Approved
dinosaur images en:Category:Approved
dinosaur scale diagrams Date
2007-06-21 (first version);
2007-10-14 (last version) Source
Originally from en.wikipedia;
description page is/was here. Author
Original uploader was Debivort at
en.wikipedia GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/14/Hadrosaur-tree-v4.jpg

82,000,000 YBN
7 8 		500) The Laurasiatheres "Insectivora"
evolves (the ancestor of shrews, moles,
and hedgehogs).5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p199-218.
2. ^ Michael J. Benton
and Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the
Tree of Life", Science, (2003).
3. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004), p199-218.
4. ^ Michael J. Benton and
Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the Tree of
Life", Science, (2003).
5. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p199-218.
6. ^ Michael J. Benton and Francisco J.
Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003).
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p199-218. {82
MYBN}
8. ^ Michael J. Benton and Francisco J.
Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003).

MORE INFO
[1] Mark S. Springer, William J.
Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003)
[2] "Laurasiatheria". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laurasiathe
ria
 
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p200. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p200.

[2] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p200. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p200.
80,000,000 YBN
7 		422) The Therapods {tERePoDZ4 }
Dromaeosaurs {DrOmEoSORZ5 } evolve:
Raptors.6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "theropod." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 15
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/theropod
2. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=dromae
osaur&submit=Submit
3. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
4. ^ "theropod." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 15
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/theropod
5. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=dromae
osaur&submit=Submit
6. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
7. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm {80 MYBN}
 
[1] Buitreraptor (foreground) and
Deinonychus (background) skeletons on
display at the Field Museum of Natural
History in Chicago, Illinois. Taken
August 2006 by my girlfriend, C.
Horwitz, and uploaded with permission
under the GFDL. —Steven G.
Johnson GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/29/Buitreraptor-Deinonyc
hus.jpg

[2] Description Digital +
graphite drawing of Velociraptor
mongoliensis Date 4 August
2006 Source image from
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Veloc
iraptor_dinoguy2.jpg Author Matt
Martyniuk GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/cd/Velociraptor_dinoguy2
.jpg
80,000,000 YBN
8 		482) The Marsupials: New World Opossums
evolve.5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p230-237.
2. ^ Hedges and Kumar,
Time Tree of Life,
2009. http://timetree.org/pdf/Springer2
009Chap70.pdf
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p230-237.
4. ^ Hedges and Kumar,
Time Tree of Life,
2009. http://timetree.org/pdf/Springer2
009Chap70.pdf
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p230-237.
6. ^ Hedges and Kumar,
Time Tree of Life,
2009. http://timetree.org/pdf/Springer2
009Chap70.pdf
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p230-237.
8. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p230-237. {80 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] "Didelphimorphia". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Didelphimor
phia
Americas7  
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p231. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p231.

[2] Description English: North
American Opossum with winter
coat. Français : Opossum de Virginie
en livrée d'hiver. Deutsch: Ein
Nordopossum (Didelphis virginiana) im
Winterfell Date 21 February
2007 Source
Wikipedia:User:Cody.pope Author
Cody Pope CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/27/Opossum_2.jpg
75,000,000 YBN
5 6 7 		492) The Afrotheres: Aardvarks evolve.3

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). {75 MYBN}
6. ^ Mark S.
Springer, William J. Murphy, Eduardo
Eizirik, and Stephen J. O'Brien,
"Placental mammal diversification and
the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003).
7. ^ Michael J. Benton and Francisco J.
Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003).
Africa4  
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p225. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p225.

[2] Description An aardvark at
Detroit Zoo Date 15 April
2008 Source Cropped from
File:Porcs formiguers (Orycteropus
afer).jpg Author MontageMan is
the author of the original image, I did
the crop Permission (Reusing this
file) See below. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8a/Porc_formiguer.JPG
74,000,000 YBN
15 		280) The Asterids "Lamiales"
{lAmEAlEZ10 } evolve (the ancestor of
many spices: mint, basil, marjoram
{moRJ uruM11 }, oregano, rosemary,
sage, savory, thyme, teak, sesame,
olive, ash, lilac and jasmine).12 13 14

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Lamiales." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/lamiales
2. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
3. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
4. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
5. ^ "Lamiales."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 30
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/lamiales
6. ^ "marjoram." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 16
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/marjoram
7. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
8. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
9. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
10. ^ "Lamiales."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 30
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/lamiales
11. ^ "marjoram." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 16
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/marjoram
12. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
13. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
14. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
15. ^ N Wikstrom, V
Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the
angiosperms: calibrating the family
tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001). (102my)
{74 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
(128mybn)
 
[1] Common Bugle (Ajuga reptans) GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ajuga-reptans01.jpg

[2] Calamintha grandiflora. GFDL by
Kurt Stueber
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Calamintha_grandiflora2.jpg
73,000,000 YBN
8 		484) The Marsupials: Bandicoots and
Bilbies {BiLBEZ5 } evolve.6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=bi
lby&submit=Submit
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=bi
lby&submit=Submit
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
5. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=bi
lby&submit=Submit
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
8. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). {73
MYBN}
Australia7  
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p231. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p231.

[2] Description Eastern Barred
Bandicoot (Perameles gunnii), Poimena
Reserve, Austin's Ferry, Tasmania,
Australia. The photo taken at night
with off camera flashes. Date 31
July 2010 Source Own work Author
Noodle snacks
(http://www.noodlesnacks.com/) CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8b/Perameles_gunni.jpg
70,000,000 YBN
10 		424) Two of the largest meat-eating
dinosaurs known are common (both
Therapods {tERePoDZ5 }): Tyrannosaurus
rex {TiraNiSORuS reKS6 } is the top
predator in North America and
Giganotosaurus {JiGuNOTuSORuS7 } is the
top predator in South America.8
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ "theropod." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 15
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/theropod
2. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=tyrann
osaurus+rex&submit=Submit
3. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=gigano
tosaurus&submit=Submit
4. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
5. ^ "theropod." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 15
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/theropod
6. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=tyrann
osaurus+rex&submit=Submit
7. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=gigano
tosaurus&submit=Submit
8. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
9. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
10. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm {70 MYBN}
Americas9  
[1] Description English: View of the
fossil/cast Tyranausaurus Rex at the
Royal Tyrell Museum in Alberta, Canada.
The image has been modified to remove
background persons and
objects. Français : Le fossile du
Tyranausaurus Rex dans le Royal Tyrell
Museum en Alberta au Canada. L'image a
été modifié pour enlever les
personnes et objets en arrière
plan. Date 27 June 2010 Source
Own work Author Pierre
Camateros CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a8/Fossil_Tyranausaurus_
Rex_at_the_Royal_Tyrell_Museum%2C_Albert
a%2C_Canada.jpg

[2] Description English: The
Wonderful Paleo Art of Heinrich Harder
- Illustrations for Die Wunder der
Urwelt 1912 Date 1912 Source
http://www.copyrightexpired.com/Hei
nrich_Harder/gigantosaurus_dwdu_1912.htm
l Author Heinrich Harder
(1858-1935) Permission (Reusing this
file) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/92/500_gigantosaurus_dwd
u1912cropped.jpg
70,000,000 YBN
4 		425) The Thyreophoran {tIRrEoFereNZ1 }
Ankylosaurs {ANKilOSORZ2 } evolve (the
shield back and/or club tail
dinosaurs).3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=thyreo
phora&submit=Submit
2. ^ "ankylosaur." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 16
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ankylosauru
s
3. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
4. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm {70 MYBN}
 
[1] Description the image shows an
edmontonia. a sort of dinosaur Date
5 July 2006 Source the image
i did myself based on the images found
here: [1], [2],[3] and [4] Author
Mariana Ruiz (aka:LadyofHats) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/92/Edmontonia_dinosaur.p
ng

[2] Description the image shows
an edmontonia. a sort of dinosaur Date
5 July 2006 Source the image
i did myself based on the images found
here: [1], [2],[3] and [4] Author
Mariana Ruiz (aka:LadyofHats) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/92/Edmontonia_dinosaur.p
ng
70,000,000 YBN
426) The Marine reptiles Mosasaurs
{mOSeSORZ4 } evolve.5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "mosasaur." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 16
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/mosasaur
2. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
3. ^ "Mosasaurs". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosasaurs
4. ^ "mosasaur." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 16
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/mosasaur
5. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
6. ^ "Mosasaurs". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosasaurs
 
[1] Description English: Mosasaurus
skeleton; Maastricht Natural History
Museum, The Netherlands. Date 9
August 2010 Source Own
work Author
Wilson44691 Permission (Reusing
this file) See
below. Photograph taken by Mark A.
Wilson (Department of Geology, The
College of Wooster). PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/06/MosasaurMaastricht080
910.JPG

[2] Restoration of Aigialosaurus
bucchichi, a basal
mosasaur Description Aigialosaurus
bucchichi Date 2009 Source Own
work Author FunkMonk (Michael B.
H.) CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Aigialosaurus_b
ucchichi.jpg/1280px-Aigialosaurus_bucchi
chi.jpg
70,000,000 YBN
7 		469) The Birds "Podicipediformes"
{PoDiSiPeDeFORmEZ4 } evolve (grebes
{GreBS5 }).6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Podicipediformes." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 23 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/podicipedif
ormes-1
2. ^ "grebe." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 03 Jun.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/grebe
3. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record
2)
4. ^ "Podicipediformes." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 23 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/podicipedif
ormes-1
5. ^ "grebe." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 03 Jun.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/grebe
6. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record
2)
7. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record
2) {70 MYBN (need to check with fossil
record 2}
 
[1] Fig. 4. Our phylogeny differs from
and agrees with previous
classifications. We merged
well-supported (>70% bootstrap values)
monophyletic clades at the tips with
the same ordinal designation across all
three classifications (e.g., 24 species
called Passerines). Only higher
relationships supported by bootstrap
values >50% are shown. Colors are as in
Fig. 2. Color bars to the right of the
tree show membership in three different
classifications: Peters' (25) (left),
Sibley and Monroe's (30) (middle), and
Livezey and Zusi's (13) (right). Black
text within the bars indicates
monophyletic orders in our phylogeny,
whereas white text within the bars
indicates nonmonophyletic orders.
Ordinal name codes: ANS (Anseriformes),
APO (Apodiformes), APT
(Apterygiformes), ARD (Ardeiformes),
BAL (Balaenicipitiformes), BUC
(Bucerotiformes), CAP
(Caprimulgiformes), CAS
(Casuariiformes), CHA
(Charadriiformes), CIC (Ciconiiformes),
CLM (Columbiformes), COL (Coliiformes),
COR (Coraciiformes), CRA (Craciformes),
CUC (Cuculiformes), FAL
(Falconiformes), GAL (Galliformes), GAV
(Gaviiformes), GLB (Galbuliformes), GRU
(Gruiformes), MUS (Musophagiformes),
OPI (Opisthocomiformes), PAS
(Passeriformes), PEL (Pelecaniformes),
PIC (Piciformes), POD
(Podicipediformes), PRO
(Procellariiformes), PSI
(Psittaciformes), RAL (Ralliformes),
RHE (Rheiformes), SPH
(Sphenisciformes), STH
(Struthioniformes), STR (Strigiformes),
TIN (Tinamiformes), TRC
(Trochiliformes), TRO (Trogoniformes),
TUR (Turniciformes), and UPU
(Upupiformes). Figure 4
from: Hackett, Shannon J. et al. “A
Phylogenomic Study of Birds Reveals
Their Evolutionary History.” Science
320.5884 (2008) : 1763 -1768.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763/F4.large.jpg

[2] Description Podiceps
nigricollis English: Black-necked
Grebe, Jan. 2007, Ibaraki
JAPAN 日本語:
ハジロカイツブリ 2007年1月
茨城県神栖市波崎
(投稿者自身による撮影) Date
5 January 2007 Source photo
taken by Maga-chan Author
Maga-chan CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/66/Podiceps_nigricollis_
001.jpg
70,000,000 YBN
8 9 		507) The Eutheria Lagomorpha
{loGomORFo5 } evolve: the ancestor of
Rabbits, Hares, and Pikas {PIKuZ6 }.7
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^ "pika." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 06 Sep.
2011. http://www.answers.com/topic/pika
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ "pika." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 06 Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pika
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
5. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=lagomo
rpha&submit=Submit
6. ^ "pika." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 06 Sep.
2011. http://www.answers.com/topic/pika
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
8. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). {70
MYBN}
9. ^ Palmer, et al, "Primitive Life",
2009, p360.

MORE INFO
[1] Michael J. Benton and
Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the Tree of
Life", Science, (2003)
 
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p187. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p187.

[2] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p187. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p187.
70,000,000 YBN
7 		516) The Eutheria Tree Shrews and
Colugos {KolUGOZ5 } evolve.6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "colugo." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 30 Dec.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/colugo-1
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^ "colugo." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 30
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/colugo-1
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
5. ^ "colugo." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 30
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/colugo-1
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). {70 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Mark S. Springer, William J.
Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003)
[2] "Euarchontoglires". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euarchontog
lires
[3] "Colugo". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colugo
[4] Michael J. Benton and Francisco J.
Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003)
[5] http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/
[6] "Colugos". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colugos
 
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p182. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p182.

[2] Description English: Indian
Tree-shrew (Anathana ellioti) in
Yercaud, India. Date Taken on
film in the 1990s - scanned on
2005-09-26 (according to EXIF
data) Source Photographed by S.
Karthikeyan ( palmfly at gmail . com )
Please contact author for usage of any
higher resolution images. Author
S. Karthikeyan CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/78/Anathana_ellioti.jpg
66,000,000 YBN
5 		120) The largest Pterosaur and largest
flying animal ever known,
Quetzalcoatlus {KeTZLKWoTLuS3 }.4
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=quetza
lcoatl
2. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
3. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=quetza
lcoatl
4. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
5. ^ Wellnhofer, "Pterosaurs", 1991,
p142.
 
[1] Description English: fossil of
Quetzalcoatlus, an extinct
pterosaur Date June 2009 Source
Own work Author
Ghedoghedo GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/ab/Quetzalcoatlus_1.JPG

[2] Description Size comparison
of the azhdarchid pterosaurs
Quetzalcoatlus northropi and
Quetzalcoatlus unnamed species, with a
human. Modified from a diagram featured
in Witton and Naish (2008). Date
29 May 2008 Source Own
work Author Matt Martyniuk
(Dinoguy2), Mark Witton and Darren
Naish CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e5/Quetzscale1.png
65,500,000 YBN
9 		129) The End-Cretaceous mass
extinction. 47% of all genera are
observed extinct.3

Made extinct are: 60% of plant species,
and all dinosaurs, mosasaurs,
pterosaurs, plesiosaurs {PlESEoSORZ4 }
and pliosaurs {PlIoSORZ5 }.6

A comet or meteor collides with the
Earth in what is now the Yucatan
{YUKoTaN7 } Peninsula of Mexico and
huge amounts of lava erupt from India.
No large animals survive on land, in
the air, or in the sea.8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ David Jablonski and W. G.
Chaloner,"Extinctions in the Fossil
Record (and Discussion)", Philosophical
Transactions: Biological Sciences, Vol.
344, No. 1307, Estimating Extinction
Rates: Sir Joseph Banks Anniversary
Meeting (Apr. 29, 1994), pp.
11-17. http://www.jstor.org/stable/5614
8
2. ^ David Jablonski and W. G.
Chaloner,"Extinctions in the Fossil
Record (and Discussion)", Philosophical
Transactions: Biological Sciences, Vol.
344, No. 1307, Estimating Extinction
Rates: Sir Joseph Banks Anniversary
Meeting (Apr. 29, 1994), pp.
11-17. http://www.jstor.org/stable/5614
8
3. ^ David Jablonski and W. G.
Chaloner,"Extinctions in the Fossil
Record (and Discussion)", Philosophical
Transactions: Biological Sciences, Vol.
344, No. 1307, Estimating Extinction
Rates: Sir Joseph Banks Anniversary
Meeting (Apr. 29, 1994), pp.
11-17. http://www.jstor.org/stable/5614
8
4. ^ "plesiosaur." The American
Heritage� Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 05
Jan. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/plesiosaur
5. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=pliosa
ur&submit=Submit
6. ^ Palmer, et al, "Primitive Life",
2009, p283.
7. ^ "Yucatán." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 06
Jan. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/yucat-n
8. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
9. ^
http://io.uwinnipeg.ca/~simmons/16cm05/1
116/16macro.htm {65.5 MYBN}
 
[1] Cretaceous meteor impact. Benjamin
Cummings. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://io.uwinnipeg.ca/~simmons/
16cm05/1116/16macro.htm

[2] Cretaceous meteor impact. Benjamin
Cummings. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://io.uwinnipeg.ca/~simmons/
16cm05/1116/16macro.htm
65,500,000 YBN
4 		397) The end of the Mesozoic and start
of the Cenozoic Era, and the end of the
Cretaceous (145.5-65.5 mybn), and start
of the Tertiary (65.5-1.8 mybn)
Period.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Tertiary period." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2012.
Answers.com 17 Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/tertiary-1
2. ^ The geological Society of America
2009 Time
Scale http://www.geosociety.org/science
/timescale/timescl.pdf
3. ^ The geological Society of America
2009 Time
Scale http://www.geosociety.org/science
/timescale/timescl.pdf
4. ^ The geological Society of America
2009 Time
Scale http://www.geosociety.org/science
/timescale/timescl.pdf
 
[1] Geologic Time Scale 2009 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.geosociety.org/scienc
e/timescale/timescl.pdf

[2] 65 Ma K-T Boundary -
Tertiary/Cretaceous UNKNOWN
source: http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~rcb7/065
_K_Tboundary_3globes.jpg
65,000,000 YBN
3 4 		429) The start of the rapid
diversification of mammals.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p360.
2. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive
Life", 2009, p360.
3. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm {65 MYBN}
4. ^ Palmer, et al.,
"Primitive Life", 2009, p360.
 
[1] UNKNOWN
source: http://bp0.blogger.com/_AejGb2Gc
r_o/SIlTsz-2RrI/AAAAAAAAAAY/8b_-LPsmDbc/
s1600/mammal3.jpg

[2] Fig 3.46 from: Kardong,
''Vertebrates'', 2002,
p123. COPYRIGHTED
source: from: Kardong, "Vertebrates",
2002, p123.
65,000,000 YBN
8 		468) The Birds "Gruiformes"
{GrUiFORmEZ5 } evolve (the ancestor of
cranes, rails, and bustards {BuSTRDZ6
}).7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Gruiformes." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gruiformes-
1
2. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record
2)
3. ^ "Gruiformes." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gruiformes-
1
4. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record
2)
5. ^ "Gruiformes." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gruiformes-
1
6. ^ "bustard." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 05 Jan.
2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/b
ustard>.
7. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record
2)
8. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record
2)
 
[1] Fig. 4. Our phylogeny differs from
and agrees with previous
classifications. We merged
well-supported (>70% bootstrap values)
monophyletic clades at the tips with
the same ordinal designation across all
three classifications (e.g., 24 species
called Passerines). Only higher
relationships supported by bootstrap
values >50% are shown. Colors are as in
Fig. 2. Color bars to the right of the
tree show membership in three different
classifications: Peters' (25) (left),
Sibley and Monroe's (30) (middle), and
Livezey and Zusi's (13) (right). Black
text within the bars indicates
monophyletic orders in our phylogeny,
whereas white text within the bars
indicates nonmonophyletic orders.
Ordinal name codes: ANS (Anseriformes),
APO (Apodiformes), APT
(Apterygiformes), ARD (Ardeiformes),
BAL (Balaenicipitiformes), BUC
(Bucerotiformes), CAP
(Caprimulgiformes), CAS
(Casuariiformes), CHA
(Charadriiformes), CIC (Ciconiiformes),
CLM (Columbiformes), COL (Coliiformes),
COR (Coraciiformes), CRA (Craciformes),
CUC (Cuculiformes), FAL
(Falconiformes), GAL (Galliformes), GAV
(Gaviiformes), GLB (Galbuliformes), GRU
(Gruiformes), MUS (Musophagiformes),
OPI (Opisthocomiformes), PAS
(Passeriformes), PEL (Pelecaniformes),
PIC (Piciformes), POD
(Podicipediformes), PRO
(Procellariiformes), PSI
(Psittaciformes), RAL (Ralliformes),
RHE (Rheiformes), SPH
(Sphenisciformes), STH
(Struthioniformes), STR (Strigiformes),
TIN (Tinamiformes), TRC
(Trochiliformes), TRO (Trogoniformes),
TUR (Turniciformes), and UPU
(Upupiformes). Figure 4
from: Hackett, Shannon J. et al. “A
Phylogenomic Study of Birds Reveals
Their Evolutionary History.” Science
320.5884 (2008) : 1763 -1768.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763/F4.large.jpg

[2] By Aaron Logan, from
http://www.lightmatter.net/gallery/album
s.php w:en:Creative
Commons attribution CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8d/Grey_Crowned_Crane.jp
g
65,000,000 YBN
5 		485) Marsupial moles evolve.3
FOOTNOTES

1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). {65 MYBN}
Australia4  
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p231. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p231.

[2] English: The southern marsupial
mole (Notoryctes typhlops). Date
Originally uploaded to
pl.wikipedia on 10 May 2006. Source
Own work; originally from
pl.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. Author Bartus.malec at
pl.wikipedia. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/4b/Notoryctes_typhlops.j
pg
65,000,000 YBN
8 		486) The Marsupials Tasmanian Devil and
Numbat {nuMBaT5 } evolve.6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=nu
mbat&submit=Submit
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=nu
mbat&submit=Submit
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
5. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=nu
mbat&submit=Submit
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
8. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). {65
MYBN}
Australia7  
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p231. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p231.

[2] Description English: Quoll
imaged at a rescue park, Tasmania,
Austrailia, probably Tiger Quoll
(Dasyurus maculatus), indicated by
spots on tail Photographer's note.
This is a lucky through-the-fence shot
using an old Sony camera as the animal
was quite active. The small size of the
lens is a distinct advantage in this
case (my Canon xTi would not have been
able to get the
shot). Category:Dasyurus
maculatus Date Taken November 18,
2008, uploaded December 28, 2008 (28
December 2008 (original upload
date)) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia; transferred to Commons by
User:Berichard using CommonsHelper. PD

source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f6/Dasyurus_maculatus.jp
g
65,000,000 YBN
8 		488) The Marsupials "Diprotodontia"
{DIPrOTODoNsEu5 } evolve (the ancestor
of Wombats, Kangeroos, Possums, and
Koalas).6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=diprot
odontia&submit=Submit
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=diprot
odontia&submit=Submit
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
5. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=diprot
odontia&submit=Submit
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
8. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). {65
MYBN}
Australia7  
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p231. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p231.

[2] Eastern Grey Kangaroo with
joey PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0d/Kangaroo_and_joey03.j
pg
65,000,000 YBN
18 19 		508) The Eutheria "Rodentia" evolve;
rodents.
The Rodents: "Myomorpha" {MIemORFu13 }
evolve (the ancestor of rats, mice,
gerbils, voles {VOLZ14 }, lemmings, and
hamsters).15 16 17
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/
3. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p360.
4. ^ "vole." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 30
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/vole
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
6. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/
7. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p360.
8. ^ "Myomorpha." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/myomorpha-2

9. ^ "vole." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 30 Dec.
2011. http://www.answers.com/topic/vole
10. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
11. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/
12. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p360.
13. ^ "Myomorpha." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/myomorpha-2

14. ^ "vole." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 30 Dec.
2011. http://www.answers.com/topic/vole
15. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
16. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/
17. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p360.
18. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). {65 MYBN}
19. ^
Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life", 2009,
p360.

MORE INFO
[1] Mark S. Springer, William J.
Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003)
[2] "Euarchontoglires". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euarchontog
lires
[3] "Placentalia". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Placentalia

[4] Michael J. Benton and Francisco J.
Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003)
 
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p187. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p187.

[2] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p187. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p187.
63,000,000 YBN
7 		587) The Primates evolve.4 The
opposable thumb.

The Order primates contains more than
300 species, including monkeys, apes,
and humans.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
5. ^ "primate." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 30 Jul.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/primate
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). (=63my) {63
MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://anthro.palomar.edu/earlyprimates/
first_primates.htm
[2]
http://www.cnrs.fr/cw/fr/pres/compress/T
oumai/Tounaigb/lienparengb.html
Africa or India6  
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p168. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p168.

[2] Description English: Gray
slender loris (Loris lydekkerianus)
photographed at Dindigal in Tamil
Nadu. Date 27 June 2008 Source
Own work Author Kalyan Varma
(Kalyanvarma) GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8f/Slender_Loris.jpg
60,000,000 YBN
10 11 		470) The Birds "Strigiformes"
{STriJiFORmEZ7 } evolve (owls).8 9
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ "Strigiformes." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/strigiforme
s-1
2. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record
2)
3. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p360.
4. ^ "Strigiformes." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/strigiforme
s-1
5. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record
2)
6. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p360.
7. ^ "Strigiformes." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/strigiforme
s-1
8. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record
2)
9. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p360.
10. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive
Life", 2009, p360.
11. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record
2) {65 MYBN(need to check with fossil
record 2}

MORE INFO
[1] Hackett, Shannon J. et al.
“A Phylogenomic Study of Birds
Reveals Their Evolutionary History.”
Science 320.5884 (2008) : 1763 -1768.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763
[2] LIVEZEY, BRADLEY C., and RICHARD L.
ZUSI. “Higher-order phylogeny of
modern birds (Theropoda, Aves:
Neornithes) based on comparative
anatomy. II. Analysis and
discussion.” Zoological Journal of
the Linnean Society 149.1 (2007) :
1-95. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/do
i/10.1111/j.1096-3642.2006.00293.x/full
 
[1] Fig. 4. Our phylogeny differs from
and agrees with previous
classifications. We merged
well-supported (>70% bootstrap values)
monophyletic clades at the tips with
the same ordinal designation across all
three classifications (e.g., 24 species
called Passerines). Only higher
relationships supported by bootstrap
values >50% are shown. Colors are as in
Fig. 2. Color bars to the right of the
tree show membership in three different
classifications: Peters' (25) (left),
Sibley and Monroe's (30) (middle), and
Livezey and Zusi's (13) (right). Black
text within the bars indicates
monophyletic orders in our phylogeny,
whereas white text within the bars
indicates nonmonophyletic orders.
Ordinal name codes: ANS (Anseriformes),
APO (Apodiformes), APT
(Apterygiformes), ARD (Ardeiformes),
BAL (Balaenicipitiformes), BUC
(Bucerotiformes), CAP
(Caprimulgiformes), CAS
(Casuariiformes), CHA
(Charadriiformes), CIC (Ciconiiformes),
CLM (Columbiformes), COL (Coliiformes),
COR (Coraciiformes), CRA (Craciformes),
CUC (Cuculiformes), FAL
(Falconiformes), GAL (Galliformes), GAV
(Gaviiformes), GLB (Galbuliformes), GRU
(Gruiformes), MUS (Musophagiformes),
OPI (Opisthocomiformes), PAS
(Passeriformes), PEL (Pelecaniformes),
PIC (Piciformes), POD
(Podicipediformes), PRO
(Procellariiformes), PSI
(Psittaciformes), RAL (Ralliformes),
RHE (Rheiformes), SPH
(Sphenisciformes), STH
(Struthioniformes), STR (Strigiformes),
TIN (Tinamiformes), TRC
(Trochiliformes), TRO (Trogoniformes),
TUR (Turniciformes), and UPU
(Upupiformes). Figure 4
from: Hackett, Shannon J. et al. “A
Phylogenomic Study of Birds Reveals
Their Evolutionary History.” Science
320.5884 (2008) : 1763 -1768.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763/F4.large.jpg

[2] Description Athene
noctua English: Little owl Español:
Mochuelo Date 2011-02-27 07:27
(UTC) Source
Athene_noctua_(portrait).jpg Author
Athene_noctua_(portrait).jpg:
Trebol-a derivative work:
Stemonitis (talk) CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/39/Athene_noctua_%28crop
ped%29.jpg
60,000,000 YBN
11 12 13 		504) The Laurasiatheres "Carnivora"
{KoRniVRu7 } evolve (the ancestor of
Cats, Dogs, Bears, Weasels, Hyenas,
Seals, and Walruses).8 9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "carnivora?s=t&ld=1089".
Dictionary.com Unabridged (v 1.1).
Random House, Inc.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/c
arnivora?s=t&ld=1089
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^ Michael J. Benton and
Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the Tree of
Life", Science, (2003).
4. ^
"carnivora?s=t&ld=1089". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.

http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/c
arnivora?s=t&ld=1089
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
6. ^ Michael J. Benton and
Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the Tree of
Life", Science, (2003).
7. ^
"carnivora?s=t&ld=1089". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.

http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/c
arnivora?s=t&ld=1089
8. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
9. ^ Michael J. Benton and
Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the Tree of
Life", Science, (2003).
10. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
11. ^ Palmer,
et al., "Primitive Life", 2009, p360.
12. ^
Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004). {75 MYBN}
13. ^ Michael J. Benton and
Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the Tree of
Life", Science, (2003).

MORE INFO
[1] Mark S. Springer, William J.
Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003)
[2] "Laurasiatheria". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laurasiathe
ria
Laurasia10  
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p200. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p200.

[2] Description English:
Two-spotted palm civet Nandinia
binotata mounted specimen in Manchester
Museum Date 2008-07-28 (original
upload date) (Original text : July
2008) GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5a/14-nandinia_binotata.
JPG
58,000,000 YBN
7 		524) The Primates: Tarsiers {ToRSERZ5 }
evolve.6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "tarsier." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 06
Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/tarsier
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^ "tarsier." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 06
Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/tarsier
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
5. ^ "tarsier." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 06
Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/tarsier
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). {58 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Mark S. Springer, William J.
Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003)
[2] Michael J. Benton and Francisco J.
Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003)
[3] "Euarchontoglires".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euarchontog
lires
[4] "Placentalia". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Placentalia

[5] "Tarsier". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarsier
 
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p164. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p164.

[2] Description Tarsius syrichta
(Philippine Tarsier) Date
- Source
http://www.sxc.hu/photo/490924 Aut
hor Jasper Greek Golangco PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1d/Tarsius_Syrichta-GG.j
pg
55,000,000 YBN
10 11 		471) The Birds "Apodiformes"
{oPoD-i-FORmEZ7 } evolve (hummingbirds,
and swifts).8 9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Apodiformes." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/apodiformes
-1 AND
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=apod
iformes&submit=Submit
2. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record
2)
3. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p360.
4. ^ "Apodiformes." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/apodiformes
-1 AND
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=apod
iformes&submit=Submit
5. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record
2)
6. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p360.
7. ^ "Apodiformes." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/apodiformes
-1 AND
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=apod
iformes&submit=Submit
8. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record
2)
9. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p360.
10. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive
Life", 2009, p360.
11. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record
2) {37 MYBN (need to check with fossil
record 2}
 
[1] Fig. 4. Our phylogeny differs from
and agrees with previous
classifications. We merged
well-supported (>70% bootstrap values)
monophyletic clades at the tips with
the same ordinal designation across all
three classifications (e.g., 24 species
called Passerines). Only higher
relationships supported by bootstrap
values >50% are shown. Colors are as in
Fig. 2. Color bars to the right of the
tree show membership in three different
classifications: Peters' (25) (left),
Sibley and Monroe's (30) (middle), and
Livezey and Zusi's (13) (right). Black
text within the bars indicates
monophyletic orders in our phylogeny,
whereas white text within the bars
indicates nonmonophyletic orders.
Ordinal name codes: ANS (Anseriformes),
APO (Apodiformes), APT
(Apterygiformes), ARD (Ardeiformes),
BAL (Balaenicipitiformes), BUC
(Bucerotiformes), CAP
(Caprimulgiformes), CAS
(Casuariiformes), CHA
(Charadriiformes), CIC (Ciconiiformes),
CLM (Columbiformes), COL (Coliiformes),
COR (Coraciiformes), CRA (Craciformes),
CUC (Cuculiformes), FAL
(Falconiformes), GAL (Galliformes), GAV
(Gaviiformes), GLB (Galbuliformes), GRU
(Gruiformes), MUS (Musophagiformes),
OPI (Opisthocomiformes), PAS
(Passeriformes), PEL (Pelecaniformes),
PIC (Piciformes), POD
(Podicipediformes), PRO
(Procellariiformes), PSI
(Psittaciformes), RAL (Ralliformes),
RHE (Rheiformes), SPH
(Sphenisciformes), STH
(Struthioniformes), STR (Strigiformes),
TIN (Tinamiformes), TRC
(Trochiliformes), TRO (Trogoniformes),
TUR (Turniciformes), and UPU
(Upupiformes). Figure 4
from: Hackett, Shannon J. et al. “A
Phylogenomic Study of Birds Reveals
Their Evolutionary History.” Science
320.5884 (2008) : 1763 -1768.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763/F4.large.jpg

[2] Description Ruby-throated
hummingbird public domain USFWA Date
11 February 2003 Source
Cropped from U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service Digital Library
System Author Steve Maslowski PD

source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/87/Rubythroathummer65.jp
g
55,000,000 YBN
10 11 		476) The Birds "Piciformes"
{PESiFORmEZ7 } evolve (woodpeckers, and
toucans).8 9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Piciformes." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/piciformes-
1
AND http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=p
iciformes&submit=Submit
2. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record
2)
3. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p360.
4. ^ "Piciformes." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/piciformes-
1
AND http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=p
iciformes&submit=Submit
5. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record
2)
6. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p360.
7. ^ "Piciformes." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/piciformes-
1
AND http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=p
iciformes&submit=Submit
8. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record
2)
9. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p360.
10. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive
Life", 2009, p360.
11. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record
2) {37 MYBN (need to check with fossil
record 2}

MORE INFO
[1] Hackett, Shannon J. et al.
“A Phylogenomic Study of Birds
Reveals Their Evolutionary History.”
Science 320.5884 (2008) : 1763 -1768.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763
 
[1] Fig. 4. Our phylogeny differs from
and agrees with previous
classifications. We merged
well-supported (>70% bootstrap values)
monophyletic clades at the tips with
the same ordinal designation across all
three classifications (e.g., 24 species
called Passerines). Only higher
relationships supported by bootstrap
values >50% are shown. Colors are as in
Fig. 2. Color bars to the right of the
tree show membership in three different
classifications: Peters' (25) (left),
Sibley and Monroe's (30) (middle), and
Livezey and Zusi's (13) (right). Black
text within the bars indicates
monophyletic orders in our phylogeny,
whereas white text within the bars
indicates nonmonophyletic orders.
Ordinal name codes: ANS (Anseriformes),
APO (Apodiformes), APT
(Apterygiformes), ARD (Ardeiformes),
BAL (Balaenicipitiformes), BUC
(Bucerotiformes), CAP
(Caprimulgiformes), CAS
(Casuariiformes), CHA
(Charadriiformes), CIC (Ciconiiformes),
CLM (Columbiformes), COL (Coliiformes),
COR (Coraciiformes), CRA (Craciformes),
CUC (Cuculiformes), FAL
(Falconiformes), GAL (Galliformes), GAV
(Gaviiformes), GLB (Galbuliformes), GRU
(Gruiformes), MUS (Musophagiformes),
OPI (Opisthocomiformes), PAS
(Passeriformes), PEL (Pelecaniformes),
PIC (Piciformes), POD
(Podicipediformes), PRO
(Procellariiformes), PSI
(Psittaciformes), RAL (Ralliformes),
RHE (Rheiformes), SPH
(Sphenisciformes), STH
(Struthioniformes), STR (Strigiformes),
TIN (Tinamiformes), TRC
(Trochiliformes), TRO (Trogoniformes),
TUR (Turniciformes), and UPU
(Upupiformes). Figure 4
from: Hackett, Shannon J. et al. “A
Phylogenomic Study of Birds Reveals
Their Evolutionary History.” Science
320.5884 (2008) : 1763 -1768.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763/F4.large.jpg

[2] Description Hispaniolan
Woodpecker / Melanerpes striatus Date
20 January 2004 Source
http://www.pbase.com/wwcsig/image/4
1280575 Author Wolfgang
Wander GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1b/Melanerpes_striatus00
1.jpg
55,000,000 YBN
16 17 		477) The Birds "Passeriformes"
{PaSRiFORmEZ9 } evolve (perching
songbirds). This order includes many
common birds: for example crows, jays,
sparrows, warblers, mockingbirds,
wrens, robins, orioles, bluebirds,
vireos {VEREOZ10 }, larks, swallows,
and finches.11 12

More than half of all species of birds
are passerines.13
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Passeriformes." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/passeriform
es-1
AND http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=p
asseriformes&submit=Submit
2. ^ "vireo." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 06 Sep.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/vireo
3. ^ "Passeriformes". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passeriform
es
4. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p360.
5. ^ "Passeriformes." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/passeriform
es-1
AND http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=p
asseriformes&submit=Submit
6. ^ "vireo." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 06 Sep.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/vireo
7. ^ "Passeriformes". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passeriform
es
8. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p360.
9. ^ "Passeriformes." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/passeriform
es-1
AND http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=p
asseriformes&submit=Submit
10. ^ "vireo." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 06 Sep.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/vireo
11. ^ "Passeriformes". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passeriform
es
12. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p360.
13. ^ "Passeriformes". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passeriform
es
14. ^ Boles, Walter E. (1997): Fossil
Songbirds (Passeriformes) from the
Early Eocene of Australia. Emu '97'(1):
43–50. doi:10.1071/MU97004
15. ^ L. Christidis, A.
Cooper, M. Irestedt, et al., "A
Gondwanan origin of passerine birds
supported by DNA sequences of the
endemic New Zealand wrens" Proceedings
of the Royal Society B, February
2002:235–241.
16. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p360.
17. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record
2)

MORE INFO
[1] Ericson, Per G. P. et al.
“A Gondwanan Origin of Passerine
Birds Supported by DNA Sequences of the
Endemic New Zealand Wrens.”
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London. Series B: Biological Sciences
269.1488 (2002):
235–241. http://rspb.royalsocietypubl
ishing.org/content/269/1488/235.abstract

earliest fossils: Australia14
|Gondwana15  
[1] Fig. 4. Our phylogeny differs from
and agrees with previous
classifications. We merged
well-supported (>70% bootstrap values)
monophyletic clades at the tips with
the same ordinal designation across all
three classifications (e.g., 24 species
called Passerines). Only higher
relationships supported by bootstrap
values >50% are shown. Colors are as in
Fig. 2. Color bars to the right of the
tree show membership in three different
classifications: Peters' (25) (left),
Sibley and Monroe's (30) (middle), and
Livezey and Zusi's (13) (right). Black
text within the bars indicates
monophyletic orders in our phylogeny,
whereas white text within the bars
indicates nonmonophyletic orders.
Ordinal name codes: ANS (Anseriformes),
APO (Apodiformes), APT
(Apterygiformes), ARD (Ardeiformes),
BAL (Balaenicipitiformes), BUC
(Bucerotiformes), CAP
(Caprimulgiformes), CAS
(Casuariiformes), CHA
(Charadriiformes), CIC (Ciconiiformes),
CLM (Columbiformes), COL (Coliiformes),
COR (Coraciiformes), CRA (Craciformes),
CUC (Cuculiformes), FAL
(Falconiformes), GAL (Galliformes), GAV
(Gaviiformes), GLB (Galbuliformes), GRU
(Gruiformes), MUS (Musophagiformes),
OPI (Opisthocomiformes), PAS
(Passeriformes), PEL (Pelecaniformes),
PIC (Piciformes), POD
(Podicipediformes), PRO
(Procellariiformes), PSI
(Psittaciformes), RAL (Ralliformes),
RHE (Rheiformes), SPH
(Sphenisciformes), STH
(Struthioniformes), STR (Strigiformes),
TIN (Tinamiformes), TRC
(Trochiliformes), TRO (Trogoniformes),
TUR (Turniciformes), and UPU
(Upupiformes). Figure 4
from: Hackett, Shannon J. et al. “A
Phylogenomic Study of Birds Reveals
Their Evolutionary History.” Science
320.5884 (2008) : 1763 -1768.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763/F4.large.jpg

[2] Western Bluebirds (female on
left) Irvine, CA PD
source: http://tedhuntington.com/bluebir
ds.jpg
55,000,000 YBN
9 10 11 12 		495) The Afrotheres Elephants evolve.5
6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Mark S. Springer, William J.
Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003).
2. ^ Michael J. Benton and Francisco J.
Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003).
3. ^ Mark S. Springer, William
J. Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen
J. O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003).
4. ^ Michael J. Benton and Francisco J.
Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003).
5. ^ Mark S. Springer, William
J. Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen
J. O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003).
6. ^ Michael J. Benton and Francisco J.
Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003).
7. ^ Delmer, C., Mahboubi, M.,
Tabuce, R. & Tassy, P. 2006. "A new
species of Moeritherium (Proboscidae,
Mammalia) from the Eocene of Algeria:
new perspectives on the ancestral
morphotype of the genus." Palaeontology
49 (2),
421-434. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com
/doi/10.1111/j.1475-4983.2006.00548.x/ab
stract
8. ^ Mark S. Springer, William J.
Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003).
9. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p360.
10. ^ Mark S. Springer, William
J. Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen
J. O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003). {62 MYBN}
11. ^ Michael J. Benton and
Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the Tree of
Life", Science, (2003).
12. ^ Palmer, D., ed.
(1999). The Marshall Illustrated
Encyclopedia of Dinosaurs and
Prehistoric Animals. London: Marshall
Editions. p. 238. ISBN 1-84028-152-9.

MORE INFO
[1] Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004)
Algeria, Africa7 |Africa8  
[1] Description Moeritherium Date
1920 (probably) Source The Wonderful
Paleo Art of Heinrich Harder Author
Heinrich Harder (1858-1935) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/97/Moeritherium.jpg

[2] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p225. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p225.
55,000,000 YBN
7 8 9 10 		497) The Afrotheres: Manatee and Dugong
evolve.4 5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Mark S. Springer, William
J. Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen
J. O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003).
3. ^ Michael J. Benton and Francisco J.
Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003).
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
5. ^ Mark S. Springer,
William J. Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and
Stephen J. O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003).
6. ^ Michael J. Benton and Francisco J.
Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003).
7. ^ Palmer, et al.,
"Primitive Life", 2009, p360.
8. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004). {59 MYBN}
9. ^ Mark S. Springer,
William J. Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and
Stephen J. O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003).
10. ^ Michael J. Benton and Francisco
J. Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003).
 
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p225. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p225.

[2] Description Trichechus
manatus English: This group of three
West Indian manatees (Trichechus
manatus) was photographed while feeding
on seagrass. Date Source from
http://www.csc.noaa.gov/benthic/resource
s/gallery/life/manatee.htm Author
PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/81/Manatee.jpg
55,000,000 YBN
27 28 29 		502) The Laurasiatheres
"Cetartiodactyla" {SiToRTEODaKTilu17 }
evolve (the ancestor of all
Artiodactyla {oRTEODaKTiLu18 } also
called "even-toed ungulates"19 :
camels, pigs, ruminants {includes deer,
giraffe, cattle, sheep, and antelope20
}, hippos, and all Cetacea {SiTASEu or
SiTAsEu21 }: Whales, and Dolphins).22
23 24

Hippos are the closest living land
relative of the whales and dolphins.25

FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=cetart
iodactyla&submit=Submit
2. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=artiod
actyla&submit=Submit
3. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=cetace
a&submit=Submit
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p199-218.
5. ^ Michael J. Benton
and Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the
Tree of Life", Science, (2003).
6. ^
"Cetartiodactyla", Oxford Dictionary
for Scientific Writers and Editors. New
Oxford Dictionary for Scientific
Writers and Editors. ©
1991 http://www.answers.com/topic/cetar
tiodactyla
7. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=cetart
iodactyla&submit=Submit
8. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=artiod
actyla&submit=Submit
9. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=ungula
te&submit=Submit
10. ^ "ungulate." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 16
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ungulate
11. ^ "artiodactyla." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 08 Jan. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/artiodactyl
a-1
12. ^ "artiodactyla." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 08 Jan. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/artiodactyl
a-1
13. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=cetace
a&submit=Submit
14. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p199-218.
15. ^ Michael J. Benton
and Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the
Tree of Life", Science, (2003).
16. ^
"Cetartiodactyla", Oxford Dictionary
for Scientific Writers and Editors. New
Oxford Dictionary for Scientific
Writers and Editors. ©
1991 http://www.answers.com/topic/cetar
tiodactyla
17. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=cetart
iodactyla&submit=Submit
18. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=artiod
actyla&submit=Submit
19. ^ "artiodactyla." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 08 Jan. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/artiodactyl
a-1
20. ^ "artiodactyla." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 08 Jan. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/artiodactyl
a-1
21. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=cetace
a&submit=Submit
22. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p199-218.
23. ^ Michael J. Benton
and Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the
Tree of Life", Science, (2003).
24. ^
"Cetartiodactyla", Oxford Dictionary
for Scientific Writers and Editors. New
Oxford Dictionary for Scientific
Writers and Editors. ©
1991 http://www.answers.com/topic/cetar
tiodactyla
25. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p199-218.
26. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p199-218.
27. ^ Palmer et al, "Primitive Life",
2009, p360.
28. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p199-218. {78
MYBN}
29. ^ Michael J. Benton and Francisco
J. Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003).

MORE INFO
[1] Mark S. Springer, William J.
Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003)
[2] "Laurasiatheria". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laurasiathe
ria
Laurasia26  
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p200. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p200.

[2] [t may or may not be
accurate] Description Pakicetus
inachus, a whale ancestor from the
Early Eocene of Pakistan, after
Nummelai et al., (2006), pencil
drawing, digital coloring Date 29
November 2007 Source Own
work Author Nobu Tamura
email:nobu.tamura@yahoo.com
www.palaeocritti.com GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/34/Pakicetus_BW.jpg
55,000,000 YBN
20 21 22 		503) The Laurasiatheres
"Perissodactyla" {PeriSODaKTilu12 }
evolve (also called "odd-toed
ungulates"13 ) {uNGYUlATS14 or
uNGYUliTS15 } (the ancestor of all
Horses, Tapirs {TAPRZ 16 }, and
Rhinos).17 18
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Perissodactyla." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/perissodact
yla-2
2. ^ "tapir." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 06 Sep.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/tapir
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p199-218.
4. ^ Michael J. Benton
and Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the
Tree of Life", Science, (2003).
5. ^
"Perissodactyla." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/perissodact
yla-2
6. ^ "ungulate." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 02 Jun.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ungulate
7. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=ungula
te&submit=Submit
8. ^ "ungulate." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 16
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ungulate
9. ^ "tapir." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 06 Sep.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/tapir
10. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p199-218.
11. ^ Michael J. Benton
and Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the
Tree of Life", Science, (2003).
12. ^
"Perissodactyla." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/perissodact
yla-2
13. ^ "ungulate." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 02 Jun.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ungulate
14. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=ungula
te&submit=Submit
15. ^ "ungulate." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 16
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ungulate
16. ^ "tapir." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 06 Sep.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/tapir
17. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p199-218.
18. ^ Michael J. Benton
and Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the
Tree of Life", Science, (2003).
19. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004), p199-218.
20. ^ Palmer et al, "Primitive
Life", 2009, p360.
21. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p199-218. {76 MYBN}
22. ^ Michael J. Benton
and Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the
Tree of Life", Science, (2003).

MORE INFO
[1] Mark S. Springer, William J.
Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003)
[2] "Laurasiatheria". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laurasiathe
ria
Laurasia19  
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p200. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p200.

[2] Description Two young Nokota
mares Date 2010-02-11 22:34
(UTC) Source
Nokota_Horses.jpg Author
Nokota_Horses.jpg: François Marchal
derivative work: Dana boomer
(talk) CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/de/Nokota_Horses_cropped
.jpg
55,000,000 YBN
7 8 9 		509) The Rodents: Beavers.5 6
FOOTNOTES

1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
4. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
6. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/
7. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p360.
8. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). {65 MYBN}
9. ^
Michael J. Benton and Francisco J.
Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003). {65 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Mark S. Springer, William J.
Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003)
[2] "Euarchontoglires". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euarchontog
lires
[3] "Placentalia". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Placentalia

 
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p187. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p187.

[2] Description he was happily
sitting back and munching on something.
and munching, and munching... Date
4 July 2007, 12:55 Source
American Beaver Author Steve
from washington, dc,
usa Permission (Reusing this file)
See below. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6b/American_Beaver.jpg
55,000,000 YBN
6 7 8 		511) The Rodents: Dormouse, Mountain
Beaver, Squirrel and Marmot {moRmuT4 }
evolve.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=marmot
&submit=Submit
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
4. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=marmot
&submit=Submit
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
6. ^ Palmer, et al.,
"Primitive Life", 2009, p360.
7. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004). {58 MYBN}
8. ^ Michael J. Benton and
Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the Tree of
Life", Science, (2003). {58 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Mark S. Springer, William J.
Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003)
[2] "Euarchontoglires". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euarchontog
lires
[3] http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/
 
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p187. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p187.

[2] Description Membres de la
famille des Suridés Date Source
Own work Author Chicoutimi
(montage) Montage 9 pictures.jpg
Karakal AndiW National Park
Service en:User:Markus Krötzsch
The Lilac Breasted Roller Nico
Conradie from Centurion, South Africa
Hans Hillewaert Sylvouille
National Park Service GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/68/Sciuridae.jpg
55,000,000 YBN
7 8 		585) The Birds Psittaciformes
{SiTaS-iFORmEZ4 } evolve (Parrots).5 6

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Psittaciformes." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 19 Feb. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/psittacifor
mes-1
2. ^ Brown, Joseph, Joshua Rest, Jaime
G. Moreno, Michael Sorenson, and David
Mindell. "Strong mitochondrial DNA
support for a Cretaceous origin of
modern avian lineages." BMC Biology 6
(January 2008):
6:6. http://www.biomedcentral.com/1741-
7007/6/6
3. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p360.
4. ^ "Psittaciformes."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 19
Feb. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/psittacifor
mes-1
5. ^ Brown, Joseph, Joshua Rest, Jaime
G. Moreno, Michael Sorenson, and David
Mindell. "Strong mitochondrial DNA
support for a Cretaceous origin of
modern avian lineages." BMC Biology 6
(January 2008):
6:6. http://www.biomedcentral.com/1741-
7007/6/6
6. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p360.
7. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive
Life", 2009, p360.
8. ^ Brown, Joseph, Joshua
Rest, Jaime G. Moreno, Michael
Sorenson, and David Mindell. "Strong
mitochondrial DNA support for a
Cretaceous origin of modern avian
lineages." BMC Biology 6 (January
2008):
6:6. http://www.biomedcentral.com/1741-
7007/6/6

MORE INFO
[1] LIVEZEY, BRADLEY C., and
RICHARD L. ZUSI. “Higher-order
phylogeny of modern birds (Theropoda,
Aves: Neornithes) based on comparative
anatomy. II. Analysis and
discussion.” Zoological Journal of
the Linnean Society 149.1 (2007) :
1-95. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/do
i/10.1111/j.1096-3642.2006.00293.x/full
[2] Hackett, Shannon J. et al. “A
Phylogenomic Study of Birds Reveals
Their Evolutionary History.” Science
320.5884 (2008) : 1763 -1768.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763
[3] "Neornithes." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 28 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/neornithes
[4] Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (estimate from)
 
[1] Brown, Joseph, Joshua Rest, Jaime
G. Moreno, Michael Sorenson, and David
Mindell. ''Strong mitochondrial DNA
support for a Cretaceous origin of
modern avian lineages.'' BMC Biology 6
(January 2008):
6:6. http://www.biomedcentral.com/1741-
7007/6/6 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.biomedcentral.com/174
1-7007/6/6

[2] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p262. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p262.
55,000,000 YBN
3 		6381) Horses evolve.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
2. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
3. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm {55 MYBN}
 
[1] Description English: This
reproduction of a painting of an
undetermined species of Hyracotherium
was made to illustrate one card of a
set of 30 collector cards from ''Tiere
der Urwelt'' (Animals of the
Prehistoric World). From the Series
III. Deutsch: Diese Reproduktion eines
Gemäldes einer nicht näher
bezeichneten Art von Hyracotherium
wurde zur Illustration einer Karte aus
einem Set von 30 Sammelkarten mit dem
Titel „Tiere der Urwelt“
angefertigt. Aus der Serie III. Date
1920 (probably) Source The Wonderful
Paleo Art of Heinrich Harder Author
Heinrich Harder (1858-1935) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6e/Hyracotherium_Eohippu
s_hharder.jpg

[2] The artwork depicting horse
evolution is from Professor Donald
Levin's course in BioEvolution at the
University of Texas in Austin. This is
a brief, highly illustrated course with
many examples given of macroevolution.
Notice that the generalized branching
diagram in this illustration is less
twiggy than the more bushy branching
depicted at other resources mentioned
here. UNKNOWN
source: http://darwiniana.org/equid2t.gi
f
55,000,000 YBN
2 		6387) The first Giraffes evolve.1
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^ Palmer et al, "Primitive Life",
2009, p388.
2. ^ Palmer et al, "Primitive
Life", 2009, p388.

MORE INFO
[1] Mark S. Springer, William J.
Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003)
[2] "Laurasiatheria". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laurasiathe
ria
[3] "ruminant." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 08 Jan.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ruminant
[4] Palmer et al, "Primitive Life",
2009, p360
[5] Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p199-218
 
[1] Description Adult male Reticulated
giraffe feeding high up on an acacia,
in central Kenya Date 8 July 2010,
10:25 Source High-rise living Author
Steve Garvie from Dunfermline, Fife,
Scotland CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f4/Flickr_-_Rainbirder_-
_High-rise_living.jpg

[2] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p200. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p200.
54,000,000 YBN
4 5 		810) The last common ancestor between
hippos with dolphins and whales.3
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004). (=54) {54 MYBN}
5. ^ Mark S. Springer,
William J. Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and
Stephen J. O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003). (=53) {53 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Michael J. Benton and
Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the Tree of
Life", Science, (2003)
 
[1] Fig. 2. Molecular time scale for
the orders of placental mammals based
on the 16,397-bp data set and maximum
likelihood tree of ref. 14 with an
opossum outgroup (data not shown), 13
fossil constraints (Materials and
Methods), and a mean prior of 105 mya
for the placental root. Ordinal
designations are listed above the
branches. Orange and green lines denote
orders with basal diversification
before or after the K/T boundary,
respectively. Black lines depict orders
for which only one taxon was available.
Asterisks denote placental taxa
included in the ''K/T body size'' taxon
set. The composition of chimeric taxa,
including caniform, caviomorph,
strepsirrhine, and sirenian, is
indicated elsewhere (14). Numbers for
internal nodes are cross-referenced in
the supporting information.
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.pnas.org/content/vol1
00/issue3/images/large/pq0334222002.jpeg


[2] Description Deutsch: Eine
Gruppe Flußpferde im Luangwa-Tal,
Sambia. English: Pod of Hippos
(Hippopotamus amphibius) in Luangwa
Valley, Zambia Français : Groupe
d'hippopotames (Hippopotamus amphibius)
dans la vallée du Luangua, en
Zambie Date 2005 Source Own
work Author Paul Maritz GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a3/Hippo_pod_edit.jpg
53,500,000 YBN
6 7 8 9 		812) The earliest marine mammal and
whale "Himalayacetus".3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ S. Bajpai and P. D. Gingerich.
1998. A new Eocene archaeocete
(Mammalia, Cetacea) from India and the
time of origin of whales. Proceedings
of the National Academy of Sciences
95:15464-15468 http://www.pnas.org/cont
ent/95/26/15464.abstract
2. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p360.
3. ^ S. Bajpai and P. D.
Gingerich. 1998. A new Eocene
archaeocete (Mammalia, Cetacea) from
India and the time of origin of whales.
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences
95:15464-15468 http://www.pnas.org/cont
ent/95/26/15464.abstract
4. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p360.
5. ^
http://www.sciencenews.org/pages/sn_arc9
8/10_10_98/fob3.htm
6. ^ S. Bajpai and P. D. Gingerich.
1998. A new Eocene archaeocete
(Mammalia, Cetacea) from India and the
time of origin of whales. Proceedings
of the National Academy of Sciences
95:15464-15468 http://www.pnas.org/cont
ent/95/26/15464.abstract
7. ^
http://www.sciencenews.org/pages/sn_arc9
8/10_10_98/fob3.htm (=53.5) {53.5 MYBN}
8. ^
Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004). (=50) {50 MYBN}
9. ^ Mark S. Springer,
William J. Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and
Stephen J. O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003). (=52) {52 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Michael J. Benton and
Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the Tree of
Life", Science, (2003)
earliest fossils: (Subathu Formation)
Northern India5  
[1] The evolution of whales The
first thing to notice on this evogram
is that hippos are the closest living
relatives of whales, but they are not
the ancestors of whales. In fact, none
of the individual animals on the
evogram is the direct ancestor of any
other, as far as we know. That's why
each of them gets its own branch on the
family tree. UNKNOWN
source: http://evolution.berkeley.edu/ev
olibrary/images/evograms/whale_evo.jpg

[2] Description Pakicetus inachus, a
whale ancestor from the Early Eocene of
Pakistan, after Nummelai et al.,
(2006), pencil drawing, digital
coloring Date 29 November
2007 Source Own work Author Nobu
Tamura
(http://spinops.blogspot.com) GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/34/Pakicetus_BW.jpg
52,000,000 YBN
11 12 13 		501) The Laurasiatheres "Chiroptera"
{KIroPTRu7 } evolve (the ancestor of
fruit bats, and echolocating bats).8 9

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Chiroptera." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/chiroptera-
1
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^ Michael J. Benton and
Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the Tree of
Life", Science, (2003).
4. ^ "Chiroptera."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 30
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/chiroptera-
1
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
6. ^ Michael J. Benton and
Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the Tree of
Life", Science, (2003).
7. ^ "Chiroptera."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 30
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/chiroptera-
1
8. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
9. ^ Michael J. Benton and
Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the Tree of
Life", Science, (2003).
10. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
11. ^ Palmer,
et al., "Primitive Life", 2009, p360.
12. ^
Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004). {80 MYBN}
13. ^ Michael J. Benton and
Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the Tree of
Life", Science, (2003).

MORE INFO
[1] Mark S. Springer, William J.
Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003)
[2] "Laurasiatheria". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laurasiathe
ria
Laurasia10  
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p200. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p200.

[2] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p200. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p200.
51,000,000 YBN
4 		513) The Rodents: Old World Porcupines
evolve.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004). {51 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Mark S. Springer, William J.
Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003)
[2] "Euarchontoglires". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euarchontog
lires
[3] "Placentalia". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Placentalia

[4] Michael J. Benton and Francisco J.
Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003)
 
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p187. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p187.

[2] Photograph of a brush-tailed
porcupine in Berlin Zoologischer
Garten. Taken by Eloquence in July 2005
and released into the public
domain. Public domain PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/21/Brush_tailed_porcupin
e_Berlin_Zoo.jpg
50,000,000 YBN
6 		438) The Himalayan {HiMolAYeN3 }
mountains start to form.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Himalayan." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 06 Jan.
2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/H
imalayan>.
2. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
3. ^ "Himalayan." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 06 Jan.
2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/H
imalayan>.
4. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
5. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
6. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm {50 MYBN}
Himalyia Mountains, India5  
[1] 50 Ma Eocene NONCOMMERCIAL
source: http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~rcb7/050
_Eocene_3globes.jpg

[2] Himalayas as pictured by NASA
Landsat 7 Satellite. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/2/25/Himalayas_landsat_7.png
50,000,000 YBN
3 		816) The early whale Ambulocetus
evolves.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.ncseweb.org/resources/article
s/5359_71_miller_1999_iof_panda_12_6_200
4.asp
2. ^
http://www.ncseweb.org/resources/article
s/5359_71_miller_1999_iof_panda_12_6_200
4.asp
3. ^
http://www.ncseweb.org/resources/article
s/5359_71_miller_1999_iof_panda_12_6_200
4.asp (=40)
 
[1] Ambulocetus natans in action. A
reconstruction of an early close cousin
of whales. by artist Carl
Buell. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.indiana.edu/~ensiweb/
images/whal.amb.jpeg

[2] Ambulocetus The name Ambulocetus
gives away its early ancestry. It means
'walking whale'. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.abc.net.au/beasts/evi
dence/prog1/images/evi_amulocetus_large.
jpg
49,000,000 YBN
7 8 		474) The Birds "Falconiformes"
{FaLKoNiFORmEZ5 } evolve (the ancestor
of falcons, hawks, eagles, and Old
World vultures).6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Falconiformes." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/falconiform
es-1
2. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record
2)
3. ^ "Falconiformes." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/falconiform
es-1
4. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record
2)
5. ^ "Falconiformes." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/falconiform
es-1
6. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record
2)
7. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p361.
8. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record
2) {49 MYBN (need to check with fossil
record 2}
 
[1] Fig. 4. Our phylogeny differs from
and agrees with previous
classifications. We merged
well-supported (>70% bootstrap values)
monophyletic clades at the tips with
the same ordinal designation across all
three classifications (e.g., 24 species
called Passerines). Only higher
relationships supported by bootstrap
values >50% are shown. Colors are as in
Fig. 2. Color bars to the right of the
tree show membership in three different
classifications: Peters' (25) (left),
Sibley and Monroe's (30) (middle), and
Livezey and Zusi's (13) (right). Black
text within the bars indicates
monophyletic orders in our phylogeny,
whereas white text within the bars
indicates nonmonophyletic orders.
Ordinal name codes: ANS (Anseriformes),
APO (Apodiformes), APT
(Apterygiformes), ARD (Ardeiformes),
BAL (Balaenicipitiformes), BUC
(Bucerotiformes), CAP
(Caprimulgiformes), CAS
(Casuariiformes), CHA
(Charadriiformes), CIC (Ciconiiformes),
CLM (Columbiformes), COL (Coliiformes),
COR (Coraciiformes), CRA (Craciformes),
CUC (Cuculiformes), FAL
(Falconiformes), GAL (Galliformes), GAV
(Gaviiformes), GLB (Galbuliformes), GRU
(Gruiformes), MUS (Musophagiformes),
OPI (Opisthocomiformes), PAS
(Passeriformes), PEL (Pelecaniformes),
PIC (Piciformes), POD
(Podicipediformes), PRO
(Procellariiformes), PSI
(Psittaciformes), RAL (Ralliformes),
RHE (Rheiformes), SPH
(Sphenisciformes), STH
(Struthioniformes), STR (Strigiformes),
TIN (Tinamiformes), TRC
(Trochiliformes), TRO (Trogoniformes),
TUR (Turniciformes), and UPU
(Upupiformes). Figure 4
from: Hackett, Shannon J. et al. “A
Phylogenomic Study of Birds Reveals
Their Evolutionary History.” Science
320.5884 (2008) : 1763 -1768.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763/F4.large.jpg

[2] Description English: Bald Eagle
(Haliaeetus leucocephalus) in
Tree Date July 2005 Source
U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service Author Hillebrand,
Steve PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/69/Haliaeetus_leucocepha
lus-tree-USFWS.jpg
49,000,000 YBN
8 		515) The Rodents: New World porcupines,
guinea pigs, agoutis {uGUTEZ5 }, and
capybaras {KaPuBoRoZ6 } evolve.7
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ "capybara." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 06
Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/capybara
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^ "capybara." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 06
Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/capybara
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
5. ^ "agouti." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 06
Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/agouti
6. ^ "capybara." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 06
Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/capybara
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
8. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). {49 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Mark S. Springer, William J.
Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003)
[2] "Euarchontoglires". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euarchontog
lires
[3] "Placentalia". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Placentalia

[4] Michael J. Benton and Francisco J.
Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003)
 
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p187. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p187.

[2] Description English: A North
American porcupine (Erethizon dorsatum)
rests in a tree in Montreal's
BioDome. Date 20 July
2004 Source self-made with a
Nikon D70 Author J. Glover CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/83/Porcupine-BioDome.jpg

40,000,000 YBN
9 		525) The Primates "New World Monkeys"
evolve (the ancestor of the Sakis,
Spider, Howler and Squirrel monkeys,
Capuchins {KaP YU CiNZ5 }, and
Tamarins).6

The ancestor of all extant New World
monkeys may have reached the Americas
from Africa by crossing the early
Atlantic Ocean, perhaps on fallen trees
over a chain of islands.7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "capuchin." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 06
Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/capuchin
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^ "capuchin." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 06
Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/capuchin
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
5. ^ "capuchin." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 06
Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/capuchin
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
8. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004), p147
(guess is in Africa).
9. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). {40 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Mark S. Springer, William J.
Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003)
[2] Michael J. Benton and Francisco J.
Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003)
[3] "Euarchontoglires".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euarchontog
lires
[4] "Placentalia". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Placentalia

[5] "New world monkey". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_world_m
onkey
Africa8  
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p149. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p149.

[2] Description English: A
critically endangered Brown Spider
Monkey, Ateles hybridus, with uncommon
blue eyes. Shot in captivity in
Barquisimeto,
Venezuela Русский:
Паукообразная
обезьяна Ateles hybridus с
редко встречающимися
голубыми глазами.
Сфотографирована в
неволе в
Венесуэле. Date
September 2008 Source
Image:BrownSpiderMonkey.jpg Author
http://www.birdphotos.com edit by
Fir0002 Permission (Reusing this
file) See below. Attribution must
appear on same page as photo. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/dc/BrownSpiderMonkey_%28
edit2%29.jpg
37,000,000 YBN
3 4 		442) Dogs evolve.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
2. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
3. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm {37 MYBN}
4. ^ Palmer, et al.,
"Primitive Life", 2009, p361.
 
[1] Cynodictus from: A history of land
mammals in the western hemisphere By
William Berryman Scott PD
source: https://play.google.com/books/re
ader?id=HbAlAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover
&output=reader&authuser=0&hl=en&pg=GBS.P
A529

[2] Description Hesperocyon
gregarius 32 - 30 million years ago;
Early Oligocene; Oldest recognized
member of the dog family. Date 10
October 2008, 10:42 Source
Hesperocyon gregarius (Dog)
Uploaded by FunkMonk Author
Claire H. from New York City,
USA Permission (Reusing this file)
CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5f/Hesperocyon_Gregarius
.jpg
37,000,000 YBN
7 		475) The Birds: Cuculiformes
{KUKUliFORmEZ5 } evolve (the ancestor
of cuckoos, and roadrunners).6
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=cuculi
formes&submit=Submit
2. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record
2)
3. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=cuculi
formes&submit=Submit
4. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record
2)
5. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=cuculi
formes&submit=Submit
6. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record
2)
7. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record
2) {37 MYBN (need to check with fossil
record 2}
 
[1] Fig. 4. Our phylogeny differs from
and agrees with previous
classifications. We merged
well-supported (>70% bootstrap values)
monophyletic clades at the tips with
the same ordinal designation across all
three classifications (e.g., 24 species
called Passerines). Only higher
relationships supported by bootstrap
values >50% are shown. Colors are as in
Fig. 2. Color bars to the right of the
tree show membership in three different
classifications: Peters' (25) (left),
Sibley and Monroe's (30) (middle), and
Livezey and Zusi's (13) (right). Black
text within the bars indicates
monophyletic orders in our phylogeny,
whereas white text within the bars
indicates nonmonophyletic orders.
Ordinal name codes: ANS (Anseriformes),
APO (Apodiformes), APT
(Apterygiformes), ARD (Ardeiformes),
BAL (Balaenicipitiformes), BUC
(Bucerotiformes), CAP
(Caprimulgiformes), CAS
(Casuariiformes), CHA
(Charadriiformes), CIC (Ciconiiformes),
CLM (Columbiformes), COL (Coliiformes),
COR (Coraciiformes), CRA (Craciformes),
CUC (Cuculiformes), FAL
(Falconiformes), GAL (Galliformes), GAV
(Gaviiformes), GLB (Galbuliformes), GRU
(Gruiformes), MUS (Musophagiformes),
OPI (Opisthocomiformes), PAS
(Passeriformes), PEL (Pelecaniformes),
PIC (Piciformes), POD
(Podicipediformes), PRO
(Procellariiformes), PSI
(Psittaciformes), RAL (Ralliformes),
RHE (Rheiformes), SPH
(Sphenisciformes), STH
(Struthioniformes), STR (Strigiformes),
TIN (Tinamiformes), TRC
(Trochiliformes), TRO (Trogoniformes),
TUR (Turniciformes), and UPU
(Upupiformes). Figure 4
from: Hackett, Shannon J. et al. “A
Phylogenomic Study of Birds Reveals
Their Evolutionary History.” Science
320.5884 (2008) : 1763 -1768.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763/F4.large.jpg

[2] Description English: Common
cuckoo Deutsch: Kuckuck Date
Source Own work Author
Vogelartinfo GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b0/Cuculus_canorus_vogel
artinfo_chris_romeiks_CHR0791.jpg
34,000,000 YBN
7 		813) Toothed and Baleen whale lines
split.4

Toothed whales include dolphins, sperm,
and killer whales. Baleen whales
include blue, humpback, and gray
whales.5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ "toothed whale."
Britannica Concise Encyclopedia.
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.,
1994-2010. Answers.com 15 Jul. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/toothed-wha
le
3. ^ "baleen whale." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 15 Jul.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/baleen-whal
e
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
5. ^ "toothed whale."
Britannica Concise Encyclopedia.
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.,
1994-2010. Answers.com 15 Jul. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/toothed-wha
le
6. ^ "baleen whale." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 15 Jul.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/baleen-whal
e
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (=34) {34 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Mark S. Springer, William J.
Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003)
[2] Michael J. Benton and Francisco J.
Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003)
 
[1] Dorudon apparently from Walking
With Beasts UNKNOWN
source: http://www.makradafish.newmail.r
u/WalkingWithBeast/dorudon.jpg

[2] Fig. 2. Molecular time scale
for the orders of placental mammals
based on the 16,397-bp data set and
maximum likelihood tree of ref. 14 with
an opossum outgroup (data not shown),
13 fossil constraints (Materials and
Methods), and a mean prior of 105 mya
for the placental root. Ordinal
designations are listed above the
branches. Orange and green lines denote
orders with basal diversification
before or after the K/T boundary,
respectively. Black lines depict orders
for which only one taxon was available.
Asterisks denote placental taxa
included in the ''K/T body size'' taxon
set. The composition of chimeric taxa,
including caniform, caviomorph,
strepsirrhine, and sirenian, is
indicated elsewhere (14). Numbers for
internal nodes are cross-referenced in
the supporting information.
. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.pnas.org/content/vol1
00/issue3/images/large/pq0334222002.jpeg

30,000,000 YBN
5 6 		444) Cats evolve.3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Palmer et al, "Primitive Life",
2009, p361.
2. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
3. ^ Palmer et al, "Primitive Life",
2009, p361.
4. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
5. ^ Palmer et al, "Primitive Life",
2009, p361.
6. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
 
[1] Proailurus Wikimedia
Commons Proailurus may or may not have
been a true feline; some experts place
it in the Feloidea family, which
includes not only cats, but also hyenas
and mongooses. Whatever the case,
Proailurus was a relatively small
carnivore, only a little bit bigger
than a modern tabby. GNU
source: http://0.tqn.com/d/dinosaurs/1/0
/e/6/-/-/proailurus.jpg
30,000,000 YBN
4 		520) The Primates: True Lemurs evolve.3

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (63 mybn)
2. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004). (63 mybn)
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). (63 mybn)
4. ^
Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004). (63 mybn) {30 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] "Euarchontoglires".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euarchontog
lires
[2] "Strepsirrhini". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strepsirrhi
ni
[3] "Lemuridae". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lemuridae
[4] "Placentalia". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Placentalia

[5] "Lemur". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lemur
[6] Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (63 mybn) (=63 mybn)
[7] Mark
S. Springer, William J. Murphy, Eduardo
Eizirik, and Stephen J. O'Brien,
"Placental mammal diversification and
the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003). (70 mybn) (=70 mybn)
[8] Michael J.
Benton and Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating
the Tree of Life", Science, (2003). (70
mybn) (=70 mybn)
 
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p168. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p168.

[2] Description English:
Ring-tailed Lemur (Lemur catta) at
Berenty Private Reserve in
Madagascar Date 4 October
2009 Source Own work Author
Alex Dunkel
(Visionholder) Permission (Reusing
this file) See below. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f5/Lemur_catta_001.jpg
30,000,000 YBN
2 		6385) The first pigs evolve.1
FOOTNOTES

1. ^ Palmer et al, "Primitive Life",
2009, p361.
2. ^ Palmer et al, "Primitive
Life", 2009, p361.
 
[1] Description Wild pig (Sus scrofa)
stop near the Kennedy Space Center
Press Site in the Launch Complex 39
Area on their daily foraging
rounds. Not a native in the
environment, the pigs are believed to
be descendants from those brought to
Florida by the early Spanish explorers.
Without many predators other than
human, the pigs have flourished in the
surrounding environs. Date May
2002 Source
http://mediaarchive.ksc.nasa.gov/detail
.cfm?mediaid=9807 Author NASA or
National Aeronautics and Space
Administration PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/9b/Wild_Pig_KSC02pd0873.
jpg

[2] en:Pig: sow with
piglet de:Hausschwein: Sau mit
Ferkel Photo by Scott Bauer. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/59/Sow_with_piglet.jpg
25,000,000 YBN
8 		531) The Primates "Old World Monkeys"
evolve (the ancestor of the Macaques,
Baboons, Mandrills, Proboscis and
Colobus {KoLiBeS5 } monkeys).6
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^ "colobus monkey." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 06
Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/black-and-w
hite-colobus
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^ "colobus monkey." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 06 Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/black-and-w
hite-colobus
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
5. ^ "colobus monkey." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 06 Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/black-and-w
hite-colobus
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
8. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). {25
MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Michael J. Benton and
Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the Tree of
Life", Science, (2003)
[2] "Euarchontoglires".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euarchontog
lires
[3] Caro-Beth Stewart and Todd R.
Disotell, "Primate evolution - in and
out of Africa", Current Biology Volume
8, Issue 16, 30 July 1998, Pages
R582-R588, (1998) . see image
[4]
"Placentalia". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Placentalia

[5] Mark S. Springer, William J.
Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003)
(perhaps around Lake Victoria) Africa7
 
[1] From: Stewart, Caro-Beth, and Todd
R Disotell. “Primate evolution - in
and out of Africa.” Current Biology
8.16 (1998) :
R582-R588. http://www.sciencedirect.com
/science/article/pii/S0960982207003673
Figure 2. A synthetic hypothesis of
catarrhine primate evolution. The
branching order shown for the living
species is well-supported by numerous
molecular phylogenetic studies (for
example [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 18, 24
and 25]). We present the dates of
divergence calculated by Goodman and
colleagues [11], on the understanding
that these are still rough estimates
and more precise measurements are
needed, especially for the Old World
monkeys. The fossil species (genus
names in italics) were placed on this
tree by parsimony analyses of
relatively large morphological datasets
[4, 11, 14 and 15]. Known dates for
fossils [1, 2 and 21] are indicated by
the thicker lines; these lines are
attached to the tree as determined by
the parsimony analyses, although the
dates of the attachment points are our
best guesses. Species found in Africa
are in red and species found in Eurasia
are in black. The continental locations
of the ancestral lineages were inferred
by parsimony using the computer program
MacClade [30]. The intercontinental
dispersal events required, at a
minimum, to explain the distribution of
the living and fossil species are
indicated by the arrows. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4C4DVM4-D
&_user=4422&_handle=V-WA-A-W-WC-MsSAYVW-
UUW-U-AAVECYCCBC-AAVDAZZBBC-YCACYAZCV-WC
-U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=07%2F30%2F1998&_
rdoc=12&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236243
%231998%23999919983%23494082!&_cdi=6243&
view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlV
ersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=5558415c4ccd34
6c64e2e6be03c3865e

[2] Description Colobus
angolensis monkey Date 13 June
2007, 13:13 Source Angola Colobus
Monkey #6 Author Ryan E.
Poplin CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5a/Colobus_angolensis.jp
g
25,000,000 YBN
2 		6386) The first deer evolves.1
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^ Palmer et al, "Primitive Life",
2009, p361.
2. ^ Palmer et al, "Primitive
Life", 2009, p361.

MORE INFO
[1] Mark S. Springer, William J.
Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003)
[2] "Laurasiatheria". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laurasiathe
ria
[3] "ruminant." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 08 Jan.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ruminant
[4] Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p199-218
 
[1] White-tailed deer in Toronto,
Canada PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/c/c2/White-tail_deer.jpg

[2] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p200. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p200.
24,000,000 YBN
5 		662) The ancestor of all Hominoids
(Gibbons and Hominids) loses its tail.4

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (based on
Aegyptopithecus=22my) {24 MYBN (based
on Aegyptopithecus=22my}
 
[1] From: Stewart, Caro-Beth, and Todd
R Disotell. “Primate evolution - in
and out of Africa.” Current Biology
8.16 (1998) :
R582-R588. http://www.sciencedirect.com
/science/article/pii/S0960982207003673
Figure 2. A synthetic hypothesis of
catarrhine primate evolution. The
branching order shown for the living
species is well-supported by numerous
molecular phylogenetic studies (for
example [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 18, 24
and 25]). We present the dates of
divergence calculated by Goodman and
colleagues [11], on the understanding
that these are still rough estimates
and more precise measurements are
needed, especially for the Old World
monkeys. The fossil species (genus
names in italics) were placed on this
tree by parsimony analyses of
relatively large morphological datasets
[4, 11, 14 and 15]. Known dates for
fossils [1, 2 and 21] are indicated by
the thicker lines; these lines are
attached to the tree as determined by
the parsimony analyses, although the
dates of the attachment points are our
best guesses. Species found in Africa
are in red and species found in Eurasia
are in black. The continental locations
of the ancestral lineages were inferred
by parsimony using the computer program
MacClade [30]. The intercontinental
dispersal events required, at a
minimum, to explain the distribution of
the living and fossil species are
indicated by the arrows. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4C4DVM4-D
&_user=4422&_handle=V-WA-A-W-WC-MsSAYVW-
UUW-U-AAVECYCCBC-AAVDAZZBBC-YCACYAZCV-WC
-U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=07%2F30%2F1998&_
rdoc=12&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236243
%231998%23999919983%23494082!&_cdi=6243&
view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlV
ersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=5558415c4ccd34
6c64e2e6be03c3865e

[2] Gregoire: 62-year-old
chimpanzee Description English:
Chimpanzee named ''Gregoire'' born in
1944 (Jane Goodall sanctuary of
Tchimpounga in Congo Brazzaville) -
Picture taken the 9th of December
2006 Français : Chimpanzé nommé
''Grégoire'' né en 1944 (sanctuaire
Jane Goodall de Tchimpounga au Congo
Brazzaville) - Photo prise le 9
décembre 2006 Date 9 December
2006 Source Own work Author
Delphine
Bruyère Permission (Reusing this
file) Attribution : Delphine
Bruyere GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/ba/2006-12-09_Chimpanzee
_Gregoire_D_Bruyere.JPG
23,000,000 YBN
5 		478) The Monotreme: Echidna evolves.3
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^
"monotreme." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 28 Jul.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/monotreme
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). {23 MYBN}
Australia, Tasmania and New Guinea4
 
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
239. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), 239.

[2] The echidna is one of a handful of
mammals to give birth to its offspring
by laying eggs. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3b/Long-beakedEchidna.jp
g
23,000,000 YBN
5 		479) The Monotreme: Duck-Billed
Platypus evolves.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^
"platypus." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 30 Jul.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/platypus
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). {23 MYBN}
Australia and Tasmania4  
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
239. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), 239.

[2] Description Description
Swiming Platypus * Photographer Peter
Scheunis * Source self-made Date
September 2004 Location Broken
River-Queensland-Australia Date
2010-01-18 03:46 (UTC) Source

Platypus_BrokenRiver_QLD_Australia.jpg
Author
Platypus_BrokenRiver_QLD_Australia.jpg:
Peterdvv derivative work: Bobisbob
(talk) CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/12/Platypus_BrokenRiver_
QLD_Australia2.png
22,000,000 YBN
5 6 7 8 		559) The Hominoid Proconsul evolves in
East Africa.3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Caro-Beth Stewart and
Todd R. Disotell, "Primate evolution -
in and out of Africa", Current Biology
Volume 8, Issue 16, 30 July 1998, Pages
R582-R588, (1998).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^ Caro-Beth Stewart
and Todd R. Disotell, "Primate
evolution - in and out of Africa",
Current Biology Volume 8, Issue 16, 30
July 1998, Pages R582-R588, (1998).
5. ^
Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
6. ^ Caro-Beth Stewart and Todd R.
Disotell, "Primate evolution - in and
out of Africa", Current Biology Volume
8, Issue 16, 30 July 1998, Pages
R582-R588, (1998). (c22-c16mybn)
7. ^
http://johnhawks.net/weblog/fossils/apes
/proconsul/ 22-10 mybn (22-10 mybn)
8. ^
"Proconsul (genus) 27-17 mybn".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proconsul_%
28genus%29 27-17 mybn (27-17mybn)
 
[1] Figure 2. A synthetic hypothesis of
catarrhine primate evolution. The
branching order shown for the living
species is well-supported by numerous
molecular phylogenetic studies (for
example [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 18, 24
and 25]). We present the dates of
divergence calculated by Goodman and
colleagues [11], on the understanding
that these are still rough estimates
and more precise measurements are
needed, especially for the Old World
monkeys. The fossil species (genus
names in italics) were placed on this
tree by parsimony analyses of
relatively large morphological datasets
[4, 11, 14 and 15]. Known dates for
fossils [1, 2 and 21] are indicated by
the thicker lines; these lines are
attached to the tree as determined by
the parsimony analyses, although the
dates of the attachment points are our
best guesses. Species found in Africa
are in red and species found in Eurasia
are in black. The continental locations
of the ancestral lineages were inferred
by parsimony using the computer program
MacClade [30]. The intercontinental
dispersal events required, at a
minimum, to explain the distribution of
the living and fossil species are
indicated by the arrows. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4C4DVM4-D
&_user=4422&_handle=V-WA-A-W-WC-MsSAYVW-
UUW-U-AAVECYCCBC-AAVDAZZBBC-YCACYAZCV-WC
-U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=07%2F30%2F1998&_
rdoc=12&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236243
%231998%23999919983%23494082!&_cdi=6243&
view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlV
ersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=5558415c4ccd34
6c64e2e6be03c3865e

[2] Proconsul COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://www.andromeda.rutgers.edu
/~biosci/RutgersHumanEcology/Proconsul.j
pg
18,000,000 YBN
8 		537) The Hominoids: Gibbons evolve in
South-east Asia.5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Caro-Beth Stewart and
Todd R. Disotell, "Primate evolution -
in and out of Africa", Current Biology
Volume 8, Issue 16, 30 July 1998, Pages
R582-R588, (1998) .
3. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^
Caro-Beth Stewart and Todd R. Disotell,
"Primate evolution - in and out of
Africa", Current Biology Volume 8,
Issue 16, 30 July 1998, Pages
R582-R588, (1998) .
5. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
6. ^
Caro-Beth Stewart and Todd R. Disotell,
"Primate evolution - in and out of
Africa", Current Biology Volume 8,
Issue 16, 30 July 1998, Pages
R582-R588, (1998) .
7. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
8. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004). {18 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Mark S. Springer, William J.
Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003)
[2] Michael J. Benton and Francisco J.
Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003)
[3] "Euarchontoglires".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euarchontog
lires
[4] "Old World monkey". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_World_m
onkey
[5] "Gibbon". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gibbon
[6] "Placentalia". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Placentalia

[7] http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/
South-East Asia7  
[1] Figure 2. A synthetic hypothesis of
catarrhine primate evolution. The
branching order shown for the living
species is well-supported by numerous
molecular phylogenetic studies (for
example [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 18, 24
and 25]). We present the dates of
divergence calculated by Goodman and
colleagues [11], on the understanding
that these are still rough estimates
and more precise measurements are
needed, especially for the Old World
monkeys. The fossil species (genus
names in italics) were placed on this
tree by parsimony analyses of
relatively large morphological datasets
[4, 11, 14 and 15]. Known dates for
fossils [1, 2 and 21] are indicated by
the thicker lines; these lines are
attached to the tree as determined by
the parsimony analyses, although the
dates of the attachment points are our
best guesses. Species found in Africa
are in red and species found in Eurasia
are in black. The continental locations
of the ancestral lineages were inferred
by parsimony using the computer program
MacClade [30]. The intercontinental
dispersal events required, at a
minimum, to explain the distribution of
the living and fossil species are
indicated by the arrows. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4C4DVM4-D
&_user=4422&_handle=V-WA-A-W-WC-MsSAYVW-
UUW-U-AAVECYCCBC-AAVDAZZBBC-YCACYAZCV-WC
-U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=07%2F30%2F1998&_
rdoc=12&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236243
%231998%23999919983%23494082!&_cdi=6243&
view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlV
ersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=5558415c4ccd34
6c64e2e6be03c3865e

[2] Description Deutsch:
Weißhandgibbons Date 25 May
2006 Source Own work Author
User:MatthiasKabel GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/38/Hylobates_lar_pair_of
_white_and_black_01.jpg
15,000,000 YBN
2 		6388) The first Kangeroos evolve.1
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ Palmer et al, "Primitive Life",
2009, p388.
2. ^ Palmer et al, "Primitive
Life", 2009, p388.

MORE INFO
[1] Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004)
Australia 
[1] Description English: Agile
Wallaby Latina: Macropus
agilis Nederlands:
Zandwallabie Deutsch:
Flinkwallaby Date November
2004 Source Own work Author
User:Nino Barbieri GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/26/Macropus_agilis_-_02.
jpg

[2] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p231. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p231.
15,000,000 YBN
4 		6389) The first bovids {BOViDZ1 }
evolve (hollow-horned ruminants: oxen,
antelopes, sheep, cattle, and goats2
).3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "bovid." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 06 Jan.
2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/b
ovid>.
2. ^ "bovid." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 08 Jul.
2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/b
ovid>.
3. ^ Palmer et al, "Primitive Life",
2009, p388.
4. ^ Palmer et al, "Primitive
Life", 2009, p388.

MORE INFO
[1] Mark S. Springer, William J.
Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003)
[2] "Laurasiatheria". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laurasiathe
ria
[3] "ruminant." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 08 Jan.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ruminant
[4] Palmer et al, "Primitive Life",
2009, p360
[5] Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p199-218
 
[1] Description Slender-horned
gazelle, at the Cincinnati Zoo Date
10 November 2007 Source Own
work Author FisherQueen GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Slender-horned_
gazelle_%28Cincinnati_Zoo%29.jpg/1280px-
Slender-horned_gazelle_%28Cincinnati_Zoo
%29.jpg

[2] Español: Antílope sable Sable
Antelope (Bull), photo taken and
submitted by Paul Maritz (paulmaz).
Photo taken near Kafue River in Zambia,
2004 GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Sable_bull.jpg/
1186px-Sable_bull.jpg
14,000,000 YBN
8 9 10 11 		542) The earliest extant Hominids:
Orangutans evolve in South-East Asia.5
6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Begun, "African and
Eurasian Miocene hominoids and the
origins of the Hominidae", in Louis de
Bonis, George D. Koufos, Peter Andrews,
"Phylogeny of the Neogene hominoid
primates of Eurasia", p232.
3. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
4. ^ Begun, "African and Eurasian
Miocene hominoids and the origins of
the Hominidae", in Louis de Bonis,
George D. Koufos, Peter Andrews,
"Phylogeny of the Neogene hominoid
primates of Eurasia", p232.
5. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
6. ^ Begun, "African and Eurasian
Miocene hominoids and the origins of
the Hominidae", in Louis de Bonis,
George D. Koufos, Peter Andrews,
"Phylogeny of the Neogene hominoid
primates of Eurasia", p232.
7. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
8. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). {14 MYBN}
9. ^ Chan Y-C, Roos
C, Inoue-Murayama M, Inoue E, Shih C-C,
et al. (2010) Mitochondrial Genome
Sequences Effectively Reveal the
Phylogeny of Hylobates Gibbons. PLoS
ONE 5(12): e14419.
doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0014419 http:/
/www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10
.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0014419
10. ^ Palmer, "Primitive Life", 2009,
p442.
11. ^ P-.H. Fabre, A. Rodrigues, E.J.P.
Douzery, Patterns of macroevolution
among Primates inferred from a
supermatrix of mitochondrial and
nuclear DNA, Molecular Phylogenetics
and Evolution, Volume 53, Issue 3,
December 2009, Pages 808-825, ISSN
1055-7903,
10.1016/j.ympev.2009.08.004. (http://ww
w.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/
S1055790309003169)

MORE INFO
[1] Mark S. Springer, William J.
Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003)
[2] Michael J. Benton and Francisco J.
Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003)
South-East Asia7  
[1] From: Stewart, Caro-Beth, and Todd
R Disotell. “Primate evolution - in
and out of Africa.” Current Biology
8.16 (1998) :
R582-R588. http://www.sciencedirect.com
/science/article/pii/S0960982207003673
Figure 2. A synthetic hypothesis of
catarrhine primate evolution. The
branching order shown for the living
species is well-supported by numerous
molecular phylogenetic studies (for
example [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 18, 24
and 25]). We present the dates of
divergence calculated by Goodman and
colleagues [11], on the understanding
that these are still rough estimates
and more precise measurements are
needed, especially for the Old World
monkeys. The fossil species (genus
names in italics) were placed on this
tree by parsimony analyses of
relatively large morphological datasets
[4, 11, 14 and 15]. Known dates for
fossils [1, 2 and 21] are indicated by
the thicker lines; these lines are
attached to the tree as determined by
the parsimony analyses, although the
dates of the attachment points are our
best guesses. Species found in Africa
are in red and species found in Eurasia
are in black. The continental locations
of the ancestral lineages were inferred
by parsimony using the computer program
MacClade [30]. The intercontinental
dispersal events required, at a
minimum, to explain the distribution of
the living and fossil species are
indicated by the arrows. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4C4DVM4-D
&_user=4422&_handle=V-WA-A-W-WC-MsSAYVW-
UUW-U-AAVECYCCBC-AAVDAZZBBC-YCACYAZCV-WC
-U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=07%2F30%2F1998&_
rdoc=12&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236243
%231998%23999919983%23494082!&_cdi=6243&
view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlV
ersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=5558415c4ccd34
6c64e2e6be03c3865e

[2] Taken from Wikipedia. Same
name. ''Orangutan image taken by Tom
Low at Camp Leakey, Tanjung Puting,
Kalimantan, Indonesia (2003).'' PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0b/Orangutan.jpg
10,000,000 YBN
5 6 7 8 9 10 		543) The Hominids: Gorillas evolve in
Africa.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
5. ^ P-.H. Fabre, A. Rodrigues, E.J.P.
Douzery, Patterns of macroevolution
among Primates inferred from a
supermatrix of mitochondrial and
nuclear DNA, Molecular Phylogenetics
and Evolution, Volume 53, Issue 3,
December 2009, Pages 808-825, ISSN
1055-7903,
10.1016/j.ympev.2009.08.004. (http://ww
w.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/
S1055790309003169)
6. ^ Palmer, "Primitive Life", 2009,
p442.
7. ^ Suwa, Gen et al. "A New Species of
Great Ape from the Late Miocene Epoch
in Ethiopia." Nature 448.7156 (2007):
921–924. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v448/n7156/full/nature06113.htm
l
8. ^ Kunimatsu, Yutaka et al. "A New
Late Miocene Great Ape from Kenya and
Its Implications for the Origins of
African Great Apes and Humans."
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences 104.49 (2007): 19220 –19225.
Print. http://www.pnas.org/content/104/
49/19220.abstract
9. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). {7 MYBN}
10. ^ Chan Y-C, Roos
C, Inoue-Murayama M, Inoue E, Shih C-C,
et al. (2010) Mitochondrial Genome
Sequences Effectively Reveal the
Phylogeny of Hylobates Gibbons. PLoS
ONE 5(12): e14419.
doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0014419 http:/
/www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10
.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0014419

MORE INFO
[1] Mark S. Springer, William J.
Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003)
[2] Michael J. Benton and Francisco J.
Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003)
[3] "Gorilla". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gorilla
[4] Prothero, "Bring Fossils To Life",
Second Edition, 2004, p34
Africa4  
[1] From: Stewart, Caro-Beth, and Todd
R Disotell. “Primate evolution - in
and out of Africa.” Current Biology
8.16 (1998) :
R582-R588. http://www.sciencedirect.com
/science/article/pii/S0960982207003673
Figure 2. A synthetic hypothesis of
catarrhine primate evolution. The
branching order shown for the living
species is well-supported by numerous
molecular phylogenetic studies (for
example [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 18, 24
and 25]). We present the dates of
divergence calculated by Goodman and
colleagues [11], on the understanding
that these are still rough estimates
and more precise measurements are
needed, especially for the Old World
monkeys. The fossil species (genus
names in italics) were placed on this
tree by parsimony analyses of
relatively large morphological datasets
[4, 11, 14 and 15]. Known dates for
fossils [1, 2 and 21] are indicated by
the thicker lines; these lines are
attached to the tree as determined by
the parsimony analyses, although the
dates of the attachment points are our
best guesses. Species found in Africa
are in red and species found in Eurasia
are in black. The continental locations
of the ancestral lineages were inferred
by parsimony using the computer program
MacClade [30]. The intercontinental
dispersal events required, at a
minimum, to explain the distribution of
the living and fossil species are
indicated by the arrows. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4C4DVM4-D
&_user=4422&_handle=V-WA-A-W-WC-MsSAYVW-
UUW-U-AAVECYCCBC-AAVDAZZBBC-YCACYAZCV-WC
-U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=07%2F30%2F1998&_
rdoc=12&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236243
%231998%23999919983%23494082!&_cdi=6243&
view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlV
ersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=5558415c4ccd34
6c64e2e6be03c3865e

[2] Description English: Male
silverback w:Gorilla, Gorilla gorilla
in SF zoo Date Source Own
work Author Mila
Zinkova Permission (Reusing this
file) See below. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/50/Male_gorilla_in_SF_zo
o.jpg
6,000,000 YBN
10 11 		544) The Hominids: Chimpanzees evolve
in Africa. This is the last common
ancestor of chimpanzees and humans.7 8

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). 6mybn
2. ^
http://www.cnrs.fr/cw/fr/pres/compress/T
oumai/Tounaigb/lienparengb.html (8
mybn see image 4)
3. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). 6mybn
4. ^
http://www.cnrs.fr/cw/fr/pres/compress/T
oumai/Tounaigb/lienparengb.html (8
mybn see image 4)
5. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). 6mybn
6. ^
http://www.cnrs.fr/cw/fr/pres/compress/T
oumai/Tounaigb/lienparengb.html (8
mybn see image 4)
7. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). 6mybn
8. ^
http://www.cnrs.fr/cw/fr/pres/compress/T
oumai/Tounaigb/lienparengb.html (8
mybn see image 4)
9. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). 6mybn
10. ^
Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004). 6mybn (6mybn) {6 MYBN}
11. ^
http://www.cnrs.fr/cw/fr/pres/compress/T
oumai/Tounaigb/lienparengb.html (8
mybn see image 4) (8mybn) {8 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Mark S. Springer, William J.
Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003)
[2] Michael J. Benton and Francisco J.
Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003)
Africa9  
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p106. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p106.

[2] Gregoire: 62-year-old
chimpanzee Description English:
Chimpanzee named ''Gregoire'' born in
1944 (Jane Goodall sanctuary of
Tchimpounga in Congo Brazzaville) -
Picture taken the 9th of December
2006 Français : Chimpanzé nommé
''Grégoire'' né en 1944 (sanctuaire
Jane Goodall de Tchimpounga au Congo
Brazzaville) - Photo prise le 9
décembre 2006 Date 9 December
2006 Source Own work Author
Delphine
Bruyère Permission (Reusing this
file) Attribution : Delphine
Bruyere GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/ba/2006-12-09_Chimpanzee
_Gregoire_D_Bruyere.JPG
4,400,000 YBN
30 31 		546) The Hominid: Ardipithecus
evolves.22 23 24 25 26 27 The earliest
bipedal primate.28
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Pickford, M. & Senut, B. The
geological and faunal context of Late
Miocene hominid remains from Lukeino,
Kenya. C.R. Acad. Sci. Ser. IIa 332,
145-152
(2001). http://www.sciencedirect.com/sc
ience/article/pii/S1251805001015282
2. ^ B. Senut, M. Pickford, D. Gommery,
P. Mein, K. Cheboi and Y. Coppens ,
First hominid from the Miocene (Lukeino
Formation, Kenya). C. R. Acad. Sci.
Paris, série IIa 332 (2001), pp.
137–144. http://www.sciencedirect.com
/science/article/pii/S1251805001015294
3. ^ Perlman, David (July 12, 2001).
"Fossils From Ethiopia May Be Earliest
Human Ancestor". National Geographic
News. Retrieved July 2009.
http://news.nationalgeographic.com/new
s/2001/07/0712_ethiopianbones.html
4. ^ White, Tim D.; Asfaw, Berhane;
Beyene, Yonas; Haile-Selassie,
Yohannes; Lovejoy, C. Owen; Suwa, Gen;
WoldeGabriel, Giday (2009).
"Ardipithecus ramidus and the
Paleobiology of Early Hominids.".
Science 326 (5949):
75–86. http://www.sciencemag.org/cont
ent/326/5949/64.abstract
5. ^ White, T. D.; Suwa, G.; Asfaw, B.
(1994). "Australopithecus ramidus, a
new species of early hominid from
Aramis, Ethiopia". Nature 371 (6495):
306. Bibcode 1994Natur.371..306W.
doi:10.1038/371306a0.
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/326/
5949/64.abstract
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p93.
7. ^ B. Senut, M.
Pickford, D. Gommery, P. Mein, K.
Cheboi and Y. Coppens , First hominid
from the Miocene (Lukeino Formation,
Kenya). C. R. Acad. Sci. Paris, série
IIa 332 (2001), pp.
137–144. http://www.sciencedirect.com
/science/article/pii/S1251805001015294
8. ^ Pickford, M. & Senut, B. The
geological and faunal context of Late
Miocene hominid remains from Lukeino,
Kenya. C.R. Acad. Sci. Ser. IIa 332,
145-152
(2001). http://www.sciencedirect.com/sc
ience/article/pii/S1251805001015282
9. ^ B. Senut, M. Pickford, D. Gommery,
P. Mein, K. Cheboi and Y. Coppens ,
First hominid from the Miocene (Lukeino
Formation, Kenya). C. R. Acad. Sci.
Paris, série IIa 332 (2001), pp.
137–144. http://www.sciencedirect.com
/science/article/pii/S1251805001015294
10. ^ Perlman, David (July 12, 2001).
"Fossils From Ethiopia May Be Earliest
Human Ancestor". National Geographic
News. Retrieved July 2009.
http://news.nationalgeographic.com/new
s/2001/07/0712_ethiopianbones.html
11. ^ White, Tim D.; Asfaw, Berhane;
Beyene, Yonas; Haile-Selassie,
Yohannes; Lovejoy, C. Owen; Suwa, Gen;
WoldeGabriel, Giday (2009).
"Ardipithecus ramidus and the
Paleobiology of Early Hominids.".
Science 326 (5949):
75–86. http://www.sciencemag.org/cont
ent/326/5949/64.abstract
12. ^ White, T. D.; Suwa, G.; Asfaw, B.
(1994). "Australopithecus ramidus, a
new species of early hominid from
Aramis, Ethiopia". Nature 371 (6495):
306. Bibcode 1994Natur.371..306W.
doi:10.1038/371306a0.
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/326/
5949/64.abstract
13. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p93.
14. ^ B. Senut, M.
Pickford, D. Gommery, P. Mein, K.
Cheboi and Y. Coppens , First hominid
from the Miocene (Lukeino Formation,
Kenya). C. R. Acad. Sci. Paris, série
IIa 332 (2001), pp.
137–144. http://www.sciencedirect.com
/science/article/pii/S1251805001015294
15. ^ Pickford, M. & Senut, B. The
geological and faunal context of Late
Miocene hominid remains from Lukeino,
Kenya. C.R. Acad. Sci. Ser. IIa 332,
145-152
(2001). http://www.sciencedirect.com/sc
ience/article/pii/S1251805001015282
16. ^ B. Senut, M. Pickford, D.
Gommery, P. Mein, K. Cheboi and Y.
Coppens , First hominid from the
Miocene (Lukeino Formation, Kenya). C.
R. Acad. Sci. Paris, série IIa 332
(2001), pp.
137–144. http://www.sciencedirect.com
/science/article/pii/S1251805001015294
17. ^ Perlman, David (July 12, 2001).
"Fossils From Ethiopia May Be Earliest
Human Ancestor". National Geographic
News. Retrieved July 2009.
http://news.nationalgeographic.com/new
s/2001/07/0712_ethiopianbones.html
18. ^ White, Tim D.; Asfaw, Berhane;
Beyene, Yonas; Haile-Selassie,
Yohannes; Lovejoy, C. Owen; Suwa, Gen;
WoldeGabriel, Giday (2009).
"Ardipithecus ramidus and the
Paleobiology of Early Hominids.".
Science 326 (5949): 75–86.
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/326/
5949/64.abstract
19. ^ White, T. D.; Suwa, G.; Asfaw, B.
(1994). "Australopithecus ramidus, a
new species of early hominid from
Aramis, Ethiopia". Nature 371 (6495):
306. Bibcode 1994Natur.371..306W.
doi:10.1038/371306a0.
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/326/
5949/64.abstract
20. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p93.
21. ^ B. Senut, M.
Pickford, D. Gommery, P. Mein, K.
Cheboi and Y. Coppens , First hominid
from the Miocene (Lukeino Formation,
Kenya). C. R. Acad. Sci. Paris, série
IIa 332 (2001), pp.
137–144. http://www.sciencedirect.com
/science/article/pii/S1251805001015294
22. ^ Pickford, M. & Senut, B. The
geological and faunal context of Late
Miocene hominid remains from Lukeino,
Kenya. C.R. Acad. Sci. Ser. IIa 332,
145-152
(2001). http://www.sciencedirect.com/sc
ience/article/pii/S1251805001015282
23. ^ B. Senut, M. Pickford, D.
Gommery, P. Mein, K. Cheboi and Y.
Coppens , First hominid from the
Miocene (Lukeino Formation, Kenya). C.
R. Acad. Sci. Paris, série IIa 332
(2001), pp.
137–144. http://www.sciencedirect.com
/science/article/pii/S1251805001015294
24. ^ Perlman, David (July 12, 2001).
"Fossils From Ethiopia May Be Earliest
Human Ancestor". National Geographic
News. Retrieved July 2009.
http://news.nationalgeographic.com/new
s/2001/07/0712_ethiopianbones.html
25. ^ White, Tim D.; Asfaw, Berhane;
Beyene, Yonas; Haile-Selassie,
Yohannes; Lovejoy, C. Owen; Suwa, Gen;
WoldeGabriel, Giday (2009).
"Ardipithecus ramidus and the
Paleobiology of Early Hominids.".
Science 326 (5949): 75–86.
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/326/
5949/64.abstract
26. ^ White, T. D.; Suwa, G.; Asfaw, B.
(1994). "Australopithecus ramidus, a
new species of early hominid from
Aramis, Ethiopia". Nature 371 (6495):
306. Bibcode 1994Natur.371..306W.
doi:10.1038/371306a0.
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/326/
5949/64.abstract
27. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p93.
28. ^ B. Senut, M.
Pickford, D. Gommery, P. Mein, K.
Cheboi and Y. Coppens , First hominid
from the Miocene (Lukeino Formation,
Kenya). C. R. Acad. Sci. Paris, série
IIa 332 (2001), pp.
137–144. http://www.sciencedirect.com
/science/article/pii/S1251805001015294
29. ^ B. Senut, M. Pickford, D.
Gommery, P. Mein, K. Cheboi and Y.
Coppens , First hominid from the
Miocene (Lukeino Formation, Kenya). C.
R. Acad. Sci. Paris, série IIa 332
(2001), pp.
137–144. http://www.sciencedirect.com
/science/article/pii/S1251805001015294
30. ^ Pickford, M. & Senut, B. The
geological and faunal context of Late
Miocene hominid remains from Lukeino,
Kenya. C.R. Acad. Sci. Ser. IIa 332,
145-152
(2001). http://www.sciencedirect.com/sc
ience/article/pii/S1251805001015282 {6
MYBN}
31. ^ B. Senut, M. Pickford, D.
Gommery, P. Mein, K. Cheboi and Y.
Coppens , First hominid from the
Miocene (Lukeino Formation, Kenya). C.
R. Acad. Sci. Paris, série IIa 332
(2001), pp.
137–144. http://www.sciencedirect.com
/science/article/pii/S1251805001015294
{6 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Haile-Selassie, Y. Late
Miocene hominids from the Middle Awash,
Ethiopia. Nature 412, 178-181 (2001).
http://www.nature.com/uidfinder/10.103
8/35084063
Lukeino Formation, Tugen Hills, Kenya,
Africa29  
[1] Fig. 1. Orrorin tugenensis nov.
gen. nov. sp. A: BAR 1002′00, left
femur, posterior view; B: BAR
1002′00, left femur, anterior view;
C: BAR 1000′00, right mandibular
fragment with M3, buccal view; D: BAR
1000′00, left mandibular fragment
with M2–3, lingual view; E: BAR
1000′00, left mandibular fragment
with M2–3, occlusal view; F: BAR
1900′00, right M3, occlusal view; G:
BAR 1390′00, right P4, distal view;
H: BAR 1001′00, upper I1, labial
view; I: BAR 1425′00, right
Image , lingual view; J: BAR
1004′00, right distal humerus,
posterior view; K: BAR 1003′00,
proximal left femur, anterior view; L:
BAR 349′00, manual proximal phalanx,
superior view; M: BAR 1426′00, left
M3, distal view; N: BAR 1215′00,
fragmentary right proximal femur,
posterior view. Scale bars = 1
cm.Orrorin tugenensis nov. gen. nov.
sp. A : BAR 1002′00, fémur gauche,
vue postérieure ; B : BAR 1002′00,
fémur gauche, vue antérieure ; C :
BAR 1000′00, fragment mandibulaire
droit avec M3, vue buccale ; D : BAR
1000′00, fragment mandibulaire gauche
avec M2–3, vue linguale ; E : BAR
1000′00, fragment mandibulaire gauche
avec M2–3, vue occlusale ; F : BAR
1900′00, M3 droite, vue occlusale ; G
: BAR 1390′00, P4 droite, vue distale
; H : BAR 1001′00, I1, vue labiale ;
I : BAR 1425′00, Image droite, vue
linguale ; J : BAR 1004′00, humérus
distal droit, vue postérieure ; K :
BAR 1003′00, fémur proximal gauche,
vue antérieure ; L : BAR 349′00,
phalange proximale de la main, vue
supérieure ; M : BAR 1426′00, M3
gauche, vue distale ; N : BAR
1215′00, fémur proximal
fragmentaire, vue postérieure. Chaque
barre équivaut à 1 cm. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/cac
he/MiamiImageURL/B6VJ3-42FS9XV-9-1/0?wch
p=dGLzVlz-zSkzS

[2] Description Ardipithecus
ramidus specimen, nicknamed
?Ardi?. After Gen Suwa, Berhane
Asfaw, Reiko T. Kono, Daisuke Kubo, C.
Owen Lovejoy, Tim D. White (2009):
''The Ardipithecus ramidus Skull and
Its Implications for Hominid Origins.''
Science, 2 October 2009: Vol. 326. no.
5949, pp. 68e1-68e7, Fig. 2 Date
14 November 2009, 16:50 Source
Zanclean skull Uploaded by
FunkMonk Author T. Michael
Keesey Permission (Reusing this file)
CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e1/Ardi.jpg
4,000,000 YBN
15 16 17 18 		547) The Hominid: Australopithecus
(x-STrA-lO-PitiKuS9 } evolves.10 11 12

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Australopithecus." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 31 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/australopit
hecus
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^ Clarke, R.J. and P.V.
Tobias (1995). Sterkfontein Member 2
foot bones of the oldest South African
hominid. Science 269,
521–524. http://www.sciencemag.org/co
ntent/269/5223/521
4. ^ Partridge, T.C., Granger, D.E.,
Caffee, M.W. and Clarke, R.J. (2003),
"Lower Pliocene Hominid Remains from
Sterkfontein", Science, Vol. 300, pp.
pp. 607–612.
5. ^ "Australopithecus."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 31
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/australopit
hecus
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
7. ^ Clarke, R.J. and P.V.
Tobias (1995). Sterkfontein Member 2
foot bones of the oldest South African
hominid. Science 269,
521–524. http://www.sciencemag.org/co
ntent/269/5223/521
8. ^ Partridge, T.C., Granger, D.E.,
Caffee, M.W. and Clarke, R.J. (2003),
"Lower Pliocene Hominid Remains from
Sterkfontein", Science, Vol. 300, pp.
pp. 607–612.
9. ^ "Australopithecus."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 31
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/australopit
hecus
10. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
11. ^ Clarke, R.J. and P.V.
Tobias (1995). Sterkfontein Member 2
foot bones of the oldest South African
hominid. Science 269,
521–524. http://www.sciencemag.org/co
ntent/269/5223/521
12. ^ Partridge, T.C., Granger, D.E.,
Caffee, M.W. and Clarke, R.J. (2003),
"Lower Pliocene Hominid Remains from
Sterkfontein", Science, Vol. 300, pp.
pp. 607–612.
13. ^ Clarke, R.J. and P.V. Tobias
(1995). Sterkfontein Member 2 foot
bones of the oldest South African
hominid. Science 269,
521–524. http://www.sciencemag.org/co
ntent/269/5223/521
14. ^ Partridge, T.C., Granger, D.E.,
Caffee, M.W. and Clarke, R.J. (2003),
"Lower Pliocene Hominid Remains from
Sterkfontein", Science, Vol. 300, pp.
pp. 607–612.
15. ^ Partridge, T.C., Granger,
D.E., Caffee, M.W. and Clarke, R.J.
(2003), "Lower Pliocene Hominid Remains
from Sterkfontein", Science, Vol. 300,
pp. pp. 607–612. {4MYBN}
16. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004). {4MYBN}
17. ^ "Australopithecus".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australopit
hecus {3.9 to 3my}
18. ^ "Australopithecus
afarensis". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australopit
hecus_afarensis (3.9 to 3my)

MORE INFO
[1] Mark S. Springer, William J.
Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003)
[2] Michael J. Benton and Francisco J.
Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003)
Sterkfontein, South Africa13 14  
[1] Australopithecus squinted at the
blue African sky. He had never seen a
star in broad daylight before, but he
could see one today. White. Piercing.
Not as bright as the Sun, yet much more
than a full moon. Was it dangerous? He
stared for a long time, puzzled, but
nothing happened, and after a while he
strode across the savanna
unconcerned. Millions of years
later, we know better. ''That star
was a supernova, one of many that
exploded in our part of the galaxy
during the past 10 million years,''
says astronomer Mark Hurwitz of the
University of
California-Berkeley. Right: Human
ancestors, unconcerned by odd lights in
the daytime sky. This image is based on
a painting featured in The
Economist. PD
source: http://science.nasa.gov/headline
s/y2003/06jan_bubble.htm?list847478

[2] Image Source *
http://www.familie-rebmann.de/photo11.ht
m COPYRIGHTED CLAIMED FAIR USE
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Laetoliafar.jpg.jpg

SCIENCE
3,390,000 YBN
5 		269) Hominids use stones as tools.3
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ McPherron, Shannon P. et al.
“Evidence for stone-tool-assisted
consumption of animal tissues before
3.39 million years ago at Dikika,
Ethiopia.” Nature 466.7308 (2010) :
857-860. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v466/n7308/full/nature09248.html
2. ^ McPherron, Shannon P. et al.
“Evidence for stone-tool-assisted
consumption of animal tissues before
3.39 million years ago at Dikika,
Ethiopia.” Nature 466.7308 (2010) :
857-860. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v466/n7308/full/nature09248.html
3. ^ McPherron, Shannon P. et al.
“Evidence for stone-tool-assisted
consumption of animal tissues before
3.39 million years ago at Dikika,
Ethiopia.” Nature 466.7308 (2010) :
857-860. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v466/n7308/full/nature09248.html
4. ^ McPherron, Shannon P. et al.
“Evidence for stone-tool-assisted
consumption of animal tissues before
3.39 million years ago at Dikika,
Ethiopia.” Nature 466.7308 (2010) :
857-860. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v466/n7308/full/nature09248.html
5. ^ McPherron, Shannon P. et al.
“Evidence for stone-tool-assisted
consumption of animal tissues before
3.39 million years ago at Dikika,
Ethiopia.” Nature 466.7308 (2010) :
857-860. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v466/n7308/full/nature09248.html
{3.39 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] "Homo erectus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homo_erectu
s
[2] "Stone Age". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stone_Age
[3] "Paleolithic". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleolithic

Dikika, Ethiopia4  
[1] a, The exterior surface of
DIK-55-2, and the location of each of
the surface marks. The rib is oriented
such that the rib head (broken off)
would be to the left. Dashed rule,
4 cm. b, Marks A1 and A2
(high-confidence stone-tool cut marks)
under low-power optical magnification;
the yellow rectangle demarcates c.
Scale bar, 5 mm. c, ESEM image
showing microstriations indicative of
cutting with a stone tool. Scale bar,
100 μm. d, Mark B (high-confidence
stone-tool-inflicted mark) under
low-power optical magnification,
indicative of a cutting and scraping
action or percussion; the yellow
rectangle demarcates e. Scale bar,
5 mm. e, ESEM image showing
microstriations indicative of stone
tool action. Scale bar, 500 μm.
b–e, The direction of the rib head is
indicated by the black arrows. See
Supplementary Information for the
details of mark C. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v466/n7308/images/nature09248-f2.2.
jpg
3,000,000 YBN
2 		446) North and South America connect.1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
2. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm {3 MYBN}
 
[1] Present Day NONCOMMERCIAL
source: http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~rcb7/000
_present_3globes.jpg
2,700,000 YBN
8 		564) The Hominid: Paranthropus {Pa raN
tru PuS5 } evolves; a line of extinct
early bipedal hominids.6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=pa
ranthropus&submit=Submit
2. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p445.
3. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=pa
ranthropus&submit=Submit
4. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p445.
5. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=pa
ranthropus&submit=Submit
6. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p445.
7. ^ "Paranthropus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paranthropu
s
8. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p445.

MORE INFO
[1] Thure E. Cerling, Emma Mbua,
Francis M. Kirera, Fredrick Kyalo
Manthi, Frederick E. Grine, Meave G.
Leakey, Matt Sponheimer, and Kevin T.
Uno. Diet of Paranthropus boisei in the
early Pleistocene of East Africa; PNAS
2011; published ahead of print May 2,
2011, doi:10.1073/pnas.1104627108
http://www.pnas.org/content/early/2011/0
4/27/1104627108.full.pdf+html?sid=71bf86
4d-bcc2-420e-9c3d-6c390c4a31c3
[2] Dawkins, Richard (2004). The
Ancestor's Tale: A Pilgrimage To the
Dawn of Life. London: Weidenfeld &
Nicolson. p. 90. ISBN 0-297-82503-8
Africa7  
[1] Description Deutsch: plastische
wissenschaftliche Rekonstruktion eines
Paranthropus boisei English:
scientiffic reconstruction of a
Paranthropus boisei Date 25 March
2007 Source Photographed at
Westfälisches Museum für
Archäologie, Herne Author
Photographed by
User:Lillyundfreya Permission (Reusing
this file) own work GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6c/Paranthropus_boisei.J
PG

[2] Skull of Paranthropus
boisei. From Smithsonian Institute
website. COPYRIGHTED CLAIMED FAIR USE
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Zinj3.jpg
2,500,000 YBN
9 		455) The oldest formed stone tools.4
The start of the Paleolithic or "Old
Stone Age".5 6 7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Homo erectus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homo_erectu
s
2. ^ "Homo erectus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homo_erectu
s
3. ^ "Homo erectus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homo_erectu
s
4. ^ "Homo erectus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homo_erectu
s
5. ^ "Paleolithic." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 24
May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/paleolithic

6. ^ Fagan, Brian M, and Charlotte
Beck. The Oxford Companion to
Archaeology. New York: Oxford
University Press, 1996. Internet
resource.
7. ^ "Paleolithic." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 05 Nov. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/paleolithic

8. ^ Semaw, S. et al.
2.5-million-year-old stone tools from
Gona, Ethiopia. Nature 385, 333–336
(1997)
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
385/n6614/abs/385333a0.html
9. ^ Semaw, S. et al.
2.5-million-year-old stone tools from
Gona, Ethiopia. Nature 385, 333–336
(1997)
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
385/n6614/abs/385333a0.html {2.5 MYBN}
Gona, Ethiopia8  
[1] Figure 3 from: Semaw, S. et al.
2.5-million-year-old stone tools from
Gona, Ethiopia. Nature 385, 333–336
(1997)
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
385/n6614/abs/385333a0.html COPYRIGHTED

source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v385/n6614/abs/385333a0.html

[2] Early man lived on elephant meat,
so much they died out in the Middle
East 400,000 years ago Submitted by
Anonymous on Wed Dec 14 2011 17:23:00
GMT-0800 (Pacific Standard Time) -
Source: dailymail.co.uk Docile,
lumbering elephants were so perfect for
Homo erectus, that they provided up to
60 per cent of their diet - until
constant hunting wiped out elephants in
the Middle East. The disappearance
of elephants helped kill off Homo
erectus, and paved the way for Homo
sapiens - modern humans - to take
over. Findings from the University
of Tel Aviv reveal how important the
huge animals were to the diet of early
humans - researchers that elephants
provided 60 per cent of the meat eaten
by Homo erectus. UNKNOWN
source: http://i4.asntown.net/Mastodon-t
vfm.jpg
2,200,000 YBN
19 		447) The first humans.12 The Hominid:
Homo habilis evolves (the earliest
member of the genus "Homo"13 ).14

This is when the human brain begins to
get bigger.15
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "human." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 04 May.
2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/human-1
2. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). p78
4. ^ "human." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 04 May. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/human-1
5. ^ Palmer et al, "Primitive Life",
2009, p445.
6. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). p78
8. ^ "human." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 04 May. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/human-1
9. ^ Palmer et al, "Primitive Life",
2009, p445.
10. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
11. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). p78
12. ^ "human." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 04 May. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/human-1
13. ^ Palmer et al, "Primitive Life",
2009, p445.
14. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
15. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). p78
16. ^ F. Spoor, M. G.
Leakey, P. N. Gathogo, F. H. Brown, S.
C. Antón, I. McDougall, C. Kiarie, F.
K. Manthi & L. N. Leakey (2007-08-09).
"Implications of new early Homo fossils
from Ileret, east of Lake Turkana,
Kenya". Nature 448 (7154): 688–691.
doi:10.1038/nature05986. PMID
17687323 http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v448/n7154/full/nature05986.html
17. ^ Donald C. Johanson, Fidelis T.
Masao, Gerald G. Eck, Tim D. White,
Robert C. Walter, William H. Kimbel,
Berhane Asfaw, Paul Manega, Prosper
Ndessokia & Gen Suwa (21 May 1987).
"New partial skeleton of Homo habilis
from Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania". Nature
327 (6119): 205–209.
doi:10.1038/327205a0. PMID 3106831
18. ^
Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004). p78
19. ^ Palmer et al, "Primitive
Life", 2009, p445.
(Kenya16 and Tanzania17 ) Africa18
 
[1] KNM ER 1813 Homo habilis This
image is from the website of the
Smithsonian Institution [1] and may be
copyrighted. The Smithsonian
Institution explicitly considers the
use of its content for non-commercial
educational purposes to qualify as fair
use under United States copyright law,
if: 1. The author and source of the
content is clearly cited. 2. Any
additional copyright information about
the photograph from the Smithsonian
Institution website is included. 3.
None of the content is modified or
altered.
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:KNM_ER_1813.jpg

[2] red= Homo rudolfensis black=Homo
habilis COPYRIGHTED
source: http://sesha.net/eden/Eerste_men
sen.asp
2,000,000 YBN
8 		545) The Hominids: Bonobos {BunOBOZ5 }
evolve.6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "bonobo." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 10 Sep.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/bonobo
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^ "bonobo." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 10
Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/bonobo
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
5. ^ "bonobo." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 10
Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/bonobo
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
8. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). {2
MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Mark S. Springer, William J.
Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003)
[2] Michael J. Benton and Francisco J.
Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003)
[3] "Bonobo". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bonobo
Africa7  
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p106. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p106.

[2] Gregoire: 62-year-old
chimpanzee Description English:
Chimpanzee named ''Gregoire'' born in
1944 (Jane Goodall sanctuary of
Tchimpounga in Congo Brazzaville) -
Picture taken the 9th of December
2006 Français : Chimpanzé nommé
''Grégoire'' né en 1944 (sanctuaire
Jane Goodall de Tchimpounga au Congo
Brazzaville) - Photo prise le 9
décembre 2006 Date 9 December
2006 Source Own work Author
Delphine
Bruyère Permission (Reusing this
file) Attribution : Delphine
Bruyere GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/ba/2006-12-09_Chimpanzee
_Gregoire_D_Bruyere.JPG
1,800,000 YBN
130) The end of the Tertiary {TRsEARE4
} (65-1.8 mybn), and start of the
Quaternary {KWoTRnARE or KWoTRNRE5 }
(1.8 mybn-now) Period.6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Tertiary period." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2012.
Answers.com 17 Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/tertiary-1
2. ^ "quaternary." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 17
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/quaternary
3. ^ The geological Society of America
4. ^
"Tertiary period." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2012.
Answers.com 17 Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/tertiary-1
5. ^ "quaternary." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 17
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/quaternary
6. ^ The geological Society of America
 
[1] Geologic Time Scale 2009 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.geosociety.org/scienc
e/timescale/timescl.pdf

[2] 000 Ma - Present Time UNKNOWN
source: http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~rcb7/000
_present_3globes.jpg
1,800,000 YBN
10 11 12 		563) Homo erectus {hOmO ireKTuS7 }
evolves in Africa.8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Homo erectus." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 10
Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/homo-erectu
s
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). p68-71
3. ^ "Homo erectus."
The American Heritage® Dictionary of
the English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 10 Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/homo-erectu
s
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). p68-71
5. ^ "Homo erectus."
The American Heritage® Dictionary of
the English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 10 Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/homo-erectu
s
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). p68-71
7. ^ "Homo erectus."
The American Heritage® Dictionary of
the English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 10 Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/homo-erectu
s
8. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). p68-71
9. ^ Brown, Frank et
al. “Early Homo Erectus Skeleton from
West Lake Turkana, Kenya.” Nature
316.6031 (1985):
788–792. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v316/n6031/abs/316788a0.html
10. ^ "Homo ergaster 1.9-1.4 mybn".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homo_ergast
er 1.9-1.4 mybn (1.9-1.4mybn) {1.9-1.4
MYBN}
11. ^ Palmer et al, "Primitive Life",
2009, p445.
12. ^ "Homo ergaster 1.9-1.4
mybn". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homo_ergast
er 1.9-1.4 mybn (1.9-1.4mybn) {1.9-1.4
MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Donald Johanson, "Origins of
Modern Humans: Multiregional or Out of
Africa?", ActionBioscience.org, May
2001
http://www.actionbioscience.org/evolut
ion/johanson.html
[2] Palmer et al, "Primitive Life",
2009, p416
[3] Templeton, Alan. “Out of
Africa again and again.” Nature
416.6876 (2002) :
45-51. http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v416/n6876/full/416045a.html
[4] Vekua, Abesalom et al. “A New
Skull of Early Homo from Dmanisi,
Georgia.” Science 297.5578 (2002):
85–89. Print. New Series
Lake Turkana, East Africa9  
[1] Homo ergaster. Capacité
crânienne de 800 à 950
cm3 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://ma.prehistoire.free.fr/er
gaster.htm

[2] Turkana Boy COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.anthropology.at/virta
nth/evo_links/turkana%20boy.jpg
1,700,000 YBN
12 		449) Homo erectus moves into Eurasia
from Africa.10 11
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Templeton, Alan. “Out
of Africa again and again.” Nature
416.6876 (2002) :
45-51. http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v416/n6876/full/416045a.html
3. ^ G. Philip Rightmire, "The
Dispersal of Homo erectus from Africa
and the Emergence of More Modern
Humans", Journal of Anthropological
Research, Vol. 47, No. 2, A Quarter
Century of Paleoanthropology: Views
from the U.S.A. (Summer, 1991), pp.
177-191 Published by: University of
New Mexico Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/3630324
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
5. ^ Templeton, Alan. “Out
of Africa again and again.” Nature
416.6876 (2002) :
45-51. http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v416/n6876/full/416045a.html
6. ^ G. Philip Rightmire, "The
Dispersal of Homo erectus from Africa
and the Emergence of More Modern
Humans", Journal of Anthropological
Research, Vol. 47, No. 2, A Quarter
Century of Paleoanthropology: Views
from the U.S.A. (Summer, 1991), pp.
177-191 Published by: University of
New Mexico Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/3630324
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
8. ^ Templeton, Alan. “Out
of Africa again and again.” Nature
416.6876 (2002) :
45-51. http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v416/n6876/full/416045a.html
9. ^ G. Philip Rightmire, "The
Dispersal of Homo erectus from Africa
and the Emergence of More Modern
Humans", Journal of Anthropological
Research, Vol. 47, No. 2, A Quarter
Century of Paleoanthropology: Views
from the U.S.A. (Summer, 1991), pp.
177-191 Published by: University of
New Mexico Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/3630324
10. ^ "Homo erectus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homo_erectu
s
11. ^ G. Philip Rightmire, "The
Dispersal of Homo erectus from Africa
and the Emergence of More Modern
Humans", Journal of Anthropological
Research, Vol. 47, No. 2, A Quarter
Century of Paleoanthropology: Views
from the U.S.A. (Summer, 1991), pp.
177-191 Published by: University of
New Mexico Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/3630324
12. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). {1.7 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p69-77
[2] Parker, G.
Compact History of the World. Barnes &
Noble, 2001.
 
[1] G. Philip Rightmire, ''The
Dispersal of Homo erectus from Africa
and the Emergence of More Modern
Humans'', Journal of Anthropological
Research, Vol. 47, No. 2, A Quarter
Century of Paleoanthropology: Views
from the U.S.A. (Summer, 1991), pp.
177-191 Published by: University of
New Mexico Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/3630324
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3630
324

[2] All statistically significant
inferences in Tables 1 and 2 are
incorporated into this single model.
Major expansions of human populations
are indicated by red arrows. Genetic
descent is indicated by vertical lines,
and gene flow by diagonal lines. The
timing of inferences lacking resolution
at the 5% level and/or not validated by
more than one locus are indicated by
question marks. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v416/n6876/images/416045a-f1.2.jpg
1,500,000 YBN
6 		583) The controlled use of fire by
Hominids.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Brain, C. K., and A. Sillent.
“Evidence from the Swartkrans cave
for the earliest use of fire.” Nature
336.6198 (1988) :
464-466. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v336/n6198/abs/336464a0.html
{Brain_Sillent_19881201.pdf}
2. ^ Brain, C. K., and A. Sillent.
“Evidence from the Swartkrans cave
for the earliest use of fire.” Nature
336.6198 (1988) :
464-466. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v336/n6198/abs/336464a0.html
{Brain_Sillent_19881201.pdf}
3. ^ Brain, C. K., and A. Sillent.
“Evidence from the Swartkrans cave
for the earliest use of fire.” Nature
336.6198 (1988) :
464-466. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v336/n6198/abs/336464a0.html
{Brain_Sillent_19881201.pdf}
4. ^ Brain, C. K., and A. Sillent.
“Evidence from the Swartkrans cave
for the earliest use of fire.” Nature
336.6198 (1988) :
464-466. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v336/n6198/abs/336464a0.html
{Brain_Sillent_19881201.pdf}
5. ^ Brain, C. K., and A. Sillent.
“Evidence from the Swartkrans cave
for the earliest use of fire.” Nature
336.6198 (1988) :
464-466. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v336/n6198/abs/336464a0.html
{1.0-1.5
MYBN} {Brain_Sillent_19881201.pdf}
6. ^ Brain, C. K., and A. Sillent.
“Evidence from the Swartkrans cave
for the earliest use of fire.” Nature
336.6198 (1988) :
464-466. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v336/n6198/abs/336464a0.html
{1.0-1.5
MYBN} {Brain_Sillent_19881201.pdf}
(Swartkrans cave) Swartkrans, South
Africa5  
[1] Description English: A fire lit
using twigs and pine cones. Date
2008-03-27 (original upload
date) (Original text : 10:58, 27 March
2008 (UTC)) Source Transferred
from en.wikipedia (Original text :
http://waxingnonsensical.blogspot.com)
Author Original uploader was
Emeldil at en.wikipedia (Original text
: Pavan Srinath) Permission (Reusing
this file) CC-BY-SA-3.0. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Campfire_Pineco
ne.png/450px-Campfire_Pinecone.png

[2] Swartkrans Caves For any
picture requests, please email:
marketing@maropeng.co.za All photos
should be credited (© Maropeng),
unless otherwise stated in the caption.
UNKNOWN
source: http://maropeng.flowcommunicatio
.netdna-cdn.com/images/sized/images/medi
agallery/IMG_7223-600x450.JPG
1,000,000 YBN
5 6 		589) Homo erectus evolves far less body
hair, except on the head, face, airpit,
chest, and groin.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). p69-70,273-275
2. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
p69-70,273-275
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). p69-70,273-275
4. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
p69-70,273-275
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). p69-70,273-275 {1 MYBN}
6. ^
Rogers AR, Iltis D, Wooding S, "Genetic
variation at the MC1R locus and the
time since loss of human body hair."
Curr Anthropol
2004;45:105-108. http://www.jstor.org/p
ss/10.1086/381006 {1.2 MYBN}
 
[1] escription English: A diorama in
National Museum of Indonesia, Jakarta,
depicting the life size model of stone
equipped hunter, a Homo erectus family
living in Sangiran about 900,000 years
ago. Bahasa Indonesia: Sebuah diorama
di Museum Nasional Indonesia di Jakarta
menampilkan adegan pemburu dengan
alat-alat batu, sebuah keluarga Homo
erectus yang hidup di Sangiran sekitar
900.000 tahun yang lalu. Date 24
August 2010 Source Own
work Author Gunkarta Gunawan
Kartapranata CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Sangiran_Homo_e
rectus_Diorama.jpg/1280px-Sangiran_Homo_
erectus_Diorama.jpg
970,000 YBN
10 11 12 		200) Humans wear clothing.7 8
FOOTNOTES

1. ^ Parfitt, Simon A., Nick M.
Ashton, Simon G. Lewis, Richard L.
Abel, G. Russell Coope, Mike H. Field,
and others, ‘Early Pleistocene Human
Occupation at the Edge of the Boreal
Zone in Northwest Europe’, Nature,
466 (2010), 229-233
. http://nature.com/nature/journal/v466
/n7303/full/nature09117.html
2. ^ Pallab Ghosh, "Humans' early
arrival in Britain", BBC News,
07/07/2010 http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/10
531419
3. ^ Parfitt, Simon A., Nick M. Ashton,
Simon G. Lewis, Richard L. Abel, G.
Russell Coope, Mike H. Field, and
others, ‘Early Pleistocene Human
Occupation at the Edge of the Boreal
Zone in Northwest Europe’, Nature,
466 (2010), 229-233
. http://nature.com/nature/journal/v466
/n7303/full/nature09117.html
4. ^ Pallab Ghosh, "Humans' early
arrival in Britain", BBC News,
07/07/2010 http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/10
531419
5. ^ Parfitt, Simon A., Nick M. Ashton,
Simon G. Lewis, Richard L. Abel, G.
Russell Coope, Mike H. Field, and
others, ‘Early Pleistocene Human
Occupation at the Edge of the Boreal
Zone in Northwest Europe’, Nature,
466 (2010), 229-233
. http://nature.com/nature/journal/v466
/n7303/full/nature09117.html
6. ^ Pallab Ghosh, "Humans' early
arrival in Britain", BBC News,
07/07/2010 http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/10
531419
7. ^ Parfitt, Simon A., Nick M. Ashton,
Simon G. Lewis, Richard L. Abel, G.
Russell Coope, Mike H. Field, and
others, ‘Early Pleistocene Human
Occupation at the Edge of the Boreal
Zone in Northwest Europe’, Nature,
466 (2010), 229-233
. http://nature.com/nature/journal/v466
/n7303/full/nature09117.html
8. ^ Pallab Ghosh, "Humans' early
arrival in Britain", BBC News,
07/07/2010 http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/10
531419
9. ^ Parfitt, Simon A., Nick M. Ashton,
Simon G. Lewis, Richard L. Abel, G.
Russell Coope, Mike H. Field, and
others, ‘Early Pleistocene Human
Occupation at the Edge of the Boreal
Zone in Northwest Europe’, Nature,
466 (2010), 229-233
. http://nature.com/nature/journal/v466
/n7303/full/nature09117.html
10. ^ Parfitt, Simon A., Nick M.
Ashton, Simon G. Lewis, Richard L.
Abel, G. Russell Coope, Mike H. Field,
and others, ‘Early Pleistocene Human
Occupation at the Edge of the Boreal
Zone in Northwest Europe’, Nature,
466 (2010), 229-233
. http://nature.com/nature/journal/v466
/n7303/full/nature09117.html {970,000}
11. ^
Melissa A. Toups, Andrew Kitchen,
Jessica E. Light, and David L. Reed,
"Origin of Clothing Lice Indicates
Early Clothing Use by Anatomically
Modern Humans in Africa", Mol Biol Evol
(2011) 28(1): 29-32 first published
online September 7, 2010
doi:10.1093/molbev/msq234
{83,000-170,000YBN}
12. ^ Ralf Kittler, Manfred Kayser,
Mark Stoneking, Molecular Evolution of
Pediculus humanus and the Origin of
Clothing, Current Biology, Volume 13,
Issue 16, 19 August 2003, Pages
1414-1417, ISSN 0960-9822,
10.1016/S0960-9822(03)00507-4. (http://
www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pi
i/S0960982203005074) {72,000YBN +/-
42,000years}
Happisburgh, Norfolk, UK9  
[1] Homo erectus, artwork C010/4389
Rights Managed Credit: JOSE ANTONIO
PEÑAS/SCIENCE PHOTO
LIBRARY Caption: Homo erectus.
Computer artwork of a Homo erectus man
standing in a prehistoric landscape.
Homo erectus is the most widespread and
longest-surviving of all the fossil
hominids. Its geographical spread
included north and east Africa, Europe,
Indonesia and China, where it lived
between 1 and 2 million years
ago. Release details: Model and
property releases are not available
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.sciencephoto.com/imag
e/417426/large/C0104389-Homo_erectus,_ar
twork-SPL.jpg

[2] Flint artefacts include
hard-hammer flakes, notches, retouched
flakes and cores (a–c, hard-hammer
flake; d, e, multiple notch; f,
hard-hammer flake; g, h, hard-hammer
flake, showing pronounced point of
percussion on plain butt).
Supplementary Information includes
micro-CT volume rendering of artefacts
(still example shown as a) with
three-dimensional animations (see
Supplementary Movies 1–10). i, Cone
of Pinus cf. sylvestris. j, Upper
second molar of Mammuthus cf.
meridionalis. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nature.com/nature/journal
/v466/n7303/images/nature09117-f2.2.jpg
400,000 YBN
7 8 9 		615) The earliest evidence of spears.4

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Wilkins, Jayne et al. “Evidence
for Early Hafted Hunting Technology.”
Science 338.6109 (2012):
942–946. http://www.sciencemag.org/co
ntent/338/6109/942
2. ^ Wilkins, Jayne et al. “Evidence
for Early Hafted Hunting Technology.”
Science 338.6109 (2012):
942–946. http://www.sciencemag.org/co
ntent/338/6109/942
3. ^ Wilkins, Jayne et al. “Evidence
for Early Hafted Hunting Technology.”
Science 338.6109 (2012):
942–946. http://www.sciencemag.org/co
ntent/338/6109/942
4. ^ Wilkins, Jayne et al. “Evidence
for Early Hafted Hunting Technology.”
Science 338.6109 (2012):
942–946. http://www.sciencemag.org/co
ntent/338/6109/942
5. ^ Wilkins, Jayne et al. “Evidence
for Early Hafted Hunting Technology.”
Science 338.6109 (2012):
942–946. http://www.sciencemag.org/co
ntent/338/6109/942
6. ^ Thieme, Hartmut, ‘Lower
Palaeolithic Hunting Spears from
Germany’, Nature, 385 (1997), 807-810
. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/
v385/n6619/abs/385807a0.html {Thieme_19
970227.pdf} {400,000YBN}
7. ^ Wilkins, Jayne et al.
“Evidence for Early Hafted Hunting
Technology.” Science 338.6109 (2012):
942–946. http://www.sciencemag.org/co
ntent/338/6109/942
8. ^ Thieme, Hartmut, ‘Lower
Palaeolithic Hunting Spears from
Germany’, Nature, 385 (1997), 807-810
. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/
v385/n6619/abs/385807a0.html {Thieme_19
970227.pdf} {400,000YBN}
9. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A
history of invention : from stone axes
to silicon chips ", (New York:
Checkmark Books, 2000). {8000 YBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Lower Palaeolithic hunting
spears from Germany. Hartmut Thieme.
Letters to Nature. Nature 385, 807 -
810 (27 February 1997);
doi:10.1038/385807a0
Kathu Pan 1, South Africa5
|(Schöningen, Germany.6 ) 
[1] (Photo : Jayne Wilkins) Replicas of
the 500,000-year-old stone points from
Kathu Pan 1 were hafted onto wooden
dowels with acacia resin and sinew, and
plunged into antelope carcasses Read
more at
http://www.latinospost.com/articles/6938
/20121115/oldest-stone-spear-tips-found-
came-200.htm#irhScS4kokLTYQJp.99 UNKNOW
N
source: http://images.latinospost.com/da
ta/images/full/8174/early-hafted-spears.
jpg?w=600

[2] Fig. 2 (A and B) Distal
step-terminating bending fractures on
ventral surfaces of complete
nonretouched convergent blades, banded
ironstone. (C) Distal impact burination
on ventral surface of a complete
nonretouched convergent flake, banded
ironstone. (D) Distal impact burination
on ventral surface of complete
nonretouched convergent blade, banded
ironstone. (E) Comparison of DIF
frequencies (95% confidence intervals)
at Holocene kill and habitation sites
with well-established weapon tips (11,
27, 28, 36), experimental weapon tip
studies (10, 27, 37–40), trampling
experiments (32, 41), and KP1.
Wilkins, Jayne et al. “Evidence for
Early Hafted Hunting Technology.”
Science 338.6109 (2012):
942–946. http://www.sciencemag.org/co
ntent/338/6109/942 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/338/6109/942
302,000 YBN
5 		6517) There are 1 million humans on
Earth, all hunter-gathering people.3 4

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Kremer, Michael. “Population
Growth and Technological Change: One
Million B.C. to 1990.” The Quarterly
Journal of Economics 108.3 (1993):
681–716. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
2118405
2. ^ Parker, G. Compact History of the
World. Barnes & Noble, 2001, p17.
3. ^
Kremer, Michael. “Population Growth
and Technological Change: One Million
B.C. to 1990.” The Quarterly Journal
of Economics 108.3 (1993):
681–716. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
2118405
4. ^ Parker, G. Compact History of the
World. Barnes & Noble, 2001, p17.
5. ^
Kremer, Michael. “Population Growth
and Technological Change: One Million
B.C. to 1990.” The Quarterly Journal
of Economics 108.3 (1993):
681–716. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
2118405
 
[1] Parker, G. Compact History of the
World. Barnes & Noble, 2001,
p17. COPYRIGHTED
source: Parker, G. Compact History of
the World. Barnes & Noble, 2001, p17.
200,000 YBN
20 21 22 		548) Homo sapiens evolve in Africa.13
14 15 16
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Day, M. H. "Omo human skeletal
remains." Nature 222, 1135–1138
(1969)
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
222/n5199/pdf/2221135a0.pdf
2. ^ Ian McDougall, Francis H. Brown &
John G. Fleagle, "Stratigraphic
placement and age of modern humans from
Kibish, Ethiopia", Nature 433, 733-736
(17 February
2005). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v433/n7027/abs/nature03258.html
3. ^ University Of Utah. "The Oldest
Homo Sapiens: Fossils Push Human
Emergence Back To 195,000 Years Ago."
ScienceDaily, 28 Feb. 2005. Web. 9 Oct.
2011.
4. ^ Tim D. White, Berhane Asfaw, David
DeGusta, Henry Gilbert, Gary D.
Richards, Gen Suwa & F. Clark Howell,
"Pleistocene Homo sapiens from Middle
Awash, Ethiopia", Nature 423, 742-747
(12 June
2003) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v423/n6941/full/nature01669.html
5. ^ Day, M. H. "Omo human skeletal
remains." Nature 222, 1135–1138
(1969)
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
222/n5199/pdf/2221135a0.pdf
6. ^ Ian McDougall, Francis H. Brown &
John G. Fleagle, "Stratigraphic
placement and age of modern humans from
Kibish, Ethiopia", Nature 433, 733-736
(17 February
2005). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v433/n7027/abs/nature03258.html
7. ^ University Of Utah. "The Oldest
Homo Sapiens: Fossils Push Human
Emergence Back To 195,000 Years Ago."
ScienceDaily, 28 Feb. 2005. Web. 9 Oct.
2011.
8. ^ Tim D. White, Berhane Asfaw, David
DeGusta, Henry Gilbert, Gary D.
Richards, Gen Suwa & F. Clark Howell,
"Pleistocene Homo sapiens from Middle
Awash, Ethiopia", Nature 423, 742-747
(12 June
2003) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v423/n6941/full/nature01669.html
9. ^ Day, M. H. "Omo human skeletal
remains." Nature 222, 1135–1138
(1969)
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
222/n5199/pdf/2221135a0.pdf
10. ^ Ian McDougall, Francis H. Brown &
John G. Fleagle, "Stratigraphic
placement and age of modern humans from
Kibish, Ethiopia", Nature 433, 733-736
(17 February
2005). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v433/n7027/abs/nature03258.html
11. ^ University Of Utah. "The Oldest
Homo Sapiens: Fossils Push Human
Emergence Back To 195,000 Years Ago."
ScienceDaily, 28 Feb. 2005. Web. 9 Oct.
2011.
12. ^ Tim D. White, Berhane Asfaw,
David DeGusta, Henry Gilbert, Gary D.
Richards, Gen Suwa & F. Clark Howell,
"Pleistocene Homo sapiens from Middle
Awash, Ethiopia", Nature 423, 742-747
(12 June
2003) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v423/n6941/full/nature01669.html
13. ^ Day, M. H. "Omo human skeletal
remains." Nature 222, 1135–1138
(1969)
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
222/n5199/pdf/2221135a0.pdf
14. ^ Ian McDougall, Francis H. Brown &
John G. Fleagle, "Stratigraphic
placement and age of modern humans from
Kibish, Ethiopia", Nature 433, 733-736
(17 February
2005). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v433/n7027/abs/nature03258.html
15. ^ University Of Utah. "The Oldest
Homo Sapiens: Fossils Push Human
Emergence Back To 195,000 Years Ago."
ScienceDaily, 28 Feb. 2005. Web. 9 Oct.
2011.
16. ^ Tim D. White, Berhane Asfaw,
David DeGusta, Henry Gilbert, Gary D.
Richards, Gen Suwa & F. Clark Howell,
"Pleistocene Homo sapiens from Middle
Awash, Ethiopia", Nature 423, 742-747
(12 June
2003) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v423/n6941/full/nature01669.html
17. ^ Day, M. H. "Omo human skeletal
remains." Nature 222, 1135–1138
(1969)
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
222/n5199/pdf/2221135a0.pdf
18. ^ Ian McDougall, Francis H. Brown &
John G. Fleagle, "Stratigraphic
placement and age of modern humans from
Kibish, Ethiopia", Nature 433, 733-736
(17 February
2005). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v433/n7027/abs/nature03258.html
19. ^ McDougall, Ian, Francis H. Brown,
and John G. Fleagle. “Sapropels and
the age of hominins Omo I and II,
Kibish, Ethiopia.” Journal of Human
Evolution 55.3 (2008) :
409-420. http://www.sciencedirect.com/s
cience/article/pii/S0047248408001024
20. ^ McDougall, Ian, Francis H. Brown,
and John G. Fleagle. “Sapropels and
the age of hominins Omo I and II,
Kibish, Ethiopia.” Journal of Human
Evolution 55.3 (2008) :
409-420. http://www.sciencedirect.com/s
cience/article/pii/S0047248408001024
21. ^ Ian McDougall, Francis H. Brown &
John G. Fleagle, "Stratigraphic
placement and age of modern humans from
Kibish, Ethiopia", Nature 433, 733-736
(17 February
2005). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v433/n7027/abs/nature03258.html
{200,000 YBN}
22. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p65. (165,000
YBN) {200,000 YBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Mark S. Springer, William J.
Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003)
[2] Michael J. Benton and Francisco J.
Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003)
Ethiopia, Africa17 18 19  
[1] Figure from: Day, M. H. ''Omo
human skeletal remains.'' Nature 222,
1135–1138 (1969)
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
222/n5199/pdf/2221135a0.pdf COPYRIGHTED

source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v222/n5199/pdf/2221135a0.pdf

[2] Figure 1 from: Tim D. White,
Berhane Asfaw, David DeGusta, Henry
Gilbert, Gary D. Richards, Gen Suwa &
F. Clark Howell, ''Pleistocene Homo
sapiens from Middle Awash, Ethiopia'',
Nature 423, 742-747 (12 June
2003) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v423/n6941/full/nature01669.html CO
PYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v423/n6941/images/nature01669-f1.2.
jpg
200,000 YBN
590) The Human language of thirty short
sounds begins to develop.6 All words
are single syllable.7

This is the beginning of the transition
from the verbal language of chimpanzees
and monkeys, to the language humans use
now, which has shorter sound duration
and a larger number of sounds.8
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ Ted Huntington
2. ^ Ted Huntington
3. ^ (The vast
majority of Sumerian language is made
of one-syllable words) Archaic
Bookkeeping, Nisson, 1993, p117.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington
5. ^ (The vast majority of Sumerian
language is made of one-syllable words)
Archaic Bookkeeping, Nisson, 1993,
p117.
6. ^ Ted Huntington
7. ^ (The vast majority of
Sumerian language is made of
one-syllable words) Archaic
Bookkeeping, Nisson, 1993, p117.
8. ^ Ted
Huntington
 
[1] EARLY HUMANS SETTLED IN BRITAIN
800,000 YEARS AGO July 7, 2010 --
During the harsh winters, early humans
almost certainly relied on hunting
animals, as edible plants would have
been in very short supply, the study
says. UNKNOWN
source: http://news.discovery.com/archae
ology/2010/07/07/early-humans-zoom.jpg

[2] Phonetic Alphabet Symbols used by
Ted Huntington PD
source: http://tedhuntington.com/fonikal
f.jpg
130,000 YBN
6 7 		450) Homo Neanderthalensis evolves in
Europe and Western Asia.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Donald Johanson, "Origins of
Modern Humans: Multiregional or Out of
Africa?", ActionBioscience.org, May
2001
http://www.actionbioscience.org/evolut
ion/johanson.html
2. ^ Douglas Palmer, et al, "Primitive
Life", 2009, p464.
3. ^ Donald Johanson,
"Origins of Modern Humans:
Multiregional or Out of Africa?",
ActionBioscience.org, May 2001
http://www.actionbioscience.org/evolut
ion/johanson.html
4. ^ Donald Johanson, "Origins of
Modern Humans: Multiregional or Out of
Africa?", ActionBioscience.org, May
2001
http://www.actionbioscience.org/evolut
ion/johanson.html
5. ^ Donald Johanson, "Origins of
Modern Humans: Multiregional or Out of
Africa?", ActionBioscience.org, May
2001
http://www.actionbioscience.org/evolut
ion/johanson.html
6. ^Donald Johanson, "Origins of Modern
Humans: Multiregional or Out of
Africa?", ActionBioscience.org, May
2001
http://www.actionbioscience.org/evolut
ion/johanson.html {000}
7. ^
http://humanorigins.si.edu/evidence/gene
tics/ancient-dna-and-neanderthals

MORE INFO
[1] "Neanderthal". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neanderthal

Europe and Western Asia5  
[1] Description Deutsch:
Rekonstruierter Neandertaler im
Neanderthal-Museum Date 2007 Source
Own
work Author Ökologix Permission
(Reusing this file) See below. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Neandertaler-im
-Museum.jpg/1024px-Neandertaler-im-Museu
m.jpg

[2] Description English: Homo
neanderthalensis. Skull discovered in
1908 at La Chapelle-aux-Saints
(France). Date October
2005 Source Own
work Author Luna04 GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e0/Homo_sapiens_neandert
halensis.jpg
120,000 YBN
572) The start of the Wurm glaciation,
which connects a land bridge between
Asia and America.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.dbc.uci.edu/~sustain/bio65/le
c04/b65lec04.htm
 
[1] Description English: Ice age
Earth at glacial maximum. Based on:
''Ice age terrestrial carbon changes
revisited'' by Thomas J. Crowley
(Global Biogeochemical Cycles, Vol. 9,
1995, pp. 377-389 Date 30 January
2010 Source Own work Author
Ittiz CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/IceAgeEarth.jpg
/1024px-IceAgeEarth.jpg
101,000 YBN
[99000 BC] 8 9 10 		594) Homo sapiens move out of Africa
into Eurasia.6 This is the beginning
of differences in race within the human
species.7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.actionbioscience.org/evolutio
n/johanson.html
2. ^
http://www.actionbioscience.org/evolutio
n/johanson.html
3. ^ Cavalli-Sforza, L L et al.
“Reconstruction of human evolution:
bringing together genetic,
archaeological, and linguistic data.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences 85.16 (1988) : 6002
-6006. http://www.pnas.org/content/85/1
6/6002.short
4. ^
http://www.actionbioscience.org/evolutio
n/johanson.html
5. ^ Cavalli-Sforza, L L et al.
“Reconstruction of human evolution:
bringing together genetic,
archaeological, and linguistic data.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences 85.16 (1988) : 6002
-6006. http://www.pnas.org/content/85/1
6/6002.short
6. ^
http://www.actionbioscience.org/evolutio
n/johanson.html
7. ^ Cavalli-Sforza, L L et al.
“Reconstruction of human evolution:
bringing together genetic,
archaeological, and linguistic data.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences 85.16 (1988) : 6002
-6006. http://www.pnas.org/content/85/1
6/6002.short
8. ^ N. Mercier, H. Valladas, O.
Bar-Yosef, B. Vandermeersch, C.
Stringer, J.-L. Joron,
Thermoluminescence Date for the
Mousterian Burial Site of Es-Skhul, Mt.
Carmel, Journal of Archaeological
Science, Volume 20, Issue 2, March
1993, Pages 169-174, ISSN 0305-4403,
10.1006/jasc.1993.1012. http://www.scie
ncedirect.com/science/article/pii/S03054
40383710125
9. ^
http://www.actionbioscience.org/evolutio
n/johanson.html {000 YBN}
10. ^
Cavalli-Sforza, L L et al.
“Reconstruction of human evolution:
bringing together genetic,
archaeological, and linguistic data.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences 85.16 (1988) : 6002
-6006. http://www.pnas.org/content/85/1
6/6002.short {000 YBN}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.infoplease.com/ipa/A0908490.h
tml
[2] Templeton, Alan. “Out of Africa
again and again.” Nature 416.6876
(2002) :
45-51. http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v416/n6876/abs/416045a.html
 
[1] The northern route (along the
Danube) is represented by the 'classic'
Aurignacian technologies, while the
southern (Mediterranean) route is
represented by the 'proto-Aurignacian'
bladelet technologies (Fig. 3)-with
their inferred origins in the preceding
early Upper Palaeolithic technologies
in the Near East and southeastern
Europe. Dates (in thousands of years
bp) indicate the earliest radiocarbon
dates for these technologies in
different areas, expressed in thousands
of radiocarbon years before present
(bp). (These are likely to
underestimate the true (calendar) ages
of the sites by between 2,000 and 4,000
yr; see ref. 32). Dashed lines indicate
uncertain routes. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v432/n7016/fig_tab/nature03103_F1.h
tml

[2] The figure shows the geographical
and temporal distribution of hominid
populations, based on fossil finds,
using different taxonomic schemes. The
new finds from Herto4, 5 (H) represent
early Homo sapiens. a, This reflects
the view that both Neanderthals and
modern humans derived from a widespread
ancestral species called H.
heidelbergensis2. b, However, evidence
is growing that Neanderthal features
have deep roots in Europe2, 8, so H.
neanderthalensis might extend back over
400,000 years. The roots of H. sapiens
might be similarly deep in Africa, but
this figure represents the alternative
view that the ancestor was a separate
African species called H. rhodesiensis.
Different views of early human
evolution are also shown. Some workers
prefer to lump the earlier records
together and recognize only one
widespread species, H. erectus2 (shown
in a). Others recognize several
species, with H. ergaster and H.
antecessor (or H. mauritanicus) in the
West, and H. erectus only in the Far
East8 (shown in b). Adapted with
permission from refs 8, 11. 8.
Hublin, J.-J in Human Roots: Africa
and Asia in the Middle Pleistocene (eds
Barham, L. & Robson-Brown, K.) 99-121
(Western Academic & Specialist Press,
Bristol, 2001). 11. Rightmire, G. P.
in Human Roots: Africa and Asia in the
Middle Pleistocene (eds Barham, L. &
Robson-Brown, K.) 123-133 (Western
Academic & Specialist Press, Bristol,
2001). COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v423/n6941/fig_tab/423692a_F1.html
100,000 YBN
[98000 BC] 4 5 		257) The oldest Homo sapiens skull
outside of Africa; in Israel.2
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^
http://www.stephenjaygould.org/ctrl/bill
ings_africa.html (92,000-115,000)
2. ^
http://www.stephenjaygould.org/ctrl/bill
ings_africa.html (92,000-115,000)
3. ^
http://www.stephenjaygould.org/ctrl/bill
ings_africa.html (92,000-115,000)
4. ^ N. Mercier, H.
Valladas, O. Bar-Yosef, B.
Vandermeersch, C. Stringer, J.-L.
Joron, Thermoluminescence Date for the
Mousterian Burial Site of Es-Skhul, Mt.
Carmel, Journal of Archaeological
Science, Volume 20, Issue 2, March
1993, Pages 169-174, ISSN 0305-4403,
10.1006/jasc.1993.1012. http://www.scie
ncedirect.com/science/article/pii/S03054
40383710125
5. ^
http://www.stephenjaygould.org/ctrl/bill
ings_africa.html (92,000-115,000)

MORE INFO
[1] Bar-Yosef, O. in The
Geography of Neandertals and Modern
Humans in Europe and the Greater
Mediterranean (eds Bar-Yosef, O. &
Pilbeam, D.) 107−156 (Peabody Museum,
Harvard Univ., Cambridge,
Massachusetts, 2000)
[2] Mellars, Paul.
“Neanderthals and the modern human
colonization of Europe.” Nature
432.7016 (2004) :
461-465. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v432/n7016/full/nature03103.html
[3] Bar-Yosef, O., B. Vandermeersch, B.
Arensburg, A. Belfer-Cohen, P.
Goldberg, H. Laville, L. Meignen, Y.
Rak, J. D. Speth, E. Tchernov, A. M.
Tillier, S. Weiner, G. A. Clark, A.
Garrard, D. O. Henry, F. Hole, D. Roe,
K. R. Rosenberg, L. A. Schepartz, J. J.
Shea, F. H. Smith, E. Trinkaus, N. M.
Whalen and L. Wilson. 199. The
Excavations in Kebara Cave, Mt. Carmel
(and Comments and Replies). Current
Anthropology
33(5):497-550. http://www.jstor.org/dis
cover/10.2307/2743915?uid=3739256&uid=21
29&uid=2&uid=70&uid=4&sid=21101120105141

[4] "Skhul remains". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skhul_remai
ns
[5] McCown, Keith, "The Stone Age of
Mount Carmel", Vol II, 1939
[6] Stringer, C.
B. et al. “ESR Dates for the Hominid
Burial Site of Es Skhul in Israel.”
Nature 338.6218 (1989):
756–758. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v338/n6218/abs/338756a0.html
(Skhul Cave) Mount Carmel, Israel3
 
[1] Индекс: Кафзех 9
(Qafzeh IX) Место
находки: Qafzeh Cave,
Israel Найден: B. Vandermeersch,
1969 Предполагаемый
возраст находки: 90–115
тыс. лет
Разновидность: Homo
sapiens Объем мозга: 1500
см3 Примечания:
Женщина была
захоронена вместе с
маленьким
ребенком. Автор: Sasha
на 15:13 UNKNOWN
source: http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-atwty2
hbM9Y/TxIL8eshIkI/AAAAAAAAGG4/KNd7DfaWco
s/s1600/qafzeh_9_big.jpg

[2] Figure 2: Three-quarter view of
the Mousterian cranium Qafzeh 9 from
Jebel Qafzeh in Israel, about 92,000
years old. Photo: Tsila
Sagiv/IDAM. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.metmuseum.org/special
/Genesis/tattersall_lecture.asp?printFla
g=1&refPage=1
100,000 YBN
[98000 BC] 5 6 7 		597) The earliest human burial, Skhul
{SKuL?} cave in Israel.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Stringer, C. B. et al. “ESR
Dates for the Hominid Burial Site of Es
Skhul in Israel.” Nature 338.6218
(1989):
756–758. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v338/n6218/abs/338756a0.html
2. ^ Stringer, C. B. et al. “ESR
Dates for the Hominid Burial Site of Es
Skhul in Israel.” Nature 338.6218
(1989):
756–758. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v338/n6218/abs/338756a0.html
3. ^ N. Mercier, H. Valladas, O.
Bar-Yosef, B. Vandermeersch, C.
Stringer, J.-L. Joron,
Thermoluminescence Date for the
Mousterian Burial Site of Es-Skhul, Mt.
Carmel, Journal of Archaeological
Science, Volume 20, Issue 2, March
1993, Pages 169-174, ISSN 0305-4403,
10.1006/jasc.1993.1012. http://www.scie
ncedirect.com/science/article/pii/S03054
40383710125
4. ^ Philip Lieberman, "Uniquely human:
the evolution of speech, thought, and
selfless behavior", 1993, p163.
5. ^
Stringer, C. B. et al. “ESR Dates for
the Hominid Burial Site of Es Skhul in
Israel.” Nature 338.6218 (1989):
756–758. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v338/n6218/abs/338756a0.html
6. ^ N. Mercier, H. Valladas, O.
Bar-Yosef, B. Vandermeersch, C.
Stringer, J.-L. Joron,
Thermoluminescence Date for the
Mousterian Burial Site of Es-Skhul, Mt.
Carmel, Journal of Archaeological
Science, Volume 20, Issue 2, March
1993, Pages 169-174, ISSN 0305-4403,
10.1006/jasc.1993.1012. http://www.scie
ncedirect.com/science/article/pii/S03054
40383710125
7. ^ Philip Lieberman, "Uniquely human:
the evolution of speech, thought, and
selfless behavior", 1993, p163.

MORE INFO
[1] Garrod, et al, "The Stone Age
of Mount Carmel", 1939
(es-Skhul cave) Mount Carmel, Israel2
3 4  
[1] {ULSF: Skhul IV from Mugharet
Es-Skhul, corresponds to images in
pages between p112 and p113 Garrod,
''The Stone Age of Mount Carmel
excavations at the
Wady-el-Mughara'',1937} Reconstructio
n of the burial of Skhul 4 , a
strongly-built, ''early modern''
human. (photograph from Stringer C.S.
et al., 1994) UNKNOWN
source: http://indiaeng.com/Tsunami-2004
--Andaman%20fault/Toba%20Volcano,%20ch_5
%20-%20Human%20evolution_files/mht1055(1
).TMP

[2] [t Note that this may not be the
actual 100,000 year burial.] This is a
burial site of a Homo sapiens
neaderthalensis young adult male who
lived about 50,000 years ago. The
burial site was found in the Kebara
cave in Israel. UKNOWN
source: http://www.mitchellteachers.net/
WorldHistory/MrMEarlyHumansProject/Trans
parencies/NeanderthalensisTrans.jpg
100,000 YBN
[98000 BC] 7 8 9 		6333) The theory that Gods control the
universe.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
5. ^ Stringer, C. B. et al. “ESR
Dates for the Hominid Burial Site of Es
Skhul in Israel.” Nature 338.6218
(1989):
756–758. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v338/n6218/abs/338756a0.html
6. ^ N. Mercier, H. Valladas, O.
Bar-Yosef, B. Vandermeersch, C.
Stringer, J.-L. Joron,
Thermoluminescence Date for the
Mousterian Burial Site of Es-Skhul, Mt.
Carmel, Journal of Archaeological
Science, Volume 20, Issue 2, March
1993, Pages 169-174, ISSN 0305-4403,
10.1006/jasc.1993.1012. http://www.scie
ncedirect.com/science/article/pii/S03054
40383710125
7. ^ Philip Lieberman, "Uniquely human:
the evolution of speech, thought, and
selfless behavior", 1993, p163.
8. ^
Stringer, C. B. et al. “ESR Dates for
the Hominid Burial Site of Es Skhul in
Israel.” Nature 338.6218 (1989):
756–758. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v338/n6218/abs/338756a0.html
9. ^ N. Mercier, H. Valladas, O.
Bar-Yosef, B. Vandermeersch, C.
Stringer, J.-L. Joron,
Thermoluminescence Date for the
Mousterian Burial Site of Es-Skhul, Mt.
Carmel, Journal of Archaeological
Science, Volume 20, Issue 2, March
1993, Pages 169-174, ISSN 0305-4403,
10.1006/jasc.1993.1012. http://www.scie
ncedirect.com/science/article/pii/S03054
40383710125
(Es-Skhul) Mount Carmel, Israel5 6
 
[1] {ULSF: Skhul IV from Mugharet
Es-Skhul, corresponds to images in
pages between p112 and p113 Garrod,
''The Stone Age of Mount Carmel
excavations at the
Wady-el-Mughara'',1937} Reconstructio
n of the burial of Skhul 4 , a
strongly-built, ''early modern''
human. (photograph from Stringer C.S.
et al., 1994) UNKNOWN
source: http://indiaeng.com/Tsunami-2004
--Andaman%20fault/Toba%20Volcano,%20ch_5
%20-%20Human%20evolution_files/mht1055(1
).TMP

[2] The following is taken from James
Shreeve's book The Neandertal Enigma:
solving the mystery of modern human
origins (William Morrow and Company,
New York, 1995.) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.mesacc.edu/dept/d10/a
sb/origins/hominid_journey/pictures/buri
al.jpeg
61,000 YBN
[59000 BC] 11 12 13 14 15 		614) Humans use a bow and arrows.7 8
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ "Stone-Age arrows found", News,
University of Johannesburg. See also
Antiquity
84:635-648 http://www.uj.ac.za/EN/Newsr
oom/News/Pages/Stone-Agearrowsfound.aspx

2. ^ Lucinda Backwella, Francesco
d'Erricob and Lyn Wadley (june 2008).
"Middle Stone Age bone tools from the
Howiesons Poort layers, Sibudu Cave,
South Africa". ScienceDirect.
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/a
rticle/pii/S0305440307002142
3. ^ "Stone-Age arrows found", News,
University of Johannesburg. See also
Antiquity
84:635-648 http://www.uj.ac.za/EN/Newsr
oom/News/Pages/Stone-Agearrowsfound.aspx

4. ^ Lucinda Backwella, Francesco
d'Erricob and Lyn Wadley (june 2008).
"Middle Stone Age bone tools from the
Howiesons Poort layers, Sibudu Cave,
South Africa". ScienceDirect.
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/a
rticle/pii/S0305440307002142
5. ^ "Stone-Age arrows found", News,
University of Johannesburg. See also
Antiquity
84:635-648 http://www.uj.ac.za/EN/Newsr
oom/News/Pages/Stone-Agearrowsfound.aspx

6. ^ Lucinda Backwella, Francesco
d'Erricob and Lyn Wadley (june 2008).
"Middle Stone Age bone tools from the
Howiesons Poort layers, Sibudu Cave,
South Africa". ScienceDirect.
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/a
rticle/pii/S0305440307002142
7. ^ "Stone-Age arrows found", News,
University of Johannesburg. See also
Antiquity
84:635-648 http://www.uj.ac.za/EN/Newsr
oom/News/Pages/Stone-Agearrowsfound.aspx

8. ^ Lucinda Backwella, Francesco
d'Erricob and Lyn Wadley (june 2008).
"Middle Stone Age bone tools from the
Howiesons Poort layers, Sibudu Cave,
South Africa". ScienceDirect.
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/a
rticle/pii/S0305440307002142
9. ^ "Stone-Age arrows found", News,
University of Johannesburg. See also
Antiquity
84:635-648 http://www.uj.ac.za/EN/Newsr
oom/News/Pages/Stone-Agearrowsfound.aspx

10. ^ Lucinda Backwella, Francesco
d'Erricob and Lyn Wadley (june 2008).
"Middle Stone Age bone tools from the
Howiesons Poort layers, Sibudu Cave,
South Africa". ScienceDirect.
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/a
rticle/pii/S0305440307002142
11. ^ Lucinda Backwella, Francesco
d'Erricob and Lyn Wadley (june 2008).
"Middle Stone Age bone tools from the
Howiesons Poort layers, Sibudu Cave,
South Africa". ScienceDirect.
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/a
rticle/pii/S0305440307002142
12. ^ "Modern culture emerged in Africa
20,000 years earlier than thought", LA
Times,
07/30/2012 http://www.latimes.com/news/
science/sciencenow/la-sci-sn-modern-cult
ure-africa-20120730,0,4412702.story?trac
k=rss
13. ^ Paola Villa, et al, "Border Cave
and the beginning of the Later Stone
Age in South Africa", PNAS, July 30,
2012. http://www.pnas.org/content/early
/2012/07/23/1202629109.abstract
14. ^ Lucinda Backwella, Francesco
d'Erricob and Lyn Wadley (june 2008).
"Middle Stone Age bone tools from the
Howiesons Poort layers, Sibudu Cave,
South Africa". ScienceDirect.
{10,000YBN}
15. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000). {8000 YBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Jim Hamm, "The Traditional
Bowyer's Bible", Volume 2, 2000,
p86. books.google.com/books?id=D9yQiKTt
prAC&pg=PA86&lpg=PA86
[2] Collins, Desmond (1973). Background
to archaeology: Britain in its European
setting (Revised ed.). Cambridge
University Press. ISBN 0521201551
Sibudu Cave, South Africa9 10  
[1] Lucinda Backwella, Francesco
d'Erricob and Lyn Wadley (june 2008).
''Middle Stone Age bone tools from the
Howiesons Poort layers, Sibudu Cave,
South Africa''. ScienceDirect.
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/a
rticle/pii/S0305440307002142
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence/article/pii/S0305440307002142

[2] Objects found in the
archaeological site called Border Cave
include a) a wooden digging stick; b) a
wooden poison applicator; c) a bone
arrow point decorated with a spiral
incision filled with red pigment; d) a
bone object with four sets of notches;
e) a lump of beeswax; and f) ostrich
eggshell beads and marine shell beads
used as personal ornaments. (Francesco
d'Errico and Lucinda Backwell / July
30, 2012) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.trbimg.com/img-5016e6
83/turbine/la-sci-sn-modern-culture-afri
ca-20120730-001/600
53,300 YBN
[51300 BC] 4 		557) Homo Erectus goes extinct.2
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ Swisher, C. C. et al. “Latest
Homo erectus of Java: Potential
Contemporaneity with Homo sapiens in
Southeast Asia.” Science 274.5294
(1996) : 1870 -1874.
http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/
abstract/274/5294/1870 AND
http://www.jstor.org/stable/2891688
2. ^ Swisher, C. C. et al. “Latest
Homo erectus of Java: Potential
Contemporaneity with Homo sapiens in
Southeast Asia.” Science 274.5294
(1996) : 1870 -1874.
http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/
abstract/274/5294/1870
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/2891688

3. ^ Swisher, C. C. et al. “Latest
Homo erectus of Java: Potential
Contemporaneity with Homo sapiens in
Southeast Asia.” Science 274.5294
(1996) : 1870 -1874.
http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/
abstract/274/5294/1870
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/2891688

4. ^ Swisher, C. C. et al. “Latest
Homo erectus of Java: Potential
Contemporaneity with Homo sapiens in
Southeast Asia.” Science 274.5294
(1996) : 1870 -1874.
http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/
abstract/274/5294/1870
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/2891688
{300 YBN}
Ngandong, Indonesia3  
[1] homo erectus cranium COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/a/ad/Ng6f.jpg

[2] [t Note that this skull is from
Junniushan and is 280,000 years
old] Chang, P.K.C. et al. The
Formation of Chinese Civilization: An
Archaeological Perspective. Yale
University Press, 2005. The Culture and
Civilization of China Series.
p206. http://books.google.com/books?id=
sP-PN2StH2cC COPYRIGHTED
source: Chang, P.K.C. et al. The
Formation of Chinese Civilization: An
Archaeological Perspective. Yale
University Press, 2005. The Culture and
Civilization of China Series.
p206. http://books.google.com/books?id=
sP-PN2StH2cC
50,000 YBN
[48000 BC] 3 		6399) The start of the mass extinction
of large mammals due in part to human
impact.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Koch, Paul L. and Anthony D.
Barnosky. "Late Quaternary Extinctions
: State of the Debate." (2006):
215-252. http://ib.berkeley.edu/labs/ba
rnosky/Koch%20%20and%20Barnosky%202006.p
df
2. ^ Koch, Paul L. and Anthony D.
Barnosky. "Late Quaternary Extinctions
: State of the Debate." (2006):
215-252. http://ib.berkeley.edu/labs/ba
rnosky/Koch%20%20and%20Barnosky%202006.p
df
3. ^ Koch, Paul L. and Anthony D.
Barnosky. "Late Quaternary Extinctions
: State of the Debate." (2006):
215-252. http://ib.berkeley.edu/labs/ba
rnosky/Koch%20%20and%20Barnosky%202006.p
df
 
[1] Description Glyptodon Date 1920
(probably) Source The Wonderful Paleo
Art of Heinrich Harder Author
Heinrich Harder (1858-1935) PD
AND Smilodon, Sabertooth
Tiger Source: Painting; Smilodon from
the American Museum of Natural
History. By: Charles R.
Knight Status: Public Domain in the
USA* PD AND Description Wooly
mammoths near the Somme River, AMNH
mural. Date 1916 Source
http://io9.com/5891441/celebrating-char
les-r-knight-the-artist-who-first-brough
t-dinosaurs-and-megafauna-to-life Autho
r Charles R. Knight PD
AND Description English: (Rusty,
the giant ground sloth, at the Iowa
Museum of Natural History, University
of Iowa. Based on Megalonyx
jeffersonii.) Date 16 October 2008
(original upload date) Source
Uploader - Billwhittaker
(talk) Author Billwhittaker (talk) at
en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) Released into the public
domain (by the author). PD AND Artist
[show]Roelant Savery (1576–1639)
Link back to Creator infobox
template Description One of the most
famous and often copied paintings of a
Dodo specimen, as painted by Roelant
Savery in 1626. The image came into the
posession of the ornithologist George
Edwards, who later gave it to the
British Museum, hence the name.[1][2]
The bird swallowing a frog in the lower
right may be the likewise extinct Red
Rail. Date 1626 Current location
[show]British MuseumLink back to
Institution infobox
template Source/Photographer
http://julianhume.co.uk/wp-content/uplo
ads/2010/07/History-of-the-dodo-Hume.pdf
PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a1/Glyptodon_old_drawing
.jpghttp://www.fantasy-workshop.com/faw/
image-files/smilodon-1.jpghttp://upload.
wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/93/Woo
ly_Mammoths.jpghttp://upload.wikimedia.o
rg/wikipedia/commons/6/6a/Giant_ground_s
loth_Iowa.JPGhttp://upload.wikimedia.org
/wikipedia/commons/b/b9/Edward%27s_Dodo.
jpg

[2] Koch, Paul L. and Anthony D.
Barnosky. ''Late Quaternary Extinctions
: State of the Debate.'' (2006):
215-252. http://ib.berkeley.edu/labs/ba
rnosky/Koch%20%20and%20Barnosky%202006.p
df COPYRIGHTED
source: http://ib.berkeley.edu/labs/barn
osky/Koch%20%20and%20Barnosky%202006.pdf

46,000 YBN
[44000 BC] 9 10 11 		577) The earliest water ship. Sapiens
from Southeast Asia reach Australia by
water ship.7 8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.time.com/time/archive/preview
/0,10987,1169905,00.html
2. ^ Bowler, James M. et al 2003, "New
ages for human occupation and climatic
change at Lake Mungo, Australia",
Nature 421, 837-840 (20 February 2003)
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
421/n6925/abs/nature01383.html
3. ^
http://www.time.com/time/archive/preview
/0,10987,1169905,00.html
4. ^ Bowler, James M. et al 2003, "New
ages for human occupation and climatic
change at Lake Mungo, Australia",
Nature 421, 837-840 (20 February 2003)
5. ^
http://www.time.com/time/archive/preview
/0,10987,1169905,00.html
6. ^ Bowler, James M. et al 2003, "New
ages for human occupation and climatic
change at Lake Mungo, Australia",
Nature 421, 837-840 (20 February 2003)
7. ^
http://www.time.com/time/archive/preview
/0,10987,1169905,00.html
8. ^ Bowler, James M. et al 2003, "New
ages for human occupation and climatic
change at Lake Mungo, Australia",
Nature 421, 837-840 (20 February 2003)
9. ^
Bowler, James M. et al 2003, "New ages
for human occupation and climatic
change at Lake Mungo, Australia",
Nature 421, 837-840 (20 February 2003)
10. ^
http://www.time.com/time/archive/preview
/0,10987,1169905,00.html
11. ^ Palmer, "Primitive Life", 2009,
p471.

MORE INFO
[1] David B. Goldstein and
Lounès Chikhi, "HUMAN MIGRATIONS AND
POPULATION STRUCTURE: What We Know and
Why it Matters", Annual Review of
Genomics and Human Genetics, Vol. 3:
129 -152 (Volume publication date
September
2002) http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/
abs/10.1146/annurev.genom.3.022502.10320
0
[2] Peter A. Underhill and Toomas
Kivisild, "Use of Y Chromosome and
Mitochondrial DNA Population Structure
in Tracing Human Migrations", Annual
Review of Genetics, Vol. 41: 539 -564
(Volume publication date December
2007) http://www.annualreviews.org/acti
on/showCitFormats?doi=10.1146%2Fannurev.
genet.41.110306.130407
[3]
doi:10.1038/nature01383 http://www.natu
re.com/nature/journal/v421/n6925/abs/nat
ure01383.html
[4]
http://www.infoplease.com/ipa/A0908490.h
tml
 
[1] Palmer, et al, ''Prehistoric
Life'', 2009, p470-471. COPYRIGHTED
source: Palmer, et al, "Prehistoric
Life", 2009, p470-471.

[2] World map of human migrations,
with the North Pole at center. Africa,
harboring the start of the migration,
is at the top left and South America at
the far right. Migration patterns are
based on studies of mitochondrial
(matrilinear) DNA. Numbers represent
thousand years before present. The
blue line represents area covered in
ice or tundra during the last great ice
age. The letters are the mitochondrial
DNA haplogroups (pure motherly
lineages); Haplogroups can be used to
define genetic populations and are
often geographically oriented. For
example, the following are common
divisions for mtDNA
haplogroups: African: L, L1, L2,
L3 Near Eastern: J, N Southern
European: J, K General European: H,
V Northern European: T, U, X Asian:
A, B, C, D, E, F, G (note: M is
composed of C, D, E, and G) Native
American: A, B, C, D, and sometimes
X [edit]Data
derivation Image:Northern icesheet
hg.png shows the region that was
covered by ice or tundra in the last
ice age All migration data based on
mitomap Geographic data from
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Last_
glacial_vegetation_map.png and adding
the following data
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Ice_A
ge_Temperature.png we get this
interesting result
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Human
-migration-temperature.jpg GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/37/Map-of-human-migratio
ns.jpg
43,000 YBN
[41000 BC] 8 9 10 		1187) The earliest known mine: "Lion
Cave" in Swaziland, Africa.3 4
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^ Swaziland Natural Trust
Commission, "Cultural Resources -
Malolotja Archaeology, Lion Cavern,"
Retrieved August 27, 2007.
http://www.sntc.org.sz/cultural/malarc
h.asp
2. ^ Peace Parks Foundation, "Major
Features: Cultural Importance."
Republic of South Africa: Author.
Retrieved August 27,
2007 http://www.peaceparks.org/story.ph
p?mid=168&pid=148
3. ^ Swaziland Natural Trust
Commission, "Cultural Resources -
Malolotja Archaeology, Lion Cavern,"
Retrieved August 27, 2007.
http://www.sntc.org.sz/cultural/malarc
h.asp
4. ^ Peace Parks Foundation, "Major
Features: Cultural Importance."
Republic of South Africa: Author.
Retrieved August 27,
2007 http://www.peaceparks.org/story.ph
p?mid=168&pid=148
5. ^ Swaziland Natural Trust
Commission, "Cultural Resources -
Malolotja Archaeology, Lion Cavern,"
Retrieved August 27, 2007.
http://www.sntc.org.sz/cultural/malarc
h.asp
6. ^ Peace Parks Foundation, "Major
Features: Cultural Importance."
Republic of South Africa: Author.
Retrieved August 27,
2007 http://www.peaceparks.org/story.ph
p?mid=168&pid=148
7. ^ F. Yachir, "Mining in Africa
Today: Strategies and Prospects", 1988,
p1. http://books.google.com/books?id=9W
yyamT93REC&pg=PA1
8. ^ Swaziland Natural Trust
Commission, "Cultural Resources -
Malolotja Archaeology, Lion Cavern,"
Retrieved August 27, 2007.
http://www.sntc.org.sz/cultural/malarc
h.asp
9. ^ Peace Parks Foundation, "Major
Features: Cultural Importance."
Republic of South Africa: Author.
Retrieved August 27,
2007 http://www.peaceparks.org/story.ph
p?mid=168&pid=148
10. ^ F. Yachir, "Mining in Africa
Today: Strategies and Prospects", 1988,
p1. http://books.google.com/books?id=9W
yyamT93REC&pg=PA1
Swaziland, Africa5 6 7  
[1] Oldest Mine in the World -
Swaziland The Lion Cavern at Ngwenya
Mountain, just north of the Swaziland
Capital Mbabane, is thought to be the
oldest evidence of human mining in the
world. Carbon-dating has shown mining
activity for red ocre (haematite)
within this cavity dating back to a
period between 41000 and 43000BC. The
site is preserved as an open-air museum
of visitors and is a popular tourism
attraction. (By Darron
Raw) www.swazi.travel CC
source: http://farm3.staticflickr.com/27
23/4303217549_a15d58e869_b.jpg

[2] Ngwenya Mountain Lion Cave in
Swaziland UNKNOWN
source: http://www.ancienttrenches.com/_
/rsrc/1328277651042/ancient-mines/bb92d5
f7-639a-42d2-aee1-daaaa87267b8.jpg?heigh
t=300&width=400
40,000 YBN
[38000 BC] 6 7 8 9 10 11 		598) The earliest sapiens fossils in
Europe (Romania).2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trinkaus, Erik et al. “An Early
Modern Human from the Peştera Cu Oase,
Romania.” Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences 100.20 (2003):
11231–11236. http://www.pnas.org/cont
ent/100/20/11231
2. ^ Trinkaus, Erik et al. “An Early
Modern Human from the Peştera Cu Oase,
Romania.” Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences 100.20 (2003):
11231–11236. http://www.pnas.org/cont
ent/100/20/11231
3. ^ Trinkaus, Erik et al. “An Early
Modern Human from the Peştera Cu Oase,
Romania.” Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences 100.20 (2003):
11231–11236. http://www.pnas.org/cont
ent/100/20/11231
4. ^ Benazzi, Stefano et al. “Early
Dispersal of Modern Humans in Europe
and Implications for Neanderthal
Behaviour.” Nature 479.7374 (2011):
525–528. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v479/n7374/full/nature10617.htm
l
5. ^ Higham, Tom et al. “The Earliest
Evidence for Anatomically Modern Humans
in Northwestern Europe.” Nature
479.7374 (2011):
521–524. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v479/n7374/full/nature10484.htm
l
6. ^ Higham, Tom et al. “Revised
Direct Radiocarbon Dating of the
Vindija G1 Upper Paleolithic
Neandertals.” Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the
United States of America 103.3 (2006):
553–557. http://www.pnas.org/content/
103/3/553.abstract
7. ^ Tool to convert C14 age to
calendar
age: ht41264tp://radiocarbon.ldeo.colum
bia.edu/cgi-bin/radcarbcal?id=0&fig=1&en
try_type=0&add=1&age=34000&std=100
8. ^ JOHN NOBLE WILFORD, "Fossil Teeth
Put Humans in Europe Earlier Than
Thought", NY Times, November 2,
2011. http://www.nytimes.com/2011/11/03
/science/fossil-teeth-put-humans-in-euro
pe-earlier-than-thought.html
9. ^
http://www.stephenjaygould.org/ctrl/bill
ings_africa.html (40,000 YBN)
10. ^
http://www.actionbioscience.org/evolutio
n/johanson.html
11. ^ Palmer, "primtive Life", 2009,
p472.
Peştera cu Oase, Romania3 (and baby
tooth: Grotta del Cavallo, Italy4 ,
jaw: Kent's Cavern, UK5 ) 
[1] Oblique view of the Oase 1
mandible. Figure 1 from: Trinkaus,
Erik et al. “An Early Modern Human
from the Peştera Cu Oase, Romania.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences 100.20 (2003):
11231–11236. http://www.pnas.org/cont
ent/100/20/11231 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.pnas.org/content/100/
20/11231/F1.large.jpg
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en
/3/36/Cromagf.jpg

[2] Front view of Cro-magnon 1
fossil COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.antikitera.net/images
/imgNews/4253-european-head_169813t.jpg
40,000 YBN
[38000 BC] 6 7 8 		604) The earliest oil lamp.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
3. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
4. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
5. ^ Sophie A. de Beaune and Randall
White, "Ice Age Lamps", Scientific
American, March
1993. http://halshs.archives-ouvertes.f
r/docs/00/42/17/69/PDF/Sc.Amer.1993.pdf
 {Beaune_White_199303xx.pdf}
6. ^ Sophie A. de Beaune and Randall
White, "Ice Age Lamps", Scientific
American, March
1993. http://halshs.archives-ouvertes.f
r/docs/00/42/17/69/PDF/Sc.Amer.1993.pdf
 {Beaune_White_199303xx.pdf}
{40,000YBN}
7. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p5.
{79,000BCE}
8. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000). {8000YBN}

MORE INFO
[1] "Ancient oil lamp".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_oil
_lamp
Southwest France5  
[1] Figure from: Sophie A. de Beaune
and Randall White, ''Ice Age Lamps'',
Scientific American, March
1993. http://halshs.archives-ouvertes.f
r/docs/00/42/17/69/PDF/Sc.Amer.1993.pdf

source: http://halshs.archives-ouvertes.
fr/docs/00/42/17/69/PDF/Sc.Amer.1993.pdf

40,000 YBN
[38000 BC] 11 12 		1262) The earliest known human-made
painting.7 8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ BBC News "Red dot becomes 'oldest
cave art' ",
6/15/2012. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/en
tertainment-arts-18459492
2. ^ Pike, A. W. G. et al. “U-Series
Dating of Paleolithic Art in 11 Caves
in Spain.” Science 336.6087 (2012):
1409 –1413.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/336/6087/1409.abstract
3. ^ BBC News "Red dot becomes 'oldest
cave art' ",
6/15/2012. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/en
tertainment-arts-18459492
4. ^ Pike, A. W. G. et al. “U-Series
Dating of Paleolithic Art in 11 Caves
in Spain.” Science 336.6087 (2012):
1409 –1413.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/336/6087/1409.abstract
5. ^ BBC News "Red dot becomes 'oldest
cave art' ",
6/15/2012. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/en
tertainment-arts-18459492
6. ^ Pike, A. W. G. et al. “U-Series
Dating of Paleolithic Art in 11 Caves
in Spain.” Science 336.6087 (2012):
1409 –1413.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/336/6087/1409.abstract
7. ^ BBC News "Red dot becomes 'oldest
cave art' ",
6/15/2012. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/en
tertainment-arts-18459492
8. ^ Pike, A. W. G. et al. “U-Series
Dating of Paleolithic Art in 11 Caves
in Spain.” Science 336.6087 (2012):
1409 –1413.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/336/6087/1409.abstract
9. ^ Pike, A. W. G. et al. “U-Series
Dating of Paleolithic Art in 11 Caves
in Spain.” Science 336.6087 (2012):
1409 –1413.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/336/6087/1409.abstract
10. ^ "Chauvet Cave". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chauvet_Cav
e
11. ^ Pike, A. W. G. et al. “U-Series
Dating of Paleolithic Art in 11 Caves
in Spain.” Science 336.6087 (2012):
1409 –1413.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/336/6087/1409.abstract
12. ^ "Chauvet Cave". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chauvet_Cav
e
(The Panel de las Manos) El Castillo
Cave, Spain9 |Southern France10  
[1] Drawings of horses from Chauvet
Cave GNU
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/336/6087/F5.large.jpg

[2] Fig 3 from: Pike, A. W. G. et al.
“U-Series Dating of Paleolithic Art
in 11 Caves in Spain.” Science
336.6087 (2012): 1409 –1413.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/336/6087/1409.abstract A time line
of the cave art dated. A single arrow
represents a minimum age, but, where
two dates are indicated, both maximum
and minimum ages have been obtained.
The error bars for O-21 reflect the
variation resulting from the two
different methods of detrital
correction (11). Larger versions of
these images showing sample locations
are available in the supplementary
materials, figs. S2 to
S12. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Chauvethorses.jpg
40,000 YBN
[38000 BC] 18 19 20 		5871) The earliest musical instrument,
a flute, made from the wing bone of a
vulture.13 14 15 16
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Daniel S. Adler, "Archaeology:
The earliest musical tradition", Nature
460, 695-696(6 August
2009) doi:10.1038/460695a http://www.n
ature.com/nature/journal/v460/n7256/full
/460695a.html?free=2
2. ^
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/natur
e/8117915.stm
3. ^ Mark Evan Bonds, "A History of
Music in Western Culture", 2003, p1.
4. ^
http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/art
icle/ALeqM5j6MhTK_oltyMTR7POcAgfbT5XeZQ
5. ^ Daniel S. Adler, "Archaeology: The
earliest musical tradition", Nature
460, 695-696(6 August
2009) doi:10.1038/460695a http://www.n
ature.com/nature/journal/v460/n7256/full
/460695a.html?free=2
6. ^
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/natur
e/8117915.stm
7. ^ Mark Evan Bonds, "A History of
Music in Western Culture", 2003, p1.
8. ^
http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/art
icle/ALeqM5j6MhTK_oltyMTR7POcAgfbT5XeZQ
9. ^ Daniel S. Adler, "Archaeology: The
earliest musical tradition", Nature
460, 695-696(6 August
2009) doi:10.1038/460695a http://www.n
ature.com/nature/journal/v460/n7256/full
/460695a.html?free=2
10. ^
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/natur
e/8117915.stm
11. ^ Mark Evan Bonds, "A History of
Music in Western Culture", 2003, p1.
12. ^
http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/art
icle/ALeqM5j6MhTK_oltyMTR7POcAgfbT5XeZQ
13. ^ Daniel S. Adler, "Archaeology:
The earliest musical tradition", Nature
460, 695-696(6 August
2009) doi:10.1038/460695a http://www.n
ature.com/nature/journal/v460/n7256/full
/460695a.html?free=2
14. ^
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/natur
e/8117915.stm
15. ^ Mark Evan Bonds, "A History of
Music in Western Culture", 2003, p1.
16. ^
http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/art
icle/ALeqM5j6MhTK_oltyMTR7POcAgfbT5XeZQ
17. ^ Daniel S. Adler, "Archaeology:
The earliest musical tradition", Nature
460, 695-696(6 August
2009) doi:10.1038/460695a http://www.n
ature.com/nature/journal/v460/n7256/full
/460695a.html?free=2
18. ^ Daniel S. Adler, "Archaeology:
The earliest musical tradition", Nature
460, 695-696(6 August
2009) doi:10.1038/460695a http://www.n
ature.com/nature/journal/v460/n7256/full
/460695a.html?free=2 {40000YBN}
19. ^
http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/art
icle/ALeqM5j6MhTK_oltyMTR7POcAgfbT5XeZQ
{35000BCE}
20. ^ Mark Evan Bonds, "A History of
Music in Western Culture", 2003, p1.
{34000BCE}
Hohle Fels Cave, Germany17  
[1] Prehistorian historian Nicholas
Conard presents the bone flute from
Hohle Fels to journalists COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.google.com/hostednews
/afp/media/ALeqM5hlF6Vh9FxCmW4OYCeiBOJqR
J3VgA?size=l

[2] Conard et al.1 have discovered the
oldest known flute, at Hohle Fels Cave
in Germany. The flute is made from bird
bone, and dates from the early
Aurignacian, 40,000 years ago. H.
JENSEN/UNIV. TÜBINGEN COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v460/n7256/images/460695a-f1.2.jpg
40,000 YBN
[38000 BC] 5 6 		6483) Humans catch fish.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ First direct evidence of
substantial fish consumption by early
modern humans in China PhysOrg.com, 6
July
2009. http://phys.org/news166120605.htm
l
2. ^ First direct evidence of
substantial fish consumption by early
modern humans in China PhysOrg.com, 6
July
2009. http://phys.org/news166120605.htm
l
3. ^ Richards, Michael P., and Erik
Trinkaus. “Isotopic Evidence for the
Diets of European Neanderthals and
Early Modern Humans.” Proceedings of
the National Academy of Sciences 106.38
(2009): 16034–16039.
http://www.pnas.org/content/106/38/160
34.abstract
4. ^ Trinkaus, Erik et al. “An Early
Modern Human from the Peştera Cu Oase,
Romania.” Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences 100.20 (2003):
11231–11236. http://www.pnas.org/cont
ent/100/20/11231
5. ^ Richards, Michael P., and Erik
Trinkaus. “Isotopic Evidence for the
Diets of European Neanderthals and
Early Modern Humans.” Proceedings of
the National Academy of Sciences 106.38
(2009): 16034–16039.
http://www.pnas.org/content/106/38/160
34.abstract
6. ^ First direct evidence of
substantial fish consumption by early
modern humans in China PhysOrg.com, 6
July
2009. http://phys.org/news166120605.htm
l

MORE INFO
[1] Higham, Tom et al. “Revised
Direct Radiocarbon Dating of the
Vindija G1 Upper Paleolithic
Neandertals.” Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the
United States of America 103.3 (2006):
553–557. http://www.pnas.org/content/
103/3/553.abstract
Peçstera cu Oase3 , Romania4  
[1] This is the lower mandible of the
40,000-year-old human skeleton, found
in the Tianyuan Cave near Beijing.
Analyses of collagen extracted from
this bone prove that this individual
was a regular consumer of fish. Credit:
Image: Hong Shang / Chinese Academy of
Sciences, Beijing Read more at:
http://phys.org/news166120605.html#jCp
UNKNOWN
source: http://cdn.physorg.com/newman/gf
x/news/hires/2009/fishonthemen.jpg

[2] Translated from Italian with
translate.google.com Revealed the face
of the first
European PHOTOGALLERY reading time
provided for 4 min. about This is
the face of the first anatomically
modern man lived in Europe. Belonged to
a man - or woman - who inhabited the
ancient forests of the Carpathian
Mountains in Romania, about 35,000
years ago. The reconstruction of the
artist - a face that can be of a male
or of a female - is based on the parts
of the skull and jaw found in a cave in
which it was known that bears
hibernate. The facial features indicate
the close affinity of these first
Europeans with their immediate
ancestors Africans, even if it was not
yet possible to determine the sex of
the person. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.antikitera.net/images
/imgNews/4253-european-head_169813t.jpg
39,000 YBN
[37000 BC] 8 9 10 11 12 		599) Sapiens reach China.3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Shang, Hong et al. “An Early
Modern Human from Tianyuan Cave,
Zhoukoudian, China.” Proceedings of
the National Academy of Sciences 104.16
(2007): 6573 –6578.
Print. http://www.pnas.org/content/104/
16/6573.full?sid=be561296-85f1-4b9a-8eee
-04e66b845307
2. ^ "Ancient human unearthed in
China". BBC news. April 2, 2007.
Retrieved February 26, 2011.
3. ^ Shang, Hong
et al. “An Early Modern Human from
Tianyuan Cave, Zhoukoudian, China.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences 104.16 (2007): 6573 –6578.
Print. http://www.pnas.org/content/104/
16/6573.full?sid=be561296-85f1-4b9a-8eee
-04e66b845307
4. ^ "Ancient human unearthed in
China". BBC news. April 2, 2007.
Retrieved February 26, 2011.
5. ^ Shang, Hong
et al. “An Early Modern Human from
Tianyuan Cave, Zhoukoudian, China.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences 104.16 (2007): 6573 –6578.
Print. http://www.pnas.org/content/104/
16/6573.full?sid=be561296-85f1-4b9a-8eee
-04e66b845307
6. ^ Shen, G et al. “U-Series Dating
of Liujiang Hominid Site in Guangxi,
Southern China.” Journal of human
evolution 43.6 (2002): 817–829.
Print. http://europepmc.org/abstract/ME
D/12473485/reload=0;jsessionid=lswboz0xC
pa7qfBZuHb2.6
7. ^ Chang, P.K.C. et al. The Formation
of Chinese Civilization: An
Archaeological Perspective. Yale
University Press, 2005. The Culture and
Civilization of China Series.
p23. http://books.google.com/books?id=s
P-PN2StH2cC
8. ^ Shang, Hong et al. “An Early
Modern Human from Tianyuan Cave,
Zhoukoudian, China.” Proceedings of
the National Academy of Sciences 104.16
(2007): 6573 –6578.
Print. http://www.pnas.org/content/104/
16/6573.full?sid=be561296-85f1-4b9a-8eee
-04e66b845307
9. ^ "Ancient human unearthed in
China". BBC news. April 2, 2007.
Retrieved February 26, 2011.
10. ^ Palmer et
al, "Primitive Life", 2009, p473.
11. ^
http://www.stephenjaygould.org/ctrl/bill
ings_africa.html (30,000 YBN)
12. ^ Shen, G
et al. “U-Series Dating of Liujiang
Hominid Site in Guangxi, Southern
China.” Journal of human evolution
43.6 (2002): 817–829.
Print. http://europepmc.org/abstract/ME
D/12473485/reload=0;jsessionid=lswboz0xC
pa7qfBZuHb2.6

MORE INFO
[1] Hu, Y. .; Shang, H. .; Tong,
H. .; Nehlich, O. .; Liu, W. .; Zhao,
C. .; Yu, J. .; Wang, C. . et al. (Jul
2009). "Stable isotope dietary analysis
of the Tianyuan 1 early modern human".
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences 106 (27): 10971–4. Bibcode
2009PNAS..10610971H.
DOI:10.1073/pnas.0904826106. ISSN
0027-8424. PMC 2706269. PMID 19581579
(Tianyuan Cave) Zhoukoudian, China5
(Tongtianyan Cave, Liujiang County,
Guangxi Zhuang6 7 ) 
[1] Fig. 1. Anterolateral oblique
view of the Tianyuan 1 mandible (lower
left), medial view of the right corpus
and ramus (upper left), and occlusal
view of the dentition and alveoli
(upper right). Views are not to the
same scale. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.pnas.org/content/104/
16/6573/F1.large.jpg

[2] Fossilized skull of the Liujiang
hominid, H. sapiens sapiens, found in a
cave in Liujiang County, Guangxi Zhuang
Autonomous Region Chang, P.K.C. et al.
The Formation of Chinese Civilization:
An Archaeological Perspective. Yale
University Press, 2005. The Culture and
Civilization of China Series.
p23. http://books.google.com/books?id=s
P-PN2StH2cC COPYRIGHTED
source: Chang, P.K.C. et al. The
Formation of Chinese Civilization: An
Archaeological Perspective. Yale
University Press, 2005. The Culture and
Civilization of China Series.
p23. http://books.google.com/books?id=s
P-PN2StH2cC
32,000 YBN
[30000 BC] 10 11 12 13 14 		602) Humans weave textiles from flax
and use coloring dyes.7 8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Eliso Kvavadze, Ofer Bar-Yosef,
Anna Belfer-Cohen, Elisabetta Boaretto,
Nino Jakeli, Zinovi Matskevich, and
Tengiz Meshveliani, "30,000-Year-Old
Wild Flax Fibers", Science 11 September
2009: 325 (5946),
1359. http://www.sciencemag.org/content
/325/5946/1359
2. ^ Michael Balter, "Clothes Make the
(Hu) Man", Science 11 September 2009:
325 (5946),
1329. http://www.sciencemag.org/content
/325/5946/1329.1
3. ^ Eliso Kvavadze, Ofer Bar-Yosef,
Anna Belfer-Cohen, Elisabetta Boaretto,
Nino Jakeli, Zinovi Matskevich, and
Tengiz Meshveliani, "30,000-Year-Old
Wild Flax Fibers", Science 11 September
2009: 325 (5946),
1359. http://www.sciencemag.org/content
/325/5946/1359
4. ^ Michael Balter, "Clothes Make the
(Hu) Man", Science 11 September 2009:
325 (5946),
1329. http://www.sciencemag.org/content
/325/5946/1329.1
5. ^ Eliso Kvavadze, Ofer Bar-Yosef,
Anna Belfer-Cohen, Elisabetta Boaretto,
Nino Jakeli, Zinovi Matskevich, and
Tengiz Meshveliani, "30,000-Year-Old
Wild Flax Fibers", Science 11 September
2009: 325 (5946),
1359. http://www.sciencemag.org/content
/325/5946/1359
6. ^ Michael Balter, "Clothes Make the
(Hu) Man", Science 11 September 2009:
325 (5946),
1329. http://www.sciencemag.org/content
/325/5946/1329.1
7. ^ Eliso Kvavadze, Ofer Bar-Yosef,
Anna Belfer-Cohen, Elisabetta Boaretto,
Nino Jakeli, Zinovi Matskevich, and
Tengiz Meshveliani, "30,000-Year-Old
Wild Flax Fibers", Science 11 September
2009: 325 (5946),
1359. http://www.sciencemag.org/content
/325/5946/1359
8. ^ Michael Balter, "Clothes Make the
(Hu) Man", Science 11 September 2009:
325 (5946),
1329. http://www.sciencemag.org/content
/325/5946/1329.1
9. ^ Eliso Kvavadze, Ofer Bar-Yosef,
Anna Belfer-Cohen, Elisabetta Boaretto,
Nino Jakeli, Zinovi Matskevich, and
Tengiz Meshveliani, "30,000-Year-Old
Wild Flax Fibers", Science 11 September
2009: 325 (5946),
1359. http://www.sciencemag.org/content
/325/5946/1359
10. ^ Eliso Kvavadze, Ofer Bar-Yosef,
Anna Belfer-Cohen, Elisabetta Boaretto,
Nino Jakeli, Zinovi Matskevich, and
Tengiz Meshveliani, "30,000-Year-Old
Wild Flax Fibers", Science 11 September
2009: 325 (5946),
1359. http://www.sciencemag.org/content
/325/5946/1359 {32,000 YBN}
11. ^ ADOVASIO
J. M., SOFFER O., KLÍMA B., 1996:
Upper Paleolithic fibre technology:
Interlaced woven finds from Pavlov I,
Czech Republic, c. 26,000 years ago.
Antiquity 70: 526–534. {000 YBN}
{26,000 YBN}
12. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A
history of invention : from stone axes
to silicon chips ", (New York:
Checkmark Books, 2000). {8000 YBN}
13. ^
{9000YBN}
14. ^ E. J. W. Barber, "Prehistoric
Textiles: The Development of Cloth in
the Neolithic and Bronze ...",
1991. http://books.google.com/books?id=
HnSlynSfeEIC {7000YBN}

MORE INFO
[1] "textile." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 31 Jul. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/589392/textile>
Dzudzuana Cave, Georgia9  
[1] Fig. 1 (1 to 7) Fibers from
Dzudzuana, Georgia, unit D. 1, twisted
flax fibers; 2 to 4, flax fibers; and 5
to 7, unraveled flax fibers. (8 to 12)
Fibers from Dzudzuana, unit C. 8 and 9,
twisted flax fibers; 10 and 12, flax
fibers; and 11, dyed flax fibers.
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/325/5946/-CSCO-3h--1359/-CSCO-3h--F1.l
arge.jpg

[2] On a lump of fired clay from the
Dolní Věstonice / Pavlov area were
found the impressions of substances
from plant fibres. The whole process of
picking nettles, crushing the dried
stem, preparation of tow, spinning the
thread and then weaving was tested and
shown to be possible using tools of the
time by M. Bunatova. Urbanová (ca
1999) http://www.donsmaps.com/dolnivpot
tery.html Dexterity of the First
Weavers A decade ago, experts did
not dare to think about people living
in the last ice age making
fabric. However, on a lump of fired
clay from the Dolní Věstonice /
Pavlov area were found the impressions
of substances from plant fibres. The
whole process of picking nettles,
crushing the dried stem, preparation of
tow, spinning the thread and then
weaving was tested and shown to be
possible using tools of the time by M.
Bunatova. Urbanová (ca
1999) Source: Display, Dolní
Věstonice Museum From Buňatová
(1999) and Sosna (2000): Buňatová,
M., 1999: Textilní produkce v mladém
paleolitu, experiment pro
dokumentární film ''Úsvit géniů'',
in: AR LI, Praha, 104 - 111. Sosna,
D., 2000: Počátky textilnictví. PhD.
Dissertation, Department of
Anthropology, Masaryk University, Brno.
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.ancient-wisdom.co.uk/
Images/countries/Czech%20pics/dolnifabri
c.jpg
31,700 YBN
[29700 BC] 6 7 		42) Humans raise dogs.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Mietje Germonpré, Mikhail V.
Sablin, Rhiannon E. Stevens, Robert
E.M. Hedges, Michael Hofreiter, Mathias
Stiller, Viviane R. Després, Fossil
dogs and wolves from Palaeolithic sites
in Belgium, the Ukraine and Russia:
osteometry, ancient DNA and stable
isotopes, Journal of Archaeological
Science, Volume 36, Issue 2, February
2009, Pages 473-490, ISSN 0305-4403,
10.1016/j.jas.2008.09.033. (http://www.
sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0
305440308002380)
2. ^ Mietje Germonpré, Mikhail V.
Sablin, Rhiannon E. Stevens, Robert
E.M. Hedges, Michael Hofreiter, Mathias
Stiller, Viviane R. Després, Fossil
dogs and wolves from Palaeolithic sites
in Belgium, the Ukraine and Russia:
osteometry, ancient DNA and stable
isotopes, Journal of Archaeological
Science, Volume 36, Issue 2, February
2009, Pages 473-490, ISSN 0305-4403,
10.1016/j.jas.2008.09.033. (http://www.
sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0
305440308002380)
3. ^ Mietje Germonpré, Mikhail V.
Sablin, Rhiannon E. Stevens, Robert
E.M. Hedges, Michael Hofreiter, Mathias
Stiller, Viviane R. Després, Fossil
dogs and wolves from Palaeolithic sites
in Belgium, the Ukraine and Russia:
osteometry, ancient DNA and stable
isotopes, Journal of Archaeological
Science, Volume 36, Issue 2, February
2009, Pages 473-490, ISSN 0305-4403,
10.1016/j.jas.2008.09.033. (http://www.
sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0
305440308002380)
4. ^ Mietje Germonpré, Mikhail V.
Sablin, Rhiannon E. Stevens, Robert
E.M. Hedges, Michael Hofreiter, Mathias
Stiller, Viviane R. Després, Fossil
dogs and wolves from Palaeolithic sites
in Belgium, the Ukraine and Russia:
osteometry, ancient DNA and stable
isotopes, Journal of Archaeological
Science, Volume 36, Issue 2, February
2009, Pages 473-490, ISSN 0305-4403,
10.1016/j.jas.2008.09.033. (http://www.
sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0
305440308002380)
5. ^ Mietje Germonpré, Mikhail V.
Sablin, Rhiannon E. Stevens, Robert
E.M. Hedges, Michael Hofreiter, Mathias
Stiller, Viviane R. Després, Fossil
dogs and wolves from Palaeolithic sites
in Belgium, the Ukraine and Russia:
osteometry, ancient DNA and stable
isotopes, Journal of Archaeological
Science, Volume 36, Issue 2, February
2009, Pages 473-490, ISSN 0305-4403,
10.1016/j.jas.2008.09.033. (http://www.
sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0
305440308002380)
6. ^ Mietje Germonpré, Mikhail V.
Sablin, Rhiannon E. Stevens, Robert
E.M. Hedges, Michael Hofreiter, Mathias
Stiller, Viviane R. Després, Fossil
dogs and wolves from Palaeolithic sites
in Belgium, the Ukraine and Russia:
osteometry, ancient DNA and stable
isotopes, Journal of Archaeological
Science, Volume 36, Issue 2, February
2009, Pages 473-490, ISSN 0305-4403,
10.1016/j.jas.2008.09.033. (http://www.
sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0
305440308002380) {31,700 YBN}
7. ^ Alexander
Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables
of Science", Second edition, Simon and
Schuster, 1991, p7. {10,000BCE}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domesticati
on
Goyet cave, Belgium5  
[1] Description Deutsch:
Europäischer Grauwolf (Canis
lupus) English: grey wolf Date
February 2009 Source Own
work (own photo) Author Gunnar
Ries Amphibol Permission (Reusing
this file) You must give the
original author credit. If you use my
pictures outside the wiki projects,
please let me know. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Grauwolf_P11302
75.jpg/1024px-Grauwolf_P1130275.jpg

[2] Description Español: Lobo en
el zoo de Kolmården (Suecia). Date
2010-12-23 18:10 (UTC) Source
Wolf_Kolmården.jpg Author
Wolf_Kolmården.jpg: Daniel
Mott from Stockholm, Sweden
derivative work:
Mariomassone Permission (Reusing
this file) See below. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5f/Kolm%C3%A5rden_Wolf.j
pg
29,000 YBN
[27000 BC] 6 7 		6215) The earliest ceramic objects, the
Venus figurines.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ O. Soffer, J. M. Adovasio, D. C.
Hyland, "The “Venus” Figurines:
Textiles, Basketry, Gender, and Status
in the Upper Paleolithic", Current
Anthropology, Vol. 41, No. 4
(August/October 2000), pp.
511-537 URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/3173
81
2. ^ O. Soffer, J. M. Adovasio, D. C.
Hyland, "The “Venus” Figurines:
Textiles, Basketry, Gender, and Status
in the Upper Paleolithic", Current
Anthropology, Vol. 41, No. 4
(August/October 2000), pp.
511-537 URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/3173
81
3. ^ PAMELA B. VANDIVER, OLGA SOFFER,
BOHUSLAV KLIMA, and JIŘI SVOBODA, "The
Origins of Ceramic Technology at Dolni
Věstonice, Czechoslovakia", Science 24
November 1989: 246 (4933), 1002-1008.
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/246/49
33/1002.short
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/1704937

4. ^ PAMELA B. VANDIVER, OLGA SOFFER,
BOHUSLAV KLIMA, and JIŘI SVOBODA, "The
Origins of Ceramic Technology at Dolni
Věstonice, Czechoslovakia", Science 24
November 1989: 246 (4933), 1002-1008.
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/246/49
33/1002.short
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/1704937

5. ^ PAMELA B. VANDIVER, OLGA SOFFER,
BOHUSLAV KLIMA, and JIŘI SVOBODA, "The
Origins of Ceramic Technology at Dolni
Věstonice, Czechoslovakia", Science 24
November 1989: 246 (4933), 1002-1008.
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/246/49
33/1002.short
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/1704937

6. ^ O. Soffer, J. M. Adovasio, D. C.
Hyland, "The “Venus” Figurines:
Textiles, Basketry, Gender, and Status
in the Upper Paleolithic", Current
Anthropology, Vol. 41, No. 4
(August/October 2000), pp.
511-537 URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/3173
81 {29,000}
7. ^ PAMELA B. VANDIVER, OLGA
SOFFER, BOHUSLAV KLIMA, and JIŘI
SVOBODA, "The Origins of Ceramic
Technology at Dolni Věstonice,
Czechoslovakia", Science 24 November
1989: 246 (4933), 1002-1008.
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/246/49
33/1002.short
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/1704937
{26,000}
Dolni Věstonice, Czechoslovakia5
 
[1] Description Věstonická
venuše na výstavě Lovci mamutů v
Národním muzeu v Praze Date 2.
9. 2007 Source che Author
che (Please credit as ''Petr
Novák, Wikipedia'' in case you use
this outside WMF projects.) guidance:
Danny B. Permission (Reusing this
file) As they reached the Summit,
he said: “Thou shall take this
Snapshot and use it according to the
Code of License, and let your people
flourish all around the world.” They
brought the Snapshot to their homes and
there was much rejoicing. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b8/Vestonicka_venuse_edi
t.jpg

[2] Description Deutsch: Venus von
Willendorf Date 1 January
2007 Source Own work Author
User:MatthiasKabel Own work,
attribution required (Multi-license
with GFDL and Creative Commons CC-BY
2.5) GNU Figure 2 from: O. Soffer,
J. M. Adovasio, D. C. Hyland, ''The
“Venus” Figurines: Textiles,
Basketry, Gender, and Status in the
Upper Paleolithic'', Current
Anthropology, Vol. 41, No. 4
(August/October 2000), pp.
511-537 URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/3173
81 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/50/Venus_von_Willendorf_
01.jpg
28,000 YBN
[26000 BC] 4 5 		451) The Neanderthals go extinct.2
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
2. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
3. ^ Finlayson C, Pacheco FG,
Rodríguez-Vidal J, et al. (October
2006). "Late survival of Neanderthals
at the southernmost extreme of Europe"
(PDF). Nature 443 (7113): 850–3.
doi:10.1038/nature05195. PMID
16971951. http://www.nature.com/nature/
journal/v443/n7113/abs/nature05195.html
4. ^ Finlayson C, Pacheco FG,
Rodríguez-Vidal J, et al. (October
2006). "Late survival of Neanderthals
at the southernmost extreme of Europe"
(PDF). Nature 443 (7113): 850–3.
doi:10.1038/nature05195. PMID
16971951. http://www.nature.com/nature/
journal/v443/n7113/abs/nature05195.html
{000 YBN}
5. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm {000 YBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Garrod, D. A. E., Buxton, L.
H. D., Elliot Smith, G. & Bate, D. M.
A. Excavation of a Mousterian
Rock-shelter at Devil's Tower,
Gibraltar. J. R. Anthropol. Inst. 58,
91–113
(1928) http://www.jstor.org/stable/4619
528
[2] Busk, G. On a very ancient cranium
from Gibraltar. Report of the 34th
Meeting of the British Association for
the Advancement of Science (Bath, 1864)
91–92 (1865)
Gorham's Cave, Gibraltar, Spain3  
[1] Description English: View of
Gorham's Cave, a sea cave in the east
face of the Rock of Gibraltar,
Gibraltar. Date {ULSF: with top
part showing house removed} 3 July
2007 Source Own work Author
Gibmetal77 CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Gorham%27s_Cave
.jpg/800px-Gorham%27s_Cave.jpg

[2] Description English: View of
Gorham's Cave, a sea cave in the east
face of the Rock of Gibraltar,
Gibraltar. Date 3 July
2007 Source Own work Author
Gibmetal77 CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Gorham%27s_Cave
.jpg/800px-Gorham%27s_Cave.jpg
26,000 YBN
[24000 BC] 6 		6224) The earliest "fired" clay (clay
dried and hardened by fire).3 4
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ ADOVASIO J. M., SOFFER O., KLÍMA
B., 1996: Upper Paleolithic fibre
technology: Interlaced woven finds from
Pavlov I, Czech Republic, c. 26,000
years ago. Antiquity 70: 526–534.
2. ^ Alexander
Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables
of Science", Second edition, Simon and
Schuster, 1991, p5.
3. ^ ADOVASIO J. M.,
SOFFER O., KLÍMA B., 1996: Upper
Paleolithic fibre technology:
Interlaced woven finds from Pavlov I,
Czech Republic, c. 26,000 years ago.
Antiquity 70: 526–534.
4. ^ Alexander Hellemans,
Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables of
Science", Second edition, Simon and
Schuster, 1991, p5.
5. ^ ADOVASIO J. M.,
SOFFER O., KLÍMA B., 1996: Upper
Paleolithic fibre technology:
Interlaced woven finds from Pavlov I,
Czech Republic, c. 26,000 years ago.
Antiquity 70: 526–534.
6. ^ ADOVASIO J. M.,
SOFFER O., KLÍMA B., 1996: Upper
Paleolithic fibre technology:
Interlaced woven finds from Pavlov I,
Czech Republic, c. 26,000 years ago.
Antiquity 70: 526–534. {26000 YBN}
Dolní Věstonice, Pavlov, Czech
Republic5  
[1] On a lump of fired clay from the
Dolní Věstonice / Pavlov area were
found the impressions of substances
from plant fibres. The whole process of
picking nettles, crushing the dried
stem, preparation of tow, spinning the
thread and then weaving was tested and
shown to be possible using tools of the
time by M. Bunatova. Urbanová (ca
1999) http://www.donsmaps.com/dolnivpot
tery.html Dexterity of the First
Weavers A decade ago, experts did
not dare to think about people living
in the last ice age making
fabric. However, on a lump of fired
clay from the Dolní Věstonice /
Pavlov area were found the impressions
of substances from plant fibres. The
whole process of picking nettles,
crushing the dried stem, preparation of
tow, spinning the thread and then
weaving was tested and shown to be
possible using tools of the time by M.
Bunatova. Urbanová (ca
1999) Source: Display, Dolní
Věstonice Museum From Buňatová
(1999) and Sosna (2000): Buňatová,
M., 1999: Textilní produkce v mladém
paleolitu, experiment pro
dokumentární film ''Úsvit géniů'',
in: AR LI, Praha, 104 - 111. Sosna,
D., 2000: Počátky textilnictví. PhD.
Dissertation, Department of
Anthropology, Masaryk University, Brno.
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.ancient-wisdom.co.uk/
Images/countries/Czech%20pics/dolnifabri
c.jpg
25,000 YBN
[23000 BC] 7 8 9 		724) Woven baskets.1 2 3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ ADOVASIO J. M., SOFFER O., KLÍMA
B., 1996: Upper Paleolithic fibre
technology: Interlaced woven finds from
Pavlov I, Czech Republic, c. 26,000
years ago. Antiquity 70: 526-534.
{Adovasio_Fibre_technology_1996.pdf}
2. ^ "weaving." The Concise Oxford
Dictionary of Archaeology. Oxford
University Press, 2002, 2003.
Answers.com 31 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/weaving
3. ^ Hoffecker, John F. “Innovation
and technological knowledge in the
Upper Paleolithic of Northern
Eurasia.” Evolutionary Anthropology:
Issues, News, and Reviews 14.5 (2005) :
186-198.
4. ^ ADOVASIO J. M., SOFFER O., KLÍMA
B., 1996: Upper Paleolithic fibre
technology: Interlaced woven finds from
Pavlov I, Czech Republic, c. 26,000
years ago. Antiquity 70:
526-534. {Adovasio_Fibre_technology_199
6.pdf}
5. ^ "weaving." The Concise Oxford
Dictionary of Archaeology. Oxford
University Press, 2002, 2003.
Answers.com 31 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/weaving
6. ^ Hoffecker, John F. “Innovation
and technological knowledge in the
Upper Paleolithic of Northern
Eurasia.” Evolutionary Anthropology:
Issues, News, and Reviews 14.5 (2005) :
186-198.
7. ^ ADOVASIO J. M., SOFFER O., KLÍMA
B., 1996: Upper Paleolithic fibre
technology: Interlaced woven finds from
Pavlov I, Czech Republic, c. 26,000
years ago. Antiquity 70: 526-534.
{Adovasio_Fibre_technology_1996.pdf}
8. ^ "weaving." The Concise Oxford
Dictionary of Archaeology. Oxford
University Press, 2002, 2003.
Answers.com 31 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/weaving
9. ^ Hoffecker, John F. “Innovation
and technological knowledge in the
Upper Paleolithic of Northern
Eurasia.” Evolutionary Anthropology:
Issues, News, and Reviews 14.5 (2005) :
186-198.

MORE INFO
[1] "textile." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 31 Jul. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/589392/textile>
[2] Eliso Kvavadze, Ofer Bar-Yosef,
Anna Belfer-Cohen, Elisabetta Boaretto,
Nino Jakeli, Zinovi Matskevich, and
Tengiz Meshveliani, "30,000-Year-Old
Wild Flax Fibers", Science 11 September
2009: 325 (5946),
1359. http://www.sciencemag.org/content
/325/5946/1359
[3] ADOVASIO J. M., SOFFER O., KLÍMA
B., 1996: Upper Paleolithic fibre
technology: Interlaced woven finds from
Pavlov I, Czech Republic, c. 26,000
years ago. Antiquity 70: 526–534
[4] Trevor I.
Williams, "A history of invention :
from stone axes to silicon chips ",
(New York: Checkmark Books, 2000)
[5] E. J.
W. Barber, "Prehistoric Textiles: The
Development of Cloth in the Neolithic
and Bronze ...",
1991. http://books.google.com/books?id=
HnSlynSfeEIC
Pavlov, Czech Republic 4 5 6  
[1] Figures 3 and 4 from: ADOVASIO J.
M., SOFFER O., KLÍMA B., 1996: Upper
Paleolithic fibre technology:
Interlaced woven finds from Pavlov I,
Czech Republic, c. 26,000 years ago.
Antiquity 70: 526-534.
{Adovasio_Fibre_technology_1996.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source:

[2] On a lump of fired clay from the
Dolní Věstonice / Pavlov area were
found the impressions of substances
from plant fibres. The whole process of
picking nettles, crushing the dried
stem, preparation of tow, spinning the
thread and then weaving was tested and
shown to be possible using tools of the
time by M. Bunatova. Urbanová (ca
1999) http://www.donsmaps.com/dolnivpot
tery.html Dexterity of the First
Weavers A decade ago, experts did
not dare to think about people living
in the last ice age making
fabric. However, on a lump of fired
clay from the Dolní Věstonice /
Pavlov area were found the impressions
of substances from plant fibres. The
whole process of picking nettles,
crushing the dried stem, preparation of
tow, spinning the thread and then
weaving was tested and shown to be
possible using tools of the time by M.
Bunatova. Urbanová (ca
1999) Source: Display, Dolní
Věstonice Museum From Buňatová
(1999) and Sosna (2000): Buňatová,
M., 1999: Textilní produkce v mladém
paleolitu, experiment pro
dokumentární film ''Úsvit géniů'',
in: AR LI, Praha, 104 - 111. Sosna,
D., 2000: Počátky textilnictví. PhD.
Dissertation, Department of
Anthropology, Masaryk University, Brno.
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.ancient-wisdom.co.uk/
Images/countries/Czech%20pics/dolnifabri
c.jpg
23,000 YBN
[21000 BC] 5 		6231) The earliest human-made
structure. A stone wall.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://news.discovery.com/history/oldest
-man-made-structure-found-in-greek-cave.
html
2. ^
http://news.discovery.com/history/oldest
-man-made-structure-found-in-greek-cave.
html
3. ^
http://news.discovery.com/history/oldest
-man-made-structure-found-in-greek-cave.
html
4. ^
http://news.discovery.com/history/oldest
-man-made-structure-found-in-greek-cave.
html
5. ^
http://news.discovery.com/history/oldest
-man-made-structure-found-in-greek-cave.
html {23,000 YBN}
(Theopetra Cave) Kalambaka, Greece4
 
[1] Picture: Remains of the stone wall.
From the Greek Ministry of Culture.
UNKNOWN
source: http://blogs.discovery.com/files
/wall.jpg
19,000 YBN
[17000 BC] 5 6 		6175) Cereal gathering.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Tanno, Ken-ichi, and George
Willcox. “How Fast Was Wild Wheat
Domesticated?” Science 311.5769
(2006) : 1886.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/311/5769/1886.short
2. ^ Tanno, Ken-ichi, and George
Willcox. “How Fast Was Wild Wheat
Domesticated?” Science 311.5769
(2006) : 1886.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/311/5769/1886.short
3. ^ Tanno, Ken-ichi, and George
Willcox. “How Fast Was Wild Wheat
Domesticated?” Science 311.5769
(2006) : 1886.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/311/5769/1886.short
4. ^ Tanno, Ken-ichi, and George
Willcox. “How Fast Was Wild Wheat
Domesticated?” Science 311.5769
(2006) : 1886.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/311/5769/1886.short
5. ^ Tanno, Ken-ichi, and George
Willcox. “How Fast Was Wild Wheat
Domesticated?” Science 311.5769
(2006) : 1886.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/311/5769/1886.short {19000 YBN}
6. ^
Zohary, Daniel; Maria Hopf (2000).
Domestication of Plants in the Old
World: The Origin and Spread of
Cultivated Plants in West Asia, Europe,
and the Nile Valley (3rd ed.). Oxford
University Press. pp. 67. ISBN
0-19-850357-1. http://books.google.com/
?id=C1H6_XWJS_gC&pg=PA67.
{Zohary_Hopf_Domestication_of_Plants_i
n_the_Old_World_2000.pdf}
Near East (Southwest Asia Turkey,
Lebanon, Israel, Iraq, Jordan, Saudi
Arabia)4  
[1] escription Русский:
Дикая пшеница
Эребунийского
заповедника -
Однозернянка
араратская (Triticum
araraticum) English: The Wild Wheat of
Erebuni Reserve (Triticum
araraticum) Date 5 June 2007 Source
for-wikimedia.wowarmenia.ru Author
uncredited Permission (Reusing this
file) Released by WOWARMENIA for
Wikimedia under Creative Commons
Attribution-Share Alike license
(Multi-license with GFDL and Creative
Commons CC-BY-SA-3.0 and older versions
(2.5, 2.0 and 1.0)). If you wish to
reuse the photos elsewhere, please read
the instructions at COM:REUSE. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/WildWheat_Erebu
ni_Reserve.jpg/1280px-WildWheat_Erebuni_
Reserve.jpg

[2] Description Česky:
Pšenice. Deutsch: Weizen. English:
Wheat. Español: Trigo. Français :
Blé. Magyar: Búza. Tiếng Việt:
Lúa mì. Date August
2005 Source Own work Author
User:Bluemoose GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Wheat_close-up.
JPG/800px-Wheat_close-up.JPG
18,000 YBN
[16000 BC] 9 10 11 12 		603) The earliest pottery.4 5 6
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
3. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
4. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
5. ^
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/natur
e/8077168.stm
6. ^ Elisabetta Boaretto, Xiaohong Wu,
Jiarong Yuan, Ofer Bar-Yosef, Vikki
Chu, Yan Pan, Kexin Liu, David Cohen,
Tianlong Jiao, Shuicheng Li, Haibin Gu,
Paul Goldberg, and Steve Weiner,
"Radiocarbon dating of charcoal and
bone collagen associated with early
pottery at Yuchanyan Cave, Hunan
Province, China PNAS 2009 106 (24)
9595-9600;" published ahead of print
June 1, 2009,
doi:10.1073/pnas.0900539106
http://www.pnas.org/content/106/24/959
5.full?sid=4a6f1743-94c2-4be8-b046-575b4
f27ab46
7. ^
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/natur
e/8077168.stm
8. ^ Elisabetta Boaretto, Xiaohong Wu,
Jiarong Yuan, Ofer Bar-Yosef, Vikki
Chu, Yan Pan, Kexin Liu, David Cohen,
Tianlong Jiao, Shuicheng Li, Haibin Gu,
Paul Goldberg, and Steve Weiner,
"Radiocarbon dating of charcoal and
bone collagen associated with early
pottery at Yuchanyan Cave, Hunan
Province, China PNAS 2009 106 (24)
9595-9600;" published ahead of print
June 1, 2009,
doi:10.1073/pnas.0900539106
http://www.pnas.org/content/106/24/959
5.full?sid=4a6f1743-94c2-4be8-b046-575b4
f27ab46
9. ^ Elisabetta Boaretto, Xiaohong Wu,
Jiarong Yuan, Ofer Bar-Yosef, Vikki
Chu, Yan Pan, Kexin Liu, David Cohen,
Tianlong Jiao, Shuicheng Li, Haibin Gu,
Paul Goldberg, and Steve Weiner,
"Radiocarbon dating of charcoal and
bone collagen associated with early
pottery at Yuchanyan Cave, Hunan
Province, China PNAS 2009 106 (24)
9595-9600;" published ahead of print
June 1, 2009,
doi:10.1073/pnas.0900539106
http://www.pnas.org/content/106/24/959
5.full?sid=4a6f1743-94c2-4be8-b046-575b4
f27ab46 {18,000}
10. ^ "pottery." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2011.
Answers.com 31 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pottery
{17,500YBN}
11. ^
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/natur
e/8077168.stm {17,500YBN}
12. ^ Trevor I. Williams,
"A history of invention : from stone
axes to silicon chips ", (New York:
Checkmark Books, 2000). {8000 YBN}
(Yuchanyan cave), Daoxian County, Hunan
Province, China7 8  
[1] Pottery Fu (Cooking Vessel)-Shaped
Vessel Paleolithic Age to Neolithic
Age 12000 years ago Diameter at mouth
32.5cm height 29.8cm Restored on the
basis of unearthed pottery pieces at
Yuchanyan, Dao County in 1995 It is by
far the earliest pottery discovered, a
cooking vessel. [t Note that there
are apparently fragments of 2 or more
pottery vessels, and they are redated
in the article to 18000ybn: Elisabetta
Boaretto, Xiaohong Wu, Jiarong Yuan,
Ofer Bar-Yosef, Vikki Chu, Yan Pan,
Kexin Liu, David Cohen, Tianlong Jiao,
Shuicheng Li, Haibin Gu, Paul Goldberg,
and Steve Weiner, ''Radiocarbon dating
of charcoal and bone collagen
associated with early pottery at
Yuchanyan Cave, Hunan Province, China
PNAS 2009 106 (24) 9595-9600;''
published ahead of print June 1, 2009,
doi:10.1073/pnas.0900539106
http://www.pnas.org/content/106/24/959
5.full?sid=4a6f1743-94c2-4be8-b046-575b4
f27ab46]
source: http://www.hnmuseum.com/hnmuseum
/eng/whatson/exhibition/images/kg/2.jpg
17,000 YBN
[15000 BC] 13 		6225) The earliest rope.7 8 9
FOOTNOTES

1. ^ LEROI-GOURHAN, A., Lascaux
Inconnu (A. LEROIGOURHAN & J. ALLAIN,
eds.), Xlle Suppl. à Gallia
Préhistoire, CNRS: Paris, 1979, p183.
2. ^
Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The
Timetables of Science", Second edition,
Simon and Schuster, 1991, p7.
3. ^ Bahn,
Paul G., "Lascaux: ¿Composición o
Acumulación?", Zephyrus, 47
(1994) http://gredos.usal.es/jspui/hand
le/10366/71521
4. ^ LEROI-GOURHAN, A., Lascaux Inconnu
(A. LEROIGOURHAN & J. ALLAIN, eds.),
Xlle Suppl. à Gallia Préhistoire,
CNRS: Paris, 1979, p183.
5. ^ Alexander
Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables
of Science", Second edition, Simon and
Schuster, 1991, p7.
6. ^ Bahn, Paul G.,
"Lascaux: ¿Composición o
Acumulación?", Zephyrus, 47
(1994) http://gredos.usal.es/jspui/hand
le/10366/71521
7. ^ LEROI-GOURHAN, A., Lascaux Inconnu
(A. LEROIGOURHAN & J. ALLAIN, eds.),
Xlle Suppl. à Gallia Préhistoire,
CNRS: Paris, 1979, p183.
8. ^ Alexander
Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables
of Science", Second edition, Simon and
Schuster, 1991, p7.
9. ^ Bahn, Paul G.,
"Lascaux: ¿Composición o
Acumulación?", Zephyrus, 47
(1994) http://gredos.usal.es/jspui/hand
le/10366/71521
10. ^ LEROI-GOURHAN, A., Lascaux
Inconnu (A. LEROIGOURHAN & J. ALLAIN,
eds.), Xlle Suppl. à Gallia
Préhistoire, CNRS: Paris, 1979, p183.
11. ^
Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The
Timetables of Science", Second edition,
Simon and Schuster, 1991, p7.
12. ^ Bahn,
Paul G., "Lascaux: ¿Composición o
Acumulación?", Zephyrus, 47
(1994) http://gredos.usal.es/jspui/hand
le/10366/71521
13. ^ Bahn, Paul G., "Lascaux:
¿Composición o Acumulación?",
Zephyrus, 47
(1994) http://gredos.usal.es/jspui/hand
le/10366/71521 {17000 YBN}
Lascaux, France10 11 12  
[1] Remains of the rope. Fragments of
the first piece of clay (at left the
remains of the rope, at right, its
mark). Images from: LEROI-GOURHAN,
A., Lascaux Inconnu (A. LEROIGOURHAN &
J. ALLAIN, eds.), Xlle Suppl. à Gallia
Préhistoire, CNRS: Paris, 1979,
p183. COPYRIGHTED
source: LEROI-GOURHAN, A., Lascaux
Inconnu (A. LEROIGOURHAN & J. ALLAIN,
eds.), Xlle Suppl. à Gallia
Préhistoire, CNRS: Paris, 1979, p183.

[2] Figure 142. - Fragments of the
second piece of clay. The remains of
the cord appear on both sides. Images
from: LEROI-GOURHAN, A., Lascaux
Inconnu (A. LEROIGOURHAN & J. ALLAIN,
eds.), Xlle Suppl. à Gallia
Préhistoire, CNRS: Paris, 1979,
p183. COPYRIGHTED
source: LEROI-GOURHAN, A., Lascaux
Inconnu (A. LEROIGOURHAN & J. ALLAIN,
eds.), Xlle Suppl. à Gallia
Préhistoire, CNRS: Paris, 1979, p183.
17,000 YBN
[15000 BC] 3 4 		6516) There are 10 million humans on
Earth, all hunter-gathering people.2
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ Parker, G. Compact History of the
World. Barnes & Noble, 2001, p17.
2. ^
Parker, G. Compact History of the
World. Barnes & Noble, 2001, p17.
3. ^
Parker, G. Compact History of the
World. Barnes & Noble, 2001, p17.
4. ^
Kremer, Michael. “Population Growth
and Technological Change: One Million
B.C. to 1990.” The Quarterly Journal
of Economics 108.3 (1993):
681–716. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
2118405
 
[1] Parker, G. Compact History of the
World. Barnes & Noble, 2001,
p17. COPYRIGHTED
source: Parker, G. Compact History of
the World. Barnes & Noble, 2001, p17.
14,000 YBN
[12000 BC] 9 		6227) The earliest known map.4 5 6
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ Gladkih, M. I., Kornietz, N. L.,
and Soffer, 0. "Mammoth Bone Dwellings
on the Russian Plain." Scientific
American (1984): 251.
2. ^ Bibikov, S.
N. (Sergei Nikolaevich) (1981).
Drevneishii Muzykalnyi Kompleks iz
Kostei Mamonta: Ocherk Materialnoi i
Dukhovnoi Kultury Paleoliticheskogo
Cheloveka (The Oldest Musical Complex
Made of Mammoth Bones). Akademiia Nauk
Ukrainskoi SSR, Institut Arkheologii.
Kiev, Ukraine: Naukova Dumka. In
Russian. Contains summary in English
and French; table of contents also in
English and French.
3. ^ Alexander Hellemans,
Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables of
Science", Second edition, Simon and
Schuster, 1991, p7.
4. ^ Gladkih, M. I.,
Kornietz, N. L., and Soffer, 0.
"Mammoth Bone Dwellings on the Russian
Plain." Scientific American (1984):
251.
5. ^ Bibikov, S. N. (Sergei
Nikolaevich) (1981). Drevneishii
Muzykalnyi Kompleks iz Kostei Mamonta:
Ocherk Materialnoi i Dukhovnoi Kultury
Paleoliticheskogo Cheloveka (The Oldest
Musical Complex Made of Mammoth Bones).
Akademiia Nauk Ukrainskoi SSR, Institut
Arkheologii. Kiev, Ukraine: Naukova
Dumka. In Russian. Contains summary in
English and French; table of contents
also in English and French.
6. ^ Alexander
Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables
of Science", Second edition, Simon and
Schuster, 1991, p7.
7. ^ Alexander
Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables
of Science", Second edition, Simon and
Schuster, 1991, p7.
8. ^
http://www.infoukes.com/history/inventio
ns/
9. ^
http://www.infoukes.com/history/inventio
ns/ {12,000 BC (verify}

MORE INFO
[1] Pidoplichko, I. H. (1998)
Upper Palaeolithic dwellings of mammoth
bones in the Ukraine:
Kiev-Kirillovskii, Gontsy,
Dobranichevka, Mezin and Mezhirich,
Oxford: J. and E. Hedges. ISBN
0-86054-949-6
[2] Pidoplichko, I. H. (1978) The
Mezhirich mammoth-bone houses, U.S.
Geological Survey. ISBN B0006WZGIS
[3] (Ukrainian)
(1972). Icтopiя мicт i ciл
Укpaїнcькoї CCP -
Черкаськa область
(History of Towns and Villages of the
Ukrainian SSR - Cherkasy Oblast), Kiev
[4]
"Mezhyrich". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mezhyrich
Mezhirich, Ukraine7 8  
[1] The oldest known map in the world,
discovered by archeologists, is from
12,000 B.C. and was found in Mezhirich,
Ukraine.
source: http://www.infoukes.com/history/
images/inventions/figure02.gif
14,000 YBN
[12000 BC] 7 		6439) Lime cement is used as an
adhesive on small stone tools.3 4
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^ Kingery, W D, Pamela B. Vandiver,
and Martha Prickett. "The Beginnings of
Pyrotechnology, Part Ii: Production and
Use of Lime and Gypsum Plaster in the
Pre-Pottery Neolithic Near East."
Journal of Field Archaeology. 15.2
(1988): 219-244.
http://faculty.ksu.edu.sa/archaeology/
Publications/General/Lime%20and%20Gypsum
%20Plaster%20in%20the%20Pre-Pottery%20Ne
olithic%20near%20East.pdf AND
http://www.jstor.org/stable/530304
2. ^ Bar-Yosef, O., and A. N.
Goring-Morris 1977 "Geometric Kebaran
Occurrences,"in O. Bar-Yosef and J. L.
Phillips, eds., Prehistoric
Investigations in Gebel Maghara,
Northern Sinai, Qedem 7. Monographs of
the Institute of Archaeology
Jerusalem: The Hebrew University,
331-368.
3. ^ Kingery, W D, Pamela B. Vandiver,
and Martha Prickett. "The Beginnings of
Pyrotechnology, Part Ii: Production and
Use of Lime and Gypsum Plaster in the
Pre-Pottery Neolithic Near East."
Journal of Field Archaeology. 15.2
(1988): 219-244.
http://faculty.ksu.edu.sa/archaeology/
Publications/General/Lime%20and%20Gypsum
%20Plaster%20in%20the%20Pre-Pottery%20Ne
olithic%20near%20East.pdf AND
http://www.jstor.org/stable/530304
4. ^ Bar-Yosef, O., and A. N.
Goring-Morris 1977 "Geometric Kebaran
Occurrences,"in O. Bar-Yosef and J. L.
Phillips, eds., Prehistoric
Investigations in Gebel Maghara,
Northern Sinai, Qedem 7. Monographs of
the Institute of Archaeology
Jerusalem: The Hebrew University,
331-368.
5. ^ Kingery, W D, Pamela B. Vandiver,
and Martha Prickett. "The Beginnings of
Pyrotechnology, Part Ii: Production and
Use of Lime and Gypsum Plaster in the
Pre-Pottery Neolithic Near East."
Journal of Field Archaeology. 15.2
(1988): 219-244.
http://faculty.ksu.edu.sa/archaeology/
Publications/General/Lime%20and%20Gypsum
%20Plaster%20in%20the%20Pre-Pottery%20Ne
olithic%20near%20East.pdf AND
http://www.jstor.org/stable/530304
6. ^ Bar-Yosef, O., and A. N.
Goring-Morris 1977 "Geometric Kebaran
Occurrences,"in O. Bar-Yosef and J. L.
Phillips, eds., Prehistoric
Investigations in Gebel Maghara,
Northern Sinai, Qedem 7. Monographs of
the Institute of Archaeology
Jerusalem: The Hebrew University,
331-368.
7. ^ Kingery, W D, Pamela B. Vandiver,
and Martha Prickett. "The Beginnings of
Pyrotechnology, Part Ii: Production and
Use of Lime and Gypsum Plaster in the
Pre-Pottery Neolithic Near East."
Journal of Field Archaeology. 15.2
(1988): 219-244.
http://faculty.ksu.edu.sa/archaeology/
Publications/General/Lime%20and%20Gypsum
%20Plaster%20in%20the%20Pre-Pottery%20Ne
olithic%20near%20East.pdf AND
http://www.jstor.org/stable/530304
Geometric Kebaran site Lagama North
VIII, Gebel Maghara, Northern Sinai,
Egypt5 6  
[1] Figure 6 from: Kingery, W D,
Pamela B. Vandiver, and Martha
Prickett. ''The Beginnings of
Pyrotechnology, Part Ii: Production and
Use of Lime and Gypsum Plaster in the
Pre-Pottery Neolithic Near East.''
Journal of Field Archaeology. 15.2
(1988): 219-244.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/530304 CO
PYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/5303
04

[2] See text ''In the north corner of
the room was an interesting structure
of unbaked plano-convex bricks (Fig.
44). It had a rectangular base
measuring approximately 1.00 x 1.60 m.,
the north-east side of which was only
15 cm. from the outer inclosure wall.
... The tops of these two walls were
rounded off toward the outside
throughout their length, on the higher
as well as on the lower parts (Fig. 45;
cf. also Fig. 65), and trhe whole
structure was originally coated with a
thick layer of white lime plaster- a
circumstance which greatly facilitated
its excavation and the tracing of its
peculiar shape. ... Fig 44
from: Delougaz, Pinhas, ''The temple
oval at Khafājah'', University of
Chicago Press/Chicago Ill., 1940.
http://oi.uchicago.edu/pdf/oip53.pdf
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://oi.uchicago.edu/pdf/oip53
.pdf
13,000 YBN
[11000 BC] 15 16 17 		578) Sapiens reach America. The oldest
human bones in America.10 11 12
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ Eliza Barclay (September 3,
2008). "Oldest Skeleton in Americas
Found in Underwater Cave?". National
Geographic News (National Geographic).
http://news.nationalgeographic.com/new
s/2008/09/080903-oldest-skeletons.html
2. ^
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/natur
e/2538323.stm
3. ^
http://edition.cnn.com/NATURE/9906/08/an
cient.woman/
4. ^ Eliza Barclay (September 3, 2008).
"Oldest Skeleton in Americas Found in
Underwater Cave?". National Geographic
News (National Geographic).
http://news.nationalgeographic.com/new
s/2008/09/080903-oldest-skeletons.html
5. ^
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/natur
e/2538323.stm
6. ^
http://edition.cnn.com/NATURE/9906/08/an
cient.woman/
7. ^ Eliza Barclay (September 3, 2008).
"Oldest Skeleton in Americas Found in
Underwater Cave?". National Geographic
News (National Geographic).
http://news.nationalgeographic.com/new
s/2008/09/080903-oldest-skeletons.html
8. ^
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/natur
e/2538323.stm
9. ^
http://edition.cnn.com/NATURE/9906/08/an
cient.woman/
10. ^ Eliza Barclay (September 3,
2008). "Oldest Skeleton in Americas
Found in Underwater Cave?". National
Geographic News (National Geographic).
http://news.nationalgeographic.com/new
s/2008/09/080903-oldest-skeletons.html
11. ^
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/natur
e/2538323.stm
12. ^
http://edition.cnn.com/NATURE/9906/08/an
cient.woman/
13. ^
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/natur
e/2538323.stm
14. ^ Michael Vincent McGinnis,
Negotiating ecology: Marine bioregions
and the destruction of the Southern
California Bight, Futures, Volume 38,
Issue 4, Futures of Bioregions, May
2006, Pages 382-405, ISSN 0016-3287,
DOI:
10.1016/j.futures.2005.07.016. (http://
www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pi
i/S0016328705001382)
15. ^
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/natur
e/2538323.stm {13000 YBN}
16. ^
http://edition.cnn.com/NATURE/9906/08/an
cient.woman/ {13000 YBN}
17. ^ Michael
Vincent McGinnis, Negotiating ecology:
Marine bioregions and the destruction
of the Southern California Bight,
Futures, Volume 38, Issue 4, Futures of
Bioregions, May 2006, Pages 382-405,
ISSN 0016-3287, DOI:
10.1016/j.futures.2005.07.016. (http://
www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pi
i/S0016328705001382) {13000 YBN}
Mexico City13 and Arlington Canyon on
Santa Rosa Island, California, USA14
 
[1] A member of Arturo González's
underwater archaeological team studies
a skull in an underwater cave on the
coast of the Yucatán Peninsula near
Tulum, Mexico. Skeletons found in
similar caves may be among the oldest
human remains ever found in North or
South America. Photograph courtesy
Arturo Gonzáles COPYRIGHTED
source: http://news.nationalgeographic.c
om/news/bigphotos/images/080903-oldest-s
keletons_big.jpg

[2] Tulum, Mexico UNKNOWN
source: maps.google.com
12,000 YBN
[10000 BC] 2 		6522) Humans transform from hunting and
gathering to agriculture, from a
migratory to a sedentary life, building
the first cities.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Parker, G. Compact History of the
World. Barnes & Noble, 2001, p16-17.
2. ^ Ted
Huntington.
 
[1] Parker, G. Compact History of the
World. Barnes & Noble, 2001,
p16-17. COPYRIGHTED
source: Parker, G. Compact History of
the World. Barnes & Noble, 2001,
p16-17.
11,700 YBN
[9700 BC] 4 5 		827) The end of the Pleistocene
(PlISTeSEN), and start of the Holocene
{HoLoSEN or HOLoSEN1 } epoch.2 This is
the end of the last Ice Age.3
FOOTNOTES

1. ^ "Holocene." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 06 Jan.
2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/H
olocene>.
2. ^
http://www.geosociety.org/science/timesc
ale/timescl.pdf
3. ^ "Holocene." The American
Heritage� Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 05
Nov. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/holocene
4. ^ "Holocene Epoch." Encyclop�dia
Britannica. Encyclop�dia Britannica
Online. Encyclop�dia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 05 Nov. 2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c//>.
5. ^
http://www.geosociety.org/science/timesc
ale/timescl.pdf

MORE INFO
[1] 1999 Geologic Time Scale,
Geological Society of America
[2] "Mesolithic".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesolithic
 
[1] Geologic Time Scale 2009 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.geosociety.org/scienc
e/timescale/timescl.pdf
11,700 YBN
[9700 BC] 3 4 5 6 7 		828) The start of the Neolithic or "New
Stone Age" in the Fertile Crescent, a
region of the Middle East arching from
the Nile Valley to the Tigris and
Euphrates rivers1 .2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Fertile Crescent." The American
Heritage� Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 08
Jan. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/fertile-cre
scent
2. ^
http://archaeology.about.com/od/neolithi
c/qt/Neolithic.htm
3. ^ "Holocene Epoch." Encyclop�dia
Britannica. Encyclop�dia Britannica
Online. Encyclop�dia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 05 Nov. 2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c//>.
4. ^
http://archaeology.about.com/od/neolithi
c/qt/Neolithic.htm
5. ^ "Neolithic." The American
Heritage� Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 05
Nov. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/neolithic
6. ^
http://archaeology.about.com/od/mesolith
icarchaic/qt/Mesolithic.htm
7. ^ "Neolithic" in Timothy Darvill,
"The Concise Oxford Dictionary of
Archaeology (2 ed.)", Oxford University
Press, 2008.

MORE INFO
[1] "Mesolithic". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesolithic
 
[1] Lake dwellers lived in central
Europe and were ancestral to the Celts
and northern Italians, and built their
houses very near water so that their
kind of wheat, that grew in marshy
areas, could grow in fields nearby.
They built their houses on stilts to
keep them dry. They were genetically
characterized by a very large clade of
R2b1b2. UNKNOWN
source: http://freepages.genealogy.roots
web.ancestry.com/~villandra/McKinstry/I2
b1/lakedwellingNeolithic.jpg

[2] Catal Hoyuk
Reconstruction UNKNOWN
source: http://www.veeb.net/wp-content/u
ploads/2011/01/Catal_Hoyuk_Reconstructio
n.jpg
11,500 YBN
[9500 BC] 11 12 13 14 		829) Humans shape metal objects from
native copper.3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Rolf E. Hummel, "Understanding
Material Science", 2004,
p5. http://203.158.253.140/media/e-Book
/Engineer/Material/Understanding%20Mater
ials%20Science.pdf
2. ^ Cyril Stanley Smith, "Metallurgy
as a human experience", Metallurgical
and Materials Transactions A Volume 6,
Number 4 (1975), 603-623, DOI:
10.1007/BF02672281 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/4r60p045832k01l6/
3. ^ Rolf E. Hummel, "Understanding
Material Science", 2004,
p5. http://203.158.253.140/media/e-Book
/Engineer/Material/Understanding%20Mater
ials%20Science.pdf
4. ^ Cyril Stanley Smith, "Metallurgy
as a human experience", Metallurgical
and Materials Transactions A Volume 6,
Number 4 (1975), 603-623, DOI:
10.1007/BF02672281 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/4r60p045832k01l6/
5. ^ Rolf E. Hummel, "Understanding
Material Science", 2004,
p5. http://203.158.253.140/media/e-Book
/Engineer/Material/Understanding%20Mater
ials%20Science.pdf
6. ^ Noël H. Gale, "Metals and
Metallurgy in the Chalcolithic Period",
Bulletin of the American Schools of
Oriental Research , No. 282/283,
Symposium: Chalcolithic Cyprus (May -
Aug., 1991), pp.
37-61. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1357
261
7. ^
http://www.codelco.com/english/cu_zonaco
bre/pasado.asp
8. ^ Linda Braidwood and Robert
Braidwood, "Prehistoric Village
Archaeology in south-eastern Turkey:
The eight-millennium B.C> site at
Çayönü, its chipped and ground stone
undustries and faunal remains:, 1982,
p4,10-11.
9. ^ "Copper". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copper
10. ^ "Bronze Age". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 01 Jul.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/81017/Bronze-Age>.
11. ^ Rolf E. Hummel, "Understanding
Material Science", 2004,
p5. http://203.158.253.140/media/e-Book
/Engineer/Material/Understanding%20Mater
ials%20Science.pdf
12. ^ Noël H. Gale, "Metals and
Metallurgy in the Chalcolithic Period",
Bulletin of the American Schools of
Oriental Research , No. 282/283,
Symposium: Chalcolithic Cyprus (May -
Aug., 1991), pp.
37-61. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1357
261
13. ^ "Bronze Age". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 01 Jul.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/81017/Bronze-Age>.
14. ^
http://www.codelco.com/english/cu_zonaco
bre/pasado.asp {700 YBN}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.kkhec.ac.ir/Iran%20informatio
n/iranian_copper_iran_exports.htm
(Shanidar Cave) North East Iraq5
|(Çayönü) Anatolia (modern Turkey)6
|Northern Iraq7 8 9 |Eastern Anatolia10
 
[1] from ''Metallurgy as a human
experience'': fgi2: Copper pendant from
Shanidar Cave, Northeast Iraq, about
9500 B.C. Length 2.3cm; thickness
0.3cm. Shaped by hammering a piece of
native metal and finishing with
abrasives. (It is completely
mineralized and there is a slight
possibility that it was originally
simply carved from a lump of
malachite.) Courtesy Professor Ralph S.
Solecki. --- Malachite is a green
mineral, basic copper carbonate, Cu 2
CO 3 (OH) 2 , an ore of copper, used
for making ornamental articles.
''Malachite.'' Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 04 Jul.
2012. . Cyril Stanley Smith,
''Metallurgy as a human experience'',
Metallurgical and Materials
Transactions A Volume 6, Number 4
(1975), 603-623, DOI:
10.1007/BF02672281 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/4r60p045832k01l6/ COPYR
IGHTED
source: http://www.springerlink.com/cont
ent/4r60p045832k01l6/

[2] Description View of the exterior
of Shanidar Cave, taken during the
summer of 2005. Note for scale the two
crouching men in front of the cave. At
the time this photo was taken, the
interior of the cave was being used as
a pen by a local
shepherd. Licensing Date 2006-08-03
(original upload date) Source
Originally from en.wikipedia;
description page is/was here. Author
Original uploader was JosephV at
en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) Licensed under the GFDL by
the author; Released under the GNU Free
Documentation License. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a8/Erbil_governorate_sha
nidar_cave.jpg
11,000 YBN
[9000 BC] 7 8 		606) The oldest city, Jericho.4
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
3. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
4. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
5. ^ "Jericho." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2011. Web. 19 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/302707/Jericho>. {9,000 BC}
6. ^
"Jericho." The Concise Oxford
Dictionary of Archaeology. Oxford
University Press, 2002, 2003.
Answers.com 31 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/jericho
7. ^ "Jericho." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2011. Web. 19 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/302707/Jericho>. {9,000 BC}
8. ^ Trevor
I. Williams, "A history of invention :
from stone axes to silicon chips ",
(New York: Checkmark Books, 2000). {000
YBN} {8,000 YBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Kathleen Kenyon, "Excavations
at Jericho", 1981,
p6. {Kenyon_Excavations_At_Jericho_1981
.pdf}
Jericho, (modern West Bank5 )
Palestine6  
[1] An aerial view of Jericho showing
the ruins of Tell
es-Sultan Description Italiano:
veduta aerea dell'area archeologica di
Gerico Date 2008-03-05 (original
upload date) Source Transferred
from it.wikipedia Author Original
uploader was Fullo88 at
it.wikipedia PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f4/Tell_es-sultan.jpg

[2] Plastered skulls figures
from: Kathleen Kenyon, ''Excavations
at Jericho'', 1981,
vol5. {Kenyon_Excavations_At_Jericho_19
81.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: Kenyon_Excavations_At_Jericho_19
81.pdf
11,000 YBN
[9000 BC] 10 11 		608) The oldest saddle quern {KWRN5 }
(a flat stone and rounded stone used to
grind grain into flour).6 7 8
FOOTNOTES

1. ^ "quern." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 17 Jun.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/quern
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
3. ^ "saddle quern". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 16 Jun.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/515851/saddle-quern>.
4. ^ "quern." A Dictionary of Food and
Nutrition. Oxford University Press,
1995, 2003, 2005. Answers.com 17 Jun.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/quern
5. ^ "quern." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 17 Jun.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/quern
6. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
7. ^ "saddle quern". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 16 Jun.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/515851/saddle-quern>.
8. ^ "quern." A Dictionary of Food and
Nutrition. Oxford University Press,
1995, 2003, 2005. Answers.com 17 Jun.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/quern
9. ^ British Museum: The oldest known
tool for making flour found in the
Middle
East http://www.britishmuseum.org/explo
re/highlights/highlight_objects/pe/q/que
rn_stone_for_making_flour.aspx
10. ^ British Museum: The oldest known
tool for making flour found in the
Middle
East http://www.britishmuseum.org/explo
re/highlights/highlight_objects/pe/q/que
rn_stone_for_making_flour.aspx
11. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
Abu Hureyra, Syria9  
[1] (presumably the:) Quern stone used
for making flour 9,500–9,000
BC Abu Hureyra, Syria NONCOMMERCIAL
USE
source: http://www.britishmuseum.org/ima
ges/quern_l.jpg

[2] Setting where Quern stone was used
for making flour 9,500–9,000
BC Abu Hureyra, Syria NONCOMMERCIAL
USE
source: http://www.britishmuseum.org/ima
ges/quern_setting_l.jpg
11,000 YBN
[9000 BC] 4 5 6 		617) Goats are kept, fed, milked, and
killed for food.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
3. ^ Hirst, K. Kris. "The History of
the Domestication of Goats". About.com.
4. ^
Hirst, K. Kris. "The History of the
Domestication of Goats". About.com.
5. ^ Breeds of
Livestock; Goats: (Capra hircus).
Oklahoma State University Board of
Regents
6. ^ Zeder MA. 2008. Domestication and
early agriculture in the Mediterranean
Basin: Origins, diffusion, and impact.
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences
105(33):11597-11604. http://www.pnas.or
g/content/105/33/11597
Euphrates river valley at Nevali Çori,
Turkey| (11,000 bp), and the Zagros
Mountains of Iran at Ganj Dareh
(10,000).3  
[1] Description Bezoar Ibex (Capra
aegagrus aegagrus) Deutsch:
Bezoarziege, fotografiert im Tierpark
Berlin Date January
2006 Source Uploaded first to de
wikipedia on 13:25, 19. Feb 2006 by Der
Irbis Author F. Spangenberg (Der
Irbis, own photo) GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f6/Bezoarziege.jpg

[2] Domestic goat kid, in field of
capeweed. Swifts Creek, Victoria,
September 2007 GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Domestic_goat_k
id_in_capeweed.jpg/1024px-Domestic_goat_
kid_in_capeweed.jpg
11,000 YBN
[9000 BC] 5 		1292) The earliest stone buildings and
temple; in Turkey.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ K., Schmidt. �G�bekli Tepe,
Southeastern Turkey. A Preliminary
Report on the 1995-1999 Excavations.�
Pal�orient (2000): 45�54.
Print. http://www.persee.fr/web/revues/
home/prescript/article/paleo_0153-9345_2
000_num_26_1_4697
2. ^ "The World's First Temple".
Archaeology magazine. Nov/Dec 2008. p.
23. http://www.archaeology.org/0811/abs
tracts/turkey.html
3. ^ K., Schmidt. �G�bekli Tepe,
Southeastern Turkey. A Preliminary
Report on the 1995-1999 Excavations.�
Pal�orient (2000): 45�54.
Print. http://www.persee.fr/web/revues/
home/prescript/article/paleo_0153-9345_2
000_num_26_1_4697
4. ^ "G�bekli Tepe." Encyclop�dia
Britannica. Encyclop�dia Britannica
Online. Encyclop�dia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 02 Nov. 2012.
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/to
pic/1498811/Gobekli-Tepe
5. ^ K., Schmidt. �G�bekli Tepe,
Southeastern Turkey. A Preliminary
Report on the 1995-1999 Excavations.�
Pal�orient (2000): 45�54.
Print. http://www.persee.fr/web/revues/
home/prescript/article/paleo_0153-9345_2
000_num_26_1_4697

MORE INFO
[1] "Neolithic". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neolithic
[2] "Göbekli Tepe". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%B6bekl
i_Tepe (=9000bce)
Göbekli Tepe, near Sanliurfa,
Southeastern Turkey3 4  
[1] Description English: Göbekli
Tepe, Şanlıurfa Date 6 September
2011 Source Own work Author
Teomancimit CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/G%C3%B6bekli_Te
pe%2C_Urfa.jpg/1280px-G%C3%B6bekli_Tepe%
2C_Urfa.jpg

[2] Göbekli Tepe may hold first human
writings Prehistory specialist of
the German Archeological Institute in
Berlin announced the findings of a
South Eastern Turkish Excavation site
near Sanliurfa called Göbekli Tepe
(''Nabelberg'') . Klaus Schmidt claims
the 11 600 old stone markings of this
temple are the worlds earliest known
form of writing. ''The geometrical
forms and small animal reliefs are
surely more than just ornamentations.
Humans somewhat wanted to communicate
with future humans here '' he says in a
February 14, 2006 Berliner Morgenpost
article. Excavator Schmidt interprets
Goebekli Tepe as a center for a
complicated dead cult and adds, ''This
was monumental architecture, 6000 years
before the pyramids.'' The monoliths
were lower than the surrounding walls
indicating that the intention was not
architectural in erecting
them. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.lahana.org/blog/Gobek
litepe.htm
11,000 YBN
[9000 BC] 3 4 		6509) Rye is grown in Syria.1
FOOTNOTES

1. ^ Moore, Andrew Michael Tangye,
Gordon C. Hillman, and Anthony J.
Legge. Village on the Euphrates: from
foraging to farming at Abu Hureyra.
Oxford: Oxford University Press xvii,
2000, p.
528. http://www.amazon.com/Village-Euph
rates-Foraging-Farming-Hureyra/dp/019510
8078
2. ^ Moore, Andrew Michael Tangye,
Gordon C. Hillman, and Anthony J.
Legge. Village on the Euphrates: from
foraging to farming at Abu Hureyra.
Oxford: Oxford University Press xvii,
2000, p.
528. http://www.amazon.com/Village-Euph
rates-Foraging-Farming-Hureyra/dp/019510
8078
3. ^ Moore, Andrew Michael Tangye,
Gordon C. Hillman, and Anthony J.
Legge. Village on the Euphrates: from
foraging to farming at Abu Hureyra.
Oxford: Oxford University Press xvii,
2000, p.
528. http://www.amazon.com/Village-Euph
rates-Foraging-Farming-Hureyra/dp/019510
8078
4. ^ "First farmers discovered". BBC
News.
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nat
ure/489449.stm
Abu Hureyra, Syria2  
[1] Description an ear of rye Date
11 June 2007 Source Own work Author
LSDSL Permission (Reusing this file)
Please quote me as LSDSL Bitte
nennen Sie mich als LSDSL GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/79/Ear_of_rye.jpg

[2] Tell Abu Hureyra, Syria in Google
Maps UNKNOWN
source: https://maps.google.com/maps?ll=
35.866,38.4&spn=0.01,0.01&t=m&q=35.866,3
8.4
10,870 YBN
[8870 BC] 4 		6438) The earliest settlement in
Mesopotamia.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "history of Mesopotamia".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 03 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/376828/history-of-Mesopotamia/55
488/The-emergence-of-Mesopotamian-civili
zation>.
2. ^ Ralph S. Solecki and Meyer Rubin,
"Dating of Zawi Chemi, an Early Village
Site at Shanidar, Northern Iraq",
Science , New Series, Vol. 127, No.
3312 (Jun. 20, 1958), p.
1446 http://www.jstor.org/stable/175603
0
3. ^ Ralph S. Solecki and Meyer Rubin,
"Dating of Zawi Chemi, an Early Village
Site at Shanidar, Northern Iraq",
Science , New Series, Vol. 127, No.
3312 (Jun. 20, 1958), p.
1446 http://www.jstor.org/stable/175603
0
4. ^ Ralph S. Solecki and Meyer Rubin,
"Dating of Zawi Chemi, an Early Village
Site at Shanidar, Northern Iraq",
Science , New Series, Vol. 127, No.
3312 (Jun. 20, 1958), p.
1446 http://www.jstor.org/stable/175603
0
Zawi Chemi, Shanidar, Northern Iraq3
 
[1] Solecki, R.L. An Early Village Site
at Zawi Chemi Shanidar. Undena
Publications, 1981. Bibliotheca
Mesopotamica. COPYRIGHTED
source: Solecki, R.L. An Early Village
Site at Zawi Chemi Shanidar. Undena
Publications, 1981. Bibliotheca
Mesopotamica.

[2] Solecki, R.L. An Early Village
Site at Zawi Chemi Shanidar. Undena
Publications, 1981. Bibliotheca
Mesopotamica. COPYRIGHTED
source: Solecki, R.L. An Early Village
Site at Zawi Chemi Shanidar. Undena
Publications, 1981. Bibliotheca
Mesopotamica.
10,500 YBN
[8500 BC] 4 5 		610) Flax is grown.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
3. ^ Zohary, D., and M. Hopf.
Domestication of Plants in the Old
World: The Origin and Spread of
Cultivated Plants in West Asia, Europe,
and the Nile Valley. Oxford University
Press, 2000, p126-132. 2012 edition:
http://books.google.com/books?id=tc6vr0q
zk_4C
4. ^ Zohary, D., and M. Hopf.
Domestication of Plants in the Old
World: The Origin and Spread of
Cultivated Plants in West Asia, Europe,
and the Nile Valley. Oxford University
Press, 2000, p126-132. 2012 edition:
http://books.google.com/books?id=tc6vr0q
zk_4C
5. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
Tell Abu Hureyra, Syria3  
[1] Lewis Blue Flax seeding along
I-86. PD
source: http://itd.idaho.gov/highways/op
s/maintenance/Roadside/ImageGalleries/Na
tive-Management/LewisBlueFlax4.jpg

[2] from:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Flax_
seeds.jpg I took this picture of flax
seed in July of 2005 and grant its use
under the Creative Commons
Attribution-Sharealike 2.5 CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/15/Flax_seeds.jpg
10,500 YBN
[8500 BC] 5 6 		6315) Sheep are raised for wool, skins,
meat and dung (which is used for
fuel).2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Per Jensen (2009). The ethology
of domestic animals: an introductory
text. CABI. pp. 162–. ISBN
9781845935368.
http://books.google.com/books?id=FuJKS
EgccUEC&pg=PA162#v=onepage&q&f=false
2. ^ Per Jensen (2009). The ethology of
domestic animals: an introductory text.
CABI. pp. 162–. ISBN 9781845935368.
http://books.google.com/books?id=FuJKS
EgccUEC&pg=PA162#v=onepage&q&f=false
3. ^ Zeder MA. 2008. Domestication and
early agriculture in the Mediterranean
Basin: Origins, diffusion, and impact.
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences
105(33):11597-11604. http://www.pnas.or
g/content/105/33/11597
4. ^ Per Jensen (2009). The ethology of
domestic animals: an introductory text.
CABI. pp. 162–. ISBN 9781845935368.
http://books.google.com/books?id=FuJKS
EgccUEC&pg=PA162#v=onepage&q&f=false
5. ^ Zeder MA. 2008. Domestication and
early agriculture in the Mediterranean
Basin: Origins, diffusion, and impact.
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences
105(33):11597-11604. http://www.pnas.or
g/content/105/33/11597
6. ^ Per Jensen (2009). The ethology of
domestic animals: an introductory text.
CABI. pp. 162–. ISBN 9781845935368.
http://books.google.com/books?id=FuJKS
EgccUEC&pg=PA162#v=onepage&q&f=false

MORE INFO
[1] Krebs, Robert E. & Carolyn A.
(2003). Groundbreaking Scientific
Experiments, Inventions & Discoveries
of the Ancient World. Westport, CT:
Greenwood Press. ISBN 0-313-31342-3
Northern Zagros to southeastern
Anatolia3 |(Middle East) Eastern
Mediterranean4  
[1] Ovis canadensis Information from
en: Subject: Rocky Mountain Bighorn
Sheep Camera: Canon D60 Lens: Canon
100--400mm IS Originally uploaded to
en: by
Sunborn Source http://pdphoto.org/Pict
ureDetail.php?mat=pdef&pg=8208 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3a/Ovis_canadensis_2.jpg


[2] Description Fotografía tomada
en Brunete, Madrid,
España. Date 30 March 2008,
10:24 Source Black sheep . Do u
also feel different? // la Oveja negra.
Tambien te sientes
diferente? Uploaded by
Petronas Author Jesus Solana from
Madrid, Spain CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Black_sheep-1.j
pg/1024px-Black_sheep-1.jpg
10,000 YBN
[8000 BC] 7 8 		205) Pigs are raised and killed for
food.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Giuffra E, Kijas JM, Amarger V,
Carlborg O, Jeon JT, Andersson L (April
2000). "The origin of the domestic pig:
independent domestication and
subsequent introgression". Genetics 154
(4): 1785–91. PMC 1461048. PMID
10747069.
http://www.genetics.org/cgi/pmidlookup
?view=long&pmid=10747069
2. ^ Giuffra E, Kijas JM, Amarger V,
Carlborg O, Jeon JT, Andersson L (April
2000). "The origin of the domestic pig:
independent domestication and
subsequent introgression". Genetics 154
(4): 1785–91. PMC 1461048. PMID
10747069.
http://www.genetics.org/cgi/pmidlookup
?view=long&pmid=10747069
3. ^ Giuffra E, Kijas JM, Amarger V,
Carlborg O, Jeon JT, Andersson L (April
2000). "The origin of the domestic pig:
independent domestication and
subsequent introgression". Genetics 154
(4): 1785–91. PMC 1461048. PMID
10747069.
http://www.genetics.org/cgi/pmidlookup
?view=long&pmid=10747069
4. ^ G. Larson, K. Dobney, U.
Albarella, M. Fang, E. Matisso-Smith,
J. Robins, S. Lowden, H. Finlayson, T.
Brand, E. Willerslev, P. Rowley-Conwy,
L. Andersson, A. Cooper (March 2005).
"Worldwide Phylogeography of Wild Boar
Reveals Multiple Centers of Pig
Domestication". Science 307 (5715):
1618. doi:10.1126/science.1106927. PMID
15761152. http://www.sciencemag.org/con
tent/307/5715/1618.full.pdf
5. ^ G. Larson, K. Dobney, U.
Albarella, M. Fang, E. Matisso-Smith,
J. Robins, S. Lowden, H. Finlayson, T.
Brand, E. Willerslev, P. Rowley-Conwy,
L. Andersson, A. Cooper (March 2005).
"Worldwide Phylogeography of Wild Boar
Reveals Multiple Centers of Pig
Domestication". Science 307 (5715):
1618. doi:10.1126/science.1106927. PMID
15761152. http://www.sciencemag.org/con
tent/307/5715/1618.full.pdf
6. ^ Zeder MA. 2008. Domestication and
early agriculture in the Mediterranean
Basin: Origins, diffusion, and impact.
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences
105(33):11597-11604. http://www.pnas.or
g/content/105/33/11597
7. ^ Zeder MA. 2008. Domestication and
early agriculture in the Mediterranean
Basin: Origins, diffusion, and impact.
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences
105(33):11597-11604. http://www.pnas.or
g/content/105/33/11597
8. ^ Giuffra E, Kijas JM, Amarger V,
Carlborg O, Jeon JT, Andersson L (April
2000). "The origin of the domestic pig:
independent domestication and
subsequent introgression". Genetics 154
(4): 1785–91. PMC 1461048. PMID
10747069.
http://www.genetics.org/cgi/pmidlookup
?view=long&pmid=10747069
(Near East) Eastern Mediterranean3 4
and Island South East Asia5
|southeastern Anatolia6  
[1] Description English: A baby Wild
Boar (Sus scrofa) in a wildlife park in
the Netherlands Français : Marcassin
(Sus scrofa) dans une réserve faunique
au Pays-Bas Date 12 May 2010,
15:10 Source Frisling Author S
ander van der Wel CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Sus_scrofa_pigl
et.jpg/1024px-Sus_scrofa_piglet.jpg

[2] Edited version of Image:Wild Boar
Habbitat 2.jpg slightly cropped with
artifacts
removed. [edit]Summary Description
Deutsch: Das Wildschwein (Sus scrofa)
gehört zur Familie der altweltlichen
oder echten Schweine (Suidae) aus der
Ordnung der Paarhufer. Hier zu sehen in
seinem natürlichen Umfeld: Eine
Suhle English: The Wild Boar (Sus
scrofa) is the wild ancestor of the
domestic pig. As shown in his natural
habitat. Español: El jabalí salvaje
(Sus scrofa), ancestro del cerdo
doméstico, en su hábitat
natural. Français : Sanglier (Sus
scrofa) dans son habitat naturel. Le
sanglier est l'ancêtre sauvage du
porc. Grünvalder forst, Bavière
(Allemagne). Cymraeg: Baedd gwyllt
(Sus scrofa), hynafiad y mochyn
dof. Italiano: Il cinghiale (Sus
scrofa), è la forma ancestrale del
maiale domestico, ritratto nel suo
habitat naturale. Nederlands: Wild
zwijn (Sus scrofa) neemt een
modderbad ‪Norsk (bokmål)‬:
Villsvin (Sus scrofa) i sitt naturlige
miljø Português: Um javali da
espécie Sus scrofa, ancestral selvagem
do porco doméstico. Русский:
Кабан (Sus scrofa),
валяющийся в грязи;
предок домашней
свиньи. Svenska: Ett vildsvin
(Sus scrofa) i sin naturliga
miljö. Date 2007-05-22 Source O
wn work Author Richard Bartz,
Munich Makro Freak CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Wild_Boar_Habbi
tat_3.jpg/1024px-Wild_Boar_Habbitat_3.jp
g
10,000 YBN
[8000 BC] 9 10 11 12 		1259) Clay tokens with different shapes
that represent products are used in
Mesopotamia.4 5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Fischer, "A History of Writing",
2001, p25.
2. ^ Nissen, et al, "Archaic
Bookkeeping", 1993, p11.
3. ^
Schmandt-Besserat, Denise. "Two
Precursors of Writing: Plain and
Complex Tokens", in The Origins of
Writing / edited by Wayne M. Senner.
1991: 27-41.
http://en.finaly.org/index.php/Two_pre
cursors_of_writing:_plain_and_complex_to
kens#n_1_a
4. ^ Fischer, "A History of Writing",
2001, p25.
5. ^ Nissen, et al, "Archaic
Bookkeeping", 1993, p11.
6. ^
Schmandt-Besserat, Denise. "Two
Precursors of Writing: Plain and
Complex Tokens", in The Origins of
Writing / edited by Wayne M. Senner.
1991: 27-41.
http://en.finaly.org/index.php/Two_pre
cursors_of_writing:_plain_and_complex_to
kens#n_1_a
7. ^ Fischer, "A History of Writing",
2001, p25.
8. ^ Nissen, et al, "Archaic
Bookkeeping", 1993, p11.
9. ^ Fischer, "A
History of Writing", 2001, p25.
10. ^
Nissen, et al, "Archaic Bookkeeping",
1993, p11.
11. ^
http://www.earth-history.com/Clay-tablet
s.htm
12. ^ Schmandt-Besserat, Denise. "Two
Precursors of Writing: Plain and
Complex Tokens", in The Origins of
Writing / edited by Wayne M. Senner.
1991: 27-41.
http://en.finaly.org/index.php/Two_pre
cursors_of_writing:_plain_and_complex_to
kens#n_1_a
eastern Iran, southern Turkey, Israel,
Sumer (modern Iraq)7 |Babylonia8
|Syria, Sumer and Highland Iran 
[1] Pre-literate counting and
accounting MS 5067/1-8 NEOLITHIC
PLAIN COUNTING TOKENS POSSIBLY
REPRESENTING 1 MEASURE OF GRAIN, 1
ANIMAL AND 1 MAN OR 1 DAY'S LABOUR,
RESPECTIVELY ms5067/1-8Counting tokens
in clay, Syria/Sumer/Highland Iran, ca.
8000-3500 BC, 3 spheres: diam. 1,6, 1,7
and 1,9 cm , (D.S.-B 2:1); 3 discs:
diam. 1,0x0,4 cm, 1,1x0,4 cm and
1,0x0,5 cm (D.S.-B 3:1); 2
tetrahedrons: sides 1,4 cm and 1,7 cm
(D.S.-B 5:1). Exhibited: The
Norwegian Intitute of Palaeography and
Historical Philology (PHI), Oslo,
13.10.2003- COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.earth-history.com/_im
ages/ms5067.jpg

[2] MS 4631 BULLA-ENVELOPE WITH 11
PLAIN AND COMPLEX TOKENS INSIDE,
REPRESENTING AN ACCOUNT OR AGREEMENT,
TENTATIVELY OF WAGES FOR 4 DAYS' WORK,
4 MEASURES OF METAL, 1 LARGE MEASURE OF
BARLEY AND 2 SMALL MEASURES OF SOME
OTHER COMMODITY ms4631Bulla in clay,
Syria/Sumer/Highland Iran, ca.
3700-3200 BC, 1 spherical
bulla-envelope (complete), diam. ca.
6,5 cm, cylinder seal impressions of a
row of men walking left; and of a
predator attacking a deer, inside a
complete set of plain and complex
tokens: 4 tetrahedrons 0,9x1,0 cm
(D.S.-B.5:1), 4 triangles with 2
incised lines 2,0x0,9 (D.S.-B.(:14), 1
sphere diam. 1,7 cm (D.S.-B.2:2), 1
cylinder with 1 grove 2,0x0,3 cm
(D.S.-B.4:13), 1 bent paraboloid
1,3xdiam. 0,5 cm
(D.S.-B.8:14). Context: MSS 4631-4646
and 5114-5127are from the same archive.
Total number of bulla-envelopes
worldwide is ca. 165 intact and 70
fragmentary. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.earth-history.com/_im
ages/ms4631.jpg
10,000 YBN
[8000 BC] 6 7 		6316) Cows are raised for milk, for
meat and eventually for plowing.3 4
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ Zeder MA. 2008. Domestication and
early agriculture in the Mediterranean
Basin: Origins, diffusion, and impact.
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences
105(33):11597-11604. http://www.pnas.or
g/content/105/33/11597
2. ^
http://archaeology.about.com/od/domestic
ations/qt/cattle.htm
3. ^ Zeder MA. 2008. Domestication and
early agriculture in the Mediterranean
Basin: Origins, diffusion, and impact.
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences
105(33):11597-11604. http://www.pnas.or
g/content/105/33/11597
4. ^
http://archaeology.about.com/od/domestic
ations/qt/cattle.htm
5. ^ Zeder MA. 2008. Domestication and
early agriculture in the Mediterranean
Basin: Origins, diffusion, and impact.
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences
105(33):11597-11604. http://www.pnas.or
g/content/105/33/11597
6. ^ Zeder MA. 2008. Domestication and
early agriculture in the Mediterranean
Basin: Origins, diffusion, and impact.
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences
105(33):11597-11604. http://www.pnas.or
g/content/105/33/11597
7. ^
http://archaeology.about.com/od/domestic
ations/qt/cattle.htm
upper Euphrates Valley5  
[1] Description Deutsch: Heckrinder
in den Niederlanden. English: An Heck
cattle group, in Oostvaardersplassen, a
nature reserve in the province of
Flevoland in the
Netherlands. Français : Aurochs de
Heck Nederlands: Heckrunderen in de
Oostvaardersplassen, een natuurgebied
in de provincie Flevoland,
Nederland. Date 16 septembre
2004 Source Travail personnel Auteur
GerardM GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Heckrund1.JPG/1
280px-Heckrund1.JPG

[2] Wild Cattle in Britain The
Chillingham Herd Chillingham
cattle (picture from
Whitepark.org.uk) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.vegaresearch.org/imag
es/Chillingham1.jpg
9,800 YBN
[7800 BC] 7 8 9 		607) The earliest flint sickle.3 4

A sickle is used for cutting grain.5
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ Lev-Yadun, Simcha, Avi Gopher, and
Shahal Abbo. The Cradle of
Agriculture. Science 288.5471 (2000):
16021603.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/288/5471/1602.summary
3. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
4. ^ Lev-Yadun, Simcha, Avi Gopher, and
Shahal Abbo. The Cradle of
Agriculture. Science 288.5471 (2000):
16021603.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/288/5471/1602.summary
5. ^ "sickle." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 24 May.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sickle
6. ^ Unger-Hamilton, Romana (July
1985). "Microscopic Striations on Flint
Sickle-Blades as an Indication of Plant
Cultivation: Preliminary Results".
World Archaeology 17 (1): 121-6.
doi:10.1080/00438243.1985.9979955. http
://dx.doi.org/10.1080%2F00438243.1985.99
79955
7. ^ Lev-Yadun, Simcha, Avi Gopher, and
Shahal Abbo. The Cradle of
Agriculture. Science 288.5471 (2000):
16021603.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/288/5471/1602.summary
8. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
9. ^ Unger-Hamilton, Romana (July
1985). "Microscopic Striations on Flint
Sickle-Blades as an Indication of Plant
Cultivation: Preliminary Results".
World Archaeology 17 (1): 121-6.
doi:10.1080/00438243.1985.9979955. http
://dx.doi.org/10.1080%2F00438243.1985.99
79955 http://www.jstor.org/stable/12468
0

MORE INFO
[1] Banning, E.B. (1998). "The
Neolithic Period: Triumphs of
Architecture, Agriculture, and Art".
Near Eastern Archaeology 61 (4):
188–237. doi:10.2307/3210656. JSTOR
3210656. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307%2F32
10656 AND
http://www.jstor.org/stable/3210656
Tell Aswad (modern Syria)|Palestine6
 
[1] [t NOTE not- earliest sickle] [1]
Faucille néolithique danoise en silex
1/Danish Neolithic flint
sickle flint 105 UNKNOWN
source: http://idata.over-blog.com/4/25/
41/68/danois/flint-130.jpg

[2] [t NOTE not- earliest sickle]
Ancient Stone Age Neolithic Flint
Sickle Denmark UNKNOWN
source: http://www.artancient.com/ebay/2
50310/020412JSA010.jpg
9,500 YBN
[7500 BC] 8 9 10 11 		612) Wheat is grown in modern Syria.4
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^ Lev-Yadun, Simcha, Avi Gopher,
and Shahal Abbo. "The Cradle of
Agriculture." Science 288.5471 (2000):
1602�1603.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/288/5471/1602.full
2. ^ Lev-Yadun, Simcha, Avi Gopher, and
Shahal Abbo. "The Cradle of
Agriculture." Science 288.5471 (2000):
1602�1603.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/288/5471/1602.full
3. ^ Lev-Yadun, Simcha, Avi Gopher, and
Shahal Abbo. "The Cradle of
Agriculture." Science 288.5471 (2000):
1602�1603.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/288/5471/1602.full
4. ^ Lev-Yadun, Simcha, Avi Gopher, and
Shahal Abbo. "The Cradle of
Agriculture." Science 288.5471 (2000):
1602�1603.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/288/5471/1602.full
5. ^ Lev-Yadun, Simcha, Avi Gopher, and
Shahal Abbo. "The Cradle of
Agriculture." Science 288.5471 (2000):
1602�1603.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/288/5471/1602.full
6. ^ Tanno, Ken-ichi, and George
Willcox. "How Fast Was Wild Wheat
Domesticated?"� Science 311.5769
(2006) : 1886.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/311/5769/1886.short
7. ^ Which came first, monumental
building projects or farming?". Archaeo
News. 2008-12-14.
8. ^ Lev-Yadun, Simcha, Avi
Gopher, and Shahal Abbo. "The Cradle of
Agriculture." Science 288.5471 (2000):
1602�1603.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/288/5471/1602.full
9. ^ Tanno, Ken-ichi, and George
Willcox. "How Fast Was Wild Wheat
Domesticated?" Science 311.5769 (2006)
: 1886.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/311/5769/1886.short {9300 YBN}
10. ^ Which
came first, monumental building
projects or farming?". Archaeo News.
2008-12-14.
11. ^ "First farmers discovered". BBC
News.
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nat
ure/489449.stm

MORE INFO
[1] Diamond, Jared. "Evolution,
Consequences and Future of Plant and
Animal Domestication." Nature 418.6898
(2002):
700�707. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v418/n6898/full/nature01019.htm
l
[2] Moore, Andrew Michael Tangye,
Gordon C. Hillman, and Anthony J.
Legge. Village on the Euphrates: from
foraging to farming at Abu Hureyra.
Oxford: Oxford University Press xvii,
2000, p.
528. http://www.amazon.com/Village-Euph
rates-Foraging-Farming-Hureyra/dp/019510
8078
[3] Ozkan, H; Brandolini, A;
Sch�fer-Pregl, R; Salamini, F
(October 2002). "AFLP analysis of a
collection of tetraploid wheats
indicates the origin of emmer and hard
wheat domestication in southeast
Turkey". Molecular Biology and
Evolution 19 (10): 1797�801. PMID
12270906
[4] Zohary, Daniel; Maria Hopf (2000).
Domestication of Plants in the Old
World: The Origin and Spread of
Cultivated Plants in West Asia, Europe,
and the Nile Valley (3rd ed.). Oxford
University Press. pp. 67. ISBN
0-19-850357-1. http://books.google.com/
?id=C1H6_XWJS_gC&pg=PA67
Tell Abu Hureyra, Syria5 |southeastern
Turkey and northern Syria6 (Nevali
Cori, Turkey7 ) 
[1] Description Česky:
Pšenice. Deutsch: Weizen. English:
Wheat. Español: Trigo. Français :
Blé. Magyar: Búza. Tiếng Việt:
Lúa mì. Date August
2005 Source Own work Author
User:Bluemoose GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Wheat_close-up.
JPG/800px-Wheat_close-up.JPG

[2] Nevali Cori, Turkey from Google
Maps UNKNOWN
source: https://maps.google.com/maps?ll=
37.518333,38.605556&spn=0.01,0.01&t=m&q=
37.518333,38.605556 http://localhost/ul
sf/images/Nevali_Cori_Turkey.jpg
9,500 YBN
[7500 BC] 6 7 8 9 		613) Common millet is grown in China.3
4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Lu, H; Zhang, J; Liu, KB; Wu, N;
Li, Y; Zhou, K; Ye, M; Zhang, T et al.
(2009). "Earliest domestication of
common millet (Panicum miliaceum) in
East Asia extended to 10,000 years
ago". Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences of the United
States of America 106 (18): 7367–72.
doi:10.1073/pnas.0900158106. PMC
2678631. PMID
19383791. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/p
mc/articles/PMC2678631/
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
3. ^ Lu, H; Zhang, J; Liu, KB; Wu, N;
Li, Y; Zhou, K; Ye, M; Zhang, T et al.
(2009). "Earliest domestication of
common millet (Panicum miliaceum) in
East Asia extended to 10,000 years
ago". Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences of the United
States of America 106 (18): 7367–72.
doi:10.1073/pnas.0900158106. PMC
2678631. PMID
19383791. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/p
mc/articles/PMC2678631/
4. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
5. ^ Lu, H; Zhang, J; Liu, KB; Wu, N;
Li, Y; Zhou, K; Ye, M; Zhang, T et al.
(2009). "Earliest domestication of
common millet (Panicum miliaceum) in
East Asia extended to 10,000 years
ago". Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences of the United
States of America 106 (18): 7367–72.
doi:10.1073/pnas.0900158106. PMC
2678631. PMID
19383791. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/p
mc/articles/PMC2678631/
6. ^ Lu, H; Zhang, J; Liu, KB; Wu, N;
Li, Y; Zhou, K; Ye, M; Zhang, T et al.
(2009). "Earliest domestication of
common millet (Panicum miliaceum) in
East Asia extended to 10,000 years
ago". Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences of the United
States of America 106 (18): 7367–72.
doi:10.1073/pnas.0900158106. PMC
2678631. PMID
19383791. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/p
mc/articles/PMC2678631/
7. ^ Chang, P.K.C. et al. The Formation
of Chinese Civilization: An
Archaeological Perspective. Yale
University Press, 2005. The Culture and
Civilization of China Series.
p206. http://books.google.com/books?id=
sP-PN2StH2cC
8. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
9. ^ Zohary, Daniel; Maria Hopf (2000).
Domestication of Plants in the Old
World: The Origin and Spread of
Cultivated Plants in West Asia, Europe,
and the Nile Valley (3rd ed.). Oxford
University Press. pp. 83-88. ISBN
0-19-850357-1. http://books.google.com/
?id=C1H6_XWJS_gC {Zohary_Hopf_Domestica
tion_of_Plants_in_the_Old_World_2000.pdf
}
Cishan, North China5  
[1] Description English: Panicum
miliaceum Date 2008-5-4 Source Own
work Author Dalgial CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Panicum_miliace
um_2.JPG/768px-Panicum_miliaceum_2.JPG

[2] Name Panicum
miliaceum Family Poaceae
Bildbeschreibung: noch grüne
Rispenhirse Quelle: selbst
erstellt Fotograf:
User:MarkusHagenlocher Datum: 21.
Juli GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/51/Rispenhirse_gr%C3%BCn
.jpg
9,500 YBN
[7500 BC] 4 5 		6185) Barley is grown in modern Syria.2

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Zohary, Daniel; Maria Hopf
(2000). Domestication of Plants in the
Old World: The Origin and Spread of
Cultivated Plants in West Asia, Europe,
and the Nile Valley (3rd ed.). Oxford
University Press. pp. 59-69. ISBN
0-19-850357-1. http://books.google.com/
?id=C1H6_XWJS_gC&pg=PA59
{Zohary_Hopf_Domestication_of_Plants_i
n_the_Old_World_2000.pdf}
2. ^ Zohary, Daniel; Maria Hopf (2000).
Domestication of Plants in the Old
World: The Origin and Spread of
Cultivated Plants in West Asia, Europe,
and the Nile Valley (3rd ed.). Oxford
University Press. pp. 59–69. ISBN
0-19-850357-1. http://books.google.com/
?id=C1H6_XWJS_gC&pg=PA59
{Zohary_Hopf_Domestication_of_Plants_i
n_the_Old_World_2000.pdf}
3. ^ Zohary, Daniel; Maria Hopf (2000).
Domestication of Plants in the Old
World: The Origin and Spread of
Cultivated Plants in West Asia, Europe,
and the Nile Valley (3rd ed.). Oxford
University Press. pp. 67. ISBN
0-19-850357-1. http://books.google.com/
?id=C1H6_XWJS_gC&pg=PA67
{Zohary_Hopf_Domestication_of_Plants_i
n_the_Old_World_2000.pdf}
4. ^ Zohary, Daniel; Maria Hopf (2000).
Domestication of Plants in the Old
World: The Origin and Spread of
Cultivated Plants in West Asia, Europe,
and the Nile Valley (3rd ed.). Oxford
University Press. pp. 67. ISBN
0-19-850357-1. http://books.google.com/
?id=C1H6_XWJS_gC&pg=PA67
{Zohary_Hopf_Domestication_of_Plants_i
n_the_Old_World_2000.pdf}
5. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
Tell Abu Hureyra, Syria3  
[1] Hordeum-barley -
http://www.ars.usda.gov/is/graphics/ph
otos/k5141-4.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/55/Hordeum-barley.jpg

[2] Tell Abu Hureyra, Syria in Google
Maps UNKNOWN
source: https://maps.google.com/maps?ll=
35.866,38.4&spn=0.01,0.01&t=m&q=35.866,3
8.4
9,240 YBN
[7240 BC] 6 7 		1478) The earliest domesticated plants
in America. Squash is grown in Peru.4
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^ Tom D. Dillehay, Jack Rossen,
Thomas C. Andres, and David E.
Williams, "Preceramic Adoption of
Peanut, Squash, and Cotton in Northern
Peru", Science 29 June 2007: 316
(5833),
1890-1893. http://www.sciencemag.org/co
ntent/316/5833/1890.abstract
2. ^ Tom D. Dillehay, Jack Rossen,
Thomas C. Andres, and David E.
Williams, "Preceramic Adoption of
Peanut, Squash, and Cotton in Northern
Peru", Science 29 June 2007: 316
(5833),
1890-1893. http://www.sciencemag.org/co
ntent/316/5833/1890.abstract
3. ^ Tom D. Dillehay, Jack Rossen,
Thomas C. Andres, and David E.
Williams, "Preceramic Adoption of
Peanut, Squash, and Cotton in Northern
Peru", Science 29 June 2007: 316
(5833),
1890-1893. http://www.sciencemag.org/co
ntent/316/5833/1890.abstract
4. ^ Tom D. Dillehay, Jack Rossen,
Thomas C. Andres, and David E.
Williams, "Preceramic Adoption of
Peanut, Squash, and Cotton in Northern
Peru", Science 29 June 2007: 316
(5833),
1890-1893. http://www.sciencemag.org/co
ntent/316/5833/1890.abstract
5. ^ Tom D. Dillehay, Jack Rossen,
Thomas C. Andres, and David E.
Williams, "Preceramic Adoption of
Peanut, Squash, and Cotton in Northern
Peru", Science 29 June 2007: 316
(5833),
1890-1893. http://www.sciencemag.org/co
ntent/316/5833/1890.abstract
6. ^ Tom D. Dillehay, Jack Rossen,
Thomas C. Andres, and David E.
Williams, "Preceramic Adoption of
Peanut, Squash, and Cotton in Northern
Peru", Science 29 June 2007: 316
(5833),
1890-1893. http://www.sciencemag.org/co
ntent/316/5833/1890.abstract {9240}
7. ^
http://www.nytimes.com/2007/06/28/scienc
e/28cnd-squash.html?_r=1&adxnnl=1&oref=s
login&adxnnlx=1183057296-Up92joKUeK1fZr+
Wt4cXsQ (10000ybn)
Paiján, Peru5  
[1] Fig. 3. Close-up of two dark
brown squash seed (C. moschata)
fragments recovered from a buried house
floor at CA-09-27. from: Tom D.
Dillehay, Jack Rossen, Thomas C.
Andres, and David E. Williams,
''Preceramic Adoption of Peanut,
Squash, and Cotton in Northern Peru'',
Science 29 June 2007: 316 (5833),
1890-1893. http://www.sciencemag.org/co
ntent/316/5833/1890.abstract COPYRIGHTE
D
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/316/5833/1890/F3.large.jpg
9,000 YBN
[7000 BC] 5 		1288) Mehrgarh {mARGoR}, an Indus
Valley city is founded.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Brian M. Fagan, "The Oxford
Companion to Archaeology", Oxford
University Press, (Print) 1996,
9780195076189, (electronic) 2012
2. ^
http://archaeology.about.com/od/mterms/g
/mehrgarh.htm
3. ^ Brian M. Fagan, "The Oxford
Companion to Archaeology", Oxford
University Press, (Print) 1996,
9780195076189, (electronic) 2012
4. ^
http://archaeology.about.com/od/mterms/g
/mehrgarh.htm
5. ^ Brian M. Fagan, "The Oxford
Companion to Archaeology", Oxford
University Press, (Print) 1996,
9780195076189, (electronic) 2012

MORE INFO
[1] "Indus Valley Civilization".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valle
y_Civilization
Kachi plain of Baluchistan, Pakistan3 4
 
[1] Early farming village in Mehrgarh,
c. 7000 BCE, with houses built with mud
bricks. (Musée Guimet, Paris). The
image was downloaded from the website
of the Indus and Mehrgarh
archaeological mission, Musée Guimet,
by Fowler&fowler«Talk» 22:56, 6 March
2007 (UTC) COPYRIGHTED FAIRUSE
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Neolithic_mehrgarh.jpg

[2] A relief map of Pakistan showing
Mehrgarh This is an annotated version
of a relief map of Pakistan in the
public domain([1]). The map was
annotated by Fowler&fowler«Talk»
08:07, 7 March 2007 (UTC) and
rereleased to the public domain. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Mehrgarh_pakistan_rel96.JPG
8,800 YBN
[6800 BC] 3 		6511) Lentils are grown in Israel.1
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ Zohary, Daniel; Maria Hopf
(2000). Domestication of Plants in the
Old World: The Origin and Spread of
Cultivated Plants in West Asia, Europe,
and the Nile Valley (3rd ed.). Oxford
University Press. pp. 98-99. ISBN
0-19-850357-1. http://books.google.com/
?id=C1H6_XWJS_gC {Zohary_Hopf_Domestica
tion_of_Plants_in_the_Old_World_2000.pdf
}
2. ^ Zohary, Daniel; Maria Hopf (2000).
Domestication of Plants in the Old
World: The Origin and Spread of
Cultivated Plants in West Asia, Europe,
and the Nile Valley (3rd ed.). Oxford
University Press. pp. 98-99. ISBN
0-19-850357-1. http://books.google.com/
?id=C1H6_XWJS_gC {Zohary_Hopf_Domestica
tion_of_Plants_in_the_Old_World_2000.pdf
}
3. ^ Zohary, Daniel; Maria Hopf (2000).
Domestication of Plants in the Old
World: The Origin and Spread of
Cultivated Plants in West Asia, Europe,
and the Nile Valley (3rd ed.). Oxford
University Press. pp. 98-99. ISBN
0-19-850357-1. http://books.google.com/
?id=C1H6_XWJS_gC {Zohary_Hopf_Domestica
tion_of_Plants_in_the_Old_World_2000.pdf
}
Yifta'el, North Israel2  
[1] Name Lens
culinaris Family
Fabaceae Original book source: Prof.
Dr. Otto Wilhelm Thomé Flora von
Deutschland, Österreich und der
Schweiz 1885, Gera,
Germany Permission granted to use
under GFDL by Kurt Stueber Source:
www.biolib.de PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/da/Illustration_Lens_cul
inaris0.jpg

[2] Description English: Lentil
plants 75 days after emergence,
Castelltallat, Catalonia Català:
Plantes de llentilla 75 dies després
de l'emergència Date
14/05/2011 Source Own work Author
Victor M. Vicente Selvas PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Llenties_maig.J
PG/1280px-Llenties_maig.JPG
8,500 YBN
[6500 BC] 3 		6512) Peas are grown in Turkey.1
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ Zohary, Daniel; Maria Hopf
(2000). Domestication of Plants in the
Old World: The Origin and Spread of
Cultivated Plants in West Asia, Europe,
and the Nile Valley (3rd ed.). Oxford
University Press. pp. 101-108. ISBN
0-19-850357-1. http://books.google.com/
?id=C1H6_XWJS_gC {Zohary_Hopf_Domestica
tion_of_Plants_in_the_Old_World_2000.pdf
}
2. ^ Zohary, Daniel; Maria Hopf (2000).
Domestication of Plants in the Old
World: The Origin and Spread of
Cultivated Plants in West Asia, Europe,
and the Nile Valley (3rd ed.). Oxford
University Press. pp. 101-108. ISBN
0-19-850357-1. http://books.google.com/
?id=C1H6_XWJS_gC {Zohary_Hopf_Domestica
tion_of_Plants_in_the_Old_World_2000.pdf
}
3. ^ Zohary, Daniel; Maria Hopf (2000).
Domestication of Plants in the Old
World: The Origin and Spread of
Cultivated Plants in West Asia, Europe,
and the Nile Valley (3rd ed.). Oxford
University Press. pp. 101-108. ISBN
0-19-850357-1. http://books.google.com/
?id=C1H6_XWJS_gC {Zohary_Hopf_Domestica
tion_of_Plants_in_the_Old_World_2000.pdf
}
Çayönü, Turkey2  
[1] Pea plant: Pisum sativum Picture
taken by myself: (nl:Doperwt rijserwt
peulen)Pisum sativum pods; GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/bc/Doperwt_rijserwt_peul
en_Pisum_sativum.jpg

[2] Description English: Studio
photo of peas in their pods. Date 7
July 2011 Source Own work Author
Bill Ebbesen CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Peas_in_pods_-_
Studio.jpg/1186px-Peas_in_pods_-_Studio.
jpg
8,000 YBN
[6000 BC] 4 5 		605) The oldest known boat, a dug-out
boat.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
3. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
4. ^ "Oudste bootje ter wereld kon
werkelijk varen". Leeuwarder Courant.
ANP. 12 April
2001. http://www.archeoforum.nl/Pesse10
.html
5. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
Netherlands3  
[1] De boot van Pesse (Drenthe).
C14-dateringen geven aan dat dit object
uit het mesolithicum dateert (ca. 8600
voor Chr.). De lengte bedraagt iets
minder dan 3 meter. foto: Drents
Museum grotere afbeelding UNKNOWN
source: http://www.archeoforum.nl/images
/webboot.jpg

[2] Afb. 1 Mark Jan Dielemans
probeert een kopie van de kano van
Pesse uit in een ven bij
recreatiecentrum Witterzomer in
Assen foto: GPD grotere
afbeeldin UNKNOWN
source: http://www.archeoforum.nl/images
/Pesse10afb1.jpg
8,000 YBN
[6000 BC] 5 		6220) The earliest drum.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "drum." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 12
Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/172045/drum>.
2. ^ "drum." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 12
Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/172045/drum>.
3. ^ "drum." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 12
Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/172045/drum>.
4. ^ "drum." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 12
Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/172045/drum>.
5. ^ "drum." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 12
Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/172045/drum>. {6000 BC}
Moravia, Czeck Republic4  
[1] Curt Sachs, ''The History of
Musical Instruments'', 1940, p81. PD
source: Curt Sachs, "The History of
Musical Instruments", 1940, p81.
7,700 YBN
[5700 BC] 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 		719) Rice is grown in China.4
FOOTNOTES

1. ^ Normile, Dennis. “Archaeology:
Yangtze Seen as Earliest Rice Site.”
Science 275.5298 (1997) : 309.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/275/5298/309.full
{Normile_Earliest_Rice_1997.pdf}
2. ^ Normile, Dennis. “Archaeology:
Yangtze Seen as Earliest Rice Site.”
Science 275.5298 (1997) : 309.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/275/5298/309.full
{Normile_Earliest_Rice_1997.pdf}
3. ^ Normile, Dennis. “Archaeology:
Yangtze Seen as Earliest Rice Site.”
Science 275.5298 (1997) : 309.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/275/5298/309.full
{Normile_Earliest_Rice_1997.pdf}
4. ^ Normile, Dennis. “Archaeology:
Yangtze Seen as Earliest Rice Site.”
Science 275.5298 (1997) : 309.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/275/5298/309.full
{Normile_Earliest_Rice_1997.pdf}
5. ^ Fuller, Dorian Q et al. “The
Domestication Process and Domestication
Rate in Rice: Spikelet Bases from the
Lower Yangtze.” Science 323.5921
(2009):
1607–1610. http://www.sciencemag.org/
content/323/5921/1607.short {Fuller_Dom
estication_Rice_2009.pdf}
6. ^ Y. Zheng, G. Sun, X. Chen, Chin.
Sci. Bull. 52, 1654 (2007).
7. ^ Normile,
Dennis. “Archaeology: Yangtze Seen as
Earliest Rice Site.” Science 275.5298
(1997) : 309.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/275/5298/309.full
{Normile_Earliest_Rice_1997.pdf}
8. ^ Fuller, Dorian Q et al. “The
Domestication Process and Domestication
Rate in Rice: Spikelet Bases from the
Lower Yangtze.” Science 323.5921
(2009):
1607–1610. http://www.sciencemag.org/
content/323/5921/1607.short {Fuller_Dom
estication_Rice_2009.pdf}
9. ^ Y. Zheng, G. Sun, X. Chen, Chin.
Sci. Bull. 52, 1654 (2007).
10. ^ Domestication
and the origins of agriculture: an
appraisal Progress in Physical
Geography 1 March 1999: 37-56.
http://ppg.sagepub.com/content/23/1/37
.short {Mannion_Agriculture_1999.pdf}
11. ^ Normile, Dennis. “Archaeology:
Yangtze Seen as Earliest Rice Site.”
Science 275.5298 (1997) : 309.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/275/5298/309.full {11500}
{Normile_Earliest_Rice_1997.pdf}
12. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000). {3500 YBN}
13. ^ Zohary, Daniel;
Maria Hopf (2000). Domestication of
Plants in the Old World: The Origin and
Spread of Cultivated Plants in West
Asia, Europe, and the Nile Valley (3rd
ed.). Oxford University Press. pp. 91.
ISBN
0-19-850357-1. http://books.google.com/
?id=C1H6_XWJS_gC&pg=PA91
{Zohary_Hopf_Domestication_of_Plants_i
n_the_Old_World_2000.pdf}
14. ^ Zohary, D., M. Hopf, and E.
Weiss. Domestication of Plants in the
Old World: The Origin and Spread of
Domesticated Plants in Southwest Asia,
Europe, and the Mediterranean Basin.
OUP Oxford, 2012,
p74. http://books.google.com/books?id=t
c6vr0qzk_4C
Kuahuqiao, Hangzhou Bay, Zhejiang
Province5 6 |Yangtze (in Hubei and
Hunan provinces), China7  
[1] Description English: Paddy in
West Bengal, India Date 18 October
2009 Source Own
work Author Amartyabag CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Paddy_West_Beng
al.jpg/1280px-Paddy_West_Bengal.jpg

[2] Description: Cambodia, Kratie: A
worker is removing the rice
seedlings. Capture date: August
2002 Photographer: Oliver Spalt
Published under CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/07/Rice_02.jpg
7,100 YBN
[5100 BC] 6 7 		720) Corn is grown in Mexico.3
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^ Pope, Kevin O. et al. �Origin
and Environmental Setting of Ancient
Agriculture in the Lowlands of
Mesoamerica.� Science 292.5520
(2001): 1370�1373.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/292/5520/1370.abstract
2. ^ Pope, Kevin O. et al. �Origin
and Environmental Setting of Ancient
Agriculture in the Lowlands of
Mesoamerica.� Science 292.5520
(2001): 1370�1373.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/292/5520/1370.abstract
3. ^ Pope, Kevin O. et al. �Origin
and Environmental Setting of Ancient
Agriculture in the Lowlands of
Mesoamerica.� Science 292.5520
(2001): 1370�1373.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/292/5520/1370.abstract
4. ^ Pope, Kevin O. et al. �Origin
and Environmental Setting of Ancient
Agriculture in the Lowlands of
Mesoamerica.� Science 292.5520
(2001): 1370�1373.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/292/5520/1370.abstract
5. ^ Piperno, D. R., and K. V.
Flannery. “The earliest
archaeological maize (Zea mays L.) from
highland Mexico: New accelerator mass
spectrometry dates and their
implications.” Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences 98.4
(2001) : 2101 -2103.
Print. http://www.pnas.org/content/98/4
/2101.short
6. ^ Pope, Kevin O. et al. �Origin
and Environmental Setting of Ancient
Agriculture in the Lowlands of
Mesoamerica.� Science 292.5520
(2001): 1370�1373.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/292/5520/1370.abstract
7. ^ Piperno, D. R., and K. V.
Flannery. “The earliest
archaeological maize (Zea mays L.) from
highland Mexico: New accelerator mass
spectrometry dates and their
implications.” Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences 98.4
(2001) : 2101 -2103.
Print. http://www.pnas.org/content/98/4
/2101.short {6250}

MORE INFO
[1] Trevor I. Williams, "A
history of invention : from stone axes
to silicon chips ", (New York:
Checkmark Books, 2000)
San Andrés, Mexico4 |(Oaxaca, Mexico5
) 
[1] Description Deutsch:
Maispflanzen (Zea mays) English: Maize
(Zea mays) plant with ears, the baby
corn growing level தமிழ்:
இளங்கதிர்கள்,
நன்கு
வளர்நிலையில்
இருக்கிறது. Date
2004 Source Own work Author
burgkirsch CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/32/Maispflanze.jpg
7,000 YBN
[5000 BC] 7 8 9 10 		627) The first metal to be smelted and
casted (copper).4 Smelting is
separating a metal from its ore by
using heat and a reducing or oxidizing
material.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Miljana Radivojević, Thilo
Rehren, Ernst Pernicka, Dušan
Šljivar, Michael Brauns, Dušan
Borić, On the origins of extractive
metallurgy: new evidence from Europe,
Journal of Archaeological Science,
Volume 37, Issue 11, November 2010,
Pages 2775-2787, ISSN 0305-4403,
10.1016/j.jas.2010.06.012. (http://www.
sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0
305440310001986)
2. ^ Miljana Radivojević, Thilo
Rehren, Ernst Pernicka, Dušan
Šljivar, Michael Brauns, Dušan
Borić, On the origins of extractive
metallurgy: new evidence from Europe,
Journal of Archaeological Science,
Volume 37, Issue 11, November 2010,
Pages 2775-2787, ISSN 0305-4403,
10.1016/j.jas.2010.06.012. (http://www.
sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0
305440310001986)
3. ^ Miljana Radivojević, Thilo
Rehren, Ernst Pernicka, Dušan
Šljivar, Michael Brauns, Dušan
Borić, On the origins of extractive
metallurgy: new evidence from Europe,
Journal of Archaeological Science,
Volume 37, Issue 11, November 2010,
Pages 2775-2787, ISSN 0305-4403,
10.1016/j.jas.2010.06.012. (http://www.
sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0
305440310001986)
4. ^ Miljana Radivojević, Thilo
Rehren, Ernst Pernicka, Dušan
Šljivar, Michael Brauns, Dušan
Borić, On the origins of extractive
metallurgy: new evidence from Europe,
Journal of Archaeological Science,
Volume 37, Issue 11, November 2010,
Pages 2775-2787, ISSN 0305-4403,
10.1016/j.jas.2010.06.012. (http://www.
sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0
305440310001986)
5. ^ "smelt." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 19 Feb.
2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/smelting
6. ^ Miljana Radivojević, Thilo
Rehren, Ernst Pernicka, Dušan
Šljivar, Michael Brauns, Dušan
Borić, On the origins of extractive
metallurgy: new evidence from Europe,
Journal of Archaeological Science,
Volume 37, Issue 11, November 2010,
Pages 2775-2787, ISSN 0305-4403,
10.1016/j.jas.2010.06.012. (http://www.
sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0
305440310001986)
7. ^ Miljana Radivojević, Thilo
Rehren, Ernst Pernicka, Dušan
Šljivar, Michael Brauns, Dušan
Borić, On the origins of extractive
metallurgy: new evidence from Europe,
Journal of Archaeological Science,
Volume 37, Issue 11, November 2010,
Pages 2775-2787, ISSN 0305-4403,
10.1016/j.jas.2010.06.012. (http://www.
sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0
305440310001986) {c7000 YBN}
8. ^ P.t.,
Craddock. “From hearth to furnace :
evidences for the earliest metal
smelting technologies in the Eastern
Mediterranean.” Paléorient (2000) :
151-165.
Print. http://www.persee.fr/web/revues/
home/prescript/article/paleo_0153-9345_2
000_num_26_2_4716 {8000BCE}
{article_paleo_0153-9345_2000_num_26_2
_4716.pdf} {5500BCE}
9. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A
history of invention : from stone axes
to silicon chips ", (New York:
Checkmark Books, 2000). (3500 BCE)
(=3500bce)
10. ^ "Copper (5000 BCE)". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copper
(5000 BCE) (=5000bce) {5000BCE}

MORE INFO
[1] Metals and Metallurgy in the
Chalcolithic Period Noël H.
Gale Bulletin of the American Schools
of Oriental Research No. 282/283,
Symposium: Chalcolithic Cyprus (May -
Aug., 1991), pp. 37-61 Published by:
The American Schools of Oriental
Research Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/1357261
Belovode, Eastern Serbia6  
[1] Copper slag from Belovode (sample
No. 21). Figure 3 from: Miljana
Radivojević, Thilo Rehren, Ernst
Pernicka, Dušan Šljivar, Michael
Brauns, Dušan Borić, On the origins
of extractive metallurgy: new evidence
from Europe, Journal of Archaeological
Science, Volume 37, Issue 11, November
2010, Pages 2775-2787, ISSN 0305-4403,
10.1016/j.jas.2010.06.012. (http://www.
sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0
305440310001986) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence/article/pii/S0305440310001986

[2] Byzantine Roman
Collection tanged arrowhead Inventory
#: 308-316 Type:
Arrowhead Material: Iron Period:
Byzantine (Eastern Roman) 6th - 14th
Cent. A.D. Provenance: Balkan
Region Measurements: (lengths in cm,
left to right): 14.5, 17 cm UNKNOWN
source: http://www.worldmuseumofman.org/
img1000/308316b.jpg
7,000 YBN
[5000 BC] 4 5 		727) The earliest reed boats.1 2
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ Lawler, Andrew (June 7, 2002).
"Report of Oldest Boat Hints at Early
Trade Routes". Science (AAAS) 296
(5574): 1791–1792.
doi:10.1126/science.296.5574.1791. PMID
12052936.
http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/
summary/296/5574/1791
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/3076918

2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
3. ^ Lawler, Andrew (June 7, 2002).
"Report of Oldest Boat Hints at Early
Trade Routes". Science (AAAS) 296
(5574): 1791–1792.
doi:10.1126/science.296.5574.1791. PMID
12052936.
http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/
summary/296/5574/1791
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/3076918

4. ^ Lawler, Andrew (June 7, 2002).
"Report of Oldest Boat Hints at Early
Trade Routes". Science (AAAS) 296
(5574): 1791–1792.
doi:10.1126/science.296.5574.1791. PMID
12052936.
http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/
summary/296/5574/1791
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/3076918

5. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
Kuwait3  
[1] Bitumin remains from older Kuwaiti
boat show rope impressions. Lawler,
Andrew (June 7, 2002). ''Report of
Oldest Boat Hints at Early Trade
Routes''. Science (AAAS) 296 (5574):
1791–1792.
doi:10.1126/science.296.5574.1791. PMID
12052936.
http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/
summary/296/5574/1791
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/3076918
COPYRIGHTED
source: Lawler, Andrew (June 7, 2002).
"Report of Oldest Boat Hints at Early
Trade Routes". Science (AAAS) 296
(5574): 1791–1792.
doi:10.1126/science.296.5574.1791. PMID
12052936.
http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/
summary/296/5574/1791http://www.jstor.or
g/stable/3076918

[2] Description Totora reed fishing
boats on the beach at Huanchaco,
Peru Date 13 October 2006,
15:26 Source Totora reed fishing
boats on the beach at Huanchaco,
Peru Author Roy & Danielle CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Peruvian_fishin
g_boats.jpg/768px-Peruvian_fishing_boats
.jpg
6,900 YBN
[4900 BC] 7 8 9 		648) The sail boat.3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Connan, Jacques et al. “A
comparative geochemical study of
bituminous boat remains from H3,
As-Sabiyah (Kuwait), and RJ-2, Ra’s
al-Jinz (Oman).” Arabian Archaeology
and Epigraphy 16.1 (2005):
21-66. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/d
oi/10.1111/j.1600-0471.2005.00041.x/abst
ract {Connan_Norman_200505xx.pdf}
2. ^
http://archaeology.about.com/od/hterms/g
/h3sabiyah.htm
3. ^ Connan, Jacques et al. “A
comparative geochemical study of
bituminous boat remains from H3,
As-Sabiyah (Kuwait), and RJ-2, Ra’s
al-Jinz (Oman).” Arabian Archaeology
and Epigraphy 16.1 (2005):
21-66. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/d
oi/10.1111/j.1600-0471.2005.00041.x/abst
ract {Connan_Norman_200505xx.pdf}
4. ^
http://archaeology.about.com/od/hterms/g
/h3sabiyah.htm
5. ^ Connan, Jacques et al. “A
comparative geochemical study of
bituminous boat remains from H3,
As-Sabiyah (Kuwait), and RJ-2, Ra’s
al-Jinz (Oman).” Arabian Archaeology
and Epigraphy 16.1 (2005):
21-66. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/d
oi/10.1111/j.1600-0471.2005.00041.x/abst
ract {Connan_Norman_200505xx.pdf}
6. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p9.
7. ^
Connan, Jacques et al. “A comparative
geochemical study of bituminous boat
remains from H3, As-Sabiyah (Kuwait),
and RJ-2, Ra’s al-Jinz (Oman).”
Arabian Archaeology and Epigraphy 16.1
(2005):
21-66. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/d
oi/10.1111/j.1600-0471.2005.00041.x/abst
ract {Connan_Norman_200505xx.pdf}
{5300-4900 BC}
8. ^ Alexander Hellemans,
Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables of
Science", Second edition, Simon and
Schuster, 1991, p9. {5000-4001 BC}
9. ^
Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000). {3000 BC}
Mesopotamia5 6  
[1] Scale 1/20 model of a Bronze Age
reed boat, as proposed by Tom Vosmer,
Model of a Third Millennium BC Reed
Boat Image from: Connan, Jacques et
al. “A comparative geochemical study
of bituminous boat remains from H3,
As-Sabiyah (Kuwait), and RJ-2, Ra’s
al-Jinz (Oman).” Arabian Archaeology
and Epigraphy 16.1 (2005):
21-66. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/d
oi/10.1111/j.1600-0471.2005.00041.x/abst
ract {Connan_Norman_200505xx.pdf} COPY
RIGHTED
source: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/d
oi/10.1111/j.1600-0471.2005.00041.x/abst
ract
6,800 YBN
[4800 BC] 3 		6527) The first fruit trees, olives are
grown in Israel and Jordan.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Zohary, D., M. Hopf, and E.
Weiss. Domestication of Plants in the
Old World: The Origin and Spread of
Domesticated Plants in Southwest Asia,
Europe, and the Mediterranean Basin.
OUP Oxford, 2012,
p116-121. http://books.google.com/books
?id=tc6vr0qzk_4C
2. ^ Zohary, D., M. Hopf, and E. Weiss.
Domestication of Plants in the Old
World: The Origin and Spread of
Domesticated Plants in Southwest Asia,
Europe, and the Mediterranean Basin.
OUP Oxford, 2012,
p116-121. http://books.google.com/books
?id=tc6vr0qzk_4C
3. ^ Zohary, D., M. Hopf, and E. Weiss.
Domestication of Plants in the Old
World: The Origin and Spread of
Domesticated Plants in Southwest Asia,
Europe, and the Mediterranean Basin.
OUP Oxford, 2012,
p116-121. http://books.google.com/books
?id=tc6vr0qzk_4C
(Chalcolithic) Tuleilat Ghassul (north
of the Dead Sea)2  
[1] Description English: Olive trees
on Thasos Deutsch: Alte Olivenbäume
auf Thasos Date 9.7.2006 Source Own
work Author Petr Pakandl CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Olive_trees_on_
Thassos.JPG/1280px-Olive_trees_on_Thasso
s.JPG

[2] Description English: Unique
Ancient Olive Tree Date 30 January
2011 Source Own work Author Dennis
koutou CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Ancient_Olive_T
ree_in_Pelion%2C_Greece.jpg/768px-Ancien
t_Olive_Tree_in_Pelion%2C_Greece.jpg
6,500 YBN
[4500 BC] 5 6 		6437) The earliest settlement in
Europe, Provadia-Solnitsata {PrOVoDEYo
SOLnETSoTo?}, in Bulgaria is founded.1
2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Europe's oldest prehistoric town
unearthed in Bulgaria", BBC,
10/31/2012. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/w
orld-europe-20156681
2. ^ "Archaeologists find Europe's most
prehistoric town", The Telegraph,
12/31/2012. http://www.telegraph.co.uk/
news/worldnews/europe/bulgaria/9646541/B
ulgaria-archaeologists-find-Europes-most
-prehistoric-town-Provadia-Solnitsata.ht
ml
3. ^ "Europe's oldest prehistoric town
unearthed in Bulgaria", BBC,
10/31/2012. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/w
orld-europe-20156681
4. ^ "Archaeologists find Europe's most
prehistoric town", The Telegraph,
12/31/2012. http://www.telegraph.co.uk/
news/worldnews/europe/bulgaria/9646541/B
ulgaria-archaeologists-find-Europes-most
-prehistoric-town-Provadia-Solnitsata.ht
ml
5. ^ "Europe's oldest prehistoric town
unearthed in Bulgaria", BBC,
10/31/2012. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/w
orld-europe-20156681
6. ^ "Archaeologists find Europe's most
prehistoric town", The Telegraph,
12/31/2012. http://www.telegraph.co.uk/
news/worldnews/europe/bulgaria/9646541/B
ulgaria-archaeologists-find-Europes-most
-prehistoric-town-Provadia-Solnitsata.ht
ml

MORE INFO
[1] Vasil Nikolov, Kiril
Maslarov, "Ancient Settlements Near
Eleshnitsa", Sofia Press, 1987
(near) Provadia, Bulgaria3 4  
[1] The remains of the settlement made
of two-story houses near the town of
Provadia The prehistoric town at
Provadia features two-storey houses and
a defensive
wall (AFP/Getty) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://i.telegraph.co.uk/multime
dia/archive/02384/b2_2384873c.jpg

[2] The remains of a man with a
ceramic bowl Photo:
AFP/GETTY COPYRIGHTED
source: http://i.telegraph.co.uk/multime
dia/archive/02384/b1_2384879b.jpg
6,000 YBN
[4000 BC] 5 6 		665) Wine making.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Barnard, Hans et al. “Chemical
Evidence for Wine Production Around
4000 BCE in the Late Chalcolithic Near
Eastern Highlands.” Journal of
Archaeological Science 38.5 (2011):
977–984. http://www.sciencedirect.com
/science/article/pii/S0305440310004115
2. ^ Meg Sullivan, "Chemical analysis
confirms discovery of oldest
wine-making equipment ever found",
January 10,
2011. http://newsroom.ucla.edu/portal/u
cla/chemical-analysis-confirms-discovery
-188683.aspx
3. ^ Barnard, Hans et al. “Chemical
Evidence for Wine Production Around
4000 BCE in the Late Chalcolithic Near
Eastern Highlands.” Journal of
Archaeological Science 38.5 (2011):
977–984. http://www.sciencedirect.com
/science/article/pii/S0305440310004115
4. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
5. ^ Barnard, Hans et al. “Chemical
Evidence for Wine Production Around
4000 BCE in the Late Chalcolithic Near
Eastern Highlands.” Journal of
Archaeological Science 38.5 (2011):
977–984. http://www.sciencedirect.com
/science/article/pii/S0305440310004115
6. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
(Areni-1 cave complex in) southeastern
Armenia3 |Egypt4  
[1] Wine press The wine press (center)
is clearly evident in this photograph
of the excavation. Behind the press is
an archaeological identification kit.
The vat (to the right of the press),
which was apparently used for
accumulating grape juice and the
consequent wine fermentation, emerges
clearly here as a result of the
excavation. (Photo credit: Gregory
Areshian) UNKNOWN
source: http://newsroom.ucla.edu/portal/
ucla/artwork/8/8/6/8/3/188683/wine_press
.jpg

[2] Grape stems and seeds A range of
6,100-year-old desiccated grape stems
and dried, pressed grapes was found on
and around the wine press in the
Armenian cave. The chemical studies
were led by UCLA scientists and
supported by the National Geographic
Society, which also funded the
archaeological work. (Photo credit:
Gregory Areshian) UNKNOWN
source: http://newsroom.ucla.edu/portal/
ucla/artwork/8/8/6/8/3/188683/stems_seed
s_grapes.jpg
6,000 YBN
[4000 BC] 5 		6232) The earliest Sun-dried mud bricks
and mud-brick house.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "brick and tile." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2011. Web. 19 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/79195/brick>.
2. ^ "brick and tile." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2011. Web. 19 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/79195/brick>.
3. ^ "brick and tile." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2011. Web. 19 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/79195/brick>.
4. ^ "brick and tile." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2011. Web. 19 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/79195/brick>.
5. ^ "brick and tile." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2011. Web. 19 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/79195/brick>. {4000 BC}
Ur, Mesopotamia (modern Iraq)4  
[1] The Royal Tombs (Cemetery) of Ur.
Courtesy Nathanm, Creative Commons. CC

source: http://popular-archaeology.com/u
pload/2697/urroyaltombs.jpg

[2] Pre-Historic Tell Uqair UNKNOWN
source: http://ancientneareast.tripod.co
m/IMAGES/Uqair.jpg
5,800 YBN
[3800 BC] 3 		6540) The earliest nut crops, almond
trees are grown in the eastern part of
the Mediterranean basin.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Zohary, D., M. Hopf, and E.
Weiss. Domestication of Plants in the
Old World: The Origin and Spread of
Domesticated Plants in Southwest Asia,
Europe, and the Mediterranean Basin.
OUP Oxford, 2012,
p147-149. http://books.google.com/books
?id=tc6vr0qzk_4C
2. ^ Zohary, D., M. Hopf, and E. Weiss.
Domestication of Plants in the Old
World: The Origin and Spread of
Domesticated Plants in Southwest Asia,
Europe, and the Mediterranean Basin.
OUP Oxford, 2012,
p147-149. http://books.google.com/books
?id=tc6vr0qzk_4C
3. ^ Zohary, D., M. Hopf, and E. Weiss.
Domestication of Plants in the Old
World: The Origin and Spread of
Domesticated Plants in Southwest Asia,
Europe, and the Mediterranean Basin.
OUP Oxford, 2012,
p147-149. http://books.google.com/books
?id=tc6vr0qzk_4C
Eastern part of the Mediterranean
Basin2  
[1] Description English: Amond
blossom, Plants of Israel עברית:
פרי השקד, Original Image
Name:שקדיה,
Location:מודיעין Date circa
2010 Source Wild Flowers of Israel
via the PikiWiki - Israel free image
collection project Author שרה
גולד Permission (Reusing this
file) w:en:Creative
Commons attribution CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/84/PikiWiki_Israel_7025_
Amond_blossom.jpg

[2] Description English: Green
Almonds. Date 4 April 2009 Source
Own work Author 6th Happiness My
own work. Green Almonds, originally
posted here:
http://fithfath.com/images/2009/04/04/yo
ung-green-almonds/ PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a2/Green_almonds.jpg
5,500 YBN
[3500 BC] 12 13 14 15 16 		233) The earliest writing (on clay
objects in Mesopotamia). The first
numbers. The first stamp (or seal).6

The first writing begins as symbols for
numbers on clay bulla (hollow clay
containers that hold clay tokens).
These symbols represent the quantity
and kind of tokens inside the bulla.7 8
9
Hollow bullae are eventually
replaced by solid clay tablets with the
same impressions.10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Archaic Bookkeeping, Nissen,
1993, pp13-14.
2. ^ Archaic Bookkeeping, Nissen,
1993, pp13-14.
3. ^ Archaic Bookkeeping, Nissen,
1993, pp13-14.
4. ^ Schmandt-Besserat, Denise.
"Two Precursors of Writing: Plain and
Complex Tokens", in The Origins of
Writing / edited by Wayne M. Senner.
1991: 27-41.
http://en.finaly.org/index.php/Two_pre
cursors_of_writing:_plain_and_complex_to
kens#n_1_a
5. ^ Fischer, "A History of Writing",
2001, p25-27.
6. ^ Archaic Bookkeeping, Nissen,
1993, pp13-14.
7. ^ Archaic Bookkeeping, Nissen,
1993, pp13-14.
8. ^ Schmandt-Besserat, Denise.
"Two Precursors of Writing: Plain and
Complex Tokens", in The Origins of
Writing / edited by Wayne M. Senner.
1991: 27-41.
http://en.finaly.org/index.php/Two_pre
cursors_of_writing:_plain_and_complex_to
kens#n_1_a
9. ^ Fischer, "A History of Writing",
2001, p25-27.
10. ^ Schmandt-Besserat, Denise.
"Two Precursors of Writing: Plain and
Complex Tokens", in The Origins of
Writing / edited by Wayne M. Senner.
1991: 27-41.
http://en.finaly.org/index.php/Two_pre
cursors_of_writing:_plain_and_complex_to
kens#n_1_a
11. ^ Archaic Bookkeeping, Nissen,
1993, pp13-14.
12. ^
http://www.earth-history.com/Clay-tablet
s.htm {5500 YBN}
13. ^ Denise
Schmandt-Besserat, "Reckoning Before
Writing", Archaeology. May/June 1979,
Vol. 32, No. 3, p. 22-31.
http://en.finaly.org/index.php/Reckoni
ng_before_writing
14. ^ "writing." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/649670/writing>. {3500 BC}
15. ^ Trevor
I. Williams, "A history of invention :
from stone axes to silicon chips ",
(New York: Checkmark Books, 2000). {for
stamp)3500BC}
16. ^ Schmandt-Besserat, Denise. "Two
Precursors of Writing: Plain and
Complex Tokens", in The Origins of
Writing / edited by Wayne M. Senner.
1991: 27-41.
http://en.finaly.org/index.php/Two_pre
cursors_of_writing:_plain_and_complex_to
kens#n_1_a

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.jstor.org/view/00030279/ap020
117/02a00010/0 (sexagesimal.pdf)
[2] Barbara Watterson,
"Introducing Egyptian hieroglyphs",
(Edinburgh: Scottish Academic Press,
1993)
[3] Roy MacLeod, "The Library of
Alexandria Centre of Learning in the
Ancient World", (New York: I.B.Tauris &
Co Ltd, 2000)
[4] "sigillography."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online Academic Edition.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 20
Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/543584/sigillography>
[5]
http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~hist
ory/HistTopics/Babylonian_numerals.html
[6] "Numeral system#History".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numeral_sys
tem#History
Mesopotamia (Babylonia)11 |Sumer
(Syria, Sumer, Highland Iran) 
[1] Fig 109 from: Nissen, Archaic
Bookkeeping, 1993, p127. COPYRIGHTED
source: Archaic Bookkeeping, Nissen,
1993, p127.

[2] Fig 110 from: Nissen, Archaic
Bookkeeping, 1993, p128. COPYRIGHTED
source: Archaic Bookkeeping, Nissen,
1993, p128.
5,500 YBN
[3500 BC] 7 8 9 		294) The sundial, the earliest
timekeeping device.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "sundial." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 13 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/573826/sundial>.
2. ^ "sundial." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 13 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/573826/sundial>.
3. ^ "sundial." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 13 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/573826/sundial>.
4. ^ "sundial." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 13 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/573826/sundial>.
5. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p10.
6. ^
"sundial." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online
Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 13 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/573826/sundial>.
7. ^ "sundial." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 13 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/573826/sundial>. {-3500 BCE}
8. ^
"sundial." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online
Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 13 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/573826/sundial>. {-3500 BCE}
9. ^
Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The
Timetables of Science", Second edition,
Simon and Schuster, 1991, p10.
{2600-2501 BC}

MORE INFO
[1] Yenne and Grosser, "100
Inventions That Shaped World History",
1993, p15
China4 5 and Chaldea6  
[1] Stick in sand with shadow UNKNOWN
source: http://farm1.static.flickr.com/1
77/484077420_e01337d101.jpg

[2] Description English: Ancient
sundial from Marcianopolis, Museum of
Mosaicas, Devnya,
Bulgaria Български:
Слънчев часовник от
Марцианополис, Музей
на мозайките,
Девня Date 21 September
2010 Source Own work Author
Edal Anton Lefterov CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/ff/Sundial-from-Marciano
polis.jpg
5,500 YBN
[3500 BC] 5 		621) The earliest plow. Plows are used
to break up soil2 .3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ "plow." The Concise Oxford
Dictionary of Archaeology. Oxford
University Press, 2002, 2003.
Answers.com 24 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/plough
3. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
4. ^ Lal, R., D.C. Reicosky, and J.D.
Hanson. “Evolution of the Plow over
10,000 Years and the Rationale for
No-till Farming.” Soil and Tillage
Research 93.1 (2007):
1–12. http://www.sciencedirect.com/sc
ience/article/pii/S0167198706002522
5. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).

MORE INFO
[1] M. Green/H. J. Nissen,
Zeichenliste der Archaischen Texte aus
Uruk (ATU 2; Berlin 1987)
Mesopotamia4  
[1] [t determine source of
drawing] Apparently mesopotamian
drawing of animal pulled plow. UNKNOWN

source: http://ed101.bu.edu/StudentDoc/A
rchives/ED101fa06/jtobz87/pic-3-2plow-lg
.png

[2] Akkadian plough with seeder c2200
BCE Peter Roger Stuart Moorey,
''Ancient Mesopotamian Materials and
Industries: The Archaeological
Evidence'', 1999,
p2. http://books.google.com/books?id=P_
Ixuott4doC&pg=PA3 UNKNOWN
source: Peter Roger Stuart Moorey,
"Ancient Mesopotamian Materials and
Industries: The Archaeological
Evidence", 1999,
p2. http://books.google.com/books?id=P_
Ixuott4doC&pg=PA3
5,500 YBN
[3500 BC] 5 		622) The earliest irrigation (supplying
water to crops2 ).3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ "irrigation." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 24 May.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/irrigation
3. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
4. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
5. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
Middle east (eastern part of
Mediterranean)4  
[1] Illustration 1. A shaduf was used
to raise water above the level of the
Nile. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.waterhistory.org/hist
ories/nile/shaduf.jpg

[2] This is a picture of how egyptians
could have used the Nile to plant their
crops. They are using an irrigation
method. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.amersol.edu.pe/class1
5/_15eescob/6th/humanities/images/nile_i
rrigation.jpg
5,500 YBN
[3500 BC] 3 		625) Donkeys are raised and used for
transport.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
3. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
 
[1] Artist Maler der Grabkammer
des Panehsi Title Deutsch:
Grabkammer des Panehsi, Priester,
Szene: Esel mit Bauern Date
Deutsch: um 1298-1235 v.
Chr. English: c. 1298-1235 BCE Medium
Deutsch: Wandbild Dimensions
Deutsch: 30 × 61 cm Current
location Deutsch: Grab des
Panehsi Deutsch:
Theben Source/Photographer The
Yorck Project: 10.000 Meisterwerke der
Malerei. DVD-ROM, 2002. ISBN
3936122202. Distributed by DIRECTMEDIA
Publishing
GmbH. http://mail.wikipedia.org/piperma
il/wikide-l/2005-April/012195.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Maler_der_Grabk
ammer_des_Panehsi_001.jpg/1024px-Maler_d
er_Grabkammer_des_Panehsi_001.jpg
5,500 YBN
[3500 BC] 5 		634) The Egyptian calendar (12 months
of 30 days, plus 5 extra days3 ).4
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ O. Neugebauer, "A History of
Ancient Mathematical Astronomy: Volume
2", p1975,
1064 http://books.google.com/books?id=v
O5FCVIxz2YC&pg=PA1064
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
3. ^ O. Neugebauer, "A History of
Ancient Mathematical Astronomy: Volume
2", p1975,
1064 http://books.google.com/books?id=v
O5FCVIxz2YC&pg=PA1064
4. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
5. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
 
[1] Egyptian Calendar UNKNOWN
source: http://analyzer.depaul.edu/paper
plate/2002%20vernal%20equinox/Egyptian_c
alendar_dark.jpg
5,500 YBN
[3500 BC] 15 16 		646) The earliest known wheel, a
pottery wheel.10 11 12
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Sir Leonard Woolley, "Ur 'of the
Chaldees"', 1982, p27.
2. ^ Trevor I.
Williams, "A history of invention :
from stone axes to silicon chips ",
(New York: Checkmark Books, 2000).
(3500BCE)
3. ^
http://inventors.about.com/od/wstartinve
ntions/a/wheel.htm (3500BCE)
4. ^ Sir Leonard
Woolley, "Ur 'of the Chaldees"', 1982,
p27.
5. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000). (3500BCE)
6. ^
http://inventors.about.com/od/wstartinve
ntions/a/wheel.htm (3500BCE)
7. ^ Sir Leonard
Woolley, "Ur 'of the Chaldees"', 1982,
p27.
8. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000). (3500BCE)
9. ^
http://inventors.about.com/od/wstartinve
ntions/a/wheel.htm (3500BCE)
10. ^ Sir Leonard
Woolley, "Ur 'of the Chaldees"', 1982,
p27.
11. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000). (3500BCE)
12. ^
http://inventors.about.com/od/wstartinve
ntions/a/wheel.htm (3500BCE)
13. ^ Trevor I.
Williams, "A history of invention :
from stone axes to silicon chips ",
(New York: Checkmark Books, 2000).
(3500BCE)
14. ^
http://inventors.about.com/od/wstartinve
ntions/a/wheel.htm (3500BCE)
15. ^ Trevor I.
Williams, "A history of invention :
from stone axes to silicon chips ",
(New York: Checkmark Books, 2000).
(3500BCE) (=3500BCE) {35000BCE}
16. ^
http://inventors.about.com/od/wstartinve
ntions/a/wheel.htm (3500BCE) (=3500BCE)
{35000BCE}

MORE INFO
[1] Margaret Sax, Nigel D. Meeks
and Dominique Collon , "The Early
Development of the Lapidary Engraving
Wheel in Mesopotamia", Iraq, Vol. 62,
(2000), pp. 157-176 Published by:
British Institute for the Study of
Iraq Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/4200487
[2]
http://www.hartford-hwp.com/image_archiv
e/ue/uea.html
[3] Stuart Piggott, "The earliest
wheeled transport : from the Atlantic
Coast to the Caspian Sea", Thames and
Hudson, 1983
[4] "WORLD'S OLDEST WHEEL FOUND
IN SLOVENIA" March
2003 http://www.ukom.gov.si/en/media_re
lations/background_information/culture/w
orlds_oldest_wheel_found_in_slovenia/
Mesopotamia13 14 (and a similar
pottery wheel from Choga Mish,
Iran) 
[1] These pots, found at al`Ubaid type
site itself are typical of last phase
of Ubaid pottery found throughout much
of Mesopotamia, including Uruk. London:
British Museum. [t Note that the
first and tihrd match figures in
Woolley's 1982 book.] PD
source: http://www.hartford-hwp.com/imag
e_archive/ue/pottery03.jpg

[2] 14. Pottery jar of Jemdat Nasr
type. It was found in the al`Ain region
of the United Arab Emirates, which
attests to contacts between Mesopotamia
and Oman peninsula—an important
source of copper. Ca. 3000 BC. London:
British Museum. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.hartford-hwp.com/imag
e_archive/ue/pottery02.jpg
5,490 YBN
[3490 BC] 6 7 		702) Cotton is grown in Peru.3
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^ Tom D. Dillehay, Jack Rossen,
Thomas C. Andres, and David E.
Williams, "Preceramic Adoption of
Peanut, Squash, and Cotton in Northern
Peru", Science 29 June 2007: 316
(5833),
1890-1893. http://www.sciencemag.org/co
ntent/316/5833/1890.abstract
2. ^ Tom D. Dillehay, Jack Rossen,
Thomas C. Andres, and David E.
Williams, "Preceramic Adoption of
Peanut, Squash, and Cotton in Northern
Peru", Science 29 June 2007: 316
(5833),
1890-1893. http://www.sciencemag.org/co
ntent/316/5833/1890.abstract
3. ^ Tom D. Dillehay, Jack Rossen,
Thomas C. Andres, and David E.
Williams, "Preceramic Adoption of
Peanut, Squash, and Cotton in Northern
Peru", Science 29 June 2007: 316
(5833),
1890-1893. http://www.sciencemag.org/co
ntent/316/5833/1890.abstract
4. ^ Tom D. Dillehay, Jack Rossen,
Thomas C. Andres, and David E.
Williams, "Preceramic Adoption of
Peanut, Squash, and Cotton in Northern
Peru", Science 29 June 2007: 316
(5833),
1890-1893. http://www.sciencemag.org/co
ntent/316/5833/1890.abstract
5. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
6. ^ Tom D. Dillehay, Jack Rossen,
Thomas C. Andres, and David E.
Williams, "Preceramic Adoption of
Peanut, Squash, and Cotton in Northern
Peru", Science 29 June 2007: 316
(5833),
1890-1893. http://www.sciencemag.org/co
ntent/316/5833/1890.abstract {5490 YBN}
7. ^
Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000). {4000 YBN}
Northwestern Peru4 |Indus valley5
 
[1] English: cotton plant, Texas, 1996,
after chemical haulm (topkilling
Chemical ; usually by the Monosodium
methyl arsenate used to quickly kill
the leaves that would interfere with
harvesting machines). This chemical is
a growing source of residual
contamination of soils by arsenic,
which is not degradable; Photo courtesy
of USDA Natural Resources Conservation
Service. http://photogallery.nrcs.usda.
gov/Index.asp This came from the
website PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/6/68/CottonPlant.JPG
/1024px-CottonPlant.JPG
5,350 YBN
[3350 BC] 24 25 26 27 		1261) Writing on clay tablets.14 15 16


Symbols that represent a product (such
as cows, sheep, and cereals17 ), drawn
with a stylus on clay tablets, are the
earliest record of what will become the
modern alphabet.18 19

The training of scribes is an early
school.20

These tablets contain a record of
objects owned or traded21 , and contain
no stories.22
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.earth-history.com/Clay-tablet
s.htm
2. ^ "writing". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online.
3. ^ Schmandt-Besserat, Denise. "Two
Precursors of Writing: Plain and
Complex Tokens", in The Origins of
Writing / edited by Wayne M. Senner.
1991: 27-41.
http://en.finaly.org/index.php/Two_pre
cursors_of_writing:_plain_and_complex_to
kens#n_1_a
4. ^
http://www.earth-history.com/Clay-tablet
s.htm
5. ^ "writing". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online.
6. ^ Schmandt-Besserat, Denise. "Two
Precursors of Writing: Plain and
Complex Tokens", in The Origins of
Writing / edited by Wayne M. Senner.
1991: 27-41.
http://en.finaly.org/index.php/Two_pre
cursors_of_writing:_plain_and_complex_to
kens#n_1_a
7. ^
http://www.earth-history.com/Clay-tablet
s.htm
8. ^ "writing". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online.
9. ^ Schmandt-Besserat, Denise. "Two
Precursors of Writing: Plain and
Complex Tokens", in The Origins of
Writing / edited by Wayne M. Senner.
1991: 27-41.
http://en.finaly.org/index.php/Two_pre
cursors_of_writing:_plain_and_complex_to
kens#n_1_a
10. ^ Barbara Watterson, "Introducing
Egyptian hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh:
Scottish Academic Press, 1993).
11. ^
Schmandt-Besserat, Denise. "Two
Precursors of Writing: Plain and
Complex Tokens", in The Origins of
Writing / edited by Wayne M. Senner.
1991: 27-41.
http://en.finaly.org/index.php/Two_pre
cursors_of_writing:_plain_and_complex_to
kens#n_1_a
12. ^ Denise Schmandt-Besserat, "The
Earliest Precursor of Writing",
Scientific American. June 1977, Vol.
238, No. 6, p.
50-58. http://en.finaly.org/index.php/T
he_earliest_precursor_of_writing
13. ^ Archaic Bookkeeping, Nissen,
1993, p105.
14. ^
http://www.earth-history.com/Clay-tablet
s.htm
15. ^ "writing". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online.
16. ^ Schmandt-Besserat, Denise. "Two
Precursors of Writing: Plain and
Complex Tokens", in The Origins of
Writing / edited by Wayne M. Senner.
1991: 27-41.
http://en.finaly.org/index.php/Two_pre
cursors_of_writing:_plain_and_complex_to
kens#n_1_a
17. ^ Barbara Watterson, "Introducing
Egyptian hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh:
Scottish Academic Press, 1993).
18. ^
Schmandt-Besserat, Denise. "Two
Precursors of Writing: Plain and
Complex Tokens", in The Origins of
Writing / edited by Wayne M. Senner.
1991: 27-41.
http://en.finaly.org/index.php/Two_pre
cursors_of_writing:_plain_and_complex_to
kens#n_1_a
19. ^ Denise Schmandt-Besserat, "The
Earliest Precursor of Writing",
Scientific American. June 1977, Vol.
238, No. 6, p.
50-58. http://en.finaly.org/index.php/T
he_earliest_precursor_of_writing
20. ^ Archaic Bookkeeping, Nissen,
1993, p105.
21. ^ Barbara Watterson,
"Introducing Egyptian hieroglyphs",
(Edinburgh: Scottish Academic Press,
1993).
22. ^ Ted Huntington
23. ^ "Sumerian writing>.".
Encyclopedia wrBritannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2012.
Web. 15 Jul.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/649670/writing/53659/Sumerian-wr
iting>.
24. ^ Denise Schmandt-Besserat, "The
Earliest Precursor of Writing",
Scientific American. June 1977, Vol.
238, No. 6, p.
50-58. http://en.finaly.org/index.php/T
he_earliest_precursor_of_writing
25. ^
http://www.earth-history.com/Clay-tablet
s.htm (3300bce)
26. ^ Nissen, H.J. et al. Archaic
Bookkeeping: Early Writing and
Techniques of Economic Administration
in the Ancient Near East. University of
Chicago Press,
1994. http://books.google.com/books?id=
YBAzXV4YtQ8C&pg=PA5#v=onepage&q&f=false
27. ^ "writing". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online.

MORE INFO
[1]
http://cdli.ucla.edu:16080/wiki/index.ph
p/The_Late_Uruk_period
[2] Roy MacLeod, "The Library of
Alexandria Centre of Learning in the
Ancient World", (New York: I.B.Tauris &
Co Ltd, 2000)
[3] Archaic Bookkeeping,
Nissen, 1993, pp13-14
Uruk23  
[1] MS 4551 Account of grain products,
bread, beer, butter oil. Sumer 32nd
century COPYRIGHTED?
source: http://www.earth-history.com/_im
ages/ms4551.jpg

[2] MS2963 Account of male and female
slaves Sumer
c3300-3200BCE COPYRIGHTED?
source: http://www.earth-history.com/_im
ages/ms2963.jpg
5,310 YBN
[3310 BC] 8 9 10 		704) Ox pulled vehicles with wheels.5 6

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
3. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
4. ^ Stuart and Piggott, "The Earliest
Wheeled Transport", 1983, p40,62-63.
5. ^ Trevor
I. Williams, "A history of invention :
from stone axes to silicon chips ",
(New York: Checkmark Books, 2000).
6. ^ Stuart
and Piggott, "The Earliest Wheeled
Transport", 1983, p40,62-63.
7. ^ Stuart and
Piggott, "The Earliest Wheeled
Transport", 1983, p40,62-63.
8. ^ Stuart and
Piggott, "The Earliest Wheeled
Transport", 1983, p40,62-63.
{c3530-3310 BC}
9. ^ Stuart and Piggott,
"The Earliest Wheeled Transport", 1983,
p40,62-63. {Standard of Ur) 2600-2400
BC}
10. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000). {4000 YBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Zettler, Richard L.; Horne,
Lee; Hansen, Donald P.; Pittman, Holly.
Treasures from the royal tombs of Ur,
pp. 45-47. UPenn Museum of Archaeology,
1998. ISBN 9780924171543
[2]
http://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/hig
hlights/highlight_objects/me/t/the_stand
ard_of_ur.aspx
(TRB - Funnel Beaker culture)
Bronocice, Krakow, Poland7  
[1] Stuart and Piggott, ''The Earliest
Wheeled Transport'', 1983,
p40,62-63. COPYRIGHTED
source: Stuart and Piggott, "The
Earliest Wheeled Transport", 1983,
p40,62-63.

[2] According
to: http://www.britishmuseum.org/explor
e/highlights/highlight_objects/me/t/the_
standard_of_ur.aspx 2600-2400
BC According to:
http://sumerianshakespeare.com/687045.ht
ml this image is 4500 years old -
putting it at 2500bce - get more
evidence of age [1] Description
English: detail of the ''Standard of
Ur'', ca. 2500 BC. Date 2500
BC Source
http://www.alexandriaarchive.org/op
encontext/iraq_ghf/ur_standard/ur_standa
rd_8.jpg Author
Anonymous Permission (Reusing
this file) See below. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/7d/Ur_chariot.jpg
5,100 YBN
[3100 BC] 4 		641) The earliest record of a belief in
Gods and Goddesses.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Nissen, H.J. et al. Archaic
Bookkeeping: Early Writing and
Techniques of Economic Administration
in the Ancient Near East. University of
Chicago Press, 1994, p5, 20-21,116.
2. ^ Nissen,
H.J. et al. Archaic Bookkeeping: Early
Writing and Techniques of Economic
Administration in the Ancient Near
East. University of Chicago Press,
1994, p5, 20-21,116.
3. ^ Nissen, H.J. et al.
Archaic Bookkeeping: Early Writing and
Techniques of Economic Administration
in the Ancient Near East. University of
Chicago Press, 1994, p5, 20-21,116.
4. ^ Nissen,
H.J. et al. Archaic Bookkeeping: Early
Writing and Techniques of Economic
Administration in the Ancient Near
East. University of Chicago Press,
1994, p5, 20-21,116.
Uruk3  
[1] Archaic
Bookkeeping,Nissen,1993,p20-21.
COPYRIGHTED
source: Archaic
Bookkeeping,Nissen,1993,p20-21.
5,000 YBN
[3000 BC] 8 9 		569) The earliest stringed musical
instrument (the lyre and the harp).5 6

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Curt Sachs, "The History of
Musical Instruments", 1940, p78-80.
2. ^ Yenne
and Grosser, "100 Inventions That
Shaped World History", 1993, p17.
3. ^ Curt
Sachs, "The History of Musical
Instruments", 1940, p78-80.
4. ^ Yenne and
Grosser, "100 Inventions That Shaped
World History", 1993, p17.
5. ^ Curt Sachs,
"The History of Musical Instruments",
1940, p78-80.
6. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100
Inventions That Shaped World History",
1993, p17.
7. ^ Curt Sachs, "The History of
Musical Instruments", 1940, p78-80.
8. ^ Curt
Sachs, "The History of Musical
Instruments", 1940, p78-80. {-3000 BC}
9. ^
Yenne and Grosser, "100 Inventions That
Shaped World History", 1993, p17.
{-3000 BC}

MORE INFO
[1] C. Leonard Woolley, "Ur
Excavations. Vol. II. The Royal
Cemetery.", 1934
{Ur_Excavations_Royal_Cemetary_1934.pd
f}
[2]
http://www.penn.museum/long-term-exhibit
s/267-iraq.html
Sumer (modern Iraq)7  
[1] Bearded Harpists, detail from
Sumerian tablet in the Temple of Sin in
Khafage, Mesopotamia (presently Iraq) c
3000 BC. Reprinted by permission
from The Harp by Rajka
Dobronic-Mazzoni. Published by Graficki
Zavrod Hrvatske, OOUR, Izdavcka
djelatnost, Preobrazenska 4, Zagreb,
Croatia, 1989 PD
source: http://www.harpspectrum.org/time
line/images/mesopotamia_1.jpg

[2] Harp-player of Sumer, from a
plaque of Khafaje (After Heras, 1953,
p. 182). PD
source: http://www.hindunet.org/hindu_hi
story/sarasvati/html/HARPPL-1.jpg
5,000 YBN
[3000 BC] 10 11 		596) Written symbols are combined to
form words;4 there is a transition
from word-writing to sound-writing in
Sumarian5 .6

The vast majority of Sumerian language
is made of one-syllable words.7 This
suggests that all earlier spoken
languages contained only
single-syllable words.8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p47-48.
2. ^ Archaic Bookkeeping,
Nisson, 1993, p117.
3. ^ Fischer, S.R. A
History of Writing. Reaktion, 2001.
Globalities Series. p47-48.
4. ^ Archaic
Bookkeeping, Nisson, 1993, p117.
5. ^ Archaic
Bookkeeping, Nisson, 1993, p117.
6. ^
Fischer, S.R. A History of Writing.
Reaktion, 2001. Globalities Series.
p47-48.
7. ^ Archaic Bookkeeping, Nisson, 1993,
p117.
8. ^ Ted Huntington
9. ^ Archaic Bookkeeping,
Nisson, 1993, 9.
10. ^ Archaic
Bookkeeping, Nisson, 1993 (during
writing phase Uruk III 3000bce)
11. ^ "Sumer".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sumer
(3200bce)

MORE INFO
[1]
encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761565349/A
lphabet.html
Jemdet Nasr9  
[1] Fischer, S.R. A History of Writing.
Reaktion, 2001. Globalities Series.
p47-48. COPYRIGHTED
source: Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p47-48.

[2] Source:
http://pandora.cii.wwu.edu/vajda/ling201
/writingsystems/sumeriancuneiform.htm U
NKNOWN
source: http://www.omniglot.com/images/w
riting/sumerian_glyphs.jpg
5,000 YBN
[3000 BC] 10 11 12 		628) Bronze (copper and tin) are
smelted and casted.5 6

The start of the Bronze Age.7
FOOTNOTES

1. ^ "Artifacts provide insights on
Fertile Crescent", University of
Chicago News Office, Jan. 12,
2005 http://www-news.uchicago.edu/relea
ses/05/050112.oi-objects.shtml
2. ^ Edwards I. E. S, "The Cambridge
ancient history, Volumes 1-3", 1970.
http://books.google.com/books?id=slR7S
FScEnwC&pg=PA342&lpg=PA342&dq=Tell+Judai
dah+bronze&source=bl&ots=nsUpGgmod8&sig=
hHbgeyEJy95EC7mkTgsuvCaMFR0&hl=en&sa=X&e
i=MPkRT5anJamoiAKilaXXDQ&sqi=2&ved=0CEYQ
6AEwBQ#v=onepage&q=Tell%20Judaidah%20bro
nze&f=false
3. ^ "Artifacts provide insights on
Fertile Crescent", University of
Chicago News Office, Jan. 12,
2005 http://www-news.uchicago.edu/relea
ses/05/050112.oi-objects.shtml
4. ^ Edwards I. E. S, "The Cambridge
ancient history, Volumes 1-3", 1970.
http://books.google.com/books?id=slR7S
FScEnwC&pg=PA342&lpg=PA342&dq=Tell+Judai
dah+bronze&source=bl&ots=nsUpGgmod8&sig=
hHbgeyEJy95EC7mkTgsuvCaMFR0&hl=en&sa=X&e
i=MPkRT5anJamoiAKilaXXDQ&sqi=2&ved=0CEYQ
6AEwBQ#v=onepage&q=Tell%20Judaidah%20bro
nze&f=false
5. ^ "Artifacts provide insights on
Fertile Crescent", University of
Chicago News Office, Jan. 12,
2005 http://www-news.uchicago.edu/relea
ses/05/050112.oi-objects.shtml
6. ^ Edwards I. E. S, "The Cambridge
ancient history, Volumes 1-3", 1970.
http://books.google.com/books?id=slR7S
FScEnwC&pg=PA342&lpg=PA342&dq=Tell+Judai
dah+bronze&source=bl&ots=nsUpGgmod8&sig=
hHbgeyEJy95EC7mkTgsuvCaMFR0&hl=en&sa=X&e
i=MPkRT5anJamoiAKilaXXDQ&sqi=2&ved=0CEYQ
6AEwBQ#v=onepage&q=Tell%20Judaidah%20bro
nze&f=false
7. ^ "Bronze Age." The Concise Oxford
Dictionary of Archaeology. Oxford
University Press, 2002, 2003.
Answers.com 14 Nov. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/bronze-age
8. ^ "Artifacts provide insights on
Fertile Crescent", University of
Chicago News Office, Jan. 12,
2005 http://www-news.uchicago.edu/relea
ses/05/050112.oi-objects.shtml
9. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000). (3500 BCE) (=3500bce)
10. ^ "Artifacts
provide insights on Fertile Crescent",
University of Chicago News Office, Jan.
12,
2005 http://www-news.uchicago.edu/relea
ses/05/050112.oi-objects.shtml
11. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000). (3500 BCE) (=3500bce)
12. ^ "Bronze (late
3000 BCE)". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bronze
(late 3000 BCE) (late 3000bce) {Late
3000 BCE}

MORE INFO
[1] "Copper". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copper
[2] V. Gordon Childe, "The Bronze Age",
Cambridge University Press, 2011
http://books.google.com/books?id=Fxb9brY
SPVYC
[3] "Bronze". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bronze
(late 3000 BCE)
[4] "Bronze Age". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bronze_Age
[5]
http://www.asa3.org/archive/ASA/199604/0
288.html
Tell Judaidah, Turkey8 |Egypt9  
[1] Tell Judaidah bronze
figurines These figurines of men and
women from Tell Judaidah, Turkey, are
the oldest examples of true bronze
(combination of copper and tin) known.
They date to about 3000 B.C. The male
figures were originally equipped as
warriors, and the women were dressed
with accessories of precious metal.
They are the forerunners of later
figurines of gods who were ''dressed''
in gold and silver. Recently, the ore
content of the figurines was tested at
the Advanced Photon Source at Argonne
National Laboratory. UNKNOWN
source: http://www-news.uchicago.edu/rel
eases/05/050112.oi-3.jpg

[2] Female Figurine Amuq Valley Tell
Judaidah Turkey Amuq G Early Bronze Age
I (3400-2750 BCE)
Bronze Photographed at the Oriental
Institute of the University of Chicago,
Chicago, Illinois. UNKNOWN
source: http://farm3.staticflickr.com/26
18/3859375883_ccc6b90ec4_b.jpg
5,000 YBN
[3000 BC] 4 5 		650) Cuneiform writing.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Barbara Watterson, "Introducing
Egyptian hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh:
Scottish Academic Press, 1993). p32
2. ^
http://www.usatoday.com/tech/2002/05/21/
cuneiform.htm
3. ^ Archaic
Bookkeeping,Nissen,1993,p116.
4. ^ Archaic
Bookkeeping,Nissen,1993,p116.
5. ^
http://www.usatoday.com/tech/2002/05/21/
cuneiform.htm (=3200BCE)
Uruk3  
[1] Archaic
Bookkeeping,Nissen,1993,p118.
COPYRIGHTED
source: Archaic
Bookkeeping,Nissen,1993,p118.

[2] Description Cuneiform script
tablet from the Kirkor Minassian
collection in the Library of Congress.
From Year 6 in the reign from
Amar-Suena/Amar-Sin between 2041 and
2040 BC.
http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.amed/amcune.cf001
3 Date 2012-02-28 16:01 (UTC) Source
This file was derived from:
Cuneiform_script2.jpg Cuneiform
script2.jpg Author
Cuneiform_script2.jpg: derivative
work: Yjenith (talk) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/19/Cuneiform_script2.png

5,000 YBN
[3000 BC] 5 6 7 8 		664) Soldering of metals.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000), p12.
2. ^ Herbert Maryon, "Metal
Working in the Ancient World", American
Journal of Archaeology , Vol. 53, No. 2
(Apr. - Jun., 1949), pp. 93-125;
p114. http://www.jstor.org/stable/50049
8 {Maryon_Metal_Working_1949.pdf}
3. ^ P. R. S. Moorey, "The
Archaeological Evidence for Metallurgy
and Related Technologies in
Mesopotamia, c. 5500-2100 B.C.", Iraq ,
Vol. 44, No. 1 (Spring, 1982), pp.
13-38;
p27-28. http://www.jstor.org/stable/420
0150
4. ^ Puttlitz, K.J., and K.A. Stalter.
Handbook of Lead-Free Solder Technology
for Microelectronic Assemblies. Marcel
Dekker, 2004. Mechanical
Engineering. http://books.google.com/bo
oks?id=H75TywRXUK4C&pg=PA9
5. ^ P. R. S. Moorey, "The
Archaeological Evidence for Metallurgy
and Related Technologies in
Mesopotamia, c. 5500-2100 B.C.", Iraq ,
Vol. 44, No. 1 (Spring, 1982), pp.
13-38;
p27-28. http://www.jstor.org/stable/420
0150
6. ^ Puttlitz, K.J., and K.A. Stalter.
Handbook of Lead-Free Solder Technology
for Microelectronic Assemblies. Marcel
Dekker, 2004. Mechanical
Engineering. http://books.google.com/bo
oks?id=H75TywRXUK4C&pg=PA9
7. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000), p12.
8. ^ Singer, Charles Joseph, and
Trevor Illtyd Williams. "A history of
technology." (1954,1965). p640-641,653.
Tell al-'Ubaid2 3 |Mesopotamia4  
[1] Im-Dugud El-Ubaid Mesopotamia the
earliest soft solder 3000BC, presumably
with tin UNKNOWN
source: http://farm4.static.flickr.com/3
116/2778973410_6db0e4ab03_o.jpg}
http://www.britishmuseum.org/images/ps16
5397_l.jpg

[2] {ULSF: Note that this may not be
the earliest known soldered
(soft-soldered joint) material
presumably with tin- update- this is
the correct panel- it's shown by the
Singer source in the Footnotes} Copper
frieze From the temple of Ninhursag,
Tell al-'Ubaid, southern Iraq About
2600-2400 BC COPYRIGHTED
source: http://link.springer.com/article
/10.1007%2FBF03216523?LI=true#
5,000 YBN
[3000 BC] 6 7 		672) The earliest dam.1 2 3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ M. Kassas and M. Imam, "Habitat
and Plant Communities in the Egyptian
Desert: III. The Wadi Bed Ecosystem",
Journal of Ecology, Vol. 42, No. 2
(Jul., 1954), pp.
424-441 http://www.jstor.org/stable/225
6869
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
3. ^ Hellstrom, B. (1951). The oldest
dam in the world. Bull. Inst.
Hydraulics, Roy. Inst. Tech.,
Stockholm, no. 28.
4. ^ M. Kassas and M.
Imam, "Habitat and Plant Communities in
the Egyptian Desert: III. The Wadi Bed
Ecosystem", Journal of Ecology, Vol.
42, No. 2 (Jul., 1954), pp.
424-441 http://www.jstor.org/stable/225
6869
5. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
6. ^ M. Kassas and M. Imam, "Habitat
and Plant Communities in the Egyptian
Desert: III. The Wadi Bed Ecosystem",
Journal of Ecology, Vol. 42, No. 2
(Jul., 1954), pp.
424-441 http://www.jstor.org/stable/225
6869
7. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
Wadi Gerrawi, Egypt4 5  
[1] M. Kassas and M. Imam, ''Habitat
and Plant Communities in the Egyptian
Desert: III. The Wadi Bed Ecosystem'',
Journal of Ecology, Vol. 42, No. 2
(Jul., 1954), pp.
424-441 http://www.jstor.org/stable/225
6869 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2256
869
5,000 YBN
[3000 BC] 4 5 		675) The earliest silver objects.1
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000), p72.
2. ^ Woolley, C. Leonard, and L.
Legrain. Ur excavations. Oxford
University Press,
1934. http://www.clintgoss.com/flutoped
ia.com/refs/Woolley_1934_UrExcavations_V
ol02_excerpt_FP.pdf
3. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000), p72.
4. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A
history of invention : from stone axes
to silicon chips ", (New York:
Checkmark Books, 2000), p72.
5. ^ "silver
(Ag)". Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 08 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/544756/silver-Ag>.
Ur2 3  
[1] Queen Shub-ad harp with
silver Woolley, C. Leonard, and L.
Legrain. Ur excavations. Oxford
University Press,
1934. http://www.clintgoss.com/flutoped
ia.com/refs/Woolley_1934_UrExcavations_V
ol02_excerpt_FP.pdf COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.clintgoss.com/flutope
dia.com/refs/Woolley_1934_UrExcavations_
Vol02_excerpt_FP.pdf
5,000 YBN
[3000 BC] 2 		676) Metal casting where wax is melted
in a clay mold.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
 
[1] Trevor I. Williams, ''A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips '', (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000), p79.
source: Trevor I. Williams, "A history
of invention : from stone axes to
silicon chips ", (New York: Checkmark
Books, 2000), p79.

[2] Description English: Liquid
bronze at 1200°C is poured into the
dried and empty casting mold. Date
Source Own work Author Takkk CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/de/Born_bronze_-_Bronze_
casts.jpg
5,000 YBN
[3000 BC] 4 5 		1276) The first recorded political
assembly.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Samual Kramer, "History Begins at
Sumer", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday
Anchor Books, 1959), pp29-31.
2. ^ Kramer,
Samuel Noah, and Thorkild Jacobsen.
“Gilgamesh and Agga.” American
Journal of Archaeology 53.1 (1949):
1–18. http://www.jstor.org/stable/501
208
3. ^ Samual Kramer, "History Begins at
Sumer", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday
Anchor Books, 1959), p29.
4. ^ Samual
Kramer, "History Begins at Sumer",
(Garden City, NY: Doubleday Anchor
Books, 1959), 3rd edition 1981, p30.
5. ^
Samual Kramer, "History Begins at
Sumer", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday
Anchor Books, 1959), p29.
Sumer, Uruk, Kish3  
[1] Kramer, Samuel Noah, and Thorkild
Jacobsen. “Gilgamesh and Agga.”
American Journal of Archaeology 53.1
(1949):
1–18. http://www.jstor.org/stable/501
208 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/5012
08

[2] Kramer, Samuel Noah, and Thorkild
Jacobsen. “Gilgamesh and Agga.”
American Journal of Archaeology 53.1
(1949):
1–18. http://www.jstor.org/stable/501
208 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/5012
08
5,000 YBN
[3000 BC] 4 5 6 		6222) The inclined plane (or ramp).3
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100
Inventions That Shaped World History",
1993, p9.
2. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100
Inventions That Shaped World History",
1993, p9.
3. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100
Inventions That Shaped World History",
1993, p9.
4. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A
history of invention : from stone axes
to silicon chips ", (New York:
Checkmark Books, 2000). {3000 BC}
5. ^
Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The
Timetables of Science", Second edition,
Simon and Schuster, 1991, p11. {2900
BCE (based on Pyramid of Giza}
6. ^ Yenne and
Grosser, "100 Inventions That Shaped
World History", 1993, p9. {2.4 Million
BC}
Egypt? 
[1] Description A free body
diagram of a mass on an inclined
plane Date 27 May 2007 Source
Own work Author Mets501 CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Free_body.svg/1
000px-Free_body.svg.png
5,000 YBN
[3000 BC] 3 		6226) The abacus; a counting and
calculating device.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100
Inventions That Shaped World History",
1993, p16.
2. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100
Inventions That Shaped World History",
1993, p16.
3. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100
Inventions That Shaped World History",
1993, p16. {3000 BC}

MORE INFO
[1] Ifrah, Georges (2001), The
Universal History of Computing: From
the Abacus to the Quantum Computer, New
York: John Wiley & Sons, ISBN
0471396710
Mesopotamia2  
[1] Suanpan (the number represented in
the picture is 6,302,715,408). [t Note
that each place represents a decimal
place, and a bead on top at the bar
indicates +5, a bead on bottom at the
bar +1.] English: Abacus Scanned and
uploaded by Malcolm Farmer (englische
Wikipedia) Source: Article for
''abacus'', 9th edition Encyclopedia
Britannica, volume 1 (1875) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/af/Abacus_6.png
4,980 YBN
[2980 BC] 6 		654) The earliest pyramid in Egypt,
designed by the earliest known
scientist, Imhotep.3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.1.
2. ^ "pyramid".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 04 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/484720/pyramid>.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.1.
4. ^ "pyramid".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 04 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/484720/pyramid>.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.1.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p.1. {flourished
2980-2950 BCE}
Sakkara, Egypt5  
[1] Description English: The Pyramid
of Djoser in Saqqara, Egypt. Date
6 February 2010 Source Own
work Author Wknight94 talk GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Pyramid_of_Djos
er_2010.jpg/1280px-Pyramid_of_Djoser_201
0.jpg
4,800 YBN
[2800 BC] 4 5 		6565) Musical reed instruments.2
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ Wade-Matthews, M. Music: An
Illustrated History. Hermes House,
2002, p34-35.
2. ^ Wade-Matthews, M. Music: An
Illustrated History. Hermes House,
2002, p34-35.
3. ^ Wade-Matthews, M. Music: An
Illustrated History. Hermes House,
2002, p34-35.
4. ^ Wade-Matthews, M. Music: An
Illustrated History. Hermes House,
2002, p34-35.
5. ^ Landels, J.G., and J.G.
Landels. Music in Ancient Greece and
Rome. Taylor & Francis,
2002. http://books.google.com/books?id=
NIJCJ1acjisC&pg=PA25
Greece3  
[1] Description figurines of a flutist
(playing a flute of the en:aulos type)
and a harpplayer, bronze age, 2600
B.C., from the Greek island en:Keros in
the island group of the Cyclades. On
display at the en:National
Archaeological Museum of Athens. Date
see metadata Source Own work (my
camera) Author sailko GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/85/Cycladic_idol_03_2_re
touched.jpg

[2] Artist English: Euaion
Painter Français : Peintre
d'Euaion Description English: Youth
playing the aulos, detail of a banquet
scene. Tondo of an Attic red-figure
cup, ca. 460 BC–450 BC. Français :
Jeune garçon jouant de l'aulos,
détail d'une scène de banquet. Tondo
d'une coupe attique à figures rouges,
v. 460–450 av. J.-C. Dimensions D.
31.1 cm (12 in.) Current location
(Inventory)Louvre MuseumLink back to
Institution infobox
template Department of Greek, Etruscan
and Roman Antiquities, Sully, first
floor, room 43, case 24 Accession
number G 467 Credit line Campana
Collection, 1861 References ARV²
792,47; Add² 290 Source/Photographer
Jastrow (2008) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/33/Banquet_Euaion_Louvre
_G467_n2.jpg
4,750 YBN
[2750 BC] 6 		320) The earliest metal saw.3 4
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ Deshayes, Jean, "Les outils de
bronze, de l'Indus au Danube (IVe au
IIe millénaire)", Librairie
orientaliste P. Geuthner/Paris,
1960 {Deshayes_Les_Outils_1960.pdf}
2. ^ Wells, H. Bartlett, "The Position
of the Large Bronze Saws of Minoan
Crete in the History of Tool Making",
Expedition, 16.4, 1974,
p2-8. http://www.penn.museum/expedition
-back-issues/114-volumes-11-20/560-exped
ition-volume-16-number-4-summer-1974.htm
l
3. ^ Deshayes, Jean, "Les outils de
bronze, de l'Indus au Danube (IVe au
IIe millénaire)", Librairie
orientaliste P. Geuthner/Paris, 1960
{Deshayes_Les_Outils_1960.pdf}
4. ^ Wells, H. Bartlett, "The Position
of the Large Bronze Saws of Minoan
Crete in the History of Tool Making",
Expedition, 16.4, 1974,
p2-8. http://www.penn.museum/expedition
-back-issues/114-volumes-11-20/560-exped
ition-volume-16-number-4-summer-1974.htm
l
5. ^ Wells, H. Bartlett, "The Position
of the Large Bronze Saws of Minoan
Crete in the History of Tool Making",
Expedition, 16.4, 1974,
p2-8. http://www.penn.museum/expedition
-back-issues/114-volumes-11-20/560-exped
ition-volume-16-number-4-summer-1974.htm
l
6. ^ Wells, H. Bartlett, "The Position
of the Large Bronze Saws of Minoan
Crete in the History of Tool Making",
Expedition, 16.4, 1974,
p2-8. http://www.penn.museum/expedition
-back-issues/114-volumes-11-20/560-exped
ition-volume-16-number-4-summer-1974.htm
l {2750 BC}
Mesopotamia5  
[1] [t Note that these are not the
oldest known saws, but more recent saws
from Minoa.] Figures from: Wells, H.
Bartlett, ''The Position of the Large
Bronze Saws of Minoan Crete in the
History of Tool Making'', Expedition,
16.4, 1974,
p2-8. http://www.penn.museum/expedition
-back-issues/114-volumes-11-20/560-exped
ition-volume-16-number-4-summer-1974.htm
l
source: http://www.penn.museum/expeditio
n-back-issues/114-volumes-11-20/560-expe
dition-volume-16-number-4-summer-1974.ht
ml

[2] Saws from: [1] Deshayes, Jean,
''Les outils de bronze, de l'Indus au
Danube (IVe au IIe millénaire)'',
Librairie orientaliste P.
Geuthner/Paris,
1960 {Deshayes_Les_Outils_1960.pdf} CO
PYRIGHTED
source: Deshayes, Jean, "Les outils de
bronze, de l'Indus au Danube (IVe au
IIe millénaire)", Librairie
orientaliste P. Geuthner/Paris, 1960
4,700 YBN
[2700 BC] 4 		1052) The earliest arch.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Handcock, P.S.P. Mesopotamian
Archaeology: An Introduction to the
Archaeology of Babylonia and Assyria.
Putnam,
1912. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ErcoAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA170
2. ^"Ancient Mesopotamia:Architecture".
The Oriental Institute of the
University of Chicago.
http://oi.uchicago.edu/OI/MUS/ED/TRC/M
ESO/architecture.html
3. ^ Handcock, P.S.P. Mesopotamian
Archaeology: An Introduction to the
Archaeology of Babylonia and Assyria.
Putnam,
1912. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ErcoAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA170
4. ^ Handcock, P.S.P. Mesopotamian
Archaeology: An Introduction to the
Archaeology of Babylonia and Assyria.
Putnam,
1912. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ErcoAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA170
Nippur, Mesopotamia3  
[1] One of the most ancient arches as
yet discovered is that which was brough
to light during the course of the
excavations carried on ... at the
ancient city of Nuippur (cf. Fig. 15).
It was found at a great depth below the
surface of the mound, being more than
22 1/2 feet below the pavement of
Ur-Engur (c2400BC), and 14 feet below
that of Naram-Sin (c2700 BC) Handcock,
P.S.P. Mesopotamian Archaeology: An
Introduction to the Archaeology of
Babylonia and Assyria. Putnam,
1912. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ErcoAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA170 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=ErcoAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA170
4,500 YBN
[2500 BC] 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 		635) Iron is smelted and casted.10 11
12

The start of the Iron Age in Turkey.13

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Yalçın, Ünsal. “Early Iron
Metallurgy in Anatolia.” Anatolian
Studies 49 (1999): 177–187.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/3643073
2. ^ Wertime, Theodore A. “The
Beginnings of Metallurgy: A New
Look.” Science 182.4115 (1973):
875–887.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/1737722
3. ^ Arik, Remzi O. Les Fouilles
D'alaca Höyük Entreprises Par La
Société D'histoire Turque: Rapport
Préliminaire Sur Les Travaux En 1935.
Ankara, 1937.
4. ^ Yalçın, Ünsal. “Early
Iron Metallurgy in Anatolia.”
Anatolian Studies 49 (1999): 177–187.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/3643073
5. ^ Wertime, Theodore A. “The
Beginnings of Metallurgy: A New
Look.” Science 182.4115 (1973):
875–887.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/1737722
6. ^ Arik, Remzi O. Les Fouilles
D'alaca Höyük Entreprises Par La
Société D'histoire Turque: Rapport
Préliminaire Sur Les Travaux En 1935.
Ankara, 1937.
7. ^ Yalçın, Ünsal. “Early
Iron Metallurgy in Anatolia.”
Anatolian Studies 49 (1999): 177–187.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/3643073
8. ^ Wertime, Theodore A. “The
Beginnings of Metallurgy: A New
Look.” Science 182.4115 (1973):
875–887.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/1737722
9. ^ Arik, Remzi O. Les Fouilles
D'alaca Höyük Entreprises Par La
Société D'histoire Turque: Rapport
Préliminaire Sur Les Travaux En 1935.
Ankara, 1937.
10. ^ Yalçın, Ünsal.
“Early Iron Metallurgy in
Anatolia.” Anatolian Studies 49
(1999): 177–187.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/3643073
11. ^ Wertime, Theodore A. “The
Beginnings of Metallurgy: A New
Look.” Science 182.4115 (1973):
875–887.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/1737722
12. ^ Arik, Remzi O. Les Fouilles
D'alaca Höyük Entreprises Par La
Société D'histoire Turque: Rapport
Préliminaire Sur Les Travaux En 1935.
Ankara, 1937.
13. ^ "Iron Age". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 08 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/294368/Iron-Age>.
14. ^ Yalçın, Ünsal. “Early Iron
Metallurgy in Anatolia.” Anatolian
Studies 49 (1999): 177–187.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/3643073
15. ^ Wertime, Theodore A. “The
Beginnings of Metallurgy: A New
Look.” Science 182.4115 (1973):
875–887.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/1737722
16. ^ Arik, Remzi O. Les Fouilles
D'alaca Höyük Entreprises Par La
Société D'histoire Turque: Rapport
Préliminaire Sur Les Travaux En 1935.
Ankara, 1937.
17. ^ Petrie, W.M.F. Gerar.
British School of Archaeology in Egypt,
1928. Egyptian Research Account.
18. ^ Rickard,
T. A. “The Primitive Smelting of
Iron.” American Journal of
Archaeology 43.1 (1939): 85–101.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/499136
19. ^ Veldhuijzen, HA and Rehren, T ,
"Iron Smelting Slag Formation at Tell
Hammeh (Al-Zarqa), Jordan". (2006),
(Proceedings) 34th International
Symposium on Archaeometry, Zaragoza,
3-7 May 2004. (pp. 245 - 250).
Institucion 'Fernando el Catolico'
(CSIC) Excma. Diputacion de Zaragoza:
Zaragoza. http://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/11
494/
20. ^ Xander Veldhuijzen and Eveline
van der Steen, "Iron Production Center
Found in the Jordan Valley", Near
Eastern Archaeology, Vol. 62, No. 3
(Sep., 1999), pp. 195-199 Published
by: The American Schools of Oriental
Research Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/3210714
21. ^ Richardson, Harry Craig. “Iron,
Prehistoric and Ancient.” American
Journal of Archaeology 38.4 (1934):
555–583.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/498191
22. ^ Yalçın, Ünsal. “Early Iron
Metallurgy in Anatolia.” Anatolian
Studies 49 (1999): 177–187.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/3643073
23. ^ Petrie, W.M.F. Gerar. British
School of Archaeology in Egypt, 1928.
Egyptian Research Account, p14-16,
Plate 25-32. {Petrie_Gerar_1928.pdf}
24. ^ Rickard, T. A. “The
Primitive Smelting of Iron.” American
Journal of Archaeology 43.1 (1939):
85–101.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/499136
25. ^ Veldhuijzen, HA and Rehren, T ,
"Iron Smelting Slag Formation at Tell
Hammeh (Al-Zarqa), Jordan". (2006),
(Proceedings) 34th International
Symposium on Archaeometry, Zaragoza,
3-7 May 2004. (pp. 245 - 250).
Institucion 'Fernando el Catolico'
(CSIC) Excma. Diputacion de Zaragoza:
Zaragoza. http://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/11
494/ {930/910 BCE}
26. ^ Trevor I. Williams,
"A history of invention : from stone
axes to silicon chips ", (New York:
Checkmark Books, 2000). (3500 YBN)
27. ^
http://nobel.scas.bcit.ca/resource/ptabl
e/fe.htm (3000 YBN) (3000)
28. ^ "Iron (3500
YBN)". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron (3500
YBN) (3500)
29. ^ "Iron Age". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 08 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/294368/Iron-Age>.
30. ^ Richardson, Harry Craig. “Iron,
Prehistoric and Ancient.” American
Journal of Archaeology 38.4 (1934):
555–583.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/498191

MORE INFO
[1] "Iron age". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron_age
Alaca Höyük in northern Anatolia
(modern Turkey)14 15 16 |Palestine17 18
|Tell Hammeh (az-Zarqa), Jordan19 20
|Central Europe and north Assyria21
 
[1] Description Dagger with iron blade
and golden hilt from Alaca Höyük.
Early evidence for the use of iron in
Anatolia. Date 2005 Source Own
work Author Stipich Béla GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b9/Alaca_H%C3%BCy%C3%BCk
_dagger.jpg

[2] Xander Veldhuijzen and Eveline van
der Steen, ''Iron Production Center
Found in the Jordan Valley'', Near
Eastern Archaeology, Vol. 62, No. 3
(Sep., 1999), pp. 195-199 Published
by: The American Schools of Oriental
Research Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/3210714 COP
YRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3210
714
4,500 YBN
[2500 BC] 4 5 		637) Scribes change from writing right
to left in columns to writing left to
right in rows.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Barbara Watterson, "Introducing
Egyptian hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh:
Scottish Academic Press, 1993).
2. ^ Fischer,
S.R. A History of Writing. Reaktion,
2001. Globalities Series. p49-50.
3. ^ Barbara
Watterson, "Introducing Egyptian
hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh: Scottish
Academic Press, 1993).
4. ^ Fischer, S.R. A
History of Writing. Reaktion, 2001.
Globalities Series. p49-50.
5. ^ Barbara
Watterson, "Introducing Egyptian
hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh: Scottish
Academic Press, 1993).
Sumer3  
[1] Fischer, S.R. A History of Writing.
Reaktion, 2001. Globalities Series.
p47-48. COPYRIGHTED
source: Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p47-48.

[2] Nissen, Archaic Bookkeeping, 1993,
p22. COPYRIGHTED AND List of gods in
order of seniority: Enlil, Ninlil,
Enki, Nergal, Hendursanga,
Inanna-Zabalam, Ninebgal, Inanna, Utu,
Nanna. Sumerian cuneiform script
clay tablet, Sumer, 2400-2200 BC, 1
tablet, 4,7x4,4x1,7 cm, single column,
5+5 lines. Binding: Barking, Essex,
1998, blue cloth gilt folding case by
Aquarius. PD
source: Nissen, Archaic Bookkeeping,
1993,
p22.http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedi
a/commons/e/e1/Sumerian_MS2272_2400BC.jp
g
4,500 YBN
[2500 BC] 5 		6230) The earliest dice and boardgame.1
2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ C.L. Woolley and others, Ur
Excavations, vol. II: The Royal
Cemetery (London, The British Museum
Press, 1934), p. 276, plate 95.
2. ^
http://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/hig
hlights/highlight_objects/me/t/the_royal
_game_of_ur.aspx
3. ^ C.L. Woolley and others, Ur
Excavations, vol. II: The Royal
Cemetery (London, The British Museum
Press, 1934), p. 276, plate 95.
4. ^
http://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/hig
hlights/highlight_objects/me/t/the_royal
_game_of_ur.aspx
5. ^
http://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/hig
hlights/highlight_objects/me/t/the_royal
_game_of_ur.aspx {2400-2600 BCE}

MORE INFO
[1] C. Leonard Woolley, "Ur
Excavations. Vol. II. The Royal
Cemetery.", 1934
Ur, Mesopotamia3 4  
[1] The Royal Game of Ur From Ur,
southern Iraq, about 2600-2400
BC One of the most popular games of
the ancient world This game board is
one of several with a similar layout
found by Leonard Woolley in the Royal
Cemetery at Ur. The wood had decayed
but the inlay of shell, red limestone
and lapis lazuli survived in position
so that the original shape could be
restored. The board has twenty squares
made of shell: Five squares each have
flower rosettes, 'eyes', and circled
dots. The remaining five squares have
various designs of five dots. According
to references in ancient documents, two
players competed to race their pieces
from one end of the board to another.
Pieces were allowed on to the board at
the beginning only with specific throws
of the dice. We also know that rosette
spaces were lucky. The gaming pieces
for this particular board do not
survive. However, some sets of gaming
pieces of inlaid shale and shell were
excavated at Ur with their boards. The
boards appear to have been hollow with
the pieces stored inside. Dice, either
stick dice or tetrahedral in shape,
were also found. Examples of this
'Game of Twenty Squares' date from
about 3000 BC to the first millennium
AD and are found widely from the
eastern Mediterranean and Egypt to
India. A version of the Mesopotamian
game survived within the Jewish
community at Cochin, South India until
modern times. PD
source: http://www.britishmuseum.org/ima
ges/ps121289_l.jpg

[2] he oldest backgammon in the world
along with 60 pieces has been unearthed
beneath the rubbles of the legendary
Burnt City in Sistan-Baluchistan
province, southeastern Iran, Iranian
Cultural Heritage News Agency
reported. Iranian archeologists
working on the relics of the
5,000-year-old civilization argue this
backgammon is much older than the one
already discovered in Mesopotamia and
their evidence is strong enough to
claim the board game was first played
in the Burnt City and then transferred
to other civilizations. ''The
backgammon reveals intriguing clues to
the lifestyle of those people,'' said
Mansour Sajjadi, head of the research
team. ''The board is rectangular and
made of ebony, which did not grow in
Sistan and merchants used to import it
from India.'' He added the board
features an engraved serpent coiling
around itself for 20 times, thus
producing 20 slots for the game, more
affectionately known in Persian as
Nard. The engraving, artistically done,
indicates artisans in the Burnt City
were masters of the craft. ''The 60
pieces were also unearthed inside a
terracotta vessel beside the board.
They were made of common stones
quarried in the city, including agate
and turquoise,'' Sajjadi
added. Experts still wonder why they
played the game with 60 pieces and are
trying to discern its rules, but it at
least shows it is 100-200 years older
than the one discovered in Mesopotamia.
... PD
source: http://www.payvand.com/news/04/d
ec/dice-ancient.jpg
4,450 YBN
[2450 BC] 3 4 		708) Animal skin is used for writing
(the earliest parchment).1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "history of publishing".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 24 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/482597/history-of-publishing/286
07/Vellum-and-parchment>.
2. ^ "history of publishing".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 24 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/482597/history-of-publishing/286
07/Vellum-and-parchment>.
3. ^ "history of publishing".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 24 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/482597/history-of-publishing/286
07/Vellum-and-parchment>.
4. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).

MORE INFO
[1] "vellum." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 24 May.
2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/v
ellum>
Egypt2  
[1] Image: A detail of the Ten
Commandments scroll. Credit:
DCI UNKNOWN
source: http://blogs.discovery.com/.a/6a
00d8341bf67c53ef0154384d333c970c-pi
4,400 YBN
[2400 BC] 4 		1277) The earliest recorded written
history.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Samual Kramer, "History Begins at
Sumer", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday
Anchor Books, 1959), pp37-38.
2. ^ Nies, James
Buchanan, Clarence Elwood Keiser, and
Albert Tobias Clay. "Historical,
religious and economic texts and
antiquities."
(1920). http://digital.library.stonybro
ok.edu/cdm/singleitem/collection/iraqiar
cheology/id/25/rec/12
3. ^ Samual Kramer, "History Begins at
Sumer", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday
Anchor Books, 1959), 3rd edition 1981,
p43.
4. ^ Samual Kramer, "History Begins at
Sumer", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday
Anchor Books, 1959), 3rd edition 1981,
p38.
Lagash3  
[1] Nies, James Buchanan, Clarence
Elwood Keiser, and Albert Tobias Clay.
''Historical, religious and economic
texts and antiquities.''
(1920). http://digital.library.stonybro
ok.edu/cdm/singleitem/collection/iraqiar
cheology/id/25/rec/12 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://digital.library.stonybroo
k.edu/cdm/singleitem/collection/iraqiarc
heology/id/25/rec/12
4,345 YBN
[2345 BC] 4 5 6 7 		800) Writing on papyrus.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Amelia Ann Blanford Edwards,
"Egypt and its monuments: pharaohs,
fellahs and explorers", 1891,
p195. http://books.google.com/books?id=
QIwWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA195
2. ^ Amelia Ann Blanford Edwards,
"Egypt and its monuments: pharaohs,
fellahs and explorers", 1891,
p195. http://books.google.com/books?id=
QIwWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA195
3. ^ Amelia Ann Blanford Edwards,
"Egypt and its monuments: pharaohs,
fellahs and explorers", 1891,
p195. http://books.google.com/books?id=
QIwWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA195
4. ^ "papyrus." The Concise Oxford
Dictionary of Archaeology. Oxford
University Press, 2002, 2003.
Answers.com 25 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/papyrus
5. ^
http://www-user.uni-bremen.de/~wie/Egert
on/BellSkeat2.html
6. ^
http://www.travellersinegypt.org/archive
s/2005/07/prisse_davennes.html (=3300)
7. ^
"Djedkare Isesi". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Djedkare_Is
esi (=2407 or 2419)
Egypt3  
[1] Papyrus Prisse. Egyptien 189.
Enseignement de Ptahhotep(217-298)
UNKNOWN
source: http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148
/btv1b8304612b/f1.highres
4,300 YBN
[2300 BC] 5 6 		629) The Akkadian language, the
earliest known semitic language. The
earliest verb tense, and noun gender.1
2 The first dictionary.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Akkadian language".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 04 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/11690/Akkadian-language>.
2. ^ Nissen, H.J. et al. Archaic
Bookkeeping: Early Writing and
Techniques of Economic Administration
in the Ancient Near East. University of
Chicago Press, 1994, p117.
3. ^ Samual
Kramer, "History Begins at Sumer",
(Garden City, NY: Doubleday Anchor
Books, 1959), 5.
4. ^ Samual Kramer,
"History Begins at Sumer", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday Anchor Books,
1959), 5.
5. ^ Nissen, H.J. et al. Archaic
Bookkeeping: Early Writing and
Techniques of Economic Administration
in the Ancient Near East. University of
Chicago Press, 1994, p5.
6. ^ "Akkad".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 04 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/11671/Akkad>.

MORE INFO
[1] Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series
Agade, Mesopotamia4  
[1] Nissen, H.J. et al. Archaic
Bookkeeping: Early Writing and
Techniques of Economic Administration
in the Ancient Near East. University of
Chicago Press, 1994, p124. COPYRIGHTED

source: Nissen, H.J. et al. Archaic
Bookkeeping: Early Writing and
Techniques of Economic Administration
in the Ancient Near East. University of
Chicago Press, 1994, p124.

[2] Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p50. COPYRIGHTED
source: Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p50.
4,300 YBN
[2300 BC] 6 7 8 9 10 11 		667) The earliest glass making; glass
beads.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ J. Henderson, J. Evans and K.
Nikita, "ISOTOPIC EVIDENCE FOR THE
PRIMARY PRODUCTION, PROVENANCE AND
TRADE OF LATE BRONZE AGE GLASS IN THE
MEDITERRANEAN", Mediterranean
Archaeology and Archaeometry, Vol. 10,
No. 1, pp. 1‐24.
2010. http://www.rhodes.aegean.gr/maa_j
ournal/Henderson%2010_1.pdf
2. ^ J. Henderson, J. Evans and K.
Nikita, "ISOTOPIC EVIDENCE FOR THE
PRIMARY PRODUCTION, PROVENANCE AND
TRADE OF LATE BRONZE AGE GLASS IN THE
MEDITERRANEAN", Mediterranean
Archaeology and Archaeometry, Vol. 10,
No. 1, pp. 1‐24.
2010. http://www.rhodes.aegean.gr/maa_j
ournal/Henderson%2010_1.pdf
3. ^ J. Henderson, J. Evans and K.
Nikita, "ISOTOPIC EVIDENCE FOR THE
PRIMARY PRODUCTION, PROVENANCE AND
TRADE OF LATE BRONZE AGE GLASS IN THE
MEDITERRANEAN", Mediterranean
Archaeology and Archaeometry, Vol. 10,
No. 1, pp. 1‐24.
2010. http://www.rhodes.aegean.gr/maa_j
ournal/Henderson%2010_1.pdf
4. ^ J. Henderson, J. Evans and K.
Nikita, "ISOTOPIC EVIDENCE FOR THE
PRIMARY PRODUCTION, PROVENANCE AND
TRADE OF LATE BRONZE AGE GLASS IN THE
MEDITERRANEAN", Mediterranean
Archaeology and Archaeometry, Vol. 10,
No. 1, pp. 1‐24.
2010. http://www.rhodes.aegean.gr/maa_j
ournal/Henderson%2010_1.pdf
5. ^ J. Henderson, J. Evans and K.
Nikita, "ISOTOPIC EVIDENCE FOR THE
PRIMARY PRODUCTION, PROVENANCE AND
TRADE OF LATE BRONZE AGE GLASS IN THE
MEDITERRANEAN", Mediterranean
Archaeology and Archaeometry, Vol. 10,
No. 1, pp. 1‐24.
2010. http://www.rhodes.aegean.gr/maa_j
ournal/Henderson%2010_1.pdf
6. ^ J. Henderson, J. Evans and K.
Nikita, "ISOTOPIC EVIDENCE FOR THE
PRIMARY PRODUCTION, PROVENANCE AND
TRADE OF LATE BRONZE AGE GLASS IN THE
MEDITERRANEAN", Mediterranean
Archaeology and Archaeometry, Vol. 10,
No. 1, pp. 1‐24.
2010. http://www.rhodes.aegean.gr/maa_j
ournal/Henderson%2010_1.pdf {4300 YBN}
7. ^
P. R. S. Moorey, "Ancient Mesopotamian
Materials and Industries. The
Archaeological Evidence", Clarendon
Press, Oxford, 1994,
p190. {Mesopotamian_Materials_and_Indus
tries_Moorey_1994.pdf}
AND {Moorey-Ancient_Mesopotamian_Materi
als_and_Industries-1994.pdf} {c4000YBN}
8. ^ James
Owen, "Ancient Egyptian City Yields
World's Oldest Glassworks", National
Geographic News June 16,
2005 http://news.nationalgeographic.com
/news/2005/06/0616_050616_egyptglass.htm
l {35000 YBN}
9. ^ Thilo Rehren and Edgar B.
Pusch, "Late Bronze Age Glass
Production at Qantir-Piramesses,
Egypt", Science New Series, Vol. 308,
No. 5729 (Jun. 17, 2005), pp.
1756-1758 Published by: American
Association for the Advancement of
Science Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/3841666
{35000 YBN}
10. ^
http://glassonline.com/infoserv/history.
html {5500YBN}
11. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A
history of invention : from stone axes
to silicon chips ", (New York:
Checkmark Books, 2000). {5000YBN}
Mesopotamia5  
[1] Figures 2b and 2a from: J.
Henderson, J. Evans and K. Nikita,
''ISOTOPIC EVIDENCE FOR THE PRIMARY
PRODUCTION, PROVENANCE AND TRADE OF
LATE BRONZE AGE GLASS IN THE
MEDITERRANEAN'', Mediterranean
Archaeology and Archaeometry, Vol. 10,
No. 1, pp. 1‐24.
2010. http://www.rhodes.aegean.gr/maa_j
ournal/Henderson%2010_1.pdf COPYRIGHTED

source: http://www.rhodes.aegean.gr/maa_
journal/Henderson%2010_1.pdf

[2] Glass ingots (inset) from a Bronze
Age shipwreck near Turkey fit Egyptian
molds. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.toutankharton.com/IMG
/jpg/a6260_1449.jpg
4,300 YBN
[2300 BC] 11 12 13 14 15 		1271) The earliest written stories.
These consist of epics and myths, hymns
and laments, proverbs and wisdom.6

These writings record a belief in Gods,
Goddesses, a Heaven, and an Under
World.7

There are clear similarities between
the Sumerian and the later Greek
stories, for example stories about the
creation of the universe, good and bad
deeds of the gods, and of a flood.8
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ Kramer, S.N. Sumerian Mythology:
A Study of Spiritual and Literary
Achievement in the Third Millennium,
B.C. c by. ^ S. N. Kramer ... American
Philosophical Society, 1944. Memoirs of
the American Philosophical
Society. http://books.google.com/books?
id=77aDgCLAZS8C
2. ^ Kramer, S.N. Sumerian Mythology: A
Study of Spiritual and Literary
Achievement in the Third Millennium,
B.C. c by. ^ S. N. Kramer ... American
Philosophical Society, 1944. Memoirs of
the American Philosophical
Society. http://books.google.com/books?
id=77aDgCLAZS8C
3. ^ Kramer, S.N. Sumerian Mythology: A
Study of Spiritual and Literary
Achievement in the Third Millennium,
B.C. c by. ^ S. N. Kramer ... American
Philosophical Society, 1944. Memoirs of
the American Philosophical
Society. http://books.google.com/books?
id=77aDgCLAZS8C
4. ^ Kramer, Samuel N. Sumerian
Mythology: A Study of Spiritual and
Literary Achievement in the Third
Millennium B.c. New York: Harper, 1961.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/986108
5. ^ Kramer, S.N. Sumerian Mythology: A
Study of Spiritual and Literary
Achievement in the Third Millennium,
B.C. c by. ^ S. N. Kramer ... American
Philosophical Society, 1944. Memoirs of
the American Philosophical
Society. http://books.google.com/books?
id=77aDgCLAZS8C
6. ^ Kramer, S.N. Sumerian Mythology: A
Study of Spiritual and Literary
Achievement in the Third Millennium,
B.C. c by. ^ S. N. Kramer ... American
Philosophical Society, 1944. Memoirs of
the American Philosophical
Society. http://books.google.com/books?
id=77aDgCLAZS8C
7. ^ Kramer, Samuel N. Sumerian
Mythology: A Study of Spiritual and
Literary Achievement in the Third
Millennium B.c. New York: Harper, 1961.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/986108
8. ^ Kramer, Samuel N. Sumerian
Mythology: A Study of Spiritual and
Literary Achievement in the Third
Millennium B.c. New York: Harper, 1961.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/986108
9. ^ Hayes, A Manual of Sumerian
grammar and texts, 1990, p270.
10. ^ Kramer,
S.N. Sumerian Mythology: A Study of
Spiritual and Literary Achievement in
the Third Millennium, B.C. c by. ^ S.
N. Kramer ... American Philosophical
Society, 1944. Memoirs of the American
Philosophical
Society. http://books.google.com/books?
id=77aDgCLAZS8C
11. ^ Hayes, A Manual of Sumerian
grammar and texts, 1990, p270. (there
is also a 2000 edition
{Hayes_Sumerian_2000.pdf})
12. ^ Kramer, S.N. Sumerian Mythology:
A Study of Spiritual and Literary
Achievement in the Third Millennium,
B.C. c by. ^ S. N. Kramer ... American
Philosophical Society, 1944. Memoirs of
the American Philosophical
Society. http://books.google.com/books?
id=77aDgCLAZS8C
13. ^ Kramer, Samuel N. Sumerian
Mythology: A Study of Spiritual and
Literary Achievement in the Third
Millennium B.c. New York: Harper, 1961.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/986108
14. ^ Thomson, G.A. First Writers-The
Sumerians: They Wrote on Clay.
iUniverse, 2011, p xi.
15. ^ Alexander,
T.D., and D.W. Baker. Dictionary of the
Old Testament: Pentateuch: A Compendium
of Contemporary Biblical Scholarship.
InterVarsity Press, 2002. The IVP Bible
Dictionary Series, p608.

MORE INFO
[1] "Ancient literature".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_lit
erature
[2] Arno Poebel, "Historical and
grammatical texts", vols 1-5,
1914. vol 1:
http://books.google.com/books?id=tg0TAAA
AYAAJ vol 4:
http://books.google.com/books?id=mxwYAAA
AYAAJ vol 5:
http://books.google.com/books?id=_A0TAAA
AYAAJ
[3] Jeffrey H. Tigay, "The evolution of
the Gilgamesh epic",
http://books.google.com/books?id=cxjuH
TH6I2sC
[4] Kramer, S. N. "Sumerian Literature;
A Preliminary Survey of the Oldest
Literature in the World." Proceedings
of the American Philosophical Society
85.3 (1942): 293�323.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/985008
Lagash9 |Nippur10  
[1] Photo of Creation and deluge tablet
- I did verify that this is the
earliest tablet of the earliest written
story with Kramer's Sumerian
Mythology[t] Arno Poebel, ''Historical
and grammatical texts'', vols 1-5,
1914. vol 1:
http://books.google.com/books?id=tg0TAAA
AYAAJ vol 4:
http://books.google.com/books?id=mxwYAAA
AYAAJ vol 5:
http://books.google.com/books?id=_A0TAAA
AYAAJ PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=_A0TAAAAYAAJ

[2] Photo of Creation and deluge
tablet - I did verify that this is the
earliest tablet of the earliest written
story with Kramer's Sumerian
Mythology[t] Arno Poebel, ''Historical
and grammatical texts'', vols 1-5,
1914. vol 1:
http://books.google.com/books?id=tg0TAAA
AYAAJ vol 4:
http://books.google.com/books?id=mxwYAAA
AYAAJ vol 5:
http://books.google.com/books?id=_A0TAAA
AYAAJ PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=_A0TAAAAYAAJ
4,200 YBN
[2200 BC] 4 		6446) Egyptian writing becomes
completely phonetic.1 The first
alphabet.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p84.
2. ^ Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series, p39.
3. ^ Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p84.
4. ^ Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p84.

MORE INFO
[1] Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p47
Egypt3  
[1] Fischer, S.R. A History of Writing.
Reaktion, 2001. Globalities Series.
p48. COPYRIGHTED
source: Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p48.
4,130 YBN
[2130 BC] 5 		6234) The earliest musical horn.3
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^ Curt Sachs, "The History of
Musical Instruments", 1940, p73.
2. ^ Curt
Sachs, "The History of Musical
Instruments", 1940, p73.
3. ^ Curt Sachs,
"The History of Musical Instruments",
1940, p73.
4. ^
http://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/hig
hlights/article_index/g/gudea,_king_of_l
agash.aspx
5. ^
http://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/hig
hlights/article_index/g/gudea,_king_of_l
agash.aspx {around) 2130 BCE}
Lagash, Mesopotamia4  
[1] [t Note that this is not evidence
of the earliest horn, but is from
around 1250BC or 700 BCE] Hittites:
Musical scene, Carchemish Height:
100 cm, 700 BC. Museum of Anatolian
Civilizations, Ankara Three men are
playing a drum, while on the left a man
is holding a horn-shaped instrument to
his mouth with both hands. PD
source: http://farm1.staticflickr.com/6/
10156251_017f473153_b.jpg
4,100 YBN
[2100 BC] 4 5 		1279) The earliest Health science
text.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Samual Kramer, "History Begins at
Sumer", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday
Anchor Books, 1959), p52.
2. ^ Samual
Kramer, "History Begins at Sumer",
(Garden City, NY: Doubleday Anchor
Books, 1959), p52.
3. ^ Samual Kramer,
"History Begins at Sumer", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday Anchor Books,
1959), p60.
4. ^ Samual Kramer, "History
Begins at Sumer", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday Anchor Books, 1959), p60.
(=toward the end of the 3rd millenium)
(=toward the end of the 3rd millenium)
5. ^
http://www.uic.edu/classes/osci/osci590/
11_1OldestPrescription.htm (The tablet
was inscribed toward the end of the
dynasty founded by Sargon the Great,
some time during the last quarter of
Third Millennium B.C)
Nippur3  
[1] Cuneiform medical
recipes Picture from a reproduction
of the original clay tablet dug in
Nippur, Sumer, dated from the III
millennium before Christ, and kept in
the Museum of the University of
Philadelphia (USA). This is
considered to be the earliest medical
recipes manual known. Thew original
picture at 7 Mpixel resolution is
available from the author. CC
source: http://farm4.staticflickr.com/33
27/3524713203_7d0a64d7aa_b.jpg

[2] Figure 2:The oldest medical text
“handbook” Clay Tablet with
pharmacological inscription from Nuppur
late 3rd Millennium B.C. University
museum, University of Pennsylvania,
Philadelphia USA . UNKNOWN
source: http://www.ispub.com/journal/the
-internet-journal-of-health/volume-5-num
ber-1/surgical-medical-and-anesthesia-in
-the-middle-east-notes-on-ancient-and-me
dieval-practice-with-reference-to-islami
c-arabic-medicine.article-g05.fs.jpg
4,100 YBN
[2100 BC] 4 		6376) The first place value number
system, a sexagesimal (base 60) number
system. Fractional values such as 1/60
and 1/3600 are also in use.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Archaic Bookkeeping, Nissen,
1993, pp5,142-143.
2. ^ Archaic Bookkeeping, Nissen,
1993, pp5,142-143.
3. ^ Archaic Bookkeeping, Nissen,
1993, pp5,142-143.
4. ^ Archaic Bookkeeping, Nissen,
1993, pp5,142-143.

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.jstor.org/view/00030279/ap020
117/02a00010/0 (sexagesimal.pdf)
[2] Barbara Watterson,
"Introducing Egyptian hieroglyphs",
(Edinburgh: Scottish Academic Press,
1993)
[3] Roy MacLeod, "The Library of
Alexandria Centre of Learning in the
Ancient World", (New York: I.B.Tauris &
Co Ltd, 2000)
[4] "sigillography."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online Academic Edition.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 20
Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/543584/sigillography>
[5]
http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~hist
ory/HistTopics/Babylonian_numerals.html
[6] "Numeral system#History".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numeral_sys
tem#History
[7]
http://www.earth-history.com/Clay-tablet
s.htm
[8] "writing." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/649670/writing>
[9] Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000)
Babylonia3  
[1] Archaic Bookkeeping, Nissen, 1993,
pp145. COPYRIGHTED
source: Archaic Bookkeeping, Nissen,
1993, pp145.

[2] Archaic Bookkeeping, Nissen, 1993,
pp145. COPYRIGHTED
source: Archaic Bookkeeping, Nissen,
1993, pp145.
4,050 YBN
[2050 BC] 4 		1278) The earliest recorded laws.2
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ Samual Kramer, "History Begins at
Sumer", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday
Anchor Books, 1959), p52.
2. ^ Samual
Kramer, "History Begins at Sumer",
(Garden City, NY: Doubleday Anchor
Books, 1959), p52.
3. ^ Samual Kramer,
"History Begins at Sumer", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday Anchor Books,
1959), p52.
4. ^ Samual Kramer, "History
Begins at Sumer", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday Anchor Books, 1959), p52.
Ur3  
[1] Tablet 3191 20 x 10 cm sun-baked
tablet. Kramer, ''History Begins At
Sumer'', 1956, p53.
source: Kramer, "History Begins At
Sumer", 1956, p53.

[2] [t Note - this doesn't look like
JKramer's image''] The Code of
Ur-Namma, the world's first known
codified list of laws. See the laws of
Ur-Namma.
source: http://sumerianshakespeare.com/m
ediac/450_0/media/fa2c170b2842c984ffff80
05ffffe415.jpg
4,000 YBN
[2000 BC] 4 5 		706) Humans ride horses.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Outram, Alan K. et al. “The
Earliest Horse Harnessing and
Milking.” Science 323.5919 (2009):
1332 –1335.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/323/5919/1332.short
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/2547163
9
2. ^ Outram, Alan K. et al. “The
Earliest Horse Harnessing and
Milking.” Science 323.5919 (2009):
1332 –1335.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/323/5919/1332.short
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/2547163
9
3. ^ Outram, Alan K. et al. “The
Earliest Horse Harnessing and
Milking.” Science 323.5919 (2009):
1332 –1335.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/323/5919/1332.short
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/2547163
9
4. ^ Outram, Alan K. et al. “The
Earliest Horse Harnessing and
Milking.” Science 323.5919 (2009):
1332 –1335.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/323/5919/1332.short
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/2547163
9
5. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
Kazakhstan3  
[1] Tell-tale signs of 'bit damage'
found by researchers in Kazakhstan are
evidence that horses were harnessed and
may have been ridden as early as 5,500
years ago. Researchers found traces of
the use of thong bridles, which are
simply leather thongs draped over the
gap between the teeth of a horse's
lower jaw and knotted under the chin,
with the trailing ends acting as the
reins. This is a depiction of the use
of a rawhide thong bridle on a
primitive domesticated horse. The thong
loops over the bar, or diastema,
between the anterior and cheek teeth,
and is knotted below the
chin. Credit: Illustration by Sandra
Olsen, Carnegie Museum of Natural
History Evidence of thong bridle use
suggests horses may have been ridden as
early as 5,500 years ago. Illustration
by Sandra Olsen, Carnegie Museum of
Natural History PD
source: http://www.nsf.gov/news/mmg/medi
a/images/horse1_f.jpg

[2] Outram, Alan K. et al. “The
Earliest Horse Harnessing and
Milking.” Science 323.5919 (2009):
1332 –1335.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/323/5919/1332.short
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/2547163
9
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/323/5919/1332.short
4,000 YBN
[2000 BC] 3 		711) The earliest spoked wheel.1
Spokes make the wheel lighter in
weight.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ Ghosh, A. (1989). An Encyclopedia
of Indian Archaeology. New Delhi:
Munshiram Manoharlal.
p.337. http://books.google.com/books?id
=Wba-EZhZcfgC&printsec=frontcover&hl=it#
v=onepage&q=wheel&f=false
3. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
 
[1] Fig. 4. Rakhigarhi: Terracotta
wheel. The painted lines radiating from
the central hub and reaching the
circumference clearly represent the
spokes of the wheel. Mature
Harappan. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.sksuman.110mb.com/ind
ex_files/image542.jpg

[2] Fig. 5. Banawali: Terracotta
wheels showing the spokes in low
relief. The specimen on the left
is worn out but the spokes may still
be seen. The specimen on the right,
though broken, shows the spokes very
clearly. Mature Harappan. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.sksuman.110mb.com/ind
ex_files/image620.jpg
4,000 YBN
[2000 BC] 11 12 		733) The earliest lock and key.7 8
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ "article 4263". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-426
3
2. ^
http://www.usgennet.org/usa/topic/preser
vation/science/inventions/chpt8.htm
3. ^ "article 4263". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-426
3
4. ^
http://www.usgennet.org/usa/topic/preser
vation/science/inventions/chpt8.htm
5. ^ "article 4263". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-426
3
6. ^
http://www.usgennet.org/usa/topic/preser
vation/science/inventions/chpt8.htm
7. ^ "article 4263". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-426
3
8. ^
http://www.usgennet.org/usa/topic/preser
vation/science/inventions/chpt8.htm
9. ^
http://www.usgennet.org/usa/topic/preser
vation/science/inventions/chpt8.htm
(=4000ybn/nineveh)
10. ^ "Nineveh." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 05
May. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/nineveh
11. ^
http://www.usgennet.org/usa/topic/preser
vation/science/inventions/chpt8.htm
(=4000ybn/nineveh) {4000 YBN(nineveh}
12. ^ Trevor
I. Williams, "A history of invention :
from stone axes to silicon chips ",
(New York: Checkmark Books, 2000).
(=1200bce/egypt) {1200 BCE (egypt}
Nineveh,9 Assyria on the Tigris
River10  
[1] Ancient wooden lock and key from
Khorsabad (Much reduced) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.usgennet.org/usa/topi
c/preservation/science/inventions/chpt8.
htm
4,000 YBN
[2000 BC] 5 6 		1283) The earliest library catalog.1 2

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Samual Kramer, "History Begins at
Sumer", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday
Anchor Books, 1959), p217.
2. ^
http://www.sacred-texts.com/ane/sum/sum0
5.htm
3. ^
http://www.sacred-texts.com/ane/sum/sum0
5.htm
4. ^ "Nippur." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 05 May.
2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/nippur
5. ^
http://www.sacred-texts.com/ane/sum/sum0
5.htm (2000BCE)
6. ^ Ted Huntington. (find more
exact if possible)
Nippur3 an ancient city of Babylonia
on the Euphrates River southeast of
Babylon4  
[1] PLATE II OLDEST LITERARY
CATALOGUE This plate illustrates a
literary catalogue compiled in
approximately 2000 B. C. (clay tablet
29.15.155 in the Nippur collection of
the University Museum). The upper part
represents the tablet itself; the lower
part, the author's hand copy of the
tablet. The titles of those
compositions whose actual contents we
can now reconstruct in large part are
as follows: 1. Hymn of King Shulgi
(approximately 2100 B. C.). 2. Hymn of
King Lipit-Ishtar (approximately 1950
B. C.). 3. Myth, ''The Creation of the
Pickax'' (see p. 51). 4. Hymn to
Inanna, queen of heaven. 5. Hymn to
Enlil, the air-god. 6. Hymn to the
temple of the mother-goddess Ninhursag
in the city of Kesh. 7. Epic tale,
''Gilgamesh, Enkidu, and the Nether
World'' (see p. 30). 8. Epic tale,
''Inanna and Ebih'' (see p. 82). 9.
Epic tale, ''Gilgamesh and
Huwawa.'' 10. Epic tale, ''Gilgamesh
and Agga.'' 11. Myth, ''Cattle and
Grain'' (see p. 53). 12. Lamentation
over the fall of Agade in the time of
Naram-Sin (approximately 2400 B.
C.). 13. Lamentation over the
destruction of Ur. This composition,
consisting of 436 lines, has been
almost completely reconstructed and
published by the author as
Assyriological Study No. 12 of the
Oriental Institute of the University of
Chicago. 14. Lamentation over the
destruction of Nippur. 15. Lamentation
over the destruction of Sumer. 16.
Epic tale, ''Lugalbanda and
Enmerkar.'' 17. Myth, ''Inanna's
Descent to the Nether World'' (see p.
83). 18. Perhaps a hymn to
Inanna. 19. Collection of short hymns
to all the important temples of
Sumer. 20. Wisdom compositions
describing the activities of a boy
training to be a scribe. 21. Wisdom
composition, ''Instructions of a
Peasant to His Son.'' 16 PD
source: http://www.sacred-texts.com/ane/
sum/img/pl02.jpg
4,000 YBN
[2000 BC] 4 		6236) Metal is traded as money.2
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ "money." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/389170/money>.
2. ^ "money." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online
Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/389170/money>.
3. ^ "money." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online
Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/389170/money>.
4. ^ "money." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online
Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/389170/money>. {older than) 2000 BCE}
Babylonia3  
[1] Copper ingot from Zakros,
Crete Photo by Chris 73 GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/02/Copper_Ingot_Crete.jp
g
4,000 YBN
[2000 BC] 3 		6542) The vegetables leek, garlic and
onion are grown around the fertile
crescent.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Zohary, D., M. Hopf, and E.
Weiss. Domestication of Plants in the
Old World: The Origin and Spread of
Domesticated Plants in Southwest Asia,
Europe, and the Mediterranean Basin.
OUP Oxford, 2012,
p155-157. http://books.google.com/books
?id=tc6vr0qzk_4C
2. ^ Zohary, D., M. Hopf, and E. Weiss.
Domestication of Plants in the Old
World: The Origin and Spread of
Domesticated Plants in Southwest Asia,
Europe, and the Mediterranean Basin.
OUP Oxford, 2012,
p155-157. http://books.google.com/books
?id=tc6vr0qzk_4C
3. ^ Zohary, D., M. Hopf, and E. Weiss.
Domestication of Plants in the Old
World: The Origin and Spread of
Domesticated Plants in Southwest Asia,
Europe, and the Mediterranean Basin.
OUP Oxford, 2012,
p155-157. http://books.google.com/books
?id=tc6vr0qzk_4C
Mesopotamia2  
[1] Description English: Leek field
in Italy Date 19 January 2008,
10:07 Source Flickr: Porri, Lauch,
Leek Author Peter Forster CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Leek_field_in_I
taly_3.jpg/640px-Leek_field_in_Italy_3.j
pg
3,700 YBN
[1700 BC] 3 		1280) The earliest agricultural science
text.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Samual Kramer, "History Begins at
Sumer", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday
Anchor Books, 1959), p65.
2. ^ Samual
Kramer, "History Begins at Sumer",
(Garden City, NY: Doubleday Anchor
Books, 1959), p65.
3. ^ Samual Kramer,
"History Begins at Sumer", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday Anchor Books,
1959), 3rd edition, 1981, p66.
Nippur2  
[1] Samual Kramer, ''History Begins at
Sumer'', (Garden City, NY: Doubleday
Anchor Books, 1959), 3rd edition, 1981,
p66. copyrighted
source: Samual Kramer, "History Begins
at Sumer", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday
Anchor Books, 1959), 3rd edition, 1981,
p66.
3,650 YBN
[1650 BC] 3 		716) The earliest mathematical text.1
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^
http://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/hig
hlights/highlight_objects/aes/r/rhind_ma
thematical_papyrus.aspx
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
Egypt2  
[1] Description Rhind Mathematical
Papyrus Thebes, End of the Second
Intermediate Period (c.1550
BC) Acquired by the Scottish lawyer
A.H. Rhind during his sojourn in Thebes
in the 1850s. Overall length 319 cm,
width: 34.3 cm Frame length: 216 cm,
width: 43 cm British Museum EA
10057 Department of Ancient Egypt and
Sudan Date 21 May 2006 Source
http://www.archaeowiki.org/Image:Rhind_
Mathematical_Papyrus.jpg Author Paul
James Cowie (Pjamescowie)
source: http://kak.ru/vimg/article/f304a
d8044c45bfa5b9a21fd400ae5b2.gif

[2] Rhind Mathematical Papyrus
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.bbc.co.uk/ahistoryoft
heworld/images/emp/00017_02.jpg
3,531 YBN
[1531 BC] 10 11 		639) The first planet, Venus, is
recognized in Babylon.7 8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Russell Hobson, THE EXACT
TRANSMISSION OF TEXTS IN THE FIRST
MILLENNIUM B.C.E., Published PhD
Thesis. Department of Hebrew, Biblical
and Jewish Studies. University of
Sydney, 2009,
p6. http://www.caeno.org/_Eponym/pdf/Ga
sche_Ammizaduga%20new%20chronology.pdf
2. ^ Evans, James (1998). The History
and Practice of Ancient Astronomy.
Oxford University Press. pp. 296–7.
ISBN 9780195095395.
http://books.google.com/books?id=nS51_
7qbEWsC&pg=PA17&lpg=PA17&dq=babylon+gree
k+astronomy&hl=en#v=onepage&q=babylon%20
greek%20astronomy&f=false
3. ^ Russell Hobson, THE EXACT
TRANSMISSION OF TEXTS IN THE FIRST
MILLENNIUM B.C.E., Published PhD
Thesis. Department of Hebrew, Biblical
and Jewish Studies. University of
Sydney, 2009,
p6. http://www.caeno.org/_Eponym/pdf/Ga
sche_Ammizaduga%20new%20chronology.pdf
4. ^ Evans, James (1998). The History
and Practice of Ancient Astronomy.
Oxford University Press. pp. 296–7.
ISBN 9780195095395.
http://books.google.com/books?id=nS51_
7qbEWsC&pg=PA17&lpg=PA17&dq=babylon+gree
k+astronomy&hl=en#v=onepage&q=babylon%20
greek%20astronomy&f=false
5. ^ Russell Hobson, THE EXACT
TRANSMISSION OF TEXTS IN THE FIRST
MILLENNIUM B.C.E., Published PhD
Thesis. Department of Hebrew, Biblical
and Jewish Studies. University of
Sydney, 2009,
p6. http://www.caeno.org/_Eponym/pdf/Ga
sche_Ammizaduga%20new%20chronology.pdf
6. ^ Evans, James (1998). The History
and Practice of Ancient Astronomy.
Oxford University Press. pp. 296–7.
ISBN 9780195095395.
http://books.google.com/books?id=nS51_
7qbEWsC&pg=PA17&lpg=PA17&dq=babylon+gree
k+astronomy&hl=en#v=onepage&q=babylon%20
greek%20astronomy&f=false
7. ^ Russell Hobson, THE EXACT
TRANSMISSION OF TEXTS IN THE FIRST
MILLENNIUM B.C.E., Published PhD
Thesis. Department of Hebrew, Biblical
and Jewish Studies. University of
Sydney, 2009,
p6. http://www.caeno.org/_Eponym/pdf/Ga
sche_Ammizaduga%20new%20chronology.pdf
8. ^ Evans, James (1998). The History
and Practice of Ancient Astronomy.
Oxford University Press. pp. 296–7.
ISBN 9780195095395.
http://books.google.com/books?id=nS51_
7qbEWsC&pg=PA17&lpg=PA17&dq=babylon+gree
k+astronomy&hl=en#v=onepage&q=babylon%20
greek%20astronomy&f=false
9. ^ Russell Hobson, THE EXACT
TRANSMISSION OF TEXTS IN THE FIRST
MILLENNIUM B.C.E., Published PhD
Thesis. Department of Hebrew, Biblical
and Jewish Studies. University of
Sydney, 2009,
p6. http://www.caeno.org/_Eponym/pdf/Ga
sche_Ammizaduga%20new%20chronology.pdf
10. ^ Russell Hobson, THE EXACT
TRANSMISSION OF TEXTS IN THE FIRST
MILLENNIUM B.C.E., Published PhD
Thesis. Department of Hebrew, Biblical
and Jewish Studies. University of
Sydney, 2009,
p6. http://www.caeno.org/_Eponym/pdf/Ga
sche_Ammizaduga%20new%20chronology.pdf
11. ^ Evans, James (1998). The History
and Practice of Ancient Astronomy.
Oxford University Press. pp. 296–7.
ISBN 9780195095395.
http://books.google.com/books?id=nS51_
7qbEWsC&pg=PA17&lpg=PA17&dq=babylon+gree
k+astronomy&hl=en#v=onepage&q=babylon%20
greek%20astronomy&f=false
Babylon9  
[1] Description English: Venus Tablet
of Ammisaduqa. Neo-Assyrian
period. Date 15 July 2010 Current
location [show]British
Museum Source/Photographer Fæ (Own
work) Permission (Reusing this
file) See below. British Museum
reference K.160 Detailed
description Upper part of a clay
tablet, 3 pieces, beginning of obverse
and the end of reverse are wanting,
astrological forecasts, a copy of the
so-called Venus Tablet of Ammisaduqa,
Neo-Assyrian. ~ Description extract
from BM record. Size Length: 17.14 cm
(6.75 in) Width: 9.2 cm (3.6 in)
Thickness: 2.22 cm (0.87
in) Location Room 55 CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/bb/Venus_Tablet_of_Ammis
aduqa.jpg
3,500 YBN
[1500 BC] 6 		624) The earliest oven-baked mud brick
(or "burned brick").3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "brick and tile." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2011. Web. 26 Dec. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/79195/brick>.
2. ^ "burnt brick." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Architecture and
Construction. McGraw-Hill Companies,
Inc., 2003. Answers.com 27 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/burnt-brick
-1
3. ^ "brick and tile." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2011. Web. 26 Dec. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/79195/brick>.
4. ^ "burnt brick." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Architecture and
Construction. McGraw-Hill Companies,
Inc., 2003. Answers.com 27 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/burnt-brick
-1
5. ^ "brick and tile." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2011. Web. 26 Dec. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/79195/brick>.
6. ^ "brick and tile." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2011. Web. 26 Dec. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/79195/brick>. {1500 BC}
Ur, Mesopotamia (modern Iraq)5  
[1] [t Note that this is not the oldest
baked brick as far as I
know] Description العربية:
أنقاض مدينة أور
الأثرية في محافظة ذي
قار جنوب العراق English:
Ruins in the Town of Ur, Southern
Iraq Español: Ruinas de la ciuad de
Ur con el Zigurat de Ur-Nammu al fondo
a las afueras de Nasiriyah. Date 20
June 2006 Source Flickr Author
M.Lubinski from Iraq,USA. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Ur-Nassiriyah.j
pg/1280px-Ur-Nassiriyah.jpg
3,500 YBN
[1500 BC] 6 7 		723) The earliest pulley.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
3. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
4. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
5. ^ Sir Austen Henry Layard, "Nineveh
and its remains: with an account of a
visit to the Chaldean ...", 1850,
p219. http://books.google.com/books?id=
-J5CAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA219
6. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000). {1500 BC}
7. ^ Yenne and Grosser,
"100 Inventions That Shaped World
History", 1993, p21. {before 260 BC}
Nimroud, Assyria4 5  
[1] Part of a Bas-relief showing a
Pulley, and a Warrior originally in
the most ancient palace of Nimroud. PD

source: http://www.ctesiphon.com/auction
s/Nineve-Remains-NY-1854-s-g.jpg

[2] Description Ilustración de una
polea simple fija. Date 7 agugust
2004 Source Own work Author César
Rincón GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a3/Polea-simple-fija.jpg

3,500 YBN
[1500 BC] 3 		1516) The "Vedas", four ancient Indian
collections of poems or hymns,
originate as an oral tradition.1
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ "Veda". Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 09 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/624383/Veda>.
2. ^ "Veda". Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 09 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/624383/Veda>.
3. ^ "Veda". Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 09 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/624383/Veda>.

MORE INFO
[1] "Veda". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
4939/Veda (1500-1200BCE)
[2] "Vedas". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vedas
(1500-1200BCE)
[3] Salomon, Richard. “On the Origin
of the Early Indian Scripts.” Journal
of the American Oriental Society 115.2
(1995): 271–279.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/604670
India2  
[1] Geographic horizon of the Rigveda,
with river names. Also indicated are
the extent of the contemporary Swat and
Cemetary H cultures, and the location
of Harappa. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d5/Rigvedic_geography.jp
g
3,500 YBN
[1500 BC] 7 8 		6228) The water clock (or Clepsydra
{KlePSi-Dru3 }).4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "quaternary." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 17
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/quaternary
2. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100 Inventions
That Shaped World History", 1993, p27.
3. ^
"quaternary." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 17 Jun.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/quaternary
4. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100 Inventions
That Shaped World History", 1993, p27.
5. ^
Yenne and Grosser, "100 Inventions That
Shaped World History", 1993, p27.
6. ^
Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The
Timetables of Science", Second edition,
Simon and Schuster, 1991, p17.
7. ^ Yenne
and Grosser, "100 Inventions That
Shaped World History", 1993, p27. {1500
BC}
8. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p17.
{1450-1401 BC}
Egypt5 6  
[1] clepsydra Egyptian clepsydra An
Egyptian clepsydra Also known as a
water clock, an instrument in which the
discharge of water from a storage tank
is monitored in order to measure the
passing of time. Clepsydras were used
from ancient times until the
Renaissance. ''Clepsydra'' is Greek for
''water thief.'' UNKNOWN
source: http://www.daviddarling.info/ima
ges/Egyptian_clepsydra.jpg

[2] The Karnak clepsydra In 1904,
archaeological excavations within the
ancient temple complex of Karnak in
Egypt led to the recovery of fragments
of a large conical vessel. The presence
of an outlet near the base, plus
calibration scales on the interior
walls, showed the object to be a
classic example of an outflow
clepsydra. Figure 6: A full-size
reconstruction of the Karnak clepsydraA
full-size reconstruction (Fig. 6) may
be seen in the New Walk Museum, and
illustrates how it could act as a
timekeeper independent of the Sun. The
vessel is filled with water to a mark
near the rim, and then allowed to empty
via a narrow jet near the base. With a
cylindrical container the rate of flow
diminishes as the head of water within
the pot decreases, so the water surface
drops more slowly with time. The
ancient Egyptian designer (Amenhemhet,
about 1550 B.C.) has cleverly
compensated for this by employing a
conical vessel, and trials conducted
during the construction of this exhibit
have shown that the chosen angle gives
rise to an excellent approximation to a
linear descent of the water
surface. The hieroglyphics covering
the outside of the vessel (delineated
by Dr. Sarah Symons) do not explain how
the water clock was to be used: they
are simply traditional decorations in
praise of the gods. More information is
given alongside the exhibit. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.sundials.co.uk/leices
ter/fig06.jpg
3,500 YBN
[1500 BC] 5 6 		6456) The earliest American city, an
Olmec city in Veracruz, Mexico.1 2
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ Richard A Diehl, 2004, The Olmecs
- America's First Civilization London:
Thames & Hudson, pp.25,27.
2. ^ "Olmec." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2012. Answers.com 10 Nov. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/olmec
3. ^ Richard A Diehl, 2004, The Olmecs
- America's First Civilization London:
Thames & Hudson, pp.25,27.
4. ^ "Olmec." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2012. Answers.com 10 Nov. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/olmec Re
ad more:
http://www.answers.com/main/cite_this_an
swer.jsp#ixzz2BngsyQSh
5. ^ Richard A Diehl, 2004, The Olmecs
- America's First Civilization London:
Thames & Hudson, pp.25,27.
6. ^ Christopher A.
Pool, "Olmec Archeology And Early
Mesamerica", 2007, p I.
(El Manati shrine, near modern) San
Lorenzo, Veracruz, Mexico3 4  
[1] Edited CabezaColosal1
MuseoXalapa.jpg file already in Commons
by adding a white line to visually
separate the two photos/views. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/20/CabezaColosal1_MuseoX
alapa_v1.1.jpg
3,450 YBN
[1450 BC] 3 		6449) The first letters that represent
vowel sounds.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p56,87.
2. ^ Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p87.
3. ^ Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p87.
Ugarit (modern Ra's Shamra on Syria's
north coast)2  
[1] 14th century
BC provenance Ugarit area Syria per
iod 2000-1000 BC size 1.3 cm x 5.1
cm materials Clay
. themes Commerce. Communication.
Daily Life. and alphabet UNKNOWN
source: http://www.unesco.org/culture/mu
seum-for-dialogue/images/items/650/021.j
pghttp://www.websters-online-dictionary.
org/images/wiki/wikipedia/commons/c/c5/U
garitic_alphabet.png

[2] Ugarit tablet datation 14th
century
BC provenance Ugarit area Syria per
iod 2000-1000 BC size 1.3 cm x 5.1
cm materials Clay
. themes Commerce. Communication.
Daily Life. and alphabet UNKNOWN
source: http://www.unesco.org/culture/mu
seum-for-dialogue/images/items/650/021.j
pghttp://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/thumb/d/dd/Ugaritic-alphabet-cha
rt.svg/1000px-Ugaritic-alphabet-chart.sv
g.png http://www.oocities.org/encyclope
dia_damascena/ancientsyria/images/mus013
.jpg
3,400 YBN
[1400 BC] 3 		6454) The earliest Chinese writing.1
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p166-171.
2. ^ Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p166-171.
3. ^ Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p166-171.

MORE INFO
[1] Chang, P.K.C. et al. The
Formation of Chinese Civilization: An
Archaeological Perspective. Yale
University Press, 2005. The Culture and
Civilization of China Series.
p124-133. http://books.google.com/books
?id=sP-PN2StH2cC
near Anyang, north-central China2
 
[1] Fischer, S.R. A History of Writing.
Reaktion, 2001. Globalities Series.
p171. COPYRIGHTED
source: Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p171.

[2] Description English: Ox scapula
with a divination inscription from the
Shang Dynasty, dating to the reign of
King Wu Ding. Unearthed at Anyang,
Henan Province. Held at the National
Museum of China in Beijing. Date 2
August 2011 Source Own work Author
BabelStone CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Shang_dynasty_i
nscribed_scapula.jpg/684px-Shang_dynasty
_inscribed_scapula.jpg
3,350 YBN
[1350 BC] 3 		6561) Welding of metals using heat and
hammering.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Herbert Maryon, "Metal Working in
the Ancient World", American Journal of
Archaeology , Vol. 53, No. 2 (Apr. -
Jun., 1949), pp. 93-125;
p103. http://www.jstor.org/stable/50049
8 {Maryon_Metal_Working_1949.pdf}
2. ^ Herbert Maryon, "Metal Working in
the Ancient World", American Journal of
Archaeology , Vol. 53, No. 2 (Apr. -
Jun., 1949), pp. 93-125;
p103. http://www.jstor.org/stable/50049
8 {Maryon_Metal_Working_1949.pdf}
3. ^ Herbert Maryon, "Metal Working in
the Ancient World", American Journal of
Archaeology , Vol. 53, No. 2 (Apr. -
Jun., 1949), pp. 93-125;
p103. http://www.jstor.org/stable/50049
8 {Maryon_Metal_Working_1949.pdf}

MORE INFO
[1] "welding". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2013. Web. 02 Feb.
2013 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/639223/welding>
Egypt2  
[1] Items from inside King
Tutankhamen's tomb UNKNOWN
source: http://castle.pri.ee/wp-content/
uploads/2010/08/210403_3.jpg
3,348 YBN
[1348 BC] 3 4 		2727) Monotheism, the theory that only
one God exists.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Akhenaten". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Akhenaten%20
2. ^ "Akhenaton". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
5276/Akhenaton
3. ^ "Akhenaten". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Akhenaten%20
(5th year in reign 1365bce)
4. ^ "Akhenaton".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
5276/Akhenaton (reign: BCE
1353�1336)

MORE INFO
[1] "Great Hymn to the Aten".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Hymn_
to_the_Aten
[2] "Amen". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amen
[3] "Psalm 104". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psalm_104
[4] "amen". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
6072/amen
Amarna, Egypt2  
[1] Antiquit� �gyptienne,
Akh�naton, Mus�e
�gyptien du Caire, (�gypte).
Statue of Akhenaten depicted in a
style typical of the Amarna period, on
display at the Museum of Egyptian
Antiquities, Cairo Reign 1353 BC
� 1336 BC[2] or 1352 BC �
1336 BC[3] or 1351�1334 BC[4] CC

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:GD-EG-Caire-Mus%C3%A9e061.JPG

[2] English: Amun and Mut Nederlands:
Amon en
Mut Source http://runeberg.org/nfba/04
95.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Amon_och_Mut%2C_Nordisk_familjebok.pn
g
3,300 YBN
[1300 BC] 3 		736) Two piece mold metal casting.1
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000), p74.
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A
history of invention : from stone axes
to silicon chips ", (New York:
Checkmark Books, 2000), p74.
3. ^ Trevor I.
Williams, "A history of invention :
from stone axes to silicon chips ",
(New York: Checkmark Books, 2000), p74.
Mesopotamia2  
[1] Half of a two-piece limestone mould
for casting a flat-bladed tool,
1650-1050 BC
(1899,1229.91). COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.britishmuseum.org/col
lectionimages/AN00854/AN00854035_001_l.j
pg
3,300 YBN
[1300 BC] 4 5 		5862) The earliest written musical
notation and musical composition.1
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ David Wulstan, "The Earliest
Musical Notation", Music & Letters ,
Vol. 52, No. 4 (Oct., 1971), pp.
365-382. http://www.jstor.org/stable/73
4711
2. ^ David Wulstan, "The Earliest
Musical Notation", Music & Letters ,
Vol. 52, No. 4 (Oct., 1971), pp.
365-382. http://www.jstor.org/stable/73
4711
3. ^ "Western music." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 30 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/398976/Western-music>.
4. ^ David Wulstan, "The Earliest
Musical Notation", Music & Letters ,
Vol. 52, No. 4 (Oct., 1971), pp.
365-382. http://www.jstor.org/stable/73
4711
5. ^ "Western music." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 30 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/398976/Western-music>. {800 BCE}

MORE INFO
[1] West, M. L., 'The Babylonian
Musical Notation and the Hurrian
Melodic Texts', Music & Letters, Vol.
75, No. 2. (May, 1994), pp. 161–179
[2] A. D.
Kilmer and M. Civil, "Old Babylonian
Musical Instructions Relating to
Hymnody", Journal of Cuneiform Studies,
Vol. 38, No. 1 (Spring, 1986), pp.
94-98 http://www.jstor.org/stable/13599
53
Ur, Babylonia2 |Mesopotamia3  
[1] Tablet U.3011 (handcopy of O. R.
Gurney, 1974) Volume 32 of the Old
Babylonian Encyclopaedia Nabnitu
(Creature) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.kingmixers.com/images
/tablet.jpg
3,150 YBN
[1150 BC] 3 		6447) The Phoenician alphabet, the
ancestor of the Greek alphabet.1
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p88-90.
2. ^ Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p88-90.
3. ^ Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p88-90.
(coastal centers) Byblos, Tyre, Sidon,
Beurut, and Ashkelon2  
[1] Fischer, S.R. A History of Writing.
Reaktion, 2001. Globalities Series.
p48. COPYRIGHTED
source: Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p48.

[2] Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p54. COPYRIGHTED
source: Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p54.
3,000 YBN
[1000 BC] 2 		746) Complex pulleys.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000). {1000 BC}
 
[1] Diagram 3a: A simple compound
pulley system—a movable pulley and a
fixed pulley lifting weight W, with an
additional pulley redirecting the
lifting force downward. The tension in
each line is W/3, yielding an advantage
of 3. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Pulley2a.svg/10
00px-Pulley2a.svg.png

[2] Publishing, DK. Science: The
Definitive Visual Guide. DK Publishing,
2009, p41. COPYRIGHTED
source: Publishing, DK. Science: The
Definitive Visual Guide. DK Publishing,
2009, p41.
3,000 YBN
[1000 BC] 6 		6237) The earliest lens.3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Whitehouse, David (1999-07-01).
"World's oldest telescope?". BBC News.
Retrieved
2008-05-10. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/
science/nature/380186.stm
2. ^ D. Brewster (1852). "On an account
of a rock-crystal lens and decomposed
glass found in Niniveh" (in German).
Die Fortschritte der Physik (Deutsche
Physikalische
Gesellschaft). http://books.google.com/
books?id=bHwEAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PA355&dq=ni
niveh+lens&hl=en#v=onepage&q=niniveh%20l
ens&f=false
3. ^ Whitehouse, David (1999-07-01).
"World's oldest telescope?". BBC News.
Retrieved
2008-05-10. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/
science/nature/380186.stm
4. ^ D. Brewster (1852). "On an account
of a rock-crystal lens and decomposed
glass found in Niniveh" (in German).
Die Fortschritte der Physik (Deutsche
Physikalische
Gesellschaft). http://books.google.com/
books?id=bHwEAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PA355&dq=ni
niveh+lens&hl=en#v=onepage&q=niniveh%20l
ens&f=false
5. ^ Whitehouse, David (1999-07-01).
"World's oldest telescope?". BBC News.
Retrieved
2008-05-10. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/
science/nature/380186.stm
6. ^ Whitehouse, David (1999-07-01).
"World's oldest telescope?". BBC News.
Retrieved
2008-05-10. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/
science/nature/380186.stm {3000YBN}
Nimrud, Mesopotamia (modern Iraq)5
 
[1] Description English: Photo of
the Nimrud lens in the british
museum Date feb 2011 Source
Photo by user:geni Author
Geni CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/65/Nimrud_lens_British_M
useum.jpg
3,000 YBN
[1000 BC] 2 		6448) The Aramaic alphabet, the
ancestor of Hebrew, Arabic, and
probably the alphabets of India.1
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^ Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p122-123.
2. ^ Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p122-123.
 
[1] Summary Pergamonmuseum,
Eck-Orthostat des Fürsten Kilamuwa,
Samal (heute Zincirli, Türkei), selbst
fotografiert. Memorial stone of
Kilamuwa King of Sam'al (Zincirli), c.
850 B.C., written in aramean. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Pergamonmuseum_
-_Vorderasiatisches_Museum_046.JPG/768px
-Pergamonmuseum_-_Vorderasiatisches_Muse
um_046.JPG

[2] Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p54. COPYRIGHTED
source: Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p54.
3,000 YBN
[1000 BC] 4 5 6 		6450) The earliest Hebrew writing.1 2
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^ Hebrew University of Jerusalem.
"Earliest Known Hebrew Text In
Proto-Canaanite Script Discovered In
Area Where 'David Slew Goliath'."
ScienceDaily, 3 Nov. 2008. Web. 8 Nov.
2012. http://www.sciencedaily.com/relea
ses/2008/11/081103091035.htm
2. ^
http://newmedia-eng.haifa.ac.il/?p=2043
3. ^
http://newmedia-eng.haifa.ac.il/?p=2043
4. ^ Hebrew University of Jerusalem.
"Earliest Known Hebrew Text In
Proto-Canaanite Script Discovered In
Area Where 'David Slew Goliath'."
ScienceDaily, 3 Nov. 2008. Web. 8 Nov.
2012. http://www.sciencedaily.com/relea
ses/2008/11/081103091035.htm
5. ^
http://newmedia-eng.haifa.ac.il/?p=2043
6. ^ Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p95.
Khirbet Qeiyafa near the Elah valley,
Israel3  
[1] Fischer, S.R. A History of Writing.
Reaktion, 2001. Globalities Series.
p96. COPYRIGHTED
source: Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p96.

[2] The deciphered text: Hebrew
transliteration: English
translation: {.......................
.....................................}
1′ you shall not do {it}, but worship
the {Lord}. 2′ Judge the sla{ve} and
the wid{ow} / Judge the orph{an} 3′
{and} the stranger. {Pl}ead for the
infant / plead for the po{or and} 4′
the widow. Rehabilitate {the poor} at
the hands of the king. 5′ Protect
the po{or and} the slave / {supp}ort
the stranger. UNKNOWN
source: http://wordpress.haifa.ac.il/wp-
content/uploads/2010/01/d797d7a8d7a1-2.j
pg
2,850 YBN
[850 BC] 3 4 		751) The Greek alphabet.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p122-123.
2. ^ Barbara Watterson,
"Introducing Egyptian hieroglyphs",
(Edinburgh: Scottish Academic Press,
1993).
3. ^ Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p122-123.
4. ^ Barbara Watterson,
"Introducing Egyptian hieroglyphs",
(Edinburgh: Scottish Academic Press,
1993). {2850 YBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Jensen, H. Sign, Symbol, and
Script: An Account of Man’s Efforts
to Write. Putnam, 1969, p452
Greece2  
[1] National Archaeological Museum of
Greece Discovered in 1871 near
Athens’s Dipylon Gate, this jug,
dating to around 740 B.C., bears one of
the earliest Greek alphabetic
inscriptions: “Whoever of all the
dancers now dances most friskily.”
The vase was probably awarded to the
winner of a dance competition, like the
one described by Homer in Book VIII of
the Odyssey. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.basarchive.org/bswb_g
raphics/BSAO/01/01/BSAO010104800L.jpg

[2] Description English: One of the
four oldest known samples of the use of
the Greek alphabet. It has been dated
to ca. 740 BCE. ...(h)ος νῦν
ὀρχεστôν πάντον
ἀταλό(τατα)... Date 20
March 2010 Source Durutomo Author
Durutomo The text of the
inscription runs:
ΗΟΣΝΥΝΟΡΧΕΣΤΟΝΠΑΝΤΟΝ
ΑΤΑΛΟΤΑΤΑΠΑΙΖΕΙΤΟΤΟΔ
ΕΚΛΜΙΝ In modern scholarly
editions this is transcribed as:
hος νῦν ὀρχεστôν
πάντον ἀταλότατα
παίζει, τô τόδε
κλ[.]μιν[...] This corresponds
to the following in the later classical
orthography in Greek (using the Ionian
form of the Greek alphabet), with the
metric feet of the hexameter
indicated: ὃς νῦν
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Dipylon_Inscrip
tion.JPG/1280px-Dipylon_Inscription.JPG
2,800 YBN
[800 BC] 5 6 		6452) The Indian alphabets of India and
South-East Asia.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p105-120.
2. ^ Jensen, H. Sign, Symbol,
and Script: An Account of Man’s
Efforts to Write. Putnam, 1969, p361.
3. ^
Fischer, S.R. A History of Writing.
Reaktion, 2001. Globalities Series.
p105-120.
4. ^ Jensen, H. Sign, Symbol, and
Script: An Account of Man’s Efforts
to Write. Putnam, 1969, p361.
5. ^ Fischer,
S.R. A History of Writing. Reaktion,
2001. Globalities Series. p105-120.
6. ^ Jensen,
H. Sign, Symbol, and Script: An Account
of Man’s Efforts to Write. Putnam,
1969, p361.
India3 4  
[1] Fischer, S.R. A History of Writing.
Reaktion, 2001. Globalities Series.
p107. COPYRIGHTED
source: Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p107.

[2] Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p109. COPYRIGHTED
source: Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p109.
2,785 YBN
[785 BC] 4 		771) Eclipses are predicted by
Babylonian astronomers.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Elliott Friedman, "Who
wrote the Bible?", (San Francisco:
Summit Books, 1987).
2. ^ Richard Elliott
Friedman, "Who wrote the Bible?", (San
Francisco: Summit Books, 1987).
3. ^ Richard
Elliott Friedman, "Who wrote the
Bible?", (San Francisco: Summit Books,
1987).
4. ^ Richard Elliott Friedman, "Who
wrote the Bible?", (San Francisco:
Summit Books, 1987).
 
[1] by Ted Huntington PD
source: my own based on info from
http://www.britannica.com/eb/art-3466?ar
ticleTypeId=1 and
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/fac
tsheet/sunfact.html
2,690 YBN
[690 BC] 6 7 		1066) The earliest aquaduct, a channel
to move water from one place to
another3 near Nineveh.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "aqueduct." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 01 Jul.
2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/a
queduct>.
2. ^ Thorkild Jacobsen and Seton Lloyd,
Sennacherib's Aqueduct at Jerwan,
Oriental Institute Publication 24,
University of Chicago Press,
1935 http://oi.uchicago.edu/pdf/oip24.p
df
3. ^ "aqueduct." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 01 Jul.
2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/a
queduct>.
4. ^ Thorkild Jacobsen and Seton Lloyd,
Sennacherib's Aqueduct at Jerwan,
Oriental Institute Publication 24,
University of Chicago Press,
1935 http://oi.uchicago.edu/pdf/oip24.p
df
5. ^ Thorkild Jacobsen and Seton Lloyd,
Sennacherib's Aqueduct at Jerwan,
Oriental Institute Publication 24,
University of Chicago Press,
1935 http://oi.uchicago.edu/pdf/oip24.p
df
6. ^ Thorkild Jacobsen and Seton Lloyd,
Sennacherib's Aqueduct at Jerwan,
Oriental Institute Publication 24,
University of Chicago Press,
1935 http://oi.uchicago.edu/pdf/oip24.p
df
7. ^ "Aquaduct". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquaduct
(7th cent)
Jerwan, Nineveh5  
[1] Thorkild Jacobsen and Seton Lloyd,
Sennacherib's Aqueduct at Jerwan,
Oriental Institute Publication 24,
University of Chicago Press,
1935 http://oi.uchicago.edu/pdf/oip24.p
df UNKNOWN
source: http://oi.uchicago.edu/pdf/oip24
.pdf

[2] Ruined corbelled arch of an
aqueduct, Jerwan, Iraq, 1977. Credit:
Spectrum Colour Library /
Heritage-Images Additional
information Ruined corbelled arch of
an aqueduct, Jerwan, Iraq, 1977. Built
in around 700 BC by the Assyrian King
Sennacherib to supply water to his
capital city, Nineveh, this is thought
to be the oldest aqueduct in the
world. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://watermarked.heritage-imag
es.com/2332294.jpg
2,690 YBN
[690 BC] 6 7 		6378) The earliest concrete (lime
cement mixed with limestone); used in
an aqueduct.3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Thorkild Jacobsen and Seton
Lloyd, Sennacherib's Aqueduct at
Jerwan, Oriental Institute Publication
24, University of Chicago Press,
1935 http://oi.uchicago.edu/pdf/oip24.p
df
2. ^ Peter Roger Stuart Moorey,
"Ancient Mesopotamian Materials and
Industries: The Archaeological
Evidence", 1999,
p331. http://books.google.com/books?id=
P_Ixuott4doC&pg=PA331&lpg=PA331 {Moorey
_plaster_1999.pdf}
3. ^ Thorkild Jacobsen and Seton Lloyd,
Sennacherib's Aqueduct at Jerwan,
Oriental Institute Publication 24,
University of Chicago Press,
1935 http://oi.uchicago.edu/pdf/oip24.p
df
4. ^ Peter Roger Stuart Moorey,
"Ancient Mesopotamian Materials and
Industries: The Archaeological
Evidence", 1999,
p331. http://books.google.com/books?id=
P_Ixuott4doC&pg=PA331&lpg=PA331
{Moorey_plaster_1999.pdf}
5. ^ Thorkild Jacobsen and Seton Lloyd,
Sennacherib's Aqueduct at Jerwan,
Oriental Institute Publication 24,
University of Chicago Press,
1935 http://oi.uchicago.edu/pdf/oip24.p
df
6. ^ Thorkild Jacobsen and Seton Lloyd,
Sennacherib's Aqueduct at Jerwan,
Oriental Institute Publication 24,
University of Chicago Press,
1935 http://oi.uchicago.edu/pdf/oip24.p
df
7. ^ "Aquaduct". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquaduct
(7th cent)

MORE INFO
[1] "Sennacherib". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 01 Jul.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/534613/Sennacherib/6562/Building
-and-technological-achievements>
[2] "cement". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 12 Jul.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/101833/cement>
Jerwan, Nineveh5  
[1] Plate 14 image B from: Thorkild
Jacobsen and Seton Lloyd, Sennacherib's
Aqueduct at Jerwan, Oriental Institute
Publication 24, University of Chicago
Press,
1935 http://oi.uchicago.edu/pdf/oip24.p
df UNKNOWN
source: http://oi.uchicago.edu/pdf/oip24
.pdf

[2] Thorkild Jacobsen and Seton Lloyd,
Sennacherib's Aqueduct at Jerwan,
Oriental Institute Publication 24,
University of Chicago Press,
1935 http://oi.uchicago.edu/pdf/oip24.p
df UNKNOWN
source: http://oi.uchicago.edu/pdf/oip24
.pdf
2,651 YBN
[651 BC] 7 8 		6337) All planets visible to the naked
eye (Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and
Saturn) are clearly distinguished from
stars in Babylonia.3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ A. Sachs, "Babylonian
Observational Astronomy", Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London. Series A, Mathematical and
Physical Sciences , Vol. 276, No. 1257,
The Place of Astronomy in the Ancient
World (May 2, 1974), pp.
43-50 http://www.jstor.org/stable/74273

2. ^ David Brown, "Mesopotamian
planetary astronomy-astrology", 2000,
p55-56.
3. ^ A. Sachs, "Babylonian
Observational Astronomy", Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London. Series A, Mathematical and
Physical Sciences , Vol. 276, No. 1257,
The Place of Astronomy in the Ancient
World (May 2, 1974), pp.
43-50 http://www.jstor.org/stable/74273

4. ^ David Brown, "Mesopotamian
planetary astronomy-astrology", 2000,
p55-56.
5. ^ A. Sachs, "Babylonian
Observational Astronomy", Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London. Series A, Mathematical and
Physical Sciences , Vol. 276, No. 1257,
The Place of Astronomy in the Ancient
World (May 2, 1974), pp.
43-50 http://www.jstor.org/stable/74273

6. ^ David Brown, "Mesopotamian
planetary astronomy-astrology", 2000,
p55-56.
7. ^ A. Sachs, "Babylonian
Observational Astronomy", Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London. Series A, Mathematical and
Physical Sciences , Vol. 276, No. 1257,
The Place of Astronomy in the Ancient
World (May 2, 1974), pp.
43-50 http://www.jstor.org/stable/74273

8. ^ David Brown, "Mesopotamian
planetary astronomy-astrology", 2000,
p55-56.
Babylonia5 6  
[1] A. Sachs, ''Babylonian
Observational Astronomy'',
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London. Series A,
Mathematical and Physical Sciences ,
Vol. 276, No. 1257, The Place of
Astronomy in the Ancient World (May 2,
1974), pp.
43-50 http://www.jstor.org/stable/74273
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/7427
3
2,650 YBN
[650 BC] 3 4 		6458) The Etruscan {iTruSKeN1 }
alphabet.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Etruscan." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 13
Jan. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/etruscan-ci
vilization
2. ^ Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p137-141.
3. ^
http://www.scalarchives.com/web/dettagli
o_immagine.asp?idImmagine=0080832&posizi
one=27&numImmagini=332&SC_Luogo=Archaeol
ogical+Museum%2C+Florence%2C+Italy&prmse
t=on&SC_PROV=RA&SC_Lang=eng&Sort=9&luce=

4. ^ Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p137-141.
 
[1] Fischer, S.R. A History of Writing.
Reaktion, 2001. Globalities Series.
p104. COPYRIGHTED
source: Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p104.

[2] The Marsiliana Tablet (Ivory, 650
B.C.) and Etruscan alphabets (click
image to enlarge): UNKNOWN
source: http://www.ou.edu/class/ahi4163/
slides3/alphabet.gif
2,622 YBN
[622 BC] 5 6 7 		826) The Old Testament (The Torah, The
Hebrew Bible, The Ten Commandments, and
The Story of Genesis).2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "biblical literature".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 25 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/64496/biblical-literature/73158/
The-history-of-canonization>.
2. ^ "biblical literature".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 25 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/64496/biblical-literature/73158/
The-history-of-canonization>.
3. ^ "biblical literature".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 25 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/64496/biblical-literature/73158/
The-history-of-canonization>.
4. ^ Richard Elliott Friedman, "Who
wrote the Bible?", (San Francisco:
Summit Books, 1987).
5. ^ "biblical
literature". Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 25 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/64496/biblical-literature/73158/
The-history-of-canonization>.
6. ^ Richard Elliott Friedman, "Who
wrote the Bible?", (San Francisco:
Summit Books, 1987).
7. ^ "Hebrew Bible".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 25 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/259039/Hebrew-Bible>.
Judah3 |(Israel4 ) 
[1]
http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/scrolls/imag
es/torah-b.jpg Miqsat Ma`ase
ha-Torah 4Q396(MMT[superscript]c) Parc
hment Copied late first century
B.C.E.-early first century C.E. The
Torah Precepts Scroll Translation of
the Torah Precepts Scroll Miqsat
Ma`ase
ha-Torah 4Q396(MMT[superscript]c) Parc
hment Copied late first century
B.C.E.-early first century
C.E. Fragment A: height 8 cm (3 1/8
in.), length 12.9 cm (5 in.) Fragment
B: height 4.3 cm (1 11/16 in.), length
7 cm (2 3/4 in.) Fragment C: height
9.1 cm (3 9/16 in.), length 17.4 cm (6
7/8 in.) Courtesy of the Israel
Antiquities Authority (8) The Torah
Precepts Scroll This scroll,
apparently in the form of a letter, is
unique in language, style, and content.
Using linguistic and theological
analysis, the original text has been
dated as one of the earliest works of
the Qumran sect. This sectarian
polemical document, of which six
incomplete manuscripts have been
discovered, is commonly referred to as
MMT, an abbreviation of its Hebrew
name, Miqsat Ma`ase ha-Torah. Together
the six fragments provide a composite
text of about 130 lines, which probably
cover about two-thirds of the original.
The initial part of the text is
completely missing. Apparently it
consisted of four sections: (1) the
opening formula, now lost; (2) a
calendar of 364 days; (3) a list of
more than twenty rulings in religious
law (Halakhot), most of which are
peculiar to the sect; and (4) an
epilogue that deals with the separation
of the sect from the multitude of the
people and attempts to persuade the
addressee to adopt the sect's legal
views. The ''halakhot,'' or religious
laws, form the core of the letter; the
remainder of the text is merely the
framework. The calendar, although a
separate section, was probably also
related to the sphere of ''halakhah.''
These ''halakhot'' deal chiefly with
the Temple and its ritual. The author
states that disagreement on these
matters caused the sect to secede from
Israel. References: Strugnell,
J., and E. Qimron. Discoveries in the
Judaean Desert, X. Oxford,
forthcoming. Sussman, Y. ''The
History of `Halakha' and the Dead Sea
Scrolls -- Preliminary Observations on
Miqsat Ma`ase Ha-Torah (4QMMT)'' (in
Hebrew), Tarbiz 59 (1990):11-76. PD
source: http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/scro
lls/images/torah-b.jpg
2,600 YBN
[600 BC] 4 		630) Metal coin money.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "money." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/389170/money>.
2. ^ "money." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online
Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/389170/money>.
3. ^ "money." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online
Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/389170/money>.
4. ^ "money." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online
Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/389170/money>. {7th Century BC}
Lydia, Anatolia3  
[1] King Kroisos period. Circa 561-546
BC. Kings of Lydia. Time of Kroisos.
Circa 561-546 BC. AV Stater (8.06
gm). Sardes mint. Light series.
Confronted foreparts of lion and
bull Two square incuse
punches of unequal size. Traité
pl. X, 2; BMC Lydia pg. 6, 31; SNG
Copenhagen Suppl. 362; Boston MFA 2073;
SNG von Aulock 2875. Choice
EF. From the Ronald Cohen
Collection. Ex Tkalec (18 February
2002), lot 81. Date Source
http://www.wildwinds.com/coins/gree
ce/lydia/kings/kroisos/BMC_31.jpg GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5c/Kroisos_BMC_31.jpg

[2] Description English: Political
map of Asia Minor in 500 BC Date
2009-04-22 17:00 (UTC) Source

Asia_Minor_Political_500BC.svg Author

Asia_Minor_Political_500BC.svg:
*Mysia.svg: Emok derivative
work:
Mysia_map_ancient_community.jpg:
User:Roke derivative work:
MinisterForBadTimes (talk)
derivative work: MinisterForBadTimes
(talk) Other versions
Derivative works of this file:
Lycia locator map.svg Political
map of Asia Minor in 500 BC in
Masry.PNG GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Anatolia_Ancien
t_Regions_base.svg/1000px-Anatolia_Ancie
nt_Regions_base.svg.png
2,600 YBN
[600 BC] 8 		762) The Universe is explained without
using the theory of Gods by Thales.4 5
6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ "Thales". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thales
3. ^ "Cosmos", Carl Sagan
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
5. ^ "Thales".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thales
6. ^ "Cosmos", Carl Sagan
7. ^ "Cosmos", Carl
Sagan
8. ^ estimate on guess of 30 years old
when realizes to remove Marduct

MORE INFO
[1] Ueberweg, F. et al. A History
of Philosophy: From Thales to the
Present Time. C. Scribner’s
sons, 1891. A History of Philosophy:
From Thales to the Present Time,
p32. http://books.google.com/books?id=A
h_7Od24BXsC&pg=PA32
Miletus, Greece7  
[1] Ueberweg, F. et al. A History of
Philosophy: From Thales to the Present
Time. C. Scribner’s sons, 1891. A
History of Philosophy: From Thales to
the Present Time,
p32. http://books.google.com/books?id=A
h_7Od24BXsC&pg=PA32 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=Ah_7Od24BXsC&pg=PA32

[2] Thales, one of the Seven Sages of
Greece From French Wikipedia:
fr:Image:Thales.jpg Original source:
http://www.phil-fak.uni-duesseldorf.de/p
hilo/galerie/antike/thales.html PD
source: http://ujszo.com/sites/default/f
iles/old/ujszo_1221803126_14.jpg
2,600 YBN
[600 BC] 3 		6455) The earliest Native American
writing.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p211-236.
2. ^ Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p211-236.
3. ^ Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p211-236.
San Jose Mogote, Oaxaca, Mexico2  
[1] Stelae 12 and 13 from Monte Alban,
provisionally dated to 500-400 BCE,
showing what is thought to be one of
the earliest calendric representations
in Mesoamerica Stelae 12 and 13 from
Monte Alban. These two stelae contain
what is thought to be one of the oldest
calendar signs (calendrics) from
Mesoamerica. Taken from the Japanese
Wikipedia: Thanks to
Siyajkak! GNU AND AND The oldest
writing in all of Meso-America. These
Zapotec hieroglyphs, carved on stone
stelae found in the Palacio de
Danzantes, are among the oldest
examples Zapotec writing. The Zapotecs
possessed the oldest fully-developed
writing system of ancient Meso-America.
The building is named for the relief
carvings of danzantes, or dancers,
which were found by Guillaume Dupaix, a
Belgian traveler who visited in 1806.
The carvings were found on the sides of
a palace which had been covered over by
a building constructed in a later
period, a common practice throughout
Meso-America. The glyphs on the stelae
above appear to be dates of great
events in the city's early history. On
both stones you can see horizontal rows
of dots, sometimes accompanied by a
solid bar underneath. These symbols
represent numbers. Zapotec writing is
made up of both phonetic symbols and
symbols representing ideas. It is still
mostly undeciphered because even the
Zapotec language the Spanish recorded
in the 1520s had undergone more than
1000 years of evolution since the above
texts were written somewhere between
400 - 200 BC. UNKNOWN
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3d/Monte_Alban_Stela_12_
%26_13.jpghttp://4.bp.blogspot.com/_uXDM
PKN0Bjo/TIBLPDXtTeI/AAAAAAAAFcw/5sMjcYds
gQg/s1600/MA+Danzante+hieroglyphs.jpg

[2] The oldest writing in all of
Meso-America. These Zapotec
hieroglyphs, carved on stone stelae
found in the Palacio de Danzantes, are
among the oldest examples Zapotec
writing. The Zapotecs possessed the
oldest fully-developed writing system
of ancient Meso-America. The building
is named for the relief carvings of
danzantes, or dancers, which were found
by Guillaume Dupaix, a Belgian traveler
who visited in 1806. The carvings were
found on the sides of a palace which
had been covered over by a building
constructed in a later period, a common
practice throughout Meso-America. The
glyphs on the stelae above appear to be
dates of great events in the city's
early history. On both stones you can
see horizontal rows of dots, sometimes
accompanied by a solid bar underneath.
These symbols represent numbers.
Zapotec writing is made up of both
phonetic symbols and symbols
representing ideas. It is still mostly
undeciphered because even the Zapotec
language the Spanish recorded in the
1520s had undergone more than 1000
years of evolution since the above
texts were written somewhere between
400 - 200 BC. UNKNOWN
source: http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_uXDMPK
N0Bjo/TIBLPDXtTeI/AAAAAAAAFcw/5sMjcYdsgQ
g/s1600/MA+Danzante+hieroglyphs.jpg
2,580 YBN
[580 BC] 5 		764) The Earth-centered Universe
theory, and the theory that humans
evolved from fish.2

The Earth-centered theory will dominate
until the 1500s.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ Roy MacLeod, "The
Library of Alexandria Centre of
Learning in the Ancient World", (New
York: I.B.Tauris & Co Ltd, 2000).
4. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
5. ^ estimate on guess of 30
years old when makes science
contributions

MORE INFO
[1] "Cosmos", Carl Sagan
Miletus4  
[1] A map of Anaximander's
Earth-centered theory UNKNOWN
source: http://www.utm.edu/research/iep-
wp/wp-content/media/anaxfig1.gif

[2] Detail of Raphael's painting The
School of Athens, 1510–1511. This
could be a representation of
Anaximander leaning towards Pythagoras
on his left.[1] Born c. 610 BCE c.
546 BCE (aged around 64) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/38/Anaximander.jpg
2,550 YBN
[550 BC] 3 4 		1036) The Latin alphabet.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p151-152.
2. ^ Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p151-152.
3. ^ Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p151-152.
4. ^ Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p151-152.

MORE INFO
[1] "History of the Latin
language". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_
the_Latin_language
[2]
http://www.evertype.com/standards/wynnyo
gh/thorn.html
[3] "Latin". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin (9th
or 8th century)
Rome2  
[1] The Lapis Niger Archaic
Latin When Giacomo Boni was
excavating the Forum in 1899 he found a
spot paved with black stone among the
Imperial era travertine – the Lapis
Niger. Further excavation revealed an
ancient shrine complex that had been
filled in and later constructed over.
The location was thought by the ancient
Romans to be where Romulus was killed
by the Senate, or perhaps the grave of
Hostilius. A second excavation in 1955
found no evidence of a grave but the
site was clearly considered a sacred
place by the Romans. The shrine
consists of the remnants of a U-shaped
alter, a monolithic column (a tufa
cone) and an inscribed stone
cippus. The black stone cippus,
ca.550–500 BC, carved out of Grotta
Oscura tufa from Veii, contains an
early boustrophon inscription on all
four sides (actually five, as one
corner is truncated). About a third to
a half of each line is missing so a
complete translation is not possible,
but it appears to be a warning against
those who would defile the site. It is
one of only a handful of sixth century
BC Latin inscriptions. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.codex99.com/typograph
y/images/ancient/niger_1_lg.gif

[2] Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p138. COPYRIGHTED
source: Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p138.
2,529 YBN
[529 BC] 10 		772) The Earth is described as a
sphere.7 8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ "Pythagoras."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 11 Nov. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pythagoras
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
4. ^ "Pythagoras."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 11 Nov. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pythagoras
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
6. ^ "Pythagoras."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 11 Nov. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pythagoras
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
8. ^ "Pythagoras."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 11 Nov. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pythagoras
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
10. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982). {529 BCE}

MORE INFO
[1] "Polycrates". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polycrates
[2] "Pythagorean theorem". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pythagorean
_theorem
Croton, Italy9  
[1] Description: Phytagoras, coin made
under emperor Decius Source:
Baumeister, Denkmäler des klassischen
Altertums. 1888. Band III., Seite
1429 s Roman Emperor from 249 to
251. PD
source: http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.
uk/~history/BigPictures/Pythagoras_4.jpe
g

[2] Bust of Pythagoras UNKNOWN
source: http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.
uk/~history/BigPictures/Pythagoras.jpeg
2,500 YBN
[500 BC] 5 		6518) There are 100 million humans on
Earth.3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Kremer, Michael. “Population
Growth and Technological Change: One
Million B.C. to 1990.” The Quarterly
Journal of Economics 108.3 (1993):
681–716. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
2118405
2. ^ Parker, G. Compact History of the
World. Barnes & Noble, 2001, p17.
3. ^
Kremer, Michael. “Population Growth
and Technological Change: One Million
B.C. to 1990.” The Quarterly Journal
of Economics 108.3 (1993):
681–716. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
2118405
4. ^ Parker, G. Compact History of the
World. Barnes & Noble, 2001, p17.
5. ^
Kremer, Michael. “Population Growth
and Technological Change: One Million
B.C. to 1990.” The Quarterly Journal
of Economics 108.3 (1993):
681–716. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
2118405
 
[1] Parker, G. Compact History of the
World. Barnes & Noble, 2001,
p17. COPYRIGHTED
source: Parker, G. Compact History of
the World. Barnes & Noble, 2001, p17.
2,470 YBN
[470 BC] 3 4 5 		840) That the brain controls the body
is understood, and the first human
dissection.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ "Alcmaeon".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 11 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/13331/Alcmaeon>.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (=500bce) {500 BCE}
4. ^
"Alcmaeon". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcmaeon
(=450bce) {450 BCE}
5. ^ "alcmaeon". The
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
(Winter 2003 Edition), Edward N. Zalta
(ed.).
http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/alcmae
on/ (=500-450bce) {500-450 BCE}
(academy at Croton, now:) Crotone,
southern Italy2  
[1] Erich Lessing / Art Resource,
NY UNKOWN
source: http://members.bib-arch.org/bswb
_graphics/BSAO/08/04/BSAO080402410L.jpg

[2] Alcmaeon UNKNOWN
source: http://clendening.kumc.edu/dc/pc
/Alcmaeon.jpg
2,467 YBN
[467 BC] 11 12 		836) That stars are other Suns and made
of red-hot metal is recognized.7 8
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ Diogenes Laertius, tr: R. D.
Hicks, "Lives of Eminent Philosophers
Books I-V", 137-139. (similar
translation:) http://books.google.com/b
ooks?id=JkYzAAAAYAAJ
2. ^ Popkin, R.H., S.F. Brown, and D.
Carr. The Columbia History of Western
Philosophy. Columbia University Press,
1999,
p17. http://books.google.com/books?id=o
k4F_SawQaEC&pg=PA17
3. ^ Diogenes Laertius, tr: R. D.
Hicks, "Lives of Eminent Philosophers
Books I-V", 137-139. (similar
translation:) http://books.google.com/b
ooks?id=JkYzAAAAYAAJ
4. ^ Popkin, R.H., S.F. Brown, and D.
Carr. The Columbia History of Western
Philosophy. Columbia University Press,
1999,
p17. http://books.google.com/books?id=o
k4F_SawQaEC&pg=PA17
5. ^ Diogenes Laertius, tr: R. D.
Hicks, "Lives of Eminent Philosophers
Books I-V", 137-139. (similar
translation:) http://books.google.com/b
ooks?id=JkYzAAAAYAAJ
6. ^ Popkin, R.H., S.F. Brown, and D.
Carr. The Columbia History of Western
Philosophy. Columbia University Press,
1999,
p17. http://books.google.com/books?id=o
k4F_SawQaEC&pg=PA17
7. ^ Diogenes Laertius, tr: R. D.
Hicks, "Lives of Eminent Philosophers
Books I-V", 137-139. (similar
translation:) http://books.google.com/b
ooks?id=JkYzAAAAYAAJ
8. ^ Popkin, R.H., S.F. Brown, and D.
Carr. The Columbia History of Western
Philosophy. Columbia University Press,
1999,
p17. http://books.google.com/books?id=o
k4F_SawQaEC&pg=PA17
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
10. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p8-9.
11. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p8-9.
12. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982). (450bc+30yrs
estimate for science contributions)

MORE INFO
[1] "Anaxagoras". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anaxagoras
(=490?-430?)
Clazomenae (75 miles/120 km north of
Miletus)|Athens9 |Did not move to
Athens until around 462 bce10  
[1] Description English: Detail of
the right-hand facade fresco, showing
Anaxagoras. National and Kapodistrian
University of Athens. Date c.
1888 Source http://nibiryukov.narod.r
u/nb_pinacoteca/nbe_pinacoteca_artists_l
.htm Author Eduard Lebiedzki,
after a design by Carl Rahl PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2c/Anaxagoras_Lebiedzki_
Rahl.jpg
2,467 YBN
[467 BC] 16 		1894) The earliest particle (or
wireless) communication. The optical
telegraph;10 11 12 using fire
signals.13 14
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Aeschylus. Aeschylus, with an
English translation by Herbert Weir
Smyth, Ph. D. in two volumes.
2.Agamemnon. Herbert Weir Smyth, Ph. D.
Cambridge, MA. Harvard University
Press. 1926, lines 278-316.
http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/te
xt?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0004%3Ac
ard%3D258
2. ^ "Optical telegraph#History".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_tel
egraph#History
3. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p33.
4. ^
Aeschylus. Aeschylus, with an English
translation by Herbert Weir Smyth, Ph.
D. in two volumes. 2.Agamemnon. Herbert
Weir Smyth, Ph. D. Cambridge, MA.
Harvard University Press. 1926, lines
278-316.
http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/te
xt?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0004%3Ac
ard%3D258
5. ^ "Optical telegraph#History".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_tel
egraph#History
6. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p33.
7. ^
Aeschylus. Aeschylus, with an English
translation by Herbert Weir Smyth, Ph.
D. in two volumes. 2.Agamemnon. Herbert
Weir Smyth, Ph. D. Cambridge, MA.
Harvard University Press. 1926, lines
278-316.
http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/te
xt?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0004%3Ac
ard%3D258
8. ^ "Optical telegraph#History".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_tel
egraph#History
9. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p33.
10.
^ Aeschylus. Aeschylus, with an English
translation by Herbert Weir Smyth, Ph.
D. in two volumes. 2.Agamemnon. Herbert
Weir Smyth, Ph. D. Cambridge, MA.
Harvard University Press. 1926, lines
278-316.
http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/te
xt?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0004%3Ac
ard%3D258
11. ^ "Optical telegraph#History".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_tel
egraph#History
12. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p33.
13.
^ Aeschylus. Aeschylus, with an English
translation by Herbert Weir Smyth, Ph.
D. in two volumes. 2.Agamemnon. Herbert
Weir Smyth, Ph. D. Cambridge, MA.
Harvard University Press. 1926, lines
278-316.
http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/te
xt?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0004%3Ac
ard%3D258
14. ^
http://www.mlahanas.de/Greeks/Communicat
ion.htm
15. ^ "Aeschylus." The Concise Oxford
Companion to Classical Literature.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 2003.
Answers.com 14 Nov. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/aeschylus
16. ^ "Aeschylus." The Concise Oxford
Companion to Classical Literature.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 2003.
Answers.com 14 Nov. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/aeschylus
{467 BCE}

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982)
[2] "Robert Hooke".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0979/Robert-Hooke
[3] "Robert Hooke". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Hook
e
[4]
http://www.answers.com/Robert+Hooke?cat=
technology
[5]
http://www.libraries.uc.edu/source/volfo
ur/oesper2.html
[6] http://www.roberthooke.org.uk/
[7]
http://freespace.virgin.net/ric.martin/v
ectis/hookeweb/roberthooke.htm
[8]
http://www.she-philosopher.com/gallery/c
yclopaedia.html
[9] "Optical telegraph#History".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_tel
egraph#History (1684)
Argos, Greece15  
[1] This image was moved from
Image:Image62.gif Description A
drawing of the lighthouse by German
archaeologist Prof. H. Thiersch
(1909). Date 2007-01-16 (original
upload date) Source Originally from
en.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. Author Original uploader
was Ragemanchoo at
en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2e/Lighthouse_-_Thiersch
.gif

[2] English: Mosaic Lighthouse of
Alexandria: was found in the Qasr Libya
in Libya, which was known by several
names including history and Olbia
Theodorias, This is a painting that was
left over to show the form of
lighthouse after the quake, which
destroyed the lighthouse. Qasr Libya
Museum PD
source: http://freespace.virgin.net/ric.
martin/vectis/hookeweb/roberthooke.htm
2,460 YBN
[460 BC] 9 10 		841) The theory that all matter is made
of atoms.7 8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ "Leucippus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leucippus
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
4. ^ "Leucippus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leucippus
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
6. ^ "Leucippus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leucippus
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
8. ^ "Leucippus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leucippus
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (=~490bce)
10. ^ "Leucippus".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leucippus
(=500-450bce)
 
[1] Coin with the head of Leukippos on
it from around 330-320
BC.[t] Greece,Metapont
330-320BC,Leukkipos,1/3stater. Hammer
price 2002: CHF 12.000. UNKNOWN
source: http://numisbooks.dk/info/fotos/
romanphotos/leukippos330-320.jpg
2,460 YBN
[460 BC] 2 3 		842) The theory that the universe is
made of only four elements: water, air,
fire and earth.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (=~490bce)
3. ^ "Empedocles".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empedocles
(=500-450bce)
 
[1] The temple of Hera at Agrigentum,
built when Empedocles was a young man,
c. 470 BC. Tempio di Hera ad
Agrigento, Sicilia. From:
Giambattista Scivoletto -
http://www.studioscivoletto.it/ COPYRIG
HTED ANY USE AND Empedocles in the
Nuremberg Chronicle. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1d/Agrigento_Tempio_di_H
era.jpghttp://upload.wikimedia.org/wikip
edia/commons/thumb/9/95/Empedocles-2-siz
ed.jpg/1030px-Empedocles-2-sized.jpg

[2] Description English:
Empedocles, ancient Greek Presocratic
philosopher. From Thomas Stanley,
(1655), The history of philosophy:
containing the lives, opinions, actions
and Discourses of the Philosophers of
every Sect, illustrated with effigies
of divers of them. Date circa
1655 Source Thomas Stanley, 1655, The
history of philosophy Author
Unknown PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2b/Empedocles_in_Thomas_
Stanley_History_of_Philosophy.jpg
2,450 YBN
[450 BC] 4 5 		843) The theory that the Earth moves
through space.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Diogenes Laertius, "The lives and
opinions of eminent philosophers", H.
G. Bohn, 1853,
p372. http://books.google.com/books?id=
9-YFAAAAQAAJ AND
http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/te
xt?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0258%3Ab
ook%3D1%3Achapter%3Dprologue
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p11.
3. ^ Diogenes
Laertius, "The lives and opinions of
eminent philosophers", H. G. Bohn,
1853,
p372. http://books.google.com/books?id=
9-YFAAAAQAAJ AND
http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/te
xt?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0258%3Ab
ook%3D1%3Achapter%3Dprologue
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (=~480bce)
5. ^ "". The Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2003
Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.). "".
The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
(Winter 2003 Edition), Edward N. Zalta
(ed.). "". The Stanford Encyclopedia
of Philosophy (Winter 2003 Edition),
Edward N. Zalta (ed.). "philolaus".
The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
(Winter 2003 Edition), Edward N. Zalta
(ed.).
http://setis.library.usyd.edu.au/stanfor
d/entries/philolaus/ (=470-385bce)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.neo-tech.com/zero/part2.html
Croton, Italy3  
[1] Description Pythagoras and
Philolaus experimenting with musical
pipes. From Theorica musicae by
Franchino Gaffurio, 1492 (1480?) Date
2010-04-28 16:51 (UTC) Source
Gaffurio_Pythagoras.png Author
Gaffurio_Pythagoras.png:
Franchino Gaffurio (publisher)
derivative work: Singinglemon
(talk) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e8/Pythagoras_and_Philol
aus.png
2,432 YBN
[432 BC] 6 7 8 		849) The Metonic {miToNiK1 } calendar:
12 years of 12 months and 7 years of 13
months.2 3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Metonic cycle." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 28
Dec. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/metonic-cyc
le
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ James Evans, "History
and practice of ancient astronomy",
1998,
p16. http://books.google.com/books?id=n
S51_7qbEWsC&pg=PA17&hl=en#v=onepage&q&f=
false
4. ^ David Brown, "Mesopotamian
planetary astronomy-astrology", 2000,
p245.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
7. ^ James Evans, "History
and practice of ancient astronomy",
1998,
p16. http://books.google.com/books?id=n
S51_7qbEWsC&pg=PA17&hl=en#v=onepage&q&f=
false
8. ^ David Brown, "Mesopotamian
planetary astronomy-astrology", 2000,
p245.

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (=440-?? BCE)
[2] "Meton".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meton
Athens, Greece (presumably)5  
[1] Description The relation of the
phases of the Moon with its revolution
around Earth. The sizes of Earth and
Moon, and their distance you see here
are far from real. On this image the
following are also depicted: the
synchronous rotation of the Moon, the
motion of the Earth around the common
center of mass, the difference between
the sidereal and synodical month (green
mark), the Earth's axial tilt. (NOTE:
the precise moment of a New Moon take
place in daylight when you can see only
the bright Sun.) Date
2010-08-19ddd Source Own
work Author Orion 8 Other versions
CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Moon_phases_en.
jpg/1024px-Moon_phases_en.jpg

[2] The Antikythera
mechanism UNKNOWN
source: http://www.bibliotecapleyades.ne
t/imagenes_ciencia/antikythera06_02.jpg
2,430 YBN
[430 BC] 5 6 7 8 		845) The Universe is explained as being
filled with many other worlds, and the
Milky Way as a large group of stars.1 2

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "democritus". The Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2003
Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.).
"democritus". The Stanford Encyclopedia
of Philosophy (Winter 2003 Edition),
Edward N. Zalta (ed.). "democritus".
The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
(Winter 2003 Edition), Edward N. Zalta
(ed.).
http://setis.library.usyd.edu.au/stanfor
d/entries/democritus/
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ "democritus". The
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
(Winter 2003 Edition), Edward N. Zalta
(ed.). "democritus". The Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2003
Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.).
"democritus". The Stanford Encyclopedia
of Philosophy (Winter 2003 Edition),
Edward N. Zalta (ed.).
http://setis.library.usyd.edu.au/stanfor
d/entries/democritus/
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (=~470-~380bce)
6. ^ "Democritus".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democritus
(=~450-~370bce)
7. ^ "". The Stanford Encyclopedia of
Philosophy (Winter 2003 Edition),
Edward N. Zalta (ed.). "". The
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
(Winter 2003 Edition), Edward N. Zalta
(ed.). "democritus". The Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2003
Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.).
http://setis.library.usyd.edu.au/stanfor
d/entries/democritus/ (=~460-)
8. ^
http://www.tmth.edu.gr/en/aet/2/36.html
(=460-370)
Abdera, Thrace3 4  
[1] DEMOCRITO DE ABDERA UNKNOWN
source: http://tareaescolar.co/tareaesco
lar/filo/images/democrito.jpg
2,424 YBN
[424 BC] 5 6 		6533) Grafting of plants in Greece.1 2

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Mudge, Ken, et al. "A history of
grafting." Horticultural Reviews,
Volume 35 (2009):
437-493. http://www.hort.purdue.edu/new
crop/janick-papers/c09.pdf
2. ^ Zohary, D., M. Hopf, and E. Weiss.
Domestication of Plants in the Old
World: The Origin and Spread of
Domesticated Plants in Southwest Asia,
Europe, and the Mediterranean Basin.
OUP Oxford, 2012,
p115. http://books.google.com/books?id=
tc6vr0qzk_4C
3. ^ Mudge, Ken, et al. "A history of
grafting." Horticultural Reviews,
Volume 35 (2009):
437-493. http://www.hort.purdue.edu/new
crop/janick-papers/c09.pdf
4. ^ "Theophrastus." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 12 Jan.
2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/theophrastu
s
5. ^ Mudge, Ken, et al. "A history of
grafting." Horticultural Reviews,
Volume 35 (2009):
437-493. http://www.hort.purdue.edu/new
crop/janick-papers/c09.pdf
6. ^ "Theophrastus." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 12 Jan.
2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/theophrastu
s
Greece3 |(presumably for Theophrastus)
(The Lyceum) Athens, Greece4  
[1] Description a good example of
a whip graft that has ''taken'' Source
I (Chris Hibbard, acct:
chrishibbard7) created this work
entirely by myself. Date
4/27/2009 Author Chris
Hibbard Permission (Reusing this
file) See below. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/c/c8/Good_graft.JPG

[2] Description English: Example of
a successful cleft graft after 4 years
of growth. Uploading specifically for
use in the Grafting article, where the
same graft is displayed after 2 years
of growth, for comparison. Date
3/23/2012 Source With a camera, of
course. Adjusted light levels with
Gimp Previously published:
http://pinterest.com/pin/527766268533219
03/ Author Chrishibbard7 GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/5/51/CleftGraft4thYr
.JPG/1194px-CleftGraft4thYr.JPG
2,387 YBN
[387 BC] 4 		851) Plato's Academy.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (=440-?? BCE)

MORE INFO
[1] "Plato". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plato
[2] "plato". The Stanford Encyclopedia
of Philosophy (Winter 2003 Edition),
Edward N. Zalta (ed.).
http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/plato/

Athens, Greece3  
[1] Plato's Academy, Mosaic from Villa
of T. Siminius Stephanus, Pompeii
(photo courtesy of Branislav
Slantchev) PD
source: http://www.electrummagazine.com/
wp-content/uploads/2011/11/Platos_Academ
y_mosaic_T_Siminius_Stephanus_Pompeii.jp
g

[2] Description Academy of Athens
(modern) Source I (Dimboukas (talk))
created this work entirely by
myself. Date 19:53, 1 December 2009
(UTC) Author Dimboukas (talk) CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/thumb/8/82/Athens_academy.jpg/1
024px-Athens_academy.jpg
2,358 YBN
[358 BC] 4 		856) The theory that the Earth rotates
around its own axis, and that some
planets rotate around the Sun.2
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p18.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p18.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p18.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p18.

MORE INFO
[1] "Heracleides". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heracleides
 (=387 - 312 BCE)
(Academy) Athens, Greece3
(presumably) 
[1] Ηράκλειτος (~544 - 483
π.Χ.) COPYRIGHTED GREECE
source: http://sfr.ee.teiath.gr/historia
/historia/important/html/images/Heraklit
.jpg
2,335 YBN
[335 BC] 6 		859) Aristotle's Lyceum {LI SEuM or
lU-KEoN}).1
A fifth element "aether" is
added.2 3
The concept of gravity.4
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ Aristotle, John Leofric
Stocks, �On the Heavens� (Oxford:
Clarendon Press, 1922), Book 1, Chapter
3. http://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/a/aris
totle/heavens/index.html
3. ^ Wildberg, C. John Philoponus�
Criticism. De Gruyter, 1988. Peripatoi
(Berlin),
p12. http://books.google.com/books?id=a
f3XzdAvB_cC&pg=PA12
4. ^ Lucio Russo, "The Forgotten
Revolution", (Berlin; New York:
Springer-Verlag, 2004), p302.
5. ^ "Lyceum."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 29 Feb.
2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/352514/Lyceum>.
6. ^ "Lyceum." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 29 Feb. 2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/352514/Lyceum>.

MORE INFO
[1] "Faustus (I) Cornelius
Sulla". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faustus_%28
I%29_Cornelius_Sulla
Athens, Greece5  
[1] Date 1511 Source Stitched
together from vatican.va Author
Raphael (1483–1520) Link back to
Creator infobox template
wikidata:Q5597 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Sanzio_01.jpg/1
280px-Sanzio_01.jpg

[2] English: The School of Athens -
fresco by Raffaello Sanzio
(w) Artist Copy of
Lysippus English: Bust of Aristotle.
Marble, Roman copy after a Greek bronze
original by Lysippos from 330 BC; the
alabaster mantle is a modern
addition. Current location
[show]National Museum_of Rome -
Palazzo AltempsLink back to Institution
infobox template Ground
floor Accession number Inv.
8575 Credit line Ludovisi
Collection Source/Photographer
Jastrow (2006) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Aristotle_Altem
ps_Inv8575.jpg/765px-Aristotle_Altemps_I
nv8575.jpg
2,325 YBN
[325 BC] 3 4 5 6 		887) The theory that the Moon
influences the tides.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (=~300bce+30-??)
4. ^ "Pytheas".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pytheas
(=~380-~310)
5. ^ "Πυθέας ο
Μασσαλιώτη
ς". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CF%8
5%CE%B8%CE%AD%CE%B1%CF%82_%CE%BF_%CE%9C%
CE%B1%CF%83%CF%83%CE%B1%CE%BB%CE%B9%CF%8
E%CF%84%CE%B7%CF%82 (=~380-~310)
6. ^ "Pytheas".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pytheas
(voyage 325BCE 320-330BCE)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.ahepafamily.org/d5/pytheas.ht
ml
[2] "Pytheas". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 25 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/485262/Pytheas>
Massalia (now: Marseille France)2
 
[1] Description Statue de Pythéas
sur la façade du palais de la Bourse
à Marseille. Date 6 February
2008 Source Own
work Author Rvalette Permission
(Reusing this file) See below. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Pyth%C3%A9as.jp
g/639px-Pyth%C3%A9as.jpg
2,300 YBN
[300 BC] 4 		6482) The earliest chain-drive, and
automatic repeating crossbow.1 2
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ Werner Soedel, Vernard Foley:
"Ancient Catapults", Scientific
American, Vol. 240, No. 3 (March 1979),
p. 124-125.
{Ancient_Catapults_Scientific_American
_197903xx.pdf}
2. ^ Alan Wilkins, Roman Artillery,
Shire,
p.8. books.google.com/books?id=VCkGVJG6
XOUC&pg=PA8
3. ^ Werner Soedel, Vernard Foley:
"Ancient Catapults", Scientific
American, Vol. 240, No. 3 (March 1979),
p. 124-125.
{Ancient_Catapults_Scientific_American
_197903xx.pdf}
4. ^ Alan Wilkins, Roman Artillery,
Shire,
p.8. books.google.com/books?id=VCkGVJG6
XOUC&pg=PA8
Rhodes, Greece3  
[1] Figure from: Werner Soedel,
Vernard Foley: ''Ancient Catapults'',
Scientific American, Vol. 240, No. 3
(March 1979), p. 124-125.
{Ancient_Catapults_Scientific_American
_197903xx.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: Werner Soedel, Vernard Foley:
"Ancient Catapults", Scientific
American, Vol. 240, No. 3 (March 1979),
p. 124-125. COPYRIGHTED

[2] English: Arsenal of ancient
mechanical artillery in the Saalburg
Museum, Hesse, Germany Left:
Polybolos, a 3rd century BC repeating
catapult (reconstruction by the German
engineer Erwin Schramm (1856–1935))
Right: Catapult on Trajan's Column,
early 2nd century AD (reconstruction by
Schramm) Bottom center:
Chain-drive mechanism of the
Polybolos Bottom right: ?
Background, on wall: Gastraphetes, a
Greek crossbow Date 7 August 2007,
12:34:51 Source originally posted to
Flickr as Artilleria experimental
romana a Saalburg / Roman experimental
artillery in Saalburg Author
SBA73 CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Ancient_Mechani
cal_Artillery._Pic_01.jpg/1280px-Ancient
_Mechanical_Artillery._Pic_01.jpg
2,297 YBN
[297 BC] 3 4 5 6 		902) The Museum and Library of
Alexandria.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life and
Fate of the Ancient Library of
Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990),
p79.
2. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life and
Fate of the Ancient Library of
Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990),
p79.
3. ^
http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/GreekScienc
e/Students/Ellen/Museum.html (=297bce)
4. ^
"article 29287". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-292
87 (=late 200s by P1)
5. ^ "Museum of
Alexandria". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://concise.britannica.com/ebc/articl
e-9372871/Museum-of-Alexandria (=280 by
P2)
6. ^
http://ehistory.osu.edu/world/articles/A
rticleView.cfm?AID=9 (= 283 BCE by P2
Soter)

MORE INFO
[1] "article 9009440".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
9440
[2]
http://www.earlyjewishwritings.com/lette
raristeas.html
[3]
http://www.ccel.org/c/charles/otpseudepi
g/aristeas.htm (translated letter)
[4] "Letter
of Aristeas". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Letter_of_A
risteas
[5] http://www.bede.org.uk/Library2.htm
has sources for LofA
[6] "Timon
(philosopher)". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timon_%28ph
ilosopher%29
[7] "Herodas". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herodas
[8]
http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/3707
641.stm
 
[1] A reconstruction of the main hall
of the Museum of Alexandria used in the
series Cosmos by Carl Sagan. The wall
portraits show Alexander the Great
(left) and Serapis
(right). COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.thelivingmoon.com/43a
ncients/04images/Alexandria/Alexandria-C
osmosReconstruction1.jpg

[2] Credit:
s_davies@mail.utexas.edu The Library
of Alexandria was one of the best-known
of the libraries of the ancient world.
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.thelivingmoon.com/43a
ncients/04images/Alexandria/alexlibext.j
pg
2,295 YBN
[295 BC] 3 		878) Euclid's "Elements" compiles all
known mathematics.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (=c325-c270bce)

MORE INFO
[1] "Euclid". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euclid
(=325-265bce)
(Mouseion) Alexandria, Egypt2  
[1] Description አማርኛ:
የዩክሊድን ኢለመንት
የተባለ መጽሐፍ
የሚያሳይ ከልጥ (ፓፒሪ)
የተጻፈ የጥንት
መዝገብ English: Oxyrhynchus
papyrus (P.Oxy. I 29) showing fragment
of Euclid's Elements Русский:
Папирус из Oxyrhynchus (P.Oxy.
I 29) с франментами
Начал Евклида Date 7
October 1994 Source
http://www.math.ubc.ca/~cass/Euclid/pap
yrus/tha.jpg Author Euclid PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/P._Oxy._I_29.jp
g/1280px-P._Oxy._I_29.jpg

[2] Euclid elements UNKNOWN
source: http://zaccus.com/wp-content/upl
oads/2010/08/Euclid_large.jpg
2,285 YBN
[285 BC] 4 5 6 		1028) Compressed air is used for a
catapult and for the earliest musical
keyboard instrument, an organ, by
Ctesibius.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Ctesibius Of Alexandria".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 25 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/145475/Ctesibius-Of-Alexandria>.

2. ^ "Ctesibius Of Alexandria".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 25 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/145475/Ctesibius-Of-Alexandria>.

3. ^ "Ctesibius Of Alexandria".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 25 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/145475/Ctesibius-Of-Alexandria>.

4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (=c300bce) (=c300bce)
5. ^
"Ctesibius". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ctesibius
(=(working 285 - 222 BCE)
6. ^
http://www.tmth.edu.gr/en/aet/1/31.html
(flourished285-222bce)

MORE INFO
[1] "Water clock". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_clock

[2] "Pipe organ". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pipe_organ
Alexandria, Egpyt3  
[1] Musicians playing tuba (l.) ,
hydraulis (top) and cornua to accompany
gladiatorial combat (Roman mosaic of
1st-2nd century, from Libya)
Musicians playing during the games.
Instruments: cornua, tuba and water
organ, Mosaic of the Gladiators,
Jamahiriya Museum, Tripoli, Libya. From
Dar Buc Ammera villa (Zliten). Mozaic
from: Libya / Tsarrbuus / Tripoli /
Bāb al ‘Azīzīyah Música antiga
- Ancient music • Jamahiriya
Museum - Museu de Trípoli UNKNOWN
source: http://www.uned.es/geo-1-histori
a-antigua-universal/NOTICIAS/Zliten%20Mo
saic.jpg

[2] Musicians playing during the
games. Instruments: cornua, tuba and
water organ, Mosaic of the Gladiators,
Jamahiriya Museum, Tripoli, Libya. From
Dar Buc Ammera villa (Zliten). Mozaic
from: Libya / Tsarrbuus / Tripoli /
Bāb al ‘Azīzīyah Música antiga
- Ancient music • Jamahiriya
Museum - Museu de Trípoli UNKNOWN
source: http://www.uned.es/geo-1-histori
a-antigua-universal/NOTICIAS/Zliten%20Mo
saic.jpg
2,274 YBN
[274 BC] 3 4 		886) The cerebrum and cerebellum of the
brain are identified.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (=~304bce+30-~250BCE)
4. ^
http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/biograph
y/Erasistratus.html (~304bce-~250bce)

MORE INFO
[1] "Erasistratus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erasistratu
s (=330?-250?BCE)
Alexandria, Egpyt2  
[1] Detail of a 1532 woodcut showing
Herophilus (left) and
Erasistratus. Credits:Wellcome
Library, London PD
source: http://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/
hommedia.ashx?id=91862&size=Small

[2] Artist Jacques-Louis David Title
Antiochus et Stratonice, Ecole
nationale supérieure des beaux-arts,
Paris, France. Date 1774 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/73/David-Antiochus_et_St
ratonice.jpg
2,260 YBN
[260 BC] 8 		663) The earliest lever.5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100
Inventions That Shaped World History",
1993, p16.
2. ^ Pappus, Collection,
Synagogue, Book VIII, c. AD 340.
3. ^ Yenne
and Grosser, "100 Inventions That
Shaped World History", 1993, p16.
4. ^
Pappus, Collection, Synagogue, Book
VIII, c. AD 340.
5. ^ Yenne and Grosser,
"100 Inventions That Shaped World
History", 1993, p16.
6. ^ Pappus,
Collection, Synagogue, Book VIII, c. AD
340.
7. ^ Asimov, I. Asimov’s Biographical
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology:
The Lives and Achievements of 1510
Great Scientists from Ancient Times to
the Present Chronologically Arranged.
1982, p29
8. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100
Inventions That Shaped World History",
1993, p16. {before) 260 BC}
Syracuse, Sicily7  
[1] Description Español: Esta
imagen ilustra la ventaja mecánica de
la palanca. Deutsch: Illustration des
Hebelgesetzes. Copyright © 2004
César Rincón. Imagen creada para la
Wikipedia en Español. Date
2004-08-05 (first version);
2004-08-07 (last version) Source
Originally from es.wikipedia;
description page is/was here. Author
Original uploader was CR at
es.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) Released under the GNU Free
Documentation License. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f2/Palanca-ejemplo.jpg

[2] Publishing, DK. Science: The
Definitive Visual Guide. DK Publishing,
2009, p40. COPYRIGHTED
source: Publishing, DK. Science: The
Definitive Visual Guide. DK Publishing,
2009, p40.
2,260 YBN
[260 BC] 5 6 7 		822) The earliest screw.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "hand tool." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 14 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/254115/hand-tool>.
2. ^ "hand tool." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 14 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/254115/hand-tool>.
3. ^ "hand tool." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 14 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/254115/hand-tool>.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
5. ^ Yenne and
Grosser, "100 Inventions That Shaped
World History", 1993, p22. {260 BC}
6. ^
Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000). (=500)
7. ^
http://www.reference.com/browse/wiki/Nin
eveh (=600)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/enc1/ha
nging_gardens_of_babylon
[2] "screw." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online
Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 14 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/529876/screw>
[3] Technology and Culture Volume 44,
Number 1, January 2003 (PDF) Dalley,
Stephanie. Oleson, John Peter.
"Sennacherib, Archimedes, and the Water
Screw: The Context of Invention in the
Ancient
World" http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/tec
hnology_and_culture/toc/tech44.1.html
Syracuse, Sicily4  
[1] Description Archimedes' screw.
Public domain, from Chambers's
Encyclopedia (Philadelphia: J. B.
Lippincott Company, 1875). Added to
illustrate article en:Archimedes. Date
2007-06-18 (original upload
date) Source Originally from
en.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. Author Original uploader
was Ianmacm at en.wikipedia PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/82/Archimedes_screw.JPG

[2] Description Deutsch: animierte
Prinzip einer Foerderschnecke oder auch
Archimedesche Spirale genannt, mit
einer Kugel zur Demonstration der
Foerderbewegung. Date published
06.Mai 2007 Source
File:Archimedes-screw_one-screw-thr
eads_with-ball_3D-view_animated.gif
created by Silberwolf Author
Silberwolf (size changed by:
Jahobr) Permission (Reusing this
file) Own work, share alike,
attribution required (Creative Commons
CC-BY-SA-2.5) CC
source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wik
ipedia/commons/a/a1/Archimedes-screw_one
-screw-threads_with-ball_3D-view_animate
d.gif
2,260 YBN
[260 BC] 6 		882) The rotation of the Earth around
its own axis once a day and around the
Sun once a year is understood by
Aristarchus.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). {c260 BCE}

MORE INFO
[1] "article 9009438".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
9438
[2] "Cleanthes". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cleanthes
(Mousion of Alexandria) Alexandria,
Egpyt5  
[1] Aristarchus's 3rd century BC
calculations on the relative sizes of
from left the Sun, Earth and Moon, from
a 10th century CE Greek copy PD
source: http://www.thelivingmoon.com/43a
ncients/04images/Artifacts/Aristarchus_w
orking.jpg

[2] Statue of Aristarchus at Aristotle
University in Thessalonica,
Greece UNKNOWN
source: http://www.thelivingmoon.com/43a
ncients/04images/People/Aristarchos_Samo
s.png
2,250 YBN
[250 BC] 4 5 		890) The earliest known escapement1 , a
device that controls the rotation of a
toothed gear to provide periodic
impulses2 3 .
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Freely, J. Flame of Miletus: The
Birth of Science in Ancient Greece (and
How It Changed the World). I. B.
Tauris, 2012,
p119. http://books.google.com/books?id=
e4ye9m3EflQC&pg=PA119
2. ^ "escapement." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 28
Dec. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/escapement
3. ^ "escapement." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 28 Dec. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/escapement
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (=Byzanteum 300 bce -
??)
5. ^
http://www.philonnet.gr/about/index.html
 (265-202 BCE)

MORE INFO
[1] "article 9025907".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
5907
[2]
http://books.google.com/books?id=bCA9AAA
AIAAJ&pg=PA73
 
[1] Description English:
Reconstruction of a washstand with
escapement mechanism, the earliest
known, as described by the Greek
engineer Philo of Byzantium (3rd
century BC) Date 1903 Source Carra
de Vaux, B. (1903): ''Le livre des
appareils pneumatiques et des machines
hydrauliques de Philon de Byzance
d'après les versions arabes d'Oxford
et de Constantinople'', Academie des
inscriptions et des belles lettres:
Notices et extraits des mss. de la
Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris 38,
27–235 (163), depicted in: Lewis,
Michael (2000), ''Theoretical
Hydraulics, Automata, and Water
Clocks'', in Wikander, Örjan, Handbook
of Ancient Water Technology, Technology
and Change in History, 2, Leiden, pp.
343–369 (356, fig. 5), ISBN
90-04-11123-9 Author Carra de Vaux,
B. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/46/Washstand_by_Philo_of
_Byzantium.png
2,246 YBN
[246 BC] 15 16 17 		898) The size of Earth is correctly
calculated10 11 12 by using the angle
of the Sun's shadow and the distance
between two cities.13
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
(276-196,240BCE 246bce?)
2. ^ "Eratosthenes".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eratosthene
s
3. ^ Carl Sagan, "Cosmos", Carl Sagan
Productions, KCET Los Angeles, (1980).
4. ^
Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and technology;
the lives and achievements of 1195
great scientists from ancient times to
the present, chronologically arranged",
(Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
(276-196,240BCE 246bce?)
5. ^ "Eratosthenes".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eratosthene
s
6. ^ Carl Sagan, "Cosmos", Carl Sagan
Productions, KCET Los Angeles, (1980).
7. ^
Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and technology;
the lives and achievements of 1195
great scientists from ancient times to
the present, chronologically arranged",
(Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
(276-196,240BCE 246bce?)
8. ^ "Eratosthenes".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eratosthene
s
9. ^ Carl Sagan, "Cosmos", Carl Sagan
Productions, KCET Los Angeles, (1980).
10. ^
Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and technology;
the lives and achievements of 1195
great scientists from ancient times to
the present, chronologically arranged",
(Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
(276-196,240BCE 246bce?)
11. ^ "Eratosthenes".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eratosthene
s
12. ^ Carl Sagan, "Cosmos", Carl Sagan
Productions, KCET Los Angeles, (1980).
13. ^
Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and technology;
the lives and achievements of 1195
great scientists from ancient times to
the present, chronologically arranged",
(Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
(276-196,240BCE 246bce?)
14. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
(276-196,240BCE 246bce?)
15. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
(276-196,240BCE 246bce?)
16. ^ Mostafa
El-Abbadi, "The Life and Fate of the
Ancient Library of Alexandria", (Paris:
UNESCO, 1990). (c276-194BCE)
17. ^ Dutka, Jacques.
“‘Eratosthenes’ Measurement of
the Earth Reconsidered’.” Archive
for History of Exact Sciences 46.1
(1993): 55–66. Web. 25 May
2012. http://www.springerlink.com/conte
nt/km185753675743p8/fulltext.pdf
(c230BCE {275-194BCE})
Alexandria, Egypt14  
[1] Eratosthenes experiment UNKNOWN
source: http://www.iucaa.ernet.in/~scipo
p/Obsetion/eratos/image008.jpg

[2] Eratosthenes (portrait) Copied
from w:es
Imagen:Eratostenes-retrato.png
(originally from Enciclopedia
Libre) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a2/Portrait_of_Eratosthe
nes.png
2,240 YBN
[240 BC] 10 		1325) The earliest observation of a
comet.5 6 7 8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Halley's comet 'was spotted by
the ancient Greeks"'. BBC.
2010. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science
-environment-11255168
2. ^
http://cometography.com/pcomets/001p.htm
l
3. ^
http://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/ask_as
tro/answers/971112e.html
4. ^ Graham and Hintz, "An Ancient
Greek Sighting of Halley's Comet? ",
Journal of Cosmology, 2010, Vol 9,
2130-2136.
http://journalofcosmology.com/AncientA
stronomy106.html
5. ^ "Halley's comet 'was spotted by
the ancient Greeks"'. BBC.
2010. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science
-environment-11255168
6. ^
http://cometography.com/pcomets/001p.htm
l
7. ^
http://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/ask_as
tro/answers/971112e.html
8. ^ Graham and Hintz, "An Ancient
Greek Sighting of Halley's Comet? ",
Journal of Cosmology, 2010, Vol 9,
2130-2136.
http://journalofcosmology.com/AncientA
stronomy106.html
9. ^ "Halley's comet 'was spotted by
the ancient Greeks"'. BBC.
2010. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science
-environment-11255168
10. ^ "Halley's comet 'was spotted by
the ancient Greeks"'. BBC.
2010. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science
-environment-11255168
China9  
[1] Description Comet P/Halley as
taken March 8, 1986 by W. Liller,
Easter Island, part of the
International Halley Watch (IHW) Large
Scale Phenomena Network. Date image
taken on 8. Mar. 1986 Source NSSDC's
Photo Gallery (NASA):
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/photo_gallery
/photogallery-comets.html
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image/planeta
ry/comet/lspn_comet_halley1.jpg Autho
r NASA/W. Liller Permission (Reusing
this file) Copyright information
from
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/photo_gallery
/photogallery-faq.html - All of the
images presented on NSSDC's Photo
Gallery are in the public domain. As
such, they may be used for any purpose.
[...] PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2a/Lspn_comet_halley.jpg

2,231 YBN
[231 BC] 5 		833) Metal gears. The earliest evidence
of the spur and worm gears.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Dudás, I. The Theory And
Practice Of Worm Gear Drives. Kogan
Page Science, 2004. Kogan Page Science,
p7. http://books.google.com/books?id=I2
NnbsyJsvAC&pg=PA7
2. ^ Dudás, I. The Theory And Practice
Of Worm Gear Drives. Kogan Page
Science, 2004. Kogan Page Science,
p7. http://books.google.com/books?id=I2
NnbsyJsvAC&pg=PA7
3. ^ Dudás, I. The Theory And Practice
Of Worm Gear Drives. Kogan Page
Science, 2004. Kogan Page Science,
p7. http://books.google.com/books?id=I2
NnbsyJsvAC&pg=PA7
4. ^ Dudás, I. The Theory And Practice
Of Worm Gear Drives. Kogan Page
Science, 2004. Kogan Page Science,
p7. http://books.google.com/books?id=I2
NnbsyJsvAC&pg=PA7
5. ^ Dudás, I. The Theory And Practice
Of Worm Gear Drives. Kogan Page
Science, 2004. Kogan Page Science,
p7. http://books.google.com/books?id=I2
NnbsyJsvAC&pg=PA7

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/enc1/ha
nging_gardens_of_babylon
[2] "screw." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online
Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 14 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/529876/screw>
[3] Technology and Culture Volume 44,
Number 1, January 2003 (PDF) Dalley,
Stephanie. Oleson, John Peter.
"Sennacherib, Archimedes, and the Water
Screw: The Context of Invention in the
Ancient
World" http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/tec
hnology_and_culture/toc/tech44.1.html
[4] "Archimedes screw." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 14 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/32831/Archimedes-screw>
[5] Yenne and Grosser, "100 Inventions
That Shaped World History", 1993, p22
[6]
Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000). (=500)
[7]
http://www.reference.com/browse/wiki/Nin
eveh (=600)
Syracuse, Sicily4  
[1] Description Archimedes' screw.
Public domain, from Chambers's
Encyclopedia (Philadelphia: J. B.
Lippincott Company, 1875). Added to
illustrate article en:Archimedes. Date
2007-06-18 (original upload
date) Source Originally from
en.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. Author Original uploader
was Ianmacm at en.wikipedia PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/82/Archimedes_screw.JPG

[2] Description Deutsch: animierte
Prinzip einer Foerderschnecke oder auch
Archimedesche Spirale genannt, mit
einer Kugel zur Demonstration der
Foerderbewegung. Date published
06.Mai 2007 Source
File:Archimedes-screw_one-screw-thr
eads_with-ball_3D-view_animated.gif
created by Silberwolf Author
Silberwolf (size changed by:
Jahobr) Permission (Reusing this
file) Own work, share alike,
attribution required (Creative Commons
CC-BY-SA-2.5) CC
source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wik
ipedia/commons/a/a1/Archimedes-screw_one
-screw-threads_with-ball_3D-view_animate
d.gif
2,160 YBN
[160 BC] 4 		1029) The distance to the Moon is
measured using parallax; by measuring
how much an object appears to move
compared to a more distant object when
the observer changes positions.1
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p33-34.
2. ^
American Council of Learned Societies.
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Scribner’s, 2000,
p425-426.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p33-34.
4. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and technology;
the lives and achievements of 1195
great scientists from ancient times to
the present, chronologically arranged",
(Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982),
p33-34.

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.windows.ucar.edu/tour/link=/p
eople/ancient_epoch/hipparchus.html
[2] Narrien, J. An Historical Account
of the Origin and Progress of
Astronomy: With Plates Illustrating,
Chiefly, the Ancient Systems. Baldwin
and Cradock, 1833,
p206. books.google.com/books?id=gYYoAAA
AYAAJ&pg=PA206
[3] "Hipparchus." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 18 Nov.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hipparchus-
1
(before 141 BC) Bithynia (presumably
Nicaea)2 |(observatory on) Island of
Rhodes, Greece3  
[1] Hipparchus (196 BC – 120 BC) was
born in Nicaea (now Iznik, Turkey), and
probably died on the island of Rhodes.
He is known to have been a working
astronomer at least from 147 BC to 127
BC. UNKNOWN
source: http://web.jccc.edu/gallery/astr
otext/Bills%20Files/Astronomy%20Textbook
/Chapter%203_files/img12qwe.jpg

[2] Hipparchus compared observations
of a solar eclipse in Syene and in
Alexandria to determine the distance
from the Earth to the
Moon. Hipparchus measured the
distance from the Earth to the Moon
during a solar eclipse that was a total
eclipse at Syene and a partial eclipse
at Alexandria. At the same time that an
observer at Syene saw the entire Sun
blocked by the Moon, one at Alexandria
saw 1/5th of the Sun's disk, that is
1/5th of 30 arcminutes of the Sun's
disk was visible (The Sun's angular
diameter is 30 arcminutes or 1/2
degree). The angular size of the
visible Sun seen at Alexandria
therefore is 1/10th of a degree (0.1
degree) and this angle, expressed in
radians and applying the small angle
approximation gives the ratio of the
Syene-Alexandria distance to the
Earth-Moon distance. UNKNOWN
source: http://astrosun2.astro.cornell.e
du/academics/courses//astro201/hipparchu
s.htm
2,160 YBN
[160 BC] 15 		6477) The law of inertia (that a body
preserves its motion9 ) is
understood.10 11 12
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "inertia." The Oxford Dictionary
of Sports Science & Medicine. Oxford
University Press, 1998, 2006, 2007.
Answers.com 26 Nov. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/inertia ht
tp://www.answers.com/main/cite_this_answ
er.jsp#ixzz2DN5kNYiR
2. ^ Sambursky, S. The Physical World
of Late Antiquity. Routledge and K.
Paul, 1962, p74?.
3. ^ "John Philoponus". The
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
(Winter 2003 Edition), Edward N. Zalta
(ed.).
http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/philop
onus/#2.2
4. ^ Dimarogonas, A.D. Vibration for
Engineers. Prentice Hall, 1996,
p5. http://books.google.com/books?ei=eW
yyUITrL8f-2QXAroGQCQ
5. ^ "inertia." The Oxford Dictionary
of Sports Science & Medicine. Oxford
University Press, 1998, 2006, 2007.
Answers.com 26 Nov. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/inertia ht
tp://www.answers.com/main/cite_this_answ
er.jsp#ixzz2DN5kNYiR
6. ^ Sambursky, S. The Physical World
of Late Antiquity. Routledge and K.
Paul, 1962, p74?.
7. ^ "John Philoponus". The
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
(Winter 2003 Edition), Edward N. Zalta
(ed.).
http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/philop
onus/#2.2
8. ^ Dimarogonas, A.D. Vibration for
Engineers. Prentice Hall, 1996,
p5. http://books.google.com/books?ei=eW
yyUITrL8f-2QXAroGQCQ
9. ^ "inertia." The Oxford Dictionary
of Sports Science & Medicine. Oxford
University Press, 1998, 2006, 2007.
Answers.com 26 Nov. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/inertia ht
tp://www.answers.com/main/cite_this_answ
er.jsp#ixzz2DN5kNYiR
10. ^ Sambursky, S. The Physical World
of Late Antiquity. Routledge and K.
Paul, 1962, p74?.
11. ^ "John Philoponus".
The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
(Winter 2003 Edition), Edward N. Zalta
(ed.).
http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/philop
onus/#2.2
12. ^ Dimarogonas, A.D. Vibration for
Engineers. Prentice Hall, 1996,
p5. http://books.google.com/books?ei=eW
yyUITrL8f-2QXAroGQCQ
13. ^ American Council of Learned
Societies. Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Scribner's, 2000,
p425-426.
14. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p33-34.
15. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and technology;
the lives and achievements of 1195
great scientists from ancient times to
the present, chronologically arranged",
(Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982),
p33-34.

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.windows.ucar.edu/tour/link=/p
eople/ancient_epoch/hipparchus.html
[2] Narrien, J. An Historical Account
of the Origin and Progress of
Astronomy: With Plates Illustrating,
Chiefly, the Ancient Systems. Baldwin
and Cradock, 1833,
p206. books.google.com/books?id=gYYoAAA
AYAAJ&pg=PA206
[3] "Hipparchus." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 18 Nov.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hipparchus-
1
[4] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p32
[5] Lucio
Russo, "The Forgotten Revolution",
(Berlin; New York: Springer-Verlag,
2004), p88 Pliny, Naturalis historia,
II 95
[6] Lucio Russo, "The Forgotten
Revolution", (Berlin; New York:
Springer-Verlag, 2004), p89
[7] "inertia."
The Oxford Dictionary of Sports Science
. Oxford University Press, 1998, 2006,
2007. Answers.com 11 Aug. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/inertia
[8] Edward Grant, "Motion in the Void
and the Principle of Inertia in the
Middle Ages", Isis, Vol. 55, No. 3
(Sep., 1964), pp. 265-292 Published
by: The University of Chicago Press on
behalf of The History of Science
Society http://www.jstor.org/stable/228
571
[9] "Simplicius of Cilicia". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simplicius_
of_Cilicia
(before 141 BC) Bithynia (presumably
Nicaea)13 |(observatory on) Island of
Rhodes, Greece14  
[1] Hipparchus (196 BC – 120 BC) was
born in Nicaea (now Iznik, Turkey), and
probably died on the island of Rhodes.
He is known to have been a working
astronomer at least from 147 BC to 127
BC. UNKNOWN
source: http://web.jccc.edu/gallery/astr
otext/Bills%20Files/Astronomy%20Textbook
/Chapter%203_files/img12qwe.jpg

[2] image of Hipparchos from coin?
http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/hist
ory/Mathematicians/Hipparchus.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Hipparchos_1.jpeg
2,140 YBN
[140 BC] 11 12 13 		1070) The invention of paper in China.7
8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Tsien, Tsuen-Hsuin (1985). Paper
and Printing. Joseph Needham, Science
and Civilisation in China, Chemistry
and Chemical Technology. Vol. 5 part 1.
Cambridge University Press,
p38. {Needham_Vol5_Part1_1954CE.pdf}
2. ^
http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2006-0
8/08/content_4937457.htm
3. ^ Tsien, Tsuen-Hsuin (1985). Paper
and Printing. Joseph Needham, Science
and Civilisation in China, Chemistry
and Chemical Technology. Vol. 5 part 1.
Cambridge University Press,
p38. {Needham_Vol5_Part1_1954CE.pdf}
4. ^
http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2006-0
8/08/content_4937457.htm
5. ^ Tsien, Tsuen-Hsuin (1985). Paper
and Printing. Joseph Needham, Science
and Civilisation in China, Chemistry
and Chemical Technology. Vol. 5 part 1.
Cambridge University Press,
p38. {Needham_Vol5_Part1_1954CE.pdf}
6. ^
http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2006-0
8/08/content_4937457.htm
7. ^ Tsien, Tsuen-Hsuin (1985). Paper
and Printing. Joseph Needham, Science
and Civilisation in China, Chemistry
and Chemical Technology. Vol. 5 part 1.
Cambridge University Press,
p38. {Needham_Vol5_Part1_1954CE.pdf}
8. ^
http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2006-0
8/08/content_4937457.htm
9. ^ Tsien, Tsuen-Hsuin (1985). Paper
and Printing. Joseph Needham, Science
and Civilisation in China, Chemistry
and Chemical Technology. Vol. 5 part 1.
Cambridge University Press,
p38. {Needham_Vol5_Part1_1954CE.pdf}
10. ^ www.apio.org/chinese05.htm
11. ^ Tsien, Tsuen-Hsuin (1985).
Paper and Printing. Joseph Needham,
Science and Civilisation in China,
Chemistry and Chemical Technology. Vol.
5 part 1. Cambridge University Press,
p38. {Needham_Vol5_Part1_1954CE.pdf}
12. ^ www.apio.org/chinese05.htm
(=140-87BCE)
13. ^
http://www.amateras.com/trip/china/xian-
e.htm {140-87BCE}

MORE INFO
[1] David Buisseret (1998),
Envisaging the City, U Chicago Press,
p. 12, ISBN 978-0-226-07993-6
Pa-chhiao near Sian in the Shensi
province of China9 |Xian, China10
 
[1] Description Early Chinese hemp
fiber paper, used for wrapping not
writing, on display at the Shaanxi
history museum in Xi'An, China.
Excavated from the Han Tomb of Wu Di
(140-87 BC) at Baqiao, Xi'An. Photo by
Yannick Trottier, 2007 Date 22
June 2007 Source Own work Author
Ytrottier GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/7f/Chinese_hemp_paper_we
stern_han.jpg

[2] It's the earliest Paper in the
world : Western Han (140-87
BC) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.amateras.com/trip/chi
na/12Sha-Paper360x240.jpg
2,134 YBN
[134 BC] 4 5 		1041) A nova is observed. The first
star catalog that uses celestial
coordinates of latitude and longitude,
and that divides stars by brightness1 .
The "precession of the equinoxes" is
recognized; that the position of the
stars at equinox changes slightly each
year.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Bostock, J., and H.T. Riley. The
Natural History of Pliny. H. G. Bohn,
1893. Bohn’s Classical Library.
p59. http://books.google.com/books?id=a
VMMAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA59
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p33-34.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p33-34.
4. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p33-34.
5. ^ "Almagest".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 17 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/16707/Almagest>.

MORE INFO
[1] Thurston, H. Early Astronomy.
Springer New York, 1996. Springer Study
Edition Series
(observatory on) Island of Rhodes,
Greece3  
[1] Hipparchus (196 BC – 120 BC) was
born in Nicaea (now Iznik, Turkey), and
probably died on the island of Rhodes.
He is known to have been a working
astronomer at least from 147 BC to 127
BC. UNKNOWN
source: http://web.jccc.edu/gallery/astr
otext/Bills%20Files/Astronomy%20Textbook
/Chapter%203_files/img12qwe.jpg

[2] image of Hipparchos from coin?
http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/hist
ory/Mathematicians/Hipparchus.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Hipparchos_1.jpeg
2,100 YBN
[100 BC] 4 		870) The earliest known metal spur gear
and mechanical computer.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Antikythera mechanism".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 12 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/1334586/Antikythera-mechanism>.
2. ^ "Decoding the ancient Greek
astronomical calculator known as the
Antikythera Mechanism". Nature 444
Supplement. 30 November
2006. http://www.antikythera-mechanism.
gr/system/files/0608_Nature.pdf
3. ^ "Antikythera mechanism".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 12 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/1334586/Antikythera-mechanism>.
4. ^ "Antikythera mechanism".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 12 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/1334586/Antikythera-mechanism>.

MORE INFO
[1] "Discovering How Greeks
Computed in 100 BC". The New York
Times. 31 July
2008. http://www.nytimes.com/2008/07/31
/science/31computer.html?hp&_r=0
near the island of Antikythera,
Mediterranean Sea3  
[1] English: Main w:en:Antikythera
mechanism fragment (fragment A). The
mechanism consists of a complex system
of 30 wheels and plates with
inscriptions relating to signs of the
zodiac, months, eclipses and
pan-Hellenic games. The study of the
fragments suggests that this was a kind
of astrolabe. The interpretation now
generally accepted dates back to
studies by Professor w:en:Derek de
Solla Price, who was the first to
suggest that the mechanism is a machine
to calculate the solar and lunar
calendar, that is to say, an ingenious
machine to determine the time based on
the movements of the sun and moon,
their relationship (eclipses) and the
movements of other stars and planets
known at that time. Later research by
the Antikythera Mechanism Research
Project and scholar Michael Wright has
added to and improved upon Price's
work. The mechanism was probably built
by an mechanic engineer of the school
of Posidonius in Rhodes. Cicero, who
visited the island in 79/78 B.C.
reported that such devices were indeed
designed by the Stoic philosopher
Posidonius of Apamea. The design of the
Antikythera mechanism appears to follow
the tradition of Archimedes'
planetarium, and may be related to
sundials. His modus operandi is based
on the use of gears. The machine is
dated around 89 B.C. and comes from the
wreck found off the island of
Antikythera. National Archaeological
Museum, Athens, No. 15987. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/66/NAMA_Machine_d%27Anti
cyth%C3%A8re_1.jpg

[2] English: Fragment A (rear) of the
Antikythera mechanism. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a4/NAMA_Machine_d%27Anti
cyth%C3%A8re_4.jpg
2,075 YBN
[75 BC] 4 		1116) Negative numbers are used in
China.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "East Asian mathematics".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 18 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/1238455/East-Asian-mathematics>.

2. ^ "East Asian mathematics".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 18 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/1238455/East-Asian-mathematics>.

3. ^ "East Asian mathematics".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 18 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/1238455/East-Asian-mathematics>.

4. ^ "East Asian mathematics".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 18 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/1238455/East-Asian-mathematics>.


MORE INFO
[1] Christopher Cullen, The Suàn
shù shū , “Writings on
reckoning”: Rewriting the history of
early Chinese mathematics in the light
of an excavated manuscript, Historia
Mathematica, Volume 34, Issue 1,
February 2007, Pages 10-44, ISSN
0315-0860,
10.1016/j.hm.2005.11.006. (http://www.s
ciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S03
15086005001084)
[2] "Negative number". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Negative_nu
mber (100bce-50bce)
[3] "Nine Chapters on the
Mathematical Art". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nine_Chapte
rs_on_the_Mathematical_Art
(200bce-100ce)
[4] "Suàn shù shū". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Su%C3%A0n_s
h%C3%B9_sh%C5%AB (100ce)
[5] Shepherd, W.
Outline History of Science. Ward Lock,
1965.
p43. http://books.google.com/books?ei=R
2ypUKnUAsrY2QWvsYCQDg&id=Fu64AAAAIAAJ
[6] Shen, K. et al. The Nine Chapters
on the Mathematical Art: Companion and
Commentary. Oxford University Press,
1999.
p405. http://books.google.com/books?ei=
R2ypUKnUAsrY2QWvsYCQDg&id=0DlGAQAAIAAJ
China3  
[1] [t Image of how Chinese counting
rods are used to represent positive and
negative numbers] GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cou
nting_rods

[2] Digital text of the Nine Chapters
on the Mathematical Art. PD
source: http://science.math.ntnu.edu.tw/
ELME/GEO/files/001.jpg
2,056 YBN
[56 BC] 14 		1045) The theory that light is made of
atoms that move very fast.10 11 12
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ Titus Carus Lucretius, "T.
Lucreti Cari De rerum natura libri sex,
Volume 1", 1866, lines 176-229,
p530 http://books.google.com/books?id=o
iUTAAAAQAAJ
2. ^ Titus Lucretius Carus, "T. Lucreti
Cari De rerum natura libri sex", J.
Allyn, 1884,
p105. http://books.google.com/books?id=
LCmRGMJBoYUC
3. ^ William Ellery Leonard, "De Rerum
Natura: The Latin Text of Lucretius",
Univ of Wisconsin Press, 2008,
p439. http://books.google.com/books?id=
mUsQtrxbfxIC
4. ^ Titus Carus Lucretius, "T. Lucreti
Cari De rerum natura libri sex, Volume
1", 1866, lines 176-229,
p530 http://books.google.com/books?id=o
iUTAAAAQAAJ
5. ^ Titus Lucretius Carus, "T. Lucreti
Cari De rerum natura libri sex", J.
Allyn, 1884,
p105. http://books.google.com/books?id=
LCmRGMJBoYUC
6. ^ William Ellery Leonard, "De Rerum
Natura: The Latin Text of Lucretius",
Univ of Wisconsin Press, 2008,
p439. http://books.google.com/books?id=
mUsQtrxbfxIC
7. ^ Titus Carus Lucretius, "T. Lucreti
Cari De rerum natura libri sex, Volume
1", 1866, lines 176-229,
p530 http://books.google.com/books?id=o
iUTAAAAQAAJ
8. ^ Titus Lucretius Carus, "T. Lucreti
Cari De rerum natura libri sex", J.
Allyn, 1884,
p105. http://books.google.com/books?id=
LCmRGMJBoYUC
9. ^ William Ellery Leonard, "De Rerum
Natura: The Latin Text of Lucretius",
Univ of Wisconsin Press, 2008,
p439. http://books.google.com/books?id=
mUsQtrxbfxIC
10. ^ Titus Carus Lucretius, "T.
Lucreti Cari De rerum natura libri sex,
Volume 1", 1866, lines 176-229,
p530 http://books.google.com/books?id=o
iUTAAAAQAAJ
11. ^ Titus Lucretius Carus, "T.
Lucreti Cari De rerum natura libri
sex", J. Allyn, 1884,
p105. http://books.google.com/books?id=
LCmRGMJBoYUC
12. ^ William Ellery Leonard, "De Rerum
Natura: The Latin Text of Lucretius",
Univ of Wisconsin Press, 2008,
p439. http://books.google.com/books?id=
mUsQtrxbfxIC
13. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p36-37.
14. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp36-37.

MORE INFO
[1] "Lucretius". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucretius
(=(ca. 94 BC- ca. 49 BC)
[2] "Light".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light
[3] "didactic." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 07 Aug.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/didactic
[4] "hexameter." The Concise Oxford
Dictionary of Literary Terms. Oxford
University Press, 2001, 2004.
Answers.com 07 Aug. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hexameter
Rome, Italy13  
[1] Text copied from: Titus Carus
Lucretius, ''T. Lucreti Cari De rerum
natura libri sex, Volume 1'', 1866,
lines 176-229,
p530 http://books.google.com/books?id=o
iUTAAAAQAAJ PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=oiUTAAAAQAAJ

[2] Text copied from: Titus Carus
Lucretius, ''T. Lucreti Cari De rerum
natura libri sex, Volume 1'', 1866,
lines 176-229,
p530 http://books.google.com/books?id=o
iUTAAAAQAAJ PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=oiUTAAAAQAAJ
2,050 YBN
[50 BC] 6 7 8 		1050) The first glass blowing.1 2 3
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ "Glass blowing". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass_blowi
ng
3. ^ AVIGAD, N. “Excavations in the
Jewish Quarter of the Old City of
Jerusalem, 1971 (Third Preliminary
Report).” Israel Exploration Journal
22.4 (1972):
193–200. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
27925355
4. ^ Tatton-Brown, V. 1991. The Roman
Empire. In H. Tait (ed.) Five Thousand
Years of Glass. pp.62–97. British
Museum Press: London ISBN
0-8122-1888-4 http://www.amazon.com/Fiv
e-Thousand-Years-Glass-Hugh/dp/081221888
4#reader_0812218884
5. ^ AVIGAD, N. “Excavations in the
Jewish Quarter of the Old City of
Jerusalem, 1971 (Third Preliminary
Report).” Israel Exploration Journal
22.4 (1972):
193–200. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
27925355
6. ^ AVIGAD, N. “Excavations in the
Jewish Quarter of the Old City of
Jerusalem, 1971 (Third Preliminary
Report).” Israel Exploration Journal
22.4 (1972):
193–200. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
27925355
7. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000). (based on this source estimate
of 1st century BCE) (based on this
source estimate of 1st century BCE)
8. ^
Tatton-Brown, V. 1991. The Roman
Empire. In H. Tait (ed.) Five Thousand
Years of Glass. pp.62–97. British
Museum Press: London ISBN
0-8122-1888-4 http://www.amazon.com/Fiv
e-Thousand-Years-Glass-Hugh/dp/081221888
4#reader_0812218884
(origin of glass blowing probably in
the Syro-Palestine area, but earliest
artifact is from) Jerusalem4 5  
[1] AVIGAD, N. “Excavations in the
Jewish Quarter of the Old City of
Jerusalem, 1971 (Third Preliminary
Report).” Israel Exploration Journal
22.4 (1972):
193–200. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
27925355 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2792
5355

[2] AVIGAD, N. “Excavations in the
Jewish Quarter of the Old City of
Jerusalem, 1971 (Third Preliminary
Report).” Israel Exploration Journal
22.4 (1972):
193–200. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
27925355 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2792
5355
2,045 YBN
[01/01/45 BC] 2 		1056) The Julian calendar: 365 days
with an extra day every 4 years.1
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^ "Sosigenes of Alexandria."
Encyclop�dia Britannica.
Encyclop�dia Britannica Online.
Encyclop�dia Britannica Inc., 2012.
Web. 14 Nov. 2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c//>.
2. ^ Ball, W.W.R. Mathematical
Recreations and Essays. Macmillan,
1917,
p444. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Zy87AQAAIAAJ&pg=PA44
Rome (presumably) 
[1] Description: Büste des Gaius
Iulius Caesar PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Giulio-cesare-enhanced_1-800x1450.jpg


[2] Julius Caesar PD
source: http://www4.vjc.edu/ENG36002Sp02
/discuss/msgReader$35
2,040 YBN
[40 BC] 8 9 10 		1058) The earliest waterwheel.4 5 The
earliest elevator (or vertical lift)6 .
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^ "waterwheel." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/637559/waterwheel>.
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
3. ^ "elevator." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 13 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
2371>.
4. ^ "waterwheel." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/637559/waterwheel>.
5. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
6. ^ "elevator." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 13 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
2371>.
7. ^ "Vitruvius." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/631310/Vitruvius>.
8. ^ "Vitruvius." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/631310/Vitruvius>. {after 27BCE}
9. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (c70-c25) (c70-c25)
10. ^
"Vitruvius". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitruvius
(=c80/70-c25)

MORE INFO
[1] "Waterwheel". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waterwheel
Rome7  
[1] Description Nederlands:
Repronegatief. Kintjir of
waterschepwiel in Djambi, Sumatra Date
1914-1921 Source
Tropenmuseum Author
Unknown Permission (Reusing this
file) See below. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c6/COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEU
M_Kintjir_of_waterschepwiel_in_Djambi_Su
matra_TMnr_10007886.jpg

[2] [t Notice that the oxen walk in
circles and there must be some 90
degree gear below deck - an animal
powered boat.] XVth century miniature
of an ox-powered paddle wheel boat from
the 4th century Roman military treatise
De Rebus Bellicis by Anonymous PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c0/De_Rebus_Bellicis%2C_
XVth_Century_Miniature.JPG
2,037 YBN
[37 BC] 3 4 		6549) The germ theory of disease; that
disease can be caused by tiny living
organisms.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Diamond, J., and N. Geographic.
1000 Events That Shaped the World.
National Geographic Society, 2008.
History Series., p58.
http://books.google.com/books?id=8AceA
d-41awC&pg=PA58
2. ^ Diamond, J., and N. Geographic.
1000 Events That Shaped the World.
National Geographic Society, 2008.
History Series., p58.
http://books.google.com/books?id=8AceA
d-41awC&pg=PA58
3. ^ Cato, M.P., F. Harrison, and M.T.
Varro. Roman Farm Management: The
Treatises of Cato and Varro Done into
English, with Notes of Modern
Instances. Macmillan, 1918,
p94. http://books.google.com/books?id=d
TJPAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA94
4. ^ Diamond, J., and N. Geographic.
1000 Events That Shaped the World.
National Geographic Society, 2008.
History Series., p58.
http://books.google.com/books?id=8AceA
d-41awC&pg=PA58

MORE INFO
[1] "Marcus Terentius Varro".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Marcus_T
erentius_Varro
Rome (presumably)2  
[1] Varro, M.T., and H. Keil. Rerum
Rusticarum Libri Tres. In aedibus B.G.
Teubneri, 1889. Bibliotheca Scriptorum
Graecorum Et Romanorum Teubneriana,
p28. http://books.google.com/books?id=C
OffAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA28 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=COffAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA28

[2] Marcus Varro PD
source: http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcr
op/history/lecture19/fig_19-03.jpg
1,950 YBN
[50 AD] 9 10 		1078) The steam engine.7 8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p40.
2. ^ "Hero
of Alexandria". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hero_of_Ale
xandria
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p40.
4. ^ "Hero
of Alexandria". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hero_of_Ale
xandria
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p40.
6. ^ "Hero
of Alexandria". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hero_of_Ale
xandria
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p40.
8. ^ "Hero
of Alexandria". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hero_of_Ale
xandria
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982). (=c20-?)
10. ^ "Hero
of Alexandria". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hero_of_Ale
xandria (=c.10-c.70(+40)

MORE INFO
[1] Carl Sagan, "Cosmos", Carl
Sagan Productions, KCET Los Angeles,
(1980)
Alexandria, Egypt 
[1] Name of Image: Hero's Engine MIX
#: 9513982 NIX #: MSFC-9513982 Date
of Image: 2004-04-15 Category: Early
Rockets Full Description:
Legendary characters used the power of
mythology to fly through the heavens.
About 200 BC, a Greek inventor known as
Hero of Alexandria came up with a new
invention that depended on the
mechanical interaction of heat and
water. He invented a rocket-like device
called an aeolipile. It used steam for
propulsion. Hero mounted a sphere on
top of a water kettle. A fire below the
kettle turned the water into steam, and
the gas traveled through the pipes to
the sphere. Two L-shaped tubes on
opposite sides of the sphere allowed
the gas to escape, and in doing so gave
a thrust to the sphere that caused it
to rotate. (MRPO) MRD/SPD
Discipline(s): n/a (MRPO) Subject
Type: n/a Keywords: Hero's Engine,
Aeolipile MSFC Negative Number:
9513982 Reference Number:
MSFC-75-SA-4105-2C n/a
n/a from: http://mix.msfc.nasa.gov/ab
stracts.php?p=1867 PD
source: http://mix.msfc.nasa.gov/IMAGES/
HIGH/9513982.jpg

[2] Hero's aeolipile From Knight's
American Mechanical Dictionary, 1876.
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Aeolipile_illustration.JPG
1,950 YBN
[50 AD] 3 4 		6566) A wind-wheel powered machine.1 2

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Dietrich Lohrmann, "Von der
östlichen zur westlichen Windmühle",
Archiv für Kulturgeschichte, Vol. 77,
Issue 1 (1995), pp.1–30 (10f.)
2. ^ A.G.
Drachmann, "Heron's Windmill",
Centaurus, 7 (1961), pp. 145–151
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and technology;
the lives and achievements of 1195
great scientists from ancient times to
the present, chronologically arranged",
(Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
(=c20-?)
4. ^ "Hero of Alexandria". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hero_of_Ale
xandria (=c.10-c.70(+40)

MORE INFO
[1] Carl Sagan, "Cosmos", Carl
Sagan Productions, KCET Los Angeles,
(1980)
[2] John Marlowe, "The golden age of
Alexandria: from its foundation by
Alexander the Great in 331 BC to its
capture by the Arabs in 642 AD.",
(London: Gollancz, 1971)
[3]
http://www.gap-system.org/~history/Print
only/Pappus.html
[4]
http://www.gap-system.org/~history/Print
only/Heron.html
[5] "Heron's formula". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heron%27s_f
ormula
Alexandria, Egypt 
[1] Description Deutsch:
Neuzeitliche Rekonstruktion von
Windorgel und Windrad des Heron von
Alexandria (1. Jh. n. Chr.) nach W.
Schmidt: Herons von Alexandria
Druckwerke und Automatentheater,
griechisch und deutsch hg., 1899
(Heronis Alexandrini opera I, Neudruck
1971), S. 205, Abb. 44; vgl. ebenda
Einleitung S. XXXIX English: Modern
reconstruction of wind organ and wind
wheel of Heron of Alexandria (1st
century AD) according to W. Schmidt:
Herons von Alexandria Druckwerke und
Automatentheater, Greek and German,
1899 (Heronis Alexandrini opera I,
Reprint 1971), p. 205, fig. 44; cf.
introduction p. XXXIX Date
1899 Source W. Schmidt: Herons von
Alexandria Druckwerke und
Automatentheater, gr-dt, 1899 Author
W. Schmidt PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Heron%27s_Windw
heel.jpg/1026px-Heron%27s_Windwheel.jpg

[2] Hero's aeolipile From Knight's
American Mechanical Dictionary, 1876.
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Aeolipile_illustration.JPG
1,935 YBN
[65 AD] 6 		6432) The glass prism.3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Seneca, L.A., and T. Lodge.
Works, Both Moral and Natural. 1620,
p772. http://books.google.com/books?id=
FElCAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA886&lpg=PA886
2. ^ The Development of Newton's Theory
of Color Richard S. Westfall Isis ,
Vol. 53, No. 3 (Sep., 1962), pp.
339-358 URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/227786
3. ^ Seneca, L.A., and T. Lodge. Works,
Both Moral and Natural. 1620,
p772. http://books.google.com/books?id=
FElCAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA886&lpg=PA886
4. ^ The Development of Newton's Theory
of Color Richard S. Westfall Isis ,
Vol. 53, No. 3 (Sep., 1962), pp.
339-358 URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/227786
5. ^ "Lucius Annaeus Seneca".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 14 Oct.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/534392/Lucius-Annaeus-Seneca>.
6. ^ McBeath, A. & Gheorghe, A. D.,
"Meteor Beliefs Project: Classical
beliefs connecting meteors with life
and death", WGN, Journal of the
International Meteor Organization, vol.
34, no. 5, p.
148-150. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full
/2006JIMO...34..148M
Rome5  
[1] Description Seneca, part of
double-herm in Antikensammlung
Berlin Date 21 May 2004 Source Own
work Author Calidius GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/9b/Seneca-berlinantikens
ammlung-1.jpg
1,925 YBN
[75 AD] 6 7 		1270) The last cuneiform texts.1 2 3
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ J. T. Hooker, "Reading the Past,
Ancient Writing from Cuneiform to the
Alphabet", (Berkeley: University of
California Press/British Museum, 1990),
p30.
2. ^ Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series, p56-57.
3. ^ Sachs, Abraham. "The
latest datable cuneiform tablets."
Kramer Anniversary Volume. Alter Orient
und Altes Testament 25 (1976): 379-98.
ALSO IN Kramer, Samuel Noah, et al.,
eds. Kramer Anniversary Volume. Vol.
25. Butzon & Bercker, 1976.
4. ^ J. T.
Hooker, "Reading the Past, Ancient
Writing from Cuneiform to the
Alphabet", (Berkeley: University of
California Press/British Museum, 1990),
p29.
5. ^
http://oracc.museum.upenn.edu/dccmt
6. ^ J. T. Hooker, "Reading the Past,
Ancient Writing from Cuneiform to the
Alphabet", (Berkeley: University of
California Press/British Museum, 1990),
p30.
7. ^ Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series, p56-57.

MORE INFO
[1] Walker, C.B.F. Cuneiform.
University of California Press, 1987.
Reading the Past, p19
Sumer/Babylon4 (Southern Iraq)5  
[1] Sachs, Abraham. ''The latest
datable cuneiform tablets.'' Kramer
Anniversary Volume. Alter Orient und
Altes Testament 25 (1976): 379-98. ALSO
IN Kramer, Samuel Noah, et al., eds.
Kramer Anniversary Volume. Vol. 25.
Butzon & Bercker, 1976, Plate
19. COPYRIGHTED
source: Sachs, Abraham. "The latest
datable cuneiform tablets." Kramer
Anniversary Volume. Alter Orient und
Altes Testament 25 (1976): 379-98. ALSO
IN Kramer, Samuel Noah, et al., eds.
Kramer Anniversary Volume. Vol. 25.
Butzon & Bercker, 1976, Plate 19.

[2] Sachs, Abraham. ''The latest
datable cuneiform tablets.'' Kramer
Anniversary Volume. Alter Orient und
Altes Testament 25 (1976): 379-98. ALSO
IN Kramer, Samuel Noah, et al., eds.
Kramer Anniversary Volume. Vol. 25.
Butzon & Bercker, 1976,
p398. COPYRIGHTED
source: Sachs, Abraham. "The latest
datable cuneiform tablets." Kramer
Anniversary Volume. Alter Orient und
Altes Testament 25 (1976): 379-98. ALSO
IN Kramer, Samuel Noah, et al., eds.
Kramer Anniversary Volume. Vol. 25.
Butzon & Bercker, 1976, p398.
1,923 YBN
[77 AD] 3 		1083) The earliest Encyclopedia.2
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^ "encyclopedia." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2012.
Answers.com 03 Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/encyclopedi
a
2. ^ "encyclopedia." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2012.
Answers.com 03 Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/encyclopedi
a
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
Spain? 
[1] Contemporary laced limp parchment
wrapper made from a bifolium of a 14th
century [?] Italian missal, rubricated,
red and blue initials. Binding for:
Francesco Massari, … In nonum Plinii
de naturali historia librum
castigationes & annotationes. Basel:
Froben, 1537. (ExRockey) 2008-0021N •
Massari (fl. 1530), a Venetian
physician, comments on the ninth book
of the Natural History of Pliny (1st
cent. AD), covering fish and marine
life. The work’s editor, Beatus
Rhenanus (1485-1547), stated that
Massari’s comments were based on his
extensive voyages and observations in
the Mediterranean and Adriatic. PD
source: http://blogs.princeton.edu/rareb
ooks/Massari-wrapper.JPG

[2] MS1000 The Pliny of Saint James in
the March: Historia Naturalis Italy
c1400 PD
source: http://www.schoyencollection.com
/lexical_files/ms1000.jpg
1,917 YBN
[83 AD] 5 6 7 8 		766) The magnetic compass.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Needham, Joseph and Ronan, Colin
A. (1986) The shorter Science and
civilisation in China : an abridgement
of Joseph Needham's original text, Vol.
3, Chapter 1: "Magnetism and
Electricity", Cambridge University
Press, p252. ISBN 0-521-25272-5
2. ^ Needham, Joseph
and Ronan, Colin A. (1986) The shorter
Science and civilisation in China : an
abridgement of Joseph Needham's
original text, Vol. 3, Chapter 1:
"Magnetism and Electricity", Cambridge
University Press, p252. ISBN
0-521-25272-5
3. ^ Needham, Joseph and Ronan, Colin
A. (1986) The shorter Science and
civilisation in China : an abridgement
of Joseph Needham's original text, Vol.
3, Chapter 1: "Magnetism and
Electricity", Cambridge University
Press, p252. ISBN 0-521-25272-5
4. ^ Needham, Joseph
and Ronan, Colin A. (1986) The shorter
Science and civilisation in China : an
abridgement of Joseph Needham's
original text, Vol. 3, Chapter 1:
"Magnetism and Electricity", Cambridge
University Press, p252. ISBN
0-521-25272-5
5. ^ Joseph Needham, "Science and
Civilization in China", vol 4, part 1,
1962,
p230-268. {Needham_China_compass_1962.p
df} {83 CE}
6. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100
Inventions That Shaped World History",
1993, p24. {83 CE}
7. ^ Needham, Joseph and
Ronan, Colin A. (1986) The shorter
Science and civilisation in China : an
abridgement of Joseph Needham's
original text, Vol. 3, Chapter 1:
"Magnetism and Electricity", Cambridge
University Press, p252. ISBN
0-521-25272-5 {1040-1044}
8. ^ Trevor I. Williams,
"A history of invention : from stone
axes to silicon chips ", (New York:
Checkmark Books, 2000). {600 BC}
China4 (more specific) 
[1] Figure from: Joseph Needham,
''Science and Civilization in China'',
vol 4, part 1, 1962,
p230-268. {Needham_China_compass_1962.p
df} COPYRIGHTED
source: Joseph Needham, "Science and
Civilization in China", vol 4, part 1,
1962, p230-268.

[2] ''The south-pointing fish'' was
recorded in the documents of the
Northern Song Dynasty. Such
direction-pointing device is a thin
steel plate cut into the shape of a
fish magnetized in the geomagnetic
field. The tail of the fish is
magnetized in the geological direction
of the North Pole, thus the tail has
the south magnetic pole and the head of
the fish has the north magnetic pole.
When put into the water, the floating
fish has its head pointing to the
south. UNKNOWN
source: http://kaleidoscope.cultural-chi
na.com/chinaWH/images/exbig_images/3ee20
b9ad9430ca4fcd43b3165a315c5.jpg
1,900 YBN
[100 AD] 3 4 		5861) The earliest known complete
musical composition including musical
notation.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Seikilos epitaph". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seikilos_ep
itaph
2. ^ "Seikilos epitaph". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seikilos_ep
itaph
3. ^ Mark Evan Bonds, "A History of
Music in Western Culture", 2003, p1-7.
{100CE}
4. ^ "Seikilos epitaph". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seikilos_ep
itaph {200 BCE- 100 CE (verify}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BWyXPpf7V
jo
[2] MP3 recording of the Seikilos
song. http://www.biblicallanguagecenter
.com/assets/audio/SEIKILOU_WDH_2006.mp3
(now Aidin, Turkey)2 (verify) 
[1] Seikilos søjlen Seikilos Epitaph
(200 f.Kr.) οσον ζης,
φαίνου (oson zis,
fainou) μηδέν ‘ολως
συλυπού (miden olos
silittou) προς ολίγον
εσtί to ζην, (pros oligon esti to
zin,) το τέλος ο χρόνος
απαιτεί (to telos o chronos
apeti) Skjul ikke dit lys så længe
du lever, Sørg aldrig helt til
bunds, Livet løber kun en kort
stund, Tiden sætter en fast
fermin (Oversættelse, Carsten
Høeg) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.natmus.dk/graphics/Pr
essefoto/antik/seikilos.jpg

[2] Seiklos inscription UNKNOWN
source: http://www.geoffknorr.com/image/
images/Seikilos_Inscription.svg.png
1,850 YBN
[150 AD] 5 6 7 8 9 		1087) Ptolomy's "Almagest"1 , an
Earth-centered model of the universe,
with the Earth a stationary sphere in
the center, surrounded by 7 larger
planetary spheres for the Moon, Sun,
planets, and fixed stars2 3 .
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Claudius Ptolemy, translated by:
G. J. Toomer, "Almagest", 1984.
{Ptolemy_Almagest_Toomer_1984.pdf}
2. ^ "Ptolemy." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2012. Answers.com 18
Nov. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ptolemy
3. ^ Claudius Ptolemy, translated by:
G. J. Toomer, "Almagest", 1984, p38-39.
{Ptolemy_Almagest_Toomer_1984.pdf}
4. ^ "Ptolemy". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 17 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/482098/Ptolemy>.
5. ^ "Ptolemy". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 17 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/482098/Ptolemy>.
6. ^ Exploring the Cosmos, 1986,
Berman, Evansc150) (almagest=)c150)
7. ^ "Almagest".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
5845/Almagest (almagest=c150)
(almagest=)c150)
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (=75-?)
9. ^ "Ptolemy".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemy
(c90-c168)

MORE INFO
[1] "Hipparchus". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 17 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/266559/Hipparchus/229469/Other-s
cientific-work>
[2] Thurston, H. Early Astronomy.
Springer New York, 1996. Springer Study
Edition Series
(in Mouseion?) Alexandria, Egypt4
 
[1] Peter Apian, Cosmographia, Antwerp,
1524 PD
source: http://heliophysics.files.wordpr
ess.com/2012/05/ptolemaic_system.jpg

[2] An early Baroque artist's
rendition of Claudius Ptolemaeus
(Greek: Κλαύδιος
Πτολεμαῖος Klaúdios
Ptolemaîos; c. AD 90 – c. 168),
known in English as Ptolemy , was a
Roman citizen of Egypt who wrote in
Greek. He was a mathematician,
astronomer, geographer, astrologer and
a poet of a single epigram in the Greek
Anthology. He lived in Egypt under
Roman rule, and is believed to have
been born in the town of Ptolemais
Hermiou in the Thebaid. He died in
Alexandria around AD 168. Ptolemy
was the author of several scientific
treatises, at least three of which were
of continuing importance to later
Islamic and European science. The first
is the astronomical treatise now known
as the Almagest (in Greek, Ἡ
Μεγάλη Σύνταξις, ''The
Great Treatise'', originally
Μαθηματικὴ Σύνταξις,
''Mathematical Treatise''). The second
is the Geography, which is a thorough
discussion of the geographic knowledge
of the Greco-Roman world. The third is
the astrological treatise known
sometimes in Greek as the
Apotelesmatika
(Ἀποτελεσματικά), more
commonly in Greek as the Tetrabiblos
(Τετράβιβλος ''Four
books''), and in Latin as the
Quadripartitum (or four books) in which
he attempted to adapt horoscopic
astrology to the Aristotelian natural
philosophy of his day. Uploaded on
en:wiki by
en:User:Tuckerresearch. It is under
public domain because it comes from an
old manuscript. PD
source: http://i296.photobucket.com/albu
ms/mm192/dog2010/Ptolemaeus.jpg
1,800 YBN
[200 AD] 3 		1073) The earliest "press-on" printing
in China.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "printing." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/477017/printing>.
2. ^ "printing." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/477017/printing>.
3. ^ "printing." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/477017/printing>. {By 200}

MORE INFO
[1] "Woodblock printing".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woodblock_p
rinting (704-751)
China2  
[1] Rubbing of the top panel of the
Nestorial Tablet Dated 781 CE, Tang
dynasty Ink rubbing on paper 52.23 x
31.91 cm Acquisition numbers:
#92.78.1 Gift of James K.
Penfield Image from Seattle Art
Museum PD
source: http://depts.washington.edu/silk
road/exhibit/religion/nestorians/images/
92_78_1.jpg
1,672 YBN
[328 AD] 3 		6451) The Arabic alphabet.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p100-103.
2. ^ Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p100-103.
3. ^ Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p100-103.
(early inscription) Namara, Syria2
 
[1] Fischer, S.R. A History of Writing.
Reaktion, 2001. Globalities Series.
p101. COPYRIGHTED
source: Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p101.

[2] Artist Unknown Description
Arabic epitaph of “Imru-l-Qays, son
of 'Amr, king of all the Arabs”,
inscribed in Nabataean script. Basalt,
dated in 7 Kislul, 223, viz. December,
7 328 AD. Found at Nemara in the Hauran
(Southern Syria). Dimensions H. 45 cm
(17 ½ in.), W. 1.73 m (5 ft. 8 in.),
D. 15 cm (5 ¾ in.) Current location
(Inventory)Louvre MuseumLink back to
Institution infobox
template Department of Oriental
Antiquities, Sully wing, ground floor,
room 19 Accession number AO
4083 Credit line Purchase,
1903 Source/Photographer Jastrow
(2007) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Epitaph_Imru-l-
Qays_Louvre_AO4083.jpg/1280px-Epitaph_Im
ru-l-Qays_Louvre_AO4083.jpghttp://upload
.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/04/Du
ssad_Namara.jpg
1,609 YBN
[02/24/391 AD] 4 5 		1002) Roman Emperor Theodosius I
prohibits the visiting of non-Christian
temples.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Theodosius I". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 18 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/590747/Theodosius-I/7210/The-mid
dle-years>.
2. ^ Theodosian Code 16.10.10
http://www.fourthcentury.com/index.php
/imperial-laws-chart-395 http://www.for
dham.edu/halsall/source/codex-theod1.asp
(Latin)
http://ancientrome.ru/ius/library/codex/
theod/tituli.htm
3. ^ "Theodosius I". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 18 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/590747/Theodosius-I/7210/The-mid
dle-years>.
4. ^ Theodosian Code 16.10.10
http://www.fourthcentury.com/index.php
/imperial-laws-chart-395 http://www.for
dham.edu/halsall/source/codex-theod1.asp
(Latin)
http://ancientrome.ru/ius/library/codex/
theod/tituli.htm
5. ^ "Theodosius I". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 18 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/590747/Theodosius-I/7210/The-mid
dle-years>.
(presumably) Rome, Italy3  
[1] Theodosius I UNKNOWN
source: http://finds.org.uk/images/ruler
s/Theodosius%20I.jpg

[2] Description Français :
Théodose Ier Date 2005-03-07
(original upload date) Source
Transfered from fr.wikipedia Transfer
was stated to be made by User:Alter
Mandarine. Author Original uploader
was Erine at
fr.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) Released under the GNU Free
Documentation License. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0b/Theodosius-1-.jpg
1,609 YBN
[391 AD] 5 		1003) The Library in Alexandria (the
Serapeum) is destroyed by Christians.3
4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life and
Fate of the Ancient Library of
Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990).
2. ^
Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life and Fate
of the Ancient Library of Alexandria",
(Paris: UNESCO, 1990), p160.
3. ^ Mostafa
El-Abbadi, "The Life and Fate of the
Ancient Library of Alexandria", (Paris:
UNESCO, 1990).
4. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The
Life and Fate of the Ancient Library of
Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990),
p160.
5. ^ "Theodosius I". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodosius_
I (391/392)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.leeds.ac.uk/classics/rhetoric
/prog-aph.htm
Alexandria, Egypt 
[1] Description Theophilus and the
Serapeum. Bishop Theophilus of
Alexandria, en:Gospel book in hand,
stands triumphantly atop the
en:Serapeum in en:391. The cult image
of en:Serapis, crowned with the
en:modius, is visible within the temple
at the bottom. Marginal illustration
from a chronicle written in Alexandria
in the early fifth century, thus
providing a nearly contemporary
portrait of Theophilus. P. Goleniscev 6
verso. (From A. Bauer and J.
Strygowski, ''Eine alexandrinische
Weltchronik,'' Denkschriften der
Kaiserlichen Akademie der
Wissenschaften: Wien 51.2 [en:1906]:
1-204, fig. 6 verso) Date 2002-11-10
(first version); 2004-05-14 (last
version) Source Originally from
en.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. Author Original uploader was
Eloquence at en.wikipedia Later
versions were uploaded by Hephaestos at
en.wikipedia. Permission (Reusing
this file) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/34/Theophil.jpg

[2] Serapeum Temple which housed the
''daughter library'' of the Library of
Alexandria. Source
www.alexandrinelibrarian.blogspot.com U
NKNOWN
source: http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_KQyC59
HU4I0/SrRlFDYM2iI/AAAAAAAAAC4/fmxC6-MP49
U/s320/Serapis_Temple02.jpg
1,585 YBN
[03/??/415 AD] 3 		1009) The murder of Hypatia.1
FOOTNOTES

1. ^ Maria Dzielska, F. Lyra
(Translator), "Hypatia of Alexandria
(Revealing Antiquity , No 8)",
(Cambridge, MA: Harvard University
Press, USA, 1996).
2. ^ Maria Dzielska, F.
Lyra (Translator), "Hypatia of
Alexandria (Revealing Antiquity , No
8)", (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University
Press, USA, 1996).
3. ^ Maria Dzielska, F.
Lyra (Translator), "Hypatia of
Alexandria (Revealing Antiquity , No
8)", (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University
Press, USA, 1996).

MORE INFO
[1] "Socrates Scholasticus".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socrates_Sc
holasticus
[2] from Damascius (in Suida):
http://www.cosmopolis.com/alexandria/hyp
atia-bio-suda.html "From Damascius's
Life of Isidore, reproduced in The Suda
Translated by Jeremiah Reedy, from
"Alexandria 2"
[3]
http://www.cosmopolis.com/alexandria/hyp
atia-bio-john.html
(steps of a church called The Caesarium
) Alexandria, Egypt2  
[1] Hypatia of Alexandria, aka the
''Pagan Scholar'' Cheered for
inventing the plane astrolabe, 1
Hypatia was slaughtered by Christian
monks in AD 415. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.dctc.edu/assets/pics/
spring-2010/hypatia.jpg

[2] Hypatia was a mathematician,
astronomer, teacher, editor, inventor,
musician, and author. In March, 415
A.D. she was murdered by a mob of
fanatics on the steps of a church
called The Caesarium in Alexandria,
Egypt. She has become a symbol of
martryed Reason, feminism, and
Classical paganism. UNKNOWN
source: http://cosmographica.com/alexand
ria/images/hypatia_portrait_large.jpg
1,471 YBN
[529 AD] 6 		1014) Byzantine {BiZeNTEN3 } Emperor
Justinian closes the schools of
Alexandria and Athens (including
Plato's Academy).4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Justinian." The Concise Oxford
Companion to Classical Literature.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 2003.
Answers.com 26 Feb. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/justinian-5

2. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life and
Fate of the Ancient Library of
Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990),
p188.
3. ^ "Byzantine." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 13 Jan.
2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/B
yzantine>.
4. ^ "Justinian." The Concise Oxford
Companion to Classical Literature.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 2003.
Answers.com 26 Feb. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/justinian-5

5. ^ "Justinian." The Concise Oxford
Companion to Classical Literature.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 2003.
Answers.com 26 Feb. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/justinian-5

6. ^ "Justinian." The Concise Oxford
Companion to Classical Literature.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 2003.
Answers.com 26 Feb. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/justinian-5


MORE INFO
[1] "Damascius". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Damascius
[2] "Justinian I." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 26 Feb. 2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/308858/Justinian-I>
[3] "Justinian I". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 18 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/308858/Justinian-I>
Athens, Greece (and Alexandria,Egypt)5
 
[1] Artist Meister von San Vitale in
Ravenna Title Justinian I , San
Vitale (Ravenna) Deutsch: Chormosaiken
in San Vitale in Ravenna, Szene: Kaiser
Justinian und Bischof Maximilianus und
sein Hof, Detail: Büste des
Justinian Italiano: Basilica di San
Vitale a Ravenna, L'imperatore
Giustiniano I e il suo seguito.
Dettaglio della decorazione a mosaico
bizantina, compiuta entro il 547.
Dettaglio: Giustiniano
I. Date Deutsch: vor 547 English:
before 547 Medium Deutsch:
Mosaik Current location San Vitale
in Ravenna. Ravenna. Notes Deutsch:
Ravennatische Schule,
italo-byzantinische Werkstatt,
Auftraggeber: Bischof Maximilian und
Bankier Julianus, Mosaik im
Chor Source/Photographer The Yorck
Project: 10.000 Meisterwerke der
Malerei. DVD-ROM, 2002. ISBN
3936122202. Distributed by DIRECTMEDIA
Publishing GmbH. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Meister_von_San
_Vitale_in_Ravenna.jpg/778px-Meister_von
_San_Vitale_in_Ravenna.jpg

[2] Description English: Basilica of
Sant'Apollinare Nuovo (mosaic of
Justinian I) Date 2008 Source Own
work Author Testus CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a2/Sant%27Apollinare_Nuo
vo_%28Justinian_I%29.jpg
1,458 YBN
[542 AD] 3 4 		1381) The earliest hospital in France.1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "hospital". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-911
0316/hospital
2. ^ "hospital". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-911
0316/hospital
3. ^ "hospital". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-911
0316/hospital (542)
4. ^
http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/action/
showFullText?submitFullText=Full+Text+HT
ML&doi=10.1046%2Fj.1445-2197.2002.02492.
x (hotel_dieu_lyon.html) (542) (542)

MORE INFO
[1] "Hospital#History".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hospital#Hi
story
[2] "Hôtel-Dieu de Paris". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C3%B4tel-
Dieu_de_Paris
Lyon, France2  
[1] Hospital Hôtel-Dieu : patio
interior
source: http://www.lyon.fr/vdl/sections/
es/tourisme/histoire/?aIndex=2
1,400 YBN
[600 AD] 5 6 7 		1111) The earliest windmill, in Persia.
This windmill uses a vertical shaft and
horizontal sails to grind grain.3
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p63.
2. ^
Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The
Timetables of Science", Second edition,
Simon and Schuster, 1991, p63.
3. ^
Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The
Timetables of Science", Second edition,
Simon and Schuster, 1991, p63.
4. ^
Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The
Timetables of Science", Second edition,
Simon and Schuster, 1991, p63.
5. ^
Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The
Timetables of Science", Second edition,
Simon and Schuster, 1991, p63. {600}
6. ^
Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000). (6th century) (6th century)
7. ^ "Wind
mill". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wind_mill
(6th century)

MORE INFO
[1] Yenne and Grosser, "100
Inventions That Shaped World History",
1993, p25
Persia (Iran)4  
[1] (Images via: Ullesthorpe,
BluePlanet, DeutschesMuseum and
WorldofEnergy) UNKNOWN
source: http://cdn.webecoist.com/wp-cont
ent/uploads/2009/01/ancient-persian-wind
mills.jpg
1,300 YBN
[700 AD] 6 7 		1118) The numerals (0 through 9), and
decimal notation.3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "South Asian mathematics".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 18 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/1238473/South-Asian-mathematics/
253515/Classical-mathematical-literature
>.
2. ^ "Hindu-Arabic numerals".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2013. Web. 13 Jan.
2013 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/31743/Hindu-Arabic-numerals>.
3. ^ "South Asian mathematics".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 18 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/1238473/South-Asian-mathematics/
253515/Classical-mathematical-literature
>.
4. ^ "Hindu-Arabic numerals".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2013. Web. 13 Jan.
2013 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/31743/Hindu-Arabic-numerals>.
5. ^ "South Asian mathematics".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 18 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/1238473/South-Asian-mathematics/
253515/Classical-mathematical-literature
>.
6. ^ "South Asian mathematics".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 18 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/1238473/South-Asian-mathematics/
253515/Classical-mathematical-literature
>.
7. ^ "Hindu-Arabic numerals".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2013. Web. 13 Jan.
2013 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/31743/Hindu-Arabic-numerals>.

MORE INFO
[1] "Bakhshali Manuscript".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bakhshali_M
anuscript
[2] "Indian mathematics#Bakhshali
Manuscript .28200 BC - 400 CE.29".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_math
ematics#Bakhshali_Manuscript_.28200_BC_-
_400_CE.29 (200 BCE - 400 CE)
[3] Ho, P.Y.
Li, Qi and Shu: An Introduction to
Science and Civilization in China.
Dover, 2000. Dover Science
Books. http://books.google.com/books?id
=_P6C4JO4JCUC&pg=PA58
Bakhshali (near modern Peshawar,
Pakistan)5  
[1] Combination of image 2 and
3 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.thecultureconcept.com
/circle/wp-content/uploads/2011/09/Bakhs
hali-Manuscript.jpghttp://upload.wikimed
ia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/64/Bakhshali_
numerals_1.jpg

[2] 3rd or 4th century The Bakhshali
Manuscript – is an early mathematical
manuscript discovered in 1881 near the
village Bakhshali (or Bakhshalai) in
the modern Peshawar district of
Pakistan. It is the only known document
on mathematics from this early period
of its culture and was written on birch
bark. 70 leaves, a few of which were
only scraps, survived to the time of
its discovery. It is a handbook of
rules and illustrative examples
together with their solutions. It is
devoted mainly to arithmetic and
algebra, with just a few problems on
geometry and mensuration. Only parts
have been restored, so we cannot be
certain about the balance between
different topics UNKNOWN
source: http://www.thecultureconcept.com
/circle/wp-content/uploads/2011/09/Bakhs
hali-Manuscript.jpg
1,249 YBN
[751 AD] 5 6 		1253) Jabir prepares and identifies
acids.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
4. ^ "Geber". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geber
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (+30) (+30)
6. ^ "Geber".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geber
(+30)
Kufa, (now Iraq)3 4  
[1] Portrait of Jabir ibn Hayyan
http://histoirechimie.free.fr/Lien/Geber
.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Geber.jpg

[2] alchemist Jabir ibn Hayyan, from a
15th c. European portrait of ''Geber'',
Codici Ashburnhamiani 1166, Biblioteca
Medicea Laurenziana, Florence, public
domain PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jabir_ibn_Hayyan.jpg
1,230 YBN
[770 AD] 4 		1060) Wood-cut Printing.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "printing." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/477017/printing>.
2. ^ "printing." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/477017/printing>.
3. ^ "printing." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/477017/printing>.
4. ^ "printing." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/477017/printing>. {868}
Japan3  
[1]
http://specialcollections.wichita.edu/ex
hibits/aitchison/images/aitch05.jpg UNK
NOWN
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jingangjing.gif

[2] Printed sutra enclosed in a wood
pagoda Commissioned by the Empress
Shotoku-tenno in 764 AD (r.
765-769) Japan, Hyakumanto 19 cm x
10.3 cm pagoda and 7 x 45 cm scroll;
wood and paper UNKNOWN
source: http://specialcollections.wichit
a.edu/exhibits/aitchison/images/aitch05.
jpg
1,219 YBN
[781 AD] 5 6 		1254) Lower case letters.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (c732-05/19/804+30)
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
(c732-05/19/804+30)
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (c732-05/19/804+30)
4. ^ "804,
781=accepts Charlemagne invitation)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcuin
(c735-05/19/804, 781=accepts
Charlemagne invitation)
5. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
(c732-05/19/804+30)
6. ^ "804, 781=accepts Charlemagne
invitation)". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcuin
(c735-05/19/804, 781=accepts
Charlemagne invitation)

MORE INFO
[1] "Great vowel shift".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_vowel
_shift
[2] "Phonological history of the
English language". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonologica
l_history_of_the_English_language
[3] "Carolingian minuscule". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carolingian
_minuscule
Aachen, in north-west Germany, or York,
England3 4  
[1] Raban Maur (left), supported by
Alcuin (middle), dedicates his work to
Archbishop Otgar of Mainz
(Right) Hrabanus Maurus, von Alcuin
empfohlen, übergibt sein Werk dem
Erzbischof von Mainz,
Otgar Carolingian
Manuscript manuscriptum Fuldense ca.
831/40, Österreichische
Nationalbibliothek Wien PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Raban-Maur_Alcuin_Otgar.jpg

[2] Page of text (folio 160v) from a
Carolingian Gospel Book (British
Library, MS Add. 11848), written in
Carolingian minuscule. Taken from
http://www.bl.uk/catalogues/illuminatedm
anuscripts/record.asp?MSID=8614&CollID=2
7&NStart=11848 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:BritLibAddMS11848Fol160rText.jpg
1,211 YBN
[789 AD] 3 		1256) Charlemagne {soRlemAN}
establishes schools where math and
grammar are taught.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (789) (789)

MORE INFO
[1] "Charlesmagne". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charlesmagn
e
Aachen, in north-west Germany2  
[1] No description from Charlemagne's
lifetime exists.[2] Charlemagne and
Pippin the Hunchback (Karl der Große
und Pippin der Bucklige) 10th
century copy of a lost original, which
was made back between 829 and 836 in
Fulda for Eberhard von Friaul PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Karl_der_Grosse_-_Pippin_der_Bucklige
.jpg

[2] A portrait of Charlemagne by
Albrecht Dürer that was painted
several centuries after Charlemagne's
death. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Charlemagne-by-Durer.jpg
1,200 YBN
[800 AD] 4 		6221) String instruments are played
with a bow.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Mary Remnant, "Musical
Instruments", 1989, p47.
2. ^ Mary Remnant,
"Musical Instruments", 1989, p47.
3. ^ Mary
Remnant, "Musical Instruments", 1989,
p47.
4. ^ Mary Remnant, "Musical
Instruments", 1989, p47. {no later than
9th century) 800 CE}
River Oxus (modern) Turkmenistan
(Central Asia)3  
[1] Fig 1: Byzantine, ivory casket
c.1000 (from Museo Nazionale, Florence,
Coll. Carrand, No.26) - earliest
depiction of a rebec like instrument.
Has pear shaped body blending into long
narrow neck. There is a definite
anchorpoint at the base, with a kind of
fleur tailpiece, though the pegs appear
to be missing from the depiction (no
other anchorpoint is clearly
indicated). There are only two strings,
and the bow is very long and narrow
(though it may simply be the artist
trying the show that the bow is
perpendicular to the surface of the
strings, thus appearing flat when
viewed edge on). No sound holes are
shown, the soundboard seems to be a
distinct, attached piece (possibly a
skin covering much like in rababs).
This is the instrument in
transition. PD
source: http://crab.rutgers.edu/~pbutler
/ob09.jpg

[2] Fig 2: Spanish, Catalan Psalter,
c.1050. (''King David and musicians
tuning their instruments'' in
Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris, MS Lat.
11550, fol. 7v)- Shows a normal pear
body shape. Three distinct strings,
attached to a triangular tailpiece at
the base, and to vertically mounted
pegs at the other end. The pegbox is a
round disk that appears to be made of
the same piece as the neck/body,
suggesting that this is a unibody
construction. Again a little endpiece
or endpeg is indicated. There are two
round sound holes set far back on the
instrument. The bow is a simple curved
bow with end pressure grip (see below).
This image is also somewhat suspect
from the distortion of the left hand,
which has the fingers curling backwards
rather than forward as they actually
must. PD
source: http://crab.rutgers.edu/~pbutler
/ob25.jpg
1,185 YBN
[815 AD] 4 5 		1021) The "Bayt al-Hikma" (House of
Wisdom) school is founded, where many
scientific works are translated into
Arabic.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Seyyed Hossein Nasr, "Science and
Civilization in Islam", (Cambridge: The
Islamic Texts Society, 1987), p69.
2. ^
Seyyed Hossein Nasr, "Science and
Civilization in Islam", (Cambridge: The
Islamic Texts Society, 1987), p69.
3. ^
Seyyed Hossein Nasr, "Science and
Civilization in Islam", (Cambridge: The
Islamic Texts Society, 1987).
4. ^ Seyyed
Hossein Nasr, "Science and Civilization
in Islam", (Cambridge: The Islamic
Texts Society, 1987). (c815) (c815)
5. ^
Delacy O`Leary, "How Greek Science
Passed to the Arabs", (London; New
York: Kegan Paul, 2001). (before
828/829) (before 828/829)

MORE INFO
[1] "House of Wisdom)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bayt_al-Hik
ma
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_W
isdom)
[2] "Harun Al-Rashid". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harun_Al-Ra
shid
Baghdad3  
[1] Harun al-Rashid: (ca: 763-809) was
the fifth and most famous Abbasid
Caliph. Ruling from 786 until 809, his
reign and the fabulous court over which
he held sway are immortalized in The
Book of One Thousand and One Nights PD

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Harun_Al-Rashid_and_the_World_of_the_
Thousand_and_One_Nights.jpg

[2] Julius Köckert's painting of
Harun al-Rashid receiving the
delegation of Charlemagne demonstrates
the latter's recognition of Hārūn
ar-Rashīd as the most powerful man of
his culture. The painting by Julius
Köckert (Koeckert) (1827-1918), dated
1864, is located at Maximilianeum
Foundation in Munich. It is Oil on
Canvas. This Image of the painting was
created and provided by Zereshk. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Harun-Charlemagne.jpg
1,150 YBN
[850 AD] 11 12 		1144) Gunpowder is invented; in China7
8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Buchanan, Brenda J., ed. (2006),
"Gunpowder, Explosives and the State: A
Technological History", Aldershot:
Ashgate, ISBN 0754652599,
p3. {Gunpowder_Buchanan_2006.pdf}
2. ^ Joseph Needham, et al, "Science
and Civilization in China", vol 5, part
7, "Military Technology: The Gunpowder
Epic", Cambridge University Press,
1986, p7.
3. ^ Buchanan, Brenda J., ed.
(2006), "Gunpowder, Explosives and the
State: A Technological History",
Aldershot: Ashgate, ISBN 0754652599,
p3. {Gunpowder_Buchanan_2006.pdf}
4. ^ Joseph Needham, et al, "Science
and Civilization in China", vol 5, part
7, "Military Technology: The Gunpowder
Epic", Cambridge University Press,
1986, p7.
5. ^ Buchanan, Brenda J., ed.
(2006), "Gunpowder, Explosives and the
State: A Technological History",
Aldershot: Ashgate, ISBN 0754652599,
p3. {Gunpowder_Buchanan_2006.pdf}
6. ^ Joseph Needham, et al, "Science
and Civilization in China", vol 5, part
7, "Military Technology: The Gunpowder
Epic", Cambridge University Press,
1986, p7.
7. ^ Buchanan, Brenda J., ed.
(2006), "Gunpowder, Explosives and the
State: A Technological History",
Aldershot: Ashgate, ISBN 0754652599,
p3. {Gunpowder_Buchanan_2006.pdf}
8. ^ Joseph Needham, et al, "Science
and Civilization in China", vol 5, part
7, "Military Technology: The Gunpowder
Epic", Cambridge University Press,
1986, p7.
9. ^ Buchanan, Brenda J., ed.
(2006), "Gunpowder, Explosives and the
State: A Technological History",
Aldershot: Ashgate, ISBN 0754652599,
p3. {Gunpowder_Buchanan_2006.pdf}
10. ^ Joseph Needham, et al, "Science
and Civilization in China", vol 5, part
7, "Military Technology: The Gunpowder
Epic", Cambridge University Press,
1986, p7.
11. ^ Buchanan, Brenda J., ed.
(2006), "Gunpowder, Explosives and the
State: A Technological History",
Aldershot: Ashgate, ISBN 0754652599,
p3. {Gunpowder_Buchanan_2006.pdf}
{850}
12. ^ Joseph Needham, et al, "Science
and Civilization in China", vol 5, part
7, "Military Technology: The Gunpowder
Epic", Cambridge University Press,
1986, p7. {850}
China9 10  
[1] Description The earliest known
written description of the formula for
gunpowder, from the Chinese Wujing
Zongyao military manuscript that was
compiled by 1044 during the Song
Dynasty of China. It was written and
compiled by the 11th century Song
scholars Zeng Gongliang (曾公亮),
Ding Du (丁度), and Yang Weide
(楊惟德). The entry for this
specific page is headed with the title
''method for making the fire-chemical''
(''huo yao fa''). This picture can
also be found on page 119 of Joseph
Needham's book Science and Civilization
in China: Volume 5, Part 7. Date
11 August 2007 Source Own
work (My book) Author
PericlesofAthens Permission (Reus
ing this file) See below. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c2/Chinese_Gunpowder_For
mula.JPG
1,100 YBN
[900 AD] 3 4 5 		1379) A health science school is
founded in Salerno, Italy.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ferraris, Zoe Alaina, and Victor
A. Ferraris. “The Women of Salerno:
Contribution to the Origins of Surgery
From Medieval Italy.” The Annals of
Thoracic Surgery 64.6 (1997):
1855–1857.
http://ats.ctsnetjournals.org/cgi/cont
ent/abstract/64/6/1855
2. ^ Ferraris, Zoe Alaina, and Victor
A. Ferraris. “The Women of Salerno:
Contribution to the Origins of Surgery
From Medieval Italy.” The Annals of
Thoracic Surgery 64.6 (1997):
1855–1857.
http://ats.ctsnetjournals.org/cgi/cont
ent/abstract/64/6/1855
3. ^
http://www.galter.northwestern.edu/libra
ry_notes/40/salerno.cfm (900)
4. ^
"university". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
4363/university (800s)
5. ^ "University of
Salerno". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
5054/University-of-Salerno (notes for
physicians at 900)

MORE INFO
[1] "hospital". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-911
0316/hospital
[2] "Hospital#History". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hospital#Hi
story
[3] "Salerno#Salerno and the revival of
medical learning in Western Europe".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salerno#Sal
erno_and_the_revival_of_medical_learning
_in_Western_Europe
[4] "Schola Medica Salernitana".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schola_Medi
ca_Salernitana (monestary founded in
800s)
Salerno (near Naples), Italy2  
[1] A miniature depicting the Schola
Medica Salernitana from a copy of
Avicenna's Canons PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:ScuolaMedicaMiniatura.jpg

[2] Hand colored wood cut illustration
depicting the medical school at
Salerno. De conservanda bona
valetudine opusculum scholae
Salernitanae, 1554. Galter Medical
Rare Books 613 R26 1554 PD
source: http://www.galter.northwestern.e
du/library_notes/40/woodcut_full.jpg
1,080 YBN
[920 AD] 9 		6183) Norwegian explorers reach North
America.5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Einar Haugen Reviewed work(s):
The Discovery of a Norse Settlement in
America: Excavations at L'Anse aux
Meadows, Newfoundland, 1961-1968 by
Anne Stine Ingstad The Journal of
Interdisciplinary History Vol. 10, No.
1 (Summer, 1979), pp.
176-178 Published by: The MIT
Press Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/203319
2. ^ Helge Ingstad, "The Viking
Discovery of America: The Excavation of
a Norse Settlement in L'Anse aux
Meadows, Newfoundland", 2001.
3. ^ Einar
Haugen Reviewed work(s): The Discovery
of a Norse Settlement in America:
Excavations at L'Anse aux Meadows,
Newfoundland, 1961-1968 by Anne Stine
Ingstad The Journal of
Interdisciplinary History Vol. 10, No.
1 (Summer, 1979), pp.
176-178 Published by: The MIT
Press Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/203319
4. ^ Helge Ingstad, "The Viking
Discovery of America: The Excavation of
a Norse Settlement in L'Anse aux
Meadows, Newfoundland", 2001.
5. ^ Einar
Haugen Reviewed work(s): The Discovery
of a Norse Settlement in America:
Excavations at L'Anse aux Meadows,
Newfoundland, 1961-1968 by Anne Stine
Ingstad The Journal of
Interdisciplinary History Vol. 10, No.
1 (Summer, 1979), pp.
176-178 Published by: The MIT
Press Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/203319
6. ^ Helge Ingstad, "The Viking
Discovery of America: The Excavation of
a Norse Settlement in L'Anse aux
Meadows, Newfoundland", 2001.
7. ^ Einar
Haugen Reviewed work(s): The Discovery
of a Norse Settlement in America:
Excavations at L'Anse aux Meadows,
Newfoundland, 1961-1968 by Anne Stine
Ingstad The Journal of
Interdisciplinary History Vol. 10, No.
1 (Summer, 1979), pp.
176-178 Published by: The MIT
Press Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/203319
8. ^ Wallace, Birgitta. “L’Anse Aux
Meadows, Leif Eriksson’s Home in
Vinland.” Journal of the North
Atlantic 2.sp2 (2011) :
114-125. http://www.bioone.org/doi/abs/
10.3721/037.002.s212
9. ^ Einar Haugen Reviewed work(s):
The Discovery of a Norse Settlement in
America: Excavations at L'Anse aux
Meadows, Newfoundland, 1961-1968 by
Anne Stine Ingstad The Journal of
Interdisciplinary History Vol. 10, No.
1 (Summer, 1979), pp.
176-178 Published by: The MIT
Press Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/203319
{920}
L'Anse Aux Meadows, Newfoundland7 8
 
[1] Figure from: Helge Ingstad, ''The
Viking Discovery of America: The
Excavation of a Norse Settlement in
L'Anse aux Meadows, Newfoundland'',
2001. COPYRIGHTED
source: Helge Ingstad, "The Viking
Discovery of America: The Excavation of
a Norse Settlement in L'Anse aux
Meadows, Newfoundland", 2001.

[2] Figure 24 from: Helge Ingstad,
''The Viking Discovery of America: The
Excavation of a Norse Settlement in
L'Anse aux Meadows, Newfoundland'',
2001. COPYRIGHTED
source: Helge Ingstad, "The Viking
Discovery of America: The Excavation of
a Norse Settlement in L'Anse aux
Meadows, Newfoundland", 2001.
1,040 YBN
[960 AD] 7 8 		6186) The earliest rocket; in China.4
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^
http://science.ksc.nasa.gov/history/rock
et-history.txt
2. ^
http://science.ksc.nasa.gov/history/rock
et-history.txt
3. ^
http://science.ksc.nasa.gov/history/rock
et-history.txt
4. ^
http://science.ksc.nasa.gov/history/rock
et-history.txt
5. ^ David Baker, "The rocket: the
history and development of rocket &
missile technology", 1978, p10.
6. ^
http://science.ksc.nasa.gov/history/rock
et-history.txt
7. ^ David Baker, "The rocket: the
history and development of rocket &
missile technology", 1978, p10. {960
CE}
8. ^
http://science.ksc.nasa.gov/history/rock
et-history.txt {1045} {1045 CE}

MORE INFO
[1] "military technology".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 23 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/382397/military-technology/57612
/The-gunpowder-revolution-c-1300-1650>
China5 6  
[1] Description Drawing of an
early Chinese soldier lighting a
rocket Date 2007 Source
http://history.msfc.nasa.gov/rocket
ry/03.html Author
NASA Permission (Reusing this
file) NASA still images, audio
files and video generally are not
copyrighted. You may use NASA imagery,
video and audio material for
educational or informational purposes,
including photo collections, textbooks,
public exhibits and Internet Web
pages. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/63/Chinese_rocket.gif

[2] Widely reputed as the world's
first ''astronaut'', Wan Hu was a minor
Chinese official of the Ming Dynasty
(1368-1644). Early in the 16th century,
Wan Hu decided to take advantage of
China's advanced power and fireworks
technology to launch himself into outer
space. He had a chair built with 47
''rockets'' attached. On the day of
lift-off, Wan climbed into his rocket
chair and held one enormous kite in
each hand. The ignition of the 47 fuses
caused a huge explosion and sent him
into the sky. But unfortunately, he
failed to go into orbit and his body
smashed into pieces on the ground.
UNKNOWN
source: http://images.china.cn/images1/2
00710/410673.jpg
1,000 YBN
[1000 AD] 4 5 6 7 		1022) The Encyclopedia the "Suda".1 2 3

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Suidae lexicon: Graecè et
Latinè, Volume 1, Part 1, page XXXIX
(in Greek and
Latin) http://books.google.com/books?id
=7OFCgP0UCy4C
2. ^ Roy MacLeod, "The Library of
Alexandria Centre of Learning in the
Ancient World", (New York: I.B.Tauris &
Co Ltd, 2000), p70.
3. ^
http://en.wikipedia/org/wiki/Suda
4. ^ Suda On Line: Byzantine
Lexicography http://www.stoa.org/sol/
5. ^ "Suidas." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2012. Answers.com 26
Feb. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/suidas
6. ^ http://en.wikipedia/org/wiki/Suda
7. ^ "encyclopaedia."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 26 Feb.
2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/186603/encyclopaedia>.
 
[1] English First page (AA-AB) from an
early printed edition of the Suda. The
column headings read ''Beginning of
letter A/A standing alone'' and ''A
with B''. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e2/Suda.jpg
1,000 YBN
[1000 AD] 4 		1054) Paper money is used; in China.2
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^ "money." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/389170/money>.
2. ^ "money." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online
Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/389170/money>.
3. ^ "money." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online
Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/389170/money>.
4. ^ "money." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online
Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/389170/money>. {before) 1000 YBN}
China3  
[1] English: Early paper money, China,
Song Dynasty scan from
《社会历史博物馆》 ISBN
7-5347-1397-8 北宋交子 jiaozi,
w:Northern Song Dynasty The text
reads:
除四川外許於諸路州縣公私從
主管並同見錢七百七十陌流
行使, which essentially means that
except in w:Sichuan, the bill may be
used in the stead of 77,000 wen of
metal coinage. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d9/Jiao_zi.jpg

[2] scan from
《社会历史博物馆》 ISBN
7-5347-1397-8 会子 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6a/Hui_zi.jpg
962 YBN
[1038 AD] 4 5 6 7 8 		1308) The pin-hole camera.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ Seyyed Hossein Nasr,
"Science and Civilization in Islam",
(Cambridge: The Islamic Texts Society,
1987), p50.
4. ^ "Ibn Al-Haytham, Abū
ʿAlī Al-Ḥasan Ibn Al-Ḥasan."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 6. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 189-210. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 26 Feb.
2012. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?id=
GALE%7CCX2830901904&v=2.1&u=univca20&it=
r&p=GVRL&sw=w
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (c965-1039)
(c965-1039)
6. ^ "Ibn al Haytham". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
5710/Ibn-al-Haytham (c965-c.1040)
7. ^ "Alhazen".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alhazen
(965-1039)
8. ^ Seyyed Hossein Nasr, "Science and
Civilization in Islam", (Cambridge: The
Islamic Texts Society, 1987).
(c965-1039) (c965-1039)

MORE INFO
[1] "Camera obscura". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camera_obsc
ura
[2] "Heliocentrism". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliocentri
sm
[3] "Catoptrics". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catoptrics
Cairo, Egypt3  
[1] Figure 2. The concept of the
camera obscura as perceived a thousand
years ago by Alhazen (Ibn al-Haytham),
who coined the term (see text). Note
the formation of the inverted image
through a ray diagram. Adapted from
Al-Hassani et al. (2006). from: Ahmed
H. Zewail, Micrographia of the
twenty-first century: from camera
obscura to 4D microscopy Phil. Trans.
R. Soc. A March 13, 2010 368 (1914)
1191-1204;
doi:10.1098/rsta.2009.0265 http://rsta.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/368/1
914/1191.abstract COPYRIGHTED
source: http://rsta.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/368/1914/1191/F2.large.jp
g

[2] [t Portrait of al-Hazen on paper
money] UNKNOWN
source: http://robbani.net78.net/wp/wp-c
ontent/uploads/2012/01/haisam5.jpg
959 YBN
[1041 AD] 4 		1124) Movable type printing, where
individual blocks can be put together
to form a text.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "printing." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/477017/printing>.
2. ^ "printing." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/477017/printing>.
3. ^ "printing." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/477017/printing>.
4. ^ "printing." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/477017/printing>. {1041-48}
China3  
[1] Figure 1138. Earliest extant
edition of the ''Meng Chhi Pi Than'',
printed in the + 14th century. The
passage rearranged into one double-leaf
above records the first use of the
earthenware movable type printing by Pi
Sheng in the middle of the + 11th
century. Copy preserved at the National
Library of China. Joseph Needham,
''Science and Civilisation in China'',
Tsien, v5,part 1, Paper and Printing.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
1985.
{Needham_printing_China_1985.pdf} PD

source: Joseph Needham, "Science and
Civilisation in China", Tsien, v5,part
1, Paper and Printing. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1985.

[2] Fig 1141. Earthenware types of
Chai Chin-Sheng, c +1844, discovered in
1962 in Hui-chou, Anhui province. Above
are four different sizes of the type
and below are the printed characters
from the large size of the
type. Courtesy of the Institute of
History of Science, Academia Sinica,
Peking. Joseph Needham, ''Science and
Civilisation in China'', Tsien, v5,part
1, Paper and Printing. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1985.
{Needham_printing_China_1985.pdf} PD

source: Joseph Needham, "Science and
Civilisation in China", Tsien, v5,part
1, Paper and Printing. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1985.
912 YBN
[1088 AD] 4 		1339) The University of Bologna.2
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^
http://www.unibo.it/Portale/Ateneo/La+no
stra+storia/NoveSecoli.htm
2. ^
http://www.unibo.it/Portale/Ateneo/La+no
stra+storia/NoveSecoli.htm
3. ^
http://www.unibo.it/Portale/Ateneo/La+no
stra+storia/NoveSecoli.htm
4. ^
http://www.unibo.it/Portale/Ateneo/La+no
stra+storia/NoveSecoli.htm

MORE INFO
[1] "List of oldest universities
in continuous operation". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_old
est_universities_in_continuous_operation

[2] "University of Bologna". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_
of_Bologna (1088)
[3]
http://www.eng.unibo.it/PortaleEn/Univer
sity/Our+History/default.htm
Bologna, Italy3  
[1] Description Il Palazzo dei notai
(a sin.) e Palazzo d'Accursio, in
Piazza Maggiore a Bologna,
Italia. Date 2006-27-03 Source
Flickr Author Gaspa Reviewer
Mac9 CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/11/Bologna-vista02.jpg

[2] English: The Collegio di Spagna, a
historic university college, originally
founded to support Spanish students in
Bologna, Italy. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Collegio-spagna
3.jpg/1280px-Collegio-spagna3.jpg
868 YBN
[1132 AD] 11 12 		1146) The first cannon and gun.7 8
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ Peter James, Nick Thorpe,
"Ancient Inventions", 1994, p236-237.
2. ^
Gwei-Djen, Lu, Joseph Needham, and Phan
Chi-Hsing. “The Oldest Representation
of a Bombard.” Technology and Culture
29.3 (1988): 594–605.
Print. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3105
275 {Gwei-Djen_1988.pdf}
3. ^ Peter James, Nick Thorpe, "Ancient
Inventions", 1994, p236-237.
4. ^ Gwei-Djen, Lu,
Joseph Needham, and Phan Chi-Hsing.
“The Oldest Representation of a
Bombard.” Technology and Culture 29.3
(1988): 594–605.
Print. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3105
275 {Gwei-Djen_1988.pdf}
5. ^ Peter James, Nick Thorpe, "Ancient
Inventions", 1994, p236-237.
6. ^ Gwei-Djen, Lu,
Joseph Needham, and Phan Chi-Hsing.
“The Oldest Representation of a
Bombard.” Technology and Culture 29.3
(1988): 594–605.
Print. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3105
275 {Gwei-Djen_1988.pdf}
7. ^ Peter James, Nick Thorpe, "Ancient
Inventions", 1994, p236-237.
8. ^ Gwei-Djen, Lu,
Joseph Needham, and Phan Chi-Hsing.
“The Oldest Representation of a
Bombard.” Technology and Culture 29.3
(1988): 594–605.
Print. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3105
275 {Gwei-Djen_1988.pdf}
9. ^ Peter James, Nick Thorpe, "Ancient
Inventions", 1994, p236-237.
10. ^ Gwei-Djen, Lu,
Joseph Needham, and Phan Chi-Hsing.
“The Oldest Representation of a
Bombard.” Technology and Culture 29.3
(1988): 594–605.
Print. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3105
275 {Gwei-Djen_1988.pdf}
11. ^ Peter James, Nick Thorpe,
"Ancient Inventions", 1994, p236-237.
12. ^
Gwei-Djen, Lu, Joseph Needham, and Phan
Chi-Hsing. “The Oldest Representation
of a Bombard.” Technology and Culture
29.3 (1988): 594–605.
Print. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3105
275 {Gwei-Djen_1988.pdf}

MORE INFO
[1] "gunpowder". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8534/gunpowder
[2] Needham, Joseph (1986), Science &
Civilisation in China, V:7: The
Gunpowder Epic, Cambridge University
Press, ISBN 0521303583
[3] "Gunpowder". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gunpowder
Ta-tsu, Szechuan Province, China9 10
 
[1] Figure 2 from: Gwei-Djen, Lu,
Joseph Needham, and Phan Chi-Hsing.
“The Oldest Representation of a
Bombard.” Technology and Culture 29.3
(1988): 594–605.
Print. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3105
275 {Gwei-Djen_1988.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: Gwei-Djen, Lu, Joseph Needham,
and Phan Chi-Hsing. “The Oldest
Representation of a Bombard.”
Technology and Culture 29.3 (1988):
594–605.
Print. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3105
275

[2] Figure 3 from: Gwei-Djen, Lu,
Joseph Needham, and Phan Chi-Hsing.
“The Oldest Representation of a
Bombard.” Technology and Culture 29.3
(1988): 594–605.
Print. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3105
275 {Gwei-Djen_1988.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: Gwei-Djen, Lu, Joseph Needham,
and Phan Chi-Hsing. “The Oldest
Representation of a Bombard.”
Technology and Culture 29.3 (1988):
594–605.
Print. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3105
275
850 YBN
[1150 AD] 3 		6239) The first stringed instrument to
use a keyboard.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Mary Remnant, "Musical
Instruments", 1989, p77.
2. ^ Mary Remnant,
"Musical Instruments", 1989, p77.
3. ^ Mary
Remnant, "Musical Instruments", 1989,
p77. {well established by) 1150}
Europe2  
[1] Two Elders of the Apocolypse plying
an organistrum in the Portico de la
Gloria, completed in 1188, of Santiago
de Compostela Cathedral. Santiago de
Compostela, Spain GFDL
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6b/Organistrumsantiago20
060414.jpg
833 YBN
[1167 AD] 4 		1340) The University of Oxford.2
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ "A brief history of the
University" http://www.ox.ac.uk/about_t
he_university/introducing_oxford/a_brief
_history_of_the_university/index.html
2. ^ "A brief history of the
University" http://www.ox.ac.uk/about_t
he_university/introducing_oxford/a_brief
_history_of_the_university/index.html
3. ^ "University of Oxford."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 29 Feb.
2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/436492/University-of-Oxford>.
4. ^ "A brief history of the
University" http://www.ox.ac.uk/about_t
he_university/introducing_oxford/a_brief
_history_of_the_university/index.html

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.ox.ac.uk/aboutoxford/history.
shtml (1167 but teaching starts 1096)
Oxford, England (now: United Kingdom)3
 
[1] All Souls College quad COPYRIGHTED

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Oxford_University_Colleges-All_Souls_
quad.jpg

[2] Oxford's 'Dreaming Spires' at
sunset View of All Souls College and
the Radcliffe Camera, Oxford,
England COPYRIGHTED
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Oxfordskylinedawn.jpg
830 YBN
[1170 AD] 4 		1319) The University of Paris.2
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ "Universities of Paris I XIII".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
8484/Universities-of-Paris-I-XIII
(c1170)
2. ^ "Universities of Paris I XIII".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
8484/Universities-of-Paris-I-XIII
(c1170)
3. ^ "Universities of Paris I XIII".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
8484/Universities-of-Paris-I-XIII
(c1170)
4. ^ "Universities of Paris I XIII".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
8484/Universities-of-Paris-I-XIII
(c1170)

MORE INFO
[1] "Peter Abelard". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
3315/Peter-Abelard
Paris, France3  
[1] The Sorbonne, Paris, in a 17th
century engraving PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Sorbonne_17thc.jpg
816 YBN
[11/??/1184 AD] 7 		1153) The start of the Inquisition.
Pope Lucius III makes burning the
official punishment for heresy {HAReSE3
}.4 5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "inquisition." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 26 Feb. 2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/288915/inquisition>.
2. ^ "Lucius III." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 26 Feb. 2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/350632/Lucius-III>.
3. ^ "heresy." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 14 Jan.
2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/heresy
4. ^ "inquisition." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 26 Feb. 2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/288915/inquisition>.
5. ^ "Lucius III." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 26 Feb. 2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/350632/Lucius-III>.
6. ^ "Lucius III." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 26 Feb. 2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/350632/Lucius-III>.
7. ^ "Lucius III." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 26 Feb. 2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/350632/Lucius-III>.

MORE INFO
[1] "Saint Dominic". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Domin
ic
[2] "Inquisition". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inquisition

[3] "Pope Lucius III". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Lucius
_III (11/1184)
Verona, Italy6  
[1] St Dominic (1170-1221[3]) presiding
over an auto de fe, Spanish,
1475 Representation of an Auto de fe,
(1475). [t I think this is a dubious
claim, that people didn't stay
around...they quickly leave when time
for the burning...I doubt it:] Many
artistic representations depict torture
and the burning at the stake as
occurring during the auto da fe.
Actually, burning at the stake usually
occurred after, not during the
ceremonies. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Inquisition2.jpg

[2] English: The burning of the knight
of Hohenberg with his servant before
the walls of Zürich, for sodomy,
1482. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5c/Burning_of_Sodomites.
jpg
772 YBN
[1228 AD] 14 15 16 17 18 		1392) The theory that all matter is
made of light.10 11 12
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Robert Grosseteste, tr: Clare C.
Riedl, "On Light {De Luce}", 1942.
http://web.mit.edu/jwk/www/docs/Riedel
%201942%20Grosseteste%20On%20Light.pdf
{Grosseteste_OnLight.pdf}
2. ^
http://www.grosseteste.com/cgi-bin/textd
isplay.cgi?text=de-luce.xml
3. ^
http://www.colorado.edu/StudentGroups/lc
m/lunch/deluce.html
4. ^ Robert Grosseteste, tr: Clare C.
Riedl, "On Light {De Luce}", 1942.
http://web.mit.edu/jwk/www/docs/Riedel
%201942%20Grosseteste%20On%20Light.pdf
{Grosseteste_OnLight.pdf}
5. ^
http://www.grosseteste.com/cgi-bin/textd
isplay.cgi?text=de-luce.xml
6. ^
http://www.colorado.edu/StudentGroups/lc
m/lunch/deluce.html
7. ^ Robert Grosseteste, tr: Clare C.
Riedl, "On Light {De Luce}", 1942.
http://web.mit.edu/jwk/www/docs/Riedel
%201942%20Grosseteste%20On%20Light.pdf
{Grosseteste_OnLight.pdf}
8. ^
http://www.grosseteste.com/cgi-bin/textd
isplay.cgi?text=de-luce.xml
9. ^
http://www.colorado.edu/StudentGroups/lc
m/lunch/deluce.html
10. ^ Robert Grosseteste, tr: Clare C.
Riedl, "On Light {De Luce}", 1942.
http://web.mit.edu/jwk/www/docs/Riedel
%201942%20Grosseteste%20On%20Light.pdf
{Grosseteste_OnLight.pdf}
11. ^
http://www.grosseteste.com/cgi-bin/textd
isplay.cgi?text=de-luce.xml
12. ^
http://www.colorado.edu/StudentGroups/lc
m/lunch/deluce.html
13. ^ Trevor Henry Aston, J. I. Catto,
The Early Oxford Schools, Volume 1,
1984,
p442. http://books.google.com/books?id=
AkJO3TAxMtwC&pg=PA442
14. ^ Trevor Henry Aston, J. I. Catto,
The Early Oxford Schools, Volume 1,
1984,
p442. http://books.google.com/books?id=
AkJO3TAxMtwC&pg=PA442
15. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (c1168-1253)
(c1168-1253)
16. ^ "Robert Grosseteste".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8191/Robert-Grosseteste (c1175-1253)
17. ^ "Robert
Grosseteste". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Gros
seteste (c1175-1253)
18. ^
http://www.grosseteste.com/bio.htm
(c1170-1253)
Oxford, England13  
[1] Record Number: 19885 Shelfmark:
Royal 6 E. V Page Folio Number:
f.6 Description: [Miniature only]
Initial 'A', portrait of Robert
Grosseteste, Bishop of Lincoln. The
beginning of one of the bishop's
sermons Title of Work: Works of
Robert Grosseteste, Bishop of
Lincoln Author: Grosseteste,
Robert Illustrator: - Production:
England; 15th
century Language/Script: Latin /
- PD
source: http://www.imagesonline.bl.uk/br
itishlibrary/controller/textsearch?text=
grosseteste&y=0&x=0&startid=31330&width=
4&height=2&idx=2

[2] Robert Grosseteste (1168-1253).
Scientist, Philosopher, Bishop of
Lincoln. PD
source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wik
i/Image:Grosseteste-color.png
766 YBN
[1234 AD] 4 5 		1125) The movable metal block printing
press.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.unesco.org/new/en/communicati
on-and-information/flagship-project-acti
vities/memory-of-the-world/register/full
-list-of-registered-heritage/registered-
heritage-page-1/baegun-hwasang-chorok-bu
ljo-jikji-simche-yojeol-volii-the-second
-volume-of-anthology-of-great-buddhist-p
riests-zen-teachings/
2. ^ "printing." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/477017/printing>.
3. ^
http://www.unesco.org/new/en/communicati
on-and-information/flagship-project-acti
vities/memory-of-the-world/register/full
-list-of-registered-heritage/registered-
heritage-page-1/baegun-hwasang-chorok-bu
ljo-jikji-simche-yojeol-volii-the-second
-volume-of-anthology-of-great-buddhist-p
riests-zen-teachings/
4. ^
http://www.unesco.org/new/en/communicati
on-and-information/flagship-project-acti
vities/memory-of-the-world/register/full
-list-of-registered-heritage/registered-
heritage-page-1/baegun-hwasang-chorok-bu
ljo-jikji-simche-yojeol-volii-the-second
-volume-of-anthology-of-great-buddhist-p
riests-zen-teachings/ {July 1377}
5. ^
"Movable type". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Movable_typ
e {1234}
Korea3  
[1] English: Jikji or ''Selected
Teachings of Buddhist Sages and Seon
Masters'', published in 1377, Korea
during the Goryeo Dynasty. It is the
earliest known book printed with
movable metal type. 한국어:
백운화상초록불조직지심체요
(白雲和尙抄錄佛祖直指心體
節, 간단히
불조직지심체요절,
직지심체요절, 직지)은
백운화상 경한이 선(禪)의
요체를 깨닫는 데에 필요한
내용을 뽑아 1372년에 펴낸
불교 서적으로, 상·하권으로
이루어져 있다. 원나라에서
받아온 불조직지심체요절의
내용을 대폭 늘려 상·하
2권으로 엮은 것이다. 전
세계에 남아 있는 금속
활자로 인쇄된 책 중에서
가장 오래된 것으로, 2001년
9월 4일 《승정원일기》와
함께 유네스코
세계기록유산에 등재되었다.
현존하는 것은 하권 1책
뿐인데, 1900년대 말 콜랭 드
프랑시 주한 프랑스 공사가
프랑스로 가지고 갔으며 현재
프랑스 국립도서관에
소장되어 있다. 이는 독일
구텐베르크의 활자보다 78년
이상 앞서 편찬되었다. Date
1377 Source Bibliotheque
Nationale de France. Source Author
English: Authored by Baegun Hwaseng
(1289-1374), a master of Seon Buddhism
in Korea, and published by his
students, Seokchan and Daljam in
1377. 한국어: 선종의 대가인
백운화상 (1289년-1374)이 지은
책을 그의 제자인 석찬과
달잠이 1377년에
출판하였다. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/9f/Korean_book-Jikji-Sel
ected_Teachings_of_Buddhist_Sages_and_Se
on_Masters-1377.jpg
720 YBN
[1280 AD] 3 		6238) The first eyeglasses.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "eyeglasses." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/199370/eyeglasses>.
2. ^ "eyeglasses." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/199370/eyeglasses>.
3. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100 Inventions
That Shaped World History", 1993, p31.
{1280}
Florence, Italy2  
[1] Detail of a portrait of Hugh de
Provence, painted by Tomaso da Modena
in 1352 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Hugh_specs.jpg
700 YBN
[1300 AD] 4 		1121) Mechanical clocks.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
1987).
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
1987).
3. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
1987).
4. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
1987). {around 1300}

MORE INFO
[1] "Clock#Early mechanical
clocks". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clock#Early
_mechanical_clocks
[2] Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000). (8th century) (8th century)
Europe3  
[1] By Jason Hopwood CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/01/Salisbury_02.jpg

[2] The striking train of the
Salisbury cathedral clock CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/8/8a/Salisbury_striking_train.j
pg
690 YBN
[1310 AD] 3 4 		1424) Sulfuric and other strong acids
described.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^
"Pseudo-Geber". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudo-Gebe
r
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982). (c1300)
4. ^
"Pseudo-Geber". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudo-Gebe
r (c1310)

MORE INFO
[1] "alchemy". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-359
60/alchemy
Spain2  
[1] alchemist Jabir ibn Hayyan, from a
15th c. European portrait of ''Geber'',
Codici Ashburnhamiani 1166, Biblioteca
Medicea Laurenziana, Florence, public
domain PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jabir_ibn_Hayyan.jpg

[2] Portrait of Jabir ibn Hayyan
http://histoirechimie.free.fr/Lien/Geber
.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Geber.jpg
684 YBN
[1316 AD] 3 		1428) The first book devoted entirely
to anatomy.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). }
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982). }
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). } (1316 writes book)
(1316 writes book)
Bologna, Italy2  
[1] An Early Renaissance Anatomy
Scene This illustration of a medical
school dissection scene is from the
Fasciculo di medicina (1493), a
compendium of medieval anatomical works
edited by Johannes Ketham. Included in
this edition was a new translation of
Mondino de' Luzzi's Anathomia, a work
that is generally considered to be the
best medieval work on anatomy. This
scene has often been read as supporting
Vesalius's description of the anatomy
professors who read from their
classical texts ''like jackdaws aloft
in their high chairs, with egregious
arrogance croaking things they have
never investigated,'' while ignorant
dissectors cut up the cadaver without
any knowledge of the anatomy of the
body. Yet in this scene the dissector
works under the watchful eye of the
physician, who stand behind him with
his hand on the dissector's
shoulder. Mondino de' Luzzi, a
professor of anatomy at Bologna, was
considered by contemporaries to be the
leading authority on anatomy until
Vesalius. His work was the standard
text on anatomy, one that Vesalius
himself used. PD
source: http://honors.nmsu.edu/weamon/ke
tham2.jpg

[2] Mondino da Luzzi supervising an
autopsy Johannes de Ketham
Fasciculo di Medicina, Venice, 1493,
engraving National Library of
Medicine, USA PD
source: http://www.afip.org/Departments/
HepGastr_dept/sobin/chap2.htm
665 YBN
[1335 AD] 4 5 6 		1425) The law of inertia is revived.1 2

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "philoponus". The Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2003
Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.).
"philoponus". The Stanford Encyclopedia
of Philosophy (Winter 2003 Edition),
Edward N. Zalta (ed.).
http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/philop
onus/
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ "Jean Buridan".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
8165/Jean-Buridan
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (c1295-c1358)
(c1295-c1358)
5. ^ "Jean Buridan". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
8165/Jean-Buridan (1300-1358)
6. ^ "Inertia".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inertia
(1300-1358)
Paris, France3  
[1] The Index Librorum Prohibitorum
(''List of Prohibited Books'') is a
list of publications which the Catholic
Church censored for being a danger to
itself and its members. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Index_Librorum_Prohibitorum_1.jpg

[2] Jean Buridan (1300-1358) “O
dinheiro, portanto, é um bem do
mercado, e o valor desse dinheiro, como
nos outros casos de bens do mercado,
deve ser mensurado pela necessidade
humana. Os valores dos bens de troca
são proporcionados pela necessidade
humana”. PD
source: http://www.cieep.org.br/images/b
uridanbio.jpg
635 YBN
[03/12/1365 AD] 3 		1360) The University of Vienna, the
oldest university in the
German-speaking world.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "University of Vienna".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 25 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/628154/University-of-Vienna>.
2. ^
http://www.univie.ac.at/en/university/
3. ^
http://www.univie.ac.at/archiv/tour/12.h
tm

MORE INFO
[1] "List of oldest universities
in continuous operation". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_old
est_universities_in_continuous_operation

Vienna, Austria2  
[1] The University of Vienna main
building at the Ringstraße in
Vienna CC
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Universit%C3%A4t_Vienna_June_2006_164
.jpg

[2] Interior view of the main library
reading hall (Hauptlesesaal) of the
University of Vienna PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Uni_Wien_Bibliothek%2C_Vienna_2.jpg
602 YBN
[1398 AD] 3 		1364) Sungkyunkwan University in Korea
is founded.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ http://www.skku.edu/index_pc.jsp
2. ^ "Songgyun'guan".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 25 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/554418/Songgyunguan>.
3. ^ http://www.skku.edu/index_pc.jsp

MORE INFO
[1] "List of oldest universities
in continuous operation". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_old
est_universities_in_continuous_operation

Seoul, South Korea2  
[1] Sign for the 600th Anniversary Hall
on Sungkyunkwan University's Seoul
campus. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Sungkyunkwan_600.jpg

[2] Official logo of Sungkyunkwan
University, South Korea. Retrieved Oct
12, 2005 from university website.
Background transparent
version. COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Skku_logo.png
565 YBN
[1435 AD] 4 5 6 7 		1435) The movable type printing press
is introduced into Europe.1 2
FOOTNOTES

1. ^ "Johannes Gutenberg".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8592/Johannes-Gutenberg
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ "Johannes Gutenberg".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8592/Johannes-Gutenberg
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (c1398-c1468)
(c1398-c1468)
5. ^ "Johannes Gutenberg". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8592/Johannes-Gutenberg (14th c.-1468)
6. ^
"Johann Gutenberg". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Gute
nberg (c1400-1468)
7. ^ "Johannes Gutenberg".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8592/Johannes-Gutenberg (1438 law suit)
Strassburg (now Strasbourg, France)3
 
[1] An artist's visualization of
Johannes Gutenberg in his workshop,
showing his first proof
sheet. Bettmann/Corbis PD
source: http://www.jaars.org/museum/alph
abet/galleries/gutenberg.htm

[2] Johannes Gutenberg, engraving,
1584. Science Source/Photo
Researchers, Inc. PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-15524?articleTypeId=1
560 YBN
[02/12/1440 AD] 7 8 9 10 		1437) Space is described as infinite in
size, and stars are described as other
suns with inhabited planets.2 3 4
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^
http://cla.umn.edu/sites/jhopkins/
(cusa_DeDoctaIgnorantia_DI-Intro12-2000.
pdf)
4. ^ http://cla.umn.edu/sites/jhopkins/
(cusa_DeDoctaIgnorantia_DI-Intro12-2000.
pdf)
5. ^ "De Docta Ignorantia". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_Docta_Ig
norantia
6. ^ "Bernkastel-Kues". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernkastel-
Kues
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (1401-1464)
(1401-1464)
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (1440 book) (1440
book)
9. ^ "Nicholas Of Cusa". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
5730/Nicholas-Of-Cusa (1440 book)
10. ^ "De
Docta Ignorantia". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_Docta_Ig
norantia (02/12/1440)
Cusa, Germany5 6  
[1] Picture of Nicholas of
Cusa English: Nicholas of Cusa Source
from a painting by Meister des
Marienlebens, located in the hospital
at Kues (Germany) Date ca. 1480 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Nicholas_of_Cusa.jpg

[2] Nicholas of Cusa (Nicholas
Krebs) Library of Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/topic/nic
holas-of-cusa?cat=technology
550 YBN
[1450 AD] 6 		1171) The earliest wound spiral spring
driven clocks.3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "clock". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 25 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/121951/clock>.
2. ^ Britten, F.J. Former Clock &
Watchmakers and Their Work, Including
an Account of the Development of
Horological Instruments from the
Earliest Mechanism, with Portraits of
Masters of the Art: a Directory of over
Five Thousand Names and Some Examples
of Modern Construction. E. & F.N. Spon,
1894,
p35. http://books.google.com/books?id=S
_U9AQAAIAAJ&pg=PA35
3. ^ "clock". Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 25 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/121951/clock>.
4. ^ Britten, F.J. Former Clock &
Watchmakers and Their Work, Including
an Account of the Development of
Horological Instruments from the
Earliest Mechanism, with Portraits of
Masters of the Art: a Directory of over
Five Thousand Names and Some Examples
of Modern Construction. E. & F.N. Spon,
1894,
p35. http://books.google.com/books?id=S
_U9AQAAIAAJ&pg=PA35
5. ^ "clock". Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 25 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/121951/clock>.
6. ^ "clock". Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 25 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/121951/clock>.

MORE INFO
[1] Trevor I. Williams, "A
history of invention : from stone axes
to silicon chips ", (New York:
Checkmark Books, 2000). (1400s century
estimate) (1400s century estimate)
[2] "Clock".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clock
(early 1400s)
[3] "spring." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 28
Dec. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/spring
southern Germany or northern Italy5
 
[1] Britten, F.J. Former Clock &
Watchmakers and Their Work, Including
an Account of the Development of
Horological Instruments from the
Earliest Mechanism, with Portraits of
Masters of the Art: a Directory of over
Five Thousand Names and Some Examples
of Modern Construction. E. & F.N. Spon,
1894,
p35. http://books.google.com/books?id=S
_U9AQAAIAAJ&pg=PA35 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=S_U9AQAAIAAJ&pg=PA35

[2] The earliest dated watch known,
from 1530 Artist Anonymous
(German artist) [show]Philipp
Melanchthon (1497–1560) Link back to
Creator infobox template Title
Spherical Table Watch (Melanchthon's
Watch) Description English: This is
the earliest dated watch known. It is
engraved on the bottom: ''PHIL{IP}.
MELA{NCHTHON}. GOTT. ALEIN. DIE.
EHR{E}. 1530'' (Philip Melanchthon, to
God alone the glory, 1530). There are
very few watches existing today that
predate 1550; only two dated examples
are known--this one from 1530 and
another from 1548. There is no
watchmaker's mark, although Nuremberg
is considered the birthplace of
spherical watches (called ''Nuremberg
Eggs''). A single winding kept it
running for 12 to 16 hours, and it told
time to within the nearest half hour.
The perforations in the case permitted
one to see the time without opening the
watch. This watch was commissioned by
the great German reformer and humanist
Philip Melanchthon (1497-1560). Date
1530 (Renaissance) Medium gilt on
brass case, gilt on brass dial, iron
movement Dimensions Height: 4.8 cm
(1.9 in). Width: 4.8 cm (1.9
in). Current location Walters Art
MuseumLink back to Institution infobox
template Accession number
58.17 Exhibition history Philip
Melanchthon's Watch. The Walters Art
Gallery, Baltimore. 2000-2001. Credit
line Acquired by Henry Walters,
1910 Inscriptions {Transcription}
Engraved on the bottom: PHIL{IP}.
MELA{NCHTHON}. GOTT. ALEIN. DIE.
EHR{E}. 1530; {Translation} Engraved on
bottom: Philip Melanchthon, to God
alone the glory, 1530 Ownership
history Jacques Seligmann,
Paris, by purchase 1910: purchased
by Henry Walters, Baltimore 1931:
bequeathed to Walters Art Museum by
Henry Walters Place of origin
Augsburg, Germany
(?) Source/Photographer Walters Art
Museum: Nuvola filesystems folder
home.svg Home page Information icon.svg
Info about artwork PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/5/52/German_-_Spheri
cal_Table_Watch_%28Melanchthon%27s_Watch
%29_-_Walters_5817_-_View_C.jpg/1280px-G
erman_-_Spherical_Table_Watch_%28Melanch
thon%27s_Watch%29_-_Walters_5817_-_View_
C.jpg
546 YBN
[1454 AD] 3 4 		1436) The first printed book in Europe
(copies of the Bible).1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ "Gutenberg Bible".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8593/Gutenberg-Bible
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (1454) (1454)
4. ^ "Johannes
Gutenberg". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8592/Johannes-Gutenberg (1455 at the
latest)

MORE INFO
[1] "Johann Gutenberg".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Gute
nberg
Mainz, Germany2  
[1] Gutenberg Bible, Library of
Congress, Washington D.C. Picture of a
copy of the en:Gutenberg Bible owned by
the US Library of Congress GFDL
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:915h_Johannes_Gutenberg_%28Gensfleisc
h%29_statue%2C_Mainz%2C_1_Ma.jpg

[2] Johannes Gutenberg, engraving,
1584. Science Source/Photo
Researchers, Inc. PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-15524?articleTypeId=1
517 YBN
[1483 AD] 4 		6481) A parachute is designed.1 2
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^ "parachute". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 25 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/442451/parachute>.
2. ^ "Leonardo da Vinci's parachute".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 25 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/1704849/Leonardo-da-Vincis-parac
hute>.
3. ^ "Leonardo da Vinci". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
8470/Leonardo-da-Vinci
4. ^ "parachute". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 25 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/442451/parachute>.

MORE INFO
[1] "Leonardo da Vinci".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonardo_da
_Vinci
[2]
http://www.answers.com/topic/leonardo-da
-vinci?cat=health
[3] "elevator". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
2371/elevator
[4] "Elevator#History". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elevator#Hi
story
[5] "Submarines#History of submarines".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Submarines#
History_of_submarines
[6] "submarine". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-911
0183/submarine
[7] "tank". Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 25 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/582594/tank>
[8] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (CE 1452-1519)1472 to
be before all other Da Vinci records
starting at id1462 in 1473 CE.) (CE
1452-1519)1472 to be before all other
Da Vinci records starting at id1462 in
1473 CE.)
[9]
http://www.worldwideschool.org/library/b
ooks/sci/history/AHistoryofScienceVolume
II/chap11.html
Milan, Italy3  
[1] Design for a parachute by Leonardo
da Vinci, from the Codex Atlanticus, c.
1478–1518; in the Biblioteca
Ambrosiana, Milan, Italy. Credit:
Baldwin H. Ward and Kathryn C.
Ward/Corbis COPYRIGHTED
source: http://media-2.web.britannica.co
m/eb-media/81/96681-004-4FCB9F08.jpg

[2] [t Da Vinci Tank or armored
vehicle - 1484] UNKNOWN
source: http://www.leonardodavincisecret
s.com/inventions/warmachines.jpg
514 YBN
[1486 AD] 3 		1467) Gliders, a helical air-screw, and
a flying machine with flapping wings
are designed.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Anderson, J.D. A History of
Aerodynamics: And Its Impact on Flying
Machines. Cambridge University Press,
1997. Cambridge Aerospace, 8,
p14. http://books.google.com/books?id=1
OeCJFJY3ZYC&pg=PA14
2. ^ "Leonardo da Vinci". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
8470/Leonardo-da-Vinci
3. ^ Anderson, J.D. A History of
Aerodynamics: And Its Impact on Flying
Machines. Cambridge University Press,
1997. Cambridge Aerospace, 8,
p14. http://books.google.com/books?id=1
OeCJFJY3ZYC&pg=PA14

MORE INFO
[1] "Leonardo da Vinci".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonardo_da
_Vinci
[2]
http://www.answers.com/topic/leonardo-da
-vinci?cat=health
[3] "Ornithopter". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ornithopter
 (1488)
[4]
http://www.wired.com/images/slideshow/20
07/11/gallery_helicopter/02_vite_aerea.j
pg
Milan, Italy2  
[1] Design for a Flying Machine is a
1488 drawing by Leonardo da Vinci. PD
source: http://inventors.about.com/od/ds
tartinventors/ig/Inventions-of-Leonardo-
DaVinci/Design-for-a-Flying-Machine-2.ht
m

[2] Design for a Flying Machine (c.
1488) is a drawing by Leonardo da
Vinci. Source:
http://www.visi.com/~reuteler/leonardo.h
tml PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Design_for_a_Flying_Machine.jpg
508 YBN
[10/12/1492 AD] 5 		1450) Humans from Europe reach America
by crossing the Atlantic Ocean in three
small ships.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
4. ^ "Christopher Columbus".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9621/Christopher-Columbus
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (10/12/1492)
(10/12/1492)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/christopher%20col
umbus
(probably) San Salvador4  
[1] Artist [show]Sebastiano del
Piombo (1485–1547) Link back to
Creator infobox template
wikidata:Q285423 Description
Christopher Columbus Date
1519 Medium painting Current
location [show]Metropolitan Museum
of ArtLink back to Institution infobox
template wikidata:Q160236 Inscriptions
Text top center Source/Photographer
http://www.metmuseum.org/works_of_art/c
ollection_database/european_paintings/po
rtrait_of_a_man_said_to_be_christopher_c
olumbus_sebastiano_del_piombo_sebastiano
_luciani/objectview.aspx?page=1&sort=6&s
ortdir=asc&keyword=Piombo&fp=1&dd1=11&dd
2=0&vw=0&collID=11&OID=110002098&vT=1&hi
=0&ov=0 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5d/Christopher_Columbus.
PNG

[2] Portrait of Christopher Columbus
from the painting Virgen de los
Navegantes (in the Sala de los
Almirantes, Royal Alcazar, Seville). A
painting by Alejo Fernández between
1505 and 1536. It is the only state
sponsored portrait of the First Admiral
of the Indias. Photo by a Columbus
historian, Manuel Rosa. More info
http://www.UnmaskingColumbus.com PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Christopher_Columbus_Face.jpg
487 YBN
[09/25/1513 AD] 3 		1485) Europeans reach the Pacific
Ocean.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ "Vasco Nunez de
Balboa". Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 26 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/49909/Vasco-Nunez-de-Balboa>.
3. ^ "Vasco Nunez de Balboa".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
1919/Vasco-Nunez-de-Balboa (09/25/1513
(or 09/27/1513)
from a peak in Darién, Panama2  
[1] Vasco Núñez de Balboa PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Vascon%C3%BA%C3%B1ezdebalboa.jpeg

[2] Vasco Núñez de Balboa executing
Native Americans for same-sex
love. New York Public Library, Rare
Book Room, De Bry Collection, New
York http://www.androphile.org/preview/
Museum/New_World/Panama_Two-SpiritA.html
Théodore De
Bry (1528-1598) Balboa setting his
dogs upon Indian practitioners of male
love (1594) The Spanish invader Vasco
Núñez de Balboa (1475-1519) shown in
Central America with his troops,
presiding over the execution of
Indians, whom he ordered eaten alive by
the war dogs for having practiced male
love. New York Public Library, Rare
Book Room, De Bry Collection, New
York. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Balboamurder.jpg
483 YBN
[10/31/1517 AD] 3 		1389) The start of the Protestant
Reformation.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Reformation". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
3023/Reformation
2. ^ "Reformation". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
3023/Reformation
3. ^ "Reformation". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
3023/Reformation
Wittenberg, Germany2  
[1] Luther in 1529 by Lucas
Cranach Painting by Lucas Cranach the
Elder. Uffizi gallery. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Luther46c.jpg
478 YBN
[09/08/1522 AD] 8 9 10 		1475) Humans circumnavigate the Earth.5
6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ "Juan Sebastian de
Elcano". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
2242/Juan-Sebastian-de-Elcano
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
4. ^ "Juan Sebastian de
Elcano". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
2242/Juan-Sebastian-de-Elcano
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
6. ^ "Juan Sebastian de
Elcano". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
2242/Juan-Sebastian-de-Elcano
7. ^
http://www.answers.com/Juan%20Sebastian%
20del%20Cano
8. ^ "Juan Sebastián Elcano".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juan_Sebast
i%C3%A1n_Elcano (09/08/1522)
9. ^ "Ferdinand
Magellan". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-225
336/Ferdinand-Magellan (09/08/1522)
10. ^
http://www.answers.com/Juan%20Sebastian%
20del%20Cano (09/06/1522)
Seville, Spain7  
[1] An anonymous portrait of Ferdinand
Magellan, 16th or 17th century (The
Mariner's Museum Collection, Newport
News, VA) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ferdinand_Magellan.jpg

[2] Juan Sebastián
Elcano Litografía de J. Donon en
Historia de la Marina Real Española.
Madrid,
1854 http://marenostrum.org/bibliotecad
elmar/historia/pacifico/ PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Elcano.jpg
467 YBN
[1533 AD] 3 4 		1541) The method of triangulation to
measure distance: a base line of known
length is chosen, and from its
endpoints the angles of sight to a
remote object are measured. The
distance to the object from either
endpoint can then be calculated using
simple trigonometry.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "trigonometry". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 29 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/605281/trigonometry/225332/Appli
cation-to-science>.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ "trigonometry".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 29 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/605281/trigonometry/225332/Appli
cation-to-science>.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).

MORE INFO
[1] "Gemma Frisius". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gemma_Frisi
us (1553)
Friesland (present day Netherlands)
(presumably)2  
[1] English: Measuring the width of a
river by triangulation, Hulsius, 16th
century. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/CD006-Triangula
tion_16th_century.png/1280px-CD006-Trian
gulation_16th_century.png

[2] English: Gemma Frisius, 1508-1555,
cartographer and mathematician Source
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollection
s/hst/scientific-identity/fullsize/SIL14
-G002-05a.jpg Date 17th
century Author Esme de Boulonois PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gemma_frisius_dockumensis.jpg
462 YBN
[10/28/1538 AD] 3 4 		1371) The University of Santo Domingo,
the first university in the Western
Hemisphere.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "First universities in the
Western Hemisphere", Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2012. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/to
pic/618194/university/284214/First-unive
rsities-in-the-Western-Hemisphere?anchor
=ref96335
2. ^ "First universities in the Western
Hemisphere", Encyclopedia Britannica.
2012. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/to
pic/618194/university/284214/First-unive
rsities-in-the-Western-Hemisphere?anchor
=ref96335
3. ^
http://uasd.edu.do/html/website2/detalle
s/informacion_general.html
4. ^ "First universities in the Western
Hemisphere", Encyclopedia Britannica.
2012. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/to
pic/618194/university/284214/First-unive
rsities-in-the-Western-Hemisphere?anchor
=ref96335

MORE INFO
[1] "List of oldest universities
in continuous operation". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_old
est_universities_in_continuous_operation

Santo Domingo, (now the) Dominican
Republic2  
[1] La Universidad de Santo Domingo fue
creada mediante la Bula In Apostolatus
Culmine, expedida el 28 de octubre de
1538, por el Papa Paulo III, la cual
elevó a esa categoría el Estudio
General que los dominicos regenteaban
desde el 1518, en Santo Domingo, sede
virreinal de la colonización y el más
viejo establecimiento colonial del
Nuevo Mundo. COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://www.uasd.edu.do/principal
es/general.html
457 YBN
[1543 AD] 7 8 		1482) The Sun centered theory is
revived by Copernicus.3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ "Nicolaus Copernicus".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5759/Nicolaus-Copernicus
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
4. ^ "Nicolaus Copernicus".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5759/Nicolaus-Copernicus
5. ^ "Nicolaus Copernicus".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 26 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/136591/Nicolaus-Copernicus/8437/
Publication-of-De-revolutionibus>.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (1543)
7. ^ "Nicolaus
Copernicus". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5759/Nicolaus-Copernicus (1543)
8. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (1543)

MORE INFO
[1] "Nicolaus Copernicus".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicolaus_Co
pernicus
[2] "Heliocentric theory". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliocentri
c_theory
(presumably) written in (Frauenburg,
East Prussia now:)Frombork, Poland5 ;
(printed in)Nuremberg, Germany6  
[1] Nicolaus Copernicus (portrait from
Toruń - beginning of the 16th
century), from
http://www.frombork.art.pl/Ang10.htm PD

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Nikolaus_Kopernikus.jpg

[2] Nicolaus Copernicus PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Copernicus.jpg
455 YBN
[1545 AD] 3 4 		1543) Arteries are tied to stop
bleeding. Artificial limbs are
created.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ "Ambroise Pare".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
8441/Ambroise-Pare
3. ^ "Ambroise Pare". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
8441/Ambroise-Pare (1545)
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982). (1545) (1545)
Paris, France2  
[1] Ambroise Paré (ca. 1510-1590),
famous French surgeon Posthumous
(fantasy) portrait by William Holl
(1807-1871) Source:
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollections
/hst/scientific-identity/CF/by_name_disp
lay_results.cfm?scientist=Par%C3%A9,%20A
mbroise PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ambroise_Par%C3%A9.jpg

[2] Paré, detail of an engraving,
1582 PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-13373/Pare-detail-of-an-engraving-1582?
articleTypeId=1
454 YBN
[1546 AD] 6 7 8 		1507) The scientific classification of
minerals.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Georgius Agricola". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
4072/Georgius-Agricola
2. ^
http://www.answers.com/topic/georg-agric
ola?cat=technology
3. ^ "Chemnitz". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemnitz
4. ^
http://www.answers.com/topic/georg-agric
ola?cat=technology
5. ^ "Basel". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basel
6. ^
http://www.farlang.com/gemstones/agricol
a_textbook_of_mineralogy/page_001
(published: 1546 in Basel) (published:
1546)
7. ^
http://www.answers.com/topic/georg-agric
ola?cat=technology (published: 1546 in
Basel) (published: 1546 in Basel in
Basel)
8. ^
http://www.answers.com/topic/georg-agric
ola?cat=technology (published: 1546 in
Basel)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982)
[2] "Georgius Agricola".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgius_Ag
ricola
written: Chemnitz2 , Saxony, Germany3 |
published: Basel4 , Switzerland5  
[1] The ''Father of Mineralogy'',
Georgius Agricola. URL:
http://kanitz.onlinehome.de/agricolagymn
asium/agrigale.htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Georgius_Agricola.jpg

[2] Georgius Agricola, portrait from
Icones veterum aliquot ac recentium
medicorum philosophorumque (1574) by
Joannes Sambucus, printed in
Antwerp. Courtesy of the Museum
National d'Histoire Naturelle,
Paris[2] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Georg_Agricola.jpg
454 YBN
[1546 AD] 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 		1547) Pulmonary circulation is
understood by Michael Servetus
(SRVETuS): that blood goes from the
right side of the heart to the lung
where it is mixed with air becoming
red, and then to the left side of the
heart where it is sent through the rest
of the body.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Johns Hopkins Hospital. Johns
Hopkins Hospital Bulletin. 1915,
p320-322. http://books.google.com/books
?id=Bc0yAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA321
2. ^ Johns Hopkins Hospital. Johns
Hopkins Hospital Bulletin. 1915,
p320-322. http://books.google.com/books
?id=Bc0yAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA321
3. ^ Johns Hopkins Hospital. Johns
Hopkins Hospital Bulletin. 1915,
p320-322. http://books.google.com/books
?id=Bc0yAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA321
4. ^ Osler, W. Contributions to Medical
and Biological Research. P. B. Hoeber,
1919. Contributions to Medical and
Biological Research,
p772. http://books.google.com/books?id=
bqIEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA772
5. ^ "Michael Servetus". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 29 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/535958/Michael-Servetus>.
6. ^ "Michael Servetus". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 29 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/535958/Michael-Servetus>.
7. ^ "Michael Servetus". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
6881/Michael-Servetus (1553)
8. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (1553) (1553)
9. ^
http://www.answers.com/Michael%20Servetu
s (1553)

MORE INFO
[1] "Unitarian". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unitarian
Vienne, France2  
[1] Miguel Servet, (Villanueva de
Sigena 1511- Genevra 1553) Spanish
scientist and theologist of the
Renaissance. Artist : Christian
Fritzsch (author) born in about 1660,
Mittweida, Bautzen, Sachsen,
Germany. Source:
http://mcgovern.library.tmc.edu/data/www
/html/people/osler/MS/P000d.htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Michael_Servetus.jpg

[2] Servetus, detail from an engraving
by Carl Sichem Courtesy of the
National Library of Medicine, Bethesda,
Md. PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-14212/Servetus-detail-from-an-engraving
-by-Carl-Sichem?articleTypeId=1
449 YBN
[1551 AD] 2 3 		1549) The first planetary tables based
on the Sun-centered theory.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (1551) (1551)
3. ^ "Erasmus
Reinhold". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Erasmus+Reinhold+
?cat=technology (1551)

MORE INFO
[1] "Erasmus Reinhold".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erasmus_Rei
nhold
[2]
http://hsci.cas.ou.edu/exhibits/exhibit.
php?exbgrp=9&exbid=52&exbpg=25
 
[1] Reinhold, Prutenic Tables (1585),
title page. [t must be later
edition] PD
source: http://hsci.cas.ou.edu/images/jp
g-100dpi-5in/16thCentury/Reinhold/1585/R
einhold-1585-000tp.jpg

[2] Reinhold, Prutenic Tables (1585),
133v. PD
source: http://hsci.cas.ou.edu/exhibits/
exhibit.php?exbgrp=9&exbid=52&exbpg=25
447 YBN
[10/27/1553 AD] 5 		1548) Servetus is burned alive for
heresy {HAReSE1 }.2 3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "heresy." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 14 Jan.
2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/heresy
2. ^ "Michael Servetus". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 29 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/535958/Michael-Servetus>.
3. ^ "Michael Servetus". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
6881/Michael-Servetus
4. ^ "Michael Servetus". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
6881/Michael-Servetus (1553)
5. ^ "Michael
Servetus". Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 29 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/535958/Michael-Servetus>.

MORE INFO
[1] "Michael Servetus".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Ser
vetus
[2] "Unitarian". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unitarian
[3] "Champel". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Champel
[4] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (1553) (1553)
[5]
http://www.answers.com/Michael%20Servetu
s (1553)
Geneva, Switzerland4  
[1] Miguel Servet, (Villanueva de
Sigena 1511- Genevra 1553) Spanish
scientist and theologist of the
Renaissance. Artist : Christian
Fritzsch (author) born in about 1660,
Mittweida, Bautzen, Sachsen,
Germany. Source:
http://mcgovern.library.tmc.edu/data/www
/html/people/osler/MS/P000d.htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Michael_Servetus.jpg

[2] Servetus, detail from an engraving
by Carl Sichem Courtesy of the
National Library of Medicine, Bethesda,
Md. PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-14212/Servetus-detail-from-an-engraving
-by-Carl-Sichem?articleTypeId=1
440 YBN
[1560 AD] 3 		1538) Systematic computations of
probability.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Girolamo Cardano". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
0283/Girolamo-Cardano
2. ^ "Girolamo Cardano". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
0283/Girolamo-Cardano
3. ^ "Gerolamo Cardano". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerolamo_Ca
rdano (1560s)

MORE INFO
[1] "Ars Magna (Gerolamo
Cardano)". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ars_Magna_%
28Gerolamo_Cardano%29
Italy2  
[1] Girolamo Cardano, coloured woodcut
on the cover of his Practica
arithmetica (1539). The Granger
Collection, New York PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-15447/Girolamo-Cardano-coloured-woodcut
-on-the-cover-of-his-Practica?articleTyp
eId=1

[2] wikipedia contributor typed: I
found this picture at the library the
other day and haven't ever seen it
online before and thought it would make
a great addition to the Cardano page.
The author was marked as unknown. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:CardanoPortrait.jpg
440 YBN
[1560 AD] 2 		1563) The first scientific society (a
group for the communication of
scientific research), the precursor of
the Academy of the Lynx.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (1560) (1560)

MORE INFO
[1] "Giambattista della Porta".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
0950/Giambattista-della-Porta
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Giambattista%20de
lla%20Porta
 
[1] Giambattista della Porta PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Dellaporta.jpg
439 YBN
[1561 AD] 3 		1562) Fallopian tubes, and semicircular
canals are identified, and the vagina,
placenta, clitoris and cochlea are
named.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Gabriel Fallopius". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
3648/Gabriel-Fallopius
2. ^ "Gabriel Fallopius". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 29 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/200926/Gabriel-Fallopius>.
3. ^ "Gabriel Fallopius". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 29 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/200926/Gabriel-Fallopius>.

MORE INFO
[1] "Gabriel Fallopius".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gabriel_Fal
lopius (1561)
(University of Padua) Padua, Italy2
 
[1] 16th century portrait by unknown
artist Retrieved from
http://www.peoples.ru/science/professor/
gabriello/ PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gabriele_Falloppio.jpg

[2] Gabriel Fallopius, coloured copper
engraving, 17th century. The Granger
Collection, New York PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-15449/Gabriel-Fallopius-coloured-copper
-engraving-17th-century?articleTypeId=1
431 YBN
[1569 AD] 5 		1550) Cyclindrical projection is used
to make a map so that lines of latitude
and longitude are straight.1 2
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^ "Gerardus Mercator". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
2077/Gerardus-Mercator
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ "Gerardus Mercator".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
2077/Gerardus-Mercator
4. ^ "Gerardus Mercator". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerardus_Me
rcator
5. ^ "Gerardus Mercator". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
2077/Gerardus-Mercator (1569)
Duchy of Cleves, Germany3 4
(presumably) 
[1] esta es un Carta do Mundo de
Mercator (1569) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b2/Mercator_1569.png

[2] Portrait of en:Gerardus
Mercator Source Originally from
en.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. (Original text :
http://www.nmm.ac.uk/collections/prints/
viewRepro.cfm?reproID=PU2381) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Mercator.jpg
427 YBN
[1573 AD] 3 		1575) A comet is proven to be farther
away than the moon and to have an orbit
that is not circular.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Tycho Brahe". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Tycho+Brahe?cat=t
echnology
2. ^ "Tycho Brahe". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Tycho+Brahe?cat=t
echnology
3. ^ "Tycho Brahe". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6148/Tycho-Brahe (1573)

MORE INFO
[1] "Tycho Brahe". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tycho_Brahe

[2] Carl Sagan, "Cosmos", Carl Sagan
Productions, KCET Los Angeles, (1980)
[3]
"Hven". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hven
Island of Hven (now Ven, Sweden)2
 
[1] The comet of 1577 From the comet
of 1577, Tycho learned that comets are
above the atmosphere. Seen above is a
page from his notebook. The comet is
placed near the orbit of the planet
Venus. The inner solar system is in
accordance with his own system, with
the Earth in the center and the Sun
moving around, all the other planets
are moving around the Sun. He could not
accept the Copernican system because he
could not measure the parallax of the
stars. He also observed that the tail
of the comet pointed away from the
Sun. Retrieved from
http://www.rundetaarn.dk/engelsk/observa
torium/komet.htm. PD AND The
astronomer Tycho Brahe Source
http://measure.igpp.ucla.edu/solar-terr
estrial-luminaries/brahe.JPG PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/da/Brahe_notebook.jpghtt
p://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Tycho_Br
ahe.JPG

[2] The comet of 1577 From the comet
of 1577, Tycho learned that comets are
above the atmosphere. Seen above is a
page from his notebook. The comet is
placed near the orbit of the planet
Venus. The inner solar system is in
accordance with his own system, with
the Earth in the center and the Sun
moving around, all the other planets
are moving around the Sun. He could not
accept the Copernican system because he
could not measure the parallax of the
stars. He also observed that the tail
of the comet pointed away from the
Sun. Retrieved from
http://www.rundetaarn.dk/engelsk/observa
torium/komet.htm. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/da/Brahe_notebook.jpg
418 YBN
[1582 AD] 		1566) The Gregorian calendar: February
29th is omitted in century years which
are not divisible by 400.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).

MORE INFO
[1] "Christoph Clavius".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christoph_C
lavius
Rome, Italy2  
[1] Christopher Clavius (1538-1612),
German mathematician and
astronomer. Immediate source:
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollections
/hst/scientific-identity/fullsize/SIL14-
C4-02a.jpg Ultimate source: A 16th
century engraving after a painting by
Francisco Villamena. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Christopher_Clavius.jpg
415 YBN
[1585 AD] 4 		1581) Decimal point notation is used in
Europe.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Simon Stevin". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 02 Dec.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/565994/Simon-Stevin>.
2. ^ Simon Stevin, "De Thiende", 1585.
http://www.dbnl.org/tekst/stev001thie0
1_01/downloads.php {Stevin_De_Thiende_1
585.pdf} English "The Tenth"
3. ^ "Simon
Stevinus". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simon_Stevi
nus
4. ^ "Simon Stevin". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
9667/Simon-Stevin (1585)

MORE INFO
[1] "Fraction (mathematics)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fraction_%2
8mathematics%29
[2] Stevin, S. "L’ Arithmetique".
1585, part2,
p144. http://books.google.com/books?id=
1dU5AAAAcAAJ&pg=PA144
Netherlands3 (presumably) 
[1] Simon Stevin, ''De Thiende'', 1585,
p12.
http://www.dbnl.org/tekst/stev001thie0
1_01/downloads.php {Stevin_De_Thiende_1
585.pdf} English ''The Tenth'' PD
source: http://www.dbnl.org/tekst/saveas
.php?filename=stev001thie01_01_scans.pdf
&dir=stev001thie01_01&type=pdf

[2] Simon Stevin, ''De Thiende'',
1585, p16.
http://www.dbnl.org/tekst/stev001thie0
1_01/downloads.php {Stevin_De_Thiende_1
585.pdf} English ''The Tenth'' PD
source: http://www.dbnl.org/tekst/saveas
.php?filename=stev001thie01_01_scans.pdf
&dir=stev001thie01_01&type=pdf
414 YBN
[1586 AD] 4 5 		1583) Objects of different weight are
shown to fall the same distance in the
same amount of time.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Simon Stevin". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
9667/Simon-Stevin
http://books.google.com/books?id=I9Y0AAA
AMAAJ&pg=PA757 2. ^ Sherwood Taylor,
"Science Past and Present", 1945,
p82. http://www.archive.org/stream/scie
ncepastandpr035050mbp/sciencepastandpr03
5050mbp_djvu.txt
3. ^ "Simon Stevin". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
9667/Simon-Stevin
4. ^ "Simon Stevin". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
9667/Simon-Stevin (1586)
5. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982). (1586) (1586)

MORE INFO
[1] "Simon Stevinus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simon_Stevi
nus
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Simon+Stevin?cat=
technology
[3] "statics". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
9478/statics
[4]
http://books.google.com/books?id=I9Y0AAA
AMAAJ&pg=PA757 Sherwood Taylor,
"Science Past and Present", 1945,
p82. http://www.archive.org/stream/scie
ncepastandpr035050mbp/sciencepastandpr03
5050mbp_djvu.txt
[5]
http://books.google.com/books?id=I9Y0AAA
AMAAJ&pg=PA757 Sherwood Taylor,
"Science Past and Present", 1945,
p82. http://www.archive.org/stream/scie
ncepastandpr035050mbp/sciencepastandpr03
5050mbp_djvu.txt
Netherlands3 (presumably) 
[1] Simon Stevin, from English
wikipedia. Older than 100 years, so
it's Public Domain for countries with a
copyright term of life of the author
plus 100 years from en: Portrait by an
unknown artist, library of University
of Leiden. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Simon-stevin.jpeg
409 YBN
[1591 AD] 3 4 5 		1182) The flush toilet.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Sir John Harington".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 02 Dec.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/255314/Sir-John-Harington>.
2. ^ "Sir John Harington".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 02 Dec.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/255314/Sir-John-Harington>.
3. ^ "Sir John Harington".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 02 Dec.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/255314/Sir-John-Harington>.
4. ^ "Sir John Harrington". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sir_John_Ha
rrington (based on (presented ajax to
Queen in 1592)
5. ^ "Flushing toilet".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flushing_to
ilet (=1596)

MORE INFO
[1] "John Harington". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Haring
ton
(Palace of Queen Elizabeth) Richmond,
Surrey, England2  
[1] Picture A Drawing of Sir John
Harrington's Flush Toilet as Described
in ''A New Discourse of a Stale
Subject, Called The Metamorphosis of
Ajax'' (1596) 1888-1889 Source
Popular Science Monthly Volume 34,
p310 http://www.archive.org/details/pop
ularsciencemo34newy PD
source: http://ultimatehistoryproject.co
m/uploads/3/0/6/7/3067335/1340909250.jpg


[2] Artist Attributed to Hieronimo
Custodis (fl. 1589–1598) Link back to
Creator infobox template
wikidata:Q2725000 Title Sir John
Harington Description English:
Portrait of Sir John Harington
(1561-1612). Date c.
1590-95[1] Medium oil on
panel Dimensions 91.5 x 71 cm Object
history Ampleforth Abbey, offered at
Sotheby's, London, sale L11034, Lot
145 Notes A cut-down version of this
portrait is in the National Portrait
Gallery, London. References
↑ Roy Strong, The English Icon:
Elizabethan and Jacobean Portraiture,
1969, Routledge & Kegan Paul,
London Source/Photographer
Sotheby's PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/09/Sir_John_Harington%2C
_attributed_to_Hieronimo_Custodis.png
409 YBN
[1591 AD] 5 6 		1568) Letters are used to represent
constant and unknown numbers (the first
"variables"1 ).2 3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ Viète, F. Introduction
à L’art Analytique.
1868. http://books.google.com/books?id=
atM8AAAAcAAJ
4. ^ "Francois Viete seigneur de la
Bigotiere". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
5315/Francois-Viete-seigneur-de-la-Bigot
iere
5. ^ "Francois Viete seigneur de la
Bigotiere". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
5315/Francois-Viete-seigneur-de-la-Bigot
iere (1591)
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (1591) (1591)

MORE INFO
[1] "Franciscus Vieta".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franciscus_
Vieta
[2] "Viète's formulas". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vi%C3%A8te%
27s_formulas
(possibly) Paris, France4  
[1] Viète, F. Algèbre.
1636. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ATs1AAAAcAAJ&pg=PA7 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=ATs1AAAAcAAJ&pg=PA7

[2] François Viète. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Francois_Viete.jpg
408 YBN
[1592 AD] 5 		1613) Galileo invents the first
thermometer.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "thermometer." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 21 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/591653/thermometer>.
2. ^ "thermometer." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 21 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/591653/thermometer>.
3. ^ "thermometer." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 21 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/591653/thermometer>.
4. ^ "Galileo". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5766/Galileo
5. ^ "thermometer." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 21 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/591653/thermometer>. {1592}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/Galileo+Galilei?c
at=technology
[2]
http://catalogue.museogalileo.it/indepth
/Thermometer.html
[3] "Galileo Galilei". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Gal
ilei (1593)
Padua, Italy4  
[1] Fig. 1. Galileo’s
thermoscope. from: David Sherry,
Thermoscopes, thermometers, and the
foundations of measurement, Studies In
History and Philosophy of Science Part
A, Volume 42, Issue 4, December 2011,
Pages 509-524, ISSN 0039-3681,
10.1016/j.shpsa.2011.07.001. (http://ww
w.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/
S0039368111000616) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/cac
he/MiamiImageURL/1-s2.0-S003936811100061
6-gr1.jpg/0?wchp=dGLzVBA-zSkzS

[2] Thermoscope Instrument to
measure heat and cold invented by
Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) during his
stay in Padua. Santorio Santorio
(1561-1636) made a similar instrument
in Venice in 1612. A precursor of the
modern thermometer, the thermoscope
consists of a glass vessel with a long
neck. The vessel was heated with the
hands and partially immersed, in an
upright position, in a container full
of water. When the heat of the hands
was taken away, the water was observed
to rise in the thermoscope neck. The
experiment showed the changes in air
density produced by variations in
temperature. UNKNOWN
source: http://catalogue.museogalileo.it
/images/cat/approfondimenti_944/AF0020-5
1000_944.jpg
404 YBN
[08/03/1596 AD] 4 5 6 7 		1616) A variable star is discovered, a
star that shows periodic changes in
brightness.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p105.
2. ^ Kepler, J., and
E. Rosen. Kepler’s Somnium: The
Dream, Or Posthumous Work on Lunar
Astronomy. Dover Publ., 1967,
p.226. http://books.google.com/books?id
=OdCJAS0eQ64C&pg=PA226
3. ^ Christianson, J.R. On Tycho’s
Island: Tycho Brahe, Science, and
Culture in the Sixteenth Century.
Cambridge University Press, 2002,
p264. http://books.google.com/books?id=
SNh7SyciWPMC&pg=PA264
4. ^ Kepler, J., and E. Rosen.
Kepler’s Somnium: The Dream, Or
Posthumous Work on Lunar Astronomy.
Dover Publ., 1967,
p.226. http://books.google.com/books?id
=OdCJAS0eQ64C&pg=PA226
5. ^ Brahe, T. Tychonis Brahe Dani
Opera Omnia: Tomus XIII. Gyldendal,
1926, p.114-115.
6. ^ The Popular Science Monthly.
Popular Science Publishing Company,
1897,
p683. http://books.google.com/books?id=
7zwUAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA683
7. ^ Campbell, W.W. Stellar Motions:
With Special Reference to Motions
Determined by Means of the
Spectrograph. Yale university press,
1913. Mrs. Hepsa Ely Silliman Memorial
Lectures,
p282. http://books.google.com/books?id=
a567AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA282

MORE INFO
[1] "David Fabricius". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Fabri
cius (08/??/1596)
Resterhave (near Dorum) East Frisia
(now northwest Germany and northeast
Netherlands) (presumably)3  
[1] Kepler, J., and E. Rosen.
Kepler’s Somnium: The Dream, Or
Posthumous Work on Lunar Astronomy.
Dover Publ., 1967,
p.226. http://books.google.com/books?id
=OdCJAS0eQ64C&pg=PA226 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=OdCJAS0eQ64C&pg=PA226

[2] David Fabricius
(1564-1617) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.tayabeixo.org/biograf
ias/mar_1q.htm
400 YBN
[02/17/1600 AD] 3 		1578) Bruno is burned alive for
heresy.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ "Giordano Bruno".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 02 Dec.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/82258/Giordano-Bruno/883/Final-y
ears>.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (02/17/1600)
(02/17/1600)
(Campo de Fiori {flower market}) Rome,
Italy2  
[1] Giordano Bruno PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Giordano_Bruno.jpg

[2] Statue of Giordano Bruno in Campo
de Fiori, Rome, Italy. This monument
was erected in 1889, by Italian Masonic
circles, in the site where he was
burned alive for opposing the Catholic
church authority. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Brunostatue.jpg
400 YBN
[1600 AD] 5 6 7 		1571) That the Earth is a spherical
magnet on which a compass points to the
magnetic poles is recognized1 , and the
first electroscope, which measures
static electricity.2 3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ "Electroscope".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
"Electroscope". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Electros
cope
3. ^ Gilbert, W., and P. Short.
Gulielmi Gilberti ... De Magnete,
Magneticisque Corporibus, Et De Magno
Magnete Tellure: Physiologia Noua
Plurimis Et Argumentis, Et Experimentis
Demonstrata. excudebet Petrus Short,
1600. Biblioteca Digital
Dioscórides. http://books.google.com/b
ooks?id=Mbo2oDsnrAAC
4. ^ "William Gilbert". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
6815/William-Gilbert
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (1600) (1600)
6. ^ Gilbert,
W., and P. Short. Gulielmi Gilberti ...
De Magnete, Magneticisque Corporibus,
Et De Magno Magnete Tellure:
Physiologia Noua Plurimis Et
Argumentis, Et Experimentis
Demonstrata. excudebet Petrus Short,
1600. Biblioteca Digital
Dioscórides. http://books.google.com/b
ooks?id=Mbo2oDsnrAAC
7. ^ "William Gilbert". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
6815/William-Gilbert (1600)

MORE INFO
[1] "William Gilbert". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Gil
bert
[2]
http://www.sparkmuseum.com/ELECTROSCOPE.
HTM
[3] Gilbert, W., P.F. Mottelay, and E.
Wright. William Gilbert of Colchester,
Physician of London: On the Load Stone
and Magnetic Bodies, ... J. Wiley &
Sons, 1893,
pxii. http://books.google.com/books?id=
uTfPAAAAMAAJ
London, England4 (presumably) 
[1] Gilbert, W., and P. Short. Gulielmi
Gilberti ... De Magnete, Magneticisque
Corporibus, Et De Magno Magnete
Tellure: Physiologia Noua Plurimis Et
Argumentis, Et Experimentis
Demonstrata. excudebet Petrus Short,
1600. Biblioteca Digital Dioscórides,
p222. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Mbo2oDsnrAAC&pg=PA222 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=Mbo2oDsnrAAC&pg=PA222

[2] Paiting of William Gilbert (1544 -
1603) Source
http://physics.ship.edu/~mrc/pfs/110/in
side_out/vu1/Galileo/Images/Port/gilbert
.gif Date Author Unknown, after
title page of De Magnete (1600) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:William_Gilbert.jpg
396 YBN
[1604 AD] 5 		1622) The inverse squared law of light:
that the intensity of light is
inversely related to the square of the
distance.1 2 3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ferguson, K. Tycho and Kepler:
The Unlikely Partnership That Forever
Changed Our Understanding of the
Heavens. Walker, 2002,
p292-293. http://books.google.com/books
?id=O7ve-vB_Kq8C&pg=PA292
2. ^ Kepler, J., C. de Marne, and J.
Aubry. Ad Vitellionem Paralipomena,
Quibus Astronomiae Pars Optica
Traditur ; Potibimùm De Artificiosa
Observatione Et Aestimatione
Diametrorum Deliquiorumque Solis &
Lunae. Cum Exemplis Insignium
Eclipsium. Habes Hoc Libro, Lector,
Inter Alia Multa Nova, Tractatum
Luculentum De Modo Visionis, Et Humorum
Oculi Usu, Contra Opticos Et
Anatomicos, Authore Ioanne Keplero.
apud Claudium Marnium & haeredes
Ioannis Aubrii,
1604. http://books.google.com/books?id=
iXlZNOHpsVIC
3. ^ Kepler, Johannes, and William H.
Donahue. Optics: Paralipomena to Witelo
& optical part of astronomy. Santa Fe,
N.M.: Green Lion Press, 2000. Print,
p22. (Proposition 9)
{Kepler_Optics_1604_2000.pdf}
4. ^ "Johannes Kepler". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Ke
pler
5. ^ "Johannes Kepler". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 02 Dec.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/315225/Johannes-Kepler/8445/Astr
onomical-work>.

MORE INFO
[1] "Johannes Kepler".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5767/Johannes-Kepler
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Johannes+Kepler?c
at=technology
[3] "Johannes Kepler". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Ke
pler (01/01/1604)
Prague, (now: Czech Republic)4
(presumably) 
[1] A plate from Johannes Kepler's Ad
Vitellionem Paralipomena, quibus
Astronomiae Pars Optica (1604),
illustrating the structure of
eyes. Source:
http://www.hps.cam.ac.uk/starry/keplerbo
oks.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Kepler_Optica.jpg

[2] Johannes Kepler, oil painting by
an unknown artist, 1627; in the
cathedral, Strasbourg, France. Erich
Lessing/Art Resource, New York PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-2965/Johannes-Kepler-oil-painting-by-an
-unknown-artist-1627-in?articleTypeId=1
392 YBN
[1608 AD] 7 8 		1618) The earliest telescope.4
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p105.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p105.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p105.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p105.
5. ^ Dick, T. The
Telescope and Microscope. Lane & Scott,
1852,
p9-10. http://books.google.com/books?id
=PjoIAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA9
6. ^ "Hans Lippershey". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8449/Hans-Lippershey
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p105. (1608) (1608)
8. ^
Dick, T. The Telescope and Microscope.
Lane & Scott, 1852,
p9-10. http://books.google.com/books?id
=PjoIAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA9

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/Hans+Lippershey?c
at=technology
Middleburgh, Zeeland (Holland5 )
(modern: Netherlands)6  
[1] Hans Lippershey (1570-September
1619), Dutch lensmaker. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Hans_Lippershey.jpg

[2] Description English: Early
depiction of a ‘Dutch telescope’
from the “Emblemata of zinne-werck”
(Middelburg, 1624) of the poet and
statesman Johan de Brune (1588-1658).
The print was engraved by Adriaen van
de Venne, who, together with his
brother Jan Pieters van de Venne,
printed books not far from the original
optical workshop of Hans
Lipperhey. Date 1624 Source
http://www.phys.uu.nl/~vgent/telesc
ope/telescopenl.htm Author Adriaen
Pietersz. van de Venne (1589–1662)
Link back to Creator infobox
template PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/51/Emblemata_1624.jpg
391 YBN
[1609 AD] 3 		1599) The "law of falling bodies"; that
the distance covered by a falling body
is proportional to the square of the
elapsed time is understood.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Galileo". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5766/Galileo
2. ^ "Galileo". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5766/Galileo
3. ^ "Galileo". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5766/Galileo (1609)
(University of Padua) Padua, Italy2
 
[1] Galileo Galilei. Portrait in crayon
by Leoni Source: French WP
(Utilisateur:Kelson via
http://iafosun.ifsi.rm.cnr.it/~iafolla/h
ome/homegrsp.html) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Galilee.jpg

[2] Original portrait of Galileo
Galilei by Justus Sustermans painted in
1636. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Galileo.arp.300pix.jpg
391 YBN
[1609 AD] 10 		1619) Kepler shows that planets move in
elliptical orbits with the Sun at one
focus of the ellipse5 , and that a line
connecting a planet and the Sun will
sweep over equal areas in equal times6
.7 8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Johannes Kepler". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 26 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/315225/Johannes-Kepler>.
2. ^ Johannes Kepler, "Astronomia
nova",
1609. http://www.e-rara.ch/zut/content/
titleinfo/162514 {Astronomia_nova_seu_p
hysica_coelestis_tradita_commentariis_de
_motibus_stellae_m.pdf}
3. ^ "Johannes Kepler". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 26 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/315225/Johannes-Kepler>.
4. ^ Johannes Kepler, "Astronomia
nova",
1609. http://www.e-rara.ch/zut/content/
titleinfo/162514 {Astronomia_nova_seu_p
hysica_coelestis_tradita_commentariis_de
_motibus_stellae_m.pdf}
5. ^ "Johannes Kepler". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 26 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/315225/Johannes-Kepler>.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp105-108.
7. ^ Johannes Kepler,
"Astronomia nova",
1609. http://www.e-rara.ch/zut/content/
titleinfo/162514 {Astronomia_nova_seu_p
hysica_coelestis_tradita_commentariis_de
_motibus_stellae_m.pdf}
8. ^ "Johannes Kepler." Dictionary of
Astronomy, John Wiley & Sons, Inc..
Wiley-Blackwell, 2004. Answers.com 04
Dec. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/johannes-ke
pler
9. ^ "Johannes Kepler". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Ke
pler
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp105-108. (1609)
(1609)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/Johannes+Kepler?c
at=technology
Weil der Stadt (now part of the
Stuttgart Region in the German state of
Baden-Württemberg, 30 km west of
Stuttgart's center)9  
[1] Johannes Kepler, ''Astronomia
nova'', 1609,
p267. http://www.e-rara.ch/zut/content/
titleinfo/162514 {Astronomia_nova_seu_p
hysica_coelestis_tradita_commentariis_de
_motibus_stellae_m.pdf} PD
AND Description English: Portrait
of Johannes Kepler. Date 8 March 2006
(original upload date) Source
Transferred from en.wikipedia Author
Original uploader was Brandmeister at
en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) PD-US; PD-ART. PD
source: http://www.e-rara.ch/zut/content
/titleinfo/162514http://upload.wikimedia
.org/wikipedia/commons/7/74/JKepler.jpg

[2] Johannes Kepler, ''Astronomia
nova'', 1609,
p267. http://www.e-rara.ch/zut/content/
titleinfo/162514 {Astronomia_nova_seu_p
hysica_coelestis_tradita_commentariis_de
_motibus_stellae_m.pdf} PD
source: http://www.e-rara.ch/zut/content
/titleinfo/162514
390 YBN
[01/??/1610 AD] 6 		1605) The moons of Jupiter are first
seen and their period determined by
Galileo.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Galileo". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5766/Galileo
2. ^ "Galileo". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5766/Galileo
3. ^ "Galileo". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5766/Galileo
4. ^ "Galileo". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5766/Galileo
5. ^ "Galileo". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5766/Galileo
6. ^ "Galileo". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5766/Galileo (01/1610)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/Galileo+Galilei?c
at=technology
(University of Padua) Padua, Venice,
Italy5  
[1] Galileo's Letter to Prince of
Venice PD
source: http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/galileo
/ganymede/manuscript1.jpg

[2] Galileo's illustrations of the
Moon, from his Sidereus Nuncius (1610;
The Sidereal Messenger). Courtesy of
the Joseph Regenstein Library, The
University of Chicago PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-2914/Galileos-illustrations-of-the-Moon
-from-his-Sidereus-Nuncius?articleTypeId
=1
390 YBN
[12/11/1610 AD] 		6485) The phases of planet Venus are
seen by Galileo.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Machamer, P. The Cambridge
Companion to Galileo. Cambridge
University Press, 1998. Cambridge
Companions to Philosophy,
p261. http://books.google.com/books?id=
1wEFPLoqTeAC&pg=PA261
2. ^ "Galileo". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5766/Galileo

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/Galileo+Galilei?c
at=technology
[2] "Galileo". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5766/Galileo (01/1610)
[3] "Galilei, Galileo."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 5. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 237-249. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 3 Dec.
2012. http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?i
d=GALE%7CCX2830901566&v=2.1&u=univca20&i
t=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[4] "Galileo Galilei". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Gal
ilei
Florence, Italy2  
[1] [t Note that this drawing is from
13 years later in 1623.] Galileo
Galilei, Il Saggiatore {The Assayer}
Rome, 1623. Drawing showing the phases
of Venus. PD
source: http://brunelleschi.imss.fi.it/e
splora/cannocchiale/dswmedia/storia/imma
gini/02/15.jpg

[2] Galileo's Letter to Prince of
Venice PD
source: http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/galileo
/ganymede/manuscript1.jpg
390 YBN
[1610 AD] 7 		6488) The earliest Microscope, a
compound light microscope.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ King, H.C. The History of the
Telescope. Dover Publications, 1955.
Dover Books on Astronomy Series,
p30-31. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=KAWwzHlDVksC&pg=PA30
2. ^ King, H.C. The History of the
Telescope. Dover Publications, 1955.
Dover Books on Astronomy Series,
p30-31. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=KAWwzHlDVksC&pg=PA30
3. ^ King, H.C. The History of the
Telescope. Dover Publications, 1955.
Dover Books on Astronomy Series,
p30-31. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=KAWwzHlDVksC&pg=PA30
4. ^ King, H.C. The History of the
Telescope. Dover Publications, 1955.
Dover Books on Astronomy Series,
p30-31. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=KAWwzHlDVksC&pg=PA30
5. ^ Dick, T. The Telescope and
Microscope. Lane & Scott, 1852,
p9-10. http://books.google.com/books?id
=PjoIAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA9
6. ^ "Hans Lippershey". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8449/Hans-Lippershey
7. ^ King, H.C. The History of the
Telescope. Dover Publications, 1955.
Dover Books on Astronomy Series,
p30-31. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=KAWwzHlDVksC&pg=PA30

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/Hans+Lippershey?c
at=technology
[2] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p105. (1608) (1608)
[3]
"microscope". Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 04 Dec.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/380582/microscope>
Middleburgh, Zeeland (Holland5 )
(modern: Netherlands)6  
[1] The microscope was first built in
1595 by Hans and Zacharias Jansen
(1588-1631) in Holland (see figure).
source: http://www.cerebromente.org.br/n
17/history/jansen-micro.JPG

[2] Description Portrait of Zacharias
Jansen Date 1655 Source Pierre
Borel, De vero telescopii
inventore Author Pierre Borel
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3b/Zacharias.jpg
389 YBN
[06/13/1611 AD] 10 11 		1617) That the Sun has spots and
rotates around its own axis is shown.5
6 7 8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Fabricius, J. De Maculis in Sole
Observatis Narratio.
1611. http://books.google.com/books?id=
aGFRAAAAcAAJ
2. ^ "Johannes Fabricius".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 26 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/199808/Johannes-Fabricius>.
3. ^ Fabricius, J. De Maculis in Sole
Observatis Narratio.
1611. http://books.google.com/books?id=
aGFRAAAAcAAJ
4. ^ Walter M. Mitchell, "The history
of the discovery of the solar spots",
Popular Astronomy, V24,
1916. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/191
6PA.....24...22M {Mitchell_History_of_t
he_Discovery_of_Sun-spots_1916.pdf}
5. ^ Fabricius, J. De Maculis in Sole
Observatis Narratio.
1611. http://books.google.com/books?id=
aGFRAAAAcAAJ
6. ^ "Johannes Fabricius".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 26 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/199808/Johannes-Fabricius>.
7. ^ Fabricius, J. De Maculis in Sole
Observatis Narratio.
1611. http://books.google.com/books?id=
aGFRAAAAcAAJ
8. ^ Walter M. Mitchell, "The history
of the discovery of the solar spots",
Popular Astronomy, V24,
1916. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/191
6PA.....24...22M {Mitchell_History_of_t
he_Discovery_of_Sun-spots_1916.pdf}
9. ^ Galilei, G. et al. On Sunspots.
University of Chicago Press, 2010,
p30. http://books.google.com/books?id=v
dDhfPxIcLQC&pg=PA31
10. ^ Vaquero, J.M. The Sun Recorded
Through History. Springer-Verlag New
York, 2009. Astrophysics and Space
Science Library,
p111. http://books.google.com/books?id=
iWkyiEeiyksC&pg=PA111
11. ^ Galilei, G. et al. On Sunspots.
University of Chicago Press, 2010,
p31. http://books.google.com/books?id=v
dDhfPxIcLQC&pg=PA31

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982)
[2]
http://galileo.rice.edu/sci/fabricius.ht
ml
[3] "David Fabricius". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Fabri
cius (06/??/1611)
Osteel, East Frisia9 (now northwest
Germany and northeast
Netherlands) 
[1] Fabricius, J. De Maculis in Sole
Observatis Narratio.
1611. http://books.google.com/books?id=
aGFRAAAAcAAJ PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=aGFRAAAAcAAJ

[2] Johannes Fabricius PD
source: http://www.daviddarling.info/enc
yclopedia/F/Fabricius.html
388 YBN
[1612 AD] 3 		3680) The theory of storage of light;
that light can be absorbed in materials
and re-emitted later.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ E. Newton Harvey, "History of
Luminescence From the Earliest Times
Until 1900", American Philosophical
Society, 1957, p94-95.
2. ^ E. Newton Harvey,
"History of Luminescence From the
Earliest Times Until 1900", American
Philosophical Society, 1957, p306-307.
3. ^ E.
Newton Harvey, "History of Luminescence
From the Earliest Times Until 1900",
American Philosophical Society, 1957,
p306-307. {1612}

MORE INFO
[1] "Barium sulfide". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barium_sulf
ide
[2] "Phosphorus". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phosphorus
[3] "luminescence." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 12 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/luminescenc
e
[4] "phosphor." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 12 Dec.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/phosphor
[5] "luminescence." Science of Everyday
Things. The Gale Group, Inc, 2002.
Answers.com 13 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/luminescenc
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[6] Raymond Kane, Raymond Kane and
Heinz Sell, "Revolution in Lamps: A
Chronicle of 50 Years of Progress", The
Fairmont Press, Inc., 2001,
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D5WA5O73ht6WpAg0rZajYv4I
[7] "Phosphorescence". Encyclopedia
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[8] "luminescence." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
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<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-6894
2>
(Collegio Romano) Rome, Italy2  
[1] Ted Huntington PD
source: Ted Huntington
386 YBN
[1614 AD] 6 		1584) Exponential notation and
logarithms.3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "John Napier". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
4813/John-Napier , -97.
2. ^ Napier, J.,
and H. Briggs. Mirifici Logarithmorum
Canonis Constructio: Et Eorum Ad
Naturales Ipsorum Numeros Habitudines;
Una Cum Appendice ... Una Cum
Annotationibus ... A. Hermann,
1620. http://books.google.com/books?id=
VukHAQAAIAAJ
3. ^ "John Napier". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
4813/John-Napier , -97.
4. ^ Napier, J.,
and H. Briggs. Mirifici Logarithmorum
Canonis Constructio: Et Eorum Ad
Naturales Ipsorum Numeros Habitudines;
Una Cum Appendice ... Una Cum
Annotationibus ... A. Hermann,
1620. http://books.google.com/books?id=
VukHAQAAIAAJ
5. ^ "John Napier". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
4813/John-Napier (1614)
6. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).

MORE INFO
[1] "John Napier". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Napier

[2] "Simon Stevinus". Wikipedia.
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nus (1614)
Scotland5 (presumably) 
[1] Napier, J., and H. Briggs. Mirifici
Logarithmorum Canonis Constructio: Et
Eorum Ad Naturales Ipsorum Numeros
Habitudines; Una Cum Appendice ... Una
Cum Annotationibus ... A. Hermann,
1620. http://books.google.com/books?id=
VukHAQAAIAAJ PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=VukHAQAAIAAJ

[2] Painting of John Napier PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:John_Napier_%28Painting%29.jpeg
384 YBN
[1616 AD] 3 4 		1644) Harvey describes the circulatory
system, that blood can only move in one
direction and that blood moves in a
circle from the heart to the arteries,
from the arteries to the veins, and
through the veins back to the heart.1
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp110-112.
2. ^ "William
Harvey". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/William+Harvey?ca
t=health
3. ^ "William Harvey". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/William+Harvey?ca
t=health (1616)
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp110-112. (1616)
(1616)

MORE INFO
[1] "William Harvey". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Har
vey
London, England2  
[1] William Harvey Library of
Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/William+H
arvey?cat=health

[2] William Harvey Source University
of Texas Libraries, The University of
Texas at Austin PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:William_Harvey.jpg
384 YBN
[1616 AD] 4 5 		1831) The earliest known reflecting
telescope.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Niccolo Zucchi". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8475/Niccolo-Zucchi
2. ^ "Niccolo Zucchi". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8475/Niccolo-Zucchi
3. ^
http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/optics/timel
ine/people/zucchi.html
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (1616) (1616)
5. ^
http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/optics/timel
ine/people/zucchi.html (1616)
Rome, Italy3  
[1] Description English: Niccolò
Zucchi (December 6, 1586 – May 21,
1670) an Italian Jesuit, astronomer,
and physicist. He may have been the
first to see the belts on the planet
Jupiter (on May 17, 1630) and reported
spots on Mars in 1640. In his book
''Optica philosophia experimentalis et
ratione a fundamentis constituta'' in
1652–56 he described his attempt in
1616 to construct a reflecting
telescope, which may be the first time
anyone ever tried to construct
one. Date Source Lithuanian
Science Council of Lithuania on Science
''Science Lithuania - Lithuanian
scientists newspaper. - Andrius
Rudamina: tarp legendos ir
tikrovės Author Unknown PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/76/Niccol%C3%B2_Zucchi.p
ng

[2] 03-08-04/42 BAROQUE TELESCOPE
18TH Newton's first reflecting
telescope. 18th century. The Royal
Society, London, Great Britain UNKNOWN

source: http://www.lessing-photo.com/p3/
030804/03080442.jpg
383 YBN
[01/15/1617 AD] 5 6 		6491) The first double (or binary) star
system is observed.1 2 3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Le Opere di Galileo Galilei.
Edizione Nazionale Sotto Gli Auspicii
Di Sua Maest� Il Re D'Italia, Edited
by Antonio Favaro, 20 vols., G.
Barb�ra, Florence, 1890�1909 Vol.
III, Part II (1892), p. 877. Mss. Gal.
P.IV, T.VI, car 10r, BNCF.
http://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/t
ext-idx?cc=genpub;view=toc;idno=AGH6462.
0003.002
2. ^
http://www.leosondra.cz/en/mizar/ricciol
i/
3. ^ Fedele, U. "Le Prime Osservazioni
Di Stelle Doppie." (1949): n. pag.
Print. http://www.leosondra.cz/en/mizar
/fedele/
4. ^ Davies, J.K., and L.H. Barrera.
The First Decadal Review of the
Edgeworth-Kuiper Belt. Springer, 2004.
Earth, Moon, and Planets,
p395. http://books.google.com/books?id=
WuDdVbJf_d8C&pg=PA395
5. ^ Le Opere di Galileo Galilei.
Edizione Nazionale Sotto Gli Auspicii
Di Sua Maest� Il Re D'Italia, Edited
by Antonio Favaro, 20 vols., G.
Barb�ra, Florence, 1890�1909 Vol.
XII (1902), p. 296 (Letter 1236). Mss.
Gal. P.VI, T.X, car. 16, BNCF.
http://books.google.com/books?id=70ESA
QAAMAAJ&pg=PA296
6. ^ http://www.leosondra.cz/en/mizar

MORE INFO
[1] "Giovanni Battista Riccioli".
The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy.
Oxford University Press, 1994, 1996,
2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Giovanni+Battista
+Riccioli+?cat=technology
[2] Riccioli, G.B. Almagestum Novum
Astronomiam Veterem Novamque
Complectens Observationibus Aliorum, Et
Propiis Novisque Theorematibus,
Problematibus, Ac Tabulispromotam, in
Tres Tomos Distributam Quorum
Argumentum Sequens Pagina Explicabit.
Ex typographia Haeredis Victorii
Benatii, 1651. Almagestum Novum
Astronomiam Veterem Novamque
Complectens Observationibus Aliorum, Et
Propiis Novisque Theorematibus,
Problematibus, Ac Tabulispromotam, in
Tres Tomos Distributam Quorum
Argumentum Sequens Pagina Explicabit,
p422. http://books.google.com/books?id=
_mJDAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA422
[3] "Mizar". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
3081/Mizar (1650)
(University of Florence) Florence,
Italy 
[1] [t Note that this is apparently
public domain because of the age.]
''The middle star of the Tail of Elix
[Great Bear] falls, by [ecliptical]
longitude, on the 9th degree of Virgo,
and its latitude is 56. Earth is now in
Cancer 25, out of which position the
star is 44 degrees distant. Between the
middle star of the Tail of Elix and the
star closest to it [Mizar B], I now put
0.0.15''. The semidiameter [radius] of
the large star, 0.0.3''; of the
smaller, 2''; the interval, 10''. The
semidiameter of the great orb [Earth's
orbit] contains 226 solar
semidiameters. The solar semidiameter
contains 300 semidiameters of the large
star. So the distance of the star
contains 300 solar distances, if the
star is posited to be as big as the
Sun, that is, 67800 solar
semidiameters.'' The amazingly
detailed record of the observation of
Mizar in Galileo's handwriting and its
translation by Thomas Winter
(University of Nebraska). No date is
given, but there are good reasons to
believe it was made on January 15,
1617. Ms. Gal. 70 c. 10r, Biblioteca
Nazionale Centrale Firenze. Reproduced
with authorization from the Ministry of
Cultural Activities. Any further
reproduction or publication of this
image is forbidden. PD
source: http://www.leosondra.cz/obrazky/
mizar/msgal.jpg

[2] Le Opere di Galileo Galilei.
Edizione Nazionale Sotto Gli Auspicii
Di Sua Maestà Il Re D'Italia, Edited
by Antonio Favaro, 20 vols., G.
Barbèra, Florence, 1890–1909 Vol.
III, Part II (1892), p. 877. Mss. Gal.
P.IV, T.VI, car 10r, BNCF.
http://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/t
ext-idx?cc=genpub;view=toc;idno=AGH6462.
0003.002 PD
source: http://quod.lib.umich.edu/g/genp
ub/agh6462.0003.002/481?page=root;rgn=fu
ll+text;size=100;view=image
379 YBN
[1621 AD] 4 		1651) The law of refraction, which
describes how a light ray bends when
passing between two mediums of
different density.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "light". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2013. Web. 15 Jan.
2013 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/340440/light/258393/Reflection-a
nd-refraction>.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p113.
3. ^ "Willebrord
Snell". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willebrord_
Snell
4. ^ "Willebrord Snell". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willebrord_
Snell (1621)
Leiden, Netherlands3
(presumably) 
[1] adapted from Description
Illustration of Snell's law Date
00:46, 25 December 2007 (UTC) Source
Rotated and tweaked version of
en:Image:Snells law.svg, same
license Author Oleg Alexandrov — I
just tweaked the original Other
versions Derivative works of this
file: Snells law el.svg
Snells law2-cs.svgImage:Snells
law.svg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Snells_law2.svg
/1000px-Snells_law2.svg.png

[2] Willibrord
Snellius http://images.google.com/imgre
s?imgurl=http://tau.fesg.tu-muenchen.de/
~iapg/web/fame/images/geo/snellius.jpg&i
mgrefurl=http://tau.fesg.tu-muenchen.de/
~iapg/web/fame/seiten/snellius.php&h=584
&w=407&sz=81&hl=en&sig2=5XbrrVTx-PVInTZc
fU_5ng&start=1&tbnid=QsmS80Z3DsqbhM:&tbn
h=135&tbnw=94&ei=psvoRKCJLLP2wQGCnPDfDg&
prev=/images%3Fq%3D%2522Snellius%2522%26
svnum%3D100%26hl%3Den%26lr%3D%26safe%3Do
ff%26client%3Dfirefox-a%26rls%3Dorg.mozi
lla:en-US:official%26sa%3DN http://tau.
fesg.tu-muenchen.de/~iapg/web/fame/image
s/geo/snellius.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Willebrord_Snellius.jpg
376 YBN
[1624 AD] 4 		6241) The submarine.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "submarine." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/570813/submarine>.
2. ^ "submarine." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/570813/submarine>.
3. ^ "submarine." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/570813/submarine>.
4. ^ "submarine." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/570813/submarine>. {1624}
Thames River, England3  
[1] Description Drebbel's first
submarine Date 17th
century Source
http://www.rnsubmus.co.uk/images/ph
otodp/sm001%20-%20Van%20Drebbel.jpg Aut
hor Unknown Permission (Reusing
this file) See
below. Lithographie aus dem Jahre
1626 von G. W. Tweedale. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/fe/Van_Drebbel.jpg

[2] Description English: Cornelis
Drebbel Alcmariensis.Son of Jacob Jansz
Dremmel en Hilgont Jans. Born in 1572,
died in Londen in 1631. Nederlands:
Cornelis Drebbel Alcmariensis. Zoon van
Jacob Jansz Dremmel en Hilgont Jans.
Geboren in 1572, overleden in Londen in
1631. Date 1631 Source
http://www.archiefalkmaar.nl/ Auth
or Sichem, C. van PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a0/Drebbel_Van_Sichem_ca
_1631_groot.jpg
374 YBN
[1626 AD] 5 6 7 		1693) The sealed thermometer (measures
temperature independently of air
pressure).1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p124.
2. ^ Taylor, F.
Sherwood. “The Origin of the
Thermometer.” Annals of Science 5.2
(1942): 129–156. Web. 17 Feb. 2013,
p151. http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/ab
s/10.1080/00033794200201401#preview {Ta
ylor_Thermometer_20060602.pdf}
3. ^ "Low Countries". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2013. Web. 17 Feb.
2013 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/349663/Low-Countries>.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p124.
5. ^ Taylor, F.
Sherwood. “The Origin of the
Thermometer.” Annals of Science 5.2
(1942): 129–156. Web. 17 Feb. 2013,
p151. http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/ab
s/10.1080/00033794200201401#preview {Ta
ylor_Thermometer_20060602.pdf}
6. ^ Leurechon, J. Récréation
Mathématique: Composée De Plusieurs
Problèmes Plaisants Et Facétieux :
En Feict d’Arithméticque,
Géométrie, Méchanicque, Opticque, Et
Autres Parties De Ces Belles Sciences.
Hanzelet, 1626, facing
p90. http://books.google.com/books?id=Q
sY5AAAAcAAJ&pg=PA68
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p124. (1654) (1654)

MORE INFO
[1] "Ferdinando II de' Medici,
Grand Duke of Tuscany". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinando_
II_de%27_Medici%2C_Grand_Duke_of_Tuscany

(The Low Countries) Belgium, the
Netherlands, and Luxembourg2 3 |was:
Tuscany, Italy4 (presumably) 
[1] Leurechon, J. Récréation
Mathématique: Composée De Plusieurs
Problèmes Plaisants Et Facétieux :
En Feict d’Arithméticque,
Géométrie, Méchanicque, Opticque, Et
Autres Parties De Ces Belles Sciences.
Hanzelet, 1626, facing
p90. http://books.google.com/books?id=Q
sY5AAAAcAAJ&pg=PA68 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=QsY5AAAAcAAJ&pg=PA68

[2] Double Portrait of the Grand Duke
Ferdinand II of Tuscany and his Wife
Vittoria della Rovere probably
1660s SUSTERMANS, Justus 1597 -
1681 NG89. Bought with the J.J.
Angerstein collection, 1824. Ferdinand
II de' Medici (1610 - 1670), who wears
a commander's sash and the military
order of San Stefano, and carries a
commander's baton, succeeded his father
as Grand Duke of Tuscany in 1621,
assuming power in 1627. In 1634 he
married Vittoria della Rovere (1621 -
1694). The poses of the two figures
correspond with two single portraits of
them by Sustermans (Florence, Uffizi).
It is possible that earlier drawings
were used forthis double portrait and
that it was not painted directly from
life. Oil on canvas 161 x 147
cm. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nationalgallery.org.u
k/cgi-bin/WebObjects.dll/CollectionPubli
sher.woa/wa/work?workNumber=NG89
370 YBN
[1630 AD] 3 		1642) That the Sun completes one
rotation every 25 days is recognized.1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Walter M. Mitchell, "The history
of the discovery of the solar spots",
Popular Astronomy, V24, 1916,
p488-490. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs
/1916PA.....24...22M {Mitchell_History_
of_the_Discovery_of_Sun-spots_1916.pdf}
2. ^ Walter M. Mitchell, "The history
of the discovery of the solar spots",
Popular Astronomy, V24, 1916,
p85,209. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/
1916PA.....24...22M {Mitchell_History_o
f_the_Discovery_of_Sun-spots_1916.pdf}
3. ^ Walter M. Mitchell, "The history
of the discovery of the solar spots",
Popular Astronomy, V24, 1916,
p488-490. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs
/1916PA.....24...22M {Mitchell_History_
of_the_Discovery_of_Sun-spots_1916.pdf}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/Christoph%20Schei
ner%20
[2] "Pantograph". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pantograph
[3]
http://journal.utarts.com/articles.php?i
d=3&type=paper
[4] http://www.christoph-scheiner.com/
[5] "Christoph Scheiner".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christoph_S
cheiner (01/12/1612)
[6] Galilei, G. et al. On
Sunspots. University of Chicago Press,
2010,
p46. http://books.google.com/books?id=v
dDhfPxIcLQC&pg=PA46
Rome, Italy2  
[1] Sunspot plate from Scheiner's
``Tres Epistolae'' (650 x 505;
250K) http://www.math.yorku.ca/SCS/Gall
ery/milestone/sec3.html PD/Corel
source: http://cnx.rice.edu/content/m119
70/latest/tres_epistolae.gif

[2] Sunspot plate from Scheiner's
``Tres Epistolae'' (650 x 505;
250K) http://www.math.yorku.ca/SCS/Gall
ery/milestone/sec3.html PD/Corel
source: http://cnx.rice.edu/content/m119
70/latest/tres_epistolae.gif
369 YBN
[11/07/1631 AD] 5 6 7 		1663) The transit of Mercury across the
Sun is observed.1 2 3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p115.
2. ^ Nadler, S. A
Companion to Early Modern Philosophy.
Wiley, 2008. Blackwell Companions to
Philosophy,
p81. http://books.google.com/books?id=K
ENbzY8uDGkC&pg=PA81
3. ^ Gassendi, "Mercurius in sole visus
et Venus invisa Parislis anno 1611",
1632 in Gassendi, 1658, vol3,
p441. ("Mercury Seen in the Sun, and
Venus Unseen at paris in the Year
1631") http://books.google.com/books?id
=VA1TAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA441
4. ^ "Pierre Gassendi". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Gass
endi
5. ^ Hockey, T. et al. Biographical
Encyclopedia of Astronomers. Springer,
2007. Springer Reference, p409.
6. ^
Gassendi, "Mercurius in sole visus et
Venus invisa Parislis anno 1611", 1632
in Gassendi, 1658, vol3,
p441. ("Mercury Seen in the Sun, and
Venus Unseen at paris in the Year
1631") http://books.google.com/books?id
=VA1TAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA441
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p115. (1631) (1631)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/Pierre+Gassendi?c
at=technology
Paris, France4 (presumably) 
[1] Gassendi, ''Mercurius in sole visus
et Venus invisa Parislis anno 1611'',
1632 in Gassendi, 1658, vol3,
p441. (''Mercury Seen in the Sun, and
Venus Unseen at paris in the Year
1631'') http://books.google.com/books?i
d=VA1TAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA441 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=VA1TAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA441

[2] Gassendi, ''Mercurius in sole
visus et Venus invisa Parislis anno
1611'', 1632 in Gassendi, 1658, vol3,
p441. (''Mercury Seen in the Sun, and
Venus Unseen at paris in the Year
1631'') http://books.google.com/books?i
d=VA1TAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA441 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=VA1TAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA441
369 YBN
[1631 AD] 5 		1664) The speed of sound is measured.3

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p115.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p115.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p115.
4. ^ "Pierre
Gassendi". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Gass
endi
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p115. (1631) (1631)

MORE INFO
[1] "Pierre Gassendi".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
6159/Pierre-Gassendi
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Pierre+Gassendi?c
at=technology
Paris, France4 (presumably) 
[1] Pierre Gassendi
(1592-1655). Peinture de Louis
Édouard Rioult. (Base Joconde du
Ministère de la Culture) PD
source: http://www.voltaire-integral.com
/Html/14/04CATALO_1_2.html

[2] Scientist: Gassendi, Pierre
(1592 - 1655) Discipline(s): Physics
; Astronomy Print Artist: Jacques
Lubin, 1637-1695 Medium: Engraving
Original Dimensions: Graphic: 17.6 x
14.1 cm / Sheet: 27.9 x 21.7 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/by_n
ame_display_results.cfm?scientist=Gassen
di
367 YBN
[06/22/1633 AD] 3 4 		1611) Galileo is condemned to life
imprisonment by the Inquisition.1
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^ "Galileo". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5766/Galileo
2. ^ "Galileo". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5766/Galileo
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (06/22/1633)
(06/22/1633)
4. ^ "Galileo". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5766/Galileo (06/22/1633)

MORE INFO
[1] "Galileo Galilei". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Gal
ilei
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Galileo+Galilei?c
at=technology
Rome, Italy2  
[1] Galileo before the Holy Office, a
19th century painting by Joseph-Nicolas
Robert-Fleury. Source:
http://library.thinkquest.org/C005358/im
ages/galilei_image01.jpeg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Galileo_before_the_Holy_Office.jpg

[2] Galileo's Letter to Prince of
Venice PD
source: http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/galileo
/ganymede/manuscript1.jpg
365 YBN
[1635 AD] 3 		1657) The "Académie Parisienne" (the
precursor to the French Academy of
Sciences).1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Marin Mersenne". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
2176/Marin-Mersenne
2. ^ "Marin Mersenne". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
2176/Marin-Mersenne
3. ^ "Marin Mersenne". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
2176/Marin-Mersenne (1635)

MORE INFO
[1] "Marin Mersenne". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marin_Merse
nne
Paris, France2 (presumably) 
[1] Marin Mersenne PD
source: http://www.nndb.com/people/576/0
00107255/

[2] Mersenne, Marin (1588-1648) PD
source: http://www.cartage.org.lb/en/the
mes/biographies/MainBiographies/M/Mersen
ne/1.html
365 YBN
[1635 AD] 5 		1660) Frequencies of sounds are
measured.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~hist
ory/Biographies/Mersenne.html
2. ^
http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~hist
ory/Biographies/Mersenne.html
3. ^
http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~hist
ory/Biographies/Mersenne.html
4. ^ "Marin Mersenne". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
2176/Marin-Mersenne
5. ^ Marin Marsenne, tr: R. E. Chapman,
"Harmonie Universelle", 1635, 1957.

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/Marin%20Mersenne
[2] "Marin Mersenne". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
2176/Marin-Mersenne (1637)
Paris, France4 (presumably) 
[1] Table of string
vibrations from: Marin Marsenne, tr:
R. E. Chapman, ''Harmonie
Universelle'', 1635, 1957,
p194. UNKNOWN
source: Marin Marsenne, tr: R. E.
Chapman, "Harmonie Universelle", 1635,
1957, p194.

[2] Ted Huntington adapted
from: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikip
edia/en/math/6/c/8/6c88fce3e57d1eac8408b
abe264e1795.png GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/math/6/c/8/6c88fce3e57d1eac8408
babe264e1795.png
364 YBN
[1636 AD] 2 		1219) Harvard College is founded.1
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ "Colonial colleges". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colonial_co
lleges
2. ^ "Colonial colleges". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colonial_co
lleges

MORE INFO
[1] "Harvard University".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_Uni
versity
Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA 
[1] Lt Gov William Stoughton
(1631-1701) overlooking one of the
buildings of Harvard College, quite
probably Stoughton Hall for which he
was its main benefactor. The painting
dates to circa 1700. This picture,
which was taken from: Albert Bushnell
Hart, Commonwealth History of
Massachusetts (1927, vol. 1) opposite
p. 562; was originally taken from an
original portrait presumably still in
the possession of Harvard
University. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:HarvardStaughton.jpg
363 YBN
[1637 AD] 6 		1668) The cartesian coordinate system.3
4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Discourse on the Method
("Discours de la Methode"). An
introduction to Dioptrique, Des
Météores and La Géométrie. Original
in French, because intended for a wider
public., 1637 English: tr: John
Veitch, "Discourse on the Method of
Rightly Conducting the Reason, and
Seeking Truth in the Sciences",
1899 and "La
géométrie" http://books.google.com/bo
oks?id=aHBtAAAAMAAJ http://books.google
.com/books?id=DSjXAAAAMAAJ 2nd
edition:
http://books.google.com/books?id=lGFxGEE
K52oC
2. ^ "René Descartes." A Dictionary of
Statistics. Oxford University Press,
2008. Answers.com 27 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ren-descart
es
3. ^ Discourse on the Method ("Discours
de la Methode"). An introduction to
Dioptrique, Des Météores and La
Géométrie. Original in French,
because intended for a wider public.,
1637 English: tr: John Veitch,
"Discourse on the Method of Rightly
Conducting the Reason, and Seeking
Truth in the Sciences", 1899 and "La
géométrie" http://books.google.com/bo
oks?id=aHBtAAAAMAAJ http://books.google
.com/books?id=DSjXAAAAMAAJ
4. ^ "René Descartes." A Dictionary of
Statistics. Oxford University Press,
2008. Answers.com 27 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ren-descart
es
5. ^ "Descartes". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Descartes
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp115-118. (1637)
(1637)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/topic/ren-descart
es?cat=technology
Netherlands (presumably)5  
[1] De Beaune, F. et al. Geometria a
Renato Descartes: Anno 1637 Gallicè
Edita Postea Autem Una Cum Notis
Florimondi De Beaune ... apud Ludovicum
& Danielem Elzevirios, 1659.
Diapositivas (Biblioteca Histórica
UCM).2nd
edition http://books.google.com/books?i
d=lGFxGEEK52oC PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=lGFxGEEK52oC

[2] De Beaune, F. et al. Geometria a
Renato Descartes: Anno 1637 Gallicè
Edita Postea Autem Una Cum Notis
Florimondi De Beaune ... apud Ludovicum
& Danielem Elzevirios, 1659.
Diapositivas (Biblioteca Histórica
UCM).2nd
edition http://books.google.com/books?i
d=lGFxGEEK52oC PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=lGFxGEEK52oC
361 YBN
[11/24/1639 AD] 6 		1708) The transit of Venus is
observed.3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p128.
2. ^ "Jeremiah
Horrocks". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
1099/Jeremiah-Horrocks
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p128.
4. ^ "Jeremiah
Horrocks". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
1099/Jeremiah-Horrocks
5. ^ "Jeremiah Horrocks". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
1099/Jeremiah-Horrocks
6. ^ "Jeremiah Horrocks". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
1099/Jeremiah-Horrocks (11/24/1639 (Old
Style (Julian?)

MORE INFO
[1] "Jeremiah Horrocks".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeremiah_Ho
rrocks
Hoole, Lancashire, England5
(presumably) 
[1] This illustration, recreated from
Horrocks's notes by the prominent
Polish astronomer Hevelius, shows three
positions of the planet Venus as it
crosses the face of the Sun. Notice the
two black and one white dot (the
progression of Venus) in the lower left
portion of the central circle (the
Sun). PD
source: http://www.adlerplanetarium.org/
research/collections/transit-of-venus/jh
evelius1662b.jpg

[2] Jeremiah Horrocks observand
tranzitul lui Venus PD
source: http://aira.astro.ro/2004/Venus2
/Importanta_fisa%20scurta.htm
360 YBN
[1640 AD] 3 4 		1697) The micrometer (a device for
precision measurement).1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Bolt, M. et al. Biographical
Encyclopedia of Astronomers. Springer,
2007. Springer
Reference. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=t-BF1CHkc50C&pg=PA407
2. ^ Bolt, M. et al. Biographical
Encyclopedia of Astronomers. Springer,
2007. Springer
Reference. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=t-BF1CHkc50C&pg=PA407
3. ^ Bolt, M. et al. Biographical
Encyclopedia of Astronomers. Springer,
2007. Springer
Reference. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=t-BF1CHkc50C&pg=PA407
4. ^
http://www.worldwideschool.org/library/b
ooks/sci/history/AHistoryofScienceVolume
II/chap43.html (1636)
Middleton (West Yorkshire), England2
 
[1] ''Gascoigne''s micrometer'' - via
Richard Towneley - as drawn by Robert
Hooke for the Royal Society,1667. PD
source: http://www.narrowbandimaging.com
/Northern%20Astronomical%20Review.htm

[2] [t Modern micrometer] Outside
micrometer, inside micrometer, and
depth micrometer. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Micrometers.jpg
359 YBN
[1641 AD] 6 7 8 9 		6244) The repeating gun, a gun in which
ammunition is fed from a magazine.3 4
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^ "repeating rifle." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 24 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/498312/repeating-rifle>.
2. ^
http://www.earmi.it/A-Enciclopedia/ripet
izione.html
3. ^ "repeating rifle." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 24 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/498312/repeating-rifle>.
4. ^
http://www.earmi.it/A-Enciclopedia/ripet
izione.html
5. ^ "The new weapons of the world
encyclopedia : an international
encyclopedia from 5000 B.C. to the 21st
century",
2007. http://books.google.com/books?id=
3Il9ubyJCisC&pg=PA353&
6. ^ "The new weapons of the world
encyclopedia : an international
encyclopedia from 5000 B.C. to the 21st
century",
2007. http://books.google.com/books?id=
3Il9ubyJCisC&pg=PA353& {1641}
7. ^
http://www.earmi.it/A-Enciclopedia/ripet
izione.html {1641}
8. ^ "repeating rifle."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online Academic Edition.
Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2011.
Web. 24 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/498312/repeating-rifle>. {early
1600s}
9. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100 Inventions
That Shaped World History", 1993, p49.
{1836}

MORE INFO
[1] Jeff Kinard, "Pistols: an
illustrated history of their impact",
2004, p37-38.
http://books.google.com/books?id=ZVnuHX_
6bG0C&pg=PA37
Netherlands5  
[1] Kalthoff 1641 translated with
Google from:
http://www.earmi.it/A-Enciclopedia/ripet
izione.html The first attempt at a
mechanical repetition of the shot goes
back to the German Peter Kalthoff,
which operates in Denmark, who in 1641
invented and built in 1646. It was a
rifle with a wheel in the dust
reservoir a reservoir for calcium and
balls under the barrel, breech block
has three rooms that can move
sideways. PD
source: http://www.earmi.it/A-Encicloped
ia/img/Kalthoff.png

[2] translated with Google from:
http://www.earmi.it/A-Enciclopedia/ripet
izione.html In Italy as early as
1572 the Milan Marcantonio Valgrana
proposes a rifle capable of firing 4
shots below, but of questionable
functionality. This was followed in 600
different mechanical repeating rifles,
probably inspired by Kalthoff, but with
original solutions. It certainly
reminds weapon Berselli James (1660)
and other Fresh Water Sebastiano
(1619-1692) and the Florentine Michele
Lorenzoni (died 1735). These have gone
down in history as ''system Lorenzoni''
and are innovative compared to
Kalthoff. Tanks for powder and ball
(well 25) both are in football, behind
a circular rotor driven by an external
lever, the gun with the barrel is
turned down so that powder and ball
fall under gravity, the first movement
of lever drops a ball in the barrel
where it is retained by a ring of
forcing, the second movement takes a
dose of dust. There followed many
other weapons, but none went beyond the
experimental models. The technology of
the time did not allow the creation of
mechanisms are too delicate and until
the invention of the metal cartridge
case was difficult to keep the power is
communicated by a charge al'altra. The
first weapon is the repetition really
functioning Paterson Colt revolver of
1936 followed by rifle-revolver .44
Rifle Dragon namely the
Whitneyville-Hartford Dragon Colt
Revolver of 1847. To solve the problem
remained that the number of hits
greater than 6-8. The first weapon
taken from a manual repeater army
Spencer (March 1860) that has a
reservoir of calcium and seven
cartridges in a loading lever with
shutter lock shooting. The cartridge
was rimfire cartridge case with copper,
was calculated. 13.3 mm which
represented an improvement over the
previous much larger calibers.
Contemporary Henry and the system
immediately after the Winchester. PD
source: http://www.earmi.it/A-Encicloped
ia/img/lorenzoni.png
358 YBN
[1642 AD] 3 		1719) A mechanical calculating machine
that can add and subtract.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp130-132.
2. ^ "Blaise Pascal".
The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy.
Oxford University Press, 1994, 1996,
2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Blaise+Pascal?cat
=technology
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp130-132. (1642)
(1642)

MORE INFO
[1] "Blaise Pascal". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
8317/Blaise-Pascal
[2] "Blaise Pascal". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blaise_Pasc
al
Rouen, France2 (presumably) 
[1] A Pascaline, an early
calculator. (Machine à calculer de
Blaise Pascal sans sous ni deniers,
signed by Pascal 1652) English: This
item is on display at the Musée des
Arts et Métiers, Paris Inv 823-1 GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Arts_et_Metiers_Pascaline_dsc03869.jp
g

[2] Scientist: Pascal, Blaise (1623
- 1662) Discipline(s): Mathematics ;
Physics Print Artist: T. Dale
Medium: Engraving Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 14.4 x 8.1 cm /
Sheet: 27.8 x 21.3 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/cf/by_n
ame_display_results.cfm?scientist=Pascal

357 YBN
[1643 AD] 6 		1692) The earliest vacuum and the
barometer (which measures the pressure
of the air).4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Evangelista Torricelli".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
2977/Evangelista-Torricelli
2. ^ "Evangelista Torricelli".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
2977/Evangelista-Torricelli
3. ^ "Evangelista Torricelli".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
2977/Evangelista-Torricelli
4. ^ "Evangelista Torricelli".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
2977/Evangelista-Torricelli
5. ^ "Evangelista Torricelli".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
2977/Evangelista-Torricelli
6. ^ "Evangelista Torricelli".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
2977/Evangelista-Torricelli (1643)

MORE INFO
[1] "Evangelista Torricelli".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evangelista
_Torricelli
[2] "atmospheric pressure." The
American Heritage� Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 05 Dec. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/atmospheric
-pressure
Florence, Italy5  
[1] Frontispiece to ''Lezioni
accademiche d'Evangelista
Torricelli....'', published in 1715.
Library Call Number Q155 .T69
1715. Image ID: libr0367, Treasures of
the NOAA Library Collection
Photographer: Archival Photograph by
Mr. Steve Nicklas, NOS, NGS Secondary
source: NOAA Central Library National
Oceanic & Atmospheric Adminstration
(NOAA), USA
http://www.photolib.noaa.gov/library/lib
r0367.htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Libr0367.jpg

[2] Frontispiece and title page to
''Lezioni accademiche d'Evangelista
Torricelli ....'', published in 1715.
Library Call Number Q155 .T69
1715. Image ID: libr0366, Treasures of
the NOAA Library Collection
Photographer: Archival Photograph by
Mr. Steve Nicklas, NOS, NGS Secondary
source: NOAA Central Library National
Oceanic & Atmospheric Adminstration
(NOAA),
USA http://www.photolib.noaa.gov/librar
y/libr0366.htm PD
source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wik
i/Image:Libr0366.jpg
356 YBN
[11/22/1644 AD] 6 7 8 		1694) The phases of Mercury are
observed.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp124-125.
2. ^ Hevelius, J.
Johannis Hevelii Selenographia: Sive,
Lunae Descriptio; Atque Accurata, Tam
Macularum Ejus, Quam Motuum Diversorum,
Aliarumque Omnium Vicissitudinum,
Phasiumque, Telescopii Ope
Deprehensarum, Delineatio. In Qu�
Simul Caeterorum Omnium Planetarum
Nativa Facies, Variaeque Observationes,
Praesertim Autem Macularum Solarium ...
Addita Est, Lentes Expoliendi Nova
Ratio; Ut Et Telescopia Diversa
Construendi ... autoris sumtibus, typis
H�nefeldianis,
1647. http://books.google.com/books?id=
i1lDAAAAcAAJ
3. ^ "Johannes Hevelius." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 05 Dec.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/johannes-he
velius
4. ^ "Johannes Hevelius." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2012.
Answers.com 05 Dec. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/johannes-he
velius
5. ^ "Johannes Hevelius." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 05 Dec.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/johannes-he
velius
6. ^ Hevelius, J. Johannis Hevelii
Selenographia: Sive, Lunae Descriptio;
Atque Accurata, Tam Macularum Ejus,
Quam Motuum Diversorum, Aliarumque
Omnium Vicissitudinum, Phasiumque,
Telescopii Ope Deprehensarum,
Delineatio. In Qu� Simul Caeterorum
Omnium Planetarum Nativa Facies,
Variaeque Observationes, Praesertim
Autem Macularum Solarium ... Addita
Est, Lentes Expoliendi Nova Ratio; Ut
Et Telescopia Diversa Construendi ...
autoris sumtibus, typis
H�nefeldianis,
1647. http://books.google.com/books?id=
i1lDAAAAcAAJ
7. ^ "Johannes Hevelius." Dictionary of
Astronomy, John Wiley & Sons, Inc..
Wiley-Blackwell, 2004. Answers.com 05
Dec. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/johannes-he
velius
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp124-125. (1644)
(1644)

MORE INFO
[1] "Johannes Hevelius".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_He
velius
(rooftop observatories on many houses3
) Danzig4 (now Gdansk in Poland)5
 
[1] Hevelius, J. Johannis Hevelii
Selenographia: Sive, Lunae Descriptio;
Atque Accurata, Tam Macularum Ejus,
Quam Motuum Diversorum, Aliarumque
Omnium Vicissitudinum, Phasiumque,
Telescopii Ope Deprehensarum,
Delineatio. In Quâ Simul Caeterorum
Omnium Planetarum Nativa Facies,
Variaeque Observationes, Praesertim
Autem Macularum Solarium ... Addita
Est, Lentes Expoliendi Nova Ratio; Ut
Et Telescopia Diversa Construendi ...
autoris sumtibus, typis Hünefeldianis,
1647. http://books.google.com/books?id=
i1lDAAAAcAAJ PD
source: Hevelius, J. Johannis Hevelii
Selenographia: Sive, Lunae Descriptio;
Atque Accurata, Tam Macularum Ejus,
Quam Motuum Diversorum, Aliarumque
Omnium Vicissitudinum, Phasiumque,
Telescopii Ope Deprehensarum,
Delineatio. In Quâ Simul Caeterorum
Omnium Planetarum Nativa Facies,
Variaeque Observationes, Praesertim
Autem Macularum Solarium ... Addita
Est, Lentes Expoliendi Nova Ratio; Ut
Et Telescopia Diversa Construendi ...
autoris sumtibus, typis Hünefeldianis,
1647. http://books.google.com/books?id=
i1lDAAAAcAAJ

[2] [t Note that Mercury has the
symbol for Mercury and Venus has the
symbol for Venus.] Hevelius, J.
Johannis Hevelii Selenographia: Sive,
Lunae Descriptio; Atque Accurata, Tam
Macularum Ejus, Quam Motuum Diversorum,
Aliarumque Omnium Vicissitudinum,
Phasiumque, Telescopii Ope
Deprehensarum, Delineatio. In Quâ
Simul Caeterorum Omnium Planetarum
Nativa Facies, Variaeque Observationes,
Praesertim Autem Macularum Solarium ...
Addita Est, Lentes Expoliendi Nova
Ratio; Ut Et Telescopia Diversa
Construendi ... autoris sumtibus, typis
Hünefeldianis,
1647. http://books.google.com/books?id=
i1lDAAAAcAAJ PD
source: Hevelius, J. Johannis Hevelii
Selenographia: Sive, Lunae Descriptio;
Atque Accurata, Tam Macularum Ejus,
Quam Motuum Diversorum, Aliarumque
Omnium Vicissitudinum, Phasiumque,
Telescopii Ope Deprehensarum,
Delineatio. In Quâ Simul Caeterorum
Omnium Planetarum Nativa Facies,
Variaeque Observationes, Praesertim
Autem Macularum Solarium ... Addita
Est, Lentes Expoliendi Nova Ratio; Ut
Et Telescopia Diversa Construendi ...
autoris sumtibus, typis Hünefeldianis,
1647. http://books.google.com/books?id=
i1lDAAAAcAAJ
356 YBN
[1644 AD] 5 6 		2618) The principle of the conservation
of motion.1 2 3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Rene Descartes, "Principles of
Philosophy", in "The Philosophical
Works of Descartes", trans. E. S.
Haldane and G. R. T. Ross (New York:
Dover, 1955).
2. ^ Descartes, Rene?, Valentine
R. Miller, and Reese P. Miller.
Principles of Philosophy. Dordrecht,
Holland: Reidel, 1983. Print. p61.
{Descartes_Miller_and_Miller_Principle
s_of_Philosophy_1983.pdf}
3. ^ Descartes, R. Principia
Philosophiae. apud Ludovicum
Elzevirium, 1644, Part II, art
37-40. http://books.google.com/books?id
=lHpbAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA54
4. ^ "Descartes". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Descartes
5. ^ Exploring the Cosmos, fifth
edition. Berman and Evans, p46. (1644)
6. ^
Descartes, R. Principia Philosophiae.
apud Ludovicum Elzevirium, 1644, Part
II, art
37-40. http://books.google.com/books?id
=lHpbAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA54

MORE INFO
[1] "Rene Descartes".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
8563/Rene-Descartes
[2]
http://www.answers.com/topic/ren-descart
es?cat=technology
[3] "The World (Descartes)". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_World_%
28Descartes%29
[4] "Momentum". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Momentum
[5] 1. ^ A. Sayili (1987), "Ibn Sīnā
and Buridan on the Motion of the
Projectile", Annals of the New York
Academy of Sciences 500 (1), p.
477-482: "Thus he considered
impetus as proportional to weight times
velocity. In other words, his
conception of impetus comes very close
to the concept of momentum of Newtonian
mechanics."
[6] Rene Descartes, translated by John
Veitch, "Selections from the Principles
of Philosophy of Rene Descartes
(1596-1650)". http://www.classicallibra
ry.org/descartes/principles/index.htm
[7] "Inertia". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inertia
Netherlands (presumably)4  
[1] Descartes, R. Principia
Philosophiae. apud Ludovicum
Elzevirium, 1644, Part II, art
37-40. http://books.google.com/books?id
=lHpbAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA60 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=lHpbAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA60

[2] Descartes, R. Principia
Philosophiae. apud Ludovicum
Elzevirium, 1644, Part II, art
37-40. http://books.google.com/books?id
=lHpbAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA56 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=lHpbAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA56
352 YBN
[09/19/1648 AD] 3 		1721) Atmospheric pressure is shown to
change at different elevations.1
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp130-132.
2. ^ "Blaise Pascal".
The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy.
Oxford University Press, 1994, 1996,
2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Blaise+Pascal?cat
=technology
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp130-132.
(09/19/1648) (09/19/1648)

MORE INFO
[1] "Blaise Pascal". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
8317/Blaise-Pascal
Rouen, France2 (presumably) 
[1] Scientist: Pascal, Blaise (1623 -
1662) Discipline(s): Mathematics ;
Physics Print Artist: T. Dale
Medium: Engraving Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 14.4 x 8.1 cm /
Sheet: 27.8 x 21.3 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/cf/by_n
ame_display_results.cfm?scientist=Pascal


[2] Blaise Pascal source :
http://www.thocp.net/biographies/pascal_
blaise.html PD
source: %20Blaise
352 YBN
[1648 AD] 5 		1648) The label of "gas" is applied to
a substance.1 2 Carbon dioxide (CO2)
gas is recognized.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p112.
2. ^ Van Helmont,
J.B. Joannis Baptistae Van Helmont ...
Opera Omnia. Additis His De Novo
Tractatibus Aliquot Posthumis Ejusdem
Authoris, Maximè Curiosis Pariter Ac
Perutilissimis, Antehac Non in Lucem
Editis; Una Cum Indicibus Rerum Ac
Verborum Ut Locupletissimis, Ita Et
Accuratissimis. sumptibus Johannis
Justi Erythropili, typis Johannis
Philippi Andreae,
1682. http://books.google.com/books?id=
qzFFAAAAcAAJ English: John Baptista
Van Helmont; John Chandler (translator)
(1662). "Oriatrike or Physick
Refined" http://www.nightenlight.com/hi
gher-worlds-visited/rsc/john-baptista-va
n-helmont/oriatrike-or-physick-refined-0
01-030
3. ^ "Jan Baptista van Helmont".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
9924/Jan-Baptista-van-Helmont
4. ^ "Jan Baptista van Helmont".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
9924/Jan-Baptista-van-Helmont
5. ^ "Jan Baptista van Helmont".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
9924/Jan-Baptista-van-Helmont (1648)

MORE INFO
[1] "Jan Baptista van Helmont".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jan_Baptist
a_van_Helmont
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Jan+Baptista+van+
Helmont?cat=technology
Vilvoorde, Belgium4  
[1] Van Helmont, J.B. Joannis Baptistae
Van Helmont ... Opera Omnia. Additis
His De Novo Tractatibus Aliquot
Posthumis Ejusdem Authoris, Maximè
Curiosis Pariter Ac Perutilissimis,
Antehac Non in Lucem Editis; Una Cum
Indicibus Rerum Ac Verborum Ut
Locupletissimis, Ita Et Accuratissimis.
sumptibus Johannis Justi Erythropili,
typis Johannis Philippi Andreae,
1682. http://books.google.com/books?id=
qzFFAAAAcAAJ English: John Baptista
Van Helmont; John Chandler (translator)
(1662). ''Oriatrike or Physick
Refined'' http://www.nightenlight.com/h
igher-worlds-visited/rsc/john-baptista-v
an-helmont/oriatrike-or-physick-refined-
001-030 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=qzFFAAAAcAAJhttp://www.nightenlight.com
/higher-worlds-visited/rsc/john-baptista
-van-helmont/oriatrike-or-physick-refine
d-001-030

[2] Portrait of Helmont, mistakenly
thought to be Robert Hooke see
http://www.libraries.uc.edu/source/volfo
ur/oesper2.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:HOOKE_Robert.jpg
350 YBN
[1650 AD] 5 6 7 		1675) The first air pump.2 That sound
cannot be produced in the absence of
air is proven.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp120-121.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp120-121.
3. ^ "Otto von
Guericke." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 06 May. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/otto-von-gu
ericke
4. ^ "Otto von Guericke". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8368/Otto-von-Guericke
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp120-121. (1650)
(1650)
6. ^ "Otto von Guericke". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8368/Otto-von-Guericke (1650)
7. ^ Daniel Coit
Gilman, Harry Thurston Peck, Frank
Moore Colby, "The New International
Encyclopædia",
pp238-239. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=f2dMAAAAMAAJ&dq=%22geissler+pump%22
&pg=PA239&ci=10,460,449,440&source=bookc
lip (1654)

MORE INFO
[1] "Otto von Guericke".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otto_von_Gu
ericke
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Otto+von+Guericke
?cat=technology
Magdeburg, Germany4 (presumably) 
[1] Apparatus of Otto von Guerricke
with water receptacle at base
removed. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=f2dMAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA239&dq=%22geissler+pu
mp%22#PPA238,M1

[2] Apparatus of Otto von Guerricke
with water receptacle at base
removed. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=f2dMAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA239&dq=%22geissler+pu
mp%22#PPA238,M1
350 YBN
[1650 AD] 3 		1722) The hydraulic press.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp130-132.
2. ^ "Blaise Pascal".
The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy.
Oxford University Press, 1994, 1996,
2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Blaise+Pascal?cat
=technology
3. ^ "Syringe#Historical Timeline".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syringe#His
torical_Timeline (1650 (needs better
estimate)

MORE INFO
[1] "Pascals principle".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
8620/Pascals-principle
[2] "Pascal's law". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pascal%27s_
law
Rouen, France2 (presumably) 
[1] Description English: Hydraulic
Force ratio principle; Language
Neutral Ελληνικά:
υδραυλικό πιεστήριο
αρχή λειτουργίας Date
2008-01-21 (original upload
date) (Original text :
1/20/2008) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia; transferred to Commons by
User:Sk using CommonsHelper. (Original
text : self-made) Author Original
uploader was Darbyshmr at
en.wikipedia PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/7d/Hydraulic_Force%2C_la
nguage_neutral.png

[2] Scientist: Pascal, Blaise (1623
- 1662) Discipline(s): Mathematics ;
Physics Print Artist: T. Dale
Medium: Engraving Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 14.4 x 8.1 cm /
Sheet: 27.8 x 21.3 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/cf/by_n
ame_display_results.cfm?scientist=Pascal

345 YBN
[03/25/1655 AD] 5 6 7 		1763) The first known moon of Saturn,
Titan is identified.2 3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp138-140.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp138-140.
3. ^ "Titan".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 27 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/597100/Titan>.
4. ^ "Christiaan Huygens". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
1658/Christiaan-Huygens
5. ^
http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/ap050325.html
(3/25/1655)
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp138-140. (1656)
(1656)
7. ^ "Titan". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
2639/Titan (1655)

MORE INFO
[1] "Christiaan Huygens".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christiaan_
Huygens
[2] "Orion nebula#History". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orion_nebul
a#History
The Hague, Netherlands4
(presumably) 
[1] Huygens' aerial telescope, 1655
from Development of the Telescope from
1561 to 1896 DEVELOPMENT OF THE
ASTRONOMICAL TELESCOPE IN FIFTY
YEARS. source: July 25, 1896
Scientific
American http://www.machine-history.com
/Development%20of%20the%20Telescope PD

source: http://www.machine-history.com/

[2] This natural color composite was
taken during the Cassini spacecraft's
April 16, 2005, flyby of Titan. It is a
combination of images taken through
three filters that are sensitive to
red, green and violet light. It
shows approximately what Titan would
look like to the human eye: a hazy
orange globe surrounded by a tenuous,
bluish haze. The orange color is due to
the hydrocarbon particles which make up
Titan's atmospheric haze. This
obscuring haze was particularly
frustrating for planetary scientists
following the NASA Voyager mission
encounters in 1980-81. Fortunately,
Cassini is able to pierce Titan's veil
at infrared wavelengths (see
PIA06228). North on Titan is up and
tilted 30 degrees to the right. The
images to create this composite were
taken with the Cassini spacecraft wide
angle camera on April 16, 2005, at
distances ranging from approximately
173,000 to 168,200 kilometers (107,500
to 104,500 miles) from Titan and from a
Sun-Titan-spacecraft, or phase, angle
of 56 degrees. Resolution in the images
is approximately 10 kilometers per
pixel. The Cassini-Huygens mission
is a cooperative project of NASA, the
European Space Agency and the Italian
Space Agency. The Jet Propulsion
Laboratory, a division of the
California Institute of Technology in
Pasadena, manages the mission for
NASA's Science Mission Directorate,
Washington, D.C. The Cassini orbiter
and its two onboard cameras were
designed, developed and assembled at
JPL. The imaging team is based at the
Space Science Institute, Boulder,
Colo. For more information about the
Cassini-Huygens mission, visit
http://saturn.jpl.nasa.gov and the
Cassini imaging team home page,
http://ciclops.org. Source *
http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog
/PIA06230 (cropped and rotated from the
original) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Titan_in_natural_color_Cassini.jpg
345 YBN
[1655 AD] 4 		1702) Exponents are extended to include
negative numbers and fractions.1 2
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p126.
2. ^ Wallis, J.
Arithmetica Infinitorum.
1656. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Z5w_AAAAcAAJ
3. ^ "John Wallis". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
5990/John-Wallis
4. ^ "John Wallis". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
5990/John-Wallis (1655)

MORE INFO
[1] "John Wallis". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Wallis

[2]
http://www.answers.com/John+Wallis+?cat=
technology
(University of Oxford) Oxford, England3
 
[1]
from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John
_wallis GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joh
n_wallis

[2] Wallis, J. Arithmetica
Infinitorum.
1656. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Z5w_AAAAcAAJ PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=Z5w_AAAAcAAJ
342 YBN
[1658 AD] 4 5 		1804) Red blood cells are observed and
described.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Jan Swammerdam". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
0581/Jan-Swammerdam
2. ^ Swammerdam, J., H. Boerhaave, and
H.D. Gaubius. Bybel Der Natuure. by
Isaak Severinus, Boudewyn van der Aa,
Pieter van der Aa, 1738. Bybel Der
Natuure, Door Jan Swammerdam,
Amsteldammer. Of Historie Der Insecten,
Tot Zeekere Zoorten Gebracht: Door
Voorbeelden, Ontleedkundige
Onderzoekingen Van Veelerhande Kleine
Gediertens, Als Ook Door Kunstige
Kopere Plaaten Opgeheldert: Verrykt Met
Ontelbaare Waarnemingen Van Nooit
Ontdekte Zeldzaamhedenin De
Natuur. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=1SxMAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA819
3. ^ "Jan Swammerdam". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
0581/Jan-Swammerdam
4. ^ "Jan Swammerdam". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
0581/Jan-Swammerdam (1658)
5. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p145. (1658)
(1658)
Amsterdam, Netherlands3
(presumably) 
[1] Swammerdam, J., H. Boerhaave, and
H.D. Gaubius. Bybel Der Natuure. by
Isaak Severinus, Boudewyn van der Aa,
Pieter van der Aa, 1738. Bybel Der
Natuure, Door Jan Swammerdam,
Amsteldammer. Of Historie Der Insecten,
Tot Zeekere Zoorten Gebracht: Door
Voorbeelden, Ontleedkundige
Onderzoekingen Van Veelerhande Kleine
Gediertens, Als Ook Door Kunstige
Kopere Plaaten Opgeheldert: Verrykt Met
Ontelbaare Waarnemingen Van Nooit
Ontdekte Zeldzaamhedenin De
Natuur. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=1SxMAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA819 PD
source: Swammerdam, J., H. Boerhaave,
and H.D. Gaubius. Bybel Der Natuure. by
Isaak Severinus, Boudewyn van der Aa,
Pieter van der Aa, 1738. Bybel Der
Natuure, Door Jan Swammerdam,
Amsteldammer. Of Historie Der Insecten,
Tot Zeekere Zoorten Gebracht: Door
Voorbeelden, Ontleedkundige
Onderzoekingen Van Veelerhande Kleine
Gediertens, Als Ook Door Kunstige
Kopere Plaaten Opgeheldert: Verrykt Met
Ontelbaare Waarnemingen Van Nooit
Ontdekte Zeldzaamhedenin De
Natuur. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=1SxMAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA819

[2] Image from Swammerdam letter of
1678 showing lens and blood cells
from: Gerrit A. Lindeboom, ''Jan
Swammerdam als microscopist.''
Tijdschift voor de Geschiedenis der
Genees- , Natuurwetenschappen, Wiskunde
en Techniek 4 (1981):
87-110. http://gewina-tggnwt.library.uu
.nl/index.php/gewina-tggnwt/article/view
/140 UNKNOWN
source: http://gewina-tggnwt.library.uu.
nl/index.php/gewina-tggnwt/article/view/
140
340 YBN
[11/28/1660 AD] 3 		1704) The Royal Society is formed.1
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ "Royal Society". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
4290/Royal-Society
2. ^ "Royal Society". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
4290/Royal-Society
3. ^ "Royal Society". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
4290/Royal-Society (11/28/1660)
London, England2  
[1] The Fame of the Royal Society. From
Thomas Sprat's History of the Royal
Society In the Center is a bust of the
Society's Founder - Charles II Left is
William Brouncker- The first
President On the Right is Francis
Bacon the Inspiration of the Royal
Society PD
source: http://www.sirbacon.org/esquire.
html

[2] Frontispiece to Sprat 's History
of the Royal Society (1667). Engraving
by Wenceslaus Hollar, design probably
hy John Evelyn for John Beale in about
1666-1667, and transferred to Sprat's
book later. Boyle's revised version of
the air-pump is in the centre-left
background (see also figure 17). The
three figures in the foreground are the
president of the Royal Society, Lord
Brouncker (left); the King (bust,
centre, being crowned by Fame.); and
Francis Bacon (right). (From the
British Library.) PD
source: http://www4.ncsu.edu/~kimler/hi3
22001/sprat.jpg
340 YBN
[1660 AD] 6 		1737) Gas is collected.1 2 That
electrical attraction is transmitted
through a vacuum is proven.3 4
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^ Boyle, "New experiments
physico-mechanicall, touching the
spring of the air and its effects",
1660. http://echo.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/E
CHOdocuView?url=/permanent/archimedes_re
pository/large/boyle_exper_013_en_1660/i
ndex.meta&viewMode=image
AND http://archimedes.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.
de//docuserver/images/archimedes/boyle_e
xper_013_en_1660/downloads/boyle_exper_0
13_en_1660.text.pdf {Boyle_exper_013_en
_1660.text.pdf}
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp134-136.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp134-136.
4. ^ Boyle, "New
experiments physico-mechanicall,
touching the spring of the air and its
effects",
1660. http://echo.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/E
CHOdocuView?url=/permanent/archimedes_re
pository/large/boyle_exper_013_en_1660/i
ndex.meta&viewMode=image
AND http://archimedes.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.
de//docuserver/images/archimedes/boyle_e
xper_013_en_1660/downloads/boyle_exper_0
13_en_1660.text.pdf {Boyle_exper_013_en
_1660.text.pdf}
5. ^ "Robert Boyle". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6071/Robert-Boyle
6. ^ "Robert Boyle". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6071/Robert-Boyle (1660)

MORE INFO
[1] "Robert Boyle". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Boyl
e
Oxford, England5 (presumably) 
[1] Scientist: Boyle, Robert (1627 -
1691) Discipline(s): Chemistry ;
Physics Original Dimensions: Graphic:
13.1 x 8.2 cm / PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/cf/by_n
ame_display_results.cfm?scientist=Boyle

[2] Scientist: Boyle, Robert (1627 -
1691) Discipline(s): Chemistry ;
Physics Print Artist: George Vertue,
1684-1756 Medium: Engraving
Original Artist: Johann Kerseboom,
d.1708 Original Dimensions: Graphic:
39.5 x 24.3 cm / PD
source: %20Robert
339 YBN
[1661 AD] 3 4 		1738) Acid-base indicators.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp134-136.
2. ^ "Robert Boyle".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6071/Robert-Boyle
3. ^ "Robert Boyle". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6071/Robert-Boyle (1661)
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp134-136. (1661)
(1661)

MORE INFO
[1] "Robert Boyle". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Boyl
e
Oxford, England2 (presumably) 
[1] The Skeptical Chymist title
page PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:000a.jpg

[2] Scientist: Boyle, Robert (1627 -
1691) Discipline(s): Chemistry ;
Physics Original Dimensions: Graphic:
13.1 x 8.2 cm / PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/cf/by_n
ame_display_results.cfm?scientist=Boyle
339 YBN
[1661 AD] 4 		1754) The connection of arteries and
veins is observed.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp137-138.
2. ^ "Marcello
Malpighi". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
0369/Marcello-Malpighi
3. ^ "Marcello Malpighi". Encyclopedia
of the Early Modern World. The Gale
Group, Inc, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Marcello+Malpighi
?cat=health
4. ^ "Marcello Malpighi". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
0369/Marcello-Malpighi (1661)

MORE INFO
[1] "Marcello Malpighi".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcello_Ma
lpighi
Bologna, Italy3  
[1] Description Marcello
Malphigi Source L C Miall. The
History of Biology. Watts and Co. Date
1911 Author L C Miall PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:MarcelloMalphigiMiall.jpg

[2] from http://wwwihm.nlm.nih.gov/
* 11:57, 27 August 2002 Magnus Manske
432x575 (78,604 bytes) (from
meta) Source Originally from
en.wikipedia; description page is (was)
here Date Commons upload by Magnus
Manske 10:03, 10 May 2006 (UTC) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Marcello_Malpighi_large.jpg
338 YBN
[1662 AD] 8 9 		1739) That pressure and volume of a gas
are inversely related is known.4 5 6
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp134-136.
2. ^ Boyle, R. New
Experiments Physico-mechanical,
Touching the Spring of the Air, and Its
Effects: (made, for the Most Part, in a
New Pneumatical Engine). H. Hall, 1662,
p156. books.google.com/books?id=LqYrAQA
AMAAJ&pg=PA156
3. ^ Publishing, DK. Science: The
Definitive Visual Guide. DK Publishing,
2009, p99.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp134-136.
5. ^ Boyle, R. New
Experiments Physico-mechanical,
Touching the Spring of the Air, and Its
Effects: (made, for the Most Part, in a
New Pneumatical Engine). H. Hall, 1662,
p156. books.google.com/books?id=LqYrAQA
AMAAJ&pg=PA156
6. ^ Publishing, DK. Science: The
Definitive Visual Guide. DK Publishing,
2009, p99.
7. ^ "Robert Boyle". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6071/Robert-Boyle
8. ^ "Robert Boyle". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6071/Robert-Boyle (1662)
9. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp134-136. (1662)
(1662)

MORE INFO
[1] "Robert Boyle". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Boyl
e
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Robert+Boyle?cat=
technology
Oxford, England7 (presumably) 
[1] Boyle, R. New Experiments
Physico-mechanical, Touching the Spring
of the Air, and Its Effects: (made, for
the Most Part, in a New Pneumatical
Engine). H. Hall, 1662,
p156. books.google.com/books?id=LqYrAQA
AMAAJ&pg=PA156 PD AND Description
Portrait of Robert Boyle Source
http://www.bbk.ac.uk/boyle/Issue4.html
Date c. 1689 Author Johann
Kerseboom Permission Author has been
dead more than 70 years Other versions
Robert boyle.jpg PD AND {ULSF:
Note that this drawing of the J-tube
does not come from Boyle's
text} Artist's impression of Boyle's
Experiment, with precautions against
tube breaking. UNKNOWN
source: books.google.com/books?id=LqYrAQ
AAMAAJ&pg=PA162http://www.sil.si.edu/dig
italcollections/hst/scientific-identity/
cf/by_name_display_results.cfm?scientist
=Boyle%20Roberthttp://iweb.tntech.edu/ch
em281-tf/Boyle_files/image002.gif

[2] Boyle, R. New Experiments
Physico-mechanical, Touching the Spring
of the Air, and Its Effects: (made, for
the Most Part, in a New Pneumatical
Engine). H. Hall, 1662,
p156. books.google.com/books?id=LqYrAQA
AMAAJ&pg=PA156 PD AND Description
Portrait of Robert Boyle Source
http://www.bbk.ac.uk/boyle/Issue4.html
Date c. 1689 Author Johann
Kerseboom Permission Author has been
dead more than 70 years Other versions
Robert boyle.jpg PD
source: books.google.com/books?id=LqYrAQ
AAMAAJ&pg=PA162http://www.sil.si.edu/dig
italcollections/hst/scientific-identity/
cf/by_name_display_results.cfm?scientist
=Boyle%20Robert PD
337 YBN
[1663 AD] 5 		2247) The first static electricity
generator: a sulfur globe is rotated
against a cloth.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Otto von Guericke". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Otto+von+Guericke
?cat=technology
2. ^ "Otto von Guericke". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Otto+von+Guericke
?cat=technology
3. ^ "Otto von Guericke". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Otto+von+Guericke
?cat=technology
4. ^ "Otto von Guericke". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8368/Otto-von-Guericke
5. ^ "Otto von Guericke". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Otto+von+Guericke
?cat=technology (1663)

MORE INFO
[1] "Otto von Guericke".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otto_von_Gu
ericke
[2]
http://books.google.com/books?id=R3Yt1N-
qotsC
Magdeburg, Germany4 (presumably) 
[1] Guericke's experiments with the
sulfur globe published 1672 PD
source: http://img.readtiger.com/wkp/en/
Guericke_Sulfur_globe.jpg

[2] Guericke's experiments with the
sulfur globe published 1672 PD
source: http://img.readtiger.com/wkp/en/
Guericke_Sulfur_globe.jpg
336 YBN
[1664 AD] 6 7 		1666) The theory that light is made of
particles is revived by Descartes.
Descartes also identifies both the wave
and corpuscular theory of light.3 4
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ Rene Descartes, Translated by
Michael S. Mahoney, "The World or
Treatise on Light", Chapters 13 and 14.
http://www.princeton.edu/~hos/mike/tex
ts/descartes/world/worldfr.htm AND
http://books.google.com/books?id=YUo7A
AAAYAAJ&pg=PA265
2. ^ Descartes, R. Le Monde ... Ou Le
Traité De La Lumière Et Des Autres
Objets Principaux Des Sens, Avec Un
Discours De L’action Des Corps Et Un
Autre Des Fièvres, Composez Selon Les
Principes Du Même Auteur. Michel Bobin
et Nic. le Gras,
1664. http://books.google.com/books?id=
DHEPAAAAQAAJ
3. ^ Rene Descartes, Translated by
Michael S. Mahoney, "The World or
Treatise on Light", Chapters 13 and 14.
http://www.princeton.edu/~hos/mike/tex
ts/descartes/world/worldfr.htm AND
http://books.google.com/books?id=YUo7A
AAAYAAJ&pg=PA265
4. ^ Descartes, R. Le Monde ... Ou Le
Traité De La Lumière Et Des Autres
Objets Principaux Des Sens, Avec Un
Discours De L’action Des Corps Et Un
Autre Des Fièvres, Composez Selon Les
Principes Du Même Auteur. Michel Bobin
et Nic. le Gras,
1664. http://books.google.com/books?id=
DHEPAAAAQAAJ
5. ^ "Rene Descartes". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 14 Oct.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/158787/Rene-Descartes/43352/Resi
dence-in-the-Netherlands>.
6. ^ "Rene Descartes". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 14 Oct.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/158787/Rene-Descartes/43352/Resi
dence-in-the-Netherlands>.
7. ^ Descartes, R. Le Monde ... Ou Le
Traité De La Lumière Et Des Autres
Objets Principaux Des Sens, Avec Un
Discours De L’action Des Corps Et Un
Autre Des Fièvres, Composez Selon Les
Principes Du Même Auteur. Michel Bobin
et Nic. le Gras,
1664. http://books.google.com/books?id=
DHEPAAAAQAAJ

MORE INFO
[1] "The World (Descartes)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_World_%
28Descartes%29
[2]
http://classiques.uqac.ca/classiques/Des
cartes/extraits/le_monde/le_monde.doc
[3] "Rene Descartes". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
8563/Rene-Descartes (1633)
[4] "Rene
Descartes". Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 26 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/158787/Rene-Descartes>
(in 1633:) Netherlands (presumably)5
 
[1] Descartes, R. Le Monde ... Ou Le
Traité De La Lumière Et Des Autres
Objets Principaux Des Sens, Avec Un
Discours De L’action Des Corps Et Un
Autre Des Fièvres, Composez Selon Les
Principes Du Même Auteur. Michel Bobin
et Nic. le Gras, 1664,
p221. http://books.google.com/books?id=
DHEPAAAAQAAJ PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=DHEPAAAAQAAJ

[2] The balls of the ''second
element'' which I think is a theory of
particles similar to an aether that
fill empty space, but its not
clear[t] PD/Corel
source: http://www.princeton.edu/~hos/mi
ke/texts/descartes/world/Image9.gif
335 YBN
[1665 AD] 3 		1688) The theory that comets move in
elliptical orbits.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Giovanni Alfonso Borelli". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Giovanni+Alfonso+
Borelli?cat=technology
2. ^ "Giovanni Alfonso Borelli".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-908
0729/Giovanni-Alfonso-Borelli
3. ^ "Giovanni Alfonso Borelli". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Giovanni+Alfonso+
Borelli?cat=technology (1665)
Pisa, Italy2 (presumably) 
[1] Portrait of Giovanni Borelli from
this web site:
http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/optics/timel
ine/people/borelli.html The portrait
is made in 17th century. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:GBorelli.jpg

[2] Giovanni Alfonso Borelli. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Giovanni_Alfonso_Borelli.jpg
335 YBN
[1665 AD] 4 5 		1707) The theory of light
"diffraction".1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ P. Francesco Maria Grimaldo,
"Physico-mathesis de lumine, coloribus,
et iride", 1665.
http://books.google.com/books?id=sZE_A
AAAcAAJ {Grimaldi_Francesco_Physico.pdf
}
2. ^ Review of "Physico-mathesis de
lumine, coloribus, et iride", Martyn,
J. et al. Philosophical Transactions,
Giving Some Accompt of the Present
Undertakings, Studies and Labors of the
Ingenious in Many Considerable Parts of
the World. T. N., 1710,
p3068. http://books.google.com/books?id
=L1ItoQ2GjMAC&pg=PA3068
3. ^ "Francesco Grimaldi". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Francesco+Grimald
i?cat=technology
4. ^ "Francesco Grimaldi". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Francesco+Grimald
i?cat=technology (1665)
5. ^ P. Francesco
Maria Grimaldo, "Physico-mathesis de
lumine, coloribus, et iride", 1665.
http://books.google.com/books?id=sZE_A
AAAcAAJ {Grimaldi_Francesco_Physico.pdf
}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.cartage.org.lb/en/themes/Biog
raphies/G/Grimaldi/1/html
Bologna, Italy3 (presumably) 
[1] Physico-mathesis de lvmine,
coloribvs, et iride, aliisqve adnexis;
libri dvo ... Avctore Francisco Maria
Grimaldo. Bononiae, Ex Typographia
Haeredis V. Benatij; impensis H.
Berniae, 1665, [London, Dawsons, 1966]
Latin Light through two holes between
diffracts in the transmission, we see a
large widening that shows its stretched
out direction. (my own translation, and
needs correction) PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: Physico-mathesis de lvmine,
coloribvs, et iride, aliisqve adnexis;
libri dvo ... Avctore Francisco Maria
Grimaldo. Bononiae, Ex Typographia
Haeredis V. Benatij; impensis H.
Berniae, 1665, [London, Dawsons, 1966
Latin 9

[2] Francesco Maria Grimaldi (Bologna,
2 aprile 1618 - Bologna 28 dicembre
1663), astronomo e fisico italiano, in
un'incisione seicentesca. PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Franc
escomaria_Grimaldi.jpg
335 YBN
[1665 AD] 3 4 		1726) The period of a Mars day is
measured as 24 hours and 40 minutes.1
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp132-133.
2. ^ "Giovanni
Domenico Cassini". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giovanni_Do
menico_Cassini
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp 132-133.
(1665,1666)
4. ^ "Gian Domenico Cassini".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
0655/Gian-Domenico-Cassini (1666)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/Giovanni+Domenico
+Cassini+?cat=technology
Bologna, Italy2  
[1] Scientist: Cassini, Giovanni
Domenico (1625 - 1712) Discipline(s):
Astronomy ; Geodesy Print Artist: N.
Dupuis Medium: Engraving Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 14.3 x 10.2 cm /
Sheet: 24.6 x 16.2 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=c

[2] Scientist: Cassini, Giovanni
Domenico (1625 - 1712) Discipline(s):
Astronomy ; Geodesy Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 25.2 x 18.5 cm /
Sheet: 27.4 x 19.5 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=c
335 YBN
[1665 AD] 4 		1776) The first blood transfusion.1 2
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p141.
2. ^ Richard Lower,
"An account of the experiment of
transfusion, practiced upon a man in
London", Philosophical Transactions of
the Royal Society of London, 1667,
Vol.2,
p489 http://books.google.com/books?id=R
F5FAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA489
3. ^ "Richard Lower". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Low
er
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p141. (1665) (1665)
London?, England3  
[1] Richard Lower (1631-1691) PD
source: http://images.fineartamerica.com
/images-medium-large/richard-lower-1631-
1691-granger.jpg

[2] Richard Lower PD
source: http://clendening.kumc.edu/dc/pc
/lower.jpg
335 YBN
[1665 AD] 5 6 7 8 9 		1799) The wave theory of light is
firmly established by Hooke1 , with the
medium being a fluid between the stars
associated with the ancient concept of
aether2 .

Hooke also publishes the first images
of a microorganism (or protist).3
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^ Hooke, R. Micrographia: Or, Some
Physiological Descriptions of Minute
Bodies Made by Magnifying Glasses. With
Observations and Inquiries Thereupon.
printed for James Allestry, 1667,
p56-57. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=SgFMAAAAcAAJ
2. ^ Hooke, R. Micrographia: Or, Some
Physiological Descriptions of Minute
Bodies Made by Magnifying Glasses. With
Observations and Inquiries Thereupon.
printed for James Allestry, 1667,
p96-97. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=SgFMAAAAcAAJ
3. ^ Gest, Howard. "The discovery of
microorganisms by Robert Hooke and
Antoni Van Leeuwenhoek, fellows of the
Royal Society." Notes and Records of
the Royal Society of London 58.2
(2004):
187-201. http://rsnr.royalsocietypublis
hing.org/content/58/2/187.full.pdf
4. ^
http://freespace.virgin.net/ric.martin/v
ectis/hookeweb/roberthooke.htm
5. ^ Hooke, R. Micrographia, Or Some
Physiological Descriptions of Minute
Bodies Made by Magnifying Glasses,...
by R. Hooke,... J. Martyn and J.
Allestry,
1665. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ZggAYAAACAAJ
6. ^ "Robert Hooke." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2012.
Answers.com 10 Dec. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-hook
e
7. ^
http://home.clara.net/rod.beavon/robert_
hooke.htm (submitted for printing:
11/23/1664released for sale: 1665)
8. ^
http://home.clara.net/rod.beavon/robert_
hooke.htm (submitted for printing:
11/23/1664released for sale: 1665)
9. ^
http://freespace.virgin.net/ric.martin/v
ectis/hookeweb/roberthooke.htm (1665)

MORE INFO
[1] "Robert Hooke". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0979/Robert-Hooke
[2] "Robert Hooke". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Hook
e
[3]
http://www.answers.com/Robert+Hooke?cat=
technology
[4]
http://www.libraries.uc.edu/source/volfo
ur/oesper2.html
[5] http://www.roberthooke.org.uk/
[6]
http://www.she-philosopher.com/gallery/c
yclopaedia.html
[7] Hooke, R. Micrographia: Or, Some
Physiological Descriptions of Minute
Bodies Made by Magnifying Glasses. With
Observations and Inquiries Thereupon.
printed for James Allestry, 1667,
p54. http://books.google.com/books?id=S
gFMAAAAcAAJ
[8] P. Francesco Maria Grimaldo,
"Physico-mathesis de lumine, coloribus,
et iride", 1665.
http://books.google.com/books?id=sZE_A
AAAcAAJ PD
[9] Suber cells and mimosa leaves.
Robert Hooke, Micrographia,
1665. other version PD
London, England4  
[1] Hooke, R. Micrographia: Or, Some
Physiological Descriptions of Minute
Bodies Made by Magnifying Glasses. With
Observations and Inquiries Thereupon.
printed for James Allestry, 1667,
p56-57,96-97. http://books.google.com/b
ooks?id=SgFMAAAAcAAJ PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=SgFMAAAAcAAJ

[2] Hooke, R. Micrographia: Or, Some
Physiological Descriptions of Minute
Bodies Made by Magnifying Glasses. With
Observations and Inquiries Thereupon.
printed for James Allestry, 1667,
p56-57,96-97. http://books.google.com/b
ooks?id=SgFMAAAAcAAJ PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=SgFMAAAAcAAJ
334 YBN
[10/??/1666 AD] 8 9 10 11 		1827) Calculus: differentiation is used
to find the rate of change (or slope)
of an equation and integration is used
to calculate the area or volume
described by an equation.4 5 6
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^ Isaac Newton, "The October 1666
Tract on Fluxions", MS Add. 3958.3, ff.
48r-63v, Cambridge University Library,
Cambridge,
UK http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.u
k/catalogue/record/NATP00100
AND http://cudl.lib.cam.ac.uk/view/MS-A
DD-03958/92
2. ^ "Sir Isaac Newton". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
8764/Sir-Isaac-Newton
3. ^ Isaac Newton, "De Analysi per
Aequationes Numero Terminorum
Infinitas" (1669; "On Analysis by
Equations with an Infinite Number of
Terms"), todo: find original work,
and English translation of original
work. partially described in
Latin: Wallis, J. Johannis Wallis ...
Opera Mathematica ... E Theatro
Sheldoniano, 1693. Johannis Wallis ...
Opera
Mathematica. http://books.google.com/bo
oks?id=I2BDAAAAcAAJ explained in
English: Newton, I. Two Treatises of
the Quadrature of Curves and Analysis
by Equations of an Infinite Number of
Terms, Explained by John Stewart. James
Bettenham,
1745. http://books.google.com/books?id=
eg4OAAAAQAAJ
4. ^ Isaac Newton, "The October 1666
Tract on Fluxions", MS Add. 3958.3, ff.
48r-63v, Cambridge University Library,
Cambridge,
UK http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.u
k/catalogue/record/NATP00100
AND http://cudl.lib.cam.ac.uk/view/MS-A
DD-03958/92
5. ^ "Sir Isaac Newton". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
8764/Sir-Isaac-Newton
6. ^ Isaac Newton, "De Analysi per
Aequationes Numero Terminorum
Infinitas" (1669; "On Analysis by
Equations with an Infinite Number of
Terms"), todo: find original work,
and English translation of original
work. partially described in
Latin: Wallis, J. Johannis Wallis ...
Opera Mathematica ... E Theatro
Sheldoniano, 1693. Johannis Wallis ...
Opera
Mathematica. http://books.google.com/bo
oks?id=I2BDAAAAcAAJ explained in
English: Newton, I. Two Treatises of
the Quadrature of Curves and Analysis
by Equations of an Infinite Number of
Terms, Explained by John Stewart. James
Bettenham,
1745. http://books.google.com/books?id=
eg4OAAAAQAAJ
7. ^ "Sir Isaac Newton". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
8764/Sir-Isaac-Newton
8. ^ Isaac Newton, "The October 1666
Tract on Fluxions", MS Add. 3958.3, ff.
48r-63v, Cambridge University Library,
Cambridge,
UK http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.u
k/catalogue/record/NATP00100
AND http://cudl.lib.cam.ac.uk/view/MS-A
DD-03958/92
9. ^ Brewster, D., and I. Newton.
Memoirs of the Life, Writings and
Discoveries of Sir Isaac Newton.
Constable, 1855. Memoirs of the Life,
Writings and Discoveries of Sir Isaac
Newton. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=4hY6AAAAcAAJ&pg=PA35&lpg=PA35&dq=%E2%8
0%9COn+Analysis+by+Equations+with+an+Inf
inite+Number+of+Terms%E2%80%9D&source=bl
&ots=TPKbJAoHv0&sig=K_kBe8m59TO6GE8oAtLd
ugq3lCs&hl=en&sa=X&ei=aSA5UMWePIjPrQHj0o
DYDQ&ved=0CDwQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=%E2%80%
9COn%20Analysis%20by%20Equations%20with%
20an%20Infinite%20Number%20of%20Terms%E2
%80%9D&f=false
10. ^
http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/
Biographies/Newton.html (07/1669)
11. ^ "Sir
Isaac Newton". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
8764/Sir-Isaac-Newton (07/1669)

MORE INFO
[1] "Isaac Newton". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newto
n
[2] "Sir Isaac Newton". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Isaa
c_Newton
[3] "binomial theorem". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
9241/binomial-theorem
[4]
http://www.newton.cam.ac.uk/newtlife.htm
l
[5]
http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.uk/pr
ism.php?id=47
[6] Abe Mizrahi and Michael Sullivan,
"Calculus and Analytic Geometry",
Second Edition, Wadsworth Publishing
Company, (1986), pp107-181
(Derivative), pp278-323 (Integral) {For
a basic explanation of differentiation
and integration, or any modern calculus
textbook}
[7] Newton, I. The Method of Fluxions
and Infinite Series: With Its
Application to the Geometry of
Curve-lines. By ... Sir Isaac Newton,
... Translated from the Author’s
Latin Original Not Yet Made Publick. To
Which Is Subjoin’d, a Perpetual
Comment Upon the Whole Work, ... By
John Colson, ... Henry Woodfall; and
sold by John Nourse, 1736
Cambridge, England7  
[1] Drawing from: Isaac Newton, ''The
October 1666 Tract on Fluxions'', MS
Add. 3958.3, ff. 48r-63v, Cambridge
University Library, Cambridge,
UK http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.u
k/catalogue/record/NATP00100
AND http://cudl.lib.cam.ac.uk/view/MS-A
DD-03958/92 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.newtonproject.sussex.
ac.uk/view/texts/normalized/NATP00100

[2] Description Isaac Newton Date
1689 Author Godfrey Kneller PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg
332 YBN
[11/26/1668 AD] 4 		3257) The theory of momentum (mass
times velocity).1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Dr. John Wallis, and Dr.
Christopher Wren, "A Summary Account of
the General Laws of Motion",
Philosophical Transactions,
(1665-1678), Volume 3,1668,
pp864-868. books.google.com/books?id=SF
5FAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA864 http://journals.roy
alsociety.org/content/3t6172g2t153q212/?
p=712eb21bc6624d76b0bd5d68f591a77a&pi=0
 {Wallis_John_Wren_Christopher_Laws_of_M
otion_1668.pdf}
2. ^ Davies, E. Brian. "The Mechanical
Philosophy 1660-1675."
(2007). http://philsci-archive.pitt.edu
/3458/
3. ^ "John Wallis". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Wallis

4. ^ Dr. John Wallis, and Dr.
Christopher Wren, "A Summary Account of
the General Laws of Motion",
Philosophical Transactions,
(1665-1678), Volume 3,1668,
pp864-868. books.google.com/books?id=SF
5FAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA864 http://journals.roy
alsociety.org/content/3t6172g2t153q212/?
p=712eb21bc6624d76b0bd5d68f591a77a&pi=0
 {Wallis_John_Wren_Christopher_Laws_of_M
otion_1668.pdf} (11/26/1668)

MORE INFO
[1] "John Wallis". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
5990/John-Wallis
[2]
http://www.answers.com/John+Wallis+?cat=
technology
[3] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982)
[4] "Christopher Wren".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher
_Wren
[5]
http://www.answers.com/Christopher%20Wre
n
[6] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p126
[7] "John Wallis".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Wallis
 (1685)
[8] "Sir Christopher Wren".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-800
7/Sir-Christopher-Wren
[9] Wallis, J. Mechanica: Sive, De
Motu, Tractatus Geometricus. Pitt,
1670. http://books.google.com/books?id=
vGo_AAAAcAAJ&pg=PA29
London, England3 (presumably) 
[1] Dr. John Wallis, and Dr.
Christopher Wren, ''A Summary Account
of the General Laws of Motion'',
Philosophical Transactions,
(1665-1678), Volume 3,1668,
pp864-868. books.google.com/books?id=SF
5FAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA864 http://journals.roy
alsociety.org/content/3t6172g2t153q212/?
p=712eb21bc6624d76b0bd5d68f591a77a&pi=0
{Wallis_John_Wren_Christopher_Laws_of_M
otion_1668.pdf} PD
source: books.google.com/books?id=SF5FAA
AAcAAJ&pg=PA864 http://journals.royalso
ciety.org/content/3t6172g2t153q212/?p=71
2eb21bc6624d76b0bd5d68f591a77a&pi=0

[2] John Wallis, English mathematician
with important contributions to
analysis. Source:
en:Image:John_Wallis.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:John_Wallis.jpg
332 YBN
[1668 AD] 3 		1727) Jupiter's period of daily
rotation is determined.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp132-133.
2. ^ "Cassini, Gian
Domenico", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, 2000, p171.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp132-133. (1668)
(1668)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/Giovanni+Domenico
+Cassini+?cat=technology
[2] "Giovanni Domenico Cassini".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giovanni_Do
menico_Cassini
(Observatory at) Panzano (near
Bologna), Italy2  
[1] Description: Gemälde Giovanni
Domenico Cassini Source::
http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/hist
ory/PictDisplay/Cassini.html
Painter: Durangel 1879, nach einer
alten Radierung, welche wiederum nach
einem alten Bild von Madame Milon de
a PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d6/Giovanni_Cassini.jpg

[2] Scientist: Cassini, Giovanni
Domenico (1625 - 1712) Discipline(s):
Astronomy ; Geodesy Print Artist: N.
Dupuis Medium: Engraving Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 14.3 x 10.2 cm /
Sheet: 24.6 x 16.2 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=c
331 YBN
[03/18/1669 AD] 4 		3258) The concept of energy (mass
multiplied by velocity squared), and
the theory of conservation of energy is
defined.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Huygens, C., J.A. Vollgraff, and
Hollandsche Maatschappij der
Wetenschappen. Oeuvres Compl�tes:
Correspondance. M. Nijhoff, 1895.
Oeuvres Compl�tes,
p383-389. books.google.com/books?id=sH3
tV6ogFtcC&pg=PA383
2. ^ George E. Smith, "The vis viva
dispute: A controversy at the dawn of
dynamics", Physics Today, October 2006,
page
31. http://physicstoday.org/journals/do
c/PHTOAD-ft/vol_59/iss_10/31_1.shtml
3. ^ "Christiaan Huygens". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
1658/Christiaan-Huygens
4. ^
http://www.physics.odu.edu/~kuhn/PHYS101
/VisViva.html#ref (03/08/1669)

MORE INFO
[1] "Christiaan Huygens".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christiaan_
Huygens
The Hague, Netherlands3
(presumably) 
[1] Huygens, C., J.A. Vollgraff, and
Hollandsche Maatschappij der
Wetenschappen. Oeuvres Complètes:
Correspondance. M. Nijhoff, 1895.
Oeuvres Complètes,
p385. books.google.com/books?id=sH3tV6o
gFtcC&pg=PA385 PD AND Christiaan
Huygens, the astronomer. source:
http://ressources2.techno.free.fr/inform
atique/sites/inventions/inventions.html
PD
source: books.google.com/books?id=sH3tV6
ogFtcC&pg=PA385http://en.wikipedia.org/w
iki/Image:Christiaan_Huygens-painting.jp
eg

[2] Huygens, C., J.A. Vollgraff, and
Hollandsche Maatschappij der
Wetenschappen. Oeuvres Complètes:
Correspondance. M. Nijhoff, 1895.
Oeuvres Complètes,
p385. books.google.com/books?id=sH3tV6o
gFtcC&pg=PA385 PD
source: books.google.com/books?id=sH3tV6
ogFtcC&pg=PA385
331 YBN
[1669 AD] 4 		1735) "Double refraction" is observed.2

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp133-134.
2. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and technology;
the lives and achievements of 1195
great scientists from ancient times to
the present, chronologically arranged",
(Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982),
pp133-134.
3. ^ "Erasmus Bartholin". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
3525/Erasmus-Bartholin
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp133-134.
(1669)

MORE INFO
[1] "double refraction".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
1617/double-refraction
Copenhagen, Denmark3  
[1] Taken from: Brahe, T. Tychonis
Brahe Dani Opera Omnia: Tomus XIII.
Gyldendal, 1926 PD
source: Brahe, T. Tychonis Brahe Dani
Opera Omnia: Tomus XIII. Gyldendal,
1926

[2] Taken from: Brahe, T. Tychonis
Brahe Dani Opera Omnia: Tomus XIII.
Gyldendal, 1926 PD
source: Brahe, T. Tychonis Brahe Dani
Opera Omnia: Tomus XIII. Gyldendal,
1926
331 YBN
[1669 AD] 3 4 		1774) The element Phosphorus is
identified.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Hennig Brand". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6207/Hennig-Brand
2. ^ "Hennig Brand". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hennig_Bran
d
3. ^ "Hennig Brand". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6207/Hennig-Brand (about 1669)
4. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (between 1669 and
1675) (between 1669 and 1675)

MORE INFO
[1] "Retort". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retort
Hamburg, Germany2 (presumably) 
[1] Den tyske alkymist Hennig Brand
opdagede i 1669 et hvidt stof, som
lyste i mørke. Uden at vide det havde
han fundet grundstoffet fosfor, mens
han opvarmede urin i en glaskolbe. PD
source: http://historienet.dk/files/bonn
ier-his/imagecache/630x420/pictures/Imag
e20.jpg

[2] The Alchemist in Search of the
Philosophers Stone (1771) by Joseph
Wright depicting Hennig Brand
discovering phosphorus (the glow shown
is exaggerated) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Henning_brand.jpg
329 YBN
[1671 AD] 5 		2119) The element Hydrogen is
identified; released by mixing iron
filings and acids.1 2 3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Farndon, J. Hydrogen. Benchmark
Books, 2000. Elements (Benchmark
Books).
2. ^ Boyle, Robert. Tracts Written by
the Honourable Robert Boyle: Containing
New Experiments Touching the Relation
Betwixt Flame and Air : and About
Explosions : an Hydrostatical Discourse
Occasion'd by Some Objections of Dr.
Henry More against Some Explications of
New Experiments Made by the Author of
These Tracts : to Which Is Annex't, an
Hydrostatical Letter, Dilucidating an
Experiment About a Way of Weighing
Water in Water. London: Printed for
Richard Davis, 1673. Internet resource.
http://uci.worldcat.org/title/tracts-w
ritten-by-the-honourable-robert-boyle-co
ntaining-new-experiments-touching-the-re
lation-betwixt-flame-and-air-and-about-e
xplosions-an-hydrostatical-discourse-occ
asiond-by-some-objections-of-dr-henry-mo
re-against-some-explications-of-new-expe
riments-made-by-the-author-of-these-trac
ts-to-which-is-annext-an-hydrostatical-l
etter-dilucidating-an-experiment-about-a
-way-of-weighing-water-in-water/oclc/606
570832?referer=di&ht=edition
3. ^ Boyle, Robert. The works of the
Honourable Robert Boyle. In six
volumes. To which is prefixed The life
of the author. ... Vol. Volume 3.A new
edition. London, MDCCLXXII. 3. ^.
Eighteenth Century Collections Online.
Gale. UC Irvine. 11 Dec. 2012
<http://find.galegroup.com/ecco/infomar
k.do?&source=gale&prodId=ECCO&userGroupN
ame=ucirvine&tabID=T001&docId=CW33149528
23&type=multipage&contentSet=ECCOArticle
s&version=1.0&docLevel=FASCIMILE>. {Boy
le_part_1672.pdf}
4. ^ "Robert Boyle". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6071/Robert-Boyle
5. ^ Farndon, J. Hydrogen. Benchmark
Books, 2000. Elements (Benchmark
Books).

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982)
[2] "Robert Boyle".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Boyl
e
[3]
http://www.answers.com/Robert+Boyle?cat=
technology
[4] "Hydrogen# ref-8". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen#_r
ef-8 (1671)
[5]
http://www.webelements.com/webelements/e
lements/text/H/hist.html (1671)
[6] Boyle, R.
Tracts ... Containing New Experiments,
Touching the Relation Betwixt Flame and
Air: And About Explosions. An
Hydrostatical Discourse Occasion’d by
Some Objections of Dr. Henry More ...
To Which Is Annex’t, An Hydrostatical
Letter ... New Experiments, of the
Positive Or Relative Levity of Bodies
Under Water; of the Air’s Spring on
Bodies Under Water; About the Differing
Pressure of Heavy Solids and Fluids.
Richard Davis,
1672. http://books.google.com/books?id=
_Dh8PQAACAAJ
Oxford, England4 (presumably) 
[1] Title page from: Boyle, Robert.
Tracts Written by the Honourable Robert
Boyle: Containing New Experiments
Touching the Relation Betwixt Flame and
Air : and About Explosions : an
Hydrostatical Discourse Occasion'd by
Some Objections of Dr. Henry More
against Some Explications of New
Experiments Made by the Author of These
Tracts : to Which Is Annex't, an
Hydrostatical Letter, Dilucidating an
Experiment About a Way of Weighing
Water in Water. London: Printed for
Richard Davis, 1673. Internet resource.
http://uci.worldcat.org/title/tracts-w
ritten-by-the-honourable-robert-boyle-co
ntaining-new-experiments-touching-the-re
lation-betwixt-flame-and-air-and-about-e
xplosions-an-hydrostatical-discourse-occ
asiond-by-some-objections-of-dr-henry-mo
re-against-some-explications-of-new-expe
riments-made-by-the-author-of-these-trac
ts-to-which-is-annext-an-hydrostatical-l
etter-dilucidating-an-experiment-about-a
-way-of-weighing-water-in-water/oclc/606
570832?referer=di&ht=edition PD
source: Boyle, Robert. Tracts Written
by the Honourable Robert Boyle:
Containing New Experiments Touching the
Relation Betwixt Flame and Air : and
About Explosions : an Hydrostatical
Discourse Occasion'd by Some Objections
of Dr. Henry More against Some
Explications of New Experiments Made by
the Author of These Tracts : to Which
Is Annex't, an Hydrostatical Letter,
Dilucidating an Experiment About a Way
of Weighing Water in Water. London:
Printed for Richard Davis, 1673.
Internet resource.
http://uci.worldcat.org/title/tracts-w
ritten-by-the-honourable-robert-boyle-co
ntaining-new-experiments-touching-the-re
lation-betwixt-flame-and-air-and-about-e
xplosions-an-hydrostatical-discourse-occ
asiond-by-some-objections-of-dr-henry-mo
re-against-some-explications-of-new-expe
riments-made-by-the-author-of-these-trac
ts-to-which-is-annext-an-hydrostatical-l
etter-dilucidating-an-experiment-about-a
-way-of-weighing-water-in-water/oclc/606
570832?referer=di&ht=edition

[2] Scientist: Boyle, Robert (1627 -
1691) Discipline(s): Chemistry ;
Physics Original Dimensions: Graphic:
13.1 x 8.2 cm / PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/cf/by_n
ame_display_results.cfm?scientist=Boyle
328 YBN
[02/19/1672 AD] 8 9 10 11 12 		1829) The corpuscular theory of light
is firmly established by Newton. Color
is determined to be a property of
light, not of objects. White light is
separated into and recreated from
primary colors. Light of different
colors is shown to refract at different
angles.4 5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Newton, "Draft of 'A Theory
Concerning Light and Colors"', Feb 6,
1671/2, in English, c. 5,137 words,
14pp. Shelfmark: MS Add. 3970.3,
ff.460-466 Location: Cambridge
University Library, Cambridge,
UK http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.u
k/view/texts/normalized/NATP00003
2. ^ Isaac Newton, "A Letter of Mr.
Isaac Newton … containing his New
Theory about Light and Colors", Feb 19,
1671/2, in English, c. 5,263 words,
13pp. Published in: Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society, No.
80 (19 Feb. 1671/2), pp.
3075-3087. http://www.newtonproject.sus
sex.ac.uk/view/texts/normalized/NATP0000
6 AND
http://books.google.com/books?id=L1Ito
Q2GjMAC&pg=PA3075
3. ^ Isaac Newton, "Mr Isaac Newtons
Answer to some Considerations of Robert
Hooke. ^ upon his doctrine of Light and
Colors", Philosophical Transactions of
the Royal Society, No. 88 (18 November
1672), pp.
5084-5103. http://www.newtonproject.sus
sex.ac.uk/view/texts/normalized/NATP0002
8
4. ^ Isaac Newton, "Draft of 'A Theory
Concerning Light and Colors"', Feb 6,
1671/2, in English, c. 5,137 words,
14pp. Shelfmark: MS Add. 3970.3,
ff.460-466 Location: Cambridge
University Library, Cambridge,
UK http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.u
k/view/texts/normalized/NATP00003
5. ^ Isaac Newton, "A Letter of Mr.
Isaac Newton … containing his New
Theory about Light and Colors", Feb 19,
1671/2, in English, c. 5,263 words,
13pp. Published in: Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society, No.
80 (19 Feb. 1671/2), pp.
3075-3087. http://www.newtonproject.sus
sex.ac.uk/view/texts/normalized/NATP0000
6
6. ^ Isaac Newton, "Mr Isaac Newtons
Answer to some Considerations of Robert
Hooke. ^ upon his doctrine of Light and
Colors", Philosophical Transactions of
the Royal Society, No. 88 (18 November
1672), pp.
5084-5103. http://www.newtonproject.sus
sex.ac.uk/view/texts/normalized/NATP0002
8
7. ^ "Sir Isaac Newton". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
8764/Sir-Isaac-Newton (02/19/1672)
8. ^ Isaac
Newton, "Draft of 'A Theory Concerning
Light and Colors"', Feb 6, 1671/2, in
English, c. 5,137 words, 14pp.
Shelfmark: MS Add. 3970.3, ff.460-466
Location: Cambridge University Library,
Cambridge,
UK http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.u
k/view/texts/normalized/NATP00003
9. ^ "Sir Isaac Newton". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 27 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/413189/Sir-Isaac-Newton/12246/In
fluence-of-the-scientific-revolution>.
10. ^ Isaac Newton, "A Letter of Mr.
Isaac Newton … containing his New
Theory about Light and Colors", Feb 19,
1671/2, in English, c. 5,263 words,
13pp. Published in: Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society, No.
80 (19 Feb. 1671/2), pp.
3075-3087. http://www.newtonproject.sus
sex.ac.uk/view/texts/normalized/NATP0000
6
11. ^ "Sir Isaac Newton".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 27 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/413189/Sir-Isaac-Newton/12246/In
fluence-of-the-scientific-revolution>.
12. ^ Isaac Newton, "A Letter of Mr.
Isaac Newton … containing his New
Theory about Light and Colors", Feb 19,
1671/2, in English, c. 5,263 words,
13pp. Published in: Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society, No.
80 (19 Feb. 1671/2), pp.
3075-3087. http://www.newtonproject.sus
sex.ac.uk/view/texts/normalized/NATP0000
6 AND
http://books.google.com/books?id=L1Ito
Q2GjMAC&pg=PA3075

MORE INFO
[1] "Isaac Newton". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newto
n
[2] "Sir Isaac Newton". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Isaa
c_Newton
[3] "binomial theorem". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
9241/binomial-theorem
[4]
http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/
Biographies/Newton.html
[5]
http://www.newton.cam.ac.uk/newtlife.htm
l
[6] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p148
[7] Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp148-154.
(02/19/1672)
Cambridge, England7  
[1] Isaac Newton, ''A Letter of Mr.
Isaac Newton … containing his New
Theory about Light and Colors'', Feb
19, 1671/2, in English, c. 5,263 words,
13pp. Published in: Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society, No.
80 (19 Feb. 1671/2), pp.
3075-3087. http://www.newtonproject.sus
sex.ac.uk/view/texts/normalized/NATP0000
6 AND
http://books.google.com/books?id=L1Ito
Q2GjMAC&pg=PA3075 PD AND Description
Isaac Newton Date 1689 Author
Godfrey Kneller PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=L1ItoQ2GjMAC&pg=PA3075http://en.wikiped
ia.org/wiki/Image:GodfreyKneller-IsaacNe
wton-1689.jpg

[2] Isaac Newton, ''Draft of 'A Theory
Concerning Light and Colors''', Feb 6,
1671/2, in English, c. 5,137 words,
14pp. Shelfmark: MS Add. 3970.3,
ff.460-466 Location: Cambridge
University Library, Cambridge,
UK http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.u
k/view/texts/normalized/NATP00003 PD
source: http://www.newtonproject.sussex.
ac.uk/view/texts/normalized/NATP00003
328 YBN
[1672 AD] 5 		1731) The scale of our star system is
measured.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isobel Black Gill, David Gill,
"Six Months in Ascension",
1878. http://books.google.com/books?id=
DwJFAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=gill
+ascension+date:1878-1878&lr=&ei=EsCISaS
VA5OmkQTSoKSXBg
2. ^ Isobel Black Gill, David Gill,
"Six Months in Ascension",
1878. http://books.google.com/books?id=
DwJFAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=gill
+ascension+date:1878-1878&lr=&ei=EsCISaS
VA5OmkQTSoKSXBg
3. ^ "Giovanni Domenico Cassini".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giovanni_Do
menico_Cassini
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p140.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp132-133. (1672)
(1672)

MORE INFO
[1] "Gian Domenico Cassini".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
0655/Gian-Domenico-Cassini
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Giovanni+Domenico
+Cassini+?cat=technology
Paris, France3 ;Guiana, South America4
 
[1] Scientist: Cassini, Giovanni
Domenico (1625 - 1712) Discipline(s):
Astronomy ; Geodesy Print Artist: N.
Dupuis Medium: Engraving Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 14.3 x 10.2 cm /
Sheet: 24.6 x 16.2 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=c

[2] Scientist: Cassini, Giovanni
Domenico (1625 - 1712) Discipline(s):
Astronomy ; Geodesy Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 25.2 x 18.5 cm /
Sheet: 27.4 x 19.5 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=c
326 YBN
[1674 AD] 4 		1825) The element Oxygen is
identified.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "John Mayow". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
1617/John-Mayow
2. ^ "John Mayow". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/John+Mayow+?cat=t
echnology
3. ^ "John Mayow". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Mayow
4. ^ "John Mayow". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/John+Mayow+?cat=t
echnology (1674)
Oxford, England3  
[1] John Mayow PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:John_Mayow.jpg

[2] John Mayow, 1641-1679. Tractatus
quinque medico-physici. [Five
medico-physical tracts] Oxford: E
Theatro Sheldoniano, 1674. Gift of
John F. Fulton. PD
source: http://www.med.yale.edu/library/
historical/founders/images/tractatus.jpg

324 YBN
[1676 AD] 15 16 		1851) The speed of light is shown to be
finite and is measured by subtracting
the time it takes for the moon of
Jupiter, Io, to enter and exit the
shadow of Jupiter when the Earth is
moving toward Jupiter, from the time it
takes when the Earth is moving away
from Jupiter.9 10 11 12
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Olaus Roemer". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Olaus+Roemer?cat=
technology
2. ^ "Ole Romer". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-908
3854/Ole-Romer
3. ^ "Demonstration touchant le
mouvement de la lumiere trouvé par M.
Römer de l' Academie Royale des
Sciences", Journal des sçavans,
December 7,
1676 http://books.google.com/books?id=5
scUAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA484
4. ^ "A Demonstration concerning the
Motion of Light, communicated from
Paris" is published in the
"Philosophical Transactions of the
Royal Society" (No. 136) on June 25,
1677. http://books.google.com/books?id=
juU4AAAAMAAJ&pg=118
5. ^ "Olaus Roemer". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Olaus+Roemer?cat=
technology
6. ^ "Ole Romer". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-908
3854/Ole-Romer
7. ^ "Demonstration touchant le
mouvement de la lumiere trouvé par M.
Römer de l' Academie Royale des
Sciences", Journal des sçavans,
December 7,
1676 http://books.google.com/books?id=5
scUAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA484
8. ^ "A Demonstration concerning the
Motion of Light, communicated from
Paris" is published in the
"Philosophical Transactions of the
Royal Society" (No. 136) on June 25,
1677. http://books.google.com/books?id=
juU4AAAAMAAJ&pg=118
9. ^ "Olaus Roemer". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Olaus+Roemer?cat=
technology
10. ^ "Ole Romer". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-908
3854/Ole-Romer
11. ^ "Demonstration touchant le
mouvement de la lumiere trouvé par M.
Römer de l' Academie Royale des
Sciences", Journal des sçavans,
December 7,
1676 http://books.google.com/books?id=5
scUAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA484
12. ^ "A Demonstration concerning the
Motion of Light, communicated from
Paris" is published in the
"Philosophical Transactions of the
Royal Society" (No. 136) on June 25,
1677. http://books.google.com/books?id=
juU4AAAAMAAJ&pg=118
13. ^ William Tobin, "The Life and
Science of Léon Foucault", Cambridge
University Press, 2003, p118.
14. ^ "Olaus
Roemer". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Olaus+Roemer?cat=
technology
15. ^ "Olaus Roemer". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Olaus+Roemer?cat=
technology (1676)
16. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp154-155. (1676)
(1676)
(Paris Observatory13 ) Paris, France14
 
[1] ''Demonstration touchant le
mouvement de la lumiere trouvé par M.
Römer de l' Academie Royale des
Sciences'', Journal des sçavans,
December 7,
1676 http://books.google.com/books?id=5
scUAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA484 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=5scUAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA484

[2] Ole Rømer PD
source: http://www.rundetaarn.dk/dansk/o
bservatorium/grafik/roemer1.jpg
323 YBN
[1677 AD] 3 		1784) Sperm cells are observed.1
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ "Leeuwenhoek". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Leeuwenhoek?cat=h
ealth
2. ^ "Leeuwenhoek". Encyclopedia of
Public Health. The Gale Group, Inc,
2002. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Leeuwenhoek?cat=h
ealth
3. ^ "Leeuwenhoek". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Leeuwenhoek?cat=h
ealth (1677)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982)
[2] "Anton van Leeuwenhoek".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anton_van_L
eeuwenhoek
Delft, Netherlands2  
[1] Figure 2. from Clarke, Gary N.
“A.R.T. and History, 1678–1978.”
Human Reproduction 21.7 (2006):
1645–1650. Van Leeuwenhoek’s
drawings of spermatozoa. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://humrep.oxfordjournals.org
/content/21/7/1645/F2.large.jpg

[2] Spermatozoa (Dutch =
''zaaddiertjes'') after an image
published in Phil.Trans. XII,nov. 1678)
: 1-4 Human, 5-8 Dog. PD
source: http://www.euronet.nl/users/warn
ar/leeuwenhoek.html
322 YBN
[1678 AD] 6 7 8 9 10 11 		1794) The helical spring.1 2 3
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^ Hooke, R. Lectures De Potentia
Restitutiva, Or of Spring Explaining
the Power of Springing Bodies. John
Martyn,
1678. http://books.google.com/books?id=
LAtPAAAAcAAJ
2. ^ "Robert Hooke". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Robert+Hooke?cat=
technology
3. ^
http://freespace.virgin.net/ric.martin/v
ectis/hookeweb/roberthooke.htm
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp144-145.
5. ^
http://freespace.virgin.net/ric.martin/v
ectis/hookeweb/roberthooke.htm
6. ^ Hooke, R. Lectures De Potentia
Restitutiva, Or of Spring Explaining
the Power of Springing Bodies. John
Martyn,
1678. http://books.google.com/books?id=
LAtPAAAAcAAJ
7. ^
http://freespace.virgin.net/ric.martin/v
ectis/hookeweb/roberthooke.htm (1657)
8. ^
Nicholson, W., "An Account of the
Invention of the Balance Spring, and
the Determination of the Conditions of
its Isochronism in wide and narrow
Vibrations...", Journal of Natural
Philosophy, Chemistry and the Arts. G.
G. and J. Robinson, 1806. Landmarks II,
Scientific Journals.,
p363. http://books.google.com/books?id=
6GcxAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA363
9. ^ "Hooke, Robert", Encyclopaedia
Britannica: Or, A Dictionary of Arts,
Sciences, and Miscellaneous Literature,
Enlarged and Improved. A. Constable,
1823. Encyclopaedia Britannica: Or, A
Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, and
Miscellaneous Literature, Enlarged and
Improved.,
p592-593. http://books.google.com/books
?id=GMsnAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA592
10. ^ Patterson, Louise Diehl.
�Pendulums of Wren and Hooke.�
Osiris 10 (1952):
277�321. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
301817
11. ^ Patterson, Louise Diehl.
�Pendulums of Wren and Hooke.�
Osiris 10 (1952):
277�321. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
301817

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.roberthooke.org.uk/
London, England (presumably)4 |(if
1657:) Oxford, England (presumably)5
 
[1] Plate to Hooke's Lecture of Spring
1678 PD
source: http://www1.umn.edu/ships/module
s/phys/hooke/images/Hooke1678.jpg

[2] Hooke memorial window, St Helen's
Bishopsgate (now
destroyed) http://www.roberthooke.org.u
k/
on http://freespace.virgin.net/ric.mart
in/vectis/hookeweb/roberthooke.htm PD
source: http://freespace.virgin.net/ric.
martin/vectis/hookeweb/roberthooke.htm
322 YBN
[1678 AD] 4 5 		1871) A catalog of southern hemisphere
stars.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Edmond Halley". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8943/Edmond-Halley
2. ^ Halley, E. Catalogus Stellarum
Australium: Sive, Supplementum Catalogi
Tychenici, Exhibens Longitudines Et
Latitudines Stellarum Fixarum, Quae,
Prope Polum Antarcticum Sitae, in
Horizonte Uraniburgico Tychoni
Inconspicuae Fuere, Accurato Calculo Ex
Distantiis Supputatas, & Ad Annum 1677
Completum correctas...Accedit
Appendicula De Rebus Quibusdam
Astronomicis... Typis T. James,
1679. http://books.google.com/books?id=
QVg4AAAAMAAJ
3. ^ "Edmund Halley". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Edmund+Halley+?ca
t=technology
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp159-160. (1678)
(1678)
5. ^ "Edmond Halley". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8943/Edmond-Halley (late 1678)

MORE INFO
[1] "St. Helena". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._Helena
London, England3 (presumably) 
[1] Title page of: Halley, E.
Catalogus Stellarum Australium: Sive,
Supplementum Catalogi Tychenici,
Exhibens Longitudines Et Latitudines
Stellarum Fixarum, Quae, Prope Polum
Antarcticum Sitae, in Horizonte
Uraniburgico Tychoni Inconspicuae
Fuere, Accurato Calculo Ex Distantiis
Supputatas, & Ad Annum 1677 Completum
correctas...Accedit Appendicula De
Rebus Quibusdam Astronomicis... Typis
T. James,
1679. http://books.google.com/books?id=
QVg4AAAAMAAJ PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Edmund_Halley.gif

[2] Portrait of Edmond Halley painted
around 1687 by Thomas Murray (Royal
Society, London) uploaded from
http://www.phys.uu.nl/~vgent/astrology/n
ewton.htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Edmond_Halley_5.jpg
322 YBN
[1678 AD] 7 		3592) Direct neuron activation (or
direct neuron writing). Jan Swammerdam
(Yon4 SVoMRDoM) contracts a muscle
with electricity.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ John Joseph Fahie, "A History of
Electric Telegraphy, to the Year 1837",
E. & F. N. Spon,
1884. http://books.google.com/books?id=
0Mo3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=A+Hi
story+of+Electric+Telegraphy+to+the+year
+1837&ei=esfUSJWpC6K-tgOhnYWOBA
2. ^ John Joseph Fahie, "A History of
Electric Telegraphy, to the Year 1837",
E. & F. N. Spon,
1884. http://books.google.com/books?id=
0Mo3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=A+Hi
story+of+Electric+Telegraphy+to+the+year
+1837&ei=esfUSJWpC6K-tgOhnYWOBA
3. ^ John Joseph Fahie, "A History of
Electric Telegraphy, to the Year 1837",
E. & F. N. Spon,
1884. http://books.google.com/books?id=
0Mo3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=A+Hi
story+of+Electric+Telegraphy+to+the+year
+1837&ei=esfUSJWpC6K-tgOhnYWOBA
4. ^ Ted Huntington
5. ^ John Joseph Fahie, "A
History of Electric Telegraphy, to the
Year 1837", E. & F. N. Spon,
1884. http://books.google.com/books?id=
0Mo3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=A+Hi
story+of+Electric+Telegraphy+to+the+year
+1837&ei=esfUSJWpC6K-tgOhnYWOBA
6. ^ "Jan Swammerdam". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
0581/Jan-Swammerdam
7. ^ John Joseph Fahie, "A History of
Electric Telegraphy, to the Year 1837",
E. & F. N. Spon,
1884. http://books.google.com/books?id=
0Mo3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=A+Hi
story+of+Electric+Telegraphy+to+the+year
+1837&ei=esfUSJWpC6K-tgOhnYWOBA {1678}"

MORE INFO
[1] "Jan Swammerdam". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jan_Swammer
dam
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Jan+Swammerdam+?c
at=technology
[3]
http://www.janswammerdam.net/portrait.ht
ml
[4] "Apothecary". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apothecary
[5]
http://www.library.umass.edu/spcoll/exhi
bits/herbal/swammerdam.htm
[6] "Jan Swammerdam". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
0581/Jan-Swammerdam (1672)
[7] "Electricity
and Magnetism" Amédée Guillemin,
translated by Silvanus P. Thompson,
B.A., D.Sc., F.R.A.S. Macmillan and
Co., London, 1891.
http://books.google.com/books?id=iHg9A
QAAIAAJ
[8]
http://www.telephonecollecting.org/feeli
ng.htm
Amsterdam, Netherlands6
(presumably) 
[1] One of Galvani’s decisive
experiments was to show that movement
could be induced by stroking an iron
plate against a brass hook inserted
into the frog’s spinal column, which
generated a small electric current. In
one version of Swammerdam’s nerve
muscle experiment, the nerve was
suspended in a brass hook, which was
then stroked with a silver
wire: PD/Corel
source: http://www.janswammerdam.net/Ima
ges/Fig4.jpg
318 YBN
[03/03/1682 AD] 6 7 8 9 		1788) The cell nucleus is described.3 4

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Leeuwenhoek, Antonie van, and
Johan Arnold Langerak. Antonii à
Leeuwenhoeck ... Opera Omnia, Seu
Arcana Naturae, Ope Exactissimorum
Microscopiorum Detecta, Experimentis
Variis Comprobata, Epistolis, Ad Varios
Illustres Viros, Ut Et Ad Integram,
Quae Londini Floret, Sapientem
Societatem, Cujus Membrum Est, Datis,
Comprehensa, et. ^ Quatuor Tomis
Distincta. Editio novissima, prioribus
emendatior, cum indicibus cuique tomo
accommodatis. Lugduni Batavorum: apud
Joh. Arnold Langerak, 1722, p213.
http://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/0
09289705 {Leeuwenhoek_Opera_Omnia_Seu_A
rcana_Naturae_1719.pdf}
2. ^ Leeuwenhoek, A. van: Opera Omnia,
seu Arcana Naturae ope exactissimorum
Microscopiorum detecta, experimentis
variis comprobata, Epistolis ad varios
illustres viros., Langerak, 1722 ,
p51.
http://books.google.com/books?id=0Zs_A
AAAcAAJ {Leeuwenhoek_Opera_Omnia_Seu_Ar
cana_Naturae_1722.pdf} Cited after:
Dieter Gerlach, Geschichte der
Mikroskopie. Verlag Harry Deutsch,
Frankfurt am Main, Germany, 2009. ISBN
978-3-8171-1781-9.
3. ^ Leeuwenhoek, Antonie van, and
Johan Arnold Langerak. Antonii à
Leeuwenhoeck ... Opera Omnia, Seu
Arcana Naturae, Ope Exactissimorum
Microscopiorum Detecta, Experimentis
Variis Comprobata, Epistolis, Ad Varios
Illustres Viros, Ut Et Ad Integram,
Quae Londini Floret, Sapientem
Societatem, Cujus Membrum Est, Datis,
Comprehensa, et. ^ Quatuor Tomis
Distincta. Editio novissima, prioribus
emendatior, cum indicibus cuique tomo
accommodatis. Lugduni Batavorum: apud
Joh. Arnold Langerak, 1722, p213.
http://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/0
09289705 {Leeuwenhoek_Opera_Omnia_Seu_A
rcana_Naturae_1719.pdf}
4. ^ Leeuwenhoek, A. van: Opera Omnia,
seu Arcana Naturae ope exactissimorum
Microscopiorum detecta, experimentis
variis comprobata, Epistolis ad varios
illustres viros., Langerak, 1722 ,
p51.
http://books.google.com/books?id=0Zs_A
AAAcAAJ {Leeuwenhoek_Opera_Omnia_Seu_Ar
cana_Naturae_1722.pdf} Cited after:
Dieter Gerlach, Geschichte der
Mikroskopie. Verlag Harry Deutsch,
Frankfurt am Main, Germany, 2009. ISBN
978-3-8171-1781-9.
5. ^ "Leeuwenhoek". Encyclopedia of
Public Health. The Gale Group, Inc,
2002. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Leeuwenhoek?cat=h
ealth
6. ^ Henry Harris, "The Birth of the
Cell",
p76 http://books.google.com/books?id=zV
sxFp3CyngC&pg=PA76
7. ^
http://www.med-ed.virginia.edu/courses/c
ell/resources/blooddisc.htm?HeaderFooter
=0
8. ^ Leeuwenhoek, A. van: Opera Omnia,
seu Arcana Naturae ope exactissimorum
Microscopiorum detecta, experimentis
variis comprobata, Epistolis ad varios
illustres viros., Langerak, 1722 ,
p51.
http://books.google.com/books?id=0Zs_A
AAAcAAJ {Leeuwenhoek_Opera_Omnia_Seu_Ar
cana_Naturae_1722.pdf} Cited after:
Dieter Gerlach, Geschichte der
Mikroskopie. Verlag Harry Deutsch,
Frankfurt am Main, Germany, 2009. ISBN
978-3-8171-1781-9.
9. ^ Leeuwenhoek, Antonie van, and
Johan Arnold Langerak. Antonii à
Leeuwenhoeck ... Opera Omnia, Seu
Arcana Naturae, Ope Exactissimorum
Microscopiorum Detecta, Experimentis
Variis Comprobata, Epistolis, Ad Varios
Illustres Viros, Ut Et Ad Integram,
Quae Londini Floret, Sapientem
Societatem, Cujus Membrum Est, Datis,
Comprehensa, et. ^ Quatuor Tomis
Distincta. Editio novissima, prioribus
emendatior, cum indicibus cuique tomo
accommodatis. Lugduni Batavorum: apud
Joh. Arnold Langerak, 1722, p213.
http://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/0
09289705 {Leeuwenhoek_Opera_Omnia_Seu_A
rcana_Naturae_1719.pdf}

MORE INFO
[1] "Anton van Leeuwenhoek".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anton_van_L
eeuwenhoek
[2] "Haberdasher". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haberdasher

[3] "Leeuwenhoek". Encyclopedia of the
Early Modern World. The Gale Group,
Inc, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Leeuwenhoek?cat=h
ealth (10/09/1676 (letter to Royal
Society)
[4] "Leeuwenhoek". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Leeuwenhoek?cat=h
ealth (10/09/1676 (letter to Royal
Society)
Delft, Netherlands5  
[1] Leeuwenhoek, A. van: Opera Omnia,
seu Arcana Naturae ope exactissimorum
Microscopiorum detecta, experimentis
variis comprobata, Epistolis ad varios
illustres viros. J. Arnold et Delphis,
A. Beman, Lugdinum Batavorum
1719–1730, p51.
http://books.google.com/books?id=0Zs_A
AAAcAAJ {Leeuwenhoek_Opera_Omnia_Seu_Ar
cana_Naturae_1722.pdf} PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=0Zs_AAAAcAAJ

[2] Description English: Red Blood
cells from Salmon, with ''Lumen'' (cell
nuclei). Deutsch: Rote Blutkörperchen
vom Lachs, mit ''Lumen''
(Zellkernen). Date Leeuwenhoek lived
from 1632 - 1723.. Source
Dieter Gerlach, Geschichte der
Mikroskopie. Verlag Harry Deutsch,
Frankfurt am Main, Germany, 2009. ISBN
978-3-8171-1781-9.(Accompanying
CD-ROM). Source given in there:
Leeuwenhoek, A. van: Opera Omnia, seu
Arcana Naturae ope exactissimorum
Microscopiorum detecta, experimentis
variis comprobata, Epistolis ad varios
illustres viros. J. Arnold et Delphis,
A. Beman, Lugdinum Batavorum
1719–1730. – Reprint: Georg Olms
Verlag, Hildesheim, New York
1971–1972 Author Antoni van
Leeuwenhoek PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/39/Leeuwenhoek1719RedBlo
odCells.jpg
317 YBN
[09/12/1683 AD] 6 7 		1785) The first picture of bacteria.3 4

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Antonie van Leeuwenhoek".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7611/Antonie-van-Leeuwenhoek
2. ^ Egerton, Frank N. "A history of
the ecological sciences, part 19:
Leeuwenhoek's microscopic natural
history." Bulletin of the Ecological
Society of America 87.1 (2006):
47-58. http://esapubs.org/bulletin/curr
ent/history_list/history19.pdf
3. ^ "Antonie van Leeuwenhoek".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7611/Antonie-van-Leeuwenhoek
4. ^ Egerton, Frank N. "A history of
the ecological sciences, part 19:
Leeuwenhoek's microscopic natural
history." Bulletin of the Ecological
Society of America 87.1 (2006):
47-58. http://esapubs.org/bulletin/curr
ent/history_list/history19.pdf
5. ^ "Leeuwenhoek". Encyclopedia of
Public Health. The Gale Group, Inc,
2002. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Leeuwenhoek?cat=h
ealth
6. ^
http://www.euronet.nl/users/warnar/leeuw
enhoek.html (09/12/1683)
7. ^ Egerton, Frank N. "A
history of the ecological sciences,
part 19: Leeuwenhoek's microscopic
natural history." Bulletin of the
Ecological Society of America 87.1
(2006):
47-58. http://esapubs.org/bulletin/curr
ent/history_list/history19.pdf

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982)
[2] "Anton van Leeuwenhoek".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anton_van_L
eeuwenhoek
[3] "Haberdasher". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haberdasher

Delft, Netherlands5  
[1] Fig. 7. Bacteria from a human
mouth, letter of 17 September 1683. A
is a motile Bacillus, B is Selenomonas
sputigena, with C…D its path, E is
Micrococci, F is Leptothrix buccalis,
and G is a spirochaete, probably
Spirochaeta buccalis (Dobell 1932:Plate
24 or Leeuwenhoek 1939–1999, IV:Plate
8). PD
source: http://www.madrimasd.org/blogs/m
icrobiologia/wp-content/blogs.dir/110/fi
les/1431/o_Leeuwenhoek.jpg

[2] Fig. 7. Bacteria from a human
mouth, letter of 17 September 1683. A
is a motile Bacillus, B is Selenomonas
sputigena, with C…D its path, E is
Micrococci, F is Leptothrix buccalis,
and G is a spirochaete, probably
Spirochaeta buccalis (Dobell 1932:Plate
24 or Leeuwenhoek 1939-1999, IV:Plate
8). COPYRIGHTED?
source: http://esapubs.org/bulletin/back
issues/087-1/bulletin_jan2006.htm
313 YBN
[1687 AD] 7 		1845) The law of gravitation by Newton;
that all matter attracts other matter
with a force that is the product of
their masses, and the inverse of their
distance squared.4

Newton also theorizes that light
particles are affected by gravity.5
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ (Liber I Prop. LXIX. Theor.
XXIX.) Isaac Newton, Philosophiae
Naturalis Principia Mathematica.
(London: 1687),
p190. http://books.google.com/books?id=
qjEyAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA190
AND http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.
uk/catalogue/record/NATP00071 English
(note: Third Edition): Newton, I., A.
Motte, and J. Machin. The Mathematical
Principles of Natural Philosophy. B.
Motte, 1729. The Mathematical
Principles of Natural Philosophy,
Volume 1,
p259. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Tm0FAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA259
2. ^ (Liber I Prop. LXIX. Theor. XXIX.)
Isaac Newton, Philosophiae Naturalis
Principia Mathematica. (London: 1687),
p190. http://books.google.com/books?id=
qjEyAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA190
AND http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.
uk/catalogue/record/NATP00071 English
(note: Third Edition): Newton, I., A.
Motte, and J. Machin. The Mathematical
Principles of Natural Philosophy. B.
Motte, 1729. The Mathematical
Principles of Natural Philosophy,
Volume 1,
p259. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Tm0FAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA259
3. ^ (Liber I Prop. LXIX. Theor. XXIX.)
Isaac Newton, Philosophiae Naturalis
Principia Mathematica. (London: 1687),
p190. http://books.google.com/books?id=
qjEyAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA190
AND http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.
uk/catalogue/record/NATP00071 English
(note: Third Edition): Newton, I., A.
Motte, and J. Machin. The Mathematical
Principles of Natural Philosophy. B.
Motte, 1729. The Mathematical
Principles of Natural Philosophy,
Volume 1,
p259. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Tm0FAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA259
4. ^ (Liber I Prop. LXIX. Theor. XXIX.)
Isaac Newton, Philosophiae Naturalis
Principia Mathematica. (London: 1687),
p190. http://books.google.com/books?id=
qjEyAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA190
AND http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.
uk/catalogue/record/NATP00071 English
(note: Third Edition): Newton, I., A.
Motte, and J. Machin. The Mathematical
Principles of Natural Philosophy. B.
Motte, 1729. The Mathematical
Principles of Natural Philosophy,
Volume 1,
p259. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Tm0FAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA259
5. ^ (De Motu Corporum, Liber Primus,
Prop XCVI Scholium) Isaac Newton,
Philosophiae Naturalis Principia
Mathematica. (London: 1687),
p34. http://books.google.com/books?id=q
jEyAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA34
AND http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.
uk/catalogue/record/NATP00071
English: Newton, I., A. Motte, and
J. Machin. The Mathematical Principles
of Natural Philosophy. B. Motte, 1729.
The Mathematical Principles of Natural
Philosophy, Volume 1,
p316-317. http://books.google.com/books
?id=Tm0FAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA316
6. ^ "Sir Isaac Newton". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
8764/Sir-Isaac-Newton
7. ^
Newton_isaac_letters_739364699_content.p
df Annals of Science, The Newton
Letters Vols I and II, G Burniston
Brown, 06/01/1960 (publishes: 1687)

MORE INFO
[1] "Sir Isaac Newton".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Isaa
c_Newton
[2] "binomial theorem". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
9241/binomial-theorem
[3]
http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/
Biographies/Newton.html
[4]
http://www.newton.cam.ac.uk/newtlife.htm
l
[5]
http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.uk/pr
ism.php?id=47
[6]
http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.uk/te
xts/viewtext.php?id=NATP00006&mode=norma
lized
[7]
http://www.jstor.org/view/03702316/ap000
007/00a00090/0
[8] "Niccolo Zucchi". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8475/Niccolo-Zucchi
[9]
http://grus.berkeley.edu/~jrg/TelescopeH
istory/Early_Period.html
[10]
http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.uk/pr
ism.php?id=15
[11] "acoustics". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-640
48/acoustics
[12] (Scholium.) Newton, I., and A.
Motte. The Principia. Prometheus Books,
1848. Great Minds Series., p182
Cambridge, England6 (presumably) 
[1] Sir Isaac Newton's own first
edition copy of his Philosophiae
Naturalis Principia Mathematica with
his handwritten corrections for the
second edition. The first edition was
published under the imprint of Samuel
Pepys who was president of the Royal
Society. By the time of the second
edition, Newton himself had become
president of the Royal Society, as
noted in his corrections. The book can
be seen in the Wren Library of Trinity
College, Cambridge. CC
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:NewtonsPrincipia.jpg

[2] Description Isaac Newton Date
1689 Author Godfrey Kneller PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg
310 YBN
[1690 AD] 3 		1200) A gear-cutting machine.1
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ "Polhem". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polhem
3. ^ "Polhem". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polhem
Sweden2  
[1] Christopher Polhem in 1741. PD
AND On Sunday, December 18
inaugurated the exhibition of
Christopher Polhem On Technical ...
Class 5 pilot from Klastorp School had
the honor to visit it before,
photographed, snabbguidas and also
showcase their inventions. There are
many parts of the mechanical alphabet,
mine lifts, computer games, one point
for creative children and adolescents
mm. UNKNOWN
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Christopher_Polhem_painted_by_Johan_H
enrik_Scheffel_1741.jpghttp://kungsholms
uppfinnare.se/wp-content/uploads/2011/12
/IMG_1050.jpg

[2] Christopher Polhem in 1741. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Christopher_Polhem_painted_by_Johan_H
enrik_Scheffel_1741.jpg
310 YBN
[1690 AD] 3 		1864) The steam engine is reinvented.1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Dugald Clerks, "The Gas Engine",
Scientific American Supplement, No.
484, April 11,
1885 http://www.gutenberg.org/files/139
39/13939-h/13939-h.htm
2. ^ "Denis Papin". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denis_Papin

3. ^ "Denis Papin". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Denis%20Papin
(1690)

MORE INFO
[1] "Denis Papin". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
8341/Denis-Papin
[2]
http://www.eng.cam.ac.uk/DesignOffice/pr
ojects/cecil/history.html
Leipzig, Germany2  
[1] First Piston Steam Engine, by
Papin. 19th century encyclopedia. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Papinengine.jpg

[2] subject: Denis Papin, unknown
artist, 1689. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Denis_Papin.jpg
302 YBN
[1698 AD] 8 		1777) The size and distance of other
stars is measured.4 5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Sagan, Soter, Druyan, "Cosmos",
1984.
2. ^ Thomas Dick, "The sidereal heavens
and other subjects connected with
astronomy: as ...", 1844,
p63. books.google.com/books?id=a-gRAAAA
YAAJ&pg=PA63
3. ^ Huygens, "Cosmotheoros, Or
Conjectures Concerning the Planetary
Worlds and Their Inhabitants",
1699. Huygens, Christiaan.
Cosmotheoros: or, conjectures
concerning the inhabitants of the
planets. Translated from the Latin of
Christian Huygens. A new edition,
corrected. Glasgow, Mcdlxii (1762).
Eighteenth Century Collections Online.
Gale. UC Irvine. 27 May 2012, Book 2,
p116.
http://find.galegroup.com/ecco/infomar
k.do?&source=gale&prodId=ECCO&userGroupN
ame=ucirvine&tabID=T001&docId=CW33099415
61&type=multipage&contentSet=ECCOArticle
s&version=1.0&docLevel=FASCIMILE {Huyge
ns_Cosmotheoros.pdf}
4. ^ Sagan, Soter, Druyan, "Cosmos",
1984.
5. ^ Thomas Dick, "The sidereal heavens
and other subjects connected with
astronomy: as ...", 1844,
p63. books.google.com/books?id=a-gRAAAA
YAAJ&pg=PA63
6. ^ Huygens, "Cosmotheoros, Or
Conjectures Concerning the Planetary
Worlds and Their Inhabitants",
1699. Huygens, Christiaan.
Cosmotheoros: or, conjectures
concerning the inhabitants of the
planets. Translated from the Latin of
Christian Huygens. A new edition,
corrected. Glasgow, Mcdlxii (1762).
Eighteenth Century Collections Online.
Gale. UC Irvine. 27 May 2012, Book 2,
p116.
http://find.galegroup.com/ecco/infomar
k.do?&source=gale&prodId=ECCO&userGroupN
ame=ucirvine&tabID=T001&docId=CW33099415
61&type=multipage&contentSet=ECCOArticle
s&version=1.0&docLevel=FASCIMILE {Huyge
ns_Cosmotheoros.pdf}
7. ^ "Christiaan Huygens". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
1658/Christiaan-Huygens
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp138-140. (1698)
(1698)

MORE INFO
[1] "Christiaan Huygens".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christiaan_
Huygens
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Christiaan+Huygen
s?cat=technology
[3]
http://books.google.com/books?id=ntZwxtt
ZF-sC&pg=PA64&lpg=PA64&dq=huygens+distan
ce+stars+sirius&source=web&ots=LS3xk1VXz
b&sig=dggeaF1_TGO8d12SB7CC9-t0Wxg
The Hague, Netherlands7
(presumably) 
[1] Cosmotheoros (1698) PD
source: http://www.phys.uu.nl/~huygens/c
osmotheoros_en.htm

[2] The Proportion of the Magnitude of
the Planets, in respect of one another,
and the Sun PD
source: http://www.phys.uu.nl/~huygens/c
osmotheoros_nl.htm
301 YBN
[1699 AD] 3 4 		2008) The theory that color is
determined by the frequency of light.1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Optics in the age of Euler,
Casper Hakfoort, 1995, p75.
2. ^ Optics in
the age of Euler, Casper Hakfoort,
1995, p57.
3. ^ Optics in the age of Euler,
Casper Hakfoort, 1995, p56. (1699)
4. ^
"Malebranche". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malebranche
 (1699)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/topic/nicolas-mal
ebranche
[2] light_color_malebranche_Newton.pdf
http://www.springerlink.com/content/n572
10216334v842/ VI From Newton to
Young Journal Documenta
Ophthalmologica Publisher Springer
Netherlands ISSN 0012-4486 (Print)
1573-2622 (Online) Issue Volume 96,
Numbers 1-3 / July,
1999 DOI 10.1023/A:1017248722519 Pages
88-111 Subject
Collection Medicine SpringerLink
Date Monday, October 25, 2004
Paris, France2  
[1] Engraving by N. Edelinck after I.
B. Santerre - Nicolas Malebranche PD
source: http://www.archiv.cas.cz/english
/foto/malebra.htm
300 YBN
[1700 AD] 3 		6251) The piano.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Mary Remnant, "Musical
Instruments", 1989, p91.
2. ^ Mary Remnant,
"Musical Instruments", 1989, p91.
3. ^ Mary
Remnant, "Musical Instruments", 1989,
p91. {1700}
Florence, Italy2  
[1] [t Note Remnant describes
apparently the same piao as ''The
oldest surviving piano, by Bartolomeo
Cristofori, Florence, 1720. New York
Metropolitan Museum of Art, Crosby
Brown Collection''] Description
English: Piano forte by Bartolomeo
Cristofori manufactured in 1722, Museo
Nazionale degli Strumenti Musicali di
Roma Date 28 January 2010 Source
Own work CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/32/Piano_forte_Cristofor
i_1722.JPG
295 YBN
[1705 AD] 3 		1872) The path of a comet is correctly
calculated.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Edmond Halley". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8943/Edmond-Halley
2. ^ "Edmond Halley". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8943/Edmond-Halley
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp159-160.

MORE INFO
[1] "Edmund Halley". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmund_Hall
ey
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Edmund+Halley+?ca
t=technology
London, England2 (presumably) 
[1] Halley's comet on the Bayeux
tapesry {ULSF: determine date} PD
source: http://classconnection.s3.amazon
aws.com/510/flashcards/1411510/jpg/pictu
re1061336605287772.jpg

[2] Halley's comet on the Bayeux
tapesry {ULSF: determine date} PD
source: http://rubens.anu.edu.au/htdocs/
laserdisk/0214/21434.JPG
287 YBN
[03/28/1713 AD] 7 		6594) The mass and density of the
planets are determined3 and the theory
that the Universe is made of mostly
empty space by Newton4 .
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ (Proposition VIII) Newton, I.
Philosophiae Naturalis Principia
Mathematica. sumptibus Societatis,
(Second edition), 1723,
p370-371. http://books.google.com/books
?id=3h9_GY8v-hgC&pg=PA370 AND Newton,
Isaac, Sir. Philosophi� naturalis
principia mathematica. Auctore Isaaco
Newtono, Equite Aurato. Editio secunda
auctior et emendatior. Cantabrigi�,
MDCCXIII. (1713). Eighteenth Century
Collections Online. Gale. UC Irvine. 27
Mar. 2013, p370-371. .
{Newton_Principia_Second_Edition_17130
328.pdf} For English see Third
Edition: Newton, I. The Mathematical
Principles of Natural Philosophy.
printed for Benjamin Motte, 1729. The
Mathematical Principles of Natural
Philosophy, Volume 2,
p228. http://books.google.com/books?id=
6EqxPav3vIsC&pg=PA228
2. ^ (Book III, Propositions X)
Newton, I. Philosophiae Naturalis
Principia Mathematica. sumptibus
Societatis, (Second edition), 1723,
p372-373. http://books.google.com/books
?id=3h9_GY8v-hgC&pg=PA372 AND: Newton,
Isaac, Sir. Philosophi� naturalis
principia mathematica. Auctore Isaaco
Newtono, Equite Aurato. Editio secunda
auctior et emendatior. Cantabrigi�,
MDCCXIII. (1713). Eighteenth Century
Collections Online. Gale. UC Irvine. 27
Mar. 2013, p372-373. .
{Newton_Principia_Second_Edition_17130
328.pdf} For English see Third
Edition: Newton, I. The Mathematical
Principles of Natural Philosophy.
printed for Benjamin Motte, 1729. The
Mathematical Principles of Natural
Philosophy, Volume 2,
p230-232. http://books.google.com/books
?id=6EqxPav3vIsC&pg=PA230
3. ^ (Proposition VIII) Newton, I.
Philosophiae Naturalis Principia
Mathematica. sumptibus Societatis,
(Second edition), 1723,
p370-371. http://books.google.com/books
?id=3h9_GY8v-hgC&pg=PA370 AND Newton,
Isaac, Sir. Philosophi� naturalis
principia mathematica. Auctore Isaaco
Newtono, Equite Aurato. Editio secunda
auctior et emendatior. Cantabrigi�,
MDCCXIII. (1713). Eighteenth Century
Collections Online. Gale. UC Irvine. 27
Mar. 2013, p370-371. .
{Newton_Principia_Second_Edition_17130
328.pdf} For English see Third
Edition: Newton, I. The Mathematical
Principles of Natural Philosophy.
printed for Benjamin Motte, 1729. The
Mathematical Principles of Natural
Philosophy, Volume 2,
p228. http://books.google.com/books?id=
6EqxPav3vIsC&pg=PA228
4. ^ (Book III, Propositions X)
Newton, I. Philosophiae Naturalis
Principia Mathematica. sumptibus
Societatis, (Second edition), 1723,
p372-373. http://books.google.com/books
?id=3h9_GY8v-hgC&pg=PA372 AND: Newton,
Isaac, Sir. Philosophi� naturalis
principia mathematica. Auctore Isaaco
Newtono, Equite Aurato. Editio secunda
auctior et emendatior. Cantabrigi�,
MDCCXIII. (1713). Eighteenth Century
Collections Online. Gale. UC Irvine. 27
Mar. 2013, p372-373. .
{Newton_Principia_Second_Edition_17130
328.pdf} For English see Third
Edition: Newton, I. The Mathematical
Principles of Natural Philosophy.
printed for Benjamin Motte, 1729. The
Mathematical Principles of Natural
Philosophy, Volume 2,
p230-232. http://books.google.com/books
?id=6EqxPav3vIsC&pg=PA230
5. ^ (Proposition VIII) Newton, I.
Philosophiae Naturalis Principia
Mathematica. sumptibus Societatis,
(Second edition), 1723,
p370-371. http://books.google.com/books
?id=3h9_GY8v-hgC&pg=PA370 AND Newton,
Isaac, Sir. Philosophi� naturalis
principia mathematica. Auctore Isaaco
Newtono, Equite Aurato. Editio secunda
auctior et emendatior. Cantabrigi�,
MDCCXIII. (1713). Eighteenth Century
Collections Online. Gale. UC Irvine. 27
Mar. 2013, p370-371. .
{Newton_Principia_Second_Edition_17130
328.pdf}
6. ^ "Sir Isaac Newton." Encyclop�dia
Britannica. Encyclop�dia Britannica
Online. Encyclop�dia Britannica Inc.,
2013. Web. 27 Mar. 2013.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/413189/Sir-Isaac-Newton>.
7. ^ (Proposition VIII) Newton, I.
Philosophiae Naturalis Principia
Mathematica. sumptibus Societatis,
(Second edition), 1723,
p370-371. http://books.google.com/books
?id=3h9_GY8v-hgC&pg=PA370 AND Newton,
Isaac, Sir. Philosophi� naturalis
principia mathematica. Auctore Isaaco
Newtono, Equite Aurato. Editio secunda
auctior et emendatior. Cantabrigi�,
MDCCXIII. (1713). Eighteenth Century
Collections Online. Gale. UC Irvine. 27
Mar. 2013, p370-371. .
{Newton_Principia_Second_Edition_17130
328.pdf} For English see Third
Edition: Newton, I. The Mathematical
Principles of Natural Philosophy.
printed for Benjamin Motte, 1729. The
Mathematical Principles of Natural
Philosophy, Volume 2,
p228. http://books.google.com/books?id=
6EqxPav3vIsC&pg=PA228

MORE INFO
[1] "Sir Isaac Newton".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Isaa
c_Newton
[2] "binomial theorem". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
9241/binomial-theorem
[3]
http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/
Biographies/Newton.html
[4]
http://www.newton.cam.ac.uk/newtlife.htm
l
[5]
http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.uk/pr
ism.php?id=47
[6]
http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.uk/te
xts/viewtext.php?id=NATP00006&mode=norma
lized
[7]
http://www.jstor.org/view/03702316/ap000
007/00a00090/0
[8] "Niccolo Zucchi". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8475/Niccolo-Zucchi
[9]
http://grus.berkeley.edu/~jrg/TelescopeH
istory/Early_Period.html
[10]
http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.uk/pr
ism.php?id=15
[11] "acoustics". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-640
48/acoustics
[12] (De Motu Corporum -Liber Primus-
Scholium) Isaac Newton, Philosophiae
Naturalis Principia Mathematica.
(London: 1687),
p34. http://books.google.com/books?id=q
jEyAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA34
AND http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.
uk/catalogue/record/NATP00071
[13] Sir Isaac Newton, The mathematical
principles of natural philosophy,
Volume 2, printed for Benjamin Motte,
1729,
p227-228. http://books.google.com/books
?id=6EqxPav3vIsC&pg=PA227
[14] "Ismael Bullialdus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ismael_Bull
ialdus
[15] Isaac Newton, "Opticks: Or, A
treatise of the Reflections,
Refractions, Inflexions and Colours of
Light. Also Two treatises of the
Species and Magnitude of Curvilinear
Figures", First Edition, (London:
1704),
p132. http://www.newtonproject.sussex.a
c.uk/catalogue/record/NATP00031
AND http://archive.org/details/optickso
rtreatis00newt
[16] Isaac Newton, "Opticks: Or, A
treatise of the Reflections,
Refractions, Inflexions and Colours of
Light. Also Two treatises of the
Species and Magnitude of Curvilinear
Figures", First Edition, (London:
1704) http://www.newtonproject.sussex.a
c.uk/catalogue/record/NATP00031
[17]
http://www.physics.odu.edu/~kuhn/PHYS101
/VisViva.html#ref
[18] "Isaac Newton". Encyclopedia of
the Early Modern World. The Gale Group,
Inc, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Isaac+Newton+?cat
=technology
[19]
http://books.google.com/books?id=Q7wkAAA
AMAAJ&pg=RA1-PA136&dq=aristotle+physics+
gravity+levity&as_brr=1
[20]
http://books.google.com/books?id=Q7wkAAA
AMAAJ&pg=RA1-PA141&lpg=RA1-PA141&dq=aris
totle+gravity+levity&source=web&ots=uMyd
iEAeSU&sig=7Jj8rcY4QjtyJC6olR_uyAt2KAE#P
RA1-PA141,M1
[21] "Isaac Newton". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newto
n
[22] "Edmund Halley". Who2?
Biographies. Who2?, 2008. Answers.com
2008.
http://www.answers.com/Edmund+Halley+?ca
t=technology
[23] The Mechanical Universe, Episode
18, Waves
[24]
http://www.mathpages.com/home/kmath109/k
math109.htm
[25] Tricker, R. A. R., "Early
Electrodynamics - The First Law of
Circulation", (Pergamon, NY), 1965, p4
(Dabam) London, England5 6  
[1] Newton, Isaac, Sir. Philosophiæ
naturalis principia mathematica.
Auctore Isaaco Newtono, Equite Aurato.
Editio secunda auctior et emendatior.
Cantabrigiæ, MDCCXIII. [1713].
Eighteenth Century Collections Online.
Gale. UC Irvine. 27 Mar. 2013,
p370-371. .
{Newton_Principia_Second_Edition_17130
328.pdf} PD
source: .

[2] Sir Isaac Newton's own first
edition copy of his Philosophiae
Naturalis Principia Mathematica with
his handwritten corrections for the
second edition. The first edition was
published under the imprint of Samuel
Pepys who was president of the Royal
Society. By the time of the second
edition, Newton himself had become
president of the Royal Society, as
noted in his corrections. The book can
be seen in the Wren Library of Trinity
College, Cambridge. CC
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:NewtonsPrincipia.jpg
282 YBN
[1718 AD] 7 8 		1876) The movement of the stars over
long periods of time is proven.4 5 6
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ Edmund Halley, "Considerations on
the Change of the Latitudes of Some of
the Principal Fixt Stars.", R. S. Sec.
Phil. Trans. 1717 30 351-363 736-738;
doi:10.1098/rstl.1717.0025
http://intl-rstl.royalsocietypublishin
g.org/citmgr?gca=roypt;30/351-363/736
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/103320
2. ^ Aitken, R. G., "Edmund Halley and
Stellar Proper Motions", Astronomical
Society of the Pacific Leaflets, Vol.
4, No. 164,
p.103. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du//full/1942ASPL....4..103A/0000106.000
.html
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp159-160.
4. ^ Edmund Halley,
"Considerations on the Change of the
Latitudes of Some of the Principal Fixt
Stars.", R. S. Sec. Phil. Trans. 1717
30 351-363 736-738;
doi:10.1098/rstl.1717.0025
http://intl-rstl.royalsocietypublishin
g.org/citmgr?gca=roypt;30/351-363/736
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/103320
5. ^ Aitken, R. G., "Edmund Halley and
Stellar Proper Motions", Astronomical
Society of the Pacific Leaflets, Vol.
4, No. 164,
p.103. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du//full/1942ASPL....4..103A/0000106.000
.html
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp159-160.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp159-160.
8. ^ Aitken, R.
G., "Edmund Halley and Stellar Proper
Motions", Astronomical Society of the
Pacific Leaflets, Vol. 4, No. 164,
p.103. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du//full/1942ASPL....4..103A/0000106.000
.html

MORE INFO
[1] "Edmond Halley". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8943/Edmond-Halley
[2] "Edmund Halley". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmund_Hall
ey
[3] "comet". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-911
0156/comet
[4] "Comet Halley". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet_Halle
y
 
[1] Description Comet P/Halley as
taken March 8, 1986 by W. Liller,
Easter Island, part of the
International Halley Watch (IHW) Large
Scale Phenomena Network. Source
NSSDC's Photo Gallery (NASA): *
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/photo_gallery
/photogallery-comets.html *
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image/planeta
ry/comet/lspn_comet_halley1.jpg Date
image taken on 8. Mar. 1986 Author
NASA/W. Liller Permission (Reusing
this image) Copyright information
from
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/photo_gallery
/photogallery-faq.html - All of the
images presented on NSSDC's Photo
Gallery are in the public domain. As
such, they may be used for any purpose.
[...] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Lspn_comet_halley.jpg

[2] Portrait of Edmond Halley painted
around 1687 by Thomas Murray (Royal
Society, London) uploaded from
http://www.phys.uu.nl/~vgent/astrology/n
ewton.htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Edmund_Halley.gif
275 YBN
[1725 AD] 3 		3604) A machine uses a perforated roll
of paper to form patterns in textiles.1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "textile." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 23 Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/589392/textile>.
2. ^ W. Maigne, "Dictionnaire classique
des origines, inventions & découvertes
dans les arts, les sciences, et les
lettres, présentant une exposition
dommaire des grandes conquétes du
génie de l'homme: ouvrage destiné aux
gens du monde et aux élèves des
écoles", Larousse et Boyer, 1864,
p614. http://books.google.com/books?id=
DOgIAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA614&dq=basile+bouchon+
lyon&lr=&as_brr=1&ei=KjLZSP_RKYXWsgOKouS
ZDg
3. ^ "textile." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 23 Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/589392/textile>. {1725}

MORE INFO
[1] "Basile Bouchon". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basile_Bouc
hon
[2]
http://cs-exhibitions.uni-klu.ac.at/inde
x.php?id=315
[3]
http://books.google.com/books?id=vf8tAAA
AIAAJ&pg=PA444&dq=basile+bouchon&as_brr=
1&ei=JjHZSLTaMYjutAP99KHeDg#PPA444,M1
Lyon, France2  
[1] Basile Bouchon's loom,
1725 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://cs-exhibitions.uni-klu.ac
.at/uploads/pics/Basile_Bouchons_loom_01
.jpg
267 YBN
[12/27/1733 AD] 4 5 		1965) The theory that electricity is
made of two different fluids.1 2
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ "Charles François de Cisternay
Du Fay". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Charles+Fran%C3%A
7ois+de+Cisternay+Du+Fay?cat=technology
2. ^ Du Fay, "V. A Letter from Mons. Du
Fay", Philosophical Transactions. N432,
Jan-Mar 1734, p258-266,p263. (p797 in
link) http://books.google.com/books?id=
sfMyAQAAMAAJ&pg=RA1-PA263
3. ^
http://www.sparkmuseum.com/BOOK_DUFAY.HT
M
4. ^ Du Fay, "V. A Letter from Mons. Du
Fay", Philosophical Transactions. N432,
Jan-Mar 1734, p258-266,p263. (p797 in
link) http://books.google.com/books?id=
sfMyAQAAMAAJ&pg=RA1-PA263
5. ^ "C. F. du Fay". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C._F._du_Fa
y (12/1733)
Paris, France3  
[1] Du Fay, ''V. A Letter from Mons. Du
Fay'', Philosophical Transactions.
N432, Jan-Mar 1734, p258-266,p263.
(p797 in
link) http://books.google.com/books?id=
sfMyAQAAMAAJ&pg=RA1-PA263 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=sfMyAQAAMAAJ&pg=RA1-PA263

[2] 1733 AD: Charles Francois de
Cisternay Du FayThe French chemist
Charles Francois de Cisternay Du Fay
(1698-1739) discovered that when
objects are rubbed together they either
repel or attract each other and
therefore that electricity came in two
forms, which he called ''resinous'' (-)
and ''vitreous'' (+). PD
source: http://www.worldofenergy.com.au/
07_timeline_world_1675_1780.html
265 YBN
[1735 AD] 10 11 12 		1996) Life of Earth is systematically
categorized by Linnaeus (li-nE-uS or
li-nA-uS3 4 5 ).6 7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Carolus Linnaeus". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8407/Carolus-Linnaeus
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp181-183.
3. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=linnae
us&submit=Submit
4. ^ "Carl Linnaeus." The New
Dictionary of Cultural Literacy, Third
Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company,
2002. Answers.com 28 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/carolus-lin
naeus
5. ^ "linnaeus." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 14 May.
2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/l
innaeus>.
6. ^ "Carolus Linnaeus". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8407/Carolus-Linnaeus
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp181-183.
8. ^
"carolus linnaeus". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/topic/carolus-lin
naeus
9. ^ "Carolus Linnaeus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carolus_Lin
naeus
10. ^ "Carolus Linnaeus". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8407/Carolus-Linnaeus (1735)
11. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and technology;
the lives and achievements of 1195
great scientists from ancient times to
the present, chronologically arranged",
(Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982),
pp181-183. (1735)
12. ^ "carolus linnaeus".
History of Science and Technology.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/carolus-lin
naeus (1735)
Netherlands8 9  
[1] Table of the Animal Kingdom (Regnum
Animale) from Carolus Linnaeus's first
edition (1735) of Systema Naturae. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Linnaeus_-_Regnum_Animale_%281735%29.
png

[2] Artist Alexander Roslin Title
Carl von Linné 1707-1778 Year
1775 Technique Oil on
canvas Dimensions 56 x 46 cm Current
location Royal Science Academy of
Sweden (Kungliga vetenskapsakademin)
Stockholm Permission Public
domain Carl von Linné painted by
Alexander Roslin in 1775. The original
painting can be viewed at the Royal
Science Academy of Sweden (Kungliga
vetenskapsakademin). PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Carl_von_Linn%C3%A9.jpg
255 YBN
[11/04/1745 AD] 14 15 16 		1972) The storage of electricity. The
first electric memory and capacitor
(commonly called the Leyden jar).7 8 9

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "E Georg von Kleist".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
5738/E-Georg-von-Kleist
2. ^ Priestley, Joseph. The history and
present state of electricity, with
original experiments, by Joseph
Priestley, ... The third edition,
corrected and enlarged Vol. 1. London,
1775. 2 vols. Eighteenth Century
Collections Online. Gale Group,
pp102-103.
http://galenet.galegroup.com/servlet/ECC
O Gale Document Number: CW3308601351
3. ^ Keithley,
J.F. The Story of Electrical and
Magnetic Measurements: From 500 BC to
the 1940s. Wiley, 1999,
p21. http://books.google.com/books?id=u
wgNAtqSHuQC&pg=PA21
4. ^ "E Georg von Kleist". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
5738/E-Georg-von-Kleist
5. ^ Priestley, Joseph. The history and
present state of electricity, with
original experiments, by Joseph
Priestley, ... The third edition,
corrected and enlarged Vol. 1. London,
1775. 2 vols. Eighteenth Century
Collections Online. Gale Group,
pp102-103.
http://galenet.galegroup.com/servlet/ECC
O Gale Document Number: CW3308601351
6. ^ Keithley,
J.F. The Story of Electrical and
Magnetic Measurements: From 500 BC to
the 1940s. Wiley, 1999,
p21. http://books.google.com/books?id=u
wgNAtqSHuQC&pg=PA21
7. ^ "E Georg von Kleist". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
5738/E-Georg-von-Kleist
8. ^ Priestley, Joseph. The history and
present state of electricity, with
original experiments, by Joseph
Priestley, ... The third edition,
corrected and enlarged Vol. 1. London,
1775. 2 vols. Eighteenth Century
Collections Online. Gale Group,
pp102-103.
http://galenet.galegroup.com/servlet/ECC
O Gale Document Number: CW3308601351
9. ^ Keithley,
J.F. The Story of Electrical and
Magnetic Measurements: From 500 BC to
the 1940s. Wiley, 1999,
p21. http://books.google.com/books?id=u
wgNAtqSHuQC&pg=PA21
10. ^ Keithley, J.F. The Story of
Electrical and Magnetic Measurements:
From 500 BC to the 1940s. Wiley, 1999,
p21. http://books.google.com/books?id=u
wgNAtqSHuQC&pg=PA21
11. ^ "E Georg von Kleist".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
5738/E-Georg-von-Kleist
12. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/kleist
.html
13. ^ "Pomerania". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pomerania
14. ^ Keithley, J.F. The Story of
Electrical and Magnetic Measurements:
From 500 BC to the 1940s. Wiley, 1999,
p21. http://books.google.com/books?id=u
wgNAtqSHuQC&pg=PA21
15. ^ Priestley, Joseph. The history
and present state of electricity, with
original experiments, by Joseph
Priestley, ... The third edition,
corrected and enlarged Vol. 1. London,
1775. 2 vols. Eighteenth Century
Collections Online. Gale Group, p102.
http://galenet.galegroup.com/servlet/ECC
O Gale Document Number: CW3308601351
(11/04/1745)
16. ^ "E Georg von Kleist".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
5738/E-Georg-von-Kleist (1745)

MORE INFO
[1] "Ewald Georg von Kleist".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ewald_Georg
_von_Kleist
(University of Wittenburg) Wittenburg,
Germany10 (was for von Kleist:
Pomerania?, Prussia11 12 ) (coast of
Baltic Sea between Germany and Poland13
) 
[1]
http://books.google.com/books?id=ko9BAAA
AIAAJ&pg=PA71&dq=jar+%22von+Kleist%22&lr
=&as_brr=1&ei=aniTR_uCJ5HwsgOQ5bU4#PPA71
,M1 page with text and figure about
von Kleist's invention of the Leyden
jar Source Electricity in Every-day
Life Date 1905 Author Edwin J.
Houston PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Von_Kleist_Leyden_jar_1905.png

[2] Pieter van Musschenbroek aus:
http://20eeuwennederland.nl/actueel/1113
.htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Pieter_van_Musschenbroek.jpeg
255 YBN
[1745 AD] 4 5 		2966) An electrostatic motor.1 2
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^
http://www.arcsandsparks.com/franklin.ht
ml
2. ^ video of a modern version of
Hamilton's Mill
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ewgVXg_
tsC4
3. ^
http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/06649b.h
tm
4. ^
http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/06649b.h
tm (1745)
5. ^
http://www.arcsandsparks.com/franklin.ht
ml (Bells= 1742)

MORE INFO
[1] Elementary Lessons in
Electricity and Magnetism By Silvanus
Phillips
Thompson http://books.google.com/books?
id=hLk3AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA45&lpg=PA45&dq=winc
kler+leipzig+electricity&source=web&ots=
Op8vIkfDDE&sig=qHZAdRw3VdIi8ePfK7kcsGP6H
zA&hl=en
(University of Erfurt) Erfurt, Germany3
 
[1] Elementary Lessons in Electricity
and Magnetism By Silvanus Phillips
Thompson http://books.google.com/books?
id=hLk3AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA45&lpg=PA45&dq=winc
kler+leipzig+electricity&source=web&ots=
Op8vIkfDDE&sig=qHZAdRw3VdIi8ePfK7kcsGP6H
zA&hl=en PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=hLk3AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA45&lpg=PA45&dq=winckl
er+leipzig+electricity&source=web&ots=Op
8vIkfDDE&sig=qHZAdRw3VdIi8ePfK7kcsGP6HzA
&hl=en

[2] Elementary Lessons in Electricity
and Magnetism By Silvanus Phillips
Thompson http://books.google.com/books?
id=hLk3AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA45&lpg=PA45&dq=winc
kler+leipzig+electricity&source=web&ots=
Op8vIkfDDE&sig=qHZAdRw3VdIi8ePfK7kcsGP6H
zA&hl=en PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=hLk3AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA45&lpg=PA45&dq=winckl
er+leipzig+electricity&source=web&ots=Op
8vIkfDDE&sig=qHZAdRw3VdIi8ePfK7kcsGP6HzA
&hl=en
http://books.google.com/books?id=TFLkGa4
bDCIC
253 YBN
[07/11/1747 AD] 3 4 5 		1981) The single fluid theory of
electricity. Lightning is recognized as
electricity.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp177-179.
2. ^ "Benjamin
Franklin". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-224
67/Benjamin-Franklin
3. ^ The Writings of Benjamin
Franklin By Benjamin
Franklin Published 1905 Macmillan &
co., ltd. United States, p302.
http://books.google.com/books?id=BITTQfM
LcpEC&pg=PA302&lpg=PA302&dq=franklin+mar
ch+28+1747+letter&source=web&ots=cMKNLDw
QT2&sig=rk0pZ33SEwyWeJb7wA3PCHnUKOk&hl=e
n (07/11/1747)
4. ^ "Benjamin Franklin".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-224
67/Benjamin-Franklin (1751)
5. ^ "Leyden Jar
(1747-1748)". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911. "Leyden Jar". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Leyden_J
ar (1747-1748) (1747-1748)

MORE INFO
[1] "Benjamin Franklin".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Fr
anklin
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Benjamin%20Frankl
in%20
[3]
http://www.usgennet.org/usa/topic/preser
vation/bios/franklin/chpt4.htm
[4] An Account of Mr. Benjamin
Franklin's Treatise, Lately Published,
Intituled, Experiments and Observations
on Electricity, Made at Philadelphia in
America; By Wm. Watson, F. R.
S. Journal Philosophical Transactions
(1683-1775) Issue Volume 47 -
1751/1752 Authors Benjamin Franklin
and Wm.
Watson DOI 10.1098/rstl.1751.0032 http
://journals.royalsociety.org/content/q49
0w47733103h6h/?p=d81fd6c4f77d41ce864b64a
fe5cacc64&pi=9 Franklin_Electricity_175
1.pdf (resuscitates pigeon killed by
shock which flies into wall as if
blind)
[5] Electrical Experiments, Made in
Pursuance of Those by Mr. Canton, Dated
Decem. 3, 1753; With Explanations by
Mr. Benjamin Franklin, Communicated Mr.
Peter Collinson, F. R.
S. Franklin_1753_RS.pdf (threads
separate electroscope, Canton made
pithballs)
Philadelphia, PA (English colonies) USA
(letter to London, England2 ) 
[1] Credit: ''White House Historical
Association (White House Collection)''
(981) Painted in 1759 by British
artist and scientist Benjamin Wilson
-who disagreed with Franklin's findings
about electrical polarity -this
portrait hung in Franklin's dining room
in Philadelphia until Captain Andre'
stole it during the British occupation
of Philadelphia. Returned to the U.S.
in 1906, it is now in the White House,
in Washington, D. C. PD
source: http://www.explorepahistory.com/
displayimage.php?imgId=668

[2] Multimedia Gallery -
Image Portrait of Benjamin Franklin by
artist David Martin
(1737-1797) Portrait of Benjamin
Franklin by artist David Martin
(1737-1797) Credit: Library of
Congress, LC-USZC4-3576 PD
source: http://www.nsf.gov/news/mmg/medi
a/images/benfranklin2_h3.jpg
253 YBN
[1747 AD] 3 4 		2055) Citris fruits are proven to cure
scurvy.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p189.
2. ^ "James Lind".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8347/James-Lind
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p189. (1747) (1747)
4. ^
"James Lind". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Lind
(1747)
England2  
[1] James Lind painting: PD image:
COPYRIGHTED?
source: http://dodd.cmcvellore.ac.in/hom
/17%20-%20James%20Lind.html

[2] Painted by Sir George Chalmers, c
1720-1791. painting: PD image:
COPYRIGHTED?
source: http://www.jameslindlibrary.org/
trial_records/17th_18th_Century/lind/lin
d_portrait.html
253 YBN
[1747 AD] 4 		3452) The basis of refrigeration is
understood. Humans recognize that
evaporating liquid lowers temperature.2

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ William Cullen, "Of the Cold
produced by evaporating Fluids and of
some other Means of producing Cold",
Philosophical Society of Edinburgh.
Essays and observations, physical and
literary. Read before a Society in
Edinburgh, and published by them.
Volume 2. Edinburgh, 1754. 464pp. 2
vols,
p145-156. {Cullen_evaporation.pdf}
2. ^ William Cullen, "Of the Cold
produced by evaporating Fluids and of
some other Means of producing Cold",
Philosophical Society of Edinburgh.
Essays and observations, physical and
literary. Read before a Society in
Edinburgh, and published by them.
Volume 2. Edinburgh, 1754. 464pp. 2
vols,
p145-156. {Cullen_evaporation.pdf}
3. ^ William Cullen, "Of the Cold
produced by evaporating Fluids and of
some other Means of producing Cold",
Philosophical Society of Edinburgh.
Essays and observations, physical and
literary. Read before a Society in
Edinburgh, and published by them.
Volume 2. Edinburgh, 1754. 464pp. 2
vols,
p145-156. {Cullen_evaporation.pdf}
4. ^ William Cullen, "Of the Cold
produced by evaporating Fluids and of
some other Means of producing Cold",
Philosophical Society of Edinburgh.
Essays and observations, physical and
literary. Read before a Society in
Edinburgh, and published by them.
Volume 2. Edinburgh, 1754. 464pp. 2
vols,
p145-156. {Cullen_evaporation.pdf}
{1747}

MORE INFO
[1] "William Cullen". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Cul
len
[2] "William Cullen." Encyclopedia of
the Early Modern World. The Gale Group,
Inc, 2004. Answers.com 09 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-cul
len
[3] Thomas S. Kuhn, "The Caloric Theory
of Adiabatic Compression", Isis, Vol.
49, No. 2 (Jun., 1958), pp.
132-140. http://www.jstor.org/sici?sici
=0021-1753(195806)49%3A2%3C132%3ATCTOAC%
3E2.0.CO%3B2-7 {Cullen_William_1755_Isi
s.pdf} (05/01/1755)
(Academy of Petersburg) Petersburg,
Russia3  
[1] William Cullen, ''Of the Cold
produced by evaporating Fluids and of
some other Means of producing Cold'',
Philosophical Society of Edinburgh.
Essays and observations, physical and
literary. Read before a Society in
Edinburgh, and published by them.
Volume 2. Edinburgh, 1754. 464pp. 2
vols,
p145-156. {Cullen_evaporation.pdf} PD

source: Cullen_evaporation.pdf

[2] St. Petersburg, 6 August 1783.
Prof. Richman and his assistant being
struck by lightning while charging
capacitors. The assistant escaped
almost unharmed, whereas Richman was
dead immediately. The pathologic
analysis revealed that ''he only had a
small hole in his forehead, a burnt
left shoe and a blue spot at his foot.
[...] the brain being ok, the front
part of the lung sane, but the rear
being brown and black of blood.'' The
conclusion was that the electric
discharge had taken its way through
Richmann's body. The scientific
community was shocked. [t notice
difference in dates] PD/Corel
source: http://www.hp-gramatke.net/histo
ry/english/page4000.htm
248 YBN
[02/20/1752 AD] 4 		2976) A spark is passed through a
vacuum tube.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ The History and Present State of
Electricity, with Original
Experiments by Joseph Priestley, ...
The third edition, corrected and
enlarged. London, 1775. 542pp. (2
vols), v1 347-351.
http://galenet.galegroup.com/servlet/ECC
O?dd=0&locID=ucirvine&d1=0657800501&srch
tp=a&c=1&SU=0LRM&d2=1&docNum=CW330860121
2&h2=1&vrsn=1.0&af=BN&d6=1&ste=10&dc=tiP
G&stp=Author&d4=0.33&n=10&d5=d6&ae=T0363
46 Priestley_History_of_Electricity.pdf

2. ^ An Account of the Phaenomena of
Electricity in Vacuo, with Some
Observations Thereupon, by Mr. Wm.
Watson, F. R. S. Wm. Watson
Philosophical Transactions (1683-1775),
Vol. 47. (1751 - 1752), pp. 362-376.
http://www.jstor.org/view/02607085/ap0
00035/00a00610/0?frame=noframe&userID=80
c3de14@uci.edu/01c0a848640050f4dd0&dpi=3
&config=jstor
3. ^ "William Watson (scientist)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Wat
son_%28scientist%29
4. ^ An Account of the Phaenomena of
Electricity in Vacuo, with Some
Observations Thereupon, by Mr. Wm.
Watson, F. R. S. Wm. Watson
Philosophical Transactions (1683-1775),
Vol. 47. (1751 - 1752), pp. 362-376.
http://www.jstor.org/view/02607085/ap0
00035/00a00610/0?frame=noframe&userID=80
c3de14@uci.edu/01c0a848640050f4dd0&dpi=3
&config=jstor (02/20/1752) (02/20/1752)

MORE INFO
[1] "electromagnetism".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-715
99/electromagnetism
[2] A Continuation of a Paper
concerning Electricity, by William
Watson F. R. S. Printed in These Trans.
N. 477, Article I. Ending p.
501 Journal Philosophical Transactions
(1683-1775) Issue Volume 44 -
1746/1747 Author William
Watson DOI 10.1098/rstl.1746.0118 Wats
on_William_1746_Continuation.pdf
[3] A Sequel to the Experiments and
Observations Tending to Illustrate the
Nature and Properties of Electricity;
In a Letter to the Royal Society from
the Same Journal Philosophical
Transactions (1683-1775) Issue Volume
44 - 1746/1747 Author William
Watson DOI 10.1098/rstl.1746.0119 Wats
on_William_1746_Sequel.pdf
London, England3  
[1] William Watson (1715â€''1787)
* Print Artist: J. Thornwaite *
Medium/Year: Line engraving, 1784
* Original Artist: after an oilpainting
by Lemuel Francis Abbott *
Original Dimensions: Graphic: 9.8 x 7.7
cm / Sheet: 14.5 x 10.2 cm PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Willi
am_Watson.jpg

[2] Figure from a Watson 1746
paper PD/Corel
source: A Sequel to the Experiments and
Observations Tending to Illustrate the
Nature and Properties of Electricity;
In a Letter to the Royal Society from
the Same Journal Philosophical
Transactions (1683-1775) Issue Volume
44 - 1746/1747 Author William
Watson DOI 10.1098/rstl.1746.0119 Wats
on_William_1746_Sequel.pdf
245 YBN
[01/25/1755 AD] 3 4 		1370) Moscow State University is
founded.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Moscow State University."
Encyclop�dia Britannica.
Encyclop�dia Britannica Online.
Encyclop�dia Britannica Inc., 2012.
Web. 13 Dec. 2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/393517/Moscow-State-University>.
2. ^
http://www.msu.ru/en/info/history.html
3. ^
http://www.msu.ru/en/info/history.html
4. ^ "Moscow State University."
Encyclop�dia Britannica.
Encyclop�dia Britannica Online.
Encyclop�dia Britannica Inc., 2012.
Web. 13 Dec. 2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/393517/Moscow-State-University>.
Moscow, Russia2  
[1] Lomonosov University in Moscow,
Russia GNU AND from
http://www.peoples.ru/science/founder/lo
monosov/ PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Moskau_Uni.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org
/wiki/Image:Lomonosov.jpg

[2] Lomonosov University in Moscow,
Russia GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Moskau_Uni.jpg
240 YBN
[1760 AD] 5 6 		2122) Electrolysis. Molecules are split
using electricity. Water is separated
into hydrogen and oxygen gases using
electricity.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^
http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/16009a.h
tm
4. ^ "Giovanni Battista Beccaria".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giovanni_Ba
ttista_Beccaria
5. ^
http://www.journals.royalsoc.ac.uk/conte
nt/c8x97gg743267538/fulltext.pdf (1760
(presumably)
6. ^
http://books.google.com/books?id=wKzJTBZ
h20wC&pg=PA59&lpg=PA59&dq=%22john+warlti
re%22+electricity&source=web&ots=qx-N2a9
F9w&sig=0ReDFF5mI7Bgvvrn__a-VFc2T-0
(c1762)

MORE INFO
[1] "Electricity". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Electric
ity
[2] Phil. Trans., 1 744, 43, p. 167)
[3]
"Electrolysis". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Electrol
ysis
[4]
http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/06649b.h
tm
[5]
http://www.journals.royalsoc.ac.uk/conte
nt/?k=Beccaria
[6] "biophysics#48706.toc".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-911
0580/biophysics#48706.toc
[7]
http://www.amphilsoc.org/library/mole/b/
beccaria.xml
Turin, Italy3 4  
[1] Anonimo, Giambattista Beccaria,
fine secolo XVIII PD?
source: http://www.torinoscienza.it/img/
orig/it/s00/00/000c/00000c89.jpg

[2] Beccaria, Giovanni Battista
(1716-1781) PD?
source: http://bms.beniculturali.it/ritr
atti/ritratti.php?chiave=ritr0079
234 YBN
[05/29/1766 AD] 6 7 		2113) Hydrogen gas is isolated.3 4
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ "Henry Cavendish". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
1916/Henry-Cavendish
2. ^ Henry Cavendish, "Three Papers,
Containing Experiments on Factitious
Air, by the Hon. Henry Cavendish, F. R.
S.", Philosophical Transactions
(1683-1775) , Vol. 56, (1766), pp.
141-184 http://www.jstor.org/stable/105
491
3. ^ "Henry Cavendish". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
1916/Henry-Cavendish
4. ^ Henry Cavendish, "Three Papers,
Containing Experiments on Factitious
Air, by the Hon. Henry Cavendish, F. R.
S.", Philosophical Transactions
(1683-1775) , Vol. 56, (1766), pp.
141-184 http://www.jstor.org/stable/105
491
5. ^ "Henry Cavendish". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
1916/Henry-Cavendish
6. ^ Henry Cavendish, "Three Papers,
Containing Experiments on Factitious
Air, by the Hon. Henry Cavendish, F. R.
S.", Philosophical Transactions
(1683-1775) , Vol. 56, (1766), pp.
141-184 http://www.jstor.org/stable/105
491
7. ^ "Henry Cavendish". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
1916/Henry-Cavendish (1766)

MORE INFO
[1] "Henry Cavendish". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Caven
dish
[2] "Hydrogen#History". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen#Hi
story
[3]
http://books.google.com/books?id=ygqYnSR
3oe0C&printsec=frontcover&dq=the+scienti
fic+papers+cavendish#PPA77,M1
[4]
http://portal.acs.org/portal/acs/corg/co
ntent?_nfpb=true&_pageLabel=PP_ARTICLEMA
IN&node_id=925&content_id=CTP_004439&use
_sec=true&sec_url_var=region1
[5] Three Papers, Containing
Experiments on Factitious Air, by the
Hon. Henry Cavendish, F. R.
S. Journal Philosophical Transactions
(1683-1775) Issue Volume 56 -
1766 Pages 141-184 DOI 10.1098/rstl.17
66.0019 http://www.journals.royalsoc.ac
.uk/content/k22512528480nx11/?p=d80161c9
05fe4831aa63484ba66ccb98&pi=2 cavendish
_3gases.pdf
London, England5  
[1] Figures 1-6 from: Henry Cavendish,
''Three Papers, Containing Experiments
on Factitious Air, by the Hon. Henry
Cavendish, F. R. S.'', Philosophical
Transactions (1683-1775) , Vol. 56,
(1766), pp.
141-184 http://www.jstor.org/stable/105
491 PD
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1054
91

[2] By Henry Cavendish Published
1921 The University Press PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=ygqYnSR3oe0C&printsec=frontcover&dq=the
+scientific+papers+cavendish#PPA78-IA
231 YBN
[1769 AD] 12 		1206) The first self-propelled
vehicle.7 8 A steam-engine powered
automobile.9 10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ "Cugnot". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cugnot
3. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
4. ^ "Cugnot". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cugnot
5. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
6. ^ "Cugnot". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cugnot
7. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
8. ^ "Cugnot". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cugnot
9. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
10. ^ "Cugnot". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cugnot
11. ^ "Cugnot". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cugnot
12. ^ "Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 02
Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/145966/Nicolas-Joseph-Cugnot>. {1769}
England11  
[1] Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot's steam auto,
from 7 August, 1869 issue of Appleton's
Journal of Popular Literature, Science,
and Art. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:CugnotAppleton.jpg

[2] Fardier de Cugnot, modèle de
1771. Musée des Arts et Métiers,
Paris. 11 janvier 2005. (Note that
this is the second fardier, the
full-size one. It is not a 'model' (as
has been mis-translated
elsewhere)) Source : Photo et
photographisme © Roby 19:13, 12 Jan
2005 (UTC). Avec l'aimable permission
du Musée des Arts et Métiers, Paris.
GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/56/FardierdeCugnot200501
11.jpg
228 YBN
[06/04/1772 AD] 9 10 		6495) Five new gases are identified and
isolated (including nitrous oxide and
carbon monoxide).1 2 3 4 5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Observations on different Kinds
of Air." Philosophical Transactions 62
(1772): 147-264,
p.216. http://books.google.com/books?id
=ABJ8KuRujGQC&pg=PA216
2. ^ "Joseph Priestley". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
1366/Joseph-Priestley
3. ^ SMITH, W. D. A. “A HISTORY OF
NITROUS OXIDE AND OXYGEN ANAESTHESIA
PART I: JOSEPH PRIESTLEY TO HUMPHRY
DAVY.” British Journal of Anaesthesia
37.10 (1965): 790–798.
Print. http://bja.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/37/10/790.extract
4. ^ Experiments and Observations on
Different Kinds of Air, Vol.1. London,
1774,
p118. http://www.archive.org/details/ex
perimentsobser01prie
5. ^ Thorpe, T.E. Joseph Priestley.
Dent, 1906. English Men of Science,
p177. http://books.google.com/books?id=
uAwFAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA177
6. ^ Experiments and Observations on
Different Kinds of Air, Vol.1. London,
1774,
p38-39. http://www.archive.org/details/
experimentsobser01prie
7. ^ "Joseph Priestley". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
1366/Joseph-Priestley
8. ^ "Joseph Priestley". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
1366/Joseph-Priestley
9. ^ "Observations on different Kinds
of Air." Philosophical Transactions 62
(1772): 147-264,
p.230. http://books.google.com/books?id
=ABJ8KuRujGQC&pg=PA147
10. ^ "Observations on different Kinds
of Air." Philosophical Transactions 62
(1772): 147-264,
p.230. http://books.google.com/books?id
=ABJ8KuRujGQC&pg=PA147

MORE INFO
[1] "Joseph Priestley".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
1366/Joseph-Priestley (1772)
[2] Experiments
and Observations on Different Kinds of
Air, Vol.2. London,
1775. http://books.google.com/books?id=
gB0UAAAAQAAJ&printsec=frontcover&hl=da
[3] "Joseph Priestley". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Prie
stley
[4] Experiments and Observations on
Different Kinds of Air, Vol.1. London,
1774. http://www.archive.org/details/ex
perimentsobser01prie
Leeds, England7 |(does not move to
Calne until 1773)8  
[1] Portrait of Joseph
Priestley Source
http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=h
ttp://www.chemistry.msu.edu/Portraits/im
ages/priestlyc.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.
chemistry.msu.edu/Portraits/PortraitsHH_
Detail.asp%3FHH_LName%3DPriestley&h=640&
w=462&sz=57&hl=en&start=9&tbnid=ipHldQCy
TukivM:&tbnh=137&tbnw=99&prev=/images%3F
q%3Djoseph%2Bpriestley%26gbv%3D2%26svnum
%3D10%26hl%3Den%26sa%3DG Date
1794 Author Ellen Sharples PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Priestley.jpg

[2] Description Portrait of Joseph
Priestley Source
http://www.search.revolutionaryplayers.
org.uk/engine/resource/default.asp?theme
=47&originator=%2Fengine%2Ftheme%2Fdefau
lt%2Easp&page=3&records=58&direction=1&p
ointer=2784&text=0&resource=4501 Date
c.1763 Author Artist is unknown. PD

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:PriestleyLeeds.jpg
228 YBN
[1772 AD] 4 5 6 		2076) The theory that gravity changes
the speed of light particles.1 2
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ Joseph Priestley, "The history
and present state of discoveries
relating to vision, light, and
colours.", Leeds: n.p., 1771,
p786-791,787. Vol 1:
http://books.google.com/books?id=MLxz5yy
mkNcC Vol 2:
http://books.google.com/books?id=pmF8xgh
257sC&pg=PA787
2. ^ Michell, John (1784), "On the
Means of Discovering the Distance,
Magnitude, &c. of the Fixed Stars, in
Consequence of the Diminution of the
Velocity of Their Light, in Case Such a
Diminution Should be Found to Take
Place in any of Them, and Such Other
Data Should be Procured from
Observations, as Would be Farther
Necessary for That Purpose. By the Rev.
John Michell, B. D. F. R. S. In a
Letter to Henry Cavendish, Esq. F. R.
S. and A. S.", Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (The Royal Society) 74:
35–57. http://www.jstor.org/stable/10
6576 michell_1783.pdf
3. ^ Michell, John (1784), "On the
Means of Discovering the Distance,
Magnitude, &c. of the Fixed Stars, in
Consequence of the Diminution of the
Velocity of Their Light, in Case Such a
Diminution Should be Found to Take
Place in any of Them, and Such Other
Data Should be Procured from
Observations, as Would be Farther
Necessary for That Purpose. By the Rev.
John Michell, B. D. F. R. S. In a
Letter to Henry Cavendish, Esq. F. R.
S. and A. S.", Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (The Royal Society) 74:
35–57 http://www.jstor.org/stable/106
576 michell_1783.pdf
4. ^ Joseph Priestley, "The history and
present state of discoveries relating
to vision, light, and colours.",
Leeds: n.p., 1771, p786-791,787. Vol
1:
http://books.google.com/books?id=MLxz5yy
mkNcC Vol 2:
http://books.google.com/books?id=pmF8xgh
257sC&pg=PA787
5. ^ Michell, John (1784), "On the
Means of Discovering the Distance,
Magnitude, &c. of the Fixed Stars, in
Consequence of the Diminution of the
Velocity of Their Light, in Case Such a
Diminution Should be Found to Take
Place in any of Them, and Such Other
Data Should be Procured from
Observations, as Would be Farther
Necessary for That Purpose. By the Rev.
John Michell, B. D. F. R. S. In a
Letter to Henry Cavendish, Esq. F. R.
S. and A. S.", Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (The Royal Society) 74:
35–57 http://www.jstor.org/stable/106
576 michell_1783.pdf {05/26/1783}
6. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p192. (1784) (1784)

MORE INFO
[1] "John Michell". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Michel
l
[2]
http://www.answers.com/John+Michell?cat=
technology
[3]
http://www.seds.org/messier/xtra/Bios/mi
chell.html
[4] Criticisms of the projectile theory
of light G N Cantor 1981 Phys. Educ.
16 112-119
doi:10.1088/0031-9120/16/2/314 G N
Cantor Print publication: Issue 2
(March
1981) michell_corpuscular_criticism_pev
16i2p112.pdf
[5] "John Michell". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
2474/John-Michell
Thornhill, Yorkshire, England3  
[1] Text from p789 in: Joseph
Priestley, ''The history and present
state of discoveries relating to
vision, light, and colours.'', Leeds:
n.p., 1771, p786-791,787. Vol 1:
http://books.google.com/books?id=MLxz5yy
mkNcC Vol 2:
http://books.google.com/books?id=pmF8xgh
257sC&pg=PA787 PD
source: books.google.com/books?id=pmF8xg
h257sC&pg=PA789

[2] Portrait of Joseph
Priestley Source
http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=h
ttp://www.chemistry.msu.edu/Portraits/im
ages/priestlyc.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.
chemistry.msu.edu/Portraits/PortraitsHH_
Detail.asp%3FHH_LName%3DPriestley&h=640&
w=462&sz=57&hl=en&start=9&tbnid=ipHldQCy
TukivM:&tbnh=137&tbnw=99&prev=/images%3F
q%3Djoseph%2Bpriestley%26gbv%3D2%26svnum
%3D10%26hl%3Den%26sa%3DG Date
1794 Author Ellen Sharples PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Priestley.jpg
228 YBN
[1772 AD] 3 		2140) The mass of a light particle is
measured to be around 10 nanograms.1
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ Joseph Priestley, "The history
and present state of discoveries
relating to vision, light, and
colours.", Leeds: n.p., 1771,
p389-390. Vol 1:
http://books.google.com/books?id=MLxz5yy
mkNcC&pg=PA390 Vol 2:
http://books.google.com/books?id=pmF8xgh
257sC
2. ^ "Joseph Priestley". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Prie
stley
3. ^ Joseph Priestley, "The history and
present state of discoveries relating
to vision, light, and colours.",
Leeds: n.p., 1771, p390. Vol 1:
http://books.google.com/books?id=MLxz5yy
mkNcC&pg=PA390 Vol 2:
http://books.google.com/books?id=pmF8xgh
257sC

MORE INFO
[1] "Joseph Priestley".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
1366/Joseph-Priestley
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Joseph%20Priestle
y
[3]
http://books.google.com/books?id=prOsrEl
RVHoC&pg=PA79&lpg=PA79&dq=ac.+par.+1723&
source=web&ots=8KE7ChOjYe&sig=5bJOnyDkXk
JNqljVIEI_-nhrl_k&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_res
ult&resnum=1&ct=result {interesting
account about Newton believing
inflexion}
[4] "Joseph Priestley". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Prie
stley (1772)
Leeds, England2  
[1] Joseph Priestley, ''The history and
present state of discoveries relating
to vision, light, and colours.'',
Leeds: n.p., 1771, p390. Vol 1:
http://books.google.com/books?id=MLxz5yy
mkNcC&pg=PA390 Vol 2:
http://books.google.com/books?id=pmF8xgh
257sC PD
source: Vol 1:
http://books.google.com/books?id=MLxz5yy
mkNcC&pg=PA390

[2] Portrait of Joseph
Priestley Source
http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=h
ttp://www.chemistry.msu.edu/Portraits/im
ages/priestlyc.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.
chemistry.msu.edu/Portraits/PortraitsHH_
Detail.asp%3FHH_LName%3DPriestley&h=640&
w=462&sz=57&hl=en&start=9&tbnid=ipHldQCy
TukivM:&tbnh=137&tbnw=99&prev=/images%3F
q%3Djoseph%2Bpriestley%26gbv%3D2%26svnum
%3D10%26hl%3Den%26sa%3DG Date
1794 Author Ellen Sharples PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Priestley.jpg
228 YBN
[1772 AD] 4 		2285) Nitrogen gas is isolated.2
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p238.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p238.
3. ^ "Daniel
Rutherford". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Daniel+Rutherford
?cat=technology
4. ^ "nitrogen". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
5947/nitrogen (1772)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[2] "Nitrogen". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrogen
Edinburgh, Scotland3  
[1] Description Scan of an old
picture of Daniel Rutherford Source
The Gases of the Atmosphere (old
book) Date 1896 Author William
Ramsay PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Rutherford_Daniel.jpg
226 YBN
[08/01/1774 AD] 4 5 		2139) Oxygen gas is isolated.2
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^ "Joseph Priestley". Encyclopedia
of the Early Modern World. The Gale
Group, Inc, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Joseph%20Priestle
y
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp204-206.
3. ^ "Joseph
Priestley". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Prie
stley
4. ^ "Joseph Priestley". Encyclopedia
of the Early Modern World. The Gale
Group, Inc, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Joseph%20Priestle
y (08/01/1774)
5. ^ Experiments and Observations on
Different Kinds of Air, Vol.2. London,
1775,
p34. books.google.com/books?id=gB0UAAAA
QAAJ&pg=PA34

MORE INFO
[1] "Joseph Priestley".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
1366/Joseph-Priestley
[2] "oxygen". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
7841/oxygen
[3] "Oxygen". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxygen
[4]
http://www.answers.com/oxygen?cat=health

Calne, England3  
[1] Portrait of Joseph
Priestley Source
http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=h
ttp://www.chemistry.msu.edu/Portraits/im
ages/priestlyc.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.
chemistry.msu.edu/Portraits/PortraitsHH_
Detail.asp%3FHH_LName%3DPriestley&h=640&
w=462&sz=57&hl=en&start=9&tbnid=ipHldQCy
TukivM:&tbnh=137&tbnw=99&prev=/images%3F
q%3Djoseph%2Bpriestley%26gbv%3D2%26svnum
%3D10%26hl%3Den%26sa%3DG Date
1794 Author Ellen Sharples PD
AND [5] Joseph Priestley Library of
Congress PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Priestley.jpghttp://www.answers.com/K
arl+Wilhelm+Scheele+?cat=technology

[2] Portrait of Joseph
Priestley Source
http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=h
ttp://www.chemistry.msu.edu/Portraits/im
ages/priestlyc.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.
chemistry.msu.edu/Portraits/PortraitsHH_
Detail.asp%3FHH_LName%3DPriestley&h=640&
w=462&sz=57&hl=en&start=9&tbnid=ipHldQCy
TukivM:&tbnh=137&tbnw=99&prev=/images%3F
q%3Djoseph%2Bpriestley%26gbv%3D2%26svnum
%3D10%26hl%3Den%26sa%3DG Date
1794 Author Ellen Sharples PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Priestley.jpg
226 YBN
[1774 AD] 3 4 5 6 		2200) The element chlorine is isolated,
as a gas.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Carl Wilhelm Scheele".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
6095/Carl-Wilhelm-Scheele
2. ^ "Carl Wilhelm Scheele".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
6095/Carl-Wilhelm-Scheele
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp218-219. (1774)
(1774)
4. ^ "Karl Wilhelm Scheele". The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Karl+Wilhelm+Sche
ele+?cat=technology (1774)
5. ^ "Karl Wilhelm
Scheele". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Karl+Wilhelm+Sche
ele+?cat=technology (1774)
6. ^ "chlorine".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-908
2243/chlorine (1774)

MORE INFO
[1] "Karl Wilhelm Scheele".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Wilhel
m_Scheele
[2] A History of Chemistry from the
Earliest Times, Ernst von Meyer, 1905,
http://books.google.com/books?id=QUENAAA
AYAAJ&pg=PA131&dq=Karl+Wilhelm+Scheele#P
PA133,M1
[3] "Chlorine". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chlorine
Uppsala, Sweden2  
[1] Karl Wilhelm Scheele Library of
Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/Karl+Wilh
elm+Scheele+?cat=technology

[2] Chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele from
Svenska Familj-Journalen 1874. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Carl_Wilhelm_Scheele_from_Familj-Jour
nalen1874.png
226 YBN
[1774 AD] 4 		2216) Combustion is shown to be a
reaction with a gas in the air (later
named oxygen).2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp222-226.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp222-226.
3. ^ "Antoine
Laurent Lavoisier". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
6472/Antoine-Laurent-Lavoisier
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp222-226. (1774)
(1774)

MORE INFO
[1] "Antoine Laurent Lavoisier".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antoine_Lau
rent_Lavoisier
Paris, France3 (presumably) 
[1] Creator/Artist Name English:
Jacques-Louis David Alternative names
English: David Date of birth/death
1748-08-30 1825-12-29 Location of
birth/death English: Paris Work
location Title English: Portrait
of Monsieur de Lavoisier and his
Wife Year 1788 Technique English:
Oil on canvas Dimensions 259.7 x 196
cm Current location Metropolitan
Museum of Art New York PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:David_-_Portrait_of_Monsieur_Lavoisie
r_and_His_Wife.jpg

[2] Scientist: Lavoisier, Antoine
Laurent (1743 - 1794) Discipline(s):
Chemistry Print Artist: William G.
Jackman, fl. 1841-1860 Medium:
Engraving Original Artist: Jacques
Louis David, 1744-1825 Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 15.2 x 10.8 cm /
Sheet: 24.7 x 13.9 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=L
226 YBN
[1774 AD] 8 		2664) The earliest telegraph.4 5 6
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^
http://www.ilt.columbia.edu/projects/blu
etelephone/html/part4.html
2. ^ Bowers , Brain, "Sir Charles
Wheatstone" Science Museum- London Her
Majesty's Stationery Office 1977, Pg109
3. ^
The Worldwide History of
Telecommunications, By Anton A.
Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052, John
Wiley & Sons, Inc, p48.
4. ^
http://www.ilt.columbia.edu/projects/blu
etelephone/html/part4.html
5. ^ Bowers , Brain, "Sir Charles
Wheatstone" Science Museum- London Her
Majesty's Stationery Office 1977, Pg109
6. ^
The Worldwide History of
Telecommunications, By Anton A.
Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052, John
Wiley & Sons, Inc, p48.
7. ^ The Worldwide
History of Telecommunications, By Anton
A. Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052,
John Wiley & Sons, Inc, p48-49.
8. ^ The
Worldwide History of
Telecommunications, By Anton A.
Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052, John
Wiley & Sons, Inc, p48-49. (1774)

MORE INFO
[1] "Georges-Louis LeSage".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georges-Lou
is_LeSage
Switzerland7 (presumably) 
[1] Le Sage: Telegraph, 1774 PD
source: http://images.fineartamerica.com
/images-medium-large/le-sage-telegraph-1
774-granger.jpg

[2] Description Georges-Louis Le
Sage Source Bibliotheque
Geneve Date 2007-08-27 Author
Created around 1780 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Lesage.jpg
223 YBN
[1777 AD] 4 5 6 7 		2201) Eleven new acids are identified
(including citric and lactic),1 in
addition to the identification of
casein, aldehyde, and glycerol.2
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp218-219.
2. ^ "Carl Wilhelm
Scheele". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
6095/Carl-Wilhelm-Scheele
3. ^ "Carl Wilhelm Scheele".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
6095/Carl-Wilhelm-Scheele
4. ^ "Carl Wilhelm Scheele".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
6095/Carl-Wilhelm-Scheele
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp218-219. (1774)
(1774)
6. ^ "Karl Wilhelm Scheele". The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Karl+Wilhelm+Sche
ele+?cat=technology (1774)
7. ^ "Karl Wilhelm
Scheele". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Karl+Wilhelm+Sche
ele+?cat=technology (1774)

MORE INFO
[1] "Karl Wilhelm Scheele".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Wilhel
m_Scheele
[2] A History of Chemistry from the
Earliest Times, Ernst von Meyer, 1905,
http://books.google.com/books?id=QUENAAA
AYAAJ&pg=PA131&dq=Karl+Wilhelm+Scheele#P
PA133,M1
[3]
http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/scheele77
.html
(starts phramacy position in 1777 in)
Uppsala, Sweden3  
[1] PD
source: http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/s
cheele77.html

[2] Karl Wilhelm Scheele Library of
Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/Karl+Wilh
elm+Scheele+?cat=technology
219 YBN
[03/13/1781 AD] 4 5 		2840) Planet Uranus is identified.2
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp212-215.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp212-215.
3. ^ "Sir William
Herschel". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0235/Sir-William-Herschel
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp212-215. (1781)
(1781)
5. ^ "William Herschel". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/William+Herschel?
cat=technology (03/13/1781)

MORE INFO
[1] # Full text of The Story of
the Herschels (1886) from Project
Gutenberg
http://www.gutenberg.net/etext/12340
[2]
http://www.seds.org/messier/xtra/similar
/herschel.html
[3]
http://www.ruf.rice.edu/~trw/telescopes.
html
Bath, England3  
[1] Wilhelm Herschel, German-British
astronomer. from fr. PD
source: http://cunosc.ro/curiozitati/ima
gini/backup/Astronomie/William_Herschel-
high.jpg

[2] Wilhelm Herschel, German-British
astronomer. from fr. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:William_Herschel01.jpg
217 YBN
[02/01/1783 AD] 5 6 		2183) The motion of the Sun relative to
the other stars is recognized.1 2
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp212-215.
2. ^ Herschel,
William. "On the Proper Motion of the
Sun and Solar System; With an Account
of Several Changes That Have Happened
among the Fixed Stars since the Time of
Mr. Flamstead. By William Herschel,
Esq. FRS." Philosophical Transactions
of the Royal Society of London 73
(1783):
247-283. http://archive.org/details/phi
ltrans06614922
AND http://books.google.com/books?id=AE
9FAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA247
3. ^ Herschel, William. "On the Proper
Motion of the Sun and Solar System;
With an Account of Several Changes That
Have Happened among the Fixed Stars
since the Time of Mr. Flamstead. By
William Herschel, Esq. FRS."
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London 73 (1783):
247-283. http://archive.org/details/phi
ltrans06614922
AND http://books.google.com/books?id=AE
9FAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA247
4. ^ "William Herschel". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/William+Herschel?
cat=technology
5. ^ Herschel, William. "On the Proper
Motion of the Sun and Solar System;
With an Account of Several Changes That
Have Happened among the Fixed Stars
since the Time of Mr. Flamstead. By
William Herschel, Esq. FRS."
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London 73 (1783):
247-283. http://archive.org/details/phi
ltrans06614922
AND http://books.google.com/books?id=AE
9FAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA247
6. ^ "William Herschel". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/William+Herschel?
cat=technology (1783)

MORE INFO
[1] "Sir William Herschel".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0235/Sir-William-Herschel
[2] "William Herschel". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Her
schel
Datchet, near Winsor, England3
|(Slough, England4 ) 
[1] Figure 3 from: Herschel, William.
''On the Proper Motion of the Sun and
Solar System; With an Account of
Several Changes That Have Happened
among the Fixed Stars since the Time of
Mr. Flamstead. By William Herschel,
Esq. FRS.'' Philosophical Transactions
of the Royal Society of London 73
(1783):
247-283. http://archive.org/details/phi
ltrans06614922
AND http://books.google.com/books?id=AE
9FAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA247 PD
source: http://archive.org/details/philt
rans06614922

[2] Wilhelm Herschel, German-British
astronomer. from fr. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:William_Herschel01.jpg
217 YBN
[06/04/1783 AD] 4 5 		2192) The hot air balloon.1 2
FOOTNOTES

1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp216-217.
2. ^ "Joseph Michel
and Jacques Etienne Montgolfier".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
3540/Joseph-Michel-and-Jacques-Etienne-M
ontgolfier
3. ^ "Joseph Michel and Jacques Etienne
Montgolfier". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
3540/Joseph-Michel-and-Jacques-Etienne-M
ontgolfier
4. ^ "Joseph Michel and Jacques Etienne
Montgolfier". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
3540/Joseph-Michel-and-Jacques-Etienne-M
ontgolfier (06/04/1783)
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp216-217.
(06/05/1783) (06/05/1783)

MORE INFO
[1] "Montgolfier". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montgolfier

Annonay, France3  
[1] First public demonstration in
Annonay, 1783-06-04. Library of
Congress PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Early_flight_02562u_%282%29.jpg

[2] Jacques Étienne Montgolfier
(1745-1799), inventor of the hot air
balloon. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jacques_%C3%89tienne_Montgolfier.jpg
217 YBN
[07/15/1783 AD] 4 5 6 		2206) A steam engine boat.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Claude Francois Dorothee marquis
de Jouffroy dAbbans". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
4021/Claude-Francois-Dorothee-marquis-de
-Jouffroy-dAbbans
2. ^ "Claude Francois Dorothee marquis
de Jouffroy dAbbans". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
4021/Claude-Francois-Dorothee-marquis-de
-Jouffroy-dAbbans
3. ^ "Claude Francois Dorothee marquis
de Jouffroy dAbbans". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
4021/Claude-Francois-Dorothee-marquis-de
-Jouffroy-dAbbans
4. ^ http://www.answers.com/steamship
(1783)
5. ^ "Claude Francois Dorothee marquis
de Jouffroy dAbbans". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
4021/Claude-Francois-Dorothee-marquis-de
-Jouffroy-dAbbans (1783)
6. ^
http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08526b.h
tm (07/15/1783)

MORE INFO
[1] "Claude de Jouffroy".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claude_de_J
ouffroy
[2] "Steamboat". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steamboat
Saône River, near Lyon, France3  
[1] Model of a steamship, built by
d'Abbans in 1784. Musee de la Marine.
GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:D%27AbbansSteamshipModel.jpg
217 YBN
[11/21/1783 AD] 4 5 		2194) Human flight by balloon.2
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ "balloon flight." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 21 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/1424455/balloon-flight>.
2. ^ "balloon flight." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 21 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/1424455/balloon-flight>.
3. ^ "Montgolfier". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Montgolfier?cat=t
echnology
4. ^ "balloon flight." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 21 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/1424455/balloon-flight>. {11/21/1783}
5. ^ Yenne
and Grosser, "100 Inventions That
Shaped World History", 1993, p40.
{11/21/1783}

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982)
[2] "Joseph Michel and
Jacques Etienne Montgolfier".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
3540/Joseph-Michel-and-Jacques-Etienne-M
ontgolfier
[3] "Montgolfier". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montgolfier

[4] "Jean-François Pilâtre de
Rozier". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Fran%C
3%A7ois_Pil%C3%A2tre_de_Rozier
(11/21/1783)
Paris, France3  
[1] This image is available from the
United States Library of Congress
Prints and Pictures division under the
digital ID ppmsca.02562 The first
untethered balloon flight, by Rosier
and the Marquis d'Arlandes on 21
November 1783. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Early_flight_02562u_%284%29.jpg

[2] REPRODUCTION NUMBER:
LC-DIG-ppmsca-02227 (digital file from
original print) LC-USZ62-15586 (b&w
film copy neg.) No known restrictions
on publication. SUMMARY: Oval
head-and-shoulders portrait of French
balloonist Jean-François Pilâtre de
Rozier, who took the first balloon
flight in 1783. MEDIUM: 1 print :
etching with
engraving. CREATED/PUBLISHED: [S.l.]
: Chez Mr. Pujos, peintre, [between
1783 and 1800] RELATED
NAMES: Pujos, André, 1738-1788,
artist. NOTES: ''Et se trouve
chez Mr. Pujos Peintre, Quai Pelletier
prés la Greve''-- at bottom of
print. Title from
item. Tissandier
collection. SUBJECTS: Pilâtre de
Rozier, Jean-François, 1754-1785.
Balloonists--French--1780-1800. FORMA
T: Portrait prints 1780-1800.
Etchings 1780-1800. REPOSITORY:
Library of Congress Prints and
Photographs Division Washington, D.C.
20540 USA DIGITAL ID: (digital file
from original print) ppmsca 02227
http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/ppmsca.02227
(b&w film copy neg.) cph 3a17830
http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/cph.3a17830
CARD #: 2002724820 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Pilatre_de_Rozier.jpg
217 YBN
[1783 AD] 3 		2114) The density of gases is
measured.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp200-202.
2. ^ "Henry
Cavendish". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
1916/Henry-Cavendish
3. ^ "Henry Cavendish". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
1916/Henry-Cavendish (1783 (presumably)

MORE INFO
[1] "Henry Cavendish". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Caven
dish
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Henry+Cavendish?c
at=technology
London, England2  
[1] Henry Cavendish Henry
CavendishBorn: 10-Oct-1731 Birthplace:
Nice, France Died:
24-Feb-1810 Location of death:
Clapham, England PD?
source: http://www.nndb.com/people/030/0
00083778/

[2] Old picture from F. Moore's
History of Chemistry, published in
1901 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Cavendish_Henry.jpg
216 YBN
[01/15/1784 AD] 6 7 		2115) Water is shown to be a compound,
not an element. The fusion of molecules
using electricity; water is synthesized
by using an electric spark in hydrogen
and oxygen gases.3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Henry Cavendish." Britannica
Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia
Britannica, Inc., 1994-2010.
Answers.com 28 Feb. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/henry-caven
dish
2. ^ Henry Cavendish, "Experiments On
Air", Philosophical Transactions, Vol
74, 1784,
pp119-153. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=Dk9FAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA119 AND
http://books.google.com/books?id=-uEKA
AAAIAAJ
3. ^ "Henry Cavendish." Britannica
Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia
Britannica, Inc., 1994-2010.
Answers.com 28 Feb. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/henry-caven
dish
4. ^ Henry Cavendish, "Experiments On
Air", Philosophical Transactions, Vol
74, 1784,
pp119-153. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=Dk9FAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA119 AND
http://books.google.com/books?id=-uEKA
AAAIAAJ
5. ^ "Henry Cavendish". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
1916/Henry-Cavendish
6. ^ Henry Cavendish, "Experiments On
Air", Philosophical Transactions, Vol
74, 1784,
pp119-153. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=Dk9FAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA119 AND
http://books.google.com/books?id=-uEKA
AAAIAAJ
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp200-202.
(01/15/1784) (01/15/1784)

MORE INFO
[1] "Henry Cavendish". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Caven
dish
[2] "Henry Cavendish". History of
Science and Technology. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Henry+Cavendish?c
at=technology
London, England5  
[1] Text from: Henry Cavendish,
''Experiments On Air'', Philosophical
Transactions, Vol 74, 1784, pp119-153,
text from
p129. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Dk9FAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA119 AND
http://books.google.com/books?id=-uEKA
AAAIAAJ PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=Dk9FAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false


[2] Scan of a drawing of Cavendish's
apparatus for making hydrogen
gas Source Philosophical
Transactions (periodical) Date
1766 Author Henry Cavendish PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Cavendish_hydrogen.jpg
216 YBN
[1784 AD] 8 9 10 		2259) The first gas is liquefied,
sulfur dioxide.4 5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Monge, Gaspard." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 9. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 469-478. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 26 Mar. 2013.
2. ^
Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp230-231.
3. ^ Ren� Taton,
Gaspard MONGE (Count de P�luse.),
"L'�uvre Scientifique de Monge",
1951,
p332-333. {Monge_First_liquefaction_of_
gas_Taton_1951.pdf}
4. ^ "Monge, Gaspard." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 9. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 469-478. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 26 Mar. 2013.
5. ^
Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp230-231.
6. ^ Ren� Taton,
Gaspard MONGE (Count de P�luse.),
"L'�uvre Scientifique de Monge",
1951,
p332-333. {Monge_First_liquefaction_of_
gas_Taton_1951.pdf}
7. ^ "Monge, Gaspard." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 9. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 469-478. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 26 Mar. 2013.
8. ^
"Monge, Gaspard." Complete Dictionary
of Scientific Biography. Vol. 9.
Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008.
469-478. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Web. 26 Mar. 2013.
9. ^ Ren�
Taton, Gaspard MONGE (Count de
P�luse.), "L'�uvre Scientifique de
Monge", 1951,
p332-333. {Monge_First_liquefaction_of_
gas_Taton_1951.pdf}
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp230-231. (1785)
(1785)

MORE INFO
[1] "Gaspard Monge". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaspard_Mon
ge
[2]
http://books.google.com/books?id=YrQEAAA
AYAAJ&pg=PA15&dq=intitle:statics&as_brr=
1&hl=en An Elementary Treatise on
Statics With a Biographical Notice of
the Author (Biddle, Philadelphia, 1851)
[3]
http://books.google.com/books?id=UjEDAAA
AQAAJ&printsec=titlepage&dq=inauthor:Gas
pard+inauthor:Monge&as_brr=0&hl=en An
elementary treatise on descriptive
geometry, with a theory of shadows and
of perspective (Weale, London, 1851)
(École du génie) Angers, France7
 
[1] Scientist: Monge, Gaspard (1746 -
1818) Discipline(s): Mathematics ;
Chemistry ; Physics Print Artist:
François-Seraphin Delpech, 1778-1825
Medium: Lithograph Original
Artist: Henri-Joseph Hesse, 1781-1849
Original Dimensions: Graphic: 9.2 x
8.5 cm / Sheet: 21.3 x 12.4
cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=M

[2] GASPARD MONGE Photo : Patrice
Maurin-Berthier (C) Photo
Collections Ecole
polytechnique PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sabix.org/bulletin/b2
3/monge.html
215 YBN
[02/17/1785 AD] 3 		3463) The earliest "diffraction"
grating (made with hair).1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ F. Hopkinson and David
Rittenhouse, "An Optical Problem,
Proposed by Mr. Hopkinson, and Solved
by Mr. Rittenhouse", Transactions of
the American Philosophical Society,
Vol. 2, (1786), pp.
201-206. http://www.jstor.org/stable/10
05186 {Rittenhouse_David_1785_02_17.pdf
}
2. ^ F. Hopkinson and David
Rittenhouse, "An Optical Problem,
Proposed by Mr. Hopkinson, and Solved
by Mr. Rittenhouse", Transactions of
the American Philosophical Society,
Vol. 2, (1786), pp.
201-206. http://www.jstor.org/stable/10
05186 {Rittenhouse_David_1785_02_17.pdf
}
3. ^ F. Hopkinson and David
Rittenhouse, "An Optical Problem,
Proposed by Mr. Hopkinson, and Solved
by Mr. Rittenhouse", Transactions of
the American Philosophical Society,
Vol. 2, (1786), pp.
201-206. http://www.jstor.org/stable/10
05186 {Rittenhouse_David_1785_02_17.pdf
} {02/17/1785}
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA2  
[1] David Rittenhouse from an original
Picture in the possession of Mrs.
Sergeant. PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=_J8RAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=dav
id+rittenhouse#PPP6,M1
215 YBN
[06/02/1785 AD] 4 5 		2116) Air is shown to be a mixture of
gases, and not a single element.2
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^ "Henry Cavendish". History of
Science and Technology. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Henry+Cavendish?c
at=technology
2. ^ "Henry Cavendish". History of
Science and Technology. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Henry+Cavendish?c
at=technology
3. ^ "Henry Cavendish". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
1916/Henry-Cavendish
4. ^ Henry Cavendish, "Experiments on
Air.", Philosophical Transactions of
the Royal Society of London
(1776-1886), Volume 75 - 1785,
372-384 Henry Cavendish, "Experiments
On Air", Philosophical Transactions,
Vol 74, 1784,
pp119-153. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=-uEKAAAAIAAJ
5. ^ "Henry Cavendish". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
1916/Henry-Cavendish (1785)

MORE INFO
[1] "Henry Cavendish". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Caven
dish
London, England3  
[1] Figures 1-3 from: Henry
Cavendish, ''Experiments on Air.'',
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1776-1886), Volume
75 - 1785, 372-384 Henry Cavendish,
''Experiments On Air'', Philosophical
Transactions, Vol 74, 1784,
pp119-153. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=-uEKAAAAIAAJ PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=-uEKAAAAIAAJ

[2] Figure from Experiments on Air.
By Henry Cavendish, Esq. F.R.S. and
A.S. Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 75 -
1785 Pages 372-384 DOI 10.1098/rstl.17
85.0023 PD?
source: http://www.journals.royalsoc.ac.
uk/content/002m322p050qv423/?p=d80161c90
5fe4831aa63484ba66ccb98&pi=6
215 YBN
[1785 AD] 6 		2168) Electric and magnetic attraction
and repulsion are proven to be both
proportional to amount of charge and
inversely proportional to distance
squared.3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Baigrie, B.S. Electricity and
Magnetism: a Historical Perspective.
Greenwood Press., p46.
http://books.google.com/books?id=3XEc5
xkWxi4C&pg=PA43&lpg=PA43&dq=coulomb+1785
+construction+and+usage&source=web&ots=R
Cp1tlEosB&sig=olOXH2XVdh36x0kmcoBsMtstqT
I#PPA44,M1 Electricity and Magnetism,
By Brian Baigrie, 2006
2. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
3. ^ Baigrie, B.S. Electricity and
Magnetism: a Historical Perspective.
Greenwood Press., p46.
http://books.google.com/books?id=3XEc5
xkWxi4C&pg=PA43&lpg=PA43&dq=coulomb+1785
+construction+and+usage&source=web&ots=R
Cp1tlEosB&sig=olOXH2XVdh36x0kmcoBsMtstqT
I#PPA44,M1 Electricity and Magnetism,
By Brian Baigrie, 2006
4. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p211.
6. ^
"Charles Augustin Coulomb".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Charles+Augustin+
Coulomb+?cat=technology (1785)

MORE INFO
[1] "Charles Augustin de
Coulomb". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
6555/Charles-Augustin-de-Coulomb
[2] "Charles Augustin Coulomb".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Aug
ustin_Coulomb
Paris?, France5 (presumably) 
[1] Portrait by Hippolyte Lecomte PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Coulomb.jpg

[2] Charles-Augustin de Coulomb,
detail of a bronze bust. H.
Roger-Viollet COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-9659/Charles-Augustin-de-Coulomb-detail
-of-a-bronze-bust?articleTypeId=1
213 YBN
[08/27/1787 AD] 3 		2265) That volume and temperature of a
gas are inversely related is known.1
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ "Jacques Charles". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Jacques+Charles?c
at=technology
2. ^ "Jacques Charles". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Jacques+Charles?c
at=technology
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p232. (1787)

MORE INFO
[1] "Jacques Alexandre Cesar
Charles". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
2590/Jacques-Alexandre-Cesar-Charles
[2] "Jacques Charles". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques_Cha
rles
Paris, France2 (presumably) 
[1] Jacques Alexandre César Charles,
1820 Jacques Alexandre César Charles,
French scientist, mathematician, and
balloonist. This image is from the
Library of Congress online collection,
and is in the public domain. It has
been cropped for concision. See catalog
information below. TITLE: Charles,
(Jacques Alexandre César.) né
Beaugency-sur-Loire, le 11 novembre
1746, élu en 1793 / Jul. Bailly,
1820. CALL NUMBER: LOT 13400, no. 22
[P&P] Check for an online group
record (may link to related
items) REPRODUCTION NUMBER:
LC-DIG-ppmsca-02185 (digital file from
original print) LC-USZ62-70373 (b&w
film copy neg.) No known restrictions
on publication. SUMMARY:
Head-and-shoulders portrait of French
balloonist Jacques Alexandre César
Charles, who made the first flight in a
hydrogen balloon, Dec. 1,
1783. MEDIUM: 1 print :
lithograph. CREATED/PUBLISHED: [S.l.
: s.n., 1820] NOTES: ''Institut
royal de France, Académie des sciences
(physique génle.)''--printed above
title. Title from
item. Tissandier
collection. SUBJECTS: Charles,
Jacques Alexandre César, 1746-1823.
Balloonists--French--1820. FORMAT:
Portrait prints 1820. Lithographs
1820. REPOSITORY: Library of
Congress Prints and Photographs
Division Washington, D.C. 20540
USA DIGITAL ID: (digital file from
original print) ppmsca 02185
http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/ppmsca.02185
(b&w film copy neg.) cph 3b17771
http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/cph.3b17771
CARD #: 2002716398 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jacques_Alexandre_C%C3%A9sar_Charles.
jpg

[2] First flight by Prof. Jacques
Charles with Ainé Roberts, December 1,
1783. Illustration from the late 19th
Century. N°. 5 - Premier voyage
aérien par Charles et Robert
(1783) First aerial voyage by Charles
and Robert · Erste Flugreise mit
Charles und Robert Library of
Congress PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Early_flight_02562u_%285%29.jpg
209 YBN
[1791 AD] 6 		2175) Remote neuron activation (or
remote neuron writing) by Luigi
Galvani. A muscle is contracted
remotely by using a remote electric
spark while metal is connected to the
nerve.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Luigi Galvani, Elizabeth Licht,
Robert Green, "Commentary on the Effect
of Electricity on Muscular Motion",
Waverly Press, 1953.
2. ^ Luigi Galvani,
Elizabeth Licht, Robert Green,
"Commentary on the Effect of
Electricity on Muscular Motion",
Waverly Press, 1953.
3. ^ Luigi Galvani,
Elizabeth Licht, Robert Green,
"Commentary on the Effect of
Electricity on Muscular Motion",
Waverly Press, 1953.
4. ^ Luigi Galvani,
Elizabeth Licht, Robert Green,
"Commentary on the Effect of
Electricity on Muscular Motion",
Waverly Press, 1953.
5. ^ "Luigi Galvani".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
5937/Luigi-Galvani
6. ^ "Luigi Galvani". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
5937/Luigi-Galvani (1791)

MORE INFO
[1]
https://eee.uci.edu/clients/bjbecker/Nat
ureandArtifice/lecture14.html
Bologna, Italy5  
[1] Italian physicists Luigi
Galvani Source
http://www.museopalazzopoggi.unibo.it
//poggi_eng/palazzo/foto/prot Date
18-19 th century Author
Unknown PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Luigi_Galvani%2C_oil-painting.jpg

[2] The electrochemical behavior of
two dissimilar metals [(zinc (Z) and
copper (C)] in a bimetallic arch, in
contact with the electrolytes of
tissue, produces an electric
stimulating current that elicits
muscular contraction. [Malmivuo, J., &
Plonsey, R. (1995).
Bioelectromagnatism: Principles and
applications of bioelectric and
biomagnetic fields. New York: Oxford
University Press., Ch.1] URL:
http://butler.cc.tut.fi/~malmivuo/bem/be
mbook/01/01.htm Diagram of Luigi
Galvani's frog legs (~1770s) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Galvani%27s_legs.gif
206 YBN
[1794 AD] 4 5 		2085) The theory of natural selection:
that species less adapted are more
likely to die while those better
adapted will continue and multiply.1 2

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Paul N. Pearson (16 October
2003). In Retrospect (html). Nature V.
425 #6959, p. 665. Comments on Hutton's
3-volume 1794 work, An Investigation of
the Principles of Knowledge and of the
Progress of Reason, from Sense to
Science and
Philosophy. http://www.nature.com/natur
e/journal/v425/n6959/index.html
2. ^ Hutton, J. An Investigation of the
Principles of Knowledge and of the
Progress of Reason, from Sense to
Science and Philosophy... by James
Hutton,... A. Strahan, 1794, Volume 2,
p500. http://books.google.com/books?id=
b_MkAQAAIAAJ
{Hutton_Investigation_of_the_Principle
_of_Knowledge_1794.pdf}
3. ^ "James Hutton". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
1650/James-Hutton
4. ^ Paul N. Pearson (16 October 2003).
In Retrospect (html). Nature V. 425
#6959, p. 665. Comments on Hutton's
3-volume 1794 work, An Investigation of
the Principles of Knowledge and of the
Progress of Reason, from Sense to
Science and
Philosophy. http://www.nature.com/natur
e/journal/v425/n6959/index.html
5. ^ Hutton, J. An Investigation of the
Principles of Knowledge and of the
Progress of Reason, from Sense to
Science and Philosophy... by James
Hutton,... A. Strahan, 1794, Volume 2,
p500. http://books.google.com/books?id=
b_MkAQAAIAAJ {Hutton_Investigation_of_t
he_Principle_of_Knowledge_1794.pdf}

MORE INFO
[1] "James Hutton". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/James%20Hutton
(1795)
Edinburgh, Scotland3
(presumably) 
[1] Hutton, J. An Investigation of the
Principles of Knowledge and of the
Progress of Reason, from Sense to
Science and Philosophy... by James
Hutton,... A. Strahan, 1794, Volume 2,
p500. http://books.google.com/books?id=
b_MkAQAAIAAJ
{Hutton_Investigation_of_the_Principle
_of_Knowledge_1794.pdf} PD
source: Hutton, J. An Investigation of
the Principles of Knowledge and of the
Progress of Reason, from Sense to
Science and Philosophy... by James
Hutton,... A. Strahan, 1794, Volume 2,
p500. http://books.google.com/books?id=
b_MkAQAAIAAJ

[2] JAMES HUTTON (1726-1797) PD
source: http://www.uwmc.uwc.edu/geograph
y/hutton/hutton.htm
204 YBN
[07/01/1796 AD] 4 5 6 		2280) Immunity by vaccination is
proven.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp236-237.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp236-237.
3. ^ "Edward
Jenner". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
3524/Edward-Jenner
4. ^ "Edward Jenner". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
3524/Edward-Jenner (07/01/1796
(injection of small pox)
5. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp236-237.
(05/14/1796 (injection of cow pox)
(05/14/1796 (injection of cow pox)
6. ^
"Edward Jenner". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
3524/Edward-Jenner (05/14/1796
(injection of cow pox)

MORE INFO
[1] "Edward Jenner". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Jenn
er
[2]
http://www.answers.com/edward+jenner?cat
=health
[3]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
Berkeley, England3 (presumably) 
[1] Source:
http://www.edward-jenner.com/family-life
.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Edward_Jenner2.jpg

[2] Figure 1: Portrait of Edward
Jenner painted in about 1800 by William
Pearce. Note the cows in the
background, the source of the cowpox
virus he used to vaccinate people
against smallpox. PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://openlearn.open.ac.uk/file
.php/2642/formats/S320_1_rss.xml
203 YBN
[1797 AD] 3 		2338) Marble is produced by melting and
quickly cooling limestone.1 2
FOOTNOTES

1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp250-251.
2. ^ "Sir James Hall
4th Baronet". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8914/Sir-James-Hall-4th-Baronet
3. ^ "Wilhelm Olbers". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
6957/Wilhelm-Olbers (1797)

MORE INFO
[1] "James Hall, 4th Baronet".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hall%
2C_4th_Baronet
[2]
http://www.electricscotland.com/history/
other/hall_james.htm
[3]
http://www.geo.ed.ac.uk/scotgaz/people/f
amousfirst2053.html
 
[1] Description A limestone formation
in the Waitomo District of New
Zealand. Date 2007-12-?? Source
Self-photographed Author
Uploader. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Limestone_Forma
tion_In_Waitomo.jpg/1280px-Limestone_For
mation_In_Waitomo.jpg

[2] Description English: Weathered
marble anticline at General Carrera
Lake, Chile Date 17 November
2008 Source Glaciers Transferred
from en.wikipedia to Commons by
User:Common Good using
CommonsHelper. Author Dentren at
en.wikipedia CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Catedraldemarmo
l.JPG/1280px-Catedraldemarmol.JPG
202 YBN
[1798 AD] 6 		2117) The gravitational constant, the
mass, and the density of the Earth are
measured.3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp200-202.
2. ^ "Henry
Cavendish". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
1916/Henry-Cavendish
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp200-202.
4. ^ "Henry
Cavendish". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
1916/Henry-Cavendish
5. ^ "Henry Cavendish". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
1916/Henry-Cavendish
6. ^ "Henry Cavendish". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
1916/Henry-Cavendish (1798)

MORE INFO
[1] "Henry Cavendish". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Caven
dish
London, England5  
[1] Henry Cavendish Henry
CavendishBorn: 10-Oct-1731 Birthplace:
Nice, France Died:
24-Feb-1810 Location of death:
Clapham, England PD?
source: http://www.nndb.com/people/030/0
00083778/

[2] Old picture from F. Moore's
History of Chemistry, published in
1901 PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Caven
dish_Henry.jpg
201 YBN
[1799 AD] 4 5 6 7 		2315) Elements are shown to combine in
definite proportions.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp245-246.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp245-246.
3. ^ "Joseph
Louis Proust". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
1640/Joseph-Louis-Proust
4. ^ "Joseph Louis Proust".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
1640/Joseph-Louis-Proust (1793)
5. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp245-246. (1799)
(1799)
6. ^ "Joseph Louis Proust". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Joseph+Louis+Prou
st?cat=technology (1799)
7. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
(1799)

MORE INFO
[1] "Joseph Louis Proust".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Loui
s_Proust
Segovia, Spain3  
[1] Joseph Proust French
chemist Source Originally from
en.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. Date 2005-10-15 (original
upload date) Author Original
uploader was HappyApple at
en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
image) PD-AUTHOR; Released into the
public domain (by the author). PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Proust_joseph.jpg

[2] Joseph-Louis Proust, medallion by
Pierre-Jean David H. Roger-Viollet To
cite this page: * MLA style:
''Proust, Joseph-Louis: portrait
coin.'' Online Photograph.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 13
Dec. 2007 . PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-30847/Joseph-Louis-Proust-medallion-by-
Pierre-Jean-David?articleTypeId=1
200 YBN
[03/20/1800 AD] 8 9 		2250) The electric battery (or voltaic
pile).5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp228-229.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp228-229.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp228-229.
4. ^ Volta, "On the
Electricity excited by the mere Contact
of conducting Substances of different
Kinds.", Philosophical Magazine,
September 1800,
p288. http://archive.org/download/lepid
opterarepor07winc/lepidopterarepor07winc
.pdf
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp228-229.
6. ^ Volta, "On the
Electricity excited by the mere Contact
of conducting Substances of different
Kinds.", Philosophical Magazine,
September 1800,
p288. http://archive.org/download/lepid
opterarepor07winc/lepidopterarepor07winc
.pdf
7. ^ "Conte Alessandro Volta".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
5699/Conte-Alessandro-Volta
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp228-229. (1800)
(1800)
9. ^ "alessandro volta". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/topic/alessandro-
volta?cat=technology (03/20/1800(sends
letter to Banks secretary of royal
society)

MORE INFO
[1] "Alessandro Volta".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alessandro_
Volta
[2]
http://inventors.about.com/library/inven
tors/bl_Alessandro_Volta.htm
Pavia, Italy7  
[1] Volta, ''On the Electricity excited
by the mere Contact of conducting
Substances of different Kinds.'',
Philosophical Magazine, September 1800,
p415. http://archive.org/download/lepid
opterarepor07winc/lepidopterarepor07winc
.pdf PD
source: http://archive.org/download/lepi
dopterarepor07winc/lepidopterarepor07win
c.pdf

[2] Description Alessandro Giuseppe
Antonio Anastasio Volta Source
http://www.anthroposophie.net/bibliot
hek/nawi/physik/volta/bib_volta.htm Dat
e 2006-03-02 (original upload
date) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Alessandro_Volta.jpeg
200 YBN
[03/27/1800 AD] 10 11 		2179) Invisible light is recognized
(infrared light).7 8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ William Herschel, "Investigation
of the Powers of the Prismatic Colours
to Heat and Illuminate Objects; With
Remarks, That Prove the Different
Refrangibility of Radiant Heat. To
Which is Added, an Inquiry into the
Method of Viewing the Sun
Advantageously, with Telescopes of
Large Apertures and High Magnifying
Powers.", Philosophical Transactions of
the Royal Society of London , Vol. 90,
(1800), pp. 255-283.
books.google.com/books?id=dlFFAAAAcAAJ
&pg=PA255
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp212-215.
3. ^ William
Herschel, "Investigation of the Powers
of the Prismatic Colours to Heat and
Illuminate Objects; With Remarks, That
Prove the Different Refrangibility of
Radiant Heat. To Which is Added, an
Inquiry into the Method of Viewing the
Sun Advantageously, with Telescopes of
Large Apertures and High Magnifying
Powers.", Philosophical Transactions of
the Royal Society of London , Vol. 90,
(1800), pp. 255-283.
books.google.com/books?id=dlFFAAAAcAAJ
&pg=PA255
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp212-215.
5. ^ William
Herschel, "Investigation of the Powers
of the Prismatic Colours to Heat and
Illuminate Objects; With Remarks, That
Prove the Different Refrangibility of
Radiant Heat. To Which is Added, an
Inquiry into the Method of Viewing the
Sun Advantageously, with Telescopes of
Large Apertures and High Magnifying
Powers.", Philosophical Transactions of
the Royal Society of London , Vol. 90,
(1800), pp. 255-283.
books.google.com/books?id=dlFFAAAAcAAJ
&pg=PA255
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp212-215.
7. ^ William
Herschel, "Investigation of the Powers
of the Prismatic Colours to Heat and
Illuminate Objects; With Remarks, That
Prove the Different Refrangibility of
Radiant Heat. To Which is Added, an
Inquiry into the Method of Viewing the
Sun Advantageously, with Telescopes of
Large Apertures and High Magnifying
Powers.", Philosophical Transactions of
the Royal Society of London , Vol. 90,
(1800), pp. 255-283.
books.google.com/books?id=dlFFAAAAcAAJ
&pg=PA255
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp212-215.
9. ^ "Sir William
Herschel". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0235/Sir-William-Herschel
10. ^ William Herschel, "Investigation
of the Powers of the Prismatic Colours
to Heat and Illuminate Objects; With
Remarks, That Prove the Different
Refrangibility of Radiant Heat. To
Which is Added, an Inquiry into the
Method of Viewing the Sun
Advantageously, with Telescopes of
Large Apertures and High Magnifying
Powers.", Philosophical Transactions of
the Royal Society of London , Vol. 90,
(1800), pp. 255-283.
books.google.com/books?id=dlFFAAAAcAAJ
&pg=PA255
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp212-215. (1800)
(1800)

MORE INFO
[1] "William Herschel".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Her
schel
Slough, England9  
[1] William Herschel, ''Investigation
of the Powers of the Prismatic Colours
to Heat and Illuminate Objects; With
Remarks, That Prove the Different
Refrangibility of Radiant Heat. To
Which is Added, an Inquiry into the
Method of Viewing the Sun
Advantageously, with Telescopes of
Large Apertures and High Magnifying
Powers.'', Philosophical Transactions
of the Royal Society of London , Vol.
90, (1800), pp. 255-283.
books.google.com/books?id=dlFFAAAAcAAJ
&pg=PA255 PD
source: books.google.com/books?id=dlFFAA
AAcAAJ&pg=PA255

[2] Description Wilhelm Herschel,
German-British
astronomer. Date 1785 Source Nat
ional Portrait Gallery, London: NPG
98 Author Lemuel Francis Abbott PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/36/William_Herschel01.jp
g
200 YBN
[09/17/1800 AD] 4 5 		2436) Hydrogen and oxygen gas are
collected separately from the
electrolysis of water.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p278.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p278.
3. ^ "Johann
Wilhelm Ritter". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
3787/Johann-Wilhelm-Ritter
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p244. (Nicholson:
05/02/1800)(by: )09/17/1800)
(Nicholson: 05/02/1800)(by:
)09/17/1800)
5. ^
http://www.acmi.net.au/AIC/RITTER_BIO.ht
ml (Nicholson: 05/02/1800)(by:
)09/17/1800) (Nicholson:
05/02/1800)(by: )09/17/1800)

MORE INFO
[1] "Johann Wilhelm Ritter".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Wilh
elm_Ritter
[2]
http://www2.uni-jena.de/biologie/ehh/for
um/ausstellungen/Physik_als_Kunst/Physik
_als_Kunst.htm
[3]
http://www.sil.si.edu/silpublications/di
bner-library-lectures/scientific-discove
ries/text-lecture.htm
Jena, Germany3 (presumably) 
[1] Undatiertes Portrait von J. W.
Ritter PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www2.uni-jena.de/biologie
/ehh/forum/ausstellungen/Physik_als_Kuns
t/Physik_als_Kunst.htm

[2] Johann Wilhelm Ritter. Undated
woodcut, courtesy Deutsches Museum,
Munich. Reproduced in Ritter
1986. PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/silpublica
tions/dibner-library-lectures/scientific
-discoveries/text-lecture.htm
200 YBN
[11/??/1800 AD] 3 4 		2437) Electroplating.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p278.
2. ^ "Johann Wilhelm
Ritter". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
3787/Johann-Wilhelm-Ritter
3. ^
http://www.acmi.net.au/AIC/RITTER_BIO.ht
ml (c11/1800 (just a guess after
id2436)
4. ^ Ted Huntington. (c11/1800 (just a
guess after id2436)

MORE INFO
[1] "Johann Wilhelm Ritter".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Wilh
elm_Ritter
[2]
http://www2.uni-jena.de/biologie/ehh/for
um/ausstellungen/Physik_als_Kunst/Physik
_als_Kunst.htm
[3]
http://www.sil.si.edu/silpublications/di
bner-library-lectures/scientific-discove
ries/text-lecture.htm
[4] "Dowsing". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dowsing
[5]
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/ritter.htm
Jena, Germany2 (presumably) 
[1] Undatiertes Portrait von J. W.
Ritter PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www2.uni-jena.de/biologie
/ehh/forum/ausstellungen/Physik_als_Kuns
t/Physik_als_Kunst.htm

[2] Johann Wilhelm Ritter. Undated
woodcut, courtesy Deutsches Museum,
Munich. Reproduced in Ritter
1986. PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/silpublica
tions/dibner-library-lectures/scientific
-discoveries/text-lecture.htm
199 YBN
[01/01/1801 AD] 4 		2261) The first known asteroid (and
minor planet), Ceres {SErEZ1 }, is
recognized.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "ceres." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 20 Jan.
2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/c
eres>.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp231-232.
3. ^ "Giuseppe
Piazzi". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Giuseppe+Piazzi?c
at=technology
4. ^ "Giuseppe Piazzi". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Giuseppe+Piazzi?c
at=technology (01/01/1801)

MORE INFO
[1] "Giuseppe Piazzi".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
9895/Giuseppe-Piazzi
[2] "Giuseppe Piazzi". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giuseppe_Pi
azzi
[3]
http://www.lpi.usra.edu/books/AsteroidsI
II/pdf/3027.pdf
[4] "Ceres (dwarf planet)". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ceres_%28dw
arf_planet%29
[5] "olbers s paradox". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/olbers-s-pa
radox?cat=technology
Palermo, Sicily3  
[1] NASA's Hubble Space Telescope color
image of Ceres, the largest Main Belt
asteroid. Astronomers optimized spatial
resolution to about 18 km per pixel,
enhancing the contrast in these images
to bring out features on Ceres'
surface, that are both brighter and
darker than the average which absorbs
91% of sunlight falling on it.
(Original discription by NASA) Source
http://dawn.jpl.nasa.gov/images/ceres
.jpg (Slightly cropped from
original) Date Taken: December 2003
- January 2004. Released 7 September
2005 Author NASA, ESA, J. Parker
(Southwest Research Institute), P.
Thomas (Cornell University), and L.
McFadden (University of Maryland,
College Park) Permission Unless
otherwise specifically stated, no claim
to copyright is being asserted by STScI
and it may be freely used as in the
public domain in accordance with NASA's
contract. [...] [1] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ceres_optimized.jpg

[2] Scientist: Piazzi, Giuseppe (1746
- 1846) Discipline(s):
Astronomy Print Artist: F. Bordiga
Medium: Engraving Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 11.9 x 9.4 cm /
Sheet: 20.7 x 15.9 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=P
199 YBN
[02/22/1801 AD] 6 7 		2167) The invisible light, ultra-violet
light is discovered.3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p278.
2. ^ Ritter, J. W.
"Auffindung nicht-sichtbarer
Sonnenstrahlen an der Seite des
Violett." Annalen der Physik 7 (1801):
527. http://books.google.com/books?id=q
wU4AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA527 English:
"Discovery of non-visible solar
radiation to the side of
violet." {todo: Determine if there is
any English translation of this work}
3. ^
Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p278.
4. ^ Ritter, J. W.
"Auffindung nicht-sichtbarer
Sonnenstrahlen an der Seite des
Violett." Annalen der Physik 7 (1801):
527. http://books.google.com/books?id=q
wU4AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA527 English:
"Discovery of non-visible solar
radiation to the side of
violet." {todo: Determine if there is
any English translation of this work}
5. ^
"Johann Wilhelm Ritter". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
3787/Johann-Wilhelm-Ritter
6. ^ Ritter, J. W. "Auffindung
nicht-sichtbarer Sonnenstrahlen an der
Seite des Violett." Annalen der Physik
7 (1801):
527. http://books.google.com/books?id=q
wU4AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA527 English:
"Discovery of non-visible solar
radiation to the side of
violet." {todo: Determine if there is
any English translation of this work}
7. ^
Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p278. (1801) (1801)

MORE INFO
[1] "Johann Wilhelm Ritter".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Wilh
elm_Ritter
[2]
http://www2.uni-jena.de/biologie/ehh/for
um/ausstellungen/Physik_als_Kunst/Physik
_als_Kunst.htm
[3]
http://www.sil.si.edu/silpublications/di
bner-library-lectures/scientific-discove
ries/text-lecture.htm
[4] "Dowsing". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dowsing
[5]
http://www.acmi.net.au/AIC/RITTER_BIO.ht
ml
Jena, Germany5 (presumably) 
[1] Ritter, J. W. ''Auffindung
nicht-sichtbarer Sonnenstrahlen an der
Seite des Violett.'' Annalen der Physik
7 (1801):
527. http://books.google.com/books?id=q
wU4AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA527 English:
''Discovery of non-visible solar
radiation to the side of violet.'' PD
AND [1] Undatiertes Portrait von J. W.
Ritter PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=qwU4AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA527http://www2.uni-je
na.de/biologie/ehh/forum/ausstellungen/P
hysik_als_Kunst/Physik_als_Kunst.htm

[2] Undatiertes Portrait von J. W.
Ritter PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www2.uni-jena.de/biologie
/ehh/forum/ausstellungen/Physik_als_Kuns
t/Physik_als_Kunst.htm
199 YBN
[11/12/1801 AD] 11 		2405) The frequencies and wavelengths
(or particle intervals) of light are
determined. The first glass diffraction
gratings. The three color principle
(that only three colors in different
proportions are needed to see any other
color7 ). The theory of light
interference.8 9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Miscellaneous Works of the Late
Thomas Young", Thomas Young, George
Peacock, 1855 John Murray, p161.
2. ^ Thomas
Young, "The Bakerian Lecture: On the
Theory of Light and Colours",
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1776-1886),Volume
92, (1802),
pp12-48. http://journals.royalsociety.o
rg/content/q3r7063hh2281211/?p=422e575ba
e414c9a974a16d595c628d0π=24
AND http://books.google.com/books?id=-X
AXAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA140 {Young_Thomas_1802_
on_the_theory_of_light_and_colours.pdf}
3. ^ "Miscellaneous Works of the Late
Thomas Young", Thomas Young, George
Peacock, 1855 John Murray, p161.
4. ^ Thomas
Young, "The Bakerian Lecture: On the
Theory of Light and Colours",
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1776-1886),Volume
92, (1802),
pp12-48. http://journals.royalsociety.o
rg/content/q3r7063hh2281211/?p=422e575ba
e414c9a974a16d595c628d0π=24
AND http://books.google.com/books?id=-X
AXAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA140 {Young_Thomas_1802_
on_the_theory_of_light_and_colours.pdf}
5. ^ "Miscellaneous Works of the Late
Thomas Young", Thomas Young, George
Peacock, 1855 John Murray, p161.
6. ^ Thomas
Young, "The Bakerian Lecture: On the
Theory of Light and Colours",
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1776-1886),Volume
92, (1802),
pp12-48. http://journals.royalsociety.o
rg/content/q3r7063hh2281211/?p=422e575ba
e414c9a974a16d595c628d0π=24
AND http://books.google.com/books?id=-X
AXAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA140 {Young_Thomas_1802_
on_the_theory_of_light_and_colours.pdf}
7. ^ "Miscellaneous Works of the Late
Thomas Young", Thomas Young, George
Peacock, 1855 John Murray, p147.
8. ^
"Miscellaneous Works of the Late Thomas
Young", Thomas Young, George Peacock,
1855 John Murray, p161.
9. ^ Thomas Young,
"The Bakerian Lecture: On the Theory of
Light and Colours", Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886),Volume 92, (1802),
pp12-48. http://journals.royalsociety.o
rg/content/q3r7063hh2281211/?p=422e575ba
e414c9a974a16d595c628d0π=24
AND http://books.google.com/books?id=-X
AXAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA140 {Young_Thomas_1802_
on_the_theory_of_light_and_colours.pdf}
10. ^ John Charles Drury Brand, Raymond
Bonnett, "Lines of Light: The Sources
of Dispersive Spectroscopy, 1800-1930",
CRC Press, 1995, p27.
http://books.google.com/books?id=sKx0I
BC22p4C&pg=PA32&lpg=PA32&dq=joseph+fraun
hofer+measured+wavelengths+lines&source=
web&ots=qKuKNGN2kv&sig=ZwvLfbjr0XPa68680
mOZkZhEnUs&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&res
num=4&ct=result#PPA32,M1 {11/12/1801}
11. ^ Thomas
Young, Philip Kelland, "A Course of
Lectures on Natural Philosophy and the
Mechanical Arts", Taylor and Walton,
1845. {Contains the lectures which form
vol. I of the 1807
edition.} http://books.google.com/books
?id=fGMSAAAAIAAJ {11/12/1801}

MORE INFO
[1] "Thomas Young (scientist)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Youn
g_%28scientist%29
[2] "etalon." Dictionary.com Unabridged
(v 1.1). Random House, Inc. 17 Jun.
2008.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/e
talon>
[3] Thomas Young, "The Bakerian
Lecture: On the Theory of Light and
Colours", Philosophical Transactions of
the Royal Society of London
(1776-1886),Volume 92, (1802), pp12-48.
http://journals.royalsociety.org/conte
nt/q3r7063hh2281211/?p=422e575bae414c9a9
74a16d595c628d0π=24
AND http://books.google.com/books?id=-X
AXAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA140
London, England10  
[1] {ULSF: Table of light wavelengths
and frequencies calculated by Young
from Theory of Light and Colours
11/12/1801} The inch used in the table
is the French (Paris) inch of
27.07mm. PD/Corel AND Portrait of
Thomas Young in color PD
source: Young_Thomas_1802_on_the_theory_
of_light_and_colours.pdfhttp://ugadayki.
ru/images/sv/133163204157_full.jpg

[2] {ULSF: Table of light wavelengths
and frequencies calculated by Young
from Theory of Light and Colours
11/12/1801} The inch used in the table
is the French (Paris) inch of
27.07mm. PD/Corel
source: Young_Thomas_1802_on_the_theory_
of_light_and_colours.pdf
198 YBN
[1802 AD] 8 9 		2365) Spectral lines are identified.4 5
6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "William Hyde Wollaston". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/William+Hyde+Woll
aston+?cat=technology
2. ^ William Hyde Wollaston, "A Method
of Examining Refractive and Dispersive
Powers, by Prismatic Reflection",
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1776-1886), Volume
92, (1802),
pp365-380. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
107124
AND http://journals.royalsociety.org/co
ntent/k1u515395v15n93p/?p=5f779c071a024f
e5bd90a27e9245eea7π=13 {Wollaston_Will
iam_1802_PT.pdf}
3. ^ Norman Lockyer, The Chemistry of
the Sun, Macmillan and co., (1887).
http://books.google.com/books?id=tr8KA
AAAIAAJ&pg=PA13&lpg=PA13&dq=Fraunhofer+1
814&source=web&ots=-3MHM347gt&sig=NeAo2-
HxUlNyC-wX6KRrM3pz_so&hl=en#PPA15,M1 {T
he_Chemistry_of_the_Sun.pdf}
4. ^ "William Hyde Wollaston". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/William+Hyde+Woll
aston+?cat=technology
5. ^ William Hyde Wollaston, "A Method
of Examining Refractive and Dispersive
Powers, by Prismatic Reflection",
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1776-1886), Volume
92, (1802),
pp365-380. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
107124
AND http://journals.royalsociety.org/co
ntent/k1u515395v15n93p/?p=5f779c071a024f
e5bd90a27e9245eea7π=13 {Wollaston_Will
iam_1802_PT.pdf}
6. ^ Norman Lockyer, The Chemistry of
the Sun, Macmillan and co., (1887).
http://books.google.com/books?id=tr8KA
AAAIAAJ&pg=PA13&lpg=PA13&dq=Fraunhofer+1
814&source=web&ots=-3MHM347gt&sig=NeAo2-
HxUlNyC-wX6KRrM3pz_so&hl=en#PPA15,M1 {T
he_Chemistry_of_the_Sun.pdf}
7. ^ "William Hyde Wollaston". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/William+Hyde+Woll
aston+?cat=technology
8. ^ "William Hyde Wollaston". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/William+Hyde+Woll
aston+?cat=technology (1802)
9. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp257-258. (1802)

MORE INFO
[1] "William Hyde Wollaston".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Hyd
e_Wollaston
[2]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[3] Francis Wollaston, "The secret
history of a private man",
1795. http://books.google.com/books?hl=
en&id=vCUAAAAAQAAJ&dq=The+Secret+History
+of+a+Private+Man&printsec=frontcover&so
urce=web&ots=lMwgXnBmu7&sig=JiY5flaqsad7
lmMEp0aw3Smzu-c&sa=X&oi=book_result&resn
um=1&ct=result
[4] "William Hyde Wollaston."
Encyclopdia Britannica. Encyclopdia
Britannica Online. Encyclopdia
Britannica Inc., 2013. Web. 15 May.
2013.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/646649/William-Hyde-Wollaston>.
London, England7  
[1] William Wollaston Fiure 3 from
1802 Philosophical
Transactions PD/Corel
source: Wollaston_William_1802_PT.pdf

[2] Scientist: Wollaston, William
Hyde (1766 - 1878) Discipline(s):
Chemistry ; Physics ; Medicine Print
Artist: James Thomson, 1789-1850
Medium: Lithograph Original
Artist: J. Jackson Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 11.5 x 8.7 cm /
Sheet: 24.5 x 16 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=W
198 YBN
[1802 AD] 3 4 		2439) The first dry electric battery.1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Johann Wilhelm Ritter".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
3787/Johann-Wilhelm-Ritter
2. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/ritter.htm
3. ^ "Johann Wilhelm Ritter".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
3787/Johann-Wilhelm-Ritter (1802)
4. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/ritter.htm (1802)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982)
[2] "Johann Wilhelm Ritter".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Wilh
elm_Ritter
[3]
http://www2.uni-jena.de/biologie/ehh/for
um/ausstellungen/Physik_als_Kunst/Physik
_als_Kunst.htm
[4]
http://www.sil.si.edu/silpublications/di
bner-library-lectures/scientific-discove
ries/text-lecture.htm
[5] "Dowsing". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dowsing
[6] Ritter, Johann Wilhelm. "Neue
Versuche über den Galvanismus."
Reichs-Anzeiger (Gotha) 66 (1802):
813-820
Gotha, Germany2  
[1] Replikation der trockenen
Ladungssäule Ritters, dem ersten
Akkumulator PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www2.uni-jena.de/biologie
/ehh/forum/ausstellungen/Physik_als_Kuns
t/Physik_als_Kunst.htm

[2] Undatiertes Portrait von J. W.
Ritter PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www2.uni-jena.de/biologie
/ehh/forum/ausstellungen/Physik_als_Kuns
t/Physik_als_Kunst.htm
197 YBN
[10/21/1803 AD] 4 5 		2375) That atoms of different elements
vary in size and mass is shown. The
first table of elements by atomic
mass.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "John Dalton". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 27 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/150287/John-Dalton/217770/Atomic
-theory>.
2. ^ "John Dalton". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 27 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/150287/John-Dalton/217770/Atomic
-theory>.
3. ^ "John Dalton". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
8616/John-Dalton (10/21/1803 (paper to
Manchester Literary and Philosophical
Society)
4. ^ "John Dalton". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 27 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/150287/John-Dalton/217770/Atomic
-theory>.
5. ^ John Dalton, "On the Absorption of
Gases by Water and Other Liquids."
Memoirs of the Literary and
Philosophical Society of Manchester ,
Second Series, 1, 271-87
(1805). http://books.google.com/books?i
d=LJNIAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA259

MORE INFO
[1] "John Dalton". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Dalton

[2]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[3] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp259-261. (1803)
(10/21/1803 (paper to Manchester
Literary and Philosophical Society)
[4]
http://www.surveyor.in-berlin.de/himmel/
Bios/Goodricke-e.html (1803)
Manchester, England3  
[1] Two figures from: John Dalton,
''On the Absorption of Gases by Water
and Other Liquids.'' Memoirs of the
Literary and Philosophical Society of
Manchester , Second Series, 1, 271-87
(1805). http://books.google.com/books?i
d=LJNIAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA287 PD
AND Engraving of a painting of John
Dalton Source Frontispiece of John
Dalton and the Rise of Modern Chemistry
by Henry Roscoe Date 1895 Author
Henry Roscoe (author), William Henry
Worthington (engraver), and Joseph
Allen (painter) [t right one finger =
?] PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=LJNIAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA259http://en.wikipedi
a.org/wiki/Image:Dalton_John_desk.jpg

[2] Figure from: John Dalton, ''On
the Absorption of Gases by Water and
Other Liquids.'' Memoirs of the
Literary and Philosophical Society of
Manchester , Second Series, 1, 271-87
(1805). http://books.google.com/books?i
d=LJNIAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA287 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=LJNIAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA259
197 YBN
[1803 AD] 3 4 		2400) The steam engine railway train.1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Richard Trevithick".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
3323/Richard-Trevithick
2. ^ "Richard Trevithick". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
3323/Richard-Trevithick
3. ^ "Richard Trevithick". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
3323/Richard-Trevithick (1803)
4. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p268. (1801) (1801)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/Richard%20Trevith
ick%20
South Wales, England2  
[1] On the plaques is the following
text: ''This model was refurbished by
the combined efforts of: THE FRIENDS OF
TREVITHICK CENTRAL TRAINS EASTERN
GENERATION ABB-PCL ENGINEERING KUE
ENGINEERING Presented to Central Trains
by Frank Trevithick-Okuno on 17th April
1998. 1803 LOCOMOTIVE RICHARD
TREVITHICK This is a full scale
replica of the first steam railway
locomotive in the world, which preceded
Stephenson's 'Rocket' by 26 years. It
was designed by Richard Trevithick
(1771-1833), and built near Ironbridge
in Shropshire by the Coalbrookdale
Company in the winter of 1802/3. A near
identical engine ran the following year
at Pen-y-Darren. The replica was
built by Task Undertakings, a Manpower
Services Commission project in
Birmingham, under the guidance of Allen
Gulliver, to drawings made for the
Ironbridge Gorge Museum by Stewart
Johnson.'' This replica is located in
Telford Central Station, Telford,
Shropshire, UK. The photo was taken on
14 June 2005 by Mark Barker. CC
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Trevithick1803Locomotive.jpg

[2] London Steam Carriage, eigener
Scan Road locomotive by Trevithick and
Vivian, demonstrated in London in
1803. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Trevithicks_Dampfwagen.jpg
196 YBN
[1804 AD] 5 6 		6519) There are 1 billion humans on
Earth.3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Kremer, Michael. “Population
Growth and Technological Change: One
Million B.C. to 1990.” The Quarterly
Journal of Economics 108.3 (1993):
681–716. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
2118405
2. ^ Parker, G. Compact History of the
World. Barnes & Noble, 2001, p17.
3. ^
Kremer, Michael. “Population Growth
and Technological Change: One Million
B.C. to 1990.” The Quarterly Journal
of Economics 108.3 (1993):
681–716. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
2118405
4. ^ Parker, G. Compact History of the
World. Barnes & Noble, 2001, p17.
5. ^
Kremer, Michael. “Population Growth
and Technological Change: One Million
B.C. to 1990.” The Quarterly Journal
of Economics 108.3 (1993):
681–716. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
2118405
6. ^
http://geography.about.com/od/obtainpopu
lationdata/a/worldpopulation.htm
 
[1] Parker, G. Compact History of the
World. Barnes & Noble, 2001,
p17. COPYRIGHTED
source: Parker, G. Compact History of
the World. Barnes & Noble, 2001, p17.
194 YBN
[1806 AD] 4 		2346) Asparagine {e-SPAR-e-JEN1 }, the
first amino acid, is isolated.2
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ "asparagine." The American
Heritage� Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 18
Jan. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/asparagine
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp252-253.
3. ^ "Nicolas Louis
Vauquelin". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
4920/Nicolas-Louis-Vauquelin
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp252-253. (1806)
(1806)

MORE INFO
[1] "Louis Nicolas Vauquelin".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Nicol
as_Vauquelin
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Louis+Nicolas+Vau
quelin+?cat=technology
Paris, France3  
[1] Louis Nicolas Vauquelin from
en:Wikipedia PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Louis_Nicolas_Vauquelin.jpg

[2] Portrait de Vauquelin situé dans
la Salle des actes de la Faculté de
pharmacie, 4 avenue de l'Observatoire
à Paris PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://euromin.w3sites.net/Nouve
au_site/mineralogiste/biographies/Vauque
linf.htm
192 YBN
[1808 AD] 3 		2428) The phenomenon of light
"polarization" is observed.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Étienne Louis Malus". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/%C3%89tienne+Loui
s+Malus+?cat=technology
2. ^ "Étienne Louis Malus". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/%C3%89tienne+Loui
s+Malus+?cat=technology
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp275-276. (1808)
(1808)

MORE INFO
[1] "Étienne Louis Malus".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89tienn
e_Louis_Malus
Paris, France2  
[1] Etienne-Louis Malus (1775-1812),
French officer, engineer, physicist,
and mathematician. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Etienne-Louis_Malus.jpg

[2] Scientist: Malus, Etienne Louis
(1775 - 1812) Discipline(s):
Physics Print Artist: Ambroise
Tardieu, 1788-1841 Medium: Engraving
Original Artist: Arago Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 10.3 x 7.7 cm /
Sheet: 23.8 x 15 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=M
191 YBN
[1809 AD] 6 7 		2466) Gases are shown to combine in
small whole number ratios by volume and
not by mass.3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp282-284.
3. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp282-284.
5. ^ "Joseph Louis
Gay Lussac". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
6247/Joseph-Louis-Gay-Lussac
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp282-284. (1809)
(1809)
7. ^ "Joseph Louis Gay Lussac". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Joseph%20Louis%20
Gay-Lussac (1808)

MORE INFO
[1] "Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Loui
s_Gay-Lussac
Paris, France5 (presumably) 
[1] Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gaylussac.jpg

[2] Scientist: Gay-Lussac, Joseph
Louis (1778 - 1850) Discipline(s):
Chemistry ; Physics Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 10 x 6.4 cm /
Sheet: 25 x 19.3 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=g
191 YBN
[1809 AD] 10 		2481) The first electric light; the arc
lamp.7 8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp284-286.
2. ^ "Humphry Davy".
History of Science and Technology.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Humphry+Davy+?cat
=technology
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp284-286.
4. ^ "Humphry Davy".
History of Science and Technology.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Humphry+Davy+?cat
=technology
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp284-286.
6. ^ "Humphry Davy".
History of Science and Technology.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Humphry+Davy+?cat
=technology
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp284-286.
8. ^ "Humphry Davy".
History of Science and Technology.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Humphry+Davy+?cat
=technology
9. ^ "Humphry Davy". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Humphry+Davy+?cat
=technology
10. ^ "Humphry Davy". History of
Science and Technology. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Humphry+Davy+?cat
=technology (1809)

MORE INFO
[1] "Sir Humphry Davy Baronet".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
9535/Sir-Humphry-Davy-Baronet
[2] "Humphry Davy". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humphry_Dav
y
[3]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
London, England9  
[1] Humphry Davy demonstrates his new
electric light for the members of the
Royal Institution of London. Power is
drawn from the banks of batteries in
the basement and rapidly used up by the
intense light. Electric light was then
only a scientific curiosity, practical
only when expense was no
object. Humphry Davy Demonstrating the
Arc Light, 1809 PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://people.clarkson.edu/%7Eek
atz/scientists/davy.htm

[2]
http://www.nndb.com/people/028/000083776
/humphry-davy-2-sized.jpg [left finger
1: ''left'' viewed as educated
intellectuals in 1800s England? just
coincidence?] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Sir_Humphry_Davy2.jpg
190 YBN
[1810 AD] 3 		2480) Chlorine is shown to be an
element and shown to support combustion
like oxygen does. Hydrogen is shown to
be characteristic of acids.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp284-286.
2. ^ "Humphry Davy".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Humphry+Davy+?cat
=technology
3. ^ "Humphry Davy". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Humphry+Davy+?cat
=technology (1810)

MORE INFO
[1] "Humphry Davy". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humphry_Dav
y
[2]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[3] "Michael Faraday". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online. "Michael Faraday".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9756/Michael-Faraday
[4] "Sir Humphry Davy Baronet".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online. "Sir
Humphry Davy Baronet". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
9535/Sir-Humphry-Davy-Baronet
London, England2  
[1]
http://www.nndb.com/people/028/000083776
/humphry-davy-2-sized.jpg [left finger
1: ''left'' viewed as educated
intellectuals in 1800s England? just
coincidence?] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Sir_Humphry_Davy2.jpg

[2] Taken from The Life of Sir Humphry
Davy by John A. Paris, London: Colburn
and Bentley, 1831. Engraving from about
1830, based on a portrait by Sir Thomas
Lawrence (1769 - 1830) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Humphry_Davy_Engraving_1830.jpg
189 YBN
[1811 AD] 4 5 6 7 8 		2380) "Fourier's theorem": that any
periodic oscillation can be reduced to
a sum of simple sinusoidal waves.1 2
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ Théorie du mouvement de la
chaleur dans les corps solides (suite)
p.1-94 Mémoires de l'Académie royale
des sciences de l'Institut de France,
années 1821 et 1822, t. V, p. 153 à
246; 1826. Imprimerie
royale http://books.google.com/books?id
=EpfgAAAAMAAJ
AND http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bp
t6k33707/f6
AND http://math-doc.ujf-grenoble.fr/cgi
-bin/oetoc?id=OE_FOURIER__2 {Fourier_18
21.pdf} English translation: Fourier,
J.B.J., and A. Freeman. The Analytical
Theory of Heat. At the University
Press,
1878. http://books.google.com/books?id=
-N8EAAAAYAAJ
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp262-263.
3. ^ "Joseph Baron
Fourier". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
5044/Joseph-Baron-Fourier
4. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
(1811)
5. ^ George A. Gibson, "On the History
of the Fourier Series", Edinburgh
Mathematical Society. Proceedings of
the Edinburgh Mathematical Society.
Scottish Academic Press, (5/12/1893)
1893,
p146. http://books.google.com/books?id=
2uoKAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA146
6. ^ Carslaw, H.S. Introduction to the
Theory of Fourier’s Series and
Integrals and the Mathematical Theory
of the Conduction of Heat. Macmillan
and Company, Limited, 1906.
Introduction to the Theory of
Fourier’s Series and Integrals and
the Mathematical Theory of the
Conduction of
Heat. http://books.google.com/books?id=
RIs9AAAAYAAJ&pg=PA6
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp262-263. (1807)
(1807)
8. ^ Merriman, M. et al. Higher
Mathematics: A Text-book for Classical
and Engineering Colleges. J. Wiley &
Sons, 1902.
http://books.google.com/books?id=TS4PT
_tpjBYC&pg=PA542

MORE INFO
[1] "Jean Baptiste Joseph
Fourier". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Baptis
te_Joseph_Fourier
[2] "Fourier transform". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
5045/Fourier-transform
[3]
http://www.answers.com/Fourier+transform
?cat=technology
[4]
http://www.answers.com/Fourier+integrals
?cat=technology
[5] Fourier, J. "Sine and Cosine Series
for an Arbitrary Function in Joseph
Fourier 1768-1830 Ed. and annotated by
I." Grattan-Guinness The MIT Press,
Cambridge, MA (1807)
Grenoble, France3  
[1]
http://br.geocities.com/saladefisica3/fo
tos/fourier.jpg PD/CC AND Fourier
Series general form and example from
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourier_ser
ies GNU AND Théorie du mouvement
de la chaleur dans les corps solides
(suite) p.1-94 Mémoires de
l'Académie royale des sciences de
l'Institut de France, années 1821 et
1822, t. V, p. 153 à 246; 1826.
Imprimerie
royale http://books.google.com/books?id
=EpfgAAAAMAAJ
AND http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bp
t6k33707/f6
AND http://math-doc.ujf-grenoble.fr/cgi
-bin/oetoc?id=OE_FOURIER__2 {Fourier_18
21.pdf} English translation: Fourier,
J.B.J., and A. Freeman. The Analytical
Theory of Heat. At the University
Press,
1878. http://books.google.com/books?id=
-N8EAAAAYAAJ PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Fourier2.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w
iki/Fourier_serieshttp://books.google.co
m/books?id=-N8EAAAAYAAJhttp://books.goog
le.com/books?id=EpfgAAAAMAAJ

[2]
http://br.geocities.com/saladefisica3/fo
tos/fourier.jpg PD/CC
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Fourier2.jpg
189 YBN
[1811 AD] 4 		2432) The concept of molecules, and the
method to determine correct atomic mass
and molecular formula.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp277-278.
2. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and technology;
the lives and achievements of 1195
great scientists from ancient times to
the present, chronologically arranged",
(Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982),
pp277-278.
3. ^ "Amedeo Avogadro". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
4090/Amedeo-Avogadro
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp277-278.
(1811)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
Vercelli, Italy3  
[1] Amedeo Avogadro, lithograph,
1856. The Granger Collection, New York
PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-15471/Amedeo-Avogadro-lithograph-1856?a
rticleTypeId=1

[2] [t [3 wiki] describes as
''Caricature of Amedeo Avogadro'', is
this not an accurate portrait? and no
photo by 1856?] Amedeo Avogadro -
chemist PD
source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wik
i/Image:Amedeo_Avogadro.gif
186 YBN
[1814 AD] 10 		2571) The spectroscope. That substances
emit specific spectral lines is known.4
5 6 The spectrum of planet Venus is
found to have the same absorption lines
as the Sun, and the spectrum of other
stars are found to have absorption
lines that are different from those of
the Sun.7 8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Joseph von Fraunhofer".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
5214/Joseph-von-Fraunhofer
2. ^ Norman Lockyer, The Chemistry of
the Sun, Macmillan and co., (1887).
http://books.google.com/books?id=tr8KA
AAAIAAJ&pg=PA13&lpg=PA13&dq=Fraunhofer+1
814&source=web&ots=-3MHM347gt&sig=NeAo2-
HxUlNyC-wX6KRrM3pz_so&hl=en#PPA15,M1 {T
he_Chemistry_of_the_Sun.pdf}
3. ^ Joseph, Fraunhofer, "Bestimmung
des Brechungs- und
Farbenzerstreuungs-Vermögens
verschiedener Glasarten, in Bezug auf
die Vervollkommnung achromatischer
Fernrohre.", Akademie Der
Wissenschaften zu München, (1814), 15
Band v, pp 193-226.
http://books.google.com/books?id=2-AAA
AAAYAAJ&pg=PA203 This work is
translated from German into English in
the "Edinburgh Philosophical Journal",
(1823) vol IX,
pp288-299 http://books.google.com/books
?id=Py87AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA288 and
"Edinburgh Philosophical Journal"
(1824), vol X,
p26. http://books.google.com/books?id=x
S87AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA26 In addition this
is printed in: Vol. 56, pp. 264-313.
Gilberts Annalen der Physik.
(1817) (Apparently the figures are not
included) {Fraunhofer_1817_1814.pdf} O
riginal in German:
{Fraunhofer_Joseph_1814.pdf} Another
English translation: Excerpts in
English translation "DETERMINATION OF
THE REFRACTIVE AND THE DISPERSIVE POWER
OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF GLASS WITH
REFERENCE TO THE PERFECTING OF
ACHROMATIC TELESCOPES.": J. S. Ames
(ed.), Prismatic and Diffraction
Spectra: Memoirs by Joseph von
Fraunhofer, New York 1898, pp. 1-10.
http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&id
=5GE3AAAAMAAJ&dq=Prismatic+and+Diffracti
on+Spectra:++Memoirs+by+Joseph+von+Fraun
hofer&printsec=frontcover&source=web&ots
=K2VGb4IsNb&sig=HcoZYrNDKoTfjsUErIWZX5pL
tn0&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&ct=resu
lt#PPA1,M1
4. ^ "Joseph von Fraunhofer".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
5214/Joseph-von-Fraunhofer
5. ^ Norman Lockyer, The Chemistry of
the Sun, Macmillan and co., (1887).
http://books.google.com/books?id=tr8KA
AAAIAAJ&pg=PA13&lpg=PA13&dq=Fraunhofer+1
814&source=web&ots=-3MHM347gt&sig=NeAo2-
HxUlNyC-wX6KRrM3pz_so&hl=en#PPA15,M1 {T
he_Chemistry_of_the_Sun.pdf}
6. ^ Joseph, Fraunhofer, "Bestimmung
des Brechungs- und
Farbenzerstreuungs-Vermögens
verschiedener Glasarten, in Bezug auf
die Vervollkommnung achromatischer
Fernrohre.", Akademie Der
Wissenschaften zu München, (1814), 15
Band v, pp 193-226.
http://books.google.com/books?id=2-AAA
AAAYAAJ&pg=PA203 This work is
translated from German into English in
the "Edinburgh Philosophical Journal",
(1823) vol IX,
pp288-299 http://books.google.com/books
?id=Py87AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA288 and
"Edinburgh Philosophical Journal"
(1824), vol X,
p26. http://books.google.com/books?id=x
S87AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA26 In addition this
is printed in: Vol. 56, pp. 264-313.
Gilberts Annalen der Physik.
(1817) (Apparently the figures are not
included) {Fraunhofer_1817_1814.pdf} O
riginal in German:
{Fraunhofer_Joseph_1814.pdf} Another
English translation: Excerpts in
English translation "DETERMINATION OF
THE REFRACTIVE AND THE DISPERSIVE POWER
OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF GLASS WITH
REFERENCE TO THE PERFECTING OF
ACHROMATIC TELESCOPES.": J. S. Ames
(ed.), Prismatic and Diffraction
Spectra: Memoirs by Joseph von
Fraunhofer, New York 1898, pp. 1-10.
http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&id
=5GE3AAAAMAAJ&dq=Prismatic+and+Diffracti
on+Spectra:++Memoirs+by+Joseph+von+Fraun
hofer&printsec=frontcover&source=web&ots
=K2VGb4IsNb&sig=HcoZYrNDKoTfjsUErIWZX5pL
tn0&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&ct=resu
lt#PPA1,M1
7. ^ Joseph, Fraunhofer, "Bestimmung
des Brechungs- und
Farbenzerstreuungs-Vermögens
verschiedener Glasarten, in Bezug auf
die Vervollkommnung achromatischer
Fernrohre.", Akademie Der
Wissenschaften zu München, (1814), 15
Band v, pp 193-226.
http://books.google.com/books?id=2-AAA
AAAYAAJ&pg=PA203 This work is
translated from German into English in
the "Edinburgh Philosophical Journal",
(1823) vol IX,
pp288-299 http://books.google.com/books
?id=Py87AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA288 and
"Edinburgh Philosophical Journal"
(1824), vol X,
p26. http://books.google.com/books?id=x
S87AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA26 In addition this
is printed in: Vol. 56, pp. 264-313.
Gilberts Annalen der Physik.
(1817) (Apparently the figures are not
included) {Fraunhofer_1817_1814.pdf} O
riginal in German:
{Fraunhofer_Joseph_1814.pdf} Another
English translation: Excerpts in
English translation "DETERMINATION OF
THE REFRACTIVE AND THE DISPERSIVE POWER
OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF GLASS WITH
REFERENCE TO THE PERFECTING OF
ACHROMATIC TELESCOPES.": J. S. Ames
(ed.), Prismatic and Diffraction
Spectra: Memoirs by Joseph von
Fraunhofer, New York 1898, pp. 1-10.
http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&id
=5GE3AAAAMAAJ&dq=Prismatic+and+Diffracti
on+Spectra:++Memoirs+by+Joseph+von+Fraun
hofer&printsec=frontcover&source=web&ots
=K2VGb4IsNb&sig=HcoZYrNDKoTfjsUErIWZX5pL
tn0&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&ct=resu
lt#PPA1,M1
8. ^ William Huggins, William Allen
Miller, "On the Spectra of Some of the
Fixed Stars", Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886), Volume 154, 1864,
p413-435. http://rstl.royalsocietypubli
shing.org/content/154/413.full.pdf+html
 {Huggins_William_1864.pdf}
9. ^ "Joseph von Fraunhofer".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
5214/Joseph-von-Fraunhofer
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp303-304. (1814)

MORE INFO
[1] "Joseph von Fraunhofer".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_von_
Fraunhofer
Benedictbeuern (near Munich), Germany9
 
[1] Figure 3 from: Joseph,
Fraunhofer, ''Bestimmung des Brechungs-
und Farbenzerstreuungs-Vermögens
verschiedener Glasarten, in Bezug auf
die Vervollkommnung achromatischer
Fernrohre.'', Akademie Der
Wissenschaften zu München, (1814), 15
Band v, pp 193-226.
http://books.google.com/books?id=2-AAA
AAAYAAJ&pg=PA203 PD AND Figure 1
from: Joseph, Fraunhofer,
''Bestimmung des Brechungs- und
Farbenzerstreuungs-Vermögens
verschiedener Glasarten, in Bezug auf
die Vervollkommnung achromatischer
Fernrohre.'', Akademie Der
Wissenschaften zu München, (1814), 15
Band v, pp 193-226.
http://books.google.com/books?id=2-AAA
AAAYAAJ&pg=PA203 PD AND circa 1820
- 01 Jan 1820 Email this image Rate
this image Joseph von
Fraunhofer (Photo by Hulton
Archive/Getty Images) PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=2-AAAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA203http://www.viewima
ges.com/Search.aspx?mid=3270856&epmid=1&
partner=Google

[2] Figure 3 from: Joseph,
Fraunhofer, ''Bestimmung des Brechungs-
und Farbenzerstreuungs-Vermögens
verschiedener Glasarten, in Bezug auf
die Vervollkommnung achromatischer
Fernrohre.'', Akademie Der
Wissenschaften zu München, (1814), 15
Band v, pp 193-226.
http://books.google.com/books?id=2-AAA
AAAYAAJ&pg=PA203 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=2-AAAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA203
185 YBN
[11/??/1815 AD] 5 6 7 		2544) The theory that all atomic masses
are a multiple of hydrogen.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp297-298.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp297-298.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp297-298.
4. ^ "William Prout".
The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy.
Oxford University Press, 1994, 1996,
2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/William+Prout?cat
=technology
5. ^ William Prout (published
anonymously), On the Relation between
the Specific Gravities of Bodies in
their Gaseous State and the Weights of
their Atoms. Annals of Philosophy 6,
p321-330
(1815). books.google.com/books?id=tDowA
AAAYAAJ
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp297-298. (1815)
(1815)
7. ^ "William Prout". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
1643/William-Prout (1815)

MORE INFO
[1] "William Prout". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Pro
ut
[2]
http://www.chem.yale.edu/~chem125/125/hi
story99/4RadicalsTypes/Analysis/Liebigan
al.html
London, England4 (presumably) 
[1] William Prout (published
anonymously), On the Relation between
the Specific Gravities of Bodies in
their Gaseous State and the Weights of
their Atoms. Annals of Philosophy 6,
p321-330
(1815). books.google.com/books?id=tDowA
AAAYAAJ PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=tDowAAAAYAA

[2] William Prout
(1785-1850) PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.uam.es/departamentos/
ciencias/qorg/docencia_red/qo/l0/1830.ht
ml
183 YBN
[01/12/1817 AD] 5 6 7 		2408) The theory that light is a
transverse wave (oscillates at a right
angle to the direction of travel)1 in
an aether medium2 .3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Thomas Young". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8063/Thomas-Young
2. ^ Young, Thomas. "The Bakerian
lecture: On the theory of light and
colours." Philosophical transactions of
the Royal Society of London, v92, 1802,
p12-48,
p14. http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.230
7/107113
AND http://journals.royalsociety.org/co
ntent/q3r7063hh2281211/?p=422e575bae414c
9a974a16d595c628d0&pi=24 {Young_Thomas_
1802_on_the_theory_of_light_and_colours.
pdf}
3. ^ "Letter from Dr. Young to M.
Arago", Jan. 12, 1817, found in: Young,
T., G. Peacock, and J. Leitch.
Miscellaneous Works: Scientific
Memoirs. Murray,
1855. http://books.google.com/books?id=
-XAXAQAAMAAJ&pg=380
4. ^ "thomas young". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/thomas-youn
g?cat=health
5. ^ "Letter from Dr. Young to M.
Arago", Jan. 12, 1817, found in: Young,
T., G. Peacock, and J. Leitch.
Miscellaneous Works: Scientific
Memoirs. Murray,
1855. http://books.google.com/books?id=
-XAXAQAAMAAJ&pg=380
6. ^ "Thomas Young". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8063/Thomas-Young {1817}
7. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
{1809}

MORE INFO
[1] "Thomas Young (scientist)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Youn
g_%28scientist%29
[2] The History and Present State of
Discoveries Relating to Vision, Light
and Colours, Joseph Priestley, 1772,
kraus reprint 1978
[3] "astigmatism".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
9975/astigmatism
[4] "Miscellaneous Works of the Late
Thomas Young", Thomas Young, George
peacocl, 1855 John Murray
[5] "Color".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color
[6] # ^ Craig F. Bohren (2006).
Fundamentals of Atmospheric Radiation:
An Introduction with 400 Problems.
Wiley-VCH. ISBN 3527405038
[7] Opticks, Isaac
Newton, Cohen, Dover, 1979
[8]
http://journals.royalsociety.org/content
/r83rgl3147706v03/?p=2c2209e43a82481a8fe
7ab25edbdf256&pi=1 The Bakerian
Lecture: Experiments and Calculations
Relative to Physical
Optics Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 94 -
1804 Pages 1-16 DOI 10.1098/rstl.1804.
0001 Young_Thomas_1804_Experiments_and_
Calculations.pdf
[9] Great Experiments in Physics,
Shamos, 1959,1987
[10] Thomas Young, Philip
Kelland, "A Course of Lectures on
Natural Philosophy and the Mechanical
Arts", Taylor and Walton, 1845.
{Contains the lectures which form vol.
I of the 1807
edition.} http://books.google.com/books
?id=fGMSAAAAIAAJ
London, England4  
[1] ''Letter from Dr. Young to M.
Arago'', Jan. 12, 1817, found in:
Young, T., G. Peacock, and J. Leitch.
Miscellaneous Works: Scientific
Memoirs. Murray,
1855. http://books.google.com/books?id=
-XAXAQAAMAAJ&pg=380 PD AND Portrait
of Thomas Young in color PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=-XAXAQAAMAAJ&pg=380http://ugadayki.ru/i
mages/sv/133163204157_full.jpg

[2] ''Letter from Dr. Young to M.
Arago'', Jan. 12, 1817, found in:
Young, T., G. Peacock, and J. Leitch.
Miscellaneous Works: Scientific
Memoirs. Murray,
1855. http://books.google.com/books?id=
-XAXAQAAMAAJ&pg=380 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=-XAXAQAAMAAJ&pg=380
183 YBN
[1817 AD] 4 5 6 		2600) The theory that chemicals contain
light.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ E. Newton Harvey, "History of
Luminescence From the Earliest Times
Until 1900", American Philosophical
Society, 1957, p213-214.
2. ^ Gmelin, L. Handbuch
Der Theoretischen Chemie.
Springer-Verlag, 1817. Handbuch Der
Theoretischen
Chemie. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=ohUoAQAAIAAJ
3. ^ "Leopold Gmelin". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Leopold+Gmelin?ca
t=technology
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp307-308. (1817)
(1817)
5. ^ "Leopold Gmelin". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Leopold+Gmelin?ca
t=technology (1817)
6. ^ "Gmelin (1817)".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
"Gmelin". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Gmelin
(1817) (1817)

MORE INFO
[1] "Leopold Gmelin". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leopold_Gme
lin
Heidelberg, Germany3  
[1] Gmelin, L. Handbuch Der
Theoretischen Chemie. Springer-Verlag,
1817. Handbuch Der Theoretischen
Chemie. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=ohUoAQAAIAAJ PD AND Scientist:
Gmelin, Leopold (1788 -
1853) Discipline(s): Chemistry Print
Artist: George Cook, 1793-1849
Medium: Engraving Original Artist:
J. Woelfyle Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 15.2 x 12 cm / Sheet: 26.9 x
18.4 cm PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=ohUoAQAAIAAJhttp://www.sil.si.edu/digit
alcollections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/
CF/display_results.cfm?alpha_sort=G

[2] Scientist: Gmelin, Leopold (1788
- 1853) Discipline(s):
Chemistry Print Artist: George Cook,
1793-1849 Medium: Engraving
Original Artist: J. Woelfyle
Original Dimensions: Graphic: 15.2 x
12 cm / Sheet: 26.9 x 18.4 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=G
180 YBN
[04/21/1820 AD] 5 6 7 8 9 10 		2454) Electricity is understood to
cause magnetism. The first
electromagnet.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Hans Christian Oersted, (title in
Latin?), "Experiments on the Effect of
a Current of Electricity on the
Magnetic Needle.", Annals of
Philosophy, Vol. 16, pp. 274-75,
October 1820. Translated from a printed
account drawn up in Latin by the author
and transmitted by hum to the Editor of
the Annals of Philosophy. reprint is
in: Tricker, R. A. R., "Early
Electrodynamics - The First Law of
Circulation", (Pergamon, NY), 1965,
p113-117.
2. ^ Hans Christian Oersted, (title in
Latin?), "Experiments on the Effect of
a Current of Electricity on the
Magnetic Needle.", Annals of
Philosophy, Vol. 16, pp. 274-75,
October 1820. Translated from a printed
account drawn up in Latin by the author
and transmitted by hum to the Editor of
the Annals of Philosophy. reprint is
in: Tricker, R. A. R., "Early
Electrodynamics - The First Law of
Circulation", (Pergamon, NY), 1965,
p113-117.
3. ^ Hans Christian Oersted, (title in
Latin?), "Experiments on the Effect of
a Current of Electricity on the
Magnetic Needle.", Annals of
Philosophy, Vol. 16, pp. 274-75,
October 1820. Translated from a printed
account drawn up in Latin by the author
and transmitted by hum to the Editor of
the Annals of Philosophy. reprint is
in: Tricker, R. A. R., "Early
Electrodynamics - The First Law of
Circulation", (Pergamon, NY), 1965,
p113-117.
4. ^ Hans Christian Oersted, (title in
Latin?), "Experiments on the Effect of
a Current of Electricity on the
Magnetic Needle.", Annals of
Philosophy, Vol. 16, pp. 274-75,
October 1820. Translated from a printed
account drawn up in Latin by the author
and transmitted by hum to the Editor of
the Annals of Philosophy. reprint is
in: Tricker, R. A. R., "Early
Electrodynamics - The First Law of
Circulation", (Pergamon, NY), 1965,
p113-117.
5. ^ "Hans Christian Ørsted".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Christ
ian_%C3%98rsted (04/21/1820)
6. ^ "Hans Christian
Orsted". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
7470/Hans-Christian-Orsted (04/1820)
7. ^ "hans
christian rsted". History of Science
and Technology. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hans-christ
ian-rsted?cat=technology (1820)
8. ^ "hans
christian rsted". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hans-christ
ian-rsted?cat=technology (1820)
9. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp281-282. (1819)
(1819)
10. ^ "hans christian rsted". The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hans-christ
ian-rsted?cat=technology (1819)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[2] "electromagnetic radiation".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-113
56/electromagnetic-radiation
Copenhagen, Denmark4  
[1] A younger Hans Christian Ørsted,
painted in the 19th century. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:%C3%98rsted.jpg

[2] Picture number :317 CD number
:9 Picture size :757x859[pixels],
66x75[mm] Date taken :0000-00-00
Date added
:2000-04-13 Fotographer/Owner :Engrave
d Location
:Denmark Description H.C. Oersted
(1777-1851). Danish physicist. Here as
a youngster. The picture was donated to
the Danish Polytech Institute,
Copenhagen, by his daughter Miss
Mathilde Oersted, April 19,
1905. PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.polytechphotos.dk/ind
ex.php?CHGLAN=2&CatID=286
180 YBN
[09/18/1820 AD] 6 7 8 9 10 		2423) The direction of electric current
in a wire is related to magnetic
force.1 2 3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Analyse des Memoires lus par M.
Ampere a l'Academie des sciences, dans
les seances des 18 et 25 septembre,
des 9 et 30 octobre 1820," Annales
générales des sciences physiques
(published only 1819-1821), 1820,
6:238-257 ("Analyse");
p241-257. http://books.google.com/books
?id=3ugrAQAAMAAJ
2. ^ "Memoire presente a l'Academie
royale des Sciences, le 2 octobre 1820,
oiu se trouve compris le resume de ce
qui avait ete lu a la meme Academie les
18 et 25 septembre 1820, sur les
effets des courans electriques.","
Ann. chim. phys., 1820, 15:59-76;
"Suite du Mémoire," ibid.,
pp. 170-218. http://books.google.com/b
ooks?id=YezNlOSC2pcC&pg=PA59#v=onepage&q
&f=false
3. ^ L. Pearce Williams, "What Were
Ampere's Earliest Discoveries in
Electrodynamics?", Isis , Vol. 74, No.
4 (Dec., 1983), pp.
492-508 http://www.jstor.org/stable/232
209
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp274-275.
5. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/ampere.htm
6. ^ "Hans Christian Oersted."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hans-christ
ian-rsted?cat=technology (within one
week of Oersted's report: 07/21)
7. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/ampere.htm (but this source has
09/04 in Paris)
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (so by: 09/11/1820
according to this source)
9. ^ "1820)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_
Marie_Amp%C3%A8re (hears 9/11
reports:)09/18/1820)
10. ^ "1820)". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911. "1820)". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Andre_Ma
rie_Ampere (hears 9/11
reports:)09/18/1820)

MORE INFO
[1] "André Marie Ampère".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_
Marie_Amp%C3%A8re
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Andr%C3%A9+Marie+
Amp%C3%A8re?cat=technology
[3]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[4] http://gallica.bnf.fr/
Paris, France5  
[1] Ampere and Arago, French
physicists UNKNOWN
source: http://static.greatbigcanvas.com
/images/print_rolled_photoluster/science
-photo-library/1153189.jpg?max=540

[2] André-Marie Ampère
(1775-1836) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ampere1.jpg
180 YBN
[09/25/1820 AD] 4 5 6 		2424) Magnetism is identified as
electricity.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ AMPERE, André-Marie. Mémoire
présenté é l'Académie royale des
Sciences, le 2 octobre 1820, oé se
trouve compris le résumé de ce qui
avait été lu é la méme Académie
les 18 et 25 septembre 1820, sur les
effets des courans électriques.
Annales de chimie et de physique, 1820,
vol. 15, p. 59-74,
p.170-218. http://www.ampere.cnrs.fr/ic
e/ice_book_detail.php?lang=fr&type=text&
bdd=ampere&table=ampere_text&bookId=2&ty
peofbookId=1 partial translation to
English in: R. A. R. Tricker, "Early
Electrodynamics", Pergamum Press, 1965,
p140-154. http://www.ampere.cnrs.fr/ice
/ice_book_detail.php?lang=fr&type=text&b
dd=ampere&table=ampere_text&bookId=2&typ
eofbookId=1
2. ^ AMPERE, André-Marie. Mémoire
présenté é l'Académie royale des
Sciences, le 2 octobre 1820, oé se
trouve compris le résumé de ce qui
avait été lu é la méme Académie
les 18 et 25 septembre 1820, sur les
effets des courans électriques.
Annales de chimie et de physique, 1820,
vol. 15, p. 59-74,
p.170-218. http://www.ampere.cnrs.fr/ic
e/ice_book_detail.php?lang=fr&type=text&
bdd=ampere&table=ampere_text&bookId=2&ty
peofbookId=1 partial translation to
English in: R. A. R. Tricker, "Early
Electrodynamics", Pergamum Press, 1965,
p140-154. http://www.ampere.cnrs.fr/ice
/ice_book_detail.php?lang=fr&type=text&b
dd=ampere&table=ampere_text&bookId=2&typ
eofbookId=1
3. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/ampere.htm
4. ^ AMPERE, André-Marie. "Mémoire
présenté à l'Académie royale des
Sciences, le 2 octobre 1820, où se
trouve compris le résumé de ce qui
avait été lu à la même Académie
les 18 et 25 septembre 1820, sur les
effets des courans électriques.",
Annales de chimie et de physique, 1820,
vol. 15, p. 59-74,
p.170-218. http://www.ampere.cnrs.fr/ic
e/ice_book_detail.php?lang=fr&type=text&
bdd=ampere&table=ampere_text&bookId=2&ty
peofbookId=1 partial translation to
English in: R. A. R. Tricker, "Early
Electrodynamics", Pergamum Press, 1965,
p140-154. http://www.ampere.cnrs.fr/ice
/ice_book_detail.php?lang=fr&type=text&b
dd=ampere&table=ampere_text&bookId=2&typ
eofbookId=1 {1820) 10/02/1820}
5. ^ R. A. R.
Tricker, "Early Electrodynamics",
Pergamum Press, 1965, p140-154.
{10/20/1820 (mistake}
6. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/ampere.htm c09/30/1820) (before
the end of September) c09/30/1820)

MORE INFO
[1] "Andre Marie Ampere".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
7234/Andre-Marie-Ampere
[2] "André Marie Ampère". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_
Marie_Amp%C3%A8re
[3]
http://www.answers.com/topic/hans-christ
ian-rsted?cat=technology
[4]
http://books.google.com/books?id=3XEc5xk
Wxi4C&pg=PA69&lpg=PA69&dq=%22The+mutual+
action+of+two+electric+currents%22&sourc
e=web&ots=RDi1vlMrpC&sig=gi8URXRfofk0H64
F6rtiHIYWarw&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&r
esnum=4&ct=result#PPA70,M1
[5] L. Pearce Williams, "What Were
Ampere's Earliest Discoveries in
Electrodynamics?", Isis , Vol. 74, No.
4 (Dec., 1983), pp.
492-508 http://www.jstor.org/stable/232
209
[6] "Analyse des Memoires lus par M.
Ampere a l'Academie des sciences, dans
les seances des 18 et 25 septembre,
des 9 et 30 octobre 1820," Annales
générales des sciences physiques
(published only 1819-1821), 1820,
6:238-257 ("Analyse");
p241-257. http://books.google.com/books
?id=3ugrAQAAMAAJ
[7] "Memoire presente a l'Academie
royale des Sciences, le 2 octobre 1820,
oiu se trouve compris le resume de ce
qui avait ete lu a la meme Academie les
18 et 25 septembre 1820, sur les
effets des courans electriques.","
Ann. chim. phys., 1820, 15:59-76;
"Suite du Mémoire," ibid.,
pp. 170-218. http://books.google.com/b
ooks?id=YezNlOSC2pcC&pg=PA59#v=onepage&q
&f=false
Paris, France3  
[1] [t Figure 1 and 2 from 10/02/1820
paper] PD/Corel
source: http://www.ampere.cnrs.fr/i-corp
uspic/tab/Oeuvres/annales_chimie_15/077.
jpg

[2] André-Marie Ampère
(1775-1836) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ampere1.jpg
180 YBN
[1820 AD] 3 		2486) The electric current meter.1
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p286.
2. ^ "Johann Salomo
Christoph Schweigger". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Salo
mo_Christoph_Schweigger
3. ^ "Johann Salomo Christoph
Schweigger". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Salo
mo_Christoph_Schweigger (1820)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/schwei
gger.html
[2]
http://www.answers.com/galvanometer?cat=
technology
Halle, Germany2  
[1] Diagram of Schweigger's
multiplier. From Journal für Chemie
und Physik 31 (Neue Reihe, Bd.
I, 1821), Plate I (after p. 114), Fig.
10. Smithsonian neg. no. 46,825. PD
source: http://siarchives.si.edu/history
/jhp/joseph21.htm

[2] Multiplier (Multiplicator) In
1820, Schweigger built a rectangular
wooden frame on which he wound an
insulated wire. This was called the
Schweigger multiplier. A magnetic
needle was suspended from a thin thread
inside the coil. In the absence of
electrical current the needle is
oriented according to the magnetic
meridian. When an electrical current is
passed through the coil on the frame,
the needle changes direction; the
stronger the current, the more marked
the deflection. PD?/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/histor
y/schweigger.html
180 YBN
[1820 AD] 7 		3374) The first gas combustion engine;
uses hydrogen gas combustion to create
a vacuum.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Gas Engine". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Gas_Engi
ne
2. ^ "Gas Engine". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Gas_Engi
ne
3. ^ "Gas Engine". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Gas_Engi
ne
4. ^ "Gas Engine". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Gas_Engi
ne
5. ^ Cambridge Philosophical Society,
"Transactions of the Cambridge
Philosophical Society", University
Press, 1822, p217-239.
http://books.google.com/books?id=hgYFA
AAAQAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:
0iE3HbhCd9wmSagF2t&as_brr=1#PPA217,M1
6. ^ "Gas Engine". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Gas_Engi
ne
7. ^ "Gas Engine". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Gas_Engi
ne {1820}

MORE INFO
[1] "history of technology."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 01
Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/1350805/history-of-technology>
(Magdalen College5 ) Cambridge,
England6  
[1] W. Cecil's hydrogen combustion
vacuum engine PD/Corel
source: http://www.eng.cam.ac.uk/DesignO
ffice/projects/cecil/images/isometricalv
iew.jpg

[2] Cecil's figures PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=hgYFAAAAQAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edi
tions:0iE3HbhCd9wmSagF2t&as_brr=1#PPA230
,M1
179 YBN
[09/11/1821 AD] 6 7 		2701) The dynamic electric motor.4
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^
http://www.sparkmuseum.com/MOTORS.HTM
2. ^
http://www.sparkmuseum.com/MOTORS.HTM
3. ^
http://www.sparkmuseum.com/MOTORS.HTM
4. ^
http://www.sparkmuseum.com/MOTORS.HTM
5. ^ "Michael Faraday". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9756/Michael-Faraday
6. ^ Michael Faraday, "On some new
Electro-Magnetical Motions, and on the
Theory of Magnetism", Royal Institution
Quarterly Journal of Science and Arts.
Volume XII, (1822), pp74-96.
http://books.google.com/books?id=lCUCA
AAAYAAJ&pg=PA127&lpg=PA127&dq=%22on+some
+new+electro-magnetical+motions%22&sourc
e=web&ots=VKIy3FqaNj&sig=YybSGqm9Q6m-Wqj
9LSQTTX8JGDk&hl=en {Faraday_1821_motor.
pdf} (09/11/1821)
7. ^
http://www.sparkmuseum.com/MOTORS.HTM
(1821)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/Michael+Faraday+?
cat=technology
[2] "Michael Faraday". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Michael_
Faraday
[3]
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/farada
y.htm
[4] Faraday_referee_1831.pdf
http://journals.royalsociety.org/conte
nt/n5776546166232n5/fulltext.pdf The
Referees' Assessment of Faraday's
Electromagnetic Induction Paper of
1831 Journal Notes and Records of the
Royal Society of London
(1938-1996) Issue Volume 47, Number 2
/
1993 Pages 243-256 DOI 10.1098/rsnr.19
93.0031
[5]
Faraday_1832_Experimental_Researches_in_
Electricity_1.pdf Experimental
Researches in
Electricity Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 122 -
1832 Author Michael
Faraday DOI 10.1098/rstl.1832.0006
[6] "calico". Dictionary.com Unabridged
(v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/c
alico
[7] "Charles Darwin". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9642/Charles-Darwin
[8]
http://physics.bu.edu/~duffy/PY106/MagMa
terials.html
[9]
http://books.google.com/books?id=KgMUAAA
AIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=the+science
+of+everyday+life#PPA341,M1
[10] Institution of Engineering and
Technology, London Archives, Michael
Faraday
(Royal Institution in) London, England5
 
[1] The first electric motors - Michael
Faraday, 1821 From the Quarterly
Journal of Science, Vol XII, 1821 PD
source: http://www.sparkmuseum.com/MOTOR
S.HTM

[2] Description Michael Faraday,
oil, by Thomas Phillips Source
Thomas Phillips,1842 Date
1842 Author Thomas Phillips[3
wiki] The portrait shown here was
painted by Thomas Phillips (1770-1845),
oil on canvas, The National Portrait
Gallery, London.[7] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:M_Faraday_Th_Phillips_oil_1842.jpg
179 YBN
[1821 AD] 11 		2397) Thermoelectricity (or the Seebeck
(ZABeK1 ) effect) is discovered: that
an electric current flows between
different conductive materials that are
kept at different temperatures.2 3 4 5
6
This is the basis of the thermocouple
{tr-mO-KuPL7 } and thermopile
{tR-mu-PIL8 }.9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp267-268.
2. ^ "Thomas Johann
Seebeck". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
6564/Thomas-Johann-Seebeck
3. ^ T. SEEBECK, "Ueber den Magnetismus
der Galvanischen Kette", Abhandlungen
der Koenigliche Akademie der
Wissenschaften zu Berlin, 1821, pp.
289-346. http://books.google.com/books?
id=G-JYAAAAYAAJ
4. ^ Seebeck, T.J., Magnetische
polarisation der metalle und erze durck
temperatur-differenz, Abhandlungen der
Koenigliche Akademie der Wissenschaften
zu Berlin, Berlin, 265, 1823. also
printed in: Seebeck, T. J. "Ueber die
magnetische Polarisation der Metalle
und Erze durch Temperaturdifferenz."
Annalen der Physik 82.3 (1826):
253-286. http://books.google.com/books?
id=RWQEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA253
5. ^
http://thermoelectrics.caltech.edu/therm
oelectrics/history.html
6. ^ Rev. J. Cummings, "On the
Development of Electro-Magnetism by
Heat," Transactions of the Cambridge
Philosophical Society (1823), vol. 2,
pp.
47-76. books.google.com/books?id=uv8IAA
AAIAAJ&pg=PA47
7. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=thermo
couple&submit=Submit
8. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=thermo
pile&submit=Submit
9. ^ Meijer, G. Smart Sensor Systems.
Wiley, 2008,
p165. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Y1ZdqQc4UiUC&pg=PA165
10. ^ "Thomas Johann Seebeck". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Thomas+Johann+See
beck?cat=technology
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp267-268. (1821)
(1821)

MORE INFO
[1] Magnetic polatization of
metals and minerals
[2]
http://www.dea.icai.upco.es/romano/sp4/t
pares_all.pdf
Berlin, Germany10  
[1] the experimental use of Seebeck's
instrument COPYRIGHTED
source: http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/histor
y/seebeck.html

[2] Thomas Seebeck Source
Originally from de.wikipedia; Hans
Wahl, Anton Kippenberg: Goethe und
seine Welt, Insel-Verlag, Leipzig 1932
S.204 Date early 19th century PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:ThomasSeebeck.jpg
177 YBN
[06/14/1823 AD] 5 		3297) The grating equation: the
wavelength (or particle interval) of
light is equated to the grating groove
spacing. The wavelength of light is
calculated by using a diffraction
grating.1 2 3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Fraunhofer, Jos., "Kurzer Bericht
von den Resultaten neurer Versuche
über die Gesetze des Lichtes, und die
Theorie derselben", Annalen der Physik,
v74, i8, 1823, pp. 337-378.
http://books.google.com/books?id=OAMAA
AAAMAAJ&pg=PA337
AND http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/andp.1823
0740802 Excerpts in English
translation "SHORT ACCOUNT OF THE
RESULTS OF NEW EXPERIMENTS ON THE LAWS
OF LIGHT AND THEIR THEORY" : J. S.
Ames (ed.), Prismatic and Diffraction
Spectra: Memoirs by Joseph von
Fraunhofer, New York 1898, pp.
39-61. http://books.google.com/books?hl
=en&id=5GE3AAAAMAAJ&dq=Prismatic+and+Dif
fraction+Spectra:++Memoirs+by+Joseph+von
+Fraunhofer&printsec=frontcover&source=w
eb&ots=K2VGb4IsNb&sig=HcoZYrNDKoTfjsUErI
WZX5pLtn0&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&c
t=result#PPP11,M1 {Fraunhofer_Joseph_vo
n_Prismatic_and_diffraction_spectra_1823
0714.pdf}
2. ^ Howard-Duff, I., "Joseph
Fraunhofer (1787-1826)", Journal of the
British Astronomical Association,
vol.97, no.6, p.339-347.
http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu//fu
ll/1987JBAA...97..339H/0000343.000.html
3. ^
https://eee.uci.edu/clients/bjbecker/ast
rophysics.html
4. ^ Fraunhofer, "Kurzer Bericht von
den Resultaten neurer Versuche über
die Gesetze des Lichtes, und die
Theorie derselben", "Annalen der
Physik", LXXIV, 1823, pp. 337-378.
http://books.google.com/books?id=OAMAA
AAAMAAJ&pg=337 Excerpts in English
translation "SHORT ACCOUNT OF THE
RESULTS OF NEW EXPERIMENTS ON THE LAWS
OF LIGHT AND THEIR THEORY" : J. S.
Ames (ed.), Prismatic and Diffraction
Spectra: Memoirs by Joseph von
Fraunhofer, New York 1898, pp.
39-61. http://books.google.com/books?hl
=en&id=5GE3AAAAMAAJ&dq=Prismatic+and+Dif
fraction+Spectra:++Memoirs+by+Joseph+von
+Fraunhofer&printsec=frontcover&source=w
eb&ots=K2VGb4IsNb&sig=HcoZYrNDKoTfjsUErI
WZX5pLtn0&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&c
t=result#PPP11,M1 {Fraunhofer_Joseph_vo
n_Prismatic_and_diffraction_spectra_1823
0714.pdf}
5. ^ Fraunhofer, "Kurzer Bericht von
den Resultaten neurer Versuche über
die Gesetze des Lichtes, und die
Theorie derselben, "Annalen der
Physik", LXXIV, 1823, pp. 337-378.
http://books.google.com/books?id=OAMAA
AAAMAAJ&pg=337 Excerpts in English
translation "SHORT ACCOUNT OF THE
RESULTS OF NEW EXPERIMENTS ON THE LAWS
OF LIGHT AND THEIR THEORY" : J. S.
Ames (ed.), Prismatic and Diffraction
Spectra: Memoirs by Joseph von
Fraunhofer, New York 1898, pp.
39-61. http://books.google.com/books?hl
=en&id=5GE3AAAAMAAJ&dq=Prismatic+and+Dif
fraction+Spectra:++Memoirs+by+Joseph+von
+Fraunhofer&printsec=frontcover&source=w
eb&ots=K2VGb4IsNb&sig=HcoZYrNDKoTfjsUErI
WZX5pLtn0&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&c
t=result#PPP11,M1 {Fraunhofer_Joseph_vo
n_Prismatic_and_diffraction_spectra_1823
0714.pdf} {06/14/1823}

MORE INFO
[1] "Joseph von Fraunhofer".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_von_
Fraunhofer
[2] "Joseph von Fraunhofer".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
5214/Joseph-von-Fraunhofer
[3] "josef von fraunhofer". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/josef-von-f
raunhofer?cat=technology (1821)
[4] "Joseph
von Fraunhofer". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
5214/Joseph-von-Fraunhofer
[5] Norman Lockyer, The Chemistry of
the Sun, Macmillan and co., (1887).
http://books.google.com/books?id=tr8KA
AAAIAAJ&pg=PA13&lpg=PA13&dq=Fraunhofer+1
814&source=web&ots=-3MHM347gt&sig=NeAo2-
HxUlNyC-wX6KRrM3pz_so&hl=en#PPA15,M1
Benedictbeuern (near Munich), Germany4
(presumably) 
[1] T is the angle made with the plane
of the grating by a colored beam after
diffraction. E is grating spacing, v
is order of spectrum, w is
wavelength Adapter equation 5
from: Kurzer Bericht von den
Resultaten neurer Versuche über die
Gesetze des Lichtes, und die Theorie
derselben, ''Annalen der Physik'',
LXXIV, 1823, pp. 337-378. Excerpts
in English translation ''SHORT ACCOUNT
OF THE RESULTS OF NEW EXPERIMENTS ON
THE LAWS OF LIGHT AND THEIR THEORY'' :
J. S. Ames (ed.), Prismatic and
Diffraction Spectra: Memoirs by
Joseph von Fraunhofer, New York 1898,
pp.
39-61. http://books.google.com/books?hl
=en&id=5GE3AAAAMAAJ&dq=Prismatic+and+Dif
fraction+Spectra:++Memoirs+by+Joseph+von
+Fraunhofer&printsec=frontcover&source=w
eb&ots=K2VGb4IsNb&sig=HcoZYrNDKoTfjsUErI
WZX5pLtn0&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&c
t=result#PPP11,M1 {Fraunhofer_Joseph_vo
n_Prismatic_and_diffraction_spectra_1823
0714.pdf} others: Gilbert's Annalen
der Physlk, Band 74, p. 337-378.
Edinburgh Journal of Science, VII,
VIII, 1827, 1828. PD AND English:
Joseph von Fraunhofer was a German
physicist. Quelle: Engraving in the
Small Portraits collection, History of
Science Collections, University of
Oklahoma
Libraries. http://hsci.cas.ou.edu/exhib
its/exhibit.php?exbid=34&exbpg=1 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?hl
=en&id=5GE3AAAAMAAJ&dq=Prismatic+and+Dif
fraction+Spectra:++Memoirs+by+Joseph+von
+Fraunhofer&printsec=frontcover&source=w
eb&ots=K2VGb4IsNb&sig=HcoZYrNDKoTfjsUErI
WZX5pLtn0&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&c
t=result#PPP11,M1http://en.wikipedia.org
/wiki/Image:Fraunhofer_2.jpg

[2] T is the angle made with the plane
of the grating by a colored beam after
diffraction. E is grating spacing, v
is order of spectrum, w is
wavelength Adapter equation 5
from: Kurzer Bericht von den
Resultaten neurer Versuche über die
Gesetze des Lichtes, und die Theorie
derselben, ''Annalen der Physik'',
LXXIV, 1823, pp. 337-378. Excerpts
in English translation ''SHORT ACCOUNT
OF THE RESULTS OF NEW EXPERIMENTS ON
THE LAWS OF LIGHT AND THEIR THEORY'' :
J. S. Ames (ed.), Prismatic and
Diffraction Spectra: Memoirs by
Joseph von Fraunhofer, New York 1898,
pp.
39-61. http://books.google.com/books?hl
=en&id=5GE3AAAAMAAJ&dq=Prismatic+and+Dif
fraction+Spectra:++Memoirs+by+Joseph+von
+Fraunhofer&printsec=frontcover&source=w
eb&ots=K2VGb4IsNb&sig=HcoZYrNDKoTfjsUErI
WZX5pLtn0&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&c
t=result#PPP11,M1 {Fraunhofer_Joseph_vo
n_Prismatic_and_diffraction_spectra_1823
0714.pdf} others: Gilbert's Annalen
der Physlk, Band 74, p. 337-378.
Edinburgh Journal of Science, VII,
VIII, 1827, 1828. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?hl
=en&id=5GE3AAAAMAAJ&dq=Prismatic+and+Dif
fraction+Spectra:++Memoirs+by+Joseph+von
+Fraunhofer&printsec=frontcover&source=w
eb&ots=K2VGb4IsNb&sig=HcoZYrNDKoTfjsUErI
WZX5pLtn0&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&c
t=result#PPP11,M1
175 YBN
[1825 AD] 3 4 5 		2526) The first practical
electromagnet.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p295.
2. ^ "William
Sturgeon". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
0045/William-Sturgeon
3. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/sturge
on.html (1825)
4. ^ "William Sturgeon".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
0045/William-Sturgeon (1825)
5. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p295. (1823) (1823)

MORE INFO
[1] "William Sturgeon".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Stu
rgeon
Surrey, England2 (presumably) 
[1] Sturgeon's electromagnet.
From Transactions of the Society
for the Encouragement of the Arts 43
(1824), Plate 3, Fig. 13. Smithsonian
neg. no. 46,761-D. PD/Corel
source: http://siarchives.si.edu/history
/jhp/sturgeon.jpg

[2] Sturgeon's electro- magnet of
1824 PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/histor
y/sturgeon.html
174 YBN
[07/31/1826 AD] 6 7 		3440) The phenomenon of electrical
oscillation is discovered (the basis of
alternating current and radio
communication1 ).2 3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Thomas K. Simpson,
"Maxwell and the Direct Experimental
Test of His Electromagnetic Theory",
Isis, Vol. 57, No. 4 (Winter, 1966),
pp.
411-432. http://www.jstor.org/stable/22
8514?seq=7
{Electrical_Oscillation_1966.pdf}
3. ^ Félix Savary, "Mémoire sur
l'alimentation", Annales de Chimie et
de Physique, 1827, V34,
p5-57;p54-56. http://books.google.com/b
ooks?id=QaQwAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA5 {Savary_182
7.pdf}
4. ^
http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/
Biographies/Savary.html
5. ^ Félix Savary, "Mémoire sur
l'alimentation", Annales de Chimie et
de Physique, 1827, V34,
p5-57;p54-56. http://books.google.com/b
ooks?id=QaQwAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA5 {Savary_182
7.pdf}
6. ^ Félix Savary, "Mémoire sur
l'alimentation", Annales de Chimie et
de Physique, 1827, V34,
p5-57;p54-56. http://books.google.com/b
ooks?id=QaQwAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA5 {Savary_182
7.pdf} {07/05/1826}
7. ^ Félix Savary, "Mémoire
sur l'alimentation", Annales de Chimie
et de Physique, 1827, V34,
p5-57;p54-56. http://books.google.com/b
ooks?id=QaQwAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA5 {Savary_182
7.pdf}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~hist
ory/Biographies/Savart.html
[2] The Rise of Modern Physics, Henry
Crew, Williams & Wilkens Company, 1928,
p271
[3] The Rise of Modern Physics, Henry
Crew, Williams & Wilkens Company, 1935,
p270
[4] Tapan K. Sarkar, "History of
Wireless",
p12. http://books.google.com/books?id=N
BLEAA6QKYkC&pg=PA12&lpg=PA12&dq=felix+sa
vary+france+academy&source=web&ots=1G-Qe
rT8pr&sig=svebXMDBkxIt9XuFntMm0NDttMU&hl
=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=4&ct=resu
lt
(Bureau des Longitudes4 ) Paris,
France5 (presumably) 

source: Félix Savary, "Mémoire sur
l'alimentation", Annales de Chimie et
de Physique, 1827, 34.
:54-56. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=QaQwAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA30
174 YBN
[1826 AD] 7 8 9 		2355) The first permanent photograph4
and photograph reproduction process5 .
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.hrc.utexas.edu/exhibitions/pe
rmanent/wfp/7.html
2. ^ "Nicephore Niepce". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
5791/Nicephore-Niepce
3. ^
http://www.hrc.utexas.edu/exhibitions/pe
rmanent/wfp/7.html
4. ^
http://www.hrc.utexas.edu/exhibitions/pe
rmanent/wfp/7.html
5. ^ "Nicephore Niepce". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
5791/Nicephore-Niepce
6. ^ "Nicephore Niepce". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
5791/Nicephore-Niepce
7. ^ "Joseph Nicéphore Niepce". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Joseph+Nic%C3%A9p
hore+Niepce?cat=technology (1826)
8. ^
http://www.hrc.utexas.edu/exhibitions/pe
rmanent/wfp/7.html (1826/7)
9. ^ "Nicephore
Niepce". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
5791/Nicephore-Niepce (1826/7)

MORE INFO
[1] "Joseph Nicéphore Niepce".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Nic%
C3%A9phore_Niepce
[2] "lithography". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8518/lithography
Chalon-sur-Saône, France6  
[1] English: By Nicéphore Niépce in
1826, entitled ''View from the Window
at Le Gras,'' captured on 20 × 25 cm
oil-treated bitumen. Due to the 8-hour
exposure, the buildings are illuminated
by the sun from both right and left.
This photo is generally considered the
first successful permanent
photograph. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:View_from_the_Window_at_Le_Gras%2C_Jo
seph_Nic%C3%A9phore_Ni%C3%A9pce.jpg

[2] Joseph-Nicéphore Niépce. ©
Bettmann/Corbis PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://concise.britannica.com/eb
c/art-59378/Joseph-Nicephore-Niepce
174 YBN
[1826 AD] 4 		3384) A gas combustion vacuum engine
car.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Dugald Clerk, "The Gas Engine",
Scientific American Supplement (Vol.
19, #484: April 11,
1885) http://onlinebooks.library.upenn.
edu/webbin/gutbook/lookup?num=13939 and
also
http://www.a1nethost.com/american/scie
ntific-american/484/00.htm#3
2. ^
http://www.eng.cam.ac.uk/DesignOffice/pr
ojects/cecil/history.html
3. ^
http://www.british-history.ac.uk/report.
aspx?compid=50019
4. ^ William Robinson, "Gas and
Petroleum Engines: A Practical Treatise
on the Internal Combustion ...",
http://books.google.com/books?id=8e9MA
AAAMAAJ&pg=PA103&lpg=PA103&dq=%22robert+
street%22+patent+engine&source=web&ots=z
XhunpMWQn&sig=OK3zL_tlF9en_5S83tLJ0kuNyV
I&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&ct=
result#PPA102,M1 {1826}

MORE INFO
[1] "Samuel Brown (engineer)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Brow
n_(engineer)
[2]
http://inventors.about.com/library/weekl
y/aacarsgasa.htm
[3] "Gas Engine". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911
London, England2 3  
[1] [t Samuel Brown's engine used to
raise water] PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=8e9MAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA103&lpg=PA103&dq=%22r
obert+street%22+patent+engine&source=web
&ots=zXhunpMWQn&sig=OK3zL_tlF9en_5S83tLJ
0kuNyVI&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum
=1&ct=result#PPA105,M1
173 YBN
[05/01/1827 AD] 3 4 		2606) (Ohm's law) Current is recognized
as being equal to voltage divided by
resistance.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp309-310.
2. ^ Georg
Simon Ohm, "Die Galvanische Kette
mathematisch bearbeitet von Dr. G. S.
Ohm", Berlin,
1827. http://www.google.com/books?id=yR
0AAAAAQAAJ&dq=Die+Galvanische+Kette+math
ematisch+bearbeitet+von+Dr.+G.+S.+Ohm&pg
=PP1&ots=RNXZ5VQkE0&source=bn&sig=tUP0wc
3OFtbSTUIaXPvLz1pZbS0 Translated from
German by William Frances, Student in
Philosophy in the University of Berlin
as: "The Galvanic Circuit investigated
Mathematically.", Scientific Memoirs,
v. 2, 1841,
p401-506. {Ohm_Georg_1827.pdf}
3. ^ Georg Simon Ohm, "Die Galvanische
Kette mathematisch bearbeitet von Dr.
G. S. Ohm", Berlin,
1827. http://www.google.com/books?id=yR
0AAAAAQAAJ&dq=Die+Galvanische+Kette+math
ematisch+bearbeitet+von+Dr.+G.+S.+Ohm&pg
=PP1&ots=RNXZ5VQkE0&source=bn&sig=tUP0wc
3OFtbSTUIaXPvLz1pZbS0 Translated from
German by William Frances, Student in
Philosophy in the University of Berlin
as: "The Galvanic Circuit investigated
Mathematically.", Scientific Memoirs,
v. 2, 1841,
p401-506. {Ohm_Georg_1827.pdf}
{05/01/1827}
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp309-310.
(1827)

MORE INFO
[1] "Georg Simon Ohm". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Simon
_Ohm
Berlin, Germany2 (written in
Cologne?) 
[1] [t Figures from 1827 work of
Ohm] PD
source: Ohm_Georg_1827.pdf

[2] Georg Simon Ohm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ohm3.gif
173 YBN
[1827 AD] 4 		3591) The earliest electronic printer.2

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ John Joseph Fahie, "A History of
Electric Telegraphy, to the Year 1837",
E. & F. N. Spon,
1884. http://books.google.com/books?id=
0Mo3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=A+Hi
story+of+Electric+Telegraphy+to+the+year
+1837&ei=esfUSJWpC6K-tgOhnYWOBA
2. ^ John Joseph Fahie, "A History of
Electric Telegraphy, to the Year 1837",
E. & F. N. Spon,
1884. http://books.google.com/books?id=
0Mo3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=A+Hi
story+of+Electric+Telegraphy+to+the+year
+1837&ei=esfUSJWpC6K-tgOhnYWOBA
3. ^ John Joseph Fahie, "A History of
Electric Telegraphy, to the Year 1837",
E. & F. N. Spon,
1884. http://books.google.com/books?id=
0Mo3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=A+Hi
story+of+Electric+Telegraphy+to+the+year
+1837&ei=esfUSJWpC6K-tgOhnYWOBA
4. ^ John Joseph Fahie, "A History of
Electric Telegraphy, to the Year 1837",
E. & F. N. Spon,
1884. http://books.google.com/books?id=
0Mo3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=A+Hi
story+of+Electric+Telegraphy+to+the+year
+1837&ei=esfUSJWpC6K-tgOhnYWOBA {1827}

MORE INFO
[1] John Joseph Fahie, "A History
of Wireless Telegraphy: Including Some
Bare-wire Proposals for Subaqueous
Telegraphs", Dodd, Mead,
1902. http://books.google.com/books?id=
alIXAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=john
+j+fahie&ei=8xfYSLjYNKGutgP_lpXeDg
[2] "Old Time Telegraphic History",
Electrical World and Engineer,
01/17/1903,
p113. http://books.google.com/books?id=
hbZQAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA115
New York City NY3 (presumably) 
[1] Text from: ''Old Time Telegraphic
History'', Electrical World and
Engineer, 01/17/1903,
p113. http://books.google.com/books?id=
hbZQAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA115 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=hbZQAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA115
172 YBN
[02/??/1828 AD] 6 7 		2857) The first "organic" molecule
(urea) is produced from inorganic
sources.3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Wöhler, Friedrich. "Ueber
künstliche Bildung des Harnstoffs"
Annalen der physik und chemie V12 p253
(1828):
1828. http://books.google.com/books?id=
n5OZAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA253 English
translation: "On the artificial
formation of
urea." http://www.chemteam.info/Chem-Hi
story/Wohler-article.html
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp342-343.
3. ^ Wöhler,
Friedrich. "Ueber künstliche Bildung
des Harnstoffs" Annalen der physik und
chemie V12 p253 (1828):
1828. http://books.google.com/books?id=
n5OZAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA253 English
translation: "On the artificial
formation of
urea." http://www.chemteam.info/Chem-Hi
story/Wohler-article.html
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp342-343.
5. ^ "Friedrich
Wohler". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
7322/Friedrich-Wohler
6. ^ "Friedrich Wohler". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
7322/Friedrich-Wohler (02/1828)
7. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp342-343. (1828)
(1828)

MORE INFO
[1] "Friedrich Wöhler".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_W
%C3%B6hler
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Friedrich+W%C3%B6
hler?cat=technology
[3] "Friedrich Wohler". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Friedric
h_Wohler
[4]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
(Berlin Gewerbeschule (trade school))
Berlin, Germany5  
[1] * Title: Friedrich Wöhler *
Year: unknown * Source:
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollections
/hst/scientific-identity/explore.htm
* Licence: Public Domain PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Friedrich_W%C3%B6hler_Stich.jpg

[2] Friedrich Wöhler, German
chemist Source:
http://wwwihm.nlm.nih.gov/ PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Friedrich_woehler.jpg
171 YBN
[03/27/1829 AD] 11 		2844) Electric current is produced by
moving a wire near a magnet.7 8 9
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^ Biblioteca Italiana, o sia
Giornale di letteratura, scienze ed
arti,1829,vol 53,pp398-402
{Zantedeschi_1829.pdf}
2. ^ Stewart, I. In Pursuit of the
Unknown: 17 Equations That Changed the
World. Basic Books, 2012,
p169. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ezzWkITecN8C&pg=PT169
3. ^ Herbermann, C.G. et al. The
Catholic Encyclopedia: An International
Work of Reference on the Constitution,
Doctrine, Discipline, and History of
the Catholic Church. Robert Appleton
Company, 1912. The Catholic
Encyclopedia: An International Work of
Reference on the Constitution,
Doctrine, Discipline, and History of
the Catholic Church,
p750. http://books.google.com/books?id=
9sZAAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA750
4. ^ Biblioteca Italiana, o sia
Giornale di letteratura, scienze ed
arti,1829,vol 53,pp398-402
{Zantedeschi_1829.pdf}
5. ^ Stewart, I. In Pursuit of the
Unknown: 17 Equations That Changed the
World. Basic Books, 2012,
p169. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ezzWkITecN8C&pg=PT169
6. ^ Herbermann, C.G. et al. The
Catholic Encyclopedia: An International
Work of Reference on the Constitution,
Doctrine, Discipline, and History of
the Catholic Church. Robert Appleton
Company, 1912. The Catholic
Encyclopedia: An International Work of
Reference on the Constitution,
Doctrine, Discipline, and History of
the Catholic Church,
p750. http://books.google.com/books?id=
9sZAAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA750
7. ^ Biblioteca Italiana, o sia
Giornale di letteratura, scienze ed
arti,1829,vol 53,pp398-402
{Zantedeschi_1829.pdf}
8. ^ Stewart, I. In Pursuit of the
Unknown: 17 Equations That Changed the
World. Basic Books, 2012,
p169. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ezzWkITecN8C&pg=PT169
9. ^ Herbermann, C.G. et al. The
Catholic Encyclopedia: An International
Work of Reference on the Constitution,
Doctrine, Discipline, and History of
the Catholic Church. Robert Appleton
Company, 1912. The Catholic
Encyclopedia: An International Work of
Reference on the Constitution,
Doctrine, Discipline, and History of
the Catholic Church,
p750. http://books.google.com/books?id=
9sZAAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA750
10. ^ Biblioteca Italiana, o sia
Giornale di letteratura, scienze ed
arti,1829,vol 53,pp398-402, p402.
Zantedeschi_1829.pdf
11. ^ Biblioteca Italiana, o sia
Giornale di letteratura, scienze ed
arti,1829,vol 53,pp398-402, p402.
Zantedeschi_1829.pdf (03/27/1829)

MORE INFO
[1] The Contribution of Fracesco
Zantedeschi at the Development of the
Experimental Laboratory of Physics
Faculty of the Padua University,
Massimo Tinazzi,
http://www.brera.unimi.it/SISFA/atti/199
9/Tinazzi.pdf Zantedeschi_Tinazzi.pdf
[2] La Electricidad,
http://www2.ubu.es/ingelec/ingelect/Hist
II.pdf Zantedeschi_HistII.pdf
(apparently text identical to
[3]
http://books.google.com/books?id=fngtAAA
AMAAJ&printsec=titlepage#PRA2-PA398,M1
[4]
http://books.google.com/books?id=yUYEAAA
AYAAJ&printsec=titlepage#PPA76,M1
[5] http://www.wordreference.com/
Pavia, Italy10  
[1] Francesco Zantedeschi PD/Corel
source: http://www.liceofoscarini.it/sto
ria/bio/zantedeschi.html

[2] Image of Francesco Zantedeschi
1797 to 1873 to illustrate that
article. Uploaded from
http://www.jergym.hiedu.cz/~canovm/objev
ite/objev4/zan.htm and
http://www.jergym.hiedu.cz/~canovm/objev
ite/objev4/zan2.htm (English
translation) This portrait of
Francesco Zantedeschi was published by
Stefano de Stefani, president of the
Academy of Agriculture, Arts and
Commerce of Verona, on March 21, 1875
to accompany his eulogy to Zantedeschi
on the occasion of the transport of his
ashes to the cemetery at Verona. Black
and white version PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Franc
esco_Zantedeschi_bw.jpg
171 YBN
[1829 AD] 5 6 		2767) The theory that space is curved;
that a curved surface geometry applies
to space in the universe. The start of
"Non-Euclidean" geometry.1 2 3
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp325-326.
2. ^ NI Lobachevsky,
(translated from Russian) "On the
foundations of geometry", Kazan
Messenger, 1829. reprinted in: Kagan
V.F.(ed.): N.I.Lobachevsky - Complete
Collected Works, Vols I-IV (Russian),
Moscow-Leningrad (GITTL)
1946-51 German translation: N I
Lobachevskii; Friedrich Engel, "Zwei
geometrische Abhandlungen"
,Leipzig,1898-99, 1972.
3. ^ Lobachevski, tr:
Halsted "The Theory of the Parallels",
1914, p3.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp325-326. (1829)
5. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
(1826 announces) (1829)
6. ^ "Lobachevsky".
The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy.
Oxford University Press, 1994, 1996,
2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Lobachevsky+?cat=
technology (1826 announces)

MORE INFO
[1] "Lobachevsky". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lobachevsky

[2] "Kazan State University".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kazan_State
_University
[3]
http://www.answers.com/parallel+postulat
e?cat=technology
[4] "Euclid's Elements". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euclid%27s_
Elements
[5] "Nikolay Ivanovich Lobachevsky".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 06 Oct.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/345382/Nikolay-Ivanovich-Lobache
vsky>
[6] Alexander Vucinich, "Nikolai
Ivanovich Lobachevskii: The Man behind
the First Non-Euclidean Geometry", Isis
, Vol. 53, No. 4 (Dec., 1962), pp.
465-481 Published by: The University
of Chicago Press on behalf of The
History of Science
Society http://www.jstor.org/stable/227
721
Kazan, Russia4  
[1] Figure 8, p19. From German
translation of: NI Lobachevsky,
(translated from Russian) ''On the
foundations of geometry'', Kazan
Messenger, 1829. reprinted in: Kagan
V.F.(ed.): N.I.Lobachevsky - Complete
Collected Works, Vols I-IV (Russian),
Moscow-Leningrad (GITTL)
1946-51 German translation: N I
Lobachevskii; Friedrich Engel, ''Zwei
geometrische Abhandlungen''
,Leipzig,1898-99, 1972. PD
source: N I Lobachevskii; Friedrich
Engel, "Zwei geometrische Abhandlungen"
,Leipzig,1898-99, 1972.

[2] Description Pic of a 19th
century painting. Public domain, from
en wiki image Source
en:Image:Nikolay_Ivanovich_Lobachevsk
y.jpeg Date 19th century PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Nikol
ay_Ivanovich_Lobachevsky.jpeg
170 YBN
[1830 AD] 26 27 28 29 		4003) Sound vibrations are recorded by
a tuning fork moving an attached
whisker onto a sooted glass plate.19 20
21 22 23 24
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Franz Josef Pisko, "Die neueren
apparate der akustik: Für freunde der
naturwissenschaft und der ...",
1865. http://books.google.com/books?id=
fvs4AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA238&dq=wilhelm+weber+v
ibrograph#v=onepage&q=&f=false
2. ^ Friedrich A. Kittler, "Gramophone,
film, typewriter", 1999,
p26. http://books.google.com/books?id=z
Srte54_9ZwC&pg=PA26&dq=Wilhelm+Weber+gla
ss+cylinder#v=onepage&q=Wilhelm%20Weber%
20glass%20cylinder&f=false
3. ^ edited by Clarence John Blake,
"The American journal of otology,
Volume 1", 1879,
p3. http://books.google.com/books?id=aI
pXAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA3&dq=Wilhelm+Weber+tunin
g+fork+1830#v=onepage&q=Wilhelm%20Weber%
20tuning%20fork%201830&f=false
4. ^ edited by Juan C. Abel, Thomas
Harrison Cummings, Wilfred A. French,
A. H. Beardsley, "Photo-era magazine,
Volume 29",
p229-230. http://books.google.com/books
?id=DR3OAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA229&dq=Wilhelm+Web
er+tuning+fork+1830#v=onepage&q=Wilhelm%
20Weber%20tuning%20fork%201830&f=false
5. ^ Dr. Franz Melde, Lehre von den
Schwingungscurven. Leipzig, Barth 1864,
pag. 83, §. 17.
http://books.google.com/books?id=Ymj_c
6z3kfYC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Lehre+von
+den+Schwingungscurven+date:1864-1864#v=
onepage&q=weber&f=false (in
English:) Dr. Franz Melde, "theory of
Vibration-Curves". Leipzig, Barth 1864,
p. 83, §. 17.
6. ^ Schilling musikalisches
Lexicon, Stuttgart 1830, I. Band,
Artikel Akustik von Wilhelm Weber. (in
English:) Schilling musical lexicon,
Stuttgart, 1830, Volume I, Article
Acoustics by William Weber.
7. ^ Franz Josef
Pisko, "Die neueren apparate der
akustik: Für freunde der
naturwissenschaft und der ...",
1865. http://books.google.com/books?id=
fvs4AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA238&dq=wilhelm+weber+v
ibrograph#v=onepage&q=&f=false
8. ^ Friedrich A. Kittler, "Gramophone,
film, typewriter", 1999,
p26. http://books.google.com/books?id=z
Srte54_9ZwC&pg=PA26&dq=Wilhelm+Weber+gla
ss+cylinder#v=onepage&q=Wilhelm%20Weber%
20glass%20cylinder&f=false
9. ^ edited by Clarence John Blake,
"The American journal of otology,
Volume 1", 1879,
p3. http://books.google.com/books?id=aI
pXAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA3&dq=Wilhelm+Weber+tunin
g+fork+1830#v=onepage&q=Wilhelm%20Weber%
20tuning%20fork%201830&f=false
10. ^ edited by Juan C. Abel, Thomas
Harrison Cummings, Wilfred A. French,
A. H. Beardsley, "Photo-era magazine,
Volume 29",
p229-230. http://books.google.com/books
?id=DR3OAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA229&dq=Wilhelm+Web
er+tuning+fork+1830#v=onepage&q=Wilhelm%
20Weber%20tuning%20fork%201830&f=false
11. ^ Dr. Franz Melde, Lehre von den
Schwingungscurven. Leipzig, Barth 1864,
pag. 83, §. 17.
http://books.google.com/books?id=Ymj_c
6z3kfYC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Lehre+von
+den+Schwingungscurven+date:1864-1864#v=
onepage&q=weber&f=false (in
English:) Dr. Franz Melde, "theory of
Vibration-Curves". Leipzig, Barth 1864,
p. 83, §. 17.
12. ^ Schilling
musikalisches Lexicon, Stuttgart 1830,
I. Band, Artikel Akustik von Wilhelm
Weber. (in English:) Schilling
musical lexicon, Stuttgart, 1830,
Volume I, Article Acoustics by William
Weber.
13. ^ Franz Josef Pisko, "Die neueren
apparate der akustik: Für freunde der
naturwissenschaft und der ...",
1865. http://books.google.com/books?id=
fvs4AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA238&dq=wilhelm+weber+v
ibrograph#v=onepage&q=&f=false
14. ^ Friedrich A. Kittler,
"Gramophone, film, typewriter", 1999,
p26. http://books.google.com/books?id=z
Srte54_9ZwC&pg=PA26&dq=Wilhelm+Weber+gla
ss+cylinder#v=onepage&q=Wilhelm%20Weber%
20glass%20cylinder&f=false
15. ^ edited by Clarence John Blake,
"The American journal of otology,
Volume 1", 1879,
p3. http://books.google.com/books?id=aI
pXAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA3&dq=Wilhelm+Weber+tunin
g+fork+1830#v=onepage&q=Wilhelm%20Weber%
20tuning%20fork%201830&f=false
16. ^ edited by Juan C. Abel, Thomas
Harrison Cummings, Wilfred A. French,
A. H. Beardsley, "Photo-era magazine,
Volume 29",
p229-230. http://books.google.com/books
?id=DR3OAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA229&dq=Wilhelm+Web
er+tuning+fork+1830#v=onepage&q=Wilhelm%
20Weber%20tuning%20fork%201830&f=false
17. ^ Dr. Franz Melde, Lehre von den
Schwingungscurven. Leipzig, Barth 1864,
pag. 83, §. 17.
http://books.google.com/books?id=Ymj_c
6z3kfYC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Lehre+von
+den+Schwingungscurven+date:1864-1864#v=
onepage&q=weber&f=false (in
English:) Dr. Franz Melde, "theory of
Vibration-Curves". Leipzig, Barth 1864,
p. 83, §. 17.
18. ^ Schilling
musikalisches Lexicon, Stuttgart 1830,
I. Band, Artikel Akustik von Wilhelm
Weber. (in English:) Schilling
musical lexicon, Stuttgart, 1830,
Volume I, Article Acoustics by William
Weber.
19. ^ Franz Josef Pisko, "Die neueren
apparate der akustik: Für freunde der
naturwissenschaft und der ...",
1865. http://books.google.com/books?id=
fvs4AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA238&dq=wilhelm+weber+v
ibrograph#v=onepage&q=&f=false
20. ^ Friedrich A. Kittler,
"Gramophone, film, typewriter", 1999,
p26. http://books.google.com/books?id=z
Srte54_9ZwC&pg=PA26&dq=Wilhelm+Weber+gla
ss+cylinder#v=onepage&q=Wilhelm%20Weber%
20glass%20cylinder&f=false
21. ^ edited by Clarence John Blake,
"The American journal of otology,
Volume 1", 1879,
p3. http://books.google.com/books?id=aI
pXAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA3&dq=Wilhelm+Weber+tunin
g+fork+1830#v=onepage&q=Wilhelm%20Weber%
20tuning%20fork%201830&f=false
22. ^ edited by Juan C. Abel, Thomas
Harrison Cummings, Wilfred A. French,
A. H. Beardsley, "Photo-era magazine,
Volume 29",
p229-230. http://books.google.com/books
?id=DR3OAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA229&dq=Wilhelm+Web
er+tuning+fork+1830#v=onepage&q=Wilhelm%
20Weber%20tuning%20fork%201830&f=false
23. ^ Dr. Franz Melde, Lehre von den
Schwingungscurven. Leipzig, Barth 1864,
pag. 83, §. 17.
http://books.google.com/books?id=Ymj_c
6z3kfYC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Lehre+von
+den+Schwingungscurven+date:1864-1864#v=
onepage&q=weber&f=false (in
English:) Dr. Franz Melde, "theory of
Vibration-Curves". Leipzig, Barth 1864,
p. 83, §. 17.
24. ^ Schilling
musikalisches Lexicon, Stuttgart 1830,
I. Band, Artikel Akustik von Wilhelm
Weber. (in English:) Schilling
musical lexicon, Stuttgart, 1830,
Volume I, Article Acoustics by William
Weber.
25. ^ Friedrich A. Kittler,
"Gramophone, film, typewriter", 1999,
p26. http://books.google.com/books?id=z
Srte54_9ZwC&pg=PA26&dq=Wilhelm+Weber+gla
ss+cylinder#v=onepage&q=Wilhelm%20Weber%
20glass%20cylinder&f=false
26. ^ Franz Josef Pisko, "Die neueren
apparate der akustik: Für freunde der
naturwissenschaft und der ...",
1865. http://books.google.com/books?id=
fvs4AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA238&dq=wilhelm+weber+v
ibrograph#v=onepage&q=&f=false {1830}
27. ^
Friedrich A. Kittler, "Gramophone,
film, typewriter", 1999,
p26. http://books.google.com/books?id=z
Srte54_9ZwC&pg=PA26&dq=Wilhelm+Weber+gla
ss+cylinder#v=onepage&q=Wilhelm%20Weber%
20glass%20cylinder&f=false {1830}
28. ^ edited
by Clarence John Blake, "The American
journal of otology, Volume 1", 1879,
p3. http://books.google.com/books?id=aI
pXAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA3&dq=Wilhelm+Weber+tunin
g+fork+1830#v=onepage&q=Wilhelm%20Weber%
20tuning%20fork%201830&f=false
29. ^ edited by Juan C. Abel, Thomas
Harrison Cummings, Wilfred A. French,
A. H. Beardsley, "Photo-era magazine,
Volume 29",
p229-230. http://books.google.com/books
?id=DR3OAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA229&dq=Wilhelm+Web
er+tuning+fork+1830#v=onepage&q=Wilhelm%
20Weber%20tuning%20fork%201830&f=false

MORE INFO
[1] "Wilhelm Eduard Weber".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelm_Edu
ard_Weber
[2]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[3] "Wilhelm Eduard Weber".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
6390/Wilhelm-Eduard-Weber (1837)
(University of) Göttingen, Germany25
 
[1] Wilhelm Eduard Weber
(1804-1891) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Wilhelm_Eduard_Weber_II.jpg
169 YBN
[02/17/1831 AD] 6 		2702) The electrical transformer3 : a
device used to transfer electricity
from one circuit to another, in
particular a pair of wire coils that
can be used to transfer electricity
with a change in voltage, current, or
phase4 .
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Michael Faraday". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online. "Michael Faraday".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9
109756/Michael-Faraday
2. ^ "Michael Faraday". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online. "Michael Faraday".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9
109756/Michael-Faraday
3. ^ "Michael Faraday". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online. "Michael Faraday".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9
109756/Michael-Faraday
4. ^ "transformer." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 21
Dec. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/transformer

5. ^
http://proquest.umi.com/pqdlink?index=0&
did=338986411&SrchMode=3&sid=7&Fmt=10&VI
nst=PROD&VType=PQD&RQT=309&VName=HNP&TS=
1204938559&clientId=48051&aid=1 Henry_J
oseph_1832_ajs.pdf American Journal of
Science and Arts (1820-1879); Jan 3,
1832; 22, 2; APS Online pg. 403 On
the Production of Current and Sparks of
Electricity from Magnetism (02/17/1831
{more full account published:}
08/29/1831)
6. ^ "Michael Faraday". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9756/Michael-Faraday (02/17/1831 {more
full account published:} 08/29/1831)
{02/17/1831 (more full account
published:) 08/29/1831}

MORE INFO
[1] "Michael Faraday". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Far
aday
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Michael+Faraday+?
cat=technology
[3] "Michael Faraday". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Michael_
Faraday
[4]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[5]
http://physics.bu.edu/~duffy/PY106/MagMa
terials.html
[6]
http://books.google.com/books?id=KgMUAAA
AIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=the+science
+of+everyday+life#PPA341,M1
[7]
http://www.rigb.org/heritage/faradaypage
.jsp
[8]
http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/15750b.h
tm
[9] The Contribution of Fracesco
Zantedeschi at the Development of the
Experimental Laboratory of Physics
Faculty of the Padua University,
Massimo Tinazzi,
http://www.brera.unimi.it/SISFA/atti/199
9/Tinazzi.pdf Zantadeschi_Tinazzi.pdf
[10] La Electricidad,
http://www2.ubu.es/ingelec/ingelect/Hist
II.pdf Zantadeschi_HistII.pdf
(apparently text identical to
[11]
http://books.google.com/books?id=fngtAAA
AMAAJ&printsec=titlepage#PRA2-PA398,M1
[12]
http://books.google.com/books?id=fxsAAAA
AQAAJ&pg=RA6-PA44&lpg=RA6-PA44&dq=lebail
lif+scope&source=web&ots=36wpS-5ksg&sig=
A7KVLfh8fg1hdDtoB5Kr81UzNAw&hl=en#PRA6-P
A43,M1 (for a description of a
sideroscope of M Lebaillid)
[13] "Faradays law of
induction". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
3718/Faradays-law-of-induction
[14] Faraday_referee_1831.pdf, p243.
http://journals.royalsociety.org/content
/n5776546166232n5/fulltext.pdf The
Referees' Assessment of Faraday's
Electromagnetic Induction Paper of
1831 Journal Notes and Records of the
Royal Society of London
(1938-1996) Issue Volume 47, Number 2
/
1993 Pages 243-256 DOI 10.1098/rsnr.19
93.0031
[15] "calico". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
"calico". Dictionary.com Unabridged (v
1.1). Random House, Inc.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/c
alico
[16] "Charles Darwin". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online. "Charles Darwin".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9642/Charles-Darwin
[17]
http://books.google.com/books?id=yUYEAAA
AYAAJ&printsec=titlepage#PPA76,M1
(Royal Institution in) London, England5
 
[1] Michael Faraday, ''Experimental
Researches in Electricity'',
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1776-1886), Volume
122, 1832. DOI 10.1098/rstl.1832.0006
{Faraday_1832_Experimental_Researches_
in_Electricity_1.pdf} PD
source: Faraday_1832_Experimental_Resear
ches_in_Electricity_1.pdf

[2] Description Michael Faraday,
oil, by Thomas Phillips Source
Thomas Phillips,1842 Date
1842 Author Thomas Phillips[3
wiki] The portrait shown here was
painted by Thomas Phillips (1770-1845),
oil on canvas, The National Portrait
Gallery, London.[7] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:M_Faraday_Th_Phillips_oil_1842.jpg
169 YBN
[09/??/1831 AD] 10 		2705) The (dynamic) electric generator
(or "dynamo"). By mechanically moving a
conductor near a magnet, a constant
electric current is produced.7 8
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ Michael Faraday, "Experimental
Researches in Electricity",
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1776-1886), Volume
122, (1832),
p146. DOI 10.1098/rstl.1832.0006.
{Faraday_1832_Experimental_Researches_
in_Electricity_1.pdf}
2. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/farada
y.htm
3. ^ Michael Faraday, "Experimental
Researches in Electricity",
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1776-1886), Volume
122, (1832),
p146. DOI 10.1098/rstl.1832.0006.
{Faraday_1832_Experimental_Researches_
in_Electricity_1.pdf}
4. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/farada
y.htm
5. ^ Michael Faraday, "Experimental
Researches in Electricity",
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1776-1886), Volume
122, (1832),
p146. DOI 10.1098/rstl.1832.0006.
{Faraday_1832_Experimental_Researches_
in_Electricity_1.pdf}
6. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/farada
y.htm
7. ^ Michael Faraday, "Experimental
Researches in Electricity",
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1776-1886), Volume
122, (1832),
p146. DOI 10.1098/rstl.1832.0006.
{Faraday_1832_Experimental_Researches_
in_Electricity_1.pdf}
8. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/farada
y.htm
9. ^ "Michael Faraday". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9756/Michael-Faraday
10. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/farada
y.htm (09/??/1831)

MORE INFO
[1] "Michael Faraday". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Far
aday
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Michael+Faraday+?
cat=technology
[3] "Michael Faraday". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Michael_
Faraday
[4]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[5] Faraday_referee_1831.pdf
http://journals.royalsociety.org/conte
nt/n5776546166232n5/fulltext.pdf The
Referees' Assessment of Faraday's
Electromagnetic Induction Paper of
1831 Journal Notes and Records of the
Royal Society of London
(1938-1996) Issue Volume 47, Number 2
/
1993 Pages 243-256 DOI 10.1098/rsnr.19
93.0031
[6] "calico". Dictionary.com Unabridged
(v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/c
alico
[7] "Charles Darwin". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9642/Charles-Darwin
[8]
http://physics.bu.edu/~duffy/PY106/MagMa
terials.html
[9]
http://books.google.com/books?id=KgMUAAA
AIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=the+science
+of+everyday+life#PPA341,M1
(Royal Institution in) London, England9
 
[1] Description Michael Faraday,
oil, by Thomas Phillips Source
Thomas Phillips,1842 Date
1842 Author Thomas Phillips[3
wiki] The portrait shown here was
painted by Thomas Phillips (1770-1845),
oil on canvas, The National Portrait
Gallery, London.[7] PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:M_Far
aday_Th_Phillips_oil_1842.jpg

[2] Michael Faraday - Project
Gutenberg eText 13103 From The Project
Gutenberg eBook, Great Britain and Her
Queen, by Anne E.
Keeling http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/
13103 PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Micha
el_Faraday_-_Project_Gutenberg_eText_131
03.jpg
168 YBN
[1832 AD] 13 		2514) The first plastic materials, made
of nitrocellulose.8 9 10 11
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.cyberlipid.org/chevreul/braco
nnot.htm
2. ^ "major industrial polymers".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-764
71/major-industrial-polymers
3. ^
http://www.cyberlipid.org/chevreul/braco
nnot.htm
4. ^ "major industrial polymers".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-764
71/major-industrial-polymers
5. ^
http://www.cyberlipid.org/chevreul/braco
nnot.htm
6. ^ "major industrial polymers".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-764
71/major-industrial-polymers
7. ^ "Henri Braconnot", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p130.
8. ^
http://www.cyberlipid.org/chevreul/braco
nnot.htm
9. ^ "major industrial polymers".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-764
71/major-industrial-polymers
10. ^ "Henri Braconnot", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p130.
11. ^ "nitrocellulose."
Encyclop�dia Britannica.
Encyclop�dia Britannica Online.
Encyclop�dia Britannica Inc., 2013.
Web. 18 Jan. 2013.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c//>.
12. ^
http://www.cyberlipid.org/chevreul/braco
nnot.htm
13. ^
http://www.cyberlipid.org/chevreul/braco
nnot.htm (1832)

MORE INFO
[1] "Henri Braconnot". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_Braco
nnot
[2]
http://www.answers.com/saponification?ca
t=health
Nancy, France12  
[1] Henri Braconnot, French
chemist H402/0577 Rights
Managed Credit: CCI ARCHIVES/SCIENCE
PHOTO LIBRARY Caption: Henri
Braconnot (1780-1855), French chemist
and pharmacist. At 13 Braconnot
undertook a two year apprenticeship in
a pharmacy in Nancy. As well as
pharmacology he also studied chemistry
and botany. He continued his education
in Strasbourg and Paris, before
returning to Nancy in 1802 to become
the chairman of the botanical garden.
His research lead to the discovery of
numerous plant compounds, including
acids and sugars, as well as
discovering chitin, the earliest known
polysaccharide, in mushrooms. Braconnot
was also the first chemist to create a
polymer when he added nitric acid to
wood or cotton to obtain
xyloidine. Release details: Model
and property releases are not available
PD
source: http://www.sciencephoto.com/imag
e/223788/large/H4020577-Henri_Braconnot,
_French_chemist-SPL.jpg

[2] Henri Braconnot, French
chemist H402/0577 Rights
Managed Credit: CCI ARCHIVES/SCIENCE
PHOTO LIBRARY Caption: Henri
Braconnot (1780-1855), French chemist
and pharmacist. At 13 Braconnot
undertook a two year apprenticeship in
a pharmacy in Nancy. As well as
pharmacology he also studied chemistry
and botany. He continued his education
in Strasbourg and Paris, before
returning to Nancy in 1802 to become
the chairman of the botanical garden.
His research lead to the discovery of
numerous plant compounds, including
acids and sugars, as well as
discovering chitin, the earliest known
polysaccharide, in mushrooms. Braconnot
was also the first chemist to create a
polymer when he added nitric acid to
wood or cotton to obtain
xyloidine. Release details: Model
and property releases are not available
PD
source:
168 YBN
[1832 AD] 3 		2717) The alternating electric current
(or AC) generator.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Hellemans and Bunch, "The
Timetables of Science", 1988, p299.
2. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/pixii.
html
3. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/pixii.
html (1832)

MORE INFO
[1] "Hippolyte Pixii". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hippolyte_P
ixii
Paris, France2  
[1] The machine contained a permanent
magnet which was rotated by a hand
crank. The spinning magnet was
positioned so that its north and south
poles passed by a piece of iron wrapped
with wire. Pixii found that the
spinning magnet produced a pulse of
current in the wire each time a pole
passed the coil. Furthermore, the north
and south poles of the magnet induced
currents in opposite directions. PD
source: http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/histor
y/pixii.html

[2] Description: Erste bekannt
gewordene magneto-elektrische
Wechselstrommaschine, gebaut 1832 von
Pixii auf Anregung von Ampere; Source:
Niethammer, F.; Ein- und
Mehrphasen-Wechselstrom-Erzeuger;
Verlag S. Hirzel; Leipzig 1906 Date:
created 1906 Author: - Permission:
Hermann A. Wiese put it under public
domain An early form of an alternating
current electrical generator built by
Pixii PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Wechselstromerzeuger.jpg
166 YBN
[01/01/1834 AD] 		1247) A mechanical reaper; a machine
that cuts grain.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "reaper." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 21 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/493183/reaper>.
2. ^ "reaper." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 21 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/493183/reaper>.
3. ^ "Robert Hall McCormick".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Hall
_McCormick

MORE INFO
[1] "Cyrus McCormick". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyrus_McCor
mick
Rockbridge County, Virginia, USA3
 
[1] Early reaping machine for
harvesting grain. V900/0023 Rights
Managed Credit: SCIENCE PHOTO
LIBRARY Caption: Reaping machine.
Engraving of the first reaping machine
for harvesting grain, invented by Cyrus
Hall McCormick (1809-1884) in 1831. As
the wheel (at centre) spun, the paddles
on it pushed the crop onto a moving
cutter bar and knife. This design
feature has been retained in modern
combine harvesters although McCormick's
machine was pulled by horses rather
than being pushed. McCormick patented
his invention in 1834, made his first
sale in 1840 and moved to Chicago in
1847 to begin large-scale production.
The six million harvesters he
manufactured opened the prairie lands
to intensive agriculture, a major
factor in America's
prosperity. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.sciencephoto.com/imag
e/364617/large/V9000023-Early_reaping_ma
chine_for_harvesting_grain.-SPL.jpg

[2] New Reaper, Getreidemäher New
Reaper, Stein der Weisen 1889 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Agriculture_2.jpg
166 YBN
[06/19/1834 AD] 6 7 		2899) The speed of electricity in wire
is measured using a rotating mirror.3 4

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Sir Charles Wheatstone".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
6748/Sir-Charles-Wheatstone
2. ^ Charles Wheatstone, "An Account of
Some Experiments to Measure the
Velocity of Electricity and the
Duration of Electric Light",
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London, Vol. 124, (1834),
pp.
583-591. http://books.google.com/books?
id=G09FAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA583 AND http://ww
w.jstor.org/stable/108080 {Wheatstone_v
elocity.pdf}
3. ^ "Sir Charles Wheatstone".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
6748/Sir-Charles-Wheatstone
4. ^ Charles Wheatstone, "An Account of
Some Experiments to Measure the
Velocity of Electricity and the
Duration of Electric Light",
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London, Vol. 124, (1834),
pp.
583-591. http://books.google.com/books?
id=G09FAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA583 AND http://ww
w.jstor.org/stable/108080 {Wheatstone_v
elocity.pdf}
5. ^ "Sir Charles Wheatstone".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
6748/Sir-Charles-Wheatstone
6. ^ Charles Wheatstone, "An Account of
Some Experiments to Measure the
Velocity of Electricity and the
Duration of Electric Light",
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London, Vol. 124, (1834),
pp.
583-591. http://books.google.com/books?
id=G09FAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA583 AND http://ww
w.jstor.org/stable/108080 {Wheatstone_v
elocity.pdf}
7. ^ "Sir Charles Wheatstone".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
6748/Sir-Charles-Wheatstone (1834)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/Charles+Wheatston
e?cat=entertainment
[2]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[3]
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/wheats
tone.html
[4]
http://books.google.com/books?id=5iw5AAA
AMAAJ&pg=PA311&lpg=PA311&dq=faraday+velo
city+of+electricity&source=web&ots=5NZWU
d1EhA&sig=NK0D0pm5FFvHZpV7lB3JamIKhoo&hl
=en#PPA311,M1
[5]
http://books.google.com/books?id=0qSDQld
RTFMC&pg=PA131&lpg=PA131&dq=velocity+of+
electricity&source=web&ots=HZUnerxDqB&si
g=XJ1gYT3wGhkgfzjTLNa99vSFNrQ&hl=en#PPA1
32,M1
(King's College) London, England5
 
[1] Figure from [7 591] PD
source: An Account of Some Experiments
to Measure the Velocity of Electricity
and the Duration of Electric
Light Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 124 -
1834 Author Charles
Wheatstone DOI 10.1098/rstl.1834.0031
Wheatstone_velocity.pdf 591

[2] Figure from [7 592] PD
source: An Account of Some Experiments
to Measure the Velocity of Electricity
and the Duration of Electric
Light Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 124 -
1834 Author Charles
Wheatstone DOI 10.1098/rstl.1834.0031
Wheatstone_velocity.pdf 592
165 YBN
[02/06/1835 AD] 4 5 		2810) The electrical relay, a device
that allows the electric current of
telegraph signals to be carried over
long distances.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp335-337.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp335-337.
3. ^ "Joseph
Henry". The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Joseph+Henry?cat=
technology
4. ^, p1.
http://www.jstor.org/view/00659746/ap030
013/03a00120/0 "Contributions to
Electricity and Magnetism. By Joseph
Henry, Professor of Natural Philosophy
in the College of New Jersey,
Princeton, Late of the Albany Academy.
No. II. On the Influence of a Spiral
Conductor in Increasing the Intensity
of Electricity from a Galvanic
Arrangement of a Single Pair, &c."
Joseph Henry Transactions of the
American Philosophical Society, New
Ser., Vol. 5. (1837), pp. 223-231.
Henry_1835_relay.pdf (02/06/1835)
(02/06/1835)
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp335-337. (1835)
(1835)

MORE INFO
[1] "Joseph Henry". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0056/Joseph-Henry
[2] "Joseph Henry". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Henr
y
[3] "Joseph Henry". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Joseph_H
enry
[4]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[5] http://www.150.si.edu/chap2/two.htm
[6]
http://inventors.about.com/library/inven
tors/bljosephhenry.htm
[7]
http://siarchives.si.edu/history/jhp/jos
eph21.htm
[8]
http://proquest.umi.com/pqdlink?index=0&
did=338986411&SrchMode=3&sid=7&Fmt=10&VI
nst=PROD&VType=PQD&RQT=309&VName=HNP&TS=
1204938559&clientId=48051&aid=1 Henry_J
oseph_1832_ajs.pdf American Journal of
Science and Arts (1820-1879); Jan 3,
1832; 22, 2; APS Online pg. 403 On
the Production of Current and Sparks of
Electricity from Magnetism
[9]
Henry_1831_electromagnet_silk_insulate.p
df APPENDIX.; On the application of
the principle of the galvanic
multiplier to electro-magnetic
apparatus, and also to the developement
of great magnetic power in soft Iron,
with a small galvanic element; JOSEPH
HENRY. American Journal of Science and
Arts (1820-1879). New Haven: Jan 2,
1831. Vol. 19, Iss. 2; p. 400 (9 pages)
http://proquest.umi.com/pqdlink?index=
0&did=338949441&SrchMode=3&sid=7&Fmt=10&
VInst=PROD&VType=PQD&RQT=309&VName=HNP&T
S=1205045477&clientId=1568&aid=1
[10] "armature". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/a
rmature
Princeton, NJ, USA2 3  
[1] In 1846, the Smithsonian Board of
Regents chose Joseph Henry as the
Institution's first
secretary. PD/Corel
source: http://www.150.si.edu/chap2/2man
.htm

[2] Description Portrait of Joseph
Henry Source
http://www.photolib.noaa.gov/bigs/per
s0124.jpg Date 1879 Author
Henry Ulke
(1821-1910) Permission (Reusing this
image) Public domain. PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Jospe
h_Henry_%281879%29.jpg
164 YBN
[1836 AD] 4 		2813) A high voltage induction coil.1
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/callan.html
2. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/callan.html
3. ^ "Maynooth". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maynooth
4. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/callan.html (1836)

MORE INFO
[1] "Nicholas Callan". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicholas_Ca
llan
[2]
http://physics.kenyon.edu/EarlyApparatus
/Electricity/Induction_Coil/Induction_Co
il.html
[3]
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/page.html
Maynooth2 , Ireland3  
[1] Nicholas Joseph Callan, Professor
of Natural Philosophy PD/Corel
source: http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekat
z/scientists/callan.html

[2] The ''Great Coil'' of Nicholas
Callan, 1837 COPYRIGHTED
source: same
162 YBN
[1838 AD] 7 		2540) The parallax of a different star
is measured.3

61 Cygni {SiG-nI4 } is shown to be
around 6 light years away.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp296-297.
2. ^ "parallax."
Britannica Concise Encyclopedia.
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.,
1994-2010. Answers.com 18 Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/parallax
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp296-297.
4. ^ "cygni."
Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random
House, Inc. 15 Jun. 2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/c
ygni>.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp296-297.
6. ^ "Friedrich
Wilhelm Bessel". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-823
3/Friedrich-Wilhelm-Bessel
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp296-297. (1838)
(1838)

MORE INFO
[1] "popup?va=parallax".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/mwu/popup?va=p
arallax
Königsberg, (Prussia now:) Germany6
 
[1] Stellar parallax motion PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Stellarparallax2.svg

[2] Example of lunar parallax:
Occultation of Pleiades by the
Moon Example of lunar parallax from 4
points on earth This is a simulated
image, combining of 4 views of the sky
and the moon's location relative to the
background stars at a single point in
time. The bright stars visible are the
star cluster Pleiades. The date March
22, 1988 was chosen because the moon
occulted stars within the pleides as
visible from North America. NOTE: This
diagram is geometrically accurate,
although not physically possible to see
since the moon was not actually above
the horizon in half the views.
Specifically you can never see the
Pleiades from the south pole! They were
just picked as extreme views from the
earth, the limit of what might be seen
from a set of four locations in a
square on a great circle and a moon
just above the horizon in all four
locations. Credit: Tom Ruen, Full Sky
Observatory * This image was
generated by my own solar system
viewing software. * Source bitmap
for projection from Nasa's Clementine
Spacecraft: o USGS: Global
simple cylindrical projection at 10
km/pixel.
(http://astrogeology.usgs.gov/Projects/C
lementine/images/albedo.simp750.jpeg) P
D
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Lunarparallax_22_3_1988.png
162 YBN
[1838 AD] 6 		2934) Cell theory:3 the principle that
all living objects are made of cells.4

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp354-355.
2. ^ "Cell theory."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 18
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cell-theory
-1
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp354-355.
4. ^ "Cell theory."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 18
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cell-theory
-1
5. ^ "Mathias Jacob Schleiden".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
6147/Mathias-Jacob-Schleiden
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp354-355. (1838)

MORE INFO
[1] "Matthias Jakob Schleiden".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Matthias
_Jakob_Schleiden
[2] Trisha Creekmore. The Science
Channel :: 100 Greatest Discoveries:
Biology. Discovery Communications.
http://science.discovery.com/convergence
/100discoveries/big100/biology.html
[3] "University of Jena". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_
of_Jena
(University of Jena) Jena, Germany5
 
[1] Matthias Jakob Schleiden Library
of Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/Matthias+
Jakob+Schleiden+?cat=technology

[2] 01 Jan 1870 Matthias
Schleiden (Photo by Kean
Collection/Getty Images ) [t again
large side burns looks to be mid to
late 1800s] PD
source: http://www.viewimages.com/Search
.aspx?mid=50898741&epmid=1&partner=Googl
e
162 YBN
[1838 AD] 3 4 5 		3386) The direct-acting gas combustion
engine.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Donkin, B. A Text-book on Gas,
Oil and Air Engines: Or, Internal
Combustion Motors Without Boiler. C.
Griffin and company, limited, 1896,
p23. http://books.google.com/books?id=8
d03AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA23
2. ^ "Gas Engine". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Gas_Engi
ne
3. ^ "Gas Engine". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Gas_Engi
ne {1838}
4. ^ Dugald Clerk, "The Gas Engine",
Scientific American Supplement (Vol.
19, #484: April 11,
1885) http://onlinebooks.library.upenn.
edu/webbin/gutbook/lookup?num=13939 and
also
http://www.a1nethost.com/american/scie
ntific-american/484/00.htm#3 {1838}
5. ^
William Robinson, "Gas and Petroleum
Engines: A Practical Treatise on the
Internal Combustion ...",
http://books.google.com/books?id=8e9MA
AAAMAAJ&pg=PA103&lpg=PA103&dq=%22robert+
street%22+patent+engine&source=web&ots=z
XhunpMWQn&sig=OK3zL_tlF9en_5S83tLJ0kuNyV
I&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&ct=
result#PPA102,M1 {1838}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.eng.cam.ac.uk/DesignOffice/pr
ojects/cecil/history.html
?, England 
[1] Donkin, B. A Text-book on Gas, Oil
and Air Engines: Or, Internal
Combustion Motors Without Boiler. C.
Griffin and company, limited,
1896. http://books.google.com/books?id=
8d03AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA22 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=8d03AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA22

[2] Barnett's ignition cock PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=8e9MAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA103&lpg=PA103&dq=%22r
obert+street%22+patent+engine&source=web
&ots=zXhunpMWQn&sig=OK3zL_tlF9en_5S83tLJ
0kuNyVI&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum
=1&ct=result#PPA219,M1
161 YBN
[07/29/1839 AD] 17 		3308) Light is converted into
electricity (the photoelectric or
photovoltaic effect).10 11 12 This is
the first photovoltaic (or "solar")
cell.13 14 15
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Becquerel, Alexandre-Edmond.
"Recherches sur les effets de la
radiation chimique de la lumi�re
solaire, au moyen des courants
�lectriques." CR Acad. Sci 9 (1839):
145-149. English: "Studies of the
effect of actinitic radiation of
sunlight by means of electric
currents" books.google.com/books?id=zmZ
FAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA145
2. ^ Becquerel, A. E. "M�moire sur
les effets �lectriques produits sous
l�influence des rayons solaires."
Comptes Rendus 9.567 (1839): 1839,
p561-567. English: "Note on the
electric effects produces under the
influence of
sunlight" http://books.google.com/books
?id=zmZFAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA561
3. ^ "solar cell." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 26 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/552875/solar-cell>.
4. ^ Becquerel, Alexandre-Edmond.
"Recherches sur les effets de la
radiation chimique de la lumi�re
solaire, au moyen des courants
�lectriques." CR Acad. Sci 9 (1839):
145-149. English: "Studies of the
effect of actinitic radiation of
sunlight by means of electric
currents" books.google.com/books?id=zmZ
FAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA145
5. ^ Becquerel, A. E. "M�moire sur
les effets �lectriques produits sous
l�influence des rayons solaires."
Comptes Rendus 9.567 (1839): 1839,
p561-567. English: "Note on the
electric effects produces under the
influence of
sunlight" http://books.google.com/books
?id=zmZFAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA561
6. ^ "solar cell." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 26 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/552875/solar-cell>.
7. ^ Becquerel, Alexandre-Edmond.
"Recherches sur les effets de la
radiation chimique de la lumi�re
solaire, au moyen des courants
�lectriques." CR Acad. Sci 9 (1839):
145-149. English: "Studies of the
effect of actinitic radiation of
sunlight by means of electric
currents" books.google.com/books?id=zmZ
FAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA145
8. ^ Becquerel, A. E. "M�moire sur
les effets �lectriques produits sous
l�influence des rayons solaires."
Comptes Rendus 9.567 (1839): 1839,
p561-567. English: "Note on the
electric effects produces under the
influence of
sunlight" http://books.google.com/books
?id=zmZFAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA561
9. ^ "solar cell." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 26 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/552875/solar-cell>.
10. ^ Becquerel, Alexandre-Edmond.
"Recherches sur les effets de la
radiation chimique de la lumi�re
solaire, au moyen des courants
�lectriques." CR Acad. Sci 9 (1839):
145-149. English: "Studies of the
effect of actinitic radiation of
sunlight by means of electric
currents" books.google.com/books?id=zmZ
FAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA145
11. ^ Becquerel, A. E. "M�moire sur
les effets �lectriques produits sous
l�influence des rayons solaires."
Comptes Rendus 9.567 (1839): 1839,
p561-567. English: "Note on the
electric effects produces under the
influence of
sunlight" http://books.google.com/books
?id=zmZFAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA561
12. ^ "solar cell." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 26 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/552875/solar-cell>.
13. ^ Becquerel, Alexandre-Edmond.
"Recherches sur les effets de la
radiation chimique de la lumi�re
solaire, au moyen des courants
�lectriques." CR Acad. Sci 9 (1839):
145-149. English: "Studies of the
effect of actinitic radiation of
sunlight by means of electric
currents" books.google.com/books?id=zmZ
FAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA145
14. ^ Becquerel, A. E. "M�moire sur
les effets �lectriques produits sous
l�influence des rayons solaires."
Comptes Rendus 9.567 (1839): 1839,
p561-567. English: "Note on the
electric effects produces under the
influence of
sunlight" http://books.google.com/books
?id=zmZFAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA561
15. ^ "solar cell." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 26 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/552875/solar-cell>.
16. ^ "Becquerel, Alexandre-Edmond",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p72.
17. ^
Becquerel, Alexandre-Edmond.
"Recherches sur les effets de la
radiation chimique de la lumière
solaire, au moyen des courants
électriques." CR Acad. Sci 9 (1839):
145-149; 561. also Annalen der Physick
und Chemie, Vol. 54, pp. 18-34,
1841. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/
CadresFenetre?O=NUMM-2968&M=chemindefer
English: "Research on the effects of
the chemical radiation of solar light
by means of the electric
currents" {Becquerel_Edmond_1839.pdf}
{07/29/1839}

MORE INFO
[1] "thermionic power converter."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 19
June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
6050>
[2] "A. E. Becquerel". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A._E._Becqu
erel
[3] "Becquerel". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Becquere
l
[4] Edmond Becquerel, "Des effets
chimiques et électriques produits sous
l'influence de la lumière solaire",
1840. http://jubil.upmc.fr/sdx/pl/doc-t
dm.xsp?id=TH_000231_001_page1&fmt=upmc&b
ase=fa&root=&n=&qid=&ss=&as=&ai=#page1
[5] "solar cell." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 19 June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-458
72>
[6]
http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/biograph
y/BecquerelEdmond.html
[7]
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Isd9IEnR4
bw {video of liquid oxygen
paramagnetism}
(University of Paris) Paris, France16
 
[1] Becquerel, Alexandre-Edmond.
''Recherches sur les effets de la
radiation chimique de la lumière
solaire, au moyen des courants
électriques.'' CR Acad. Sci 9 (1839):
145-149. English: ''Studies of the
effect of actinitic radiation of
sunlight by means of electric
currents'' books.google.com/books?id=zm
ZFAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA145 PD AND [2]
Scientist: Becquerel, Alexandre Edmond
(1820 - 1891) Discipline(s):
Physics Print Artist: Charles
Jeremie Fuhr, b.1832 Medium:
Lithograph Original Artist: Pierre
Petit, 1832-1885 Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 25.5 x 19 cm / Sheet: 30.6 x
20.1 cm PD/Corel
source: books.google.com/books?id=zmZFAA
AAcAAJ&pg=PA145http://www.sil.si.edu/dig
italcollections/hst/scientific-identity/
fullsize/SIL14-B2-07a.jpg

[2] Becquerel, Alexandre-Edmond.
''Recherches sur les effets de la
radiation chimique de la lumière
solaire, au moyen des courants
électriques.'' CR Acad. Sci 9 (1839):
145-149. English: ''Studies of the
effect of actinitic radiation of
sunlight by means of electric
currents'' books.google.com/books?id=zm
ZFAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA145 PD
source: books.google.com/books?id=zmZFAA
AAcAAJ&pg=PA145
159 YBN
[1841 AD] 5 		3158) Cell division is described.1 2
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ "Robert Remak." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 23 May.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-rema
k
2. ^ (presumably this is the paper)
Remak, "Teilung roter Blutzellen beim
Embryo." Medizinische Vereinszeitung
(1841). English: Remak, Robert
"Division of red blood cells in the
embryo"
3. ^ "Robert Remak." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 23 May.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-rema
k
4. ^ Record ID2886. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "Robert
Remak." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 23 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-rema
k (1841)

MORE INFO
[1] "Remak, Robert", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p740
[2] "Remak, Robert."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 23 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
3146>
[3]
http://medical-dictionary.thefreediction
ary.com/Adrenergic+fibers
(University of Berlin) Berlin, Germany3
4 (presumably) 
[1] Robert Remak PD/Corel
source: http://www.cerebromente.org.br/n
17/history/remak2.JPG

[2] Robert Remak PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b2/Robert_Remak.gif
158 YBN
[03/30/1842 AD] 4 		3171) The first use of an anesthetic
for surgery (ether).2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "anesthesia." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 24 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/1507634/anesthesia>.
2. ^ "anesthesia." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 24 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/1507634/anesthesia>.
3. ^ "Long, Crawford Williamson."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 25 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8846>.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p389. (03/30/1842)
Jefferson, Georgia3  
[1] 1870 photograph of Crawford Long,
anesthesia pioneer PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8c/CrawfordLong.jpg
158 YBN
[1842 AD] 4 5 6 		2929) The Doppler effect: that
frequency of light and sound is
affected by the relative motion of the
source and observer.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Doppler, "Ueber das farbige Licht
der Doppelsterne und einiger anderer
Gestirne des Himmels," Böhm. Gesell.
Abbandlungen ii. 1841-42 s.
465. http://books.google.com/books?id=z
l5RAAAAcAAJ
2. ^ "Christian Doppler". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
0954/Christian-Doppler
3. ^
http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/
Biographies/Doppler.html
4. ^ Doppler, "Ueber das farbige Licht
der Doppelsterne und einiger anderer
Gestirne des Himmels," Böhm. Gesell.
Abbandlungen ii. 1841-42 s.
465. http://books.google.com/books?id=z
l5RAAAAcAAJ
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p353. (1842) (1842)
6. ^
"Christian Doppler". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
0954/Christian-Doppler (1842)

MORE INFO
[1] "Christian Johann Doppler".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_J
ohann_Doppler
[2]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
(Prague Polytechnic, now Czech
Technical University)Prague, Czech
Republic3  
[1] Description English:
Photographic portrait of Christian
Doppler (1803-1853) Date unknown, but
subject died in 1853 Source
http://www.scientific-web.com/en/Physic
s/Biographies/images/CDoppler2.jpg Auth
or unknown PD AND Doppler, ''Ueber
das farbige Licht der Doppelsterne und
einiger anderer Gestirne des Himmels,''
Böhm. Gesell. Abbandlungen ii. 1841-42
s.
465. http://books.google.com/books?id=z
l5RAAAAcAAJ PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/86/Christian_Doppler.jpg
http://books.google.com/books?id=zl5RAAA
AcAAJ

[2] Description English:
Photographic portrait of Christian
Doppler (1803-1853) Date unknown, but
subject died in 1853 Source
http://www.scientific-web.com/en/Physic
s/Biographies/images/CDoppler2.jpg Auth
or unknown PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/86/Christian_Doppler.jpg

157 YBN
[1843 AD] 4 		6240) The first remote controlled wired
explosive.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Samuel Colt." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 24 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/126860/Samuel-Colt>.
2. ^ Colby, F.M., and T. Williams. The
New International Encyclopaedia. Dodd,
Mead and company, 1918. The New
International Encyclopaedia,
p352. http://books.google.com/books?id=
WnANAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA352
3. ^ "Samuel Colt." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 24 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/126860/Samuel-Colt>.
4. ^ "Samuel Colt." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 24 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/126860/Samuel-Colt>. {1843}
Paterson, New Jersey, USA3
(presumably) 
[1] Description Samuel Colt (1814
– 1862) English: Samuel Colt,
founder of the firearms manufacturer
Colt Deutsch: Samuel Colt, Begründer
des Waffenherstellers Colt Date
Source 19th century
engraving PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3f/SamuelColt.jpg
155 YBN
[04/??/1845 AD] 10 11 12 		2839) The spiral shape of other
galaxies is recognized.7 8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ The Earl of Rosse. "Observations
on the Nebulae." Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1850):
499-514. http://books.google.com/books?
id=BlFFAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA499
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2307
/108449
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp341-342.
3. ^ The Earl of
Rosse. "Observations on the Nebulae."
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1850):
499-514. http://books.google.com/books?
id=BlFFAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA499
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2307
/108449
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp341-342.
5. ^ The Earl of
Rosse. "Observations on the Nebulae."
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1850):
499-514. http://books.google.com/books?
id=BlFFAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA499
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2307
/108449
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp341-342.
7. ^ The Earl of
Rosse. "Observations on the Nebulae."
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1850):
499-514. http://books.google.com/books?
id=BlFFAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA499
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2307
/108449
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp341-342.
9. ^
http://casswww.ucsd.edu/public/tutorial/
Galaxies.html
10. ^ The Earl of Rosse. "Observations
on the Nebulae." Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1850):
499-514. http://books.google.com/books?
id=BlFFAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA499
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2307
/108449
11. ^
http://www.klima-luft.de/steinicke/Artik
el/birr/birr_e.htm (04/1845)
12. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp341-342. (1845)
(1845)

MORE INFO
[1] "William Parsons, 3rd Earl of
Rosse". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Par
sons%2C_3rd_Earl_of_Rosse
[2] "William Parsons Rosse".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/William_
Parsons_Rosse
[3]
http://www.ruf.rice.edu/~trw/telescopes.
html
[4]
http://seds.org/MESSIER/more/m-rosse.htm
l
[5]
http://www.bbc.co.uk/science/space/unive
rse/scientists/william_parsons_3rd_earl_
of_rosse#default
[6] Rosse, Earl of. "Observations on
Some of the Nebulae." Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London 134 (1844):
321-324. http://www.jstor.org/stable/10
.2307/108366
(Birr Castle) Parsonstown, Ireland9
 
[1] The Earl of Rosse. ''Observations
on the Nebulae.'' Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1850):
499-514. http://www.jstor.org/stable/10
.2307/108449 PD
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2
307/108449

[2] Abb. 2 - Lord Rosse's drwaing of M
51 showing its spiral structure. [t
Notice that Parsons numbers stars which
appear to be part of the
galaxy] PD/Corel
source: http://www.klima-luft.de/steinic
ke/Artikel/birr/birr_e.htm
154 YBN
[09/23/1846 AD] 18 19 20 		3073) Planet Neptune is observed.11 12
13 14 15
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp373-374.
2. ^ Galle, J. G.,
"Account of the discovery of Le
Verrier's planet Neptune, at Berlin,
Sept. 23, 1846", Monthly Notices of the
Royal Astronomical Society, Vol. 7,
p.153. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?1846MNRAS.
..7..153G&data_type=PDF_HIGH&whole_paper
=YES&type=PRINTER&filetype=.pdf
3. ^ "Obituary Notices : Associates :
Galle, Johann Gottfried". Monthly
Notices of the Royal Astronomical
Society 71: 275. 1911.
Bibcode:1911MNRAS..71R.275. http://adsa
bs.harvard.edu/abs/1911MNRAS..71R.275.
4. ^ Encke, M. "XXXII. On the newly
discovered planet." The London,
Edinburgh, and Dublin Philosophical
Magazine and Journal of Science 30.200
(1847):
181-185. http://books.google.com/books?
id=iB9DAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA181
5. ^ Bericht �ber die zur
Bekanntmachung geeigneten Verhandlungen
der K�nigl. preuss. Akademie der
Wissenschaften zu Berlin, Oct 22 1846,
p279 http://books.google.com/books?id=H
q0EAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA279
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp373-374.
7. ^ Galle, J. G.,
"Account of the discovery of Le
Verrier's planet Neptune, at Berlin,
Sept. 23, 1846", Monthly Notices of the
Royal Astronomical Society, Vol. 7,
p.153. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?1846MNRAS.
..7..153G&data_type=PDF_HIGH&whole_paper
=YES&type=PRINTER&filetype=.pdf
8. ^ "Obituary Notices : Associates :
Galle, Johann Gottfried". Monthly
Notices of the Royal Astronomical
Society 71: 275. 1911.
Bibcode:1911MNRAS..71R.275. http://adsa
bs.harvard.edu/abs/1911MNRAS..71R.275.
9. ^ Encke, M. "XXXII. On the newly
discovered planet." The London,
Edinburgh, and Dublin Philosophical
Magazine and Journal of Science 30.200
(1847):
181-185. http://books.google.com/books?
id=iB9DAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA181
10. ^ Bericht �ber die zur
Bekanntmachung geeigneten Verhandlungen
der K�nigl. preuss. Akademie der
Wissenschaften zu Berlin, Oct 22 1846,
p279 http://books.google.com/books?id=H
q0EAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA279
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp373-374.
12. ^ Galle, J. G.,
"Account of the discovery of Le
Verrier's planet Neptune, at Berlin,
Sept. 23, 1846", Monthly Notices of the
Royal Astronomical Society, Vol. 7,
p.153. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?1846MNRAS.
..7..153G&data_type=PDF_HIGH&whole_paper
=YES&type=PRINTER&filetype=.pdf
13. ^ "Obituary Notices : Associates :
Galle, Johann Gottfried". Monthly
Notices of the Royal Astronomical
Society 71: 275. 1911.
Bibcode:1911MNRAS..71R.275. http://adsa
bs.harvard.edu/abs/1911MNRAS..71R.275.
14. ^ Encke, M. "XXXII. On the newly
discovered planet." The London,
Edinburgh, and Dublin Philosophical
Magazine and Journal of Science 30.200
(1847):
181-185. http://books.google.com/books?
id=iB9DAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA181
15. ^ Bericht �ber die zur
Bekanntmachung geeigneten Verhandlungen
der K�nigl. preuss. Akademie der
Wissenschaften zu Berlin, Oct 22 1846,
p279 http://books.google.com/books?id=H
q0EAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA279
16. ^ "Urbain Jean Joseph Leverrier." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 07 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/urbain-jean
-joseph-leverrier
17. ^ "Le Verrier, Urbain-Jean-Joseph."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 7 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7487>.
18. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp373-374.
(09/23/1846)
19. ^ "Le Verrier, Urbain-Jean-Joseph."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 7 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7487>. (09/23/1846)
20. ^ "Obituary Notices :
Associates : Galle, Johann Gottfried".
Monthly Notices of the Royal
Astronomical Society 71: 275. 1911.
Bibcode:1911MNRAS..71R.275. http://adsa
bs.harvard.edu/abs/1911MNRAS..71R.275.

MORE INFO
[1] "Urbain-Jean-Joseph Le
Verrier", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition
2, Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000),
p538
[2] "celestial mechanics."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 8 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-774
32>
Berlin, Germany16 (and Paris, France17
) 
[1] Galle, J. G., ''Account of the
discovery of Le Verrier's planet
Neptune, at Berlin, Sept. 23, 1846'',
Monthly Notices of the Royal
Astronomical Society, Vol. 7,
p.153. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?1846MNRAS.
..7..153G&data_type=PDF_HIGH&whole_paper
=YES&type=PRINTER&filetype=.pdf PD
AND [1] Scientist: Le Verrier,
Urbain Jean Joseph (1811 -
1877) Discipline(s): Astronomy Print
Artist: Auguste Bry, 19th C. Medium:
Lithograph Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 12.5 x 10 cm / Sheet: 26.1 x
17 cm PD/Corel AND Galle, Johann
Gottfried (1812-1910) PD/Corel
source: http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?1846MNRAS.
..7..153G&data_type=PDF_HIGH&whole_paper
=YES&type=PRINTER&filetype=.pdfhttp://up
load.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8
9/Urbain_Le_Verrier.jpghttp://www.davidd
arling.info/images/Galle.jpg

[2] Scientist: Le Verrier, Urbain
Jean Joseph (1811 -
1877) Discipline(s): Astronomy Print
Artist: Auguste Bry, 19th C. Medium:
Lithograph Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 12.5 x 10 cm / Sheet: 26.1 x
17 cm PD/Corel
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/89/Urbain_Le_Verrier.jpg

154 YBN
[1846 AD] 3 4 5 		2828) The liquid explosive
nitroglycerine.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp379.
2. ^ Icilio Guareschi
(1913). "Ascanio Sobrero nel centenario
della sua nascita". Isis 1 (3):
351-358. http://links.jstor.org/sici?si
ci=0021-1753%281913%291%3A3%3C351%3AASNC
DS%3E2.0.CO%3B2-U {Sobrero_Ascanio_2241
37.pdf}
3. ^ "explosive." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 15 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-823
67>. (1846)
4. ^ "Ascanio Sobrero." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 16 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ascanio-sob
rero (1846)
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp379. (1847)

MORE INFO
[1] "Ascanio Sobrero". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ascanio_Sob
rero
[2] Ascanio Sobrero, "Memorie scelte di
Ascanio Sobrero pubblicate
dall'Associazione chimica industriale
di Torino con discorso storico-critico
ed annotazioni di I. Guareschi",
pp42-53.
http://www.liberliber.it/biblioteca/s/
sobrero/memorie_scelte_di_ascanio_sobrer
o_pubblicate_dall_associ_etc/pdf/memori_
p.pdf "Sopra alcuni nuovi composti
fulminanti ottenuti col mezzo
dell'azione dell'acido nitrico sulle
sostanze organiche vegetali" in
"Memorie della Reale accademia delle
scienze di Torino", series 2, volume
10,
02/21/1847 http://www.liberliber.it/bib
lioteca/s/sobrero/memorie_scelte_di_asca
nio_sobrero_pubblicate_dall_associ_etc/p
df/memori_p.pdf {Sobrero_1847_memori_p.
pdf}
Torino, Italy2 (presumably) 
[1] [t notice there is a lot of oxygen
trapped/stuck in the molecule, perhaps
the more oxygen in the molecule the
more
explosive] Nitroglycerin 1,2,3-trinitr
oxypropane 1,3-dinitrooxypropan-2-yl
nitrate propane-1,2,3-triyl
trinitrate IUPAC name Chemical
formula C3H5(NO3)3 Molar mass
227.0872 g/mol Shock sensitivity
high Friction sensitivity
high Density 1.6 g/cm³ at 15
°C Explosive velocity 7700 m/s RE
factor 1.50 Melting point 13.2 °C
(55.76 °F) Autoignition temperature
Decomposes at 50 to 60 °C (122 to 140
°F) Appearance Clear
yellow/colorless oily liquid PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/40/Nitroglycerin-2D-skel
etal.png

[2] Ascanio Sobrero PD/Corel
source: http://www.liberliber.it/bibliot
eca/s/sobrero/immagini/ritratto.jpg
153 YBN
[1847 AD] 4 		3225) The percussion gun cartridge, a
casing containing an explosive charge
and a bullet or shot1 .2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "cartridge." The Oxford Essential
Dictionary of the U.S. Military. Oxford
University Press, 2001, 2002.
Answers.com 01 Apr. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cartridge
2. ^ "cartridge." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 2 June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
0562>.
3. ^ "cartridge." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 2 June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
0562>.
4. ^ "cartridge." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 2 June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
0562>. (1847)

MORE INFO
[1] "Cartridge (firearms)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartridge_%
28firearms%29
[2] "Bullet". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bullet
Paris, France3  
[1] A modern cartridge consists of the
following: 1. the bullet itself, which
serves as the projectile; 2. the case,
which holds all parts together; 3. the
propellant, for example gunpowder or
cordite; 4. the rim, part of the
casing used for loading; 5. the
primer, which ignites the
propellant. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bul
let

[2] Rifle cartridges - L to R: .50
BMG, 300 Win Mag, .308 Winchester, 7.62
Russian Short, 5.56 NATO, .22
LR Source
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Ri
fle_cartridge_comparison.jpg Date
25 February 2006 Author Richard
C. Wysong II GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/ab/Rifle_cartridge_compa
rison.jpg
152 YBN
[06/05/1848 AD] 4 5 		3477) The absolute temperature scale is
created, with -273°C as absolute 0,
where all molecules stop moving.1 2
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp431-433.
2. ^ Thomson,
William. "On an absolute thermometric
scale founded on Carnot's theory of the
motive power of heat and calculated
from Regnaut's observations.",
Cambridge Philosophical Society
Proceedings for June 5, 1848. also
in: THOMSON, W. MATHEMATICAL AND
PHYSICAL PAPERS. 1882,
p100. http://www.google.com/books?id=NG
GOnRx4aakC&pg=PA100
3. ^ "William Thomson, 1st Baron
Kelvin." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 14 Aug.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-tho
mson-1st-baron-kelvin
4. ^ Thomson, William. "On an absolute
thermometric scale founded on Carnot's
theory of the motive power of heat and
calculated from Regnaut's
observations.", Cambridge Philosophical
Society Proceedings for June 5,
1848. also in: THOMSON, W.
MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL PAPERS. 1882,
p100. http://www.google.com/books?id=NG
GOnRx4aakC&pg=PA100
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp431-433. {1848}

MORE INFO
[1] "William Thomson, 1st Baron
Kelvin." History of Science and
Technology. Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004. Answers.com 14 Aug. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-tho
mson-1st-baron-kelvin
[2] "William Thomson, 1st Baron
Kelvin." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com 14
Aug. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-tho
mson-1st-baron-kelvin
[3] "William Thomson, 1st Baron
Kelvin". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Tho
mson%2C_1st_Baron_Kelvin
[4] "William Thomson, Baron Kelvin".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/William_
Thomson,_Baron_Kelvin
[5] "Kirchhoff, Gustav Robert", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p873-874
[6] "William Thomson, Baron
Kelvin." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
14 Aug. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/314541/William-Thomson-Baron-Kelvin>.
{1842}
[7] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p315
[8]
http://www.physics.gla.ac.uk/Physics3/Ke
lvin_online/introduction.htm
[9] Andrew Gray, "Lord Kelvin", E. P.
Dutton & co.,
1908. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Hc6ipW7Vkk0C&printsec=frontcover&dq=Life
+of+Lord+Kelvin#PPA1,M1
[10] Magnus Maclean, "Lord Kelvin"
(obituary), Proceedings of the Royal
Philosophical Society of Glasgow,
1908. http://books.google.com/books?id=
TwkVAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA60&dq=Life+of+Lord+Kel
vin&lr=&as_brr=1#PPA60,M1
(University of Glasgow) Glasgow,
Scotland3  
[1] Thomson, William. ''On an absolute
thermometric scale founded on Carnot's
theory of the motive power of heat and
calculated from Regnaut's
observations.'', Cambridge
Philosophical Society Proceedings for
June 5, 1848. also in: THOMSON, W.
MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL PAPERS. 1882,
p100. http://www.google.com/books?id=NG
GOnRx4aakC&pg=PA100 PD AND [1] Baron
Kelvin, William Thomson Library of
Congress PD
source: http://www.google.com/books?id=N
GGOnRx4aakC&pg=PA100http://content.answe
rs.com/main/content/img/scitech/HSbaronk
.jpg

[2] Baron Kelvin, William
Thomson Library of Congress PD
source: http://content.answers.com/main/
content/img/scitech/HSbaronk.jpg
152 YBN
[08/10/1848 AD] 4 5 		2880) A constant high voltage is
applied to gas-filled evacuated tubes.2

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Grove, William Robert. "On the
Effect of Surrounding Media on Voltaic
Ignition." Philosophical Transactions
of the Royal Society of London V139,
1849,
p49-59. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=WVBFAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA49 Grove_W_R_1849.p
df
2. ^ Grove, William Robert. "On the
Effect of Surrounding Media on Voltaic
Ignition." Philosophical Transactions
of the Royal Society of London V139,
1849,
p49-59. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=WVBFAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA49 Grove_W_R_1849.p
df
3. ^ Grove, William Robert. "On the
Effect of Surrounding Media on Voltaic
Ignition." Philosophical Transactions
of the Royal Society of London V139,
1849,
p49-59. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=WVBFAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA49 Grove_W_R_1849.p
df
4. ^ Grove, William Robert. "On the
Effect of Surrounding Media on Voltaic
Ignition." Philosophical Transactions
of the Royal Society of London V139,
1849,
p49-59. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=WVBFAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA49 Grove_W_R_1849.p
df
5. ^ Grove, William Robert. "On the
electro-chemical polarity of gases."
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London 142 (1852):
87-101;87. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=CE9FAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA96 {Groves_W_R_1
852_polarity.pdf}

MORE INFO
[1] "On the Effect of Surrounding
Media on Voltaic Ignition",
http://journals.royalsociety.org/conte
nt/rt1ug6668r7331x0/?p=8799fd4b7cc14bfd8
785b2ebc7cf84b9&pi=5 Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886)
[2] "antithetic". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.

http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/a
ntithetic
[3] Harrison, W. J. (2004) "Gassiot,
John Peter (1797-1877)", rev. Iwan Rhys
Morus, Oxford Dictionary of National
Biography, Oxford University Press,
accessed 5 August 2007 (subscription
required) http://www.oxforddnb.com/view
/article/10439
[4] Grove, William Robert. "On the
electro-chemical polarity of gases."
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London 142 (1852):
87-101. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=CE9FAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA96
[5] Grove, William Robert. "On the
electro-chemical polarity of gases."
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London 142 (1852): 87-101;
89-90. http://books.google.com/books?id
=CE9FAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA96
[6]
http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/doi/pdf
/10.1046/j.1440-1622.2000.01745.x?cookie
Set=1
[7] Grove, William Robert. "On the
electro-chemical polarity of gases."
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London 142 (1852):
87-101;95. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=CE9FAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA96
[8] Grove, William Robert. "On the
electro-chemical polarity of gases."
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London 142 (1852):
87-101;97. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=CE9FAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA96
[9] "Sir William Robert Grove".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8234/Sir-William-Robert-Grove
[10] "William Robert Grove". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Rob
ert_Grove
[11] "On the Effect of Surrounding
Media on Voltaic Ignition",
http://journals.royalsociety.org/conte
nt/rt1ug6668r7331x0/?p=8799fd4b7cc14bfd8
785b2ebc7cf84b9&pi=5 Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 139 -
1849 Pages 49-59 DOI 10.1098/rstl.1849
.0005 Grove_W_R_1849.pdf
London, England3 (presumably) 
[1] Figures 1 to 10 show the spots and
rings in the order referred to: it
should be observed that printed figures
give but a very imperfect notion of the
actual effects. Fig 11 is the coil
apparatus, the contact breaker being in
front. Fig. 12. The air-pump, of a
construction which I proposed many
years ago, and have found most useful
for electrical or chemical experiments
on gases. P. An imperforate piston,
with a conical end, which, when pressed
down, fits accurately the end of the
tube, the apex touching the valve V,
which opens outwards. A. Aperture for
the air to rush from the receiver when
the piston has been drawn beyond
it. B. Bladder containing the gas to
be experimented on. The piston-rod
works air-tight in a collar of
leathers, and the operation of the pump
will be easily understood without
further description. If it be
required to examine the gas after
experiment, a bladder, or tube leading
to a pneumatic trough, can be attached
at the extrmeity over the valve V. [5
p101] PD
source: http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekat
z/scientists/grove.htm Issue Volume
139 -
1849 Pages 49-59 DOI 10.1098/rstl.1849
.0005 Grove_W_R_1849.pdf p101

[2] Sir William Robert Grove
(1811-1896), British scientist. PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Willi
am_Robert_Grove.jpg
151 YBN
[07/23/1849 AD] 3 4 		3290) The speed of light is measured
using a terrestrial method.1 .
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p405.
2. ^ William Tobin,
"The Life and Science of Léon
Foucault", Cambridge University Press,
2003, p122-124.
3. ^ William Tobin, "The Life and
Science of Léon Foucault", Cambridge
University Press, 2003, p122-124.
{07/23/1849}
4. ^ "Hippolyte Fizeau." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
16 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hippolyte-f
izeau (09/1849)

MORE INFO
[1] "Hippolyte Fizeau." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 16 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hippolyte-f
izeau
[2] "Hippolyte Fizeau." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 16 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hippolyte-f
izeau
[3] "Armand Hippolyte Louis Fizeau".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armand_Hipp
olyte_Louis_Fizeau
[4] "Armand Hippolyte Louis Fizeau".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Armand_H
ippolyte_Louis_Fizeau
[5] "Fizeau, Armand-Hippolyte-Louis",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 1, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (1981), p254
[6] "Fizeau,
Armand-Hippolyte-Louis." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 15 June 2008
<http://search.eb.com/eb/article-9034454>

Paris, France2  
[1] Fizeau's apparatus from Arago's
''Astronomie Populaire'' PD/Corel
source: William Tobin, "The life and
science of Léon Foucault: the man who
proved the earth rotates", Cambridge
University Press, 2003

[2] Eyepiece views for Fizeau's 1849
speed of light experiment COPYRIGHTED?

source: William Tobin, "The life and
science of Léon Foucault: the man who
proved the earth rotates", Cambridge
University Press, 2003
150 YBN
[05/06/1850 AD] 4 		3281) Light is shown to move more
slowly in water than in air.2
FOOTNOTES

1. ^ Léon Foucault, Charles Marie
Gariel, Jules Antoine Lissajous,
"Recueil des travaux scientifiques",
Gauthier-Villars, 1878,
pp173-184. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=Kc0EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA593&dq=Recueil+de
s+travaux+scientifiques+de+L%C3%A9on+Fou
cault&as_brr=1#PPP13,M1
2. ^ Léon Foucault, Charles Marie
Gariel, Jules Antoine Lissajous,
"Recueil des travaux scientifiques",
Gauthier-Villars, 1878,
pp173-184. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=Kc0EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA593&dq=Recueil+de
s+travaux+scientifiques+de+L%C3%A9on+Fou
cault&as_brr=1#PPP13,M1
3. ^ "Jean Bernard Leon Foucault".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Jean_Ber
nard_Leon_Foucault
4. ^ Léon Foucault, Charles Marie
Gariel, Jules Antoine Lissajous,
"Recueil des travaux scientifiques",
Gauthier-Villars, 1878,
pp173-184. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=Kc0EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA593&dq=Recueil+de
s+travaux+scientifiques+de+L%C3%A9on+Fou
cault&as_brr=1#PPP13,M1 (05/06/1850)

MORE INFO
[1] "Foucault, Jean."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 14
June 2008
<http://search.eb.com/eb/article-9035012>

[2] "Foucault, Jean Bernard Léon."
History of Science and Technology.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 15 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/l-on-foucau
lt
[3] "Foucault, Jean Bernard Léon."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 15 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/l-on-foucau
lt
[4] "Foucault, Jean Bernard Léon." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 15 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/l-on-foucau
lt
[5] "Jean Bernard Léon Foucault".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Bernar
d_L%C3%A9on_Foucault
[6] "Foucault, Jean-Bertrand-Léon",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 1, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (1981), p259
[7] L'Institut
Feb 7 1849. Léon Foucault, Charles
Marie Gariel, Jules Antoine Lissajous,
"Recueil des travaux scientifiques",
Gauthier-Villars, 1878,
pp170-171. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=Kc0EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA593&dq=Recueil+de
s+travaux+scientifiques+de+L%C3%A9on+Fou
cault&as_brr=1#PPA170,M1 Translated by
Professor Stokes in Phil Mag vol xix
(1860) p194.
{stokes_foucault_kirchhoff.pdf}
[8] Collected Works Volume One -
Recueil des travaux scientifiques de
Léon Foucault 1878.
http://num-scd-ulp.u-strasbg.fr:8080/5
13/
[9] Collected Works Volume Two -
Recueil des travaux scientifiques de
Léon Foucault
1878. http://num-scd-ulp.u-strasbg.fr:8
080/527/
[10] Fox, William. "Jean-Bertrand-Léon
Foucault." The Catholic Encyclopedia.
Vol. 6. New York: Robert Appleton
Company, 1909. 14 Jun. 2008
<http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/06156c.h
tm>
[11]
http://ams.astro.univie.ac.at/~nendwich/
Science/SoFi/portrait.html
[12]
http://books.google.com/books?id=Q7oAAAA
AYAAJ&pg=PA23&dq=foucault+sun+daguerreot
ype+features&as_brr=1
Paris, France3 (presumably) 
[1] Plan view of the optical layout of
Foucault's 1850 rotating mirror
experiment. COPYRIGHTED
source: William Tobin, "The life and
science of Léon Foucault: the man who
proved the earth rotates", Cambridge
University Press, 2003

[2] Eyepiece view of air and water
Foucault 1850 experiment PD/Corel
source: William Tobin, "The life and
science of Léon Foucault: the man who
proved the earth rotates", Cambridge
University Press, 2003, p126.
150 YBN
[1850 AD] 4 5 		3332) The speed of electricity in
nerves is measured.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Helmholtz, Hermann von."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 23
June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
6281>.
2. ^ Helmholtz, Hermann von. "Messungen
über den zeitlichen Verlauf der
Zuckung animalischer Muskeln und die
Fortpflanzungsgeschwindigkeit der
Reizung in den Nerven.", Archiv für
Anatomie, Physiologie und
wissenschaftliche Medicin, 1850,
p276-364. http://vlp.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.d
e/library/data/lit1862? {Helmholtz_Herm
ann_1850_lit1862_Lo.pdf} "Of the
methods of measuring very small
intervals of time and their application
to physiological purposes", Phil. Mag.,
6, 1853, 313-325.
{Helmholtz_Herman_Measuring_1850.pdf}
3. ^ "Helmholtz, Hermann Von", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p408-410.
4. ^ "Helmholtz, Hermann von."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 23
June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
6281>. {1850}
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p411-413. {1852}

MORE INFO
[1] "Hermann von Helmholtz." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 23 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hermann-von
-helmholtz
[2] "Hermann von Helmholtz."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 23 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hermann-von
-helmholtz
[3] "Hermann von Helmholtz." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 23 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hermann-von
-helmholtz
[4] "Helmholtz". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helmholtz
[5] "Hermann Ludwig Ferdinand Von
Helmholtz". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Hermann_
Ludwig_Ferdinand_Von_Helmholtz
[6]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[7] "body heat." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 23 June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-908
0373>
[8] "hermann helmholtz". The Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2003
Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.).
http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/herman
n-helmholtz/
[9] Leo Koenigsberger, Frances Alice
Welby, "Hermann Von Helmholtz",
Clarendon Press,
1906. http://books.google.com/books?id=
u-0HAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA69&lpg=PA69&dq=%22Of+t
he+methods+of+measuring+very+small+inter
vals+of+time+and+their+application+to+ph
ysiological+purposes%22&source=web&ots=7
g1i7bepqW&sig=MpMdlYaKd32Fcv9d_Md2RJpxXE
U&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&ct=
result#PPR1,M1 {includes photos}
(University of Königsberg)
Königsberg, Germany3  
[1] Figure from 1850 paper PD/Corel
source: Helmholtz_Hermann_1850_lit1862_L
o.pdf

[2] Young Helmholtz German
physiologist and physicist Hermann
Ludwig Ferdinand Von Helmholtz (1821 -
1894). Original Publication: People
Disc - HE0174 Original Artwork: From a
daguerreotype . (Photo by Hulton
Archive/Getty Images) * by Hulton
Archive * * reference:
2641935 PD/Corel
source: http://www.jamd.com/search?asset
type=g&assetid=2641935&text=Helmholtz
149 YBN
[02/03/1851 AD] 4 5 		3282) The rotation of the Earth around
its own axis is proven experimentally
with a pendulum.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Foucault, Jean." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 14 June 2008
<http://search.eb.com/eb/article-9035012>
.
2. ^ "Foucault, Jean." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 14 June 2008
<http://search.eb.com/eb/article-9035012>
.
3. ^ "Jean Bernard Leon Foucault".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Jean_Ber
nard_Leon_Foucault
4. ^ Léon Foucault, "Demonstration
physique du mouvement de rotation de la
terre au moyen du pendule", Comptes
Rendus de l'Acad. de Sciences de Paris.
tome XXXII, 3 Fevrier, 1851,
p435. English translation: "Physical
Demonstration of the Rotation of the
Earth by Means of the Pendulum"
http://www.fi.edu/time/journey/Pendulum/
foucault_paper_page_one.html Léon
Foucault, Charles Marie Gariel, Jules
Antoine Lissajous, "Recueil des travaux
scientifiques", Gauthier-Villars, 1878,
pp378-384. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=Kc0EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA593&dq=Recueil+de
s+travaux+scientifiques+de+L%C3%A9on+Fou
cault&as_brr=1#PPP13,M1 {Foucault_Recue
il_des_travaux_scientifiques.pdf}
(02/03/1851)
5. ^ "Foucault, Jean." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 14 June 2008
<http://search.eb.com/eb/article-9035012>
. (1851)

MORE INFO
[1] "Foucault, Jean Bernard
Léon." History of Science and
Technology. Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004. Answers.com 15 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/l-on-foucau
lt
[2] "Foucault, Jean Bernard Léon." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 15 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/l-on-foucau
lt
[3] "Jean Bernard Léon Foucault".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Bernar
d_L%C3%A9on_Foucault
[4] "Foucault, Jean-Bertrand-Léon",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 1, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (1981), p259
[5] L'Institut
Feb 7 1849. Léon Foucault, Charles
Marie Gariel, Jules Antoine Lissajous,
"Recueil des travaux scientifiques",
Gauthier-Villars, 1878,
pp170-171. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=Kc0EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA593&dq=Recueil+de
s+travaux+scientifiques+de+L%C3%A9on+Fou
cault&as_brr=1#PPA170,M1 Translated by
Professor Stokes in Phil Mag vol xix
(1860) p194.
{stokes_foucault_kirchhoff.pdf}
[6] Collected Works Volume One -
Recueil des travaux scientifiques de
Léon Foucault 1878.
http://num-scd-ulp.u-strasbg.fr:8080/5
13/
[7] Collected Works Volume Two -
Recueil des travaux scientifiques de
Léon Foucault
1878. http://num-scd-ulp.u-strasbg.fr:8
080/527/
[8] Fox, William. "Jean-Bertrand-Léon
Foucault." The Catholic Encyclopedia.
Vol. 6. New York: Robert Appleton
Company, 1909. 14 Jun. 2008
<http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/06156c.h
tm>
[9]
http://ams.astro.univie.ac.at/~nendwich/
Science/SoFi/portrait.html
[10]
http://books.google.com/books?id=Q7oAAAA
AYAAJ&pg=PA23&dq=foucault+sun+daguerreot
ype+features&as_brr=1
[11] "Foucault pendulum." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 15 June 2008
<http://search.eb.com/eb/article-9035014>

[12] "Foucault pendulum". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foucault_pe
ndulum
Paris, France3 (presumably) 
[1] Faucault's pendulum demonstration
re-visited in 1902 PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=UbMRmyxCZmYC&pg=PA55&lpg=PA55&dq=foucau
lt+sun+daguerreotype+features&source=web
&ots=sqQtMMzhko&sig=L_EL2qJEgsbAuU5PsDuO
Dxa-NPA&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum
=2&ct=result#PPP1,M1

[2] [t rotateable table-top pendulum
illustrates principle of
inertia] PD/Corel
source: William Tobin, "The life and
science of Léon Foucault: the man who
proved the earth rotates", Cambridge
University Press, 2003
148 YBN
[05/10/1852 AD] 4 		3489) The theory of "valence": that
each type of atom has a fixed capacity
for combining with other atoms.1 2
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p434.
2. ^ E. Frankland,
"On a New Series of Organic Bodies
Containing Metals", Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886), Volume 142, 1852,
p417-444. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/e8816n27r1047213/?p=38cdc316
b887400e8b6f958d2d4a2d27π=1 {Frankland
_Edward_1852.pdf} and
http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/frankland
.html
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p434. {05/10/1852}
4. ^
{05/10/1852}

MORE INFO
[1] "Frankland, Edward", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p327
[2] "Sir Edward Frankland."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 26
Aug. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/217311/Sir-Edward-Frankland>
[3] "Edward Frankland." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 26 Aug. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/edward-fran
kland
[4] "Edward Frankland". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Fran
kland
[5]
http://members.cox.net/ggtext/edwardfran
kland1825_obit.html
[6] "cacodyl." WordNet 1.7.1. Princeton
University, 2001. Answers.com 26 Aug.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cacodyl
[7] "Sir Edward Frankland".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Edwa
rd_Frankland
(Queenwood school) Hampshire, England3
 
[1] [t table from Frankland 1852
paper] PD/Corel
source: Frankland_Edward_1852.pdf

[2] [t table from Frankland 1852
paper] PD/Corel
source: Frankland_Edward_1852.pdf
148 YBN
[1852 AD] 3 4 		3104) A practical passenger elevator.1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "elevator." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 13 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
2371>.
2. ^ "Otis, Elisha Graves."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 13 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
7648>.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp377. (1852)
4. ^
"elevator." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
13 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
2371>. (1853)
Yonkers, NY, USA2  
[1] Elisha Otis Avaliable at
http://www.otis.com/otis150/images/displ
ay/1,2343,2039,00.gif PD
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
3274&rendTypeId=4

[2] Elisha Graves Otis (1811-1861)
invented a safety device in 1852 that
made PD
source: http://arkadien.org/scientists/E
lisha%20Graves2.jpg
146 YBN
[1854 AD] 3 4 		2945) The theory that an electrical
mass will not be influenced by the
electrical force if moving with a
velocity at least the speed of light.1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ R. Kohlrausch, Wilhelm Weber,
"Elektrodynamische Maassbestimmungen
insbesondere Zurückführung der
Stromintensitäts-messungen auf
mechanisches Maass.", Abhandlungen der
Konigl Sachsischen Gesellschasft der
Wissenschaften zu Leipzig, S. Hirzel,
1856. in: Wilhelm Weber's Werke By
Wilhelm Eduard Weber, Ernst Heinrich
Weber, Eduard Weber, Eduard Friedrich
Wilhelm Weber, Woldemar Voigt, Eduard
Riecke, Friedrich Siegmund Merkel, Otto
Fischer, Königliche Gesellschaft der
Wissenschaften zu Göttingen,
Königliche Gesellschaft der
Wissenschaften zu Göttingen Published
by J. Springer, 1893 Bund 3,
p609-676. http://books.google.com/books
?id=l9AEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA25&vq=Maassbestimm
ungen&dq=Ueber+die+Elektricit%C3%A4tsmen
ge,+welche+bei+galvanische+Str%C3%B6men+
durch+den+Querschnitt+der+Kette+fliesst&
as_brr=1&source=gbs_search_s#PPA609,M1
There is an English translation of this
full work but it is unpublished (see
below) a summary is given
as: Wilhelm Weber, H. R. Kohlrausch,
"Ueber die Elektricitätsmenge, welche
bei galvanischen Strömen durch den
Querschnitt der Kette fliesst", Annalen
der Physik, Volume 175, Issue 9,
(1856), p 10-25.
http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/sea
rch/allsearch?mode=viewselected&product=
journal&ID=112497888&view_selected.x=56&
view_selected.y=12&view_selected=view_se
lected English translation of
summary: Wilhelm Weber and Rudolf
Kohlrausch, translated by Susan P.
Johnson and edited by Laurence Hecht,
"On the Amount of Electricity which
Flows through the Cross-Section of the
Circuit in Galvanic Currents", (1856),
1996. http://www.ifi.unicamp.br/~assis/
Weber-Kohlrausch(2003).pdf {Weber-Kohlr
ausch_2003_1854.pdf} {selectable text:
Weber_Kohlrausch_1854.pdf}
2. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/weber.
html
3. ^ R. Kohlrausch, Wilhelm Weber,
"Elektrodynamische Maassbestimmungen
insbesondere Zurückführung der
Stromintensitäts-messungen auf
mechanisches Maass.", Abhandlungen der
Konigl Sachsischen Gesellschasft der
Wissenschaften zu Leipzig, S. Hirzel,
1856. in: Wilhelm Weber's Werke By
Wilhelm Eduard Weber, Ernst Heinrich
Weber, Eduard Weber, Eduard Friedrich
Wilhelm Weber, Woldemar Voigt, Eduard
Riecke, Friedrich Siegmund Merkel, Otto
Fischer, Königliche Gesellschaft der
Wissenschaften zu Göttingen,
Königliche Gesellschaft der
Wissenschaften zu Göttingen Published
by J. Springer, 1893 Bund 3,
p609-676. http://books.google.com/books
?id=l9AEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA25&vq=Maassbestimm
ungen&dq=Ueber+die+Elektricit%C3%A4tsmen
ge,+welche+bei+galvanische+Str%C3%B6men+
durch+den+Querschnitt+der+Kette+fliesst&
as_brr=1&source=gbs_search_s#PPA609,M1
There is an English translation of this
full work but it is unpublished (see
below) a summary is given
as: Wilhelm Weber, H. R. Kohlrausch,
"Ueber die Elektricitätsmenge, welche
bei galvanischen Strömen durch den
Querschnitt der Kette fliesst", Annalen
der Physik, Volume 175, Issue 9,
(1856), p 10-25.
http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/sea
rch/allsearch?mode=viewselected&product=
journal&ID=112497888&view_selected.x=56&
view_selected.y=12&view_selected=view_se
lected English translation of
summary: Wilhelm Weber and Rudolf
Kohlrausch, translated by Susan P.
Johnson and edited by Laurence Hecht,
"On the Amount of Electricity which
Flows through the Cross-Section of the
Circuit in Galvanic Currents", (1856),
1996. http://www.ifi.unicamp.br/~assis/
Weber-Kohlrausch(2003).pdf {Weber-Kohlr
ausch_2003_1854.pdf} {selectable text:
Weber_Kohlrausch_1854.pdf}
4. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/weber.
html {1854}

MORE INFO
[1] "Wilhelm Eduard Weber".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelm_Edu
ard_Weber
[2] "Wilhelm Eduard Weber".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Wilhelm_
Eduard_Weber
[3]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[4] "Wilhelm Eduard Weber".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
6390/Wilhelm-Eduard-Weber
[5] "Wilhelm Eduard Weber". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Wilhelm+Eduard+We
ber+?cat=technology (1849)
[6] Wilhelm Eduard
Weber (obituary), Proceedings of the
American Academy of Arts and Sciences,
v.27 (1891-92),
p449-450. http://books.google.com/books
?id=oLcAAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA449&dq=wilhelm+web
er&ei=3aP_SNOrKJH2sQPRr9S3DA#PPA449,M1
(University of) Göttingen, Germany2
 
[1] [t Equation from Annalen paper:
apparently first use of letter ''c'' to
designate a constant, which will later
be identified with the speed of
light.] PD/Corel AND [t Another
form of the Weber equation with 1/cc
removed from parenthesis
expression] PD/Corel AND Wilhelm
Eduard Weber (1804-1891) PD
source: http://www3.interscience.wiley.c
om/cgi-bin/fulltext/112497888/PDFSTARTht
tp://books.google.com/books?id=l9AEAAAAY
AAJ&pg=PA25&vq=Maassbestimmungen&dq=Uebe
r+die+Elektricit%C3%A4tsmenge,+welche+be
i+galvanische+Str%C3%B6men+durch+den+Que
rschnitt+der+Kette+fliesst&as_brr=1&sour
ce=gbs_search_s#PPA628,M1http://en.wikip
edia.org/wiki/Image:Wilhelm_Eduard_Weber
_II.jpg

[2] [t Equation from Annalen paper:
apparently first use of letter ''c'' to
designate a constant, which will later
be identified with the speed of
light.] PD/Corel
source:
143 YBN
[03/24/1857 AD] 3 4 5 6 		3999) The earliest extant sound
recording.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Herbert Treadwell Wade,
"Phonograph", The New international
encyclopaedia, Volume
18. http://books.google.com/books?id=VD
JXAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA542&dq=scott+1855+phonau
tograph&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=scott%20185
5%20phonautograph&f=false
2. ^
http://www.nytimes.com/2008/03/27/arts/2
7soun.html
3. ^ Scott's March 24, 1857 patent - as
far as I know the first publically
known rotating cylinder sound recorder
- the
telautograph http://www.firstsounds.org
/public/First-Sounds-Working-Paper-02.pd
f {Scott_Leon_patent_1857.pdf}
{03/24/1857}
4. ^ Herbert Treadwell Wade,
"Phonograph", The New international
encyclopaedia, Volume
18. http://books.google.com/books?id=VD
JXAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA542&dq=scott+1855+phonau
tograph&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=scott%20185
5%20phonautograph&f=false
5. ^ Théodore Achille L. Du Moncel,
"The telephone, the microphone, and the
phonograph",
1879. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Do4DAAAAQAAJ&pg=PR7&dq=history+microphon
e#v=onepage&q=history%20microphone&f=fal
se {1855}
6. ^ Proceedings of the Royal
Society of Edinburgh, Volume 22, 1900,
p78. http://books.google.com/books?id=P
4Ms_U3Y6T8C&pg=PA78&dq=leon+scott&as_brr
=1#v=onepage&q=leon%20scott&f=false
{1856}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.usnews.com/articles/science/2
009/06/01/earliest-known-sound-recording
s-revealed.html
[2]
http://history.sandiego.edu/gen/recordin
g/scott.html
[3] "Édouard-Léon Scott de
Martinville". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89douar
d-L%C3%A9on_Scott_de_Martinville
[4] "acoustics." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 2 Sept. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-6405
0>
[5] edited by Clarence John Blake, The
American journal of otology, Volume 1,
1879,p4.
http://books.google.com/books?id=aIpXA
AAAMAAJ&pg=PA4&dq=duhamel+vibrograph&lr=
&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=duhamel%20vibrogra
ph&f=false
[6]
http://www.archive.org/stream/talkingmac
hinein00mitcuoft/talkingmachinein00mitcu
oft_djvu.txt
[7]
http://books.google.com/books?id=aIpXAAA
AMAAJ&pg=PA4&dq=duhamel+vibrograph&lr=&a
s_brr=1#v=onepage&q=duhamel%20vibrograph
&f=false
[8]
https://scholarworks.iu.edu/dspace/bitst
ream/handle/2022/899/Archivist_4_4_graf.
pdf?sequence=1
[9] Édouard-Léon Scott de
Martinville, "Principes de
Phonautographie",
1957 http://www.firstsounds.org/public/
First-Sounds-Working-Paper-01.pdf
Paris, France2  
[1] Figure from Leon Scott's 03/24/1857
patent of the phonautograph CC
source: http://www.firstsounds.org/publi
c/First-Sounds-Working-Paper-02.pdf

[2] Description Edouard-Léon Scott
de Martinville.jpg Portrait of
French typographer Édouard-Léon Scott
de Martinville (1817-1879), inventor of
the phonautograph. Date 19th
century Source
http://www.evolutionofsound.org/con
tent/biog/leonscott.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/33/Edouard-L%C3%A9on_Sco
tt_de_Martinville.jpg
142 YBN
[07/01/1858 AD] 12 13 		3033) The theory of evolution is
popularized; the theory that life
descends from a single common ancestor6
, and that through natural selection
only the best adapted survive to pass
on their successful traits while the
less adapted die out7 .8 9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Darwin, Charles, and Alfred
Wallace. "On the tendency of species to
form varieties; and on the perpetuation
of varieties and species by natural
means of selection." Journal of the
proceedings of the Linnean Society of
London. Zoology V3 N9 (1858):
45-62. http://books.google.com/books?id
=lwRvy1WD5YkC&pg=PA45
2. ^ Currently I am presuming Darwin
and or Wallace identified the idea of a
single common ancestor for all of life
on Earth-Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Darwin, Charles, and
Alfred Wallace. "On the tendency of
species to form varieties; and on the
perpetuation of varieties and species
by natural means of selection." Journal
of the proceedings of the Linnean
Society of London. Zoology V3 N9
(1858):
45-62. http://books.google.com/books?id
=lwRvy1WD5YkC&pg=PA45
4. ^ Currently I am presuming Darwin
and or Wallace identified the idea of a
single common ancestor for all of life
on Earth-Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Darwin, Charles, and
Alfred Wallace. "On the tendency of
species to form varieties; and on the
perpetuation of varieties and species
by natural means of selection." Journal
of the proceedings of the Linnean
Society of London. Zoology V3 N9
(1858):
45-62. http://books.google.com/books?id
=lwRvy1WD5YkC&pg=PA45
6. ^ Currently I am presuming Darwin
and or Wallace identified the idea of a
single common ancestor for all of life
on Earth-Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "natural
selection."Answers.com 23 Dec. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/natural-sel
ection
8. ^ Darwin, Charles, and Alfred
Wallace. "On the tendency of species to
form varieties; and on the perpetuation
of varieties and species by natural
means of selection." Journal of the
proceedings of the Linnean Society of
London. Zoology V3 N9 (1858):
45-62. http://books.google.com/books?id
=lwRvy1WD5YkC&pg=PA45
9. ^ Darwin, C. R. 1859. On the origin
of species by means of natural
selection, or the preservation of
favoured races in the struggle for
life. London: John Murray. {1st
edition}
http://darwin-online.org.uk/EditorialI
ntroductions/Freeman_OntheOriginofSpecie
s.html http://darwin-online.org.uk/conv
erted/pdf/1859_Origin_F373.pdf
10. ^ "Darwin, Charles." Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online. 30 Apr. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9642>.
11. ^ Darwin, Charles, and Alfred
Wallace. "On the tendency of species to
form varieties; and on the perpetuation
of varieties and species by natural
means of selection." Journal of the
proceedings of the Linnean Society of
London. Zoology V3 N9 (1858):
45-62. http://books.google.com/books?id
=lwRvy1WD5YkC&pg=PA45
12. ^ Darwin, Charles, and Alfred
Wallace. "On the tendency of species to
form varieties; and on the perpetuation
of varieties and species by natural
means of selection." Journal of the
proceedings of the Linnean Society of
London. Zoology V3 N9 (1858):
45-62. http://books.google.com/books?id
=lwRvy1WD5YkC&pg=PA45
13. ^ "Darwin, Charles." Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online. 30 Apr. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9642>. (07/01/1858)

MORE INFO
[1] The Complete Works of Charles
Darwin Online.
http://darwin-online.org.uk/
[2]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Rob
ert_Darwin
(Linnean Society), London, England10 11
 
[1] ''Charles Darwin, aged 51.''
Scanned from Karl Pearson, The Life,
Letters, and Labours of Francis Galton.
Photo originally from the 1859 or
1860. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/42/Charles_Darwin_aged_5
1.jpg

[2] Charles Darwin as a 7-year old boy
in 1816 The seven-year-old Charles
Darwin in 1816, one year before his
mother's death. [t A rare smile, there
are not many photos of Darwin
smiling.] PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/6/6c/Charles_Darwin_1816.jpg
141 YBN
[10/20/1859 AD] 9 10 11 12 		3087) The spectral lines emitted when a
substance is burned are used to
determine the atomic composition of the
substance. That each element emits and
absorbs light at the same specific
frequencies is recognized.4

The first element is identified from
the light of the Sun; sodium. The
finding that a spectral emission line
can only be reversed to an absorption
line when the absorber is colder than
the emitter.5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Gustav Kirchhoff, "Uber die
Fraunhofer'schen Linien,"
Monatsberichte der Koniglich
Preussischen Akademie der
Wissenschaften zu Berlin, 1859, pp.
662-665 (presented Oct. 20, 1859).
http://books.google.com/books?id=AE0OA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:
0opDDCnWdNSgTdMkKm&lr=#PPA662,M1 Reprin
ted in Gustav Kirchhoff, Gesammelte
Abhandlungen (Leipzig: Johann Ambrosius
Barth, 1882), pp. 564-566, as well as
in Kangro, {Kirchhoff's}
Untersuchungen, pp. 1-6. English
translation in George Gabriel Stokes,
"On the Simultaneous Emission and
Absorption of Rays of the same definite
Refrangibility; being a translation of
a portion of a paper by M. Leon
Foucault, and of a paper by Professor
Kirchhoff," Philosophical Magazine,
1860,
19:196-197. http://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=pRJDAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA193 {stokes_fou
cault_kirchhoff.pdf}
2. ^ Gustav Kirchhoff, "Uber die
Fraunhofer'schen Linien,"
Monatsberichte der Koniglich
Preussischen Akademie der
Wissenschaften zu Berlin, 1859, pp.
662-665 (presented Oct. 20, 1859).
http://books.google.com/books?id=AE0OA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:
0opDDCnWdNSgTdMkKm&lr=#PPA662,M1 Reprin
ted in Gustav Kirchhoff, Gesammelte
Abhandlungen (Leipzig: Johann Ambrosius
Barth, 1882), pp. 564-566, as well as
in Kangro, {Kirchhoff's}
Untersuchungen, pp. 1-6. English
translation in George Gabriel Stokes,
"On the Simultaneous Emission and
Absorption of Rays of the same definite
Refrangibility; being a translation of
a portion of a paper by M. Leon
Foucault, and of a paper by Professor
Kirchhoff," Philosophical Magazine,
1860,
19:196-197. http://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=pRJDAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA193 {stokes_fou
cault_kirchhoff.pdf}
3. ^ Gustav Kirchhoff, "Uber die
Fraunhofer'schen Linien,"
Monatsberichte der Koniglich
Preussischen Akademie der
Wissenschaften zu Berlin, 1859, pp.
662-665 (presented Oct. 20, 1859).
http://books.google.com/books?id=AE0OA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:
0opDDCnWdNSgTdMkKm&lr=#PPA662,M1 Reprin
ted in Gustav Kirchhoff, Gesammelte
Abhandlungen (Leipzig: Johann Ambrosius
Barth, 1882), pp. 564-566, as well as
in Kangro, {Kirchhoff's}
Untersuchungen, pp. 1-6. English
translation in George Gabriel Stokes,
"On the Simultaneous Emission and
Absorption of Rays of the same definite
Refrangibility; being a translation of
a portion of a paper by M. Leon
Foucault, and of a paper by Professor
Kirchhoff," Philosophical Magazine,
1860,
19:196-197. http://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=pRJDAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA193 {stokes_fou
cault_kirchhoff.pdf}
4. ^ Gustav Kirchhoff, "Uber die
Fraunhofer'schen Linien,"
Monatsberichte der Koniglich
Preussischen Akademie der
Wissenschaften zu Berlin, 1859, pp.
662-665 (presented Oct. 20, 1859).
http://books.google.com/books?id=AE0OA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:
0opDDCnWdNSgTdMkKm&lr=#PPA662,M1 Reprin
ted in Gustav Kirchhoff, Gesammelte
Abhandlungen (Leipzig: Johann Ambrosius
Barth, 1882), pp. 564-566, as well as
in Kangro, {Kirchhoff's}
Untersuchungen, pp. 1-6. English
translation in George Gabriel Stokes,
"On the Simultaneous Emission and
Absorption of Rays of the same definite
Refrangibility; being a translation of
a portion of a paper by M. Leon
Foucault, and of a paper by Professor
Kirchhoff," Philosophical Magazine,
1860,
19:196-197. http://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=pRJDAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA193 {stokes_fou
cault_kirchhoff.pdf}
5. ^ Gustav Kirchhoff, "Uber die
Fraunhofer'schen Linien,"
Monatsberichte der Koniglich
Preussischen Akademie der
Wissenschaften zu Berlin, 1859, pp.
662-665 (presented Oct. 20, 1859).
http://books.google.com/books?id=AE0OA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:
0opDDCnWdNSgTdMkKm&lr=#PPA662,M1 Reprin
ted in Gustav Kirchhoff, Gesammelte
Abhandlungen (Leipzig: Johann Ambrosius
Barth, 1882), pp. 564-566, as well as
in Kangro, {Kirchhoff's}
Untersuchungen, pp. 1-6. English
translation in George Gabriel Stokes,
"On the Simultaneous Emission and
Absorption of Rays of the same definite
Refrangibility; being a translation of
a portion of a paper by M. Leon
Foucault, and of a paper by Professor
Kirchhoff," Philosophical Magazine,
1860,
19:196-197. http://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=pRJDAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA193 {stokes_fou
cault_kirchhoff.pdf}
6. ^ Norman Lockyer, "The Chemistry of
the Sun", Macmillan and co., 1887,
p54-56. http://books.google.com/books?h
l=en&id=tr8KAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA54
7. ^ "Robert Bunsen." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 08 May.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-buns
en
8. ^ Gustav Kirchhoff, "Uber die
Fraunhofer'schen Linien,"
Monatsberichte der Koniglich
Preussischen Akademie der
Wissenschaften zu Berlin, 1859, pp.
662-665 (presented Oct. 20, 1859).
http://books.google.com/books?id=AE0OA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:
0opDDCnWdNSgTdMkKm&lr=#PPA662,M1 Reprin
ted in Gustav Kirchhoff, Gesammelte
Abhandlungen (Leipzig: Johann Ambrosius
Barth, 1882), pp. 564-566, as well as
in Kangro, {Kirchhoff's}
Untersuchungen, pp. 1-6. English
translation in George Gabriel Stokes,
"On the Simultaneous Emission and
Absorption of Rays of the same definite
Refrangibility; being a translation of
a portion of a paper by M. Leon
Foucault, and of a paper by Professor
Kirchhoff," Philosophical Magazine,
1860,
19:196-197. http://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=pRJDAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA193 {stokes_fou
cault_kirchhoff.pdf}
9. ^ Gustav Kirchhoff, "Uber die
Fraunhofer'schen Linien,"
Monatsberichte der Koniglich
Preussischen Akademie der
Wissenschaften zu Berlin, 1859, pp.
662-665 (presented Oct. 20, 1859).
http://books.google.com/books?id=AE0OA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:
0opDDCnWdNSgTdMkKm&lr=#PPA662,M1 Reprin
ted in Gustav Kirchhoff, Gesammelte
Abhandlungen (Leipzig: Johann Ambrosius
Barth, 1882), pp. 564-566, as well as
in Kangro, {Kirchhoff's}
Untersuchungen, pp. 1-6. English
translation in George Gabriel Stokes,
"On the Simultaneous Emission and
Absorption of Rays of the same definite
Refrangibility; being a translation of
a portion of a paper by M. Leon
Foucault, and of a paper by Professor
Kirchhoff," Philosophical Magazine,
1860,
19:196-197. http://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=pRJDAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA193 {stokes_fou
cault_kirchhoff.pdf} {10/20/1859}
10. ^ Daniel M.
Siegel, "Balfour Stewart and Gustav
Robert Kirchhoff: Two Independent
Approaches to 'Kirchhoff's Radiation
Law"', Isis, Vol. 67, No. 4 (Dec.,
1976), pp.
565-600. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23
0562?seq=2
{Kirchhoff_Siegal_Isis_1976_230562.pdf
} {10/20/1859}
11. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/bunsen.html (1859)
12. ^ "Bunsen, Robert
Wilhelm." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
8 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
8091>. (1859)

MORE INFO
[1] "Robert Bunsen." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
08 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-buns
en
[2] "Robert Bunsen". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Buns
en
[3]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[4] "Robert Wilhelm Eberhard Bunsen",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), pp153-154
[5]
http://www.chemheritage.org/classroom/ch
emach/periodic/bunsen-kirchhoff.html
[6] Norman Lockyer, The Chemistry of
the Sun, Macmillan and co., (1887).
http://books.google.com/books?id=tr8KA
AAAIAAJ&pg=PA13&lpg=PA13&dq=Fraunhofer+1
814&source=web&ots=-3MHM347gt&sig=NeAo2-
HxUlNyC-wX6KRrM3pz_so&hl=en#PPA15,M1 {T
he_Chemistry_of_the_Sun.pdf}
[7] (English translation of 1860 paper)
Gustav Kirchhoff and Robert Bunsen,
"Chemical Analysis by Observation of
Spectra", Annalen der Physik und der
Chemie (Poggendorff), Vol. 110 (1860),
pp161-189. http://dbhs.wvusd.k12.ca.us/
webdocs/Chem-History/Kirchhoff-Bunsen-18
60.html {Kirchhoff-Bunsen-1860.html}
[8] "Gustav Robert Kirchhoff",
Obituary Notice. Proc. Roy, Soc. vol.
46, p. vi. (1889).
http://journals.royalsociety.org/conte
nt/cg61418590l307t2/?p=b6c499a7daa34dfb9
4680da0469118ebπ=1 {Kirchhoff_obituary
_PRS.pdf}
(University of Heidelberg), Heidelberg,
Germany7 8  
[1] Bunsen-Kirchhoff spectroscope with
the Bunsen burner (labeled D), from
Annalen der Physik (1860). Chemical
Heritage Foundation
Collections. PD/Corel AND Kirchhoff
(left) and Bunsen (right) PD
source: http://www.chemheritage.org/clas
sroom/chemach/images/lgfotos/04periodic/
bunsen-kirchhoff2.jpghttp://2.bp.blogspo
t.com/-DmiBHx0pAXc/TZGos9g4_yI/AAAAAAAAA
Wk/eFxlDSws9zI/s1600/kirchoff_bunsen.jpg


[2] Bunsen-Kirchhoff spectroscope with
the Bunsen burner (labeled D), from
Annalen der Physik (1860). Chemical
Heritage Foundation
Collections. PD/Corel
source: http://www.chemheritage.org/clas
sroom/chemach/images/lgfotos/04periodic/
bunsen-kirchhoff2.jpg
140 YBN
[04/16/1860 AD] 4 5 6 7 		3088) The element cesium is identified,
the first element to be discovered
spectroscopically1 .2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "cesium." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 8 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
2171>.
2. ^ G. Kirchhoff, R. Bunsen (1861).
"Chemische Analyse durch
Spectralbeobachtungen". Annalen der
Physik und Chemie 189 (7): 337–381.
doi:10.1002/andp.18611890702. http://dx
.doi.org/10.1002%2Fandp.18611890702 htt
p://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/
fulltext/112489837/PDFSTART and
free: http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/
bpt6k151986 {Bunsen_Kirchhoff_1861_cesi
um.pdf} translated in English as
"Chemical Analysis by
spectrum-observations", Phil. Mag. 22,
329-49, 498-510 (1861).
3. ^ "Robert Bunsen." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 08 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-buns
en
4. ^ James, Frank A. J. L. (1983) "The
establishment of spectro-chemical
analysis as a practical method of
qualitative analysis, 1854-1861",
Ambix, v30, pp30-53. {Ambix_1983.pdf}
{04/16/1860}
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p428-429.
{05/10/1860}
6. ^ Klaus Hentschel, Mapping the
Spectrum,
p483. http://books.google.com/books?id=
WceRw3sr-rQC&pg=PA483&lpg=PA483&dq=bunse
n++ueber+ein+neues+dem+kalium&source=web
&ots=MyI0GGw5c3&sig=uUJ6C2djUKdMeVVp3eWm
wEjwe1g&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum
=2&ct=result {05/10/1860}
7. ^ "cesium."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 8 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
2171>. (1861)

MORE INFO
[1] "Bunsen, Robert Wilhelm."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 8 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
8091>
[2] "Robert Bunsen." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
08 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-buns
en
[3] "Robert Bunsen". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Buns
en
[4]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[5] "Robert Wilhelm Eberhard Bunsen",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), pp153-154
[6] G.
Kirchhoff, R. Bunsen, "Chemische
Analyse durch Spectralbeobachtungen",
Annalen der Physik, Volume 186, Issue
6, (1860), pp
161-189. http://www3.interscience.wiley
.com/journal/112489676/issue and
http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k
151955 {Bunsen_Kirchhuff_1860.pdf}
[7] "Kirchhoff, Gustav Robert."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 8 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
5597>
(University of Heidelberg), Heidelberg,
Germany3  
[1] 1860 Bunsen Kirchhoff
figures ''Chemische Analyse durch
Spectralbeobachtungen'', Annalen der
Physik, Volume 189, Issue 7, (1861),
pp337-381. PD/Corel
source: Bunsen_Kirchhoff_Cesium_Rubidium
.pdf

[2] Pollucite (Caesium
mineral) Source:
http://resourcescommittee.house.gov/subc
ommittees/emr/usgsweb/photogallery/
; PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f8/Pollucite%28CesiumMin
eral%29USGOV.jpg
139 YBN
[10/26/1861 AD] 12 13 		3997) The first microphone, speaker,
and telephone. Sound is converted to
electricity and back to sound again.8 9


Sound can be sent farther as electric
current in a wire than mechanically in
air and travels silently.10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Silvanus Phillips Thompson,
"Philipp Reis: inventor of the
telephone: A biographical sketch, with
...",
1883. http://books.google.com/books?id=
YkHu_MiyFSkC&printsec=frontcover&dq=phil
ip+reis+inventor+of+the+telephone#v=onep
age&q=&f=false
{Philipp_Reis__inventor_of_the_telepho
ne.pdf}
2. ^ George Bartlett Prescott, "The
speaking telephone, talking phonograph,
and other novelties",
1878,p147. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=Fdpuup7RSrUC&pg=PA110&lpg=PA110&dq=
%22galvanic+music%22&source=bl&ots=XSKEE
-YQX1&sig=LnqVekN9DrlsZbrt8uQvjga8znk&hl
=en&ei=ze-eSqviJYOgswPdgpSCDg&sa=X&oi=bo
ok_result&ct=result&resnum=5#v=onepage&q
=%22galvanic%20music%22&f=false
3. ^ Silvanus Phillips Thompson,
"Philipp Reis: inventor of the
telephone: A biographical sketch, with
...",
1883. http://books.google.com/books?id=
YkHu_MiyFSkC&printsec=frontcover&dq=phil
ip+reis+inventor+of+the+telephone#v=onep
age&q=&f=false
{Philipp_Reis__inventor_of_the_telepho
ne.pdf}
4. ^ George Bartlett Prescott, "The
speaking telephone, talking phonograph,
and other novelties",
1878,p147. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=Fdpuup7RSrUC&pg=PA110&lpg=PA110&dq=
%22galvanic+music%22&source=bl&ots=XSKEE
-YQX1&sig=LnqVekN9DrlsZbrt8uQvjga8znk&hl
=en&ei=ze-eSqviJYOgswPdgpSCDg&sa=X&oi=bo
ok_result&ct=result&resnum=5#v=onepage&q
=%22galvanic%20music%22&f=false
5. ^ Silvanus Phillips Thompson,
"Philipp Reis: inventor of the
telephone: A biographical sketch, with
...",
1883. http://books.google.com/books?id=
YkHu_MiyFSkC&printsec=frontcover&dq=phil
ip+reis+inventor+of+the+telephone#v=onep
age&q=&f=false
{Philipp_Reis__inventor_of_the_telepho
ne.pdf}
6. ^ George Bartlett Prescott, "The
speaking telephone, talking phonograph,
and other novelties",
1878,p147. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=Fdpuup7RSrUC&pg=PA110&lpg=PA110&dq=
%22galvanic+music%22&source=bl&ots=XSKEE
-YQX1&sig=LnqVekN9DrlsZbrt8uQvjga8znk&hl
=en&ei=ze-eSqviJYOgswPdgpSCDg&sa=X&oi=bo
ok_result&ct=result&resnum=5#v=onepage&q
=%22galvanic%20music%22&f=false
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Silvanus Phillips
Thompson, "Philipp Reis: inventor of
the telephone: A biographical sketch,
with ...",
1883. http://books.google.com/books?id=
YkHu_MiyFSkC&printsec=frontcover&dq=phil
ip+reis+inventor+of+the+telephone#v=onep
age&q=&f=false
{Philipp_Reis__inventor_of_the_telepho
ne.pdf}
9. ^ George Bartlett Prescott, "The
speaking telephone, talking phonograph,
and other novelties",
1878,p147. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=Fdpuup7RSrUC&pg=PA110&lpg=PA110&dq=
%22galvanic+music%22&source=bl&ots=XSKEE
-YQX1&sig=LnqVekN9DrlsZbrt8uQvjga8znk&hl
=en&ei=ze-eSqviJYOgswPdgpSCDg&sa=X&oi=bo
ok_result&ct=result&resnum=5#v=onepage&q
=%22galvanic%20music%22&f=false
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ George Bartlett
Prescott, "The speaking telephone,
talking phonograph, and other
novelties",
1878,p9. http://books.google.com/books?
id=ANw3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=t
he+speaking+telephone#v=onepage&q=&f=fal
se
12. ^ George Bartlett Prescott, "The
speaking telephone, talking phonograph,
and other novelties",
1878,p9. http://books.google.com/books?
id=ANw3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=t
he+speaking+telephone#v=onepage&q=&f=fal
se {10/26/1861}
13. ^ George Bartlett Prescott, "The
speaking telephone, talking phonograph,
and other novelties",
1878,p9. http://books.google.com/books?
id=ANw3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=t
he+speaking+telephone#v=onepage&q=&f=fal
se {1861}

MORE INFO
[1] Herbert Newton Casson, "The
history of the telephone",
1910. http://books.google.com/books?id=
4iU1AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=The+
History+of+the+Telephone&as_brr=1#v=onep
age&q=&f=false
[2] Théodore Achille L. Du Moncel,
"The telephone, the microphone, and the
phonograph",
1879. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Do4DAAAAQAAJ&pg=PR7&dq=history+microphon
e#v=onepage&q=history%20microphone&f=fal
se
and http://books.google.com/books?id=se
QOAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA7&dq=history+microphone&
as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=history%20microphon
e&f=false
[3] W. F. Barrett, "The Telephone, Its
History and Its Recent Improvements",
Nature, vol19, 11/07/1878,
p12-14. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=oC0CAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA12&dq=history+microp
hone&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=history%20micr
ophone&f=false
[4] The Talking Machine
Industry http://www.archive.org/stream/
talkingmachinein00mitcuoft/talkingmachin
ein00mitcuoft_djvu.txt
(built in workshop behind Reis's house
and cabinet in Garnier's Institute,
Friedrichsdorf, demonstrated before
Physical Society) Frankfort, Germany11
 
[1] Drawing of Philip Reiss telephone
used for 10/26/1861 demonstration
before Physical Society in Frankfort,
Germany. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=Fdpuup7RSrUC&pg=PA110&lpg=PA110&dq=%22g
alvanic+music%22&source=bl&ots=XSKEE-YQX
1&sig=LnqVekN9DrlsZbrt8uQvjga8znk&hl=en&
ei=ze-eSqviJYOgswPdgpSCDg&sa=X&oi=book_r
esult&ct=result&resnum=5#v=onepage&q=%22
galvanic%20music%22&f=false

[2] portrait of Philip Reiss From
Silvanus Thompson: ''Reis is here
represented as holding in his hand the
telephone with which he had a few days
preceding (May 11, 1862) achieved such
success at his lecture before the
Freies Deutsches Hochstift (Free German
Institute) in Frankfort. '' PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=YkHu_MiyFSkC&printsec=frontcover&dq=phi
lip+reis+inventor+of+the+telephone#v=one
page&q=&f=false
139 YBN
[1861 AD] 3 		3645) The first color image is
projected.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ C. E. Kenneth Mees, "The
Codachrome Process of Color
Photography", Bulletin of Photography:
The Weekly Magazine for the
Professional Photographer, F.V.
Chambers, (18, 439-464), 1916,
p101. http://books.google.com/books?id=
YB0oAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA101&dq=maxwell+color+p
rojection+glass+plate&as_brr=1&ei=GIzuSM
aoJ4PytQO1zpD2Bg
2. ^ "James Clerk Maxwell."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 03
Oct. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/370621/James-Clerk-Maxwell>.
3. ^ "Maxwell, James Clerk", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p586-588. {1861}

MORE INFO
[1] "James Clerk Maxwell."
History of Science and Technology.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 03 Oct. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-clerk
-maxwell
[2] "James Clerk Maxwell." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 03 Oct. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-clerk
-maxwell
[3] "James Clerk Maxwell". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Clerk
_Maxwell
[4] "James Clerk Maxwell". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/James_Cl
erk_Maxwell
[5] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p331
[6]
Lewis Campbell, William Garnett, "The
Life of James Clerk Maxwell: With
Selections from His Correspondence and
Occasional Writings", Macmillan and
co.,
1884. http://books.google.com/books?id=
B7gEAAAAYAAJ&dq=The+Life+of+James+Clerk+
Maxwell&pg=PP1&ots=K2dcaxBEwW&sig=A5FFti
3pAlN9BLehmaOFNBQtrAc&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book
_result&resnum=4&ct=result
[7] Richard Glazebrook, "James Clerk
Maxwell and Modern Physics", Macmillan,
1896. http://books.google.com/books?id=
hbcEAAAAYAAJ&printsec=titlepage
[8]
http://www.clerkmaxwellfoundation.org/in
dex.html
[9] James Clerk Maxwell, Ed. by W.D.
Niven., "The Scientific Papers of James
Clerk Maxwell", C.J. Clay,
1890. http://books.google.com/books?id=
d_6fGwAACAAJ&dq=The+Scientific+intitle:P
apers+of+James+Clerk+intitle:Maxwell&as_
brr=0&ei=b3XqSJumMpK6tQOy_MXRBg
[10]
http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/
Biographies/Maxwell.html
[11] "Daniel Bernoulli". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8863/Daniel-Bernoulli
[12] J. Clerk Maxwell, "On Faraday's
Lines of Force.", Teansactions of the
Cambridge philosophical Society,
p27-83. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=HTY8AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=ed
itions:0Dde3miu3aQ74y2y#PPA27,M1
[13]
http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~hist
ory/Projects/Johnson/Chapters/Ch4_2.html

[14] J.C. Maxwell, On the theory of
three primary colours, Proc R Inst G B
3 (1861), pp. 370–374. From James
Clerk Maxwell, Ed. by W.D. Niven., "The
Scientific Papers of James Clerk
Maxwell", C.J. Clay, 1890, p445-450
[15] Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p454-456
(King's College, exhibit at the Royal
Institution) London, England2  
[1] [t Note: This cannot be a
photograph from 1861 - Maxwell
apparently never created a color
photograph in the sense of a single
plate or paper with a multi-color
image, but made 3 glass plates. So this
is a digitized color photo of the
projection of those three plates. The
first color [photograph being created,
at least publicly by: introduced in
1907 by A. Lumiere (eb1911
photography)] wikipedia: English:
Tartan Ribbon, photograph taken by
James Clerk Maxwell in 1861. Considered
the first colour photograph. Maxwell
had the photographer Thomas Sutton
photograph a tartan ribbon three times,
each time with a different colour
filter over the lens. The three images
were developed and then projected onto
a screen with three different
projectors, each equipped with the same
colour filter used to take its image.
When brought into focus, the three
images formed a full colour image. The
three photographic plates now reside in
a small museum at 14 India Street,
Edinburgh, the house where Maxwell was
born. Source Scanned from The
Illustrated History of Colour
Photography, Jack H. Coote, 1993. ISBN
0-86343-380-4. Date 1861 Author
James Clerk Maxwell (original
picture) ; scan by User:Janke. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/7f/Tartan_Ribbon.jpg

[2] James Clerk Maxwell. The Library
of Congress. PD/GOV
source: "Henri Victor Regnault",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p586.
138 YBN
[11/04/1862 AD] 3 4 5 		3219) The machine gun (or Gatling
gun).1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p396.
2. ^ "Richard Jordan
Gatling". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Jor
dan_Gatling
3. ^ "Richard Jordan Gatling".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Jor
dan_Gatling (11/04/1862)
4. ^
http://tri.army.mil/lc/CS/csa/aagatlin.h
tm (11/04/1862)
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p396. (11/1862)

MORE INFO
[1] "Gatling, Richard Jordan."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 1 June
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
6194>
[2] "Richard Jordan Gatling." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 02 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/richard-jor
dan-gatling
[3]
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=s7J2rbUFy
J8 {modern Gatling guns on helicopters}
[4]
"Machine-Gun". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Machine-
Gun
Indianapolis, Indiana2
(presumably) 
[1] Patent for first Gatlin
gun PD/Corel AND Dr. Gatling with
Model 1893 Bulldog [t Is 1893 year of
photo? This is kind of a funny picture,
like a civilized ''g'day'' chap, then
casually holding a machine
gun] PD/Corel
source: http://patimg1.uspto.gov/.piw?Do
cid=00036836&homeurl=http%3A%2F%2Fpatft.
uspto.gov%2Fnetacgi%2Fnph-Parser%3FSect1
%3DPTO1%2526Sect2%3DHITOFF%2526d%3DPALL%
2526p%3D1%2526u%3D%25252Fnetahtml%25252F
PTO%25252Fsrchnum.htm%2526r%3D1%2526f%3D
G%2526l%3D50%2526s1%3D0036,836.PN.%2526O
S%3DPN%2F0036,836%2526RS%3DPN%2F0036,836
&PageNum=&Rtype=&SectionNum=&idkey=NONE&
Input=View+first+pagePaul F. Wahl and
Donald R. Toppel, "The Gatling
Gun",Arco Publishing Company, New York,
NY, 1965. UNKNOWN

[2] Patent for first Gatlin
gun PD/Corel
source: http://patimg1.uspto.gov/.piw?Do
cid=00036836&homeurl=http%3A%2F%2Fpatft.
uspto.gov%2Fnetacgi%2Fnph-Parser%3FSect1
%3DPTO1%2526Sect2%3DHITOFF%2526d%3DPALL%
2526p%3D1%2526u%3D%25252Fnetahtml%25252F
PTO%25252Fsrchnum.htm%2526r%3D1%2526f%3D
G%2526l%3D50%2526s1%3D0036,836.PN.%2526O
S%3DPN%2F0036,836%2526RS%3DPN%2F0036,836
&PageNum=&Rtype=&SectionNum=&idkey=NONE&
Input=View+first+page
138 YBN
[1862 AD] 5 6 		3375) The first direct-acting internal
combustion gas engine car.1 2
FOOTNOTES

1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p415-416.
2. ^ "Étienne
Lenoir." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
01 Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/336021/Etienne-Lenoir>.
3. ^ William Robinson, "Gas and
Petroleum Engines: A Practical Treatise
on the Internal Combustion ...",
http://books.google.com/books?id=8e9MA
AAAMAAJ&pg=PA103&lpg=PA103&dq=%22robert+
street%22+patent+engine&source=web&ots=z
XhunpMWQn&sig=OK3zL_tlF9en_5S83tLJ0kuNyV
I&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&ct=
result#PPA102,M1
4. ^
http://www.eng.cam.ac.uk/DesignOffice/pr
ojects/cecil/history.html
5. ^ "Étienne Lenoir." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 01 Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/336021/Etienne-Lenoir>. {1862}
6. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p415-416. {1860}

MORE INFO
[1] "history of technology."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 01
Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/1350805/history-of-technology>
[2] "Étienne Lenoir". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89tienn
e_Lenoir
[3] "Gas Engine". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Gas_Engi
ne
[4]
http://www.eng.cam.ac.uk/DesignOffice/pr
ojects/cecil/engine.html
Paris3 , France4 (presumably) 
[1] Description English: The
hippomobile, a car invented by Étienne
Lenoir in 1863 Date Dont know Source
http://www1.eere.energy.gov/vehiclesand
fuels/pdfs/deer_2004/session1/2004_deer_
fairbanks.pdf Author EERE PD
source: http://www1.eere.energy.gov/vehi
clesandfuels/pdfs/deer_2004/session1/200
4_deer_fairbanks.pdf

[2] Voiture de JEAN JOSEPH ETIENNE
LENOIR - 1860: PD/Corel
source: http://www.forum-auto.com/upload
s/200510/gv_creations_1129490448_voiture
_jean_joseph_etienne_lenoir___1860.jpg
137 YBN
[02/19/1863 AD] 4 5 		3427) Spectral lines from elements are
matched to spectral lines from other
stars.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "William Huggins." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 15 Jul.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-hug
gins
2. ^ William Huggins, William Allen
Miller, "Note on the Lines in the
Spectra of Some of the Fixed Stars",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London (1854-1905), Volume 12 -
1862/1863,
p444-445. http://books.google.com/books
?id=TzQyAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA444 {Huggins_Will
iam_1863.pdf} see also
{Huggins_William_1863_11.pdf}
3. ^ "Sir William Huggins."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 15
Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/274848/Sir-William-Huggins>.
4. ^ William Huggins, William Allen
Miller, "Note on the Lines in the
Spectra of Some of the Fixed Stars",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London (1854-1905), Volume 12 -
1862/1863,
p444-445. http://books.google.com/books
?id=TzQyAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA444 {Huggins_Will
iam_1863.pdf} see also
{Huggins_William_1863_11.pdf}
{02/18/1863}
5. ^ "Sir William Huggins."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 15
Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/274848/Sir-William-Huggins>. {1863}

MORE INFO
[1] "William Huggins."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 15 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-hug
gins
[2] "William Huggins." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 15 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-hug
gins
[3] "William Huggins". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Hug
gins
[4]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[5] "Huggins, William", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p441
[6]
https://eee.uci.edu/clients/bjbecker/Exp
loringtheCosmos/lecture15.html
[7] William Huggins, edited by Sir
William Huggins and Lady Huggins, "The
scientific papers of Sir William
Huggins", W. Wesley and Son, 1909
(Tulse Hill) London, England3  
[1] ''The accompanying drawing shows
with considerable accuracy the
principal lines which the authors have
seen in Sirius, Betelgeux, and
Aldebaran, and their position
relatively to the chief solar
lines.'' ''The position in the stellar
spectra corresponding to that of
Fraunhofer's line D, from which the
others are measured, has been obtained
by coincidence with a sodium line, the
position of which in the apparatus was
compared directly with the line D in
the solar spectrum. The lines in the
drawings against which a mark is placed
have been measured.'' PD/Corel
source: http://journals.royalsociety.org
/content/025553r323116j26/fulltext.pdf

[2] William Huggins PD/Corel
source: https://eee.uci.edu/clients/bjbe
cker/ExploringtheCosmos/hugginsport.jpg
136 YBN
[09/08/1864 AD] 4 5 		3428) The spectra of nebulae and
galaxies are seen. Unlike stars,
nebulae are shown to have no spectrum
except for a few emission lines, and
therefore to be composed of gas by
using spectral comparison.1 2
FOOTNOTES

1. ^ William Huggins, William Allen
Miller, "On the Spectra of Some of the
Nebulae. By William Huggins, F.R.A.S. A
Supplement to the Paper 'On the Spectra
of Some of the Fixed Stars William
Huggins F.R.A.S., and W. A. Miller,
M.D., LL.D., Treas. and V.P.P.S."',
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1776-1886), Volume
154, 1864, p437-444 (and plate
10). http://books.google.com/books?id=Y
VNFAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA437
AND http://rstl.royalsocietypublishing.
org/content/154/437.full.pdf+html {Hugg
ins_Williams_Nebulae_1864.pdf}
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p426-427.
3. ^ "Sir William
Huggins." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
15 Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/274848/Sir-William-Huggins>.
4. ^ William Huggins, William Allen
Miller, "On the Spectra of Some of the
Nebulae. By William Huggins, F.R.A.S. A
Supplement to the Paper 'On the Spectra
of Some of the Fixed Stars William
Huggins F.R.A.S., and W. A. Miller,
M.D., LL.D., Treas. and V.P.P.S."',
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1776-1886), Volume
154, 1864,
p437-444. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/4474550153k52t21/?p=a944c063
26554c88a8b57d5550e80b7dπ=0 {Huggins_W
illiams_Nebulae_1864.pdf} {09/08/1864}
5. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p426-427. {1864}

MORE INFO
[1] "William Huggins." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 15 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-hug
gins
[2] "William Huggins." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
15 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-hug
gins
[3] "William Huggins." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 15 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-hug
gins
[4] "William Huggins". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Hug
gins
[5] "Sir William Huggins". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Will
iam_Huggins
[6]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[7] "Huggins, William", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p441
[8]
https://eee.uci.edu/clients/bjbecker/Exp
loringtheCosmos/lecture15.html
[9]
https://eee.uci.edu/clients/bjbecker/Exp
loringtheCosmos/lecture16.html
[10] William Huggins, edited by Sir
William Huggins and Lady Huggins, "The
scientific papers of Sir William
Huggins", W. Wesley and Son, 1909
[11]
William Huggins, William Allen Miller,
"Note on the Lines in the Spectra of
Some of the Fixed Stars", Proceedings
of the Royal Society of London
(1854-1905), Volume 12 - 1862/1863,
p444-445. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/025553r323116j26/?p=0fd9a491
65954b07bbb2f540f21f4853π=38 {Huggins_
William_1863.pdf} see also
{Huggins_William_1863_11.pdf}
[12] William Huggins, William Allen
Miller, "On the Spectra of Some of the
Fixed Stars", Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886), Volume 154, 1864,
p413-435. {Huggins_William_1864.pdf} h
ttp://journals.royalsociety.org/content/
c60873v443483764/?p=e7dddbba8ca6456481b5
de51469415a3π=54
(Tulse Hill) London, England3  
[1] The Cat's Eye Nebula from
Hubble Credit: NASA, ESA, HEIC, and
The Hubble Heritage Team (STScI/AURA)
PD/Corel
source: http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/image/
0705/catseye2_hst.jpg

[2] Draco's spectrum ...The riddle of
the nebulae was solved. The answer,
which had come to us in the light
itself, read: Not an aggregation of
stars, but a luminous gas.
--Huggins (1897) PD/Corel
source: https://eee.uci.edu/clients/bjbe
cker/ExploringtheCosmos/neblinesdraco.jp
g
136 YBN
[10/27/1864 AD] 3 		3657) The theory that light is an
electromagnetic transverse wave.1
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^ James Clerk Maxwell, "A Dynamical
Theory of the Electromagnetic Field",
Royal Society Transactions, Vol. 155,
1865, p.
459-512. http://books.google.com/books?
id=xVNFAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA459
AND http://journals.royalsociety.org/co
ntent/yw7lx230g0h64637/?p=0677f1423d9744
10b4e2e6e25d052266π=8 {Maxwell_James_C
lerk_dynamical_theory_of_em_field_1864.p
df} also in James Clerk Maxwell, Ed.
by W.D. Niven., "The Scientific Papers
of James Clerk Maxwell", C.J. Clay,
1890, vol1, p526-597. and with
selectable
text: http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/A_D
ynamical_Theory_of_the_Electromagnetic_F
ield/Part_I
2. ^ "James Clerk Maxwell."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 03 Oct. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-clerk
-maxwell
3. ^ James Clerk Maxwell, "A Dynamical
Theory of the Electromagnetic Field",
Royal Society Transactions, Vol. 155,
1865, p.
459-512. http://books.google.com/books?
id=xVNFAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA459
AND http://journals.royalsociety.org/co
ntent/yw7lx230g0h64637/?p=0677f1423d9744
10b4e2e6e25d052266π=8 {Maxwell_James_C
lerk_dynamical_theory_of_em_field_1864.p
df} also in James Clerk Maxwell, Ed.
by W.D. Niven., "The Scientific Papers
of James Clerk Maxwell", C.J. Clay,
1890, vol1, p526-597. and with
selectable
text: http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/A_D
ynamical_Theory_of_the_Electromagnetic_F
ield/Part_I {10/27/1864}

MORE INFO
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As, for instance, the composition of
glue, treacle, etc., of which small
plastic figures are made, which after
being distorted gradually recover their
shape
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[43] (original footnote:) Comptes
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[45] (original
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[54] Duhem, Les theories
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[55] "The Mechanical
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[56] Henry Crew, "The Rise of Modern
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[57] Henry Crew, "The
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[58]
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[59] Herbert Dingle,
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p130-133
[60] Augusto Righi, tr: Augustus
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Phenomena", 1909, p12
(King's College) London, England2
 
[1] Fig. 66 from Maxwell's ''A Treatise
on Electricity and Magnetism'' which
shows the view that light is made of
two sine waves in an aether, one wihch
is an electric displacement and another
which is a magnetic force, both which
are 90 degrees to each other. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=gmQSAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edi
tions:0w8AGC9HxP35YR6Uk9&lr=&as_brr=1#PP
A390,M1

[2] James Clerk Maxwell, ''A Dynamical
Theory of the Electromagnetic Field'',
Royal Society Transactions, Vol. 155,
1865, p. 459-512;
p497. http://books.google.com/books?id=
xVNFAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA497
AND http://journals.royalsociety.org/co
ntent/yw7lx230g0h64637/?p=0677f1423d9744
10b4e2e6e25d052266π=8 {Maxwell_James_C
lerk_dynamical_theory_of_em_field_1864.p
df} also in James Clerk Maxwell, Ed.
by W.D. Niven., ''The Scientific Papers
of James Clerk Maxwell'', C.J. Clay,
1890, vol1, p526-597. and with
selectable
text: http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/A_D
ynamical_Theory_of_the_Electromagnetic_F
ield/Part_I PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=xVNFAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA497 PD
135 YBN
[1865 AD] 4 5 		3403) The law of genetic inheritance
(the 1:2:1 ratio of inheritance of a
trait).1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Gregor Mendel." History of
Science and Technology. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 11
Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gregor-mend
el
2. ^ "Gregor Mendel." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 11 Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/374739/Gregor-Mendel>.
3. ^ "Gregor Mendel." Who2?
Biographies. Who2?, 2008. Answers.com
11 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gregor-mend
el
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p418-419. {1865}
5. ^
"Gregor Mendel." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 11 Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/374739/Gregor-Mendel>. {1865}

MORE INFO
[1] "Gregor Mendel." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 11 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gregor-mend
el
(Natural Science Society) Brünn2 ,
Austria3 (now: Brno, the Czech
Republic) 
[1] Gregor Mendel Source
http://www.malaspina.com/jpg/mendel.j
pg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/87/Gregor_Mendel_portrai
t.jpg

[2] [t Gregor Mendel] PD/Corel
source: http://joefelso.files.wordpress.
com/2007/04/mendel2.jpg
134 YBN
[1866 AD] 3 4 5 6 		3695) Dynamite.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p462-463.
2. ^
http://nobelpeaceprize.org/en_GB/alfred-
nobel/
3. ^ "Nobel, Alfred Bernhard."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 24
Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9056
007>. {1867}
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p462-463. {1866}
5. ^
"Nobel, Alfred Bernhard", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p650. {patent)1867}
6. ^ Henry De Mosenthal,
"The Life-Work of Alfred Nobel",
Journal of the Society of Chemical
Industry, v. 18 (Jan.-June 1899),
p443-451. http://books.google.com/books
?id=WyEAAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA443&dq=alfred+nobe
l&as_brr=1&ei=px1TSbHgOpLOlQSCzM3bCQ
{1866}

MORE INFO
[1] "Alfred Nobel." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
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l
[2] "Alfred Nobel." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
25 Dec. 2008.
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l
[3] "Alfred Nobel." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
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[4] "Alfred Bernhard Nobel". Wikipedia.
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[5] "Alfred Bernhard Nobel".
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[6]
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[7] Nobel's US patent with description
of dynamite, US#78,317 (1868-05-26)
Alfred Nobel, Improved explosive
compound. http://www.pat2pdf.org/pat2pd
f/foo.pl?number=78317
Paris, France2 (guess) 
[1] [t get better image of
dynamite] English: Diagram of
dynamite. A. Sawdust (or any
other type of absorbent material)
soaked in nitroglycerin. B.
Protective coating surrounding the
explosive material. C. Blasting
cap. D. Wire connected to the
blasting cap. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/65/Dynamite-5.svg

[2] Alfred Bernhard Nobel. ©
Bettmann/Corbis PD/Corel
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
20999&rendTypeId=4
132 YBN
[04/23/1868 AD] 3 		3435) The Doppler effect is used to
estimate the relative radial (or line
of sight) velocity of celestial objects
by comparing the position of spectral
lines from the celestial object to
those of a terrestrial light source.1
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^ Huggins, William. "Further
Observations on the Spectra of Some of
the Stars and Nebulae, with an Attempt
to Determine Therefrom Whether These
Bodies are Moving towards or from the
Earth, Also Observations on the Spectra
of the Sun and of Comet II., 1868."
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London 158 (1868):
529-564. http://www.jstor.org/stable/10
.2307/108925
2. ^ "Sir William Huggins."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 15
Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/274848/Sir-William-Huggins>.
3. ^ Huggins, William. "Further
Observations on the Spectra of Some of
the Stars and Nebulae, with an Attempt
to Determine Therefrom Whether These
Bodies are Moving towards or from the
Earth, Also Observations on the Spectra
of the Sun and of Comet II., 1868."
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London 158 (1868):
529-564. http://www.jstor.org/stable/10
.2307/108925

MORE INFO
[1] "William Huggins." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 15 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-hug
gins
[2] "William Huggins." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
15 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-hug
gins
[3] "William Huggins." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 15 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-hug
gins
[4] "William Huggins". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
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[5] "Sir William Huggins". Encyclopedia
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iam_Huggins
[6]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[7] "Huggins, William", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p441
[8]
https://eee.uci.edu/clients/bjbecker/Exp
loringtheCosmos/lecture15.html
[9]
https://eee.uci.edu/clients/bjbecker/Exp
loringtheCosmos/lecture16.html
[10] William Huggins, edited by Sir
William Huggins and Lady Huggins, "The
scientific papers of Sir William
Huggins", W. Wesley and Son, 1909
[11]
William Huggins, William Allen Miller,
"Note on the Lines in the Spectra of
Some of the Fixed Stars", Proceedings
of the Royal Society of London
(1854-1905), Volume 12 - 1862/1863,
p444-445. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/025553r323116j26/?p=0fd9a491
65954b07bbb2f540f21f4853π=38 {Huggins_
William_1863.pdf} see also
{Huggins_William_1863_11.pdf}
[12] William Huggins, William Allen
Miller, "On the Spectra of Some of the
Fixed Stars", Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886), Volume 154, 1864,
p413-435. {Huggins_William_1864.pdf} h
ttp://journals.royalsociety.org/content/
c60873v443483764/?p=e7dddbba8ca6456481b5
de51469415a3π=54
[13] William Huggins, William Allen
Miller, "On the Spectra of Some of the
Nebulae. By William Huggins, F.R.A.S. A
Supplement to the Paper 'On the Spectra
of Some of the Fixed Stars William
Huggins F.R.A.S., and W. A. Miller,
M.D., LL.D., Treas. and V.P.P.S."',
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1776-1886), Volume
154, 1864,
p437-444. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/4474550153k52t21/?p=a944c063
26554c88a8b57d5550e80b7dπ=0 {Huggins_W
illiams_Nebulae_1864.pdf}
[14] Richard F. Hirsh, "The Riddle of
the Gaseous Nebulae", Isis, Vol. 70,
No. 2 (Jun., 1979), pp.
197-212. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23
0787?seq=3 {Huggins_Isis_1979_230787.pd
f}
[15] William Huggins, William Allen
Miller, "On the Spectrum of the Great
Nebula in the Sword-Handle of Orion",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London (1854-1905), Volume 14,
1865,p39-42. http://journals.royalsocie
ty.org/content/41x0375851104382/?p=1e2a4
7ba864a490082ae3d43a06b356eπ=28 {Huggi
ns_William_1865_Orion.pdf}
[16] William Huggins, William Allen
Miller, "On the Spectrum of a New Star
in Corona Borealis", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London (1854-1905),
Volume 15,1866/1867,
p146-149 {Huggins_nova_1866.pdf}
[17] William Huggins, "On the Spectrum
of Comet 1, 1866", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London
(1854-1905), Volume 15,
1866/1867,p5-7. {Huggins_comet_1866.pdf
}
[18] William Huggins, "On the Spectrum
of Comet II., 1868.", Proceedings of
the Royal Society of London
(1854-1905), Volume 16, 1867/1868,
p481-482. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/2h060vq702k86930/?p=2cd9532a
7227424881f3bc89e302b09cπ=53 {Huggins_
comet2_1868.pdf}
[19] William Huggins,"Note on the
Spectrum of Uranus and the Spectrum of
Comet I., 1871", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London (1854-1905),
Volume 19, 1870/1871,
p488-491. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/0w632525127q705p/?p=2cd9532a
7227424881f3bc89e302b09cπ=54 {Huggins_
Uranus_1871.pdf}
(Tulse Hill) London, England2  
[1] [t Note that the lines are
absorption lines.] Figure 4
from: Huggins, William. ''Further
Observations on the Spectra of Some of
the Stars and Nebulae, with an Attempt
to Determine Therefrom Whether These
Bodies are Moving towards or from the
Earth, Also Observations on the Spectra
of the Sun and of Comet II., 1868.''
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London 158 (1868):
529-564. http://www.jstor.org/stable/10
.2307/108925 PD [1] William
Huggins PD/Corel
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2
307/108925

[2] William Huggins' star-spectroscope
PD/Corel
source: https://eee.uci.edu/clients/bjbe
cker/ExploringtheCosmos/hugginsport.jpg
132 YBN
[11/23/1868 AD] 3 		3648) The first permanent color
photograph.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Louis Ducos du Hauron."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 10
Oct. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/172961/Louis-Ducos-du-Hauron>.
2. ^ "Louis Ducos du Hauron."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 10
Oct. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/172961/Louis-Ducos-du-Hauron>.
3. ^ "Louis Ducos du Hauron."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 10
Oct. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/172961/Louis-Ducos-du-Hauron>.
{11/23/1868}
?, France2  
[1] English: Early color photo of Agen,
France, by Louis Ducos du Hauron, 1877.
The cathedral in the scene is the
Cathédrale Saint-Caprais d'Agen.
[1] Source ? Date 1877 Author
Louis Ducos du Hauron (1837 –
1920) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/08/Duhauron1877.jpg

[2] Louis Ducos du Hauron paved way
for modern three-color photography.
''Cinémathèque Française'' PD/Corel

source: http://www.marillier.nom.fr/coll
odions/PGH/pics/photowasborn06.jpg
125 YBN
[08/28/1875 AD] 6 		5575) The first direct neuron reading
(the electricity in nerve cells is
measured).4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Caton, "The Electric
Currents of the Brain", British Medical
Journal, 1875, V2,
p278. http://www.bmj.com/content/2/765/
257.full.pdf+html {Caton_Richard_187508
28.pdf}
2. ^ Richard Caton, "The Electric
Currents of the Brain", British Medical
Journal, 1875, V2,
p278. http://www.bmj.com/content/2/765/
257.full.pdf+html {Caton_Richard_187508
28.pdf}
3. ^ Richard Caton, "The Electric
Currents of the Brain", British Medical
Journal, 1875, V2,
p278. http://www.bmj.com/content/2/765/
257.full.pdf+html {Caton_Richard_187508
28.pdf}
4. ^ Richard Caton, "The Electric
Currents of the Brain", British Medical
Journal, 1875, V2,
p278. http://www.bmj.com/content/2/765/
257.full.pdf+html {Caton_Richard_187508
28.pdf}
5. ^ Richard Caton, "The Electric
Currents of the Brain", British Medical
Journal, 1875, V2,
p278. http://www.bmj.com/content/2/765/
257.full.pdf+html {Caton_Richard_187508
28.pdf}
6. ^ Richard Caton, "The Electric
Currents of the Brain", British Medical
Journal, 1875, V2,
p278. http://www.bmj.com/content/2/765/
257.full.pdf+html {Caton_Richard_187508
28.pdf} {08/28/1875}
Liverpool, England5  
[1] Text of: Richard Caton, ''The
Electric Currents of the Brain'',
British Medical Journal, 1875, V2,
p278. http://www.bmj.com/content/2/765/
257.full.pdf+html {Caton_Richard_187508
28.pdf} PD
source: http://www.bmj.com/content/2/765
/257.full.pdf+html

[2]
http://books.google.com/books?id=_GMeW9E
1IB4C&pg=PA41 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=_GMeW9E1IB4C&pg=PA41
124 YBN
[1876 AD] 3 4 		3819) The first practical
refrigerator.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p493.
2. ^ "Linde, Carl
von." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 7 Jan.
2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9048
354>.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p493. {1876}
4. ^ Alexander
Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables
of Science", Second edition, Simon and
Schuster, 1991, p351. {1876}

MORE INFO
[1] "Karl Paul Gottfried von
Linde". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Paul_G
ottfried_von_Linde
[2] "Refrigerating". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Refriger
ating
[3] "Linde, Carl Von", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p545
[4] "Karl Paul Von Linde",
Journal of the Franklin Institute,
Pergamon Press, 1914, v.178, (1914),
p113-114. http://books.google.com/books
?id=y-QGAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA113&dq=Carl+Paul+G
ottfried+von+Linde&as_brr=1&ei=Du9kSfCMG
JOIkAT1v7TWDQ#PPA113,M1
(Technische Hochschule) Munich,
Germany2  
[1] The first Linde refrigeration
machine ever sold, an improvement on
the original model from 1871 started up
in 1877 at the Creher Brewery in
Trieste (now Italy) PD/Corel
(presumably)
source: http://www.linde.com/internation
al/web/linde/like35lindecom.nsf/reposito
rybyalias/pdf_ch_chronicle/$file/chronic
le_e%5B1%5D.pdf

[2] * by Frederick Muller *
Reference: 3278404 circa 1890:
German scientist Karl Paul Gottfried
Linde. (Photo by Frederick
Muller/Hulton Archive/Getty
Images) PD/Corel
source: http://www.jamd.com/image/g/3278
404
123 YBN
[12/24/1877 AD] 6 7 		4002) A sound recording is played back
out loud.3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Herbert Treadwell Wade,
"Phonograph", The New international
encyclopaedia, Volume
18. http://books.google.com/books?id=VD
JXAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA542&dq=scott+1855+phonau
tograph&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=scott%20185
5%20phonautograph&f=false
2. ^ Edison "improvements to
phonograph..." patent
#200521 http://www.google.com/patents/a
bout?id=SWg_AAAAEBAJ
3. ^ Herbert Treadwell Wade,
"Phonograph", The New international
encyclopaedia, Volume
18. http://books.google.com/books?id=VD
JXAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA542&dq=scott+1855+phonau
tograph&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=scott%20185
5%20phonautograph&f=false
4. ^ Edison "improvements to
phonograph..." patent
#200521 http://www.google.com/patents/a
bout?id=SWg_AAAAEBAJ
5. ^ Edison "improvements to
phonograph..." patent
#200521 http://www.google.com/patents/a
bout?id=SWg_AAAAEBAJ
6. ^ Edison "improvements to
phonograph..." patent
#200521 http://www.google.com/patents/a
bout?id=SWg_AAAAEBAJ {12/24/1877}
7. ^ Francis
Arthur Jones, "Thomas Alva Edison:
sixty years of an inventor's life",
1907,
p138. http://books.google.com/books?id=
29HAPQBd-JsC&pg=PA5&dq=thomas+alva+ediso
n&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f=false
{12/24/1877}

MORE INFO
[1] "Thomas Edison." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 01 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/thomas-edis
on
[2] "Thomas Alva Edison". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Alva
_Edison
[3] "Thomas Alva Edison". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Thomas_A
lva_Edison
[4] "Edison, Thomas Alva", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p274
[5] Video of Thomas Edison on
youtube.com: http://www.youtube.com/wat
ch?v=H7RQ5sKHR5E
[6] Video: A day with Thomas A. Edison
/ General Electric Co. ; producer, Bray
Studios. http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/
query/r?ammem/papr:@filreq(@field(NUMBER
+@band(edmp+4057s6))+@field(COLLID+ediso
n))
[7]
http://www.atheists.org/Thomas_Alva_Edis
on:_1911_Columbian_Interview
[8]
http://www.atheistempire.com/greatminds/
quotes.php?author=11
[9] Francis Rolt-Wheeler, "Thomas Alva
Edison",
1915. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ZKIDAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=thom
as+alva+edison&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f=f
alse
[10] Edith C. Kenyon, "Thomas Alva
Edison: the telegraph-boy who became a
great inventor",
1896. http://books.google.com/books?id=
24UVAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=thom
as+alva+edison&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f=f
alse
[11]
http://users.belgacom.net/gc391665/micro
phone_history.htm
[12] Frank Lewis Dyer, Thomas
Commerford Martin, "Edison: his life
and inventions",
1910. http://books.google.com/books?id=
qN83AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA200&dq=%22carbon+relay
%22&lr=#v=onepage&q=%22carbon%20relay%22
&f=false
[13] George Bartlett Prescott, "The
speaking telephone, talking phonograph,
and other novelties",
1878,p9. http://books.google.com/books?
id=ANw3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=t
he+speaking+telephone#v=onepage&q=&f=fal
se
[14] Théodore Achille L. Du Moncel,
"The telephone, the microphone, and the
phonograph",
1879. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Do4DAAAAQAAJ&pg=PR7&dq=history+microphon
e#v=onepage&q=history%20microphone&f=fal
se
and http://books.google.com/books?id=se
QOAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA7&dq=history+microphone&
as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=history%20microphon
e&f=false
[15] Theodore Du Moncel (comte),
"Exposé des applications de
l'électricité",
http://books.google.com/books?q=editio
ns:0WEbvzifraAvqv&lr=&id=jdYnAAAAYAAJ&sa
=N&start=0 Volume 5
(1862): http://books.google.com/books?i
d=jdYnAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=ed
itions:0WEbvzifraAvqv&lr=#v=onepage&q=&f
=false
[16] Chemical news and journal of
industrial science, Volume 38, 1878,
p241. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ugYAAAAAMAAJ&pg=RA4-PA241&dq=%22carbon+r
elay%22&lr=#v=onepage&q=%22carbon%20rela
y%22&f=false
[17] Silvanus P. Thompson, "On the
Electric Resistance of Carbon under
Pressure.", Philosophical Magazine, S5,
Vol 13, Num 81, April 1882,
p262-265. http://books.google.com/books
?id=B1IwAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA265&dq=%22carbon+r
elay%22&lr=#v=onepage&q=%22carbon%20rela
y%22&f=false
[18] "Under Pressure", The Electrician,
Volume 82, 03/11/1882,
p264. http://books.google.com/books?id=
IOYTAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA264&dq=%22carbon+relay
%22&lr=#v=onepage&q=%22carbon%20relay%22
&f=false
[19] "plumbago>.". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
"plumbago." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. 02 Sep. 2009.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/p
lumbago>
[20] Edison, 12/13/1887
patent http://www.google.com/patents?id
=Gr9BAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4#v
=onepage&q=&f=false
[21] "rheostat>.". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
"rheostat." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. 02 Sep. 2009.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/r
heostat>
[22] "rheostat>.". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
"rheostat." Online Etymology
Dictionary. Douglas Harper, Historian.
02 Sep. 2009.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/r
heostat>
[23]
http://atheism.about.com/library/quotes/
bl_q_TAEdison.htm
[24] Edison patent 203,014, April 30,
1878, filed
07/20/1877 http://www.google.com/patent
s?id=Fr9BAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom
=4#v=onepage&q=&f=false
[25] "Edison, Thomas Alva."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 1
Sept. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9106
218>
[26] Edison's Patent on the pressure
relay,
203015. http://www.google.com/patents?i
d=F79BAAAAEBAJ&printsec=drawing&zoom=4#v
=onepage&q=&f=false
[27] The Iron age, Volume 94, Issues
14-27 http://books.google.com/books?id=
Na0vAAAAYAAJ&pg=PT22&dq=edison+phonograp
h+uses+recording+phone+calls&as_brr=1#v=
onepage&q=&f=false
[28]
http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/edhtml/edtim
e.html
(private lab) Menlo Park, New Jersey,
USA5  
[1] Original Edison Tin Foil
Phonograph. Photo courtesy of U.S.
Department of the Interior, National
Park Service, Edison National Historic
Site. source:
http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/edhtml/edcyl
dr.html PD
source: http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/edht
ml/tinfoil.jpg

[2] Edison's 12/24/1877 patent for
improvements to the phonograph. PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=SWg_AAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4#v
=onepage&q=&f=false
122 YBN
[1878 AD] 3 		3576) A practical electric light bulb.1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "incandescent lamp."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 14
Sep. 2008 .
2. ^ "Sir Joseph Wilson
Swan". Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.

http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Jose
ph_Wilson_Swan
3. ^ "incandescent lamp." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 14 Sep. 2008 .
{1878}

MORE INFO
[1] "Sir Joseph Wilson Swan."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 14
Sep. 2008
[2] "Joseph Swan." A
Dictionary of British History. Oxford
University Press, 2001, 2004.
Answers.com 15 Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/joseph-swan

[3] "Joseph Swan." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 15 Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/joseph-swan

[4] "Joseph Wilson Swan". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Wils
on_Swan
Newcastle, England2 (presumably) 
[1] {ULSF: Note that this is not the
1860 lamp but is a later 1878-1879
lamp} The lamp on the left is an early
carbon and rod filament incandescent
electric lamp made by the English
chemist, Joseph Swan (1827-1914) in
1878-1879. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/
images/object_images/535x535/10276216.jp
g

[2] Joseph Wilson Swan 1828 -
1914 PD/Corel
source: http://www.hevac-heritage.org/ha
ll_of_fame/lighting_&_electrical/joseph_
wilson_swan_s1.jpg
122 YBN
[1878 AD] 6 7 		3790) Synthetic fabric. The first
synthetic silk (rayon).3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p487.
2. ^ "Chardonnet,
Louis-Marie-Hilaire Bernigaud, Comte
De", Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p183-184.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p487.
4. ^ "Chardonnet,
Louis-Marie-Hilaire Bernigaud, Comte
De", Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p183-184.
5. ^ "Hilaire
Bernigaud, count de Chardonnet".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 23 Dec.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/106367/Hilaire-Bernigaud-count-d
e-Chardonnet>.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p487. {1878}
7. ^ "Hilaire
Bernigaud, count de Chardonnet".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 23 Dec.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/106367/Hilaire-Bernigaud-count-d
e-Chardonnet>.

MORE INFO
[1] "rayon." How Products are
Made. The Gale Group, Inc, 2002.
Answers.com 01 Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/rayon
[2] "Hilaire de Chardonnet". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hilaire_de_
Chardonnet
[3]
http://inventors.about.com/library/inven
tors/blfabric.htm
[4]
http://www.chemistryexplained.com/Ce-Co/
Chardonnet-Hilaire.html
Paris, France (presumably)5  
[1] n particolare ingrandito di una
gonna in rayon. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/00/Rayon_closeup_1.jpg

[2] Hilaire Bernigaud PD/Corel
source: http://www.scienceandsociety.co.
uk/Pix/PER/07/10284307_T.JPG
120 YBN
[06/03/1880 AD] 4 		4038) Sound is sent and received using
light particles.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Alexander Graham Bell, "On the
Production and Reproduction of Sound by
Light", The American Journal of
Science, series 3, vol 20, Num 118,
October, 1880,
p305-324. http://books.google.com/books
?id=br0EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA305&lpg=PA305&dq=%
22On+the+Production+and+Reproduction+of+
Sound+by+Light%22,&source=bl&ots=Nd7hl7O
dtE&sig=FPHn3JeAfBWEntvH5ROq0yv2gRc&hl=e
n&ei=LBm5Sum2N4j-tAPH-ZQf&sa=X&oi=book_r
esult&ct=result&resnum=3#v=onepage&q=%22
On%20the%20Production%20and%20Reproducti
on%20of%20Sound%20by%20Light%22%2C&f=fal
se
2. ^ U.S. Patent 235,199 Apparatus for
Signalling and Communicating, called
Photophone, filed August 1880, issued
December
1880 http://www.google.com/patents?vid=
235199
3. ^
http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/today/jun03.
html
4. ^
http://inventors.about.com/od/pstartinve
ntions/a/photophone.htm {06/03/1880}

MORE INFO
[1] "Alexander Graham Bell."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 22 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alexander-g
raham-bell
[2] "Alexander Graham Bell." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 22 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alexander-g
raham-bell
[3] "Alexander Graham Bell". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_G
raham_Bell
[4] "Alexander Graham Bell".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Alexande
r_Graham_Bell
[5] "Bell, Alexander Graham", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 1, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), pp76-77
[6] Silvanus Phillips Thompson,
"Philipp Reis: inventor of the
telephone: A biographical sketch, with
...",
1883. http://books.google.com/books?id=
YkHu_MiyFSkC&printsec=frontcover&dq=phil
ip+reis+inventor+of+the+telephone#v=onep
age&q=&f=false
[7] U.S. Patent 174,465 Improvement in
Telegraphy, filed 14 February 1876,
issued March 7, 1876 (Bell's first
telephone
patent) http://www.google.com/patents?v
id=174465
[8] "Photophone". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photophone
[9] "Charles Sumner Tainter".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Sum
ner_Tainter
(top of Franklin School) Washington, D.
C., USA3  
[1] Alexander Bell's Photophone Patent
of 08/28/1880 figures 1 and 2 PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=VpdyAAAAEBAJ&printsec=drawing&zoom=4#v=
onepage&q=&f=false

[2] Alexander Bell's
Photophone Patent of 08/28/1880
figures 1 and 2 PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=VpdyAAAAEBAJ&printsec=drawing&zoom=4#v=
onepage&q=&f=false
120 YBN
[1880 AD] 6 7 		4348) Piezoelectricity
{PIEZOeleKTriSiTE or PEZO- or PEAZO-1 2
3 } is discovered: when pressure is
applied to certain crystals, an
electric potential is created, and the
opposite effect, when an electric
potential is applied, these crystals
vibrate at a regular rate.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Piezoelectricity."
Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random
House, Inc. 21 Jan. 2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/P
iezoelectricity>.
2. ^ "piezoelectricity." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 21
Jan. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/piezoelectr
icity
3. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=piezoe
lectricity&submit=Submit
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p580-581.
5. ^ "Pierre Curie."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 20 May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pierre-curi
e-scientist
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p580-581. {1880}
7. ^ Pierre
Curie,Jacques Curie, "Développement,
par pression, de l’électricité
polaire dans les cristaux hémièdres
à faces inclinées", Comptes rendus
hebdomadaires des séances de
l’Académie des sciences, 91 (1880),
294. http://visualiseur.bnf.fr/CadresFe
netre?O=NUMM-3048&M=tdm Need English
translation: First paragraph quoted
in:
http://www.springerlink.com/content/g9
88721517372297/ {Curie_Jacques_and_Pier
re_N0003048_PDF_296_395_1880.pdf}

MORE INFO
[1] "Pierre Curie". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Curi
e
[2] "pyroelectricity." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 20 May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9062
057>
[3] Pierre Curie,Jacques Curie, "Sur
l’électricité polaire dans les
cristaux hémièdres à faces
inclinées", Comptes rendus
hebdomadaires des séances de
l’Académie des sciences, 383
[4] Pierre
Curie,Jacques Curie, "Lois du
dégagement de l’électricité par
pression dans la tourmaline", Comptes
rendus hebdomadaires des séances de
l’Académie des sciences, 92 (1881),
186
[5] Pierre Curie,Jacques Curie, "Sur
les phénomènes électriques de la
tourmaline et des cristaux hémièdres
à faces inclinées", Comptes rendus
hebdomadaires des séances de
l’Académie des sciences, 350
[6] Pierre
Curie,Jacques Curie, "Les cristaux
héemièdres à faces inclinées, comme
sources constantes d’électricitè",
Comptes rendus hebdomadaires des
séances de l’Académie des sciences,
93 (1881), 204
[7] Pierre Curie,Jacques
Curie, "Contractions et dilatations
produites par des tensions électriques
dan les cristaux hémièdres à faces
inclinées", Comptes rendus
hebdomadaires des séances de
l’Académie des sciences, 1137
[8] Pierre
Curie,Jacques Curie, "Déformations
électriques du quartz", Comptes rendus
hebdomadaires des séances de
l’Académie des sciences, 95 (1882),
914
(Sorbonne) Paris, France5  
[1] Beschreibung Jacques Curie
(1856-1941, links) mit seinem Bruder
Pierre Curie (1859-1906) und seinen
Eltern Eugène Curie (1827-1910) und
Sophie-Claire Depouilly
(1832-1897) Quelle Françoise
Giroud: Marie Curie. A Life. Holmes &
Meier, New York London 1986, ISBN
0-8419-0977-6, nach Seite 138 Urheber
bzw. Nutzungsrechtinhaber
unbekannt Datum
1878 Genehmigung
Bild-PD-alt-100 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/de/3/3a/Curie%2C_Jacques_und_Pierr
e_mit_Eltern.jpg

[2] Pierre Curie UNKNOWN
source: http://www.espci.fr/esp/MUSE/ima
ge002.gif
120 YBN
[1880 AD] 7 		5839) An artificial muscle.4 5
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p502-504.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p502-504.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p502-504.
4. ^ W. C. Röntgen,
"Ueber die durch Electricität
bewirkten Form- und Volumenänderungen
von dielectrischen Körpern", Annalen
der Physik, Volume 247, Issue 13, pages
771–786,
1880. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/do
i/10.1002/andp.18802471304/abstract {Ro
ntgen_Wilhelm_Conrad_188009xx.pdf}
English: "About the changes in shape
and volume of dielectrics caused by
electricity"
5. ^
http://electrochem.cwru.edu/encycl/art-p
02-elact-pol.htm
6. ^ W. C. Röntgen, "Ueber die durch
Electricität bewirkten Form- und
Volumenänderungen von dielectrischen
Körpern", Annalen der Physik, Volume
247, Issue 13, pages 771–786,
1880. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/do
i/10.1002/andp.18802471304/abstract {Ro
ntgen_Wilhelm_Conrad_188009xx.pdf}
English: "About the changes in shape
and volume of dielectrics caused by
electricity"
7. ^ W. C. Röntgen, "Ueber die durch
Electricität bewirkten Form- und
Volumenänderungen von dielectrischen
Körpern", Annalen der Physik, Volume
247, Issue 13, pages 771–786,
1880. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/do
i/10.1002/andp.18802471304/abstract {Ro
ntgen_Wilhelm_Conrad_188009xx.pdf}
English: "About the changes in shape
and volume of dielectrics caused by
electricity" {09/1880}

MORE INFO
[1] "Roentgen, Wilhelm Konrad." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 20 Mar. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/wilhelm-con
rad-r-ntgen
[2] "Roentgen, Wilhelm Konrad."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 20 Mar. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/wilhelm-con
rad-r-ntgen
[3] "Roentgen, Wilhelm Konrad." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 20 Mar. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/wilhelm-con
rad-r-ntgen
[4] "Wilhelm Konrad Röntgen".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelm_Kon
rad_R%C3%B6ntgen
[5] "Rontgen rays". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Rontgen_
rays
[6] W. C. Röntgen, "Ueber die durch
Bewegung eines im homogenen
electrischen Felde befindlichen
Dielectricums hervorgerufene
electrodynamische Kraft", Ann. Phys.
Chem. 35, 264-270
(1888). http://www3.interscience.wiley.
com/cgi-bin/fulltext/112488000/PDFSTART
[7] W. C. Röntgen, "Beschreibung des
Apparates, mit welchem die Versuche
über die electrodynamische Wirkung
bewegter Dielectrica ausgeführt
wurden", Annalen der Physik und Chemie,
Volume 276, Issue 5, Date: 1890, Pages:
93-108. http://www3.interscience.wiley.
com/cgi-bin/fulltext/112506815/PDFSTART
[8] "Röntgen, Wilhelm Conrad."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 20
Mar. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9083
885>
[9] "Röntgen (Roentgen), Wilhelm
Conrad", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000),
p751-752
(University of Giessen) Giessen,
Germany6  
[1] Figures 1 and 2 from: W. C.
Röntgen, ''Ueber die durch
Electricität bewirkten Form- und
Volumenänderungen von dielectrischen
Körpern'', Annalen der Physik, Volume
247, Issue 13, pages 771–786,
1880. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/do
i/10.1002/andp.18802471304/abstract {Ro
ntgen_Wilhelm_Conrad_188009xx.pdf}
English: ''About the changes in
shape and volume of dielectrics caused
by electricity'' PD
source: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/d
oi/10.1002/andp.18802471304/abstract

[2] English: Photo of Wilhelm Conrad
Röntgen. Cleaned up version of
http://images.google.com/hosted/life/l?i
mgurl=6b3da250c6b5560f Source
unknown source Date 1900 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/71/Roentgen2.jpg
120 YBN
[1880 AD] 		6577) Slavery is ended.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "slavery". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2013. Web. 24 Feb.
2013 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/548305/slavery/24160/Ways-of-end
ing-slavery>.
2. ^ "slavery". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2013. Web. 24 Feb.
2013 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/548305/slavery/24160/Ways-of-end
ing-slavery>.
 
[1] Two Full pages from the Illustrated
London News dated 1861, an illustrated
weekly newspaper weeks date as shown on
top of page, the size of each page is
approx ( including margins as shown
)imately 11 x 16 inches (280x410). All
are genuine antique prints and not
modern copies, the Illustrated London
News is an illustrated magazine which
was first printed in 1842 and is the
finest pictorial example of a historic
social record of British and world
events up to the present day PD
source: http://www.old-print.com/mas_ass
ets/full2/P1380861/P1380861139.jpg

[2] {ULSF: Slave auction} PD
source: http://striking-women.org/sites/
striking-women.org/files/slave%20market%
20in%20virginia.jpg
119 YBN
[01/05/1881 AD] 4 5 		3608) The electronic camera and
electronic image. An image is captured
and sent electronically.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Shelford Bidwell,
"Tele-Photography", Nature, Volume 23,
Number 589, 10 February 1881,
pp333-356. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v23/n589/index.html {Bidwell_S
helford_1881_023344a0.pdf}
2. ^ Shelford Bidwell,
"Tele-Photography", Nature, Volume 23,
Number 589, 10 February 1881,
pp333-356. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v23/n589/index.html {Bidwell_S
helford_1881_023344a0.pdf}
3. ^
http://www.ingenious.org.uk/See/?target=
SeeMedium&ObjectID={362EAEAA-D808-2BE4-8
8E7-CAB0D5B92C95}&s=S1&SearchString=bidw
ell&source=Search&viewby=images&
4. ^ Shelford Bidwell,
"Tele-Photography", Nature, Volume 23,
Number 589, 10 February 1881,
pp333-356. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v23/n589/index.html {Bidwell_S
helford_1881_023344a0.pdf} {01/05/1881}
5. ^
http://www.hffax.de/html/hauptteil_faxhi
story.htm {1881}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://books.google.com/books?id=wNURAAA
AYAAJ&pg=PA546&dq=Shelford+Bidwell+photo
telegraphy&as_brr=1&ei=aHrZSMyOLpGgswOOu
uTeDg#PPA546,M1
[2] Marcus J. Martin, "The Electrical
Transmission of Photographs", Sir I.
Pitman & sons, ltd.,
1921. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Aw9IAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA12&dq=Shelford+Bidwell
+phototelegraphy&as_brr=1&ei=aHrZSMyOLpG
gswOOuuTeDg#PPA12,M1
[3] "Electricity". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Electric
ity
[4] "Telegraph". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Telegrap
h
[5] "Shelford Bidwell". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shelford_Bi
dwell
[6] Shelford Bidwell, "Telegraphic
Photography and Electric Vision",
Nature, Volume 78 Number 2014 pp97-120,
(04 June 1908),
p105. http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v78/n2014/index.html http://www.nat
ure.com/nature/journal/v78/n2014/pdf/078
105a0.pdf
London, England3 (presumably) 
[1] Image of gas flame focused on
transmitter figure 3 PD/Corel
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v23/n589/pdf/023344a0.pdf

[2] Image as reproduced by receiver
figure 4 PD/Corel
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v23/n589/pdf/023344a0.pdf
119 YBN
[1881 AD] 8 9 10 		4157) Light is found to have the same
speed in any direction horizontal to
the Earth; this causes doubt about the
existence of an aether medium and about
the wave theory for light.1 2 3 4 5
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p540-542.
2. ^ "Michelson,
A.A.." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 6 Nov.
2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9052
478>.
3. ^ "Michelson, Albert Abraham."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 9. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 371-374. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 6
Nov. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p543-544.
5. ^ Albert A.
Michelson, "The relative motion of the
Earth and the Luminiferous ether", The
American Journal of Science, Volume
122, 1881,
p120. http://books.google.com/books?id=
S_kQAAAAIAAJ&pg=120
6. ^ "Michelson, A.A.." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 6 Nov. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9052
478>.
7. ^ "Michelson, Albert Abraham."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 9. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 371-374. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 6
Nov. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
8. ^ Albert A. Michelson, "The relative
motion of the Earth and the
Luminiferous ether", The American
Journal of Science, Volume 122, 1881,
p120. http://books.google.com/books?id=
S_kQAAAAIAAJ&pg=120
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p540-542. {1881}
10. ^
"Michelson, A.A.." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 6 Nov. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9052
478>. {1881}

MORE INFO
[1] "Albert Abraham Michelson." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 07 Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/albert-abra
ham-michelson
[2] "Albert Abraham Michelson."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 07 Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/albert-abra
ham-michelson
[3] "Albert Abraham Michelson".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Abra
ham_Michelson
[4]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1907/michelson-bio.html
[5] Albert Michelson, "Interference
phenomena in a new form of
refractometer", Philosophical magazine.
1882, volume: 13 issue: 81 page:
236 http://books.google.com/books?id=4J
AOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA236&dq=intitle:philosoph
ical+intitle:Magazine+date:1882-1882+int
erference#v=onepage&q=intitle%3Aphilosop
hical%20intitle%3AMagazine%20date%3A1882
-1882%20interference&f=false
and http://books.google.com/books?id=HP
cQAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editio
ns:0ocaawEfuqDVXP3-kAaE4N&lr=#v=onepage&
q=michelson&f=false
[6] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p478
[7] Albert Michelson,
"Interference Phenomena in a new Form
of Refractometer", Philosophical
Magazine, 1882,
p236. http://books.google.com/books?id=
4JAOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA236&dq=intitle:philoso
phical+intitle:Magazine+date:1882-1882+i
nterference#v=onepage&q=intitle%3Aphilos
ophical%20intitle%3AMagazine%20date%3A18
82-1882%20interference&f=false
(University of Berlin) Berlin, Germany6
7  
[1] Figure from Michelson's 1881
paper PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=S_kQAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edi
tions:0ocaawEfuqDVXP3-kAaE4N&lr=#v=onepa
ge&q=michelson&f=false

[2] Description Albert Abraham
Michelson2.jpg Photograph of Nobel
Laureate Albert Abraham
Michelson. Date 2006-09-27
(original upload date) Source
Photograph is a higher quality
version of the public domain image
available from
AstroLab http://astro-canada.ca/_en/pho
to690.php?a4313_michelson1 PD
source: Michelson_Albert_Abraham_Michels
on2.jpg
118 YBN
[03/24/1882 AD] 14 15 		3620) The first invisible frequency
light particle communication. The first
radio communication. The sending and
receiving of a message using light
particles by electrical induction.10 11
12
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ John Joseph Fahie, "A History of
Wireless Telegraphy", Dodd, Mead & Co.,
1902,
p.94-100. http://books.google.com/books
?hl=en&id=WE41AAAAMAAJ&dq=A+History+of+W
ireless+Telegraphy&printsec=frontcover&s
ource=web&ots=08aQE8FQHe&sig=0AB8rC1DTmK
fhhsRE55cYSIq2PM&sa=X&oi=book_result&res
num=2&ct=result#PPA98,M1
2. ^ A. E. Dolbear, "Mode of Electric
Communication", Patent number: 350299,
Issue date: Oct 5,
1886. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
Pc9cAAAAEBAJ
3. ^ A. E. Dolbear, "Electric
Communication Without Wires",
Scientific American Supplement, Number
571, 12/11/1886,
p9119. http://books.google.com/books?id
=_jEiAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA9119
4. ^ John Joseph Fahie, "A History of
Wireless Telegraphy", Dodd, Mead & Co.,
1902,
p.94-100. http://books.google.com/books
?hl=en&id=WE41AAAAMAAJ&dq=A+History+of+W
ireless+Telegraphy&printsec=frontcover&s
ource=web&ots=08aQE8FQHe&sig=0AB8rC1DTmK
fhhsRE55cYSIq2PM&sa=X&oi=book_result&res
num=2&ct=result#PPA98,M1
5. ^ A. E. Dolbear, "Mode of Electric
Communication", Patent number: 350299,
Issue date: Oct 5,
1886. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
Pc9cAAAAEBAJ
6. ^ A. E. Dolbear, "Electric
Communication Without Wires",
Scientific American Supplement, Number
571, 12/11/1886,
p9119. http://books.google.com/books?id
=_jEiAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA9119
7. ^ John Joseph Fahie, "A History of
Wireless Telegraphy", Dodd, Mead & Co.,
1902,
p.94-100. http://books.google.com/books
?hl=en&id=WE41AAAAMAAJ&dq=A+History+of+W
ireless+Telegraphy&printsec=frontcover&s
ource=web&ots=08aQE8FQHe&sig=0AB8rC1DTmK
fhhsRE55cYSIq2PM&sa=X&oi=book_result&res
num=2&ct=result#PPA98,M1
8. ^ A. E. Dolbear, "Mode of Electric
Communication", Patent number: 350299,
Issue date: Oct 5,
1886. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
Pc9cAAAAEBAJ
9. ^ A. E. Dolbear, "Electric
Communication Without Wires",
Scientific American Supplement, Number
571, 12/11/1886,
p9119. http://books.google.com/books?id
=_jEiAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA9119
10. ^ John Joseph Fahie, "A History of
Wireless Telegraphy", Dodd, Mead & Co.,
1902,
p.94-100. http://books.google.com/books
?hl=en&id=WE41AAAAMAAJ&dq=A+History+of+W
ireless+Telegraphy&printsec=frontcover&s
ource=web&ots=08aQE8FQHe&sig=0AB8rC1DTmK
fhhsRE55cYSIq2PM&sa=X&oi=book_result&res
num=2&ct=result#PPA98,M1
11. ^ A. E. Dolbear, "Mode of Electric
Communication", Patent number: 350299,
Issue date: Oct 5,
1886. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
Pc9cAAAAEBAJ
12. ^ A. E. Dolbear, "Electric
Communication Without Wires",
Scientific American Supplement, Number
571, 12/11/1886,
p9119. http://books.google.com/books?id
=_jEiAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA9119
13. ^ A. E. Dolbear, "Mode of Electric
Communication", Patent number: 350299,
Issue date: Oct 5,
1886. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
Pc9cAAAAEBAJ
14. ^ A. E. Dolbear, "Mode of Electric
Communication", Patent number: 350299,
Issue date: Oct 5,
1886. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
Pc9cAAAAEBAJ
15. ^ John Joseph Fahie, "A History of
Wireless Telegraphy", Dodd, Mead & Co.,
1902,
p.94-100. http://books.google.com/books
?hl=en&id=WE41AAAAMAAJ&dq=A+History+of+W
ireless+Telegraphy&printsec=frontcover&s
ource=web&ots=08aQE8FQHe&sig=0AB8rC1DTmK
fhhsRE55cYSIq2PM&sa=X&oi=book_result&res
num=2&ct=result#PPA98,M1 {1882}

MORE INFO
[1] Dolbear, A.E. �On the
Development of a New Telephonic
System.� Telegraph Engineers and of
Electricians, Journal of the Society of
11.41 (1882):
130�144. books.google.com/books?id=nB
E4AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA130
(employed at Tuft's College)
Sommerville, Massachusetts, USA13
 
[1] A. E. Dolbear, ''Mode of Electric
Communication'', Patent number: 350299,
Issue date: Oct 5,
1886. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
Pc9cAAAAEBAJ PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=Pc9cAAAAEBAJ

[2] From Scientific American
Supplement, December 11, 1886 PD/Corel

source: http://books.google.com/books?hl
=en&id=WE41AAAAMAAJ&dq=A+History+of+Wire
less+Telegraphy&printsec=frontcover&sour
ce=web&ots=08aQE8FQHe&sig=0AB8rC1DTmKfhh
sRE55cYSIq2PM&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum
=2&ct=result#PPA98,M1
115 YBN
[1885 AD] 3 		6604) The first steel-framed building.1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Oxlade, C. Skyscrapers. HEINEMANN
- USA, 2006. Building Amazing
Structures Series,
p7. http://books.google.com/books?id=d2
lW2gtQ3bUC&pg=PA7
2. ^ Oxlade, C. Skyscrapers. HEINEMANN
- USA, 2006. Building Amazing
Structures Series,
p7. http://books.google.com/books?id=d2
lW2gtQ3bUC&pg=PA7
3. ^ Oxlade, C. Skyscrapers. HEINEMANN
- USA, 2006. Building Amazing
Structures Series,
p7. http://books.google.com/books?id=d2
lW2gtQ3bUC&pg=PA7
Chicago, Illinois, USA2  
[1] The first skyscraper, the Home
Insurance Building. UNKNOWN
source: http://chicagopubliclibrary.tumb
lr.com/image/197902876

[2] Description English: Exterior
of the Home Insurance Building by
architect William Le Baron Jenney in
Chicago, Illinois. Date 1884 Source
US-LibraryOfCongress-BookLogo.svg
This image is available from the
United States Library of Congress's
National Digital Library Program under
the digital ID mhsalad.250058. This
tag does not indicate the copyright
status of the attached work. A normal
copyright tag is still required. See
Commons:Licensing for more
information. العربية
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/38/Home_Insurance_Buildi
ng.JPG
114 YBN
[07/27/1886 AD] 8 9 10 		4096) Positively charged ion beams are
discovered ("Kanalstrahlen" or "channel
rays").1 2 3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Goldstein, "Über eine noch nicht
untersuchte Strahlungsform an der
Kathode inducirter Entladungeń", in
Sitzungsberichie der Königlichen
Akademie der Wissenschaften zu
Berlin,39 (1886),
691. http://books.google.com/books?id=v
UsVAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA457&dq=%C3%9Cber+eine+n
och+nicht+untersuchte+Strahlungsform+an+
der+Kathode+inducirter+Entladunge%C5%84#
v=onepage&q=&f=false
2. ^ E. Goldstein, "On the Canal Ray
Group", Phil Mag,S6, V15, N87,March
1908,
p372. http://books.google.com/books?id=
f_dbTfAUVZEC&pg=PA372&dq=intitle:Philoso
phical+Goldstein&lr=&as_brr=1#v=onepage&
q=intitle%3APhilosophical%20Goldstein&f=
false
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p525.
4. ^ Thomson, J. J.,
"On Rays of Positive Electricity",
Phil. Mag., S6, V13, N77, May 1907,
p561. books.google.com/books?id=vVjKOdk
tZhsC&pg=PA561
5. ^ Califano, S. Pathways to Modern
Chemical Physics. Springer Berlin
Heidelberg, 2012. SpringerLink?:
B�cher,
p112. http://books.google.com/books?id=
s-sCt4RT0bMC&pg=PA112
6. ^ Dick, W.R., and K. Fritze. 300
Jahre Astronomie in Berlin Und Potsdam:
Eine Sammlung Von Aufs�tzen Aus
Anlass Des Gr�ndungsjubil�ums Der
Berliner Sternwarte. Deutsch Harri
GmbH, 2000. Acta Historica Astronomiae,
p186. http://books.google.com/books?id=
F-PyBbBVLzkC&pg=PA247
7. ^ Goldstein, "Über eine noch nicht
untersuchte Strahlungsform an der
Kathode inducirter Entladungeń", in
Sitzungsberichie der Königlichen
Akademie der Wissenschaften zu
Berlin,39 (1886),
691. http://books.google.com/books?id=v
UsVAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA457&dq=%C3%9Cber+eine+n
och+nicht+untersuchte+Strahlungsform+an+
der+Kathode+inducirter+Entladunge%C5%84#
v=onepage&q=&f=false
8. ^ Goldstein, "Über eine noch nicht
untersuchte Strahlungsform an der
Kathode inducirter Entladungeń", in
Sitzungsberichie der Königlichen
Akademie der Wissenschaften zu
Berlin,39 (1886),
691. http://books.google.com/books?id=v
UsVAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA457&dq=%C3%9Cber+eine+n
och+nicht+untersuchte+Strahlungsform+an+
der+Kathode+inducirter+Entladunge%C5%84#
v=onepage&q=&f=false {07/27/1886}
9. ^ "Goldstein,
Eugen." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 5. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 458-459.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 9
Oct. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>. {1886}
10. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p525. {1886}

MORE INFO
[1] "Goldstein, Eugen."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 9 Oct.
2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9037
282>
[2] "Eugen Goldstein." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 09 Oct.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/eugen-golds
tein
[3] "Eugen Goldstein". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eugen_Golds
tein
[4] Monatsberichte der Königlichen
Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin
(1876), 284
[5] Sir Joseph John Thomson,
Rays of positive electricity and their
application to chemical analyses,
1921. http://books.google.com/books?id=
tcxAAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA1&dq=%C3%9Cber+eine+no
ch+nicht+untersuchte+Strahlungsform+an+d
er+Kathode+inducirter+Entladunge%C5%84#v
=onepage&q=&f=false
[6] Thomason, "Rays of Positive
Electricity", Nature, Vol 79, Num 2037,
11/12/1908,
p52. http://books.google.com/books?id=O
tYRAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA52&dq=intitle:Nature+Ka
nalstrahlen#v=onepage&q=intitle%3ANature
%20Kanalstrahlen&f=false
(Potsdam Observatory) Berlin, Germany5
6 7  
[1] Goldstein, ''Über eine noch nicht
untersuchte Strahlungsform an der
Kathode inducirter Entladungeń'', in
Sitzungsberichie der Königlichen
Akademie der Wissenschaften zu
Berlin,39 (1886),
691. http://books.google.com/books?id=v
UsVAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA457 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=vUsVAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA457

[2] Figure 2 from Goldstein's 1886
paper PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=vUsVAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA457&dq=%C3%9Cber+eine
+noch+nicht+untersuchte+Strahlungsform+a
n+der+Kathode+inducirter+Entladunge%C5%8
4#v=onepage&q=&f=false
113 YBN
[03/04/1887 AD] 4 5 		3713) The gasoline internal combustion
engine car.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Oil Engine". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Oil_Engi
ne
2. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p359.
3. ^ "Gottlieb Daimler." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
26 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gottlieb-da
imler
4. ^ "Oil Engine". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Oil_Engi
ne {03/04/1887}
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p467-468. {1887}

MORE INFO
[1] "Daimler, Gottlieb."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 26
Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9028
558>
[2] "Gottlieb Daimler." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 26 Dec.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gottlieb-da
imler
[3] "Motor Vehicles". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Motor_Ve
hicles
[4] James Edward Homans, James Edward
Homans, 1865-, "Self-propelled
Vehicles: A Practical Treatise on the
Theory, Construction, Operation, Care
and Management of All Forms of
Automobiles", T. Audel & Company,
1904. http://books.google.com/books?id=
PsoNAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA297&dq=daimler&as_brr=
1&ei=9HRVSeuvIJSokATWrLnzBA#PPA297,M1
[5] Dugald Clerk, "The Gas Engine",
Scientific American Supplement (Vol.
19, #484: April 11,
1885) http://onlinebooks.library.upenn.
edu/webbin/gutbook/lookup?num=13939 and
also
http://www.a1nethost.com/american/scie
ntific-american/484/00.htm#3
[6] William Robinson, "Gas and
Petroleum Engines: A Practical Treatise
on the Internal Combustion ...",
http://books.google.com/books?id=8e9MA
AAAMAAJ&pg=PA103&lpg=PA103&dq=%22robert+
street%22+patent+engine&source=web&ots=z
XhunpMWQn&sig=OK3zL_tlF9en_5S83tLJ0kuNyV
I&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&ct=
result#PPA102,M1
(factory) Stuttgart, Germany3  
[1] Gottlieb Daimler’s First
Automobile (March 8, 1886) ©
Bildarchiv Preußischer
Kulturbesitz COPYRIGHTED
source: http://germanhistorydocs.ghi-dc.
org/images/20007006-r.jpg

[2] First motorcycle by Gottlieb
Daimler and Wilhelm Maybach (1885) (see
de:Deutsches Zweirad- und NSU-Museum),
2006, by J. Köhler Description
First motorcycle called
''Reitwagen'' by Gottlieb Daimler and
Wilhelm Maybach (1885) (264 cm³,
Einzylinder-Viertakt-Motor, 0,5 PS,
Glührohrzündung,
Luftkühlung) Source Photo taken by
myself Date 28. December
2006 Author Joachim
Köhler Permission (Reusing this
image) By courtesy of ''Deutsches
Zweirad- und NSU-Museum'' (e-Mail
17.08.2006 13:14) - With many thanks to
Ms. Dumas & Ms. Grams GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b3/ZweiRadMuseumNSU_Reit
wagen.JPG
113 YBN
[03/??/1887 AD] 4 		4285) The phenomenon of electrical
resonance is discovered (this allows
specific frequencies of light to be
singled out which improves radio
communication1 ).2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ H. Hertz, "Ueber sehr
schnelle electrische Schwingungen",
Annalen der Physik, Volume 267 (V. 31)
Issue 7, March 1887, Pages 421 -
448. http://books.google.com/books?id=W
hY4AAAAMAAJ and
http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/jou
rnal/112507534/abstract
and http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/
cgi-bin/fulltext/112507534/PDFSTART {He
rtz_Heinrich_188703xx.pdf} English
Translation: Heinrich Hertz, tr: D.
E. Jones, "On Very Rapid Oscillations",
Electric Waves, 1893, 1962,
p29. http://books.google.com/books?id=E
JdAAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=intit
le:electric+intitle:waves&lr=&as_drrb_is
=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1893&as_maxm_
is=0&as_maxy_is=1893&as_brr=0&cd=1#v=one
page&q&f=false
3. ^ H. Hertz, "Ueber sehr schnelle
electrische Schwingungen", Annalen der
Physik, Volume 267 (V. 31) Issue 7,
March 1887, Pages 421 -
448. http://books.google.com/books?id=W
hY4AAAAMAAJ and
http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/jou
rnal/112507534/abstract
and http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/
cgi-bin/fulltext/112507534/PDFSTART {He
rtz_Heinrich_188703xx.pdf} English
Translation: Heinrich Hertz, tr: D.
E. Jones, "On Very Rapid Oscillations",
Electric Waves, 1893, 1962,
p29. http://books.google.com/books?id=E
JdAAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=intit
le:electric+intitle:waves&lr=&as_drrb_is
=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1893&as_maxm_
is=0&as_maxy_is=1893&as_brr=0&cd=1#v=one
page&q&f=false
4. ^ H. Hertz, "Ueber sehr schnelle
electrische Schwingungen", Annalen der
Physik, Volume 267 (V. 31) Issue 7,
March 1887, Pages 421 -
448. http://books.google.com/books?id=W
hY4AAAAMAAJ
and http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/
journal/112507534/abstract
and http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/
cgi-bin/fulltext/112507534/PDFSTART {He
rtz_Heinrich_188703xx.pdf} English
Translation: Heinrich Hertz, tr: D.
E. Jones, "On Very Rapid Oscillations",
Electric Waves, 1893, 1962,
p29. http://books.google.com/books?id=E
JdAAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=intit
le:electric+intitle:waves&lr=&as_drrb_is
=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1893&as_maxm_
is=0&as_maxy_is=1893&as_brr=0&cd=1#v=one
page&q&f=false {03/1887}

MORE INFO
[1] "Heinrich Rudolf Hertz."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 07 Apr. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/heinrich-ru
dolf-hertz
[2] "Heinrich Rudolf Hertz." The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com 07 Apr. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/heinrich-ru
dolf-hertz
[3] "Heinrich Rudolf Hertz." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2010. Answers.com 07 Apr. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/heinrich-ru
dolf-hertz
[4] http://www.ur5eaw.com/Hertz.html
[5] Hertz, Heinrich, 1857-1894;
Jones, Daniel Evan, b. 1863; Schott,
George Adolphus, 1868- tr,
"Miscellaneous papers",
1896. http://www.archive.org/details/cu
31924012500306
and http://books.google.com/books?id=5W
0OAAAAIAAJ&q=Miscellaneous+papers+hertz&
dq=Miscellaneous+papers+hertz&hl=en&ei=W
ujES-uALYn-tQPTxpj0DQ&sa=X&oi=book_resul
t&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CDgQ6AEwAA
[6] "Heinrich Rudolf Hertz".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Heinrich
_Rudolf_Hertz
[7] Heinrich Hertz, Daniel Evan Jones,
"Electric waves: being researches on
the propagation of electric action with
finite velocity through space.",
1893. http://books.google.com/books?id=
EJdAAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Elec
tric+Waves+hertz&source=bl&ots=Av7VeelDo
1&sig=CmRSHstHdB9ihOKQYMZ50T69-q0&hl=en&
ei=u-vES_n0J4aysgPloeDwDA&sa=X&oi=book_r
esult&ct=result&resnum=7&ved=0CCoQ6AEwBg
#v=onepage&q&f=false
[8] Wiedemann, Ebert, "On the Effect of
Light on the Electric Discharge", The
Electrical world, Volumes
11-12 http://books.google.com/books?id=
zYVMAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA123&dq=hertz++An+effec
t+of+ultraviolet+light+on+electrical+dis
charge&hl=en&ei=2vLES9fqKJOmswPOwfSCDQ&s
a=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ve
d=0CEgQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=hertz&f=false
[9] H. Hertz. "Ueber einen Einfluss des
ultravioletten Lichtes auf die
electrische Entladung", ("An effect of
ultraviolet light on electrical
discharge"), Annalen der Physik und
Chemie, Volume 267 (Vol 33), Issue 8,
Date: 1887, Pages:
983-1000. http://www3.interscience.wile
y.com/journal/112487894/abstract and
http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi
-bin/fulltext/112487894/PDFSTART Englis
h translation: Heinrich Hertz, tr: D.
E. Jones, "Electric Waves", 1893, 1962,
p63. http://books.google.com/books?id=E
JdAAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=intit
le:electric+intitle:waves&lr=&as_drrb_is
=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1893&as_maxm_
is=0&as_maxy_is=1893&as_brr=0&cd=1#v=one
page&q&f=false Summary in
English: "Influence of Ultra-Violet
Light on the Electric Discharge",
Journal of the Chemical Society:
Transactions, Volume 54, Part 1,
p13. http://books.google.com/books?id=l
dY4AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA13&dq=hertz&lr=&as_drrb
_is=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1887&as_ma
xm_is=0&as_maxy_is=1888&as_brr=0&cd=1#v=
onepage&q=hertz&f=false
[10] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p. 564-565
(University of Karlsruhe) Karlsruhe,
Germany3  
[1] Figure 6 from Hertz's March 1893
paper ''On Very Rapid
Oscillations'' PD
source: Heinrich Hertz, tr: D. E.
Jones, "Electric Waves", 1893, 1962.

[2] Figure 7 from Hertz's March 1893
paper ''On Very Rapid
Oscillations'' PD
source: Heinrich Hertz, tr: D. E.
Jones, "Electric Waves", 1893, 1962.
113 YBN
[10/12/1887 AD] 8 9 10 		4245) The alternating current electric
motor.1 2 3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Tesla, Nikola." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 13. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 286-287. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 22 Feb.
2010. http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&
id=GALE%7CCX2830904270&v=2.1&u=univca20&
it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
2. ^ "Tesla, Nikola." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 22 Feb. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9071
814>.
3. ^ Tesla patent 391,968
10/12/1887 ELECTRO-MAGNETIC
MOTOR http://www.google.com/patents?id=
z5FhAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&f
=false
4. ^ Tesla Patent 381968
10/12/1887 http://www.google.com/patent
s?id=z5FhAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom
=4&source=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage
&q=&f=false {10/12/1887 (verify this is
the correct patent}
5. ^ "Tesla, Nikola."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 13. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 286-287. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 22 Feb.
2010. http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&
id=GALE%7CCX2830904270&v=2.1&u=univca20&
it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
6. ^ "Tesla, Nikola." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 22 Feb. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9071
814>.
7. ^ "Tesla, Nikola." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 13. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 286-287. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 22 Feb.
2010. http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&
id=GALE%7CCX2830904270&v=2.1&u=univca20&
it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
8. ^ Tesla Patent 381968
10/12/1887 http://www.google.com/patent
s?id=z5FhAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom
=4&source=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage
&q=&f=false {10/12/1887 (verify this is
the correct patent}
9. ^ "Tesla, Nikola."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 22 Feb. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9071
814>. {1883}
10. ^ "Tesla, Nikola." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 13. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 286-287. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 22 Feb.
2010. http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&
id=GALE%7CCX2830904270&v=2.1&u=univca20&
it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {1883}

MORE INFO
[1] "Nikola Tesla." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
22 Feb. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/nikola-tesl
a
[2] "Nikola Tesla." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 22 Feb. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/nikola-tesl
a
[3] list of Tesla's
patents: http://www.tfcbooks.com/mall/m
ore/317ntcp.htm
[4] Tesla Patent 334,823 Commutator
For Dynamo-Electric
machines http://www.google.com/patents?
id=Tm1BAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4
&source=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q
=&f=false
[5] Tesla Patent 336,961 REGULATOR FOR
DYNAMO-ELECTRIC
MACHINES http://www.google.com/patents?
id=jk5EAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4
&source=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q
=&f=false
[6]
http://www.teslauniverse.com/timeline-18
61?PHPSESSID=3ejd9q8tm4gpsn4np06imifoe5;
#goto-1883
[7] Tesla patent
11/30/1887 ELECTRO-MAGNETIC
MOTOR http://www.google.com/patents?id=
0JFhAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&f
=false
[8] http://www.pbs.org/tesla/index.html
(Tesla's private lab) New York City,
NY, USA4 5 |(earlier claim
of)Strasbourg, France6 7  
[1] Image from Tesla patent 391,968
submitted: 10/12/1887 ELECTRO-MAGNETIC
MOTOR http://www.google.com/patents?id=
z5FhAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&f
=false PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=z5FhAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&
f=false

[2] Description Tesla
young.jpg English: The image of
en:Nikola Tesla (1856-1943) at age
23. Date image dated: circa
1878 original upload date:
2005-12-02 transfer date: 17:03, 29
July 2008 (UTC) Source Original
downloaded from
http://www.tesla-symp06.org/nikola_tesla
.htm Author Original uploader was
Antidote at en.wikipedia Transferred
from en.wikipedia by
User:emerson7. Permission (Reusing
this file) This image is in the public
domain PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/60/Tesla_young.jpg
113 YBN
[1887 AD] 6 		4369) The electricity of a heart beat
is measured and recorded.3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Augustus D. Waller, "A
Demonstration on Man of Electromotive
Changes accompanying the Heart's Beat",
J Physiol. 1887 October; 8(5):
229–234. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
pmc/articles/PMC1485094/?page=1 {Waller
_Augustus_electrocardiograph_1887.pdf}
2. ^ Burch, G.E., and N.P. DePasquale.
The History of Electrocardiography.
Norman Pub., 1964. Norman Cardiology
Series, No
1. http://books.google.com/books?id=_w9
v_ZkzTZoC&pg=PA28
3. ^ Augustus D. Waller, "A
Demonstration on Man of Electromotive
Changes accompanying the Heart's Beat",
J Physiol. 1887 October; 8(5):
229–234. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
pmc/articles/PMC1485094/?page=1 {Waller
_Augustus_electrocardiograph_1887.pdf}
4. ^ Burch, G.E., and N.P. DePasquale.
The History of Electrocardiography.
Norman Pub., 1964. Norman Cardiology
Series, No
1. http://books.google.com/books?id=_w9
v_ZkzTZoC&pg=PA28
5. ^
http://www.hrsonline.org/news/ep-history
/notable-figures/augustuswaller.cfm
6. ^ Augustus D. Waller, "A
Demonstration on Man of Electromotive
Changes accompanying the Heart's Beat",
J Physiol. 1887 October; 8(5):
229–234. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
pmc/articles/PMC1485094/?page=1 {Waller
_Augustus_electrocardiograph_1887.pdf}

MORE INFO
[1] "A. D. Waller Obituary",
Nature, Vol 109, N2735, April 1, 1922,
p
418. http://books.google.com/books?id=x
vARAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA418&lpg=PA418&dq=obitua
ry+einthoven+intitle:nature&source=bl&ot
s=ku9EmPPB1V&sig=WZRcbRFA9qoQo4ip0qYobAQ
rYLk&hl=en&ei=1Wz9S6riB4XENr_F3d4H&sa=X&
oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0C
CMQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=obituary%20einthov
en%20intitle%3Anature&f=false
[2] "Augustus Desiré Waller".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augustus_De
sir%C3%A9_Waller
[3]
http://caribbean.scielo.org/scielo.php?s
cript=sci_arttext&pid=S0043-314420050003
00012&lng=en&nrm=
(St. Mary's Hospital) London, England5
 
[1] Figure 1 from Waller 1887 paper PD

source: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/
articles/PMC1485094/pdf/jphysiol02445-00
01.pdf

[2] Image of Augustus Waller part of
same image
at: http://www.hrsonline.org/news/ep-hi
story/notable-figures/augustuswaller.cfm
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.nyteknik.se/multimedi
a/archive/00033/Jimmie-och-Augustus-_330
47a.jpg
112 YBN
[02/02/1888 AD] 3 		4288) Light interference between two
radio sources is demonstrated.
Electrical induction is confirmed to
have the speed of light.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ H. Hertz, "Ueber die
Ausbreitungsgeschwindigkeit der
electrodynamischen Wirkungen", Annalen
der Physik, Volume 270 Issue 7,
p551-569. books.google.com/books?id=_D0
bAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA551
AND http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/
cgi-bin/fulltext/112488021/PDFSTART Eng
lish translation: Heinrich Hertz, tr:
D. E. Jones, "On the Finite Velocity of
Electromagnetic Actions", "Electric
Waves", 1893, 1962,
p59. http://books.google.com/books?id=E
JdAAAAAIAAJ&pg=59
2. ^ H. Hertz, "Ueber die Einwirkung
einer geradlinigen electrischen
Schwingung auf eine benachbarte
Strombahn", Annalen der Physik, Feb
1888,
p155-170. books.google.com/books?id=_D0
bAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA551
AND http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/
cgi-bin/fulltext/112487948/PDFSTART
{Hertz_188802xx.pdf}
3. ^ H. Hertz, "Ueber die
Ausbreitungsgeschwindigkeit der
electrodynamischen Wirkungen", Annalen
der Physik, Volume 270 Issue 7,
p551-569. books.google.com/books?id=_D0
bAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA551
AND http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/
cgi-bin/fulltext/112488021/PDFSTART Eng
lish translation: Heinrich Hertz, tr:
D. E. Jones, "On the Finite Velocity of
Electromagnetic Actions", "Electric
Waves", 1893, 1962,
p107. http://books.google.com/books?id=
EJdAAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=inti
tle:electric+intitle:waves&lr=&as_drrb_i
s=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1893&as_maxm
_is=0&as_maxy_is=1893&as_brr=0&cd=1#v=on
epage&q&f=false {02/02/1888}

MORE INFO
[1] "Hertz, Heinrich."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 7 Apr. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9040
253>
[2] "Heinrich Rudolf Hertz."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 07 Apr. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/heinrich-ru
dolf-hertz
[3] "Heinrich Rudolf Hertz." The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com 07 Apr. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/heinrich-ru
dolf-hertz
[4] "Heinrich Rudolf Hertz." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2010. Answers.com 07 Apr. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/heinrich-ru
dolf-hertz
[5] http://www.ur5eaw.com/Hertz.html
[6] Thomas K. Simpson, "Maxwell and
the Direct Experimental Test of His
Electromagnetic Theory Maxwell and the
Direct Experimental Test of His
Electromagnetic Theory", Isis, Vol. 57,
No. 4 (Winter, 1966), pp.
411-432. http://www.jstor.org/stable/22
8514?&Search=yes&term=hertz&list=hide&se
archUri=%2Faction%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuer
y%3Dhertz%26jc%3Dj100194%26wc%3Don%26Sea
rch.x%3D0%26Search.y%3D0%26Search%3DSear
ch&item=10&ttl=263&returnArticleService=
showArticle
[7] Charles Susskind, "Observations of
Electromagnetic-Wave Radiation before
Hertz", Isis, Vol. 55, No. 1 (Mar.,
1964), pp.
32-42. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2277
53?&Search=yes&term=hertz&list=hide&sear
chUri=%2Faction%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuery%
3Dhertz%26jc%3Dj100194%26wc%3Don%26Searc
h.x%3D0%26Search.y%3D0%26Search%3DSearch
&item=3&ttl=263&returnArticleService=sho
wArticle
[8] Charles Susskind, "Hertz and the
Technological Significance of
Electromagnetic Waves", Isis, Vol. 56,
No. 3 (Autumn, 1965), pp.
342-345. http://www.jstor.org/stable/22
8108?&Search=yes&term=hertz&list=hide&se
archUri=%2Faction%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuer
y%3Dhertz%26jc%3Dj100194%26wc%3Don%26Sea
rch.x%3D0%26Search.y%3D0%26Search%3DSear
ch&item=4&ttl=263&returnArticleService=s
howArticle
[9] "Hertz, Heinrich Rudolf." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 6. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 340-350. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 7 Apr.
2010. http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&
id=GALE%7CCX2830901978&v=2.1&u=univca20&
it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[10] Hertz, Heinrich, 1857-1894; Jones,
Daniel Evan, b. 1863; Schott, George
Adolphus, 1868- tr, "Miscellaneous
papers",
1896. http://www.archive.org/details/cu
31924012500306
and http://books.google.com/books?id=5W
0OAAAAIAAJ&q=Miscellaneous+papers+hertz&
dq=Miscellaneous+papers+hertz&hl=en&ei=W
ujES-uALYn-tQPTxpj0DQ&sa=X&oi=book_resul
t&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CDgQ6AEwAA
[11] "Heinrich Rudolf Hertz".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Heinrich
_Rudolf_Hertz
[12] Heinrich Hertz, Daniel Evan Jones,
"Electric waves: being researches on
the propagation of electric action with
finite velocity through space.",
1893. http://books.google.com/books?id=
EJdAAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Elec
tric+Waves+hertz&source=bl&ots=Av7VeelDo
1&sig=CmRSHstHdB9ihOKQYMZ50T69-q0&hl=en&
ei=u-vES_n0J4aysgPloeDwDA&sa=X&oi=book_r
esult&ct=result&resnum=7&ved=0CCoQ6AEwBg
#v=onepage&q&f=false
[13] H. Hertz. "Ueber einen Einfluss
des ultravioletten Lichtes auf die
electrische Entladung", ("An effect of
ultraviolet light on electrical
discharge"), Annalen der Physik und
Chemie, Volume 267 (Vol 33), Issue 8,
Date: 1887, Pages:
983-1000. http://www3.interscience.wile
y.com/journal/112487894/abstract and
http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi
-bin/fulltext/112487894/PDFSTART Engl
ish translation: Heinrich Hertz, tr:
D. E. Jones, "Electric Waves", 1893,
1962,
p63. http://books.google.com/books?id=E
JdAAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=intit
le:electric+intitle:waves&lr=&as_drrb_is
=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1893&as_maxm_
is=0&as_maxy_is=1893&as_brr=0&cd=1#v=one
page&q&f=false Summary in
English: "Influence of Ultra-Violet
Light on the Electric
Discharge" http://books.google.com/book
s?id=ldY4AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA13&dq=hertz&lr=&a
s_drrb_is=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1887
&as_maxm_is=0&as_maxy_is=1888&as_brr=0&c
d=1#v=onepage&q=hertz&f=false
(University of Karlsruhe) Karlsruhe,
Germany2  
[1] figure from: H. Hertz, ''Ueber die
Ausbreitungsgeschwindigkeit der
electrodynamischen Wirkungen'', Annalen
der Physik, Volume 270 Issue 7,
p551-569. http://www3.interscience.wile
y.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/112488021/PDFSTAR
T English translation: Heinrich
Hertz, tr: D. E. Jones, ''On the Finite
Velocity of Electromagnetic Actions'',
''Electric Waves'', 1893, 1962,
p107. http://books.google.com/books?id=
EJdAAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=inti
tle:electric+intitle:waves&lr=&as_drrb_i
s=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1893&as_maxm
_is=0&as_maxy_is=1893&as_brr=0&cd=1#v=on
epage&q&f=false PD
source: Heinrich Hertz, tr: D. E.
Jones, "On the Finite Velocity of
Electromagnetic Actions", "Electric
Waves", 1893, 1962.

[2] table from: H. Hertz, ''Ueber die
Ausbreitungsgeschwindigkeit der
electrodynamischen Wirkungen'', Annalen
der Physik, Volume 270 Issue 7,
p551-569. http://www3.interscience.wile
y.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/112488021/PDFSTAR
T English translation: Heinrich
Hertz, tr: D. E. Jones, ''On the Finite
Velocity of Electromagnetic Actions'',
''Electric Waves'', 1893, 1962,
p107. http://books.google.com/books?id=
EJdAAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=inti
tle:electric+intitle:waves&lr=&as_drrb_i
s=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1893&as_maxm
_is=0&as_maxy_is=1893&as_brr=0&cd=1#v=on
epage&q&f=false PD
source: Heinrich Hertz, tr: D. E.
Jones, "On the Finite Velocity of
Electromagnetic Actions", "Electric
Waves", 1893, 1962.
111 YBN
[02/16/1889 AD] 3 		211) Electricity is used to restart a
heart beating.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ McWilliam JA (1899). "Electrical
stimulation of the heart in man". Br
Med J 1 (1468): 348�50.
doi:10.1136/bmj.1.1468.348. http://www.
bmj.com/content/1/1468/348 {McWilliam_1
8890216.pdf}
2. ^ McWilliam JA (1899). "Electrical
stimulation of the heart in man". Br
Med J 1 (1468): 348�50.
doi:10.1136/bmj.1.1468.348. http://www.
bmj.com/content/1/1468/348 {McWilliam_1
8890216.pdf}
3. ^ McWilliam JA (1899). "Electrical
stimulation of the heart in man". Br
Med J 1 (1468): 348�50.
doi:10.1136/bmj.1.1468.348. http://www.
bmj.com/content/1/1468/348 {McWilliam_1
8890216.pdf}
(University of Aberdeen) Aberdeen,
Scotland2  
[1] Figure 2 from: McWilliam JA
(1899). ''Electrical stimulation of the
heart in man''. Br Med J 1 (1468):
348–50.
doi:10.1136/bmj.1.1468.348. http://www.
bmj.com/content/1/1468/348 PD
source: http://www.bmj.com/content/1/146
8/348
111 YBN
[03/12/1889 AD] 3 		6255) An automatic telephone exchange
allows people to connect their own
phone calls.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100
Inventions That Shaped World History",
1993, p60.
2. ^ U.S. Patent 447,918 Strowger
switch "Automatic Telephone Exchange"
March 10,
1891 http://www.google.com/patents?id=P
ShCAAAAEBAJ
3. ^ U.S. Patent 447,918 Strowger
switch "Automatic Telephone Exchange"
March 10,
1891 http://www.google.com/patents?id=P
ShCAAAAEBAJ {03/12/1889}
Kansas City, Missouri, USA2  
[1] U.S. Patent 447,918 Strowger switch
''Automatic Telephone Exchange'' March
10,
1891 http://www.google.com/patents?id=P
ShCAAAAEBAJ PD
source: Figure from:
http://www.google.com/patents?id=PShCA
AAAEBAJ

[2] U.S. Patent 447,918 Strowger
switch ''Automatic Telephone Exchange''
March 10,
1891 http://www.google.com/patents?id=P
ShCAAAAEBAJ PD
source: Figure
from: http://www.google.com/patents?id=
PShCAAAAEBAJ
111 YBN
[05/02/1889 AD] 3 		4117) The theory that matter contracts
depending on its velocity relative to
the speed of light.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p530-531.
2. ^ George
FitzGerald, "The Ether and the Earth's
Atmosphere.", Science, Vol 13, Num 328,
1889,
p390. http://books.google.com/books?id=
8IQCAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA378&dq=intitle:science
+date:1889-1889#v=onepage&q=michelson&f=
false
3. ^ George FitzGerald, "The Ether and
the Earth's Atmosphere.", Science, Vol
13, Num 328, 1889,
p390. http://books.google.com/books?id=
8IQCAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA378&dq=intitle:science
+date:1889-1889#v=onepage&q=michelson&f=
false {05/02/1889}

MORE INFO
[1] "FitzGerald, George Francis."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 14
Oct. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9034
429>
[2] "George FitzGerald." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 14 Oct. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-fitz
gerald
[3] "George Francis Fitzgerald".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Fran
cis_Fitzgerald
[4] translated in: H. A. lorentz, A.
Einstein, H. Minkowski, and H. Weyl,
"The Principle of Relativity", 1923
"Michelson's Interference Experiment,",
pp3-7. http://books.google.com/books?id
=yECokhzsJYIC&dq=The+Principle+of+Relati
vity&printsec=frontcover&source=bl&ots=t
QNZxQlfjG&sig=BAnbHCYtDPVgWl4c2gYRscPMrt
I&hl=en&ei=fQbZSrHrAoLusgOA-MyiDA&sa=X&o
i=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CB
MQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=&f=false
Dublin, Ireland2  
[1] George Francis FitzGerald
(1851-1901). Date Unknown, but
1901 or earlier. Source Scanned
from Oliver Heaviside: Sage in Solitude
(ISBN 0-87942-238-6), p. 48. It was
scanned on an Epson Perfection 1250 at
400dpi, reduced to grayscale in
Photoshop, and saved as JPG using the
'Save for Web' optimizer. Originally
uploaded to en.wikipedia on 20:51, 27
July 2004 by Grendelkhan. Author
Unknown. Permission (Reusing
this image) The photograph is
reprinted courtesy of the IEEE in
London (as stated in the credits in the
back of the book, p. 318), but its age
implies that it's public domain. (It
must have been taken in 1901 or
earlier.) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/fa/George_Francis_FitzGe
rald.jpg
111 YBN
[06/21/1889 AD] 18 19 20 21 		4021) The motion picture camera and
projector. Moving images are captured,
stored on plastic film, and projected
onto a screen.13 14 15 16
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Cecil Bembridge, "Moving Pictures
in Colors", Technical World Magazine,
Vol 11, 1909,
p290. http://books.google.com/books?id=
CQfOAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA291&dq=Friese-Greene&a
s_brr=1#v=onepage&q=Friese-Greene&f=fals
e
2. ^ Francis Rolt-Wheeler, "Thomas Alva
Edison", 1915,
p159. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ZKIDAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=thom
as+alva+edison&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=tasi
meter&f=false
3. ^ Ray Allister, pseudonym for Muriel
Forth, "Friese-Greene: Close-up of an
Inventor", Marsland Publications, 1948,
p53-57. {ULSF: copyright on work was
now renewed and so the book is now in
the public domain in the USA. Notice
the pseudonym - perhaps there was fear
of being labeled a "rat"?}
4. ^ Josef Eder,
"History of Photography", 1945, p515.
5. ^
Cecil Bembridge, "Moving Pictures in
Colors", Technical World Magazine, Vol
11, 1909,
p290. http://books.google.com/books?id=
CQfOAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA291&dq=Friese-Greene&a
s_brr=1#v=onepage&q=Friese-Greene&f=fals
e
6. ^ Francis Rolt-Wheeler, "Thomas Alva
Edison", 1915,
p159. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ZKIDAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=thom
as+alva+edison&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=tasi
meter&f=false
7. ^ Ray Allister, pseudonym for Muriel
Forth, "Friese-Greene: Close-up of an
Inventor", Marsland Publications, 1948,
p53-57. {ULSF: copyright on work was
now renewed and so the book is now in
the public domain in the USA. Notice
the pseudonym - perhaps there was fear
of being labeled a "rat"?}
8. ^ Josef Eder,
"History of Photography", 1945, p515.
9. ^
Cecil Bembridge, "Moving Pictures in
Colors", Technical World Magazine, Vol
11, 1909,
p290. http://books.google.com/books?id=
CQfOAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA291&dq=Friese-Greene&a
s_brr=1#v=onepage&q=Friese-Greene&f=fals
e
10. ^ Francis Rolt-Wheeler, "Thomas
Alva Edison", 1915,
p159. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ZKIDAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=thom
as+alva+edison&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=tasi
meter&f=false
11. ^ Ray Allister, pseudonym for
Muriel Forth, "Friese-Greene: Close-up
of an Inventor", Marsland Publications,
1948, p53-57. {ULSF: copyright on work
was now renewed and so the book is now
in the public domain in the USA. Notice
the pseudonym - perhaps there was fear
of being labeled a "rat"?}
12. ^ Josef Eder,
"History of Photography", 1945, p515.
13. ^
Cecil Bembridge, "Moving Pictures in
Colors", Technical World Magazine, Vol
11, 1909,
p290. http://books.google.com/books?id=
CQfOAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA291&dq=Friese-Greene&a
s_brr=1#v=onepage&q=Friese-Greene&f=fals
e
14. ^ Francis Rolt-Wheeler, "Thomas
Alva Edison", 1915,
p159. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ZKIDAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=thom
as+alva+edison&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=tasi
meter&f=false
15. ^ Ray Allister, pseudonym for
Muriel Forth, "Friese-Greene: Close-up
of an Inventor", Marsland Publications,
1948, p53-57. {ULSF: copyright on work
was now renewed and so the book is now
in the public domain in the USA. Notice
the pseudonym - perhaps there was fear
of being labeled a "rat"?}
16. ^ Josef Eder,
"History of Photography", 1945, p515.
17. ^
Ray Allister, pseudonym for Muriel
Forth, "Friese-Greene: Close-up of an
Inventor", Marsland Publications,
1948. {ULSF: copyright on work was now
renewed and so the book is now in the
public domain in the USA. Notice the
pseudonym - perhaps there was fear of
being labeled a "rat"?}
18. ^ "William
Friese-Greene". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Fri
ese-Greene {06/21/1889}
19. ^ Ray Allister,
pseudonym for Muriel Forth,
"Friese-Greene: Close-up of an
Inventor", Marsland Publications,
1948. {ULSF: copyright on work was now
renewed and so the book is now in the
public domain in the USA. Notice the
pseudonym - perhaps there was fear of
being labeled a "rat"?} {06/21/1889}
20. ^ Francis
Rolt-Wheeler, "Thomas Alva Edison",
1915,
p159. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ZKIDAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=thom
as+alva+edison&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=tasi
meter&f=false {1882}
21. ^ Cecil Bembridge,
"Moving Pictures in Colors", Technical
World Magazine, Vol 11, 1909,
p290. http://books.google.com/books?id=
CQfOAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA291&dq=Friese-Greene&a
s_brr=1#v=onepage&q=Friese-Greene&f=fals
e {1889}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.screenonline.org.uk/people/id
/508948/index.html (note: seems
somewhat biased against
Frieses-Greene[t])
[2] Earl Theisen, "The Depicting of
Motion Prior to the Advent of the
Screen", Journal of the Society of
Motion Picture Engineers, Volumes
20-21, 1943,
p249. http://www.archive.org/stream/jou
rnalofsociety20socirich/journalofsociety
20socirich_djvu.txt http://books.google
.com/books?id=Ct-BAAAAIAAJ&q=THE+DEPICTI
NG+OF+MOTION+PRIOR+TO+THE+ADVENT+OF+++TH
E+SCREEN&dq=THE+DEPICTING+OF+MOTION+PRIO
R+TO+THE+ADVENT+OF+++THE+SCREEN&as_brr=0

[3]
http://www.precinemahistory.net/1885.htm

(Piccadilly) London, England17  
[1] The first (publicly known[t]) Films
Made on Celluloid (1889-1890) PD
source: Ray Allister, pseudonym for
Muriel Forth, "Friese-Greene: Close-up
of an Inventor", Marsland Publications,
1948.

[2] Description
Williamfriesegreen.jpg English:
William Friese-Greene photographed in
c.1890 Date c1890 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2d/Williamfriesegreen.jp
g
111 YBN
[11/28/1889 AD] 6 7 8 		3818) A planet of a different star is
detected.3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Vogel, H.C., Scheiner, "Der
Vorsitzende berichtete über die
Resultate spectrographischer
Beobachtungen des Sterns Algol durch
die", Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen
Akademie der Wissenschaften, 1789,
p1045-1046. books.google.com/books?id=_
k8VAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA1045 English
translation: "The Chairman reported on
the results of spectrographic
observations of the star Algol by prof.
H. C. Vogel and Dr. Scheiner"
(Transactions of the Prussian Academy
of Sciences)
2. ^ Anton Pannekoek, "A History of
Astronomy", Courier Dover Publications,
1989,
p434-435. http://books.google.com/books
?id=O7D9AyU-nLYC&pg=PA435&lpg=PA435&dq=a
lgol+vogel&source=web&ots=8ZX6T6iHqP&sig
=FBWWwbfCBLrO80GS1idBcEWVxIU#PPA434,M1
3. ^ Vogel, H.C., Scheiner, "Der
Vorsitzende berichtete über die
Resultate spectrographischer
Beobachtungen des Sterns Algol durch
die", Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen
Akademie der Wissenschaften, 1789,
p1045-1046. books.google.com/books?id=_
k8VAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA1045 English
translation: "The Chairman reported on
the results of spectrographic
observations of the star Algol by prof.
H. C. Vogel and Dr. Scheiner"
(Transactions of the Prussian Academy
of Sciences)
4. ^ Anton Pannekoek, "A History of
Astronomy", Courier Dover Publications,
1989,
p434-435. http://books.google.com/books
?id=O7D9AyU-nLYC&pg=PA435&lpg=PA435&dq=a
lgol+vogel&source=web&ots=8ZX6T6iHqP&sig
=FBWWwbfCBLrO80GS1idBcEWVxIU#PPA434,M1
5. ^ "Vogel, Hermann Karl."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 6 Jan.
2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9075
639>.
6. ^ Vogel, H.C., Scheiner, "Der
Vorsitzende berichtete über die
Resultate spectrographischer
Beobachtungen des Sterns Algol durch
die", Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen
Akademie der Wissenschaften, 1789,
p1045-1046. http://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=_k8VAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA1081&dq=intitle:
Sitzungsberichte+intitle:preussischen+da
te:1889-1889&lr=&ei=heBjSYaAN4H4lQTejf2E
Cw#PPA1045,M1 English
translation: "The Chairman reported on
the results of spectrographic
observations of the star Algol by prof.
H. C. Vogel and Dr. Scheiner"
(Transactions of the Prussian Academy
of Sciences) {11/28/1889}
7. ^ Hector Macpherson, "A
century's progress in astronomy",
Blackwood and sons, 1906,
p183. http://books.google.com/books?id=
4ftCAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=cent
ury%27s+progress&ei=as5jScbVK4WcMuarpf8I
#PPA175,M1 {1889}
8. ^ Alexander Hellemans,
Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables of
Science", Second edition, Simon and
Schuster, 1991, p370. {1889}

MORE INFO
[1] "Hermann Karl Vogel." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 06 Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hermann-kar
l-vogel
[2] "Hermann Carl Vogel". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermann_Car
l_Vogel
[3] "Vogel, Hermann Carl", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p910
[4] "Untersuchungen uber die
Spectra der Planeten", Gekronte
Preisschrift von der K. Gesellsch. d.
Wiss. in Kopenhagen, Leipzig, 1874.
Later 1876 paper?: Vogel, H.C.
"Untersuchungen uber die Spectra der
Planeten", Pogg. Ann., 158, 1876,
p461-472. http://www3.interscience.wile
y.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/112504372/PDFSTAR
T English translation: H. C. Vogel,
"Recent Research on the Spectra of
Planets", The Astrophysical Journal,
1895. http://books.google.com/books?id=
CWUsAAAAIAAJ&pg=RA1-PA196&dq=Recent+Rese
arches+on+the+Spectra+of+the+Planets+vog
el&as_brr=1&ei=P7ZjSd7uM5byMu_91f8I
[5] Review in 1895
"Science": http://books.google.com/book
s?id=73oCAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA474&dq=Spectra+of
+the+planets+vogel&as_brr=1&ei=47VjSfq7K
4zKM7HN-KwG
[6] "Vogel on the Spectra of the
Planets", Harper's Magazine,
1872. http://books.google.com/books?id=
OnkCAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA783&dq=Spectra+of+the+
planets+vogel&as_brr=1&ei=47VjSfq7K4zKM7
HN-KwG#PPA783,M1
[7] Edwin Frost, "Hermann Carl Vogel"
(obituary), The Astrophysical Journal,
v.27, Jan. 1908,
p1. http://books.google.com/books?id=6J
csAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA1&dq=The+Astrophysical+J
ournal+vogel&as_brr=1&ei=-rpjSdW8I4rONcK
PzZQI
[8]
http://phys-astro.sonoma.edu/brucemedali
sts/vogel/
[9] "Antonia Maury." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 07 Jan.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/antonia-mau
ry
(Astrophysical Observatory at Potsdam)
Potsdam, Germany5  
[1] Vogel, H.C., Scheiner, ''Der
Vorsitzende berichtete über die
Resultate spectrographischer
Beobachtungen des Sterns Algol durch
die'', Sitzungsberichte der
Preussischen Akademie der
Wissenschaften, 1789,
p1045-1046. books.google.com/books?id=_
k8VAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA1045 English
translation: ''The Chairman reported
on the results of spectrographic
observations of the star Algol by prof.
H. C. Vogel and Dr. Scheiner''
(Transactions of the Prussian Academy
of Sciences) PD
source: books.google.com/books?id=_k8VAA
AAYAAJ&pg=PA1045

[2] Description Photograph of
Hermann Carl Vogel, the
astronomer Source Opposite page
129 of Astronomers of Today Date
1905 Author Hector
Macpherson PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d2/Vogel_Hermann_Carl.jp
g
106 YBN
[10/??/1894 AD] 4 		4258) The speed of cathode rays is
shown to be less than the speed of
light.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ J. J. Thomson, "On the velocity
of the cathode-rays". Philosophical
Magazine, S5, V38, N233, Oct 1894,
358. http://books.google.com/books?id=T
VQwAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA358&dq=On+the+velocity+
of+the+cathode-rays&as_brr=1&cd=3#v=onep
age&q=On%20the%20velocity%20of%20the%20c
athode-rays&f=false
2. ^ J. J. Thomson, "On the velocity of
the cathode-rays.", Phil. Mag. 38,
1894,
p358. http://books.google.com/books?id=
TVQwAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA358&dq=On+the+velocity
+of+the+cathode-rays&as_brr=1&cd=3#v=one
page&q=On%20the%20velocity%20of%20the%20
cathode-rays&f=false
3. ^ J. J. Thomson, "On the Rate of
Propagation of the Luminous Discharge
of Electricity through a Rarefied
Gas", Proc. R. Soc. Lond. January 1,
1890 49:84-100;
doi:10.1098/rspl.1890.0071 http://books
.google.com/books?id=jAUWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA8
4&dq=%22the+velocity+of+propagation%22+o
f+electric+discharge+through+gases+thoms
on&as_brr=1&cd=1#v=onepage&q=%22the%20ve
locity%20of%20propagation%22%20of%20elec
tric%20discharge%20through%20gases%20tho
mson&f=false
4. ^ J. J. Thomson, "On the velocity of
the cathode-rays". Philosophical
Magazine, S5, V38, N233, Oct 1894,
358. http://books.google.com/books?id=T
VQwAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA358&dq=On+the+velocity+
of+the+cathode-rays&as_brr=1&cd=3#v=onep
age&q=On%20the%20velocity%20of%20the%20c
athode-rays&f=false {10/1894}

MORE INFO
[1] "Sir Joseph John Thomson".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sir_Joseph_
John_Thomson
[2]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1906/thomson-bio.html
[3] "Thomson, Sir J.J.." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 3 Mar. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9072
205>
[4] "Sir Joseph John Thomson." A
Dictionary of Chemistry. Oxford
University Press, 2008. Answers.com 03
Mar. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sir-joseph-
john-thomson-1
[5] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p357
[6]
"Thomson, Joseph John." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 13. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 362-372. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 3 Mar. 2010
(Trinity College) Cambridge, England3
 
[1] Figure From On the Rate of
Propagation of the Luminous Discharge
of Electricity through a Rarefied
Gas.'' By J. J. THOMSON, M.A., F.R.S.,
Cavendish Professor of Experimental
Physics, Cambridge. Received January 2,
1891. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=jAUWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA84&dq=%22the+velocity
+of+propagation%22+of+electric+discharge
+through+gases+thomson&as_brr=1&cd=1#v=o
nepage&q=%22the%20velocity%20of%20propag
ation%22%20of%20electric%20discharge%20t
hrough%20gases%20thomson&f=false

[2] English: J. J. Thomson published
in 1896. Deutsch: Joseph John Thomson
(1856–1940). Ein ursprünglich 1896
veröffentlichter Stahlstich. [edit]
Source From Oliver Heaviside: Sage
in Solitude (ISBN 0-87942-238-6), p.
120. This is a reproduction of a steel
engraving originally published in The
Electrician, 1896. It was scanned on an
Epson Perfection 1250 at 400dpi,
cleaned up (some text was showing
through the back) in Photoshop, reduced
to grayscale, and saved as JPG using
the 'Save for Web' optimizer.. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5e/JJ_Thomson.jpg
105 YBN
[01/31/1895 AD] 4 		3842) The element Argon and the series
of inert gases is identified.2
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^ Lord Rayleigh, William Ramsay,
"Argon, a New Constituent of the
Atmosphere.", Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London, 1895,
p.265-287. http://journals.royalsociety
.org/content/1012472m98g64233/?p=3f7bb64
e1e0840a6b69bee16651602a9π=32 and
http://books.google.com/books?id=cqYOA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=intitle:r
oyal+date:1895-1895&as_brr=1&ei=PZN3SdS8
JYWekwTLxeyMAw#PPA265,M1 {Strutt_John_R
ayleigh_Lord_Ramsay_William_1894.pdf}
2. ^ Lord Rayleigh, William Ramsay,
"Argon, a New Constituent of the
Atmosphere.", Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London, 1895,
p.265-287. http://journals.royalsociety
.org/content/1012472m98g64233/?p=3f7bb64
e1e0840a6b69bee16651602a9π=32 and
http://books.google.com/books?id=cqYOA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=intitle:r
oyal+date:1895-1895&as_brr=1&ei=PZN3SdS8
JYWekwTLxeyMAw#PPA265,M1 {Strutt_John_R
ayleigh_Lord_Ramsay_William_1894.pdf}
3. ^ "Strutt, John William, Third Baron
Rayleigh", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p844.
4. ^
Lord Rayleigh, William Ramsay, "Argon,
a New Constituent of the Atmosphere.",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London, 1895,
p.265-287. http://journals.royalsociety
.org/content/1012472m98g64233/?p=3f7bb64
e1e0840a6b69bee16651602a9π=32 and
http://books.google.com/books?id=cqYOA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=intitle:r
oyal+date:1895-1895&as_brr=1&ei=PZN3SdS8
JYWekwTLxeyMAw#PPA265,M1 {Strutt_John_R
ayleigh_Lord_Ramsay_William_1894.pdf}
{01/31/1895}

MORE INFO
[1] "Baron Rayleigh." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 14 Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/baron-rayle
igh
[2] "Baron Rayleigh." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 14 Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/baron-rayle
igh
[3] "John Rayleigh". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Raylei
gh
[4] "Rayleigh scattering."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 13
Jan. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9062
822>
[5] "John William Strutt, 3rd baron
Rayleigh". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/John_Wil
liam_Strutt,_3rd_baron_Rayleigh
[6] John Tyndall, "On Chemical Rays,
and the Light of the Sky.",
Philosophical Magazine, 1869,
p429-450. http://books.google.com/books
?id=PiHR6flNP-sC&pg=PA429
[7] J. W. Strutt, "On the Reflection of
Light from Transparent Matter.", Phil.
Mag., S. 4, Vol. 42, Num 278, Aug 1871,
p.81-97
[8] J. W. Strutt, "On the Light from
the Sky, its Polarization and Colour.",
Phil. Mag., S. 4, Vol. 41, Feb 1871,
p.107-120,274-279
[9] "Rayleigh scattering". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rayleigh_sc
attering
[10] By John William Strutt, Baron
Rayleigh, "Scientific papers
(1869-1919)", University Press,
1899. vol
1: http://books.google.com/books?id=KWM
SAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edition
s:0YOgfc3cBhm9OyqKb8T8X_O vol
2: http://books.google.com/books?id=Y2M
SAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edition
s:0YOgfc3cBhm9OyqKb8T8X_O vol
3: http://books.google.com/books?id=gWM
SAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edition
s:0YOgfc3cBhm9OyqKb8T8X_O vol
4: http://books.google.com/books?id=S-s
PAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=strutt+
+scientific+papers&ei=r3F2Sa_lIYrUkwSUjJ
DKBg vol 5 &
6: http://books.google.com/books?id=Tht
WAAAAMAAJ&dq=editions:0YOgfc3cBhm9OyqKb8
T8X_O&lr=&pgis=1
[11] R. J. Strutt, "On the Tendency of
the Atomic Weights to approximate to
Whole Numbers.", Philosophical
Magazine, S. 6, V. 1, March 1901,
p311-314. http://books.google.com/books
?id=CJAOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA311&dq=strutt+atom
ic+weight&ei=Wl53ScT8JIGklQS0xMHmBA#PPA3
11,M1
[12] "Baron Rayleigh." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
14 Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/baron-rayle
igh
[13] Lord Rayleigh, "On the Relative
Densities of Hydrogen and Oxygen",
Proceedings of the Royal Society, 1888,
p356-363. http://books.google.com/books
?id=gKQOAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=
intitle:royal++date:1888-1888&as_brr=1&e
i=PmR3Sd7HKYnikATOldjRBg#PPA356,M1
[14] (original footnote:) "The Relative
Values of the Atomic Weights of
Hydrogen and Oxygen," by J. P. Cooke
and T. W. Richards, 'Amer. Acad.
Proc.,' vol 23, 1887
[15] (original
footnote:) Address to Section A,
British Association 'Report,' 1882
[16]
(original footnote:) "On the
Composition of Water by Volume," by A.
Scott, 'Roy. Soc. Proc.,' June 16, 1887
(vol. 42, p. 396)
[17] Lord Rayleigh, "On an
Anomaly encountered in Determination of
the Density of Nitrogen Gas.",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London, 1894,
p340-344. http://books.google.com/books
?id=t6gOAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=
intitle:proceedings+date:1894-1894&as_br
r=1&ei=n4B3SYiGFonikATOldjRBg#PPA340,M1
[18] Lord Rayleigh, "On the Densities
of the Principle Gases.", Proceedings
of the Royal Society of London, 1893,
p134-151. http://books.google.com/books
?id=qwYWAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=
intitle:proceedings+intitle:london+date:
1893-1893&as_brr=1&ei=KYN3Se-sN5bskgTq7b
XHBg#PPA134,M1
(Own Laboratory) Terling, England3
 
[1] Figure 1 from Rayleigh 1893 PD
source: self-made Author: Atanamir PD

[2] William Ramsay (CE 1852-1916) PD

source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0b/Ar-TableImage.svg
105 YBN
[03/26/1895 AD] 5 6 7 		4141) The element (and inert gas)
helium is found on Earth.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Ramsay, Sir William."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 4 Nov.
2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9062
617>.
2. ^ William Ramsay, "On a Gas Showing
the Spectrum of Helium, the Reputed
Cause of D3, One of the Lines in the
Coronal Spectrum. Preliminary Note.",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London, Vol. 58, (1895), pp.
65-67. http://books.google.com/books?id
=EggWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA65&dq=On+a+Gas+Showin
g+the+Spectrum+of+Helium,+the+Reputed+Ca
use+of+D+3,+One+of+the+Lines+in+%E2%80%A
6+date:1895-1895#v=onepage&q=&f=false
3. ^ "Ramsay, Sir William."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 4 Nov.
2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9062
617>.
4. ^ William Ramsay, "On a Gas Showing
the Spectrum of Helium, the Reputed
Cause of D3, One of the Lines in the
Coronal Spectrum. Preliminary Note.",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London, Vol. 58, (1895), pp.
65-67. http://books.google.com/books?id
=EggWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA65&dq=On+a+Gas+Showin
g+the+Spectrum+of+Helium,+the+Reputed+Ca
use+of+D+3,+One+of+the+Lines+in+%E2%80%A
6+date:1895-1895#v=onepage&q=&f=false
5. ^ William Ramsay, "On a Gas Showing
the Spectrum of Helium, the Reputed
Cause of D3, One of the Lines in the
Coronal Spectrum. Preliminary Note.",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London, Vol. 58, (1895), pp.
65-67. http://books.google.com/books?id
=EggWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA65&dq=On+a+Gas+Showin
g+the+Spectrum+of+Helium,+the+Reputed+Ca
use+of+D+3,+One+of+the+Lines+in+%E2%80%A
6+date:1895-1895#v=onepage&q=&f=false
{03/26/1895}
6. ^ "Ramsay, Sir William."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 4 Nov.
2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9062
617>. {1895}
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p537-538. {1895}

MORE INFO
[1] "William Ramsay." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 04 Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-ram
say
[2] "William Ramsay." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
04 Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-ram
say
[3] "William Ramsay." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 04 Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-ram
say
[4] "Ramsay, William." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 11. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 277-284. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Gale. University of
California - Irvine. 4 Nov. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>
[5] "William Ramsay". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Ram
say
[6]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1904/ramsay-bio.html
(University College) London, England3 4
 
[1] Figure 1 from Rayleigh 1893 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d2/William_Ramsay_workin
g.jpg

[2] William Ramsay PD
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/chemistry/laureates/1904/ramsay.jpg
105 YBN
[11/05/1895 AD] 10 11 		3936) X-rays are discovered.7 8
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen, "Über
eine neue Art von Strahlen", Aus den
Sitzungsberichten der Würzburger
Physik.-medic. Gesellschaft 1895.
also http://de.wikisource.org/wiki/%C3%
9Cber_eine_neue_Art_von_Strahlen Annale
n der Physik, vol. 300, Issue 1,
pp.1-11 http://www3.interscience.wiley.
com/journal/112488309/abstract English
translation: "On a New Kind of Rays",
Nature, Volume 53, Number 1369, Jan.
23, 1896,
p274. http://books.google.com/books?id=
nWojdmTmch0C&pg=PA274
OR http://www.nature.com/nature/journal
/v53/n1369/pdf/053274b0.pdf
OR Science,
02/14/1896 http://books.google.com/book
s?id=4Z8SAAAAYAAJ&pg=PR13&dq=%22A+NEW+FO
RM+OF+RADIATION%22&ei=cMXESaPkLIzOkATcx4
2ADg#PPA227,M1
OR http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/roent
gen.html
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p502-504.
3. ^ Wilhelm Conrad
Röntgen, "Über eine neue Art von
Strahlen", Aus den Sitzungsberichten
der Würzburger Physik.-medic.
Gesellschaft 1895.
also http://de.wikisource.org/wiki/%C3%
9Cber_eine_neue_Art_von_Strahlen Annale
n der Physik, vol. 300, Issue 1,
pp.1-11 http://www3.interscience.wiley.
com/journal/112488309/abstract English
translation: "On a New Kind of Rays",
Nature, Volume 53, Number 1369, Jan.
23, 1896,
p274. http://books.google.com/books?id=
nWojdmTmch0C&pg=PA274
OR http://www.nature.com/nature/journal
/v53/n1369/pdf/053274b0.pdf
OR Science,
02/14/1896 http://books.google.com/book
s?id=4Z8SAAAAYAAJ&pg=PR13&dq=%22A+NEW+FO
RM+OF+RADIATION%22&ei=cMXESaPkLIzOkATcx4
2ADg#PPA227,M1
OR http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/roent
gen.html
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p502-504.
5. ^ Wilhelm Conrad
Röntgen, "Über eine neue Art von
Strahlen", Aus den Sitzungsberichten
der Würzburger Physik.-medic.
Gesellschaft 1895.
also http://de.wikisource.org/wiki/%C3%
9Cber_eine_neue_Art_von_Strahlen Annale
n der Physik, vol. 300, Issue 1,
pp.1-11 http://www3.interscience.wiley.
com/journal/112488309/abstract English
translation: "On a New Kind of Rays",
Nature, Volume 53, Number 1369, Jan.
23, 1896,
p274. http://books.google.com/books?id=
nWojdmTmch0C&pg=PA274
OR http://www.nature.com/nature/journal
/v53/n1369/pdf/053274b0.pdf
OR Science,
02/14/1896 http://books.google.com/book
s?id=4Z8SAAAAYAAJ&pg=PR13&dq=%22A+NEW+FO
RM+OF+RADIATION%22&ei=cMXESaPkLIzOkATcx4
2ADg#PPA227,M1
OR http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/roent
gen.html
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p502-504.
7. ^ Wilhelm Conrad
Röntgen, "Über eine neue Art von
Strahlen", Aus den Sitzungsberichten
der Würzburger Physik.-medic.
Gesellschaft 1895.
also http://de.wikisource.org/wiki/%C3%
9Cber_eine_neue_Art_von_Strahlen Annale
n der Physik, vol. 300, Issue 1,
pp.1-11 http://www3.interscience.wiley.
com/journal/112488309/abstract English
translation: "On a New Kind of Rays",
Nature, Volume 53, Number 1369, Jan.
23, 1896,
p274. http://books.google.com/books?id=
nWojdmTmch0C&pg=PA274
OR http://www.nature.com/nature/journal
/v53/n1369/pdf/053274b0.pdf
OR Science,
02/14/1896 http://books.google.com/book
s?id=4Z8SAAAAYAAJ&pg=PR13&dq=%22A+NEW+FO
RM+OF+RADIATION%22&ei=cMXESaPkLIzOkATcx4
2ADg#PPA227,M1
OR http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/roent
gen.html
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p502-504.
9. ^ "Röntgen,
Wilhelm Conrad." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 20 Mar. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9083
885>.
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p502-504.
{11/05/1895}
11. ^
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1901/rontgen-bio.html
{11/05/1895}

MORE INFO
[1] "Roentgen, Wilhelm Konrad." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 20 Mar. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/wilhelm-con
rad-r-ntgen
[2] "Roentgen, Wilhelm Konrad."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 20 Mar. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/wilhelm-con
rad-r-ntgen
[3] "Roentgen, Wilhelm Konrad." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 20 Mar. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/wilhelm-con
rad-r-ntgen
[4] "Wilhelm Konrad Röntgen".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelm_Kon
rad_R%C3%B6ntgen
[5] "Rontgen rays". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Rontgen_
rays
[6] "Röntgen (Roentgen), Wilhelm
Conrad", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000),
p751-752
[7] W. C. Röntgen, "Ueber die durch
Bewegung eines im homogenen
electrischen Felde befindlichen
Dielectricums hervorgerufene
electrodynamische Kraft", Ann. Phys.
Chem. 35, 264-270
(1888). http://www3.interscience.wiley.
com/cgi-bin/fulltext/112488000/PDFSTART
[8] W. C. Röntgen, "Beschreibung des
Apparates, mit welchem die Versuche
über die electrodynamische Wirkung
bewegter Dielectrica ausgeführt
wurden", Annalen der Physik und Chemie,
Volume 276, Issue 5, Date: 1890, Pages:
93-108. http://www3.interscience.wiley.
com/cgi-bin/fulltext/112506815/PDFSTART
[9] Edmund Taylor Whittaker, "History
of the theories of aether and
electricity: from the age of Descartes
to the close of the nineteenth
century", Longmans, Green, 1910,
p426. http://books.google.com/books?id=
vTHJah8btZIC&pg=PA426&dq=R%C3%B6ntgen+18
88+maxwell+dielectric&lr=&as_brr=1&ei=1t
PDSenwHKS6kgSD7-3-DQ#PPA426,M1
[10]
http://www.aps.org/publications/apsnews/
200708/history.cfm
[11] R. W. Wood, "The n-Rays.", Nature,
n1822, v70, 09/29/1904,
p530-531. http://books.google.com/books
?id=Qn0CAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=
intitle:nature+date:1904-1904&ei=wADJSd7
UN4TIlQScj-3_DQ#PPA530,M1
[12] Rene Blondlot, tr:Julien Francois
William Garcin, "'N' rays", Longmans,
Green, and co.,
1905. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Jpg3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=N+ra
ys+a+collection+of+papers&ei=DsTISdm3N4T
ckASbmYHLAw
[13]
www.rexresearch.com/blondlot/nrays.htm
(University of Würzburg) Würzburg,
Germany9  
[1] English: Photo of Wilhelm Conrad
Röntgen. Cleaned up version of
http://images.google.com/hosted/life/l?i
mgurl=6b3da250c6b5560f Source
unknown source Date 1900 PD
AND Anna Berthe Roentgen.gif Print
of Wilhelm Röntgen's (1845-1923) first
x-ray, the hand of his wife Anna taken
on 1895-12-22, presented to Professor
Ludwig Zehnder of the Physik Institut,
University of Freiburg, on 1 January
1896. Source
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:An
na_Berthe_Roentgen.gif Date 22
December 1895 (1895-12-22) Author
Wilhelm Röntgen PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/71/Roentgen2.jpghttp://u
pload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/
6e/Anna_Berthe_Roentgen.gif

[2] English: Photo of Wilhelm Conrad
Röntgen. Cleaned up version of
http://images.google.com/hosted/life/l?i
mgurl=6b3da250c6b5560f Source
unknown source Date 1900 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/71/Roentgen2.jpg
104 YBN
[03/02/1896 AD] 3 		4151) Radioactivity is discovered:
invisible rays are detected from a
uranium salt.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ H. Becquerel, "Sur les radiations
invisibles émises par les corps
phosphorescents", Comptes Rendus 122
(1896), p.
501. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/b
pt6k30780.image.f503 translated: "On
the invisible rays emitted by
phosphorescent
bodies" http://books.google.com/books?i
d=TwoAAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA451&dq=On+the+invisi
ble+rays+emitted+by+phosphorescent+bodie
s.&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=On%20the%20invis
ible%20rays%20emitted%20by%20phosphoresc
ent%20bodies.&f=false (this appears to
be not as accurate as the one
below) and http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giu
nta/becquerel.html
2. ^ "Becoquerel, Antoine-. ^ Henri."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 1. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 558-561. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 5
Nov. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
3. ^ "Becoquerel, Antoine-. ^ Henri."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 1. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 558-561. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 5
Nov. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>. {02/24/1896}
{03/02/1896}

MORE INFO
[1] "Henri Becquerel." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 05 Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/becquerel
[2] "Henri Becquerel." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
05 Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/becquerel
[3] "Antoine Henri Becquerel".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antoine_Hen
ri_Becquerel
[4]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1903/becquerel-bio.html
(École Polytechnique) Paris, France2
 
[1] Photographic plate made by Henri
Becquerel showing effects of exposure
to radioactivity. Image of
Becquerel's photographic plate which
has been fogged by exposure to
radiation from a uranium salt. The
shadow of a metal Maltese Cross placed
between the plate and the uranium salt
is clearly visible. Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Becqu
erel_plate.jpg PD AND Antoine-Henri
Becquerel (1852-1908) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1e/Becquerel_plate.jpght
tp://nautilus.fis.uc.pt/wwwqui/figuras/q
uimicos/img/becquerel.jpg

[2] Photographic plate made by Henri
Becquerel showing effects of exposure
to radioactivity. Image of
Becquerel's photographic plate which
has been fogged by exposure to
radiation from a uranium salt. The
shadow of a metal Maltese Cross placed
between the plate and the uranium salt
is clearly visible. Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Becqu
erel_plate.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1e/Becquerel_plate.jpg
103 YBN
[04/30/1897 AD] 7 8 		4260) Cathode rays are shown to be made
of particles (the electron).1 This is
the first particle (besides light2 )
known to be smaller than an atom.3 4
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ Henry Crew, "The Rise of Modern
Physics", Williams and Wilkens, 1935,
edition 2, p188.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Alexander
Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables
of Science", Second edition, Simon and
Schuster, 1991, p391
4. ^ Thomson J J
"Cathode Rays", Royal Institution
Friday Evening Discourse, 30 April
1897, published in: Prof. J. J.
Thomson, "Cathode Rays", The
Electrician Volume 39, 21 May 1897,
p104-9.
books.google.com/books?id=LJFMAAAAYAAJ
&pg=PA104 {Thomson_Joseph_John_18970521
.pdf}
5. ^ Isobel Falconer, "J J Thomson and
the discovery of the electron", 1997
Phys. Educ. 32
226 (http://iopscience.iop.org/0031-912
0/32/4/015) {Falconer_1997.pdf}
6. ^ Thomson, J.J.,
"Cathode-rays.", Phil. Mag. 44,
08/07/1897,
293. books.google.com/books?id=Zl0wAAAA
IAAJ&pg=PA293
7. ^ Thomson J J "Cathode Rays", Royal
Institution Friday Evening Discourse,
30 April 1897, published in: Prof. J.
J. Thomson, "Cathode Rays", The
Electrician Volume 39, 21 May 1897,
p104-9.
books.google.com/books?id=LJFMAAAAYAAJ
&pg=PA104 {Thomson_Joseph_John_18970521
.pdf}
8. ^ Isobel Falconer, "J J Thomson and
the discovery of the electron", 1997
Phys. Educ. 32
226 (http://iopscience.iop.org/0031-912
0/32/4/015) {Falconer_1997.pdf}

MORE INFO
[1] "Sir Joseph John Thomson".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sir_Joseph_
John_Thomson
[2]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1906/thomson-bio.html
[3] "Sir Joseph John Thomson." A
Dictionary of Chemistry. Oxford
University Press, 2008. Answers.com 03
Mar. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sir-joseph-
john-thomson-1
[4] J. J. Thomson, "On the Rate of
Propagation of the Luminous Discharge
of Electricity through a Rarefied
Gas", Proc. R. Soc. Lond. January 1,
1890 49:84-100;
doi:10.1098/rspl.1890.0071 http://books
.google.com/books?id=jAUWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA8
4&dq=%22the+velocity+of+propagation%22+o
f+electric+discharge+through+gases+thoms
on&as_brr=1&cd=1#v=onepage&q=%22the%20ve
locity%20of%20propagation%22%20of%20elec
tric%20discharge%20through%20gases%20tho
mson&f=false
[5] J. J. Thomson, "On the Rate of
Propagation of the Luminous Discharge
of Electricity through a Rarefied
Gas", Proc. R. Soc. Lond. January 1,
1890 49:84-100;
doi:10.1098/rspl.1890.0071 http://books
.google.com/books?id=jAUWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA8
4&dq=%22the+velocity+of+propagation%22+o
f+electric+discharge+through+gases+thoms
on&as_brr=1&cd=1#v=onepage&q=%22the%20ve
locity%20of%20propagation%22%20of%20elec
tric%20discharge%20through%20gases%20tho
mson&f=false
[6] J. J. Thomson, "On the velocity of
the cathode-rays.", Phil. Mag. 38,
1894,
p358. http://books.google.com/books?id=
TVQwAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA358&dq=On+the+velocity
+of+the+cathode-rays&as_brr=1&cd=3#v=one
page&q=On%20the%20velocity%20of%20the%20
cathode-rays&f=false
[7] J. J. Thomson and E. Rutherford,
"On the passage of electricity gases
exposed to Rontgen-rays.", Phil. Mag.,
S.5, V. 42, N. 258, Nov 1896,
p392. http://books.google.com/books?id=
cbRw3OxLhUcC&printsec=frontcover&dq=edit
ions:UOM39015024088687&lr=#v=onepage&q=t
homson&f=false
[8] J.J. Thomson, "Experiments to show
that negative electricity is given off
by a metal exposed to R6ntgen-rays."
Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc. 12, 1903, p312
[9]
J.J. Thomson, (With J. A. MCCLELLAND.)
On the leakage of electricity
through dielectrics traversed by
Rontgen-rays. Proc. Camb. Phil.
Soc. 9, 1896, 126
[10] J. J. Thomson, "On
the discharge of electricity produced
by the Rontgen-rays." Proc. Roy. Soc.
59, 1896, 274
[11] Sir Joseph John Thomson,
Applications of dynamics to physics and
chemistry,
1888. http://books.google.com/books?id=
zWYSAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA32&dq=%22electricity+b
ehaves+in+some+respects%22&cd=2#v=onepag
e&q=%22electricity%20behaves%20in%20some
%20respects%22&f=false http://books.goo
gle.com/books?id=cOLUiUml_qgC&pg=PA32&lp
g=PA32&dq=%22electricity+behaves+in+some
+respects%22&source=bl&ots=HRChO2-Ci-&si
g=yjqoyERWPc1b8Byyk6rU7JtujMQ&hl=en&ei=m
YyaS6vTA4TCsgOW6PCtAQ&sa=X&oi=book_resul
t&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CAYQ6AEwAA#v=o
nepage&q=%22electricity%20behaves%20in%2
0some%20respects%22&f=false
(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England5 6  
[1] Figure 1 From Thomson, J.J.,
''Cathode-rays.'', Phil. Mag. 44,
08/07/1897,
269. http://books.google.com/books?id=Z
l0wAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editi
ons:UCALB3728216&lr=#v=onepage&q=thomson
&f=false PD AND J.J. Thomson was
Cavendish Professor and head of the
Cavendish Laboratory from 1894 to 1919.
J.J. is best known for his work on the
electron. Credit: Cambridge
University, Cavendish Laboratory. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=Zl0wAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edi
tions:UCALB3728216&lr=#v=onepage&q=thoms
on&f=falsehttp://www.aip.org/history/exh
ibits/rutherford/images/sectionpics/slid
e1_thomson_big.jpg

[2] Figure 1 From Thomson, J.J.,
''Cathode-rays.'', Phil. Mag. 44,
08/07/1897,
269. http://books.google.com/books?id=Z
l0wAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editi
ons:UCALB3728216&lr=#v=onepage&q=thomson
&f=false PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=Zl0wAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edi
tions:UCALB3728216&lr=#v=onepage&q=thoms
on&f=false
103 YBN
[08/07/1897 AD] 3 		6658) The velocity of cathode ray
particles is found to increase with
electric potential and with tube
exhaustion.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Thomson, J.J., "Cathode-rays.",
Phil. Mag. Volume 44, 08/07/1897, Issue
269,
p293. books.google.com/books?id=Zl0wAAA
AIAAJ&pg=PA293
AND http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/
item/122313#page/321/mode/1up
2. ^ Thomson, J.J., "Cathode-rays.",
Phil. Mag. Volume 44, 08/07/1897, Issue
269,
p293. books.google.com/books?id=Zl0wAAA
AIAAJ&pg=PA293
AND http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/
item/122313#page/321/mode/1up
3. ^ Thomson, J.J., "Cathode-rays.",
Phil. Mag. Volume 44, 08/07/1897, Issue
269,
p293. books.google.com/books?id=Zl0wAAA
AIAAJ&pg=PA293
AND http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/
item/122313#page/321/mode/1up

MORE INFO
[1] "Sir Joseph John Thomson".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sir_Joseph_
John_Thomson
[2]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1906/thomson-bio.html
[3] "Sir Joseph John Thomson." A
Dictionary of Chemistry. Oxford
University Press, 2008. Answers.com 03
Mar. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sir-joseph-
john-thomson-1
[4] J. J. Thomson, "On the Rate of
Propagation of the Luminous Discharge
of Electricity through a Rarefied
Gas", Proc. R. Soc. Lond. January 1,
1890 49:84-100;
doi:10.1098/rspl.1890.0071 http://books
.google.com/books?id=jAUWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA8
4&dq=%22the+velocity+of+propagation%22+o
f+electric+discharge+through+gases+thoms
on&as_brr=1&cd=1#v=onepage&q=%22the%20ve
locity%20of%20propagation%22%20of%20elec
tric%20discharge%20through%20gases%20tho
mson&f=false
[5] J. J. Thomson, "On the Rate of
Propagation of the Luminous Discharge
of Electricity through a Rarefied
Gas", Proc. R. Soc. Lond. January 1,
1890 49:84-100;
doi:10.1098/rspl.1890.0071 http://books
.google.com/books?id=jAUWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA8
4&dq=%22the+velocity+of+propagation%22+o
f+electric+discharge+through+gases+thoms
on&as_brr=1&cd=1#v=onepage&q=%22the%20ve
locity%20of%20propagation%22%20of%20elec
tric%20discharge%20through%20gases%20tho
mson&f=false
[6] J. J. Thomson, "On the velocity of
the cathode-rays.", Phil. Mag. 38,
1894,
p358. http://books.google.com/books?id=
TVQwAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA358&dq=On+the+velocity
+of+the+cathode-rays&as_brr=1&cd=3#v=one
page&q=On%20the%20velocity%20of%20the%20
cathode-rays&f=false
[7] J. J. Thomson and E. Rutherford,
"On the passage of electricity gases
exposed to Rontgen-rays.", Phil. Mag.,
S.5, V. 42, N. 258, Nov 1896,
p392. http://books.google.com/books?id=
cbRw3OxLhUcC&printsec=frontcover&dq=edit
ions:UOM39015024088687&lr=#v=onepage&q=t
homson&f=false
[8] J.J. Thomson, "Experiments to show
that negative electricity is given off
by a metal exposed to R6ntgen-rays."
Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc. 12, 1903, p312
[9]
J.J. Thomson, (With J. A. MCCLELLAND.)
On the leakage of electricity
through dielectrics traversed by
Rontgen-rays. Proc. Camb. Phil.
Soc. 9, 1896, 126
[10] J. J. Thomson, "On
the discharge of electricity produced
by the Rontgen-rays." Proc. Roy. Soc.
59, 1896, 274
[11] Sir Joseph John Thomson,
Applications of dynamics to physics and
chemistry,
1888. http://books.google.com/books?id=
zWYSAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA32&dq=%22electricity+b
ehaves+in+some+respects%22&cd=2#v=onepag
e&q=%22electricity%20behaves%20in%20some
%20respects%22&f=false http://books.goo
gle.com/books?id=cOLUiUml_qgC&pg=PA32&lp
g=PA32&dq=%22electricity+behaves+in+some
+respects%22&source=bl&ots=HRChO2-Ci-&si
g=yjqoyERWPc1b8Byyk6rU7JtujMQ&hl=en&ei=m
YyaS6vTA4TCsgOW6PCtAQ&sa=X&oi=book_resul
t&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CAYQ6AEwAA#v=o
nepage&q=%22electricity%20behaves%20in%2
0some%20respects%22&f=false
[12] J. J. Thomson, "On the velocity of
the cathode-rays". Philosophical
Magazine, S5, V38, N233, Oct 1894,
358. http://books.google.com/books?id=T
VQwAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA358&dq=On+the+velocity+
of+the+cathode-rays&as_brr=1&cd=3#v=onep
age&q=On%20the%20velocity%20of%20the%20c
athode-rays&f=false
[13] Henry Crew, "The Rise of Modern
Physics", Williams and Wilkens, 1935,
edition 2, p319-320
[14] "Thomson, Joseph John."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 13. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 362-372. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 3 Mar.
2010
[15] "Thomson, Sir J.J.." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 3 Mar. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9072
205>
[16] Thomson, J. J., "On the ions
produced by incandescent platinum.",
Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc. II, 1901, 509
[17]
Thomson, J. J., Phil Mag, S5, V48,
N295, Dec 1899,
p547. http://books.google.com/books?id=
il4wAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA557&dq=On+the+ions+pro
duced+by+incandescent+platinum&cd=1#v=on
epage&q=On%20the%20ions%20produced%20by%
20incandescent%20platinum&f=false
[18] Thomson, J. J., "The Existence of
Bodies Smaller Than Atoms", Notices of
the proceedings at the meetings of the
members of the ..., Volume 16,
04/19/1901. http://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=YvoAAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PA574&dq=The+e
xistence+of+bodies+smaller+than+atoms+th
omson&lr=&cd=2#v=onepage&q=The%20existen
ce%20of%20bodies%20smaller%20than%20atom
s%20thomson&f=false
[19] "Hertz, Heinrich Rudolf." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 6. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 340-350. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 7 Apr.
2010. http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&
id=GALE%7CCX2830901978&v=2.1&u=univca20&
it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[20] George William Clarkson Kaye, "X
rays", 1918,
p10. http://books.google.com/books?id=U
FhDAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA10&dq=lenard+showed+tha
t+for+fast-moving+1895&hl=en&ei=uzi2S_fj
BYOyswPx7MSBAw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=re
sult&resnum=1&ved=0CDsQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&
q=lenard%20showed%20that%20for%20fast-mo
ving%201895&f=false
[21] Thomson, J.J., "Cathode-rays.",
Phil. Mag. 44, 08/07/1897,
293. books.google.com/books?id=Zl0wAAAA
IAAJ&pg=PA293
(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England2  
[1] obel Falconer, ''J J Thomson and
the discovery of the electron'', 1997
Phys. Educ. 32
226 (http://iopscience.iop.org/0031-912
0/32/4/015)
{Falconer_1997.pdf} COPYRIGHTED AND
J.J. Thomson was Cavendish Professor
and head of the Cavendish Laboratory
from 1894 to 1919. J.J. is best known
for his work on the electron. Credit:
Cambridge University, Cavendish
Laboratory. PD
source: http://iopscience.iop.org/0031-9
120/32/4/015http://www.aip.org/history/e
xhibits/rutherford/images/sectionpics/sl
ide1_thomson_big.jpg

[2] Figure 1 From Thomson, J.J.,
''Cathode-rays.'', Phil. Mag. 44,
08/07/1897,
269. http://books.google.com/books?id=Z
l0wAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editi
ons:UCALB3728216&lr=#v=onepage&q=thomson
&f=false PD AND J.J. Thomson was
Cavendish Professor and head of the
Cavendish Laboratory from 1894 to 1919.
J.J. is best known for his work on the
electron. Credit: Cambridge
University, Cavendish Laboratory. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=Zl0wAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edi
tions:UCALB3728216&lr=#v=onepage&q=thoms
on&f=falsehttp://www.aip.org/history/exh
ibits/rutherford/images/sectionpics/slid
e1_thomson_big.jpg
103 YBN
[1897 AD] 8 9 10 		4088) The first electronic display (the
oscilloscope).4 5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p523-524.
2. ^ "Braun,
Ferdinand." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
2 Oct. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9016
270>.
3. ^ Ferdinand Braun, "Ueber ein
Verfahren zur Demonstration und zum
Studium des zeitlichen Verlaufes
variabler Ströme", Annalen der Physik
und Chemie, vol. lx., 1897, p.
552-559. books.google.com/books?id=QUXk
AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA552
AND http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bp
t6k15301j.image.f558.langFR {Braun_Ferd
inand_oscilloscope_1897.pdf} English
translation: Ferdinand Braun, "A
Method of Demonstrating and Studying
the Time-relations of Variable
Currents.", Minutes of proceedings of
the Institution of Civil Engineers,
Volume 129, 1897,
p464. http://books.google.com/books?id=
rXgMAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA464
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p523-524.
5. ^ "Braun,
Ferdinand." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
2 Oct. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9016
270>.
6. ^ Ferdinand Braun, "Ueber ein
Verfahren zur Demonstration und zum
Studium des zeitlichen Verlaufes
variabler Ströme", Annalen der Physik
und Chemie, vol. lx., 1897, p.
552-559. books.google.com/books?id=QUXk
AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA552
AND http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bp
t6k15301j.image.f558.langFR {Braun_Ferd
inand_oscilloscope_1897.pdf} English
translation: Ferdinand Braun, "A
Method of Demonstrating and Studying
the Time-relations of Variable
Currents.", Minutes of proceedings of
the Institution of Civil Engineers,
Volume 129, 1897,
p464. http://books.google.com/books?id=
rXgMAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA464
7. ^ Ferdinand Braun, "Ueber ein
Verfahren zur Demonstration und zum
Studium des zeitlichen Verlaufes
variabler Ströme", Annalen der Physik
und Chemie, vol. lx., 1897, p.
552-559. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/121
48/bpt6k15301j.image.f558.langFR {Braun
_Ferdinand_oscilloscope_1897.pdf} Engli
sh translation: Ferdinand Braun, "A
Method of Demonstrating and Studying
the Time-relations of Variable
Currents.", Minutes of proceedings of
the Institution of Civil Engineers,
Volume 129, 1897,
p464. http://books.google.com/books?id=
rXgMAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA464&lpg=PA464&dq=A+Met
hod+of+Demonstrating+and+Studying+the+Ti
me-relations+of+Variable+Currents.+Ferdi
nand+Braun.&source=bl&ots=CY1GqwE3Ku&sig
=7-zDHHHs-PeoCHn_veDdZXebryM&hl=en&ei=O0
bOSoKvC5L0sgPulqm2Dg&sa=X&oi=book_result
&ct=result&resnum=1#v=onepage&q=A%20Meth
od%20of%20Demonstrating%20and%20Studying
%20the%20Time-relations%20of%20Variable%
20Currents.%20Ferdinand%20Braun.&f=false

8. ^ Ferdinand Braun, "Ueber ein
Verfahren zur Demonstration und zum
Studium des zeitlichen Verlaufes
variabler Ströme", Annalen der Physik
und Chemie, vol. lx., 1897, p.
552-559. books.google.com/books?id=QUXk
AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA552
AND http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bp
t6k15301j.image.f558.langFR {Braun_Ferd
inand_oscilloscope_1897.pdf} English
translation: Ferdinand Braun, "A
Method of Demonstrating and Studying
the Time-relations of Variable
Currents.", Minutes of proceedings of
the Institution of Civil Engineers,
Volume 129, 1897,
p464. http://books.google.com/books?id=
rXgMAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA464
9. ^ "Braun, Ferdinand." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 2 Oct. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9016
270>. {1897}
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p523-524. {1897}

MORE INFO
[1] "Karl Ferdinand Braun." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 02 Oct. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/karl-ferdin
and-braun
[2] "Karl Ferdinand Braun". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Ferdin
and_Braun
[3] "Braun, Ferdinand", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's
Sons, (2000), pp135
[4]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1909/braun-bio.html
[5] catalog of
papers http://books.google.com/books?id
=E-ItAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA334&dq=Karl+Ferdinand
+Braun+1874&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f=fals
e
[6]
http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_7615
83126/braun_karl_ferdinand.html
[7] "Karl Ferdinand Braun."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 02 Oct. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/karl-ferdin
and-braun
(Physikal Institute) Strassburg,
France7  
[1] Figure 1 from Braun's 1897
paper. PD AND Ferdinand Braun PD
source: Ferdinand Braun, "Ueber ein
Verfahren zur Demonstration und zum
Studium des zeitlichen Verlaufes
variabler Ströme", Annalen der Physik
und Chemie, vol. lx., 1897, p.
552-559. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/121
48/bpt6k15301j.image.f558.langFR Engl
ish translation: Ferdinand Braun, "A
Method of Demonstrating and Studying
the Time-relations of Variable
Currents.", Minutes of proceedings of
the Institution of Civil Engineers,
Volume 129, 1897,
p464. http://books.google.com/books?id=
rXgMAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA464&lpg=PA464&dq=A+Met
hod+of+Demonstrating+and+Studying+the+Ti
me-relations+of+Variable+Currents.+Ferdi
nand+Braun.&source=bl&ots=CY1GqwE3Ku&sig
=7-zDHHHs-PeoCHn_veDdZXebryM&hl=en&ei=O0
bOSoKvC5L0sgPulqm2Dg&sa=X&oi=book_result
&ct=result&resnum=1#v=onepage&q=A%20Meth
od%20of%20Demonstrating%20and%20Studying
%20the%20Time-relations%20of%20Variable%
20Currents.%20Ferdinand%20Braun.&f=false
PDhttp://www.lecad.fs.uni-lj.si/tmce20
06/2012/pics/venue_html_68645264.jpg

[2] Figure 1 from Braun's 1897
paper. PD
source: Ferdinand Braun, "Ueber ein
Verfahren zur Demonstration und zum
Studium des zeitlichen Verlaufes
variabler Ströme", Annalen der Physik
und Chemie, vol. lx., 1897, p.
552-559. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/121
48/bpt6k15301j.image.f558.langFR Engl
ish translation: Ferdinand Braun, "A
Method of Demonstrating and Studying
the Time-relations of Variable
Currents.", Minutes of proceedings of
the Institution of Civil Engineers,
Volume 129, 1897,
p464. http://books.google.com/books?id=
rXgMAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA464&lpg=PA464&dq=A+Met
hod+of+Demonstrating+and+Studying+the+Ti
me-relations+of+Variable+Currents.+Ferdi
nand+Braun.&source=bl&ots=CY1GqwE3Ku&sig
=7-zDHHHs-PeoCHn_veDdZXebryM&hl=en&ei=O0
bOSoKvC5L0sgPulqm2Dg&sa=X&oi=book_result
&ct=result&resnum=1#v=onepage&q=A%20Meth
od%20of%20Demonstrating%20and%20Studying
%20the%20Time-relations%20of%20Variable%
20Currents.%20Ferdinand%20Braun.&f=false
PD
102 YBN
[01/21/1898 AD] 4 5 6 		4436) Kanalstrahlen rays are shown to
be made of positively charged particles
with a mass to charge ratio similar to
a hydrogen ion, These are later called
protons.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Wilhelm Wien - Biography".
Nobelprize.org. 25 Jan 2013
http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes
/physics/laureates/1911/wien-bio.html
2. ^ Wien, Wilhelm. Die
electrostatische und magnetische
Ablenkung der Canalstrahlen....
Physikal. Ges. zu Berlin,
1898. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ZAU5AAAAMAAJ&pg=RA1-PA10
3. ^ W. Wien, "Über die Berechnung der
Impulsbreite der Röntgenstrahlen aus
ihrer Energie", Annalen der Physik,
Volume 327, Issue 4, Date: 1907, Pages:
793-797. http://www3.interscience.wiley
.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/112493860/PDFSTART

4. ^ Wien, Wilhelm. Die
electrostatische und magnetische
Ablenkung der Canalstrahlen....
Physikal. Ges. zu Berlin,
1898. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ZAU5AAAAMAAJ&pg=RA1-PA10
5. ^ "Wilhelm Wien - Biography".
Nobelprize.org. 25 Jan 2013
http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes
/physics/laureates/1911/wien-bio.html
6. ^ W. Wien, "Über die Berechnung der
Impulsbreite der Röntgenstrahlen aus
ihrer Energie", Annalen der Physik,
Volume 327, Issue 4, Date: 1907, Pages:
793-797. http://www3.interscience.wiley
.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/112493860/PDFSTART
 {11/27/1905}

MORE INFO
[1] "Wien, Wilhelm."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 10 June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9076
933>
[2] "Wilhelm Wien". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelm_Wie
n
[3] Wien, "Über die Energievertheilung
im Emissionsspectrum eines schwarzen
Körpers", Annalen der Physik, 294
(June 1896), 662–669, also in
English trans: "On the Division of
Energy in the Emissionspectrum of a
Black Body", Philosophical Magazine,
5th ser., 43 (1897), 214–220
[4] W. Wien,
"Untersuchungen über die elektrische
Entladung in verdünnten Gasen",
Annalen der Physik, Volume 310, Issue
6, Date: 1901, Pages:
421-435. http://www3.interscience.wiley
.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/112485884/PDFSTART

[5] W. Wien, "Untersuchungen über die
elektrische Entladung in verdünnten
Gasen", Annalen der Physik, Volume 313,
Issue 6, Date: 1902, Pages:
244-266. http://www3.interscience.wiley
.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/112485582/PDFSTART

[6] W. Wien, "Ueber die Natur der
positiven Elektronen", Annalen der
Physik, Volume 314, Issue 11, Date:
1902, Pages:
660-664. http://www3.interscience.wiley
.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/112485776/PDFSTART

(Wurzburg University) Wurzburg,
Germany3  
[1] * Author: anonymous or
pseudonymous, per EU Copyright
Directive (1993), Article 1, §§1-4
* This image was published not later
than 1911 in conjunction with the Nobel
Prize in Physics. * Source:
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1911/wien-bio.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/1/10/WilhelmWien1911.jpg
102 YBN
[05/10/1898 AD] 6 7 8 9 		3824) Hydrogen is liquefied.1 2 3 4
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p493-494.
2. ^ "Dewar, Sir
James." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 7 Jan.
2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9030
182>.
3. ^ "James Dewar." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 07 Jan.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-dewar

4. ^ James Dewar, "Preliminary Note on
the Liquefaction of Hydrogen and
Helium", Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London (1854-1905), Volume
63, 1898,
p.256-258. http://journals.royalsociety
.org/content/8225261k3nu62731/?p=1ddcc31
e84454208ace58c150d2b3b8dπ=34 {Dewar_J
ames_Liquid_Hydrogen_1898.pdf}
5. ^ "Dewar, Sir James." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 7 Jan. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9030
182>.
6. ^ James Dewar, "Preliminary Note on
the Liquefaction of Hydrogen and
Helium", Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London (1854-1905), Volume
63, 1898,
p.256-258. http://journals.royalsociety
.org/content/8225261k3nu62731/?p=1ddcc31
e84454208ace58c150d2b3b8dπ=34 {Dewar_J
ames_Liquid_Hydrogen_1898.pdf}
{05/10/1898}
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p493-494. {1898}
8. ^
"Dewar, Sir James." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 7 Jan. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9030
182>. {1898}
9. ^ "James Dewar." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 07 Jan.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-dewar
 {1898}

MORE INFO
[1] "James Dewar." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 07 Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-dewar

[2] "James Dewar". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Dewar

[3] "Sir James Dewar". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Jame
s_Dewar
[4] George Downing Liveing, James
Dewar, "Collected Papers on
Spectroscopy", University Press,
1915. http://books.google.com/books?id=
X75NAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Jame
s+Dewar&lr=&as_brr=1&ei=OipmSfW-FJD6lQTf
3aCZAQ
[5] Armstrong, H. E. (1928). "Obituary
of James Dewar". Journal of the
Chemical Society: 1056 – 1076.
doi:10.1039/JR9280001056.
http://www.rsc.org/publishing/journals/a
rticle.asp?doi=JR9280001056
[6]
http://www.rsc.org/chemistryworld/Issues
/2008/August/DewarsFlask.asp
[7]
http://www.aim25.ac.uk/cgi-bin/search2?c
oll_id=2955&inst_id=17
[8] Videos of magnetism of liquid
oxygen: http://video.google.com/videose
arch?hl=en&q=magnetism%20liquid%20oxygen
&um=1&ie=UTF-8&sa=N&tab=wv#
[9] "Dewar, James", Concise Dictionary
of Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p248
[10]
James Dewar, Helen Rose Banks Dewar,
James Douglas Hamilton Dickson, Hugh
Munro Ross, Ernest Charles Scott
Dickson, "Collected Papers of Sir James
Dewar...", The University Press,
1927. http://books.google.com/books?id=
pR9WAAAAMAAJ&q=Collected+Papers+of+Sir+J
ames+Dewar&dq=Collected+Papers+of+Sir+Ja
mes+Dewar&lr=&ei=8r5nSZWNFoGklQSW5s3yCw&
pgis=1
[11] Willett Lepley Hardin, "The Rise
and Development of the Liquefaction of
Gases", The Macmillan company,
1899. http://books.google.com/books?id=
s5cAAAAAMAAJ&pg=PR8&dq=dewar+solidificat
ion+date:1899-1899&lr=&ei=g79nSZrvFozSlQ
S2pvXrCA
(Royal Institution) London, England5
(presumably) 
[1] Picture taken from page 230 of T.
O’Connor Sloane's Liquid Air and the
Liquefaction of Gases, second edition,
published by Norman W. Henley and Co.,
New York, 1900. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/8/89/Dewar_James.jpg

[2] English: Picture of Sir James
Dewar, the scientist Source Page 98
of History of Chemistry (book) Date
1910 Author Thomas Thorpe PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2c/Dewar_James_flask.jpg

102 YBN
[1898 AD] 8 		4698) Magnetic writing and reading of
data. Sound is recorded and played back
magnetically.5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Poulsen patent 661,619 Method of
Recording and Reproducing Sounds or
Signals http://www.google.com/patents/a
bout?id=e79kAAAAEBAJ&dq=661,619
2. ^ "Poulsen, Valdemar." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 30 July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9061
097>.
3. ^ Poulsen patent 661,619 Method of
Recording and Reproducing Sounds or
Signals http://www.google.com/patents/a
bout?id=e79kAAAAEBAJ&dq=661,619
4. ^ "Poulsen, Valdemar." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 30 July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9061
097>.
5. ^ Poulsen patent 661,619 Method of
Recording and Reproducing Sounds or
Signals http://www.google.com/patents/a
bout?id=e79kAAAAEBAJ&dq=661,619
6. ^ "Poulsen, Valdemar." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 30 July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9061
097>.
7. ^ "Poulsen, Valdemar." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 30 July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9061
097>.
8. ^ "Poulsen, Valdemar." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 30 July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9061
097>. {1898}

MORE INFO
[1] "Valdemar Poulsen." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2010. Answers.com 30 Jul. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/valdemar-po
ulsen-danish-engineer
[2] "Valdemar Poulsen." Science and Its
Times. Ed. Neil Schlager and Josh
Lauer. Vol. 6: 1900 to 1949. Detroit:
Gale, 2000. 612. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Web. 30 July 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX3408503938&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[3] "Valdemar Poulsen". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valdemar_Po
ulsen
[4] Compilation of Oberlin Smith
biographical and technical information
of his inventions
(Copenhagen Telephone Company)
Copenhagen, Denmark7  
[1] Description Telegrafon
8154.jpg Magyar: Valdemar Poulsen
mágneses hangrögzítő készüléke
1898-ból. A Brede Værk ipari
múzeumban látható a dániai
Lingbyben. Saját felvétel. Dansk:
Valdemar Poulsen opfandt i i 1898 af en
magnetisk optageenhed der kaldes en
Telegrafon English: Magnetic wire
recorder, invented by Valdemar Poulsen,
1898. It is exhibited at Brede works
Industrial Museum, Lingby,
Danmark. Date 25 October
2009(2009-10-25) (original upload
date) Source Transferred from
hu.wikipedia; transferred to Commons by
User:Nico-dk using
CommonsHelper. Author Original
uploader was Bitman at
hu.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) CC-BY-SA-2.5; Released under
the GNU Free Documentation
License. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f9/Telegrafon_8154.jpg

[2] 1 Valdemar Poulsen (1869-1942),
der Erfinder der magnetischen
Schallaufzeichnung UNKNOWN
source: http://www.theimann.com/Analog/H
istory/100_Jahre/Bild1.jpg
101 YBN
[1899 AD] 3 		4177) The theory that mass and time
change for a body depending on its
motion relative to the speed of light.1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ H. A. Lorentz, "Electromagnetic
Phenomena in a System Moving with any
Velocity Less than that of Light",
Proceedings of the Academy of Sciences
of Amsterdam, 1904,
p6. http://www.historyofscience.nl/sear
ch/detail.cfm?pubid=615&view=image&start
row=1 http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Ele
ctromagnetic_phenomena
2. ^ "Lorentz, Hendrik Antoon."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 8. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 487-500. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 25
Nov. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
3. ^ "Lorentz, Hendrik Antoon."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 8. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 487-500. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 25
Nov. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>. {1899}

MORE INFO
[1] "Hendrik Lorentz." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 25 Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hendrik-lor
entz
[2] "Hendrik Lorentz." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
25 Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hendrik-lor
entz
[3] "Hendrik Lorentz." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 25 Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hendrik-lor
entz
[4] "Hendrik Lorentz". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hendrik_Lor
entz
[5] H. A. Lorentz, "Versuch einer
Theorie der elektrischen und optoschen
Erscheinungen in bewegten Korpern",
(Leiden, 1895). translated: Lorentz,
Einstein, Minkowski, Weyl, tr: Perret,
Jeffery, "The Principle of Relativity",
1923
[6] Alfred M. Bork, "The 'FitzGerald'
Contraction",Isis, Vol. 57, No. 2
(Summer, 1966), pp.
199-207. http://www.jstor.org/stable/pd
fplus/227959.pdf
[7] H. A. Lorentz, "Michelson's
Interference Experiment", translated
from: "Versuch einer Theorie der
elektrischen und optoschen
Erscheinungen in bewegten Korpern",
(Leiden, 1895). Lorentz, Einstein,
Minkowski, Weyl, tr: Perret, Jeffery,
"The Principle of Relativity", 1923.
text at:
http://www.lawebdefisica.com/arts/lorent
z/
[8] Hendrik Antoon Lorentz, "The
Einstein theory of relativity: a
concise statement", 1920.
http://books.google.com/books?id=DCUQA
AAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=inauthor:
lorentz#v=onepage&q=&f=false
[9] "Lorentz, Hendrik Antoon."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2009. Web. 25 Nov. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9048
963>
[10] Janssen, Michel and A. J. Kox.
"Lorentz, Hendrik Antoon." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 22. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 333-336. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Gale. University of
California - Irvine. 25 Nov. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>
[11] Albert Michelson, "Studies in
Optics", Chicago Universityt Press,
1927, p156
[12] Frederick Seitz, "James
Clerk maxwell (1831-1879)",
Proceedings, American Philosophical
Society, vol 145, num 1, 2001,
p34. http://books.google.com/books?id=t
kQJFNlSbzAC&pg=PA34&dq=lorentz+transform
ations+1904&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f=fals
e
[13] Florian Cajori, "A history of
mathematics", Edition: 2, 919.
http://books.google.com/books?id=bBoPA
AAAIAAJ&pg=PA479&dq=lorentz+transformati
ons+1904&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f=false
(University of Leiden) Leiden,
Netherlands2  
[1] UNKNOWN
source: UNKNOWN

[2] UNKNOWN
source: UNKNOWN
100 YBN
[01/29/1900 AD] 4 5 6 		4155) Beta rays of radioactivity are
identified as electrons by showing that
their charge to mass ratio is the same
as the electron.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Becquerel, Henri." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 5 Nov. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9014
051>
2. ^ Henri Becquerel, "Contribution à
l’étude du rayonnement du radium",
Comptes Rendus, 130 (1900),
206–211. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=rsQvlEt0e7QC&pg=PA206
AND http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bp
t6k3086n.image.f206.langFR find
English translation:
3. ^ "Becoquerel, Antoine-. ^
Henri." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 1. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 558-561.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 5
Nov. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
4. ^ Henri Becquerel, "Contribution à
l’étude du rayonnement du radium",
Comptes Rendus, 130 (1900),
206–211. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=rsQvlEt0e7QC&pg=PA206
AND http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bp
t6k3086n.image.f206.langFR find
English translation:
5. ^ "Becquerel, Antoine-. ^
Henri." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 1. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 558-561.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 5
Nov. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>. {03/26/1900}
6. ^ "Becoquerel,
Antoine-. ^ Henri." Complete Dictionary
of Scientific Biography. Vol. 1.
Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008.
558-561. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Gale. University of California
- Irvine. 5 Nov. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>. {1899-1900}

MORE INFO
[1] "Henri Becquerel." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 05 Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/becquerel
[2] "Henri Becquerel." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
05 Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/becquerel
[3] "Antoine Henri Becquerel".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antoine_Hen
ri_Becquerel
[4]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1903/becquerel-bio.html
[5] Henri Becquerel (1896). "Sur les
radiations émises par
phosphorescence". Comptes Rendus 122:
420–421.
http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k30
780/f422.chemindefer. translated by
Carmen
Giunta: http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/
becquerel.html and
http://books.google.com/books?id=gJMZA
QAAIAAJ&pg=PA339&dq=%22On+the+rays+emitt
ed+by+phosphorescence%22& (this
appears to be not as accurate as the
one above)
[6] H. Becquerel, "Sur les
radiations invisibles émises par les
corps phosphorescents", Comptes Rendus
122 (1896), p.
501. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/b
pt6k30780.image.f503 translated: "On
the invisible rays emitted by
phosphorescent
bodies" http://books.google.com/books?i
d=TwoAAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA451&dq=On+the+invisi
ble+rays+emitted+by+phosphorescent+bodie
s.&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=On%20the%20invis
ible%20rays%20emitted%20by%20phosphoresc
ent%20bodies.&f=false (this appears to
be not as accurate as the one
below) and http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giu
nta/becquerel.html
[7] H. Becquerel, "Sur les radiations
invisibles émises par les sels
d’uranium," ibid., Comptes Rendus 122
(1896), p.
689-694. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/121
48/bpt6k30780.image.f691 summarized:
"On the invisible rays emitted by the
salts of Uranium.", Minutes of
proceedings of the Institution of Civil
Engineers, Volume
125. http://books.google.com/books?id=D
3IMAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA523&dq=on+invisible+rad
iations+emitted+by+uranium+salts+becquer
el&lr=#v=onepage&q=on%20invisible%20radi
ations%20emitted%20by%20uranium%20salts%
20becquerel&f=false
[8] "Sur diverses propriété des
rayons uraniques", 123 (1896),
855–858;
http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k
30799.image.f855.langFR Summarized in
English as: "On the Different
Properties of Uranium Rays",
Proceedings of the Institution of
Electrical Engineers, Volume 25,
p740. http://books.google.com/books?id=
kfk3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edit
ions:LCCN08015098&lr=#v=onepage&q=Becque
rel&f=false
[9] Henri Becquerel, "Influence d’un
champ magnétique sur le rayonnemen;
des corps radio-actifs", Comptes
Rendus, 129 (1899),
996–1001; http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/
12148/bpt6k3085b.image.f996.langFR Summ
ary in English: Journal of the
Chemical Society, Volume 78, Part 2,
p126. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Vn6KAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA126&dq=Effect+of+a+mag
netic+field+on+the+radiation+from+radio-
active+substances+becquerel&lr=#v=onepag
e&q=Effect%20of%20a%20magnetic%20field%2
0on%20the%20radiation%20from%20radio-act
ive%20substances%20becquerel&f=false
[10] ON THE RADIO ACTIVITY OF MATTER."
By HENRI BECQUEREL, ,
1903. http://books.google.com/books?id=
TinLdn_MceIC&pg=PA197&dq=%22the+radio-ac
tivity+of+matter%22#v=onepage&q=%22the%2
0radio-activity%20of%20matter%22&f=false

(École Polytechnique) Paris, France3
 
[1] Photographic plate made by Henri
Becquerel showing effects of exposure
to radioactivity. Image of
Becquerel's photographic plate which
has been fogged by exposure to
radiation from a uranium salt. The
shadow of a metal Maltese Cross placed
between the plate and the uranium salt
is clearly visible. Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Becqu
erel_plate.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1e/Becquerel_plate.jpg

[2] Antoine-Henri Becquerel
(1852-1908) PD
source: http://nautilus.fis.uc.pt/wwwqui
/figuras/quimicos/img/becquerel.jpg
100 YBN
[10/19/1900 AD] 3 4 		4327) "Quantum theory", the theory that
all energy exists in discrete units.1
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^ "Max Planck." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 13 May.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/max-planck
2. ^ "Planck, Max." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 13 May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9108
525>.
3. ^ M. Planck, "Zur Theorie des
Gesetzes der Energieverteilung in
Normalspektrum," Verhandlungen der
Deutsches Physikalisches Gesellschaft 2
(1900), pp.
237-245. books.google.com/books?id=zYYM
AAAAYAAJ&pg=PA237 and "Uber das Gesetz
der Energieverteilung im
Normalspectrum", Annalen Der Physik, 4
(1901),
p553-563. books.google.com/books?id=j6A
qAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA553
AND http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/
journal/112485869/abstract
and http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bp
t6k15314w.image.f635.langEN {Planck_Max
_Annalen_der_Physik_1900.pdf} English
translation: Max Planck, Alexander
Ogg, "On the Law of Distribution of
Energy in the Normal Spectrum",
1903. http://theochem.kuchem.kyoto-u.ac
.jp/Ando/planck1901.pdf
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p571-573. {1900}

MORE INFO
[1] "Max Planck." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
13 May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/max-planck
[2] "Max Karl Ernst Ludwig Planck".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Karl_Er
nst_Ludwig_Planck
[3] "quantum mechanics." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 14 May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-7750
2>
(University of Berlin) Berlin, Germany2
 
[1] M. Planck, ''Zur Theorie des
Gesetzes der Energieverteilung in
Normalspektrum,'' Verhandlungen der
Deutsches Physikalisches Gesellschaft 2
(1900), pp.
237-245. books.google.com/books?id=zYYM
AAAAYAAJ&pg=PA237 and ''Uber das
Gesetz der Energieverteilung im
Normalspectrum'', Annalen Der Physik, 4
(1901),
p553-563. books.google.com/books?id=j6A
qAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA553
AND http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/
journal/112485869/abstract
and http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bp
t6k15314w.image.f635.langEN {Planck_Max
_Annalen_der_Physik_1900.pdf} English
translation: Max Planck, Alexander
Ogg, ''On the Law of Distribution of
Energy in the Normal Spectrum'',
1903. http://theochem.kuchem.kyoto-u.ac
.jp/Ando/planck1901.pdf PD AND [1]
Max Planck PD (presumably
source: books.google.com/books?id=zYYMAA
AAYAAJ&pg=PA237From Henry Crew, "The
Rise of Modern Physics", Williams and
Wilkens, 1928, edition 1, p372.

[2] Max Planck PD (presumably
source: From Henry Crew, "The Rise of
Modern Physics", Williams and Wilkens,
1928, edition 1, p372.
99 YBN
[02/14/1901 AD] 3 		6342) X-rays are shown to kill Guinea
pigs.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ William Rollins, "X-Light Kills",
Boston Medical and Surgical Journal,
February 14, 1901,
p173. http://books.google.com/books?id=
0sUEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA173
2. ^ Ronald L. Kathren, "William H.
Rollins (1852-1929) X-ray Protection
Pioneer", J Hist Med Allied Sci. 1964
Jul;19:287-94. http://jhmas.oxfordjourn
als.org/content/XIX/3/287.full.pdf
{Ronald_William_Rollins_196407xx.pdf}
3. ^ William Rollins, "X-Light Kills",
Boston Medical and Surgical Journal,
February 14, 1901,
p173. http://books.google.com/books?id=
0sUEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA173
Boston, Massachusetts, USA2  
[1] William Rollins, ''X-Light Kills'',
Boston Medical and Surgical Journal,
February 14, 1901,
p173. http://books.google.com/books?id=
0sUEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA173 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=0sUEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA173

[2] William Herbert Rollins PD
source: http://harvardmedicine.hms.harva
rd.edu/bulletin/spring2008/images/rollin
s.2.jpg
99 YBN
[10/10/1901 AD] 4 5 		4148) The first synthesized protein.2
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^ "Fischer, Emil Hermann." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 5. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 1-5. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Gale. University of California
- Irvine. 4 Nov. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
2. ^ "Fischer, Emil Hermann." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 5. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 1-5. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Gale. University of California
- Irvine. 4 Nov. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
3. ^ "Fischer, Emil Hermann." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 5. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 1-5. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Gale. University of California
- Irvine. 4 Nov. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
4. ^ "Fischer, Emil Hermann." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 5. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 1-5. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Gale. University of California
- Irvine. 4 Nov. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>. {1901}
5. ^ "Emil Fischer -
Biography". Nobelprize.org. 11 May 2013
http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/c
hemistry/laureates/1902/fischer-bio.html


MORE INFO
[1] "Hermann Emil Fischer."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 05 Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hermann-emi
l-fischer
[2] "Emil Hermann Fischer". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emil_Herman
n_Fischer
[3] Untersuchungen über Aminosäuren,
Polypeptide und Proteine, 1899–1906
(Berlin,
1906); http://books.google.com/books?id
=YwXiXA-UN0UC&dq=Untersuchungen+%C3%BCbe
r+Aminos%C3%A4uren,+Polypeptide+und+Prot
eine&printsec=frontcover&source=bl&ots=o
_b7eX-MYN&sig=NBTkQPTKqSIIuIrisZiCgoRR_Y
k&hl=en&ei=iCDySqWpCIn4tAOJrMneAQ&sa=X&o
i=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CA
8Q6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=&f=false
[4] Untersuchungen in der Puringruppe,
1882–1906 (Berlin, 1907);
http://books.google.com/books?id=L5JPy
TLCkA8C&pg=PA611&dq=Untersuchungen+in+de
r+Puringruppe#v=onepage&q=&f=false
[5] "Fischer, Emil." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 4 Nov. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9034
371>
[6] "Hermann Emil Fischer." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 05 Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hermann-emi
l-fischer
[7] Fischer, E. "Die Hydrolyse der
Proteinstoffe." Zeitschrift für
Lebensmitteluntersuchung und-Forschung
A 5.24 (1902):
1207-1208. http://link.springer.com/art
icle/10.1007%2FBF02506767?LI=true
[8] Fischer, Emil, and Ernest Fourneau.
"Ueber einige Derivate des Glykocolls."
Berichte der deutschen chemischen
Gesellschaft 34.2 (1901):
2868-2877. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.c
om/doi/10.1002/cber.190103402249/abstrac
t
(University of Berlin) Berlin, Germany3
 
[1] Fischer, Emil, and Ernest Fourneau.
''Ueber einige Derivate des
Glykocolls.'' Berichte der deutschen
chemischen Gesellschaft 34.2 (1901):
2868-2877. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.c
om/doi/10.1002/cber.190103402249/abstrac
t {Fischer_19011010.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/d
oi/10.1002/cber.190103402249/abstract

[2] Fischer, Emil, and Ernest
Fourneau. ''Ueber einige Derivate des
Glykocolls.'' Berichte der deutschen
chemischen Gesellschaft 34.2 (1901):
2868-2877. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.c
om/doi/10.1002/cber.190103402249/abstrac
t {Fischer_19011010.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/d
oi/10.1002/cber.190103402249/abstract
98 YBN
[03/??/1902 AD] 4 		4734) Radioactivity is recognized as
atomic decay in which one atom decays
into another kind.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Rutherford and Soddy, "The
Radioactivity of Thorium Compounds II,
The Cause and Nature of Radioactivity",
Transactions of the Chemical Society,
v81, 1902,
pp837-860. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=uVWNAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq
=editions:UOM39015067129323#v=onepage&q=
rutherford&f=false
2. ^ "Rutherford, Ernest." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 25-36. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 10 Aug.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903798&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
3. ^ Rutherford and Soddy, "The
Radioactivity of Thorium Compounds II,
The Cause and Nature of Radioactivity",
Transactions of the Chemical Society,
v81, 1902,
pp837-860. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=uVWNAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq
=editions:UOM39015067129323#v=onepage&q=
rutherford&f=false
4. ^ Rutherford and Soddy, "The
Radioactivity of Thorium Compounds II,
The Cause and Nature of Radioactivity",
Transactions of the Chemical Society,
v81, 1902,
pp837-860. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=uVWNAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq
=editions:UOM39015067129323#v=onepage&q=
rutherford&f=false {c03/1902}

MORE INFO
[1] "Ernest Rutherford."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 12 Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ernest-ruth
erford-1st-baron-rutherford-of-nelson
[2] "Ernest Rutherford". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Ruth
erford
[3] Ernest Rutherford, "Radioactive
transformations", C. Scribner's Sons,
1906
http://books.google.com/books?id=Rb0KA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=rutherfor
d&hl=en&ei=C4lkTIvqDZOjnQe_urBe&sa=X&oi=
book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CDUQ
6AEwAg#v=onepage&q&f=false
[4] Ernest Rutherford, Collected
papers., New York, Interscience
Publishers, 1962, 3 volumes
[5] Ernest
Rutherford, "A Magnetic Detector of
Electrical Waves, and Some of its
applications", Philosophical
Transactions A, 01/01/1897,
189:1-24. http://rsta.royalsocietypubli
shing.org/content/189/1.full.pdf+html?si
d=75c97b8c-5669-4ad5-a5fb-51b24afaa343
[6] Ernest Rutherford (obituary), The
London, Edinburgh and Dublin
philosophical magazine and journal of
science, 1937, p1022
[7] Ernest Rutherford,
"The Modern Theories of Electricity and
their Relation to the Franklinian
Theory", The record of the celebration
of the two hundredth anniversary of the
birth of Benjamin Franklin, American
Philosophical Society, delivered April
18, 1906,
p123. http://books.google.com/books?id=
wQIOAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=
gbs_atb#v=onepage&q&f=false
[8] Rutherford, "The Velocity and rate
of Recombination of the Ions of Gases
exposed to Rontgen Radiation.",
Philosophical Magazine, S5, V44, N270,
Nov 1897,
p422. http://books.google.com/books?id=
utXnmtFZ6TUC&pg=PA422&dq=The+velocity+an
d+rate+of+recombination+of+the+ions+of+g
ases+exposed+to+R%C3%B6ntgen+radiation&h
l=en&ei=A8JpTJKVDYzWtQO8mp2kBw&sa=X&oi=b
ook_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CCkQ6
AEwAQ#v=onepage&q&f=false
[9] Rutherford
publications: http://www.rutherford.org
.nz/bibliography.htm
[10] Rutherford, "Uranium Radiation and
the Electrical Conduction Produced by
It", Phil Mag ser 5 xlvii 109-163
1899. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ipMOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA110&dq=Uranium+Radiati
on+and+the+Electrical+Conduction+Produce
d+by+It&hl=en&ei=TctpTKKkOZO8sAObsu2mBw&
sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&v
ed=0CDgQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=Uranium%20Rad
iation%20and%20the%20Electrical%20Conduc
tion%20Produced%20by%20It&f=false
[11] Rutherford, "A Radioactive
Substance emitted from Thorium
Compound", Phil Mag ser 5 xlix 1-14
1900.
http://www.chemteam.info/Chem-History/
Rutherford-half-life.html
[12] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p395
[13] Rutherford, "Radioactivity
Produced in Substances by the Action of
Thorium Compounds", Phil Mag ser 5 xlix
161-192
1990 http://books.google.com/books?id=o
EwEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA161&lpg=PA161&dq=%22Rad
ioactivity+Produced+in+Substances+by+the
+Action+of+Thorium+Compounds%22&source=b
l&ots=-cyiagAP1C&sig=jdQ3u179zO6Xi1azPnw
X4kW8Bgc&hl=en&ei=8xxrTMbZJZH0tgOPn-lG&s
a=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ve
d=0CBIQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22Radioactivi
ty%20Produced%20in%20Substances%20by%20t
he%20Action%20of%20Thorium%20Compounds%2
2&f=false
[14] "Frederick Soddy." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2010. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 24 Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/552022/Frederick-Soddy>
[15] "Frederick Soddy." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 24 Dec.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/frederick-s
oddy
[16] "Frederick Soddy." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
24 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/frederick-s
oddy
[17] "Frederick Soddy". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_S
oddy
[18]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1921/soddy.html
[19] Frederick Soddy, "Science and
life: Aberdeen adresses",
1920. http://books.google.com/books?id=
nHVBAAAAIAAJ&dq=frederick+soddy&source=g
bs_navlinks_s
[20] Frederick Soddy, "Matter and
Energy",
1911. http://books.google.com/books?id=
iKQLAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=fred
erick+soddy&hl=en&ei=i2QUTfmqL5O6sAPIxoj
tCg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum
=4&ved=0CDIQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q&f=false
[21] Alexander Fleck, "Frederick
Soddy." Biographical Memoirs of Fellows
of the Royal Society. November 1, 1957
3:203-216;
doi:10.1098/rsbm.1957.0014 http://www.j
stor.org/stable/769361
(McGill University) Montreal, Canada3
 
[1] Description Ernest
Rutherford2.jpg English: Cropped
Image:Ernest_Rutherford.jpg Date
2007-01-26 (original upload
date) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia Author Original
uploader was Sadi Carnot at
en.wikipedia GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/57/Ernest_Rutherford2.jp
g

[2] Ernest Rutherford (young) Image
courtesy of www.odt.co.nz UNKNOWN
source: https://thescienceclassroom.wiki
spaces.com/file/view/ernest_rutherford_1
122022732.jpg/103032081
97 YBN
[03/23/1903 AD] 6 7 		4493) The airplane. The first powered,
sustained, and controlled airplane
flight.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Wright, Wilbur and Orville."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 6 July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-8026
>.
2. ^ "Wright, Wilbur and Orville."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 6 July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-8026
>.
3. ^ "Wright, Wilbur and Orville."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 6 July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-8026
>.
4. ^ "Wright, Wilbur and Orville."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 6 July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-8026
>.
5. ^ "Wright, Wilbur." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 14. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 520-521. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 6 July
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904733&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
6. ^ "Wright, Wilbur." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 14. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 520-521. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 6 July
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904733&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {12/17/1903}
7. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p613-614,634-635.
{12/17/1903}

MORE INFO
[1] "The Wright Brothers."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 06 Jul. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/
[2] "Wright brothers". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wright_brot
hers
[3] Patent 821393 FLYING-MACHINE
ORVILLE
WRIGHT http://www.google.com/patents?id
=h5NWAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f
=false
[4] "airfoil." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 06 Jul.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/airfoil
[5] Wright, Wilbur and Orville. Video.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Web. 6
July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/art-127561>
[6] aviation: flight of the first
military airplane, 1909. Video.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Web. 6
July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/art-15290>
Kill Devil Hills, North Carolina, USA5
 
[1] Description First
flight2.jpg English: First successful
flight of the Wright Flyer, by the
Wright brothers. The machine traveled
120 ft (36.6 m) in 12 seconds at 10:35
a.m. at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina.
Orville Wright was at the controls of
the machine, lying prone on the lower
wing with his hips in the cradle which
operated the wing-warping mechanism.
Wilbur Wright ran alongside to balance
the machine, and just released his hold
on the forward upright of the right
wing in the photo. The starting rail,
the wing-rest, a coil box, and other
items needed for flight preparation are
visible behind the machine. This was
considered ''the first sustained and
controlled heavier-than-air, powered
flight'' by the Fédération
Aéronautique
Internationale. Français : L’un des
premier vols habités de l’histoire
dans un aéronef plus lourd que l’air
(36.6 mètres en 12 secondes), par les
frères Wright le 17 décembre 1903 à
10h35 sur la plage de Kitty Hawk en
Caroline du Nord. Orville est aux
commandes, allongé sur le ventre sur
l’aile basse et les hanches dans la
nacelle qui servait à contrôler le
mouvement des ailes ; Wilbur court le
long de l’appareil et vient de lacher
l’aile droite. Le rail de lancement,
des étais et d’autres équipements
nécessaires pour la préparation du
vol sont visibles. 日本語:
1903年12月17日、ライト兄弟が
類初の動力飛行機での有人飛
行に成功した時の写真。 Date
17 December 1903 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/86/First_flight2.jpg

[2] * Description: Wilbur
Wright Background notes: Wright
brothers English: Early Wright
brother’s airplanes explored basic
principles of flight. The Wright
brothers are widely credited with
engineering the first aircraft capable
of sustained powered
flight. Commons-emblem-notice.svg
Wright brothers Wikipedia:
Asturianu Bosanski Català
Čeština Dansk Deutsch English
Esperanto Español Euskara Suomi
Français עברית Magyar Bahasa
Indonesia Italiano 日本語
한국어 Latina Lietuvių
Nederlands Norsk (Bokmål) Polski
Português Русский Slovenčina
Slovenščina Српски / Srpski
Svenska ไทย Türkçe Tiếng
Việt 中文 Other links: US
inventors *** Smithsonian Stories of
the Wright flights *** National Park
Service, Wright Brothers' Memorial ***
PBS Nova: The Wright Brothers' Flying
Machines * Source:
http://lcweb2.loc.gov/pp/wrihtml/wribac.
html * Photographer: unknwon PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/77/Wilbur_Wright.jpg
97 YBN
[12/05/1903 AD] 7 8 9 10 11 		4462) The Saturnian {Sa-TR-nE-iN1 }
model of the atom (negatively charged
electrons rotate around a large mass
positively charged particle).2 3 4
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ "Saturnian." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 29
Jan. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/saturnian
2. ^ "Nagaoka, Hantaro." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 9. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 606-607. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 28 June
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903102&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
3. ^ Proceedings of the Tokyo
Mathematico-Physieal Society, 2nd ser.,
2 (1904), 92–107; and H. Nagaoka,
"Kinetics of a System of Particles
illustrating the Line and the Band
Spectrum and the Phenomena of
Radioactivity.", Philosophical
Magazine, 6th ser., 7 (1904),
445–455.
http://books.google.com/books?id=mNbPA
AAAMAAJ&pg=PA445#v=onepage&q&f=false
4. ^ H. Nagaoka, "A Dynamical System
illustrating the Spectrum Lines and the
Phenomena of Radio-activity", Nature,
V69, N1793, March 10, 1904, p43.
books.google.com/books?id=P80KAAAAYAAJ
&pg=PA392
5. ^ "Nagaoka, Hantaro." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 9. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 606-607. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 28 June
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903102&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
6. ^ H. Nagaoka, "A Dynamical System
illustrating the Spectrum Lines and the
Phenomena of Radio-activity", Nature,
V69, N1793, March 10, 1904, p43.
books.google.com/books?id=P80KAAAAYAAJ
&pg=PA392
7. ^ H. Nagaoka, "A Dynamical System
illustrating the Spectrum Lines and the
Phenomena of Radio-activity", Nature,
V69, N1793, March 10, 1904, p43.
books.google.com/books?id=P80KAAAAYAAJ
&pg=PA392 {12/1903}
8. ^ Proceedings of the Tokyo
Mathematico-Physieal Society, 2nd ser.,
2 (1904), 92–107; and H. Nagaoka,
"Kinetics of a System of Particles
illustrating the Line and the Band
Spectrum and the Phenomena of
Radioactivity.", Philosophical
Magazine, 6th ser., 7 (1904),
445–455.
http://books.google.com/books?id=mNbPA
AAAMAAJ&pg=PA445#v=onepage&q&f=false
9. ^ H. Nagaoka, "A Dynamical System
illustrating the Spectrum Lines and the
Phenomena of Radio-activity", Nature,
V69, N1793, March 10, 1904, p43.
books.google.com/books?id=P80KAAAAYAAJ
&pg=PA392 {later nature article:)
01/18/1904}
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p605-606. {1904}
11. ^
"atom." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 28
June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-4835
7>. {1904}

MORE INFO
[1] "Hantaro Nagaoka." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 28 Jun. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hantaro-nag
aoka
[2] "Hantaro Nagaoka". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hantaro_Nag
aoka
[3] G. A. Schott, "A Dynamical System
illustrating the Spectrum Lines and the
Phenomena of Radio-activity", Nature,
V69, N1793, March 10, 1904,
p43. http://books.google.com/books?id=3
3YCAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA437&dq=Nagaoka&hl=en&ei
=OxEpTL-bFIHanAfIz_R1&sa=X&oi=book_resul
t&ct=result&resnum=4&ved=0CDQQ6AEwAw#v=o
nepage&q=Nagaoka&f=false
(Tokyo University) Tokyo, Japan5 6
 
[1] Hantaro Nagaoka PD AND
Proceedings of the Tokyo
Mathematico-Physieal Society, 2nd ser.,
2 (1904), 92–107; and H. Nagaoka,
''Kinetics of a System of Particles
illustrating the Line and the Band
Spectrum and the Phenomena of
Radioactivity.'', Philosophical
Magazine, 6th ser., 7 (1904),
445–455.
http://books.google.com/books?id=mNbPA
AAAMAAJ&pg=PA445#v=onepage&q&f=false PD

source: http://www.riken.go.jp/r-world/i
nfo/release/riken88/text/image/06/hantar
o.jpghttp://books.google.com/books?id=mN
bPAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA445

[2] Hantaro Nagaoka PD
source: http://www.riken.go.jp/r-world/i
nfo/release/riken88/text/image/06/hantar
o.jpg
96 YBN
[1904 AD] 4 		5099) Radar: Radio light is used to
determine the location of distant
objects.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "radar." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 03 Jan. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/488278/radar>.
2. ^ "radar." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 03
Jan. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/488278/radar>.
3. ^ US patent 810,150 dated Jan. 16,
1906. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
2Ao_AAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=
false
4. ^ "radar." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 03
Jan. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/488278/radar>. {1904}

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p732-733
[2] Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p735
[3] "Watson-Watt,
Robert Alexander." Complete Dictionary
of Scientific Biography. Vol. 18.
Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008.
977-978. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Web. 3 Jan. 2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830905388&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[4] "Robert Watson-Watt." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 03 Jan.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-wats
on-watt
[5] Frank Adcock, Improvement in Means
for Determining the Direction of a
Distant Source of Electro-magnetic
Radiation, UK Patent 130490, August 7,
1919
[6] Robert A. Watson-Watt and J.F.
Herd: “An Instantaneous Direct
Reading Goniometer,” J. IEE (London),
vol. 64, p. 11, 1926, also Wireless
World vol. 18 p. 366, 1926
[7]
http://www.watsonwatt.org/theman.htm
[8] "Sir Robert Alexander Watson-Watt."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 03 Jan. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/637658/Sir-Robert-Alexander-Watson-Wat
t>
Düsselsorf, Germany3
(presumably) 
[1] Figure 1: Hülsmeyer’s German
165,546 (1904) telemobileoscope PD
source: http://www.q-track.com/Files/fil
es/Schantz-RF%20since%20WWII.pdf

[2] Christian Huelsmeyer UNKNOWN
source: http://www.radarworld.org/images
/scans/Hulsmeyer.jpg
95 YBN
[06/30/1905 AD] 4 		4929) The special theory of
relativity.1

The theory that the speed of light is
constant independently of the motion of
all other objects. The theory that
motion changes mass and time is
adopted, but that an aether medium for
light is unnecessary.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ A. Einstein, "Elektrodynamik
bewegter Körper", Annalen der Physik
(ser. 4), 17,
891–921. http://www.physik.uni-augsbu
rg.de/annalen/history/einstein-papers/19
05_17_891-921.pdf {Einstein_Albert_1905
0630.pdf} "On the Electrodynamics of
Moving Bodies"
http://users.physik.fu-berlin.de/~klei
nert/files/eins_specrel.pdf {Einstein_A
lbert_English_19050630.pdf}
2. ^ A. Einstein, "Elektrodynamik
bewegter Körper", Annalen der Physik
(ser. 4), 17,
891–921. http://www.physik.uni-augsbu
rg.de/annalen/history/einstein-papers/19
05_17_891-921.pdf {Einstein_Albert_1905
0630.pdf} "On the Electrodynamics of
Moving Bodies"
http://users.physik.fu-berlin.de/~klei
nert/files/eins_specrel.pdf {Einstein_A
lbert_English_19050630.pdf}
3. ^ A. Einstein, "Elektrodynamik
bewegter Körper", Annalen der Physik
(ser. 4), 17,
891–921. http://www.physik.uni-augsbu
rg.de/annalen/history/einstein-papers/19
05_17_891-921.pdf {Einstein_Albert_1905
0630.pdf} "On the Electrodynamics of
Moving Bodies"
http://users.physik.fu-berlin.de/~klei
nert/files/eins_specrel.pdf {Einstein_A
lbert_English_19050630.pdf}
4. ^ A. Einstein, "Elektrodynamik
bewegter Körper", Annalen der Physik
(ser. 4), 17,
891–921. http://www.physik.uni-augsbu
rg.de/annalen/history/einstein-papers/19
05_17_891-921.pdf {Einstein_Albert_1905
0630.pdf} "On the Electrodynamics of
Moving Bodies"
http://users.physik.fu-berlin.de/~klei
nert/files/eins_specrel.pdf {Einstein_A
lbert_English_19050630.pdf}
{06/30/1905}

MORE INFO
[1] "Albert Einstein."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 26
Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/181349/Albert-Einstein>
[2] "Albert Einstein." The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com 26 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/albert-eins
tein
[3] "Albert Einstein." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
26 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/albert-eins
tein
[4] "Albert Einstein." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2010.
Answers.com 26 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/albert-eins
tein
[5] "Einstein, Albert." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 4. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 312-319. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 26 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901295&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[6] "Albert Einstein". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Eins
tein
[7] "List of scientific publications by
Albert Einstein". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sci
entific_publications_by_Albert_Einstein
[8] A. Einstein, "Über einen die
Erzeugung und Verwandlung des Lichtes
betreffenden heuristischen
Gesichtspunkt", Annalen der Physik
(ser. 4), 17,
132–148. http://www.physik.uni-augsbu
rg.de/annalen/history/einstein-papers/19
05_17_132-148.pdf "On a Heuristic
Point of View Concerning the Production
and Transformation of
Light" http://users.physik.fu-berlin.de
/~kleinert/files/eins_lq.pdf
[9] http://www.alberteinstein.info/
[10] A. Einstein, "Über die von
der molekularkinetischen Theorie der
Wärme geforderte Bewegung von in
ruhenden Flüssigkeiten suspendierten
Teilchen", Annalen der Physik (ser. 4),
17, 549–560, (Einstein's
thesis) http://www.physik.uni-augsburg.
de/annalen/history/einstein-papers/1905_
17_549-560.pdf "On the Movement of
Small Particles Suspended in Stationary
Liquids Required by the
Molecular-Kinetic Theory of
Heat" http://www.physik.fu-berlin.de/~k
leinert/files/eins_brownian.pdf
[11] A. Einstein, "Ist die Trägheit
eines Körpers von seinem Energieinhalt
abhängig?", Annalen der Physik (ser.
4), 18,
639–641. http://www.physik.uni-augsbu
rg.de/annalen/history/einstein-papers/19
05_18_639-641.pdf "Does the Inertia
of a Body Depend upon its Energy
Content?" http://users.physik.fu-berlin
.de/~kleinert/files/e_mc2.pdf
[12] Panovsky, "Classical Electricity
and Magnetism", 1953, p266
[13]
Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The
Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p407
Bern, Switzerland3  
[1] Description German-born
theoretical physicist Albert
Einstein. Source Cropped from
original at the Historical Museum of
Berne. Date 1904[1] Author
Lucien Chavan [1] (1868 - 1942), a
friend of Einstein's when he was living
in Berne. Permission (Reusing this
file) An uncropped version
available at NASA's ''Astronomy Picture
of the Day''. According to the NASA
site: PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/a/a0/Einstein_patentoffice.jpg

[2] Albert Einstein, Nobel Prize in
Physics 1921 photograph. Description
Albert Einstein (Nobel).png English:
Albert Einstein, official 1921 Nobel
Prize in Physics photograph. Français
: Albert Einstein, photographie
officielle du Prix Nobel de Physique
1921. Date 1921(1921) Source
Official 1921 Nobel Prize in
Physics photograph Author PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/50/Albert_Einstein_%28No
bel%29.png
94 YBN
[07/20/1906 AD] 3 		4743) Alpha particles of radioactivity
are identified as helium.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Rutherford, "The Mass and
Velocity of the α Particles Expelled
from Radium and Actinium", Phil Mag,
October 1906, Elizabeth Pennisi,
"Drafting a Tree", Science, (2003).v7,
pp348-71. http://books.google.com/books
?id=DdDPLGzgHoIC&pg=PA365&lpg=PA365&dq=%
22we+may+thus+reasonably+conclude+that+t
he%22&source=bl&ots=t9nf5WYBb6&sig=K8QHH
IgO4d34v4OotnKwBEdZ-HU&hl=en&ei=rf1yTMWY
B4qWsgPRytCDDQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=re
sult&resnum=2&ved=0CBsQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&
q=%22we%20may%20thus%20reasonably%20conc
lude%20that%20the%22&f=false
2. ^ Rutherford, "The Mass and Velocity
of the α Particles Expelled from
Radium and Actinium", Phil Mag, October
1906, Elizabeth Pennisi, "Drafting a
Tree", Science, (2003).v7,
pp348-71. http://books.google.com/books
?id=DdDPLGzgHoIC&pg=PA365&lpg=PA365&dq=%
22we+may+thus+reasonably+conclude+that+t
he%22&source=bl&ots=t9nf5WYBb6&sig=K8QHH
IgO4d34v4OotnKwBEdZ-HU&hl=en&ei=rf1yTMWY
B4qWsgPRytCDDQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=re
sult&resnum=2&ved=0CBsQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&
q=%22we%20may%20thus%20reasonably%20conc
lude%20that%20the%22&f=false
3. ^ Rutherford, "The Mass and Velocity
of the α Particles Expelled from
Radium and Actinium", Phil Mag, October
1906, Elizabeth Pennisi, "Drafting a
Tree", Science, (2003).v7,
pp348-71. http://books.google.com/books
?id=DdDPLGzgHoIC&pg=PA365&lpg=PA365&dq=%
22we+may+thus+reasonably+conclude+that+t
he%22&source=bl&ots=t9nf5WYBb6&sig=K8QHH
IgO4d34v4OotnKwBEdZ-HU&hl=en&ei=rf1yTMWY
B4qWsgPRytCDDQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=re
sult&resnum=2&ved=0CBsQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&
q=%22we%20may%20thus%20reasonably%20conc
lude%20that%20the%22&f=false
{07/20/1906}

MORE INFO
[1] "Ernest Rutherford."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 12 Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ernest-ruth
erford-1st-baron-rutherford-of-nelson
[2] "Ernest Rutherford". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Ruth
erford
[3] Ernest Rutherford, "Radioactive
transformations", C. Scribner's Sons,
1906
http://books.google.com/books?id=Rb0KA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=rutherfor
d&hl=en&ei=C4lkTIvqDZOjnQe_urBe&sa=X&oi=
book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CDUQ
6AEwAg#v=onepage&q&f=false
[4] Ernest Rutherford, Collected
papers., New York, Interscience
Publishers, 1962, 3 volumes
[5] Ernest
Rutherford, "A Magnetic Detector of
Electrical Waves, and Some of its
applications", Philosophical
Transactions A, 01/01/1897,
189:1-24. http://rsta.royalsocietypubli
shing.org/content/189/1.full.pdf+html?si
d=75c97b8c-5669-4ad5-a5fb-51b24afaa343
[6] Ernest Rutherford (obituary), The
London, Edinburgh and Dublin
philosophical magazine and journal of
science, 1937, p1022
[7] Ernest Rutherford,
"The Modern Theories of Electricity and
their Relation to the Franklinian
Theory", The record of the celebration
of the two hundredth anniversary of the
birth of Benjamin Franklin, American
Philosophical Society, delivered April
18, 1906,
p123. http://books.google.com/books?id=
wQIOAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=
gbs_atb#v=onepage&q&f=false
[8] Rutherford, "The Velocity and rate
of Recombination of the Ions of Gases
exposed to Rontgen Radiation.",
Philosophical Magazine, S5, V44, N270,
Nov 1897,
p422. http://books.google.com/books?id=
utXnmtFZ6TUC&pg=PA422&dq=The+velocity+an
d+rate+of+recombination+of+the+ions+of+g
ases+exposed+to+R%C3%B6ntgen+radiation&h
l=en&ei=A8JpTJKVDYzWtQO8mp2kBw&sa=X&oi=b
ook_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CCkQ6
AEwAQ#v=onepage&q&f=false
[9] Rutherford
publications: http://www.rutherford.org
.nz/bibliography.htm
[10] Rutherford, "Uranium Radiation and
the Electrical Conduction Produced by
It", Phil Mag ser 5 xlvii 109-163
1899. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ipMOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA110&dq=Uranium+Radiati
on+and+the+Electrical+Conduction+Produce
d+by+It&hl=en&ei=TctpTKKkOZO8sAObsu2mBw&
sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&v
ed=0CDgQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=Uranium%20Rad
iation%20and%20the%20Electrical%20Conduc
tion%20Produced%20by%20It&f=false
[11] Rutherford, "A Radioactive
Substance emitted from Thorium
Compound", Phil Mag ser 5 xlix 1-14
1900.
http://www.chemteam.info/Chem-History/
Rutherford-half-life.html
[12] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p395
[13] Rutherford, "Radioactivity
Produced in Substances by the Action of
Thorium Compounds", Phil Mag ser 5 xlix
161-192
1990 http://books.google.com/books?id=o
EwEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA161&lpg=PA161&dq=%22Rad
ioactivity+Produced+in+Substances+by+the
+Action+of+Thorium+Compounds%22&source=b
l&ots=-cyiagAP1C&sig=jdQ3u179zO6Xi1azPnw
X4kW8Bgc&hl=en&ei=8xxrTMbZJZH0tgOPn-lG&s
a=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ve
d=0CBIQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22Radioactivi
ty%20Produced%20in%20Substances%20by%20t
he%20Action%20of%20Thorium%20Compounds%2
2&f=false
[14] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p664-665
[15] Rutherford and
Soddy, "The Radioactivity of Thorium
Compounds II, The Cause and Nature of
Radioactivity", Transactions of the
Chemical Society, v81, 1902,
pp837-860. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=uVWNAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq
=editions:UOM39015067129323#v=onepage&q=
rutherford&f=false
[16] Rutherford, Brooks, "Comparison of
the Radiations from Radioactive
Substances", Phil Mag, s6, 4, pp1-23,
July 1902
[17] Ernest Rutherford, "The
Magnetic and Electric Deviation of the
Easily Absorbed Rays from Radium",
Phil. Mag., S6, V 4, Feb 1903,
pp177-187.
http://books.google.com/books?id=EFQwAAA
AIAAJ&pg=PA177&lpg=PA177&dq=The+Magnetic
+and+Electric+Deviation+of+the+Easily+Ab
sorbed+Rays+from+Radium&source=bl&ots=hd
6YYVJA6n&sig=jXFrc1rH_POEoKypoNDmYkoHIHw
&hl=en&ei=4b9tTJmFI5OisQPYo7H5Cg&sa=X&oi
=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBI
Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=The%20Magnetic%20and
%20Electric%20Deviation%20of%20the%20Eas
ily%20Absorbed%20Rays%20from%20Radium&f=
false
[18] "emanation." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 20
Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/emanation
[19] Rutherford, Soddy, "Note on the
condensation points of thorium and
radium emanations", Proc Chem Soc
219-20
1902. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ro0FAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA219&dq=Note+on+the+con
densation+points+of+thorium+and+radium+e
manations&hl=en&ei=cRNvTJ3eHIi-sAOopo26C
w&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=4
&ved=0CDgQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=Note%20on%2
0the%20condensation%20points%20of%20thor
ium%20and%20radium%20emanations&f=false
[20] Rutherford, Soddy, "Condensation
of the Radioactive Emanations", Phil
Mag ser 6, v 561-76 1903
[21] Rutherford,
"Radioactivity", ed 1
1904. http://books.google.com/books?id=
xDwJAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=ruth
erford&hl=en&ei=u-dyTO3LC4m6sAOOhfTMDQ&s
a=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ve
d=0CDIQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q&f=false
[22] Rutherford, "Radioactivity" ,ed 2
1905. http://books.google.com/books?id=
g0MNAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=ruth
erford&hl=en&ei=YudyTOL9E4nGsAP3ppzDDQ&s
a=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ve
d=0CCoQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false
[23] Rutherford, "Charge Carried by the
α and β Rays of Radium", Phil Mag,
August 1905, s6, v10, pp193-208
(McGill University) Montreal, Canada2
 
[1] Description Ernest
Rutherford2.jpg English: Cropped
Image:Ernest_Rutherford.jpg Date
2007-01-26 (original upload
date) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia Author Original
uploader was Sadi Carnot at
en.wikipedia GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/57/Ernest_Rutherford2.jp
g

[2] Ernest Rutherford (young) Image
courtesy of www.odt.co.nz UNKNOWN
source: https://thescienceclassroom.wiki
spaces.com/file/view/ernest_rutherford_1
122022732.jpg/103032081
94 YBN
[12/21/1906 AD] 10 11 12 		4788) The electric switch and vacuum
tube amplifier.7 8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p411.
2. ^ Lee De Forest, "Space Telegraphy",
Patent number: 879532, Filing date: Jan
29, 1907, Issue date: Feb 18,
1908 http://www.google.com/patents?id=6
i1vAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&sou
rce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=f
alse
3. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p411.
4. ^ Lee De Forest, "Space Telegraphy",
Patent number: 879532, Filing date: Jan
29, 1907, Issue date: Feb 18,
1908 http://www.google.com/patents?id=6
i1vAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&sou
rce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=f
alse
5. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p411.
6. ^ Lee De Forest, "Space Telegraphy",
Patent number: 879532, Filing date: Jan
29, 1907, Issue date: Feb 18,
1908 http://www.google.com/patents?id=6
i1vAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&sou
rce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=f
alse
7. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p411.
8. ^ Lee De Forest, "Space Telegraphy",
Patent number: 879532, Filing date: Jan
29, 1907, Issue date: Feb 18,
1908 http://www.google.com/patents?id=6
i1vAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&sou
rce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=f
alse
9. ^ Lee De Forest, "Space Telegraphy",
Patent number: 879532, Filing date: Jan
29, 1907, Issue date: Feb 18,
1908 http://www.google.com/patents?id=6
i1vAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&sou
rce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=f
alse
10. ^ Lee De Forest, "Space
Telegraphy", Patent number: 879532,
Filing date: Jan 29, 1907, Issue date:
Feb 18,
1908 http://www.google.com/patents?id=6
i1vAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&sou
rce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=f
alse {12/21/1906}
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p646-647. {1906}
12. ^ "Lee
De Forest." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 09 Sep. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/lee-de-fore
st {1907 (patented}

MORE INFO
[1] "De Forest, Lee." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 4. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 6-7. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Web. 9 Sept. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901119&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[2] "Lee De Forest". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lee_De_Fore
st
[3] diathermy. (n.d.) Dorland's Medical
Dictionary for Health Consumers.
(2007). Retrieved September 9 2010 from
http://medical-dictionary.thefreediction
ary.com/diathermy
(De Forest Radio Telephone Company) New
York City, New York, USA9  
[1] From De Forest 1907 Patent: Lee De
Forest, ''Space Telegraphy'', Patent
number: 879532, Filing date: Jan 29,
1907, Issue date: Feb 18,
1908 http://www.google.com/patents?id=6
i1vAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&sou
rce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=f
alse PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=6i1vAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f
=false

[2] Description Lee De
Forest.jpg en:Lee De Forest,
published in the February 1904 issue of
The Electrical Age. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/65/Lee_De_Forest.jpg
93 YBN
[05/??/1907 AD] 6 		4269) The mass spectrometer, a device
that can separate atoms with an
electric charge (ions) by their mass.4

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Thomson, J. J., "On Rays of
Positive Electricity", Phil. Mag., S6,
V13, N77, May 1907,
p561. books.google.com/books?id=vVjKOdk
tZhsC&pg=PA561
2. ^ Thomson, J. J., "On Rays of
Positive Electricity", Phil. Mag., S6,
V13, N77, May 1907,
p561. books.google.com/books?id=vVjKOdk
tZhsC&pg=PA561
3. ^ Thomson, J. J., "On Rays of
Positive Electricity", Phil. Mag., S6,
V13, N77, May 1907,
p561. books.google.com/books?id=vVjKOdk
tZhsC&pg=PA561
4. ^ Thomson, J. J., "On Rays of
Positive Electricity", Phil. Mag., S6,
V13, N77, May 1907,
p561. books.google.com/books?id=vVjKOdk
tZhsC&pg=PA561
5. ^ Thomson, J. J., "On Rays of
Positive Electricity", Phil. Mag., S6,
V13, N77, May 1907,
p561. books.google.com/books?id=vVjKOdk
tZhsC&pg=PA561
6. ^ Thomson, J. J., "On Rays of
Positive Electricity", Phil. Mag., S6,
V13, N77, May 1907,
p561. books.google.com/books?id=vVjKOdk
tZhsC&pg=PA561 {05/1907}

MORE INFO
[1] "Sir Joseph John Thomson".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sir_Joseph_
John_Thomson
[2]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1906/thomson-bio.html
[3] "Sir Joseph John Thomson." A
Dictionary of Chemistry. Oxford
University Press, 2008. Answers.com 03
Mar. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sir-joseph-
john-thomson-1
[4] J. J. Thomson, "On the Rate of
Propagation of the Luminous Discharge
of Electricity through a Rarefied
Gas", Proc. R. Soc. Lond. January 1,
1890 49:84-100;
doi:10.1098/rspl.1890.0071 http://books
.google.com/books?id=jAUWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA8
4&dq=%22the+velocity+of+propagation%22+o
f+electric+discharge+through+gases+thoms
on&as_brr=1&cd=1#v=onepage&q=%22the%20ve
locity%20of%20propagation%22%20of%20elec
tric%20discharge%20through%20gases%20tho
mson&f=false
[5] J. J. Thomson, "On the Rate of
Propagation of the Luminous Discharge
of Electricity through a Rarefied
Gas", Proc. R. Soc. Lond. January 1,
1890 49:84-100;
doi:10.1098/rspl.1890.0071 http://books
.google.com/books?id=jAUWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA8
4&dq=%22the+velocity+of+propagation%22+o
f+electric+discharge+through+gases+thoms
on&as_brr=1&cd=1#v=onepage&q=%22the%20ve
locity%20of%20propagation%22%20of%20elec
tric%20discharge%20through%20gases%20tho
mson&f=false
[6] J. J. Thomson, "On the velocity of
the cathode-rays.", Phil. Mag. 38,
1894,
p358. http://books.google.com/books?id=
TVQwAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA358&dq=On+the+velocity
+of+the+cathode-rays&as_brr=1&cd=3#v=one
page&q=On%20the%20velocity%20of%20the%20
cathode-rays&f=false
[7] J. J. Thomson and E. Rutherford,
"On the passage of electricity gases
exposed to Rontgen-rays.", Phil. Mag.,
S.5, V. 42, N. 258, Nov 1896,
p392. http://books.google.com/books?id=
cbRw3OxLhUcC&printsec=frontcover&dq=edit
ions:UOM39015024088687&lr=#v=onepage&q=t
homson&f=false
[8] J.J. Thomson, "Experiments to show
that negative electricity is given off
by a metal exposed to R6ntgen-rays."
Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc. 12, 1903, p312
[9]
J.J. Thomson, (With J. A. MCCLELLAND.)
On the leakage of electricity
through dielectrics traversed by
Rontgen-rays. Proc. Camb. Phil.
Soc. 9, 1896, 126
[10] J. J. Thomson, "On
the discharge of electricity produced
by the Rontgen-rays." Proc. Roy. Soc.
59, 1896, 274
[11] Sir Joseph John Thomson,
Applications of dynamics to physics and
chemistry,
1888. http://books.google.com/books?id=
zWYSAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA32&dq=%22electricity+b
ehaves+in+some+respects%22&cd=2#v=onepag
e&q=%22electricity%20behaves%20in%20some
%20respects%22&f=false http://books.goo
gle.com/books?id=cOLUiUml_qgC&pg=PA32&lp
g=PA32&dq=%22electricity+behaves+in+some
+respects%22&source=bl&ots=HRChO2-Ci-&si
g=yjqoyERWPc1b8Byyk6rU7JtujMQ&hl=en&ei=m
YyaS6vTA4TCsgOW6PCtAQ&sa=X&oi=book_resul
t&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CAYQ6AEwAA#v=o
nepage&q=%22electricity%20behaves%20in%2
0some%20respects%22&f=false
[12] Henry Crew, "The Rise of Modern
Physics", Williams and Wilkens, 1935,
edition 2, p319-320
[13] "Thomson, Joseph John."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 13. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 362-372. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 3 Mar.
2010
[14] Thomson, J. J., "The Existence of
Bodies Smaller Than Atoms", Notices of
the proceedings at the meetings of the
members of the ..., Volume 16,
04/19/1901. http://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=YvoAAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PA574&dq=The+e
xistence+of+bodies+smaller+than+atoms+th
omson&lr=&cd=2#v=onepage&q=The%20existen
ce%20of%20bodies%20smaller%20than%20atom
s%20thomson&f=false
[15] Thomson J J 1897a 'Cathode Rays'
Royal Institution Friday Evening
Discourse, 30 April 1897, published in
The Electrician 21 May 1897, p104–9
[16]
Isobel Falconer, "J J Thomson and the
discovery of the electron", 1997 Phys.
Educ. 32
226 (http://iopscience.iop.org/0031-912
0/32/4/015)
[17] "Thomson, Sir J.J.." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 3 Mar. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9072
205>
[18] Thomson, J. J., "On the ions
produced by incandescent platinum.",
Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc. II, 1901, 509
[19]
Thomson, J. J., "On the Masses of the
Ions in Gases at Low Pressures", Phil
Mag, S5, V48, N295, Dec 1899,
p547. http://books.google.com/books?id=
il4wAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA557&dq=On+the+ions+pro
duced+by+incandescent+platinum&cd=1#v=on
epage&q=On%20the%20ions%20produced%20by%
20incandescent%20platinum&f=false
[20] Do the gamma-rays carry a charge
of negative electricity? Proc. Camb.
Phil. Soc. 13, 1905,
p121. http://books.google.com/books?id=
7x7WAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA396&dq=Thomson+do+the+
gamma+rays+intitle:philosophical+carry+c
harge&hl=en&ei=6bqiS9H4BoS8sgO9g6X6Aw&sa
=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved
=0CDcQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=Thomson%20do%20
the%20gamma%20rays%20intitle%3Aphilosoph
ical%20carry%20charge&f=false
[21] Thomson, Joseph John, "On the
number of corpuscles in an atom.",
Phil. Mag. II, 769,
1906. http://books.google.com/books?id=
GNjPAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA769&dq=thomson+On+the+
number+of+corpuscles+in+an+atom&as_brr=1
&cd=1#v=onepage&q=thomson%20On%20the%20n
umber%20of%20corpuscles%20in%20an%20atom
&f=false
[22] J. J. Thomson, "Bakerian Lecture:
Rays of Positive Electricity",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London. Series A, Containing Papers of
a Mathematical and Physical Character,
Vol. 89, No. 607 (Aug. 1, 1913), pp.
1-20. http://www.jstor.org/stable/93452
?&Search=yes&term=%22Rays+of+Positive+El
ectricity%22&list=hide&searchUri=%2Facti
on%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuery%3D%2522Rays%2
Bof%2BPositive%2BElectricity%2522%26x%3D
0%26y%3D0%26wc%3Don&item=1&ttl=46&return
ArticleService=showArticle
[23] Thomson, J. J., "The unit theory
of light.", Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc. 16,
1912, 643
(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England5  
[1] fig 2 from: Thomson, J. J., ''On
Rays of Positive Electricity'', Phil.
Mag., S6, V13, N77, May 1907, p561. PD
AND figs 10-12 from: Thomson, J.
J., ''On Rays of Positive
Electricity'', Phil. Mag., S6, V13,
N77, May 1907, p561. PD AND [10]
figures 2-15 from: # Bakerian Lecture:
Rays of Positive Electricity # J. J.
Thomson # Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London. Series A, Containing
Papers of a Mathematical and Physical
Character, Vol. 89, No. 607 (Aug. 1,
1913), pp. 1-20 PD AND English
physicist J J Thomson Date GWS -
The Great War: The Standard History of
the All Europe Conflict (volume four)
edited by H. W. Wilson and J. A.
Hammerton (Amalgamated Press, London
1915) (So, it is taken before
1915) Source
http://www.firstworldwar.com/photos/g
raphics/gws_thomson_01.jpg First World
War.com PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=vVjKOdktZhsC&printsec=frontcover&dq=edi
tions:UOM39015024088414#v=onepage&q=&f=f
alsehttp://www.jstor.org/stable/93452?&S
earch=yes&term=electricity&term=positive
&term=rays&list=hide&searchUri=%2Faction
%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuery%3Drays%2Bof%2Bp
ositive%2Belectricity%26jc%3Dj100836%26w
c%3Don%26Search.x%3D0%26Search.y%3D0%26S
earch%3DSearch&item=1&ttl=262&returnArti
cleService=showArticlehttp://upload.wiki
media.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c1/J.J_Tho
mson.jpg

[2] fig 2 from: Thomson, J. J., ''On
Rays of Positive Electricity'', Phil.
Mag., S6, V13, N77, May 1907, p561. PD

source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=vVjKOdktZhsC&printsec=frontcover&dq=edi
tions:UOM39015024088414#v=onepage&q=&f=f
alse
93 YBN
[11/13/1907 AD] 6 		354) The helicopter.4 A helicopter
achieves free flight while carrying a
passenger.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "helicopter." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 06 Aug. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/259992/helicopter>.
2. ^ "helicopter." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 06 Aug. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/259992/helicopter>.
3. ^ "helicopter." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 06 Aug. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/259992/helicopter>.
4. ^ "helicopter." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 06 Aug. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/259992/helicopter>.
5. ^ "helicopter." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 06 Aug. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/259992/helicopter>.
6. ^
http://www.centennialofflight.gov/essay/
Dictionary/Cornu/DI18.htm {11/13/1907}

MORE INFO
[1] "Paul Cornu." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 06 Aug. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/138077/Paul-Cornu>
 
[1] Paul Cornu's helicopter was the
first to achieve free flight while
carrying a passenger (1907). Credits
-National Air and Space
Museum, Smithsonian Institution (SI
Neg. No. 93-640) The French bicycle
maker and engineer Paul Cornu, born in
1881 in Lisieux, France, was the first
person to design and build a helicopter
that achieved free flight while
carrying a passenger. His twin-rotor
craft flew for about 20 seconds on
November 13, 1907, rising about one
foot (0.3 meter) off the ground. A
24-horsepower (18-kilowatt) engine
powered the helicopter, which had
counter-rotating rotors. The helicopter
had no effective means of control and
was abandoned after a few
flights. Cornu died in 1944. PD
source: http://www.centennialofflight.go
v/essay/Dictionary/Cornu/DI18G1.jpg

[2] Paul Cornu in his first helicopter
in 1907. Note that he is sitting
between the two rotors, which rotated
in opposite directions to cancel
torque. This helicopter was the first
flying machine to have risen from the
ground using rotor blades instead of
wings. Credits - © 2001 Smithsonian
Institution, National Air and Space
Museum, Videodisc. 2B 5847 PD
source: http://www.centennialofflight.go
v/essay/Rotary/early_20th_century/HE2G13
.jpg
93 YBN
[1907 AD] 5 6 		4438) The theory of space and time as a
four dimensional structure called
"space-time".1 2 3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Minkowski, Hermann."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 11 June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9052
860>.
2. ^ Minkowski, Hermann (1908/9). "Raum
und Zeit". Jahresberichte der Deutschen
Mathematiker-Vereinigung: 75–88.
English translation: Space and
Time. In: The Principle of Relativity
(1920), Calcutta: University Press,
70-88 http://de.wikisource.org/wiki/R
aum_und_Zeit_(Minkowski)
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p599.
4. ^ "Minkowski,
Hermann." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 11
June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9052
860>.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p599. {1907}
6. ^
"Minkowski, Hermann." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 11 June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9052
860>. {1907}

MORE INFO
[1] "Hermann Minkowski." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 11 Jun. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hermann-min
kowski
[2] "Hermann Minkowski." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2010.
Answers.com 11 Jun. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hermann-min
kowski
[3] "Hermann Minkowski". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermann_Min
kowski
(University of Göttingen) Göttingen,
Germany4  
[1] Description De Raum Zeit Minkowski
012.jpg Deutsch: Dies ist ein Scan des
historischen Buches: English: This is
a scan of the historical
document: Title: Raum und Zeit
(Jahresberichte der Deutschen
Mathematiker- Vereinigung, Leipzig,
1909.) Date 1909 Source
Deutsch: Der Scan wurde anhand einer
orginal Buchvorlage
vorgenommen English: scan from
original book Author Hermann
Minkowski Permission (Reusing this
file) Out of copyright as author
died more than 70 years ago PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/97/De_Raum_Zeit_Minkowsk
i_012.jpg

[2] Description De Raum zeit
Minkowski Bild.jpg Deutsch: Dies ist
ein Auszug der Seite 5 des
Buches: English: This is a detail of
page 5 of the historical
document: Title: Raum und Zeit
(Jahresberichte der Deutschen
Mathematiker- Vereinigung, Leipzig,
1909.) Date 1909 Source
Deutsch: Der Scan wurde anhand einer
orginal Buchvorlage
vorgenommen English: scan from
original book Author Hermann
Minkowski PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c5/De_Raum_zeit_Minkowsk
i_Bild.jpg
92 YBN
[06/06/1908 AD] 6 		3616) The first images sent and
received by radio.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ KNUDSEN'S PROCESS OF TRANSMITTING
PICTURES BY WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY. BY
THE ENGLISH CORREESPONDENT OF THE
SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN.. Scientific
American (1845-1908). New York: Jun 6,
1908. Vol. Vol. XCVIII., Iss. No. 23.;
p. 412 (1 page)
http://proquest.umi.com/pqdlink?index=
0&did=176336491&SrchMode=1&sid=2&Fmt=10&
VInst=PROD&VType=PQD&RQT=309&VName=HNP&T
S=1222470748&clientId=48051 {Knudsen_Ha
ns_1908.pdf}
2. ^ KNUDSEN'S PROCESS OF TRANSMITTING
PICTURES BY WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY. BY
THE ENGLISH CORREESPONDENT OF THE
SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN.. Scientific
American (1845-1908). New York: Jun 6,
1908. Vol. Vol. XCVIII., Iss. No. 23.;
p. 412 (1 page)
http://proquest.umi.com/pqdlink?index=
0&did=176336491&SrchMode=1&sid=2&Fmt=10&
VInst=PROD&VType=PQD&RQT=309&VName=HNP&T
S=1222470748&clientId=48051 {Knudsen_Ha
ns_1908.pdf}
3. ^ KNUDSEN'S PROCESS OF TRANSMITTING
PICTURES BY WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY. BY
THE ENGLISH CORREESPONDENT OF THE
SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN.. Scientific
American (1845-1908). New York: Jun 6,
1908. Vol. Vol. XCVIII., Iss. No. 23.;
p. 412 (1 page)
http://proquest.umi.com/pqdlink?index=
0&did=176336491&SrchMode=1&sid=2&Fmt=10&
VInst=PROD&VType=PQD&RQT=309&VName=HNP&T
S=1222470748&clientId=48051 {Knudsen_Ha
ns_1908.pdf}
4. ^ KNUDSEN'S PROCESS OF TRANSMITTING
PICTURES BY WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY. BY
THE ENGLISH CORREESPONDENT OF THE
SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN.. Scientific
American (1845-1908). New York: Jun 6,
1908. Vol. Vol. XCVIII., Iss. No. 23.;
p. 412 (1 page)
http://proquest.umi.com/pqdlink?index=
0&did=176336491&SrchMode=1&sid=2&Fmt=10&
VInst=PROD&VType=PQD&RQT=309&VName=HNP&T
S=1222470748&clientId=48051 {Knudsen_Ha
ns_1908.pdf}
5. ^ KNUDSEN'S PROCESS OF TRANSMITTING
PICTURES BY WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY. BY
THE ENGLISH CORREESPONDENT OF THE
SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN.. Scientific
American (1845-1908). New York: Jun 6,
1908. Vol. Vol. XCVIII., Iss. No. 23.;
p. 412 (1 page)
http://proquest.umi.com/pqdlink?index=
0&did=176336491&SrchMode=1&sid=2&Fmt=10&
VInst=PROD&VType=PQD&RQT=309&VName=HNP&T
S=1222470748&clientId=48051 {Knudsen_Ha
ns_1908.pdf}
6. ^ KNUDSEN'S PROCESS OF TRANSMITTING
PICTURES BY WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY. BY
THE ENGLISH CORREESPONDENT OF THE
SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN.. Scientific
American (1845-1908). New York: Jun 6,
1908. Vol. Vol. XCVIII., Iss. No. 23.;
p. 412 (1 page)
http://proquest.umi.com/pqdlink?index=
0&did=176336491&SrchMode=1&sid=2&Fmt=10&
VInst=PROD&VType=PQD&RQT=309&VName=HNP&T
S=1222470748&clientId=48051 {Knudsen_Ha
ns_1908.pdf} {06/06/1908}

MORE INFO
[1] John Joseph Fahie, "A History
of Wireless Telegraphy", Dodd, Mead &
Co.,
1902. http://books.google.com/books?hl=
en&id=WE41AAAAMAAJ&dq=A+History+of+Wirel
ess+Telegraphy&printsec=frontcover&sourc
e=web&ots=08aQE8FQHe&sig=0AB8rC1DTmKfhhs
RE55cYSIq2PM&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=
2&ct=result
London, England5  
[1] From top to bottom, left to
right Top: Plan View of Receiver
Showing Negative Received. Middle:
Plan View of Transmitter Showing
Traveling Carriage Carrying
Picture. Bottom Left: The Transmitting
Apparatus Bottom Middle: Photograph of
Edward VII. Transmitted by Wireless
Telegraphy. Bottom Right: The Receiver
Showing Relay to Which Recording Needle
is Connected. PD/Corel
source: KNUDSEN'S PROCESS OF
TRANSMITTING PICTURES BY WIRELESS
TELEGRAPHY. BY THE ENGLISH
CORREESPONDENT OF THE SCIENTIFIC
AMERICAN.. Scientific American
(1845-1908). New York: Jun 6, 1908.
Vol. Vol. XCVIII., Iss. No. 23.; p. 412
(1 page)
91 YBN
[09/??/1909 AD] 3 		4729) The mass and size of an electron
is determined.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Perrin, Mouvement Brownien et
Realite Moleculaire", Annales de chimie
et de physique, S8, 09/1909,
p5. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bp
t6k349481.image.r=annales+de+chimie+et+d
e+physique.f3.langEN {Perrin_Jean_thoug
ht_dust_particles_1909.pdf} Perrin,
tr: Soddy, "Brownian Movement and
Molecular Reality", London: Taylor and
Francis (1910),
p50. http://www.archive.org/details/bro
wnianmovement00perr
2. ^ Perrin, Mouvement Brownien et
Realite Moleculaire", Annales de chimie
et de physique, S8, 09/1909,
p5. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bp
t6k349481.image.r=annales+de+chimie+et+d
e+physique.f3.langEN {Perrin_Jean_thoug
ht_dust_particles_1909.pdf} Perrin,
tr: Soddy, "Brownian Movement and
Molecular Reality", London: Taylor and
Francis
(1910). http://www.archive.org/details/
brownianmovement00perr
3. ^ Perrin, Mouvement Brownien et
Realite Moleculaire", Annales de chimie
et de physique, S8, 09/1909,
p5. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bp
t6k349481.image.r=annales+de+chimie+et+d
e+physique.f3.langEN {Perrin_Jean_thoug
ht_dust_particles_1909.pdf} Perrin,
tr: Soddy, "Brownian Movement and
Molecular Reality", London: Taylor and
Francis
(1910). http://www.archive.org/details/
brownianmovement00perr

MORE INFO
[1] "Jean Baptiste Perrin."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 04 Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/jean-baptis
te-perrin
[2] "Jean Baptiste Perrin". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Baptis
te_Perrin
[3]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1926/perrin-bio.html
[4] Herbert Newby McCoy, Ethel Mary
Terry, "Introduction to general
chemistry",
1920. http://books.google.com/books?id=
qA1DAAAAIAAJ&printsec=titlepage#v=onepag
e&q=perrin&f=false
[5] J. Perrin, "Nouvelles proprietes
des rayons cathodiques.",Comptes
Rendus, V121, 1895,
p1130. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148
/bpt6k3077p.image.f1130.langEN Englis
h translation: "New Properties of the
kathode Rays.", Minutes of proceedings,
Volume 124 By Institution of Civil
Engineers (Great Britain),
p552. http://books.google.com/books?id=
BS_yAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA552&dq=comptes+Perrin&
hl=en&ei=aO5ZTK-uJo6-sQPM-OGCCA&sa=X&oi=
book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CCsQ
6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=comptes%20Perrin&f=fa
lse
[6] Report of the annual meeting of the
British Association for the Advancement
of Science, Issue 66, 1896,
p702. http://books.google.com/books?id=
lOs4AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA701&dq=cathode+rays+Pe
rrin&hl=en&ei=Ku1ZTLbSAYK-sQOt-KyrCA&sa=
X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=
0CCkQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=cathode%20rays%2
0Perrin&f=false
[7] "Perrin, Jean." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 4 Aug. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9059
322>
[8] Jean Perrin, translated by
Frederick Soddy, "Brownian movement and
molecular reality",
1910. http://books.google.com/books?id=
eARJAAAAIAAJ&q=perrin+einstein&dq=perrin
+einstein&hl=en&ei=gAZbTOXsEpHUtQP10oDcD
Q&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1
&ved=0CCYQ6AEwAA
[9] Perrin, "Grandeur des molecules et
charge de l'electron.", Comptes Rendus,
V147, 1908,
p594-596. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12
148/bpt6k31014.image.f594.langEN
[10] American Chemical Society.
Chemical Abstracts Service, Chemical
abstracts, Volume 3, Part 1, 1908,
p862.
http://books.google.com/books?id=VopMA
AAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Chemical+
abstracts&hl=en&ei=2BNbTIyKEIy8sQOs7eEG&
sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&v
ed=0CCkQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=perrin&f=fals
e
[11] "mastic." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 05 Aug.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/mastic
[12] M. Chaudesaigues , "Le mouvement
brownien et la formule d'Einstein",
Comptes Rendus, V147,
1908. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/
bpt6k31014.image.f1044.langEN
[13] "Jean Baptiste Perrin." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 04 Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/jean-baptis
te-perrin
[14] Perrin, "Le Atoms",
1914. http://books.google.com/books?id=
p206AAAAMAAJ&dq=le%20atoms%20perrin&sour
ce=gbs_slider_thumb translated to
English: "Atoms",
1916 http://books.google.com/books?id=Z
_kJAAAAIAAJ&dq=le+atoms+perrin&source=gb
s_navlinks_s
(École Normale, University of Paris)
Paris, France2  
[1] Jean Baptiste Perrin UNKNOWN
source: http://www.scientific-web.com/en
/Physics/Biographies/images/Jean_Baptist
e_Perrin.jpg

[2] Description Jean Baptiste
Perrin.jpg * Author: anonymous
or pseudonymous, per EU Copyright
Directive (1993), Article 1, §§1-4
* This image was published not later
than 1925 in conjunction with the Nobel
Prize in Physics. If anyone has
information that the author's name was
publicly disclosed in connection with
this photograph, please make a note on
this page and indicate where the
author's name was seen to be publicly
disclosed in connection with this
image. * A search of the US
Copyright renewals throughout the 1950s
shows no record of copyright renewal,
as would be required to extend
copyright protection beyond the year
1953. If anyone has information that
would document a copyright renewal in
the U.S., please cite it on this page
by clicking on ''Edit this page''.
* Source:
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1926/perrin-bio.html Dat
e 1926(1926) Source
Originally from en.wikipedia;
description page is/was
here. http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prize
s/physics/laureates/1926/perrin-bio.html
PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5f/Jean_Baptiste_Perrin.
jpg
91 YBN
[1909 AD] 5 		4899) A wireless telephone.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ B. Jacot, "Marconi-Master of
Spacep119.
2. ^ B. Jacot, "Marconi-Master of
Spacep119.
3. ^ B. Jacot, "Marconi-Master of
Spacep119.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ B. Jacot, "Marconi-Master
of Spacep119. {1909}

MORE INFO
[1] "Guglielmo Marconi."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 19 Oct. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/guglielmo-m
arconi
[2] "Guglielmo Marconi". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guglielmo_M
arconi
[3]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1909/marconi-bio.html
[4] G. Marconi, "Wireless Telegraphy",
proceedings of the institution of
electrical engineers, v28, 1899,
p273. http://books.google.com/books?id=
UQAUAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=proc
eedings+of+the+institution+of+electrical
+engineers&hl=en&ei=5yu-TOTnFIugsQOn9bzI
DA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=
2&ved=0CDIQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=marconi&f=
false
[5] G. Marconi, "Wireless Telegraphy",
Proceedings of the Royal Institution of
Great Britain, 16 (1899– 1901),
247–256
[6] G. Marconi, "Syntonic Wireless
Telegraphy", Royal Society of Arts.
Journal, 49 (1901), 505
[7] Orrin E.
Dunlap, Jr., "Marconi: The Man and His
Wireless" (1937)
[8] W. P. Jolly, "Marconi",
1972, p78
[9] British patent No. 12,039,
Date of Application 2 June 1896;
Complete Specification Left, 2 March
1897; Accepted, 2 July 1897 (later
claimed by Oliver Lodge to contain his
own ideas which he failed to
patent) http://www.earlyradiohistory.us
/1901fae.htm
[10] U.S. Patent 0,586,193
"Transmitting electrical signals",
(using Ruhmkorff coil and Morse code
key) filed December 1896, patented
July,
1897. http://www.google.com/patents?vid
=586193
[11] U.S. Patent 0,763,772 "Apparatus
for wireless telegraphy" (Four tuned
system; this innovation was predated by
N. Tesla, O. Lodge, and J. S.
Stone) http://www.google.com/patents?id
=L5tvAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f
=false
[12] B. L. Jacot de Boinod and D. M. B.
Collier, "Marconi: Master of Space"
(1935), p273.
http://books.google.com/books?id=xiFDA
AAAIAAJ&q=Marconi:+Master+of+Space&dq=Ma
rconi:+Master+of+Space&hl=en&ei=GFG_TMyW
PJSfnQf_yqSJDg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=re
sult&resnum=1&ved=0CCkQ6AEwAA
[13] "Marconi, Guglielmo." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 9. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 98-99. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 19 Oct.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902815&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
(Marconi Company) London, England3
(verify4 ) 
[1] St. John's Newfoundland kite which
received the famous signal 1901 PD
source: B. L. Jacot de Boinod and D. M.
B. Collier, "Marconi: Master of Space"
(1935)

[2] Marconi Station at Poldhu,
Cornwall, from which first
transatlantic signals were transmitted.
Contrasted with top picture, the
Bridgewater Beam transmitting
station. PD
source: B. L. Jacot de Boinod and D. M.
B. Collier, "Marconi: Master of Space"
(1935)
89 YBN
[1911 AD] 4 		4908) The theory of atomic isotopes:
that an element can have a different
atomic mass, but the same position on
the periodic table.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p664-665.
2. ^ Frederick Soddy,
"The chemistry of mesothorium", J.
Chem. Soc., Trans., 1911, 99,
72-83. http://pubs.rsc.org/en/Content/A
rticleLanding/1911/CT/ct9119900072
and http://pubs.rsc.org/en/Content/Arti
clePDF/1911/CT/CT9119900072?page=Search
{Soddy_Frederick_mesothorium_1911.pdf}
3. ^ Frederick Soddy, "The chemistry of
mesothorium", J. Chem. Soc., Trans.,
1911, 99,
72-83. http://pubs.rsc.org/en/Content/A
rticleLanding/1911/CT/ct9119900072
and http://pubs.rsc.org/en/Content/Arti
clePDF/1911/CT/CT9119900072?page=Search
{Soddy_Frederick_mesothorium_1911.pdf}
4. ^ Frederick Soddy, "The chemistry of
mesothorium", J. Chem. Soc., Trans.,
1911, 99,
72-83. http://pubs.rsc.org/en/Content/A
rticleLanding/1911/CT/ct9119900072
and http://pubs.rsc.org/en/Content/Arti
clePDF/1911/CT/CT9119900072?page=Search
{Soddy_Frederick_mesothorium_1911.pdf}

MORE INFO
[1] "Frederick Soddy."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 24
Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/552022/Frederick-Soddy>
[2] "Frederick Soddy." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 24 Dec.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/frederick-s
oddy
[3] "Frederick Soddy." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
24 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/frederick-s
oddy
[4] "Frederick Soddy". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_S
oddy
[5]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1921/soddy.html
[6] Frederick Soddy, "Science and life:
Aberdeen adresses",
1920. http://books.google.com/books?id=
nHVBAAAAIAAJ&dq=frederick+soddy&source=g
bs_navlinks_s
[7] Frederick Soddy, "Matter and
Energy",
1911. http://books.google.com/books?id=
iKQLAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=fred
erick+soddy&hl=en&ei=i2QUTfmqL5O6sAPIxoj
tCg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum
=4&ved=0CDIQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q&f=false
[8] Alexander Fleck, "Frederick Soddy."
Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the
Royal Society. November 1, 1957
3:203-216;
doi:10.1098/rsbm.1957.0014 http://www.j
stor.org/stable/769361
[9] Frederick Soddy, "The Structure of
the Atom", Nature, v92, n2303, 1913,
p452
[10] Frederick Soddy, “Contribution
to a Discussion on Isotopes,” in
Proceedings of the Royal Society, 99
(1921), 98
[11] D. Strömholm and T.
Svedberg, Zeitschrift für Anorganische
chemie, 63 (1909), 206
[12] Frederick
Soddy, The chemistry of the
radio-elements, Part 1,
1911. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Ho86AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=
gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=fal
se
(University of Glasgow) Glasgow,
Scotland3  
[1] Figure from: Frederick Soddy,
''The chemistry of mesothorium'', J.
Chem. Soc., Trans., 1911, 99,
72-83. http://pubs.rsc.org/en/Content/A
rticleLanding/1911/CT/ct9119900072
and http://pubs.rsc.org/en/Content/Arti
clePDF/1911/CT/CT9119900072?page=Search
{Soddy_Frederick_mesothorium_1911.pdf}
PD
source: Soddy_Frederick_mesothorium_1911
.pdf

[2] Frederick Soddy UNKNOWN
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1921/soddy
_postcard.jpg
88 YBN
[05/04/1912 AD] 3 		4939) The diffraction of x-rays by
atomic planes in crystals is
discovered. The wavelength (or particle
interval) of x-rays is determined to be
smaller than ultraviolet light, which
suggests that x-rays are very high
frequency light.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Friedrich, W., P. Knipping, and
M. V. Laue. "Interferenz-Erscheinungen
bei Röntgenstrahlen", Sitzungsberichte
der Mathematisch–physikalische Klasse
der Königlich Bayerischen Akademie der
Wissenschaften zu Munchen, , V42, 1912,
p303-322. Reprinted in: W. Friedrich,
P. Knipping, M. Laue,
"Interferenzerscheinungen bei
Röntgenstrahlen", Annalen der Physik,
Volume 346, Issue 10, pages 971–988,
1913. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/do
i/10.1002/andp.19133461004/abstract {La
ue_Max_19130315.pdf} English:
"Interference Phenomena with Rontgen
Rays." J. J. Stezowski, in "Structural
Crystallography in Chemistry and
Biology", 1981,
p23-39. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=pKEsAAAAYAAJ
2. ^ "Laue, Max von." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 8. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 50-53. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 27 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902495&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
3. ^ "Laue, Max von." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 8. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 50-53. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 27 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902495&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {05/04/1912} {announced)
05/04/1912}

MORE INFO
[1] "Max von Laue." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 27 Dec.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/max-von-lau
e
[2] "Max von Laue". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_von_Lau
e
[3]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1914/laue-bio.html
[4] M. Laue, "Die Mitführung des
Lichtes durch bewegte Körper nach dem
Relativitätsprinzip", Annalen der
Physik, Volume 328, Issue 10, pages
989–990,
1907. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/do
i/10.1002/andp.19073281015/abstract {La
ue_Max_19070730.pdf}
(University of Munich) Munich, Germany2
 
[1] From W. Friedrich, P. Knipping,
M. Laue, ''Interferenzerscheinungen bei
Röntgenstrahlen'', Annalen der Physik,
Volume 346, Issue 10, pages 971–988,
1913. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/do
i/10.1002/andp.19133461004/abstract {La
ue_Max_19130315.pdf} PD
source: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/d
oi/10.1002/andp.19133461004/pdf

[2] X-ray photograph of Zinc
blende PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0e/Max_von_Laue.jpg
88 YBN
[11/11/1912 AD] 7 8 		4404) Diffraction is explained as
particle reflection.3 4 The dispersion
of light by a grating or prism into a
spectrum of increasing frequencies is
explained as particles of the same
spacing as the grating groove at a
specific angle of incidence, all
reflecting in the same direction.5
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ Bragg, W.L. The Diffraction of
Short Electromagnetic Waves by a
Crystal. Proceedings of the Cambridge
Philosophical Society, 1913: 17, pp.
43-57. http://tedhuntington.com/ulsf/do
cs_pd/Bragg_William_Lawrence_19121111.pd
f {Bragg_William_Lawrence_19121111.pdf}

2. ^ William Lawrence Bragg, "The
Specular Reflection of X-rays.",
Nature, vol 90, num 2250, 12/12/1912,
p410. http://books.google.com/books?id=
KI9FAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA410&dq=%22X-rays+and+C
rystals%22+intitle:nature&hl=en&ei=_foHT
MiQIpmyMZT63bUE&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=r
esult&resnum=1&ved=0CC8Q6AEwAA#v=onepage
&q=%22X-rays%20and%20Crystals%22%20intit
le%3Anature&f=false
3. ^ Bragg, W.L. The Diffraction of
Short Electromagnetic Waves by a
Crystal. Proceedings of the Cambridge
Philosophical Society, 1913: 17, pp.
43-57. {Bragg_William_Lawrence_19121111
.pdf}
4. ^ William Lawrence Bragg, "The
Specular Reflection of X-rays.",
Nature, vol 90, num 2250, 12/12/1912,
p410. http://books.google.com/books?id=
KI9FAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA410&dq=%22X-rays+and+C
rystals%22+intitle:nature&hl=en&ei=_foHT
MiQIpmyMZT63bUE&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=r
esult&resnum=1&ved=0CC8Q6AEwAA#v=onepage
&q=%22X-rays%20and%20Crystals%22%20intit
le%3Anature&f=false
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ William Lawrence Bragg,
"The Specular Reflection of X-rays.",
Nature, vol 90, num 2250, 12/12/1912,
p410. http://books.google.com/books?id=
KI9FAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA410&dq=%22X-rays+and+C
rystals%22+intitle:nature&hl=en&ei=_foHT
MiQIpmyMZT63bUE&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=r
esult&resnum=1&ved=0CC8Q6AEwAA#v=onepage
&q=%22X-rays%20and%20Crystals%22%20intit
le%3Anature&f=false
7. ^ Bragg, W.L. The Diffraction of
Short Electromagnetic Waves by a
Crystal. Proceedings of the Cambridge
Philosophical Society, 1913: 17, pp.
43-57. {Bragg_William_Lawrence_19121111
.pdf} {11/11/1912}
8. ^ William Lawrence Bragg, "The
Specular Reflection of X-rays.",
Nature, vol 90, num 2250, 12/12/1912,
p410. http://books.google.com/books?id=
KI9FAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA410&dq=%22X-rays+and+C
rystals%22+intitle:nature&hl=en&ei=_foHT
MiQIpmyMZT63bUE&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=r
esult&resnum=1&ved=0CC8Q6AEwAA#v=onepage
&q=%22X-rays%20and%20Crystals%22%20intit
le%3Anature&f=false {12/08/1904}
{12/08/1912} {and Nature article:
12/08/1912}

MORE INFO
[1] "Bragg, Sir William."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 2 June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9016
145>
[2] "Sir William Henry Bragg." A
Dictionary of Chemistry. Oxford
University Press, 2008. Answers.com 02
Jun. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sir-william
-henry-bragg
[3] "William Henry Bragg". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Hen
ry_Bragg
[4] William Henry Bragg, The World of
Sound (1920)
[5] William Henry Bragg,
Concerning the Nature of Things
(1925) http://books.google.com/books?id
=-ysYrMza-ukC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Con
cerning+the+Nature+of+Things&source=bl&o
ts=oxGn9h6_Nh&sig=5iWXT3YPVpAsaRroIJp9lv
Tz250&hl=en&ei=3eEGTLTIL5X2NY3P9Y8J&sa=X
&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0
CBgQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false
[6] William Henry Bragg, Old Trades and
New Knowledge (1926)
[7] William Henry Bragg,
An Introduction to Crystal Analysis
(1928)
[8] William Henry Bragg, The Universe
of Light (1933)
[9] Bragg, “On the
Absorption of X-rays, and on the
Classification of the X-rays of
Radium,” in Philosophical Magazine,
6th ser., 8 (Dec. 1904),
719–725; http://books.google.com/book
s?id=9k8EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA719&dq=On+the+Abs
orption+of+X-rays,+and+on+the+Classifica
tion+of+the+X-rays+of+Radium&hl=en&ei=VO
QGTLL9BIH48AaElfCRDA&sa=X&oi=book_result
&ct=result&resnum=5&ved=0CDwQ6AEwBA#v=on
epage&q&f=false
[10] Bragg and Kleeman. “On the
lonization Curves of Radium,”
Philosophical Magazine, 726–738.
Dated 8 September
1904. http://books.google.com/books?id=
9k8EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA726&dq=On+the+ionizati
on+Curves+of+Radium&lr=&as_drrb_is=b&as_
minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1904&as_maxm_is=0&a
s_maxy_is=1904&as_brr=0&cd=2#v=onepage&q
=On%20the%20ionization%20Curves%20of%20R
adium&f=false
[11] Bragg, “The Consequences of the
Corpuscular Hypothesis of γ and
X-rays, and the Range of β Rays”,
Philosophical Magazine, 6th Ser., 20
(Sept. 1910), 385–416; Studies in
Radio-activity
[12] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p592-593
[13] "Bragg, William
Henry." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 2. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 397-400.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 2
June 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900594&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[14] Bragg, "On the Properties and
Natures of Various Electric
Radiations", Philosophical Magazine,
6th Ser., 14 (Oct. 1907), 429–449.
Read before the Royal Society of South
Australia, 7 May and 4 June 1907.
http://books.google.com/books?id=EhQXB
Z1r44AC&pg=PA429&dq=On+the+Properties+an
d+Natures+of+Various+Electric+Radiations
&lr=&as_drrb_is=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_i
s=1907&as_maxm_is=0&as_maxy_is=1907&as_b
rr=0&cd=1#v=onepage&q=On%20the%20Propert
ies%20and%20Natures%20of%20Various%20Ele
ctric%20Radiations&f=false
(Cavindish Laboratory, Cambridge
University) Cambridge, England6  
[1] Bragg, W.L. The Diffraction of
Short Electromagnetic Waves by a
Crystal. Proceedings of the Cambridge
Philosophical Society, 1913: 17, pp.
43-57. http://tedhuntington.com/ulsf/do
cs_pd/Bragg_William_Lawrence_19121111.pd
f PD
source: Bragg, W.L. The Diffraction of
Short Electromagnetic Waves by a
Crystal. Proceedings of the Cambridge
Philosophical Society, 1913: 17, pp.
43-57. http://tedhuntington.com/ulsf/do
cs_pd/Bragg_William_Lawrence_19121111.pd
f

[2] Figure 2 from: Bragg, W.L. The
Diffraction of Short Electromagnetic
Waves by a Crystal. Proceedings of the
Cambridge Philosophical Society, 1913:
17, pp.
43-57. {Bragg_William_Lawrence_19121111
.pdf} PD
source: Bragg_William_Lawrence_19121111.
pdf
87 YBN
[05/28/1913 AD] 4 5 		4932) The general theory of
relativity,1 space and time are
restricted to a curved surface
geometry2 .
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ A. Einstein, M. Grossmann,
"Entwurf einer verallgemeinerten
Relativitätstheorie und eine Theorie
der Gravitation. I. Physikalischer Teil
von A. Einstein II. Mathematischer Teil
von M. Grossmann", Zeitschrift für
Mathematik und Physik, 62, 225–244,
245–261. "Outline of a Generalized
Theory of Relativity and of a Theory of
Gravitation. I. Physical Part by A.
Einstein II. Mathematical Part by M.
Grossmann" The Collected Papers of
Albert Einstein: Vol 4, The Swiss
years: writings,
1912-1914 http://books.google.com/books
?id=d047AQAAIAAJ&dq=editions:dYpwdLWNR2c
C&hl=en&ei=GDwYTeOrOoissAPHu6zwCg&sa=X&o
i=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CC
gQ6AEwATgK
{Einstein_Albert_19130528.pdf}
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ "Albert Einstein."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 24 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/albert-eins
tein
4. ^ A. Einstein, M. Grossmann,
"Entwurf einer verallgemeinerten
Relativitätstheorie und eine Theorie
der Gravitation. I. Physikalischer Teil
von A. Einstein II. Mathematischer Teil
von M. Grossmann", Zeitschrift für
Mathematik und Physik, 62, 225–244,
245–261. "Outline of a Generalized
Theory of Relativity and of a Theory of
Gravitation. I. Physical Part by A.
Einstein II. Mathematical Part by M.
Grossmann" The Collected Papers of
Albert Einstein: Vol 4, The Swiss
years: writings,
1912-1914 http://books.google.com/books
?id=d047AQAAIAAJ&dq=editions:dYpwdLWNR2c
C&hl=en&ei=GDwYTeOrOoissAPHu6zwCg&sa=X&o
i=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CC
gQ6AEwATgK
{Einstein_Albert_19130528.pdf}
{before 05/28/1913}
5. ^ A. Einstein, M. Grossmann,
"Entwurf einer verallgemeinerten
Relativitätstheorie und eine Theorie
der Gravitation. I. Physikalischer Teil
von A. Einstein II. Mathematischer Teil
von M. Grossmann", Zeitschrift für
Mathematik und Physik, 62, 225–244,
245–261. "Outline of a Generalized
Theory of Relativity and of a Theory of
Gravitation. I. Physical Part by A.
Einstein II. Mathematical Part by M.
Grossmann" The Collected Papers of
Albert Einstein: Vol 4, The Swiss
years: writings,
1912-1914 http://books.google.com/books
?id=d047AQAAIAAJ&dq=editions:dYpwdLWNR2c
C&hl=en&ei=GDwYTeOrOoissAPHu6zwCg&sa=X&o
i=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CC
gQ6AEwATgK
{Einstein_Albert_19130528.pdf} {1913}


MORE INFO
[1] "Albert Einstein."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 26
Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/181349/Albert-Einstein>
[2] "Albert Einstein." The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com 26 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/albert-eins
tein
[3] "Albert Einstein." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
26 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/albert-eins
tein
[4] "Albert Einstein." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2010.
Answers.com 26 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/albert-eins
tein
[5] "Einstein, Albert." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 4. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 312-319. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 26 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901295&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[6] "Albert Einstein". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Eins
tein
[7] A. Einstein, "Über einen die
Erzeugung und Verwandlung des Lichtes
betreffenden heuristischen
Gesichtspunkt", Annalen der Physik
(ser. 4), 17,
132–148. http://www.physik.uni-augsbu
rg.de/annalen/history/einstein-papers/19
05_17_132-148.pdf "On a Heuristic
Point of View Concerning the Production
and Transformation of
Light" http://users.physik.fu-berlin.de
/~kleinert/files/eins_lq.pdf
[8] http://www.alberteinstein.info/
[9]
http://users.physik.fu-berlin.de/~kleine
rt/files/
[10] A. Einstein, "Über die von der
molekularkinetischen Theorie der Wärme
geforderte Bewegung von in ruhenden
Flüssigkeiten suspendierten Teilchen",
Annalen der Physik (ser. 4), 17,
549–560, (Einstein's
thesis) http://www.physik.uni-augsburg.
de/annalen/history/einstein-papers/1905_
17_549-560.pdf "On the Movement of
Small Particles Suspended in Stationary
Liquids Required by the
Molecular-Kinetic Theory of
Heat" http://www.physik.fu-berlin.de/~k
leinert/files/eins_brownian.pdf
[11] A. Einstein, "Elektrodynamik
bewegter Körper", Annalen der Physik
(ser. 4), 17,
891–921. http://www.physik.uni-augsbu
rg.de/annalen/history/einstein-papers/19
05_17_891-921.pdf "On the
Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies"
http://users.physik.fu-berlin.de/~klei
nert/files/eins_specrel.pdf
[12] A. Einstein, "Ist die Trägheit
eines Körpers von seinem Energieinhalt
abhängig?", Annalen der Physik (ser.
4), 18,
639–641. http://www.physik.uni-augsbu
rg.de/annalen/history/einstein-papers/19
05_18_639-641.pdf "Does the Inertia
of a Body Depend upon its Energy
Content?" http://users.physik.fu-berlin
.de/~kleinert/files/e_mc2.pdf
[13] Herbert Dingle, "Science at a
Crossroads", 1972
[14] Charles Lane Poor,
"Gravitation Versus Relativity", 1922,
[15]
A. Einstein, "Relativitätsprinzip und
die aus demselben gezogenen
Folgerungen", Jahrbuch der
Radioaktivität, 4,
411–462. http://www.soso.ch/wissen/hi
st/SRT/E-1907.pdf "On the Relativity
Principle and the Conclusions Drawn
from It" in: Albert Einstein; Anna
Beck; Peter Havas, "The Collected
Papers of Albert Einstein", Princeton
University Press, v2, The Swiss years,
writings, 1900-1909, 1987,
p252. http://books.google.com/books?id=
J-zv71syXJMC&pg=PA252&lpg=PA252&dq=%22Ne
wton%27s+equations+of+motion+retain+thei
r+form%22&source=bl&ots=2Bi_77uKF1&sig=T
cTVzfwQqa0fow68kOufCjlS9ls&hl=en&ei=8ioY
Tc2ZHYzEsAO58ZGKCw&sa=X&oi=book_result&c
t=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBcQ6AEwAA#v=onep
age&q=%22Newton%27s%20equations%20of%20m
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http://www.pitt.edu/~jdnorton/teaching
/GR&Grav_2007/pdf/Einstein_1907.pdf
(incomplete) http://books.google.com/
books?id=J-zv71syXJMC&pg=PA252&lpg=PA252
&dq=%22Newton%27s+equations+of+motion+re
tain+their+form%22&source=bl&ots=2Bi_77u
KF1&sig=TcTVzfwQqa0fow68kOufCjlS9ls&hl=e
n&ei=8ioYTc2ZHYzEsAO58ZGKCw&sa=X&oi=book
_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBcQ6AEw
AA#v=onepage&q=%22Newton%27s%20equations
%20of%20motion%20retain%20their%20form%2
2&f=false
[16] Albert Einstein; Anna Beck; Peter
Havas, "The Collected Papers of Albert
Einstein", Princeton University Press,
1987
[17] "Die Grundlage der allgemeinen
Relativitaetstheorie" http://users.phys
ik.fu-berlin.de/~kleinert/files/1916_49_
769-822.pdf
[18] Pickering, W. H., "Shall we Accept
Relativity?", Popular Astronomy, Vol.
30,
p.199. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du/full/1922PA.....30..199P
(Federal Institute of Technology)
Zurich, Switzerland3  
[1] Description German-born
theoretical physicist Albert
Einstein. Source Cropped from
original at the Historical Museum of
Berne. Date 1904[1] Author
Lucien Chavan [1] (1868 - 1942), a
friend of Einstein's when he was living
in Berne. Permission (Reusing this
file) An uncropped version
available at NASA's ''Astronomy Picture
of the Day''. According to the NASA
site: PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/a/a0/Einstein_patentoffice.jpg

[2] Albert Einstein, Nobel Prize in
Physics 1921 photograph. Description
Albert Einstein (Nobel).png English:
Albert Einstein, official 1921 Nobel
Prize in Physics photograph. Français
: Albert Einstein, photographie
officielle du Prix Nobel de Physique
1921. Date 1921(1921) Source
Official 1921 Nobel Prize in
Physics photograph Author PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/50/Albert_Einstein_%28No
bel%29.png
87 YBN
[10/20/1913 AD] 4 		4863) The Andromeda galaxy is claimed
to have a very high velocity relative
to the Earth.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Slipher, V. M., "The radial
velocity of the Andromeda Nebula",
Lowell Observatory Bulletin, vol. 1,
pp.56-57. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/ful
l/1913LowOB...2...56S
{Slipher_19131020.pdf}
2. ^ Slipher, V. M., "The Radial
Velocity of the Andromeda Nebula",
Popular Astronomy, vol. 22, 1914,
pp.19-21. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/ful
l/1914PA.....22...19S
and http://books.google.com/books?id=4Q
ryAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA19&dq=%22Keeler,+by+his+
splendid%22&hl=en&ei=yO_RTL74OYz4sAOWzqH
hCg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum
=1&ved=0CC4Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22Keeler
%2C%20by%20his%20splendid%22&f=false
3. ^ Slipher, V. M., "The radial
velocity of the Andromeda Nebula",
Lowell Observatory Bulletin, vol. 1,
pp.56-57. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/ful
l/1913LowOB...2...56S
{Slipher_19131020.pdf}
4. ^ Slipher, V. M., "The radial
velocity of the Andromeda Nebula",
Lowell Observatory Bulletin, vol. 1,
pp.56-57. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/ful
l/1913LowOB...2...56S {Slipher_19131020
.pdf}

MORE INFO
[1] "Vesto Slipher." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2010.
Answers.com 03 Nov. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/vesto-sliph
er
[2] "Slipher, Vesto Melvin." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 454-456. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 3 Nov.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904042&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[3] "Vesto Melvin Slipher". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vesto_Melvi
n_Slipher
[4] Slipher, V. M., "Detection of the
rotation of Uranus", Lowell Observatory
Bulletin, vol. 1,
pp.19-20. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/ful
l/1912LowOB...2...19S
[5] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p556
[6] Lowell, P.,
"Spectroscopic discovery of the
rotation period of Uranus", Lowell
Observatory Bulletin, vol. 1,
pp.17-18. http://articles.adsabs.harvar
d.edu/full/seri/LowOB/0002//0000018.000.
html
[7] Hartmann, J., "Investigations on
the spectrum and orbit of delta
Orionis.", Astrophys. J., 19, 268-286
(1904). http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/
1904ApJ....19..268H
[8] "Vesto Melvin Slipher."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 03
Nov. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/548821/Vesto-Melvin-Slipher>
[9] Slipher, V. M., "On the Spectrum of
the Nebula in the Pleiades", Popular
Astronomy, Vol. 21, 1913,
p.186. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
913PA.....21..186S
(Percival Lowell's observatory)
Flagstaff, Arizona, USA3  
[1] Slipher, V. M., ''The radial
velocity of the Andromeda Nebula'',
Lowell Observatory Bulletin, vol. 1,
pp.56-57. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/ful
l/1913LowOB...2...56S
{Slipher_19131020.pdf} PD AND [1]
Vesto Melvin Slipher (11/11/1875 -
08/11/1969) UNKNOWN
source: http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
913LowOB...2...56Shttp://www.phys-astro.
sonoma.edu/BruceMedalists/Slipher/sliphe
r.jpg

[2] Vesto Melvin Slipher (11/11/1875 -
08/11/1969) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.phys-astro.sonoma.edu
/BruceMedalists/Slipher/slipher.jpg
87 YBN
[12/??/1913 AD] 4 		5039) The frequency of secondary x-rays
emitted from atoms is shown to increase
with atomic mass.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ H Moseley, "The high-frequency
spectra of the elements", Phil. Mag,
V26, p1024-1034,
1913 http://www.chemistry.co.nz/henry_m
oseley_article.htm {Moseley_Henry_19131
2xx.pdf}
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p713-714.
3. ^ "Moseley, Henry
Gwyn Jeffreys." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 9. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 542-545.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 31
Dec. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903063&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
4. ^ H Moseley, "The high-frequency
spectra of the elements", Phil. Mag,
V26, p1024-1034, 1913
http://www.chemistry.co.nz/henry_mosel
ey_article.htm {Moseley_Henry_191312xx.
pdf} {12/1913}

MORE INFO
[1] Moseley, H.; Darwin, C. G.,
"The Reflection of the X-Rays.",Nature,
Volume 90, Issue 2257, pp. 594
(1913). http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1
913Natur..90Q.594M
[2] H Moseley, "Atomic models and X-ray
spectra", Nature, Volume 92, Issue
2307, pp. 554
(1914). http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1
914Natur..92..554M
[3] H Moseley, "The number of ions
produced by the β and γ radiations
from radium", Philosophical Magazine
Series 6, 1914
[4] Moseley, H.; Darwin, C.
G., "The Reflexion of X Rays",
Philosophical Magazine, 26 (1913),
p210–232
[5] Moseley, H., "The Number of β
Particles Emitted in the
Transformations of Radium", Proceedings
of the Royal Society of London, 87A
(1912), 230–255;
(University of Manchester) Machester,
England3  
[1] Plate from: H Moseley, ''The
high-frequency spectra of the
elements'', Phil. Mag, V26, p1024-1034,
1913 http://www.chemistry.co.nz/henry_m
oseley_article.htm {Moseley_Henry_19131
2xx.pdf} PD
source: Moseley_Henry_191312xx.pdf

[2] Henry Moseley, British physicist.
from en. Died in 1915. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/dd/Henry_Moseley.jpg
86 YBN
[05/??/1914 AD] 3 4 		5085) Gamma rays from radioactivity are
found to have wavelengths in the X-ray
region.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ E. Rutherford, E. N. DA C.
Andrade, "The Wavelength of the Soft
Gamma Rays from Radium B.",
Philosophical Magazine 27, 1914,
854–868;
{Rutherford_Ernest_191405xx.pdf}
2. ^ "Rutherford, Ernest." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 25-36. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 2 Jan.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903798&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
3. ^ E. Rutherford, E. N. DA C.
Andrade, "The Wavelength of the Soft
Gamma Rays from Radium B.",
Philosophical Magazine 27, 1914,
854–868;
{Rutherford_Ernest_191405xx.pdf}
{05/1914}
4. ^ E. Rutherford, E. N. DA C.
Andrade, "The Wavelength of the Soft
Gamma Rays from Radium B.",
Philosophical Magazine 27, 1914,
854–868.

MORE INFO
[1] "Ernest Rutherford."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 12 Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ernest-ruth
erford-1st-baron-rutherford-of-nelson
[2] "Ernest Rutherford". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Ruth
erford
[3] Ernest Rutherford, "Radioactive
transformations", C. Scribner's Sons,
1906
http://books.google.com/books?id=Rb0KA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=rutherfor
d&hl=en&ei=C4lkTIvqDZOjnQe_urBe&sa=X&oi=
book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CDUQ
6AEwAg#v=onepage&q&f=false
[4] Ernest Rutherford, Collected
papers., New York, Interscience
Publishers, 1962, 3 volumes
[5] Ernest
Rutherford, "A Magnetic Detector of
Electrical Waves, and Some of its
applications", Philosophical
Transactions A, 01/01/1897,
189:1-24. http://rsta.royalsocietypubli
shing.org/content/189/1.full.pdf+html?si
d=75c97b8c-5669-4ad5-a5fb-51b24afaa343
[6] Ernest Rutherford (obituary), The
London, Edinburgh and Dublin
philosophical magazine and journal of
science, 1937, p1022
[7] Ernest Rutherford,
"The Modern Theories of Electricity and
their Relation to the Franklinian
Theory", The record of the celebration
of the two hundredth anniversary of the
birth of Benjamin Franklin, American
Philosophical Society, delivered April
18, 1906,
p123. http://books.google.com/books?id=
wQIOAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=
gbs_atb#v=onepage&q&f=false
[8] Rutherford, "The Velocity and rate
of Recombination of the Ions of Gases
exposed to Rontgen Radiation.",
Philosophical Magazine, S5, V44, N270,
Nov 1897,
p422. http://books.google.com/books?id=
utXnmtFZ6TUC&pg=PA422&dq=The+velocity+an
d+rate+of+recombination+of+the+ions+of+g
ases+exposed+to+R%C3%B6ntgen+radiation&h
l=en&ei=A8JpTJKVDYzWtQO8mp2kBw&sa=X&oi=b
ook_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CCkQ6
AEwAQ#v=onepage&q&f=false
[9] Rutherford
publications: http://www.rutherford.org
.nz/bibliography.htm
[10] Rutherford, "Uranium Radiation and
the Electrical Conduction Produced by
It", Phil Mag ser 5 xlvii 109-163
1899. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ipMOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA110&dq=Uranium+Radiati
on+and+the+Electrical+Conduction+Produce
d+by+It&hl=en&ei=TctpTKKkOZO8sAObsu2mBw&
sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&v
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iation%20and%20the%20Electrical%20Conduc
tion%20Produced%20by%20It&f=false
[11] Rutherford, "A Radioactive
Substance emitted from Thorium
Compound", Phil Mag ser 5 xlix 1-14
1900.
http://www.chemteam.info/Chem-History/
Rutherford-half-life.html
[12] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p395
[13] Rutherford, "Radioactivity
Produced in Substances by the Action of
Thorium Compounds", Phil Mag ser 5 xlix
161-192
1990 http://books.google.com/books?id=o
EwEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA161&lpg=PA161&dq=%22Rad
ioactivity+Produced+in+Substances+by+the
+Action+of+Thorium+Compounds%22&source=b
l&ots=-cyiagAP1C&sig=jdQ3u179zO6Xi1azPnw
X4kW8Bgc&hl=en&ei=8xxrTMbZJZH0tgOPn-lG&s
a=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ve
d=0CBIQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22Radioactivi
ty%20Produced%20in%20Substances%20by%20t
he%20Action%20of%20Thorium%20Compounds%2
2&f=false
[14] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p664-665
[15] Rutherford and
Soddy, "The Radioactivity of Thorium
Compounds II, The Cause and Nature of
Radioactivity", Transactions of the
Chemical Society, v81, 1902,
pp837-860. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=uVWNAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq
=editions:UOM39015067129323#v=onepage&q=
rutherford&f=false
[16] Rutherford, Brooks, "Comparison of
the Radiations from Radioactive
Substances", Phil Mag, s6, 4, pp1-23,
July 1902
[17] Ernest Rutherford, "The
Magnetic and Electric Deviation of the
Easily Absorbed Rays from Radium",
Phil. Mag., S6, V 4, Feb 1903,
pp177-187.
http://books.google.com/books?id=EFQwAAA
AIAAJ&pg=PA177&lpg=PA177&dq=The+Magnetic
+and+Electric+Deviation+of+the+Easily+Ab
sorbed+Rays+from+Radium&source=bl&ots=hd
6YYVJA6n&sig=jXFrc1rH_POEoKypoNDmYkoHIHw
&hl=en&ei=4b9tTJmFI5OisQPYo7H5Cg&sa=X&oi
=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBI
Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=The%20Magnetic%20and
%20Electric%20Deviation%20of%20the%20Eas
ily%20Absorbed%20Rays%20from%20Radium&f=
false
[18] "emanation." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 20
Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/emanation
[19] Rutherford, Soddy, "Note on the
condensation points of thorium and
radium emanations", Proc Chem Soc
219-20
1902. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ro0FAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA219&dq=Note+on+the+con
densation+points+of+thorium+and+radium+e
manations&hl=en&ei=cRNvTJ3eHIi-sAOopo26C
w&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=4
&ved=0CDgQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=Note%20on%2
0the%20condensation%20points%20of%20thor
ium%20and%20radium%20emanations&f=false
[20] Rutherford, Soddy, "Condensation
of the Radioactive Emanations", Phil
Mag ser 6, v 561-76 1903
[21] Rutherford,
"Charge Carried by the α and β Rays
of Radium", Phil Mag, August 1905, s6,
v10, pp193-208
[22] Rutherford, "Radioactivity",
ed 1
1904. http://books.google.com/books?id=
xDwJAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=ruth
erford&hl=en&ei=u-dyTO3LC4m6sAOOhfTMDQ&s
a=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ve
d=0CDIQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q&f=false
[23] Rutherford, "Radioactivity" ,ed 2
1905. http://books.google.com/books?id=
g0MNAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=ruth
erford&hl=en&ei=YudyTOL9E4nGsAP3ppzDDQ&s
a=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ve
d=0CCoQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false
[24] E. Rutherford, H. Geiger, "A
Method of Counting the Number of α
Particles from Radio-active Matter",
Memoirs of the Manchester Literary and
Philosophical Society, 1908, V52, N9,
pp1-3
[25] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p687-688
[26] Rutherford, "The
Scattering of the α and β Rays and
the Structure of the Atom", Proceedings
of the Manchester Literary and
Philosophical Society, 4, 55,
03/07/1911, pp18-20
[27] Ernest Rutherford,
"The Structure of the Atom", Phil Mag,
March 1914, s6, v27,
pp488-498. http://www.chemteam.info/Che
m-History/Rutherford-1914.html
[28] "Rutherford, Ernest." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 25-36. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 17 Aug.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903798&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[29] Rutherford, "Radiations from
Exploding Atoms", Nature, 95,
1915,pp494-8
[30] Rutherford, Collision of α
Particles with Light Atoms, Phil. Mag.
June 1919, s6, 37, pp537-61
(University of Manchester) Manchester,
England2  
[1] Figures from: [1] E. Rutherford,
''The Wavelength of the Soft Gamma Rays
from Radium B.'', Philosophical
Magazine 27, 1914, 854–868;
{Rutherford_Ernest_191405xx.pdf} PD
source: Rutherford_Ernest_191405xx.pdf

[2] Description Ernest
Rutherford2.jpg English: Cropped
Image:Ernest_Rutherford.jpg Date
2007-01-26 (original upload
date) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia Author Original
uploader was Sadi Carnot at
en.wikipedia GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/57/Ernest_Rutherford2.jp
g
86 YBN
[07/28/1914 AD] 4 5 		4792) Sound is recorded and played back
with motion pictures on plastic film.1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Sipilä, Kari (April 2004). "A
Country That Innovates". Ministry for
Foreign Affairs of Finland. Retrieved
2009-12-08. "Eric Tigerstedt". Film
Sound Sweden. Retrieved 2009-12-08.
http://www.filmsoundsweden.se/backspeg
el/tigerstedt.html See also A. M.
Pertti Kuusela, E.M.C Tigerstedt
"Suomen Edison" (Insinööritieto Oy:
1981).
2. ^ "Eric Tigerstedt". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eric_Tigers
tedt
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "Eric Tigerstedt".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eric_Tigers
tedt {07/28/1914}
5. ^
http://www.filmsoundsweden.se/backspegel
/tigerstedt.html {1914}

MORE INFO
[1] Eric Tigerstedt German Patent
#309535, 1914
Berlin, Germany2 (verify3 ) 
[1] Eric Tigerstedts ljudfilmspatent
nummer 309.536 från 28/7 1914 PD
source: http://www.filmsoundsweden.se/vo
xbilder/filmhist/tigerstedt.jpg

[2] Sound in Movies (Eric
Tigerstedt) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/fi/thumb/f/f3/Eric_Tigerstedt_1915
.jpg/250px-Eric_Tigerstedt_1915.jpg
86 YBN
[1914 AD] 6 7 		4977) The theory that spiral "nebulae"
are other galaxies.3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p427.
2. ^ "Sir Arthur Stanley Eddington."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 29 Dec. 2010.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/178891/Sir-Arthur-Stanley-Eddington>.
3. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p427.
4. ^ "Sir Arthur Stanley Eddington."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 29 Dec. 2010.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/178891/Sir-Arthur-Stanley-Eddington>.
5. ^ Sir Arthur Stanley Eddington,
"Stellar movements and the structure of
the universe",
1914 http://books.google.com/books?id=6
KQ5AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=g
bs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=fals
e
6. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p427. {1914}
7. ^ Sir Arthur Stanley
Eddington, "Stellar movements and the
structure of the universe",
1914 http://books.google.com/books?id=6
KQ5AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=g
bs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=fals
e

MORE INFO
[1] "Sir Arthur Stanley
Eddington." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 29 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/arthur-stan
ley-eddington
(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England5  
[1] Description Arthur Stanley
Eddington.jpg English: English
astrophysicist Sir Arthur Stanley
Eddington (1882–1944) Date
Unrecorded Source
US-LibraryOfCongress-BookLogo.svg
This image is available from the
United States Library of Congress's
Prints and Photographs division under
the digital ID ggbain.38064. This tag
does not indicate the copyright status
of the attached work. A normal
copyright tag is still required. See
Commons:Licensing for more
information. العربية
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/24/Arthur_Stanley_Edding
ton.jpg
83 YBN
[10/04/1917 AD] 4 		6508) The electric propulsion engine.1
2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Choueiri, Edgar Y. "A critical
history of electric propulsion: The
first 50 years (1906-1956)." Journal of
Propulsion and Power 20.2 (2004):
193-203. http://waterocket.explorer.fre
e.fr/pdf/Electric%20Propulsion.choueiriJ
PP04a.pdf
2. ^ Goddard, R. H., "Method and Means
for Producing Electrified Jets of Gas",
U.S. Patent No. 1,363,037, application
filed Oct. 1917, granted
Dec. 1920. http://www.google.com/paten
ts/US1363037
3. ^ "Robert Hutchings Goddard."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 28
Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/236716/Robert-Hutchings-Goddard>.
4. ^ Goddard, R. H., "Method and Means
for Producing Electrified Jets of Gas",
U.S. Patent No. 1,363,037, application
filed Oct. 1917, granted
Dec. 1920. http://www.google.com/paten
ts/US1363037

MORE INFO
[1] "Goddard, Robert Hutchings."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 5. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 433-434. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 28 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901665&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[2] "Robert Goddard". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
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[3] Goddard, “A Method of Reaching
Extreme Altitudes”, Smithsonian
Miscellaneous Collections, 71, no. 2
(1919) {Goddard_Robert_1946.pdf}
[4] Goddard,
“Liquid-Propellant Rocket
Development,” Smithsonian
Miscellaneous Collections, 95, no. 3
(1936) {Goddard_Robert_1946.pdf}
[5] Goddard, "Goddard’s
Rockets" (New York, 1946)
[6] U.S. Patent
1,102,653 - Rocket apparatus - R. H.
Goddard,
http://www.google.com/patents?vid=1102
653
[7] U.S. Patent 1,103,503 - Rocket
apparatus - R. H.
Goddard, http://www.google.com/patents?
vid=1103503
[8] "Robert Hutchings Goddard."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 28 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-godd
ard
[9] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p427
[10]
Goebel, D.M., and I. Katz. Fundamentals
of Electric Propulsion: Ion and Hall
Thrusters. Wiley, 2008. JPL Space
Science and Technology
Series. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=P5OGFXcBKcwC&pg=PA237
[11] R. H. Goddard, The Green
Notebooks, vol. 1, The Dr. Robert H.
Goddard Collection at the Clark
university Archives, Clark university,
Worchester, Massachusetts
Worcester, Massachusetts, USA
(presumably)3  
[1] Goddard, R. H., ''Method and Means
for Producing Electrified Jets of
Gas'', U.S. Patent No. 1,363,037,
application filed Oct. 1917, granted
Dec. 1920. http://www.google.com/paten
ts/US1363037 PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents/US
1363037

[2] English: Dr. Robert Hutchings
Goddard (1882-1945). Dr. Goddard has
been recognized as the father of
American rocketry and as one of the
pioneers in the theoretical exploration
of space. Robert Hutchings Goddard,
born in Worcester, Massachusetts, on
October 5, 1882, was theoretical
scientist as well as a practical
engineer. His dream was the conquest of
the upper atmosphere and ultimately
space through the use of rocket
propulsion. Dr. Goddard, died in 1945,
but was probably as responsible for the
dawning of the Space Age as the Wrights
were for the beginning of the Air Age.
Yet his work attracted little serious
attention during his lifetime. However,
when the United States began to prepare
for the conquest of space in the
1950's, American rocket scientists
began to recognize the debt owed to the
New England professor. They discovered
that it was virtually impossible to
construct a rocket or launch a
satellite without acknowledging the
work of Dr. Goddard. More than 200
patents, many of which were issued
after his death, covered this great
legacy. Date 0 Unknown date
0000(0000-00-00) Source Great
Images in NASA
Description http://dayton.hq.nasa.gov/I
MAGES/LARGE/GPN-2002-000131.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3f/Dr._Robert_H._Goddard
_-_GPN-2002-000131.jpg
83 YBN
[1917 AD] 5 		4761) Ultrasonic sound (sound with a
frequency too high to be heard by the
human ear1 ) is produced by
piezoelectricity and used to determine
the location of objects by reflection
(sonar).2 3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "ultrasonic." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 25
Dec. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ultrasonic
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p638-639.
3. ^ "Paul Langevin."
A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 26 Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/paul-langev
in
4. ^ "Langevin, Paul." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 8. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 9-14. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 26 Aug.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902468&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
5. ^ "Langevin, Paul." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 8. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 9-14. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 26 Aug.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902468&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {1917}

MORE INFO
[1] "Paul Langevin". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Langev
in
[2] P. Langevin, “Magnétisme et
théeorie des électrons” in Annales
de chimie et de physique, 5 (1905),
70-127;
[3] "Curie, Pierre." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 26 Aug. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9028
253>
(Collège de France) Paris, France4
(presumably) 
[1] Description Paul
Langevin.jpg Paul Langevin Date
2007-02-13 (original upload
date) Unknown - before 1946 (original
picture) Source Originally from
en.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. Original source:
http://www.nndb.com/people/085/000099785
/paul-langevin-1-sized.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/65/Paul_Langevin.jpg
83 YBN
[1917 AD] 6 		4765) The theory that the universe is
expanding.1 2 3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Willem de Sitter." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 27 Aug.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/willem-de-s
itter
2. ^ de Sitter, W., "Einstein's theory
of gravitation and its astronomical
consequences", Monthly Notices of the
Royal Astronomical Society, Vol. 76,
p.699-728. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/fu
ll/1916MNRAS..76..699D {De_Sitter_Wille
m_part1_191608xx.pdf}
3. ^ de Sitter, W., "On Einstein's
theory of gravitation and its
astronomical consequences. Second
paper", Monthly Notices of the Royal
Astronomical Society, Vol. 77,
p.155-184. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/ab
s/1916MNRAS..77..155D {De_Sitter_Willem
_part2_191610xx.pdf}
4. ^ De Sitter, W., "Einstein's theory
of gravitation and its astronomical
consequences. Third paper", Monthly
Notices of the Royal Astronomical
Society, Vol. 78,
p.3-28. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/
1917MNRAS..78....3D {De_Sitter_Willem_p
art3_191706xx.pdf}
5. ^ "Willem de Sitter." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2010.
Answers.com 27 Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/willem-de-s
itter
6. ^ "Willem de Sitter." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 27 Aug.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/willem-de-s
itter {1917}

MORE INFO
[1] "Sitter, Willem de."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 27 Aug. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9068
024>
[2] Kragh, Helge. "Sitter, Willem De."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 24. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 455-458. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 27 Aug.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830906095&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[3] "Willem de sitter". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willem_de_s
itter
(University of Leiden) Leiden,
Netherlands5  
[1] De Sitter, W., ''Einstein's theory
of gravitation and its astronomical
consequences. Third paper'', Monthly
Notices of the Royal Astronomical
Society, Vol. 78,
p.3-28. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/
1917MNRAS..78....3D {De_Sitter_Willem_p
art3_191706xx.pdf} PD AND SITTER,
Willem de (1872-1934) UNKNOWN
source: http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
917MNRAS..78....3Dhttp://www.inghist.nl/
Onderzoek/Projecten/BWN/lemmata/bwn2/ima
ges/SITTER.jpg

[2] SITTER, Willem de
(1872-1934) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.inghist.nl/Onderzoek/
Projecten/BWN/lemmata/bwn2/images/SITTER
.jpg
82 YBN
[04/??/1918 AD] 6 		5008) The Sun is determined to be in
the outer part of our galaxy.3 4
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p702-703.
2. ^ Shapley,
"Remarks on the Arrangement of the
Sidereal Universe", Astrophysical
Journal, 49 (1919), 311–336.
http://books.google.com/books?id=wX4OA
AAAIAAJ&pg=PA311&lpg=PA311&dq=Remarks+on
+the+Arrangement+of+the+Sidereal+Univers
e&source=bl&ots=Akurl3Ntg9&sig=CIY6NgmTy
xBZqKK3RXWo3MWIr2U&hl=en&ei=hmMcTaKJK5So
sAPG2ZDSAg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result
&resnum=2&ved=0CBoQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=Re
marks%20on%20the%20Arrangement%20of%20th
e%20Sidereal%20Universe&f=false
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p702-703.
4. ^ Shapley,
"Remarks on the Arrangement of the
Sidereal Universe", Astrophysical
Journal, 49 (1919), 311–336.
http://books.google.com/books?id=wX4OA
AAAIAAJ&pg=PA311&lpg=PA311&dq=Remarks+on
+the+Arrangement+of+the+Sidereal+Univers
e&source=bl&ots=Akurl3Ntg9&sig=CIY6NgmTy
xBZqKK3RXWo3MWIr2U&hl=en&ei=hmMcTaKJK5So
sAPG2ZDSAg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result
&resnum=2&ved=0CBoQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=Re
marks%20on%20the%20Arrangement%20of%20th
e%20Sidereal%20Universe&f=false
5. ^ Shapley, H., "On the Nature and
Cause of Cepheid Variation",
Astrophysical Journal, vol. 40, 1914,
p.448. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
914ApJ....40..448S {Shapley_Harlow_1914
0813.pdf}
6. ^ Shapley, "Remarks on the
Arrangement of the Sidereal Universe",
Astrophysical Journal, 49 (1919),
311–336.
http://books.google.com/books?id=wX4OA
AAAIAAJ&pg=PA311&lpg=PA311&dq=Remarks+on
+the+Arrangement+of+the+Sidereal+Univers
e&source=bl&ots=Akurl3Ntg9&sig=CIY6NgmTy
xBZqKK3RXWo3MWIr2U&hl=en&ei=hmMcTaKJK5So
sAPG2ZDSAg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result
&resnum=2&ved=0CBoQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=Re
marks%20on%20the%20Arrangement%20of%20th
e%20Sidereal%20Universe&f=false
{04/1918}
(Mount Wilson Solar Observatory) Mount
Wilson, California, USA5  
[1] Figure 1 from: Shapley, ''Remarks
on the Arrangement of the Sidereal
Universe'', Astrophysical Journal, 49
(1919), 311–336.
http://books.google.com/books?id=wX4OA
AAAIAAJ&pg=PA311&lpg=PA311&dq=Remarks+on
+the+Arrangement+of+the+Sidereal+Univers
e&source=bl&ots=Akurl3Ntg9&sig=CIY6NgmTy
xBZqKK3RXWo3MWIr2U&hl=en&ei=hmMcTaKJK5So
sAPG2ZDSAg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result
&resnum=2&ved=0CBoQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=Re
marks%20on%20the%20Arrangement%20of%20th
e%20Sidereal%20Universe&f=false PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=wX4OAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA311&lpg=PA311&dq=Rema
rks+on+the+Arrangement+of+the+Sidereal+U
niverse&source=bl&ots=Akurl3Ntg9&sig=CIY
6NgmTyxBZqKK3RXWo3MWIr2U&hl=en&ei=hmMcTa
KJK5SosAPG2ZDSAg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=
result&resnum=2&ved=0CBoQ6AEwAQ#v=onepag
e&q=Remarks%20on%20the%20Arrangement%20o
f%20the%20Sidereal%20Universe&f=false

[2] * Harlow Shapley's observations
placed the Sun about 25,000 light years
from the center of our home Galaxy.
* Photo credit: National
Academies UNKNOWN
source: http://www.cosmotography.com/ima
ges/dark_matter_gallery/HarlowShapley.jp
g
82 YBN
[06/21/1918 AD] 8 		6199) The first electronic read and
write memory.5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ William Henry Eccles and Frank
Wilfred Jordan, "Improvements in ionic
relays" British patent number: GB
148582 (filed: 21 June 1918; published:
5 August 1920).
http://worldwide.espacenet.com/publica
tionDetails/originalDocument?CC=GB&NR=14
8582&KC=&FT=E {Eccles_William_Henry_ele
ctronic_memory_GB148582A_19180621.pdf}
2. ^ W. H. Eccles and F. W. Jordan (19
September 1919) "A trigger relay
utilizing three-electrode thermionic
vacuum tubes." The Electrician, vol.
83, page 298.
{Eccles_flip-flop_19190919.pdf} Repri
nted in: Radio Review, vol. 1, no. 3,
pages 143–146 (December
1919) {Eccles_flip-flop_19191201.pdf}
3. ^ William Henry Eccles and Frank
Wilfred Jordan, "Improvements in ionic
relays" British patent number: GB
148582 (filed: 21 June 1918; published:
5 August 1920).
http://worldwide.espacenet.com/publica
tionDetails/originalDocument?CC=GB&NR=14
8582&KC=&FT=E {Eccles_William_Henry_ele
ctronic_memory_GB148582A_19180621.pdf}
4. ^ W. H. Eccles and F. W. Jordan (19
September 1919) "A trigger relay
utilizing three-electrode thermionic
vacuum tubes." The Electrician, vol.
83, page 298.
{Eccles_flip-flop_19190919.pdf} Repri
nted in: Radio Review, vol. 1, no. 3,
pages 143–146 (December
1919) {Eccles_flip-flop_19191201.pdf}
5. ^ William Henry Eccles and Frank
Wilfred Jordan, "Improvements in ionic
relays" British patent number: GB
148582 (filed: 21 June 1918; published:
5 August 1920).
http://worldwide.espacenet.com/publica
tionDetails/originalDocument?CC=GB&NR=14
8582&KC=&FT=E {Eccles_William_Henry_ele
ctronic_memory_GB148582A_19180621.pdf}
6. ^ W. H. Eccles and F. W. Jordan (19
September 1919) "A trigger relay
utilizing three-electrode thermionic
vacuum tubes." The Electrician, vol.
83, page 298.
{Eccles_flip-flop_19190919.pdf} Repri
nted in: Radio Review, vol. 1, no. 3,
pages 143–146 (December
1919) {Eccles_flip-flop_19191201.pdf}
7. ^ William Henry Eccles and Frank
Wilfred Jordan, "Improvements in ionic
relays" British patent number: GB
148582 (filed: 21 June 1918; published:
5 August 1920).
http://worldwide.espacenet.com/publica
tionDetails/originalDocument?CC=GB&NR=14
8582&KC=&FT=E {Eccles_William_Henry_ele
ctronic_memory_GB148582A_19180621.pdf}
8. ^ William Henry Eccles and Frank
Wilfred Jordan, "Improvements in ionic
relays" British patent number: GB
148582 (filed: 21 June 1918; published:
5 August 1920).
http://worldwide.espacenet.com/publica
tionDetails/originalDocument?CC=GB&NR=14
8582&KC=&FT=E {Eccles_William_Henry_ele
ctronic_memory_GB148582A_19180621.pdf}
{06/21/1918}
(City and Guilds Technical College)
London, UK7  
[1] Image from: William Henry Eccles
and Frank Wilfred Jordan,
''Improvements in ionic relays''
British patent number: GB 148582
(filed: 21 June 1918; published: 5
August 1920).
http://worldwide.espacenet.com/publica
tionDetails/originalDocument?CC=GB&NR=14
8582&KC=&FT=E {Eccles_William_Henry_ele
ctronic_memory_GB148582A_19180621.pdf}
PD
source: http://worldwide.espacenet.com/p
ublicationDetails/originalDocument?CC=GB
&NR=148582&KC=&FT=E

[2] A simple yet powerful animation of
how an R-S flip-flop works. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f4/R-S.gif
81 YBN
[04/??/1919 AD] 13 		4750) Atomic transmutation and atomic
fusion. Atoms of Nitrogen are changed
into atoms of Oxygen by high speed
alpha particles colliding with Nitrogen
gas.9 10 11
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ernest Rutherford, "Collision of
α Particles with Light Atoms", Phil.
Mag. June 1919, s6, 37, pp581-87.
http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/rutherf
ord.html {Rutherford_191904xx.pdf}
2. ^ "Rutherford, Ernest." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 25-36. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 17 Aug.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903798&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
3. ^ Ernest Rutherford, "Collision of
α Particles with Light Atoms", Phil.
Mag. June 1919, s6, 37, pp581-87.
http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/rutherf
ord.html {Rutherford_191904xx.pdf}
4. ^ "Rutherford, Ernest." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 25-36. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 17 Aug.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903798&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
5. ^ "fusion>.". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
"fusion." The American Heritage®
Science Dictionary. Houghton Mifflin
Company. 18 May. 2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/f
usion>.
6. ^ Ernest Rutherford, "Collision of
α Particles with Light Atoms", Phil.
Mag. June 1919, s6, 37, pp581-87.
http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/rutherf
ord.html {Rutherford_191904xx.pdf}
7. ^ "Rutherford, Ernest." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 25-36. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 17 Aug.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903798&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
8. ^ "fusion>.". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
"fusion." The American Heritage®
Science Dictionary. Houghton Mifflin
Company. 18 May. 2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/f
usion>.
9. ^ Ernest Rutherford, "Collision of
α Particles with Light Atoms", Phil.
Mag. June 1919, s6, 37, pp581-87.
http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/rutherf
ord.html {Rutherford_191904xx.pdf}
10. ^ "Rutherford, Ernest." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 25-36. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 17 Aug.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903798&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
11. ^ "fusion>.". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
"fusion." The American Heritage®
Science Dictionary. Houghton Mifflin
Company. 18 May. 2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/f
usion>.
12. ^ Rutherford, Collision of α
Particles with Light Atoms, Phil. Mag.
June 1919, s6, 37,
pp537-61. http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunt
a/rutherford.html {Rutherford_191904xx.
pdf}
13. ^ Rutherford, Collision of α
Particles with Light Atoms, Phil. Mag.
June 1919, s6, 37, pp537-61.
http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/rutherf
ord.html {Rutherford_191904xx.pdf}
{04/1919}

MORE INFO
[1] "Ernest Rutherford."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 12 Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ernest-ruth
erford-1st-baron-rutherford-of-nelson
[2] "Ernest Rutherford". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Ruth
erford
[3] Ernest Rutherford, "Radioactive
transformations", C. Scribner's Sons,
1906
http://books.google.com/books?id=Rb0KA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=rutherfor
d&hl=en&ei=C4lkTIvqDZOjnQe_urBe&sa=X&oi=
book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CDUQ
6AEwAg#v=onepage&q&f=false
[4] Ernest Rutherford, Collected
papers., New York, Interscience
Publishers, 1962, 3 volumes
[5] Ernest
Rutherford, "A Magnetic Detector of
Electrical Waves, and Some of its
applications", Philosophical
Transactions A, 01/01/1897,
189:1-24. http://rsta.royalsocietypubli
shing.org/content/189/1.full.pdf+html?si
d=75c97b8c-5669-4ad5-a5fb-51b24afaa343
[6] Ernest Rutherford (obituary), The
London, Edinburgh and Dublin
philosophical magazine and journal of
science, 1937, p1022
[7] Ernest Rutherford,
"The Modern Theories of Electricity and
their Relation to the Franklinian
Theory", The record of the celebration
of the two hundredth anniversary of the
birth of Benjamin Franklin, American
Philosophical Society, delivered April
18, 1906,
p123. http://books.google.com/books?id=
wQIOAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=
gbs_atb#v=onepage&q&f=false
[8] Rutherford, "The Velocity and rate
of Recombination of the Ions of Gases
exposed to Rontgen Radiation.",
Philosophical Magazine, S5, V44, N270,
Nov 1897,
p422. http://books.google.com/books?id=
utXnmtFZ6TUC&pg=PA422&dq=The+velocity+an
d+rate+of+recombination+of+the+ions+of+g
ases+exposed+to+R%C3%B6ntgen+radiation&h
l=en&ei=A8JpTJKVDYzWtQO8mp2kBw&sa=X&oi=b
ook_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CCkQ6
AEwAQ#v=onepage&q&f=false
[9] Rutherford
publications: http://www.rutherford.org
.nz/bibliography.htm
[10] Rutherford, "Uranium Radiation and
the Electrical Conduction Produced by
It", Phil Mag ser 5 xlvii 109-163
1899. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ipMOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA110&dq=Uranium+Radiati
on+and+the+Electrical+Conduction+Produce
d+by+It&hl=en&ei=TctpTKKkOZO8sAObsu2mBw&
sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&v
ed=0CDgQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=Uranium%20Rad
iation%20and%20the%20Electrical%20Conduc
tion%20Produced%20by%20It&f=false
[11] Rutherford, "A Radioactive
Substance emitted from Thorium
Compound", Phil Mag ser 5 xlix 1-14
1900.
http://www.chemteam.info/Chem-History/
Rutherford-half-life.html
[12] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p395
[13] Rutherford, "Radioactivity
Produced in Substances by the Action of
Thorium Compounds", Phil Mag ser 5 xlix
161-192
1990 http://books.google.com/books?id=o
EwEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA161&lpg=PA161&dq=%22Rad
ioactivity+Produced+in+Substances+by+the
+Action+of+Thorium+Compounds%22&source=b
l&ots=-cyiagAP1C&sig=jdQ3u179zO6Xi1azPnw
X4kW8Bgc&hl=en&ei=8xxrTMbZJZH0tgOPn-lG&s
a=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ve
d=0CBIQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22Radioactivi
ty%20Produced%20in%20Substances%20by%20t
he%20Action%20of%20Thorium%20Compounds%2
2&f=false
[14] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p664-665
[15] Rutherford and
Soddy, "The Radioactivity of Thorium
Compounds II, The Cause and Nature of
Radioactivity", Transactions of the
Chemical Society, v81, 1902,
pp837-860. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=uVWNAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq
=editions:UOM39015067129323#v=onepage&q=
rutherford&f=false
[16] Rutherford, Brooks, "Comparison of
the Radiations from Radioactive
Substances", Phil Mag, s6, 4, pp1-23,
July 1902
[17] Ernest Rutherford, "The
Magnetic and Electric Deviation of the
Easily Absorbed Rays from Radium",
Phil. Mag., S6, V 4, Feb 1903,
pp177-187.
http://books.google.com/books?id=EFQwAAA
AIAAJ&pg=PA177&lpg=PA177&dq=The+Magnetic
+and+Electric+Deviation+of+the+Easily+Ab
sorbed+Rays+from+Radium&source=bl&ots=hd
6YYVJA6n&sig=jXFrc1rH_POEoKypoNDmYkoHIHw
&hl=en&ei=4b9tTJmFI5OisQPYo7H5Cg&sa=X&oi
=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBI
Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=The%20Magnetic%20and
%20Electric%20Deviation%20of%20the%20Eas
ily%20Absorbed%20Rays%20from%20Radium&f=
false
[18] "emanation." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 20
Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/emanation
[19] Rutherford, Soddy, "Note on the
condensation points of thorium and
radium emanations", Proc Chem Soc
219-20
1902. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ro0FAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA219&dq=Note+on+the+con
densation+points+of+thorium+and+radium+e
manations&hl=en&ei=cRNvTJ3eHIi-sAOopo26C
w&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=4
&ved=0CDgQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=Note%20on%2
0the%20condensation%20points%20of%20thor
ium%20and%20radium%20emanations&f=false
[20] Rutherford, Soddy, "Condensation
of the Radioactive Emanations", Phil
Mag ser 6, v 561-76 1903
[21] Rutherford,
"Charge Carried by the α and β Rays
of Radium", Phil Mag, August 1905, s6,
v10, pp193-208
[22] Rutherford, "Radioactivity",
ed 1
1904. http://books.google.com/books?id=
xDwJAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=ruth
erford&hl=en&ei=u-dyTO3LC4m6sAOOhfTMDQ&s
a=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ve
d=0CDIQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q&f=false
[23] Rutherford, "Radioactivity" ,ed 2
1905. http://books.google.com/books?id=
g0MNAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=ruth
erford&hl=en&ei=YudyTOL9E4nGsAP3ppzDDQ&s
a=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ve
d=0CCoQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false
[24] E. Rutherford, H. Geiger, "A
Method of Counting the Number of α
Particles from Radio-active Matter",
Memoirs of the Manchester Literary and
Philosophical Society, 1908, V52, N9,
pp1-3
[25] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p687-688
[26] Rutherford, "The
Scattering of the α and β Rays and
the Structure of the Atom", Proceedings
of the Manchester Literary and
Philosophical Society, 4, 55,
03/07/1911, pp18-20
[27] Ernest Rutherford,
"The Structure of the Atom", Phil Mag,
March 1914, s6, v27,
pp488-498. http://www.chemteam.info/Che
m-History/Rutherford-1914.html
[28] Rutherford, "Radiations from
Exploding Atoms", Nature, 95,
1915,pp494-8
[29] Ernest Rutherford, "Collision of
α Particles with Light Atoms", Phil.
Mag. June 1919, s6, 37,
pp581-87. http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunt
a/rutherford.html
(University of Manchester) Manchester,
England12  
[1] Rutherford, Collision of α
Particles with Light Atoms, Phil. Mag.
June 1919, s6, 37, pp537-61. from:
Ernest Rutherford, ''The Collected
Papers of Lord Rutherford of Nelson'',
Vol 2, 1963,
p551. http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/ru
therford.html {Rutherford_191904xx.pdf}
PD
source: Rutherford, Collision of α
Particles with Light Atoms, Phil. Mag.
June 1919, s6, 37, pp537-61. from:
Ernest Rutherford, "The Collected
Papers of Lord Rutherford of Nelson",
Vol 2, 1963, p551.

[2] Figure 1 from: Rutherford,
Collision of α Particles with Light
Atoms, Phil. Mag. June 1919, s6, 37,
pp537-61.
http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/rutherf
ord.html {Rutherford_191904xx.pdf}
PD
source: Rutherford_191306xx003.pdf
77 YBN
[06/14/1923 AD] 3 		3613) Electronic moving images are
transmitted and received by radio.1
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^
http://www.tvhistory.tv/C-Francis-Jenkin
s.htm ?
2. ^
http://www.bairdtelevision.com/jenkins.h
tml
3. ^
http://www.tvhistory.tv/C-Francis-Jenkin
s.htm ? {06/14/1923}

MORE INFO
[1] C. Francis JENKINS,
"Transmitting Pictures by
Electricity", The Electrical Engineer,
25 July 1894
[2]
http://histv2.free.fr/jenkins/jenkins189
4.htm
[3] "television." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 26 Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/1262241/television-technology>
[4]
http://www.museum.tv/archives/etv/J/html
J/jenkinschar/jenkinschar.htm
[5] Thomas Streissguth,
"Communications: Sending the Message",
Oliver Press, Inc., 1997,
p104-105. http://books.google.com/books
?id=YAf1UqOy9kcC&pg=PA105&lpg=PA105&dq=C
harles+Francis+Jenkins+may+19+1922&sourc
e=web&ots=4fgBJlRleZ&sig=AeO7vUVl-YRerSI
DzuHYs3Syxes&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&r
esnum=2&ct=result#PPA105,M1
Washington, D.C., USA.2  
[1] Motion Pictures by Ether Waves -
August 1925 ''Popular Radio''
Article (Courtesy John
Hauser) PD/Corel
source: http://www.tvhistory.tv/1925-Aug
-Popular-Radio-P107a.JPG

[2] From ''Animated Pictures'' By
Charles Francis Jenkins Charles
Francis Jenkins PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=uJYFAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA138&dq=C+Francis+Jenk
ins&as_brr=1&ei=tjLdSLjvOJfStQPK2rGRCg#P
PP6,M1
75 YBN
[01/01/1925 AD] 4 5 		5060) Spiral nebulae are proven to be
other galaxies containing stars and to
be very far away.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p720-722.
2. ^ Hubble, E. P.,
"Cepheids in spiral nebulae", The
Observatory, Vol. 48, p. 139-142
(1925). http://articles.adsabs.harvard.
edu/full/1925Obs....48..139H from: Hub
ble, Publications of the American
Astronomical Society V5, 1925, p261.
{Hubble_Edwin_19240101.pdf}
3. ^ Berendzen, R. & Hoskin, M.,
"Hubble's Announcement of Cepheids in
Spiral Nebulae", Astronomical Society
of the Pacific Leaflets, Vol. 10, No.
504, p. 425-440
(1967). http://articles.adsabs.harvard.
edu//full/1971ASPL...10..425B/0000437.00
0.html
4. ^ Berendzen, R. & Hoskin, M.,
"Hubble's Announcement of Cepheids in
Spiral Nebulae", Astronomical Society
of the Pacific Leaflets, Vol. 10, No.
504, p. 425-440
(1967). http://articles.adsabs.harvard.
edu//full/1971ASPL...10..425B/0000437.00
0.html {01/01/1925}
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p720-722. {1924}

MORE INFO
[1] Edwin Powell Hubble, "The
realm of the nebulae",
1936. http://books.google.com/books?id=
kgiXdDGLpFUC&pg=PA105&lpg=PA105&dq=hubbl
e+1925+american+astronomical&source=bl&o
ts=jvr9ucBYoh&sig=0zvGhy7ZruZatNAYgEZ4fS
jD9DE&hl=en&ei=6y4fTdPNOJG0sAPI7YiwCg&sa
=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved
=0CCIQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q&f=false
(Mount Wilson) Mount Wilson,
California, USA3  
[1] The first image of H335H shows the
glass side of the photographic plate,
on which Hubble marked novae and,
eventually, the first Cepheid in ink.
The next two images show the emulsion
side of the plate at two contrasts,
with Hubble's writing of plate
information at the top (Plate ID, M31,
45 min exposure on plate of type Seed
30, seeing of 3+ on Mt Wilson scale,
date, and hour angle of 2 hr 8 min East
at the end of the
exposure). NONCOMMERCIAL USE
source: http://obs.carnegiescience.edu/s
ites/obs.carnegiescience.edu/files/pictu
res/H335H_glass_0670_27_wm.jpg

[2] Hubble's Famous M31 VAR!
plate On the night of October 5-6,
1923, Carnegie astronomer Edwin P.
Hubble took a plate of the Andromeda
Galaxy (Messier 31) with the Hooker
100-inch telescope of the Mount Wilson
Observatory. This plate, with
identification number H335H (''Hooker
plate 335 by Hubble''), is famous for
having led to his discovery of the
first Cepheid variable star in M31,
which established beyond any doubt that
M31 was a separate galaxy from our
own. Shown here are three images of
Plate H335H as well as three images of
a similar plate, H331H, which Hubble
took the night before. The letters N
on Plate H335H mark Novae, stars marked
by Hubble as new when compared with
earlier plates. The first Cepheid
variable discovered has its letter N
crossed out and is marked ''VAR!'',
showing that Hubble originally thought
it was a nova, but eventually
discovered that it varied in brightness
like a Cepheid. The first image of
H335H shows the glass side of the
photographic plate, on which Hubble
marked novae and, eventually, the first
Cepheid in ink. The next two images
show the emulsion side of the plate at
two contrasts, with Hubble's writing of
plate information at the top (Plate ID,
M31, 45 min exposure on plate of type
Seed 30, seeing of 3+ on Mt Wilson
scale, date, and hour angle of 2 hr 8
min East at the end of the
exposure). The first image of H335H
shows the glass side of the
photographic plate, on which Hubble
marked novae and, eventually, the first
Cepheid in ink. The next two images
show the emulsion side of the plate at
two contrasts, with Hubble's writing of
plate information at the top (Plate ID,
M31, 45 min exposure on plate of type
Seed 30, seeing of 3+ on Mt Wilson
scale, date, and hour angle of 2 hr 8
min East at the end of the
exposure). COPYRIGHT: The above
images are all copyright protected.
Downloads for inspection, scientific
and historical work are free. However,
any reproduction in commercial products
(including books) must be licensed by
Carnegie Observatories and will be
assessed a permission fee. For
permission to use any of these images
in a commercial product, please contact
John Grula NONCOMMERICAL USE
source: http://obs.carnegiescience.edu/s
ites/obs.carnegiescience.edu/files/pictu
res/H335H_emuls_0681_38_wm.jpg
75 YBN
[07/13/1925 AD] 3 		5059) A color image electronic scanning
camera.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Vladimir Zworykin (filed 1925,
patented 1928). "Television System".
Patent No. 1,691,324,. United States
Patent Office.
http://www.google.com/patents/about?id=m
Z9KAAAAEBAJ. Retrieved 2009-07-28.
2. ^ "Vladimir
Kosma Zworykin." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 01 Jan. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/658633/Vladimir-Kosma-Zworykin>.
3. ^ Vladimir Zworykin (filed 1925,
patented 1928). "Television System".
Patent No. 1,691,324,. United States
Patent Office.
http://www.google.com/patents/about?id=m
Z9KAAAAEBAJ. Retrieved 2009-07-28.
{07/13/1925}

MORE INFO
[1] "Vladimir K. Zworykin." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 01 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/vladimir-zw
orykin
[2] VK Zworykin, "Electric
high-frequency signaling apparatus", US
Patent 1,484,049,
1924 http://www.google.com/patents?hl=e
n&lr=&vid=USPAT1484049&id=vBFCAAAAEBAJ&o
i=fnd&dq=zworykin&printsec=abstract#v=on
epage&q=zworykin&f=false
(Westinghouse Electric Corporation)
 
[1] Figure from Zworykin 1925
patent PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=mZ9KAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f
=false

[2] Screenshot of Vladimir K. Zworykin
from the documentary film the Story of
Television Date 1956 and
later Source Screenshot from the
Story of Television from the Prelinger
Archives in the Internet
Archive Author Produced by Ganz
(William J.) Co. and Radio Corporation
of America (RCA) Film is in the Public
Domain PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/30/Zworykin_docgrab.jpg
75 YBN
[10/22/1925 AD] 6 		5292) The transistor or solid-state
electronic switch and amplifier.3 4
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^
http://inventors.about.com/library/inven
tors/bllilienfeld.htm
2. ^ Julius Lilienfeld, Patent number:
1745175, "METHOD AND APPARATUS FOR
CONTROLLING ELECTRIC CURRENTS", US
Filing date: Oct 8, 1926, Canada filing
date: October 22, 1925, Issue date: Jan
28,
1930. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
uBFMAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=
false
3. ^
http://inventors.about.com/library/inven
tors/bllilienfeld.htm
4. ^ Julius Lilienfeld, Patent number:
1745175, "METHOD AND APPARATUS FOR
CONTROLLING ELECTRIC CURRENTS", US
Filing date: Oct 8, 1926, Canada filing
date: October 22, 1925, Issue date: Jan
28,
1930. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
uBFMAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=
false
5. ^ Julius Lilienfeld, Patent number:
1745175, "METHOD AND APPARATUS FOR
CONTROLLING ELECTRIC CURRENTS", US
Filing date: Oct 8, 1926, Canada filing
date: October 22, 1925, Issue date: Jan
28,
1930. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
uBFMAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=
false
6. ^ Julius Lilienfeld, Patent number:
1745175, "METHOD AND APPARATUS FOR
CONTROLLING ELECTRIC CURRENTS", US
Filing date: Oct 8, 1926, Canada filing
date: October 22, 1925, Issue date: Jan
28,
1930. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
uBFMAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=
false {10/22/1925}

MORE INFO
[1] "Julius Lilienfeld".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julius_Lili
enfeld
[2] Julius Lilienfeld, "Amplifier for
Electronic Circuits", Patent number:
1877140, Filing date: Dec 8, 1928,
Issue date: Sep 13,
1932 http://www.google.com/patents?id=j
vhAAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&sou
rce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=f
alse
[3] Julius Lilienfeld, "Device for
Controlling Electric Current", Patent
number: 1900018, Filing date: Mar 28,
1928, Issue date: Mar 7
1933. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
52BQAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=
false
[4] Julius Lilienfeld, "Rectifying
Apparatus for Alternating Current",
Patent number: 1611653, Filing date:
Mar 27, 1926, Issue date: Dec 21,
1926. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
L7RrAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=
false
[5] Julius Lilienfeld, "Electrical
Condenser Device", Patent number:
1906691, Filing date: Mar 28, 1928,
Issue date: May
1933. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
SoZlAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=
false
Brooklyn, New York City, New York, USA5
 
[1] Figure 1 from: Julius Lilienfeld,
Patent number: 1745175, ''METHOD AND
APPARATUS FOR CONTROLLING ELECTRIC
CURRENTS'', US Filing date: Oct 8,
1926, Canada filing date: October 22,
1925, Issue date: Jan 28,
1930. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
uBFMAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=
false PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=uBFMAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f
=false

[2] Source: scanned passport
photo Rationale: Photographer died
>70yrs ago. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/5/59/Julius_Edgar_Lilienfeld_%2
81881-1963%29.jpg
70 YBN
[10/10/1930 AD] 8 		5268) The circular particle accelerator
(the cyclotron).1 2 3 4 5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ E. O. Lawrence and N. E.
Edlefsen, "On the Production of High
Speed protons", Science, 72, No. 1867,
376
(1930). {Lawrence_Ernest_19301010.pdf}
2. ^ Ernest O. Lawrence, METHOD AND
APPARATUS FOR THE ACCELERATION OF IONS,
Patent 1948384, Filed:
01/26/1932. http://www.google.com/paten
ts?hl=en&lr=&vid=USPAT1948384&id=egdOAAA
AEBAJ&oi=fnd&dq=EO+Lawrence&printsec=abs
tract#v=onepage&q&f=false
{Lawrence_Ernest_19320126.pdf}
3. ^ Ernest O. Lawrence and David H.
Sloan, "The Production of High Speed
Canal Rays without the Use of High
Voltages", Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences of the United
States of America, Vol. 17, No. 1
(Jan. 15, 1931), pp.
64-70. http://www.jstor.org/stable/8607
4 {Lawrence_Ernest_19301215.pdf}
4. ^ Ernest O. Lawrence and David H.
Sloan, "The Production of Heavy High
Speed ions Without the Use of High
Voltages", Phys. Rev. 38, 2021–2032
(1931). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v38/i11/p2021_1 {Lawrence_Ernest_1931
1019.pdf}
5. ^ Ernest O. Lawrence and M. Stanley
Livingston, "The Production of High
Speed Protons Without the Use of High
Voltages"Phys. Rev. 38, 834–834
(1931). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v38/i4/p834_1
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p780-781.
7. ^ Ernest O.
Lawrence and David H. Sloan, "The
Production of High Speed Canal Rays
without the Use of High Voltages",
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences of the United States of
America, Vol. 17, No. 1 (Jan. 15,
1931), pp.
64-70. http://www.jstor.org/stable/8607
4 {Lawrence_Ernest_19301215.pdf}
8. ^ E. O. Lawrence and N. E. Edlefsen,
"On the Production of High Speed
protons", Science, 72, No. 1867, 376
(1930). {Lawrence_Ernest_19301010.pdf}
{10/10/1930}

MORE INFO
[1] "The Nobel Prize in Physics
1939". Nobelprize.org. 6 Feb 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1939/
[2] Ernest O. Lawrence, "The Ionization
of Atoms by Electron Impact", Phys.
Rev. 28, 947–961
(1926). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v28/i5/p947_1
[3] Ernest O. Lawrence and J. W. Beams,
"On the Nature of Light", Proc Natl
Acad Sci U S A. 1927 April; 13(4):
207–212. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
pmc/articles/PMC1084928/
[4] Lawrence, Ernest Orlando, "The
Photoelectric Effect in Potassium
Vapour as a Function of the Frequency
of Light.", Thesis (PH.D.)--YALE
UNIVERSITY, 1925.Source: American
Doctoral Dissertations, Source code:
L1925., page: 0094
[5] John H. Lawrence,
Paul C. Aebersold, and Ernest O.
Lawrence, "Comparative Effects of
X-Rays and Neutrons on Normal and Tumor
Tissue", Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1936
September; 22(9): 543–557.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1076813/
[6] John H. Lawrence and Ernest O.
Lawrence, "The Biological Action of
Neutron Rays", Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the
United States of America, Vol. 22, No.
2 (Feb. 15, 1936), pp.
124-133. http://www.jstor.org/stable/86
398
(University of California) Berkeley,
California, USA7  
[1] Figures 1-4 from: Ernest O.
Lawrence, METHOD AND APPARATUS FOR THE
ACCELERATION OF IONS, Patent 1948384,
Filed:
01/26/1932. http://www.google.com/paten
ts?hl=en&lr=&vid=USPAT1948384&id=egdOAAA
AEBAJ&oi=fnd&dq=EO+Lawrence&printsec=abs
tract#v=onepage&q&f=false
{Lawrence_Ernest_19320126.pdf} UNKNOW
N
source: http://www.google.com/patents?hl
=en&lr=&vid=USPAT1948384&id=egdOAAAAEBAJ
&oi=fnd&dq=EO+Lawrence&printsec=abstract
#v=onepage&q&f=false

[2] Ernest Orlando Lawrence UNKNOWN
source: http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_Uhse4P
aiRAY/TF7dj-zaM1I/AAAAAAAAAGw/6lxKVLTfhs
M/s320/Ernest_Orlando_Lawrence.jpg
70 YBN
[1930 AD] 3 		6578) Women gain the right to vote.2
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ "woman suffrage". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2013. Web. 24 Feb.
2013 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/646779/woman-suffrage>.
2. ^ "woman suffrage". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2013. Web. 24 Feb.
2013 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/646779/woman-suffrage>.
3. ^ "woman suffrage". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2013. Web. 24 Feb.
2013 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/646779/woman-suffrage>.
 
[1] Description English: Rose
Sanderson Women's suffragists
demonstrate in February 1913. The
triangular pennants read ''VOTES FOR
WOMEN''. The negative is labeled ''ROSE
SANDERSON'', the woman holding the
trumpet. An adjacent photograph in the
series (LC-DIG-ggbain-12482) contains a
flyer labeled ''COME AND WATCH SUFFRAGE
SPREAD'' that identifies the event as
one sponsored by the National Suffrage
Association. MEDIUM: 1 negative :
glass ; 5 × 7 in. or
smaller. Русский: Роуз
Сандерсон
Демонстрация
суфражисток в
феврале 1913 г. На
треугольном вымпеле
читается надпись
«ГОЛОСОВАНИЕ -
ЖЕНЩИНАМ». Негатив
снимка помечен
словами «Роуз
Сандерсон», это имя
женщины, держащей
трубу. Date 10 February
1913 Source Library of Congress,
Prints & Photographs Division,
LC-DIG-ggbain-12483 (digital file from
original negative), archival TIFF
version (23 MiB), color level (pick
white point), cropped, and converted to
JPEG with the GIMP 2.6.1, image quality
88. Author Bain News Service.
Photographer unknown. Permission No
known restrictions on publication. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Rose-Sanderson-
Votes-for-Women.jpeg/1280px-Rose-Sanders
on-Votes-for-Women.jpeg

[2] {ULSF: Women protesting} PD
source: http://politic365.com/wp-content
/blogs.dir/1/files/2010/08/bellinghamsuf
fragists-1024x738.jpg
69 YBN
[09/10/1931 AD] 10 		5446) The electron microscope.5 6 7 8
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^ M. Knoll und E. Ruska, "Beitrag
zur geometrischen Elektronenoptik.",
Ann. Physik 12 (1932) 607-661,
eingegangen am
10.9.1931. http://ernstruska.digilibrar
y.de/bibliographie/q004/q004.html {Rusk
a_Ernst_q004_19310910.pdf}
2. ^ M. Knoll and E. Ruska, "Das
Elektronenmikroskop", Zeitschrift für
Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei,Volume 78,
Numbers 5-6, 318-339, DOI:
10.1007/BF01342199 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/x7l53h8685108383/ {Rusk
a_Ernst_19320616.pdf}
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p820-821.
4. ^ "Ernst Ruska." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 05 Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ernst-ruska

5. ^ M. Knoll und E. Ruska, "Beitrag
zur geometrischen Elektronenoptik.",
Ann. Physik 12 (1932) 607-661,
eingegangen am
10.9.1931. http://ernstruska.digilibrar
y.de/bibliographie/q004/q004.html {Rusk
a_Ernst_q004_19310910.pdf}
6. ^ M. Knoll and E. Ruska, "Das
Elektronenmikroskop", Zeitschrift für
Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei,Volume 78,
Numbers 5-6, 318-339, DOI:
10.1007/BF01342199 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/x7l53h8685108383/ {Rusk
a_Ernst_19320616.pdf}
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p820-821.
8. ^ "Ernst Ruska." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 05 Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ernst-ruska

9. ^ M. Knoll und E. Ruska, "Beitrag
zur geometrischen Elektronenoptik.",
Ann. Physik 12 (1932) 607-661,
eingegangen am
10.9.1931. http://ernstruska.digilibrar
y.de/bibliographie/q004/q004.html {Rusk
a_Ernst_q004_19310910.pdf}
10. ^ M. Knoll und E. Ruska, "Beitrag
zur geometrischen Elektronenoptik.",
Ann. Physik 12 (1932) 607-661,
eingegangen am
10.9.1931. http://ernstruska.digilibrar
y.de/bibliographie/q004/q004.html {Rusk
a_Ernst_q004_19310910.pdf} {09/10/1931}

MORE INFO
[1] E. Ruska u. M. Knoll,
Zeitschrift für technische Physik, 12,
389, 448, 1931
[2] "The Nobel Prize in
Physics 1986". Nobelprize.org. 5 Mar
2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1986/
[3] Ernst Ruska, "Über eine
Berechnungsmethode des
Kathodenstrahloszillographen auf Grund
der experimentell gefundenen
Abhängigkeit des
Schreibfleckdurchmessers von der
Stellung der Konzentrierspule.",
Studienarbeit Technische Hochschule
Berlin, Lehrstuhl für
Hochspannungstechnik, eingereicht am
10.5.1929. http://ernstruska.digilibrar
y.de/bibliographie/q001/q001.html
[4] E. Ruska und M. Knoll, "Die
magnetische Sammelspule für schnelle
Elektronenstrahlen.", Z. techn. Physik
12 (1931) 389-400 und 448, eingegangen
am
28.4.1931. http://ernstruska.digilibrar
y.de/bibliographie/q003/q003.html
(Technischen Hochschule/Technical
University) Berlin, Germany9  
[1] Figure 2 from: M. Knoll und E.
Ruska, ''Beitrag zur geometrischen
Elektronenoptik.'', Ann. Physik 12
(1932) 607-661, eingegangen am
10.9.1931. http://ernstruska.digilibrar
y.de/bibliographie/q004/q004.html {Rusk
a_Ernst_q004_19310910.pdf} UNKNOWN
source: http://ernstruska.digilibrary.de
/bibliographie/q004/q004.html

[2] Ernst Ruska, 1939 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.siemens.com/history/p
ool/perseunlichkeiten/wissenschaftler/ru
ska_1939.jpg
69 YBN
[10/03/1931 AD] 4 5 		5161) The first synthetic rubber:
neoprene.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Wallace Carothers." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 22 Jan.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/wallace-car
others
2. ^ Wallace H. Carothers, Ira.
Williams, Arnold M. Collins, James E.
Kirby, "ACETYLENE POLYMERS AND THEIR
DERIVATIVES. II. A NEW SYNTHETIC
RUBBER: CHLOROPRENE AND ITS POLYMERS",
J. Am. Chem. Soc., 1931, 53 (11), pp
4203–4225. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/ab
s/10.1021/ja01362a042 {Carothers_Wallac
e_19311003.pdf}
3. ^ "Wallace Hume Carothers."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 22 Jan. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/96637/Wallace-Hume-Carothers>.
4. ^ Wallace H. Carothers, Ira.
Williams, Arnold M. Collins, James E.
Kirby, "ACETYLENE POLYMERS AND THEIR
DERIVATIVES. II. A NEW SYNTHETIC
RUBBER: CHLOROPRENE AND ITS POLYMERS",
J. Am. Chem. Soc., 1931, 53 (11), pp
4203–4225. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/ab
s/10.1021/ja01362a042 {Carothers_Wallac
e_19311003.pdf} {10/03/1931}
5. ^ "Wallace
Carothers." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 22 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/wallace-car
others {1931}
( E.I. du Pont de Nemours & Company)
Wilmington, Delaware, USA3  
[1] Wallace Carothers. Carothers
demonstrating a piece of his new
synthetic rubber in laboratory. AP
IMAGES. Wallace
Carothers COPYRIGHTED
source: http://listverse.files.wordpress
.com/2007/10/carothers.jpg
68 YBN
[02/17/1932 AD] 4 5 		5086) The neutron is identified and
distinguished from a hydrogen atom.1 2

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ J. Chadwick, "The Existence of a
Neutron", Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London. Series A, Containing
Papers of a Mathematical and Physical
Character, Vol. 136, No. 830 (Jun. 1,
1932), pp.
692-708. http://www.jstor.org/stable/95
816 {Chadwick_James_19320510.pdf}
2. ^ J. Chadwick, "Possible Existence
of a Neutron", Nature, vol 129, 1932,
p312.
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
129/n3252/pdf/129312a0.pdf {Chadwick_Ja
mes_19320217.pdf}
3. ^ "Chadwick, James." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 17. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 143-148. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 2 Jan.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830905049&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
4. ^ J. Chadwick, "Possible Existence
of a Neutron", Nature, vol 129, 1932,
p312.
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
129/n3252/pdf/129312a0.pdf {Chadwick_Ja
mes_19320217.pdf} {possible neutron:)
02/17/1932}
5. ^ J. Chadwick, "The Existence of a
Neutron", Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London. Series A, Containing
Papers of a Mathematical and Physical
Character, Vol. 136, No. 830 (Jun. 1,
1932), pp.
692-708. http://www.jstor.org/stable/95
816 {Chadwick_James_19320510.pdf}
{full report: 05/10/1932}

MORE INFO
[1] J. Chadwick and M. Goldhaber,
"The Nuclear Photoelectric Effect",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London. Series A, Mathematical and
Physical Sciences, Vol. 151, No. 873
(Sep. 2, 1935), pp.
479-493. http://www.jstor.org/stable/96
561
[2] J Chadwick, M. Goldhaber,
"Disintegration by slow neutrons",
Mathematical Proceedings of the
Cambridge Philosophical Society,
(1935), 31:
612-616. http://journals.cambridge.org/
abstract_S0305004100013621
[3] J Chadwick, "The Scattering of
α-Particles in Helium", Proceedings of
the Royal Society of London. Series A,
Containing Papers of a Mathematical and
Physical Character, Vol. 128, No. 807
(Jul. 1, 1930), pp.
114-122. http://www.jstor.org/stable/95
449
[4] J. Chadwick, P. M. S. Blackett and
G. P. S. Occhialini, "Some Experiments
on the Production of positive
Electrons", Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London. Series A, Containing
Papers of a Mathematical and Physical
Character, Vol. 144, No. 851 (Mar. 1,
1934), pp. 235-249
http://www.jstor.org/stable/2935587
[5] J Chadwick, "The charge on the
atomic nucleus and the law of force",
Philosophical Magazine Series 6, V40
(1920), 734-746
[6] Chadwick, J., Russell, A.
S., "The Excitation of γ -Rays by the
α -Rays of Ionium and Radiothorium",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London. Series A, Containing Papers of
a Mathematical and Physical Character,
Volume 88, Issue 602, pp.
217-229. http://www.jstor.org/stable/93
322
[7] "radiothorium." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 02
Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/radiothoriu
m
[8] J Chadwick, "An attempt to detect a
neutral particle of small mass",
Mathematical Proceedings of the
Cambridge Philosophical Society (1934),
30:
59-61. http://journals.cambridge.org/ac
tion/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid
=1735460
(Cavendish Lab University of Cambridge)
Cambridge, England3  
[1] Figure 1 from: J. Chadwick, ''The
Existence of a Neutron'', Proceedings
of the Royal Society of London. Series
A, Containing Papers of a Mathematical
and Physical Character, Vol. 136, No.
830 (Jun. 1, 1932), pp.
692-708. http://www.jstor.org/stable/95
816 {Chadwick_James_19320510.pdf}
{full report: 05/10/1932} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/pdfp
lus/95816.pdf?acceptTC=true

[2] Description
Chadwick.jpg en:James
Chadwick Date ~1935 (original
photograph), 2007-08-11 (original
upload date) Source Transfered
from en.wikipedia. Original source:
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1935/chadwick-bio.html COP
YRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c2/Chadwick.jpg
68 YBN
[04/16/1932 AD] 10 		5182) Atomic fission. Lithium atoms are
split by protons.7 8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "John Cockcroft." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 23 Jan.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-cockcr
oft
2. ^ J. D. COCKCROFT & E. T. S. WALTON
, "Disintegration of Lithium by Swift
Protons", Nature 129, 649-649 (30 April
1932). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v129/n3261/abs/129649a0.html {Cock
croft_John_19320416.pdf}
3. ^ "John Cockcroft." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 23 Jan.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-cockcr
oft
4. ^ J. D. COCKCROFT & E. T. S. WALTON
, "Disintegration of Lithium by Swift
Protons", Nature 129, 649-649 (30 April
1932). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v129/n3261/abs/129649a0.html {Cock
croft_John_19320416.pdf}
5. ^ "John Cockcroft." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 23 Jan.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-cockcr
oft
6. ^ J. D. COCKCROFT & E. T. S. WALTON
, "Disintegration of Lithium by Swift
Protons", Nature 129, 649-649 (30 April
1932). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v129/n3261/abs/129649a0.html {Cock
croft_John_19320416.pdf}
7. ^ "John Cockcroft." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 23 Jan.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-cockcr
oft
8. ^ J. D. COCKCROFT & E. T. S. WALTON
, "Disintegration of Lithium by Swift
Protons", Nature 129, 649-649 (30 April
1932). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v129/n3261/abs/129649a0.html {Cock
croft_John_19320416.pdf}
9. ^ J. D. COCKCROFT & E. T. S. WALTON
, "Disintegration of Lithium by Swift
Protons", Nature 129, 649-649 (30 April
1932). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v129/n3261/abs/129649a0.html {Cock
croft_John_19320416.pdf}
10. ^ J. D. COCKCROFT & E. T. S.
WALTON , "Disintegration of Lithium by
Swift Protons", Nature 129, 649-649 (30
April
1932). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v129/n3261/abs/129649a0.html {Cock
croft_John_19320416.pdf} {04/16/1932}

MORE INFO
[1] "Ernest Walton." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 23 Jan.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ernest-walt
on
[2] H. GREINACHER, “Eneugung einer
Gleichspannung vom vielfachen Betrag
einer Wechselspannung ohne
Transformator,” Bull. SEV 11.59-66,
(1920)
[3] H Greinacher, "Erzeugung einer
Gleichspannung vom veilfachen Betrag
einer Wechselspannung ohne
Transformer" Bulletin des
Schweizerischen Elektrotechnischen
Vereins, des Verbandes Schweizerischer
Elektrizitätswerke, V11, p59-66, 1920
[4]
Joe W. Kwan, Oscar A. Anderson, Louis
L. Reginato, Michael C. Vella, Simon
S. Yu, Electrostatic Quadrupole DC
Accelerators for BNCT Applications,
04/1994
[5] "Heinrich Greinacher". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinrich_Gr
einacher
[6]
http://www.electrosuisse.ch/g3.cms/s_pag
e/84410/s_name/greinacherh
[7] J. D. Cockcroft and E. T. S.
Walton, "Experiments with High Velocity
Positive Ions", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London. Series A,
Containing Papers of a Mathematical and
Physical Character, Vol. 129, No. 811
(Nov. 3, 1930), pp.
477-489. http://www.jstor.org/stable/95
496
[8] Henry A. Barton, "Comparison of
protons and electrons in the excitation
of x-rays by impact Original Research
Article", Journal of the Franklin
Institute, Volume 209, Issue 1, January
1930, Pages
1-19. http://www.sciencedirect.com/scie
nce?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6V04-49WK9PH-4G
H&_user=4422&_coverDate=01%2F31%2F1930&_
alid=1617078843&_rdoc=2&_fmt=high&_orig=
search&_origin=search&_zone=rslt_list_it
em&_cdi=5636&_sort=r&_st=13&_docanchor=&
view=c&_ct=2&_acct=C000059600&_version=1
&_urlVersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=7ed91ac1
a7c90f1548a87974be6c3ca8&searchtype=a
[9] "Cockcroft, John Douglas." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 3. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 328-331. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 23 Jan.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900939&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[10] "The Nobel Prize in Physics 1951".
Nobelprize.org. 24 Jan 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1951/
[11] J. D. COCKCROFT & E. T. S. WALTON
, "Artificial Production of Fast
Protons", nature 129, 242-242 (13
February
1932. http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v129/n3250/abs/129242a0.html
[12] J. D. COCKCROFT , C. W. GILBERT &
E. T. S. WALTON , "Production of
Induced Radioactivity by High Velocity
Protons", nature 133, 328-328 (03 March
1934). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v133/n3357/abs/133328a0.html
[13] J. D. Cockcroft and E. T. S.
Walton, "Experiments with High Velocity
Positive Ions. (I) Further Developments
in the Method of Obtaining High
Velocity Positive Ions", Proc. R. Soc.
Lond. A June 1, 1932 136:619-630;
doi:10.1098/rspa.1932.0107 http://rspa.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/136/8
30/619.full.pdf+html
[14] J. D. Cockcroft and E. T. S.
Walton, "Experiments with High Velocity
Positive Ions. (I) Further Developments
in the Method of Obtaining High
Velocity Positive Ions", Proc. R. Soc.
Lond. A June 1, 1932 136:619-630;
doi:10.1098/rspa.1932.0107 http://rspa.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/136/8
30/619.full.pdf+html
(Cavendish Laboratory, Cambridge
University) Cambridge, England9  
[1] J. D. COCKCROFT & E. T. S. WALTON
, ''Disintegration of Lithium by Swift
Protons'', Nature 129, 649-649 (30
April
1932). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v129/n3261/abs/129649a0.html {Cock
croft_John_19320416.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED AND Enest S Walton,
Lord Rutherford and John Cockcroft:
1932 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v129/n3261/abs/129649a0.htmlhttp://
www.aip.org/history/exhibits/lawrence/im
ages/epa-12.jpg

[2] Enest S Walton, Lord Rutherford
and John Cockcroft: 1932 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.aip.org/history/exhib
its/lawrence/images/epa-12.jpg
68 YBN
[08/02/1932 AD] 4 		5381) The positive electron (the
positron) is identified.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Carl D. Anderson, "The Apparent
Existence of Easily Deflectable
Positives", Science, 1932, V76, (pp.
238-239). http://www.jstor.org/stable/1
658257 {Anderson_Carl_D_19320901.pdf}
2. ^ Carl D. Anderson, "The Positive
Electron", Phys. Rev. 43, 491
(1933). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v43/i6/p491_1 {Anderson_Carl_19330228
.pdf}
3. ^ Carl D. Anderson, "The Positive
Electron", Phys. Rev. 43, 491
(1933). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v43/i6/p491_1 {Anderson_Carl_19330228
.pdf}
4. ^ Carl D. Anderson, "The Positive
Electron", Phys. Rev. 43, 491
(1933). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v43/i6/p491_1 {Anderson_Carl_19330228
.pdf} {08/02/1932}
(California Institute of Technology)
Pasadena, California3  
[1] Figure 1: Carl D. Anderson, ''The
Positive Electron'', Phys. Rev. 43, 491
(1933). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v43/i6/p491_1 {Anderson_Carl_19330228
.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v43/i6/p491_1

[2] Carl David Anderson searching for
mesons. From LBNL archives, dated 1937.
from en:Image:Carl anderson.1937.jpeg
2005-10-28 04:46:20 . . Salsb PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/9e/Carl_anderson.1937.jp
g
66 YBN
[03/09/1934 AD] 5 		4755) The atomic fusion of two Hydrogen
atoms into a Helium atom.1 2 3
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^ "Rutherford, Ernest." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 25-36. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 10 Aug.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903798&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
2. ^ Ernest Rutherford, Marcus
Oliphant, Paul Hartek, "Transmutation
Effects observed with Heavy Hydrogen",
Nature, March 17, 1934, 133, p413.
www.nature.com/nature/journal/v133/n33
59/abs/133407a0.html/abs/133413a0.html
AND http://www.chemteam.info/Chem-Histo
ry/Rutherford-1934a/Rutherford-1934a.htm
l {Rutherford_19340309.pdf}
3. ^ M. L. E. Oliphant, P. Harteck
and Lord Rutherford, "Transmutation
Effects Observed with Heavy Hydrogen",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London. Series A, Containing Papers of
a Mathematical and Physical Character,
Vol. 144, No. 853 (May 1, 1934), pp.
692-703 http://www.jstor.org/stable/293
5553 {Oliphant_Marcus_19340414.pdf}
4. ^ Ernest Rutherford, Marcus
Oliphant, Paul Hartek, "Transmutation
Effects observed with Heavy Hydrogen",
Nature, March 17, 1934, 133, p413.
www.nature.com/nature/journal/v133/n33
59/abs/133407a0.html/abs/133413a0.html
AND http://www.chemteam.info/Chem-Histo
ry/Rutherford-1934a/Rutherford-1934a.htm
l {Rutherford_19340309.pdf}
5. ^ Ernest Rutherford, Marcus
Oliphant, Paul Hartek, "Transmutation
Effects observed with Heavy Hydrogen",
Nature, March 17, 1934, 133, p413.
www.nature.com/nature/journal/v133/n33
59/abs/133407a0.html/abs/133413a0.html
AND http://www.chemteam.info/Chem-Histo
ry/Rutherford-1934a/Rutherford-1934a.htm
l {Rutherford_19340309.pdf}

MORE INFO
[1] "Ernest Rutherford."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 12 Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ernest-ruth
erford-1st-baron-rutherford-of-nelson
[2] "Ernest Rutherford". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Ruth
erford
[3] Ernest Rutherford, "Radioactive
transformations", C. Scribner's Sons,
1906
http://books.google.com/books?id=Rb0KA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=rutherfor
d&hl=en&ei=C4lkTIvqDZOjnQe_urBe&sa=X&oi=
book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CDUQ
6AEwAg#v=onepage&q&f=false
[4] Ernest Rutherford, Collected
papers., New York, Interscience
Publishers, 1962, 3 volumes
[5] Ernest
Rutherford, "A Magnetic Detector of
Electrical Waves, and Some of its
applications", Philosophical
Transactions A, 01/01/1897,
189:1-24. http://rsta.royalsocietypubli
shing.org/content/189/1.full.pdf+html?si
d=75c97b8c-5669-4ad5-a5fb-51b24afaa343
[6] Ernest Rutherford (obituary), The
London, Edinburgh and Dublin
philosophical magazine and journal of
science, 1937, p1022
[7] Ernest Rutherford,
"The Modern Theories of Electricity and
their Relation to the Franklinian
Theory", The record of the celebration
of the two hundredth anniversary of the
birth of Benjamin Franklin, American
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18, 1906,
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gbs_atb#v=onepage&q&f=false
[8] Rutherford, "The Velocity and rate
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Nov 1897,
p422. http://books.google.com/books?id=
utXnmtFZ6TUC&pg=PA422&dq=The+velocity+an
d+rate+of+recombination+of+the+ions+of+g
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l=en&ei=A8JpTJKVDYzWtQO8mp2kBw&sa=X&oi=b
ook_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CCkQ6
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[9] Rutherford
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[10] Rutherford, "Uranium Radiation and
the Electrical Conduction Produced by
It", Phil Mag ser 5 xlvii 109-163
1899. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ipMOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA110&dq=Uranium+Radiati
on+and+the+Electrical+Conduction+Produce
d+by+It&hl=en&ei=TctpTKKkOZO8sAObsu2mBw&
sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&v
ed=0CDgQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=Uranium%20Rad
iation%20and%20the%20Electrical%20Conduc
tion%20Produced%20by%20It&f=false
[11] Rutherford, "A Radioactive
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1900.
http://www.chemteam.info/Chem-History/
Rutherford-half-life.html
[12] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p395
[13] Rutherford, "Radioactivity
Produced in Substances by the Action of
Thorium Compounds", Phil Mag ser 5 xlix
161-192
1990 http://books.google.com/books?id=o
EwEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA161&lpg=PA161&dq=%22Rad
ioactivity+Produced+in+Substances+by+the
+Action+of+Thorium+Compounds%22&source=b
l&ots=-cyiagAP1C&sig=jdQ3u179zO6Xi1azPnw
X4kW8Bgc&hl=en&ei=8xxrTMbZJZH0tgOPn-lG&s
a=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ve
d=0CBIQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22Radioactivi
ty%20Produced%20in%20Substances%20by%20t
he%20Action%20of%20Thorium%20Compounds%2
2&f=false
[14] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p664-665
[15] Rutherford and
Soddy, "The Radioactivity of Thorium
Compounds II, The Cause and Nature of
Radioactivity", Transactions of the
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pp837-860. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=uVWNAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq
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rutherford&f=false
[16] Rutherford, Brooks, "Comparison of
the Radiations from Radioactive
Substances", Phil Mag, s6, 4, pp1-23,
July 1902
[17] Ernest Rutherford, "The
Magnetic and Electric Deviation of the
Easily Absorbed Rays from Radium",
Phil. Mag., S6, V 4, Feb 1903,
pp177-187.
http://books.google.com/books?id=EFQwAAA
AIAAJ&pg=PA177&lpg=PA177&dq=The+Magnetic
+and+Electric+Deviation+of+the+Easily+Ab
sorbed+Rays+from+Radium&source=bl&ots=hd
6YYVJA6n&sig=jXFrc1rH_POEoKypoNDmYkoHIHw
&hl=en&ei=4b9tTJmFI5OisQPYo7H5Cg&sa=X&oi
=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBI
Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=The%20Magnetic%20and
%20Electric%20Deviation%20of%20the%20Eas
ily%20Absorbed%20Rays%20from%20Radium&f=
false
[18] "emanation." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 20
Aug. 2010.
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[19] Rutherford, Soddy, "Note on the
condensation points of thorium and
radium emanations", Proc Chem Soc
219-20
1902. http://books.google.com/books?id=
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densation+points+of+thorium+and+radium+e
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w&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=4
&ved=0CDgQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=Note%20on%2
0the%20condensation%20points%20of%20thor
ium%20and%20radium%20emanations&f=false
[20] Rutherford, Soddy, "Condensation
of the Radioactive Emanations", Phil
Mag ser 6, v 561-76 1903
[21] Rutherford,
"Charge Carried by the α and β Rays
of Radium", Phil Mag, August 1905, s6,
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[22] Rutherford, "Radioactivity",
ed 1
1904. http://books.google.com/books?id=
xDwJAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=ruth
erford&hl=en&ei=u-dyTO3LC4m6sAOOhfTMDQ&s
a=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ve
d=0CDIQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q&f=false
[23] Rutherford, "Radioactivity" ,ed 2
1905. http://books.google.com/books?id=
g0MNAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=ruth
erford&hl=en&ei=YudyTOL9E4nGsAP3ppzDDQ&s
a=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ve
d=0CCoQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false
[24] E. Rutherford, H. Geiger, "A
Method of Counting the Number of α
Particles from Radio-active Matter",
Memoirs of the Manchester Literary and
Philosophical Society, 1908, V52, N9,
pp1-3
[25] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p687-688
[26] Rutherford, "The
Scattering of the α and β Rays and
the Structure of the Atom", Proceedings
of the Manchester Literary and
Philosophical Society, 4, 55,
03/07/1911, pp18-20
[27] Ernest Rutherford,
"The Structure of the Atom", Phil Mag,
March 1914, s6, v27,
pp488-498. http://www.chemteam.info/Che
m-History/Rutherford-1914.html
[28] "Rutherford, Ernest." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 25-36. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 17 Aug.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903798&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[29] Rutherford, "Radiations from
Exploding Atoms", Nature, 95,
1915,pp494-8
[30] Rutherford, Collision of α
Particles with Light Atoms, Phil. Mag.
June 1919, s6, 37, pp537-61
[31] Ernest
Rutherford, "Collision of α Particles
with Light Atoms", Phil. Mag. June
1919, s6, 37, pp581-87
[32] Ernest Rutherford,
"Nuclear Constitution of Atoms
Backerian Lecture", The Proceedings of
the Royal Society, A, 97, 1920,
pp374-400
[33] Ernest Rutherford, "The
Disintegration of Elements by
α-Particles", Nature, March 10, 1921,
107, p41
[34] Ernest Rutherford,
"Artificial Disintegration of the
Elements", Proceedings of the Physical
Society, August 1924, 36, pp417-22
[35] Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p729-730
[36] Ernest
Rutherford, "Disintegration of Atomic
Nuclei", Nature, April 4 1925, 115,
pp493-4
[37] Rutherford, Wynn-Williams, Lewis,
Bowden, "Analysis of α-Rays by an
Annular Magnetic Field", Proceedings of
the Royal Society, A, 139, 1933,
pp617-37
[38] Oliphant, Rutherford, "Experiments
on the Transmutation of Elements by
Protons, Proceedings of the Royal
Society, A, 141, 1933, pp259-81
[39] Oliphant,
Harteck, Rutherford, "Transmutation
Effects observed with Heavy Hydrogen",
Proceedings of the Royal Society, A,
144, 1934, pp692-703
(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England4  
[1] Figures 4, 5 and 6 from Oliphant,
Harteck, Rutherford, ''Transmutation
Effects observed with Heavy Hydrogen'',
Proceedings of the Royal Society, A,
144, 1934, pp692-703. COPYRIGHTED
source: Oliphant, Harteck, Rutherford,
"Transmutation Effects observed with
Heavy Hydrogen", Proceedings of the
Royal Society, A, 144, 1934, pp692-703.

[2] Description Ernest
Rutherford2.jpg English: Cropped
Image:Ernest_Rutherford.jpg Date
2007-01-26 (original upload
date) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia Author Original
uploader was Sadi Carnot at
en.wikipedia GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/57/Ernest_Rutherford2.jp
g
66 YBN
[05/??/1934 AD] 5 6 		5275) Atomic fission of uranium by
neutrons.1 2 3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ E Fermi, F Rasetti, "Sulla
possibilità di produrre elementi di
numero atomico maggiore di 92", Ric.
Sci., 1934, p452,536. E. Fermi, E.
Amaldi, 0. DAgostino, F. Rasetti, E.
Segre, Rie. Sci. 5(1) (1934) 452;
2. ^
Enrico Fermi, "Possible Production of
Elements of Atomic Number Higher than
92", Nature 133, 898-899 (16 June
1934). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v133/n3372/abs/133898a0.html {Ferm
i_Enrico_19340616.pdf}
3. ^ "Enrico Fermi - Nobel Lecture".
Nobelprize.org. 26 Mar 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1938/fermi-lecture.html {F
ermi_Enrico_19381212.pdf}
4. ^ Enrico Fermi, "Possible Production
of Elements of Atomic Number Higher
than 92", Nature 133, 898-899 (16 June
1934). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v133/n3372/abs/133898a0.html {Ferm
i_Enrico_19340616.pdf} {06/16/1934}
5. ^ E Fermi, F
Rasetti, "Sulla possibilità di
produrre elementi di numero atomico
maggiore di 92", Ric. Sci., 1934,
p452,536. E. Fermi, E. Amaldi, 0.
DAgostino, F. Rasetti, E. Segre, Rie.
Sci. 5(1) (1934) 452; {05/1934}
6. ^ Enrico
Fermi, "Possible Production of Elements
of Atomic Number Higher than 92",
Nature 133, 898-899 (16 June
1934). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v133/n3372/abs/133898a0.html {Ferm
i_Enrico_19340616.pdf} {06/16/1934}

MORE INFO
[1] "The Nobel Prize in Physics
1938". Nobelprize.org. 7 Feb 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1938/
[2] E Fermi, "Eine statistische Methode
zur Bestimmung einiger Eigenschaften
des Atoms und ihre Anwendung auf die
Theorie des periodischen Systems der
Elemente", Zeitschrift für Physik A
Hadrons and Nuclei, Volume 48, Numbers
1-2, 73-79. "A statistical method for
determining some properties of the atom
and its application to the theory of
the periodic table of
elements" http://www.springerlink.com/c
ontent/v762582061464612/
[3] E. Fermi, "Zur Quantelung des
idealen einatomigen Gases", Zeitschrift
für Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei,
Volume 36, Numbers 11-12,
902-912. "The quantization of the
ideal monatomic
gas" http://www.springerlink.com/conten
t/k763270092273181/
[4] E. Fermi, "Argomenti pro e contro
la ipotesi dei quanti di luce"
("Arguments for and against the
hypothesis of quanta of light"), Il
Nuovo Cimento (1924-1942), Volume 3,
Numbers 1-2,
xlvii-liv. http://www.springerlink.com/
content/lm022085605043uh/
[5] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p465
[6]
E. Fermi, "Magnetic Moments of Atomic
Nuclei", Nature 125, 16-16 (04 January
1930)
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
125/n3140/abs/125016a0.html
[7] E. Fermi, "Quantum Theory of
Radiation", Rev. Mod. Phys. 4, 87–132
(1932). http://rmp.aps.org/abstract/RMP
/v4/i1/p87_1
[8] E. Fermi, E. Amaldi, B. Pontecorvo,
E. Rasetti and E. Segré, La Ricerca
Scientifica, 2, No. 12; 1933
[9] "Versuch
einer Theorie der β-Strahlen. I ",
Zeitschrift für Physik A Hadrons and
Nuclei, Volume 88, Numbers 3-4, 1933,
161-177. http://www.springerlink.com/co
ntent/wq2r06j058382226/
[10] "Chadwick, James." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 17. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 143-148. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 4 Feb.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830905049&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[11] Fermi, 'Ric. Scient.,' vol. 5,
p282 (1934); Fermi, 'Ric. Scient.,'
vol. 1, pp. 283, 330 (1934); Amaldi,
D'Agostino, Fermi, Rasetti and Segre,
'Ric. Scient.,' vol. 1, pp. 452, 652,
21 (1934); Fermi, Rasetti and
D'Agostino, 'Ric. Scient.,' vol. 1, pp.
533 (1934); Fermi, 'Nature,'
"Radioactivity Induced by Neutron
Bombardment" vol. 133, N3368 pp. 757,
898 (1934). See also Fermi, ' Nuovo
Cim.,' vol. 11, p. 429 (1934); Amaldi,
Fermi, Rasetti and Segre, 'Nuovo
Cim.,' vol. 11, p. 442 (1934); Amaldi
and Segre, 'Nuovo Cim.,' vol.11,. p.
452 (1934); ' D'Agostino ' Gazz. Chim.
Ital.,' in press (1934)
[12] E. Fermi, E.
Amaldi, O. D'Agostino, F. Rasetti and
E. Segre, "Artificial Radioactivity
Produced by Neutron Bombardment",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London. Series A, Containing Papers of
a Mathematical and Physical Character,
Vol. 146, No. 857 (Sep. 1, 1934), pp.
483-500 http://www.jstor.org/stable/293
5604
(University of Rome) Rome, Italy4
 
[1] Enrico Fermi Nobel
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://publishing.cdlib.org/ucpr
essebooks/data/13030/rb/ft700007rb/figur
es/ft700007rb_00009.jpg

[2] Enrico Fermi from Argonne
National Laboratory PD
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/physics/laureates/1938/fermi.jpg
63 YBN
[05/14/1937 AD] 4 		5548) The first transuranium elements.
Elements 93 through 96 are identified
from the collision of neutrons with
uranium.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ L. Meitner, O. Hahn and F.
Strassmann, " Über die
Umwandlungsreihen des Urans, die durch
Neutronenbestrahlung erzeugt werden",
Zeitschrift für Physik A Hadrons and
Nuclei, Volume 106, Numbers 3-4,
249-270, DOI:
10.1007/BF01340321 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/r861050u50u85l00/ {Hahn
_Otto_19370514.pdf} English: "On the
conversion of the uranium series,
produced by neutron irradiation"
2. ^ "Otto Hahn -
Nobel Lecture". Nobelprize.org. 26 Mar
2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1944/hahn-lecture.html {
Hahn_Otto_19461213.pdf}
3. ^ L. Meitner, O. Hahn and F.
Strassmann, " Über die
Umwandlungsreihen des Urans, die durch
Neutronenbestrahlung erzeugt werden",
Zeitschrift für Physik A Hadrons and
Nuclei, Volume 106, Numbers 3-4,
249-270, DOI:
10.1007/BF01340321 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/r861050u50u85l00/ {Hahn
_Otto_19370514.pdf} English: "On the
conversion of the uranium series,
produced by neutron irradiation"
4. ^ L. Meitner, O.
Hahn and F. Strassmann, " Über die
Umwandlungsreihen des Urans, die durch
Neutronenbestrahlung erzeugt werden",
Zeitschrift für Physik A Hadrons and
Nuclei, Volume 106, Numbers 3-4,
249-270, DOI:
10.1007/BF01340321 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/r861050u50u85l00/ {Hahn
_Otto_19370514.pdf} English: "On the
conversion of the uranium series,
produced by neutron irradiation"
{05/14/1937}

MORE INFO
[1] "Lise Meitner." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2010. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 25 Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/373527/Lise-Meitner>
[2] "Lise Meitner." A Dictionary of
Chemistry. Oxford University Press,
2008. Answers.com 25 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/lise-meitne
r-1
[3] "Meitner, Lise." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 9. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 260-263. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 25 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902897&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[4] "Lise Meitner". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lise_Meitne
r
[5] "Otto Robert Frisch". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otto_Robert
_Frisch
[6] "Frisch, Otto Robert." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 17. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 320-322. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 25 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830905122&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[7] "Otto Robert Frisch." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2010. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 25 Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/220450/Otto-Robert-Frisch>
[8] "Otto Robert Frisch." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 25 Dec.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/otto-robert
-frisch-1
[9] "Otto Hahn." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2010. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 25 Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/251675/Otto-Hahn>
[10] "Otto Hahn." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 25 Dec.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/otto-hahn
[11] Otto Hahn, "Über ein neues
radioaktives Zerfallsprodukt im Uran",
Naturwissenschaften, Volume 9, Number
5, 84, DOI:
10.1007/BF01491321 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/uhukv60t536j7486/
(Kaiser-Wilhelm-Instute fur Chemie in
Berlin-Dahlem) Berlin, Germany3  
[1] Lise Meitner UNKNOWN
source: http://www3.findagrave.com/photo
s/2007/278/15166236_119171400954.jpg

[2] Otto Hahn UNKNOWN
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/chemistry/laureates/1944/hahn.jpg
63 YBN
[05/22/1937 AD] 10 11 		5515) The first image of individual
atoms. Atoms are visually confirmed to
be about 0.1 nm in size.7 8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Erwin W. Müller,
"Elektronenmikroskopische Beobachtungen
von Feldkathoden", Zeitschrift für
Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei, Volume
106, Numbers 9-10, 541-550, DOI:
10.1007/BF01339895 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/h425u71vqh66w886/ {Mull
er_Erwin_W_19370522.pdf}
English: "Electron microscopic
observations of field cathode"
2. ^ "Erwin
Wilhelm Müller." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 20 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/396828/Erwin-Wilhelm-Muller>.
3. ^ Erwin W. Müller,
"Elektronenmikroskopische Beobachtungen
von Feldkathoden", Zeitschrift für
Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei, Volume
106, Numbers 9-10, 541-550, DOI:
10.1007/BF01339895 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/h425u71vqh66w886/ {Mull
er_Erwin_W_19370522.pdf}
English: "Electron microscopic
observations of field cathode"
4. ^ "Erwin
Wilhelm Müller." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 20 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/396828/Erwin-Wilhelm-Muller>.
5. ^ Erwin W. Müller,
"Elektronenmikroskopische Beobachtungen
von Feldkathoden", Zeitschrift für
Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei, Volume
106, Numbers 9-10, 541-550, DOI:
10.1007/BF01339895 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/h425u71vqh66w886/ {Mull
er_Erwin_W_19370522.pdf}
English: "Electron microscopic
observations of field cathode"
6. ^ "Erwin
Wilhelm Müller." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 20 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/396828/Erwin-Wilhelm-Muller>.
7. ^ Erwin W. Müller,
"Elektronenmikroskopische Beobachtungen
von Feldkathoden", Zeitschrift für
Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei, Volume
106, Numbers 9-10, 541-550, DOI:
10.1007/BF01339895 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/h425u71vqh66w886/ {Mull
er_Erwin_W_19370522.pdf}
English: "Electron microscopic
observations of field cathode"
8. ^ "Erwin
Wilhelm Müller." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 20 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/396828/Erwin-Wilhelm-Muller>.
9. ^ "Erwin Mueller." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 21 Mar.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/erwin-muell
er
10. ^ Erwin W. Müller,
"Elektronenmikroskopische Beobachtungen
von Feldkathoden", Zeitschrift für
Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei, Volume
106, Numbers 9-10, 541-550, DOI:
10.1007/BF01339895 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/h425u71vqh66w886/ {Mull
er_Erwin_W_19370522.pdf}
English: "Electron microscopic
observations of field cathode"
{05/22/1937}
11. ^ "Erwin Mueller." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 21 Mar.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/erwin-muell
er {1936}

MORE INFO
[1] "Erwin Wilhelm Mueller".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erwin_Wilhe
lm_Mueller
(Siemens and Halske) Berlin, Germany9
 
[1] Figures 2-4 from: ''Fig 2.
Tungsten cathode (filament) [011] -
Direction in the middle. Fig 3.
Tungsten cathode [211] - Direction,
almost in the middle. Fig 4. Sphere
model with the lattice directions of a
cube-based emission tungsten cathode,
field of view as Fig 3.'' [2] Erwin W.
Müller, ''Elektronenmikroskopische
Beobachtungen von Feldkathoden'',
Zeitschrift für Physik A Hadrons and
Nuclei, Volume 106, Numbers 9-10,
541-550, DOI:
10.1007/BF01339895 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/h425u71vqh66w886/ {Mull
er_Erwin_W_19370522.pdf}
English: ''Electron microscopic
observations of field cathode''
source: http://www.springerlink.com/cont
ent/h425u71vqh66w886/

[2] COPYRIGHTED
source: http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/opti
cs/timeline/people/antiqueimages/mueller
.jpg
63 YBN
[06/30/1937 AD] 8 		5364) Element 43, the first completely
artificial element, the radioactive
metal1 technetium {TeKnEsEuM2 } is
created by particle collision.3 4 5 6
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^ "technetium." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 21
Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/technetium
2. ^ "technetium." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 21 Jan.
2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/t
echnetium>.
3. ^ C. Perrier and E. Segrè, "Some
Chemical Properties of Element 43", J.
Chem. Phys. 5, 712
(1937). http://link.aip.org/link/jcpsa6
/v5/i9/p712/s1 {Segre_Emilio_19370630.p
df}
4. ^ C. Perrier and E. Segrè, "Some
Chemical Properties of Element 43. II",
J. Chem. Phys. 7, 155
(1939). http://scitation.aip.org/getpdf
/servlet/GetPDFServlet?filetype=pdf&id=J
CPSA6000007000003000155000001&idtype=cvi
ps&prog=normal {Segre_Emilio_19390110.p
df}
5. ^ E. Segrè, "Artificial
Radioactivity and the Completion of the
Periodic System of the Elements", The
Scientific monthly, (1943), volume: 57
page: 12.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/18209 {Se
gre_Emilio_194307xx.pdf}
6. ^ "Emilio Segrè." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 21 Feb.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/segr-emilio
-gino
7. ^ C. Perrier and E. Segrè, "Some
Chemical Properties of Element 43", J.
Chem. Phys. 5, 712
(1937). http://link.aip.org/link/jcpsa6
/v5/i9/p712/s1 {Segre_Emilio_19370630.p
df}
8. ^ C. Perrier and E. Segrè, "Some
Chemical Properties of Element 43", J.
Chem. Phys. 5, 712
(1937). http://link.aip.org/link/jcpsa6
/v5/i9/p712/s1 {Segre_Emilio_19370630.p
df} {06/30/1937}

MORE INFO
[1] "technetium (Tc)".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 25 Dec.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/585354/technetium-Tc>
(Royal University) Polermo, Italy7
 
[1] Description
Tc,43.jpg Technetium Date
Uploaded 2005-06-01 on af: Source
Lapp, Ralph E. and the Editors of
Life (1965). Matter: Life Science
Library. New York: TIME
Incorporated. Author Attributed
as a U.S. government image in scanning
source PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/40/Tc%2C43.jpg

[2] This is a file from the Wikimedia
Commons Los Alamos wartime badge
photo: Emilio Segrè Source: Los
Alamos National Laboratory,
http://www.lanl.gov/history/wartime/staf
f.shtml PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/71/Emilio_Segre_ID_badge
.png
62 YBN
[06/16/1938 AD] 5 		5382) Charged particles with masses in
between an electron and proton are
recognized (muons1 ).2 3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p805-806.
2. ^ Seth H.
Neddermeyer and Carl D. Anderson,
"Cosmic-Ray Particles of Intermediate
Mass", Phys. Rev. 54, 88
(1938). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v54/i1/p88_2 {Anderson_Carl_D_1938061
6.pdf}
3. ^ Seth H. Neddermeyer and Carl D.
Anderson, "Nature of Cosmic-Ray
Particles", Rev. Mod. Phys. 11, 191
(1939). http://rmp.aps.org/pdf/RMP/v11/
i3-4/p191_1 {Anderson_Carl_D_193910xx.p
df}
4. ^ Carl D. Anderson, "The Positive
Electron", Phys. Rev. 43, 491
(1933). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v43/i6/p491_1 {Anderson_Carl_19330228
.pdf}
5. ^ Seth H. Neddermeyer and Carl D.
Anderson, "Cosmic-Ray Particles of
Intermediate Mass", Phys. Rev. 54, 88
(1938). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v54/i1/p88_2 {Anderson_Carl_D_1938061
6.pdf} {06/16/1938}

MORE INFO
[1] "The Nobel Prize in Physics
1936". Nobelprize.org. 22 Feb 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1936/
[2] Carl D. Anderson, "The Apparent
Existence of Easily Deflectable
Positives", Science, 1932, V76, (pp.
238-239). http://www.jstor.org/stable/1
658257
[3] Carl D. Anderson and Seth H.
Neddermeyer, "Cloud Chamber
Observations of Cosmic Rays at 4300
Meters Elevation and Near Sea-Level",
Phys. Rev. 50, 263
(1936). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v50/i4/p263_1
(California Institute of Technology)
Pasadena, California4  
[1] Figure 1 from: Seth H. Neddermeyer
and Carl D. Anderson, ''Cosmic-Ray
Particles of Intermediate Mass'', Phys.
Rev. 54, 88
(1938). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v54/i1/p88_2 {Anderson_Carl_D_1938061
6.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v54/i1/p88_2

[2] Carl David Anderson searching for
mesons. From LBNL archives, dated 1937.
from en:Image:Carl anderson.1937.jpeg
2005-10-28 04:46:20 . . Salsb PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/9e/Carl_anderson.1937.jp
g
62 YBN
[06/22/1938 AD] 5 		5448) The first image of a virus (150nm
in size).3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ B. v. Borries, E. Ruska und H.
Ruska, "Bakterien und Virus in
übermikroskopischer Aufnahme.", Klin.
Wochenschrift 17 (1938)
921-925. http://ernstruska.digilibrary.
de/bibliographie/q021/q021.html {Ruska_
Ernst_19380622.pdf}
2. ^ B. v. Borries, E. Ruska und H.
Ruska, "Bakterien und Virus in
übermikroskopischer Aufnahme.", Klin.
Wochenschrift 17 (1938)
921-925. http://ernstruska.digilibrary.
de/bibliographie/q021/q021.html {Ruska_
Ernst_19380622.pdf}
3. ^ B. v. Borries, E. Ruska und H.
Ruska, "Bakterien und Virus in
übermikroskopischer Aufnahme.", Klin.
Wochenschrift 17 (1938)
921-925. http://ernstruska.digilibrary.
de/bibliographie/q021/q021.html {Ruska_
Ernst_19380622.pdf}
4. ^ B. v. Borries, E. Ruska und H.
Ruska, "Bakterien und Virus in
übermikroskopischer Aufnahme.", Klin.
Wochenschrift 17 (1938)
921-925. http://ernstruska.digilibrary.
de/bibliographie/q021/q021.html {Ruska_
Ernst_19380622.pdf}
5. ^ B. v. Borries, E. Ruska und H.
Ruska, "Bakterien und Virus in
übermikroskopischer Aufnahme.", Klin.
Wochenschrift 17 (1938)
921-925. http://ernstruska.digilibrary.
de/bibliographie/q021/q021.html {Ruska_
Ernst_19380622.pdf} {06/22/1938}

MORE INFO
[1] E. Ruska u. M. Knoll,
Zeitschrift für technische Physik, 12,
389, 448, 1931
[2] "The Nobel Prize in
Physics 1986". Nobelprize.org. 5 Mar
2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1986/
[3] M. Knoll and E. Ruska, "Das
Elektronenmikroskop", Zeitschrift für
Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei,Volume 78,
Numbers 5-6, 318-339, DOI:
10.1007/BF01342199 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/x7l53h8685108383/
[4] Ernst Ruska, "Über eine
Berechnungsmethode des
Kathodenstrahloszillographen auf Grund
der experimentell gefundenen
Abhängigkeit des
Schreibfleckdurchmessers von der
Stellung der Konzentrierspule.",
Studienarbeit Technische Hochschule
Berlin, Lehrstuhl für
Hochspannungstechnik, eingereicht am
10.5.1929. http://ernstruska.digilibrar
y.de/bibliographie/q001/q001.html
[5] E. Ruska und M. Knoll, "Die
magnetische Sammelspule für schnelle
Elektronenstrahlen.", Z. techn. Physik
12 (1931) 389-400 und 448, eingegangen
am
28.4.1931. http://ernstruska.digilibrar
y.de/bibliographie/q003/q003.html
[6] M. Knoll und E. Ruska, "Beitrag zur
geometrischen Elektronenoptik.", Ann.
Physik 12 (1932) 607-661, eingegangen
am
10.9.1931. http://ernstruska.digilibrar
y.de/bibliographie/q004/q004.html
[7] Knoll, Max (1935).
"Aufladepotentiel und Sekundäremission
elektronenbestrahlter Körper".
Zeitschrift für technische Physik 16:
467–475
[8] "Microscope". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microscope
[9] E. Ruska, "Über Fortschritte im
Bau und in der Leistung des
magnetischen Elektronenmikroskops.", Z.
Phys. 87 (1934) 580-602. eingegangen am
12.12.1933. http://ernstruska.digilibra
ry.de/bibliographie/q013/q013.html En
glish: "On progress in construction
and performance of the magnetic
electron microscope."
[10] "Ernst Ruska."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 06 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/513086/Ernst-Ruska>
(Berliner Medizinischen
Gesellschaft/Berlin Medical Society)
Berlin, Germany4  
[1] (ubermikroskop) Ultramicroscope
image of the virus of ectromelia in the
point mouse. Infectious material from
the lymph of an infected paw. magnified
20,000x. Figure 1 from: B. v.
Borries, E. Ruska und H. Ruska,
''Bakterien und Virus in
übermikroskopischer
Aufnahme.'', Klin. Wochenschrift 17
(1938)
921-925. http://ernstruska.digilibrary.
de/bibliographie/q021/q021.html {Ruska_
Ernst_19380622.pdf} UNKNOWN
source: http://ernstruska.digilibrary.de
/bibliographie/q021/q021.html

[2] Ernst Ruska, 1939 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.siemens.com/history/p
ool/perseunlichkeiten/wissenschaftler/ru
ska_1939.jpg
61 YBN
[04/30/1939 AD] 11 12 		5835) The bipedal (or two leg walking)
robot.7 8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://davidszondy.com/future/robot/elek
tro1.htm
2. ^ N Sharkey, A Sharkey,
"Electro-mechanical robots before the
computer", Proceedings of the
Institution of Mechanical Engineers,
Part C: Journal of Mechanical
Engineering Science, Volume 223, Number
1 / 2009,
Pages 235-241. http://journals.pepublis
hing.com/content/j15unr6757440045/ {Sha
rkey_200901xx.pdf}
3. ^
http://davidszondy.com/future/robot/elek
tro1.htm
4. ^ N Sharkey, A Sharkey,
"Electro-mechanical robots before the
computer", Proceedings of the
Institution of Mechanical Engineers,
Part C: Journal of Mechanical
Engineering Science, Volume 223, Number
1 / 2009,
Pages 235-241. http://journals.pepublis
hing.com/content/j15unr6757440045/ {Sha
rkey_200901xx.pdf}
5. ^
http://davidszondy.com/future/robot/elek
tro1.htm
6. ^ N Sharkey, A Sharkey,
"Electro-mechanical robots before the
computer", Proceedings of the
Institution of Mechanical Engineers,
Part C: Journal of Mechanical
Engineering Science, Volume 223, Number
1 / 2009,
Pages 235-241. http://journals.pepublis
hing.com/content/j15unr6757440045/ {Sha
rkey_200901xx.pdf}
7. ^
http://davidszondy.com/future/robot/elek
tro1.htm
8. ^ N Sharkey, A Sharkey,
"Electro-mechanical robots before the
computer", Proceedings of the
Institution of Mechanical Engineers,
Part C: Journal of Mechanical
Engineering Science, Volume 223, Number
1 / 2009,
Pages 235-241. http://journals.pepublis
hing.com/content/j15unr6757440045/ {Sha
rkey_200901xx.pdf}
9. ^ Scott Schaut, Robots of
Westinghouse 1924-today, 2006, p91,185.
10. ^
"Elektro". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektro
11. ^
http://www.history.com/this-day-in-histo
ry/new-york-worlds-fair-opens {around)
04/30/1939 (opening of World's Fair}
12. ^
http://davidszondy.com/future/robot/elek
tro1.htm {1939 (verify}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AuyTRbj8Q
SA&feature=related
[2]
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ay225WkU4
Gs&feature=related
[3] Scott Schaut, "Robots of
Westinghouse, 1924-today", Mansfield,
Ohio : Scott Schautt, Mansfield
Memorial Museum, 2006
[4]
http://www.archive.org/details/middleton
_family_worlds_fair_1939
(Westinghouse Electric Corporation)
Mansfield, Ohio, USA9 10  
[1] Elektro at the 1939 World's
Fair UNKNOWN
source: http://img.youtube.com/vi/T35A3g
_GvSg/0.jpg

[2] Inside working of Westinghouse
Elektro walking robot UNKNOWN
source: http://davidszondy.com/future/ro
bot/elektro-interior.jpg
58 YBN
[12/02/1942 AD] 8 		5277) A self-sustained uranium fission
reaction.4 5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ E. Fermi, "Work Carried Out by
the Physics Division", Report CP-387
for month Ending December 15, 1942.
Reprinted in "Enrico Fermi, Collected
Papers, v2, 1965, p270.
2. ^ "Experimental
production of a Divergent Chain
Reaction", American Journal of Physics,
20, 1952,
536-558. http://ajp.aapt.org/resource/1
/ajpias/v20/i9/p536_s1 {Fermi_Enrico_19
520627.pdf}
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p781-783.
4. ^ E. Fermi, "Work
Carried Out by the Physics Division",
Report CP-387 for month Ending December
15, 1942. Reprinted in "Enrico Fermi,
Collected Papers, v2, 1965, p270.
5. ^
"Experimental production of a Divergent
Chain Reaction", American Journal of
Physics, 20, 1952,
536-558. http://ajp.aapt.org/resource/1
/ajpias/v20/i9/p536_s1 {Fermi_Enrico_19
520627.pdf}
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p781-783.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p781-783.
8. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p781-783.
{12/02/1942}

MORE INFO
[1] "The Nobel Prize in Physics
1938". Nobelprize.org. 7 Feb 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1938/
[2] E Fermi, "Eine statistische Methode
zur Bestimmung einiger Eigenschaften
des Atoms und ihre Anwendung auf die
Theorie des periodischen Systems der
Elemente", Zeitschrift für Physik A
Hadrons and Nuclei, Volume 48, Numbers
1-2, 73-79. "A statistical method for
determining some properties of the atom
and its application to the theory of
the periodic table of
elements" http://www.springerlink.com/c
ontent/v762582061464612/
[3] E. Fermi, "Zur Quantelung des
idealen einatomigen Gases", Zeitschrift
für Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei,
Volume 36, Numbers 11-12,
902-912. "The quantization of the
ideal monatomic
gas" http://www.springerlink.com/conten
t/k763270092273181/
[4] E. Fermi, "Argomenti pro e contro
la ipotesi dei quanti di luce"
("Arguments for and against the
hypothesis of quanta of light"), Il
Nuovo Cimento (1924-1942), Volume 3,
Numbers 1-2,
xlvii-liv. http://www.springerlink.com/
content/lm022085605043uh/
[5] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p465
[6]
E. Fermi, "Magnetic Moments of Atomic
Nuclei", Nature 125, 16-16 (04 January
1930)
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
125/n3140/abs/125016a0.html
[7] E. Fermi, "Quantum Theory of
Radiation", Rev. Mod. Phys. 4, 87–132
(1932). http://rmp.aps.org/abstract/RMP
/v4/i1/p87_1
[8] E. Fermi, E. Amaldi, B. Pontecorvo,
E. Rasetti and E. Segré, La Ricerca
Scientifica, 2, No. 12; 1933
[9] "Versuch
einer Theorie der β-Strahlen. I ",
Zeitschrift für Physik A Hadrons and
Nuclei, Volume 88, Numbers 3-4, 1933,
161-177. http://www.springerlink.com/co
ntent/wq2r06j058382226/
[10] "Chadwick, James." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 17. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 143-148. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 4 Feb.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830905049&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[11] Fermi, 'Ric. Scient.,' vol. 5,
p282 (1934); Fermi, 'Ric. Scient.,'
vol. 1, pp. 283, 330 (1934); Amaldi,
D'Agostino, Fermi, Rasetti and Segre,
'Ric. Scient.,' vol. 1, pp. 452, 652,
21 (1934); Fermi, Rasetti and
D'Agostino, 'Ric. Scient.,' vol. 1, pp.
533 (1934); Fermi, 'Nature,'
"Radioactivity Induced by Neutron
Bombardment" vol. 133, N3368 pp. 757,
898 (1934). See also Fermi, ' Nuovo
Cim.,' vol. 11, p. 429 (1934); Amaldi,
Fermi, Rasetti and Segre, 'Nuovo
Cim.,' vol. 11, p. 442 (1934); Amaldi
and Segre, 'Nuovo Cim.,' vol.11,. p.
452 (1934); ' D'Agostino ' Gazz. Chim.
Ital.,' in press (1934)
[12] E. Fermi, E.
Amaldi, O. D'Agostino, F. Rasetti and
E. Segre, "Artificial Radioactivity
Produced by Neutron Bombardment",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London. Series A, Containing Papers of
a Mathematical and Physical Character,
Vol. 146, No. 857 (Sep. 1, 1934), pp.
483-500 http://www.jstor.org/stable/293
5604
[13] Enrico Fermi, "Possible Production
of Elements of Atomic Number Higher
than 92", Nature 133, 898-899 (16 June
1934). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v133/n3372/abs/133898a0.html
[14] E. Segre (Ed.): "Enrico Fermi:
Collected Papers" (Nore e Memorie),
University of Chicago Press, Chicago
(Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei.
Roma) 1962, Vol. 1 , p. 640
[15] E Fermi,
"Le ultime particelle costitutive della
materia", Societa italiana per il
progresso, 1934
[16] Fermi, Amaldi,
Pontecorvo, Rasetti, Segre, 'Ric.
Scient.,' vol. 2, p. 280 (1934);
[17] E.
Amaldi, O. D'Agostino, E. Fermi, B.
Pontecorvo, F. Rasetti and E. Segrè,
"Artificial Radioactivity Produced by
Neutron Bombardment. II", Proceedings
of the Royal Society of London. Series
A, Mathematical and Physical
Sciences Vol. 149, No. 868 (Apr. 10,
1935), pp.
522-558 http://www.jstor.org/stable/963
79
[18] ENRICO FERMI, "Reactions Produced
by Neutrons in Heavy Elements", Nature
146, 640-642 (16 November
1940). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v146/n3707/abs/146640a0.html
[19] E. Amaldi and E. Fermi, "On the
Absorption and the Diffusion of Slow
Neutrons", Phys. Rev. 50, 899–928
(1936). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v50/i10/p899_1
(University of Chicago) Chicago,
Illinois, USA7  
[1] Figure 5 from: ''Experimental
production of a Divergent Chain
Reaction'', American Journal of
Physics, 20, 1952,
536-558. http://ajp.aapt.org/resource/1
/ajpias/v20/i9/p536_s1 {Fermi_Enrico_19
520627.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://ajp.aapt.org/resource/1/a
jpias/v20/i9/p536_s1

[2] Enrico Fermi from Argonne
National Laboratory PD
source: http://www.osti.gov/accomplishme
nts/images/08.gif
57 YBN
[11/01/1943 AD] 3 		4916) The DNA molecule is recognized as
being responsible for the creation and
inheritance of structural changes in a
body.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Avery, MacLeod and McCarty.
“Studies on the Chemical Nature of
the Substance Inducing Transformation
of Pneumococcal Types. Induction of
Transformation by Deoxyribonucleic Acid
Fraction Isolated from Pneumococcus
Type III”, Journal of Experimental
Medicine, V79, N2, Feb, 1944,
137–158. http://jem.rupress.org/conte
nt/79/2/137.full.pdf {Avery_Oswald_1943
1101.pdf}
2. ^ Avery, MacLeod and McCarty.
“Studies on the Chemical Nature of
the Substance Inducing Transformation
of Pneumococcal Types. Induction of
Transformation by Deoxyribonucleic Acid
Fraction Isolated from Pneumococcus
Type III”, Journal of Experimental
Medicine, V79, N2, Feb, 1944,
137–158. http://jem.rupress.org/conte
nt/79/2/137.full.pdf {Avery_Oswald_1943
1101.pdf}
3. ^ Avery, MacLeod and McCarty.
“Studies on the Chemical Nature of
the Substance Inducing Transformation
of Pneumococcal Types. Induction of
Transformation by Deoxyribonucleic Acid
Fraction Isolated from Pneumococcus
Type III”, Journal of Experimental
Medicine, V79, N2, Feb, 1944,
137–158. http://jem.rupress.org/conte
nt/79/2/137.full.pdf {Avery_Oswald_1943
1101.pdf} {11/1/1943}

MORE INFO
[1] "Oswald Avery." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
25 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/oswald-aver
y
[2] "Avery, Oswald T." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 1. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 342-343. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 25 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900196&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[3] "Oswald Theodore Avery". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oswald_Theo
dore_Avery
[4] Maclyn McCarty and Oswald T. Avery,
"STUDIES ON THE CHEMICAL NATURE OF THE
SUBSTANCE INDUCING TRANSFORMATION OF
PNEUMOCOCCAL TYPES: III. AN IMPROVED
METHOD FOR THE ISOLATION OF THE
TRANSFORMING SUBSTANCE AND ITS
APPLICATION TO PNEUMOCOCCUS TYPES II,
III, AND VI J Exp Med 1946 83:97-104.
Published February 1, 1946,
doi:10.1084/jem.83.2.97
http://jem.rupress.org/content/83/2/97
.full.pdf
(Rockefeller Institute, now called
Rockefeller University) New York City,
New York, USA2  
[1] EXPLANATION OF PLATE The
photograph was made by Mr. Joseph B.
Haulenbeek. FIG. 1. Colonies of the R
variant (R36A) derived from
Pneumococcus Type n. Plated on blood
agar from a culture grown in serum
broth in the absence of
the transforming substance. X
3.5. FIO. 2. Colonies on blood agar of
the same cells after induction of
transformation during growth in the
same medium with the addition of active
transforming principle isolated from
Type nI pneumococci. The smooth,
glistening, mucoid colonies shown are
characteristic of Pneumococcus Type In
and readily distinguishable from the
small, rough colonies of the parent R
strain illustrated in Fig. 1.
X3.5. Downloaded from jem.rupress.org
on December 24, 2010 Published
February 1, 1944 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://jem.rupress.org/content/7
9/2/137.full.pdf

[2] Description Oswald T. Avery
portrait 1937.jpg Portrait of Oswald
T. Avery, cropped from a Rockefeller
Institute for Medical Research staff
photograph. Date
1937(1937) Source
http://profiles.nlm.nih.gov/CC/A/A/
L/P/_/ccaalp_.jpg Author
Unknown Permission (Reusing this
file) Reproduced with permission
of the Rockefeller Archive Center. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/eb/Oswald_T._Avery_portr
ait_1937.jpg
55 YBN
[07/16/1945 AD] 4 		5311) The first atomic fission bomb is
exploded.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "nuclear weapon." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 08 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/421827/nuclear-weapon>.
2. ^ "nuclear weapon." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 08 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/421827/nuclear-weapon>.
3. ^
http://www.atomicarchive.com/History/col
dwar/p7_image.shtml
4. ^
http://www.atomicarchive.com/History/col
dwar/p7_image.shtml {07/16/1945}

MORE INFO
[1] "Manhattan Project." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2011. Answers.com 08 Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/manhattan-p
roject
[2] "Project Orion (nuclear
propulsion)". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_Ori
on_(nuclear_propulsion)
(Alamogordo Test Range) Jornada del
Muerto (Journey of Death) desert, New
Mexico, USA3  
[1] The fully assembled Gadget. PD
source: http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/
Usa/Tests/GadgetB1024c10.jpg

[2] First uranium-fission explosion
''trinity'' 16 ms after detonation. PD

source: http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/
Usa/Tests/Trin2.jpg
55 YBN
[10/08/1945 AD] 4 		6272) The microwave oven.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ US patent 2495429, Spencer, Percy
L., "Method of treating foodstuffs",
issued
1950-January-24 www.google.com/patents?
id=x_tuAAAAEBAJ
and http://worldwide.espacenet.com/text
doc?DB=EPODOC&IDX=US2495429
2. ^ US patent 2495429, Spencer, Percy
L., "Method of treating foodstuffs",
issued
1950-January-24 www.google.com/patents?
id=x_tuAAAAEBAJ
and http://worldwide.espacenet.com/text
doc?DB=EPODOC&IDX=US2495429
3. ^ US patent 2495429, Spencer, Percy
L., "Method of treating foodstuffs",
issued
1950-January-24 www.google.com/patents?
id=x_tuAAAAEBAJ
and http://worldwide.espacenet.com/text
doc?DB=EPODOC&IDX=US2495429
4. ^ US patent 2495429, Spencer, Percy
L., "Method of treating foodstuffs",
issued
1950-January-24 www.google.com/patents?
id=x_tuAAAAEBAJ
and http://worldwide.espacenet.com/text
doc?DB=EPODOC&IDX=US2495429
{10/08/1945}
(Raytheon Manufacturing Company)
Newton, Massachusetts, USA3  
[1] Figure from: [1] US patent
2495429, Spencer, Percy L., ''Method of
treating foodstuffs'', issued
1950-January-24 www.google.com/patents?
id=x_tuAAAAEBAJ
and http://worldwide.espacenet.com/text
doc?DB=EPODOC&IDX=US2495429 PD
source: www.google.com/patents?id=x_tuAA
AAEBAJ

[2] Spencer, Percy with
Magnetron UNKNOWN
source: http://www.raytheon.com/newsroom
/photogal/photos/percywithmagnetron_l.jp
g
53 YBN
[06/26/1947 AD] 3 		5550) Elements 73 (tantalum) through 83
(bismuth) are fissioned with deuterons,
helium ions, or neutrons.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ I. Perlman, R. H. Goeckermann, D.
H. Templeton, and J. J. Howland,
"Fission of Bismuth, Lead, Thallium,
Platinum, and Tantalum with High Energy
Particles", Phys. Rev. 72, 352–352
(1947). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v72/i4/p352_1 {Howland_J_J_19470626.p
df}
2. ^ I. Perlman, R. H. Goeckermann, D.
H. Templeton, and J. J. Howland,
"Fission of Bismuth, Lead, Thallium,
Platinum, and Tantalum with High Energy
Particles", Phys. Rev. 72, 352–352
(1947). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v72/i4/p352_1 {Howland_J_J_19470626.p
df}
3. ^ I. Perlman, R. H. Goeckermann, D.
H. Templeton, and J. J. Howland,
"Fission of Bismuth, Lead, Thallium,
Platinum, and Tantalum with High Energy
Particles", Phys. Rev. 72, 352–352
(1947). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v72/i4/p352_1 {Howland_J_J_19470626.p
df} {06/26/1947}
(University of California) Berkeley,
California, USA2  
[1] I. Perlman, R. H. Goeckermann, D.
H. Templeton, and J. J. Howland,
''Fission of Bismuth, Lead, Thallium,
Platinum, and Tantalum with High Energy
Particles'', Phys. Rev. 72,
352–352
(1947). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v72/i4/p352_1 {Howland_J_J_19470626.p
df} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v72/i4/p352_1
52 YBN
[06/17/1948 AD] 4 5 		5295) The semiconductor transistor.1 2

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ J. Bardeen and W. H. Brattain,
"The Transistor, A Semi-Conductor
Triode", Phys. Rev. 74, 230–231
(1948). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v74/i2/p230_1 {Brattain_William_Barde
en_John_19480625.pdf}
2. ^ John Bardeen, Walter H. Brattain,
"Three-Electrode Circuit Element
Utilizing Semiconductive Materials",
Patent number: 2524035, Filing date:
Jun 17, 1948, Issue date: Oct
1950. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
FDhnAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=
false
3. ^ J. Bardeen and W. H. Brattain,
"The Transistor, A Semi-Conductor
Triode", Phys. Rev. 74, 230–231
(1948). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v74/i2/p230_1 {Brattain_William_Barde
en_John_19480625.pdf}
4. ^ John Bardeen, Walter H. Brattain,
"Three-Electrode Circuit Element
Utilizing Semiconductive Materials",
Patent number: 2524035, Filing date:
Jun 17, 1948, Issue date: Oct
1950. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
FDhnAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=
false {06/17/1948}
5. ^ J. Bardeen and W. H.
Brattain, "The Transistor, A
Semi-Conductor Triode", Phys. Rev. 74,
230–231
(1948). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v74/i2/p230_1 {Brattain_William_Barde
en_John_19480625.pdf} {06/25/1948}

MORE INFO
[1] "William Shockley." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 13 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-sho
ckley
[2] "The Nobel Prize in Physics 1956".
Nobelprize.org. 13 Feb 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1956/
[3] W. Shockley, "A "try simplest
cases" approach to the
heredity-poverty-crime problem.", Proc
Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1967 June; 57(6):
1767–1774.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC224545/
[4] Shockley, William B., "Negro IQ and
Heredity." SCHOOL AND SOCIETY, 1968,
96:127-128
(Bell Telephone Laboratories) Murray
Hill, New Jersey, USA3  
[1] Figures from: John Bardeen, Walter
H. Brattain, ''Three-Electrode Circuit
Element Utilizing Semiconductive
Materials'', Patent number: 2524035,
Filing date: Jun 17, 1948, Issue date:
Oct
1950. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
FDhnAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=
false PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=FDhnAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f
=false

[2] Description
Brattain.jpg English: Walter H.
Brattain Date 1956(1956) Source
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/
physics/laureates/1956/brattain-bio.html
Author Nobel
foundation Permission (Reusing this
file) Public domainPublic
domainfalsefalse Public domain This
Swedish photograph is free to use
either of these cases: * For
photographic works (fotografiska verk),
the image is public domain:
a) if the photographer died before
January 1, 1944, or b) if the
photographer is not known, and cannot
be traced, and the image was created
before January 1, 1944. * For
photographic pictures (fotografiska
bilder), such as images of the press,
the image is public domain if created
before January 1, 1969 (transitional
regulations 1994). The
photographer, if known, should always
be attributed.
Always provide source information. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c4/Brattain.jpg
50 YBN
[03/15/1950 AD] 3 		5553) The fission of medium weight
elements (copper, bromine, silver, and
tin).1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Roger E. Batzel and Glenn T.
Seaborg, "Fission of Medium Weight
Elements", Phys. Rev. 79, 528-528
(1950). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v79/i3/p528_1 {Seaborg_Glenn_T_195006
14.pdf}
2. ^ S. G. Thompson, K. Street, Jr., A.
Ghiorso, and G. T. Seaborg, "Element
98", Phys. Rev. 78, 298-299
(1950). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v78/i3/p298_2 {Seaborg_Glenn_T_195003
15.pdf}
3. ^ S. G. Thompson, K. Street, Jr., A.
Ghiorso, and G. T. Seaborg, "Element
98", Phys. Rev. 78, 298-299
(1950). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v78/i3/p298_2 {Seaborg_Glenn_T_195003
15.pdf} {03/15/1950}

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p842-843
[2] "The Nobel Prize
in Chemistry 1951". Nobelprize.org. 25
Mar 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1951/
[3] "Glenn T. Seaborg." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 25 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/530808/Glenn-T-Seaborg>
[4] J. J. Livingood and G. T. Seaborg,
"Radioactive Iodine Isotopes", Phys.
Rev. 53, 1015–1015
(1938). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v53/i12/p1015_2
[5]
http://scholar.google.com/scholar?start=
0&q=author:%22GT+seaborg%22&hl=en&as_sdt
=0,5&as_ylo=1920&as_yhi=1942
[6] J. J. Livingood and G. T. Seaborg,
"A Table of Induced Radioactivities",
Rev. Mod. Phys. 12, 30–46
(1940). http://rmp.aps.org/abstract/RMP
/v12/i1/p30_1
[7] J. W. Gofman and G. T. Seaborg,
"Production and properties of U232 and
Pa232", Paper No. 19.14, The
Transuranium Elements, McGraw-Hill Book
Company, Inc., New York, 1949, National
Nuclear Energy Series, Division IV, Vol
14B. http://www.osti.gov/energycitation
s/product.biblio.jsp?osti_id=5696929
[8] Enrico Fermi, "Possible Production
of Elements of Atomic Number Higher
than 92", Nature 133, 898-899 (16 June
1934). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v133/n3372/abs/133898a0.html
[9] "Enrico Fermi - Nobel Lecture".
Nobelprize.org. 26 Mar 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1938/fermi-lecture.html
[10] "Glenn T. Seaborg - Nobel
Lecture". Nobelprize.org. 26 Mar 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1951/seaborg-lecture.html

[11] L. Meitner, O. Hahn and F.
Strassmann, " Über die
Umwandlungsreihen des Urans, die durch
Neutronenbestrahlung erzeugt werden",
Zeitschrift für Physik A Hadrons and
Nuclei, Volume 106, Numbers 3-4,
249-270, DOI:
10.1007/BF01340321 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/r861050u50u85l00/ Eng
lish: "On the conversion of the
uranium series, produced by neutron
irradiation"
[12] Glenn T. Seaborg, Arthur C. Wahl,
"The Chemical Properties of Elements 94
and 93", J. Am. Chem. Soc., 1948, 70
(3), pp
1128–1134. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/ab
s/10.1021/ja01183a076
[13] G. T. Sepborg, Ea M. McMillan, J.
W. Kennedy, and A. C. Wahl, Phys. Rev.,
69, 366 (1946) (submitted January 28,
1941)
http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v69/i
7-8/p366_2
[14] G. T. Seaborg, A. C. Wahl and J.
W. Kennedy, Physical Review, 69, 367
(1946) (submitted March 7,
1941). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v69/i7-8/p367_1
[15] Glenn T. Seaborg and Joseph G.
Hamilton, "The Production of Elements
95 and 96", Science New Series, Vol.
102, No. 2657 (Nov. 30, 1945), p.
556. Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/1673521
[16] S. G. Thompson, A. Ghiorso, and G.
T. Seaborg, "Element 97", Phys. Rev.
77, 838–839
(1950). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v77/i6/p838_2
(University of California) Berkeley,
California, USA2  
[1] Description Berkeley 60-inch
cyclotron.gif English: Photograph
shows the 60-inch cyclotron at the
University of California Lawrence
Radiation Laboratory, Berkeley, in
August, 1939. The machine was the most
powerful atom-smasher in the world at
the time. It had started operating
early in the year. During the period of
the photograph Dr. Edwin M. McMillan
was doing the work which led to the
discovery of neptunium (element 93) a
year later. The instrument was used
later by Dr. Glenn T. Seaborg and his
colleagues for the discovery of element
94 (plutonium) early in 1941.
Subsequently, other transuranium
elements were discovered with the
machine, as well as many radioisotopes,
including carbon-14. For their work,
Drs. Seaborg and McMillan shared the
Nobel Prize in 1951. The machine was
used for the ''long bombardments''
which produced the first weighable and
visible quantities of plutonium, which
was used at Chicago by Seaborg and his
colleagues to work out the method for
separating plutonium on an industrial
scale at the Hanford, Washington,
plutonium pro... Русский:
Фотография
показывает
60-дюймовый циклотрон
в университете
Лаборатории California
Lawrence Radiation, Беркли, в
августе 1939. Машина
была самым сильным
ускорителем частиц в
мире в то время. Date
1939(1939) Source National
Archives logo.svg This image is
available from the Archival Research
Catalog of the National Archives and
Records Administration under the ARC
Identifier 558594. This tag does not
indicate the copyright status of the
attached work. A normal copyright tag
is still required. See
Commons:Licensing for more information.
US-NARA-ARC-Logo.svg Author
Department of Energy. Office of
Public Affairs PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/72/Berkeley_60-inch_cycl
otron.gif

[2] Description Berkeley 60-inch
cyclotron.gif English: Photograph
shows the 60-inch cyclotron at the
University of California Lawrence
Radiation Laboratory, Berkeley, in
August, 1939. The machine was the most
powerful atom-smasher in the world at
the time. It had started operating
early in the year. During the period of
the photograph Dr. Edwin M. McMillan
was doing the work which led to the
discovery of neptunium (element 93) a
year later. The instrument was used
later by Dr. Glenn T. Seaborg and his
colleagues for the discovery of element
94 (plutonium) early in 1941.
Subsequently, other transuranium
elements were discovered with the
machine, as well as many radioisotopes,
including carbon-14. For their work,
Drs. Seaborg and McMillan shared the
Nobel Prize in 1951. The machine was
used for the ''long bombardments''
which produced the first weighable and
visible quantities of plutonium, which
was used at Chicago by Seaborg and his
colleagues to work out the method for
separating plutonium on an industrial
scale at the Hanford, Washington,
plutonium pro... Русский:
Фотография
показывает
60-дюймовый циклотрон
в университете
Лаборатории California
Lawrence Radiation, Беркли, в
августе 1939. Машина
была самым сильным
ускорителем частиц в
мире в то время. Date
1939(1939) Source National
Archives logo.svg This image is
available from the Archival Research
Catalog of the National Archives and
Records Administration under the ARC
Identifier 558594. This tag does not
indicate the copyright status of the
attached work. A normal copyright tag
is still required. See
Commons:Licensing for more information.
US-NARA-ARC-Logo.svg Author
Department of Energy. Office of
Public Affairs PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/72/Berkeley_60-inch_cycl
otron.gif
50 YBN
[09/11/1950 AD] 3 		5555) Atomic fusion of large atoms:
carbon-12 ions are fused with both
aluminum and gold atoms.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ J. F. Miller, J. G. Hamilton, T.
M. Putnam, H. R. Haymond, and G. B.
Rossi, "Acceleration of Stripped C12
and C13 Nuclei in the Cyclotron",
Phys. Rev. 80, 486–486
(1950). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v80/i3/p486_1 {Rossi_G_B_19500911.pdf
}
2. ^ J. F. Miller, J. G. Hamilton, T.
M. Putnam, H. R. Haymond, and G. B.
Rossi, "Acceleration of Stripped C12
and C13 Nuclei in the Cyclotron",
Phys. Rev. 80, 486–486
(1950). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v80/i3/p486_1 {Rossi_G_B_19500911.pdf
}
3. ^ J. F. Miller, J. G. Hamilton, T.
M. Putnam, H. R. Haymond, and G. B.
Rossi, "Acceleration of Stripped C12
and C13 Nuclei in the Cyclotron",
Phys. Rev. 80, 486–486
(1950). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v80/i3/p486_1 {Rossi_G_B_19500911.pdf
} {09/11/1950}

MORE INFO
[1] Luis W. Alvarez et al,
"TWO-ELEMENT VARIABLE-POWER SPHERICAL
LENS", Patent number: 3305294, Filing
date: Dec 3, 1964, Issue date: Feb 21,
1967 http://www.google.com/patents?hl=e
n&lr=&vid=USPAT3305294&id=3sRwAAAAEBAJ&o
i=fnd&dq=%22LW+alvarez%22+lens&printsec=
abstract#v=onepage&q=%22LW%20alvarez%22%
20lens&f=false
[2] "The Nobel Prize in Physics 1968".
Nobelprize.org. 20 Mar 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1968/
[3] Luis W. Alvarez and Robert Cornog,
"He3 in Helium", Phys. Rev. 56,
379–379
(1939). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v56/i4/p379_2
(University of California) Berkeley,
California, USA2  
[1] J. F. Miller, J. G. Hamilton, T. M.
Putnam, H. R. Haymond, and G. B. Rossi,
''Acceleration of Stripped C12 and C13
Nuclei in the Cyclotron'', Phys. Rev.
80, 486–486
(1950). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v80/i3/p486_1 {Rossi_G_B_19500911.pdf
} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v80/i3/p486_1

[2] Description LWA Picture
Final.jpg English: Head Photo of Luis
W Alvarez Date 1968(1968) Source
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/
physics/laureates/1968/alvarez.html Aut
hor Nobel Foundation PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6e/LWA_Picture_Final.jpg

47 YBN
[04/02/1953 AD] 14 		5660) The double helix structure of DNA
is understood.10 11 12
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ J. D. WATSON & F. H. C. CRICK,
"Molecular structure of nucleic acids;
a structure for deoxyribose nucleic
acid", Nature, (1953) volume: 171
issue: 4356 page:
737. http://www.nature.com/nature/journ
al/v171/n4356/abs/171737a0.html and
also: http://www.faculty.sbc.edu/jmuir/
bio112/watson_crick.pdf {Crick_Francis_
Harry_Compton_19530402.pdf}
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982),
p859-861,863,874,886-887.
3. ^ "Francis Harry Compton Crick."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 10 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/142894/Francis-Harry-Compton-Crick>.
4. ^ J. D. WATSON & F. H. C. CRICK,
"Molecular structure of nucleic acids;
a structure for deoxyribose nucleic
acid", Nature, (1953) volume: 171
issue: 4356 page:
737. http://www.nature.com/nature/journ
al/v171/n4356/abs/171737a0.html and
also: http://www.faculty.sbc.edu/jmuir/
bio112/watson_crick.pdf {Crick_Francis_
Harry_Compton_19530402.pdf}
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982),
p859-861,863,874,886-887.
6. ^ "Francis Harry Compton Crick."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 10 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/142894/Francis-Harry-Compton-Crick>.
7. ^ J. D. WATSON & F. H. C. CRICK,
"Molecular structure of nucleic acids;
a structure for deoxyribose nucleic
acid", Nature, (1953) volume: 171
issue: 4356 page:
737. http://www.nature.com/nature/journ
al/v171/n4356/abs/171737a0.html and
also: http://www.faculty.sbc.edu/jmuir/
bio112/watson_crick.pdf {Crick_Francis_
Harry_Compton_19530402.pdf}
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982),
p859-861,863,874,886-887.
9. ^ "Francis Harry Compton Crick."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 10 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/142894/Francis-Harry-Compton-Crick>.
10. ^ J. D. WATSON & F. H. C. CRICK,
"Molecular structure of nucleic acids;
a structure for deoxyribose nucleic
acid", Nature, (1953) volume: 171
issue: 4356 page:
737. http://www.nature.com/nature/journ
al/v171/n4356/abs/171737a0.html and
also: http://www.faculty.sbc.edu/jmuir/
bio112/watson_crick.pdf {Crick_Francis_
Harry_Compton_19530402.pdf}
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982),
p859-861,863,874,886-887.
12. ^ "Francis Harry Compton Crick."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 10 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/142894/Francis-Harry-Compton-Crick>.
13. ^ J. D. WATSON & F. H. C. CRICK,
"Molecular structure of nucleic acids;
a structure for deoxyribose nucleic
acid", Nature, (1953) volume: 171
issue: 4356 page:
737. http://www.nature.com/nature/journ
al/v171/n4356/abs/171737a0.html and
also: http://www.faculty.sbc.edu/jmuir/
bio112/watson_crick.pdf {Crick_Francis_
Harry_Compton_19530402.pdf}
14. ^ J. D. WATSON & F. H. C. CRICK,
"Molecular structure of nucleic acids;
a structure for deoxyribose nucleic
acid", Nature, (1953) volume: 171
issue: 4356 page:
737. http://www.nature.com/nature/journ
al/v171/n4356/abs/171737a0.html and
also: http://www.faculty.sbc.edu/jmuir/
bio112/watson_crick.pdf {Crick_Francis_
Harry_Compton_19530402.pdf}
{04/02/1953}
(Cavendish Laboratory, University of
Cambridge) Cambridge, England13  
[1] Figure 1 from: J. D. WATSON & F.
H. C. CRICK, ''Molecular structure of
nucleic acids; a structure for
deoxyribose nucleic acid'', Nature,
(1953) volume: 171 issue: 4356 page:
737. http://www.nature.com/nature/journ
al/v171/n4356/abs/171737a0.html {Crick_
Francis_Harry_Compton_19530402.pdf} COP
YRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v171/n4356/abs/171737a0.html

[2] Francis Harry Compton Crick
UNKNOWN
source: http://scientistshowtell.wikispa
ces.com/file/view/FrancisHarryComptonCri
ck2.jpg/39149552/FrancisHarryComptonCric
k2.jpg
46 YBN
[05/05/1954 AD] 26 27 		5649) The MASER ("microwave
amplification by stimulated emission of
radiation").19 20 21 22 23 24
FOOTNOTES

1. ^ J. P. Gordon, H. J. Zeiger, and
C. H. Townes, "Molecular Microwave
Oscillator and New Hyperfine Structure
in the Microwave Spectrum of NH3",
Phys. Rev. 95, 282–284
(1954). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v95/i1/p282_1 {Townes_Charles_Hard_19
540505.pdf}
2. ^ J. P. Gordon, H. J. Zeiger, and C.
H. Townes, "The Maser—New Type of
Microwave Amplifier, Frequency
Standard, and Spectrometer", Phys. Rev.
99, 1264
(1955). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v99/i4/p1264_1
{Townes_Charles_Hard_19550504.pdf}
3. ^ N. G. Basov and A. M. Prokhorov,
Proc. Acad. of Sciences (U.S.S.R.) 101,
47 (1945). (Doklady Akademii Nauk
SSSR) English:
4. ^ N. G. Basov and A. M. Prokhorov,
J. Exptl, Theoret. Phys. U.S.S.R., 27,
431 (1954) English:
5. ^ N. G. Basov and A. M.
Prokhorov, J. Exptl, Theoret. Phys.
U.S.S.R., 28, 249
(1955) English: Soviet Phys. JETP 1,
184 (1955). {Basov_N_G_19541101.pdf}
6. ^ "Charles Hard Townes."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 05 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/601072/Charles-Hard-Townes>.
7. ^ J. P. Gordon, H. J. Zeiger, and C.
H. Townes, "Molecular Microwave
Oscillator and New Hyperfine Structure
in the Microwave Spectrum of NH3",
Phys. Rev. 95, 282–284
(1954). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v95/i1/p282_1 {Townes_Charles_Hard_19
540505.pdf}
8. ^ J. P. Gordon, H. J. Zeiger, and C.
H. Townes, "The Maser—New Type of
Microwave Amplifier, Frequency
Standard, and Spectrometer", Phys. Rev.
99, 1264
(1955). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v99/i4/p1264_1
{Townes_Charles_Hard_19550504.pdf}
9. ^ N. G. Basov and A. M. Prokhorov,
Proc. Acad. of Sciences (U.S.S.R.) 101,
47 (1945). (Doklady Akademii Nauk
SSSR) English:
10. ^ N. G. Basov and A. M. Prokhorov,
J. Exptl, Theoret. Phys. U.S.S.R., 27,
431 (1954) English:
11. ^ N. G. Basov and A. M.
Prokhorov, J. Exptl, Theoret. Phys.
U.S.S.R., 28, 249
(1955) English: Soviet Phys. JETP 1,
184 (1955). {Basov_N_G_19541101.pdf}
12. ^ "Charles Hard Townes."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 05 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/601072/Charles-Hard-Townes>.
13. ^ J. P. Gordon, H. J. Zeiger, and
C. H. Townes, "Molecular Microwave
Oscillator and New Hyperfine Structure
in the Microwave Spectrum of NH3",
Phys. Rev. 95, 282–284
(1954). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v95/i1/p282_1 {Townes_Charles_Hard_19
540505.pdf}
14. ^ J. P. Gordon, H. J. Zeiger, and
C. H. Townes, "The Maser—New Type of
Microwave Amplifier, Frequency
Standard, and Spectrometer", Phys. Rev.
99, 1264
(1955). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v99/i4/p1264_1
{Townes_Charles_Hard_19550504.pdf}
15. ^ N. G. Basov and A. M. Prokhorov,
Proc. Acad. of Sciences (U.S.S.R.) 101,
47 (1945). (Doklady Akademii Nauk
SSSR) English:
16. ^ N. G. Basov and A. M. Prokhorov,
J. Exptl, Theoret. Phys. U.S.S.R., 27,
431 (1954) English:
17. ^ N. G. Basov and A. M.
Prokhorov, J. Exptl, Theoret. Phys.
U.S.S.R., 28, 249
(1955) English: Soviet Phys. JETP 1,
184 (1955). {Basov_N_G_19541101.pdf}
18. ^ "Charles Hard Townes."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 05 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/601072/Charles-Hard-Townes>.
19. ^ J. P. Gordon, H. J. Zeiger, and
C. H. Townes, "Molecular Microwave
Oscillator and New Hyperfine Structure
in the Microwave Spectrum of NH3",
Phys. Rev. 95, 282–284
(1954). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v95/i1/p282_1 {Townes_Charles_Hard_19
540505.pdf}
20. ^ J. P. Gordon, H. J. Zeiger, and
C. H. Townes, "The Maser—New Type of
Microwave Amplifier, Frequency
Standard, and Spectrometer", Phys. Rev.
99, 1264
(1955). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v99/i4/p1264_1
{Townes_Charles_Hard_19550504.pdf}
21. ^ N. G. Basov and A. M. Prokhorov,
Proc. Acad. of Sciences (U.S.S.R.) 101,
47 (1945). (Doklady Akademii Nauk
SSSR) English:
22. ^ N. G. Basov and A. M. Prokhorov,
J. Exptl, Theoret. Phys. U.S.S.R., 27,
431 (1954) English:
23. ^ N. G. Basov and A. M.
Prokhorov, J. Exptl, Theoret. Phys.
U.S.S.R., 28, 249
(1955) English: Soviet Phys. JETP 1,
184 (1955). {Basov_N_G_19541101.pdf}
24. ^ "Charles Hard Townes."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 05 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/601072/Charles-Hard-Townes>.
25. ^ J. P. Gordon, H. J. Zeiger, and
C. H. Townes, "Molecular Microwave
Oscillator and New Hyperfine Structure
in the Microwave Spectrum of NH3",
Phys. Rev. 95, 282–284
(1954). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v95/i1/p282_1 {Townes_Charles_Hard_19
540505.pdf}
26. ^ J. P. Gordon, H. J. Zeiger, and
C. H. Townes, "Molecular Microwave
Oscillator and New Hyperfine Structure
in the Microwave Spectrum of NH3",
Phys. Rev. 95, 282–284
(1954). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v95/i1/p282_1 {Townes_Charles_Hard_19
540505.pdf} {first publication:)
05/05/1954}
27. ^ "Charles Hard Townes."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 05 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/601072/Charles-Hard-Townes>.
{12/1953}

MORE INFO
[1] "Charles Hard Townes." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 04 Apr. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/charles-tow
nes
[2] K. Shimoda, T. C. Wang, and C. H.
Townes, "Further Aspects of the Theory
of the Maser", Phys. Rev. 102, 1308
(1956). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v102/i5/p1308_1
[3] "Charles H. Townes - Nobel
Lecture". Nobelprize.org. 4 Apr 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1964/townes-lecture.html {
Townes_Charles_Hard_19641211.pdf}
[4] T. S. Jaseja, A. Javan, J. Murray,
and C. H. Townes, "Test of Special
Relativity or of the Isotropy of Space
by Use of Infrared Masers", Phys. Rev.
133, A1221
(1964). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v133/i5A/pA1221_1
(Columbia University) New York City,
New York, USA25  
[1] Figures 1 and 2 from: J. P.
Gordon, H. J. Zeiger, and C. H. Townes,
''Molecular Microwave Oscillator and
New Hyperfine Structure in the
Microwave Spectrum of NH3'', Phys. Rev.
95, 282–284
(1954). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v95/i1/p282_1 {Townes_Charles_Hard_19
540505.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v95/i1/p282_1

[2] Charles Hard Townes Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/physics/laureates/1964/townes.jpg
45 YBN
[10/24/1955 AD] 3 4 		5366) The antiproton is identified.1
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ Owen Chamberlain, Emilio Segrè,
Clyde Wiegand, and Thomas Ypsilantis,
"Observation of Antiprotons", Phys.
Rev. 100, 947–950
(1955). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v100/i3/p947_1 {Segre_Emilio_19551024
.pdf}
2. ^ Owen Chamberlain, Emilio Segrè,
Clyde Wiegand, and Thomas Ypsilantis,
"Observation of Antiprotons", Phys.
Rev. 100, 947–950
(1955). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v100/i3/p947_1 {Segre_Emilio_19551024
.pdf}
3. ^ Owen Chamberlain, Emilio Segrè,
Clyde Wiegand, and Thomas Ypsilantis,
"Observation of Antiprotons", Phys.
Rev. 100, 947–950
(1955). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v100/i3/p947_1 {Segre_Emilio_19551024
.pdf} {10/24/1955}
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p803, 873-874. {1955}

MORE INFO
[1] "Emilio Segrè." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 21 Feb.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/segr-emilio
-gino
[2] E. Segrè, "Artificial
Radioactivity and the Completion of the
Periodic System of the Elements", The
Scientific monthly, (1943), volume: 57
page: 12.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/18209
[3] "technetium." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 21
Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/technetium
[4] "technetium." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 21 Feb.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/technetium
[5] "The Nobel Prize in Physics 1959".
Nobelprize.org. 21 Feb 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1959/
[6] Seidel, Robert. "Segrè, Emilio
Gino." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 24. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 407-411.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 21
Feb. 2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830906083&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[7] C. Perrier and E. Segrè, "Some
Chemical Properties of Element 43", J.
Chem. Phys. 5, 712
(1937). http://link.aip.org/link/jcpsa6
/v5/i9/p712/s1
[8] C. Perrier and E. Segrè, "Some
Chemical Properties of Element 43. II",
J. Chem. Phys. 7, 155
(1939). http://scitation.aip.org/getpdf
/servlet/GetPDFServlet?filetype=pdf&id=J
CPSA6000007000003000155000001&idtype=cvi
ps&prog=normal
[9] Corson, D. R.; MacKenzie, K. R.;
Segrè, E. "Artificially Radioactive
Element 85". Phys. Rev. 1940, 58:
672–678.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRev.58
.672
[10] O. Chamberlain, W. W. Chupp, G.
Goldhaber, E. Segrè, C. Wiegand, E.
Amaldi, G. Baroni, C. Castagnoli, C.
Franzinetti and A. Manfredini, "On the
observation of an antiproton star in
emulsion exposed at the bevatron", Il
Nuovo Cimento (1955-1965), Volume 3,
Number 2, 447-467, DOI:
10.1007/BF02745430. http://www.springer
link.com/content/74740076316k6m36/
(University of California) Berkeley,
California, USA2  
[1] Figure 1 from: Owen Chamberlain,
Emilio Segrè, Clyde Wiegand, and
Thomas Ypsilantis, ''Observation of
Antiprotons'', Phys. Rev. 100,
947–950
(1955). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v100/i3/p947_1 {Segre_Emilio_19551024
.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v100/i3/p947_1

[2] Description Segre.jpg English:
Emilio Segrè Date
1959(1959) Source
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/
physics/laureates/1959/segre-bio.html A
uthor Nobel foundation PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/41/Segre.jpg
43 YBN
[10/04/1957 AD] 6 		5486) The first human-made satellite.4

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Sputnik." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 13 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/561534/Sputnik>.
2. ^ "Sputnik." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 13 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/561534/Sputnik>.
3. ^ "Sputnik." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 13 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/561534/Sputnik>.
4. ^ "Sputnik." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 13 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/561534/Sputnik>.
5. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1957-001B
6. ^ "Sputnik." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 13 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/561534/Sputnik>. {10/04/1957}
(Baikonur Cosmodrome at Tyuratam)
Kazakhstan, U.S.S.R.5  
[1] Description Sputnik
asm.jpg English: A replica of Sputnik
1, the first artificial satellite in
the world to be put into outer space:
the replica is stored in the National
Air and Space Museum. فارسی:
مدل ماهواره
اسپوتنیک-۱، نخستین
ماهواره فضایی
جهان Suomi: Sputnik 1:n, maailman
ensimmäinen ihmisen laukaiseman Maata
kiertävän keinotekoisen satelliittin,
jäljennös. Date
2004(2004) Source
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/database
/MasterCatalog?sc=1957-001B Author
NSSDC, NASA PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/be/Sputnik_asm.jpg
42 YBN
[08/01/1958 AD] 12 		5606) The first atomic explosion in
empty space.6 7 8 9 10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.scribd.com/doc/14162962/High-
altitude-nuclear-explosions-HANE
2. ^
http://www.astronautix.com/sites/johslan
d.htm
3. ^
http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/Usa/Test
s/Hardtack1.html
4. ^ Operation Hardtack final report:
http://www.google.com/url?sa=t&source=we
b&cd=5&ved=0CC4QFjAE&url=http%3A%2F%2Fww
w.hss.energy.gov%2FHealthSafety%2FIHS%2F
marshall%2Fcollection%2Fdata%2Fihp2a%2F1
028_a.pdf&rct=j&q=hardtack%20yucca%20apr
il%201958%20site%3Agov%20first&ei=00GUTf
S6GJH6sAP4_Mi3BQ&usg=AFQjCNGK3bPUO2I9Vq0
85Kvryl8BnQKxBA&cad=rja
5. ^ Video of Hardtack Teak explosion:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PBxpHNCDf
ZQ
6. ^
http://www.scribd.com/doc/14162962/High-
altitude-nuclear-explosions-HANE
7. ^
http://www.astronautix.com/sites/johslan
d.htm
8. ^
http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/Usa/Test
s/Hardtack1.html
9. ^ Operation Hardtack final report:
http://www.google.com/url?sa=t&source=we
b&cd=5&ved=0CC4QFjAE&url=http%3A%2F%2Fww
w.hss.energy.gov%2FHealthSafety%2FIHS%2F
marshall%2Fcollection%2Fdata%2Fihp2a%2F1
028_a.pdf&rct=j&q=hardtack%20yucca%20apr
il%201958%20site%3Agov%20first&ei=00GUTf
S6GJH6sAP4_Mi3BQ&usg=AFQjCNGK3bPUO2I9Vq0
85Kvryl8BnQKxBA&cad=rja
10. ^ Video of Hardtack Teak explosion:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PBxpHNCDf
ZQ
11. ^
http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/Usa/Test
s/Hardtack1.html
12. ^
http://www.scribd.com/doc/14162962/High-
altitude-nuclear-explosions-HANE
{08/01/1958}

MORE INFO
[1] "Hardtack Teak". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hardtack_Te
ak
(Johnson Island) Pacific Ocean11  
[1] Hardtack Teak test PD
source: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=P
BxpHNCDfZQ
42 YBN
[1958 AD] 4 		6550) The integrated circuit (or IC).2

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "integrated circuit (IC)".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2013. Web. 26 Jan.
2013 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/289645/integrated-circuit-IC>.
2. ^ "integrated circuit (IC)".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2013. Web. 26 Jan.
2013 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/289645/integrated-circuit-IC>.
3. ^ "integrated circuit (IC)".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2013. Web. 26 Jan.
2013 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/289645/integrated-circuit-IC>.
4. ^ "integrated circuit (IC)".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2013. Web. 26 Jan.
2013 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/289645/integrated-circuit-IC>.
(Texas Instruments and Fairchild
Semiconductor)3  
[1] First Integrated Circuit - Jack
Kilby invented the integrated circuit
at Texas Instruments in 1958. Comprised
of only a transistor and other
components on a slice of germanium,
Kilby's invention, 7/16-by-1/16-inches
in size, revolutionized the electronics
industry. The roots of almost every
electronic device we take for granted
today can be traced back to Dallas more
than 40 years ago.
source: http://www.ti.com/corp/graphics/
press/image/print/co1034.tif
41 YBN
[09/14/1959 AD] 6 		5597) A ship impacts the moon.4
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/masterCat
alog.do?sc=1959-014A
2. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/masterCat
alog.do?sc=1959-014A
3. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/masterCat
alog.do?sc=1959-014A
4. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/masterCat
alog.do?sc=1959-014A
5. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/masterCat
alog.do?sc=1959-014A
6. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/masterCat
alog.do?sc=1959-014A {09/14/1959}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/masterCat
alog.do?sc=1959-012A
[2]
http://www.wired.com/science/discoveries
/news/2008/10/dayintech_1007#
[3]
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/lun
ar/lunarussr.html
(Baikonur Cosmodrome) Tyuratam,
Kazakhstan, U.S.S.R.5  
[1] Luna 2 PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/plane
tary/image/luna_2.jpg

[2] Luna 1 PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image
/spacecraft/luna1_vsm.jpg
41 YBN
[11/05/1959 AD] 4 		191) A device inside the body is
controlled remotely;. An artificial
heart pacemaker is remotely controlled
with radio.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Glenn WWL, Mauro A, Longo E,
Lavietes PH, MacKay FJ The
Radiofrequency Cardiac Pacemaker.
Remote stimulation of the heart by
radiofrequency transmission. Clinical
application to a patient with
Stoke-Adams Syndrome. New Engl J Med
1959:262;948-951 http://www.nejm.org/do
i/pdf/10.1056/NEJM195911052611905
2. ^ Glenn WWL, Mauro A, Longo E,
Lavietes PH, MacKay FJ The
Radiofrequency Cardiac Pacemaker.
Remote stimulation of the heart by
radiofrequency transmission. Clinical
application to a patient with
Stoke-Adams Syndrome. New Engl J Med
1959:262;948-951 http://www.nejm.org/do
i/pdf/10.1056/NEJM195911052611905
3. ^ Glenn WWL, Mauro A, Longo E,
Lavietes PH, MacKay FJ The
Radiofrequency Cardiac Pacemaker.
Remote stimulation of the heart by
radiofrequency transmission. Clinical
application to a patient with
Stoke-Adams Syndrome. New Engl J Med
1959:262;948-951 http://www.nejm.org/do
i/pdf/10.1056/NEJM195911052611905
4. ^ Glenn WWL, Mauro A, Longo E,
Lavietes PH, MacKay FJ The
Radiofrequency Cardiac Pacemaker.
Remote stimulation of the heart by
radiofrequency transmission. Clinical
application to a patient with
Stoke-Adams Syndrome. New Engl J Med
1959:262;948-951 http://www.nejm.org/do
i/pdf/10.1056/NEJM195911052611905
(Yale University School of Medicine)
New Haven, New Jersey, USA3  
[1] Figure 3 from: Glenn WWL, Mauro A,
Longo E, Lavietes PH, MacKay FJ The
Radiofrequency Cardiac Pacemaker.
Remote stimulation of the heart by
radiofrequency transmission. Clinical
application to a patient with
Stoke-Adams Syndrome. New Engl J Med
1959:262;948-951 http://www.nejm.org/do
i/pdf/10.1056/NEJM195911052611905 COPYR
IGHTED
source: http://www.nejm.org/doi/pdf/10.1
056/NEJM195911052611905

[2] Figure 1 from: Glenn WWL, Mauro
A, Longo E, Lavietes PH, MacKay FJ The
Radiofrequency Cardiac Pacemaker.
Remote stimulation of the heart by
radiofrequency transmission. Clinical
application to a patient with
Stoke-Adams Syndrome. New Engl J Med
1959:262;948-951 http://www.nejm.org/do
i/pdf/10.1056/NEJM195911052611905 COPYR
IGHTED
source: http://www.nejm.org/doi/pdf/10.1
056/NEJM195911052611905
40 YBN
[03/09/1960 AD] 5 		5774) Photons are proven to have mass.
Gravity is shown to change the speed
and frequency of light.1 2 3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ T. E. Cranshaw, J. P. Schiffer,
and A. B. Whitehead, "Measurement of
the Gravitational Red Shift Using the
M�ssbauer Effect in Fe57", Phys.
Rev. Lett. 4, 163-164
(1960). http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL
/v4/i4/p163_1 {Whitehead_A_B_19600127.p
df}
2. ^ H. J. Hay, J. P. Schiffer*, T. E.
Cranshaw, and P. A. Egelstaff,
"Measurement of the Red Shift in an
Accelerated System Using the
M�ssbauer Effect in Fe57", Phys.
Rev. Lett. 4, 165-166 (1960)
http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v4/i4/
p165_1 {Whitehead_A_B_2_19600127.pdf}
3. ^ R. V. Pound and G. A. Rebka, Jr.,
"Apparent Weight of Photons", Phys.
Rev. Letters, 4 (1960)
337. http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v4
/i7/p337_1 {Rebka_Glen_Anderson_jr_1960
0309.pdf}
4. ^ R. V. Pound and G. A. Rebka, Jr.,
"Apparent Weight of Photons", Phys.
Rev. Letters, 4 (1960)
337. http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v4
/i7/p337_1 {Rebka_Glen_Anderson_jr_1960
0309.pdf}
5. ^ R. V. Pound and G. A. Rebka, Jr.,
"Apparent Weight of Photons", Phys.
Rev. Letters, 4 (1960)
337. http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v4
/i7/p337_1 {Rebka_Glen_Anderson_jr_1960
0309.pdf} {03/09/1960}

MORE INFO
[1] Rudolf L. Mössbauer,
"Kernresonanzfluoreszenz von
Gammastrahlung in Ir191", Zeitschrift
für Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei,
Volume 151, Number 2,
124-143 http://www.springerlink.com/con
tent/p4335870w53k7834/
English: "Nuclear resonance
fluorescence of gamma radiation in
Ir191"
[2] P B Moon, "Resonant Nuclear
Scattering of Gamma-Rays: Theory and
Preliminary Experiments", Proceedings
of the Physical Society. Section A
Volume 64 Number 1,
p76. http://iopscience.iop.org/0370-129
8/64/1/311
[3] JASCHA HOFFMAN, "Robert Pound,
Physicist Whose Work Advanced Medicine,
Is Dead at 90", NY TImes, April 19,
2010. http://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/20
/us/20pound.html?adxnnl=1&adxnnlx=130491
7624-dPEMK8cOyCU8ikOVg6k5pA
(Harvard University) Cambridge,
Massachusetts, USA4  
[1] [t Note that this is from Hay, et
al, and not from Pound and
Rebka] Figure 1 from: H. J. Hay, J.
P. Schiffer*, T. E. Cranshaw, and P. A.
Egelstaff, ''Measurement of the Red
Shift in an Accelerated System Using
the Mössbauer Effect in Fe57'', Phys.
Rev. Lett. 4, 165–166 (1960)
http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v4/i4/
p165_1 {Whitehead_A_B_2_19600127.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/
v4/i4/p165_1

[2] Catalog #: Rebka Glen C1 Rebka,
Glen A. Jr.; Pound, Robert
Vivian Date: circa 1965 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://photos.aip.org/history/Th
umbnails/rebka_glen_c1.jpg
40 YBN
[04/22/1960 AD] 8 		5768) The LASER ("light amplification
by stimulated emission of radiation").5
6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ T. H. Maiman, "Optical and
Microwave-Optical Experiments in Ruby",
Phys. Rev. Lett. 4, 564–566 (1960)
http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v4/i11
/p564_1 {Maiman_Theodore_Harold_1960042
2.pdf}
2. ^ Theodore H. Mainman, "Ruby Laser
Systems", Patent number: 3353115,
Filing date: Apr 13, 1961, Issue date:
Nov 14,
1967 http://www.google.com/patents?id=b
-lUAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&sou
rce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=f
alse
{Maimon_Theodore_Harold_19610413.pdf}
3. ^ T. H. Maiman, "Optical and
Microwave-Optical Experiments in Ruby",
Phys. Rev. Lett. 4, 564–566 (1960)
http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v4/i11
/p564_1 {Maiman_Theodore_Harold_1960042
2.pdf}
4. ^ Theodore H. Mainman, "Ruby Laser
Systems", Patent number: 3353115,
Filing date: Apr 13, 1961, Issue date:
Nov 14,
1967 http://www.google.com/patents?id=b
-lUAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&sou
rce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=f
alse
{Maimon_Theodore_Harold_19610413.pdf}
5. ^ T. H. Maiman, "Optical and
Microwave-Optical Experiments in Ruby",
Phys. Rev. Lett. 4, 564–566 (1960)
http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v4/i11
/p564_1 {Maiman_Theodore_Harold_1960042
2.pdf}
6. ^ Theodore H. Mainman, "Ruby Laser
Systems", Patent number: 3353115,
Filing date: Apr 13, 1961, Issue date:
Nov 14,
1967 http://www.google.com/patents?id=b
-lUAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&sou
rce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=f
alse
{Maimon_Theodore_Harold_19610413.pdf}
7. ^ T. H. Maiman, "Optical and
Microwave-Optical Experiments in Ruby",
Phys. Rev. Lett. 4, 564–566 (1960)
http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v4/i11
/p564_1 {Maiman_Theodore_Harold_1960042
2.pdf}
8. ^ T. H. Maiman, "Optical and
Microwave-Optical Experiments in Ruby",
Phys. Rev. Lett. 4, 564–566 (1960)
http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v4/i11
/p564_1 {Maiman_Theodore_Harold_1960042
2.pdf} {04/22/1960}

MORE INFO
[1] Douglas Martin (May 11,
2007). "Theodore Maiman, who built the
first laser, dies at 79". The New York
Times.
http://www.nytimes.com/2007/05/13/world/
americas/13iht-obits.1.5685872.html
[2] T. H. MAIMAN, "Stimulated Optical
Radiation in Ruby", Nature 187, 493 -
494 (06 August 1960);
doi:10.1038/187493a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v187/n4736/abs/187493
a0.html
[3] T. H. Maiman, "Stimulated Optical
Emission in Fluorescent Solids. I.
Theoretical Considerations", Phys. Rev.
123, 1145–1150 (1961)
http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v123/
i4/p1145_1
[4] T. H. Maiman, R. H. Hoskins, I. J.
D'Haenens, C. K. Asawa, and V. Evtuhov,
"Stimulated Optical Emission in
Fluorescent Solids. II. Spectroscopy
and Stimulated Emission in Ruby", Phys.
Rev. 123, 1151–1157 (1961)
http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v123/
i4/p1151_1
[5] "List of laser types". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_las
er_types
(Hughes Research Laboratories) Malibu,
California7  
[1] Figure 1 from: Theodore H.
Mainman, ''Ruby Laser Systems'', Patent
number: 3353115, Filing date: Apr 13,
1961, Issue date: Nov 14,
1967 http://www.google.com/patents?id=b
-lUAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&sou
rce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=f
alse
{Maimon_Theodore_Harold_19610413.pdf}
PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=b-lUAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f
=false

[2] Description Ted Maiman Holding
First Laser.jpg English: Theodore
Maiman holding his invention of the
world's first laser (invented May 16,
1960) Date 16 May
1983(1983-05-16) Source
Template:TRW Author
Kathleenfmaiman Permission (Reusi
ng this file) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/df/Ted_Maiman_Holding_Fi
rst_Laser.jpg
40 YBN
[12/28/1960 AD] 6 		5705) Messenger RNA and the system that
regulates protein synthesis in the cell
(regulatory genes called "operons") are
identified.1 2 3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Jacob, F., Perrin, D., Sanchéz,
C. & Monod, J. L'opéron: groupe de
gènes à expression coordonnée par un
opérateur. C. R. Acad. Sci. Paris 250,
1727–1729 (1960)
2. ^ Jacob, F. & Monod, J.
Genetic regulatory mechanisms in the
synthesis of proteins. J. Mol. Biol. 3,
318–356 (1961)
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_
ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6WK7-4Y39HH7-B&_user
=4422&_coverDate=06%2F30%2F1961&_alid=17
23143833&_rdoc=1&_fmt=high&_orig=search&
_origin=search&_zone=rslt_list_item&_cdi
=6899&_sort=r&_st=13&_docanchor=&view=c&
_ct=5&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlVe
rsion=0&_userid=4422&md5=c2699b72c7c5bee
4e2c31224c6261556&searchtype=a {Jacob_F
rancois_19601228.pdf}
3. ^ "François Jacob." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 18 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/298935/Francois-Jacob>.
4. ^ "operon." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 11 Jan. 2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/429974/operon>.
5. ^ Jacob, F. & Monod, J. Genetic
regulatory mechanisms in the synthesis
of proteins. J. Mol. Biol. 3, 318–356
(1961)
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_
ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6WK7-4Y39HH7-B&_user
=4422&_coverDate=06%2F30%2F1961&_alid=17
23143833&_rdoc=1&_fmt=high&_orig=search&
_origin=search&_zone=rslt_list_item&_cdi
=6899&_sort=r&_st=13&_docanchor=&view=c&
_ct=5&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlVe
rsion=0&_userid=4422&md5=c2699b72c7c5bee
4e2c31224c6261556&searchtype=a {Jacob_F
rancois_19601228.pdf}
6. ^ Jacob, F. & Monod, J. Genetic
regulatory mechanisms in the synthesis
of proteins. J. Mol. Biol. 3, 318–356
(1961)
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_
ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6WK7-4Y39HH7-B&_user
=4422&_coverDate=06%2F30%2F1961&_alid=17
23143833&_rdoc=1&_fmt=high&_orig=search&
_origin=search&_zone=rslt_list_item&_cdi
=6899&_sort=r&_st=13&_docanchor=&view=c&
_ct=5&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlVe
rsion=0&_userid=4422&md5=c2699b72c7c5bee
4e2c31224c6261556&searchtype=a {Jacob_F
rancois_19601228.pdf} {12/28/1960
(verify - could be earlier in French
paper}
(Pasteur Institute) Paris, France5
 
[1] François Jacob, b. 1920 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.pasteurfoundation.org
/images/Jacob.jpg

[2] Jacques Monod, b. 1910 d.
1976 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.pasteurfoundation.org
/images/Monod.jpg
39 YBN
[04/12/1961 AD] 6 		5601) The first human to orbit the
Earth.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1961-012A
2. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1961-012A
3. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1961-012A
4. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1961-012A
5. ^ "Google Maps - Vostok 1 Landing
Site - Monument".
http://maps.google.com/maps?f=q&source=s
_q&hl=en&geocode=&q=51.270682+N,+45.9972
7+E&sll=51.270689,45.997599&sspn=0.00329
6,0.00868&ie=UTF8&ll=51.270716,45.997385
&spn=0.003296,0.00868&t=k&z=17.
6. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1961-012A {04/12/1961}

MORE INFO
[1] "Yury Alekseyevich Gagarin."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 30 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/223437/Yury-Alekseyevich-Gagarin>
[2] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p895-896
Saratovskaya oblast, U.S.S.R.5  
[1] The Vostok 1 capsule as recovered
after landing. Currently on display at
the RKK Energiya museum in Korolyov CC

source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/7/70/Vostok_1_after_landing.jpg


[2] Description Yuri Gagarin in
Vostok 1 Source Mission
photography Portion used
Sufficient to show the face of
Gagarin in his spacesuit within the
capsule Low resolution?
yes COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/b/b1/Vostok1.jpg
39 YBN
[12/30/1961 AD] 3 		5663) That DNA nucleotides code for
amino acids in proteins is understood.1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ F. H. C. CRICK, LESLIE BARNETT,
S. BRENNER & R. J. WATTS-TOBIN,
"General Nature of the Genetic Code for
Proteins", Nature 192, 1227 - 1232 (30
December 1961);
doi:10.1038/1921227a0 http://www.nature
.com/nature/journal/v192/n4809/abs/19212
27a0.html
{Crick_Francis_Harry_Compton_19611230.
pdf}
2. ^ F. H. C. CRICK, LESLIE BARNETT, S.
BRENNER & R. J. WATTS-TOBIN, "General
Nature of the Genetic Code for
Proteins", Nature 192, 1227 - 1232 (30
December 1961);
doi:10.1038/1921227a0 http://www.nature
.com/nature/journal/v192/n4809/abs/19212
27a0.html
{Crick_Francis_Harry_Compton_19611230.
pdf}
3. ^ F. H. C. CRICK, LESLIE BARNETT, S.
BRENNER & R. J. WATTS-TOBIN, "General
Nature of the Genetic Code for
Proteins", Nature 192, 1227 - 1232 (30
December 1961);
doi:10.1038/1921227a0 http://www.nature
.com/nature/journal/v192/n4809/abs/19212
27a0.html
{Crick_Francis_Harry_Compton_19611230.
pdf} {12/30/1961}

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982),
p859-861,863,874,886-887
(Cavendish Lab University of Cambridge)
Cambridge, England2  
[1] Figure 1 from: F. H. C. CRICK,
LESLIE BARNETT, S. BRENNER & R. J.
WATTS-TOBIN, ''General Nature of the
Genetic Code for Proteins'', Nature
192, 1227 - 1232 (30 December 1961);
doi:10.1038/1921227a0 http://www.nature
.com/nature/journal/v192/n4809/abs/19212
27a0.html
{Crick_Francis_Harry_Compton_19611230.
pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v192/n4809/abs/1921227a0.html

[2] Francis Harry Compton Crick
UNKNOWN
source: http://scientistshowtell.wikispa
ces.com/file/view/FrancisHarryComptonCri
ck2.jpg/39149552/FrancisHarryComptonCric
k2.jpg
38 YBN
[10/26/1962 AD] 5 		6201) Laser writing and reading of
data.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Wayne R. Johnson, "High Speed,
High Density, Optical Recording
System", Patent number: 3154370 Filing
date: Oct 26, 1962, Issue date: Oct 27,
1964 http://www.google.com/patents?id=H
9x0AAAAEBAJ
2. ^ Wayne R. Johnson, "High Speed,
High Density, Optical Recording
System", Patent number: 3154370 Filing
date: Oct 26, 1962, Issue date: Oct 27,
1964 http://www.google.com/patents?id=H
9x0AAAAEBAJ
3. ^ Wayne R. Johnson, "High Speed,
High Density, Optical Recording
System", Patent number: 3154370 Filing
date: Oct 26, 1962, Issue date: Oct 27,
1964 http://www.google.com/patents?id=H
9x0AAAAEBAJ
4. ^ Wayne R. Johnson, "High Speed,
High Density, Optical Recording
System", Patent number: 3154370 Filing
date: Oct 26, 1962, Issue date: Oct 27,
1964 http://www.google.com/patents?id=H
9x0AAAAEBAJ
5. ^ Wayne R. Johnson, "High Speed,
High Density, Optical Recording
System", Patent number: 3154370 Filing
date: Oct 26, 1962, Issue date: Oct 27,
1964 http://www.google.com/patents?id=H
9x0AAAAEBAJ {10/26/1962}

MORE INFO
[1] Carl H. Becker, "LASER
RECORDER WITH VAPORIZABLE FILM", Patent
number: 3314073, Filing date: Oct 20,
1964, Issue date: Apr 11,
1967. http://www.google.com/patents?hl=
en&lr=&vid=USPAT3314073
[2] Joseph T. Mcnaney, "SYSTEM FOR
EFFECTING TRANSFER OF CATHODE RAY TUBE
DISPLAYS ONTO A RECORD MEDIUM", Patent
number: 2898176, Filing date: Aug 26,
1957, Issue date: Aug 4,
1959 http://www.google.com/patents?id=6
DsCAAAAEBAJ
[3] David Paul Gregg, "TRANSPARENT
RECORDING DISC", Patent number:
3430966, Filing date: Apr 3, 1967,
Issue date: Mar 4,
1969. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
H6JnAAAAEBAJ
[4] Jan van der Veen et al, "Optical
recording medium and method of
optically recording information
thereon", Patent number: 4298975,
Filing date: Mar 19, 1979, Issue date:
Nov 3,
1981 http://www.google.com/patents?hl=e
n&lr=&vid=USPAT4298975&id=IRcCAAAAEBAJ&o
i=fnd&dq=laser+recording+philips&printse
c=abstract#v=onepage&q=laser%20recording
%20philips&f=false
[5] Charles M. Goldstein, "Optical Disk
Technology and Information",
Science, New Series, Vol. 215, No.
4534 (Feb. 12, 1982), pp.
862-868. Published by: American
Association for the Advancement of
Science Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/1687481
(Winston Research Corporation) Los
Angeles, California, USA4  
[1] From: Wayne R. Johnson, ''High
Speed, High Density, Optical Recording
System'', Patent number:
3154370 Filing date: Oct 26, 1962,
Issue date: Oct 27,
1964 http://www.google.com/patents?id=H
9x0AAAAEBAJ
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=H9x0AAAAEBAJ
36 YBN
[1964 AD] 4 		3980) The liquid crystal display
(LCD).1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ George H. Heilmeier, "Liquid
crystal displays: An experiment in
interdisciplinary research that
worked", vol 23, Num 7, July
1976. http://ucelinks.cdlib.org:8888/sf
x_local?sid=google&auinit=GH&aulast=Heil
meier&atitle=Liquid+crystal+displays:+An
+experiment+in+interdisciplinary+researc
h+that+worked&title=IEEE+transactions+on
+electron+devices&volume=23&issue=7&date
=1976&spage=780&issn=0018-9383 {Heilmei
er_George_LCD_1976.pdf}
2. ^ George H. Heilmeier, "Liquid
crystal displays: An experiment in
interdisciplinary research that
worked", vol 23, Num 7, July
1976. http://ucelinks.cdlib.org:8888/sf
x_local?sid=google&auinit=GH&aulast=Heil
meier&atitle=Liquid+crystal+displays:+An
+experiment+in+interdisciplinary+researc
h+that+worked&title=IEEE+transactions+on
+electron+devices&volume=23&issue=7&date
=1976&spage=780&issn=0018-9383 {Heilmei
er_George_LCD_1976.pdf}
3. ^
http://www.ieeeghn.org/wiki/index.php/RC
A_Laboratories_at_Princeton,_New_Jersey
4. ^ George H. Heilmeier, "Liquid
crystal displays: An experiment in
interdisciplinary research that
worked", vol 23, Num 7, July
1976. http://ucelinks.cdlib.org:8888/sf
x_local?sid=google&auinit=GH&aulast=Heil
meier&atitle=Liquid+crystal+displays:+An
+experiment+in+interdisciplinary+researc
h+that+worked&title=IEEE+transactions+on
+electron+devices&volume=23&issue=7&date
=1976&spage=780&issn=0018-9383 {Heilmei
er_George_LCD_1976.pdf} {1964}
RCA Labs2 , Princeton, New Jersey, USA3
 
[1] George Heilmeier with
LCD 1967 COPYRIGHTED FAIR USE
source: http://www.wired.com/images_blog
s/gadgetlab/2009/05/heilmeier_with-lcd1.
jpg and H Kawamoto, "The history
of liquid-crystal displays",
Proceedings of the IEEE [0018-9219]
Kawamoto (2002) volume: 90 issue: 4
page: 460. and George H.
Heilmeier, "Liquid crystal displays: An
experiment in interdisciplinary
research that worked", vol 23, Num 7,
July
1976. http://ucelinks.cdlib.org:8888/sf
x_local?sid=google&auinit=GH&aulast=Heil
meier&atitle=Liquid+crystal+displays:+An
+experiment+in+interdisciplinary+researc
h+that+worked&title=IEEE+transactions+on
+electron+devices&volume=23&issue=7&date
=1976&spage=780&issn=0018-9383

[2] George Heilmeier COPYRIGHTED ON
INTERNET
source: http://www.invent.org/2009induct
ion/images/George_Heilmeier.jpg
35 YBN
[07/14/1965 AD] 4 		5615) The first ship to reach Mars and
to return images of the surface.2
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1964-077A
2. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1964-077A
3. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1964-077A
4. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1964-077A {07/14/1965}
Planet Mars3  
[1] Mariner 4 image 8E
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/plane
tary/image/mariner4_8e.gif
34 YBN
[03/01/1966 AD] 5 		5613) The first ship to impact a
different planet, Venus.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/masterCat
alog.do?sc=1965-092A
2. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/masterCat
alog.do?sc=1965-092A
3. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/masterCat
alog.do?sc=1965-092A
4. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/masterCat
alog.do?sc=1965-092A
5. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/masterCat
alog.do?sc=1965-092A {03/01/1966}
Planet Venus4  
[1] Venera 3 PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/plane
tary/image/venera_3.jpg
34 YBN
[04/04/1966 AD] 3 		5599) The first ship to orbit a body
beyond the Earth; the Moon.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/masterCat
alog.do?sc=1966-027A
2. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/masterCat
alog.do?sc=1966-027A
3. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/masterCat
alog.do?sc=1966-027A {04/04/1966}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/masterCat
alog.do?sc=1959-012A
[2]
http://www.wired.com/science/discoveries
/news/2008/10/dayintech_1007#
[3]
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/lun
ar/lunarussr.html
[4]
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/masterCat
alog.do?sc=1959-014A
[5]
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1959-008A
(Baikonur Cosmodrome) Tyuratam,
Kazakhstan, U.S.S.R.2  
[1] Luna 10 PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image
/spacecraft/luna10.jpg

[2] First image of the far side of the
Moon Earth's Moon The Luna 3
spacecraft returned the first views
ever of the far side of the Moon. The
first image was taken at 03:30 UT on 7
October at a distance of 63,500 km
after Luna 3 had passed the Moon and
looked back at the sunlit far side. The
last image was taken 40 minutes later
from 66,700 km. A total of 29
photographs were taken, covering 70% of
the far side. The photographs were very
noisy and of low resolution, but many
features could be recognized. This is
the first image returned by Luna 3,
taken by the wide-angle lens, it showed
the far side of the Moon was very
different from the near side, most
noticeably in its lack of lunar maria
(the dark areas). The right
three-quarters of the disk are the far
side. The dark spot at upper right is
Mare Moscoviense, the dark area at
lower left is Mare Smythii. The small
dark circle at lower right with the
white dot in the center is the crater
Tsiolkovskiy and its central peak. The
Moon is 3475 km in diameter and north
is up in this image. (Luna 3-1) PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/imgca
t/hires/lu3_1.gif
32 YBN
[02/09/1968 AD] 5 		5739) Pulsars, stars that emit
regularly timed bursts of radio light,
are identified.1 2 3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ A. HEWISH, S. J. BELL, J. D. H.
PILKINGTON, P. F. SCOTT, R. A. COLLINS,
"Observation of a Rapidly Pulsating
Radio Source", Nature 217, 709-713 (24
February 1968)
doi:10.1038/217709a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v217/n5130/abs/217709
a0.html {Hewish_Antony_19680209.pdf}
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.880-881.
3. ^ "Antony Hewish."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 30 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/264514/Antony-Hewish>.
4. ^ A. HEWISH, S. J. BELL, J. D. H.
PILKINGTON, P. F. SCOTT, R. A. COLLINS,
"Observation of a Rapidly Pulsating
Radio Source", Nature 217, 709-713 (24
February 1968)
doi:10.1038/217709a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v217/n5130/abs/217709
a0.html {Hewish_Antony_19680209.pdf}
5. ^ A. HEWISH, S. J. BELL, J. D. H.
PILKINGTON, P. F. SCOTT, R. A. COLLINS,
"Observation of a Rapidly Pulsating
Radio Source", Nature 217, 709-713 (24
February 1968)
doi:10.1038/217709a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v217/n5130/abs/217709
a0.html {Hewish_Antony_19680209.pdf}
{02/09/1968}

MORE INFO
[1] "Pulsar". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulsar
(Cavendish Laboratory, University of
Cambridge) Cambridge, England4  
[1] Figure 1 from: A. HEWISH, S. J.
BELL, J. D. H. PILKINGTON, P. F. SCOTT,
R. A. COLLINS, ''Observation of a
Rapidly Pulsating Radio Source'',
Nature 217, 709-713 (24 February 1968)
doi:10.1038/217709a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v217/n5130/abs/217709
a0.html {Hewish_Antony_19680209.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v217/n5130/abs/217709a0.html

[2] Antony Hewish Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/physics/laureates/1974/hewish.jpg
31 YBN
[07/21/1969 AD] 6 		655) Humans land and walk on the
surface of the moon of Earth.4
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1969-059C
2. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1969-059C
3. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1969-059C
4. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1969-059C
5. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1969-059C
6. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1969-059C {07/21/1969}
{Armstrong walks on Moon on:)
07/21/1969}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RMINSD7Mm
T4
Moon of Earth5  
[1] ''That's one small step for man,
one giant leap for mankind.'' At 10:56
p.m. EDT on July 20, 1969, Neil
Armstrong became the first human to set
foot on the Moon. This image was taken
from the telecast of the event, watched
by over half a billion people around
the world. Armstrong composed the quote
after landing on the Moon, he had meant
to say, ''That's one small step for
aman ...''. The pictures were taken by
the Apollo lunar surface camera,
mounted on one of the LM legs. The
black bar running through the center of
the picture is an anomaly in the
Goldstone ground data system. (NASA
photo ID S69-42583) PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/plane
tary/lunar/images/a11tvarm.jpg

[2] Here Aldrin is unloading the
passive seismometer of the Early Apollo
Scientific Experiments Package (EASEP)
from the lunar module equipment bay.
The white apparatus in the foreground
is the 35 mm stereo close-up camera.
Beyond the right leg is the solar wind
experiment, and beyond that the lunar
surface TV camera. The LM legs are
wrapped in foil to provide thermal
insulation. There is a split rock in
the lower right of the frame which is
presumably ejecta from a nearby impact
crater. (NASA photo ID
AS11-40-5931) PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/plane
tary/lunar/images/as11_40_5931.jpg
31 YBN
[09/15/1969 AD] 7 		5753) A DNA molecule is broken with an
enzyme.1 2 3 4 5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Smith, H. 0. & Wilcox, K. W.
(1969). Fed.Proc. 28, 465.
2. ^ Hamilton O.
Smith, K. W. Welcox, A Restriction
enzyme from Hemophilus influenzae : I.
Purification and general properties,
Journal of Molecular Biology, Volume
51, Issue 2, 28 July 1970, Pages
379-391, ISSN 0022-2836, DOI:
10.1016/0022-2836(70)90149-X. (http://w
ww.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6W
K7-4DM0XG8-4B/2/8311e74ce9394a10f0307ba6
aac6f0d1) {Smith_Hamilton_O_19690915.pd
f}
3. ^ Thomas J. Kelly Jr., Hamilton O.
Smith, A restriction enzyme from
Hemophilus influenzae : II. Base
sequence of the recognition site,
Journal of Molecular Biology, Volume
51, Issue 2, 28 July 1970, Pages
393-409, ISSN 0022-2836, DOI:
10.1016/0022-2836(70)90150-6. (http://w
ww.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6W
K7-4DM0XG8-4C/2/e72b69d6b9adac3ce561df0c
581747e3) {Smith_Hamilton_O_19700218.pd
f}
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.887,893.
5. ^ "Hamilton
Othanel Smith." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 05 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/549744/Hamilton-Othanel-Smith>.
6. ^ Hamilton O. Smith, K. W. Welcox, A
Restriction enzyme from Hemophilus
influenzae : I. Purification and
general properties, Journal of
Molecular Biology, Volume 51, Issue 2,
28 July 1970, Pages 379-391, ISSN
0022-2836, DOI:
10.1016/0022-2836(70)90149-X. (http://w
ww.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6W
K7-4DM0XG8-4B/2/8311e74ce9394a10f0307ba6
aac6f0d1) {Smith_Hamilton_O_19690915.pd
f}
7. ^ Hamilton O. Smith, K. W. Welcox, A
Restriction enzyme from Hemophilus
influenzae : I. Purification and
general properties, Journal of
Molecular Biology, Volume 51, Issue 2,
28 July 1970, Pages 379-391, ISSN
0022-2836, DOI:
10.1016/0022-2836(70)90149-X. (http://w
ww.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6W
K7-4DM0XG8-4B/2/8311e74ce9394a10f0307ba6
aac6f0d1) {Smith_Hamilton_O_19690915.pd
f} {09/15/1969}

MORE INFO
[1] W Arber, and S Linn, "DNA
Modification and Restriction", Annual
Review of Biochemistry, Vol. 38:
467-500 (Volume publication date July
1969), DOI:
10.1146/annurev.bi.38.070169.002343 htt
p://www.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10.114
6/annurev.bi.38.070169.002343
[2] Werner Arber, "Host-controlled
modification of bacteriophage", Annual
review of microbiology, (1965) volume:
19 issue: 1 page:
365. http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/a
bs/10.1146/annurev.mi.19.100165.002053
[3] Matthew Meselson and Robert Yuan,
"DNA restriction enzyme from E. coli",
Nature, (1968) volume: 217 issue:
5134 page:
1110. http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v217/n5134/abs/2171110a0.html
(Johns Hopkins University, School of
Medicine) Baltimore, Maryland, USA6
 
[1] Hamilton O. Smith, K. W. Welcox, A
Restriction enzyme from Hemophilus
influenzae : I. Purification and
general properties, Journal of
Molecular Biology, Volume 51, Issue 2,
28 July 1970, Pages 379-391, ISSN
0022-2836, DOI:
10.1016/0022-2836(70)90149-X. (http://w
ww.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6W
K7-4DM0XG8-4B/2/8311e74ce9394a10f0307ba6
aac6f0d1) {Smith_Hamilton_O_19690915.pd
f} COPYRIGHTED
source: (http://www.sciencedirect.com/sc
ience/article/B6WK7-4DM0XG8-4B/2/8311e74
ce9394a10f0307ba6aac6f0d1)

[2] Hamilton O. Smith Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/medicine/laureates/1978/smith_
postcard.jpg
31 YBN
[1969 AD] 6 		5851) The Internet (people use
computers to communicate over the
telephone wire network).3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "ARPAnet." Computer Desktop
Encyclopedia. Computer Language Company
Inc., 2011. Answers.com 30 May. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/arpanet
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ "ARPAnet." Computer
Desktop Encyclopedia. Computer Language
Company Inc., 2011. Answers.com 30 May.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/arpanet
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "Internet." Britannica
Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia
Britannica, Inc., 1994-2010.
Answers.com 30 May. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/internet
6. ^ "ARPAnet." Computer Desktop
Encyclopedia. Computer Language Company
Inc., 2011. Answers.com 30 May. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/arpanet
{1969}
(University of California at Los
Angeles) Los Angeles, California,
USA|(Stanford Research Institute)
Stanford, California, USA|(University
of California Santa Barbara) Santa
Barbara, California, USA|(University of
Utah) Salt Lake City, Utah, USA5  
[1] Map of ARPANET nodes (1970).
UNKNOWN
source: http://cla.calpoly.edu/~lcall/20
4/8-10/ARPANET-map.jpg

[2] Diagram of the first 2 nodes on
the ARPANET
source: http://www.computerhistory.org/i
nternet_history/full_size_images/1969_2-
node_map.gif
30 YBN
[01/29/1970 AD] 8 		5836) The digital electronic camera.4 5
6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ W. S. Boyle and G. E. Smith
(April 1970). "Charge Coupled
Semiconductor Devices". Bell System
Technical Journal 49 (4): 587–593.
http://www.alcatel-lucent.com/bstj/vol
49-1970/articles/bstj49-4-587.pdf {Smit
h_George_E_19700129.pdf}
2. ^ G. F. Amelio, M. F. Tompsett, and
G. E. Smith, "Experimental Verification
of the Charge Coupled Device Concept",
Bell Sys. Tech. J., 49, 593,
(1970). http://www.alcatel-lucent.com/b
stj/vol49-1970/articles/bstj49-4-593.pdf
} {Smith_George_E_19700205.pdf}
3. ^
http://inventors.about.com/library/inven
tors/bldigitalcamera.htm
4. ^ W. S. Boyle and G. E. Smith (April
1970). "Charge Coupled Semiconductor
Devices". Bell System Technical Journal
49 (4): 587–593.
http://www.alcatel-lucent.com/bstj/vol
49-1970/articles/bstj49-4-587.pdf {Smit
h_George_E_19700129.pdf}
5. ^ G. F. Amelio, M. F. Tompsett, and
G. E. Smith, "Experimental Verification
of the Charge Coupled Device Concept",
Bell Sys. Tech. J., 49, 593,
(1970). http://www.alcatel-lucent.com/b
stj/vol49-1970/articles/bstj49-4-593.pdf
} {Smith_George_E_19700205.pdf}
6. ^
http://inventors.about.com/library/inven
tors/bldigitalcamera.htm
7. ^ W. S. Boyle and G. E. Smith (April
1970). "Charge Coupled Semiconductor
Devices". Bell System Technical Journal
49 (4): 587–593.
http://www.alcatel-lucent.com/bstj/vol
49-1970/articles/bstj49-4-587.pdf {Smit
h_George_E_19700129.pdf}
8. ^ W. S. Boyle and G. E. Smith (April
1970). "Charge Coupled Semiconductor
Devices". Bell System Technical Journal
49 (4): 587–593.
http://www.alcatel-lucent.com/bstj/vol
49-1970/articles/bstj49-4-587.pdf {Smit
h_George_E_19700129.pdf} {01/29/1970}

MORE INFO
[1] "Willard S. Boyle - Nobel
Lecture". Nobelprize.org. 29 May 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/2009/boyle-lecture.html
{Boyle_Willard_S_20091208.pdf
[2] Jeffrey, Davene. "Willard Boyle,
Nova Scotian Nobel Prize winner, dies
at 86". The Chronicle Herald.ca.
http://thechronicleherald.ca/Front/12424
28.html. Retrieved 9 May 2011
(Bell Telephone Laboratories) Murray
Hill, New Jersey, USA7  
[1] Figure 7 from: ''George E. Smith -
Nobel Lecture''. Nobelprize.org. 29 May
2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/2009/smith-lecture.html {S
mith_George_E_20091208.pdf} COPYRIGHTED

source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/physics/laureates/2009/smith-lecture.
html

[2] Willard Boyle (Property of AT&T
Archives) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.casca.ca/ecass/issues
/2006-me/features/boyle/boyle_files/imag
e001.jpg
30 YBN
[06/16/1970 AD] 7 		5716) Two DNA molecules are combined
using an enzyme.3 The first artificial
gene is synthesized.4 5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ K. L. AGARWAL, H. BÜCHI, M. H.
CARUTHERS, N. GUPTA, H. G. KHORANA, K.
KLEPPE, A. KUMAR, E. OHTSUKA, U. L.
RAJBHANDARY, J. H. VAN DE SANDE, V.
SGARAMELLA, H. WEBER & T. YAMADA,
"Total synthesis of the gene for an
alanine transfer ribonucleic acid from
yeast", Nature 227, 27 - 34 (04 July
1970);
doi:10.1038/227027a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v227/n5253/abs/227027
a0.html {Khorana_Har_Gobind_19700616.pd
f}
2. ^ "Har Gobind Khorana."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 24 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/316846/Har-Gobind-Khorana>.
3. ^ V. Sgaramella, J. H. van de Sande,
and H. G. Khorana, "Studies on
Polynucleotides, C. A Novel Joining
Reaction Catalyzed by the
T4-Polynucleotide Ligase", PNAS
November 1, 1970 vol. 67 no. 3
1468-1475
http://www.pnas.org/content/67/3/1468.
short {Khorana_Har_Gobind_19700831.pdf}

4. ^ K. L. AGARWAL, H. BÜCHI, M. H.
CARUTHERS, N. GUPTA, H. G. KHORANA, K.
KLEPPE, A. KUMAR, E. OHTSUKA, U. L.
RAJBHANDARY, J. H. VAN DE SANDE, V.
SGARAMELLA, H. WEBER & T. YAMADA ,
"Total synthesis of the gene for an
alanine transfer ribonucleic acid from
yeast", Nature 227, 27 - 34 (04 July
1970);
doi:10.1038/227027a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v227/n5253/abs/227027
a0.html {Khorana_Har_Gobind_19700616.pd
f}
5. ^ "Har Gobind Khorana."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 24 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/316846/Har-Gobind-Khorana>.
6. ^ K. L. AGARWAL, H. BÜCHI, M. H.
CARUTHERS, N. GUPTA, H. G. KHORANA, K.
KLEPPE, A. KUMAR, E. OHTSUKA, U. L.
RAJBHANDARY, J. H. VAN DE SANDE, V.
SGARAMELLA, H. WEBER & T. YAMADA ,
"Total synthesis of the gene for an
alanine transfer ribonucleic acid from
yeast", Nature 227, 27 - 34 (04 July
1970);
doi:10.1038/227027a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v227/n5253/abs/227027
a0.html {Khorana_Har_Gobind_19700616.pd
f}
7. ^ K. L. AGARWAL, H. BÜCHI, M. H.
CARUTHERS, N. GUPTA, H. G. KHORANA, K.
KLEPPE, A. KUMAR, E. OHTSUKA, U. L.
RAJBHANDARY, J. H. VAN DE SANDE, V.
SGARAMELLA, H. WEBER & T. YAMADA ,
"Total synthesis of the gene for an
alanine transfer ribonucleic acid from
yeast", Nature 227, 27 - 34 (04 July
1970);
doi:10.1038/227027a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v227/n5253/abs/227027
a0.html {Khorana_Har_Gobind_19700616.pd
f} {06/16/1970}

MORE INFO
[1] "Har Gobind Khorana." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 24 Apr. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/har-gobind-
khorana
[2] "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or
Medicine 1968". Nobelprize.org. 24 Apr
2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1968/
[3] "H. Gobind Khorana - Nobel
Lecture". Nobelprize.org. 24 Apr 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1968/khorana-lecture.html
[4] R. Lohrmann, D. Söll, H. Hayatsu,
E. Ohtsuka, H. G. Khorana, "Studies on
Polynucleotides. LI. Syntheses of the
64 Possible Ribotrinucleotides Derived
from the Four Major
Ribomononucleotides", Khorand, J. Am.
Chem. Soc., 88, 819
(1966) http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1
021/ja00956a039
[5] H.G.Khorana, H.Büchi, T.M. Jacob,
H.Kössel, S.A.Narang and E.Ohtsuka,
"Studies on Polynucleotides. LXI.'
Polynucleotide Synthesis in Relation to
the Genetic Code. General Introduction"
J. Am.Chem.Soc., 89 (1967)
2154. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.10
21/ja00985a031
[6] H. G. Khorana, Federation Proc.,
24, 1473 (1965)
[7] H. Kössel, A. R. Morgan
and H. G. Khorana, "Studies on
polynucleotides: LXXIII. Synthesis in
vitro of polypeptides containing
repeating tetrapeptide sequences
dependent upon DNA-like polymers
containing repeating tetranucleotide
sequences: Direction of reading of
messenger RNA", Journal of Molecular
Biology, Volume 26, Issue 3, 28 June
1967, Pages
449-475. http://www.sciencedirect.com/s
cience?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6WK7-4DM1GS1
-13&_user=4422&_coverDate=06%2F28%2F1967
&_alid=1728726947&_rdoc=1&_fmt=high&_ori
g=search&_origin=search&_zone=rslt_list_
item&_cdi=6899&_sort=r&_st=13&_docanchor
=&view=c&_ct=2&_acct=C000059600&_version
=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=4856df
9c96658f9c5733d2b24ae007f7&searchtype=a
[8] S. BRENNER, A. O. W. STRETTON & S.
KAPLAN, "Genetic Code: The 'Nonsense'
Triplets for Chain Termination and
their Suppression", Nature, 5 June 1965
Vol 206 No 4988
p994. http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v206/n4988/index.html
[9] MARTIN G. WEIGERT & ALAN GAREN,
"Base Composition of Nonsense Condons
in E. coli: Evidence from Amino-Acid
Substitutions at a Tryptophan Site in
Alkaline Phosphatase", Nature, 5 June
1965 Vol 206 No 4988
p992. http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v206/n4988/index.html
[10] "kinase." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 30 Jun.
2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/kinase
(University of Wisconsin) Madison,
Wisconsin, USA6  
[1] Figure 1 from: K. L. AGARWAL, H.
BÜCHI, M. H. CARUTHERS, N. GUPTA, H.
G. KHORANA, K. KLEPPE, A. KUMAR, E.
OHTSUKA, U. L. RAJBHANDARY, J. H. VAN
DE SANDE, V. SGARAMELLA, H. WEBER & T.
YAMADA , ''Total synthesis of the gene
for an alanine transfer ribonucleic
acid from yeast'', Nature 227, 27 - 34
(04 July 1970);
doi:10.1038/227027a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v227/n5253/abs/227027
a0.html {Khorana_Har_Gobind_19700616.pd
f} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v227/n5253/abs/227027a0.html

[2] Har Gobind Khorana Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1968/khorana.jpg
29 YBN
[11/14/1971 AD] 5 		5618) The first ship to orbit another
planet (Mars).3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1971-051A
2. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1971-051A
3. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1971-051A
4. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1971-051A
5. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1971-051A {11/14/1971}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.astronomy.csdb.cn/ceps/rpif/m
ariner9/mariner9_archive.htm
Planet Mars4  
[1] Mariner 9 PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image
/spacecraft/mariner09.jpg

[2] Mariner 9 imagery of Olympus Mons
volcano on Mars compared to the eight
principal Hawaiian islands at the same
scale. (Mariner 9 image mosaic,
NASA/JPL) PD
source: http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/volc/fi
g38.gif
29 YBN
[11/27/1971 AD] 5 		5619) A ship impacts Mars.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1971-045A
2. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1971-045A
3. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1971-045A
4. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1971-045A
5. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1971-045D {11/27/1971}
Planet Mars4  
[1] Mars 3 Lander PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image
/spacecraft/mars3_lander_vsm.jpg

[2] Description Mars3
iki.jpg English: The Mars 3
spacecraft Date Source
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image/sp
acecraft/mars3_iki.jpg Author
NASA PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/13/Mars3_iki.jpg
29 YBN
[12/02/1971 AD] 6 		5620) The first ship to soft land on
planet Mars and return data.4
FOOTNOTES

1. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1971-049F
2. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1971-049F
3. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1971-049F
4. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1971-049F
5. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1971-049F
6. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1971-049F {12/02/1971}
Planet Mars5  
[1] Signal from mars-3 Lander UNKNOWN

source: http://www.mentallandscape.com/C
_Mars03_lander.jpg

[2] Mars 3 Lander PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image
/spacecraft/mars3_lander_vsm.jpg
28 YBN
[07/31/1972 AD] 6 		5751) Proteins are synthesized by using
a virus to add DNA into bacteria.3 4
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ David A. Jackson, Robert H.
Symons, and Paul Berg, "Biochemical
Method for Inserting New Genetic
Information into DNA of Simian Virus
40: Circular SV40 DNA Molecules
Containing Lambda Phage Genes and the
Galactose Operon of Escherichia coli",
PNAS October 1, 1972 vol. 69 no. 10
2904-2909
http://www.pnas.org/content/69/10/2904
.short {Berg_Paul_19720731.pdf}
2. ^ "Paul Berg." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 02 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/61698/Paul-Berg>.
3. ^ David A. Jackson, Robert H.
Symons, and Paul Berg, "Biochemical
Method for Inserting New Genetic
Information into DNA of Simian Virus
40: Circular SV40 DNA Molecules
Containing Lambda Phage Genes and the
Galactose Operon of Escherichia coli",
PNAS October 1, 1972 vol. 69 no. 10
2904-2909
http://www.pnas.org/content/69/10/2904
.short {Berg_Paul_19720731.pdf}
4. ^ "Paul Berg." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 02 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/61698/Paul-Berg>.
5. ^ David A. Jackson, Robert H.
Symons, and Paul Berg, "Biochemical
Method for Inserting New Genetic
Information into DNA of Simian Virus
40: Circular SV40 DNA Molecules
Containing Lambda Phage Genes and the
Galactose Operon of Escherichia coli",
PNAS October 1, 1972 vol. 69 no. 10
2904-2909
http://www.pnas.org/content/69/10/2904
.short {Berg_Paul_19720731.pdf}
6. ^ David A. Jackson, Robert H.
Symons, and Paul Berg, "Biochemical
Method for Inserting New Genetic
Information into DNA of Simian Virus
40: Circular SV40 DNA Molecules
Containing Lambda Phage Genes and the
Galactose Operon of Escherichia coli",
PNAS October 1, 1972 vol. 69 no. 10
2904-2909
http://www.pnas.org/content/69/10/2904
.short {Berg_Paul_19720731.pdf}
{07/31/1972}
(Stanford University Medical Center)
Stanford, California, USA5  
[1] Figure 1 from: David A. Jackson,
Robert H. Symons, and Paul Berg,
''Biochemical Method for Inserting New
Genetic Information into DNA of Simian
Virus 40: Circular SV40 DNA Molecules
Containing Lambda Phage Genes and the
Galactose Operon of Escherichia coli'',
PNAS October 1, 1972 vol. 69 no. 10
2904-2909
http://www.pnas.org/content/69/10/2904
.short {Berg_Paul_19720731.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.pnas.org/content/69/1
0/2904.short

[2] Description Paul Berg in
1980.jpg Paul Berg - 1980 Albert
Lasker Basic Medical Research Award
Winner Date 1980(1980) Source
http://profiles.nlm.nih.gov/CD/B/B/
L/L/ Author
Unknown Permission (Reusing this
file) Courtesy of the National
Library of Medicine. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/88/Paul_Berg_in_1980.jpg

27 YBN
[12/03/1973 AD] 6 		5622) A ship reaches Jupiter and sends
the first close-up images.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1972-012A
2. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1972-012A
3. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1972-012A
4. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1972-012A
5. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1972-012A
6. ^
http://www.nasa.gov/centers/ames/news/re
leases/2003/03_25HQ.html {12/03/1973}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.aerospaceguide.net/pioneer10.
html
Planet Jupiter5  
[1] Description
http://history.nasa.gov/SP-349/p142.jpg
English: Pioneer 10 Jupiter
encounter. Date Source
http://history.nasa.gov/SP-349/ch8.
htm Author
NASA Permission (Reusing this
file) PD
source: http://history.nasa.gov/SP-349/p
142.jpg

[2] Pioneer 10 PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image
/spacecraft/pioneer10-11.jpg
26 YBN
[1974 AD] 7 8 		5846) The personal computer.3 4
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan
Bunch, "The Timetables of Science",
Second edition, Simon and Schuster,
1991, p577.
2. ^ "Altair." Computer Desktop
Encyclopedia. Computer Language Company
Inc., 2011. Answers.com 30 May. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/altair
3. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p577.
4. ^ "Altair." Computer Desktop
Encyclopedia. Computer Language Company
Inc., 2011. Answers.com 30 May. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/altair
5. ^ "Altair." Computer Desktop
Encyclopedia. Computer Language Company
Inc., 2011. Answers.com 30 May. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/altair
6. ^ "Micro Instrumentation and
Telemetry Systems". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Micro_Instr
umentation_and_Telemetry_Systems
7. ^ "Altair." Computer Desktop
Encyclopedia. Computer Language Company
Inc., 2011. Answers.com 30 May. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/altair
{1974}
8. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p577. {1975}
(Micro Instrumentation and Telemetry
Systems) Albuquerque, New Mexico, USA5
6 (verify) 
[1] Description Altair 8800
Computer.jpg Altair 8800 Computer
with 8 inch floppy disk
system. Circuit boards - left to
right 1. Seals 8K Static RAM
board 2. MITS floppy disk
controller (2 board set) 3. MITS
floppy disk controller 4. MITS 16K
Dynamic RAM board 5. MITS 16K
Dynamic RAM board 6. MITS SIO-2
Dual serial port board 7. Solid
State Music PROM board 8. MITS 8080
CPU board Photo taken at the Vintage
Computer Festival 7.0 held at the
Computer History Museum, Mountain View
California. November 6-7, 2004
[1] This was one of Altair systems
exhibited by Erik Klein [2] Photo by
Michael Holley, November 2004 Nikon
E3200 with on camera flash. Touched up
in Adobe Photoshop Elements 3.0. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/01/Altair_8800_Computer.
jpg
25 YBN
[10/20/1975 AD] 8 		5623) A ship orbits, lands on, and
transmits images from the surface of
Venus.5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1975-050A
2. ^
http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/missions/pro
file.cfm?MCode=Venera_09
3. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1975-050A
4. ^
http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/missions/pro
file.cfm?MCode=Venera_09
5. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1975-050A
6. ^
http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/missions/pro
file.cfm?MCode=Venera_09
7. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1975-050A
8. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1975-050A {10/20/1975}
Planet Venus7  
[1] Image of the surface of Venus from
Venera 9 PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/imgca
t/hires/v09_lander.gif

[2] Venera 9 Descent Craft PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/plane
tary/image/venera_9_lander.jpg
25 YBN
[1975 AD] 3 		6371) An external object is moved by
thought (electricity in the brain).2
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ "The Incredible Human Machine",
National Geographic (1975)
2. ^ "The
Incredible Human Machine", National
Geographic (1975)
3. ^ "The Incredible Human
Machine", National Geographic (1975)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://news.yahoo.com/paralyzed-woman-us
es-her-mind-control-robot-arm-181141007-
-finance.html
[2]
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/439638
7.stm
 
[1] todo: change to video from National
Geographic ''The Incredible Human
Machine'' video Adapted from picture
of EEG electrodes and toy train View
of EEG electrodes on a model phrenology
head M400/0123 Rights
Managed Credit: JAMES
KING-HOLMES/SCIENCE PHOTO
LIBRARY COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencephoto.com/imag
e/271056/large/M4000123-View_of_EEG_elec
trodes_on_a_model_phrenology_head-SPL.jp
ghttp://howtobuildamodeltrain.com/wp-con
tent/uploads/2011/12/howtobuildamodeltra
in1.jpg

[2] ''The Incredible Human Machine'',
National Geographic
(1975) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://ecx.images-amazon.com/ima
ges/I/51PVRJGKR8L._SL500_AA300_.jpg
24 YBN
[07/20/1976 AD] 3 		5624) The first images and soil samples
from the surface of Mars.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1975-075C
2. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1975-075C
3. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1975-075C {07/20/1976}

MORE INFO
[1] Video of Mars rotating:
http://www.nasaimages.org/luna/servlet/d
etail/NSVS~3~3~9446~109446:Mars-Rotate--
True-Color-
Planet Mars2  
[1] First Mars Surface Photo Viking 1
first image Collection: NASA Great
Images in Nasa
Collection Title: First Mars Surface
Photo Full Description: The image
above is the first photograph ever
taken from the surface of Mars. It was
taken by the Viking 1 lander shortly
after it touched down on Mars on July
20, 1976. Part of footpad #2 can be
seen in the lower right corner, with
sand and dust in the center of it,
probably deposited during landing. The
next day, color photographs were also
taken on the Martian surface. The
primary objectives of the Viking
missions, which was composed of two
spacecraft, were to obtain
high-resolution images of the Martian
surface, characterize the structure and
composition of the atmosphere and
surface, and search for evidence of
life on Mars. Date: 07/20/1976 NASA
Center: Jet Propulsion
Laboratory Subject
Category: Planet-Mars Subject
Category: Viking-Pathfinder-So
journer Keywords: Laboratory Keywords
: Jet Keywords: Propulsion Keywords:
Viking Keywords: Mars Keywords: P-
17053 Audience: General
Public facet_what: Mars facet_what:
Viking facet_what: Viking 1
Lander facet_where: Jet Propulsion
Laboratory facet_where: Mars facet_wh
ere: Jet Propulsion Laboratory
(JPL) facet_when: July 20,
1976 facet_when: 07-20-1976 facet_whe
n_year: 1976 Image
#: MarsSurface original_url: http://g
rin.hq.nasa… UID: SPD-GRIN-GPN-2003-
00 061 Center: JPL Center
Number: MarsSurface GRIN DataBase
Number: GPN-2003-00061 Creator-Photogr
apher: NASA Original
Source: NASA Image
ID: 127274 Resolution
Size: 5 Format: JP2 Media
Type: Image File
Name: GPN-2003-00061.jp2 Width: 2973
Height: 1228 PD
source: http://www.nasaimages.org/downlo
ad.php?mid=nasaNAS~5~5~23140~127274&file
=GPN-2003-00061.jpg&src=http%3A%2F%2Fmm0
4.nasaimages.org%2FMediaManager%2Fsrvr%3
Fmediafile%3D%2FSize3%2FnasaNAS-5-NA%2F2
5256%2FGPN-2003-00061.jpg

[2] Description Mars Viking
11d128.png Original Caption Released
with NASA image: The Viking 1 Lander
sampling arm created a number of deep
trenches as part of the surface
composition and biology experiments on
Mars. The digging tool on the sampling
arm (at lower center) could scoop up
samples of material and deposit them
into the appropriate experiment. Some
holes were dug deeper to study soil
which was not affected by solar
radiation and weathering. The trenches
in this ESE looking image are in the
''Sandy Flats'' area of the landing
site at Chryse Planitia. The boom
holding the meteorology sensors is at
left. More information can be found at
Viking Lander Image 11D128.BLU, Viking
Lander Image 11D128.GRN and Viking
Lander Image 11D128.RED. Date
2009-01-26; original photos were
taken 1977-05-26. Source Own work
based on images in the NASA Viking
image archive Author ''Roel van
der Hoorn (Van der
Hoorn)'' Permission (Reusing this
file) I used the original 11d128.blu,
11d128.grn and 11d128.red images from
the NASA Viking image archive,
converted them to .png, manually
removed the noise and finally merged
them into one image (almost matching
true color; see here for the channel
mixing process). Except for the
conversion, this was all done in Adobe
Photoshop CS2. The original files by
NASA are in the public domain, and so
is this new one. Other versions I
created this image as a replacement for
the image Viking1mars.jpg (see also:
here) It was created by NASA, but the
quality is not very high. Using the
original pictures from the lander
archive resulted in a higher quality
image. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1b/Mars_Viking_11d128.pn
g
24 YBN
[11/30/1976 AD] 3 		5695) The complete DNA sequence of a
virus is determined.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Sanger, F., Air, G.M., Barrell,
B.G., Brown, N.L., Coulson, A.R.,
Fiddes, J.C., Hutchison III, C.A.,
Slocombe, P.M. and Smith, M., 1977.
Nature (London) 265, pp.
687–695. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v265/n5596/abs/265687a0.html {
Sanger_Frederick_19761130.pdf}
2. ^ Sanger, F., Air, G.M., Barrell,
B.G., Brown, N.L., Coulson, A.R.,
Fiddes, J.C., Hutchison III, C.A.,
Slocombe, P.M. and Smith, M., 1977.
Nature (London) 265, pp.
687–695. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v265/n5596/abs/265687a0.html {
Sanger_Frederick_19761130.pdf}
3. ^ Sanger, F., Air, G.M., Barrell,
B.G., Brown, N.L., Coulson, A.R.,
Fiddes, J.C., Hutchison III, C.A.,
Slocombe, P.M. and Smith, M., 1977.
Nature (London) 265, pp.
687–695. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v265/n5596/abs/265687a0.html {
Sanger_Frederick_19761130.pdf}
{11/30/1976}

MORE INFO
[1] "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry
1958". Nobelprize.org. 17 Apr 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1958/
[2] "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry
1980". Nobelprize.org. 17 Apr 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1980/
[3] F. Sanger, "The free amino groups
of insulin", Biochem J. 1945; 39(5):
507–515.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1258275/
[4] "Frederick Sanger." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 17 Apr.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/frederick-s
anger
[5] F. Sanger and E. O. P. Thompson,
"The amino-acid sequence in the glycyl
chain of insulin. 1. The identification
of lower peptides from partial
hydrolysates", Biochem J. 1953
February; 53(3): 353–366.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1198157/
[6] F. Sanger and E. O. P. Thompson,
"The amino-acid sequence in the glycyl
chain of insulin. 2. The investigation
of peptides from enzymic hydrolysates",
Biochem J. 1953 February; 53(3):
366–374.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1198158/
[7] "insulin." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 17 Apr.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/insulin
(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England2  
[1] Figure 1 from: Sanger, F., Air,
G.M., Barrell, B.G., Brown, N.L.,
Coulson, A.R., Fiddes, J.C., Hutchison
III, C.A., Slocombe, P.M. and Smith,
M., 1977. Nature (London) 265, pp.
687–695. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v265/n5596/abs/265687a0.html {
Sanger_Frederick_19761130.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v265/n5596/abs/265687a0.html

[2] Frederick Sanger Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/chemistry/laureates/1958/sanger.jpg
23 YBN
[1977 AD] 7 		6312) A self-driving car.1 2 3 4 5 6
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ S. Tsugawa. “Vision-based
Vehicles in Japan: The Machine Vision
Systems and Driving Control Systems.”
Industrial Electronics, 1993.
Conference Proceedings, ISIE’93 -
Budapest., IEEE International Symposium
On. 1993.
278–285. http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/x
pl/articleDetails.jsp?tp=&arnumber=26879
5
2. ^ Tsugawa, S.; , "Vision-based
vehicles in Japan: machine vision
systems and driving control systems,"
Industrial Electronics, IEEE
Transactions on , vol.41, no.4,
pp.398-405, Aug 1994 doi:
10.1109/41.303790 URL:
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.j
sp?tp=&arnumber=303790&isnumber=7476
3. ^
http://www.markelic.de/professional/mile
stonesDrivingTable.html
4. ^ Todd Lassa, "Autonomous Car
Technology 4Lurches Forward", Motor
Trend, June
2011. http://www.motortrend.com/feature
s/auto_news/2011/1106_autonomous_car_tec
hnology_lurches_forward/viewall.html
5. ^ S. Tsugawa, et al.: An Automobile
with Artificial
Intelligence, Proceedings of the 6th
International Joint Conference on
Artificial Intelligence, pp.893-895
(1979).
6. ^ Sadayuki Tsugawa, "A History of
Automated Highway Systems in Japan
and Future Issues", Proceedings of the
2008 IEEE International Conference
on Vehicular Electronics and
Safety Columbus, OH, USA. September
22-24,
2008 http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/s
tamp.jsp?arnumber=04640914
7. ^ Todd Lassa, "Autonomous Car
Technology Lurches Forward", Motor
Trend, June
2011. http://www.motortrend.com/feature
s/auto_news/2011/1106_autonomous_car_tec
hnology_lurches_forward/viewall.html
(Tsukuba Mechanical Engineering Lab)
Japan 
[1] Fig. 2. The vision-based automated
vehicle during 1970’s (left) and the
image processing: a road scene (right
top) and the guard rail detected in
the field of view (right
bottom). Figure 2 from: Sadayuki
Tsugawa, ''A History of Automated
Highway Systems in Japan and Future
Issues'', Proceedings of the 2008 IEEE
International Conference on Vehicular
Electronics and Safety Columbus, OH,
USA. September 22-24,
2008 http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/s
tamp.jsp?arnumber=04640914 COPYRIGHTED

source: http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp
/stamp.jsp?arnumber=04640914
21 YBN
[09/01/1979 AD] 6 		388) A ship reaches Saturn and sends
the first close-up images.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.nasa.gov/centers/ames/mission
s/archive/pioneer.html
2. ^
http://www.nasa.gov/centers/ames/mission
s/archive/pioneer.html
3. ^
http://www.nasa.gov/centers/ames/mission
s/archive/pioneer.html
4. ^
http://www.nasa.gov/centers/ames/mission
s/archive/pioneer.html
5. ^
http://www.nasa.gov/centers/ames/mission
s/archive/pioneer.html
6. ^
http://www.nasa.gov/centers/ames/mission
s/archive/pioneer.html {09/01/1979}
Planet Saturn5  
[1] Pioneer 11 Image of Saturn and Its
Moon Titan {ULSF: Titan is at the upper
left} The Pioneer 11 spacecraft
launched from Cape Canaveral forty
years ago, on April 5, 1973. Pioneer
11's path through Saturn's outer rings
took it within 21,000 km of the planet,
where it discovered two new moons
(almost smacking into one of them in
September 1979) and a new ''F'' ring.
The spacecraft also discovered and
charted the magnetosphere, magnetic
field and mapped the general structure
of Saturn's interior. The spacecraft's
instruments measured the heat radiation
from Saturn's interior and found that
its planet-sized moon, Titan, was too
cold to support life. This image
from Pioneer 11 shows Saturn and its
moon Titan. The irregularities in ring
silhouette and shadow are due to
technical anomalies in the preliminary
data later corrected. At the time this
image was taken, Pioneer was 2,846,000
km (1,768,422 miles) from
Saturn. › NASA Celebrates Four
Decades of Plucky Pioneer 11 Image
credit: NASA Ames PD
source: http://www.nasa.gov/images/conte
nt/739507main_739460main_AC79-9107.3_160
0-1200.jpg

[2] Pioneer 10 PD
source: http://quest.nasa.gov/sso/cool/p
ioneer10/graphics/lasher/slide4.jpg
20 YBN
[09/12/1980 AD] 6 		6189) The Scanning Tunneling
Microscope.1 2 Individual atoms and
molecules of many kinds can be seen.3 4

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ G. Binnig, H. Rohrer, "Scanning
tunneling microscope", Patent number:
4343993, Filing date: Sep 12, 1980,
Issue date: Aug 10,
1982. http://www.google.com/patents?hl=
en&lr=&vid=USPAT4343993
2. ^ Heinrich Rohrer - Nobel Lecture".
Nobelprize.org. 27 Aug 2011
http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/p
hysics/laureates/1986/rohrer-lecture.htm
l
3. ^ G. Binnig, H. Rohrer, Ch. Gerber,
and E. Weibel, "Surface Studies by
Scanning Tunneling Microscopy", Phys.
Rev. Lett. 49, 57–61
(1982). http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL
/v49/i1/p57_1
4. ^ G. Binnig, H. Rohrer, Ch. Gerber,
and E. Weibel, "Tunneling through a
controllable vacuum gap", Appl. Phys.
Lett. 40, 178 (1982);
doi:10.1063/1.92999 http://apl.aip.org/
resource/1/applab/v40/i2/p178_s1
5. ^ G. Binnig, H. Rohrer, Ch. Gerber,
and E. Weibel, "Tunneling through a
controllable vacuum gap", Appl. Phys.
Lett. 40, 178 (1982);
doi:10.1063/1.92999 http://apl.aip.org/
resource/1/applab/v40/i2/p178_s1
6. ^ G. Binnig, H. Rohrer, "Scanning
tunneling microscope", Patent number:
4343993, Filing date: Sep 12, 1980,
Issue date: Aug 10,
1982. http://www.google.com/patents?hl=
en&lr=&vid=USPAT4343993 {09/12/1980}

MORE INFO
[1] Gerd Binnig & Heinrich
Rohrer, "The Scanning Tunneling
Microscope", Scientific American 253,
50 - 56
(1985) doi:10.1038/scientificamerican08
85-50
(IBM Zurich Research Laboratory)
Ruschlikon, Zurich, Switzerland5
(presumably) 
[1] G. Binnig, H. Rohrer, ''Scanning
tunneling microscope'', Patent number:
4343993, Filing date: Sep 12, 1980,
Issue date: Aug 10,
1982. http://www.google.com/patents?hl=
en&lr=&vid=USPAT4343993 PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=GzgwAAAAEBAJ

[2] Figures 2 and 3 from: G. Binnig,
H. Rohrer, Ch. Gerber, and E. Weibel,
''Surface Studies by Scanning Tunneling
Microscopy'', Phys. Rev. Lett. 49,
57–61
(1982). http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL
/v49/i1/p57_1 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/
v49/i1/p57_1
16 YBN
[03/10/1984 AD] 6 		5814) A multicellular organism is
"cloned" (genetically identical copies
are made) by replacing the nucleus of
one ovum with a different one.3 4
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^ SM Willadsen and RA Godke, "A
simple procedure for the production of
identical sheep twins", Veterinary
Record 1984;114:240-243
doi:10.1136/vr.114.10.240
http://veterinaryrecord.bmj.com/conten
t/114/10/240.abstract
{Willadsen_Steen_M_19840310.pdf}
2. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p594.
3. ^ SM Willadsen and RA Godke, "A
simple procedure for the production of
identical sheep twins", Veterinary
Record 1984;114:240-243
doi:10.1136/vr.114.10.240
http://veterinaryrecord.bmj.com/conten
t/114/10/240.abstract
{Willadsen_Steen_M_19840310.pdf}
4. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p594.
5. ^ SM Willadsen and RA Godke, "A
simple procedure for the production of
identical sheep twins", Veterinary
Record 1984;114:240-243
doi:10.1136/vr.114.10.240
http://veterinaryrecord.bmj.com/conten
t/114/10/240.abstract
{Willadsen_Steen_M_19840310.pdf} {03/
1984}
6. ^ SM Willadsen and RA Godke, "A
simple procedure for the production of
identical sheep twins", Veterinary
Record 1984;114:240-243
doi:10.1136/vr.114.10.240
http://veterinaryrecord.bmj.com/conten
t/114/10/240.abstract
{Willadsen_Steen_M_19840310.pdf} {03/
1984} {03/10/1984}
(AFRC Institute of Animal Physiology)
Cambridge, UK5  
[1] Figure 3 from: SM Willadsen and RA
Godke, ''A simple procedure for the
production of identical sheep twins'',
Veterinary Record 1984;114:240-243
doi:10.1136/vr.114.10.240
http://veterinaryrecord.bmj.com/conten
t/114/10/240.abstract
{Willadsen_Steen_M_19840310.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source:
15 YBN
[09/20/1985 AD] 9 		5804) Polymerase {PoL-u-mu-rAS1 } chain
reaction (PCR), a simple technique that
allows a specific segment of DNA to be
copied billions of times in a few
hours.2 3 4 5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Polymerase." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 26 Jan.
2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/P
olymerase>.
2. ^ "Kary B. Mullis." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 22 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/396935/Kary-B-Mullis>.
3. ^ Mullis KB "Process for amplifying
nucleic acid sequences." U.S. Patent
4,683,202. http://www.google.com/patent
s?hl=en&lr=&vid=USPAT4683202&id=fSYMAAAA
EBAJ&oi=fnd&dq=%22KB+Mullis%22+&printsec
=abstract#v=onepage&q&f=false
4. ^ Mullis, KB et al. "Process for
amplifying, detecting, and/or-cloning
nucleic acid sequences." U.S. Patent
4,683,195. http://www.google.com/patent
s?hl=en&lr=&vid=USPAT4683195&id=fCYMAAAA
EBAJ&oi=fnd&dq=%22KB+Mullis%22+&printsec
=abstract
5. ^ R. K. Saiki et al., "Enzymatic
Amplification of β-Globin Genomic
Sequences and Restriction Site Analysis
for Diagnosis of Sickle Cell Anemia",
Science 230, 1350
(1985). http://www.jstor.org/stable/169
6982?origin=JSTOR-pdf {Mullis_Kary_Bank
s_19850920.pdf}
6. ^ K. B. Mullis and F. A. Faloona,
"Specific synthesis of DNA in vitro via
a polymerase-catalyzed chain reaction",
Methods Enzymol. 155, 335 (1987).
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/a
rticle/pii/0076687987550236 {Mullis_Kar
y_Banks_1987xxxx.pdf}
7. ^ Mullis KB "Process for amplifying
nucleic acid sequences." U.S. Patent
4,683,202. http://www.google.com/patent
s?hl=en&lr=&vid=USPAT4683202&id=fSYMAAAA
EBAJ&oi=fnd&dq=%22KB+Mullis%22+&printsec
=abstract#v=onepage&q&f=false
8. ^ "Kary Mullis." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 22 May.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/kary-mullis

9. ^ R. K. Saiki et al., "Enzymatic
Amplification of β-Globin Genomic
Sequences and Restriction Site Analysis
for Diagnosis of Sickle Cell Anemia",
Science 230, 1350
(1985). http://www.jstor.org/stable/169
6982?origin=JSTOR-pdf {Mullis_Kary_Bank
s_19850920.pdf} {09/20/1985}

MORE INFO
[1] Randall K. Saiki, David H.
Gelfand, Susanne Stoffel, Stephen J.
Scharf, Russell Higuchi, Glenn T. Horn,
Kary B. Mullis, Henry A. Erlich,
"Primer-Directed Enzymatic
Amplification of DNA with a
Thermostable DNA Polymerase", New
Series, Vol. 239, No. 4839 (Jan. 29,
1988), pp.
487-491 http://www.jstor.org/stable/170
0278
(Cetus Corporation) Emeryville,
California, USA7 8  
[1] Figure 2 from: K. B. Mullis and F.
A. Faloona, ''Specific synthesis of DNA
in vitro via a polymerase-catalyzed
chain reaction'', Methods Enzymol. 155,
335 (1987).
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/a
rticle/pii/0076687987550236 {Mullis_Kar
y_Banks_1987xxxx.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence/article/pii/0076687987550236

[2] Kary Banks Mullis Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1993/mulli
s_postcard.jpg
14 YBN
[01/24/1986 AD] 10 		5628) A ship reaches Uranus and sends
the first close-up images of the
planet, its moons, and its rings.7 8
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1977-076A
2. ^
http://voyager.jpl.nasa.gov/science/uran
us.html
3. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1977-076A
4. ^
http://voyager.jpl.nasa.gov/science/uran
us.html
5. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1977-076A
6. ^
http://voyager.jpl.nasa.gov/science/uran
us.html
7. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1977-076A
8. ^
http://voyager.jpl.nasa.gov/science/uran
us.html
9. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1977-076A
10. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1977-076A {01/24/1986}

MORE INFO
[1] "Voyager 2". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voyager_2
Planet Uranus9  
[1] Description Uranus.jpg English:
NASA photo of Uranus taken by Voyager
2. Caption: This pictures of Uranus was
compiled from images recorded by
Voyager 2 on January 10, 1986, when the
NASA spacecraft was 18 million
kilometers (11 million miles) from the
planet. The images were obtained by
Voyager's narrow-angle camera; the view
is toward the planet's pole of
rotation, which lies just left of
center. The picture has been processed
to show Uranus as human eyes would see
it from the vantage point of the
spacecraft. The dark shading of the
upper right edge of the disk is the
terminator, or day-night boundary. The
blue-green appearance of Uranus results
from methane in the atmosphere; this
gas absorbs red wavelengths from the
incoming sunlight, leaving the
predominant bluish color seen here.
Images shuttered through different
color filters were added and
manipulated by computer, greatly
enhancing the low-contrast details in
the original images. The planet reveals
a dark polar hood surrounded by a
series of progressively lighter
convective bands. The banded structure
is real, though exaggerated here. The
Voyager project is managed for NASA by
the Jet Propulsion Laboratory. Date
January 1986(1986-01) Source
http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/ca
talog/PIA01360 Author NASA PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/bb/Uranus.jpg

[2] Description
Voyager.jpg Voyager 1 / Voyager
2 English: NASA photograph of one of
the two identical Voyager space probes
Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 launched in
1977. The 3.7 metre diameter
high-gain antenna (HGA) is attached to
the hollow ten-sided polygonal body
housing the electronics, here seen in
profile. The Voyager Golden Record is
attached to one of the bus
sides. The angled square panel below
is the optical calibration target and
excess heat radiator. The three
radioisotope thermoelectric generators
(RTGs) are mounted end-to-end on the
left-extending boom. One of the two
planetary radio and plasma wave antenna
extends diagonally left and down, the
other extends to the rear, mostly
hidden here. The compact structure
between the RTGs and the HGA are the
high-field and low-field magnetometers
(MAG) in their stowed state; after
launch an Astromast boom extended to 13
metres to distance the low-field
magnetometers. The instrument boom
extending to the right holds, from left
to right: the cosmic ray subsystem
(CRS) above and Low-Energy Charged
Particle (LECP) detector below; the
Plasma Spectrometer (PLS) above; and
the scan platform that rotates about a
vertical axis. The scan platform
comprises: the Infrared Interferometer
Spectrometer (IRIS) (largest camera at
right); the Ultraviolet Spectrometer
(UVS) to the right of the UVS; the two
Imaging Science Subsystem (ISS) vidicon
cameras to the left of the UVS; and the
Photopolarimeter System (PPS) barely
visible under the ISS. Suggested for
English Wikipedia:alternative text for
images: A space probe with squat
cylindrical body topped by a large
parabolic radio antenna dish pointing
upwards, a three-element radioisotope
thermoelectric generator on a boom
extending left, and scientific
instruments on a boom extending right.
A golden disk is fixed to the
body. Date Source NASA
website http://voyager.jpl.nasa.gov/ima
ge/images/spacecraft/Voyager.jpg Author
NASA Permission (Reusing this
file) PD-NASA PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d2/Voyager.jpg
12 YBN
[12/14/1988 AD] 6 		6194) A microscopic electric motor.4
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ Long-Sheng Fan; Yu-Chong Tai;
R.S. Muller; , "IC-processed
electrostatic micro-motors," Electron
Devices Meeting, 1988. IEDM '88.
Technical Digest., International ,
vol., no., pp.666-669, 1988 doi:
10.1109/IEDM.1988.32901 URL:
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.j
sp?tp=&arnumber=32901&isnumber=1415
2. ^ Long-Sheng Fan; Yu-Chong Tai; R.S.
Muller; , "IC-processed electrostatic
micro-motors," Electron Devices
Meeting, 1988. IEDM '88. Technical
Digest., International , vol., no.,
pp.666-669, 1988 doi:
10.1109/IEDM.1988.32901 URL:
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.j
sp?tp=&arnumber=32901&isnumber=1415
3. ^ Long-Sheng Fan; Yu-Chong Tai; R.S.
Muller; , "IC-processed electrostatic
micro-motors," Electron Devices
Meeting, 1988. IEDM '88. Technical
Digest., International , vol., no.,
pp.666-669, 1988 doi:
10.1109/IEDM.1988.32901 URL:
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.j
sp?tp=&arnumber=32901&isnumber=1415
4. ^ Long-Sheng Fan; Yu-Chong Tai; R.S.
Muller; , "IC-processed electrostatic
micro-motors," Electron Devices
Meeting, 1988. IEDM '88. Technical
Digest., International , vol., no.,
pp.666-669, 1988 doi:
10.1109/IEDM.1988.32901 URL:
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.j
sp?tp=&arnumber=32901&isnumber=1415
5. ^ Long-Sheng Fan; Yu-Chong Tai; R.S.
Muller; , "IC-processed electrostatic
micro-motors," Electron Devices
Meeting, 1988. IEDM '88. Technical
Digest., International , vol., no.,
pp.666-669, 1988 doi:
10.1109/IEDM.1988.32901 URL:
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.j
sp?tp=&arnumber=32901&isnumber=1415
6. ^ Long-Sheng Fan; Yu-Chong Tai; R.S.
Muller; , "IC-processed electrostatic
micro-motors," Electron Devices
Meeting, 1988. IEDM '88. Technical
Digest., International , vol., no.,
pp.666-669, 1988 doi:
10.1109/IEDM.1988.32901 URL:
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.j
sp?tp=&arnumber=32901&isnumber=1415
{12/11/1988-12/14/1988}
(University of California at Berkeley),
Berkeley, California, USA5  
[1] Figures 1 from: Long-Sheng Fan;
Yu-Chong Tai; R.S. Muller; ,
''IC-processed electrostatic
micro-motors,'' Electron Devices
Meeting, 1988. IEDM '88. Technical
Digest., International , vol., no.,
pp.666-669, 1988 doi:
10.1109/IEDM.1988.32901 URL:
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.j
sp?tp=&arnumber=32901&isnumber=1415 COP
YRIGHTED
source: URL:
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.j
sp?tp=&arnumber=32901&isnumber=1415

[2] Figures 2 from: Long-Sheng Fan;
Yu-Chong Tai; R.S. Muller; ,
''IC-processed electrostatic
micro-motors,'' Electron Devices
Meeting, 1988. IEDM '88. Technical
Digest., International , vol., no.,
pp.666-669, 1988 doi:
10.1109/IEDM.1988.32901 URL:
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.j
sp?tp=&arnumber=32901&isnumber=1415 COP
YRIGHTED
source: URL:
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.j
sp?tp=&arnumber=32901&isnumber=1415
11 YBN
[08/25/1989 AD] 6 		5629) A ship reaches Neptune and sends
the first close-up images of the
planet, its moons and rings.4
FOOTNOTES

1. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1977-076A
2. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1977-076A
3. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1977-076A
4. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1977-076A
5. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1977-076A
6. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1977-076A {08/25/1989}

MORE INFO
[1] "Voyager 2". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voyager_2
Planet Neptune5  
[1] A picture of Neptune taken by
Voyager 2, showing off the Great Dark
Spot which has since disappeared from
the planet's surface. Original
Caption Released with Image: During
August 16 and 17, 1989, the Voyager 2
narrow-angle camera was used to
photograph Neptune almost continuously,
recording approximately two and
one-half rotations of the planet. These
images represent the most complete set
of full disk Neptune images that the
spacecraft will acquire. This picture
from the sequence shows two of the four
cloud features which have been tracked
by the Voyager cameras during the past
two months. The large dark oval near
the western limb (the left edge) is at
a latitude of 22 degrees south and
circuits Neptune every 18.3 hours. The
bright clouds immediately to the south
and east of this oval are seen to
substantially change their appearances
in periods as short as four hours. The
second dark spot, at 54 degrees south
latitude near the terminator (lower
right edge), circuits Neptune every
16.1 hours. This image has been
processed to enhance the visibility of
small features, at some sacrifice of
color fidelity. The Voyager Mission is
conducted by JPL for NASA's Office of
Space Science and
Applications. Source:
http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog
/PIA00046 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/06/Neptune.jpg

[2] Description
Voyager.jpg Voyager 1 / Voyager
2 English: NASA photograph of one of
the two identical Voyager space probes
Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 launched in
1977. The 3.7 metre diameter
high-gain antenna (HGA) is attached to
the hollow ten-sided polygonal body
housing the electronics, here seen in
profile. The Voyager Golden Record is
attached to one of the bus
sides. The angled square panel below
is the optical calibration target and
excess heat radiator. The three
radioisotope thermoelectric generators
(RTGs) are mounted end-to-end on the
left-extending boom. One of the two
planetary radio and plasma wave antenna
extends diagonally left and down, the
other extends to the rear, mostly
hidden here. The compact structure
between the RTGs and the HGA are the
high-field and low-field magnetometers
(MAG) in their stowed state; after
launch an Astromast boom extended to 13
metres to distance the low-field
magnetometers. The instrument boom
extending to the right holds, from left
to right: the cosmic ray subsystem
(CRS) above and Low-Energy Charged
Particle (LECP) detector below; the
Plasma Spectrometer (PLS) above; and
the scan platform that rotates about a
vertical axis. The scan platform
comprises: the Infrared Interferometer
Spectrometer (IRIS) (largest camera at
right); the Ultraviolet Spectrometer
(UVS) to the right of the UVS; the two
Imaging Science Subsystem (ISS) vidicon
cameras to the left of the UVS; and the
Photopolarimeter System (PPS) barely
visible under the ISS. Suggested for
English Wikipedia:alternative text for
images: A space probe with squat
cylindrical body topped by a large
parabolic radio antenna dish pointing
upwards, a three-element radioisotope
thermoelectric generator on a boom
extending left, and scientific
instruments on a boom extending right.
A golden disk is fixed to the
body. Date Source NASA
website http://voyager.jpl.nasa.gov/ima
ge/images/spacecraft/Voyager.jpg Author
NASA Permission (Reusing this
file) PD-NASA PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d2/Voyager.jpg
10 YBN
[01/17/1990 AD] 6 		6191) Individual atoms are moved.4
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ D. M. Eigler & E. K. Schweizer,
"Positioning single atoms with a
scanning tunnelling microscope", Nature
344, 524 - 526 (05 April 1990);
doi:10.1038/344524a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v344/n6266/abs/344524
a0.html
2. ^ D. M. Eigler & E. K. Schweizer,
"Positioning single atoms with a
scanning tunnelling microscope", Nature
344, 524 - 526 (05 April 1990);
doi:10.1038/344524a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v344/n6266/abs/344524
a0.html
3. ^ D. M. Eigler & E. K. Schweizer,
"Positioning single atoms with a
scanning tunnelling microscope", Nature
344, 524 - 526 (05 April 1990);
doi:10.1038/344524a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v344/n6266/abs/344524
a0.html
4. ^ D. M. Eigler & E. K. Schweizer,
"Positioning single atoms with a
scanning tunnelling microscope", Nature
344, 524 - 526 (05 April 1990);
doi:10.1038/344524a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v344/n6266/abs/344524
a0.html
5. ^ D. M. Eigler & E. K. Schweizer,
"Positioning single atoms with a
scanning tunnelling microscope", Nature
344, 524 - 526 (05 April 1990);
doi:10.1038/344524a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v344/n6266/abs/344524
a0.html
6. ^ D. M. Eigler & E. K. Schweizer,
"Positioning single atoms with a
scanning tunnelling microscope", Nature
344, 524 - 526 (05 April 1990);
doi:10.1038/344524a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v344/n6266/abs/344524
a0.html {01/17/1990}

MORE INFO
[1] Driscoll, Robert J., Michael
G. Youngquist, and John D.
Baldeschwieler. "Atomic-scale imaging
of DNA using scanning tunnelling
microscopy."� Nature 346.6281 (1990)
:
294-296. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v346/n6281/abs/346294a0.html
[2] G. Binnig, H. Rohrer, Ch. Gerber,
and E. Weibel, "Tunneling through a
controllable vacuum gap", Appl. Phys.
Lett. 40, 178 (1982);
doi:10.1063/1.92999 http://apl.aip.org/
resource/1/applab/v40/i2/p178_s1
(IBM Research Division, Almaden
Research Center) San Jose, California,
USA5  
[1] Figures 1 and 2 from: D. M. Eigler
& E. K. Schweizer, ''Positioning single
atoms with a scanning tunnelling
microscope'', Nature 344, 524 - 526 (05
April 1990);
doi:10.1038/344524a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v344/n6266/abs/344524
a0.html COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v344/n6266/abs/344524a0.html

[2] Figure 3 from: D. M. Eigler & E.
K. Schweizer, ''Positioning single
atoms with a scanning tunnelling
microscope'', Nature 344, 524 - 526 (05
April 1990);
doi:10.1038/344524a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v344/n6266/abs/344524
a0.html COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v344/n6266/abs/344524a0.html
9 YBN
[10/29/1991 AD] 5 		5635) A ship reaches and sends close-up
images of an asteroid.1 2 3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/galileo/gall
ery/top10science-3.cfm
2. ^
http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/galileo/inde
x.cfm
3. ^ "Galileo End of Mission Press Kit"
(PDF). Retrieved
2011-05-15. http://solarsystem.nasa.gov
/missions/docs/galileo-end.pdf
4. ^
http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/galileo/gall
ery/top10science-3.cfm
5. ^
http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/galileo/gall
ery/top10science-3.cfm {10/29/1991}
Asteroid Gaspra4 (Ida encounter must
occur later) 
[1] Description English: Asteroid
en:951 Gaspra. Calvin J. Hamilton's
website View of the Solar System
describes this image as follows:
''This picture Gaspra is a combination
of the highest-resolution images and
color information obtained by the
Galileo spacecraft. The Sun is shining
from the right. The subtle color
variations on Gaspra's surface have
been exaggerated. en:Albedo and color
variations are associated with surface
en:topography. The bluish areas are
regions of slightly higher albedo and
tend to be associated with some of the
crisper craters and with ridges. The
slightly reddish areas, apparently
concentrated in low areas, represent
regions of somewhat lower albedo. In
general, such patterns can be explained
in terms of greater exposure of fresher
rock in the brighter bluish areas and
the accumulation of some en:regolith
materials in the darker reddish areas.
(Courtesy USGS/NASA/JPL)''
[1] Ελληνικά: Ο 951 Gaspra,
ο πρώτος αστεροειδής
που φωτογραφήθηκε
από κοντά. Date 8 June
1992 Source English: Cropped from
TIFF image from
[http://www.solarviews.com/cap/ast/gaspr
a3.htm Solarviews.com Author
English: NASA PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/81/951_Gaspra.jpg

[2] The Asteroid 243 Ida and Its Moon
Dactyl This color picture is made
from images taken from the Galileo
spacecraft about 14 minutes before its
closest approach to asteroid 243 Ida on
August 28, 1993. The range from the
spacecraft was about 10,500 kilometers
(6,500 miles). The images used are from
the sequence in which Ida's moon was
originally discovered; the tiny moon is
visible to the right of the asteroid.
The color is ''enhanced'' in the sense
that the CCD camera is sensitive to
near infrared wavelengths of light
beyond human vision; a ''natural''
color picture of this asteroid would
appear mostly gray. PD
source: http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/gali
leo/gallery/images/top10-03.jpg
7 YBN
[08/28/1993 AD] 5 6 		5636) A ship discovers the first known
moon of an asteroid.1 2 3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/galileo/gall
ery/top10science-3.cfm
2. ^
http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/galileo/inde
x.cfm
3. ^ "Galileo End of Mission Press Kit"
(PDF). Retrieved
2011-05-15. http://solarsystem.nasa.gov
/missions/docs/galileo-end.pdf
4. ^
http://neo.jpl.nasa.gov/images/ida.html
5. ^
http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/galileo/jupi
ter-timeline.cfm
6. ^
http://neo.jpl.nasa.gov/images/ida.html
Asteroid Ida4  
[1] The Asteroid 243 Ida and Its Moon
Dactyl This color picture is made
from images taken from the Galileo
spacecraft about 14 minutes before its
closest approach to asteroid 243 Ida on
August 28, 1993. The range from the
spacecraft was about 10,500 kilometers
(6,500 miles). The images used are from
the sequence in which Ida's moon was
originally discovered; the tiny moon is
visible to the right of the asteroid.
The color is ''enhanced'' in the sense
that the CCD camera is sensitive to
near infrared wavelengths of light
beyond human vision; a ''natural''
color picture of this asteroid would
appear mostly gray. PD
source: http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/gali
leo/gallery/images/top10-03.jpg

[2] Description English: Asteroid
en:951 Gaspra. Calvin J. Hamilton's
website View of the Solar System
describes this image as follows:
''This picture Gaspra is a combination
of the highest-resolution images and
color information obtained by the
Galileo spacecraft. The Sun is shining
from the right. The subtle color
variations on Gaspra's surface have
been exaggerated. en:Albedo and color
variations are associated with surface
en:topography. The bluish areas are
regions of slightly higher albedo and
tend to be associated with some of the
crisper craters and with ridges. The
slightly reddish areas, apparently
concentrated in low areas, represent
regions of somewhat lower albedo. In
general, such patterns can be explained
in terms of greater exposure of fresher
rock in the brighter bluish areas and
the accumulation of some en:regolith
materials in the darker reddish areas.
(Courtesy USGS/NASA/JPL)''
[1] Ελληνικά: Ο 951 Gaspra,
ο πρώτος αστεροειδής
που φωτογραφήθηκε
από κοντά. Date 8 June
1992 Source English: Cropped from
TIFF image from
[http://www.solarviews.com/cap/ast/gaspr
a3.htm Solarviews.com Author
English: NASA PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/81/951_Gaspra.jpg
5 YBN
[12/07/1995 AD] 5 6 		396) The first ship to orbit Jupiter.3

FOOTNOTES
1.
^http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecra
ftDisplay.do?id=1989-084B
2.
^http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecra
ftDisplay.do?id=1989-084B
3.
^http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecra
ftDisplay.do?id=1989-084B
4. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tOrbit.do?id=1989-084B
5. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tOrbit.do?id=1989-084B {12/07/1995}
6. ^
http://www.sandia.gov/LabNews/LN02-09-01
/galileo/timeline_story.htm

MORE INFO
[1] "Galileo End of Mission Press
Kit" (PDF). Retrieved
2011-05-15. http://solarsystem.nasa.gov
/missions/docs/galileo-end.pdf
[2]
http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/galileo/gall
ery/top10science-3.cfm
Jupiter4  
[1] Drifting Galileo Date: 18 Oct
1989 Galileo spacecraft atop the
inertial upper stage drifts into the
blackness of space after deployment
from the Space Shuttle Atlantis payload
bay during mission STS-34 in October
1989. Image Credit: NASA Credit:
NASA PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/ea/Galileo_encounter_wit
h_Io.gif

[2] The Asteroid 243 Ida and Its Moon
Dactyl This color picture is made
from images taken from the Galileo
spacecraft about 14 minutes before its
closest approach to asteroid 243 Ida on
August 28, 1993. The range from the
spacecraft was about 10,500 kilometers
(6,500 miles). The images used are from
the sequence in which Ida's moon was
originally discovered; the tiny moon is
visible to the right of the asteroid.
The color is ''enhanced'' in the sense
that the CCD camera is sensitive to
near infrared wavelengths of light
beyond human vision; a ''natural''
color picture of this asteroid would
appear mostly gray. PD
source: http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/mult
imedia/gallery/STS34_10063774-browse.jpg

4 YBN
[11/25/1996 AD] 4 		186) An animal is cloned by replacing
the nucleus of an ovum with the nucleus
from a somatic cell.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Wilmut, I. et al. "Viable
Offspring Derived from Fetal and Adult
Mammalian Cells." Nature 385.6619
(1997):
810–813. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v385/n6619/abs/385810a0.html
{Wilmut_19961125.pdf}
2. ^ Wilmut, I. et al. "Viable
Offspring Derived from Fetal and Adult
Mammalian Cells." Nature 385.6619
(1997):
810–813. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v385/n6619/abs/385810a0.html
{Wilmut_19961125.pdf}
3. ^ I. Wilmut, A. E. Schnieke*, J.
McWhir, A. J. Kind* & K. H. S.
Campbell, "Viable offspring derived
from fetal and adult mammalian cells",
Nature 385, 810 - 813 (27 February
1997);
doi:10.1038/385810a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v385/n6619/abs/385810
a0.html {Wilmut_Ian_19961125.pdf}
4. ^ Wilmut, I. et al. "Viable
Offspring Derived from Fetal and Adult
Mammalian Cells." Nature 385.6619
(1997):
810–813. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v385/n6619/abs/385810a0.html {
Wilmut_19961125.pdf}
(University of Edinburgh, Roslin
Institute), Roslin Midlothian, UK3
 
[1] Figre 2 from: I. Wilmut, A. E.
Schnieke*, J. McWhir, A. J. Kind* & K.
H. S. Campbell, ''Viable offspring
derived from fetal and adult mammalian
cells'', Nature 385, 810 - 813 (27
February 1997);
doi:10.1038/385810a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v385/n6619/abs/385810
a0.html {Wilmut_Ian_19961125.pdf}
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v385/n6619/abs/385810a0.html

[2] Description English: Modified
version of Commons
image en:Category:Animal
testing Date 2008-02-22 (original
upload date) (Original text : 22 Feb
08) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia (Original text :
Image:Dollyscotland.JPG) Author Origina
l uploader was TimVickers at
en.wikipedia (Original text :
User:Llull on English
Wikipedia) Permission (Reusing this
file) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Dollyscotland_%
28crop%29.jpg/1280px-Dollyscotland_%28cr
op%29.jpg
1 YAN
[02/12/2001 AD] 4 		5639) The first ship to land on an
asteroid.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1996-008A
2. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1996-008A
3. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1996-008A
4. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1996-008A {02/12/2001}
Asteroid Eros3  
[1] Description
Erosregolith.jpg One of the last
photos taken by the NEAR Shoemaker
spacecraft as it landed on the asteroid
433Eros Date 2003(2003) Source
NASA Author
NASA Permission (Reusing this
file) public domain PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a6/Erosregolith.jpg

[2] Description
WholeEros.jpg English: False color
view of
http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog
/PIA02923 Original caption from
NASA's Astronomy picture of the
day...: Asteroid Eros
Reconstructed Credit: NEAR
Project, NLR, JHUAPL, Goddard SVS,
NASA Explanation: Orbiting the Sun
between Mars and Earth, asteroid 433
Eros was visited by the robot
spacecraft NEAR-Shoemaker in 2000
February. High-resolution surface
images and measurements made by NEAR's
Laser Rangefinder (NLR) have been
combined into the above visualization
based on the derived 3D model of the
tumbling space rock. NEAR allowed
scientists to discover that Eros is a
single solid body, that its composition
is nearly uniform, and that it formed
during the early years of our Solar
System. Mysteries remain, however,
including why some rocks on the surface
have disintegrated. On 2001 February
12, the NEAR mission drew to a dramatic
close as it was crash landed onto the
asteroid's surface, surviving well
enough to return an analysis of the
composition of the surface regolith. In
December of 2002, NASA made an
unsuccessful attempt to communicate
with the spacecraft after it spent 22
months resting on the asteroid's
surface. NEAR will likely remain on the
asteroid for billions of years as a
monument to human ingenuity at the turn
of the third millennium. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/25/WholeEros.jpg
1 YAN
[06/28/2001 AD] 6 		6192) A microscopic radio chip (or RFID
chip).4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.hitachi.com/New/cnews/030902.
html
2. ^
http://www.hitachi.com/New/cnews/030902.
html
3. ^
http://www.hitachi.com/New/cnews/030902.
html
4. ^
http://www.hitachi.com/New/cnews/030902.
html
5. ^ "World's smallest RFID IC,the
“µ-chip” "
http://www.hitachi.com/New/cnews/E/200
1/0628/index.html {Hitachi_u-chip_20010
628.pdf}
6. ^ "World's smallest RFID IC,the
“µ-chip” "
http://www.hitachi.com/New/cnews/E/200
1/0628/index.html {Hitachi_u-chip_20010
628.pdf} {06/28/2001}

MORE INFO
[1] "World's tiniest RFID tag
unveiled", BBC,
02/23/2007 http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/t
echnology/6389581.stm
[2]
http://www.rfidjournal.com/article/view/
337
[3]
http://www.thelibertyvoice.com/hitachi-d
evelops-a-new-rfid-with-embedded-antenna
-%C2%B5-chip
(Hitachi) Japan5  
[1] Hitachi Develops a New RFID with
Embedded Antenna µ-Chip --Makes
Possible Wireless Links that Work Using
Nothing More Than a 0.4mm X 0.4mm Chip,
One of the World's Smallest ICs-- A
New RFID with Embedded Antenna
MU-Chip Tokyo, September 2,
2003-Hitachi, Ltd. (TSE: 6501) today
announced that it has developed a new
version of its RFID µ-Chip embedding
an antenna. When using Hitachi's
original µ-Chip, one of the world's
smallest RFID ICs measuring only 0.4mm
X 0.4mm, an external antenna must be
attached to the chip to allow external
devices to read the 128-bit ID number
stored in its ROM (Read-Only-Memory).
This newly developed version, however,
features an internal antenna, enabling
chips to employ the energy of incoming
electrical waves to wirelessly transmit
its ID number to a reader. The 0.4mm X
0.4mm chip can thus operate entirely on
its own, making it possible to use
µ-Chip as RFID IC tags without the
need to attach external devices. This
breakthrough opens the door to using
µ-Chips as RFID IC tags in extremely
minute and precise applications that
had been impractical until now. For
example, the new µ-Chip can be easily
embedded in bank notes, gift
certificates, documents and whole paper
media etc. The µ-Chip, announced by
Hitachi in July 2001, is one of the
world's smallest IC chips at 0.4mm X
0.4mm. The chip data is recorded in
read-only memory during the
semiconductor production process, and
therefore cannot be rewritten, thus
guaranteeing its authenticity.
Applications of the µ-Chip include a
system for managing the SCM materials
on sites, and entrance tickets for Expo
2005 Aichi Japan which opens on March
25, 2005. The primary features of
this revolutionary µ-Chip are as
follows. (1) A RFID IC chip measuring
only 0.4mm X 0.4mm with built-in
antenna Despite its extremely small
size, this µ-Chip has a built-in
antenna to permit contactless
communications (at very close
proximity) with other devices without
using an external antenna. (2) No need
for special manufacturing
equipment The antenna is formed using
bump-metalization technology (used to
create the electrical contacts of an
IC), a process already widely used by
semiconductor manufacturers, thus
eliminating any need for specialized
equipment. (3) Complete compatibility
with conventional µ-Chip With ID
numbers and support systems that are
fully compatible with those of existing
µ-Chip, the new chip is fully
compatible with all systems that use
current µ-Chip technology. Hitachi
plans to develop numerous markets for
this chip that take full advantage of
its outstanding features. Embedding the
chip in securities, identification and
other valuable documents such as
vouchers offers a highly sophisticated
means of preventing counterfeiting.
Another high-potential application is
agricultural products, where the chips
can help ensure the safety of food by
providing traceability of ingredients.
Additionally, the chips can be embedded
in business forms to automate logistics
systems and many other business
processes. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.hitachi.com/New/cnews
/030902_030902.jpg

[2] The world's smallest radio
frequency identification tags have been
unveiled by Japanese electronics firm
Hitachi. The minute devices measure
just 0.05mm by 0.05mm (0.002x0.002in)
and to the naked eye look like spots of
powder. Here the tiny tags can be
seen next to a human hair UNKNOWN
source: http://newsimg.bbc.co.uk/media/i
mages/42606000/jpg/_42606003_tag_203.jpg

2 YAN
[02/16/2002 AD] 4 		6332) A remote control device emits
drugs inside a human body.1 2
FOOTNOTES

1. ^ Farra, Robert et al.
“First-in-Human Testing of a
Wirelessly Controlled Drug Delivery
Microchip.” Science Translational
Medicine (2012): n.
pag. http://stm.sciencemag.org/content/
early/2012/02/15/scitranslmed.3003276
2. ^ LAURAN NEERGAARD,
"Remote-controlled chip implant
delivers bone drug", 02/16/2012 AP
article. http://news.yahoo.com/remote-c
ontrolled-chip-implant-delivers-bone-dru
g-190616595.html
3. ^ Farra, Robert et al.
“First-in-Human Testing of a
Wirelessly Controlled Drug Delivery
Microchip.” Science Translational
Medicine (2012): n.
pag. http://stm.sciencemag.org/content/
early/2012/02/15/scitranslmed.3003276
4. ^ Farra, Robert et al.
“First-in-Human Testing of a
Wirelessly Controlled Drug Delivery
Microchip.” Science Translational
Medicine (2012): n.
pag. http://stm.sciencemag.org/content/
early/2012/02/15/scitranslmed.3003276

MORE INFO
[1]
http://news.yahoo.com/photos/health-1316
123812-slideshow/device-may-someday-allo
w-patients-avoid-daily-injections-photo-
191903806.html
(CCBR-SYNARC) Denmark3  
[1] Plate 1 figures A-C Farra, Robert
et al. “First-in-Human Testing of a
Wirelessly Controlled Drug Delivery
Microchip.” Science Translational
Medicine (2012): n.
pag. http://stm.sciencemag.org/content/
early/2012/02/15/scitranslmed.3003276 C
OPYRIGHTED
source: Farra, Robert et al.
“First-in-Human Testing of a
Wirelessly Controlled Drug Delivery
Microchip.” Science Translational
Medicine (2012): n.
pag. http://stm.sciencemag.org/content/
early/2012/02/15/scitranslmed.3003276

[2] Plate 4 figures A-H Farra, Robert
et al. “First-in-Human Testing of a
Wirelessly Controlled Drug Delivery
Microchip.” Science Translational
Medicine (2012): n.
pag. http://stm.sciencemag.org/content/
early/2012/02/15/scitranslmed.3003276 C
OPYRIGHTED
source:
3 YAN
[04/04/2003 AD] 5 		6195) A nanometer scale electric
motor.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ A. M. Fennimore, T. D. Yuzvinsky,
Wei-Qiang Han, M. S. Fuhrer, J. Cumings
& A. Zettl, “Rotational actuators
based on carbon nanotubes.” Nature
424.6947 (2003) :
408-410. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v424/n6947/abs/nature01823.html
2. ^ Fennimore, A. M. et al.
“Rotational actuators based on carbon
nanotubes.” Nature 424.6947 (2003) :
408-410. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v424/n6947/abs/nature01823.html
3. ^ Fennimore, A. M. et al.
“Rotational actuators based on carbon
nanotubes.” Nature 424.6947 (2003) :
408-410. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v424/n6947/abs/nature01823.html
4. ^ Fennimore, A. M. et al.
“Rotational actuators based on carbon
nanotubes.” Nature 424.6947 (2003) :
408-410. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v424/n6947/abs/nature01823.html
5. ^ Fennimore, A. M. et al.
“Rotational actuators based on carbon
nanotubes.” Nature 424.6947 (2003) :
408-410. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v424/n6947/abs/nature01823.html
{04/04/2003}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.mpoweruk.com/motorsspecial.ht
m
(University of California at Berkeley),
Berkeley, California, USA4  
[1] Credit: Zettl Research Group LBNL,
University of California,
Berkley Electric Drives - Special
Purpose Motors (Description and
Applications) Motor
Construction Special purpose designs
have been developed to solve a wide
range of drive problems. Some common
examples are included here.
Integrated Starter Generator
(ISG) The electronically controlled
integrated starter generator used in
mild hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs)
combines the automotive starter and
alternator into a single machine. The
conventional starter is a low speed,
high current DC machine, while the
alternator is a variable speed 3 phase
AC machine. The ISG has four
important functions in a hybrid vehicle
application It enables the
''start-stop'' function, turning off
the engine when the vehicle is
stationary saving fuel. It
generates the electrical energy to
power all the electrical ancillaries.
It provides a power boost to assist
the engine when required, permitting
smaller engines for similar
performance. In some
configurations it recuperates energy
from regenerative braking. In a
typical implementation (below), the ISG
is a short axis, large diameter
''pancake'' shaped switched reluctance
machine mounted directly on the end of
the engine crankshaft between the
engine and the clutch in the gearbox
bell housing. Image source Long,
Schofield, Howe, Piron &
McClelland ''Design of a Switched
Reluctance Machine for Extended Speed
Operation'' IMEDC June 2003 The ISG
is a bi-directional energy converter
acting as a motor when powered by the
battery or a generator when driven by
the engine. The system voltage in a
mild HEV is 42 Volts which means that,
for the same cranking power as a 12
Volt machine, the starter current can
be reduced. Typical power throughput is
between 5kW and 15 kW with a possible
peak power of 70 kW for cold
cranking.. The brushless ISG design
eliminates one rotating machine
completely as well as the associated
commutator and brushes from the DC
machine and the sliprings and brushes
from the AC machine. The starter
solenoid, the Bendix ring (starter
gear) and the pulley or gear drive to
the alternator are also no longer
needed and because of the higher system
voltage, the diameter and weight of the
copper cabling is also reduced
substantially. The savings however
come at a cost. The system must be
integrated with several subsystems as
follows An AC/DC converter to
rectify the generator output voltage.
A DC/DC converter to supply the
vehicle's electrical power system
voltages. Power electronics and
software to control the ISG current,
voltage, speed, torque and temperature
as appropriate. An overall energy
management system integrated with the
vehicle's engine, battery and
brakes. Larger versions of this
construction are also used in full
hybrid electric vehicles. The
switched reluctance machine with its
simple rotor of inert iron is very
robust, able to operate at high speed
and to withstand the harsh operating
conditions in the engine
compartment. History
Outer Rotor Motors There are many
designs using this construction, mostly
for small sizes. Two examples of low
power motors are shown below. High
power versions are used for ''in
wheel'' automotive applications.
Inside Out Motor These are
permanent magnet motors with the moving
magnets arranged around the periphery
of a multi pole fixed stator carrying
the field windings.
Used for automotive drive
systems including in-wheel motors. Low
power versions used in small cooling
fans and direct drive record player
turntables. Toroidal Coil
Motor This is an ''inside out''
brushless permanent magnet motor with a
toroidal wound stator covered by a cup
shaped permanent magnet outer
rotor. Because
of the low inertia and friction free
rotor, the toroidal motor is capable of
speeds up to 25,000 RPM. Suitable for
low power applications it is used for
example to drive the polygonal rotating
mirrors which are mounted directly on
the rotor in laser printers.
Linear Motors In most cases the
linear motor can be considered as a
conventional rotary motor with both the
stator and the rotor split and rolled
out flat. The same electromagnetic
forces apply and these have been
employed in similar classes of AC and
DC machines. Except for traction motors
the travel of the motor armature is
usually quite short. Linear
Stepping Motors The most common
application is the stepping motor.
Stator poles are laid out along the
track and excited by windings fed from
a pulsed DC source. Permanent magnets
forming the armature are held in the
carriage. The carriage moves along the
track in response to pulses sent to the
the stator windings in much the same
way as the rotor turns in a brushless
DC motor. Closed loop control is
possible by mounting a position sensor
on the carriage. Despite the
elegance of the linear motor, linear
motion is more often provided by the
less expensive and more mundane method
of using a rotary stepping motor
driving a lead screw. Maglev
Traction Motors The principle of
the linear induction motor is used to
propel high speed Maglev (Magnetic
Levitation) trains which float on a
magnetic field created by
electromagnets in the trackbed under
the train . A separate set of trackside
guidance magnets is used to control the
lateral position of the train relative
to the track. Thus the maglev train
uses electromagnetic forces for three
different tasks, to suspend, to guide
and to propel the train. Maglev
trains have been developed in several
countries of the world using a variety
of configurations. Examples of the
essential features are described
below. Propulsion
The train has no onboard motor.
Electromagnets in the trackbed are
excited in sequence creating a linear
rather than a rotating field. By
transformer action, the trackbed coils
induce currents in coils on board the
train which are used to energise
powerful electromagnets. The Lorentz
force between the trackbed currents and
the the onboard electromagnets causes
the magnets to be propelled along by
the moving field. The
principles involved are very similar to
those of the induction motor but with
the static and moving parts
interchanged. See diagram below.
For illustrative
purposes the track can be likened to a
ladder formed by the unrolled squirrel
cage rotor of the induction motor. In
this case however it is fixed and it
supplies the moving field. Currents are
induced in the train's electromagnets
which are equivalent to the stator
poles of the induction motor but in
this case the magnets are free to move.
In practical designs the trackbed
currents are actually provided in a
series of individual coils laid along
the track. Levitation
Various levitation schemes are used.
The force holding the train aloft can
be created by the magnetic repulsion
between the same electromagnets on the
track and the onboard electromagnets in
the train which are used for
propulsion. The train's levitating
magnets are powered by direct current
supplied by a battery which is kept
charged by an induction generator
taking its power from the currents
induced by the trackbed coils in the
onboard generator coils. In
the diagram above, when the magnet is
directly above the current carrying
conductor as shown, the magnetic forces
(north and south poles) from the two
adjacent current loops cancel out and
there is no lift. If however the magnet
is moving very quickly over the coils,
it will reach a position over like,
repulsive, poles (north poles in the
diagram) which are displaced from the
attractive south poles so that the net
effect is a force repelling the magnet
away from the track. This is only
possible because the current in the
trackbed magnets lags the voltage due
to the inductance of the windings,
creating a delay in the build up of the
balanced field by which time the magnet
has moved into the adjacent region
where there is a net repulsive force.
This effect only happens when the
magnet on the train is moving at high
speed across the trackbed magnets. Thus
the train needs to be in motion for
this system to work and the train needs
wheels for support as it accelerates
from rest and when it is slowing to a
halt. Alternatively
levitation can be provided by separate
windings. The train's levitation
magnets protrude from the side of the
train and run between pairs of
vertically separated electromagnets in
guideways at each side of the train,
rather than in the trackbed. This
arrangement creates an attractive force
above the train's magnets combined with
a repulsive force beneath the train's
magnets to provide the levitating
force. Guidance For
guidance the train uses magnetic fields
provided by a separate set of weaker
magnets along each side of the train.
Similar in principle to the levitation
magnets they are used to control the
lateral position of the train relative
to the track.
Excitation of the trackside magnets is
arranged such that only the section
under the train is active. As the train
moves along the track between sections
the current to the previous section is
switched off and the current to the
next section is switched on pulling the
train along. This serves the dual
purpose of avoiding losses by
energising only the section of track
directly under the train and at the
same time, since the power to the rest
of the track is switched off, it
provides security against electric
shock to anybody near to the track and
avoids the possibility of accidentally
short circuiting the system by dropping
rubbish onto live conductors.
Very high armature currents of
thousands of amps or more are involved
and some designs use high temperature
superconductors ( HTS ) in the onboard
magnets, cooled with liquid nitrogen or
helium to minimise the resistive
losses. As might be expected some
sophisticated control systems are
needed to keep everything on track.
History Axial Field
Motors Axial field motors have been
developed for applications which
require short, flat, ''pancake''
construction. Printed Circuit
(PCB) or ''Pancake'' Motor The
printed circuit motor is an example of
an ironless or coreless motor with
several unique features. The pancake
construction uses an axial magnetic
field to achieve the short flat
construction. Radial field PCB motors
are also possible.
Construction The rotor windings
are printed, stamped or welded onto a
thin, disc shaped glass fibre circuit
board which rotates in the air gap
between pairs of permanent magnets
arranged around the periphery of the
disk. The windings fan out in a series
of radial loops around the surface of
the disk. The magnets are arranged
alternatively north and south so that
the magnetic fields in the air gaps of
adjacent magnet pairs are in opposite
directions. The magnets are held in
place by two iron end caps in a compact
''pancake'' shaped block to complete
the magnetic circuit. Current is fed to
the rotor windings via brushes through
precious metal commutator segments
printed on the disc. Operating
Principle Traditional electric
motors have a radial magnetic field or
flux with the rotor current flowing
axially along the length of the rotor.
In typical printed circuit motors the
construction is reversed. The magnetic
field is axial (oriented along the axis
of the machine) and the current flows
radially from the axis to the edge of
the disc and back again. A tangential
force on the disk is created by the
current passing through the magnetic
fields in the air gaps between the pole
pairs of the permanent magnets. So that
the return current does not cancel out
the effect of the outgoing current, the
return wire is physically separated or
displaced to one side from the outgoing
wire by the width of the magnet. In
this way it interacts with the magnetic
field of the adjacent magnet which is
in the opposite direction and thus
reinforces the tangential force on the
disk. In many ways it is similar
to Faraday's 1831disk or homopolar
motor which used a single magnet and
was driven by a unidirectional current
fed by brushes at the centre and on the
periphery of the disk.
Applications The printed circuit
motor is a very compact and light
weight design making it useful in
confined spaces. Since the rotor does
not have drag a lump of iron around, it
has very low inertia and can run up to
speed very quickly. Because of the many
commutator segments and the low current
capability of the windings, the PCB
motor is only suitable for low power
applications and is not suitable for
continuous operation. It is however
ideal for servo systems and industrial
controls and automotive applications
such as electric window winders.
Micro-motors
(Micro-ElectroMechanical Systems -
MEMS) Electrostatic Motor
The motor shown below is an example of
semiconductor manufacturing technology
used to fabricate very small mechanical
components. It measures 100 microns
across, or about the width of a human
hair. Similar in principle to a
reluctance motor, it depends on
electrostatic attraction, rather than
magnetic attraction, between the stator
and rotor poles. Because the dimensions
are so tiny, very high electric fields
can be built up with only a few volts
between the motor poles.
Fan Long-Shen, Tai Yu-Chong
and Richard S. Muller 1989
IC-processed electrostatic
micromotors Sensors Actuators 20
41-7 Fan L-S, Tai Y-C and R S
Muller 1988 Integrated moveable
micromechanical structures for sensors
and actuators IEEE Trans. Electron
Devices The motor is
not assembled from individual
components. Instead the components are
built up on a semiconductor substrate
by masking and etching and a mask-less
post-processing release step is
performed to etch away sacrificial
layers, allowing the structural layers
to move and rotate.
Micromachined micromotors can be
monolithically integrated together with
the necessary CMOS drive circuits,
containing oscillators, frequency
dividers and counters, and transistors
for the drive circuit all on one
silicon chip. Common uses
include defense/munitions applications,
computer hard drives, optics, sensors
and actuators.
History Nano-motors
(Nano-ElectroMechanical Systems -
NEMS) Electrostatic Motor
Even smaller motors have been made
using nanotechnology. An example is
shown below. It consists of a tiny gold
slab rotor, about 100 nm square,
mounted on concentric carbon nanotubes.
The outer tube carries the rotor,
driven by electrostatic electrodes,
rotating around an inner tube which
acts as a supporting shaft. By applying
voltage pulses of up to 5 Volts between
the rotor plate and stators, the
position, speed and direction of
rotation of the rotor can be
controlled. It measures about 500
nanometers across, 300 times smaller
than the diameter of a human hair.
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.mpoweruk.com/images/n
ems.gif

[2] Credit: Zettl Research
Group LBNL, University of California,
Berkley Electric Drives - Special
Purpose Motors (Description and
Applications) Motor
Construction Special purpose designs
have been developed to solve a wide
range of drive problems. Some common
examples are included here.
Integrated Starter Generator
(ISG) The electronically controlled
integrated starter generator used in
mild hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs)
combines the automotive starter and
alternator into a single machine. The
conventional starter is a low speed,
high current DC machine, while the
alternator is a variable speed 3 phase
AC machine. The ISG has four
important functions in a hybrid vehicle
application It enables the
''start-stop'' function, turning off
the engine when the vehicle is
stationary saving fuel. It
generates the electrical energy to
power all the electrical ancillaries.
It provides a power boost to assist
the engine when required, permitting
smaller engines for similar
performance. In some
configurations it recuperates energy
from regenerative braking. In a
typical implementation (below), the ISG
is a short axis, large diameter
''pancake'' shaped switched reluctance
machine mounted directly on the end of
the engine crankshaft between the
engine and the clutch in the gearbox
bell housing. Image source Long,
Schofield, Howe, Piron &
McClelland ''Design of a Switched
Reluctance Machine for Extended Speed
Operation'' IMEDC June 2003 The ISG
is a bi-directional energy converter
acting as a motor when powered by the
battery or a generator when driven by
the engine. The system voltage in a
mild HEV is 42 Volts which means that,
for the same cranking power as a 12
Volt machine, the starter current can
be reduced. Typical power throughput is
between 5kW and 15 kW with a possible
peak power of 70 kW for cold
cranking.. The brushless ISG design
eliminates one rotating machine
completely as well as the associated
commutator and brushes from the DC
machine and the sliprings and brushes
from the AC machine. The starter
solenoid, the Bendix ring (starter
gear) and the pulley or gear drive to
the alternator are also no longer
needed and because of the higher system
voltage, the diameter and weight of the
copper cabling is also reduced
substantially. The savings however
come at a cost. The system must be
integrated with several subsystems as
follows An AC/DC converter to
rectify the generator output voltage.
A DC/DC converter to supply the
vehicle's electrical power system
voltages. Power electronics and
software to control the ISG current,
voltage, speed, torque and temperature
as appropriate. An overall energy
management system integrated with the
vehicle's engine, battery and
brakes. Larger versions of this
construction are also used in full
hybrid electric vehicles. The
switched reluctance machine with its
simple rotor of inert iron is very
robust, able to operate at high speed
and to withstand the harsh operating
conditions in the engine
compartment. History
Outer Rotor Motors There are many
designs using this construction, mostly
for small sizes. Two examples of low
power motors are shown below. High
power versions are used for ''in
wheel'' automotive applications.
Inside Out Motor These are
permanent magnet motors with the moving
magnets arranged around the periphery
of a multi pole fixed stator carrying
the field windings.
Used for automotive drive
systems including in-wheel motors. Low
power versions used in small cooling
fans and direct drive record player
turntables. Toroidal Coil
Motor This is an ''inside out''
brushless permanent magnet motor with a
toroidal wound stator covered by a cup
shaped permanent magnet outer
rotor. Because
of the low inertia and friction free
rotor, the toroidal motor is capable of
speeds up to 25,000 RPM. Suitable for
low power applications it is used for
example to drive the polygonal rotating
mirrors which are mounted directly on
the rotor in laser printers.
Linear Motors In most cases the
linear motor can be considered as a
conventional rotary motor with both the
stator and the rotor split and rolled
out flat. The same electromagnetic
forces apply and these have been
employed in similar classes of AC and
DC machines. Except for traction motors
the travel of the motor armature is
usually quite short. Linear
Stepping Motors The most common
application is the stepping motor.
Stator poles are laid out along the
track and excited by windings fed from
a pulsed DC source. Permanent magnets
forming the armature are held in the
carriage. The carriage moves along the
track in response to pulses sent to the
the stator windings in much the same
way as the rotor turns in a brushless
DC motor. Closed loop control is
possible by mounting a position sensor
on the carriage. Despite the
elegance of the linear motor, linear
motion is more often provided by the
less expensive and more mundane method
of using a rotary stepping motor
driving a lead screw. Maglev
Traction Motors The principle of
the linear induction motor is used to
propel high speed Maglev (Magnetic
Levitation) trains which float on a
magnetic field created by
electromagnets in the trackbed under
the train . A separate set of trackside
guidance magnets is used to control the
lateral position of the train relative
to the track. Thus the maglev train
uses electromagnetic forces for three
different tasks, to suspend, to guide
and to propel the train. Maglev
trains have been developed in several
countries of the world using a variety
of configurations. Examples of the
essential features are described
below. Propulsion
The train has no onboard motor.
Electromagnets in the trackbed are
excited in sequence creating a linear
rather than a rotating field. By
transformer action, the trackbed coils
induce currents in coils on board the
train which are used to energise
powerful electromagnets. The Lorentz
force between the trackbed currents and
the the onboard electromagnets causes
the magnets to be propelled along by
the moving field. The
principles involved are very similar to
those of the induction motor but with
the static and moving parts
interchanged. See diagram below.
For illustrative
purposes the track can be likened to a
ladder formed by the unrolled squirrel
cage rotor of the induction motor. In
this case however it is fixed and it
supplies the moving field. Currents are
induced in the train's electromagnets
which are equivalent to the stator
poles of the induction motor but in
this case the magnets are free to move.
In practical designs the trackbed
currents are actually provided in a
series of individual coils laid along
the track. Levitation
Various levitation schemes are used.
The force holding the train aloft can
be created by the magnetic repulsion
between the same electromagnets on the
track and the onboard electromagnets in
the train which are used for
propulsion. The train's levitating
magnets are powered by direct current
supplied by a battery which is kept
charged by an induction generator
taking its power from the currents
induced by the trackbed coils in the
onboard generator coils. In
the diagram above, when the magnet is
directly above the current carrying
conductor as shown, the magnetic forces
(north and south poles) from the two
adjacent current loops cancel out and
there is no lift. If however the magnet
is moving very quickly over the coils,
it will reach a position over like,
repulsive, poles (north poles in the
diagram) which are displaced from the
attractive south poles so that the net
effect is a force repelling the magnet
away from the track. This is only
possible because the current in the
trackbed magnets lags the voltage due
to the inductance of the windings,
creating a delay in the build up of the
balanced field by which time the magnet
has moved into the adjacent region
where there is a net repulsive force.
This effect only happens when the
magnet on the train is moving at high
speed across the trackbed magnets. Thus
the train needs to be in motion for
this system to work and the train needs
wheels for support as it accelerates
from rest and when it is slowing to a
halt. Alternatively
levitation can be provided by separate
windings. The train's levitation
magnets protrude from the side of the
train and run between pairs of
vertically separated electromagnets in
guideways at each side of the train,
rather than in the trackbed. This
arrangement creates an attractive force
above the train's magnets combined with
a repulsive force beneath the train's
magnets to provide the levitating
force. Guidance For
guidance the train uses magnetic fields
provided by a separate set of weaker
magnets along each side of the train.
Similar in principle to the levitation
magnets they are used to control the
lateral position of the train relative
to the track.
Excitation of the trackside magnets is
arranged such that only the section
under the train is active. As the train
moves along the track between sections
the current to the previous section is
switched off and the current to the
next section is switched on pulling the
train along. This serves the dual
purpose of avoiding losses by
energising only the section of track
directly under the train and at the
same time, since the power to the rest
of the track is switched off, it
provides security against electric
shock to anybody near to the track and
avoids the possibility of accidentally
short circuiting the system by dropping
rubbish onto live conductors.
Very high armature currents of
thousands of amps or more are involved
and some designs use high temperature
superconductors ( HTS ) in the onboard
magnets, cooled with liquid nitrogen or
helium to minimise the resistive
losses. As might be expected some
sophisticated control systems are
needed to keep everything on track.
History Axial Field
Motors Axial field motors have been
developed for applications which
require short, flat, ''pancake''
construction. Printed Circuit
(PCB) or ''Pancake'' Motor The
printed circuit motor is an example of
an ironless or coreless motor with
several unique features. The pancake
construction uses an axial magnetic
field to achieve the short flat
construction. Radial field PCB motors
are also possible.
Construction The rotor windings
are printed, stamped or welded onto a
thin, disc shaped glass fibre circuit
board which rotates in the air gap
between pairs of permanent magnets
arranged around the periphery of the
disk. The windings fan out in a series
of radial loops around the surface of
the disk. The magnets are arranged
alternatively north and south so that
the magnetic fields in the air gaps of
adjacent magnet pairs are in opposite
directions. The magnets are held in
place by two iron end caps in a compact
''pancake'' shaped block to complete
the magnetic circuit. Current is fed to
the rotor windings via brushes through
precious metal commutator segments
printed on the disc. Operating
Principle Traditional electric
motors have a radial magnetic field or
flux with the rotor current flowing
axially along the length of the rotor.
In typical printed circuit motors the
construction is reversed. The magnetic
field is axial (oriented along the axis
of the machine) and the current flows
radially from the axis to the edge of
the disc and back again. A tangential
force on the disk is created by the
current passing through the magnetic
fields in the air gaps between the pole
pairs of the permanent magnets. So that
the return current does not cancel out
the effect of the outgoing current, the
return wire is physically separated or
displaced to one side from the outgoing
wire by the width of the magnet. In
this way it interacts with the magnetic
field of the adjacent magnet which is
in the opposite direction and thus
reinforces the tangential force on the
disk. In many ways it is similar
to Faraday's 1831disk or homopolar
motor which used a single magnet and
was driven by a unidirectional current
fed by brushes at the centre and on the
periphery of the disk.
Applications The printed circuit
motor is a very compact and light
weight design making it useful in
confined spaces. Since the rotor does
not have drag a lump of iron around, it
has very low inertia and can run up to
speed very quickly. Because of the many
commutator segments and the low current
capability of the windings, the PCB
motor is only suitable for low power
applications and is not suitable for
continuous operation. It is however
ideal for servo systems and industrial
controls and automotive applications
such as electric window winders.
Micro-motors
(Micro-ElectroMechanical Systems -
MEMS) Electrostatic Motor
The motor shown below is an example of
semiconductor manufacturing technology
used to fabricate very small mechanical
components. It measures 100 microns
across, or about the width of a human
hair. Similar in principle to a
reluctance motor, it depends on
electrostatic attraction, rather than
magnetic attraction, between the stator
and rotor poles. Because the dimensions
are so tiny, very high electric fields
can be built up with only a few volts
between the motor poles.
Fan Long-Shen, Tai Yu-Chong
and Richard S. Muller 1989
IC-processed electrostatic
micromotors Sensors Actuators 20
41-7 Fan L-S, Tai Y-C and R S
Muller 1988 Integrated moveable
micromechanical structures for sensors
and actuators IEEE Trans. Electron
Devices The motor is
not assembled from individual
components. Instead the components are
built up on a semiconductor substrate
by masking and etching and a mask-less
post-processing release step is
performed to etch away sacrificial
layers, allowing the structural layers
to move and rotate.
Micromachined micromotors can be
monolithically integrated together with
the necessary CMOS drive circuits,
containing oscillators, frequency
dividers and counters, and transistors
for the drive circuit all on one
silicon chip. Common uses
include defense/munitions applications,
computer hard drives, optics, sensors
and actuators.
History Nano-motors
(Nano-ElectroMechanical Systems -
NEMS) Electrostatic Motor
Even smaller motors have been made
using nanotechnology. An example is
shown below. It consists of a tiny gold
slab rotor, about 100 nm square,
mounted on concentric carbon nanotubes.
The outer tube carries the rotor,
driven by electrostatic electrodes,
rotating around an inner tube which
acts as a supporting shaft. By applying
voltage pulses of up to 5 Volts between
the rotor plate and stators, the
position, speed and direction of
rotation of the rotor can be
controlled. It measures about 500
nanometers across, 300 times smaller
than the diameter of a human hair.
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.mpoweruk.com/images/n
ems.gif
4 YAN
[07/01/2004 AD] 5 		5641) The first ship to orbit Saturn.3

FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://saturn.jpl.nasa.gov/mission/satur
ntourdates/2004through2006saturntourhigh
lights/
2. ^
http://saturn.jpl.nasa.gov/mission/satur
ntourdates/2004through2006saturntourhigh
lights/
3. ^
http://saturn.jpl.nasa.gov/mission/satur
ntourdates/2004through2006saturntourhigh
lights/
4. ^
http://saturn.jpl.nasa.gov/mission/satur
ntourdates/2004through2006saturntourhigh
lights/
5. ^
http://saturn.jpl.nasa.gov/mission/satur
ntourdates/2004through2006saturntourhigh
lights/ {07/01/2004}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1997-061A
Planet Saturn4  
[1] * original caption: Jet Propulsion
Laboratory (JPL) workers use a
borescope to verify pressure relief
device bellows integrity on a
radioisotope thermoelectric generator
(RTG) which has been installed on the
Cassini spacecraft in the Payload
Hazardous Servicing Facility. The
activity is part of the mechanical and
electrical verification testing of RTGs
during prelaunch processing. RTGs use
heat from the natural decay of
plutonium to generate electric power.
The three RTGs on Cassini will enable
the spacecraft to operate far from the
Sun where solar power systems are not
feasible. They will provide electrical
power to Cassini on its 6.7-year trip
to the Saturnian system and during its
four-year mission at Saturn. The
Cassini mission is scheduled for an
Oct. 6 launch aboard a Titan
IVB/Centaur expendable launch vehicle.
Cassini is built and managed for NASA
by JPL. * date: 18. Dec 1997
* image ID: KSC-97PC-1070 *
source:
http://nix.ksc.nasa.gov/info;jsessionid=
1tplxxjif20rp?id=KSC-97PC-1070&orgid=5
PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/61/Cassini_assembly.jpg

[2] Original Caption Released with
Image: This is an artists concept of
Cassini during the Saturn Orbit
Insertion (SOI) maneuver, just after
the main engine has begun firing. The
spacecraft is moving out of the plane
of the page and to the right (firing to
reduce its spacecraft velocity with
respect to Saturn) and has just crossed
the ring plane. The SOI maneuver,
which is approximately 90 minutes long,
will allow Cassini to be captured by
Saturn's gravity into a five-month
orbit. Cassini's close proximity to the
planet after the maneuver offers a
unique opportunity to observe Saturn
and its rings at extremely high
resolution. Source:
http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog
/PIA03883 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b2/Cassini_Saturn_Orbit_
Insertion.jpg
4 YAN
[07/22/2004 AD] 3 		6655) The first image of a planet of a
different star.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "A giant planet candidate near a
young brown dwarf. Direct VLT/NACO
observations using IR wavefront
sensing", G. Chauvin, A.-M. Lagrange,
C. Dumas, B. Zuckerman, D. Mouillet, I.
Song, J.-L. Beuzit, P. Lowrance,
Astronomy and Astrophysics, 425
(October 2004), pp. L29�L32. Bibcode:
2004A&A...425L..29C
doi:10.1051/0004-6361:200400056. http:/
/dx.doi.org/10.1051%2F0004-6361%3A200400
056
2. ^ "A giant planet candidate near a
young brown dwarf. Direct VLT/NACO
observations using IR wavefront
sensing", G. Chauvin, A.-M. Lagrange,
C. Dumas, B. Zuckerman, D. Mouillet, I.
Song, J.-L. Beuzit, P. Lowrance,
Astronomy and Astrophysics, 425
(October 2004), pp. L29�L32. Bibcode:
2004A&A...425L..29C
doi:10.1051/0004-6361:200400056. http:/
/dx.doi.org/10.1051%2F0004-6361%3A200400
056
3. ^ "A giant planet candidate near a
young brown dwarf. Direct VLT/NACO
observations using IR wavefront
sensing", G. Chauvin, A.-M. Lagrange,
C. Dumas, B. Zuckerman, D. Mouillet, I.
Song, J.-L. Beuzit, P. Lowrance,
Astronomy and Astrophysics, 425
(October 2004), pp. L29�L32. Bibcode:
2004A&A...425L..29C
doi:10.1051/0004-6361:200400056. http:/
/dx.doi.org/10.1051%2F0004-6361%3A200400
056

MORE INFO
[1] "Ross 458(AB) c". The
Extrasolar Planet Encyclopaedia.
Exoplanet.eu. http://exoplanet.eu/catal
og/?f=%22imaging%22+IN+detection
(European Southern Observatory)
Santiago, Chili2  
[1] Figure 1: Composite image of brown
dwarf 2M1207 and its GPCC in H (blue),
$K_{rm s}$ (green) and $L~!'$ (red).
The companion appears clearly
distinguishable in comparison to the
color of the brown dwarf
2M1207. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.aanda.org/articles/aa
/full/2004/38/aagg222/img11.gif

[2] Description Foto subida en
remplazo de
Imagen:First_Exoplanet_picture.jpg,
subida en fecha 9 oct, 2004,
accidentalmente borrada. Licencia de
uso libre con atribución al European
Southern Observatory: ESO Press
Photos may be reproduced, if credit is
given to the European Southern
Observatory. Fuente:
http://www.eso.org/outreach/press-rel/pr
-2004/pr-23-04.html es:Categoría:Imág
enes con condiciones de uso Date
2005-05-01 (original upload
date) Source Originally from
es.wikipedia; description page is/was
here (original source). Author
Original uploader was Ascánder at
es.wikipedia CC
source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wik
ipedia/commons/1/12/Primera_foto_planeta
_extrasolar_ESO.jpg
4 YAN
[11/29/2004 AD] 		5832) Stem cells are used to repair
damaged nerves, allowing a paralyzed
human to walk.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Stem cell therapy brings
paralyzed to feet",
ChinaDaily http://www.chinadaily.com.cn
/english/doc/2004-11/29/content_395570.h
tm
2. ^ "Stem cell therapy brings
paralyzed to feet",
ChinaDaily http://www.chinadaily.com.cn
/english/doc/2004-11/29/content_395570.h
tm
3. ^ "Stem cell therapy brings
paralyzed to feet",
ChinaDaily http://www.chinadaily.com.cn
/english/doc/2004-11/29/content_395570.h
tm

MORE INFO
[1] Kang KS, Kim SW, Oh YH, et
al. (2005). "A 37-year-old spinal
cord-injured female patient,
transplanted of multipotent stem cells
from human UC blood, with improved
sensory perception and mobility, both
functionally and morphologically: a
case study". Cytotherapy 7 (4):
368–73.
DOI:10.1080/14653240500238160. PMID
16162459
[2] "team co-headed by researchers at
Chosun University", Seoul National
University and the Seoul Cord Blood
Bank (SCB) Umbilical cord cells 'allow
paralysed woman to walk' By Roger
Highfield, Science Editor. Last
Updated: 1:28AM GMT 30 Nov 2004
(Chosun University) Kwangju, South
Korea3  
[1] Figure 2 The atrophied spinal
cord is expanded after stem cell
administration with total laminectomy
on pre-contrast axial CT films (b). The
lowermost portion of the atrophied
spinal cord is enlarged, along with
thinning and interruption of the
calcified pia mater at the T12–L1
level on pre-contrast axial CT films
(d). Sagittal T2 weighted SE MRI reveal
regenerating spinal cord at the injured
level (arrow, f) and some of the cauda
equina below it (arrow heads, f). CT
images before cell transplantation (a,
c) and MRI image before cell
transplantation (e). Fig 2
from: Kang KS, Kim SW, Oh YH, et al.
(2005). ''A 37-year-old spinal
cord-injured female patient,
transplanted of multipotent stem cells
from human UC blood, with improved
sensory perception and mobility, both
functionally and morphologically: a
case study''. Cytotherapy 7 (4):
368–73.
DOI:10.1080/14653240500238160. PMID
16162459. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://informahealthcare.com/na1
01/home/literatum/publisher/ashley/journ
als/content/cyt/2005/cyt.2005.7.issue-4/
14653240500238160/production/images/larg
e/14653240500238160fig002.jpeg
5 YAN
[01/14/2005 AD] 4 		5642) A ship lands on a moon of Saturn
(Titan).2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://saturn.jpl.nasa.gov/mission/satur
ntourdates/2004through2006saturntourhigh
lights/
2. ^
http://saturn.jpl.nasa.gov/mission/satur
ntourdates/2004through2006saturntourhigh
lights/
3. ^
http://saturn.jpl.nasa.gov/mission/satur
ntourdates/2004through2006saturntourhigh
lights/
4. ^
http://saturn.jpl.nasa.gov/mission/satur
ntourdates/2004through2006saturntourhigh
lights/ {01/14/2005}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1997-061A
Planet Saturn, moon Titan3  
[1] Description Huygens on
Titan.jpg English: This artist's
impression is based on images from
Huygens landing on Titan. In the
foreground, sits the car-sized lander
that sent back images for more than 90
minutes before running out of battery
power. The parachute that slowed
Huygen's re-entry is seen in the
background, still attached to the
lander. Smooth stones, possibly
containing water-ice, are strewn about
the landscape. Analyses of Huygen's
images and data show that Titan's
surface today has intriguing
similarities to the surface of the
early Earth. Date 8 March
2010(2010-03-08) Source NASA
Image of the Day Author ESA PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/bc/Huygens_on_Titan.jpg

[2] English: Image of Titan's surface
taken by the Huygens probe on 14
January 2005. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/bc/Huygens_surface_color
.jpg
8 YAN
[12/10/2008 AD] 6 		3886) Remote neuron reading. An image
of what the eyes are seeing is captured
remotely using Magnetic Resonance
Imaging (MRI).4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Miyawaki, Y., Uchida, H.,
Yamashita, O., Sato, M., Morito, Y.,
Tanabe, H. C., Sadato, N., Kamitani, Y.
(2008). Visual image reconstruction
from human brain activity using a
combination of multi-scale local image
decoders. Neuron, 60, 5, 915-929.
http://www.cell.com/neuron/abstract/S0
896-6273(08)00958-6
2. ^ Miyawaki, Y., Uchida, H.,
Yamashita, O., Sato, M., Morito, Y.,
Tanabe, H. C., Sadato, N., Kamitani, Y.
(2008). Visual image reconstruction
from human brain activity using a
combination of multi-scale local image
decoders. Neuron, 60, 5, 915-929.
http://www.cell.com/neuron/abstract/S0
896-6273(08)00958-6
3. ^ Miyawaki, Y., Uchida, H.,
Yamashita, O., Sato, M., Morito, Y.,
Tanabe, H. C., Sadato, N., Kamitani, Y.
(2008). Visual image reconstruction
from human brain activity using a
combination of multi-scale local image
decoders. Neuron, 60, 5, 915-929.
http://www.cell.com/neuron/abstract/S0
896-6273(08)00958-6
4. ^ Miyawaki, Y., Uchida, H.,
Yamashita, O., Sato, M., Morito, Y.,
Tanabe, H. C., Sadato, N., Kamitani, Y.
(2008). Visual image reconstruction
from human brain activity using a
combination of multi-scale local image
decoders. Neuron, 60, 5, 915-929.
http://www.cell.com/neuron/abstract/S0
896-6273(08)00958-6
5. ^ Miyawaki, Y., Uchida, H.,
Yamashita, O., Sato, M., Morito, Y.,
Tanabe, H. C., Sadato, N., Kamitani, Y.
(2008). Visual image reconstruction
from human brain activity using a
combination of multi-scale local image
decoders. Neuron, 60, 5, 915-929.
http://www.cell.com/neuron/abstract/S0
896-6273(08)00958-6
6. ^ Miyawaki, Y., Uchida, H.,
Yamashita, O., Sato, M., Morito, Y.,
Tanabe, H. C., Sadato, N., Kamitani, Y.
(2008). Visual image reconstruction
from human brain activity using a
combination of multi-scale local image
decoders. Neuron, 60, 5, 915-929.
http://www.cell.com/neuron/abstract/S0
896-6273(08)00958-6 {12/10/2008}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.nerdgrind.com/dream-and-thoug
ht-recorder-created-by-japanese-research
-team/
[2]
http://gizmodo.com/5107377/new-technolog
y-could-display-your-dreams-on-screen
(Collaboration between researchers at
two Japanese Universities, two research
Institutes, and ATR Computational
Neuroscience Laboratories) Kyoto,
Japan5  
[1] Image from 12/10/2008 ''Neuron''
paper COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.cell.com/neuron/image
/S0896-6273(08)00958-6?imageId=gr2&image
Type=large

[2] Image from 12/10/2008 ''Neuron''
paper COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.cell.com/neuron/image
/S0896-6273(08)00958-6?imageId=gr1&image
Type=large
12 YAN
[01/31/2012 AD] 5 6 		276) Sound a brain hears is recorded
directly from the brain.1 2 3
FOOTNOTES

1. ^ Pasley BN, David SV, Mesgarani
N, Flinker A, Shamma SA, et al. (2012)
Reconstructing Speech from Human
Auditory Cortex. PLoS Biol 10(1):
e1001251.
doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.1001251
http://www.plosbiology.org/article/inf
o%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pbio.1001251

2. ^ "Researchers tune into what brain
hears", ABC News, 02/01/2012.
http://www.abc.net.au/science/articles
/2012/02/01/3419795.htm
3. ^ "Science decodes 'internal
voices"', BBC News,
01/31/2012. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/s
cience-environment-16811042
4. ^ Pasley BN, David SV, Mesgarani N,
Flinker A, Shamma SA, et al. (2012)
Reconstructing Speech from Human
Auditory Cortex. PLoS Biol 10(1):
e1001251.
doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.1001251
http://www.plosbiology.org/article/inf
o%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pbio.1001251

5. ^ Pasley BN, David SV, Mesgarani N,
Flinker A, Shamma SA, et al. (2012)
Reconstructing Speech from Human
Auditory Cortex. PLoS Biol 10(1):
e1001251.
doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.1001251
http://www.plosbiology.org/article/inf
o%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pbio.1001251

6. ^ Ted Huntington. {2015}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/world.html

(University of California at Berkeley)
Berkeley, CA, USA4  
[1] Figure 1. Experiment
paradigm. Participants listened to
words (acoustic waveform, top left),
while neural signals were recorded from
cortical surface electrode arrays (top
right, red circles) implanted over
superior and middle temporal gyrus
(STG, MTG). Speech-induced cortical
field potentials (bottom right, gray
curves) recorded at multiple electrode
sites were used to fit multi-input,
multi-output models for offline
decoding. The models take as input
time-varying neural signals at multiple
electrodes and output a spectrogram
consisting of time-varying spectral
power across a range of acoustic
frequencies (180–7,000 Hz, bottom
left). To assess decoding accuracy, the
reconstructed spectrogram is compared
to the spectrogram of the original
acoustic
waveform. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.1001
251.g001 CC
source: http://www.plosbiology.org/artic
le/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pbio.1001251
.g001/largerimage

[2] Figure 2. Spectrogram
reconstruction. (A) Top: spectrogram
of six isolated words (deep, jazz,
cause) and pseudowords (fook, ors, nim)
presented aurally to an individual
participant. Bottom: spectrogram-based
reconstruction of the same speech
segment, linearly decoded from a set of
electrodes. Purple and green bars
denote vowels and fricative consonants,
respectively, and the spectrogram is
normalized within each frequency
channel for display. (B) Single trial
high gamma band power (70–150 Hz,
gray curves) induced by the speech
segment in (A). Recordings are from
four different STG sites used in the
reconstruction. The high gamma response
at each site is z-scored and plotted in
standard deviation (SD) units. Right
panel: frequency tuning curves (dark
black) for each of the four electrode
sites, sorted by peak frequency and
normalized by maximum amplitude. Red
bars overlay each peak frequency and
indicate SEM of the parameter estimate.
Frequency tuning was computed from
spectro-temporal receptive fields
(STRFs) measured at each individual
electrode site. Tuning curves exhibit a
range of functional forms including
multiple frequency peaks (Figures S1B
and S2B). (C) The anatomical
distribution of fitted weights in the
reconstruction model. Dashed box
denotes the extent of the electrode
grid (shown in Figure 1). Weight
magnitudes are averaged over all time
lags and spectrogram frequencies and
spatially smoothed for display. Nonzero
weights are largely focal to STG
electrode sites. Scale bar is 10
mm. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.1001251.g0
02 CC
source: http://www.plosbiology.org/artic
le/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pbio.1001251
.g002/largerimage
FUTURE
15 YAN
[2015 AD] 5 		332) Sound a brain hears is recorded
remotely.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
5. ^
http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/world.html
 {2015}
 
[1] Image by Ted Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington

[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
15 YAN
[2015 AD] 		6394) A microscopic radio (or particle
transmitter and receiver).
 
[1] The Scale of Things - Nanometers
and More the scale of things
graphic Chart also available in
Powerpoint file at:
http://science.energy.gov/bes/news-and-r
esources/scale-of-things-chart/. PD
source: http://science.energy.gov/~/medi
a/bes/images/scale-of-things-26may06.jpg

18 YAN
[2018 AD] 		6208) A radio device functions inside a
cell. The first human-made cell
organelle.

MORE INFO
[1]
 
[1] Adapted from: Description
English: Drawing illustrating the
process of synaptic transmission in
neurons, cropped from original in an
NIA brochure. Date 2009-12-30,
first publication of original
unknown Source
http://www.nia.nih.gov/Alzheimers/P
ublications/UnravelingtheMystery/ Autho
r user:Looie496 created file, US
National Institutes of Health, National
Institute on Aging created
original Permission (Reusing this
file)
http://www.nia.nih.gov/Policies.htm Ot
her versions
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Chemi
cal_synapse_schema.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/30/Chemical_synapse_sche
ma_cropped.jpg

[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington PD
source: Ted Huntington
20 YAN
[2020 AD] 2 		4559) Walking robots are produced in
mass quantity, and are available for
the public to buy.1

This is the start of the "robot
revolution"; how robots replace humans
in most manual labor tasks, which
greatly increases the quantity of food
and humans.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington. {2020}
  
20 YAN
[2020 AD] 		6197) The first remote control
microscopic flying device.
 
[1] Drive Gear Side View Side view
of a microengine drive gear meshed with
another gear. PD
source: http://mems.sandia.gov/gallery/i
mages/rs1563_9.jpg

[2] Imaginary microscopic flying
camera on top of salt crystals Ted
Huntington PD
source: http://tedhuntington.com/saltcry
stal_127um.jpg
23 YAN
[2023 AD] 		6552) The first wireless microscopic
microphone. The "micro-mic".

MORE INFO
[1]
 
[1] SEM (scanning electron micrograph)
of the device, with scale bar at bottom
representing 10 microns. The top
grating layer is suspended by 4 springs
and actuated by two side comb drives.
The second, fixed grating layer is
hidden below the first. The area of the
grating itself is 10 microns x 10
microns. PD
source: http://www.sandia.gov/news-cente
r/news-releases/2004/images/jpg/grating.
jpg

[2] Torsional Ratcheting Actuator A
high torque rotary electrostatic
actuator PD
source: http://www.mems.sandia.gov/image
s/mems5.jpg
25 YAN
[2025 AD] 		337) Remote neuron writing using
microscopic devices in neurons.
Microscopic devices enter the human
body by the lung, enter the blood
circulation which connects directly to
all cells, and position themselves as
organelles inside each neuron. External
devices communicate with the
intracellular devices to read the
voltage and to remotely make the neuron
cell fire.4

Sounds, images, smells, touches,
emotions, and muscle contractions can
now be remotely activated in a brain by
sending light particles to
intracellular devices.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.nerdgrind.com/dream-and-thoug
ht-recorder-created-by-japanese-research
-team/
[2]
http://gizmodo.com/5107377/new-technolog
y-could-display-your-dreams-on-screen
[3] personal communication, see most of
Kamatani's email correspondence with me
at:
http://www.tedhuntington.com/neuron_read
ing_and_writing.htm
 
[1] Image of Remote neuron writing by
Ted Huntington PD
source: Ted Huntington

[2] Image of Remote neuron writing by
Ted Huntington PD
source: Ted Huntington
25 YAN
[2025 AD] 		6193) The first wireless microscopic
camera. The "micro-cam".

MORE INFO
[1]
 
[1] Torsional Ratcheting Actuator A
high torque rotary electrostatic
actuator PD
source: http://www.mems.sandia.gov/image
s/mems5.jpg

[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington PD
source: Ted Huntington
25 YAN
[2025 AD] 		6198) The first remote controlled
microscopic flying camera.
 
[1] Imaginary microscopic flying camera
on top of salt crystals Ted
Huntington PD
source: http://tedhuntington.com/saltcry
stal_127um.jpg

[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington PD
source: Ted Huntington
25 YAN
[2025 AD] 		6375) The wireless microscopic maser.

MORE INFO
[1]
 
[1] Silicon Mirror Assembly
Close-up Close-up view of previous
device; detail of rails and hinges is
visible. PD
source: http://mems.sandia.gov/gallery/i
mages/m26.jpg

[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington PD
source: Ted Huntington
25 YAN
[2025 AD] 		6395) The wireless nanometer scale
radio transmitter and receiver (the
nano-radio).

MORE INFO
[1]
 
[1] The Scale of Things - Nanometers
and More the scale of things
graphic Chart also available in
Powerpoint file at:
http://science.energy.gov/bes/news-and-r
esources/scale-of-things-chart/. PD
source: http://science.energy.gov/~/medi
a/bes/images/scale-of-things-26may06.jpg

30 YAN
[2030 AD] 5 		365) The first thought-audio is
recorded. Thought-audio is recorded
using remote neuron reading and played
out loud publicly. The first recorded
thought audio may sound like this: "1 2
3". Humans start to communicate by
thought-image and thought-sound only.4

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington. {2025}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/world.html

 
[1] Hearing Thought by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington

[2] Image of Direct-to-brain windows
by Ted Huntington GNU
source: http://www.tedhuntington.com/Mic
key_Mouse_eyes_thought_screens.jpg
30 YAN
[2030 AD] 1 		366) The first artificial muscle
bipedal robots. These robots are
lighter and more electrically
efficient, than motor robots.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington. {2040}
 
[1] Muscular system P150/0098 Rights
Managed Credit: PASIEKA/SCIENCE
PHOTO LIBRARY Caption: Muscular
system. Computer artwork of a male
runner demonstrating the human muscular
system. These muscles, making up one of
the outer layers of the body, are
skeletal muscles, which are under the
conscious control of the brain. They
account for around 45% of the weight of
the body. Muscles are mainly composed
of proteins; in particular, the
proteins actin and myosin are involved
in making muscles contract. The muscles
then pull on tendons that are attached
to the bones of the skeleton, producing
movements such as running. Skin and fat
cover the muscles, while the internal
organs and bones lie
underneath. Release details: Model
and property releases are not available
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.sciencephoto.com/imag
e/302911/large/P1500098-Muscular_system-
SPL.jpg

[2] Muscular system P150/0098
Rights Managed Credit:
PASIEKA/SCIENCE PHOTO
LIBRARY Caption: Muscular system.
Computer artwork of a male runner
demonstrating the human muscular
system. These muscles, making up one of
the outer layers of the body, are
skeletal muscles, which are under the
conscious control of the brain. They
account for around 45% of the weight of
the body. Muscles are mainly composed
of proteins; in particular, the
proteins actin and myosin are involved
in making muscles contract. The muscles
then pull on tendons that are attached
to the bones of the skeleton, producing
movements such as running. Skin and fat
cover the muscles, while the internal
organs and bones lie
underneath. Release details: Model
and property releases are not available
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.sciencephoto.com/imag
e/302911/large/P1500098-Muscular_system-
SPL.jpg
30 YAN
[2030 AD] 5 		680) The first images of thought are
seen. Thought-images are recorded
remotely using remote neuron reading
and shown publicly.4

The first thought-image may be the
image of a triangle.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington. {2025}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/world.html

 
[1] Image of seeing thought by Ted
Huntington. PD
source: Ted Huntington

[2] Image of seeing thought by Ted
Huntington. Image of person
from: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikip
edia/commons/3/30/Cassatt_Mary_Portrait_
of_a_Elderly_Lady_1883.jpg Title:
Portrait of a Elderly Lady Date:
1883 Mary Cassatt (1845–1926) Link
back to Creator infobox
template PD [1] Image of
Direct-to-brain windows by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted
Huntingtonhttp://upload.wikimedia.org/wi
kipedia/commons/3/30/Cassatt_Mary_Portra
it_of_a_Elderly_Lady_1883.jpg
30 YAN
[2030 AD] 3 		791) Bipedal robots start replacing
humans in most low-skill jobs (for
example as walking security cameras, in
fast-food, and fruit picking).2
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ Ted Huntington
2. ^ Ted Huntington
3. ^ Ted Huntington
(my own estimate)
 
[1] Description English: TOPIO
(''TOSY Ping Pong Playing Robot'') is a
bipedal humanoid robot designed to play
table tennis against a human being.
TOPIO version 3.0 at Tokyo
International Robot Exhibition, Nov
2009 Date 27 November 2009 Source
Own work Author Humanrobo CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/9/92/TOPIO_3.jpg/128
0px-TOPIO_3.jpg

[2] Humanoid robot UNKNOWN
source: http://embeddedfortheevil.files.
wordpress.com/2010/06/humanoid-robot-pic
-getty-image-1-449939772.jpg
30 YAN
[2030 AD] 		6391) The first wireless nanometer
scale camera. The "nano-cam".

MORE INFO
[1]
 
[1] The Scale of Things - Nanometers
and More the scale of things
graphic Chart also available in
Powerpoint file at:
http://science.energy.gov/bes/news-and-r
esources/scale-of-things-chart/. PD
source: http://science.energy.gov/~/medi
a/bes/images/scale-of-things-26may06.jpg


[2] The space between two carbon atoms
within a molecule is about one-tenth of
a nanometer. The DNA double helix has a
diameter of about two nanometers. The
smallest bacteria, on the other hand,
are much bigger: a few hundred
nanometers in length. PD
source: http://publications.nigms.nih.go
v/chemhealth/images/ch4_size.jpg
40 YAN
[2040 AD] 		6553) The first use of remote writing
to motor neurons to stop an act of
violence.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
  
50 YAN
[2050 AD] 5 		790) Humans walk around with robot
servants.4 These robots clean and cook
for their owners.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington
2. ^ Ted Huntington
3. ^ Ted Huntington
4. ^ Ted
Huntington
5. ^ Ted Huntington. {2050 (my own
estimate}
 
[1] Ted Huntington image of two humans
walking with robot servants. GNU
source: Ted Huntington

[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
50 YAN
[2050 AD] 2 		4564) An artificial muscle robot can
fly by flapping wings.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington. {2050}
 
[1] Flying Robot by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
50 YAN
[2050 AD] 2 		4566) The first air highway, for
autopiloted flying cars, is
established.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington. {2050}
 
[1] Description English: Zoom in of
the highway 401/402 interchange looking
west from the Wellington Road overpass
in London, Ontario. Date 17 June
2010 Source Own work Author
Haljackey Camera location 42°
55′ 20.60″ N, 81° 12′ 45.89″
W mixed with rendered helicopters by
Ted Huntington PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Highway_401_at_
Highway_402.jpg/1280px-Highway_401_at_Hi
ghway_402.jpg and Ted Huntington
50 YAN
[2050 AD] 1 		6300) Bacteria are identified and
destroyed by microscopic devices inside
an animal body.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington. {2500} {2100}
{2050}
 
[1] Adapted from: Electron microscopy
image of several E. coli cells,
including two pairs of dividing
cells PD
source: http://www.bnl.gov/bnlweb/pubaf/
pr/photos/2009/10/eColi-350px.jpg

[2] Figure 2. Phagocytosis Coloured
scanning electron micrograph of a white
blood cell (orange) caught in the act
of engulfing bacteria (blue rods). As
Ilya Metchikov observed, wandering
cells called phagocytes migrate to
areas of tissue damage or infection to
engulf and digest any harmful foreign
particles, bacteria, and dead/dying
cells. Credit: Dr Kari Lounatmaa /
Science Photo Library. The photo was
kindly provided by Dr Kari Lounatmaa /
Science Photo Library. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nobelprize.org/educat
ional/medicine/immuneresponses/overview/
images/fig_02.jpg
51 YAN
[2051 AD] 5 6 7 		6520) There are 10 billion humans on
Earth.3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Kremer, Michael. “Population
Growth and Technological Change: One
Million B.C. to 1990.” The Quarterly
Journal of Economics 108.3 (1993):
681–716. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
2118405
2. ^ Parker, G. Compact History of the
World. Barnes & Noble, 2001, p17.
3. ^
Kremer, Michael. “Population Growth
and Technological Change: One Million
B.C. to 1990.” The Quarterly Journal
of Economics 108.3 (1993):
681–716. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
2118405
4. ^ Parker, G. Compact History of the
World. Barnes & Noble, 2001, p17.
5. ^ Ted
Huntington.
6. ^
http://geography.about.com/od/obtainpopu
lationdata/a/worldpopulation.htm
7. ^ Ted Huntington
 
[1] Parker, G. Compact History of the
World. Barnes & Noble, 2001,
p17. COPYRIGHTED
source: Parker, G. Compact History of
the World. Barnes & Noble, 2001, p17.
55 YAN
[2055 AD] 1 		6302) Cancer cell growth is stopped by
microscopic devices.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington. {2055}

MORE INFO
[1] Schroeder, Avi et al.
“Treating Metastatic Cancer with
Nanotechnology.” Nat Rev Cancer 12.1
(2012):
39–50. http://www.nature.com/nrc/jour
nal/v12/n1/full/nrc3180.html?WT.ec_id=NR
C-201201
 
[1] Adapted from: Pictured is a breast
cancer cell, photographed by a scanning
electron microscope. This picture shows
the overall shape of the cell's surface
at a very high magnification. Cancer
cells are best identified by internal
details, but research with a scanning
electron microscope can show how cells
respond in changing environments and
can show mapping distribution of
binding sites of hormones and other
biological molecules. (National Cancer
Institute) UNKNOWN
source: http://cache.boston.com/universa
l/site_graphics/blogs/bigpicture/micro_1
1_14/m31_3b.jpg

[2] Lung Cancer Cells This image of
warped lung cancer cells is in stark
contrast to the healthy lung. UNKNOWN
source: http://1.bp.blogspot.com/_kGhJLc
78v60/TCytjueY3wI/AAAAAAAAA00/F8-TCWOsNq
4/s1600/Lung+cancer+cellsl.jpg
60 YAN
[2060 AD] 1 		6301) A virus is identified and
destroyed by microscopic devices.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington. {2060}
 
[1] Image taken from cover of CalIT
Interface Winter 2011 magazine UNKNOWN

source: http://www.calit2.uci.edu/calit2
-newsroom/itemdetail.aspx?cguid=a01325cf
-2548-43fc-a2c4-0b9161f6cf84

[2] Artificial Nano “T4
Bacteriophage” Description: “T4
Bacteriophage” is a virus like the
robot in the living body. Artificial
nano “T4 Bacteriophage” was
fabricated by FIB-CVD on Si surface.
Size of the artificial nano “T4
Bacteriophage” is about ten times as
large as the real virus. It is made of
Diamond-like Carbon. It is likely to
begin to walk in the nano space!!
Magnification: 25,000X Instrument: SII
NanoTechnology Inc. / SMI2050MS2
Submitted by: Reo Kometani & Shinji
Matsui (University of Hyogo) UNKNOWN
source: http://cache.gizmodo.com/assets/
images/4/2009/11/t4bacteriophage.jpg
75 YAN
[2075 AD] 2 		6445) Humans stop unwanted weather (for
example tornadoes and hurricanes), by
changing air temperature using millions
of distributed remote control nanometer
sized devices.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
 
[1] Adapted by Ted Huntington
from: Description English: Category
F5 tornado (upgraded from initial
estimate of F4) viewed from the
southeast as it approached Elie,
Manitoba on Friday, June 22nd,
2007. Date 22 June 2007 Source
Transferred from en.wikipedia;
transferred to Commons by User:Gump
Stump using CommonsHelper. Author
Justin Hobson (Justin1569 at
en.wikipedia) GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/9/98/F5_tornado_Elie
_Manitoba_2007.jpg/1280px-F5_tornado_Eli
e_Manitoba_2007.jpg
80 YAN
[2080 AD] 		6392) Accelerated nanocamera ships
reach another planet and return closeup
images.

MORE INFO
[1]
 
[1] Adapted by Ted Huntington
from: This Viking 1 orbiter image
shows the thin atmosphere of Mars. The
2001 Mars Odyssey spacecraft will
repeatedly brush the top of the
atmosphere to lower and circularize its
orbit around Mars. PD
source: http://marsmobile.jpl.nasa.gov/i
mages/risks02_lg-full.jpg

[2] Adapted by Ted Huntington
from: Sunset over Western South
America April 25, 2011 PD
source: http://eoimages.gsfc.nasa.gov/im
ages/imagerecords/50000/50205/ISS027-E-0
12224_lrg.jpg
100 YAN
[2100 AD] 		367) Most humans communicate only by
images and sounds of thought.

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/world.html

 
[1] Image of Direct-to-brain windows by
Ted Huntington GNU
source: http://www.tedhuntington.com/Mic
key_Mouse_eyes_thought_screens.jpg

[2] Image of Direct-to-brain windows
by Ted Huntington GNU
source: http://www.tedhuntington.com/dir
ect-to-brain_windows_002.jpg
100 YAN
[2100 AD] 5 		793) Helicopter-cars form a second line
of traffic above the streets.4
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^ Ted Huntington
2. ^ Ted Huntington
3. ^ Ted Huntington
4. ^ Ted
Huntington
5. ^ Ted Huntington (my own estimate)
{2100 my own estimate}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.sdi.gov/curtis/Trans_Trends.h
tml
[2] future_est.xls
 
[1] Image of single helicopter highway
by Ted Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington

[2] Image of double helicopter highway
by Ted Huntington Note that
helicopters are moving in wrong
way. GNU
source: Ted Huntington
100 YAN
[2100 AD] 1 		794) 100 ships with humans orbit Earth.
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ Ted Huntington future_est.xls
 
[1] Three TDRS satellites, the
International Space Station (ISS) and
Hubble Space Telescope orbit a
blue-green Earth in this artist's
concept. The TDRS network facilitates
around the clock communication access
between ground stations and other
satellites and the ISS. Credit:
NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center ›
Larger image PD
source: http://www.nasa.gov/images/conte
nt/605410main_tdrsPlus.jpg

[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
100 YAN
[2100 AD] 1 		4569) Most vehicles are machine
controlled.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
 
[1] Title: Society Hill Towers is a
three-building condominium development
located in the Society Hill
neighborhood of Philadelphia,
Pennsylvania Creator(s): Highsmith,
Carol M., 1946-, photographer Date
Created/Published: [between 1980 and
2006] Medium: 1 transparency : color ;
4 x 5 in. or smaller. Reproduction
Number: LC-DIG-highsm-13394 (digital
file from original) LC-HS503-2139
(color film transparency) Rights
Advisory: No known restrictions on
publication. Call Number: LC-HS503-
2139 (ONLINE) [P&P] Repository:
Library of Congress Prints and
Photographs Division Washington, D.C.
20540 USA
http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/pp.print Not
es: The complex contains three
31-story skyscraper buildings on a
5-acre site. The towers, originally
apartment buildings, were designed by
I.M. Pei and Associates and were
completed in 1963. Title, date,
and keywords provided by the
photographer. Credit line:
Photographs in the Carol M. Highsmith
Archive, Library of Congress, Prints
and Photographs Division. Gift and
purchase; Carol M. Highsmith; 2011;
(DLC/PP-2011:124). Forms part of
the Carol M. Highsmith Archive. PD
source: http://lcweb2.loc.gov/service/pn
p/highsm/13300/13394v.jpg
100 YAN
[2100 AD] 3 		4575) Robots walk on the moon of Earth
and build buildings.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
moon of Earth 
[1] From ''Moon Zero Two'',
1969 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.youtube.com/watch?fea
ture=player_embedded&v=hM1lsDhSjD8

[2] Pole Colony PD
source: http://artcontest.larc.nasa.gov/
images/2008_win/Pole_Colony.jpg
100 YAN
[2100 AD] 3 		4613) Humans conquer all bacteria and
viruses. Nanoscale devices can identify
and destroy all known bacteria and
viruses anywhere inside or outside of
the body.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
{2500} {2100}
 
[1] Conference on nanotechnology in
animal health UNKNOWN
source: http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-mFYS8z
kMHXg/T4wFLpl8biI/AAAAAAAAILw/CJQi432-3Y
E/s1600/nanotechnology.jpg

[2] Image taken from cover of CalIT
Interface Winter 2011 magazine UNKNOWN

source: http://www.calit2.uci.edu/calit2
-newsroom/itemdetail.aspx?cguid=a01325cf
-2548-43fc-a2c4-0b9161f6cf84
120 YAN
[2120 AD] 2 		4583) Robots land and walk on an
asteroid.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington. {2220}
 
[1] Image right: This is an artist's
concept of a small lunar outpost.
Someday, larger lunar outposts may
serve as a backup for civilization in
case of a global catastrophe, like an
asteroid impact or a pandemic. Credit:
NASA Print-resolution copy PD
source: http://www.nasa.gov/centers/godd
ard/images/content/208291main_lunar_outp
ost.jpg

[2] Ship landing on asteroid UNKNOWN
source: http://www.popsci.com/files/imag
ecache/article_image_large/articles/2009
0204_hayabusa.jpg
120 YAN
[2120 AD] 		4584) Robots walk and build buildings
on Mars.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
Mars 
[1] Once built and populated, a colony
with excellent recycling will need only
a few materials to replace leaks and
losses. However, a great deal of
materials will be needed to build a
space colony, particularly shielding.
If a colony expands, builds new
colonies, or builds solar power
satellites or other export products, a
lot of material will be necessary.
There are several sources of materials
to consider: Earth, the Moon,
asteroids, other planets, and other
moons. All the materials necessary for
space colonies are available on Earth.
In addition, manufacturing facilities
to provide finished products are
readily available. PD
source: http://settlement.arc.nasa.gov/d
esigner/mars.gif

[2] Future Mars Base 2030 STANDARD
YOUTUBE LICENSE
source: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F
fVny-TnxZo
140 YAN
[2140 AD] 1 		687) Large scale transmutation: Humans
can convert most common atoms (like
Silicon, Aluminum, Iron, and Calcium)
into much more useful atoms (like
Hydrogen, Oxygen, and Nitrogen). This
allows many humans to live
independently of Earth, in ships, and
on planets and moons without water,
because they can produce all the air,
fuel, water and food they need from the
common atoms found on planets and
moons.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/world.html

[2] future_est.xls
 
[1] Image of Large Scale Atomic
Transmutation by Ted Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington

[2] Image of Large Scale Atomic
Transmutation by Ted Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
150 YAN
[2150 AD] 1 		659) The first major nation to be fully
democratic.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington. (50 years to get
progressive president, 50 years to get
pro fully democratic, 50 years for
actual full democracy to be integrated
(in courts, military, laws))
 
[1] Description English: A map of
the world colored in to reflect the
latest Democracy Index report from The
Economist. Date 22 December
2011 Source Own work Author
48Lugur CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/87/Democracy_Index_2011_
red_and_green.png
150 YAN
[2150 AD] 		4592) The first humans land on Mars.2
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
Mars 
[1] Artist's concept of possible
colonies on future mars missions. PD
source: http://www.nasa.gov/centers/ames
/images/content/135855main_marsconcept-1
.jpg

[2] Future Mars Base 2030 STANDARD
YOUTUBE LICENSE
source: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F
fVny-TnxZo
150 YAN
[2150 AD] 		6223) The first "Moon colony". Humans
permanently live on the Moon of Earth.
 
[1] Description This artist's concept
of a lunar base and extra-base activity
was created during a 1984 NASA Summer
Study at the California Space Institute
(CalSpace), Scripps Institute of
Oceanography, University of California,
San Diego. A lunar rover vehicle
similar to the one used on three Apollo
missions is depicted in the
foreground. Date May 1984 Source
http://spaceflight1.nasa.gov/gallery/im
ages/exploration/lunarexploration/html/s
86_27256.html Author NASA/Dennis M.
Davidson PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Moon_colony_wit
h_rover.jpeg/1024px-Moon_colony_with_rov
er.jpeg
150 YAN
[2150 AD] 1 		6304) Nucleic Acids are changed by
remote control nanoscale devices.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington. {2058} {2150}
 
[1] nanocaduceus Nanomedicine Art
Gallery Image 108 DNA Repair
Machines Image 108 Title:
DNA Repair Machines Date:
1989 Artist(s): Bryan Leister
Image Size: 45,592 bytes
[CLICK to download] Image Dimensions:
800 X 1,061 pixels Image
Palette: Color Image Size:
408,316 bytes [CLICK to
download] Image Dimensions: 1,170
X 1,552 pixels Image Palette:
Color Image Description:
Floating inside the nucleus of a human
cell, an assembler-built repair vessel
performs some genetic maintenance.
Stretching a supercoil of DNA between
its lower pair of robot arms, the
nanomachine gently pulls the unwound
strand through an opening in its prow
for analysis. Upper arms, meanwhile,
detach regulatory proteins from the
chain and place them in an intake port.
The molecular structures of both DNA
and proteins are compared to
information stored in the database of a
larger nanocomputer positioned outside
the nucleus and connected to the
cell-repair ship by a communications
link. Irregularities found in either
structure are corrected and the
proteins reattached to the DNA chain,
which re-coils into its original
form. With a diameter of only 50
nanometers, the repair vessel would be
smaller than most bacteria and viruses,
yet capable of therapies and cures well
beyond the reach of present-day
physicians. With trillions of these
machines coursing through a patient's
bloodstream, ''internal medicine''
would take on new significance. Disease
would be attacked at the molecular
level, and such maladies as cancer,
viral infections and arteriosclerosis
could be wiped out. Copyright Info:
© Copyright 1989 by Time-Life Books
Inc. For reprint permission, please
contact Time-Life Books Inc. at P.O.
Box C-32068, Richmond, VA 23261-2068,
Tel. 1-800-621-7026, URL:
http://www.timelife.com/. Print
Source(s): Time-Life Editors,
Alternative Computers, Time-Life Books,
Richmond VA, 1989, pp. 112-113. Online
Source(s): None COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.foresight.org/Nanomed
icine/Gallery/Images/TimeLifeNM.jpeg

[2] Microscopic laser-machined
particle communication devices identify
and change nucleotides in a DNA
molecule as seen with an scanning
tunneling microscope.[t] Adapted
from: F/col STM image of
DNA G110/0150 Rights Managed Credit:
LAWRENCE LIVERMORE LABORATORY/SCIENCE
PHOTO LIBRARY Caption: False-colour
scanning tunnelling micrograph (STM) of
DNA. A sample of uncoated,
double-stranded DNA was dissolved in a
salt solution & deposited on graphite
prior to being imaged in air by the
STM. An STM image is formed by scanning
a fine point just above the specimen
surface & electronically recording the
height of the point as it moves. The
main feature of this image is a
right-handed, double-stranded DNA
molecule (a DNA duplex), which appears
as the row of orange/yellow peaks at
centre-left. These peaks correspond to
the ridges of the DNA double helix.
Magnification: x1,600,000 at 6x7cm
size. Release details: Model and
property releases are not
available UNKNOWN
source: http://www.sciencephoto.com/imag
e/209654/large/G1100150-F_col_STM_image_
of_DNA-SPL.jpg
160 YAN
[2160 AD] 2 		4590) Robots land and walk on planet
Mercury.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
Mercury  
160 YAN
[2160 AD] 2 		4591) Robots land and walk on a moon of
Jupiter.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington. {2250}
Jupiter  
160 YAN
[2160 AD] 2 		6642) Humans orbit Venus.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
Venus 
[1] Adapted by Ted Huntington
from: http://www.giss.nasa.gov/research
/features/200711_temptracker/venus_cloud
s_mariner10_lrg.jpg The dense carbon
dioxide atmosphere of Venus shrouds the
planet in a thick layer of clouds—and
heats the surface to a scorching 460°
C (860° F). Jim Hansen's research on
Venus' greenhouse effect eventually led
him to the study of carbon dioxide and
the greenhouse effect on Earth. (Image
© 2005 Mattias Malmer.) PD
source: http://www.giss.nasa.gov/researc
h/features/200711_temptracker/venus_clou
ds_mariner10_lrg.jpgTed Huntington

[2] Adapted by Ted Huntington
from: http://www.giss.nasa.gov/research
/features/200711_temptracker/venus_cloud
s_mariner10_lrg.jpg The dense carbon
dioxide atmosphere of Venus shrouds the
planet in a thick layer of clouds—and
heats the surface to a scorching 460°
C (860° F). Jim Hansen's research on
Venus' greenhouse effect eventually led
him to the study of carbon dioxide and
the greenhouse effect on Earth. (Image
© 2005 Mattias Malmer.) PD
source: http://www.giss.nasa.gov/researc
h/features/200711_temptracker/venus_clou
ds_mariner10_lrg.jpgTed Huntington
180 YAN
[2180 AD] 		4594) Humans live permanently on Mars.
The first Mars colony. The first city
of another planet.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
Mars 
[1] Adapted from: Spirit's
Destination This image, cropped from
a larger panoramic image mosaic taken
by the Mars Exploration Rover Spirit
panoramic camera, shows the rover's
destination toward the hills nicknamed
the ''Columbia Hills.'' The rover is
currently positioned outside the view
of this image, on the right. This image
was taken on sols 68 and 69 of Spirit's
mission (March 12 and 13, 2004) from
the location the rover first reached on
the western rim of the crater. The
image is in approximate true color,
based on a scaling of data from the
red, green and blue (750 nanometers,
530 nanometers, and 480 nanometers)
filters. Image credit:
NASA/JPL/Cornell PD
source: http://marsrover.nasa.gov/galler
y/press/spirit/20040318a/10-JG-04-hills-
A074R1.jpg

[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
190 YAN
[2190 AD] 3 		4606) Humans land on Mercury.2
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
Mercury 
[1] AS17-147-22526 (11 Dec. 1972) ---
Astronaut Eugene A. Cernan, commander,
makes a short checkout of the Lunar
Roving Vehicle (LRV) during the early
part of the first Apollo 17
extravehicular activity (EVA) at the
Taurus-Littrow landing site. This view
of the ''stripped down'' LRV is prior
to loading up. Equipment later loaded
onto the LRV included the
ground-controlled television assembly,
the lunar communications relay unit,
hi-gain antenna, low-gain antenna, aft
tool pallet, lunar tools and scientific
gear. This photograph was taken by
scientist-astronaut Harrison H.
Schmitt, lunar module pilot. The
mountain in the right background is the
east end of South Massif. While
astronauts Cernan and Schmitt descended
in the Lunar Module (LM) ''Challenger''
to explore the moon, astronaut Ronald
E. Evans, command module pilot,
remained with the Command and Service
Modules (CSM) ''America'' in lunar
orbit. PD
source: http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/gall
ery/images/apollo/apollo17/hires/as17-14
7-22526.jpg

[2] Adapted
from: http://www.nasa.gov/images/conten
t/208698main_merc_horizon.jpg PD
source: http://www.nasa.gov/images/conte
nt/208698main_merc_horizon.jpg
200 YAN
[2200 AD] 6 		792) Robots and other machines have
replaced humans in most manual labor
tasks (driving, cleaning, and food
planting, harvesting, preparing and
serving).4 Robots also do the most
dangerous parts of police, and fire
fighting.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington
2. ^ Ted Huntington
3. ^ Ted Huntington
4. ^ Ted
Huntington
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington (my own
estimate) {2200 my own estimate}
 
[1] Robots pick
oranges Viroids orange
trees Development of HRP-4, a Research
and Development Platform for Working
Humanoid Robots - Supply to external
research organizations from January
2011 - UNKNOWN and Orange
trees: Viroid diseases are
responsible for significant losses of
food and fiber. Our research goals are
to obtain fundamental knowledge about
the molecular interactions between
viroids and their host, to apply this
knowledge to the control of viroid
diseases, and to develop and test
viroid-induced dwarfing strategies to
increase citrus production efficiency.
Robert A. Owens PD UNKNOWN
source: http://www.aist.go.jp/aist_e/lat
est_research/2010/20101108/fig1.jpghttp:
//www.ars.usda.gov/sp2UserFiles/Place/12
752500/research/images/citrus.jpg

[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
200 YAN
[2200 AD] 5 		795) 1000 human-filled ships orbit
Earth.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington future_est.xls
2. ^ Ted
Huntington future_est.xls
3. ^ Ted Huntington
future_est.xls
4. ^ Ted Huntington future_est.xls
5. ^ Ted Huntington
future_est.xls (my own estimate)
 
[1] Image adapted from from
http://www.nasa.gov/externalflash/gemini
_gallery/hi-resjpgs/10.jpg Cape
Canaveral, site of NASA's Kennedy Space
Center, from the Gemini V ... PD
source: http://www.nasa.gov/externalflas
h/gemini_gallery/hi-resjpgs/10.jpgTed
Huntington

[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
200 YAN
[2200 AD] 2 		4607) Humans live permanently on
Mercury.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington. {2350}
Mercury 
[1] Adapted from image from NASA
Messenger ship PD
source: http://1.bp.blogspot.com/_qcuftp
B9Hx8/TJOQmeFucWI/AAAAAAAACwg/Bl0M9a2_M1
0/s1600/Planet-Mercury.jpg
200 YAN
[2200 AD] 		6305) Microscopic devices repair,
regrow, and reshape damaged cells.
 
[1] Skin cells, SEM C001/7939 Rights
Managed Credit: SCIENCE PHOTO
LIBRARY Caption: Skin cells.
Coloured scanning electron micrograph
(SEM) of squamous cells from the
surface of the skin. These are flat,
keratinised, dead cells that are
continuously sloughed off and replaced
with new cells from
below. AND Researchers are
developing a new class of tiny
mechanical devices containing
vibrating, hair-thin structures that
could be used to filter electronic
signals in cell phones and for other
more exotic applications. The work is
done inside a vacuum chamber sitting on
top of a special vibration-absorbing
platform critical to making the precise
measurements. A tiny prototype, roughly
comparable in size to a grain of sand,
is pictured on the monitor at right.
The device is an example of a
microelectromechanical system, or a
MEMS, which contains tiny moving parts.
(Birck Nanotechnology Center, Purdue
University) A publication-quality
photo is available at
http://news.uns.purdue.edu/images/+2009/
rhoads-mems2.jpg [1] A scanning
electron microscope (SEM) image of
nanowire-alginate composite scaffolds.
Star-shaped clusters of nanowires can
be seen in these images. Image
courtesy of the Disease Biophysics
Group, Harvard University UNKNOWN
source: http://www.sciencephoto.com/imag
e/82340/large/C0017939-Skin_cells,_SEM-S
PL.jpghttp://news.uns.purdue.edu/images/
+2009/rhoads-mems2.jpg

[2] Skin cells, SEM C001/7939
Rights Managed Credit: SCIENCE PHOTO
LIBRARY Caption: Skin cells.
Coloured scanning electron micrograph
(SEM) of squamous cells from the
surface of the skin. These are flat,
keratinised, dead cells that are
continuously sloughed off and replaced
with new cells from
below. AND Researchers are
developing a new class of tiny
mechanical devices containing
vibrating, hair-thin structures that
could be used to filter electronic
signals in cell phones and for other
more exotic applications. The work is
done inside a vacuum chamber sitting on
top of a special vibration-absorbing
platform critical to making the precise
measurements. A tiny prototype, roughly
comparable in size to a grain of sand,
is pictured on the monitor at right.
The device is an example of a
microelectromechanical system, or a
MEMS, which contains tiny moving parts.
(Birck Nanotechnology Center, Purdue
University) A publication-quality
photo is available at
http://news.uns.purdue.edu/images/+2009/
rhoads-mems2.jpg [1] A scanning
electron microscope (SEM) image of
nanowire-alginate composite scaffolds.
Star-shaped clusters of nanowires can
be seen in these images. Image
courtesy of the Disease Biophysics
Group, Harvard University UNKNOWN
source: http://www.sciencephoto.com/imag
e/82340/large/C0017939-Skin_cells,_SEM-S
PL.jpghttp://news.uns.purdue.edu/images/
+2009/rhoads-mems2.jpg
210 YAN
[2210 AD] 2 		4585) Humans land and walk on an
asteroid.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington. {2240}
 
[1] Humans on Asteroid UNKNOWN
source: http://blogs.discovery.com/.a/6a
00d8341bf67c53ef0133f505f772970b-800wi
250 YAN
[2250 AD] 2 		4589) The end of arrests for
recreational drugs in most major
nations.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington. {2250}
  
250 YAN
[2250 AD] 4 		4611) Humans land on a moon of
Jupiter.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
Jupiter 
[1] The image show the Lander Falcon
skimming over one of the many ice
cravas of Jupiter’s moon Europa
looking for a suitable landing
place. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://api.ning.com/files/s7oIN4
97UMEE6dpA1xd*IhqzsZkYEn1zbiUE5*qsj*mBXD
EV7F1lGV*Qngn1qBdiZSdmNBsHbXquTTpGfoIHib
xxEsocyNr-/BB131FalconoverEuropaNR.jpg?w
idth=737&height=400

[2] Ganymede: Global Color View PD
source: http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/mult
imedia/gallery/gg1.jpg
275 YAN
[2275 AD] 		661) Most humans are not religious.

MORE INFO
[1] "ESTIMATING THE RELIGIOUS
COMPOSITION OF ALL NATIONS: AN
EMPIRICAL ASSESSMENT", Becky Hsu, Amy
Reynolds, Conrad Hackett, James
Gibbon Princeton University November
2, 2005 Religions_estimating.pdf
[2] MODERNIZATION, CULTURAL
CHANGE, AND THE PERSISTENCE OF
TRADITIONAL VALUES* Ronald
Inglehart University of
Michigan Wayne E. Baker University of
Michigan religion_inglehart_backer.pdf
[3] future_est.xls
 
[1] UNKNOWN
source: UNKNOWN
280 YAN
[2280 AD] 2 		4595) All money is electronic.1
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington. {2280}
  
280 YAN
[2280 AD] 3 		4598) Humans live permanently in a ship
that orbits the Sun.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
{2280}
 
[1] The Solar Probe Plus spacecraft
with solar panels folded into the
shadows of its protective shield,
gathers data on its approach to the
Sun. Credit: JHU/APL PD
source: http://www.nasa.gov/images/conte
nt/479540main_SPPObservingSun.jpg
280 YAN
[2280 AD] 1 		4620) Humans land on a moon of Saturn.
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
Saturn 
[1] Saturn from the surface of
Dione. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://spaceart1.ning.com/photo/
saturn-from-dione/next?context=userhttp:
//microgravity.grc.nasa.gov/Advanced/Cap
abilities/ETDP/images/lunarlander.jpg

[2] Artist concept of Cassini at
Saturn. Image credit: NASA/JPL ›
Larger image PD
source: http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/images/c
assini/20090202/pia03883-full.jpg
290 YAN
[2290 AD] 2 		4599) The first ships that regularly
transport humans from Earth to the moon
of Earth.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington. {2290}
  
300 YAN
[2300 AD] 2 		4581) The end of arrests for nudity in
public.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington. {2200}
  
300 YAN
[2300 AD] 4 		4627) Humans land on Uranus and its
moons.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington. {2800}
Uranus 
[1] Adapted from: Uranus seen from
Oberon UNKNOWN
source: http://api.ning.com/files/DzXL-l
W6TdpjPVXja-k32xq4*PiPHvNiITlxVu5JoQ*XRl
Z72k*OlXD710b-zT2jIomp7im9tEUk0AzJ4HNiph
MGf2J-UCLg/Oberon.jpg?width=737&height=5
69http://microgravity.grc.nasa.gov/Advan
ced/Capabilities/ETDP/images/lunarlander
.jpg
350 YAN
[2350 AD] 2 		4609) Humans switch to a single time
system for all places in the universe.1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington. {2350}
 
[1] world time zone map. PD
source: http://www.time.gov/images/world
zones.gif
350 YAN
[2350 AD] 2 3 		4630) Humans reach Neptune and land on
its moon.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
{2900}
Neptune 
[1] Intrepid-over-Proteus Neptune's
Moon Proteus The Lander Intrepid skims
the heavily cratered moon Proteus in
search for a landing area. Proteus is a
relatively large moon, similar in size
to Saturn’s moon Mimas, but was not
discovered until Voyager 2 flew by
because it is very dark and orbits very
close to Neptune. Like Mimas, it is
irregular in shape, heavily cratered,
and has no sign of internally generated
geologic activity in its
past. UNKNOWN
source: http://api.ning.com/files/n*cJoC
Qsunpuu6EpNQKC3KHkTJPnAZoABx8opILfQ7o_/I
ntrepidoverProteus.jpg?width=737&height=
469
350 YAN
[2350 AD] 		6393) The first microscopic ships to
reach another star (Alpha Centauri) and
to return the first closeup images of
the planets around another star.

MORE INFO
[1]
 
[1] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted
Huntingtonhttp://upload.wikimedia.org/wi
kipedia/commons/0/08/Planet-alphacen1.pn
g

[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted
Huntingtonhttp://upload.wikimedia.org/wi
kipedia/commons/0/08/Planet-alphacen1.pn
g
370 YAN
[2370 AD] 1 		6209) Living objects on planets of a
different star are identified (bacteria
made of DNA on planets around
Centauri).
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington. {2760} {2765}
Alpha Centauri 
[1] Descripción English:
Filamentous cyanobacterium of a genus
Lyngbya, as collected in Baja
California, Mexico Česky: Vláknitá
sinice rodu Lyngbya; Baja California,
Mexico Fecha Fuente
http://microbes.arc.nasa.gov/images/con
tent/gallery/lightms/publication/lyngbya
.jpg Autor NASA PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Lyngbya.jpg/128
0px-Lyngbya.jpg

[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
400 YAN
[2400 AD] 2 		4612) Humans send ships with robots to
the stars of Alpha Centauri.1
FOOTNOTES

1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington. {2400}
  
420 YAN
[2420 AD] 		779) Most humans in developed nations
reject the theory of gods.

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.worldvaluessurvey.org/service
s/index.html
[2] future_est.xls
 
[1] Artist [show]Raphael
(1483–1520) Link back to Creator
infobox template wikidata:Q5597 Title
English: The Council of Gods Date
between 1517 and 1518 Medium
fresco Current location Villa
FarnesinaLink back to Institution
infobox template PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/08/Raffaello%2C_concilio
_degli_dei_02.jpg

[2] Artist [show]Giovanni Lanfranco
(1582–1647) Link back to Creator
infobox template
wikidata:Q447730 Title The Council of
Gods Date between 1624 and
1625 Medium fresco Dimensions
Unknown Current location Galleria
BorgheseLink back to Institution
infobox template Rome Notes
http://www.wga.hu/html/l/lanfranc/counc
il.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0a/Lanfranco%2C_Giovanni
_-The_Council_of_Gods_-_1624-25.jpg
500 YAN
[2500 AD] 1 2 		683) The removal and conversion of the
Venus atmosphere is started.

This is the first major "conversion of
a gas atmosphere" engineering work of
humans.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/fac
tsheet/venusfact.html
2. ^ future_est.xls
 
[1] Description Image of Venus in
real color processed from the clear and
blue filters (colors are probably
enhanced). Date 2006-09-16
(original upload
date) Source http://astrosurf.com/n
unes/explor/explor_m10.htm Author N
ASA/Ricardo Nunes PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/51/Venus-real.jpg

[2] Adapted from: A rover that could
survive the intense heat of Venus, seen
here in an artist's impression, could
revolutionise our understanding of the
planet. Cooled by a Stirling Cooler
with electronics at 200 °C and
external radiator at 500 °C. Since the
Venusian atmosphere is 'only' 450 °C
the radiator will lose
energy. Geoffrey Landis and Kenneth
Mellott from NASA's Glenn Research
Center in Ohio. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/15/Venus_Rover.jpg
500 YAN
[2500 AD] 6 7 		686) The end of death by aging.4
Using
genetic editing, humans can reach any
developmental stage, and then hold that
body shape indefinitely, dying only
from physical destruction. Humans now
live for thousands of years. This
causes the human population to grow at
an extremely fast rate.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington
6. ^
http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/world.html
 {2500}
7. ^ future_est.xls
 
[1] Adapted by Ted Huntington
from: Solution structure of a
trans-opened (10S)-dA adduct of
+)-(7S,8R,9S,10R)-7,8-dihydroxy-9,10-epo
xy-7,8,9,10-tetrahydrobenzo[a]pyrene in
a DNA duplex. GNU AND Multiple Gear
Speed Reduction Unit Top view of
gear reduction unit. PD PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d8/Benzopyrene_DNA_adduc
t_1JDG.pnghttp://mems.sandia.gov/gallery
/images/tg8.jpgTed Huntington

[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
500 YAN
[2500 AD] 		4588) The end of arrests for all forms
of trading money for consensual
physical pleasure.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
  
500 YAN
[2500 AD] 		6546) Microscopic ships reach Barnard's
star, the second closest star, 6 light
years away, and send back the first
images of the planets around Barnard's
star.

MORE INFO
[1]
 
[1] Adapted
from: Description English: Artist's
conception of a the red dwarf star CHRX
73 A and its companion object CHRX 73
B. The companion object is around 12
Jupiter masses, and may either be a
planet, a failed star or a brown
dwarf Date 2006-09-02 Source Sel
f-made JPEG version of original TIFF
image at Hubble
website Author NASA, ESA and G.
Bacon (STScI) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/6/68/RedDwarfPlanet.
jpg/800px-RedDwarfPlanet.jpg

[2] Adapted
from: Description English: Artist's
conception of a the red dwarf star CHRX
73 A and its companion object CHRX 73
B. The companion object is around 12
Jupiter masses, and may either be a
planet, a failed star or a brown
dwarf Date 2006-09-02 Source Sel
f-made JPEG version of original TIFF
image at Hubble
website Author NASA, ESA and G.
Bacon (STScI) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/6/68/RedDwarfPlanet.
jpg/800px-RedDwarfPlanet.jpghttp://aetd.
gsfc.nasa.gov/code540/540/new_images/MLA
S.jpg
500 YAN
[2500 AD] 		6554) The end of homicide, by remote
neuron writing.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
  
600 YAN
[2600 AD] 1 		4617) An asteroid is moved by
propulsion, either by cables or by
embedded engines.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
  
600 YAN
[2600 AD] 		6547) Microscopic ships reach Sirius, 8
light years away, and send back the
first images of the planets around
Sirius.

MORE INFO
[1]
Sirius 
[1] {ULSF: adapted by Ted Huntington
from below:} Description This
picture is an artist's impression
showing how the binary star system of
Sirius A and its diminutive blue
companion, Sirius B, might appear to an
interstellar visitor. The large,
bluish-white star Sirius A dominates
the scene, while Sirius B is the small
but very hot and blue white-dwarf star
on the right. The two stars revolve
around each other every 50 years. White
dwarfs are the leftover remnants of
stars similar to our Sun. The Sirius
system, only 8.6 light-years from
Earth, is the fifth closest stellar
system known. Sirius B is faint because
of its tiny size. Its diameter is only
7,500 miles (about 12 thousand
kilometres), slightly smaller than the
size of our Earth. The Sirius system is
so close to Earth that most of the
familiar constellations would have
nearly the same appearance as in our
own sky. In this rendition, we see in
the background the three bright stars
that make up the Summer Triangle:
Altair, Deneb, and Vega. Altair is the
white dot above Sirius A; Deneb is the
dot to the upper right; and Vega lies
below Sirius B. But there is one
unfamiliar addition to the
constellations: our own Sun is the
second-magnitude star, shown as a small
dot just below and to the right of
Sirius
A. Date Source http://www.spacete
lescope.org/images/html/heic0516b.html
Author NASA, ESA Credit: G. Bacon
(STScI) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c9/Sirius_A_and_B_artwor
k.jpg

[2] Adapted from: Description This
picture is an artist's impression
showing how the binary star system of
Sirius A and its diminutive blue
companion, Sirius B, might appear to an
interstellar visitor. The large,
bluish-white star Sirius A dominates
the scene, while Sirius B is the small
but very hot and blue white-dwarf star
on the right. The two stars revolve
around each other every 50 years. White
dwarfs are the leftover remnants of
stars similar to our Sun. The Sirius
system, only 8.6 light-years from
Earth, is the fifth closest stellar
system known. Sirius B is faint because
of its tiny size. Its diameter is only
7,500 miles (about 12 thousand
kilometres), slightly smaller than the
size of our Earth. The Sirius system is
so close to Earth that most of the
familiar constellations would have
nearly the same appearance as in our
own sky. In this rendition, we see in
the background the three bright stars
that make up the Summer Triangle:
Altair, Deneb, and Vega. Altair is the
white dot above Sirius A; Deneb is the
dot to the upper right; and Vega lies
below Sirius B. But there is one
unfamiliar addition to the
constellations: our own Sun is the
second-magnitude star, shown as a small
dot just below and to the right of
Sirius
A. Date Source http://www.spacete
lescope.org/images/html/heic0516b.html
Author NASA, ESA Credit: G. Bacon
(STScI) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c9/Sirius_A_and_B_artwor
k.jpghttp://aetd.gsfc.nasa.gov/code540/5
40/new_images/MLAS.jpg
650 YAN
[2650 AD] 5 		4619) Humans create atoms from light
particles. Photon fusion: the reverse
of separating atoms into light
particles.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington. {2650}
 
[1] Humans create atoms from light
particles Ted Huntington PD
source: Ted Huntington

[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
650 YAN
[2650 AD] 		6555) The first images of large living
objects on a planet of another star are
seen.

MORE INFO
[1]
Alpha Centauri 
[1] English: Hydra vulgaris, a
hydrozoan cnidarian. Light microscope,
40x 날짜 2008년 6월 6일 출처
자작 만든이 Corvana GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2f/Hydravulgaris.jpg

[2] Descripción English:
Filamentous cyanobacterium of a genus
Lyngbya, as collected in Baja
California, Mexico Česky: Vláknitá
sinice rodu Lyngbya; Baja California,
Mexico Fecha Fuente
http://microbes.arc.nasa.gov/images/con
tent/gallery/lightms/publication/lyngbya
.jpg Autor NASA PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Lyngbya.jpg/128
0px-Lyngbya.jpg
700 YAN
[2700 AD] 		4605) Robots land and walk on Venus.1
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
Venus  
750 YAN
[2750 AD] 1 		4622) The first large ship to reach a
different star (Alpha Centauri).

Smaller robot ships then land on all
the planets and moons of Centauri.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
Alpha Centauri 
[1] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington

[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
800 YAN
[2800 AD] 		24) Humans consume an asteroid.

MORE INFO
[1]
 
[1] Adapted from: The Missing Craters
of Asteroid Itokawa Credit &
Copyright: ISAS, JAXA Explanation:
Where are the craters on asteroid
Itokawa? No one knows. The Japanese
robot probe Hayabusa recently
approached the Earth-crossing asteroid
and is returning pictures showing a
surface unlike any other Solar System
body yet photographed -- a surface
possibly devoid of craters. One
possibility for the lack of common
circular indentations is that asteroid
Itokawa is a rubble pile -- a bunch of
rocks and ice chunks only loosely held
together by a small amount of gravity.
If so, craters might be filled in
whenever the asteroid gets jiggled by a
passing planet -- Earth in this case.
Alternatively, surface particles may
become electrically charged by the Sun,
levitate in the microgravity field, and
move to fill in craters. Over the
weekend, Hayabusa lowered itself to the
surface of the strange asteroid in an
effort to study the unusual body and
collect surface samples that could be
returned to Earth in 2007. PD
source: http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/image/
0511/itokawa05_hayabusa.jpg
800 YAN
[2800 AD] 2 		4615) Humans live on Venus. The first
Venus colony.
Humans live on and under the
surface of Venus in cooled buildings.1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington. {2550}
Venus 
[1] Summary A rover that could
survive the intense heat of Venus, seen
here in an artist's impression, could
revolutionise our understanding of the
planet. Cooled by a Stirling Cooler
with electronics at 200 °C and
external radiator at 500 °C. Since the
Venusian atmosphere is 'only' 450 °C
the radiator will lose
energy. Geoffrey Landis and Kenneth
Mellott from NASA's Glenn Research
Center in Ohio. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/15/Venus_Rover.jpg

[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
800 YAN
[2800 AD] 1 		4624) Ships containing humans leave for
the stars of Alpha Centauri and will
arrive successfully perhaps 400 years
later. This begins the colonization of
other stars.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington. {2800}
  
800 YAN
[2800 AD] 1 		4628) Humans change the motion of a
moon. (A moon of Jupiter).
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington. {2800}
Jupiter 
[1] A map of Io This map of Io was
created by taking three relatively low
resolution Voyager 2 maps of Io and
composing them into a color map. These
maps were taken from this FTP site.
Each of the three original maps was
created from images taken through
differently colored filters. I then
replaced the luminosity channel of the
color map with a very high resolution
grayscale map from the above site. That
map was created from Voyager 1 photos.
The result was impressive despite the
fact that Io changed somewhat between
the two Voyager flybys (it is after all
the most volcanically active body in
the solar system !). I then removed the
most prominent seams and color
discontinuities. Some seams still
remain (I was more lazy when creating
this map than e.g. the Europa map ;)
but remarkably they are usually not
visible in 3D renderings except for
renderings showing Io from a close
range. I may remove these defects some
day. Finally I replaced small, black
areas near the poles (where no imagery
is available) with fictional data
created by cloning adjacent
areas. This map is aesthetically
better than the ones at David Seal's
site and also of higher resolution but
the color is probably less realistic
than in his ''yellowish'' map. His maps
are also more realistic in the sense
that there is no fictional data at the
poles, they are simply blank. Click
the map below to view the 2880x1440
pixel (442 KB JPG) full size map.
Actually my original map is 5760x2880
pixels but I do not have space for such
a monster here. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.mmedia.is/~bjj/data/i
o/io.jpg

[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
850 YAN
[2850 AD] 2 		4580) Humans change the motion of a
planet (planet Earth).1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington. {2800}
{2850}
Earth 
[1] Image of ships surrounding Earth in
the future by Ted Huntington Source of
Texture map for Earth unknown GNU
source: Ted Huntington

[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
900 YAN
[2900 AD] 1 		29) A ship impacts the surface of
Jupiter. The first image of the surface
of Jupiter is captured. The solid and
liquid body of Jupiter is confirmed to
be 6 times the diameter of Earth.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
Jupiter 
[1] Ted Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington

[2] This close-up of the northwestern
region of the Sun shows a filament
erupting. Credit: NASA/SDO PD
source: http://www.nasa.gov/images/conte
nt/480276main_20100904-fulldisk.jpg
900 YAN
[2900 AD] 		775) A ship from Centauri leaves for
Earth carrying matter from Centauri.
This is part of a long term project of
bringing back matter from around
Centauri to be used around the star
Earth orbits where consumable atoms are
in great demand.

MORE INFO
[1]
Alpha Centauri  
900 YAN
[2900 AD] 1 		4629) Human anatomical changes start to
become apparent as a result of living
many generations in low gravity. Humans
may start to look like ocean organisms
which do not walk but instead move by
pushing water using their appendages.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
 
[1] Ted Huntington AND Description A
meteor and galactic center of Milky Way
galaxy. The image was taken in Hawaii
Volcanoes National Park. Date
9/21/08 Source Own work Author
Brocken Inaglory GNU
source: Ted Huntington and
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/e/e5/Milky_Way_Galaxy_and_a_mete
or.jpg

[2] Ted Huntington AND Description A
meteor and galactic center of Milky Way
galaxy. The image was taken in Hawaii
Volcanoes National Park. Date
9/21/08 Source Own work Author
Brocken Inaglory GNU
source: Ted Huntington and
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/e/e5/Milky_Way_Galaxy_and_a_mete
or.jpg
1,000 YAN
[3000 AD] 		4631) The start of the removal of the
Jupiter atmosphere. Many humans may
fear Jupiter exploding.

MORE INFO
[1]
Jupiter 
[1] PIA01369: Jupiter from Voyager
2 PD
source: http://ppj-web-1.jpl.nasa.gov/jp
eg/PIA01369.jpg
1,150 YAN
[3150 AD] 1 		4638) Ships with robots reach the
second closest star, Barnard's star.
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
Barnard's Star 
[1] Adapted
from: Description English: Artist's
conception of a the red dwarf star CHRX
73 A and its companion object CHRX 73
B. The companion object is around 12
Jupiter masses, and may either be a
planet, a failed star or a brown
dwarf Date 2006-09-02 Source Sel
f-made JPEG version of original TIFF
image at Hubble
website Author NASA, ESA and G.
Bacon (STScI) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/6/68/RedDwarfPlanet.
jpg/800px-RedDwarfPlanet.jpghttp://aetd.
gsfc.nasa.gov/code540/540/new_images/MLA
S.jpg
1,200 YAN
[3200 AD] 		4614) A ship from Centauri reaches
Earth and returns the first objects
from a different star. Robots around
Centauri build ships to go to other
stars and pull them closer.

MORE INFO
[1]
Earth System 
[1] Ship from Centauri reaches
Earth PD
source: Ted Huntington

[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
1,200 YAN
[3200 AD] 5 		4637) Humans reach a different star
(Alpha Centauri). Humans now live
around two star systems and so the
chance of extinction is greatly
decreased.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington. {3100} {3200 (100
years per light year 400 years}
Alpha Centauri 
[1] Humans reach Alpha
Centauri adapted by Ted Huntington
from: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikip
edia/commons/0/08/Planet-alphacen1.png
CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/08/Planet-alphacen1.png

[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
1,200 YAN
[3200 AD] 1 		4639) Humans completely control the
motion of planet Mercury.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
Mercury  
1,300 YAN
[3300 AD] 		777) The end of major religions. Most
humans belong to no major religion.

MORE INFO
[1] future_est.xls
[2] "MODERNIZATION, CULTURAL
CHANGE, AND THE PERSISTENCE OF
TRADITIONAL VALUES" Ronald
Inglehart University of
Michigan Wayne E. Baker University of
Michigan religion_inglehart_baker.pdf
[3] "ESTIMATING THE RELIGIOUS
COMPOSITION OF ALL NATIONS: AN
EMPIRICAL ASSESSMENT", Becky Hsu, Amy
Reynolds, Conrad Hackett, James
Gibbon Princeton University November
2, 2005 Religions_estimating.pdf
 
[1] Images representing 5 major
religions UNKNOWN
source: UNKNOWN
1,350 YAN
[3350 AD] 1 		4640) Ships with robots reach Sirius.
FOOTNOTES

1. ^ Ted Huntington.
Sirius 
[1] Adapted from: Description This
picture is an artist's impression
showing how the binary star system of
Sirius A and its diminutive blue
companion, Sirius B, might appear to an
interstellar visitor. The large,
bluish-white star Sirius A dominates
the scene, while Sirius B is the small
but very hot and blue white-dwarf star
on the right. The two stars revolve
around each other every 50 years. White
dwarfs are the leftover remnants of
stars similar to our Sun. The Sirius
system, only 8.6 light-years from
Earth, is the fifth closest stellar
system known. Sirius B is faint because
of its tiny size. Its diameter is only
7,500 miles (about 12 thousand
kilometres), slightly smaller than the
size of our Earth. The Sirius system is
so close to Earth that most of the
familiar constellations would have
nearly the same appearance as in our
own sky. In this rendition, we see in
the background the three bright stars
that make up the Summer Triangle:
Altair, Deneb, and Vega. Altair is the
white dot above Sirius A; Deneb is the
dot to the upper right; and Vega lies
below Sirius B. But there is one
unfamiliar addition to the
constellations: our own Sun is the
second-magnitude star, shown as a small
dot just below and to the right of
Sirius
A. Date Source http://www.spacete
lescope.org/images/html/heic0516b.html
Author NASA, ESA Credit: G. Bacon
(STScI) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c9/Sirius_A_and_B_artwor
k.jpghttp://aetd.gsfc.nasa.gov/code540/5
40/new_images/MLAS.jpg
1,400 YAN
[3400 AD] 3 		4643) The motion of Mars is controlled
by orbiting ships.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
{3600}
Mars 
[1] Ship surround planet Mars in the
far future. Maps map source: Currently
unknown Ted Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington

[2] Nighttime city lights of Europe
from the ISS: London is on the lower
left and Paris is in the
middle UNKNOWN
source: http://www.tamaratemple.com/wp-c
ontent/uploads/2011/08/ISS028-E-024360_l
rg.jpg
1,500 YAN
[3500 AD] 1 2 		684) The Atmosphere of Venus is
completely removed. The surface of
Venus becomes much colder.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/world.html

2. ^ future_est.xls
Venus 
[1] Atmosphere of Venus completely
removed adapted by Ted Huntington
from: Summary A rover that could
survive the intense heat of Venus, seen
here in an artist's impression, could
revolutionise our understanding of the
planet. Cooled by a Stirling Cooler
with electronics at 200 °C and
external radiator at 500 °C. Since the
Venusian atmosphere is 'only' 450 °C
the radiator will lose
energy. Geoffrey Landis and Kenneth
Mellott from NASA's Glenn Research
Center in Ohio. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/15/Venus_Rover.jpg

[2] Venus with no atmosphere adapted
from Mars texture map UNKNOWN
source:
1,800 YAN
[3800 AD] 3 		4645) The motion of Jupiter is
controlled.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
{3800}
Jupiter 
[1] Ships surround Jupiter inj the far
future. by Ted Huntington, Jupiter map
from unknown source. GNU
source: Ted Huntington
2,000 YAN
[4000 AD] 		4644) The atmosphere of Jupiter is
completely removed.

MORE INFO
[1]
Jupiter 
[1] Jupiter after atmosphere is
consumed. By Ted Huntington, adapted
from: http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/Imgs/Jp
g/Photoglossary/aa_large.jpg GNU
source: http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/Imgs/J
pg/Photoglossary/aa_large.jpg

[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
2,000 YAN
[4000 AD] 		4646) Humans have robot ships at 10
different stars.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
 
[1] Description English: Praesepe:
the open cluster Messier 44 Date
Source 2MASS Atlas Image Gallery:
The Messier Catalog Author Two Micron
All Sky Survey (2MASS), a joint project
of the University of Massachusetts and
the Infrared Processing and Analysis
Center/California Institute of
Technology, funded by the National
Aeronautics and Space Administration
and the National Science
Foundation. Licensing Public domain
This image is from the Two Micron All
Sky Survey (2MASS) project. The images
from this project have been released
into the public domain. 2MASS kindly
requests acknowledgement in one of the
following forms, the longer of which is
preferred. Atlas Image [or Atlas
Image mosaic] obtained as part of the
Two Micron All Sky Survey (2MASS), a
joint project of the University of
Massachusetts and the Infrared
Processing and Analysis
Center/California Institute of
Technology, funded by the National
Aeronautics and Space Administration
and the National Science Foundation.
Atlas Image [or Atlas Image mosaic]
courtesy of
2MASS/UMass/IPAC-Caltech/NASA/NSF. PD

source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3a/Messier_044_2MASS.jpg


[2] Description English: Praesepe:
the open cluster Messier 44 Date
Source 2MASS Atlas Image Gallery:
The Messier Catalog Author Two Micron
All Sky Survey (2MASS), a joint project
of the University of Massachusetts and
the Infrared Processing and Analysis
Center/California Institute of
Technology, funded by the National
Aeronautics and Space Administration
and the National Science
Foundation. Licensing Public domain
This image is from the Two Micron All
Sky Survey (2MASS) project. The images
from this project have been released
into the public domain. 2MASS kindly
requests acknowledgement in one of the
following forms, the longer of which is
preferred. Atlas Image [or Atlas
Image mosaic] obtained as part of the
Two Micron All Sky Survey (2MASS), a
joint project of the University of
Massachusetts and the Infrared
Processing and Analysis
Center/California Institute of
Technology, funded by the National
Aeronautics and Space Administration
and the National Science Foundation.
Atlas Image [or Atlas Image mosaic]
courtesy of
2MASS/UMass/IPAC-Caltech/NASA/NSF. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3a/Messier_044_2MASS.jpg

2,200 YAN
[4200 AD] 1 		4651) The rings of Saturn are consumed
by humans living there.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington. {4200}
Saturn 
[1] Saturn surrounded by ships in the
far future. by Ted Huntington using
texture map of Saturn from:
http://www.mmedia.is/~bjj/data/saturn/sa
turn.jpg UNKNOWN
source: http://www.mmedia.is/~bjj/data/s
aturn/saturn.jpgTed Huntington
2,300 YAN
[4300 AD] 3 		6379) Humans land on Jupiter.2
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
{4300}
Jupiter 
[1] by Ted Huntington adapted
from: http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/Imgs/Jp
g/Photoglossary/aa_large.jpg PD
source: http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/Imgs/J
pg/Photoglossary/aa_large.jpg

[2] by Ted Huntington adapted
from: http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/Imgs/Jp
g/Photoglossary/aa_large.jpg PD
source: http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/Imgs/J
pg/Photoglossary/aa_large.jpg
2,500 YAN
[4500 AD] 1 2 		4579) The Venus atmosphere is like the
atmosphere of Earth.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/world.html
 {4500}
2. ^ future_est.xls {4500}
Venus 
[1] International Space Station crew
members are trained to observe and
document dynamic events on the
Earth’s surface, such as hurricanes,
forest fires, and volcanic eruptions.
Their observations provide scientists
and the general public a different
perspective on these events. Earlier
this week, astronauts in the crew of
the ISS-5 mission were able to observe
Mt. Etna’s spectacular eruption, and
photograph the details of the eruption
plume as well as smoke from fires
triggered by the lava as it flowed down
the 11,000-foot mountain. This image is
looking obliquely to the southeast over
the island of Sicily. A wider view
(ISS005-E-19016) shows the ash plume
curving out toward the horizon, caught
first by low-level winds blowing to the
southeast, and to the south toward
Africa at higher altitudes. Ashfall was
reported in Libya, more than 350 miles
away. The lighter-colored plumes
downslope and north of the summit (see
detailed view, ISS005-E-19024) are
produced by gas emissions from a line
of vents on the mountain’s north
flank. The detailed image provides a
three-dimensional profile of the
eruption plume. This was one of
Etna’s most vigorous eruptions in
years. The eruption was triggered by a
series of earthquakes on October 27.
These images were taken on October 30,
2002. Sicilans have learned to live
with Etna’s eruptions. Although
schools were closed and air traffic was
diverted because of the ash, no towns
or villages were threatened by the lava
flow. Astronaut photographs
ISS005-E-19016 and ISS005-E-19024 were
taken on October 30, 2002, at about
11:30 GMT and are provided by the Earth
Sciences and Image Analysis Laboratory
at Johnson Space Center. Additional
images taken by astronauts and
cosmonauts can be viewed at the
NASA-JSC Gateway to Astronaut
Photography of Earth. Instrument:
ISS - Digital Camera PD
source: http://eoimages.gsfc.nasa.gov/im
ages/imagerecords/2000/2923/etna2_ISS200
2303_lrg.jpg
2,500 YAN
[4500 AD] 2 		4652) The first ships to hold an orbit
above or below the planetary plane.
Ships can get closer to the Sun by
occupying an orbit above or below the
planetary plane. They either need to
thrust against the y component of the
Sun's gravity or cross the planetary
plane.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington. {4200}
 
[1] Star with many ships around
it. Adapted from: English: The Sun
photographed by the Atmospheric Imaging
Assembly (AIA 304) of NASA's Solar
Dynamics Observatory (SDO). This is a
false color image of the sun observed
in the extreme ultraviolet region of
the spectrum. For example, similar
image. Date 2010-08-19T00:32:21Z
(ISO 8601) Source NASA/SDO
(AIA). Author NASA/SDO (AIA). PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/The_Sun_by_the_
Atmospheric_Imaging_Assembly_of_NASA%27s
_Solar_Dynamics_Observatory_-_20100819.j
pg/628px-The_Sun_by_the_Atmospheric_Imag
ing_Assembly_of_NASA%27s_Solar_Dynamics_
Observatory_-_20100819.jpg

[2] Star with many ships around
it. Adapted from: English: The Sun
photographed by the Atmospheric Imaging
Assembly (AIA 304) of NASA's Solar
Dynamics Observatory (SDO). This is a
false color image of the sun observed
in the extreme ultraviolet region of
the spectrum. For example, similar
image. Date 2010-08-19T00:32:21Z
(ISO 8601) Source NASA/SDO
(AIA). Author NASA/SDO (AIA). PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/The_Sun_by_the_
Atmospheric_Imaging_Assembly_of_NASA%27s
_Solar_Dynamics_Observatory_-_20100819.j
pg/628px-The_Sun_by_the_Atmospheric_Imag
ing_Assembly_of_NASA%27s_Solar_Dynamics_
Observatory_-_20100819.jpg
2,500 YAN
[4500 AD] 		4655) Humans live on the surface of
Jupiter.
Jupiter 
[1] Lava flows on Krafla in
Iceland Licensing: This image
was created by Chris 73. The image is
licensed under a dual license; please
choose either of the two licenses below
as desired. Attribution to Wikipedia or
another project of the Wikimedia
foundation is required for both
licenses if the image is used outside
of projects of the Wikimedia
foundation. Attribution to me is not
required. GNU head Es ist erlaubt,
die Datei unter den Bedingungen der
GNU-Lizenz für freie Dokumentation,
Version 1.3 oder einer späteren
Version, veröffentlicht von der Free
Software Foundation, zu kopieren, zu
verbreiten und/oder zu modifizieren; es
gibt keine unveränderlichen
Abschnitte, keinen vorderen und keinen
hinteren Umschlagtext. Der
vollständige Text der Lizenz ist im
Kapitel GNU-Lizenz für freie
Dokumentation verfügbar. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d6/Lava_at_Vulkan_Krafla
_Iceland_1.JPG

[2] Volle resolusie ‎(3 888 × 2 592
pixels, lêergrootte: 5,96 MG, MIME
type: image/jpeg) Hierdie lêer kom
vanaf Wikimedia Commons en kan ook in
ander projekte gebruik word. Die
beskrywing op die lêer se
inligtingsblad word hieronder
weergegee. Beskrywing English: Lava
flow at The Big Island of Hawaii. The
lava flow is due to July 21 fissure
eruption. The picture was taken from a
helicopter. Datum 09/10/07 Bron
Created and originally uploaded to the
English Wikipedia by Brocken
Inaglory. Outeur Brocken
Inaglory Toestemming (Hergebruik van
die lêer)
CC-BY-SA-3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0; Released
under the GNU Free Documentation
License. Kameraligging 19°
23' 11.0'' N, 155° 6' 18.0''
W Hierdie en ander beelde in: Google
Maps - Google Earth - OpenStreetMa CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/62/Hawaiian_lava_flow.jp
g
2,500 YAN
[4500 AD] 2 		4662) The motions of all the planets
are under human control.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington. {4500}
 
[1] Various planetary texture maps and
public domain lava texture map mapped
onto 3D sphere and rendered two spheres
of ships added by Ted Huntington PD
source: Various planetary texture maps
and public domain lava texture map
mapped onto 3D sphere and rendered two
spheres of ships added by Ted
Huntington

[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
2,800 YAN
[4800 AD] 2 		4669) Jupiter is the most populated
planet, overtaking the Earth in number
of humans living in, on, and in orbit
of it.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington. {4800}
Jupiter  
3,000 YAN
[5000 AD] 		4656) The atmosphere of Jupiter is now
Nitrogen and Oxygen, and heated to stay
gaseous.
Jupiter  
3,000 YAN
[5000 AD] 2 3 		4666) More humans live in ships than
live in and on the surface of all the
planets, moons and asteroids.1
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
{4700}
  
3,000 YAN
[5000 AD] 		4668) Humans have robot ships at 50
different stars.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
 
[1] Description English: A spatial
representation of every star within 14
light-years of Sol. There are 32 known
stars in this region, including Sol.
The stars are coloured according to the
spectral type, which may not reflect
the actual colour. Please see this
Wikipedia article for the listing of
stars. If a star is double or triple
the stars are shown stacked vertically:
the actual position is the star closest
to the centre plane. The stars on this
map may not all be visible to the naked
eye, as many are dwarf stars. Some of
this information may be preliminary and
not entirely accurate as a result. The
coordinate system is right ascension
and declination. Hours of RA are
marked, as well as distance in
multiples of 5 light-years. Date
06/04/2008 Source self-made,
Mathematica, Inkscape. See also:
http://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedi
a/S/starsnearest.html Author
Inductiveload PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/ff/Nearby_Stars_%2814ly_
Radius%29.svg
3,100 YAN
[5100 AD] 5 		4671) The first image of advanced
living objects that evolved around a
different star.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington. {5100}
 
[1] Life of another star by Ted
Huntington with background
image: 说明 English: Open Star
Cluster NGC663 in Cassiopeia 日期
2010年11月9日 来源
自己的作品 作者
Hewholooks CC
source: Ted
Huntingtonhttp://upload.wikimedia.org/wi
kipedia/commons/1/12/NGC663HunterWilson.
jpg

[2] Living object from other star by
Ted Huntington with image in
background: Description English:
This impressive image of the open
cluster known as Trumpler 14 was
obtained with the Multi-conjugate
Adaptive optics Demonstrator (MAD)
mounted on ESO’s Very Large
Telescope. The cluster, which is found
to be only 500 000 years old — a
blink of an eye in the Universe’s
history — resides at the outskirts of
the central region of the Carina
Nebula, located some 8000 light-years
away towards the constellation of
Carina (the Keel). Trumpler 14 is not
only the youngest, but also one of the
most populous clusters within the
nebula. Astronomers counted about 2000
stars in the very central parts of this
cluster. The MAD instrument allows
astronomers to obtain very sharp images
over a wide area and this image is the
adaptive optics image that so far
covers the widest area on the sky. The
field of view is about 2 arcminutes
across and the image is based on data
obtained through two different filters
(K and H). Date 03-12-2009 Source
http://www.eso.org/public/images/eso094
7a/ Author ESO/H. Sana CC
source: Ted
Huntingtonhttp://upload.wikimedia.org/wi
kipedia/commons/5/57/ESO-Trumpler14-clus
ter.jpg
3,200 YAN
[5200 AD] 2 		4673) Humans inhabit 10 stars and have
robot ships around 100 stars.1
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington. {5200}
 
[1] Description English: A spatial
representation of every star within 14
light-years of Sol. There are 32 known
stars in this region, including Sol.
The stars are coloured according to the
spectral type, which may not reflect
the actual colour. Please see this
Wikipedia article for the listing of
stars. If a star is double or triple
the stars are shown stacked vertically:
the actual position is the star closest
to the centre plane. The stars on this
map may not all be visible to the naked
eye, as many are dwarf stars. Some of
this information may be preliminary and
not entirely accurate as a result. The
coordinate system is right ascension
and declination. Hours of RA are
marked, as well as distance in
multiples of 5 light-years. Date
06/04/2008 Source self-made,
Mathematica, Inkscape. See also:
http://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedi
a/S/starsnearest.html Author
Inductiveload PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/ff/Nearby_Stars_%2814ly_
Radius%29.svg
3,500 YAN
[5500 AD] 		6176) The position of the Sun is under
human control and is moved in the
direction of Centauri.
Sun 
[1] Humans move star by Ted
Huntington PD
source: Ted Huntington

[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
4,000 YAN
[6000 AD] 		4674) The stars of Centauri are moved
towards the Sun.

MORE INFO
[1]
Centauri 
[1] Ships move Alpha Centauri A by Ted
Huntington PD
source: Ted Huntington

[2] Ships move Alpha Centauri A by
Ted Huntington PD
source: Ted Huntington
4,000 YAN
[6000 AD] 5 		4675) Humans touch advanced living
objects that evolved around a different
star.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington. {6000}
 
[1] Humans touch advanced life of
another star by Ted Huntington with
background image of: Double Cluster
in Perseus Credit & Copyright: Roth
Ritter (Dark
Atmospheres) Explanation: Some 7,000
light-years away, this pair of open or
galactic star clusters is an easy
binocular target, a lovely starfield in
the northern constellation Perseus.
Also visible to the unaided eye from
dark sky areas, it was cataloged in 130
BC by Greek astronomer Hipparchus. Now
known as h and chi Persei, or NGC
869(above right) and NGC 884, the
clusters themselves are separated by
only a few hundred light-years and
contain stars much younger and hotter
than the Sun. In addition to being
physically close together, the
clusters' ages based on their
individual stars are similar - evidence
that both clusters were likely a
product of the same star-forming
region. PD
source: Ted
Huntingtonhttp://apod.nasa.gov/apod/imag
e/0901/clusters_2_ritter.jpg

[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
4,500 YAN
[6500 AD] 		4676) Humans form a cluster of 4 stars
(the Sun and the three stars of
Centauri) and start to look like an
"open cluster".

Each star is within 1 light year from
each other.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
Sun-Centauri cluster 
[1] Open Star Cluster M38 Credit &
Copyright: NOAO, AURA,
NSF Explanation: Open cluster M38
can be seen with binoculars toward the
constellation of Auriga. M38 is
considered an intermediately rich open
cluster of stars, each of which is
about 200 million years old. Located in
the disk of our Milky Way galaxy, M38
is still young enough to house many
bright blue stars, although it's
brightest star is a yellow giant
shining 900 times brighter than our
Sun. The cluster spans roughly 25
light-years and lies about 4000
light-years away. M38, pictured above,
is found only about 2.5 degrees
northwest of open cluster M36. Loosely
bound by gravity, open clusters spread
out over time as they orbit the
galactic center and their member stars
slowly escape. PD
source: http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/image/
0301/m38_noao.jpg
5,000 YAN
[7000 AD] 1 2 		678) One trillion humans.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/world.html

2. ^
http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/world.html
 {15,505 YAN (rate=0.033%) (at current
rate is 2600}
 
[1] Image summarizing population of
humans around planets and stars by Ted
Huntington PD
source: Ted Huntington

[2] Image summarizing population of
humans around planets and stars by Ted
Huntington PD
source: Ted Huntington
9,000 YAN
[11000 AD] 2 		4680) Genetic engineering may produce
humans that use photosynthesis, only
needing water, oxygen, and light.1
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington. {11000}
 
[1] Stomata UNKNOWN
source: http://25.media.tumblr.com/tumbl
r_lw2kg9XyIi1qg1up7o1_1280.jpg

[2] Magnified 1000 X UNKNOWN
source: http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-e92BaY
WkdLQ/TZRgIdtDT-I/AAAAAAAAANA/YCjudgxn9n
I/s1600/1000%2BX%2BElodea.JPG
10,000 YAN
[12000 AD] 2 		4681) Genetic engineering may remove
the requirement of humans to urinate,
defecate, and sleep.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington. {12000}
 
[1] Chromsomes UNKNOWN
source: http://www.ocf.berkeley.edu/~edy
/genome/chromosomes.jpg

[2] Ted Huntington AND Description A
meteor and galactic center of Milky Way
galaxy. The image was taken in Hawaii
Volcanoes National Park. Date
9/21/08 Source Own work Author
Brocken Inaglory GNU
source: Ted Huntington and
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/e/e5/Milky_Way_Galaxy_and_a_mete
or.jpg
12,000 YAN
[14000 AD] 		679) One quadrillion humans (1015).

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/world.html

 
[1] Image summarizing population of
humans around planets and stars by Ted
Huntington PD
source: Ted Huntington

[2] Image summarizing population of
humans around planets and stars by Ted
Huntington PD
source: Ted Huntington
12,000 YAN
[14000 AD] 1 		4683) Our descendents probably will
look very different from humans now,
adapted for efficiency and to low
gravity space.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
 
[1] Ted Huntington AND Description A
meteor and galactic center of Milky Way
galaxy. The image was taken in Hawaii
Volcanoes National Park. Date
9/21/08 Source Own work Author
Brocken Inaglory GNU
source: Ted Huntington and
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/e/e5/Milky_Way_Galaxy_and_a_mete
or.jpg

[2] Ted Huntington AND Description A
meteor and galactic center of Milky Way
galaxy. The image was taken in Hawaii
Volcanoes National Park. Date
9/21/08 Source Own work Author
Brocken Inaglory GNU
source: Ted Huntington and
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/e/e5/Milky_Way_Galaxy_and_a_mete
or.jpg
15,000 YAN
[17000 AD] 		6570) More humans live around other
stars than live around the Sun.

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/world.html

 
[1] Open Star Cluster M38 Credit &
Copyright: NOAO, AURA,
NSF Explanation: Open cluster M38
can be seen with binoculars toward the
constellation of Auriga. M38 is
considered an intermediately rich open
cluster of stars, each of which is
about 200 million years old. Located in
the disk of our Milky Way galaxy, M38
is still young enough to house many
bright blue stars, although it's
brightest star is a yellow giant
shining 900 times brighter than our
Sun. The cluster spans roughly 25
light-years and lies about 4000
light-years away. M38, pictured above,
is found only about 2.5 degrees
northwest of open cluster M36. Loosely
bound by gravity, open clusters spread
out over time as they orbit the
galactic center and their member stars
slowly escape. PD
source: http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/image/
0301/m38_noao.jpg

[2] Image summarizing population of
humans around planets and stars by Ted
Huntington PD
source: Ted Huntington
19,000 YAN
[21000 AD] 		6548) One quintillion humans (1018).

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/world.html

 
[1] Image summarizing population of
humans around planets and stars by Ted
Huntington PD
source: Ted Huntington

[2] Image adapted from from
http://www.nasa.gov/externalflash/gemini
_gallery/hi-resjpgs/10.jpg Cape
Canaveral, site of NASA's Kennedy Space
Center, from the Gemini V ... PD
source: http://www.nasa.gov/externalflas
h/gemini_gallery/hi-resjpgs/10.jpgTed
Huntington Ted Huntington
25,000 YAN
[27000 AD] 		4677) Humans have robot ships around
1000 stars, inhabit 100 stars, and form
an open cluster of 10 stars.
 
[1] Hyades for the Holidays Image
Credit & Copyright: Jerry Lodriguss
(Catching the Light) Explanation:
Recognized since antiquity and depicted
on the shield of Achilles according to
Homer, stars of the Hyades cluster form
the head of the constellation Taurus
the Bull. Their general V-shape is
anchored by Aldebaran, the eye of the
Bull and by far the constellation's
brightest star. Yellowish in
appearance, red giant Aldebaran is not
a Hyades cluster member, though. Modern
astronomy puts the Hyades cluster 151
light-years away making it the nearest
established open star cluster, while
Aldebaran lies at less than half that
distance, along the same line-of-sight.
Along with colorful Hyades stars, this
stellar holiday portrait locates
Aldebaran just below center, as well as
another open star cluster in Taurus,
NGC 1647 at the left, some 2,000
light-years or more in the background.
Just slide your cursor over the image
to identify the stars. The central
Hyades stars are spread out over about
15 light-years. Formed some 800 million
years ago, the Hyades star cluster may
share a common origin with M44
(Praesepe), a naked-eye open star
cluster in Cancer, based on M44's
motion through space and remarkably
similar age. UNKNOWN
source: http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/image/
1212/HyadesLodriguss.jpg

[2] Hyades for the Holidays Image
Credit & Copyright: Jerry Lodriguss
(Catching the Light) Explanation:
Recognized since antiquity and depicted
on the shield of Achilles according to
Homer, stars of the Hyades cluster form
the head of the constellation Taurus
the Bull. Their general V-shape is
anchored by Aldebaran, the eye of the
Bull and by far the constellation's
brightest star. Yellowish in
appearance, red giant Aldebaran is not
a Hyades cluster member, though. Modern
astronomy puts the Hyades cluster 151
light-years away making it the nearest
established open star cluster, while
Aldebaran lies at less than half that
distance, along the same line-of-sight.
Along with colorful Hyades stars, this
stellar holiday portrait locates
Aldebaran just below center, as well as
another open star cluster in Taurus,
NGC 1647 at the left, some 2,000
light-years or more in the background.
Just slide your cursor over the image
to identify the stars. The central
Hyades stars are spread out over about
15 light-years. Formed some 800 million
years ago, the Hyades star cluster may
share a common origin with M44
(Praesepe), a naked-eye open star
cluster in Cancer, based on M44's
motion through space and remarkably
similar age. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.cfht.hawaii.edu/Scien
ce/Astros/Imageofweek/ciw-image/050600-2
.jpg
45,000 YAN
[47000 AD] 		4679) Humans have robot ships around
10,000 stars, inhabit 1000 stars and
form a cluster of 100 stars.
 
[1] The CFHT Open Cluster Survey : NGC
2099 Credit: Image courtesy of
Harvey Richer1, Patrick Durrell1,
Gregory Fahlman2, J. Kalirai1, F.
D'Antona3 & G. Marconi3 1 University
of British Columbia, Vancouver,
Canada 2 Canada-France-Hawaii
Telescope Corporation, Hawaii, USA 3
Osservatorio Astronomico di Roma, Italy
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.cfht.hawaii.edu/Scien
ce/Astros/Imageofweek/ciw-image/050600-2
.jpg

[2] Hyades for the Holidays Image
Credit & Copyright: Jerry Lodriguss
(Catching the Light) Explanation:
Recognized since antiquity and depicted
on the shield of Achilles according to
Homer, stars of the Hyades cluster form
the head of the constellation Taurus
the Bull. Their general V-shape is
anchored by Aldebaran, the eye of the
Bull and by far the constellation's
brightest star. Yellowish in
appearance, red giant Aldebaran is not
a Hyades cluster member, though. Modern
astronomy puts the Hyades cluster 151
light-years away making it the nearest
established open star cluster, while
Aldebaran lies at less than half that
distance, along the same line-of-sight.
Along with colorful Hyades stars, this
stellar holiday portrait locates
Aldebaran just below center, as well as
another open star cluster in Taurus,
NGC 1647 at the left, some 2,000
light-years or more in the background.
Just slide your cursor over the image
to identify the stars. The central
Hyades stars are spread out over about
15 light-years. Formed some 800 million
years ago, the Hyades star cluster may
share a common origin with M44
(Praesepe), a naked-eye open star
cluster in Cancer, based on M44's
motion through space and remarkably
similar age. UNKNOWN
source: http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/image/
1212/HyadesLodriguss.jpg
50,000 YAN
[52000 AD] 		4658) All asteroids are consumed.2
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
 
[1] Adapted from: The Missing Craters
of Asteroid Itokawa Credit &
Copyright: ISAS, JAXA Explanation:
Where are the craters on asteroid
Itokawa? No one knows. The Japanese
robot probe Hayabusa recently
approached the Earth-crossing asteroid
and is returning pictures showing a
surface unlike any other Solar System
body yet photographed -- a surface
possibly devoid of craters. One
possibility for the lack of common
circular indentations is that asteroid
Itokawa is a rubble pile -- a bunch of
rocks and ice chunks only loosely held
together by a small amount of gravity.
If so, craters might be filled in
whenever the asteroid gets jiggled by a
passing planet -- Earth in this case.
Alternatively, surface particles may
become electrically charged by the Sun,
levitate in the microgravity field, and
move to fill in craters. Over the
weekend, Hayabusa lowered itself to the
surface of the strange asteroid in an
effort to study the unusual body and
collect surface samples that could be
returned to Earth in 2007. PD
source: http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/image/
0511/itokawa05_hayabusa.jpg
63,000 YAN
[65000 AD] 		6171) Humans reach the center of the
Earth.

MORE INFO
[1]
Huntington_Ted_population_estimates.txt
Earth 
[1] by Ted Huntington PD
source: Ted Huntington

[2] Adapted from: The Death Star is
the size of a small moon. See more Star
Wars pictures. Photo courtesy ©
Lucasfilm Ltd. & TM. All Rights
Reserved. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://static.ddmcdn.com/gif/dea
th-star-1.jpg
65,000 YAN
[67000 AD] 2 		6174) Earth is completely filled with
living objects, and has a population of
10 quintillion {KWiNTiLYeN1 } (1019)
humans.
There is no more molten material inside
the Earth. All the molten compressed
matter was extracted, cooled and
consumed, mostly as building materials,
fuel, and food. Earth is completely
filled with tunnels, rooms, and living
objects.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "quintillion." The American
Heritage� Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 25
Jan. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/quintillion

2. ^
Huntington_Ted_population_estimates.txt
Earth 
[1] Earth is completely filled by Ted
Huntington PD
source: Ted Huntington

[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
70,000 YAN
[72000 AD] 		4684) Humans have robot ships at
100,000 stars, inhabit 10,000 stars,
and form a cluster of 1,000 stars.
 
[1] M15 Second attempt for a star
cluster. L 12x2min, RGB each 5x2min,
Dark no Flat. 1 click on the picture
(1024x690, 115 KB) Distance: 35000
Ly UNKNOWN
source: http://www.luluobservatorium.de/
Big%20Pictures/M15.jpg

[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
90,000 YAN
[92000 AD] 2 		6210) Humans form a globular cluster of
10,000 stars. This cluster starts to
leave the plane of the Milky Way
Galaxy.

The human population is now around 50
sextillion (50 x 1021).1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington based on 0.03%
growth from 2000 to 90000
2. ^ Ted
Huntington. {10000} {92,108 YAN (0.01%
growth rate) (was 10000}
 
[1] M31 with some globular clusters
marked [t Note that each globular
cluster can be imagined to be formed by
some intelligent living
objects.] Image by Peter
Kennett UNKNOWN
source: http://www.petesastrophotography
.com/m31globs.jpg

[2] M31, Southwest Arm, NGC
206 copyright Robert Gendler
2005 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.robgendlerastropics.c
om/M31NMmosaicSW.jpg
121,000 YAN
7 8 9 10 		681) The Moon of Earth population
reaches the maximum possible (200
quadrillion, 200 x 1015 ).4 5 6
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^
Huntington_Ted_population_estimates.txt
2. ^
http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/world.html

3. ^ future_est.xls
4. ^
Huntington_Ted_population_estimates.txt
5. ^
http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/world.html

6. ^ future_est.xls
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^
Huntington_Ted_population_estimates.txt
9. ^
http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/world.html
 {3800}
10. ^ future_est.xls {3800}
Moon of Earth 
[1] Ships surround Moon of Earth in the
future. Source of Moon Texture Map:
unknown Ted Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
125,500 YAN
4672) Planet Mercury is completely
filled with living objects.
Mercury 
[1] Mercury at maximum population
adapted by Ted Huntington
from: http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/
Features/CitiesAtNight/images/ISS007-E-1
6525_night.jpg GNU
source: http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov
/Features/CitiesAtNight/images/ISS007-E-
16525_night.jpg
127,000 YAN
7 8 9 		682) The population of humans on planet
Mars reaches a physical maximum of 1
quintillion (1 x 1018) humans. 4 5 6
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^
Huntington_Ted_population_estimates.txt
2. ^
http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/world.html

3. ^ future_est.xls
4. ^
Huntington_Ted_population_estimates.txt
5. ^
http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/world.html

6. ^ future_est.xls
7. ^
Huntington_Ted_population_estimates.txt
8. ^
http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/world.html

9. ^ future_est.xls
Mars 
[1] Ship surround planet Mars in the
far future. Maps map source: Currently
unknown Ted Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
138,000 YAN
4678) All the planets of the Sun are
consumed.

All that remains are ships that orbit
the Sun; most matter must now be taken
from the Sun and other stars.

MORE INFO
[1]
Huntington_Ted_population_estimates.txt
 
[1] Star with many ships around
it. Adapted from: English: The Sun
photographed by the Atmospheric Imaging
Assembly (AIA 304) of NASA's Solar
Dynamics Observatory (SDO). This is a
false color image of the sun observed
in the extreme ultraviolet region of
the spectrum. For example, similar
image. Date 2010-08-19T00:32:21Z
(ISO 8601) Source NASA/SDO
(AIA). Author NASA/SDO (AIA). PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/The_Sun_by_the_
Atmospheric_Imaging_Assembly_of_NASA%27s
_Solar_Dynamics_Observatory_-_20100819.j
pg/628px-The_Sun_by_the_Atmospheric_Imag
ing_Assembly_of_NASA%27s_Solar_Dynamics_
Observatory_-_20100819.jpg

[2] Globular Star Cluster 47
Tuc Image Credit & Copyright: Dieter
Willasch
(Astro-Cabinet) Explanation:
Globular star cluster 47 Tucanae is a
jewel of the southern sky. Also known
as NGC 104, it roams the halo of our
Milky Way Galaxy along with some 200
other globular star clusters. The
second brightest globular cluster
(after Omega Centauri) as seen from
planet Earth, it lies about 13,000
light-years away and can be spotted
naked-eye near the Small Magellanic
Cloud in the constellation of the
Toucan. The dense cluster is made up of
several million stars in a volume only
about 120 light-years across. Red giant
stars on the outskirts of the cluster
are easy to pick out as yellowish stars
in this sharp telescopic portrait.
Globular cluster 47 Tuc is also home to
exotic x-ray binary star systems. PD
source: http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/image/
1101/47Tuc_DW.jpg
148,000 YAN
1 		100) The Sun is consumed.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
Huntington_Ted_population_estimates.txt
 
[1] Star with many ships around
it. Adapted from: English: The Sun
photographed by the Atmospheric Imaging
Assembly (AIA 304) of NASA's Solar
Dynamics Observatory (SDO). This is a
false color image of the sun observed
in the extreme ultraviolet region of
the spectrum. For example, similar
image. Date 2010-08-19T00:32:21Z
(ISO 8601) Source NASA/SDO
(AIA). Author NASA/SDO (AIA). PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/The_Sun_by_the_
Atmospheric_Imaging_Assembly_of_NASA%27s
_Solar_Dynamics_Observatory_-_20100819.j
pg/628px-The_Sun_by_the_Atmospheric_Imag
ing_Assembly_of_NASA%27s_Solar_Dynamics_
Observatory_-_20100819.jpg

[2] Globular Star Cluster 47
Tuc Image Credit & Copyright: Dieter
Willasch
(Astro-Cabinet) Explanation:
Globular star cluster 47 Tucanae is a
jewel of the southern sky. Also known
as NGC 104, it roams the halo of our
Milky Way Galaxy along with some 200
other globular star clusters. The
second brightest globular cluster
(after Omega Centauri) as seen from
planet Earth, it lies about 13,000
light-years away and can be spotted
naked-eye near the Small Magellanic
Cloud in the constellation of the
Toucan. The dense cluster is made up of
several million stars in a volume only
about 120 light-years across. Red giant
stars on the outskirts of the cluster
are easy to pick out as yellowish stars
in this sharp telescopic portrait.
Globular cluster 47 Tuc is also home to
exotic x-ray binary star systems. PD
source: http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/image/
1101/47Tuc_DW.jpg
205,000 YAN
6317) Sirius is consumed.
Sirius 
[1] Adapted from: Description This
picture is an artist's impression
showing how the binary star system of
Sirius A and its diminutive blue
companion, Sirius B, might appear to an
interstellar visitor. The large,
bluish-white star Sirius A dominates
the scene, while Sirius B is the small
but very hot and blue white-dwarf star
on the right. The two stars revolve
around each other every 50 years. White
dwarfs are the leftover remnants of
stars similar to our Sun. The Sirius
system, only 8.6 light-years from
Earth, is the fifth closest stellar
system known. Sirius B is faint because
of its tiny size. Its diameter is only
7,500 miles (about 12 thousand
kilometres), slightly smaller than the
size of our Earth. The Sirius system is
so close to Earth that most of the
familiar constellations would have
nearly the same appearance as in our
own sky. In this rendition, we see in
the background the three bright stars
that make up the Summer Triangle:
Altair, Deneb, and Vega. Altair is the
white dot above Sirius A; Deneb is the
dot to the upper right; and Vega lies
below Sirius B. But there is one
unfamiliar addition to the
constellations: our own Sun is the
second-magnitude star, shown as a small
dot just below and to the right of
Sirius
A. Date Source http://www.spacete
lescope.org/images/html/heic0516b.html
Author NASA, ESA Credit: G. Bacon
(STScI) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Sirius_A_and_B_
artwork.jpg/800px-Sirius_A_and_B_artwork
.jpg

[2] Adapted from: Description This
picture is an artist's impression
showing how the binary star system of
Sirius A and its diminutive blue
companion, Sirius B, might appear to an
interstellar visitor. The large,
bluish-white star Sirius A dominates
the scene, while Sirius B is the small
but very hot and blue white-dwarf star
on the right. The two stars revolve
around each other every 50 years. White
dwarfs are the leftover remnants of
stars similar to our Sun. The Sirius
system, only 8.6 light-years from
Earth, is the fifth closest stellar
system known. Sirius B is faint because
of its tiny size. Its diameter is only
7,500 miles (about 12 thousand
kilometres), slightly smaller than the
size of our Earth. The Sirius system is
so close to Earth that most of the
familiar constellations would have
nearly the same appearance as in our
own sky. In this rendition, we see in
the background the three bright stars
that make up the Summer Triangle:
Altair, Deneb, and Vega. Altair is the
white dot above Sirius A; Deneb is the
dot to the upper right; and Vega lies
below Sirius B. But there is one
unfamiliar addition to the
constellations: our own Sun is the
second-magnitude star, shown as a small
dot just below and to the right of
Sirius
A. Date Source http://www.spacete
lescope.org/images/html/heic0516b.html
Author NASA, ESA Credit: G. Bacon
(STScI) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Sirius_A_and_B_
artwork.jpg/800px-Sirius_A_and_B_artwork
.jpg
630,000 YAN
106) Ten to the power 100 humans.

MORE INFO
[1]
 
[1] Globular Star Cluster 47 Tuc Image
Credit & Copyright: Dieter Willasch
(Astro-Cabinet) Explanation:
Globular star cluster 47 Tucanae is a
jewel of the southern sky. Also known
as NGC 104, it roams the halo of our
Milky Way Galaxy along with some 200
other globular star clusters. The
second brightest globular cluster
(after Omega Centauri) as seen from
planet Earth, it lies about 13,000
light-years away and can be spotted
naked-eye near the Small Magellanic
Cloud in the constellation of the
Toucan. The dense cluster is made up of
several million stars in a volume only
about 120 light-years across. Red giant
stars on the outskirts of the cluster
are easy to pick out as yellowish stars
in this sharp telescopic portrait.
Globular cluster 47 Tuc is also home to
exotic x-ray binary star systems. PD
source: http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/image/
1101/47Tuc_DW.jpg

[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
1,000,000,000 YAN
3 4 		4685) All the stars in the Milky Way
Galaxy belong to a globular cluster.
The Milky Way is now an elliptical
galaxy.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington. {100002000}
Milky Way Galaxy 
[1] Designation NGC 3115, Bennett 42,
Caldwell 53, the Spindle
Galaxy Object type Type S(0)
lenticular galaxy Coordinates 10 h 05
min - 07° 43' Sextans
(Sex) Description NGC 3115 is also
known as the ''Spindle Galaxy.'' It is
a lenticular, a ''spiral galaxy without
spiral structure'', i.e. a smooth disk
galaxy, where stellar formation has
stopped because the interstellar matter
was used up. From their appearance and
stellar contents, they can often hardly
be distinguished from ellipticals
observationally. Dreyer calls this
lenticular galaxy very bright (mag
9.7), large (8.3'x3.2'), very much
elongated (P.A. 46°), and brightening
sharply to a brightened, elongated
nucleus. It lies 4.8° north of Lambda
Hydrae. North is to the right in the
15 x 10 arcmin field of view.
Exposure LRGB 60:20:20:20 min @
-15°C, all exposures unbinned Camera
SBIG ST-10XE selfguided + CFW8 with
Astrodon LRGB filterset Optics RCOS
14.5'' Ritchey-Chrétien @ f/9 (prime
focus) Mount Astro-Physics
AP1200GTO Software MaxIm DL/CCD,
Adobe Photoshop CS Location - Date -
Time San Esteban (Chile) - 10Apr05 @
00:30 UTC Conditions Transparency 7,
Seeing 5, Temperature +10°C UNKNOWN

source: http://astrosurf.com/antilhue/NG
C3115-LRGB.jpg

[2] All stars in the Milky Way belong
to a globular cluster. Adapted
from: http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/image/0
506/m22_cfht_big.jpg Globular Cluster
M22 from CFHT Credit & Copyright:
Jean-Charles Cuillandre (CFHT),
Hawaiian Starlight,
CFHT Explanation: The globular
cluster M22, pictured above, contains
over 100,000 stars. These stars formed
together and are gravitationally bound.
Stars orbit the center of the cluster,
and the cluster orbits the center of
our Galaxy. So far, about 140 globular
clusters are known to exist in a
roughly spherical halo around the
Galactic center. Globular clusters do
not appear spherically distributed as
viewed from the Earth, and this fact
was a key point in the determination
that our Sun is not at the center of
our Galaxy. Globular clusters are very
old. There is a straightforward method
of determining their age, and this
nearly matches the 13.7 billion-year
age of our entire universe. PD
source: http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/image/
0506/m22_cfht_big.jpg
25,000,000,000 YAN
4686) The star clusters in the outer
areas are pulled closer to the center
making the galaxy more spherical, and
the galaxy develops a massive
propulsion system in order to go get
more matter to consume. The Milky Way
is now a spherical globular galaxy.
Milky Way Galaxy 
[1] Description English: Messier
object 87 by Hubble space
telescope Date 18 August
2009 Source
http://wikisky.org/snapshot?img_siz
e=&img_res=&ra=12.5138&de=12.3896&angle=
0.0293&projection=tan&rotation=0.0&surve
y=astrophoto&img_id=905632&width=2160&he
ight=2160&img_borders=&interpolation=bic
ubic&jpeg_quality=0.8 Author
en:NASA, en:STScI,
en:WikiSky Permission (Reusing this
file) PD-HUBBLE PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/07/Messier_87_Hubble_Wik
iSky.jpg

[2] Description Hubble
Illuminates Cluster of Diverse Galaxies
(Abell S740), cropped to ESO
325-G004. Date January
2007 Source
http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/ar
chive/releases/galaxy/elliptical/2007/08
/image/a/warn/ Author J.
Blakeslee (Washington State
University) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d3/Abell_S740%2C_cropped
_to_ESO_325-G004.jpg
30,000,000,000 YAN
4687) The Milky Way Globular Galaxy
integrates the matter of the two
Magellanic Cloud galaxies.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
Milky Way Galaxy 
[1] Elliptical Galaxy Centaurus A from
CFHT Credit & Copyright: Jean-Charles
Cuillandre (CFHT) & Giovanni Anselmi
(Coelum Astronomia), Hawaiian
Starlight Explanation: Why is
peculiar galaxy Centaurus A so dusty?
Dramatic dust lanes that run across the
galaxy's center mark Cen A. These dust
lanes are so thick they almost
completely obscure the galaxy's center
in visible light. This is particularly
unusual as Cen A's red stars and round
shape are characteristic of a giant
elliptical galaxy, a galaxy type
usually low in dark dust. Cen A, also
known as NGC 5128, is also unusual
compared to an average elliptical
galaxy because it contains a higher
proportion of young blue stars and is a
very strong source of radio emission.
Evidence indicates that Cen A is likely
the result of the collision of two
normal galaxies. During the collision,
many young stars were formed, but
details of the creation of Cen A's
unusual dust belts are still being
researched. Cen A lies only 13 million
light years away, making it the closest
active galaxy. Cen A, pictured above,
spans 60,000 light years and can be
seen with binoculars toward the
constellation of Centaurus. PD
source: http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/image/
0607/cenA_cfht.jpg

[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
40,000,000,000 YAN
4688) The Milky Way and Andromeda
globular galaxies join.4

The Andromeda and Milky Way globular
galaxies may merge into a single larger
galaxy, which then resumes the search
for a smaller galaxy to consume.
Natural selection must also create a
large scale "eat or be eaten",
"predator-prey" existence for galaxies
similar to that on Earth.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
Milky Way Galaxy and Andromeda
Galaxy 
[1] See Explanation. Clicking on the
picture will download the highest
resolution version available. In the
Center of the Virgo Cluster Credit &
Copyright: Jean-Charles Cuillandre
(CFHT), Hawaiian Starlight,
CFHT Explanation: The Virgo Cluster
of Galaxies is the closest cluster of
galaxies to our Milky Way Galaxy. The
Virgo Cluster is so close that it spans
more than 5 degrees on the sky - about
10 times the angle made by a full Moon.
It contains over 100 galaxies of many
types - including spiral, elliptical,
and irregular galaxies. The Virgo
Cluster is so massive that it is
noticeably pulling our Galaxy toward
it. The cluster contains not only
galaxies filled with stars but also gas
so hot it glows in X-rays. Motions of
galaxies in and around clusters
indicate that they contain more dark
matter than any visible matter we can
see. Pictured above, the center of the
Virgo cluster might appear to some as a
human face, and includes bright Messier
galaxies M86 at the top, M84 on the far
right, NGC 4388 at the bottom, and NGC
4387 in the middle. PD
source: http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/image/
0308/virgocenter_cfht.jpg

[2] See Explanation. Clicking on the
picture will download the highest
resolution version available. In the
Center of the Virgo Cluster Credit &
Copyright: Jean-Charles Cuillandre
(CFHT), Hawaiian Starlight,
CFHT Explanation: The Virgo Cluster
of Galaxies is the closest cluster of
galaxies to our Milky Way Galaxy. The
Virgo Cluster is so close that it spans
more than 5 degrees on the sky - about
10 times the angle made by a full Moon.
It contains over 100 galaxies of many
types - including spiral, elliptical,
and irregular galaxies. The Virgo
Cluster is so massive that it is
noticeably pulling our Galaxy toward
it. The cluster contains not only
galaxies filled with stars but also gas
so hot it glows in X-rays. Motions of
galaxies in and around clusters
indicate that they contain more dark
matter than any visible matter we can
see. Pictured above, the center of the
Virgo cluster might appear to some as a
human face, and includes bright Messier
galaxies M86 at the top, M84 on the far
right, NGC 4388 at the bottom, and NGC
4387 in the middle. PD
source: http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/image/
0308/virgocenter_cfht.jpg
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